EPA/600/R-98-066
Gulf of Mexico Aquatic Mortality Response Network (GMNET)
by
Lee Courtney
http://pelican.gmpo.gov/gmnet/
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GMNET Goals http://pelican.gmpo.gov/gmnet/gmgoals.html
Gulf of Mexico
Aquatic Mortality Response
Network
(GMNET)
Goals and Objectives of GMNET
Mortalities of fish, shellfish, plants, birds and marine mammals occur continuously in
the Gulf of Mexico as a consequence of natural events or of conditions imposed on the
aquatic community by the activities of man. Only occasionally is there physical evidence
of these events. More often, diseased or stressed animals are weakened and fall to
predation or diseases, and dead animals are removed by scavengers. So mortalities that
are seen and reported to authorities represent only a fraction of the total population lost.
Yet mortality events are seen and reported daily by Gulf coastal residents, fishermen,
beach-goers, boaters and marine agencies. Reported mortalities are usually conspicuous
because a large number of deaths occur in a short period of time (mass mortality) or
because the species is of unique importance (i.e., organisms with a high public profile
such as endangered, threatened or protected species). These notable, or "unusual"
mortality events are normally investigated by a state agency. Reporting of unusual
mortality events can serve to signal public health dangers and/or degrading
environmental conditions.
A primary purpose for investigating mortality events in the Gulf of Mexico is to
determine probable cause. This is critical so that steps can be taken to reduce the risk of
continuing or reoccurring mortalities; the ultimate goal is to minimize the impact,
regardless of cause, on aquatic populations and public health. This requires the ability to
mount a rapid response to a mortality event with an appropriate, high-quality scientific
inquiry. Also, monitoring aquatic mortality events over time can serve as an indicator of
the changing environmental condition of the Gulf and its ability to serve as a habitat for
living resources.
The Gulf of Mexico Aquatic Mortality Network (GMNET) is a product of many
scientists and citizens who share a common interest in establishing and maintaining a
reliable response network in the Gulf. Members are from the public and private sectors,
from federal and state agencies, and from universities and private laboratories.
Currently, GMNET is organized into three interacting groups: Mortality Response,
Science Expertise, and Data Management. The interaction of these groups is intended to:
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GMNET Goals http://pelican.gmpo.gov/gmnet/gmgoals.html
Improve interstate communication among mortality response teams: this will
improve the utility of the early warning system and raise the quality of
response information.
Improve interstate communication among mortality response teams: this will
improve the utility of the early warning system and raise the quality of
response information.
Develop a network of scientists to provide chemical and pathological expertise
to support efforts to determine the cause of mortality events.
Provide place and time analyses of aquatic mortalities in the Gulf of Mexico so
that the data can be related to other important events (hypoxia, red tide, El
Nino, etc.) and can cumulatively serve as an indicator of ecological condition in
the Gulf.
This page was last modified December 1,1997
Please send comments or questions about this page to courtney.lee@epamail.epa.gov
2 of 2 5/27/98 3:36PM
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Reporting a Mortality Event http://pelican.gmpo.gov/gmnet/events.html
Reporting a Mortality Event
If you observe dead or dying fishes or marine mammals, diseased
organisms or any other unusual events in the Gulf of Mexico near coastal
waters or surrounding bays and estuaries, please make the following
observations:
Date of Observation
Time of Observation
Location: state, county, water body, lat/long coordinates (if possible)
Species involved and approximate numbers (0-100,100-999.1,000+)
Observers name
Observers address
Observers phone number and/or E-mail address
*$& Please report your observations to the appropriate agency
below:
SB Alabama: Department of Environmental Management (334)450-3400
Mi Florida: Florida Marine Research Institute, Florida Department of
Environmental Protection (813)896-8626
B Louisiana: Department of Environmental Quality (504)342-1234
m Louisiana: Marine Mammal Stranding Network - Marine Mammals Only: 24 hr
digital pager (504)934-5337
* Mississippi: Department of Environmental Quality (601)961-5650
m Texas: Texas Parks and Wildlife Department (512)389-4848
This page was last modified December 1,1997
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Reporting a Mortality Event http://pelican.gmpo.gov/gmnet/events.html
Please send comments or questions about this page to courtney.lee@epamail.epa.gov
2 of 2 5/27/98 3:37PM
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http://pelican.gmpo.gov/gmnet/interest.html
Items of Interest
Events, Diseases and Historical Perspectives
Related to the Gulf of Mexico are Aquatic Mortalities in General
Anatomy of a Stranding Event
Manatee Mortality of 1996
Coral Diseases in South Florida
Harmful Algal Blooms
Perkinsus marinus. a Significant Disease of the Eastern Oyster
This page was last modified on December 1,1997
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A Stranding Event
http://pelican.gmpo.gov/gmnet/sevent03.html
Marine Mammals at Risk
All marine mammals are "protected species" under Federal laws including the Marine
Mammal Protection Act of 1972; the Endangered Species Act of 1973, and the Animal
Welfare Act. There are numerous Networks, many staffed by volunteers, which operate under
the auspices of the US Marine Mammal Stranding Network administered by the Department of
Commerce, National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration to respond to marine
mammal stranding/mortality events.
The US Marine Mammal Stranding Network has three legally mandated purposes:
1. Provide rapid and effective action that will best serve the well being of stranded marine
mammals.
2. Ensure proper data collection and analyses.
3. Detect anomalous mortality events with near real time reporting.
Anatomy of a Stranding Event
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A Stranding Event
http://pelican.gmpo.gov/gmnet/sevent03.htm]
A typical stranding/mortality event begins with a notification to the stranding network from
either a public source, official state or federal source (perhaps a marine patrol officer or an
aerial survey team). The network obtains as much information from the source regarding
their observation of the event as possible. At a minimum (Reporting a Stranding Event), this
should include: 1) an accurate (as possible) location for the finding, 2) whether it is a live
stranding or mortality event and 3) whether it involves a single or multiple animals.
Additional information that could be of value during the initial notification might include an
estimate of the condition of the animal, observation of trauma, number of individuals in the
case of a multiple-animal event and type of animal(s) involved. A few of the common marine
mammal species encountered in Gulf waters include bottlenose, striped and spotted dolphin,
sperm and Bryde's whales, and West Indian manatees.
Following notification, the network mounts a
response, dispatching properly trained and
equipped individuals to the site as quickly as
possible. In the event of a live stranding event,
an immediate evaluation of the animals
condition and degree of distress must be
made. The animal is kept shaded, moist and
protected from crowds and pets or other
animals. During the summer, ice packs may
be applied to the flippers, flukes and dorsal fin
to prevent overheating or during the winter,
these areas may be covered to conserve heat.
A sun block or sunscreen (no oil) may be
applied to protect the animal from sunburn.
Professional or veterinary evaluation is
required as soon as possible to assess the
condition of the animal and begin
determination of the cause of the stranding.
Blood samples may be taken for diagnostic
evaluation and morphological data, including
key measurements and weight estimates, are
collected. The animal may then be transported
to a suitable location prior to any attempt at
treatment and/or rehabilitation.
Often the logistics of responding to an event present
their own obstacles. Photo courtesy of the Louisiana
Marine Mammal Stranding Network
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A Stranding Event
http://pelican.gmpo.gov/gmnet/sevent03.html
Mortality events do not have the urgency associated with the
life saving concerns of a live stranding but are often just as
intense and time consuming. Documentation and collection of
appropriate samples are the main concern of response to a
mortality. The determination of cause moves from the more
clinical aspects associated with a live stranding to a forensic
procedure. Photographic documentation of the animal and its
condition as well as any obvious trauma or human-related
injury (e.g., gun or spear gun wounds, nets or ropes or
associated wounds) is important. Numerous morphologic
measurements are also collected and detailed records on the
location of the find and conditions at the site are made.
Much valuable information can be
gained from a mortality event. Photo
Courtesy of the U.S. EPA Gulf Ecology
Division
A record is made of all wounds or
trauma such as the bite wounds on this
whale. Photo courtesy of the U.S. EPA
Gulf Ecology Division
A series of key measurements are taken from each individual
involved in an event. These data can provide age estimates of
the animal and are valuable as historical documentation.
Photo courtesy of the U.S. EPA Gulf Ecology Division
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A Stranding Event
http://pelican.gmpo.gov/gmnet/sevent03.html
Depending on the condition of the animal and
of decomposition, a series of samples are colle
become more extensive and valuable with "fre
more recent strandings. Necropsy and collectio
biological, histological, chemical and other sp
samples from a freshly dead animal can be of
value in determining cause of death and obtain
general scientific knowledge. If conditions per
these procedures are performed on site. Howev
sometimes necessary to move the animal to an
location or facility to complete the necropsy.
This specimen has been moved to a suitable location for
necropsy. Photo courtesy of the Louisiana Marine
Mammal Stranding Network
Suitable specimens are sent to researchers at state
and/or federal agencies, universities and/or private
laboratories for processing and analysis. Data
generated can sometimes lead directly to a cause for an
event or be used in conjunction with other information
to provide answers as in the manatee epizootic that
occurred in 1996. Furthermore, data gathered from
these events can contribute to the general biologic and
scientific knowledge about the species involved. Since
these animals are protected, tissue, blood and other
scientific samples for research purposes are very
difficult to obtain and every effort to obtain such
samples, particularly from freshly dead or dying
specimens, should be taken as opportunities arise.
Careful necropsy and collection of suitable sa
invaluable in the process of identifying caus
mortality. Photo courtesy of the Louisiana
Mammal Stranding Network
This page was last modified on November 26,1997
Lee Courtney
Please send comments or questions about this page to courtney.lee@epamail.epa.gov
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Mass Manatee Mortality of 1996
http://pelican.gmpo.gov/gmnet/manteO 1 .html
Mass Manatee Mortality of 1996
Click on underlined text to hyperlink to tables, figures, additional text or alternate sites.
West Indian manatees, Trichechus manatus, occur in coastal waters of the Atlantic Ocean, the Gulf of
Mexico, and the Caribbean Sea from the southeastern United States to northeastern Brazil. Additionally,
they are found around Trinidad, Tobago and the Greater Antilles. There are two recognized subspecies:
T. manatus latirostris, the Florida manatee, found only in the southeastern United States, and T. manatus
manatus, the Antillean manatee, occurring throughout the remainder of the species' range.
Florida manatees are endangered,
herbivorous marine mammals whose
gentle nature have endeared them to
many citizens. They represent the
largest known group of manatees
within the species' range. A record
number of 2,639 free-ranging manatees
were observed in Florida waters during
a statewide aerial survey in February
1996, up significantly from the 1,822
animals surveyed in February 1995
[unpublished data from the Florida
Department of Environmental
Protection (FDEP): Synoptic Manatee
Population Survevs]. This number
represents a relatively accurate
minimum population estimate because
of the methods used to collect the data
and since Florida manatees aggregate
in warmer waters of Florida and
southern Georgia during winter months
when the surveys are taken. Beginning
in spring manatees disperse from their
winter havens. Most remain within
Florida and Georgia waters, however a
few adventuresome animals have been
reported as far north as Chesapeake
Bay and as far west as Louisiana and
possibly Texas (although Texas
sightings may represent Antillean
manatees migrating northward from
Mexico). While this does not indicate
range expansion, current data suggest
the Florida manatee's range to be as
widespread as ever when compared
with historical records.
^
A graceful underwater ballet by a Crystal River manatee. Photo
courtesy of the Florida Marine Research Institute, taken by Pat
Rose.
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Mass Manatee Mortality of 1996 http://pelican.gmpo.gov/gmnet/manteO 1 .html
According to the 1994 Marine Mammal Commission Annual Report to Congress, the Florida manatee is
one of the most endangered marine mammals in the United States. Data on manatee mortalities have
been collected by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Sirenia Project: 1978 -1984) and the Florida
Department of Environmental Protection (FDEP: since 1985). These data indicate that human-related
activities contribute significantly to manatee mortalities, accounting for up to one-third or more of those
deaths investigated. Between 1978 and 1995 manatee deaths gradually increased with a peak of 214
recorded in 1990 (Fig 1). In 1996 this number was dwarfed due to a significant mortality event centered
along the southwest Florida coast that involved the death of 149 manatees.
The 1996 event began to on March 5th and lasted until May 27th with mortalities occurring from
Englewood, Florida, in the north to Marco Island in the south (Fig 2). Researchers at the Florida
Department of Environmental Protection Florida Marine Research Institute (FMRI) and collaborators
from federal, state and private organizations and universities searched for the cause of the die-off.
Possible culprits included infectious agents, red tide, environmental contaminants and physical stresses.
Any of these factors could have acted alone or in combination. The cooperative approach to the manatee
mortality investigation included several teams: the Carcass Recovery and Necropsy Team, the
Environmental Team, the Aerial Survey Team and the GIS (Geographic Information System) Team.
Researchers examined samples for possible man-made contaminants, conducted numerous laboratory
tests to assess possible viral, bacterial or parasitic etiologies and performed necropsy and
histopathological evaluations. Results of these investigations established a correlation between the
manatee deaths and the identification and quantification of brevetoxin in manatees. Brevetoxin is the
chemical compound associated with red tide, which is a bloom of an algae species called Gymnodinium
breve. GIS helped to describe and document spatial and temporal patterns of manatee carcasses (Fig. 2)
as well as environmental variables such as red tide algal cell counts (Fig. 3). The correlation of these
data (e.g., Fig. 4) added further evidence to the apparent relationship between red tide and the manatee
deaths. GIS technology also facilitated and expedited communication among multi-disciplined
researchers, management and the public by providing a means to rapidly transfer and synthesize updated
information. It was also used as a tool for testing and validation of hypotheses based on data set
comparisons. This first use of GIS in a marine mammal epizootic proved to be valuable as a tool for
communication, documentation, and data integration and exploration during a crisis event. Its continued
use, in combination with more traditional methodologies, as a tool to assess relationships between
natural-resource variables and manatee-specific information should enhance our understanding of
epizootics and assist in contingency planning process.
This coordinated effort enabled a relatively rapid determination of cause; high levels of red tide toxins.
Furthermore, the results of histological and immunohistochemical techniques indicated that inhalation of
brevetoxin aerosols may have played a significant role in the event. It is possible that two environmental
factors precipitated this event. First, because of record cold temperatures in early 1996 manatees may
have remained in their warm water areas of refuge later than normal. Second, a significant red tide event
occurred around these warm-water refugia relatively early in the season. The highest red tide cell-counts
since 1982 for that time of year were recorded in March 1996. These two factors placed large numbers
of animals at great risk of exposure to red tide and its associated toxins with apparent deadly
consequences. Much valuable information was gained from the multi-organizational, multi-disciplinary
cooperative approach to assessing this mortality event. The application of new immunohistochemical
techniques for brevetoxin and GIS methodologies combined with good basic investigative science
resulted in a successful and exemplary effort to answer a question of immediate and potentially
far-ranging importance.
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Mass Manatee Mortality of 1996 http://pelican.gmpo.gov/gmnet/manteO 1 .html
Additional information on manatees from the Florida Marine Research Institute
including 1997 mortality data and detailed breakdowns on causes and locations
This page has been developed with the aid of staff and data from the
Florida Department of Environmental Protection's (FDEP) Florida Marine Research Institute
(FMRI)
Background adapted from photo by Pat Rose courtesy of FDEP
Lee Courtney, November 19,1997
Please send comments or questions about this page to courtney.lee@epamail.epa.gov
3 of 3 5/27/98 3:48 PM
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http://pelican.gmpo.gov/gmnet/msiirvyO 1 .html
Synoptic Manatee Population Surveys
To date, the Florida Department of Environmental Protection (FDEP) has conducted 9 statewide
synoptic surveys of manatee populations. Florida manatees aggregate in the warmer waters of Florida
and southern Georgia during winter months. Surveys are conducted by counting individuals using aerial
observation of these areas during January and February when temperatures generally are the coldest and
aggregation of manatees is the greatest. These numbers therefore represent a minimum population
estimate. Discrepancies in numbers between January and February counts in any one year may be due to
such factors as actual temperatures prior to a survey period (warmer weather may result in manatees
moving farther from aggregation areas) and weather conditions at the time of survey (wind and clouds
hinder observation of individuals). Results of synoptic surveys to date follow:
AERIAL SURVEYS OF MANATEES FROM 1991 TO 1997*
YEAR
1991
1991
1992
1995
1995
1996
1996
1997
1997
DATE OF SURVEY
Jan. 23-24
Feb. 17-18
Jan. 17-18
Jan. 21-22
Feb. 6-7
Jan. 9-10
Feb. 18-19
Jan. 19-20
Feb. 13
TOTAL NUMBER j
1,268
1,465
1,856
1,443
1,822
2,274
2,639
2,229 |
1,709 i
*Data from Florida DEP
To provide some insight into the survey process, the following Press Release from the Florida DEP
(February 18, 1997) describing the 1997 Manatee Survey is provided.
RE: Synoptic Manatee Survey, 13 February 1997
Staff of the Florida Department of Environmental Protection's (FDEP) Florida Marine
Research mstitute (FMRI) coordinated an inter-agency synoptic manatee aerial survey. Most
of the counts were made on 13 February, although 5 teams flew on 12 or 14 February 1997,
due to staff, aircraft, or weather constraints.
Experienced researchers covered all known manatee winter aggregation sites in Florida and
Georgia. Counts were made on Florida's east coast at warm-water sites from Brunswick,
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http://pelican.gmpo.gov/gmnet/msurvyO 1 .html
Georgia to Ft. Pierce, and contiguously from Ft. Pierce south to the Florida Keys. Sites on the
St. Johns River were also surveyed. Counts were made on Florida's west coast at warm-water
sites in Wakulla, Citrus, and Levy Counties, and contiguously from Tampa Bay south to
Whitewater Bay in the Everglades.
Manatees were counted on 21 survey routes. Seventeen aircraft were used (16 planes, 1
helicopter), with 5 flights including FDEP staff. A total of 27 biologists from 11 state, federal,
county and private agencies and universities participated, in the air or on the ground, counting
or radio tracking at warm-water sites. Two observers from the Marine Industries Association
also flew with FDEP biologists.
During the 13 February survey, 1,709 manatees were counted. These included 791 counted on
the east coast (including Georgia and the St. Johns River), and 918 on the west coast. This
count was lower than other recent synoptic counts, due mostly to the unusual weather
conditions for this survey. A mild cold front following an extended warm period provided
warm weather and warm water temperatures. Weather on the chosen day, 13 February, was
more windy and cloudy than was desirable. Wind and clouds make it harder to spot manatees.
An unusual number of manatees were seen dispersed far from typical aggregation sites. The
extended warm period preceding the count likely allowed animals to disperse far from the
warm-water aggregations, making them harder to find and count. High counts occurred at
some northern aggregation sites (Crystal River, Tampa Bay, Blue Springs, Titusville), but
manatees were seen widely dispersed at many other sites (Charlotte, Lee, Collier, Brevard,
Palm Beach, and Broward counties). Unusually high counts were observed in the Homosassa
River, Banana River, Dade County, and the Florida Keys, areas with lower use in colder
winters.
This count was much lower than the count made in 19-20 January 1997 (total 2,229, east 900,
west 1,329), following a strong cold front. That count yielded a record count on the west coast
of Florida. The recent count was also much lower than the record high count of the 17-18
February 1996 survey (total 2,639, east 1,457, west 1,182), also made following a strong cold
front, but during a rapid warm-up.
This page was prepared with information provided by the Florida DEP and was last modified on
November 19, 1997
Background adapted from photo by Pat Rose courtesy of FDEP
Lee Courtney
Please send comments or questions about this page to courtney.lee@epamail.epa.gov
2 of 2 6/3/98 9:27 AM
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Table 1: Known manatee mortality L.ge and Necropsy Program, 1978-1994
http://pelican.gmpo.gov/gmnet/mcause01.html
Manatee Mortalities
Manatee deaths are attributable to a number of causes. Natural causes such as cold
stress, perinatal death and disease have attributed to an average of about 67% of the
manatee deaths per year over the last 19 years. The range of mortalities attributed to
"natural causes" is from a low of 47% in 1979 to a high of 83% in 1996. Research on
these natural causes is important and needed, although mortalities from them may not
be controllable by resource management measures.
Since 1978, approximately 16 to 53 percent of manatee deaths have been attributed to
human-related causes. During this period about 25% have resulted from
watercraft-related injuries, 5% from flood gate and lock mishaps and 3% from
miscellaneous human-related causes such as marine debris, nets and poaching to name a
few. These deaths, accounting for approximately one-third of manatee losses each year,
can be reduced through public awareness and other programs.
These data based on information gathered by
the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Sirenia Project <1985) and
Florida Department of Environmental Protection (1985 and later)
Lee Courtney, November 19,1997
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Manatee Mortalities since 1978
http://pelican.gmpo.gov/gmnet/mfig 1 _01 .html
Manatee Mortalities since 1978
mmmm
Figure 1:
Number of manatee mortalities reported from 1978 until 1996.
Reported Manatee Mortalities
From 1978 to 1996
176 175,
117117
130123125117134
147 150
100 84 78
78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96
These data based on information gather ed by
the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Si renia Project <198S) and
Florida Department of Environmental Pr otection (1985 and later)
Lee Courtney, November 19,1997
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http://pelican.gmpo.gov/gmnet/mfig2_01 .html
Mass Manatee Mortality of 1996: GIS Data on Carcass Locations
1
Figure 2:
Location of dead manatees associated with 1996 epizootic.
* Manatee Epizootic Carcass Locations in Southwest Florida
3/5/96 thrdieh 5/27/96
This page has been developed with the aid of staff and data from the Florida Department of
Environmental Protection's (FDEP) Florida Marine Research Institute (FMRI)
Lee Courtney, November 19,1997
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http://pelican.gmpo.gov/gmnet/mfig3_01 .html
Mass Manatee Mortality of 1996: CIS Data on Red Tide
^^^^^^^BBMKI;, . , :4jflH||^^^HHHHHBHHMBHHHIIIH^^^^^^^^^^^^I^^^^^^^^^H
Figure 3:
Location of red tide sampling stations with high cell counts from March 1, 1996 to May 1, 1996.
Locations of R$d Tide Sampling Stations
r With High Red'Tide Counts
March 1, 19JJ6 |May_l±1996__
s* -
}
\
.
L(
n-
n-
1
Legend
This page has been developed with the aid of staff and data from the Florida Department of
Environmental Protection's (FDEP) Florida Marine Research Institute (FMRI)
Lee Courtney, November 19,1997
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http://pelican.gmpo.gov/gmnet/mfig4_01.htrnl
Mass Manatee Mortality of 1996: Combined CIS Data
Figure 4:
Spatial relationship between manatee deaths and high red tide cell counts from March to May 1996.
* Manatee Carcass
Red Tide Samples
w/ High Cell Counts
.% *f
I§L i*
~r*r U~ *-!-»
This page has been developed with the aid of staff and data from the Florida Department of
Environmental Protection's (FDEP) Florida Marine Research Institute (FMRI)
Lee Courtney, November 19,1997
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GIS http://pelican.gmpo.gov/gmnet/gis01 .html
GIS
Geographic Information Systems (GIS) provide powerful tools to analyze spatial data. They are
computer systems designed to input, store, manage, manipulate, analyze, and output
geographically referenced data. These data include any information that can be associated with a
geographical site or area. With GIS, multiple databases sharing a common coordinate system can
be cross-referenced allowing powerful analyses of otherwise widely disparate data. Applications of
GIS are virtually unlimited and GIS are being used for everything from marketing to natural
resource management.
Environmental research is particularly suited to GIS analyses. Any physical, chemical or
biological data that can be associated with geographic locations may be analyzed. The powerful
utilities enable cross-referencing of these data (e.g., topographic, hydrologic or oceanographic
data, pollution or sediment contamination data, and many kinds of biological data) in any direct
or multiple comparisons, thus allowing researchers to identify trends and make important
correlations among the many variables. In the case of the manatee epizootic of 1996, GIS analyses
of red tide sampling and locations of dead and live manatees significantly aided researchers in
making correlations which helped lead to identification of the cause of the mass mortality.
Lee Courtney, October 16,1997
Please send comments or questions about this page to courtney.lee@epamail.epa.gov
lofl 5/27/98 3:58PM
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Coral Diseases in South Florida
http://pelican.gmpo.gov/grnnet/coral05.htnil
Coral Diseases in South Florida
Diseases of stony corals have increased to high proportions over the last several years in
the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary (FKNMS). This region has experienced
serious outbreaks of both black-band disease and white-band disease over the last
several decades, impacting the overall distribution and abundance of stony corals. Vast
tracts of soft corals and sea fans (Gorgonians) have been destroyed by red-band disease
and a putative fungal pathogen. Recently, in the Lower Keys, coral colonies hundreds of
years old are dying from a condition referred to as yellow-band disease. The most recent
concern is a new disease termed white plague type II (WP-II). This condition was first
observed in the Upper Keys Region in the summer of 1995. Originally, it severely
affected the species Dichocoenia stokesii, destroying tissue at the fastest rate ever
recorded. Entire coral colonies were dead within a few weeks. At the end of the summer
this condition was recorded to affect 16 species of Scleractinian corals throughout the
Upper and Middle Keys. This disease has reappeared again in the summer of 1996
throughout the areas effected in 1995. In addition, the range of WPII has extended to
locations in the Lower Keys and Dry Tortugas. Once the colony has been affected with
the disease, no colonies have been observed to recover from it. Very little is known about
the disease process, mechanism of transfer, or causative agents.
Dr. Deborah Santavy and collaborators have made some preliminary examinations of
WPII on several corals affected during the summer of 1995. Macroscopic observations
assessing the rates of tissue destruction were made last year in the field. Three preserved
samples were obtained for our study. Examination of the material using histological,
electron microscopic, and microbiological approaches did not reveal any pathogens.
From the limited material we obtained from other investigators in the field, our
evaluations were inconclusive. We were not able to determine whether the cause of the
disease was from biotic or abiotic sources. Additional studies are needed to understand
the etiology of the disease. Recently, the manager of the Lower Keys Sanctuary Office
issued an invitational travel order to Dr. Santavy to assess this disease and make
recommendations for control of its spread, since it was being observed in troublesome
quantities in this region.
This page was last modified on December 1,1997
Please send comments or questions about this page to courtney.lee@epamail.epa.gov
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http://pelican.gmpo.gov/gmnet/habs02.html
Harmful Algal Blooms
Harmful Algal Bloom (HAB): Term used to describe a diverse array of harmful phenomena
associated with the proliferation of various species ofphytoplankton
Phytoplankton are unicellular algae, mainly diatoms and dinoflagellates, that comprise
the primary trophic level of the oceanic food web. As such, most phytoplankton in their
role as primary energy producers are beneficial, more so critical, to life on earth.
However, through evolutionary adaptation a small number of phytoplanktonic species
have come to produce potent biotoxins. Certain phenomena associated with these and
other species of phytoplankton can create environmental problems.
The rapid growth or "bloom" ofphytoplankton can result in harmful effects by both
non-toxic and toxic species. Non-toxic species can cause effects related to biomass
accumulation, including habitat alteration and drastic depletion of oxygen in the water
resulting in anoxia. They may also impact other species due to physical features such as
spines that can lodge in fish gills causing irritation, respiratory problems and even death.
The potent compounds produced by the relatively few toxic species of phytoplankton can
cause devastating effects even at relatively low concentrations of cells. The impacts of
toxic phytoplankton include massive fish and shellfish mortalities, closure of fisheries,
death of birds, marine mammals, and illness and even death in humans.
Algal blooms may accumulate into dense patches visible beneath the water surface that
move with currents and can appear colored due to pigments contained in the particular
phytoplanktonic species involved. The dinoflagellate Gymnodinium breve is a
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toxin-producing organism containing reddish pigmentation. It is responsible for many
highly publicized HABs occurring in the Gulf of Mexico and other locations during the
past several decades. These events, popularly referred to as "red tides", are sometimes
extensive in size and duration and are becoming increasingly more frequent and
wide-spread. Red tides are perhaps the most commonly recognized HAB. Not all HABs
are red however, and some may even be invisible to the naked eye.
The economic and environmental impacts of HABs are of considerable concern,
particularly because of their increased frequency, distribution and duration. During
blooms, shellfisheries are closed and the aftermath of fish kills and persistent events is
affecting tourism in some areas. Additionally, high profile incidents are raising public
concern. For example, in 1996 from March to April a red tide was responsible for the
death of at least 149 manatees in Florida. And during the last several years, a newly
discovered species of phytoplankton called Pfiesteria piscicida was cited as being
responsible for about half of North Carolina's fish kills including one estimated to
involve over a billion fish. Pfiesteria has also been implicated as the cause of a number of
human-health problems. Impacts from this organism and others very much like it are
becoming more widespread and attracting considerable attention.
Concern over human health and public safety related to these phenomena is increasing.
The relatively recent, high-profile concern regarding Pfiesteria has increased the scrutiny
on HAB-related health and safety issues in general. Several well-documented diseases are
attributable to HABs and the organisms that cause them. Four disorders occur in U.S.
coastal waters including Ciguatera Fish Poisoning (CFP), Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning
(ASP), Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning (PSP) and Neurotoxic Shellfish Poisoning (NSP).
Each is caused by a different algal species. For example, NSP is caused by the red tide
organism Gymnodinium breve. All but PSP occur in the waters of the Gulf of Mexico. A
fifth well-documented disorder, Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning (DSP), occurs in other
areas of the world but has not been identified in U.S. waters. The primary route of
exposure to the various toxins responsible for these disorders is through consumption of
contaminated seafood products. Symptoms are characterized by neurological,
gastrointestinal and cardiovascular disorders and some can be life-threatening. Certain
algal species can also cause less severe symptoms, such as eye and respiratory irritation,
through exposure to aerosols caused by wave and wind action in the area of a bloom.
Related Links
The Harmful Algae Page
Marine Biotoxins and Harmful Algae: A National Plan
ECOH AB-Gulf of Maine
RMRP-Red Tide Project Page
University System of Maryland; Fish Health in the Chesapeake Bay
Red Tides
Marine Toxins
Sea Grant Challenges: Research on Harmful Algal Blooms
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Mote Marine Laboratory Florida "Red Tide" Update
Dinoflagellates: Andrew MacRae at University of Calgary
Brevetoxin synthesis
The Diatom Home Page at Indiana University
IOC Science and Communication Center on Harmfui Algae
Information and Update on Texas Red Tides
The Red Tide
Pfiesteria
NCSU Aquatic Botany Laboratory Pfiesteria piscicida homepage
Scientists track the 'phantom'
One weird microbe
Dateline showon Pfiesteria
Lee Courtney, November 19,1997
Please send comments or questions about this page to courtney.Iee@epamail.epa.gov
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http://pelican.gmpo.gov/gmnet/oyster04.html
1 'I
''.-'!-^ 75%.
depleted that there h;
never hcfcn a
signillcasil recover'* ,
res ar,t' 7>tirily
due tit i: ,
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http://pelican.gmpo.gov/gmnet/oyster04.html
Figure 1: The oyster was plentiful in oyster "beds." While
densely still be found, their frequency ""f
istribution is diminishing.
In the late 1940's. severe mortalities of Louisiana oysters created sueb concern that the
oyster industry to look for potential causes, possible oil
production in the region, Instead, they discovered a new parasite, believed to be a
fiiiigiis and named Deftnocystidiiwt murittum* that was the more likely culprit. Because
this thrives in salinity waters, it's of Louisiana oysters may have
the consequence of a serious Low river runoff of
fresh water may have more Gulf water usual to move
bays, resulting in. significantly salinity for oyster-growing
habitats.
transmission
/ > *
*, * multiplication and
cttiie'': Perkinsus.
marinus. h-y^rrz^'l
/I ,oy low
.«i lias been
'..-^ir/'-i .in ilie Culi are
t u;$s«wU.nlly killed by
',:." t?s -vase e:irii ^ear.
lsslUit's at
tarwrh due 10 four
ccniicctiti'vc drosigst
vears (1985- 1988) and
>\iater's, Likewise,
of
Chesapeake Bay
ovsters are variable
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-.i reports
b
Multiple singes of Perkijusna marinm or "Dermo" dbeass-
the eastern oyster. "Dermo" is respof. 1
-- in a given bed each year,
:
Perkhttiiis HHtrinus has
as far south as Tabasco, Mi
and as far north as Maine. This
lias not always been the ease, since
extension of its range into New
England has been a very recent
occurrence. One reason for the
spread of Perkinsm h-as IM i
movement of oyster stocks !'*
one region to another
supplement fisheries. Infected
oysters carry the parasite with
them to the new area and IK
oysters become iiti eted I
example g< us s>t
:
Delaware llu
believed to have cats set)
temporary epizootic, il0wf> 11
n hea traasplants were
(liscoii in 1959, the dh-.- >
diminished was no IOBK
eousiclerc'd a major factor in
Delaware Bay oyster mortal
(until 1990, wheo the disease
re-emerged in Delaware Ik.
even Eii] tbfti JH>rrh).
PERSINSUS MARINUS
It is not clear how long or how widely distributed P, murmur was pr;-
iu 1950, Once the parasite and disease signs were characterized in Louisiana o
:»( simultaneously Identifknl throughout the Gulf of Mext* die
- m |>ortiears of 1985-l*>88 and the 1 WO-1991 extension into New England, possibly due to
above average winter temperatures. Overall losses to the oyster industry from this i.
devastated the industry. The dramatic loss of oysters from the estnarine environment
whether b\ harvest or disease, has also significantly impacted water quality in estuaries.
Filter-feeding by oysters, which reduces suspended particles and phytopianklois fr,
the witter column, is known to improve water clarity and correspondingly red IK v.
factors that create liypoxia (low oxygen levels). The loss of oyster beds has also i
habitat and refuge available for living aquatic communities, particularly the 1st
stages of other fish and shcllifeh.
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Maryland Sea Grant Research: Oyster Disease Research 1996-1997
National Sea Grant Research: Oyster Disease Projects
Bibliographic Perkinsus
Genus Perkinsus
Molecular Diagnostic Analysis of the Oyster Pathogen. Perkinsus marinus
Oysters and the Chesapeake Bay Ecosystem
Osmotic tolerance of Perkinsus marinus
Impacts of Disease and Disease Resistant Oysters
Oyster Diseases and Parasites
The Ovster Lab
This page was last modified on November 28,1997
Lee Courtney
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Discovery of a New Agent
http://pelican.gmpo.gov/gmnet/discov04.html
Discovery of a New Agent
In 1946. the ays term cri of Louisiana illeil a $40 million lawsuit agaiiiM, y.:veral major oil
«»(! the I'Veepuri Sulphur Company for alleged mortalities of oysters due lo in-shore petroleum
:>pc-ratioris. The ensuing litigation spar? Bed four major research groups to titv role, if
any. y!' petroleum production in increased oyster mortalities. Fieki studies by all four
i!f,m'faJi> slnmed tw; characteristic feature* of the Louisiana oyster iTiorty.lities: (1) major losses
occurred in. salinity areas flaring the warm months, and I2f market-sized oysters appeared to
be reiic fa mere susceptible to rawtsUty Uia.n sraaHer oysters. II a3so. became apparent, by mid-1947*
Cfuit mortalities were not ah* ays associate! v.-;*h oil orodiucin^^iles a>?d /1 >rt «i> '« « r r
ofttvj absent from lt:w-sn.Hnirv- oil prot'urliojs sites. Researchers Tunstd ' 11 * , * >
h"-,i'nJe ca«,se«.. su-:h % osl'^r tr-ji.is ft«ti rniiij worrm. but so kr
ru
Mackin, J.G., H. IVL Owes & .4. Collier. 1.950, Preliminary note on the occurrence of a
new proiistan parasite, Dermocystidium marinum n. sp. in Crassostrea virgin tea (Gmelln).
Science, Washingron, B.C. 1 1 1 :328-329.
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Lee Courtney
Please send comments or questions regarding this page to Courtney Jee@
.epa.gov
lofl
6/3/98 8:59 AM
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Transmission of Effects
http://pelican.gmpo.gov/gmnet/trans04.html
Transmission of Effects
msmtssioa of
i
H either case, the
. : . w henu.; : i
;--.;,«i4«cytose) the
parasite to kill It. This may be a
defense response (reactfug to the
if the gills), or a digestion
.--. iice of
in :: -or >d
:' ,,;;-.!..
sot al ;-..''. :,rmus,
parasite HI - the
l( ' , :: - , ;:-lli
I in " many p 11 is oJ rti ':
jjr« d thi ( .. »ho«l fbi- host, la
-..I-..:: il bj i . ::
I * tu i ittpll) - tdi mil
*. : u iJ! I is. sipts i s LM luim
. IK'S., - fll Ili !; i : -
II « ihraui ;' i) . " owi
ights i paj isites ai'c release
:
Scaaiiir : . ..iron Mi-.
blood cells fSlenM resj , n taining i ..... gestMl (i ha; :''--'- '
P, maria
. : >f Uie US. EPAGuil \. .-' ,
iWl possibly ottoer mechanisms, the parasites invade all tissues of the oyster tier I
i at; ^ ai fliem. Con%ef]iieitth:, as rhe infeiirfty of the infection increases, the growth r>-
w : \ reduced. Apart from "stealing" oyster nutrients and caasii ; :
: : tl mecl £»ii ich fwrasites kill oysters b still not knownt. As the numbei
n : :.-rara of oyster tissue, the oyster is esuaily dead or elose to rh ;
II »ys; .1 r& gap >r muscle relaxes and the two shells separate), aad the paratsis*-
s that escape from liie tissues and. enter the s«rroiindi»g water. These zoospores. are
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Lee Courtney
Please send comments or questions about (his page to conrtney.lee@epamail.epa.gov
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6/3/98 9:00 AM
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Perkinsus marinus
http://pelican.gmpo.gov/gmnet/pmarni04.html
Perkinsus marinus
The disease agent responsible for these severe
ter mortalities was originally identified as a
classified in the genus
fitlwm because of its apparent
;reshvvater paraskir fungus
he usual techniques used to
-lire fur*; e labor;!; ork
fiisrii. Dr. Sammy Ray.
s f)r, Asa Chandler at Wee
developed a culture teci«ik|ue that
:itif> fluid tliioglycoilate mediuin
norms!:: to lest for ^
, inniitf discovered that,
.; I), mariitHtn parar-
:
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Perkinsus marinus
http://pelican.gmpo.gov/gmnet/pmarni04.html
-:- : - : rkins
: iiiia Institute of Marine Science
I .., , '.:, fouffi;
tfi . -iTC
Later observations suggested that, D, mafinti/ti gav.
gliding ceils similar to slime molds (also fungi), so the
parasites were reeJassitied as Lubyrinthomyxu marina.
(Mackin and Ray, 1966, Journal of Invertebrate Pathologi
8:544-545), As technology progressed, this too was
changed. Electron microscope's, which use electron beams
rather than light beams, cant magnify objects up to 10*
times, much higher than traditional light ntieroscoj>es.
ith technique, Dr. Frank Perkins at Florida &.-
University found that zoospores, i.e.. il- -filing si
of the parasite that cause new infections, had
complex". Thfe result caused the reclav* !
parasite into a protozoan phylum, the Apicoim
Ultimately, a new class (Perkinses) was erected in the
phylum Apicomplexa and thh parasite was named
Perkinsus
Perkins, F. O. 1976. Zoospores of the oyster
pathogen, Dermocystiditim marinum, I. Fine
structure of the conoid and other sporozoan-like
organelles. Journal of Parasitology, 62:959-974.
[both fuugai and
ii-licatioiis,
ipiions of this parasite are
confusing. Oystermei! and
\ . : -: ;ke >viH refer to either
' Dermo" disease and
the sam ; This lias even
«ded to the scientific literature,
y iptioi =>f the parasite
uoie?. employ fan gal terms and
^irnes protozoan terms. To make
iiirs worse, new molecnlar
!ujoJogy has created a fourth
--il)ki classification for the
parasite. Isolation aud amplification
w sequences miiif, polymerum'
IM reaction technoiogj has
-' idealists to exaniiue the
Mjqiieeces of DNA and RNA
siucfeotide base pairs. Tine sequences
»t arm MS have led some
scientists to now think that this
nore closelv related to
.age-Hates than to either fungi or
wpi an protozoans..
Perkinsus niarinus in tissue of oyster stained with Harris'
hejnatoxyUn and eosin, Arrow shows the "signet risig"
stage, the arrowhead show the mitftiitttcieate
stage.
This page was last modified on November 28, 1997
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Perkinsus marinus http://pelican.gmpo.gov/gmnet/pmarni04.html
Lee Courtney
Please send continents or questions regarding this page to CQurtneyJee@epamatI.epa.gov
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Related Links of Interest
Federal
Environmental Protection Agency
Gulf of Mexico Program
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
National Marine Fisheries Service
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
National Estuarine Research Reserve System
Apalachicola Bay National Estuary Research Reserve
Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary
National Biological Service; Southeastern Biological Science
Center
State
Florida Department of Environmental Regulation
Florida Marine Research Institute
Gulf Coast Research Laboratory
Louisiana Department of Wildlife and Fisheries
Louisiana Department of Natural Resources
Texas Parks and Wildlife
Wanted; Lesioned Fish from the Florida East Coast
Marine Mammals
Louisiana Marine Mammal Stranding Network
FMRI; Manatees
FMRI; Right Whales
Texas Marine Mammal Stranding Network
Texas A and M University Marine Mammal Program
GulfCet Program to study Cetaceans in the Gulf of Mexico
Protected Marine Species Research and Information
Non-Gulf Organizations
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Earthwatch Marine Mammal Program
Marine Mammal Stranding Center (Brigantine, New Jersey)
Marine Mammal and Sea Turtle Stranding Network
(Monterey, California)
Miscellaneous
Mote Marine Laboratory
FMRI; Marine Turtles
These links are provided as representations of sites with related topics and information of possible
interest to our visitors.
No endorsement of these sites or the information contained therein is implied.
This site was last modified on December 1,1997
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