EPA CONTRACT NO. 68-0 1-4490
   URANIUM
   MINING  &
   MILLING
THE NEED, THE PROCESSES,
      THE IMPACTS, THE CHOICES
   ADMINISTRATOR'S GUIDE
                  SS>

      Western Interstate Energy Board

-------
                URANIUM  MINING  & MILLING;  '


THE NEED, THE PROCESSES,  THE IMPACTS, THE CHOICES


                 ADMINISTRATOR'S GUIDE
                      Prepared  for

         WESTERN INTERSTATE ENERGY  BOARD/WINS
     (formerly  the Western Interstate Nuclear Board)
                  2500 Stapleton. Plaza,  "• "     '""••'-  •
                   3333 Quebec .Street,,,.   ....   :  ...
                 Denver,. .Colorado ":,'8020:7 "Y- '   ".''•-•..
                          '>, •' .•..•'  •"*• '...-••' ' •  r  ' -•-.- -
                  Under Contract  to  the   ..      -  v\.

     United  States Environmental  Protec'tion Agency

                 Contract No. .68-01-44:90   -V.\""-' ' ".
                      .by
        Stone  &  Webster Engineering Corporation
                    Denver, Colorado

                     • •-•-May* 1978  '   ...:•-..• ."'^/ 't

-------
           Disclaimer
This   report:  was  prepared  as  an
account of  work  sponsored  by  the
United  States  Government.  Neither
the United States, nor the SPA,  nor
Western Interstate Energy 3oard/r,NlNB
nor  Stone S   Webster   Engineering
Corporation   nor   any   of   their
employees,   nor   any   of    their
contractors,    suhcon-rac-ors,   or
their employees acting on iehalf  of
either;

a.   makes    any    warranty,
     expressed or implied,  as
     to   the  accuracy,  com-
     pleteness  or .usefulness
     of any information, appa-
     ratus, product or process
     disclosed,  or represents
     that its  use  would  not
     infringe  privately owned
     rights; or

fa.   assumes••  any   liability
     with respect to  the  use
     of  or ' for  damages  re-
     sulting from the  use  of
     any   information,  appa-
     ratus, method or  process
     disclosed in tihis report.

-------
                                             EPA- 908 /.I -,7 8 -
               URANIUM MINING & MILLING


THE NEED, THE PROCESSES, THE IMPACTS, THE CHOICES


                ADMINISTRATOR'S GUIDE
                     Prepared for

         WESTERN INTERSTATE ENERGY BOARD/WINB
    (formerly the Western Interstate .Nuclear Board)
                 2500 Stapleton Plaza
                  3333 Quebec Street
                Denver, Colorado .. 80207
                 Under Contract to the ••'

     United States Environmental Protection Agency

                Contract No.  68-01-4490,
                          by
        Stone & Webster Engineering Corporation
                   Denver,  Colorado

                       May 1978

-------
           Disclaimer
This   report  was  prepared  as  an
account: of  work  sponsored  by  the
United  States  Government.  Neither
the United States, nor the EPA,  nor
Western Interstate Energy Board/'-NlNB
nor  Stone S   Webster   Engineering
Corporation   nor   any   of   their
employees,   nor   any   of
contractors,    subcontractors,    or
their employees acting en behalf  of
either;
a.   makes    any    warranty,
     expressed or implied,  as
     to   the  accuracy,   com-
     pleteness  or .usefulness
     of any information,  appa-
     ratus, product or process
     disclosed,  or represents
     that its  use  would  not
     infringe  privately  owned
     rights;  or

b.   assumes    any   liability
     with respect to  the  use
     of  or  for  damages  re-
     sulting  from the  use  of
     any   information,  appa-
     ratus, method or  process
     disclosed in -chis report.

-------
     Acknowledgements
The    Administrator's   Guide    was
prepared for the Western  Interstate
Energy   Board/WINB   (formerly   the
Western Interstate Nuclear Hoard)  by
Stone &      Webster     Engineering
Corporation   (SWEC)     under    the
sponsorship   of  the  Environmental
Protection  Agency's  (EPA)   Region
VIII    Energy    Office,    Denver,
Colorado.  The  Colorado  School  of
Mines   Research  Institute  (CSMRI)
provided   the    basic    technical
information  in Chapter 3 on uranium
mining  and   milling.    Dr.   Ward
Whicker   and   Dr.  James  Johnson",
Consultants and  Professors  at   the
Department  of  Radiation Biology at
Colorado      State      University,
contributed   to   the  radiological
information   in   Chapter 4.    The
Denver   Research   Institute  (DRI)
developed Chapter  5,  Socioeconomic
Considerations.  Mr.  Paul Smith, EPA
Project  Officer,   and   Mr.   Ross
Scarano  of  the  Nuclear Regulatory
Commission's Nuclear Material Safety
and    Safeguards   Group   provided
guidance on  approach  and  content.
The  Project  Steering  Committee of
WISB/WINB  chaired  by  Dr.  Richard
Turley  provided valuable review and
comments.

The  work  began under the direction
of Mr.  Wyatt  Rogers,  Jr., former
Executive   Director  of  WIEB/WINB,
continued with the assistance of Mr.
Fred  Gross, and was completed under
the direction of  Mr.  John  Watson,
the   current   WIEB/WINB  Executive
Director.

-------
                                                SOURCE; Adapted from EPA
                                                                                                GUAM
                                                                                        PUERTO  RICO
Regional Offices
United States Environmental Protection Agency

-------
                     Table of Contents
1        INTRODUCTION                                 1-1

1.1      PURPOSE OF THE GUIDE                         1-1
1.2      ORGANIZATION AND CONTENT                     1-2
1.3      URANIUM MILL LICENSING                       1-4
1.4      COMMENTS AND UPDATING                        1-5
2        NUCLEAR POWER AND URANIUM RESOURCES          2-1

2.1      THE NEED FOR URANIUM                         2-1
2.1.1    Projected Generation by Energy Sources        2-1
2.1.2    Growth of Nuclear Power                      2-5
2.1.3    Uranium Requirements                         2-6

2.2      URANIUM SUPPLY                               2-10
2.2.1    Uranium Ore Reserves                         2-11
2.2.2    Uranium Resources                            2-15
2.2.3    Future Uranium Production Centers            2-22

         REFERENCES                                   2-26

         BIBLIOGRAPHY                                 2-27


3        MINING AND MILLING URANIUM ORE               3-1

3.1      URANIUM RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT                 3-1
3.1.1    Steps Prior to Mining and Milling            3-2
3.1.2    Methods to Mine and Process Uranium Ore      3-3

3.2      URANIUM MINING                               3-6
3.2.1    Mining Method Selection                      3-6
3.2.2    Underground Mining                           3-10
3.2.3    Surface Mining                               3-14
3.2.4    Bore-Hole Mining                             3-17

3.3      URANIUM PROCESSING METHODS                   3-19
3.3.1    Conventional Acid Leaching                   3-21
3.3.2    Conventional Alkaline Leaching               3-27
3.3.3    In-Situ Leaching (Solution Mining)            3-30
3.3.4    Heap Leaching                                3-37
3.3.5    Other Methods                                3-40
3.3.6    Processing Methods at U.S. Uranium
         Mills                                        3-41
3.3.7    Future Trends in Yellowcake Production        3-43
                             v

-------
                   TABLE OF CONTENTS  (CCNT'D.)


3.4      PRODUCTION COSTS                             3-46
3.4.1    Resource .Requirements                        3-46
3.4.2    Capital and Operating Costs                  3-49

3.5      MILL TAILINGS MANAGEMENT       .              3-54
3.5.1    Performance Objectives                       3-55
3.5.2    Site Selection For Tailings
         Impoundments                                 3-56
3.5.3    Current Tailings Disposal Practice           3-59

         REFERENCES                              .     3-68


4    '    SITING AMD ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT              4-1

4.1      REGULATIONS, STANDARDS AND GUIDELINES        4-2
4.1.1    Regulatory Authority                         4-2
4.1.2    Regulatory Procedures and Permit
         Requirements                                 4-7
4.1.3    Proposed Legislation and Requirements        4-8

4.2      FACTORS AFFECTING FACILITIES SITING          4.-11
4.2.1    Topography                                   4-12
4.2.2    Population                                   4-13
4.2.3    Geology and Geochemistry                     4-14
4.2.4    Hydrology                                    4-15
4.2^5    Soils and Overburden                         4-17
4.2.6    Meteorology                                  4-19
4.2.7    Biology                                      4-21
4.2.8    Seismicity                                   4-23
4.2.9    Cultural Features                            4-23

4.3      NON-RADIOLOGICAL IMPACTS                     4-24
4.3.1    Land Use                                     4-25
4.3.2    Topography                                   4-27
4.3.3    Surface and Ground Water                     4-27
4.3.4    Air Quality                                  4-33
4.3.5    Biology and Soils                            4-37

  4      RADIOLOGICAL IMPACTS         .                4-39
4.4.1    Movement of Radionuclides in the
         Environment                                  4-44
4.4.2    Accidental Releases                          4-50
4.4.3    Biological Effects of Radiation Dose         4-52
4.4.4    Control of Radioactive Waste                 4-53

4.5      RECLAMATION, STABILIZATION AND
         DECOMMISSIONING                              4-54
4r5t.j.    Reclamation                                  4-55
4.5,2    Stabilization                                4-59
4,5.3    Decommissioning                              4-63
                                VI

-------
                   TABLE OF CONTENTS  (CONT'D.)
4.6      MONITORING AND SURVEILLANCE PROGRAMS     .    4-64
4.6.1    Preoperational Monitoring                    4-65
4.6.2    Operational Monitoring                   •    4-68
4.6.3    Post-Reclamation Surveillance                4-72

         REFERENCES                                   4-74

         APPENDIX
         A-1  Radionuclides of the Uranium Decay
              Series                                  4A-1
         A-2  Radionuclide Transport and Exposure
              Pathways                                4 A-4
         A-3  Prediction of Radiation Dose            4A-6
         A-4  Radiation Dose Rates and Their
              Significance                            4A-7

5   '     SOCIOECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS                 5-1

5.1      DIRECT IMPACTS ON EMPLOYMENT AND
         INCOME                                       5-7
5.1.1    Employment                                   5-8
5.1.2    Income                                       5-11

5.2      INDIRECT AND INDUCED IMPACTS ON
         EMPLOYMENT AND INCOME                        5-15
5.2.1    Non-Basic Economic Activity        '          5-15
5.2.2    Analytical Approaches                        5-16

5.3      POPULATION CHANGES                           5-18
5.3.1    Settlement Patterns                          5-19
5.3.2    Prediction Techniques                        5-20

5.4      PUBLIC SERVICES AND PUBLIC FINANCE           5-22
5.4.1  .  Revenues                                     5-24
5.4.2    Expenditures                                 5-27
5.4.3    Public Finance Constraints                   5-28

5.5      HOUSING AND COMMERCIAL DEVELOPMENT           5-31
5.5.1    Housing                                      5-32
5.5.2    Commercial Development                       5-34

5.6      SOCIO-CULTURAL AND POLITICAL CHANGES         5-37
5.6.1    Sccio-Cultural Changes                       5-39
5.6.2    Political and Demographic Changes            5-40

5.7      OTHER POTENTIAL CONFLICTS                    5-41

5.8      CONTINGENCY PLANNING AND MONITORING
         PROGRAMS                                     5-43
                                Vll

-------
          TABLE OF  CONTENTS (CONT'D.)






REFERENCES        '                             5-45




BIBLIOGRAPHY                                   5-46




GLOSSARY                                       G-1
                      Vlll

-------
                        List of Tables
CHAPTER 2

2-1  Projected Generation of Electric Power From
     Principal Energy Sources                         2-2

2-2  Summary of Uranium Production, Reserves and
     Potential Resources By Regions                   2-16

2-3  Distribution of $30 Per Pound 0308 Potential
     Uranium Resources By State as of 1/1/77          2-20

2-4  Summary of Surface Drilling for Uranium          2-21
CHAPTER 3

3-1  Process Variations at U.S. Uranium Mills         3-7

3-2A Process Variations at Operational U.S. Uranium
     Mines and Mills                                  3-42

3-2B Process Variations Proposed for Future U.S.
     Uranium Mines and Mills                          3-44

3-3  Economics of Conventional Mining and Milling     3-51

3-4  Economics of Solution Mining                     3-53


CHAPTER 4

4-1  Status of Approvals and Permits Required for
     the Sweetwater Project as of November 1977       4-10

4-2  Approximate Land Requirements  (in acres) for
     Various Mine and Mill Activities                 4-26

4-3  Typical Airborne Emissions from Uranium Mills    4-34

4-4  Estimated Emissions from Heavy Equipment at
     Surface and Underground Mines                    4-35

4-5  Summary of Typical Radiation Dose Rates from
     the Natural Environment in the Wyoming Area      4-41

4-6  Comparison of Annual Dose Commitments to
     Individuals with Radiation Protection
     Standards                                        4-43
                             IX

-------
                    LIST OF TABLES  (CONT'D.)
4-7  Estimated Airborne Release Kates of Radio-
     nuclides from Model Uranium Mills in New Mexico
     and Wyoming                                      4-48

4-8  Operational Monitoring Program                   4-69
CHAPTER 4 APPENDIX

A-1  Calculated Exposure Rates for Radionuclides
     Uniformly Distributed in Soil                    '4A-9

A-2  Total Maximum Annual Radiation Dose to
     Individuals from an Operating Mill in New
     Mexico                                           4A-10

A-3  Total Maximum Annual Radiation Dose to
     Individuals from an Operating Mill in Wyoming    4A-11

A-4  Radiation Dose Commitment to Individuals from
     the Bear Creek Project                           4A-13

A-5  Radiation Dose Commitments to Individuals
      (mrem/yr) for the Sweetwater Project             4A-14

A-6  Estimated Short-Term Radiation Exposures
     Required to Damage Various Plant Communities     4A-15

A-7  Summary of Estimates of Annual Whole-Body
     Dose Rates in the United States  (1970)    .       4A-16

A-8  Dose Rates Due to Internal and External
     Irradiation from Natural Sources in "Normal"
     Areas                                            4A-17
CHAPTER 5           •

5-1  Factors Influencing the Occurrence of
     Socioeconomic Impacts                            5-4

5-2  Estimates of Work Forces for Selected Uranium
     Mines and Mills                                  5-9

5-3  Changes in Worker Productivity                   5-11

5-4  Average Monthly Salary Ranges for Selected
     Areas                                            5-13

5-5  Examples of Average Wages for Uranium Industry
     Workers                                  ..        5-14

-------
                    LIST OF TABLES  (CONT'D.)
5-6  Examples of Utah Taxes to be Paid by Uranium
     Mining and Milling Companies                     5-25

5-7  Estimated Major Utah Taxes to be Paid by a
     Hypothetical Uranium Mine-Mill Complex           5-26

5-8  Indicators of Societal Change - Converse
     County, Wyoming                                  5-38
                               XI

-------
                        List of Figures
     United States Regional Offices Environmental
     Protection Agency                                iv

CHAPTER 2

2-1  Electric Generation By Principal Energy
     Sources In Contiguous United States              2-3

2-2  U.S. Uranium Production Capability               2-7

2-3  U.S. Uranium Production Capability vs.
     Requirements                                     2-7

2-4  Distribution of $30 Per Pound U30a Reserves
     as of 1/1/78 in major districts                  2-12

2-5  U.S. Reserves of $30 Per Pound U308 by States
     (1/1/78 Preliminary)                             2-13

2-6  Regions of the National Uranium Resource
     Evaluation  (NURE)  Program                        2-17

2-7  National Uranium Resources Evaluation  (NURE) -
     Potential Uranium Resource Areas                 2-18

2-8  Significant Exploration Activities, 1977         2-19

2-9A Class 1 and Class 2 Production Centers
     in the United States - $30.00 per pound U30a     2-24

2-9B Class 3 and Class 4 Production Centers
     in the United States - $30 per pound U3Oa        2-25
CHAPTER 3

3-1  Steps In Uranium Resource Development            3-4

3-2  Steps Common To Most Processing Methods          3-5

3-3  Room-and-Pillar Mining                           3-13

3-4  Typical Open Pit Mining Method                   3-16

3-5  Hypothetical Bore-Hole Mining System             3-18

3-6  U3Oa Extraction By Sulfuric Acid Leaching        3-22

3-7  U30a Extraction By Alkaline Leaching             3-28

3-8  Well and Well Field Design For Solution Mining   3-33

                             xii

-------
                    LIST OF FIGURES  (CONT'D.)






3-9  Typical Well Field Pattern   '                    3-34



3-10 U30a Extraction By Solution Mining               3-36



3-11 Typical Construction for Heap Leaching           3-38



3-12 Methods of Tailings Dam Construction             3-64






CHAPTER 4



4-1 Transport and Movement of Radionuclides to Man    4-45






CHAPTER 4 APPENDIX



A-1 The Primary Decay Series of Uranium - 238         4A-2






GLOSSARY



G-1 The Light Water Reactor Fuel Cycle                G-5
                               Kill

-------
INTRODUCTION
                                       CHAPTER t

-------
                            CHAPTER  1
                        Introduction
1.1
Purpose of the Guide
During  the  past  decade,  -here  has  been  increased concern about
the environmental impacts of  uranium  mining   and  milling.   In
response  to these concerns, improved methods  have been developed
to reduce or mitigate undesirable impacts.   The  Administrator's
Guide  is  intended  to  meet the need for a single document that
provides   current   information    about    these   concerns   and
developments,  particularly  with respect  to siting and operating
uranium facilities.  It focuses on those   factors  that  require
adoption  of methods to prevent contamination  of  the  environment,
limit exposure  to  radioactivity, and mitigate long-term  and
short—term adverse effects, including socioeconomic impacts.

The  primary  objective of the Guide  is to address the technical,
economic,  social,  and  environmental factors  that  influence
uranium  mining  and  the  siting  of  milling facilities in the
western United States.   Although the  Guide is   not  a regulatory
document,  the  information should be useful to local, state, and
federal adminstrators,  legislators, policy makers, planners,  and
regulators involved in the review or  approval  process for uranium
projects.  The information should also be  of  interest to citizens
who would be affected by a proposed project.

                              1-1

-------
The  Guide  also  highlights  information  that  is considered by
industry during the planning process.  For example, site-specific
aspects  of  mill  tailings  management  are  receiving increased
attention from regulators and industry, and some earlier tailings
disposal  practices are no longer acceptable.  To assure that the
Guide will be useful to the uranium industry, comments  from  the
Project   Steering   Committee  (which  includes  mine  and  mill
operators) were considered.

A. secondary objective of the Guide is to inform developers of the
various options that  may  be  available  when  planning  uranium
development  projects.   Although  the  location  of  the mine is
fixed, there are options available in the  design  of  the  mill,
such  as  alternative  sites,  process  methods,  waste  disposal
locations and pollution control techniques.

1.2
Organization and Content
The  Guide  covers  three  important  aspects of uranium resource
development:
    Why  and  where  uranium resource development is likely to
    occur
  • How ore is mined and processed
    How  environmental  and  social  considerations  relate to
    siting, licensing and operating new or expanded facilities
                              1-2

-------
The   focus   of  the  Guide  is  on  the  third  aspect  listed.

Accordingly, uranium resource development and mining and  milling

technology are treated to the level required to establish a basis

for the more detailed discussions  of  siting  and  environmental

impacts  and  socioeconomic  considerations  which  follow.  Each

chapter is independent of the others so that the  reader  may  go

directly  to  the  material  of interest and not have to refer to

sections in other chapters.  The  information  in  the  Guide  is

basically  limited  to  uranium  mining  and milling, the initial

steps in the nuclear fuel cycle.  A description of the fuel cycle

and  a  simplified  diagram of the activities necessary to fuel a

nuclear power reactor and dispose  of  the  wastes  produced  are

presented in the Glossary.



The material is organized as follows:
  Chapter 2-  "NUCLEAR  POWER  AND  URANIUM  RESOURCES."  This
              chapter summarizes information prepared  by  the
              Department   of  Energy  (DOE).   The  need  for
              uranium  for   existing   and   future   nuclear
              generating  stations is discussed.  Estimates of
              the uranium industry's production capability and
              data   for  known  ore  reserves  and  potential
              uranium resources are  included.   Additionally,
              areas with favorable uranium geology that may be
              the site of new or increased activity are shown.
  Chapter 3-  "MINING AND MILLING URANIUM ORE."  A generalized
              perspective  of  uranium  mining   and   milling
              technology is presented.  Project lead times and
              relative costs are compared for  a  conventional
              mine  and  mill complex and an in— situ (solution
              mining)  operation.  Engineering  techniques  for
              mill tailings management are included.
                              1-3

-------
  ORGANIZATION, Continued

  Chapter 4-  "SITING   ANE   ENVIRONMENTAL   IMPACT."   Those
              factors affecting uranium  mines  and  the  site
              specific  conditions which influence location of
              mills are described.  The biological,  chemical,
              and   radiological  impacts  that  occur  during
              development, operation, and post-reclamation are
              discussed.
  Chapter 5-  "SOCIOECONOMIC  CONSIDERATIONS."  The social and
              economic  costs  and  benefits  associated  with
              uranium  resource  development  are reviewed and
              summarized.  The positive and  negative  impacts
              of   development   on  employment,  income, . and
              population   are   discussed.     Jurisdictional
              problems,  competition  for  labor and land, and
              the stress on public services  and  finance  are
              analyzed.    The   opportunity   and  timing  of
              mitigation and growth management strategies  are
              reviewed.    Selected   data  from  New  Mexico,
              Wyoming, and Utah -are  presented  to  illustrate
              growth—induced  impacts and mitigation practices
              in regions experiencing rapid development.
1.3
Uranium Mill Licensing

The  Guide  refers  to  many  of  the  licensing  and.  regulatory

requirements that apply primarily to  uranium  mines  and  mills.

The licensing process is complex, and specific requirements for a

uranium project vary from state to  state.   Timely  coordination

with   regulatory  authorities  and  an  understanding  of  their

requirements are essential to projec-c  scheduling  and  planning.

Such   coordination   must  include  federal,  state  and  county

officials.
                              1-4

-------
One  major  distinction in licensing uranium mills  (and  any  other

facility where ore is processed)  is in the role  of   the  Nuclear

Regulatory  Commission  (NRG)   and the states.   The  provisions  of

the Atomic Energy Act of 1954,  as amended, provide for states .  to

enter  into  agreement with the NRC and perform as the regulatory

authority.  Those states  which  have  been  delegated  licensing

authority  are  called "agreement" states.  Those states in  which

the  NRC  maintains  its  authority  are  called "non-agreement"

states.   The information on this subject and a list of  pertinent

regulations  and  guidelines  are  included  in  Section  4.1   of

Chapter 4.
1.4
Comments and Updating
The  information in the Guide was compiled from many sources.   It

has been carefully reviewed by representatives of government  and

industry  to  eliminate  errors  or inconsistencies and to update

information  obtained  from  the  literature  when   appropriate.

Readers are invited to submit comments to:
              U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
              Region VIII
              1860 Lincoln Street
              Denver, CO   80295
              Attention Mr. Paul B.  Smith
                              1-5

-------
In  the future, significant progress is expected to improve waste



disposal practices and impact mitigation techniques  for  siting,



design  and  construction  of  new  uranium mines and mills.  The



Guide is in looseleaf form so that its usefulness may be extended



by future revisions to reflect the results of this progress.
                              1-6

-------
NUCLEAR POWER AND URANIUM RESOURCES
                             CHAPTER 2

-------
                           CHAPTER 2
       Nuclear Power and Uranium Resources
2.1
The Need for Uranium

The  need  for  uranium in  the future will te determined  by the
contribution of  nuclear power to the domestic  and  world   energy
supply.   The generating capacity of new nuclear power  plants is
the subject of continuing study, and differing energy supply  and
demand  scenarios   have been  projected.   Increased exploration
activity and mine  and mill expansion and/or  development clearly
indicate  that the domestic and international uranium industry is
expecting significant growth in electric generation capacity from
nuclear  reactors.  A  recent study maintains that "the reactors
now under construction  will result in an increase in  demand  for
fuel  in  excess  of  existing  supply" and that "the fuel  supply
industry...  must increase capacity in a major way during the next
10—20 years under  the most pessimistic future nuclear plant order
assumptions" (Nucleonics Week, March 16, 1978} .
2.1.1
Projected Generation by Energy Sources
The . National  Electric  Reliability Council (NERC)  has projected
the  amount  of  electric  power  that  will  be  generated  from

                             2-1

-------
principal  energy  sources  from   1977  through 1986, as shown on

Table 2—1 below and in  Figure  3—1.    The  NEKC  projections  are

especially  useful  in  that they  are revised annually to reflect

utility-Industry plans.  The 1977  forecasts indicate  a  compound

annual  growth  rate  of 5.7 percent for the next ten years.  The

National Energy Plan  (NEP)  projects  a  similar  rate  of  total

energy  consumption  for  industrial use at more than 5 percent a

year through 1985  (NERC, July  1977) .
                              Table 2-1
      Projected Generation of Electric Power from Principal Energy Sources
  Nuclear
  Coal
  Oil
  Gas
  Hydro

  Total
              Net Electrical  Energy Generated
              	(Million  KWHR)	
   1977

  281,211
1,009,851
  350,189
  238,240
  232,915
   1986

  989,000
1,698,164
  458,163
   93,751
  238,256
2,112,406   3,477,344
  Source:  NERC, August  1977.
Total Change

1977 to 1986

   +35255
   + 168%
   + 131%
      2%
                        + 164%
                               2-2

-------
      KILOWATT HRS
        TRILLIONS
      4.0
      3.5
      3.0
      2.5
      2.0
      1.5
      1.0
      0.5
                                KILOWATT HRS
                                 TRILLIONS
                                         4.0
                                                  1986
              /  27.7%
"  NUCLEAR
                  1977   /
                           '
                                           47. 5%
           COAL
                        46.9%
                        17.1%
                                   OIL
                   14.6%
1_1_J%	

10.8%     HYDRO     6.7%
                                                        2.
                                         3.5
                                  3.0
                                         2.5
                                                                2.0
                                         1.5
                                         1.0
                                         0.5
                                                                   0
SOURCE:  NERC,  August 1977.
            * Other  energy  sources  include
             diesel,  geothermal  and  undesignated.
             These  sources  account  for 0.4%  in
             1977 and  0.7%  in  1986.
  Figure 2-1
  Electric Generation by Principal Energy Sources in Contiguous United States.
                                  2-3

-------
In  1976  nuclear power represented 8 percent of the installed

generating capacity in the U.S..and accounted for  9.7 percent

of electricity produced.  NERC's projected increase from about

13 percent in 1977 to about 28 percent in 1986  represents  an

increase  in  nuclear  energy production of three and one—half

times in one decade  (NERC, August 1977).


Nuclear  generation  data from the Department of Energy (DOE),

Energy Information Administration (EIA), differs slightly from

NERC data but show that nuclear power contributed 11.7 percent

in  1977  to  total  electricity  generation  as  compared  to

9.4 percent in 1976  (DOE, EIA, February 1978).


Other NERC projections are as follows:
  • Coal fired generation will nearly double from 1977 to 1986
    and will  average  about  47 percent  of . electric  energy
    production.

  • Oil  fired  generation will continue at 17 percent through
    1982 and decrease to less than 15 percent  in  1986.   Oil
    consumption   will  increase,  however,  from  631 million
    barrels in 1977  to  878 million  barrels  in  1986.   Oil
    consumption will rise as it replaces natural gas.

  • Gas   fired   generation  will  decline  from  2.6 billion
    thousand cubic feet (MCF) to 1.1 billion MCF.

  • Hydro  generation  will  increase slightly but decrease in
    percentage to about 7 percent by 1986.
V      	                               J
Most  of  the requirements for fuel for new base load capacity to

be added by 1986 have been determined.
                              2-4

-------
2.1.2
Growth of Nuclear Power
Nuclear  electric  power  is expected to resume its growth and to

significantly increase  its  share  of  the  U.S.  energy  supply

despite  current institutional and regulatory constraints.  Light

water reactors  (LWR's) will probably supply most of  the  nuclear

generation  capacity in the short term and during the early years

of the twenty—first century.


Although forecasts for future growth of the nuclear power differ,

most agree on continued growth in  the  industry.   The  National

Energy  Plan  (NEP)  proposed by the Administration in April  1977

projects U.S. installed nuclear capacity as follows:
              Year

              1976
              1985
              1990
              2000
Nuclear Capacity
	MW(e)	

     42,000
    127,000
    195,000
    380,000
According to the NEP, the nuclear power capacity will increase at

the rate of 16 percent per year through 1985 and 7.3 percent from

1985  through  2000.   An  industry survey of reactor commitments

shows reactor generation capacity of 159,964 MW(e)  in   1985  and

193,591 MW(e)  in   1990  (Electrical World, January 15, 1978).. If

these commitments by industry are realized,  the  NEP  projection

will  be  exceeded  by  about  33,000 MW (e)  in  1985  and within

1,400 MW(e) of that projected for 1990.
                              2-5

-------
2.1.3
Uranium Requirements
The  total  requirement for uranium through the year 2000 and for

30 more years thereafter is  nearly  3 million  tons  D30a«   The

uranium  requirements for the 380,000 MW(e) projected in the year

2000 would be a  little  more  than  1 million  tons,  using  the

present  light-water  reactors  without  reprocessing spent fuel.

The 30—year lifetime requirements for this 380,000 MW(e)  would be

on  the order of 2 million tons  (U.S. DOE, December 1977).  About

5000 to 8000 tons  of  uranium   (0308)  is  required  to  fuel  a

1000 MW(e)  light-water  reactor during its operating life  (Boyd,

1977) .


Uranium Production Capability


The  DOE  has  estimated  both  the uranium industry's production

capability and production  capability  versus  requirements.   In

making  these  estimates,  the  DOE  differentiates  between  ore

reserves  and  potential  resources.   It  also   defines   three

categories  of  potential resources:, "probable," "possible," and

"speculative."  These terms, as well as the basis of  the  costs,

are defined in the Glossary.


The  estimated capability of the uranium industry is based on the

maximum annual  tonnages  that  could  be  produced  from  S30/lb

uranium  reserves  through  the year 2000, as seen on Figure 2—2.

Industry production and planned capacity is within the limits  of

reserves  to  about  1984;  after  that,  production  may be from

probable potential resources  (Nininger,  1978).


                              2-6

-------
 80
 60
 40
 20
MAXIMUM PRODUCTION CAPABILITY
FROM $30 RESOURCES

PROJECTED PRODUCTION
CASED ON COMPANY PLANS
(Includes production  from facilities
 existing, under construction or
 pub Iicly announced)
                    Under Construction
               Current FaciIi ties

                ^—Exports
  1977    1980 '
            1985
1990
Figure 2-2
U.S. Uranium Production Capability
                                                          From Reserves
1995
2000
                                                          SOURCE:  Nininger,  1978
 80
 60
 40
 20
            TAILS ASSAY ASSUMED AT:
             •70% THROUGH FY  80
             -25S THEREAFTER
            Maximum CaqaBility
            (Less Exports)
                                                        „ 380G»e
                                                   Net  Requi rements
                                               Current Contracts

                                       Maximum Contract Re!ief
             Company Plans
  1977    1980
             1985
1990
 1995
Figure 2-3
U.S. Uranium Production Capability vs. Requirements
2000
                                     2-7

-------
The  estimated  uranium production capability versus requirements



in the U.S. to the year 2000 are shown on  Figure 2—3.   In  this



figure,  the  maximum  production  capability   (less  exports) is



compared with the net  uranium  requirements,  based  on  uranium



enrichment contracts with utilities (Nininger, 1978).





The  requirements  for  current enrichment contracts are near the



industry's production capability estimated for the early  1980's.



Several companies have plans as yet unannounced according to DOE,



which could increase production during this period.  However,  if



the   use   of  nuclear  power  increases  as  predicted  in  the



administration's National Energy Plan, a production shortage will



occur   in   the   mid   1990's    (Nininger,  1978).   Production



requirements would be met by expansion of low-cost  reserves  and



potential resources or by use of higher cost material, in the $30



to $50 per pound category.





The  costs  used  by  the  DOE  are  called  "forward costs"  (see



Glossary) and  do  not  by  definition  equate  to  market  price



directly.    For   example.   Collieries  Management  Corporation



indicates  the  price  of  OaOa,  in  1978   dollars,   will   be



»$49.20-$60.80    in    1980;   $79.20-$100.80   in   1985;   and



$86.70-$110.20 in 1990."   (Nucleonics Week, iMarch 16, 1978.)





Breeder Reactors May Extend Uranium Resources





A  breeder  reactor produces more fuel than it consumes, and thus



could extend uranium resources.  However,  breeder  reactors  are



not likely to be available to lessen the short-term uranium needs



of LWR's.





                              2-8

-------
An  alternative  to  the  breeder is the Canadian Natural Uranium



Reactor (CANDU), which reportedly can  obtain  20  to  40 percent



more  energy  from uranium than a LWR.  Other reactor development



concepts which do not require highly enriched uranium  are  being



investigated to limit proliferation of nuclear material.





Uranium Enrichment





Almost  90 percent  of  the  world's  present and planned nuclear



generating capacity requires slightly enriched  uranium  as  fuel



(Keeny  at al.,  1977).  The enrichment process requires that the



U30a be converted to uranium hexafluoride   (UF6),  which  is  the



input   (feed)  for  the  process.  Natural uranium contains about



0.7 percent  of  the  fissionable   isotope   23SU.    Enrichment



increases  the  concentration  of  this  isotope to approximately



3 percent, which is necessary to provide fuel for  a  light-water



reactor.





Commercial   quantities  of  enriched  uranium  are  produced  by



government-owned gaseous  diffusion  plants.   These  plants  are



energy  intensive.  At full capacity the plants require 6,1000 MW



of electrical power (NRC GESMO, NUREG-0002, Vol.  3,  1976).   The



plants  not  only  produce  the enriched UF6 product but also UF6



that is  depleted  in  "SU,  called  tails.   The  tails  assay,



expressed as the percentage of 23SU, at which an enrichment plant



is operated, depends upon availability  of  uranium  feed,  plant



capacity,  and  power  availability.  In 1980 the government will



operate  at  an  increased  tails  assay.   At  that  time,   the



percentage   will  increase  to  0.25 percent  from  0.2 percent.





                              2-9

-------
Because  of  the  increase  in  the  tails  assay,   the   overall
requirements   for  U30a  concentrate  will  increase  more  than
20 percent  (Keeny et al., 1977).
Recycling  (Reprocessing)

There  is  now  a  moratorium on recycling spent fuel from LWR's.
Domestic uranium reserves would be extended  ty  recycling  spent
fuel   (Boyd et al., 1977).  Although recycling would ease demand,
there would be a shortfall in the supply of uranium.

2.2
Uranium Supply

Estimates of domestic uranium reserves and resources follow.
                           U30a/ Millions
                           of Short Tons
  Reserves [known]              0.7       all that is certain
  Probable maximum              3.7       upper planning limit
  Prudent planning base       1.8-2.0
  Source:  (Culler, 1977)
Estimates   of  known  reserves  total  about  680,000 tons,  and
probable resources may  add  1.1 million  tons,  resulting  in  a
1.8 million  ton  prudent  planning  base.   The 3.7 million tons
include possible and speculative  resources  yet  to  be  located
(Culler, 1977).
                              2-10

-------
2.2.1
Uranium Ore Reserves
DOE  estimates of domestic ore reserves are based largely on  data

furnished by industry.  These data consist primarily of gamma-ray

logs of drill holes and other ore deposit sampling information. .


The  majority  of  uranium  reserves  in the United States  are  in

sandstones of the Mesozoic and Tertiary  ages  in  the  following

comparatively small areas:
            • Grants mineral belt of New Mexico

            « Tertiary basins in Wyoming

            • Gulf Coastal Plain in Texas

            • Paradox Basin in Colorado and Utah

            • Spokane area in Washington
The DOE has estimated the amount of- uranium that  can  be  exploited

for a forward cost of $30/lb.  The location of these  reserves  and

the  estimated  amount  of  uranium oxide within  each reserve  are

shown on Figure 2—4.
                               2-11

-------
I-1
N>
         g 2000-6000  TONS
             I. N Black Hills
             I. S Black HIM*
             3. Sand lash Basin

         ^ 9000-10.000 TONS
             4. Front  Range
             5. Marshall Pass
             6. Duval

         O 10.000-30.000 TONS
             7. Spokane
             8. Paradox Basin
Over 30.000 TONS
  0.  lyoBing Basin
 10.  Kerns-Live  Oak
 II.  Grants Mineral Belt

Significant Net  Discoveries
 12.  Date Creek
 13.  Tallahassee Creek
SOURCE: Adapted Iron Ueehan. 1877
               Figure 2-4
               Distribution of $30 Per Pound UaOa Reserves as of 1/1/77 in Major Districts

-------
                                                  Arizona
                                                Colorado
                                               Utah
*OTHER STATES
 California
 Idaho
 Montana
 Nevada
 North Dakota
 Oklahoma
 Oregon
 South Dakota
 Washington

SOURCE:  Nininger,  1978
STATE
New Mexico
Wyoming
Texas
Ariz, Colo, Utah
Other
Total (rounded)
THOUSANDS
TONS U308
364
207
47
52
20
690
%
53
30
7
7
3
100
    Figure 2-5
    U.S. Reserves of $30 Per Pound UaOs by States (1/1/78 Preliminary)
                                 2-13

-------
Each ore body must be able to support the total forward operating



and capital costs in order to be recognized as a reserve.  A more



comprehensive   discussion   of   forward   costs,   ore  reserve



categorization and estimation  methodology  is  given  by  Meehan



(1977).    The  distribution  of  U.S.  uranium  reserves  as  of



January 1, 1977 for the $30/lb forward cost category is given  on



Figure 2-5.





Additions  to  reserves  are  likely  to be in, or extensions of,



presently-known producing districts, mostly in  Wyoming  and  New



Mexico.   New Mexico accounts for approximately 50 percent of the



uranium produced in the U.S. (Nininger, 1978).   The  New  Mexico



Environmental  Improvement  Agency  (NMEIA) expects 15 new uranium



mills to become operational in New Mexico in the next few  years.



Nine new mines are in the development stage and 13 more have been



proposed  (Rocky Mountain Energy Summary, January 23, 1978.)   Many



of  the proposed developments will be in the San Juan Basin north



of  the  Grants  mineral  belt..  In  northeastern  Wyoming,  the



Sundance   project  is  reported  to  have  potential  yellowcake



reserves  "in  the  50 million  pound  vicinity  believed  to  be



economically   recoverable   by   solution   mining  techniques."



(Nucleonics Week, January 12, 1978.)





Other  significant new discoveries are being developed in Arizona



at Date Creek and the central  Colorado  Rockies  at  Tallahassee



Creek  (Meehan,  1977).  Also, plans were announced for a uranium



mine to be operating near Bakersfield, California, by fall  1978.



Proven  reserves  total  about  162,000  pounds in hard rock, not



sandstone.  According to reports  by  Portland  General  Electric





                              2-14

-------
geologists,  potential  reserves  within  3 miles of the mine may


total 5—10 million pounds  (Nucleonics Week, March 2, 1978).


2.2.2

Uranium Resources



The location of new uranium-producing districts and the extent to


which thay will be developed are of primary interest to those who


may  be  affected  by  uranium  activities.   Table 2—2 shows the


locations of potential uranium resources  and  estimates  of  how


much  ore  these  resources  may  yield.   Figure 2—6 is a map of


National Uranium Resource Evaluation  reporting  regions.   Table
                                                      /•

2—3  tabulates the amount of 530/lb uranium by state.  Figure 2—7


shows the location of potential uranium areas.



The  DOE  resource classifications, which reflect the differences


in the reliability of the resource estimates, are listed  in  the


Glossary.   Additional  information  on estimates of ore reserves


and potential resources is given in the "Statistical Data of  the


Uranium Industry," which is compiled by the Grand Junction Office


of DOE.





Surface Drilling Activities



The  rise  in  the  price of uranium and the increased demand for


uranium  supplies  have  stimulated  exploration  in   the   U.S.


Exploration  activities  have  increased dramatically since  1972,


and the amount of surface drilling for uranium in   1977  was  the


highest ever.
                               2-15

-------
Region
Colorado Plateau
Wyoming Basins
Coastal Plain
Northern Rockies
Colorado and Southern Rockies
Great Plains
Basin and Range
Pacific Coast and Sierra Nevada
Central Lowlands
Appalachian Highlands
•Columbia Plateaus
Southern Canadian Shield
Alaska
TOTAL
Tons U..OQ
Production
to 1/1/77
206,400
63,600
8,900


16,500 •

<1,000
<1,000
<1,000
<1,000
0
<1,000
296,400
Tons t^Og
1/1/77
Reserves
378,
210,
43,
20,
9,
6,
10,
1,





680,
000
100
900
000
400
300
900
400
0
0
0
0
0
000

1/1/77
Probable
545
300
115
27
46
23
29
4




1
1,090
,000
,000
,000
,000
,000
>000
,000
,000
*
*
*
*
,000
,000
($30/lb.)
Potential Resources
Possible
610
50
60
63
38
59
228
12





1,120
,000
,000
,000
,000
,000
,000
,000
,000
*
*
*
*
*
,000
Speculative
90,000
30
25
49
20
37
51
8
71
78
21


480
,000
,000
,000
,000
,000
,000
,000
,000
,000
,000
*
*
,000
*Resources not estimated because of inadequate knowledge.
                                                                 SOURCE:  Hetland, 1977
Table 2-2
Summary of Uranium Production, Reserves, and Potential Resources by Regions

-------
Pacific
Coast I
Sierra
Nevada
             Columbia)j Northern
             Pliteaus f  Rockies
                                                                  Southern Canadian Shield
                                                                                      ppalachian
                                                                                     Highlands
                Basin
                I Range
                                                            Central  Lowland
                                                                    ) Coastal Plain!
                                                                   L
SOURCE:  Hetland.1977
    Figure 2-6
    Regions of the National Uranium Resource Evaluation (NURE) Program

-------
to
•i
OP
          Legend
               Probable & Possible
               Potential Areas


               Speculative Potential  Areas
                                                                            SOURCE:  Adapted  from  Hetland,  1977
            Figure 2-7
            National Uranium Resource Evaluation (NURE) Potential Uranium Resource
            Areas

-------
• M
CD
              SANDSTONE
               12.
               13.
               14.
               16.
               M-
               23.
SI Montana
HIIlliton Basin
Southirn Black Hills
Powder River  Basin
Great Divide  Basin
Denver Basin
Henry Mountains
Paradoi Basin
Tallahassee Creek
San Juan Basin
Rio Grande Trench
South Texas
 3.
 5.
ID.
II.
15.
Owl Creek Mtns
Central  Black Hills
Thomas Range
Toiybe Range
San Juan Utns
IB.
19.
20.
21.
22.
24.
25.
26.
                                                                                                                                              22
Sierra Ancha
Date Creek
Uojave Desert
Seward Peninsula
Prince of Wales  Island
Grandfather Mountain
Reading Prong
N Michigan
               Figure 2-8
               Significant Exploration Activities, 1977
                                                                                                          SOURCE: Adapted from Chenoweth.  1877

-------
   State
 Probable
 Possible
Speculative
Alaska
Arizona
Arkarsas
California
Colorado
Connecticut
Idaho
Montana
Nevada
New Jersey
New Mexico
North Carolina
North Dakota
Oklahoma
Oregon
Pennsylvania
South Dakota
Texas
Utah
Washington
Wyoming

    TOTAL
1,000
37,000
—
11,000
101,000
—
—
—
4,000
—
398,000
• —
7,000
—
7,000
—
7,000
117,000
77,000
9,000
314,000

50,000
—
10,000
82,000
—
5,000
7,000
13,000
—
466,000
—
9,000
—
21,000
—
4,000
60,000
270,000
23,000
100,000

11,000
1,000
8,000
37,000
9,000
31,000
43,000
14,000
9,000
77,000
17,000
—
65,000
7,000
45,000
5,000
54,000.
5,000
15,000
27,000
1,090,000
1,120,000
  480,000
   Table
                                       SOURCE:   Hetland, 1977
   Distribution of $30 Per Pound UaOs Potential Uranium Resources by State
   as of 1/1/77
                             2-20

-------
Most  of  the  exploration is concentrated in the vicinity of the



major uranium-producing districts.  Wyoming, New  Mexico,  Texas,



Colorado,  and  Utah  accounted  for  92.7 percent of the surface



drilling  in  1977  (Nininger,  1978).   Significant  'exploration



activities in 1977 reported by DOE are shown on Figure 2—8.





Surface  drilling  statistics  given  in Table 2-4 show the rapid



expansion of exploration and development drilling since  the  low



point, in 1971.
Table 2-4
Summary of Surface Drilling for Uranium
AVE.



MILLIONS THOUSANDS
YEAR
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
OF FEET OF
24
30
24
15
15
16
22
27
35
40
Source: Nininger,
V

HOLES
30
58
76
59
39
37
34
40
67
94
1978

HOLE
DEPTH
IN FEET
410
394
400
398
421
480
550
457
506
434


PERCENT-
EXPLORATION
DRILLING
68
69
76
74
78
66
73
65
57
.64


PERCENT
DEVELOPMENT
DRILLING
32
31
24
26
22
34
27
35
43
36

J
                              2-21

-------
Other Exploration Activities


Industry  and  DOE  have  recently  increased  their  exploration

activities,  such  as  geologic  mapping  and   geochemical   and

geophysical  surveying, in new areas.  The success of exploration

in frontier areas remains to be demonstrated  (Chenoweth, 1977).


Production from Lower Grade Ores


Production  estimates  for  1985—1990  are  difficult  to project

because of the problems with development of  lower-grade  uranium

ore.  Yellowcake production in 1977 was estimated as, 15,000 short

tons  (Kahn, 1977) from ore  of  a  higher  grade  than  would  be

expected in the 1980's and 1990's.  Development of future uranium

supplies will be tied directly to world-wide demand.. The selling

price  of  uranium  oxide  extracted  from  lower-grade  ores  is

expected to be higher.


2.2.3
Future Uranium Production Centers


The DOE Supply Analysis Division has analyzed existing, expanded,

and proposed uranuim mining and milling capabilities in the  U.S.

The   production  centers are shown on Figures 2—9A and 2—9B.  The

DOE projections should prove helpful  to  planners  in  that  the

projections are for a relatively long time span.
                              2-22

-------
The  production  capabilities  are an upper limit estimate of how

much uranium the industry could produce.   It  appears  that  the

estimate does not include financing or licensing constraints that

might alter mine  development  or  mill  construction  schedules.

Production  centers  were  classified  according  to certainty of

future production.  The classifications are excerpted as  follows

(Klemenic et al., 1977):
  • CLASS 1 CENTERS include the existing mills with supporting
    mines and other facilities at which concentrate was  being
    produced  at  the  time  the capability estimate was made.
    Ownership of the  facilities  and  tributary  sources  can
    readily be identified.  Production costs can reasonably be
    defined, and future production is well assured.

  • CLASS 2  CENTERS  include  uranium  mills  and  supporting
    resources for which construction commitments  are  evident
    and  mine .development  has been announced or is underway.
    Class 2 centers are generally converted to Class 1 centers
    within three years.

  • CLASS 3  CENTERS  are  uranium  mills in regions where the
    amount and grade of reserves justify production but  where
    mill construction is not yet evident.  Three to five years
    are estimated for mine and mill installation.

  • CLASS 4  CENTERS are possible centers postulated for areas
    in which present  reserves  are  insufficient  to  support
    production   facilities   but   where  exploration  and/or
    geologic  evidence  has  indicated  sufficient  "probable"
    potential  resources to warrant the assumption of eventual
    production.  The assummed lead time  to  develop  reserves
    and  construct  mining  and milling facilities for Class 4
    centers generally ranges from 6 to 22 years  and  averages
    14 years.   Consolidation of land holdings is a long lead-
    time item.
                              2-23

-------
                                                iaPr"i7
                                     I	L	rA—».
                                    r        ^3o429        T~-i
CLASS  t  PRODUCTION CENTERS'
    1. The Anaconda Company
    2. Atlas Corporation
    3. Conoco & Pioneer Nuclear,  Inc.
    4. Cotter Corporation
    S. Dawn Mining Company
    6. Exion Company, U.S.A.
    7. Federal American Partners
    8. Intercontinental Energy Corp.
    9. Kerr-McGee Nuclear Corp.
   10. Lucky Me Uranium Corporation
   It. Lucky le Uranium Corporation
   12. Modi I Oil Company
   13. Rie Algoei Corporation
   14. Rocky Mtn. Energy Company
   15. Sohio Oil-Reserve Oil
   16. Union Carbide Corporation
   17. Union Carbide Corporation
   18. United Nuclear Corporation
   19. United Nuclear Hoaestake-
      Partntrs
   20. Uranium Recovery Corp.
   21. U.S. Steel
   22. U.S. Steel-Mi agra Mohawk
   23. Western Nuclear. Inc.
   24. Wyoming Mineral Corporation
Grants. New Mexico
Hvab.  Utah
Falls  City, Texas
Canon  Rity, Colorado
Ford,  Washington
Powder River Basln,Wy«
Gas Hills, Wyoming
Pawnee, Texas
Grants, New Mexico
Gas Hills, Wyoming
Shirley Basin,  fyo
Sruni,  Texas
La Sal, Utah
Sear Creek, lyo
Ljguna, New Mexico
Gas Hi I Is. Wyoming
Uiavan, Colorado
Church Rock, N.M.
Grants, New Mexico
Mulberry, Florida
Seoige West, Texas
George West, Texas
Jeffrey City,  Wyoming
Bruni & Ray Point,  Texas
2  PRODUCTION CENTERS
25.  Chevron Resources  Company
26.  Farmland Industries,  Inc
27.  Freeport Uranium Recovery Co
2B.  Gardinier,  Inc
29.  Gulf Mineral  Resources Co
30.  Hones take Mining Company
31.  Kerr-BcGes Nuclear  Corp
32.  Mineral Exploration Company
33.  Pttrotoaics Company
34.  Phillips Petroleum  Company
33.  Durita Development  Company
36.  Solution Engineering, Inc
37.  United Nuclear Corporation
38.  Western Nuclear, Inc
39.  Wyoming Mineral  Corp
40.  Wyoaing Mineral  Corp
                              Panna Maria, Texas
                              Pierce,  Florida
                              Uncle Sam, Louisianna
                              Tampa,  Florida
                              San Mateo, New Mexico
                              Marshall  Pass,  Colo
                              Powder River Basin,Wyo
                              Red Desert, Wyoming
                              Shirley Basin,  Wyo
                              Nose Rock, New Mexico
                              Naturita-Qurango,  Col
                              Falls City. Texas
                              Morton Ranch,  Wyoming
                              Wellpinit, Wash
                              Binghan,  Utah
                              Powder River Basin,Wyo
SOURCE:  Adapted  from Klemenic,   1977
        Figure 2-9A
        Class 1  and Class 2  Production Centers in the  United States
        $30 Per Pound  UaOs
                                                  2-24

-------
•'ar
CLASS 3 PRODUCTION CENTERS
41. Artillery Peak
42. Cleveland-Cliffs Iron Co
43. CroM Point
44. East Crooks Gap
45. Edgeorant
46. Pioneer Nuclear, Inc
47. Rampant Exploration, Corp
48. Rio Grande Trench
49. Rocky Mountain Energy Co
O
CLASS 4 PRODUCTION CENTERS
50. Baggj
51. Caaeron
52. Cast
53. Fernley
54. Likevie*
55. Karysvale
56. Mountain City
57. It. Taylor
SB. N€ Great Divide Basin
53. North Black Hills
80. Ship rock
St. Sierra Aacha
Other Capper Operations By-Product
Other Phosphate By- Prod.

Arizona
Pumpkin Butte.Vyo
Ne» Rexico
Vyoning
South Dakota
Utah
Tal lahassee Creek, Col
Men Mexico
Copper Mtn.lyo


fyoning
Arizona
California
Nevada
Sr egon
Utak
Nevada
Ne« Mexico
tyoning
South Dakota
N«i Mexico
Arizona
Restern U.S.
S£ t I U.S.
                                SOURCE: Adapted from Klemenic, 1977
Figure 2-9B
Class 3 and Class 4 Production Centers in the United States
$30 Per Pound LbOs
                            2-25

-------
                            CHAPTER 2
                         References
Boyd,  James and .L. T. Silver. United States Uranium Position.
Paper  presented  at  the  ASME—IEEE  Joint  power  Generation
Conference, Long Beach, California, September 18—21, 1977.

Chenoweth,  William L. Exploration Activities. Paper presented
at the Uranium Industry  Seminar,  Grand  Junction,   Colorado,
October 1977.

Culler,  F. L.  An  Alternate Perspective on Long Range Energy
Options.  Conference on U.S.  Oprions  for  Long  Term  Energy
Supply,  Denver,  Colorado,  June 20, 1977.  Atomic  Industrial
Forum Program Report Vol. 3, No. 10, n.d.

Hetland, Donald L. and Wilbur D. Grundy.  Potential  Resources.
Paper  presented  at  the  Uranium  Industry  Seminar,   Grand
Junction, Colorado, October 1977.

Kahn,  M. L.  "Uranium."  Mineral  Commodity  Summaries  1978,
pp 182 and 183.  U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S.  Bureau
of Mines, n.d.

Xeeny,  Spurgeon M.,  Jr.  (Chairman). Nuclear Power  Issues  and
Choices. Report of the  Nuclear  Energy  Policy  Study  Group,
Cambridge,  Massachusetts: Ballinger Publishing Company, 1977.

Klemenic,  John  and  David Blanchfield. Production  Capability
and Supply.  Paper presented at the Uranium Industry  Seminar,
Grand Junction, Colorado, October 1977.

Meehan,  Robert J.  Ore  Reserves.   Paper  presented  at  the
Uranium Industry Seminar, Grand  Junction,  Colorado,  October
1977.

National  Electric  Reliability  Council. 7th Annual Review of
Overall Reliability and Adequacy of the  North  American  Bulk
Power  Systems:  A Report by Interregional Review Subcommittee
of the Technical Advisory Committee, July, 1977.

National Electric Reliability Council. Fossil and Nuclear Fuel
for Electric Utility Generation Requirements and  Constraints,
1977-1986, August 1977.
                              2-26

-------
Nininger,  Robert D.  Remarks at Atomic Industrial Forum "Fuel
Cycle '73" Conference, New York, New York, March 7, 1978.

U.S.  Department  of Energy.  DOE Role in Nuclear Policies and
Programs, Official Transcript of  Public  Eriefing:  Addendum,
December 1977.

U.S. Department of Energy.  Energy Information Administration.
Monthly Energy Review, Fehuary 1978.

U.S.  Nuclear  Regulatory  Commission.  Final Generic Environ-
mental Statement on the Use  of  Recycle  Plutonium  in  Mixed
Oxide   Fuel   in   Light   Water   Cooled  Reactors  (GESMO).
NUREG-0002, Vol. 3, August 197/6.
                        Bibliography
Brown,   R. w.   and   R. H.   Williamson.   Domestic  Uranium
Requirements.   Paper  presented  at  the   Uranium   Industry
Seminar, Grand Junction, Colorado, October 26, 1977.

Davis, W. Kenneth (Chairman-Session 1).  Session 1: New Energy
Policy from a New Administration.   Introductory  Comments  at
the  Conference  on  U.S. Options for Long Term Energy Supply,
Denver, Colorado, June 19—22, 1977.  Atomic Industrial  Forum,
Program Report, Vol. 3, No. 10, n.d.

Edison  Electric  Instititute.   1977  Annual  Electric  Power
Survey.  A Report of the Electric Power  Survey  Committee  of
the Edison Electric Institute, April 1977.

Rathjens,  George.   Address  to  the Atomic Industrial Forum,
Denver, Colorado.  Paper presented at the Conference  on  U.S.
Options   for  Long  Term  Energy  Supply,  Denver,  Colorado,
June 20, 1977,  Atomic  Industrial  Forum,   Program   Report,
vol. 3, No. 10, n.d.
                              2-27

-------
MINING AND MILLING URANIUM ORE
                      CHAPTERS

-------
                           CHAPTER 3
           Mining and Milling Uranium Ore
Uranium development projects must operate within the framework of
acceptable mining and milling technology.   General  understanding
of  the current state of this technology is necessary in order to
compare siting options and development processes  in  respect  to
environmantal  and  socioeconomic concerns.  Current practices in
mining  and milling  uranium  ores  are  summarized  under   the
following topics:
              Overview of uranium resource  development
              Uranium mining
              Uranium processing methods
              Production costs
              Mill tailings management
3.1
Uranium Resource Development
Successful    uranium    resource    development   depends   upon
comprehensive  planning  prior  to  mining  and   milling.    The
following sections  briefly discuss the planning steps and provide
an overview of the  common processing stages and methods.
                             3-1

-------
3.1.1
Steps Prior to Mining and Milling


Once  a  uranium  ore  body  has  been  located and the necessary

permits and licenses have been obtained, exploration drilling   is

followed  by  development  drilling to determine the grade, size,

depth and shape of the deposit.  The  drilling  provides  samples

which   are  analyzed  to  identify  the  physical  and  chemical

properties of the ore.  Samples from the deposit are also  tested

to  determine  the. process necessary to extract uranium from the

ore and recover the  material  as  a  marketable  product.   Site

surveys   and   preliminary  mine—planning  studies  are  usually

conducted   simultaneously   with   the     process    development

investigation.  A series of coordinated site—surveys is performed

to  provide  data  relative   to   soil   mechanics,   hydrology,

topography,  meteorology,  vegetation and wildlife, public health

and sanitation, labor  resources,  transportation  and  available

sources  of  material  and  equipment.  Assuming the ore responds

favorably to treatment,  the  data  collected  from  the  process

development   studies  and  site  surveys   are  used  to  conduct

preliminary  mill—engineering  studies  and to   determine   the

economic  feasibility  of  the  project.  If the economics appear

favorable,  financing  is  arranged,  environmental  factors  are

assessed,  a  mill  site  is selected and detailed engineering  is

initiated  (O'Rourke and Whelan, 1968).


Developing  a  uranium  prospect  is  similar to developing other

mineral deposits except that  regulatory  controls  are  strictly

enforced  by the NEC or one of the agreement states in accordance

with the Atomic Energy Act of 1954 as amended.  Accordingly, many
                              3-2

-------
federal,  state  and local government agencies must be consulted,

and ultimately their approval to proceed must be  obtained.   The

licensing  and  permitting  process may result in long lead times

for development of uranium properties.


After  licenses,  permits and approvals are secured, construction

of the mine-mill complex begins.   Development  usually  requires

several  years to complete.  The exact development route followed

by companies will vary, but a simplified program  is  illustrated

on Figura 3—1.


3.1.2
Methods to Mine and Process Uranium Ore

A  variety  of  methods  are employed by the industry to mine and

process uranium ore.  Most methods have several steps in  common.

As  illustrated  on  Figure 3—2, the uranium-bearing ore is mined

and transported to the processing facility.  The ore  is  crushed

and  ground  to  expose  the  uranium  minerals on the surface of

barren host—rock particles.  The ground ore is pulped with water,

and  chemicals  are added to dissolve the uranium.  The dissolved

uranium is separated from the leached residue, and  the  uranium-

bearing  liquor  is  treated  by selective chemical techniques to

yield a uranium-rich product liquor.  The uranium is precipitated

from this liquor, dried and shipped to enrichment plants.


One . notable  exception  to this general mining-milling scheme is

the in—situ extraction of uranium from intact ore  bodies.   This

technique   is   relatively  new  to  the  mining  industry,  and

relatively few deposits are presently  treated  in  this  manner.

Basically, in—situ extraction  (solution mining) involves drilling
                              3-3

-------
             STEP
UJ
. Locate and secure mineral  claims

 Obtain permits and licenses

 Exploratory drilling

 Development drilling

 Process-development studies

 Geotechnical site surveys

 Preliminary planning and
  engineering of mine

 Economic feasibility analysis

 Financing

 Environmental assessment

 Mill site selection

 Detailed design and engineering
  of mine and mill

 Construction
                                                                    YEARS                              ^
                                           12     3     A     5     6     7     8     9    10
               Figure 3-1
               Steps in Uranium Resource Development
                                                                               SOURCE:  Adapted from CSMRI,  1978

-------
                            Mining
                           Crushing
                           Grinding
                           Leaching
                          Liquid-Sol id
                          Separation
(residue)
                         Concentration
                                (product  Iiquor)
                         Precipitation
                          Dewater ing
                          Drying  &
                          Packaging
                            URANIUM
                            PRODUCT
                                                 SOURCE:  CSMRi
Figure 3-2
Steps Common to Most Processing Methods
                             3-5

-------
a series of wells into a permeable uraniferous aquifer, injecting
a  leaching agent into the wells, and pumping the uranium-bearing
solution to the surface for further treatment and recovery of the
U308  (See  Figure  3—8).   This  eliminates  the costly steps of
mining,  crushing,  and  grinding  and  reduces  the  above-ground
deposition  of  mill  tailings.  However, the long term impact of
in—situ extraction on ground water and the methods to effectively
restore  solution-mined  aguifiers  to premining or to acceptable
water quality are being studied.

Table   3—1  lists  the  process  variations  for  open  pit  and
underground mines and for solution mining.

3.2
Uranium Mining
Uranium  mining methods fall within the categories of underground
mining,  surface mining,  and  bore-hole  mining.   The  preferred
method  is  the one that requires the least cost per pound of ore
recovered  while  remaining  within  the  constraints   of   many
technical, environmental, and regulatory factors,
3.2.1
Mining Method Selection
Selection  of  the mining method is based on a detailed geologic,
engineering and economic analysis of the ore deposit.  Factors to
be   considered   are  the  ore  body's  size,  grade,  host—rook
mechanics, location, depth, geometry and engineering  properties.
                              3-6

-------
Open-Pit Mines
Development drilling

Stripping

Mine waste*

Vaste dump

Develop ore faces

Drill, blast*

Load

Haul
Crush

Grind*

Leach uranium

Liquid-solid separation

U_00 concentration
 3 o
Precipitate, dry,  package

Tailings dam  operations

Reclamation

           16
Underground Mines
Development drilling

Shaft sinking

Development drifting

Vaste dump*

Develop stopes

Drill, blast

Muck out

Haul

Hoist

Haul to mill

Crush*

Grind*

Leach uranium

Liquid-solid separation

U,00 concentration
 J Q

Precipitate, dry, package

Tailings dam  operations

Reclamation

            18
                              Solution Mining
                              Development drilling
                              Drill wells

                              Leach uranium
                                                           Pump solution to mill
                              Liquid-solid  separation

                              UJDg concentration

                              Precipitate,  dry, package

                              Recirculate leach
                              solutions
                              Aquifer  restoration
                     Total stages to produce  a  saleable product
  SOURCE:
       Adopted from
       Hunkin, October,
       1975
          NOTE:
              *  Denotes stages generally producing
              significant  changes  in  or  affecting
              land surfaces,  water quality,  personnel
              safety or radiation  exposure.
   Table 3-1
   Process Variations at U.S. Uranium Mines and Mills
                                        3-7

-------
Size and Grade of the Ore Body





The boundaries of naturally occurring uranium deposits are seldom



easily defined, and the mineralization grade usually varies  from



barren  to  mineralized  rock.   Although  methods  for selective



mining are available,  it  is  still  impossible  to  distinguish



completely  between  barren and mineralized material.  The mining



plan is  based  on  information  from  development  drilling  and



normally  contains  an  allowance  for dilution of the ore during



mining.





Unit  costs  for  moving  ore  and  waste  are normally less in a



surface operation than for underground mines because  the  larger



machines used are more efficient and productivity is greater.  As



a result, surface mining is preferred whenever the  ore  body  is



sufficiently large and close to the surface so that waste removal



costs  (stripping ratio) are not excessive.





Geographic Location of the Ore Body





The  location  of  an  ore  body  is a major factor in making the



decision to proceed with mine design and evaluation.  If  an  ore



body  is located within a specially designated public land  (e.g.,



a wilderness area), mining may not be allowed.   As  more  public



lands   are   reserved   for  special  uses,   (e.g.,  the  Alaska



Wilderness)   the  number  of  the  potential   uranium   reserves



available for development is reduced.
                              3-8

-------
Depth and Geometry of the Ore Body
Depth  and geometry of the ore body have a definite impact on the



mining method selected.  Open pit uranium mining is practiced  to



depths  of 400 feet, but the grade of the ore and the size of the



deposit dictate the practical depth of a  surface  mine.   Small,



high-grade  deposits  can  often  be  mined  more  efficiently by



underground methods even though they may be located within a  few



hundred  feet of the surface.  A large blanket-type deposit could



oe more easily mined by  open-pit  methods  even  if  depths  are



equivalent.





Engineering Properties of the Ore and Waste





Mine  design must take into account the engineering properties of



the ore, waste rock, and material surrounding the ore deposit (s).



Underground   mining   requires   sufficient  rock  strength  and



competency to economically prevent failure of mine  walls,  roofs



and  pillars.   In  surface  mining, rock strength determines the



slope of the pit walls required to maintain slope stability.





The  presence  of  ground  water  may  reduce  rock  strength  by



increasing pore pressure in the material.  The result may be  the



failure  of  the surrounding rock and a cave-in in an underground



mine or flooding and wall collapse in  a  surface  mine.   Ground



water  may  also  soften  shale  beds,  allowing  pillars  in  an



underground mine to punch into the surrounding rock, resulting in



a  roof fall.  Intrusion of large volumes of ground water into an



underground or surface mine requires costly pumping and treatment
                              3-9

-------
systems;  for  example,  the  Mt. Taylor mine in New Mexico has a

13,000—gpm capacity pumping system  (Jackson, 1977}.


3.2.2
Underground Mining

Underground  mining  has  the advantage of selectivity.  The only

waste materials removed are those associated with the ore body or

from  adits,  access  tunnels  and  shafts.   On  the other hand,

because underground mining methods are costly, they are  selected

only  whan  other  methods  are impractical, such as when the ore

body is at too great a  depth  for  surface  development.   Also,

underground  mining  is  more labor-intensive because of confined

work  spaces  and  smaller  capacity  machines   used.    Special

provision   must   be   made  for  access,  haulage  systems  and

ventilation.


Access


In  an  underground mine, access to the ore is generally by means

of a vertical shaft, a sloped incline or decline, or a relatively

level  tunnel  or  adit.  Tunnels are generally preferred because

they can be driven so that natural drainage will  occur  and  ore

haulage  is  less  difficult.  However, tunnels are only feasible

where .topography allows the portal to be located at an  elevation

near  that  of  the ore body.  Typical examples of tunnel or adit

access are the underground mines of the Federal-American Partners

in  the  Gas  Hills  of  Wyoming  and  the  older workings of the

Schwartzwalder Mine in Colorado.
                              3-10

-------
    A  vertical  shaft  project  is  being  constructed at Mt.
    Taylor,  New  Mexico,  by  Gulf  Mineral   Resources   Co.
    (Jackson, 1977).  The ore body is approximately 3,200 feet
    below the surface of the ground in an area  of  relatively
    flat  terrain.   Two  vertical, concrete-lined shafts at a
    maximum depth of 3,300 feet will provide access to the ore
    body  and  sumps for mine water that must be pumped to the
    surface and ventilation.  The shafts are  400 feet  apart.
    A  24—ft  diameter  main  shaft  will  provide  a hoisting
    capacity of 4,500 tpd from the ore body by  means  of  two
    skips  powered  by a 2,500—hp double drum hoist.  The main
    shaft also serves as the air  exhaust  for  the  mine.   A
    smaller,  14—ft  diameter shaft serves as the intake shaft
    for ventilation and provides access for men and materials.
Mine Transportation


Mine  transportation  or haulage systems are required to move ore

and wastes out of the mine or to the bottom of the shaft  and  to

move  men and supplies into the mine.  Typically, conveyor belts,

rubber-tired trucks or rail systems are  used.   Truck  and  rail

systems  are  preferred in uranium mines.  The advantages of each

system are compared in Dwosh,  (1978).


Tunnels  and  drifts  are  usually  driven  in waste rock so that

extraction of the ore and subsequent subsidence will  not  damage

the mine transportation and ore haulage systems.  The tunnels and

drifts also provide conduits for the ventilation system.


Ventilation


The mine ventilation system must remove all fumes from equipment,

explosions, etc.,  and  must  also  reduce  dust  and  radon  gas

concentrations   to   below   regulatory   levels.    Ventilation

requirements vary from state to state, and careful  attention  to

ventilation system design is required.
                              3-11

-------
Room-and-Pillar Mining






A  common mining method in tabular ore bodies is called the room-



and-pillar method, illustrated on Figure 3—3.  There  is  a  high



degree of flexibility in room-and-pillar mining.. Work is done by



equipment sections.  A  section  might  consist  of  a  wheel  or



crawler  type  of  loader,  drill,  and  one or more rubber-tired



trucks or buggies to haul the ore.  The successful  use  of  this



type  of  equipment  depends  upon  having a sufficient number of



working places so that each machine can be rotated from place  to



place  as  its function is completed.  This requires a sufficient



number of working places in a reasonably  confined  district  and



close supervision on the part of the section foreman.





Thinning  or  thickening  of  the ore body, barren zones and poor



roof conditions may be handled  easily  by  the  room  and-pillar



method.   When  the  ore  body  is  quite  regular, the rooms and



pillars are uniform in size  and  equally  spaced  as  previously



shown.   However,  when the ore body is irregular, as is the case



in most uranium  deposits,  a  system  of  room-and-random-pillar



mining  is  generally  used.  Pillars are generally left whenever



waste material is encountered, but if ore pillars must  be  left,



they  may  be  recovered  just  before the mine is abandoned when



caving of the stopes is no longer a problem.





Open Room With Random Pillar Mining





Mining  of  ore by the open room with random pillar method begins



on either an outcrop (rare occurrences at this late date for  new



mines)  or  at  an  ore  intercept  in an exploration hole at the
                              3-12

-------
                 •Ore  Ready  to  Load
SOURCE:  CSMRI
                         •Loading Machine

                                 •Roof Bolting Machine

                                          •Dri11 ing  Machine

                                                   Blasting
                                                           Ore Ready
                                                           to Load
Figure 3-3
Room-and-Pillar Mining
                               3-13

-------
terminus of the  drift  or  entry.   Development  then  generally

progresses  along  the ore trend with attempts being made to  stay

in ore.  As the ore  bodies  broaden  beyond  20 feet  wide,   and

depending  on  roof  conditions, pillars are left in waste or low

grade ore, if possible.
    A  typical example of a small open room with random pillar
    uranium mine is the Deremo Mine operated by Union  Carbide
    (Harvey,  1977).   The  Deremo  Mine  is  located  on  the
    Colorado-Utah state line approximately 64 miles  from  the
    Four Corners and about 80 miles road distance from Uravan.
    The mine workings cover an area 8,500 feet in  the  north-
    south  direction by 6,500 feet in the east-west direction.

    The  Deremo  Mine is being serviced through three vertical
    shafts about 750 feet deep.  A three-compartment  timbered
    shaft  named  the  Deremo No. 1  was sunk in 1957, and the
    first ore was hoisted in 1958.  As mining advanced to  the
    south,  additional hoisting facilities were needed, and in
    1967, the Deremo No. 2 and the Snyder shafts were put into
    operation.   These  consisted  of  64—inch  diameter holes
    drilled from the surface and lined with  a  48—inch  metal
    casing.   The  annulus  is  filled with cement.  Four—inch
    heavy-duty pipe was welded to the casing, and this  serves
    as  a  shaft guide for the skips as well as for compressed
    air and water lines.  The haulage  system  at  the  Deremo
    Mine  was  originally  rail,  but  by  1971  it  had  been
    converted from track to trackless haulage.

    A  total  of  103,000 tons of ore and 90,000 tons of waste
    was removed from the mine during 1976.   All  loading  and
    hauling  of  muck  from  the face to shaft station is done
    with  rubber-tired  trackless  equipment.    Drilling   is
    accomplished  with compressed air-driven push-feed drills.
    The rock is  broken  with  conventional  explosives.   The
    average output for production crew personnel is 24 tons of
    ore and waste per man-shift and for all mine personnel  is
    6.9 tons per man-shift.
3.2.3
Surface Mining


Frequently, • an  ore body is large enough and close enough to the

surface that it may be mined by surface or open-pit methods.   An
                             3-14

-------
example of surface mining in flat terrain is shown on .figure 3—4.

Unit operations are the same as for underground mining;  however,

the  auxiliary  requirements  are not as complex, and the overall

operation is generally less costly.

                                               \


Generally,  an extremely large excavation is required to get at a

fairly small  tonnage  of  ore.   In  many  uranium  mines,  from

10 to 20 tons  of waste must be removed for each ton of ore mined

and  occasionally,  the  stripping  ratio  may  exceed   30 to 1.

Stripping   ra-ios   of   up   to   80:1   could  be  encountered

 (Goodier, 1978).


Rock   breakage   in   open   pits  is  often  accomplished  with

conventional drilling and blasting methods, but in uranium  mines

the  strata  are  frequently  soft enough so that crawler tractor

mounted rippers may be used.  Rock loading may be done by shovels

or  front-end  loaders or by self-propelled scrapers.  Haulage is

accomplished by trucks  or  scrapers.   Frequently,  mine  fleets

include a- number of each of these units.


Surface mining methods are used in uranium mines in the Gas Hills
                                                              i
and Shirley and Powder River Basins in Wyoming,  Laguna  District

of  New  Mexico  and  in  south  Texas,  and  in several areas in

Colorado and Utah.  A number  of  excellent  papers  on  open-pit

mining  describe  operations  in these states  (Wood, 1977; White,

December, 1975; "Conquista...", Mining Engineering,  1972).
                              3-15

-------
           Uranium Ore
                                         Limits of Pit  Floor
    Mine
    Limits
                                                          Pit Benches
                            High Grade

                            Mill Run

                            Low Grade
                                          PLAN VIEW
•Ground Surface
                               -Beginning Pit
                                                      Waste Rock
                                                      (Overburden)
Final  Pit
                   Uranium Ore

  SOURCE:  Adapted  from  CSMRI
                                         CROSS  SECTION
      Figure 3-4
      Typical Open Pit Mining Method
                                   3-16

-------
    A  typical  open-pit  mine  is  the  Utah International
    Inc.'s Lucky Me, located in the Gas Hills  of  Wyoming.
    Wheel  tractor  scrapers push-loaded by bulldozers were
    the initial machines used for the  overburden  removal.
    However,  as pit depths increased, a shift to shovel or
    loader and truck fleets were used because of  the  more
    favorable  machine-to-payload  weight  ratios  obtained
    with trucks.

    Ore  trends  at  Lucky Me are quite narrow, sinuous and
    discontinuous.  Therefore, when the stripping operation
    is  within  about  10 feet  of  the  ore horizon, great
    caution must be exercised to avoid loss of  ore.   Very
    thin  cuts  of waste are taken with the scrapers as the
    ore body is approached, and each cut is  supervised  by
    grade-control  personnel.  As the ore is exposed, it is
    cleaned by dozers or loaders until a large exposed lump
    of ore remains on the pit floor.

    Mining  of  the  ore  is accomplished with a backhoe of
    2 1/4 to 2 3/8 cubic yard capacity.  Ore is loaded into
    20— or 35—ton  trucks  for  transport  out  of the pit.
    Mining  is  controlled   by   grade-control   personnel
    equipped  with  Geiger  counters which detect the gamma
    radioactivity associated with uranium daughter products
    in the mineralized ore.
Mine reclamation is playing an increasingly important role in the

feasibility, planning and economics of open  pit  mining.   State

regulations and their enforcement vary from state to state. .


3.2.4
Bore-Hole Mining

Bore  hole mining differs from solution mining in that the ore is

actually broken up in—place and removed from the  bottom  of  the

bore .hole by fluid flow.  Figure 3—5 depicts a hypothetical bore-

hole mining arrangement.  A series of bore holes is first drilled

into  the  ore  body,  and  then  a steel pipe is used to lower a

high—pressure .horizontal nozzle  into  the  hole,  and  water  is

pumped  at  high  pressure  into the ore body.  The high pressure

water breaks up the ore and puts it into a slurry.  The slurry is
                              3-17

-------
                                         Collection
                                         Tank
                                                         Uranium  Recovery
                                                            Plant
     Install ing
     Bore Hole
                                         Mining

SOURCE:   Adapted  from  Lang  &  Archibald,  1976
BackfiII ing
Mined-out Cavities
 Figure 3-5
 Hypothetical Bore-Hole Mining System

-------
pumped  from  the  bore-hole  to  a  mill  for  processing  via a
collection tank.  Tailings from the . mill  are  pumped  into  the
mined-out cavities in the ore body as backfill.   Bore-hole mining
is being tested in various mining applications but this technique
is currently not in commercial use in the uranium industry.
3.3
Uranium Processing Methods
Uranium ore processing methods include:
  • Conventional acid leaching
  • Conventional alkaline leaching
  • In—situ leaching (solution mining)
  • Heap leaching
  • Recovery of uranium as a byproduct
V	J
Comparison of Acid and Alkaline Leaching

Uranium  is  recovered  from  the  ore by dissolution in a liquid
medium, commonly called leaching.  In order to increase the  rate
of uranium dissolution, the pH of the leaching solution is either
decreased  (acid)  or  increased  (alkaline),  depending  on  the
characteristics  of  the  ore.   Acid  leaching is generally more
effective than alkaline leaching  for  treating  difficult  ores-.
Acid  treatment  usually  requires  less  leaching time and lower
temperatures and provides more flexibility to deal with  changing
ore  characteristics  than  is possible with an alkaline process.
                              3-19

-------
Also, acid leaching usually does not require grinding the ore  to



as  fine  a  size as does alkaline processing.  In acid circuits,



however, a substantial portion of the leaching solution  must  be



rejected to tailings after the uranium is removed because soluble



impurities tend to concentrate excessively.





In  contrast,  alkaline  leaching  is  more selective for uranium



minerals so that leaching  solutions  contain  fewer  impurities.



Because of the relatively pure solutions, direct precipitation of



yellowcajce often is feasible without solution  purification,  and



leaching  solutions  may  be  regenerated  and recycled with less



problems  due  to  impurity  buildup.   Alkaline  solutions   are



relatively  noncorrosive  and are very suitable for treating high



lime ores which would consume large quantities of acid.





Leaching Agent Determination





The characteristics of the ore and the relative process economics



will determine the leaching reagent best suited to  a  particular



ore.   The -predominant  'factors  in  this  decision  are reagent



consumption and the maximum uranium extraction obtained with  the



particular leach liquor  (Merritt, April 1977).  .Sulfuric, nitric,



hydrochloric and other  acids  may  be  used  for  leaching,  but



sulfuric  acid  is  used  almost  exclusively  due  to  cost  and



corrosion factors.  Usually, mixtures of ammonium  carbonate  and



ammonium bicarbonate solutions are used for solution mining.





Environmental   considerations   may   also  influence  lixiviant



selection, especially for solution  mining  operations.   Federal



and  state agencies have placed strict requirements for restoring
                                 3-20

-------
the water in a uraniferous aquifer to  its  original  state,  and

thus  many  solution  mining  operators  may find it necessary to

select  a  leaching  solution  based   on   these   environmental

regulations.   Of  particular  concern  with  ammonium  carbonate

solutions is the residual ammonia level in mined aquifers.


3.3.1
Conventional Acid Leaching

The  majority  of  the uranium ores treated in the U.S..today are

processed in conventional sulfuric acid leaching mills.   In  its

simplest form, the typical sulfuric acid mill reduces the size of

the ore,  leaches  the  ground  pulp  to  dissolve  the  uranium,

purifies   the  uranium-bearing  solution  and  precipitates  the

yellowcaJce from the purified solution.  A typical  flowsheet  for

an acid leaching mill is shown on Figure 3—6.


Crushing and Grinding


Coarse ore is retrieved from storage pads and fed to the crushing

circuit.  The primary crusher reduces the  size  of  the  ore  to

2 to 6 inches  in  diameter,  while the secondary crusher further

reduces the size of the ore to 1/8 to 1/2 inch.  The product from

the  crusher  circuit  is fed to rod or ball mills where water is

added, and the.ore  is  ground  finer  to  liberate  the  uranium

minerals  from  waste constituents, thereby rendering the uranium

minerals susceptible to chemical attack.  In general,  most  acid

leaching  mills  grind  the ore to 28 mesh, but the size of grind

may vary from  10 to 200 mesh.
                              3-21

-------
                      Ore  from Receiving Pads
                          Primary Crushing
              solution
Clarification
                         Secondary  Crushing
                             .Grinding
                              Leaching
Liquid-Sol id
Separation
                                       residue
                           Concentration
                           Precipitation
                             Oewatering
                             Drying &
                             Packaging
                            YELLOW CAKE
recycle solution
& water
                            Tai I ings Pond
                                                       SOURCE:  CSMRI
     Figure 3-6
     LbOs Extraction by Sulf uric Acid Leaching
                                  3-22

-------
Semiautogenous Mills





A  relatively  recent  trend  is  to replace mechanical secondary



crushers and rod mills with semiautogenous grinding  mills.   The



semiautogenous  mills eliminate the need for fine ore storage and



simplify the problems associated with wet and  frozen  ore.   The



primary  crushing  circuit is not necessarily an integral part of



the main plant.





Leaching





From  the  grinding  circuit,  the  ore  slurry  is pumped to the



leaching circuit.  Sulfuric acid and an oxidant, such  as  sodium
                A


chlorate,  are  added  to the pulp to dissolve the uranium.  Acid



leaching is usually accomplished in mechanically  agitated  tanks



arranged  in  series,  but air agitated tanks. (Pachucas)  are also



used.  Leaching  times  vary  from  4 to 30 hours,  and  leaching



temperatures  range  from ambient to 90 degrees Centigrade.  Acid



and oxidant requirements depend on the mineralogy of the ore  and



the  concentration of free acid required to dissolve the uranium.





Liqui'd-Solid Separation





The next stage in the milling process is to separate the uranium-



bearing solution from the  spent  ore  residue.   Basically,  the



liquid-solid  separation  may  be  accomplished by countercurrent



decantation  (CCD) in thickeners of by  separating  the  sand  and



slime  fractions  of  the  pulp  followed  by  treating the slime



portion in a CCD or resin-in-pulp  (RIP) circuit.
                                 3-23

-------
The  majority  of the acid-leaching mills operating today use CCD



for liquid-solid separation.  In the  CCD  circuits,  solids  and



washing   solutions   move  countercurrently  to  each  other  in



thickeners to achieve displacement of all but 1 percent  or  less



of  the  soluble  values  from the solid residue.  The residue is



then  discharged  to  waste  while  the  solution   advances   to



purification and concentration.





At  some  mills,  the  sands  are  separated  from  the slimes by



cyclones and/or mechanical classifiers.  Usually, this is done to



prevent   the   coarse   sand   particles  .from  overloading  the



thickeners.  After the  sand-slime  split  is  accomplished,  the



slime  pulp  will contain over 99 percent of the soluble uranium,



and the sands can therefore be discarded.  The slime fraction can



then  be  processed  in a conventional CCD thickener circuit.  At



two mills, however, the slimes are treated  in  RIP  .circuits  to



recover  uranium  directly  from the pulp.  Solution from the CCD



circuit is clarified or  filtered  to  insure  removal  of  fine,



suspended solids from the uranium-bearing liquor.





Concentration





The  next step involves concentration of the uranium in solution.



All acid leaching mills use at  least  one  stage  of  resin  ion



exchange   (IX)  or solvent extraction  (SX) and in some cases both



to  selectively  extract  uranium  from  the  leaching  solution.



Subsequent  removal  of  uranium from the resin or solvent with a



suitable reagent yields a purified and concentrated  solution  of



uranium   from   which   a  high-grade  uranium  product  can  be
                              3-24

-------
precipitated.  Solvent extraction and  resin  ion  exchange  both



involve the interchange of ions between the leaching solution and



either a solid resin or an organic liquid.  Both  techniques  are



multistage  processes  employing  various  types  of equipment to



contact the solution with the exchange media.





Resin ion exchange involves contacting the solid 20—50 mesh resin



beads with  uranium-bearing  liquor  in  a  series,  of  tanks  or



"columns."   The  uranium  ions are selectively adsorbed onto the



resin beads and the barren solution leaving the  columns  can  be



recycled  to the CCD washing circuit and/or discarded.  After the



resin beads are saturated with uranium, the resin is eluted  with



a  suitable  reagent,  and the concentrated solution is pumped to



the precipitation circuit.





RIP  systems  are used to recover dissolved uranium directly from



slime  pulp.   Different  types  of  specialized  equipment   and



circuits are used for this purpose in which, as the name implies,



the resin is suspended directly in the pulp.





The  solvent  extraction process involves transfer of the uranium



ions in the solution to a liquid organic extractant.  The organic



complex  formed  with uranium is soluble in the organic phase and



insoluble in the aqueous phase.  The exchange  reaction  requires



intimate  mixing  of  the  two  phases.  Subsequent separation of



these immiscible phases by settling yields a  top  layer  of  the



metal-enriched  organic  solution  and  a  bottom layer of barren



solution which is recycled to  the  CCD  washing  circuit  and/cr



discarded.   The  loaded  organic  is  then  recontacted .with  a
                              3-25

-------
suitable reagent to transfer the uranium back to  a  concentrated



aqueous solution.





A  two-stage  concentration  process employing resin ion exchange



followed by solvent  extraction  is  termed  the  Eluex  process.



Conventional column or RIP ion exchange is used to adsorb soluble



uranium.  The loaded resin is eluted with sulfuric acid, and  the



eluate  is  fed  to a solvent extraction circuit where uranium is



extracted by an organic liquid.  The loaded organic  is  stripped



of   the   uranium,   and   the  concentrated  solution  goes  to



precipitation.  The  Eluex  process  is  an  extremely  efficient



method  for  concentrating  uranium  from  dilute  solutions  and



eliminates extraneous ions (such as chlorides used during elution



and  stripping)  from the circuit (Merritt, Oct. 1977) .  Also, the



process decreases reagent costs and may provide a  purer  uranium



product.   The  system,  however,  is more complicated than other



concentration processes and usually requires  a  greater  capital



investment.   Although  the exchange resins and organics are very



selective for uranium, certain impurities may interfere  with  IX



or SX and complicate the entire concentration circuit.





Precipitation





Several ' techniques  can be used to precipitate uranium from acid



solutions; direct neutralization with a base such as  ammonia  is



the   most  common.   The  uranium  precipitate  (yellowcake)  is



dewatered, dried and shipped to the refinery.  This final product



usually  contains  85 percent to 95 percent U3O8 and a very small



percentage of uranium daughters.
                             3-26

-------
Strong Acid Curing


Acid leaching methods other than mechanical  or  air  agitation have

been used in the  U.S.  and  are  now  used   at  certain   foreign

operations.  One such method is the strong acid curing  technique.

This process involves  agglomerating   coarsely   ground  ore   with

concentrated  sulfuric  acid  and  allowing   the wetted but  free-

flowing ore to cure at elevated temperatures  in  silos,   rotating

drums  or on p'ads.  The acid-cured material  is  water  leached,  and

the dissolved uranium can be recovered by  the  various   methods

previously  described.   Proponents  of the  process claim reduced

acid consumption, increased extraction, decreased reaction  times

and lower capital costs  (Lendrum, 1974; Smith ana Garrett, 1972).

33.2
Conventional Alkaline Leaching

Unlike  acid leaching systems, alkaline- leaching requires the use

of an integrated, closed-circuit process, since economics dictate

recovery of the reagents in the leaching  solutions.


A   typical   alkaline   leaching  flowsheet  is illustrated  on

Figure .3—7.

Crushing and Grinding


The  crushing plant for alkaline circuits is  essentially  the same

as an acid-leaching plant except for the  grinding  circuit.   In

the  alkaline-leaching process, the chemical  reactions  are slower

and must be assisted by exposing more  of  the  mineral  surfaces.

To   obtain   the   finely-ground  product,   the . grinding-sizing

operation is usually performed at relatively  low pulp  densities;
                                3-27

-------
                       Ore  from  Receiving Pads
                           Primary  Crushing
                          Secondary Crushing
                            Grinding &
                            Classi fication
                 solution
        Clarification
Recarbonation
                            Liquid- Sol id
                            Separation
                   solution
                              Leaching
Liquid-Sol id
Separation
                                           residue
                            TAILINGS POND
                            Precipi tation
 Dewatering
SOURCE:  CSMRI
                              Drying &
                              Packaging
                             YELLOW CAKE
                                (U308)
    Figure 3-7
    UsOs Extraction by Alkaline Leaching
                                   3-28

-------
therefore, a thickener or filter is used between the grinding and



leaching circuits to remove  the  excess  solution.   The  excess



solution  is  recycled to the grinding circuit, and the thickened



pulp  (50—60 percent  solids)  is  transferred  to  the  leaching



circuit.





Leaching






Both  atmospheric  and  pressure  leaching  vessels  are  used in



alkaline  circuits,  and  leaching  times  are  related  to   the



temperature  and  pressure used.  Pressure leaching in autoclaves



may require  from  4 to 20 hours  at  temperatures  ranging  from



95 to 120 degrees   Centigrade   and   pressures   varying   from



30 to 90 psig.  Air—agitated Pachucas  are  frequently  used  for



atmospheric   leaching   at   temperatures   of  75 to 90 degrees



Centigrade and leaching times of up to  96 hours.   Pachucas  are



particularly   well-suited   to   alkaline  leaching,  since  the



agitation air also provides the  air  necessary  to  oxidize  the



uranium.   Since  most  Pachuca tanks are 40 to 60 feet deep, the



benefit of approximately 25 psig at the bottom of  the  tanks  is



also realized.





Liquid-Solid Separation





The  method  of  separating  the  liquids  from  the solids in an



alkaline circuit is very similar to that used in an  acid  system



except  that  filters  are  generally preferred because of tetter



washing efficiency and because  of  the  difficulties  associated



with  achieving good densification with the finer solids and more



viscous alkaline solutions.
                             3-29

-------
Precipitation


Since alkaline-leaching solutions are very selective for .uranium,

the uranium can be precipitated directly from the clarified leach

liquor,  and  thus  the - concentration  step  prevalent  in  acid

leaching circuits can be eliminated.  Two  methods  are  used  to

precipitate   uranium   from   alkaline   liquors.    If   nearly

quantitative recovery is required, the solutions  are  acidified,

boiled   to   expel   carbon  dioxide  and  then  neutralized  to

precipitate the uranium.  However, it is usually  more  important

to  conserve  the  reagent  for  recycle than to achieve complete

precipitation,  and  therefore  the  preferred   method   is   to

precipitate yellowcake with sodium hydroxide.  The precipitate is

dewatered, dried, packaged and shipped to the refinery   (Merritt,

April 1977). .


The  solution  from  the precipitation circuit is regenerated and

recycled;,  The regeneration step involves sparging  the  solution

with  carbon  dioxide  in  recarbonation  towers  to  achieve the

desired carbonate content.  Solid sodium carbonate  may  also  be

added depending on the sodium balance throughout the circuit.


3.3.3
In-Situ Leaching (Solution Mining)

In—situ leaching is a relatively new method of extracting uranium

in which wells are injected with a  lixiviant  and  the  uranium-

bearing  liquor  is  recovered.   The  uranium  is  recovered  by

drilling into the ore body, circulating a lixiviant  to  dissolve

the   mineral,   extracting   the  values  from  the  liquor  and
                             3-30

-------
regenerating the lixiviant for continued use underground  (Lewis,

et al., 1976).


Advantages and Disadvantages


Increasing  interest  in  this  technique is understandable since

solution   mining   offers   several   advantages   compared   to

conventional  mine-mill  complexes.   For  ore bodies mineable by

in—situ leaching, the advantages include:
  • Minimal  surface  disturbance,  particularly  compared  to
    surface mining

  • Personnel exposure to radiation is significantly reduced

  • Lower  grade  ores  can be treated, effectively increasing
    the recoverable reserves of uranium

  • Lower  capital  costs,  improved  cash flow, and generally
    greater return on the investment

  • Less waste generation and land restoration
Major   disadvantages  are  the  potential  for  ground  water

contamination and a lower level of uranium extraction.   Also,

few ore bodies are suitable for in—situ leaching.
                             3-31

-------
Solution Mining Criteria


For an ore body to qualify as a candidate for solution mining,

the following criteria must be met  (Hancock, 1977):
    The   deposit   should  be  a  relatively  horizontal  bed
    underlain by impermeable strata.

    The  ore  body  must  be  below  the  water table  (i.e., a
    uraniferous aquifer) .

    The  permeability,  porosity  and hydrology of the deposit
    must be favorable.
Well Field Operations


Well development is perhaps the most important aspect of solution

mining.  Wells for injecting the leaching solution are  typically

4 inches  in  diameter  and  cased  with PVC pipe cemented to the

surface.  Production wells are similar in  construction  but  are

usually larger in diameter.  The continuous casing is interrupted

where  the  well  intersects  the  mineralized  zone   to   allow

introduction of a lixiviant.  An example of well construction and

a vertical cross section of a typical  well  field  is  shown  on

Figure 3—8  (Wyoming  Mineral  Corp.,  1976).   Several different

types of well patterns have been investigated, but the  five-spot

pattern is probably the most common.  A typical five-spot pattern

used at U.S. Steel's property at Clay West, Texas,  is  shown  on

Figure 3-9  (White, 1975).
                                 3-32

-------
                         Well  Head
PCV Casing—gii
 i-vViii--Screen Casing
                                               SOURCE:  Wyoming Mineral
                                                       Corporation
Upper
Sandstone^
Uni.t
      Recovery Wei I
Injection We!
Recovery Wei I
                                                            Ground Level
                Uranium Ore
                    —^-*
                	-^__
                Well  Screen
                Shale or Mudstone
                (Confining Layer)
     Figure 3-8
     Well and Well-Field Design for Solution Mining
                              Sandstone
                              Aqu i fer
                                   3-33

-------
                         A
A         A
                                                             A

                                        Outline  of  Pattern
A
Wei



/
) / f
s


k
;






100ft


A


















f
l


J^-—
X"




A
~ Shallow Monitor Wells


&





^>\
A
A
                       Injectors are Located at each Grid
                       Intersection

                       Producers  are  Located  at  Each  Grid  Center
                                    A
                  SEE DETAIL BELOW
                   Injection Wei I
                 Injection Wei I
   Figure 3-9
   Typical Well-Field Pattern
            A

 SOURCE:  Wyoming Mineral
 Corporation  & Hancock,  1977
     njection  Wei
                                          Recovery Wei
     njection Wei
                                 3-34

-------
Injection  of  a  lixiviant forms a hydraulic gradient, within the



uraniferous aquifer.  This gradient, together with the withdrawal



rate  at  the  production  well,  determines  the  direction  and



velocity  of  solution  flow;   Solution  flow  is   toward   the



production  well,  since the hydraulic head at that point is less



than that developed at the point of injection.  Thus, the pumping



rates  and  pressures can be used to confine the lixiviant to the



desired area;  Normally, more liquor is withdrawn  than  injected



to  prevent  solution  migration  and contamination of the ground



water.  Monitor wells are  placed  in  the  aquifer  as  well  as



outside  the  ore  zone to detect escaping solution.  If solution



migration is noted, the hydraulic gradient  can  be  adjusted  by



pumping to force the liquor back into the well fiald.





The  uranium-bearing  liquor is collected from the recovery wells



and pumped to the plant area.  The liquor  is  usually  clarified



and  then  treated in ion exchange columns to remove the uranium.



A typical flowsheet for a solution mining operation is  shown  on



Figure 3—10.





Although  several  types  of  leaching  solutions  can be used to



extract  the  uranium,  relatively  weak  solutions  of  ammonium



bicarbonate  or  carbonate  are  used at most operations.  Unlike



conventional milling, the choice of reagent for in—situ  leaching



is  based primarily on underground performance, including factors



such as selectivity, maintenance of permeability, suitability  to



recirculation and environmental considerations.
                             3-35

-------
                 Leach Field
                 Restoration
                 Leach Field
H	>
 I
 i barren
 i solution
L,	
                                    1
                                 Solution
                                 Treatment
                        pregnant solution
  Resin Ion
  Exchange
                                            REAGENTS
                                            NH3,  C02
                                            OXIDANT
                                recycle
                                leaching   evaporation
                                solutions
water
Holding
Ponds
      |	
               Solution
               Purification
                         — --- 4
                                                             disposal
I	1
                     i
Precipitation
    REAGENTS,
    STEAM
                 Dewatering
                  Dry i ng i
                  Packaging
                            YELLOW CAKE
                            PRODUCT
                                                            SOURCE:  CSMRI
     Figure 3-10
     UsOs Extraction by Solution Mining
                                3-36

-------
3.3.4
Heap Leaching

Heap  leaching  is  broadly  defined  as  laaching of an ore in a

static or semistatic condition either by  gravity  flow  downward

through  an  open  pile or by flooding a confined ore pile.  Heap

leaching is useful for the treatment of  low-grade  dumps,  small

ore  bodies located at considerable distances from the processing

facilities, ores that otherwise would have been treated as  waste

material  or,  in some cases, abandoned mill tailings.  The major

disadvantage of heap leaching is that uranium recovery  is  lower

than  for  conventional milling processes.  Not all of the ore in

the sloping sides of  the  heap  is  contacted  by  the  leaching

solution,  and  therefore  uranium  in  the  unwetted zone is not

recovered.


Heap Leach Pad Construction


Typically,  leaching  pads  are  prepared  by leveling a site and

covering it with an impermeable liner such as plastic sheeting or

a  clay base  (Woolery et al., 1977).  The pad is constructed with

a slight slope, and pipes are placed at intervals to collect  the

solution.   The entire pad is then covered with gravel to improve

drainage, and the ore is placed on the pad and leveled.  Usually,

berms  are  constructed  around the ore pile to permit ponding of

the leaching solutions.  The actual size and configuration  of  a

heap  may  vary,  but a typical construction for heap leaching is

illustrated on Figure 3—11  (Merritt, 1971).  The  solution  flows

downward  through  the  ore,  into the pipes, and is collected in

launders.  Weak sulfuric acid solutions  are  used,  and  several
                              3-37

-------
                   Acid from Leach
                   Make-up Tank
Collection Trough

    SOURCE: Merritt, 1971
      Figure 3-11
      Typical Construction for Heap Leaching
                   Retaining Ridges to
                    Form Acid Ponds
                                                                                        Waste  rock

                                                                                Fine Gravel Cover

                                                                           Polyethylene  Sheet  or Clay Base

                                                                          Prepared Ground Site

                                                                        Perforated Col lection  Pipe
To Solution Sump

-------
months may be required to complete the leaching cycle.





Uranium Recovery Options






Uranium  can  be  recovered  from  the  solution  by  the methods



previously discussed—IX, SX, or  Eluex.   At  Western  Nuclear's



heap  leaching  operation  in  Wyoming, which is not operating at



this time, high-grade solution was shipped to the nearby mill for



uranium recovery while low-grade solutions were processed through



a small SX circuit at the site.  Yellowcake was  precipitated  at



the  site  but  transported to the mill for subsequent drying and



packaging.   At  Union  Carbide's  heap  leaching  operation   at



Maybell,   Colorado,  the  uranium  is  concentrated  by  IX  and



precipitated at the site, but the yellowcake product  is  shipped



to   Union   Carbide's   Uravan,   Colorado,  plant  for  further



processing.   Ranchers  Exploration   and   Development   Company



recently  initiated  a  heap  leaching  operation  near Naturita,



Colorado.  The operation is unique in that  previously  abandoned



uranium  mill  tailings are being reprocessed.  In this case, the



tailings are being moved for processing from a river flood  plain



to a more desirable disposal site.





As  with  solution  mining,  the costly grinding and liquid-solid



separation  steps  associated  with  conventional   milling   are



eliminated.   However,  the ore must be mined and usually must be



crushed to some extent and  stockpiled  to  facilitate  leaching.



Leaching  in heaps or in—situ requires several months for maximum



uranium extraction in contrast to leaching times of a  few  hours



in  the  majority  of  conventional mills.  Also, recovery from a
                             3-39

-------
heap   or    solution    mining    operation    rarely    exceeds

60 to 70 percent,  while  recoveries  in excess of 90 percent are

common at conventional mills.  No one processing method is  right

for  a  particular ore body—each case must be treated separately

and a method selected based on the characteristics of the ore and

the process economics.


Byproducts


The  description of the various processing methods was simplified

somewhat in that  certain  impurities  in  the  uranium  ore  can

complicate  the  milling  flowsheet,  as  will  the  recovery  of

byproducts.   Vanadium,  copper  and   molybdenum   are   notable

byproducts of uranium mills.


3.3.5
Other Methods

Most  of  the uranium concentrates produced in the U.S. each year

are processed by the methods described.  Treatment of other types

of ores, however, often yields uranium as a byproduct.  Phosphate

and copper ores are notable examples.  These ores  and  resultant

waste streams may require consideration as radioactive materials.


Uranium Byproduct of Phosphate Concentrate


It has been estimated that the minable reserves of phosphate rock

in the U.S. contain more than  one  billion  pounds  of  uranium.

Since the uranium content of the phosphate rock is 50 to 200 ppm,

conventional  leaching  methods  have  not  been   effective   in

selectively  extracting  the  uranium.   However,  an  increasing

amount  of  phosphate  concentrates  are   being   converted   to
                             3-40

-------
phosphoric  acid,  and sulfuric acid used to digest the phosphate

concentrates also dissolves any contained uranium.  A  number  of

uranium  recovery methods are being studied.  The most successful

method  developed  thus  far  is  a  complex  solvent  extraction

technique  for  recovering  the dissolved uranium from the impure

phosphoric acid.  Uranium Recovery Corporation has been operating

a  commerical  facility  near Bartow, Florida, for several years,

and Gardinier Incorporated is proceeding with construction  of  a

similar  plant  near  Tampa.   Other  companies with processes in

various   stages   of   development   include   Earth   Sciences,

Incorporated,  Gulf  Oil  Chemicals, and Preeport Minerals  (Ross,

1975) .


Uranium Byproduct of Copper Leaching


Heap  leaching of copper ores is practiced throughout the western

United States.   In  this  process  U308/  if  present,  is  also

extracted,  and  leach  liquors  at  many operations contain from

1 to 40 ppm U30a.  Resin ion exchange can be used to recover  the

uranium.   At  the  present  time,  Wyoming Mineral Corporation's

Eluex plant at Kennecott's Bingham Canyon property  is  the  only

commercial   facility   extracting   U30a  from  copper  leaching

solutions.  Anamax is operating a similar pilot  plant  at  their

copper  mine  south  of  Tucson,  and several other companies are

evaluating this  source of uranium  (Brooke, 1976).

3.3.6
Processing Methods at U.S. Uranium Mills

The  mining and  processing methods used at domestic uranium mills

are  outlined in  Table 3—2A.  Proposed facilities have been  listed
                             3-41

-------
Plant

Anaconda Co., Grants, New Mexico
Atlaa Corp., Moab, Utah

Conoco l> Pioneer Nuclear, Falls City, Texas
Cotter Corp., Canon City, Colorado

Dawn Mining Co. , Ford, Washington
Exxon, U.S.A., Powder River Basin, Wyoming
Federal American Partners, Gas Hills, Wyoming
Intercontinental Energy Corp. , Pawnee, Texas
Kerr McGee Nuclear Corp., Grants, New Mexico
Lucky Me Uranium Corp. , Gas Hills, Wyoming
Lucky Me Uranium Corp., Shirley Basin, Wyoming
Mobil Oil Co.. Brunt, Texas
Rio Algom Corp., La Sal, Utah
Rocky Mountain Energy, Powder River Basin, Wyoming
Ranchers Exploration, Naturita, Colorado
Sohlo- Reserve, Ccbolleta, New Mexico
Union Carbide Corp. , Uravan, Colorado
Union Carbide Corp., Gas Hills, Wyoming

Union Carbide Corp. , Maybcll, Colorado
Union Carbide Corp. , Klngsvlllc, Texas
United Nuclear Corp., Church Rock, New Mexico
United Nuclear - Home stake Partners, Grants, New Mexico
U.S. Steel, George West, Texas
U.S. Steel - Niagra Mohawk, George West, Texas
Uranium Recovery Corp., Mulberry, Florida
Western Nuclear, Inc., Jeffrey City, Wyoming
Wyoming Mineral Corp., Brunl, Texas
Wyoming Mineral Corp., Ray Point, Texas
Wyoming Mineral Corp. , Blngham Canyon, Utah
Mining
Method
Operational
O.P. t U.G.
U.G.
U.G.
O.P.
U.G.

O.P.
O.P. + U.G.
U.G. + O.P.
In Situ
U.G.
O.P.
O.P.
In Situ
U.G.
O.P.
Nono
U.G. + O.P.
U.G.
O.P.
O.P.
O.P.
In Situ
U.G.
U.G.
In Situ
In Situ
None
U.G.
In Situ
In Situ
None
Leaching
Method

Acid
Acid
Alkaline (Na)
Acid
Alkaline (Na)
Acld-Preasure
Acid
Acid
Acid
Alkaline (Nil,)
Acid
Acid
Acid
Alkaline (NH,)
Alkaline (Na)
Acid
Acid Heap Cure
Acid
Acid
Acid
Acid Heap
Acid Heap
Alkaline (Nil,)
Acid
Alkaline (Na)
Alkaline (NH,)
Alkaline (NH,)
None
Acid
Alkaline (Nil,)
Alkaline (NH,)
None
Liquid-Solid
Separation

CCD
CCD + Flit.
Filt.
CCD
CCD + Flit.
CCD
CCD
CCD
SS
None
SS
CCD
SS
None
Filt.
CCD
None
CCD
CCD
S3
None
None
Nono
CCD
Flit.
None
None
None
SS
None
None
None
Concentration

SX
SX
None
SX
None
SX
IX
SX
RIP 4 SX
IX
SX
Eluex
SX
IX
None
SX
SX
SX
IX
RIP + SX
	 Solution to
IX
IX
SX
None
IX
IX
Precipitation

NH,
H,0,
NaOH-HjO,
NH,
NaOH
NH,
NH,
NH,
NH,
Steam
NH,
NH,
NH,
Steam
NaOH
NH,
NH,
NH,
NH,
NH,
Main Mill---
--
--
NH,
NaOH
--
--
	 SX from Phosphoric ---
RIP + SX
IX
IX
-- Eluex from
NH,
--
--
Cu Solutions--
     SOURCE) CSMRI
                                                                    Key to Table:   O.P. - Open Pie
Table 3-2A
Process Variations at Operational U.S. Uranium Mines and Mills
U.C. • Underground
CCD  • Councercurrenc Decancation In Thickeners
SS  - Sand Slime Separation
File.- Filter*
IX  - Column Ion Exchange
SX  - Solvent Extraction
RIP  • Realn In Pulp

-------
in  Tails 3—2B  and  are in various stages of development  (White,

1975; Facer, 1977; Reed et al., 1976).


3.3.7
Future Trenas in Yellowcake Production

In 1975, 23 open—pit mines produced 55 percent of the uranium ore

while  approximately  42 percent  of  the   tonnage   came   from

121 underground  mines.  The balance of production was attributed

to heap leaching operations, solution mining,  uranium  recovered

from mine waters and phosphoric acid, and miscellaneous low—grade

stockpiles.  In 1974, the percentage of ore mined from open  pits

was  58 percent  and  40 percent  from  underground mines  (Prast,

1976; Gordon, 1976).  However, it is difficult to predict  trends

with  any  reasonable degree of accuracy.  New discoveries in rlaw

Mexico are deep and will therefore be  exploited  by  underground

mining  methods.   In contrast, several large, shallow, low—grade

deposits  are  being   investigated   elsewhere,   and   economic

development  of  these  ore  bodies  will  require  mining  large

tonnages from open pits.


New  plants  are not likely to differ significantly from existing

plants.  Recent improvements in  filtration,  ion  exchange,  and

thickening  technology will alter the type of equipment used, but

the basic processing methods  will  remain  the  same.   However,

exploitation of small, low-grade deposits by solution mining, and

heap or vat leaching will receive increased attention.   Portable

skid—mounted   plants   may  be  used  in  many  cases  or  crude

concentrates and solutions may be shipped to mills  located  some

distance  away  from  the  field  operation.  Also, beneficiation
                              3-43

-------

Plant

Chevron Oil, Panna Maria, Texas
Cleveland Cliffs Iron Co.. Pumpkin Duties, Wyoming
Conoco, Crownpolnt. Now Moxlco
Energy Fuels, Ulanding, Utah
Gulf Mineral n.'sunrren. McKlnlry County, New Mexico
Homestake Mining Co., Gunnison, Colorado
Mobil Oil Co., Crownpolnt, Now Mexico
Ogle Petroleum, Bison Basin, Wyoming
Petrotumlc 3, Shirley Haaln, Wyoming
Phllllpps Petroleum, McKinloy County, New Mexico

Plouec r- Uravan, Uravan, Colorado
Plateau Resources. Ltd.. Hanks vlllo, Utah
Rocky Mountain Energy. Casper. Wyoming
TVA. Edgemont, South Dakota
Union Oil. Shirley Rasin, Wyoming
United Nuclear Corp.. Morton Ranch, Wyoming
Wyoming Minerals Corp., Irigrary Situ, Wyoming
Gardinler Inc. . Tampa. Florida
Cyprus Mines Corp.. Canon City, Colorado
Freeport Minerals, Uncle Sam, Louiaianna
Texura Corp. , llobson. Texas
Solution Engineering. Three Rivers. Texas
Phelps Dodge, ttishee, Arizona
Anamax, Tucson, Arizona
Kerr McGee Nuclear Corp., Casper, Wyoming
Mining
Method
Proposed
O.P.
In Situ
U.O.
Ore Buying
U.G.
O.P.
U.G.
In Situ
O.P.
U.G.
U G
U.G. + O.P.
U.G.
In Situ
O. P.
O.P.
U.G. + O.P.
Op
. i .
In Situ
None
O.P. + U.G.
None
In Situ
Recovery from Tailings
None
None
O.P. + U.G.
Leaching
Method

Acid
Alkaline (Nil,)
Acid


Acid
Alkaline (Na)
Acid
Alkaline (NH,)
Acid
Acid

Acid
Acid
Acid
Acid
Acid
Acid
A rlfl
i. 1U
Alkaline (Nil,)
None
Acid
No no
Alkaline (NH,)
Liquor
None
None
--
Liquid- Solid
Separation


Nona
SS or CCO
1 1

CCD
Fill.
ecu
None
CCD
CCD
Un * rtfif

Concentration Precipitation


IX Steam
SX NH,
.

SX NH,
None NuOH
SX NH,
DC Steam
SX NH,
SX NH,

	 .... Unannounced 	
CCD
None

CCD
CCD
f f n
v> *** if
None
None
	
None


None
None
None
	 	
SX NH,
IX
II c&d
SX NH,
SX NH,
cy KJI i
3 A r« 1 1)
IX
	 SX from Phosphoric 	
- Unannounced 	 	
	 SX from Phosphoric 	


IX
-- Klu ex from Cu Solutlona--
-- Elucx from Cu Solutlons--
- Unannounced 	 .
  SOURCE: CSHRI
                                                                  Key co Table:   O.P. *> Open Pit
                                                                               U.C. *> Underground
                                                                               CCD - Councercurrenc Decancatlon la Thickeners
                                                                               SS  ' Sand Slime Separation
                                                                               File.- Filters
                                                                               IX  "• Column Ion Exchange
                                                                               SX  * Solvent Extraction
                                                                               RIP « Resin In Pulp
Table 3-20
Process Variations Proposed for Future U.S. Uranium Mines and Mills

-------
methods and ore buying stations  may  increase.   Experience  has



shown  that  some  ore buying stations may also become mill sites



when sufficient ore supplies are assured through exploration  and



mining in nearby areas.





Beneficiation






For    the    few    ores   exhibiting   suitable   berief iciation



characteristics,  effective   methods   have   included   sizing,



radioactive  sorting and froth flotation to generate uranium—rich



concentrates.   However,  beneficiation  methods   rarely   yield



tailings  low  enough  in uranium to justify the economic loss as



compared to processing all of  the  ore  in  a  mill.   The  most



successful applications of beneficiation techniques have not been



for direct concentration of the uranium, but  for  separation  of



the  ore  into fractions, such as high and low lime and carbon or



sulfide fractions, which  can  be  treated  more  efficiently  by



specific  leaching  methods.  Nevertheless, beneficiation methods



will receive increased attention as lower and  lower  grade  ores



are developed.







Ore Buying Stations





Certain corporations buy ore from several independent miners in a



given area.  The individual lots of ore are processed  through  a



centrally located sampling plant to determine the uranium content



of the ore lot and expedite  settlement  payments.   The  primary



crushing  is  accomplished at the sampling plant, and the crushed



ore is then shipped to  the  mill,  which  may  be  located  some
                             3-45

-------
distance  from  the  sampling  plant.   Examples  of  ore  buying

stations include the four sampling plants  located  at  Blanding,

and  Hanksville,  Utah   (operated  by  Energy  Fuels  and Plateau

Resources,  Ltd.)   and  two  plants  located  near  Naturita  and

Whitewater, Colorado (General Electric Corp. and Cotter Corp.).

3.4
Production Costs

Uranium  production costs vary substantially with the location of

the deposit, stripping ratios, ore grade, mill capacity,  reagent

consumption  and  many  other factors.  Resource requirements and

capital and operating costs for a mine/mill complex are presented

in the following section.

3.4.1
Resource Requirements

In  addition  to  the  availability  of  an ore supply, important

considerations in evaluating a potential site for a uranium  mill

are  the  availability  of  labor,  utilities, land, services and

sources of required supplies in the area.   Significant  resource

requirements for uranium complexes are:
  • UU30R -  Total  employment in the uranium industry in 1975
    was approximately 9,700, 2,100 in  exploration,  5,400  in
    mining  and  2,200  in  milling.  Of the 5,400 individuals
    associated with mining, 1,800 were employed as underground
    miners,  700  as  open— pit miners and 1,200 as supervisors
    and administrators.

    A  typical  2,000  tpd open— pit conventional acid— leaching
    operation   (CCD,   SX    NH3    precipitation)    employs
    approximately   200 people.   Of  the  200,  approximately
    65 would be employed in the mill, 90—100 in the  mine  and
    the  remainder in administration and nonprocess functions.
    However, labor requirements vary greatly  and  may  be  as
    high  as 400—450 people (Goodier, 1978) .  A total of about
                             3-46

-------
230 people would be employed during the peak  construction
phase of such a facility.  For comparison, a typical 1,000
tpd underground mine would require approximately the  same
labor  force for mining as a 2,000 tpd open— pit operation.

UTILITIES -  Requirements for utilities vary substantially
in the industry,  but  the  range  for  uranium  mills  is
approximately  (Merritt 1971) :

     Utility                  Quantity/Ton ; Or e

     Electricity              17 to 35 kw hr
     Fuel                     348,000 to 1,120,000 Btu
     Water                    1 to 7 tons
     Steam                    179, to 800 Ibs
     Compressed Air           1,000 to 13,000
Most  of  the  power  required  by  uranium  mills  is for
crushing and grinding,  and  the  wide  range  is  due  to
variations in ore hardness and fineness of grind required.
Variations in  fuel  requirements  are  due  to  different
temperatures  employed  during  leaching,  the  amount  of
building heat required, and the availability of by— product
steam  from  various sources such as acid plants.  Most of
the variations in water and air requirements  are  due  to
the process employed.

Utility  requirements  for  mines also vary substantially.
Power requirements for a 1,000 tpd underground  mine  were
recently  reported at approximately 22 kw hr/ton.  Of this
value, 50 percent was for ventilation.  Water  consumption
at  the same mine was reported at 1,000 gpd (Harvsy 1977).

Utility  requirements  for open— pit mines are considerably
different than those for  underground  mines.    Electrical
power  requirements  are  minimal, 2 kw hr per ton of ore;
principal applications are pit  dewatering  and  lighting.
Water  requirements are normally greater in open— pit mines
with dust abatement  the  major  use.   Consumption  could
approach  50,000 gpd,  although  much  of  this  could  be
obtained from the pit itself.  Fuel consumption for mobile
machinery  represents  the  major  utility  requirement in
surface mining.   Fuel  consumption  typically  runs  from
10 to 40 gal of diesel fuel per machine per hour (Goodier,
1978).   Mines  using  electric-powered  equipment   would
consume  more  electricity  and  less  fuel.  Depending on
quantities of overburden moved to recover  the  ore,  fuel
requirements could range from 2 gal per ton.
SUPPLIES -  A  large  portion of the supplies necessary to
sustain an operation are the chemicals used in the milling
operation.   It  is  not  possible  to generalize chemical
requirements, since the amounts will vary widely with  the
type and amount of ore being processed.  Acid requirements
                          3-47

-------
    SUPPLIES, Continued

    can vary from 40 Ib/ton for an easily treated Wyoming  ore
    and  300—500 Ib/ton  for a refractory ore from the western
    slope  of  Colorado,   For   alkaline   circuits,   sodium
    carbonate  consumption  can  vary  from 10 to 80 Ib/ton of
    ore.. Similary, oxidant requirements for an  acid  circuit
    can vary from 0 to 40 Ib of sodium chlorate per ton of ore
    treated.   Flocculating  agents  are  used  to   aid   the
    liquid—solid separation process.  Typical requirements are
    0.1 Ib/ton of ore.  Ammonia  requirements  for  yellowcake
    precipitation  are  typically  0.4 Ib/lb  of  U30a.  Other
    chemicals which are used in a typical acid circuit include
    lime,  kerosene  and  amine  organic extractant.  Blasting
    explosives  also  contribute   significantly   to   supply
    requirements.


  • LAND -  Surface  land requirements are directly related to
    the type of mining method used  and  the  tonnage  of  ore
    processed.   A  5,000 tpd  open—pit  operation with a 30:1
    stripping ratio  will  cover  more  surface  area  than  a
    1,000 tpd underground operation.  The mine is the greatest
    land consumer, followed by the tailings pond, and then the
    surface  works.  Several thousand acres may be involved in
    a  surface  mining  operation,  and  the  workings  of  an
    underground  mine  can  cover as much area, although it is
    not visible.  Typical land requirements for the  mill  and
    other surface works range from 10 to 20 acres.


  • MAJOR   MINE  EQUIPMENT.-  Machinery  requirements  for  a
    1,000 tpd  underground  and  open—pit  mine  are  compared
    below:

   Underground                   Open-pit

   14 long hole drills            3 shovels, 16 yd3 electric
    3 Wagner trucks               2 rotary blast hole drills
   11 tractor-trailer units       2 hydraulic backhoes, 3 yd3
    1 single-boom jumbo          16 haulage trucks, 120 ton
    1 road grader                 9 haulage trucks, 35 ton
    1 compressor 2,400 cfm        2 wheel loaders
    1 compressor 1,200 cfm        7 push-pull scrapers
    1 fan                         4 crawler tractors
    1 hoist                       2 wheel tractors
                                  3 motor graders

    The  equpiment  fleet  for the open—pit operation includes
    the equipment needed for pre-production stripping.


  • SUPPORT FACILITIES - In addition to the mine, the mill and
    the  tailings  pond,  additional  on—site  facilities  are
    required  to  service  the  operation.  Support facilities
V   	J
                              3-48

-------
    which are common to all  processing  complexes  include  a
    warehouse,  a  mill maintenance shop, a repair and service
    garage for the mine motile equipment,  an  analytical  and
    metallurgical    laboratory,    a   changehouse   and   an
    administration building.   Smaller,  additional  buildings
    are  required  for  the  scale  house,  fire truck garage,
    lubrication  oil  storage,  flammable   liquids   storage,
    tailings water pumphouse, and tire storage.

    Other  on— site and off— site facilities may be necessary to
    support the operation.  Facilities which may  be  included
    in  this  category  include an acid plant and a town site.
    Western Nuclear 's  operation  at  Jeffery  City,  Wyoming,
    represents  a  good example of an .uranium operation with a
    town site.
3.4.2
Capital and Operating Costs


Although  the price of U30a for immediate delivery has risen from

35.95/lb in August 1971 to greater than S40/lb today   (Nucleonics

Week,  March  16,  1978),  the average contract price for U3Oa is

approximately $14/lb.  Since many uranium producers have been  in

operation  since  the  early  1950' s,  the plants and all of or a

major portion of the mine development costs have been  amortized.

For  these  reasons,  these  producers  can  continue  to produce

relatively low— cost yellowcake.


In  contrast,  the  newcomer  to  the  industry  must  absorb the

inflation  which  has  occurred  since  the  1950 's   and   must,

therefore,  demand  a  higher price for the product.  Since 1973,

average mining labor  costs  have  increased  from  approximately

$4.50/hr  to  S8/hr.   The  cost  of  drilling  rigs  capable  of

1,000— foot depths has increased from  $22/hr  in  1970  to  about

$65/hr  in  1978  (Butts,  1978) .  Also, the cost of No. 2 diesel

fuel has risen over 350 percent in  the  past  six  years   (Koch,
                            3-49

-------
1977).   These  are but a few examples of the inflationary trends



affecting the industry.  For  these  and  other  reasons,  a  new



producer in 1978 must receive $25 to $30/lb of D308 to break even



(recover capital and operating  costs).   This  break—even  value



excludes the cost of exploring for new reserves.





Due  to  the  many possible combinations of mining and processing



methods,  it  is  difficult  to  present  cost   generalizations.



However   the   capital   expenditure   required   to  develop  a



1,000—foot—deep ore body by underground mining methods is roughly



$80  to  $120   (1978 dollars) per annual ton of ore recovered.  A



2,000—foot—deep deposit could require capital  investment  of  as



much  as $200 per annual ton.  The capital cost of a surface mine



can equal the  capital  costs  of  the  underground  mine.   This



situation  is  due  to  the  extensive  pre-production  stripping



required  to  expose  the  ore  body.   Mill  capital  costs  are



presently about $15,000 per daily ton of capacity  (1978 dollars),



assuming a conventional acid—leaching,  CCD  and  SX  circuit  is



utilized.





Example Costs for Open—pit Mine and Mill





Typical  capital and operating costs for a new conventional 1,000



tpd open-pit mine and mill facility are summarized in  Table  3—3



(Phillips,  1977).   The costs are based on milling 1,000 tpd  of



ore containing  0.10 percent  U308  with  a  stripping  ratio  of



22 cu yd/pound  of  U308.  Truck shovel combinations and scrapers



are used for stripping, and one—third of the stripping costs  are



treated  as  pre—stripping.   Trucks  and  front  end  loaders or
                             3-50

-------
Operating Costs
Strip and Internal Waste
Mining
Milling
General and Administrative
Aquifer Restoration
Royalty and Severance Taxes
Total
$/ton Ore
20.00
3.80
7.00
3.00
0.80
3.60
$38.20
$/lb U 0
3 8
11.11
2.11
3.89
1.67
0.44
2.00
$21.22
Investment                                $ Million
Mine Mobile Equipment
Mill and Tailings
Mine Shops and Electric
Roads, Site Preparation, etc.
Total Capital
Working Capital
Pre-stripping
Infrastructure
Total Initial Investment
9.0
15.0
2.5
1.0
$27.5
3.0
7.0
4.0
$41.5
SOURCE: Adapted from Phillips, April 1977.
Table 3-3
Economics of Conventional Mining and Milling
                         3-51

-------
backhoes are used for mining and an internal waste ratio of three


cu yd/ton  of  ore  was  assumed.   Milling costs were based on a


conventional agitated  acid  leaching,  solvent  extraction, .and


precipitation circuit.  Acid consumption was assumed at 60 Ib/ton


of  ore,  and  overall  recovery  was  estimated  at  90 percent.


General  and administrative expenses include on—site supervision,


office and safety personnel, and home office overhead allocation.


Royalties  and  severance  taxes  were estimated at 2 percent and


3 percent of gross revenue.  Working  capital  allows  for  three

                                                                 e
months  of operation, and infrastructure including relocation and


training   expenses,   housing    subsidies    and    pre—startup


admininstrative  expenses.   A  24—month  construction period was


assumed, and the life of the property was estimated at 12  years.



Estimated Costs for In—Situ Leaching



The estimated capital and operating costs for in—situ leaching of


a 0.05 percent  U30a  ore  body  are  shown  in  Table 3-4.   The


estimate  was  based  on  a production rate of 250,000 Ib U3O8/yr


from a  500—foot—deep  deposit.   The  wells  are  drilled  in  a


line—drive  pattern,  and  the number of production and injection


wells  are  'egual.   The  injection  and  production  wells   are


constructed identically to  allow reversal of functions, and each


well is 5 inches in diameter, cased with PVC and cemented to  the


surface.. The wells are spaced at 50 feet, and the injection rate


was assumed at 10 gpm per well.  Well  costs  were  increased  by


5 percent for failures.



The  estimate  was  based on a sulfuric acid rather than ammonium
                              3-52

-------
                  Operating Costs             $/lb U,0
                                                      Q
                                                      o
         Wells                     -             12 . 10



         Pumps and Piping                        2.32



         Power, Coring, etc.                     0.86



         Milling                                 6.76



         General and Administrative              1.40



         Reclamation                             0 . 34



         Royalty and Taxes                       2. 00


            Total                              $25.78






         _ Investment _ ; _ $ Million



         Mobile Equipment                        2.3



         Mill and Tailings                       6.5



         Roads, Site Preparation, etc.           1.0



            Total Capital                        9.8



         Working Capital                         1.4



         Initial Well  Field                      2.2



         Infrastructure                          1.3



            Total Investment                   $14.7





SOURCE:  Adapted from Phillips, 1977.
  Table 3-4

  Economics of Solution Mining
                                                                    J
                             3-53

-------
carbonate leaching, but the costs should not vary  significantly.
Mild  stael would replace FRP tanks for a savings, but most other
costs would remain essentially  the  same.   The  uranium—bearing
liquor contains approximately 50 ppm U30a .and is processed in ion
exchange  columns  followed  by  solvent  extraction.    Calcined
yellowcake  is the final product,  overall recovery was estimated
at 60 percent for the  solution  mining  operation.   Design  and
construction  of  the  in—situ  complex  was  assumed  to require
18 months, and the productive life of the deposit was assumed  at
12 years to match the open—pit model.

The  reported  values  are  presented to acquaint the reader with
general uranium production costs.  These cost figures should  not
be  used to project the economics associated with any existing or
proposed facilities, since estimates vary greatly and  depend  on
many  project  specific  conditions.   For  example,  the Wyoming
Department of Economic Planning  and  Development  estimates  the
operating  cost  of  a  uranium  mill  to  be  $10 per ton of ore
(Goodier, 1978). . However, certain uranium  mill  operators  have
recently   reported  that  total  process  chemical  costs  alone
approach $16 per ton of ore treated  (Butts, 1978).
3.5
Mill Tailings Management
Mill  tailings,  as  discussed  herein, are defined as gangue and
'other refuse material resulting from the  washing,  concentration
and  treatment of ground ores.  Their disposal is a critical part
of the uranium milling, process.  In view of the long  half  lives
of.  the  radionuclides  in  tailings,  the  integrity  of related
                             3-54

-------
containment structures must be assured for many millennia,  which

for planning purposes can be considered perpetuity.


Historically,   in  the  mining  industry,  some  practices  have

resulted in  unsafe  structures,  and  disastrous  failures  have

occurred.    The   problem   is  complex.   An  interdisciplinary

technical  approach  is   required   for   safe   and   efficient

construction and operation.  However, it is possible with today's

earth dam design practices to build safe, permanent structures.


Concerns  related  to  environmental  impacts  add  an additional

dimension to uranium mill tailings management.   Post—operational

reclamation  and maintenance are important regulatory concerns in

preventing  radioactive  contamination  of  the  environment  and

exposure of the population to radiation.


3.5.1
Performance Objectives

The  following  performance objectives for management of tailings

from uranium ore  processing  plants  were  issued  for  industry

guidance   by  the  Nuclear  Regulatory  Commission   (NEC   Branch

Position, May  13, 1977).
    Siting and Design

   1 Locate the tailings isolation  area  remote  from  people  such
    that  population  exposures   are   reduced   to  the   maximum
    extent reasonably  achievable.
                             3-55

-------
r
    SITING AND DESIGN, Continued

  2 Locate  the  tailings  isolation area such that disruption
    and dispersion by natural forces is eliminated or  reduced
    to the maximum extent reasonably achievable.

  3 Design  the  isolation  area  such  that  seepage of toxic
    materials into the ground water system  is  eliminated  or
    reduced to the maximum extent reasonably achievable.
    During Operations

  4 Eliminate  the  blowing  of tailings to unrestricted areas
    during normal operating conditions.


    Post-Reclamation
                                                   t
  5 Reduce direct gamma radiation from the impoundment area to
    essentially background.

  6 Reduce  the radon emanation rate from the impoundment area
    to about twice  the  emanation  rate  in  the  surrounding
    environs.

  7 Eliminate   the   need   for  an  ongoing  monitoring  and
    maintenance program following successful reclamation,

  8 Provide  surety  arrangements  to  ensure  that sufficient
    funds are available to complete the full reclamation plan.

  _ J
3.5.2
Site Selection for Tailings impoundments

Factors  which must be considered when evaluating the suitability

of candidate  sites  for  tailings  disposal  include  economics,

engineering   feasibility,   safety   and  environmental  impact.

Environmental  considerations   are   discussed   in   Chapter 4.

Site—specific factors are discussed below.


Location of Ore Processing Facility


Suitable  locations  for  tailings  disposal  have  an  important

influence on  the  selection  of  candidate  sites  for  the  ore
                             3-56

-------
processing  facility.   The  location  of suitable disposal sites



may, in fact, limit siting options.  The location of the mill  is



also  influenced  by the mine location and other factors, such as



population centers, transportation and availability of  services.



Accordingly,  although  certain  physical conditions are required



for a suitable tailings disposal site, the final  selection  must



be  made  in  conjunction  with  economic and engineering studies



which take into account siting of all elements of the mining  and



processing facilities.





Topography





A  natural  depression  offers  the  most economical and, in most



cases, the safest structure for impoundment of tailings, but such



disposal  sites  are  rare.  Dams across valleys or on side hills



must take into account storm runoff waters and  provide  measures



to prevent erosion.  A stock—pile type of dam on relatively level



ground can eliminate the damage from runoff water.







Engineering Geology








Thorough  geotechnical investigations of a potential site must be



made.  subsurface investigations must assess the  characteristics



of   foundations  and  abutments  with  respect  to  seepage  and



stability  when  subjected  to  the  loadings  of  the  retaining



structures.   Geotechnical design parameters for all materials to



be utilized in the retention embankment and its  foundation  must



be    defined.     Discussions    of    necessary    geotechnical
                             3-57

-------
are presented in NEC  Regulatory  Guide  3.11,  and  in  Colorado



Geological Survey Guidelines, March 8, 1978.





Seismic Activity





The  potential  site for tailings impoundment may be subjected to



the effects of seismic activity.  Application of modern earth—dam



practices  can result in safe impounding structures even in zones



of high seismic activity.





Meteorology





Meteorology    is    important   for   site .  evaluation.    Site



meteorological data and dispersion models are  used  to  estimate



airborne  contaminant movement, concentration and radiation dose.





Hydrology





Depending  on  the  methods  used  to  seal  an  impoundment, the



potential for seepage will  vary.   Seepage  may  enter  streams,



rivers or potable water supplies through surface runoff or ground



water recharge.  Accordingly, the hydrologic  characteristics  of



the  area  are  important  factors in assessing site suitability.



The .requirements for water tightness of the  reservoir  are  thus



related to this hydrologic evaluation.





The - potential  for  flooding from heavy rainfall and runoff must



also be evaluated to permit impounding structure design that will



avoid  overtopping,  erosion  and  subsequent  failure.   This is



particularly  true  with  cross  valley  and  sidehill  types  of



embankments  which  may  be in the path of large volumes of storm
                              3-58

-------
runoff.  Adequate  storage  volume  and  diversion  channels   and

spillways   must  therefore  be  used  to  prevent  pollution   of

downstream  surface  waters.   The  stockpile  dam  and   subgrade

disposal  structure  are  the  least  susceptible  to damage from

excess surface runoff.


Population Density


Population  density  and  future  growth  projections  should   be

considered in the'selection of a site for disposal  of  tailings.

Tailings  dams  in  the  proximity  of  populated  areas  may   be

objectionable for the following reasons:
  • Danger  of  structural  failure  with resultant release of
    pollutants

  • Fugitive  dust  and radioactive emissions during operation
    and after decommissioning

  • Aesthetic characteristics

  « Possible pollution of potable water sources

  • Unauthorized removal of tailings
3.5.3
Current Tailings Disposal Practice


In  the  past,  methods  of disposing of uranium tailings have

generally followed the methods practiced  for  waste  disposal

from  orher  mineral  processing  plants.   A uranium tailings

disposal facility, however, has the following unique features:
                            3-59

-------
  • Hazards  from  incorrect clam design or facility management
    are potentially long—lived because of the  long  half—life
    of the radioactive substances involved.

  • Required  capacity  is generally smaller than for a number
    of other mineral processing operations (2,000 tons per day
    compared to as much as 100,000 tons per day).

V                                                            .J
Disposal and Retention Systems


Historically,  the  following  methods  of tailings disposal have

been used:
  • Disposal  in  bodies of water, including rivers, lakes and
    oceans.  This method is usually inappropriate for  uranium
    tailings due to the nature of the material.

  • Disposal in depleted mines.

  • Disp9sal in natural basins.

  • Disposal  behind  embankments  constructed  of tailings or
    borrow material.
Rarely  can  the  activities of mining and milling be coordinated

well enough  for  the  mined—out  areas  to  serve  as  the  only

impoundment  site  for  the  tailings.  In addition, ground water

pollution  potential  often  makes  disposal  in  depleted  mines

unacceptable unless tailings can be dewatered.  France and Canada

have implemented such treatment and disposal techniques.  In  the

United States, however, above-ground disposal has been used.


The  predominant method for storage of tailings has been disposal

and retention behind one of the following embankments:
                              3-60

-------
  • CROSS  VALLEY — The  embankment is constructed in a canyon
    or valley.  The embankment extends  from  valley  wall  to
    valley wall.

  • SIDE HILL — The embankment is constructed on the side of a
    slope.  An impounding embankment  is  constructed  on  the
    downhill side, and the uphill ground surface completes the
    enclosure.

  • STOCKPILE — A  complete  embankment  enclosure is built on
    relatively flat ground.
V
The  cross  valley method has been the favored method in the past

due to the economics of a single embankment.


Transport and Deposition


Uranium  tailings  are  often transported to the disposal area by

pipeline, since this method provides flexibility  in  siting  the

tailings   impoundment.    Pipeline   transport  and  methods  of

deposition at the embankment are discussed in detail in Aplin and

Argall,  (1977).


Tailings Embankment Design and Construction


The  purpose  of  tailings dam construction for uranium mills and

mines is to safely and permanently contain radioactive materials.

Current  experience  and  knowledge  in the field of geotechnical

engineering as applied to the design and  construction  of  water

retention  dams  must  be  used.  With thorough investigation and

planning, economical designs can be produced which ensure  safety

and  prevent  contamination.  Where it is not feasible to raise a

tailings dam in  stages  because  of  environmental,  safety,  or

regulatory reasons, construction of a full—height water—retention
                             3-61

-------
dam from borrow material or placement of tailings below grade may

be required. •


Three  methods  of tailings embankment construction have commonly

been used in the mining industry.   These  include  the  upstream_

method,  the  downstream  method and the centerline method.  Each

method  begins  with  construction  of  a  starter   dike..   The

downstream  and  centerline  methods  are  shown  in Figure 3—12.

"Each tailings  dam  must  be  developed  to  meet  the  specific

requirements  of  the  particular project.  Downstream methods of

dam construction should be used  for  all  but  very  minor  dams

located in areas of low seismic activity."  (Klohn, 1977).
    THE  UPSTREAM  METHOD - Historically,  this  is  the  most
    common method because it requires little reworking of  the
    hydra'ulically deposited tailings.  Tailings are discharged
    from the crest of a starter .dike.  Coarse material settles
    out  at the dike, with the finer material settling further
    upstream toward the pond.  Each subsequent dike is shifted
    upstream, with its toe resting on top of the previous dike
    and its upstream portion  over  finer  material  from  the
    previous lift.

    This type of dam is relatively simple and inexpensive, but
    it  has  inherent  weaknesses.   As  the  dam  height   is
    increased, the critical failure surface shifts from within
    the coarser material at the downstream face to  the  lower
    shear  strength  finer material and slimes within the dam.
    Also, the phreatic surface may rise within the dam as,  the
    fill  height  increases.  Upstream method impoundments are
    particularly susceptible to failure by liquefaction  under
    seismic  loading  or to progressive failure due to erosion
    or  foundation  instability.   The  U.S.  Army  Corps   of
    Engineers'  position  on using "upstream lifting (upstream
    method) for the purpose of achieving an impervious barrier
    and  provide  zero  discharge for radioactive uranium mill
    tailings is that it is not acceptable  because  structural
    integrity   can  not  be  assured"   (U.S.  Army  Corps  of
    Engineers, 1974).
                              3-62

-------
    TH.£   DOWNSTREAM  METHOD -  Construction  begins  with  an
    impervious  starter  dam,  which  may  he   built   as   a
    homogeneous  embankment of impervious borrow material or a
    zoned embankment with an upstream impervious zone.  In the
    case  of  the  homogeneous  embankment,  an  underdrain is
    provided to control the  phreatic  surface  (Figure 3—12).
    The starter dam is compacted in layers to minimize seepage
    and provide a strong structure.  The height of the dam  is
    increased by adding material to the downstream face of the
    dam.  Material added to the embankment  can  therefore  be
    compacted.   The  centerline  of  this  type of dam shifts
    downstream as its height  is  increased.   The  impervious
    zone  of the embankment can be carried into the foundation
    by means of a core trench to create an impervious  cutoff.
    The  extent  of this core trench depends on the geology cf
    the foundation.

    The  major  advantage  of  embankments  constructed by the
    downstream method is the the best modern  pratice  in  the
    design  of  earth  and  rockfill  dams  can  be  followed.
    Therefore,  they  can  be  readily  built   to   withstand
    earthquake   forces.    The   major  disadvantage  of  the
    downstream  method of construction is the large volume  of
    coarse   material   required  for  its  construction.   If
    sufficient environmentally-acceptable coarse tailings  are
    not  available,  borrow  material  may be required.  Also,
    since the downstream  slope  changes  continuously  during
    construction,  some  measures  may  be required to prevent
    wind and rain erosion.
    THE  CENTERLINE  METHOD -  A  variation  of the downstream
    method, except  that  the  crest  of  the  dam  is  raised
    vertically   without  a  horizontal  shift  (Figure 3—12).
    Therefore, only  the  downstream  half  of  the  retention
    embankment  is  constructed  with the structural integrity
    and control which is possible for the whole embankment  in
    the  downstream  method.   The advantage of this method is
    that it reduces the required amounts of borrow  materials.
    The disadvantage is reduced structural stability.
A  summary  discussion  of  tailings  dam  design  and additional

references are presented in Soderburg  and  Busch  (1977),  Short

Course, CSU (1978), and NRC Regulatory Guide 3.11.
                              3-63

-------
                                        Slurry Pipe Discharging
                                        onto Surface of Pond
                    Subsequent
                    Construction
                                                     Future
                                                     Construction
                                               Engineered Embankment
                      Starter
                      Dam
                                             Underdrains
                                        DOWNSTREAM METHOD
                                                                                  Rock Toe FiIter
                                                                                      Final Section
    Slimes
                   Subsequent
                   Construction
                                         Future
                                         Construction
Irregular Contact
Between SIimes
and Dams
                                               ineered Embankment
                          Starter
                          Dam
                                               Underdrains
                                        CENTERLINE  METHOD
SOURCE:  Adapted from Mittal  and  Morgenstern,  1977
Rock Toe FiIter
for Final Section
    Figure 3-12
    Methods of Tailings Dam Construction

-------
Seepage Control for Tailings Embankments





Control of pore water pressure and seepage forces within a water-



retaining embankment  is  essential  to  overall  embankment  and



foundation  stability.   Measures  must  therefore  be  taken  to



maintain  the  phreatic  surface  at  a  low  level  within   the



embankment.  This is basic to modern earth dam design.





Seepage  through  the  tailings  embankment  may  be reduced to a



minimum by placing an impermeable seal of clay or a  membrane  on



the upstream face of the dam, or by deposition of tailings slimes.



on the  upstream  face  of  the  dam.   These  methods  are  only



applicable to the downstream method of embankment construction.





In   the   downstream  method,  where  the  whole  embankment  is



controlled fill, the zoning of  the  embankment  is  designed  to



provide  drainage  within  the  embankment  and keep the phreatic



surface low in the downstream zones.  Where the embankment is one



homogeneous zone, an underdrain is used to draw down the phreatic



surface   (Figure 3—12).   In  the  centerline  method,  the  same



techniques   can  be  applied.   However,  the  full  hydrostatic



pressure may be present at the centerline of the embankment.   If



a vertical impervious zone is incorporated immediately downs-ream



of the centerline in the constructed portion of the embankment, a



dam   equivalent to a conventional dam with an impervious central



core can be  provided.   In  the  upstream  method,  no  drainage



provision  can be provided, and high phreatic surfaces may result



in many cases.  This is one of the factors leading to instability



of this type of structure.
                               3-65

-------
In  some  cases,  sand  drains  or  other  vertical drains may be

required in the foundation beneath the downstream  slope  of  the

embankment  to  control  pore  pressure  due  to  underseepage.in

certain foundation geology.


In  conjunction  with  installation  of  positive seepage control

measures  within  the  tailings  embankment,  various  monitoring

systems  should  be  installed  in  the  structure.  These should

include, as a minimum, the following:
  • A  system  of piezometers in the embankment and foundation
    to define the phreatic surface(s) .

  • A seepage collection system to monitor volume of flow.

  • Wells  downstream  (i.e. down gradient) of the structure to
    facilitate environmental sampling.
Further  discussion  of seepage control measures are presented in

U.S. Bureau  of  Reclamation   (1973),  and  Soderburg  and  Busch

(1977).



Embankment Stabilization


Certain   design  and  construction  measures  can  be  taken  to

stabilize the impoundment and prevent structural failure.   These

measures,  listed  below,  may  also  assist  in  the reclamation

program, discussed in more detail in Chapter 4.
                             3-66

-------
• The  potential  for erosion of the downstream slope of the
  embankment may be reduced by  terracing,  placing  topsoil
  and seeding, or placing riprap.

• The  potential  for  saturation and  development of excess
  pore pressures due to continued precipitation  or  surface
  runoff  inflow  may  be reduced by several means.  Shaping
  and contouring  of  the  final  impoundment  surface  will
  prevent  areas  of ponding.  Placement of a clay seal over
  the final surface will minimize infiltration.

• Placement  of  topsoil and seeding of the finished surface
  will enhance the formation of an adequate vegetative cover
  and  will  reduce  erosion of the impoundment surface.  In
  arid climates it may be  necessary  to  substitute  coarse
  rock to prevent wind and water erosion.
                           3-67

-------
                            CHAPTER 3
                         References
Aplin,   A. C..   and  G.O.  Argall  Jr.  Tailing  Disposal  Today.
Proceedings of the Firs-t International Tailing Symposium, Tucson,
Arizona, 1972.

Brooke,   James   N.   Uranium   Recovery  from  Copper  Leaching
Operations.  Paper presented at  the  Mining  Convention  of  the
American  Mining  Congress,  Denver,  Colorado,  September 26—29,
1976.

Butts,   Gary.     Projects   Manager,   Process  Manager,  Process
Division, CSMRI.  Personal Communication, 1978.

Colorado Geological Survey.  Guidelines for Preparing Engineering
Geologic Reports for Uranium  Mill  Siting,  Badioactive  Tailing
Storage   and  Associated  Land  Use  Changes,  Denver:  Colorado
Geological Survey, March 8, 1978.

"Conquista,  Conoco—Pioneer  U3O3  Venture  on  Stream."   Mining
Engineering, August 1972.

CSMRI.     Source   Material   Furnished   under   EPA   contract
No..68-01-4490.

Dwosh, Douglas M.  "Rubber—Tired Versus Rail Haulage as a Service
Function."  Mining Congress Journal, January 1978.

Facer,  F.J.  Uranium  Production Trends.  Paper presented at the
Uranium  Industry  Seminar,  Grand  Junction,  Colorado,  October
26, 1977.

Fifth Annual Short Course on Embankment Dams Including Mine Waste
Dams.   Vol. I  and  II.   St.  Louis,  Missouri:  University  of
Missouri of Rolla, August 15—20, 1977.

Gordon,   Emanuel.    "Uranium—New  Projects  Anticipate  Coming
Demand."   Engineering  and  Mining  Journal,  March  1976,   pp.
190-206.
                            3-68

-------
Goodier,   John   T.,   Chief  of  Mineral  Development,  Wyoming
Department of  Economic  Planning  and  Development.   Letter  to
Mr.'D.   Matchett,   Stone &   Webster  Engineering  Corporation,
May 2, 1978.

Hancock,   Bill.    Uranium  In—Situ  Leaching:  Its  Advantages,
Practice, Problems, and Computer Simulations.  Paper presented at
the annual AOMZ meeting, Atlanta, Georgia, March 1977.

Harvey, G. Jr.  Trackless Mining at Union Carbide1s Operations in
Southwestern Colorado and Southeastern Utah.  Paper presented  at
the  Conference  on  Uranium  Mining  Technology,  University  of
Nevada, Reno, Nevada, April 25, 1977.

Hunkin,  G.  "The  Environmental  Impact  of  Solution Mining for
Uranium."  Mining Congress Journal, October 1975, pp. 24—27.

Jackson,  Dan   {Western  Editor)  "Gulf  Eigs  in  to Tap a Major
Uranium Ore Body".  Engineering and Mining Journal,  August 1977.

Klohn,   Earle  J.  "Design,  Construction,  and  Performance  of
Tailings Dams".  Paper presented at the 5th Annual  Short  Course
on  Embankment  Dams  with  Special Workshop Including Mine Waste
Dams.  St. Louis, Missouri, August 15—20, 1977.  Vo. II.

Koch,  Ludwig.   Cost  Trends.   Paper  presented at the American
Nuclear Society Conference  on  Uranium  Fuel  Supply,  Monterey,
California, January 23—26, 1977.

Lendrum,  F.C.  Developments  in  Uranium  Ore  Processing.   CIM
Bulletin.   Golden,   Colorado:   Colorado   School   of   Mines,
September 1974.

Lewis, F.M., C.K. Chase, and R.B. Bhappu.  Economic Evaluation of_
In—Situ  Extraction  for  Copper,  Gold,  and   Uranium.    Paper
presented   at   the   Annual  AIME  meeting,  Denver,  Colorado,
September 1976.

Merritt,  R.C. Recipe for Yellowcake.  Paper presented at the SME
Section Meeting, San Fransico, California, October  10, 1977.

	.  The Metallurgy of Uranium Extraction.  Paper presented
at  the  Uranium  Mining  Technology  Conference,  Reno,  Nevada,
April  25-29,  1977.

	.    The   Extractive  Metallurgy  of  Uranium.   Golden,
Colorado: Colorado  School  of ' Mines  Research  Institute  under
contract with the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, 1971.

Mittal,   H.K.  and  N.R.  Morgenstern.   Designed  Performance—
Tailings.  Proceedings of the Conference on Geotechnical Practice
for  Disposal  of  Solid  Waste  Materials,  Ann Arbor, Michigan,
June  13-15,  1977.
                              3-69

-------
Nuclear   Regulatory    Commission.     Office    of   Standards   and
Development.   Regulatory  Guide  3.11:   Design,   Construction,   and
Inspection  of  Embankment   Retention  . Systems   for Uranium Mills
 (Revision  1) ,  March  1977.

	.   Branch  Position:   Uranium Mill Tailings  Management,
Fuel  Processing  and Fabrication Branch, May  13,  1977.  .

O'Rourke,  J.  and H.J. Whelan.   "The  Elements  of  Practical Plant
Design."  Engineering  and Mining Journal,  June  1968, pp.  160—170.

Phillips,  P.E.  A  Comparison   of  Open—Pit  and   In—Situ  Leach
Economics.  Paper presented  at  the  Conference on  Uranium  Mining
Technology, Reno, Nevada, April 28, 1977.

Prast,  W.G.   "Prospects  for the U.S.  Uranium  Industry."  Mining
Magazine, October 1976, pp.  349-357.

Reed,  A.K..et al. Assessment of Environmental  Aspects of Uranium
Mining and Milling.  Inter-agency Energy-Environment Research  and
Development Program Report.  EPA-600/7—76—036, December 1976.

Ross,  Richard  C.   "Uranium Recovery from  Phosphoric Acid Nears
Reality as a Commercial Source." Engineering and  Mining  Journal,
December  1975.

Short  Course  on  Design and   Construction  of  Tailings  Dams.
Denver, Colorado: Colorado State University, January 1978.

Smith,  S.E..  and  K.H. Garrett.  "Some Recent Developments  in  the
Extraction of  Uranium  from its   Ores."  The  Chemical Engineer,
December  1972.

Soderburg,  R.   L.  and  R.A..Busch.  "Design Guide for Metal  and
Nonmetal  Tailings Disposal." U.S.  Bureau  of   Mines  Information
Circular  8755. .   Washington,    D.C.:   U.S.  Government  Printing
Office, 1977.

U.S.  Army  Corps  of   Engineers.   Letter  from  Major General J.W.
Morris, U.S..Army Director of Civil Works, to Mr.  John A.  Green,
Region VIII Administrator, U.S.  EPA, October 2,  1974.

U. . S. Bureau  of Reclamation.   Design  of Small  Dams.   Washington,
D.C.: U.S. Government  Printing  Office, 1973.

White,  Lane.    "Wyoming  Uranium  Miners  Set   Sight   On  Higher
Production."   Engineering and   Mining Journal,  December  1975,
pp. 61-71.

•	.    "In—Situ   Leaching   Opens   New  Uranium Reserves   in
Texas."   Engineering and  Mining Journal, July 1975, pp. 73—81.

Wood,  J.T.  The Anaconda   Company:   Open Fit  Mining  of  Uranium.
Paper presented  at  Conference .on Uranium  Mining  Technology,
University of  Nevada,  Reno,  Nevada, April  25, 1977.
                               3-70

-------
Woolery,  R.G.  et al.  Heap Leaching of Uranium—A Case History.
Paper presented at the annual  AIME  Meeting,  Atlanta,  Georgia,
March 6-10, 1977.

Wyoming   Mineral   Corporation.    "Uranium   Solution  Mining."
Lakewood, Colorado: Wyoming Mineral Corporation, 1976.
                              3-71

-------
SITING AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
              CHAPTER 4

-------
                           CHAPTER 4
            Siting and Environmental impact
Once  the decision has  been made to proceed with a uranium mining



and milling project,  the  operator must decide where to  site  the



facilities  and  how  to  mine  and  process  the ore in the most



economical  and  environmentally  safe  manner   possible.    His



decisions  are  influenced  by  many  factors,  one of which is a



continuing concern on the part of government and the  public  for



the  effects  of mining and milling on the environment and public



safety.  This concern is  manifested in a series of local,  state,



and  federal  regulations covering all phases of the project from



the pre—mining stage, throughout the active life of the  project,



to post—reclamation surveillance.





The  purpose  of this chapter is to highlight the regulations and



procedures that the operator incorporates in his  project  plans,



the  environmental  factors  affecting  location  of mine surface



facilities such as the  mill  and  tailings  disposal  sites,  the



project  activities  and  their impact on the environment, and the



objectives of monitoring, surveillance and reclamation. .
                              4-1

-------
4.1
Regulations, Standards and Guidelines
Various   federal  and  state  agencies  prepare  and  administer

regulations and standards to insure public safety and to  protect

the  environment  during development of uranium resources.   These

agencies also issue guidelines to assist  industry  in  obtaining

the required licenses and permits.



4.1.1
Regulatory Authority


The  federal  agencies  primarily  involved in uranium mining and

milling are the  Nuclear  Regulatory  Commission  (NEC)   and  the

Environmental  Protection  Agency  (EPA).   The  NRC licenses and

regulates the nuclear  energy  industry  to  protect  the.  public

health   and   safety  and  the  environment.   It  fulfills  its

responsibilities through  licensing  and  regulation  of  nuclear

facilities,  which  include  uranium  mills.   It  also  develops

working relationships with the  states  regarding  regulation  of

nuclear  materials such as processed uranium ore.  The purpose of

the EPA is to "control and abate pollution in the areas  of  air,

water, solid waste, . . . and radiation"  (U.S. Government Manual,

1976). . One of  its  activities  is  to  coordinate  and  support

research   and  anti-pollution  activities"  by  state  and  local

governments..   Several  other  federal  agencies  may   also   be

involved.   For example, in the western states, federal lands are

administered primarily by the Bureau of Land Management (BLM) and

the U.S. Forest Service  (USFS).. In addition to the BLM and USFS,
                               4-2

-------
the Bureau of Reclamation and the Bureau of  Indian  Affairs  are

often  involved  in approval of rights-of-way or special land use

applications or operating plans.


Some of the NRC requirements and guidelines are:
  • Requirement for Source Material License  (10CFR40.31f)

  • Requirement for Supporting Environmental Report  (10CFR51)

  • "Standard  Format  and Content of License Applications for
    Uranium  Mills,"  NRC  Regulatory  Guide 3.5   (Revision 1,
    November 1977, distributed for comment)

  « "Preparation  of Environmental Reports for Uranium Mills,"
    NRC  Regulatory   Guide 3.8,   April 1973  (Being  Revised
    1978) .

  « "Design,   Construction,   and  Inspection  of  Embankment
    Retention  Systems  for  Uranium  Mills,"  NRC  Regulatory
    Guide 3.11 (Revision 2, December, 1977)

  • "Measuring,  Evaluating,  and  Reporting  Radioactivity in
    Releases of Radioactive Materials in Liquid  and  Airborne
    Effluents  from  Uranium Mills," NRC Regulatory Guide 4.14
    (distributed for comment June 1977)

  • "Quality  Assurance  for  Radiological Monitoring Programs
    (Normal Operations)  Effluent Streams and the Environment,"
    NRC Regulatory Guide 4.15, December 1977

  • "Applications  of  Bioassay  for  Uranium," NRC Regulatory
    Guide 8.11, June 1974.   A  Branch  Position  for  uranium
    mills is expected in 1978.

  • "Instruction  Concerning Prenatal Radiation Exposure," NRC
    Regulatory Guide 8.13, November 1975, Revision 1
The NRC is preparing other guides for inspection and operation of

tailings ponds and for slurry pipelines.  The NRC  also  prepares

branch  position  papers  to  serve  as  interim guidelines.  For

example, the Fuel  Processing  and  Fabrication  Branch  released
                               4-3

-------
"Branch Position:  Uranium Mill Tailings Management" in May 1977,

which was later  incorporated  into  Regulatory  Guide 3.5.   The

"Branch  Position  for  Preoperational Radiological Environmental

Monitoring  Programs  for  Uranium   Mills"   was   released   in

January 1978.   Another  branch  position  paper  for operational

monitoring will be issued.  Copies of NRC regulatory  guides  and

branch  position  papers  may  be  obtained from the U.S. Nuclear

Regulatory   Commission,    Washington, B.C. 20555,    Attention:

Director, Division of Document Control.


Some  examples  of  the  EPA  water,  air  quality, and radiation

protection standards are:
    ENVIRONMENTAL  RADIATION.  PROTECTION STANDARDS FOR NUCLEAR
    POWER  OPERATIONS   (40 CFR  PART 190,  FEDERAL   REGISTER,
    VOLUME 42,  NO. 9)  were  published January 13, 1977.  New
    dose limits for individuals were  established  to  provide
    protection  for  populations  living  in  the  vicinity of
    uranium mills and other fuel cycle operations.

    The   standards   specify  that  "operations...  shall  be
    conducted in such a manner to provide reasonable assurance
    that...  the  annual  equivalent  dose equivalent does not
    exceed 25 millirems to the whole body,... of any member of
    the   public   as  the  result  of  exposures  to  planned
    discharges  of  radioactive  materials,  radon   and   its
    daughters   excepted,  to  the  general  environment  from
    uranium fuel cycle operations and to radiation from  these
    operations"   (40CFR 190.10a).  As defined in the standard,
    the  term  "radiation"  (40CFR 190.02e)  includes    (among
    others)  alpha,  beta,  and  gamma  rays,  which  are most
    pertinent  to  uranium  milling.   The  standard   defines
    general    environment    as   the   "total   terrestrial,
    atmospheric, and aquatic  environments  outside  sites..."
    (40CFR 190.02c)  of  fuel  cycle  operations,  such as the
    uranium mill site boundaries.
                               4-4

-------
    When fully developed these standards will apply to uranium
    mills and mill tailings.   For  instance,  radon  and  its
    daughters  were  not included in the initial standard.  It
    is expected  that  these  standards  will  be  updated  as
    additional  data  for  the  radionuclides become available
    (Hendricks, 1977).
    EPA LIQUID EFFLUENT GUIDELINES FOR ORE MINING AND DRESSING
    (40CFR440, Subpart E)  when revised will  contain  effluent
    discharge  limits.   Presently the standards are suspended
    by court order.  Originally  zero  discharge  limits  were
    specified.
    RESOURCE  CONSERVATION  AND  RECOVERY  ACT  (RCRA) OF 1976
    defines solid waste to include all radioactive  waste  not
    covered  by  the  Atomic  Energy  Act of 1954, as amended.
    This   includes   natural   radioactive    material    and
    accelerator-produced  material.   Those solid wastes to be
    identified are being defined at this time in Section 3001,
    "Identification and listing of hazardous waste."

    EPA  draft  hazardous-waste criteria include radium—226 at
    concentrations equal to or greater  than  5 pCi  per  gram
    (gm)  of  dry  waste and/or 50 pCi per liter  (1) of liquid
    waste.  Disposal  of  radioactive  waste  with  activities
    below  this  level  would be regulated by the states using
    RCRA  Section 4004,  Land  Disposal  Site   Classification
    Criteria.    Waste   exceeding   the   dry  and/or  liquid
    concentrations  of  5 pCi/gm  and/or  50 pCi/1   will   be
    regulated    by   the   EPA   or   a   state   through   a
    permit/enforcement regulatory program (RCRA Subtitle C)
                                                       O
    A  special study of mining waste is being conducted by the
    EPA Office of Solid Waste.  Following  completion  of  the
    study  the  standards  for storage, treatment and disposal
    (Section 3004) will be revised to  define  acceptable  and
    specific   mining  waste  disposal  limits  and  processes
    (J.Yeagely, EPA personal communication, 1978).
Since  the  late  1950's, the states have greatly increased their

responsibilities for enforcing and monitoring  federal  standards

and for measuring and mitigating environmental effects of nuclear

development within their borders.  Congress  enacted  Section 274

of the Atomic Energy Act of 1954, as amended in 1959 to recognize

the interests of the states in atomic energy,  to  clarify  state
                               4-5

-------
and  federal responsibilities, and to provide for states to enter

into formal agreement with the Atomic Energy Commission  (now  the

NRG)  for  regulatory authority over source, byproduct,- and small

quantities of special nuclear material  (NEC, NUREG—0388, 1977).


States  that  have  been delegated licensing authority for source

material under the Atomic Energy Act of  1954,  as  amended,  are

called  agreement  states,  and  at  this  date . 25  states  have

developed their own programs and entered into  formal  agreements

with  the  NRC.   Kentucky  was  the first to become an agreement

state, in 1962, and New Mexico was the last, in 1974.   Agreement

states, in order of effective agreement date, are:
    1.   Kentucky - 1962     .     14.
    2.   California - 1962        15.
    3.   Mississippi - 1962       16.
    4.   New York - 1962          17.
    5.   Texas - 1963*            18.
    6. .a  Arkansas - 1963          19.
    7. *  Florida - 1964           20,
    8.   North Carolina - 1964    21.
    9.   Kansas - 1965            22.
    10.  Oregon - 1965            23,
    11.  Tennessee - 1965         24.
    12.  New Hampshire - 1966     25.
    13.  Alabama - 1966
Nebraska - 1966
Washington - 1966*
Arizona.- 1967*
Louisiana - 1967
Colorado - 1968*
Idaho - 1968*
North Dakota - 1969
South Carolina - 1969
Georgia - 1969
Maryland - 1971
Nevada - 1972
New Mexico - 1974*
  *States with licensing programs for uranium milling activi-
   ties  (Smith, EPA, personal communication, 1978)
States  that  have not entered into a formal agreement are called

non-agreement states.  In these states,  the  NRC  maintains  its

regulatory  authority.   The  non-agreement  states include three

uranium-producing states: South Dakota, Utah,  and  Wyoming.   In
                               4-6

-------
uranium-producing states: South Dakota, Utah,  and  Wyoming.   In

non-agreement  states, the NEC requires a Source Material License

to process or refine uranium ore  once  it  is  mined.   The  NRC

license  requirements  apply to ore that contains 0.05 percent or

more by weight of uranium or thorium or any  combination  of  the

two  prior to processing, such as grinding, roasting, or refining

(10CFR 40.Uh,k).   Agreement  states  have  been  delegated    (by

agreement)  the  authority  for  source  material;,  they  issue a

Radioactive Material License, which  is  comparable  to . the  NEC

Source Material License.
4.1.2
Regulatory Procedures and Permit Requirements
The  procedures  and  requirements for obtaining a permit to mill

uranium are  similar  for  agreement  and  non-agreement  states;

however,  these  vary  from state to state and with each project.

Early during development of project plans the  operator  contacts

the  regulatory  agencies  to  coordinate  compliance  with their

requirements,   which   influence   engineering   and    economic

feasibility of the project.  The project team should work closely

with the agencies to insure completeness of the applications  and

to  develop  a  schedule  that  reflects their review procedures.

After clarifying what permits are required  and  what  supporting

information  is needed for each one, a program is finalized.  The

applicant collects baseline data  (including  radiological  data),

provides results of pre-mining investigations, prepares and files

applications, and submits detailed project plans.
                               4-7

-------
 4.1.3
 Proposed Legislation and Requirements
Additional or revised requirements may result from:
  • SAFE  DRINKING  WATER  ACT -  The  states  are  to  develop
    programs to protect  existing  and  potential  sources   of
    drinking water.
    CLEAN   AIR   ACT  AxMENDMENTS  OF   1977 -  The   amendments
    authorize EPA to set guidelines  for  certain  radioactive
    materials  that  are  presently  unregulated   (P.L.  95—95,
    sec. 122 (a)).   The  amendments  also   have   significant
    implications  on  uranium projects  particularly  in meeting
    national  ambient  air  quality  standards    (NAAQS)   and
    prevention of significant deterioration  (FSD).

    EPA policy has been that NAAQS and  PSD increments need not
    be attained on company property where physical   access  by
    the general public is precluded by  fence or other physical
    means  (Environment Reporter, February 1978).  The  EPA  is
    reconsidering  the  policy  which   may  lead  to a revised
    definition of "ambient air" on company property.   Uranium
    mines  and  mills  would  be  among  sources significantly
    affected by a policy revision.
The  preceding  comments  are  examples  of  changing regulations

prompted by new or revised legislation.  The potential  technical

and economic impact of the legislation during its formulation and

after enactment is well documented in  comments  and  reports  by

government and industry.  Investigators and reviewers who need to

know more should consult  the  responsible  agency  and  industry

groups.


In  a  non-agreement  state, the applicant's environmental report

accompanies the application to the NRC  for  a  Source  Materials

License.   The NRC then prepares a draft environmental statement.


                             4-8

-------
Agreement states have their own licensing procedures, which  have



to  be  comparable  to  the NRC; however, an environmental impact



statement may not  be  required  by  some  states.   By  example,



Table 4—1  shows the permits and time required for the Sweetwater



Project uranium mine and mill in Wyoming, a  non-agreement  state



(NRC, NUREG-OU03,  1977).    The  principal agencies involved were



the Wyoming Department of  Environmental Quality (DEQ), the  State



Engineer  (SE),  the Wyoming Industrial Siting Commission (WISC),



the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC), and the  Bureau  of



Land Management  (BLM).





When  an  applicant  files  for permits or license approvals, the



lead  agency  will  request  comments  from  the  other  agencies



involved.   Comments  will be incorporated into the environmental



statement.  Project  plans  will  be  reviewed  to  determine  if



regulatory  and bonding requirements are satisfied and if designs



have been developed to control and mitigate environmental effects



and provide for the safety of the public.





Public  hearings  may  be  required  once  the lead agency review



process is complete.  After the review and hearings the permit is



either  granted  or  denied.   The  permit  may  be  granted with



stipulations which  often  include  performance  bonds,  specific



monitoring and post-reclamation procedures.





The  concern  about  long—term  effects  of low—level radioactive



wastes has resulted in revised regulations for licensing  uranium



mills  and  improving tailings disposal systems.  The regulations



require stringent project  decommissioning  and  post-reclamation
                               4-9

-------
X*"
Permit or License
License to Mine
Permit to Mine
Air Pernlt to Construct
Air Permit to Install Mill
Processing Equipment
Sanitary Sewage Disposal
NPDES (mine dewatering)
Mill Waste Water (tailings)
Potable Water Supply
Waste Treatment Plant
(Bad, treatment equipment)
Water Wells (18)
Tailing Impoundment
Mill Settling Pond
Mine Dewatering Settling Ponds
Right-of-Way
Access Road
Transmission Line
Access Road (Sweetvater
County)
Sand 4 Gravel Pit (mining)
Site Equipment Staging Approval
Industrial Siting Permit
Zoning Change
Final Impoundment
Air Permit to Operate
Industrial Waste Disposal Site
Source Materials License
Granting
Authority
DEQ-LQD*
DEQ-LQD
DEQ-AQDb
DEQ-AQD
DEQ-WQDC
DEQ-WQD
DEQ-WQD
DEQ-WQD
DEQ-WQD
SEd
SE
SE
SE
BLM6
BLM
County of
Sweetvater
DEQ-LQDf
DEQ-LQD8
WISCh
County of
Sweetvater
SE
DEQ-AQD
DEQ-SWMD^
NSC*
Date of
Application
Dec. 1976
Resubmitted Aug. 24, 1977
Dec. 1976
Resubmitted Aug. 24, 1977
May 1977
— —
~
Feb. 1977
Jul. 28, 1977
Jul. 28, 1977
Jul. 28, 1977
Jul. 28, 1977
Jul. 28, 1977
Jul. 28, 1977
Jul. 28, 1977
Feb. 1977
Dec. 1975
May 1977
Show cause hearing
Oct. 1976
Dec. 1975
Jul. 28, 1977
Aug. 1977
Nov. 1976
Date ^*N
Granted
Denied
In Review
Denied
In Review
Aug. 30, 1977
—
—
Jul. 1977
In Review
—
In Review
In Review
In Review
In Review
In Review
May 1977
Jan. 1976
Amended Jun. 1976
Jun. 1977
Jun. 1977
Mar. 19771
Apr. 1976
In Review
Withdrawn
Refiled Nov. 1977
In Review
Doming Dept.  of Environmental Quality-Land Quality Div.
^Wyoming Dept.  cf Environmental Quality-Air Quality Div.
cwyoming Dept.  of Environmental Quality-Water Quality Div.
 Wyoming State Engineer
eU.S. Bureau of Land Management
^Obtained via Sweetwater County Engineers Office
^Modification to existing DEQ-LQD Permit 302 for open test pit
"Wyoming Office of  Industrial Siting Administration
%egative Declaration issued March 1977
^Wyoming Dept.  of Environmental Quality-Solid Waste Management Div.
''U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission
SOURCE:  NRC, DES,  NUREG-0403,
        December 1977
Table 4-1
Status of Approvals and Permits Required for the Sweetwater Project as of
November 1977
                                      4-10

-------
procedures. .  A Generic Environmental Impact Statement on uranium
milling (GEIS)  is to be released by the NBC in the fall  of  1978
which  may  alter  future  tailings  disposal  system designs and
modify recent license permit stipulations.


4.2
Factors Affecting Facilities Siting

Decisions  for siting are made within a framework of engineering,
economic and regulatory requirements.  The location of  the  mine
is  limited  to  where  the  ore  is;  however,  some options are
available for the mill location.  Because the large  tonnages  of
ore  have to be hauled to the mill from the mine, the mill should
be as close to the mine as possible.  The cost  of  hauling  many
thousands  of  tons  of ore is one of the major production costs.
Another restriction that limits the location of the mill  is  the
need for disposal and storage of the mill liquid and solid wastes
remaining after ore processing.  With these restrictions in mind,
several  sites within the project boundaries are usually examined
to select the best site for construction  and  operation  of  the
mine's surface facilities and for a disposal site for mine waste.
Similarly, sites are selected for the mill and its  large  volume
of wastes.  Economics also dictate that the facilities be located
so that they do not interfere  with  recovery  of  the  ore.   In
addition  to  these  engineering  and  economic  restraints,  the
operator is required to design the mine  and/or  mill  to  comply
with  environmental,  safety, and .radiation protection standards.
Environmental factors considered in opening a mine and siting the
mill and waste disposal facilities include:

                             4-11

-------
                 • Topography

                 • Population

                 • Geology and geochemistry

                 • Hydrology, surface and groundwater

                 • Soils and overburden

                 • Meteorology

                 • Biology

                 • Seismicity

                 • Cultural features
These  factors  do  not  operate independently but are related to

each other.  Por example, hydrology and meteorology are dependent

on  the local topography.  Topography, likewise, is controlled to

a large extent by geology.  Meteorology at the site  is  affected

by  hilly  or  rugged  terrain,  since  the  winds  are sometimes

channeled along canyons, gullies and water courses.
4.2.1
Topography
The  topographic  features  of  a  site influence the location of

facilities  such  as  buildings,  ore  storage  pads,  and  waste

handling  an.d  disposal impoundments.  For instance, flat terrain

is favored for the location of buildings, storage pads and roads,

while  sloping  terrain is favored for gravity flow from the mill

to  the  set-tiling  ponds  and  tailings   impoundments.    stable

topography  is  desirable  for  siting  the permanent facilities.

Rapidly changing topography indicates rapid erosion or other mass
                              4-12

-------
wasting  processes  that  can  cause  problems  for mine and mill

facilities.  Of particular importance is the reduction of erosion

potential for tailings impoundments.


The  topography  of  a  site and surrounding area also influences

other environmental conditions, such as  meteorology,  hydrology,

and  biology.   These  influences  are  discussed in the sections

pertaining to the specific conditions.



4.2.2
Population


The proximity to the nearest resident and to important population

centers is of concern in deciding where to locate mills or  other

facilities that discharge radioactive or chemical contaminants to

the environment.  Population centers include humans, agricultural

plants   and   animals   consumed   by  humans,  economically  or

esthetically   valuable   wildlife,   and   indigenous    natural

populations  that  are  important  to  the  self-maintenance  and

stability of  ecological  systems.   "Proximity"  refers  to  the

nearness  of  a  pollution  source  to population centers and the

degree to which pollutants can  contact  such  populations.   The

estimated  radiation  dose  is  calculated  based  on populations

living within 50 miles  of  a  mill  using  expected  radioactive

effluent release estimates, on—site meteorological data, and land

use.and population data.  If no radioactive  liquids  are  to  be

released, estimates are then prepared for particulate and gaseous

effluents.   These  estimates  include  mill  and  tailings  site

characteristics,  the  mill  equipment  performance  and exposure
                               4-13

-------
to man.  Radionuclide  doses  to  individuals  are  predicted  at

reference  locations  such as the nearest permanent residence and

at the downwind project-site boundary.
4.2.3
Geology and Geochemistry
Geology  is interrelated with the surface and subsurface features

of the site, the ore, the project activities and  elimination  or

reduction  of environmental impacts.  The types of rock materials

and their structure not only determine where ore will  be  found,

but  influence  surface  drainage,  ground  water  flows and soil

formation.  This geologic information is basic to predicting  the

fate   of  materials,  particularly  subsurface  effluents.   The

geochemistry of the sites are determined to show how uranium  and

other  elements  and  isotopes  are  distributed and how they may

migrate as a result of mining.  Open pit mining  will  alter  the

subsurface  structure,  soil  profile, land form and hydrology of

the local area.  To predict the effects of mining  a  geochemical

survey is conducted to provide rock, soil, overburden, plants and

water sample data.


The  effects  of  geologic  conditions  upon the proposed project

construction and land use, and  conversely  the  effects  of  the

project  upon  geologic processes and conditions in the area, are

evaluated to satisfy statutory  requirements  and/or  guidelines.

For  instance,  "Recommended Guidelines for Preparing Engineering

Geologic Reports for Uranium  Mill  Siting,  Radioactive  Tailing

Storage  and  Associated  Land  Use  Changes"  was  issued by the
                              4-14

-------
Colorado Geological Survey (CGS)  in March 1978.   The  guidelines

include regulations of "the State of Colorado and the NRC.
4.2.4
Hydrology
The  source, quantity, quality and movement of surface and ground

waters influence the design of mine facilities and the siting and

design  of  mill facilities and waste disposal systems.  Water is

required  for  makeup  for  mill  processes  and  domestic   use.

Hydrologic  systems  can  be-  major  pathways  for  movement  and

transport of radioactive and chemical waste from  mine  and  mill

sites  to  the environment.  In cases where water for mill use is

taken from surface or ground water supplies, the impact of  water

withdrawal on the supply must be evaluated.  Depletion of surface

water flows and drawdown of  local  water  tables  are  generally

regulated  and  must  not  exceed agency requirements, which vary

from state to state.  The quality  of  water  used  for  domestic

purposes  should meet minimum requirements set by state agencies,

usually following the  U.S.  Public  Health  Service  recommended

drinking water standards.


The  National  Pollution  Discharge  Elimination  System   (NPDES)

permit specifies discharge conditions in  those  instances  where

surface  waters are -to receive liquid discharges from a mine/mill

operation.   Dilution  capacity  and  water   quality   must   be

determined  'to  predict  environmental  effects  in  the event of

accidental releases and undetected  seepage.   Dilution  capacity

increases  with  flow rate and turbulence of streams.  Changes in
                              4-15

-------
water  quality,  such  as  sediment  load  and  dissolved  solids



content, which might occur as a result of an accidental mine/mill



discharge, may have a significant biological or  esthetic  impact



and  possibly  provide  potential  for  food  chain  transport of



radionuclides and other contaminants to the human population.





Water systems are major pathways of radionuclide transport to the



environment.  Radionuclides in seepage  from  tailings  retention



systems can migrate downward into aquifers that may appear at the



surface as springs or seeps that may  affect  humans,  crops,  or



livestock.    Conversely,   radionuclides   in   surface  waters,



resulting from aerial deposition or waste  discharge,  may  enter



the  ground  water system by infiltration and affect ground water



supplies.   Therefore,  the  relationship  and  interactions   of



surface water with ground water must be understood.





The depth to the ground water table is important in the design of



mine dewatering systems.   Where  a  mine  penetrates  the  water



table,  accumulated water must be removed (dewatering).  The rate



of dewatering depends on the hydraulic  characteristics  and  the



depth  of  penetration  of  the  water table.  In the majority of



cases, the natural ground water associated with uranium  deposits



is  not  suitable  for  consumption  because  the  radium content



exceeds  state  and'  federal  limits.   This  water  may  require



treatment  to remove uranium, radium or other contaminants before



discharge to comply with,  NPEES  permit  limitations.   Depth  to



ground  water  is  also  important  in locating tailings disposal



areas, since a large distance between ground water  and  tailings



is  desirable.   Surface  waters and natural drainages at or near
                              4-16

-------
 prospective mine  or mill  sites  should  be  examined for erosion and

 deposition  potential.  High  water  runoff from  rapid snow melt or

 thunderstorms  can dramatically  alter stream   channels  and  cause

 severe   erosion.   This  should be  of particular  consideration when

 siting  mill tailings  retention  systems and ore  storage piles.
4.2.5
Soils and Overburden
 The   soils   and   overburden   at   a  potential site are sampled and

 tested to determine  the  following:
   •  Chemical  and  physical  properties

   •  Presence    and   concentration   of   radioactive  or  toxic
     materials

   •  Reclamation potential

   •  Suitability for  construction  of  embankments

   •  Suitability for  construction  of  surface facilities

   •  Susceptibility to erosion by  wind and water
 The  analyses  of soils and overburden are routinely performed to

 evaluate project  sites.    The  relationship  of  the  soils  and

 overburden to radioactive or toxic materials movement at the mine

 and at mill sites is also part of the evaluation.


 Soil   and   sediments  usually  become  a  major   reservoir  for

 potentially toxic or radioactive materials at  mines  and  mills.

 Material  particles  are  subject  to  wind  erosion and off-site

 migration,  depending  upon  particle  size,  moisture   content,


                             4-17

-------
vegetation  cover,  wind speed and other factors.  In an open-pit



operation overburden properties are determined, since it is often



stored,  backfilled  or used as a substrate in reclamation.  Soil



properties which affect  dispersal  of  these  materials  in  the



environment   include   porosity,   permeability,   ion  exchange



capacity, and erodibility.





If  tailings  are to eventually be covered with topsoils from the



site, the porosity and diffusion coefficients which affect  radon



diffusion should be known.  In general, clay soils provide a more



efficient barrier to radon migration than coarse-textured  soils.



Clay  is  also  somewhat advantageous as a substrate for tailings



ponds  because  of  its  large  capacity  to  adsorb  and  retain



dissolved   radionuclides  (Whicker  and  Johnson,  1978).   High



adsorption capacity of soil and geological substrate can  provide



effective  protection  of  subsurface aquifers from radionuclides



and undesirable chemicals.  The textural  .properties  of  surface



soils  also  affect  erosion  potential  and thus determine their



suitability in tailings management and reclamation.





The  nature  of  soil and earth materials in contact with surface



and subsurface water affects surface water exchange of  dissolved



minerals  and  hence,  radionuclide  migration.   In general, the



greater the ion adsorption capacity of such materials,  the  more



effectively  elements  and  radionuclides will be retained near a



mine or mill site and result in lower concentrations of dissolved



radionuclides  in  water.  A disadvantage of fine-grained, highly



adsorbent sediments in surface drainages is that they are subject



to  scouring  and  long-distance  displacement  during high water






                              4-18

-------
runoff  periods.   In  some  cases,  adsorbent  clay   beds   are

advantageously  protected  by  overlying  gravel  and boulders in

streambeds.
4.2.6
Meteorology
Meteorological conditions influence the dispersion and deposition

of airborne effluents, such as stack releases or resuspension  of

radionuclide-tear.ing  particles  eroded from ore or from dry mill

tailings.  Wind  direction  determines, the  overall  directional

spread  of  airborne  materials.  A representative "wind rose" is

used to evaluate proposed mine or mill sites.  A wind rose  is  a

graphic  representation  of  wind direction and speed frequencies

based upon data gathered over some period of  time.   These  data

are  used  to  predict prevailing wind direction, mean wind speed

azimuth, and frequency of occurrence.


Understanding   wind   speed   regime  is  necessary  to  predict

radionuclide movement in the vicinity of a mine or mill site  and

to  design  an  appropriate  monitoring  program  when operations

begin.   Sources  of  airborne  radioactivity  dispersed  in  the

atmosphere  largely  by  wind  action  are radioactive 222Rn gas,

which.emanates from uranium ore and  from  mill  tailings;  small

particles  of  yellowcake,  which are released from dryer stacks;

and ore and mill tailings dust generated  by  human  activity  or

wind  resuspension.   According  to typical Gaussian plume models

 (Turner, 1970; Smith, 1968), the air concentration at some  point

downwind  of  a source is inversely proportional to the mean wind
                              4-19

-------
speed which acts upon a plume.  Thus,  higher  mean  wind  speeds



will  usually  reduce  air concentrations and potential radiation



doses downwind from such sources.





Another   meteorological   feature   which   affects  atmospheric



dispersion of air—borne materials is the  vertical  stability  of



the  atmosphere.   Vertical  stability  depends  largely upon the



temperature structure of  the  atmosphere.   Unstable  conditions



promote  mixing of air—borne contaminants with the atmosphere and



stable conditions do not.  Vertical stability is often  described



by  the  Pasguill stability category (Turner, 1970), which can be



predicted reasonably well from wind speed and solar insolation or



wind  direction  variability   (wind sigma) data.  These data vary



according to regional and local topography, the capability of the



earth's  surface to absorb and reflect solar radiation, and other



factors.





Precipitation influences the migration of materials from mine and



mill  sites.   For  instance,  precipitation  increases   surface



moisture  which in turn stabilizes otherwise win.d-erodible soils.



On the other  hand,  high  runoff-  may  cause  undesirable  water



erosion   of   ore  and  tailings.   Precipitation  also  removes



particles from the atmosphere through the processes of  "washout"



and  "rainout"   (Slade,  1968).   This  can  affect  the  spatial



distribution of radionuclides as well as their route of intake by



animals.  Precipitation patterns also affect ground water and the



subterranean  migration  of  radionuclides.   Moisture  can  also



affect   the   rate   of  radon  emanation  through  soil  cover,



particularly in a ground frost situation.





                              4-20

-------
The  tendency for ore and tailings dust to become resuspended and

entrained in the air stream as well as the process  of  saltation

increases  sharply  with  wind speed,  in fact, some studies have

shown that soil movement is proportional to the cube of the  wind

speed   (Skidmore,  1976).   The  net  effect  of  wind speed upon

radiation doses around uranium mines and  mills  depends  on  the

nature  of  the  ore  and  tailings  as  well  as  other factors. .

Therefore,  a  general  statement  cannot  be  made  as  to   the

feasibility  of  windy  sites, except that the problem is complex

and should be evaluated for each potential site.



4.2.7
Biology


The ecology of a prospective site and the surrounding area may be

affected by mine and mill operations.  Of primary concern are the

kinds  and numbers of organisms and their direct value to man, or

their value for maintenance of the character and stability of the

environment.    Sound   management   decisions  are  particularly

important if potential sites are on or  adjacent  to  lands  with

crops,  domestic  livestock,  important game and fish species, or

rare  or  endangered  wildlife,  because  the   consequences   of

operational  mishaps  or  accidents such as tailings dam failures

would be worse in such areas than  in  biologically  unproductive

areas.    Furthermore,   food-chain   transport   of  radioactive

materials  and  heavy  metals  under  normal  operations  may  be

enhanced  in  areas  that  are productive in agriculture, fish or

wildlife.

                              4-21

-------
Agriculture,  crops  and livestock operations adjacent to a mine-



mill project have considerable potential to  become  contaminated



with   radionuclides   or   toxic   materials  like  selenium  or



molybdenum.  Cases have existed in the  past  where  contaminated



irrigation  water  and  dust  from  operations  have  resulted in



contaminated crops, and milk and meat products,  which  constitute



part of the human food chain (Whicker and Johnson, 1978).  A case



of molybdinosis in cattle was reported near  an  operation  where



uranium  was  recovered  from lignite ash (F. Smith, EPA personal



communication, 1978).  While the radiation or toxic exposures  to



crops, livestock and humans resulting from such contamination may



be acceptable and within  standards  and  regulatory  guidelines,



such  exposures  can  be minimized through careful site selection



and appropriate environmental controls.





Fish  and  game  species  have  economic and ecological values in



themselves, and in addition are consumed to  varying  degrees  by



humans.   Fish  and wildlife can use areas not readily controlled



by human intervention.  For  example,  waterfowl  can  use  ponds



associated  with  mines and mills, become contaminated, leave the



area, and then be consumed by humans*  Most terrestrial  wildlife



can  cross  ordinary  fences  and  feed  adjacent  to  a tailings



retention system and ingest  contaminated  soil  and  vegetation.



Certain animals can burrow into dams or reclaimed tailings piles,



reducing the integrity of the stabilization materials.  Fish  can



concentrate  to  a  remarkable degree certain radionuclides which



enter  watercourses.   For  these  and  other   reasons,   siting



decisions  should  give  due consideration to natural populations
                              4-22

-------
and to a reduction in radioactive emissions,
4.2.8
Seismicity
Earthquakes  have  the  potential  to  disrupt  the   integrity of

tailings dams, mine structures and  mill   processing   facilities.

Ground   motion  and  subsequent  dynamic   response   could  cause

structural  failures  which  could  result  in  the   release   of

radioactive  and  chemical  materials to the environment.   Siting

and design of mines, mills, and waste retention systems  should be

consistent with the probability of damaging ground motion.   Zones

of specific  earthquake  magnitude  have   been  delineated  on  a

regional  basis,  and  specific sites can  be examined locally for

faults  and  other  evidence  of   geologic  instability.     For

seismicity  information  in  the U.S. see  Algermissen and  Perkins

(1976), Coffman and von Hake  (1973) and NOAA (1973).


4.2.9
Cultural Features



Historical  and , archeological  sites  in   the  project  area may

require special consideration in the location of  mine  and  mill

facilities.   These  include natural landmarks and historic sites

or areas listed in the National  Registry   of Natural  Landmarks

(37 CFR 1496)  or  the  National  Register  of  Historic  Places.

Contact with the State Liaison Officer - Historic Preservation or

Historic  Preservation  Officer  is usually required. Procedures

for protection are given in 36 CFR 800.
                             4-23

-------
The   archeological   significance  of  the  site  must  also  be
determined.  Steps to recover historical  or  archeological  data
are  required  by the Historic and Archeological Preservation Act
of 1974 (PL 93—291), and may affect the development of a project.
4.3
Non-Radiological Impacts
The  potential  for  environmental impacts from uranium mines and
mills is greatest during the operational  phase  of  the  project
when  ore  is  extracted,  transported and milled,  and wastes are
disposed of.  The importance of environmental concerns which  are
generally  associated with a uranium project varies with the type
of project, method of operation and a multitude  of  site-related
characteristics.   Therefore,  it  is  not  possible  to  qualify
potential impacts, or in many cases even to predict if they  will
be  significant, until after the project is defined.  The project
operator has the responsibility to limit operational  impacts  to
acceptable  levels,  and  he  must  provide  evidence  of this in
environmental reports or other documents which  are  required  to
license  the project.  In all cases, as a condition of licensing,
impacts will be limited to comply with regulations  set by federal
and  state  agencies  to  protect  the  health  and safety of the
public.  In order to limit environmental  impacts  to  acceptable
levels, it is necessary to:

s	'X
  • Identify potential impact sources
  « Assess the importance of impacts from these sources
  • Control  impacts,  when  necessary,  by employing specific
    design or operational measures
                             4-24

-------
The . potential  non-radiological  impacts  for  a  mine  and mill

include changes in land use, topography, surface and ground water

quality, air quality, and biology and soils.

4.3.1
Land Use

Mining  and  milling operations which remove land from other uses

for the duration of the project include:
              Exploration and pre-mining investigations

              Mine development and operation

              Overburden disposal

              Ore stockpiling

              Roads for access and ore haulage

              Utility corridors
Table 4—2 lists the amount of land that has been used for various

uranium projects.  It is readily apparent from  this  table  that

specific  land  requirements  cannot  be generalized or predicted

from the type or size of an operation.  The impacts  are  more  a

function  of  location  and  size  of  ore  deposits,  mining and

extraction methods, and duration of activity.


The  land  use impacts are mitigated by disturbing as little area

as  possible  and  by  reclaiming  the  areas   disturbed   after

operations cease, as discussed in section 4.5.


Although  most states require reclamation back to productive use,

the land use capacity in some areas may be  permanently  altered.
                             4-25

-------
  Proleet
 Mill                  Mine
	Present	Proleeted   Talllnga	Road«   Peuaterlnn
                                                                                                  Total
  Lucky HcMlne
    Caa aill», Vyoalng
    (open pit-acid leach)

  Bur Creek Project
    Convena County, Wyoming
    (open pit-acid leech)

  Sheruood Project
    Spokane Indian Raaarv.,
    Washington
    (open pit-acid leach)

  Irlgaray Project
    (in-aitu)

  Suaetvater Project
    Red Desert, Wyoming
    (open pit-acid laach
    and Heap leach)

  Union Carbide
    Caa Bills, Wyoming
    (open pit-acid leach)

  Rio Algom Mine
    Hoab, Utah
    (underground nine)
    aill and tailings

  Atlas
    Hoab,  Utah
    •ill and taillnga
    50    2550



   130




    40


     5




    87 (4001)



   2232   1300
   230 occupied
   500 alte
                        500
 2060
 1600
                                   150
             153       104
  155        106


 1000         —
             300
                      leaa than 1
                      (2-13*  holea
                      plua head
                      atructurea)    25
                                                                    3150
                        30
                                 3450
no average
(supplies
fron «T30
different oinaa)
(included
la mill)
                                320


                              —1000




                              -.6000



                                1725




                                 27


                                2SO
   Heap leach and reclamation

   2Iocludea tailing*

   SOURCE: Compiled by SHZC
Table 4-2
Approximate Land Requirements (in acres) for Various Mine and Mil! Activities
                                              4-26

-------
For  instance,  waste disposal areas such as overburden dumps and

tailings piles would have  restricted  grazing  if  a  vegetation

cover  were not reestablished or if radioactive releases were not

controlled.  The highwall and pit  left  after  open  pit  mining

would  constitute  a permanent alteration in land use capability,

unless reclamation were undertaken.

 4.3.2
 Topography

Some   topography  alterations  occur  as  part  of  any  project

operation.  Large topographic changes may  result  from  open—pit

operations,  which generally leave a highwall, a small pit, and.a

spoils disposal area higher than the local  terrain.   Also,  the

construction  of mill tailings impoundments and the deposition of

tailings into them creates  a  permanent  change  in  topography.

Additional   minor   changes   are  caused  by  roads  and  other

transportation facilities, leveling  for  construction,  drainage

diversions,  and  construction  of  heap  leach  pads and in—situ

facilities in some proposed operations.


433
Surface and Ground Water

Surface and ground waters in the vicinity of uranium projects may

be affected by a number of project—related activities.


The. significance  of  a  particular  potential  impact  on  site

hydrology is closely related to the type of  project,  method  of

operation,  and  specific site characteristics.  Activities which

have potential for hydrologic impact include the following:
                             4-27

-------
                     ,
               ' • Mine dewatering

                 • Water makeup requirements

                 • Liquid waste disposal

                 • Surface runoff
Mine  dewatering  is  required when a surface or underground mine

penetrates the local ground water table.   Water  accumulates  in

the mine and must be removed so that operations can continue.

Mine  dewatering  may  affect  surface  and ground water in three

ways: 1) by lowering the local ground water table, 2)  by changing

the  water quality in surface and ground water systems, and 3)  by

increasing the flow in local water systems.   Localized  lowering

of  the  ground  water  table  (drawdown)   usually  results  from

dewatering activities and may interfere with  the  production  of

wells  drawing  from  the  same  aquifer  or from a hydraulically

connected aquifer.  Dewatering may also change the quality of the

ground  water.   As  water  is  continually removed, transport of

water from surrounding areas to the area of pumping  will  occur.

If  this  water   is of different quality than the local water, a

change in composition will occur.  Surface water quality and flow

may  be  changed  if  mine water is discharged.  The magnitude of

these  changes  is  dependent  on  the  respective  volumes   and

compositions of the discharge and receiving water.  The discharge

of mine water would have to comply with NPDES permit limitations.

Water makeup requirements for uranium mills are reported to range

from 230 to 400 gallons of water per ton of ore for acid leaching

                              4-28

-------
circuits  and  approximately  60 gallons  per ton for an alkaline



leaching circuit.  Mills using the  acid  leach  process  require



more water than mills using alkaline leaching because more of the



alkaline  leach  solution  may . be  recycled.   Makeup  water  is



obtained  from  mine  dewatering  or from wells.  In general, the



withdrawal of makeup water  used  in  a  uranium  mill  does  -not



adversely impact local water supplies.





Liquid   waste   disposal   is   required  in  the  operation  of



conventional acid and alkaline leach mills.  In most  cases,  the



wastes  are  mixed with spent tailings to form a slurry, which is



transported to the tailings disposal area; discharge of wastes to



surface  waters  is  not generally practiced.  There is generally



some recycling of sluice water. • The primary  waste  produced  is



spent  leaching  solution,  which  also contains small amounts of



organic process solvents,  mostly  kerosene.   Organics  lost  to



tailings  ponds  have  been  reported  to  be  20 and 160 gpd for



1000-tpd mills and 3000-tpd mills, respectively.





Liquid  waste  disposal  may  impact  surface  and  ground  water



quality.  Since liquid wastes are generally impounded  with  mill



tailings, the primary impact of disposal will result from seepage



from the tailings pond.  Seepage  will   affect  the  quality  of



surface  and  ground  water.   The  amount of seepage of tailings



solution from the pond depends on the depth and size of the pond,



the   tailings   placement   and   dam   construction,  the  soil



encountered, and liner, if any, used.  Two reported seepage rates



are  45 gpm  and  75 gpm  for  50—acre and 150—acre impoundments,
                              4-29

-------
respectively.  Seepage in recent impoundments has been reduced by



impervious clay and plastic liners.





Seepage  from  the  tailings  impoundment  system  may  have high



concentrations of dissolved solids, including heavy  metals,  and



will  increase the concentration of these materials in the ground



water.  Of particular concern are the metals which exhibit higher



solubilities at low (acidic) pH and are leached from the ore with



uranium in acid leaching.  Alkaline leaching is a more  selective



uranium  leaching process and does not dissolve as many metals as



acid leaching; therefore, the impact of a  unit  volume  of  acid



leach  tailings  solution  on  dissolved metals concentrations in



ground water is greater than for a unit volume of alkaline  leach



tailings  solution.   Also,  the  alkaline leach process produces



approximately one—fifth tha liquid waste volume of the acid leach



process.   The quality of surface waters may be altered if ground



water reaches the surface.





Surface  rungff  from  disturbed  areas may affect the quality of



surrounding water and may cause erosion.  Due to  differences  in



material  characteristics,  surface  runoff  from  overburden and



waste rock  dumps  may  contain  dissolved  solids  not  normally



present  in  surface runoff.  Also, prior to reclamation, surface



runoff  can  carry  sediments  from  disturbed  areas,  including



tailings  impoundments.   This  runoff  may  impact  local  water



quality.  Since overburden dumps and  backfilled  mines  (surface



mines)   contain   material  that  has  been  excavated  and  not



recompacted to its original density, runoff characteristics  from



these  areas  could  be different than from surrounding material.
                             4-30

-------
These differences could result in an alteration of local  surface



and ground water characteristics and quality.





Reducing Hydrological Impacts





The.  impacts  of  the  operation  of  uranium  mines and mills on



surface and ground water systems can he reduced or  mitigated  in



most  cases.   Although  the lowered ground water table resulting



from  mine  dewatering  is  unavoidable,  interference  with  the



production  of  local wells may be overcome by deepening existing



wells, drilling new wells or providing  an  alternate  source  of



water.   Mine  water  can  be  used  within  the project for dust



control  and  mill  makeup  to  reduce  the  quantity  of   water



discharged, thus reducing the impact on the receiving water body.





Seepage  of  liquids from the tailings impoundment may be reduced



by proper impoundment location, distribution of  tailings  behind



the  dam,  and  installation  of  an  impermeable liner.  Because



complete elimination of seepage is difficult due to  faults  that



develop  in  the  liner,  the  ground water needs to be monitored



periodically.





Runoff  and dam seepage may be collected by a smaller, second dam



downstream  of  the  impoundment  and  returned  to  the  tailing



impoundment,  thus  preventing  discharge of tailing solutions to



surface waters or drainages.  Drainage  ditches are,  employed  to



divert.runoff from the overburden dumps and from the tailing area



to minimize the quantity of precipitation entering these areas.





Solution  mining impacts are different from those of conventional
                              4-31

-------
mining  and  milling,  primarily  because  leaching  solution  is

injected  into the ore body.  'This process changes the quality of

ground water  in  the  uraniferous  aquifer.   The  migration  of

leaching  solution from the field is controlled by changes in the

pumping rate  (injection and  withdrawal)   of  solution.   At  the

completion  of operations at  each facility,  ground water will be

recirculated  and  -created  to  restore  water  quality   to   an

acceptable  level.   Disposal  of  liquid  wastes  is  usually by

ponding, and seepage from the ponds may alter water  quality,  as

previously discussed.


Heap leaching is a process used to recover uranium from low—grade

ore  and  tailings   from   abandoned   mills.    Process   water

requirements   for  heap  leaching  have  been  estimated  to  be
                                                               •
approximately 200—300 gallons per ton of ore.  Since  this  water

is completely recycled, makeup is only required to replace losses

such as evaporation.  After a water inventory has been  achieved,

makeup  requirements  are  low.   In  'a  properly constructed and

operated heap leaching facility, there should be no liquid  waste

discharge.   All  process  water  (that is, leaching solution) is

recovered and recycled to  the  heap  leaching  area  or  to  the

uranium  mill  as makeup.  Seepage of leaching solution to ground

water may occur if the pads for the heaps are not  impervious  or

are  faulted.   Leaching  solution would be of low pH with a high

concentration of metals, and  could  affect  local  ground  water

quality.   Proper  construction of the pad minimizes seepage from

the heap.
                              4-32

-------
4.3.4
Air Quality


Uranium  mining  and  milling  produce  two  types  of  air—borne

contaminants—  gaseous  wastes  and  fugitive   dust.    Typical

air—borne emissions from mills are listed on Table 4.3.


Gaseous  wastes result from the combustion of fuels in mining and

from vaporization of mill process fluids.   Mining  equipment  is

frequently   diesel  or  gasoline  powered,  and  the  combustion

products  are  discharged  to  the  atmosphere.   The  combustion

products  of  concern are unburned hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide,

nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides, and suspended particulates.   The

quantity  of  combustion gases released to the atmosphere depends

on the number, size and types  of  mine  equipment  used  and  is

increased by on—site generation of process steam and electricity.

Typical air—borne emissions from heavy  equipment  are  given  on

Table 4.4.


Although  fuels  presently  used  for  on—site  generation  (e.g.,

propane and light fuel oil) are relatively clean, use of coal  in

the future may result in increased emissions of sulfur oxides and

particulates.  Gaseous wastes occur in the milling process in the

form of vaporized fluids.  These wastes occur in the process area

itself  (that is, the mill building) and from  pond  and  tailings

impoundment  surfaces.   Since  the  majority  of  uranium  mills

operate with an acid leach circuit,  more  experience  with  this

process  is available than for the other listed processes.  Fluid

vaporization from alkaline leaching circuits has  been  estimated

to be very low.  Ammonia releases from in—situ leaching  (ammonium
                             4-33

-------
Process Liquids Vaporization

     Sulfur trioxide

     Hydrocarbons

     Chlorine

     Ammonia
  Acid. Leach



0.2-2 Ib/day

100 - 180 Ib/day

0.2 - 0.4 Ib/day
                                                   Alkaline Leach
              In-Situ Leach
Heap Leach

ME
NE
NE3
NE NE
NE NE
                                          55 - 80
Yellowcake Dust

Fugitive Dust from
 Dry Tailings Surface
0.25 - 5 Ib/day

O.A - 4 Ib/acre-hr
2.5 Ib/day

0.4-A.lb/acre-hr
     3

     3
         Hydrocarbons are primarily kerosene with small amounts of amines and alcohols

         Based on ammonium carbonate as the llxlviant

         Values not reported but would be within range for an acid leach mill of similar size

         SOURCE:  Compiled by SWEC
   Table 4-3
   Typical Airborne Emissions from Uranium Mills

-------
                                                   Surface Mine
Underground Mine
I
Co
en
           Carbon Monoxide



           Hydrocarbons



           Nitrogen Oxides



           Sulfur Oxides



           Suspended Particulates
Mining
Ib/day
295
36
485
36
17
Stripping
Ib/day
328
54
539
40
19
Ib/day
42
7
68
5
3
           * Reported values increased  to  the next whole number





           SOURCE:   EPA,  Assessment  of  Environmental Aspects of Uranium Mining and Milling,



                    EPA 600/7-76-036, December  1976
           Table 4-4

           Estimated Emissions from Heavy Equipment at Surface and Underground

           Mines

-------
carbonate  lixiviant)  are  primarily  from   lixiviant   storage



treatment and disposal pond surfaces.





Fugitive  dust  is  produced  in both mining and milling.  In the



mining process, it is produced from vehicular traffic   (primarily



ore  transport),  and  its  impact  is  generally  limited to the



vicinity of  the  mine  and  haul  roads,  except  under  adverse



meteorological   conditions.   Mining  also  produces  dust  from



overburden and ore handling.  In the milling process,  yellowcake



dust  can be released.into the atmosphere.  The primary impact of



fugitive dust  is  discussed  under  the  effects  of  mining  on



vegetation in Section 4.3.5. .





Reducing Air Quality Impacts





Mitigation   measures  to  contain  gaseous  wastes  are  usually



unnecessary because the quantities released into .the  atmosphere



are  small  and  have  little  impact on ambient air quality.  In



addition, fuels used for combustion are  relatively  clean  fuels



such  as propane and light fuel oil, although burning of coal may



increase in the future.  Vaporization of process fluids generally



occurs  at  a  low rate, and the impact on ambient air quality is



negligible.  Some organics  (mostly kerosene)  may be contained  in



the  mill tailings and can evaporate; however, since the quantity



of organics is low and evaporation is primarily from the  surface



of  the  tailings area, the rate of release is low and the impact



on ambient air quality is also negligible.





Fugitive  dust  from  vehicular  traffic  and  ore  crushing  and
                              4-36

-------
handling may be minimized by using wet processes and dust—removal

equipment.


Yellowcake  dust resulting from drying and packaging is generally

recovered, and the impact  on  suspended  particulate  levels  is

negligible.

43.5
Biology and Soils

Loss  and displacement of soils and destruction of vegetation and

wildlife habitat are impacts of mining and milling.  The  removal

of vegetation and soils from disturbed areas represents a loss of

primary biological productivity on  which  the  local  ecosystems

depend..  Some  areas,  such as the mine and waste dumps, will be

temporarily distrubed and will be reclaimed during mining.  Other

areas,  such  as the mill site, tailings disposal area and roads,

will be reclaimed after operations cease.


Soils are severely disrupted by most mining activities.  Soils as

pedogenic units have developed into horizons by natural processes

of  weathering  and  biological  activity.   These soil units are

destroyed by removal, transport, and stockpiling.  The  character

of  replaced  soils  will change and, if left stockpiled for long

periods of time, will lose the  soil  organisms  responsible  for

decomposition   and  nutrient  cycling.   These  soil  biological

processes are only  slowly  restored  in  soils,  and  may  cause

reduced   plant  growth  during  the  early  revegetation  stage.

Fertilizing can partially compensate for the  reduced  biological

soil activity.  Vegetation can be affected from dust deposited on

leaf surfaces, which may reduce plant vigor.  This occurs usually


                             4-37

-------
along  dirt  roads  and  in the immediate vicinity of mines.  The



problem is minimal and of short duration.





Wildlife  effects  are related first to direct loss of animals by



construction and mining activities and, secondly, by the loss  of



food  and  shelter  when  plant  cover and habitat are destroyed.



There is permanent loss of habitat during the life of  a  project



by  roads  and  buildings,  and  mostly a temporary loss of areas



disturbed by mining activity,  such  as  an  open—pit  operation.



Underground  mines  generally disrupt such small acreage that the



effect on wildlife is insignificant.  Increased human populations



and  travel to mining and milling activities impact wildlife such



as large mammals and predators that are  not  tolerant  of  human



disturbances.  Other problems are associated with increased human



activity and include poaching and  shooting  of  animals  in  the



vicinity  of  remote  projects, increased traffic and road kills,



and the use of off-road vehicles.





Mine dewatering may occasionally create temporary aquatic habitat



where none previously existed.  The effect of new aquatic habitat



may  increase  production  and provide habitats for waterfowl and



aquatic organisms.  One possible detrimental effect of additional



water is that the survival of wildlife that may come to depend on



it would be threatened  by  its  removal  (Wyoming  Game &  Fish,



personal communication).








The  impacts  on  biology and soils can be reduced by reclamation



procedures, as discussed in Section 4.5.
                              4-38

-------
4.4
Radiological Impacts

iMan  is  subjected  to  low-level exposure from natural radiation
sources that are a  part  of  the  natural  ambient  environment.
These  uncontrollable exposures result from radioactive materials
in the earth's crust, radionuclides in air and water, and  cosmic
radiation   (EPA, 1977).  As a result also of man's activities, he
is subjected to additional exposure,  which  can  be  controlled.
These   radiations  have  been  called  technologically  enhanced
natural  radiation   (TENR)  to  distinguish  them  from   natural
terrestrial  and  cosmic  radiation  (EPA, 1977).  TENR can result
from a number of  sources,  including  weapons  testing,  medical
treatment  and diagnosis, uranium mining and milling, fertilizer,
supersonic air travel at high altitudes, and  burning  of  fossil
fuels,

In   uranium  mining  and  milling,  only  10—15 percent  of  the
radioactive  material  in  the  ore  is  removed;  the  remaining
85—90 percent   remains   in   mill  tailings.   The  mining  and
processing increases the potential for TENR to human  populations
and  ecosystems  in  the  vicinity  of  uranium  projects. .  Such
exposure has the potential,  if  not  controlled,  of  increasing
genetic  and  somatic  effects,  such as cancer in occupationally
exposed workers and  others  near  a  mine  or  mill.   The  dose
commitment  to populations around uranium mines and mills is only
a fraction of natural radiation doses and is also much less  than
medical   radiation   doses.   Quantitative  comparisons  between
radiation dose from natural background  radiation,  from  medical

                            4-39

-------
sources  and  from uranium facilities are provided for a proposed



uranium mill in the Chapter U appendix.





The annual dose commitments to individuals and populations in the



vicinity of a uranium mill are predicted and  supplied  with  the



application  for  a new or continued NEC Source Material License.



Included in the supporting data are radiation dose rates from the



natural  environment  in the area and a comparison of annual dose



commitments -to individuals with respect to  existing  and  future



regulations.    These  data  provide  a  perspective  as  to  the



contribution from new or continued operations.





A -summary of dose rates from the natural environment is presented



on  Table U.S.   The  existing  radiation  environment  shown  is



composed   mainly   of  secondary  cosmic  radiation,  cosmogenic



radioactivity and terrestrial radioactivity  and  radiation  from



offsite   sources  such  as  other  uranium  mining  and  milling



operations.  The specific dose rates for  the  natural  radiation



sources  of  exposure are contained in the referenced.  NRC Draft



Environmental Statement, NttREG—0439, April 1978.





For -Wyoming  the radiation dose equivalent rate from the natural



environment  is  estimated  to  be  about  185 mrem   per   year.



Additional site-specific natural radiation background data may be



required, especially that concerning the radon level for the area



to detail the site-specific levels for the project..





The  evaluation  of  radiological impacts is in part based on the



predicted annual dose commitments to the  whole  body,  skeleton,



lungs, and bronchial epithelium resulting from normal operations.






                              4-40

-------
Dose, mrem/yr

Source of Exposure
Cosmic radiation
Direct
Co smog en ic radionuclides
Terrestrial radiation
Internally deposited radionuclides
Inhaled radionuclides (chiefly Rn-222)
Total Dose Rate

Whole-Body

77
1
88
20
___
186

Bone

77
1
70
45
_ -
193

Lung

77
1
88
20
1.0C
187
Bronchial
Epithelium

-
-
-
-
625
625
      These doses are typical of the general region; exposure levels fluctuate from area
      to area, and other data may vary because of  this.

      Outdoor dose equivalent rates; shielding from building structures  is not accounted for.

      Inhalation dose due to radon daughters is expressed as dose to the bronchial epithelium.
SOURCE: Adapted from U.S. Huclear Regulatory Commission, DES NUREG-0439 pg 2-29 April 1978.
    Table 4-5
    Summary of Typical Radiation Dose Rates from the Natural Environment in the Wyoming area

-------
Table 4—6 summarizes the predictions for dose commitments for  an



operation  in  which  burial of tailings in clay—lined pits above



the water table would be used.   The  predictions  indicate  that



they are less than the present NRG dose limits for members of the



public outside of the restricted areas  (10 CFR Part 20; Standards



for  Protection  Against Radiation) and the proposed EPA standard



for annual  dose  commitment  (40 CFR 190).   In  this  case  the



nearest  permanent  resident  was 6.8 miles north of the proposed



mill (NRG, NUREG-0439, April 1973).





The population dose commitments were also calculated and found to



be "only small fractions"  of  the  dose  received  from  natural



background  radiation  and  "also  small"  when  compared  to the



average medical and dental X—ray exposures currently given to the



public  for  diagnostic  purposes  (NRG, NUREG-0439, April 1978).



The EPA standard does not yet specify the value  for  doses  from



222Rn daughters.





The  principal radiological concerns related to uranium mines and



mills are:
            « Movement of radionuclides in the environment



            • Biological effects of radiation



            • Control of radioactive wastes and emissions
                              4-42

-------
 Receptor Organ
Estimated Annual
Dose Commitments,
     mrem/yr
        Radiation Protec-
          tion  Standard,
            mrem/yr
                                                                       Fraction of
                                                                        Standard
Whole body

Lung

Bone

Bronchial epithelium



Whole body

Lung

Bone

Bronchial epithelium
 0.08

 0.28

 0.26
PRESENT NRC REGULATION (10 CFR 20)

              500

              1500

              3000
 0.0000145  (WL)                 0.033 (WL)

              FUTURE EPA STANDARD (40 CFR 190)

 0.08                         25

 0.28                         25
 0.26
 0.0000145  (WL)
               25
               NA
0.02

0.02

0.009

0.04



0.3

1.1

1.0

NAb
  Radiation standards for exposures to Rn-222 and daughter products are expressed  in Working
  Level (WL).  WL means the  amount of any combination  of short-lived radioactive decay products
  of Rn-222 in one liter of  air that will release 1.3  x 10-> mega electron volts of alpha
  particle energy during their radioactive decay to Pb-210 (radium D).

  Not applicable, since 40 CFR 190 does not include doses from Rn-222 daughters.
c
  Nearest private residence  6.8 miles north of proposed mill.


SOURCE:  USNRC, DES, NUREG-0439, April 1978.
Table 4-6
Comparison of Annual Dose Commitments to Individuals  with Radiation
Protection Standards

-------
4.4.1

Movement of Radionuclides in the Environment




Uranium  ore contains naturally occurring isotopes of the element



and a series of radioactive  progeny  which  are  formed  by  the



radioactive  decay of parent materials.  These radionuclides have



the potential for movement in the environment through a number of



pathways.    A  generalized  scheme  illustrating  the  principal



radionuclide transport pathways around uranium mines and mills is



given  on  Figure 4—1.   The  boxes  represent  compartments,  or



"reservoirs," which contain radioactive materials, and the arrows



represent flows or transfers between the compartments.  The major



processes or mechanisms which cause such transfers are indicated.



Not all possible transfer pathways are shown in order to simplify



the diagram, but the pathways that are usually of major  interest
                                                           f


are  given.   The  radionuclides  of  principal  concern are also



indicated  for  some  of   the   pathways.    While   losses   of



radionuclides  may  occur in the system depicted by dispersion in



air and water, these losses  are  not  shown.   A  more  detailed



description  of  the  radionuclides  involved and their transport



pathways is given in the Chapter 4 appendix.





The  abundance  of  these .radioactive materials depends primarily



upon the grade of the ore, which in turn is  dependent  upon  the



geological  and  geochemical history of the ore deposit.  The ore



body, when exposed to the environment through mining,  can  serve



as  a  source  of  radioactivity.   Dissemination  of radioactive



material from an ore body may occur by three mechanisms:
                               4-44

-------
^.
Ln
                                                                                                                         SOURCE:  Whicker and Johnson,  1978
           NOTE:

       IKE RADIOACTIVE ELEIENTS OF PR III ART CONCERN ARE
       INDICATED Bt ORDER OF IMPORTANCE IN PARENTHESES.

           RnO • DAUGHTERS OF 222Rn. U • 23BU.
        '   Tn.230.234It).  Ri-226Bj  P1) . 2IOP|))

           AND Po - 2IOPO.

SION OF
ICLfS



Mine & Mill
1
SEEPAGE



f SURFACI

Ground Water

1
RADON EMANATION
                                                                 t IAIER TABLE
                                                                                                                                       INGESTION
                                                                                                                                                ADSORPTION
                                                                                                                                                I UPTAKE
                                                                                                                                         L
                                                                                                                                          Aquatic
                                                                                                                                        Invertebrates
                                                                                                                                           INGESTION
                                                                                                                                          INGESTION
                                                                                                                                          (Ra.Pu.Po)
                Figure 4-1
                Transport and Movement of Radionuclides to Man

-------
  • Emanation of radon gas

  • Movement   of   radionuclide-bearing  particles  from  the
    surface of the ore body by physical disturbance

  • Leaching of the ore body by mobile ground water
Radon gas  (222Rn) a daughter product of the uranium decay series,

can emanate from the ore body and reach the atmosphere as soon as

the  ore  is exposed in a shaft or open pit.  Radon also emanates

from the ore in transit and in stockpiles.   The  rate  of  radon

release  is greater with higher grade ore, increased porosity and

exposure to the atmosphere.  The decay of 222Rn forms a .series of

radioactive daughter products whose fate depends largely upon the

dispersion characteristics of the air in  contact  with  the  ore

body and the physical nature of the surroundings.


The  movement  of  radioactive particles of ore from the ore body

depends upon the physical characteristics of  the  ore,  such  as

texture  and  cohesiveness  and the physical disturbance to which

the  ore  surface  is  exposed.   Dry  ore  sometimes   generates

considerable  quantities of radioactiva dust as it is mined.  Ore

stockpiled on the  surface,  awaiting  the  milling  process,  is

subject  to  wind  erosion,  particularly  if it crumbles to form

loose particles.  Radioactive emissions may result from  crushing

and  grinding of ore, yeliowcake drying and disposal of tailings,

which contain only a little less radioactivity than the  raw  ore

(except for uranium).


Like- exposed  ore  bodies,  mill  tailings  are subject to radon
                              4-46

-------
emanation, erosion by precipitation and  wind  resuspension,  and



leaching  of  radionuclides  into the ground water.  Tailings are



also subject to limited invasion by plants and animals  that  can



transport  radionuclides.  The chemical processes within the mill



may convert some of the radioactive materials in tailings to more



soluble, biologically mobile forms than were in the ore.






The   actual  'quantities   of   radionuclides  released  to  the



environment from uranium mines and  mills  are  subject  to  many



variables  and therefore differ.from site to site.  However, some



data are available on estimated or  measured  release  rates  for



currently  operating  mines  and  mills.  Data for mills are more



plentiful than for mines.





The  major  pathways  by which radionuclides are dispersed to the



environment are (1) aerial transport of dusts and gases  and  (2)



liquid   discharges    (see   Appendix).  •  Aerial   transport  of



radionuclides  may  extend  well  beyond  the  boundaries  of  an



operating  facility.   Some  approximate  figures  estimated  for



airborne release rates from various sources at "model" or typical



uranium  mills  in  New  Mexico  and  Wyoming  are  presented  in



Table 4—7.  It is  evident that the release rates vary  by  source



and  that  222Rn release rates are far greater than for the other



radionuclides.  This immediately calls  attention  to  'radon  and



progeny  for radiation exposure to populations in the environs of



a uranium mill.





There  are  different  contributions  by source between acid— and



alkaline-leach  mills,  but  the  total  release  quantities  are
                              4-47

-------
ore crusher & bins
yellow cake
tailings pond
tailings beach
5
85
-
1
5
1
-
5
5
2
-
9
5 5
2
-
1 8
5 5 37,000
- - -
166,000
8 8 3,240,000
     Source
U
"°Ra   234Th   2l0Pb   210PO   21°Bi   222Rn
     Totals                91     11       16        8       13       13       13    3,443,000
           *The values  are  in mCi/year and represent averages of acid-leach and
            alkaline leach  processes.
           rt
            Values calculated for operating model mills near the end of their  expected
            life of 20  years.

           SOURCE:  Adapted from Sears, et al. (1975).
Table 4-7
Estimated Airborne Release Rates of Radionuclides from Model Uranium Mills in New Mexico
and Wyoming

-------
similar  (Sears et al., 1975).  The length of operating time of a



mill also  affects  the  effluent  releases,  with  the  greatest



potential  releases  occurring  near the end of the expected mill



life of 20 years when  several  million  tons  of  tailings  have



accumulated.





Specific figures for airborne release rates of radionuclides from



mines are not readily available.  In underground mines, radon  is



released   from   the  mine  ventilation  systems  in  measurable



quantities,  but  few   reliable   measurements   are   currently



available.  In large open-pit mines which have exposed ore bodies



that are porous, relatively dry, and spread over a large  surface



area,  the  222Rn  emanation  rates  could approach those of mill



tailings systems.





Liquid  releases  of radionuclides outside the confines of a mill



tailings complex through seepage have been estimated below:
r

Release Rates of Radionuclides to the Ground Water
(From Acid-Leach and Alkaline-Leach Mill Tailings
Values in mCi/year
Process
Acid-leach
Alkaline-leach
Source: Adopted
U 226Ra 23QTh 2*opb 21°
660 51 18,000 51 5
690 7 1 6
from Sears et al. (1975)
A
Seepage
Ponds)
Po 21°Bi
1 51
1 7

                              4-49

-------
The  values  shown  in  the  table  are  based  on using tailings

material for the tailings dam.  In this case the  assumption  was

made  that  10 percent  of  the radionuclides in untreated liquid

waste was lost by seepage from the tailings  pond.   Other  cases

were  examined  which  assumed a combination of careful siting of

the tailings disposal dam, use of  earth  embankments  with  clay

cores  and  treatment  of  the liquid waste.  The assumed loss of

radionuclides for these  various  combinations  was  considerably

less, about 0.1 percent of the radionuclides in untreated wastes.

These combinations and assumptions are tabulated by sears et  al.

(1975) .
4.4.2
Accidental Releases
Careful  design  of  uranium processing facilities is required to

avoid   accidental   releases   involving    radionuclide-bearing

materials.   Several  systems or processes have the potential for

accidental releases.  These include the release of mill  tailings

solids  or  slurry  which have the potential for dissemination of

the radionuclides and contamination of affected  areas.   Failure

of the air cleaning system used in yellowcaJce drying and drumming

may  result  in  release  of  radioactive  materials   into   the

atmosphere..  Transportation mishaps also may result in localized

yellowcaJce spills.  Because of the radioactive  nature  of  these

releases  they  must  have  thorough  cleanup and decontamination

procedures.   The  potential  for  accidental  chemical  releases

should  be  considered  also. .  For example, reagents used in ore


                          4-50

-------
processing may escape because of  a  rupture  in  a  line  or  by

seepage from a faulty tank.


Operators  of uranium mines and mills have the responsibility for

cleaning up and decontamination of affected areas.  The plans and

contingency   procedures   for  treatment  of  spills  caused  by

accidents need to be coordinated with local and state authorities

that may have their own emergency procedures.


In  general, accidental releases occur because of improper design

or operation or as a result of catastrophic events such as fires,

floods,  windstorms  or earthquakes.  Recent tailings spills have

been attributed to inadequate design.  Examples of  these  spills

are:
  • Several  leaks  in a slurry pipeline prevented development
    of the tailings beach at the upstream  face  of  the  dam.
    (The slimes in the beach tend to seal the face and contain
    the liquids.)  In this instance, the liquids leaked through
    the dam.

  • A break in a pipe went undetected for several hours during
    which time the dam eroded causing a  breach  and  loss  of
    tailings downstream.

  • During  the winter months the height of the embankment was
    .increased  with  dirt  containing   snow   and   moisture.
    Coincident  with  the  onset  of  milder  temperatures the
    tailings water was in direct contact with the  embankment.
    A  section  of the embankment failed and flooded a portion
    of the mill.
Most accidental releases can be prevented by judicious design and

maintenance of safe conditions.  However, accidental releases may

occur  due  to  natural  events beyond the control of the mine or
                              4-51

-------
mill operator.  The frequency of occurrence and  severity   of   the

releases  can  be  predicted  and  analyzed  by  using probability

statistics and experience  from  similar  operations.   Potential

affects  of the releases can be evaluated and emergency plans  and

procedures prepared.
4.4.3
Biological Effects of Radiation Dose
Estimates  of  biological  effects  can  be made by predicting  or

measuring the radiation dose to populations in areas adjacent   to

mine  or  mill sites and relating the dose to biological effects.

Prediction of dose first requires the collection of  quantitative

data on source terms, which describe the quantities and nature  of

various radionuclides released through time and the circumstances

of  the  releases.  Second, environmental transport .pathways must

be understood,  and  quantitative  parameters  must  be  used   to

describe   dispersion,  deposition,  adsorption,  ingestion,  and

inhalation.  Third, the distribution  and  retention  of  various

radionuclides  in  the  tissues  of organisms must be understood.

Finally, the dose in units of rads or  rems  must  be  calculated

from  the  tissue  concentrations.  Dose is usually translated  to

expected effects on the basis  of  the  studies   (NAS/NRC,   1972)

dealing with the biological effects of ionizing radiation.


Because  of  the  numerous steps involved in calculating dose and

its. variability with  time  and  location,  it  is  important   to

validate  theoretically  predicted  doses by periodic sampling  of

biota  and  radiochemical   measurement   of   radionuclides    in
                          4-52

-------
biological  tissues.   Such  validation is possible for operating

mines  and  mills  -and  can  be  used  in  the  adjustments   and

modifications  necessary in the development of predictive models.

Validated models for a given mine or mill can be used  with  care

to  predict the radiological effects of comparable mines or mills

in similar ecological settings.   In  this  fashion,  operational

experience can be used effectively to guide further growth of the

industry in an environmentally acceptable manner.
 4.4.4
 Control of Radioactive Wastes
Release  of  radioactive materials in uranium mines and mills can

be controlled by several means.   Dust  containing  radionuclides

from  exposed  ore,  haul roads, and stockpiles can be reduced by

watering or applying chemical stabilizers.  Dust  and  yeliowcake

can  be  removed from the air in mills by filtering or scrubbing,

and gaseous effluents may be released through stacks  to  promote

dispersion.   Mill  floors  can be sloped to a sump where spilled

materials can be collected and mill tailings can be. discharged to

a lined impoundment where all liquids are contained.


When  operations  cease,  tailings  can  be  carefully graded and

covered with sufficient overburden and topsoil  to  reduce  radon

release.   Seeding  and fencing of the area completes the initial

stabilization.  Continued irrigation may be required to establish

vegetative growth.


The  NRC position is that underground disposal is one of the most

environmentally  acceptable  means  of  tailings  disposal   (NRG,
                              4-53

-------
Branch Position, May 1977).   Underground disposal would eliminate
the  problem  of  erosion  and,   with   sufficient   cover,    the
radiological  hazards.    This  method may also be cost effective.
Potential problems related to  ground  water  contamination   were
previously  noted.   The  NRG  is  suggesting  as  an option  that
tailings be dewatered to about 20 percent moisture  and  disposed
into either an open pit or back into an excavation.

4.5
Reclamation, Stabilization and Decommissioning
Most  states  require  reclamation  of  lands affected by mining,
milling and waste disposal.   The objective of reclamation is  to
return  these lands to  their former use or to a more biologically
productive use.  Many states require that a reclamation  plan  be
submitted  and approved before a permit to mine or a uranium  mill
license is  issued.   In  Wyoming,  for  example,  the  plan   and
supporting information  must satisfy statutes, rules, regulations,
standards and guidelines of the state Environmental  Quality   Act
of  1973,  as  amended, the state Land Quality Division Rules and
Regulations  of  1975,   the  Nuclear  Regulatory  Commission   (10
CFR 40)   and  Regulatory  Guide 3.8w   In instances where federal
lands are  involved,  U.S.  Geological  Survey  and  U.S. Forest
Service regulations would apply.  The scope of a reclamation  plan
generally   includes    decommissioning,    stabilization,    and
reclamation  of the mine and mill site and tailings disposal  area
as well as the procedures necessary for establishing plant growth
and restoration of the  hydrological features of the site.

Mine  reclamation,  particularly  for open pit mines, is becoming
                              4-54

-------
increasingly important in the feasibility, planning and costs  of

open—pit   mining.    Contouring,   high—wall   elimination   and

back—filling requirements are  important  considerations.   State

regulations and interpretations vary greatly.  The estimated cost

of reclamation is the basis for  a  surety  bond  arrangement  to

insure  that  reclamation  and  decommissioning  are  carried out

according to the reclamation plan.


At the present time  (1978), the KRC is requiring operators of new

projects   to   update   or   change   their   reclamation    and

decommissioning  plans,  especially for mill tailings management,

as  information  is  developed  either  from  the   NEC   Generic

Environmental  Impact  Statement  on  uranium milling or from new

research.

4.5.1
Reclamation

Planning  for  reclamation  of  affected  lands  begins  with  an

inventory of the project area soil and overburden, its vegetation

and  a  determination  of  the suitability of the soil to support

plant growth.  In addition, the water  quality  and  affinity  of

wildlife for the vegetative species of the area is also evaluated

(Wyoming  Department  of  Environmental  Quality,  Land   Quality

Division,  Guidelines  Nos. 1—6,  1976—J 8) .   As  an  example  of

reclamation planning, Wyoming requires  a  pre—mining  vegetation

inventory   that   includes  a  quantitative  estimate  of  plant

productivity  for .evaluating  post—mining   reclamation. .   This

involves   various   state  agencies  depending  on  the  proposed

post—mining land use;  for  instance,  state  fish  and  wildlife
                             4-55

-------
personnel  must  be  consulted  where  wildlife  habitat is to be



restored.





The topsoil is especially critical to reclamation in arid regions



of the West.  In some areas these soils are  not  well.  developed



and  not  present  in  sufficient amounts to1 adequately cover the



affected  areas.   Consequently,  overburden  may  be  used  with



stockpiled   soil   in   combination   with   soil  conditioners,



fertilizers and chemical stabilizers.   The  objective  of  these



additions  is  to  promote  retention  of moisture and air and to



provide support and nourishment for plant growth.





The  re—establishment 'of  native  grasses,  shrubs  and forbs is



essential  for  wildlife  habitat,  since   the   grassland   and



agricultural crops may not be particularly beneficial to wildlife



in some areas.   Recontouring  to  provide  varied  terrain  also



enhances diverse wildlife populations.





The  Soil  Conservation  Service  has  prepared  recommended seed



mixtures that are best suited to climatic and soil conditions  in



different  areas,  of  the ^est; hovever, where overburden is used



without  proper  conditioning,   the   overburden   may   .inhibit



infiltration and result in buildup of clay soils.  The clay soils



are not conducive to plant growth  and  are  subject  to  surface



erosion, which can increase sediment loads into watercourses.





The  availability of water is a key factor in reclamation.  Water



must be available to supplement the natural rainfall to establish



the  initial  plant  growth.  Although irrigation practices vary.
                             4-56

-------
once the vegetation is established it can grow without irrigation



within a few seasons.





Reclaimed  areas  are generally protected from grazing by fencing



for at least two growing seasons to allow the  plants  to  become



established.   Release of surety bonds is dependent on this final



step in reclamation.





For  an open pit mine and a mill, reclamation may be required for



the following:
       • Mine pit



       • Overburden and topsoil storage areas



       • Ore stockpile areas



       • Waste or refuse disposal areas



       • Mill tailings impoundment



       • Embankments or impoundment basin



       • Drainage conduit and control structures



       • Shop and mill areas



       • Processing areas external to the mill
                                      'j


       • Access and haul roads



       • Other affected lands
Reclamation  of  mined  areas begins and continues during mining.



Typically, reclamation of the mine pit begins shortly  after  the



initial  stripping  operations have been completed and sufficient



ore has been removed to permit backfilling of the overburden into



the  pit.   The overburden is graded and shaped to permit topsoil
                              4-57

-------
 spreading,  seedbed  preparation,  and  seeding  at the  start   of   the



 next   growing   season.   Some haul roads may  be ripped, graded  and



 prepared  as a  seedbed for revegetation as the mine  pit  advances.



 Also,   as   some  mill  tailings  impoundment  or disposal areas  are



 filled to  capacity,  the  liquids  are  allowed  to evaporate and   the



failings    are  stabilized  and  revegetated.   ether  areas   are



 reclaimed  using similar  procedures at the time the  mine and  mill



 operations cease and the facilities  are decommissioned.





 The  overall  cost   of   reclamation  may  include the cost of  the



 following  elements;  the  combination  of these costs  depends on  the



 area and  project site specifics:
        «  Topscil  and  overburden moving and  segregation



        •  Overburden dump  shaping



        •  Topsoil  spreading



        «  Tailings burial



        •  Settling pond  and  mill site  filling



        •  Fertilizing



        •  Seedbed  preparation



        •  Seeding  and  seed



        •  Placement of special  stabilization materials



        •  Decommissioning
 An  ongoing  monitoring  and maintenance  program may not  be required



 if   it    can   be    demonstrated   that    the    reclamation    and



 decommissioning  effort has  produced a stable area  free from  wind
                                4-58

-------
and water erosion or other distrubance, and that the  radioactive

and toxic materials are sufficiently contained.

4.5.2
Stabilization

A  variety  of  methods  may  be  used  to stabilize the topsoil,

overburden or spoil that are stockpiled and used  in  reclamation

of  mined  areas.   The  topsoil  can support vegetation quickly,

although  irrigation  and  plant  nutrients  may  be  needed   to

establish  plant  growth.  Overburden and spoil may be stabilized

by covering with topsoil and  by  revegetation.   The  piles  are

graded to a slope of less than 3:1 to reduce surface water runoff

erosion.


The  mill  tailings pose special problems because the waste still

contains 'more than. 85 percent of the total radioactivity that was

present  in  the  original  ore.   Therefore,  stabilization  and

reclamation of tailings  require  special  consideration  of  the

long—term   potential   hazards  of  radioactivity  and  possible

chemical  toxicity.   While  the  tailings  retention  system  is

active,  surface  stabilization  is less of a problem because the

sands and 'slimes are covered by liquid  except  at  the  tailings

beach.  After mill operations are complete, the liquid evapora-ces

and the surface becomes dry.  Wind  related  processes,  such  as

saltation,  can  erode  the  surface,  resulting  in  radioactive

particles being carried away from the impoundment.  Covering  the

surface  with  overburden  and either rip—rap  (rock cover) and/or

vegetation   effectively   stabilizes   the   surface;   however,

additional  measures  may  be  taken  to  provide protection from
                              4-59

-------
radiation, as evidenced by the recent objectives of the  NRC  and

EPA.


The  NRC  Branch  Position  of  May 1977 requires the operator to

minimize erosion, radon emanation and direct gamma radiation from

tailings  after  operations  cease.   This  can  be  accomplished

through tailings removal and below—grade burial, if justified, or

through  a  covering  with  uncontaminated  overburden  and soil.

Specific performance objectives include:
  • Reduction   of   direct   gamma   radiation   to  a  level
    indistinguishable from background in the area

  • Reduction  of  the  radon emanation rate from the tailings
    area to  a  level  no  greater  than  twice  that  of  the
    surrounding area

  • Elimination  of  the  need  for  an ongoing monitoring and
    maintenance program following successful reclamation

  • Provision of surety arrangements to assure that sufficient
    funds are available to complete the full reclamation plan
It  can  be  shown  by  calculation  that  the  first performance

objective, reduction of direct gamma radiation, can  be  achieved

by  covering  the  surface  of  tailings  piles  with  overburden

material.  Cover in excess of 3 feet can be  expected  to  reduce

the gamma radiation levels to nearly background.


Reduction  of  the radon emanation rate can also be achieved by a

cover of overburden.   The  magnitude  of  this  reduction  is  a

function of overburden depth and porosity to gaseous flow.  Since

clay is less  permeable  to  gases  than  coarser  materials,  it


                              4-60

-------
provides  a  tetter  barrier to the flow of gases and liquids.  A



clay cap of approximately one-foot-thick covered with 5 1/2  feet



of  overburden will reduce radon emanation by a factor of roughly



100 (NEC, NUREG-0129, 1977)  which  should  meet  the  performance



objective.   Without the clay cap, some 15 feet of overburden may



be required to produce the same reduction  (Whicker  and  Johnson,



1978) .





Current  design  objectives for tailings impoundments provide for



total containment and the control of the release of material into



the environment.  Erosion and seepage of solutions are controlled



by dams and by lining the tailings ponds  with  either  bentonite



clay  or  an artificial liner.  Dikes, berm's, and water diversion



channels prevent erosion into natural drainages.  Wind erosion is



controlled  by keeping the tailings constantly wet or by chemical



stabilization of the edges.  Fences control  animal  access,  and



pickett  type of drift fences can decrease wind velocities at the



surface.  Specific control-  measures  for  tailings  impoundments



being installed include covering the tailings with overburden and



soil to a depth of 6 to 15 feet,  bulldozing  the  edges  of  the



tailings  toward  the  center to reduce the area to be reclaimed;



and revegetating.





Revegetation  of  tailings impoundments can pose special problems



if the plants create conditions that accelerate  the  release  of



radioactive  materials  from  the tailings.  Hendricks  (1977) has



postulated that.plants can  take  up  radionuclides  through  the



roots and release them to the environment  or be grazed by animals



that may be eaten by man.  Radon may also  be released through the
                              .4-61

-------
leaves  of  plants.  The alternative to revegetation is to riprap

the  surface  with  rock  or  otherwise  stabilize  the  tailings

surface.   Plants stabilize a soils surface, and since the period

of time in  which  radioactive  releases  are  a  concern  is  in

thousands   of  years,  stabilizing  the  tailings  surface  with

mechanical  means  is  only  a  short—term   solution.    Natural

processes  of soil formation and plant succession will revegetate

all but the most resistant rock surface in a few hundred years.


Use  of  tailings  impoundment  areas  after  reclamation  may be

restricted.  At the Bear Creek project.  Lucky  Me Uranium  Mill,

and  the  Sweetwater  Project,  the  NRC has placed the following

restrictions on the tailings disposal system (NRG,  NUREG — 0129,

0295, 0403, 1977):
 "1 The  holder  of  possessory  interest  will not permit the
    exposure  and  release  of  tailings  materials   to   the
    surrounding area.

  2 The  holder  of possessory interest will prohibit erection
    of any structures for occupancy by man or animals.

  3 Subdivision of the covered surface will be prohibited.

  4 No   private   roads,   rails,  or  rights—of—way  may  be
    established across the covered surface."
More  recently,  the  NRC has proposed burial of tailings in open

pits or excavations to solve the long—term problem of erosion and

radioactive releases.  This is in line with the NRC position that

future tailings disposal systems be  designed  to  eliminate  the

need  for  long—term monitoring and care.  At present there is no


                             4-62

-------
experience with this system of tailings disposal  and  there  has

been  no  evaulation  of  potential problems such as transport of

tailings and ground water contamination.  Nevertheless,  the  NRG

and  uranium  industry  are  currently evaluating this method for

technical and economic feasibility.


Continued  research  is  leading  to  a  better  understanding of

tailings   management.    Literature   dealing   with    tailings

rehabilitation  issues  includes Schiager, 1974; Goldsmith, 1976;

Bernhardt, Johns and Kaufmann, 1975; Kaufman, Eadie and  Russell,

1976; Scarano, 1977; Ford, Bacon and Davis Utah Inc., 1977.


4.5.3
Decommissioning


The  NEC  requires  a  decommissioning  plan, including estimated

costs and surety arrangements at the beginning of a  project.   A

more detailed plan is required near the end of the useful life of

the project (NRG, NUREG-0403, December 1977).   The  plan  for  a

mill may include:
  • Decontamination of the processing facilities

  • Disposal of fuels and chemicals

  • Dismantling and removal of buildings and structures  (power
    lines)

  • Burial of foundations

  • Covering  of  buried  materials,  grading,  covering  with
    topsoil and revegetating
                            4-63

-------
In  some  cases  selected buildings, structures,  roads,  wells and
flood control ponds may be left for future use by the land owner.
The  mill  site  area will be contoured,  layered  with topsoil and
also  revegetated.   Radiation  surveys  may  be    conducted   to
demonstrate  that  levels  of radioactivity are within prescribed
limits and that the decontamination procedures were successful.
4.6
Monitoring and Surveillance Programs
Federal  and  state  agencies require that monitoring programs be
designed  and  approved  before   any   significant   development
activities   begin   and  that  these  programs  continue  during
operations.  After operations cease  and  reclamation  procedures
are complete, surveillance of the project site may be required to
measure the success of reclamation and to  demonstrate  that  the
requirements  of the performance bond have been met.   As noted in
Section 3.5, NRG performance objectives  include   elimination  of
ongoing   monitoring   and   maintenance   following    successful
reclamation.
Preoperational  and operational monitoring programs are conducted
to predict and evaluate the impact of mine and mill   operations.
The major elements of the monitoring programs include:
  • Establishing sampling procedures, frequencies,  material to
    be collected, and types of analyses
  • Maintaining   accurate  records  in  an  accessible  form,
    including the traceability of samples
  •• Analyzing and interpreting data
  •• Periodically reviewing the results and updating programs
                            4-64

-------
NRC  prescribes  monitoring requirements in non—agreement states,

and agreement states pattern their programs after the  following:
  • NRC  Regulatory  Guide 3.8,  Preparation  of Environmental
    Reports For Uranium Mills  (1973)

  • NRC  Regulatory  Guide  4.14,  Measuring,  Evaluating, and
    Reporting  Radioactivity  in   Releases   of   Radioactive
    Materials  in  Liquid  and Airborne Effluents From Uranium
    Mills.  Distributed for comment, June 1977.

  • "Branch    Position    For   Preoperational   Radiological
    Environmental  Monitoring  Programs  For  Uranium   Mills"
    (1978)

  • "Proposed  Branch  Position  For  Operational Radiological
    Environmental  Monitoring  Programs  For  Uranium.  Mills"
    (1978)
V	
The  sampling  parameters  needed to satisfy the non-radiological

aspects of a uranium project are usually  similar  to  any  other

mining  project.   Sampling for radionuclides is conducted either

on a more frequent or continuous basis.

4.6.1
Preoperational Monitoring


The  objective  of  preoperational  monitor .ing  is to measure the

characteristics of the site prior to mining or mill  construction

activities.   The  impact  from these activities may be predicted

using modeling techniques and site measurements.  These data also

serve  as a reference for monitoring the impacts that result from

construction and operation.
                              4-65

-------
Section 6.0,   Effluent   and   Environmental   Measurements  and

Monitoring Programs, of  NRC  Regulatory  Guide 3.8,  sets  forth

objectives    and    information   needs   for   the   applicants

preoperational program for each of the following:
                   SURFACE WATERS

                   GROUND WATER
                   Physical and chemical parameters
                   Models

                   AIR
                   Meteorology
                   Models

                   LAND
                   Geology and soils
                   Land use and demographic surveys
                   Ecological parameters

                   RADIOLOGICAL SURVEYS
The  radiological  surveys  are  not classified further in the

Guide, but they may include:
                   External gamma radiation

                   Radionuclides in soils

                   Radioactivity analyses of water

                   Biological radioactivity

                   Airborne radioactive dust

                   Radon in air
                             4-66

-------
Instrumentation,   scheduling,   techniques  and  procedures  are

emphasized in Section 6.0 of Regulatory Guide 3.8.


The   NEC   Branch   Position   for  preoperational  radiological

environmental monitoring programs specifies the need for data  on

background  radionuclide  concentrations and radiation dose rates

at the mill site and vicinity prior to operations.  The  data  is

required for:
  • Assessing  radiological  impacts  of  the  future  milling
    operations

  • Determining   compliance   with  applicable  environmental
    standards

  • Base line reference data at time of site decommissioning
The  data  from  the  program  may include many of the components

listed in the example  program  illustrated  in  the  NRC  Branch

Position.   In  general,  the  sampling  media,  the frequency of

sampling, and types  of  analyses  performed  will  be  continued

during   operational   monitoring.    Typically,   preoperational

monitoring begins  one  year  before  milling  operations  start.

Similarly,  this type of monitoring is conducted prior to mining.
                              4-67

-------
4.6.2
Operational Monitoring

The  elements  of  the  operational  program  also  set  forth  in

Section 6.0 of NRC Regulatory Guide 3.8 are:
              Mill-effluent monitoring

              Environmental Radiological Monitoring

              Chemical effluent monitoring

              Meteorological monitoring

              Ecological monitoring.
In the case where the proposed project includes a uranium mine, a

mine and  mill  effluent  monitoring  program  is  required.   An

example   of  an  operational  monitoring  program  is  shown  in

Table 4—8.  This example is a- proposed program fo.r the Sweetwater

Uranium Project, and therefore it may be modified somewhat by the

time it is finally approved by NRC.  The  environmental  elements

and  materials  sampled include all of the five elements cited in

the Regulatory Guide 3.8.


After  the  applicant  submitted  the  program,  the NRC issued a

proposed   Branch   Position   For    Operational    Radiological

Environmental   Monitoring   Programs  For  Uranium  Mills   (NRC,

Proposed Branch Position, 1978) .  The NRC  has  formally  defined

the   measurement   data  needs  for  radiation  dose  rates  and

radionuclide concentrations in the mill site environs.
                             4-68

-------
Environmental Element
4 Mutorial Sanolfd
Aabient Air
Suspended particles
Clean air
Effluent Air

Ground Vater
Monitor wells
Monitor wells
Tailings Liquid
Aabient Radiation
Direct external
arpoaura
Mine Devatericg
Discharge
Topsoil
Biota
Vegntation
Chemical parameters to
operations of the mill
s™.
Location
6 Locations, at least
3 downwind of the site
6 Locations, at least
3 downwind of the site
Tellovcake drier
and packaging stacks
All mill stacks
Roof vents, a-x bldg.
U-6 Locations near
tailings inpoundment
^-6 Locations near
mining & mill aitas,
including potable
water supply
Tailings pond
6 Locations
(soae as ambient air
stations)
Settling ponds outlet
6 Locations
6 Locations
(Sane aa soil)
be analyzed for will be
have bogun.
lii« Pro?™
Method
High voiuno
air saaplor
GRAB
0.5-2 L/min
for 1 week
Representative
GRAB
Representative
GRAB
GRAB
GRAB
GRAB
Thernc—
luminescent
dosiaeters •
GRAB
GRAB
(C-a»)
GRA3
dotorainetl froa

Fr«au»n~v
Continuous
Monthly
(1 week con-
tinuous per
month)
Seai-annually
Quarterly
Seai-annually
Annually
First year:
aonthly,
quarterly
Following yrs:
quarterly,
annually
First year:
quarterly,
annually
Following yrs:
semi-annually,
annually
Annually
Continuously
Per NFDES
Perait
Annually
Annually
Soople
Analysis
rr^uencv
Quarterly
(composite)
Monthly
Seai-annually
Quarterly
Semi-annually
Annually
Monthly
Quarterly
Quarterly
Annually
Quarterly
Annually
Seai-annually
Annually
Annually
Quarterly
Per NFDES
Perait
Annually
.Annually
an analysis of samples taken from
1
Isotope, Radiation, or
Chenicnl Identified
Total suspended particles,
0-nat, Ra-226, Th-230, and
Pb-210
Rn-222
Rn-222
Th-230, Ra-226
0-nat
0-nat, Total suspended
parti culates
Total hydrocarbons, NH
0-nat, Ra-226
Th-230, Pb-210, chenicals
U-nat, Ra-226
Th-230, Pb-210, chemicals"
0-nat, Ra-226
Th-230, Pb-210, chemicals*
U-nat, Ra-2S6
Pb-210, Th-230, cheaicala*
Pb-210, U-oat, Ra-226
Th-230, pH
Gaaoa, Beta
Per NPDZS Permit
(see Appendix D)
U-nat, Ra-226, Th-230
Pb-210, Gross
U-nat, Ra-226, Th-230
Pb-210
the tailings pond once
SOURC2I NRC, DES, NURBG-Oll03, Docomber 1977.
Table 4-8





Operational Monitoring Program
4-69

-------
  "These measurement data are needed:
    To  demonstrate  or  confirm  compliance  with  applicable
    environmental radiation standards and  regulations,  e.g.,
    10 CFR 20,  "Standards  for  Protection Against Radiation"
    and  40 CFR 190,   "Environmental   Radiation   Protection
    Standards  for  Nuclear Power Operations  (EPA Uranium Fuel
    Cycle Standards)."  Section 20.201 of  10 CFR 20  entitled
    "Surveys" requires that a licensee conduct such surveys of
    concentrations  of  radioactive  materials   as   may   be
    necessary  to demonstrate compliance with the regulations.

    For  use  by the NRG staff in evaluating the environmental
    impact of  the  radioactive  effluents  from  the  milling
    operations  including estimates of the potential radiation
    doses to the public.

    For  evaluation  by  the  NRC  staff  of  the adequacy and
    performance of effluent control  systems  and  procedures,
    including tailings retention systems."
The  NRC  stresses  effluent measurements off-site rather than at

the point of release because of the difficulty of  taking  direct

measurements  for  sources such as tailings piles and ore storage

pads.  The NRC lists several  essential  program  elements:  air,

water  soil,  and  vegetation  or  forage  sampling,  and  direct

radiation measurements.
  • AIR  SAMPLING -  Ambient air quality is sampled because of
    the  potential  radiological  hazard  from  airborne  ore,
    yellowcake  and  dusts as well as radon gas generated from
    radium contained in tailings.

  • WATER  SAMPLING -  Water is sampled because several of the
    radionuclides in the tailings may be leached and leave the
    site by ground water or surface water movement.

    Ground water must be collected from sampling wells located
    down gradient  around  the  designated "tailings  disposal
    area.   Hydrological data are used to place these wells in
    the predominant flow direction  away  from  the  site.   A
    control well is located upgradient above the tailings site
                               4-70

-------
    disposal area.  Drinking water or livestock well water  is
    also sampled.

    Surface   water   must   be  collected  from  large  water
    impoundments near the mill site that  may  be  subject  to
    surface   drainage  or  influenced  by  seepage  from  the
    tailings  site.   Samples  of  surface  water   are   also
    collected upstream and downstream of the mill site.
  • SOIL  SAMPLING -  Surface  soil  samples  are  taken  as a
    measure of area radioactivity contamination  due  to  site
    operations.   Contamination  could  result  from  airborne
    dispersion or transport due to liquid effluents or runoff.
    These  samples  are  taken  at  the same locations for air
    particulate samples.
  • VEGETATION  OR  FORAGE  SAMPLING -  Samples of plants that
    serve as  forage  for  local  wildlife  or  livestock  are
    important to collect for two reasons.  First, since plants
    generally have large surface areas, they are collectors of
    radioactive  contamination  resulting  from the operation.
    Secondly, plants are part of terrestrial food pathways  to
    wildlife, livestock and eventually to humans.

    The  sampling is considered necessary if dose calculations
    show that ingestion of meat  from  these  grazing  animals
    constitute a potentially important exposure pathway.
    DIRECT    RADIATION   MEASUREMENTS -   Gamma   rays   from
    radionuclides are measured at the same  locations  as  air
    particulate samples to obtain gamma dose rates.
The  specific number, frequency and type of analyses required for

each of the program  elements  are  outlined  in  NRC's  proposed

Branch  Position.   Although  the NRC position is not final, each

program element is reviewed on a site—specific basis,  and  final

approval of these is documented in the Final Environmental Impact

Statement for the proposed project.
                               4-71

-------
4.6.3
Post-Reclamation Surveillance


Surveillance  is necessary to determine that reclamation has been


successful.  Revegetation is necessary  to  restore  productivity


and  to  meet  surety  requirements.   stabilized areas should be


periodically  checked,  particularly  if  there  is  a  potential


radiological or chemical hazard.



Radiological  and  chemical surveillance should continue until it


is  determined  that  no  significant  release  of  material   is


probable.   The  tailings  impoundment  design,  the  reclamation


procedures, and the type of stabilization of any  other  material


produced  or stored onsite will determine the extent and duration


of the surveillance program.


                                         »
For  instance, surveillance and monitoring activities may be more


frequent at first and then diminish as the land  and  reclamation


adjust  to  normal  cycles.   If no change in the project site is


detected after a period of time,  usually  5  to  25 years,  then


inspection  of  the  area  will  only be necessary on a long-term


basis.



The . long—term  institutional controls that govern the use of the


project site or use of materials from the site  have  yet  to  be


established.   In  the  past,  tailings  were used as fill in the


construction of residences.  Radon emanating  from  the  tailings


was  trapped  in the dwellings resulting in a radiological health


hazard to the occupants  due  to  inhalation  of  radon  and  its


daughters.   An expensive remedial program was required to remove


the tailings from under the homes.   The  questions  of  who  has


                             4-72

-------
title to project lands after mining and milling has ceased and of



how to provide'continued protection of the public are  unresolved



and  r,emain  the  subject  of regulatory agency review and public



comment.





Two  reports which address the problems of long term controls are



the  EPA  Background  Report,  Considerations  of   Environmental



Protection Criteria for Radioactive Waste, February 1978, and the



report by the  Western  Interstate  Nuclear  Eoard  Committee  on



Mining  and  Milling  of Nuclear Fuels, Policy Recommendations on



Financing Stabilization, Perpetual Surveillance  and  Maintenance



of Uranium Mill Tailings, April 1977.
                              4-73

-------
                            CHAPTER 4
                         References
Algennissen, S.T. and David M. Perkins.  A Probabilistic Estimate
of Maximum Acceleration in Rock in the Contiguous United  States.
U.S.. Geol.  Survey  Open-File  Report 76—416.  Washington, D.C.:
U.S. Government Printing Office, 1976. .

Bernhardt,  D.E., F.B. Johns and R.F. Kaufmann.  Radon Exhalation
from Uranium Mill Tailings Piles, Description and Verification of
the  Measurement  Method.   Technical  Note  CRP/LV—75—7(A).  Las
Vegas, Nevada: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1975.

Blanchard,  R.L.  Relationship Between 21QPo and ziopb jn Man and
His  Environment.   In  B.. Aberg  and   F.P.   Hungate   (eds.).
Radiological  Concentration Processes.  New York: Pergamon Press,
1967.

Cannon,  H.L.  "The  Effect  of  Uranium Vanadium Deposits on the
Vegetation of the Colorado Plateau."  Am. J. Science 250:735-770,
1952.

Coffman,  Jerry  L., and Carl A. von Hake.  Earthquake History of
the United States.  Publication  41—1. .  Washington,  D.C.:  U.S.
Government Printing Office, 1973.

Eisenbud,  M.  Environmental  Radioactivity  (2nd ed.).  New York:
Academic Press, 1973.

Englemann,  R.J.  and  G.A.  Sehmel.  Atmosphere-Surface Exchange
(1974).  ERDA Symposium Series  38.   CONF-740921.   Springfield,
Virginia: National Tech Inf. Service, 1976.

Environment  Reporter.   Current  Developments, Volume 8,  No. 41,
Washington, D.C.: .Bureau of National Affairs, February 10, 1978.

Environmental  Protection  Agency.   Assessment  of. Environmental
Aspects of Uranium Mining and Milling.  EPA 600/7—76—036,  1976.

	.   Radiological Quality of the Environment in the United
States.  EPA 520/1-77-009, 1977.

Evans,  R.D.."The Radium Standard for Bone Seekers: Evaluation of
the  Data  on  Radium  Patients  and  Dial   Pointers."    Health
Physics 13:267-278, 1967.

	.  "Engineer's  Guide to the Elementary Behavior of Radon
Daughters."  Health Physics 17:229-252, 1967.
                             4-74

-------
Finkel,  A.J.,  C.E.  Miller  and R.J. Hasterlik.  Radium Induced
Malignant Tumors in Man.  In C.W. Mays et  al.   (eds.).   Delayed
Effects  of  Bone-seeking  Radionuclides.   Salt Lake City, Utah:
University of Utah Press, 1969.

Ford,  Bacon  and  Davis,  Utah Inc. Phase II—Title I Engineering
Assessment of_ Inactive Uranium Mill Tailings.  GJT—3: Mexican Hat
Site,   Mexican   Hat,  Utah.   Grand  Junction,  Colorado:  U.S.
Department of Energy, 1977.

Garner,   R.J.    Transfer  of  Radioactive  Materials  from  the
Terrestrial Environment  to  Animals  and  Man.   Cleveland:  CRC
Press, 1972.

Goldsmith, W.A. "Radiological Aspects of Inactive Uranium Milling
Sites: an Overview."  Nuclear Safety 17(6), 1976.

Gopal-Aysngar,  A.R. and K.B. Mistry.  On Radioactivity of Plants
from the High Radiation Areas of the Kerala Coast  and  Adjoining
Regions.   In  Radioisotopes  in  Soil—Plant  Nutrition  Studies.
Vienna: International Atomic Energy Agency, 1962.

Healy,   J.W.  and  J-.J. . Fuguay.   Wind  Pickup  of  Radioactive
Particles  from the Ground.  Vol. 18.  Proceedings of the  Second
United  Nations  International Conference on the Peaceful Uses of
Atomic Energy, Geneva, Switzerland.  New York: United Nations and'
IAEA, 1958.

Hendricks,  D.W. Uranium Mill Tailings Storage, Use, and Disposal
Problems.  Paper presented at the University of -Nevada Conference
on Uranium Mining Technology, Reno, Nevada, April 28, 1977.

Hill, C.R. "Lead-210 and Polonium-210 in Grass".  Nature 187:211,
1960.

Hine,  G.J.  and  G.L. Brownell.  Radiation Dosimetry.  New York:
Academic Press, 1956.

International  Atomic Energy Agency.  (IAEA).  Effects of Ionizing
Radiation on• Aquatic  Organisms  and  Ecosystems.   Tech.  Rept.
Series 1972.  Vienna: International Atomic Energy Agency, 1976.

International  Committee on Radiation Protection  (ICRP).  "Report
of Committee II on  Permissible  Dose  for  Internal  Radiation."
Health Physics 3:1-233,  1960.

Kaufman,  R.F.,  G.G. Eade and C.R. Russell.  "Effects of Uranium
Mining and Milling on Ground Water in the  Grants  Mineral  Belt,
New Mexico."  Ground Water 5(5), 1976.

Kraner,  H.W.,  G.L.  Schroeder, and R.D. Evans.  Measurements of
the Effects of  Atmospheric  Variables  on  Radon  222  Flux  and
Soil—Gas  Concentrations.  In J.A.S. Adams and W.M. Lowder  (eds.)
The  Natural  Radiation  Environment.   Chicago:  University   of
Chicago Press,  1964.
                              4-75

-------
Meeks, A.T. et al. Assessment of Environmental Aspects of Uranium
Mining  and   Milling.    Columbus,   Ohio:   Eattelle   Columbus
Laboratories, 1976.

Mills,  M.T.,  R.C.  Dahlman,  and  J.S. Olson.  Ground Level Air
Concentrations of Dust Particles Downwind from  a  Tailings  Area
During a Typical Windstorm.  ORNL—TM—4375.  Oak Ridge, Tennessee:
Oak Ridge National Laboratory, 1974.

Morgan,   K.Z.   and   J.E.   Turner.   Principles  of  Radiation
Protection.  New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1967.

National  Academy  of  Sciences  (NAS).   Radionuclides in Foods.
Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Sciences, 1973.

National Academy of Sciences/National Research Council (NAS/NRC).
The Effects on Populations of Exposure to Low Levels of  Ionizing
Radiation.   Report  of  the advisory committee on the biological
effects  of  ionizing  radiations.     Div.   of   Med.   Science.
Washington,  D.C.:  National Academy of Science/National Research
Council, 1972.

National   Council   on   Environmental  Radiation  Measurements.
Environmental Radiation Protection and Measurements.  NCRP Report
No. 50.    Washington,   D.C.:   National  Council  on  Radiation
Protection and Measurements, 1976.

National   Oceanic   and   Atmospheric   Administration    (NOAA).
Earthquake History of the United States.  U.S. Dept. of  Commerce
Publication 41-1, 1973.

Nuclear  Regulatory  Commission.   Draft  Environmental Statement
Related  to  Operation  of  Moab  Uranium  Mill,  Atlas  Minerals
Division, Altas Corporation.  NUREG—0341, November 1977.

	.   Draft Environmental Statement Related to Operation  of
Morton  Ranch  Mill,  United  Nuclear  Corporation.   NUREG-0439,
April  1978. •

	.   Draft Environmental Statement Related to Operation  of
Sweetwarer  Uranium  Prelect,   Minerals   Exploration   Company.
NUREG-0403, December 1977.

	.   Draft Environmental Statement Related to Operation  of
Bear Creek Project, Rocky Mountain Energy  Coir.pany.   NUREG—0129,
January 1977.

            Draft Environmental Statement Related to Operation  of
Lucky Me Uranium Mill, Utah International Inc.  (Lucky Me Uranium
Corporation).  NUREG-0295, June 1977.

	.   Final  Task  Force  Report  on  the  Agreement States
Program. NUREG—0388, December 1977.
                             4-76

-------
	.    Standard  Format  and Content of license Applications
for Uranium Mills.  Regulatory Guide 3.5   (Revision 1),  November
1977.

	.    Branch  Position:  Uranium  Mill Tailings Management.
Fuel Processing and Fabrication Branch, May 13, 1977.

Osburn,   W.S.  "Primordial  Radionuclides:  Their  Distribution,
Movement:,  and Possible  Effect  Within  Terrestrial  Ecosystems."
Health Phys. 11:1275-1295, 1965.

Polikarpov,  G.G.  Radioecology  of Aquatic Organisms.  New York:
Reinhold Book Div., 1966.

Rocky Mountain Energy.  Environmenta1 Report, Bear Creek Project,
Converse C_ounty_, Wyoming, for  Rocky  Mountain  Energy.   Denver,
Colorado:  Rocky Mountain Energy Company, 1975.

Russell,  R.S.  and  K.A. Smith.  Naturally Occurring Radioactive
Substances: the Uranium and  Thorium  Series.   In  R.S.  Russell
(ed.).  Radio-Activity and Human Diet.  New York: Pergamon Press,
1966.

Scarano, R.A. Current Uranium Mill Licensing Issues.  In Harward,
E.D.  (ed.).  Workshops on Methods for Measuring Radiation in  and
Around  Uranium Mills.  Washington D.C. : Atomic Industrial Forum,
Inc., .1977.

Schiager,   K.J.  "Analysis  of  Exposures on or Near Uranium Mill
Tailings Piles."_  Rad. Data and Reports 15:411-425, 1974.

Sears,  M.B.  et  al.  Correlation  of Radioactive Waste Treatment
Costs and the Environmental Impact  of  Waste  Effluents  in  the
Nuclear  Fuel Cycle for Use in Establishing "As Low As Practical"
Guides - Milling of.  Uranium  Ores.   Vol. 1.  ORNL/TM-4903.  Oak
Ridge, Tenn: Cak Ridge National Laboratory, 1975.

Skidmore,  E.L. A Wind Erosion Equation: Development, Application,
and Limitations.  In Atmosphere—surface Exchange  of  Particulate
and  Gaseous  Pollutants.   CONF-740921  1974.   Springfield, Va:
National Tech, Information Service, 1976.

Slade,   D.H.    (ed.).    Meteorology  and  Atomic  Energy  1968.
TID-24190.  Springfield, Va: National Bureau of Standards,  1968.

Smith,  M. Recommended Guide for the Prediction of the Dispersion
of Airborne Effluents.  New York: American Society of  Mechanical
Engineers, 1968.

Tanner,  A.B.' Radon Migration in the Ground: A Review.  In J.A.S.
Adams and W.M. Lowder  (eds.) The Natural  Radiation  Environment.
Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964.
                              4-77

-------
Turner,   D.B.  Workbook  of  Atmospheric  Dispersion  Estimates.
Cincinnati, Ohio: National Air Pollution Control  Administration,
1970.

United  Nations  Scientific  Committee  on  the Effects of Atomic
Radiation  (UNSCEAR).  Ionizing  Radiation:  Levels  and  Effects.
New York: United Nations, 1.972.

U.S.   Government  Manual.   Washington,  D.C.:  U.S.  Government
Printing Office, 1977-78.

Whicker, F.W. and L. Fraley, Jr. Effects of_ Ionizing Radiation on
Terrestrial Plant Communities.  In J.I. Lett, H. Adler, and  M.R.
Zelle   (eds.).  Advances in Radiation Biology.  Vol. 4. New York:
Academic Press, Inc., 1974.

Whicker,  F.W. and J.E. Johnson.  "Preliminary Draft for Comment:
Radiological   Considerations   for   Siting,    Operation    and
Decommissioning  of  Uranium  Mines  and  Mills."   Fort Collins,
Colorado, February 1978.

Wyoming.   Department  of  Environmental  Quality.   Land Quality
Division. Guidelines Nos. 1—6.  Cheyenne, Wyoming,  1976—1978.
                             4-78

-------
                            CHAPTER  4
                         Appendix
This appendix contains discussions  of  the  following topics
       • radionuclides of the uranium  decay  series

       • radionuclide transport  and  exposure pathways

       • prediction of radiation dose

       • radiation dose rates and their  significance
Also included are tables that summarize  estimated dose rates from
background sources of radioactivity and  from  uranium mills.


A-1
Radionuclides of the Uranium Decay Series

The radionuclides extracted from  uranium ore  are fissile  2 3 so and
fertile 23aU.  Some 99.28 percent of natural  uranium  is  238U,
while   only  0.72 percent  is  23SU.    The   potential  radiation
contamination from uranium mining and milling arises not  so  much
from  the uranium itself, but from the radionuclides generated by
its decay. .  Natural uranium exists in the earth's   crust  because
of  the  long  half— lives of the  principal uranium  isotopes.  The
physical half— life of 23«U is 4.5 billion years, and that of 235jj
is  0.7 billion  years.    The radioactive decay of 23sy  and 23au
generates  shorter-lived  daughter  products   at  an  essentially
constant rate as measured in terms of human experience.   Although
both 23SU and zaag generate a series of  radioactive products, the
     chain is discussed due to the abundance  of 238U.
The . 23aU  series includes 13 principal radionuclides  in  addition
to the primordial parent (see Figure A— 1) .   The  series terminates
with  the formation of stable 206Pb.  Secular equilibrium of  23«u
                              4A-1

-------
3.1 m:
238

U
4.5xl09 yr

234
Tli

218

Ln
i
Po
3.8 day

222
Rn
24 day
ft.y
_ 1.6xl03 yr

234
Pa
1 . 2 mi n

234
U
a
>
226
Ra
8x10 A yr


2.5x]05 yr
I
230
Th
a
i
214
Pb

27 min y
Ay
214
Bi
20 min x
ft.y
214
Po
1.6x10 A sec ^

210
Pb
r

206
Pb
138 day

210
Po
5 day


21 yr
r
210
Bi

                                 Stable
 SOURCE: Whicker and Johnson, 1978
figure A-l
The Primary Decay Series of Uranium - 238
Note:  Half  lives  and  major types of
       radiation are  shown.  Alternate,
       less  frequent  branching decays
       are not  shown.

-------
and daughters is usually assumed for geological  deposits,  which
means  that  daughter and parent activities, expressed as curies,
or disintegrations per unit time, are equal.  Chemical,  physical
and  biological  processes  can act upon a sample of ore to cause
chemical separation of some members of the uranium decay  series,
disrupting secular equilibrium.

During  milling,  about 85—95 percent of the uranium is recovered
from the ore as uranium oxide  (yellowcake).  The  mill  tailings,
therefore,  are  depleted in the uranium isotopes.  They are also
soon depleted in 234Th and 23*Pa as well, because these  nuclides
are being produced at a much reduced rate and the amounts present
decay in a matter of months to innocuous levels, owing  to  their
short  half—lives.  However, long—lived 230Th maintains the chain
of radionuclides from 226Ra through 210Po.

In  tailings,  however,  several  complications  can  arise.  For
instance, 22*Ra and 230Th may separate to some extent, disrupting
secular  equilibrium between the two radionuclides.  In addition,
gaseous 222Rn can escape from the tailings, quite rapidly in some
cases, to form a partial discontinuity in the secular equilibrium
of  the  decay  chain.   The  degree  of  this  discontinuity  is
dependent  upon the rate at which radon can diffuse away from its
source, 226Ra.  If diffusion is very poor,  essentially  all  the
222Rn  will  decay in place, and secular equilibrium is likely to
be maintained through 206Pb.  If a large fraction  of  the  222Rn
atoms  diffuse  from the tailings to the atmosphere, the daughter
nuclides of radon  will  show  reduced  activity  levels  in  the
tailings with respect to 226Ra.

Calculation  shows  that a curie of 226Ra will produce a curie of
222Rn every 5.5 days, or 0.18 Ci/day.  A most important objective
of  tailings  management  is to reduce the escape of radon to the
atmosphere because it usually produces a greater  radiation  dose
to  humans,  plants,  and  animals  around  a mill than any other
process.

The  most  commonly monitored radionuciides occurring around mill
tailings include 23<>Th, 22*Ra, 222Rn, and 210Pb.  Thorium-230  is
a  long—lived  alpha  emitter  that  lodges  primarily in bone if
assimilated.  Fortunately, because of its low solubility 23°Th is
not  readily  taken  up  by  plants  or  assimilated  by animals.
However, it can enter the body through inhalation  and  become  a
more significant hazard than other radionuclides in mill tailings
dust  (ICRP, 1960).

Radium—226  generally poses a greater ingestion hazard than 230Th
because it forms more soluble compounds and behaves chemically in
a  manner  similar to calcium, an essential nutrient element.  It
is therefore assimilated by both plants and animals.  Radium—226,
an  alpha  emitter,  lodges  tightly  in  the bone matrix, and in
sufficient  levels,  it  has  produced  bone  cancer  in   humans
(Evans, 1967;  Finkel,  Miller  and  Hasterlik, 1969).   Overall,
226Ra is of more concern than the  other,  radionuclides  in  mill
tailings from the standpoint of food-chain transport processes.
                              4A-3

-------
Radon—222  can  pose  perhaps the greatest biological risk around
uranium mines and mills because  it  can  be  released  into  the
atmosphere  in large quantities from exposed ore or tailings,  and
its decay produces a series of seven radionuclides which  can   be
inhaled  or  enter food chains.  These daughter products of 222Rn
generally produce a much greater  health  risk  than  does  _radon
itself.   The reason for this is that radon is a noble gas and is
not easily absorbed or adsorbed by biological surfaces.

Lead—210 is long—lived and has some potential -co accumulate in or
on biological  tissues.   It  is  also  a  bone  seeker  with   an
intermediate tendency to be assimilated.  Levels of several other
radionuclides, such as 213Po, 2143i and 210Po, can  sometimes   be
inferred from measurements of 222Rn and 2*opb (Evans, 1967).

A  substantial  body  of  information  exists about the levels of
radionuclides in ore and mill  tailings  and  on  the  quantities
which  can  be released to the environment (Sears, et al., 1975).
There is much less  data,  however,  on  the  behavior  of  these
radionuclides once they enter ecological systems.
A-2
Radionuclide Transport and Exposure Pathways

Ionizing radiation emitted from the radionuclides associated with
uranium mining and milling impact bioicjgical populations  in  two
ways.    One-  is  by  internal  irradiation  from  radionuclides
deposited  within  tissues,  and  the  other   is   by   external
irradiation  from radionuclides that are near but external to the
exposed biological  tissues.   The  radiation  dose  received  is
therefore  highly  dependent  upon  the  amounts  of  radioactive
material -chat enter the organism as  well  as  the  amounts  -hat
reside  in  the immediate environment.  In order to predict these
amounts, the environmental transport pathways must be  understood
and quantified.

Two   routes   of  radionuclide  transport  involve  aquatic  and
terrestrial systems.  Transport between these systems is possible
through   erosion,   irrigation,   and   aerial  deposition.   As
indicated, mine—mill effluents reach the terrestrial  environment
mainly  through erosion of radionuclide-bearing particles of ore,
tailings or yellowcake, and through emanation  of  gaseous  222Rn
from  ore and tailings.  Aquatic systems receive radionuclides by
surface runoff, seepage into the ground water, aerial deposition,
and erosion of contaminated soil.  Ground water may appear on the
surface  through  wells,  springs,  or  a  rising   water   table
associated  with topographic depressions or increased hydrostatic
pressure.

Radionuclides  in  the  atmosphere  are  subject  to  dispersion,
directional transport, deposition,  and  inhalation.   Dispersion
and  transport  are  determined by meteorological factors such as
wind speed, direction,  and  turbulence,  and  by  precipitation.
                              4A-4

-------
Deposition  by  gravitation  forces,  impaction,  and  rainout or
washout (Slade, 1968)   results  in  the  contamination  of  soil,
vegetation  and surface water.  The smaller (<10 microns)  aerosol
particles may be inhaled by animals and man.  Material which  has
been  deposited  on  the  soil can become resuspended by wind and
other kinds of physical disturbance.  This material thus  becomes
subject   to  further  dispersal  and  deposition  at  a  distant
location.

Radioactive  materials  in  surface waters are subject to complex
processes involving dispersion, physical transport and absorption
and/or  adsorption  by  sedimentary  material, aquatic plants and
animals.   Surface  waters  may  be  applied  to  the  land   for
irrigation   purposes   or   consumed  by  humans  and  wildlife.
Dispersion and transport is  determined  by  the  nature  of  the
hydrological   system   and  the  sediments  and  aquatic  biota.
Absorption and desorption processes are complex,  depending  upon
physical, chemical and biological factors.

Populations  contaminated  with  radioactivity are of concern for
three major  reasons.    First,  radionuclides  incorporated  into
living  tissues are subject to food chain transport and may reach
man.  Second, radioactive material may be spread from a  site  of
contamination  by  movements  of  plants and animals.  Third, the
radioactivity may have a detrimental  effect  upon  the  organism
itself.   Food  chain  transport  of radionuclides in terrestrial
ecosystems involves ingestion of  contaminated  plant  or  animal
tissues  and  assimilation  and  incorporation  of 'the material.
Terrestrial  food  chain  transport  to  man   largely   involves
consumption  of  crops  and  domestic  animal  products, although
wildlife  species  are  also  consumed  by  a  fraction  of   the
population.   Aquatic  food-chain-derived  material can reach man
through  consumption  of  fish  and  waterfowl.    As   mentioned
previously,   food   chain   transport   involves   chemical  and
physiological processes and there is discrimination at biological
membranes.   Of  the  elements  involved  in  the uranium series,
radium is most readily assimilated by most organisms.   Lead  and
polonium  are  intermediate  in  their  level  of  absorption  by
organisms.

External   exposures  to  organisms  from  radionuclides  in  the
environment arise principally from  gamma  rays  and  secondarily
from  beta particles.   In most ecosystems the soil is usually the
predominant reservoir  of  radioactivity.   Thus,  the  decay  of
gamma—emitting  radionuclides  in  soil  normally  accounts for a
large fraction of the external exposure received  by  plants  and
animals.
                              4A-5

-------
A-3
Prediction of Radiation Dose

Prediction  of  radiation  dose  to  organisms from environmental
releases of radioactive materials is extremely complex, yet  such
predictions  are  required  for  environmental reports and impact
statements.   The  steps  in  the  predictive  process   include:
determination of source terms;  atmospheric and aqueous dispersion
and deposition; absorption and uptake by  plants;  ingestion  and
inhalation  by  animals  and  man;  retention and distribution of
radionuclides in the body; concentrations in critical organs; and
finally,  calculation  of  dose.   Each  step can involve complex
equations with numerous parameters in  each.   Very  few  of  the
parameters  are  constant  over  the  wide range of circumstances
encountered  at  uranium  mines  and  mills.   Because  of  these
complexities,   there   is   usually  a  considerable  degree  of
uncertainty associated with dose prediction.   Predictive  models
are still being developed.

Source  terms  are  usually predicted from actual measurements at
operating facilities or from theoretical calculations.  Emanation
rates  of  radon  can  be  estimated  on the basis of theoretical
models  (Kraner  et al.,  1964;   Tanner,  1964)   and/or  empirical
relationships  (Schiager, 1974).  Rates of particulate suspension
by wind can also be estimated in some cases from the  literature.
Helpful  references  include  Healy  and  Fuquay   (1958);  Mills,
Dahlman and Olson  (1974); and several papers in the volume edited
by  Englemann  and  Sehmel  (1976).   The  problems of estimating
seepage of  radibnuclide-bearing  liquids  into  the  ground  and
subsequent  migration  of  the  material  are  discussed by Sears
et al.  (1975) .

Atmospheric dispersion estimates have almost exclusively employed
Gaussian plume models with minor modifications to  these  models.
More recent modifications and applications are presented by Slade
(1968), Smith  (1968), and Turner   (1970).   The  purpose  of  -he
dispersion  calculations  is  to  predict  the  concentrations of
radionuclides in air at specific locations relative  to  a  given
source.    With   appropriate  meteorological  data,,  atmospheric
dispersion calculations can be applied with reasonable  precision
at all sites, excepting -chose in complex, rugged terrain.

Estimating  dispersion of radionuclides in surface waters depends
on mixing, turbulence and  flow.   These  are  site-specific  and
depend  upon  the  geometry  and  nature of the channel or basin.
Radionuclides in water are most likely to enter the food chain by
direct  ingestion  or sorption by aquatic organisms.  In the case
of   direct   ingestion,    the   relationships   between    water
concentrations,  human  body  burdens,  and  radiation  doses are
thoroughly  tabulated  in  ICRP   (1960).   Limited  data  on  the
relationships between water concentrations of naturally occurring
radionuclides  and  concentrations  in  the  tissues  of  aquatic
organisms  are  available  (Polikarpov, 1966;  IAEA, 1976).  Such
data can  be  applied  with  caution  to  aquatic  ecosystems  in
                              4A-6

-------
general,  so  long  as  the  magnitudes  of uncertainty and -their
causes are understood.

Passage  of  the  naturally  occurring radionuclides through food
chains   also   involves   many   complexities.     Some   helpful
publications  are  available  for radiological impact assessment.
Some of the basic models which permit the calculation  of  tissue
burdens  from  intake  and  retention  data  are outlined in ICRP
(1960).  Such  models  are  applicable  to  plants,  animals  and
humans,   providing  the  appropriate  kinds  of  parameters  and
accurate  parameter  values  can  be  located.   While  there  is
generally  a  lack  of  information  on parameters appropriate to
organisms around uranium mines and mills,  useful  data  includes
Osburn, 1965; Russell and Smith, 1966; NAS, 1973; Eisenbud, 1973;
Cannon, 1952; Gopal-Ayengar, 1962; Garner, 1972; Hill, 1960;  and
Slanchard, 1967.

When  concentrations  of  radionuclides in the biological tissues
have  been  calculated,  the  resulting  radiation'  dose  may  be
calculated.  Cose, measured in rads or preferably dose equivalent
measured in rems, is the common denominator used to describe  the
effective   amount  of  radiation  energy  absorbed  by  critical
tissues.  These dose units are used as the fundamental predictors
of   biological  damage  or  risk.   Doses  received  by  various
internally  deposited  radionuclides,  as  well  as  those   from
external  irradiation,  can  be summed in order to estimate total
dose.  Doses  are  expressed  as  a  rate  (that  is,  rads/year;
rams/year) or as a time-integrated dose commitment (that is, rads
or rems).  Methods of calculating dose are  outlined  in  several
publications (ICRP, 1960; Kine and Browneli, 1956; and Morgan and
Turner, 1967).
A-4
Radiation Dose Rates and their Significance

The radiological impact of uranium mining and milling is measured
by the radiation doses received by populations.   The  calculated
dose  is  proportional  to the concentration of radioactivity and
the average residence time of  the  radioactivity  in  biological
tissue.   This dose is termed "dose commitment" or the total dose
integrated over the life time of the organism.

Radiation  dose  rates  and  dose  commitments calculated for all
non—human segments of the ecosystem are normally averages for the
populations involved, while those calculated for humans are worst
possible cases for the individuals involved.   This  practice  is
followed  because concern for human risk is expressed in relation
to individuals  and  is  much  more   conservative  than  concern
expressed  at  the  population  level.  The proper dose unit is a
multiple of  the  rem,  which  is  often  also  termed  the  dose
equivalent.  If human population doses are calculated, the proper
unit is  man—rems.   This  is  the  average  dose  to  the  human
population  at  risk  multiplied  by  the  total  number  in  the
                              4A-7

-------
population.  Expressed this way the value has  relevance   to   the
risk  of genetic  and  somatic effects  which can  only  be   evidenced   in
populations.

Direct  external radiation doses to humans are by gamma—rays  from
radionuclides i_n  mill  tailings  or  contaminated  local   soils.
Estimates   of   radiation   exposure  rates  from  radionucliaas
uniformly  distributed  in  soil  are  provided   in    Table  A—1.
Gamma—ray  radiation  doses  are  significant  for the  whole—body
and/or tne gonads and may be calculated easily from the measured
exposure rates  (X)  as:
                 DOSE RATE ( ^L ) = 0.87  X  ( -^
Sears et al.  (1975) measured exposure rates over several tailings
piles and found the values to average close to 900 microroentgens
per  hour   (^R/hr).  Background exposure rates in the environs  of
typical uranium mining or milling  operations  generally   average
about 20 MR/hr.  Gamma—ray exposures from tailings can be  reduced
to natural  background  levels  by  covering  the  tailings   wi-ch
approximately three feet of earth.

Internal . dose is received from 222Rn emanating from tailings and
from other radionuclides.  The critical organ is the lung  due   to
inhalation  of radon daughters.  Radon emanation is a function  of
the  radium   concentration,   material   porosity,   atmospheric
pressure,  soil  moisture,  and inert cover.  The majority of the
lung dose is due to the daughters of 222Rn decay.   Sears  et al.
(1975)   have  shown that the major contribution -co lung dose  from
radon and  its  daughters  is  the  tailings  pile  and  not  the
operating  mill.  The maximum daughter-product concentration  will
occur just beyond the edge of the tailings pile in  the  downwind
direction.

Dose to the lung from inhalation of other suspended radionuclides
as well as internal  organ  dose  from  food  chain  transfer   of
radionuclides  dispersed  in  the  local environment must  also  be
considered.  For "worst possible" dose calculations an individual
is considered to live on the site'boundary of the mill within the
prevailing wind direction from the tailings pile.   Sears  et al.
(1975)   have  calculated  annual dose rates to the whole—body and
critical organs of individuals for such  cases.   Tables A—2  and
A—3  are  from their publication and are given for model mills  in
New Mexico or Wyoming for either acid leach followed  by   solvent
extraction  or  for  alkaline  leach processes.  These are "wors-
possible" cases and assume the  individuals  raise  their  entire
food  supply locally.  There are climatological differences,  such
as wind speed, that  produce  the  differences  between  the  New
                              4A-8

-------
                        	Exposure Rate/Radionuclide. Concentration

Radionuclide	MR hr"1/pCi g"1      M& hr"1/indicated concentration
 266                                                           -6     -1    b
    Ra + daughters          1.80                 0.61/0.358 x  10  p g g   Ra
 214                                                           -6     -1    b
    Pb                     0.20                 0.70/0.358  x 10   /.g g   Ra
 214                                                           -6     -1   b
    Bi                     1.60                0.54/0.358  x 10   Mg g   Ra
 238                                                     -1  238
    U + daughters           1.82                  0.62/^g  g      U
 a
  One meter above ground;  R=Roentgen

 b                 226                            -1  238
  Concentration of    Ra in equilibrium with  1  g  g     U.
 SOURCE:  Adapted  from NCRP (1976).
     Table A-1
     Calculated Exposure Rates for Radionuclides Uniformly Distributed in Soil
                                  4A-9

-------
' • 1
HILL PROCESSES AND TAILINGS COMBINED


Total
Bone
Liver
Kidney
Spleen
Lung



Solvent Extraction Process
(mrem)
Mill Tailings Total
Body 20.2 16.6 36.8
232.4 168.0 400.4
23.6 19.4 43.0
40.1 27.0 67.1
23.5 21.6 45.1
29.3 60.4 89.7
a
Individual is 0.5 miles from the mill during the twentieth
when tailings cover maximum area, assuming 100 per cent of
Alkaline Leach Process

Mill
25.3
265.5
28.3
40.9
29.4
35.2

year of
the food
(mrem)
Tailings
16.1
166.3
18.9
27.1
20.8
84.9

operation
is pro-

Total
41.4
431.8
47.2
68.0
50.2
120.1



duced locally. The doses are the sura of the doses from airborne particulates
and Rn gas from operating mill and the active tailings area.


SOURCE: Adapted from Sears at al_ (1975)
Table A-2






Total Maximum Annual Radiation Dose to Individuals from an Operating Mill in New Mexico
L i

-------
MILL PROCESSES AND
Solvent Extraction
(mrem)
Mill
Total Body 16.5
Done 189.4
Liver 19.1
Kidney 32.5
Spleen 19.3
Lung 23.6
a
Individual is
when tailings
duced locally.
?99
and ^Rn gas
SOURCE: Adapted
Table A-3
Total Maximum Annual
Tailings
44.4
447.9
51.7
71.9
57.7
50.8
Process
Total
60.9
637.3
70.8
104.4
77.0
74.4
TAILINGS COMBINED

\
Alkaline Leach Process
(mrem)
Mill
20.6
215.6
23.0
33.2
23.7
28.4
Tailings
81.6
841.5
95.6
137.3
105.2
100.5
Total
102.2
1057.1
118.6
170.5
128.9
128.9
0.5 miles from the mill during the twentieth year of operation
cover maximum area, assuming 100 per cent of the food is pro-
The doses are the sum of the doses from airborne particulates
from operating mill and the active tailings area.
from Sears et
Radiation Dose
al (1975)
to Individuals

from an Operating Mill

in Wyoming

,

-------
Mexico  and  the  Wyoming  cases.   From  these  tables,  bone is
observed  to  be  the  critical  organ,  2Z6Ra  is  the  limiting
radionuclide,  and drinking water and the milk food—chain are the
critical environmental pathways.

For  comparison,  predicted  doses to individuals who could or do
reside at various  locations  in  the  vicinity  of  two  Wyoming
uranium  projects are presented in Tables A—4 and A—5.  Table A—4
is from a project that began recently, and Table A—5  is  from  a
proposed  project.   The  predicted  radiation doses are based on
conservative  assumptions  by  overstating  the  exposure.    The
radiation  dose  depends  on  the distance and direction from the
source.  The estimates are calculated using  the  mine  and  mill
site  characteristics, mill equipment performance, and the actual
pathways in the vicinity of the projects.

Radiation  dose  may  also  be calculated for all other non-human
components of the local ecosystems.  Wildlife and livestock  have
nearly  identical  radiation  sensitivities  as humans, and it is
generally thought that if radioactive effluents are controlled to
meet  human  protection standards, then animal biological effects
will be of no concern.  Plants and lower forms of animal life are
much  more radiation resistant than higher forms.  Table A—6 from
Whicker and Fraley (1974) shows that  plant  communities  are  in
general  radiation resistant.  Those plant communities found near
uranium milling operations in  the  western  U.S.  would  not  be
expected to show any radiation effects.

From  calculated  human  doses, the expected biological effect or
risk may also  be  directly  calculated.   Two  publications  are
sources  for  the calculation procedures  (UNSCSAR, 1972; NAS/NRC,
1972).  The latter  publication   (called  the  BEIR  report)   has
expressed  the overall risk of radiation dose in terms of genetic
and somatic effects.   If large populations could be exposed,  the
risk  of  genetic  effects  must  be considered.  The BEIR report
states that between 5 and 50 percent of all ill health is due  to
genetic  defects  and  estimates  that  170 mrem/year  to a large
population would increase the overall incidence of ill health  by
5 percent..   Again,  the  increased  incidence  is  thought to be
directly proportional to the additional dose.

Since  the number of persons that might be exposed as a result of
mining  and  milling  operations   is   relatively   small,   the
appropriate risk is not genetic effects in a large population but
somatic effects to the individuals involved.  Cancer induction is
generally  assumed  to  be  the most sensitive measure of somatic
effects, and the BEIR report predicts that an additional exposure
of  170 mrem/year  to  the  U.S.  population  would  result in an
increase "of about 2% in the spontaneous cancer death rate  which
is  an  increase of about 0.3% in the overall death rate from all
causes."  The risk to any individual per unit radiation  dose' is
expected  to be the same.  The risk is also directly proportional
to the radiation dose, and direct  extrapolations  to  the  doses
calculated for uranium mining and milling may be made.
                              4A-12

-------
Location

Point of maximum ground-
level concentrations off
site:

Site boundary in the
direction of the pre-
vailing wind:

Site boundary nearest the
sources of emission:

Nearest residence in the
direction of the pre-
vailing wind
(Carson Ranch)
Distance From
Source (meters)
   2000
   1800 (min)
   2500 (max)0
   1100
 10,500
                                                                      Exposure (mrem/year)
Sector       Whole
Affected     Body      Kidneys       Lungs
  E
  NE
  W
  NE
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
1.1
1.2
1.5
                         approx.
                         0.05
27.5
23.0
28.0
                        approx,
                        1.30
                                    Bone
4.8
5.2
6.5
                         approx.
                         0.23
            Based on 50 year dose commitments.  To determine total annual exposure,
            the accumulated dose can effectively be divided by 50.
           b
            The shortest distance to a site boundary within the affected sector.
           c
            The greatest distance to a site boundary within the affected sector.

                                                                   SOURCE: Rocky Mountain Energy, 1975

     Table A-4
     Radiation Dose Commitment to Individuals from the Bear Creek Project

-------
f
Location
Bairoil,
35 km NE



Property
boundary,
2.5 km NE




Exposure
Pathway
Inhalation
External
Subtotal
Ingestion
Total
Inhalation
External
Subtotal

Ingestion

Total
Whole Body
2.3 x 10~3
1.9 x 10~
2.1 x 10
4.5 x 10~
6.6 x IO"3
2.6 x 10~2
8.8 x 10~^
1.2 x 10~
-3
4.5 x 10
-I
1.2 x 10
Bone
4.9 x IO""3
2.2 x 10~^
7.1 x 10
5.7 x 10~
6.4 x 10~2
5.7 x 10~
1.0 x 10~
6.7 x 10~
_2
5.7 x 10~
-1
7.3 x 10
Lung
3.0 x 10~2
1.8 x 10~^
3.2 x 10
4.5 x IO"3
3.6 x 10~2
3.2
8.1 x 10
3.3
_3
4.5 x 10

3.3
Bronchial *
Epithelium
1.48



1.48
62.5

62.5



62.5
 uoses integrated over a 50-year period from one year of inhalation or  ingestion.
 Doses to whole body, lung and bone are those resulting from Inhalation  of  particulates
 of U-238, U-234, Th-230, Ra-226, and Pb-210.  The doses to the bronchial epithelium are
 those resulting from inhalation of radon daughters.
 SOURCE: NRC, NUREG, 0403, December, 1977

Table A-5
Radiation Dose Commitments to Individuals (mrem/yr) for the Sweetwater Project

-------
                                    Exposures  (kR) to Produce
Community Type
Coniferous Forest
Deciduous Forest
Shrub
Tropical Rain Forest
Rock Outcrop (herbaceous)
Old Fields (herbaceous)
Grassland
Moss-lichen
Minor
Effects
0.1-1
1-5
1-5
5-10
8-10
3-10
8-10
10-50
Intermediate
Effects
1-2
5-10
5-20
10-40
10-40
10-100
10-100
50-500
Severe
Effects
2
10
20
40
40
100
100
500
  aShort-term exposures range from about 8 to 10 days, according to
   the literature from which this table was derived.  Exposures
   might be reduced by factors of 2 to U for acute or fallout-decay
   irradiation.


   SOURCE:  Adapted from Whicker and Fraley (197*0.
Table A-6
Estimated Short-Term Radiation Exposures Required to Damage Various
Plant Communities
                            4A-15

-------
                                         Average Dose Rate*
                   Source                     (mrem/yr)

              Environmental

                Natural                          102

                Global Fallout                     4

                Nuclear Power                  0.003
              Subtotal                           106



              Medical

                Diagnostic                        72**

                Radiopharmaceuticals               1


              Subtotal                            73



              Occupational                       0.8

              Miscellaneous                        2
                                TOTAL            182
        *Note:   The numbers shown are average values only.  For
         given  segments of the population,  dose rates considerably
         greater than these may be experienced.

       **Based  on the abdominal dose.

                                         SOURCE: Whicker and Johnson,  1978

Table A-7
Summary of Estimates of Annual Whole-Body Dose Rates in the United States
(1970)
                                  4A-16

-------
Dose Rates (mrad y )
Source of Irradiation
External irradiation
Cosmic rays: ionizing component
neutron component
Terrestrial radiation
(including air)
Internal irradiation
3H
14C
40K
87Rb
aQPo
22°Rn
222Rn
226Ra
228Ra
238n
ROUNDED TOTAL
Gonads

28
0.35
44

0.001
0.7
19
0.3
0.6
0.003
0.07
0.02
0.03
0.03
93
Bone-
lining
Cells

28
0.35
44

0.001
0.8
15
0.6
1.6
0.05
0.08
0.6 .
0.8
0.3
92
Bone
Marrow

28
0.35
44

0.001
0.7
15
0.6
. 0.3
0.05
0.08
0.1
0.1
0.06
89
SOURCE: Whicker and Johnson, 1978
Table A-8
Dose Rates Due to Internal and External
"Normal" Areas
Irradiation from
Natural
Sources in
4A-17

-------
Prom  inspecting  the  data  in Tables A—2 through A—5 it is seen
that the BEIR report predictions are based on an  exposure  which
approximates   "worst   case"  conditions  which  are  orders  of
magnitude higher than predicted for the general population in the
vicinity of an operating facility.  Although such predictions are
useful in setting standards to protect the public, they  are  not
particularly  meaningful  to local populations who wish to assess
the "real world" risk of  siting  uranium  processing  facilities
near  their  communities.  The doses to the average individual in
the vicinity of a  model  uranium  mill  has  been  estimated  at
.045 mrem/yr   (EPA,   1977).   Therefore,  the  actual , risk  to
populations is probably less than predicted above by a factor  of
several  1000,  assuming  a  linear relationship between dose and
health effects.

Additional  perspective  to  the  risk  of radiation from uranium
production  facilities  is  provided  by  comparing   that   dose
increment to the dose from natural radiation background, although
background radiation must be qualified since it is variable.  The
cosmic  ray  component  of  background dose approximately doubles
with every mile of altitude increase  from  sea  level  to  about
20,000 feet.  The contribution from natural gamma-ray emitters in
the earth's crust also, of  course,  varies.   A  description  of
background   radiation  whole  body  gamma  dose  should  include
terrestrial dose equivalent  (DE)  and cosmic DE.   The  cosmic  DE
has  two  components,  an  ionizing  one  and a neutron one.  The
increased radium and thorium concentrations.in the western states
significantly  increase  the  terrestrial  dose.  As a result the
annual background dose in the western  states  probably  averages
over  200 mrem/year   (Whicker  and Johnson, 1978).  Background is
measured  during  the  preoperational   phase   of   radiological
monitoring and should be used when comparing the doses calculated
for mining and milling operations.  Tables A—7  and  A—8  present
estimates of dose rates to U.S. inhabitants.

Another  way  of  considering the biological effects of radiation
dose is to discuss life-span shortening of human populations.  It
is  generally thought that life-span shortening is an integration
of all radiation effects which are  non-specific  for  low  level
chronic  radiation.  The consensus is that a life-span shortening
of 1 day per total accumulated dose of 1 rem  is  a  conservative
quantitative  measure of human life-span shortening from ionizing
radiation   (Whicker  and  Johnson,  1978).   Again,  assuming  an
average  individual dose from a uranium mill of 0.045 mrem/yr, an
accumulated dose of 1 mrem would not be received in a lifetime.
                              4A-18

-------
SOCIOECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS
       CHAPTERS

-------
                           CHAPTER 5
            Socioeconomic Considerations
Socioeconomic   impacts   can  be  positive,  negative,  or  more



commonly,  a combination  of  both.   Positive  impacts  frequently



include  expanded employment and business opportunities, enlarged



local tax bases,   and arrested  decline  in  some  rural  areas.



Negative  impacts  may   include  shortages  in public facilities,



shortages or inflated prices for housing and  privately  supplied



goods  and services,  and the emergence of new types of social and



political frictions.  The potential for -negative  impacts  arises



because  most  energy reserves  are in relatively isolated areas



where local communities  may not have the  expertise,  the  growth



management  institutions, or the financial resources necessary to



accommodate rapid economic growth without major disruptions.





In  general, neither  the opportunities nor the problems presented



by uranium developments  are as significant as those presented  by



other  new  energy developments,  such  as coal mines, synthetic



fuels facilities, or  power  plants,  because  uranium  mines  and



mills typically have  fewer employees.  However, the opportunities



may be enhanced and many of  the  negative  impacts  avoided  or



mitigated  if growth  is  anticipated and public and private sector



decision makers cooperate in developing responses.





                             5-1

-------
Based  on  analysis  of  a  number  of  uranium  and other energy

development projects, impacts fall into the following categories:
  • DIRECT IMPACTS ON EMPLOYMENT AND INCOME - The introduction
    of a new mine or mill means new jobs,  usually  at  higher
    than average wages,

  • INDIRECT  AND  INDUCED  IMPACTS  ON  EMPLOYMENT AND INCOME
    Mines, mills, and their employees  make  new  demands  for
    local  goods  and  services  and  spend a portion of their
    incomes locally.

  * POPULATION  CHANGES -  There may or may not be significant
    numbers of newcomers co the community.

  o PUBLIC  SERVICES  AND  PUBLIC  FINANCE - Tax revenues will
    increase, but so will demands for  public  facilities  and
    services.

  • HOUSING  AND  COMMERCIAL  DEVELOPMENT - Demand for private
    facilities  and  services   also   increases;   if   local
    entrepreneurs do not respond, shortages and inflation will
    result.

 • ® SOCIOCULTURAL  AND  POLITICAL CHANGE - The introduction of
    large numbers of newcomers may  produce  changes  in  both
    formal and informal relationships.

  » OTHER  POTENTIAL CONFLICTS - These may include competition
    between regulatory  agencies  for  authority,  competition
    among  alternative users of land  (e.g., recreationists vs.
    mining interests), or competition for local labor.
Because  of  the  complex interaction between uranium development

projects and their host communities, there is no universal  model

to  predict  socioeconomic  impacts.   Even in cases where models

exist, the state of the art in forecasting is not precise.   Some

degree  of  uncertainty concerning the future is unavoidable.  On

the other hand, in contrast to certain impacts  to  the  physical

environment  from uranium development, most adverse socioeconomic


                              5-2

-------
impacts are relatively easy to mitigate by  institutional  means.



Accordingly,   one  key  to  harmonious  development  of  uranium



resources is early contingency planning by both the developer and



the  host  community,  followed  by an impacts—monitoring program



once development gets under way.





Socioeconomic  impacts  depend on the characteristics of the host



community, the region, and of the project itself.  The effects of



all  growth  near  the  host  community should be included in the



analysis of appropriate responses.  Frequently, the impacts of  a



single  project  are  relatively negligible, while the impacts of



all new stimuli to the local economy, including one or more mines



and/or  mills,  are  quite large.  Table 5—1 summarizes important



factors in each category and will serve as a convenient checklist



for administrators and planners.





The  following discussion provides a more detailed description of



impacts as well as other  sources  of  information  and  possible



industry  and  government responses for each impact category.  In



some  instances,  more  text  is  devoted  to  problems  than  to



opportunities;  this  is  not  done  because  the  problems  will



necessarily outweigh the opportunities, but because  with  proper



attention  and planning, most problems can be avoided or at least



alleviated.
                              5-3

-------
 Impact Category
                                                                        Related Mine/Mill Charactei latica
                                                                                                              KfclaCfcd Coimpttnlf y
                                                                                                                                      a I  Choruct er tqc ICQ
(1) Direct Impacta  on
    Employment and
    Income
(2) Indirect and
    Induced Impacts on
    Employment and
    In co KB
• Couuitunlttea  with high unemployment
  will  receive neei.^d new joba.

• Increased economic activity may
  bring increased per capita Incotuea.

* Substantial  growth of limited duration
  (e.g.,  depleting rctierveu) or uncertain
  duration (e.g.. uu a consequence of
  volatility In uranium prices) may aet thu
  community up for a buat to follow the boon.

• The rate of  growth and/or uncertainty
  concerning the t lining or dm at Ion uf

  or breakdowns in other ayatema.
                                                fhaulng of construction and oper-
                                                ating employment.

                                                Production levulu .

                                                Marginal veraua cl early economic
                                                ore  grades .

                                                Local hiring veraus the number of
                                                ln-uilgraiiit> .

                                                Labor retjulruuiciit for highly upu-
                                                clallzed
                                        Degree of rug lonal unemployment and
                                        underemployment .
• liicruuiiud in  local purchasing power nmy
  ultimately lead  to the availability ol a
  wider range of private good a and aervicet*.

* Incrcabud growth may  lead to new local
  entrepreneurial  opportunit leu.

• Locat lubor c o u 11» IBUy be forced upwatd by
  c output! lion from the  incoming uraniuiu in-
  duatry ,  produc ing local inf1 a tIon.  LocaI
  buulneuticu way not bu uble to coiujiute with
  highcr Industry  waged.  Reduced availability
  of labor degradea quality of tiervIce.
* ttccruliuiunt  ctforcu  of  the  uranium
  and construction companies  und/or
  union pot Iclts .

• Availability of  on- the- Job  training
  program.

• Distance  to  local coununit leu.

• bixtizitt of  local  veraua  uon-locu 1
  purchati lug .

• Distance  to  local comrunnlt lea .

* Set i lumen t patterns  of  employ eeu .
                                                                                                               Availability of upeclallzed aklllB and
                                                                                                               cxiutence of local union hall.

                                                                                                               Relationship of local ualarlea to cou-
                                                                                                               titructloit and  uranium project ualarleu.

                                                                                                               Presence and et'f ectiveneua at local
                                                                                                               vocational, technical or induutry training
                                                                                                               programs .

                                                                                                               Commuting distance to work site.
                                                                                      Distance to regional trade center.

                                                                                      freuent level of diversification.

                                                                                      Preucat local salary levcld.

                                                                                      Degree of regional unemployment and
                                                                                      undci'&iiployoient.

                                                                                      Likelihood of local versud non-local pur-
                                                                                      chaaeu by houticho) d and uervice Hector t*.

                                                                                      Aval lability and r.apital for f Inane log
                                                                                      bud inuim viiiiturtia.
(3)  Population Chaugea
                         • l-'ewer of the community'^  yuung people
                           may leave becauue they  perceive a lack
                           of economic oppurtunlty.

                         * fopulatIon gcouth may over tax enidtlng
                           pubi ic And pilvate fucilltlea and
                           aervlceu.
                                               Employment totalu.

                                               Charactcrlutlcu of  Incoming work
                                               forco and tamilieu.
                                      • Present availability of  public  and
                                        private facilities and iiervicea,  houulag
                                        and other amenitleu.

                                      • Travel time to place of  employment.
                                                                                                                            SOURCE: DRI
Table 5-1
Factors Influencing (he Occurrence of Socioeconomic Impacts

-------
                  Impact C«tcgorr
                                          Opportunlt ies/Problema
                                                                                        Relate,!  Mine/Hill Char
                                                                                                                   Btlco
                                                                                                                              Belated Community/Regional Characteristic!
                 (4) Public Service*
                     «nd Public Hnar.c.
T
tri
• Uranium developments lead Co large  In-
  creased in  the local property tax base.
  Ultimately,  this nay provide for reduc-
  tions In tax rates and/cr Increasea  In
  the level of public services.

• During the  Initial development pcrlou,
  tax base grouth may lag far behind popula-
  tion growth.  Local jurisdictions may also
  encounter Institutional constraints  In
  attempting  to borrow funda to finance
  development.  The result may be Increases
  In local tax rates and/or degradation in
  public services for several years.

• Public finance problems prevent llinely
  provision of  services and facilities.

• Dissatisfaction of workers and their
  families with their Duality of life way
  lead to alienation and to high labor
  turnover rates, low productivity and higher
  production  coats.

* Dissatisfaction with reductions In  tl.«
  quality of  life may lead to increase'!
  opposition  to future energy developments
  by residents and state and local
  government:*.
  Phasing of construction and
  operating employment.

  Tinting of assessed valuation
  increases.

  Juriadlctlon(e) receiving new
  assessed valuation versus thot»«
  receiving population.
                                                                                                                            • Local rev
                                                                                                                            • Institutional
                                                                                                                              borrowing.
                           OD public
                                                                                                                            • Jurisdlctlon(s)  receiving population
                                                                                                                              Increases versus those receiving incre*»«ult.
» Salaries  of  Incoming workers.

• Housing preferences of incoming
  workera.

• Degree  ot local veruu* non-local
  purchattlng.

• Timing  and duration ot uranium
  development.
• Availability and  coat  of  factor* of
  production.

• Present diversity of  local economy.

• Constraints  0:1 borrowing  development
  capital, obtaining mortgage*.

• Availability*  cost, »nd quality of
  existing housing.

• Local entrepreneurial  ability.


                        SOURCE: OKI
                       Table 5-1 (continued)
                       Factors Influencing the Occurrence of Socioeconomic Impacts

-------
                  Impact  Category
                                           Opportunttlea/l'robleiiifi
                                             Rulnteil Hlnc/Hll)  Clmrnctcl'lat lea
                                                                                                                             Related Communlty/Reftlunal  Characterlatlea
                  (6)  Soclocultursl and
                      Political Change*
LTI
• Newcomers nay bring ssaeta (education,
  managerial skills) wltlch can benefit
  the connumity.

• Values conflicts may arise between old-
  tine and newcomer cultures.

• Old-tlmera may experience a loss  of
  Intimacy and "small town feeling"
  as the community grows.

• Old-tlmcra may lose political control
  of their community.

• Housing shortages, shortages or de-
  gradation In the quality of other
  privately and publicly financed goods
  and services, and rural sprawl settle-
  Bent patterns all tend to produce more
  alienation of rcsldcnta.  This aliena-
  tion also further Increases the likeli-
  hood that old-timers will resent  the
  changes in life-styles snd that values
  conflicts will urine.

• Local governments' inability to handle
  their own houulng and public finnnca
  problcmn ntny bring more ntnte nnd
  federal Intervention Into community
  affairs.  This intervention may be
  rcacnted by local rcitldrnta and
  officials.
• Social characteristics of
  incoming work  force.

• Expectations of quality of life.
• Existing social,  political and cultural
  structures.

• Settlement patterns  encouraged by
  community.
                                                                                                                             •  Efforts to assimilate ne
                  (I) Other Potential
                     Conflicts
• Lou paying  jobs in public and
  private aector cannot compete for
  labor.

• Competition for land may bid up
  prices.  Land uses change (margins!
  agriculture Isnd taken out of
  production).

• Competing regulatory authorities
  auy Increase uncertainty concerning
  the occurrence and timing of develop-
  ment and  Chun hinder efforts to
  mitigate  impacts.
• Wage rates of construction and
  uranium industry.

• Location of development and
  characteristics of surrounding
  area.
• Vage rstea  and extent of underemployment
  in other  local sectors.

• Existence of planning and lonlog prohibit!
  some uses.

• Applicable  state regulatory structures.
                                                                                                                                              SOURCE:  DEI
                           Table 5-1 (continued)
                           Factors Influencing the Occurrence of Socioeconomic Impacts

-------
5.1
Direct Impacts on Employment and Income



Changes  in  employment and income as a result of uranium-related

development cause  direct  impacts  on  the  local  and  regional

economy.   These  impacts  are  usually viewed as positive by the

host community.  The benefits of these changes can  be  increased

and  other  indirect negative impacts reduced if uranium projects

can hire local residents; for instance, local unemployment can be

reduced  and  per  capita  income increased, thereby reducing the

negative impact of requiring new schools before the tax  base  is

available  to  pay  for them.  Generally, total direct impacts on

employment and income will be a function of the following:
  • The  number  of  facilities  being built in the same area.
    When several projects  occur  in  the  same  region,  each
    succeeding   project  will  rely  more  on  outsiders  for
    employees.

  • The   phasing   of  development  of  multiple  facilities.
    Construction—related employment can  often  be  made  much
    more  stable if projects are timed so that essentially the
    same work force is employed for each project.

  • The  level  of  effort  by  the mine or mill to hire local
    residents.

  • The  labor  requirement  for  highly  specialized  skills,
    Local labor pools in rural areas are  not  often  able  to
    provide  workers  with  highly  specialized  or  technical
    expertise,

  • The degree of regional unemployment.  Improper functioning
    of formal or informal information networks  on  employment
    opportunities   may   lead  to  the  number  of  newcomers
    exceeding the number  of  new  jobs,  actually  increasing
    unemployment.
                              5-7

-------
5.1.1
Empioyment
The  three most common analytical approaches used to estimate the

number of local employees versus newcomers are  (1) to assume  all

employees  are  newcomers,   (2) to  extrapolate from the ratio of

newcomers found in similar projects, and  (3) to analyze the local

market's  capabilities to meet project needs.  To assume that all

new employees will be newcomers is a conservative approach, often

taken  where  there is little available data.  It is based on the

premise that local hirees will be  vacating  jobs  that  will  be

filled  in  turn  by newcomers.  The extrapolation approach is to

use the results of  surveys  taken  in  previous  energy-impacted

areas.   The market—analysis approach is to analyze the skills of

the local labor force and relate them to the needs of the mine or

mill.


In  analyzing  direct  employment,  a distinction is made between

construction  and  permanent  workers.    This   distinction   is

important  in both assessing long—term impacts and in considering

mitigation measures.   Since  construction  workers  tend  to  be

temporary,  area  populations  may  fall as rapidly at the end of

construction as they rose at the beginning.  Thus classrooms  and

utilities  systems  built to handle the increased population will

not be efficiently used, but the remaining residents  will  still

be  responsible  for  the  debt incurred for construction of such

facilities.
                              5-8

-------
/
Project
Mines
Surface
Surface
Surface
Underground
Underground
Underground
.Mills
Mill (acld-
leach)
Mill
(carbonate-
leach)
Mill (acid-
leach &
akaline-
leach)
Mill (acid-
leach)
Start-up
Date
old
1970's
mid
1950' s
early
1970'»
projected
early
1980's
early
1970's
early
1970's
mid
1950's
expanding
late
1970'»
early
1970's
old
1950's
converted
aid 1970' »
mid
1970'i
Normal
Capacity
1,700 TPO
varies
according
to -jrade
2,000 TPD
4,500 TPD
1,100 TPD
600 TPD
3,000 TPD
expanding to
6,000 TPD
750 TPD
1,200 TPD
1,000 TPD
Construction
Time
7 month*
2 years
2-1/2 years
(initially
scrapper
operation)
10 years for
all construction
to be complete
2-1/2 year*
4-1/2 years for
all construction
to be complete
11 months
for expansion
20 nontc*
4 years for
entire
conversion
1 year
(includes 2
month delay
for NRC
Statement)
Peak.
Construction
Force
141
HA
HA
300
60
HA
600
60
(all surface
. buildings)
120
(conversion)
70
Total
Operating
Force*
141
455
220
750
164
ISO
421
83
135
51
\
Union/
Non-Union
non-union
union
non-unloa
HA
mixed
union
union
mixed
non-union
non-union
'Includes office and naintenance personnel.

 SOURCE:  DRI interviews with mine and mill operators.
 Table 5-2
 Estimates of Work Forces for Selected Uranium Mines and Mills
                                   5-9

-------
Examples  of  the  number of operation and construction employees

and construction times for various types  of  uranium  mines  and

mills  are shown in Table 5—2.  These vary widely from project to

project, depending on such factors as:




  • Geologic conditions

  • The   resultant   mine  and  mill  plans  and  engineering
    specifications

  • The   construction   techniques   used  (e.g.,  extent  of
    prefabricated subsystems)

  • The  geographic  location  (including the consideration of
    established  transportation  systems   and   distance   to
    regional trade centers)

  • The  existence  of regional union labor pools and types of
    skills represented

  * The discretion allowed project managers to make trade-offs
    to use smaller construction forces over longer periods  of
    time
The  prime  contractor for the construction project and operating

companies for mine and mill facilities are the best  sources  for

obtaining  data  on  employment.   Where  an  employer's data are

unavailable, general figures on worker productivity may  be  used

in  combination  with  estimates of mine output.  Table 5—3 gives

the average worker- productivity in the U.S. for  underground  and

open— pit  mines.   As  indicated,  it  is important to use recent

estimates  because  productivity  has  fluctuated  sharply   with

technological    innovations   and   changes   in   mine   safety

requirements.
                              5-10

-------
1
Tons Per Man- Shift
Underground Mines Open Pit Mines


Miners
1969 7.8
1970 8.5
1971 8.1
1972 8.6
1973 8.2
1974 8.3
1975 6.4
1976 7.5
Source: ERDA,
Table 5-3
Service
and
Support
18.0
18.6
18.1
19.4
15.3
19.0
10.6
9.0
January



Total
5.4
5.8
5.6
6.0
5.4
5.8
4.0
4. 1


Miners
16.6
19.1
21.7
22.7
28.0
30.7
26.1
21.3
1976.

Service
and
Support
22.1
27.1
27.8
32.0
38.6
35.3
29.6
30.6




Total
9.5
11.3
12.2
13.3
16.2
16.4
13.9
12.7


Changes in Worker Productivity
5.1.2
Income
Wage rates for construction and operating employees will normally

be considerably higher than those of the local service and public

employees,  even  allowing  for variations such as region, skills

involved and union pay scales.  Dranium  industry  employees  can

further  augment  their  base  pay by overtime, bonuses and other

incentives based on individual productivity.  As a result, it  is

frequently  possible for an experienced miner taking advantage of

all offered incentives to make $30,000 per year.   Typical  wages

received   by  employees  in  various  industries  are  given  in
                              5-11

-------
Table 5—4.   Wage  differentials   for   different   skills   are

illustrated in Table 5—5.
  Potential actions to enhance opportunities and/or mitigate
  problems include;

  Community actions

  • Vocational training programs for local residents

  • Accurate  job status publicity (to prevent in—migration of
    workers in excess of available jobs)

  Industry actions

  • Local recruitment efforts by both construction contractors
    and operators

  For more information see:

  General sources on worker characteristics

  • University  of  Wyoming.  Agricutural  Experiment Station.
    Profile of a Rural Area Work Force:  The  Wyoming  Uranium
    Industry.  Research Journal 79, Laramie: January 1974.

  • Uhlmann,   Julie M.,   et al.   A  Study  of  Two  Wyoming
    Communities  Undergoing  the  Initial  Effects  of  Energy
    Resource  Development  in  the Powder River Basin: Buffalo
    and  Douglas,  Wyoming—1975.   Laramie:   University   of
    Wyoming, 1976.

  • Mountain  West Research, Inc. Construction Worker Profile.
    Washington, D.C.: Old West Regional Commission, 1976.

  Other sources

  • Environmental  Impact  Statements  for specific facilities
    (e.g.. Rocky Mountain Energy Company, Bear Creek facility,
    Converse  County,  Wyoming;  Minerals Exploration Co., Red
    Desert facility, Sweetwater County,  Wyoming;  Rio  Algom,
    La Sal facility, San Juan County, Utah)

  • State and regional employment offices

  • Unions
                              5-12

-------
                    Occupation
    Wyoming
                                                                       Hew Mexico
                                                                                                   Utah
              Uranium Industry
                Mine
                Mill
$1.250 -  1.833
$1,250 -  1,667
$1,000 - 1.833
$1.000 - 1.500
$1,500 - 1,833
$1,000 - 1.500
              Carpenter  (union)
                        (non-union)
              Police Officer
              Fireman
              City Laborer
              City Mechanic
              Clerk-Typist  (steno)
                      (bookkeeper)
              Auto Mechanic
              Truck Driver  (heavy)
                           (light)
$1,600 - 1,900
$  920 - 1,070
$  780 -    930
$  700 -    850


$1,190 -  1,340
$  500 -    650
$  580 -    730
$  930 -  1,080
$  840 -    990
$  630 -    780
$1,730 - 1,880
$  870 - 1,020
$  800 -  1.100


$  600 -    800


$  550 -    650


$  800 -    900


$  520 -    670
$  800 -   900
$1,130  -  1,280
$  780  -   930
$  700 -   850


$  700 -   850


$  680 -   830


$  520 -   670


$  870 - 1.020


$  440 -   590
$  660 -    810
$  910 -  1.060
$  490 -    640
                                                                              SOURCEl  1977 State Job Listings.
Table 5-4
Average Monthly Salary Ranges for Selected Areas

-------
Job
Category
mior lab
echnician,
Industry
Average
under
$10,000
Mill
Average
under
$10,000
Mine
Average
under
$10,000
 unskilled,
 beginning
 secretary
Secretary,
 entry level,
 semi-skilled
$10,000-
 15,000
$10,000-
 12,000
$10,000-
 15,000
Skilled
draftsmen,
operators ,
miners
Supervisory
personnel
Administration

$15,000-
20,000


$20,000-
25,000
above
$25,000
$12,000-
18,000


$14,000-
20,000
above
$20,000
$15,000'
20,000


$20,000
25,000
above
$25,000
SOURCE:  DRI interviews with industry officials  in Wyoming,  Utah,  and
         New Mexico.
   Table 5-5
   Examples of Average Wages for Uranium Industry Workers
                               5-14

-------
5.2
Indirect and Induced Impacts on Employment and Income

The  direct  changes  in  employment  and  income associated with
uranium development can cause indirect and/or induced changes   in
virtually every other sector of  the local and regional economies.
Uranium development may produce  indirect changes in  other  basic
industries;  for example, increases in uranium-linked industries,
such as railroad—  and  mining—equipment  suppliers,   may  occur.
Capital  expenditures  and  salary  dollars invested  in the local
economy  by  the  uranium  industry  and  associated    activities
increase  spending,  which  leads  to  induced  changes, such as
increased purchasing power,  economic  activity,  and  supporting
 (nonbasic)  jobs.
Indirect   changes   are   not  always  positive.  For  example,
agricultural production may decrease because of   competition   for
local labor.  This in turn could reduce economic diversity.
5.2.1
Non-Basic Economic Activity
Uranium  development also stimulates changes in nonbasic economic
activity.  In a simple model of  a  local  or  regional  economy,
basic economic activities are those which import purchasing power
from outside the region.  Nonbasic activities,  activities  which
provide goods and services to households and/or businesses within
the region, are considered to be a function of the level of basic
economic  activities.   Nonbasic economic activities include some
 (but not necessarily all) wholesaling, commercial  and  financial

                              5-15

-------
establishments,   some   light   industries,  the  local  housing

industry, and the local public sector.


The  extent  of indirect or induced impacts in the host community

depends upon the following:
    The   distance  to  the  nearest  regional  trade  center.
    Regional trade centers are capable of absorbing a  portion
    of the increased activity due to area resource development
    without much disruption.  Small rural communities are  not
    able to do this.

    The  shopping  habits  of local residents.  As an example,
    Albuquerque  is  within   easy   driving   distance    (all
    interstate)  of  Grants, New Mexico, and many residents of
    Grants drive there to shop.  This may tend to  reduce  the
    incentive for Grants to greatly expand its businesses.

    Present   diversification  of  the  local  economy.   Many
    businesses in small rural communities could not  handle  a
    sudden,  large  increase in business.  Limited shopping is
    available, usually  consisting  of  a  drug  store,  small
    department— type  store, a limited item grocery store, etc.
5.2.2
Analytical Approaches
The  analytical  approaches  used  most frequently for estimating

changes in nonbasic economic activity due  to  changes  in  basic

economic  activity  are . export—base multipliers and input-output

models.  Export—base analysis expresses the relationship  between

basic  and  nonbasic  activities  in  terms  of simple ratios, or

multipliers.   Multipliers  may  be   calculated   using   either

employment or income data.


Input-output analysis is based on the interrelationships of firms


                              5-16

-------
both as purchasers of inputs and as  producers  of  outputs.   It

provides  a means of determining how changes in the output of any

industry will affect each sector of  the  economy.   Input-output

analysis  is  a  more  sophisticated  technique  than export—base

analysis; however, it is used  much  less  frequently  in  impact

assessment.   One  reason  is  the cost.  Up-to-date input-output

tables are frequently unavailable for the area to be studied  and

are  expensive  to  prepare.   The  most  common  approach is the

employment multiplier, primarily because of ease of  application.

Income multipliers may be used almost as easily.


Depending  on the local economic and political environment  (e.g.,

present levels of unemployment and underemployment and  political

attitudes toward growth), the host community may want to maximize

or minimize the indirect and  induced  effects  of  the  proposed

development.


f                                                             'N
  Potential actions to enhance opportunities and/or mitigate
  problems include:

  Community actions

  • Informal  actions  (e.g., Chamber of Commerce) to publicize
    business opportunities

  Industry actions

  * Maximizing  (or minimizing) local purchases of supplies and
    material

  • Encouraging  employees  to  live  nearby  (or to commute to
    nearby communities)
  __                  	                                 J
                              5-17

-------
  For more information see;

  More detailed descriptions of analytical techniques

  • Miernyk, William H. The Elements of Input— Output Analysis.
    New York: Random House, 1965.

  • Tiebout,  Charles  M.  The  Community Economic Base Study .
    New York: Committee  for  Economic  Development,  December
    1962.

  • Hirsch,   W.Z.   Urban   Economic   Analysis.   New  York:
    McGraw-Hill,  1973. .


  Examples of use of these techniques

  • Employment    Multiplier:   Denver   Research   Institute,
    University of Denver  (e.g., Gilmore, et al., Socioeconomic
    Analysis Appropriate for an Environmental Impact Statement
    for a Uranium Mine— Mill Complex at Bear Creek, Wyoming) .

  • Income Multiplier: Arizona State University, Department of
    Economics  (e.g.,  Chalmers,  James A.  and  E.J.  Anderson
    [Mountain   West  Research,  Inc.],   Economic/Demographic
    Assessment  Manual.   Denver:   Bureau   of   Reclamation,
    November 1977) .

  • Input— Output: University of New Mexico, Bureau of Business
    and Economic Research, Albuquerque, New Mexico.
5.3
Population Changes


Estimates  of  population growth related to development are based

on  employment  projections.   First,  employment  estimates  are

adjusted  to  account  for any expected increases in jobs held by

local residents (e.g.,  changes  in  unemployment  levels  and/or

labor  participation  rates) .   The  resulting estimates, that is

jobs to be taken by outsiders, are then translated into estimates

of population growth using one of the following three techniques:
                              5-18

-------
  • Labor participation —  The ratio of labor force members to
    population.  This technique assumes that this ratio is the
    same as the regional average.

  • Worker characteristics —  The  characteristics of the work
    force are assumed to be similar to those found in  surveys
    at  previous  project  sites.   Singles  and  families are
    projected separately  using  such  variables  as  head  of
    household, family size, and number of children.  Different
    variables are normally used for construction and operating
    employees.

  • Cohort survival —  Births,  deaths,  and net migration are
    projected separately for each age and sex  cohort  of  the
    population  at periodic intervals.  Additional assumptions
    must be made concerning the age and  sex  distribution  of
    newcomers.
While  the  cohort  survival technique provides the most detailed

results, it is the most time consuming and requires the most data

and initial assumptions.  This added detail may be appropriate in

special situations such as where there is concern over  the  size

of  the  elderly  population  or where mines or mills are located

near Indian reservations.
5.3.1
Settlement Patterns
In   addition   to  the  magnitude  and  timing,  the  geographic

distribution  of  income  and  employment  effects  among   local

communities  and  taxing  jurisdictions  is  important.  Possible

settlement patterns are influenced by the following:
                              5-19

-------
  • Loca-cion of the new facility

  • Travel time to the point of new employment

  • Present  availability  and  quality  of  public  amenities
    (e.g., utilities,  schools,  public  services,  recreation
    facilities)

  • Present availability and quality of private facilities and
    services (e.g., shopping and medical care)  and presence of
    employment  opportunities  for  any  other wage earners in
    families

  • Present availability and quality of housing

  • Announced  plans  for new housing developments, and public
    and private facilities and services

  • Residential choices of people presently working at or near
    the point of new employment

  • Special   incentives   (e.g.,  availability  of  subsidized
    housing or special transit systems)
5.3.2
Prediction Techniques
Three  of  the  most  commonly used approaches for predicting the

geographic distribution of impacts are as follows:
r
  • The  gravity model, in which community attractiveness is a
    function of population mass and distance

  • A community weighting approach, which incorporates housing
    prices  and  subjective  assessments  of   the   community
    attractivenes s

  • The  Delphi  technique,  a  system  for  eliciting  expert
    opinion by sequential rounds of questioning

  .	       	   	J
                              5-20

-------
None of these methods have been shown to be particularly accurate

predictors of settlement patterns.  It may be that  the  decision

process  is   sufficiently  random  that  no  technique is a good

predictor.  In some instances, it  may  be  better  to  think  of

worker  settlement  patterns  as  a  policy  variable rather than

something to forecast.  Workers might be encouraged  to  live  in

the  communities  where  their presence causes the most favorable

impacts and the fewest problems.
  Potential actions to enhance opportunities and/or mitigate
  problems include:

  Community actions

  • Encouragement  of  housing  growth  to accomodate types of
    population desired (e.g., permanent single family units or
    mobile homes and barracks)

  • Use of growth management techniques (e.g., zoning, utility
    moratoria, higher tap fees)  in  those  areas  which  would
    suffer the most adverse impacts
  Industry actions

  • Recruitment efforts focused on desired types of employees

  • Informal  encouragement of employees to live in designated
    areas

  • Incentives to employees to live in designated areas  (e.g.,
    bus service to mine/mill sites, subsidized housing)
V
                              5-21

-------
  For mors information see:

  Examples of population analysis techniques

  • Labor  Participation:  Tennessee  Valley Authority.  Final
    Environmental  Statement  Morton  Ranch  Uranium   Mining.
    Chattanooga, Tennessee: January 1976.

  • Worker    Characteristics:    U.S.    Nuclear   Regulatory
    Commission.  Draft Environmental Statement Rocky  Mountain
    Energy  Company's  Bear  Creek Project.  Washington, B.C.:
    January 1977.

  • Cohort  Survival: Wyoming. Department of Economic Planning
    and Development  (DEPAD).  The  Navajo  Nation,  Office  of
    Program   Development.   The  Navajo  Economic-Demographic
    Model.  Window Rock,  Arizona:  January  1976.   Available
    from  Office  of the State Planning Coordinator, Salt Lake
    City, Utah.

  Examples  of  techniques for analyzing population settlement
  patterns

  • Gravity  Models:  Chalmers,  James A. "The Role of Spatial
    Relationships in Assessing the Social and Economic Impacts
    of  Large Scale Construction Projects."  Natural Resources
    Journal, April 1977, pp. 209—222.

  • Community  Weighting:  Williams, David, et al.  Impacts of
    the  Proposed  Peabody  Rochelle   Coal   Mine.    Reston,
    Virginia: USGS, 1978.

  • Delphi:  Schmitz,  Steve, et al.  Growth Monitoring System
    Project Report for State Planning  and  Management  Region
    XI. .  Rifle:  Colorado  West  Area  Council of Government,
    1977.
  	
5.4
Public Services and Public Finance

The  development  of  uranium resources may have major impacts on

public finance and public  services.   Many  local  jurisdictions

hosting  uranium development eventually benefit from an increased

tax base.  In the short run,  however,  uranium  developments  in


                              5-22

-------
sparsely  populated  areas  may also cause serious public finance

problems.  When a new development  is  initiated,  the  need  for

public  expenditures  frequently  grows much faster than revenues

from existing sources.  This is particularly  true  for  city, or

town  governments, since development normally takes place outside

corporate limits.


Local officials may confront the following problems:
  • Revenue shortfalls (cash flow problems)  resulting from the
    lag times in receipts of increases  in  revenues  and  the
    lead times required to provide new facilities.

  • The  potential  for  mismatches  between  those  receiving
    revenue increases and those confronted with  increases  in
    demands  for  services  (uranium development can take place
    across county, school district or even  state  lines  from
    where   population  settles).   For  example.  Grants,  in
    Valencia County, New Mexico,  is the home of  employees  of
    the  Kerr-McGee-Ambrosia Lake Hill, the Rancher's Johnny M
    Mine,  and  the  Gulf  Mt.  Taylor  Mine—all  located   in
    McKinley  County.  Municipalities almost always have these
    problems,  since  uranium  operations  are  rarely  within
    corporate limits.

  • The high level of risks for local bonding.  The timing and
    duration  of   uranium   developments   are   subject   to
    uncertainty.    Since   the  tax  base  depends  on  their
    presence, their delay or abandonment imposes a  high  bond
    repayment burden on the residual tax base.

  • The  potential  for  sharp  increases  in public operating
    costs.   Salary   costs   frequently   increase   due   to
    competition with the new uranium-related jobs.

  • The  need  for  new  expertise.   The  financial expertise
    necessary to be successful in obtaining outside assistance
    or  in  obtaining  satisfactory  arrangements with outside
    financial institutions or bond markets is  frequently  not
    available in small communities.
           	     	  	J
                              5-23

-------
The revenues and expenditures associated with uranium development

must be projected to determine net impacts.   Projections  should

be  made  at  least  on  an annual basis to reflect concerns over

front-end financing and cash flow problems.  They should be  made

separately for each relevant jurisdiction to address the issue of

mismatches between those receiving the costs and those  receiving

the benefits.
5.4.1
Revenues
A  close  examination of the tax structure of the state where the

operations are located is necessary  for  accurate  estimates  of

public   revenues   directly   related   to  uranium  production.

Table 5—6 lists the  taxes  applicable  in  the  state  of  Utah.

Table 5—7  provides  an  example  of the taxes due from a typical

mining operation in Utah.  Other states vary  greatly  from  this

example.   The  approach  commonly used to project other indirect

public revenues includes dividing  revenues  into  sub-categories

which  can  be estimated based on previously derived estimates of

increases in real property,, production, income and/or population.

Estimates  of  virtually  all  revenues other than those directly

related to uranium development are made on a  per  capita  basis.

Some  more complex estimating methods involve use of input-output

analysis to derive public sector revenues and use of multivariate

relationships derived from cross-sectional analysis.
                              5-24

-------
s
Title k
Legal
Citation
General
Property
59-1-1
to
59-11-16



Sales
and Use
59-15-4
59-16-3

11-9-4
11-9-6
11-9-4
11-9-6
Corporate
Franchise
59-13-65


Unemploy-
ment
Compensa-
tion
35-4-7
Motor
Fuel
41-11-6



Motor
Vehicle
Registra-
tion
41-1-127


Mine
tlon
59-5-67


Year
Enacted
1849







1933




1959

1974

1931




1936




1923





1909






1937





Basis of Tax
30Z of "reasonable fair cash value"*
of real and tangible personal
property. Metalliferous mines
assessed at $5 an acre plus two
times average net proceeds. In
addition, machinery and other
property of mines assessed at 30"
of reasonable fair cash value.
Retail sales or use of tangible
personal property, utility services,
admissions, meals, general services.
hotel, motel, laundry and dry
cleaning.
Local option — county, city.

Local option — county (only Salt
Lake, Ueber and Davis Counties).
Net income allocable to state; no
deduction for federal taxes.



Base is the latest average annual
wage; this changes every year —
currently $9,600.


Gallons of motor fuel sold or used.





Motorcycles, private autos, house
trailers, manufacturers, transport-
ers, dealers, and wreckers— flat
fees. Motor vehicles, trailers.
and semitrailers used for trans-
property— unladened weight of
vehicle.
Gross amount received or gross value
exempt.




Rates
Varies in each city, county
and school district. In
1977, total property tax
ranged from 46 mills in an
unincorporated area of
Daggett County to 114.95
in Salt Lake City; state
averaee was 78.59.
41 of purchase price.




3/4Z of purchase price.
.
1/4Z of purchase price.

4Z of net taxable Income.
Minimum tax for state banks
and corporations Is $25.


A range of 1.3Z to 3Z
of covered payroll. En-
tire tax paid by employer.


9c per gallon.
(July 1, 1978)




Motorcycles and small
trailers — $2.50; private
autos — $5.00; house
trailers — $5.00; commercial
vehicles— $7.50 to $535,
plates — $1.00 per set.

1Z.


"\
'

Allocation
and Use
School districts.
municipalities.
counties, and
special districts.




To General Fund.




Returned to local
unit Imposing tax.
Transit District.

To' Dnlform School
Fund; distributions
to districts under
minimum school
program.
To Unemployment
Compensation Fund;
used to pay unem-
ployment benefits.

To Highway Con-
struction and
Maintenance Fund;
used for highway
construction and
maintenance.
Cities and coun-
ties get first
$2,000,000 after
admin, expense.
Balance: 3/4 to
cities and coun-
ties, 1/4 to State
Hifchwav Fund.
To General Fund.


       '"Seasonable fair cash value" la not necessarily  current market value.   Presently the actual  assess-
ment ratio is between 6Z to 24Z  in the extremes, but the  state aim Is for all property to eventually  be
assessed at 20Z of current market value.
 SOURCE:
        Compiled by the Utah Foundation  from the Utah Code Annotated  1953, as amended.
        Updated based on interviews with the Utah State Tax Commission.
Table 5-6
Examples of Utah Taxes to be Paid by Uranium Mining and Milling Companies
                                            5-25

-------
 Assumptions;
 • Initial investment           -  $45,000,000 (1977 dollars)
     Cost of mine              =  $25,000,000
     Cost of equipment         =  $ 1,000,000
 • Mine normal  capacity        =   1,700 TPD
 • Mill normal  capacity        =   '1,000 TPD
 • Pounds of yellowcake/year   =   600,000
 • Selling price               •  $ 40
 • Complex is on BLM land
 • Estimated taxes for first year  of operation (1978)
 • Uranium company property and assets are distributed equally between
   Utah and another state

 Property Tax
 Assessed value of mill is 20% of  $25,000,000	$ 5,000,000

 Assessed value of machinery is 20% of $1,000,000 	      200,000

 Assessed value is 2 times $1,300,000  (net proceeds -
   gross proceeds minus mining cost and machinery
   purchased during year) 	    2,600,000
                                                                    $ 7,800,000

 Tax rate                                                           	60 mills
                                                                    $   468,000

 Sales or Use  Tax
 $3,000,000 expended annually for  mine and mill
   supplies times 4.75X 	  $   142,500

 Corporate Franchise Tax
 Net proceeds  ($1,300,000) minus  1/3 for depletion
   allowance (432,900) = $867,100

 $867,100 divided by two (because  company equally split
   between two  states) = $433,550
 $433,550 x 4Z	:	$    17,342

 Unemployment Compensation
 Estimate for 210 employees earning $3,816,000 is 2.7%
   on the first $9,600 paid to each employee during 1978
   ($9,600 x 210 = $2,016,000 x  2.7%)	$    54,432

 Mine Occupation Tax
 Gross proceeds ($2,400,000) minus deduction
   ($50,000) = $2,350,000 x 1%	$    23.500

                                                        TOTAL       $   705,744
  SOURCE:  DRI
Table 5-7
Estimated Major Utah Taxes to be Paid by a Hypothetical Uranium Mine-Mill
Complex
                                      5-26

-------
Another   important   variable  is  the  revenues  mix  of  local

jurisdictions.  Jurisdictions which rely heavily  on  ad  valorem

taxes  are  the hardest hit by revenue lags.  Sales taxes and tap

fees are examples  of  sources  which  arrive  earlier.   Equally

important   is  consideration  of  the  fiscal  position  of  the

jurisdiction  • before   development   begins.    Counties    with

substantial  amounts  of  other resource production, such as oil,

gas, and coal, are in a much better position to  address  uranium

development  problems  than those with predominantly agricultural

tax bases.
5.4.2
Expenditures
A  variety  of  techniques are available for estimating needs for

new public expenditures.  Two of the most common  approaches  are

the  use of national or regional per capita standards and the use

of  the  "best  judgment"  of  local  officials  responsible  for

providing  the  services, . No approach is without problems, and a

detailed analysis of these issues is  necessary  before  carrying

out an expenditure analysis.


Special  emphasis  should  be  given  to. the differences between

public facilities and services required  by  permanent  residents

and  those  required  by temporary construction workers.  This is

necessary  to  avoid  overestimating  the  increases  in   public

expenditures.    Needs   also  vary  greatly  from  community  to

community.  A useful rule of thumb for   early  planning  is  that

roughly  $1,000 per year in new operating expenditures and 55,000


                              5-27

-------
in new capital outlays are required for each new resident if  the

quality  of  local  services  is  to be maintained  (Moore,  1976).

Some capital outlays need to occur one to two years prior to  the

arrival of the new construction work force.
5.4.3
Public Finance Constraints
With   the   exception   of   jurisdictional   mismatches,   most

development-related public finance problems are relatively short-

term,  lasting  from  two  to  seven years.  Host communities and

other local jurisdictions require either  outside  capital  or  a

substantial  line  of credit to get through these critical years.

Unfortunately, most experience thus far  has  been  that  outside

assistance  and  local  borrowing  have  not  been  sufficient to

prevent a reduction  in  the  level  of  local  services.   Local

borrowing  is inhibited by the following mutually reinforcing set

of constraints.
r
  • ACCESS  TO  INFORMATION — Local  officials  often   do   not
    receive early warning of impending development.    Industry
    is  faced  with development uncertainty due to such things
    as litigation and international resource  prices.

  • ACCESS  TO  EXPERTISE — Small  communities may have little
    experience in capital improvements  programming  or other
    intermediate  range  budgeting techniques, the bond market
    or in federal grantsmanship.

  • ACCESS  TO  CAPITAL — Institutional   constraints may limit
    local governments' participation in the bond market.    For
    example, statutory bonding limits range from 10 percent of
    assessed valuation for school districts to  2 percent   for
    counties in Wyoming.
                               5-28

-------
  CONSTRAINTS, Continued

  • RISK —The uncertainty of the timing of development and the
    possibility of abandonment may cause concern  that  public
    facilities  financed  to  accommodate  growth  will not be
    needed and that bonds will have to  be  paid  out  of  the
    existing tax base.

  • ABILITY  TO PAY — Some local entities may be unable to pay
    off early years' debt service without large  increases  in
    tax  rates.   Voters  may often refuse to pass bond issues
    even when the need for new facilities is apparent.
V	J
  Potential actions to enhance opportunities and/or mitigate or
  avoid these problems include:

 •Community actions

  • Tax  base sharing where there is a jurisdictional mismatch
    (Wyoming has examples  of  both  formal  mechanisms —  the
    state's   Joint   Powers  Act — and  informal  mechanisms —
    movement of the school district boundary  within  Converse
    County)

  • Shifts  in reliance from taxes with long lead times (e.g.,
    property taxes)  to faster revenue sources (e.g., utilities
    tap fees)

  • Extensive  us.e  of  external  assistance  programs  (e.g.,
    Environmental  Protection  Agency,  Economic   Development
    Administration, state energy impact assistance funds)
  Industry actions

  • Coordination  of  scheduling  of  construction  with local
    officials

  • Temporary  financial assistance (e.g., planning grants)  to
    particularly needy local governments

  • Prepayment  of  future taxes (only Utah presently has this
    option)

V              ^___ _
                              5-29

-------
POTENTIAL ACTIONS, Continued

State actions

• Establishment  of  energy  impact  assistance funds with a
  portion of energy—related revenues

• Provision  of  local  technical  assistance  in  planning,
  growth management, and grantsmanship

• Establishment of institutions to coordinate assistance and
  ensure  that  problems  are   mitigated   (e.g.,   Wyoming
  Industrial Siting Council, Wyoming Department of Community
  Development, New Mexico Energy Resources Council, Colorado
  Impact  Assistance  Coordinator, and Texas Energy Advisory
  Council)


For more information see:

General discussion of fiscal analysis

• Real   Estate  Research  Corporation.   Costs  of  Sprawl.
  Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1974.

• Muller,  Thomas  and  Grace  Dawson.  The Fiscal Impact of
  Residential and Commercial  Development:   A  Case  Study.
  Washington, D.C.: The Urban Institute, 1972.

• Gilmore,   John,   et al.    (Denver  Research  Institute).
  Impacts of Western Energy Development.   Washington, D.C.:
  The President's Council on Environmental Quality, 1978.
Examples of the use of alternative techniques

• U.S.  Nuclear  Regulatory Commission.  Draft Environmental
  Statement  Rocky  Mountain  Energy  Company's  Bear  Creek
  Prelect.  Washington, D.C.: January 1977.

• Combination:  Baldwin,  Thomas E.,  et al. A Socioeconomic
  Assessment of Energy Development in a Small Rural  County:
  Coal Gasification in Mercer County, North Dakota, Vol. II.
  Argonne National Laboratory, 1976.

• Per capita: Laholm, Arlene G., et al. The Economic Impacts
  of  Construction  and  Operation  of  Coyote  Station   £ 1
  Electrical Generation Plant and Expansion of Coal Handling
  Facilities at the Beulah Mine of Knife River Coal Company.
  Denver: Stearns—Roger, Inc., 1976.
                            5-30

-------
  MORE INFORMATION,  Continued

  Discussions of mitigation alternatives

  • Briscoe,   Maphis,   Murray and Lament,  Inc. Action Handbook
    for  Small  Communities  Facing   Rapid  Growth.    Denver:
    Environmental Protection Agency,  1978.

  • Moore,    K.D.,    et al.   (Denver   Research    Insitute).
    Mitigating  Adverse  Socioeconomic   Impacts   of   Energy
    Development;  Present  Programs and Mechanisms and Further
    Policy  Options.   Washington, D.c.:   D.S.  Department   of
    Energy, 1977.

  • Centaur Management Consultants, Inc. Assistance  for Energy
    Developers:  A Negotiating  Guide  for   Small  Communities,
    Washington,  D.C.:     Energy   Research   and   Development
    Administration,  1977.

                                                            _J
5.5
Housing and Commercial Development
In addition to shortages in public  facilities  and  services, rapid-

growth can  lead  to  shortages   in  housing   and   in  commercial

development.   Housing problems  are often  the  first major sign of

population growth impacts.   Prices  for  new construction  and  for

rental  units  begin to increase as demand overtakes supply.  The

private business sector of  the local economy is not able to  keep

up  with  demand  either.    Financing for  expansion of commercial

establishments is difficult to obtain  or  .nonexistent;  existing

businesses  are  accustomed  to  operating  under stable conditions

and may not have the  stock  or   the help to handle  increased

business..  In  times of rapid growth,  the private sector suffers

many of the same problems as the public sector.
                              5-31

-------
5.5.1
Housing
Most assessments of housing impacts consist of an estimate of the

increased need for housing.  These are usually based  on  housing

surveys  done in the area by local lending institutions, realtors

or planning agencies.  Information collected often  includes  the

number   of  housing  units  by  type,  such  as  single  family,

apartments, and mobile homes; types of housing  available;  price

or  monthly rental; age of dwelling; and household income levels.

However, equal attention should  be   (and  seldom  is)  given  to

whether  suppliers  are  likely  to  provide the needed units and

whether buyers are able to pay for them.


The  housing  needs  of construction workers are often temporary.

Many workers live in mobile home parks  (often bringing their  own

trailers  or campers), rooming houses, or motels for the duration

of the construction project.  The housing demand of the permanent

operating work force is basically a function of:


x^                                                            ^\
  • the need for housing (normally based on household size)

  • preference  for  different  types  of units (mobile homes,
    single family units or apartments)

  • income levels and willingness to pay

  • ability to secure financing
^  	S

Although  the  income  levels  of  most  uranium  mine  and  mill

employees are  high  enough  to  initially  qualify  them  for  a

mortgage,  the  uranium-mining industry is known for the mobility

of its work  force.   This  can  cause  difficulty  in  providing


                              5-32

-------
adequate  credit  and employment histories for loan applications.

Conservative lending institutions frequently  do  not  look  upon

these newcomers as good risks and question the probable period of

residence of the applicant and  the  strength  of  local  housing

demand after completion of the project.


Even  when  demand  appears  adequate to insure increased housing

production, a number of other factors may constrain the supply of

needed housing units.  These include:
    UNAVAILABILITY  OF  MORTAGE CREDIT - Small local economies
    cannot normally generate the  rate  of  capital  formation
    required  to  meet  the  needs  for  new housing mortgages
    without importing capital from outside financial  centers.
    The  institutional  constraints  encountered  include  the
    absence of effective correspondent banking  relationships,
    the  inability  to  have  access to the secondary mortgage
    market due to the relatively small size  of  the  mortgage
    packages, and the rejection of secondary mortgage packages
    as  too  risky  and/or  too  difficult  to  evaluate   and
    supervise.

    LIMITATIONS  ON  LOCAL  ENTREPRENEURIAL  SKILLS - In  some
    instances, there is no active construction industry  prior
    to initiation of the uranium project.

    UNAVAILABILITY  OR HIGH COST OF SKILLED CONSTRUCTION LABOR
    Whatever local construction force exists may be  bid  away
    from the housing industry by the uranium project.

    DIFFICULTIES IN ACQUIRING SUITABLE LAND - This is 'hampered
    in  coastal  areas  by   environmental   constraints   and
    competition from other land users (e.g., resorts), in many
    semi-rural  eastern  areas  by  large   lot   zoning,   in
    Appalachia  by  terrain  and  monopolistic  land ownership
    patterns  and  in  the  Rocky  Mountains  by  public  land
    ownership.

    SHORT  PAY-OUT  PERIODS FOR RENTAL UNITS - Where peak work
    forces create temporary housing demand, rapid amortization
    of  developers1  and  creditors'  investments  may lead to
    extremely high income requirements for  rental  units  and
    mobile home sites.                                           .


                              5-33

-------
    ABNORMAL  FRONT-END  RISKS - Where  a  single  -project  is
    responsible for a large proportion of  the  local  housing
    demand   (e.g.,  a large power plant in a small community),
    developers and construction lenders may  feel  that  their
    vulnerability    to   project   delays    (e.g.,   due   to
    environmental litigation)  is  unacceptable.   Lenders  in
    particular may refuse to take part in housing developments
    until project construction is actually underway.

    EXCESSIVE    FRONT-END   COSTS - Factors   limiting   land
    availability may also increase costs of roads,  utilities,
    etc.     Also,    local   governments   facing   financial
    difficulties  with  front-end  financing  may  respond  by
    shifting  a portion of the burden to private developers in
    the form of higher  utility  tap  fees,  requirements  for
    cost-sharing  on roads and utilities, and requirements for
    school and park land dedications.
Because  of  these  difficulties  and  the  problems  of employee

recruitment and retention,  housing  has  become  an  area  where

industries  have  actively intervened.  Activities range from  (1)

attempting   to   remove   the   constraints   described    (i.e.,

guaranteeing the sale or rental of housing constructed in advance

of the project, lease-purchase arrangements  for  employees,  and

recruiting  outside  developers)  to   (2) acting as developers of

bunkhouses, subdivisions and mobile home parks to   (3)  providing

housing subsidies.  The extent to which industry becomes involved

varies from company to company and from region to region.
5.5.2
Commercial Development
In  addition  to  the housing supply and demand difficulties, the

host community can experience other related problems..  If  there

are  no  effective  controls on the pattern of development  (i.e.,


                              5-34

-------
zoning and subdivisions regulations), "rural" sprawl can develop.

The difficulties which may be encountered when sprawl development

occurs include:
  • HEALTH  PROBLEMS — Adherence  to  and  enforcement  of the
    health standards associated with water  and  liquid  waste
    treatment facilities may be neglected.

  • INCREASED  COST  OF  PROVIDING PUBLIC SERVICES - Water and
    sewer  lines  must  be  extended  to  fringe  areas,   and
    additional  police and fire protection may be difficult to
    provide.

  • SPRAWLED  DEVELOPMENT  LIKELY  TO  REMAIN - The pattern of
    development which first begins in response to the stresses
    of  growth  is  the  one which is likely to continue after
    growth stabilizes.
       	    J
Even  in  the  absence  of formal controls/ communities can exert

some degree  of  authority  over  growth  patterns  by  carefully

choosing when and where to expand utilities and services.


Many  of the same financial considerations and constraints can be

applied to the problems  of  commercial  development.   In  small

rural areas there is often a lack of local entrepreneurial skill.

Furthermore, local lending institutions do not  always  have  the

well-developed  correspondent  banking  relationships required to

import substantial amounts of outside capital.  Outside  lenders,

as  well  as  local  ones,  may  not be willing to lend money for

commercial development  when  there  is  substantial  uncertainty

about the timing and duration of the expected development.  Large

chain operations   (e.g.,  K—Mart  and  Safeway)  have  their  own

criteria for opening stores in an expected'growth area.


                              5-35

-------
Potential actions to enhance opportunities and/or mitigate
problems include:
Community actions

• Industrial   revenue   bonds  to  improve  industrial  and
  commercial sectors' access to credit

• Publicity   (e.g.,   Chamber   of   Commerce   activities)
  concerning the need for new  entrepreneurial  activity  in
  local services and housing

• Public housing programs (e.g., HUD Section 12)

• Expanded  efforts  by local financial institutions to have
  access   to   secondary   credit   markets   and   develop
  correspondent banking relationships
Industry actions

• Recruitment of outside housing developers

• Guarantees    (underwriting)    of   credit   for   housing
  development started in  anticipation  of  the  arrival  of
  construction workers

• Purchase   of   land  for  housing  development  prior  to
  announcement of energy development intentions (to  prevent
  land speculation)

• Acting  as  housing  developers,  especially for temporary
  construction housing


State/federal actions

• Increasing  fund  allocations  and  accessibility  of  FHA
  mortgage guarantees in impacted areas

For more information see:
Data on housing demand

• Mountain  West Research, Inc. Construction Worker Profile.
  Washington, D.C.: Old West Regional Commission, 1976.

• Wyoming  Department  of Economic Planning and Development,
  ongoing housing—market projections.
                            5-36

-------
  Examples of previous industry involvement in housing
  • Rocky  Mountain Energy Company underwrote the construction
    of 32 homes in a new subdivision in Douglas, Wyoming
  • Gulf  Oil  Company  plans  to  develop  a  plat of land in
    Grants, New Mexico.  Actual construction will be  done  by
    independent  contractors.  At least one—third of the homes
    must be offered to general public.
  • Phillips  Petroleum Company anticipates the development of
    a Planned Unit Development (PUD)  in Thoreau,  New  Mexico,
    near   Grants.    Plans   include   single   family  lots,
    multi—family units, trailer  spaces,  a  park,  commercial
    areas,  and a KOA—type park for campers and motor homes to
    serve temporary construction workers.
5.6
Socio-Cuitural and Political Changes

Uranium   development   projects  can  have  significant  social,
cultural and political effects  on  the  host  community.   These
changes  include  varying  impacts to diverse parties of interest
(e.g., federal, state, or local governmental  entities,  industry
and  commercial  interests,  and the general public).  Impacts on
long-time  residents  have  included  loss  of  political   power
traditionally  dominated  by  ranching  or  farming interests and
perceived decline in personal safety.  Effects on newcomers  have
included  perceived  .rejection  by  long-time  residents,  strong
feelings of alienation, and stress reactions by unemployed mates.
Table 5—8 provides an example of some of the "before" and "after"
sociocultural changes expected as a consequence  of  uranium  and
other resource development in Converse County, Wyoming.

                              5-37

-------
        Indicators
                                Characteristics  of  Society—1975
                                                                             Characteristics of Society—1985
 Social Structure
 Economy
 Technology
 Occupational structure
 Regulates distribution
 of power
 Adjudicates conflict
 and claims
 Culture

 Expressive sycbolism
 Institutions
 family
 Education
  Communities
 SUMMARX
Total employment—3,150

Balanced economic  bane-
 Agriculture is 39Z  of basic employment
 Mining and processing is  33Z
 Retired individuals comprise  32.4* of
  population

Expanding Job opportunities within the
county since 1970; gain of population since
1970 vs. a loss of population  ia  the 1960's

Agriculture technology fairly  advanced;
large power plant  and several  mines
Rancher S blue collar workers  roughly
equally significant
Rancher dominated counties  (the  3 county
commissioners are ranchers);  county vnich
has traditionally bean intiplanning is now
establishing and stressing  acre  conprehen-
slve planning aachanisnis

Legislature is rural dominated;  county
government deals with few conflicts, largely
between revenues (taxes)  and  expenditures
(service requirements)
Protestant Christian values—United Method-
ist, Baptist, Episcopal—37.5X  of  county
population are church adherents (the
national average Is 501)

£aphasis on independence  and self-reliance—
801 of the fares (i ranches) are owner-
occupied (the national average  is  62%) ; 20Z
of all the work force is  self-employed  (the
national average is 112)
Attitude of peraanence—attachment  to  the
area Is high; (76Z of 1970 residents had
lived ia county for S years or more)

1972 divorce rate—4.26/1,000 population,
an increase in chu 1970 race of 3.03/1,000

Low dropout rate of 7.2Z (the national
average is 2SZ)

Two very snail service canter tovns; high
proportion of pemanent housing
Traditionally an agrarian society,  recent
increase in the number of ainers &  con-
struction workers; county now dominated
by  ranchers and employees of the energy
Industry; includes service and governmental
components
 Total  employment—6 ,600

 Single industry economic base-
  Agriculture  is now  15Z of basic employment
  Mining and processing is now 731
 Job  opportunities will continue to draw aew
 residents,  they may also help stem out
 migration of young people from the area

 Advanced mining and processing technology;
 more specialized; more diversified and
 sophisticated; improved technical, educa-
 tional and  professional services in the area

 Blue collar dominated
 Changes  in occupational structure, technol-
 ogy,  and economy  all aust be dealt vlth and
 will  change constituencies; urban centers
 will  be  larger  S  aore cocolex, will require
 sore  planning and administration

 Hew conflicts:  newcomer vs. old tiaer, aore
 urban vs.  rural strain; interindustry 4
 environmental conflicts aore coanon; more
 concern  with 4  need  for Federal intervention
 with  aore urbanization; unions probably aore
 of issue & possibly  a political force
                                                                         More  emphasis on political,
                                                                         economic  groups
                                                                                                    social, and
 .Presence of a large population who  view
 themselves as temporary
 Dropout rate may coma closer to  the  national
 average as the county becomes aore industrial

 Growth, more diversity in the two service
 centers, increase in the proportion  of  tem-
 porary housing; possible degradation of ser-
 vices and overcrowding to accompany  rapid
.SXSXtfc	  	  	  	  	  	  	  	

 More urban,  complex society, including  new
 extractive & processing components:   county
 now dominated by the energy  industry
                                                                                  SOURCE:
                                                                                          NRG, NUR2G 0129
                                                                                          January, 1977
       Table 5-8
\w     Indicators of Societal Change - Converse County, Wyoming
                                                     5-38

-------
5.6.1
Socio-Cultural Changes
Often  the  integration  of  newcomers and native populations has

been a major problem.  This  problem  is  particularly  difficult

during  aarly development stages when the construction work force

arrives and the two different cultures confront each  other.   In

later development stagest the construction work force is replaced

by  the  permanent  mining  and  milling  work  force  and  their

families.   These  new  permanent residents may be different than

the old timers,  but  ideally,  a  mutual  accommodation  occurs.

Those  families  that  permanently settle in the community  (e.g.,

buying houses, raising children) eventually become a part of  the

social,  political,  religious,  cultural  and  civic life of the

community.


Newcomers  may  have  different  values  and life-styles than the

existing  population.   For  example,  ranchers  may   not   view

leisure—time activities in the same way as miners or construction

workers.  The newcomers may desire baseball and Softball  fields,

bowling  alleys,  and  the  use  of  farm land and open space for

hunting and fishing.  These desires might be in conflict with the

ranchers' common view that land is to be conserved and valued for

production   of   food,   livestock   and    personal    hunting.

Denominational affiliation and church attendance may also change.


Cultural differences may be particularly important considerations

when uranium development takes place near or on Indian lands  and

where  Indians  may account for a significant portion of the work


                              5-39

-------
force.  Many tribes have varying beliefs and customs that play  a

significant role in future relationships with other employees and

with the uranium companies.  For example, in some cases, attempts

at  hiring  Indians  for an underground mining operation would be

futile.  Age-old beliefs keep  some  tribal  members  from  going

underground.   Because  of  strong  tribal  and family ties, many

Indians prefer to live on the reservations and commute  to  work.

Cultural  differences  are  very  important considerations in any

active recruitment program for Indians.
5.6.2
Political and Demographic Changes
One  of  the  more visible changes that is likely to occur in the

community will be the redirection of  the  social,  and  political

leadership.  Traditionally, rural communities have been dominated

by the ranchers or farmers.  As more white—collar and blue—collar

workers  move  into  the  community  and  become  active in local

affairs, they often challenge the traditional  leadership.   They

may  hold  different  views  concerning energy development of all

types,  environmental  issues  or  planning  and  zoning.   These

differences  will  slowly  be reconciled and eventually community

leadership may be held jointly.


Other  expected  changes include a shift from an older population

to a younger one and an increase in the standard  of  living  for

many   employees.    Often   rural   communities  have  an  older

population, with many of the ranchers  having  retired  to  town.

Because  uranium  development  increases job opportunities, young


                              5-40

-------
people are likely to remain instead  of  moving  out  after  high

school  graduation.   In  addition, new miners and mill employees

moving into the area are apt to be in their late  20 's  or  early

30 's.   The  retired  population may not decrease, but their size

relative to the  other  segments  may  change  drastically.   The

uranium  industry's wages will be significantly higher than other

available positions in the  community.   This  will,  in  effect,

drive up the average wage scale and, perhaps, the cost of living.

Elderly residents who live on  fixed  incomes  may  be  adversely

affected by higher rents, food prices, taxes, etc.




  Additional sources of information on social change include:

  • Davidson,  Conna.   Social  Impact  Prevention  and  Human
    Service Needs in the Energy Impacted Areas of New  Mexico:
    Recommendations  to the State Government.  Santa Fe: State
    of  New  iMexico  Health  and  Social   Services   Planning
    Department, 1977.

  • Uhlmann,   Julie M.,   et al.   A  Study  of  Two  Wyoming
    Communities  Undergoing  the  Initial  Effects  of  Energy
    Resource  Development  in the Powder River Basin:  Buffalo
    and  Douglas,  Wyoming — 1975.   Laramie:   University   of
    Wyoming, 1976.
5.7
Other Potential Conflicts

Other  potentially  adverse  impacts  may  occur  as  a result of

conflicts between parties of interest  and  public  agencies  and

regulatory  institutions.   Many  of  these conflicts result from

increased competition for water, land or labor within the region.

Competition  for  scarce  resources often results in the price of


                              5-41

-------
the resource being bid up, the supply reduced or both.   Industry



and commercial developers often compete with the agricultural and



ranching sectors  of  the  economy  for  land  and  water.   This



conflict  can  become further complicated if land for development



includes, or is  near  recreation  or  environmentally  sensitive



areas.   For  example,  some  recent wilderness area designations



have eliminated potential areas of uranium discovery.





The local markets may also be disrupted as the uranium developers



hire at high  wages  and  attract  labor  from  local  employers.



Personal  income  of new uranium employees is favorably impacted,



but many business and local governmental employers are unable  to



change  their  wage  structures to compete and are without needed



help.   Unless  some  hiring  restrictions  are   imposed,   some



teenagers  may  also  be  tempted to quit school and work for the



uranium or construction companies.





Another  potential  area  of conflict is regulatory jurisdictions



and responsibilities in  overseeing  uranium  developments.   For



example,  there  are  state  and  federal  regulations  regarding



tailings disposal.  Some states are agreement states  (i.e.,  they



have the authority to issue their own uranium mill licenses), but



others are  not.   To  the  extent  that  regulatory  uncertainty



increases  the  uncertainty  of  mine  or  mill  development, the



difficulty of  mitigating  each  of  the  categories  of  impacts



described  previously is increased.  Many of these conflicts have



not been formally addressed.
                              5-42

-------
5.8
Contingency Planning and Monitoring Programs
The  state  of   socioeconomic  impact  assessment   is   currently
undergoing  rapid  development,   and  more  reliable forecasting
techniques  will  be  available   in the future.   However,  for  the
present, communities and uranium firms can reduce  the   penalties
for inaccurate forecasting by developing contingency plans.

A  community  may  prepare  by  planning  for  a range of likely
occurrences.   Such  contingencies  could   include  alternative
capital  budgets  and  reservation  of  some of  the legal  bonding
capacity for unforeseen  events.   Financial  institutions  might
plan  for  flexibility  in mortgage terms, and housing  developers
could design mobile home parks which could later be converted   to
permanent housing.  Contingency  planning may be  desirable  in each
of four development phases:
  • ANNOUNCEMENT   PHASE -  For  example,   to  direct  adverse
    effects of speculation in land and housing.
  • BUILE-DP PHASE - For example, to encourage a corresponding
    build—up in local  business  and  to  time  public  sector
    investments.
  • OPERATING PHASE - To monitor changes.
  • ABANDONMENT  PHASE -  To prepare for  eventual declines in
    mine/mill employment as, for  example,  the  ore  body  is
    depleted.
V	J
                              5-43

-------
Much  of the uncertainty surrounding socioeconomic impacts can be



removed  by  continuing  monitoring  programs.   Such  monitoring



programs  have  only  very  recently  been initiated to check the



accuracy  of  impact  projections,  track  the  effectiveness  of



mitigative  programs  and  provide  a sound basis for mid—program



corrections.  These monitoring programs are not only very  useful



in  providing more data for general forecasting use, but also can



guide the specific project in timely implementation of contingent



plans.   An effective ongoing monitoring program will help bridge



the gap between prediction and actual occurrence and thus  permit



adjustment of mitigative efforts to changing circumstances.
                              5-44

-------
                        CHAPTER  5
                     References
DRI.    work    performed    under     subcontract    to
Stone & Webster Engineering  Corporation,  1978.

EREA.   Statistical   Data  of   the   Uranium   Industry.
GJO—100—76.  Grand Junction,  Colorado:   ERDA,  January
1976. .

Moore,   K.D.  Financing  Options for Communities Near
Large Energy  Developments.   Denver, Colorado:  Rocky
Mountain Center on Environment,  July  1976.

NRC. Draft Environmental Statement Related to  Operation
of Bear Creek Prelect Rocky   Mountain Energy  Company,
NUREG-0129, January 1977.
                          5-45

-------
                   Bibliography
DIRECT IMPACTS ON EMPLOYMENT AND INCOME

Mountain   West   Research,  Inc.  Construction  Worker
Profile.    Washington,   B.C.:   Old   West   Regional
Commission,  1976.   Extensive  survey  of construction
workers and projects in nine  western  communities  and
14 major construction sites.

University of Wyoming, Agricultural Experiment Station.
Profile of a Rural Area Work Force: The Wyoming Uranium
Industry.  Research Journal 79.  Laramie: University of
Wyoming,  January  1974.   Detailed  profile   of   the
existing Wyoming uranium industry work force.
INDIRECT AND INDUCED IMPACTS ON EMPLOYMENT AND INCOME

Hirsch,   W.Z.  Urban  Economic  Analysis.   New  York:
McGraw-Hill, 1973.   Descriptions  and  comparisons  of
strengths  and  weaknesses  of  alternative  analytical
techniques.

Miernyk,   William H.   The  Elements  of  Input-Output
Analysis.  New  York:  Random  House,  T965.   Detailed
description of input—output models.

Tiebout,  Charles M. The Community Economic Base Study.
New   York:   Committee   for   Economic   Development,
December 1962.   General  formulation  of  the economic
base concept and examples of simple procedures.
POPULATION CHANGES

The  Navajo Nation. Office of Program Development.  The
Nava1o  Economic/Demographic   Model.    Window   Rock,
Arizona:  The  Navajo  Nation,  January 1976. Available
from Office of the  State  Planning  Coordinator,  Salt
Lake    City,    Utah.     Example   of   sophisticated
economic/demographic  model   using   cohort   survival
analysis.

Tennessee   Valley   Authority.    Final  Environmental
Statement Morton Ranch  Uranium  Mining.   Chattanooga,
Tennessee:    TVA,    January 1976.    Description   of
socioeconomic impacts (including  labor  participation)
of  the  mining  of uranium deposits at Morton Ranch in
Converse County, Wyoming.
                          5-46

-------
POPULATION CHANGES, Continued

U.S.     Nuclear    Regulatory    Commission.     Draft
Environmental Statement Rocky Mountain Energy Company's
Bear  Creek Project.  Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government
Printing   Office,   January 1977.    Description    of
socieconomic  impacts (including characteristics of the
incoming work force) of a uranium  mine—mill  operation
in Bear Creek, Wyoming.

Williams, David, et al. Impacts of the Proposed Peabody
Rochalle Coal  Mine.   Reston,  Virginia:  USGS,  1978.
Example  of  community  weighting  techniques   (combing
"hard" data such as miles from mine  with  "soft"  data
such   as  community  attractiveness)  for  determining
population settlement patterns.

Schmitz, Steve, et al. Growth Monitoring System Project
Report for State  Planning  and  Management  Region XI.
Rifle: Colorado West Area Council of Governments, 1977.
Example of Delphi technique  (interviewing knowledgeable
local  residents) for determining population settlement
patterns.

Chalmers,  James A.  "The Role of Spatial Relationships
in Assessing the Social and Economic Impacts  of  Large
Scale   Construction   Projects."    Natural  Resources
Journal,  April 1977,  pp.  209-222.   Example   of   a
modified  gravity  model  (using  only easily obtained,
quantified   information)   to   estimate    population
settlement patterns.
PUBLIC SERVICES AND PUBLIC FINANCE

Gilmore,  John,  et al.   (Denver  Research  Institute).
Impacts of  Western  Energy  Development.   Washington,
D.C.: The President's Council on Environmental Quality,
1978.  Description  and  validation  of  fiscal  impact
models  and  methodology  on  selected Coloado and Utah
communities.

Muller,  Thomas.   Fiscal  Impacts of Land Development.
Washington, D.C.: The Urban Institute,   1972. .  Summary
of alternative approaches and detailed bibliography for
fiscal impact analysis.

Real  Estate  Research  Corporation.   Costs of Sprawl.
Washington,  D.C.:  U.S.  Government  Printing  Office,
1974.    Summary   of   detailed   cost   analyses  and
bibliography for alternative development patterns.
                          5-47

-------
PUBLIC SERVICES AND PUBLIC FINANCES, Continued

Briscoe,   Maphis,  Murray  and  Lament,  Inc.   Action
Handbook for Small  Conununitiss  Facing  Sapid  Growth.
Denver:    Environmental .  Protection   Agency,   1978.
Planning   processes   and   additional   sources    of
information for the small community.

Centaur  Management  Consultants,  Inc.  Assistance for
Energy  Developers:  A  Negotiating  Guide  for   Small
Communities.   Washington,  D.C.:  Energy  Research and
Development Administration,  1977.   Alternative  roles
for industry, written primarily for public officials in
potentially affected communities.

Moore,   K.D.,   et al.   (Denver  Research  Institute).
Mitigating  Adverse  Socieconomic  Impacts  of   Energy
Development;    Present  Programs  and  Mechanisms  and
Further  Policy  Options.    Washington,   D.C.:   U.S.
Department  of  Energy, 1977.  Description and analysis
of  existing  federal,  state,  and  industry  programs
dealing  '  with   socioeconomic   impacts   of   energy
development.
HOUSING AND COMMERCIAL DEVELOPMENT

Metz,   Dr.  William C.  Residential  Aspects  of  Coal
Development.    Pittsburgh:    Westinghouse    Electric
Corporation   Environmental   Systems  Department,  for
American  Institute  of  Planners  Conference,  October
10—12,   1977.    Examples   and   methods  of  company
initiatives to provide adequate housing to miners.

Mountain   West   Research,  Inc.  Construction  Worker
Profile.    Washington,   D.C.:   Old   West   Regional
Commission,  1976.   Extensive  survey  of construction
workers and projects in nine  western  communities  and
fourteen major construction sites.
SOCIO-CULTURAL AND POLITICAL CHANGES

Davidson,  Donna.   Social  Impact Prevention and Human
Service Needs  in  the  Energy  Impacted  Area  of  New
Mexico:   Recommendations   to  the  State  Government.
Santa Fe:  State  of  New  Mexico  Health  and   Social
Services  Planning  Department,  1977.   Description of
problem areas and subsequent recommendations for  human
service delivery systems in an energy impacted area.
                          5-48

-------
SOCIO-CULTURAL AND POLITICAL CHANGES, Continued

Gilmore,  John S.  and  Mary K. Duff.  Egom Town Growth
Management: A Case Study of Rock  Springs—Green  River,
Wyoming.  Boulder: Westview Press, 1975.  The future of
the mining and construction boom in the two communities
were   analyzed   and   projected.    Description   and
categorization of problems in two impacted  communities
and suggestions for new legislation/institutions.

Uhlmann,  Julie M.,  et al.   A  Study  of  Two Wyoming
Communities Undergoing the Initial  Effects  of  Energy
Resource Development in the Powder River Easin: Buffalo
and Douglas,  Wyoming—-1975.   Laramie:  University  of
Wyoming,   1976.   Comparison  of  characteristics  and
attitudes of longtime residents  to  newcomers  in  two
rural Wyoming communities.
                          5-49

-------
GLOSSARY

-------
                          Glossary
Adit -  A horizontal or nearly horizontal passage driven from the
surface for the working or unwatering of a mine.

Amendment -  A  material  added to soil to improve its capability
for supporting plant growth, particularly for reclamation.

Autogenous Grinding -  Grinding ore by tumbling the material in a
revolving cylinder without balls or rods.  The ore itself acts as
the grinding media.

Btu - British thermal unit.

Beneficiation -  The  dressing  or  processing  of  ores  for the
purpose of regulating the size of  a  desired  product,  removing
unwanted  constituents, or improving the quality, purity or assay
grade of a desired product.

Beta Particle -  A  positively  or  negatively  charged  particle
having the mass of an electron which is emitted  from  a  nucleus
during radioactive decay.

Breeder Reactor - A reactor which generates more fissile material
than it consumes.

CANDU - Canadian Natural Uranium Reactor.

CSMRI - Colorado School of Mines Research Institute.

Caving -  An unsupported stoping method in which the hanging wall
in the stop.ed-out  area  is  allowed,  or  sometimes  forced,  to
collapse and close the opening..

Circuit - The path of.material through the mill.

Countercurrent Decantation -  The clarification of liquor and the
densification of tailings by the use  of  several  thickeners  in
series.   The  liquor  flows  in  the opposite direction from the
solids.

Curie -   A  unit  quantity  of  radioactive  material  in  which
3.7 x IQio disintegrations per second occur.

DES. - Draft Environmental Statement.

Dose - An amount of radiation absorbed.

Dose Commitment -  The total dose that an organism is expected to
receive in its lifetime from  a  given  quantity  of  radioactive
material deposited in the body.

                              G-1

-------
Dose Equivalent -  The  product  of  absorbed  dose  in  rads and
certain modifying factors.   It  expresses  all  radiation  on  a
common scale for calculating the effective absorbed dose.

DRI — Denver Research Institute.

Enrichment -  The  process  of  increasing  the percentage of the
fissionable isotope zasij above that contained in natural uranium,
usually to 2—4 percent for use as reactor fuel.

Extract ant -   The   active   organic   reagent  which  forms  an
extractable complex with the dissolved uranium.

FRP -  Fiber  reinforced  polyester,  a  fiberglass  construction
material.

Face -  The  solid  surface of the unbroken rock at the advancing
end of an underground working.

Fertile - Able to be converted to fissionable material.
Fissile Material -  Atoms such as zasu or 239Pu that fission upon
absorption of a low energy neutron (Keeny et al., 1977) .

Fission -  The splitting of an atomic nucleus with the release of
energy.

Flocculants -  Agents  that  induce  or  promote  flocculation or
aggregation of solids.

Forward Costs -  The  Department  of  Energy,  through  the  NURE
program, provides estimates of reserves and resources for U30a at
various dollar-per-pound forward costs.  The estimates are ranked
by cost of recovery  termed  forward  cost.   Forward  costs  are
operating and capital costs that are not yet incurred at the time
the estimate is  made.   Past  expenditures  for  such  items  as
property  acquisition,  exploration,-  mine development,  return on
investment, or profit are not included.

The  forward  costs  are  not  production costs or market selling
price.  Each forward cost category is used as  a  maximum  cutoff
although  average  costs  may be less overall for each reserve or
resource estimate (Keeny et al., 1977).

Forward operating costs include direct and indirect mining costs,
haulage,  royalty  and  milling  costs.   Forward  capital  costs
include  cost  estimates  for  the, mill, mine plant construction,
additional mine development and equipment  (Meehan, 1977).

The  market price to stimulate full production of a resource base
may be significantly higher than the estimated cost of  producing
that resource.  Many recent contracts in the early 1980's are $40
to $65 per Ib in year-of-delivery dollars.  In  part,  the  price
difference  is  due  to  low-grade  ore and relatively high-price
recovery projects.  New underground mines  operating  at  greater

                              G-2

-------
depths  and  new  surface  mines  extracting  lower grade ore are
examples of high cost projects.  Recovery from mill tailings ' and
mined-out areas are relatively high cost also.

GPP - Gallons per day.

GPM - Gallons per minute.

Gamma Radiation -   Short  wavelength  electromagnetic  radiation
emitted when an excited nucleus drops to its ground state.

Half-Life -  The  amount  of  time  required  for one half of the
amount of radioactive material present to decay.

Haulageway - The gangway, entry or tunnel through which mine cars
are moved.

In Situ - In a natural or original position.

Injection Well -  For  a  solution mining operation, a lined hole
placed in the  ore  body  for  the  purpose  of  introducing  the
leaching solution.

Ion Exchange -  Reversible  exchange of ions contained in a resin
for different ions in solution without destruction of the  resin.

Ion Exchange Columns - A vessel packed with beads of resin.

KWHR - Kilowatt-hour.

Leaching -   Extracting   a  soluble  compound  from  an  ore  by
selectively dissolving it in a suitable solvent.

Light Water Reactor  (LWR) -  A nuclear reactor that uses ordinary
water as a coolant to transfer heat from the  fissioning  uranium
to  a staam turbine and employs slightly enriched uranium as fuel
(Kaeny, at al., 1977).

LWR Natural Uranium Requirements -  The  1000 MW(e)   LWR requires
about 550 to 625 short tons of U308 for initial fuel loading  and
about  200 tons  for annual refueling.  The U30a is processed and
enriched slightly for fuel rod assemblies which fuel the reactor.
(NRC, GESMO, 1976, pg IV F-1.)

Liquor - Liquid.

Lixiviant - Leaching solution.

Low Grade Ore -  Ore  which  has  a  low content of the metal for
which it is mined.

14 CP - Thousand cubic feet.                                    -

MT/D - Metric tons per day.


                              G-3

-------
MW (e) - Megawatts of" electricity.

Monitor Well - .  For.   a   solution   mining  operation,  a  hole
strategically located in the ore body,  aguifer,  etc.,  for  the
purpose of detecting escaping leaching solutions.

Muck - Unconsolidated rock.

Mudstone Splits.-  Localized  mudstone  interbedding  between two
masses of sandstone.

Nuclear Fuel Cycle -  The  nuclear fuel cycle for the Light-Water
Reactor shown in Figure G—1 depicts  the  operations  that  occur
before  and  after  fissioning  of  fuel  at the reactor.  In the
figure the steps connected by a solid line are  currently  (1978)
operational.   The steps connected by a dotted line are yet to be
implemented  pending  government  resolution  of  its  policy  on
reprocessing, storage, and disposal of spent fuel.

The nuclear fuel cycle consists of several steps:

  • EXTRACTION - removing  the  ore (uranium) from the ground,
    separating uranium from  the  waste,  and  converting  the
    uranium to a chemically stable oxide  (nominally U308).

  « CONVERSION - changing  the 0308 to a fluoride (UF6), which
    is a solid at  room  temperature  but  becomes  a  gas  at
    slightly elevated temperatures, prior to enrichment.

  • ENRICHMENT - concentrating  the fissionable isotope  (23SU)
    of uranium from the naturally occurring 0.7% to  2—4fo  for
    use in reactors for power generation.

  • FABRICATION - converting  the enriched uranium fluoride to
    uranium  dioxide   (U02) f.  forming  it  into  pellets,  and
    encasing  the  pellets  in tubes  (rods)  that are assembled
    into fuel bundles for use in power generating reactors.

  • NUCLEAR  POWER  GENERATION - using the heat resulting from
    the fissioning 6f uranium  and  plutonium  for  generating
    steam for the turbines.

  • SPENT    FUEL    REPROCESSING - chemical   separation   of
    fissionable and:  fertile  values  (235U,  238U,  Pu)  from
    fission  products  (waste),  with concurrent separation of
    uranium from plutonium.

  • WASTE  MANAGEMENT - storage  'of  fission products and low-
    level wastes resulting from reprocessing in a manner  that
    is safe and no threat to health or environment.

Source: NRC, NUREG-0403, 1977.
                              G-4

-------
                                                 Overburden/SpoiI,
                                                Minewater,  Disposal
                                                 >|0re  Stockpi les
                                             Radioactive TaiI ings Waste
                                                   Storage/Disposal
                   Conversion  to
                  Uranium Dioxide
                       Fuel
                   Preparation
Plutoruun
                        Fuel
                    Fabrication
               Fresh Core
                      Reactor
               Spent Core
     - Full Cycli Stift Cuireitlf
         Opinlleml

     -- Steps Cuniatlf ttoMipluiated
         rifldini OpinlUn ol l«p(actiiln|
         Pilots u< ippititl •(
             ti III fu«l.
                                                  • *«r f'" leicUf
                   Reactor Site
               Spent Fuel Storage
              Shipping
                         High-Level  Wastes
             Low  and  Intermediate-Level  Wastes
SOURCE: Adapted  from NRC, DES,  NUREG-0403

   Figure G-1
   The Light Water Reactor Fuel Cycle
              AFR* Spent
             fuel  Storage
           -••Reprocess ing I—
                                                                       	I
                                  G-5

-------
The  extraction'  step  also 'shows the spoil material produced in
mining  and  the  tailings  residue   remaining   after   milling
(conversion  of  ore  to  U.308  concentrate) .  The concentrate is
called "yellowcake" and is about 75 percent uranium.  The largest
portion  of  the ore (feed for the mill)  remaining as tailings is
depleted in uranium but contains radium 226  and  its  long  half
life   parent  thorium 230.   These  tailings  are  a  source  of
radon '222 emissions, which can last for thousands of years   (EPA,
Technical  Note,  1976).   The  storage  and  disposal  of  these
radioactive materials and the radiological concern about them are
discussed in detail in Chapter 4.

The  NRC,  Draft Environmental Statement related to the operation
of Sweetwater Uranium Project, pages H-1,  H-2,  NUREG-0403,  NEC
December  1977  provides  additional  details on the nuclear fuel
cycle.  Also  the  reader  is  referred  to  Ellett,  W.H.M.  and
Richardson,  A.C.B., Estimates of the Cancer Risk Due to Nuclear-
Electric Power Generation, 35pp, Environmental Protection Agency,
Technical Note ORP/CSD-76— 2, EPA, October 1976.

Ore Body -  Generally, a solid and fairly continuous mass of ore,
which may include low-grade ore and waste as well as pay ore, but
is  individualized  by  form  or character from adjoining country
rock  (Fay, b.s. Afr.).  A mineral deposit that can be worked at a
profit under the existing economic conditions.

PPM - Parts per million parts^

PVC - Polyvinyl chloride, a plastic - construction material.

Pathway -  Any  specific  process  or  combination  of  processes
whereby  a  material  is  transported  from  its  source   to   a
destination.

Pedogenic - Relating to the soil.

Phreatic  Surface -  The  elevation  at' which the pressure in the
water is zero with respect to- the atmosphere.

Porosity -  The  ratio of the volume of interstices in a material
   the volume of material.
Portal - Any entrance to a mine.
.,  ••••_ -.i' •-.-'•    [.    .            '   '

Pulp - A mixture of solids and leaching solution
Rad^ -'•' A  dose  of  ionizing  radiation  equal to 0.01 joules per
kilogram of irradiated material.

Rkinoutv-   In— cloud  scavenging  of  aerosol  particles  by  ice
crystals-.

Recovery Well -  For  a  solution  mining operation, a lined hole
placed in the ore body for the purpose of removing  the  leaching
solution which contains dissolved uranium.

                              G-6

-------
Refractory Ore -  Ore which.is difficult to treat for recovery  of
the valuable substances.       ,".'.„

gem -   (Roentgen   Equivalent   .Man)  A  special  unit   of   dose
equivalent, in reins, numerically equal to the absorbed  dose,   in
rads, multiplied by modifying factors..

Roentgen -  The  special  unit  of exposure.  One roentgen equals
2.58 x 10* coulomb per kilogram of air.

Reprocessing -  The  process of,.recovery of uranium  and plutonium
from spent fuel.

Reserves -   For  uranium  those  resources  that , are  known  in
location, quantity and quality and that are recoverable   below   a
specified  cost  using  currently  available technologies (Keeny,
et al., 1977) .                     . .   .  ,-

Resources -  Deposits that may be known to.exist, but not in  such
quantity or state as to be economically  recoverable by  present
technologies,  or  those  that  are  unidentified but suspected  or
probable on the basis of indirect evidence  (Keeny, et al^  1977).

    "Probable" Potential Resources -  Those estimated to  occur  in
    known productive uranium districts:.               .      .

         1.   In extensions of known  deposits, or

         2.   In  undiscovered  deposits  within  known   geologic
              trends or areas of mineralization.

    "Possible" Potential Resources -  Those estimated, to" occur  in
    undiscovered or  partly  defined  deposits  in   formation .  or
    geologic   settings  productive   elsewhere  within  the   same
    geologic province.              .       .              .

    "Speculative" Potential Resources -  Those estimated  to occur
    in undiscovered or partly defined deposits:           '  ".  '

         1.   In  formations  or- geologic settings not previously
              productive within a productive  geologic -:"province,
              or

         2.   Within   a   geologic   province   not  previously
              productive.                 .  .             ,  - .

    "Productive"  infers that -past production plus known  reserves
    exceed 10 tons U308.                             .,  4     "

Saltation - The process of soil transport where.a wind-blown, soil
particle impacts the ground and dislodges other soil particles.

Semi-Autogenous Grinding -  Grinding ore by., tumbling the  material
in a revolving cylinder with fewer steel balls or  r'dds"   thi|i .  in
typical tall or rod mills..      ..   ....   .     ......          .;;  *'..:•;.

                              G-7

-------
 Separative Work -  Work  required  to  separate  isotopes  in the
 enrichment process, measured in Separative  Work  Units   (SWU's).
 It  takes  about  100,000 SWU's per'year to keep a 1000 MW(e) LWR
:': 6 per at ing*:            "•

 Shaft -  A  vertical  or  inclined  excavation  of  limited  area
 compared with its  depth/ > made ""for ;' finding  ore,  mining  ore,
 raising  water,  ore, rock, hoisting or lowering men and material
 or ventilating underground workings.

 Skip -  A guided hopper, usually rectangular, used in vertical or
 inclined •shafts for hoistiri'g rock, .men or materials.
         „-     *•  .        •'" •
 Solution Mining - The technique of•/dissolving minerals in situ by
 injecting a suitable leaching solution  into  the  ore  body  and
 recovering the metal bearing liquors in a pattern of wells.

 Solvent Extraction -  Selective  transfer  of  metal  salts  from
 aqueous solutions- to- an:immiscible organic liquid.

 Somatic - An adjective pertaining to the body.

 Source Term -  The  quantity of material which is released from a
 given source per unit  time.   The  source  term  may  include  a
 qualitative  description of the material released, as well as the
 geometry of the release.

 Sparging - In this context, bubbling gas into liquid or a liquid-
 solid mixture.

 Spent Fuel -  The fuel removed from a reactor after several years
 of generating  power.   Spent  fuel  contains  radioactive  waste
 materials, unburned uranium and plutonium (Keeny et al.,  1977).

 Sto.pe -  An underground opening from which ore is being excavated
 in a series of steps.

 Stoping -  The  act  of  excavating  ore  by means of a series of
 horizontal, vertical or inclined  workings  in  veins  or  large,
 irregular bodies of ore, or by rooms in a flat deposit.  Includes
 the breaking and removal of ore from underground openings, except
 those driven for exploration and development.

 Stripping Ratio -  The  unit amount of waste that must be removed
 to gain access to a similar unit amount of ore.

 Student "t" Test -  A  common  statistical procedure used to test
 the difference between the means of two sets of numbers.

 Sump -  That  portion of the shaft below the normal winding level
 which is used for the collection of water for pumping.

 Surface Mining - Mining in surface excavations.

 SWEC - Stone & Webster Engineering Corporation.

                               G-8

-------
TPD - Tons per day-.,           .    ,...-.      "'   , .       <  •.,',   .,»'.;.

Tails Assay -  The   percentage of the isotope -zssg ±n. the-uranium
remaining after production  of enriched uranium.   The., percentage
is usually less than 0.3  percent.

Tunnel -  A  horizontal"  or nearly-horizontal uhdergrbuneliyp"a;ssage
that is open to the  atmosphere a^t'both ends.   \.,i

Uraniferous - Uranium bearing.

Uranium Oxide  (U30fl)  - The  most common oxide of uranium in  ore.
The amount of elemental uranium in  raw" material   (in  terms  of
black  oxide  equivalent-,  U^9a)  may be determined:by mul-^L-plying
the U30a content by  0.85., ..;,,•  .   ;;   . ;'         . ";'C      '*"'• "•./:

Vat Leaching -  Leaching  in troughs  without mechanical agitation.

Washout - Scavenging of aerosol particle^ by fail-i.ng  raindrops  or
ice crystals.

Well Field -  Por   a  solution  mining  operation, the area which
encompasses the injection and recovery welds.       V"

Yellowcake - The uranium  concentrate.: produced by uranium mills.
                               G-9

-------