PB85-121093
Cold Regions Air Pollution
Bibliography and Summary
Alaska Univ., Fairbanks
Prepared for
Corvallis Environmental Research Lab., OR
Oct 84
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE
National Technical Information Service
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EPA-600/3-84-098
October 1984
COLO REGIONS AIR POLLUTION
BIBLIOGRAPHY AND SUMMARY
by
Gunter E. Heller, Carl S. Benson, Sue Ann Bowling,
Thomas A. Gosink, Takeshi Ohtake, and Glenn E. Shaw
Geophysical Institute
University of Alaska
Fairbanks, Alaska
and
Thomas E. Moyer
Department of Environmental Conservation
State of Alaska
Fairbanks, Alaska
IAG DW89930699-01-0
Project Officer
James C. McCarty
Environmental Research Laboratory
Corvallis, Oregon 97333
ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LABORATORY
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
CORVALLIS, OREGON 97333
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TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Inunctions on the reverse before completing)
1. REPORT NO.
EPA-600/3-84-098
2.
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION>NO.
PB* 5 1 2109 3
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
5. REPORT DATE
October 1984
Cold Regions Air Pollution Bibliography and Summary
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7. AUTHOR(S)
*Gunter E. Waller, Carl S. Benson, Sue Ann Bowling,
Thnraac A^ Rncinlf. TakpcM Ohtalfo. ftlonn F
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
'9. PERFORMING 'ORGANfZAtitfN NAME AND ADDRESS'
Geophysical Institute
University of AlasW
Fairbanks, Alaska
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
IAG DW89930699-01-0
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
Environmental Research Laboratory
Office of "Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Corvallis, Oregon 97333
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
project report
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
EPA/600/02
IS. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
Project Officer: James C. McCarty 420-4601
16. ABSTRACT
Through a series of workshops on cold climate environmental research priorities,
conducted in 1982 by Battel.le for the Environmental Protection Agency and the
Department of Energy, air pollution was identified as the topic of highest priority
The current state of knowledge on air pollution in cold climates was considered to
be widely scattered in the published and "gray"scientific literature. One of"the
high priority projects of air pollution research was therefore identified to be
the compilation of a bibliography and synthesis of what is known and what is not
known about air pollution in the cold regions. This document is the result of that
recommendation. The bibliography on air pollution compiled for these "cold regions
includes papers on the sources, species, concentrations, pathways, and effects of
various kinds of air pollution, including phenomena such as ice fog, and arctic
haze which are peculiar to the region.. Most of the listed references apply to
Alaska; Fairbanks in particular, 1s strongly represented in the literature on ice
fog, carbon monoxide, automobile emissions, and other topics. The references on
arctic haze, a phenomenon which pervades the entire Arctic Basin, are fairly exten-
sive as are references from northern Europe on haze, acid rain, and other pollution
problems.
17.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
b.IDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS C. COSATI Field/Group
18. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
Release to public
19. SECURITY CLASS (ThisReport)
Unclassified
21. NO. OF PAGES
91
20. SECURITY CLASS (This page)
Unclassified
22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (9-73)
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DISCLAIMER
This material has been funded wholly or in part by the United States
Environmental Protection Agency under Interagency Agreement DW89930699-01-0.
It has been subject to the Agency's review and it has been approved for publi-
cation as an EPA document. Mention of trade names or commercial products does
not constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.
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ABSTRACT
Through a series of workshops on cold climate environmental research
priorities, conducted in 1982 by Battelle for the Environmental Protection
Agency and the Department of Energy, air pollution was identified as the topic
of highest priority. The current state of knowledge on air pollution in cold
climates was considered to be incomplete, and available information was
believed to be widely scattered in the published and "gray" scientific litera-
ture. One of the high priority projects of air pollution research was there-
fore identified to be the compilation of a bibliography and synthesis of what
is known and what is not known about air pollution in the cold regions.
This document is the result of that recommendation. It was prepared by
the Geophysical Institute of the University of Alaska under Subcontract No.
B-A3543-A-U to the Pacific Northwest Labortory (PNL) of Battelle Memorial
Institute. PNL manages the Cold Climate Environmental Research Program as an
agent of the Department of Energy through DOE's interagency agreement (No. DW
89930699-01-0) with the Corvallis Environmental Research Laboratory of the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency. The "cold regions" referred to in this
document are defined as the arctic and sub-arctic areas roughly north of 60°N
latitude. This includes most of Alaska, northern Canada (particularly the
Yukon and 'Northwest Territories), northern Europe, Siberia, and the Arctic
Ocean.
The bibliography on air pollution compiled for these "cold regions"
includes papers on the sources, species, concentrations, pathways, and effects
of various kinds of air pollution, including phenomena such as ice fog and
arctic haze which are peculiar to the region. Most of the listed references
apply to Alaska; Fairbanks in particularly is strongly represented in the
literature on ice fog, carbon monoxide, automobile emissions, and other topics.
The references on arctic haze, a phenomenon which pervades the entire Arctic
Basin, are fairly extensive as are references from northern Europe on haze,
acid rain, and other pollution problems. The smallest number of papers comes
from northern Canada and the Soviet Union. The considerable literature on
pollution in southern Canada (Toronto, Ottawa, etc.) was not included because
it did not come under our definition of "cold regions." Soviet literature, if
it exists, does not appear to be available in translation, as indicated by our
computer and other searches.
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Availability of the Listed References
Many of the listed references are "grey literature", i.e., they are
reports which have not been published or extensively distributed.
Microfiches of these reports which are otherwise difficult to obtain
(marked (M) on each reference) are at the following locations:
Library, Geophysical Institute, University of Alaska,
Fairbanks, AK 99701
Alaska Resources Library, Federal Building, 701 C Street,
Box 36, Anchorage, AK 99513
Library, Arctic Environmental Information and Data Center,
707 A Street, Anchorage, AK 99501
Copies of noncopyrighted material may be obtained at the cost of re-
producing them at these location.
A more comprehensive document which includes the abstracts of all the
papers listed below has been published by the Geophysical Institute,
University of Alaska as Report UAG R No. 298 and is available from .the
•Institute at no cost.
1v
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
I. SUMMARY: • . 1
Characteristics of Cold Regions Air Pollution 2
The Chemical Nature of Cold Regions Air Pollution 7
Meteorological Factors in Cold Regions Air Pollution 11
Ice Fog: A Special Form of Cold Regions Air Pollution 19
Arctic Haze: Long-Range Transport of Industrial Pollutants 25
Automobile Emissions and their Control 31
Monitoring Cold Regions Air Pollution 36
Summary of Recommendations ' 41
II. BIBLIOGRAPHY 44
Chemistry of Cold Regions Air Pollution 45
Meteorology of Cold Regions Air Pollution 48
Special Forms of Cold Regions Air Pollution 51
Ice Fog 51
Arctic Haze 57
Automobile Emissions and their Control 63
Other Forms of Air Pollution 68
Air Pollution Monitoring Efforts 70
Effects of Cold Regions Air Pollution 73
Control Measures and Plans . 76
General Summaries and Overviews 79
(For a more detailed table of contents of the bibliography
look up the title page of each individual section)
INDEX OF FIRST AUTHORS . 81
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to acknowledge.the assistance of the following people in
providing help in compiling the bibliography: Richard Joy, Environmental
Services Division, North Star Borough; Barbara Sokolov, Arctic Information and
Data Center, Anchorage; and Judie Triplehorn, librarian of the Geophysical
Institute, who provided numerous references through extensive computer searches
of the literature on the subject. Jim B. States of Battelle Alaska Operations
in Anchorage was the technical administrator of the project and his help in all
phases of the work is acknowledged and appreciated.
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I. SUMMARY
This section attempts to summarize and synthesize the available
information (contained in the bibliography of Section II of this report)
on the various aspects of air pollution in the cold regions. Information
gaps are identified and recommendations on further research are made. It
should be stressed that the recommendations are intended to fill present
data and information gaps, regardless of the cost involved or the relation
of the recommended research to the missions of EPA or DOE in reducing
pollution. Research priorities for these agencies have recently been
established (J. B. States, 1983, Assessment of Cold-Climate Environmental
Research Priorities, Battelle PNL-4581, 50 pp.).
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CHARACTERISTICS OF COLD REGIONS AIR POLLUTION
Problems of air pollution in high latitudes, especially during winter,
have attracted ever increasing attention during the past two decades,
(Benson, 1965, Benson, Bowling and Weller, 1983). Winter air masses
become very stable and tend to stagnate to the extent that air quality
problems exist throughout northern Canada, Siberia, Scandinavia, and
Alaska.
As seasonal temperature decreases in the northern cities of these
regions the need for increased heat and power causes an increase in all
sources of pollution. Unfortunately, it is in these times that the stabil-
ity of the air mass becomes most extreme (Bilello, 1966). Thus, natural
and man-made, factors reinforce one another in ways which invariably
lead to intensification, never mitigation, of the air pollution problem
(Benson, 1970).
In addition, during winter, water becomes a component of the air pol-
lution because it condenses into tiny droplets and/or crystals even when
the quantity involved is quite small (air at +20°C can hold about 250 times
more water vapor than air at -40°C). At temperatures below -3G° to -40°C
ice fog is produced which severely restricts visibility but also serves as
an indicator that man-made pollutants»are present (Benson, 1970, Ohtake,
1970).
Air pollution problems in the North can be severe, as illustrated by
the air quality of the Fairbanks air shed, which is unique for several
interrelated reasons stemming from the extreme stability of the air mass
and its tendency to stagnate. Indeed, a special stability class "Pasquill
G" was established to describe extreme cases like the Fairbanks air shed.
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The air mass is so stable that the per capita air pollution is 10 to 100
times greater than in the Los Angeles area. This statement is based on
the observation that levels of carbon monoxide, and total hydrocarbons
measured in Fairbanks (Jenkins, et al., 1975), are comparable to values
measured in Los Angeles, New York and Detroit where populations are
much higher. The national ambient air quality standards for carbon
monoxide are, in fact, frequently exceeded in Fairbanks (see p. 31).
The problems of air chemistry have generally been studied in temperate
latitudes and mostly at high temperatures. The Los Angeles problems quick-
ly come to mind as being at the opposite end of the spectrum from Fairbanks
problems (Table 1). The problems in Los Angeles stem from automobile
exhaust and industrial chemicals which are cooked in the intense sunlight
and form photochemical smog, characterized by products of oxidation (03,
etc.). To have this occur, high temperatures, lots of sunlight, water
vapor (for OH and 02H radicals) as well as plenty of hydrocarbon and NOX
sources are required. In Fairbanks, we have low temperatures, and almost
no sunlight (less than 6 hours per day for 70 days, and less than 4 hours
per day for 25 days). Therefore, even though significant hydrocarbon con-
centrations are present (Jenkins et al., 1975), we do not expect photo-
chemical reactions to be important in winter although this may become
a problem in summer because of the many hours of sunlight. In winter a
different mix of pollutants become trapped in the surface inversion
layer. Because of the snow cover, natural aerosols are at a minimum,
and only those from combustion of coal, oil, natural gas and wood are
present; they interact with an abundant supply of ice crystals and super-
cooled water droplets (Benson, 1970, Ohtake, 1970).
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TABLE 1
SPECTRUM OF AIR POLLUTION SETTINGS
(showing the two end-members)
Fairbanks im Winter
Low Temperature
Icefog/Pollutlon
Los Angeles m Summer
Smog
Temperature
Temp Inversions
Karlialion
-60
-40
-20
30°C/IOOm (Surface)
None during winter
(•x.900 W m at the summer solstice)
20
40 °C
10°C/IOOm (Above Ground)
High (>1000 W m"2)
Saturation Vapor
Pressure .
Low (0.05 mb at -50°C)
High ('12.'13 mb at 30°C)
Chemistry
Reducing atmosphere
No photochemical reaction
"Wet" air chemistry
(Low absolute water content
but condensed form present)
Oxidizing atmosphere
Max. photochemical reaction
"Dry" air chemistry
(High absolute water content
but condensed form absent)
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The main questions to be answered deal with the nature and effects of
this interaction between ice crystals, or super-cooled water droplets and
combustion aerosols and gases. What is the physical state of the fog
particles, supercooled droplets or ice crystals, as a function of tempera-
ture and different pollutant levels? Do the pollutants cause more nuclea-
tion of smaller ice crystals and thicker ice fog? Are pollutants selectively
removed from the air by the fogs due to their physical and chemical inter-
action? Are the "inert" gases such as CO and C02 incorporated into the ice
crystals? How do the reactive gases $62, NO, NOX and 03 behave relative to
each other and is their conversion to S04=, N03" and 02 enhanced or decreased
by ice fog? Do ice crystals in the respirable size range trap contaminants
and actively transport them into the lungs? Are certain particle size ranges
removed preferentially by ice crystals, or are they responsible for the en-
hancement of ice fog? How will hydrocarbons affect the growth and dissipa-
tion of ice fogs; do they form hydrophobic layers on crystals? What
different effects are observed when power plant emissions are mixed down-
ward into the lower air mass, compared with the more normal case when they
remain aloft?
These questions need to be answered before we will have enough informa-
tion to begin to understand the implication of increased development in cold
climates. Several studies on the concentrations of specific pollutants have
been carried out in the Fairbanks area including:
(i) Winchester, et al., (1967): lead and halogens
(ii) Kumai, (1964); Ohtake, (1970): chemical composition of ice fog
nuclei
(iii) Holty, (1973): lead, oxides of nitrogen, CO, S04=, NH4+,
ci-
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(iv) Jenkins, et al., (1975): total hydrocarbons, CO, C02, NOX
(v) Coutts, (1979): NO - NOa - 03 interactions
(vi) Reichardt and Reidy, (1980): polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
(PAH).
Information of this kind for other northern cities is much less com-
plete or totally absent (see also section on monitoring). With trends to-
wards accelerated exploitation of arctic resources it becomes increasingly
important to know the effects of growth on an area so that corrective steps
can be taken. Some of these corrective steps are discussed in later
sections.
Recommendations for Further Research
Enough information has already been gathered to date to point out
some broad problem areas. In very general terms, the most important
gaps in our knowledge will require research in the following areas:
1. A detailed study of low temperature air chemistry in the presence of
fogs consisting of supercooled water droplets and/or ice crystals.
2. An integrated study of the structure, dynamics and time history of
the very stable winter atmosphere and the diffusion processes which
affect its atmospheric pollutants.
These recommendations will be discussed in greater detail in the
following sections.
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THE CHEMICAL NATURE OF COLD .REGIONS AIR POLLUTION
The chemistry of air pollution in cold climates is quite different
from that at lower latitudes, as shown in the preceding section. The
photochemical smog typical of Los Angeles does not exist in Fairbanks, but
there are reports (e.g. Schjoldager et al., 1978 , and Bottenheim
and Strausz, 1980), that photochemical activity could occur in the Arctic,
particularly during the summer solstice. Schjoldager (1954), indicates
that local production of ozone occurs in Norway. Peake and Sandhu
(1983), have shown that another photochemical product, PAN (peroxyacetyl
nitrate), is produced in winter in Alberta at about 25% of the summer
level. An interesting paper on photochemical mechanism for high latitudes
is the one by Bottenheim and Strausz. Other photochemical papers are by
Schjoldager et al. (1978, and 1979), (see also Monitoring section for
more comments about ozone, p. 39).
More exotic pollution products may be present in large quantities
in northern cities. Reichardt and Reidy (1980) for example, demonstrated
that polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) concentrations in Fairbanks
under strong winter inversions can be equal to those of large urban
areas of the world. This study occurred before the recent increased use
of wood stoves. Daisey et al. (1981) showed that PAH material in
remote areas of the Arctic are within an order of magnitude of concentra-
tions found in large urban areas.
There is a fairly large body of literature on various trace elements,
all pointing to long range transport of anthropogenic pollution from low
latitudes into the Arctic (see the section on Arctic haze, p. 25).
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Rasmussen et al., (1982), show that carbon monoxide is enriched
in snow as compared to methane; this finding is of greater interest in
long range research, however, than in urban pollution studies (see
monitoring section for other remarks about CO, p. 36). Cavanaugh et al.,
(1969), show startlirigly high n-butanol concentrations in arctic air
(~ 0.1 ppm) which do not appear to be an experimental artifact.
The report by McCandless (1982), on Whitehorse urban air problems
confirms the growing evidence for the significant woodsmoke contri-
bution to both TSP and PAH levels. Formaldehyde in ice fog samples are
high (0.5 - 1.16 yg ml~^) presumably due to combustion, as reported by
Grosjean and Wright (1983). Formate and acetate are found in precipitation
(Galloway et al., 1982) in Alaska in normal quantities.
The pH records of precipitation in Alaska's remote areas tend to be
normal to .slightly acid (~ 6.3 down to 4.7; NADP, 1983, Galloway et al.,
1982). The most unusual pH conditions have been found within the city of
Fairbanks during winter. The pH of ice fog and snow on the ground can go
as high as 10.2 (presumably due to metal oxide ash fall-out from woodstoves,
and possibly from power plants; (Gosink, 1981, 1983; Grosjean and Wright,
1983).
A discussion of the concentrations of the more common chemical com-
pounds and elements present in the polluted air masses of northern lati-
tudes is contained in the section on monitoring (p. 36).
Gaps in the Technical Literature
We have no data on indoor air pollution in the cold regions. This
aspect of air pollution studies is just beginning, so the gap is under-
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standable. It is anticipated that the only unusual features may deal
with aspects of air exchange with the outside. Many homes are being
insulated more carefully and made airtight.
Photochemical data for ~ 70°N are missing. The only papers avail-
able are for 60°N and farther south.
Power plant emission data are incomplete, but it is not certain that
there will be any unusual features in the cold regions as opposed to what
is already known about emissions at lower latitudes.
Air pollution data for the vast Soviet sector of the Arctic and Sub-
arctic are almost entirely missing. As noted in the preface, such papers,
if they exist, do not appear to be available in translation. An exception
is the paper by Morachevsky et al.
Recommendations for Further Research
The following topics need to be addressed in future studies:
1. Indoor air pollution:
(a) possible trapping of-pollutants inside by overly tight con-
struction and/or lack of ventilation,
(b) transfer of pollutants from polluted urban air to the inside,
(c) dependence of indoor pollution on height of inlet.air vents
in tall buildings.
2. Photochemistry at high latitudes:
(a) ultraviolet radiation,
(b) ozone and PAH data for clean and dirty sites at all times of
the year,
(c) information about hydroxy and peroxy free radicals.
(d) oxidation of NO, S02 etc.
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3. Particulate matter:
(a) the mass loading, numbers and size distribution of particulates,
(b) chemical information about possible selective partitioning of
pollutants on the different size ranges of pollutants,
(c) The scavenging efficiency of snow and ice fog.
4. A statistical study of health records for the months of January and
July for eye and respiratory disease. (This should discriminate
between people living 'and working in polluted urban areas versus
people who spend part of their time in polluted areas and those who
remain outside the polluted urban centers).
5. More chemical and biological data about carcinogenic factors in
urban pollutants.
6. More chemical details about the pollutants trapped in snow and their
potential for pollution of streams during thaw.
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METEOROLOGY OF COLD REGIONS AIR POLLUTION
High latitude air pollution is principally a cold-season phenomenon,
and is due directly to the extreme stability of the air at high latitudes
in winter (Bowling, 1984). This stability is in turn a result of the
solar radiation regime. At 60° North, for instance, the true solar
elevation angle at noon at the winter solstice is only 6° 33' and the
day is only 5 hours and 52 minutes long, which allows almost no solar
heating. (This noon solar elevation corresponds to a solar elevation of
less than forty minutes after sunrise in Los Angeles.) At 68° N, the
sun no longer rises at all at the winter solstice. The result is that
nighttime radiation conditions extend throughout the part of the day
with maximum pollutant emissions. Mixing heights as-low as 6 m have
been measured in downtown Fairbanks.
Inversions
A typical high-latitude inversion differs substantially from those
responsible for air pollution problems in locations such as Los Angeles
(Benson, 1970). In a Los Angeles-type (or elevated) inversion, the
temperature normally decreases with height for the first few hundred
meters above the ground, then increases rather sharply in a layer known
as a capping inversion. An inversion of this type may be due to warm
air overrunning cold air, to subsidence above a surface layer, or to
limited heating from below of a stable air mass. Inversions of this type
may occur at high latitudes, but it is rare for them to be associated
with episodes of poor air quality (Bowling, 1983). High pollutant
levels occur with surface-based inversions, i.e., those in which the
temperature increases from the ground up. The maximum temperature in an
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Alaskan sounding is frequently as much as 2 km above the surface, and
ground temperatures may be only a few degrees higher than those
at the tropopause (Bowling, 1967).
Surface inversions are common world-wide on clear, calm nights, and
are often referred to as nocturnal inversions. These inversions, however,
are normally broken by solar heating during the daylight hours when
emissions are highest. In Fairbanks, more than 80% of all soundings (2
am. and 2 pm) show surface inversions during December and January (Bilello,
1966). Furthermore, some of these inversions are extremely steep—lapse
rates of -10°/100m are common, and value as high as -30°/100 have been
recorded over the first 30m (Wendler' and Nicpon, 1975; Bowling et
al., 1968). The presence of such inversions is readily explained:
in the absence of solar heating, the thermal structure near the ground
is controlled entirely by long-wave radiation and mechanical turbulence.
Long-wave radiation tends to produce an isothermal near-ground lapse
rate if dense clouds are present and a steep ground inversion
(gradually weakening with elevation) when skies are clear. In exposed
areas with substantial pressure gradients, wind-induced turbulence will
push these radiative equilibrium states, toward the adiabatic. Most
high-latitude settlements, however, are located in sheltered areas such
as river valleys where wind speeds are often low even with strong regional
winds. Furthermore, the clear skies which allow development of inversions
are often due to anticyclonic systems with light winds. The observed
high frequency of strong surface inversions is the inevitable result.
An elevated inversion allows for a substantial amount of vertical
mixing below the inversion "cap", but this is not true of a surface-based
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inversion. In a rural area, vertical dispersion of pollutants is due
almost entirely to the heat and/or mechanical turbulence associated with
pollutant injection. This can be remarkably small: plumes from trucks
with exhaust pipes above the cab can frequently be seen to spread in a
well-defined layer just above the trailer height (unpublished observation,
Bowling). In a town of the size of Fairbanks (population ~ 50,000) there
is normally enough heat and traffic-generated turbulence to produce a
shallow mixed layer. Just how shallow is indicated by tethered balloon
measurements carried .out in December 1981 (Bowling, 1983). Rural
inversion strengths were on the order of 10°C/100m. Downtown Fairbanks
had developed isothermal layers varying from 6 to 30m in depth. Some
additional mixing may have been occurring through updrafts along building
sides. Since neither inversion strengths nor CO concentrations were
extreme for the Fairbanks area, however, it seems unlikely that the true
mixing depth on the worst day of an average year would exceed 10m. (In
"•comparison, Los Angeles mixing depths are normally several hundred
meters, Benson, 1970.) In addition to affecting the vertical
dispersion, the mixing layer is responsible for an intense heat island.
Downtown temperatures may be as much as 10° to 14° higher than those in
the surrounding rural area (Bowling and Benson, 1978).
Ice fog (section.3) influences the radiative process directly, result-
ing in greatly weakened inversions or even normal lapse rates within the
ice fog, with a relatively steep inversion near the fog top (Benson,
1970; Bowling, 1970). As this will improve vertical mixing, ice
fog may be indirectly responsible for reducing CO concentrations. CO
emissions may also be lower during ice fog due to diminished traffic and
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the almost universal use of preheaters at ice fog temperatures. This may
be partly offset, however, by the very large number of unattended cars
left idling at -40° and colder. Regardless of the cause, it is an observed
fact that CO levels almost never reach violation levels .(9ppm) when ice
fog is present (Bowling, 1983).
Winds
Winds are important for air pollution both because they carry
pollutants away horizontally and because they generate turbulence which
weakens the inversion and allows increased vertical dispersion. As
already mentioned, the strong ground inversions which are associated with
high pollutant levels at high latitudes are normally associated with
light winds. Local factors preventing strong winds vary. Anticyclonic
conditions are frequent in the Interior of Alaska, and Fairbanks is
located in a sheltering arc of hills opening southward into the Tanana
Valley. Anchorage is located just west of a sheltering mountain front.
The result is that the observed winds during pollution episodes are
normally locally generated and therefore light.
Local winds include those generated by cold air drainage, gravity
waves, and local-scale eddies, and the interactions of these with regional
winds (Benson and Weller, 1970; Bowling and Benson, 1978. From a
practical point of view, a more useful division is into winds
which produce a net flow through the city (thus removing pollutants)
and winds which recirculate pollutants within the city (thus acting to
enhance horizontal dispersion). In Fairbanks, the only Alaskan city in
which studies have been made of locally generated winds, local drainage
wind speeds are of the order of .5 m sec"1, with values up to 1 m sec~l
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in well defined channels or on steep slopes. These winds continue through
the city under moderate inversion conditions, but under severe inversions
the hill slopes may be so much warmer than the valley bottom that the
local slope winds may flow out over the dense, cold air mass in the lowest
part of the ground inversion (Benson, 1974). Winds measured in the
downtown area when CO levels are high may be as low as 10 to 20 cm
sec'1 (Bowling and Benson, 1978). Gravity drainage winds down major
valleys such as the Tanana, Matanuska and Susitna. may reach speeds
sufficient to break the ground inversion, as has been observed several
times on satellite infrared images. Tanana Valley drainage winds at
times extend northward far enough to affect the southern part of
Fairbanks (including the Weather Service recording station located at the
Airport). This situation does not, however, appear to remove pollutants
from the downtown area—in fact it has been responsible for several severe
(over 15 ppm CO) pollution episodes (Bowling, 1983). One observa-
tion has also been made of a long-period (4 hour) seiche oscillation
between Fairbanks and Eielson Air Force Base, 50 km away (Bowling and
Benson, 1978). This occurred with heavy ice fog and appeared to shift
the fog (and the coldest air) back and forth between the two end points
rather than actually removing polluted air.
Smaller gravity waves (periods 5-20 minutes) and stationary eddies
(such as the one generated over the entire city by the Tanana drainage
impinging on the ridge southwest of Fairbanks) produce major spatial and
temporal variations in the surface wind field. These are probably respon-
sible for a good deal of horizontal dispersion within the city, but have
little or no effect in removing pollutants from the area.
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Synoptic Situations Associated with High Latitude Air Pollution Episodes
In all of the high latitude air pollution cases examined so far, clear
skies (or very high, cold clouds) and low wind speeds are critical factors.
Ice fog in Fairbanks is known to be associated with northerly flow aloft
and a surface anticyclone. High CO levels in Fairbanks have not been
studied intensively from a synoptic point of view, but one situation well
known locally is "chinook" flow. This is not a classical Chinook, as the
warm winds from the south over -the Alaska Range are unable to penetrate
the ground inversion, but it is associated with clear skies and tempera-
tures aloft which may be above freezing, while surface temperatures
remain below -20° C. Warm air advection just above the surface inversion
has been a causative factor in several cases with alert (15 ppm) levels of
CO. In Anchorage, the critical factors are high pressure to the north and
low pressure well south in the Gulf of Alaska, leading to easterly surface
geostrophic flow. The factors determining whether this situation will
lead to strong surface winds or stagnation east of the Chugach Range are
not well understood at this time (Bowling, 1983).
Model 1ng
Nbdeling the air pollution situation at high latitudes is a severe
problem. Well-tested standard models generally couple the horizontal and
vertical dispersion in such a way that very poor vertical dispersion is
associated with very little variability in wind direction. Ground inver-
sions typically show the opposite relationship—Fairbanks winds at a point
may vary over 180° or more within half an hour in extreme cases. Further-
more, standard models cannot handle the great spatial variation in winds
seen in both Fairbanks and Anchorage. Nevertheless, regulatory agencies
16
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require that standard models be used for environmental impact statements.
This has led to environmental impact statements where modeling was carried
out with 100 to 200m mixing heights, while (as mentioned above) 10m would
be more appropriate. One model--ACOSP (Norton and Carlson 1976,
Carleton and Fox, 1976, Carlson and Hok, 1980) has been developed for
the Fairbanks CO problem, but it has not been adequately tested, in part
because meteorological input data were not available. In this respect
it is significant that ACOSP's best reproduction of observed CO levels
was obtained using a 10m mixing height—exactly the height we have since
recommended on the basis of tethered balloon measurements.
CO Forecasting
The Fairbanks North Star Borough produces a regular CO forecast during
the air pollution season (October - March). This forecast is based on a
modified persistance forecast (today's forecast maximum 8-hour CO level =
yesterday's 8-hour maximum times the ratio of the most recent-8-hour level
available to that for the same time the previous day) which is then
adjusted to account for a dispersion forecast issued by the National
Weather Service. The resulting forecast improves on persistence, but
has rarely been successful in forecasting CO levels above 15 ppm. Pro-
vision of CO data to the Weather Service has improved the dispersion
forecasts given to the Borough, but severe problems remain, especially
in forecasts of surface winds in the downtown area (Bowling, 1983).
Recommendations- for Further Research
1. Probably the most pressing problem in the meteorology of high lati-
tude air pollution is the verification, to standards that EPA will
accept for environmental impact statements, of a dispersion model
capable of handling high latitude meteorology. Two obvious candidates
are ACOSP and a currently accepted Gaussian model with decoupled hori-
17
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zontal and vertical dispersion. Verification would require several
periods with good meteorological measurements (in-town soundings
and/or tower measurements to at least 50 m, winds throughout the area)
and either CO sources and concentrations or a tracer release.
Fairbanks is the obvious site far initial verification, but once
meteorological measurements are available from other areas (such as
Anchorage) it might be possible to apply the model there as well.
2. Another area in which meteorological knowledge is seriously deficient
is the variation of winds, temperatures, and lapse rates through the
Anchorage area (needed for any detailed modeling there).
3. One problem for which no references were found for the bibliography
is plume rise under stable conditions with significant winds and wind
shears at some or all levels below the height to which the plume rises.
The general problem involves both the fate of elevated plumes in
interior Alaska and the behavior of .plumes on the North Slope. In the
Interior, a plume may rise through several layers with opposing wind
directions before leveling off. Understanding of plume behavior is
needed to evaluate the impact of such a plume on elevated terrain. On
the North Slope, existing models may not be doing an adequate job of
stimulating the rise of hot, high-volume plumes from short stacks,
which may be associated with buildings on pilings. The combination of
stability with high wind speed on the North Slope has scarcely been
looked at.
4. Study of the synoptic situations most often responsible for high CO
levels in Fairbanks. The goal here would be improvement of the
existing CO forecasting scheme in Fairbanks.
5. The effect of wind shears on vertical dispersion. This is an extreme-
ly complicated micrometeorological problem which will be difficult and
expensive to execute.
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ICE FOG: A SPECIAL FORM OF COLD REGIONS AIR POLLUTION
The most startling, visible manifestation of urban winter pollution
in the cold regions is ice fog. Although ice fog may occur in pristine
areas, for example near hot springs, at very low temperatures, it is pri-
marily an anthropogenic substance produced by the combustion of fuel in
houses, power plants and automobiles. This combustion, whether of gaso-
line, fuel oil, coal, wood or other materials, produces water vapor which
condenses into very small droplets and freezes at temperatures below about
-30°C, on occasion reducing visibility in the city to as low as a few
meters.
In combustion processes the primary exhaust products are H£0 and
C02- As an example, consider an ideal combustion equation for gasoline:
Molecular Molecular
weight weight ratios
of fuels H20/fuel C02/fuel
burned with
C8H18 ^ 8 C02 + 9 H20 114 1 .42 3.08
excess 02 Avg 1.38 TTTTJ
This type of equation has been used to calculate the amount of water re-
leased in burning various types of fuels (Benson, 1965, 1970).
Although they yield order of magnitude values for the amounts of
H20 and C02 they are incorrect, especially at low temperatures and during
"cold starts" of automobile engines. Cold starts produced large amounts
of CO (Leonard, 1975, 1977), this fact and the presence of unburned hydo-
carbons (Jenkins et al., 1975), indicate that combustion is incomplete.
The degree to which combustion is complete increases as the engine or
burner warms up. The presence of high CO concentrations, the predominance
of NO over NOg, the lack of 03 and the fact that the water which comprises
19
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1ce fog Is basic (pH as high as 10) indicates a reducing atmosphere;
this is an important aspect of low temperature air pollution, as already
shown in a previous section.
Even with the above qualifications, it is clear that ^0 and C02
are the most abundant products of combustion. However, other sources
than combustion roughly double the amount of H20 added to the atmosphere.
The largest of these other sources are the open water surfaces maintained
by dumping of cooling waters from power plants (Benson, 1965, 1970,
Ohtake, 1970, and McFadden, 1976). The rate of evaporation from warm
water in cooling ponds is about 8 kg m~2 day"1.
The Effect of Freezing on Fog Formation
When cooling occurs the air rapidly tends toward saturation (with
respect to water). The cooling also stimulates increased input of
water into the air from man-made sources. When the air is saturated,
water vapor will be condensed in it as the temperature continues to de-
crease; at -35°C the rate of condensation will be 0.027 g m'3 °C'1.
Freezing of supercooled water droplets occurs at temperatures of about
-35°C. This has the effect of reducing the saturation vapor density in
the air because the vapor pressure must now be reckoned with respect to
ice; at -35°C the difference between water vapor density relative to ice
and water is 0.083 g m'3. Thus, the effect of freezing of -35°C will
force condensation of three times the amount of water forced by 1°C of
cooling at -35°C.
The volume of air involved in the Fairbanks area is on the order of
2 x 109 m3 so the freezing alone adds 160 metric tons of water to the
air in a few hours as the cooling proceeds. For comparison, this is
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about the same as the daily output of water vapor from the University of
Alaska heating plant. Yet, this rapid addition is spread throughout the
the entire area. The net result of rapid cooling, saturation of the air
mass, freezing of droplets and continued - or accelerated - man-made
input of water to the atmosphere, is an explosively rapid spread of
thick ice fog at temperatures of -35° or below (Benson, 1965, 1970).
Mass Balance
The first attempt to estimate the mass balance of ice fog in the
Fairbanks area was made by Benson (1965, 1970). The growth of Fairbanks
c
since then has made it necessary to re-evaluate the mass balance. A
preliminary attempt to do this during the winters of 1981-82 and 1982-83
indicated that the total rate of input of water to the Fairbanks air
mass in winter is between 10,000 and 12,000 metric tons per day.
Precipitation rates of ice fog particles have been measured to be
as high as 80 g m~2 day"1 in the city center and 20 g m"2 day1
in the outlying areas. If the core area is taken as 50 km^ with an
outer region of 100 km2 and an outermost region of 100 km2 we can
calculate the total precipitation rate as follows:
Area Preciptation Rate Total Precipitation
km2 g m"2 day"1 Rate(tons per day)
50 80 . 4000
100 50 5000
100 20 2000
Total 11,000
Refinements are obviously in order because these values are based on
very few measurements, but the agreement between total fallout and
total input is close enough to indicate that we have the correct order
of magnitudes (Benson, unpublished data).
21
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The characteristics of ice fog are briefly summarized below:
Size Spectrum
The size spectrum of ice fog was studied intensively by Ohtake
(1970). He found that the mean diameter decreased with decreasing
temperature, from 33 ym at -30°C to 3 ym at -47°C. The source of water
vapor was also a factor, probably due in large part to the temperature of
the exhaust gases. Automobile traffic produced the smallest crystals and
was accompanied by high concentrations of crystals smaller than 2.5 pm.
Residence Time
To calculate residence time we need the average vertical component
of the settling speed for a wide spectrum of particle sizes. This can
be obtained by dividing the precipitation rate by the solid water content
of the atmosphere. First estimates (Benson, unpublished data) yield a
range of 0.1 to 1.0 cm sec"1 for the range of vertical falling speeds.
When considering that the thickness of ice fog ranges from 10 to 150 m
we obtain residence times ranging from 1 to 14 hours.
Optical Effects
The small crystals in ice fog are often nearly spherical and always
irregular in shape. They lack the well defined plate or needle shape of
crystals which form in a gradually cooling air mass. The small sizes and
irregular shapes explain the complete lack of reflection and refraction
features in ice fog - indeed, its optical characteristics are more like
a water droplet fog than a display of ice crystals (Benson, 1970,
Bowling, 1970).
Thermal Effects
The cooling and crystallization of 12000 tons of water vapor per
22
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day will add energy to the air at a rate of about 3.4 x 1010 k J day"1.
This is on the order of 4 x 108 watts or about 2 W m'2 in the Fairbanks
area. An exceptionally strong heat island results over the city (see
also p. 13) but the effects of ice fog are to reduce the heat island for
reasons which are not yet fully understand. The total heat output in
the Fairbanks area during winter was calculated to be 10 kW per person
(Bowling and Benson, 1978), or about 19 W m'2 (Benson, Bowling and
Weller, 1983).
Removal of other Pollutants by Precipitation of Ice Fog
The effect of precipitation in general is to clean the air. There
is some question about the ability of small ice fog crystals to remove
pollutant particles which are larger than the ice crystals. Ohtake is
currently investigating this. There are two facets to the problem:
first the adhesion of particles to ice crystals and second the adsorption
of gases on the ice crystals. The specific surface area of ice crystals
in ice fog is on the order of 10,000 to 20,000 cm2 per gram of ice. It
seems reasonable that this large surface area would interact with other
materials, particulate and gaseous, in the air. Furthermore, the ice
fog residue which precipitates on clean surfaces is very dirty. It
contains 0.5 - 1% of matter other than ice, has a foul odor and basic
pH values, up to pH = 10.
Recommendations for Further Research
The ice fog represents the visible part of a concentrated air
pollution setting which requires further study. So far, attention to
ice fog has concentrated on visibility aspects of the problem. Because
it is visible, ice fog serves as a tracer that indicates the presence of
23
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other exhaust products. It must be remembered that water Is a highly
reactive substance which has complex physical, chemical and thermal
effects on other components of the air mass, all of which need to be
better understood.
1. The mass balance of ice fog needs reassessment in light of the
greatly increased population and fuel consumption of Fairbanks and
other northern cities where ice fog occurs.
2. The residence time of ice fog particles needs to be investigated
under a variety of different meteorological regimes.
3. The likely physical-chemical reactions between ice fog, supercooled
water droplets and other pollutants present must be better known, for
example, does ammonia and HCN from motor vehicles with catalysts
produce the high pH values of ice fog? Do ice fogs contain cyanide
in Fairbanks and how much? How do solvents from dry cleaning estab-
lishments react with ice fog etc?
4. The possible scavenging of pollutants by ice fog particles, includ-
ing selective chemical and physical interactions needs further
investigations.
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ARCTIC HAZE: LONG-RANGE TRANSPORT OF INDUSTRAL POLLUTANTS
Except for Isolated areas of air pollution centered on inhabited
communities dotting the Arctic, it has always seemed reasonable to sup-
pose that Arctic air masses must possess extraordinary chemical purity.
It wasn't until the late 1950's and early 60's, however, that serious
analytical air chemistry was begun in the Arctic, mainly by Professor
Junge in Germany. The first measurements indicated, to no one's sur-
prise, that Arctic air and snow were very clean, but by employing
sensitive analytical methods chemists identified the presence of
trace pollution preserved in the snows of remote areas like northern
Greenland (Herron et al., 1977). The contaminated ice extended to
depths in the Greenland ice sheet corresponding to about the beginning
of the industrial revolution. Thus, even though quantities were miniscule,
traces of man's activity could be found preserved in the polar snows.
Most of the pioneering chemical work in the Arctic was carried out
during summer expeditions, (e.g. Flyger, et al., 1976), but with the
wisdom of hindsight this was a mistake: in summer, the air is about
as clean as one can find anywhere on the planet, but in winter the Arctic
air becomes infiltrated with air pollution.
In the early to mid seventies for example, routine investigations
near Barrow, Alaska indicated that fairly substantial quantities of
aerosol were present in the lowest 1 or 2 kilometers of the atmosphere
during the late winter and early spring months, (Rahn and Heidam, 1981),
a surprising finding since the mass loading of aerosols seemed
to be greatest when winds came from the North! It was difficult to
understand why the air appeared hazy when the number concentration of
25
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suspended aerosols during haze episodes remained quite small, changing
hardly at all from non-haze times. It is now realized that the ambiguity
arose because the Arctic pollution aerosol has a size distribution differ-
ing from that encountered in urban situations: the Arctic aerosol does
not have as many small particles (Shaw, 1983).
Because the aerosol associated with Arctic air masses lowers visi-
bility, the phenomenon is termed "Arctic Haze". It is believed to be
synonymous with the unexplained haze reported by observers who flew on
the U.S. Air Force Ptarmigan Weather Reconnaissance missions out of
Alaska in the middle 1950's (see Mitchell, 1957, for historical accounts
and Raatz, 1983, for a more recent analysis of the Ptarmigan data).
The chemistry of "Arctic Haze" was investigated in the mid-19701s
in Alaska, and in the Scandinavian (Ottar, 1981), and Canadian
Arctic. Rahn (1981), started a systematic program collecting air
samples at Barrow, Alaska. The sensitive neutron activation method
was used to determine the chemistry of the haze particles. It rapidly
became apparent that the haze at Barrow had an anthropogenic "finger-
print" and could therefore be considered to be a form of air pollution.
Similar findings were made in Canada and Scandinavia (Bar'rie et al.,
1981).
.Efforts have been underway since the discovery of Arctic Haze to
clarify the source regions and transport pathways of the pollution,
but the work has been fraught with difficulty (Rahn and Shaw, 1982).
Speaking of Arctic Haze in Alaska, one can easily eliminate eastern Asia
as a major source of Arctic aerosol: air from the Pacific pathway is the
26
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cleanest observed due to the extensive storminess along the route.
Likely source regions were suspected to be eastern North America and
Europe (including the western USSR). Attempts to be more specific by
constructing back trajectories along the direction of the winds were
not entirely successful (Miller, 1981), one reason being that
trajectories calculated for the Arctic are less reliable than for other
locations, and another being that small systematic errors pile up and
limit what one can deduce about polluted air masses that have traveled
for more than about three days.
Two significant advances in the origin and pathways of Arctic Haze
were made in the early 1980's. Raatz (1983) analyzed synoptic weather
patterns occurring during and before episodes of Arctic Haze at Barrow.
By using an iterative "closure" approach, he was able to demonstrate
that most strong episodes of haze in the Alaskan Arctic are preceded by
surges of northward flowing air over polluted areas in eastern
North America, Europe and the Soviet Union. The pollution-laden air
travels in characteristic large scale anticyclonic air circulation
patterns.
Rahn (1979), and Rahn and Lowenthal, (1984), took another approach:
they investigated chemical signatures in air samples collected in
the Arctic. Characteristic signatures of certain trace elements
present in Arctic Haze seem to relate to specific, albeit large, geo-
graphical regions in which the pollution aerosol was injected initially
into the atmosphere. An example is the ratio of masses of pollution-
derived manganese to vanadium (Rahn, 1981). This ratio varies for
pollution by-products in source regions in the eastern United States,
27
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in Europe, Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union. Part of the reason for
the variation in relative quantities of certain compounds pertains to
the abundances of elements present in fuel which are burned. Another
factor may be sociological in nature, reflecting variations in air
pollution control strategies in the different countries, the relative
amount of coal to oil burned, the number of automobiles per capita, etc.
The central region of the Soviet Union, for instance, is a coal-based
society with a heavy steel-processing industry, and apparently is bothered
by considerable air pollution. The region is a heavy producer, relatively
speaking, of submicron particles containing Mn, whereas the element
vanadium is a common submicron aerosol found in effluents from industrial
sources burning fuel oils. Since the United States is an oil-based
society, the Mn/V ratio is larger in pollution by-products from the
Soviet Union than it is from the United States. The example shows the
principle on which characteristic chemical patterns can be used to deduce
relative strengths and source regions of inflowing pollution to the
Arctic.
Rahn and Raatz's deductions about the source regions for the
Alaskan-sector Arctic Haze agree with each other rather well. Both in-
vestigators deduce that central Eurasia is the primary source region
for Arctic Haze in Alaska during mid-winter, whereas European sources
become more predominant in the spring. North American sources seem to
be minor, contributing perhaps one-fifth of the Arctic Haze in Alaska
(Shaw, 1982, and Raatz and Shaw, 1984). The same general picture seems
to hold for the Canadian Arctic (Barrie et al., 1981).
In spring, 1983, Arctic Haze was explored with airborne sensors on
flights conducted by the United States, West Germany and Norway. One
28
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U.S. experiment involved a WP-3D Orion research aircraft owned by the
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, which flew out of
Anchorage, Thule and Bodtf, Norway (Hileman, 1983). The flights
were made during late March and early April .^because the Arctic Haze
is thickest at that time of year. A research aircraft owned by the
University of Washington also conducted flights at about the same time
of year out of Point Barrow, Alaska. Preliminary reports on some of the
airborne experiments were presented and discussed at a meeting arranged
by the Max Planck Institute in West Germany in September, 1983. An
upcoming issue of Geophysical Research Letters will report on results
of the U.S. airborne experiments.
Thus far, the effects of Arctic Haze on the environment are virtually
unknown. Preliminary calculations imply that the haze absorbs a sub-
stantial amount of incoming solar radiation in the spring months, thereby
causing heating of the atmosphere (Rosen et al., 1981; Shaw and Stamnes,
1980, and Heintzenberg, 1982). But so far very few quantitative measure-
ments have been made and little numerical modeling has been carried out
to estimate the climatic impact of Arctic Haze.
It is expected that a great deal of new and important information
pertaining to Arctic Haze will be reported at the Third Symposium on
Arctic Air-Chemistry scheduled to be held at Toronto in May, 1984.
Recommendations for Further Research
The complex phenomenon of Arctic Haze is becoming of increasing
importance because of the large potential impact it may have on climate
and polar ecology. It is all the more urgent that the problem be put in
correct scientific perspective because of the large geographic scales
29
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involved and because we are speaking of a multinational, even multi-
continental, sort of problem in which different countries are polluting
each other's territory.
1. In the immediate future, there is _a need for continued and even
upgraded monitoring of the chemical composition of the haze at a
variety of surface locations around the Arctic Basin. The chemical
tracers should include elements that provide source-specific
signatures (see the recent paper by Rahn and Lowenthal, 1984),
and possible source-specific organic gases.
2. There is a vital need to understand better than we do now the physics
of gas-to-particle nucleation and, more generally speaking, the
physics of aerosol and gas evolution in the well aged polluted
Arctic air masses.
3. There is a. need to know the relative amounts of light absorbed and
scattered by Arctic Haze and its microphysical and macrophysical
properties. These data are needed for numerical models to estimate
the climatic influence of the haze.
4. Further work is desirable to assess the possible ecological effects
caused by acidic precipitation in the Arctic.
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AUTOMOBILE EMISSIONS AND THEIR CONTROL
Motor vehicle emissions are primary contributors of .carbon monoxide,
hydrocarbon and nitrogen oxides in urban areas. The high levels of
carbon monoxide found in the two main urban areas of Alaska, Anchorage
and Fairbanks, often exceed the National Ambient Air Quality Standards.
They are almost exclusively due to motor vehicles operating during
wintertime conditions of subfreezing temperatures and persistent ground
based inversions (Hoyles, 1980).
Since the inception of the Federal Motor Vehicle Control Program
(FMVCP), auto manufacturers have been mandated to gradually reduce
emissions 90% from a 1970 baseline. To verify these reductions, the
Environmental Protection Agency performs a Federal Test Procedure (FTP)
designed to simulate "typical" urban driving conditions on a dynamometer.
Fuel economy is also measured. These tests are performed at 20-30°C
(68-86°F). Researchers noted that emissions were greatest when the
engine was at its lowest temperatures, i.e., the initial startup when
choking action is typical (ADEC, 1979).
Subsequently, studies done at temperatures lower than 20-30°C
(68-86°F) showed even more dramatic increases in emissions at the startup
and continuing until choking action diminished and steady state engine
operating temperature was reached. Fuel economy also suffered (Austin
et al., 1983).
The State of Alaska has a particular interest in the "cold start
phenomenon" because of its extended winters. Most low temperature tests
were conducted at 20°F (~-8°C), but the Alaska Department of
Environmental Conservation undertook testing at 0°F (—18°C) in an
attempt to be more representative of Alaskan conditions. Insignificant
31
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incremental increases were noticed between 20°F and 0°F and the cost and
effort of sustaining acceptable equipment operation and satisfactory
vehicle response precluded further testing at 0°F. Therefore, all work
done at 20°F is included in this section and is considered appropriate
for arctic and subarctic conditions (Coutts, 1983). Furthermore, in
Fairbanks 35-40% of vehicle operators utilize engine preheaters at
-10°F or lower temperatures, mitigating the cold start effect (Gilmore,
1978).
As manufacturers introduced new emission control technology to reach
statutory limits, researchers found that some devices performed better
than others in reducing emissions at temperatures below 68-86°F. How-
ever, it is important to note that there is no requirement that emissions
be reduced by 90% or any amount, outside of the FTP temperature range.
Areas suffering from the effects of such .lack of regulation are forced
to examine other strategies that may reduce cold start CO emissions.
Methods such as alternate fuels, retrofit devices, preheaters and
low temperature tune-ups were investigated in Alaska and elsewhere to
determine their effectiveness. All show some potential, but only emission
inspection and maintenance of vehicles is being pursued as a workable
strategy by both Anchorage and Fairbanks. This should be considered as an
addition to preheaters which are already in widespread use. Fuel injected
vehicles generally have lower cold start emissions (Austin et al., 1983).
The Environmental Protection Agency has developed numerous analyti-
cal tools to assist non-attainment areas (of pollution standards) in
characterizing their future ambient CO levels due to auto emissions.
32
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Both the data base and the computer model, Mobile 2.5, had to be modi-
fied for use in Alaska (Verelli and Moyer, 1982). Data were culled
from all of the subfreezing testing programs, to form a data set
known as "low temperature emission factors", i.e., actual emissions
measured from in-use vehicles in grams per mile. A modified version of
the model, called AKMOBILE2.5, was developed that allowed use of local
mileage accumulation rates, the disablement of certain temperature
correction factors, and an internal restructuring of the model that
allowed more accurate input of the emission factors (Austin et al., 1983).
AKMOBILE2.5 predicted that attainment of the 8 hour CO standard would
not be reached by the year 2000 without control strategies over and
above the Federal Motor Vehicle Control Program, such as inspection/
maintenance and a check for tampering with emission control devices.
This provided a significantly more realistic but bleaker prediction than
the unmodified model.
Researchers also .further refined the process by splitting the
emission factors into stationary and mobile portions to represent emis-
sions from a vehicle that-is idling for long times while warming up, as
is typical in Alaska, and emissions from the vehicle while in motion and
warmed up. It was found that this modification was only significant when
the typical commuter trip length was greater than approximately 3.5 miles
(Hoyles, 1980). Most trips in Fairbanks are not significantly
in excess of .that distance.
Recommendations for Further Research
1. Emission Control Devices
The low temperature performance of future emissions control technology
that may be under development is not known because the manufacturers
33
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are not required to test prototypes (or production) vehicles at low
temperatures and even if they did, they are not required to divulge
the results. This hinders planning and prediction efforts. Existing
devices need to be comprehensively examined to determine which devices
malperform or perform less efficiently at low temperatures. Devices
or procedures such as failed rubberized components, air pump bypass
valves, and catalyst light-off time are examples.
2. Tune-up Deterioration Rates
After a tune-up, emissions are reduced, then gradually over time,
emissions increase until they reach or exceed the levels immediately
before the tune-up. This is known as the deterioration rate and is
measured by EPA on an annual basis. Only very limited measurements
have been made of this effect under low temperature conditions. It is
currently assumed that deterioration is unaffected by ambient tempera-
ture.
3. Diesels
While low CO emitters, diesels emit particulates, nitrogen oxides, and
unregulated pollutants such as formaldehydes and other aromatics. If
diesel sales continue to increase, the effect on ambient air quality
in Alaska needs to be assessed. The performance of diesel engines in
arctic and sub-arctic climates also needs more documentation.
4. Alternate Fuels
The emissions and fuel economy performance of gaseous fuels and
alcohol fuels, other than gasohol, have not been adequately evaluated
at low temperatures. More extensive studies need to be done, assess-
ing the startability, driveability and ice fog production of vehicles
using such fuels.
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5. Tampering, Fuel Switching and Contamination
Anchorage and Fairbanks experience a rate of tampering with emission
control systems and contamination of unleaded fuel and improper
nozzles that exceeds the national average. It is suspected that
misfueling rates are also higher. Tampering with emission controls
and using leaded instead of unleaded fuel causes increases in
emissions. It is not known if this effect is exacerbated at low
temperatures.
6. Engine Size Effects
Although a data base exists now, analyses need to be done to deter-
mine the effects on the amount of cold start emissions by engine
displacement. It is theorized that smaller size engines contribute
less cold start emissions and that the trend in recent years towards
smaller engines should have contributed to lower ambient CO levels.
Changes to the Clean Air Act and/or EPA Regulations
A statutory change is needed to set standards for motor vehicles at
low temperatures in order to facilitate attainment of the ambient CO
standard in Alaska. At the very least, the 3.4 g/mi standard should not
be rescinded as proposed, since the standard forces the use of emission
control technology that happens to also reduce low temperature emissions.
Another approach to pursue would be an administrative one whereby EPA
could allow manufacturers to make certain calibration changes that may
also result in reduction at low temperatures without having to undergo
extensive prototype testing and durability runs.
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MONITORING COLD REGIONS AIR POLLUTION
Long-term monitoring of air pollution and its effects occurs at
several locations north of 60°N. Routine monitoring of precipitation
chemistry, for example, takes place at least at five locations in northern
Canada and one location in Alaska (APCD, 1979; NADP, 1983; Shewchuck,
1983). Other studies add some additional precipitation data, e.g.,
Galloway et al., (1982) for central Alaska. Most of the data from those
stations show normal clean backgrounds. There is, however, some clear
evidence for acid precipitation, the effects of which are not well under-
stood at high latitudes.
Perhaps the largest number of articles pertaining to monitoring
discuss the various trace elements derived from long range transport of
particulate pollution (see Arctic Haze section, p. 25).
In monitoring urban air pollution one or more of seven chemical
parameters are usually considered. Those parameters are, carbon monoxide,
hydrocarbons, sulfur dioxide, particulates, nitrogen oxides, lead and
ozone. Each of these parameters will be reviewed in the following.para-
graphs based on what is available in the literature on cold climates.
Carbon Monoxide. One of the largest bodies of literature on pollutants
in cold regions deals with carbon monoxide in urban areas. There are
two unique problems in cold regions which cause many (not all) urban
areas to have frequent carbon monoxide violations. First is the frequent
occurrence of stable inversions (see Meteorology section, p. 11). Second
is that cold starts of automobile engines produce significantly higher
CO levels than in more temperate latitudes. Federal regulations do not
36
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mandate a low temperature standard (see Automobile Section, p. 31) for
arctic and subarctic regions. Recent increased use of wood stoves also
exacerbate the problem.
Areas such as the Prudhoe Bay oil fields also have inversions, but
wind dispersion is so much greater that there is no indication of
excessive carbon monoxide concentrations.
Hydrocarbons are not routinely monitored in northern urban areas
since ozone standards are not exceeded. The few hydrocarbon tests in
the past do not show any unusual concentrations. Mon-methane hydrocarbons
in the air of the Prudhoe Bay oil fields are also well below Class II
limitations (Crow et al., 1981).
Sulfur Dioxide does not appear to pose a problem in the urban
areas of Alaska because of the relatively low sulfur content of coal
used, and because the power plant emissions are usually above the steep
inversions. One occasionally comes across titles of articles such as
"High winter concentrations of S02-.." for arctic and subarctic regions
(Rahn et al., 1980). The term "high" is relative, however, since the
peak values (~ 5 ug m~3 or ~ 0.002 ppm) are well below permissible
levels. Part of the reason for finding these "high" values so far from
sources is the significantly longer life time of species at low tempera-
ture and low light levels (e.g., Bottenhein and Strausz, 1980, and Rahn'
etal., 1980). The recent Canadian report by Shewchuck (1983), shows
that less than one percent of S02 in Canada is generated in the Northern
Arctic provinces.
Particulates Depending on one's point of view, particulate load-
ing of the air in arctic and subarctic environments is either normal to
astonishingly high. Within urban areas TSP (total suspended particulates)
37
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loading of filters is normally very low. There are occasions where high
values are encountered in the summer (at or above the secondary standard
standard of 150 yg m'3 in Alaska, but below the primary standard of
260 ug m'3). The high values in summer are usually attributed to high
winds picking up road and river bank dust. Recently, however, winter
TSP, mainly fine particles, have been observed to be approaching the
primary standard limit in Anchorage and Fairbanks, probably due to smoke
from wood-burning stoves. The Mendenhall Valley in Juneau has exceeded
primary standards, due entirely to woodsmoke (Cooper et al., 1983),
and Whitehorse has exceeded national guidelines (McCandless, 1982).
Observations of particulate organic matter (POM) and graphitic
carbon in remote arctic locations have shown that the loading of these
materials is comparable to large metropolitan areas for some periods of
the winter (Daisey et al., 1981; Reichart and. Reidy, 1980). Usually,
however, they are a factor of 3 to 10 lower.
Nitrogen Oxides are not found in substantial quantities in cold
regions except during some periods of inversion trapping in urban areas,
when they can exceed 1 ppm in any given hour (limit is 0.05 ppm) on an
annual basis (Coutts, 1979; Holty, 1973). The unique aspect of nitrogen
oxides in the cold regions is that the nitric oxide (NO) level equals
and frequently exceeds the nitrogen dioxide (N02) concentration (Coutts,
1979). This is due to the low photochemical activity and virtual absence
of ozone within the city. There are no standards for NO and the only
known test of its toxicity on mice was inconclusive.
Lead concentrations in urban environments have been decreasing in
38
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the cold regions due to the shift towards unleaded gasoline. Some vio-
lations { > 1.5 pg m'3) occur irregularly during periods of strong
inversion trapping (Winchester et al., 1967, Gosink, 1983). Its
presence in aerosols in remote regions, along with other trace elements
such as vanadium, is used as an indicator of long range transport of
pollutants from lower latitudes. The argument about background concentra-
tions of lead in the environment is not yet resolved (Patterson and
Jaworowski et al., 1983).
Ozone is one of several compounds used to indicate the occurrence
of photochemical activity. No violations of the suggested 120 ppb limit
have been reported in cold regions. However, summer highs approach this
level. There are no concomitant hydrocarbon and NOX data. Concentrations
of 03 in the Prudhoe Bay oil production area are slightly higher in winter
than in summer (the winter high is only about half of the recommended
limit) (Crow et al, 1981). Winter ozone concentrations decrease to
zero inside the pollution zone of urban areas (see comments in Chemistry
section about photochemical activity, p.. 7), but outside the urban area of
Fairbanks they have been observed in the range of 60-80 ppb, probably due
to stratospheric subsidence.
Gaps in the Technical Literature
Several large gaps, reflecting absence of information, are apparent.
For example, there are no reports on any health monitoring activities to
see if there are unique problems with air pollution in cold regions. A
full suite of up-to-date pollution monitoring data for metropolitan and
urban areas does not exist. No data are available for the vast Soviet
sector of the arctic and subarctic regions.
39
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While the number of reports on trace elements in air particulates
in the Arctic is large, the number of elements covered is limited.
Information about organic matter in the air in cold regions is also very
limited. Acetate and formate data at least should become a part of the
acid precipitation monitoring program. Maps of soils in Alaska showing
their sensitivity to acid precipitation are not available as they are
for a large portion of the lower. 48 and recently for the Northwest
Territories of Canada (Shewchuck, 1983).
Recommendations for Further Research
1. With regard to precipitation chemistry, trace element data for rain
versus snow are needed. The information should also distinguish
between wet and dry fallout and between soluble and insoluble
forms of the elements.
2. Data on the size distribution, and composition of atmospheric
pollutants (organic and inorganic compounds) in urban, rural and
remote atmospheres are required.
3. The fate of elements and organics deposited on the surface needs to
be known, and the quantity of organic matter re-emitted to the air in
the same or modified form needs to be determined.
4. Deposition velocities on various surfaces, including plants, snow,
ice and water etc., must be known.
5. The collection efficiency and best locations-of wet and dry deposition
collectors need to be determined. Furthermore, devices that will
operate in cold environments need to be developed.
6. Oxidation rates (e.g., of NO and S02) under low light and low
temperature conditions must be investigated.
40
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SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS
Additional or new studies are required in the following areas,
roughly listed under the various sub-headings in an order of priority
s
which ranks the severity of present data and information gaps. This
list is compiled regardless of the cost of the research involved or the
relation of the recommended research to the missions of EPA or DOE in
reducing pollution. Research priorities with such considerations in mind
have been established only recently for EPA and DOE (States, 1983, see
Preface).
Sources and Characteristics of Major Air Pollution Types
1. Full-year monitoring of the concentrations of the seven EPA priority
pollutants in northern urban areas (pages 36-39).
2. Chemical composition of Arctic Haze (including source-specific chemi-
cal signatures).
3. Mass balance and physical-chemical characteristics of ice fog.
Chemical Processes and Conversions
1. Interactive processes between ice crystals, supercooled water droplets
and other combustion products and pollutants.
. a) alkalinity of ice fog (ammonia, fly ash, acetate, formate)
b) scavenging of pollutants such as PAH
2. Photochemistry at high latitude:
a) ozone and PAN data for clean and dirty sites throughout the year
b) data on hydroxy and peroxy free radicals
c) oxidation rates (e.g., of NO and $03) under low light and low
temperatures
3. Particulate matter:
a) chemical fingerprinting (multivariate analysis) to determine
sources. ,,
41
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b) rates of gas to particle nucleation (especially in dark
atmospheres)
c) effects of selective partitioning on size ranges (relevant to
X
respiration and health)
4. Precipitation chemistry:
a) rates and composition of wet and dry deposition (including
snow and ice fog)
b) fate of materials deposited on surface (including re-emission
of organic matter to atmosphere).
Dispersion and Transport of Pollutants
1. Dispersion model:
a) development and verification of a cold regions dispersion model.
b) data on winds, temperatures and lapse rates for input into
model (particularly needed for Anchorage).
2. Vertical dispersion:
a) plume rise under stable conditions and effects of wind shears
b) scavenging efficiency of snow and ice fog
3. Meteorology of CO episodes:
synoptic situations responsible for such episodes.
4. Indoor air pollution:
transfer of pollution from the outside, trapping inside
«
Health and Other Effects
1. Eye and respiratory disease:
Statistical comparison between people in urban and rural areas
42
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2. Acid precipitation:
effects on arctic and subarctic ecosystems (including soil/vegetation
susceptibilities)
3. Climate modification:
effects of Arctic Haze on radiative transfer and climate
4. Carcinogenic factors:
chemical and biological data of urban pollutants
5. Melt water pollution:
chemical details of pollutants trapped in snow
Mitigative Measures and Controls
1. Automobile emissions and effectiveness of various control measures:
a) emission control devices
b) tune-up deterioration rates
c) emissions from diesel engines
d) use of alternate fuels
e) effects of tampering and fuel switching
f) effects of engine size
2. Wood smoke characteristics and control strategies
43
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II. BIBLIOGRAPHY
44
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Chemistry of Cold Regions Air Pollution
The references in this section include the following topics:
Pollution species and concentrations present in cold regions
In the air
In snow
Photochemical conversions
Other chemical processes
45
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Bottenheln, J. W., and 0. P. Strausz, Gas-Phase Chemistry of Clean
Air at 55° N Latitude, Environmental Science and Technology,
Vol. 14, No. 6, pp. 709-718, June 1980.
Duce, R'. A., J. W. Winchester and T. W. VanNahl, Iodine, Bromide and
Chlorine in Winter Aerosols and Snow from Barrow, Alaska, Tell us,
Vol. 18, 238-248, 1966.
Gosink, T. A., Trace Elements in the Aerosols Collected in Fairbanks
and North Pole, Alaska During 1980, Geophysical Institute Report,
University of Alaska, December 1981. (M)
Gosink, T. A., A Report to the Fairbanks North Star Borough, Pollution
Research Activities 1982-1983, Trace Elements in the Local Aerosols
and the Identification of Pollution Sources, Geophysical Institute,
University of Alaska, September 1983.
Grosjean, D. and B. Wright, Carbonyls in Urban Fog, Ice Fog,
Cloudwater and Rainwater, Atmospheric Environment, 1984 (in press).
MacKenzie, K. W. and R. E. Arnold, The Seasonal and Spatial Distribution
of Two Atmospheric Pollutants around a Sub-Arctic City, Fairbanks
North Star Borough Report No. 73-001, August 1973. (M)
Morachevsky, V. G., E. Golovina, A. Tsvetkova, The Conditions of Non-
photochemical Smog Formation, Leningrad Hydrometeorological Institute.
(Undated short manuscript, translated by U.S. Dept. of Commerce.)
Patterson, C. C. and Z. Jaworowski, et al., Criticism of Flow of Metals
into the Global Atmosphere, and Reply, Geochem. et Cosmochim Acta.,
47, 1163-1175, 1983.
Peake, E. and H. S. Sandhu, The Formation of Ozone and Peroxyacetyl Nitrate
(PAN) in the Urban Atmospheres of Alberta, Can. J. Chem., 61, 927-935,
1983. ~
Rasmussen, R. A., M. A. K. Khalik and S. D. Hoyt, Methane and Carbon
Monoxide in Snow, Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association,'
Vol. 32, No. 2, February 1982.
Reichart, P. and S. K_. Reidy, Atmospheric Polycyclic Aromatic Hydro-
carbons: An Aspect of Air Pollution in Fairbanks, Alaska, Arctic, Vol.
33, No. 2, p. 316-325, June 1980.
Schjoldager, J., B. Sivertsen and J. E. Hanssen, On the Occurrence of
Photochemical Oxidants at High Latitudes, Atmospheric Environment,
Vol. 12, pp. 2461-2467, 1978.
Schjoldager, J., Observations of High Ozone Concentrations in Oslo,
Norway, During the Summer of 1977, Atmospheric Environment, Vol. 13,
pp. 1689-1696, June 1979.
46
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Schjoldager, J., Ambient Ozone Measurements in Norway 1975-1979,
Presented at the 73rd Annual Meeting of the Air Pollution Control
Association, Montreal, Canada, June 22-27, 1980.
Schjoldager, J., H. Dovland, P. Grennfelt, and 0. Saltbones, Photo-
chemical Oxidants in North-western Europe 1976-79, A Pilot
Project, Norwegian Institute for Air Research, P.O. Box 130,
N-20001 Lillestrom, Norway, April 1981.
Schjoldager, J., On the Occurrence of Photochemical Air Pollution at
Moderate and Low Temperatures, Presented at the 74th Annual Meeting
of the Air Pollution Control Association, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania,
June 21-26, 1981.
Sierra Research Report prepared for Fairbanks North Star Borough,
Carbon Monoxide Air Quality Trends in Fairbanks, Alaska, September
1982. (M)
Thomas, C. W., Atmospheric Natural Aerosols and Fallout Particulates
During 1973 at Richland, Washington and Point Barrow, Alaska. In:
Pacific Northwest Laboratory Annual Report for 1973 to the USAEC
Division of Biomedical and Environmental Research, Part 3.
Winchester, J. W. and R. A. Duce, Coherence of Iodine and Bromine
in the Atmosphere of Hawaii, Alaska, and Massachusetts, Tell us,
Vol. 18, (2), p. 287-292, 1966.
Winchester, J. W., W. H. Zoller, R. A. Duce and C. S. Benson, Lead
and Halogens in Pollution Aerosols and Snow from Fairbanks,
Alaska, Atmospheric Environment, Vol. 1, Pergamon Press, pp. 105-119,
1967.
47
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Meteorology of Cold Regions Air Pollution
The references in this section include the following topics:
Large-scale meteorological features conducive to pollution events
Temperature inversions
City heat islands
Local wind regimes
Pollution transport and dispersion models
48
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Benson, C. S. and S. A. Bowling, The Sub-Arctic Urban Heat Island as
Studied at Fairbanks, Alaska, Climate of the Arctic, Proceedings
of the 24th Alaska Science Conference, University of Alaska, 1975.
Benson, C. and G. Weller, A Study of Low-Level Winds in the Vicinity of
Fairbanks, Alaska, Report to Earth Resources Company and Atlantic
Richfield Company (ARCO), by Geophysical Institute, University of
Alaska, 1970.
Bilello, M. A., Survey of Arctic and Subarctic Temperature Inversions,
Technical Report 161, U.S. Army Materiel Command, Cold Regions
Research & Engineering Laboratory, Hanover, New Hampshire, October
1966.
Bowling, S. A., A Study of Synoptic-Scale Meteorological Features
Associated with the Occurrence of Ice Fog in Fairbanks, Alaska, Master
of Science Thesis, University of Alaska, 1967.
Bowling, S. A., Radiative Cooling Rates in the Presence of Ice Crystal
Aerosols, Ph.D. Thesis, University of Alaska, 1970.
Bowling, S. A., T. Ohtake and C. S. Benson, Winter Pressure Systems and
Ice Fog in Fairbanks, Alaska, Jour, of Applied Meteorology, Vol. 7,
No. 6, December 1968.
Bowling, S. A., C. S. Benson and W. B. Murcray, Quasi-Equilibrium
Temperature Differences between Radiating Ice Crystals and the
Surrounding Air, dour, of Applied Meteorology, Vol. 10, No. 5,
October 1971.
Bowling, S. A. and C. S. Benson, Study of the Subarctic Heat Island at
Fairbanks, Alaska, Environmental Sciences Research Laboratory Report
EPA-600/4-78-027, June 1978.
Bowling, S. A., Meteorological Factors Responsible for High CO Levels in
Alaskan Cities, Geophysical Institute, University of Alaska, Fairbanks,
Alaska, Report to EPA, 1983.
Bowling, S. A., Climatology of High-Latitude Air Pollution, submitted to
Jour, of Climate and Applied Meteorology, in press, 1983.
Carlson, R. F. and J. Fox, An Atmospheric Carbon Monoxide Transport
Model for Fairbanks, Alaska, Institute of Water Resources, University
of Alaska, Fairbanks, Alaska 99701, Report No. IWR-75, June 1976.
Carlson, R. F., and C. Hok, Improvement of the Fairbanks Atmospheric
Carbon Monoxide Transport Model -- A Program for Calibration,
Verification and Implementation, Completion Report IWR 80-17, prepared
for State of Alaska, Department of Transportation and Public Facilities,
Division of Planning and Programming Research Section, October
1980. (M)
49
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Charlton, R. B. and C. Park, Industrial Cloud, Fog, and Precipitation
During Very Cold Weather in Edmonton, PNWIS-APCA, Edmonton, 1979.
Holmgren, B., L. Spears, C. Wilson and C. Benson, Acoustic Soundings of
the Fairbanks Temperature Inversions, Climate of the Arctic. Proceed-
ings of the 24th Alaska Science Conference, University of Alaska,
1975.
Hoyles, M. R., A Study of Wind Patterns in Anchorage, Alaska that
are Associated with Violations of the Carbon Monoxide Standards,
State of Alaska, Department of Environmental Conservation, January
1980. . (M)
Jayaweera, K., Comments on "Potential Relief from Extreme Urban Air
Pollution", Jour, of Applied Meteorology, Vol. 12,. No. 5, p. 887.
Jayaweera, K., 6. Wendler and T. Ohtake, Low Cloud Cover and the Winter
Temperature of Fairbanks, Climate of the Arctic, Proceedings of the
24th Alaska Science Conference, University of Alaska, 1975.
Norton, W. R. and R. F. Carlson, User's Guide for Atmospheric Carbon
Monoxide Transport Model, Institute of Water Resources, University
of Alaska, Fairbanks, Alaska, Report No. IWR-76, June 1976.
Reiter, E. R., Planetary-Wave Behavior and Arctic Air Pollution,
Department of Atmospheric Science, Colorado State University,
Ft. Collins, Colorado, 1981.
Rezek, J. F. and R.'Jurick, Tracer Gas for Meteorological Analysis
in the Fairbanks Basin, Final Report, State of Alaska, Department
of Transportation and Public Facilities, May 1981.
Schmidt, M. and P. Fabian, Relationships between Tropospheric
Ozone Concentration and the General Weather Situation, Atmospheric
Physics, Vol. 53, No. 1, February 1980.
Wendler, G.,Relation entre la Concentration en oxyde de carbone et les
conditions meteorologiques dans une communaute subarctique, J. Rech.
Atmos., IX, No. 3, pp. 135-142, 1975.
Wendler, G. and P. Nicpon, Low-Level Temperature Inversions in
Fairbanks, Central Alaska, Monthly Weather Review, Vol. 103, No. 1,
pp. 34-44, January 1975.
50
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Special Forms of Cold Regions Air Pollution
ICE FOG
The references in this section include the following topics:
Characteristics of ice fog
Sources of ice fog
Meteorological conditions and transport pathways
Effects of ice fog on pollution dispersion and scavenging
of other pollutants
Radiative effects
Ice crystals and ice fog nuclei
Ice fog reduction and suppression.
51
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AeResearch, Inc., Baseline Ice Fog Visibility Study, Report for
Fairbanks North Star Borough, Vol. 1, 1975. (M)
Armstrong, W. C., Effects of Thermal Discharges upon the Chena River,
Institute of Water Resources, University of Alaska, Fairbanks,
Alaska, Report No. OWRR-B-020 Alaska(2); W73-14864, April 1973,
146 p.
Benson, C. S., Ice Fog: Low Temperature Air Pollution in Fairbanks,
Geophysical Institute Annual Report 1964-65, University of Alaska,
pp. 86-91.
Benson, C. S., Ice Fog: Low Temperature Air Pollution, University of
Alaska, Geophysical Institute Report, UAG R-173, 1965.
Benson C. S., Ice Fog, Low Temperature Air Pollution, Research
Report 121, Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory,
Hanover, New Hampshire, 1970.
Benson, C. S., and S. A. Bowling, Condensation of Exhaust Plumes
from Jet Turbines Operating in Cold Air, Geophysical Institute
Report, University of Alaska, 1978.
Bowl ing, S. A., C. S. Benson and W. B. Murcray, Quasi-Equilibrium
Temperature Differences between Radiating'Ice Crystals and the
. Surrounding Air, Jour, of Applied Meteorology, Vol. 10, No. 5,
October 1971.
Bowling, S. A., and C. S. Benson, Report on the Probable Effects on
Ice Fog of the Proposed Change from Electricity to Fossil Fuel for
Heating the Airport Terminal Building, Geophysical Institute,
University of Alaska, Fairbanks, Alaska 99701, January 1982.
Brown, R. J., Ice Fog (A Bibliography with Abstracts), National
Technical Information Service, Springfield, Virginia, November
1979, 73 p.
Clark, J. P., The Effect of Combustion Upon the Formation of Ice Fog
in the Greater Fairbanks Area, EM 694, Arctic Engineering, Submitted
to Dean Charles Sargent, Department of Civil Engineering, University
of Alaska, January 1963.
Coutts, H. J., and R. K. Turner, Research on Control Technology for
Ice Fog from Mobile Sources, Arctic Environ. Res. Station,
College, Alaska, EPA-600/3-78-055, May 1978, 90 p.
Csanady, G. T., and T. M. L. Wigley, Ice Fog Clouds Formed by Vapour
Emissions in Cold Climates such as the Upper MacKenzie Valley,
University of Waterloo Research Institute, Task Force on Northern
Oil Development, Report No. 73-13.
52
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Gotaas, Y. and C. S. Benson, The Effect of Suspended Ice Crystals
and Radiative Cooling, Jour, of Applied Meteorology, Vol. 4, No. 4,
446-453, 1965.
Henmi, T., Some Physical Phenomena Associated with Ice Fog, Master's
Thesis, University of Alaska, 1969.
Hicks, J. R., M. Kumai, Ice Fog Modification by Use of Helicopters,
U.S. Cold Regions Research and Engineering Lab., Hanover, New
Hampshire, Special Report 162, September 1971, 8 p.
Hoppe, Captain E. R., Ice Fog Conditions in the Alaskan Interior,
Presented at the 203rd National Meeting of the American Meteorological
Society at the University of Alaska, College, Alaska, June 1962.
Huffman, P. J., Size Distribution of Ice Fog Particles, Master's
Thesis, University of Alaska, College, Alaska, 1968.
Huffman, P. J., and T. Ohtake, Formation and Growth of Ice Fog Particles
at Fairbanks, Alaska, Air Force Cambridge Research Lab., L. G.
Hanscom Field, Mass., Report No. AFCRL-71-0129, October 14, 1970,
10 p.
Kumai, M., A Study of Ice Fogs and Ice-Nuclei, U.S. Army Cold Regions
Research and Engineering Lab., Hanover, New Hampshire, June 1963.
Kumai, M., A Study of Ice Fog and Ice-Fog Nuclei at Fairbanks, Alaska,
Part 1, Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Lab., Hanover,
New Hampshire, Report No. RR-150, AD-451 667, August 1964, 33 p.
Kumai, M., Electron Microscope Study of Ice-Fog and Ice-Crystal
Nuclei in Alaska, U. S. Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering
Lab., New Hampshire.
Kumai, M. and H. W. O'Brien, Ice Fog Formation from the Cooling Pond
at Eielson Air Force Base, Alaska, Technical Note, U. S. Army
Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, Hanover, New
Hampshire, September 1964.
Kumai, M. and H. W. O'Brien, A Study of Ice Fog and Ice-Fog Nuclei at
Fairbanks, Alaska, Part II, Cold Regions Research and Engineering
Lab., Hanover, New Hampshire, Report No. CRREL-RR-150, April
1965, 19 p.
Kumai, M., Microspherules in Snow and Ice-Fog Crystals, Cold Regions
Research and Engineering Lab., Hanover, New Hampshire, DA Task
1T061102B52A02, RR 245, March 1969, 10 p.
Kumai, M., Formation and Reduction of Ice Fog (Research Rept.),
Cold Regions Research and Engineering Lab., Hanover, New Hampshire
Report No. CRREL-RR-235, March 1969, 29 p.
53
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Kumai, M., Formation and Reduction of Ice Fog, U.S. Cold Regions
Research and Engineering Lab., Hanover, New Hampshire, Research
report 235, March 1969, 21 p.
Kumai, M., and J. D. Russell, The Attenuation and Backscattering
of Infrared Radiation by Ice Fog and Water Fog, (Research Report),
Cold Regions Research and Engineering Lab., Hanover, New Hampshire,
Report No. CRREL-RR-264, April 1969, 14 p.
Leonard, L. E., R. Seifert, J. Zarling, and R. Johnson, Ice Fog Abate-
ment and Pollution Reduction at a Subarctic Coal-Fired Heating
Plant, University of Alaska, Fairbanks, Alaska, Report No.
EPA-600/3-81-020, February 1981, 75 p.
McFadden, T. T., Suppression of Ice Fog from Power Plant Cooling
Ponds, Ph.D. Thesis, University of Alaska, Fairbanks, Alaska, 1974.
McFadden, T. T., Suppression of Ice Fog from Cooling Ponds, U.S. Cold
Regions Research and Engineering Lab., Hanover, New Hampshire,
Report 76-43, November 1976, 78 p.
McFadden, T. T., and C. M. Collins, Ice Fog Suppression Using Reinforced
Thin Chemical Films, U. S. Cold Regions Research and Engineering
Lab., Hanover, New Hampshire, Report 78-26, November 1978, 27 pp.
McFadden, T. T., and C. M. Collins, Ice Fog Suppression Using Thin
Chemical Films, U.S. Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering
Lab., Fort Wainwright, Alaska, Alaskan Projects Office, Report No.-
EPA/600/3-79/007, January 1979, 55 p.
National Technical Information Service Report, Ice Fog. 1964-February,
1982 (Citations from the NTIS Data Base), National Technical
Information Service, Springfield, Virginia, March 1982, 77 p.
Nelson, W. G., A Numerical Analysis of Ice Fog Produced by Automobiles,
Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon, Thesis, 1973, 150 p.
Nelson, W. G., Reduction of ice Particle Production from Moist Plumes,
University of Alaska-Anchorage, 3221 Providence Drive, Anchorage,
Alaska 99504, 79-9.2.
Ohtake, T., Alaska Ice Fog (A Progress Report of Ice Fog Research)
Geophysical Institute, University of Alaska, Fairbanks, Alaska,
International Conference on Low Temperature Science, Sapporo, 105-118,
1966.
Ohtake, T., Freezing of Water Droplets and Ice Fog Phenomena, Proceedings
of International Conference on Cloud Physics, Toronto, 1968.
54
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Ohtake, T. and P. J. Huffman, Visual Range in Ice Fog, Jour, of
Applied Meteorology, Vol. 8, No. 4, 499-501, 1969.
Ohtake, T., Studies on Ice Fog, Final Report AP-00449 Prepared for
National Center for Air Pollution Control, Public Health Service,
Department of Health, Education and Welfare, UAG R-211, Geophysical
Institute, University of Alaska, 1970.
Ohtake, T., Unusual Crystal in Ice Fog, Jour. Atmospheric Science,
Vol. 27, No. 3, 509-511, 1970.
Ohtake, T. and R. G. Suchannek, Electric -Properties of Ice Fog Crystals,
Jour, of Applied Meteorology, Vol. 9, No. 2,
289-293, 1970.
Ohtake, T., Ice Fog and Its Nucleation Process, Proc. Conference
on Cloud Physics, Amer. Meteorology Society, Ft. Collins, August
24-27, pp. 21-22, 1970.
Ohtake, T., Studies on Ice Fog, Final Report AP-00449 for the Environmental
Protection Agency, June 1970.
Ohtake, T. and K.O.L.F. Jayaweera, Ice Crystal Displays from Power
Plants, Weather, 271-277, 1972.
Ohtake, T., X-ray Analyses of Nuclei, in Individual Fog Droplets
and Ice Crystals, Geophysical Institute, University of Alaska,
Fairbanks, Alaska, Atmospheric Aerosols and Nuclei, Proc. 9th
International Conference on Atmospheric Aerosols, Condensation
and Nuclei, Gal way, September 1977, (pp. 213-217, 1981).
Ohtake, T. and F. D. Eaton, Removal Processes of Aerosols in Ice
Fog, Geophysical Institute, University of Alaska, Fairbanks,
Alaska 99701, 1982.
Porteous, A. and G. B. Wallis, A Contribution Towards the Reduction of
Ice Fog Caused by Humid Stack Gases at Alaskan Power Stations,
Atmos. Envir., Vol. 4, p. 21-33, 1970.
Politte, F. E., Minimum Ice Fog Visibility at Low Temperatures
at Eielson Air Force Base, Alaska, (Unpublished manuscript), 1965.
Richardson, G. L., Ice Fog Pollution at Eielson Air Force Base,
Master's Thesis, University of Alaska, College, Alaska, 1964.
Sakurai, K., and T. Ohtake, On the Condensation and Ice Nuclei Contained
in Supercooled Droplet and Ice Fog Particles, Jour, de Recherches
Atmcspheriques, Clermont-Ferrand, France, 13(4), October/December
1979, 291 p.
55
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Walker, K. E., and W. Brunner, Suppression of Ice Fog from Fort
Wainwright, Alaska, Cooling Pond, U.S. Cold Regions Research
and Engineering Lab., Hanover, New Hampshire, Report No. CRREL-SR-
82-22, October 1982, 39 p.
Weller, G. E., (Ed.) Ice Fog Studies in Alaska: A Survey of Past,
Present and Proposed Research, Geophysical Institute Report UAG R-207,
University of Alaska, March 1969. _
Wendler, G., Heat Balance Studies During an Ice-Fog Period in Fairbanks,
Alaska, Monthly Weather Review, Vol. 97, No. 7, pp. 512-520, 1969.
Willis, G. B., A Contribution towards the Reduction of Ice Fog Caused
by Humid Stack Gases at Alaskan Power Stations, Department of
Mechanical Engineering, Glasgow University, Scotland Thayer School
of Engineering, Dartmouth College, New Hampshire, January 1970.
56
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Special Forms of Cold Regions Air Pollution:
ARCTIC HAZE
The references in this section include the following topics:
Possible sources of arctic haze
Long-distance transport and pathways
Composition and concentrations
Arctic haze monitoring network
Effects on climate.
57
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Barrie, L. A., R. M. Hoff and S. M. Daggupaty, The Influence of Mid-
Latitude Pollution Sources on Haze in the Canadian Arctic,
Atmospheric Environment, Vol. 15, No. 8, 1981.
Bodhaine, B. A., J. M. Harris and G. A. Herbert, Aerosol Light Scattering
and Condensation Nuclei Measurements at Barrow, Alaska, Atmospheric
Environment, Vol. 15, No. 8, 1981.
Borys, R. D., and K. A. Rahn, Long-Range Atmospheric Transport
of Cloud-Active Aerosol to Iceland, Atmospheric Environment, Vol. 15,
No. 8, 1981.
Carlson, T. N., Speculation of the Movement of Polluted Air to the
Arctic, Atmospheric Environment, Vol. 15, No. 8, 1981.
Cavanagh, L. A., C. F. Schadt and E. Robinson, Atmospheric Hydrocarbon
and Carbon Monoxide Measurements at Point Barrow, Alaska, Environmental
Science and Technology, Vol. 3, No. 3, pp. 251-257, March 1969.
Daisey, J. M., R. J. McCaffrey and R. A. Gallagher, Polycyclic Aromatic
Hydrocarbons and Total Extractable Particulate Organic Matter in
the Arctic Aerosol, Atmospheric Environment, Vol. 15, No. 8, 1981.
Darby, D., A., L. H. Burckle and D. L. Clark, Airborne Dust on the
Arctic Pack Ice, Its Composition and Fallout Rate, Earth Planet
Sci. Lett., 24(2): 166-172, December 1974.
Davidson, C. I., L. Chu, T. C. Grimm, M. A. Nasta and M. P. Qamoos,
Wet and Dry Deposition of Trace Elements onto the Greenland Ice
Sheet, Atmospheric Environment, Vol. 15, No. 8, 1981.
Environmental Science and Technology Report, Arctic Haze, Vol. 27,
No. 232A, June 1983.
Flyger, H., N. Z. Heidam, K. Hansen, W. J. Megaw, E. G. Vlalther and
A. W. Hogan, The Background Level of the Summer Tropospheric
Aerosol, Sulphur Dioxide and Ozone over Greenland and the North
Atlantic Ocean, Jour. Aerosol. Sci., Vol. 7, pp. 103-140, 1976.
Halter, B. C., and J. T. Peterson, On the Variability of Atmospheric
Carbon Dioxide Concentration at Barrow, Alaska, During Summer,
Atmospheric Environment, Vol. 15, No. 8, 1981.
Heidam, N. Z., On the Origin of the Arctic Aerosol: A Statistical
Approach, Atmospheric Environment, Vol. 15, No. 8, pp. 1421-1427,
1981.
Heintzenberg, J., Particle Size Distribution and Optical Properties of
Arctic Haze, Dept. of Met., Arrhenius Lab., University of Stockholm,
. Sweden, No. 32(3), June 1980, p. 251-260.
58
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Heintzenberg, J., Chemical Composition of Arctic Haze at Ny-Alesund,
Spitzbergen, University of Stockholm, Sweden, No. 33(2), April
1981, 162-171.
Heintzenberg, J., Size-Segregated Measurements of Particulate Elemental
Carbon and Aerosol Light Absorption at Remote Arctic Locations,
Atmospheric Environment, Vol. 16, No. 10, pp. 2461-2469, 1982.
Heintzenberg, J., and S. Larssen, S02 and $64 in the Arctic:
Interpretation of Observations at Three Norwegian Arctic-Subarctic
Stations, Tell us, 1983.
Herron, M., M., C. C. Langway, Jr., H. V. Weiss and J. H. Cragin,
Atmospheric Trace Metals and Sulfate in the Greenland Ice Sheet,
Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, Vol. 41, 1977.
Hileman, B., Arctic Haze, Environmental Science and Technology, Vol.17,
No. 6, 232-236, 1983.
Hoff, R. M., W. R. Leaitch, P. Fellin and L. A. Barrie, Mass Size
Distributions of Chemical Constituents of the Winter Arctic Aerosol,
J. Geophys. Res., 88, 10,947-10,955, 1983.
Isono, K., M. Komabayasi, T. Takeda, T. Tanake, K. Iwai, M. Fujiwara,
Concentration and Nature of Ice Nuclei in Rim of the North Pacific
Ocean, Tellus XXIII, 1971.
Jaenicke, R., "Schmutzige" Luft uber den Polen [Polluted Air Over
the Poles], Inst. fur Met., Johannes Gutenberg University, Postfach,
Mainz, W. Germany, September 1, 1981.
Jaenicke, R., and L. Schutz, Arctic Aerosols in Surface Air, Jour, of
the Hungarian Meteorological Service, Vol. 86, No. 2, 1982.
Kerr, R., Global Pollution: Is the Arctic Haze Actually Industrial
Smog? Science, Washington, D.C., Report No. 205(4403), July 20,
1979, p. 290-293.-
Kerr, R. A., Pollution of the Arctic Atmosphere Confirmed, Science
Washington, D.C. No. 212(4498), May 29, 1981, p. 1013-1014
Lannefors, H., J. Heintzenberg and H. C. Hansson, A Comprehensive
Study of Physical and Chemical Parameters of the Arctic Summer
Aerosol; Results from the Swedish Expedition, Ymer-80. Tellus,
35B, 40-54, 1983.
Leighton, H., Influence of Arctic Haze on the Solar Radiation Budget,
Atmospheric Environment, 17, 2065-2068, 1983.
59
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Miller, J. M., A Five-Year Climatology of Five-Day Back Trajectories
from Barrow, Alaska, Atmospheric Environment, Vol. 15, No. 8, 1981.
Mitchell, Jr., M. J., Visual Range in the Polar Regions with
Particular Reference to the Alaskan Arctic, Jour. Atmos. Terr. Phys.,
Spec. Suppl. Pt 1, 195-211, 1957.
Ottar, B., The Transfer of Airborne Pollutants to the Arctic Region,
Atmospheric Environment, Vol. 15, No. 8, 1981.
Patterson, D. E. and R. B. Husar, A Direct Simulation of Hemispherical
Transport of Pollutants, Atmospheric Environment, Vol. 15, No. 8,
1981.
Patterson, E. M. and B. T. Marshall, Radiative Properties of the Arctic
Aerosol, Atmospheric Environment, Vol. 16, No. 12, pp. 2967-2977,
1982.
Peterson, J. T., Dependence of Carbon Dioxide, Aerosol and Ozone
Concentrations on Wind Direction at Barrow, Alaska, During Winter,
Geophys. Res. Lett., 1_, 349-352, 1980.
Raatz, W. E., Trends in Cloudiness in the Arctic Since 1920, Atmospheric
Environment, Vol. 15, No. 8, 1981.
Raatz, W. E., On the Meteorological Characteristics of Polluted Air
Masses at Barrow, Alaska, Pure & Applied Geophysics, 120,
662-672, 1982. .
Raatz, W. E., Observations of "Arctic Haze" During the "Ptarmigan"
Weather Reconnaissance Flights, 1948-1961, to be published in
Tell us, July 1984.
Raatz, W. E., G. E. Shaw, Long-Range Tropospheric Transport of
Pollution Aerosols into the Alaskan Arctic, (Accepted for publi-
cation: Climate and Applied Met., 1984).
Rahn, K. A., R. D. Borys and G. E. Shaw, The Asian Source of Arctic
Haze Bands, Nature, Vol. 268, 5622, pp. 713-715, August
25, 1977.
Rahn, K. A., Arctic Air-Sampling Network, Arctic Bulletin, Vol. 2,
No. 14, 1978.
Rahn, K. A., The Eurasian Sources of Arctic Aerosol, Norwegian
Institute for Air Research, September 1979.
Rahn, K., E. Joranger, A. Semb and T. J. Conway, High Winter Concentrations
of S02 in the Norwegian Arctic and Transport from Eurasia,
Nature, Vol. 287, No. 5785, October 1980.
60
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Rahn, K. A., Atmospheric Riverine and Oceanic Sources of Seven
Trace Constituents to the Arctic Ocean, Atmospheric Environment,
Vol. 15, No. 8, 1981.
Rahn, K. A., The Arctic Air-Sampling Network in 1980, Atmospheric
Environment, Vol. 15, No. 8, 1981.
Rahn, K. A., The Mn/V Ratio as a Tracer of Large-Scale Sources of
Pollution Aerosol for the Arctic, Atmospheric Environment, Vol. 15,
No. 8, 1981.
Rahn, K. A., Relative Importances of North America and Eurasia as
Sources of Arctic Aerosol, Atmospheric Environment, Vol. 15, No. 8,
1981.
Rahn, K. A. and N. Z. Heidam, Progress in Arctic Air Chemistry, 1977-
1980: A Comparison of the First and Second Symposia, Atmospheric
Environment, Vol. 15, No. 8, 1981.
Rahn, K. A. and G. E. Shaw, Sources and Transport of Arctic
Pollution Aerosol: A Chronicle of Six Years of ONR Research, Naval
Research Reviews, Vol. XXXIV, No. 3, 1982.
Rahn, K. A. and D. H. Lowenthal, Elemental Tracers of Distant
Regional Pollution Aerosols, Science, Vol. 223, 132-139, 1984.
Reiter, E. R., PI anetary-Wave Behavior and Arctic Air Pollution^
Atmospheric Environment, Vol. 15, No. 8, 1981.
Rosen, H., T. Novakov and B. A. Bodhaine, Soot in the Arctic, Atmospheric
Environment, Vol. 15, No. 8, 1981.
Shaw, G. E., Comparison of Arctic and Antarctic Haze, Anarctic Jour.
of the U.S., 11_, 151, 1976.
Shaw, G. E., Arctic Haze, Weatherwise, 33, 218-221, 1980.
Shaw, G. E. aid K. Stamnes, Arctic Haze: Perturbation of the Polar
Radiation Budget, Annals of the New York Academy of Science, 338,
533-540, 1980.
Shaw, G. E., Eddy Diffusion Transport of Arctic Pollution from the
Mid-Latitudes: A Preliminary Model, Atmospheric Environment,
Vol. 15, No. 8, 1981.
Shaw, G. E., Atmospheric Turbidity in the Polar Regions, J. Applied
Meteorology, Vol. 21, No. 8, August 1982.
Shaw, G. E., Evidence for a Central Eurasian Source Area of Arctic
Haze in Alaska, Nature, 299, 815-818, 1982.
61
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Shaw, G. E., On the Aerosol Particle Size Distribution Spectrum in
Alaskan Air Mass Systems: Arctic Haze and Non-Haze Episodes,
J. Atmos. Sciences, Vol. 40, pp. 1313-1320, 1983.
Shaw, G. E., X-Ray Spectrometry of Polar Aerosols, Atmospheric
Environment, Vol. 17, No. 2, pp. 329-339, 1983.
WeschVer, C. J., Identification of Selected Organics in the Arctic
Aerosol, Atmospheric Environment, Vol. 15, No. 8, 1981.
62
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Automobile Emissions and Their Control
The references in this section include the following topics:
Effects of cold weather on automobile emissions
Effects of automobile emissions on ambient CO concentrations
Cold start and engine warm-up
Reducing CO emissions through the use of:
Alternate fuels
Automobile inspection and maintenance
Retrofit pollution control devices
Preheaters
Other devices
63
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Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation Report, A Review of
Carbon Monoxide Emissions from Motor Vehicles during Cold Tempera-
ture Operation, The Importance of Cold Start Emissions for
Attainment of Ambient Air Quality Standards, March 1979. ( M)
Ashby, H. A., R., C. Stahman, B. H. Eccleston and R. W. Hum, Vehicle
Emissions—Summer to Winter, No. 741053, Prepared for Society of
Automotive Engineers, Inc., 400 Commonwealth Drive, Warrendale,
Pennsylvania 15096, 1974.
Austin, T. C., G. S. Rubenstein, L. D. Verrelli, and T. E. Moyer, Light
Duty Vehicle CO Emissions During Cold Weather, Sierra Research
and Alaska Dept. of Environmental Conservation, SAE Technical
Paper Series #831698, 1983.
Bowditch, F. W., The Carbon Monoxide Issue in Alaska, Motor Vehicle
Manufacturers Association, January 1982. (M)
Chang, T. Y., J. M. Norbeck and B. Weinstock, Ambient Temperature
Effect on Urban CO Air Quality, Atmospheric Environment, Vol. 14,
pp. 603-608, 1980.
Chapman, C. C. 1984. Vehicle Analysis Program, 1983 Results and Overall
History and Results, Fairbanks North Star Borough, 60 pp.
Coutts, H. J., L. E. Leonard, K. W. MacKenzie, Jr., Cold Regions Auto-
motive Emissions, Dept. of Environmental Services, Fairbanks North
Star Borough, Geophysical Institute, University of Alaska,. Arctic
Environmental Research Laboratory, U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, August 1973. (M)
Coutts, H. J., Automotive Cold-Start Carbon Monoxide Emissions and
Preheater Evaluation, Corvallis Environmental Research Laboratory,
Office of Research and Development, U. S. Environmental Protection
Agency. (M)
Coutts, H. J., The 1978 Fairbanks Voluntary Motor Vehicle Emission
Inspection Program, Technical Report Submitted to Fairbanks North
Star Borough, 1979. (M)
Coutts, H. J.,. Automoti ve Cold-Start Carbon Monoxide Emissions and
Preheater Evaluation, Special Report 81-32, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, U.S. Cold Regions Research and Engineering
Laboratory, December 1981.
Coutts, H. J., Low Temperature Automotive Emissions and Inspection and
Maintenance Effectiveness, Final Report prepared for State of
Alaska, Department of Environmental Conservation, August 1983. (M)
64
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Coutts, H. J., Low Temperature Automatic Emissions and Inspection and
Maintenance Effectiveness, U.S. Army Cold Regions Research and
Engineering Laboratory, 72 Lyme Road, Hanover, New Hampshire 03755,
Final Report, October 1983.
Coutts, H. J., 1983. Low Temperature Automotive Emissions, Alaska Dept.
of Environmental Conservation, Report No. AK-AP-83-1 Vol. 1 and
Vol. 2, Winter 1981-1982.
Coutts, H. J. and J. Peacock, An Evaluation of Automotive CO Emission
Control Techniques at Low Temperatures, Coutts Engineering Ltd.,
Ester, Alaska, and Technical Resources, Fairbanks, Alaska, Final
Report, October 1983.
Eccleston, B. H. and R. W. Hum, Ambient Temperature and Trip Length--
Influence on Automotive Fuel Economy and Emissions, U.S. Dept. of
Energy & Bartlesville Energy Research Center, Bartlesville, Oklahoma
74003, SAE Technical Paper Series 780613, 1978.
Frizzera, A., Vehicle Emission Analysis Program, for Environmental
Services, Fairbanks North Star Borough, Fairbanks, Alaska,
1978. (M)
Gilmore, T. M., Acceptability Survey for Cold Start Automobile Emissions
Study, Report Prepared for the Fairbanks North Star Borough,
1978. (M)
Hoyles, M. R., An Empirical Approach to Modeling Low Temperature Carbon
Monoxide Emissions, State of Alaska, Department of Environmental
Conservation, November 1980. (M)
Hoyles, M. R. and T. E. Moyer, The Facts of Cold Temperature Effects on
Carbon Monoxide Emissions from Vehicles, Proceedings, Alaska
Science Conference, Alaska Division, American Association for
the Advancement of Science, Fairbanks,. Alaska, September 1979.
Hoyles, M. R. and T. E. Moyer, A Comparison of Emissions from Gasohol
and Gasoline at Low Ambient Temperatures, State of Alaska
Department of Environmental Conservation, June 1980.
Hoyles, M. R. and T. E. Moyer, The Significance of Engine Warm-up Time
on Carbon Monoxide Emissions from Motor Vehicles, Presented at
the PNWIS-APCA Conference, Spokane, Washington, November 1981. (M)
*
Kail ing, S. H., Evaluation of an Autotherm Energy Conservation System,
Final Report for State of Alaska, Department of Transportation
and Public Facilities, Division of Planning and Programming, Research
Section, July 1982. (M)
Koehler, D. E., Cold Temperature Emission Factors, Bartlesville Energy
Center, U.S. Department of Energy, Bartlesville, Oklahoma, 1980.
65
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Leonard, L. E., Cold Start Automotive Emissions in Fairbanks, Alaska.
Interim Report Prepared for State of Alaska Department of Highways
and U. S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration,
1975.
Leonard, L. E., Carbon Monoxide Emissions from Moving Vehicles in Fairbanks,
Alaska, Vol. 3, Prepared for State of Alaska Department of Highways
in Cooperation with U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal
Highway Administration, UAG R-252, Geophysical Institute, University
of Alaska, August 1977.
Leonard, L. E., T. Scarborough and H. Black, Evaluation of Automotive
Engine Preheaters as a Technique to Control Cold Start Carbon
Monoxide Emissions, Scarborough & Associates, September 1978. (M)
Marshall, W. F., B. H. Eccleston, Emissions at Off-Ambient Temperatures,
Department of Energy, Bartlesville, Oklahoma, SAE Technical Paper
Serfe s 800512, 1980.
McMullen, K., Vehicle Emission Analysis Program, Report for Fairbanks North
Star Borough, 1 7pp. AEIDC Reprint 00745. 1981. (M)
McMullen, K., Vehicle Emissions Analysis Program, Report for Fairbanks
North Star Borough, 21 pp. AEIDC Reprint 00748, 1982. ( M)
Olle, 0., Influence of Ambient Temperature and Cold Start on Auto-
mobile Fuel Consumption, VTI RAPPORT, National Road & Traffic
Research Institute, S-58101 Linkoping, Sweden, 1981. (M)
Ostrouchov, N., Effect of Cold Weather on Motor Vehicle Emissions .
and Fuel Economy, Society of Automotive Engineers Technical Paper
Series, 1978. (M)
Ostrouchov, N., Effect of Cold Weather on Motor tehicle Emissions
and Fuel Consumption - II, SAE Technical Paper Series, 1979. ( M)
Ostrouchov, N., Vehicle Emissions and Fuel Consumption in Canadian
Winter Temperatures, For Presentation at the 73rd Annual Meeting
of the Air Pollution Control Association, Montreal, Quebec, June
1980. (M)
Ostrouchov, N. and J. Polak, Automobile Emissions and Fuel Economy at
Low Ambient Temperatures, Technology Development Report EPS 4-AP-78-1,
Fisheries and Environment Canada, Environmental Protection Service,
Air Pollution Control Directorate, August 1978. (M)
Sierra Research, Automotive Retrofit Devices for Improving Cold Weather
Emissions and Fuel Economy, Report prepared for U.S. Army Cold
Regions Research & Engineering Laboratory, 1982.
66
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Sierra Research, Memo Report: Estimated Emissions Benefits of Vehicle
Inspection and Maintenance Programs in Alaska, July 1983. ( M)
Sierra Research, Memo Report: The Potential for Reducing Cold Weather
CO Emissions with Gasohol, March 1983. ( M)
Sierra Research, Proposed Emission Cutpoints for the Anchorage Inspection
and Maintenance Program, prepared for Municipality of Anchorage,
Department of Planning, June 1983. (M)
Spindt, R. S. and F. P. Hutchins, The Effect of Ambient Temperature
Variation on Emissions and Fuel Economy; -An Interim Report, SAE
Technical Paper Series, 1979.
Stone, R. K. and B. H. Eccleston, Vehicle Emissions vs. Fuel Composition
API-Bureau of Mines—Part II, Chevron Research Company, Richmond,
California &U.S. Bureau of Mines, Bartlesville, Oklahoma, American
Petroleum Reprint No. 41-69, 1969.
Taylor, G. W., Winter Testing of Automobile Idle Exhaust Emissions in
Edmonton, Alberta, Surveillance Report EPS 5-AP-73-14, Environment
Canada, Environmental Protection Agency, September 1973. (M)
Turner, R. K. and H. J. Coutts, Fairbanks, Alaska Automotive Retrofit
Evaluation Study, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Corvallis
Environmental Research Laboratory, Arctic Environmental Research
Station, College, Alaska 99701, Working Paper No. 29, CERL-004,
December 1975.
Verrelli, L. D. and T. E. Moyer, Cold Start Automobile Emission and
Inspection/Maintenance Effectiveness, Department of Environmental
Conservation, State of Alaska, Fairbanks, Alaska, Air Pollution
Control Association, Pacific Northwest International Section,
Vancouver, British Columbia, November 1982.
Voelz, F. L., Fairbanks, Alaska - 1974 Motor Vehicle Emissions Inspection
Results, Atlantic Richfield Company, June 1976.
67
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Other Forms of Air Pollution
The references in this section include the following topics
Wood smoke
Pollen
Dust
68
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Anderson, J. H., Aeropalynology Research In Alaska - Review and Outlook,
Institute of Arctic Biology, University of Alaska, Fairbanks,
Alaska, Paper presented at 34th Alaska Science Conference,
Whitehorse, Yukon, 1983.
Chappie, T., Juneau Mendenhall Valley Carbon Monoxide Study, Alaska
Department of Environmental Conservation, Project Summary Report,
January 21, 1983 - March 14, 1983.
Cooper, J. A. and C. A. Frazier, Preliminary Source Apportionment of
Winter Particulate Mass in Juneau, Alaska, Final Report, Vol. I,
Prepared for Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation,
3220 Hospital Drive, Juneau, Alaska 99811, June 13, 1983.
Joy, R. and P. Fisher, Ambient Total Suspended Particulate (TSP) Levels
in the Vicinity of a Dirt Track Raceway, Fairbanks North Star
Borough Environmental Services Department. (M)
Laroe, S., Fuel Wood Utilization in the Fairbanks North Star Borough,
Interior Wood Cutters Association, 1982. (M)
McCandless, R. G., Wood Smoke and Air Pollution at Whitehorse, Yukon
Territory, 1981-1982. Environmental Protection Service, Regional
Program Report 82-16, December 1982.
NEA, Inc., Quantification of Impact of Residential Wood Combustion
on Particulate Concentrations in Whitehorse, Y.T., Using Chemical
Receptor Modeling Techniques, Final Report prepared for Department
of Environment, Ottawa, (NEA, Inc., 10050 S.W. 5th Street, Suite
380, Beaverton, Oregon, 97005) 1983.
SEMES Consultants Ltd., Pollution from Woodstoves in Riverdale, Yukon
• Territory. 499 MeNicoll Avenue, Willowdale, Ontario, Canada,
M2H 2C6, 1983.
69
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Air Pollution Monitoring Efforts
The references in this section include the following topics:
Pollution surveillance, monitoring and surveys in
the cold regions
Air emission inventories
Air quality baseline studies
70
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Air Pollution Control Directorate Report, National Air Pollution
Surveillance, Annual Summary for 1978, Environment Canada, Air
Pollution Control Directorate, Ottawa, Canada, Report EPS 5-AP78-26,
September 1979, 62 p.
Bennett, F. L., An Air Emission Inventory Computer Program, Final
Report submitted to Fairbanks North Star Borough, Department of
Environmental Services, December 1974. (M)
CANSAP Data Summary, UDC:551.578.8, Environment Canada, Atmospheric
Environment Service, 1981.
Coutts, H. J., A Study of Winter Air Pollutants at Fairbanks, Alaska,
Corvallis Environmental Research Laboratory, Office of Research
and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Con/all is,
Oregon 97330, September"1979.
Crow, W., B. Lambeth, R. Evans and Radian Staff, Air Quality & Meteoro-
logical Study at Prudhoe Bay, April 1, 1979 to March 31, 1980,
Radian Corporation, 8501 Mo-Pac Blvd, P.O. Box 9948, Austin, Texas
. 78766, DCN #81-120-235-54, January 1981.
Fairbanks North Star Borough, Report No. 74-001, Particulate Snow Survey,
March 1974. (M)
Fairbanks North Star Borough Report, Carbon Monoxide Levels in Fairbanks,
Alaska, Winter of 1977-78. {M)
Gamara, K. E. and R. A. Nunes, Air Quality and Meteorological Baseline
Study for Prudhoe Bay, Alaska, June 1974 - June 1975, Technical
Report No. 217, Metronics Associates, Inc. January 1976.
Gilmore, T. M., T. R. Hanna, Applicability of the Mass Concentration
Standards for Particulate Matter in Alaska Areas, J. Air Pollut.
Control Assoc., Vol. 25, p. 535-539, May 1975.
Gilmore, T. M. and T. R. Hanna, Regional Monitoring of Ambient Air
Carbon Monoxide in Fairbanks, Alaska, J. Air Pollut. Control
Assoc., Vol. 24, p. 1077-1079, November 1974.
Jenkins, T. F., R. P. Murrman and B. E. Brockett, Accumulation of
Atmospheric Pollutants Near Fairbanks, Alaska, During Winter,
Special Report 225, CRREL, Hanover, New Hampshire, April 1975.
Lafleur, R. J., E. P. Wintuschek, J. H. Emslie, Cold Weather Carbon
Monoxide Survey at Whitehorse, Yukon Territory. Presented at
1976 Annual. Meeting of the Pacific Northwest International Section;
Air Pollution Control Association, Anchorage, Alaska, September
15-17, 1976. (Environment Canada, Environmental Protection Service,
Room 225, Federal Building, Whitehorse, Y.T., VIA 2B5), 1976.
71
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National Atmospheric Deposition Program, NADP Report: Precipitation
Chemistry; First Quarter 1981. Natural Resource Ecology
Laboratory, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado,
169 pp. 1983.
Norbeck, J. M. and T. Y. Chang, An Analysis of Ambient CO Concentrations
in Alaska, Engineering and Research Staff, Research, Ford Motor
Company, June 1982. (M)
Schweiss, J. W., Anchorage Carbon Monoxide Study, U. S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Region 10, Printed Report, November 1983.
Sierra Research, Carbon Monoxide Air Quality Trends in Fairbanks, Alaska,
prepared for Fairbanks North Star Borough, September 9, 1982.
TRW Systems Group, Redondo Beach, California, Air Emission Inventory
State of Alaska, Report No. TRW-18425.002, 77 p. August 1971.
72
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Effects of Cold Regions Air Pollution
The references in this section include the following topics:
Health effects in the cold regions
Effects on biota
Acid rain
Other environmental consequences
73
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Brydges, T. 6. and G. E. Glass, Memorandum of Intent on Trans-
boundary Air Pollution, State of Knowledge Survey, Aquatic Impact
Assessment, United States-Canada, Work Group I, Supplemental
Document I, August 1981.
Galloway, 0. N., et al., The Composition of Precipitation in Remote
Areas of the World, J. of Geophysical Research, Vol. 87, 8771-8786,
1982.
Holtzman, R. B., RA 226 and the Natural Airborne Nuclides PB 210,
and PO 210 in Arctic Biota. In: Radiation Protection, Part 2, S.W.
Synder (ed.)., New York, Pergamon Press, p. 1087-1096, 1968.
Joy, R. W., T. Tilsworth, and D. D. Williams, Carbon Monoxide Exposure
and Human Health, Institute of Water Resources Report No. 61,
University of Alaska, February 1975.
Koerner, R. M. and D. Fisher, Acid Snow in the Canadian High Arctic,
Nature, Vol. 295, 1982.
Legrand, M. R., A. J. Aristarain and R. J. Delmas, Acid Titration of
Polar Snow, Anal. Chem. 54, 1336-1339, 1982.
Norton, S. A., J. J. Akielaszek, T. A. Haines, K. L. .Stromborg, J. R.
Longcore, Bedrock Geologic Control of Sensitivity of Aquatic
Ecosystems in the United States to Acidic Deposition.
Overrein, L. N., H. M. Seip and A. Tollan, Acid Precipitation Effects
on Forest and Fish, Final Report of the SNSF Project 1972-1980,
December 1980.
Ottar, B., Long Range Transport of Air Pollution and Acid Rain Formation,
Norwegian Inst. Air Research, Lillestrom, Norway, 1980.
Rahn, K. A., E. Joranger, A. Semb and T. J. Conway, High Winter Concentra-
tions of S02 in the Norwegian Arctic and Transport from Eurasia,
Nature, Vol. 287, No. 5785, pp. 824-826, October 1980.
Rancitelli, L. A., Trace Element content of Alaskan Caribou and Lichen,
. In: Pacific Northwest Laboratory Annual Report for 1971 to the
USAEC Division of Biology and Medicine, Vol. II: Physical Sciences,
Part 2, Report BNWL-1651, May 1972.
Schofield, E., Some Considerations on the Possible Effects of Local
and Global Sources of Air Pollution on Lichens Grazed by Reindeer
.and Caribou, Alaska University, Fairbanks, Alaska, 1972, p. 90-94.
Schofield, E. and W. L. Hamilton, Probable Damage to Tundra Biota
Through Sulphur Dioxide Destruction of Lichens, Biol. Conserv.,
Report No. 2(4), July 1970, pp. 278-280..
74
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Shaw, R. W. and H. Rodhe, Non-photochemical Oxidation of SC»2 in
Regionally Polluted Air During Winter, Report CM 53, Department
of Meteorology, University of Stockholm, March 1981.
Shewchuk, S. R., An Acid Deposition Perspective for the Northwest
Territories, Department of Information, Government of the Northwest
Territories, Yellowknife, NWT XIA 229 ($5.00/copy).
Whelpdale, D. M. and L. A. Barrie, Atmospheric Monitoring Network
Operations and Results in Canada, Atmospheric Environmental Service,
4905 Dufferin St., Downsview, Ontario, Canada, M3H 5T4, Water Air
Soil Pollution, Vol. 18, No. 1, 2, 3, 1982, pp. 7-23.
Wilson, E., Environmental Cause/Effect Phenomena Relating to Technological
Development in the Canadian Arctic, National Research Council of
Canada, Environmental Secretariat, Publication NRCC 13688, 136 p.
April 1974.
75
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Control Measures and Plans
The references in this section include the following topics:
Impact analysis and impact statements
Clean air acts and laws
Air quality implementation plans
Alternative transportation control measures
Air quality demographic and attitudinal surveys
76
-------
Aamot, H. W. C., Management of Power Plant Waste Heat in Cold Regions,
Cold Regions Research Lab., New Hampshire, NTIS Report AD/A-003
217, December 1974, (195).
Air Pollution Control Directorate Report, Clean Air Act, Annual Report
1974-1975, Environmental Canada, Air Pollution Control Directorate,
Ottawa, Canada, May 1975, 39 p + 42 p.
Benson, C. $., Role of Air Pollution in Arctic Planning and Development,
Polar Record, Vol. 14, 783-790, 1969.
Department of Environmental Conservation, State of Alaska, Revisions to
the State Air Quality Control Plan, Vol. II, Analysis of Problems,
Control Actions, Vol. Ill, Appendices, January 1980.
Egan, W. A. and M. C: Brewer, State of Alaska, Air Quality Control Plan,
State of Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation, Vol. 1,
Plan, Vol. II, Appendix, April 1972.
Environmental Protection Agency. Draft Environmental Impact Statement
for the Energy Company of Alaska Topping Plant at North Pole,
Alaska, EPA, Region X, 1200 Sixth Avenue, Seattle, Washington, 1976.
Fairbanks North Star Borough Report No. 74-002, Air Quality Forecast
Plan, February 1974. (M)
Fairbanks North Star Borough,Department of Planning and Zoning, Fairbanks
North Star Borough Parking Management Study, March 1977. (M)
Fairbanks North Star Borough, Fairbanks, Alaska, Air Quality Attainment
Plan for the Fairbanks/North Pole Area, February 1979.
Fairbanks North Star Borough, Air Quality Attainment Plan, Volume 2,
"A Decision-Making Guide", May 1982. (M)
Gallagher, J. R., Analysis of Alternative Transportation Control
Measures for Fairbanks, Alaska, Final Report Prepared for Fairbanks
North Star Borough, March 1982. (M)
Gegen, E. W., Air Pollution Emissions and Control Technology: Arctic
Mining, Canadian Environmental Protection Service, Canadian Air
Pollution Control Directorate, Report 3-AP-76-4, November 1976.
Hellenthal, M. E., Anchorage Air Quality Demographic and Attitudinal
Survey, Prepared for State of Alaska Department of Environmental
Conservation, January 1983. (M)
Hellenthal, M. E., Fairbanks Air Quality Demographic and Attitudinal
Survey, Prepared for State of Alaska Department of Environmental
Conservation, January .1983.
77
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Midurski, T., Analysis of Alternative Transportation Control Measure
for Fairbanks, Alaska, Final Report U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Region 10, November 1979. (M)
Moyer, T., State of Alaska Proposed Revisions to Air Quality Control
Plan, State of Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation,
Vol. I, December 1977.
Pollution Control Commission and Fairbanks North Star Borough, Report
No. 73-002, Air Quality Improvement Plan, November 1973.
Tigue, J. E. and L. K. Carpenter, Air Quality Impact Analysis of a
Proposed North/South Runway at Anchorage International Airport,
FAA, NTIS Report AD-A020, December 1975.
TRW Systems Group, Redondo Beach, California, Air Quality Implementation
Plan for the State of Alaska, Vol. I: Control Strategy, Report
APTD-0926, December 1971.
TRW Systems Group, Redondo Beach, California, Air Quality Implementation
Plan for the State of Alaska, Vol. I: Control Strategy Appendices,
Report APTD-0970, December 1971.
TRW Systems Group, Redondo Beach, California, Air Quality Implementation
Plan for the State of Alaska, Vol. II: Compliance Schedule, Report
APTD-0950, December 1971.
TRW Systems Group, Redondo Beach, California, Air Quality Implementation
Plan for the State of Alaska, Vol. Ill: Permit System, Report
APTD-0971, December 1971.
TRW Systems Group, Redondo Beach, California, Air Quality Implementation
Plan for the State of Alaska, Vol. Ill: Permit System Appendices,
Report APTD-0972, December 1971.
TRW Systems Group, Redondo Beach, California, Air Quality Implementation
Plan for the State of Alaska, Vol. IV: Emergency Episode Plan,
Report APTD-0973, December 1971.
TRW Systems Group, Redondo Beach, California, Air Quality Implementation
Plan for the State of Alaska, Vol. IV: Emergency Episode Plan
Appendices, Report APTD-0974, December 1971.
TRW Systems Group, Redondo Beach, California, Air Quality Implementation
Plan for the State of Alaska, Vol. V: Surveillance System, Report
APTD-0975, December 1971.
TRW Systems Group, Redondo Beach, California, Air Quality Implementation
Plan for the State of Alaska, Vol. VI: Resources, Report APTD-0976,
December 1971.
78
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General Summaries and Overviews
The references in this section include the following topics:
General summaries of air pollution and its associated problems
in the cold regions, specifically Alaska.
79
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Benson, C. S., S. A. Bowling and G. Weller, Urban Climates In Alaska,
Environments, Vol. 15, No. 2, 1983.
Benson, C. S., K. R. Rizzo, Air Pollution in Alaska, Weatherwise,
Vol. 33, p. 211-215, October 1980.
Bigler, S. G., K. Mackenzie, R. A. Willis, Air Pollution Conditions in
Fairbanks, Alaska, World Meteorological Organization, Geneva,
WMO-No. 368, 1974, p. 188-195.
Gosink, T. A. and C. S. Benson, Aspects of Far Northern Air
Pollution with Particular Reference to Fairbanks, Alaska, Geophysical
Institute Report UAG R 291, University of Alaska, July 1982.
Mickey, J. L. S., The Air of Anchorage--Today and Tomorrow, Alaska Med.,
9(i), March 1966, 8 p.
Holty, Joseph G., Air Quality in a Subarctic Community Fairbanks, Alaska,
Arctic, Journal of the Arctic Institute of North America, Vol. 26,
No. 4, December 1973.
Judkins, C. P. and J. C. Emerson, Air Pollution in the Cook Inlet Basin,
ALASKA MED, No. 10(1), March 1968, p. 45-47.
Kingsley, K., A Look at the Future of Hazardous Contamination of the
Circumpolar Environment, Arch. Environ. Health, Vol. 17, p. 653-
661, October 1968.
80
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INDEX OF FIRST AUTHORS
Aamot, H.
Aeresearch, Inc.
Alaska Dept. of Environmental Conservation
Anderson, J. H.
Armstrong, W. C.
Ashby, H.A.
Austin T. C.
Barrie, L. A.
Bennett, F. L.
Benson, C. S.
Bigler, S. G.
Bilello, M. A.
Bodhaine, B. A.
Borys, R. D.
Bottenhein, J. W.
Bowditch, F. W.
Bowling, S.A.
Brown, R. J.
Brydges, T. 6.
Carlson, R. F.
Carlson, T. N.
Cavanagh, L. A. .
Chang, T. Y.
Chapman, C. C.
Chappie, T.
Char!ton, R. B.
Clarke, J. P.
Cooper, J. A.
Coutts, H. J.
Crow, W.
Csanady, G. T.
Daisey, J. M.
Darby, D. A.
Davidson, C. I.
Duce, R. A.
Eccleston, B. H.
Egan, W. A.
Environment Canada
Environmental Protection Agency
Page(s)
77
52
64, 77
69
52
64
64
58
71
49, 52, 77, 80
80
49
58 '
58
46
. 64
49, 52 '
52
74
49
58
58
64
64
69
50
52
69
52, 64, 65, 71
71
52
58
58
58
46
65
77
69 71, 77
77
81
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Page(s)
Fairbanks North Star Borough
Flyger, H.
Frlzzera, A.
Gallagher, J. R.
Galloway, J. N.
Gegen, E. W.
Gamara, K. E.
Gilmore, T. M.
Gosink, T. A.
Grosjean, D.
Gotaas, Y.
Halter, B. C.
Heidam, N Z.
Heintzenberg, J.
Hell enthai, M. E.
Henmi, T.
Herron, M.
Hicks, J. R.
Hickey, J.
Hileman, B.
Hoff, R. M.-
Holmgren, B.
Holty, J. G.
Holtzman, R. B.
Hoppe, E. R.
Hoyles, M. R.
Huffman, P. J.
Isono, K.
Jaenicke, R.
Jayaweera, K.
Jaworowski, Z.
Jenkins, T. F.
Joy, R.
Judkins, C. P.
Kailing, S. H.
Kerr, R.
Kingsley, K..
Koehler, D. E.
Koerner, R. M.
Kumai, M.
Lafleur, R. J.
Lannesfors, H.
Laroe, S.
Legrand, M. R.
Leighton, H.
Leonard, L. E.
71,77,78
58
65
77
74
77
71
65, 71
46, 80
46
53
58
58
58, 59
77
53
59
53
80
59
59
50
80
74
53
50, 65
53
59
59
50
46
71
69, 74
80
65
59
80
65
74
53, 54
71
59
69
74
59
54, 66
82
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Page(s)
MacKenzie, K. W.
Marshall, W. F.
McCandless, R. G.
McFadden, T.
McMullen, K.
Midurski, T.
Miller, J. M.
Mitchell, Jr., M. J.
Morachevsky, V. G.
Moyer, T.
National Resource Ecology Laboratory
Nelson, W. G.
NEA, Inc.
Norbeck, J. M.
Norton, S. A.
Norton, W. R.
NTIS
(Make, T.
Olle, 0.
Ostrovchov, N.
Ottar, B.
Overrein, L. N.
Patterson, C. C.
Patterson, D. E.
Patterson, E. M.
Peake, E.
Peterson, J. T.
Politte, F. E.
Porteous, A.
Raatz, W. E.
Rahn, K. A.
Rancitelli, L. A.
Rasmussen, R. A.
Reichart, P.
Reiter, E. R.
Rezek, J. F.
Richardson, G. L. .
Rosen, H.
Sakurai, K.
Schjoldager, J.
Schmidt, M.
Schofield, E.
Schweiss, J. W.
Senes, Consultants, Ltd.
Shaw, G. E.
Shaw, R. W.
Shewchuk, S. R.
Sierra Research
Spindt, R. S.
Stone, R. K.
83
46
66
69
54
66
78
60
60
46
78
72
54
69
72
74
50
54
54, 55
66
66
60, 74
74
46
60
60
46
60
55
55
60
60, 61, 74
74
46
46
50, 61
50
55
61
55
46, 47
50
74
72
69
61, 62
75
75
47, 66, 67, 72
67
67
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Page(s)
Taylor, G. W. 67
Thomas, C. W. 47
Tigue, J. E. 78
TRW Systems Group 72, 78
Turner, R. K. 67
Verrelli, L. D. 67
Yoelz, F. L. 67
Walker, K. E. 56
Weller, G. E. 56
Wendler, G. 50, 56
Weschler, C. J. 62
Whelpdale, D. M. 75
Willis, G. B. 56
Wilson, E. 75
Winchester, J. W. 47
84
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