PROCEEDINGS OF THE

            ECOLOGICAL QUALITY ASSURANCE WORKSHOP
                      Sponsored by
            U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
                    Corvallis, Oregon
NAPAP
FOREST RESPONSE PROGRAM


QUALITY ASSURANCE

PROJECT
     United Sta*
     Environmental Protection
     AQ:
     ites
Department of Agr

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                                       EPA ERL-Corvallis Library


                                            00006483

                                      600988020
          PROCEEDINGS OF THE

ECOLOGICAL QUALITY ASSURANCE WORKSHOP



             Sponsored by

U.S.  Environmental Protection  Agency
          Corvallis,  Oregon
             Organized by
       Forest Response Program
               QA Staff
          March 29-31, 1988

           Denver, Colorado
     Library
     0.5. Environmental Prot»etio»
     Motional Health and BnvIn
     EfSocta Research Laboratory
     aOO S.T7. 35th Sires*
     Corvallls, Oregon 97999

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                        Table of Contents


Preface


Section 1

     Overview of the Quality Assurance Programs Represented


Section 2

     Quality Assurance Issues

     2.1  Adapting QA to Ecological Research

          2.1.1     Paper — by Dr. Ian K. Morrison
          2.1.2     Discussions

     2.2  Comparability Studies

          2.2.1     Paper — by Dr. Wayne P. Robarge
          2.2.2     Discussions

     2.3  Quality Control Data

          2.3.1     Paper — by Dr. John K. Taylor
          2.3.2.    Discussions


Section 3

     Conclusions and Future Challenges

     3.1  Closing Discussions

     3.2  Workshop Critique

     3.3  Future Plans


Section 4

     4.1  Workshop Agenda

     4.2  List of Attendees

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                             Preface
     The  scientific  community  is  increasingly  called  upon  to
address ecosystem  responses to a  myriad of human  activities  at
local, regional, and even global  levels.   In the  decade  of the
1990's  and beyond,  a  clearer  understanding  of such  ecosystem
responses  will  be  fundamental  to  emerging   policy   issues.
Monitoring and research within  ecosystems  is  seen,  therefore,  as
a major scientific  need for the period ahead, and Quality Assurance
(QA) procedures will need to accompany these developments.

     As a  preparatory step,  the QA staff  of  the Forest  Response
Program under the  National  Acid Precipitation Assessment Program
(NAPAP)  organized   a workshop  to  discuss  the  role of  QA  in
ecological science.  The workshop was  held  on March  29-31, 1988 in
Denver, CO; the purpose was to:

     1) strengthen interaction between the various QA programs by
     exchanging  information  on QA  activities  in   a number  of
     different monitoring and  research  areas,  including  water,
     soil, vegetation, and atmospheric sciences,  and to strengthen
     interaction between the various QA programs;

     2) provide a  forum for discussing topics of general concern
     to QA implementation  in monitoring and research programs; and

     3)  establish  some  guidelines  for  the  extension  of  QA
     specifically  into terrestrial/ecological  research  in  the
     decade ahead.

     In  order to  fulfill the  first  objective,  day one  of the
workshop  was  dedicated to  exchanging  information  about  the  QA
programs  represented,  to  foster discussion  about  the  issues  at
hand, and to fulfill the first objective. A representative of each
program or organization presented an overview of their activities,
innovations, and difficulties.  Section 4 contains  an agenda, and
a list of participants and groups represented.

     The second and third day of the workshop focused on specific
aspects  of  QA  implementation,  including:    the  adaptation  of
traditional QA to ecological research, comparability studies, and
collection and evaluation of quality control data.   For each of
the three sessions, a discussion leader presented an issues paper
prepared and  distributed  in advance  of the workshop to stimulate
discussion.   These  papers  are presented  in Section  2  of the
proceedings, as modified after the workshop.
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     At the conclusion of the workshop,  the workshop participants
attempted to summarize the main issues discussed during the three
sessions and  identify  conclusions.   The outcome  is  presented in
Section 3 of these proceedings.

     One group consensus was to begin planning for an international
symposium in  1989 to further define  the  role of QA in ecological
research  programs in  the 1990's.    Representatives  from  other
agencies and governments have expressed interest in assisting with
the arrangements for such a symposium.

     Reaction  to this workshop  and  future  meetings was  very
positive.   There was  consensus that  this  workshop fulfilled its
objectives  and  similar workshops or  meetings  are needed  in the
future.   The  U.S.  EPA's  Environmental  Research Laboratory  in
Corvallis  and  the  Forest Response Program  plan  to  actively
participate.  We wish  to thank the  other  participants for their
efforts, particularly  the  authors of the three  issues papers and
our colleagues from Canada for their participation.
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                            Section 1


     OVERVIEW OF THE QUALITY ASSURANCE PROGRAMS REPRESENTED
     About 40 people  attended the workshop from  across  the U.S.
and  Canada.    They  represented  QA  interests  among  twenty-one
federal, state,  provincial,  corporate  and consulting organizations
that expressed high interest in the workshop.  Introductory remarks
from  spokespersons  for  sixteen  organizations  provided  these
highlights:


o    U.S. EPA and U.S. Forest service, Forest Response Program
     (NAPAP),
      Corvallis, Oregon - Susan Medlarz
     -    In 1986, began implementing QA within this multi-agency
          program of research on air pollution and forest effects
          across the U.S.
          Developed and applied a  QA  program  to a highly diverse
          program focused on ecological research.

o    Great Lakes Survey
      Burlington, Ontario, Canada - Keijo Aspila
          Conducts inter-laboratory comparison studies.
          Services seven  major monitoring programs  which employ
          over 400 laboratories.

o    Canadian Territories Sample Exchange
      Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario, Canada - Ian Morrison
          Conducts inter-laboratory comparison studies.
          Uses round-robin tests for forest soil  and plant tissues.

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International Soil Sample Exchange
 Las Vegas, Nevada - Craig Palmer
     Undertakes  comparability  studies   of   the  U.S.   EPA
     Direct/Delayed  Research  Program  (DDRP)  soil  survey
     analytical data  and compares  to standard  soil  survey
     information.
     Approach is inter-laboratory soil sample exchanges.

National Acid Deposition Network/National Trends Network
 Ft. Collins, Colorado - Dave Bigelow
     Network designed  to collect wet deposition samples at
     about 200 meteorological stations across the U.S.
     Precipitation chemistry determined in laboratories from
     weekly samples.
     QA/QC   activities  include  guidelines   for  standard
     procedures at sites and in the laboratory.

National Surface Water Survey
 Las Vegas, Nevada - Mark Silverstein
     Undertook sampling of 1800 lakes and 450 streams in the
     NE U.S. and 750 lakes in the Western U.S.
     Implemented  QA  procedures  for  lake  water  sampling
     methods,  and  sample  tracking  and  analysis  at  eight
     contract laboratories.

U.S. EPA, Direct-Delayed Response Program
 Las Vegas, Nevada - Lou Blume
     Over 2200 soil samples  were  collected  for the DDRP for
     the required chemical and physical analysis.
     Analytical work  was  coordinated by  QA  staff through
     technical caucus approach.

U.S. EPA, Watershed Manipulation Program
 Corvallis, Oregon - Heather Erickson
     Program  will test  three hydrologic  models  from  DDRP
     through manipulation experiments in paired catchments.
     Goals of QA program, though still in the implementation
     phase, are to  improve  research results by establishing
     Data  Quality  Objectives  (DQOs)  for  field  research,
     standard  support  laboratory  procedures,  and  inter-
     laboratory comparison studies.

U.S. EPA, QA Management Staff
 Washington, D.C.  - Linda Kirkland
     Involved  in  developing QA  policy  for  the  U.S.  EPA
     following the initiation of a EPA agency-wide QA program
     in 1984.
     Strong emphasis on development of Data Quality Objectives
     for environmental monitoring and research.

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  U.S. EPA, Environmental Research Laboratory
   Corvallis, Oregon - Deborah Coffey
       Research program broadly-based across ecological issues
       (e.g.,  effects of  UV-B,  toxicants,  GEMS,  and  human
       development on forests, crops, and wetlands).
       Found QA to be most effective with top management support
       and when it is  involved  before,  during,  and  after data
       collection.

  U.S. EPA, Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory,
   Research Triangle Park,  NC - Bill Mitchell
       Provide the materials, procedures, and QA services needed
       to  document/assess   the  quality associated  with  the
       environmental monitoring  of air, hazardous waste, and wet
       and dry deposition.
       Philosophy is to combine R & D with simple common sense
       QA procedures relative to the critical measurements.

U.S. Geological Survey
   Arvada, Colorado - Vic Janzer
       Employs a staff of 120, the USGS processes 50,000 water
       samples/year from across all 50 states.
       The QA unit is  responsible  for maintaining commitments
       from  top to  all field sampling  people to  achieve high
       data quality.

  W.S. Flemming and Associates
   Albany, NY - Jim Healy
       Provides management,  QA, and  data  management  for  the
       Mountain Cloud Chemistry Program.
       At nine eastern U.S. and Canadian mountain sites measures
       physical,   chemical,    and   general   meteorological
       characteristics  of   clouds  and  atmospheric  inputs  to
       remote forest locations.

  Research Triangle Institute
   Research Triangle Park,  NC - Jerry Koenig
       A not-for-profit  research organization of  1200 persons
       in engineering, math, survey, social, and environmental
       research projects focused  on physical,  chemical,  and
       biological issues.
       The QA staff developed a process for setting DQO's  and
       applied it to their research projects.

  Technology Resources, Inc.
   Washington, DC - Jerry Filbin
       A consulting  firm specializing in environmental survey
       and monitoring projects  (e.g., Maryland Synoptic Stream
       Chemistry Survey).
       Developed a computer program,  QCIC,  to  standardize and
       automate routine management and examination of analytical
       chemistry data.

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o    Weyerhaeuser Testing Center
      Tacoma, Washington - Kari Doxsee
          A laboratory for analyzing  samples  from wood products,
          soils,  plant  tissues,  fuels,  and  a  broad array  of
          environmental projects.
          Uses standard QA/QC practices  to produce quality data in
          a non-threatening manner which fits the needs  of clients.

     Five additional organizations expressed high interest in the
workshop.   Unfortunately, their  representatives  were  unable  to
attend because of scheduling conflicts.   These were:

     o    U.S.D.I. National Park Service,    - Darcy Rutkowski
     o    U.S. EPA/ GLP Program              - John McCann
     o    Research Evaluation Associates,    - Richard Trowp
     o    Desert Research Institute/         - John Watson
     o    Wildlife International,            - Hank Krueger

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                            Section 2


                    QUALITY ASSURANCE ISSUES
2.1.1  Adapting Quality Assurance to Ecological Research

  Paper by:

  I. K. Morrison,   Canadian Forestry Service,  Sault  Ste.  Marie,
                    Ontario, Canada



                           Introduction

     Quality assurance (QA) and quality  control  (QC) are common to
a wide range  of pursuits  from manufacturing  to monitoring  to
research.    In manufacturing,  emphasis  is placed on  process and
product quality  control, with  exacting  requirements  for accuracy
and precision.  This is especially the case when mass producing a
product.

     Environmental monitoring adapted many industrial QC concepts
for mass collection of data (over time and/or space).  Features of
both  situations  generally include:    (1)  thoughtful  objective
setting,  (2)  establishment  of measurable  markers,   (3)  careful
selection  and thorough and  lucid  documentation of methods,  (4)
faithful  attention to detail  in  implementation,  (5)  rigorous
auditing,   and   (6)  timely  feedback  leading  to  any  required
corrective  action.   The system organizing these  activities was
named "QA".  The most recent challenge is the adaptation of QA to
research,  specifically ecological research.  This paper addresses
the issues at stake in making such an adaption.

     Ecological  research  studies  the  relationship  of  living
organisms or  groups  (populations or communities)  of  organisms to
their  environment.   Processes  within  the scope of  ecology vary
widely in space and time, from small process occurring over short
time  intervals  to processes  involving  major  segments  of  the
ecosphere and occurring over extended time periods.  The "ecology"
we presumably must address  from a QA perspective is the latter, as

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it frequently involves large numbers of individuals, and continuity
often  must  be maintained  over  long  periods  of  time.    This
represents special challenges to QA.

                           Challenges

     All  research,  ecological  or otherwise,  must  conform  to
acceptable standards.   This discussion  is  based on  the special
obstacles  to  environmental  problem-solving  which  result  from
studying processes  at  the ecosystem  level.   Specifically,  these
are:   (1)  the evolution of issues  and re-ordering  of objectives
over  the  time scale  of research,   (2)  constraints  on  design,
particularly on experimentation,  (3)  the need for comparability,
(4)  the  need  for  continuity,   (5)  the availability  of  research
techniques, and (6) natural variability.

     Evolving  Issues -  A number  of  environmental  issues  have
surfaced over  the  past decade, evoking  scientific  (and  popular)
concern.   These  issues have pointed  out  general  deficiencies in
our  current  knowledge  of ecological  processes,  particularly how
such processes inter-relate.  In addition, issues frequently evolve
over  the  time scale necessary for environmental research.   For
example, the   (purported)  impact  of regional air pollutants was
initially concerned mainly with "acid  rain".   Later, the issue was
taken to include both "acid rain" and other air pollutants (chiefly
ozone).    Now,  it  is  focused  on  "forest  decline"  in  general,
possibly occurring in response  to a mix of stress-inducing factors
including, but not limited to,  the  above pollutants.  These other
stress  factors include:    (1)  climatic  stresses  (chiefly  winter
damage, late or early frost damage, and summer drought), (2) insect
or disease attack, and (3) poor management.

     In  general,  however, tree  health  and  tree growth are the
central issues with respect  to effects  of air pollutants  or any
other stress-inducing factor on forest ecosystems.  Thus, to reach
an ultimate resolution,  forest growth reduction  (or stimulation)
and  causal relationships need to  be  unequivocally  demonstrated.
Furthermore, forestry values at risk are  primarily economic; these
need to be in  readily convertible to units of timber measure.

     Design Constraints  -  Various research  methods are employed
in  ecological  research:   experimentation,  correlation,  surveys,
and   monitoring.     In  most   research,   traditional  factorial
experimentation does not usually pose major problems.   Hypotheses
can be framed and tested,  treatments can  be applied and adequately
replicated, and the research can proceed.  However, some ecological
research does face unique space and/or time problems.   For example,
the  relationship of  any  type of forest to any one or combination
of   air  pollutants  could   presumably  be   characterized  by  a
dose-response  relationship.  But  mature  forests  tend  not to lend
themselves to direct factorial experimentation without  either being
unacceptably   artificial  or   unacceptably   confounded.     Also,
comparing  or contrasting processes  in similar forests in zones of
different pollutant  loading tends to be confounded by differences

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in climate,  geology,  and soils.   Though variation can  often be
statistically accounted for by study design and by replication on
a smaller scale, the costs of replicating whole-ecosystem studies
is often a major  consideration.   Finally,  pollutant loadings (in
eastern North  America)  tend to vary  along the same  gradient as
climate.

     Need for Comparability -  If  research activities forming part
of an integrated program are carried out at different locations and
by different personnel,  some basis of comparison must be included.
This implies a  need for  at  least  minimum standardization.   Areas
where some degree of  standardization has been achieved  or where
standardization could be considered included:  (1) assessments of
tree health,  (2) measurements of forest or tree growth,  (3) various
climatic measurements,  (4) sampling and chemical analysis of foliar
tissues, and (5) soils descriptions, sampling, and analysis.

     Meed for Continuity -   Fixed reference points are necessary
if research or monitoring is extended over long time periods as in
•baseline1 or  'set-the-clock1  type  studies.   However,  changes in
technology over time should be  considered.  While methodologies or
equipment can be  resurrected,  there  is  often a  reluctance on the
part of scientists to accept obsolete  methods or  old data, which
can  cast  some  doubt on  the  utility of studies.   Maintenance of
samples  and standards   over  time  may  help, though  there  are
considerations  of long term stability.

     Availability  of  Techniques  -    Despite  the  advance  of
technology over the past several decades, there does not appear to
have  been  a  commensurately   large  increase  in   the  number  of
techniques or tools available to the field-ecologist for efficient,
accurate  and precise measurements (e.g.,   forest productivity).
Physiological   measures  such   as  C02   or  HjO   exchange  offer
possibilities,  though currently they tend to fall within the domain
of research, and some standardization is in place.

     Chemical  analysis   of  plant  parts attracts  interest.   In
forestry, most plant analysis for  diagnostic  use  involves  the
determination  of  total  concentrations  (usually w/w)  of various
macro-elements  (N, P, K,  Ca, Mg,  S) , micro-elements  (Fe,  Mn, B,
Zn, Cu, Mo,  Cl), or other inorganic elements (e.g.  Na, Al, Ni, Cd,
Pb, etc.)  in dried foliage.  However, buds,  bark, inner bark, xylem
sap, and fine roots have all been used.  The object is usually to
relate  internal concentration  to some  external   (environmental)
variable.   Various interpretive  techniques have  been advanced,
including  the   establishment  of  'critical  levels',  the  use of
various ratios  and proportions, limiting factors analysis, vector
analysis,  and  DRIS  (diagnosis  and  recommendation  integrated
system).  Foliage analysis  derives its predictive  ability from the
goodness of correlation between analytical results and

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environmental measurements.   Even when standardized, the necessary
empirical relationships have not always been apparent.

     Soils analysis,  as currently used  in forestry,  is  largely
borrowed from  agricultural  usage.   Like  foliage  analysis,  soils
tests presumably derive their predictive ability from the goodness
of correlation  of analytical results  with some measure  of tree
response.  Unlike foliage analysis (in which total concentrations
are  usually  determined),  most  soils tests  extract  particular
fractions,  often  purported  to  be  'available1  or  'exchangeable1
forms.  Empirical  relationships  are often species-specific and for
regional application.   Only in a  few instances  have empirical
relationships been derived for natural  trees.

     Natural Variability -   Variability  is usually  controlled
experimentally or is accommodated statistically by replication or
stratification.   The  approach  is normally dictated  by the study
objective.   Ecology tends to focus  at the population, community,
or ecosystem level, or,  for  practical  purposes,  on trees, stands
of trees, forest  types,  forest  associations,  etc.   On soils,  the
focus  is frequently  at the series  level or  higher.   Studies
therefore   tend    to   be   concerned    with    stand-to-stand,
species-to-species, forest type-to-forest type differences.  This
leaves  the variability to be  accounted  for  at  the within-tree,
tree-to-tree or plot-to-plot levels.

     For growth  studies, tree  dimensions of interest generally
include diameter at breast height  (DBH), total height,  form class,
etc.    Individual tree  growth  is usually  estimated in terms of
diameter or  height increment,  or  change  of  form class.   Stand
dimensions are normally expressed  in terms  of  stemwood volume
(total  or  merchantable) or  in  terms  of  dry weight  (biomass or
phytomass).  Stand growth on a per area basis  is usually expressed
in terms of mean  annual increment  (MAI),  net periodic or current
annual  increment, gross periodic or  current  annual increment, or
(in ecological terms)  net primary production.  Conventions exist
for all of these.   If data  are  available,  the number of trees or
plots necessary to bring standard errors within acceptable limits
can be readily calculated.

     Sampling, on the other hand,  is  not well-standardized even
though  it  generally outweighs  analytical error.   In addition to
stand-to-stand   and   species-to-species   variation,   there   is
within-tree and between-tree variation to be taken into account.
The main sources  of within-tree variation (which  may vary among
elements)  include:    (1)  position  in the  crown,  (2)  variation
through the season, (3) difference of  needle age for conifers, and
(4) sun versus shade leaves for hardwoods.   Aspect may  also be
important.   Most authorities tend to favor sampling during periods
when  concentrations are stable (generally  late  in  the  growing
season but prior  to leaf coloration  for  hardwoods,  or during the
dormant  season  for  conifers).   However,   some  have suggested
sampling during  the  period of  leaf expansion  when  plants  are
physiologically more  active (but,  this  presents  some practical

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difficulties).   Within  tree variation generally  lends  itself to
stratification.  Some between-tree variation may be eliminated by
stratification  (e.g.,  restricting sampling  to trees of  certain
sizes or crown  classes).   At  present,  however, accommodating for
between-tree variation  is  mainly  approached through replication.
Again, if data are available, the number of samples needed to bring
the standard error to within acceptable limits (generally for the
most variable  parameter)  can  be calculated.   However,  precisely
sampling  a  required large numbers  of  large  trees  can  be  a
significant problem.

     Soils properties,  including physical  and chemical properties,
vary  both  horizontally  and   vertically,   and to  some  extent,
temporally  (in  response to processes  such as microbial  activity,
tree uptake, leaching, etc).  Vertical and  temporal variability can
be   reduced,   somewhat,    through   stratified   sampling   and
standardization of technique;  horizontal variation can be reduced
somewhat by replication.  Again, the required number  of samples can
be calculated, but may be  prohibitively large.  For other sampling
(e.g., litter, precipitation,  throughfall, or leachate),  locating
sites is usually study-specific and  the number of collectors can
be calculated as above.

                             Summary

     The aforementioned subjects (the evolution of issues, design
constraints,   etc.)  are   some  of  the   obstacles  to   solving
environmental problems through ecological  research.  All have data
quality implications; data quality would be improved  through better
issues  identification,  better  study  designs,  more precise  and
accurate methods, continuity and comparability, and accommodating
natural variability.  The  task before  us  is to adapt existing QA
concepts to ecological research to promote these concepts.

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2.1.2  Workshop Discussions


     Dr. Ian Morrison presented his  paper to set the stage for the
first discussion session.  Based upon his long experience and lucid
thinking in forest ecology research,  Dr.  Morrison's talk stimulated
the group to rethink  some important basic  QA  issues  as a prelude
to reviewing QA applications to ecological research.

     For example, what is the  basic definition  of  QA?   It is not
in the  common  reference  lexicons.   Without getting  out  the text
books, these thoughts emerged at the workshop:

     o    QA is a system whereby we  define  in a general way how to
          quantify what we are interested in.

     o    It  is:    a)  what we  do  to be sure  what we do  is
          technically sound  and legally defensible; b)  up front
          rules  or  procedures  to  follow  in  monitoring; c)  in
          research,  not a system which drives methodology — rather
          some research must come first to lay the foundation for
          QA; and d)  set  forth in a QA plan  and  in  research the
          plan keeps changing  (i.e., QA evolves).

     o    Quality data  requires documentation of  what was done;
          thus,  the philosophy  of  QA  is  partly  dependent  upon
          documentation of each data collection step.

     o    Conventionally, we thought  QA   began  with  taking  and
          handling  a sample;  Canadians  developed  the   idea  of
          starting with work plan development and following through
          to and including the  scientific report.  This concept is
          called quality management  (QM) in science.

     o    More definitions of QA and associated terms are presented
          in Robarge's paper (Section 2.2.1).

Also, what is quality?

     o    We judge quality by the lack of quality or departure from
          a norm or defects that will or will not be tolerated.

     o    A value judgement  that QA does  not  define,  but rather
          depends upon others to establish first (i.e., a kind of
          model).

Where does QA fit in science?

     o    Basically, QA is a component of science.

     o    Science has to be allowed to proceed.
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     o    The value  of  QA activities are  to  ensure that:   a)  a
          scientist can defend  his/her  work through a  system of
          documenting and correcting errors; and b)  what the
          scientist does meets the needs of the policy-maker.

QA  has  a  narrow  task  and  a  broad task  as  reflected in  the
activities described in a and b above.

     o    Through early involvement  at  the  planning phase QA can
          guide the data quality objectives (DQOs).

     o    In research, QA  involvement depends  on the research to
          be undertaken — in leading edge research, QA people are
          often following the advice of the scientist.

     o    An  effective   QA   program   is   dependent   upon   good
          communications   among    key   managers,    scientists,
          technicians, and QA personnel.

Levels  of QA  implementation - Quality Management vs.  Quality
Assurance vs. Quality Control?

     o    There are these  three levels  at  which data quality can
          be managed.   The  appropriateness and utility  of each
          needs to be considered  as new programs or projects are
          established.  The  activities  associated with each were
          discussed.

     o    Quality Management:   (1) focuses on ensuring data meets
          the needs  of  the  users  and that the  policy questions
          driving  the  program  are  clearly formulated,  (2)  is a
          system   which  provides   oversight   and  leaves  the
          participating scientists to determine how  QA and QC will
          be addressed.

     o    The  role   of  Quality  Assurance   is  following  the
          development of  succinct  policy goals and  ensuring data
          is collected  in a sound  manner.   QA activities have
          developed largely from other disciplines (e.g. chemistry
          and  air monitoring)  so  its  adaptation   to  ecological
          research is developing without guidance.   Checks on many
          ecological variables  are  not  available; they are being
          developed  to  check the  process   but  this is  still an
          imperfect  system.     QA   in  ecological   fields  faces
          cross-media complexities.   To provide continuity for
          long-term  ecological  research one should bank samples
          (e.g. tissue, aqueous,  soils, remotely sensed imagery)
          so future comparisons  are possible when methods have been
          refined.  New vs.  old data must be assessed to minimize
          loss of current activities.

     o    Quality Control is  the nuts and bolts of quantifying the
          precision and accuracy at the project level.
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2.2.1  Comparability Studies
  Paper by:

  Wayne P. Robarge,  N.C. State University, Department of Soil
                     Science, Raleigh, NC
                           Introduction

     This issues paper focuses on:   (1) defining comparability and
models,  (2)  some examples  of how  comparability studies  can  be
implemented,  (3)  the  use  of comparability  studies,  and  (4)
questions for discussion on the need for comparability studies in
ecological research.  Please note the distinction between the term
"comparability"  and  the  subject area  of  the  discussion group
("comparability  studies in  ecological research").   This paper is
not  intended to be  a detailed  document  on  how  to  carry  out
comparability  studies  among analytical   laboratories.     Such
information is readily  available in published  books and the peer
reviewed literature.  Rather, this document and the workshop were
intended  to develop  a better  understanding  of  how  to  design,
implement, and use results from comparability studies in ecological
research to  improve the data quality.  Therefore,  the terms and
definitions  cited in this  document  serve  only as  a  basis for
further discussion.
COMPARABILITY AND DEVELOPING MODELS

     Comparability is one of five data quality indicators required
in the  EPA's interim guidelines for preparing  quality assurance
project plans.  Comparability can be defined as the confidence with
which one  data  set can be  compared  to  another.  A  data  set can
refer to small  sets of  data  generated  by a  single technician
comparing two analytical  techniques, or to an extensive database
covering several disciplines that serves as a baseline to measure
long-term  changes  in an  ecosystem.   Regardless of  the  scale at
which the comparisons are made,  they will  require establishment of
suitable confidence limits prior to acquisition  of the data.  This
is most effectively accomplished through the use of a model.

     A model  is an idealized representation of an  often complex
reality.   Models attempt to bring together,  among  other things,
prior  knowledge,  hypotheses,   and  assumptions  concerning  the
phenomena  or the system  under  investigation.   Development  of a
correct model (or models)  leads to the  quality  of data that will
be necessary  to provide the information  required.   This  in turn
can be used  to  develop a set of data quality objectives  for the
proposed project.
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     This approach  does not have  analytical methodology  as  its
central focus.  Rather, selecting a particular analytical technique
and associated QA follows from:   (1)  a  detailed consideration of
the  problems to  be  solved,  and  (2)  a  conscientious  decision
regarding the  quality of data  required to  reach  a  satisfactory
solution. Comparability then is not an addition  to an experimental
plan, but an integral part of the planned  research.   It requires
input from both  the project  leader and the  agency receiving  the
final data set.   These two groups need to decide on the quality of
collected data required for their particular needs.   Topics that
need to be addressed concerning comparability among data sets are
covered below.
IMPLEMENTATION OF COMPARABILITY STUDIES

     Stating a given  confidence level for a particular  data set
implies  knowledge  of  the  precision,  accuracy   (bias),   and
representativeness of the data.   The  following is a listing of the
general ways in which  this information is obtained.  This listing,
however, should only  be used as an  example of  ways  to implement
comparability studies.   It  is  important  to  the success  of  this
workshop to not allow the terminology and concepts often associated
with   analytical   chemical  methodology   from  dominating   our
discussions regarding  ways  to  implement comparability studies in
ecological research.

     Sampling  Design  -  The  importance  of  sampling  is  well
understood  by  most researchers  and  is  the  subject  of  numerous
monographs.  Perhaps  of most concern to QA are what populations
are  actually  being  sampled  in  ecological  studies  and  what
assumptions can be made regarding population distributions.  Random
sampling is usually the answer to such questions, but  the basis for
this is more from  statistical concepts underlying the experimental
design than an appreciation for the  distribution of  the samples.
Many parameters are spatially and temporally related in ecological
systems, thus  strict  adherence  to  random sampling  may  lead to
sampling numbers larger than necessary in order to obtain a valid
conclusion.   Alternative  sampling  strategies   are available but
require a  least some  information about the parameter of interest
before they can be applied  successfully.

     Reference  Sample  Exchanges -  A  reference material   is  a
substance  that has  been characterized  sufficiently  well  so  that
its composition or related physical property has a certified value
of  known  accuracy.    The chief  role of reference samples  is to
evaluate the accuracy of calibration standards for  a particular
analytical instrument or complete measurement process.  Note that
this does not necessarily mean that  actual sample accuracy can be
measured using  a  reference material.   The latter  can  only be
approximated when the matrices of   the  reference   material and
samples are similar.  The obvious drawback to the use of reference
materials is the lack of suitable, stable substances that match all
possible sample populations likely  to be encountered in ecological

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research.  As the similarity  in matrices  diminishes,  the role of
a reference material in assessing comparability is reduced.

     Audit/Exchange Samples  - Sample exchanges  of  non-certified
material that  approximates the matrix  of the  sample population
provides a means of determining relative  accuracy in  a data set.
Such estimates may be methodology dependent and may yield results
with substantial unknown bias  that could limit comparisons between
data  sets.   Many  measurements made  in  ecological research  are
related to specific biological processes.  In  other  words,  they
only have meaning when  combined with  another  data set.   Audit or
exchange  samples,   therefore, provide  more  useful  information
regarding precision within  a given data set than yielding estimates
of accuracy or bias.

     QC Check  Samples - Also known as in-house  controls,  these
samples are necessary  for monitoring quality control and estimating
precision within a data set.   Their use, however,  is limited to
methodologies where repeated measurements can be made from sample
matrices whose composition for the parameter of interest does not
change  markedly as   a  function  of  time.    For biological  or
physio-chemical  processes  that are changing with  time, use of
in-house controls will  not be possible or will  be  restricted to
portions of a methodology which are relatively  independent of time.

     Methodology Comparisons  -  Adopting  a  set of  methods  as
standard operating procedures is a necessary step in developing a
QA plan and is fundamental  to  providing estimates  of precision and
bias in a data  set.  Selection of a particular  method is a function
of the data output desired and its cost.   When suitable reference
materials are present,  comparison  of  methods  is straightforward.
Lack  of  a  suitable  reference material dictates  the use  of  other
approaches, such as:   (1) the use of spiked samples and surrogates,
(2) analysis of analogous reference  materials, or  (3) a comparison
of the  selected methodology  to  a method  that  is accepted  as a
standard but is too expensive to perform on a routine basis.  All
three  of  these approaches  are  capable  of  estimating  quality
providing the assumptions involved with each are satisfied for any
given situation.

     Use  of  methodology  comparisons  in  ecological  research,
however, may suffer the same limitations as outlined for audit and
exchange samples. Many methods in ecological research are designed
as  an  attempt  to quantify   different  biological  or  physical
processes which are essentially in a constant state of  change.  The
method  being  attempted is  based  to  some degree  on  physical,
chemical,  or  biological  principles,  but  there  is   no way  to
determine what  is  the right answer.  For example,  measuring dry
deposition to a forest canopy produces an estimate which is based
on current technology  and an understanding of deposition processes.
Attempting to assign accuracy and precision estimates to such
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methods will  require a  different approach  than  that used  with
common analytical procedures.

     Equipment   Comparisons   -   Equipment  comparison   between
analytical instrumentation assumes that the same sample matrix can
be introduced into each instrument being tested.  If this condition
is met, then such comparisons provide estimates of bias in the data
set introduced by the use of  a given instrument.  Such comparisons
are definitely in order  for  contributing  to  the comparability of
a data set.

     The  application  of  equipment comparisons  to  non-analytical
instrumentation,   such  as  exposure  chambers  (e.g.  CSTRs  vs.
Open-Tops vs. field studies) poses a  different  set  of questions.
It might be argued that such a comparison is not valid and should
not be addressed under  the  category of  quality  control.   This
argument might be valid  if the treatments used in  these chamber
studies produced a  response  that  followed a continuous  function
and was unique  upon  exposure to  the test  substance.    This is
generally not the case.  Also, documentation of a response within
a controlled chamber does not constitute a direct link to similar
processes  occurring  in  the  field.   If  the effect  of   a  given
substance is a function  of several environmental  variables,  then
the response to  different concentrations of this substance in the
environment  will follow a  response  surface  and  not  a  simple
function.  Thus,  the location of  a damage response on the response
surface is observed in the field versus observations of damage in
controlled chambers is a  measure of bias in the data generated from
such experiments.

     Comparison between non-analytical instrumentation also serves
to  delineate problems with  treatment precision  within  a  given
design, and how  this may influence interpretation of the results.
Unlike  analytical  instrumentation,   where  the  x-variable  can
generally be assumed to be error-free, there may be a substantial
amount  of  uncertainty   in  the  actual  treatment  concentrations
present  during  an  experiment.    Failure  to  account  for  the
uncertainty  in   the  x-axis may  result in a bias  in the  final
interpretation of the data  and  the  type of  response  function
assumed  to be present.    Comparison  with chambers  specifically
designed to control  precision of  the treatment concentration would
be one way to determine the presence of such  bias in the data set.
USE OF COMPARABILITY STUDIES

     Because of the way comparability is defined, it is necessary
to  speak of the  use of  comparability  studies at  two different
levels.  On the one hand, output from a comparability study could
be used to address selected topics for a specific data set produced
by  a  particular project.   The rate of output would essentially
match that  of  the main project.   To a large  extent this  is the
manner in which most comparability studies are currently defined
and executed.  As  pointed out above, however, comparability should

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be considered an integral part of  the  development  of a model for
a given research project.   It would follow  then,  that questions
raised by addressing the comparability of  the projected data set
will require solutions before a project  can  be successfully carried
out.   Such  questions  may  be beyond  the  scope  of the  planned
project(s)  and  require separate  investigations to  arrive  at  a
satisfactory answer.  The output from these comparability studies
would be used to plan future research projects.
COMPARABILITY IN MONITORING

     Following  are  topics  that  should  be  addressed  to  show
comparability of data sets from different monitoring programs:

     (1) how sampling stations or sites  in each network are sited.
Ideally, each  network has the  same probability of  collecting a
representative sample  (for example,  sites  are selected to detect
maximum values or values representative of an area or volume?);

     (2) how the same variables (analytes) measured  in each program
are reported in the same units and corrected to the same standard
conditions.  If not, provide a mathematical or gravimetric relation
between variables;

     (3) how procedures and methods for  collection  and analysis of
any particular observable phenomenon are the same among networks.
If not, provide a mathematical relation;

     (4) how data quality is  established  and how there  will be
sufficient  documentation of  audits and DQOs  to  determine  data
adequacy;

     (5) how,  in  terms  of accuracy and precision,  data  for one
observable  phenomenon,  measured  by one  method  or  equivalent
methods, can be combined or compared in  a statistically defensible
manner among programs.
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2.2.2  Workshop Discussions

     Discussions centered  around Dr.  Wayne Robarge's paper  and
presentation   on   comparability  studies   generated  the   most
controversy  and disagreement.    Interestingly,  it  was  not  the
thoroughly  prepared overview  of implementing comparability  in
ecological research that was the concern, but the semantics of this
aspect  of  data quality.   Several  questions were presented  for
discussion.  Following is a summary of the participants response.

Is it  possible to  draw  a  distinction  between comparability  and
comparability studies?

     o     The  consensus was no.   Comparability is one of several
          quality  descriptors applied to  a  body of  numerical
          information.

     o     Comparability studies  are the means of determining the
          information necessary to state the degree of confidence
          with which one data set can be compared to another.

     o    Even identifying how comparable different data sets are
          that use the same methodology is difficult.  We are just
          beginning to identify the components that contribute to
          variability when different methodologies are used.

What   is   the   difference  between   comparability  studies  and
calibration studies?

     o    This was not resolved.
        PROGRAM                   METHOD
                      SAME METHOD        DIFFERENT METHODS

        WITHIN            1*                     2

        BETWEEN           3                      4

     *Complexity increases from 1 to 4
Can comparability studies be  defined  as  a separate entity from a
research program?

     o    No.   This  type of study is  only pertinent when defined
          within the scope of all data quality descriptors  for that
          research.
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Does  reference  to comparability  studies in  ecological  research
really imply the need for the development of better or alternative
methodologies to study ecological processes?

     o    Selecting a specific methodology to be used in a research
          project  is then  reflected  in the  body of  numerical
          information to be produced.   Comparability studies allow
          for the determination of  overall  error variance in the
          method selected.  If this error variance exceeds the data
          quality objectives  set  for  the research  program,  then
          these objectives need to be re-evaluated or a different
          methodology selected.

     o    Comparability studies in ecological research reflect the
          heterogeneity  of  methods  in  ecological research.   They
          are very  important indicators  that no one  method has
          proven itself above all  others in  certain fields.  Also,
          comparability studies help to determine which methods are
          better.

Is  there  too much emphasis on numerical accuracy  in  ecological
research?

     o    The participants agreed  that  the answer to this question
          directly depends on the data quality objectives set for
          a given research  project.   It is  more than likely that
          too much emphasis is being given  to numerical accuracy
          for many methods  currently used in ecological studies,
          especially  those comparing  data  sets  from  different
          ecosystems or  regions of the country.

     o      More  emphasis should be  placed on  using  comparable
          interpretations of such data sets, rather than the data
          itself.

Does  ecological  research require the  development of  a different
set  of  quality  assurance  and  quality  control criteria   (i.e.
different  from  those developed  for  monitoring  and  analytical
chemistry)?

     o    No.  The QA/QC criteria for  a  given research project is
          a direct function of the specific data quality objectives
          for the variables of concern.  The biggest difference is
          the basis  of QA  for research  on  relative vs. absolute
          accuracy.   Knowledge about accuracy for many variables
          exists  only  as estimates  for research.    Whereas  in
          monitoring programs, specific  accuracy on monitoring is
          available.

     o    For both research and monitoring programs, data quality
          objectives must be based on cost-effective considerations
          established with  realistic needs of the problem and the
          capability of  the measurement  process.
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     o      Data  quality objectives  should  not be  confused with
          accuracy  and  precision   limits   set  for  individual
          analytical techniques.

Does the propagation of error set finite limits on the quality of
data that can  be produced with the  current  experimental designs
used for research projects?

     o    This question pertains more to the representativeness of
          a body  of numerical information and  was  not addressed
          during the workshop.  It does,  however,  pertain to the
          capability of a particular measurement process to produce
          data of sufficient quality  to solve the problem at hand.

What  role  should  models  or modeling  play  in setting  quality
assurance guidelines in ecological research?

     o     Simulation  models  should  be used whenever  data bases
          already exist that  are  applicable to the questions at
          hand.   Such  models could  be  very  useful  in  setting
          priority  areas   within  a  research  project  requiring
          comparability studies.

Is the quality assurance data  being generated really being used by
funding agencies?

     o    Yes.   However,  it  is apparent that  in  the future more
          emphasis should be given at the data quality management
          level   in  establishing  well  defined   data   quality
          objectives  for  ecological  research,  especially  for
          programs  dealing with long term ecological monitoring.
          These  objectives  are  the basis for  implementing QA/QC
          programs.   The  resulting QA/QC program  should provide
          direct feedback  in  terms  of the quality  of  data being
          produced and whether such data will be useful in solving
          the problems to be addressed.
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2.3.1  Quality Control Data


  Paper by:

     John K. Taylor, Gaithersburg, MD
                           Introduction

     Almost  everyone will  agree  that  data  which  is  used  for
decisions  must  be  of  sufficient  accuracy  for  the  specific
application. Otherwise, the  decisions  based on its  use  can have
limited, if  any,  value.   Yet,  the absolute accuracy of  data can
never be known.  The only thing that can be known is a reasonable
estimate of  the  limits  of its  inaccuracy.   Modern measurement
practices,  based on sound quality assurance concepts, can provide
a statistical basis  for the  assignment  of  limits  of uncertainty.
The  following  discussion reviews  the  techniques  that have been
found to be most useful for providing a statistical basis for the
evaluation of data quality.

     Reliable data must be produced by  an  analytical system in a
state  of statistical  control.    The  analytical  system,  in  its
broadest concept,  includes the sampling system,  the measurement
process, the calibration process, and the data handling procedures.
The sampling system includes the sampling operations,  the transport
and storage  of  samples, and  any sub-sampling  operations  that are
required.  The  system must provide reproducible samples that do not
undergo any changes compromising their use.

     The measurement process must  be capable  of meeting  the data
quality objectives with respect to its accuracy, selectivity, and
sensitivity.    Measurements must be   operated  in  a  state  of
statistical  control,  which means  it must  be stabilized  and its
output  statistically  definable.   The calibration  system  must be
adequate and operate in a state of statistical control.

     Appropriate  quality  control procedures should  be  developed
and applied to  attain and maintain statistical  control of the above
operations.  Quality  assessment techniques are  applied  to verify
statistical  control  and  to evaluate the  quality of the  various
outputs.  The  remaining discussion deals with several aspects of
the use of quality assessment samples (often called quality control
samples) to  evaluate  analytical operations and  the data produced
by them.
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EVALUATION SAMPLES

     Evaluation  samples  describe  any  material   used   in  the
evaluation  of  an  analytical   system   and   its  data  outputs.
Regardless  of  the  kinds  of   samples   used,  they  must  be  of
unquestionable integrity.  This includes their homogeneity in every
case and  the accuracy  of their  characterization  when used  for
accuracy evaluation.   Samples  should be available  in sufficient
quantity,  including periodic re-evaluations and/or analyses at the
conclusion of the measurement program.  It is of utmost importance
that evaluation samples have as  close a correspondence as possible
to natural samples,  since the  data will be used to evaluate  the
performance  of  the  analytical  system  when  measuring  natural
samples.

     Variability   Samples - Samples may be  measured to  evaluate
the  attainment  and maintenance of statistical  control  and  the
variability  of  the measurement process.   Analysis  can  include
replicate measurement of  some natural samples  as well as samples
especially introduced into  the  measurement  program  to  evaluate
these parameters.   Natural samples have the advantage that they
truly  represent  the  natural  samples,   but  they  can  introduce
uncertainties due to homogeneity considerations.  Samples of known
composition  may  be  used to  evaluate  variability  as  well  as
accuracy,  but this  may  consume  larger  quantities of such samples
than may be desirable.  Replicate measurements of natural samples
are superior evaluators of precision, but such measurements can be
used only  for  precision.   Accuracy estimates must  be made using
other techniques.

     Accuracy Samples - Samples of known composition must be used
to evaluate accuracy.   Examples of  such  samples  are, in  order of
reliability:

     1)  Reference Materials- samples of matrix and analyte level
closely analogous to natural samples.   They need to be stable and
homogeneous, with thoroughly characterized analyte levels.  In some
cases,  it may be difficult to meet these needs.

     2)   Spikes/Surrogates- natural matrix  samples  spiked with
analyte of interest or a surrogate at appropriate  levels.  The main
objection  is  the question  of  analogy  to naturally incorporated
analyte.   Alternately,  a  benign matrix ( e.g.  distilled  water)
spiked  as  above   may  be  useful,   but  only   for     truly
matrix-independent methodology.

     3) Independent Measurement- not truly a  sample,  this involves
the  comparison measurement  of  a sufficient  number  of  natural
samples by a second reference technique.

     Blanks -  Blanks  are a  special class of evaluation  samples.
Sampling blanks  of various kinds are used to  verify that  sample
contamination is  insignificant  or to quantitatively evaluate its
magnitude.    Blanks   are  also  used   to  evaluate  artifactual

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contributions of the analytical process resulting from the use of
reagents, solvents, and chemical  operations.  When used for yes/no
decisions, the number of blanks required can be smaller than when
quantitative  estimates  are  of  concern.    Indiscriminate  and
arbitrary  schedules  for blanks  can be  counterproductive,  since
their measurement  can be  of little  value  and  consume  valuable
resources  that may be better diverted to measurement  of natural
samples.

     Instrument Response Samples - Special samples may be used to
monitor  certain  aspects of  the  outputs  of instruments  such  as
response factors, for example.  These should not be confused with
other kinds  of quality assessment  samples  that are designed  to
monitor the total output of the analytical process.

     Synthesized  evaluation  samples  may  appear  to  have  some
advantage  when  they  can   be more  accurately  compounded  than
analyzed.   However,  homogeneity considerations  and  questions  of
analogy  can  override this  apparent  advantage.   It  is virtually
impossible to homogenize spiked solid samples; they may need to be
individually prepared  and  used in their  entirety.   The  accuracy
attained  in  preparing evaluation samples cannot be  assumed,  but
must be experimentally demonstrated.  Ordinarily, the accuracy of
certified  values  should exceed that  required  for the data  by a
factor of  3 or greater.

     Another kind  of evaluation  sample, not often  considered  as
such, is a calibration evaluation sample.  There are two types of
calibration samples:   those to evaluate maintenance of calibration,
and those  to verify that the production of calibration samples is
reproducible.  The  first consists  of remeasuring an intermediate
calibration  point  at  selected  intervals during  the measurement
program.   The second consists of a simple analysis of variance in
which samples are  prepared  and measured in  replicate to estimate
both  precision  of  their   measurement  and precision  of  their
production.  The accuracy of calibration is  evaluated on the basis
of analysis  of  all sources of bias  in  their preparation and the
precision  with which they can be prepared.

     When using reference materials,  the overall  evaluation of the
calibration  process  is  involved  in the  overall evaluation  of
accuracy.  If biases  are found, the first place to look to identify
their cause is  in the  calibration process.    And  finally,  the
appropriateness of the calibration  procedure used must be verified
initially  and throughout a measurement program.

     Accuracy  can  be  evaluated  using a  reference  laboratory  to
measure  a  sufficient  number of split samples.   The participating
laboratories evaluate their own precision and measure a few
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reference samples,  but the bulk of the accuracy assessment is based
on comparison of results with those of the reference laboratory.
CONTROL CHARTS

     The  results  of  evaluation  sample  measurements  are  best
interpreted  by  use  of  control charts.   In  doing  so, a  single
measurement at any time is related to  a body  of control data and
becomes meaningful.  Otherwise,  a number of replicate measurements
must  be  made  each  time an   evaluation  is  undertaken.    The
accumulation  of  control  data  via control  charts  increases  the
degrees of freedom for the statistical  estimates and minimizes the
amount of  effort  to assure measurement quality.  Control  charts
also can be  very  useful for the evaluation of  the  precision and
bias of the measurement process.


FREQUENCY OF QA SAMPLE MEASUREMENT

     The frequency  of QA sample  measurement  will depend  on the
stability of the  analytical  system,  the criticality of the data,
and the risk associated with being out-of-control.  In principle,
all data during the interval  from  last  known "in control" to first
known "out of  control"  is suspect and may need  to  be discarded.
Such situations should  be avoided to minimize the resulting loss
of data and programmatic costs.

     For a well understood and stable system,  devotion of 5 to 10
percent of the total  effort to quality assessment may be sufficient
and is  not a large  cost.   For small  operations, as much  as 50
percent QA may be required.   For very critical data, the ratio may
be as high as 95 percent QA to 5 percent natural samples.

     Some  steps  in  the measurement  program  may be  adjusted to
minimize the amount  of overall evaluation (i.e., the QA samples).
Readjustment of calibration  intervals  may be  an example of this.
Careful attention to blank control,  sample preparation steps, and
chemical processing  are other areas for better control.  Anything
that can be done to improve quality control generally will minimize
the QA effort.
SOURCE OF CONTROL

     The bulk  of quality control and quality  assessment must be
done at the laboratory,  and  even at  the bench  level.   Checks are
required at the  supervisory level,  but  less frequently.   Checks
need to be  made at higher levels as is necessary, but are generally
needed  at  a decreasing frequency as  the  level  of  analysis is
removed from the source of  data  production.  A monitoring director
far removed from the scene of action can  only evaluate what was
done; the bench can evaluate what is being done.  Each level must
engender the respect and earn  the  trust of every  higher level.

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This can only happen when there  is  a  mutual  understanding of the
goals and delegated responsibility for the quality at each level.

     Every time that a  sample is handled, there  is  a  chance for
contamination or loss.  This  increases  the need  for  all kinds of
blanks and check samples.   Accordingly,  sample handling should be
minimized as possible.
DATA CONTROL

     Data control consists largely of minimizing random errors, to
the point of virtual elimination.  Such errors are different from
measurement errors and may be  called by  the undignified title of
"blunders".  Blunders have a  better chance of elimination than any
other kinds  of error and  are  best identified and  controlled by
inspection.
UNCERTAINTY EVALUATION

     Uncertainty  around measured  values is  estimated based  on
measurements of materials assumed to be similar to natural samples.
A  further  assumption  is  that  the  analytical  system  is  in
statistical control  at  all  times.   The  estimation  process  is as
follows:

     1)  Measure a reference sample.
     2)  Use a t-test to decide significant differences.

      2a) If insignificant,  conclude that measurement is unbiased.
          Assign  limits of uncertainty  based on the  confidence
          interval for the mean.
      2b) If significant, conclude  that the measurement is biased.
          Try  to  identify  the cause(s)  of  bias.    Eliminate
          source(s)  of  bias as possible.   Correct data  only if
          validity of correction process can be proved.

     In  either case, the decision  relates  to a  particular test
which generally will need to be reproducible.   Good measurement
practice dictates that an analytical system should be continually
monitored   to  verify   decisions   and   evaluate   quantitative
relationships.  The control chart approach is an excellent way to
accomplish both objectives.   The central  line of the control chart
becomes the best estimate of the limiting mean of the measurement
process and for evaluation of bias.   The  control limits become the
best estimate  of the precision of measurement.
                                24

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MEASUREMENTS USING EMPIRICAL METHODS

     In some  measurement programs, the  value of a  parameter is
defined empirically by the method of measurement.  In such cases,
the  accuracy  is  synonymous  with  the  precision  of  measurement.
However, one cannot discount that both observer and instrument bias
can  enter  measurement data.   Collaborative  testing  programs can
identify such problems when the  programs  are  properly designed and
executed.   It may   be  possible  to  develop a "standard  test
instrument".    Collaborative  tests  of  any   parameter  involving
unstable test  samples (ozone for  example)  may  require  that all
participants  assemble in  the  same area  and measure  a  local,
homogeneous sample (even the same sample if possible) to minimize
the effect of sample uncertainty.
DATA QUALITY OBJECTIVES

     DQOs   should   reflect  realistic  estimates   of  tolerable
uncertainty about measurement data  as  related to a specific use.
They  should not  be  based on  the  perceived  capability  of  the
measurement system.   Once  known,  the  requisite capability of the
analytical system can be estimated and the requirements for total
limits of uncertainty,  Um, can  be established.  Clearly,  Um must
be less than the DQOs to provide useful data.

      Ideally, the ratio of DQO to Um  should be > 10.
      Practically, the ratio of DQO to Um  should be >. 3.

     While Um includes components due  to  sample and measurement,
we will  confine  the following  remarks to  measurement.   However,
the basic concepts are applicable to all aspects  of the analytical
system.

Let:  Um  =   CI  + bias (CI =  confidence interval)

where:
        CI  =  t s  /   n (n = n-size,  s =  std. dev., t = t-value)
    bias  =  experimental bias + judgmental bias

     Experimental bias is evaluated as  mentioned above.  It should
represent the average  of  at  least 7 independent estimates of the
bias  (e.g., x +  Certified  Value).   Judgmental bias is based on a
bias budget that reflects contributions from the  "lack of control"
of known sources of bias for which quantitative  relationships are
known, and best estimates of limits from unevaluated sources.  In
setting limits,  and especially in correcting data, all of the above
must  be  documented and the  original  uncorrected  data  should be
accessible  so  that revisions  can be  made as appropriate.   The
following   "Good  Data Analysis  Practices" are  recommended for
consideration in this regard:
                                25

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     1.   Bias identification is diagnostic but not a calibration
          process.

     2.   Bias identification  is  not bias evaluation but  only a
          yes-no  decision.    Bias evaluation  is a  quantitative
          process and requires  extensive quantitative measurement.

     3.   Never  correct  for  a  bias without  understanding  its
          origin.

     4.   Evaluation of bias over  the entire measurement range (at
          least at 3  levels  such  as  low,  intermediate,  and high)
          is necessary  though not sufficient  to understand  the
          nature of existing bias and can be helpful to indicate
          ways to eliminate bias.

     5.   Ideally, eliminate bias at its source.

     6.   Development  and consideration  of  a   bias  budget is  a
          helpful first step in the elimination of bias.

     7.   In most cases, reference materials should be considered
          as diagnostic  tools,  and  not as calibration  items,  in
          most cases.

     8.   Data evaluation is  an  on-going process  that must  be
          pursued systematically and consistently.  Any procedure
          that is implemented  should be  reviewed for its utility
          and  revised as necessary  to  be most effective.   The
          measurement  of  control  samples  is costly and must  be
          cost-effective.

     9.   Involvement of all levels of analytical input is needed
          to develop and implement a cost-effective data evaluation
          program. Quality assurance requirements that are imposed
          from  "on  high" can  be misunderstood and  meet  with
          resistance.    And  sometimes  they  are  not  credible.
          Feed-back and the mutual development of remedial actions
          is  necessary  for  realistic  operation of a  reliable
          analytical system.

     10.  Without  statistical  control,  measurement  data  has  no
          logical significance.
MANAGEMENT OF A QA PROGRAM

     The quality assurance aspects of all measurement programs are
essentially the same.   Only  the  details  differ,  and these should
be developed  specifically for each program if they are  to be of
optimum value.  When designing and managing a quality assurance
                                26

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program for  a research  or  monitoring project,  special  emphasis
should be given to such matters as:

     1)   The amount of effort devoted to quality assessment.
     2)   The kind of quality assessment samples to be measured.
     3)   The frequency of measurement of QA samples.
     4)   The amount of  effort that  should  be  carried on as part
          of a contract laboratory's internal program.
     5)   The amount of effort that,should be done using externally
          supplied materials and monitored externally.
     6)   How  internal  and  external  QA  programs  are  to  be
          coordinated.

     The  preceding  discussion  provides  general  guidance  for
considering these  important matters.  However,  specific answers
need to  be developed,  based on  the precise  nature of  a  given
project.    The   following   set  of  questions  are  presented  for
consideration by QA management  when designing  a program  for  a
specific project.

     1)   What are the accuracy requirements for the data?
     2)   What kind  of QA samples  will be most effective for the
          research or monitoring that is contemplated?
     3)   What is  the  prior experience in use of  QA samples for
          the project planned or  for projects of  a similar nature?
     4)   What is  the relative reliability  of  natural matrix and
          synthetic QA samples?
     5)   What is the level of QA understanding of participants?
     6)   What role will blanks play?
     7)   What is the source of QA samples?
     8)   What are the accuracy requirements for the QA samples?
     9)   What will  be done to establish the credibility of each
          QA sample used?
     10)  If QA samples are  to be produced by a  supplier, what will
          be the specifications that the  samples  must meet and how
          will compliance be evaluated?
     11)  What will  be  the  feed-back loop  for evaluation of the
          effectiveness  of   an  initially  implemented QA  sample
          program?
     12)  What  will  be  the  relative  frequencies  of bench  or
          laboratory QA samples?
     13)  Should a reference laboratory be used as an adjunct to,
          or in place of, some of the QA sample program?
     14)  How  will  each laboratory  establish  and  monitor  its
          establishment of  statistical control?
     15)  What  procedure  will  be  used  to  establish  initial
          competence in the methodology that is to be used?
     16)  What corrective actions should be taken in the event of
          unsatisfactory results on QA samples?
     17)  In  the case  of  a  long term  project,  would  periodic
          meetings of participants be helpful in  solving problems,
          improving accuracy, and promoting continuity of effort?
                                27

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REFERENCE

     The  following  reference  by  the  present  author  discusses
several of the above  matters in more detail.  Discussions of allied
topics related to QA matters are also included.

      John. K. Taylor "Quality Assurance of Chemical Measurements",
Lewis Publishers, Inc. P.O.Drawer 519, Chelsea,  MI 48118 (1987).
                                28

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2.3.2  Workshop Discussions

     A review of the subject  of  quality  control  data was lead by
Dr.  John  Taylor.   His  expertise in  this  area and  the thorough
discussion  provided   in  his  issues   paper   initiated  active
discussion.   Unlike  the  previous  two  areas  addressed in  the
workshop,  adapting  QA to  ecological  research  and  comparability
studies, the collection and evaluation of QC data has long standing
historical  precedent.    The  points  raised  and discussed by  the
participants are given below.

What determines the level of quality control data needed?

     o    Depends primarily on the intended use of the data.

What is the risk associated with being "out-of-control"?

     o    The measurement process used is the primary determinant;
          if one is dealing  with  a  good  measurement process then
          the level of QA needed drops as low as 5 percent of the
          effort  is  devoted to  evaluating  data  quality  (e.g.
          through  quality control  checks).    If,  however,  the
          measurement process is poorly defined  (or if  it  is a
          small operation) then  as  much  as 20 percent  (sometimes
          even up  to  50 percent) of  the effort will need  to be
          spent on defining error and evaluating data quality.

What is the purpose of defining accuracy, a standard component of
data quality objectives, in ecological research?

     o    Defining accuracy means that the true value of a
          variable can  be identified.   This is not  possible in
          ecological research.   The  closest  one can get  is  the
          identification of  relative  bias  or by assigning limits
          of "uncertainty" to the data sets.

Quality control checks  at the routine level are more important than
periodic  checks,  such  as are  provided through  audit  or  audit
samples.

What is  the definition and importance of  bias in  the analytical
process?

     o    Bias  is an error source which can be caused by  a process,
          an operator, and/or a design.  One of the most frequent
          mistakes made when dealing with QC data is the tendency
          to correct for bias without understanding the cause or
          origin of the bias.

     o    Bias needs to be evaluated across the whole range of the
          measurement process, this is important to identify the
          cause of bias in a process.
                                29

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Some defining of QC samples was discussed.

     o      Evaluation  samples include  every  QA sample  which is
          developed  for a  specific  purpose;  the  strategy  was
          identified in advance.

     o    Variability samples are natural replicates.

     o    Accuracy samples include:  reference materials, spikes,
          blanks, and independent laboratory reanalysis.

What is an effective way to evaluate what type  of QC data is needed
in a measurement process?

     o    All sources  of error need to be identified.   Determine
          which of those are controlled and which are uncontrolled.

What are the aspects of QC data  which need  to be  considered when
establishing an ecologically based research program?

     o    Managers need to define what level  of effort should be
          devoted to QA/QC by clearly identifying the goals of the
          program.

     o    The type of QC checks needed can be evaluated,  then the
          number  of samples will  be  dependent  upon size  and
          complexity.

     o      Internal  and external  QC  should be coordinated to
          minimize the cost and to maximize the benefit.

Statistical control is often underemphasized  in QA/QC programs.

     o    One of the primary  functions of QC data is to attain and
          maintain   statistical   control,  which   includes  the
          measurement process,  the sampling system, the calibration
          process, and the data custody and management.

     o      All  portions  of  the QA  process need  to  focus on
          statistical control.
                                30

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                            Section 3


                Conclusions and Future Challenges
     The workshop provided a unique opportunity to exchange ideas
and expertise gathered in a  wide variety of programs addressing QA
implementation in ecological research and environmental monitoring.
Consensus was reached in several areas. The involvement of quality
assurance staff  needs to be  expanded to  manage data  quality to
ensure these  goals  are realistic and achievable.   Most  programs
that require  data quality to  be  defined,  overlook the importance
of also clearly defining programmatic objectives.  If QA is to be
effective, both  concerning  cost  and effort,  then QA  needs to be
incorporated when programs are initiated.

     General  agreement leads  to defining  the  components  of QA as
Quality Management,  Quality  Assurance, and Quality Control.  These
definitions are specific to  the implementation of QA in ecological
programs.   Ecological research can  be  divided  into  two general
areas:    (a)  monitoring  and  analysis of data,  and  (b)  process
oriented  research.    QA  in  environmental  monitoring  and  data
analysis is well established.   We are in the process of expanding
QA  principles to  apply  to  process-oriented  research.    It  is
important   to   include   managing   data   quality   in   program
administration and especially  during its establishment.  Also, the
research team needs  to be a part  of the process that develops QC
and to define areas of error and to determine if QA/QC activities
are quantitative or qualitative.

     The process of  adapting QA to ecological  science is just being
established.  The workshop participants identified five important
activities   in   ecological   QA   implementation:     documenting
procedures,   establishing  inter-laboratory  sample   exchanges,
developing methods  to archive samples, conducting  comparability
studies, and, lastly, jointly training all  of the project personnel
who collect data.
                                31

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     QA has become increasingly complex.   During  the early years
of  this century  QA  became an  important  consideration  in  the
industrial  process.     Then it  was  expanded  to  environmental
monitoring and now to ecological research.
   < 1950                1970 - 1980              1980 +

manufacturing            monitoring               research

organism                 populations              ecoregions

single                   several  populations     multiples....

media,
stresses,
      disciplines
local                    international            global
     This has  lead to expanding  the  definition and role  of QA.
New and not  widely accepted are the ideas of  expanding  QA to be
more innovative, to be responsive to public issues, and to ensure
that policy makers' needs are clearly identified.  To be effective
QA needs to lose its negative association by gaining distance from
its enforcement origins and becoming more innovative and flexible.


3.2  Workshop Critique

     The  following provides  an  overview  of  the  recommendations
which came from the Workshop:

      1.  Expand  the involvement  of  QA to include  management in
      addition to QA and QC, i.e. Quality Management or QM.

      2.  Define  and/or  explain  the  terminology  under  Quality
      Management,   Quality   Assurance,   and   Quality   Control
      sufficiently to ensure they become a part of the scientific
      process.

      3. Emphasize the need for a clear definition of the product
      required  by  management.    Communication  between  quality
      assurance staff and program management must be a part of this
      task.

      4.  The  general guidelines for conducting QA in ecological
      research include:
                                32

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               o  document procedures
               o  foster opportunities for joint training
               o  establish inter-laboratory exchanges
               o  develop mechanisms for sample banking
               o  conduct comparability studies

      5.  Cooperate with the scientific community openly, thereby
      encouraging QA/QC by the scientists themselves.  This will:
      (a)  ensure their  contribution,  and  (b)  better  identify
      important aspects of QA/QC.

      6.  QA  needs   to   be  a  part  of   program   and  project
      conceptualization.   Impetus to ensure QA is initiated early
      must come from managers of scientific programs, i.e. QM.

     There were several areas where  no consensus was reached.  For
example, a definition of  data comparability was not reached though
many aspects of  collecting  and  analyzing QC data were discussed.
Further discussions concerning adapting QA to ecological research
were not definitive and need to be expanded.
3.3  Future Plans

     It was the general recommendation  of the participants that QA
personnel hold annual workshops.  The sponsorship could rotate to
minimize the effort to any  specific group.  Workshop effectiveness
would be enhanced by establishing small working groups to address
priority  issues within  the  areas of  ecological monitoring  and
experimentation.    The  working  groups   should meet  or  have
conference-call discussions early and then workshop time to respond
to preliminary recommendations of the smaller groups.
                                33

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                            Section 4

4.1  Workshop Agenda

                            NATIONAL
              ECOLOGICAL QUALITY ASSURANCE WORKSHOP
                        March 29-31, 1988

                  Holiday Inn Downtown- Mariner
                            Denver,  CO

Monday/ March 28th  (Glenarm Place)

7:00pm - 10:00pm  Reception


Tuesday, March 29th  (Cripple Creek Room)

9:00am  Introductory Remarks,  John Bailey

9:15    Program Overviews (15 minute presentations)
          - Forest Response Program, Susan Medlarz
          - Great Lakes Survey, Keijo Aspila
          - Canadian Terr. Sample Exchange, Ian Morrison
          - International Soil Sample Exchange, Craig Palmer
10:30   Break

10:45   Program Overviews (continued)
          - NADP, Dave Bigelow
          - Direct-Delayed Response Program, Lou Blume
          - Watershed Manipulation Program, Heather Erickson
          - Mountain Cloud Chemistry, Jim Healy
          - Surface Water Surveys, Mark Silverstein
12:00   Lunch

2:00    Resume Program Overviews, Bob Mickler
          - USEPA, QA Management Staff, Linda Kirkland
          - USEPA ERL-Corvallis QA Program, Deborah Coffey
          - USEPA EMSL-RTP QA Program,  Bill Mitchell
          - US Geologic Survey QA Programs, Vic Janzer
          - USDI National Park Service, Darcy Rutkowski
          - USFS Rocky Mtn.  Station, Claudia Regan
3:30    Break

3:50    Program Overviews (continued, 10 minutes each)
          - Research Triangle Institute, Jerry Koenig
          - Research Evaluation Associates, Richard Trowp
          - Desert Research Institute,  John Watson
          - Technology Resources, Inc., Jerry Filbin
          - Weyerhaeuser Testing Center, Kari Doxsee

4:40    Adjourn for the day
                                34

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           NATIONAL ECOLOGICAL QA WORKSHOP (continued)
                        March 29-31, 1988
Wednesday, March 30th

8:30am  Session 1:  Adapting OA to Ecological Research
          Discussion Leader:  Ian Morrison
          Facilitator:  Steve Cline

12:00   Lunch

1:30    Session 2:  Comparability Studies
          Discussion Leader:  Wayne Robarge
          Facilitator:  Bill Burkman

5:00    Adjourn for the day


(morning and afternoon break)


Thursday, March 31st

8:30am  Session 3:  Quality Control Data
          Discussion Leader:  John Taylor
          Facilitator:  Steve Byrne

12:00   Lunch

1:30    Future Challenges in Ecological QA, Jack Winjum

3:30    Adjourn


(morning break)
                                35

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4.2  List of Attendees

*Paul A. Addison
Government of Canada
Canadian Forestry Service
Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
K1A 1G5
  613/997-1107

Keijo I. Aspila
National Water Research Institute
867 Lakeshore Road
Burlington, Ontario  L7R 4A6
Canada
  416/336-4638

John Bailey
Corvallis Environmental Research Lab
200 SW 35th Street
Corvallis, OR  97333
  503/420-4772

Cathy Banic
Environmental Applic. Group, Ltd.
6126 Yonge Street, 2nd floor
Willowdale, Ontario  M2M 3W7
  416/224-0701

Dave Bigelow
Grasslands Laboratory
Colorado State University
Fort Collins, CO  80521
  303/491-5574

Louis J. Blume
U.S. EPA
Environmental Monitoring Systems Lab.
P.O. Box 93478
Las Vegas, NV  89193-3478
  702/798-2213

Bill Burkman
Corvallis Environmental Research Lab
c/o USDA Forest Service, NEFES
370 Reed Road
Broomall, PA  19008
  215/690-3122

Gerald Byers
Lockheed EMSCO
1050 East Flamingo Road
Las Vegas, NV  89119
  702/734-3327
                                36

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Steve Byrne
Corvallis Environmental Research Lab
c/o NCSU AIR Program
1509 Varsity Drive
Raleigh, NC  27606
  919/737-3520

Steve Cline
Corvallis Environmental Research Lab
200 SW 35th Street
Corvallis, OR  97333
   503/757-4724

Deborah Coffey
Northrop Services, Inc.
200 SW 35th Street
Corvallis, OR  97333
  503/757-4666 ext. 323

A. Scott Denning
NFS/ NREL
Colorado State University
Fort Collins, Co  80523
  303/491-1970

Kari Doxsee
Weyerhaeuser Company
WTC 2F25
Tacoma, WA  98477
  206/924-6452

Heather Erickson
Corvallis Environmental Research Lab
200 Southwest 35th Street
Corvallis, OR  97333
  503/757-4666 ext. 349

Jerry Filbin
Technical Resources, Inc.
3202 Monroe St.
Rockville, MD  20852
  301/231-5250

Don Hart
Beak Consultants
14 Abacus Road
Brampton, Ontario, Canada
  416/458-4044

Jim Healey
W. S. Fleming & Assoc., Inc.
55 Colvin Avenue
Albany, NY  12206
  518/458-2249
                                37

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*Dan Heggen
Exposure Assessment Res. Div.
EMSL-Las Vegas
P.O. Box 93478
Las Vegas, NV  89193-3478
  FTS 545-2278

Victor Janzer
U.S. Geological Service
5293 Ward Road
Arvada, CO  80002
  303/236-3612

Linda Kirkland
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
RD-680
401 M. St., S.W.
Washington, DC  20460
  202/382-5763

Donald E. King
Ontario Ministry of Environment
P.O. Box 213
Rexdale, Ontario, Canada
M9W 5L1
  416/235-5838

Jerry Koenig
Research Triangle Institute
P.O. Box 12194
Research Triangle Park, NC   27709
  919/541-6934

*Hank Kruegar, Director
Terrestrial Ecology Div.
Wildlife International Ltd.
305 Commerce Dr.
Easton, MD  21601
  301/822-8600

John Lawrence
National Water Research Institute
867 Lakeshore Road
Burlington, Ontario, Canada
L7R 4A6
  416/336-4638

Bernard Malo
U.S. Geological Survey, WRD
416 National Center
Reston, VA   22092
                                38

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*John A. McCann
Environmental Protection Agency (EN-342)
401 M. St., S.W.
Washington, DC  20460
  202/382-7830

Susan Medlarz
Corvallis Environmental Research Lab
c/o USDA Forest Service, NEFES
370 Reed Road
Broomall, PA  19008
  215/690-3105

Bob Mickler
Corvallis Environmental Research Lab
c/o USDA Forest Service, SEFES
Forestry Sciences Lab., Box 12254
Research Triangle Park, NC  27709
  919/549-4022

William J. Mitchell
U.S. EPA
Env. Monitoring Systems Lab., MD 77B
Research Triangle Park, NC  27711
  919/541-2769

Ian K. Morrison
Canadian Forestry Service
Great Lakes Forestry Centre
P.O. Box 490
Sault Ste Marie, Ontario, Canada
P6A 5M7
  705/949-9461

Marilyn Morrison
Corvallis Environmental Research Lab
200 SW 35th Street
Corvallis, OR  97333
  503/757-4666 ext. 443

Craig J. Palmer
UNLV Environmental Research Center
4505 South Maryland Parkway
Las Vegas, NV  89154
  702/739-3382
Claudia Regan
USFS/ Rocky Mtn,
240 W Prospect
Ft. Collins, CO
  FTS: 323-1274
Exp. Station
80526
                                39

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Wayne Robarge
NCSU/Soil Science Department
3406 Williams Hall
Raleigh, NC  27695
  919/737-2636

Beth Rochette
Dept of Geological Science
Environmental Science Lab
University of Maine
Orono, ME  04469
  207/581-3287

Jane Rothert
Illinois State Water Survey
2204 Griffith Drive
Champaign, IL  61820
  217/333-7942

LeRoy Schroder
U.S. Geological Survey
P.O. BOX 25046, MS 407
Lakewood, CO  80225
  303/236-3605

Randolph B. See
U.S. Geological Survey, MS-401
5293 Ward Road
Arvada. CO  80002

*William J. Shampine
U.S. Geological Survey, MS-401
Denver Federal Center
Denver, CO  80225-0046

Mark Silverstein
Lockheed EMSCO
1050 E. Flamingo Road
Las Vegas, NV  89119
  702/734-3291

*Bob Stottlemeyer
Michigan Tech. University
Department of Biological Sciences
Houghton, MI  49931
  906/487-2478

John K. Taylor
Quality Assurance Consultant
12816 Tern Drive
Gaithersburg, MD  20878
  301/948-9861
                                40

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*Richard Trowp
Research and Evaluation Assoc., Inc.
727 Eastown Drive
Suite 200A
Chapel Hill, NC   27514

*John Watson
Desert Research Institute
P.O. Box 60220
Reno, NV    89506
  702/972-1676

Jack K. Winjum
U.S. EPA
Corvallis Environmental Research Lab
200 SW 35th Street
Corvallis, OR  97333
  503/757-4324
* denotes invited but unable to attend
                               41

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