Fate and Effects of Whole Drilling Fluids and
Fluid Components in Terrestrial and Freshwater
Ecosystems: A Literature Review
Battelle Columbus Labs., OH
Prepared for
Environmental Research Lab
Gulf Breeze, FL
May 81
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE
National Technical Information Service
-------
COPY
EPA 600/4-81-031
May 1981
PB81-197766
FATE AND EFFECTS OF WHOLE DRILLING FLUIDS AND
FLUID COMPONENTS IN TERRESTRIAL AND FRESHWATER
ECOSYSTEMS: A LITERATURE REVIEW
to
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
March 13, 1981
by
John G. Ferrante
PROPERTY OP
ENVWONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
REPRODUCED BY
NATIONAL TECHNICAL
INFORMATION SERVICE
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE
SPRINGFIELD, VA. 22161
BATTELLE
Columbus Laboratories
505 King Avenue
Columbus, Ohio 43201
J
-------
TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
1. REPORT NO.
EPA-600/4-81-031
2.
3. HECIPII
PROJECT REPORT
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
Fate and Effects of Whole
Components in Terrestrial
A Literature Review
Drilling Fluids and Fluid
and Freshwater Ecosystems:
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
S. REPORT DATE
May 1981
7. AUTHOR(S)
John G. Ferrante
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME ANO AOORESS
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
CAKN1C
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
CR-68-02-3169
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME ANO AOORESS
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Research and Development
Environmental Research Laboratory
Gulf Breeze, Florida
13. TYPE OF REPORT ANO PERIOD COVERED
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
EPA/600-04
13. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
16. ABSTRACT
Drilling fluids represent an important aspect of offshore and land based
drilling operations. The fluids perform a multiplicity of functions, ranging from
lubricating to prevention of blowouts when encountering high pressure. Periodically,
the fluids must be changed or they become old and the spent fluids are disposed of
in on-land facilities. Introduction into the environment of the chemically complex
fluids has prompted e-fects research addressing terrestrial and freshwater habitats
and their respective biological components.
Studies with terrestrial plants in laboratory and field experiments show that
the fluids and some fluid components exhibit phytoxicity properties reducing seed
germination, growth and yield. Phytotoxicity in whole drilling fluids is attributed
to soluble salt concentrations.
Perference/avoidance reactions were observed in experiments with whole drilling
fluids are also collated and discussed. The range of lethal concentrations of fluid
components in toxicity studies was from < 1 to 75,000 mg/1 and that for whole drilling
fluids from 0.29 to 85% by volume. Various reasons for observed toxicity are
discussed and recommendations made for future freshwater and terrestrial research
with drilling fluids.
17.
KEY WORDS ANO DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
b.lOENTIFIERS/OPSN ENDED TERMS C. COSATI Field/Group
18. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
Release to public
19. SECURITY CLASS (This Report/
Unclassified
21. NO. O? ?AGcS
20. SECURITY CLASS iTIii
Unclassified
22. PRICE
;PA Form 2220-i (Re». 4-77) PREVIOUS EDITION 13 O3SOUSTE
-------
ABSTRACT
Drilling fluids represent an important aspect of offshore and land
based drilling operations. The fluids perform a multiplicity of functions,
ranging from lubricating to prevention of blowouts when encountering high
pressure. Periodically, the fluids must be changed or they become old and the
spent fluids are disposed of in on-land facilities. Introduction into the
environment of the chemically complex fluids has prompted effects research
addressing terrestrial and freshwater habitats and their respective biological
components.
Studies with terrestrial plants in laboratory and field experiments
show that the fluids and some fluid components exhibit phytotoxicity proper-
ties reducing seed germination, growth and yield. Phytotoxicity in whole
drilling fluids is attributed to soluble salt concentrations.
Preference/avoidance reactions were observed in experiments with
whole drilling fluids using fish. The toxic properties of fluids components
and whole drilling fluids are also collated and discussed. The range of
lethal concentrations of fluid components in toxicity studies was from < 1 to
75,000 mg/1 and that for whole drilling fluids from 0.29 to 85 % by volume.
Various reasons for observed toxicity are discussed and recommendations made
for future freshwater and terrestrial research with drilling fluids.
-------
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I am indebted to Evan Berchard of Imperial Oil Limited and Dennis G.
Wright from the Freshwater Institute, Winnipeg for their assistance in col-
lating studies conducted in Canada. I wish also to thank Jerry Neff from the
Battelle Duxbury laboratory for identifying appropriate estuarine and marine
drilling fluids studies which were included in the appendix of this report.
This study was funded by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
and I particularly wish to thank those individuals at the Gulf Breeze Labor-
atory who aided in the successful completion of this review.
-------
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
ABSTRACT i
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ii
INTRODUCTION 1
FATE AND EXPOSURE 3
Disposal Practices 3
Surface and Groundwater Contamination 3
IMPACTS: INDIVIDUAL FLUIDS COMPONENTS 6
Plants 6
Aquatic Animals 12
IMPACTS: WHOLE DRILLING FLUIDS 14
Plants 14
Aquatic Animals 15
\
SUMMARY 20
CRITIQUE AND RECOMMENDATIONS 22
LITERATURE CITED 24
APPENDIX: FATE AND EFFECTS REFERENCES FOR TERRESTRIAL,
FRESHWATER AND MARINE STUDIES Al
-------
LIST OF TABLES
Page
TABLE 1. Toxicity of Drilling Fluid Components
to Rainbow Trout (Salmo gairdneri) 7
TABLE 2. Toxicity of Whole Drilling Fluids to
Rainbow Trout (Salmo gairdneri) r-v~-. .... 10
TABLE 3. Summary: Major Studies of Whole Drilling Fluids,
Whole Sump Fluids and Drilling Fluid Component
Effects on Plant and Animal Species 18
-------
INTRODUCTION
The most modern drilling method is the rotary system which requires a
circulation of drilling fluid through the well bore while drilling proceeds.
The drilling fluids are pumped from the ground surface through a drill pipe
and bit to the bottom of the hole and returned through the annulus between the
hole and the drill pipe.
Drilling fluid - mud - is usually a mixture of water, clay, weighting
material and variety of chemicals to adjust the properties of the fluid to
meet requirements of each well. Drilling fluid is a major factor in the suc-
cess of the drilling program. It is used in offshore and land based opera-
tions and functions:
1. To remove the cuttings from the bottom of the hole and carry them to
the surface.
2. To transmit hydraulic horsepower to the drill bit.
3. To cool and lubricate the drill string and bit.
4. To exert sufficient hydrostatic pressure to control fluids and
pressure encountered in formations.
5. To minimize settling of cuttings and weight material in suspension
when circulation is temporarily stopped. The mud, however, should
have properties which allow the cuttings to settle in the surface
system.
6. To support and protect the walls of the hole.
7. To reduce to a minimum any harm to the formations penetrated.
8. To insure maximum information about the formations penetrated.
Because of the multiple demands on the fluid it is not surprising
that over 600 brand name additives are on the market for use in preparing
drilling muds (Shaw 75). These "additives" can be categorized into four main
groups, i.e., cooling and lubricating the drills, flotation of rock cuttings,
sealing porous layers of the geologic strata, and solving various other
problems. Common cooling and lubricating components are the fluid base itself
1
-------
(usually water), sodium saturated bentom'te clays, and for high temperatures,
diesel oil. Organic polymers, carboxymethyl cellulose and poly'acrylates are
also sometimes used.
For removing cuttings from the hole a denser (heavier) fluid than
water is usually used. The material most widely used is barite (barium
sulfate) which has a density of 4. Two other weighting materials that are
less frequently used are calcite (calcium carbonate) and siderite (iron
carbonate).
As drilling penetrates sandstones or shales drilling fluid may be
lost in excessive amounts unless the porous area is sealed. Flocculation of
clays and inclusion of fibers of some type is the usual approach to sealing
formations. A variety of chemicals and mixtures are used for this purpose
some of which are: calcium chloride, calcium sulfate, calcium oxide, calcium
lignosulfonate, sodium chloride, sodium silicate, colloidal asphalt, sulfo-
nated asphalt, polyanionic cellulose, gilsom'te and aluminum lignosulfonate.
The fourth category "solving other problems" involves controlling
four mechanical or physical properties: (1) density, (2) viscosity, (3) gel
strength, and (4) filtration. The main specific problems addressed by these
properties are:
. 1. Contamination
2. Abnormal Pressure
3. Corrosion
4. Formation
5. Mud Characteristics
6. Slow Drilling Rate
7. High Temperature
8. Bearing Failure
Each problem is handled by altering the physical nature of (dilution,
raise weight, adjust flow properties, etc.) or chemical nature (adjust pH, add
chemical additives) of the drilling fluid (IACD 1974).
An entire "science" has developed around drilling fluids and their
use in the petroleum industry. This brief introduction is meant only to serve
-------
as an indication of the physical and chemical complexities one must be aware
of when addressing the fate and effects of drilling fluids (muds) in the
environment.
FATE AND EXPOSURE
Disposal Practices ". T."7H
Drilling fluids become contaminated, old or must be replaced because
of down-hole conditions, therefore, the fluids are disposed of periodically.
On-land when drilling operations are completed the active mud system may be
jetted into a reserve pit (pond constructed on-site) and the active pits
filled. The reserve pit (which may hold up to 100,000 barrels per site) is
allowed to evaporate until it is dry, the retaining walls leveled and the
contents of the reserve pit are spread and graded, (Specken 1975, All red
1980). Although practices vary with geographical location the disposal of
drilling wastes is usually by one of the following methods:
1. Dewatering of the reserve pit contents and subsequent backfilling
with pit walls (example described above).
2. Landfarming the reserve pit contents into the soils around the
drilling location.
3. Removal by trucks to other sites.
4. Pump wastes back down the well annulus.
5. Chemically modify the waste into a dry, inert substance.
The most common practice for fluid disposal is included in the first
two options. Unlike offshore marine drilling operations, disposal of offshore
drilling fluids from freshwater operations is usually accomplished by trans-
porting the fluids to shore where they are handled as described above.
Surface and Groundwater Contamination
The introduction of drilling fluids into the environment is limited
to accidental releases and disposal in terrestrial sites. Although little
-------
drilling is presently being done in freshwater lakes, drilling muds and cut-
tings generated during their operations are usually transported to shore and
disposed of on land.
Drilling wastes can be considered pollutants primarily because they
contain high concentrations of organic carbon, total nitrogen, phosphorous,
solids, chemical oxygen demand, and metals (Bryant et. al. 1974). Shaw and
Keeley (1975) discussed the potential for polluting subsurface water supplies
through drilling and subsequent contamination and Shaw (1975) outlined samp-
ling and testing methods for toxicity studies with drilling fluids.
The contamination of surface water can be considered from both sur-
face activities and also from contamination of groundwater from the borehole
(Campbell and Gray 1975). The contamination of groundwater is important since
many surface water habitats have an ultimate hydraulic connection with ground-
water aquifers.
Aquifiers can be contaminated from stream runoff, abandoned wells,
percolation of spilled muds, discarded materials, and leaching of fluids from
earthen pits. One of the worst and widespread problems in drilling is lost
circulation and subsequent contamination of aquifers. Lost circulation
results from openings in the formation large enough to accept whole mud.
While drilling with water seepage may occur into porous, permeable formations
exposed to the borehole. Finally, through a blowout uncontrolled entry of
fluids into the borehole may force gas into shallow aquifers and cause water
wells to be contaminated (Campbell and Gray 1975).
The contamination of soils, surface water and groundwater is a source
of impact to both plants and animals. A discussion of adverse impacts of
drilling fluid components and whole drilling fluids on plants and animals.will
be addressed in the following discussion.
Throughout the remainder of the discussion the terminology drilling
fluids and drilling muds will be used interchangeably and will refer to the
material used during drilling operations. Sump fluids, although composed
primarily of drilling muds, may also contain rig wash, fuels, lubricating
oils, etc. from rig operations. Studies performed with sump fluids will be so
designated.
t
-------
The toxicity and impact of drilling fluids can only be evaluated on
the basis of its availability for reactions with biota. Because drilling muds
and sump fluids, containing muds, are often incorporated into the soils adja-
cent to the well site (Aliped 1980), consideration must be given to the bio-
availability of potentially toxic components to plant species. Nelson et. al.
(1980) addressed this question in laboratory studies with prepared drilling
muds one containing barite low in toxic metals and the other having signifi-
cant levels of Hg, Zn, Pb, Cd, Cu, and As. Their results suggest that the
uptake of Cd, Zn, Cu, and Pb and concentration in the leafy portions of plants
was directly related to the total amount of these metals in the rooting
medium. Mercury found in the muds was not available to the plants. However,
this study suggests that some metals (e.g., Cd, Zn, Cu and Pb) present in
drilling muds are available for plant uptake and accumulation.
The exposure of aquatic biota to toxic chemical components of dril-
ling muds released from offshore drilling operations in freshwater lakes has
not been studied in detail. Ferrante et. al. (1980) studied the discharge
plume from an offshore rig in Lake Erie. Although only small amounts of mud
were discharged during drilling operations, plume dynamics were monitored and
particulate discharges tracked. The plume configurations indicated that the
fine clay sized particulate remained in the uppermost portion of the water
column (0-4 m) and had a tendency to "river"; that is, remain together in a
defined plume strung out in a down-current direction from the rig. Additional
data from modeling efforts during the study suggested that larger particulates
discharged tended to settle out in increasing distances depending upon parti-
cle size. Chemical constituents of the discharged fluids were also followed
in the plume survey. Dilution of most chemicals was rapid with ambient con-
centrations being reached within 100 m of the discharge. Exposure to toxic
materials may thus be limited to a relatively small area immediately around
..the rig. However, the behavior of some fish species to turbidity suggests
that the discharge plume may act as an attractor (Lawrence and Scherer, 1974).
.This phenomena needs to be studied in detail before an exposure factor can be
determined.
-------
IMPACTS: INDIVIDUAL DRILLING FLUIDS COMPONENTS
Several approaches have been followed by investigators in determining
the toxicity of drilling fluids to plant and animal species. Each approach
depends on the form of the material which the experimental organism is ex-
posed. The three distinct categories evident in literature are: exposure to
individual drilling fluid components, exposure to a prepared (fresh) drilling
fluid, and exposure to drilling fluids collected during drilling operations or
immediately following (Tables 1 and 2).
Plants
A limited number of studies with drilling fluid components have been
performed using terrestrial plants. Initial studies by Miller (1978) on dril-
ling mud components indicated that a number of these components: asbestos,
asphalt, a vinyl acetate, maleic anhydride co-polymers, bentonite clay, sodium
polyacrylate, an ethoxylated nonyl phenol, a gilsonite paraformaldehyde, Dow-
made, shell-supplied polymer, acid pyrophosphate, and sodium carboxymethyl
cellulose caused slight reductions in yield or no effect at all when tested on
beans and corn. Barite, modified tannin, filming amine, xanthum gum, lignite,
modified asphalt and sulfonated tall oil had.a more obvious effect reducing
yield of experimental plant species.
Using high/excess addition rates of soil-mud , Miller observed signi-
ficant reductions in yield when modified tannin, a non-fermenting starch, pre-
gelatinized starch, iron chrome lignosulfonate, guar gum and a synthetic and
natural plant fiber were tested. The most severe reductions were observed
when sodium dichromate, diesel oil, potassium chloride or a mixture of calcium
lignosulfonate and lignite were used.
Phytotoxicity studies reported in Miller and Honarvar (1975) and
Miller et. al. (1980), showed similar results for 31 drilling mud components.
Corn and beans were exposed to high and low rates of applications. The low
rate was typical of field concentrations. Of the 31 components tested 10
caused a reduction in growth of both plant species, 1 caused increased plant
growth of the beans. Four affected (other than growth) both beans and corn,
-------
TABLE 1. SUMMARY: MAJOR STUDIES OF WHOLE DRILLING FLUIDS, WHOLE SUMP FLUIDS
AND DRILLING FLUID COMPONENT EFFECTS ON PLANT AND ANIMAL SPECIES
Authors
Honarvar
Mil ler and Honarvar
Pesaran
Mil ler and Pesaran
Miller et. al.
Yonkin and Johnson
Year
1975
1975
1977
1980
1980
1980
Test Organism
Beans and
sweet corn
Beans and
sweet corn
Beans and
sweet corn
Beans and
sweet corn
Beans and
sweet corn
Natural
asemblage
Test Fluid
Plants
Drilling fluids
components
Drilling fluids
components
Drilling fluid
mixture
Whole dril ling
fluids
Drilling fluids
components
Whole drilling
and sump fluids
Test Effect
Phytotoxidty
Phy tot oxi city
Phytotoxlcity
Phytotoxidty
Phytotoxicity
Seed germination
and plant
Effect Notation Test
% yield
Relative
growth
Seed germination/
relative growth
% yield
Relative
growth
% seed germination in situ
and growth
productivity
-------
TABLE 1 (Continued). SUMMARY: MAJOR STUDIES OF WHOLE DRILLING FLUIDS, WHOLE SUMP FLUIDS
AND DRILLING FLUID COMPONENT EFFECTS ON PLANT AND ANIMAL SPECIES
Authors
Falk and Lawrence
Logan
Lawrence and Scherer
Beak Consultants
Didiuk and Wright
Weir and Moore
llollingsworth and Lockhart
Moore et. al .
Weir et. al.
Hard in
Year
1973
1973
1974
1974
1975
1975
1975
1976
1976
1976
Test Organism
9-spine stick
Lake Chubb
Rainbow trout
Whitef ish and
Rainbow trout
Rainbow trout
Chironomid
Rainbow trout
Sailfin Molly
Rainbow trout
Rainbow trout
Phytoplankton
amphipods
Test Fluid
Animals
leback Whole sump
fluids
Whole drilling
fluids and
components
Whole drilling
fluids and
supernatant
Whole drilling
fluids
Whole sump
fluid
Whole drilling
fluids
Drilling fluids
components"
Whole drilling
fluids
Whole sump
fluids
Whole sump
fluids
Test
Effect
Mortality
Mortality
Avoidance
behavior
Mortality
Larval
survival
Mortality
Mortality
Mortality
Mortality
Mortality
Effect
Notation
96 hour LC50
(% vol.)
96 hour LC50
(% vol. and mg/1 )
Preference/
avoidance
96 hour LC50
(% vol.)
% emergence
96 hour Lc50
(% vol.)
MTL
(ppm)
96 hour LC50
(% vol.)
96 hour LC50
(% vol.)
96 hour LC50
(% vol.)
Test
Static/
in situ
Static
Flow-
through
Static
Static
Static
Static
Static
Static
Static
00
9-spine stickleback
-------
TABLE 1 (Continued). SUMMARY: MAJOR STUDIES OF WHOLE DRILLING FLUIDS, WHOLE SUMP FLUIDS
AND DRILLING FLUID COMPONENT EFFECTS ON PLANT AND ANIMAL SPECIES
Authors
Year Test Organism
Test Fluid
Test
Effect
Effect
Notation
Test
Sprague and Logan
Beckett et. al.
Lawrence
Logan
1976 Rainbow trout
1976 Rainbow trout
1980 Natural Assemblage
1980 Rainbow trout
Drilling fluids
components
Drilling fluids
components
Whole sump
fluids
Whole drilling
fluids
Mortality
Mortality
Behavior/
mortality
Mortaity
96 hour LC50 Static
(% vol. and mg/1)
96 hour LC50
(mg/1)
Observations
96 hour LC50
(% vol.)
Static
In situ
Static
-------
TABLE 2. TOXICITY OF DRILLING FLUID COMPONENTS TO RAINBOW TROUT
(Salmo gairdneri)
Drilling Fluid Component
Beckett et.
(1976)
96 Hour LC50 (mg/L)
al. Logan et. al.
(1973)
Sprague and Logan
(1979)
Aluminum stearate
Barafloc
Barite
Ben-Ex (polymer)
Carbonox (lignetic material)
Cypan (sodium polyacrylates)
Desco (organic thinner)
Dextrld (organic polymer)
DFE-506 normal
neutralized
Dlainmonlum phosphate
Dowicide-B
Drillaid 421
Drispac (polyanionic cellulose)
FLR-100
llydrogel (Wyoming hentonite)
Kelzan XC polymer (xanthum gum biopolymer)
KwIk-vis
Mil-Flo
Muriate
Peltex • normal (ferrochrome llgnosulfonate)
• neutralized
Protectomagic (asplialt)
Q Uroxin (ferrochrome lignosulfonate)
Rapidril (organic polymer)
1100
800
Random; >10,000 >7500
1300 665
6500
1200-1300
1200
<1
250
3500
950
0.75
280-550
2700-2800
2200-4000
7200
1800-2200 440
1600
600
2100
560-840
>3200
5000-75,000
1500-2000 1530
550
76,000
660
>1000
420a
1500
-------
TABLE 2. TOXICITY OF DRILLING FLUID COMPONENTS TO RAINBOW TROUT
(Salmo gairdneri) (Continued)
Drilling Fluid Component
96 Hour LC50 (mg/L)
Beckett et. al,
(1976)
Logan et. al.
(1973)
Spragne and Logan
(1979)
Salt mud (attapulgite clay)
Sodium acid pyrophosphate
Spersene (chrome lignosulfonate)
Unical (chrome mod. sodium lignosulfonate)
Visbestos (inorganic emulsion mud)
Walnut shells
Bentonite clay
Carhoxyniethyl cellulose
Torq-Trim (sulphated triglycerides, alephetic
and isopropyl alcohols
Sta flo
SS-100
Chromolit (potassium chromic sulphate)
Metso beads
Caustic (NaOII)
Tri-Cron (dihydroxy-propane and
alkyl auryl sulphonates)
Capryl alcohol
Faraformaldehyde
Skot-Free
Potassium chloride
Sodium bicarbonate
Calcium chloride
B-Free
23,500
1700
2500-5000
860
2750
2800
>10,500
>10,500
105
2020
7550
>10,500
SAO
19,000
>10,000
1300a
>1000
>1000
750a
110
75a
75a
60
48
18
Interpolated
-------
12
but six others affected only one of the species. Examples of affects observed
during testing are reduction in growth, decrease in germination, and dropping
of leaves. The most toxic compounds tested, listed in order of severity of
affect were: potassium chloride > lignite > calcium 1ignosulfonate > diesel
oil.
Aquatic Animals
The purpose of a number of toxicity studies performed with aquatic
animals was to acquire information on the toxicity of drilling fluids compon-
ents in the aquatic environment (Falk and Lawrence 1973, Ho'llingsworth and
Lockhart 1975, Beckett et. al. 1976, Sprague and Logan 1979, and Logan 1980).
Emphasis in these studies was often placed on the toxicity to a sensitive
freshwater fish species, usually rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri). Several of
the studies also .addressed more specific questions such as: the effect of
ageing on the toxicity of the most lethal chemicals (Sprague and Logan 1980),
toxicity of specific compounds, e.g., thinning agents (Hollingsworth and Lock-
hart 1975), and predictability of toxic interactions of chemical components in
standard drilling fluids (Sprague and Logan 1979).
Testing protocols varied with 96 hours static testing the "normal"
approach although some investigators chose to adjust pH, stir or circulate
continuously, and aerate throughout the test. Acute lethal toxicity tests by
Logan et. al. (1973) (appendix to Falk and Lawrence 1973) indicated that
almost half (13 of 27) of the mud components they tested were toxic with
LCSO's < 1000 ppm. Of the 13 compounds tested, 7 were very toxic and 6 were
moderately toxic. Acute toxicities of 34 drilling fluid components (Table 2)
tested with rainbow trout (Beckett et. al. 1976) ranged from < 1 mg/L to >
50,000 mg/L. In general, the organic polymers were extremely viscous and at
high viscosities fish apparently were unable to circulate the material past
the gills and mortality was due to suffocation. The inert soils such as clay
tend to dissociate to some degree and it is possible that this chemical
activity may be due to the addition of impurities from the manufacturing
process. Observed acute affects with 1ignosulfonate compounds may be the
result of acidic pH. The authors suggest that the acute toxicity of the
-------
13
components fall under two categories, i.e., physical action such as high
viscosity and suspended solids, and chemical action such as extreme pH and
heavy metals.
Sprague and Logan (1979) observed in their studies that many of the
organic materials (CMC, Ben-Ex, Kelzan-XC, SS-100, FLR-100 and Staflo) had
relatively low toxicity and used in small quantities would not contribute to a
serious environmental problem. However, paraformaldehyde, capryl alcohol and
5 of the 7 surfactants tested were fairly toxic with LC50 values < 100 mg/L.
In an additional aspect of their study, Sprague and Logan found no
single pattern of joint action (calculated on the asumption that toxicities of
individual components were additive). The additive action was approximately
one half the results for single components. Less than additive toxicity was
shown for 7 components in simulated drilling fluid and antagonism was demon-
strated in 9 of 21 bioassays with single components added to simulated fluids.
In studies by Logan (1976, 1980) rainbow trout were tested in bio-
assays with ferrochrome 1ignosulfonate, torq-trim, sodium acid pyrophosphate,
chromolet, Ben-Ex, Helzon-XC, caustic, capryl alcohol, Tri-Con, paraformal-
dehyde, Scot-Free, and B-Free. Five components: capryl alcohol, Tri-Con,
paraformaldehyde, Scot-Free and B-Free had 96 hour LC50 values < 100 mg/L.
The remaining chemicals had 96 hour LC50 values between 105-2270 mg/L.
Ageing of the various chemical components for 16 days eliminated or
substantially reduced the toxicity of 5 of these 6 chemicals. The exception
was B-Free where the median effective time (ET 50) was reduced to 4.6 hours
from 930 hours.
In a more specific study, Hollingsworth and Lockhart (1975) studied
the toxicity of thinning agents on sailfin molly (Mollienesia 1 atipinna).
Because of the importance and extensive use in the drilling industry ligno-
sulfonates were tested along with phosphates, tannins, and lignites. Of the
compounds tested the tannin class had considerably lower median tolerance
limits than any of the other products. An example of a widely used tannin is
quebracho. The suspected cause of the toxic response to this class is the
oxygen scavenging characteristics of tannin. It is interesting to note that
-------
14
chrome lignosulfonate and ferrochrome lignosulfonate were the least toxic in
freshwater and marine experiments. Lignosulfonate compounds are the most
widely used thinning agents today. For a more detailed discussion of the
effects of selected components, see Land (1974).
IMPACTS: WHOLE DRILLING FLUIDS
Plants
Few studies have been published on the effects of whole drilling
fluids on plant growth or changes in natural vegetation as a result of expo-
sure to drilling fluids, although brief observations have been recorded at
disposal sites or adjacent to drilling sumps (Smith and James 1980). Most
information about the effects of drilling fluids on plants has been deduced
from studies other than those using the fluids themselves. Bryant and Hrudey
(1976) discussed the toxicity of drilling mud components based on chemistry
derived from the literature.
Two master's theses from Utah State University, Honarvar (1975) and
Pesaran (1977b), and a study by Miller and Pesaran (1980) provide the majority
of useful information about the effect of drilling fluid mixtures on plants.
The conclusions of the three investigations are similar indicating that fluids
containing specific chemical components inhibit plant growth.
In general, the major inhibiting effect of drilling fluids which
reduced plant growth is the result of excess soluble salt and exchangeable
sodium. Large amounts of potassium chloride, in potassium chloride muds, is a
good example and sodium salts (sodium-dichromate and sodium hydroxide) added
in lesser amounts also reduced growth. Pesaran (1977b) also found that muds
that contained diesel oil inhibited growth, however, he observed this effect
to be temporary.
Six of the seven muds tested by Miller and Pesaran (1980) contained
sodium hydroxide in appreciable amounts. The inhibitory effects of these muds
was attributed to the destruction of soil aggregation by the excess sodium.
The muds rendered the soils impermeable or slowly permeable which were poorly
aerated when wet and hard and structureless when dry.
-------
15
The effects of drilling muds depends on the soil type. Drilling muds
will be least detrimental on acidic, leached soils high in organic matter and
most detrimental on alkaline loam to claying soils (Pesaran 1977a). When
drilling muds which have alkaline pH values are added to strongly acid soils,
there may be a beneficial effect on plant growth because of increased soil pH
(Miller and Pesa_ran 1980).
The impact of waste drilling fluids (sump fluids) on soils and vege-
tation was studied in field plots of natural plant assemblages (Yonkin and
Johnson 1980). In this investigation, field studies were conducted using the
three basic drilling fluids used in Alberta, Canada, ie., potassium chloride,
dispersed water gel and flocculated water gel.
Sump fluids derived from potassium chloride water-polymer muds had
the highest salt concentration (up to 33,000 ppm anions and cations) and were
most potentially harmful to soils and vegetation. Additional laboratory
studies with these fluids also showed a significant reduction in seed germin-
ation. Fluids from freshwater gel drilling muds contained considerably lower
concentrations of salt (up to 2055 ppm anions and cations) and exhibited sig-
nificantly lower effects. The authors suggest that plant damage was related to
direct contact and uptake of fluid components. Salt content of the sump
fluids was most damaging to plant growth followed by diesel fuel. These
results agree with those of Pesaran (1977b) and Miller and Pesaran (1980) and
provide the added dimension of being conducted in the field with natural
assemblages of vegetation.
Aquatic Animals
Freshwater amphipods, insects and fish have been used to study the
toxicological properties of whole drilling fluids. Qualitative investigations
such as Granthum and Sloan (1975), Hardin (1976), Shaw (1975), and Zitko
(1975) offer insight into general effects of drilling and sump fluids on
aquatic species.
A number of studies have been conducted to define the lethal thres-
hold beyond which the normal functions of an organism, as well as its survi-
-------
16
val, are adversely affected. A range of responses has been observed from
behavioral studies with individual species (Lawrence and Scherer 1974), com-
munity response to drilling fluid discharge in a body of water (Lawrence
1980), survival and emergence of chironomid (Didiuk 1975, Didiuk and Wright
1976) to lethality (Logan 1980, Moore et. al. 1976, Beak Consultants 1974,
Weir et. al. 1976, Weir and Moore 1975, Logan 1973, and Falk and Lawrence
1973).
Sublethal responses of whitefish and rainbow trout to drilling fluids
and the supernatant fraction showed that whitefish were attracted to suspen-
sions with increasing concentration over the concentration range tested
(1-1000 ul/1). Visual perceived turbidity was speculated as one causal ele-
ment in attracting this species (Lawrence and Scherer 1974). Rainbow trout
exposed to the same range of mud suspension exhibited somewhat of a different
response. Up to concentrations of 100 ul/1 the fish showed a neutral res-
ponse, however, at concentrations of 1000 ul/1, the trout shifted to a prefer-
ence response. Drilling fluid supernatant elicited a biphasic response in
both species, i.e., an initial attraction followed by avoidance at higher
concentrations.
It has been shown by Herbert and Merkens (1961) that irritation of
gel! epithelium by suspended solids may not lead to a lethal stage in fish
within 4 days (96 hours). However, mortality can occur abruptly after a long
latency. This raises the question: Will whitefish and rainbow trout maintain
their preference for mud suspensions at concentrations between 1000 ul/1 and
"lethal levels" (LC50 whitefish - 25,000 ul/1, rainbow trout 75,000 ul/1) and
in essence be living in a "death trap"?
In a field study of some effects of drilling wastes on a small sub-
arctic lake, Lawrence (1980) found no mortality to whitefish or nine spine
sticklebacks that could be attributed to the sump fluid disposal. In fact,
the author suggested that the movement of fish in and out of the lake was
unchanged even though he measured an increase in turbidity, conductivity,
alkalinity, total hardness, total iron, aluminum, chloride and sulfate ions.
Although Lawrence observed a decrease in benthic biomass throughout the study
the response was not uniform. For example, chironomid larvae decreased in
abundance within 25 m of the outfall while nematodes and oligochaetes
increased in abundance.
-------
17
The decrease in chironomid larvae in response to drilling fluids,
observed by Lawrence (1980), is consistant with observations by Didiuk and
Wright (1976). Their study focused on the effects of deposition of thin (1, 3
and 7 mm) layers of drilling wastes on the survival of larvae of the chirono-
mid, Chironomus titans, using emergence of adults as an index of survival.
The authors found an inverse relationship between the thickness of mud and the
percent emergence, i.e., control 84%, 1 mm - 61%, 3 mm - 47% and 12 mm - 12%.
These results suggest that the mud represents a physical barrier to burrow
construction and perturbation of feeding mechanisms. In addition, the authors
postulated that delays in growth may result from large amounts of energy used
for food gathering that could have been used for growth.
Qualitative studies are usually non-specific and can be compared in
general terms, however, lethality studies are quantitative in nature and are
usually defined by LC50, LD50 or TLM values. Table 3 lists ranges of 96 hour
LC50 values of whole drilling muds on rainbow trout. The six studies cited
provide values that range from very toxic (0.29 % fluid by volume) to rela-
tively non toxic (85 %-by volume). The studies by Moore et. al. (1976) and
Weir and Moore (1975) indicate a wide range, 0.29-85 % and 9-70 % (by volume),
respectively. In both studies drilling fluid was collected at various depths
during drilling operations. In both studies the toxicity was related to
changes in fluid composition from addition of components, in response to
drilling conditions at various depths, and downhole contamination. The acute
toxicity of the drilling fluids tested was directly related to the type of mud
system used. Weir and Moore (1975) found that the toxicity of the drilling
fluids collected while drilling near the surface (3000 feet) to be very high
with LC50 values approximately 10 % by volume. The authors speculate that the
toxicity was due to high chloride, calcium and conductivity from the potassium
chloride-gel-polymer mud being used. From 4000-9000 feet, the fluids
(unweighted gel-polymer mud) were moderately toxic, 5-6 fold decrease below
that for the 3000 feet mud. The third mud system (weighted gel-barite system)
used from 10,000-13,000 feet exhibited an increase in acute toxicity, LC50
9-16 % by volume.
A similar relationship was observed by Beak Consultants (1974) with
LC50 values varying with depth of fluid collection, 4000 feet - 9.8 %, 6000
feet - 5.0 %, 7000 feet - 26 r, and 8000 feet - 25 %. Along with the relation-
-------
18
TABLE 3:. TOXICITY OF WHOLE DRILLING FLUIDS TO RAINBOW TROUT
(Salmo gairdneri)
Study
96 Hour LC50 (% by volume)
Moore et. al. (1976)
Weir et. al. (1976)
Weir and Moore (1975)
Lawrence and Scherer (1974)
Beak Consultants (1974)
Logan et. al. (1973)
85 - 0.29
59 - 3.23
70 - 9b
7.5 - 4.2C
25-5
5.3 - 83
Wide range due to changes in components used during
drilling specific formations.
Toxicity dependent upon depth of hole when sample
collected.
c -4
Calculated using the factor ul/1 x 10
-------
19
ship of depth (fluid chemistry) and toxicity, the authors also concluded that
the toxicity was due to mud components, drilled solids did not effect the tox-
icity as much as components added. They also suggest that the toxicity re-
sulted from metallic ions the source of which was barite and 1ignosulfonate.
The drilling fluid studies conducted by Falk and Lawrence (1973) were
used to acquire information on the nature and amounts of drilling fluid com-
pounds used, the efficiency of waste containment facilities and the toxicity
of drilling fluids. Test animals (on site - lake chub and rainbow trout, lab-
oratory - 9-spine stickleback) were exposed to sump fluids, composite sump
fluids and drilling fluids. Drilling fluids were found to be acutely toxic
with 96 hour LC50 values of 0.83 to 12.0 % by volume for lake chubb and
rainbow trout. Sump fluids were comparatively less toxic with one sump
yielding 96 hour LC50 of 22.5 and 81 % (by volume) for composite and surface
sump fluids, respectively.
Finally, Moore et. al. (1976) concluded that both fluid components
used and the formation drilled contributed to the overall toxicity of the mud
samples tested. A great amount of variability in toxicity was related to the
individual areas drilled, company and rig practices and conditions encount-
ered. Four major sources of toxicity were identified; metal chlorides (e.g.,
potassium chloride), solids (e.g., barite), viscosity and speciality products
(e.g., bactericides, rust inhibitors, crosslinking agents, alcohol defoamers,
etc.). The only pattern which emerged from the data collected was that the
overall toxicity of each sample was a result of the components in use at that
particular time and the formation being drilled.
It is recognized that additional data may be found in large compre-
hensive reports which contain bioasay investigations as a small part of an
overall assessment. No attempt was made to collate this data into the present
report since most of the experiments were focused on very specific needs and •
would not add significantly to this report. In addition, it is also recog-
nized that many petroleum companies and drilling fluid manufacturing com-
panies have toxicity data, however, most of this information is proprietory
and not available to the open literature.
-------
20
SUMMARY
Drilling fluids are used in rotary drilling offshore and in land
based operations. The fluids serve in a multiplicity of functions from lubri-
cation to aiding in well logging operations, because of this wide range of
functions drilling fluids are required to perform under extreme conditions yet
must be sufficiently stable to maintain fluid integrity. Over 600 drilling
fluids components are presently available for use in adjusting fluid charac-
teristics to meet the needs of each drilling operation.
Drilling fluids get old and requirements change during the drilling
of a well, thus, spent fluids are usually disposed of in a reserve pit on-site
or in a designated disposal area. Both offshore (freshwater) and land based
drilling operations dispose of spent drilling wastes in on-land facilities.
The introduction of these spent drilling fluids into the environment
is a result of drilling mishaps and migration of liquid wastes from disposal
sites. The resulting concern for environmental perturbation prompted effects
research on drilling fluids components, whole drilling fluids and sump wastes.
Drilling fluids move through the environment in stream runoff, per-
colation through soils and groundwater aquifers. Metal uptake from drilling
fluids, by plants has been shown to have a direct relationship with the
concentration of the metals in rooting medium. The movement of discharged
material in a lake from offshore drilling operation? suggests that dilution is
rapid and exposure to potentially toxic concentrations of chemicals is
probably limited to a relatively small area adjacent to rig.
In terrestrial studies drilling fluid components, whole fluids and
sump wastes have been shown to decrease seed germination, reduce growth and
yields. In whole fluid experiments, the toxic component in each of the plant
studies was postulated to be the salt content of the fluids.
Investigations involving fluids and aquatic organisms show a variety
of toxicities depending on the component tested. In general, however, testing
with rainbow trout showed some consistancy between investigations with a range
of LC50 values from < 1 to 75,000 mg/1. Whole drilling fluids also showed a
wide range of variability (0.29 to 85 mg/1) which was attributed in some
-------
21
studies to the changing fluid composition purposefully altered to meet fluid
requirements at various depths during drilling.
Preference/avoidance behavior has been observed with several fish
species under varying concentrations of whole drilling fluids and fluid super-
natant. The results of these studies suggest a preference by the fish for
high suspended solids.
Several authors, Beckett et. al. (1976) and Beak Consultants (1974)
differ in their causual evaluation of toxic effects of fluids on rainbow
trout. The former attributing effects to physical and chemical
characteristics of experimental fluids, the later indicating little effect
from suspended solids. The potential impact of suspended solids was
speculated that these solids (turbidity) may represent a "death trap" since
they attract some species but potentially may cause latent mortality from gill
damage (Falk and Lawrence 1973).
In general, studies with drilling fluid components and whole
drilling fluids show a consistency in toxicity testing. All of the studies
show that some drilling components and whole drilling fluids are toxic to
plant or animal species.
-------
22
CRITIQUE AND RECOMMENDATIONS
In general, the data generated on the effects of drilling fluids and
fluid components represents a good base for assessments of potential environ-
mental perturbation. However, comparisons between data bases is somewhat
questionable since in some studies pre-alteration of the test material (e.g.,
adjusting the pH) took place while in others unaltered fluids and components
were used. Several bioassay studies were performed where aeration or resus-
pension of the fluids was accomplished throughout the study. The effect of
this on the results, when compared to strictly static experiments, is un-
known.
A problem one faces in evaluating toxicity data is the lack in uni-
formity of specific testing protocols, the variety of test organisms used, and
the dimensions used in expressing toxicity values. The latter presents diffi-
cult problems when comparing test results by independent researchers, even
though the compounds used are the same. This problem is even more exaggerated
in the testing of whole muds and mud mixtures.
Interpolation of whole fluids toxicity from individual component
studies has also been shown to be highly questionable, thus, making whole
drilling fluids the prefered method. Confusion between some toxicity results
is a function of interpretation of the data and should be scrutinized closely
and compared with the corresponding data.
A hazard assessment for drilling fluids must include both effects
and exposure components. Most of the data collected thus far has been on
effects; the exposure component has been sadly neglected in freshwater and
terrestrial research. The role that preference/avoidance behavior has in
toxicity testing must be determined before extrapolation of in vitro testing
results can be made into the field with any confidence.
Additional in situ studies are needed to determine community res-
ponse to drilling wastes. ue have seemingly generated sufficient toxicologi-
cal information to say that drilling fluids and sump wastes represent a toxic
pollutant in the environment. Toxicity data indicates that the obvious
follow-up would be to conduct in situ studies in freshwater and terrestrial
-------
23
habitats to determine the overall effect of these materials on the habitat and
endemic biota. These studies integrate exposure, toxicity, behavior, and
endemic species under exact environmental conditions. It seems unwise to rely
so heavily on so few field studies and a number of laboratory experiments with
components, the toxicity of which may not be additive, for decision making.
-------
24
LITERATURE CITED
Allred, R. B. 1975. The handling and treating of water-based drilling muds.
In: Environmental Aspects of Chemical Use in Well-Drilling Operations, pp
491-502. U.S. EPA. EPA-560/1-75-004.
Beak Consultants. 1974. Disposal of Waste Drilling Fluids in the Canadian
Arctic-Project C6006. Reports submitted to Imperial Oil Ltd., Edmonton,
Alberta, Canada, pp 170.
Beckett, A., 8. Moore, and R. H. Weir. 1976. Acute toxicity of drilling
fluid components to rainbow trout. In: Industry/Government Working Group in
Disposal Waste Fluids from Exploratory Drilling in the Canadian North.
Yellowknife, N.W.T., Canada. Dept. of the Environment, Environmental
Protection Service. Vol. 9, pp 88.
Bryant, W. J., J. Goldburn, and S. E. Hrudey. 1974. Water pollution aspects
from waste drilling mud disposal in Canada's arctic. In: Proc. 1974 Offshore
Technology Conf., pp 95-102. OTC. 2044 Houston, Tx.
Bryant, W. J. and S. E. Hrudey. 1976. Water pollution characteristics of
drilling operations. In: Industry/Government Working Group in Disposal Waste
Fluids from Petroleum Exploratory Drilling in the Canadian North. Yellow-
knife, N.W.T.; Canada. Dept. of the Environment, Environmental Protection
Service. Vol. 3.
Campbell, M. D. and G. R. Gray. 1975. Mobility of well-drilling additives in
the ground-water system. In: Environmental Aspects of Chemical Use in Well-
Drilling Operations, pp 261-284. U.S. EPA. EPA-560/1-75-004.
Didiuk, A. 1975. The effect of a drilling waste on the survival and emer-
gence of the chronomid chironomus tentans (fabricius). Canada Fisheries and
Marine Service. Tech. Rep.586:pp 26.
Didiuk, A. and D. G. Wright. 1976. The effect of a drilling waste on the
survival and emergence of the chironomid, chironomus tentans (fabriciues).
Vol. 12. In: Industry/Government Working Group in Disposal Waste Fluids from
Petroleum Exploratory Drilling in the Canadian North. Yellowknife, N.W.T.,
Canada. Dept. of the Environment, Environment Protection Service. Vol. 12.
PP 19.
Falk, M. R. and M. J. Lawrence. 1973. Acute Toxicity of Petrochemical Dril-
ling Fluids Components and Wastes to Fish. Tech. Rep. No. CENT-73-1.
Fisheries and Marine Service, Freshwater Institute, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Can-
ada, pp 108.
Ferrante, J. G., E. H. Dettman, and J. I. Parker. 1980. Natural Gas in Lake
Erie: A Reconnassance Survey of Discharges From on Offshore Drilling Reg.
ANL/ES-85, Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, II. pp 61.
-------
25
Granthum, C. K. and J. P. Sloan. 1975. Toxicity study. Drilling fluid
chemicals on aquatic life. In: Environmental Aspects of Chemical Use in
Well-Drilling Operations, pp 103-110. U.S. EPA. EPA-560/1-75-004.
Hardin, M. J. 1976. A preliminary study of the effects of oil well drilling
sump fluid on some aquatic organisms of the Mackenzie Delta. In: Industry/
Government Working Group in Disposal Waste Fluids from Petroleum Explora-
tory Drilling in the Canadian North. Yellowknife, N.W.T., Canada. Dept. of
the Environment, Environmental Protection Service. Vol. 11. pp 65.
Herbert, D.W.M. and J. C. Merkens. 1961. The effect of suspended mineral
solids on the survival of trout. Air Water Pollut. 5:46-55.
Hollingsworth, J. W. and R. A. Lockhart. 1975. Fish toxicity of dispersed
clay drilling mud deflocculants. In: Environmental Aspects of Chemical Use
in Well-Drilling Operations, pp 113-123. U.S. EPA. EPA-560/1/75-004.
Honarvar, S. 1975. Effect of drilling fluid components and mixtures on
plants and soils. M.S. Thesis. U.S.U., Logan, Utah, pp 133
IADC. 1974. Drilling Manual. 9th edition. International Association of
Drilling Contractors.
Land, B. 1974. The toxicity of drilling fluid components to aquatic biologi-
cal systems. Canada Department of Environment. Fish Marine Service. Tech.
Rep. No. 487. pp 33.
Lawrence, M. J. 1980. A study of some effects of drilling wastes on a small
sub-arctic lake. In: Symposium - Research on Environmental Fate and Effects
of Drilling Fluids and Cuttings. (Abstract). Jan. 21-24. Lake Buena Vista,
Fla.
Lawrence, M. and E. Scherer. 1974. Behavioral response of whitefish and
rainbow trout to drilling fluids. Tech. Rep. No. 502. Fisheries and Marine
Services. Freshwater Institute. Winnipeg, Maritoba, Canada, pp 47.
Logan, W.
chemicals
J. 1976. The toxicity of drilling fluids and their component
to rainbow trout. M.S. Thesis. U. of Guilph. Guilph, Canada.
Logan, W. J. 1980. The toxicity of drilling fluids and their component
chemicals to rainbow trout. In: Symposium - Research on Environmental Fate
and Effects of Drilling Fluids and Cuttings. (Abstract). Jan. 21-24, 1980.
Lake Buena Vista, Fla.
Logan, W. F., J. B. Sprague, and B
trout of drilling fluids and their
west Territories, pp 43-108. In:
toxicity of petrochemical drilling
D. Hicks. 1973. Acute lethal toxicity to
constituent chemicals as used in the North-
Falk, M. R. and M. J. Lawrence. Acute
fluid components and wastes to fish.
_ . __.._-_-. ^ -( __. ___ — __ _
Canada Dept. of Environment. Resource Management Branch. Technical Report
No. CENT-73-1.
Miller, R. W. 1978. Effects of drilling fluid components and mixtures on
plants and soils. Summary Report 1974-1977. Utah Agricultural Experiment
Station. Logan, Utah, pp 39.
-------
26
Miller, R. C., R. P. Britch, and R. V. Shafer. 1980. Physical aspects of
disposal of drilling fluids and cuttings in shallow ice covered arctic seas.
In: Symposium - Research on Environmental Fate and Effects of Drilling Fluids
and Cuttings, pp 670-689. Jan. 21-24, 1980. Lake Buena Vista, Fla.
Miller, R. W. and S. Honarvar. 1975. Effect of drilling fluid component
mixtures on plants and soils. In: Environmental Aspects of Chemical Use in
Well-Drilling Operations, pp 125-143. U.S. EPA. EPA-560/1-75-004.
Miller, R. W. and P. Pesaran. 1980. Effects- of drilling fluids on soils and
plants. II. Complete fluid mixtures. J. Environ. Qual. Vol. 9, No. 4. pp
552-556.
Moore, 8., A. Beckett, and R. H. Weir. 1976. Acute toxicity of drilling
fluids to rainbow trout. In: Industry/Government Working Grouup in Disposal
Waste Fluids from Petroleum Exploratory Drilling in the Canadian North. Yel-
lowknife, N.W.T., Canada. Dept. of the Environment. Environmental Protection
Service. Vol. 8. pp 93.
Nelson, D. W., S. Liki, and L. E. Sommers. 1980. Plant uptake of toxic
metals present in drilling fluids. In: Symposium - Research on Environmental
Fate and Effects of Drilling Fluids and Cuttings, pp 114-138. Jan. 21-24,
1980. Lake Buena Visa, Fla.
Pesaran (Djavan), P. 1977a. Effects of drilling fluids on soils and plants.
69th Annual Meeting Amer. Soc. of Agronomy/Crop Sci. Soc. of Amer/Soil Sci.
Soc. of Amer. Los Angeles, Ca. 13-18 Nov., 1977.
Pesaran (Djavan), P. 1977b. Effect of drilling fluid components and mixtures
on plants and soils. Masters Thesis. Utah State University. Soil Science
and Biometeorology (Soil Science), pp 134.
Shaw, D. R. 1975. The toxicity of drilling fluids, their testing and dis-
posal. In: Environmental Aspects of Chemical Use in Well-Drilling Opera-
tions, pp 463-471. U.S. EPA. EPA-560/1-75-004.
Shaw, D. C. and J. W. Keeley. 1975. Ground-water problems associated with
well-drilling additives. In: Environmental Aspects of Chemical Use in Well-
Drilling Operations, pp 223-230. U.S. EPA. EPA-560/1-75-004.
Smith, D. W. and T.D.W. James. 1980. Vegetation changes resulting from sump
waste spillage in the Canadian arctic. In: Symposium - Research on Environ-
mental Fate and Effects of Drilling Fluids and Cuttings, pp 166-184. Jan.
21-24, 1980. Lake Buena Vista, Fla.
Specken, G. A. 1975. Treatment and disposal of waste fluids from onshore
drilling sites. In: Environmental Aspects of Chemical Use in Well-Drilling
Operations, pp 451-462. U.S. EPA. EPA-560/1-75-004.
Sprague, J. B. and W. J. Logan. 1979. Separate and joint toxicity to rainbow
trout of substances used in drilling fluids for oil exploration. Environ.
Pollut. 19(4):269-281.
-------
27
Weir, R. H. and B. Moore. 1975. Acute toxicity of well-drilling muds to
rainbow trout, Salmo gairdneri (Richardson). In: Environmental Aspects of
Chemical Use in Well-Drilling Operations, pp 169-182. U.S. EPA.
EPA-560/1-75-004.
Weir, R. H., W. H. Lake, and B. T. Thakeray. 1976. Acute toxicity of dis-
charged drilling muds from emmerk B-48. Beaufort Sea to rainbow trout, Salmo
gairdneri. In: Industry/Government Working Group in Disposal Waste Fluids
from Exploratory Drilling in the Canadian North. Yellowknife, N.W.T., Canada.
Vol. 6. pp 37.
Yonkin, W. E. and D. L. Johnson. 1980. The impact of waste drilling fluids
on soils and vegetation in Alberta. In: Symposium - Research on Environ-
mental Fate and Effects of Drilling Fluids and Cuttings, pp 98-113. Jan.
21-24, 1980. Lake Buena Vista, Fla.
Zitko, V. 1975. Toxicity and environmental properties of chemicals used in
well-drilling operations. In: Environmental Aspects of Chemical Use in
Well-Drilling Operations, pp 322-326. U.S. EPA. EPA-560/1-75-004.
-------
APPENDIX: FATE AND EFFECTS
REFERENCES FOR TERRESTRIAL,
FRESHWATER AND MARINE STUDIES
-------
Al
Allred, R. B. 1975. The handling and treating of water-based drilling muds.
In: Environmental Aspects of Chemical Use in Well-Drilling Operations, pp
491-502. U.S. EPA. EPA-560/1-75-004.
Atema, J., L. Ashkeras, and E. Beale. 1979. Effects of drilling muds on
lobster behavior. Progress Report 1 January- 1 October, 1979. Marine Bio.
Lab., Woods Hole, pp 107
Ayers, R. .C., Jr., T. C. Sauer, Jr., R. P. Meek, and G. Bowers. 1980. An en-
vironmental monitoring study to assess-the impact of drilling discharges in
the mid-Atlantic. I. Quantity and fa~te~of discharges. In: Symposium - Re-
search on Environmental Fate and Effects of Drilling Fluids and Cuttings, pp
382-391. Jan. 21-24, 1980. Lake Buena Vista, Fla.
Ayers, R.C., Jr., R. P. Meek, T. C. Sauer, Jr., and D. 0. Stuebner. 1980. An
environmental study to assess the effect of drilling fluids on water quality
parameters during high rate, high volume discharges to the ocean. In: Sym-
posium - Research on Environmental Fate and Effects of Drilling Fluids and
Cuttings, pp 351-361. Jan. 21-24, 1980. Lake Buena Vista, Fla.
Ayers, R. C., Jr., T. C. Sauer, Jr., R. P. Meek and G. Boniers. 1980. An en-
vironmental study to assess the impact of drilling discharges in the Mid-
Atlantic. I. Quantity and fate of discharges. Prepared by Exxon Production
Research Company, Ecomar, Inc. and E. G & G. Environmental Consultants for
Mid-Atlantic Operators. 22 pages and appendices.
Bachman, W. A. 1979. Solid waste law becomes threat to oil. Jour. Oil and
Gas. 77(6):26
Baker, R. 1978. A study of environmental concerns: Offshore oil and gas
drilling production. Fisheries and Env. Canada Report, EPS 2-EC-78-1. Env.
Canada Env. Protection Ser.
Bascom, W., A. J. Mearns, and M. D. Moore. 1976.
platforms in the Santa Barbara Channel. J. Petrol
A biological survey of oil
Techno!. 1280-1284.
Beak Consultants. 1974. Disposal of Waste Drilling Fluids in
Arctic-Project C6006. Reports submitted to Imperial Oil Ltd.,
Alberta, Canada, pp 170.
the Canadian
Edmonton,
Beckett, A., B. Moore, and R. H. Weir. 1976. Acute toxicity of drilling
fluid components to rainbow trout. In: Industry/Government Working Group in
Disposal Waste Fluids from Exploratory Drilling in the Canadian North.
Yellowknife, N.W.T., Canada. Dept. of the Environment, Environmental
Protection Service. Vol. 9, pp 88.
Benech, S., R. Bowker, and B. Pimentel. 1980. Chronic effects of drilling
fluids exposure to fouling community composition on a semi-submersible ex-
ploratory drilling vessel. In: Symposium - Research on Environmental Fate
and Effects of Drilling Fluids and Cuttings, pp 611-631. Jan. 21-24, 1980.
Lake Buena Vista. Fla.
-------
A2
Bohum, D. 1974. Long term effects of mud sump toxicity on vegetation.
Indian and Northern Affairs, Ottawa. June 7 report.
Brandsma, M. G., L. R. Davis, R. C. Ayers, Jr., and T. C. Sauer, Jr. 1980. A
compter model to predict the short-term fate of drilling discharges in the
marine environment. In: Symposium - Research on Environmental Fate and Ef-
fects of Drilling Fluids and Cuttings, pp 588-608. Jan 21-24, 1980. Lake
Buena Vista, Fla.
Brannon, A. C. and P. J. Conklin. 1978. Effect of sodium pentachlorophenate
on exoskeletal calcium in the grass shrimp, Palaemonetes pugio. In: Penta-
chlorophenol. pp 205-211. Plenum Pub. Corp. New York, N.Y.
Brannon, A. C. and K. R. Rao. 1979. Barium, strontium and calcium levels in
the exoskeleton, hepatopancreas and abdominal muscle of the grass shrimp.
Palaemonetes pugio: relation to molting and exposure to barite. Comp.
Biochem. Physiol. 63A:261-274.
Bryant, W. J., J. Goldburn, and S. E. Hrudey. 1974. Water pollution aspects
from waste drilling mud disposal in Canada's arctic. In: Proc. 1974 Offshore
Technology Conf., pp 95-102. OTC. 2044 Houston, Tx.
Bryant, W. J. and S. E. Hrudey. 1976. Water pollution characteristics of
drilling operations. In: Industry/Government Working Group in Disposal Waste
Fluids from Petroleum Exploratory Drilling in the Canadian North. Yellow-
knife, N.W.T.; Canada. Dept. of the Environment, Environmental Protection
Service. Vol. 3.
Cabrera, J. 1971. Survival of the oyster Crassostrea virginica (Gmelin) in
the laboratory under the effects of oil drilling fluids spilled in the Laguna
de Tamiahua, Mexico. Gulf. Res. Repts. _3:197-213.
Campbell, M. D. and G. R. Gray. 1975. Mobility of well-drilling additives in
the ground-water system. In: Environmental Aspects of Chemical Use in Well-
Drilling Operations., pp 261-284. U.S. EPA. EPA-560/1-75-004.
Cantelmo, A. C., P. J. Conklin, F. R. Fox, and K. R. Rao. 1978. Effects of
sodium pentachlorophenate and 2,3-Dinitrophenol on respiration in crustaceans.
In: Pentachlorophenol. pp 251-263. Plenum Pub. Corp. New York, N.Y.
Cantelmo, F. R. and K. R. Rao. 1978. Effects of pentachlorophenol on the
meiobenthic nematocytes in an experimental system. In: Pentachlorophenol.
pp 165-174. Plenum Pub. Corp. New York, N.Y.
Cantelmo, F. R., M. E. Tagatz, and K. R. Rao. 1979. Effect of barite on
meiofauna in a flow-through experimental system. Mar. Environ. Res.
2:301-309.
-------
A3
Cantelmo, A. C. and K. R. Rao. 1978. The effects of pentachlorophenol (PCP)
and 2,4-Dinitrophenol (DNP) on the oxygen consumption of tissues from the blue
crab, Callinectes sapidus, under different osmotic conditions. Comparative
Biochemistry and Physiology. 60C. pp 215-219.
Carney, L. L. and L. Harris. 1975. Thermal degradation of drilling mud ad-
ditives. In: Environmental Aspects of Chemical Use in Well-Drilling Oper-
ations, pp 203-218. U.S. EPA. EPA-560/1-75-004.
Cam, R. $., W. L. McCulloch, and J. M. Neff. 1980. Bioavailability of chro-
mium from a used chrome lignosulfonate drilling mud to five species of marine
invertebrates. Mar. Environ. Res. (in press).
Carr, R. S., L. A. Reitsema and J. M. Neff. 1980. Influence of a used chrome
lignosulfonate drilling mud on the survival, respiration, growth, and feeding
activity of the opossum shrimp Mysidopsis almyra. In: Symposium - Research
on Environmental Fate and Effects of Drilling Fluids and Cuttings, pp 944-
960. Jan. 21-24, 1980. Lake Buena Vista, Fla.
Chambers Consultants and Planners. 1979. Underwater survey of the marine
life associated with oil platform Emmy. Report prepared for Aminoil USA,
Inc., Huntington Beach, California. 92648.
Charlton, D., C. P. Falls, R. C. Miller, J. P. Houghton, and D. L. Beyer.
1978. The environmental impact of discharging drilling fluids, Cook Inlet,
Alaska. Proc. Energy/Environment '78 Symposium. Assoc. of Petroleum Industry
Biologists. 22-24 August 1978. Los Angeles, California
Chesser, B. F. and W. H. McKenzie. 1975. Use of bioassay test in evaluating
the toxicity of drilling fluid additives on Galveston Bay shrimp. In: En-
vironmental Aspects of Chemical Use in Well-Drilling Operations, pp 153-168.
U.S. EPA. EPA-560/1-75-004.
Chow, T. J. 1976. Barium in Southern California coastal waters: a potential
indicator of marine drilling contamination. Science 193:57-58.
Chow, T. J., J. L. Earl, J. H. Reed, N. Hansen, and V. Orphan. 1978. Barium
content of marine sediments near drilling sites. A potential pollutant
indicator. Mar. Pollut. Bull. _9:97-99.
Cole, J., R. Greene, B. Bowman, and P. Friedman. 1979. Programmatic En-
vironmental Impact Statement for DOE's Enhanced Oil Recovery RD & D Program.
Printed: DOE Enhanced Oil and Gas Recovery & Improved Drilling Technology.
5th Sym. Tulsa, Ok. Aug. 22-24, 1979. Vol. 3, PE-3(13).
Collins, A. G. 1971. Oil and gas wells—potential polluters of the en-
vironment. J. Wat. Pollut. Contr. Fed. 43:2383-2393.
Collins, A. G. 1975. Chemical applications in oil- and gas-well-drilling and
completion operations. In: Environmental Aspects of Chemical Use in Well-
Drilling Operations, pp 231-256. U.S. EPA. EPA-560/1-75-004.
-------
A4
Collins, A. G. 1975. Possible contamination of ground water by oil- and
gas-well-drilling and completion fluids. In: Environmental Aspects of Chemi-
cal Use In Well-Drilling Operations. U.S. EPA. pp 231-256. U.S. EPA-
560/1-75-004.
Conklin, P. J., D. G. Doughtie, and K. R. Rao. 1980. Effects of barite and
used drilling muds on crustaceans, with particular reference to the grass
shrimp, Palaemonetes pugio. In: Symposium - Research and Environmental Fate
and Effects of Drilling Fluids and Cuttings, pp 912-940. Jan 21-24, 1980.
Lake Buena Vista, Fla.
Conklin, R. J. and F. R. Fox. 1978. Environmental
phenol and its products—a round table discussion.
pp 389-394. Plenum Pub. Corp. New York, N.Y.
impact of pentachloro-
In: Pentachlorophenol,
Conklin, P. J. and K. R. Rao. 1978.
the grass shrimp Palaemonetes pugio,
tachlorophenol. pp 181-192. Plenum
Toxicity of sodium pentachlorophenate to
in relation to the molt cycle. In: Pen-
Pub. Corp. New York, N.Y.
Conklin, P. J. and K. R. Rao. 1978. Toxicity of sodium pentachlorophenate
(NaPCP) to the grass shrimp Palaemonetes pugio at different stages of the molt
cycle. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 20:275-279.
Connor, M. S. and R. W. Howarth. 1977. Potential effects of oil production
on Georges Bank communities: a review of the draft environmental impact
statement for outer continental shelf oil and gas lease sale No. 42. Tech-
nical rept. Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, Ma. No.
WHOI-77i-l. pp 41.
Continental Shelf Associates, Inc. 1975. East Flower Garden Bank environ-
mental survey. Rept. No. 1. Pre-drilling environmental assessment. Vol. I,
II. Rept. No. 2. Monitoring program and post-drilling environmental assess-
ment Vol. I, II, III, IV. Reports submitted to Mobil Oil Corp. for lease
OCS-G2759.
Continental Shelf Associates, Inc. 1976. Pre-drilling survey report. Re-
sults of gravity core sediment sampling and analysis of barium. Post-drilling
survey report. Results of gravity core sediment sampling and analysis for
barium. Block A-502, High Island Area, South Addition. Reports submitted to
Burmah Oil and Gas Co.
Continental Shelf Associates, Inc. 1976. Pre-drilling survey report. Re-
sults of gravity core sediment sampling and analysis for barium. Post-
drilling survey report. Results of gravity core sediment sampling and analy-
sis for barium. Block A-85, Mustang Island Area, East Addition. Reports
submitted to Continental Oil Co.
Controlling corrosion in petroleum drilling and in packer
and Nathan (ed.). Corrosion Inhibitors. National Assoc.
pp 284.
fluids. In: Bush
of Corrosion Eng.
-------
A5
Crippen, R., G. Greene and S. L. Hood. 1980. Metal'levels in water, sediment
and benthos resulting from a drilling fluid discharge in the Beaufort Sea.
In: Symposium --Research on Environmental Fate and Effects of Drilling Fluids
and Cuttings, pp 636-664. Jan 21-24, 1980. Lake Buena Vista, Fla.
Dames and Moore, Inc. 1978. Drilling fluid dispersion and biological effects
study for the lower Cook Inlet C.O.S.T. well. Report submitted to Atlantic
Richfield Co. pp 309. Dames and Moore, Ankorage, Ak.
Daugherty, F. W. 1950. Effects of some chemicals used in oil well drilling
on marine animals. Sewage Indust. Wastes. 23:1282-1287.
Dickey, T. D. and M. D. Fortin. 1980. A numerical model of dispersion of
drilling discharges in the marine environment. In: Symposium - Research on
Environmental Fate and Effects of Drilling Fluids and Cuttings (Abstracts).
Jan. 21-24, 1980. Lake Buena Vista, Fla.
Didiuk, A. 1975. The effect of a drilling waste on the survival and emer-
gence of the chronomid chironomus tentans (fabricius). Canada Fisheries and
Marine Service. Tech. Rep. 586:pp 26.
Didiuk, A. and D. G. Wright. 1976. The effect of a drilling waste on the
survival and emergence of the chironomid, chironomus tentans (fabriciues).
Vol. 12. In: Industry/Government Working Group in Disposal Waste Fluids from
Petroleum Exploratory Drilling in the Canadian North. Yellowknife, N.W.T.,
Canada. Dept. of the Environment, Environment Protection Service. Vol. 12.
PP 19.
Ecomar, Inc.
Oil Company.
pp 495.
1978. Tanner Bank mud and cutting study. Conducted for Shell
January through March 1977. Ecomar, Inc., Goleta, California.
EG & G Environmental Consultants. 1976. Compliance with ocean dumping final
regulations and criteria of proposed discharges from exploratory drilling rigs
on the mid-Atlantic outer continental shelf. Report submitted to Shell Oil
Co.
EG & G Environmental Consultants. 1980. Monitoring Program for Exxon's Block
564, Jacksonville OCS Area (Lease OCS-G 3705). EG & G Environmental Consul-
tants, Walthan, Ma. pp 29 with appendices.
EG & G Environmental Consultants. 1980. Water Quality Monitoring, NPDES Per-
mit Requirement Mid-Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf Area. EG & G Environ-
mental Consultants, Walthan, Ma. pp 237.
Estuarine Research Federation. 1975. Marine environmental implications of
offshore oil and gas development in the Baltimore Canyon region of the mid-
Atlantic coast. Proceedings of the estuarine Research Federation Outer Con-
tinental Shelf Conference and Workshop. December 1974. Chemical oceanography
workshop report, pp 375-376. ERF, Wachaprigue, Va.
-------
A6
Falk, M. R. and M. J. Lawrence. 1973. Acute Toxicity of Petrochemical Dril-
ling Fluids Components and Wastes to Fish. Tech. Rep. No. CENT-73-1.
Fisheries and Marine Service, Freshwater Institute, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Can-
ada, pp 108.
Parrel, D. 1975. Benthic communities in the vicinity of producing oil wells
in Timbalies Bay, La. Report to Gulf Universities Research Consortium (GURC).
Offshore Ecology Investigation.
Ferrante, J. G., E. H. Dettman, and J. I. Parker. 1980. Natural Gas in Lake
Erie: A Reconnassance Survey of Discharges From on Offshore Drilling Reg.
ANL/ES-85, Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, II. pp 61.
Fox, F. R. and K. R. Rao. 1978. Effects of sodium pentachlorophenate and
2,4-Dinitrophenol on hepatopancreatic enzymes in the blue crab, Callinectes
sapidus. In: Pentachlorophenol. pp 265-275. Plenum Pub. Corp"New York,
N.Y.
French, H. M. 1978. Terrain and environmental problems of Canadian arctic
oil and gas exploration. Musk-Ox. 21:11-17.
French, H. M. 1980. Terrain, land use and drilling fluid disposal problems,
Arctic Canada. In: Symposium - Research on Environmental Fate and Effects of
Drilling Fluids and Cuttings. (Abstracts). Jan. 21-24, 1980. Lake Buena
Vista, Fla.
French, H. M. and M. W. Smith. 1980. Geothermal disturbance remitting from
sump construction and use in permafrost terrain, Arctic Canada. In: Sym-
posium - Research on Environmental Fate and Effects of Drilling Fluids and
Cuttings, pp 139-164. Jan. 21-24, 1980. Lake Buena Vista, Fla.
Friesen, G. 1980. Drilling fluids and disposal methods employed by Esso Re-
sources Canada Ltd. to drill in the Canadian arctic. In: Symposium - Re-
search on Environmental Fate and Effects of Drilling Fluids and Cuttings, pp
53-68. Jan. 21-24, 1980. Lake Buena Vista, Fla.
George, R. Y. 1975. Potential effects of oil drilling and dumping activities
on marine biota. In: Environmental Aspects of Cemical Use in Well-Drilling
Operations, pp 333-355. U.S. EPA. EPA-560/1-75-004.
Gerber, R. P., E. S. Gilfillan, B. T. Page, D..S. Page, and J. B. Hotham.
1980. Short and long term effects of used drilling fluids on marine
organisms. In: Symposium - Research on Environmental Fate and Effects of
Drilling Fluids and Cuttings, pp 882-909. Jan. 21-24, 1980. Lake Buena
Vista, Fla.
Gettleson, D. A. 1978. Ecological impact of exploratory drilling: a case
study. In: Energy/Environment '78. Soc. of Petroleum Industry Biologists
Symposium. 22-24 August, 1978. Los Angeles, California, pp 23.
-------
A7
Gettleson, D. A. and C. E. Laird. 1980. Barium as an indicator of the
short-term fate of discharged drilling fluids. In: Symposium - Research on
Environmental Fate and Effects of Drilling Fluids and Cuttings, pp 739-785.
Jan. 21-24, 1980. Lake Buena Vista, Fla.
Gilfillan, E. S., R. P. Gerber, S. A. Hanson, D. S. Page, and J. B. Hotham.
1980. Effects of used drilling muds on recruitment of soft bottom benthic
communities. In: Symposium - Research on Environmental Fate and Effects of
Drilling Fluids and Cuttings. Jan. 21-24, 1980. Lake Buena Vista, Fla.
Granthum, C. K. and J. P. Sloan. 1975. Toxicity study. Drilling fluid
chemicals on aquatic life. In: Environmental Aspects of Chemical Use in
Well-Drilling Operations, pp 103-110. U.S. EPA. EPA-560/1-75-004.
Hardin, M. J. 1976. A preliminary study of the effects of oil well drilling
sump fluid on some aquatic organisms of the Mackenzie Delta. In: Industry/
Government Working Group in Disposal Waste Fluids from Petroleum Explora-
tory Drilling in the Canadian North. Yellowknife, N.W.T., Canada. Dept. of
the Environment, Environmental Protection Service. Vol. 11. pp 65.
Herbert, D.W.M. and J. C. Merkens. 1961. The effect of suspended mineral
solids on the survival of trout. Air Water Pollut. 5:46-55.
Herbert, D.W.M. and A. C. Wakeford. 1962. The effect of calcium sulfate on
the survival of rainbow trout. Wat. Waste Treat. J. Vol. 8. pp 608-609.
Hollingsworth, J. W. and R. A. Lockhart. 1975. Fish toxicity of dispersed
clay drilling mud deflocculants. In: Environmental Aspects of Chemical Use
in Well-Drilling Operations, pp 113-123. U.S. EPA. EPA-560/1/75-004.
Holmes, C. W. and S. S. Barnes. 1977. Trace metal and mineralogical analyses
of suspended and bottom sediment. In: Environmental Studies, South Texas
Outer Continental Shelf, Biology and Chemistry. R. D. Groover, ed. pp
6.1-6.18. Final report submitted to U.S. Dept. of Interior, Bureau of Land
Management, Outer Continental Shelf Office. Washington, D.C.
Honarvar, S. 1975. Effect of drilling fluid components and mixtures on
plants and soils. M.S. Thesis. U.S.U., Logan, Utah, pp 133
Houghton, J. P. 1979. Drilling fluid dispersion effects studies at an
Alaskan continental offshore stratigraphic test well. Amer. Inst. Chem. Eng.
87th Nat. Meeting. Boston, Ma. 19-22 Aug. 1979.
Houghton, J. P., D. L. Beyer and E. D. Thielk. 1980. Effects of oil well
drilling fluids on several important Alaskan marine organisms. In: Symposium
- Research on Environmental Fate and Effects of Drilling Fluids and Cuttings.
pp 1017-1041. Jan. 21-24,-1980. Lake Buena Vista, Fla.
Hrudey, S. E. 1979. Sources and characteristics of liquid process wastes
from Arctic offshore hydrocarbon exploration. Arctic. 32:3-21.
-------
A8
Hrudey, S. E. and J. D. McMullen. 1976. Monitoring of two exploratory drill-
ing sites in the shallow regions of MacKenzie Bay. Vol. 4. In: Industry/
Government Working Group in Disposal Waste Fluids from Petroleum Explora-
tory Drilling in the Canadian North. Yellowknife, N.W.T., Canada. Dept. of
the Environment, Environmental Protection Service. Vol. 4.
Hrudey, S. E. 1980. Surface and groundwater quality implications of waste
drilling fluid sump abandonment in permafront regions. In: Symposium - Re-
search on Environmental Fate and Effects of Drilling Fluids and Cuttings, pp
191-192. Jan. 21-24, 1980. Lake Buena Vista, Fla.
Hrudey, S. E., J. Michalchuk, and J. D. McMullen. 1976. A preliminary
assessment of water pollution from abandoned oil and gas drilling sumps in the
N.W.T., Canada. In: Industry/Government Working Group in Disposal Waste
Fluids from Petroleum Exploratory Drilling in the Canadian North. Yellow-
knife, N.W.T., Canada. Vol. 2. pp 42.
Hudson, J. H. and D. M. Robbin. 1980. Effects of drilling mud on the growth
rate of the reef-building coral, Montastrea annularis. In: Symposium - Re-
search on Environmental Fate and Effects of Drilling Fluids and Cuttings, pp
1101-1119. Jan. 21-24, 1980. Lake Buena Vista, Fla.
Jessen, F. W. and C. A. Johnson. 1963. The mechanism of adsorption of ligno-
sulfonates on clay suspensions. Soc. Petrol. Eng. J. _3:267-273.
IADC. 1974. Drilling Manual. 9th edition. International Association of
Drilling Contractors.
Kaufman, D. and J. W. Rogers. 1972. Toxicity to fish of drilling mud com-
ponents and mixtures. Shell Summary Report. Project No. 32-26617. Bellaire
Res. Cent. Houston, Texas (cited through Beckett et. al. 1976).
Kelly, J. 1964. What Mobil research revealed about: how lignosulfonate muds
behave at high temperatures. Oil and Gas J. 62:112-119.
Kennedy, K. 1979. The environmental impacts of energy extraction. Env.
Views. April-May, 1979. V2, Ni, P3 (6).
Knox, F. 1976. The behavior of ferrochrome lignosulfonate in natural waters.
Masters Thesis. Mass. Inst. Techno!. Cambridge, Ma. pp 62.
Kojola, W. H., G. R. Brenniman, and B. W. Carnow. 1979. Review of environ-
mental characteristics and health effects of barium in public water supplies.
Rev. Environ. Hlth. _3_:79-95*
Krone, M. A. and D. C. Biggs. 1980. Sublethal metabolic responses of the
hermatypic coral Madracis decatus exposed to drilling mud enriched with ferro-
chrome lignosulfonate. In: Symposium - Research on Environmental Fate and
Effects of Drilling Fluids and Cuttings, pp 1079-1096. Jan. 21-24, 1980.
Lake Buena Vista, Fla.
Land, B. 1974. The toxicity of drilling fluid components to aquatic biologi-
cal systems. Canada Department of Environment. Fish Marine Service. Tech.
Rep. No. 487. pp 33.
-------
A9
Lawrence, M. J. 1980. A study of some effects of drilling wastes on a small
sub-arctic lake. In: Symposium - Research on Environmental Fate and Effects
of Drilling Fluids and Cuttings. (Abstract). Jan. 21-24. Lake Buena Vista,
Fla.
Lawrence, M. and E. Scherer. 1974. Behavioral response of whitefish and
rainbow trout to drilling fluids. Tech. Rep. No. 502. Fisheries and Marine
Services. Freshwater Institute. Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada, pp 47.
Liss, R. G., F. Knox, D. Wayne and T. R. Gilbert. 1980. Availability of
trace elements in drilling fluids to the marine environment. In: Symposium -
Research on Environmental Fate and Effects of Drilling Fluids and Cuttings.
pp 691-719. Jan. 21-24, 1980. Lake Buena Vista, Fla.
Logan, W. J. 1976. The toxicity of drilling fluids and their component
chemicals to rainbow trout. M.S. Thesis. U. of Guilph. Guilph, Canada.
Logan, W, J. 1980. The toxicity of drilling fluids and their component
chemicals to rainbow trout. In: Symposium - Research on Environmental Fate
and Effects of Drilling Fluids and Cuttings. (Abstract). Jan. 21-24, 1980.
Lake Buena Vista, Fla.
Logan, W. F., J. B. Sprague, and B. D. Hicks. 1973. Acute lethal toxicity to
trout of drilling fluids and their constituent chemicals as used in the North-
west Territories, pp 43-108. In: Falk, M. R. and M. J. Lawrence. Acute
toxicity of petrochemical drilling fluid components and wastes to fish.
Canada Dept. of Environment. Resource Management Branch. Technical Report
No. CENT-73-1.
Louden, L. R. and R. E. McGlothlin. 1975. Waste water base drilling fluid
disposal. In: Environmental Aspects of Chemical Use in Well-Drilling Oper-
ations, pp 575-522. U.S. EPA. EPA-560/1-75-004.
Ludke, J. L. and R. A. Schoettger. 1979. Hazardous substances: A threat to
aquatic resources. USDI Columbia North Fishery Res. Lab., Mo. Presented at
US F & W Service Pollution Response Conf. St. Petersburg, Mo. May 8-10,
1979. pp 73(6).
Mariani, G. M. and L. V. Sick. 1980. An environmental monitoring study to '
assess the impact of drilling discharges in the mid-Atlantic. III. Chemical
and physical alterations in the benthic environment. In: Symposium - Re-
search on Environmental Fate and Effects of Drilling Fluids and Cuttings, pp
438-495. Jan. 21-24, 1980. Lake Buena Vista, Fla.
Mariani, G. M., L. V. Sick, and C. C. Johnson. 1980. An environmental study
to assess the impact of drilling discharges in the Mid-Atlantic. III. Chemi-
cal and physical alterations in the benthic environment. Prepared by EG & G
Environmental Consultants and University of Delaware College of Marine Studies
for Mid-Atlantic Operators, pp 31 and appendices.
Marine Technical Consulting Services. 1977. Ecological assessment of drill-
ing activities. Well No. 1. Block 384. High Island, East Addition, South
Extension. Report submitted to Union Oil Co. of California.
-------
A10
McAtee, J. L. and N. R. Smith. 1969. Ferrochrome lignosulfonates. I. X-ray
adsorption edge fine structure spectroscopy. II. Interation with ion ex-
change resin and clays. J. Colloid Interface Sci. 29:389-398.
McAuliffe, C. D. and L. L. Palmer. 1976. Environmental aspects of offshore
disposal of drilling fluids and cuttings. Soc. Petrol. Engrs. AIME, paper
No. SPE 5864. pp 8.
McCulloch, W. L., J. M. Neff, and R. S. Carr. 1980. Bioavailability of heavy
metals from used offshore drilling muds to the clam Rangia cuneata and the
oyster Crassostrea gigas. In: Symposium - Research on Environmental Fate and
Effects of Drilling Fluids and Cuttings, pp 964-982. Jan. 21-24, 1980. Lake
Buena Vista,, Fla.
McDermott-Ehrlick, D., D. R. Young, G. V. Alexander, T. K. Jan, and G. P.
Hershelman. 1978. Chemical studies of offshore oil platforms in the Santa
Barbara Channel. Proc. Energy/Environment '78 Symposium, pp 133-144. Assoc.
Petroleum Industry Biologists. 22-24 August, 1978. Los Angeles, California.
McGuire, W. J. 1975. Disposal of drilling fluids and drilled-up solids in
offshore drilling operations. In: Environmental Aspects of Chemical Use in
Well-Drilling Operations, pp 523-530. U.S. EPA. EPA-560/1-75-004.
McLeay, D. J. 1976. Marine toxicity studies on drilling fluid wastes. In:
Industry/Government Working Group in Disposal Waste Fluids from Petroleum Ex-
ploratory Drilling in the Canadian Arctic. Yellowknife, N.W.T., Canada.
Dept. of the Environment. Environmental Protection Service. Vol. 10, pp 17.
McDerott-Erlich, D., D. R. Young, G. V. Alexander, T. K. Jan, and G. P.
Hershelman. 1978. Chemical studies of offshore oil platforms in the Santa
Barbara channel. J. Linstedt - Siva, ed. Proc., Energy/Environment '78: a
symposium on energy development impacts. August 22-24, 1978. Los Angeles,
California, pp 133-134.
McLeod, G. C., T. R. Gilbert, R. Stone, and N. Riser. 1980. Indices of sub-
lethal stress in bivalve molluscs exposed to drilling muds: an overview. In:
Symposium - Research on Environmental Fate and Effects of Drilling Fluids and
Cuttings. (Abstract). Jan. 21-24, 1980. Lake Buena Vista, Fla.
Meek, R. P. and J. P. Ray. 1980. Induced sedimentation, accumulation, and
transport resulting from exploratory drilling discharges of drilling fluids
and cuttings. In: Symposium - Research on Environmental Fate and Effects of
Drilling Fluids and Cuttings, pp 259-280. Jan. 21-24, 1980. Lake Buena
Vista, Fla.
Menzie, C. A.-, D. Maurer, and W. A. Leathern. 1980. An environmental moni-
toring study to assess the impact of drilling discharges in the mid-Atlantic.
IV. The effects of drilling discharges on the benthic community. In: Sym-
posium - Research on Environmental Fate and Effects of Drilling Fluids and
Cuttings, pp 499-536. Jan. 21-24, 1980. Lake Buena Vista, Fla.
-------
All
Menzie, C. A., D. Maurer and W. A. Leathern. 1980. An environmental study to
assess the impact of drilling discharges in the Mid-Atlantic. IV. The
effects of drilling discharges on the benthic community. Prepared by EG & G
Environmental Consultants and University of Delaware College of Marine Studies
for Mid-Atlantic Operators, pp 40 and appendices.
Miller, R. W. 1978. Effects of drilling fluid components and mixtures on
plants and soils. Summary Report 1974-1977. Utah Agricultural Experiment
Station. Logan, Utah, pp 39.
Miller, R. C., R. P. Britch, and R. V. Shafer. 1980. Physical aspects of
disposal of drilling fluids and cuttings in shallow ice covered arctic seas.
In: Symposium - Research on Environmental Fate and Effects of Drilling Fluids
and Cuttings, pp 670-689. Jan. 21-24, 1980. Lake Buena Vista, Fla.
Miller, R. W. and S. Honarvar. 1975. Effect of drilling fluid component
mixtures on plants and soils. In: Environmental Aspects of Chemical Use in
Well-Drilling Operations, pp 125-143. U.S. EPA. EPA-560/1-75-004.
Miller, R. W.
plants. II.
552-556.
and P. Pesaran. 1980. Effects of drilling fluids on soils and
Complete fluid mixtures. J. Environ. Qual. Vol. 9, No. 4. pp
Monaghan, P. H., C. D. McAuliffe, and F. T. Weiss. 1977. Environmental
aspects of drilling muds and cuttings from oil and gas extraction operations
in offshore and coastal waters. Proc. 9th Offshore Technol. Conf. Houston,
Texas. OTC paper No. 2755. pp 251-256.
Moore, B., A. Beckett, and R. H. Weir. 1976. Acute toxicity of drilling
fluids to rainbow trout. In: Industry/Government Working Grouup in Disposal
Waste Fluids from Petroleum Exploratory Drilling in the Canadian North. Yel-
lowknife, N.W.T., Canada. Dept. of the Environment. Environmental Protection
Service. Vol. 8. pp 93.
Montalvo, J. G., Jr. and M. M. McKown. 1975. Environmental implications of
sediment bulk analysis techniques for trace metals in offshore well-drilling
operations. In: Environmental Aspects of Chemical Use in Well-Drilling Oper-
ations, pp 357-383. U.S. EPA. EPA-560/1-75-004.
Moseley, H. R. 1980. Drilling fluids and cuttings disposal. In: Symposium
- Research on Environmental Fate and Effects of Drilling Fluids and Cuttings.
pp 43-52. Jan. 21-24, 1980. Lake Buena Vista, Fla.
NALCO Environmental Sciences. 1976. Physical and toxicity bioassay studies
in Cook Inlet, Alaska during drilling operations. Report submitted to Union
Oil Co. of California.
Neff, J. M., R. S. Carr and W.
chrome lignosulfonate drilling
Mar. Environ. Res. (in press).
L. McCulloch.
mud to several
1980. Acute toxicity of a used
species of marine invertebrates.
-------
A12
Neff, J. M., W. L. McCulloch, R. S. Carr, and K. A. Retzer. 1980.. Compara-
tive toxicity of four used offshore drilling muds to several species of marine
animals from the Gulf of Mexico. In: Symposium - Research on Environmental
Fate and Effects of Drilling Fluids and Cuttings, pp 866-880. Jan. 21-24,
1980. Lake Buena Vista, Fla.
Nelson, D. W., S. Liki, and L. E. Sommers. 1980. Plant uptake of toxic
metals present in drilling fluids. In: Symposium - Research on Environmental
Fate and Effects of Drilling Fluids and Cuttings, pp 114-138." Jaru 21-24,
1980. Lake Buena Visa, Fla.
Newbury, T. K. 1979. Possible accumulation of heavy metals around offshore
oil production facilities in the Beaufort Sea. Arctic. 32:42-45.
OECS Corporation. 1977a. Barium investigation, post-drilling survey well #2,
pre-drilling survey well #3. Mustang Island area, Block A-86. Report submit-
ted to Marathon Oil Company.
OECS Corporation. 1977b. Barium investigation, post-drilling survey well #3,
pre-drilling survey well #4. Mustang Island area, Block A-86. Report sub-
mitted to Marathon Oil Company.
Offshore Operators Committee. 1978. Comments on U.S. Environmental Protec-
tion Agency Draft Document, "Permit Conditions for NPDES permits at the Flower
Garden Reefs, Gulf of Mexico, Outer Continental Shelf. August 1978". Report
submitted to U.S. EPA, Region VI.
Page, D. S., B. T Page, J. R. Hotham, E. S. Gilfillan, and R. R. Gerber.
1980. Bioavailability of toxic constituents of used drilling muds. In: Sym-
posium - Research on Environmental Fate and Effects of Drilling Fluids and
Cuttings, pp 984-993. Jan. 21-24, 1980. Lake Buena Vista, Fla.
Palmer, L. L. 1976. Environmental aspects of offshore disposal of drilling
fluids and cuttings. Society of Petroleum Engineers of AIME SPE 5864. pp 16.
Pesaran (Djavan), P. 1977a. Effects of drilling fluids on soils and plants.
69th Annual Meeting Amer. Soc. of Agronomy/Crop Sci. Soc. of Amer/Soil Sci.
Soc. of Amer. Los Angeles, Ca. 13-18 Nov., 1977.
Pesaran (Djavan), P. 1977b. Effect of drilling fluid components and mixtures
on plants and soils. Masters Thesis. Utah State University. Soil Science
and Biometeorology (Soil Science), pp 134.
Rao, K. R., P. J. Conklin, and A. C. Brannon. 1978. Inhibition of limb re-
generation in the grass shrimp. Palaemonetes pugio, by sodium pentachloro-
phenate. Pentachlorophenol. pp 193-203.PTenum Pub. Corp. New York, N.Y.
Ray, J. P. 1978. Drilling mud toxicity: laboratory and real world tests.
Ocean Resources Eng. 12:8-12.
Ray, J. P. 1979. Offshore discharge of drill muds and cuttings. In: Proc.
of the OCS Frontier Technology Symposium. Dec. 6, 1979. Washington, D.C.
-------
AT 3
Ray, J. P. and R. P. Meek. 1980. Water column characterization of drilling
fluids dispersion from an offshore exploratory well on Tanner Bank. In: Sym-
posium - Research on Environmental Fate and Effects of Drilling Fluids and
Cuttings, pp 223-252. Jan. 21-24, 1980. Lake Buena Vista, Fla.
Ray, J. P. and E. A. Shinn. 1975. Environmental effects of drilling muds and
cuttings. In: Environmental Aspects of Chemical Use in Well-Drilling Oper-
ations, pp 533-534. U.S. EPA. EPA-560/1-75-004.
Reish, D. J., S. G. Appan, M. E. Bender, T. L. Linton, C. H. Ward, and J. M.
Sharp. 1980. Long-term cumulative effects of petroleum drilling on benthic
polychaete community structure. In: Symposium - Research on Environmental
Fate and Effects of Drilling Fluids and Cuttings. (Abstracts). Jan. 21-24,
1980. Lake Buena Vista, Fla.
Richards, N. L. 1979. Effects of chemicals used in oil and gas well-drilling
operations in aquatic environments. In: Fourth National Conference. Inter-
agency Energy/Environment R & D Program. June 7-8, 1979. Washington, D.C.
ERL-Gulf Breeze Contrib. No. 392. pp 12.
Robichaux, T. J. 1975. Bactericides used in drilling and completion oper-
ations. In: Environmental Aspects of Chemical Use in Well-Drilling Oper-
ations, pp 183-191. U.S. EPA. EPA-560/1-75-004.
RPC, Inc. 1979. Analysis of ecolological effects of geopressured-geothermal
resource development. Geopressured-geothermal technical paper no. 4. RPC,
Inc. Austin, Tx (DOE-Wash., D.C.) pp 137.
Robson, D. S.
itoring study
II. An
benthic
C. A. Menzie, and H. F. Mulligan. 1980. An environmental mon-
to assess the impact of drilling discharges in the mid-Atlantic.
experimental design and statistical methods to evaluate impacts on the
environment. In: Symposium - Research on Environmental Fate and
Effects of Drilling Fluids and Cuttings, pp 419-436. Jan. 21-24, 1980. Lake
Buena Vista, Fla.
Rubinstein, N. and R. Rigby. 1980. Effect of drilling fluids on representa-
tive estuarine organisms and developing benthic communities. In: Symposium
Research on Environmental Fate and Effects of Drilling Fluids and Cuttings.
(Abstracts). Jan. 21-24, 1980. Lake Buena Vista, Fla.
Shaw, D. R. 1975. The toxicity of drilling fluids, their testing and dis-
posal. In: Environmental Aspects of Chemical Use in Well-Drilling Opera-
tions, pp 463-471. U.S. EPA. EPA-560/1-75-004.
Shaw, D. C. and J. W. Keeley. 1975. Ground-water problems associated with
well-drilling additives. In: Environmental Aspects of Chemical Use in Well-
Drilling Operations, pp 223-230. U.S. EPA. EPA-560/1-75-004.
Shinn, E. A. 1974. Effects of oil field brine, drilling mud, cuttings, and
oil platforms on the offshore environment. Proc. Estuarine Research Federa-
tion, Outer Continental Shelf Conference and Workshop. U.S. Dept. of Com-
merce, Bureau of Land Management. Washington, D.C. pp 10.
-------
A14
Shinn, E. A., J. H. Hudson, D. M. Robbin, and C. K. Lee. 1980. Drilling mud
plumes from offshore drilling operations: implications for coral survival.
In: Symposium - Research on Environmental Fate and Effects of Drilling Fluids
and Cuttings. (Abstracts). Jan. 21-24, 1980. Lake Buena Vista, Fla.
Skelly, W. G. and D. E. Dieball. 1969. Behavior of chromate in drilling
fluids containing chromate. Proc. 44th Ann. Meeting Society of Petroleum En-
gineers of AIME paper No. SPE 2539. pp 6.
Skelly, W. G. and J. A. Kjellstrand. 1966. The thermal degradation of mod-
ified lignosulfonates in drilling mud. Presented at API Spring Meeting,
Southern District, Division of Production. Houston Tx. March 2-4, 1966.
Smith, J. E. 1975. Regulation of onshore and offshore oilfield waste dis-
posal. In: Environmental Aspects of Chemical Use in Well-Drilling Opera-
tions, pp 579-584. U.S. EPA. EPA-560/1-75-004.
Smith, D. W. and T.D.W. James. 1980. Vegetation changes resulting from sump
waste spillage in the Canadian arctic. In: Symposium - Research on Environ-
mental Fate and Effects of Drilling Fluids and Cuttings, pp 166-184. Jan.
21-24, 1980. Lake Buena Vista, Fla.
Specken, G. A. 1975. Treatment and disposal of waste fluids from onshore
drilling sites. In: Environmental Aspects of Chemical Use in Well-Drilling
Operations, pp 451-462. U.S. EPA. EPA-560/1-75-004.
Sprague, J. B. and W. J. Logan. 1979. Separate and joint toxicity to rainbow
trout of substances used in drilling fluids for oil exploration. Environ.
Pollut. 19(4):269-281.
Strosher, M. T. 1980. Characterization of organic constituents in waste
drilling fluids. In: Symposium - Research on Environmental Fate and Effects
of Drilling Fluids and Cuttings, pp 70-97. Jan. 21-24, 1980. Lake Buena
Vista, Fla.
Strosher, M. T., W. E. Youskin, and D* L. Johnson. 1979. Environmental
Assessment of the Terrestrial Disposal of Waste Drilling Muds in Alberta:
Chemistry of Sump Fluids and Effects on Vegetation and Soils. Report to Can-
adian Petroleum Association. In Press.
Suter, G. W., II. 1978. Topical Briefs: Fish and wildlife resources and
electric power generation. No. 6. Effects of geothermal energy development
on fish and wildlife. National Power Plant Team. Ann Arbor, Mi. pp 27.
Tagatz, M. E., J. M. Ivey, H. K. Lehman, and J. L. Oglesby. 1978. Effects of
lignosulfonate-type drilling mud on development of experimental estuarine
macrobenthic communities. Northeast Gulf Sci. _2:35-42.
Tagatz, M. E., J. M. Ivey, H. K. Lehman, M. Tobia, and J. L. Oglesby. 1980.
Effects of drilling fluid on development of experimental estuarine macroben-
thic communities. In: Symposium - Research on Environmental Fate and Effects
of Drilling Fluids and Cuttings, pp 847-861. Jan. 21-24, 1980. Lake Buena
Vista, Fla.
-------
r
A15
Tagatz, M. E., J. M. Ivey, and M. Tobia. 1978. Effects of Dowicide G-ST on
development of experimental estuarine macrobenthic communities. In: K. R.
Rao (ed.), Pentachlorophenol. pp 157-163. Plenum Pub. Corp. New York, N.Y.
Tagatz, M. E. and M. Tobia. 1978. Effect of barite (BaS04) on development
of estuarine communities. Estuar. Cstl. Mar. Sci. _7_:401-407.
Thompson, J. H. 1979. Effects of an offshore drilling mud on selected cor-
als. Amer. Assoc. Petro. Geo/Society of Econ. Paleont. and Mineralogists An-
nual Conv. Houston, Tx. April 1-4, 1979.
Thompson, J. H., Jr. 1979. Effects of drilling mud on seven species of
reef-building corals as measured in field and laboratory. Final Rept. to U.S.
Geological Survey, Conservation Division, Grant No. 14-08-001-1627. pp 29.
Thompson, J. H. and T. J. Bright. 1977. Effects of drill mud on sediment
clearing rate of certain hermatypic corals. Proc. 1977 Oil Spill Conference.
pp 495-498. American Petroleum Institute. Washington, D.C.
Thompson, J. H., Jr. and T. J. Bright. 1980. Effects of an offshore drilling
mud on selected corals. In: Symposium - Research on Environmental Fate and
Effects of Drilling Fluids and Cuttings, pp 1044-1076. Jan. 21-24, 1980.
Lake Buena Vista, Fla.
Tillery, J. B. 1980. Long term fate and effects of heavy metal contamination
from petroleum production in the Gulf of Mexico. In: Symposium - Research on
Environmental Fate and Effects of Drilling Fluids and Cuttings. (Abstracts).
Jan. 21-24, 1980. Lake Buena Vista, Fla.
Tornberg, L., E. D. Thielk, R. E. Nakatoni, R. C. Miller, and S. 0. Hillman.
1980. Toxicity of drilling fluids to marine organisms in the Beaufort Sea,
Alaska. In: Symposium - Research on Environmental Fate and Effects of
Drilling Fluids and Cuttings, pp 997-1013. Jan. 21-24, 1980. Lake Buena
Vista, Fla.
Turner, C. H. 1967. California Dept. of Fish and Game's study of offshore
oil drilling and its effect on the marine environment. Calif. Dept. Fish and
Game. MRO Ref. No. 67-29.
Turner, C. H., J. G. Carlisle, and E. E. Ebert. 1971. Offshore oil drilling,
its effects upon the marine environment. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Marine
Resources Operations. In: EIS PB-198979-F. Aug. 26, 1971. pp 108-145.
U.S. Geological Survey. Washington, D.C.
Ward, C. H., M. E. Bender and D. J. Reish (eds.). 1980. The Offshore Ecology
Investigation. Effects of Oil Drilling and Production in a Coastal Environ-
ment. Rice University Studies, Rice University. Houston, Tx. pp 600.
Watkins, S. H. 1970. Bacterial degradation of lignosulfonates and related
model compounds. J. Wat. Pollut. Contr. Fed. 42.-R47-R56.
------- |