United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Office of Air Quality
Planning and Standards
Research Triangle Park NC 27711
EPA-450/4-79-023
September 1979
Air
&EPA
Detonation of Explosives;
An AP-42 Update
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EPA-450/4-79-023
Detonation of Explosives;
An AP-42 Update
Pacific Environmental Services, Inc.
1930 14th Street
Santa Monica, California 90404
Contract No. 68-02-2583
EPA Project Officer: Audrey McBath
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Office of Air, Noise, and Radiation
Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711
September 1979
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This report is issued by the Environmental Protection Agency to report
technical data of interest to a limited number of readers. Copies are
available free of charge to Federal employees, current contractors and
grantees, and nonprofit organizations - in limited quantities - from the
Library Services Office (MD-35), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711; or for a nominal fee,
from the National Technical Information Service, 5285 Port Royal Road,
Springfield,Virginia 22161.
This report was furnished to the Environmental Protection Agency by
Pacific Environmental Services, Inc. , 1930 14th Street, Santa Monica,
CA 90404, in fulfillment of Contract No. 68-02-2583. The contents of
this report are reproduced herein as received from Pacific Environ-
mental Services, Inc. The opinions, findings, and conclusions expressed
are those of the author and not necessarily those of the Environmental
Protection Agency. Mention of company or product names is not to be
considered as an endorsement by the Environmental Protection Agency.
Publication No. EPA-450/4-79-023
11
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
FIGURES i v
TABLES i v
INTRODUCTION 1
DETONATION OF EXPLOSIVES 2
11.3.1 General 2
11.3.2 Emissions and Controls 3
REFERENCES FOR SECTION 11.3 7
BACKGROUND DOCUMENT 8
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FIGURES
Number Page
11.3-1 Two-, three-, and four-step explosive trains 4
TABLES
Number Page
11.3-1 Emission factors for detonation of explosives 6
IV
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INTRODUCTION
As the title indicates, this report was written for inclusion
in EPA Publication No. AP-42, Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission
Factors. The work was performed under Work Assignment No. 12 of
EPA Contract No. 68-02-2583.
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11.3 DETONATION OF EXPLOSIVES Audrey McBath
11.3.1 General1'5
This section deals mainly with pollutants resulting from the
detonation of industrial explosives and small arms firing. Mili-
tary applications are excluded from this discussion. Emissions
associated with the manufacture of explosives are treated in
Section 5.6, Explosives.
An explosive is a chemical material that is capable of extremely
rapid combustion resulting in an explosion or detonation. Since
an adequate supply of oxygen cannot be drawn from the air, a source
of oxygen must be incorporated into the explosive mixture. Some
explosives, such as trinitrotoluene (TNT), are single chemical
species, but most explosives are mixtures of several ingredients.
"Low explosive" and "high explosive" classifications are based on
the velocity of explosion, which, in turn, is directly related to
the type of work the explosive can perform. There appears to be
no direct relationship between the velocity of explosions and the
end products of explosive reactions. The end products are primarily
determined by the oxygen balance of the explosive. As in other
combustion reactions, a deficiency of oxygen favors the formation
of carbon monoxide and unburned organic compounds and produces
little, if any, nitrogen oxides. An excess of oxygen causes more
nitrogen oxides and less carbon monoxide and other unburned organics.
For ammonium nitrate and fuel oil mixtures (ANFO), a fuel oil con-
tent of more than 5.5 percent creates a deficiency of oxygen.
There are hundreds of different explosives, with no universally
accepted system for classifying them. The classification used in
Table 11.3-1 is based on the chemical composition of the explosives,
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without regard to other properties, such as rate of detonation,
which relate to the applications of explosives but not to the
specific end products. Most explosives are used in two-, three-,
or four-step trains that are shown schematically in Figure 11.3-1.
To illustrate, the simple removal of a tree stump from the ground
might be done with a two-step train made up of an electric blasting
cap and a stick of dynamite. The detonation wave from the blasting
cap would cause detonation of the dynamite. On the other hand, to
make a large hole in the earth, an inexpensive explosive such as
ammonium nitrate and fuel oil (ANFO) might be used. In this case,
the detonation wave from the blasting cap is not powerful enough
to cause detonation, so a booster must be used in a three- or four-
step train. Emissions from the blasting caps and safety fuses
used in these trains are usually small compared to those from the
main charge, because the emissions are roughly proportional to the
weight of explosive used, and the main charge makes up most of the
total weight. No factors are given in the next section for comput-
ing emissions from blasting caps or fuses, because these have not
been measured and because the uncertainties are so great in esti-
mating emissions from the main and booster charges that a precise
estimate of all emissions is not practical.
11.3.2 Emissions and Controls2'4'5'6
Carbon monoxide is the pollutant produced in greatest quantity
from explosives detonation. TNT, an oxygen-deficient explosive,
produces more CO than most dynamites, which are oxygen-balanced, but
all explosives produce measurable amounts of CO. Particulates are
produced as well, but such large quantities of particulate are gen-
erated by the shattering of the rock and earth which the explosive
is used to move that the quantity of particulates from the explosive
charge cannot be distinguished. Nitrogen oxides (both NO and N02)
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2. DYNAMIT;
1. ELECTRIC
BLASTING CAP
PRIMARY
HIGH EXPLOSIVE
SECONDARY HIGH EXPLOSIVE
a. Two-step explosive train
3 DYNAMITE
1. SAFETY FUSE
2. NONELECTRIC
BLASTING CAP
LOW EXPLOSIVE PRIMARY
(BLACK POWDER) HIGH
EXPLOSIVE
SECONDARY HIGH EXPLOSIVE
b. Three-step explosive train
4. ANFO
NELECTRIC
1ST ING CAP
| i
3. DYNAMITE
BOOSTER
i
I
I
\x
LOW PRIMARY V-'
EXPLOSIVE HIGH EXPLOSIVE SECONDARY HIGH EXPLOSIVE
c. Four-step explosive train
Figure 11.3-1. Two-, three-, and four-step explosive trains
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are formed, but only limited data are available on these emissions.
Oxygen-deficient explosives are said to produce little or no nitro-
gen oxides, but there is only a small body of data to confirm this.
Unburned hydrocarbons also result from explosions, but in most
instances methane is the only hydrocarbon species that has been
reported.
Hydrogen sulfide, hydrogen cyanide and ammonia have all been
reported as products of explosives use. Lead is emitted from small
arms ammunition when lead projectiles and/or lead primers are fired,
however the explosive charge does not contribute lead to the emissions
The emissions from explosives detonation are influenced by many
factors, such as explosive composition, product expansion, method
of priming, length of charge, and confinement. These factors are
difficult to measure and control in the field and are almost
impossible to duplicate in a laboratory test facility. With the
exception of a few studies in underground mines, most studies have
been performed in laboratory test chambers that differ substantially
from the actual environment. Any estimates of emissions from
explosives use must be regarded as order of magnitude approximations
that cannot be made more precise, because explosives are not used
in a precise, reproducible manner.
To a certain extent, emissions can be altered by changing the
composition of the explosive mixture. This has been practiced for
many years to safeguard miners who must use explosives in under-
ground mines. The U.S. Bureau of Mines has a continuing program
to study the products from explosives and to identify those explo-
sives that can be used safely in underground mines. Lead emissions
from small arms use can be controlled by using jacketed soft point
projecticles and special leadfree primers.
Emission factors are given in Table 11.3-1.
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Table 11.3-1. EMISSION FACTORS FOR DETONATION OF EXPLOSIVES
(EMISSION FACTOR RATING: D)
Explosive
Black powder?
Smokeless
Powder2
Dynaml te ,
Straight2
Dynamite,
Ammonia'
Dynamite.
Gelatin2
ANFO*-5
TNT2
RDX3
PITN!
Composition
75/15/10; potassium (sodium)
nitrate/charcoal/sulfur
nitrocellulose (sometimes
with other materials)
20-601 nitroglycerine/
sodium nitrate/wood pulp/
calcium carbonate
20-601 nitroglycerine/
ammonium nitrate/sodium
nitrate/wood pulp
20-100% nitroglycerine
ammonium nitrate with
5.R-Rt fuel oil
trinitrotoluene
(CH?)3N3(NO?)3
eye lotr imethy!enetr1n1troam1ne
CfCH^NO,),)
pentaprythn tol tetranitrate
Uses
delay fuses
sma 1 1 a rms
propel) ant
rarely used
quarry work
stump blasting
demol 1t1on,
construction
work, blasting
in mines
construction
work, blasting
in mines
main charge 1n
art 11 lery pro-
jectiles,
mortar rounds,
etc.
booster
booster
Carbon Monoxide3
kg/HT
85
(38-120)
38
(34-42)
141
(44-262)
32
(23-64)
52
(13-110)
34
398
(324-472)
98d
(2.8-277)
149
(130-160)
Ib/ton
170
(76-240)
77
t«8-84)
281
(87-524)
63
(46-128)
104
(26-220)
67
796
(647-944)
196d
(5.6-554)
297
(276-319)
Nitrogen Oxides3
kg/MT
unk
unk
unk
unk
26
(4-59)
8
unk
unk
unk
Ib/ton
unk
unk
unk
unk
53
(8-119)
17
unk
unk
unk
Methane6
kg/MT
2.1
(0.3-4.9)
0.6
(0.4-0.6)
1.3
(0.3-2.8)
0.7
(0.3-1.1)
0.3
(0.1-0.8)
unk
7.2
(6.6-7.7)
unk
unk
Ib/ton
4.2
(0.6-9.7)
1.1
(0.7-1.5)
2.5
(0.6-5.6)
1.3
(0.6-2.1)
0.7
(0.3-1.7)
unk
14.3
(13.2-15.4)
unk
unk
Other*
Pollu-
tant
H2S
H2S
Pb
H2S
H2S
H2S
SO?
S02
NH3
HCN
C2H2
C?«6
NH3
NH3
kg/MT
12
(0-37)
10
(10-11)
c
3
(0-7)
16
(9-19)
2
(0-3)
1
(0-8)
1
(0-2)
14
(14-15)
13
(11-16)
61
0.5
22d
(12-61)
1.3
(0-25)
Ib/ton
24
(0-73)
21
(20-21)
c
6
(0-15)
31
(19-37)
4
(0-6)
1
(1-16)
2
(1-3)
29
27-30)
27
22-32)
121
1.1
44d
24-122)
2.5
(0-5)
a Based on experiments carried out prior to 1930 except in the case of ANFO, TNT and PF.TN
I- The factors apply to the chemical specie1;, methane. They do not represent total VOC expressed as methane.
year-, a TO.
f f,rpit.tr than 6 q per 158 grain projectile (0.6 kg/MT, 1.2 Ib/ton).
d Thp-.c fa> tors arp derived from theorectlcal calculations—not from experimental data.
Studies were carried out more than 40
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References for Section 11.3
1. C. R. Newhouser, Introduction to Explosives, National Bomb Data
Center, International Association of Chiefs of Police, Gaithersburg,
MD (undated).
2. Roy V. Carter, "Emissions from the Open Burning or Detonation of
Explosives", Presented at the 71st Annual Meeting of the Air
Pollution Control Association, Houston, TX, June 1978.
3. Melvin A. Cook, The Science of High Explosives. Reinhold Publishing
Corp., New York, 1958..
4. R. F. Chaiken, et al., Toxic Fumes from Explosives: Ammonium
Nitrate Fuel Oil Mixtures. U. S. Bureau of Mines Report of
Investigations 7867, 1974.
5. Sheridan J. Rogers, Analysis of Noncoal Mine Atmospheres: Toxic
Fumes from Explosives, Bureau of Mines, U.S. Department of
Interior, Washington, D.C., May 1976.
6. A. A. Juhasz, "A Reduction of Airborne Lead in Indoor Firing
Ranges by Using Modified Ammunition", Special Publication 480-26
Bureau of Standards, U. S. Department of Commerce, Washington, D.C.,
November 1977.
-7-
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BACKGROUND DOCUMENT
SECTION 11.3 DETONATION OF EXPLOSIVES
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The major reference document for this section was Reference 2,
a literature survey prepared by R.V. Carter of the U.S. Army
Environmental Hygiene Agency. This document deals with military
explosives as well as those used by civilians. Some explosives
are used in military and civilian applications, but the majority
of military explosives are different from civilian explosives.
The material in AP-42 Section 11.3 deals entirely with civilian
explosives since it is believed that there would be little use of
this document by the military. Accordingly, much of the material
in Reference 2 is not included in Section 11.3 because it is not
considered useful.
2.0 BLACK POWDER, STRAIGHT DYNAMITE, AND AMMONIA DYNAMITE
The factors for these explosives are taken from Table 4 in
Reference 2 and were obtained, in turn, from the following, both
published prior to 1930:
• A. Marshall, Explosives, Their History, Manufacture.
Properties and Tests, Vol. I, 2nd ed., P. Blakestons's Son
and Co., 1917-
• N. A. Tolch and G. St. J. Perrott, Dynamites: Their Propulsive
Strength, Rate of Detonation, and Poisonous Gases Evolved,
U.S. Bureau of Mines Report of Investigation 2975, 1929.
These factors are based on measured emissions and do not include
any theoretically calculated emissions. Ranges are also given for
each factor (from Table 4, Reference 2) to illustrate the variability
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of the results. Table 5 of Reference 2 also lists calculated
emissions for ammonia from straight dynamite, but these have not
been included in AP-42 because the agreement between measured and
calculated emissions from detonation of explosives has frequently
been poor (or at least unpredictable).
3.0 SMOKELESS POWDER
The factors for smokeless powder are taken from Table 4 in
Reference 2 and were obtained, in turn, from the sources below -
books that were published prior to World War II.
• Davis, T.L. The Chemistry of Powder and Explosives, Vol. I,
New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1941.
• Faber, H.B. Military Pyrotechnics, Vol. 3, Government
Printing Office, 1919.
The comments in the previous paragraph also apply to smokeless
powder. In addition, the information on lead emissions from small
arms firing was taken from Reference 6, which describes a modern study
(1977). In Reference 6, no attempt was made to collect and measure
all the lead emitted during firing. The gun was fired in an 80 liter
chamber and a 20 liter sample of the contents was passed through a
filter for subsequent lead determination. The fraction of lead
sampled can be calculated as 1-e 20/80 or .22 if the contents of the
experimental chamber were well mixed at all times. Since this was
not the case, the factors are given as >6 mg per 158 grain projectile,
and the total amount per projectile is not estimated.
4.0 GELATIN DYNAMITE
The factors for methane and F^S are taken from Table 4 in
Reference 2 and were obtained, in turn, from the sources listed in
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Section 2.0 above. The factors for CO, S02, and nitrogen oxides
are taken from Reference 5, Table 9, and are computed by averaging
all values for nitroglycerine-based agents and water gels. Table 9
lists NO and N02 separately, and these values were added together
and presented as NO in Table 11.3-1.
A
5.0 AMMONIUM NITRATE/FUEL OIL (ANFO)
The factors for ANFO were taken from Reference 5, Table 9
(5.8% fuel oil) and from Reference 4, Tables 3 and 4 (6% and 8«
fuel oil). Reference 4 also contains data for mixtures containing
1, 2, 3, and 4 percent fuel oil, but these were not used because
it is believed that they do not represent mixtures that are com-
monly used. The data in Reference 5 includes emissions from the
booster charge as well as the ANFO main charge. In Reference 4,
the emissions from the booster charge (PETN) have been subtracted
out. To derive the factors for Table 11.3-1, the emissions from
the booster charge were added back in to the emissions from ANFO
taken from Reference 4, using a weighting factor of 60 g booster
per 430 g of main charge. These corrected emissions were then
averaged with the emissions from Reference 5 to obtain the final
factors. References 4 and 5 list comparable emissions for CO, but
Reference 4 gives somewhat lower NOX emissions than does Reference
5. S02 emissions are given only in Reference 5 and not in Reference
4. The factors in Table 11.3-1 are straight averages of all rele-
vant data without any attempt to judge the quality of individual
data items and weigh some more heavily than others.
6.0 TNT, RDX, AND PETN
The factors for TNT are taken directly from Table 4 of Reference
2 which, in turn, were derived from the book by Marshall (listed
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in Section 2.0 above) and the following:
• Ornellas, D.L. The Heat and Products of Detonation of
Cyclotetramethylenetetranitramine, 2, 4, 6 Trinitrotoluene,
Nitromethane and Bis [2, 2-dinitro-2-fluoroethyl] formal.
J. Physical Chemistry 72:2390-2394. July 1968.
The factors for PETN were also taken directly from Table 4 for
Reference 2 and were based on studies reported in the book by
Marshall and also the following:
• Ornellas, D.L., J.H. Carpinter, and S.R. Gunn. Detonation
Calorimeter and Results Obtained with Pentaerythritol
Tetranitrate (PETN). Review of Scientific Instruments 37:
907-912, July 1976.
Both of the Ornellas studies were done in a small scale laboratory
facility that may not be representative of actual use. No factors
for RDX were given in Table 4 of Reference 2, so factors were taken
from Table 5 of that same reference. Table 5 gives factors that
are calculated theoretically, using methods described in Reference
3. The ranges given with each factor represent the results of
making reasonable assumptions of ranges for values as input for the
computations.
7.0 EMISSION FACTOR RATINGS
The ratings were made in a completely subjective manner. The
explosive process is not reproducible: therefore there cannot be
a precise factor to describe an imprecise operation. The values
are based on experimental measurements (except for RDX), but many
of the measurements were made more than 50 years ago using techniques
that are crude when compared with modern methods. The factors are
definitely better than mere guesses, but they are probably not high
quality. Rather arbitrarily, they are rated D.
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TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
1. REPORT NO. 2. 3. RECIF
EPA-450/4-79-023
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE 5. REPO
Detonation of Explosives: An Ar-4^ Update S.PERF
7. AUTHOR(S) 8. PERF
K. Wilson
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS 10. PRO
Pacific Environmental Services, Inc. 2AA
1930 14th Street H.CON
Santa Monica, California 90404 68-
Wor
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS 13. TYP
Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards Final
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency i4.spoc
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
EPA Project Officer: Audrey McBath
16. ABSTRACT
This document contains the text of AP-42 (Compilation of
factors) Section 11.3. Detonation of Explosive?;. It. di<;ruc;<;p
resulting from the detonation of industrial explosives and sm
Included are a process description, explosive train diagram,
emissions. A background document which discusses, in some de
of emission quantification methodologies follows the section
17 KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
a. DESCRIPTORS b. IDENTI F IE RS OPEN ENDE
Emission Factors
Air Pollution Control
Explosives
Ammunition
18 DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT 19 SE CURITY CLASS I This
Unclassified
Unlimited 20 SECURITY CLASS iThis
Unclassified
lENT'S ACCESSION NO
RT DATE
ember 1979
DRMING ORGANIZATION CODE
DRMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
3RAM ELEMENT NO.
635
TRACT 'GRANT NO.
02-2583
k Assignment No. 12
EOF RE PORT AND PERIOD COVERED
; April to September 1979
MSORING AGENCY CODE
Air Pollutant Emission
5 air pollutants
all arms firing.
and a discussion of
^ai 1 , the derivation
itself.
.D TERMS i COSATI 1 idd.'GrOUp
17
pugf 22 PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (R»v. 4-77) PREVIOUS ECITIONISOBSOLETE
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