NUREG-0738
EPA 600/4-80-049
Investigations of Reported
Plant and Animal Health Effects
in the Three Mile Island Area
U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
G. E. Gears, G. LaRoche, NRC
J. Cable, PDA
B. Jaroslow, ANL
D. Smith, EPA
*****
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U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission
Washington, D.C. 20555
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NUREG-0738
EPA 600/4-80-049
Investigations of Reported
Plant and Animal Health Effects
in the Three Mile Island Area
Manuscript Completed: October 1980
Date Published: October 1980
G. E. Gears, G. LaRoche
J. Cable, Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture
B. Jaroslow, Argonne National Laboratory
D. Smith, Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Nuclear Reactor Regulation
U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission
Washington, D.C. 20555
Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory - Las Vegas
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Las Vegas, NV 89114
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ABSTRACT
The results of investigations into reported problems with plants and animals
which may be related to the operation of and accident at the Three Mile Island
Nuclear Power Station are presented. The kinds of problems reported are listed,
and potential areas of concern (such as the release of radioactive gases and
drift from cooling tower plumes) are discussed. Specific case histories are
examined, and probable causes attributed. <<^hile in some instances not enough
data were available for a detailed evaluation to be made, none of the reported
problems could be linked to TMI and no general pattern of 1*T7ec\s could be seen.
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CONTENTS
Abstract [[[ i i i
Foreword [[[ vii
Executive Summary [[[ 1
1. 0 Introduction [[[ 3
2. 0 Probl ems Reported ................................................. 3
3.0 Areas of Potential Impact ......................................... 10
3.1 General Biological Effects of Radiation ...................... 11
3.1.1 Description of Radiation Dose Rates ................... 11
3.1.2 Kinds of Radiation .................................... 11
3.1.3 Kinds of Radiation Effects ............................ 12
3.2 Effects of the Release of Radioactive Gases from TMI ......... 14
3.2.1 Release of Radioactive Gases During Normal Operation.. 14
3.2.2 Release of Radioactive Gases During the Peroid of the
TMI Accident and Possible Consequences ............. 15
3.3 Effects of the Drift from the Cooling Tower Plumes
During Plant Operation ..................................... 16
3.3.1 Composition of Cooling Tower Water and Steam .......... 16
3.3.2 Observations of Similar Cooling Towers ................ 17
3.3.3 Effects of Cooling Tower Plume Drift on Soil .......... 18
4.0 Case Histories and Detailed Discussion of Reported Problem Areas.. 19
4.1 Reported Domestic Animal Health Problems ..................... 19
4.1.1 iRepi^du^tjpy£P^b2enis ................................. 19
4.1.2 Sone^'anTluiscl^TroCTems .............................. 22
4.1.3 Miscellaneous Domestic Animal Health Problems ......... 24
4.2 Additional Reported Terrestrial Problems in TMI Area ......... 26
4.2.1 Reported Effects on Wildlife .......................... 26
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CONTENTS (Continued)
Page
5.0 Conclusions 29
5.1 Effects of Radiological Releases 29
5.2 Effects of the Drift from Cooling Tower Plumes 30
5.3 Postulated Causes of Reported Sicknesses and Deaths 30
5.4 Summary of the TMI Situation 31
References 32
FIGURE
2.1 Geographic Distribution of Farms Reporting Animal Health Problems
in the Three Mile Island Area 6
TABLES
2.1 Location and Number of Farms Reporting Domestic Animal Problems
Within a 20-mile Radius of TMI 4
2.2 Number of Farms Reporting Unusual Problems with Domestic
Animals, By Year 5
2.3 Health Problems of Large Domestic Animals Claimed To Be Related
to TMI--Location, Number, Time, and Type 7
2.4 Health Problems of Small Domestic Animals Claimed To Be Related
to TMI--Location, Number, Time, and Type 8
2.5 Classifications of Animal Health Problems Claimed To Be Related
to TMI 9
2.6 Additional Terrestrial Problems Reported in the TMI Area 10
3.1 Calculated Releases of Radioactive Materials in Gaseous Effluents
from TMI-2 During Normal Operation 14
3.2 Concentrations of Chemicals in Cooling Towers 17
3.3 Onsite Wind Direction and Frequency Measured at the 100-Ft
Level, 1972-1975 19
VI
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FOREWORD
Overall responsibility for this report was assigned to Gerald Gears and Dr.
Germain LaRoche of the staff of the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC). In
conducting the investigations for this report, they began by coordinating their
activities with those of the Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture (PDA).
Mr. Robert Furrer and Dr. John Cable of the PDA participated in the interview
of owners of animals which reportedly had or were having health problems related
to TMI. In those few cases where individuals were not interviewed, an attempt
was made to inform those individuals of the interest in these problems and to
suggest that they contact the authors to arrange an interview. Because only
those individuals who reported problems were contacted, this report should in
no way be thought of as an epidemiological study showing the incidence and distri
bution of animal health problems in the TMI area..
After the NRC staff completed the initial interviews and gathering of data,
the data were presented to Dr. Bernard Jaroslow, a radiobiologist with Argonne
National Laboratory, for analysis and findings concerning possible radiological
and pathological causes of these problems. Dr. Jaroslow brought in two persons
to aid in his analyses: Dr. Donald Smith, a veterinarian with the U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency, Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory, Las Vegas,
and Dr. John Cable (mentioned above), a veterinarian with the PDA, both of whom
have expertise in radiation biology. In addition to reviewing the data supplied
to it by the NRC, this team independently interviewed farmers in the TMI region
and gave the NRC a report of its findings on the possible relationships between
local animal health and the operation of TMI. The team's findings have been
incorporated in this report. The conclusions concerning the effects of releases
of radioactive materials in gaseous effluents from TMI, as well as postulated
causes of livestock problems, are based on these findings.
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
In the months following the March 1979 accident at the Three Mile Island Nuclear
Power Station many questions have been asked and many concerns voiced: did
the accident—or even the normal operation of the plant—have any effect on
animal and plant life in the vicinity of the plant?
These questions and concerns certainly are understandable. In attempting to
provide full and adequate answers, the authors of this paper made every effort
to look into reports of unusual problems experienced with animals and plants
in the area surrounding TMI. Unfortunately, there were cases that could not
be investigated in depth because not enough data were available. In some
instances, for example, the bodies of animals which had been deformed or which
died under unusual circumstances had been destroyed before any studies could
be performed. As a result, the findings are not as detailed as the staff would
prefer. Nonetheless, concerned citizens may be assured that in keeping with
its mission to safeguard the public health and safety, the staff of the Nuclear
Regulatory Commission (NRC) will continue to investigate reports of unusual
problems experienced with plants and animals, and any pertinent findings will
be made available.
In the report that follows, the authors have addressed the questions raised by
the public. Some of these questions, and the authors' responses, are:
1. Did any sickness and disease seen in livestock, pets, and wild animals
result from radiation that they received either during operation of the
reactors or from the accident at Unit 2?
No reasonable connection could be made between the operation of TMI and the
health problems of livestock and pets that were brought to the attention of
the staff of the Nuclear Regulatory Commission. The same holds true for the
aftermath of the accident. The level of radiation exposure as calculated for
the worst case (at Middletown, 100 mrem) was less than l/1000th of that which
might have caused clinically detectable effects in the animal population that
was exposed to radiation. Furthermore, there was no apparent relationship
between the reported problems and the predominant wind patterns during the
accident.
2. If the reported levels of radiation were wrong, couldn't the animals
actually have received enough radiation to make them sick?
If the level of radiation exposure after the accident was much greater than
reported, say by a thousandfold, complaints about animal health problems would
have been different from those made. There would have been many anemic animals,
spread throughout the TMI area, and, more frequently, in the path of the radio-
active plume (which tended to be north-northwest, east-northeast, and south-
southeast of the plant site); this was not the case.
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3. Did the salt drift from the cooling towers make the minerals in the soil
unavailable to the livestock, thereby producing a mineral deficiency?
The deposition of neutral salts from the drift—primarily sulfates, carbonates,
and chlorides—adds only a small increment of salt to what is naturally present
in the soil. It would not have acidified the soil or caused the "binding" of
selenium to the soil (which could have intensified the problem of dietary
insufficiency of selenium); moreover, it would not measurably affect the
chemistry of selenium in the soil.
4. If radiation and salt drift were not the cause of the reported sicknesses,
what was the cause?
The most likely causes of the reported animal husbandry problems are nutritional
deficiencies and infectious diseases, as indicated by disease symptoms as well
as by the improved health of livestock that were given feed supplements.
5. Although the radiation dose was small, couldn't it have been enough to cause
cancer or mutations?
Some experts believe that any dose of ionizing radiation can potentially cause
cancer or mutations, although the possibility of it occurring might be "one in
a million." None of the animals brought to the attention of the Pennsylvania
Department of Agriculture in connection with TMI were diagnosed as having cancer.
The deformed animals that owners called mutants were most likely the victims
of infectious disease suffered in the womb.
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INVESTIGATIONS OF REPORTED
PLANT AND ANIMAL HEALTH EFFECTS
IN THE THREE MILE ISLAND AREA
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The Three Mile Island Nuclear Power Plant (known as TMI) is situated in a part
of central Pennsylvania that contains productive farmland, as well as several
small and medium-si zed cities. The TMI region has rich, fertile valleys and
rolling hills; agriculture contributes in a major way to the area's economic
well-being. As an indication of the importance of farming in this area, it
might be noted that in 1974 Lancaster County ranked 18th among all U.S. counties
in value of agricultural products sold (Ref. 1). Dairy- and beef-cattle
operations are the most common farming enterprises in the area. Dairy-herd
size averages about 75 cows per operation, while beef herds are generally
smaller, with herds averaging 10 to 20 animals per farm. In the four-county
(York, Lebanon, Dauphin, and Lancaster) area surrounding TMI, the number of
large domestic farm animals exceeds three-quarters of a million.
After the TMI accident on March 28, 1979, the Pennsylvania Department of
Agriculture (PDA) conducted a number of surveys to determine whether there
were any unusual agricultural problems which could be related to TMI. The PDA
Bureau of Animal Industry inspected farms in the vicinity of TMI, most of them
within 5 miles of the site. Bureau officials found that of 96 farms containing
between 9,000 to 10,000 head of livestock (horses, cattle, swine, sheep, and
goats), only 11 farms reported problems (Ref. 2). An individual residing in
the area told of some additional cases, and the Bureau of Animal Industry
received a number of complaints from a variety of other sources. The PDA has
investigated these problems and, to date, has found no evidence to connect
them with TMI. A veterinarian with a long-established practice in the
agricultural areas immediately west of TMI testified before the Pennsylvania
Public Utilities Commission (PAPUC) (Ref. 3). His testimony outlined abnormal
increases in reproductive, bone, and muscle problems among farm animals.
Accounts of these animal health problems, as well as of other terrestrial
(land-related) problems, have appeared in newspapers (including The Paxton
Herald, February 27, 1980; The New York Times. March 27, 1980; and The
Baltimore News-American, July 20, 1980). During NRC public meetings at
Middletown and Baltimore regarding cleanup of TMI, comments were made about
unusual animal health problems in the TMI area. The following report is in
response to public concern in this regard, not only in connection with the
accident at TMI, but also with the normal operation of the plant. (A similar
report on aquatic impacts from the TMI accident was published in November 1979
(Ref. 4).)
2.0 PROBLEMS REPORTED
Sources of information for this document include reports issued by the Common-
wealth of Pennsylvania, interviews with the professional staff from the
Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture, discussions with experts from state
and private universities, testimony given before the Pennsylvania Public
Utility Commission concerning animal health effects, and field interviews with
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people who have expressed their concern about possible links between TMI and
animal health problems. In addition, more than 100 practicing veterinarians
were contacted by letter, asking them for any information concerning animal
health problems possibly related to TMI.
A major difficulty encountered in this study was a determination of what con-
stituted unusual animal health problems. There is a lack of background
information on the incidence of a large number of animal diseases and other
animal health problems. The incidence of dangerous transmissible diseases
(such as tuberculosis, rabies, and hog cholera) that can devastate the live-
stock industry or cause serious human health problems is well known; large
sums of money are spent annually to identify and eradicate these diseases.
However, other animal diseases and health problems have not generated
sufficient concern within the livestock industry to warrant the cost of an
indepth animal morbidity and mortality data collection and evaluation program.
Information on the incidence of these diseases and health problems is usually
available only from the memories of local veterinarians and farmers. Except
for those animal diseases that have been designated dangerous transmissible
diseases, no long-term documented information is available on animal health
problems. Therefore, the use of the terms "unusual" or "abnormal" to describe
animal health problems in this report cannot be supported by long-term
documented data, but rather reflects the opinions of those interviewed.
All the events described in this report occurred within 20 miles of TMI; most
occurred within 5 miles (Figure 2.1). The farms reporting these problems were
located in 11 communities in 4 counties, but they were not evenly distributed
in the area covered in this report (Table 2.1). Most occurred in York County,
generally west of TMI. The number of farms reporting animal health problems,
by year, is given in Table 2.2
Table 2.1 Location and number of farms reporting domestic animal
problems within a 20-mile radius of TMI
County
York
Lancaster
Dauphin
Lebanon
Community
Goldsboro (Etters)
York Haven
Manchester
Mount Wolf
Lewisberry
Newberry
Marietta
Bainbridge (Conoy)
Elizabethtown
Middletown
Annville
Number of farms
domestic animal
11
2
2
1
1
1
2
2
1
6
1
reporting
problems
Total 30
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Table 2.2 Number of farms reporting unusual problems with domestic animals,
by year
Year
Reports
1977
1978
1979 pre-accident
1979 post-accident
1980
5
17
14
22
1
As a result of the staff investigation, a listing of domestic animal health
problems claimed to be related to TMI was compiled. This listing for large
domestic animals is shown in Table 2.3 and for small domestic animals in Table
2.4. After an initial review of the reported events, the various domestic
animal problems were classified in three broad categories, as outlined in
Table 2.5. In addition, other terrestrial problems were reported in the TMI
area. These are shown in Table 2.6. A discussion of all of these events is
provided in Section 4.
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ANNVILLE 1
MIDDLETOWN 6
,5 "'
THREE MILE ISLAND
NUCLEAR GENERATING STATION
\
GOLDSBORO 11
EL/ZABETHTOWN 1
LEWISBERRY 1
BAINBRIDGb 2
^ NEWBERRY 1 ^
YORK HAVEN 2
MOUNT WOLF 1
MANCHESTER 2
MARIETTA 2
Figure 2.1 Geographic distribution of farms reporting animal health problems within 20 miles of Three Mile Island.
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Table 2.3 Health problems of large domestic animals claimed to be related to TMI--location, number, time, and type
Farms"
Reporting
Town Problems
Etters 10
(Goldsboro)
Mount Wolf 1
York 2
Haven
Newberry 1
Manchester 2
Middle- 5
town
Marietta 2
Bain- 2
bridge
Elizabeth- 1
town
*This number represents
Farms Reporting Problems
Each Year**
79 pre- 79 post- Milk
77 78 accident accident Cattle
3 2 calves died,
4 aborted.
Stillbirth,
cancer
reported
9 1 calf died.
2 calves died.
1 cow,
1 calf died.
4 Reproduction
problems,
weakened 1 i ve-
stock, nervous
di sorders
reported.
4 1 cow could
not breed.
1 cow aborted.
3 cysts,
2 stillbirths,
1 premature
birth, respira-
tory problems
reported.
Ill Breeding pro-
blems reported.
2
1
2
1
1
1 4 heifers
unable to
conceive.
1
4 Slight
increase in
mastitis.
2 1 cow died.
4 aborted.
1 had tumor in
uterus
2 cows, 3
calves died.
2 7 cows ,
12 calves died.
1
Beef
Cattle
Steer broke
hip.
Calf died.
2 steers died.
1 steer down,
1 steer1 ok.
2 steers blind;
1 of these
cracked pelvis
and died; the
other was sent
to New Bolton.
2 steers blind,
had soft bones.
trol of hindquar-
ters.
Steers lost con-
trol of hind-
quarters.
1 broke hips ,
1 lost control
of hindquarters.
1 steer
hindquarters.1
6 calves died,
1 dwarf born.
Horses Sheep
2 foals died,
2 ok.
7 rebred:
1 delivered,
6 did not.
3 aborted.
1 foal
stil Iborn.
Breeding
problem
reported.
1 foal stillborn.
1 remained in heat
longer than usual.
1 had abnormal
mi 1 k gl and.
Colt had leg bowed.
Goats
1 aborted.
1 aborted.
Same goat
del ivered
twins 6
months later.
Hair fell
off, raw sores
developed. 1
kid stillborn.
1 aborted
twins.
2 died when
pregnant.
Sore feet
reported.
Piqs
Slow to
develop.
Breeding pro-
bl em reported.
11 died.
2 ewes , 4 new-
born lambs died.
3 ewes died.
2 steers died.
2 steers died.
Lamb born
with 1 eye.
4 had stiff
joints.
the total number of different farms reporting reporting problems during this period; some farms
No kids
produced.
14 kids born.
Some nannies
stopped giv-
ing milk 6
months after
giving birth.
Kids healthy,
except 1 had
breathi ng
difficulty.
2 nannies
sick.
reported problems
Breeding
problems
reported.
1 died.
Stillbirths,
breeding
problems
reported.
in more
than 1 year; some of these farms also are among those reporting problems with small animals (Table 2.4).
**The staff has no reports of TMI-related problems before 1977; the figures for 1979 post-accident include 1 report from early 1980.
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Table 2.4 Health problems of small domestic animals claimed to be related to TMI—location, number, time, and type
Farms Reporting Problems
Farms* Each Year**
Reporting 79 pre- 79 post-
Town Problems 77 78 accident accident
Etters 6 4
(Goldsboro)
2
4
Lewi s- 1 1
berry
Middle- 3 1
town
2
2
Annville 1 1
Rabbits Cats
Died. 10 kittens died.
1 cat died.
4 sick and dying.
1 died, 2 ok.
1 died. Breeding problems
reported.
26 died. 1 kitten died,
2 ok.
5 kittens died.
2 kittens had
muscle problem.
3 kittens died.
2 litters died.
3 bred with no
results.
1 litter died.
Mutation,
casper.
Litter died.
2 aborted. 4 litters
False aborted.
pregnancies 1 litter
reported. stil Iborn.
1 litter died.
2 litters died,
1 cat miscarried.
8 cats,
litter of
kittens died.
3 developed
leukemia (viral
form).
Chicken,
Dogs Geese, and Ducks Guinea Pigs
Low reproduction
rate, mutation in
ducks reported.
No reproduction
in ducks
reported.
Mutations reported. 19 died.
Ducks had digestive
problems.
No reproduction
in geese
reported.
Goose eggs did not
hatch; geese
stopped setting.
1 had cancerous 6 geese died.
lymph node.
1 born without eye
socket.
Poodles bled
excessively when
in heat.
9 puppies died.
*This number represents the total number of different farms reporting problems during this period; some farms reported problems in more than 1 year;
some of these farms also are among those reporting problems with large animals (Table 2.3).
*The staff has no reports of TMI-related problems before 1977; the figures for 1979 post-accident include 1 report from early 1980.
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Table 2.5 Classifications of animal health problems claimed to be related to TMI.
Problem
Reproductive problems
Prolonged heat cycle or no heat periods
Reproductive rate very low
Sterility
Abortions
Stillbirths
Lack of dilation--Caesarean needed
Mutations
Premature birth
Milk glands did not function properly
(stopped giving milk)
Bone and muscle problems
Multiple fractures (broken bones)
10 Muscle disorders
Enlarged joints — arthritis
Soft bones (bow legs)
Miscellaneous
Blindness
Hair fell out — raw sores
Mastitis
Cancer — tumor
Death from unknown causes
Milk
Cattle
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Beef
Cattle
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Horses
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Sheep
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Goats
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Pigs
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Native &
Domestic Guinea
Birds Ducks Rabbits Cats Dogs Pigs
XX X
X X X X
XX X
X X
X
XX X
X
XX X
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Table 2.6 Additional terrestrial problems reported in the TMI area
Reported effects on wildlife
Fewer starlings and robins were seen during the spring and summer of 1979.
Small game animals (e.g., squirrels, rabbits, and pheasants) were fewer
in number.
No "hop toads" were seen in the last 2 years.
Reported effects on vegetation
Individual trees of many species had dead branches and/or leaves.
Two pears trees produced less fruit than they did in previous years,
and one of these trees is dying.
Plants beneath a cemetery wire fence are dead.
Plants around a watering trough were dead.
Report of a "glowing fish"
Reports of a "white powder"
3.0 AREAS OF POTENTIAL IMPACT
Three potential impacts on livestock derive froni TMI: one is from radioactive
gaseous releases from the plant during normal operation (see Section 3.2.1),
the second is from radioactive gases released during and after the accident at
TMI-2 from March 28, 1979 to April 7, 1979 (see Section 3.2.2), and the third
is from fallout of chemical salts in the drift from cooling tower plumes during
operation (see Section 3.3). Each of these hazards will be discussed in detail
in this section.
It should be noted that many of the reported concerns about effects on animals
or vegetation were related to events that occurred before the accident at TMI.
Several of the farmers who were interviewed specifically blamed the plume from
the cooling towers as contributing to their problems.
To prepare the reader for the discussion of the three potential areas of impacts
on livestock, a short explanation of the biological effects of radiation is
provided below.
10
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3.1 General Biological Effects of Radiation
3.1.1 Description of Radiation Dose Rates
In the discussion of radiation exposure from the TMI reactor, it might help
the reader to recall what doses of radiation are received each year from natural
sources. (These doses are called "background radiation.") In the Harrisburg,
Pennsylvania area, a short distance from TMI, the natural or background radiation
is about 120 millirems per year (mrem/yr); it varies throughout the United States
from 70 to 310 mrem/yr (Ref. 5).
To evaluate the potential hazards posed by the radioactivity released during
operation and during the 10 days following the accident, it is necessary to
consider the amount of radiation that might be received by an animal (dose)
during these periods and then to estimate the degree of injury, if any, that
might be expected from that dose. The injury that an animal might receive from
a given dose is estimated on the basis of carefully controlled laboratory experi-
ments, by scientists throughout the world, in which animals were given predeter-
mined doses of radiation and their injuries then studied.
Dose is a measure of the amount of energy deposited in tissue as radiation
passes through it. A radiation dose of 1 rad is equivalent to the deposition
of 100 ergs of energy per gram of tissue. A mi Hirad (mrad) is 1/lOOOth of a
rad. Certain types of radiation have either a greater or lesser biological
effect for the same dose. For example, the destructive effect to biological
tissue from high energy protons can be about 10 times greater than from gamma
or beta radiation for the same dose. The concept of "dose equivalent," measured
in rems, was created so that doses from different types of radiation could be
measured in a universal unit.
The "dose equivalent" is calculated by multiplying the dose times a "quality
factor" which is a measure of the relative biological destructiveness of the
radiation. The quality factor for gamma and beta radiation is about 1, and
for high energy protons is about 10. For example, the cumulative dose equiva-
lent from a dose of 1 rad of gamma radiation and 1 rad of high energy proton
radiation would be 11 rem. Since practically all the radiation dose from TMI
was due to gamma and beta radiation, both of which have a quality factor of 1,
the concepts of dose and dose equivalent are used interchangeably; hence,
1 rad = 1 rem.
3.1.2 Kinds of Radiation
In order to understand the effects of ionizing radiation, it is necessary first
to know some of the properties of the different kinds of radiation. For instance,
X-rays and gamma rays have much greater penetrating powers than beta or alpha
particles. At the high energy level of gamma rays, 70 percent of the radiation
passes through a person's body (a 20-centimeter thickness of biological tissue),
while 30 percent of the energy will be absorbed and cause injury to the tissue.
Beta radiation is almost completely absorbed within a few millimeters to a
centimeter of tissue thickness, and alpha radiation can be almost completely
absorbed by a thickness of tissue equal to a few sheets of paper. Special
radiation-measurement devices, called dosimeters, are used to estimate the dose
of each type of radiation.
11
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3.1.3 Kinds of Radiation Effects
Ionizing radiation can damage living cells. While much of the injury can be
repaired by the cells themselves, when the radiation dose is large, many cells
may be killed. If enough cells in an important tissue or organ are killed,
serious damage can result. For example, if enough bone marrow cells are damaged,
the animal can become anemic and die. If the dose is less, fewer cells are
killed, and the animal may be able to repopulate the blood with red and white
cells after a period of anemia. Doses resulting from TMI were not high enough
to cause these levels of injury.
At very low doses, few bone marrow cells die, but some may be changed in ways
which are not fully understood after they repair the initial radiation damage.
Many years later, these cells may change into leukemia cells, and the animal
may develop a cancer called leukemia. A similar sequence of events takes place
in other tissues and organs, but in vertebrates, bone marrow stem cells are
among those most sensitive to external radiation. Because these changes do
not involve reproductive cells, this type of injury is not transmitted genetically
to further generations.
When the cells affected are reproductive cells (eggs or sperm or their predeces-
sor stem cells), events occur which are somewhat similar to those experienced
by bone marrow cells. If the reproductive cells are killed or severely injured
with a large dose of radiation, the animal may become sterile or at least less
fertile. If the genetic material in a reproductive cell is damaged, the cell
will contain an altered genetic structure (mutation), which may or may not result
in an effect in a future generation.
If the altered reproductive cell unites with an unaltered counterpart repro-
ductive cell, the offspring will carry the mutation. The fact that the offspring
carries a mutation does not necessarily mean that the animal will exhibit a
characteristic different from its parents. That is, the characteristic may
not be expressed in any observable fashion. Most mutations which occur are
not expressed (they are so-called "recessive").
Because animal species have developed over long periods, most species popula-
tions have a genetic system which can tolerate some mutation; therefore, most
mutations which occur—while they may be harmful to the individual animal or
to its offspring—may not be harmful to the species population. Hence, in
certain cases, a mutation may be beneficial, or at least neutral, and ultimately
become fixed in the population. For example, a mutation which results in a
change in eye color and improved vision would be beneficial. If vision were
impaired, the chance for survival would be decreased. If the change in eye
color did not improve or impair vision, it would be a matter of chance whether
or not the change would become fixed in the population.
Sickness or injury that is observed within a few months after exposure to radia-
tion is classified as acute radiation syndrome. There is generally a large
variation in sensitivity to radiation injury within a population of a single
species because of age variation, as well as health and environmental variations.
This makes it difficult to assign an exact dose range that will cause a specific
radiation syndrome. In humans, 50 rems (50,000 mrem) or less of whole body
12
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radiation generally produces no obvious signs of injury. At 100 rems (100,000
mrem), a small percentage of people will show mild blood changes; at 200 rems
(200,000 mrem), most people will show signs of blood changes, and the most
sensitive will die. At 600 rems (600,000 mrem) or more, almost all exposed
persons will die, unless they have intensive medical assistance.
The observable characteristics of acute radiation syndrome are about the same
for most mammals, but the dose required to produce each set of symptoms varies.
While doses resulting from the TMI accident were very small in comparison to
the levels needed for these characteristics to appear, it is interesting to
compare the relative senstivity of various species. The relative radiation
sensitivity of common animals and birds can be broken down into four major
groups (Ref. 6):
(1) most sensitive: goats, swine, dogs, cats, man, and burros
(2) less sensitive: guinea pigs, cows, and horses
(3) still less sensitive: rabbits, rats, and mice
(4) least sensitive: birds
For low radiation doses, some cells exposed to radiation may suffer subtle
disabilities that, in a long-lived animal, may not be expressed for many years.
For reasons not clearly understood, some intracel lular event triggers a change
in these cells, and the damage becomes apparent as, for example, a cancer.
Such a change is classified as a "latent effect."
Radiation injury to embryos and fetuses may appear as birth defects, but, as
mentioned above, unless the reproductive cells are affected, these defects are
not passed on to successive generations. The type of defect that is observed
depends upon the stage of development during irradiation. Generally the earlier
the developmental stage, the more sensitive the developing organism is to radia-
tion. For example, effects such as spontaneous abortions, stillbirths, or
developmental abnormalities can occur in some animals exposed to doses of
radiation in the womb on the order of 5 rems (5000 mrem) or more (Refs. 7, 7a).
The symptoms and diseases that are associated with radiation effects can also
be caused by a variety of chemicals, trauma, and infectious organisms. However,
no single agent causes the same spectrum of abnormalities as ionizing radiation.
In regard to injury to vegetation, lethal radiation doses for plants are usually
hundreds of times larger than those for mammals. An experiment at the Brookhaven
National Laboratory on Long Island (Ref. 8) has shown that oak leaves become
misshapen only after exposure to 7 rems (7000 mrem) per day over several weeks
during the time the leaves are developing. It took some 6 months exposure at
60 rems (60,000 mrem) per day to kill the oak trees in the Long Island experiment.
Those interested in a short, nontechnical explanation of the biological effects
of radiation are referred to an article by M. H. Barnett, "The Biological Effects
of Ionizing Radiation: An Overview." It may be obtained from the U.S. Department
of Health and Human Services, Food and Drug Administration, Bureau of Radiological
Health, Rockville, MD 20857.
13
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3.2 Effects of the Release of Radioactive Gases from TMI
3.2.1 Release of Radioactive Gases During Normal Operation
All nuclear power plants produce low levels of radioactive gases during normal
operation which must be released. The calculated releases of radioactive
materials in gaseous effluents from TMI Unit 2 during normal operation are shown
in Table 3.1. The calculated dose to a "maximum exposed individual" at the
site boundary would not exceed 6.0 mrem/yr from radioiodine and particulates
(including radioactive carbon 14C and tritium 3H) (Ref. 9, Table 5.10). A
"maximum exposed individual" is defined as one who is in residence at the site
boundary 24 hours a day without shelter or clothing.
Table 3.1 Calculated releases of radioactive materials in
gaseous effluents from TMI-2 during normal operation
Material Release
(in Curies/yr/unit)
Krypton 397
Xenon 6322
Tritium 560
Argon 25
Carbon 8
Iodine 0.02
Cobalt, Iron, Manganese,
Cesium, and Strom'urn 0.002
Source:U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, "Final Environmental Statement,
Operation of the Three Mile Island Nuclear Station, Unit 2," NUREG-0112,
1976.
Given the emissions shown above, an animal living at the site boundary without
shelter would have received, at maximum, a dose calculated to be less than 20
mrem/yr during operation of both TMI-1 and TMI-2 (Ref. 9. p. 5-16).
14
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These figures are for the site boundary. The dose would be greatly decreased
with distance and with intermittent exposure. For example, animals living at
Goldsboro would have received less than 0.8 mrem/yr when both reactors were in
operation (Ref. 10). The reported cases of animal sickness were in areas 1.5
to 20 miles from the site; consequently, their exposures would have been far
less than the maximum of 20 mrem/yr indicated above. Many of the cases were
from farms in the vicinity of Goldsboro; these animals would have received less
than 0.8 mrem/yr, a very small fraction of natural background radiation. In
fact, the year-to-year variation in natural background radiation can be 10 or
more mrem/yr. In view of these facts, the 0.8 mrem resulting from the operation
of TMI could not have caused the sicknesses that are described in Section 7
and Tables 2.4, 2.5, and 2.6.
The monitoring records of radioactive releases during normal operation, sent
by the Metropolitan Edison Co. (operator of TMI) to the NRC Office of Inspection
and Enforcement, Region I, show two instances when radioactive emissions exceeded
the control station values.* These emissions were about l/1000th of the maximum
permissible concentration limit stated in Title 10 of the Code of Federal Regula-
tions, Part 20, for members of the public, and none of the TMI-1 Technical Specifi
cation limits were exceeded (according to letters from W. M. Creitz, President
of Met-Ed, to J. P. O'Reilly, NRC Office of Inspection and Enforcement, Region
I, October 24, 1975 and January 2, 1976). In all respects, emissions were in
accord with design objectives. The radiation release data, therefore, suggest
that the operational emissions were at levels well below that which could have
caused the reported animal sickness.
3.2.2 Release of Radioactive Gases During the Period of the TMI Accident and
Possible Consequences
During the period of the accident at TMI (March 28 to April 7, 1979), the princi-
pal radioactive materials released were Xenon-133 and Xenon-135, plus traces
of Iodine-131. Some short-lived Krypton isotopes may have been released in
small amounts (Ref. 5).
The exposure of animals to radiation from the accident at TMI-2 was: 10-25
mrem in the Etters area, 1-5 mrem at Lewisberry, about 100 mrem at Middletown,
10-25 mrem at York Haven, 1-5 mrem at Mount Wolf and Bainbridge, 0.1-1.0 mrem
at Marietta, and less than 0.1 mrem at Mt. Joy and in Lebanon County (Ref. 5).
The exposure rates at distances beyond 10 miles from the plant were extrapolated
from a curve drawn through the plotted exposure measurements as a function of
distance within 10 miles of the plant, because exposure rates beyond 10 miles
were too low to measure.
As can be seen from the discussion in Section 3.1.3, none of the health problems.
in animals and wildlife that were reported could have been caused by exposure
to radiation released from the TMI accident at the levels reported and
calculated.
*A control station is one which is located so that it is not affected by plant
releases.
15
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If the measures of radiation exposure after the accident were grossly under-
estimated (say by more than a thousandfold), reports of animal health problems
would have come from many who had no pre-accident complaints, and the symptoms
would have been different. The most sensitive response to a large,^acute dose
of radiation is observed in the bone marrow. Therefore, if radiation had been
the cause of the reported problems (in animal reproduction, muscular weakness,
and brittle bones), veterinarians would have found many anemic animals. These
animals would have been found throughout the TMI area, and more frequently in
the path of the radioactive plume, which tended to be either north-northwest,
east-northeast, or south-southeast. Such was not the case. Instead, the com-
plaints after the accident at TMI centered, primarily, around husbandry problems
and problems with reproduction; the majority of reported cases came from farms
west and west-southwest of TMI. These problems are similar to those voiced
by some of the same individuals before the accident and are fewer in number.
3.3 Effects of the Drift from the Cooling Tower Plumes During Plant Operation
Farmers in the Etters-Newberrytown-Reesers Summit triangle have expressed concern
that mineral deficiencies observed in farm animals after the startup of TMI were
caused by the operation of the cooling towers at TMI. These farmers reported
that the emissions of chemicals (especially chlorides) from the TMI cooling
towers have accumulated in the soils and are chemically binding the selenium
to the soil. Binding of selenium to the soil could restrict plant and crop
intake of this limited element and, thus, result in selenium deficiencies in
animals which eat these crops.
3.3.1 Composition of Cooling Tower Water and Steam
Cooling towers provide one means of discharging waste heat from nuclear and
fossil-fuel power plants. During the combined operation of TMI Units 1 and 2,
four natural draft cooling towers were in operation. The steam vapor emitted
from the towers contained a variety of chemical elements and compounds, termed
drift. Since the Susquehanna River was the source of water used in the cooling
towers, the basic chemistry of the water in the cooling towers reflected the
Susquehanna River water chemistry. However, because the river water in the
towers was recirculated and some was lost by evaporation from the top of the
towers, these chemicals became concentrated about 6-fold. In addition, chlorine
was added to the cooling tower water to prevent buildup of biological slimes
in the cooling circuits, and sulfuric acid was added for pH control.
Therefore, the three sources of chemicals in the cooling tower water were:
(1) dissolved chemicals from river water, concentrated about 6-fold
(2) sulfuric acid (soluble sulfates)
(3) chlorine reaction products
The concentrations of chemicals in the cooling towers are shown in Table 3.2.
16
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Table 3.2 Concentrations of chemicals in TMI cooling towers
Material
Amount
(1) concentrated dissolved solids from river
water
(2) added sulfates as sulfuric acid
1110 parts per million
(ppm)*- Contained in this
value are 440 ppm sulfates,
70 ppm chlorides, and 30 ppm
carbonates (Refs. 9, 10).
28 ppm (Ref. 9).
(3) added chlorides to control fouling 1 ppm (Ref. 9).
^Average river water dissolved solids concentration is 195 parts per million (ppm).
Concentration factor for cooling towers used was 5.6 (195 x 5.6 = 1109 ppm).
3.3.2 Observations of Similar Cooling Towers
The average chemical salt concentration in the TMI cooling towers is calculated
to be 1140 ppm. For purposes of comparison, towers using brackish or salt (sea)
water have concentrations ranging from 12,000 to 35,000 ppm. The NRC routinely
monitors nuclear plants using fresh water cooling towers (like TMI) to deter-
mine if offsite vegetative damage results from the deposition of these chemicals
from fallout from cooling tower drift. (These programs were initiated in 1974
for TMI.) A review of the cooling tower monitoring reports for TMI (including
aerial infrared and natural color photographs) indicates that there has been
no effect on vegetation from the chemical drift deposited by these towers (see
Section 4.2.2). This finding coincides with monitoring data gained at a wide
variety of other nuclear facilities and from the literature for fossil-fuel
plants throughout the world which employ natural draft cooling towers (Ref. 11).
In fact, in all NRC monitoring programs which look at different types of cooling
towers under a wide variety of conditions, damage has been detected at only
the Palisades Nuclear Plant on the shore of Lake Michigan. The towers at
that plant are different from those at TMI in that they are low in profile (65
feet high versus 370 feet for TMI) and are surrounded by sand dunes on which
there are trees taller than the towers themselves. These trees are so situated
(within several hundred feet of the towers) that the cooling tower plume impacts
them directly. Trees within 300 feet of the Palisades towers exhibit damage
from ice in the winter and from chemical drift in the summer. This damage can
be clearly observed in the aerial infrared photographs (Ref. 12). Analyses of
soil collected within 200 feet of the Palisades towers show slight increases
in sulfate levels (Ref. 13). Damage to the tree foliage has been attributed
to high levels of sulfates from the chemical drift. There have been no biolo-
gical or soil effects demonstrated beyond 500 feet of these towers (Ref. 13).
17
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3.3.3 Effects of Cooling Tower Plume Drift on Soil
As noted earlier, some residents of the Etters-Newberrytown-Ressers Summit area
suspect that chemicals from the towers are restricting selenium uptake by crops
and forage plants, thereby causing nutritional deficiencies in the animals which
eat them (Ref. 14).
Two specific cooling tower chemicals have been questioned, chlorides and sulfates
NRC calculations for TMI indicate relatively low levels of chlorides as well
as of carbonates in the cooling tower water, in comparison to sulfates (71 ppm
chlorides and 468 ppm sulfates). Moreover, neither chlorides nor carbonates
contribute importantly to selenium chemistry in soils (Ref. 14). Therefore,
the discussion that follows will concentrate primarily on possible sulfate-
selenium interactions.
Examining the data for Palisades and TMI, it appears that the cooling tower
water of both power plants has similar sulfate concentrations (Palisades 435
ppm and TMI 468 ppm). Based also upon the Palisades' soil data mentioned above,
any suspected increases in soil-sulfate levels at TMI would be found within
3000 to 5000 feet of the towers. (The distance of 3000 feet is assumed to take
into account the increased height of and, therefore, the increased dispersion
of chemical drift from the TMI towers.) Model calculations and field measure-
ments also indicate that the largest proportion of drift from natural draft
towers falls out within 1 mile of the tower (Ref. 12). Areas bounded within
the 1-mile radius of the TMI towers include Shelley Island in the west and a
small shore segment on the east which is comprised of farms interspersed with
small housing developments. A review of monitoring data and natural color and
infrared aerial photographs of these areas shows no signs of vegetation damage
similar to that at the Palisades site. Therefore, it appears that the areas
within the Etters-Newberrytown-Ressers Summit triangle are beyond the distance
where one would find levels of sulfates or chlorides deposited from the TMI
cooling towers sufficient to change soil chemical parameters and contribute to
selenium deficiency problems. Further, the increased soil-sulfate levels at
Palisades were found in predominantly downwind areas. The predominant wind
patterns at TMI do not coincide with the location of the Etters-Newberrytown-
Ressers Summit triangle. In fact, according to NRC meteorologists, wind
direction into this area is westerly, from the towers, less than 20 percent of
the time (Table 3.3). The low frequency of wind from the towers into this area,
combined with the lack of foliage damage near the towers, leads to the staff's
conclusion that significant soil accumulations of drift chemicals which would
result in the suspected selenium problem are not reasonable. This conclusion
is further reinforced by a study made at Chalk Point, Maryland, where brackish
water is used as a coolant. During 4 years of operation there was no increase
of salts in the soil or damage to vegetation (Ref. 11).
18
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Table 3.3 Onsite wind direction and frequency measured at the 100-ft level,
1972-1975*
Wind from Frequency (percent)
ENE 4.6
E 7.2
ESE 6.2
*For complete wind direction and frequency, see "Draft Programmatic Impact
Statement related to decontamination and disposal of radioactive wastes
resulting from March 28, 1979 accident at Three Mile Island Nuclear Station,
Unit 2," NUREG-0683, July 1980.
4.0 CASE HISTORIES AND DETAILED DISCUSSION OF PROBLEM AREAS
This section presents those individual case histories reviewed as part of the
preparation of this report. The events included were examined and diagnosed
as to etiology as much as possible from available information. They were then
analyzed to determine whether the health effects could reasonably be related
to the operation of the reactors or the accident at TMI, based on clinical or
experimental observations.
4.1 Reported Domestic Animal Health Problems
Descriptions of the reported domestic animal health incidents investigated are
based on owner interviews or depositions and available laboratory test results.
Most of the information was collected after the fact and is retrospective.
Each case was evaluated on the basis of available information.
A major difficulty encountered in evaluating these reported animal health prob-
lems is that very few of these animals were available for diagnostic purposes
or had been presented to either Pennsylvania's Summerdale Diagnostic Laboratory,
the Pennsylvania State University, or the Veterinary Medicine School of the
University of Pennsylvania. In the few cases that were presented to the labora-
tories, there was no evidence of radiation damage, nor was there any evidence
that radioactive materials were involved in any health problem.
Reported individual domestic animal case histories are grouped into the three
broad categories outlined in Table 2.5. When possible, evaluations have been
made for each reported case.
4.1.1 Reproductive Problems
Episodes of farm animals requiring caesarian delivery of young were reported
after the accident. According to reports, pigs would deliver part of their
litter and then stop. Veterinary assistance would then be required to complete
delivery. The frequency of the need for this type of veterinary assistance
was said to be higher than usual for the area (Ref. 3). Recurrence of this
specific problem was not evident in 1980; however, an increase of stillbirths
in pigs was reported during the spring of 1980.
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Similar problems in goats and sheep were also reported, but increases in the
number of stillbirths in these animals were not observed. Again, these problems
do not appear to be recurring events. Sterility and lower reproductive rates,
especially in ducks and goats, have been reported, but not confirmed.
Case 1
Description:
Evaluation:
Case 2
Description:
Evaluation:
Case 3
Description:
Evaluation:
Case 4
Description:
Evaluation:
Horse breeding was unsuccessful: poor conception rates, 3
spontaneous abortions, 1 stillbirth, 2 foals died.
The veterinarian for the farm attributed the problems to chronic
reproductive system infections and other problems commonly found
in mares of the same age, type, and condition.
A series of breeding problems with dairy cows and goats for the
years 1975-1979 and a poor hatch from duck eggs in 1978 were
reported.
An analysis of the breeding problems by the local breeders'
cooperative showed that the record was about average. The
cooperative offered to evaluate the herd further to determine
how the conception rate could be improved. At the time of the
interview for this report (May 29, 1980), contact between the
owner of the herd and the cooperative had not yet been established.
No data regarding the duck egg hatch were available.
Reproductive problems, muscular weaknesses, and nervous disorders
in milk cows (early 1979, before the accident at TMI) were
reported.
/fhese reports were similar to others in the area in which the
^symptoms were associated with mineral deficiencies. In this
case there have been no problems since the farmer added mineral
supplements to the feed.
Seven litters of kittens died or were aborted between 1978 and
May 1979.
Of 100 goose eggs incubated in 1978, there was only 1 hatchling
and it died.
Of an unknown number of eggs laid in January 1979, none hatched.
The specific cause of the loss of these kittens is unknown, but
common viral diseases of cats, such as feline panleukopenia (cat
distemper) and respiratory diseases, cause high mortality in
young cats.
Available information was insufficient for a diagnosis of why
the goose eggs did not hatch, but the problem could be infertile
eggs or heating or chilling of eggs during incubation.
20
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Case 5
Description:
Evaluation:
Case 6
Description:
Evaluation:
Case 7
Description:
Evaluation:
Case 8
Description:
Evaluation:
Case 9
Description:
Evaluation:
Goats had low reproductive success from 1976 to 1978.
Dr. Samuel Guss, former extension veterinarian for the Pennsyl-
vania State University, diagnosed the low reproductive rate as
a genetic trait that is associated with infertility. A^new bucfc.
without the specific genetic trait associated with infertTITtyT^
was obtained in 1979. Reproduction is now satisfactory. One
goat died from toxemia of pregnancy, according to records at
the New Bolton Center of the University of Pennsylvania School
of Veterinary Medicine.
Seven cows died and 12 calves were either aborted or stillborn
in the spring of 1979 (beginning April 3, 1979).
A thorough evaluation of the farm's animals, plants, and manage-
ment practices was made by the Pennsylvania Department of
Agriculture, the Pennsylvania State University, and the School
of Veterinary Medicine of the University of Pennsylvania. Feed,
water, soil, blood, milk, and animals were examined and analyzed.
Radioactive materials were not the cause of any of the farm's
problems. The major cattle herd problem, including the abortions
and stillbirths, was a virus disease (infectious bovine rhino-
tracheitis), according to a memo from J. M. Dick, D. V. M.,
Cattle Health Division, PDA, to J. A. Nikoloff, PDA, April 7,
1979 (Ref. 2).
Two litters of kittens died in 1978.
Insufficient information to diagnose the cause of loss of kittens,
but cat distemper and respiratory diseases commonly kill whole
litters of kittens.
Ducks laid 290 eggs without a hatch in 1978. Since April 1979,
1 goat has aborted, and 26 rabbits and 19 guinea pigs died.
No clinical data have been obtained. Reportedly, the duck eggs
had been kept in an incubator. Dr. Samuel Guss, former extension
veterinarian for the Pennsylvania State University, suggests
two reasons why eggs do not hatch: eggs are not fertilized or
electric power fluctuations to the incubator can cause a slight
heating or cooling of eggs.
Breeding problems with 6 rabbits experienced since 1976; some
litters died, and some congenital malformations were seen.
No clinical data were available. The breeding histories of the
6 rabbits showed some success and some failures. The data were
inadequate to show any unusual lack of success. Litter deaths
and malformations are not uncommon in rabbits.
21
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Case 10
Description:
Evaluation:
Case 11
Description:
Evaluation:
Case 12
Description:
Evaluation:
Case 13
Description:
Evaluation:
Case 14
Description:
Evaluation:
4.1.2 Bone
Breeding problems in a herd of 48 dairy cows appeared to be more
severe during the last 3 years.
Representatives of the PDA Bureau of Animal Industry visited
the farm. While there was not sufficient information available
for them to make an evaluation at that time, the farmer was
informed of the capability of Pennsylvania's Summerdale Diagnostic
Laboratory's to help him with his herd problems.
Breeding problems with sows were reported; pigs were stillborn
(Ref. 2).
Representatives of the PDA Bureau of Animal Industry visited
the farm. While there was not sufficient information available
for them to make an evaluation at that time, the farmer was
informed of the Summerdale Laboratory's capability to help him
with his pigs.
Breeding problems with swine were reported.
No evaluation was made; insufficient data were available.
1 cow died, 3 aborted (Ref. 2).
No evaluation was made; insufficient data were available.
A poodle was born without one eye socket (oral report by a
private citizen).
This was probably a developmental malformation, cause unknown.
and Muscle Problems
Bone and muscle disorders in animals, especially cattle, were also frequently
reported. A number of calves weighing between 200 and 500 pounds were cited
as having broken bones or muscle-control problems. These animals were often
described as "downers" because they were not able to stand up or walk without
staggering. They were said to exhibit poor weight gains and poor development.
Reportedly, many of these animals died or had to be slaughtered. There were
also occasional reports of animals which experienced respiratory problems
shortly before they died.
As the case histories in this section indicate, several animals were diagnosed
as havi ng j^nej^aJLd^fjcJjLn^ Some of the farmers who started to feed
their livestock mineral and vitamin supplements have not seen a reappearance
of these problems. A farmer who recently reported the loss of a calf with
broken pelvic bones was not feeding his livestock a vitamin/mineral supplement.
Farmers who had been regularly feeding supplements did not report any unusual
22
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health problems associated with nutritional deficiencies. Descriptions of
muscular weakness, in some cases, resembled symptoms associated with selenium
deficiencies (Ref. 15). Because soils and associated forage crops in the regior
around TMI are considered to be low in selenium, it is possible that selenium
deficiencies would appear in livestock not given proper feed supplementation
(Ref. 16).
Case 15
Description:
Evaluation:
Case 16
Description:
Evaluation:
Case 17
Description:
Evaluation:
Three young steers had difficulty in walking. One suffered a
broken leg in the winter of 1977 and one had a broken pelvis in
the winter of 1978.
One of the animals was diagnosed by the School of Veterinary
Medicine of the University of Pennsylvania as having osteoporosis
QJ£ketsjK It is likely that the others had the same problem.
Mineral supplements were recommended by local veterinarians,
but the animals continued to receive only home-grown feed without
mineral supplements.
Steers with weak hindquarters, lameness, and enlarged joints
were reported in 1979.
No clinical, laboratory, or autopsy data were available. The
extension veterinarian of the Pennsylvania State University
recommended that a selenium-calcium supplement be used. Since
feeding the supplement, there have been no problems. This
strongly suggests that the problem was a mineral deficiency.
Two steers which died in 1978 suffered from muscular weakness.
Some kittens died.
The veterinarian suggested that there was a mineral deficiency
in the diet of the steers. No clinical information is avail-
able on the dead kittens.
Case 18
Description:
Evaluation:
Case 19
Description:
Two steers and a colt had hindquarter weakness and broken bones
in 1978 and 1979.
The School of Veterinary Medicine of the University of Pennsyl-
vania diagnosed the problem as rickets, which indicates a
nutritional deficiency. The hay crop the summer before the
problem began was not good. There have been no problems since
the feed has been improved and mineral supplements used.
Two steers suffered from loss of control of hindquarters; one
died in December 1978 and the other in January 1979. Four cats
had symptoms of acute dehydration, ending in death.
23
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Evaluation: The steers' case histories resemble those for instances of mineral
deficiency that were reported and diagnosed. No clinical data
were available on the cats, but the verbal description of the
symptoms, given by the owner, suggests that the cause was highly
infectious, acute feline distemper.
4.1.3 Miscellaneous Reported Domestic Animal Health Problems
4.1.3.1 Deaths for Which the Precise Cause Is Unknown.
Case 20
Description:
Evaluation:
Case 21
Description:
Evaluation
Almost all of a large commercial collection of 5J3Q^jjrds (para-
keets, canaries, cockatiels, etc.) died within a 2-hour period
on May 2, 1979. They were housed in an enclosed space, venti-
lated by a fan.
The PDA diagnosed the deaths of the 500 birds in a 2-hour period
as most probably resulting from toxic fumes or overheating; there
was no indication of any specific disease, nor does there appear
to be any possible scenario in which the radiation released during
the accident could have been responsible. In an experimental
study, 30 parakeets were exposed to a lethal dose of whole-body
Co irradiation (3400 R), and their deaths occurred between 4
to 8 days after exposure (Ref. 17). If the parakeets in that
experiment had been exposed to a dose of radiation that would
cause deaths around 30 days after exposure (the approximate time
between the accident at TMI and the death of the birds), then
the deaths would have been spread over days instead of 2 hours.
In the same experiment, the dying birds showed signs of weakness,
diarrhea, and anemia for days before death, and, at autopsy,
necrosis of the liver and kidney were seen. The pathologist1s
report on 4 parakeets of the 500 birds that died on May 2 stated
that no specific disease was found; bacteriological, virological,
serological, toxicological, and histopathological tests did not
produce significant results (according to the results of examina-
tions by C. D. Clark, D. V. M. , Chief, Division of Laboratories,
Pennsylvania State Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory, Case H-49461,
May 30, 1979). Radiation from TMI must be excluded as a cause
of death because lethal doses would not kill all birds in 2 hours,
and the birds showed no signs typical of radiation injury.
From April 9, 1979 to March 5, 1980, 15 individuals brought into
the Bureau of Animal Industry about 84 dead birds of many species
(parrots, parakeets, starlings, robins, finches, etc.) from a
20-mile radius around TMI.
Dead birds inspected by the Bureau of Animal Industry were found
to have died from a variety of causes, including traumatic injury,
poisoning, and hepatitis (according to a memo from D. S. Ingraham,
D. V. M., of the PDA, to J. A. Nikoloff of the PDA Press Office,
July 5, 1979). Radiation scans conducted on three samples showed
nothing unusual.
24
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Case 2
Description:
Evaluation:
Case 25
Description:
Evaluation:
Dead cats and a dead rabbit were reported in 1978. A neurologic
problem in a cat and malformation in a duck were also reported.
Veterinarian examined one cat, but no diagnosis was given.
Insufficient data were available for the other cats or for the
rabbit.
The kitten and ducks suffered developmental malformation. The
description of the kitten's problem resembles feline cerebellar
ataxia seen in kittens infected in the womb with feline distemper
virus (Ref. 15).
Two cows died in January 1979, one calf in February, and two
calves in April of the same year.
This mortality is considered within the normal range for a herd
this size (105 head).
4.1.3.2 Cancers and Tumors in Milk Cows and Loss of Hair in Goats
Case 2
Description:
Evaluation:
Case 13
Description:
Evaluation:
A goat lost hair in spots on its back in 1979. A cow was
diagnosed as having cancer.
No diagnosis was given regarding the goat, because sufficient
data were not available for an evaluation.
Uterine tumors were found in milk cows.
Available data were insufficient to make an evaluation.
4.1.3.3 Mastitis
Case 26
Description: Slight increase in mastitis reported.
Evaluation: No evaluation made; insufficient data available.
4.1.3.4 Shipping Fever
Case 22
Description:
Evaluation:
Case 24
Description:
Four steers died^between February and April 1979.
The owner stated that the animals died from shipping fever.
When a representative of PDA, visited the farm, he was told that
there was no problem (according to a memo from J. M. Dick, D.V.M.,
to J. A. Nikoloff, PDA Press Office, April 7, 1979).
Recently purchased cows became sick.
25
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Evaluation: Shipping fever (bovine pneumonia pasteurellosis) or virus
infection was diagnosed by the Bureau of Animal Industry.
4.1.3.5 Foot Rot in Sheep
Case 23
Description: Sore feet in sheep were reported.
Evaluation: A veterinarian treated sheep and goats for foot rot, and the
animals recovered. "
4.2 Additional Reported Terrestrial Problems in the TMI Area
4.2.1 Reported Effects on Wildlife
Description: Observations reported were: (1) fewer starlings and robins were
seen during the spring and summer of 1979; (2) small game animals
(e.g., squirrels, rabbits and pheasants) were fewer in number,
and (3) no hop toads have been seen in the last 2 years.
Evaluation: Mr. Dale E. Sheffer, Chief of the Division of Game Management
of the Pennsylvania Game Commission, and Dr. C. J. McCoy, who
specializes in the study of amphibians and reptiles at the
Carnegie Museum of Natural History, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania,
were contacted. In addition, bird watchers (hobbyists) from
both sides of the Susquehanna River were contacted, and copies
of their society newsletters were obtained.
In his letter of May 20, 1980, Mr. Sheffer confirms the low
numbers of small and medium-sized game seen. However, he
attributes these smaller populations to reduced habitats which
are the result of increased human population, changes in farming
methods, and the prolonged severe winters of 1976-77 and 1977-78.
Mr. Sheffer also said that the white-tail deer population has
been maintained at about the same level since 1957.
In his letter of May 30, 1980, Dr. McCoy states that he is not
surprised that residents of York County have noticed a decline
in abundance of toads. He says that a general decline has been
reported by a great many observers, over many parts of
Pennsylvania and the eastern United States, over the past 20 to
30 years. Dr. McCoy attributes this decline primarily to the
tremendous increase in the use of chemical pesticides in both
agricultural and household applications since about 1945. He
adds, "Unfortunately we lack the prepesticide-era baseline data
on toad populations that would permit us to assess the impact
of chemical pesticides on the toads."
Bird hobbyists keep very close watch on bird populations.
Besides their well-publicized^Christmas bird counts, they pay
special attention to spring and fall migrations, conduct breed-
ing bird surveys, and maintain lists of all birds species seen
and confirmed by bird watcher society members for each year.
26
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They have not reported any reduction in the starling or robin
populations for 1979. They also have not reported any unusual
events or variation in the bird populations that could be
attributed to TMI.
4.2.2 Reported Effects on Vegetation
Description: Observations reported were: (1) individual trees of many species
had dead branches and/or leaves; (2) two pear trees produced
less fruit than they did in previous years, and one is dying;
(3) plants beneath a cemetery wire fence are dead; and (4) plants
around a watering trough were dead.
Evaluation: Both color and black-and-white photographs of individual trees
and groups of trees were studied. The two pear trees were
examined, and the cemetery visited. The farm with dead plants
around the watering trough was not visited because the farmer
reported that the area was revegetated. The Plant Disease Clinic
at the Pennsylvania State University was contacted. The reports
and aerial photographs of the monitoring of the effects of cooling
tower operation on vegetation which had been submitted by
Metropolitan Edison Company since 1974 were reviewed.
The Penn State Plant Disease Clinic provided computer printouts
of all plant specimens submitted there from Dauphin, Lancaster,
and York Counties for 1978 and 1979. These printouts show that
93 plant specimens were submitted to the Plant Clinic in 1978,
and 94 specimens in 1979. In 1978, 4 of the samples were inade-
quate, and for 3 samples the causal agent of the problem could
not be specifically identified. In 1979 there were 2 inadequate
samples and 10 that could not be identified as to cause of injury.
The damage to all other specimens was identified by the Clinic
as attributable to normal biological or environmental factors.
The Plant Clinic reported that there was heavy infestation of
fire blight (a bacterial disease) in pear trees throughout the
state in 1979. In the spring of 1980, specimen leaves were
collected from the two pear trees (mentioned above) and were
submitted to the Plant Clinic. The Clinic analysis of the dark
spots on the leaves indicates that they were caused by either
red spider or pear-slug feeding.
As part of the conditions for operating cooling towers at TMI,
the NRC has required annual surveys of the vegetation since 1974.
These surveys consist of aerial infrared and natural color photo-
graphs of a 25-square-mile area, as well as on-the-ground recon-
naissance by road along 8 transects on the east side of the
Susquehanna River and 14 transects on the west side of the river.
The photographs and reports show that locust leaf miner was the
predominant source of vegetation stress, followed by antracnose
disease, caused by marssonina juglandis, a leaf spot disease of
nut trees. All vegetation stress was attributable to natural
causes.
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The cemetery was visited, and the vegetation under the whole
length of the fence examined. There was no indication of plants
dying under the south or west fences. Under the whole length
of the north and east fences, an area some four inches wide lacked
plants. This denuded area ran along one side of the fence, then
suddenly crossed under the fence and ran along the other side
of the fence for the remainder of its length. It appears that
this denuded area represents "animal runways" or "passageways
for animals."
4.2.3 Report of a "Glowing Fish"
Description:
Evaluation:
In a May 2, 1979 report on TMI emergency extension activities,
the Dauphin County Agricultural Extension Agent related the
following: A housewife bought a shad at the supermarket^ She
cut it in pieces, and her husband took it to the basement to
put it in the freezer. There was no light in the basement, and
the man noticed that the fish glowed in the dark. The housewife
asked if this could be radioactivity. The agent said he did
not think so, but suggested that she contact the Pennsylvania
Bureau of Foods and Chemistry.
During the course of the investigation for this report, it was
not possible to find anyone at the Pennsylvania Bureau of Foods
and Chemistry or at the Department of Environmental Resources
who was familiar with this case. It should be noted that typically
fish purchased in supermarkets in the TMI area would not come
from the Susquehanna River in the vicinity of TMI. However,
even if the fish had been exposed to ionizing radiation, it would
not glow. The glow or luminescence could have been caused by
marine (salt water) bacteria.
4.2.4 Reports of "White Powder"
Description:
Evaluation:
Residents on both sides of the Susquehanna River report seeing
a "white powder." Some report seeing it after rains, some see
it during the growing season, and some see it year round. Others
in the area have never seen it, and no samples were available.
In an attempt to identify the white powder, a number of individuals
living in the vicinity of TMI were interviewed, and meteorologists
from the following organizations were consulted:
(1) Bureau of Air Quality Control
Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Resources
Harrisburg, Pennsylvania
(2) Argonne National Laboratory
Argonne, Illinois
(3) Emission Measurement and
Characterization Division
Environmental Protection Agency
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
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(4) Pennsylvania Power and Light Company
Allentown, Pennsylvania
(5) Arizona Public Service Company
Phoenix, Arizona
(6) Hydrology-Meteorology Branch
U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission
Washington, DC
Because no one interviewed had collected a sample of this white
powder, a definitive identification is impossible. The three
most likely possibilities are pollen, fly ash, and cooling tower
drift. Some individuals claim to have seen the white powder
throughout the year; therefore, this would seem to rule out pollen.
It has been reported that when this powder is stirred into water
(as in an animal's watering trough), the water turns milky white.
While pollen will produce this effect, small quantities of fly
ash will not; it precipitates out. However, large quantities
of fly ash will turn water a milky color, as commonly seen in
ash ponds.
According to the Pennsylvania Bureau of Air Quality Control,
the only likely local source of fly ash is the Brunner Island
coal-fired power plant. This plant is located 4 miles south-
southeast of TMI. While it has precipitators that collect fly
ash, some is still released. The fly ash that does manage to
pass through the precipitators is primarily microscopic, so that
a quantity would appear as a fine dust and not a powder. Because
of its small size, fly ash is readily dispersed by the wind.
The further the fly ash travels, the more dilution occurs, so
that after traveling 4 to 5 miles, quantities capable of being
seen or of turning water milky are very unlikely.
The Pennsylvania Bureau of Air Quality Control monitoring program
has not identified any possible source for the white powder.
Moreover, NRC monitoring of fresh water cooling towers throughout
the country has not shown any evidence of white powder.
5.0 CONCLUSIONS
Based on the available data, it appears that none of the reported plant and
animal health effects discussed above can be directly attributed to the oper-
ation of or the accident at the Three Mile Island Nuclear Power Station.
5.1 Effects of Radiological Releases
Radiological releases from TMI would not result in the types of problems reported;
the level of radiation exposure from TMI was less than l/1000th of that which
might cause clinically detectable effects in the animal population which was
exposed (see Sections 3.2.1 and 3.2.2). The complaints are related to reproduc-
tive problems, bone problems, and a series of miscellaneous problems. Although
some of these symptoms can be produced by radiation doses exceeding 50,000 mrem,
29
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there are no substantiated experimental data that show that any of these
symptoms would have been caused in animals exposed to the levels of radiation
received by the animals in question. According to the report of an advisory
committee to the National Academy of Sciences on the biological effects of
ionizing radiations, "The effects of very low levels - millirads per day - of
continuous radiation on early development have been little explored experi-
mentally, but evidence at hand has shown no harmful effects" (Ref. 7). (See
also Section 3.1.)
The isolated reports of developmental malformations that were labeled as mutants
are most likely to have resulted from nongenetic factors which are known to
cause them (e.g., infection, malnutrition, etc.) (Ref. 15). The probability
that they could have been caused by radiation from the reactors in normal oper-
ation is extremely low because of the extremely small additional annual exposure
rate. (See also Section 3.2.)
None of the vegetation problems discussed above could have been caused by TMI.
As noted in Section 3.1, plants are usually much less sensitive to radiation
damage than animals, and so are even less likely to have experienced any effects
from releases from TMI.
5.2 Effects of the Drift from Cooling Tower Plumes
According to NRC staff meteorologists, winds from the easterly quarter would
blow drift to the west less than 20 percent of the time. This would decrease
the amount of salt deposition in the area west of TMI where most of the com-
plaints were reported. There is little possibility that there would have been
a buildup of salt from cooling tower drift in the soil during operation.
Because there was no damage to vegetation from deposition from the Chalk Point
plant (which uses brackish water), it is highly unlikely that vegetation damage
would result when the coolant is fresh water, and, in fact, none has been
observed at TMI.
The suggestion has been made by one of the farmers that the salts from cooling
tower drifts have decreased the availability of selenium in the soil, which is
marginal for selenium content. The argument that the salts are significantly
binding selenium to the soil is highly unlikely. Sulfates which are known to
bind selenium are present in the cooling tower drift. However, the addition
of sulfate from drift is extremely small and not detectable beyond a very short
distance from the towers (see Section 3.3.3). Chlorides and carbonates do not
contribute importantly to selenium chemistry in soils (Ref. 14).
5.3 Postulated Causes of Reported Sicknesses and Deaths
Many of the reported livestock problems were probably the result of nutritional
deficiences. Several animals were diagnosed by laboratory tests as having
rickets. After several of the farmers started giving their livestock mineral
and vitamin feed supplements, there was no reappearance of the problems of bone
and muscular weakness (see Cases 16 and 18, Section 4.2). Farmers who have
been feeding the proper supplements all along did not report any problems
associated with nutritional deficiency. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration
has recently approved the addition of 0.1 ppm selenium to the diets of beef
30
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and dairy cattle. Selenium supplementation of the feeds for poultry and swine
were approved in 1974 and for sheep in 1978 (Ref. 18).
The descriptions of muscular weakness in some cases resembled the symptoms seen
with selenium deficiency. This deficiency is associated with skeletal and muscu-
lar weakness, reduced fertility, and reduced resistance to disease (Refs. 15,
19). Because the soils around TMI are known to be deficient in selenium, it
is possible that selenium deficiency disease would appear in livestock not given
feed supplementation.
According a veterinarian consulted in many of the cases discussed in this report,
in the last year there has been an increase of problems with reproduction in
sheep, goats, and cows (Ref. 4). These problems suggest a nutritional deficiency;
however, further research and epidemiological investigation are needed to explain
and support these observations.
The symptoms described in the many cases of cat and kitten deaths suggest that
infectious diseases were the cause. The cyclic rise and fall of the population
of farm cats is well known to veterinarians, and feline distemper virus is one
of the common causes. Moreover, the ataxia (lack of coordination) described
in some kittens is characteristic of in-the-womb (or neonatal) infection with
feline distemper virus.
The lack of hatching of duck and goose eggs could have come about because of
fluctuation in incubator temperatures where incubators were used. It is
impossible to make a diagnosis from the information available.
5.4 Summary of the TMI Situation
To summarize, while many of the symptoms reported are characteristic of radiation
sickness as well as many other common diseases, the necessary spectrum of symptoms
which would establish a causal link between the reported problems and TMI was
not in evidence. Taken in conjunction with the lack of any systematic geographic
pattern of reported problems and the power plant, as well as with the fact that
many of the problems were diagnosed as common occurrences in domestic and wild
animals, the staff has concluded that no relationship can be established between
the operation of TMI or the accidental releases of radioactivity and the reported
health effects.
31
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REFERENCES
The documents marked with an asterisk (*) are available for inspection and
copying for a fee in the NRC Public Document Room, 1717 H Street, NW,
Washington, DC 20555. Documents marked with two asterisks (**) also are
available for purchase from the NRC/GPO Sales Program, U.S. Nuclear Regulatory
Commission, Washington, DC 20555, and the National Technical Information
Service, Springfield, Va. 22161.
All other documents cited may be found in public technical laboratories.
(1) Pennsylvania Crop Reporting Service, Economics, Statistics and Coopera-
tives Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture/Pennsylvania Department of
Agriculture, "Crops and Livestock," Annual Summary, 1978.
(2) Memorandum from D. S. Ingraham, D.V.M., PDA, to P. Halllowell, Secretary
of Agriculture for Pennsylvania, dated May 24, 1979, and memorandum from
J. A. Nikoloff, Press Office, PDA, to P. Hallowell, dated May 6, 1980.*
(3) Testimony before the Pennsylvania Public Utility Commission (PAPUC). Re
1-79040300, PAPUC versus Metropolitan Edison Company et al.; Wednesday,
March 12, 1980; pp. 2841-3053; plus exhibit "Newberry 1,"*
(4) U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, "Nonradiological Consequences to the
Aquatic Biota and Fisheries of the Susquehanna River of the 1979 Accident
at Three Mile Island Nuclear Station," NUREG-0596, 1979.**
(5) U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, "Population Dose and Health Impact of
the Accident at the Three Mile Island Nuclear Station," NUREG-0558,
1979.**
(6) J. I. Fabrikant, Radiobiology, Year Book Medical Publishers, Inc.,
Chicago, 1972.
(7) National Academy of Science, "Effects on Population of Exposure to Low
Levels of Ionizing Radiation," Report of the Advisory Committee on the
Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiations, 1972 (BEIR Report).*
(7a) National Academy of Science, "Effects on Population of Exposure to Low
Levels of Ionizing Radiation," Report of the Advisory Committee on the
Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiations, 1980 (BEIR Report III).*
(8) G. M. Woodwell, "The Ecological Effects of Radiation," Scientific American.
208:40-44, 1963.
(9) U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, "Final Environmental Statement,
Operation of the Three Mile Island Nuclear Station, Unit 2," NUREG-0112
1976.**
32
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(10) Metropolitan Edison Company, "Final Safety Analysis Report, Operation of
TMI Nuclear Station Units 1 and 2," AEC Docket Nos. 50-289 and 50-320,
1972 (Final Environmental Statement, 1972).*
(11) C. L. Mulchi, D. C. Wolf, and J. A. Armbruster, "Cooling Tower Effects on
Crops and Soils," University of Maryland, Water Resources Research Center,
Special Report No. 12, PPSP-CPCTP-29.*
(12) U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, "Remote Sensing for Detection and
Monitoring of Salt Stress on Vegetation: Evaluation and Guidelines,"
Final Report, September 1976-March 1979, NUREG/CR-1231, 1979.**
(13) J. J. Rochow, "Measurements and Vegetational Impact of Chemical Drift
from Mechanical Draft Cooling Towers," Environmental Science and Technology.
Vol. 12, 1379-1383, 1978.
(14) P. D. Whanger, "Bioenvironmental Impact of Selenium," National Ecological
Research Laboratory, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1974.*
(15) Merck Veterinary Manual. Merck Co., Inc., Fifth edition, 1979.
(16) J. Kubota, et al., "Selenium in Crops in the United States in Relation
to Selinium-Responsive Diseases of Animals," Agricultural and Food
Chemistry, Vol. 15, No. 3, May/June 1967.
(17) S. P. Steamer and S. A. Tyler, "Comparative Aspects of Acute Radiation
Mortality in Birds," International Journal of Radiobiology, 5:205-215,
1962.
(18) A. L. Moxon and D. L. Palmquist, "Selenium Content of Foods Grown or Sold
in Ohio," Ohio Report, 65(1):13-14, 1980.
(19) J. F. Van Vleet, D.V.M., Ph.D., "Current Knowledge of Selenium-Vitamin E
Deficienty in Domestic Animals," Journal of the American Veterinary
Medicine Association, 1976(4):321-325, 1980.
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NRC FORM 335 us NUCLEAR REGULATORY COMMISSION
BIBLIOGRAPHIC DATA SHEET
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE (Add Volume No., if appropriate)
Investigations of Reported Plant and Animal Health Effects
in the Three Mile Island Area
7'l*lrJ.TH§era)l d E. Gears, Dr. Germain LaRoche, Dr. John Cable,
Dr. Bernard Jaroslow, Dr. Don Smith
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND MAILING ADDRESS (Include Zip Code}
U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission
Washington, D. C. 20555
12. SPONSORING ORGANIZATION NAME AND MAILING ADDRESS (Include Zip Code}
U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission
Washington, D. C. 20555
1. REPORTNUMBER
NUREG-0738
(Assigned by DDC)
2. (Leave blank)
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION NO.
5. DATE REPORT COMPLETED
MONTH
October
I YEAR
1980
DATE REPORT ISSUED
MONTH
October
1 YEAR
1980
6. (Leave blank)
8. (Leave blank)
10. PROJECT/TASK/WORK UNIT NO.
11. CONTRACT NO.
13. TYPE OF REPORT PERIOD COVERED (Inclusive dates)
Regulatory Report - Environmental
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
14. (Leave blank)
16. ABSTRACT 1200 words or less)
The results of investigations into reported problems with plants and animals
which may be related to the operation of and accident at the Three Mile Island
Nuclear Power Station are presented. The kinds of problems reported are listed,
and potential areas of concern (such as the release of radioactive gases and
drift from cooling tower plumes) are discussed. Specific case histories are
examined, and probable causes attributed. While in some instances not enough
data were available for a detailed evaluation to be made, none of the reported
problems could be linked to TMI and no general pattern of effects could be seen.
17. KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS 1 7a. DESCRIPTORS
17b. IDENTIFIERS/OPEN-ENDED TERMS
18. AVAILABILITY STATEMENT 19. SECURITY CLASS (This report)
Unclassified
un nmi tea 20 SECURITY CLASS tmspage)
Unclassified
21. NO. OF PAGES
22. PRICE
$
NRC FORM 335 (7-77)
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NUREG-0738
INVESTIGATIONS OF REPORTED PLANT AND ANIMAL HEALTH EFFECTS
IN THE THREE MILE ISLAND AREA
OCTOBER 1980
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