INDUSTRY WASTE STUDY
o
1U
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
REGION IX
SAN FRANCISCO, CALIFORNIA
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
I INTRODUCTION 1
Background 1
Objectives and Scope 3
Acknowledgements 4
II SUMMARY, FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS,
AND RECOMMENDATIONS 6
Summary 6
Findings 6
Conclusions 9
Recommendations 9
III THE STUDY AREA 11
Kauai 11
Oahu 15
Maui 17
Hawaii 17
IV THE HAWAIIAN SUGAR CANE INDUSTRY 21
Field Operations 21
Factory Operations 22
Water Supply 24
Waste Products Disposal 25
V WATER QUALITY STUDIES 27
General Studies 27
Studies Related to Sugar Industry 30
VI MILL SURVEYS 33
General Characteristics 34
Bacteriological Results 35
Solids Results 40
Organic Results 47
Nutrient Results 51
Arsenic, Herbicides, and pH Results.... 55
Irrigation Water Results 56
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CHAPTER
VII
VIII
IX
X
TABLE OF CONTENTS
(Continued)
OFFSHORE SURVEYS
General Characteristics...,
Floating Trash and Bagasse,
Turbidity
Bacteriological Densities.,
Nutrients
Dissolved Oxygen ,
Temperature ,
Salinity
Bottom Conditions ,
Fish Populations
BIOASSAYS ,
RUNOFF STUDY ,
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY,
PAGE
58
58
59
60
66
70
74
75
75
79
90
95
97
105
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LIST OF TABLES
TABLE PAGE
1 Sanitary Analyses of Wastewater Discharges
from Ten Sugar Factories 31
2 Geometric Mean Coliform Concentrations,
Hill Surveys 38
3 Average Concentrations, Hill Surveys 43
4 Average Loadings, Mill Surveys 44
5 Average Unit Waste Loadings from Survey
Mills Wash Water 50
6 Analytical Results: Excess Irrigation Water
(Tailwater) from r-'cBryde Plantation 57
7 Bioassay Results 95
8 Maximum and Minimum Analytical Concentrations,
Runoff Study 1967-1968 101
9 Measurements Obtained from Runoff of
February 1, 1969 104
111
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LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE PAGE
1 Areas of Sugar Cane Cultivation 12
2 Location of Sugar Mills, Island of Kauai... 13
3 Location of Sugar Hills, Island of Oahu.... 16
4 Location of Sugar Hills, Island of Haui.... 18
5 Location of Sugar Hills, Island of Hawaii.. 19
6 Typical Hawaiian Sugar Hill Schematic 23
7 Geometric Hean Coliforn Concentrations,
Hill Surveys 37
8 Average Solids Concentrations, Hill Surveys 41
9 Average Solids Loadings, Mill Surveys 42
10 Average Organic Concentrations, Hill Surveys 48
11 Average Organic Loadings, Hull Surveys 49
12 Average nutrient Concentrations, Hill
Surveys 52
13 Average Nutrient Loadings, Mill Surveys.... 53
14 Surface Turbidity as Depth of Visibility,
Honokaa Hill Discharge 61
15 Surface Turbidity as Depth of Visibility,
Pioneer Hill Discharge 63
16 Surface Turbidity as Depth of Visibility,
HcBryde Hill Discharge 65
IV
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LIST OF FIGURES
(Continued)
FIGURE
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
Total Coliform Concentrations, Honokaa Mill
Offshore Waters
Total Colifom Concentrations, Pioneer rill
Offshore Waters
Total Phosphorus Values, Honokaa ''ill
Offshore Waters
Total Phosphorus Values, Pioneer Mill
Offshore Waters
Extent of Coral Formations, Ilonokaa Mill
Offshore Waters
Bottom Conditions, Honokaa Mill Outfall Area
Typical Bettor. Conditions, Ilonokaa Mill
Control Area
Bottom Conditions, Pioneer Mill Outfall
Area
Typical Bottom Conditions, Pioneer Mill
Control Area
Bottom Conditions, Olokele Mill, West
Outfall Area
Bottom Conditions, Olokele Mill Control Area
Extent of Coral Formations, Olokele Mill
PAGF,
68
69
72
73
80
81
82
84
85
R6
87
Offshore Waters 89
29 Results of Fish Counts, Ilonokaa "ill Surve^ 91
v
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LIST OF FIGURES
(Continued)
FIGURE PAGE
30 Results of Fish Counts, Pioneer Mill Survey 92
31 Results of Fish Counts, Olokele Hill Survey 93
32 Runoff Study Basin Locations 98
33 Rainfall Versus Runoff, Undeveloped and
Canefield Terrains 100
34 Suspended Solids Discharge, Undeveloped and
Canefield Terrains 103
VI
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LIST OF PLATES
PLATE PAGE
1 Honokaa nill Outfall, Bottom Formations
in 10 feet of '.Jater 76
2 Honokaa Hill Outfall, Barren Substrate in
25 feet of Hater 76
3 Honokaa Ilill Control Area, Moulder Zone
at a Depth of 40 feet 76
4 Pioneer Ilill Outfall, Sea Urchin with Cane
Trash in 10 Feet of Water 76
5 Pioneer Mill Outfall, at Approximately
250 Yards 77
6 Pioneer Mill Control Area, at Approximately
300 Yards 77
7 Olokele Mill Outfall, at Kaumukani Point... 77
8 Olokele Mill Control Area, Several Species
of Coral 77
9 An Aerial Viev; of the Olokele Sugar Mill... 78
10 Site of the Honokaa Mill Outfall Discharge. 78
11 The McBryde Sugar Mill 78
12 The Pioneer Sugar Mill 78
VI1
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THE HAWAII SUGAR INDUSTRY VASTE STUDY
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PPOTECTION AGENCY
REGION IX
SAN FRANCISCO, CALIFORNIA
JUNE 1971
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I. INTRODUCTION
BACKGROUND
The State of Havraii is endowed with an excellent
year-round climate, a profusion of natural scenic
attractions, and a luxuriant landscape. These resources
provide the basis for two of its larger and more important
industries, agriculture and tourism.
The continued and prosperous coexistence of these
major contributors to Hawaii's economy, however, is
endangered. Wastes generated by agricultural activities,
particularly sugar mill operations, are creating significant
water pollution problems which threaten to interfere with
the continued growth of the tourist industry.
Tourism is, and has been, a leading factor influencing
growth in Hawaii throughout the postwar period. The basic
trend within Hawaii today is directed toward spreading
tourism to all of the islands. This has been accomplished
by a major change in advertising which promotes all island
attractions, thereby increasing the scope and appeal of
Hawaii as a world travel center. The magnificent assets
which Hawaii possesses as a resort area have been effectively
marketed, and programs to tell its story are beino accelerated,
The importance of pollution-free waters to tourism and
recreation was brought out by the Federal Water Pollution
Control Advisory Board, a Presidential Board, which met in
Hawaii in June of 1963 and undertook an extensive tour of
the islands in order to define the State's pollution problems.
As a result of their visit, the Board passed the following
resolution on September 18, 1963.
RESOLUTION NO. 2
Hawaii Pollution Problems
"WHEREAS, The Federal Water Pollution Control Advisory
Board, during a recent visit to the beautiful Islands
of Hawaii, had an opportunity to see firsthand water
pol]ution problems of our newest State; and
WHEREAS, the Board made an extensive observation of
military, municipal, industrial and agricultural
pollution; and
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WHEREAS, deplorable conditions of water and soil
degradation were noted from these sources on the
Islands of Oahu and Hawaii; and
WHEREAS, action to abate municipal and military
pollution has been initiated; and
WHEREAS, coastal waters of both Islands are seriously
affected by agricultural and milling practices
employed in the sugar and pineapple industries; and
WHEREAS, recreational and tourist values, upon which
the Islands depend so heavily, and also important
fisheries resources, are adversely threatened by
these sources of pollution; and
WHEREAS, there apparently are no current plans or
programs under way to change those practices which
are responsible for these pollution problems; and
WHEREAS, certain contemporary soil practices of
mechanically harvesting sugar cane as well as present
waste disposal methods of both the sugar and pineapple
industries are contributing heavily to the coastal
pollution...
NOW THEREFORE BE IT RESOLVED that the Federal Water
Pollution Control Advisory Board feels that the
solution of these problems is vital to the welfare of
the State of Hawaii and the Nation; that better
practices in the harvest of sugar cane would be in
the best interest of soil conservation and pollution
abatement; and that both the sugar and pineapple
interests need to recognize the adverse effect they
are having on the State's recreational economy.
BE IT FURTHER RESOLVED, that copies of this resolution
be forwarded to the Secretary of Agriculture, to the
Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare, and to
the Governor of Hawaii, respectfully recommending
that studies be initiated which may lead to eventual
reduction or elimination of these pollution sources.
BE IT FURTHER RESOLVED, that this Board recommend to the
Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare that he
authorize forceful action, including enforcement
authority if applicable, toward solution of the Islands
pollution problems and periodically report to the Board
progress being made."
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Shortly after the Federal Board's report, the Hawaii
Department of Health requested that a study be initiated
which would lead to the eventual reduction or elimination
of these pollution sources. The Hawaii Department of
Health then requested that such a study be carried out by
the U.S. Public Health Service1 as provided for by
Section 5(b) of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act.
(P.L. 84-660). The study was initiated by the Federal
Water Pollution Control Administration, successor to the
U.S. Public Health Service, in November 1966 to investigate
industrial wastes discharged by the Hawaiian sugar industry-
This report describes the results of that study.
Specifically, the sugar cane grown in Hawaii is
mechanically harvested and processed in 26 mills located
on four of the State's six major islands. The unique
harvesting procedures used in Hawaii require the mills to
wash or launder the cane before extracting the sugar. The
resulting soil-laden wash water is normally discharged
into the ocean. Many of the mills also directly discharge
their industrial processing wastewaters and sugar cane
trash^ and bagasse^ into the ocean. Another major discharge
emanating from the sugar cane industry is excess irrigation
water (tailwater) and stormwater runoff from cultivated
fields. These have pollutional characteristics similar
to mill washwater.
OBJECTIVES AND SCOPE
The objectives of the study were: (1) to determine the
magnitude, characteristics, and effects on the receiving
Predecessor to the Federal Water Pollution Control
Administration, U.S. Department of the Interior (1965);
the Federal Water Quality Administration, U.S. Department
of the Interior (April 3, 1970); and the present
Environmental Protection Agency (December 2, 1970).
Plant foliage, roots, broken stalks.
The crushed remains of the sugar cane stalk following
extraction of the juices in the mills. It resembles
coarse sawdust or wood shavings.
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water of waste discharges from sugar mill operations in
the State of Hawaii; (2) to compare the magnitude and
characteristics of runoff from the sugar cane fields with
runoff from non-developed areas; (3) to identify remedial
measures that would adequately control any observed
pollution.
In order to achieve these objectives, the study was
carried out in five phases:
1. A preliminary survey of all sugar mills and plan-
tations was made to compare their processes and
agricultural practices.
2. Intensive three-day surveys were conducted in
the summer, fall, and spring at representative
mills to determine the quality and quantity of
the waste throughout the year.
3. Studies of ocean waters and bottom conditions
were conducted offshore from the representative
mills. Studies were made in control areas that
were nearby but beyond the influence of the mills.
Conditions found in the discharge areas were
compared with those found in control areas to
evaluate the effects of mill operations on the
quality and bottom characteristics of the
adjacent coastal waters.
4. Short-term bioassays (96-hour, or less) were
conducted on local species of fish to indicate
the short-term toxicity of mill waste and
tail-waters.
5. Automated sampling and flow-monitoring apparatus
were installed at the outlets of two small
drainage basins, one under sugar cane cultivation
and one in a nearly natural state. This equip-
ment was used to measure the quality and quantity
of the runoff from the two basins.
ACKNOWLE DGEMENT S
The study was made possible through the assistance and
cooperation of the following organizations:
Department of Health, State of Hawaii
Hawaiian Sugar Planters Association
Honokaa Sugar Company
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McBryde Sugar Company
Oahu Sugar Company
Pioneer Mill Company
University of Hawaii, Department of Oceanography
U.S. Geological Survey, Department of the Interior
U.S. Navy, Department of Defense
Waialua Agricultural Company
Special acknowledgement is given to all other sugar
mills in the State of Hawaii for their willingness to
cooperate with the study.
Valuable assistance was also provided by the following
organi zations:
Department of Land and Natural Resources, State of Hawaii
University of Hawaii, School of Public Health
Soil Conservation Service, Department of Agriculture
This study was planned and conducted under the direct
supervision of Robert J. Burm, Sanitary Engineer, who
co-authored the preliminary draft report with Donald E.
Morris, Aquatic Biologist. They were assisted in the field
studies by: Martin J.K. McMorrow, Sanitary Engineer;
Lloyd P. Elaine, Biological Aid; Bernard L. Shiratori,
Chemist; Vicki H. Tsuhako, Secretary, and others. The final
report was assembled and edited by Charles T. Bourns,
Physical Science Administrator.
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II. SUMMARY, FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
SUMMARY
The Environmental Protection Agency conducted a study
of water quality problems related to the discharge of sugar
mill wastes in Hawaii during the period November 1966 through
September 1968. A preliminary industrial process survey
was made of all 26 sugar mills located in the State of
Hawaii. Of these mills, the following three mills were
chosen for detailed in-plant surveys: Pioneer Mill,
Honokaa Mill, and McBryde Mill. More than 6000 chemical,
physical, and bacteriological measurements were made. For
offshore surveys, three mills were chosen: Pioneer Mill,
Honokaa Mill, and Olokele Mill. Inadvertent closing of the
Olokele Mill because of weather conditions, however, neces-
sitated offshore studies of the McBryde Mill toward the
end of the survey.
FINDINGS
The data show that sugar mill waste water (mill-proces-
sing water and cane-wash water) as well as irrigation water
(tailwater) and storm water runoff from fields contain large
amounts of oxygen-consuming materials, suspended solids,
nutrients, and bacteria.
Excess irrigation waters and storm water runoff,
while shown to be similar to mill waste water, were usually
found to contain lower concentrations of all pollutants.
Average sugar production at each of the three mills
studied at the time of the in-plant surveys was 210 tons
per day. The mill wash water contained, per ton of raw
sugar produced, an average of 1,850 pounds of suspended
solids; 1,750 pounds of settleable solids; 650 pounds of
oxygen-consuming material, as measured by chemical oxygen
demand; 12 pounds of total nitrogen; and 5 pounds of total
phosphorus. The bacterial densities found in the mill wash
water averaged 4,850,000 total coliform organisms and 130,000
fecal coliform organisms/100 ml. Waste-flow rates at each
of the mills were between 5 and 10 million gallons per day
during the survey.
On the four sugar-producing islands of Hawaii, Kauai,
Oahu, and Maui, many of the mills discharge wastes into
the ocean near areas where surfing, fishing, swimming, and
other recreational activities take place. Where these
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discharges occur, the high concentrations of coliform indi-
cate a possible health hazard to the populace using these
waters for body-contact sports.
A few mills on all four islands utilize some controls
or waste treatment process such as clarifiers or sedimen-
tation ponds, or utilize waste waters in irrigation. These
measures substantially reduce or abate the discharge of
noxious wastes. Where sedimentation of mill wastes was
practiced, removal of settleable solids reached 98 per cent,
but the remaining suspended material in the effluent, when
discharged to the ocean, caused large areas of discoloration.
Significant removals were also noted for suspended solids,
biochemical oxygen demand, chemical oxygen demand, total
organic carbon, total phosphorus, and total nitrogen.
Offshore surveys revealed that the ocean waters, when
not influenced by runoff or mill discharges, had a trans-
parency in excess of 50 feet, as measured by a Sccchi disc.
Also, total coliform densities were consistently less than
100 organism;s/100 ml, and other quality constituents were
within rancres considered normal for sea water.
The v/astes discharged in mill effluents, irrigation
tailwater, and storm water runoff affect several significant
water usages. The effects of mill waste discharges on ocean
waters, as evidenced by increases in turbidity were notice-
able for distances of up to four miles from the point of
discharge. In many areas a brown or green discoloration was
noticeable for moro than two miles beyond the waste outfalls.
The volcanic soils of the Hawaiian Islands are composed of
extremely fine particles. When suspended in cane wash water,
irrigation tailwater, or storm water (all fresh water) they
impart turbidity of an anr>erent red or brown color. VJhen
discharged to the ocean, the fresh water "floats' as a rela-
tively thin layer on the surface, producing larae areas
of discoloration. Secchi disc readings of only a few inches
were measured near all three sugar mill outfalls studied.
Total coliform densities were much higher in the affected
waters and on one occasion were found to exceed 1,000,000
organisms/100 ml. Total phosphorus values as high as 0.29
mg/1 were observed, with values above normal sea water ob-
served for more than one mile from the mill outfalls. Dis-
solved oxygen, salinity, and temperature were found to be
relatively unaffected by the mill discharges.
At least eight of the mills on the island of Hawaii and
two mills on the island of Kauai regularly discharge cane
trash and/or bagasse to the ocean. Floating mats of this
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material can extend over a mile, with widths varying from a
few feet to over 200 feet, creating a hazard to navigation
and an aesthetic nuisance. The deleterious effects of cane
trash and bagasse on the marine ecology were not studied
in detail, but it was observed that under strong wind
conditions, the mats were washed up along the coastline,
covering the biota, beaches, and rocks. The floating mats
interfered with the operation of the vessel which was used
in this study. Boat operators in these same areas reported
interference with navigation and hazards to safety result-
ing from the floating materials.
The aesthetically offensive conditions created by float-
able materials, sludge deposits, and brown and green discol-
oration of large ocean areas due to sugar mill discharges
pose a threat to the tourist industry- These adverse con-
ditions are diametrically opposed to the goals of that
industry which describes "the continuous blue, sparkling
waters of the State" to potential tourists.
Several short term bioassays were conducted using wash
water and tailwater. The mill wastes appear to be toxic to
Nehu, an important tuna bait fish. However, three other
local species of fish subjected to the tests were tolerant
of the wastes.
The sugar mill wastes contain levels of the organic
materials nitrogen and phosphorus in sufficient amounts to
produce adverse ecological changes if discharged to confined
receiving waters. Even after existing treatment processes,
mill wastes are capable of exerting an oxygen depletion if
discharged into coastal bays or other areas with limited
circulation.
When this study was initiated, water quality standards
had not been established for the State of Hawaii. Before
the study was completed, however, State and Federal water
quality standards had been adopted by the State and approved
by the Federal Government.
Findings of this study indicate that the sugar industry
is discharging materials to the ocean which result in vio-
lations of the following Water Quality Standards of the
State of Hawaii:
1. All water shall be free of substances attributable
to discharges or wastes as follows:
a. Material that will settle to form objectionable
deposits (sediment, cane trash and bagasse);
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b. Floating debris and other matter (trash and
bagasse);
c. Substances producing objectionable turbidity
and color (sediment);
d. Materials...in concentrations or combinations
which are toxic or produce undesirable physio-
logical responses in human, fish and other
animal life and plants (organic matter,
bacteria, nutrients);
e. All waters shall also be free from soil parti-
cles resulting from erosion on land...(sedi-
ment, turbidity, color);
2. Microbiological requirements (bacteria);
3. Nutrient materials (nutrients).
CONCLUSIONS
1. It is practicable to control wastes from the harvesting
and milling operations of the sugar mills, including
suspended material, soil particles, trash, bagasse,
organic material, nutrients, and bacteria.
2. It is practicable to implement soil conservation and
sediment control practices as required by Section 37-
A-6-A of the Water Quality Standards of the State of
Hawaii, which provides that "these standards shall be
deemed met if it can be shown that the land on which
the erosion occurred or is occurring is being managed
in accordance with soil conservation practices accept-
able to the Director, and that a comprehensive
conservation program is being actively pursued or that
the discharge has received the best practicable treat-
ment or control." In agricultural practice, however,
soil conservation alone for control of sediment may
not be completely effective in eliminating turbidity
and color of waste discharges.
RECOMMENDATIONS
To enhance water quality to the level described in the
Water Quality Standards of the State of Hawaii in those
coastal areas now influenced by the discharges from Hawaiian
sugar plantations, the following changes in operating con-
ditions should be made:
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1. The discharge of trash and bagasse to coastal
waters should be discontinued.
2. All discharges should be treated or controlled
to the necessary degree required for compliance
with the Water Quality Standards of the State
of Hawaii.
3. Whenever excess irrigation water (tailwater) and
storm runoff waters from cultivated fields are
now discharged to coastal waters, every possible
effort should be made to minimize and control
these discharges through improvements in irrigation
facilities and management, interim storage and
reuse of irrigation tailwater and storm water run-
off, and adoption of soil and water conservation
measures.
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III. THE STUDY AREA
The Hawaiian Islands are a sea-mount island chain
consisting of more? than a score of islands which extend
from Kure and Midway Islands in the west to the island of
Hawaii in the east, a distance of approximately 1,600 miles.
The islands were formed from volcanoes which today are
either dormant or active.
In general, the island chain lies between 19 and 28
degrees north of the equator and is situated in the north
central portion of the Pacific Ocean. The area of the
islands totals 6,435 square miles or 4,118,400 acres, a
territory roughly equivalent to the combined areas of the
States of Connecticut and Rhode Island. Hawaii Island
is the largest land mass, comprising approximately two-
thirds of the total land area.
Only seven of the larger and western most islands are
inhabited, excluding Midway Island which houses a U.S.
Coast Guard station. Approximately one million people
live on these islands. Other than military activities their
principal industries, listed in descending order of economic
importance, are tourism, agriculture, and commerce.
The island group became a territory of the United
States in 1900, and in 1959 was officially admitted to
the Union as the fiftieth State.
Even though the islands lie within the North Tropic
Zone, each one that is inhabited has a distinctive climate
and geography which has influenced its pattern of population,
economy, and development. Therefore a description of each,
with present and proposed usages relative to the sugar
industry.- is relevant to this study (Figure 1) .
KAUAI
The island of Kauai is composed essentially from the
remnant of a single volcanic dome (Figure 2). The northwest
quadrant of the island has a rugged shoreline with sea cliffs
exceeding 1000 feet. Its coastal waters have been classified
under the State of Hawaii Water Quality Standards for preserva-
tion as an oceanographic wilderness area. The remaining three
quadrants of the island consist of more gently sloping land
which is used extensively for agriculture and ranching.
These quadrants contain more miles of sandy beaches than
the combined total beach area of all other islands in the
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LOCATION MAP-HAWAIIAN ISLANDS
HAWAII SUGAR INDUSTRY WASTE STUDY
AREAS OF SUGAR CANE
CULTIVATION
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
REGION IX
SAN FRANCISCO, CALIFORNIA
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KILAUEA SUGAR CO.
PACIFIC
OCEAN
SLAND OF KAUAI
N
HANAPEPE IAY
GROVE FARM SUGAR CO.
NOT I:
DENOTES A SUCAI MILL
HAWAII SUGAR INDUSTRY WASTE STUDY
LOCATION OF SUGAR MILLS
ISLAND OF KAUAI
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
REGION IX
SAN FRANCISCO, CALIFORNIA
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chain, and the associated coastal waters are extensively
used for swimming, surfing, and sport fishing.
The northeast quadrant of Kauai extends from Hanalei
Bay in the north to the mouth of the Wailua River in the
east. A major resort hotel borders Hanalei Bay, and others
are expected to develop there in the future. The land
between the Bay and the Wailua River is used primarily
for agriculture, pasture, and small population centers.
At the mouth of the Wailua River are a resort hotel and a
few public parks, with additional resort development expected
in the area soon. The coastline has ample sandy beaches
and future parks have been proposed along the entire shore.
Mount Waialeale (elevation 5,080 feet) has a
reputation for being the wettest spot on earth and its
average annual rainfall exceeds 430 inches. This quadrant,
in general, is well watered and irrigation is practiced
only near the coastline and in the valleys for rice and
taro production. The principle agriculture is sugar cane,
pineapple and pasture. The Kilauea Sugar Mill is located
in the center of this quadrant, near the coast.
The southeast quadrant of the island, extending from
the Wailua Raver to Hanapepe Bay, contains agricultural and
pasture lands, undeveloped areas, two large and several small
population centers, two commercial harbors, and a resort
complex of several hotels in the Poipu Beach area, which
is expected to undergo further expansion. There is a large
public park and golf course along the coastline near the
Wailua River. Although sandy beaches are not as plentiful
as those found in the northeast quadrant, several good beaches
exist, and plans have been made to develop these into public
parks. Sugar cane is the principal agriculture and there
are three sugar mills in this quadrant. The area is semi-
arid and irrigation is required for agriculture at the lower
elevations, although torrential rainfall occurs during the
rainy season.
The southwest quadrant of the island, stretching from
Hanapepe Bay to the Na Pali Coast, contains agricultural
and undeveloped land, Bonham Air Force Base, and two small
public parks. The beaches are predominantly sandy and run
almost continuously from one side of the quadrant to the
other. A public park and resort area have been proposed
at Kekaha and also north of Bonham Air Force Base. Sugar
cane is the principle crop and there are two sugar mills
in this area. The climate is generally arid and irrigation
is necessary for sugar cane production.
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OAHU
The island of Oahu is oriented in a northwest-southeast
direction in the Hawaiian Island chain (Figure 3). Geograph-
ically, two parallel mountain ranges formed by extinct
volcanoes, with a broad valley between, make up the island.
Each mountain range is also flanked by relatively broad
coastal plains. The southeastern portion of the island
contains a chain of dormant volcanoes, the most well-known
being Punchbowl, Diamond Head, and Koko Head. Since sugar
cane is grown on the south-central, southeast, north, and
northeast portions of the island, only these coastline
areas will be described.
The shoreline along the south-central to southwest
coast of Oahu is a predominantly military and industrial
complex consisting of the Pearl Harbor Naval Base, Barbers
Point Naval Air Station, Campbell Industrial Park, and two
population centers. Several recreational beaches are
located on the military bases. The State of Hawaii plans
to have only a small public beach park located on this
coastline area; however, many believe that increasing
population pressures will cause the Navy to relinquish
control of Pearl Harbor's West Loch resulting in further
urban development. Sugar is grown and milled in this area
by two plantations.
The northern coast of the island, extending from Kaena
Point to Kahuku Point, consists primarily of a small
airfield, agricultural land, two population centers, private
beach homes, and several public beach parks. The shoreline
contains approximately twenty miles of sandy beaches;
however, high surf often limits the recreational usage
of these waters. Additional public beach parks and resort
development is anticipated in the future. There is only
one sugar mill in this area.
The northeastern coast of Oahu stretching from Kahuku
Point to Kahana Bay, consists of agricultural and grazing
land, small population centers, private beach homes, and
small public parks. The shoreline is composed primarily
of sand or gravel, and many public beach parks have been
proposed. One sugar mill is located in this area.
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PACIFIC
OCEAN
N
NOTI:
DINOTIS A SUGAI Mill
DIAMOND HIAD
HAWAII SUGAR INDUSTRY WASTE STUDY
LOCATION OF SUGAR MILLS
ISLAND OF OAHU
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
REGION IX
SAN FRANCISCO, CALIFORNIA
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MALI
Maui is made up of two large volcanic cones joined
together by an eight-mile isthmus or valley which was
formed by overlapping lava flows (Figure 4). Since sugar
is grown on the isthmus and on the western slopes of the
West Maui Mountains, descriptions will be limited to these
areas.
The area adjoining the northern coast of the valley
contains primarily agricultural and grazing lands. Also
located there are two population centers, a commercial
harbor, airport, golf course, and several resort hotels.
The north coastline has sandy beaches and bedrock in about
equal proportions, and several sections have been proposed
as sites for public beach parks and hotel expansion. There
are three sugar mills in this area.
The area adjoining the southern coast of the valley
consists of agricultural and open land, an abandoned fish
pond, a small-boat harbor, and private homes. The southern
shoreline of the isthmus is primarily sandy beach, and
proposals exist to develop resort areas and facilities
for private and public recreational use. There are no
sugar mills in this area. Cane which is grown and
harvested is carried by truck to mills in the north coast
area.
The southwest coast of the West Maui Mountains contains
agricultural and undeveloped land, one population center
(Lahaina), a small-boat harbor, a golf course, small
public parks, and an extensive, rapidly developing resort
area. About half of the shoreline is sandy beaches. The
town of Lahaina, formerly the capital of Hawaii, is the
target of considerable effort aimed at historic restoration
for purposes of tourism. Pressure is also being exerted by
both public and private interests for development of the
coastline northwest of Lahaina into a recreation area,
while public beach parks are being proposed for location
southeast of the town. There is one sugar p.ill in the area.
HAWAII
Hawaii, the 1 arc-rest island of the State, is formed
from five separate volcanoes, two of which reach an
elevation of nearly 14,000 feet (Figure 5). Of the five
17
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PIONEER
MILL
00
W PUUNENE
SUGAR
MILL
N
PACIFIC
OCEAN
NOTE:
DENOTES A SUGAR MILL
HAWAII SUGAR INDUSTRY WASTE STUDY
LOCATION.OF SUGAR MILLS
ISLAND OF MALM
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
REGION IX
SAN FRANCISCO, CALIFORNIA
n
c
-------
UfOLU POINT
PACIFIC
OCEAN
. HAMAKUA SUGAR CO
NOTi: Jf DINOriJ A IUGAI MILL
PAAUHAU SUGAR CO.
LAPAHOEHOE SUGAR CO.
PEPEEKEO SUGAR CO.(N)
PEPEEKEO SUGAR CO (S)
MAUNA KEA SUGAR CO (N)
JL.I MAUNA KEA SUGAR CO (S)
MHO
ISLAND OF HAWAII
N
HAWAIIAN AGRICULTURE CO
HUTCHINSON SUGAR co
HAWAII SUGAR INDUSTRY WASTI STUDY
LOCATION OF SUGAR MILLS
ISLAND OF HAWAII
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
REGION IX
SAN FRANCISCO, CALIFORNIA
-------
volcanoes, two are still active and two remain dormant.
Sugar is grown in three areas on the island of
Hawaii. One is located inland approximately 10 miles
south of the city of Hilo. Another area contains two
sugar plantations and is located on the southeast quadrant
of the island, generally south and west of Kilauea Volcano,
near the southwest shoreline. The northern shore area,
known as the Hamakua Coast, is the third and largest of
these sugar-producing areas. Descriptions of land and
water uses will be limited to the coastline areas.
The area between the northern tip of the island and
Hilo consists primarily of agricultural, grazing, and
undeveloped lands as well as the rugged Pololu-Waipio
series of steep valleys. Except for small sandy beaches
at the end of the valleys, the entire coast is essentially
a solid chain of rugged sea cliffs. The area is quite
scenic, however, and spectacular views are available
from public lookouts. Nine sugar mills are located along
this coastline.
From the area south of Hilo to Kilauea Volcano, the
coastline is primarily bedrock, although a few beach areas
are found. The area is essentially undeveloped, and
several small shoreline parks have been proposed. Sugar
is grown a few miles inland.
From Kilauea Volcano southwest to South Point, the
coastline remains rugged, consisting mostly of bedrock and
sea cliffs. With the exception of sugar production further
inland, it is generally undeveloped and has only marginal
access. Two shoreline parks have been proposed for this
area.
20
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IV. THE HAWAIIAN SUGAR CANE INDUSTRY
One of the earliest records of the existence of sugar
cane in the Hawaiian Islands can be traced back to the arrival
of Captain James Cook in 1778. Wild strains of sugar cane were
noted to be present in the islands at that time. Between
1802 and 1835 various attempts were made to grow cane for
sugar production; however, sizeable plantings did not
flourish for any length of time. After 1836, more permanent
cultivations began to appear. With demands for the product
arising from the California gold rush of 1849 and the
American Civil War of 1861, sugar became an important commodity
for export.
The Reciprocity Treaty of 1875 allowed unrefined Hawaiian
sugar to enter the United States duty-free and gave Hawaiian
planters a two-cent-per-pound advantage over the other
foreign sugar exporters. This price advantage provided the
opportunity to develop marginal land, which had previously
been uneconomical to cultivate. Today, as a result, Hawaii
produces 1.2 million tons of raw sugar per year.
FIELD OPERATIONS
Planting: Sugar cane is first planted in soil which
has been deep-plowed and formed into furrows that follow
the contour of the land, thereby conserving rainfall and
facilitating future irrigation. Short sections of plant
stalk, containing one or more nodes. In about 24 months a
mass of vegetation has developed, completely filling in the
spaces between plants and rows and reaching a height of ten
or more feet. When harvested, the root structure is left
intact so that a second, third, or even fourth crop of
sugar cane may be produced from suckers which grow from the
root structure of old harvested plants. This process is
known as "ratooning."
Weeding: Prior to World War II, handweeding to
control weed growth was a common practice; however, rising
labor costs forced cane growers to adopt herbicides. Today
aerial applications of herbicides to supplement hand-spraying
is practiced in Hawaii. Four applications per field crop
may be necessary, with the heaviest applications during the
first six months after planting.
Insecticides: Insects are not a serious problem in cane
production/and no significant use of insecticides is made
by the Hawaiian sugar industry.
21
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Due to the heavy vegetative growth, however, extensive
applications of fertilizers are necessary to maintain high cane
yields. Average application rates, per acre, are 250 pounds
of nitrogen, 150 pounds of phosphorus, and 230 pounds of
potash. These applications can be carried out by hand,
aerially, mechanically or through the irrigation water.
Harvesting; Prior to World War II, almost all cane was
cut by hand and transported to the sugar mills through an
extensive network of water flumes. When water flumes did
not exist, mule-drawn wagons carried the cane to railroads
for transport. This method of hand harvesting resulted,
therefore, in a minimal movement of dirt and trash from the
field to the mill.
Following World War II, mechanical harvesting completely
replaced the hand cutting of cane. Conventional cane cutters
have proven to be unsuccessful in Hawaii due to the thick
cane blanket, rocky soil, and furrowed and hilly terrain.
The most common method of harvesting is to snap off the cane
at ground level with a bulldozer-type push rake that is
mounted on a large standard tractor. Bulldozers then rake
the cane into windows where crawler cranes, equipped with
special grabs, load the windowed cane into special cane
haulers usually consisting of an enormous truck-tractor unit
and semi-trailer.
During the loading process, the harvesting grab and cane
rake also uproot valuable top soil, roots, and rocks. This
practice has necessitated the installation of cane washing
systems at the sugar mills. A small percentage of the cane
in Hawaii, however, is harvested by specially designed
cutting knives which minimize the pickup of dirt and rocks.
FACTORY OPERATIONS
The typical sugar cane factory may be divided into
three operating sections: (1) the cane preparation plant,
(2) the milling plant, and (3) the boiling plant. Although
no two factories in Hawaii operate identically, the proto-
type of what would be an average plant operation is described
below and illustrated in Figure 6.
Cane Preparation Plant: The cane initially moves to a
feeder table, up a conveyor, and then contacts a carding drum
which spreads it out into a thin even blanket. Next it
passes over a set of rollers which acts as a primary rock
extractor. From there it falls into a flotation bath where
rocks and other heavy foreign matter settle in the tank and
are carried away. 22
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FIGURE 6
Woth Water
Wash Water
Carding Drum
Cane Conveyer
^•t-ane e
/ here
Cane enters
Mud Bath
Trash
Water a Mud
CANE PREPARATION PLANT
A.MOLASSES B.MOLASSES
IMING MULTIPLE EFFECT EVAPORATOR
""" FIRJT S.COND THI"t> FOUR™
•oov loor
\ MIN«UR
CENTRIFUGALS
•CRVJTALLIZtRt
IOAR I
'OR SEIO
COMMERCIAL FINAL
SUgAR UOLA3IES
MILLING AND BOILING PLANT
HAWAII SUGAR INDUSTRY WASTE STUDY
TYPICAL HAWAIIAN
SUGAR MILL SCHEMATIC
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
REGION IX
SAN FRANCISCO, CALIFORNIA
23
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Following the flotation bath, the cane proceeds up a
cascade conveyor where heavy washing begins. Next it passes
over stool drums to be shaken and leveled. The root structure
holding the stalks together is then broken and here also
final washing occurs. The cane then moves over trash
extractors (oppositely spinning rollers) which grab and
strip leaves from the stalks. The resulting trash is
conveyed away from the cleaning plant. A series of knives
then cut the cane into small lengths for crushing by a pair
of corrugated rollers, the final preparation process preceding
the roller mills.
Milling Plant: Each mill consists of a tandem of three
rollers, and the chopped cane passes through each mill in
succession to remove the cane juice. Either three, four, or
five mills in a series are employed to squeeze the juice out
of the cane stalks. After passing through the last mill, as
much cane pulp (bagasse) as needed is fed into the mill
fireroom. for use as fuel. The remaining bagasse is either
dumped into the ocean, used as landfill, or used to make
compost.
Boiling Plant: Following extraction, sugar cane juice
is weighed, limed, preheated, and sent through a clarifier
to separate the supernatent. The sediment from the clarifier
is run over vacuum filters and the extracted liquid is
recycled to the clarifier. After leaving the clarifier,
the juice enters a multi-effect steam evaporator from
which it emerges with greater density as "syrup."
The syrup then enters vacuum pans where it is converted
into molasses. In the pans, sugar crystals are also formed
from the syrup by the process of evaporation to saturation.
At the end of this operating cycle, the crystals are
centrifuged to remove the molasses.
The sugar from the first pan operation is of commercial
raw sugar quality and is ready for shipment to a mainland
refinery- The molasses remaining from centrifuge of the
first boiling operation is called "A" molasses. This is
returned directly to the pans for a second cycle. The
material from the second pan operation is centrifuged and
the sugar produced is also of commercial quality. The molasses
remaining from the second pan operation is called "B" molasses.
'B" molasses is of low quality sugar content and must be
specially processed before additional sugar can be produced.
WATER SUPPLY
Wide variations in precipitation occur throughout the
24
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Hawaiian Islands. Areas with less than five inches of rain-
fall per year are found in some low lying canefields, while
higher elevated fields may receive over 150 inches annually-
Until 1875, sugar plantations in Hawaii were found only in
areas of high rainfall. From then until 1910, however, the
sugar interests vigorously pursued the development of
irrigated canefields.
The volume of water consumed by all sources in the
State of Hawaii totals 1,930 million gallons per day (mgd).
Of this figure, 1,430 mgd is for crop irrigation (largely
sugar cane) and 96 mgd is used for domestic purposes.
Stream diversion supplies the largest volume of water
for sugar cane irrigation in Hawaii. The Koolau ditch of
Maui which supplies 35 mr-d exemplifies this type of water
supply. It includes 7.5 miles of tunnels and 2.5 miles
of ditches.
Ground water supplies the second largest source of
irrigation water. The JJVi'A Plantation on Oahu, for example,
depends entirely for its water supply on more than fifty wells
having a total capacity of over 120 mgd.
WASTE PRODUCTS DISPOSAL
Several waste products are produced by the sugar industry,
and the methods of disposing of them vary from rill to mill.
A general description of these wastes and their common method
of disposal follows.
Wash Water: Millions of gallons of water ner day are
used to clean cane in the preparation nlant. In some plants
settling basins or hydroseparators are used after the washing
process to settle and partially remove solids. After settling,
the water may be either dumped to the sea or used for
irrigation. However, a common practice on the Hamakua coast
of the island of Hawaii is to flume the unsettled wash water
directly to the sea.
Trash: The trash removed by extractors in the mill may
be either dumped into the wash water for fluming to the sea,
or removed by screening and then trucked away for use as
landfill. In some cases, it is trucked to the shore, dumped,
and carried out to sea by wave and current action. Some mills
use an ensillage cutter to reduce the material to small pieces
for use as mulch.
25
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Bagasse: The pulp produced from the cane stalks after
they pass through all the mills is called "bagasse." Bagasse
is used to fuel the mill power houses and in some cases,
excess amounts of it are flumed to the sea.
Ash; The ash which remains after the burning of bagasse
is normally added to the wash water following cane washing.
When solid clinker is produced, it is usually trucked away
for landfill.
Condenser Water; Cooling water usually comes from the
same supply as the wash water. The condensers used on the
evaporators and vacuum pans are of the direct mixing type.
The water emerging from the condensers may contain small
quantities of sugar and other materials from the boiling
process.
Filter Mud; Several tons per day of sediment come from
the clarifiers after vacuum filtration. This combination of
mud and fine fiber normally joins the wash water from the
preparatory plant. Rocks removed from the flotation bath
are usually trucked away and used for road construction or
land fill.
26
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V. WATER QUALITY STUDIES
Only meager data exist concerning the past and present
water quality of the Hawaiian waters, particularly water
quality in the vicinity of the sugar mill. These data can
be grouped into studies by private consultants, generally
oriented toward future placement of an outfall, and studies
by various political or private entities concerning specific
problem areas.
Selected reports containing data on relatively clean
water or water under the influence of the sugar industry
discharges will be presented. Reports concerning other
problem areas such as pollution of harbors will not be
included.
GENERAL STUDIES
Data from surveys which have been conducted by private
consultants often fail to provide sufficient information or
to fully characterize a given study area within the island
area. Frequently, studies consisted of a short series of
grab samples taken at one or more stations; laboratory
techniques were not adequately described; and research
results were not reported in depth or in a manner con-
vertible to customary engineering terminology. For example,
many references were not explicit in making a distinction
between total and soluble phosphorus or between phosphorus
and phosphate.
The following summary of reports highlights the
research studies which have been conducted on water quality
in the Hawaiian Islands.
A three-day study was conducted in 1968 by Ultramar
Laboratory on the waters off Honolulu International Air-
port. (1) Average values for two surface stations located
approximately one mile offshore were:
Clarity: 23.1 feet
Temperature: 27.1° C.
D.O.: 5.60 mg/1
T.S.: 39.3 grams/1
pH: 8.22
Numbers in parentheses refer to references noted in the
Selected Bibliography of this report.
27
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Organic Nitrogen: .08 rog/1
Soluble P04: 0.27 mg/1
Total Coliform: 1 organism/100 ml (MF)
Fecal Coliform: <1 organism/100 ml (MF)
In an earlier study (1965) , Muroda and Tanaka sampled
five sites off the western Maui coastline. (2) They obtained
the following results:
pH: 8.41-8.45
BOD: 1.2-2.4 mg/1
T.S.: 33.8-41.6 grans/1
D.O.: 7.8-8.9
N03: <0.1-2.2 mg/1
P04: 0.1-0.3 mg/1
Chlorinity: 16.4-19.4 g/kg
Total Coliform: 0-6 organisms/100 ml (MF)
E. Coli.: 0 (MPN)
In 1964 Sunn, Low, Tom & Kara took samples near the
shorelines of the west coast of Kauai. (3) The results of
their study indicates:
pll: 8.02-8.15
N03-N: <.01-.01 mg/1
NH-j-N <. 02 mg/1
Salinity: 32.3-39.4 0/00
Temperature: 25.9-26.5 C.
Total Coliform: 0-7000 organisms/100 ml (MPN)
In 1963 the firm conducted a similar study of the waters at
a proposed outfall near Hilo, Hawaii. (4) Results indicated
a pH of 7.6 and MPN total coliforms from 6 to 240 organisms/100
ml. An engineering study conducted by the firm in 1962
investigated a proposed outfall on the western side of Oahu.
28
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(5) Included in the report were data gathered by the State
Department of Land and Natural Resources in 1956-1958 from
four stations along the coastline. The data summarized are
as follows:
Temperature (surface): 22.9-27.2° C.
Temperature (bottom): 22.8-27.0°C.
Salinity: 34.6-34.8 0/00
P04 -P (surface): .009-.014 mg/1
P04 -P (bottom): .005-.0065 mg/1
Belt, Collins and Associates studied the location of a
proposed outfall on the eastern coast of Oahu in 1959. (6)
They found the following data for what was considered to be
normal sea water:
pH (over a year's span): 7.90-8.11
DO (over a year's span): 4.2-7.6 mg/1
TS (over a year's span): 34.96-35.12 grams/1
PO4 -P (3 samples): .0009-.0039 mg/1
Clarity: >35 feet
Routine water quality data gathered by State and
county agencies generally are limited to bacteriological
data from potable supplies and swimming areas. They,
therefore, have little or no bearing on mill discharges.
Six inshore stations were sampled, however, by the Maui
County Department of Public Works (1965) along the west
shore of Haleakala, Maui. (7) Results indicated:
pH: 8.15-8.25
Total Coliform: 0-15 organisms/100 ml (MPN)
Fecal Coliform: 0-9.1 organisms/100 ml (MPN)
In addition, the Hawaii Institute of Geophysics sampled
Kaneohe Bay on September 7, 1962 and found the following
information. (8)
Chlorinity: 19.12-19.49 0/00
29
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0
2
Saturation: 81.8-89.8 percent
Total P04 -P: 0.009--013 mg/1
A Masters thesis completed in 1968 at the University
of Hawaii presented data on several chemical and physical
parameters in Kaneohe Bay, Oahu. (9) The Bay is subject
to stratification and is influenced by occasional large
inflows of fresh water, as evidenced by divergent values
which were recorded during the 13-month survey. Other
findings indicated that mean total phosphate values ranged
from .006 - .015 mg/1, with higher values at surface
stations. During the survey extreme temperatures varied
from 19.5° C. to 27.8° C., and similar variations were noted
in salinity because of the fresh water inflow. Oxygen
values ranged from 5-6 mg/1 in the surf zones, to 3.5-4 mg/1
near stream mouths.
STUDIES RELATED TO SUGAR INDUSTRY
Several reports have been written which have a bearing
on the sugar industry and water quality, and these are
summarized below.
The most recent study was conducted in 1966-1967 by
a private consulting firm under contract to the Hawaiian
Sugar Planters Association. The study consisted of both
in-plant and offshore works, but has not been released to
the public. (10)
At the public hearings on State water quality standards
held in February 1967, a Sanitary Engineer and spokesman
for the Hawaiian Sugar Planters Association presented an
analytical summary of the wastes from ten sugar mills. (11)
These analyses are prsented in Table 1.
In 1952, the Hawaii Board of Agriculture and Forestry
conducted a survey of the coast of Maui in order to determine
whether the industrial and agricultural wastes being drained
into the ocean were in an amount or variety sufficient to kill
fish. The report concluded that there were fewer fish in
affected areas, but did not state that agricultural
discharges were responsible. It also stated that the muds
and particulate matter did not readily settle and that a
major resulting damage was the destruction of sessile
organisms (coral). Dissolved oxygen levels were recorded
as saturated a short distance from the discharge points. (12)
At the request of local fishermen, the Board conducted
a similar study along the south coast of Kauai in 1949. Its
30
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TABLE 1 - SANITARY ANALYSES OF WASTEWATER DISCHARGES FROM TEN SUGAR FACTORIES
CANE WASH WATER
COMBINED WASTE FLOWS
U)
Temp.
PH
Turbidity
Sett. Solids
Susp. Solids
BOD5
Chlorides
PO4 (as PO4)
Org. N.
NO3 (as NO3)
NO2 (as N02)
UNITS
0 C.
Units
Units
ml/1
mg/1
mg/1
mg/1
mg/1
mg/1
mg/1
mg/1
NO.
8
8
8
8
8
8
4
4
4
4
4
MAX.
37.5
6.84
7,350
73
17,390
1,370
27.0
< 0.2
25.0
1.3
0.1
MIN.
22.0
5.45
283
8.5
1,627
173
7.5
<0.2
2.0
< 0.5
<0.1
AVG.
29.7
6.25
2,056
32
7,436
559
13.6
<0.2
14.1
<0.7
<0.1
NO.
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
MAX.
37.0
7.34
5,450
98
25,375
1,534
950
< 0.2
105
1.3
0.1
MIN.
29.5
4.96
300
4.0
1,320
264
10
<0.1
5.0
0.4
<0.1
AVG.
32.4
6.04
2,198
42
7,908
976
171
<0.2
27.2
<0.7
<0.1
-------
purpose was to determine the extent of pollution in the
waters as influenced by the McBryde, Olokele, and Kekaha
Mills and if possible, the effect of the pollutants upon
inshore fisheries. No significant salinity changes were
observed, but some areas of diminished oxygen were noted
in the turbid water. Mud deposits were noted in some
locations, but testing of the mud for hydrogen sulfide and
arsenic proved negative. (13)
In 1947, the Territory of Hawaii conducted a study along
the Hamakua coast of the island of Hawaii. The report
contains a physical description of the area and lists
complaints by local fishermen concerning the fouling effects
of floating trash. The report concludes that trash is a
nuisance, is deposited along the shoreline, and also settles
to the bottom of the ocean. (14)
32
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VI. MILL SURVEYS
The project focused on an in depth analysis of the
three mills which were most representative of the 26 active
sugar mills in Hawaii. The selection procedure consisted
of choosing the three mills that would provide a maximum
amount of data which could be projected validly to the
remaining 23 mills.
Honokaa Mill; Eight mills exist on the windward,
northeast(Hamakua) coast of the island of Hawaii.
Similarities between these mills include locations along
rugged inaccessible coasts, largely unirrigated cane fields,
operations lasting ten to eleven months a year, agricultural
and milling processes, soils, and little or no waste treat-
ment.
The Honokaa Mill, one of these eight mills, was
selected for the study for several reasons. (1) The lack
of waste treatment in this area produces noticeable
discoloration of the ocean from its waste discharges.
Increasing controversy has occurred during recent years
concerning the nature and effects of these discharges.
(2) Since the survey included a study of the ocean adjacent
to the mills it was necessary to select mill sites which had
nearby and associated control areas. Waimanu Valley, a
rugged undeveloped area which lies along the coastline
adjacent to and northwest of Honokaa was selected as the
control area for the Honokaa Mill.
Pioneer Mill; The island of Maui contains four sugar
mills, and one of these — Pioneer Mill — was also chosen
for the study. Located on the leeward side of the island,
it has waste treatment in the form of settling ponds and
a convenient nearby control area. The mill is also located
in a rapidly expanding resort area and considerable concern
has been voiced about the effects of mill discharge on
present and future real estate and resort development.
McBryde Mill; Located on the northwestern island of
Kauai is the McBryde sugar mill. This mill was selected
because it had waste treatment in the form of a hydroseparator
and also met the other established study criteria.5
Hydroseparators are clarifiers consisting of circular
excavations in the ground with mechanical sludge collect-
ion and steel overflow weirs.
33
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GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
Figures 7 through 13 and Tables 2 through 6 present the
results of the three mill surveys which were conducted be-
tween July 1967 and March 1968. The figures give the
average analytical results obtained for the study parameters,
together with the average computed loadings. Data are
presented for nutrient, solids, organic material, and
bacteriological levels. Values are presented for the three
survey mills in a left to right pattern that correlates with
the flow pattern through the mills.
No values are given for the Honokaa Mill beyond the
wash water stage, since it discharges this waste to the sea
at this point. The Honokaa Mill is also unique in that
solids from its rotary vacuum filters are not combined with
other wash waters. Separate analyses were therefore conducted
on both waste sources, and are presented individually in
the analytical results. The loadings for the two sources,
however, were combined under "wash water" in the loading
figures.
Tables 2, 3, and 4 contain the values plotted in Figures
7 through 13. Table 5 presents the unit loadings (in pounds)
of various wash water parameters per ton of raw sugar
produced; these loadings were obtained from the average
loading values presented in Table 4 and the average of the
mill sugar production figures for the survey dates. Table 6
presents the results obtained from analysis of irrigation
water.
Influent water for each of the three mills is obtained
from different sources. (1) Honokaa Mill diverts the head
waters of natural streams and channels them through
flumes and tunnels to the Honokaa Mill reservoir, the vicinity
of which is inhabited by wildlife. The water contains
living and dead vegetation in addition to animal wastes
and possibly man-made wastes. (2) McBryde Mill obtains its
influent water primarily from the Hanapepe River which
drains a large wilderness area of south-central Kauai. This
water is stored in a small reservoir prior to entering the
mill. Cows are frequently observed on land adjacent to the
reservoir. (3) The Pioneer Mill obtains influent water from
a ground water well located on the mill site. This water is
brackish and may possibly be polluted from cesspools in the
area.
Condenser processes in all three mills are similar. The
Honokaa Mill discharges its condenser water to a cistern for
peak flow storage. Large numbers of filamentous biological
growth were observed in the cistern during the surveys. While
34
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some of the water stored in the cistern is recycled, most
of it is combined with the waste stream which is discharged
to the ocean. The cane washing process at all three mills
is essentially the same, except at Honokaa Mill where mud
from the rotary filters is not added to its wash water waste
stream. In order to compare wash water from Honokaa with
the other two mills it was therefore necessary to combine
the mud from the Honokaa filter with its wash water results.
These adjusted results are shown as loadings.
In their waste treatment processing of wash water,
Pioneer and McBryde Mills subject their wash water wastes
to an initial and secondary sedimentation process. At
McBryde Mill the initial sedimentation is carried out in
a circular clarifier basin with mechanical sludge collection.
Initial sedimentation at Pioneer Mill is accomplished in
either of two parallel settling ponds. One pond is allowed
to fill with sediment and the flow is then switched to the
alternate basin while the original pond is dredged. Settling
efficiency is therefore dependent upon the length of time
that a particular pond is in use.
At the McBryde Mill secondary sedimentation is accom-
plished by utilizing a large holding basin for the effluent
from the primary clarifier. The basin stores the effluent
during the afternoon and evening shifts for use as
irrigation water during the morning shift. In the process
of storage, sedimentation occurs in the basin. Because the
basin is dredged annually, efficiency is dependent upon the
time of year and the condition of the basin.
Pioneer Mill uses one of three settling basins at a
time for secondary sedimentation, alternating their usage.
The basins were designed for sediment removal, however,
prior to the survey they had not been emptied for an
extended period of time. As a result, the flow in the ponds
at times was of a sufficient velocity to scour the sediment.
The pond currently being used for operation, received water
only during the afternoon and evening shifts and was
generally stagnant during the day. It is questionable
whether this pond was beneficial, and as subsequent results
may show, it may even have altered the wastes in a negative
manner.
The average flow rates at the three mills were between
5 and 10 mgd. This is a typical flow for most mills in
the State.
BACTERIOLOGICAL RESULTS
Geometric mean values for total and fecal coliform
35
-------
levels, shown in Figure 7 and Table 2, give the results of
the third and final series of mill surveys which were
conducted in February and March, 1968. Similar tests were
conducted on composite samples in the previous two surveys.
It was subsequently established, however, that the coliform
organisms were multiplying in the composite containers,
and it was decided to disregard the bacteriological results
of the first two surveys and conduct a grab sampling program
using improved techniques. In the spring survey, tests were
run, using the Millipore Filter method, within 60 minutes of
the sampling time.
The total coliform group of bacteria occurs in sanitary
sewage, in the intestinal tracts of animals, and also in
relatively harmless habitat such as soil. With few exceptions
the total coliform group is not harmful and has been used by
regulatory agencies for many decades as an indicator of
pathogenic organisms because total coliform and pathogenic
organisms usually exist concommitantly- The fecal coliform
group of bacteria is almost exclusively derived from the
intestinal tracts of warm-blooded animals and is therefore
a more reliable indicator of the presence of intestinal
pathogens.
The water supply for the Honokaa and McBryde Fills had
total coliform geometric means between 500 and 1,000 organisms
per 100 milliliters. Fecal coliform maximum values were
60 and 200 organisms per 100 milliliters for the Honokaa
and McBryde water supplies, respectively. The Ilonokaa
water is also used for domestic purposes in the village of
Haina. The Pioneer Mill water supply had a geometric mean
for total coliforms of 206/100 ml and values for all fecal
coliforms of less than 10/100 ml. The initial bacteriological
quality of the water supplies of both the Honokaa and
McBryde Mills approach the upper limits permitted by the
Hawaii Water Quality Standards for fresh water.
Condenser Water: No significant changes occurred in
bacterial densitTes" between the influent and condenser
sampling points at either the Honokaa or McBryde Pills.
Pioneer Mill, however, exhibited more than a tenfold increase
in fecal coliforms. No definite explanation was found for
this increase at Pioneer Mill, or why the same increase did
not occur at the other two mills. Similar increases, however,
have been noted previously in other industries such as beet
sugar, and paper production where warm temperatures and
nutrients promote biological growth during the manufacturing
process.
36
-------
io.ooo.ooo r
1.000,000 r
100,000 r
10,000 -
IOOO r
1,000,000 r
FEBRUARY and MARCH,1968
HONOKAA Mill
|||MC»YDE Mill
HPIONIK MILL
HAWAII SUGAR INDUSTRY WASTE STUDY
GEOMETRIC MEAN COLIFORM
CONCENTRATIONS
MILL SURVEYS
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
REGION IX
SAN FRANCISCO, CALIFORNIA
-------
TABLE 2 - GEOMETRIC MEAN COLIFORM CONCENTRATIONS, MILL SURVEY (Organisms/100 ml)*
oo
Location
HONOKAA MILL
Influent
Condenser
Washwater
McBRYDE MILL
Influent
Condenser
Washwater
Clarifier Effluent
Final Pond Effluent
PIONEER MILL
Influent
Condenser
Washwater
Initial Pond Effluent
Final Pond Effluent
Total No.
of Samples
9
9
10
4
4
5
3
3
3
3
4
3
3
Total
Coli forms
512
1,880
3,350,000
905
475
4,850,000
735,000
338,000
206
3,280
3,900,000
15,100,000
13,500,000
Fecal
Coliforms
12
18
24,100
116
126
4,880
2,010
1,630
<10
1,710
130,000
468,000
1,610,000
* February - March, 1968,
-------
Wash Water: Large increases in total coliform densities
occurred in the water of all three mills after passage
through the washing plant. Large increases in the fecal
coliform parameters were also observed: values for the
Honokaa Mill increased by a thousandfold, the McBryde Mill
by fortyfold, and Pioneer Mill by seventy-fivefold. The
condenser water in all cases was sampled immediately before
entering the cane washer. The increase in coliform count is
attributed to the soil particles and other material washed
from the cane. No atterrrot was made to determine the sources
of the fecal coliform bacteria although suspects include rats,
mongooses, and other animals that inhabit the fields.
Primary Clarifier or Pond Effluent: Total coliform
and fecal coliform values were reduced by more than 50 per
cent at the McBryde Mill after the water had passed through
the mechanical clarifier (hydroseparator). In contract,
total coliform and fecal coliform values increased at
Pioneer Mill after initial sedimentation.
Since significant removal of solids and other parameters
occurred in the primary sedimentation ponds at Pioneer Mill,
the increase in total coliform values was presumably due to
multiplication of the bacteria. Wash water samples at
Pioneer Mill were taken at the point where the wash water
enters the primary settling pond, while the effluent samples
from the primary pond were taken at the influent point of
the secondary pond, which is located approximately three
miles from, the primary pond. Bacteriological regrowth
could therefore take place during the passage through the
three-mile ditch connecting the two ponds.
It is theorized that reasons for the lack of regrowth
in the McBryde clarifier may be related to the time factor
or lack of a significant sludge interface at the bottom of
the clarifier.
Secondary Pond Effluent: Additional bacteriological
reductions occurred for both total and fecal coliforms
following retention of effluent in and passage through the
McBryde secondary basin. Conversely, the fecal coliform
values continued to rise in the secondary pond at Pioneer
Mill while the total coliform values indicated a slight
decrease.
The adverse changes in the Pioneer Mill samples may
be due to continued regrowth, scouring, or a combination
of these two processes. Increases in several other parameters
39
-------
were also noted, particularly solids following passage
through the Pioneer secondary ponds during the spring sur-
vey period. All these increases may be due to the scouring
of bacteria-laden particles from the channels. It is note-
worthy that despite overnight detention in the McBryde pond,
no evidence of coliform regrowth was apparent.
Significance of Bacteriological Results: Extremely
high densities of both total coliforms and fecal coliforms
are present in the final effluent from mill wastes regardless
of whether or not these wastes had undergone sedimentation.
Wherever total coliforms and particularly fecal coliforms
are present in waters in the high concentrations indicated,
the water must be labeled as being a potential source of
dangerous pathogenic organisms. This is true not only
because of the high densities present, but also because it
is possible that conditions in the waste which allow the
apparent regrowth of the indicated organisms may also cause
the regrowth of pathogens.
SOLIDS RESULTS
Average solids concentration and loadings for all three
surveys are shown in Figures 8 and 9 and Tables 3 and 4.
Total solids values represent solids in suspension and
solution. It should be noted that total solids concentration
does not necessarily indicate a turbid sample. This fact
is exemplified by the sea water surrounding Hawaii which is
crystal clear yet has a very high total solids concentration
due to its total amount of dissolved salts.
Suspended solids analyses indicate those particles which
are suspended in water, generally impart turbidity, and are
removed by fine filtration. Settleable solids represent the
amount of solids present on a weight basis, that settle to
the bottom of a still container after a definite period of
quiescence. In this study, that time period was one hour.
Influent Water: Solids concentration and loadings of
influent water were of a low or insignificant level in the
water supply at the Honokaa and HcBryde Mills. Due to the
brackish nature of the ground water source, the Pioneer Hill
water supply contained high levels of dissolved solids. This
water was, however, low in suspended solids and virtually
void of all settleable solids due to natural filtration of
the soil media. The water supply at McBryde .Mill contained
small but measurable amounts of suspended and settleable
solids presumably composed of river sediment and macroscopic
plant life. Honokaa Mill also contained similar quantities
of such solids, although the greatest postion of these
appeared to be algal growths.
40
-------
TOTAL SOLIDS
IO.OOO
SETTLEABLE SOLIDS
xi
Sf
81
33
it
fill
*W Oiu
LEGEND
^g HONOKAA MILL
EjSJ HONOKAA Fitur and Wa*h WaKr (r«ip*c!lv*lr)
PIONEEI MILL
HAWAII SUOAR INDUSTRY WASTg STUDY
AVERAGE SOLIDS CONCENTRATIONS
MILL SURVEYS
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGCN
REGION IX
SAN FRANCISCO, CALIFORNIA
-------
FIGURE 9
TOTAL SOLIDS
z
SI
si
13
*
°Z
ii
- *
700
too
soo
§
5
" 400
i
Q
5
a
a
IOO
SUSPENDED SOLIDS
1- *
Ii si
=
|=
•
1 I
1 1
m rJ
if 1
SETTUABLE SOLIDS
LEGEND
F:;£]M<»rDt MILL
AVERAGE SOLIDS LOADINGS
MILL SURVEYS
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
42
-------
Location
TABLE 3 - AVERAGE CONCENTRATIONS, MILL SURVEYS (mg/1)*
ANALYSES; ,____,______,__
BiochemicalChemicalTotal
Total Suspended Settleable Oxygen Oxygen Organic
Solids Solids Solids Demand Demand Carbon
Total Total
Nitro- Phospho-
gen (N) rus (P)
CO
HONOKAA MILL
Influent
Condenser
Washwater
McBRYDE MILL
Influent
Condenser
Washwater
Clarifier Eff .
Final Pond Eff
PIONEER MILL
Influent
Condenser
Washwater
Initial Pond
Eff.
Final Pond Eff
68
100
5,700
250
30
12,000
2,650
950
2,800
2,700
8,700
5,900
. 5,600
9
24
4,500
13
20
10,700
2,000
530
3
24
5,500
1,700
1,600
2
5
4,050
8
10
10,500
1,160
170
0
7
5,300
1,500
1,400
10
45
795
8
14
800
655
500
70
670
520
425
16
93
2,700
6
42
2,300
900
600
34
110
1,100
690
755
11
36
545
4
13
710
330
190
4
19
420
230
150
0.4
0.7
51.0
0.4
0.6
44.
9.1
4.8
0.2
1.6
23.
11.
14.
0.07
0.07
23.0
0.03
0.15
13.
5.8
1.5
0.08
0.41
8.5
4.7
3.6
* Results of 3 Surveys Conducted between July 1967 - March 1968.
-------
TABLE 4 - AVERAGE LOADING, MILL SURVEYS (pounds/day)*
Biochemical
Location
HONOKAA MILL
Influent
Condenser
Washwater
McBRYDE MILL
Influent
Condenser
Washwater
Clarifier Eff
Final Pond
Eff.
PIONEER MILL
Influent
Condenser
Washwater
Initial Pond
Eff.
Final Pond
Eff.
Total
Solids
5,100
75,000
340,000
10,900
13,000
520,000
.115,000
43,000
165,000
160,000
636,000
431,000
410,000
Suspended
Solids
660
1,950
280,000
580
880
470,000
85,000
24,000
190
1,600
400,000
127,000
115,000
Settleable
Solids
240
365
245,000
360
450
470,000
49,000
7,600
Negligible
500
380,000
112,000
102,000
Oxygen
Demand
730
3,750
58,000
320
630
35,000
29,000
21,333
5,000
49,500
38,500
31,500
Chemical
Oxygen
Demand
1,200
6,700
178,000
290
1,900
99,500
39,000
27,000
2,000
6,900
82,000
52,000
56,000
Total
Organic
Carbon
830
2,700
39,000
150
580
31,000
14,000
8,600
280
1,300
30,000
18,000
11,000
Total
Nitro-
gen(N)
31
51
3,400
19
26
1,900
400
225
23
125
1,700
800
1,050
Total
Phospho
rus (P)
5
4
1,600
1
7
565
250
69
5
29
620
340
260
* Results of 3 Surveys Conducted between July 1967 - March 1968.
-------
Condenser Water: Only minor amounts of additional
solids were added between the influent and condenser sampling
points. This change can be attributed to minor losses of
sugar at all mills, and at the Honokaa Mill some biological
growth in the cistern also contributes to this increase.
Wash Water; Average solids values rose markedly in all
mills by factors of approximately 180 to 500 after the wash
water passed through the cane washing plant. The rise in
total solids values was directly related to changes in the
suspended solids values, indicating that suspension of soil
and other particles from the cane was largely responsible
for the rise, rather than actual solution of any sugars.
The most striking and significant relationship shown in
Figures 8 and 9 is the high percentage of settleable solids
contained in the suspended material. In all cases, more
than 90 per cent of the suspended solids were of a settle-
able nature. This was further verified by the high removal
percentages.
A true perspective of the loadings can be found in
Table 5 which gives the unit wash-water loadings based on
tons of raw sugar produced. For the total solids parameter,
the figures are about equal, with the McBryde Mill having a
slightly higher value. Pioneer Mill, however, had a high
total solids content in its influent water and, assuming
proper adjustment, would therefore have a considerably
lower unit loading. For suspended and settleable solids,
McBryde Mill had the highest unit loadings, while Pioneer
Mill had the lowest figures.
Factors that affect the quantity of total solids con-
tained in the wash water are the efficiency of the cleaning
plant, the moisture condition of the fields, harvesting
procedures and cane quality. The only significant rainfall
which occurred was during the spring surveys at two of the
mills, and in both instances the plants shut down when the
effects of the rain began to interfere with harvesting
operations. It is believed that the principal factor
contributing to lower unit values at the Pioneer Mill is the
use of an overhead grab machine for harvesting the cane.
McBryde and Honokaa Mills use the more common "push rake"
which plows the cane into piles and picks up much greater
quantities of rocks and dirt in the process. The
differences between the Honokaa and McBryde values are more
difficult to explain. These may be due to cleaning plant
efficiencies as well as coarse soil at the Honokaa plantation.
45
-------
Primary Clarifier or Pond Effluent: Significant
amounts of sediment were removed in the initial sediment-
ation processes at both Pioneer and more particularly
McBryde Mill. Annual averages indicate approximately 70 per
cent removal of suspended and settleable solids at
Pioneer Mill, with between 80 and 90 per cent removal of
suspended solids at the McBryde Mill.
Secondary Pond Effluent; Since secondary ponds at
Pioneer Mill required dredging, the samples of water taken
there were of dubious value. The average values of sediment
removed from Pioneer Mill secondary ponds indicated a slight
additional removal; however, during the spring survey, solids
values were actually higher in the effluent than in the
influent. The McBryde Mill removed additional solids from
the primary effluent and thereby achieved significant
reduction in total solids. Overall removals at McBryde
Mill totaled 95 per cent for suspended solids and were
greater than 98 per cent for settleable solids.
Significance of Solids: The most striking characteristics
of the solids data are (1) the high proportion of settle-
able solids in the wash water, and (2) the amenability of
the wastes to solids removal through basic sedimentation
processes. The 95-98 per cent removals of suspended and
settleable solids at the McBryde Mill, without the use of
any coagulants, and with only a minimum of maintenance is
excellent.
Results from several particle size tests indicate
that the size of solids particles fall within the silt and
clay particle size distribution range, and theoretically
should not exhibit this high degree of settleability- The
most probable reason for this phenomenon is the attraction
of particles to one another to form a floe which then tends
to sweep other particles to the bottom.
It appears, therefore, with properly designed equip-
ment, the assignment of responsibility, and with adequate
automated or intermittent sludge disposal, the 95-98 per
cent removals of settleable solids achieved at the McBryde
Mill can be obtained at all mills without the use of
coagulants. Even after such a high sediment removal, how-
ever, the water at the McBryde Mill produces a turbid
effluent. The remaining 5 per cent of unremoved material
represents several thousand pounds of solids discharged
per day. The addition of a moderate amount of coagulants
is likely to remove most of the remaining suspended solids.
46
-------
As indicated by the Pioneer Mill unit loading data,
another significant finding is the potential reduction of
solids through the use of overhead harvesting grabs. The
Pioneer equipment was designed to minimize the number of
rocks that are unintentionally removed from the fields and
brought to the mill cleaning plant. The equipment also tends
to reduce the quantity of soil particles which normally
cling to the cane during the harvesting process.
ORGANIC RESULTS
Three types of analyses were conducted on the wastes
of the mills to indicate organic material. These were
biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD),
and total organic carbon (TOC). Results of these analyses
are summarized in Figures 10 and 11 and Tables 3 and 4.
The BOD test indicates the amount of oxygen required
by bacteria while stabilizing decomposable organic matter
under aerobic (oxygen-present) conditions for a specified
time interval. The COD test makes a similar determination
but more nearly represents total oxidation requirements.
The latter uses strong chemicals rather than living
bacteriological organisms to break down the organic matter.
The TOC test measures the amount of organic carbon present in
a water sample. It does not measure inorganic carbon
compounds such as carbon dioxide or the carbonates.
Influent Water: It should be noted that because of
insufficient data, BOD values are not presented in the
figures for Pioneer Mill.
Values for BOD, COD, and TOC parameters are generally
low as would be expected from the water sources. The
possible exception occurs at Pioneer Mill, where a COD
value of 34 mg/1 (2,000 Ibs/day) seems excessive.
Condenser Water; All three parameters showed increased
values between the influent and condenser stages. This rise
is attributable to the possible introduction of some sugars
into the water as well as to biological growths during storage
of the water.
Wash Water; All values for BOD, COD, and TOC rose
markedly after the wash waters had passed through the
washing plant. BOD values increased from tenfold at
Pioneer Mill to more than fiftyfold at McBryde Mill. COD
values followed similar patterns, while total organic carbon
increased by factors of 15, 22, and 55 at Honokaa, Pioneer,
and McBryde Mills, respectively. Table 5 shows that unit
47
-------
BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND
ft ™
JS
III!
IrUft =5
LEGEND
gg HONOKAA MILL
^^ HONOKAA Ffh«r anj Walk Wa>«f (fw«p*
-------
FIGURE 11
BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND
200
CHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND
S
LtOiND
HONOR AA MIL!
|i M
-------
TABLE 5-AVERAGE UNIT WASTE LOADINGS FROM SURVEY MILLS-WASH WATER(Ibs/ton of raw sugar produced)*
Mills
HONOKAA
McBRYDE
o PIONEER
Total
Solids
2,300
2,500
2,300
Suspended
Solids
1,800
2,300
1,450
Settleable
Solids
1,600
2,300
1,400
Biochemical
Oxygen
Demand
390
170
180
Chemical
Oxygen
Demand
1,150
490
300
Total
Organic
Carbon
250
150
110
Nitrogen
(AsN)
22
9
6
Phosphorus
(AsP)
10
3
2
* Results of 3 Surveys Conducted between July 1967 - March 1968.
-------
loadings for the three parameters are approximately equal
for McBryde and Pioneer Mills but about twice as high for
Honokaa Mill. Perhaps this can be attributed to the fact
that Honokaa Mill makes no effort to remove foliage and
waste fibers (trash) from the wash water as do the other
mills before the water enters the settling basins.
Primary Clarifier or Pond Effluent: In the initial
sedimentation processes, the OBD removals averaged about
20 per cent at both McBryde and Pioneer Mills. COD removal
was considerably higher, however, with about 35 per cent
removal at Pioneer Mill and 60 per cent removal at
McBryde Mill. Total organic carbon reductions at both
mills amounted to about 45 per cent.
Secondary Pond Effluents: Reductions in BOD, COD, and
TOC parameters occurred in the secondary pond at .McBryde
Mill. Average overall reductions in both mill basins
amounted to 35 per cent for BOD, 74 per cent for COD, and
73 per cent for total organic carbon. Average detention
time in the final reservoir at McBryde exceeded 24 hours;
and because of this longer detention time biological
decomposition of organic matter probably had a more
significant effect in this basin. Biological decomposition
is further indicated by the penetrating odor occasionally
emitted from this pond.
Reductions of BOD and TOC parameters occurred in the
Pioneer Mill secondary ponds and an insignificant rise in
COD values also occurred. Because of the relatively high
velocity of the flow in the basins, these reductions were
undoubtedly due to biological decomposition rather than
settlement. Overall reductions at Pioneer Mill were 35 per
cent for BOD, 30 per cent for COD, and 65 per cent for total
organic carbon.
Signifijc_ance_of Organic Results: BOD, COD, and TOC
can be used to indicate the susceptibility of wastes to
eventual decomposition and also to determine their sub-
sequent demand on the oxygen resources of receiving waters.
Even after significant removals through treatment processes,
results show that when wastes are discharged into coastal
bays or other areas of limited circulation, they are still
capable of exerting an oxygen depletion.
NUTRIENT RESULTS
Average annual results for total nitrogen, N, and total
phosphorus, P, are presented in Figures 12 and 13 and Tables
3 and 4.
51
-------
TOTAL PHOSPHORUS
TOTAl NITROGEN
100 t-
I:
— U 0 IM tl. til
lEOEND
^=]HONOKAA MILL
KJ HONOKA A • Fill.r and Woih Wol.r (r.lp.cl,y.lv)
pj-i McBRYDE Mill
^1 PIONfER Mill
Is
HAWAII SUGAR INDUSTRY WASTE STUDY
AVERAGE NUTRIENT CONCENTRATIONS
MILL SURVEYS
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
REGION IX
SAN FRANCISCO, CALIFORNIA
-------
70
10
Cn
CJ
TOTAL PHOSFHOIUS
Sf
-?2l Xz
22
ft
LEGEND
BHONOKAA Mill
iPIONtll Mill
Z
32
s
if
u*
M*WAII »U«*H INDUJTKT W*»Tl »TUOY
AVERAGE NUTRIENT LOADINGS
MILL SURVEYS
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AOENCT
REtlON IX
S»N FR»HCI»CO,Ctl.lfO«NI»
-------
Influent Water: As would be expected for waters from
these sources, nitrogen and phosphorus values were generally
in the range of average quality- Total phosphorus values
were less than . 1 mg/1, and total nitrogen values were less
than .5 mg/1.
Condenser J-Jater: Increases in nutrients were observed
in the condenser water, however, the amount was still
insignificant, as indicated by the loading values in Figure
13 and Table 4.
Wash Water: Like previous parameters, values for the
nutrient parameters also increased sharply after passage of
wash water through the cane washing plants. Phosphorus and
nitrogen values increased by factors of 75 and 300,
respectively, at Honokaa Mill, and 85 and 70 at McBryde Mill,
and 20 and 14 at Pioneer Mill.
Orthophosphates formed less than one per cent of the
total amount of phosphorus, This finding would indicate
that the source of phosphorus is primarily organic in the
fibrous plant material, or the more insoluble forms of
phosphorus such as calcium phosphate which adheres to the
soil particles.
Total nitrogen values were primarily of an organic
nature with ammonia, nitrate, and nitrite nitrogen forming
less than 10 per cent of the total amount. Most of the
nitrogen comes from the cane fibers and other materials of
the cane itself.
Table 5 shows that the Honokaa Mill again had signifi-
cantly higher unit loadings than the other two mills. This
fact is primarily attributed to the fibrous cane material
(trash) which Honokaa does not remove from its waste
stream. The moist climate of the Honokaa area also results
in a higher volume of incoming trash than is found at Pioneer
or McBryde Mills.
Primary Clarifier or Pond Effluent: Significant
nutrient removals were observed at both McEryde and Pioneer
Mills following passage through the initial clarifiers. The
largest reductions occurred at the McBryde Mill through the
use of the automated hydroseparator. It is believed that
screening of trash prior to entry in the hydroseparator and
continuous mechanical sludge removal account for the
sunerior performance at this mill.
Secondary_jPpnd Effluent: Further reductions in total
nitrogen and total phosphorus continued in the secondary pond
at McBryde Mill. Overall reductions for both basins at the
54
-------
mill averaged between 85 and 90 per cent for both parameters.
A reduction in phosphorus content occurred at the
Pioneer Mill secondary pond while a noticeable increase
occurred in the nitrogen values. This rise in annual averages
resulted from a major increase in nitrogen during the spring
survey, when visual observations indicated that significant
erosion in pond deposits was occurring. Some reduction in
nitrogen values was evident in the previous two surveys.
Significance of Nutrient Results; Nitrogen and
phosphorus are known contributors to eutrophication or
excessive growth of undersirable algae and other aquatic
plant life. The mill wastes are strong enough to
produce these ecological changes if discharged to confined
receiving waters. Many of the mills in the State have out-
falls which discharge into open bodies of water where ocean
currents disperse the effluent and sweep it away. On the
other hand, several mills discharge wastes into bays or
other coastal areas with limited circulation.
ARSENIC, HERBICIDES, AND pH RESULTS
Prior to synthesis of modern herbicides, the Hawaiian
plantations added extensive quantities of arsenic to the
soils for control of undesirable plant life. Analyses were
run on many of the mill samples to determine if arsenic
still existed in the soil particles of the wash water.
Significant concentrations were found in the wash waters
of the Honokaa Mill. An average of 1.4 mg/1 was found in
the mill's filter discharge even though the volume of this
discharge was relatively small, whereas in the wash water,
a much larger volume, results indicated averages as high
as 0.5 mg/1. Arsenic was also found in the McBryde Mill
wash water although at much lower concentrations. It was
not found in noticeable quantities at the Pioneer Mill.
Since the preliminary investigation of each mill
covered in detail the quantities and procedures of usage of
pesticides, only a cursory study was conducted to determine
the occurrences of herbicides in the actual mill wastes.
Gas chromatograph analyses were conducted for two of the
chemicals commonly used by the sugar industry; 2,4,5T and
Atrazine. Only negligible amounts were found of 2,4,5T;
and of Atrazine, the highest concentration found was 9.25
micrograms per liter.
Other herbicides used by the Hawaiian plantations in-
clude Ametryne, Dowpon, and Karmex (also known as DCMV or
Diuron). Tests were not conducted to detect their presence.
55
-------
This study was neither planned nor equiped to realistically
evaluate the effects of herbicides on the receiving water
and its biota. These parameters merit further investigat-
ion as indicated by the limited tests which were conducted
and the testimony given during public hearings which
preceded the adoption of water quality standards in which
it was proported that subtle and long-range damage had
occurred to the shoreline fishery.
The pH of the mill wash waters was lover than the
influent water by one unit. This fact can be attributed
to the natural pH of the cane juices, as well as to the
possible formation of acid following bacteriological
breakdown of the organic matter.
Further pll reductions were noted at r'cDryde I'ill after
wash waters passed through the two sedimentation basins.
This fact could be attributed to the previously mentioned
biological breakdown and subsequent formation of organic
acids. Discharges of wastes from the final sedimentation
process to the ocean cause no significant pH problems in
the ocean because of the near neutral pll levels and high
buffering characteristic of sea water.
IRRIGATION WATER RESULTS
The concentrations and levels of polluting parameters
in excess irrigation water (tailwater) can in some in-
stances equal or exceed the mill wastes. In the majority
of cases, however, if the discharge volume is not excessive,
the total effects of the wastes would be less than the
actual mill wash water. The possible exception to this
situation would be nitrates because tailwater values exceed
average mill wash-water values in all but one case. Results
of these findings appear in Table 6.
56
-------
TABLE 6-ANALYTICAL RESULTS, EXCESS IRRIGATION WATER (TAILWATER) FROM McBRYDE PLANTATION
INFORMATION
Date Planted
Date Sampled
Total Solids mg/1
Suspended Solids mg/1
Settleable Solids mg/1
COD mg/1
Total Organic Carbon mg/1
Ammonia Nitrogen mg/1
(As N)
Nitrite Nitrogen mg/1
(As N)
Nitrite Nitrogen mg/1
(As N)
Kjeldahl Nitrogen mg/1
(As N)
Total Phosphorus mg/1
(As P)
Ortho Phosphorus mg/1
(As P)
Arsenic ug/1
pH Units
Total Coliform/100 ml
Fecal Coliform/100 ml
FIELD NUMBER
13A
5/66
11/1/67
574
248
174
37
15
0.1
0.065
0.165
0.5
-
0.05
7.3
8B
7/67
3/27/68
204
112
106
14
5
0.01
0.01
0.438
0.7
0.37
0.092
7.2
13,000
1,300
9A
8/67
3/27/68
92
40
34
< 1
5
0.04
0.005
0.106
1.
0.17
0.008
6.9
500
70
12_
11/67
3/27/68
900
584
288
55
22
0.49
0.016
0.29
13.9
1.7
0.01
6.7
-------
VII. OFFSHORE SURVEYS
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
Offshore surveys were conducted for four sugar mills
(Honokaa, Pioneer, McBryde, and Olokele) to evaluate the
effects of mill waste on various water usages in the
coastal receiving waters. The following parameters of water
usage were investigated: aesthetic effects, water contact
sports, and propagation and sustenance of marine life
(shellfish, fauna, and coral). The following physical
parameters which are related to the above usages were also
investigated: floating trash and bagasse, turbidity,
bacteriological densities, nutrients, dissolved oxygen,
temperature, salinity, bottom conditions, fish population,
and toxicity (bioassay).
Conditions found in the outfall areas where the mills
discharge wastes were compared with those found in nearby
relatively unaffected control areas. This procedure allowed
evaluation of the effects of mill operations on the quality
and bottom characteristics of coastal waters adjacent to
the mills. Data gathered during the offshore surveys are
presented in Figures 14 through 31.
Figures 14 through 16 present observations of surface
turbidity in the waters offshore from the three mills.
Readings were obtained by towing behind the survey vessel
a transmissometer which records turbidity as a percent
transmittance of light. These readings were converted to
Secchi disc equivalent (clarities) with tables furnished
by the manufacturer which was followed by verification by
field measurements. It was apparent from the outset of
the study that turbidity patterns would not be consistent
from day to day- Any attempt to average the daily values
resulted in a star-like pattern radiating from the
outfall and consequently the data are presented for single
days only.
Olokele Mill was selected for an offshore survey instead
of McBryde Mill because it had a control area available.
During the last offshore survey, Olokele Mill was forced
to close because of weather conditions and some studies
were conducted at the McBryde Mill also.
58
-------
Figures 17 and 18 present total coliform results
obtained from surface samples taken at Honokaa and Pioneer
Mills discharge areas during a series of bacteriological
tests in June and July 1968. Geometric means were computed
for both areas but only results from the Honokaa formed a
meaningful pattern. These data were obtained during the
July 10-12 sampling period, while the Pioneer Mill data
result from one day's sampling and typify a northwesterly
traveling plume.
Figures 19 and 20 show patterns that were apparent
from the total phosphate results at the Honokaa and Pioneer
Mill discharge areas.
Figures 21 through 28 portray bottom conditions at the
three mill outfall locations and control areas. These
figures include sketches of selected bottom conditions and
depictions of the condition and density of coral growths at
selected mill sites. The color plates No. 1-8 portray at
closer range and with more detail the conditions illustrated
in the sketches.
Some extrapolation of findings was necessary to prepare
the sketches reproduced in Figures 21 through 28 since
excessive turbidities and high swells at the sampling sites
often made underwater observations hazardous.
Figures 29 through 31 show the results of fish censuses
which were conducted at all mill sites and control areas.
FLOATING TRASH AND BAGASSE
With one exception, all nills in Hawaii which dump
liquid wastes directly to the sea, simultaneously dump
waste trash (foliage) and bagasse. The trash generally
floats on the water surface and is ultimately formed into
"windrows" or rows of trash by the wind and ocean currents.
These windrows are usually located near the outer edge of the
turbid water zones and extend for long distances along the
coast (Cover photograph and Plate 10).
The preliminary survey of all 26 sugar mills indicate
that at least eight mills on the island of Hawaii and at
least two mills on the island of Kauai regularly discharge
cane and/or bagasse into the ocean.
Precise measurements of floating materials are
difficult to make. Project field notes taken off the
coastline of Hawaii record: "numerous mats of trash observed
—largest was 300X15 feet" and "trash streaks existing on
59
-------
border of blue to green water." In later unnoted sightings,
windrows were observed to extend for lengths greater than 300
feet. Surveillance of the coastline revealed accumulations of
the material in public access areas as well as in inaccessible
locations.
In addition to aesthetic considerations, floating
trash is a source of complaint from local commercial fisher-
men because it fouls vessels and gear. The survey vessel
used in this study also experienced the same problems.
TURBIDITY
Turbid water around the three sample mills was charac-
terized by a vertical stratification of silt which varied
from less than a foot to several feet as the distance from
the outfall increased. As diffusion continued, it
eventually became impossible to record a definite interface
between silt-laden water and sea water at any depth, and
the water would ultimately show uniform turbidities to
the bottom of the ocean or to the maximum length of the
instrument cables.
Another characteristic of the turbid waters was its
shape as a relatively narrow plume or streak. (See
Cover photograph and Plate 10.) Shifting of the streaks was
unpredictable and did not indicate an immediately apparent
relationship with the tide cycles.
Actual measurements of turbidity were carried out by
one or more of the following procedures: (1) use of a
transmissometer to record transmittance of light at varying
depths of water, (2) use of the Secchi disc to note the
depth of visibility, and (3) use of water samples in the
laboratory to test turbidity. Good correlations were
obtained among all three types of measurements. The
greatest amount of information was obtained by towing the
transmissometer behind the boat which followed courses
laid out perpendicular to the coastline above and below the
outfalls. The results from three such "tows" are presented
in Figures 14 and 15.
Honokaa Mill; Figure 14 illustrates the Honokaa plume
on July 11, 1968. On this day, the plume was headed out to
sea. The turbidity was swept westward for about a quarter
mile along the small inlet, possibly because of local
circulation in the bay. From there it was swept out to sea;
inroads of clearer water entered the plume as its distance
from shore increased. A rising tide was in progress
throughout the measurements and tended to push the plume
60
-------
o
OCEAN
Or«ol.f Than 31 F«l
HONOKAA MILL DISCHARGE
July II, 1968
Poaunau
Sugar Milt
HAWAII SUOAR INDUSTRY WASTE STUDY
SURFACE TURBIDITY
AS DEPTH OF VISIBILITY
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
REGION IX
SAN FRANCISCO, CALIFORNIA
-------
streaks in or along the coastline rather than outward toward
the open sea. Light winds appeared from the east in the
early morning and later on shifted to eleven knots from the
northeast.
Two tongues of turbidity are shown on the eastern
portion of the survey area (Figure 14). These streaks were
apparently from the Paauhou Mill discharge. This indicates
the variable current pattern along the Honokaa coast.
During these measurements, surface currents were actually
traveling in two different directions at close locations.
Approximately 225 acres of surface water had clarities of
less than 31 feet off the Honokaa outfall, with the outer
edge reaching a distance of over a mile and a half from the
discharge point.
Pioneer Mill: Figure 15 illustrates the Pioneer Mill
plume as Tt travels in its most common direction northwest
along the coast. In general, the rr.ill ceases to discharge
its wastes at about 6:00 a.m. The pattern of discharge
was determined by gathering data in the vicinity of the
outfall while the discharge was continuing, and then by
traveling along the coast into the plume after discharge
from the outfall had ceased. £11 observations on this
survey were taken at locations and at times such as to be
uninfluenced by the terminated discharge.
In contrast to the rocky coastline at the Honokaa Mill,
considerable amounts of sand were found along the shore
near Pioneer Mill. As a result, the surf itself produced
significant turbidities near the shore even though it was
free from the influence of the discharge.
Figure 15 shows that abnormal turbidities were observed
from the area of the outfall site to the approximate location
of Kauaula Stream, a point about 2 1/2 miles along the
coast from, the discharge site. The 31-foot clarity line
was extended from its location at the outer edge of the surf
zone to an area approximately one-half mile from shore. More
than 250 acres were affected by mill discharge. The depth
of the turbidity was shallow near the outfall and was thin
enough to be parted easily by the boat's wake, but the
stratification diminished with distance and ultimately became
indistinguishable.
McBryde Mill: Most of the offshore surveys on the
island of Kauai were conducted in the vicinity of the
Olokele Mill, however, adverse weather conditions during
the spring survey forced this mill to close. Since
McBryde Mill continued to operate during this period, it
was studied in lieu of the Olokele Mill for the last survey.
62
-------
Pioneer Sugar M
TOWN OF / LAHAINA
LEGEND
Greater Than 31 Feel
17 To 31 Feel
No Data
"" ~" Survey Limit
PIONEER MILL DISCHARGE
June 20, 1968
P A C I F
OCEAN
LOCATION MAP
Scale in M>le*
HAWAII SUGAR INDUSTRY WASTE STUDY
SURFACE TURBIDITY
AS DEPTH OF VISIBILITY
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
REGION IX
SAN FRANCISCO , CALIFORNIA
3
O
-------
Also, in addition to the discharges from the Olokele
Mill, one discharge from the McEryde Mill was also studied.
The latter discharge was observed entering the sea on
April 27; so transmissometer measurements were made on
that plume as an additional observation (Figure 16).
Investigation revealed that the mill had ceased operation
during the previous night even though cooling water was
being passed through the bottom of the final detention
pond. This discharge was not true washwater, but cooling
water which contained significant amounts of material that
had been scoured from the reservoir. Although the discharge
did not typify everyday wash-water effluents, such discharges
obviously occur and subsequently affect the receiving
waters in the manner indicated.
Rainfall and ensuing runoff were responsible for the
band of water shown with clarities of 17 to 31 feet. The
band flowed along the coastline for about one half mile
offshore and was visible to the east of the mill discharge.
The mill discharge formed a bright reddish-brown streak,
closely approximated on Figure 16 by the darkest zoning.
This streak continued to flow for about two and a half
miles from the actual discharge point before diffusion
sufficiently dispersed it. Turbidity attributable to the
outfall continued for at least another mile along the
coastline.
Large discharges from the Hanapepe River were observed
on the previous day, April 26, but on the survey date of
April 27 these discharges were considerably diminished.
The turbid water off the Olokele Mill was observed to be
split by a tongue of clearer water probably resulting from
a counter ocean current. Runoff from the Hanapepe River
and other sources in the area tend to mask the mill's
effects. At least 1,000 acres of the ocean's surface
turbidity, however, were increased by the mill discharge.
Discus_s_ipn of Turbidity: Efforts were made to test
turbidity~~un^lerr~1Tiiatural1' conditions; i.e., conditions
observed at locations near a discharge point but obviously
not under the influence of the discharge. To do this, one
survey was scheduled in the winter season when the mills were
shut down and the three selected control areas on each
island were also sampled at the same time.
In summary, the results indicated that when significant
swells existed, clarity near the shoreline was as low as
two feet if sand or other fine material was in the vicinity.
The Secchi disc measurement equivalents in the water beyond
the influence of the swells always exceeded 30 feet, and on
64
-------
o
tn
McBryde
Sugar
Cane
Ml
BRIDE MILL DISCHARGE
April 27, 1968
Gr*at*r Than 31 F«*l
17 To 31 F..I
PA C I F I C
OCEAN
\. •.-.-. I
.'.'.•.I 12 lo 17 F..I
i • « • t
[:gg:|:|:;:jj 8 lo 12 F..1
^^H 0 To 8 F...
No Dola
NOTE: Olok.l. Mill Not Op.ral.ng
1/2
SCALE IN MILES
LOCATION MAP
HAWAII SUGAR INDUSTRY WASTE STUDY
SURFACE TURBIDITY
AS DEPTH OF VISIBILITY
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
REGION IX
SAN FRANCISCO, CALIFORNIA
-------
many occasions a Secchi disc or other piece of equipment
could be visible at depths of 100 feet.
Measurements were taken on two occasions when the waters
were effected by the storm runoff. The clarity of the
ocean at the shoreward Maui control station in January was
observed to be 38 feet, whereas the value normally would be
twice this amount.
Of the 26 sugar mills in the State of Hawaii, three
mills present no turbidity problems one is scheduled to
close in 1971, five have only minimal discharges, and 17
have significant discharges of which ten can be labeled as
overtly offensive from the standpoint of turbidity. The
study found that discharge plumes are capable of discoloring
the ocean surface for miles. Observations made of irrigation
tailwater discharges during the various surveys revealed
that these waters also discolor large areas of the ocean.
Discoloration of the waters of Hawaii is diametrically
opposed to the goals of the visitor industry which is second
only the Federal-military establishment in total contribu-
tion to the State's economy- The visitor industry which
describes the "continuous clear blue sparkling waters"
of the State to potential tourists housed more than one
million tourists in 1967, a 25.4 percent increase over the
previous years. When the tourist industry was smaller, there
was little conflict between the two. Predictions have been
made that tourism will become increasingly more significant
to the future of the Islands. Today, resort complexes stand
where previously only agricultural or grazing land existed,
and more such developments are proposed.
BACTERIOLOGICAL DENSITIES
Bacteriological results from the ocean sampling program
are limited to total coliforms. No fecal coliform determi-
nations were conducted on receiving waters because they
could not be run in a technically acceptable manner aboard
the survey vessel, nor could ocean samples be processed on
shore because the time interval between taking the samples,
and docking the vessel, was too excessive to meet acceptable
standards for validity. It was possible, on the other hand,
to obtain reliable results for fecal coliform levels in the
mill wastes themselves; therefore, the latter were used to
evaluate the effects of this parameter.
In general the bacteriological densities were directly
related to the proximity of the mill outfalls and location
within the plume. For example, if the plume had a distinct
66
-------
edge, the densities would be relatively high in the plume
and low a few feet outside of it. Like turbidity, coliform
densities diffused with depth and distance.
Honokaa_Mi11: Figure 17 shows the geometric mean values
for total coliform concentrations during four sampling
periods conducted on July 10-12. Field notes during the
period indicated also that the area of discoloration
followed patterns similar to those shown in Figure 17. The
average densities exceeded 10,000/100 ml, for a surface
area of about 90 acres surrounding the mill outfall. The
numbers then diminished in a northeasterly direction to
200/100 ml (Figure 12) and reached a maximum distance of
about one mile from the outfall.
No observations were made near the Paauhau Mill or for
more than two miles west of the Honokaa outfall.
Pioneer Mill: Figure 18 indicates the total coliform
values observed in the offshore waters of Pioneer Mill on
June 21. As previously noted, sampling was done on other
days but meaningful patterns could not be obtained from
the averages because of the varying directions of the
plume. In this case, the plume was observed to be heading
northwest along the coast in a pattern similar to that
appearing in Figure 18. Densities as high as 5000/100 ml,
were observed at a distance of approximately 2 miles from
the outfall.
Discussion: Total coliform values in control area
waters at Maui and Hawaii consistently gave values of less
than 100/100 ml, with one exception. Values were less than
10/100 ml in over 50 percent of the samples. Similar
results were obtained from samples taken near the outfalls
when there was no visible turbidity.
The mill surveys showed that the discharges, before
release to the coastal waters were high in both total and
fecal coliforms, representing a potential hazard to health.
After release of the mill discharge to the ocean, the
Pioneer Mill plume (Figure 18), indicating the result of
one day's sampling, shows a surface area of more than 250
acres in which total coliform densities exceed 1000/100 ml,
a generally accepted limit for water classified as "safe"
for water contact sports. The distance that the elevated
densities continued is a matter of speculation; however,
based on a count of 3400/100 ml at the westernmost sampling
point, densities greater than 1000/100 ml may have existed
at a distance offshore from Lahaina, a town located three
miles west of the discharge point.
67
-------
L*it Thon 200 Orgartitmi
f.r 100 MilliliUrl
.*.*.• 200-1OOO Orgoniim.
P*r 100 Millllil.n
1000-10,000 Organilmi
-S&3 f», 100 Millilil.r.
Gr»ot*r Than 10,000 Organi»m«
P.r 1OO Millilil.r.
Geomttrlc Mtons
July 10-12. 1968
Honokaa
I II Suga- Mill
HAWAII SUGAR INDUSTRY WASTE STUDY
TOTAL COLIFORM CONCENTRATIONS
HONOKAA MILL OFFSHORE WATERS
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
REGION IX
SAN FRANCISCO, CALIFORNIA
-------
L.ss Than 1OO Organisms
P.r 1OO Millilil.rl
1OO-IOOO Organisms
P.r 1OO Millilil.rl
1OOO-SOOO Organiimi
P.r 1OO Millilil.rl
5OOO-IOO.OOO Organiimi
P.r 1OO Millilil.rl
Gr.ot.r Than tOO.OOO Organiimi
P.r 1OO Millilil.rl
No Data
SURVEY LIMIT
PACIFIC
OCEAN
LOCATION MAP
S
-------
After entering the sea, bacterial densities diminish
at a significant rate with increasing distance from the
point of discharge. Although the toxicity of sea water to
bacteria is not acknowledged by all authorities, a decrease
in density did exist and it appears that the decrease is
due both to dilution as well as the natural toxicity of sea
water to the organisms. If a shoreline is rugged, remote,
and generally inaccessible for water contact sports, the
actual health hazard of these discharges may be minimal.
If, however, the shoreline is accessible, is composed of
sandy beaches, and has breaking swells that appeal to surfers
and swimmers, a health hazard does exist. This statement
is based not only on the total coliform densities actually
observed in the sea, but also on the large amounts of fecal
coliforms (up to 1,000,000/100 ml) which are known to exist
in the mill wastes. It has been suggested that mill
discharge areas be zoned to prohibit people from using these
discolored waters for body contact sports, but during the
surveys it was observed that these waters were used by
nume rous s ur fe rs.
It is obvious that a hazard to health exists in waters
throughout the State which are under the influence of these
mill discharges and are accessible for recreation. Under
average conditions of velocity and direction of both wind
and ocean currents, water over two miles away from an
outfall may have a significant density of bacteria to raise
doubt as to its safety. The discharge from Pioneer Mill is
a prime example of effluent drifting into water recreation
areas, and there are similar situations on all four sugar-
producing islands where surfing, shoreline fishing, sport
fishing from boats, and swimming are practiced in areas that
can be affected by mill wastes.
NUTRIENTS
The results obtained for the values of phosphate are
considered fairly precise, (+ 0.004 mg/1-50 ml sample),
however, the nitrogen values are only precise to + 0.1 mg/1.
This level of accuracy is due to the precision of the
laboratory procedure for Kjeldahl nitrogen which forms the
largest portion of the total nitrogen value.
Total Phosphorus: The total phosphorus values at the
near shore s tat ions off Honokaa Mill generally showed either
uniform distribution from top to bottom, or higher values
at the surface in the plumes. The depth of water increases
rapidly offshore of the mill, and during the spring survey
higher values were noted near the bottom at the deep water
stations. These figures formed a semi-circular pattern and
70
-------
are presented in Figure 19. The plume was also observed to
be traveling in the same pattern during the sampling period.
Total phosphorus values offshore of Pioneer Mill
showed fairly uniform distribution from top to bottom
except near the outfall where the effect of the plume
stratification was noted. Results from samples taken at
the deeper water locations showed less evidence of higher
values at the bottom. An elliptical pattern was noted in
the values during the June survey and is shown in Figure
20. The observed turbidities also formed a similar pattern.
Total phosphorus values off Olokele Mill were generally
lower than values obtained from the waters near the Pioneer
Mill discharges, and deeper water samples showed little
variation from top to bottom.
Total phosphorus results from all three control areas
ranged from a high of 0.023 mg/1 to a low of 0.009 mg/1,
with an arithmetic mean of 0.015 mg/1. Values of phosphorus
obtained at distances beyond the visible influence of mill
discharges were comparable to those values obtained at the
control sites.
The in-plant surveys revealed that the mill wastes
contained significant concentrations of total phosphorus,
and Figures 19 and 20 show that the discharges can be
detected for some distance from the outfall locations at
Honokaa and Pioneer Mills. No similar pattern could be
recognized in the Olokele discharge because of a smaller
volume of effluent. The figures indicate that the numerical
values for normal sea water were exceeded for a distance of
approximately one mile in the direction of the travel of
the plume at both Honokaa and Pioneer Mills on April 16 and
June 19, respectively. Approximately 375 acres of surface
waters showed phosphorus values over 0.02 mg/1 at both mills
on those days.
Despite the relatively large amounts of phosphate
contained in the discharge of the mills, the effect of
dilution in the sea reduces the surface area of abnormal
phosphate values to less than 400 acres. Because of the
small volumes, the effluents from Olokele Mill affected the
receiving waters only in the very near vicinity of the out-
fall. Since all three mill discharges are exposed to ocean
currents, the water is constantly moving past, and thus
minimizing the formation of any standing crop of phytoplank-
ton in the vicinity. Benthic algae were present off the
Olokele Mill, indicating enrichment may be occuring in the
vicinity of this outfall. Crops of the algae were not as
71
-------
LEGEND
Gr«ol»r Than O.O5 mg/
O.O2-O.O5 mg/l
f j L«»i Than O.O2 may I
Survey Limit
APRIL 16, 1968
HAWAIIAN SUGAR WASTE STUDY
TOTAL PHOSPHORUS VALUES
HONOKAA MILL OFFSHORE WATERS
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
REGION IX
SAN FRANCISCO, CALIFORNIA
Scale in Miles
LOCATION MAP
-------
ItGtND
Greater Than O.O5
[iX^iS;]! O.O2-O.O5 mg/l
I J Leu Than O.O2
— • —— Survey Limif
JUNE 19,1968
ig/l
9/1
LOCATION MAP
PACIFIC \ OCEAN.
Scale in Mile*
HAWAIIAN SUGAR WASTE STUDY
TOTAL PHOSPHORUS VALUES
PIONEER MILL OFFSHORE WATERS
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
REGION ix
SAN FRANCISCO, CALIFORNIA
-------
pronounced at the Honokaa and Pioneer Mill outfalls and
their presence at those sights may be a function of bottom
topography, current patterns, and seasonal variation.
Total Nitrogen; Values of total nitrogen at the
Honokaa control area at Waimanu Valley varied from less than
0.1 mg/1 to 0.4 mg/1, with an overall mean of 0.2 mg/1.
Values at Pioneer control area ranged from less than 0.1 to
0,8 mg/1, with an overall mean of 0.3 mg/1. The Poipu
control area on Kauai showed values ranging from 0.1 mg/1
to 0.8 mg/1, with an overall mean of 0.35 mg/1.
Higher nitrogen values were observed in the immediate
vicinity of all three mill outfalls, and maximum values of
2.8, 0.9, and 0.5 mg/1 were observed in the surface waters
at the Honokaa, Pioneer, and McBryde Mills, respectively.
Offshore waters located beyond the visible influence of
the mills showed values ranging from less than 0.1 mg/1
to 0.3 mg/1.
The data indicate that ammonia and the inorganic forms
of nitrogen form only a small fraction of the total nitrogen
value. Laboratory determination of the organic fraction
is difficult at concentrations less than 0.1 mg/1. Mean
values of nitrogen off the control areas, which were
considered to be free from any proximate pollutants, were
all in excess of 0.15 mg/1. This value is not uncommon
in near shore waters not receiving artificial stimulation
because of influence of inflow from land and biological
activity in shallow waters. Some of the values near the
mills, free of the visible influence of the discharges, also
had values in excess of 0.15 mg/1.
DISSOLVED OXYGEN
The control waters for all three mills showed oxygen
saturations in excess of 90 percent (5.8 mg/1 at 28°C),
with the exception of the bottom samples taken at the
stations located one mile off the island of Kauai and
Hawaii. The depth at these stations reached about 600 feet,
and on occasion oxygen saturation ranged between 80 and 90
percent. This condition can be attributed to settled and
decomposing plankton and other organic matter on the ocean
floor.
All sampling in the Honokaa offshore waters gave
saturation values in excess of 95 percent, with the
exception of the deep water bottom stations which exhibited
results in the 80 to 90 percentage range and were similar to
the results for the water control station.
74
-------
A saturation value of 77 percent was observed on one
occasion near the surface of the water in the vicinity of
the Pioneer Mill outfall. All other samples in the area
showed saturation in excess of 90 percent.
The lowest values in the waters around the Olokele Mill
for dissolved oxygen were obtained during the winter survey
when the mill was inoperative. Several samples were noted
in the 80 percent range, with one value as low as 71 percent,
Values in the autumn and spring during actual mill operation
ranged from a low of 90 percent to greater than 100 percent,
excluding the deep water stations.
The effect of the mill discharges on dissolved oxygen
levels is therefore considered to be minimal.
TEMPERATURE
Seasonal variations in temperature were observed to
range between two and four degrees centigrade, however, no
significant rises above ambient conditions were observed
near the discharge points. In the discharge areas, surface
temperatures varied from a low of 23.6°C in January to a
high of 28.8°C in September. The lowest bottom temperature
was 16.5°C and that was recorded at a depth of 600 feet off
of the Honokaa Mill outfall.
The effect of the mill discharges on ocean water
temperature is considered to be minimal.
SALINITY
Only minor depressions in salinity were noted in the
surface samples taken near the Honokaa and Pioneer Mill
outfalls. No significant changes were observed in samples
from the Olokele discharge area. The stratification of the
effluent from Honokaa and Pioneer Mills was indicated by
slightly higher salinity values found in samples taken near
the ocean bottom in the vicinity of the discharge.
The degree of diffusion of the mill discharges is
indicated by the absolute values of salinity near the
outfalls. Analyses showed that even with the relatively
low salinity content of actual discharges, the receiving
waters had values only slightly less than natural salinity
of sea water near the discharge points, with no noticeable
difference found only a few hundred feet away. Salinity
measurements indicated that the actual discharges were
subjected to an immediate and extensive diffusion upon
entering the sea, although turbidity measurements indicated
75
-------
Plate 1.—Honokaa Mill Outfall.
Bottom formations of dead coral
eroded by wave and current ac-
tion at 18 foot depth.
Plate 2.—Honokaa Mill Outfall.
Barren substrate at 25 foot depth
once covered with coral, now
contains algae and sponges.
Plate 3.—Honokaa Control Area.
Boulder zone at 40 foot depth
with healthy coral growth of
Pocillopera meandrina heads
(center and right)and Porites
lobata mounds (left).
Plate 4.—Pioneer Mill Outfall,
Sea urchin with cane trash on
dorsal surface grazes on silt-
laden algae which cover dead
coral at 10 foot depth.
76
-------
Plate 5.—Pioneer Mill Outfall.
Approximately 250 yards from
outfall, coral becomes denser/
corallums larger, and algae
(Turbinaria) cover bottom be-
tween corals.
Plate 6.—Pioneer Control area.
A dense coral reef supporting
abundant marine life extends
approximately 300 yards offshore.
Plate 7.—Olokele Mill Outfall.
Soil particles entrapped in
thalli of Turbinaria color the
bottom red at Kaumukani Point.
Black sponges (Demospongia) are
common in area.
Plate 8.—Olokele Control Area
Luxuriant growth of several
coral species covers over
half of bottom topography.
77
-------
Plate 9.—Aerial view of Olokele
Sugar Mill and ocean outfall on
Kauai.
Plate 10.—Site of Honokaa
Mill outfall discharge off
Hamakua Coast of Hawaii.
Plate 11.—McBryde Sugar Mill
on Kauai Coast showing clarifier
and settling pond (center, right)
Plate 12.—Pioneer Sugar Mill
with adjacent canefields borders
Lahaina on the island of Maui.
78
-------
that vertical stratification did persist for several
hundred feet from the discharge point. The effect of such
vertical stratification was not evident in the salinity
data.
BOTTOM CONDITIONS
Project divers secured data concerning bottom
conditions by scuba-diving to obtain visual observations.
Similar survey procedures were conducted at both the out-
fall areas and the control areas.
High ground swells and turbidity near the mills
persistently limited conduct of the survey- Turbidity
impaired observations and increased the hazard to the
divers. Presentation of the bottom conditions are shown
in Figures 21 through 28 and Plates 1 through 8. Bottom
surveys at each mill will be discussed separately.
Honokaa Mill: An extensive sludge bank consisting
of cane trash, bagasse, and silt was found in the outfall
area of the Honokaa Mill (Figure 21). The figure also
shows that coral growth was retarded along the coastline
on both sides of the outfall for a distance of about
0.75 mile. Growths of sponge and benthic algae were
evident in the areas of diminished coral concentrations.
The coastline is characterized by excessive depths caused
by a steep gradient a short distance from shore.
Figure 22 depicts inshore bottom conditions observed
about 100 yards east of the actual mill outfall. The bottom
in the area is characterized by the ledges shown in the
upper portion of the illustration, together with the
pockets of sludge and cane trash shown in the bottom portion
of the figure. These ledges were covered with dead coral
growth.
Plates 1 and 2 depict bottom formations in 18 and 25
feet off the mill outfall. The sludge deposits were approx-
imately 10 feet deep, and thin layers of silt were observed
along the rocky ledges. Dead coral eroded and rounded
from wave and current action characterized this area
(Plate 1). Sponges and benthic algae were also present
along the barren rocky surfaces which were once covered
with coral (Plate 2).
Figure 23 and Plate 3 illustrate the bottom conditions
at the Honokaa control area which was located off Waimanu
Valley. Although the bottom topography is similar to that
area off the mill outfall, however, the figure shows
79
-------
Sludge bank
Coral coverage less than 10%
Coral coverage 10% to 53%
Coral coverage greater than
55% or similar to control
No data due to turbid
conditions or excessive depths
OUTFALL
SEP.1967 and JAN. 1968
Honokaa
Sugar
Mill
HAWAII SUGAR INDUSTRY WASTE STUDY
EXTENT OF CORAL FORMATIONS
HONOKAA MILL OFFSHORE WATERS
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
REGION IX
SAN FRANCISCO, CALIFORNIA
Scalt In Miltt
LOCATION MAP
-------
OUTFALL
BOTTOM CONDITIONS
HONOKAA MILL OUTFALL AREA
JANUARY, I96B
REGION IX
i
m
-------
HAWAII SU6AR INDUSTRY WA3TE STUDY
TYPICAL BOTTOM CONDITIONS -,,
HONOKAA MILL CONTROL AREA g
JANUARY, l»«e jjj
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
REGION IX rf
SAN FRANCISCO, CALIFORNIA w
-------
extensive coral growth. Observations revealed that between
65 and 75 percent of the bottom of the control area was
covered with healthy coral growths. Plate 3 depicts the
Honokaa control area at a depth of 40 feet.
Pioneer Mill; Figure 24 and Plates 4 and 5 show the
bottom conditions from a point about 300 yards off the mill
outfall to a point about 50 yards from the outfall.
As seen from the figure, coral growth is negligible
near the outfall but grows more densely as distance from
the outfall increases. In a depth of 10 feet of water,
silt covered algae and dead coral were found (Plate 4).
Bottom conditions 50 yards from the outfall showed a
consistency of 75 percent sand interspersed with rocks
and dead coral. Thin layers of silt were present which
diminished with distance from the outfall. Benthic algae
and sponges were sighted in the areas of thin coral
coverage and these were generally covered with a layer of
silt. At approximately 250 yards off the outfall, coral
densities increased and corallums became larger (Plate 5).
Figure 25 and Plate 6 show typical bottom conditions
in the Pioneer Mill control area from about 150 to 300
yards off shore. An extensive coverage of coral heads and
an abundance of sea life were found in the control area
from the shore to the end of the reef.
Olokele Mill: Underwater surveys of the benthos were
conducted at five locations off the island of Kauai. In
addition to surveying the control area off Poipu Beach
which was also used for chemical sampling, observations
were made at a second control area located about- 0.75 mile
east of the Olokele discharge. Two control areas were
selected because they depicted differences in the bottom
topography which existed in the vicinity of the mill
discharges.
Figures 26 and 27 show, respectively, bottom conditions
near the Olokele Mill's main outfall and bottom conditions
at the control area, located 0.75 mile east of the mill.
The outfall area (Figure 26) contained few coral heads
and the dominant life form was a benthic algae which covered
much of the rock surface. Sponges were present and the
sand deposits in the open depressions were relatively free
of silt deposits (Plate 7).
In contrast, the overall topography of the control
area consisted of a flat bottom with a minimum of outcrop-
pings. The bottom life was considerably different with
83
-------
BOTTOM CONDITIONS
PIONEER MILL OUTFALL AREA
SEPTtMBCR, 1967
NMENTAL PROTECTION
REGION IK
-------
HNSt CCXAL-
DCNSt CORAL
TYPICAL BOTTOM CONDITIONS
PIONEER MILL CONTROL AREA
SEPTEMBER, l«7
-------
OUTFALL
CO
O
BOTTOM CONDITIONS
OLOKELE MILL .WEST OUTFALL AREA '
SEPTEMBER, l»«7
SNV
-------
v—'
-, J^-^-'^-
" Mi-^
BOTTOM CONDITIONS 3
OLOKELE MILL CONTROL AREA c
StPTEMBER, 1967 rn
SflN FRANCISCO, CALIFOftN
-------
healthy corals covering about 55 percent of the bottom in
the control area (Plate 8). The control bottom also con-
tained minor benthic algae and sponges.
The other distinctive bottom characteristic near the
Olokele Mill outfall was a series of rocky ledges which
resembled the bottom of the Poipu control area. The mill
area was covered with fine silt with a few coral heads,
and contained a number of sponges and some benthic algae,
as opposed to the Poipu area which harbored a dense growth
of coral heads, experienced relatively little silting and
contained few sponges.
Due to turbidity only limited observations of bottom
conditions were made near the Olokele Mill, but the observa-
tions which were made indicated the extent of coral forma-
tions as shown in Figure 28.
Discussion of Bottom Conditions; Honokaa Mill had no
waste treatment facilities and consequently, its waste
contained large amounts of trash, bagasse, and solids.
Despite the open ocean currents, settlement occurred for
about a quarter-mile area around the Honokaa outfall.
Although fine layers of silt were observed at the other
survey mills, no pockets of sludge were found there. This
factor can be attributed to the clarification processes
which wastes from the Pioneer and Olokele Mills undergo
prior to discharge.
In addition to sludge deposits, the wastes from the
survey mills caused biological modifications in the benthic
communities, as demonstrated by comparisons with the various
control areas. In all cases, the bottom conditions around
the mill discharges were characterized by major reductions
in coral growths and increases in sponges and benthic
algae, two indicators of pollution. Coral reductions
probably resulted from siltation and the diminished amounts
of light which interfered with the life processes. The
types and sizes of sponges found off the outfall areas are
not observed in the clean waters of unaffected inshore areas.
Their appearance would indicate an affinity of these
organisms for a turbid and possibly over-enriched environ-
mental condi tion.
Good observations were possible along the shoreline at
the Honokaa Mill. From observation, the actual area of
coral reef which was altered by mill discharges could not be
precisely determined. It was observed that within 0.75 mile
along the shoreline the coral was undamaged. Observations
at the Pioneer Mill showed unaffected coral at 300 yards
from the outfall. Less is known about the area of influence
at Olokele Mill, although available data (Figure 28) show
-------
oo
(O
Oiokeie
Sugo r
Mill
Field Distribution Point
LEGEND
Coral Coverage Less than 10 %>
Coral Coverage I0to55%
September, 1967
and Feb ruary, 1968
Coral Coverage Greater than
55°/0 or Similar to Control Area
No Data due to Tcrbid
Conditions or Excessive Depth
PACI FIC
OCEAN
HAWAII SUGAR INDUSTRY WASTE STUDY
EXTENT OF CORAL FORMATIONS
OLOKELE MILL OFFSHORE WATERS
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
REGION IX
SAN FRANCISCO, CALIFORNIA
LOCATION MAP
-------
that such a zone of influence extends for at least one mile
from the discharge point.
FISH POPULATIONS
Underwater fish censuses were conducted at the
discharge areas of the Honokaa, Pioneer, and Olokele Mills,
and at the corresponding control areas. The procedure
consisted of counting the number and size of various species
of fish between the water surface and ocean bottom for a
specific area. Proper orientation and direction for the
census was obtained through the placement of a steel cable
along the bottom of the survey areas. Standing crops of
fish were computed from the size data using established
formulas.
Honokaa Mill; Figure 29 presents the number of species
of fish and the computed standing crops of fish found
east and west of the Honokaa Mill outfall and also at the
control area at Waimanu Valley. Data computed for the
area west of the mill outfall were obtained during mill
operations in September 1967, while data east of the
outfall were gathered during the mill's winter shutdown
in January 1968. The control data were obtained in
September 1967. The data indicate that significantly
larger amounts of fish life existed in the control area
and that a larger standing crop of fish was found in the
January survey of the mill waters, even though the number
of species remained essentially unchanged.
Pioneer Mill; Observations of the number of species
and standing crop of fish at the Pioneer Mill outfall and
control area appear in Figure 30. The number of species
of fish was only slightly reduced at the outfall area,
while the calculated standing crop of fish was significantly
reduced.
Olokele Mill: The ocean area off the Olokele Mill
outfall has a relatively flat bottom area which is
compatible with the area just east of the mill called the
Olokele Control. The outfall area also contained a ledge
area which was located by the mill off Kaumakani Point
and was similar in conformation to the control area off
Poipu Beach. Figure 31 presents the comparisions for
both bottom conditions; results from Kaumakani Point
outfall area are classed as estimates since the observations
were not as thorough as those made for all other areas off
Kauai.
90
-------
6OO
- 600
6O
WEST of EAST ol
HONOKAA MILL HONOKAA MILL
OUTFALL OUTFALL
ISErTEMBtt) (JANUAIT)
200
CONTROL
ISIPTIMtEl)
40
10
WEST ol EAST of
HONOKAA MILL HONOKAA MILL
OUTFALL OUTFALL
CONTROL
{SEPTEMftElj
ISEPrtMIfl)
IJANUAtt
September 1967 and January 1968
HAWAII SUGAR INDUSTRY WASTE STUDY
RESULTS OF FISH COUNTS
HONOKAA MILL SURVEY
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
REG ION IX
SAN FRAN CISCO , CALIFORNIA
-------
too I
100
<£>
ro
O "•
fi
o z
£ ~
I
PION EER MILL
OUTFALL
CONTROL
September, 1967
PIONEER MILL
OUTFALL
CONTROL
HAWAII SUGAR INDUSTRY WASTE STUDY
RESULTS OF FISH COUNTS
PIONEER MILL SURVEY
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
REGION IX
SAN FRANCISCO, CALIFORNIA
31
o
30
m
CJ
o
-------
300
3OO
150
so
40
530
JO
OLOKELE MILL
OUTFALL
(SEPTEMMi)
POIPU
CONTROL
OLOKELE MILL OLOKELE
CONTROL
OUTFALL
iSEPTEMIER
June and Septem ber, 1967
KAUMAKANI POIPU
POINT CONTROL
(Eitimat.) ISEPTEMIEII
JUNE
HAWAII SUGAR INDUSTRY WASTE STUDY
RESULTS OF FISH COUNTS
OLOKELE MILL SURVEY
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
REGION IX
SAN FRANCISCO, CALIFORNIA
o
c:
73
m
CO
-------
Significantly greater numbers of species were observed
in both control areas than were observed at their respective
outfall areas. No estimate was made for standing crops of
fish off the Kaumakani Point outfall area. Significantly
lower standing crops of fish were, however, found at the
Olokele outfall area than at the related Olokele control
area. The Poipu control area contained a crop of highest
numbers of fish of all control areas on Kauai.
Discussion: In all cases, it was found that there
was less fish life near the mill outfalls than in the
various control areas. East of the Honokaa Hill outfall,
the number of indidivual species of fish dropped sharply
while the standing crop changed by a lesser amount. The
large standing crop noted at the Honokaa Mill could be
attributed primarily to a large number of a "wandering
school" species of fish which was in the area at the time.
At Pioneer Mill, the number of species did not appreciably
change, although the standing crop was observed to be
considerably diminished.
It is believed that the two primary reasons for the
observed decreases in the diversity and volume of fish
were: (1) the absence of coral growth and other benthic
life which limit the sources of food and shelter for the
fish, (2) the turbidity around the mills which inhibits
the ability of fish to locate food. This latter observation
is particularly true since most local species are clear-
water specimens which visually locate their food.
To summarize, the mill discharges cause depletions
in both the quantity and diversity of fish life in the
vicinity of the mill outfalls. The degree of this reduction
bears a direct relation to the degree and extent by which
discharges affect the bottom area.
94
-------
VIII. BIOASSAYS
Acute bioassays were conducted to determine the effect
of cane wash water on four species of local fish. The results
from these tests aopear in Table 7, where the median
tolerance lirrit (TLm) is defined as the concentration in
which 50 percent of the fish survive at the indicated time
interval.
Ninety-six-hour acute toxicity bioassays were conducted
to test the short term toxicity of industrial or other
wastes on selected snocies of fish. These tests do not
take into account factors such as temperature differentials,
effect on fish-food organisms, chronic or long-term effects,
breakdown of toxic materials with time, and oxygen depletions
in the tanks. The latter two factors were partially
compensated for by aeration and replacement of the wastes
every 24 hours, when possible.
The most serious shortcoming of the 96-hour acute
toxicity bioassay, however, v/as its inability to determine
the long-term effect which constant exposure would have on a
species of fish. In some basic research projects, this
problem is met by actually exnosinq fish to definite renewed
concentrations of a waste for periods greater than 30 days.
When this procedure is impractical, an "application factor"
is applied to the TLm, to adjust for the above condition.
Current practice designates applying a factor of 10 to the
96-hour TLru; however, a higher factor should accordingly be
applied to shorter duration values. Table 7 indicates the
percentage dilution under various application factors.
TABLE 7-BIOASSAY RESULTS
Application Factors
Species TLm 1_0_ 2_5 100
Tilapia >75% (96 hrs.) >7.5* > 39 >.75'
Aholehole >75% (96 hrs.) >7.5* > 3? >.75'
Mullet >75% (96 hrs.) >7.5? >3? 7.75'
Menu 6-10% (48 hrs.) 0.6-1.03 0.24-0.4% 0.06-0.1'
95
-------
Findinas: The Tilapia, Aholehole, and Pullet fish
exhibited an ability to live in almost 100 percent sugar
mill waste for a neriod of 96 hours, if adequate aeration
was supplied. Even with a conservative application factor
of 25, indications show that these fish could survive in
a permanent environment consisting of 3 percent mill waste.
All mills in the State, with two exceptions, discharge
their wastes into either the ground or open ocean. Salinity
and other measurements from the offshore studies indicate
that a dilution of 3 percent is reached within a very short
distance of the mill discharge points. Therefore, the mill
waste discharges probably have very little effect on the
first three species of fish shov:n in Table 7.
Nehu, a delicate species of fish, are the most
important tuna bait fish in Hawaii, and results indicate
that they have a much higher sensitivity to rill wastes than
the other three species of fish tested. Since the TLm for
Nehu of 6-10 percent only covers a 48-hour period, an
application factor of 25 is not the conservative figure
for this species. A conservative TLm figure for the Nehu
would probably be the application factor of 100 or a dilution
of 0.06-0.1 percent. Only two sugar plantations have mill
wastes which significantly affect Nehu-inhabitated waters.
The discharge of excess irrigation water (tailwater) is
a more significant problem than the mill wastes in those
estuarine waters inhabited by the richu. These waters enter
every major stream, bay, harbor, or inlet bordering
irrigated canefields. During conduct of the bioassays,
attempts were also made to expose Nehu to this type of
waste, but such efforts met with little success. Because
of the inability to maintain adequate controls, the
bioassay results were not comparable. The tailwater wastes,
however, were found to be similar for other parameters to
the mill wastes and it was therefore conceivable that their
effects on the Nehu would be similar.
96
-------
IX. RUNOFF STUDY
Runoff was monitored from two small drainage basins
located in the northern portion of Oahu (Figure 32). The
small basin indicated in the lower portion of the figure
includes 0.55 square mile of sugar cane production and 0.24
mile of service roads, gulches, and irrigation flumes. The
upper basin indicated in the figure is located in a more
mountainous area and encompasses about 0.97 square mile of
undeveloped land. Automatic sampling and monitoring equip-
ment was placed at the outlets of both basins to monitor
volume and contents of stormwater runoff.
The canefield installation is located in the fields of
the Waialua Agricultural Company, a plantation having a
fairly well developed soil and water conservation program.
Its fields are laid out in a manner which forces surplus
irrigation water or runoff to pond either in low areas of
the fields or against embankments at the end of the planted
furrows. Before any significant runoff occurs rainfall must
be sufficient to cause overflow or breakout of the embank-
ments .
The purpose of the runoff study was to provide com-
parative data on runoff from cultivated versus undeveloped
land. Data were collected to answer questions concerning
the sources of turbidity, high nutrient concentrations,
depressed dissolved oxygen values, and other water quality
parameters in the receiving waters after heavy runoff.
It was hoped that some information would be gained regarding
the controversy over whether sugar cane cultivation causes
higher or lower concentration of pollutants in runoff, and
whether cultivation practices cause higher or lower volumes
of runoff water. During conduction of the study it was
necessary to continue sampling into the 1968-69 rainy
season to obtain necessary data. It should also be noted
that during the second year the sugar cane basin was
considerably less overgrown, a factor which would affect
the rate of retention of water and sediment.
The 1967--1968 Study Period: The monitoring equip-
ment was iristallecTby November 1, 1967, the month marking
the beginning of the rainy season in Hawaii. It was
hoped that six significant discharges would occur at both
study locations during the November-ray period. These
discharges did subsequently occur at the mountainous,
undeveloped site, however, only one period of runoff occurred
at the lower canefield site. Data gathered durina the
initial season indicated the following:
97
-------
Undeveloped
area
PIN £APPLE
Installation
I ocatlon
U N DEVE'LOPED
LOCATION MAP '
HAWAII SUGAR INDUSTRY WASTE STUDY
Canefleld
Installation
RUNOFF STUDY
BASIN LOCATIONS
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENC
REGION IX
SAN FRANCISCO, CALIFORNIA
-------
(1) The undeveloped basin could retain over 90 percent
of the volume of a 4-inch rain (24 hours) if there was no
antecedent precipitation. More than 80 percent runoff
occurred, however, if significant antecedent rainfall had
previously occurred.
(2) The canefield terrain could retain over 80
percent of a 3.5-inch (12 hours) rain.
(3) Suspended solids values from the undeveloped
terrain ranged from 10 to 240 mg/1 during the year, while
settleable solids values range from less than one to
140 mg/1 (Table 8).
(4) Maximum and minimum values of concentrations for
nitrogen and phosphorus were found to be similar to those
in wastes from the mills themselves (Table 8) .
The 1968-1969 Study Period: Two periods of
significant runoff were observed on January 2-4, 1969, and
on February 1, 1969. The former storm resulted in water
levels sufficiently high enough to briefly activate
the automated equipment, but the samples obtained were
inadequate for anlaysis and this discharge therefore will
not be covered. The February discharge, however, provides
the first data for a near-ideal comparison between the two
sites because of the relatively equal and heavy rainfall
which occurred at both locations at nearly the same time.
Table 9 and Figures 33 and 34 present data for the storm of
February 1, 1969.
Discussion of Runoff Study: From Figure 33 it can be
seen that~the"canefie1d terrain is able to retain a very
high percentage of the rainfall. In one instance, over
six inches of rain fell on the canefield basin during a
9-hour period and 0.45 inch of runoff occurred, represent-
ing about 7.5 percent of the total accumulated rainfall.
During the same storm, about 3.7 inches or 55 percent of
the rainfall on the undeveloped basin was converted into
runoff despite the fact that roughly the same intensity
and accumulation of rainfall occurred on both basins.
During a storm, both the canefield and undeveloped
basins can absorb the initial two inches of rainfall.
After this absorption, however, the canefield retains a
higher amount of the precipitation than does the undeveloped
basin. In this case this may be due to the fact that the
slope of the land is not as great in the canefield. Also
the conservation measures practiced by the plantation have
a significant role in retention of runoff.
99
-------
FIGURE 33
UNDEVELOPED TERRAIN
„. 30
o
Rai nlall of FtCi 1,1969
Cumulolivt Rainfall
C Cumulative Runoff
3:00
TIME
CANEFIELD TERRAIN
HAWAII SUGAR INDUSTRY WASTE STUDY
RAINFALL VS RUNOFF
UNDEVELOPED AND CANEFIELD TERRAINS
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
REGION IX
SAN FRANCISCO, CALIFOR N I A
100
-------
TABLE 8-MAXIMUM AND MIMH'UM ANALYTICAL CONCENTRATIONS, RUNOFF STUDY: 1967 - 1968
UNDEVELOPED TERRAIN
CANEFIELD TERRAIN
Analysis
Total Solids (mg/1)
Suspended Solids (mg/1)
Settleable Solids (mg/1)
Chemical Oxygen Demand (mg/1)
Total Organic Carbon (rg/1)
Ammonia Nitrogen (mg/1) (as N)
Kjeldahl Nitrogen (mg/1) (as IT)
Nitrite Nitrogen (r,g/l) (as N)
Nitrate Nitrogen (mg/1) (as II)
Ortho Phosphate (mg/1) (as P)
Total Phosphate (mg/1) (as P)
Arsenic (ug/1)
pli (units)
Range of
Values
56-570
10-240
< 1-140
20-153
5-71
< 0.1-0.4
0.3-4.1
<0.05-.08
.04-, 92
.003-. 08
.02-1.68
<10
5.6-7.1
No. of
Analyses
26
21
17
22
26
25
27
25
25
28
31
28
20
Range of
Values
_
__
-
160-253
64-116
<0.1
1.2-2.6
0.02-0.16
0.16-0.33
0.025-0.07
1.9-3.5
<10
6.7-8.1
No. of
Analyses
-
4
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
4
Total Periods of Observation:
Undeveloped Terrain-6
Cane fin Id Terrain -1
-------
Figure 34 portrays the discharges of suspended solids
from the two study basins during the February 1969 storm.
Each vertical bar represents a sample taken by the automated
apparatus. Samples taken hourly at the undeveloped site and
every 30 minutes at the canefield location account for the
differences in bar widths. The solid bars present accumulated
discharge during the particular time increment. Cumulative
discharge values are independent of bar width and comparisons
for total discharge can therefore be made directly between
the diagrams.
Despite the relatively small amount of flow from the
canefield terrain/ over 210 pounds of suspended solids per
acre were discharged from the site. Comparison of both
Figures 33 and 34 show that flow from the undeveloped site
was eight times as great as flow from the canefield site,
while the discharge of suspended solids was only about 1.5
times as great on a unit acre basis. This results from the
high concentration of suspended solids contained in the run-
off from the canefield terrain.
Table 9 contains data from the settleable solids
analyses. In all of the canefield samples, the suspended
solids were composed of more than 50 percent settleable
material. Three out of five samples from the undeveloped
site had settleable solids fractions less than 50 percent
of the suspended solids value.
Observations of the storm of February 1, 1969 indicated
a very similar heavy rainfall pattern at both study
locations which approximated ideal conditions for comparison.
Furthermore, U.S. Weather Bureau climatological records for
the area indicated that a storm of this intensity and
duration (6 inches in 6 hours) generally occurred once
every seven years. It was, therefore, a fairly rare and
intense storm. To summarize:
(1) The canefield site has the ability to retain
significantly larger amounts of rainfall than does the
undeveloped terrain.
(2) When runoff occurs from the canefield site, the
solids concentration of the discharge is considerably
greater than the concentration of runoff from the undeveloped
basin. The solids content of the canefield runoff is at
a sufficient level so that the total discharge of solids
approaches that of the undeveloped terrain, despite the
higher volume of discharge at the latter site.
102
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FIGURE 34
PERIOD OF SIGNIFICANT FLOW
Rainfall I February, 1969
3:00
TIME
UNDEVELOPED TERRAIN
PERIOD OF
SIGNIFICANT FLOW
Rainfall I February, 1969
3*O
TIME
CANEFIELD TERRAIN
LEGEND
$$§ CUMULATIVE DISCHARGE
INCREMENTAL DISCHARGE
HAWAII SUGAR INDUSTRY WASTE STUDY
SUSPENDED SOLIDS DISCHARGE
UNDEVELOPED AND CANEFIELD TERRAINS
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
REGION IX
SAN FRANCISCO, CALIFORNIA
103
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TABLE 9-MF.ASUREMEiJTS OBTAINED FROM RUNOFF OF FEBRUARY 1, 1969
Undeveloped^ Terrain
Cane Field Terrain
Sample
Time
1310
1410
1510
1610
1710
Discharge
CFS
185
380
870
490
185
Susp.
Solids
mg/1
234
575
552
121
55
Sett.
Solids
mg/1
81
467
328
48
24
Sample
Time
1200
1230
1300
1330
1400
1430
1500
1530
1600
1630
Discharge
CFS
10
10
11
22
140
80
90
60
40
22
Susp.
Solids
mg/1
1580
1730
1800
1140
2640
2470
2560
2300
2640
—
Sett.
Solids
mq/1
1024
1022
1196
604
2056
1350
1540
1196
1412
_
Total Discharge: 9,700,000 cu. ft.
Total Discharge: 875,000 cu. ft,
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X. SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. ULTBAMAR CHEMICAL LABORATORY FOR TETRA TECH INCORPORATED,
August 1968, Water Quality Study - Keehi Lagoon
and Vicinity of Ahua Point.
2. MURODA AND TANAKA, INC., January 15, 1965, Preliminary
Sewerage Master Plan Feasibility Study for
Honokowai and Surrounding Area - Lahaina, Maui.
3. SUNN, LOW, TOM AND HARA, November 1964, Report on
Oceanographic Study for Kapaa Ocean Sewer Outfall
- Kapaa, Kauai.
4. SUNN, LOW, TOM AND HARA, October 1, 1963, Oceanographic
Studies Sewage Disposal for Hilo, Hawaii.
5. SUNN, LOW, TOM AND HARA, June 1962, Report on
Oceanographic Survey and Study Relative to Sewage
Disposal for Waianae, Oahu.
6. BELT COLLINS & ASSOCIATES - HOLMES & NARVER, December
1959, Kailua Ocean Outfall Sewer, Ocean Portion.
7. MAUI COUNTY DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC WORKS, September 1965,
Sewerage Feasibility Study and Master Plan for the
Kihei Area of Maui.
8. HAWAII INSTITUTE OF GEOPHYSICS - INTERIM REPORT,
January 1963, Currents around the Hawaiian Islands.
9. HAWAII INSTITUTE OF MARINE BIOLOGY, June 1968, A
Descriptive Study of the Physical Oceanography of
Kaneohe Bay, Oahu, Hawaii (M.S. Thesis of Karl H.
Bathen).
10. KENNEDY ENGINEERS, March 1967, Report on Hawaiian Sugar
Factory Waste Receiving Water Study - Prepared for
Hawaiian Sugar Planters Association.
11. HAWAII DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, February 1, 1967, Public
Hearings on Water Uses and Standards of Water
Quality for Maui County Waters.
12. BOARD OF AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY, DIVISION OF FISH
AND GAME, 1953, Survey of Industrial and Agricultural
Water Discharged into the Coastal Waters of Maui.
105
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13. BOARD OF COMMISSIONERS OF AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY,
DIVISION OF FISH AND GAME, 1949, Preliminary
Report - Survey of Pollution in the Coastal Waters
of Kauai.
14. TERRITORIAL DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, BOARD OF AGRICULTURE
AND FORESTRY, DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC WORKS, 1947,
Joint Report on the Survey of Mill Waste Disposal
and Its Contamination of Sea Areas around the
Island of Hawaii.
15. JOURNAL WATER POLLUTION CONTROL FEDERATION, Vol. 37,
April 1965, Industry Idea Clinic, P-508.
16. CALIFORNIA STATE WATER QUALITY CONTROL BOARD,
Publication 3-A, 1963, Water Quality Criteria.
17. FEDERAL WATER POLLUTION CONTROL ADMINISTRATION,
April 1968, Water Quality Criteria - Report of
the National Technical Advisory Committee to the
Secretary of the Interior.
18. ASSOCIATION OF AMERICAN PESTICIDE CONTROL OFFICIALS INC.,
1966, Pesticide Chemicals Official Compendium.
106
-, GPO
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