EPA-600/4-84-055
June 1984
RESULTS OF THE DRILLING FLUIDS RESEARCH PROGRAM SPONSORED BY THE GULF
BREEZE ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LABORATORY, 1976-1984, AND THEIR APPLICATION
TO HAZARD ASSESSMENT
by
Thomas W. Duke
Patrick R. Parrish
Environmental Research Laboratory
Sabine Island
Gulf Breeze, Florida 32561
ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LABORATORY
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
GULF BREEZE, FLORIDA 32561
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DISCLAIMER
Th« Information 1n this document has been funded by the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency. It has been subject to the Agency's peer and administrative
review and approved for publication. Approval does not signify that the contents
necessarily reflect the views and policies of the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, nor does mention of trade names or commercial products constitute
endorsement or recommendation for use.
11
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ERRATA
RESULTS OF THE DRILLING FLUIDS RESEARCH PROGRAM SPONSORED BY THE
GULF BREEZE ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LABORATORY, 1976-1984,
AND THEIR APPLICATION TO HAZARD ASSESSMENT
by
Thomas W. Duke
Patrick R. Parrish
EPA-600/4-84-055
June 1984
Page 13, line 7. "...from 74 ppm to >500 ppm "
Page 38, line 1. "...(Petrazzuolo, 1981 and Ayres et al., 1983}."
Page 37, Table 5. Replace with table on reverse side.
Page 41, line 12. ">100,000 ppm"
Page 42, line 13. "...as much as 200 times "
Page 43, line 10. "35,400"
Page 63, line 12. "...to the bottom within 1 ,000 m "
Page 89, line 19. "In: IADC/SPE "
Page 91, line 22. "...In: Symposium: Research on Environmental
Fate and Effects of Drilling Fluids and
Cuttings "
Page 91, line 40. "...EPA-600/3-84-071...."
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TABLE 5. Toxicity of used drilling fluids to mysids (Mysidopsis bahia)
96-HOUR LC501 (ppm; pf/TJ
EPA MUD MUD
CODE TYPE
MIB Seawater Lignosulfonate
AN31 Seawater Lignosulfonate
SV76 Seawater Lignosulfonate
PI Lightly Treated
Lignosulfonate
P2 Freshwater Lignosulfonate
P3 Lime
P4 Freshwater Lignosulfonate
P5 Freshwater/Seawater
Lignosulfonate
P6 Low Solids Nondispersed
P7 Lightly Treated
Lignosulfonate
P8 Seawater/Potassiutn/Polymer
WHOLE
MUD
LIQUID
PHASE
SUSPENDED
PARTICULATE
PHASE2
SOLID
PHASE
>1,5003 NT4
1,008(541-1,557) >150,000
733(429-888) >150,000
26(14-39) >150,000
NT NT
26,554 None
17,633(15,123-19,835) >50,000
1,936(1,641-2,284) 1,456(1,246-
2,427)
459(301-732) 116,419(111,572- 18,830(14,068-22,522) None
121,476)
92(87-98)
>150,000
726(650-791)
9,849(9,140-
10,560)
,500 113,975(102,424- 27,233(24,791-29,265) None
122,466)
263(115-379)
>150,000
24,770(11,380-38,362) >50,000
>1,500 >150,000
728(470-1,958) >150,000
>50,000
>50,000
>50,000
None
>1 ,500
>1 50 ,000
27,137(26,025-28,070) None
1 Results of probit analyses; 95% confidence limits are in parentheses.
2 The suspended particulate phase (SPP) was prepared by mixing 1 part drilling fluid with 4 parts seawater.
Therefore, these values can be multiplied by 0.20 in order to relate the 1:4 dilution tested to the SPP of the
whole drilling fluid.
3 The concentrations for the "greater than" values (>1,500, >150,000, >50,000) were arbitrarily selected for
these specific tests.
4 Not tested.
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FOREWORD
The protection of our estuarine and coastal areas from damage caused by
toxic organic pollutants requires that regulations restricting the introduction
of these compounds into the marine environment be formulated on a sound scientific
basis. Accurate information describing concentration-response relationships
for organisms and ecosystems under varying conditions is required. The
Environmental Research Laboratory, Gulf Breeze, contributes to satisfying this
information requirement through research programs aimed at determining:
• the effects of toxic organic pollutants on individual species and
communities of organisms.
• the effects of toxic organics on ecosystems processes and components.
• the significance of chemical carcinogens in estuarine and marine
envi ronments.
This report summarizes the findings of academic, industry, and government
scientists involved in a cooperative research effort to evaluate the impact of
drilling fluids on the marine environment. Effort was made to relate the data
on environmental concentrations and effects to a hazard or risk assessment.
Results of this research will provide the regulatory arm of the Agency, and
others, an additional data base on the fate and effects of drilling fluids that
can be applied to the permitting process.
Henry V. Enos
Director
Environmental Research Laboratory
Gulf Breeze, Florida
iii
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ABSTRACT
The Environmental Research Laboratory, Gulf Breeze, Florida, carried out a
research program from 1976-1984 to evaluate the potential impact of drilling
fluids on the marine environment. Research efforts were accomplished mainly
through cooperative agreements with academic institutions and contracts with
private laboratories; program direction and toxicity testing with used and
generic drilling fluids were provided by the Gulf Breeze staff.
Results of research activities reported from this research program showed
that drilling fluids are toxic to marine animals at certain concentrations
and exposure regimes. Further, drilling fluids can adversely affect animals,
especially benthos, through physical contact by burying or altering substrate
composition. The fluids, or components of the fluids, also can exert effects by
disrupting essential physiological functions of organisms. While some components
(pentachlorophenol, for example) that are toxic are no longer permitted for
fluids released on the OCS, research indicated that a "diesel" contaminant
is a toxic component of used fluids recently collected from the Gulf of Mexico.
Tests also showed that the addition of #2 fuel oil (diesel) or mineral oil
increased the toxicity of laboratory-prepared drilling fluids.
Models developed to predict the impact of drilling fluids on open, well-
mixed, and relatively deep (>20 meters) marine environments suggested that under
normal operating conditions most detectable adverse effects should be limited to
within several hundred meters of the point of discharge. Possible exceptions
to this generalization could occur when drilling conditions differ from normal
or when drilling rigs are located near sensitive biological areas, such as
coral reefs, or in poorly flushed areas.
Incomplete research data were acquired in some areas, and further research
would be desirable in other areas. For example, models developed to predict
the fate and effects of drilling fluids should be field tested to validate the
assumptions and inputs into the models. Special emphasis should be placed on
discharges from multiple development rigs. Also, data and methodology are
needed on the effects of additives, particularly biocides and chemicals to
improve lubricity, on the toxicity of drilling fluids. Additional information
on sublethal and chronic effects of the drilling fluids on sensitive life
stages of organisms, particularly benthic organisms, would be useful in preparing
hazard assessments. Another area for future research is the impact of drilling
fluids that contain diesel oil, or chemicals used in place of diesel oil, on
structure and function of benthic communities.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Foreword i i i
Abstract iv
Tables vi
Figures vii
Abbreviations and Symbols viii
Introduction 1
Uses and Characteristics of Drilling Fluids 3
ERL/GB Drilling Fluids Research Program
A. ERL/GB Drilling Fluids Research Program Publications 8
B. Characteristics and Toxicity of Used Drilling Fluids 22
1. Characteristics of Used Drilling Fluid Samples 25
2. Biological Testing at ERL/GB with Mysids
(Mysidopsis bahia) 35
3. Tests with Grass Shrimp (Palaemonetes intermedius) 40
4. Tests with Clams (Mercenaria mercenaria) and42
recolonization studies
5. Tests with Corals (Acropora cervicornis) 47
6. Tests with Embryos of a Fish (Fundulus ^eteroclitus).
Sand Dollars (Echinarachnius parma), and Sea Urchins
(Lytechinus variegatus, L_. pictus, and Strongylocen-
trotus purpuratus)50
7. Summary of Toxicity Data 56
C. Toxicity of Laboratory-Prepared Generic Drilling Fluids 59
D. Environmental Concentrations 63
E. Adaptive Environmental Assessments 66
Recent Reviews and Reports 81
Conclusions 86
Literature Cited 89
Appendices
A. Abstracts of Published Papers from the ERL/GB Drilling A-l
Fluids Research Program, 1976-1984
B. Published Papers not included in Literature Review and B-l
Manuscripts in Preparation, ERL/GB Drilling Fluids
Research Program, 1976-1984
C. PESA Drilling Fluids Sample Description and Use C-l
D. Source and Composition of Generic Drilling Fluids
and Mineral Oil Tested at ERL/GB D-l
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TABLES
Number Page
1. Some chemical Ingredients in drilling fluids 4
2. Constitutents of eight generic drilling muds 6
3. Hydrocarbon concentrations of drilling fluid samples 27
4. Metals content of drilling fluid samples 28
5. Toxicity of used drilling fluids to mysids
(Mysidopsis bahia) 37
6. Drilling fluid toxicity to grass shrimp
(Palaemonetes intermedius) larvae 41
7. Effects of added oil on toxicity of drilling fluids
to grass shrimp 43
8. Effects of used drilling fluids on development of
embyros of hard clams (Mercenaria mercenaria) 45
9. Effects of drilling fluids on echinoderm egg
fertilization 53
10. Effects of drilling fluids on echinoderm embryo development 54
11. Highest drilling fluid concentrations having no measurable
effect on either fish or echinoderm embryogenesis 55
12. Summary of used drilling fluids toxicity data 57
13. Toxicity of laboratory-prepared generic drilling
fluids to mysids 61
14. Toxicity of laboratory-prepared generic drilling
fluids without and with mineral oil added 62
15. System model scenarios, 1st AEA Workshop 73
16. Water column and drilling fluid characteristics,
2nd AEA Workshop 77
VI
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FIGURES
Number Page
1. Locations and designations of 11 used drilling
fluid samples collected by PESA 23
2. Flow chart of PESA drilling fluid sample distribution 24
3. Use of AEA model outputs in hazard assessment 80
vn
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AEA
API
bbl
cm
LC50
°C
EC50
EPA
ERL/GB
FAA
9
h
LP
£
m
ug
urn
mg
mi
mm
min
MAP
NBS
NOAA/NMFS
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS
Adaptive Environmental Assessment
American Petroleum Institute
Barrel(s); 42 U.S. gallons or 159 liters
Centimeter
Concentration of Test Material Lethal to 50% of
Test Organisms for Specified Exposure Period
Degrees Celsius
Concentration of Test Material Effective in
Producing a Defined Response in 50% of Test Animals
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Environmental Research Laboratory, Gulf Breeze
Free Ami no Acids
Gram
Hour(s)
Liquid Phase
Liter
Meter
Microgram
Micrometer
Milligram
Mllliliter
Millimeter
Minute(s)
Mud Aqueous Phase
National Bureau of Standards
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration/
National Marine Fisheries Service
viii
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NPDES National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System
NRC National Research Council
NTIS National Technical Information Service
NEA New England Aquarium
NFS Ninhydrin-Positive Substance
OCS U.S. Outer Continental Shelf
ppb Parts Per Billion (micrograms per liter or
nanoliters per liter)
ppm Parts Per Million (milligrams per liter or
microliters per liter)
PESA Petroleum Equipment Suppliers Association
ppg Pounds Per Gallon
SAI Science Applications, Inc.
STACH Short-Term Aerated Coral Habitats
SP Solid Phase
SPP Suspended Particulate Phase
TOC Total Organic Carbon
UV Ultraviolet
WM Whole Mud
yr Year(s)
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INTRODUCTION
The Environmental Research Laboratory at Gulf Breeze, Florida (ERL/GB). a
part of the Office of Research and Development of the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA), has carried out a research program since 1976 to evaluate the
potential impact of drilling fluids on the marine environment. The purpose of
this report is to present a summary of in-house and extramural research results
to date (June 1984), and to discuss these results 1n the form of a hazard assessment,
The drilling fluid research program was conceived 1n 1975 in response to
the King-Muir report (King and Mu1r, 1974) which examined the environmental
issues associated with more rapid development of oil and gas resources 1n offshore
areas of the United States. The program was given added Importance by the need
for a technical data base to support issuance of National Pollutant Discharge
Elimination System (NPDES) permits, as required by section 403 of the Clean
Water Act. The Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act extended federal authority
to the suosoil and seabed of the Outer Continental Shelf. Specifically, all
^arine discharges are required to be permitted under NPDES. The permits must
Te issued in compliance with guidelines written pursuant to section 403(c) of
fe ^ean Water Act. Personnel from EPA headquarters and regional offices
jtilize research findings such as those presented in this report as part of the
ce^nitting process (EPA, 1982).
Two individuals have directed the ERL/GB program from 1976 to date. Dr.
Norman Richards designed the program in 1976, was instrumental in awarding the
first research grants in 1977, and is responsible for the majority of the
oeer-reviewed articles produced by the program and summarized in a following
section. Or. Thomas W. Duke served from 1981 until the present and coordinated
the testing of used (spent) and generic drilling fluids and the Adaptive
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Environmental Assessment (AEA) Workshops discussed later 1n this report; however,
Thomas W. Duke and Patrick R. Parrish assume full responsibility for the
contents of this report.
We present here (1) a brief discussion of the uses and characteristics
of drilling fluids; (2) the results of the ERL/GB research program, including
a review of scientific articles resulting from research funded by the program,
a discussion of the characteristics and toxicity of used drilling fluid samples
from the Gulf of Mexico, the results of laboratory tests with generic drilling
fluids, a discussion of environmental concentrations, and a presentation of AEA
and other models as a means of synthesizing the data accumulated in this program;
(3) recent reviews and reports; and (4) conclusions.
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called nwds) are essential to the rotary drilling
process** uiftfalitory and production wells on the U.S. Outer Continental
...^*' ^T7'.fi!ff:
Shelf (OCS). These fluids are forced through the hollow drill pipe and attached
rotating bit and returned to the surface through the annular space between the
drlllstMng and the borehole or casing (National Research Council [NRC], 1983).
As the fluid returns to the surface, 1t brings sand, crushed rock, and cuttings
produced by the bit and serves several other Important functions, such as cooling
and lubricating the drill string and bit, maintaining cuttings and other solids
in suspension during Interruptions in drilling, coating the bore with an
Impermeable cake to prevent fluid loss, reducing corrosion, and transmitting
hydraulic power .to the bit. Detailed Information on the functions of
drilling muds can be found 1n McGlothln and Krause (1980) and NRC (1983).
To perform the many functions mentioned above, drilling fluids
contain a heterogenous mixture of chemicals and other ingredients. The exact
formulation depends upon the substrate through which the drilling 1s taking
place, depth of the well, and particular functions of the fluid required at
that time. Consequently, there is no "typical" drilling fluid. Some of the
basic components of drilling fluids (Table 1) and the relative concentrations
are presented by Perrlcone (1980). Barlte, bentonite, lignite, and
lignosulfonate comprise about 90% of the materials used in drilling fluids.
Barlte, a naturally occurring mineral containing barium sulfate, is used to
increase the density of the fluid and is the most commonly used weighting
agent. Sodium bentonjt«, attapulglte, and other clays are used to thicken the
drilling fluid. Thus, the clays provide viscosity to aid in the removal of
drill cuttings from the borehole and Improve the wall cake on the borehole.
The Hgnosulfonates are used to ensure that the fluid remains "fluid" and
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TABLE 1. Some chemical Ingredients 1n drilling fluids1
Ingredient
Use
Barite
Bentonite
Attapulglte
Sodium Tetraphosphate
Modified Tannin
Chromium Lignosulfonate
Calcium Lignosulfonate
Lignite
Starch
Cellulose
Detergents
Non-ionic Emulsifier
Processed Hydrocarbons
including Diesel Oil
Aluminum Stearate
Paraformaldehyde
Sodium Chromate
Sodium Hydroxide
Potassium Hydroxide
Weighting Agents and Viscosifiers
Dispersants and Thinners
Fluid Loss Reducers
Lubricants and Emulsifiers
Defoamers, Bacteriacides
Corrosion Inhibitor
pH Control
pH Stability
1 After Perricone (1980)
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does not become too viscous and completely gel. These deflocculants, therefore,
permit the use of clays to enhance viscous properties, but avoid the problems
of "thick" mud, which Include Increased pressure, excessive pump pressure, and
poor bit-cleaning properties. Chrome Hgnosulfonates are the most commonly
used deflocculants because of their capacity to function at high temperature
and high concentrations of soluble salts. Specialty additives, Including Items
such as bloddes to control microorganisms and dlesel or other oils to Increase
lubricity, may be added under use conditions. NRC (1983) presents data on the
amounts and kinds of metals, additives, and other selected components of drilling
fluids.
EPA (1983) has approved the following types of drilling fluids for use in
offshore drilling activities in some recent permits: seawater/freshwater/
potassium/polymer, seawater/lignosulfonate, nondispersed, Hrne, spud, seawater/
freshwater gel, lightly treated lignosulfonate freshwater/seawater, and
lignosulfonate freshwater. The components of these fluids, without additives,
are shown in Table 2. The maximum allowable concentration of ingredients,
in pounds per barrel, is specified for each drilling fluid. These generic
muds have been tested for toxicity to selected marine organisms by private
(Ayers et al., 1983) and government (Duke et al., 1984) laboratories.
As stated previously, Section 403(c) of the Clean Water Act requires knowledge
about the potential degradation of the environment from the release of drilling
fluids from drilling rigs and platforms. This in turn requires knowledge
of the environmental concentrations of the fluids and the effect of these
concentrations on the biota. This project has sponsored research in both the
fates and effects of the drilling fluids in the marine environment. Also, several
models were prepared in an attempt to "bound" the data available and at least
point the way to predictive estimations of impact.
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TABLE 2. Constituents of eight generic drilling muds1
"Maximum allowable concentration
1. Seawater/Freshwater Potassium/Polymer Mud (Pounds/barrel)
KC1
Starch
Cellulose polymer
Xanthum gum polymer
Drilled solids
Caustic
Barite
Seawater or freshwater
2. Seawater/llgnosulfonate mud
Attapulgite or bentonite
Lignosulfonate, chrome or ferrochrome
Lignite, untreated or chrome-treated
Caustic
Barite
Drilled solids
Soda ash/sodium bicarbonate
Cellulose polymer1"
Seawater
3. Lime Mud
Lime
Bentonite
Lignosulfonate, chrome or ferrochrome
Lignite, untreated or chrome-treated
Caustic
Barite
Drilied solids
Soda ash/sodium bicarbonate
Seawater or freshwater
4. Nondispersed mud
Bentonite
Acrylic polymer
Barite
Drilled solids
Seawater or freshwater
50
12
5
2
100
3
450
As Needed
50
15
10
5
450
100
2
5
As Needed
20
50
15
10
5
180
100
2
As Needed
15
2
180
70
As Needed
(continued]
1
EPA (1983).
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TABLE 2. Continued
5. Spud Mud
Lime
Attapulglte or bentonlte
Caustic
BaMte
Soda ash/sodium bicarbonate
Seawater
6. Seawater/Freshwater Gel Mud
Lime
Attapulglte or bentonlte
Caustic
Barlte
Drilled solids
Soda ash/sodium bicarbonate
Cellulose polymer
Seawater or freshwater
7. Lightly treated Hgnosulfonate freshwater/
seawater mud
Lime
Bentonlte
Llgnosulfonate, chrome or ferrochrome
Lignite, untreated or chrome-treated
Caustic
Barite
Drilled solids
Soda ash/sodium bicarbonate
Cellulose polymer
Seawater to freshwater ratio
8. Lignosulfonate freshwater mud
Lime
Bentonite
Lignosulfonate, chrome or ferrochrome
Lignite, untreated or chrome-treated
Caustic
Barite
Drilled solids
Soda ash/sodium bicarbonate
Cellulose polymer
Freshwater
1
50
2
50
2
As Needed
2
50
3
50
100
2
2
As Needed
2
50
6
4
3
180
100
2
2
Approx. 1:1
2
50
15
10
5
450
100
2
2
As Needed
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ERL/GB DRILLING FLUIDS RESEARCH PROGRAM
A. ERL/GB DRILLING FLUIDS RESEARCH PROGRAM PUBLICATIONS
A review of selected publications produced by the ERL/GB research program
follows; most of the literature was peer-reviewed and is available through
EPA's Center for Technical Information or the National Technical Information
Service (NTIS). It should be noted that various investigators used different
methods to prepare the drilling fluid-in-seawater mixture that was the test
material. Some added whole drilling fluid to seawater based on volumecvolume
measurements, whereas others prepared a stock solution and made dilutions of
the fluid-in-seawater slurry to prepare the test material. The units reported
here are stated only as parts per billion (ppb), ppm, or parts per thousand
(ppt) without regard for the method of test material preparation. Also, drilling
fluids of various types and from several sources were used by different
investigators. For example, some tests were conducted with used fluids from a
well in Mobile Bay, Alabama, even though these fluids were intended for land
disposal because of the State of Alabama's permit requirements. However, an
incident at a nearby Mobile Bay well in 1982 resulted in the release of drilling
fluids into the bay. Such a situation demonstrates the need to obtain
toxicity data with aquatic organisms and drilling fluids that are not permitted
or intended for disposal in water, especially when the drilling site is in an
aquatic environment. Drilling fluids from Jay, Florida, were from a land-based
drilling operation. The reader can obtain specifics from the paper(s) of
interest.
Corals
Krone and Briggs (1980) and Krone (1981) exposed Madracis decactis corals
to 100 ppm of used drilling fluid from Mobile Bay, Alabama, spiked with 0, 3,
or 10 ppm of ferrochrome lignosulfonate, a commonly used drilling fluid
8
-------
component. There wai"*" concentration-response relationship for the rate of
oxygen consumption and ammonium excretion during the first week of exposure,
followed by-a rate decrease, a secondary Increase, and a level1ng-off to
near-Initial rate at the end of the second week of exposure. All exposed
corals reduced their polyp expansion behavior, but only two Individual coral
heads (of the 12 exposed) showed mass polyp mortality. When exposure ended and
corals were placed 1n fluid-free seawater, respiration and excretion of surviving
corals remained low and steady and their polyp activity returned to normal
within 48 hours.
Thompson and Bright (1980) exposed seven species of coral to each of three
concentrations of a used drilling fluid from offshore Louisiana. Adverse
effect, determined with serial closeup photography, was defined as the percentage
of polyps retracted. Montastrea annularis, Agaricia agaricites, and Acropora
cervicornis were killed by exposure to 1,000 ppm drilling fluid; A_. cervicornis
survived in 1,000 ppm in a replicate test, however. All corals except Dichocoenia
stokesii and Porites divaricata showed significant polyp retraction in 100 ppm
drilling fluid. £_. divaricata was affected in 316 ppm but D_. stokesii was not
affected in any concentration.
The effects of a used drilling fluid from Mobile Bay, Alabama, on the reef
coral Montastrea annularis were studied by Szmant-Froelich et al. (1982).
There were no significant effects in 1 and 10 ppm drilling fluid during a 6-week
exposure, but corals exposed to 100 ppm drilling fluid had significantly reduced
calcification and respiration rates, gross photosynthesis, nitrate uptake
rate, and feeding responses. The rate of ammonium uptake was significantly
increased. Several of the 100 ppm-exposed corals died before the end of the study.
Dodge (1982) investigated the effects of a used drilling fluid from Jay,
Florida, on the reef-building coral Montastrea annularis and found that 100 ppm
-------
significantly depressed linear Increase of the skeleton (extension rate) and
fossa length. Long-term (>6 weeks) exposure to 100 ppm also impaired coral
skeletal growth and possibly interfered with sediment rejection capability.
Two species of corals, Montastrea annularis and Acropora cervicornis. were
used by Szmant-Froelich (1983) to test a used drilling fluid from Jay, Florida.
Exposure to 100 ppm for periods from two days to seven weeks caused significant
effects on several physiological conditions — calcification rate, respiration
rate, photosynthesis rate, nutrient uptake rate, and normal feeding behavior.
Kendall et al. (1983) monitored the health of the coral Acropora cervicornis
by measuring calcification rate, soluble tissue protein concentration, and
total ninhydrin-positive substance (NPS) after 24 hours (h) of exposure to 25 ppm,
50 ppm, 100 ppm, and 500 ppm used drilling fluid from Mobile Bay, Alabama.
Calcification rate dropped significantly in concentrations of 25 ppm, 50 ppm,
and 100 ppm, and soluble tissue protein was significantly less in the growing
tip in all drilling fluid concentrations. Total NPS dropped significantly in
100 ppm and 500 ppm, and extensive zooxanthellae loss was observed in the
highest concentration. Equivalent concentrations of kaolin [to produce turbidity]
caused little effect. This suggested that the adverse effects to the coral were
caused by some toxicant in the drilling fluid and not by turbidity alone. The
authors cautioned against the use of protein or other tissue components for
determining normalcy of corals.
The effects of drilling fluid on the physiological status and microbial
infection of Hontastrea annularis were studied by Parker et al. (1984) by
continuously exposing corals to 1 ppm, 10 ppm, or 100 ppm of a used drilling
fluid from Jay, Florida, in flowing seawater for 6 weeks. Coral fragments were
then extracted and chemical analyses performed. Three biochemical measures —
diacyl phospholipids, p'lasmalogen phospholipids and free ami no acids —
10
-------
showed significant exposure-Induced sublethal effects and the authors suggested-
that biochemical Indicators may be useful as sensitive markers for pollution-
Induced changes 1n corals.
Oysters
Powell et al. (1982) monitored certain physiological changes In eastern
oysters (Crassostrea v1rg1n1ca) to assess the effects of four stress-Inducing
agents, one of which was "drilling effluents." The authors found that cystele
add, glutamlc add, and alanine concentrations 1n the gill tissue were elevated
after a 2-day exposure to 4 ppt drilling effluent. After 5 days of exposure,
however, a significant decrease in most ami no adds occurred, the total free
ami no add (FAA) pool decreasing by 50%. The use of the FAA pool as a monitoring
device for stress 1n marine organisms was suggested.
Scallops
Hamilton (1981) developed an electronic method for monitoring the shell
movements and water pumping of bivalve molluscs. He used the method to test the
effects of a used drilling fluid and two components, barite and lignosulfonate,
on bay scallops (Argopecten irradians). and found that exposure to drilling fluid
concentrations >_ 400 ppm caused significantly more valve closures; concentrations
>_ 200 ppm caused significantly greater cumulative magnitude of valve closures.
There was no concentration-response relationship for the components.
The effects of a used drilling fluid and three fluid components on behavior
of bay scallops were studied by Hamilton et al. (1981) by using the methods
discussed above. The authors concluded that (a) a drilling fluid produces opposite
effects at different concentrations; (b) a clear concentration-response
relationship does not exist for the components tested (barite, lignosulfonate,
and calcium carbonate); and (c) whole drilling fluid has a different effect
than its major constituent (barite) and the two other components tested.
11
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Shrimp
Conklln and Rao (1982) conducted tests with two dithlocarbamate formulations
(Aquatreat* DNM-30 and Busan« 85), both of which are used as biocides in drilling
fluids, to determine their toxicity and effect on limb regeneration of grass
shrimp (Palaemonetes pugio). The 96-h LC50 was 127 ppb for Aquatreat and 49
ppb for Busan, and concentrations that inhibited limb regeneration after four
days of exposure were 43 ppb and 3.8 ppb, respectively. Neither formulation
altered the duration of time to molting, however.
Conklin et al. (1983) tested samples of used drilling fluids that were
collected during a single well-drilling operation in Mobile Bay, Alabama. For
molting grass shrimp, the 96-h LCSO's were from 360 ppm to 14,500 ppm. Although
chromium concentrations were high in several of the samples, there was a low
correlation between the chromium concentration and toxicity. Because chemical
analyses showed that the drilling fluid samples contained # 2 fuel oil-like
petroleum hydrocarbons, the authors attributed the toxicity of the samples to
the petroleum hydrocarbon content.
Ooughtie et al. (1983) induced cuticular lesions in grass shrimp by
exposing them to hexavalent chromium. Although there was a concentration-effect
relationship for loss of limbs after 3 weeks of exposure, the number of shrimp
with cuticular lesions did not increase as chromium concentrations increased.
The authors reported the results of histological and ultrastructural examination
of the lesions.
Lobsters^
Derby and Atema (1981) used extracellular neurophysiological recording
techniques to measure the effects of two used drilling fluids on the normal
activity of walking leg chemosensory neurons of American lobsters (Homarus
americanus). Exposure of lobster legs for 3-5 min to 10 ppm and
12
-------
100 pp« altered responses to food odors 291*and 441; respective!/. Not all
chemoreceptors were Inhibited by the drilling fluids, however, because responses
to feeding stimuli were recorded from the legs of lobsters that had been exposed
to drilling fluid for 4 to 8 days before the neurophyslologlcal measurements.
Capuzzo and Derby (1982) conducted acute lethality and sublethal physiological
tests with five drilling fluids and American lobsters. The 96-h LCSO's were
from 74 ppm to 500 ppm, and sublethal exposures resulted 1n reduction of growth
rate, molting frequency, respiration rate, feeding rate, and growth efficiency.
The authors stated that 1t 1s primarily the chemical effects and not the physical
features of the drilling fluids that were responsible for the detrimental
effects on lobsters. They suggested that the dlesel fuel content of the fluids
contributed to toxldty (even though no direct correlation between dlesel
concentration and toxldty could be made), and that phenol and metals
may also have contributed to toxldty of the drilling fluids.
Atema et al. (1982) studied the effects of drilling fluids on various
aspects of American lobster behavior directly related to survival in the field.
Water-column (chemical) toxicity was manifested by feeding and molting delays,
severe delays in shelter construction, increased walking and swimming, unprovoked
tail flipping, and lethargy. Substrate cover by drilling fluids (physical
effect) caused delays 1n shelter construction and lower quality of burrows
constructed. The toxldty of the five used drilling fluids ranged from
lethality to adult lobsters within hours to no effect on post-larval stages.
Atema et al. (1982) conducted experiments with American lobsters and 02
fuel oil (dlesel) to determine the oil concentrations that caused behavioral
abnormalities and inappropriate responses to selected stimuli. Concentrations
of oil from 0.1 to 1.0 ppm adversely affected lobsters, and the authors
hypothesized that the behavioral abnormalities observed could lead to lack of
13
-------
feeding and subsequent population decline.
Crabs
Bookhout et al. (1982) determined the range of concentrations of the mud
aqueous phase (MAP) and the suspended particulate phase (SPP) of a low-density,
lignosulfonate-type drilling fluid with ferrochrome added that would affect
swimming behavior, survival, and duration of development of mud crabs
(Rhithropanopeus harrisii) and blue crabs (Callinectes sapidus). Survival of
mud crabs from hatching to megalopa and on to the 1st crab stage was >. 90% in
the control, and in MAP and SPP concentrations ranged from 5% (5,000 ppm) to
100% (100,000 ppm). No blue crab larvae developed to the 1st crab stage in
100% MAP or SPP. The authors also studied the effects of hexavalent chromium
(Cr*6) on larval crab development. Mud crabs were adversely affected in 29 ppm
NA2Cr04 but were not affected in concentrations <_ 15 ppm. Blue crabs were more
sensitive. Their development was halted in a 7.2 ppm concentration. Because
of the dispersion and dilution of drilling fluids and because the concentration
of chromium has been reported to be approximately that of seawater within 100
to 150 meters (m) from the point of discharge of drilling fluids, the authors
concluded that it is not probable that chromium in drilling fluids would reduce
the population of crab larvae in the area around an oil well.
Sand dollars
The embryos of sand dollars have been used to measure the effects of drilling
fluids. Crawford and Gates (1981A and B ) tested a lignosulfonate-type used
drilling fluid and found that concentrations <_ 100 ppm did not adversely affect
the development of Echinarachnius parma embryos. Drilling fluid concentrations
of 1 and 10 ppt affected fertilization and subsequent embryo development.
Crawford (1983) also tested 24 different samples, including a synthetic reference
mud, with £. parma. He found that no single drilling fluid was typical:
14
-------
tht quantitative tffectro* embryos varied'considerably from one f1u1<*t*' -
another; the toxlclty of the fluids varied greatly; and the effects on embryonic
development varied from one drilling fluid to another.
Sea urchins
Crawford (1983) tested four species of sea urchins (Strongylocentrotus
purpuratus, Lytechlnus plctus, and L^ varlegatus) with the 24 different samples
and the results for sand dollars described above apply. Schatten et al. (In
press) used L. varlegatus and Arbada punctulata to assess the effects of
barium sulfate, a commonly used constHutent of drilling fluids, on sea urchin
fertilization and development. In barium sulfate concentrations >_1 mllUmolar
(233 ppm), all the normal fertilization processes were drastically reduced, and
at 10 mllHmolar (2,330 ppm), all fertilization and development were halted.
Fishes
Crawford and Gates (1981A and B ) investigated the effects of a used
drilling fluid from Mobile Bay, Alabama, on the development of mummlchog
(Fundulus heteroclitus). Embryos were placed in drilling fluid concentrations
from 1 ppm to 10 ppt (10,000 ppm) within 1 min after fertilization and
maintained for the duration of their development. The drilling fluid appeared
to have no measurable effect during the early stages of development but by Day
7 marked effects were observed. Development was delayed and cardiac and body
movements were slowed in the higher concentrations. The no-effect concentration
was 10 ppm.
Crawford (1983) reported on the results of tests with 24 different samples
and mummlchog. The used drilling fluid samples were from Mobile Bay, Alabama,
Jay, Florida, and unspecified sites. A synthetic drilling fluid was included.
Effects on fish embryos were varied, clearly indicating to the author that no
single drilling fluid is "typical".
15
-------
Seven different samples of used drilling fluid from Mobile Bay, Alabama,
were tested with young (28^1-day old) sheepshead minnows (CypMnodon variegatus)
in static acute tests by Conklln et al. (1983). The resulting 96-h LCSO's
(6,300 ppm to 100,000 ppm) were well within the range of previously reported
values.
Olla et al. (1981) at the NOAA/NMFS Sandy Hook, New Jersey, Laboratory
established behavioral baselines for a common western North Atlantic
bottom fish, red hake (Urophycis chuss). In the laboratory, they studied the
activity rhythms, agonistic encounters, relation of competition to level
[abundance] of food, shelter preference and utilization, and growth rates under
simulated field conditions. They conducted a series of tests in which whole
used drilling fluid and used drilling fluid that had been "fractionated" by
passage through a seawater column were introduced into aquaria and the responses
of red hake, sea scallops (Placopecten magellanicus). and sand shrimp (Crangon
septemspinosa) were measured. The general behavior (scallop gaping, shrimp
burrowing, or fish foraging) of all three species was unaffected by the presence
of the drilling fluid at environmentally realistic concentrations (approximately
0.84 kg m'2d"1). The level of activity of fish was reduced after the introduction
of the fluid, however, and the consumption rates of sand shrimp by hake were
lower in the treated aquaria. Olla et al. hypothesized that the fish had more
difficulty finding and capturing their prey in the presence of drilling fluid.
There were also definite behavioral reactions of all three species in the
presence of a plume of drilling fluid. These included agitation, irritation,
and escape responses. The hake especially showed a strong escape reaction.
Finally, thermocline experiments with larval hake indicated that the early life
stages of fishes might be adversely affected by the concentration of drilling
fluid constituents in a thermocline.
16
-------
Community Effects
The effects of drilling fluids on m1crob1ot1c and macrobiotic communities
were studied.
a. M1crob1ot1c
Cantelmo et al. (1979) determined the effects of barlte (94-96% barium
sulfate) on the melofaunal community that was established from flowing, natural
seawater 1n a 10-week study. A sand control and three barlte-contaminated
treatments were maintained — 1 part barite/10 parts sand; 1 part bar1te/3
parts sand; and sand covered with a 0.5-cm layer of barlte. Rotlfera,
Foram1n1fera, Hydrozoa, TurbellaMa, Ostracoda, Polychaeta, and B1valv1a did
not exhibit significant differences between the control and barlte treatments.
The density of Nematoda, Copepoda, and Copepoda naupHi varied with substrate
composition, however, and a marked decrease in meiofaunal density was evident
in the sand covered with barite. Meiofaunal density in the 1/10 and the
1/3 barite/sand treatments was greater than in the control.
Smith et al. (1982) tested for effects of barite, clay, and three
biocides — Aldacide*, Surflp*, and Dowicide* -- on the biomass and community
structure of microbiota that colonized sand over which natural seawater flowed
for eight weeks. They observed various changes in microflora and its fatty
acid composition, and in biomass and community structure.
White (1982) determined sedimentary microbial biomass, metabolic activity,
nutritional status, and community structure by analyzing extractable lipids and
hydrolysis products of the lipid-extracted residue. He then used the methods
to compare the effects of drilling fluids on communities that colonized in the
laboratory and in the field. He found that drilling fluids could significantly
modify the biomass and community structure of microbial assemblies, and concluded
that the impacts of xenobiotlcs in the field could be predicted on the basis
17
-------
of laboratory test results.
b. Macrobiotic
Tagatz et al. (1980) assessed the effects of a used drilling fluid from
offshore Cameron, Louisiana, and barlte, Aldacide, pentachlorophenol, Dowldde G-
ST, and Surflo on the development of estuarlne macrobenthlc communities. The
drilling fluid and barite, both tested as a 2- and 5-m1ll1meter (mm) layer over
clean sediment, adversely affected all phyla of developing macrobenthos. The
effect concentrations (active ingredient in seawater) for the biocides were:
pentachlorohenol, 7 ppb; Dowicide, 18 ppb; and Surf low, 18 ppb. The presence
of Aldacide at nominal concentrations as high as 273 ppb did not adversely
affect macrobiota.
Rubinstein and Rigby (1980) and D'Asaro (1982) reported the results of a
study with a microcosm which was initially developed to test dredged materials
but which was used to evaluate the effects of used drilling fluid from Mobile
Bay, Alabama. Three dilutions of the fluid — 10 ppm, 30 ppm, and 100 ppm «
were tested with mysids (Mysldopsis bahla), eastern oysters Crassostrea^ vlrglnica).
and lugworms (Arenicola cristata). The criteria for effect in the 100-day
study were survival of mysids and lugworms and shell deposition and chemical
bioaccumulation in oysters. Settlement of zooplankton in the drilling fluid was
also measured. Mysids were not affected. Oyster shell growth was significantly
reduced in the 30 ppm and 100 ppm concentrations, and barium, chromium, and
lead were significantly bioaccumulated. Lugworms suffered significant (>23%)
mortality in all concentrations. Twenty species were recruited from zooplankton
and there was no significant difference in total species harvested between
treatments although fewer polychaetes were collected from the 100 ppm
concentration.
Tagatz et al. (1982) tested the effects of drilling fluid (seven samples
18
-------
of Hgnosulfonate-type fluid In eight weeks} fro* an active exploratory
platform 1n Mobile Bay, Alabama, on the macrobenthlc community that developed
from planktonlc larvae settling from natural seawater. They found the numbers
of tunlcates, molluscs, and annelids 1n 50 ppm of the drilling fluid significantly
fewer than 1n the control. Also, the structure of the 50 ppm-exposed communities
was different from the control.
As a convenience to the reader, abstracts of most of the papers cited
above are contained 1n Appendix A.
It should be noted that numerous other publications resulted from the
drilling fluid research program. Papers not reviewed above, plus manuscripts
in preparation, are listed in Appendix B. (Abstracts of some of these papers
are also contained in Appendix A.)
Summary
These publications show that a variety of drilling fluids have been
tested with many different marine organisms. In some instances, specific
constituents of drilling fluids such as chrome lignosulfonate and biocides
were tested either alone or after having been added to drilling fluid. In
other situations, the whole fluid was evaluated. Responses of the organisms
varied from changes in biochemical processes to death and depended upon the
kind of drilling fluid or additive and the concentration to which the organisms
were exposed.
The purpose of the research program that produced these publications was
twofold: (1) to develop protocols for determining the toxicity of drilling
fluids to marine organisms, and (2) to develop a data base on the toxicity of
drilling fluids and additives to marine organisms. These are not mutually
exclusive goals. During the research program, many scientists pioneered methods
19
-------
for determining sublethal and lethal effects of these complex mixtures and at
the same time produced valuable toxldty data. For example, results of toxlclty
tests conducted early 1n the program Indicated that some additives such as
bloddes and lubricating agents could be very toxic to test organisms. Data
from these tests contributed to the removal of pentachlorophenol (PCP), a
biocide, from drilling fluids permitted for release on the OCS. Other biocides
tested were much less toxic than PCP.
The data generated can also be used as input for construction of models to
predict the impact of drilling fluids on the marine environment. When using
the data in this manner, one should consider that often it is difficult to
directly compare the sensitivity of one organism with another because exposure
techniques were not the same and many different drilling fluids were used in
the tests.
A survey of the toxicity data reveals gaps in the data base that require
additional research. One such gap results because most tests were conducted
according to standard toxicity testing procedures with continuous exposure of
the organisms for 96 hours. These tests are widely used and yield valuable
information, especially when comparing these results with those reported by
others. Because of the manner in which organisms are likely to be exposed
to drilling fluids released on the OCS, however, additional data are needed
from organisms exposed for short periods of times — minutes and a few
hours — and for long periods of time relative to the life span of the test
organisms.
Another area of potential research deals with community studies. The few
such studies in the literature are concerned with the impact of drilling fluids
on the structure of bottom communities and results are expressed as changes in
the numbers of individuals and kinds of species. Information is also needed on
20
-------
the effects of drilling'fluids and additives on processes of the communities.
Impact of the fluids on flux of nutrients or on rate of mlcroblal degredatlon
may be a more sensitive Indicator of effects than changes In structure.
21
-------
B. CHARACTERISTICS AND TOXICITY OF USED DRILLING FLUID SAMPLES
A cooperative program was conducted to determine the effects on selected
marine organisms of used drilling fluids discharged from operating drilling
rigs in the Gulf of Mexico. At the beginning of the program, a list of wells
of varying depth and geographical location that were using a specific generic
mud (for example, seawater lignosulfonate) was supplied to the program officer
at ERL/GB by the Petroleum Equipment Suppliers Association (PESA). When a
sample was needed, the well from which the sample was to be collected was
selected by the program officer based on drilling conditions and well location.
Toward the end of the selection period, the muds that were being used less
frequently were sampled on a "first appear, first sampled" basis. That is, the
first time a desired drilling fluid type was employed in a drilling operation,
the sample was taken regardless of well location or depth. The locations and
designations of the 11 muds collected by PESA and tested in the project are
shown in Figure 1. Also, more detailed information on rig location can be
found in Appendix C.
The fluids, collected from appropriate rigs, were separated by PESA
into two equal portions; PESA then shipped one sample to ERL/GB and the other
to the American Petroleum Institute (API) in Houston, Texas, or to an API
contractor. Samples received at ERL/GB were either refrigerated at 4+1 degrees
Celsius (°C) or mixed, subsampled, and immediately sent to extramural contractors,
Some of the subsampled fluid was also used in toxicity tests conducted at
ERL/GB. A flow chart indicating how the samples were distributed is shown in
Figure 2.
Determinations of the toxicities of the mud samples to selected marine
organisms were made by the ERL/GB staff and various extramural investigators.
The ERL/GB staff conducted tests to evaluate the effects of whole and three
22
-------
FIGURE 1. Locations and designations of 11 used drilling fluid samples collected by PESA
I
I
V
/
t
1
/
!
i
\
/
»
~ ~ ~ -»
1 r
1 1
1
I
1
%
A
I
1
1
_-_. 1
GULF OF
3 < *l
JocfcsofMle
MEXICO
KeyWHf
-------
FIGURE 2. Flow chart of PESA drilling fluid sample distribution and use
GULF Of MEXICO
SPENT DRILLINfi FLUID TESTING
PROGRAM
PESA
Collection of Samples
API
ERL. Gulf Breeze
Distribution
Uhole-Mud "Range Finders'
Mysids
Chemical
1
Science Applications
Metals
Aliphalits
Aroaatics
1
New England
Aquaria
I 1 dlllb
Diesel
Content
1
University
West Florida
Mys ids
Solids
Suspended
Particulate
Soluble
1
Trinity College
Eobryos
Sand Dollar
Minnows
1
Texas AIM University
Corals
Grass Shrlop
Whole
Huds
-------
phases of drilling fluids on my $ Ids (Hys1dops1s baMa). Conklln and Rao,
University of West Florida, subjected larval grass shrimp (Palaemonetes
intermedJus) to tests with whole muds. The New England Aquarium (NEA) staff
tested a variety of organisms. Including hard clams (MercenaMa mercenaMa).
NEA also assessed the effect of used drilling fluid on the recolonlzatlon of
natural, defaunated sediments. Powell, Texas A&M University, exposed corals
(Acropora cervlcornls) to the drilling fluids. Crawford, Trinity College,
studied the Impact of the fluids on estuarlne minnows (Fundulus heteroclitus).
sand dollars (Ech1narachn1us parma). and sea urchins (Strongylocentrotus purpuratus,
Lytechlnus plctus, and L^ vaHegatus).
1. Characteristics of used drilling fluids
Chemical analyses of the drilling fluids were performed by Shokes and
coworkers, Science Applications, Inc. (SAI) (1984), and by NEA (1984). The
SAI group analyzed the fluids for barium, aluminum, cadmium, chromium, copper,
and iron as well as aromatic and aliphatic fractions. The NEA staff analyzed
the fluids for barium, cadmium, chromium, copper, manganese, lead, and zinc.
The two oxidation states of chromium, Cr*3 and CR+6, were studied. Also, the NEA
group determined concentrations of "diesel" in each of the samples. Although
both groups analyzed some of the same metals, their results were not comparable
because the drilling fluids were not prepared for analysis in the same manner.
For example, SAI prepared liquid and suspended particulate phases according to
the standard EPA Region II method (EPA, 1978A) by using 4:1 seawater to
drilling fluid ratio and NEA used 0.15 to 3 milliliters (ml) of drilling fluid
to 1-2 liters (A) of 0.45-m1crometer (urn) filtered seawater. Details
of the procedures and extensive tables are contained in the final reports (SAI,
1984 and NEA, 1984).
25
-------
A summary of the results of the chemical analysis of the drilling fluids
is presented 1n Tables 3 and 4. Analysis of "dlesel" content was accomplished
by modifying an EPA Environmental Assessment Procedure (EPA, 1978B) and employing
chromatographlc/mass spectrometric systems and external standards. Quantification
was based on measurements of external standards (API #2 fuel oil). The metal
analyses utilized instrumental neutron activation for barium and a combination
of flame and flameless atomic absorption for the remaining metals. In general,
the analysis followed EPA's Methods for Water and Wastewater (EPA, 1979) and
Standard Methods (APHA et al., 1980). Organics were measured by capillary
column gas chromatography, utilizing flame ionization detection and electron
capture.
It is possible to change metal concentrations given in Tables 3 and 4 from
dry- to wet-weight basis and to relate the concentrations in suspended particulate
and liquid phases to the whole or bulk mud. For each whole drilling fluid
sample, heavy metal concentrations are expressed as mass of metal per unit mass
of dry sediment (usually micrograms per gram [ug/g]; percentage by weight
for Al, Ba, Ca, Fe). Heavy metal concentrations of whole drilling fluid may be
changed from dry-weight basis (i.e., ug/g dry mud or percentage by weight)
to wet-weight values (i.e., ug/g wet fluid) by using the following
conversion:
ug metal g dry mud
ug metal/bulk drill fluid =
g dry mud g bulk drilling fluid
ug metal
= . (1-Cpercent H20/100])
g dry mud
26
-------
TABLE 3. Hydrocarbon concentrations of drilling fluid samples
rv>
-vl
MUD
MIB
AN31
SV76
PI
P2
P3
P4
P5
P6
P7
P8
"DIESEL"1
(mg/g)
0.19
1.18
3.59
9.43
2.14
3.98
0.67
1.41
0.10
0.50
0.56
WHOLE
Aliphatic
(mg/1)
34.5
604
1,430
6,900
1.052
7,230
680
930
22.4
101.3
474
MUD2
Aromatic
(mg/1)
22.13
292.5
496
1,600
275.6
675
209
390
11
40.0
250.9
SUSPENDED
PARTICULATE
PHASE3
Aliphatic Aromatic Polar Fraction
(mg/1) (ug/1) (ug/1)
0.046
0.325
3.52
14.2
0.694
15.8
0.462
3.74
0.039
0.063
1.37
0.073
0.089
0.912
5.53
0.426
2.86
0.442
1.37
0.038
0.030
1.71
25.0
497
1.630
950
1.380
1.120
147
165
13.6
478
836
LIQUID
Resolved
(rag/1)
0.358
0.136
0.920
0.358
0.005
1.09
0.002
0.166
0.043
0.175
0.161
PHASE4
Unresol ved
(•g/1)
0.813
1.24
6.63
0.603
0.008
6.49
0.011
1.16
0
0
2.42
1 Values obtained by gas chromatographic/mass spectrometrlc analyses and external standards (NEA, 1984).
2 Total resolved and unresolved (SAI, 1984).
3 Total resolved and unresolved (SAI, 1984).
4 SAI (1984).
-------
TABLE 4. Metals content of drilling fluid samples1
ro
00
ELEMENT
Al
Ba
Cd
Ca
Cr
Cu
Fe
Pb
Sr
Zn
WM2
5.19%
9.85%
0.387
4.39%
337.0
23.4
4.31%
135
510
161
MIB
SP3
473
13.9
0.007
-
5.76
0.349
546
1.41
-
276
LP4
0.026
0.409
0.001
-
0.338
0.000
0.295
0.011
-
0.001
WM
3.74%
21.8%
2.38
1.57%
774
33.6
2.68%
142
538
247
AN31
SP_
1,206
15
0.076
-
828
2.56
1,565
1.20
-
14.5
LP.
0.079
0.469
0.005
-
1.15
0.098
1.09
0.040
-
0.526
WM
0.61%-
37.5%
1.62
0.82%
1,345
86.1
3.63%
151
536
495
SV76
SP
482
12.5
0.315
-
457
15.0
1,975
18.4
-
93.1
LP_
0.030
0.407
0.009
-
43.6
1.27
1.85
0.161
-
0.487
WM
1.01%
36.9%
1.85
0.86%
814
62.3
3.44%
129
303
410
PI
SP_
555
10.7
0.26
-
221
15.9
1.566
13.3
-
52.5
LP
0.047
0.460
0.004
-
3.34
0.119
1.49
0.093
-
0.075
(continued)
1 From SAI (1984).
n
WM = Whole Mud Concentrations expressed as n9/g dry weight, unless otherwise indicated.
3 SP = Suspended Particulate Concentrations expressed as ug/g wet weight, unless otherwise indicated.
LP = Liquid Phase Concentrations expressed as ug/g wet weight, unless otherwise indicated.
-------
TABLE 4. Continued1
ro
ELEMENT
Al
Ba
Cd
Ca
Cr
Cu
Fe
Pb
Sr
Zn
KM?
0.76%
37.2%
4
11.8
0.65%
483
39.7
0.70%
291
226
2,064
P2
SP3
793
8.05
2.38
-
237
11.8
1,784
40.6
-
338
LP4
0.009
3.32
0.007
-
0.896
0.019
1.27
0.046
-
0.007
MM
1.30%
35.1%
2.10
0.74%
459
90.4
5.67%
100
383
439
P3
SP
661
22.9
0.053
-
138
11.1
1,810
10.2
-
41.8
LP
0.132
0.813
0.002
-
2.60
0.243
1.84
0.104
-
0.140
WM
1.56%
48.7%
8.27
0.18%
532
32.7
1.15%
221
207
1,384
P4
SP
1,083
11.7
3.06
-
197
12.3
2,896
28.2
-
476
LP
2.41
10.7
0.004
-
41.8
0.059
32.4
1.56
-
0.804
WM
0.71%
37.5%
2.34
0.57%
187
126
7.63%
104
346
175
P5
SP
376
15.9
0.075
-
34.6
10.6
1,996
9.07
-
27.5
LP
0.354
1.04
0.003
-
0.513
0.373
1.60
0.054
-
0.007
(continued)
1 From SAI (1984).
2 WM = Whole Mud Concentrations expressed as pg/g dry weight, unless otherwise indicated.
3 SP = Suspended Particulate Concentrations expressed as pg/g wet weight, unless otherwise Indicated
4 LP = Liquid Phase Concentrations expressed as pg/g wet weight, unless otherwise indicated.
-------
TABLE 4. Continued1
CO
o
ELEMENT WM2
P6
SP3
LP4
WM
P7
SP
LP
MM
P8
SP
LP
Al
Ba
Cd
Ca
Cr
Cu
Fe
Pb
Sr
Zn
5.10%
18.8%
10.5
0.19%
41.8
35.1
2.51%
210
120
1,755
1,012
15.8
0.556
-
1.06
2.18
1,243
10.2
-
80.4
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
.021
.134
.017
-
.227
.002
.108
.003
-
.007
4.47%
21.0%
0.21
0.46%
502
15.6
2.25%
92.1
258
144
1,010
19.4
0.018
-
35.6
0.932
1,001
1.45
-
6.30
0.
0.
0.
-
0.
0.
0.
0.
-
0.
on
328
001
436
021
288
004
007
0.68%
3.00%
0.410
1.54%
480
3,448
1.25%
48.3
1,401
144
398
15.9
0.024
-
133
16.0
802.0
5.20
-
22.6
0.026
0.302
0.002
-
11.0
0.268
1.39
0.199
-
0.185
1 From SAI (1984).
2 WM - Whole Mud Concentrations expressed as pg/g dry weight, unless otherwise indicated.
3 SP = Suspended Particulate Concentrations expressed as pg/g wet weight, unless otherwise indicated
* LP = Liquid Phase Concentrations expressed as pg/g wet weight, unless otherwise indicated.
-------
A water content value (expressed as weight percent) for each sample (1f reported)
1s given below.
Fluid Range of Water Content
MIB 69.5 - 75.8
AN31 49.9 - 66.7
SV76 27.3 - 58.1
PI 33.8 - 59.9
P2 30.0 - 58.8
P3 26.8 - 57.8
P4 33.5 - 60.2
P5 26.3 - 57.5
P6 71.5 - 78.1
P7 57.0 - 69.9
P8 27.3 - 58.1
1 From NEA (1984) and SAI (1984).
To express as mass of metal/volume of whole mud requires an estimate of bulk
fluid density which can be made by:
g bulk dri lling fluid
bulk mud density (g/ml) - ----------------------
ml H20 + ml dry mud
where ml H20 3 g ^/density H20
% H20 g/
= ........ (1 g/ml)
100 /
ml dry mud » g dry mud/density dry mud
(100-%H20) g/
= ............... (2.5 g/ml)
100 /
31
-------
Conversion from mass of bulk drill fluid (wet) to volume of bulk drill fluid
can then be made by using the following equation:
mass bulk drilling fluid
volume bulk drilling fluid - - —
density bulk drilling fluid
This last conversion from mass of metal/mass of bulk drilling fluid to mass
of metal/volume of bulk drilling fluid can be used to relate the mass/volume
concentrations of metals in the suspended particulate and liquid test phases
(which were produced by adding measured volumes of drilling fluid to form seawater
suspensions) to the concentrations in each original bulk fluid.
All hydrocarbon concentrations, except "diesel," are expressed in mass of
component/volume of bulk drilling fluid (or volume of final test phase). As just
described for heavy metal contents, conversions can be made between mass/volume,
mass/dry mass, and mass/wet concentrations by using the measured water contents
and an assumed dry mud density of 2.5 g/ml.
The variability in the chemical content of drilling fluids is well
illustrated by the range of metal concentrations in the fluids tested. For
example, the barium content of MIB whole mud, a seawater lignosulfonate fluid,
was 9.85% and the content of sample P4, a freshwater lignosulfonate fluid, was
48.7%. Other examples of variability include chromium, 42-1,345 ppm; iron, 0.7
to 7.6%; and zinc, 144 to 2,064 ppm. Barium consistently occurred at the highest
concentration and cadmium at the lowest. A comparison of the ranking of the
three phases of two of the fluids, PI and P3, indicates the differential
concentration of the metals in the fluids:
PI Whole Mud
6a>Fe>Al>Ca>Cr>Zn>Sr>Pb>Cu>Cd
Suspended Particulate Phase
Fe>Al>Cr>Zn>Cu>Pb>Ba>Cd (Ca and Sr undetectable)
32
-------
Liquid Phase
Cr>Fe>B*>Cu>Pt»Al>Zn>Cd (Ca and Sr undetectable)
P3 Whole Mud
Ba>Fe>Al>Ca>Cr>Zn>Sr>Pb>Cu>Cd
Suspended Particulate Phase
Fe>Al>Cr>Zn>Ba>Cu>Pb>Cd (Ca and Sr undetectable)
Liquid Phase
Cr>Fe>Ba>Cu>Zn>Al>Pb>Cd (Ca and Sr undetectable)
The shift 1n relative concentrations of Ba and Cr among the phases 1s
particularly Interesting; it was the same for both PI and P3 although PI was
a seawater Hgnosulfonate-type and P3, a lime-type mud. High Ba concentrations
in whole mud are, expected because of the large quantities of barium sulfate
added to the fluids. High and variable concentrations of Ba can also be expected
in the suspended solids because of the particulate barium sulfate remaining in
suspension after the designated 1-hour settling time required to produce the
suspended particulate phase. In contrast to Ba, Cr occurred at concentrations
less than four other metals In whole mud, less than two others in suspended
particulates, but was highest in concentrations in the liquid phase. The
relationships among the metal distribution in the various phases in relation
to toxicity to various organisms are discussed later in this report.
Investigations at NEA also determined three general types of metal species
of certain trace metals — free ionic form, including inorganic complexes (i.e.,
chloro, hydroxy, etc.). organically bound metals, and those associated with the
particulates. Free metaj ion concentrations were determined through equilibrium
dialysis separation prior to trace metal analysis. In addition, ultra-violet
(UV) absorbance was employed to detect the presence of lignosulfonate or other
UV-absorb1ng organic compounds. Additional experiments were conducted to
33
-------
determine what fraction, 1f any, of free Cr was present as Cr+3. The
concentrations of trace metals were detected by direct current plasma emission
spectrometry. (See NEA, 1984, for details of these analyses.)
Because of the potential threat of metal toxicity, bioaccumulatlon, and
food chain magnification of Cr in seawater, the speciation of this element in
the liquid phase of six drilling fluids was investigated (NEA, 1984). Free
Cr ranged from 0.005 to 0.214 ppm; Cr*^, from 0.014 to 0.026 ppm; and Cr+6 (by
difference), non-detectable to 0.19 ppm. Most of the Cr present probably was
complexed with lignosulfonate. The authors suggested that the lack of toxicity
of Cr*3 (relative to Cr*6) was due chiefly to its low solubility. However,
lignosulfonates can complex Cr+3 and increase its solubility, thus increasing
potential toxicity. Because (a) rather larger quantities of Cr*6 salts are
sometimes added to drilling fluids and (b) some of the Cr+6 could remain
unreacted in fluids where pH is unfavorable for reduction, potential toxicity
could be increased, according to the authors.
34
-------
2. BtoTogrcaT testfng at ERl/SB with mystds
Investigators at ERL/GB (Gaetz, Montgomery, and Duke)1 conducted tests on
the effect of the 11 drilling fluids on mysids by using EPA's Region II
Method (EPA, 1978A), with some modifications. The method calls for testing the
toxldty of liquid and suspended part 1culate phases of the drilling fluid
with myslds and the solid phase with hard clams. In these tests, the solid
phase was tested with myslds and two fluids only, chiefly for comparative
purposes. The Region II method was employed so that results obtained in this
study could be compared with the previously developed data base involving
myslds and drilling fluids. Briefly, this method specifies the manner in which
the drilling fluid 1s separated into liquid, suspended participate, and solid
phases and the protocol for conducting the toxicity tests. The bulk or whole
mud sample was mixed, subsamples removed, and mixed again in a ratio of 4:1
seawater to drilling fluids. The resulting slurry was mixed for 30 min and
allowed to settle for 1 h. At the end of the settling period, the
supernatent was withdrawn, centrifuged, and filtered through a 0.45-um
filter. The remaining clear, fluid was the liquid phase. The suspended
particulate phase was prepared in a similar manner, but was that material
remaining 1n solution after the 1-h settling period. Material that settled
from the other two phases was the solid phase. Dissolved oxygen and pH of the
drilling fluid samples were controlled during the preparation. Use of the bulk
or whole mud was not specified in the Region II method. When whole mud was
Charles T. Gaetz, The BJonetics Corporation, Biomedlcal 4 Environmental Laboratories,
Mail Code B10-2, Kennedy Space Center, Florida 32899.
Richard M. Montgomery, University of West Florida, Environmental Research
Laboratory, Sablne Island, Gulf Breeze, Florida 32561.
Thomas W. Duke, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Environmental Research
Laboratory, Sablne Island, Gulf Breeze, Florida 32561.
35
-------
used, 1t was added, volume to volume, to the test dishes. The whole mud and
solid phase tests differed from the Region II method because no reference
sediment was added to the test container before addition of the mud or solid
phase.
According to the Region II method, mysids are exposed to volume:volume
concentrations of the liquid and suspended particulate phases of the drilling
fluid and seawater for 96 h; 24-h juvenile mysids are subjected to the test
phases in three replicates. Temperature of the water is maintained at 20+2°C
and dissolved oxygen at approximately 65% of saturation. (An appropriate
range-finding test is conducted prior to the definitive test to establish test
concentrations). Five test concentrations plus a control are required in the
definitive tests and twenty mysids are exposed in each test dish containing one
liter of seawater.
In the ERL/GB tests, mysids were exposed to whole mud as well as liquid,
suspended particulate, and in two instances, solid phases. The whole mud
exposures were conducted primarily to establish definitive toxicity concentrations
as guidelines for other participants in the program. These data may also be
useful in studies of the impact of drilling fluids when released in shallow
(_<20 m) waters where turbulence and mixing processes could result in exposure of
organisms to the whole mud. Organisms exposed to discharges from wells in
deeper water and more than 100 m from the release site would probably be exposed
to other phases of the drilling fluid.
The mysids were more sensitive to the whole mud than to the three individual
phases (Table 5). When ranked according to greatest toxicity, sample PI, a
lightly treated lignosulfonate fluid, was first and P3, a lime fluid, was
second. The LC50 values for five other lignosulfonate-type fluids were near or
below 1,000 ppm. These values are generally lower (more toxic) than have been
36
-------
TABLE 5. Toxlcity of used drilling fluids to mysids (Mysidopsis bahia)
CJ
96-HOUR LCSOA (ppm; uUl)
EPA HUD
CODE
HIB
AN31
SV76
PI
P2
P3
P4
P5
P6
P7
P8
HUD
TYPE
Seawater Llgnosulfonate
Seawater Llgnosulfonate
Seawater Llgnosulfonate
Lightly Treated
Llgnosulfonate
Freshwater Lignosulfonate
Lime
Freshwater Lignosulfonate
Freshwater/ Seawater
Lignosulfonate
Low Solids Nondispersed
Lightly Treated
Lignosulfonate
Seawater/Potassi urn/Polymer
WHOLE
HUD
>1,5003
1, 008(541-1, 557)d
733(429-888)
26(14-39)
459(301-732) 116
92(87-98)
>1,500
263(115-379)
>1,500
728(470-1,958)
>1,500
LIQUID
PHASE
NT4
> 150 .000
> 150, 000
>150,000
,419(111,572-
121,476)
97,238
> 150. 000
> 150. 000
> 150. 000
> 150. 000
SUSPENDED
P ARTICULATE
PHASE2
NT
NT
17.633(15,123-19,835)
1,936(1.641-2,284)
18.830(14.068-22,522)
726(650-791)
27,233(24,791-29.265)
24.770(11,380-38.362)
> 50. 000
> 50 ,000
27,137(26,025-28,070)
SOL Ip
PHASE
NT
NT
> 50 ,000
1.456(1.246-
2.437)
NT
ll.304lB.213-
1.369,393)
NT
>50.800
> 50. 000
NT
NT
1 Results of probit analyses; 95% confidence limits are in parentheses.
2 The suspended particulate phase (SPP) was prepared by mixing 1 part drilling fluid with 4 parts seawater.
Therefore, these values should be multiplied by 0.20 in order to relate the 1:4 dilution tested to the SPP
of the whole drilling fluid.
3 The toxicity concentrations for the "greater than" values (>1,500, >150,000, >50,000) were arbitrarily s«Jtcted
for these specific tests.
4 Not tested.
-------
reported for marine organisms 1n the past (Petrazzuolo, 1981 and Ayers and
Sauer, 1983). However, they are comparable to data recently reported by Conklln
and Rao (In.press). The 96-h LCSO's for two other lignosulfonate fluids were
1,500 ppm so the toxicity did not appear to be related to a specific type of
fluid.
The liquid phase was the least toxic of all treatments. This is somewhat
surprising because mysids are primarily water column organisms and would be
susceptible to hydrocarbons and metals in the liquid phase. It is possible
that the mechanics of preparing the liquid phase (centrifuging and filtering)
caused loss of metals and hydrocarbons. However, mysids were observed to
move throughout the water column and into settled muds when tested with whole
muds and suspended particulate and solid phases. Even though the liquid phase
was the least toxic, the toxicity of the other treatments evidently was not a
result of suspended particulates only. For example, exposure to a whole mud
sample of PI resulted in an LC50 of 25 ppm, while 1,500 ppm of fluid P4 did
not kill 50% of the animals. The two most toxic fluids in the liquid phase,
P2 and P4, were not the most toxic in the other phases.
The toxicity of the suspended particulate phase was less than that of
whole mud, but greater than the liquid or solid phase. Values reported in
Table 5 under the heading of suspended particulate phase must be multiplied by
0.20 in order to relate the 4:1 ratio of test seawater solutionrdrilling
fluid to the suspended particulate phase of whole fluid. The rank order of
toxicity of this phase was different from that of the other treatments. Again,
toxicity did not appear to be related to any specific type of fluid.
An inspection of the chemical analyses presented in Table 3 indicates a
relationship between the aromatic, aliphatic, and "diesel" content of the fluids
and the toxicity to the organisms. Further analysis using Spearman Rank Order
38
-------
Coefffcfents (Steel and Torrle, 1980) yields the following significant
correlations:
Chemical Content
Aromatic Aliphatic "DleseT
Tox1c1ty
Whole drilling fluid -0.79 -0.77 -0.81
Suspended particulate phase -0.77 -0.89 -0.96
The most toxic fluid, PI, was tested periodically to evaluate the
consistency of Its toxldty after storage for a long period and after
processing for each toxldty test. Accordingly, standard toxldty tests were
conducted for about one year and the resulting LCSO's are reported below.
Date of Test 96-h LC50 (ul/1) and 95% C.L. Method of Analysis
4/26/82 15.6(8.1-29.2) Loglt
5/24/82 24.0(14.8-37.3) Problt
8/18/82 25.5(14.3-39.9) Problt
8/25/82 12.7(5.6-26.6) Logit
9/13/82 35.4(24.2-51.6) Moving Average
9/27/82 53.1(39.3-74.0) Moving Average
10/11/82 18.7(7.8-36.6) Probit
10/11/82 45.7(34.5-64.4) Moving Average
12/07/82 47.1(33.8-63.6) Moving Average
1/03/83 47.3(20.4-91.6) Probit
1/10/83 26.1(15.4-37.8) Moving Average
1/31/83 54.4(37.9-84.7) Probit
2/28/83 54.7(40.8-77.1) Moving Average
3/22/83 47.8(34.5-63.2) Probit
4/05/83 76.1(50.0-100.0) Binomial
4/06/83 63.6(45.6-86.6) Probit
An examination of the LC50'S reveals a strong correlation wherein
toxlcity decreased with "time. The decrease could be related to the volatility
of the hydrocarbons 1n the drilling fluid. The fluid used for these tests was
placed 1n a glass jar, wrapped 1n foil, and maintained at 4^2°C. However,
39
-------
the same sample was removed from the cooler, shaken, and mixed well each time a
portion was withdrawn and used 1n a subsequent test.
3. Tests with grass shrimp
Tests were conducted by Conklin and Rao (in press) to determine the
toxicity of the drilling fluids to grass shrimp. The methods for these tests
were similar to those used in a previous study (Conklin et al., 1983), except
that in the current project, 24-h larvae were exposed to the whole drilling
fluid. In one instance, adults were exposed to one of the fluids for
comparative purposes.
The drilling fluids were toxic to grass shrimp (Table 6). The grass shrimp
were not as sensitive as the mysids, but the relative sensitivity of grass
shrimp and mysids to the fluids was similar. As with mysids, no pattern of
toxicity due to the fluid type was evident. For example, the toxicity of the
lignosulfonate fluids varied from the most toxic, with an LC50 of 142 ppm, to
the least toxic, with an LC50 of 35,420 ppm. In the one instance where adult
shrimp were tested, the resulting LC50 of 201 ppm was close to the 142 ppm
value obtained with larvae.
The investigators conducted additional tests to evaluate the relationship
between the "diesel" content of the fluids and the toxicity to grass shrimp. The
object of these tests was to compare the toxicity of one of the original samples
with a low "diesel" content before and after the addition of API #2 fuel oil
standard. Enough API # 2 fuel oil was added to bring the concentration of
diesel in the original mud up to 0.9% or the amount of "diesel" present in PI,
the most toxic fluid. Also, the API #2 fuel oil was added and mixed to give
the same concentration in a reference fluid prepared by the National Bureau of
Standards (NBS). After the API #2 fuel oil was added to the fluids, the resulting
mixture was separated into two portions. One portion was stored under
40
-------
TABLE
Mud Type 96-h LC50 (95% CL)
MIB Seawater Llgnosulfonate 28,750 ppm (26,332-31,274)
AN31 Seawater Llgnosulfonate 2,390 ppm (1,896-2,862)
SV76 Seawater Llgnosulfonate 1,706 ppm (1,519-1,922)
PI Lightly Treated Llgnosulfonate 142 ppm (133-153)
P2 Freshwater Llgnosulfonate 4,276 ppm (2,916-6,085)
P3 L1me 658 ppm (588-742)
P4 Freshwater Llgnosulfonate 4,509 ppm (4,032-5,022)
P5 Freshwater/Seawater Llgnosulfonate 3,570 ppm (3,272-3,854)
P6 Low Solids Nondlspersed 100,000 ppm
P7 Lightly Treated Llgnosulfonate 35,420 ppm (32,564-38,877)
P8 Seawater/Potassi urn/Polymer 2,557 ppm (2,231-2,794)
NBS 17,917 ppm (15,816-20,322)
Reference
Ull tests conducted at 20 ppt salinity and 20+2°C with Oay-1 larvae
(ConkHn and Rao, in press).
41
-------
refrigeration (4*2*0 and later added to seawater test solutions and used
in toxldty tests according to methods previously employed with the original 11
fluids. The other portion was subjected to a hot-roll process by IMCO Services
and Dowell Fluids Technology Center. This process, which simulates down-hole
temperatures, involves placing the samples in sealed glass jars that are inserted
into stainless steel ovens. The jars and contents are rotated about 30 revolutions
per min at 65°C for 16 h. After rolling, the samples are cooled, remixed, and
refrigerated at 2 to 4°C.
As expected, treatment with API #2 fuel oil increased the toxicity of the
fluids. There was no significant difference in toxicity between fluids receiving
the fuel oil with or without the rolling process, nor was there any difference in
toxicity resulting from the source of the rolling process (Table 7). The P7
fluids were as much as 290 times more toxic after addition of the API #2 fuel oil
standard than the original fluid, and the NBS reference fluid was 150 times
more toxic with the added fuel oil. The LCSO's resulting from exposure to the
diesel contaminated fluids were close to the LC50 of PI, the mud that was most
toxic and used as a model for the amount of API #2 fuel oil added to the original
P7 sample. Since the LC50 for API #2 fuel oil alone is 1.4 ppm, it is toxic
enough to cause the increased toxicity.
An examination of the data in Table 7 again indicates a relation between
the hydrocarbon content of the fluids and toxicity to grass shrimp. Spearman
Rank Order Correlation Coefficients relating those factors are: aromatic,
-0.9454; aliphatic, -0.8363; and #2 fuel oil, -0.8818. These values are significant
at alpha = 0.05 and demonstrate a strong correlation betweeen hydrocarbon
content and toxicity.
4. Tests with clams and recolonization studies
The effects of drilling fluids on the embryonic development of hard
42
-------
TABLE 7. Tox1c1ty of API 12 fuel oil, mineral oil, and oil-contaminated drilling
fluids to grass shrimp (Palaemonetes 1ntermed1as) larvae *•
Materials tested
API 12 fuel oil3
Mineral oil4
P7 mud
P7 mud * API #2 fuel
P7 mud * API 12 fuel oil (hot-rolled)
P7 mud + mineral oil
P7 mud + mineral oil (hot-rolled)
NBS reference drilling mud
NBS mud + API 12 fuel oil
NBS mud + API #2 fuel oil (hot-rolled)
NBS mud + mineral oil
NBS mud + mineral oil (hot-rolled)
PI drilling mud
Oil Total oil
added content
(g/0 (g/0
-.. —
None 0.68
17.52 18.20
17.52 18.20
17.52 18.20
17.52 18.20
None 0
18.20 18.20
18.20 18.20
18.20 18.20
18.20 18.20
None 18.20
96-h LC50 & 95t
Cl.2
1.4
(1.3-1.6)
11.1
(9.8-12.5)
35,4000
(32,564-38,877)
177
(165-190)
184
(108-218)
558
(466-638)
631
(580-674)
17,900
(15,816-20,322)
114
(82-132)
116
(89-133)
778
(713-845)
715
(638-788)
142
(133-153)
1 From Conklln and Rao (In press).
2 95% confidence 11rafts computed by using a "t" value of 1.96.
3 Properties: Specific gravity at 20°C, 0.86; Pour point, -23°C; Vlsocity,
Saybolt, 38°C, 36; Saturates, wt%, 62; Aromatics, wt%, 38; Sulfur, wtl, 0.32.
4 Properties: Specific gravity at 15.5°C, 0.84-0.87; Flash point, 120-125°C;
Pour point, -12 to -15*C; Aniline point, 76-78°C; Viscocity, CST, 40°C,
4.1 to 4.3; Color, Saybolt, + 28; Aromatics, wtX, 16-20; Sulfur, 400-600 ppm.
43
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clams were studied by exposing 1-h old fertilized eggs to liquid and suspended
particulate phases of the fluids. Details 1n methods and procedures for these
experiments can be found 1n NEA (1984). The criterion for effect was a comparison
of the percentage of each test group that reached the straight-hinge or "0"
stage of development in comparison to control groups. It should be noted that
the liquid and suspended particulates were prepared by mixing 0.15 to 3 mi
of the drilling fluids with 1 £ of 0.45-um filtered seawater. These
dilute suspensions of drilling fluids were stirred and allowed to settle at
room temperature for either 1 h to produce a suspended particulate phase or for
72 h to produce a liquid phase. After the appropriate settling period, the
test phases were collected by siphoning for use in the toxicity tests.
The embryos used in these tests were taken from adult clams that were
collected at Cape Cod, Massachusetts, and maintained at NEA. Feeding was
provided through continuous harvest of mixed or unialgal cultures of diatoms
and other algal species. Conditioned brood stock animals were spawned by
conventional methods and fertilization was achieved when the pooled sperm and
eggs were mixed and allowed to remain in contact for 1 h.
Since the muds were tested throughout the year by using several batches of
brood animals collected at different times during the year, a standard toxic
control fluid was tested to allow comparison among tests. A lignosulfonate
fluid from a well in Mobile Bay, Alabama, was tested four times during the 15-
month test period. The results indicated reproducibility among tests and spawn
groups and suggest that the gene pool of the test populataion was sufficiently
uniform to allow direct comparison of tests performed at different times.
A summary of the toxicity of both the liquid and suspended particulate phases
the drilling fluids to clam embryos is given in Table 8. The suspended
particulate phases of fluids PI, P2, and P3 were more toxic than the water-
soluble phases of these fluids although the differences in toxicity were not
44
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TABLE 8. Results of continuous exposure (48 h) of 1-h old fertilized eggs of
hard claws (Mercenarla mercenarla) to liquid and suspended
part1culate phases of various drilling fluids. The percentage of
each test control (n > 625+125 eggs) that developed Into normal
stra1ght-Mngt or "D" stage larvae and the EC50 is given.1
Drilling Liquid Phase Control %
Fluid EC50 (uA/&)z "D" Stage
AN31 2,427(2,390-2,463) 88
MIB >3,000 95
SV76 85(81-88) 88
PI 712(690-734) 97
P2 318(308-328) 97
P3 683(665-702) 98
P4 334(324-345) 98
P5 385(371-399) 98
P6 >3,000 97
P7 >3,000 97
P8 269(257-280) 93
Suspended
Partlculate
EC50
Control %
"D" Stage
1,771 (1,710-1,831) 93
>3,000 95
117(115-119) 93
122(89-151) 99
156(149-162) 99
64(32-96) 99
347 (330-364) 99
382(370-395) 99
>3,000 93
2,779(2,667-2,899) 93
212(200-223) 93
1 From NEA (1984).
2 EC50 and 95% confidence limits.
45
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as great as those occurring between phases with mysld shrimp. The remaining
fluids did show an appreciable difference 1n toxldty between the two phases.
The toxldty of the liquid phase for 8 of 12 fluids, expressed as 48-h ECSO's
(the concentrations that prevented 50% of the test animals from reaching the
straight-hinge stage of development), ranged from 85-712 ppm and the toxiclty
of the suspended phase for these fluids ranged from 64-382 ppm. The ECSO's for
the remaining fluids exceeded 2,000 ppm.
The results of these toxiclty tests indicate that the clam embryos were very
sensitive to both liquid and suspended particulate phases of the test fluids.
These organisms were much more sensitive to the liquid phase than the mysids,
but this could be because of differences in preparation of the liquid phases.
Mysids were exposed to the liquid phase prepared according to the Region II
method (EPA, 1978A) that included filtering and centrifuging the 4:1 seawater to
drilling fluid mixture. These actions could have driven off more of the volatile
fraction of the hydrocarbons in the fluid than the 72-h settling technique.
These studies with clams did not differentiate between effects due to
toxicity of the suspended particulates and turbidity alone. NEA (1984) suggested
that it is unlikely that turbidity effects could have resulted even in the
highest concentrations (3 mi/i.) of drilling fluids used in these tests. Also,
the criterion for effects was failure of test organisms to reach the straight-hinge
stage of development relative to controls. Tests were not conducted to determine
if this effect was permanent or if only the rate of development was decreased.
According to the Spearman Rank Order Correlation, a significant correlation
existed between hydrocarbon concentration and toxiclty of the suspended
particulate phase (aliphatic, -0.91; aromatic, -0.88; and "diesel", -0.87),
but there was no significant correlation between liquid phase toxicity and its
hydrocarbon concentration.
46
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NEA (1984) also Monitored th* recolonlzatlon of natural, defaunated
sediments that contained the solid phase of a used, medium density Hgnosulfonate
drilling fluid. Laboratory and field tests Included three treatments: a
natural, fine-grained defaunated sediment was the control; the drilling fluid
solid phase mixed with the natural sediment was the homogeneous treatment; and
the solid phase deposited as a surface layer over the natural sediment was the
surface treatment. Natural seawater flowed over the treatment sample containers
1n the laboratory and, 1n the field, the sample containers were placed in
natural seawater.
Based on three parameters — number of Individuals, number of species, and
ratio of numbers of species and Individuals — used for statistical analyses,
the drilling fluid solid phase affected recolonlzatlon when layered on the
surface of the natural sediment but not when mixed homogeneously with the
sediment. The reduced numbers of Individuals In the surface treatment could
have been caused by physical or chemical effects of the solid phase, but the
former is more likely, according to the authors, because (a) if the effect was
chemical one would expect fewer individuals in the homogeneous treatment and
this was not the case, and (b) chemical analyses of the solid phase showed
relatively low concentrations of components expected to be toxic. In both
laboratory and field tests, deposition of a new layer of natural detrital
material seemed to reduce or reverse the effects of the solid phase surface
layer. Effects of the solid phase were no longer obvious after six months of
exposure.
5. Tests with corals
The effects of the drilling fluids on the coral Acropora cervicornis were
evaluated by Powell et al. (1984). A previous study (Kendall et al., 1984)
indicated that proper evaluation of toxicity of drilling fluids to corals
47
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could not be made without data on recovery capacity. Accordingly, the>
corals used 1n these tests were exposed to dilutions of the whole drilling
fluid for 24 h and then permitted to recover for 48 h before biochemical
measurements were made to determine effects. The methods for conducting the
toxldty tests, stress on corals during collection, and statistical procedures
can be found 1n Kendall et al. (1984) and Powell et al. (1984). The test
corals were placed on an elevated grid system contained in a plexiglass dome.
The domes were then placed on a suitable bottom substrate in the field and
solutions of the drilling fluids were flowed into four sealed dome units designated
as STACH (short-term aerated coral habitats). Three exposure and one control
unit comprised a STACH. Four STACH experiments were conducted ~ three with
drilling fluids diluted to 25 ppm (volume/volume) and one with the fluids
diluted to 50 ppm (volume/volume). After the 24-h exposure period, the sealed
domes were removed and replaced by domes with numerous openings to permit the
surrounding water to flow freely past the corals, but protect the corals from
predators. Four contiguous sections were removed from each coral branch, starting
from growing tip and proceeding to the base (labeled A through D, respectively).
Calcification rate, protein concentration, polyp number, skeletal weight, and
the FAA were measured. Data were normalized to both skeletal weight and polyp
number.
An exposure concentration of 25 ppm was chosen because previously cited work
indicated that this concentration produced changes in FAA levels after 48 h
of recovery. After exposure to the nine fluids in this series of tests,
none of the corals exhibited an observable loss in zooanthellae (a visible
manifestation of a destructive toxic effect), but corals exposed to fluid P4
suffered substantial loss of protein. Calcification rate decreased significantly
only in corals exposed to PI, P4, and P5, and the same three fluids were the
48
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only ones to cause relative changes 1nr the FAA pool. Serlne-threonlne*
concentrations decreased relative to aspartate-alanlne-glutamate 1n all three
cases. In the remaining fluids, any effect could not be distinguished from a
general, moderate decrease 1n FAA pool size.
Effects produced by exposure to the same fluids varied among the experiments,
apparently because of extrinsic environmental factors such as cloud cover, sea
state, and turbidity. Corals exposed to fluid P4 showed a significant change
1n calcification rate and protein concentration at the 25 ppm exposure
concentration, but a 50 ppm exposure a few days later produced no significant
change. Thus, care should be taken when making experiment-to-experiment
comparisons. The variability among toxlcity concentrations of fluids 1n tests
conducted simultaneously was much less. For example, P4 produced the most
toxic effects 1n two simultaneous tests and P3 was consistently less toxic
relative to two other fluids when tested simultaneously in two separate STACH
units.
The causative agents for the observed toxicity of the fluids to corals were
explored. Previous tests (Kendall et al., 1983) indicated that turbidity was
not a causative factor at the concentrations of fluids used in these experiments.
Turbidity of the most toxic fluids (PI, P4, P5) was in the same range as that
for less toxic fluids. The concentrations of hydrocarbons were greatest in PI
and P3, yet PI was one of the most toxic and P3 one of the least toxic of the
fluids tested. A similar condition existed for chromium content, with no
significant correlation between content and toxicity. The data did not
demonstrate one general causative agent for all fluids, but indicated the cause
for toxicity varied greatly among the fluids.
In summary, Powell et al. (in press) pointed out that the fluids have a
wide range of toxicity and none could be considered non-toxic because each
49
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exhibited some ttftldty:. The exposure time* and toxic concentrations were
above those normally found 1n the field. Analysis of the data suggested
that under normal operating conditions for OCS drilling rigs, effects should be
less than those reported, except perhaps near the rig. However,-the data also
suggested that cumulative effects of short-terra exposures might be Important
because recovery rates, particularly for the FAA pool, were very slow.
It should be stressed that, for corals, recovery data are necessary to
accurately assess the effects of drilling fluids because apparent toxic effects
measured at the end of an exposure do not agree well with realized toxlcity
after a 48-h recovery period.1
6. Tests with embryos
Tests were conducted by Crawford (1983) to determine the toxldty of the
seawater-soluble components of drilling fluids to embryonic development of a
fish, a sand dollar, and three sea urchins. Details of techniques employed in
these studies and interpretations can be found in Crawford and Gates (1981A
and B). Generally, fish embryos were placed in the drilling fluid solution 1
min after fertilization and maintained at specific fluid concentrations for the
duration of their development. Events of embryological development that were
observed during this time included early cleavage, blastulation, gastrulation,
heart development, and hatching. Gametes of sand dollars and sea urchins
were obtained by coelomlc injection of about 1 mi of 0.5 M KCL and
fertilization was begun by adding a few drops of 1% sperm suspension to a
suspension of eggs in about 100 mi. of filtered seawater. Embryos were
placed in each incubation medium 10 to 15 min after fertilization and remained
for four days, the duration of the tests. Events monitored in sand dollar and
1 Personal communication. Eric N. Powell, Texas A&M University, Department of
Oceanography, College Station, Texas 77843.
50
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sea urchin d«v«1 opment included hatching of tfw bTastuTa to A spinning form,
development of th« prtsw, and formation of the pluteus.
The drilling fluids were tested according to their dry weights as follows:
a homogeneous slurry of the whole fluid sample was prepared; an aliquot was
diluted tenfold, then dried and rewelghed. Whole drilling fluids were diluted
to a concentration of 10 ppt and then stirred for 1 h at room temperature and
the resulting suspension was filtered. This stock solution, referred to as
10 ppt, was diluted with seawater to make up other dilutions. The test solutions
contained seawater-soluble components and the units, based on dry weight of the
fluids, were as follows:
Drilling Fluid
MIB
SV76
AN31
PI
P2
P3
P4
P5
NBS Reference
mq/mi (ppt)
367
1,132
650
1,064
1,101
1,331
1,139
1,300
426
Dilution at ]
1:36.7
1:113.2
1:65.0
1:106.4
1:110.1
1:113.9
1:130.0
1:130.0
1:42.6
Effects of the fluids on fish embryo development were manifested by reduced
heart beat rates 1n the PI fluid and the NBS reference. Hatching was significantly
affected only in the 10 ppt concentration with fluids MIB, AN31, NBS reference,
PI, P2, P3 and P4 fluids. Newly hatched fish were most sensitive to the fluids,
and many of the fluids at a concentration of 1 ppt disturbed their normal
patterns of behavior.
51
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Th*-1mpact of th« drilling fluids on fertilization of treated eggs 1s-
shown 1n Table 9. Data 1n this table are for concentrations that affected
fertilization. With few exceptions, dilutions of the fluids to 100 ppm allowed
normal fertilization. These data were not analyzed statistically because
generally the effects were all-or-none. Where the effects appeared to be
partial, usually only one or two tests were conducted. In those instances
where partial effects were observed, calculation of the standard deviation of
the mean demonstrated that the effect was significant. The investigator was
careful to use only results from gametes whose control rate of fertilization
was 95% or greater; reproducibility at this percentage was excellent.
Development of echinoderm embryos also was affected by the drilling
fluids (Table 10). A population of embryos was considered adversely affected
if the embryos showed less than the control rate of development. The toxicity
varied greatly with the type of fluid but there was similarity of effect among
species. Only one fluid, SV, showed toxicity if diluted to 10 ppm.
A "worst case" presentation of the data from these tests is made in Table
11. A "safe" concentration is presented that represents a concentration 10%
of that having an adverse effect on the most sensitive test system. Also
presented is a dilution that is required to reach the safe concentration
based on the dry weights of the fluids. The toxicity, as reflected by the
amount of dilution required to reach safe concentration, ranged from 3,600- to
1,132,000-fold.
No chemical measurements were made of the seawater-soluble fraction
of the drilling fluid used in these tests. However, the relationship between
the diesel content of the whole fluid samples and the dilution factor required
for a safe concentration was significant, according to a Spearman Rank Order
Correlation Coefficient of -0.74.
52
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TABLE 9. Effects of drilling fluldf and components on echlnoderm egg
f*f+-l •HTi+lnnl
Drilling
Fluid
SV76
AN31
MIB
PI
P2
P3
P4
P5
NBS
Reference
Fluid
Concentration^
100 ppm
1 ppt
10 ppt
1 ppt
10 ppt
10 ppt
10 ppt
I ppt
10 ppt
10 ppt
1 ppt
10 ppt
10 ppt
100 ppm
1 ppt
10 ppt
I Fertilization
E. parma
100 (1)
94 (1)
0 (1)
100 (1)
0 (1)
100 (1)
0 (1)
100 (1)
0 (1)
0 (1)
95 (1)
0 (1)
0 (1)
100 (1)
21 (1)
0 (1)
of treated eggs3
S. purpuratus
84 (5)
0 (5)
0 (5)
76 (5)
12 (5)
100 (4)
9 (1)
69 (1)
0 (1)
66 (1)
7 (1)
1 (1)
10 (2)
54 (5)
0 (5)
0 (5)
1 From Crawford (1983).
2 At all lower concentrations, fertilization was not affected.
3 Figures are all normalized to percentage of control fertilization. Number in
parentheses 1s number of experiments.
53
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TABLE 10. Effects of drilling fluids o* echlnoderm embryo development1
Drilling
Fluid
SV76
AN31
MIB
PI
P2
P3
P4
P5
NBS Reference
Concentration^
10 ppm
100 ppm
1 ppt
10 ppt
100 ppm
1 PPt
10 ppt
1 ppt
10 ppt
100 ppm
1 ppt
10 ppt
1 ppt
10 ppt
100 ppm
1 ppt
10 ppt
1 ppt
10 ppt
1 ppt
10 ppt
10 ppm
100 ppm
1 ppt
10 ppt
E • parma
No Effect
No Effect
Early pluteus
Gastrula
No Effect
M1d pluteus
Gastrula
Late pluteus
Gastrula
Early pluteus
Early gastrula
Morula
Early pluteus
Early gastrula
Mid pluteus
Early pluteus
Late gastrula
Early pluteus
Late gastrula
Mid pluteus
Early gastrula
No Effect
M1d pluteus
Early pluteus
Blastula
S. purpuratus
Prism
Prism
Prism
Blastula
Prism
Prism
Prism
Prism
Gastrula
NT3
NT
NT
NT
NT
Prism
Prism
Prism
Gastrula
1 From Crawford (1983).
2 Development was not affected at lower concentrations.
3 Not tested.
54
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TABLE 11. Highest drilling fluid concentrations having* no measurable
effect on either fish or echlnodenn embryogenesls*
"Safe" concentration 1n most sensitive test
Drilling Fluid Concentration (ppm)2 Dilution3
MIB 100 3,670
SV76 1 1,132.000
AN31 10 65,000
PI 10 106,400
P2 100 11,010
P3 10 133,100
P4 100 11,390
P5 100 13,000
NBS Reference 1 426,000
1 From Crawford (1983).
2 Refer to description of preparation of drilling fluid solutions 1n test.
"Safe" concentration is a concentration 10% of that having an adverse effect
on the most sensitive test system.
3 Dilution of original drilling fluid suspension to achieve the "safe"
concentration.
55
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7. Summary of toxtctty data
The toxicity of the 11 used drilling fluids tested 1n this program was
generally greater (lower ECSO's or LCSO's) than previously reported, with the
exception of used drilling fluids from Mobile Bay, Alabama. The hydrocarbon
content of the drilling fluids was significantly correlated with the toxldty
of the fluids — the higher the content, the greater the toxicity — except for
corals. Sporadic correlation between the metals contents of some muds and
toxicity was found, but hydrocarbons were the only constituents that related to
toxicity for four of the organisms tested. Variabilities in the preparation of
the fluids for chemical analysis and the methods by which the organisms were
exposed preclude direct comparison of toxicities among the various organisms.
Results of mysid, grass shrimp, and coral exposure to whole muds were related
and, to a lesser extent, so were the results of tests with liquid phases with
clams and echinoderms. In the latter case, test material preparation was
somewhat different and different end-points for sublethal effects were used.
Thus, it is instructive to make comparisons of the summary data (Table 12), but
comparisons must be made with care. Sublethal effects reported for clams,
echinoderms, and corals give a different perspective of toxicity of the fluids
but should be related to well-being of the animal at some point, (e.g., the
relation of loss of protein and loss of zooanthellae in corals).
The chemical variability of drilling fluids was demonstrated in the
concentrations of certain metals and hydrocarbons. However, certain consistencies
were exhibited. For example, Al, Ba, Ca, and Fe occurred in parts per hundred
concentrations in all of^the fluids, but the concentration of these metals
differed dramatically within this range in individual fluids. Also, the rank
order of concentrations of metals in the whole mud, dissolved, and suspended
particulate phases of the different fluids was generally the same.
56
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TABLE 12. Sunmary of used drilling fluids toxldty data
Mud
MIB
AN31
SV76
PI
P2
P3
P4
Phase
WM2
LP3
SPP5
SP6
MM
LP
SPP
SP
WM
LP
SPP
SP
WM
LP
SPP
SP
WM
LP
SPP
SP
WM
LP
SPP
SP
WM
LP
SPP
SP
Mys1dops1s Pal aemonetes
(LC5o! UC50)
>1,500 28.750(26,332-
31,274)
NT4
NT
NT
1,008(541-1,557) 2,390(1,896-2,862)
> 150, 000
>15,000
NT
733(429-888) 1,706(1,519-1,922)
>150,000
17,633(15,123-
19,835)
>50,000
26(14-39) 142(133-153)
>150,000
1,936(1,641-2,284)
1,456(1,246-2,437)
459(301-732) 4,276(2,916-6,085)
116,419(111,572-
121,476)
18,830(14,068-
22,522)
NT
92(87-98) 658(588-742)
> 30, 000
726(650-791)
9,808(8,066-
19,558)
>1500 4,509(4,032-5,022)
97,238
27,233(24,791-
29,265)
NT
Mercenarla Echlnoderm Embrvol
(EC50)
>3,000 3,670
>3000
2,450 1,132,000
1710
87 65,000
117
719 106,400
122
319 11,010
158
682 133,100
64
330 11,340
338
(continued)
* Dilution of original drilling fluid required to reach "safe" concentration.
* Whole mud.
3 Liquid phase.
4 Not tested.
•? Suspended particulate phase.
6 Solid phase.
57
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TABLE 12. Continued
Mvs1doos1s Palaemonetes MercenaMa
Mud
P5
P6
P7
P8
Phase.
UM
LP
SPP
SP
WM
LP
SPP
SP
MM
LP
SPP
SP
WM
LP
SPP
(LC50) (LCDU)
263(115-379) 3,570(3,272-3,854)
>150,000
24,770(11,380-
38,362)
>50,000
>1,500 100,000
>150,000
> 50, 000
>50,000
728(470-1958) 35,420(32,564-
38,877)
>150,000
> 50, 000
NT
>1500 2,557(2,231-2,794)
>150,000
27,137(26,025-
(EC50J
380
82
>3,000
>3,000
>3,000
2,889
269
220
Echlnoderm Embryo
13,00
NT
NT
NT
28,070)
SP NT
58
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C. TOXICITY OF LABORATORY-PREPARED GENERIC DRILLING FLUIDS
Acute toxldty tests were conducted during August-September 1983 with
eight laboratory-prepared, unused generic drilling fluids and mysIds at ERL/GB
and ERL, Narragansett, Rhode Island (Duke et al., 1984). These tests were
conducted at the request of the EPA Office of Water Regulations and Standards
to determine the acute effects of eight fluids whose composition was known and
the effects of two of the drilling fluids which had been purposely contaminated
with mineral oil.
The generic drilling fluid concept was developed jointly by EPA's Region
II and Industry to provide EPA Information on the Impact of drilling fluids and
components of the fluids released into the environment without requiring each
drilling operator to perform repetitious toxidty tests and chemical analyses.
The eight generic drilling fluids include virtually all water-based fluids used
on the OCS. Only major components of the generic fluids are specified and
additional information concerning the effects of speciality additives must
be submitted to EPA prior to their discharge. The generic fluid concept is now
being employed by various EPA Regional Offices involved in the permitting process
(Petrazzulo, 1983).
Test methods followed those proposed by Petrazzuolo (1983), with the
following exceptions: (1) tests were conducted with natural, not artifical,
seawater; (2) 5+1-day-old mysids were used in the tests rather than 4+1-day-old
myslds; (3) test mixtures were aerated during the 96-h exposures; and (4) for
the mineral oil tests, glassware was rinsed with petroleum ether to ensure
removal of the oil and then washed as prescribed.
The test material was the suspended particulate phase (SPP) of. each
drilling fluid. The SPP was prepared by mixing volumetrically 1 part drilling
fluid:9 parts seawater and allowing the resulting slurry to settle for one hour.
59
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The material that remained 1n suspension was the SPP.
A positive control 1n which myslds were exposed to the reference toxicant,
sodium lauryl sulfate. was maintained with each drilling fluid test. Results
of the tests were 1n accordance with toxldty values reported 1n the literature fo
this reference toxicant, demonstrating that the myslds were 1n acceptable
condition for testing.
To confirm the validity of the tests conducted with the generic fluids at
ERL/GB, two drilling fluids were tested at Narragansett. Results of the
tests, expressed as percentage SPP, are given 1n Table 13.
The addition of mineral oil to generic drilling fluids #2 and #8
dramatically increased their acute toxicity to mysids. When 1% mineral oil was
added, the 96-h LC50 changed from 51.6% to 13.4% for fluid #2 and from 29.3%
to 7.1% for fluid #8. Addition of 5% and 10% mineral oil further increased
toxicity, as can be seen in Table 14.
There was a significant negative correlation between mineral oil content
and the 96-h LC50 for each fluid; Spearman's r = -0.98 with a probability
<0.0001.
The response of the mysids to the reference toxicant was within an
acceptable range, demonstrating that the test animals were in suitable condition.
A detailed description of the source and composition of the generic
drilling fluids and mineral oil is contained in Appendix D.
60
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TABLE 13. Results of acute toxiclty tests with eight laboratory-prepared generic drilling fluids
and rays Ids (Mysldopsls bahla)
Test Drilling
Location Fluid
11
Gulf Breeze
12
. 13
14
#5
16
Definitive Test1
(96-h LC50 & 95% CL)
2.7% SPP3
(2.5-2.9)
51.6% SPP
(47.2-56.5)
16.3% SPP
(12.4-20.2)
12% mortality in
100% SPP
12% mortality in
100% SPP
20% mortality in
100% SPP
Positive Control1
(96-h LC50 ft 95% CL)
5.8 ppm4
(4.3-7.6)
7.5 ppm
(6.9-8.1)
7.3 ppm
(6.6-8.1)
3.4 ppm
(2.8-4.1)
Same as for 11
6.0 ppm
(5.4-6.6)
Definitive Test2
(96-h LC50 ft 95% CL)
3.3% SPP
(3.0-3.5)
62.1% SPP
(58.3-65.4)
20.3% SPP
(15.8-24.3)
—
—
Narragansett
18
11
#5
65.4% SPP
(54.4-80.4)
29.3% SPP
(27.2-31.5)
2.8%
(2.5-3.0)
No mortality in
100% SPP
Same as for 16
Same as for 13
6.2 ppm
(4.4-11)
3.3 ppm
(2.6-3.8)
68.2% SPP
(55.0-87.4)
30.0% SPP
(27.7-32.3)
1 Calculations by moving average; no correction for control mortality unless stated.
2 Calculations by SAS® probit; correction for all control mortality. Analyses performed R. Clifton Bailey,
U.S. EPA, Program Integration and Evaluation Staff (WH-586), Office of Water Regulations and Standards.
Washington. DC 20460.
3 The suspended participate phase (SPP) was prepared by mixing 1 part drilling fluid with 9 parts seawater.
Therefore, these values should be multiplied by 0.1 in order to relate the 1:9 dilution tested to the SPP
the whole drilling fluid.
4 Corrected for 13% control mortality.
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TABLE 14. Results of acute toxlclty tests with two laboratory-prepared
generic drilling fluids without and with mineral oil added
and myslds (Mys1dops1s bahla)
Drilling Fluid*
#2
#2-01
#2-05
#2-10
#8
#8-01
#8-05
#8-10
96-h SPP2 LC50
51.6%
13.4%
1.8%
0.49%
29.3%
7.1%
0.90%
0.76%
95% Confidence Limits
47.2-56.5%
11.1-16.9%
1.4-2.2%
0.39-0.62%
27.2-31.5%
5.7-9.0%
0.74-1.1%
0.63-0.87%
1 The two digits following the generic drilling fluid number indicate the
percentage of mineral oil in the fluid.
2 The suspended particulate phase (SPP) was prepared by mixing 1 part drilling
fluid with 9 parts seawater. Therefore, these values should be multiplied by
0.1 in order to relate the 1:9 dilution tested to the SPP of the whole drilling
fluid.
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0. ENVIRONMENTAL CONCENTRATIONS
As reported 1n the NRC (1983) report, the Initial plume of drilling
fluid, Immediately after discharge on the OCS, 1s denser than seawater. The
plume "goes through a stage of convectlve descent until 1t encounters the seabed
or becomes neutrally buoyant from loss of sol Ids and water entrainment."
Because of the density gradient of the plume, it then "collapses and goes into
a stage of passive diffusion." There 1s also an upper, visible plume in addition
to the main or lower plume. The upper plume 1s caused by the turbulent mixing
of the main plume with seawater. It contains only a small fraction (<10%) of
the discharged drilling fluid and cuttings.
NRC (1983) also reported that most of the discharged material (barite,
flocculated clays, and formation solids) sinks to the bottom within 500 m
of the discharge point for most OCS areas. Of course, the water depth,
lateral transport (current, tides, etc.), particle size, and density of the
drilling fluid and cuttings influence the fate of the material. For the
drilling fluid and cuttings solids that reach the bottom, the most important
factor governing their redistribution and ultimate fate is the shear velocity.
Sediment type, bioturbatlon, bottom configuration, and characteristics of
suspended sediment near the bottom all influence shear velocity. Thus, it is
difficult to establish a "normal" benthlc concentration. Field studies have
shown that prevailing conditions at the discharge site cause wide variation in
fate of materials on the bottom. For the water column, however, the situation
is better defined. Components of drilling fluids investigated in field studies
(barium, chromium, and iron, for example) usually undergo a rapid dilution
immediately after discharge so that a concentration of 30 to 50 ppm of drilling
fluid solids 1s reached within a few minutes. Within 1 h, the dilution factor
63
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Is 106 or greater and concentrations within 100 to 200 m of the discharge
point are 1 pom or less.
ProrH (1984) studied the fate of drilling fluids and cuttings discharged
from active drilling rigs 1n the northwestern Gulf of Mexico near the Flower Garden
Banks and came to the following conclusions:
(1) Because of the physical nature of drilling fluids (>50% of the
particles are <2 um and no significant percentage 1s >62 um), the "water
column density structure will play an important part in drilling fluid dispersion."
(2) Because an increase in total suspended material was observed at or
above the pycnocline for one discharge, "water column isopycnal surfaces and
relatively large density gradients can act as an essentially continuous,
horizontal conduit for drilling fluids."
(3) Based on acoustical data from 10 min of one transect, "the
possibility of continuous surfaces within the water column for the transport of
drilling fluids exists."
(4) Consideration of drilling fluid concentration, the point of discharge,
and the time of discharge must be based on site-specific, discharge-specific
factors.
(5) In the Flower Garden Banks, the distance from the point of discharge
to the corals will partially determine whether or not drilling fluids reach the
corals. The most important range is the medium range, 0 to 10 kilometers [6.2
miles], "This range 1s important because turbidity flows here can reside at the
proper depth to reach the corals (shallower than 60 m or so)...."
(6) "It appears possible that mid-water components of drilling have a
possibility of reaching the corals of the Flower Garden Banks; however, it
appears unlikely that drilling fluid material once within the oceanic boundary
layer can be brought by resuspenslon mechanisms to the depth of the corals and
64
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then transported to the corals.*
(7) Thtr« 1s a 10* dilution 1n the Immediate vicinity of the rig when
drilling fluids are discharged, based on field data. A further dilution of
106 to 107 1s probable 1n the medium range (0 to 10 km), based on model
calculations and other types of discharges. [Thus a one-trillion or greater
dilution will likely result within a 6.2-m1le radius of a drilling rig.]
(8) More work 1s needed to better understand the dispersion of drilling
fluid discharges.
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E. ADAPTIVE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENTS
Scientists, administrators, and regulators utilized the AEA approach to
synthesize available data on the Impact of drilling fluids on the marine environment
and to develop a hazard assessment. Two AEA workshops were held to make this
assessment, the first 1n 1981 and the second 1n 1983. The results of the second
workshop are preliminary, but offer some useful concepts concerning discharge
and impact on benthlc communities.
Scientists at the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis
in Austria and the University of British Columbia in Vancouver developed the AEA
method. This methodology can be applied at the beginning of a research project
to formulate a research plan or to synthesize data produced in an on-going
project, as well as to point out weaknesses or gaps in the data. The synthesizing
aspect was applied to drilling fluids when representatives from industry,
academia, and government met for a 5-day workshop in November, 1981, and for 3 days-
in June, 1983.
The focus of both workshops was the construction and refinement of a
quantitative, dynamic simulation model to describe the impact of drilling fluids
on the environment. The methodology of AEA is such that the process of building
the model can be more important than the model itself. Development of the
models permitted participants to focus on the issues and data at hand, even
though their approach to the problem may have differed. The process also
required participants to take a more holistic approach to the question of
impact. Those developing toxicity data communicated directly with those estimating
environmental concentrations. Participants in these workshops agreed at the
onset that the models produced by this effort would serve as a tool for evaluating
the impact of drilling fluids on the environment, and that it would not be
appropriate to make environmental evaluations on the basis of the models alone.
66
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The following are excerpts front the workshop proceedings.
First AEA Workshop
In the first workshop (Auble et at., 1982), a hypothetical drilling
operation 1n open waters of the Gulf of Mexico was chosen for the model structure.
The drilling fluid discharge plume in the water column was represented by a set
of plume-slice Intervals, each representing 1 m1n of discharge. On the
bottom, environmental effects 1n 1-m2 areas at five distances downstream were
established. A time horizon of 20-30 years (yrs) was selected for this model.
Incremental time steps varied from 1 min In the water column to one month
elsewhere.
The following major components or submodels were designated by workshop
participants:
(a) Discharge/fate — characteristics of discharge plume and fate of
materials in the plume:
(b) Water-column effects -- impact of discharge on zooplankton 1n
upper plume:
(c) Soft-bottom effects — effects of discharge on microbes,
meiofauna, and macrofauna; and
(d) Hard-bottom effects — response of coral to exposure to drilling fluids,
An additional subgroup considered at the same time the impact of drilling
fluids on enclosed or semi-enclosed bodies of water, such as bays and estuaries.
This group did not construct a model, but focused on variables that would differ
between open and closed systems.
After the submodels were developed, linkages among the submodels
were defined. This required each subgroup to develop specific submodels.
67
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a. Discharge/Fate Submodel
Dispersion ratios, the ratio of suspended solids 1n the discharge to
suspended solids 1n the upper plume, were calculated from a multiple regression,
using transport time and the Inverse of discharge rates as Independent
variables:
OISPR « 10*-4495 *(1/DSCHR)0-35674 *(TT)1-1001
where DISPR - Dispersion Ratio,
OSCHR « Discharge Rate (bbl/h), and
TT = Transport Time (m1n).
This regression was based on observed dispersion ratios from three wells,
summarized by Petrazzuolo (1981). The squared correlation coefficient (R2) for
this regression was 0.74.
Plume volume, dilution factor for the upper plume, and dispersion ratios
for solid fractions were calculated by the model, assuming a 10 m/m1n current
and total discharge of 600 bbl. Sediment build-up on the bottom was also
calculated and adjusted for storm surges.
Although the discharge/fate submodel provided reasonable plume
characteristics for use of the other submodels, it lacked explicit mathematical
treatment of detailed physical and chemical plume characteristics and some
environmental variability.
b. Water Column Effects Submodel
This model used an estimate of the proportion of water column planktonic
organisms within the plume that could be killed by single discharge as an
indication of the health, of the water column organisms. Zooplankton mortality
in the plume was used to estimate percentage loss in monthly recruitment of
larval forms to the benthos.
68
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Tht shape and characteristics of th* plum supplied by the discharge/fate^
submodel were divided Into slices, each representing 1 m1n of discharge. The
concentration of an organism's exposure 1n a given plume would decrease with
time because 1t was assumed that animals entrained at any point would be carried
by currents that moved the plume and thus be exposed to a decreasing concentration
gradient.
The model was used to compute average concentration (Cst) for the period
of exposure (t) of each subpopulatlon
s+(d-t)
£
cst - c(1)
(d-t+1)
where cst a mean, exposure concentration for organisms entering slice
"s" at time "t" (where t»l is first min of discharge),
c(1) a concentration of solubles (ppm) in slice "i", and
d » total duration of discharge (min).
Following Petrazzuolo (1981), an LC50 value appropriate to each
subpopulatlon's "t" min of exposure was estimated thusly:
96 h 60 min l/2
t-min LC50 = 96-h LC50 x ( x )
t min h
Total plume mortality and potential monthly benthic recruitment losses
were calculated from a 50 ppm LC50 and concentration of drilling fluid at time
t where t was considered to be 120 min. Calculations indicate that even with
100% mortality 1n the plume, monthly reduction in potential benthic recruitments
would be small.
The major limitation to this model 1s the extrapolation of 96-h LC50
toxicity data obtained 1n the laboratory at constant concentration to toxlcity
or organisms exposed to decreasing concentrations in the field for shorter
69
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periods of time. In the model, LC50 for*shorter time-periods would be Increased
by a factor equal to the square root of the relative exposure time. This may
not be appropriate, however, for organisms with short generation times.
c. Soft-Bottom Effects Submodel
Construction of this submodel required considerable simplification of
complex biological processes and can be considered a rather general conceptual
model. A basic assumption was that soft-bottom areas 1n the Gulf of Mexico were
subjected to frequent storm events. Thus, the community was chiefly composed
of "Invader" species characterized by rapid recovery and colonization. The
submodel dealt with the bioaccumulatlon, survival, and sublethal response of four
indicator groups.
Bioaccumulation of chromium from bottom sediments was related to the
fraction of whole drilling mud resulting from discharge. Oyster flushing rates
were used to account for the benthos1 ability to flush excess chromium from
their tissue. Predictions of chromium content of epifaunal tissues indicated
that 0.04 fraction of whole drilling mud in the sediment would yield tissue
concentrations of about 8 ppm, and 0.08 fraction, about 35 ppm.
Mortality was caused by burial of discharged mud, toxicity of the mud,
and by removal of deposited sediments by storms. Population changes due to
storm intensity were indexed according to the amount of sediment removed by
each storm. The model indicated that 0.04 fraction of whole mud in sediment
will result 1n about a 0.60 survival rate and 0.08 will cause about a
0.20 survival rate. Monthly survival rate will be reduced to 0.50 by a 150-cm
deep overlay. Population recovery, as colonization, was affected by such
factors as depth of deposited sediment, fraction of whole mud, and re-
establishment of an oxygenated layer. A plot of the fraction of first-month
potential recolonlzatlon due to toxicity of residual muds (indicated by fraction
70
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of whfolt Md'lrrth* sediment) showed that 0.010 fraction whole mud would
permit about 781 of the community to recolonlze.
Limits of this model Include overemphasizing the "Invader" species concept
and their resistance to burial. Also, the lack of consideration of Interdependence
among faunal groups and the need to use short-term toxlclty data to predict
long-term effects may cause over- or underestimates of effects.
d. Hard-bottom Effects Model
The hard-bottom model uses the Impact of drilling fluids on corals as
Indicator organisms because of the lack of data on other organisms, such as
sponges and gorgonians. Coral were considered as Individuals, rather than the
entire reef community. Uncertainty 1n four major Impacts of fluids on corals,
mortality due to, sediment deposition, direct mortality due to plume toxlclty,
reduced growth due to plume toxlclty, and reduced recruitments due to burial of
appropriate substrates were resolved In favor of a "worst-case" basis. Blomass
dynamics of the coral were represented by the following equation:
ct+l = Ct - SCt - PCt + G + R
where C = coral blomass,
S = mortality due to burial,
P = mortality due to toxic plume,
G = growth, and
R = recruitment.
Survival rates were calculated as a function of depth and indicated
0.50 survival rate at 2 cm depth of sediment coverage and 0.25 rate at about
2.5 cm depth. Monthly survival rate of 0.50 occurred at about 900 ppm suspended
solids and 0.25 survival at about 1,200 ppm. The growth rate of corals was
reduced approximately 85X when they were exposed to 100 ppm suspended material.
Limitations of the model include the lack of factors relating the
71
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Interaction of corals with thtcoraVcommunity and extrapolation of 96-h LC5CK
data to shorter time Intervals. Corals were the only organisms tested that
represented-hard-bottom communities; many other organisms occupy this niche of
the marine ecosystem and should be tested.
The four submodels were utilized 1n a system model to produce holistic
output 1n the following manner: for each monthly Iteration, the discharge/fate
submodel calculated upper plume characteristics and deposition of drilling muds
and cuttings; the water column submodel next calculated impacts of the upper
plume on zooplankton and benthlc recruitment, and the soft- and hard-bottom
submodels then calculated potential Impact.
The sample outputs shown in Table 15 are presented as approximate maxiumum
values. Participants in the workshop considered these values useful in
addressing semi-quantitative changes and trends, but did not consider them to be
absolute numbers. The values represent only a point from which discussions can
take place and the limits of applicability of the models to actual field conditions
can be determined.
e. Bays and Estuaries
Much of the data and discussions developed for offshore areas are
applicable to enclosed bodies of water, such as bays and estuaries. However,
some characteristics of enclosed areas preclude a simple extrapolation.
Participants of the workshop suggested that the following modifications of
their models representing open waters would be needed in order to adapt them to
estuarine areas:
(1) Additional communities, such as aquatic macrophytes and oyster
beds, would have to be treated.
(2) The Importance of enclosed water bodies as food production and
rearing areas would necessitate more detailed incorporation of population level
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VARIABLE
Water
PLATFORM Depth Osch.
SCENARIO TYPE (•) Rate
1 Production 80 600 bbl
every 3 days;
1,000 bbl/h
MX.
II Production 80 600 bbl
every 3 days;
30 bbl/h MX.
Ill Production 20 600 bbl
every 3 days;
100 bbl/h max.
IV Production 20 600 bbl
every 3 days;
30 bbl/h MX.
~«i
-a
Total
Dsch.
(•11 lion Time
tons) (yrs)
1 ,500 202
1.500 20
1 ,500 20
1 ,500 20
Haximum
Depth of
Spent Hud
Deposit
15 cm In
154-* cir-
cular area
15 cm In
154 -• cir-
cular area
34 cm In 33-
• circular
area
34 cm in 33-
m circular
area
Fraction
Whole Hud
In Sediment
5to 100* 500*
0.12 0.09 0.02
(3 yrs)
0.12 0.09 0.02
0.16 0.12 0.02
0.16 0.12 0.02
Cone Suspended
Sediments In
Upper Plume (ppm)
50m 100m 500m
58 28 5
(3 yrs)
20 9 1.5
58 28 5
20 9 1.5
Coral Bt amass
50* 100m SOOm
0 0 90
(S yrs)
0 0 90
90 60 50
0 0 50
From Auble et al. (1982).
Drilling begins in 1st year and ends in 3rd year.
-------
processes and trophic Interactions.
(3) Many of the processes represented 1n the open water simulation
model, such as plume dynamics, sediment deposition, and sediment redistribution,
would require fundamentally different mathematical treatment due to shallower
water and more complex circulation and stratification patterns.
(4) The importance of resuspenslon 1n shallower water and slower, long-
term dispersion would necessitate more detailed consideration of long-term
effects of slightly elevated drilling fluid concentrations.
Second AEA Workshop
The results of this workshop, held in June, 1983, are in preliminary form
at the time this report is being written1. The proceedings of the workshop are
still undergoing .review by participants, but the preliminary data reveal
some interesting concepts.
The focus of the second workshop was on refinement and extension of the
previous models in the areas of fate and effects on soft-bottom benthic
communities. Objectives included development of a model for potential impacts
that adequately quantifies selected indicators as measures of impact and
qualifies these estimates in terms of their levels of error or uncertainty. Also,
algorithms were produced that are compatible with microprocessor capabilities.
The model described in the preliminary report was implemented on a main-frame
computer and the possibility of implementation on microprocessors has yet to be
evaluated.
Considerable refinements of the first models were included in the second
model, but it still represents a compromise between useful detail and over-
simplification. The model does not attempt to duplicate the detail of plume
1 Personal communication. Gregory T. Auble. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,
Western Energy and Land Use Team, 2625 Redwing Road, Fort Collins, Colorado 80526,
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dynamics represented 1rv models such as tti* one being developed by the Offshore
Operators Cowlttee2. Rather, the second AEA model attempts to connect
representations of the fate processes with those of the effects processes to
produce a model that can be examined from a holistic ecosystem point of view.
The model simulates the depth of material deposited from each discharge
event at seven distances from the discharge point. Discharges are categorized
according to particle size (three classes), concentrations of hydrocarbons and
chromium, ratios of solids dispersion and soluble dilution 1n the surface
plume, and whether the fluids are distributed along the track chosen for
determining biological effects 1s also given. The model can be reparameterized
to represent different geographical regions by varying water depth, current
velocity, etc., and different drilling fluids by varying density and chromium
and hydrocarbon content.
Sediment dynamics are calculated by accounting for the movements of various
types of sediment at each l-m^ plot along the transect. The sediment profile
at each plot is partitioned into (1) top layer with a fixed thickness of 5 cm,
(2) bottom layer of variable thickness, and (3) underlying natural sediment.
Each layer is considered to be completely mixed. Resuspension events are
considered to disturb a certain thickness of sediment where disturbed sediment
is moved off and replaced by an equivalent thickness of natural sediment.
Therefore, an event would alter sediment composition, but not thickness.
The workshop model considers that the benthic community contains three
assemblages: (1) a melofaunal assemblage; (2) a pioneer or early successional
macrofaunal assemblage; and (3) a late successional macrofaunal assemblage.
The overall model predicts specific conditions that will exist after discharge
Personal communication. R.C. (Bob) Ayers, Jr. Chairman, Offshore Operators
Committee on Environmental Science, P.O. Box 50751, New Orleans, Louisiana 70150.
75
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and sediment redistribution-, and" the community section of the model calculates,
the number of Individuals per m2 under the specific conditions. Four processes
may change the species assemblages 1n the model: (1) mortality due to burial
by deposited mud and cuttings or natural sediments; (2) mortality due to toxldty
of deposited mud and cuttings; (3) mortality due to resuspenslon events, such as
storms and 1ce movement; and (4) population growth due to both asexual reproduction
and larval recruitment.
The mortality rate for burial 1s calculated as a function of depth of
deposited sediment as a result of "Indigenous" sediments and exotic sediments
which differ 1n particle size distinctive from natural sediment. The model
must rely on existing data on a few species, so Mys1dops1s sp. (myslds)
represent early macrofaunal assemblages and Palaemonetes sp. (grass shrimp)
represent late successional macrofaunal assemblage. It should be noted that
the toxldty data can be changed to represent more or less sensitive species
when appropriate data are available. Intensity of resuspenslon effect 1s measured
by the thickness of sediment disturbed and mortality rates for each species
assemblage was estimated by the workshop participants. Growth was represented
by logistic equations with some modifications to represent competitive effect
of individuals of the late successional macrofaunal assemblage.
Several scenarios were developed and parameterized at the workshop, but at
this time, output from the scenarios should not be extrapolated to conditions at
specific sites. Rather, they may be considered as model performance that
represents a range of regional conditions in which discharge may occur. Outputs
are presented as tables,^ l-yr graphs of daily values, and multiyear graphs of
monthly data. Several parameters for the four scenarios are presented in
Table 16.
Scenario 1 represents a cold-water, high-latitude environment that might
76
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TABLE 16. Hater column and drfllfng
characteristics, Znd AFA Workshop*
Scenario
Parameter
Water Column Characteristics
water depth (m) (WDEPTH)
surface current (cm/sec) (SCURR)
bottom current (cm/sec) (BCURR)
1
5
13
13
2
20
25
10
3
80
15
5
4
1,000
10
1
proportion of time current 1n
direction of sample transect
(from current rosette) (CFREQ)
0.40 0.40
0.70
0.40
ambient density in surface
layer (g/cm3) (PO)
density gradient (g/cm3/m) (PA)
Drilling Fluid Characteristics
density (Ib/gal) (DENSM)
% liquid (PWAT)
CCr] (mg/1) (CRCONC)
[#2 fuel oil] (mg/1) (HYCONC)
1.025
l.OE-4
13
79.5
400
9.43
1.025
4.0E-4
13
79.5
400
9.43
1.025
4.0E-4
13
79.5
400
9.43
1.025
2-OE-4
13
79.5
400
9.43
1 Personal communication. Gregory T. Auble. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,
Western Energy and Land Use Team, 2625 Redwing Road, Fort Collins, Colorado 80526,
77
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be encountered In the Beaufort Sea* Th« water deptlr is 5 m and 1ce scour
(causing leveling of sediments) occurs Infrequently. Scenario 2 represents
shallow water conditions that might be encountered 1n the Gulf of Mexico. The
water depth 1s 20 m and hurricanes occur only Infrequently. The mud plume 1s
considered to impact the bottom. Scenario 3 represents a deeper well 1n the
Gulf of Mexico. The water depth 1s 80 m and the current 1s more undlrectlonal
than 1n Scenario 2. Scenario 4 represents discharge in very deep water
(1,000 m) and contains no sediment resuspension events. The results from each
scenario are, of course, dependent upon the parameters set forth for each by
the workshop participants. The parameters and basis for their selection will
be presented in detail in the workshop proceedings.
Each of the AEA workshops produced models that, under a given set of
i
parameters, can predict the fate of the discharge plume and selected effects on
water column and benthic organisms. As stated previously, the values obtained
by these models (thickness of mud at various differences and reductions in
numbers of animals) only "bound" the question because of the many assumptions
that must be made in order to model the system and because of the lack of data
applicable to the model. Each of these models and others developed to predict
the impact of drilling fluids on the environment can contribute data for a hazard
assessment. That is, they can predict the environmental concentration of
drilling fluids on a temporal and spatial basis and also predict biological
effects from those concentrations. A conceptual illustration of how the model
outputs can be used 1n a hazard assessment is shown in Figure 3. The ultimate
goal is to predict when the curve representing an effect (for example, an
effect on a bottom community) intersects or approaches the curve representing
environmental concentration. It is a matter of judgment concerning how closely
the effect curve should be allowed to approach the concentration curve. Also,
78
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as more effects measurements with appropriate organisms and physical and chemical
measurements relating to concentration are obtained, the more confidence can
be placed 1n the curves and thus the hazard assessment.
79
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FIGURE 3. Use of Adaptive Environmental Assessment (AEA) model outputs In hazard assessment.1
too
CD
O
A - Environmental Concentration
B 'Effect far KX) minutes
C * No Effect
KX)
?OO
TIME (minutes)
1 From Duke (In press).
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RECENT RIVIEWS AND REPORTS
The scientific literature concerning fates and effects of drilling fluids
(both used and fabricated especially for testing) and of Individual components
of drilling fluids has been subject to Intensive review. In addition to a review
funded by this project (Neff, 1982), the report by NRC (1983) provides an
assessment of the fates and effects of drilling fluids and cuttings 1n the
marine environment. The reader 1s urged to use the abundant Information
and references available 1n this single publication to understand better the
uses, discharge characteristics, toxldty and b1oava1labH1ty, and special
considerations for drilling fluids. Also, three recent reports by the
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration/National Marine Fisheries
Service (NOAA/NMFS) provide additional Information. The following excerpts
from these reviews and reports are presented to aqualnt the reader with
background information in drilling fluids. The findings do not necessarily
agree with findings from the ERL/GB program.
NRC report
NRC (1983) stated that drilling fluids have been, are, and will be essential
to the exploration and production of gas and oil, and they must be disposed of,
either on land sites or 1n the ocean. The quantity of drilling fluids and
cuttings discharged annually in the OCS 1s approximately two million metric
tons (dry weight), of which about 90% is discharged in the Gulf of Mexico.
Acute toxldty data show that most water-based drilling fluids tested to
date are "relatively nontoxic," that is, the acute LC50 (concentration lethal
to 50% of the test organisms) for whole fluid is >1,000 parts per million
(ppm) and for the suspended particulate phase (SPP) is >10,000 ppm.
Most acute toxldty can probably be attributed to the use of diesel fuel
81
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(12 fuel oil) OP other specialty additives In the drilling fluid.
Although some sublethal tests on growth, development, and reproductive
success have been conducted, the exposure concentrations and exposure intervals
[duration] have not been representative of the conditions characteristic of
dispersing plumes of drilling fluids 1n the field. [This criticism also applies
to acute test design and conduct]. Similarly, tests with benthlc organisms
have not simulated the dispersion of discharged drilling fluids which has been
measured 1n the field. Thus, the results of benthlc microcosm studies are
"difficult to interpret."
The test species appear to be appropriate. Organisms from one region have
not been more or less sensitive than organisms from another region, and nearshore
organisms have been equally sensitive to drilling fluids as those morphologically-
similar species from offshore. Thus, nearshore species appear to be appropriate
surrogates for toxicity testing.
Recognizing that discharges of drilling fluids and cuttings take place
under a wide range of environmental conditions, there are still valid
generalizations which can be made about the fate of the fluids and cuttings.
Approximately 90% of drilling fluid particles (and almost all the cuttings)
rapidly settle until they encounter the seabed or become neutrally buoyant. In
addition to this main (lower) plume, an upper, visible plume is formed which
may be diluted horizontally by a factor of 10,000 or more within 1 h
after release. Thus, the anticipated exposure of water-column organisms to the
suspended partlculate phase of a discharged drilling fluid would be of
approximately 1-h duration and 100 ppm concentration. This exposure would likely
occur only within an area tens of meters from the discharge point. [Further
dilution occurs farther from the platform]. Considering benthic organisms,
most discharged drilling fluids and cuttings are deposited on the OCS within
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1,000 • of th» discharge point. TO* amount of current and tidal action [energy]
at the site would determine the rate of dispersion and/or resuspenslon. Adverse
effects to the benthos may be caused by physical (burial) or chemical (toxldty)
factors.
There are at least four major deficiencies 1n the Information base for
assessing the fates and effects of drilling fluids and cuttings discharges on
the OCS: "variable quality of research, limits to the realism and relevance of
laboratory experiments, difficulties 1n unequivocally ascribing effects observed
In field studies to given causes, and a poor understanding of ecosystem processes.1
Any further drilling fluids research should Include acute, sublethal, and
chronic studies 1n which techniques and exposures reflect actual discharge and
exposure conditions.
Finally, drilling fluids and cuttings discharges should be such that
"particularly sensitive benthlc environments, especially hard substrate epibiota,
which are not exposed to significant natural sediment flux" will not be buried,
and the use of toxic additives, such as diesel, should be monitored or limited.
Neff review
Neff (1982) characterized the majority of major drilling fluid ingredients
as being "biologically Inert" or having "a very low order of acute toxicity."
In all but a few cases where 70 used offshore-type drilling fluids had been
tested with more than 60 species of marine animals, the LCSO's (usually 96-h)
were 10,000 ppm or higher. An adverse effect on water column organisms
is likely to occur only to the most sensitive species or life stage in the
immediate vicinity of the drilling fluid discharge (< 1,000 m) and only
for a brief time (less than 2 h), according to Neff. Benthic fauna, however,
may be damaged by settling drilling fluid and solids, through either burial or
chemical toxldty. Heavy metals associated with fluids or cuttings would
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be biologically available only OIT a- very limited basis. Neff concluded that
the discharge of used water-based drilling fluids 1n marine waters poses "no as
yet measurable hazard of more than very localized and transitory impact on the
marine environment."
NOAA/NMFS administrative report to EPA
Three reports dealing with ecological effects of energy development on the
Flower Garden Banks in the Northwestern Gulf of Mexico have very recently been
published by NOAA/NMFS (Kennedy et al., 1983; Grizzle, 1983; and Boland et al.,
1983). Kennedy and coworkers investigated the effects of discharges from two
drilling platforms on standing stocks, local distribution, and community
structure of the macroinfauna living around the East and West Flower Garden
Banks. No definitive evidence was found that drilling activities at either
platform "produced significant impacts upon sediment texture, total organic
carbon (TOC), or the associated macroinfauna.11 Although there were some changes
in polychaete community structure during the 2-year study, the authors attributed
the cause to the passage of Tropical Storm Chris through the area. Grizzle
examined fishes from the Flower Garden Banks for gross and microscopic lesions.
He found that most grossly visible lesions were caused by parasites and that
there was no observable difference in types or prevalence between fishes
collected near the drilling rigs or from control areas. He did find significantly
higher liver weight-to-body weight ratios in certain fishes collected near the
drilling platforms and stated that the greater liver weight could have resulted
from "differences 1n food between stations or because toxicants affected the
fish near platforms." He also reported that certain fishes collected near the
drilling platforms had "more frequent or severe gill lamella epithelium hyperplasia
and edema, chronic hepatitis, and hepatocyte basophilia than controls." He
suspected toxicants as the cause of the lesions but did not identify a specific
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toxicant because "the lesions found cottld have been caused by a wide variety of
chemicals." Boland and coworkers studied the reef fish populations 1n the area
and found that the "characteristic fish assemblages" that were present were
not measurably affected before or during drilling activities. Indeed, they
found enhancement of fish populations: "One of the most significant overall
effects of the Installation of the Mobil Platform HI-A389-A 1n proximity to
the East Flower Garden Bank was its colonization by a diverse community of
epibiota and fishes where none existed before."
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CONCLUSIONS
Results of research activities from this and other projects show that
drilling fluids are toxic to marine organisms at certain concentrations and
exposure regimes. Further, drilling fluids can adversely affect animals —
expedally benthos — through physical contact, by burying, or by altering
substrate composition. Drilling fluids also can exert effects by disrupting
essential physiological functions of organisms.
Much less information is available on the environmental concentrations of
drilling fluids that result from discharges into the marine environment than is
available on toxic effects. However, available data and models suggest that
when discharges are made from platforms located in open, well-mixed, and
relatively deep (>20 m) marine environments under the ranges of operating and
environmental conditions discussed in the Adaptive Environmental Assessment
workshops, most detectable acute effects will be limited to within several
hundred meters of the point of discharge. Based on laboratory-derived effects
data, there will be sufficient dilution of the drilling fluids 1n the water
column (106 dilution within approximately 1,000 m of the point of discharge) to
minimize acute effects on water column organisms similar to those tested to
date. Benthic organisms within about 300 m of the discharge will be potentially
subject to adverse effects caused by burial and chemical toxicity; they may
also be susceptible to direct effects or substrate changes for greater distances.
Possible exceptions to these generalizations could occur when discharges are
near sensitive biological areas, such as coral reefs, or in poorly flushed
environments.
Laboratory toxicity tests indicated that *2 fuel oil of known composition,
"diesel-like" hydrocarbons in used drilling fluids from the Gulf of Mexico, and
mineral oil were correlated with toxicity — the higher the hydrocarbon content,
86
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tht greater the toxicity. Tests showed that when API 12 fuel oil (dlesel) was
added to one of the used fluids with a low "dlesel' content, the treatment
Increased the toxldty of the fluid to grass shrimp. Similar results were
obtained when mineral oil was added to laboratory-prepared generic drilling
fluids; the toxiclty of fluid to myslds Increased as the concentration of
mineral oil Increased. Experiments conducted with grass shrimp Indicated that
when equal amounts of API #2 fuel oil and mineral oil were added to a hydrocarbon-
free reference drilling fluid prepared by the National Bureau of Standard
for use 1n the ERL/GB research program, the fuel oil-treated preparation was
about three times more toxic than the reference fluid with mineral oil added.
Additional tests are needed to compare the toxlcity of these two additives to
other organisms as well as tests to determine their no-observed-effect
concentrations on various species and communities. It would also be useful to
establish a data base on the long-term toxicity of other drilling fluid additives,
Including blocides.
More data on sublethal and chronic effects should be developed to assess
the potential long-term toxlcity of drilling fluids to benthic communities.
Such studies should generate information on the bioaccumulation of specific
drilling fluid components. Additional evaluations of the toxicity of Cr+3 and
0*6 and the effects and b1oavailab1l1ty of other drilling fluid components such
as barite are also needed. Additional research also is needed to quantatively
address the limits of applicability of the assumptions and inputs of the fate
models developed in the AEA workshops in order to validate the models. Special
emphasis should be placed on the evaluation of models of discharges from multiple
development rigs because these are the sites of the most intensive drilling
fluid discharges.
The Adaptive Environmental Assessment process appears to be a sound approach
in developing models to understand the fate and effects of drilling fluids
87
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discharged 1n the marine environment. Development of the AEA models has
accentuated certain gaps 1n our knowledge and has emphasized the Importance of
considering.the potential magnitude of the effects of natural episodic events
and the dynamics of marine ecosystems. The rigor and general applicability of these
models in special cases where discharges are close to shore in areas of high
productivity or where discharges are proximal to unique habitats is not well
established. Along with a general effort to validate the predictive capability
of the models, a special effort 1s needed to determine how well these models
address special cases and other contingencies. The need is particularly
acute where permit activities involve nearshore coastal or estuarine environments.
In summary, it is possible through existing data and empirical and numerical
models to estimate the impact of drilling fluids on specific areas of the marine
;
environment, based on predicted environmental concentrations and effects
(determined mainly in the laboratory) at those concentrations. However, the data
base for the models should be expanded by (a) monitoring existing and proposed
discharges for specific information, and (b) conducting long-term tests at
environmentally realistic concentrations to determine community and system
effects and chronic effects on organisms representative of areas of biological
concern. At present, there is not sufficient evidence that acute toxicity
tests, even under optimal conditions, reveal subtle, adverse effects that could
occur at the ecosystem level of biological complexity as the result of drilling
fluid discharges.
-------
LITERATURE CITE&
American Public Health Association, American Water Works Association, and Water
Pollution Control Federation. 1980. Methods 3000, 303A, 303C, ANB 304.
In: Standard Methods for Examination of Water and Waste Water, 15th ed.
1,134 pp.
Atema, J., O.F. Leavltt, D.E. Barshaw, and M.C. Cuomo. 1982. Effects of
drilling muds on behavior of the American lobster, Homarus americanus, 1n
water column and substrate exposures. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and
Aquatic Sciences 39(5):675-689.
Atema, J., E.B. Karnosky, S. Olszko-Szuts, and B. Byrant. 1982. Sublethal
effects of Number 2 fuel oil on lobster behavior and chemoreceptlon. EPA-
600/S3-82-013, Environmental Research Laboratory, Narragansett, RI. 6 pp.
Auble, G.T., A.K. Andrews, R.A. Ellison, O.B. Hamilton, R.A. Johnson, J.E.
Roelle, and O.R. Marmorek. 1982. Results of an adaptive environmental
assessment modeling workshop concerning potential Impacts of drilling muds
and cuttings on the marine environment. EPA-600/9-82-019, Environmental
Research Laboratory, Gulf Breeze, FL. 64 pp.
Ayers, R.C., T.C. Sauer, Jr., and P.W. Anderson. 1983. The generic concept for
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Ichthyoplankton and Behnthos Populations of the Northwestern Gulf of
Mexico, 1980-82. NOAA/NMFS Administrative Report to EPA. 488 pp.
Bookhout, C.G., R. Monroe, R. Forward, and J.D. Costlow, Jr. 1982. Effects of
soluble fractions of drilling fluids and hexavalent chromium on the
development of the crabs, Rhithrgpanopeus harrisii and Callinectes sapidus.
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in a flow-through experimental system. Marine Environmental Research
2(4):301-309.
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drilling muds on crustaceans, with particular reference to the grass
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and K.R. Rao. 1982. Effects of two dithiocarbamates on the grass
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89
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0. Orysdale, 0.6. Dought1e> K.R. Rao, J.P. Kakareka, T.R.
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^ . 19818. Drilling fluid effects on teleost
and echinoderm development. Bulletin Mt. Desert Island Biological Laboratory
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EPA £00/3-83-021, Environmental Research Laboratory, Gulf Breeze, FL. 30 pp.
D'Asaro, C.N. 1982. Cycling of xenoblotics through marine and estuarlne
sediments. EPA-600/3-82-074, Environmental Research Laboratory, Gulf
Breeze, FL. 40 pp.
Derby, C.D. and J. Atema. 1981. Influence of drilling muds on the primary
chemosensory neurons in walking legs of the lobster, Hgmarus amerlcanus.
Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 38(3):268-Z74.
Dodge, R.E. 1982. Effects of drilling mud on the reef-building coral Monstastrea
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Doughtie, D.G., P.J. Conklin, and K.R. Rao. 1983. Cuticular lesions induced
in grass shrimp exposed to hexavalent chromium. Journal of Invertebrate
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Duke, T.W. In Press. Potential impact of drilling fluids on estuarine
productivity. Proceedings of the International Symposium of Coastal
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, P.R. Parrish, R.M. Montgomery, S.D. Macauley, J.M. Macauley, and G.M.
Gripe. 1984. Acute toxicity of eight generic drilling fluids to
mysids (Mysidopsis bahia). EPA-600/3-84-067, Environmental Research
Laboratory, Gulf Breeze, FL. 11 pp.
Grizzle, J.M. 1983. Hlstopathology of fishes in relation to drilling operations
near Flower Garden Banks, Volume II. In: Ecological Effects of Energy
Development on Reef Fish, Ichthyoplankton and Benthos Populations of the
Northwestern Gutt of Mexico, 1980-82 NOAA/NMFS Adminstrative Report to
EPA. 137 pp.
Hamilton, P.V. 1981. Behavioral assays for effects drilling muds on marine
animals. EPA-600/4-81-050, Environmental Research Laboratory, Gulf Breeze,
FL. 52 pp.
90
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, H.A. Winter, and R.K. Pegg.- 1981. Effects of whole drilling.
mud and selected components on the shell movements of the bay scallop,
Argopecten Irradlans. Northeast Gulf Science 5(1):13-20.
Kendall, J.J., Jr., E.N. Powell, S.J. Connor and T.J. Bright. 1983. The
effects of drilling fluids (muds) and turbidity on the growth and metabolic
state of the coral Acroppra cerylcornls. with comments on methods of
normalization for coral data"! Bulletin of Marine Science 33(2)-.336-352.
E.N. Powell, S.J. Connor, T.J. Bright, and C.E. Zastrow.
1984.The importance of monitoring metabolic recovery in the coral
Acropora cervicornis after short-term exposure to drilling muds:
calcification rate and protein concentration. Coral Reefs 2:215-225.
Kennedy, E.A., W.E. Pequegnat, G.F. Hubbard, B.M. James, and C.M. Potter.
1983. Ecological survey of the macrolnfaunal community near the Flower
Garden Banks, Volume I. In: Ecological Effects of Energy Development on
Reef F1sh, Ichthyoplankton and Benthos Populations of the Northwestern
Gulf of Mexico, 1980-82. NOAA/NMFS Administrative Report to EPA. 312 pp.
King, 0. and W. Mu1r. 1974. Report of the interagency working group on health
and environmental effects of energy use. Council on Environmental Quality,
Washington, O.C.
i
Krone, M.A., and D.C. Brlggs. 1980. Sublethal metabolic responses of the
hermatypic coral Madracis decactis exposed to drilling mud enriched with
ferrochrome lignosulfonateTfiTiFluids and Cuttings. Vol. II, pp. 1097-
1100. American Petroleum Institute, Washington, D.C.
. 1981. Sublethal metabolic responses of the hermatypic coral
Madracis decactis exposed to drilling mud enriched with ferrachrome
lignosulfonate. EPA-600/4-81-049, Environmental Research Laboratory. Gulf
Breeze, FL. 67 pp.
McGlothlin, R.E. and H. Krause. 1980. Water base drilling fluids. In:
Symposium: Research on Environmental Fate and Effects of Drilling Fluids
and Cuttings, Vol. I. pp. 30-37. American Petroleum Institute, Washington,
D.C.
National Research Council (U.S.). 1983. Drilling discharges in the marine
environment. Panel on Assessment of Fates and Effects of Drilling Fluids
and Cuttings 1n the Marine Environment. National Academy Press, Washington,
D.C. 192 pp.
Neff, J.M. 1982. Fate and biological effects on oil well drilling fluids in
the marine environment: A literature review. EPA-600/3-82-064,
Environmental Research Laboratory, Gulf Breeze, FL. 150 pp.
New England Aquarium (Edgerton Research Laboratory). 1984. A survey of the
toxldty and chemical composition of used drilling fluids. EPA-600/X-84-083,
Environmental Research Laboratory, Gulf Breeze, FL. 109 pp.
91
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Oil*. B.L.. W.H. Stelner, and J.t. Luczfcovlc*. 1901. Effects of drilling fluids
on the behavior of the juvenile hake, Urophyds chuss (Walbaum). II.
Effects on established behavioral baselines. Unpublished report to U.S.
Environmental Research Laboratory, Gulf Breeze, FL. 104 pp. plus appendices.
Parker, J.H.. J.S. Nickels, R.F. Martz, M.J. Gehron, N.L. Richards, and D.C.
White. 1984. Effect of oil and gas well-drilling fluids on the
physiological status and mlcroblal infection of the reef building coral
Montastrea annul aris. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology
PerMcone, C. 1980. Major drilling fluid additives. In: Symposium: Research
on Environmental Fate and Effects of Drilling Fluids and Cuttings, Vol. I.,
pp. 15-29. American Petroleum Institute, Washington, D.C.
Petrazzuolo, G. 1981. Preliminary report on environmental assessment of
drilling fluids and cuttings released onto the Outer Continental Shelf.
Vol I: Technical assessment: Vol 2: Tables, Figures and Appendix A. Draft
report prepared for Industrial Permits Branch, Office of Water Enforcement
and Ocean Programs Branch, Office of Water and Waste Management. U.S.
EPA. Washington, D.C.
_ . 1983. Proposed methodology: drilling fluids toxidty test for
offshore subcategory; oil and gas extraction industry. Technical Resources,
Inc., Bethesda, MO 20817. DRAFT dated May 19, 1983. 45 pp.
Powell, E.N., M. Kasschau, E. Chen, M. Koenig and J. Pecon. 1982. Changes in
the free ami no acid pool during environmental stress in the gill tissue of
the oyster, Crassostrea virginica. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology
7 1A (4): 591-595:
S.J. Connor, J.J. Kendall, C.E. Zastrow, and T.J. Bright. 1984.
Recovery by the coral Acropora cervicgrnis after drilling muds exposure:
the free ami no acid pool. Archives of Environmental Contamination and
Toxicology 13(2):243-258.
, J.J. Kendall, S.J. Conner, C.E. Zastrow, and T.J. Bright. In
Press. Effect of eight Outer Continental Shelf drilling muds on the
calcification rate and free amino acid pool of the coral Acropora cervicornis.
Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology.
Proni, J.R. 1984. The Flower Garden Banks drilling fluids project. Unpublished
Report to U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Environmental Research
Laboratory, Gulf Breeze, FL. 16 pp. plus figures and appendices.
Rubinstein, N.I., and R. Rigby. 1980. Acute and sublethal effects of whole
used drilling fluids on representative estuarine organisms. In: Symposium:
Research on Environmental Fate and Effects of Drilling Fluids and Cuttings.
Vol. II, pp. 828-835. American Petroleum Institute, Washington, D.C.
Schatten, G., D. Slmerly, and H. Schatten. In press. The effects of barium
sulfate on sea urchin fertilization and early development. In: Wastes in
the Ocean, Vol. 3. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York.
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Science-Applications, Inc. 1984. Drill fluid assessment chemical analysis
reference volume-. EPA-600/3-84-048, Environmental Research Laboratory,
Gulf Breeze, FL. 265 pp. plus tables and figures.
Smith, GA...J.S. Nickels, R.J. Bobble, N.L. Richards, and D.C. White. 1982.
Effects of oil and gas well-drilling fluids on the blomass and community
structure of mlcroblota that colonize sand 1n running seawater. Archives
of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology ll(l):17-23.
Steel, R.G. and J.H. Torrie. 1980. Principles and procedures of statistics,
2nd ed. McGraw-Hill, New York. 633 pp.
Szmant-Froellch, A., V. Johnson, T. Hoehn, J. Battey, G.J. Smith, E. Fleischmann,
J. Porter and 0. Dallmeyer. 1982. Physiological effects of oil-drilling
muds on the Caribbean coral Monastrea annularis. In: Reef and Man:
Proceedings of the Fourth International Coral Reef Symposium, Manila.
E.D. Gomez et al., Editors. Pp. 163-168.
. 1983. Physiological effects of drilling muds on reef corals.
EPA-bOO/3-83-013, Environmental Research Laboratory, Gulf Breeze, FL. 54 pp.
Tagatz, M.E., J.M. Ivey, H.K. Lehman, M. Tobla, and J.L. Oglesby. 1980.
Effects of drilling mud on development of experimental estuarine macrobenthlc
communities. In: Symposium: Research on Environmental Fate and Effects of
Drilling Fluids and Cuttings. Vol. II, pp. 847-865. American Petroleum
Institute, Washington, D.C.
, J.M. Ivey, C.E. Dalbo, and J.L. Oglesby. 1982. Responses of
_
developing estuarine macrobenthlc communities to drilling muds. Estuaries
5(2):131-137.
Thompson, J.H. and T.J. Bright. 1980. Effects of an offshore drilling fluid
on selected corals. In: Symposium: Research on Environmental Fate and
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Institute, Washington, D.C. Pp. 1044-1078.
U..S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1978A. Drilling mud bioassay test
procedures to be employed under EPA, Region II, offshore exploratory
drilling permits.
_ ^ __ _ . 1978B. IERL-RTP Procedures Manual:
Level 1 Environmental Assessment (Second Edition). EPA-600/7-78-201,
Research Triangle Institute, Research Triangle, NC. 279 pp.
_ . 1979. Manual — Methods for Chemical
Analysis of Water and Wastes, 1978. Methods 200-4.1.1 through 4.1.3.
EPA-600/4-79-020, Environmental Monitoring and Support Laboratory, Cincinnati,
OH. 460 pp. - -
1982. Handbook for Applying Section
403(c) Criteria of the Clean Water Act, Revised Draft. Office of
Water Regulations and Standards. Washington, D.C. 134 pp.
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1983. Issuance of Final General NPOES
Permits for 011 and Gas Operations on the Outer Continental Shelf (OCS)
of Alaska; Norton Sound and Beaufort Sea. Federal Register Vol. 48,
No. 236, December 7, 1983. Pp. 54881-54897.
White, D.C. 1982. Biochemical determination of blomass and community structure
of estuarlne detrltal and sedimentary mlcroblota. In: Input of Xenobiotlc
Chemicals on Microblal Ecosystems. U.S. F1sh and Wildlife Service
Technical Paper Number 107. Pp. 22-28.
94
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APPENDIX A
ABSTRACTS OF PUBLISHED PAPERS FROM THE ERL/GB DRILLING FLUIDS RESEARCH PROGRAM
1976-1984.
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ATEMA, JELLS, DALE F. LCAVITT, DIANA E. BARSHAH, AND M. CARMELA CUOMO. 1982.
ErFECTS OP DRILLING MUDS ON BEHAVIOR Of THE AMERICAN LOBSTER, HOMARU3
AMERICANUS, IN WATER COLUMN AND SUBSTRATE EXPOSURES. CAN. J. FISH. AQUAT
SCI. 39(5)1675-689. (ERL,GB X298*).
STUDIES WERE CONDUCTED TO EXPLORE THE EFFECTS OF DRILLING MUDS ON
VARIOUS ASPECTS OF LOBSTER BEHAVIOR DIRECTLY RELATED TO SURVIVAL IN
THE FIELD. TOXICITY OF DIFFERENT DRILLING MUDS VARIED FROM IMMEDIATELY
LETHAL TO ADULT LOBSTERS TO APPARENTLY HARMLESS TO POSTLARVAL STAGES,
WITH A VARIETY OF INTERMEDIATE EFFECTS. BOTH THE CHEMICAL TOXICITY IN
THE WATER COLUMN AND THE PHYSICAL EFFECTS OF COVERING THE SUBSTRATE
WITH DRILLING MUD WERE STUDIED, AND BOTH INTERFERED WITH NORMAL
LOBSTER BEHAVIOR. THE STUDIES ARE MAINLY CONCERNED WITH POSTLARVAL
LOBSTERS (STAGES VI AND V), I.E., JUST AFTER SETTLING ON THE BOTTOM.
THEY WERE TESTED IN 36-D CHRONIC EXPOSURES (7MG/L) AND IN SEMINATURAL
AQUARIA WITH 1 MM LAYERS OF DRILLING MUD COVERING THE SUBSTRATE.
TOXICITY IN THE WATER COLUMN MANIFESTED ITSELF IN FEEDING AND MOLTING
DELAYS, SEVERE DELAYS IN SHELTER CONSTRUCTION, INCREASED WALKING AND
SWIMMING, UNPROVOKED TAIL FLIPPING, AND LETHARGY. A NATURAL BAY MUD
USED AS A CONTROL CAUSED NO SUCH EFFECTS. PHYSICAL EFFECTS OF
SUBSTRATE COVER WERE APPARENT IN EXPERIMENTS WITH 1-, 2-, 4-MM LAYERS
OF DRILLING MUD AND SIMILAR LAYERS OF A MIXTURE OF BENTONITE AND
BARITE COVERING A NATURAL MUD SUBSTRATE. IN DEPTHS OF 4 MM BOTH KINDS
OF SUBSTRATE COVER CAUSED SEVERE DELAYS IN SHELTER CONSTRUCTION AND IN
QUALITY OF BURROWS CONSTRUCTED. THUS, SUBSTRATES WITH 4-MM TO PERHAPS
AS LITTLE AS 1-MM COVERING OF DRILLING MUD MAY CAUSE INCREASED
EXPOSURE OF LOBSTERS TO PREDATORS AND CURRENTS, RESULTING IN THE
SUBSTRATE BECOMING UNSUITABLE FOR LOBSTER SETTLING AND SURVIVAL.
AUBLE, GREGOR T., AUSTIN K. ANDREWS, RICHARD A. ELLISON, DAVID B. HAMILTON,
RICHARD A. JOHNSON, JAMES E. ROELLE, AND DAVID R. MARMOREK. 1982. RESULTS
OF AN ADAPTIVE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT MODELING WORKSHOP CONCERNING
POTENTIAL IMPACTS OF DRILLING MUDS AND CUTTINGS ON THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT.
EPA-600/9-82-019, U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY, ENVIRONMENTAL
RESEARCH LABORATORY, GULF BREEZE, FL. 64P.
THE WORKSHOP WAS STRUCTURED AROUND CONSTRUCTION OF A MODEL SIMULATING
FATE AND EFFECTS OF DISCHARGES FROM A SINGLE RIG INTO OPEN WATER AREAS
OF THE GULF OF MEXICO, AND DISCUSSION OF FACTORS THAT MIGHT PRODUCE
DIFFERENT FATE AND EFFECTS IN ENCLOSED AREAS SUCH AS BAYS AND
ESTUARIES. THE SIMULATION MODEL WAS COMPOSED OF FOUR CONNECTED
SUBMODELS. A DISCHARGE/FATE SUBMODEL DEALT WITH THE DISCHARGE
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE RIG AND THE SUBSEQUENT FATE OF DISCHARGED
MATERIAL, THREE EFFECTS SUBMODELS THEN CALCULATED BIOLOGICAL RESPONSES
AT DISTANCES AWAY FROM THE RIG FOR THE WATER COLUMN, SOFT BOTTOM
BENTHOS (ASSUMING THE RIG WAS LOCATED OVER A SOFT BOTTOM ENVIRONMENT),
AND HARD BOTTOM BENTHOS (ASSUMING THE RIG WAS LOCATED OVER A HARD
BOTTOM ENVIRONMENT)% THE MODEL FOCUSED ON DIRECT LINKAGES BETWEEN THE
DISCHARGE AND VARIOUS ORGANISMS RATHER THAN ON HOW THE MARINE
ECOSYSTEM ITSELF IS INTERCONNECTED.
A - 1
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BOBBIE, R.J., D.C. WHITE, AND P.H. BENSON. 1980. BIOCHEMICAL ANALYSIS OP
THE RESPONSE Of THE MARINE MICROFOULING COMMUNITY STRUCTURE TO CLEANING
PROCEDURES DESIGNED TO MAINTAIN HEAT TRANSFER EFFICIENCY. INl PROCEEDINGS
OF THE FIFTH INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF MARINE CORROSION AND FOULING. L.
APITO, EDITOR, GRAFICAS ORBE S.L., BARCELONA, SPAIN. PP. 391-400. (ERL,GB
X184*).
THE MICROFOULING COMMUNITY THAT DEVELOPS IN ALUMINUM PIPES SUBJECT TO
FLOWING SEA WATER IS MARKEDLY AFFECTED BY A MECHANICAL CLEANING
PROCEDURE EMPLOYED TO MAINTAIN THE EFFICIENT HEAT TRANSFER PROPERTIES
NECESSARY IN THE CONDENSER SYSTEM OF THE OCEAN THERMAL ENERGY
CONVERSION SYSTEM. SENSITIVE MEASURES OF THE MICROBIAL BIOMASS, SUCH
AS THE EXTRACTABLE LIPID PHOSPHATE, THE EXTRACTABLE PALMITIC ACID AND
THE TOTAL ORGANIC CARBON SHOW GOOD CORRELATING WITH THE HEAT TRANSFER
EFFICIENCY (RF) IN THE EARLY STAGES OF FREE FOULING. AFTER MECHANICAL
CLEANING WITH EITHER MANUALLY OPERATED BRUSHES OR THE M.A.N. SYSTEM,
MEASURES OF THE TOTAL BIOMASS SUCH AS TOTAL ORGANIC CARBON SHOW
REASONABLE CORRELATION TO THE (RF). AFTER CLEANING, MEASURES OF
CELLULAR BIOMASS SUCH AS LIPID PHOSPHATE OF LIPID PALMITIC ACID 00 NOT
CORRELATE WITH THE RF AND THE RATIOS OF TOTAL ORGANIC CARBON.
MECHANICAL CLEANING CHANGES THE COMMUNITY STRUCTURE OF THE MICROBES.
THE MORPHOLOGY OF THE POPULATION BY SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY (SEM)
REVEALS SELECTIVE REMOVAL OF THE LARGER AND MORPHOLOGICALLY MORE
COMPLEX MICROEUKARYOTES WITH RETENTION OF A COMMUNITY ENRICHED IN
BACTERIA. EXAMINATION OF THE FATTY ACID COMPOSITION OF THE COMMUNITY
SHOWS CLEANING-INDUCED SELECTIVITY NOT ONLY FOR THE BACTERIAL
PROKARYOTES BUT FOR A SPECIFIC PROPORTION OF THE BACTERIA. A
POPULATION DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE BACTERIA RETAINED AFTER MANUAL
BRUSHING AND CONTINOUS BRUSHING WITH THE M.A.N. SYSTEM CAN ALSO BE
DEMONSTRATED. SEM MORPHOLOGY, THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN RF AND MEASURES
OF TOTAL AND CELLULAR BIOMASS, THE INCREASE IN THE RATIO OF TOTAL
ORGANIC CARBON TO CELLULAR BIOMASS AND THE STEADY INCREASE IN A
MICROBIAL POPULATION ENRICHED IN LINOLEIC ACID ALL POINT TO AN
ACCUMULATION OF EXTRACELLULAR BIOPOLYMER WITH THE CLEANING PROCEDURES.
WITH INTERMITTENT CLEANING THE EXOPOLYMER ACCUMULATION ENHANCES THE
COLONIZATION BY THE MICROEUKARYOTES BETWEEN THE CLEANING CYCLES.
A - 2
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BOBBIE, RONALD J., AND DAVID C. WHITE. 1980. CHARACTERIZATION OP BENTHIC
MICROBIAL COMMUNITY STRUCTURE BY HIGH RESOLUTION GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY OF FATTY
ACID METHYL ESTERS. APPL, ENVIRON. MICROBIOL. 39(6):1212-1222. (ERL,GB
X009*).
FATTY ACIDS ARE A WIDELY STUDIED GROUP OF LIPIDS OF SUFFICIENT
TAXONOMIC DIVERSITY TO BE USEFUL IN DEFINING MICROBIAL COMMUNITY
STRUCTURE. THE EXTRAORDINARY RESOLUTION OF GLASS CAPILLARY GAS-LIQUID
CHROMATOGRAPHY CAN BE UTILIZED TO SEPARATE AND TENTATIVELY IDENTIFY
LARGE NUMBERS OF FATTY ACID METHYL ESTERS DERIVED FROM THE LIPIDS OF
ESTUARINE DETRITUS AND MARINE BENTHIC MICROBIOTA WITHOUT THE BIAS OF
SELECTIVE METHODS REQUIRING CULTURE OR RECOVERY OF THE MICROBES. THE
GAS-LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHIC ANALYSES ARE BOTH REPRODUCIBLE AND HIGHLY
SENSITIVE, AND THE RECOVERY OF FATTY ACIDS IS QUANTITATIVE. THE
ANALYSES CAN BE AUTOMATED, AND THE DIAGNOSTIC TECHNIQUE OF MASS
SPECTRAL FRAGMENTATION ANALYSIS CAN BE READILY APPLIED. SPLITLESS
INJECTION ON GLASS CAPILLARY GAS CHROMATOGRAPHIC COLUMNS DETECTED BY
MASS SPECTRAL SELECTIVE ION MONITORING PROVIDES AN ULTRASENSITIVE AND
DEFINITIVE MONITORING SYSTEM. RECIPROCAL MIXTURES OF BACTERIA AND
FUNGI, WHEN EXTRACTED AND ANALYZED, SHOWED PROGRESSIVE CHANGES OF
DISTINCTIVE FATTY ACID METHYL ESTERS DERIVED FROM THE LIPIDS. BY
MANIPULATING THE ENVIRONMENT OF AN ESTUARINE DETRITAL MICROBIAL
COMMUNITY WITH ANTIBIOTICS AND CULTURE CONDITIONS, IT WAS POSSIBLE TO
PRODUCE A COMMUNITY GREATLY ENRICHED IN EUCARYOTIC FUNGI, AS EVIDENCED
BY SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPIC MORPHOLOGY. THE FATTY ACID METHYL
ESTERS FROM THE LIPIDS IN THE FUNGUS-ENRICHED DETRITUS SHOWED
ENRICHMENT OF THE C18 DIENOIC AND THE CIS AND C20 POLYENOIC ESTERS.
MANIPULATION OF THE DETRITAL MICROBIOTA THAT INCREASED THE PROCARYOTIC
POPULATION RESULTED IN AN ABSENCE OF LARGE STRUCTURES TYPICAL OF
FUNGAL MYCELIA OR DIATOMS, AS EVIDENCED BY SCANNING ELECTRON
MICROSCOPY, AND A SIGNIFICANTLY LARGER PROPORTION OF ANTEISO- AND
ISO-BRANCHED CIS FATTY ACID ESTERS, C17 CYCLOPROPANE FATTY ACID
ESTERS, AND THE CIS-VACCENIC ISOMER OF THE CIS MONOENOIC FATTY ACID
ESTERS. AS DETERMINED BY THESE TECHNIQUES, A MARINE SETTLING COMMUNITY
SHOWED GREATER DIFFERENCES IN BACTERIAL AS CONTRASTED TO
MICROEUCARYOTIC POPULATIONS WHEN COMPARED WITH THE MICROBIAL
COMMUNITIES OF BENTHIC CORES.
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BOBBIE, R.J., J.S. NICKELS, G.A. SMITH, 3.D. FAZIO, R.H. FINDLAY, W.M. DAVIS,
AND D.C. WHITE. 1981. EFFECT OF LIGHT ON BIOMASS AND COMMUNITY STRUCTURE OF
ESTUARINE DETRITAL MICROBIOTA. APPL. ENVIRON. MICROBIOL. 42(1)t150-158.
(ERL,GB X189*>.
COMPARISON OF ESTUARINE DETRITAL MICROBIOTA GROWN WITH AND WITHOUT
LIGHT IN THE ABSENCE OF MACROSCOPIC GRAZING SHOWED SHIFTS IN THE
COMMUNITY STRUCTURE THAT ENABLED CORRELATION BETWEEN VARIOUS
BIOCHEMICAL MEASURES. ANALYSIS OF THESE BIOCHEMICAL MEASURES SHOWED
THAT GROWTH IN LIGHT INDUCES THE SMALLEST INCREASES IN PROCARYOTIC
ATTRIBUTES SUCH AS MURAMIC ACID? WALL GLUCOSAMINE; LIPID PHOSPHATE;
TOTAL EXTRACTABLE ADENOSINE NUCLEOTIDESj SHORT-BRANCHED, CYCLOPROPANE,
AND C1SVACCENIC FATTY ACIDSj LIPID GLUCOSE AND MANNOSE; THE
INCORPORATION OF ACETATE INTO LIPID; AND THE FORMATION OF
DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID FROM THYMIDINE. MEASURES OF THE MICROFAUNA SUCH
AS LIPID INOSITOL AND THE Y-LINOLENIC SERIES OF POLYENOIC FATTY ACIDS
ALSO INCREASED MINIMALLY IN THE LIGHT-GROWN MICROBIOTA. MEASURES OF
SULFOLIPID SYNTHESIS, LIPID GLYCEROL, TOTAL EXTRACTABLE PALMITATE,
18-CARBON POLYENOIC FATTY ACIDS, AND TOTAL POLYENOIC FATTY ACIDS
LONGER THAN 20 CARBONS INCREASED 10- TO 15-FOLD IN ALGAE AND FUNGI.
CHLOROPHYLL A, LIPID GALACTOSE, AND THE 16- AND 20- CARBON POLYENOIC
FATTY ACIDS CHARACTERISTIC OF DIATOMS INCREASED MAXIMALLY IN THE
LIGHT. THIS INCREASE OF DIATOM MEASURE CORRELATED WITH THE SHEETS OF
DIATOMS DETECTED BY SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY.
BOOKHOUT, CAZLYN G., ROBERT MONROE, RICHARD FORWARD, AND JOHN D. COSTLOW, JR.
1982. EFFECTS OF SOLUBLE FRACTIONS OF USED LIGHT-WEIGHT LIGNOSULFONATE TYPE
MUD AND HEXAVALENT CHROMIUM ON THE COMPLETE LARVAL DEVELOPMENT OF CRABS,
RHITHROPANOPEUS HARRISII AND CALLINECTES SAPIDUS. EPA-600/3-82-018, U.S.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY, ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LABORATORY, GULF
BREEZE, FL. 64P.
AVAIL. FROM NTIS, SPRINGFIELD, VA: PB82-197203.
THE MUD AQUEOUS FRACTIONS CMAF) AND SUSPENDED PARTICULATE PHASE (SPP)
OF LIGNOSULFONATE TYPE MUD WERE NONTOXIC TO THE COMPLETE LARVAL
DEVELOPMENT OF RHITHROPANOPEUS HARRISII. FIVE PERCENT MAF AND SPP WERE
NOT TOXIC TO CALLINECTES SAPIDUS. DIFFERENTIAL SURVIVAL OF C. SAPIDUS
LARVAE OCCURRED FROM 5 TO 50% MAF AND SPP. NO LARVAE REACHED THE 1ST
CRAB STAGE IN 100% MAF AND SPP. STATISTICAL ANALYSES OF THE DATA ON
SURVIVAL, MORTALITY AND BEHAVIOR ARE PRESENTED. SURVIVAL OF R.
HARRISII FROM HATCHING TO 1ST CRAB STAGE OCCURRED IN 1.1 TO 29.1 PPM
NA(2)CROC4). ESTIMATED LC50 FOR COMPLETE ZOEAL DEVELOPMENT WAS 17.8
PP, NA(2)CRO(4) AND WAS 13.7 FOR DEVELOPMENT TO 1ST CRAB STAGE, A
CONCENTRATION OF 1.1 PPM WAS NONTOXIC, 7.2 AND 14.5 NAC2KROC4) WERE
SUBLETHAL AND CONCENTRATIONS OF 29.1 TO 58.1 PPM WERE ACUTELY TOXIC.
LOW CONCENTRATIONS OF NA(2)CRO(4) CAUSED AN INCREASE IN SWIMMING SPEED
AND HIGH CONCENTRATIONS CAUSED A DECLINE. SURVIVAL OF CALLINECTES
SAPIDUS OCCURRED. IN 1.1 TO 4.7 NA(2)CRO(4). THE LC50 FOR COMPLETE
ZOEAL DEVELOPMENT WAS ESTIMATED TO BE 2.9 PPM AND THE LC50 FOR
DEVELOPMENT TO 1ST CRAB STAGE WAS ESTIMATED TO BE 1.0 PPM. STATISTICAL
ANALYSES OF THE DATA ON SURVIVAL, DURATION AND MORTALITY OF LARVAE ARE
PRESENTED.
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BOOKHOUT, C.G., R.J. MONROE, R.B. FORWARD, JR., AND J.D, COSTLOW, JR. 1984.
EFFECTS OF SOLUBLE FRACTIONS OF DRILLING FLUIDS ON DEVELOPMENT OF CRABS,
RHITHROPANOPEUS HARRISII AND CALLINECTES SAPIDUS. WATER AIR SOIL POLLUT.
21:183-197. (ERL,GB X374*).
THE MUD AQUEOUS FRACTION (MAP) AND SUSPENDED PARTICULATE PHASE CSPP)
OF LOW-DENSITY LIGNOSULFONATE TYPE MUD WITH FERROCHROME ADDED WERE
NONTOXIC TO LARVAE DURING THE COMPLETE LARVAL DEVELOPMENT OF
RHITHROPANOPEUS HARRISII. FIVE PERCENT (5000 PPM, 0.5% V/V MUD IN
WATER) MAP AND SPP WERE NOT TOXIC TO CALLINECTES SAPIDUS. SURVIVAL OF
C. SAPIDUS LARVAE DECREASED AS CONCENTRATIONS OF MAF AND SPP INCREASED
FROM 5% (5000 PPM, 0.5 V/V MUD IN WATER) TO 50% (50,000 PPM, 5% V/V
MUD IN WATER). NO LARVAE REACHED THE 1ST CRAB STAGE IN 100% (100000
PPM, 10% V/V MUD IN WATER) MAF AND SPP. STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF THE
DATA ON SURVIVAL, MORTALITY, AND BEHAVIOR ARE PRESENTED. BLUE CRAB
LARVAL BEHAVIOR IS AFFECTED BY EXPOSURE TO MAF AND SPP WITH THE
GENERAL EFFECT BEING A DECLINE IN SWIMMING SPEED. A SIGNIFICANT
REDUCTION WAS ONLY OBSERVED IN 100% MAF BUT WAS NOTICED IN 5, 25, 50,
AND 100% SPP.
BOTERO, LEONOR, AND JELLE ATEMA. 1982. BEHAVIOR AND SUBSTRATE SELECTION
DURING LARVAL SETTLING IN THE LOBSTER HOMARUS AMERICANUS. J. CRUSTACEAN
BXOL. 2(l):59-69. (ERL,GB X399*).
DURING THE MOLT FROM THIRD- TO FOURTH-STAGE, LARVAE OF HOMARUS
AMERICANUS METAMORPHOSE INTO THEIR ADULT FORM AND PIGMENTATION. IN THE
COURSE OF THE FOURTH STAGE, THEIR PELAGIC LIFE CHANGES TO A BENTHIC
EXISTENCE. ARTIFICIAL SUBSTRATE CHOICE EXPERIMENTS AND QUALITATIVE
ILLUMINATION EXPERIMENTS SHOW THAT DURING THE EARLY FOURTH STAGE THE
PHOTOTACTIC RESPONSE REVERSES FROM POSITIVE TO NEGATIVE. TOGETHER WITH
POSITIVE THIGMOTAXIS, THIS RESULTS IN A CHOICE OF DARK CREVICES. AMONG
NATURAL SUBSTRATE CHOICES, PREFERENTIAL SETTLEMENT OCCURRED ON
MACROALGAL-COVERED ROCKS, FOLLOWED BY ROCKS ON SAND, MUD, AND SAND.
MOREOVER, WHEN NO CHOICE WAS GIVEN, SETTLING OCCURRED MOST RAPIDLY ON
MACROALGAL-COVERED ROCKS (34 H), FOLLOWED BY SCATTERED ROCKS ON SAND
(38 H), AND MUD (62 H)? NO SETTLING OCCURRED ON SAND EVEN TWO WEEKS
AFTER THE LAST ANIMAL AHD SETTLED ON ALL OTHER SUBSTRATES. THESE
ANIMALS CONTINUED TO EXPLORE THE SAND SUBSTRATE WITH DIVES TO THE
BOTTOM. ALTHOUGH MUD WAS NOT A PREFERRED SUBSTRATE IN CHOICE TESTS,
THE ANIMALS THAT CHOSE MUD AND THOSE THAT WERE PRESENTED ONLY WITH MUD
SETTLED SUCCESSFULLY AND WERE IMMEDIATELY EFFICIENT IN THEIR BURROWING
BEHAVIOR, CONSTRUCTING U-SHAPED TUNNELS WHEN IN THE CENTER OF THE
AQUARIUM WITHOUT USING A PEBBLE OR ROCK AS A STARTING POINT. THESE
LABORATORY TESTS CONFIRM FIELD OBSERVATIONS THAT LOBSTERS CAN
SUCCESSFULLY EXPLOIT A VARIETY OF SUBSTRATES. THEY SHOW THAT A
SUBSTRATE CAN BE MANIPULATED TO MAKE SUITABLE BURROWS.
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BRANNON, ANITA C., AND PHILIP J. CONKLIN. 1978. EFFECT OF SODIUM
PENTACHLOROPHENATE ON EXOSKELETAL CALCIUM IN THE GRASS SHRIMP, PALAEMONETES
PUGIO. INI PENTACHLOROPHENOL: CHEMISTRY, PHARMACOLOGY, AND ENVIRONMENTAL
TOXICOLOGY. K. RANGA RAO, EDITOR, PLENUM PRESS, NEW YORK, NY. PP. 205-211.
(ERL,GB X015*).
EXPOSURE OF THE GRASS SHRIMP, PALAEMONETES PUGIO, TO MEDIA CONTAINING
SODIUM PENTACHLOROPHENATE (NA-PCP) LED TO AN APPARENT INCREASE IN THE
DRY WEIGHT OF EXUVIA AS WELL AS AN INCREASE IN THE TOTAL QUANTITY OF
CALCIUM. THE ACTUAL CALCIUM CONCENTRATION (MG CA/MG DRY EXOSKELETON)
IN EXUVIA DID NOT VARY SIGNIFICANTLY IN RELATION TO NA-PCP EXPOSURE.
WHETHER THE OBSERVED CHANGES IN EXUVIA FROM SHRIMP EXPOSED TO NA-PCP
ARE DUE TO A DECREASE IN THE RESORPTION OF THE OLD EXOSKELETON
PRECEEDING ECDYSIS REMAINS TO BE CLARIFIED.
BRANNON, ANITA C., AND K. RANGA RAO. 1979. BARIUM, STRONTIUM AMD CALCIUM
LEVELS IN THE EXOSKELETON, HEPATOPANCREAS AND ABDOMINAL MUSCLE OF THE GRASS
SHRIMP, PALAEMONETES PUGIO: RELATION TO MOLTING AND EXPOSURE TO BARITE.
COMP. BIOCHEM. PHYSIOL. A COMP. PHYSIOL. 63A:261-274. (ERL,GB X016*).
1. THE BA, SR AND CA LEVELS IN THE EXOSKELETAL AND SOFT TISSUES OF THE
GRASS SHRIMP, PALAEMONETES PUGIO, WERE DETERMINED IN RELATION TO
ECDYSIS, POSTECDYSIAL MINERALIZATION OF THE CUTICLE AND EXPOSURE TO
MEDIA CONTAINING BARITE. 2. THE EXOSKELETAL TISSUES DISCRIMINATED IN
FAVOR OF BA AGAINST SR, RELATIVE TO CA. THE HEPATOPANCREAS AND
ABDOMINAL MUSCLE DISCRIMINATED IN FAVOR OF BOTH BA AND SR. 3. THE
BA/CA AND SR/CA RATIOS OF THE EXOSKELETAL AND SOFT TISSUES VARIED
DURING THE MOLT CYCLE. 4. LONG TERM (106 DAYS) EXPOSURE OF SHRIMP TO
EITHER SEAWATER (10 % SALINITY) OR SEAWATER CONTAINING 500 MG BARITE/L
LED TO A DECREASE IN THE CA CONCENTRATION IN THE ABDOMINAL MUSCLE AND
AN INCREASE IN THE CA CONCENTRATION IN THE EXOSKELETON. 5. WHEN
EXPOSED TO MEDIA CONTAINING BARITE THE SHRIMP INGESTED PARTICULATE
BARITE. 6. THE SHRIMP EXPOSED TO BARITE MEDIA ACCUMULATED HIGHER
LEVELS OF BA IN THEIR EXOSKELETAL AND SOFT TISSUES THAN CONTROL SHRIMP
IN SEAWATER. THE RELATIVE CONCENTRATIONS OF THE MINERALS IN THE EXUVIA
OF BARITE-EXPOSED SHRIMP WERE CA>BA>SR, WHILE THOSE OF CONTROL SHRIMP
WERE: CA>SR>BA.
CANTELMO, F.R., AND K.R. RAO. 1978. EFFECT OF PENTACHLOROPHENOL (PCP) ON
MEIOBENTHIC COMMUNITIES ESTABLISHED IN AN EXPERIMENTAL SYSTEM. MAR. BIOL.
46(l):17-22. (ERL,GB X029*).
AQUARIA CONTAINING CLEAN SAND RECEIVED A CONTINUOUS SUPPLY OF SEAWATER
FROM SANTA ROSA SOUND, FLORIDA, USA, MIXED WITH KNOWN CONCENTRATIONS
(7, 76 AND 622 MG 1-1) OF PENTACHLOROPHENOL (PCP). AFTER 9 WEEKS,
NEMATODES ACCOUNTED FOR 87% OF THE TOTAL MEIOFAUNA. NEMATODE 8IOMASS
AND DENSITIES WERE GREATEST IN AQUARIA EXPOSED TO 76 MG PCP 1-1 AND
WERE LEAST IN AQUARIA EXPOSED TO 622 MG PCP 1-1. EPISTRATE FEEDERS
WERE ABUNDANT IN CONTROL AQUARIA AND AQUARIA EXPOSED TO 7 AND 76 MG
PCP 1-1, BUT NOT IN AQUARIA EXPOSED TO 622 MG PCP 1-1. SELECTIVE
DEPOSIT FEEDERS WERE NOT ABUNDANT IN THE CONTROL AQUARIA AND AQUARIA
EXPOSED TO 7 MG PCP 1-1, BUT COMPRISED 19% OF THE NEMATODES IN AQUARIA
EXPOSED TO 76 MG PCP 1-1 AND 61% IN AQUARIA EXPOSED TO 622 MG PCP 1-1.
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CANTELMO, ANGELA C., AND K. RANGA RAO. 1978. EFFECTS OF PENTACHLOROPHENOL
(PCP) AND 2,4-DINITROPHENOL CDNP) ON THE OXYGEN CONSUMPTION OF TISSUES FROM
THE BLUE CRAB, CALLINECTES SAPIDUS, UNDER DIFFERENT OSMOTIC CONDITIONS.
COMP. BIOCHEM. PHYSIOL. C COMP. PHARMACOL. 60C(2)1215-219. (ERL,GB X028*).
1. THE EFFECTS OF ACCLIMATION TO 300 AND 940 MILLIOSMOLE SEAWATER AND
AN ACUTE HYPO-OSMOTIC STRESS ON THE WEIGHT-SPECIFIC OXYGEN CONSUMPTION
OF THE GILLS, MUSCLE AND HEPATOPANCREAS OF THE BLUE CRAB, CALLINECTES
SAPIDUS, WERE DETERMINED. 2. THE GILL AND MUSCLE TISSUES EXHIBITED AN
INCREASE IN OXYGEN CONSUMPTION ON ACCLIMATION OF CRABS TO A LOW
SALINITY OR WHEN THE TISSUES WERE SUBJECTED TO AN ACUTE HYPO-OSMOTIC
STRESS. SIMILAR TREATMENTS DID NOT ALTER THE OXYGEN CONSUMPTION OF THE
HEPATOPANCREAS. 3. AT A CONCENTRATION OF 5 X 10-3 M, PENTACHLOROPHENOL
(PCP) AND 2,4-DINITROPHENOL (DNP) CAUSED INHIBITION OF OXYGEN
CONSUMPTION IN THE TISSUES EXAMINED. THE EXTENT OF THIS INHIBITION OF
OXYGEN CONSUMPTION WAS INDEPENDENT OF THE METABOLIC ACTIVITY OF THE
TISSUES.
CANTELMO, FRANK R., AND K. RANGA RAO. 1978. EFFECTS OF PENTACHLOROPHENOL ON
THE MEIOBENTHIC NEMATODES IN AN EXPERIMENTAL SYSTEM. IN: PENTACHLOROPHENOL:
CHEMISTRY, PHARMACOLOGY, AND ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY. K. RANGA RAO, EDITOR,
PLENUM PRESS, NEW YORK, NY. PP. 165-174. (ERL,GB X026*).
AQUARIA CONTAINING CLEAN SAND RECEIVED A CONTINUOUS SUPPLY OF SEAWATER
FROM SANTA ROSA SOUND, FLORIDA, MIXED WITH KNOWN QUANTITIES OF PCP FOR
NINE WEEKS (MAY 10 - JULY 12, 1976) FOR THE FIRST EXPERIMENT AND
DOWICIDE G-ST FOR THIRTEEN WEEKS (DECEMBER 27, 1976 - MARCH 28, 1977)
FOR THE SECOND EXPERIMENT. THE MEASURED CONCENTRATIONS OF PCP IN THE
FORMER EXPERIMENT WERE 776 AND 622 MG/L WHILE THE CONCENTRATIONS AT
1.8, 15.8 AND 161 MG/L WERE USED IN THE LATTER EXPERIMENT. AT EHE END
OF EACH EXPERIMENT THE MEIOFAUNA ESTABLISHED IN THE CONTROL AND
EXPERIMENTAL AQUARIA WERE EXAMINED. NEMATODES WERE THE DOMINANT GROUP
AND AVERAGED 83% OF ALL THE MEIOFAUNA ENCOUNTERED. CONCENTRATIONS OF
1.8, 7 AND 15.8 MG PCP/L DID NOT AFFECT THE BIOMASS AND DENSITY OF
NEMATODES. AN INTERMEDIATE CONCENTRATION OF PCP (76 MG/L) CAUSED AN
INCREASE IN BIOMASS AND DENSITY OF NEMATODES COMPARED TO CONTROL
AQUARIA. HIGHER CONCENTRATIONS OF PCP (161 AND 622 MG/L) CAUSED A
DECREASE IN BIOMASS AND DENSITY OF NEMATODES COMPARED TO CONTROL
AQUARIA. MARKED CHANGES IN NEMATODE SPECIES COMPOSITION AND SHIFTS IN
NEMATODE FEEDING TYPES WERE NOTICED IN THE AQUAPIA EXPOSED TO 161 AND
622 MG PCP/L. NEMATODES CLASSIFIED AS EPISTRATE FEEDERS WERE MOST
ABUNDANT IN THE CONTROL AQUARIA AND THOSE EXPOSED TO 1,8, 7, 15.8 AND
76 MG PCP/L. DEPOSIT FEEDERS WERE RELATIVELY ABUNDANT AMONG THE
NEMATODES IN AQUARIA EXPOSED TO 161 AND 622 MG PCP/L. THE ALTERATIONS
IN NEMATODES OBSERVED IN THIS INVESTIGATION APPEARED TO BE DUE TO THE
VARIATIONS IN MACROBENTHIC FAUNA AND FOOD (ALGAE) SUPPLY CAUSED BY THE
BIOCIDAL EFFECTS OF PCP AND ALSO DUE TO THE TOXIC EFFECTS OF PCP ON
MEIOFAUNA.
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CANTELMO, ANGELA C., PHILIP J. CONKLIN, FERRIS R. FOX, AND K. RANGA RAO.
i978. EFFECTS OF SODIUM PENTACHLOROPHENATE AND 2,4-DINITROPHENOL ON
RESPIRATION IN CRUSTACEANS. IN! PENTACHLOROPHENOL: CHEMISTRY,
PHARMACOLOGY, AND ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY. K. RANGA RAO, EDITOR, PLENUM
PRESS, NEW YORK, NY. PP. 251-263. (ERL,G8 X027*).
THE OXYGEN CONSUMPTION OF THE GRASS SHRIMP, PALAEMONETES PUGIO, WAS
DETERMINED AT DIFFERENT STAGES OF THE MOLT CYCLE. AT EACH STAGE OF THE
MOLT CYCLE, THE OXYGEN CONSUMPTION VARIED IN RELATION TO PERIODS OF
ACTIVITY. IN ORDER TO MINIMIZE THE ERRORS IN ESTABLISHING BASAL
(CONTROL) RATES OF OXYGEN CONSUMPTION, MEASUREMENTS WERE MADE OVER
EXTENDED PERIODS (1 TO 24 HOURS). IN CONTRAST TO THE PREVIOUS REPORTS
OF PROGRESSIVE INCREASES IN OXYGEN CONSUMPTION DURING PROECDYSIAL
STAGES IN OTHER CRUSTACEANS, WE NOTED SIGNIFICANT INCREASES IN OXYGEN
CONSUMPTION JUST PRIOR TO AND DURING THE ACTUAL SHEDDING OF
EXOSKELETON CECDYSIS) IN GRASS SHRIMP. THE EFFECTS OF SODIUM
PENTACHLOROPHENATE (NA-PCP) ON OXYGEN CONSUMPTION VARIED DEPENDING ON
THE STAGE OF THE MOLT CYCLE, CONCENTRATION OF NA-PCP AND EXTENT OF
PRE-EXPOSURE OF SHRIMP TO NA-PCP. AT CONCENTRATIONS OF 1.5 AND 5.0
PPM, NA-PCP DID NOT ALTER THE OXYGEN CONSUMPTION OF SHRIMP IN
INTERMOLT AND PROECDYSIAL STAGES OF THE MOLT CYCLE. LATE PROECDYAIAL
SHRIMP EXPOSED TO 5.0 PPM NA-PCP EXHIBITED AN INCREASE IN OXYGEN
CONSUMPTION IN RELATION TO ECDYSIS TO THE SAME LEVEL AS THAT OF
CONTROL SHRIMP. HOWEVER, FOLLOWING ECDYSIS, THE SHRIMP EXPOSED TO 5.0
PPM NA-PCP EXHIBITED A DRAMATIC DECLINE IN OXYGEN CONSUMPTION AND DIED
WITHIN THREE HOURS. THIS INCREASED SENSITIVITY DURING THE EARLY
POSTECDYSIAL PERIOD APPEARED TO BE RELATED TO AN INCREASE IN THE
UPTAKE OF NA-PCP AT THIS STAGE COMPARED TO INTERMOLT AND PROECDYSIAL
STAGES. A DECLINE IN OXYGEN CONSUMPTION AS NOTED ABOVE COULD BE
INDUCED IN INTERMOLT SHRIMP BY USING HIGHER CONCENTRATIONS OF NA-PCP.
EXPOSURE OF SHRIMP TO 10 OR 12 PPM NA-PCP, OR TO 5 PPM FOLLOWED BY 20
PPM NA-PCP CAUSED AN INITIAL INCREASE IN OXYGEN CONSUMPTION AND A
SUBSEQUENT DECLINE LEADING TO DEATH. THE SURVIVAL TIME OF INTERMOLT
SHRIMP PRETREATED WITH 5 PPM NA-PCP WAS LONGER THAN THAT OF SHRIMP
EXPOSED DIRECTLY TO 10 OR 20 PPM NA-PCP. ALTHOUGH 20 PPM
2,4-DINITROPHENOL CDNP) CAUSED AN INITIAL INCREASE IN OXYGEN
CONSUMPTION IN INTERMOLT SHRIMP, THIS WAS NOT FOLLOWED BY ANY DECLINE
IN OXYGEN CONSUMPTION OR DEATH DURING A 24-HOUR EXPOSURE. THE EFFECTS
OF NA-PCP AND DNP ON TISSUE RESPIRATION IN VITRO WERE STUDIED USING
THE BLUE CRAB, CALLINECTES SAPIDUS. AT CONCENTRATIONS OF 1 X 10-6 M
AND 5 X 10-5 M, THESE COMPOUNDS DID NOT ALTER THE OXYGEN CONSUMPTION
OF THE MUSCLE, GILL AND HEPATOPANCREAS. AT A CONCENTRATION OF 5 X 10-3
M, BOTH NA-PCP AND DNP CAUSED AN INHIBITION OF OXYGEN CONSUMPTION OF
ISOLATED TISSUES.
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CANTELMO, FRANK R., M.E. TAGATZ, AND K. RANGA RAO. 1979. EFFECT OF BARITE
ON MEIOFAUNA IN A FLOW-THROUGH EXPERIMENTAL SYSTEM. MAR. ENVIRON. RES.
2(4)1301-309. CERL,GB X151).
THE EFFECTS OF BARITE (94-96% BAS04), A MAJOR CONSTITUENT OF DRILLING
MUDS USED" IN MARINE OIL DRILLING OPERATIONS, ON MEIOFAUNA WERE STUDIED
IN AN EXPERIMENTAL FLOW-THROUGH SYSTEM. AQUARIA CONTAINING SAND OR
VARYING PROPORTIONS OF BARITE AND SAND RECEIVED A CONTINUOUS SUPPLY OF
UNFILTERED SEAWATER FROM SANTA ROSA SOUND, FLORIDA, FOR TEN WEEKS. AT
THE END OF THIS PERIOD THE COMPOSITION, BIOMASS AND VERTICAL
DISTRIBUTION OF THE MEIOFAUNA WERE DETERMINED. MOST OF THE MEIOFAUNA
(>99%) OCCURRED IN THE HIGHLY AEROBIC UPPER 2 CM PORTION OF THE
SUBSTRATUM. ROTIFERA, FORAMINIFERA, HYDROZOA, TURBELLARIA, OSTRACODA,
POLYCHAETA AND BIVALVIA DID NOT EXHIBIT SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCES
BETWEEN CONTROL AND EXPERIMENTAL AQUARIA. HOWEVER, THE DENSITIES OF
NEMATODA, COPEPODA AND COPEPODA NAUPLII VARIED WITH THE SUBSTRATE
COMPOSITION. THE MEIOFAUNAL DENSITIES IN THE AQUARIA CONTAINING 1:10
OR 1:3 MIXTURES OF BARITE AND SAND WERE GREATER THAN THAT IN AQUARIA
CONTAINING SAND ALONE. A MARKED DECREASE IN MEIOFAUNAL DENSITY WAS
EVIDENT IN AQUARIA CONTAINING 5.5 CM OF SAND COVERED WITH A 0.5 CM
LAYER OF BARITE,
CAPUZZO, JUDITH M., AND JENNIFER G. SMITH DERBY. 1982. DRILLING FLUID
EFFECTS TO DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES OF THE AMERICAN LOBSTER. EPA-600/4-82-039,
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY, ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LABORATORY, GULF
BREEZE, FL. 52P.
LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS WERE CONDUCTED TO EVALUATE THE IMPACT OF
DRILLING OPERATIONS FOR OIL EXPLORATION ON POPULATIONS OF THE AMERICAN
LOBSTER (HOMARUS AMERICANUS). THE EFFECTS OF USED, WHOLE DRILLING
FLUIDS ON THE LARVAL STAGES OF THE LOBSTER WERE ASSESSED IN CONTINUOUS
FLOW BIOASSAY EXPERIMENTS. THE FIVE DRILLING FLUIDS TESTED WERE SHOWN
TO VARY MARKEDLY IN THEIR TOXICITY, WITH LC-50 VALUES RANGING FROM 74
PPM TO >500 PPM. SUBLETHAL EXPOSURES TO DRILLING FLUIDS RESULTED IN
REDUCTIONS IN GROWTH RATES, MOLTING FREQUENCIES, RESPIRATION RATES,
FEEDING RATES, AND GROWTH EFFICIENCIES, REDUCED 0:N RATIOS AND
INCREASED PROTEINtLIPID RATIOS DEMONSTRATED A CHANGE IN THE ENERGETICS
OF THE LARVAL LOBSTERS AS A RESULT OF DRILLING FLUID EXPOSURE. RESULTS
SHOW THAT IT IS PRIMARILY THE CHEMICAL AND NOT THE PHYSICAL FEATURES
OF DRILLING FLUIDS THAT WERE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE DETRIMENTAL EFFECTS
OBSERVED. THE DRILLING FLUIDS TESTED THAT HAD A DIESEL COMPONENT WERE
MORE TOXIC THAN THOSE WITHOUT THIS COMPONENT, ALTHOUGH DIRECT
CORRELATIONS BETWEEN PERCENT DIESEL AND RELATIVE TOXICITY COULD NOT BE
MADE. THE PHENOL AND METAL CONTENT OF THE DRILLING FLUIDS MAY HAVE
ALSO CONTRIBUTED TO THEIR TOXICITY. FIELD DISPERSION STUDIES ON
DRILLING FLUIDS ARE DISCUSSED IN TERMS OF POTENTIAL IMPACT AREAS.
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CONKLIN, PHILIP J., AND K. RANGA RAO. 1978. TOXICITY OF SODIUM
PENTACHLOROPHENATE (NA-PCP) TO THE GRASS SHRIMP, PALAEMQNETES PUGIO, AT
DIFFERENT STAGES OF THE MOLT CYCLE. BULL. ENVIRON. CONTAM. TOXICOL.
20(2)»275-279. (ERL,GB X021*).
PENTACHLOROPHENOL (PCP) AND ITS SALT, SODIUM PENTACHLOROPHENATE
(NA-PCP) ARE WIDELY USED AS BIOCIDES (BEVENUE AND BECKMAN 1967).
PREVIOUS INVESTIGATIONS INDICATE THAT ADULT CRUSTACEANS ARE MORE
TOLERANT THAN FISH TO PCP AND NA-PCP (GOODNIGHT 1942; KAILA AND
SAARIKOSKI 1977). THE TOXICITY DATA FOR CRUSTACEANS ARE BASED ON SHORT
TERM (USUALLY 96 HOURS OR LESS) BIOASSAYS ON INDIVIDUALS WHOSE
PHYSIOLOGICAL STATUS IN RELATION TO THE MOLT CYCLE WAS UNKNOWN. SINCE
CHANGES IN THE PERMEABILITY OF CUTICLES ARE EXPECTEDF TO OCCUR IN
RELATION TO THE CYCLIC SHEDDING, SECRETION AND HARDENING OF THE
EXOSKELETON IN CRUSTACEANS (PASSANO 1960) IT IS IMPORTANT TO EVALUATE
THE TOXICITY OF PESTICIDES AT KNOWN STAGES OF THE MOLT CYCLE. ALTHOUGH
THERE ARE REPORTS OF AN APPARENT INCREASE IN THE SENSITIVITY OF ADULT
CRUSTACEANS DURING OR SOON AFTER MOLTING (ECDYSIS) TO TOXICANTS SUCH
AS COPPER CHUBSCHMAN 1967), AROCLOR 1254 (DUKE ET AL. 1970; NIMMO ET
AL. 1971) AND METHOXYCHLOR (ARMSTRONG ET AL. 1976) THERE HAVE BEEN NO
TOXICOLOGICAL EVALUATIONS IN RELATION TO THE DIFFERENT STAGES OF THE
MOLT CYCLE. THE CRUSTACEAN MOLT CYCLE IS DIVIDED INTO FIVE MAJOR
STAGES (A THROUGH E) AND SEVERAL SUBSTAGES (DRACH 1939) WHICH CAN BE
IDENTIFIED BY DISTINCT MORPHOLOGICAL CRITERIA. THE AIM OF THIS
INVESTIGATION WAS TO EVALUATE THE TOXICITY OF NA-PCP TO THE GRASS
SHRIMP, PALAEMONETES PUGIO, AT SPECIFIC STAGES OF THE MOLT CYCLE USING
STANDARD 96 HOUR BIOASSAYS.
CONKLIN, PHILIP J., AND K. RANGA RAO. 1978. TOXICITY OF SODIUM
PENTACHLOROPHENATE TO THE GRASS SHRIMP, PALAEMONETES PUGIO, IN RELATION TO
THE MOLT CYCLE. IN: PENTACHLOROPHENOL: CHEMISTRY, PHARMACOLOGY, AND
ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY. K. RANGA RAO, EDITOR, PLENUM PRESS, NEW YORK, NY.
PP. 181-192. (ERL,GB X040*).
THE TOXICITY OF SODIUM PENTACHLOROPHENATE (NA-PCP) TO THE GRASS
SHRIMP, PALAEMONETES PUGIO, WAS EVALUATED AT DIFFERENT STAGES OF THE
MOLT CYCLE. IN 96-HOUR BIOASSAYS, THE SHRIMP IN LATER STAGES OF THE
PROECDYSIAL PERIOD EXHIBITED A GREATER SENSITIVITY TO NA-PCP THAN THAT
EXHIBITED BY SHRIMP IN THE INTERMOLT AND EARLY PROECDYSIAL STAGES OF
THE MOLT CYCLE. THE SHRIMP IN LATER PROECDYSIAL STAGES GENERALLY
MOLTED (UNDERWENT ECDYSIS) DURING THE 96-HOUR TEST PERIOD AND DIED
SHORTLY AFTER ECDYSIS. THE 96-HOUR LC50 VALUE OBTAINED FOR THESE
SHRIMP (0,436 PPM) IS THE LOWEST OF ALL THE LC50 VALUES REPORTED
PREVIOUSLY FOR ADULT CRUSTACEANS AND IS COMPARABLE TO THOSE FOR FISH
AND LARVAL CRUSTACEANS. THE INCREASED SENSITIVITY TO NA-PCP DURING THE
EARLY POSTECDYSIAL PERIOD WAS ALSO APPARENT IN A LONG-TERM (66 DAYS)
TEST, THE OBSERVED POSTECDYSIAL MORTALITY OF SHRIMP EXPOSED TO 1.0 PPM
NA-PCP WAS NOT PERENDENT ON THE DURATION OF EXPOSURE OF SHRIMP TO
NA-PCP DURING THE PROECDYSIAL PERIOD. STUDIES WITH 14C-PCP INDICATE
THAT AN ABRUPT INCREASE IN THE UPTAKE OF PCP DURING THE PERIOD SHORTLY
AFTER ECDYSIS MAY CAUSE INCREASED MORTALITIES DURING THIS PERIOD.
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CONKLIN, PHILIP J., DANIEL G. DOUGHTIE, AND K. RANGA RAO. 1980. EFFECTS OF
BARITE AND USED DRILLING MUDS ON CRUSTACEANS, WITH PARTICULAR REFERENCE TO
THE GRASS SHRIMP, PALAEMONETES PUGIO. INi SYMPOSIUM: RESEARCH ON
ENVIRONMENTAL FATE AND EFFECTS OF DRILLING FLUIDS AND CUTTINGS, JAN. 21-24,
1980, LAKE BUENA VISTA, FL., VOL. 2. AMERICAN PETROLEUM INSTITUTE,
WASHINGTON, DC. PP. 912-943. (ERL,GB X226*).
WHEN EXPOSED TO MEDIA CONTAINING BARITE OR USED DRILLING MUD, THE
GRASS SHRIMP PALAEMONETES PUGIO INGESTED THE SETTLED BARITE AND
DRILLING MUD PARTICLES. ULTRASTRUCTURAL STUDIES ON THE MIDGUT OF
SHRIMP EXPOSED FOR A 30-DAY PERIOD TO 100 OR 500 PPM BARITE-CONTAINING
MEDIA SHOWED THAT PROLONGED INGESTION OF BARITE CAUSES MARKED
PERTURBATIONS IN THE POSTERIOR MIDGUT EPITHELIUM, WHAT EFFECTS THE
INGESTION OF WHOLE DRILLING MUD PARTICLES HAS ON THE DIGESTIVE
EPITHELIA REMAINS TO BE STUDIED. DEPENDING ON THE TYPE OF PARTICULATE
MATERIALS AVAILABLE IN THE MEDIUM AT THE SAME TIME OF MOLTING, THE
GRASS SHRIMP INCORPORATED SAND GRAINS, BARITE, OR DRILLING MUD
PARTICLES INTO ITS STATOCYCTS--THE EQUILIBRIUM RECEPTORS LOCATED IN
THE BASAL ANTENNULAR SEGMENT. WHETHER THE PHYSIOLOGY OF THESE SENSE
ORGANS WOULD BE AFFECTED BY THE INCORPORATION OF BARITE AND DRILLING
MUD PARTICLES MERITS FURTHER INVESTIGATION. A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE
TOXICITY OF 18 DIFFERENT SAMPLES OF USED (SPENT) DRILLING MUDS FROM AN
EXPLORATORY DRILLING RIG IN A LOCAL ESTUARY REVEALED THAT, DURING A
96-HR TEST PERIOD, NONE OF THE MUDS WAS TOXIC TO INTERMOLT GRASS
SHRIMP AT MUD CONCENTRATION OF 1000 UL/L (10 AND 100 PPM). BUT AS A
CONCENTRATION OF 1000 UL/L (1000 PPM), SIX OF THESE MUDS CAUSED 30 TO
60% MORTALITY OF INTERMOLT GRASS SHRIMP DURING A 96-HR TEST PERIOD,
WHILE ONE MUD CAUSED 100% MORTALITY. TOXICITY TESTS WITH MOLTING GRASS
SHRIMP YIELDED LC 50 VALUES OF 363 TO 739 UL/L FOR FIVE OF THE MUD
SAMPLES. A FLOW-THROUGH SYSTEM WAS EMPLOYED FOR ASSESSING THE TOXICITY
OF DRILLING MUD DURING THE MOLT CYCLE OF PALAEMONETES AND THE LIFE
CYCLE OF MYSIDOPSIS BAHIA. MYSIDS ARE FOUND TO BE MORE SENSITIVE THAN
GRASS SHRIMP TO DRILLING MUD EXPOSURE. IN LIFE CYCLE TESTS WITH
MYSIDS, THE LC 50 FOR ONE OF THE MUDS WAS 50 UL/L. THE LC 50 VALUES
OBTAINED WITH TESTS INVOLVING MOLTING GRASS SHRIMP AND MYSIDS ARE
SEVERAL MAGNITUDES LOWER THAN THE PREVIOUSLY REPORTED LC 50 VALUES FOR
FISHES. THESE RESULTS EMPHASIZE THE NEED FOR EMPLOYING SENSITIVE
ORGANISMS AND LONG-TERM TESTS FOR ASSESSING THE TOXIC AND SUBLETHAL
EFFECTS OF USED DRILLING MUDS.
CONKLIN, PHILIP J., AND K. RANGA RAO. 1982. EFFECTS OF TWO DITHIOCARBAMATES
ON THE GRASS SHRIMP, PALAEMONETES PUGIO: MOLT-RELATED TOXICITY AND
INHIBITION OF LIMB REGENERATION. ARCH. ENVIRON. CONTAH. TOXICOL.
11(4)1431-435. (ERL,GB X210*).
THE EFFECTS OF TWO DITHIOCARBAMATE FORMULATIONS (AQUATREAT DNM-30 AND
BUSAN 85) ON THE INITIATION AND PROGRESSION OF LIMB REGENERATION
FOLLOWING THE REMOVAL OF THE LEFT FIFTH WALKING LEG (PEREIOPOD) WERE
STUDIED WITH THE ESTUARINE GRASS SHRIMP, PALAEMONETES PUGIO. EXPOSURE
TO EITHER AQUATREAT DNM-30 OR BUSAN 85 AFFECTED BOTH THE INITIATION
AND PROGRESSION OF LIMB REGENERATIONf THE SHRIMP EXHIBITED
DOSE-RELATED INHIBITION OF REGENERATIVE GROWTH. THE RESULTANT EC(50)
VALUES FOR INHIBITION OF REGENERATIVE LIMB GROWTH WERE WELL BELOW THE
MEDIAN LETHAL CONCENTRATIONS (LC(50)S) FOR GRASS SHRIMP. IN TESTS WITH
MOLTING GRASS SHRIMP, BUSAN 85 WAS MORE ACUTELY TOXIC THAN AQUATREAT
DNM-30.
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CONKLIN, P.J., D. DRY3DALE, D.G. DOUGHTIE, K.R. RAO, J.P. KAKAREKA, T.R.
GILBERT, AND R.F. SHOKES. 1983. COMPARATIVE TOXICITY OF DRILLING MUDS:
ROLE OF CHROMIUM AND PETROLEUM HYDROCARBONS. MAR. ENVIRON. RES.
10(2):105-125. (ERL,GB X398*).
SAMPLES OF USED DRILLING MUDS COLLECTED DURING THE COURSE OF A SINGLE
WELL DRILLING OPERATION EXHIBITED DIFFERENT DEGREES OF ACUTE TOXICITY
TO SHEEPSHEAD MINNOWS AND GRASS SHRIMP. FOR MOLTING GRASS SHRIMP
(PALAEMONETES PUGIO), THE 96-H LCSO'S WERE 360 TO 14,560 PPM
(UL/LITER); MANY OF THESE VALUES WERE CONSIDERABLY LOWER THAN THOSE
REPORTED FROM PREVIOUS DRILLING MUD ASSAYS. HOWEVER, WHEN SOME OF THE
MUDS USED IN THIS STUDY WERE TESTED ON SHEEPSHEAD MINNOWS (CYPRINODON
VARIEGATUS) THE RESULTING 96-H LCSO'S (6,300 TO 100,000 PPM) WERE WELL
WITHIN THE RANGE OF PREVIOUSLY REPORTED VALUES. ALTHOUGH A NUMBER OF
THE DRILLING MUD SAMPLES HAD RELATIVELY HIGH AMOUNTS OF CHROMIUM DUE
TO THE ADDITION OF SODIUM CHROMATE, THERE WAS A LOW CORRELATION
BETWEEN CHROMIUM CONCENTRATION AND TOXICITY. IN ONLY THREE DRILLING
MUDS COULD CHROMIUM CONTENT ALONE ACCOUNT FOR THE OBSERVED TOXICITIES.
FURTHERMORE, CHEMICAL /ANALYSIS REVEALED THE PRESENCE OF NO. 2 FUEL
OIL-LIKE PETROLEUM HYDROCARBONS IN THE MUD SAMPLES. BASED ON THE
RESULTS OF TOXICITY TESTS WITH NO. 2 FUEL OIL AND THE CONCENTRATIONS
OF OIL PRESENT IN THE MUDS, THE TOXICITY OF THE MUD SAMPLES TO GRASS
SHRIMP APPEARS TO BE LARGELY ATTRIBUTABLE TO THE PETROLEUM HYDROCARBON
CONTENT.,
CONKLIN, PHILIP J., AND K. RANGA RAO. 1983. COMPARATIVE TOXICITY OF WASTE
DRILLING FLUIDS TO A CRUSTACEAN (PALAEMONETES PUGIO) AND A FISH (CYPRINODON
VARIEGATUS) (ABSTRACT). IN: PROCEEDINGS OF THE NINTH ANNUAL AQUATIC
TOXICITY WORKSHOP: NOV. 1-5, 1982, CAN. TECH. REP. FISH. AQUAT. SCI. 1163.
W. C. MCKAY, EDITOR, DEPT. OF FISHERIES AND OCEANS, OTTAWA, ONTARIO. PP.
205. (ERL,GB X476*).
THE ACUTE TOXICITY OF A SERIES OF 18 DRILLING FLUIDS (MUDS) FROM AN
EXPLORATORY DRILLING OPERATION WAS EVALUATED IN TESTS USING 28-DAY OLD
JUVENILE SHEEPSHEAD MINNOWS (CYPRINODON VARIEGATUS) AND GRASS SHRIMP
(PALAEMONTES PUGIO.) GRASS SHRIMP THAT MOLTED DURING THE TESTS WERE
ESPECIALLY SENSITIVE TO THE DRILLING MUDS; THE 96-HR LC50S (363 TO
14,565 PPM MUD BY VOLUME) ARE CONSIDERABLY LOWER THAN THE PREVIOUSLY
REPORTED TOXICITY VALUES FOR DRILLING MUDS. SHEEPSHEAD MINNOWS WERE
CONSIDERABLY LESS SENSITIVE TO THE MUDS THAN WERE GRASS SHRIMP.
ALTHOUGH A NUMBER OF THE DRILLING MUDS CONTAINED RELATIVELY HIGH
AMOUNTS OF CHROMIUM, IN MOST INSTANCES THE OBSERVED TOXICITIES DID NOT
APPEAR TO BE ATTRIBUTABLE TO CHROMIUM ALONE. HOWEVER, THERE WAS A
SIGNIFICANT CORRELATION BETWEEN THE AMOUNT OF OIL PRESENT IN THE MUDS
AND THEIR TOXICITY TO GRASS SHRIMP.
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CRAWFORD, RICHARD B., AND JONATHAN D. GATES. 1981. DRILLING FLUID EFFECTS
ON TELEOST AND ECHINODERM DEVELOPMENT. BULL. MT. DESERT ISL. BIOL. LAB.
20:10-14. CERL,GB X242*).
AS A CONSEQUENCE OF PETROLEUM DRILLING OFFSHORE, LARGE QUANTITIES OF
DRILLING FLUIDS (MUDS) ARE INTRODUCED INTO THE ENVIRONMENT. THESE
DRILLING FLUIDS ARE AQUEOUS SUSPENSIONS OF A VARIETY OF COMPONENTS
PUMPED DOWN THE CENTER OF THE DRILL BIT. THE FLUID COMPOSITION IS
VARIED AS NEEDS OF THE DRILLING OPERATION ARE ENCOUNTERED, SUCH AS
LUBRICATION, COOLING, ANTIBACTERIAL ACTION, SUSPENSION OF DRILL
CUTTINGS, PREVENTION OF INTRUSION OF SEAWATER INTO THE BORE HOLE, AND
CAPTURE OF H2S. THE IMPACT OF DRILLING FLUIDS ON MARINE AND ESTUARINE
ANIMALS ARE DISCUSSED. THIS DISCHARGE CAN AMOUNT TO SIGNIFICANTLY
LARGE QUANTITIES (E.G., 2,000 TONS PER HOLE) IN THE VICINITY OF A
DRILLING PLATFORM.
CRAWFORD, RICHARD B., AND JONATHAN D. GATES. 1981. EFFECTS OF A DRILLING
FLUID ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF A TELEOST AND AN ECHINODERM. BULL. ENVIRON.
CONTAM. TOXICOL. 26(2 ): 207-212 . (ERL,GB X297*).
THE DATA ON EFFECTS OF DRILLING FLUID ON EMBRYO DEVELOPMENT IN
FUNDULUS AND A SAND DOLLAR REPRESENT AN INITIAL SURVEY ON VERY GENERAL
ASPECTS OF EMBRYOGENESIS. IT IS CLEAR THAT THIS DRILLING FLUID SAMPLE
CONTAINS TOXIC MATERIAL, AFFECTING THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE TELEOST AND
THE FERTILIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE SAND DOLLAR. IT SHOULD BE
NOTED THAT NO ONE SAMPLE IS REPRESENTATIVE OF ALL DRILLING FLUIDS. THE
COMPONENTS OF THE FLUID ARE ALTERED TO MEET THE MOMENTARY NEEDS OF THE
DRILLING OPERATION. FOR EXAMPLE, THIS SAMPLE IS MODERATELY HIGH IN
CHROMIUM (2400 MG/G), ZINC (163 MG/G) AND LEAD (66.6 MG/G) BUT LOW IN
BARIUM CONTENT (7.31%). THE RANGE OF VARIABILITY AMONG DRILLING FLUIDS
FOR THESE COMPONENTS CAN BE FOUND TO BE APPROXIMATELY 50 TO 5500 MG/G
FOR CR, 50 TO 600 MG/G FOR ZN, 25 TO 120 MG/G FOR PB, AND 1 TO 35% FOR
BA. THIS VARIABILITY IS NOT MENTIONED TO SUGGEST THE ACTIVE
COMPONENTS, OF WHICH WE HAVE NO KNOWLEDGE, BUT ONLY TO ILLUSTRATE THE
"NON-TYPICAL" NATURE OF ANY ONE SAMPLE.
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CRAWFORD, RICHARD B. 1983. EFFECTS OF DRILLING FLUIDS ON EMBRYO
DEVELOPMENT. EPA-600/3-83-021, U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY,
ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LABORATORY, GULF BREEZE, FL. 30P.
TOXICITY OF USED DRILLING FLUIDS TO EMBRYO DEVELOPMENT WAS
INVESTIGATED TO ASCERTAIN THE LIMITS OF SAFE USAGE OF THESE FLUIDS IN
MARINE ENVIRONMENTS. EMBRYOS USED AS TEST SYSTEMS WERE OF THE TELEOST,
FUNDULUS HETEROCLITUS, AND FOUR ECHINODERMS ECHINARACHNIUS PARMA,
STRONGYLOCENTROTUS PURPURATUS, LYTECHINUS PICTUS, LYTECHINUS
VARIEGATUS. THE DRILLING FLUIDS TESTED CAME FROM VARIOUS SOURCES; 24
DIFFERENT SAMPLES WERE EVALUATED. IN ADDITION, SEVERAL COMMERCIAL
DRILLING FLUID COMPONENTS WERE EXAMINED IN THE TEST SYSTEMS INCLUDING
A SYNTHETIC REFERENCE MUD. STUDIES DEMONSTRATED THAT NQ SINGLE
DRILLING FLUID IS "TYPICAL" AND THAT THE QUANTITATIVE EFFECTS OF
EMBRYOS VARY CONSIDERABLY FROM ONE FLUID TO ANOTHER. SOME DRILLING
FLUIDS ARE QUITE TOXIC TO ONE OR MORE OF THE EMBRYO SYSTEMS, REQUIRING
DILUTIONS OF OVER 10(5) TO BECOME "SAFE". OTHERS ARE RELATIVELY
INNOCUOUS, REQUIRING VERY LITTLE DILUTION TO ACHIEVE A CONCENTRATION
IN WHICH EMBRYO DEVELOPMENT CAN PROCEED NORMALLY. ALSO, THE EFFECTS ON
DEVELOPMENT SHOW VARIATION FROM ONE FLUID TO ANOTHER, THUS INDICATING
THAT A VARIETY OF COMPONENTS OR COMPOUNDS ARE RESPONSIBLE FOR TOXIC
MANIFESTATIONS.
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D'ASARO, CHARLES N. 1982. CYCLING OF XENOBIOTICS THROUGH MARINE AND
ESTUARINE SEDIMENTS. EPA-600/3-82-074, U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY,
ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LABORATORY, GULF BREEZE, FL. 40P.
THE RESULTS OF FIVE BROADLY DEFINED PROJECTS ARE REPORTED! CYCLING OF
XENOBIOTICS WAS STUDIED WITH A PHOTO-BIOASSAY SYSTEM, THAT USED
TIME-LASPE PHOTOGRAPHY TO EVALUATE EFFECTS OF KEPONE AND SODIUM
PENTACHLOROPHENATE ON FEEDING ACTIVITY OF THE LUGWORM, ARENICOLA
CRISTATA. RADIO-LABELED METHYL PARATHION WAS USED TO DEMONSTRATE FATE
AND EFFECT IN MICROCOSMS INHABITED BY LUGWORMS. UPTAKE AND DEPURATION
OF CHRYSENE BY LUGWORMS WAS EVALUATED IN A FLOW-THROUGH SYSTEM. A
TOXIC SEDIMENT BIOASSAY SYSTEM WAS DEVELOPED TO PROVIDE A MEANS TO
TEST EFFECTS OF DREDGE SPOIL. THE SYSTEM INCLUDED MICROCOSMS THAT HELD
MYSID SHRIMP, MYSIDOPSIS BAHIA; OYSTERS, CRASSOSTREA VIRGINIA; AND
LUGWORMS, ARENICOLA CRISTATA. CRITERIA OF EFFECT WERE SURVIVAL OF
MYSIDS, SHELL DEPOSITION AND BIOACCUMULATION BY OYSTERS, SUBSTRATE
REWORKING AND BIOACCUMULATION BY LUGWORMS, AND SETTLEMENT OF
ZOOPLANKTON. KEPONE-SORBED SEDIMENT AND DREDGE SPOIL FROM JAMES RIVER
AND HOUSTON SHIP CANAL WERE TESTED FOR 28 DAYS. LONG-TERM TESTS (100
DAYS), WITH THE SAME SYSTEMS, WERE USED TO EVALUATE EFFECTS OF A
SPECIFIC DRILLING MUD FROM AN ACTIVE EXPLORATORY PLATFORM.
PREDATOR-PREY TESTS OF SUBLETHAL EFFECTS OF XENOBIOTICS DEMONSTRATED
EFFECT IN ONE-PREY AND TWO-PREY SYSTEMS. THE EFFECTS OF METHYL
PARATION ON PREDATOR-PREY RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN GRASS SHRIMP,
PALAEMONETES PUGIO; JUVENILE SHEEPHEAD MINNOWS, CYPRINODON VARIEGATUS;
AND GULF KILLIFISH, FUNDULUS GRANDIS, WERE DEMONSTRATED. THE EFFECTS
OF METHYL PARATHION ON THE PREDATOR PREY RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN
PALAEMONETES PUGIO, AND PINFISH, LAGODON RHOMOBIODES, WAS ALSO
DEMONSTRATED. A METHOD THAT COULD BE USED TO EVALUATE EFFECTS
XENOBIOTICS ON PREDATOR-PREY RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN CRYPTICALLY SHADED
FLOUNDER AND PINFISH PREY WAS DEVELOPED. EVALUATION OF SUBLETHAL
EFFECTS, SUCH AS AVOIDANCE OF POLLUTION GRADIENTS, WAS STUDIED IN A
TROUGH-TYPE AVOIDANCE-REPSONSE SYSTEM. THE SYSTEM RECORDED REPSONSES
AUTOMATICALLY AND INDEPENDENTLY OF AN OBSERVER, TESTS WITH PINFISH
DEMONSTRATED THAT THEY WILL AVOID CHLORINE-PRODUCED OXIDANTS. THE
SYSTEM WAS MODIFIED TO DEMONSTRATED TOXICANT-INDUCED CHANGES IN CYCLIC
BURROWING ACTIVITY BY PINK SHRIMP, PENAEUS DUORARUM, EXPOSED TO METHYL
PARATHION. USEFULNESS OF SMALL-SCALE MICROCOSMS WAS EVALUATED BY
DEVELOPING METHODS TO CULTURE POLYCHAETES AND CRUSTACEANS. VARIOUS
ASPECTS OF THE BIOLOGY OF SELECTED SPECIES WERE STUDIED.
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DAVIS, W.M., AND D.C. WHITE. 1980. FLUOROMETRIC DETERMINATION OP ADENOSINE
NUCLEOTIDE DERIVATIVES AS MEASURES OF THE MICROFOULING, DETRITAL AND
SEDIMENTARY MICROBIAL BIOMASS AND PHYSIOLOGICAL STATUS. APPL. ENVIRON.
MICROBIOL. 40(3)1539-548. (ERL,GB X186*).
ADENOSINE-, ADENINE, CYCLIC ADENOSINE MONOPHOSPHATE CAMP), AMP,
NICOTINAMID ADENINE DINUCLEOTIDE, ADENOSINE DIPHOSPHATE, AND ADENOSINE
TRIPH05PHATE (ATP) WERE RECOVERED QUANTITATIVELY FROM AQUEOUS PORTIONS
OF LIPID EXTRACTS OF MICROFOULING, DETRITAL, AND SEDIMENTARY MICROBIAL
COMMUNITIES. THESE COULD BE DETECTED QUANTITATIVELY IN THE PICOMOLAR
RANGE BY FORMING THEIR 1-N6-ETHENO DERIVATIVES AND ANALYZING BY
HIGH-PRESSURE LIPID CHROMATOGRAPHY WITH FLOURESCENT DETECTION. LIPID
EXTRACTION AND SUBSEQUENT ANALYSIS ALLOWED THE SIMULTANEOUS
MEASUREMENT OF THE MICROBIAL COMMUNITY STRUCTURE, TOTAL MICROBIAL
BIOMASS WITH THE QUANTITATIVE RECOVERY OF THE ADENINE-CONTAINING
CELLULAR COMPONETS, WHICH WERE PROTECTED FROM ENZYMATIC DESTRUCTION.
THIS EXTRACTION AND FLOURESCENT DERIVATIZATION METHOD SHOWED
EQUIVALENCY WITH THE LUCIFERIN-LUCIFERASE METHOD FOR BACTERIAL ATP
MEASUREMENTS. QUICK-FREEZING SAMPLES IN THE FIELD WITH DRY ICE-ACETONE
PRESERVED THE ATP AND ENERGY CHARGE (A RATIO OF ADENOSINE NUCLEOTIDES)
FOR ANALYSIS AT REMOTE LABORATORIES. THE METABOLIC LABILITY OF ATP IN
ESTUARINE DETRITAL AND MICROFOULING COMMUNITIES, AS WELL AS BACTERIAL
MONOCULTURES OF CONSTANT BIOMASS, SHOWED ATP TO BE A PRECARIOUS
MEASURE OF BIOMASS UNDER SOME CONDITIONS. COMBINATIONS OF ADENOSINE
AND ADENINE NUCLEO-TIDES GAVE BETTER CORRELATIONS WITH MICROBIAL
BIOMASS MEASURED AS EXTRACTABLE LIPID PHOSPHATE IN THE DETRITAL AND
MICROFOULING MICROBIAL COMMUNITIES THAN DID ATP ALONE. STRESSES SUCH
AS ANOXIA OF FILTERATION ARE REFLECTED IN THE RAPID ACCUMULATION OF
INTRACELLULAR ADENOSINE AND THE EXCRETION OF ADENOSINE AND AMP INTO
THE SURROUNDING MILIEU. INCREASES IN AMP AND ADENOSINE MAY PROVE TO BE
MORE SENSITIVE INDICATORS OF METABOLIC STATUS THAN THE ENERGY CHARGE.
DERBY, CHARLES D., AND JELLE ATEMA. 1981. INFLUENCE OF DRILLING MUDS ON THE
PRIMARY CHEMOSENSORY NEURONS IN WALKING LEGS OF THE LOBSTER, HOMARUS
AMERICANUS. CAN. J. FISH. AQUATIC SCI. 38(3):268-274. (ERL,GB X241*).
AVAIL. FROM NTIS, SPRINGFIELD, VA: PB82-128190.
THE EFFECTS OF WHOLE DRILLING MUDS ON THE NORMAL ACTIVITY OF WALKING
LEG CHEMOSENSORY NEURONS WERE EXAMINED USING EXTRACELLULAR
NEUROPHYSIOLOGICAL RECORDING TECHNIQUES. EXPOSURE OF LEGS FOR 3-5 MIN
TO 10-MG/L DRILLING MUD SUSPENDED IN SEAWATER ALTERED RESPONSES TO
FOOD ODORS OF 29% OF THE CHEMORECEPTORS EXAMINED (DATA POLLED FOR THE
TWO DRILLING MUDS TESTED); SIMILAR EXPOSURE TO 100-MG/L DRILLING MUD
RESULTED IN INTERFERENCE WITH 44% OF ALL RECEPTORS STUDIES. THE
EFFECTS OF BOTH OF THESE CONCENTRATIONS ARE STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANT,
ALTHOUGH THEY ARE NOT DIFFERENT FROM EACH OTHER. INTERFERENCE WAS
USUALLY MANIFESTED AS A MARKED REDUCTION IN THE NUMBER OF ACTION
POTENTIALS IN A RESEONSE. IN ONE PREPARATION, THE EXPOSURE TO DRILLING
MUD CAUSED A CHANGE IN THE TEMPORAL PATTERN OF THE SPIKES WITHOUT
AFFECTING THE TOTAL NUMBER OF SPIKES. OTHER CHEMOSENSORY NEURONS WERE
EXCITED BY 10-MG/L DRILLING MUD ITSELF. HOWEVER, NOT ALL
CHEMORECEPTORS ARE AFFECTED BY THESE DRILLING MUDS SINCE RESPONSES TO
FEEDING STIMULI WERE RECORDED FROM THE LEGS OF LOBSTERS THAT HAD BEEN
EXPOSED TO DRILLING MUD FOR 4-8 D BEFORE THE NEUROPHYSIOLOGICAL
EXPERIMENTS.
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DERBY, CHARLES D., AND JELLE ATEMA. 1982. NARROW-SPECTRUM CHEMORECEPTOR
CELLS IN THE WALKING LEGS OF THE LOBSTER HOMARUS AMERICANUSi TASTE
SPECIALIST. J. COMP. PHYSIOL. A SENS. NEURAL. BEHAV. PHYSIOL.
146(2X181-189. (ERL,GB X341*).
THE PRESENT STUDY DESCRIBES THE SPECIFICITY OF CHEMORECEPTORS IN THE
WALKING LEGS OF THE LOBSTER HOMARUS AMERICANUS. THE RESULTS INDICATE
THAT THE PERIPHERAL CODING SYSTEM OF THIS SPECIES IS BASED AT LEAST IN
PART ON NARROWLY-TUNED CHEMORECEPTOR CELLS, WHICH REPRESENTS ONE OF
THE MOST EXTREME CASES TO DATE OF A CHEMOSENSORY SYSTEM BASED ON
LABELED LINE CODING. THE CHEMORECEPTORS IN THE LEGS OF LOBSTERS
FUNCTION IN THE LOCALIZATION AND HANDLING OF FOOD (DERBY AND ATEMA
1982B). MULTI-UNIT NEUROPHYSIOLOGICAL ANALYSIS FO THESE RECEPTORS HAS
DEMONSTRATED THAT CERTAIN AMINO ACIDS AND AMINES ARE HIGHLY EXCITATORY
STIMULI, SOME PEPTIDES AND PROTEINS ARE MODEREEERATELY EXCITATORY,
WHEREAS CARBOHYDRATES, ALCOHOLS, NUCLEOSIDES, AND NUCLEOTIDES ARE IN
GENERAL ONLY SLIGHTLY EXCITATORY (DERBY AND ATEMA 1982A). BY
SINGLE-UNIT EXRTRACELLULAR RECORDING TECHNIQUES, THE SPECIFICTY OF
SINGLE PRIMARY CHEMORECEPTORS CELLS IS DSESCRIBED HERE IN DETAIL.
DODGE, RICHARD E., AND ALINA SZMANT-FROELICH. IN PRESS. EFFECTS OF DRILLING
FLUIDS ON REEF CORALS: A REVIEW. IN: WASTES IN THE OCEAN, VOLUME IV:
ENERGY WASTES IN THE OCEAN. I.W. DUEDALL, EDITOR, JOHN WILEY 6 SONS, INC.,
NEW YORK, NY. (ERL.GB 480).
THIS CHAPTER REVIEWS RESEARCH ON THE EFFECTS OF DRILLING MUD ON CORAL
REEF COMMUNITIES, CONCENTRATION ON THE MAJOR REEF FAUNA: THE
REEF-BUILDING OR HERMATYPIC CORALS. DRILLING MUD IS AN EFFLUENT
INTRODUCED TO THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT IN LARGE QUANTITES DURING A
TYPICAL OFFSHORE DRILLING OPERATION. CONCERN OVER ITS POSSIBLE
DETRIMENTAL EFFECTS, WHEN DRILLING ACTIVITIES ARE NEAR CORAL REEFS,
HAS BEEN THE IMPETUS FOR THE WORK TO BE DISCUSSED. THE TOPIC IS OF
RECENT ORIGIN; UNTIL 1977, THERE WERE NO LITERATURE REPORTS OF
DRILLING MUD - CORAL STUDIES.
DODGE, R.E, 1982. EFFECTS OF DRILLING MUD ON THE REEF-BUILDING CORAL
MONTASTREA ANNULARIS. MAR. BIOL. 71(2)1141-147. (ERL,GB 473*).
AVAIL. FROM NTIS, SPRINGFIELD, VA: PB83-182956.
THE SKELETAL EXTENSION AND CORALLITE SHAPE OF INDIVIDUALS OF THE
CARIBBEAN AND ATLANTIC REEF-BUILDING CORAL MONTASTREA ANNULARIS (ELLIS
AND SOLANDER) WERE MEASURED AFTER MORE THAN SIX WEEK'S CONTINUOUS
FLOW-THROUGH EXPOSURE IN LABORATORY AQUARIA TO TREATMENTS OF 0, 1, 10
AND 100-PPM (UL 1E-1) DRILLING MUD. LINEAR INCREASE OF THE SKELETON
(EXTENSION RATE) AND FOSSA LENGTH WERE SIGNIFICANTLY DEPRESSED IN THE
100-PPM TREATMENT. CHRONIC EXPOSURE TO 100-PPM DRILLING MUD IMPAIRS
CORAL SKELETAL GROWTH RATE AND POSSIBLY INTERFERES WITH SEDIMENT
REJECTION CAPABILITY, BY LOWERING CALICAL RELIEF.
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DODGE, RICHARD E. 1982. GROWTH CHARACTERISTICS OF REEF-BUILDING CORALS
WITHIN AND EXTERNAL TO A NAVAL ORDINANCE RANGE! VIEQUES, PUERTO RICO. IN:
REEF AND MAN: PROCEEDINGS OF THE FOURTH INTERNATIONAL CORAL REEF SYMPOSIUM,
MANILA, PHILIPPINES, 18-22, MAY, 1981. EDGARDO D. GOMEZ, ET AL., EDITOR,
MARINE SCIENCE CENTER, UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES, QUEZON CITY,
PHILIPPINES, PP. 241-248. (ERL,GB X424).
THE SKELETAL GROWTH OF REEF-BUILDING CORALS IS KNOWN TO BE SENSITIVE
TO THE ENVIRONMENT. IN PARTICULAR, HIGH LEVELS OF SEDIMENTAION AND
TURBIDITY LEAD TO DECREASED GROWTH RATE, SUPPRESSED GROWTH VARIATION,
AND ULTIMATELY, CORAL DEATH BECAUSE OF REDUCED ILLUMINATION NECESSARY
TO ZOOXANTHELLAE AND/OR INCREASED ENERGY EXPENDITURE BY THE CORAL
ANIMAL TO REMOVE IMPACTED SEDIMENTS. TO ASSESS THE EFFECT OF NAVAL
ORDINANCE RANGE USAGE AT VIEQUES, PUERTO RICO, SPECIMENS OF MONTASTREA
ANNUALRIS WERE COLLECTED FROM REEFS ADJACENT TO AND REMOVED FROM THE
RANGE AREA. GROWTH WAS MEASURED FROM ANNUAL INCREASMENTS REVEALED BY
X-RADIOGRAPHY OF MEDIAL SLABS OF THE CORAL SKELETONS. MEAN GROWTH
RATES AND GROWTH VARIANCES WERE CALCULATED FOR EACH STATION OR STATION
GROUPING OVER THE COMMON TIME PERIOD 1970-1977. STATISTICAL COMPARISON
OF THE GROWTH DATA REVEALS A GENERAL SIMILARITY BETWEEN RANGE AND
CONTROL STATIONS. THIS EVIDENCE COUPLED WITH QUANTITATIVE CORAL
ABUNDANCE AND DIVERSTIY DATA OF OTHERS INDICATE A LACK OF ANOMALOUS
AND ADVERSE SEDIMENTATION/TURBIDITY CONDITIONS AFFECTING CORALS ON
REEFS NEARBY THE RANGE AREA. CHRONOLGIES OF CORAL BAND WIDTHS COMPARED
TO HISTORICAL RECORDED ENVIRONMENTAL DATA INDICATES THAT A MAJOR
NATURAL PARAMETER WHICH CONTROLS CORAL GROWTH IN VIEQUES IS ANNUAL
WATER TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS.
DODGE, RICHARD E., AND JUDITH C. LANG. 1983. ENVIRONMENTAL CORRELATES OF
HERMATYPIC CORAL (MONTASTREA ANNULARIS) GROWTH ON THE EAST FLOWER GARDENS
BANK, NORTHWEST GULF OF MEXICO. LIMNOL. OCEANOGR. 28(25:228-240. (ERL,GB
X378*).
TIME SERIES OF ANNUAL LINEAR GROWTH INCREASMENTS FROM : 12 MONTASTREA
ANNULARIS (E. AND S.) HERMATYPIC CORALS COLLECTED AT THE EAST FLOWER
GARDENS BANK REEF IN THE NORTHWESTERN GULF OF MEXICO HAVE A COMMON
PATTERN. THIS IS BEST EXPRESSED IN AN INDEX MASTER CHRONOLOGY (AVERAGE
BY YEAR OF THE ANNUAL PERCENTAGE DEVIATIONS FROM THE MEAN OF EACH
CORAL). COMPARISONS WITH TIME SERIES OF ENVIRONMENTAL DATA INDICATE
THAT CORAL EXTENSION RATES VARY POSITIVELY WITH SEASONAL (FEBRUARY
THROUGH MAY - 4 MONTHS) SURFACE WATER TEMPERATURE AND NEGATIVELY WITH
ANNUAL DISCHARGE OF THE ATCHAFALAYA RIVER. WE PROPOSE THE SECULAR
VARIATIONS OF WATER TEMPERATURE AND OTHER PARAMETERS ARE THE MAJOR
LONG-TERM CONTROLS OF CORAL GROWTH IN THE AREA. OUR DATA DO NOT
SUPPORT THE VIEW THAT SINKING OF THE FLOWER GARDENS REEF, CAUSED BY
CATASTROPHIC COLLAPSE OF THE UNDERLYING SUBSTRATE, HAS BEEN A PRIME
INFLUENCE ON THE CORALS.
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DOUGHTIE, DANIEL G., AND K. RANGA RAO. 1978. ULTRA5TRUCTURAL CHANGES
INDUCED BY SODIUM PENTACHLOROPHENATE IN THE GRASS SHRIMP, PALAEMONETES PUGIO,
IN RELATION TO THE MOLT CYCLE. IN: PENTACHLOROPHENOL: CHEMISTRY,
PHARMACOLOGY, AND ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY. K. RANGA RAO, EDITOR, PLENUM
PRESS, NEW YORK, NY. PP. 213-250. (ERL,GB X060*).
INTERMOLT (STAGE C) GRASS SHRIMP WERE EXPOSED TO 1.0 PPM NA-PCP FOR
THE DURATION OF A MOLT CYCLE. GILLS, HEPATOPANCREAS, MIDGUT (PORTION
OF THE DIGESTIVE TRACT SURROUNDED BY HEPATOPANCREAS) AND HINDGUT
(PORTION OF THE DIGESTIVE TRACT IN THE ABDOMEN) FROM CONTROL AND
EXPERIMENTAL SHRIMP AT KNOWN STAGES OF THE MOLT CYCLE WERE EXAMINED AT
THE ULTRASTRUCTURAL LEVEL. ALTHOUGH SIGNS OF PATHOLOGY WERE EVIDENT IN
LATE PROECDYSIAL SHRIMP, EXTENSIVE PATHOLOGICAL CHANGES WERE NOT
OBSERVED UNTIL AFTER ECDYSIS. THE EXTENT OF PATHOLOGICAL CHANGES
VARIED WITH THE TISSUE EXAMINED AND THE INTERVAL BETWEEN ECDYSIS AND
THE TIME OF FIXATION FOR ELECTRON MICROSCOPY. THE FOLLOWING
ULTRASTRUCTURAL CHANGES WERE SEEN IN THE GILL EPITHELIUM OF SHRIMP
EXPOSED TO NA-PCP: FORMATION OF FLUID FILLED INVAGINATION OF THE
INTERMICROVILLAR APICAL MEMBRANE, INCREASE IN LYSOSOMAL ACTIVITY AND
EVENTUAL CYTOPLASMIC AND NUCLEAR DEGENERATION. THE PODOCYTES IN THE
GILL AXIS, THE GRANULAR SECRETORY CELLS AND THE TEGUMENTAL GLAND CELLS
ALSO EXHIBITED MITOCHONDRIAL SWELLING, NUCLEAR PYKNOSIS AND EVENTUAL
CYTOPLASMIC DEGENERATION, THE CELLS LINING THE LUMEN OF THE MIDGUT AND
HINDGUT OF SHRIMP EXPOSED TO NA-PCP EXHIBITED SWELLING OF THE APICAL
MEMBRANE OFTEN ACCOMPANIED BY RUPTURE, LOSS OF MICROVILLI FROM APICAL
FOCI AND INCREASED LYSOSOMAL ACTIVITY. PATHOLOGICAL CHANGES NOTED IN
THE HEPATOPANCREATIC CELLS OF THE EXPERIMENTAL SHRIMP WERE: HIGH
AMPLITUDE SWELLING OF MITOCHONDRIA INCLUDING VESICULATION OF CRISTAE,
PRESENCE OF MYELIN BODIES WITHIN MITOCHONDRIA AND ROUGH ENOOPLASMIC
RETICULUM, INCREASE OF AUTOPHAGIC ACTIVITY AND LOSS OF MICROVILLI.
DOUGHTIE, D.G., AND K. RANGA RAO. 1979. COMPARATIVE ULTRASTRUCTURE OF THREE
TYPES OF TEGUMENTAL GLANDS IN THE GILLS OF THE GRASS SHRIMP, PALAEMONETES
PUGIO (ABSTRACT). AM. ZOOL. 19(3):890. (ERL,GB X236*).
A UNICELLULAR GLAND AND TWO TYPES OF MULTICELLULAR ROSETTE TEGUMENTAL
GLANDS OCCUR IN THE GILL AXIS OF PALAEMONETES. IN ONE TYPE OF ROSETTE
GLAND, THE SECRETORY CELLS HAVE A DEEPLY INFOLDED BASAL PLASMALEMMA
AND NUMEROUS MITOCHONDRIA; THIS GLAND APPEARS TO BE INNERVATED. IN THE
OTHER TYPE OF ROSETTE GLAND, THE SECRETORY CELLS HAVE A RELATIVELY
SMOOTH BASAL PLASMALEMMA AND FEW MITOCHONDRIA; BUT THEY POSSESS
EXTENSIVE RER AND MANY GOLGI BODIES. ACCESSORY CELLS, THE HILLOCK AND
CANAL CELLS, OCCUR IN ASSOCIATION WITH BOTH TYPES OF ROSETTE GLANDS.
THE ROSETTE GLANDS AND THE UNICELLULAR GLANDS ARE EXOCRINE, THE
SECRETIONS BEING TRANSPORTED THROUGH CUTICULARIZED DUCTULES. THE
HILLOCK AND CANAL CELLS FORM THE FIBROUS BASAL REGION AND EPICUTICULAR
APICAL REGION OF THE DUCTULE, RESPECTIVELY. TRANSITORY CILIARY
STRUCTURES ASSOCIATED WITH DUCTULE REFORMATION ARE SEEN IN THE
UNICELLULAR GLANDS AND THE DEVELOPING ROSETTE GLANDS, BUT NOT IN THE
FULLY DEVELOPED ROSETTE GLANDS.
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DOUGHTIE, DANIEL G., AND K. RANGA RAO, 1979. ULTRASTRUCTURE OF AN EXOCRINE
DERMAL GLAND IN THE GILLS OF THE GRASS SHRIMP, PALAEMONETES PUGIO: OCCURRENCE
OF TRANSITORY CILIARY AXONEMES ASSOCIATED WITH THE SLOUGHING AND REFORMATION
OF THE DUCTULE. J. MORPHOL. 161(3)1281-307. CERL,GB X150).
EXOCRINE DERMAL GLANDS, COMPARABLE TO THE CLASS 3 GLANDULAR UNITS OF
INSECTS, ARE FOUND IN THE GILLS OF THE GRASS SHRIMP, PALAEMONETES
PUGIO. THE DERMAL GLANDS ARE COMPOSED OF THREE CELLS: SECRETORY CELL,
HILLOCK CELL AND CANAL CELL. ORIGINATING AS A COMPLEX INVAGINATION OF
THE APICAL CYTOPLASM OF THE GRANULAR SECRETORY CELL, A DUCT ASCENDS
THROUGH THE HILLOCK AND CANAL CELLS TO THE CUTICULAR SURFACE. THE DUCT
IS DIVISABLE INTO FOUR REGIONS: THE SECRETORY APPARATUS IN THE
GRANULAR SECRETORY CELL, THE LOCULAR COMPLEX, THE HILLOCK REGION
WITHIN THE HILLOCK CELL AND THE CANAL WITHIN THE CANAL CELL. A TUBULAR
DUCTULE IS CONTAINED WITHIN THE LATTER TWO REGIONS. AS THE DUCTULE
ASCENDS TO THE CUTICULAR SURFACE, ITS CONSTITUTION GRADUALLY CHANGES
FROM ONE OF A FIBROUS MATERIAL TO ONE WHICH POSSESSES LAYERS OF
EPICUTICLE. DURING THE PROECDYSIAL PERIOD, THE DUCTULE IS EXTRUDED
INTO THE ECDYSIAL SPACE AND THIS IS FOLLOWED BY THE SECRETION OF A NEW
DUCTULE. CHARACTERIZED ONLY BY A BASAL BODY AND ROOTLETS THROUGHOUT
MOST OF THE INTERMOLT CYCLE, THE CILIARY ORGANELLES GIVE RISE TO
TEMPORARY AXONEMIC PROCESSES WHICH ASCEND THROUGH THE DUCTULE TOWARD
THE ECDYSIAL SPACE AT THE ONSET OF PROECDYSIS. SUSEQUENTLY, THE OLD
DUCTULE IS SLOUGHED OFF AND A NEW DUCTULE IS REFORMED AROUND THE
CILIARY AXONEMES. FOLLOWING THIS REFORMATION, THE CILIARY AXENEMES
DEGENERATE. THE FUNCTION OF CYTOPLASMIC PROCESSES, DERIVED FROM THE
APICAL CYTOPLASM OF THE SECRETORY CELL, IS ALSO DISCUSSED.
DOUGHTIE, D.G., AND K.R. RAO. 1981. CILIARY STRUCTURES IN THE BRANCHIAL
UNICELLULAR GLANDS OF THE GRASS SHRIMP, PALAEMONETES PUGIO. EXPERIENTIA
(BASEL). 37(55:502-503. (ERL,GB X423).
A UNICELLULAR EXOCRINE GLAND POSSESSING AN EPICUTICLAR DUCTULE OCCURS
IN GRASS SHRIMP GILLS. THIS GLAND DISPLAYS ULTRASTRUCTURAL CHANGES IN
RELATION TO THE MOLT CYCLE. THESE CHANGES INCLUDE AN INCREASE IN THE
QUANTITY OF SECRETORY GRANULES DURING LATE PREMOLT, AND THE
DEVELOPMENT OF CILIARY AXONEMES IN RELATION TO DUCTULE FORMATION.
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DOUGHTIE, DANIEL G., AND K. RANGA RAO, 1981. SYNCYTIAL NATURE AND
PHAGOCYTIC ACTIVITY OF THE BRANCHIAL PODOCYTES IN THE GRASS SHRIMP,
PALAEMONETES PUGIO. TISSUE & CELL. 13(1):93-104. (ERL,GB X234*).
THE MORPHOLOGY OF THE BRANCHIAL PODOCYTES IN THE GRASS SHRIMP,
PALAEMONETES PUGIO, WAS INVESTIGATED IN RELATION TO THE MOLT CYCLE.
THE PODOCYTES ARE LOCATED IN THE EFFERENT HEMOLYMPH CHANNELS IN THE
GILL AXIS, AND POSSESS A SPECIALIZED PLASMALEMMA CONSISTING OF
INTERDIGITATION PEDICEL PROCESSES WHICH ARE BRIDGED BY THIN
DIAPHRAGMS. THE TOPOGRAPHY OF THE PLASMALEMMAL SURFACE SUGGESTS THAT
THESE CELLS, LIKE SIMILAR CELLS IN OTHER ARTHROPODS, FUNCTION IN THE
ULTRAFILTRATION OF MICRO- AND MACRO- MOLECULAR SUBSTANCES FROM THE
HEMOLYMPH. ADDITIONALLY, THE BRANCHIAL PODOCYTES EXHIBIT PHAGOCYTIC
ACTIVITY. THIS ACTIVITY, THOUGH EVIDENT DURING THE PREMOLT PERIOD, IS
MOST PROMINENT DURING THE EARLY POSTMOLT PERIOD. AMONG THE CELL TYPES
SUBJECTED TO PHAGOCYTOSIS BY PODOCYTES ARE THE SECRETORY CELLS OF THE
TRICELLULAR AND ROSETTE-TYPE DERMAL GLANDS AND THE EPITHELIAL CELLS OF
THE GILL AXIS. DURING THE LATE PREMOLT AND EARLY POSTMOLT PERIODS, THE
PODOCYTES OFTEN APPEAR AS SYNCYTIA, CONTAINING AS MANY AS FOUR NUCLEI.
THE EXACT INTERRELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN PHAGOCYTOSIS AND SYNCYTIAL
FORMATION REMAIN TO BE ASCERTAINED. THESE ASPECTS AND THE POSSIBLE
AMBULATORY ABILITIES OF THE BRANCHIAL PODOCYTES ARE DISCUSSED.
DOUGHTIE, DANIEL G., AND K. RANGA RAO. 1982. ROSETTE GLANDS IN THE GILLS OF
THE GRASS SHRIMP, PALAEMONETES PUGIO. I. COMPARATIVE MORPHOLOGY, CYCLICAL
ACTIVITY, AND INNERVATION. J. MORPHOL. 171(1)141-67. (ERL,GB X238*>.
AVAIL. FROM NTIS, SPRINGFIELD, VA: PB82-207846.
TWO TYPES OF EXOCRINE ROSETTE GLANDS (CALLED TYPE A AND TYPE B),
LOCATED IN THE GILL AXES OF THE GRASS SHRIMP, PALAEMONETES PUGIO, ARE
DESCRIBED. THE TYPE A GLANDS ARE EMBEDDED WITHIN THE LONGITUDINAL
MEDIAN SEPTUM OF THE GILL AXES, WHEREAS THE TYPE B GLANDS TYPICALLY
PROJECT INTO THE EFFERENT HEMOLYMPH CHANNELS OF THE GILL AXES,
ALTHOUGH BOTH GLANDS HAVE CERTAIN COMMON CHARACTERISTICS (I.E., A
VARIABLE NUMBER OF RADIALLY ARRANGED SECRETORY CELLS, A CENTRAL
INTERCALARY CELL, AND A CANAL CELL THAT FORMS THE CUTICULAR DUCTULE
LEADING TO THE BRANCHIAL SURFACE), THEY DIFFER IN THE FOLLOWING
RESPECTS. THE TYPE B GLAND IS INNERVATED, BUT THE TYPE A GLAND IS NOT;
AXONAL PROCESSES, CONTAINING BOTH GLANDULAR (CA. 900-1300 A) AND
AGRANULAR (CA. 450-640 A) VESICLES, OCCUR AT A JUNCTURE BETWEEN
ADJACENT SECRETORY CELLS AND THE CENTRAL CELL OF THE TYPE B GLAND. THE
SECRETORY CELLS OF TYPE A AND TYPE B GLANDS DIFFER IN THEIR SYNTHETIC
POTENTIAL AND MEMBRANE SPECIALIZATIONS. THESE DIFFERENCES ARE MORE
PRONOUNCED IN WELL-DEVELOPED, MATURE GLANDS, MOST FREQUENTLY
ENCOUNTERED IN LARGER (24-28 MM, TOTAL LENGTH) GRASS SHRIMP, THAN IN
THE UNDERDEVELOPED, IMMATURE GLANDS THAT ARE MOST ABUNDANT IN SMALLER
(14-18 MM, TOTAL LENGTH) GRASS SHRIMP. THUS, IN MATURE GLANDS, THE
SECRETORY CELLS OF. THE TYPE A ROSETTE GLANDS ARE CHARACTERIZED BY
EXTENSIVE PER, ABUNDANT GOLGI, AND NUMEROUS SECRETORY GRANULES,
WHEREAS THE SECRETORY CELLS OF THE TYPE B GLAND ARE CHARACTERIZED BY
EXTENSIVELY INFOLDED AND INTERDIGITATED BASAL PLASMALEMMAS AND BY THE
PRESENCE OF NUMEROUS MITOCHONDRIA. IN GENERAL, BOTH TYPES OF GLANDS
EXHIBIT INCREASED SECRETORY ACTIVITY SOON AFTER ECDYSIS. THE CENTRAL
AND CANAL CELLS IN BOTH GLANDS SEEM TO HAVE A ROLE IN THE MODIFICATION
OF THE SECRETED MATERIALS. THE POSSIBLE FUNCTIONS ASSIGNED TO THE TYPE
A GLAND AND THE TYPE B GLAND INCLUDE PHENOL-OXIDASE SECRETION AND
OSMOREGULATION, RESPECTIVELY.
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DOUGHTIE, DANIEL G., AND K. RANGA RAO. 1982. ROSETTE GLANDS IN THE GILLS OF
ME GRASS SHRIMP, PALAEMONETES PUGIO. II. PREMOLT DUCTULE REFORMATION:
REPLACEMENT OF CILIARY PROCESSES BY CYTOPLASMIC PROCESSES IN RELATION TO
GLAND MATURATION. J. MORPHOL. 171(1)169-77. (ERL,GB X239*).
THE EVENTS ASSOCIATED WITH PREMOLT REFORMATION OF THE CUTICULARIZED
DUCTULE IN THE UNDERDEVELOPED (IMMATURE) BRANCHIAL ROSETTE GLANDS,
WHICH ARE COMMON IN THE GILLS OF SMALL (14-18 MM, TOTAL LENGTH) GRASS
SHRIMP, ARE DESCRIBED AND CONTRASTED WITH THE EVENTS OF DUCTULE
REFORMATION IN THE FULLY DEVELOPED (MATURE) ROSETTE GLANDS MOST COMMON
IN LARGER SHRIMP. IN IMMATURE ROSETTE GLANDS TWO CILIARY PROCESSES
EMERGE FROM EACH OF THE COMPONENT SECRETORY CELLS AND ASCEND INTO THE
BASAL LUMINAL REGION OF THE OLD DUCTULE. SUBSEQUENTLY A NEW DUCTULE IS
FORMED AROUND THE OLD DUCTULE, AND THE CILIARY PROCESSES DISAPPEAR
EITHER BECAUSE OF DEGENERATION OR RETRACTION. THE TRANSITORY CILIARY
PROCESSES APPEAR TO PREVENT THE OLD DUCTULE. SUCH TRANSITORY CILIARY
PROCESSES, HOWEVER, ARE NOT FOUND IN ASSOCIATION WITH PREMOLT DUCTULE
REFORMATION IN THE MATURE ROSETTE GLANDSl IN THEIR PLACE ARE SEEN A
NUMBER OF MICROVILLI-LIKE CYTOPLASMIC PROCESSES, WHICH EMANATE FROM
THE APICES OF THE SECRETORY CELLS AND FROM THE CHANNELS OF THE CENTRAL
CELL. THESE CYTOPLASMIC PROCESSES IN MATURE GLANDS, LIKE THE CILIARY
PROCESSES IN IMMATURE GLANDS, ARE TRANSITORY AND APPEAR TO PREVENT THE
COLLAPSE OF THE OLD DUCTULE. CYTOPLASMIC PROCESSES COMPARABLE TO THOSE
IN MATURE GLANDS, BUT RELATIVELY FEW IN NUMBER AND ORIGINATING ONLY
FORM THE SECRETORY CELLS, ARE SEEN TOGETHER WITH CILIARY PROCESSES IN
SOME IMMATURE GLANDS. THE RELATIVE ABUNDANCE OF CYTOPLASMIC PROCESSES
IN THE MATURE GLANDS, COUPLED WITH THE OBSERVATION THAT TRANSITORY
CILIARY PROCESSES OCCUR IN IMMATURE GLANDS BUT NOT IN MATURE GLANDS,
SUGGESTS THAT, DURING GLANDULAR MATURATION, TRANSITORY CILIARY
PROCESSES ARE REPLACE BY TRANSITORY CYTOPLASMIC PROCESSES.
DOUGHTIE, DANIEL G., PHILIP J. CONKLIN, AND K. RANGA RAO. 1983. CUTICULAR
LESIONS INDUCED IN GRASS SHRIMP EXPOSED TO HEXAVALENT CHROMIUM. J.
INVERTEBR. PATHOL. 42(2):249-258. (ERL.GB X434*).
ADULT GRASS SHRIMP WERE EXPOSED TO FOUR CONCENTRATIONS (0.5, 1.0, 2.0,
4.0 PPM) OF HEXAVALENT CHROMIUM FOR 28 DAYS. AT THE END OF THE
EXPOSURE PERIOD, OVER FIFTY PERCENT OF THE SURVIVING SHRIMP POSSESSED
CUTICULAR LESIONS THAT HAD MANY OF THE GROSS CHARACTERISTICS OF "SHELL
DISEASE". THESE LESIONS WERE USUALLY ASSOCIATED WITH ARTICULATIONS OF
THE APPENDAGES AND ABDOMEN. FURTHERMORE, IT WAS FOUND THAT AT
INCREASING LEVELS OF CHROMIUM EXPOSURE, THERE WAS A PROPORTIONATE
INCREASE IN THE LOSS OF LIMBS SUCH THAT NEARLY 50% OF THE LIMBS rtERE
LOST IN GRASS SHRIMP EXPOSED TO THE HIGHEST TEST CONCENTRATION OF
CHROMIUM. HISTOLOGICAL AND ULTRASTRUCTURAL EXAMINATION OF NUMEROUS
LESIONS DEMONSTRATED A RANGE OF DEGENERATIVE FEATURES WITHIN THE
SUBCUTICULAR EPITHELIUM THAT INCLUDED CYTOPLASMIC VACUOLIZATION,
MITOCHONDRIAL SWELLING, CHROMATIN EMARGINATION AND THE PRESENCE OF
UNUSUAL NUCLEAR INCLUSIONS THAT APPEAR TO INDICATE DIRECT CHROMIUM
TOXICITY. ADDITIONALLY A MARKED RETARDATION IN NEW EPICUTICLE AND
EXOCUTICLE FORMATION WAS OBSERVED IN VIABLE TISSUES ASSOCIATED WITH
LESIONS IN LATE PREMOLT SHRIMP. IT IS PROPOSED THAT CHROMIUM
INTERFERES WITH THE NORMAL FUNCTIONS OF SUBCUTICULAR EPITHELIUM,
PARTICULARLY CUTICLE FORMATION, AND SUBSEQUENTLY CAUSES STRUCTURAL
WEAKNESSES OR PERFORATIONS TO DEVELOP IN THE CUTICLE OF NEWLY MOLTED
SHRIMP. BECAUSE OF THESE CHROMIUM-INDUCED EXOSKELETAL DEFICIENCIES, A
VIADUCT FOR PATHOGENIC ORGANISMS (E.G., BACTERIA) AND DIRECT CHROMIUM
INFLUX IS FORMED THAT PERPETUATES LESION DEVELOPMENT.
A - 2?
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DOUGHTIE, DANIEL G., AND K. RANGA RAO. 1983. ULTRASTRUCTURAL AND
HISTOLOGICAL STUDY OF DEGENERATIVE CHANGES IN THE ANTENNAL GLANDS,
HEPATOPANCREAS, AND MIDGUT OF GRASS SHRIMP EXPOSED TO TWO DITHIOCARBAMATE
BIOCIDES. J. INVERTEBR. PATHOL. 41C 3): 281-299. (ERL,GB X395*).
HISTOLOGICAL AND ULTRASTRUCTURAL ALTERATIONS OBSERVED IN THE ANTENNAL
GLANDS, HEPATOPANCREAS, AND MIDGUT OF GRASS SHRIMP EXPOSED TO EITHER A
501 POTASSIUM DIMETHYLDITHIOCARBAMATE BIOCIDE (BUSAN-85? 5-60 PPB) FOR
14 DAYS, OR TO A DIFFERENT BIOCIDE, COMPOSED OF 15% SODIUM
DIMETHYLDITHIOCARBAMATE AND 15% SODIUM ETHYLENE BIODITHIOCARBAMATE
(AQUATREAT DNM-30), FOR 3-4 DAYS (60-140 PPB) AND 28-35 DAYS (40-120
PPB), WERE COMPARED AND CONTRASTED WITH THE NORMAL MORPHOLOGICAL
FEATURES IN CONTROL SHRIMP. ONLY THOSE EXPERIMENTAL SHRIMP THAT
EXHIBITED VARIOUS DEGREES OF BRANCHIAL ABNORMALITY WERE EXAMINED.
ALTHOUGH THE ALTERATIONS IN BUSAN-EXPOSED SHRIMP WERE GENERALLY MORE
PRONOUNCED, THE ANTENNAL GLANDS OF 32 OUT 36 EXPERIMENTAL SHRIMP
EXHIBITED ABNORMALITIES THAT WERE MANIFESTED PRIMARILY AS INCREASED
SECRETORY ACTIVITY BY THE LABYRINTH CELLS. IN DITHIOCARBAMATE-EXPOSED
SHRIMP WITH "BLACK GILLS," THE LABYRINTH EPITHELIUM EXHIBITED MODERATE
NUCLEAR HYPERTROPHY, APPARENT CELL SLOUGHING, INTENSE SECRETORY
ACTIVITY, AND OCCASIONAL MELANIZED LESIONS; ALTERATIONS IN THE
ANTENNAL GLAND COELOMOSAC INCLUDED NUCLEAR PYKNOSIS, A GENERAL
DETERIORATION OF PODOCYTE ORGANIZATION, AND AN UNUSUAL INCREASE IN
HEMOLYMPH DENSITY ADJACENT TO AFFECTED TISSUES. ALTHOUGH THERE WAS AN
APPARENT INCREASE IN MITOTIC ACTIVITY IN THE HEPATOPANCREATIC TUBULES
OF SHRIMP EXPOSED TO AQUATREAT FOR 28-35 DAYS, DEGENERATIVE CHANGES
WERE MOST FREQUENT AND EXTENSIVE IN THE HEPATOPANCREAS AND MIDGUT OF
DITHIOCARBAMATE-EXPOSED SHRIMP WITH "BLACK GILLS." THESE OBSERVED
CHANGES INCLUDED THE DIMINUTION OF THE BASAL MIDGUT AND
HEPATOPANCREATIC FIXED PHAGOCYTES, DEVELOPMENT OF MITOCHONDRIAL
INCLUSIONS AND MEGAMITOCHONDRIA, LOSS OF CYTOPLASMIC DENSITY,
HEPATOPANCREATIC NUCLEAR PYKNOSIS, AND IRREVERSIBLE DEGENERATION OF
HEPATOPANCREATIC TUBLUE APICES. THIS STUDY SUGGESTS THAT SOME OF THE
OBSERVED ABNORMAL/PATHOLOGICAL CHANGES ARE THE INDIRECT CONSEQUENCE OF
BRANCHIAL DEGENERATION. A NUMBER OF POSSIBLE DEFENSIVE REACTIONS TO
DITHIOCARBAMATE POISONING, INCLUDING HETEROSTASIS, PHAGOCYTOSIS,
ENCAPSULATION, AND THE POSSIBLE PARTICIPATION OF RESERVE INCLUSION
CELLS ARE PROPOSED.
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DANIEL G., AND K. RANGA RAO. 1983. ULTRASTRUCTURAL AND
HISTOLOCICAL STUDY OF DEGENERATIVE CHANGES LEADING TO BLACK GILLS IN GRASS
SHRIMP EXPOSED TO A DITHIOCARBAWATE BIOCIDE. J. INVERTEBR. PATHOL.
41(1)133-50. CERL,GB X384*).
PATHOLOGIC "MILKY" AND BROWN-BLACK GILLS OF GRASS SHRIMP, PALAEMONETES
PUGIO, EXPOSED TO LOW LEVELS (5 TO 60 PPB) OF A 50%
POTASSIUM-DIMETHYLDITHIOCARBAMATE BIOCIDE CBUSAN-85) FOR 14 DAYS WERE
STUDIED USING LIGHT AND ELECTRON MICROSCOPY. IN SHRIMP EXPOSED TO 5
PPB BUSAN-85, A GRADATION OF DEGENERATIVE CHANGES COULD BE ASCERTAINED
BOTH WITHIN THE GILLS OF INDIVIDUAL SHRIMP AND AMONG THE GILLS OF
DIFFERENT SHRIMP. PRIMARY DEGENERATIVE CHANGES, FIRST EVIDENT IN THE
APICAL EPITHELIUM OF THE LAMELLAR PLATES, INCLUDED: SWOLLEN
MITOCHONDRIA, DILATED ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM, THE APPEARANCE OF A
DENSE GRAINY MATERIAL WITHIN THE SUBCUTICULAR SPACES AND OF
PARACRYSTALLINE ELEMENTS WITHIN THE EPITHELIAL CYTOPLASM, THE
FORMATION OF AUTOPHAGOSOMES, AND A LOSS OF MEMBRANE CONTINUITY.
GRANULAR HEMOCYTES MIGRATED INTO THE SUBCULTULAR SPACES AND APPEARED
TO PHAGOCYTOSE THE GRAINY MATERIAL, WHILE OTHER HEMOCYTES PHAGOCYTOSED
AND ENCAPSULATED THE PATHOLOGICAL EPITHELIUM. LATER, THE LAMELLAR TIPS
BECAME CONGESTED WITH NUMEROUS INTERDIGITATING HEMOCYTES WHICH FORMED
A "PLUG". A NEW EPITHELIUM, DERIVED PARTLY FROM MITOSIS OF BASAL
LAMELLAR TISSUES, DEVELOPED SUBJACENT TO THE PLUG AND CONTRIBUTED TO
THE FORMAION OF AN ABNORMAL AND SOMETIMES PERFORATED CUTICLE DURING
PREMOLT. AT ECDYSIS, THE HEMOCYTE PLUGS IN THE APICAL REGION OF THE
LAMELLA WERE SLOUGHED RESULTING IN MARKEDLY TRUNCATED AND SWOLLEN
LAMELLAE. THIS PROCESS OF PATHOLOGICAL LAMELLAR REDUCTION APPEARS TO
BE AN IMPORTANT DEFENSE MECHANISM IN RESPONSE TO BRANCHIAL TRAUMA
CAUSED BY EXPOSURE TO ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINANTS.
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DOUGHTIE, DANIEL G., AND K. RANGA RAO. 1984. HISTOPATHOLOGICAL AND
ULTRASTRUCTURAL CHANGES IN THE ANTENNAL GLAND, MIDGUT, HEPATOPANCREAS AND
GILL OF GRASS SHRIMP FOLLOWING EXPOSURE TO HEXAVALENT CHROMIUM J
INVERTEBR. PATHOL. 43C1):89-108 . (ERL,GB X400*).
GRASS SHRIMP, PALAEMQNETES PUGIO, WERE EXPOSED FOR ONE MONTH TO
SUBACUTE CONCENTRATIONS OF HEXAVALENT CHROMIUM (0,5, 1.0, 2.0, 4.0
PPM) AFTER WHICH THE GILLS, MIDGUT, HEPATOPANCREAS, AND ANTENNAL
GLANDS WERE EXAMINED FOR HISTOPATHOLOGICAL AND ULTRASTRUCTURAL
CHANGES. PATHOLOGICAL CHANGES WERE GREATEST IN THE ANTENNAL GLANDS,
FOLLOWED BY HEPATOPANCREAS, GILLS, AND MIDGUT. SEVERE CHANGES OCCURRED
IN SOME SHRIMP, EVEN AT 0.5 PPM CHROMIUM. CELLS OF ALL TISSUES
FREQUENTLY HAD BOTH SWOLLEN MITOCHONDRIA AND ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC
ETICULUM. SMALL, SPHERICAL OR RING-LIKE INTRANUCLEAR INCLUSIONS,
POSSIBLE INDICATIVE OF CELLULAR HYPERACTIVITY OR MANIFESTIONS OF
CHROMIUM AND/OR PROTEIN COMPLEXES, WERE MOST PREVALENT IN THE
HEPATOPANCREAS AND ANTENNAL GLANDS BUT ALSO OCCURRED IN THE MIDGUT AND
GILLS. OTHER MAJOR DEGENERATIVE CHANGES IN THE ANTENNAL GLANDS WERE
RESTRICTED TO THE LABYRINTH AND INCLUDED DIMINUTION OF BASAL
PLASMALEMMAL INFOLDINGS AND CYTOPLASMIC DENSITY, NUCLEAR HYPERTROPHY
FOLLOWED BY WIDESPREAD NUCLEAR PYKNOSIS AND EPITHELIAL DESQUAMATION.
IN SEVERELY ALTERED HEPATOPANCREAS HYPERTROPHY WAS INDICATED FOR THE
BASAL LAMINAE, NUCLEI, POSSIBLE FOR THE NUCLEOLI. THERE WAS AN
APPARENT REDUCTION IN MITOTIC EVENTS AND MANY OBSERVED MITOTIC NUCLEI
WERE ABNORMAL. ABNORMAL MIDGUT HYPERTROPHY WAS PRESENT IN ONLY EIGHT
OF TWENTY EXAMINED SHRIMP, EXPOSED TO 0.5 AND 1.0 PPM CHROMIUM.
FURTHER, THE GILLS OF ONLY 10 OF THE 40 EXAMINED CHROMIUM-EXPOSED
SHRIMP POSSESSED ABNORMAL FEATURES DETECTABLE WITH LIGHT MICROSCOPY.
ULTRASTRUCTURAL ANALYSIS OF THE LATTER INDICATED AN INCREASE IN
LYSOSOMES AND A DECREASE IN CYTOPLASMIC DENSITY. IN ADDITION, THERE
WAS A PRONOUNCED DIMINUTION IN THE DEGREE OF LAMELLAR, SUBCUTICULAR
PLASMALEMMAL INFOLDING. THIS LATTER FEATURE IS POSTULATED TO BE A
MECHANISM FOR THE REGULATION OF CHROMIUM INFLUX. POSSIBLE EXPLANATIONS
FOR MOST OBSERVED ALTERATIONS IN THE ABOVE TISSUES ARE PROPOSED.
DUKE, THOMAS W. IN PRESS. POTENTIAL IMPACT OF DRILLING FLUIDS ON ESTUARINE
PRODUCTIVITY. IN: PROCEEDINGS OF THE INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON THE
UTILIZATION OF COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS! PLANNING, POLLUTION, AND PRODUCTIVITY,
NOV. 22-27, 1982, RIO GRANDE, BRAZIL. (ERL,GB 449).
THIS PAPER DISCUSSES THE POTENTIAL EFFECTS OF DRILLING FLUIDS ON
SEMI-ENCLOSED BODIES OF WATER SUCH AS ESTUARIES. DRILLING FLUIDS HAVE
BEEN DISCHARGED INTO OUTER CONTINENTAL SHELF WATERS FOR MANY YEARS BUT
THERE IS SOME CONCERN OF POTENTIAL ECOLOGICAL IMPACT WHEN DRILLING
FLUID ARE DISCHARGED NEAR CORAL REEFS OR IN BAYS AND ESTUARIES. THE
CONCERN IS BASED ON POTENTIAL ADVERSE EFFECTS OF THE FLUIDS TO CORALS,
SHELLFISH, FISH, GRASS BEDS AND GENERAL PRODUCTIVITY. POTENTIAL
EFFECTS CAN BE EVALUATED THROUGH A HAZARD ASSESSMENT PROCESS THAT
INVOLVES EFFECTS AND EXPOSURE MEASUREMENTS, A SUGGESTED HAZARD
ASSESSMENT INVOLVING THE ADAPTIVE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT APPROACH
(AEA) IS PRESENTED. THE COMPONENTS OF THE AEA APPROACH ARE DESCRIBED
AND EVALUATED. IN DEVELOPING THE HAZARD ASSESSMENT, A REVIEW IS MADE
OF EXISTING EFFECTS DATA. A PRESENTATION IS MADE OF ISSUES OF CONCERN
SUCH AS RESUSPENSION OF DRILLING FLUIDS IN SHALLOW, WIND-DRIVEN
ESTUARIES, RESTRICTION OF LIGHT PENETRATION TO PRIMARY PRODUCERS BY
SUSPENDED SEDIMENTS, CHANGES IN BENTHIC COMMUNITIES AND THEIR
SUBSTRATES, AND DIRECT TOXICITY OF THE FLUIDS TO ORGANISMS.
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DUKE, THOMAS H. 1982. SUMMARY OF EPA DRILLING FLUID RESEARCH ACTIVITIES.
JH, PROCEEDINGS: THIRD ANNUAL GULF OF MEXICO INFORMATION TRANSFER MEETING,
AUGUST 24-26, 1982, NEW ORLEANS, LA. U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
MINERALS MANAGMENT SERVICE, NEW ORLEANS, LA. PP. 85-89. (ERL,GB 461*).
DRILLING-FLUID RELATED RESEARCH AT THE U.S. EPA ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH
LABORATORY, GULF BREEZE, IS SUMMARIZED. THE PROGRAM IS CONDUCTED
PRIMARILY THROUGH CONTRACTS, GRANTS, AND SOME INHOUSE PROJECTS
DESIGNED TO ASSESS THE POTENTIAL HAZARD TO THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT FROM
FLUIDS DISCHARGED IN OFFSHORE OIL AND GAS DRILLING AND EXPLORATIONS.
DUKE, TtW., P.R. PARRISH, R.M. MONTGOMERY, S.D. MACAULEY, J.M. MACAULEY, AND
C,H, CRIPE. 1984. ACUTE TOXICITY OF EIGHT LABORATORY-PREPARED GENERIC
DRILLING FLUIDS TO MYSIDS (MYSIDOPSIS BAHIA). EPA-600/3-84-067, U.S
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY, ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LABORATORY, GULF
BREEZE, FL. IIP.
ACUTE TOXICITY TESTS WERE CONDUCTED DURING AUGUST-SEPTEMBER 1983 WITH
EIGHT LABORATORY-PREPARED GENERIC DRILLING FLUIDS (ALSO CALLED MUDS)
AND MYSIDS (MYSIDOPSIS BAHIA) AT THE U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
AGENCY'S ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LABORATORY, GULF BREEZE, FLORIDA. TWO
OF THE DRILLING FLUIDS WERE TESTED AT THE ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH
LABORATORY, NARRAGANSETT, RHODE ISLAND, TO CONFIRM THE VALIDITY OF THE
TESTS CONDUCTED AT GULF BREEZE. THE TEST MATERIAL WAS THE SUSPENDED
PARTICULATE PHASE (SPP) OF EACH DRILLING FLUID. THE SPP WAS PREPARED
BY MIXING VOLUMETRICALLY 1 PART DRILLING FLUID WITH 9 PARTS SEAWATER
AND ALLOWING THE RESULTING SLURRY TO SETTLE FOR ONE HOUR. THE MATERIAL
THAT REMAINED IN SUSPENSION WAS THE SPP. TOXICITY OF THE SPP OF THE
DRILLING FLUIDS RANGED FROM A 96-HOUR LC50 (THE CONCENTRATION LETHAL
TO 50% OF THE TEST ANIMALS AFTER 96 HOURS OF EXPOSURE) OF 2.7% FOR A
KC1 POLVMER MUD TO 65.4% FOR A LIGHTLY TREATED LIGNOSULFONATE MUD. NO
MEDIAN EFFECT (50% MORTALITY) WAS OBSERVED IN THEREE DRILLING FLUIDS
« A NON-DISPERSED MUD, A SPUD MUD, AND A SEAWATER-FRESHWATER GEL MUD.
ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LABORATORY, GULF BREEZE, FL. 1984. INDEX AND
ABSTRACTS TO PUBLICATIONS! THE EPA DRILLING FLUID HAZARD ASSESSMENT RESEARCH
PROGRAM. U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH
LABORATORY, GULF BREEZE, FL. 94P. (ERL,GB SR-112).
THIS VOLUME SUMMARIES RESULTS OF AN ONGOING RESEARCH PROGRAM. FROM
1976 TO THE PRESENT TIME, ERLGB CONDUCTED A RESEARCH PROGRAM TO
EVALUATE THE POTENTIAL IMPACT OF DRILLING FLUIDS ON THE MARINE
ENVIRONMENT. THE EXTRAMURAL PORTION OF THIS STUDY IS ESSENTIALLY
COMPLETE! HOWEVER, THE IN-HOUSE REPORT IS CONTINUING. THE EFFORT WAS A
COMPOSITE OF IN-HOUSE AND EXTRAMURAL ACTIVITIES, ADAPTIVE
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENTS (AEA) AND A FINAL HAZARD ASSESSMENT EFFORT
(IN AGENCY REVIEW). DR. NORMAN RICHARDS DIRECTED THE PROGRAM FROM 1976
TO 1981 WHEN DR, T. W. DUKE BECAME PROJECT LEADER. OVER THAT TIME
PERIOD 100 REPORTS, PUBLICATIONS AND JOURNAL ARTICLES IN THE
PEER-REVIEWED LITERATURE HAVE BEEN PRODUCED. THIS PUBLICATION LISTS
THE TITLE, JOURNAL OR PLACE OF PUBLICATION AND, (WHEN AVAILABLE), AN
ABSTRACT OF THE PUBLICATION CONTENT. ADDITIONALLY, AN AUTHOR INDEX AND
A KEY WORD INDEX ARE PROVIDED.
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fARR, JAMES A. 1978. ORIENTATION AND SOCIAL BEHAVIOR IN THE SUPRALITTORAL
SOPOD LIGIA EXOTICA (CRUSTACEA! ONISCOIDEA). BULL. MAR. SCI. 5UPRALITTORAL
28(4)1659-666. CERL,GB X071*). '
LIGIA EXOTICA IS AGGREGATIVE, TENDING TO SEEK OUT CONSPECIFICS IT IS
HYPOTHESIZED THAT LIGIA MUST SEEK NEW SHELTERS REPEATEDLY WITH
CHANGING TIDES BECAUSE OF THEIR RESTRICTED WATER REQUIREMENTS, AND
THAT ATTRACTION TO CONSPECIFICS ALREADY IN A SUITABLE HABITAT IS AN
ADDITIONAL ORIENTATIONAL MECHANISM TO THOSE EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENTAL
FACTORS INFLUENCING MICROHABITAT SELECTION. EXPERIMENTS ON OBJECT
ORIENTATION DEMONSTRATED A STRONG TENDENCY TO MOVE TOWARD CONTRASTING
LANDMARKS, THE RESULT BEING OCCUPATION OF ROCKY AREAS ON THE
SHORELINE. BRIEF DESCRIPTIONS OF SEXUAL AND AGONISTIC BEHAVIOR ARE
INCLUDED.
FAZIO, STEVEN D., WILLIAM R. MAYBERRY, AND DAVID C. WHITE. 1979. MURAMIC
ACID ASSAY IN SEDIMENTS. APPL. ENVIRON. MICROBIOL. 38(2):349-350, CERL,GB
X073*).
AN IMPROVED CHROMATOGRAPHIC ASSAY FOR MURAMIC ACID WHICH IS
SUFFICIENTLY SENSITIVE FOR MARINE SANDY SEDIMENTS IS DESCRIBED; IT
INVOLVES ACID HYDROLYSIS, THIN-LAYER CHROMATOGRAPHY, AND GAS-LIQUID
CHROMATOGRAPHY.
FEDERLE, THOMAS W., AND DAVID C. WHITE. 1982. PRESERVATION OF ESTUARINE
SEDIMENTS FOR LIPID ANALYSIS OF BIOMASS COMMUNITY STRUCTURE OF MICROBIOTA.
APPL. ENVIRON. MICROBIOL. 44(5):1166-1169. (ERL.GB X381).
VARIOUS METHODS WERE TESTED FOR PRESERVING ESTUARINE SEDIMENTS IN THE
FIELD BEFORE BIOCHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF THE MICROBIOTA. TOTAL MICROBIAL
BIOMASS WAS DETERMINED AS LIPID PHOSPHATE (LP), AND THE FATTY ACIDS OF
THE MICROBIAL LIPID WERE USED AS INDICATORS OF COMMUNITY STRUCTURE.
CONTROL SAMPLES WERE SIEVED TO REMOVE MACROINVERTEBRATES AND PLANT
MATERIALS AND WERE EXTRACTED IMMEDIATELY IN THE FIELD. OTHER SAMPLES
WERE PRESERVED BOTH BEFORE AND AFTER SIEVING AND STORED FOR 5 DAYS
BEFORE ANALYSIS. FREEZING RESULTED IN A 50% DECLINE IN LP AND
SIGNIFICANT DECREASES IN MANY FATTY ACIDS. REFRIGERATION RESULTED IN A
19% DECREASE IN LP BUT NO CHANGE IN THE FATTY ACIDS. SAMPLES PRESERVED
WITH FORMALIN BEFORE SIEVING EXHIBITED NO SIGNIFICANT CHANGE IN LP BUT
SUBSTANTIAL INCREASES IN MANY FATTY ACIDS, WHICH WERE PROBABLY DERIVED
FROM THE MACROINVERTEBRATES. SIEVED SAMPLES PRESERVED WITH FORMALIN
SHOWED A 17 TO 18% DECLINE IN LP BUT NO CHANGE IN THE FATTY ACIDS.
IDEALLY, SAMPLES SHOULD BE SIEVED AND EXTRACTED IMMEDIATELY IN THE
FIELD. HOWEVER, SHORT-TERM REFRIGERATION AND LONGER-TERM PRESERVATION
OF SIEVED SAMPLES WITH FORMALIN MAY BE ACCEPTABLE COMPROMISES.
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THOMAS W., ROBERT J. LIVINGSTON, DUANE A. MEETER, AND DAVID C
MITE. 1983. MODIFICATIONS OF ESTUARINE SEDIMENTARY MICROBIOTA BY EXCLUSION
OF EPIBENTHIC PREDATORS. J. EXP. MAR. BIOL. ECOL. 73(l):81-94. (ERL,GB
467*).
THE ABILITY OF EPIBENTHIC PREDATORS (CRABS AND FISHES) TO INFLUENCE
BIOMASS AND COMMUNITY STRUCTURE OF SEDIMENTARY MICROBIOTA WAS
INVESTIGATED IN ST. GEORGE SOUND-APALACHICOLA BAY SYSTEM, FLORIDA,
U.S.A. REPLICATE AREAS (4 M SQUARED) OF MUD-FLAT SEDIMENT WERE CAGED
IN THE FIELD TO CONFINE AND EXCLUDE PREDATORS. UNCAGED AREAS WERE USED
AS CONTROLS. THE MICROBIOTA (PROKARYOTES AND MICROEUKARYOTES) OF THE
SEDIMENTS WAS CHARACTERIZED AT WEEKS 0, 2, AND 6 BY MEASURING
CONCENTRATIONS OF PHOSPHOLIPID AND ANALYZING FATTY ACIDS OF THE
MICROBIAL LIPIDS EXTRACTED FROM THE SEDIMENTS. DATA WERE ANALYZED
USING ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE AND STEP-WISE DISCRIMINANT ANALYSIS. AFTER
2 WK, THE MICROBIOTA OF THE PREDATOR EXCLUSION TREATMENT WAS
SIGNIFICANTLY DIFFERENT FROM THAT IN CONTROL AND PREDATOR INCLUSION
TREATMENTS. AFTER 6 WK, THESE DIFFERENCES BECAME MORE PRONOUNCED.
THERE WERE NO DEMONSTRABLE CAGING EFFECTS THAT COULD ACCOUNT FOR
TREATMENT DIFFERENCES. RESULTS INDICATED THAT REMOVAL OF PREDATORS HAD
A PROFOUND EFFECT ON MICROBIAL COMMMUNITIES IN ESTUARINE SEDIMENTS.
THUS, THE TOP TROPHIC LEVEL (EPIBENTHIC PREDATORS) HAD AN IMPORTANT
ROLE IN REGULATING THE STRUCTURE OF THE LOWEST TROPHIC LEVEL (THE
MICROBIOTA).
FEDERLE, THOMAS W., MEREDITH A. HULLAR, ROBERT J. LIVINGSTON, DUANE A.
MEETER, AND DAVID C. WHITE. 1983. SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION OF BIOCHEMICAL
PARAMETERS INDICATING BIOMASS AND COMMUNITY COMPOSITION OF MICROBIAL
ASSEMBLIES IN ESTUARINE MUD FLAT SEDIMENTS. APPL. ENVIRON. MICROBIOL.
45(l):58-63. (ERL,GB X371*),
AVAIL. FROM NTIS, SPRINGFIELD, VA: PB83-223685.
THE SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION OF COMMUNITIES WAS EXAMINED IN ESTUARINE MUD
FLAT SEDIMENTS BY THE - BIOCHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF THE LIPlDS AMD LIPID
COMPONENTS EXTRACTED FROM THE SEDIMENTS. TOTAL PHOSPHOLIPID WAS USED
AS A MEASURE OF TOTAL BIOMASS, AND FATTY ACIDS WERE USED AS INDICATORS
OF COMMUNITY COMPOSITION. COMPARISONS WERE MADE AMONG 2- BY 2-M
(LOCATION) AND 0.2- BY 0.2-M (CLUSTER) SAMPLING PLOTS BY USING A
NESTED ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE TO DESIGN AN OPTIMAL SAMPLING STRATEGY TO
DEFINE THE MICROBIAL CONTENT OF A LARGE, RELATIVELY HOMOGENOUS AREA.
AT TWO OF THE THREE STATIONS, A 2- BY 2-M PLOT WAS REPRESENTATIVE OF
THE STATION, BUT 0.2- BY 0.2-M AREAS WERE IN NO CASE REPRESENTATIVE OF
THE STATION. THE BIOMASS MEASURED BY THE EXTRACTABLS PHOSPHOLIPID AND
THE TOTAL LIPID PALMITIC ACID SHOWED EXCELLENT CORRELATION WITH THE
FATTY ACID "SIGNATURES" CHARACTERISTIC OF BACTERIA, BUT SHOWED A LOWER
CORRELATION WITH THE LONG-CHAIN POLYENOIC FATTY ACIDS CHARACTERISTIC
OF THE MICROFAUNA.
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FINDLAY, ROBERT H., AND DAVID C. WHITE. 1983. POLYMERIC
BETA-HYDROXYALKANOATES FROM ENVIRONMENTAL SAMPLES AND BACILLUS MEGATERIUM
JppL, ENVIRON. MICROBIOL. 45Cl):71-78. (ERL,GB X380*). MEGATERIUM.
THE PROCARYOTIC ENDOGENOUS STORAGE POLYMER KNOWN AS
POLY-BETA-HYDROXYBUTYRATE IS ACTUALLY A MIXED POLYMER OF SHORT-CHAIN
BETA-HYDROXY FATTY ACIDS. A METHOD FOR THE QUANTITATIVE RECOVERY OF
THIS MIXED POLYMER, CALLED POLY-BETA-HYDROXYALKANOATE (PHA), WITH
ANALYSIS BY CAPILLARY GAS-LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY SHOWED THE PRESENCE OF
AT LEAST 11 SHORT-CHAIN BETA-HYDROXY ACIDS IN POLYMERS EXTRACTED FROM
MARINE SEDIMENTS, POLYMERS EXTRACTED FROM BACILLUS MEGATERIUM
MONOCULTURES WERE ALSO A COMPLEX MIXTURE OF BETA-HYDROXY ACIDS WITH
CHAIN LENGTHS BETWEEN FOUR AND EIGHT CARBONS. LYOPHILIZED SEDIMENTS
WERE EXTRACTED IN A MODIFIED SOXHLET EXTRACTOR, AND THE POLYMER WAS
PURIFIED WITH ETHANOL AND DIETHYL ETHER WASHES. THE PURIFIED POLYMER
WAS TREATED WITH ETHANOL-CHLOROFORM-HYDROBCHLORIC ACID (8.5:2.5:1) FOR
4 H AT 100 DEGREES CELSIUS, A TREATMENT WHICH RESULTED IN THE
FORMATION OF THE ETHYL ESTERS OF THE THE CONSTITUENT BETA-HYDROXY
ACIDS. SUBSEQUENT ASSAY OF THE PRODUCTS BY GAS-LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY
INDICATED EXCELLENT REPRODUCI3ILITY AND SENSITIVITY (DETECTION LIMIT,
100 FMOL). DISTURBING SEDIMENTS MECHANICALLY OR ADDING NATURAL
CHELATORS INCREASED ALL MAJOR PHA COMPONENTS RELATIVE TO THE BACTERIAL
BIOAMSS. GARDENING OF SEDIMENTARY MICROBES BY CLYMENELLA SP., AN
ANNELID WORM, INDUCED DECREASES IN PHA, WITH CHANGES IN THE RELATIVE
PROPORTION OF COMPONENT BETA-HYDROXY ACIDS. THE CONCENTRATION OF PHA
RELATIVE TO THE BACTERIAL BIOMASS CAN REFLECT THE RECENT METABOLIC
STATUS OF THE MICROBIOTA,
fOX, F.R., AND K. RANGA RAO. 1982. ACCUMULATION, TISSUE DISTRIBUTION AND
DEPURATION OF BENZO (A )PYRENE AND BENZ (A) ANTHRACENE IN THE GRASS SHRIMP,
PALAEMONETES PUGIO. IN: SYMPOSIUM: CARCINOGENIC POLYNUCLEAR AROMATIC
HYDROCARBONS IN THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT, PENSACOLA BEACH, FLORIDA, 14-18
AUGUST, 1978. EPA-600/9-82-013, U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY,
ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LABORATORY, GULF BREEZE, FL. PP. 336-349. (ERL,GB
X237*}.
THE SHORT-TERM UPTAKE, TISSUE DISTRIBUTION, AND DEPURATION OF TWO
POLYCYCLIC AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS, C-14-BENZO(A)PYRENE (BP) AND
C-14-BENZ(A)ANTHRACENE (BA), WERE STUDIED UTILIZING THE GRASS SHRIMP,
PALAEMONETES PUGIO, AT KNOWN STAGES OF THE MOLT CYCLE. PREMOLT SHRIMP
ACCUMULATED LESS BP AND BA THAN INTERMOLT SHRIMP. THE NEWLY MOLTED
SHRIMP ACCUMULATED MORE BA THAN INTERMOLT SHRIMP. AT EACH OF THE
CONCENTRATIONS TESTED [1.25, 2.5, 5.0, 10.0 PARTS PER BILLION (PPB)l,
INTERMOLT SHRIMP ACCUMULATED BY SHRIMP INCREASED IN RELATION TO
ENVIRONMENTAL LEVELS OF THESE COMPOUNDS. THE ACCUMULATION OF BP AND BA
IN TISSUES EXAMINED WAS IN THE FOLLOWING ORDER: DIGESTIVE TRACT
(STOMACH «• INTESTINE)> HEPATOPANCREAS> CEPHALOTHORAX> ABDOMEN. ALL
TISSUES ACCUMULATED MORE BA THAN BP. WHEN EXPOSED TO MEDIA CONTAINING
2.5 PPB BP OR 2.8 P'PB BA, A RAPID UPTAKE BY SHRIMP WAS NOTED DURING
THE FIRST 6-HR EXPOSURE, SUBSEQUENTLY UPTAKE WAS REDUCED FOR BP.
HOWEVER, AT TERMINATION OF 96-HR EXPOSURE, SHRIMP EXHIBITED A TREND OF
CONTINUAL ACCUMULATION OF BA AND BP. WHEN TRANSFERRED TO SEAWATER,
SHRIMP APPEARED TO DEPURATE BA MORE RAPIDLY THAN BP. IN THE SHRIMP
EXPOSED TO BA, THE LEVEL OF RADIOACTIVITY DECLINED BY 80% AFTER A
7-DAY DEPURATION; UNDER SIMILAR CONDITIONS, THE BP LEVEL
(RADIOACTIVITY) DECLINED BY ONLY 35%.
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FERRIS R., AND K. RANGA RAO. 1978. CHARACTERISTICS OF A CAC2+)
ACTIVATED ATPASE FROM THE HEPATOPANCREAS OF THE BLUE CRAB, CALLINECTES
SAPIDUS. COMP. BIOCHEM. PHYSIOL. B COMP. BIOCHEM. 598(3)t327-331. (ERL.G3
X077*).
1. SOME CHARACTERISTICS OF A CALCIUM-ACTIVATED ATPASE IN THE
MICROSOMAL FRACTION (48,000 G PELLET) OF THE HEPATOPANCREAS FROM THE
BLUE CRAB, CALLINECTES SAPIDUS, ARE INVESTIGATED. 2. THE ENZYME
REQUIRED A HIGH CONCENTRATION OF CA PLUS 2 (20 MM) FOR MAXIMAL
ACTIVITY. K PLUS 1 WAS NOT REQUIRED FOR ACTIVATION. MG PLUS 2 WAS LESS
EFFECTIVE THAN CA PLUS 2 IN ACTIVATING THE ATPASE. THE ENZYME WAS ALSO
ACTIVATED BY SR PLUS 2 OR BA PLUS 2 ALONE. THE MAXIMAL ACTIVITY EVOKED
BY SR PLUS 2 WAS GREATER THAN THAT EVOKED BY CA PLUS 2, WHILE BA PLUS
2 WAS A RELATIVELY POOR ACTIVATOR. 3. THE KM OF THE ENZYME FOR ATP WAS
4.1 X 10-3 M. IN A RANGE OF 20 TO 70 DEGREES C, THE MAXIMAL ACTIVITY
WAS NOTED AT 45-50 DEGREES C. THE ENZYME EXHIBITED MAXIMAL ACTIVITY AT
PH 7.5. 4. THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE BLUE CRAB HEPATOPANCREATIC
MICROSOMAL ENZYME ARE DIFFERENT FROM THOSE OF CRUSTACEAN MYOSIN
ATPASES, BUT ARE COMPARABLE TO THOSE OF THE CA PLUS 2 -TRANSPORT
ATPASES FROM OTHER ANIMALS.
FOX, FERRIS R., AND K. RANGA RAO. 1978. EFFECTS OF SODIUM
PENTACHLOROPHENATE AND 2,4-DINITROPHENOL ON HEPATOPANCREATIC ENZYMES IN THE
BLUE CRAB, CALLINECTES SAPIDUS. INl PENTACHLOROPHENOL! CHEMISTRY,
PHARMACOLOGY, AND ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY. K. RANGA RAO, EDITOR, PLENUM
PRESS, NEW YORK, NY. PP. 213-250. (ERL,GB X078*).
IN VIEW OF THE LACK OF INFORMATION ON THE MECHANISMS OF PCP-INDUCED
TOXICITY IN CRUSTACEANS, THIS INVESTIGATION wAS UNDERTAKEN TO EVALUATE
THE EFFECTS OF SODIUM PENTACHLOROPHENATE (NA-PCP) IN VIVO AND IN VITRO
ON CERTAIN HEPATOPANCREATIC ENZYMES IN THE BLUE CRAB, CALLINECTES
SAPIDUS. FUMARASE, MALATE DEHYDROGENASE AND SUCCINATE DEHYDROGENASE
WERE INHIBITED BY NA-PCP AND DNP IN VIVO, WHEREAS ISOCITRATE
DEHYDROGENASE WAS STIMULATED. OF THOSE TESTED, LACTIC DEHYDROGENASE
WAS THE LEAST AFFECTED CYTOPLASMIC (SOLUBLE) ENZYME IN VIVO WHILE
PYRUVATE KINASE AND GLUCOSE-6-PHOSPHATE DEHYDROGENASE WERE INHIBITED
AT LEAST 50% BY NA-PCP. GLUTAMATE-PYRUVATE TRANSAMINASE WAS ALSO
INHIBITED. NA-PCP AND DNP HAD AN INHIBITORY EFFECT ON THE VARIOUS
ENZYMES TESTED IN VITRO AT CONCENTRATIONS OF 10-4 M OR HIGHER. IN
GENERAL, THE MITOCHONDRIAL ENZYMES WERE MORE SUSCEPTIBLE THAN
CYTOPLASMIC ENYMES TO DNP AND NA-PCP. THE CALCIUM ACTIVATED ATPASE
FROM THE MICROSOMAL FRACTION OF THE CRAB HEPATOPANCREAS WAS INHIBITED
BY NA-PCP AND DNP IN VITRO AND IN VIVO. NA-PCP WAS MORE POTENT THAN
DNP IN INHIBITING THE ATPASE ACTIVITY. THE EFFECTS OF PCP ON THE BLUE
CRAB ENZYMES HAVE BEEN COMPARED TO THE RESULTS OF PREVIOUS
INVESTIGATIONS ON OTHER ORGANISMS.
HAMILTON, p.V. 1980, .SHELL SPINATION IN MELONGENA CORONA: SUBSPECIES
CHARACTERISTIC OR SIZE RELATED?. MALACOL. REV. 13(1/25:84-86. (ERL,GB
X313*).
IT IS CONCLUDED THAT THE SIPHONAL SPINES OF MELINGENA CORONA ARE
ACQUIRED ONTOGENETICALLY AND, CONSEQUENTLY, THAT THE POSSESSION OF
SIPHONAL SPINES IS NOT A VALID MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTER ON WHICH TO
BASE A SUBSPECIES DISTINCTION IN THIS SPECIES. RECOGNITION OF THE
DISTINCT SUBSPECIES M.C. CORONA AND M.C. JOHNSTONEI IS NOT WARRANTED,
SINCE CLENCH & TURNER'S (1956) DISTINCTION IS BASED PRIMARILY ON THE
PRESENCE OF SIPHONAL SPINES.
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HAMILTON, PAUL V. 1981. BEHAVIORAL ASSAYS FOR EFFECTS OF DRILLING MUDS ON
MARINE ANIMALS. EPA-600/4-81-050, U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY,
ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LABORATORY, GULF BREEZE, FL. 52P.
THIS REPORT DESCRIBES AN ELECTRONIC METHOD FOR MONITORING THE SHELL
MOVEMENTS' AND WATER PUMPING OF BIVALVED MOLLUSCS, DATA ON THE
INFLUENCE OF WHOLE DRILLING MUD AND OTHER PARTICULATE MATERIALS ON THE
SHELL MOVEMENTS OF SCALLOPS (OBTAINED USING THE ELECTRONIC MONITOR),
AND A SUBMERSIBLE MONITORING UNIT (SMU) FOR RECORDING THESE BEHAVIORS
FROM BIVALVES HELD IN FIELD CONDITIONS. THE ELECTRONIC MONITOR EMPLOYS
INTEGRATED CIRCUIT CHIPS AND RECEIVES INPUT FROM INDUCTANCE TRANSDUCER
(SHELL MOVEMENTS) AND THERMISTOR (WATER PUMPING) SENSORS. WHOLE
DRILLING MUD CAUSED SIGNIFICANTLY MORE MAJOR RAPID VALVE CLOSURES
(RVC'S) AT CONCENTRATIONS OF 400 PPM AND HIGHER, AND A SIGNIFICANTLY
GREATER CUMULATIVE MAGNITUDE OF ALL RVC'S AT 200 PPM AND HIGHER.
BARITE, LIGNOSULPHONATE AND CALCIUM CARBONATE REVEALED NO CLEAR
DOSE-RESPONSE RELATIONSHIP FOR THESE TWO SHELL MOVEMENT PARAMETERS,
BUT ALL THREE OF THESE PARTICULATES PRODUCED SIMILAR PATTERNS OF
EFFECT. THE SMU IS COMPLETELY SELF-CONTAINED; A BATTERY POWERED
CIRCUIT AND TAPE RECORDER PERMIT RECORDING SHELL MOVEMENT DATA ON A
MAGNETIC TAPE, WHICH IS LATER RETRIEVED FOR ANALYSIS.
HAMILTON, P.V., M.A. WINTER, AND R.K. PEGG. 1981. EFFECTS OF WHOLE DRILLING
HUD AND SELECTED COMPONENTS ON THE SHELL MOVEMENTS OF THE BAY SCALLOP,
ARGOPECTEN IRRADIANS. NORTHEAST GULF SCI. 5(1):13-20. (ERL,GB X348*).
AVAIL. FROM NTIS, SPRINGFIELD, VA: PB82-238999.
THE SHELL MOVEMENTS OF BAY SCALLOPS (ARGOPECTEN IRRADIANS) WERE
ELECTRONICALLY MONITORED BEFORE AND AFTER DIFFERENT AMOUNTS OF WHOLE
DRILLING MUD, BARITE, LIGNOSULFONATE, AND CALCIUM CARBONATE WERE ADDED
TO THEIR TANKS. MOVEMENTS WERE COMPARED WITH THOSE MADE BY SCALLOPS
EXPOSED TO SEAWATER FOR THE SAME DURATION USING SIX RESPONSE MEASURES.
FOR WHtDLE DRILLING MUD, A GRADED DOSE-RESPONSE RELATIONSHIP EXISTED
FOR TWO RESPONSE MEASURES: CHANGE IN THE NUMBER OF MAJOR RAPID VALVE
CLOSURES (RVCS) AND CHANGE IN THE CUMULATIVE MAGNITUDE OF ALL RVCS.
EJECTION OF PSEUDOFECES IS FREQUENTLY ASSOCIATED WITH RVCS. SCALLOPS
TESTED SIMULTANEOUSLY WITH BARITE, LIGNOSULFONATE, AND CALCIUM
CARBONATE SHOWED IRREGULAR BUT SIMILAR DOSE-RESPONSE RELATIONSHIPS FOR
THESE TWO RESPONSE MEASURES. THREE OTHER MEASURES (CHANGES IN GAPE
WIDTH, RVC MAGNITUDE, AND NUMBER OF ALL RVCS) WERE NOT RELIABLE
INDICATORS OF RESPONSIVENESS FOR ANY MATERIALS. NONE OF THE MATERIALS
CAUSED SIGNIFICANT CHANGES IN THE NUMBER OF SWIMMING ATTEMPTS, BUT
ONLY ONE-THIRD OF THE ANIMALS EVER ATTEMPTED TO SWIM. SCALLOPS
EXPOSED TO SEAWATER SHOWED NO SIGNIFICANT CHANGE FOR ANY RESPONSE
MEASURE.
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KENDALL, J.J., E.N. POWELL, S.J. CONNOR, AND T.J. BRIGHT. 1983. EFFECTS OF
DRILLING FLUIDS (MUDS) AND TURBIDITY ON THE GROWTH AND METABOLIC STATE OF THE
CORAL ACROPORA CERVICORNIS, WITH COMMENTS ON METHODS OF NORMALIZATION FOR
CORAL DATA. BULL. MAR. SCI. 33(2):336-352. (ERL,GB X396).
THE EFFECTS OF A USED DRILLING MUD ON CORAL HEALTH HAVE BEEN EXAMINED
BY MONITORING CHANGES IN CALCIFICATION RATE, SOLUBLE TISSUE PROTEIN
CONCENTRATION AND TOTAL NINHYDRIN POSITIVE SUBSTANCE (NPS)
CONCENTRATION IN THE CORAL ACROPORA CERVICORNIS. EXPOSURE TO A USED
DRILLING MUD REDUCED CALCIFICATION RATE IN GROWING TIPS BY 62%, 83%
AND 88% AT 25 PPM, 50 PPM AND 100 PPM (V/V), RESPECTIVELY AFTER A 24-H
EXPOSURE PERIOD. SOLUBLE TISSUE PROTEIN CONCENTRATION DROPPED
SIGNIFICANTLY IN THE GROWING TIP AFTER 24 H EXPOSURE TO A SOLUTION OF
25-, 50-, 100- AND 500-PPM DRILLING MUD FOR 24 H. EQUIVALENT
CONCENTRATIONS OF KAOLIN (TO PRODUCE TURBIDITY) CAUSED NO DROP IN BPS
OR PROTEIN CONCENTRATION AND A MUCH LOWER DROP IN CALCIFICATION RATE
SUGGESTING THAT THE TOXIC EFFECTS OBSERVED FOR THE DRILLING MUD USED
WERE NOT CAUSED BY AN INCREASE IN TURBIDITY ALONE. THE SIGNIFICANT
DROP IN PROTEIN CONCENTRATION SUGGESTS THAT THE USE OF PROTEIN OR
OTHER TISSUE COMPONENTS FOR NORMALIZATION IN CORALS MAY NOT BE
JUSTIFIED IN SOME CASES AND SHOULD BE VIEWED WITH CAUTION.
KENDALL, J.J., JR., E.N. POWELL, S.J. CONNOR, T.J. BRIGHT, AND C.E. ZASTROW.
1984. IMPORTANCE OF MONITORING METABOLIC RECOVERY IN THE CORAL ACROPORA
CERVICORNIS AFTER SHORT-TERM EXPOSURE TO DRILLING MUDS: CALCIFICATION RATE
AND PROTEIN CONCENTRATION. CORAL REEFS. 2:215-225. (ERL,GB X008).
THE EFFECT OF USED DRILLING MUDS ON CORAL HEALTH WAS EXAMINED BY
MONITORING CHANGES IN CALCIFICATION RATE AND SOLUBLE TISSUE PROTEIN
CONCENTRATION IN THE CORAL ACROPORA CERVICORNIS. EXPOSURE TO 25 PPM
(V/V) OF ONE MUD FOR 24 H REDUCED CALCIFICATION RATE IN THE GROWING
TIPS BY AS MUCH AS 62%. IN RECOVERY EXPERIMENTS, CORALS WERE EXPOSED
TO DRILLING MUDS FOR 24 H; SOME OF THERE WERE ALLOWED TO RECOVER IN
CLEAN SEAWATER FOR 48-H. AFTER THE 24-HOUR EXPOSURE, CALCIFICATION
RATES WERE SIGNIFICANTLY LESS THAN THOSE OF THE CONTROLS. AFTER A
48-HOUR RECOVERY PERIOD, CALCIFICATION RATES RETURNED TO CONTROL
LEVELS FOR ONE MUD BUT WERE STILL SIGNIFICANTLY BELOW CONTROL LEVELS
FOR ANOTHER. THE RESULTS INDICATE THAT THE CAPACITY FOR RECOVERY AFTER
EXPOSURE CANNOT BE PREDICTED FROM THE RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS ON
EXPOSURE ONLY. RECOVERY CAPACITY MUST BE INDEPENDENTLY VERIFIED FOR
ALL STUDIES ON THE EFFECTS OF SHORT-TERM EXPOSURE TO DRILLING MUDS.
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KOENIG, MICHAEL L., ERIC N. POWELL, AND MARGARET R. KASSCHAU. 1981. EFFECTS
Of SALINITY CHANGE ON THE FREE AMINO ACID POOLS OF TWO NEREID POLYCHAETES
NEANTHES SUCCINEA AND LEONEREIS CULVERI. COMP. BIOCHEM. PHYSIOL. A COMP
PHYSIOL. 70A(4)t631-637. CERL,GB X413).
1. THE RESPONSE OF THE FREE AMINO ACID POOLS OF TWO NEREID
POLYCHAETES, NEANTHES SUCCINEA AND LAEONEREIS CULVERI TO BOTH
INCREASED AND DECREASED SALINITIES WAS EXAMINED. IN BOTH SPECIES,
GLYCINE AND ALANINE ACCOUNTED FOR MOST OF THE OBSERVED CHANGE IN THE
TOTAL FREE AMINO ACID (FAA) POOL SIZE. 2. GLUTAMINE VALUES INCREASED
UNDER HYPO-OSMOTIC CONDITIONS SUGGESTING THAT THIS AMINO ACID PLAYS A
ROLE IN NITROGEN STORAGE DURING THE REDUCTION IN FAAS WHICH OCCURS
WITH REDUCED SALINITY. 3. THE SALINITY REPSONSE WAS SUPERIMPOSED ON A
"LABORATORY STRESS" RESPONSE CHARACTERIZED BY A GENERALIZED INCREASE
IN THE FAA POOL SIZE, THE TWO RESPONSES APPEARED TO BE ADDITIVE IN
NATURE. 4. SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCES IN THE RESPONSES TO SALINITY CHANGE
IN NEREID POLYCHAETES.
KRONE, M.A., AND D.C. BIGGS. 1980. SUBLETHAL METABOLIC RESPONSES OF THE
HERMATYPIC CORAL MADRACIS DECACTIS EXPOSED TO DRILLING MUD ENRICHED WITH
FERROCHROME LIGNOSULFONATE. IN: SYMPOSIUM; RESEARCH ON ENVIRONMENTAL FATE
AND EFFECTS OF DRILLING FLUIDS AND CUTTINGS, JANUARY 21-24, 1980, LAKE BUENA
VISTA, FL., VOL. 2. AMERICAN PETROLEUM INSTITUTE, WASHINGTON, DC. PP.
1097-1100. (ERL,GB X167*).
MADRACIS DECACTIS CORALS WERE EXPOSED FOR 17 DAYS IN LABORATORY
AQUARIA TO SUSPENSIONS OF 100 PPM DRILLING MUD OBTAINED APRIL 1979
FROM A WORKING DRILL RIG IN MOBILE BAY, ALABAMA, AND SPIKED IN THE
LABORATORY WITH 0, 3, AND 10 PPM FERROCHROME LIGNOSULFONATE (FCLS).
DURING THE FIRST WEEK OF EXPOSURE TO DRILL MUD + FCLS, CORALS
INCREASED THEIR OXYGEN CONSUMPTION AND AMMONIUM EXCRETION, RELATIVE TO
UNCONTAMINATED CONTROLS. THOSE CORALS EXPOSED TO THE HIGHEST
ENRICHMENTS OF FCLS DEMONSTRATED THE GREATEST INCREASES IN RESPIRATION
AND EXCRETION AND ALSO THE LARGEST VARIATIONS IN RESPIRATION AND
EXCRETION BETWEEN INDIVIDUAL CORALS. CORALS REACHED THEIR HIGHEST
AVERAGE RATES OF RESPIRATION AND EXCRETION BY THE END OF THE FIRST
WEEK AND, AFTER A SECONDARY INCREASE IN EXCRETION AND RESPIRATION
BETWEEN DAYS 10-13 WHICH WAS MOST PRONOUNCED IN THOSE CORALS EXPOSED
TO FCLS ENRICHMENT, LEVELED OFF AT NEAR-INITIAL RATES BY THE END OF
THE SECOND WEEK. ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE DEMONSTRATED THAT OXYGEN
CONSUMPTION OF FCLS-STRESSED CORALS WAS NOT STATISTICALLY DIFFERENT (P
3 0,24) FROM UNCONTAMINATED CONTROL CORALS. BY CONTRAST, AMMONIUM
EXCRETION WAS SIGNIFICANTLY GREATER (P = 0.10) IN FCLS-STRESSED CORALS
THAN IN UNCONTAMINATED CONTROL ANIMALS. ALL CORALS EXPOSED TO FCLS
REACTED BY REDUCING THEIR DEGREE OF POLYP EXPANSION. TWO OF THESE, ONE
EXPOSED TO 100 PPM DRILL MUD + 3 PPM FCLS AND THE OTHER TO 100 PPM
DRILL MUD •»• 10 PPM FCLS BECAUSE BACTERIALLY INFECTED AND SHOWED LOCAL
AREAS OF POLYP MORTALITY AS THE EXPERIMENT ENTERED ITS SECOND WEEK.
THESE WERE THE TWO CORALS WHICH HAD SHOWN THE MOST RAPID AND MOST
CONSISTENT INCREASES IN EXCRETION AND RESPIRATION DURING THE FIRST
WEEK OF EXPOSURE TO FCLS. WHEN EXPOSURE TO DRILL MUD + FCLS WAS
DISCONTINUED, RESPIRATION AND EXCRETION OF SURVIVING CORALS REMAINED
LOW AND STABLE WHILE THEIR POLYP ACTIVITY RETURNED TO NORMAL LEVELS
WITHIN 48 HOURS.
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KRONE, MICHAEL A. 1981. SUBLETHAL METABOLIC RESPONSES OF THE HERMATYPIC
CORAL MADRACIS DECACTIS EXPOSED TO DRILLING MUD ENRICHED WITH FERROCHROME
LIGNOSULFONATEI FINAL REPORT. EPA-600/4-81-049, U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL
PROTECTION AGENCY, ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LABORATORY, GULF BREEZE, FL. 67P.
MADRACIS DECATIS CORALS WERE EXPOSED FOR 17 DAYS IN LABORATORY AQUARIA
TO SUSPENSIONS OF 100 PPM DRILLING MUD SPIKED WITH 0, 3, AND 10 PPM
FERROCHROME LINGOSULFONATE (FCLS). DURING THE FIRST WEEK OF EXPOSURE,
THESE CORALS INCREASED THEIR OXYGEN CONSUMPTION AND AMMONIUM
EXCRETION, RELATIVE TO UNCONTAMINATED CONTROLS. THOSE CORALS EXPOSED
TO THE HIGHEST ENRICHMENTS OF FCLS DEMONSTRATED THE GREATEST INCREASES
IN RESPIRATION AND EXCRETION AND ALSO THE LARGEST VARIATIONS IN
RESPIRATION AND EXCRETION BETWEEN INDIVIDUAL EXPERIMENTAL ANIMALS.
CORALS REACHED THEIR HIGHEST AVERAGE RATES OF RESPIRATION AND
EXCRETION BY THE END OF THE FIRST WEEK OF CONTINUOUS EXPOSURE. RATES
THEN DECREASED DURING THE NEXT WEEK AND, AFTER A SECONDARY INCREASED
IN EXCRETION AND RESPIRATION BETWEEN DAYS 10-13 WHICH WAS MOST
PRONOUNCED IN THOSE CORALS EXPOSED TO FCLS ENRICHMENT, LEVELED OFF AT
NEAR-INITIAL RATES BY THE END OF THE SECOND WEEK. TWO CORALS, ONE
EXPOSED TO 100 PPM DRILL MUD PLUS 3 PPM FCLS AND THE OTHER TO 100 PPM
DRILL MUD PLUS 10 PPM FCLS, BECAME NOTICEABLY MORIBUND AS THE
EXPERIMENT ENTERED ITS SECOND WEEK. THESE WERE THE TWO CORALS WHICH
SHOWED THE MOST RAPID AND MOST CONSISTENT INCREASED IN EXCRETION AND
RESPIRATION DURING THE FIRST WEEK OF EXPOSURE TO FCLS. BY WEEK TWO,
POLYP EXPANSION IN BOTH OF THESE CORALS WAS DRAMATICALLY REDUCED, AND
EACH WAS REMOVED FROM THE EXPERIMENT WHEN AREAS OF BARE CORALLUM
SUGGESTED THE ONSET OF POLYP DEATH. ALL CORALS EXPOSED TO FCLS REACTED
BY REDUCING THEIR POLYP EXPANSION BEHAVIOR, ALTHOUGH ONLY THE TWO
CITED ABOVE SHOWED MASS POLYP MORTALITY. WHEN EXPOSURE TO DRILL MUD
PLUS FCLS WAS DISCONTINUED, RESPIRATION AND EXCRETION OF SURVIVING
CORALS REMAINED LOW AND STABLE WHILE THEIR POLYP ACTIVITY RETURNED TO
NORMAL LEVELS WITHIN 48 HOURS.
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LEHMAN, H.K., AND P.V. HAMILTON. 1980. SOME FACTORS INFLUENCING THE
DISTRIBUTION OF THE SNAIL NERITINA RECLIVATA. NORTHEAST GULF SCI.
4(1)167-72. CERL,GB X269*).
THE GASTROPOD FAMILY NERITIDAE CONTAINS OVER 200 LIVING SPECIES, MOST
OF WHICH INHABIT INTERTIDAL ZONES IN TROPICAL AND TEMPERATE CLIMATES.
THE OLIVE NERITE, NERITINA RECLIVATA SAY, IS IRREGULARLY DISTRIBUTED
ALONG COASTAL REGIONS OF THE GULF OF MEXICO AND THE CARIBBEAN SEA FROM
10 TO 30 DEGREES N LATITUDE. ITS DISTRIBUTION ENDS IN THE NORTH AT
JACKSONVILLE, FLORIDA ON THE ATLANTIC OCEAN AND IN THE SOUTH AT
TRINIDAD (RUSSELL, 1941). MOST RECORDS OF N. RECLIVATA ARE FROM
COASTAL REGIONS OF THE GULF OF MEXICO, BUT THIS MAY BE DUE TO THE
PAUCITY OF FAUNAL SURVEYS ELSEWHERE IN ITS RANGE. DESPITE THE COMMON
OCCURRENCE OF N. RECLIVATA, IT REMAINS VIRTUALLY UNSTUDIED. RUSSELL
(1941) REPORTED THAT N. RECLIVATA INHABITS BRACKISH AND FRESHWATER,
AND IS ABSENT FROM MANY SMALL ISLANDS IN THE ANTILLES THAT DO NOT
SUPPORT PERMANENT FRESHWATER RIVERS. ACCORDING TO THIS AUTHOR, N.
RECLIVATA IS FOUND ON SOLID SUBSTRATES IN THE WATER, BUT NOT ON THE
MUD. N. RECLIVATA CRAWLS USING MONOTAXIC RETROGRADE WAVES, A TYPE OF
LOCOMOTION OFTEN FOUND IN SPECIES LIVING ON SOLID SUBSTRATE CGAINEY,
1976). PILSBRY (1931) NOTED THE SNAIL'S PRESENCE ON REEDS AND OTHER
AQUATIC PLANTS NEAR DRAINAGE CANALS AND SUGGESTED THAT ALGAE MAY
COMPRISE THE FOOD OF THE SNAIL. WE HAVE COLLECTED N. RELIVATA FROM
HARD SUBSTRATES (E.G., PLANTS, STUMPS, ROCKS) AT LOCATIONS BETWEEN 5
KM UP THE ESCAMBIA RIVER AND THE WESTERN TIP OF THE GULF BREEZE
PENINSULA, SANTA ROSA COUNTY, FLORIDA. THESE LOCATIONS CORRESPOND TO A
SALINITY RANGE OF 1 TO 19 PPT (U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY,
1975). BECAUSE OUR PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS SUGGESTED AN AFFINITY OF
NERITINA FOR SOLID SUBSTRATES, WE INVESTIGATED THIS RELATIONSHIP TO
DETERMINE ITS ECOLOGICAL BASIS.
MORRISON, S.J., AND D.C. WHITE. 1980. EFFECTS OF GRAZING BY ESTUARINE
GAMMARIDEA-N AMPHIPODS ON THE MICROBIOTA OF ALLOCHTHONOUS DETRITUS. APPL.
ENVIRON. MICROBIOL. 40(3)J659-671. (ERL,GB X187*).
ESTUARINE GAMMARIDEAN AMPHIPODS GRAZING AT NATURAL POPULATION DENSITY
ON DETRITAL MICROBIOTA AFFECTED THE MICROBIAL COMMUNITY COMPOSITION,
BIOMASS, AND METABOLIC ACTIVITY WITHOUT AFFECTING THE PHYSICAL
STRUCTURE OF THE LEAVES. TOTAL MICROBIAL BIOMASS ESTIMATED BY
ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE AND LIPID PHOSPHATE OR OBSERVED BY SCANNING
ELECTRON MICROSCOPY WAS GREATER ON GRAZED THAN ON UNGRAZED DETRITUS.
THE RATES OF OXYGEN CONSUMPTION, POLY-B-HYDROXYBUTYRATE SYNTHESIS,
TOTAL LIPID BIOSYNTHESIS, AND RELEASE OF C02-14 FROM RADIOACTIVELY
PRELABELED MICROBIOTA WERE HIGHER ON GRAZED THAN ON UNGRAZED LEAVES,
INDICATING STIMULATION OF THE METABOLIC ACTIVITY OF GRAZED DETRITAL
MICROBES. THIS WAS TRUE WITH RATES BASED EITHER ON THE DRY LEAF
WEIGHT OR MICROBIAL BIOMASS. THERE WAS A FASTER INCREASE IN THE
C-14-GYCLOLIPID THftN IN THE C-14-NEUTRAL LIPID OR C-14-PHOSPHOLIPID
FRACTIONS. ANALYSIS OF SPECIFIC PHOSPHOLIPIDS SHOWED LOSSES OF THE
METABOLICALLY STABLE tC-14)GLYCEROLPHOSPHORYLGLYCEROL WITH AMPHIPOD
GRAZING. THE BIOCHEMICAL DATA SUPPORTED SCANNING ELECTRON MICR-OSCOPY
OBSERVATIONS OF A SHIFT AS THE GRAZING PROCEEDED FROM A
BACTERIAL/FUNGAL COMMUNITY TO ONE DOMINATED BY BACTERIA.
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JERRY M. 1981. FATE AND BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF OIL WELL DRILLING
FLUIDS IN THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT: A LITERATURE REVIEW. EPA-600/3-82-064,
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY, ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LABORATORY, GULF
BREEZE, FL. 150P.
THE MAJOR- ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS ABOUT DISCHARGE OF USED DRILLING MUDS
TO THE OCEAN ARE THAT THEY MAY BE ACUTELY TOXIC OR CAUSE DELETERIOUS
SUBLETHAL EFFECTS IN SENSITIVE ORGANISMS AND ECOSYSTEMS AND THAT HEAVY
METALS ASSOCIATED WITH DRILLING MUDS MAY BE ACCUMULATED BY MARINE
ORGANISMS TO DANGEROUS CONCENTRATIONS. A MAJORITY OF MAJOR DRILLING
MUD INGREDIENTS ARE BIOLOGICALLY INERT OR HAVE A VERY LOW ORDER OF
ACUTE TOXICITY. OF THE MAJOR DRILLING MUD INGREDIENTS, ONLY CHROME-
AND FERROCHROME-LIGNOSULFONATES CAN BE CONSIDERED AT ALL TOXIC. THEIR
TOXICITY IS QUITE LOW TO ALL BUT A FEW SENSITIVE SPECIES (E.G., SOME
CORALS), MINOR INGREDIENTS OF SOME ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERN INCLUDE
SODIUM PHOSPHATE SALTS, DETERGENTS, BIOCIDES (CHLORINATED PHENOLS NO
LONGER ARE PERMITTED FOR OFFSHORE DISPOSAL), CHROMATE SALTS AND
ASPHALT/OIL-BASED INGREDIENTS. ORDINARILY, THESE MATERIALS ARE NOT
USED IN LARGE ENOUGH QUANTITIES TO CAUSE CONCERN. THEIR CONCENTRATIONS
SHOULD BE KEPT LOW IN DRILLING MUDS DESTINED FOR OCEAN DISPOSAL. WHERE
POSSIBLE, LESS TOXIC SUBSTITUTES SHOULD BE USED. TO DATE, THE ACUTE
TOXICITY AND SUBLETHAL BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF MORE THAN 20 USED
OFFSHORE-TYPE DRILLING MUDS HAVE BEEN EVALUATED WITH MORE THAN 60
SPECIES OF MARINE ANIMALS FROM THE ATLANTIC, PACIFIC, GULF OF MEXICO
AND BEAUFORT SEA. REPRESENTATIVES OF FIVE MAJOR ANIMAL PHYLA HAVE BEEN
TESTED, INCLUDING CHORDATA, ARTHROPODA, MOLLUSCA, ANNELIDA AND
ECHINODERMATA. LARVAE AND OTHER EARLY LIFE STAGES, AND OCEANIC SPECIES
(CONSIDERED TO BE MORE SENSITIVE TAN ADULTS AND ESTUARINE SPECIES TO
POLLUTANT STRESS) WERE INCLUDED. IN ALL BUT A FEW CASES, ACUTE
TOXICITY, USUALLY MEASURED AS 96-HR. LC50, WAS 10,000 PPM OR HIGHER
DRILLING MUD ADDED. THE LOWEST ACUTE LC50 VALUE WAS 500 PPM FOR STAGE
I LARVAE OF DOCK SHRIMP PANDALUS DANAE EXPOSED TO A HIGH DENSITY
FERROCHROME LIGNOSULFONATE DRILLING MUD FROM COOK INLET, ALASKA.
CHRONIC OR SUBLETHAL RESPONSES WERE OBSERVED IN A FEW CASES AT
CONCENTRATIONS AS LOW AS 50 PPM.
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NEW ENGLAND AQUARIUM, BOSTON, MA. 1984. SURVEY OF THE TOXICITY AND CHEMICAL
COMPOSITION OF USED DRILLING MUDS. EPA-600/X-84-083, U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL
PROTECTION AGENCY, ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LABORATORY, GULF BREEZE, FL. 109P.
CHEMICAL CHARACTERIZATION AND TOXICITY OF OIL DRILLING FLUIDS WERE
INVESTIGATED BY EDGERTON RESEARCH LABORATORY FROM OCT. 1, 1979 TO
AUG., 1983 AS PART OF A COMPREHENSIVE RESEARCH PROGRAM SPONSORED BY
THE U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY TO DETERMINE FATE AND EFFECTS
OF SUCH FLUIDS IN THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT. DRILLING MUDS USED WERE
SUPPLIED BY EPA, THE PETROLEUM EQUIPMENT SUPPLIERS ASSOCIATION, AND
THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INSTITUTE. THE DRILLING MUDS WERE DESIGNATED
"MAY 15," "MAY 29," "SEPT. 4," "EXXON," "GILSON," "MOBILE BAY," "JAY
FIELD," AND "PESA." INVESTIGATIONS DURING THE FIRST YEAR CENTERED ON
THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND ACUTE TOXICITY OF DRILLING MUDS, AND THE
EFFECTS OF DRILLING MUDS ON RECRUITMENT OF BENTHIC ORGANISMS. IN THE
SECOND YEAR, STUDIES FOCUSED ON TOXICITY TESTING WITH PLANKTONIC
COPEPODS, CHEMICAL CHARACTIERIZATION OF TOXICITY TEST PHASES,
BIOACCUMULATION STUDIES, AND EFFECTS OF MUDS ON LARVAL AND ADULT
BENTHIC ORGANISMS. INVESTIGATIONS DURING THE THIRD AND FOURTH YEAR
EXAMINED SUBLETHAL EFFECTS OF DRILLING FLUIDS ON CLAM LARVAE, TRACE
METAL AND ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS IN BOTH DRILLING FLUIDS AND TOXICITY
TEST-PHASES, AND PRELIMINARY DEVELOPMENT OF A DRILLING FLUID SOLID
PHASE TOXICITY TEST. TOXIC COMPONENTS OF USED DRILLING MUDS TESTED
WERE PRESENT AS DISSOLVED COMPONENTS OR ASSOCIATED WITH VERY SLOWLY
SETTLING PARTICLES. SOME USED DRILLING MUDS CONTAINED LIPOPHILIC
FRACTIONS THAT WERE SIMILAR TO HYDROCARBONS FOUND IN f2 FUEL OIL IN
THE LIQUID FRACTION AND SUSPENDED PARTICULATES FRACTION AND CONTAINED
*2 FUEL OIL IN WHOLE MUDS. MUDS THAT CONTAINED THOSE COMPONENTS WERE
MORE TOXIC THAN THOSE THAT DID NOT. JUVENILE COPEPODS (ACARTlA TONSA)
WERE NOT MORE SENSITIVE TO TOXIC DRILLING MUD SOLUTIONS THAN ADULTS OF
THIS SPECIES. IN GENERAL, CANCER IRRORATUS LARVAE APPEARED TO EXHIBIT
TOXICITY RESPONSES TO DRILLING MUDS THAT WERE SIMILAR TO COPEPODS
TESTED. ARRESTED SHELL DEVELOPMENT INDUCED BY EXPOSURE TO DRILLING
MUDS APPEARED TO BE A SENSITIVE INDICATOR OF STRESS IN BIVALVE LARVAE.
TOTAL CHROMIUM CONCENTRATION SHOWED NO CORRELATION TO TOXICITY IN
DRILLING MUDS THAT WERE TESTED; HOWEVER, THE HIGHEST CONCENTRATIONS OF
CR(VI), THE MOST BIOLOGICALLY TOXIC FORM OF CHROMIUM, OCCURRED IN TEST
PHASES THAT EXHIBITED THE GREATEST TOXICITY TO MERCENARIA MERCENARIA
LARVAE, THE MUDS DESIGNATED "MAY 15" AND "SEPT. 4" APPEARED TO BE
RELATIVELY NON-TOXIC TO PSEUDOPLEURONECTES AMERICANUS AND TO MENIDIA
MENIDIA, ALTHOUGH THE "MAY 15" MUD WAS TOXIC TO NEOMYSIS AMERICANA AND
TO ACARTIA TONSA. A STUDY OF EFFECTS OF DRILLING MUD ON INVERTEBRATE
RECOLONIZATION OF DEFAUNATED SEDIMENT SHOWED THAT RECOLONIZATION
DECREASED IN DRILLING MUD LAYERED ON TOP OF SEDIMENT WHEN MUDS WERE
MIXED WITH SEDIMENTS. CAPITELLA CAPITATA WAS MUCH MORE NUMEROUS IN
RECOLONIZATION SEDIMENTS THAT CONTAINED DRILLING MUD. TEST RESULTS
SHOWED THAT METHODS USED TO PREPARE DRILLING MUD TEST MEDIA AFFECT THE
APPARENT TOXICITY OF. THE MUDS.
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NICKELS, J.S., R.J. BOBBIE, R.F. MARTZ, G.A. SMITH, D.C. WHITE, AND N.L.
RICHARDS. 1981. EFFECT OF SILICATE GRAIN SHAPE, STRUCTURE, AND LOCATION ON
IHE BIOMASS AND COMMUNITY STRUCTURE OF COLONIZING MARINE MICROBIOTA. APPL.
ENVIRON. MICROBIOL. 41(5):1262-1268. (ERL,GB X190*).
MICROBIOTA COLONIZING SILICA GRAINS OF THE SAME SIZE AND WATER PORE
SPACE, BUT WITH A DIFFERENT MICROTOPOGRAPHY, SHOWED DIFFERENCES IN
BIOMASS AND COMMUNITY STRUCTURE AFTER 8 WEEKS OF EXPOSURE TO RUNNING
SEAWATER. THE ABSENCE OF SURFACE CRACKS AND CREVICES RESULTED IN A
MARKED DIMINUTION OF THE TOTAL MICROBIAL BIOMASS MEASURED AS LIPIO
PHOSPHATE AND TOTAL EXTRACTABLE PALMITIC ACID. WITH INCREASING
SMOOTHNESS OF THE SAND GRAIN SURFACE, EXAMINATION OF THE COMMUNITY
STRUCTURE SHOWED A MARKED DECREASE IN PROCARYOTES AND ALGAL
MICROEUCARYOTES, WITH A RELATIVE INCREASE IN MICROEUCARYOTIC GRAZERS.
A COMPARISON OF THE COLONIZING SEDIMENT INCUBATED IN RUNNING SEAWATER
OR AT 32 M ON THE SEA FLOOR WITH A SEDIMENT CORE SHOWED A DECREASED
BACTERIAL BIOMASS WITH A DIFFERENT COMMUNITY STRUCTURE AND A DECREASED
TOTAL MICROEUCARYOTIC POPULATION OF BOTH GRAZERS AND ALGAE. THE
QUANTITATIVE DIFFERENCES IN MICROBIAL BIOMASS AND COMMUNITY STRUCTURE
BETWEEN THE MICROCOSMS AND THE ACTUAL 8ENTHIC POPULATION IN THE CORE
WERE DETERMINED.
PARKER, JEFFREY H., GLEN A. SMITH, HERBERT L. FREDRICKSON, J. ROBIE VESTAL,
AND DAVID C. WHITE. 1982. SENSITIVE ASSAY, BASED ON HYDROXY FATTY ACIDS
FROM LIPOPOLYSACCHARIDE LIPID A, FOR GRAM-NEGATIVE BACTERIA IN SEDIMENTS.
APPL. ENVIRON. MICROBIOL. 44(5):1170-1177. (ERL,GB X338*).
AVAIL. FROM NTIS, SPRINGFIELD, VA: PB83-223693.
BIOCHEMICAL MEASURES HAVE PROVIDED INSIGHT INTO THE BIOMASS AND
COMMUNITY STRUCTURE OF SEDIMENTARY MICROBIOTA WITHOUT THE REQUIREMENT
OF SELECTION BY GROWTH OR QUANTITATIVE REMOVAL FROM THE SEDIMENT
GRAINS. THIS STUDY USED THE ASSAY OF THE HYDROXY FATTY ACIDS RELEASED
FROM THE LIPID A OF THE LIPOPOLYSACCHARIDE IN SEDIMENTS TO PROVIDE AN
ESTIMATE OF THE GRAM-NEGATIVE BACTERIA. THE METHOD dAS SENSITIVE TO
PICOMOLAR AMOUNTS OF HYDROXY FATTY ACIDS. THE RECOVERY OF
LIPOPOLYSACCHARIDE HYDROXY FATTY ACIDS FROM ORGANISMS ADDED TO
SEDIMENTS WAS QUANTITATIVE. THE LIPIDS WERE EXTRACTED FROM THE
SEDIMENTS WITH A SINGLE-PHASE CHLOROFQRM-tfETHANOL EXTRACTION. THE
LIPID-EXTRACTED RESIDUE WAS HYDROLYZED IN 1 N HCL, AND THE HYDROXY
FATTY ACIDS OF THE LIPOPOLYSACCHARIDE WERE RECOVERED IN ABOUT FIVEFOLD
MORE SENSITIVE THAN THE CLASSICAL PHENOL-WATER OF TRICHLOROACETIC ACID
METHODS WHEN APPLIED TO MARINE SEDIMENTS. BY EXAMINATION OF THE
PATTERNS OF HYDROXY FATTY ACIDS, IT WAS ALSO POSSIBLE TO HELP DEFINE
THE COMMUNITY STRUCTURE OF THE SEDIMENTARY GRAM-NEGATIVE BACTERIA.
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PARKER, JEFFREY H., JANET S. NICKELS, ROBERT F. MARTZ, MICHAEL J. GEHRON,
NORMAN L. RICHARDS, AND DAVID C. WHITE. 1984. EFFECT OF WELL-DRILLING
FLUIDS ON THE PHYSIOLOGICAL STATUS AND MICROBIAL INFECTION OF THE REEF
BUILDING CORAL MONTASTREA ANNULARIS. ARCH. ENVIRON. CONTAM. TOXICOL.
13(1)1113-118. (ERL,GB X382).
THE REEF BUILDING CORAL MONTASTREA ANNULARUS WAS EXPOSED CONTINUOUSLY
TO SUSPENSIONS OF OIL AND GAS-WELL DRILLING FLUIDS AT CONCENTRATIONS
OF 0.1 ML LITERC-1), 0.01 ML LITER(-l), AND 0.0001 ML LITER(-l) IN
FLOWING SEAWATER AT THE U.S. NAVAL STAGE I PLATFORM (30 DEGREES 7.5'
N, 85 DEGREES 46.3' W). AFTER 6 WEEKS EXPOSURE, CORAL FRAGMENTS OF 12
TO 65 CMC2) SURFACE AREA WERE BROKEN OFF, RINSED IN SEAWATER, AND
EXTRACTED IN A ONE-PHASE CHLOROFORM-METHANOL-BUFFER AND RETURNED TO
THE LABORATORY. IN THE LABORATORY, THE EXTRACTION WAS COMPLETED AND
THE PHASES SEPARATED. THE LIPIDS WERE FRACTIONATED USING SILICIC ACID
AND THIN LAYER CHROMATOGRAPHY. TOTAL PHOSPHOLIPID, TRIGLYCERIDE
GLYCEROL, TOTAL EXTRACTABLE FATTY ACIDS, TRIGLYCERIDE FATTY ACIDS AS
WELL AS THE ESTER FATTY ALCOHOLS SHOWED NO CONSISTENT CHANGES WITH
EXPOSURE TO THE DRILLING FLUIDS. CHANGES IN FREE AMINO ACID
CONCENTRATIONS WERE EXTRACTED AS WELL AS SIGNIFICANT DECREASES IN THE
RECOVERABLE DIACYL PHOSPHOLIPID. SIGNIFICANT INCREASES IN PLASVALOGEN
PHOSPHOLIPIDS APPEARED WITH EXPOSURE. INCREASES IN PLASMALOGEN
PHOSPHOLIPIDS ARE CONSISTENT WITH INFECTION BY ANAEROBIC FERMENTING
BACTERIA WHICH CAN INDICATE DISEASE. THIS EVIDENCE SUGGESTS THAT
BIOCHEMICAL INDICATORS OF INFECTION WITH ANAEROBIC BACTERIA MAY BE
USEFUL AS SENSITIVE MARKERS FOR POLLUTION-INDUCED CHANGES IN REEF
BUILDING CORALS AND THUS FOR MONITORING THE HEALTH OF CORAL REEFS.
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PARSONS, DEAN, TOM BURKE, TERRY MIGHT, NORMAN RICHARDS, AND SUZANNE BOLTON
1980. DRILLING MUD RESEARCH-OVERSIGHT. IN: OCEANOGRAPHY
MISCELLANEOUS—PART 1, HEARINGS BEFORE THE SUBCOMMITTEE ON OCEANOGRAPHY OF
IHE COMMITTEE ON MERCHANT MARINE AND FISHERIES, HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES,
NINETH-SIXTH CONGRESS, MARCH 3, 1980. U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE,
WASHINGTON, DC. SERIAL NO. 96-28. PP. 1-37. (ERL,GB X165*).
THE SUBCOMMITTEE ON OCEANOGRAPHY MEETS TODAY TO RECEIVE SCIENTIFIC AND
TECHNICAL TESTIMONY CONCERNING AVAILABLE RESEARCH ON THE NATURE AND
COMPOSITION OF DRILL MUDS, DRILL CUTTINGS, AND FORMATION WATERS, AND
THEIR SHORT- AND LONG -TERM EFFECTS ON THE ENVIRONMENT. THESE ARE
MATERIALS EITHER USED IN, OR INCIDENTAL TO, OFFSHORE OIL AND GAS
DRILLING. DRILLING MUDS ARE MIXTURES OF CLAYS, DIVERSE CHEMICALS, AND
WATER WHICH ARE USED AS A LUBRICANT DURING OIL AND GAS OPERATIONS.
THESE MUDS, WHICH VARY GREATLY IN COMPOSITION DEPENDING UPON THE
SPECIFIC REQUIREMENTS OF AN INDIVIDUAL WELL, ARE ALSO PUMPED INTO THE
OIL ELLS TO REINFORCE THE WALLS OF THE DRILLED HOLE, TO WEIGH THE
DRILLING COLUMN WHICH HELPS PREVENT BLOW-OUTS, AND TO TRANSPORT
CUTTINGS TO THE SURFACE. DRILL CUTTINGS ARE THOSE PIECES OF THE SEABED
AND SUBSURFACE ROCK WHICH ARE DISPLACED OR IMPACTED BY THE DRILLING
PROCESS. FORMATION WATERS ARE THE WATERS FOUND IN OFF-SHORE OIL AND
GAS RESERVOIRS WHICH CONTAIN PETROLEUM, DISSOLVED MINERAL SALTS, AND
TRACES OF HEAVY METALS. THESE WATERS ARE GENERALLY SEPARATED FROM THE
OIL AND GAS AT THE SURFACE AND SIMPLY RETURNED TO THE WATER COLUMN
FROM THE OIL RIG. ALL OF THESE MATERIALS CONTAIN POTENTIALLY HAZARDOUS
SUBSTANCES WHICH COULD ADVERSELY AFFECT BIOLOGICAL POPULATIONS. THE
EXTENT OF THAT HAZARD IS THE SUBJECT OF CONSIDERABLE DEBATE WITHIN THE
SCIENTIFIC COMMUNITY WHICH INCLUDES GOVERNMENT, INDUSTRY, AND PRIVATE
RESEARCHERS. IN ORDER TO MAKE INTELLIGENT ASSESSMENTS OF THE EFFECTS
OF CERTAIN ACTIVITIES ON THE DCS, THE CONGRESS AND RELEVANT AGENCIES
MUST HAVE ACCESS TO CONCLUSIVE SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH UPON WHICH TO BASE
THESE ASSESSMENTS. IT IS FOR THIS REASON THAT THE SUBCOMMITTEE HAS
REQUESTED WITNESSES FROM THE DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR, THE NATIONAL
OCEANIC AND ATMOSPHERIC•ADMINISTRATION, AND THE ENVIRONMENTAL
PROTECTION AGENCY TO APPEAR BEFORE IT TO OFFER AN ASESSMENT OF CURRENT
SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE. REPRESENTATIVES OF THE DEPARTMENT OF THE
INTERIOR HAVE STATED IN PAST TESTIMONY THAT THEY POSSESS A "SHELF
FULL" OF STUDIES ON THESE MATERIALS, NONE OF WHICH INDICATES ANY
ADVERSE LONG- OR SHORT-TERM ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS. HOWEVER, IN JULY OF
LAST YEAR NOAA STATED THAT THE EVIDENCE ON THESE MATERIALS WAS
"CONTRADICTORY AND CONTROVERSIAL" AND, IN FACT, RECOMMENDED BARGING OF
THESE MATERIALS OFF GEORGES BANK TO AVOID UNREASONABLE RISK TO THE
FISHERIES. THIS MEMBER HAS SEEN STUDIES WHICH INDICATE "NO EFFECT" AND
OTHERS WHICH INDICATE "SIGNIFICANT EFFECTS." AT LEAST ONE INDUSTRY
PUBLICATION WOULD INDICATE THAT WE DO NOT KNOW THE COMPOSITION OF
THESE MATERIALS, LET ALONE THEIR EFFECTS. THUS, IN AN EFFORT TO
ELIMINATE OUR CONFUSION--TO RESOLVE SOME OF THESE
INCONGRUITIES — TODAY'S HEARING HAS BEEN CALLED.
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POWELL, ERIC N., MARGARET KASSCHAU, EDWARD CHEN, MICHAEL KOENIG, AND JILL
PECON, 1982. CHANGES IN THE FREE AMINO ACID POOL DURING ENVIRONMENTAL
STRESS IN THE GILL TISSUE OF THE OYSTER, CRASSOSTREA VIRGINICA. COMP.
BIOCHEM. PHYSIOL. A COMP. BIOCHEM. 71A(4):591-598. (ERL,G8 X203*).
1. OYSTERS WERE EXPOSED FOR 2- AND 5-DAY PERIODS TO INCREASED SALINITY
(26%-38%), ANOXIA TURBIDITY AND DRILLING EFFLUENTS. 2. AFTER TWO DAYS,
THE FAA POOL IN THE GILL TISSUE OF OYSTERS EXPOSED TO 38% SALINITY HAD
ELEVATED GLYCINE, ALANINE AND B-ALANINE LEVELS; OYSTERS EXPOSED TO
ANOXIA SHOWED ELEVATED GLYCINE AND ALANINE AND DECREASED ASPARTIC ACID
LEVELS. 3. AFTER 2 DAYS, BOTH OYSTERS EXPOSED TO TURBIDITY AND TO
DRILLING EFFLUENTS HAD INCREASED CYSTEIC ACID LEVELS. GLUTAMIC ACID
AND ALANINE LEVELS WERE ALSO ELEVATED IN OYSTERS EXPOSED TO DRILLING
EFFLUENTS. 4, AFTER 5 DAYS, GLYCINE, ALANINE AND B-ALANINE REMAINED
ABOVE CONTROL LEVELS IN OYSTERS EXPOSED TO INCREASED SALINITY WHEREAS
IN THOSE EXPOSED TO ANOXIA, TURBIDITY AND DRILLING EFFLUENTS, A
SIGNIFICANT DECREASE IN MOST AMINO ACIDS OCCURRED WITH THE TOTAL FAA
POOL DECREASING BY 50%. 5. THE FAA POOL'S RESPONSE WAS UNIQUE FOR EACH
STRESS STUDIED SUGGESTING THAT THE FAA POOL MAY PROVE TO BE A USEFUL
DIAGNOSTIC TOOL FOR DETERMINING A POSTERIORI THE CAUSATIVE AGENT
RESPONSIBLE FOR A GIVEN STRESS RESPONSE.
POWELL, E.N., S.J. CONNOR, J.J. KENDALL, C.E. ZASTROW, AND T.J. BRIGHT.
1984. RECOVERY BY THE CORAL ACROPORA CERVICORNIS AFTER DRILLING MUD
EXPOSURE. THE FREE AMINO ACID POOL. ARCH. ENVIRON. COiMTAM. TOXICOL.
13(2)1243-258. (ERL,GB X462*).
CORALS WERE EXPOSED TO DRILLING MUD FOR 24 MR AND THEN ALLOWED TO
RECOVER FOR 48 HR IN CLEAN SEAWATER. DEPENDING ON THE CONCENTRATION
AND THE MUD USED, EXPOSURE PRODUCED EITHER AM INCREASE OR DECREASE IN
FREE AMINO ACID (FAA) POOL SIZE. ASPARTATE WAS AFFECTED TO A GREATER
DEGREE THAN OTHER AMINO ACIDS. NO CLEAR INSTANCE OF RECOVERY COULD BE
ASCERTAINED AFTER 48 HR IN CLEAN SEAWATER. IN SEVERAL CASES, CORALS,
APPARENTLY UNAFFECTED -BY A 24 HR EXPOSURE, NEVERTHELESS SUFFERED
SIGNIFICANT CHANGES IN THE FAA POOL DURING THE 48 HR RECOVERY PERIOD.
THUS, THE DEGREE OF TOXICITY OF THE DRILLING MUD COULD NOT BE
ACCURATELY PREDICTED FROM THE 24 HR EXPOSURE DATA. IN MANY CASES, THE
CHOICE OF NORMALIZING PARAMETER DETERMINED WHETHER TWO SETS OF DATA
WERE SIGNIFICANTLY DIFFERENT OR NOT ACCURATE EFFECTS ASSESSMENT
DEPENDS ON A COMPARISON OF NORMALIZATION TO CONFIRM STATISTICAL
RESULTS.
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RAO, K. RANGA, AND DANIEL G. DOUGHTIE. IN PRESS. HISTOPATHOLOGICAL CHANGES
IN GRASS SHRIMP EXPOSED TO CHROMIUM, PENTACHLOROPHENOL, AND DITHIOCARBAMATES.
{N! RESPONSES OF MARINE ANIMALS TO POLLUTANTS. J. HEATH AND J. STEGEMAN,
EDITORS, ELSEVIER/APPLIED SCIENCE PUBLISHERS. (ERL,GB X435).
THIS REPORT DEALS WITH THE HISTOPATHOLOGICAL/ULTRASTRUCTURAL CHANGES
IN VARIOUS TISSUES OF GRASS SHRIMP PALAEMONETES PUGIO) EXPOSED TO
HEXAVALENT AQUATREAT DNM-30 (15% SODIUM DIMETHYL DITHIOCARBAMATE PLUS
15% DISODIUM ETHYLENE BISDITHIOCARBAMATE) AND BUSAN-85 (50% POTASSIUM
DIMETHYL DITHIOCARBAMATE). THE PATHOLOGICAL ALTERATIONS INDUCED BY
DITHIOCARBAMATES AND PCP WERE MOST SEVERE AND FIRST EVIDENT IN THE
GILLS OF THE BIOCIDES TESTED, THE DITHIOCARBAMATES CAUSED THE MOST
EXTENSIVE BRANCHIAL DAMAGE--THE SO CALLED BLACK GILL SYNDROME,
INVOLVING EARLY MELANIZATION AND EVENTUAL LAMELLAR TRUNCATION.
HEXAVALENT CHROMIUM, ON THE OTHER HAND, DID NOT INDUCE MARKED CHANGES
IN THE GILLS, BUT IT CAUSED INVASIVE MELANIZED CUTICULAR LESIONS
(PARTICULARLY AT THE ARTICULATIONS OF THE PEREIOPODS, PLEOPODS, AND
ABDOMINAL SEGMENTS). ADDITIONALLY CHROMIUM CAUSED APPARENT LABYRINTH
HYPOACTIVITY IN THE ANTENNAL GLANDS, WHEREAS THE DITHIOCARBAMATES
SEEMED TO INDUCE LABYRINTH HYPERACTIVITY. HEPATOPANCREATIC
HISTOPATHOLOGY WAS MORE SEVERE IN SHRIMP EXPOSED TO CHROMIUM AND PCP
THAN IN DITHIOCARBAMATE-EXPOSED SHRIMP. THE APPARENT MITOTIC ACTIVITY
IN THE HEPATOPANCREAS WAS INCREASED IN AQUATREAT-EXPOSED SHRIMP AND
SUPPRESSED IN CHROMIUM-EXPOSED SHRIMP; MANY MITOTIC FIGURES IN THE
LATTER CASE WERE ABNORMAL. ALL FOUR COMPOUNDS CAUSED VARYING DEGREES
OF MIDGUT EPITHELIAL HYPERTROPHY, CYTOPLASMIC VACUOLIZATION, AND
DIMINUTION OF BASAL TUBULAR ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM, BUT ONLY PCP CAUSED
WIDESPREAD RUPTURE OF MIDGUT EPTITHELIAL CELL APICES. ADDITIONAL
NOTABLE ULTRASTRUCTURAL ANOMALIES INCLUDED: MITOCHONDRIAL
COMPARTMENTALIZATION IN PCP-EXPOSED SHRIMP; MITOCHONDRIAL FUSION IN
DITHIOCARBAMATE-EXPOSED SHRIMP. THESE PATHOLOGICAL CHANGES POINT TO
DIFFERENCES IN THE MECHANISMS OF POLLUTANT TOXICITY AND INDICATE THEIR
POTENTIAL USE IN THE BIOLOGICAL MONITORING OF AQUATIC POLLUTANTS.
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RAO, K. RANGA, PHILIP J. CONKLIN, AND ANITA C. BRANNON, 1978. INHIBITION OF
LjMB REGENERATION IN THE GRASS SHRIMP, PALAEMONETES PUGIO, BY SODIUM
PENTACHLOROPHENATE. INl PENTACHLOROPHENOL: CHEMISTRY, PHARMACOLOGY, AND
ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY. K. RANGA RAO, EDITOR, PLENUM PRESS, NEW YORK, NY.
pp. 193-203. (ERL,GB X116*).
THE INITIATION AND PROGRESS OF REGENERATION FOLLOWING THE REMOVAL OF
THE LEFT FIFTH PEREIOPOD WERE STUDIED USING THE GRASS SHRIMP,
PALAEMONETES PUGIO. THE REGENERATION PATTERNS OF 400 SHRIMP SUBJECTED
TO VARIOUS TREATMENTS REVEALED THAT SODIUM PENTACHLOROPHENATE CNA-PCP)
AFFECTS THE INITIATION AND PROGRESS OF LIMB REGENERATION. DEPENDING ON
THE CONCENTRATION USED, NA-PCP CAUSED EITHER A COMPLETE INHIBITION OF
REGENERATION, A DELAY OF INITIATION OF LIMB BUD DEVELOPMENT, OR A
REDUCTION OF LIMB BUD GROWTH WITHOUT ALTERING THE INTERMOLT DURATION.
BY COMPARING THE REGENERATION INDICES (R VALUES) OF CONTROL AMD
EXPERIMENTAL SHRIMP NOTED ON SPECIFIED DAYS PRECEDING ECDYSIS AND ON
THE DAY FOLLOWING ECDYSIS IT WAS POSSIBLE TO DETERMINE THE EXTENT (%)
OF INHIBITION OF REGENERATION IN SHRIMP EXPOSED TO NA-PCP. EC50 VALUES
WERE COMPUTED USING PROBIT ANALYSIS. FOR EXAMPLE, THE R VALUES OF
SHRIMP NINE DAYS AFTER LIMB REMOVAL YIELDED THE FOLLOWING EC50 VALUES
WITH 95% CONFIDENCE INTERVALS SHOWN IN PARENTHESIS: UMFED SHRIMP,
0.473 PPM NA-PCP C0.306-0.670); FED SHRIMP, 0.565 PPM (0.452-0.706).
THE EC50 VALUES BASED ON POSTECDYSIAL R VALUES WERE: UNFED SHRIMP,
0.615 PPM NA-PCP CO.451-0.852); FED SHRIMP, 0.637 PPM CO. 485-0.850).
THE INHIBITORY EFFECTS OF NA-PCP WERE MORE PRONOUNCED ON THE INITIAL
PHASES OF LIMB REGENERATION (INVOLVING WOUND HEALING, CELL DIVISION
AND DEDIFFERENTIATION) THAN ON THE LATER PHASES OF REGENERATION
(INVOLVING FURTHER DIFFERENTIATION AND CELLULAR ENLARGEMENT).
CRUSTACEAN LIMB REGENERATION CAN BE USED AS A SENSITIVE BIOASSAY FOR
STUDYING THE EFFECTS OF CHEMICAL POLLUTANTS.
RAO, K. RANGA, FERRIS R. FOX, PHILIP J. CONKLIN, ANGELA C. CANTELMO, AND
ANITA C. BRANNON. 1979. PHYSIOLOGICAL AND BIOCHEMICAL INVESTIGATIONS OF THE
TOXICITY OF PENTACHLOROPHENOL TO CRUSTACEANS. IN: MARINE POLLUTION:
FUNCTIONAL RESPONSES. W.B. VERNBERG, A. CALABRESE, F. THURBERG, AND F.J.
VERNBERG, EDITORS, ACADEMIC PRESS, NEW YORK, NY. PP. 307-339. CERL,GB
X117*),
A SERIES OF PHYSIOLOGICAL AND BIOCHEMICAL INVESTIGATIONS TO DETERMINE
THE TOXICITY OF PENTACHLOROPHENOL TO CRUSTACEANS ARE DESCRIBED. THE
STUDIES FOCUS ON; (1) THE TOXICITY OF NA-PCP TO GRASS SHRIMP AT
DIFFERENT STAGES OF THE MOLT CYCLE; (2) THE EFFECTS OF NA-PCP ON LIMB
REGENERATION IN GRASS SHRIMP, (3) THE EFFECTS OF HA-PCP AND
2,4-DINITROPHENOL CDNP) ON OXYGEN CONSUMPTION BY GRASS SHRIMP AND
TISSUES FROM BLUE CRABS, AND (4) THE EFFECTS OF NA-PCP AND DNP ON BLUE
CRAB HEPATOPANCREATIC ENZYMES. TESTS WITH DNP, ALSO A KNOWN UMCOUPLER,
PERMITTED A COMPARISON OF THE EFFECTS OF BOTH PHENOLS.
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RAO, K. RANGA, FERRIS R. FOX, PHILIP J. CONKLIN, AND ANGELA C. CANTELMO.
1981. COMPARATIVE TOXICOLOGY AND PHARMACOLOGY OF CHLOROPHENOLS: STUDIES ON
THE GRASS SHRIMP, PALAEMONETES PUGIO. IN: BIOLOGICAL MONITORING OF MARINE
POLLUTION. J. VERNBERG, F. THURBERG, A. CALABRESE, AND W. VERNBERG, EDITORS,
ACADEMC PRESS, INC., NEW YORK. PP. 37-72. (ERL,GB X235*).
EXPERIMENTS WITH THE GRASS SHRIMP, PALAEMONETES PUGIO, TO ASSESS THE
TOXICITY OF SEVERAL CHLOROPHENOLS: 2,4-DICHLOROPHENOL,
2,4,5-TRICHLOROPHENOL, 2,4,6-TRICHLOROPHENOL,
2,3,4,5-TETRACHLOROPHENOL, 2 , 3 , 4,6-TETRACHLOROPHENOL,
2,3,5,6-TETRACHLOROPHENOL, AND PENTACHLOROPHENQL ARE DESCRIBED.
AUTHORS REPORT A CYCLIC VARIATION IN GRASS SHRIMP SUSCEPTIBILITY TO
VARIOUS CHLOROPHENOLS IN RELATION TO THE MOLT CYCLE. WITH THE
EXCEPTION OF 2,4-DICHLOROPHENOL, THE VARIOUS CHLOROPHENOLS WERE MORE
TOXIC TO MOLTING SHRIMP THAN TO NON-MOLTING SHRIMP IS DUE TO AN
INCREASED BIOACCUMULATION OF THESE DURING THE PERIOD SHORTLY AFTER
MOLTING.
RAO, K. RANGA, DANIEL G. DOUGHTIE, AND PHILIP J. CONKLIN. 1982.
PHYSIOLOGICAL AND HISTOPATHOLOGICAL EVALUATION OF DITHIOCARBAMATE TOXICITY TO
THE GRASS SHRIMP, PALAEMONETES PUGIO. IN: PHYSIOLOGICAL MECHANISMS OF
MARINE POLLUTANT TOXICITY. W.B. VERNBERG, A. CALABRESE, AND F.P. THURBERG,
EDITORS, ACADEMIC PRESS, NEW YORK. PP. 413-445. (ERL,GB X369*).
AVAIL. FROM NTIS, SPRINGFIELD, VA: PB83-247205.
TOXICITY TESTS ON AQUATREAT DNM-30 (96 H LC50: 127 PPB) AND BUSAN 85
(96 H LC50: 49 PPB) REVEALED THAT DITHIOCARBAMATES ARE HIGHLY TOXIC
TO MOLTING GRASS SHRIMP (PALAEMONETES PUGIO). THE RESULTS OF THESE
TESTS, WHEN COUPLED WITH OTHER REPORTS ON DITHIOCARBAMATE TOXICITY,
SUGGEST THAT CRUSTACEANS ARE MORE SENSITIVE TO DITHIOCARBAMATES THAN
ARE FISH. IN LIMB REGENERATION STUDIES, BOTH OF THE DITHIOCARBAMATE
FORMULATIONS CAUSED A DOSE-RELATED INHIBITION OF REGENERATIVE LIMB
GROWTH IN GRASS SHRIMP; THE D 4 (96 H) EC50S FOR INHIBITION OF
REGENERATIVE LIMB GROWTH WERE LOWER THAN THE 96 H LC50 VALUES. SINCE
THE NUMBER OF DAYS TO MOLTING WAS NOT SIGNIFICANTLY ALTERED BY
AQUATREAT OR BUSAN-EXPOSURE, DITHIOCARBAMATES APPEAR TO PRIMARILY
EXERT THEIR EFFECT DIRECTLY ON THE DEVELOPING LIMB BUD TISSUE RATHER
THAN THROUGH THE NEUROENDOCRINE SYSTEM. DURING THE COURSE OF EXPOSURE
TO THE DITHIOCARBAMATES, SOME OF THE SHRIMP DEVELOPED GROSS
ABNORMALITIES IN GILL MORPHOLOGY. RESPIRATION STUDIES REVEALED THAT
AQUATREAT AND BUSAN-EXPOSED GRASS SHRIMP EXHIBITED LOWER RATES OF
OXYGEN CONSUMPTION THAN DID CONTROL SHRIMP. HISTOLOGICAL AND
ULTRASTRUCTURAL EXAMINATIONS REVEALED A GRADATION OF PATHOLOGICAL
RESPONSES IN THE CARBAMATE-EXPOSED GILLS--INCLUDING A MASSIVE INFLUX
OF HEMOXYTES INTO DEGENERATING GILL LAMELLAE, THE FORMATION OF
PRESUMABLY MELANIZED PLUGS INTO LAMELLAR APICES, AND THE SLOUGHING OF
THESE PLUGS AND SURROUNDING CUTICLE AT THE ECDYSIS--LEADING TO
LAMELLAR TRUNCATION .AND TO DEGENERATION OF ENTIRE PLEUR08RANCHIAL GILL
PROCESSES. THE OBSERVED DEFENSIVE RESPONSE OF GRANULAR HEMOCYTES TO
DITHIOCARBAMATES IS COMPARABLE TO SOME OF THE PREVIOUSLY DESCRIBED
WOUND HEALING RESPONSES IN OTHER CRUSTACEANS.
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RHOADS, DONALD C., AND LARRY F. BOYER. 1982. EFFECTS OF MARINE BENTHOS ON
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SEDIMENTS! A SUCCESSIONAL PERSPECTIVE. INi
ANIMAL-SEDIMENT RELATIONS. P.L. MCCALL AND M.J.S. TEVESZ, EDITORS, PLENUM
PUBLISHING CORPORATION, NEW YORK. PP. 3-52. CERL,GB 479*).
THIS CHAPTER FOCUSES ON PHYSICAL ORGANISM-SEDIMENT RELATIONS THAT ARE
OF POTENTIAL VALUE IN PREDICTING THE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SEDIMENTS
AND THE TRANSPORT FATES OF FINE-GRAINED SEDIMENTS AND THEIR ASSOCIATED
CONTAMINANTS. GENERALIZATIONS ARE MADE ABOUT HOW EARLY AND LATE
SUCCESSIONAL STAGES INFLUENCE THE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF
SEDIMENTS--SOME OF THE CAUSE-AND-EFFECT RELATIONSHIPS ARE WELL KNOWN,
WHILE OTHERS REMAIN SPECULATIVE. A FEW PROMISING TECHNIQUES AND
APPROACHES FOR FUTURE WORK ARE DISCUSSED.
RUBINSTEIN, NORMAN I., REBECCA RIGBY, AND CHARLES N. D'ASARO. 1980, ACUTE
AND SUBLETHAL EFFECTS OF WHOLE USED DRILLING FLUIDS ON REPRESENTATIVE
ESTUARINE ORGANISMS. INj SYMPOSIUM: RESEARCH ON ENVIRONMENTAL FATE AND
EFFECTS OF DRILLING FLUIDS AND CUTTINGS, JAN. 21-24, 1980, LAKE BUENA VISTA,
Fl., VOL. 2. AMERICAN PETROLEUM INSTITUTE, WASHINGTON, DC. PP. 828-846.
(ERL,GB 160*).
A LONG-TERM (100 DAYS) MULTISPECIES TOXICITY TEST WAS CONDUCTED TO
ELUCIDATE BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF DRILLING FLUIDS ON REPRESENTATIVE
ESTUARINE ORGANISMS AND DEVELOPING BENTHIC COMMUNITIES. ORGANISMS
SELECTED FOR STUDY WERE: THE MYSID SHRIMP, MYSIDOPSIS BAHIA, A WATER
COLUMN CRUSTACEAN, THE OYSTER, CRASSOSTREA VIRGINICA, AN EPIBENTHIC
MOLLUSK, AND A DEPOSIT FEEDING POLYCHAETE, ARENICOLA CRISTATA. RESULTS
INDICATE THAT THE DRILLING FLUIDS TESTED WERE MODERATELY TOXIC TO
MYSIDS AT 30 TO 100 PPM. OYSTER GROWTH WAS ALSO SIGNIFICANTLY
INHIBITED AT THESE CONCENTRATIONS. LUGWORM SURVIVAL IN ALL THREE
CONCENTRATIONS WAS SIGNIFICANTLY REDUCED. FIMALLY, EXCLUSION OF EARLY
COLONIZING MOLLUSKS WAS OBSERVED IN AQUARIA CONTAINING 100 PPM
DRILLING FLUIDS.
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SCHATTEN, GERALD, CALVIN SIMERLY, AND HEIDE SCHATTEN. IN PRESS. EFFECTS OF
BARIUM SULFATE ON SEA URCHIN FERTILIZATION AND EARLY DEVELOPMENT. IN:
WASTES IN THE OCEAN, VOLUME 3. JOHN WILEY 4 SONS, INC., NEW YORK, NY.
(£RL,GB X427).
FERTILIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF SEA URCHINS OFFER AN UNRIVALED SYSTEM
TO STUDY THE CELLULAR CONSEQUENCES OF EXOGENOUS IONS. AT
FERTILIZATION, A VARIETY OF EVENTS OCCUR, INCLUDING THE ACROSOME
REACTION OF THE SPERM, THE CORTICAL REACTION OF THE EGG, SPERM
INCORPORATION, THE UNION OF THE SPERM AND EGG NUCLEI WITHIN THE EGG
CYTOPLASM, BIOELECTRIC CHANGES, THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE BLOCK TO
POLYSPERMY AND THE ACTIVATION OF THE METABOLISM OF THE FERTILIZED EGG.
THESE EVENTS REQUIRE A COMPLEX REPERTOIRE OF ENZYMATIC AND STRUCTURAL
CHANGES IN CELLULAR BEHAVIOR AND ARE REGULATED BY IONIC FLUXES,
PARTICULARLY BY CHANGES IN INTRACELLULAR CALCIUM CONCENTRATION.
BARIUM, A DIVALENT CATION, MIGHT BE EXPECTED TO MIMIC CALCIUM IN THIS
MARINE SYSTEM AND TO INTERFERE WITH THE CELLULAR AND DEVELOPMENTAL
EVENTS NORMALLY REGULATED BY CALCIUM FLUXES. GAMETES FROM THE GULF
COAST SEA URCHINS LYTECHINUS VARIEGATUS AND ARBACIA PUNCTULATA WERE
STUDIED BY LIGHT, ELECTRON AND TIME-LASPE VIDEO MICROSCOPY TO EVALUATE
THE INTERFERENCE BY BARIUM SULFATE WITH NORMAL FERTILIZATION AND
DEVELOPMENT. IN BARIUM SULFATE CONCENTRATIONS ABOVE 1 MILLIMOLAR, ALL
THE NORMAL EVENTS AT FERTILIZATION WERE DRASTICALLY REDUCED; AT 10
MILLIMOLAR BARIUM SULFATE, ZERO PERCENT FERTILIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT
WERE NOTED. THESE RESULTS INDICATE THAT HIGH CONCENTRATIONS (GREATER
THAN 1 MMOL) OF BARIUM SULFATE CAN INTERFERE WITH NORMAL FERTILIZATION
AND DEVELOPMENT OF SEA URCHINS AT SITES THAT ARE USUALLY REGULATED BY
CALCIUM IONS.
SCIENCE APPLICATIONS, INC., LA JOLLA, CA. 1984. DRILL MUD ASSESSMENT
CHEMICAL ANALYSIS REFERENCE VOLUME. EPA-600/3-84-048, U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL
PROTECTION AGENCY. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LABORATORY, GULF BREEZE, FL. 265P.
AVAIL. FROM NTIS, SPRINGFIELD, VA! PB84-17QOOO.
THIS REPORT PRESENTS CONCENTRATIONS OF SPECIFIC METALS AND
HYDROCARBONS IN ELEVEN DRILLING FLUIDS CMUDS) TAKEN FROM OPERATING GAS
AND OIL RIGS IN THE GULF OF MEXICO. EACH DRILLING FLUID WAS ANALYZED
CHEMICALLY FOR HEAVY METAL AND HYDROCARBON CONTENT IN THREE DISTINCT
PHASES: en THE BULK OR WHOLE MUD, (2) A SUSPENDED PHASE DERIVED FROM
THE BULK MUD SAMPLE, AND (3) A "DISSOLVED" OR LIQUID PHASE. ALIQUOTS
OF BULK MUDS WERE REMOVED FOR BARIUM ANALYSES BY INSTRUMENTAL NEUTRON
ACTIVATION AND FOR ANALYSIS FOR IRON, ALUMINUM, LEAD, ZINC, CADMIUM,
COPPER, STRONTIUM, AND CALCIUM BY ATOMIC ABSORPTION ANALYSIS. ANALYSIS
OF THE SUSPENDED PARTICULATE AND LIQUID PHASES WAS SIMILAR. THE
AROMATIC AND ALIPHATIC CONTENT OF THE THREE PHASES WERE DETERMINED BY
EXTRACTION AND THE FRACTIONATION BY COLUMN CHROMATOGRAPHY. THE
ANALYSIS FOR EACH OF THE 11 DRILLING FLUIDS IS PRESENTED IN FOUR
PARTS: A. DRILLING FLUID CONCENTRATIONS, B. WHOLE DRILLING FLUID
ORGANIC CONCENTRATIONS, C. PARTICULATE PHASE ORGANIC CONCENTRATIONS,
D, "DISSOLVED" PHASE ORGANIC CONCENTRATIONS.
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SMITH, GLEN A., JANET 5. NICKELS, RONALD J. BOBBIE, NORMAN L. RICHARDS, AND
DAVID C. WHITE. 1982. EFFECTS OF OIL AND GAS WELL-DRILLING FLUIDS ON THE
BIOMASS AND COMMUNITY STRUCTURE OF MICROBIOTA THAT COLONIZE SANDS IN RUNNING
SEAWATER. ARCH. ENVIRON. CONTAM. TOXICOL. ll(l):17-23. (ERL,GB X303*).
WELL-DRILLING FLUID AND A NUMBER OF THE KNOWN COMPONENTS (BARITE,
CLAY, ALDACIDE, SURFLO, AND DOWICIDE, WERE TESTED FOR EFFECTS ON THE
BIOMASS AND COMMUNITY STRUCTURE OF THE MICROBIOTA THAT COLONIZE MARINE
SANDS EXPOSED FOR EIGHT WEEKS TO RUNNING AMBIENT SEAWATER. SHADING THE
MICROBIOTA FROM LIGHT DEPRESSED THE MICROFLORA WITHOUT A SIGNIFICANT
EFFECT ON THE BIOMASS, WHILE WELL-DRILLING FLUIDS LAYERED ON THE
SURFACE OR MIXED WITH THE SAND SIGNIFICANTLY INCREASED A COMPONENT OF
THE BACTERIA AND THE MICROFAUNA AS REFLECTED IN CHANGES IN THE FATTY
ACID COMPOSITION. THERE WERE SOME SHADING EFFECTS FROM THE SURFACE
LAYERING OF WELL-DRILLING FLUIDS AS REFLECTED IN THE FATTY ACIDS FROM
THE MICROFLORA WHEN COMPARED TO THE SANDS MIXED WITH WELL-DRILLING
FLUIDS. BARITE HAD ESSENTIALLY NO EFFECT ON THE BIOMASS OR COMMUNITY
STRUCTURE WHILE CLAYS INCREASED NEARLY ALL OF THE BIOMASS INDICATORS
FOR THE BACTERIA AS WELL AS THE MICROFAUNA; THE CLAY OVERLAY MIRRORS
THE EFFECT OF THE DRILLING FLUIDS. ALDACIDE SHIFTED THE BACTERIAL
COMPOSITION, DEPRESSING THE PROPORTIONS OF MICROBES CONTAINING THE
CYCLOPROPANE FATTY ACIDS AND THE ANAEROBIC PATHWAYS OF DESATURATION.
CONCENTRATIONS OF 1 AND 15 UG/L INCREASED THE BACTERIAL BIOMASS AS
REFLECTED IN THE TOTAL LIPID (16:0) AND EXTRACTABLE LIPID PHOSPHATE
COUPLED WITH A DECREASE IN THE TOTAL MICROEUKARYOTES. SURFLO INCREASED
IN THE BIOMASS AND SHIFTED THE BACTERIAL COMMUNITY STRUCTURE AT
CONCENTRATIONS BETWEEN 4 AND 800 UG/L. THE LOWEST LEVEL ALSO
STIMULATED THE MICROFAUNA. DOWICIDE AT 100 UG/L INCREASED THE BACTERIA
FORMING CISVACCENIC ACID AND THE MICROFAUNA SIMILAR TO LOW
CONCENTRATIONS OF SURFLO.
SZMANT-FROELICH, A., V. JOHNSON, T. HOEHN, J. BATTEY, G.J. SMITH, E.
FLEISCHMANN, j. PORTER, AND D. DALLMEYER. 1932. PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF
OIL-DRILLING MUDS ON THE CARIBBEAN CORAL MONTASTREA ANNULARIS. IN: REEF AND
MAN: PROCEEDINGS OF THE FOURTH INTERNATIONAL CORAL REEF SYMPOSIUM, MANILA,
PHILIPPINES, 18-22, MAY, 1981. EDGARDO D. GOMEZ, ET AL., EDITOR, MARINE
SCIENCES CENTER, UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES, QUEZON CITY, PHILIPPINES.
PP. 163-168. (ERL,GB X307*).
THE EFFECT OF CHRONIC EXPOSURE TO DRILLING MUDS ON THE REEF CORAL
MONTASTREA ANNULARIS WAS INVESTIGATED. COLONIES WERE EXPOSED FOR 6
WEEKS TO CONCENTRATIONS OF 0, 1, 10 AND 100 PPM DRILLLING MUD IN A
FLOW-THRU SEAWATER SYSTEM. WEEKLY MEASUREMENTS WERE MADE OF CORAL
RESPIRATION, PHOTOSYNTHESIS, CALCIFICATION AND NH4 AND N03 UPTAKE
RATES. CALCIFICATION AND RESPIRATION RATES OF CORALS EXPOSED TO 100
PPM DRILLING MUD DECREASED BY 53% AND 25% RESPECTIVELY AFTER 4 WEEKS
OF EXPOSURE AND BY 84% AND 40% AFTER 6 WEEKS. GROSS PHOTOSYNTHESIS WAS
REDUCED BY 26% AFTER 5 WEEKS. N03 UPTAKE RATES DECREASED BY 42% AND
48% AFTER 4 AND'6 WEEKS WHILE NH4 UPTAKE DECREASED BY 32% AND 49%
AFTER 5 AND 6 WEEKS OF EXPOSURE. SEVERAL OF THE 100 PPM COKALS DIED
BEFORE THE END OF THE EXPERIMENT, WHILE NONE OF THE OTHER CORALS DIED.
CALCIFICATION AND RESPIRATION RATES OF 10 PPM CORALS WERE LOWER BUT
NOT SIGNIFICANTLY DIFFERENT FROM THOSE OF CONTROLS. BRINE SHRIMP
EXTRACT ELICITED NORMAL FEEDING RESPONSES FROM CONTROL, 1 PPM AND 10
PPM CORALS BUT NOT FROM THE 100 PPM CORALS AFTER 6 WEEKS OF EXPOSURE
TO DRILLING MUD. THE LATTER GROUP STILL DID NOT RESPOND TO THE EXTRACT
AFTER A 1-WEEK RECOVERY PERIOD IN CLEAN SEAWATER.
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SZMANT-FROELICH, ALINA. 1983. PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF DRILLING MUDS ON
REEF CORALS. EPA-600/3-83-013, U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY,
ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LABORATORY, GULF BREEZE, FL. 54P.
PIECES OF CORAL FROM TWO SPECIES, MONTASTREA ANNULARIS AND ACROPORA
CERVICORN1S, WERE EXPOSED IN THE LABORATORY TO CONCENTRATIONS OF 0, 1,
10, AND 100 PPM DRILLING MUD FOR PERIODS TWO DAYS TO SEVEN WEEKS.
SEVERAL PHYSIOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS OF THE CORAL ANIMAL (CALCIFICATION
RATE, RESPIRATION RATE) AND OF THEIR ZOOXANTHELLAE (PHOTOSYNTHESIS
RATE, NUTRIENT UPTAKE RATED WERE MONITORED AT REGULAR INTERVALS DURING
THE EXPOSURE PERIODS, IN ADDITION, BIOMASS PARAMETERS (TISSUE
NITROGEN, ZOOXANTHELLAE CELL DENSITY, CHLOROPHYLL CONTENT) WERE
MEASURED AT TWO-WEEK INTERVALS FOR THE LONGER EXPOSURE EXPERIMENT, AND
AT THE END OF EACH EXPERIMENT FOR THE SHORTER EXPOSURES. INITIAL
LONG-TERM EXPOSURES OF PIECES OF MONTASTREA ANNULARIS TO A SERIES OF
DRILL MUDS (DESIGNATED JX-2 THROUGH JX-7) COLLECTED FROM A JAY
OIL-FIELD WELL SHOWED A SIGNIFICANT DETRIMENTAL EFFECT ON
CALCIFICATION, RESPIRATION, AND N0(3) UPTAKE RATES DURING THE FOURTH
WEEK OF EXPOSURE TO 100 PPM DRILL MUD. PHOTOSYNTHESIS AND NH(4) UPTAKE
RATES WERE AFFECTED ALSO DURING THE FIFTH WEEK OF EXPOSURE. NORMAL
FEEDING BEHAVIOR WAS ABSENT FROM THESE CORALS WHEN TESTED DURING THE
SIXTH AND SEVENTH WEEKS OF EXPOSURE. SEVERAL 100 PPM CORALS DIED
DURING THE FIFTH AND SIXTH WEEKS.
TAGATZ, MARLIN E., JOEL M. IVEY, JAMES C. MOORE, AND MICHAEL TOBIA. 1977.
EFFECTS OF PENTACHLOROPHENOL ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF ESTUARINE COMMUNITIES. J.
TOXICOL. ENVIRON. HEALTH. 3(3 ): 501-506. (ERL,GB 310*).
AVAIL. FROM NTIS, SPRINGFIELD, VA: PB-277 154.
PENTACHLOROPHENOL AFFECTED THE COMPOSITION OF COMMUNITIES OF ESTUARINE
ORGANISMS DEVELOPED IN SAND FROM PLANKTONIC LARVAE IN ESTUARINE WATER
THAT FLOWED THROUGH TEN CONTROL AQUARIA AND TEN AQUARIA PER EXPOSURE
CONCENTRATION AVERAGING 7, 76, OR 622 MG/LITER. ANNELIDS, ARTHROPODS,
AND MOLLUSKS WERE THE- NUMERICALLY DOMINANT PHYLA WHEN ANIMALS WERE
COLLECTED IN A 1-MM-MESH SIEVE AFTER 9 WK OF EXPOSURE. MOLLUSKS WERE
MARKEDLY FEWER AT 7 MG/LITER; ANNELIDS AND ARTHROPODS AT 76 MG/LITER.
ALMOST NO ANIMALS OCCURRED AT 622 MG/LITER. THE TOTAL NUMBERS OF
INDIVIDUALS AND SPECIES WERE SIGNIFICANTLY LESS (A=0.01) IN AQUARIA
EXPOSED TO 76 MG/LITER THAN IN THOSE UNEXPOSED OR EXPOSED TO 7
MG/LITER.
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TAGATZ, MARLIN E., AND MICHAEL TOBIA. 1978. EFFECT OF BARITE (BAS04) OM
DEVELOPMENT OF ESTUARINE COMMUNITIES. ESTUARINE COASTAL MAR. SCI.
7(4):401-407. (ERL,GB 340).
BARITE CBAS04), THE PRIMARY COMPONENT OF OIL DRILLING MUDS, AFFECTED
THE COMPOSITION OF ESTUARINE COMMUNITIES DEVELOPED FROM PLANKTONIC
LARVAE IN AQUARIA CONTAINING SAND AND FLOWING ESTUARINE WATER. AQUARIA
CONTAINED: SAND ONLY; A MIXTURE CBY VOLUME) OF i PART BARITE AND 10
PARTS SAND? 1 PART BARITE, AND 3 PARTS SAND; OR SAND COVERED BY 0.5 CM
BARITE. FOR ALL ENVIRONMENTS, ANNELIDS AND MOLLUSKS WERE THE
NUMERICALLY DOMINANT PHYLA COLLECTED IN A 1-MM-MESH SIEVE AFTER 10
WEEKS EXPOSURE; A TOTAL OF 3020 ANIMALS, REPRESENTING 59 SPECIES, WAS
COLLECTED. SIGNIFICANTLY FEWER ANIMALS AND SPECIES CA=0.01) DEVELOPED
IN AQUARIA SAND COVERED BY BARITE THAN IN AQUARIA UNEXPOSED OR EXPOSED
TO 1 BARITEUO SAND. NUMBER OF ANIMALS IN AQUARIA CONTAINING 1
BARITE:3 SAND ALSO DIFFERED (A=0.05) FROM THAT IN CONTROL AQUARIA.
ANNELIDS WERE PARTICULARLY AFFECTED AND SIGNIFICANTLY FEWER (A=0.01)
WERE FOUND IN ALL TREATMENTS THAN IN THE CONTROL. MOLLUSKS DECREASED
MARKEDLY IN NUMBER ONLY IN BARITE-COVERED AQUARIA. BARITE, HOWEVER,
DID NOT IMPEDE GROWTH CAS HEIGHT) OF THE ABUNDANT CLAM, LAEVICARDIUM
MORTONI, OR DECREASE ABUNDANCE OF SIX OTHER PHYLA. OUR DATA INDICATE
THAT LARGE QUANTITIES OF THIS COMPOUND, AS DISCHARGED IN OFFSHORE OIL
DRILLING, POSSIBLY COULD ADVERSELY AFFECT THE COLONIZATION OF BENTHIC
ANIMALS.
TAGATZ, M.E., J.M. IVEY, H.K. LEHMAN, AND J.L. OGLESBY. 1978. EFFECTS OF A
LIGNOSULFONATE-TYPE DRILLING MUD ON DEVELOPMENT OF EXPERIMENTAL ESTUARINE
HACROBENTHIC COMMUNITIES. NORTHEAST GULF SCI. 2(1)135-42. CERL,GB 370).
DRILLING MUD, AS USED IN EXPLORATORY DRILLING FOR OIL OFFSHORE,
AFFECTED THE COMPOSITION OF ESTUARINE COMMUNITIES THAT DEVELOPED FROM
PLANKTONIC LARVAE IN AQUARIA CONTAINING SAND AND FLOWING ESTUARINE
WATER. AQUARIA CONTAINED: SAND ONLY; A MIXTURE (BY VOLUME) OF 1 PART
MUD AND 10 PARTS SAND; 1 PART MUD AND 5 PARTS SAND; OR SAND COVERED BY
0.2 CM MUD. FOR ALL ENVIRONMENTS, ANNELIDS, MOLLUSKS, ARTHROPODS, AND
COELENTERATES WERE THE NUMERICALLY DOMINANT PHYLA COLLECTED IN A 1 MM
MESH SIEVE AFTER EIGHT WEEKS EXPOSURE; A TOTAL OF 1,025 ANIMALS,
REPRESENTING 45 SPECIES, WAS COLLECTED. ANNELIDS AND COELENTERATES
WERE SIGNIFICANTLY FEWER (A=0.05) IN AQUARIA CONTAINING DRILLING MUD
THAN IN THE CONTROL AQUARIA. ARTHROPODS WERE SIGNIFICANTLY AFFECTED
ONLY BY MUD COVER OVER SAND; MOLLUSKS ALSO WERE DIMINISHED IN THIS
ENVIRONMENT, BUT NOT SIGNIFICANTLY. EXPOSURE TO CONCENTRATIONS OF
DRILLING MUD REDUCED NOT ONLY THE NUMBER OF INDIVIDUALS, BUT ALSO THE
FREQUENCY OF OCCURENCE OF MACROBENTHIC SPECIES. THUS, THE AVERAGE
NUMBER OF ANNELID SPECIES IN 1 PART MUD: 5 PARTS SAND AQUARIA OR IN
MUD-COVERED AQUARIA WAS SIGNIFICANTLY LESS THAN IN CONTROL AQUARIA.
THE AVERAGE NUMBER OF ARTHROPOD SPECIES PER AQUARIUM WAS ALSO
SIGNIFICANTLY LESS IN MUD-COVER EXPOSURE THAN IN THE CONTROL.
DISCHARGE OF LARGE QUANTITIES OF DRILLING MUD AT LEVELS TESTED IN THE
LABORATORY COULD ADVERSELY AFFECT THE COLONIZATION OF VARIOUS
SUBSTRATA BY BENTHIC ANIMALS IN NATURE.
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TAGATZ, M.E., J.M. IVEY, AND M. TOBIA. 1978. EFFECTS OF DOWICIDE G-ST ON
DEVELOPMENT OF EXPERIMENTAL ESTUARINE MACROBENTHIC COMMUNITIES. INJ
PENTACHLOROPHENOL: CHEMISTRY, PHARMACOLOGY, AND ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY.
K, RANGA RAO, EDITOR, PLENUM PRESS, NY. PP. 157-163. (ERL,GB 352).
AQUARIA CONTAINING CLEAN SAND RECEIVED A CONTINUOUS SUPPLY OF FLOWING
SEAWATER FROM SANTA ROSA SOUND, FLORIDA, MIXED WITH KNOWN QUANTITIES
OF DOWICIDE G-ST (79% SODIUM PENTACHLOROPHENATE) FOR THIRTEEN WEEKS.
THE MEASURED CONCENTRATIONS OF PENTACHLOROPHENOL (PCP) IN AQUARIA WERE
1.8, 15.8 AND 161 MG/L. AT THE END OF THE EXPERIMENT, MACROFAUNA
ESTABLISHED IN CONTROL AND EXPERIMENTAL AQUARIA WAS EXAMINED.
MOLLUSKS, ARTHROPODS AND ANNELIDS WERE NUMERICALLY DOMINANT AMONG THE
MACROFAUNA. ALTHOUGH EXPOSURE TO 1.8 MG PCP/L HAD NO EFFECT, THE
HIGHER CONCENTRATIONS OF PCP CAUSED MARKED REDUCTION IN THE NUMBERS OF
INDIVIDUALS AND SPECIES. MOLLUSKS WERE THE MOST SENSITIVE TAXONOMIC
GROUP TO PCP. THESE RESULTS AND OUR PREVIOUS STUDIES ON THE EFFECTS OF
A NINE-WEEK EXPOSURE TO PCP IN THE ESTABLISHMENT OF MACROBENTHIC
COMMUNITIES INDICATE THAT DISCHARGE OF PCP INTO NATURAL WATERS COULD
ALTER THE NORMAL COLONIZATION BY BENTHIC ANIMALS AND COULD IMPACT
VARIOUS ECOLOGICAL RELATIONSHIPS AMONG LOCALIZED POPULATIONS.
1AGATZ, M.E., J.M. IVEY, AND J.L. OGLESBY. 1979. TOXICITY OF DRILLING-MUD
BIOCIDES TO DEVELOPING ESTUARINE MACROBENTHIC COMMUNITIES. NORTHEAST GULF
SCI. 3C2):88-95. (ERL,GB 391).
THE EFFECTS OF VARIOUS BIOCIDES, AS USED IN DRILLING MUDS FOR
EXPLORATORY DRILLING FOR OIL OFFSHORE, WERE DETERMINED BY COMPARING
MACROBENTHIC COMMUNITIES THAT DEVELOPED FROM PLANKTONIC LARVAE IN
TREATED AND UNTREATED AQUARIA. SURFLO-B33 A,JD ALDACIDE WERE TESTED
SIMULTANEOUSLY. HARVEST AT SEVEN WEEKS YIELDED 1,941 ANIMALS,
REPRESENTING 37 SPECIES OF 6 PHYLA. THE EFFECTS OF SURFLO-B33 (25%
DICHLOROPHENOL AND OTHER CHLOROPHENALS) ON THESE COMMUNITIES WERE
SIMILAR TO 'THOSE OF PENTACHLOROPHENOL (TAGATZ ET AL., 1977; 1978), A
BIOCIDE KNOWN TO BE TOXIC TO MANY AQUATIC ORGANISMS (RAO, 1978).
SIGNIFICANTLY FEWER (A=0.05) CHORDATES, MOLLUSKS, AND ANNELIDS
OCCURRED IN 819 MG SURFLO-B33/1 (MEASURED) THAN IN THE CONTROL;
MOLLUSKS WERE MOST SENSITIVE AND ALSO SIGNIFICANTLY FEWER IN AQUARIA
RECEIVING 41 MG/1. AVERAGE NUMBERS OF ANIMALS AND SPECIES PER AQUARIUM
DID NOT SIGNIFICANTLY DECREASE IN ALDACIDE (91% PARAFORMALDEHYDE) AT
NOMINAL CONCENTRATIONS OF 15 AND 300 MG/1. THE HIGH TOXICITY OF THE
CHLOROPHENOLS TESTED INDICATES THAT THE USE OF ALTERNATIVE BIOCIDES,
POSSIBLY PARAFORMALDEHYDE, SHOULD BE CONSIDERED FOR NATURAL WATERS.
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IAGATZ, M.E., J.M. IVEY, H.K. LEHMAN, M. TOBIA, AND J.L. OGLESBY. 1980.
EFFECTS OF DRILLING MUD ON DEVELOPMENT OF EXPERIMENTAL ESTUARINE MACROBENTHIC
COMMUNITIES. INt SYMPOSIUM: RESEARCH ON ENVIRONMENTAL FATE AND EFFECTS OF
DRILLING FLUIDS AND CUTTINGS, JANUARY 21-24, 1980, LAKE BUENA VISTA, FL.,
VOL. 2. AMERICAN PETROLEUM INSTITUTE, WASHINGTON, DC. PP. 847-865. (ERL.GB
401*).
THE EFFECTS OF DRILLING MUD ON DEVELOPMENT OF ESTUARINE MACROBENTHIC
COMMUNITIES, WHICH RESULT FROM SETTLING PLANKTONIC LARVAE, WERE
ASSESSED BY COMPARING NUMBER AND SPECIES OF ANIMALS THAT GREW IN
UNCONTAMINATED AND CONTAMINATED AQUARIA FOR AT LEAST 7 WEEKS. AQUARIA
CONTAINED SAND AND WERE CONTINUOUSLY SUPPLIED WITH UNFILTERED
SEAWATER. WE TESTED WHOLE DRILLING MUD, BARITE (MUD-WEIGHTING AGENT),
A PARAFORMALDEHYDE-TYPE BIOCIDE (ALDACIDE), AND THREE
CHLOROPHENOL-TYPE BIOCIDES (PENTACHLOROPHENOL, DOWICIDE G-ST, AND
SURFLO B-33). TESTS WITH WHOLE DRILLING MUD AND BARITE WERE DESIGNED
TO DETERMINE THEIR IMPACT AS A COVER (2 OR 5 MM) OVER THE SUBSTRATUM
AND WHEN MIXED WITH CLEAN SAND (RATIOS OF ItlO SAND AND HIGHER).
ANNELIDS WERE MOST SENSITIVE TO DRILLING MUD AND BARITE AND
SIGNIFICANTLY FEWER (P-0.05) IN ALL CONTAMINATED AQUARIA THAN IM
CONTROL AQUARIA. FOR ALL PHYLA, THE AVERAGE NUMBER OF SPECIES PER
AQUARIUM WAS SIGNIFICANTLY LESS IN TREATMENTS WITH A COVER OF MUD OR
BARITE THAN IN THE CONTROLS. MOLLUSKS WERE PARTICULARLY AFFECTED BY
THE CHLOROPHENOL-TYPE BIOCIDES AND SIGNIFICANTLY FEWER (P=0.05) AT
CONCENTRATIONS (ACTIVE INGREDIENT IN WATER) OF 7 MICROGRAMS
PENTACHLOROPHENOL/1, 18 MICROGRAMS DOWICIDE G/l, AND 10 MICROGRAMS
SURFLO B-33/1. NUMBERS OF INDIVIDUALS AND SPECIES OF ANNELIDE PER
EXPERIMENTAL AQUARIUM WERE ALSO SIGNIFICANTLY LESS THAN IN CONTROL
AQUARIA AT 76 MICROGRAMS PENTACHLOROPHENOL/1, 183 MICROGRAMS DOWICIDE
G/l, AND 205 MICROGRAMS SURFLO B-33/1. NUMBERS OF ANIMALS AND SPECIES
DID NOT SIGNIFICANTLY DECREASE IN THE PRESENCE OF ALDACIDE AT NOMINAL
CONCENTRATIONS (ACTIVE INGREDIENT) AS HIGH AS 273 MICROGRAMS/1.
ADVERSE EFFECTS OF DRILLING MUD ON MARINE BENTHOS COULD RESULT FROM
TOXIC CONSTITUENTS OR FROM THOSE THAT PHYSICALLY ALTER THE SUBSTRATE.
TAGATZ, M.E., J.M. IVEY, C.E. DALBO, AND J.L. DGLESBY. 1982. RESPONSES OF
DEVELOPING ESTUARINE MACROBENTHIC COMMUNITIES TO DRILLING MUDS. ESTUARIES.
5(2)1131-137. (ERL,GB 413).
THE EFFECTS OF DRILLING MUD ON DEVELOPMENT OF ESTUARINE MACRQBENTHIC
COMMUNITIES, WHICH RESULT FROM SETTLING PLANKTONIC LARVAE, WERE
ASSESSED BY COMPARING NUMBER AND SPECIES OF ANIMALS THAT GREW IN
UNCONTAMINATED AND CONTAMINATED AQUARIA FOR 8 WEEKS. AQUARIA CONTAINED
SAND AND- WERE CONTINUOUSLY SUPPLIED WITH UNFILTERED SEAWATER. SEVEN
DRILLING MUDS, OBTAINED FROM AN ACTIVE EXPLORATORY PLATFORM IN
ESTUARINE WATERS, WERE TESTED CONSECUTIVELY AT NOMINAL CONCENTRATIONS
OF 0.5, 5, AND 50 PARTS PER MILLION. NUMBERS OF CHORDATES, MOLLUSKS,
AND ANNELIDS PER AQUARIUM WERE SIGNIFICANTLY (A=0.05) DECREASED FROM
CONTROL NUMBERS IN 50 PPM. A TOTAL OF 13 SPECIES OCCURRED IN 50 PPM
COMPARED TO 23 SPECIES IN EACH OF THE OTHER SITUATIONS. GROWTH IN
DIAMETER OF MOLGULA MANHATTENSIS WAS AFFECTED IN ALL CONCENTRATIONS OF
MUD, THE PERCENTAGE OF LARGE INDIVIDUALS BEING SIGNIFICANTLY LESS THAN
IN THE CONTROL.
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THOMPSON, JACK H., AND THOMAS J. BRIGHT. 1980. EFFECTS OF AN OFFSHORE
DRILLING FLUID ON SELECTED CORALS. IN: SYMPOSIUM! RESEARCH ON
ENVIRONMENTAL FATE AND EFFECTS OF DRILLING FLUIDS AND CUTTINGS, JAN. 21-24,
i960, LAKE BUENA VISTA, FL., VOL. 2. AMERICAN PETROLEUM INSTITUTE,
WASHINGTON, DC. PP. 1044-1078. CERL,GB X227*).
SEVEN SPECIES OF CORAL, DICHOCOENIA STOKESII, NONTASTREA ANNULARIS,
AGARCIA AGARICITES, ACROPORA CERVICORNIS, PORITES FURCATA, P.
ASTREOIDS, AND P. DIVARICATA, WERE EXPERIMENTALLY EXPOSED TO EACH OF
THREE CONCENTRATIONS (100, 316, 100 1/1) OF DRILLING MUD (OBTAINED
FROM AN OFFSHORE OIL WELLIN THE GULF OF MEXICO), AND CONTROL SEA WATER
FOR 96 HOURS TO OBSERVE BEHAVIORAL RESPONSES. EXPERIMENTS WERE
CONDUCTED AT CARYSFORT REEF, FLORIDA KEYS, USING CLOSED AQUARIA
LOCATED IN THREE METERS OF WATER. POLYP BEHAVIOR WAS DETERMINED WITH
SERIAL CLOSEUP PHOTOGRAPHY WHICH ALLOWED COUNTING OF RETRACTED,
PARTIALLY RETRACTED, AND NON-RETRACTED POLYPS IN EACH COLONY. RESPONSE
TO DRILLING MUD CONCENTRATIONS WAS MEASURED AS PERCENT OF POLYPS
RETRACTED. MONTASTREA ANNULARIS, AGARICIA AGARICITES, AND ACROPORA
CERVICORNIS WERE KILLED BY EXPOSURE TO 1,000 UL/L MUD. A. CERVICORNIS
COLONIES SURVIVED THIS CONCENTRATION IN A REPLICATE EXPERIMENT. ALL
CORALS EXCEPT DICHOCOENIA STOKESII AND PORITES DIVARICATA SHOWED
SIGNIFICANT (LESS THAN .05) POLYP RETRACTION DURING EXPOSURE TO 100
1/1 MUD CONCENTRATION, 316 UL/L MUD WAS THE MINIMUM CONCENTRATION
WHICH INDUCED SIGNIFICANT POLYP RETRACTION IN PORITES DIVARICATA.
POLYPS OF DICHOCOENIA STOKESII DID NOT DETECTABLY REACT TO ANY OF THE
THREE CONCENTRATIONS,
WHITE, DAVID C., ROBERT H. FINDLAY, STEVEN D. FAZIO, RONALD J. BOBBIE, JANET
S, NICKELS, WILLIAM M. DAVIS, GLEN A. SMITH, AND ROBERT F. MARTZ. 1980.
EFFECTS OF BIOTURBATION AND PREDATION BY MELLITA QUINQUIESPEPFORATA ON
SEDIMENTARY MICROBIAL COMMUNITY STRUCTURE. IN: ESTUARINE PERSPECTIVES.
VICTOR S. KENNEDY, EDITOR, ACADEMIC PRESS, NEW YORK, NY. PP. 163-171.
CERL,GB X129*).
PROCESSING OF SAND BY SAND DOLLARS (ECHINODERMATA: MELLITA
QUINQUIESPERFORATA) RESULTED IN MODIFICATION OF THE BENTHIC MICROBIAL
COMMUNITY WITHOUT A SIGNIFICANT EFFECT ON GROSS NUTRIENT BALANCES.
MEASURES OF CELLULAR AND MEMBRANE BIOMASS (TOTAL ADENOSINE
NUCLEOTIDES, LIPID PHOSPHATE AND CHLOROPHYLL A) WERE ESSENTIALY
UNCHANGED. MURAMIC ACID CONCENTRATION AND THYMIDINE INCORPORATION INTO
DNA, WHICH ARE MEASURES OF PROKARYOTIC BIOMASS AND ACTIVITY, REMAINED
UNCHANGE. TOTAL METABOLIC ACTIVITY, MEASURED AS ACETATE INCORPORATION
INTO LIPID, WAS UNCHANGED. LIPID GLYCEROL AND THE INOSITOL AND
GLUCOSAMINE REMAINING IN THE EXTRACTED RESIDUE WERE REDUCED IN THE
PROCESSED SEDIMENT, AS WAS SULPHOLIPID BIOSYNTHESIS. FATTY ACIDS
CHARACTERISTIC OF PROKARYOTES WERE ENRICHED WHEREAS FATTY ACIDS
CHARACTERISTIC OF MICROEUKARYOTES DECREASED IN PROCESSED SANDS. THE
SAME WAS TRUE FOR THE LIPID NEUTRAL CARBOHYDRATES. EXAMINATION OF
MEIOFAUNA SHOWED" SIGNIFICANT REDUCTION IN FORAMINIFERA, SUGGESTING
THAT SAND DOLLARS ARE SELECTIVE PREDATORS FOR A PORTION OF THE
NONPHOTOSYNTHETIC MICROEUKARYOTES, HAVING LITTLE EFFECT ON THE BIOMASS
OR METABOLIC ACTIVITY OF BENTHIC PROKARYOTES.
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KHITE, D.C., R.J. BOBBIE, J.S. NICKELS, S.O. FAZIO, AND W.M. DAVIS. 1980.
NONSELECTIVE BIOCHEMICAL METHODS FOR THE DETERMINATION OF FUNGAL MASS AND
COMMUNITY STRUCTURE IN ESTUARINE DETRITAL MICROFLORA. BOT. MAR.
23(4):239-250. (ERL,GB X128*).
ASSAY OF LIPID AND CELL WALL COMPONENTS CAN READILY PROVIDE
DIFFERENTIATION IN RECIPROCAL MIXTURES OF BACTERIA AND FUNGAL
MONOCULTURES. TO TEST NATURAL MICROBIAL ASSEMBLIES, SMALL PLASTIC
SHEETS WERE EXPOSED IN A SUBTROPICAL ESTUARY. THE SHEETS WERE THEN
TRANSFERRED TO A LABORATORY WHERE ESTUARINE ENVIRONMENTS THAT INHIBIT
PROKARYOTIC GROWTH AND STIMULATED FUNGAL GROWTH WERE COMPARED WITH AND
ENVIRONMENT WHERE EUKARYOTIC GROWTH WAS INHIBITED AND PROKARYOTIC
GROWTH WAS STIMULATED. THE MORPHOLOGY DETERMINED BY SCANNING ELECTRON
MICROSCOPY SHOWED TYPICAL MYCELIAL NETWORKS WHERE EUKARYOTIC GROWTH
WAS STIMULATED AND NONE WHERE INHIBITED. THE STIMULATION OF EUKARYOTIC
GROWTH PRODUCED A GREATER BIOMASS MEASURED IN TERMS OF LIPID
PHOSPHATE, RESPIRATORY ACTIVITY OR EXTRACTABLE ADENOSINE NUCLEOTIDES,
BUT WITH A SLOWER SYNTHESIS OF PHOSPHOLIPIDS AND DNA AND A SMALLER
CONCENTRATION ON MURAMAIC ACID (A UNIQUE PROKARYOTE WALL COMPONENT).
THE STIMULATION OF EUKARYOTIC GROWTH INCREASED THE RATE OF SULPHOLIPID
SYNTHESIS RELATIVE TO DNA OR PHOSPHOLIPID SYNTHESIS.
WHITE, DAVID C. 1982. BIOCHEMICAL DETERMINATION OF BIOMASS AND COMMUNITY
STRUCTURE OF ESTUARINE DETRITAL AND SEDIMENTARY MICROBIOTA. IN: IMPACT OF
XENOBIOTIC CHEMICALS ON MICROBIAL ECOSYSTEMS, U.S. FISH WILDL. SERV. TECH.
PAP. NO. 107. U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE, WASHINGTON, DC. PP. 22-28.
(ERL,GB X375).
SEDIMENTARY MICROBIAL BIOMASS, METABOLIC ACTIVITY, NUTRITIONAL STATUS,
AND COMMUNITY STRUCTURE WERE DETERMINED BY THE ANALYSIS OF EXTRACTABLE
LIPIDS AND HYDROLYSIS PRODUCTS OF THE LIPID EXTRACTED RESIDUE. THESE
METHODS HAVE BEEN VALIDATED BY ANALYSIS OF MIXTURES OF MICROBIAL
MONOCULTURES; BY COMPARISONS WITH MONOCULTURES ISOLATED FROM MICROBIAL
ASSEMBLIES; BY SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPIC ANALYSIS OF DETRITAL
MICROBIAL ASSEMBLIES MANIPULATED WITH ANTIBIOTICS, NUTRIENTS, AND
LIGHT; AND BY MEASUREMENTS OF THE EFFECTS OF GRAZING BY SELECTIVE
DEPOSIT FEEDING INVERTEBRATES. THESE METHODS HAVE SHOWN THAT MG/L
CONCENTRATIONS OF XENOBIOTICS IN FLUIDS USED IN OIL AND GAS WELL
DRILLING SIGNIFICANTLY MODIFY THE BIOMASS AND COMMUNITY STRUCTURE OF
MICROBIAL ASSEMBLIES COLONIZING MARINE SAND. SUCH METHODS ENABLE
ESTIMATION OF VALIDITY OF THE USE OF MICROCOSM TEST SYSTEMS IN
PREDICTING THE IMPACTS OF XENOBIOTICS IN THE FIELD. THESE METHODS
COULD GREATLY STRENGTHEN THE LEGAL APPLICABLILITY OF THE DATA FOR USE
BY REGULATORY AGENCIES IN PROTECTION ESTUARINE ECOSYSTEMS.
A - 53
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HIERNICKI, C. 1984. ASSIMILATION EFFICIENCY BY PROCAMBARUS CLARKII FED
ELODEA (EGERA DENSA) AND ITS PRODUCTS OF DECOMPOSITION. AQUACULTURE.
36(3)1203-215. (ERL,GB X372*).
ELODEA CUT INTO TWO INITIAL PARTICLE SIZES (2.0 CM SECTIONS AND 3.0
MMC2) FRAGMENTS) UNDERWENT MICROBIAL DECOMPOSITION FOR PERIODS OF 0,
15, 33, AND 43 DAYS, AND THEN WAS FED TO FOUR SIZE CLASSES OF CRAYFISH
(2.0, 3.5, 5.0, AND 9.0 CM). ASSIMILATION EFFICIENCY WAS DETERMINED BY
CONOVER'S METHOD. ALL FOUR SIZE CLASSES OF CRAYFISH ASSIMILATED 15-DAY
DETRITUS MORE EFFICIENTLY THAN 0-DAY DETRITUS. TWO-CM CRAYFISH
ASSIMILATED 33-DAY DETRITUS MORE EFFICIENTLY THAN 15- OR 0-DAY
DETRITUS. IN ALL OTHER CASES, ASSIMILATION EFFICIENCY WAS REDUCED.
RADIOTRACER TECHNIQUES UTILIZING 14C WERE USED TO DETERMINE THE
PERCENTAGE OF CARBON ASSIMILATED IN THE FORM OF PLANT FRAGMENTS
COMPARED WITH THE PERCENTAGE ASSIMILATED IN THE FORM OF
MICROORGANISMS. RESULTS INDICATE AN INVERSE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
CRAYFISH SIZE AND THE PERCENTAGE OF CARBON ASSIMILATED IN THE FORM OF
MICROORGANISMS.
YINGST, J. Y., AND D. C. RHOADS. IN PRESS. STRUCTURE OF SOFT-BOTTOM BENTHIC
COMMUNITIES IN THE VICINITY OF THE TEXAS FLOWER GARDEN BANKS GULF OF MEXICO.
ESTUARINE COASTAL SHELF SCI. (ERL,GB 503).
BIOLOGICAL AND SEDIMENTOLOGICAL SAMPLES WERE OBTAINED IN JUNE 1980
FROM BOX CORES TAKEN IN 100-200 METERS OF WATER ON SANDY-MUD SEDIMENTS
NEAR THE EAST AND tfEST FLOWER GARDEN BANK (FGH) REEFS, ON THE
TEXAS-LOUISIANA CONTINENTAL SHELF. THE OBJECTIVE WAS TO OBTAIN NEEDED
AND UNKNOWN BASELINE INFORMATION ABOUT SEDIMENTARY PARAMETERS AND
ORGANISMS OF THE FGB ENVIRONMENT TO ALLOW INFERENCES TO BE MADE ABOUT
THE POTENTIAL EFFECTS OF PHYSICAL DISTURBANCES OF THE SEAFLOOR ON THE
INDIGENOUS BENTHOS. BOTH MICROBIAL ATP AND BACTERIAL BIOMASS ARE LOWER
THAN REPORTED FOR GEORGIA BIGHT SHELF, BRAZIL-AMAZON RIVER SHELF, CAP
BLANC, WEST AFRICAN SHELF, WESTERN COAST OF NORWAY, AND LONG ISLAND
SOUND. BACTERIAL COUNTS ARE COMPARABLE TO THE AMAZON RIVER SHELF AND
LOWER THAN THOSE RECORDED FOR THE EAST CHINA SEA. MODERATE TO LOW
STANDING STOCKS OF BENTHOS FURTHER SUGGEST THAT THIS AREA OF THE GULF
OF MEXICO IS A RELATIVELY OLIGOTHROPHIC SYSTEM FOR INFAUNAL BENTHIS
CONSUMERS. THE GREATEST POTENTIAL DELETERIOUS PHYSICAL DISTURBANCE TO
THE FGB SYSTEM IS AN INFLUX OF DRILLING MUDS FROM NEARBY OIL DRILLING
OPERATIONS. HIGHER ORDER SUCCESSIONAL STAGES ARE IN GENERAL ADVERSELY
AFFECTED TO A GREATER EXTENT THAN PIONEERING STAGES BY PHYSICAL
DISTURBANCE. IN THE TEXAS-LOUISIANA SHELF REGION, DILUTION OF AN
ALREADY OLIGOTROPHIC SYSTEM BY INERT BARIUM SULPHATE WOULD BE EXPECTED
TO RESULT IN EVEN LOWER STANDING STOCKS OF PIONEERING INVERTEBRATES
THAN MIGHT OTHERWISE OCCUR,
A - 54
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APPENDIX B
PUBLISHED PAPERS NOT INCLUDED IN LITERATURE REVIEW AND MANUSCRIPTS IN PREPARATION,
ERL/GB DRILLING FLUIDS RESEARCH PROGRAM, 1976-1984.
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PUBLISHED PAPERS NOT INCLUDED IN LITERATURE REVIEW
Bobble, R.J. and O.C. White. 1980. Characterization of benthlc mlcroblal
community structure by high-resolution gas chromatography of fatty add
methyl esters. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 39(6):1212-1222.
D.C. White, and P.M. Benson. 1980. Biochemical analysis of
the response of the marine m1crofoul1ng community structure to
cleaning procedures designed to maintain heat transfer efficiency. In:
Proceedings of the Fifth International Congress of Marine Corrosion and
Fouling. L. Arito, Editor. Graflcas Orbe, Barcelona, Spain. Pp. 391-400.
, J.S. Nickels, G.A. Smith, S.D. Fazio, R.H. Flndlay, W.M. Davis,
and D.C. White. 1981. Effect of light on biomass and community structure
of estuarlne detrital microblota. Applied and Environmental Microbiology
42(1):150-158.
Bookhout, C.G., R.J. Monroe, R.B. Forward, Jr., and J.D. Costlow, Jr. 1984.
Effects of soluble fractions of drilling fluids on development of crabs,
Rhithropanopeus harrisil and CalUnectes sapidus. Water, A1r, and
Soil Pollution 21:183-197.
Botero, L. and J. Atema. 1982. Behavior and substrate selection during
settling in'the lobster Homarus americanus. Journal of Crustacean
Biology 2(l):59-69.
Brannon, A.C., and P.J. Conklin. 1978. Effect of sodium pentachlorophenate
on exoskeleton calcium in the grass shrimp, Palaemonetes pugip. In:
Pentachlorophenol: Chemistry. Pharmocology, and Environmental Toxicol-
ogy. K.R. Rao, Editor. Plenum Press, New York. Pp. 205-211.
and K.R. Rao. 1979. Barium, strontium, and calcium levels
in the exoskeleton, hepatopancreas and abdominal muscle tissue of the grass
shrimp, Palaemonetes pugio: Relation to molting and exposure to barite.
Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology 63A:261-274.
Cantelmo, A.C., P.J. Conklin, F.R.Fox, and K.R. Rao. 1978. Effects of
sodium pentachlorophenate and 2, 4-dinitrophenol on respiration in
crustaceans. In: Pentachlorophenol: Chemistry. Pharmacology, and
Environmental Toxicology. K.R. Rao, Editor. Plenum Press, New York.
Pp. 251-263.
and K.R. Rao. 1978A. Effects of pentachlorophenol (PCP)
and 2, 4-d1n1trophenol (DNP) on the oxygen consumption of tissues
from the blue crab, Callinectes sapidus, under different osmotic conditions.
Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology 60C:215-219.
1978B. Effect of pentachlorophenol (PCP) on
meiobenthic communities established in an experimental system. Marine Biology
46(l):17-22.
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, M.E. Tagatz, and K.R. Rao. 1978. Effects of pentachlorophenol
on the meloblotlc nematodes in an experimental system. In: Pentachlorophenol
Chemistry, Pharmacology, and Environmental Toxicology. K.R. Rao, Editor.
Plenum Press, New York. Pp. 165-174.
Conklin, P.O., and K.R. Rao. 1978A. Toxicity of sodium pentachlorophenate
to the grass shrimp, Palaemonetes puglo, 1n relation to the molt cycle.
In: PentachlorohenollChemistry Pharmacology, and Environmental
Toxicology. K.R. Rao, Editor. Plenum Press, New York. Pp. 181-192.
^ . 1978B. Toxicity of sodium pentachlorophenate
(Na-PCP) to the grass shrimp, Palaemonetes pugjo* at different stages
of the molt cycle. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology
20(2):275-279.
. 1983. Comparative toxicity of waste drilling
fluids to a crustacean (Palaemonetes puglo) and a fish (Cyprinodon
yariegatus) (Abstract). In:Proceedings of the Ninth Annual Aquatic
Toxicity Workshop, Canadian Technical Report on Fisheries and Aquatic
Science 1163, W.C. McKay, Editor. P. 205.
Davis, W.M. and O.C. White. 1980. Fluorometric determination of adenosine
nucleotide derivatives as measures of the microfouling, detrital, and
sedimentary'microbial biomass and physiological status. Applied and
Environmental Microbiology 40(3):539-548.
Derby, C.D. and J. Atema. 1982. Narrow-spectrum chemoreceptor cells in the
walking legs of the lobster Homarus amerlcanus; Taste specialist.
Journal of Comparative Physiology 146(2):181-189.
Dodge, R.E. 1982. Growth characteristics of reef-building corals within
an external to a naval ordnance range: Vieques, Puerto Rico. In:
Reef and Man: Proceedings of the Fourth International Coral Reef
Symposium, Manila. E.D. Gomez et al., Editors. Vol. 2. Pp. 241-248.
and J.C. Lang. 1983. Environmental correlates of hermatypic
coral (Montastrea annularis) growth on the East Flower Garden Bank,
Northwest Gulf of Mexico.Limnology and Oceanography 28(2):228-240.
and A. Szmant-Froelich. In Press. Effects of drilling fluids on
reef corals: A review. In: Wastes in the Ocean, Vol. IV.
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York.
Doughtie, O.G. and K.R. Rao. 1978. Ultrastructural changes induced by
sodium pentachlorophenate in the grass shrimp, Palaemonetes pugio,
in relation to the molt cycle. In: Pentachlorophenol: Chemistry,
Pharmacology, and Environmental Toxicology. K.R. Rao, Editor.
Plenum Press, New York. Pp. 213-250.
1979A. Ultrastructure of an endocrine dermal
gland in the gills of the grass shrimp, Palaemonetes pugio; occurrence
of transitory ciliary axonemes associated with the sloughing and
reformation of the ductule. Journal of Morphology 161(3):281-307.
B-2
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. 19798. Comparative ultrastructure of three
types of tegumental glands of the grass shrimp, Palaemonetes puglo.
(Abstract) American Zoologist 19(3):890. "—
• 1981A. Ciliary structures in the branchial
unicellular glands of the grass shrimp, Palaemonetes pugio.
Exper1ent1a 37(5):502-503.
. 1981B. The syncytial nature and phagocytic
activity of the branchial podocytes in the grass shrimp,
Palaemone:es pugio. Tissue and Cell 13(1):93-104.
1982A. Rosette glands 1n the gills of the
grass shrimp, Palaemonetes pugio. I. Comparative morphology, cyclical
activity and innervation. Journal of Morphology 171(1) :41-67.
. 1982B. Rosette glands in the gills of grass
shrimp. Palaemonetes pugio. II. Premolt ductule reformation:
replacement of ciliary processes by cytoplasmic processes in
relation to gland maturation. Journal of Morphology. 171(1):69-77.
. 1983A. Ultrastructural and histological
study of degenerative changes leading to black gills in grass shrimp
exposed to a dithiocarbamate biocide. Journal of Invertebrate
Pathology 41(1):33-50.
. 1983B. Ultrastructural and histological study of
degenerative changes in the antennal glands, hepatopanereas, and midgut of
grass shrimp exposed to two dithiocarbamate biocides. Journal of
Invertebrate Pathology 41(3):281-299.
1984. Histopathological and Ultrastructural
changes in the antennal gland, midgut, hepatopanereas, and gill
of grass shrimp following exposure to hexavalent chromium.
Journal of Invertebrae Pathology 43(1):89-108.
Duke, T.W. 1982. Summary of EPA drilling fluid research activities. In:
Proceedings: Third Annual Gulf of Mexico Information Transfer Meeting.
U.S. Department of Interior, Mineral Management Service. Pp. 85-89.
Farr, J.A. 1978. Orientation and social behavior in the supralittoral
isopod Ligia exotica (Crustacea: Oniscoidae). Bulletin of Marine
Science 2§(4):659-666.
Fazio, S.D., W.R. Mayberry, and D.C. White. 1979. Muramic acid assay
in sediments. Applied Environmental Microbiology 38(2):349-350.
Federle, T.W. and D.C. White. 1982. Preservation of estuarine sediments
for lipid analysis of biomass and community structure of microbiota.
Applied and Environmental Microbiology 44(5) :1166-1169.
8-3
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, M.A. Hullar, R.J. Livingston, D.A. Meeter, and D.C. White.
1983.Spatial distribution of biochemical parameters Indicating
biomass and community composition of mlcroblal assemblies 1n estuarine
and flat sediments. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 45(l):58-63.
, R.J. Livingston, D.A. Meeter, and O.C. White. 1983.
Modifications of estuarine sedimentary microblota by exclusion of epibenthlc
predators. Journal of Experimental Biology and Ecology. 73(l):81-94.
Findlay, R.H. and O.C. White. 1983. Polymeric betahydroxyalkanoates
from environmental samples and Bacillus megaterium. Applied and
Environmental Microbiology 45(l):71-78.
Fox, F.R. and K.R. Rao. 1978A. Effects of sodium pentachlorophenate
and 2,4-dinitrophenol on hepatopancreatic enzymes in the blue crab,
Callinectes sapidus. In: Pentachlorophenol: Chemistry,
Pharmacology, and Environmental Toxicology. K.R. Rao, Editor.
Plenum Press, New York. Pp. 213-250.
. 1978B. Characteristics of a Ca+2-activated
ATPase from the hepatopancreas of the blue crab, Callinectes
sapidus. Comparative Physiology and Biochemistry 598(3):327-331.
1982. Accumulation, tissue distribution, and
depuration of benzo(a)pyrene and benz(a)anthracene in the grass
shrimp, Palaemonetes pugip. In: Symposium: Carcinogenic Poly-
nuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons in the Marine Environment.
EPA-600/9-82-013. Environmental Research Laboratory, Gulf Breeze. FL.
Pp. 336-349.
Hamilton, P.V. 1980. Shell spination in Melongena corona: Subspecies
characteristic or size related? Malacology Review 13(1-2)84-86.
Koenig, M.L., E.N. Powell, and M.A. Kasschau. 1981. Effects of
salinity change on the free ami no acid pools of two nereid poly-
chaetes, Neanthes succinea and Leonereis culveri. Comparative
Biochemistry and Physiology 70A(4):631-6377^
Lehman, H.K. and P.V. Hamilton. 1980. Some factors influencing the
distribution of the snail Neritina reclivata. Northeast Gulf
Science 4(l):67-72.
Morrison, S.J. and D.C. White. 1980. Effects of grazing by estuarine
gammaridean amphiopods on the microbiota of allochthonous detritus.
Applied and Environmental Microbiology 40(3):659-671.
Nickels, J.S., R.J. Bobbie, R.F. Martz, G.A. Smith, D.C. White, and N.L.
Richards. 1981. Effect of silicate grain shape, structure, and location
on the biomass and community structure of colonizing marine microbiota.
Applied and Environmental Microbiology 41(5):1262-1268.
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Parker, J.H., G.A. Smith, H.L. Fredrlckson, J.R. Vestal, and D.C. White.
1982. Sensitive assay, based on hydroxy fatty adds from
UpopolysacchaMde I1p1d A, for gram-negative bacteria in sediments.
Applied and Environmental Microbiology 44(5):1170-1177.
Parsons, D., T. Burke, T. Might, N. Richards, and S. Bolton. 1980. DrilUngr
mud research—oversight. In: Oceanography Miscellaneous — Part 1,
Hearings Before the Subcommittee on Oceanography of the Committee on
Merchant Marine and Fisheries, House of Representatives, Ninety-sixth
Congress, March 3, 1980. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington,
D.C. Serial number 96-28. Pp. 1-37.
Rao, K.R., P.O. Conklin, and A.C. Brannon. 1978. Inhibition of limb
regeneration in the grass shrimp, Palaemonetes pugio, by sodium
pentachlorophenate. In: Pentachlorophenol:Chemistry, Pharmacology, and
Environmental Toxicology. K.R. Rao, Editor. Plenum Press, New York.
Pp. 193-203.
, F.R. Fox, P.J. Conklin, A.C. Cantelmo, and A.C. Brannon.
1979. Physiological and biochemical investgations of the toxicity
of pentachlorophenol to crustaceans. In: Marine Pollution: Func-
tional Responses. W.B. Vernberg et al., Editors. Academic Press,
New York. Pp. 307-339.
, F.R. Fox, P.J. Conklin, and A.C. Cantelmo. 1981. Comparative
toxicology and pharmacology of chlorophenols: Studies on the grass shrimp,
Palaemonetes pugio. In: Biological Monitoring of Marine Pollution. J.
Vernberg et al., Editors. Academic Press, New York. Pp. 37-72.
, D.G. Doughtie, and P.J. Conklin. 1982. Physiological and
histopathological evaluation of dithiocarbamate toxicity to the grass
shrimp, Palaemonetes pugio. In: Physiological Mechanisms of Marine
Pollutant Toxicity. W.B. Vernberg et al., Editors. Academic Press,
New York. Pp. 413-445.
and O.G. Doughtie. In Press. Histopathological changes in grass shrimp
exposed to chromium, pentachlorophenol, and dithiocarbamates. In: Responses
of Marine Animals to Pollutants. J. Heath and J. Stegman, Editors. Elsevier/
Applied Science Publishers.
and P.J. Conklin. In Press. Molt-related susceptibility and regenerative
limb growth as sensitive indicators of aquatic pollutant toxicity. In:
Proceedings of the Indo-U.S. Conference on Life Histories of Benthic Marine
Invertebrates.
, P.J. Conklin, and D.G. Doughtie. In Press. Physiological and
histopathological evaluation of the toxicity of hexavalent chromium to the
grass shrimp Palaemonetes pugio. In: Pollution and Physiology of Marine
Animals. F.J. Vernberg et al., Editors. University of South Carolina
Press.
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Rhoads, D.C. and L.F. Boyer. 1982. The effects of marine benthos on
physical properties of sediments: A successlonal perspective. IN:
Animal-Sediment Relations. P.L. McCall and M.J.S. Teresz, Editors.
Plenum Publishing Corporation, New York. Pp. 3-52.
Tagatz, M.E"., J.M. Ivey, J.C. Moore, and M. Tobla. 1977. Effects of
pentachlorephenol on the development of estuarine communities. Journal of
Toxicology and Environmental Health 3(3):501-506.
and M. Tobia. 1978. Effects of barlte (BaS04) on the development
of estuarine communities. Estuarine and Coastal Marine Science 7(4):401-
407.
, J.M. Ivey, H.K. Lehman, and J.L. Oglesby. 1978. Effects of a
1ignosulfonate-type drilling mud on development of experimental estuarine
macrobenthic communities. Northeast Gulf Science 2(l):35-42.
, J.M. Ivey, and M. Tobia. 1978. Effects of Dowicide G-ST on the
development of experimental estuarine macrobenthic communities. In:
Pentochlorophenol: Chemistry, Pharmacology, and Environmental Toxicology.
K.R. Rao, Editor. Plennum Press, New York. Pp. 157-163.
, J.M. Ivey, and J.L. Oglesby. 1979. Toxicity of drilling-mud
biocides to-developing estuarine macrobenthic communities. Northeast Gulf
Science 3(2):88-95.
White, O.C., R.H. Findlay, S.D. Fazio, R.J. Bobbie, J.S. Nickels, W.M. Davis,
G.A. Smith, and R.F. Martz. 1980. Effects of bioturbation and predation
by Mellita quinquiesperforata on sedimentary microbial community structure,
In: Estuarine Perspectives. V.S. Kennedy, Editor. Academic Press, New
York. Pp. 163-171.
, R.J. Bobbie, J.S. Nickels, S.D. Fazio and W.M. Davis. 1980.
Nonselective biochemical methods for the determination of fungal mass and
community structure in estuarine detrital microflora. Bontanica Marina
23(4):239-250.
Wiernicki, C. 1984. Assimilation efficiency by Procambarus clarkii fed elodea
(Egera densa) and its products of decomposition. Aquaculture 36:203-215.
Yingst, J.Y. and D.C. Rhoads. In Press. Structure of soft-bottom benthic
communities in the vicinity of the Texas Flower Garden Banks, Gulf of
Mexico. Estuarine and Coastal Shelf Science.
B-6
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APPENDIX C
PESA DRILLING FLUIDS SAMPLE DESCRIPTIONS
-------
PESA DRILLING FLUID SAMPLE DESCRIPTION
DRILLING FLUID SAMPLE CODE: MIBLKA51
GENERAL SAMPLE DESCRIPTION: Seawater lignosulfonate
DATE/TIME SAMPLE RECEIVED: 11/11/81
LOCATION OF WELL: Mustang Island Block A-51
Approximately 72 miles SE of mouth of Corpus Christi Bay
ACTIVITY AT TIME OF SAMPLING: Drilling
DEPTH OF WELL: 7471
FLUID WEIGHT (ppg): 10
LIQUID CONTENT (% by VOL) OIL/WATER: 89%
SAND CONTENT (% by VOL): —
pH: 10.4
SOLIDS CONTENT (% by VOL)- 11
FLOWLINE TEMP. (°F): 115°
REPORTED COMPONENTS
COMPONENT
Barite
Bentonite
Chrome lignosulfonate
Caustic soda
Lignite
A u
Soda Ash
Phosphate
% BY WT.
75
15
2
2
4
0.66
0>66
Ot66
C-l
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PESA DRILLING FLUID SAMPLE DESCRIPTION
DRILLING FLUID SAMPLE CODE: AN31
GENERAL SAMPLE DESCRIPTION: Seawater Hgnosulfonate
DATE/TIME SAMPLE RECEIVED: 11/18/81
LOCATION OF WELL: Mississippi Canyon Block 148
Approx. 12 miles south of mouth of Mississippi River
ACTIVITY AT TIME OF SAMPLING: Tripping
DEPTH OF WELL: 11732 SOLIDS CONTENT (I by VOL): 18
FLUID WEIGHT (ppg): 12.3
LIQUID CONTENT (% by VOL) OIL/WATER: 0/82
SAND CONTENT (% by VOL): .75
pH: 12 FLOWLINE TEMP. (°F): N.A.
REPORTED COMPONENTS
COMPONENT % BY WT.
Barium sulfate 86.6
Bentonite 6.6
Aluminum stearate 0.002
Polyanionic cellulosic polymer 0.408
Calcium hydroxide 0.024
Lignosulfonate 1.6
Lignite 1.506
Mica 0.166
Pecan hulls 0.289
Surface-active dispersible liquid 0.031
NaOH 2.8
Granules/flakes/fibers 0.025
C-2
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PESA DRILLING FLUID SAMPLE DESCRIPTION
DRILLING FLUID SAMPLE CODE: SV76
GENERAL SAMPLE DESCRIPTION: Seawater llgnosulfonate
DATE/TIME/ SAMPLE RECEIVED: 12/22/81
LOCATION OF WELL: Vermilion Block 76
Approx. 22 miles SSW of Cheniere Au Tigre, LA
ACTIVITY AT TIME OF SAMPLING: N.A.
DEPTH OF WELL: N.A. SOLIDS CONTENT (% by VOL): 41
FLUID WEIGHT (ppg): 18.8
LIQUID CONTENT (% by VOL) OIL/WATER: 2/57
SAND CONTENT (% by VOL): TR
pH: 11.1 FLOWLINE TEMP. (°F): N.A.
REPORTED COMPONENTS
COMPONENT CONCENTRATION. 1 Ibs./bbl
Bentonite 18
Chromium lignosulfonate 6-9
Causticized lignite 6-9
Soltex 4
Polymer treated lignite 2
Sodium dichromate 0.2
Sodium hydroxide
weighted to 18.8 Ib./gal. with barite
C-3
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PESA DRILLING FLUID SAMPLE DESCRIPTION
DRILLING FLUID SAMPLE CODE: PI
GENERAL SAMPLE DESCRIPTION: Lightly treated Hgnosulfonate
DATE/TIME SAMPLE RECEIVED: 4/15/82
LOCATION OF WELL: Eugene Island Block 126
Approx. 35 miles south of Atchafalaya Bay, LA
ACTIVITY AT TIME OF SAMPLING: Drilling
DEPTH OF WELL: 14,144 SOLIDS CONTENT (X by VOL) 32
FLUID WEIGHT (ppg): 16.4
LIQUID CONTENT (X by VOL) OIL/WATER: 2/66
SAND CONTENT (X by VOL): TR
pH: 12 FLOWLINE TEMP. (°F): 100°
REPORTED COMPONENTS
COMPONENT % BY WT.
Barite 87.2
Bentonite 7.9
Lignite 0.999
Lignosulfonate 1.8
NaOH 1.011
Polyanionic cellulosic polymer 0.169
Detergent 0.007
Sodium Carbonate 0.154
Attapulgite 0.095
Asbetos 0.073
Aluminum stearate 0.002
Fatty acids, sulfonates & asphaltic materials 0.469
Nut shells 0.025
Nonionic surface active agent 0.005
Anionic surfactants 0.013
Mica 0.045
C-4
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PESA DRILLING FLUID SAMPLE DESCRIPTION
DRILLING FLUID SAMPLE CODE: P2
GENERAL SAMPLE DESCRIPTION: Freshwater lignosulfonate
DATE/TIME SAMPLE RECEIVED: 4/16/82
LOCATION OF WELL: Nueces Co., Texas
Vicinity of Corpus Cristi Bay
ACTIVITY AT TIME OF SAMPLING: Drilling
DEPTH OF WELL: 13,625 SOLIDS CONTENT (% by VOL): 39
FLUID WEIGHT (ppg): 17
LIQUID CONTENT (% by VOL) OIL/WATER: 0/61
SAND CONTENT (%by VOL): .25
pH: 13 FLOWLINE TEMP. (°F): N.A.
REPORTED COMPONENTS
COMPONENT % BY WT.
N.A.
C-5
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PESA DRILLING FLUID SAMPLE DESCRIPTION
DRILLING FLUID SAMPLE CODE: P3
GENERAL SAMPLE DESCRIPTION: Lime mud
DATE/TIME SAMPLE RECEIVED: 4/19/82
LOCATION OF WELL: Lake Hatch, Terrebonne, LA
ACTIVITY AT TIME OF SAMPLING: Logging
DEPTH OF WELL: 17,195
FLUID WEIGHT (ppg): 18.1
LIQUID CONTENT (% by VOL) OIL/WATER:
SAND CONTENT (t by VOL): TR
pH: 11.5
3/57
SOLIDS CONTENT (% by VOL): 40
FLOWLINE TEMP. (°F): 100e
REPORTED COMPONENTS
COMPONENT
% BY WT.
N.A.
C-6
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PESA DRILLING FLUID SAMPLE DESCRIPTION
DRILLING FLUID SAMPLE CODE: P4
GENERAL SAMPLE DESCRIPTION: Freshwater lignosulfonate
DATE/TIME SAMPLE RECEIVED: 4/21/82
LOCATION OF WELL: Sea Breeze, Chambers Co., TX
Vicinity of Galveston Bay
ACTIVITY AT TIME OF SAMPLING: Drilling
DEPTH OF WELL: 11,958 SOLIDS CONTENT (% by VOL): 34
FLUID WEIGHT (ppg): 16.1
LIQUID CONTENT (* by VOL) OIL/WATER: 0/66
SAND CONTENT (% by VOL): .25
pH: 9.5 FLOWLINE TEMP. (°F): 130°
REPORTED COMPONENTS
COMPONENT * BY UT
N.A.
C-7
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PESA DRILLING FLUIDS SAMPLE DESCRIPTIONS
DRILLING FLUID SAMPLE CODE: P5
GENERAL SAMPLE DESCRIPTION: Freshwater/saltwater Hgnosulfonate
DATE/TIME SAMPLE RECEIVED: 4/28/82
LOCATION OF WELL: Lake Chiert, St. Martin Parish, LA
ACTIVITY AT TIME OF SAMPLING: TIH
DEPTH OF WELL: 12,948 SOLIDS CONTENT (% by VOL): 36
FLUID WEIGHT (ppg): 18.3
LIQUID CONTENT (% by VOL) OIL/WATER: 2/62
SAND CONTENT (% by VOL): 0 FLOWLJNE TEMP. (8F): 11-78
pH: 10.5
REPORTED COMPONENTS
COMPONENT CONCENTRATION. Ib./bbl.
Bentonite 18
Chromium lignosulfonate 6
Oesco 4
Drispac 3
Nut Shell 2
Mica 3
Causticized lignite 7
Soltex 5
Sodium hydroxide
Barite to 18.4 Ib./gal.
C-8
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PESA DRILLING FLUID SAMPLE DESCRIPTION
DRILLING FLUID SAMPLE CODE: P6
GENERAL SAMPLE DESCRIPTION: Low solids nondlspersed
DATE/TIME SAMPLE RECEIVED: 6/11/82
LOCATION OF WELL: LAFOURCHE #23 Louisiana
ACTIVITY AT TIME OF SAMPLING: N.A.
DEPTH OF WELL: N.A. • SOLIDS CONTENT (% by VOL): 10
FLUID WEIGHT (ppg): 12.5
LIQUID CONTENT (%by VOL) OIL/WATER: 0/90
SAND CONTENT (% by VOL): TR
pH: 8.5 FLOWLINE TEMP. (°F): N.A.
REPORTED COMPONENTS
COMPONENT % BY WT.
N.A.
C-9
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PESA DRILLING FLUID SAMPLE DESCRIPTION
DRILLING FLUID SAMPLE CODE: P7
GENERAL SAMPLE DESCRIPTION: Lightly treated lignosulfonate
DATE/TIME SAMPLE RECEIVED: 6/14/82
LOCATION OF WELL: South Marsh Island Block 222
12 miles south of mouth of Vermilion Bay
ACTIVITY AT TIME OF SAMPLING: Tripping
DEPTH OF WELL: 12,296 SOLIDS CONTENT (% by VOL): 13
FLUID WEIGHT (ppg): 8.8
LIQUID CONTENT (% by VOL) OIL/WATER: 0/87
SAND CONTENT (% by VOL): .75
pH: 10.5 FLOWLINE TEMP. (°F): N.A.
REPORTED COMPONENTS
COMPONENT % BY WT.
Barite 1.22
Bentonite 41.57
Attapulgite 14.08
CaOH 5.3
NaOH 20.79
Sodium carbonate 0.25
Lignosulfonate 9.47
Lignite 5.72
PCP 0.22
Aluminum stearate 0.05
Sodium acid pyrophosphate 0.49
Detergent 0.10
Synergistic polymer blend 0.74
C-10
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PESA DRILLING FLUID SAMPLE DESCRIPTION
DRILLING FLUID SAMPLE CODE: P8
GENERAL SAMPLE DESCRIPTION: Heavily treated lignosulfonate
DATE/TIME SAMPLE RECEIVED: 7/28/82
LOCATION OF WELL: Brazos Block 409
Approx. 18 miles ESE of Matagorda, TX
ACTIVITY AT TIME OF SAMPLING: Drilling
DEPTH OF WELL: 12.338
FLUID WEIGHT (ppg): 17.8
LIQUID CONTENT (% by VOL) OIL/WATER: 0/63
SAND CONTENT (% by VOL): .75
pH: 11.5
SOLIDS CONTENT (% by VOL) 37
FLOWLINE TEMP. (°F): 119
REPORTED COMPONENTS
COMPONENT
Barite
Bentonite
Sodium carbonate
NaOH
Ferrochrome lignosulfonate
Chipped formica
Sodium bicarbonate
Sodium acid pyrophosphate
Lignite
Lignosulfonate
Aluminum stearate
Walnut hulls
o u „
Pecan hulls
Sodium chromate
Chrome lignosulfonate
% BY WT.
58.4
24.0
0.092
3.584
0.276
0.276
0.129
0.377
5 '.486
5.5
0.044
0*141
°'253
0.708
0.046
0^44
C-ll
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APPENDIX 0
SOURCE AND REPORTED COMPOSITION OF EIGHT LABORATORY-PREPARED GENERIC DRILLING
FLUIDS RECEIVED AT U.S. EPA, GULF BREEZE, FLORIDA
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Source and reported composition of eight generic drilling fluids received at U.S. EPA, Gulf Breeze Florida.
Drilling Fluid
EPA-83-001,
KC1 Polymer Mud
Source
Chroma Hoy
Composition
EPA-83-002,
Seawater
Ugnosulfonate Mud
IMCO Services
EPA-83-003,
Lime Mud
Hughes
EPA-83-004,
Non-dispersed mud
Newpark Drilling Fluids
Component
KC1
Drispac (Super-Lo)
X-C Polymer
Barite
Starch
Seawater
Attapulgite
Chrome Lignosulfonate
Lignite
Polyanionic Cellulose
Caustic
Barite
Seawater
Benitonite
Lime
Barite
Chrome Lignosulfonate
Caustic
Lignite
Distilled Water
Bentonite
Acrylic Polymer (for
suspension)
Acrylic Polumer (for
fluid loss control)
Barite
Deionized Water
Concentration
50.0 grams (g)
0.5 g
1.0 g
283.2 g
2.0 g
257.6 mi Hi liters (ml)
30.0 pounds per barrel (ppbbl)
15.0 ppbbl
10.0 ppbbl
0.25 ppbbl
To pH 10.5-11.0
To bring mud weight to 17-18
pounds per gallon (ppg)
As needed
20.06
5.01
281.81
15.04
1.00
8.02
257.04
13.0
0.5
9
9
g
g
g
g
ml
ppbbl
ppbbl
0.25 ppbbl
190.7
299.6
ppbbl
ppbbl
^continued)
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o
I
EPA-83-005, NL Baroid
Spud mud
EPA-83-006, Mllchem
SW/FU Gel Mud
EPA-83-007, Magobar Dresser
Lightly Treated
Llgnosulfonate Mud
EPA-83-008, Dowel 1
Llgnosulfonate
Freshwater Mud
Bentonlte
Lime
Barlte
Seawater/Freshwaster
Caustic
Bentonite
Polyanlnic Cellulose
Sodium Carboxymethly
Cellulose
Barlte
Sodium Hydroxide
Seawater/Freshwater, 1:1
Bentonlte
Chrome Llgnosulfonate
Lignite
Soda Ash
Carboxymethyl Cellulose
Barlte
Bentonite
Chrome Lignosulfonate
Lignite
Carboxymethyl Cellulose
Sodium Bicarbonate
Barite
Deionized Water
12.5 ppbbl
0.5 ppbbl
50.0 ppbbl
1.0 bbl
To pH 10.0
20.0 ppbbl
0.50 ppbbl
0.25 ppbbl
20.0 ppbbl
To pH 9.5
As needed
20.0 ppbbl
5.0 ppbbl
3.0 ppbbl
1.0 ppbbl
0.5 ppbbl
178.5 ppbbl
15.0 g
15.0 g
10.0 g
0.25 g
1.0 g
487.0 g
187.0 ml
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CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE MINERAL OIL USED IN THE
LABORATORY-PREPARED GENERIC DRILLING FLUID TESTS
i. Mineral oil analysis reported by IMCO Services, drilling fluid #2
Boiling range (IBP-FBP)
Vapor pressure
Vapor density
Solubility in water @100°F
Specific gravity
Percent volatile by volume (%)
Evaporation rate
Flash point (Pensky-Martens)
500-610T
0.008
>8
30 ppm
0.845
100
<0.01
255UF
2. Mineral oil analysis reported by Dowell, drilling fluid #8
20°C
ppm
Chemical name
Chemical family
Formula
Boiling point, IBP, UF
FBP, °F
Vapor pressure (mm Hg),
Vapor density (air 9 1)
Solubility in Water » 100°F,
Specific gravity (water = 1}
Percent volatile by volume, %
Evaporation rate (n-Butyl acetate
Appearance and odor
Gravity, °API at 60°F *
Flash point, COC, °F
Pour point, °F
Color, ASTM 0 1500, Saybolt color
Viscosity, cSt at 40°C
SSU at 100°F
Paraffin - base oil
Petroleum hydrocarbon
Complex misture of petroleum hydrocarbons
500
610
0.008
>8
30
0.845
100; evaporates slowly at 100°F
.01
color.
light
= 1) <0
Clear
35.8
258 (Pensky - Martens
28
4.2
41.0
Slight kerosenic odor
255°F)
This oil is stable, but strong oxidants such as liquid chlorine, concentrated
oxygen, and sodium or calcium hypochlorite should be avoided.
0-3
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