EPA-560/6-77-011
THE ECOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ARSENIC
EMITTED FROM NONFERROUS SMELTERS
I
35
\
CD
FEBRUARY 1976
FINAL REPORT
CONTRACT 68-01-3248, TASK 1
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF TOXIC SUBSTANCES
WASHINGTON, D.C. 20460
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THE ECOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ARSENIC
EMITTED FROM NONFERROUS SMELTERS
Prepared by:
ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING, INC.
Gainesville, Florida 32604
Final Report
Contract 68-01-3248, Task 1
Project Officer
Thomas E. Kopp
Office of Toxic Substances
Washington, D.C.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Office of Toxic Substances
Washington, D.C. 20460
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DISCLAIMER
This report has been reviewed by the Office of
Toxic Substances, U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, and approved for publication. Mention
of trade names or commercial products does not
constitute endorsement or recommendation for
use.
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ABSTRACT
This report is an assessment of the ecological effects of arsenic and
other associated contaminants emitted from nonferrous smelters on eco-
nomically important plant and animal species in the human food chain.
The objective of this study was to evaluate the latest information
available on air, water, and solid waste-discharges of arsenic and other
heavy metals, along with sulfur oxide emissions from nonferrous smelters
and associated ecological effects. To accomplish this objective, the
study focused primarily on three areas of concern: (1) the extent of
the ecological damage around primary and secondary smelters, both exist-
ing and-closed; (2) the extent that arsenic, by itself or in combination
with other chemicals, caused this ecological damage; and (3) how present
or projected levels of emissions, including no discharge, affect the
levels of damage.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract i
Figures iii
Tables iii
Acknowledgements iv
I. Introduction 1
II. Summary . 12
III. Conclusions - 13
IV. Recommendations 16
V. The Extent of Ecological Damage Around Smelters 17
VI. Cause of Damage 25
VII. Future Levels of Damage 48
VIII. References 52
Appendices
A. Resource Inventories Al
B. Bureau of Mines Lists of Existing and
Closed Smelters Bl
11
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FIGURES
Number
1 Existing domestic primary nonferrous smelters
Page
2
Number
1
2
3
4
7
8
9
10
11
TABLES
Primary 2inc smelters
Primary lead smelters
Primary copper smelters
Arsenic content (ppm dry weight) of samples
collected near two smelters and an urban area
Toxic levels of soluble As to various crops and
vegetables
The distribution of the arsenic originally in
zinc, lead, and copper concentrates
Potentially toxic arsenic levels for livestock
Potentially toxic zinc levels for livestock
Potentially toxic cadmium levels for livestock
Potentially toxic lead levels for livestock
Potential number of high stagnation days in a
five-year period occurring in the vicinity of
domestic primary nonferrous smelters
Page
4
5
7
23
27
32
39
41
42
43
47
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Acknowledgments
This report was prepared by the staff of Environmental Science and
Engineering, Inc. (ESE), of Gainesville, Florida. Dr. Francis E. Benenati
was the principal investigator and Program Manager for ESE. Mr. Brian H.
Winchester compiled the resource inventories, and Mr. Timothy P. King
conducted most of the library research. Dr. Robert Carton was the Project
Officer for the Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Toxic Substances.
Appreciation is extended to all individuals who furnished information
for this assessment. Cooperating government agencies included:
Federal Agencies
Environmental Protection Agency (Office of Hazardous Material Control,
Effluent Guidelines Division, Regional Offices, Research Laboratories)
U.S. Dept. of Agriculture (Soil Conservation Service, Agricultural Stabili-
zation and Conservation Service, Forest Service, Agricultural Research
Service, Bureau of Foods)
U.S. Dept. of Interior (Fish and Wildlife Service, Bureau of Mines, Bureau
of Land Management)
Tennessee Valley Authority (Water Quality and Ecology Branch)
State Agencies
County Extension Service
Ohio EPA (Office of Land Pollution Control)
Texas Air Control Board
Arizona Department of Health (Air Emissions Section)
Missouri Dept. of Natural Resources
Illinois EPA
iv
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Regional Planning Agencies
Southwestern Illinois Metropolitan Area Planning Commission
Northeastern Illinois Planning Commission
West Michigan Regional Planning Council
South Bend (Indiana) Area Planning Council
Butler County (Pennsylvania) Planning Commission
York. County (Pennsylvania) Planning Commission
Lancaster County (Pennsylvania) Planning Commission
Other Agencies
Chicago Dept. of Environmental Control
Philadelphia Dept. of Public Health
El Segundo City Planning Commission
Penn State Forage and Soil Testing Laboratory
University of Montana Dept. of Forestry
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I. Introduction
The following is an assessment of the ecological effects of arsenic
and other associated contaminants emitted from nonferrous smelters on
economically important plant and animal species in the human food chain.
The assessment has relied on information gathered from appropriate state
and federal authorities, and investigators knowledgeable in this area,
as well as information taken from the available literature. The purpose
of this assessment was to fully evaluate the latest information available
on air, water, and solid waste discharges of arsenic and other heavy
metals along with sulfur oxide emissions from nonferrous smelters and
associated ecological effects. The following questions were addressed:
What is the extent of the ecological damage around primary and
secondary smelters, both existing and closed?
To what extent is arsenic, by itself or in combination with other
chemicals, the cause of this damage?
How will present or projected levels of emissions, including no
discharge, affect the levels of damage?
In addition, general and resource information for most U.S. nonferrous
smelters were compiled and are included to support the responses to these
questions. The following are brief descriptions of the various subsections
of the domestic nonferrous smelting industry:
Primary Zinc Industry
The domestic primary zinc industry is comprised of eight smelters
(Figure 1) and includes electrolytic and pyrometallurgic plants. The
latter are further divided into horizontal and vertical retorts (furnaces),
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lead smelter
copper smelter
zinc smelter
Figure 1. Existing domestic primary nonferrous smelters.
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and horizontal retorts are generally smaller. Over half of the current
domestic zinc metal production capacity is centered within the two large
pyrometallurgical smelters in Pennsylvania. During 1969 to 1973 eight
primary smelters were closed. Factors contributing to these closures
included increased operating costs, inabilities to meet new environmental
regulations, and/or depletion of local ore or energy supplies.
Plans to expand production include two new smelters—one in Tennessee
and one in Kentucky which will come on line in 1978 or 1979. In addition,
the old horizontal retort smelter of National Zinc (Bartlesville, Okla-
homa) is being replaced with a new electrolytic plant (Rittenhouse, 1975).
Other plans included the Amax purchase and reactivation of the electrolytic
plant in Sauget, Illinois; ASARCO erecting a new plant in the Amarillo
area; and ASARCO possibly expanding their Corpus Christi plant (Mining
Journal, 1972 a and b). Additional information on existing primary smelters
is presented in Table 1.
Primary Lead Industry
Five of the existing six domestic primary lead smelters are centered
within the Missouri lead belt and the Coeur d'Alene lead area (Figure 1).
There are no known new primary lead smelters under construction within
the United States. All six smelters employ pyrometallurgical smelting
and utilize sulfide ores which are either domestic or foreign in origin.
Additional information pertaining to these smelters is presented in Table 2.
Primary Copper Industry
The fifteen existing primary copper smelters are centered in the
southwestern portion of the United States (Figure 1). Seven of these
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Table 1. Primary zinc smelters,
Company/Location
First
Year
Type of
Operation
Annual
Production
rnetric ton/yr
Products Produced
Last
Modification
ASARCO
Amarillo, Tx.
ASARCO
Corpus Christi, Tx.
Amax
Sauget, 111.
Bunker Hill
(Gulf Resources
& Chemical Co.)
Wallace, Id.
New Jersey Zinc
(Gulf & Western
Industries)
Palmerton, Pa.
St. Joe Minerals
Corp.
Monaca, Pa,
National Zinc Co.
Bartelsville, Ok.
ASARCO
Columbus, Oh.
1976 New Facility
19A2 Electrolytic
1974* Electrolytic
1928 Electrolytic
1899 Electrothermic
1938 Electrothermic
New
Facility New facility—not known
Slab zinc, zinc alloys, zinc
sulfate, cadmium, sulfuric
9.8xl04 acid
Slab zinc, cadmium, zinc
6.4xl04 sulfate, sulfuric acid
Slab zinc, zinc alloys,
cadmium, sulfuric acid
Slab zinc, zinc alloys, zinc
oxide, cadmium, ferrosillican,
mercury, sulfuric acid
Slab zinc, zinc alloys, zinc
oxide, cadmium, ferrosillican,
mercury, sulfuric acid
1907 Horizontal Retort 4.5x10
2.3xl05
4
1972 (changed
flash to fluid
bed roasting
1968 (second
acid plant)
1969
(acid plant)
1967 ZnO plant
9.5xl04
*Reactivated
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Table 2. Primary lead smelters,
First
Company/Location Year
Type of
Operation
Annual
Production
metric ton/yr
Products Produced
Last
Modification
ASARCO
Glover, Mo.
ASARCO
East Helena, Mn.
ASARCO
El Paso, Tx.
Bunker Hill Co.
Kellogg, Id.
St. Joe Minerals
Herculaneum, Mo.
Mo. Lead Operating
Co. Boss, Mo.
Refined lead, copper dross,
1968 Blast furnace smelting l.AxlO5 retort bullion
Lead bullion, soda ash matte,
soda ash speiss, lead baghouse
1888 Blast furnace smelting 1.7xlCr dust, zinc fume
1887 Blast furnace smelting
Lead bullion, zinc fume
Refined lead, gold, silver
1917 Blast furnace smelting 5x10^ antimony
Refined lead, silver bullion,
1892 Blast furnace smelting 3x10^ copper matte
Refined lead, copper matte
1968 Blast furnace smelting 1.8x10^ dross, silver bullion
1971
(acid plant)
1972 (new
baghouse for
fugitive
emissions
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domestic smelters are located in Arizona, while Washington, Utah, Texas,
Tennessee, New Mexico, Nevada, Montana, and Michigan contain one primary
copper smelter each. The local availability of copper ore in the south-
west is responsible for this high density of copper extraction facilities
in Arizona.
The basic process employed by the primary copper industry is pyro-
metallurgical. Primary copper smelters conventionally produce blister
copper after roasting, smelting, and converting. In most cases, the
blister copper is purified by fire-refining. If further purification
is desired, an electrolytic process is used to produce cathode copper.
Currently, there is one hydrometallurgical and four pyrometallurgical
domestic primary copper smelters either under design, construction, or
start up. Information on the name/location, age, process used, and
products of each of these fifteen smelters is presented in Table 3.
Secondary Copper Industry
The secondary copper industry is the largest of all nonferrous
secondary metals industries in the United States. Secondary production
utilizes scrap metals or metallurgical wastes, whereas primary production
utilizes ore concentrates. Presently, about 30 percent of the total U.S.
copper demand is met by the secondary copper industry. The location of
most of these smelters is centered either close to the source of the
scrap or near inexpensive transportation. Thus, most of the secondary
facilities are located within or adjacent to large urban areas. Addi-
tional information on these smelters is presented in Appendix A.
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Table 3. Primary copper smelters.
Company /Location
First
Year
Type of Operation
Annual
Production
metric ton/yr
Products
Produced
Last
Modification
Phelps-Dodge
Morenci, Ariz.
Kennecott
Hayden, Ariz.
Cities Service
Copperhill, Term.
Anaconda
Anaconda, Mont.
Kennecott
Hurley, N.M.
Copper concentrates to
fluid-bed roaster, cal-
cine to reverb, slag to
dump, matte to convert-
ers. Blister copper to (
1942 fire-refining. 1.6xlQ-
Copper concentrates to
fluid-bed roaster, cal-
cine to reverb, slag to
dump, matte to convert-
1958 ers, anodes cast.
Copper concentrates to
1845 fluid-bed roaster, cal-
(Inter- cine to electric furnace,
mit- slag water quenched, matte
tent to converters. 1.4x10
Copper concentrates dried
in multiple-hearth roast-
ers, fed to reverbs, slag
granulated, matte to con-
verters, blister copper
1906 fire-refined.
Copper concentrates to re-
verbs (green feed), slag
to dump, matte to convert-
er, blister copper fire-
1939 refined. 8.4x10^
Fire-refined copper,
gold, silver, sulfuric
acid
7.3x10^ Blister copper
Blister copper, shot
copper, some copper
chemicals
1964
(Roaster acid
plant)
1968
(fluid-bed
roaster and
acid plant)
1972 (S02
treatment of
electric furnace
reverb gases)
Fire-refined copper,
l.SxlO5 sulfuric acid
Blister copper, fire-
refined copper, sulfuric
acid, Mo
1973
(new acid
plant)
1971
(new fourth
converter
added)
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Table 3. Continued.
Company /Location
First
Year
Type of Operation
Annual
Production
metric ton/yr
Products
Produced
Last
Modification
Kennecott
McGill, Nev.
Copper concentrates to re-
verbs (green feed), slag
granulated, matte to con-
1907 verters.
oo
Kennecott
Garfield, Utah
1907
Magma
Sam Manuel, Ariz.
White Pine
White Pine, Mich.
3.9x10^ Blister copper, Mo
Copper concentrates to re-
verbs (green feed), slag
granulated, matte to con-
verters, blister copper
fire-refined, fire-refined
copper electrolytically- t_v/i^ci., m,, BUJ-«> "=i
refined to cathode copper. 2.4x10 silver, sulfuric acid
Electrolytically refined
copper, Mo, gold, Se,
1968
(Removed
roasters and
converted to
green-feed
reverbs)
Copper concentrates to re-
verbs (green feed), slag
to dump, matte to convert-
ers, blister copper fire-
refined, fire-refined
copper electrolytically-
1956 refined.
Copper concentrates to re-
verbs (green feed) , matte
to converters, blister
1955 copper is fire-refined.
Electrolytically refined
copper, fire-refined cop-
per, Mo, gold, silver,
2.2x10-* sulfuric acid
Blister copper, fire-refined
1.3x10-* copper, silver
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Table 3. Continued.
Company/Location
First
Year
Type of Operation
Annual
Production
metric ton/yr
Products
Produced
Last
Modification
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Table 3. Continued.
Company /Location
First
Year
Type of Operation
Annual
Production
metric ton/yr
Products
Produced
Last
Modification
ASARCO
Tacoma, Wash.
Phelps-Dodge
Douglas, Ariz.
Copper concentrates roast-
ed in multiple-hearth
roasters, calcine to reverb,
slag to dump, matte to con-
verters, product blister
copper. Electrolytic
refining with approximately
Blister copper, elec.
ref. copper, gold, silver,
1890 1600 tanks.
Copper concentrates roast-
ed in multiple-hearth
roasters, calcine to
reverbs, slag to dump,
matte to converters.
Blister copper to fire-
1910 refining.
2xlOJ Liquid S02
1973
(liquid S02
plant for
converter
under
construction)
1.3xl05
Blister copper as shot,
fire-refined copper,
gold, silver
1971 (new
ESP on
converters)
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Secondary Lead and Zinc Industry
A more detailed list of domestic nonferrous smelters was recently
compiled by the U.S. Bureau of Mines (Falkie, 1976) and is included as
Appendix B. This compilation lists all domestic secondary zinc, lead,
gold, tin, and copper smelters now in operation and also lists all zinc,
lead, copper, and tin smelters closed since 1925. Unfortunately, these
lists were not received in time to allow a survey of the resources and
ecological damage existing within the environs of these facilities.
Most of the secondary facilities are, however, located in industrialized
areas, and, as such, should be of limited consequence to this study.
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II. Summary
The following is an assessment of the degree of ecological damage
which can be directly or indirectly associated with arsenic emissions
from nonferrous smelters. Little damage near smelters has in the past
been attributable to arsenic, whereas sulfur oxides, zinc, cadmium,
copper, and/or lead have all been associated with significant ecological
damage. Furthermore, land use within 10 miles of many of these smelters
precludes extensive damage; that is, it is either land which has been
taken out of production, supports naturally sparse vegetation and/or low
numbers of livestock, and/or the crops commonly grown are resistant to
arsenic. In addition, future levels of arsenic emitted from nonferrous
smelters are expected to decrease as new sulfur oxide standards are
imposed. Consequently, these lands most likely produce and will con-
tinue to produce an insignificant quantity of arsenic enriched food
resources.
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III. Conclusions
Ecological damage attributable to nonferrous smelters is directly
related to the magnitude and duration of sulfur oxide emissions and/or
with heavy metal loading of the neighboring ecosystem. In general, the
extent and severity of this damage increases with approach to the source;
and in most cases the local biota has been modified to reflect response
to these perturbations. A continuum of responses to these perturbations
has been reported which includes instances of no perceivable damage to
almost complete loss of the biota from the contaminated area. In many
instances, background conditions are reported to occur 10-15 miles from
the smelter(s). Secondary impacts from these facilities include severe
soil erosion, sedimentation with subsequent loss of topsoil, and contam-
ination of natural waters.
Poor performance and/or loss of livestock associated with nonferrous
smelter emissions does not appear to be a widespread problem; however,
lead has been the metal most frequently linked with reported losses while
arsenic and other heavy metals have less frequently been reported as
either responsible or contributory. Most instances of livestock/smelter
incompatabilities focus on farms or ranches located within five miles of
the smelter. The probability and severity of damage to livestock, crops,
or other biota increases with distance to the smelter and is directly
related to such factors as: age, time of exposure, magnitude of exposure
(acute-chronic), host stress, species differences, sex, general health, etc.
Ecological damage directly associated with arsenic emitted from non-
ferrous smelters with the exception of the Tacoma copper smelter is poorly
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documented. Both acceptable and nonacceptable levels of arsenic (based
on Food and Drug Administration standards) have been found in foods and
forage produced in close proximity to nonferrous smelters. Studies
have shown that the amount of arsenic available for uptake by plants is
dependent upon numerous soil properties, especially the iron and alumi-
num contents of the soil. In addition, most crops will contain less
than 1 ppm arsenic even when grown in soils containing levels of arsenic
which reduce yields to an extent where harvest is not economically
feasible. Furthermore, those levels of arsenic toxic to animals are
also toxic to plants and as such, sensitive and moderately sensitive
crops usually fail in highly contaminated areas. Most importantly,
biomagnification of arsenic through the human food reticulum apparently
does not occur.
Wastewater discharged from nonferrous smelters has been reported
to contain acceptable levels of arsenic. The potential for arsenic
toxicity to occur in natural waters is limited since arsenic forms
insoluble sediment complexes, becomes 60 times less toxic when oxidized,
and is removed by municipal water treatment. Significant levels of
arsenic and other heavy metals may enter surface and groundwaters as
a result of mobilization of these contaminants from land-disposed
smelter wastes and mine tailings. Since new air quality standards and
process modifications will decrease atmospheric emissions of arsenic and
other related contaminants, the amount of these toxicants in residues,
slags, and collected flue dusts destined for land disposal will in-
crease. Although most of these toxicants are believed to be insoluble,
definitive studies are needed to quantify their mobility.
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In conclusion, most of the acreage surrounding domestic nonferrous
smelters provides crops and forage containing only slightly elevated
levels of arsenic. The role of arsenic as a toxicant appears to be of
minor consequence compared to that of lead, cadmium, zinc, copper, and
oxides of sulfur. Fortunately, present land use around most smelters
precludes or reduces damage to the local biota from arsenic and these
related contaminants. Lands adjacent to most nonferrous smelters
probably produce and will continue to produce insignificant quantities
of food resources and, as a result, will contribute insignificant
quantities of heavy metals to the human diet.
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IV. Recommendations
The following three recommendations are based on the results of
this assessment:
(1) The levels of arsenic and related heavy metals entering the
human food chain from crops and livestock produced near smelters that
have been closed are expected to pose no threat to human health. In
areas where smelters are fully operational, however, deposition of air-
borne emissions and fugitive dust from smelting and/or mining activities
along with plant uptake of these contaminants from the soil may signif-
icantly contribute to contamination of foodstuffs. Conflicting reports
of the acceptability of foodstuffs produced near these smelters warrants
further field study.
(2) Land disposed slags, sludges, and collected flue dusts consti-
tute the major process loss of arsenic and related heavy metals. These
wastes are of varying form and concentration of contaminants, and when
deposited in severely eroded or denuded watersheds, the potential for
runoff, leaching, and sediment transport of heavy metals and arsenic is
high. Studies are warranted to determine the extent of dispersion of
these wastes from disposal areas and to determine if regulations need to
be promulgated to ensure environmentally adequate disposal.
(3) Several instances of severe erosion have been reported near
nonferrous smelters coupled with excessive sedimentation of neighboring
reservoirs or lakes. The productivity and water quality of these lakes
along with the levels of arsenic and other related contaminants in aquatic
resources needs to be determined and warrants field study.
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V. The Extent of Ecological Damage Around Smelters
Ecological damage resulting from nonferrous smelting and refining
has been documented by many workers. Much of this damage has been
directly linked to sulfur dioxide emissions and/or heavy metals dis-
persed to the neighboring environs. The following is a brief synopsis
of the literature:
A lead smelter in Canada was reported by DeKoning (1974) to be con-
tributing significant quantities of lead to the environment (exceeded
2 ug/m3 lead in air 10 to 20 percent of time). DeKoning concluded that
these levels pose a threat to livestock which graze, within this area.
The smelter was found to contribute only a small amount of cadmium and
no cadmium pollution was directly attributable to the smelter.
Vegetation damage within Lehigh Gap, Pennsylvania, was linked to
extremely high (and toxic) levels of zinc and cadmium emitted from two
primary zinc smelters (Buchauer, 1973). Past-forest fires and subse-
quent soil erosion have also contributed to the problem.
Elevated levels of zinc, lead, cadmium, nickel, and iron were found
in leafy vegetables grown in close proximity to an Australian copper
smelter (Beavington, 1975). In addition, sparse and poor growth of
clover were associated with soil copper levels (Beavington, 1973 and
1975).
Little and Martin (1972) reported considerable contamination of
vegetation and soil by zinc, cadmium, and lead near a smelter in the
Avonmouth area (Great Britain). Background levels were approached five
to ten miles from the smelter. They noted higher levels in forest soils
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than in agricultural soils which they associated with decomposition of
leaf litter rich in these metals. Plowing was also mentioned as a
possible contributor to the lower levels found in agricultural soils.
Much of the obvious damage to vegetation in the vicinity of the
Tacoma smelter has in the past been associated with sulfur dioxide
emissions. More recently, Ratsch (1974) and Crecelius, Johnson, and
Hofer (1974) have reported elevated levels of copper, arsenic, cadmium,
lead, and antimony up to six miles from this smelter; and Ratsch (1974)
reported levels of copper, arsenic, and cadmium high enough to affect
the growth and establishment of plants, and levels of cadmium and mer-
cury in leafy vegetables potentially hazardous to health. Levels of
lead and arsenic in milk and blood from dairy cattle within 15 miles of
the Tacoma smelter were found to be relatively low and did not suggest
excessive exposure (Orheim, Lippman, Johnson, and Bovee, 1974). The
average arsenic content of hair of these exposed cows, however, was
about twice that of cows from the control area (located about 30 miles
from the smelter).
Significant damage from sulfur dioxide fumigations has been reported
throughout the Sudbury, Ontario, mining and smelting region by Hutchinson
(1975), Gorham and Gordon (1960a and 1960b), Linzon (1972), and Whitby
and Hutchinson (1974). In 1970 alone, over 2100 square miles of forest
were damaged in the Sudbury region by sulfur dioxide (Hutchinson, 1975).
A recent study by Whitby and Hutchinson (1974) reported soil levels of
copper and nickel within 6.5 miles of these smelters which are inhibi-
tory to seedling establishment and subsequent revegetation. They
concluded that as sulfur dioxide emissions are reduced, revegetation
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will be impeded by the high levels of these metals presently in the
soil. Hutchinson and Whitby (1974) also reported elevated levels of
nickel and copper in biota, water, and sediments of a nearby river-lake
system.
In a study conducted near the previous site of the zinc smelter in
Henryetta, Oklahoma, Pancholy, et al. (1975) found that most of the 1000
acres which lacked vegetation in 1953 were still bare. They also found
a much reduced number of soil microorganisms in this area, along with
elevated levels of soil zinc and cadmium.
The Copper Basin area of Polk County, Tennessee, best exemplifies
the slow recovery of an area damaged by smelting activities. Late nine-
teenth century smelting practices (heap roasting) not only emitted
copious quantities of sulfur dioxide at near ground level, but also
relied heavily on timber and later stumps for fuel. Severe soil erosion
followed and the combined perturbations on neighboring woodlands soon
resulted in the denudement of 50 to 100 square miles (Cities Service
Company, 1973). Presently much of this acreage remains barren.
The Silver Valley of northern Idaho (Kellogg-Smelterville area) has
also experienced severe vegetative loss and soil erosion associated with
sulfur dioxide fumigations from smelters (Miller, et al., 1975). The
problems in the Silver Valley are further amplified by sedimentation of
Lake Coeur d'Alene, with tailings high in arsenic,, cadmium, and lead
content. Reservoirs in the Copper Basin area are also experiencing
similar sedimentation problems (see the resource, inventory for the
Cities Service Copper Smelter, Appendix A, for further details).
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Numerous instances of heavy metal/livestock incompatabilities in
the vicinity of nonferrous smelters have been reported. The following
is a brief review of the more noteworthy studies:
Lead poisoning of horses has been documented within 6.5 miles of
the Trail, Canada, lead smelter; within the "smoke zone" of the Selby,
California, lead smelter (Knight, 1973); and within two miles of the
lead smelter in St. Paul, Minnesota (Hammond and Aronson, 1963).
In Montana, loss of cattle production within 10 miles of the copper
smelter in Anaconda has been reported (Gordon, 1976; Swain and Harkins,
1908), while sheep may not be pastured within 10 miles of the ASARCO
lead smelter in East Helena (EPA, 1972). Furthermore, horse raising
has not been feasible near this ASARCO smelter for 15 years.
Studies conducted on the zinc, cadmium, copper, and lead contami-
nation of man's food chain as a result of mining and smelting activities
in southeastern Missouri (University of Missouri Study, 1972) identified
the main sources of heavy metals contributing to heavy metal contamina-
tion of .forage and cattle to be smelter stack emissions, truck spillage
of ore concentrates, and fugitive dusts from ore stockpiled around the
j
smelter. Incidents of horse deaths in the area were attributed to lead
contamination of forage. Levels of lead in forage were tolerable to
cattle grazing in the area of the smelter.
Cattle grazed within one mile of the Blackwell zinc smelter were
reported to experience significant weight loss due to the ingestion of
forage which contained non-tolerable levels of zinc, lead, and arsenic
(Benenati, 1974). In addition, there is a record of one horse death
20
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in the area which was associated with toxic levels of zinc and lead in
forage (Benenati and Risser, 1972). This pasture was located four miles
north of the Blackwell smelter.
Livestock loss related to heavy metals occurred near the Magma
copper smelter when livestock utilized water and pasture irrigated by
water which had run through a tailings disposal area (Lamoreaux, 1975).
Water levels were low at the time, and as a result contaminants were
concentrated by evapotranspiration. The tailings water was from a
neighboring operation which has since closed.
Although no crop damage has been noted in the vicinity of the Eagle-
Picher zinc smelter (Galena, Kansas), litigation occurred against the
smelter in the early 1970's due to alleged livestock damage (Brower,
1976). The Agricultural Research Service subsequently investigated the
heavy metal content of soils, crops, natural vegetation, cattle, milk,
and human blood and hair collected from the region (Lagerwerff, Brower,
and Biersdorf, 1973; Lagerwerff and Brower, 1974). In some instances,
grass and forage crops were found to exceed potentially toxic zinc and
lead levels for cattle. Samples were not analyzed for arsenic content.
An area three to five miles downwind of the Eagle-Picher zinc smel-
ter (Henryetta, Oklahoma) presently cannot be utilized for raising either
young colts or clover_ (Worthy, 1976). This_smelter was closed in 1969.
The poor performance and death of livestock grazing in proximity
to smelters has been a potential problem near many smelters (Schmitt,
et al., 1971; University of Missouri Study, 1972; Hammond and Aronson,
1963; Benenati and Risser, 1972; and Knight and Burau, 1973). In
21
-------
general, horses have been found to be more susceptible to smelter
emissions than cattle, while lead has been the most responsible heavy
metal for livestock loss. Additional reports of ecological damage
to vegetation and livestock are presented in the resource inventories
which were compiled for each of the major nonferrous U.S. smelters
(Appendix A).
Ecological damage directly related to arsenic near nonferrous
smelters is poorly documented. A recent study by Temple, Linzon, and
Chai (1975) reported elevated levels of arsenic in trees and shrubs,
grass, and soil associated with two secondary lead smelters in southern
Ontario, Canada (Table 4). No visible damage to vegetation could be
associated with arsenic even for vegetation growing near these smelters
in soils containing 1500 to 2000 ppm arsenic. Fresh fruit and vegetables
were found to contain less than 1 ppm arsenic; levels below Canadian
standards for fruits and vegetables. Studies sponsored by the U.S.
EPA reported that unwashed vegetables and crops grown within a four mile
radius of the East Helena smelter caused levels of arsenic within
acceptable limits set by the Food and Drug Administration (EPA, 1972).
For comparison, vegetables grown within a five mile radius of the Trail
lead smelter (Canada) contained up to 3.0 ppm arsenic, while root
vegetables contained up to 7..3 ppm (Schmitt, et al., 1971), and a
study conducted by Ratsch (1974) identified levels of arsenic toxic to
sensitive and moderately sensitive plant species in soils near the
Tacoma smelter. In addition, damage to peach trees within the Tacoma
area was linked with both sulfur dioxide and arsenic emissions from this
22
-------
smelter. Crecelius, Johnson, and Hofer (1974) reported elevated levels
of soil arsenic up to six miles from this smelter. Emphasis should not
be placed on these Tacoma area studies, since the Tacoma smelter is the
only U.S. smelter producing commercial arsenic and having a deep water
port. The port facility allows the smelter to import about 30% of its
ores from South America and the Philippines. These ores (5.2% arsenic)
are higher in arsenic content than most U.S. ores (less than 0.2% ar-
senic).
Table 4. Arsenic content (ppm dry weight) of samples collected near
two smelters and an urban area (after Temple, Linzon, and
Chair 1975).
Sample
Trees & shrubs
(unwashed)
Grasses
(unwashed)
Soil
(0-5 cm)
Mean
Range
Mean
Range
Mean
Range
Urban
Control
Area
0.9
0.4-1.3
0.7
0.4-1.2
9.8
2.7-40.7
Smelter
A
7.4
0.9-33.4
5.8
0.3-62.1
107
4.7-2005
Smelter
B
2.45
0.4-12.7
3.23
0.5-49.0
35
2.6-248
The El Paso and Anaconda copper smelters also process high arsenic
content ores (0.96 and 0.8% arsenic, respectively). All other domestic
primary copper smelters process ores containing less than 0.2 percent
arsenic, while primary lead and zinc smelters process ores containing
less than 0.1 percent arsenic (EPA, 1975). Based on production and
arsenic content of the concentrates processed the Tacoma, El Paso, and
Anaconda smelters should be prime examples of arsenic contamination of
23
-------
the neighboring environs. As mentioned previously, Crecelius, Johnson
and Hofer (1974) reported elevated arsenic levels up to six miles from
this smelter. In addition, Price (1975) reported that the El Paso area
probably had the highest concentrations of arsenic in Texas, while
Nimlos (1976) reported adverse effects to lodgepole pine and white
spruce seedlings grown within ten miles of the Anaconda facility. For
comparison, Benenati (1974) reported soil levels of arsenic which were
high enough to cause significant agricultural loss within one to three
miles of the Blackwell site. Sampling occurred while the Blackwell
smelter was fully operational. In general, the results of these studies
suggest that the rate of production of sensitive and moderately sensi-
tive plants (e.g., alfalfa, soybeans, etc.) is extremely affected by
arsenic contamination within an area of a one to ten mile radius of most
domestic primary smelters. The size of this area for a particular
smelter is not only dependent on emission parameters such as the amount
of arsenic in the ore, or the amount of ore processed, but also on such
factors as soil properties, land use, and complemented stresses (e.g.,
fire, presence of other heavy metal's" — cadmium, copper, and zinc —
soil erosion, sulfur dioxide damage, etc.).
24
-------
VI. Cause of Damage
Overall, damage related to arsenic appears of minor importance when
compared to damage from other heavy metals and/or sulfur dioxide emissions
from nonferrous smelters. Present land use around most U.S. smelters
precludes or reduces damage to locally produced foodstuffs from arsenic
and related contaminants for the following reasons:
(1) Many smelters are located in the southwest and are surrounded
by sparse natural vegetation capable of supporting low
livestock levels.
(2) Most smelters lack arsenic sensitive crops within a five mile
radius of the facility. In some instances this lack may be
due to soil arsenic levels and/or other heavy metals (Ratsch,
1974; Beavington, 1973; and Benenati, 1974).
(3) Agricultural practices (i.e., plowing, liming) have been shown
to reduce soil levels and availability of arsenic and other
heavy metals such as zinc, cadmium, lead, and copper.
(4) Many smelters are surrounded by mines and/or company-owned
lands which have been taken out of agricultural production.
(5) Poor gains or past losses in a marginally profitable endeavor
will minimize the number of smelter-area farmers/ranchers who
produce foodstuffs within these highly contaminated areas.
The limited reported occurrence of arsenic related damage in the
environs of nonferrous smelters may, however, reflect past emphasis of
researchers on studying those metals most easily analyzed (zinc, copper,
lead, tin, cadmium, and nickel). One expects the major heavy metal
contaminants dispersed throughout the environs of these smelters to
reflect the composition of the ores processed. For example, Hutchinson
and Whitby (1974) were able to associate copper and nickel soil levels
with poor seedling establishment, whereas zinc and molybdenum, which are
not presently smelted in Sudbury, showed very limited evidence of soil
loading. Relative toxicities of the various metals must also be considered.
25
-------
For arsenic sensitive species, damage may occur at soil levels which are
found throughout an extensive area (Tacoma Study, Ratsch, 1974) , while
other less toxic metals may be commonly found in higher concentrations.
The situation is further complicated when levels of zinc and cadmium or
other heavy metals are found which are toxic to the existing crop, while
arsenic levels are not high enough to be problematic. Subsequent
planting of a different crop which is sensitive or moderately sensitive
to arsenic could reverse the importance of these metals with arsenic
being the limiting factor. In the Blackwell, Oklahoma area, for example,
wheat was found to be affected by zinc and cadmium levels within one-
half to three-quarters of a mile from the smelter; however, present land
use precludes much economic loss. If acreage within three miles of this
plant was replanted to alfalfa or some other arsenic sensitive crop,
economic loss would possibly result related to non-tolerable arsenic
soil levels.
Many food plants are sensitive to soil arsenic and show significant
yield reduction when grown in soils containing non-tolerable levels of
arsenic (Table 5). Soils treated with arsenical pesticides contain from
1.8 to 830 ppm arsenic; untreated soils usually contain from 0.5 to 14
ppm (Woolson, Axley, and Kearney, 1971). The presence of a given level
of arsenic in the soil, however, does not preclude a phytotoxic response
since the amount of plant available (soluble) arsenic is greatly influenced
by a number of soil properties. In fact, under certain soil conditions
the addition of arsenic to a soil has been found to stimulate growth of
some plants (Stewart and Smith, 1922; Cooper et al., 1932; Jacobs,
Keeney, and Walsh, 1970).
26
-------
Table 5. Toxic levels of soluble As to various crops and vegetables.
Plant
cowpeas
barley
snap beans
peas
alfalfa
soybeans
rice
cotton
beans
corn
potatoes
green beans
lima beans
spinach
tomatoes
radish
lowbush blueberry
cabbage
Toxic level
soluble As
(ppm)
^
. 1 "
2
2.5*
2.5
9*
3.4-9.5
3-12
7
8-28
9
20*
37*
10-50*
10-50*
10-50*
50+*
50-100*
84.5
10CH-*
Reference
Albert and Arnt, 1931
Vandecaveye, 1943
Jacob et al., 1970
Jacob et al. , 1970
Bishop and Chisholm, 1962
Vandecaveye et al., 1936
Deuel and Swoboda, 1972
Epps and Sturgis, 1939
Deuel and Swoboda, 1972
Bishop and Chisholm, 1962
Jacob et al. , 1970
Jacob et al. , 1970
Woolson, 1973
Woolson, 1973
Woolson, 1973
Woolson, 1973
Woolson, 1973
Anastasia and Kender, 1973
Woolson, 1973
*level which produces 50 percent yield reduction
27
-------
In general, plants grown on finer textured soils are less affected
by a given level of arsenic soil loading (Woolson, Axley, and Kearney,
1971; Jacobs, Keeney and Walsh, 1970; and Deuel and Swoboda, 1972).
This relationship is related to the higher clay content and the as-
sociated richer iron, aluminum, calcium, and magnesium content of these
finer textured soils.
With the exception of root crops, most crops will contain less than
1 ppm arsenic even when grown in soils containing levels of arsenic
which cause a 50 percent reduction in yield (Woolson, 1973). The Food
and Drug Administration has set allowable limits of arsenic in foods for
interstate commerce at 2.6 ppm. Since most crops which suffer a 50
percent reduction in yield cannot be economically harvested, Woolson
(1973) concluded that crops grown in soils containing levels of arsenic
which result in a 50 percent growth reduction would be indicative of the
maximum arsenic content of plants grown on contaminated soils. Woolson
(1973) reported very low levels (usually less than 1 ppm) of arsenic in
the edible portions of all but the root crops he tested under 50 percent
growth reduction conditions. The significance of these findings pertain
to crops grown in the environs of smelters that are no longer in opera-
tion. Around these facilities, soil contamination is the most significant
source of arsenic to vegetation and the human food chain. Based on
Woolson1s (1973) studies, forage and crops produced in these areas
should be fit for consumption.
In areas where smelters are operational, deposition of airborne
emissions and fugitive dusts from smelting and/or mining activities are
expected to significantly contribute to foodstuff contamination. In
28
-------
support of this premise, leafy vegetables grown within 1 mile of the
Trail smelter contained 3 ppm arsenic (Schmitt et al., 1971); and leafy
vegetables grown within 1 mile of the Tacoma smelter contained 57 ppm
arsenic (on the average), while those within 1 to 5 miles contained 5 ppm
arsenic (on the average) (Feigner, 1975). Not all operational smelters,
though, are surrounded by fields which produce leafy vegetables and/or
crops which exceed the Food and Drug Administration standard. Studies
by Temple, Linzon, and Chai (1975), EPA (1972), and Benenati and Risser
(1972-73), and Benenati (1974) reported acceptable levels of arsenic in
vegetables and/or crops grown near fully operational nonferrous smelters.
Market basket studies conducted by Schroeder and Balassa (1966) and
The Bureau of Foods (1975) were reviewed in order to evaluate the sig-
nificance of the elevated arsenic levels of foodstuffs produced near
operational smelters. Schroeder and Balassa (1966) reported that
terrestrial foodstuffs usually contain less than 0.5 ppm arsenic while
seafoods usually meet or exceed the Food and Drug Administration Stan-
dard of 2.6 ppm (fish 2 to 8 ppm; oysters 3 to 10 ppm; mussels and
shrimp 42-174 ppm arsenic). They concluded that the daily intake was
dependent upon seafood consumption and estimated daily intake levels
from 400 to 1000 pg/day. The Bureau of Foods Study (1975), which was
representative of the contiguous United States, estimated the daily
intake level of arsenic to be 10 ug/day. The consumption of foodstuffs
produced near domestic non-ferrous smelters then should not be hazardous
to one's health as these foods contain no more arsenic than seafoods. In
addition, arsenic in foods has not been shown to be carcinogenic.
Another important consideration, especially for closed smelters, is
residency time of the various heavy metals in soils. Studies in the
29
-------
United States and Europe relating heavy metal toxicity, persistence, and
accumulation in soils associated with smelter operations have shown that
natural revegetation of denuded areas adjacent to closed smelters
usually does not occur within 70 years (Whitby and Hutchinson, 1974).
Bowen (1975) estimated the following residency times: for arsenic, 2000
years; for zinc, 2000+ years; for lead, 3000+ years; and for cadmium,
200 years. Based on these estimates, arsenic will remain a soil contam-
inant longer than cadmium. Soil lead is of limited concern to most
plants due to its limited uptake "by roots.
As mentioned in the first section of this assessment, damage to
vegetation from sulfur dioxide emissions from nonferrous smelters has
been documented and continues to be of concern. The severity of the
damage from sulfur dioxide near United States smelters has been reduced
by forced shutdowns or control measures (acid plants and/or scrubbers).
Secondary effects from sulfur dioxide damage, such as severe soil erosion,
will persist for thousands of years after smelter closure.
Arsenic losses to the atmosphere during the processing of ore
concentrates account for 14 percent of the total arsenic originally in
the concentrates used for copper smelting, 22 percent of that used for
lead smelting, and 36 percent of that used for zinc smelting. However,
eleven times more arsenic is emitted to the atmosphere by the domestic
copper industry (4800 kkg/yr) than from both the lead (240 kkg/yr) and
zinc (190 kkg/yr) industries combined. For comparison, arsenic losses
destined for direct land disposal account for 62 percent of the total
arsenic originally in the copper ore concentrates, 75 percent of the
30
-------
total arsenic in lead concentrates, and 23 percent of the arsenic in the
zinc concentrates. Whereas, there is twentyfive times more arsenic
disposed to land as a result of copper smelting (21,800 kkg/yr) than
from both the lead (800 kkg/yr) and zinc (120 kkg/hr) industries com-
bined. Arsenic losses during processing are summarized in Table 6.
Land is the major receptor of these losses. When deposited within
severely eroded or denuded basins (such as Coeur d'Alene, Copperhill,
and Lehigh Gap) the potential for runoff, leaching, and sediment trans-
port of heavy metals is high. Smelters in the arid Southwest are less
affected by this problem; however, strong winds may act to disperse
tailings and residues over extensive areas (Voget, 1975). Dusts from
ore and/or residue piles along with tailings from nearby mining activities
have been reported to significantly contribute to soil/plant heavy metal
loading (Benenati, 1974; Miller, et al., 1975; Gorham and Gordon, 1960a;
Buchauer, 1973; and Missouri University Study, 1972). Most fallout is
expected to occur within the first 1/4 to 1/2 mile downwind of the
source and, as such, most environmental loading will occur within this
/
area.
The physiological role of these dusts to vegetation are minimal,
though there may be limited uptake through plant stomates. Of major
significance is the contribution of these dusts to forage, especially
during winter when forage metal levels (lead, cadmium, and zinc) may
reach toxic concentrations (Schmitt, et al., 1971; Hammond and Aronson,
1963; Knight and Burau, 1973; and Benenati, 1974).
In areas free of gross pollution, the ambient atmospheric arsenic
concentration is in the range of 0-10 ng/nr (Braman, 1975). However,
31
-------
Table 6. The distribution of the arsenic originally in zinc,
lead, and copper concentrates (EPA, 1975).
Zinc Concentrates
Loss to Atmosphere
Retained in Zinc Products
In-Land-Destined Wastes
In Wastewater Effluents
In Residues Shipped to Lead Smelter
Total
190 kkg/yr
5 kkg/yr
120 kkg/yr
0.4 kkg/yr
210 kkg/yr
525 kkg/yr
Lead Concentrates
Loss to Atmosphere
Retained in Refined Lead
In Land-Destined Wastes
Total
240 kkg/yr
20 kkg/yr
800 kkg/yr
1,060 kkg/yr
Copper Concentrates
In Lake Copper Product
In Fire-Refined Copper Product
In Electrolytic Copper Product
In Slags to Land Disposal
In Sludges to Land Disposal
In Flue Dusts to Land Disposal
In Leach Residues to Land Disposal
In Treated Wastewaters
In Air Emissions
In Commercial White Arsenic
30
6
7
1,900
1,500
9,600
8,800
32
4,800
8,300
kkg/yr
kkg/yr
kkg/yr
kkg/yr
kkg/yr
kkg/yr
kkg/yr
kkg/yr
kkg/yr
kkg/yr
Total
35,000 kkg/yr
32
-------
o
ambient arsenic concentrations of up to 20 yg/m have been reported for
the vicinity of the copper smelter near Tacoma (Roberts, 1975). Atmos-
pheric contamination by arsenic in the Seattle area from this smelter is
further reflected by an average value of 17 ± 8 yg/1 in unfiltered rain
and snow as compared with a value of 0.4 ± 0.2 yg/1 in an area remote
from the source of pollution (Crecelius, et al., 1975). Dust samples
collected by high volume sampler 25 miles downwind of this smelter
contained arsenic concentrated to greater than 2000 ppm (Crecelius, et
al., 1974). This data for the Tacoma-Seattle area indicates washout by
rain and snow and dry fallout are two mechanisms responsible for removal
of arsenic containing materials from the atmosphere.
The current estimate of particulate stack emission for the ASARCO
Tacoma copper smelter for 1975 is 150 tons/yr composed of 53 percent
arsenic trioxide (Nelson and Roberts, 1975). The estimated 80 ton
emission of arsenic trioxide at the ASARCO smelter clearly provides
sufficient justification to regard this smelter as a major arsenic pol-
luter. If pollution control equipment at other nonferrous smelters is
operated at least as effectively as the ASARCO smelter, the above values
could be expected to provide upper limits for arsenic pollution assoc-
iated with nonferrous smelter stack emissions, as the copper ore
processed at Tacoma contains the highest arsenic content (5.2 percent)
of any ore processed in the United States (Carapella, 1964).
A brief consideration of normal operating conditions can provide
insight concerning stack emissions. As flue gases normally possess a
high moisture content, an efficient application of baghouse and electro-
static precipitator collection techniques to reduce heavy metal emissions
33
-------
necessitates high-temperature operation. At the Tacoma smelters the
flue dust is further processed to reclaim arsenic trioxide. Although
the Tacoma smelter is the only facility involved in commercial produc-
tion of arsenic trioxide, such recycling procedures to reclaim heavy
metals at other nonferrous smelters are common and provide an additional
opportunity for release of arsenic to the atmosphere.
Based on a survey of the major existing and closed domestic non-
ferrous smelters, poor performance and/or loss of livestock does not
appear to be a widespread problem. In those instances where losses have
been reported (see Section V), lead has been the metal most associated
with the loss. Arsenic and other metals have also been reported as
either contributory or responsible for the loss.
Arsenic levels in the surface waters and drinking water supplies of
the United States have increased over the past 30 years, and it is
believed that much of this increase is due to. non-natural arsenic con-
taining sources such as detergents, pesticidal runoff, and leachings from
excavations and mining operations (EPA, 1975). In a 1970 survey of 150
rivers in the United States, approximately 7 percent of the 1500 samples
exceeded the U.S. Public Health Service recommended maximum drinking
water concentration of 10 ppb (0.01 mg/1) (Ferguson and Gavis, 1972).
The mean arsenic concentration of samples exceeding the 10 ppb limit was
100 ppb, or ten times the recommended maximum concentration and twice the
maximum permissible concentration. In a similar survey in 1971, 21 percent
of 727 samples from rivers and lakes in the United States had arsenic con-
tents above the 10 ppb limit (Ferguson and Gavis, 1972). Most estimates
34
-------
for mean arsenic levels in seawater have been below 20 ppb, with some
being as low as 2-3 ppb (Sullivan, 1969; Lansche, 1965; Schneider, 1971;
and Ferguson and Gavis, 1972).
Direct waterborne effluents of arsenic from primary zinc, lead, and
copper smelters are relatively small, with the total waterborne loss of
arsenic by each industry (1974 basis) being 0.4, 0, and 32 kkg/yr, res-
pectively (EPA, 1975). Studies conducted by the Effluent Guidelines
Division of EPA (EPA, 1975 a, b, and c) report the following for total
discharge of arsenic: from primary zinc smelters 0.1 to 0.68 mg/1; from
primary lead smelters 0.01 mg/1; and from primary copper smelters 0.001
to 0.174 mg/1. Proposed U.S. water quality standards (EPA, 1972) set
the following levels of arsenic as acceptable: 0.1 mg/1 or 2.0 mg/1 for
20 years acceptable for irrigation; 0.2 mg/1 acceptable for livestock
consumption; and 0.01 mg/1 (10 ppb) acceptable for public water sup-
plies. Assuming no dilution of these discharge waters, the effluent in
most cases is fit for agricultural use without further treatment; while
with a 10-fold dilution or greater, the effluent should in most cases be
fit for human consumption without further treatment. Although these
amounts in themselves may not be overly important in regards to surface
water contamination, the possibility of contamination of surface and
groundwaters by land-disposed smelter wastes should not be overlooked.
The arsenic content of land-destined wastes for the primary zinc and
lead industries is 120 and 800 kkg/yr, respectively (EPA, 1975). In the
primary copper industry, where 50 percent of the arsenic in copper ore
concentrates resides in slags, sludges, waste flue dusts, and acid plant
35
-------
residues (all of which are eventually disposed of on land), the total
arsenic content of land-destined wastes is 21,800 kkg/yr (EPA, 1975).
Although much of this arsenic may be in insoluble forms, definitive
studies are still needed on the amounts and rates of arsenic and other
heavy metals transported from the waste disposal sites to the sur-
rounding environment.
Generally speaking, arsenic is of limited potential toxicity in
natural water bodies because: 1) arsenic is usually locked into in-
soluble sediment complexes or immobilized in soil, 2) arsenic becomes
ten to sixty times less toxic when oxidized from the trivalent to the
pentavalent form, and 3) municipal water treatment can effectively
reduce arsenic to acceptable limits (EPA, 1975). Although arsenic
levels in drinking water sometimes exceed established standards, the
concentrations and forms of arsenic encountered are believed to pose
little threat to public health (EPA, 1975).
A biological cycle for arsenic in water is presented below (EPA,
1975):
AIR
WATER
SEDIMENT
Dimethylarsinic
acid
[Trimethylarsinej
Dimethylarsinej
Bacteria
V>y .^_\Molds Bactei
\ Mftthvl- I IDimethvl-
Methyl
arsenic
acid
Bacteria
Bacteria
Bacteria
36
-------
As already mentioned, arsenate becomes 10-60 times less toxic as oxi-
dation occurs to arsenate. There is evidence that another great reduction
in toxicity occurs with methylation where the methylarsines are in solution
or contained in the tissues of aquatic organisms. This is in contrast to
the extreme toxicity of methylarsines in the gaseous state.
Studies have indicated that inorganic arsenic compounds (arsenates
and arsenites) may be toxic to a variety of aquatic organisms at levels
as low as 0.5 to 5.0 ppm (Becker and Thatcher, 1973). However, bioaccum-
ulation of organic arsenic compounds (methylarsines) by aquatic organisms
is common, sometimes resulting in tissue concentrations of arsenic tens
of thousands times higher than ambient levels (Ferguson and Gavis, 1972;
Reay, 1972; Vallee et al., 1960; Braman and Foreback, 1973; and Woolson,
1975). It is for this reason that seafood is considered to be one of the
main sources of arsenic for people unexposed to industrial sources. The
ingestion of such seafoods has generally presented no hazard to human
health, the arsenic usually being in a form which is rapidly metabolized
and excreted. Biomagnification of arsenic (increasing tissue levels at
higher positions up the food chain) apparently does not occur (Ferguson
and Gavis, 1972; Reay, 1972; Vallee et al., 1960; and Woolson, 1975).
In summary, the main hazard of arsenic in water is evidently not
through the eating of arsenic-containing seafood (except perhaps in
areas with extremely high levels of arsenic contamination) or in the
drinking of waters containing normal amounts of arsenic compounds, but
in the drinking of waters contaminated with high levels of inorganic
trivalent arsenic (arsenates) (EPA, 1975).
37
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The levels of arsenic, zinc, lead, and cadmium that are toxic to
livestock are summarized in Tables 7 through 10. The toxic action of
these metals has been shown to be influenced by age, sex, exposure time,
host stress, general health, physical condition, season, feed additives,
digestive tract acidity, stage of pregnancy and lactation, species dif-
ferences, and the source of the metals. In addition, the following
factors may also effect the toxic action of these metals:
Cadmium and lead are less toxic to animals that have simultaneously
consumed high levels of zinc (Pond, et al., 1966; Powell, et al., 1964;
and Willoughby, et al., 1972 a and b).
Since animals (especially sheep) may be selective grazers, and since
the metal content of forage changes seasonally, the amounts of these
metals consumed by an animal might not be equivalent to the reported
average concentrations of these metals in a given field (Allcroft and
Blaxter, 1950).
Livestock have been shown to be more readily poisoned by contam-
inated vegetation than by feed supplemented with metals (Willoughby, et
al., 1972 a and b, and Kradel, et al., 1965).
The concentrations of these metals reported in the literature can
be used to delineate areas around smelters that are potentially safe for
grazing by livestock; however, the previously mentioned factors (age,
sex, feeding habits, etc.) might make a potentially safe pasture unsafe
or vice.versa.
The potential for poor dispersion of emissions of both sulfur
dioxide and particulates from nonferrous smelters is related to topo-
graphic and meteorological conditions at the smelter site. Poor site
38
-------
Table 7. Potentially toxic arsenic levels for livestock,
Test Animal
Daily Feed Intake
(Dry Weight)
Author
Cattle:
Holstein - type
lactating cows
Ontario - cattle
Swine:
Chester white pigs
Sheep:
Western feeder lambs
Lambs
1.25 rag As/kg body wt
daily as Arsenic acid
for 8 wk not toxic
(equal to about 60 ppm
As in forage)
ingesta containing
ave 35.7 ppm As
toxic (range 2.3 to 104
ppm)
22 ppm As as arsenic
trioxide or 19 ppm As
as Lead arsenate for 1
yr not toxic
690 ppm As as arsenilic
acid for 8 wk toxic
82.8 ppm As as arsenilic
acid not toxic
Peoples, 1963
Hatch and Funnell, 1969
Groves, McCulloch, and
St. John, 1946
Bucy, Garrigus, Forbes,
Norton, and Moore, 1955
Bucy, Garrigus, Forbes,
Norton, and Moore, 1955
-------
Table 7. Continued.
Test Animal
Daily Feed Intake
(Dry Weight)
Author
Feeder lambs
Horses:
on alfalfa pasture con-
taining 62 ppm As for 36
hr in alfalfa toxic
(wet weight)
1.3 to 1.9 grams As in
diet daily not toxic
(equal to 378 to 558 ppm
As in forage of 500 Ib horse)
Nelson, Crane, and
Tomson, 1971
'Magill, Holden, Ackley,
1956
-------
Table 8. Potentially toxic zinc levels for livestock.
Test Animal
Daily Feed Intake
(Dry Weight)
Author
Cattle:
Hereford calves
(steers and heifers)
Jersey and Holstein
lactating dairy cows
Swine:
Duroc weanling pigs
Various breeds of
weanling pigs
Sheep:
Western lambs
Horses:
Mares
Pinto and standard-
bred type fillies
900 ppm Zn as ZnO for
12 wk toxic
1,279 ppm Zn and ZnO for
6 wk not toxic
2000-4000 ppra Zn as
ZnO for 10 wk not toxic
1000 ppm Zn as ZnCo3 for
6 wk maximum amount
tolerated
1500 ppm Zn as ZnO for
10 wk toxic
570 ppm Zn for 57 wk not
toxic - nursing foals normal
90 mg Zn/kg body wt/day for
30 wk toxic (equal to 3600
ppm Zn in feed)
Ott, Smith, Harrington,
and Beeson, 1966b
Miller, Clifton, Fowler,
and Perkins, 1965
Cox and Hale, 1962
Brink, Becker, Terrill,
and Jensen, 1959
Ott, Smith, Harrington,
and Beeson, 1966a
Graham, Sampson, and
Hester, 1940
Willoughby, KacDonald,
McSherry, and Brown,
1972a
-------
Table 9. Potentially toxic cadmium levels for livestock.
Test Animal
Daily Feed Intake
(Dry Weight)
Author
Cattle:
Holstein and Jersey
heifer calves
Holstein and Jersey
bull calves
Non pregnant lactating
Holstein cows
Swine:
Yorkshire barrows
Yorkshire pigs
Swine
Sheep:
Horses:
160 ppm Cd as CdCl2
for 5 days toxic
160 ppm Cd as CdCl2
for 12 wk toxic
250-300 ppm Cd as CdCl2
for 2 wk toxic (didn't
establish lowest toxic
level)
50 ppm Cd as CdCl2 for
6 wk decreased weight
gains
154 ppm Cd as CdCl2 for
8 wk decreased weight gains
(Zn offset Cd toxicity)
Powell, Miller, and
Clifton, 1964a
Powell, Miller, Morton
and Clifton, 1964b
Miller, Lampp, Powell,
Salotti, and Blackmon,
1967
Cousins, Barber, and
Trout, 1973
Pond, Chapman, and Walker,
1966
150 ppm Cd as CdO not toxic; Clarke and Clarke, 1967
while 300 ppm Cd as CdO toxic
— — — — none recorded —--—-—-—-——————--
- - - - none recorded -----------------
-------
Table 10. Potentially toxic lead levels for livestock.
Test Animal
Daily Feed Intake
(Dry Weight)
Author
Cattle:
Swine:
Hampshire pigs
Chester white pigs
Sheep:
Lambs 2 to 10 wk old
Ewes, cows, and calves
Lambs
Forage contaminated
with 25-46 ppm
Pb toxic
6-7 mg Pb/kg body
weight/day toxic (equal
to 200-300 ppm Pb in
forage)
66 mg Pb/kg body wt/day
as lead acetate for
14 wk toxic
10.4 ppm Pb as lead
acetate or 79 ppm Pb
as lead arsenate for
1 yr not toxic
herbage which contained
427 ppm Pb (ave) toxic
herbage which contained
427 ppm Pb (ave) not
toxic
261 to 914 ppm Pb in
herbage toxic
Cited in Kradel, Adams,
Guss, 1965
Aronson, 1972; Hammond and
Aronson, 1963
Link and Pensinger, 1966
Groves, McCullock, and
St. John, 1946
Abstract: Am. Vet. Med.
Ass. J. 130:22
Abstract: Am. Vet. Med.
Ass. J. 130:22
Stewart and Allcroft, 1956
-------
Table 10. Continued.
Test Animal
Daily Feed Intake
(Dry Weight)
Author
Young lambs
Lambs
Lambs
Lambs
Lambs
Ewes (pregnant)
Ewes (not pregnant)
Ewes (not pregnant)
162 to 764 ppm Pb in
forage toxic (278 ppm ave)
41.1 to 258 ppm Pb in
forage toxic (158 ppm ave)
37 to 215 ppm Pb in
forage toxic (96.5 ppm ave)
6.0 to 91.1 ppm Pb in
forage toxic (20.4 ppm ave)
427 ppm Pb (ave) in
forage toxic
50 ppm Pb as lead acetate
equal to 1 rag Pb/kg body
wt/day toxic
250 ppm Pb as lead acetate
equal to 5 mg Pb/kg body
wt/day can be tolerated
for 1 yr
400 ppm Pb as lead acetate
equal to 8 mg Pb/kg body
wt/day for 220 days toxic
Butler, Nisbet, and
Robertson, 1957
Innes and Shearer, 1940
(cited in Butler et al. 1957)
Shearer, Innes, and Mc-
Dougall, 1940 (cited in
Butler, et al. 1957)
Shearer and McDougall,
1944 (cited in Butler,
et al. 1957)
Stewart and Allcroft, 1956
Allcroft and Blaxter, 1950
Allcroft and Blaxter, 1950
Allcroft and Blaxter, 1950
-------
Table 10. Continued.
Test Animal
Dally Feed Intake
(Dry Weight)
Author
Ul
Horses:
Horses
Horses
Pinto and standard-
bred type fillies
1.7 mg Pb/kg/body wt/day
toxic (about 80 ppra Pb
In forage)
2.4 mg Pb/kg/body wt/day
toxic (about 113 ppm Pb
In forage)
3400 ppm Pb in diet for 30
wk toxic - 86 mg Pb/kg
body wt/day
Aronson, 1972
Hammond and Aronson, 1963
Willoughby, MacDonald,
McSherry and Brown, 1972a
-------
selection has contributed'significantly to the degree of damage around
many smelters. Reports of smelters or other industrial facilities with
amplified sulfur dioxide and/or heavy metal damage that were located in
valleys are numerous (Jordan, 1975; Miller, et al., 1975; Treshow, 1970;
Whitby and Hutchinson, 1974; and Gorham and Gordon, 1960a). As a contrast,
reports of damage around smelters located in the Central Plains have
been minimal, possibly as a result of excellent dispersion afforded by
the relatively flat topography and persistent winds. The frequency of
synoptic scale atmospheric stagnation (based on a study by Holzworth,
1972) has been utilized in ranking the major nonferrous smelters for
potential meteorological associated damage (Table 11). Unlike a noc-
turnal inversion which is broken up by sunshine, a synoptic scale
atmospheric stagnation may persist for days and increasingly fumigate a
region. Topographic influences, especially non-level terrain, may
create low level microcirculations; however, these will not alleviate
the widespread stagnation which usually covers thousands of square
miles. Also, tall stacks are of little benefit since the inversion
remains aloft and acts as a thermodynamic lid on upwards mixing of
effluents. Based on Holzworth's study (1972), the smelters most affected
by meteorological conditions are located in Garfield, Utah; McGill,
Nevada; and Copperhill, Tennessee, while those least affected are lo-
cated in White Pine, Michigan; Bartlesville, Oklahoma; El Paso, Corpus
Christi, and Amarillo, Texas; and Herdulaneum, Missouri.
46
-------
Table 11. Potential number of high stagnation days in a five-year
period occurring in the vicinity of domestic primary
nonferrous smelters.
Plant Name
Location
Stagnation
Days
(Number)*
Copper Smelters
Anaconda
Asarco
Asarco
Asarco
Cities Service
Inspiration
Kenecott
Kenecott
Kenecott
Kenecott
Magma
Phelps Dodge
Phelps Dodge
Phelps Dodge
White Pine
Zinc Smelters
Amax
Asarco
Asarco
Asarco
Bunker Hill
National Zinc
New Jersey Zinc
St. Joe
Lead Smelters
Asarco
Asarco
Asarco
Bunker Hill
Missouri Lead
St. Joe
Anaconda, Montana
Tacoma, Washington
El Paso, Texas
Hayden, Arizona
Copperhill, Tennessee
Miami, Arizona
McGill, Nevada
Garfield, Utah
Hayden, Arizona
Hurley, New Mexico
San Manuel, Arizona
Ajo, Arizona
Douglas, Arizona
Moreni, Arizona
White Pine, Michigan
Blackwell, Oklahoma
Amarillo , Texas
Corpus Christi, Texas
Columbus, Ohio
Kellogg, Idaho
Bartlesville, Oklahoma
Palmerton, Pennsylvania
Monaca, Pennsylvania
El Paso, Texas
Glover, Missouri
E. Helena, Montana
Kellogg , Idaho
Boss, Missouri
Herculaneum, Missouri
10
20
5
15
35
17
38
45
15
11
17
19
10
18
0
0
0
0
20
20
0
18
20
5
9
9
20
4
5
*Number of days in a five-year period.
47
-------
VII. Future Levels of Damage
In the past, copper smelters have emitted to the atmosphere approxi-
mately 14 percent of the total arsenic in the ore processed. From a
process standpoint, these emissions are directly associated with those
of sulfur oxides. Unfortunately, two-thirds of the arsenic emitted
during copper smelting is volatilized during roasting and smelting oper-
ations, whereas two-thirds of the sulfur oxides released are emitted with
the flue converter gases. Furthermore, only one-third to one-half of
the arsenic in the flue gases is captured by dust collection devices.
The new standards requiring 90 percent sulfur oxide recovery have forced
an increase in copper ore leaching. This process change not only will
decrease sulfur loss but will also decrease arsenic and other heavy metal
loss (EPA, 1975). At present, the copper smelting industry alone emits
about 4800 metric tons of arsenic per year. This quantity alone is greater
than all other airborne arsenic emissions combined. As newer smelters
are built and made operational or as existing smelters are modified to
meet the new standards, arsenic emissions from copper and other nonferrous
smelters are expected to decrease, as is the acreage affected by airborne
emissions. Furnace residues and slags are expected to contain slightly
higher arsenic concentrations after implementation of these changes.
Possibly the most significant arsenic loss within the industry is
associated with fugitive dust from land disposal of stack dusts, furnace
residues and mine tailings (Table 6). With time, chemical and biological
processes oxidize these wastes, and much of the arsenic in these wastes
becomes bound as arsenates to iron and aluminum oxides. As mentioned
-------
previously, in severely denuded watersheds (Coeur d'Alene) or basins
(Copperhill) a substantial amount of these wastes may be leached through
the soil column or carried as runoff with subsequent release of arsenic
and/or other heavy metals into natural waters. Since the U. S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency and various state agencies have limited arsenic
discharge from point sources via wastewaters, nonferrous smelters presently
release only minor amounts of arsenic and other heavy metals in their
wastewaters (EPA, 1975a, b, c, and d). The contribution of leaching and
runoff of arsenic from land destined wastes may be locally significant
(Smalley, 1975); however, in general, arsenic in natural waters is of
limited potential toxicity. The reasons for this limited toxicity are:
(1) arsenic is either bound in sediments or insolubilized in soil;
(2) arsenic becomes from 10 to 60 times less toxic when it is
oxidized from the trivalent to pentavalent form; and
(3) municipal water treatment plants effectively reduce arsenic
to acceptable limits.
More stringent disposal restrictions and stabilization programs, if
instituted for land disposed wastes, would not only reduce the mobili-
zation of arsenic and other heavy metals into the neighboring environs,
but also would provide a recoverable resource to future generations.
If present levels of emissions are maintained, the level of ecological
damage could possibly increase. Ores being smelted in the future may con-
tain higher concentrations of arsenic and other impurities as the United
States relies more on foreign ores. In addition, the percentage of the
desired metals in ores will continue to decrease as the richer ores are
expended. Consequently, more and more ore will need to be processed in
49
-------
order to provide the same quantity of metals. The ability of the
environs of a given smelter to continue to accept this loading will
depend on a number of variables, such as:
(1) soil type;
(2) soil depth;
(3) soil texture;
(4) percent organic matter;
(5) amount of iron and aluminum oxides in soil;
(6) soil pH;
(7) vegetative type;
(8) climate; and
(9) topography.
However, as the quality and quantity of ores decrease, newer, more
efficient metal extraction processes will need to be developed and utilized,
as will newer particulate control strategies. Secondary smelters will
also become more important as recycling becomes an economic necessity of
our society. In general, with the need to recover a greater percent of
a diminishing resource, the loss of arsenic and other heavy metals
during smelting and mining is expected to decrease even further. The
secondary copper industry presently supplies about 30 percent of the United
States copper demand.
In conclusion, the limited literature and the resource inventories
of each of the major smelters suggest that most of the acreage around
U.S. nonferrous smelters provides only slightly elevated levels of
arsenic to the local biota, and the role of arsenic as a toxicant appears
of minor consequence compared to that of lead, cadmium, zinc, copper,
and oxides of sulfur. If a study of arsenic and its effects on food
resources around smelters is deemed necessary, a reconnaissance survey
of locally produced crops, forage, aquatic resources, and livestock
50
-------
products is advised. The contribution of fugitive dust and the im-
portance of sediments and residues to arsenic cycling and loading are
poorly defined and warrant the development of ecological protocols.
51
-------
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Engineering, Inc., St. Louis branch office.
Nargang, R. 1976. Personal communication. Executive director for the
Soil and Water Conservation District, Soil Conservation Service,
Lake Zurich, Illinois.
Nash, D. 1976. Personal communication. Soil Conservation Service,
Wilmington, Delaware.
Nelson, H.A., M.R. Crane, and K. Tomson. 1971. Inorganic arsenic poi-
soning in pastured feeder lambs. Am. Vet. Med. Ass. J. 158:
1943-1945.
Nelson, P.A. and Roberts, J.W. 1975. A comparison of the efficiency
of the No. 1 ESP and the pilot baghouse in controlling particulate
emissions at the ASARCO Tacoma smelter—A paper presented at the
Pacific Northwest International Section of the Air Pollution Control
Association, Vancouver, British Columbia, Nov. 19-21.
Nimlos, T.J. 1976. Personal communication. University of Montana
School of Forestry.
Orheim, R.M., L. Lippman, C.J. Johnson, and H.H. Bovee. 1974. Lead and
arsenic levels of dairy cattle in proximity to a copper smelter.
Environ. Let. 7(3): 229-236.
Ott, E.A., W.H. Smith, R.B. Harrington, and W.M. Beeson. 1966a. Zinc
toxicity in ruminants. I. Effect of high levels of dietary zinc
on gains, feed consumption, and feed efficiency of lambs. J. Anim.
Sci. 25: 414-418.
Ott, E.A., W.H. Smith, R.B. Harrington, and W.M. Beeson. 1966b. Zinc
toxicity in ruminants. II. Effect of high levels of dietary zinc
on gains, feed consumption, and feed efficiency of beef cattle.
J. Anim. Sci. 25: 419-423.
Pancholy, S.K., E.L. Rice, and J.A. Turner. 1975. Soil factors prevent-
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in Oklahoma. J. Appl. Ecol., 12(1): 337-342.
Pennsylvania State University. 1976. Personal communication. Penn. State
Forage and Soil Testing, Merkel Laboratory, University Park, Pa.
59
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Peoples, S.A. 1963. Arsenic coxicity in cattle. Ann. New York Acad.
Sci. Ill: 644-649.
Ponds, W.G., P. Chapman, and E. Walker, Jr. 1966. Influence of dietary
zinc, corn oil, and cadmium on certain blood components, weight
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Powell, G.W., W.J. Miller, J.D. Morton, and C.M. Clifton. 1964b.
Influence of dietary cadmium level and supplemental zinc on cadmium
toxicity in the bovine. J. Nutr. 84: 205-214.
Powell, G.W., W.J. Miller, and C.M. Clifton. 1964a. Effect of cadmium on
the palatability of calf starters. J. Dairy Sci. 47: 1017-1018.
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Control Agency, September, 1975.
60
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Robinson, J. 1975. Personal communication. District conservationist,
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61
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Group I. Phase II.
62
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of certain orchard soils as related to lead arsenate spray accumula-
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Woolson, E.A. 1973. Arsenic phytotoxicity and uptake in six vegetable
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Soil Conservation Service, Okmulgee, Oklahoma.
64
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APPENDIX A
Resource Inventories
Al
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Anaconda Copper Smelter, Anaconda, Montana
Located in the vicinity of U.S. 10A in southwestern Montana,
Anaconda is surrounded by natural forest lands (Deer Lodge, Bitteroot,
and Beaverhead National Forest). Most lands within five miles of the
smelter belong to Anaconda. The smelter is the only significant
source of industrial emissions in the area. Land use is as follows:
1 mile radius: 100% industrial/settling ponds/tailing piles
5 mile radius: 75% range
10% urban/industrial/settling ponds and
tailing piles
5% improved pasture
10 mile radius: 40% range
40% timber
15% improved pasture
5% urban/industrial
AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES
Potatoes are cultivated in insignificant amounts, while alfalfa
is grown on improved pastures. Little cultivation occurs within
five miles of smelter, as most S02 damage is contained within this area
(Roginske, 1975). Extensive barren areas still exist from the 1940-
1950's (thistles are spaced 10 feet apart).
RANGE/PASTURE RESOURCES
Production of beef cattle occurs on most rangeland and pasture,
with a limited number of horses being raised. Stocking rates on
range vary from three acres/animal/month on good range to 20 acres/
animal/month on poor range. After harvest of alfalfa from improved
pastures, stocking rate is approximately two acres/AUM*. Principal
pasture forage species are alfalfa, orchardgrass, and smooth brome
(Bromus eneryus). Principal range forage species are bluebunch wheatgrass
(Agropyon spicatum), Idaho fescue (Festuca idahoensis) and rough fescue
(Festuca scabrella). No adverse effects upon livestock have been noted
due to smelter emissions (Roginske, 1975). Swain and Harkins (1908)
linked emissions of 30 ton/day arsenic oxide from the Anaconda smelter
(Montana) with the death of cattle, sheep, and horses grazing in the
vicinity of this smelter. Emissions were reduced with the installation
of electrostatic dust collectors and Cottrell bag precipitators,
and the problem was corrected.
FORESTRY RESOURCES
Most commercial timber occurs at elevations of 5000-7000 feet,
with lodgepole pine and Douglas fir being the most important species.
Rotation age is 100-120 years.
* AUM = Animal Unit Months
A2
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AQUATIC/FISHERY RESOURCES
The major aquatic resource within 10 miles of the smelter is
Clark's Fork of the Columbia River, located approximately six miles
northeast of the smelter. Warm Spring Creek is located two miles north
of the smelter. Silver Lake, Georgetown Lake, and other smaller moun-
tain lakes occur in the 10 mile radius. Smelter tailing ponds reportedly
have effluent into Clark's Fork. No commercial fishing occurs in the
area, though recreational trout fishing does occur in Clark's Fork.
GEOHYDROLOGY
The Deer Lodge Valley runs in a generally north/south direction
and is approximately 10 miles long and two miles wide. Elevation is
5300 feet, with mountains around the valley being 8000-10,600 feet
high. The smelter itself is located on a hill just at the mouth of
a canyon at an elevation of 4800 feet. Potable water is obtained
from Silver and Georgetown Lakes and Warm Spring Creek. The water
table is "very high."
CLIMATE
Average annual rainfall is 12 inches; winds prevail from the
southwest, aTthouglijthey'are variable "due to" topographic mod"!fications;
Inversions occur occasionally.
A3
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Asarco Copper Smelter, Ruston (Tacoma), Washington
GENERAL INFORMATION
The smelter is located in the Ruston suburb of Tacoma (Pierce
County) in western Washington. It borders Puget Sound, with larger
portions of the Sound occurring to the northeast, north, and south-
west. Land use is primarily residential, both on the islands within
the Sound and on the mainland to the south and east. Two major indus-
tries occurring 10 to 12 miles southeast of the smelter are Kaiser
Aluminum and a pulp mill.
AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES
U.S. EPA by Ratsch (1974) on the
Hg, and S02 emissions from the copper
A study conducted for the
effects of Cu, Zn, Cd, Pb, As,
smelter in Ruston, Washington, identified"levels of As in soils and
vegetation toxic to sensitive and moderately sensitive plant species
(snap beans, lima beans, onion, peas, cucumber, alfalfa, and other
sensitive legumes). The absence of legumes in the vicinity of the
smelter was hypothesized to be associated with the high Cu and As
levels in the soil. In addition
trees was linked with S02 and As
1970, the Ruston smelter emitted
per day As, and 0.3 tons per day
within the study area damage to peach
emissions from the .smelter. During
about 550 tons per day S02, 0.4 tons
Pb. Generally, the levels of As in
vegetation and soil decreased as distance from the smelter increased
(Figures la and Ib). Crecelius, Johnson, and Hofer (1974 reported
elevated levels of As in soil up to six miles from the smelter.
FORESTRY RESOURCES
There are limited numbers
miles of smelter.
AQUATIC/FISHERY RESOURCES
of commercial Douglas fir within 10
Puget Sound and associated waters provide a wealth of sport fishing.
Although oyster harvesting does occur in the bay, there are no suitable
oyster beds within 10 miles of the smelter. The smelter is not known
to release effluent into the Sound.
GEOHYDROLOGY
The smelter is located right on the Sound (sea level), and the topog-
raphy of the general area is that of steep 100 foot hills.
CLIMATE
Summer winds are from the north-ncrthwest; fall, winter, and early
spring winds are from the south and southwest. Precipitation averages
38 inches annually.
A4
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Fig. la
Arsenic concentration (ppm) in vegetation
jn the Tacoma area (AFTER RATSCH, "iS74y_.
COMMENCEMENT
BAY
TACOMA
A5
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Fig. lb
Arsenic concentration'(ppm) in garden
soils in the Tacoma area (AFTER RATSCH,
1974).
COMMENCEMENT
BAY
TACOMA
A6
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Asarco Copper/Lead Smelters, El Paso, Texas
GENERAL INFORMATION
Located in the most westerly portion of Texas and on the Mexican
border, El Paso is located in a narrow river valley surrounded by
mountains. The major highway in the vicinity of the smelter complex
is Interstate 10. The two smelters are evidently combined in the same
complex, as there are no other Asarco smelters in the region; though
there is one Phelps Dodge smelter. Land use in the vicinity of the
smelter is as follows:
1 mile radius: 80% urban/industrial
20% undeveloped (mountainsides)
5 mile radius: 70% urban/industrial
30% undeveloped
10 mile radius: 60% urban/industrial
30% undeveloped
10% agriculture
It is important to note that the Texas Air Quality Board brought
suit against Asarco a few years back, and the smelter has subsequently
cleaned up its operation.
AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES
Major crops in the river valley are cotton and alfalfa, with
minor amounts of grain sorghum and vegetables also being produced.
No damage to crops or natural vegetation has been noted due to the
smelter. Croplands are irrigated from river water with some farms
having reservoirs to catch and hold water from floods of the Rio
Grande River.
RANGE/PASTURE RESOURCES
The El Paso region is one of deserts and steep slopes, conse-
quently there is little grazing of livestock.
AQUATIC/FISHERY RESOURCES
The Rio Grande River is a shallow, narrow river (70-80 feet wide)
that flows intermittently in its northern portions. Its intermittent
nature is due largely to upstream dams which hold water through the
fall or early winter, releasing it in January or February. No sig-
nificant fishery resource exists in the El Paso area.
A7
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GEOHYDROLOGY
El Paso is located in a very narrow river valley at an elevation
of approximately 3600 feet. The smelter complex is located adjacent
to the river, and yet elevations within one mile east or west of the
smelter are 6000 feet or more. The Franklin Mountains rise 7000 feet
to the east. Wells provide potable water for the region, the water
table being between 200-500 feet deep.
CLIMATE
Precipitation averages seven inches per year, occurring mostly
in July through September. Prevailing winds are from the southwest,
and are especially strong from February to May (30-40 mph is common,
gusts to 80 mph).
OTHER INFORMATION
El Paso extends across the Mexican border and has a total popu-
lation of approximately one million. With the exception of a Phelps
Dodge smelter and two petrochemical refineries located eight miles
east-southeast of the Asarco complex, it is primarily an area of
light industries.
AS
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Cities Service Copper Smelter, Copperhill, Tennessee
GENERAL INFORMATION
Located in the southeastern corner of Tennessee (Polk County)
on State Road 68, Copperhill is surrounded by national forest lands
(Cherokee, Chattahoochee, and Nantahala National Forests). The
smelter is the only significant source of emissions in the area;
however, significant ecological damage has been associated with the
smelting, timbering, and stumping practices of the mid nineteenth
century. Land use in the smelter vicinity is as follows:
1 mile radius:
5 mile radius:
10 mile radius:
25% residential
75% barren ground or industrial
20% pasture
40% forest
5% residential
35% barren
20% pasture
40% forest
1% residential
39% barren
AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES
Agriculture in the vicinity of the smelter consists only of small
home gardens.
RANGE/PASTURE RESOURCES
Pastures are located mostly to the south and east of the smelter,
which is generally the area of least S02 damage from smelter emissions.
Feeder calf production occurs at a stocking rate of one cow per one
to one and one-half acres, with little woodland grazing occurring.
Pasture forage species are primarily orchardgrass and fescues, with
bluegrass being important in some areas. Direct adverse effects upon
livestock have not been observed (Switzer, 1975).
FORESTRY RESOURCES
The national forest lands in the vicinity of the smelter are
commercially operated for both pines and hardwoods, each comprising
about 50 percent of the timber production. Important pines are white
pine, Virginia pine, and loblolly pine. Upland oak, northern rea
oak, and yellow poplar are important hardwoods.
A9
-------
There are approximately 30,000 acres in the smelter vicinity which
contain less than 50 percent vegetation, with highly damaged areas
occurring north and west of the smelter. Lesser damage has occurred
in most of the remaining forestland in the area. Most damage has
resulted from past S0? emissions, timbering, and stumping.
L.
AQUATIC/FISHERY RESOURCES
Aquatic resources in the area are: 1) Ocoee River, located approxi-
mately 200 yards from the smelter; 2) a small stream very close to the
smelter; 3) Campbell Cove Lake, five miles north-northwest of the
smelter; 4) Ocoee #3, a 300 acre dammed reservoir three miles downstream
from the smelter; 5) Ocoee #2, a four acre impoundment 10 miles down-
stream from the smelter; and 6) Lake Ocoee, a 1900 acre reservoir 20 miles
downstream from the smelter.
Cities Service is currently constructing a settling treatment plant
for process effluents. Process effluents are presently being dumped into
the Ocoee River, and judging from observations, effluent may be composed
largely of the iron component of the ore. This, combined with erosion
from devegetated lands, has led to sedimentation (acidity problems in the
entire Ocoee River System). Ocoee #3 is highly sedimented and has a pro-
jected useful life of 33 years. Ocoee #2 also has a sedimentation problem.
Lake Ocoee has 100 to 150 years projected useful life (as compared to
1500 to 2000 years for similar reservoirs elsewhere). Campbell Lake to the
north-northwest (upstream) is the only water body unaffected by the
smelter operation. Fish are nonexistent in all affected water bodies
except Lake Ocoee, and fish there are maintained only with stocking--
reproduction is very poor. Paucity of fish may be related to water acidity,
sedimentation and turbidity, or heavy metals. Cities Service is neu-
tralizing acidity of effluent and/or receiving water bodies by the addition
of lime. In 1973, water sampled one mile downstream from the smelter had
less than 5 mg/1 total As, while sediments contained 23 mg As/Kg (dry
weight).. The Public Health Drinking Water Standard for As is 0.01 mg/1.
GEOHYDROLOGY
The copper operation is located in a basin of low, rolling, broken
hills. The basin is surrounded by mountains on three sides, having a
somewhat open plateau to the south. The smelter occupies 12 to 15 acres
on the west edge of Copperhill. Source of potable water for the whole
Ocoee Utijity District is the Ocoee River system; the district intake
is located two miles below Lake "Ocoee. "'.
CLIMATE
The Copperhill region is subject to 55 inches of rain annually
and generally southwesterly winds modified by local topography. Down-
slope winds often occur in winter from the east. The driest portion of
the year is September to November, with inversions also occurring fre-
quently in the fall.
A10
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Inspiration Copper Smelter, Miami, Arizona
GENERAL INFORMATION
The Inspiration copper smelter is located in a generally moun-
tainous region of south-central Arizona (Gila County) on U.S. 60 not
far from State Road 88. The smelter is the only significant source
of emissions in the area. Land use in the vicinity of the smelter
is as follows:
1 mile radius: 100% urban/industrial (owned by smelter)
5 mile radius: 75% urban/industrial
25% Tonto National Forest land (20% range,
5% timberland)
10 mile radius: 50% urban/industrial
50% Tonto National Forest land (35-40%
range, 10-15% timberland)
Much of the land north of the smelter is in Tonto National Forest.
AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES
There is no significant agricultural land use within 10 miles
of the smelter; although there, are a few backyard gardens.
RANGE/PASTURE RESOURCES
A small amount of winter pasture (60 acres) is within the 10
mile zone, growing barley, rye grass, and bermudagrass. However,
most beef cattle production occurs on open range at a stocking rate of
seven to nine cows/section. Important forage species are sideoats
grama (Bouteloua curtipendula), hairy grama (Bouteloua hirsuta),
curly mesquite (Hilaria belangeri), false mesquite (Calliandra
eriophylla), desert ceanothus (Ceanothus graggii) and hollyleaf
buckthorn (Rhamnus crocea).
Leaf burns have been noticed irregularly on mulberry and
sycamore trees in the vicinity of the smelter. Damage has not been
noted to evergreens. Annuals have been extirpated from the vicinity
of the smelter, although the causitive factors) are unknown. Laurel
(Rhus ovata) is also a sensitive specie which has exhibited damage
possibly from S02- False mesquite (Calliendra eriophylla) is evi-
dently resistant and thrives in the vicinity of the smelter. A
golf course located three miles from the smelter shows irregular
damage to cottonwoods. A few tailing areas are located on national
forest range!ands. No adverse effects have been noted on livestock
(Wilson, 1975).
All
-------
FORESTRY RESOURCES
Ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) occupies most of the forestlands,
with smaller amounts of pinyon pine (Pinus edulis) being harvested.
AQUATIC/FISHERY RESOURCES
With the exception of a few small ponds, there are no permanent
water bodies within 10 miles of the smelter.
GEOHYDROLOGY
Elevation of the smelter is approximately 3500 feet, the smelter
being located on a ridge. Elevation varies within the 10 mile radius
by 750 feet, reaching a peak of 7200 feet at a radius of 15 miles.
Mountain ranges are located north, south, and west of Miami; Miami
being located on foothills carved with steep canyons. The source
of potable water for the area is groundwater, with wells reaching
depths of 600-700 feet.
CLIMATE
Annual rainfall averages 15-18 inches, with half falling in
July-September and half falling during the winter. Prevailing
winds are from the southwest at 5-10 mph. Inversions are infrequent.
A12
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Kennecott Copper Smelter, McGill, Nevada
GENERAL INFORMATION
McGill is located in eastern central Nevada (White Pine County)
on U.S. 93. The region is mountainous, with the Kennecott smelter
being the only significant source of industrial emissions in the
area. Land use in the vicinity of the smelter is as follows:
1 mile radius: 50% urban/industrial
50% mountain
5 mile radius: 50% mountain range (public lands)
25% agriculture
20% non-mountain range (public lands)
5% urban/industrial/residential
10 mile radius: 75% mountain range
15% agriculture
10% urban/industrial/residential
AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES
Irrigated crops consist almost entirely of forage crops, with
alfalfa hay being the most important. Small grains such as barley,
wheat, and oats are also grown in the area. Agricultural land pre-
sently occurs in close proximity (two to three miles) to the McGill
area.
RANGE/PASTURE RESOURCES
No pasture resources presently exist in the area; however, both
mountain and valley ranges are used in beef cattle production. Lands
are controlled by the Bureau of Land Management. Principal forage
species are crested wheatgrass .(Agropyron cristatum), Indian rice-
grass (Oryzopsis hymenoides), and bluebunch grass (Agropyron spicatum).
Although no damage has been noted upon crops, natural vegetation, or
livestock due to heavy metals., some SO? damage to vegetation has been
noted in the vicinity of the smelter (Mateson, 1975).
AQUATIC/FISHERY RESOURCES
Bassett Lake (300 acres) is located three to four miles west of the
smelter and is composed of tailwaters from.the smelter. Fish include
trout, northern pike, and bass;._ .There is also limited use of the
]AK^J?y--wJ?tejrfowl. Duck Creek_.and an impoundment which occur'seven to
eight miles northeast of the smelter contain mostly trout.
A13
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GEOHYDROLOGY
The smelter is located on high, dry soils on the "toe" of a
mountain. Elevation is approximately 6200 feet, rising to 8000- <
10,000 feet within one mile east of the smelter. The smelter was
also described as resting on a level cone which sloped gradually
(50 feet/mile) to the north and west. The valley to the west
has a level topography.
Kennecott has a water storage reservoir on Duck Creek, seven to
eight miles northeast of the smelter. This reservoir provides
potable water for McGill.
CLIMATE
Precipitation occurs throughout the year, averaging about eight to
nine inches annually. Winds are usually from the southwest, being
strongest in the spring. Inversions are infrequent. Observations
indicate that the plume from the smelter usually rises well, with
no residences occurring downwind (northeast) of the stack.
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Kennecott Copper Smelter, Gar-field, Utah
GENERAL INFORMATION
Bounded by the Oquirrh Mountains to the south and Great Salt
Lake to the north, Garfield is a very small town 20 miles west of
Salt Lake City. Interstate 80 is the nearest major highway to the
smelter, and no other significant sources of industrial emissions
occur in the area. Land use in the vicinity of the smelter is as
follows:
1 mile radius: 85% range
10% industrial
B% wetland
5 mile radius: 55% range
25% water
15% tailings araa
3% residential
2% industrial
10 mile radius: 35% range
30% water
15% cropland
J% salt flats
5%l:af Pings"'areas-
"8% residenttal
2% industrial
AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES
Little cultivation occurs in the Garfield area except for pasture/
hay/feed species such as alfalfa, grains, and corn silage. Small
amounts of SO? damage have been noted in the vicinity of the smelter;
alfalfa leaf burns by S02 have occurred nine miles southwest of the
smelter at Erda (Hardin, 1975; Braithwaite, 1975).
RANGE/PASTURE RESOURCES
Beef cattle production occurs on both native range and irrigated
pasture. Stocking rates on pasture vary from 0.5 AUM/acres for poorly
managed pastures to 8 AUM/acre for well managed pastures. Stocking
rates on range are roughly three to four acres/AUM." Most seeded pasture
is tall fescue. Native pastures include wiregrass (Cynoden dactyl on),
blue sedge, redtop (Aqrostis idahoensis), Kentucky blueqrass (Poa
pratensis), saltqrass (Distichum spicata), and white dutch clover
(Trifolium sp.). Important range species are bluebunch wheatgrass
(Agropyron spicatum). little junegrass (Koeleria cristata), squirrel-
tail (Sitanion sp.). and Nevada bluegrass (Poa nevadensis). At present
there are no adverse effects upon livestock~cfu~e to the smelter.
However, there were problems with livestock near the smelter 20 years
ago (Hardin, 1975; Braithwaite, 1975).
A15
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AQUATIC/FISHERY RESOURCE
The smelter lies one mile south of Great Salt Lake. Brine
shrimp and brine shrimp eggs are the only commercial fishery
products of the lake.
GEOHYDROLOGY
The elevation of Great Salt Lake is 4200 feet. The smelter is
at 4250 feet, and is within a couple of miles of both the lake and
the Oquirrh Mountains to the south. The mountains are reached
within one-half mile of the smelter and,, within five miles, 10,000
feet peaks are encountered. The smelter is located in the foothills,
with its stacks being located well up the mountain side. The smelter
reportedly reaches three to four to four miles in an east-west direc-
tion. Potable water is obtained from springs to the west (near Lake
Point Junction), from Deer Creek reservoir, and from irrigation wells.
The groundwater table is 70 to 150 feet below ground surface.
CLIMATE
Precipitation averages 12 to 13 inches annually; prevailing winds
are from the northwest in the winter and the southwest in the summer.
Inversions occasionally occur in the fall and winter.
OTHER INFORMATION
Approximately 10 to fifteen years ago, smelters were operable in
Bauer and east of Tooele — these may have caused some vegetation damage.
A16
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Kennecott/Ascaro Copper Smelters, Hayden, Arizona
GENERAL INFORMATION
Hayden is located in southeastern Arizona (Final County) near
the intersection of State Highways 76, 77, and 177. The two smelters
occur in close, proximity to each other. Land use in the smelter area
is as follows:
1 mile radius: 20% agricultural
50% residential
30% range
5 mile radius: 20% residential
80% range
10 mile radius: 10% residential
90% range
Important emission sources other than these two smelters do not occur
in the Hayden area.
AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES
A small amount of_ag_ricu]tural land occurs along the Gila River.
Major crops are~cottqn,. J.1 faljFa._wheat, ..parley.,_an_djnllg. No_damage._
to crops or natural vegetation has been noted in relation to smelter
emissions (Hale, 1975).
RANGE/PASTURE RESOURCES
Beef cattle are raised on open range at a stocking rate of about
one cow/640 acres. Pleasure and work horses may also be found in the
area. Important forage species are Lehmann lovegrass (Eragrostis
.1 ehmannii)_,_ sideoats grama (Bouteloua curtipendula), various annuals,
and buckbrush. The range may be generally described as the desert
shrub type". ~
AQUATIC/FISHERY RESOURCES
The Gila River (perennial) and San Pedro River (intermittent)
converge approximately one mile southwest of the smelters. Some
minor catfish fishing may occur in the Gila River.
GEOHYDROLOGY
The smelters are located at the foot of a mountainous area, and
are specifically located in the bottom of an abrupt canyon which is
A17
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less than one mile wide. Elevations range frpm_ 2500 to 3000 feet._
Potable water is obtained from wells"at depths of about 1200 feet. "
CLIMATE
Summer rains account for most of the annual precipitation of
12 inches. Prevailing winds average 15 mph, and are out of the
southwest. Small thermal inversions occur in the wintertime,
usually breaking up by midday. Plumes from smelter stacks disperse
well when there are winds, and tend to drop back into the canyon when
the air is still.
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Kennecott Copper Smelter, Hurley, New Mexico
GENERAL INFORMATION
Hurley is located in southwestern New Mexico (Grant County) on
U.S. 180. Land use in the vicinity of the Kennecott smelter is as
follows:
1 mile radius: 50% range
50% urban industrial (encompasses most of
town)
5 mile radius: 95% range
4% urban/industrial
1% agriculture
10 mile radius: 99% range
1% urban/industrial
AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES
An insignificant amount of acreage is used to produce alfalfa.
RANGE/PASTURE RESOURCES
Range production of beef cattle is the dominant land use in
the area. Stocking rate is one AU (year)/50 acres; and cattle
presently use rangeland in the vicinity (one mile) of the smelter.
Blue grama (Bouteloua.. gracilis) and sideoats grama (Bouteloua
curtipendula) are the dominant forage species. No damage to crops,
range vegetation, or livestock has been noted due to smelter emis-
sions (Bray, 1975). However, there are ambiguous reports of damage
to range vegetation due to smelter effluents (not from holding
ponds as mines are not located in the Hurley area). The exact nature
of smelter effluents is not known.
AQUATIC/FISHERY RESOURCES
There are no permanent water bodies within 10 miles of the
smelter.
GEOHYDROLOGY
Elevation of the smelter is 5500 feet; the elevation in the 10
mile radius varying by a maximum of 1000 feet. Topography is quite
variable, being fairly level at the smelter and to the south, rolling
hills to the west, and steep slopes to the north. Potable water is
from we!1s.
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CLIMATE
Precipitation averages 16 inches annually, falling mostly from
July to October. Prevailing winds are from the southwest.
OTHER INFORMATION
Other appreciable emission sources in the area other than the
Kennecott smelter do not exist.
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Magma Copper Smelter, San Manuel, Arizona
GENERAL INFORMATION
Located in southeastern Final County, Arizona, on State Road 77,
the Magma Copper Smelter at San Manuel occurs just north of one of
the many tracts of the Coronado National Forest. No other signifi-
cant industrial emissions occur in the smelter vicinity. Land use
is as follows:
1 mile radius:
5 mile radius:
10 mile radius
80% urban/industrial
20% range
"3% urban/industrial
10% agriculture (pasture)
87% range
5% urban/industrial
10% agriculture (pasture)
85% range
Magma's mine is within the 10 mile region.
AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES
The limited crops in the vicinity of the smelter are forage
crops, consisting mostly of alfalfa and small grains.
RANGE/PASTURE RESOURCES
Beef cattle production occurs at a stocking rate of 7-40 head/
acre on irrigated pasture and 120-150 acres/cow year on open range.
Principal forage species are: sideoats grama (Boutel.oua curtipendula)
canebeard grass (Andropogon sp. ), bush muhly
Arizona cottontop (Trichachht: californii) and
(Bouteloua rothrockii).Livestock damage due
three years ago when livestock utilized water
by water which had been run through tailing areas (Lamoreaux, 1975).
Water levels were low at that time, so contaminants were undoubtedly
concentrated as evapotranspiration occurred. Tailing water was not
from the Magma operation, but from a smaller operation which has
since closed.
AQUATIC/FISHERY RESOURCES
(MuhlenbeFgia porteri),
rothrock grama
to heavy metals occurred
and pasture irrigated
The San Pedro River runs directly east (within one-half mile) of
the smelter and is intermittent—being dry for approximately six
months out of the year. There are a few small springs
which dry out within a few miles of their sources.
in the area
A2l
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GEOHYDROLOGY
The area is one of rolling grasslands with steep breaks (canyons
5-100 feet deep) which lead into the San Pedro River. Elevation of
San Manuel is 3200 feet; this rises to 5000 feet by Orache to the
west, rising again to the east after the river is crossed. A very
gradual decrease occurs in overall elevation as one moves south.
Potable water is obtained from wells at depths of less than 100 feet.
CLIMATE
Precipitation is 10 inches annually, occurring from November
to September. Winds are from the southwest, and are typically strong
or nonexistent. Observations indicate that inversions are infrequent
and that the smelter plume usually rises well.
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Phelps Dodge Copper Smelter, Ajo, Arizona
GENERAL INFORMATION
Ajo is located in southwest Arizona (Pima County), and is tra-
versed by State Highway 85. The Phelps Dodge smelter and mine
comprises the only industry in the area. Lands to the north and
west of the town are part of an Air Force gunnery range; whereas
lands to the south are controlled by the Bureau of Land Management.
Land use within a one, five and 10 mile radius of the smelter is
as follows:
1 mile radius: 20% open pit mine
25% rock refuse
25% dust/sand tailings
30% residential
5 mile radius: 25% residential
75% open range
10 mile radius: 15% residential
85% open range
AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES
There are no agricultural lands within a 10 mile radius of the
smelter site. No damage has been noticed on natural vegetation due
to the S02 or heavy metals (Voget, 1975).
RANGE/PASTURE RESOURCES
No irrigated pastures occur within the 10 mile radius, however,
natural rangeland is the dominant land type surrounding Ajo. Range-
lands to the north are not utilized, since this area is used as a
gunnery range. Beef cattle are the only non-wild stock on the
range, and they occur primarily to the south on lands controlled by
the Bureau of Land Management. Stocking levels are low, with much
of this area being in the Lower Sonoran Life Zone. Forage grasses
are generally uncommon, with Tobosa grass (Hilaria mutica) and
Galleta (Hilaria jamesii) being the only significant species. No
adverse effects upon livestock have been observed due to smelter
emissions (Voget, T975). Production of mesquite honey occurs to
the south and west of Ajo. Hives are not located to the north or
east because the honey tends to pick up a sulfur flavor.
WILDLIFE RESOURCES
Important game species in decreasing order of importance (as
rated according to annual man-hours spent hunting) are mourning "
dove, Gambel's quail, and mule deer.
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AQUATIC/FISHERY RESOURCES
There are no aquatic/fishery resources in the Ajo area.
GEOHYDROLOGY
The elevation of Ajo is 1775 feet, and within a 10 mile radius
elevations vary from 900 to 2500 feet. Both extremes in elevation are
located west/northwest of the smelter, where sharp desert mountains
rise steeply out of the surrounding flatlands. Creosote flats occur
to the northeast, east and south of the smelter at elevations of
1400 to 1800 feet. Potable water for Ajo is obtained from deep wells
sunk by Phelps Dodge approximately eight miles north of the town.
Depth to the water table is 250 to 500 feet.
CLIMATE
Precipitation at Ajo averages nine inches per year. This figure
remains the same 10 miles east of the town, but decreases to three
inches per year 10 miles west. Rain occurs in the form of thunder-
storms from July to September. Prevailing winds are from the south/
southwest, occasionally coming from the southeast or west.
A24
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Phelps Dodge Copper Smelter, Douglas, Arizona
GENERAL INFORMATION
Douglas is situated on the U
Cochise County, southeast Arizona,
include lands south of the border.
Douglas are U.S. 80 and U.S. 666.
and 10 mile radius of the smelter
S./Mexican border in southern
The area described does not
Major highways servicing
Land use within a one, five,
is as follows:
1 mile radius:
5 mile radius:
10 mile radius
15% vacant unused rangeland
85% varied uses in connection with the
smelter. (Phelps Dodge controls most
of the land within one mile of the
smelter)
15% cropland
30% urban/residential
55% open range
5-10% cropland
10% urban/residential
80-85% open range
AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES
A limited amount of agriculture occurs in the region five to
10 miles from the smelter, mostly in the form of small farms.
Farms in the Double Adobe area (northwest of Douglas) produce
alfalfa, winter wheat, and chile peppers. Farms in the Cochise
College area produce winter wheat and grain sorghum. A large ranch
(the Rainbow Inn Ranch) is found about six miles west of the
smelter. Major crops produced by the ranch are corn silage, winter
and spring wheat, grain sorghum, and alfalfa.
No damage to crops has been noted in the last one and one-half
years. However, farmers have been paid for damages in the past
(though it is not known whether this damage was to crops or stock).
RANGE/PASTURE RESOURCES
Production of beef cattle on open range is the dominant land
use within a 10 mile radius of the smelter. One small goat ranch
(30-50 goats) is located approximately 10 mil_es from_the smelter.
Principal forage species on open range are tobosa grass '(Hilari'a"
mutica) and Gall eta (Hi 1 aria jamesii). Tobosa grass dominates on"
rangelands north of Douglas, forming colonies to the exclusion of
other species. Lands to the west support mesquite and plains
A25
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bristlegrass. Stocking levels on open range vary from four to 15
ADM/section (year round). The Rainbow Inn Ranch has improved, irri-
gated pastures which are planted to tall fescue (Festuca sp.).
Stocking levels for improved pasture are 18 AUM/acre. Damage has
not been noted to livestock or range due to the smelter or other
sources (Rosenau, 1975). However, livestock damage has occurred
farther north in the San Pedro Valley due to stock drinking water
containing the effluent from smelter/mine operations.
AQUATIC/FISHERY RESOURCES
Whitewater Draw passes through the Douglas area, but the draw
flows only after periods of rainfall. A few farm ponds with fish,
frogs, etc. are scattered throughout the 10 mile region. The
nearest major water body is Rucker Lake, located 40 miles north/
northeast of the smelter.
GEOHYDROLOGY
The elevation of Douglas is 4000 feet above MSL. The town is
located on gently sloping alluvial fill which drops 20 to 30 feet per
mile in a southerly direction. Local topographic variations of
20 to 30 feet are due primarily to entrenched streams. The Peri 11 a
Mountains rise to 5500 feet east of Douglas, and these are the only
mountains occurring within 10 miles of the smelter. Ranges are
also located at distances of 20-25 miles both north and west of
Douglas. Potable water is obtained from wells; the water table
occurring 90 to 100 feet below the surface.
CLIMATE
Annual precipitation averages 12.5 inches, with approximately
10 inches falling from July- to September. Winds are usually from the
south or west, with spring being the windiest period._^ind speed
averages 10 knots. The average temperature is 62°F, with"a range
of 10° to 100° occurring in the course of a year.
OTHER INFORMATION
Except for the smelter, Douglas supports only light industries
with insignificant emissions. A lime plant is located 10 miles west
of the smelter at Paul Spur, and this produces substantial amounts
of particulates. Dirt roads are the next most important source of
particulates in the area.
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Phelps Dodge Copper Smelter, Morenci, Arizona
GENERAL INFORMATION
Morenci is located in Green!ee County of southeastern Arizona.
The major highway servicing Morenci is U.S. 666. Land use in the
vicinity of the smelter is as follows:
3 mile radius: 85% smelter and open pit mine
15% company town
5 mile radius: 40% smelter and mine
15% urban/residential
45% open range
10 mile radius: 10% smelter and mine
10% urban/residential
80% range
AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES
Significant agricultural land use does not occur within 10 miles
of the smelter. Small amounts of alfalfa and truck crops are pro-
duced 15 miles southeast of the smelter. No damage to crops or
natural vegetation due to the smelter has been noted in recent years
.(McKosky, 1975).
RANGE/PASTURE RESOURCES
Beef cattle production is the major land use in the Morenci area.
Horses are also raised in the area. At present no improved pasture
occurs within this 10 mile radius. Important range forage species
are blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis) and sideoats grama (Bouteloua
curtipendula). Stocking rates are 1.5 cows/section annually, and
this rate is affected partially by the steepness of the terrain.
No adverse effects upon livestock due to the smelter have been
noted (McKosky, 1975). Sources other than the smelter/mine operation
do not exist in the Morenci area.
AQUATIC/FISHERY RESOURCE
The San Francisco River is a permanent flowing stream of variable
size, and it flows approximately 2.5 miles due east of the smelter.
Primary use is recreational, with limited catfish/carp fishing occur-
ring. No effluent is released into the river from smelter/mine
operations.
A27
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GEOHYDROLOGY
The elevation of Morenci is approximately 3500 feet, and the
region is topographically characterized as one of rolling hills
with deep sharp canyons. .There are mountains^ to_ the north/northeast,
and within the 10 mile radius elevations approach 7000 feet. The
smelter is located on a ridge top. Potable water is obtained
from the river, with only about 5 percent of the population using
well_water (mostly in subdivisions). Depth of the water table in-
creas'es as "one 'goes' farther from the river", and ij 600 feet deep_
approximately five miles from the river.
CLIMATE
Precipitation averages 12 to 14 inches annually; occurring mostly
between July and August. Prevailing winds are from the southwest.
Inversions occur primarily from mid-November to mid-December (occasionally
occurring mid-December to March), and usually break by midday.
OTHER INFORMATION
The regional U.S.F.S. office has conducted studies on S02 effects
on vegetation surrounding the Morenci smelter. No damage was noted.
A28
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White Pine Copper Smelter, White Pine, Michigan
GENERAL INFORMATION
White Pine is located approximately six miles south of Lake
Superior in northwestern Michigan (Ontonagon County). The town is
located on State Road 64, and there are no significant sources of
industrial emissions within 10 miles of the smelter. A pulp mill
is located 15 miles northeast of the smelter in Ontonagon. Land
use in the vicinity of the smelter is as follows:
1 mile radius:
5 mile radius:
10 mile radius
AGRICULTURAL RESOURCE
20% residential
40% tailing ponds
40% woodland
1% residential
4% tailing ponds
95% woodland
1% residential,
99% woodland
and industrial
industrial, etc,
Farming is insignificant in the area, with a few small farms
occurring within the 10 mile radius to the east. Vegetables and
potatoes may be grown on portions of the farms.
RANGE/PASTURE RESOURCE
There is an insignificant number of cattle on farms and horses
pastured in the White Pine vicinity. No adverse effects have been
observed on livestock or vegetation due to smelter emissions (Fisher,
1975). .
WILDLIFE RESOURCES
A large (1000 to 1500 acres) tailing pond area exists one-half mile
east of the smelter. This area has become established as a goose
landing/resting station. The degree of goose feeding activity while
on the tailing ponds is not known.
FORESTRY RESOURCE
Commercial timber species are sugar maple and aspen—with the
area also supporting yellow birch, basswood, cottonwood, hemlock
and spruce. The northern boundary of the Ottawa National Forest
lies 1.5 miles south of White Pine.
A29
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AQUATIC/FISHERY RESOURCES
pf_the. .smelt_er_and Take_'S_uper1or
_- .. _
lies six miles to the north. Recreational fishing_for lake a_nd
river trout, and coho salmon d'c'curs" throughout th"e'~area ."' I'tTs" hot '
known whether effluents occu r "f ronTt'h'e" "smeTt"er~or~"ta i Ti ng ponds
into these water bodies.
GEOHYDROLOGY
White Pine occurs in flat lands at an elevation of roughly
850 feet. Porcupine Mountains State Park lies two miles west of
the smelter with peaks of 2000 feet, and is the only area with
significantly variable topography. Flat 1 ands continue _east ,
north, and south of the smelter, "a" gradual jdqwrisjope "occurring _
towards Lake Superior (600 feet)"- The area has clay" soils," and
river and streams consequently carry relatively high sediment
loads with corresponding high turbidity.
CLIMATE
Precipitation averages 33 inches annually. Prevailing winds
are from the southwest in summer and from the northwest in the
winter. Inversions rarely occur.
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Asarco Zinc Smelter, Amarillo, Texas
GENERAL INFORMATION
In May of 1975 the Asarco zinc smelter located due north of
Amarillo was closed. A new smelter is being erected northeast of
Amarillo on State Road 136, and is tentatively scheduled to begin
operations' in 1976. The distance between_ the two_sme"TTers is~T5 mites,
Amarillo is located in the central portion of the Texas pan-
handle. Both smelters are in Potter County. Land use in the
vicinity of the two smelters is as follows:
Old Smelter:
1 mile radius:
5 mile radius:
10 mile radius:
75% residential
25% range
50% residential
50% range
50% residential
50% range
New Smelter:
1 mile radius:
5 mile radius:
10 mile radius:
AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES
95% range
5% commercial (mostly right-of-ways)
95% range
5% commercial (mostly right-of-ways)
75% range
10% cropland
15% commercial
No agricultural land use occurs within 10 miles of the old
smelter. Small amounts of wheat and grain sorghum are produced
5 to 10 miles from the new smelter. No damage to crops or natural
vegetation has been noted due to the old smelter (Brooks, 1975).
RANGE/PASTURE RESOURCE
Beef cattle production on open range is the major land use
in the Amarillo region. Minor production of horses also occurs.
One hog farm is located approximately 10 miles from the old site.
Principal forage species on open range are: buffalo grass (Buchloe
A31
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dactyloides), blue grama (Bouteloua graci'lis), and sideoats grama
(Bouteloua~curtipendula). Stocking rates on open range are approxi-
mately 1 AUM/25 to 30 acres. No adverse effects upon livestock have
been noted due to smeTter emissions (Brooks, 1975).
AQUATIC/FISHERY RESOURCES •
No aquatic/fishery resources exist in the Amarillo area, which
has only small creeks. The nearest major water body is Lake Meredith
75 miles to the north.
GEOHYDROLOGY
Amarillo, at an elevation of 3600 feet, is in an area of rolling
30 to.40 foot hiVIs. The potable water source for 70% of Amarillo is
Lake Meredith, with approximately 30% of the water being drawn from
wells. The water table is located at a depth of about 250 feet.
CLIMATE
Approximately 18 to 20 inches of precipitation occurs annually in
Amarillo, falling mostly from May to July. Prevailing winds are
from the southwest.
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Asarco Zinc Smelter, Corpus Christi, Texas
GENERAL -INFORMATION
The Asarco zinc smelter is located a few miles south of Nueces
Bay in the vicinity of Corpus Christi, San Patricio County, Texas.
Interstate 37 is the major highway transversing the smelter vicinity.
Land use in the vicinity of the smelter is as follows:
1 mile radius: 75% urban/residential
25% agriculture
5 mile radius: 50% urban/residential
10% agriculture
40% water
10 mile radius: 60% urban residential
15% agriculture
25% water
Agricultural areas tend to be located north and west of the
smelter; whereas urban/industrial areas are located to the south
and east. A complex of petrochemical refineries is located two
miles southwest of the smelter.
AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES
Grain sorghum is the most important crop in the vicinity of Corpus
Cottoni a so duc?d.,.. .t^QMSJ1 not "i n" the abundance of
.- _ _ . .... .
former years ^ Noldamagejias been. .noted to. crpps^of natural vege-
tation due to the'smelter emissions (Frankenhauser, 1975). ...... " "'""
RANGE/PASTURE RESOURCES
Significant amounts of range or pasture do not occur within 10
miles of the smelter.
AQUATIC/FISHERY RESOURCES
Major water bodies in close proximity to the smelter are Nueces -
River, Nueces Bay, and Corpus Christi Bay. The smelter is located on
a ship-turning basin south of Nueces Bay and roughly east-southeast
of where the Nueces River empties into the bay. Both bays are important
in the production of sport fish and shrimp. Oysters are unimportant
(except in terms of dredging oyster shell).
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GEOHYDROLOGY
The source of potable water for Corpus Christi is the Nueces
River. A limited number of wells occur, the water table (for
potable water) being from 120 to 200 feet deep. Elevation at the
smelter site is roughly 25 feet. Generally speaking, the topography
gradually slopes towards the north (further south it slopes towards
the southeast), decreasing at a rate of about six feet/mile.
CLIMATE
Twenty-seven inches of precipitation occur in average years,
with the most rainfall occurring in August and September, and smaller
amounts falling in March and April. Prevailing winds are from the
southeast, with an average speed of about 18 mph. Inversions rarely
occur.
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Asarco Zinc Smelter, Columbus, Ohio
GENERAL INFORMATION
The Asarco smelter is on the southeastern edge of Columbus,
close to the town of Obetz. The only other significant source of
industrial emissions in the area is the Brown Steel plant, eight
miles north-northwest of the smelter. Land use in the vicinity of
the smelter is as follows:
1 mile radius: 65% urban/industrial/residential
35% agriculture
5 mile radius: 60% urban/industrial/residential
40% agriculture
10 mile radius: 50% agriculture
45% urban/industrial/residential
5% woodland
AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES
Most of the "agriculture" category is improved pasture. Moderate
amounts of corn and small amounts of soybean, wheat, and vegetables are
grown within the ten mile radius. .A 300 acre vegetable farm lies six
miles north of the smelter. No damage to crops or natural vegetation
has been noted (McNutt, 1975).
RANGE/PASTURE RESOURCES •
One dairy farm is located within ten miles, to the south of the
smelter. Stocking rate averages three cows per acre of pasture, and
little other cattle production occurs in the area. A number of farms
with horses occur, mostly south of the smelter. Two or three horses
per five acre lot is usual. Pasture forage species are bluegrass,
alfalfa, clover, and brome grass. Such pastures are often planted semi-
annually to corn, being plowed up and returned to pasture after production
of corn is completed. The smelter has_not been observed to have had adverse
effects upon" 1 i ves'to'ck" (McNutt, J 975).._."_
AQUATIC/FISHERY RESOURCES
Scioto River occurs five miles west of the smelter, Alum Creek
occurs three miles east, and Big Walnut Creek occurs fcur miles south.
No commercial fishing occurs in these waterways, only recreational
fishing. The smelter is not known to have effluent into any of these
water bodies.
A35
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GEOHYDROLOGY
The smelter occurs in a fairly flat area at an elevation of 850
feet (elevation change in a ten mile radius_is less than _1_00 feet)._ The
source of potable water is probably from Alum Creek, Scioto River, and
various other runs.
CLIMATE
Precipitation averages 38 inches annually; winds are variable
but mostly from the northwest. Inversions are infrequent.
A36
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Bunker Hill Zinc and Lead Smelter, Kellogg, Idaho
GENERAL INFORMATION
Located in the vicinity of Interstate 90 in northern Idaho
(Shoshone County), the combined zinc and lead smelter is located
just south of Kellogg. It is the only significant source of indus-
trial emissions in the area. Land use in the vicinity of the smelter
is as follows:
1 mile radius:
5 mile radius:
10 mile radius
AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES
100% industrial
75% forest/brush!and
25% urban/industrial/residential
90% forest/brush!and
10% urban/industrial/residential
No significant agriculture occurs within 10 miles of the smelter.
Although portions of the valley were at one time cultivated, effluent
and tailings have accumulated in the river valley and cultivation is
no longer feasible. Lack_of cultivation may be partly attributable to
heavy metals' in efflueht/taTlings.
RANGE/PASTURE RESOURCES
of
No significant range/pasture resource
the smelter.
is located within 10 miles
FORESTRY RESOURCES
Slopes close to Smelterville and Kellogg have been denuded by S02
and fire, and revegetation occurs very slowly due to S02-related acid
soil conditions. On slopes south of Kellogg, 90% denudation has occurred
within one mile of the smelter. By five miles "the vegetation approaches
normal conditions. North facing slopes generally suoport grand fir and
red cedar. South facing slopes support Douglas fir, grand fir, and some
ponderosa pine.
AQUATIC/FISHERY RESOURCES
The south fork of the Coeur D'Alene River runs one and one-quarter
miles north of the smelter. The north fork is within the 10 mile radius
both to the west and north. Fishery resources in these rivers are
primarily recreational - A 160 acre tailing pond is located west of
Kellogg, with another tailing pond being located west of Smelterville.
A3 7
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GEOHYDROLOGY
General topography of the area is a narrow river valley (one-
half mile wide) sided by steep 4000 to 6000 foot peaks. The smelter
itself is on a small tributary ("draw") of the Coeur D1 Alene River.
The draw is oriented north-northeast/south-southwest and is 200 to
300 yards wide. The elevation is 2600 feet, with 3700 feet being
reached in one mile and 6000 foot peaks in a few miles. Potable water
is probably obtained from the river. Water table varies, bedrock
usually being within five feet of the surface.
CLIMATE
Rainfall averages 25 to 30 inches in the valley and 30 to 40 inches
in the mountains. Winds are variable and inversions occur fairly often.
A38
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National Zinc, Zn Smelter, Bartlesville, Oklahoma
GENERAL INFORMATION
Bartlesville is located in northeastern Oklahoma (Washington
County) on U.S. 75. The National Zinc smelter is the only signifi-
cant source of industrial emissions in the area. Land use in the
vicinity of the smelter is as follows:
1 mile radius: 75% industrial/residential
25% agricultural (of which 10% is pasture
and 15% rangeland)
5 mile radius: 30% residential
15% industrial
55% agricultural (range)
10 mile radius: 15% residential
5% industrial
80% agricultural (range)
Residential/industrial areas are generally located south, east,
northeast, and northwest of the smelter. Agricultural (range) areas
are located to the southwest.
AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES
There is very little cropland in the smelter vicinity.
RANGE/PASTURE RESOURCES
Rangeland comprises most of the area in the vicinity of the
smelter. A small portion of this is improved pasture, with tall
fescue (Festuca arundinacea) and bermudagrass (Cynodon dactylon)
being the important forage species. Important forage species on
native range are little bluestem (Andropogen scoparius), big blue-
stem (Andropogen gerardi), Indiangrass (Sorghastrum nutans), and
switchgrass (Pani'cum virgatum). Production of beef cattle occurs on
improved pasture at a stocking rate of one cow per two to five acres.
Stocking rates on native range average one cow per 12 acres. Smelter
emissions have not been observed to have had adverse effects upon live-
stock or "vegetation" in the Bartlesville area (Hunter, 1975).
AQUATIC/FISHERY RESOURCES
The Cane~y~ River', which" is "perennial and small7flows through
Sartlesville. No effluent from the smelter is known to enter the river.
Forty-acre Lake Bardue four miles north-northwest'of the smelter, is situated
with Hudson Lake seven mile^~'fo~tHe'lidrth-northwe"s't. No significant
fishery resources exisT"irPtfie"BartTesvilie area.
A39
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GEOHYDROLOGY
Elevation of the smelter is approximately 700 feet. Topography
at the smelter site is fairly level, with flatlands continuing to
10 miles east of the smelter. Two miles west of the smelter rough,
rolling hills are encountered with elevation differences of approxi-
mately 100 feet. Bartlesville city water is obtained from Lake
Bardue and Hudson Lake.
CLIMATE
Winds prevail from the southwest at an average of 15 mph. Annual
precipitation averages 30 inches. Inversions sometimes occur.
A40
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Amax Zinc Smelter, Sauget, Illinois
GENERAL INFORMATION
Sauget is located just south of East St. Louis on State Road 3,
in western St. Clair County, Illinois. The Mississippi River flows
approximately 3/4 miles west of Sauget, with U.S. 40 crossing State
Road 3 1-1/2 miles north of Sauget. Significant industrial plants
within 1 mile of the Amax smelter are: Edwin-Cooper plant (oil
additives), Monsanto Chemical Plant (this is the largest, producing
about 20 chemicals), Cerro Copper Company, Midwest Rubber Recycling
Company, and the Union Electric Company generating station (300
megawatts—not in continuous operation). Most of these are located
in an industrialized area within diked portions of the river's former
floodplain. Land use within 1, 5, and 10 mile radius of the smelter
is as follows:
1 mile radius: 70% industrial (excluding Mississippi
30% residential River)
5 mile radius: 10% industrial
70% residential
20% agricultural
10 mile radius: 10% industrial
60% residential
30% agricultural
AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES
Most farming occurs on bottomlands safeguarded by flood protection
levees. Major crops are: sweet corn, wheat, soybeans, and some truck
crops. No damage to crops has been noted, though vegetation will not
grow in some portions of the industrial area due to S02 or other emissions
(Schluger, 1976).
GEOHYDROLOGY
The smelter is located on former bottomlands now protected by
levees approximately 1/2 mile east of the levee. Elevation of the site
is approximately 400 feet, being flat in the river bottomlands. The
floodplain is approximately 10 miles wide, being sided by steep bluffs
(within 5 miles to the east of the smelter) rising to 600 feet. Water
is obtained from the East St. Louis municipal water supply.
A41
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CLIMATE
Most of the annual precipitation of 30-40 inches occurs in spring
and early summer. Prevailing winds are from the southwest in the summer
and northwest in the winter. Inversions do occur.
OTHER INFORMATION
A cadmium processing/recovery unit is being added to the Amax
smelter. Small amounts of arsenic and zinc may leak from the smelter
or escape to the air. Arsenic is used as an additive to purify the
zinc liqueurs; however, traps are maintained to collect potential
leakages.
A42
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New Jersey Zinc, Zinc Smelter, Palmerton, Pennsylvania
GENERAL INFORMATION
Located in Carbon County of eastern Pennsylvania, Palmerton is
situated in a narrow river (Lehigh River) valley. State Road 248
is the major highway servicing the area. Aside from the two
Mew Jersey zinc smelters in the area, there are no other significant
industrial emission sources within 15 miles (Jordan, 1975). Only
one smelter is a primary smelter. Land use in the vicinity of the
primary smelter is as follows:
1 mile radius: 50% woodland
20% residential
15% industrial
10% open pit mines
3% water
2% streets and highways
5 mile radius: 60% woodland
15% field crops
5% pasture
7% industrial/mines
13% residential
10 mile radius: 60% woodland
20% field crops
5% pasture
5% industrial/mines
10% residential
AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES
Corn and small grains are the principal field crops. Many areas
formerly cultivated are now barren due to S02/heavy metal damage.
RANGE/PASTURE RESOURCES
Bluegrass, tall fescue, and orchardgrass are principal pasture
forage species. Cattle are stocked at a rate of one cow/three to five
acres. Very little woodland grazing occurs, and smelter emissions
have not been observed to have had any direct effect upon livestock
(Emerheiser, 1975).
FORESTRY RESOURCES
No commercial forestry occurs in the area, primarily because
of stress conditions and steep slopes. The slopes of Blue Mountain
A43
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to the south (see Geohydrology) are sparsely vegetated or barren
over an area of 485 ha. (1200 acres). Vegetation surviving (mostly
sassafras) is depauperate, chlorotic, necrotic, and exhibits
leaf curling. Species exclusion has occurred for many species.
Damage is due primarily to high Zn_and__Cd J_eyel_s_in the, soil with
SQ2. damage and Cu and Pb levels playing.a" lesser role (Jordan, 1975).
AQUATIC/FISHERY RESOURCES
The smelter is located on the Lehigh River, and is one-fourth
to one-half mile northwest of where Aquashicola Creek enters the
river. No natural reproduction occurs in the river, though trout
have been stocked. The smelter does not discharge into the creek,
though there is a possibility of effluent into the river. The
river has sedimentation/turbidity problems with coal silts.
GEOHYDROLOGY
Palmerton is located in a narrow valley bounded on the south by
Blue Mountain and on the north by Stony Ridge. The valley is oriented
northeast-east/southwest-west. Town elevation is 500 feet; ridge
elevation is 1500 feet. Soils are sandy and well drained (with much
rock), with potable water for the area being obtained from artesian
wells.
CLIMATE
Precipitation averages 41 inches annually. Winds are primarily
from the northwest, but are variable due to topographic features.
The average annual temperature is 10° C.
A44
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St. Joe Lead Company Zinc Smelter, Monaca, Pennsylvania
GENERAL INFORMATION
Monaca is in Beaver County in western Pennsylvania. It is
located at the intersection of State Roads 68 and 18, and lies just
south of the Ohio River. Other industries are common in the area:
Arco Palmers Copper plant is one-half mile south of the smelter,
J & L Steel is four to five miles south, and the John Mansfield Power
plant is located four miles west of the smelter. Land use in the
vicinity of the smelter is as follows:
1 mile radius:
5 mile radius:
10 mile radius:
10% agriculture
50% woodland
40% urban/industrial
15% agriculture
30% woodland
55% urban/industrial
20% agriculture
55% woodland
25% urban/industrial
AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES
Corn is the crop most commonly grown on agricultural lands, with
small amounts of pasture occurring five to ten miles from the smelter.
St. Joe owns agricultural lands within one mile of the smelter (corn
is usually grown). Some SO? damage has occurred in the area (Curran,
1975; Council, 1975).
RANGE/PASTURE RESOURCES
No native range occurs in the area, though limited amounts of wood-
land grazing do occur. There is a very limited number of cattle on
the area's pastures. Stocking rate in this area of the state is about
one to two head/acre per year. The small number of cattle may be partially
due to decreased productivity of forage species dues to smelter emissions.
Bluegrass (Poa sp.) is the principal forage species. The smelter has not
been observed to have direct adverse effects upon livestock (Curran, 1975).
FORESTRY RESOURCES
No commercial harvesting of timber occurs in the area. St. Joe
smelter has a planting of Scotch and Austrian pine close to the smelter;
growth is suppressed.
A45
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AQUATIC/FISHERY RESOURCES
Ohio River is the major water body in the smelter vicinity—water
quality of the river is generally poor. Beaver River flows into the
Ohio River from the north with somewhat cleaner water. Insignificant
amounts of carp and catfish are"caught in these rivers^
GEOHYDROLOGY
The smelter is located on the Ohio River bank at an elevation of
approximately 600 feet. Steep hills are encountered as one moves away
from the river, elevations rising to 1200 feet. Potable water is ob-
tained from wells at variable depths (30 to 100 feet).
CLIMATE
Annual precipitation averages 44 inches. Winds prevail from the
west, and inversions occur infrequently. Plumes from the smelter have
been observed as usually rising well.
A46
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Amax Zinc Smelter, Blackwell, Oklahoma
GENERAL INFORMATION
Blackwell is located in north central Oklahoma (the western, half
of Kay County). The smelter lies two miles east of Interstate 35.
No other significant sources of industrial emissions occur in the
vicinity of the smelter. Land use in the area is as follows:
1 mile radius: 8% cropland
35% residential/urban
47% company owned land
10% pasture
5 mile radius: 84% cropland
12% residential/urban
4% pasture
10 mile radius: 93% cropland
5% residential/urban
2% pasture
Amax has recently closed this smelter.
AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES
Winter wheat is the principal crop on agricultural lands in the
Blackwell area, accounting for approximately 90% of the land in pro-
duction. Alfalfa, corn, sorghum, and small grains account for the
remaining areas. Small amounts of SO? damage have been noted, and the
Zn and Pb content of some fields of wheat, sorghum, and field corn
were found to be high enough to be potentially toxic to livestock.
Alfalfa and hairy vetch were found to contain metal levels safe for
livestock.
RANGE/PASTURE RESOURCES
The principal pasture species is Bermudagrass, and Zn, Pb, Cd,
and As levels in forage immediately north of the smelter were high
enough to be potentially hazardous to livestock. Cattle grazing too
close to the smelter in the past have been subject to weight loss.
There is a record of one horse death four miles north of the smelter
due to Pb/Zn poisoning. Zn and Cd were also related to decreased pro-
ductivity of pastures close to the smelter (Benenati, 1974).
A47
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AQUATIC/FISHERY RESOURCES
Chickaskia River is located one mile northeast of the smelter,
and Stink Creek occurs one and one-half miles to the west. Analysis
of river water samples revealed acceptable levels of Zn, Cd, Pb, and
As. However, some creeks, farm ponds, drainage ditches, and other
areas concentrating local runoff had Zn, Cd, or Pb levels which ex-
ceeded Federal water quality criteria.
GEOHYDROLOGY
The region is one of level to gently undulating JDTrains crossed by_
occasional creeks and rivers. Potable water for the region is obtained
from wells, and-acceptable levels of Zn, Pb, Cd, and As were found in
all groundwater'samples (Benenati, 1974).
CLIMATE
Precipitation averages 2876 inches annua'lly. 'Winds prevail from
the^south, often coming from the north in winter. ""Average^wind speed_
is 15 mph. Average temperature is~ 16*07 ""
A48
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Anaconda Zinc Smelter,..Black Eagle, Montana
GENERAL INFORMATION
Located in Cascade County of west-central Montana, Black Eagle is
immediately east of Great Falls on U.S. 87. Closed in August of 1972,
the smelter was the only major source of industrial emissions in the
area. Land use in the vicinity of the smelter is as follows:
1 mile radius: 80% agriculture
10% sanitary landfill
10% residential
5 mile radius: 80% agriculture
20% residential
10 mile radius: 90% agriculture or range!and
10% residential
AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES
Agricultural areas lie north of the smelter, producing mostly
winter wheat. No damage has been noted to crops or natural vegetation
due to smelter emissions (Wirak, 1975).
RANGE/PASTURE RESOURCES
A limited amount of range exists with livestock being 30% beef
cattle and 70% pleasure horses. The principal range forage species is
bluebunch wheatgrass. No adverse effects on livestock have been noted
in the vicinity of the smelter (Wirak, 1975).
AQUATIC/FISHERY RESOURCES
The Missouri River is located adjacent to the smelter while the
Sun River is within 5 miles of the smelter. Benton .Lake. National
Wildlife Refuge occurs 8-10 miles to the north. There is presently
a lagoon next to the smelter.
GEOHYDROLOGY
Steep river bluffs are encountered within 1/3-3/4 mile of the
smelter. The region is generally one of sharp hills which are 150-
250 feet high. Base evaluation is 3310 feet. Potable water for the
area is taken from Benson Lake and Muddy Creek." The water table
varies"; sometimes being only 2-3~feet from the" surface.
A49
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CLIMATE
Fourteen inches of precipitation occurs yearly, mostly in May and
June. Winds prevail from the southwest; inversions occur occasionally.
A50
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Eagle-Picher Zinc Smelter (Roasting Plant), Galena, Kansas
GENERAL INFORMATION
Galena is located in the extreme southeastern corner of Kansas
on U.S. 66, in Cherokee County. The smelter was closed in 1971, and
was. close to two..ammonium nitrate fertilizer plants: one. 3 miles NW,
the other 1-1/2. miles due .east (in Missouri). Land use in the vicinity .
of the smelter is as follows:
1 mile radius: 75% urban/industrial
10% improved pasture
15% wooded range
5 mile radius: 10% urban/industrial
10% cropland
30% improved pasture
50% wooded range
10.mile radius: 20% urban/industrial
15% cropland
25% improved pasture
40% wooded range
AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES
Major crops grown in the area are wheat and other small grains,
with some production of soybeans and sorghum also occurring. No damange
to crops has been noted due to the smelter (Worthy, 1976)
RANGE/PASTURE RESOURCES
The stocking rate on fescue improved pastures is 1 cow/7-8 acres, while
Post oak-Blackjack Oak woodland is stocked at 1 cow/15 acres. Wooded
range is fairly open, with about 50% canopy closure. Little Bluestem
is the principal range grass with some switchgrass also occurring. An
area of wooded range about 1 mile long, northeast of the smelter, has
been denuded due to smelter emissions (Worthy, 1976).
AQUATIC/FISHERY RESOURCES
A small creek close to the smelter flows into the Spring River 3
miles to the west.
GEOHYDROLOGY
. The area is one of steep, rolling 80 foot hills, closely associated
with the Ozarks, and having rocky, cherthy soils.' The smelter is
A51
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located in a narrow valley 600-600 feet wide running ENE-WSW. Base eleva-
tion is 905 feet. The area is a transition zone between the Ozarks and
plains, with hills blending into flatlands west of the Spring River.
Potable water is obtained from wells 900-1300 feet deep.
CLIMATE
Average annual precipitation of 42" occurs monthly, April - June.
Inversions seldom occurs; winds prevail from the southwest.
OTHER INFORMATION
Studies have been conducted by the Agricultural Research Service
of the USDA on heavy metals in soil, crops, natural vegetation, cattle,
milk, human blood and hair in connection with a litigation against the
smelter for livestock damage (Brower, 1976; Lagerwerff and Brower, 1974;
and Lagerwerff, Brower and Biersdorf, 1973).
In grass samples collected approximately 3-1/2 miles northeast
of the smelter, Lagerwerff, Brower and Biersdorf (1973) found cadmium,
copper, lead, and zinc concentrations as high as 55, 53, 244, and 3700
ppm respectively. Such levels of lead and zinc have been shown to be
toxic to cattle (Kradel, Adams, and Guss, 1965; Hammond and Aronson,
1963; Aronson, 1972; Ott et al., 1966b). In addition, samples of
grain sorghum collected in the smelter area were also found in some
cases to have zinc concentrations exceeding potentially toxic levels
for cattle. These samples were all collected in 1971.
A52
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Eagle-Picher Industries Zinc Smelter, Henryetta, Oklahoma
GENERAL INFORMATION
The Eagle-Picher smelter is located in east-central Oklahoma in
Okmulgee County. Henryetta occurs near the intersection of 1-40 and U.S.
75. The smelter, which was closed down in 1969, was of the horizontal
retort type and was located in the northwestern corner of town. Land
use in the vicinity of the smelter is as follows:
1 mile radius: 75% urban/industrial
12% improved pasture
13% native grass pasture
5 mile radius: 5% urban/industrial
45% scrubby timberland (transition between
forest and prairie)
25% improved pasture
25% native grass pasture
10 mile radius: 2% urban/industrial
50% scrubby timberland
24% improved pasture
24% native grass pasture
AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES
At present there are no crops grown commercially in the area.
RANGE/PASTURE RESOURCES
Beef cattle production occurs on pastures and scrubby timberland.
Improved bermuda grass/fescue pastures support 6 AUM/year. Native grass
pastures, composed primarily of big and little bluestem, switchgrass,
and indiangrass, support 1.2 AUM/year. Damage to pastures has
occurred due to the smelter, the land being denuded to 3/8 mile north of
the smelter site. Clovers also would not grow north of the smelter, and
it was found that young colts would not survive 3-5 miles downwind of the
smelter (Worthy, 1976).
AQUATIC RESOURCES
The Deep Fork River is approximately 5 miles northeast of the smelter
and also ten miles to the north. Ten miles to the east is LakeEufaula
(a large man-made reservoir). Coal Creek is located 3/4 mile north of
the smelter. There still exist old slag piles several feet deep over
which surface runoff flows before entering the creek.
A53
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GEOHYDROLOGY
Due to previous coal mines/oil operations in the area, most ground-
water sources have been contaminated by saltwater and other contaminants.
Subsequently, these waters have been condemned. It is unknown as to how
much contamination occurs due to direct percolation through smelter slag
piles. Potable water is obtained from small municipal lakes 8-10 miles
southeast of Henryetta. Base elevation is approximately 700 feet, with
steep rolling hills 100 feet high. The smelter is on the front side
(bottom) of a hill with 18 percent slope directly south of Coal Creek
Bottom.
CLIMATE
Percipitation averages 38 inches annually; winds are from the south-
southwest; inversions are infrequent.
A54
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Matthiessen & Heqler Zinc Co., Meadowbrook, W. Virginia
GENERAL INFORMATION
Located north of Clarksburg (U.S. 19) in Harrison County, north-
central West Virginia, the M&H smelter was closed in 1971. No other
major industrial sources of emission occur in this area. Land use in
the vicinity of the smelter is as follows:
1 mile radius: 35% previously denuded land now growing back
35% fallow cropland
30% residential
5 mile radius: 2% previously denuded land
49% fallow cropland
49% residential
10 mile radius: 20% agriculture
40% fallow land
40% residential/industrial
AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES
No major agriculture occurs close to the smelter.
RANGE/PASTURE RESOURCES
Thirty to forty years ago, sulfur dioxide emissions killed most vege-
tation within 1/2-3/4 mile downwind of the smelter (Bennett, 1976).
Revegetation is now occurring, mostly with Rubus ("ripshins"), sassafras,
deertongue (a grass), some broom sedge, and poverty grass.
AQUATIC/FISHERY RESOURCES
Creeks in the area are generally lifeless due to low acidity, related
to deep coal mines. Contamination occurs near the headwaters much before
they reach the smelter area. The smelter is located on a secondary ter-
race just above the West Fork River, and a pile of coal ash and smelter
refuse is currently eroding into the river.
GEOHYDROLOGY
Potable water is obtained from wells. The entire area has been soil
mapped, with the 1000 acre denuded area near the smelter being mapped
separately. Soil pH is 5.6, which is relatively acid for this area.
The soil in this denuded area also has a greater tendency to erode.
River elevation is roughly 1000 feet, with elevations rising in the area
to 1400 feet.
A55
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CLIMATE
Precipitation averages 44'inches annually. Winds prevail from
southwest and inversions are rare.
A56
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American Zinc Co. Zinc Smelter, Dumas, Texas
GENERAL INFORMATION
The Dumas Smelter was closed in 1971 and was located 6 miles
northeast of Dumas, Texas, on County Road 110 in Moore County at the
intersection of U.S. 87 and U.S. 287. Ohter industrial emission sources
in the smelter area are: an ammonia nitrate plant 3 miles east
of the smelter, a small potash plant 2-3 miles from the smelter, and
several small gas plants throughout the area. Land use in the vicinity
of the smelter is as follows:
1 mile radius: 50% irrigated cropland
35% range
7% dry cropland
5% pasture
3% industrial
5 mile radius: 65% irrigated cropland
25% range
5% dry cropland
3% improved pasture
2% industrial/other
10 mile radius: 70% irrigated cropland
20% range
5% dry cropland
2% improved pasture
3% industrial/other
AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES
Crops on irrigated land are grain sorghum, corn, and wheat—with
wheat being the principal crop on dry croplands. No damage has been
noted to crops or natural vegetation in the smelter area (Rogers, 1976).
Row type surface irrigation is used due to the flat topography.
RANGE/PASTURE RESOURCES
Improved pasture irrigated for beef production is planted to Ken-
tucky fescue, and fall and western wheatgrass. Pasture stocking rates
are 1 AU year/3-5 acres, while range stocking rates are 1 AU year/20-25
acres. Native forage species include blue and sideouts grama, western
wheatgrass, and buffalograss. No smelter related adverse effects have
been noted on livestock (Rogers, 1976).
A57
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AQUATIC/FISHERY RESOURCES
Lake Meredith is located 20 miles to the southeast. Palo Duro
Creek is intermittent and relatively close to the smelter.
GEOHYDROLOGY
Potable water is obtained from wells 250-450 feet deep. The top-
ography is extremely flat and level.
CLIMATE
Precipitation is 18-22 inches/year; winds prevail from southwest;
frequent inversions occur.
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New Jersey Zinc Smelter, Deque, Illinois
GENERAL INFORMATION
Depue is located in Bureau County in north-central Illinois,
just south of 1-80 and just east of 1-180. Located on the north side
of the Illinois River, there are no other major industrial emission
sources in the vicinity of the Depue smelter. The smelter was closed
in 1971. Land use in the vicinity of the smelter is as follows:
1 mile radius: 60% urban/industrial
25% agriculture
14% wildlife/recreation area (state owned)
1% river
5 mile radius: 85% agriculture
15% urban/industrial/other
10 mile radius: 90% agriculture
10% urban/industrial/other
AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES
Major crops are corn and soybeans. Although no damage to row crops
has occurred, trees within 1/2 mile northeast of the smelter have been
killed or stunted (Pretzsch, 1976). This area is vegetated now by
native prairiegrasses (indiangrass, some switchgrass and big bluestem).
AQUATIC/FISHERY RESOURCES
The smelter is located 1/4-1/2 mile from the Illinois River on a
secondary terrace.
GEOHYDROLOGY
Steep river bluffs occur between terraces adjoining the Illinois
River. Base elevation is approximately 550 feet, rising to 640 feet as
you leave the bottomlands. Surrounding lands are gently rolling.
Potable water is obtained from wells 100 to 200 feet deep.
CLIMATE
Average annual percipitation is 32-34 inches; winds prevail from the
southwest; inversions are infrequent.
A59
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Asarco Lead Smelter, Glover, Missouri
GENERAL INFORMATION
Glover is located in the "lead belt" of southeastern Missouri
(Iron County) on State Road 49. The Asarco smelter is the only sig-
nificant source of industrial emissions within a 10 mile radius. Land" ~
use in the general vicinity of the smelter is as follows:
1 mile radius: 75% timber
25% pasture
5-10 mile radius: 90% timber
10% pasture
RANGE/PASTURE RESOURCES
Pastures in the area are stocked with beef cattle at a rate of
five acres per cow-year. Tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea) is the
major forage species, with orchardgrass (Dactylis glomerata) and various
native wild grasses being of less importance. Small amounts of wood-
land grazing also occur. A small population of recreational horses
are found in the area. Aside from S02 leaf kills on Taum Sauk Mountain,
two miles north of the smelter (affecting pines and deciduous species),
no damage to vegetation has been reported due to the smelter (Wagner,
T975). One horse death "occurred several years a'go; however, the cause
of death was not "verified"(Haasis, T97S).
FORESTRY RESOURCE
The area is forested mostly with oak-hickories with some short-
leaf pine. The oak-hickory group .is important commercially.
AQUATIC/FISHERY RESOURCE
Big Creek, barely a perennial stream, runs within 300 to 400
yards of the smelter. No other significant aquatic resources occur
in the area.
GEOHYDROLOGY
The smelter is located in a narrow valley about 500 yards wide,
which has a very gradual slope (3-5%) in an upstream/downstream direc-
tion. Elevation of the valley is approximately 850 feet. Steep
topography occurs on either side of the valley, reaching heights of
1550 feet. Taum Sauk Mountain, two miles north of the smelter, has
an elevation of 1772 feet, and other 1500 to 1600 foot peaks are
scattered throughout the 10 mile area. Potable water for Glover is
supplied through wells, the depth of groundwater being between 30 and
100 feet.
A60
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CLIMATE
Annual precipitation averages 42 inches, with July through Sep-
tember being the dry months. Winds are variable, generally coming
from the southwest. Inversions occur occasionally.
A61
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Asarco Lead Smelter, East Helena, Montana
GENERAL INFORMATION
Located in the Rocky Mountains of west central Montana, East
Helena is services by U.S. 12. Other sources of industrial emission
in the area are Anaconda zinc recovery plant (within one mile of this
smelter), a paint pigment plant, and a cement plant several miles
southwest of Helena. Land use in the vicinity of the Asarco smelter
is as follows:
1 mile radius: 4% roads
2% water
16% urban
78% agriculture
5 mile radius: 3% roads
<1% water
5% urban
92% agriculture
10 mile radius: 2% roads •
3% water
3% urban
78% agriculture
14% forestland
Agriculture includes both rangeland and cultivated areas, with
range accounting for roughly 60 percent of the total agricultural
acreage.
AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES
The following crops are planted annually within the Helena Valley
(EPA, 1972):
wheat/barley — 20,000 acres
improved pasture -- 3000 acres
range -- 200,000 acres
alfalfa — 4000 acres
corn, oats, potatoes -- 200 acres
The Helena Valley Environmental Pollution Study (EPA, 1972)
reported the following:
1) A 15 percent reduction in vegetative growth rate in the
vicinity of the smelter;
2) sulfur dioxide leaf damage to crops within one mile of the
smelter;
A62
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3) potentially toxic levels of Cd and Pb in vegetables grown
in the valley, and
4) tolerable levels of As and Zn in vegetables and other crops
grown within a four mile radius of the smelter.
Arsenic levels in these vegetables and crops (wet weight basis) were
as follows:
-pasture grass, barley straw, and alfalfa 0.4 to 14 ppm
-barley, wheat, and oat kernels 0.05 to 0.9 ppm
-onion, lettuce, carrot, and cabbage 0.9 to 3 ppm
-apple, beet, kohlrabi, potato, radish,
rutabaga, string beans, and garden
peas 0.05 to 0.5 ppm
RANGE/PASTURE RESOURCES
200,000 acres of range and 3000 acres of improved pasture occur
in the valley. Stocking rates for range and irrigated pasture are
one-half AUM per acre and one to seven AUM per acre, respectively.
Sheep may not occur within the 10 mile radius, and horse raising has not
been feasible near the smelter for several decades (EPA, 1972). Pas-
tures are usually hayed once or twice each year before livestock are
put on them for grazing. Improved pasture species are: Russian wild
rye (Elymus (giganteus)), alfalfa, and various grasses. Of lesser
importance is timothy (Phleum pratense). orchardgrass, and smooth brome
(Bromus inernris). Principal range species are: bluebunch wheatgrass
(Agropyron spicatum), western wheatgrass (Apropyron smithii), rough
fescue (Festuca scabrella), thickspike wheatgrass (Agropyron dasysta-
chyum), and blue brome (Bromus sp.).
The levels of As detected in the hair of horses pastured near the
smelter were indicative of As exposure; however, the toxicological
significance of these levels was unclear (EPA, 1972). A horse which
died from "smoked" horse syndrome had levels of Pb and/or Cd associated
with chronic exposure. This horse also suffered from pneumonia and/or
heart disease primary or secondary to heavy metal exposure. Livestock
products produced within two miles of the smelter were found to contain
safe As levels (rabbit muscle, 0.6 ppm; beef liver, 0.2 ppm; while
chicken muscle, beef muscle, whole milk, and sausage all contained a
trace or less).
FORRESTRY RESOURCES
Principal species are Douglas fir, lodgepole pine, ponderosa pine,
quaking aspen, and cottonwoods. S02 damage to pine seedlings has been
noted up to four miles south of the East Helena complex (EPA, 1972).
A63
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AQUATIC/FISHERY RESOURCES
Prickly Pear Creek is 2.5 miles northwest of East Helena, and Lake
Helena is located 10 miles northeast of East Helena. Recreational fishing
does occur in these water bodies. Surface waters in Prickly Pear Creek
contained 0.01 mg/1 As,while water collected from the Missouri River at
the city water intake contained 0.02 mg/1 As. The Public Health Drinking
Water Standard for As is 0.01 mg/1 As. The levels of Zn, Cd, and Pb
were below the Public Health Drinking Water Standards (EPA, 1972).
GEOHYDROLOGY
The Helena Valley is 25 miles wide in a north/south direction and
35 miles long in an east/west direction. The elevation of East Helena
is 3900 feet, and most of the town is more or less on an (old) floodplain.
Mountains rise to 7000 feet and above all around the valley. The smelter
is located on a small hill within the valley and is just south of the
town. The smelter is above a creek, and there are settling ponds in the
area. The source of potable water for the area is the Missouri River.
CLIMATE
Each year 10 to 30 inches of precipitation fall, mostly from April
to July. Strong and persistant temperature inversions are frequent.
A64
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Missouri Lead Operating Company Smelter, Boss, Missouri
GENERAL INFORMATION
The MLOC lead smelter is located approximately two miles south
of Boss (Dent County) on State Road 32. It is a "trailer" town of
approximately 300 people. There are no other significant emission
sources in the area. Land use in the vicinity of the smelter is as
follows:
1 mile radius: 100% timber (less than 1% urban/industrial/
residential)
5 mile radius: 20% pasture
80% timber
10 mile radius: 20% pasture
80% timber
AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES
A very small amount of row crop agriculture is carried on in the
region—mostly corn and wheat. S02 damage has occurred on home gardens
during smelter malfunctions (Robinson, 1975).
RANGE/PASTURE RESOURCES
Beef cattle are raised on improved pasture as well as in 80% of
the oak/hickory woodlands. Stocking rates in low management pastures
are six to seven acres per cow/year; on high management pastures they
are three to four AU/year. Most pastures are located on cleared bottom-
land drainage areas. Some hog production occurs in oak/hickory woodlands,
Important forage species are fescue (Festuca sp.), Lespedeza, red clover
(Trifolium pratense), medino clover (Trifolium sp.), and small amounts
of alfalfa. The smelter is not known to have had any adverse effects
upon livestock (Robinson, 1975). Most pastures/open lands are located
west of the smelter, and are not usually downwind from stack emissions.
FORESTRY RESOURCES
Most of the forested land in the vicinity of the smelter is in an
oak/hickory association. Oaks are the most important timber species
(red, scarlet, black, white), with shorleaf pine being of secondary
importance. Hickories (shagbark, bitternut) are also harvested commer-
cially, as are black walnuts. Studies of Pb in livestock and trees are
reportedly being conducted by NSF/Oak Ridge Laboratory.
A65
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AQUATIC/FISHERY RESOURCES
A number of creeks occur within 10 miles of the smelter: Big
Sinking Creek, Water Fork, Dry Fork (the latter two empty into Merrimac
River). Two branches of Huzzah Creek occur within five miles north-
west of the smelter. Loggers Lake (20 acres) occurs approximately
10 miles to the south. Fishery resources in the area are insignificant.
Strother Creek comes out of smelter settling ponds, and is being moni-
tored for water quality.
GEOHYDROLOGY
Elevations vary in the region from 1100 to 1300 feet. Topography
may be described as sharp and erratic, characterized by flat ridge tops
with very steep (30%) slopes. Overall elevations drop eastward from
the smelter, which is located on a ridge top. Wells provide potable
water, the water table being between 300 and 500 feet deep.
CLIMATE
Precipitation averages 40 inches annually. Winds prevail from the
west-southwest, coming out of the northwest during cold fronts. Inver-
sions do occur.
A66
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St. Joe Lead Smelter, Herculaneum, Missouri
GENERAL INFORMATION
The St. Joe smelter adjoins the Mississippi River in Jefferson
County, Missouri and is located in Herculaneum, about 20 miles south of
St. Louis, U.S. 61 is the major highway servicing the area. Other
sources of industrial emissions in the area are an agrichemical
plant approximately four to five miles south on the Mississippi River,
Pittsburgh Plate Glass in Crystal City to the south, and a Dow Chemical
plant to the north in Pevely. In addition, Utility Electric is con-
structing a power plant approximately 15 miles to the south on the
Jefferson County line. Land use in the vicinity of the smelter is as
follows:
1 mile radius: 60% urban/industrial/residential
5% cropland
15% pasture
20% woodland
5-10 mile radius: 20% urban/industrial/residential
20% cropland
25% pasture
35% woodland
AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES
Soybeans and corn are the major crops in the area, with some
winter wheat and milo also being grown. Adverse effects upon crops
or other vegetation have not been observed to occur due to smelter
emissions (Kohne, 1975).
RANGE/PASTURE RESOURCES
Beef cattle production occupies 90% of the pastures in the general
area. A few dairy farms are located near Pevely (three miles north of the
smelter). Pasture grasses are predominately tall fescue and orchard-
grass. Limited amounts of woodland grazing occur. No adverse effects
have been observed on livestock as a result of smelter emissions
(Kohne, 1975).
FORESTRY RESOURCES
There are no commercial tree farms in the area. However, oak-
hickories and eastern red cedar are harvested sporadically from the
area.
A67
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AQUATIC/FISHERY RESOURCES
The smelter is adjacent to the Mississippi River and also adjoins
Joachim Creek, a small tributary of the river. A small dam is located
on Joachim Creek for the purpose of conserving water for the smelter's
use. Plattin Creek is located two miles south of the smelter, and Isle
du Bois Creek is located five to six miles south. Although there have
been no recent reports of effluent from the smelter, the smelter has
in years past dumped "oil" directly into the river. Due to the high
flow volume of the Mississippi River, no direct adverse effects were
noted. Fish species taken commercially in the Mississippi River are
catfish, carp, and buffalo fish.
GEOHYDROLOGY
The smelter is located-in rolling river hills bordering the Mis-
sissippi River, and this rolling topography is characteristic of the
10 mile area surrounding the smelter. The smelter draws water from
Joachim Creek.
A68
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Gulf Chemical and Metallurgical Tin Smelter,
Texas City, Texas
The Gulf Chemical and Metallurgical Tin Smelter is located in
Texas City, Texas, a generally industrialized area. The smelter
presently has large Sn emissions and emits As and Mo in measurable
quantities. A small amount of grazing land is located to the south
of the smelter, and residential areas occur to the west and northwest.
Furthermore, the smelter is located within one-half mile of Galveston
Bay and there have been major discharges of heavy metals into the
Bay. Adjacent to the smelter, 150 yg/m^ As and 1500 ug/m^ Sn have
been recorded. Overall, the El Paso area probably is the worst problem
area for As in Texas, although adverse effects are not presently oc-
curring. Texas City probably has the next highest As levels, while
Amarillo and Corpus Christi presently have no As problems (Price, 1975).
A69
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Domestic secondary copper smelters.
Company and Location Production
Comments
NEW ENGLAND
1. Mitchell Smelting Refining
Company. Portland, Conn.
2. North American Smelting
Company. Wilmington, Del.
3. Bay State Refining.
Chicopee Falls, Mass.
4. New England Smelting.
West Springfield, Mass.
Small Land use within 5 miles of Portland is primarily
urban industrial, with agriculture comprising ap-
proximately 5% of the total acreage. No damage to
crops, vegetation or livestock has been noted.
(Cavanna, 1976)
Moderate The smelter ±s located in an industrial/port area
with no agriculture within 1 mile and 10% agricul-
ture within 5 miles. Corn and soybean are the major
crops, and no smelter related damage has been noted
in the area. The newest commercial fishing on the
Delaware River occurs 15 miles downstream from the
smelter. (Nash, 1976).
Small Truck crops and dairy farms account for less than
10% of the land acreage in a 5 and 10 mile radius
of Chicopee Falls. A small portion of the remaining
land is fallow agricultural land which is no longer
economically profitable to farm. The Chicopee River
does not support commercial fishing. (Warren, 1976)
Small Within 1 mile of the smelter land use is entirely
residential/industrial. However, land use in the
5 mile radius includes 40% agriculture. Agricul-
tural activities center around truck crops and
dairy farms, and no damage due to smelter emissions
has been noticed. No commercial fishing occurs in
this portion of the Connecticut River. (Kane, 1976).
-------
Company and Location
Production
Comments
5. Richards Corporation.
Maiden, Mass.
6. Amax.
Carteret, N.J.
Small No significant agriculture occurs within 10 miles
of Maiden. (Williams, 1976)
Large No significant agriculture occurs within 10 miles
of Carteret. (Powley, 1976)
7. Barth Smelting and Refining Large
Newark, N.J.
8. Kearney Smelting and Refining -
Company. Kearney, N.J.
9. Belmont Smelting.
Brooklyn, N.Y.
10. Nassau Smelting and Refining. Large
Xottenville, N.Y.
11. Paragon Smelters.
Long Island, N.Y.
12. Colonial Metals.
Columbia, Pa.
Land-use within 10 miles of Newark is all urban/
industrial. (Powley, 1976)
Land-use within 10 miles of Kearney is all urban/
industrial. (Powley, 1976)
Small All points with 5 miles of Brooklyn are heavily
urbanized/industrialized.
Tottenville is located approximately 5 miles south
of the Amax smelter in Carteret. No significant
agriculture occurs within a 10 mile radius of
Tottenville. (Powley, 1976)
Very Small The location of the smelter is not definitely known;
a Paragon Corporation is located in Brooklyn, the
only "Paragon" on Long Island. No significant agri-
culture occurs within 5 miles of Brooklyn.
Moderate Although no agriculture occurs within 1 mile of the
smelter, land use within 5 and 10 miles of the
smelter is 70-75% agriculture. The smelter is lo-
cated in an area with other significant industrial
emission sources, but no damage to crops, forage or
livestock has been noted. Corn is the major crop,
with pasture occupying the non-cultivated agricul-
tural lands. No commercial fishing occurs in the
area. (Hackman, 1976; Conn, 1976; Behling, 1976)
-------
Company and Location
Production
Comments
Ni
13. Franklin Smelting and Moderate
Refining. Philadelphia, Pa.
14. George Sail Metals. Small
Philadelphia, Pa.
15. Metal Bank of America,
Philadelphia, Pa.
16. Metallurgical Production Small
Company. Philadelphia, Pa.
17. Reading Metals Refining. Moderate
Reading, Pa.
18. Roessing Bronze Co.
Mars, Pa.
Moderate
This smelter is located in the northeastern portion
of the city, and no agricultural lands occur within
a 5 mile radius. (Glacer, 1976)
This smelter was closed down in 1974 due to business
problems. No agricultural lands occur within 5 miles
of the smelter. (Glacer, 1976)
There are no agricultural lands within 5 miles of
the smelter. (Glacer, 1976)
This smelter was closed in the late 1960's or early
1970's. No agricultural lands occur within 5 miles
of the smelter. (Glacer, 1976)
Land use within 1 mile of the smelter includes 35%
cropland and 35% pasture. Cropland and pasture com-
prise 25% each of the 5 mile radius and 20% each
of the 10 mile radius. Corn and small grains are
the major crops. No damage to crops or livestock has
been noted in the area. (Judy, 1976)
Lands in the vicinity of the smelter are generally
40% agricultural, 45% woodland, and 15% rural/residen-
tial. Agricultural activities include dairying and
grain farming. Litigation has occurred over damage
to ornamental vegetation in a nearby residence. An
analysis of heavy metal fallout from Roessing's
emissions yielded the following (in micrograms/gram):
Mg-1200, Fe-328, Cu-400, Al-278, Zn-800 (Pennsylvania
State University, 1976). Other industries with sig-
nificant emissions occur within 5 miles of the
smelter. (Breisch, 1976; Kapp, 1976)
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Company and Location
Production
Comments
19. Sitkin Smelting and
Refining Company.
Lewistown, Pa.
Moderate
GREAT LAKES REGION & MIDWEST
1. Benjamin Harris.
Chicago Heights, 111.
Small
2. Cerro Copper and Brass.
Sauget, 111.
Large
Located in a mountainous area, land use within a 1,
5 and 10 mile radius includes 40, 20, and 50%
agriculture, respectively. Agricultural lands are
approximately 20% pasture and 80% cropland, with corn,
hay, and small grains being the principal crops. No
smelter-related damage to crops or livestock has been
noted in the area. A steel fabrication plant occurs
within 5 miles of the smelter.
Land use within 1 mile of the smelter is entirely
industrial/residential; however, land use within a
6 mile radius is roughly 65% agricultural. Major
crops are corn and soybeans, and no damage to crops
has been noted in the vicinity of the smelter. Other
industries with significant emissions are located in
the vicinity of the smelter. (Mariner, 1976)
Located in a heavily industrialized area adjacent to
the Mississippi River, land use within 1 mile of
the smelter is completely industrial/residential.
Within 5 and 10 miles of the smelter, agricultural
land use is 20 and 30%, respectively. Most farming
occurs in bottomlands safeguarded by flood protection
levees, with sweet corn, wheat, and soybeans being
the major crops. This smelter is located within 1
mile of the Amax primary zinc smelter at Sauget.
(Hoekstra, 1976; Quandt, 1976; Harryman, 1976; and
McQueen, 1976)
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Company and Location
Production
Comments
3. Chemetco. Alton, 111.
Moderate
4. North Chicago Refiners &
Smelters. North Chicago,
111.
5. Interstate Smelting and
Refining. Chicago, 111.
6. H. Kramer and Company.
Chicago, 111.
7. R. Lavin and Sons.
Chicago, 111.
8. S.P. Metals.
Chicago, 111.
Moderate
Small
Moderate
Small
9. Federated Metals (ASARCO). Moderate
Whiting, Ind.
10. Mishawaka Brass Manufac-
turing Company.
Mishawaka, Ind.
Small
Agricultural lands account for 10 and 30% of the
total acreage within 5 and 10 miles of the
smelter, respectively. Located in a heavily indus-
trialized area of refineries, paper mills, and
fiberglass plants, the smelter is also within 5
miles of the Olin-Winchester BB plant, which emits
significant quantities of Pb and As. (McQueen, 1976)
No significant agriculture occurs within 10 miles
of the smelter. (Nargang, 1976)
No significant agriculture occurs within 5 miles
of the smelter. (Thorp, 1976)
No significant agriculture occurs within 5 miles
of the smelter. (Thorp, 1976)
No significant agriculture occurs within 5 miles
of the smelter. (Thorp, 1976)
No significant agriculture occurs within 5 miles
of the smelter. (Thorp, 1976)
No significant agriculture occurs within 10 miles
of the smelter. (Broadstreet, 1976)
Land use within 1 mile of the smelter is 60% urban
and 40% agricultural. Agricultural land use within
5 and 10 miles of the smelter is 55 and 60% crop-
land, respectively. Major crops on non-muck soils
are corn, soybeans, and wheat. Muck soils occur
within 7 miles of the smelter, and these are used
to produce a variety of truck crops. No smelter-
induced damage to vegetation or crops has been noted.
(Stonebraker, 1976; Lauster, 1976; Purdue University
Cooperative Extension Service, 1971)
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Company and Location
Production
Comments
01
11. South Bend Smelting Company Small
South Bend, Ind.
12. S-G Corporation, Inc.
Kansas City, Kansas
Small
13. G. Avril.
Cincinnati, Ohio
14. Federal Metal Company.
Bedford, Ohio
Small
Small
15. I. Schuman and Sons.
Cleveland, Ohio
16. River Smelting and
Refining. Cleveland, Ohio
Moderate
Located 8 1/2 miles west of the Mishawaka smelter,
land use within 1 mile of the South Bend smelter
is 100% urban/industrial. Agricultural lands comprise
25 and 50% of the acreage within 5 and 10 miles
of the smelter, respectively. Muck soils occur south-
west of the smelter, with production on these soils
beginning within 5 miles. Crops grown in the
region are corn, soybeans, wheat, and a variety of
truck crops. (Stonebraker, 1976; Lauster, 1976;
Purdue University Cooperative Extension Service, 1971)
No agricultural land use occurs within 1 mile of the
smelter, with 5 and 8% agricultural lands occurring
within the 5 and 10 radius, respectively.
Primary crops are corn, soybeans, milo, and wheat.
(Ritter, 1976)
Minor amounts of field and greenhouse crop production
occur within 10 miles of the smelter. A lead isotope
manufacturing plant is located 10 miles northwest of
the smelter. (Cummings, 1976)
Farmland and non-cultivated open land account for 10,
15, and 25% of the acreage within 1, 3, and 5 miles
of the smelter, respectively. Other industrial
emission sources are common; the I. Schuman and
Sons BB smelter being located within 1/2 mile of the
Federal Metal Company smelter. (Anderson, 1976)
See Federal Metal Company, Bedford, Ohio.
No significant agriculture occurs within 5 miles
of the smelter. (Anderson, 1976)
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Company and Location
Production
Comments
17. Libberman-Gittlen Metals
Company. Grand Rapids,
Mich.
SOUTHEAST
Small
Less than .5% agriculture within 5 miles of the
smelter. 20% agriculture occurs within 10 miles of
the smelter but no smelter-induced damage to crops
has been noted in the area. (LeBlanc, 1976)
1. W.J. Bullock. Birmingham, Small
Ala.
2. Lee Brothers Foundry Small
Company. Anniston, Ala.
3. Copper Division, Southwire. Moderate
Carrollton, Ga.
4. Federated Metals (ASARCO).
Houston, Tx.
Small
No agricultural lands occur within 10 miles of the
smelter. (King, 1976)
Land use within 1 mile of the smelter includes 16%
pasture and 4% cropland. Within 5 and 10 miles
of the smelter 24/6% and 28/7% of pastures/cropland
occur, respectively. No other industries are located
in the vicinity of the smelter, and no damage to
crops or livestock has been noted in the area.
(DeBardeleben, 1976)
No agricultural land use occurs within 1 mile of
the smelter. Land use within 5 and 10 miles of
the smelter is 15 and 10% agricultural, respectively.
Major crops are soybeans and corn. The Southwire
complex is the only significant source of industrial
emissions in the area. (Jordan, 1976)
No significant agriculture occurs within 5 miles
of the smelter. Land use within 10 miles includes
10% pasture/range and 3% irrigated rice land. The
smelter is located in an industrial area, and no
damage to vegetation or livestock has been noted.
(Brown, 1976)
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Company and Location
Production
Comments
WEST
1. Federated Metals (ASARCO)
San Francisco, Calif.
2. H. Kramer and Company.
El Segundo, Calif.
3. II. Kramer and Company.
Chlno, Calif.
Moderate
4. Mackay, B.R. and Sons, Inc.
Salt Lake City, Utah
Small
No information available.
No significant agricultural or range resources within
10 miles of the smelter. (Loverde, 1976)
Land use within 5 miles of Chino is 50% agricul-
tural and 50% urban/industrial. Agricultural lands
occupy 25% of the area within 10 miles. Agricul-
tural lands are predominately pastures for dairying,
but some production of alfalfa and row crops does
occur. No smelter-induced damage upon vegetation or
livestock has been noted in the area. (Hampton, 1976)
Agricultural lands and rangelands account for 30 and
20% of the acreage within 1 mile of the smelter.
Agricultural/range lands occupy 20/15% and 20/20% of
the area within 5 and 10 miles of the smelter,
respectively. Agricultural lands are planted primar-
ily to forage crops. A Kennecott primary copper
smelter is located 10 miles to the west. (Ramses,
1976)
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APPENDIX B
Bureau of Mines
Lists of Existing and Closed Smelters
Bl
-------
Zinc Smelters Closed Since 1925
County
City
State
Date
closed
Tulsa Fuel Mfg. Co Tulsa
American Zinc Co. of Illinois Montgomery
National Zinc Co Sangamon
United States Zinc Okmulgee
Fort Smith Spelter Co Sebastian
Eagle-Picher Lead Montgomery
Amalgamated Lead/Zinc Okmulgee
Blackwell Zinc Kay
Grasselli Chemical Co Harrison
Weir Smelting Co Montgomery
Edgar Zinc Co. _!/ do
United States Zinc Co
Matthiessen & Hegeler Co Vigo
Quinton Spelter Co Pittsburg
Illinois Zinc La Salle
Arkansas Zinc & Smelting 2J Crawford
Hegeler Zinc Co Vermilion
American Zinc & Chemical Washington
United Zinc Smelting Corp Marshall
American Steel & Wire Co Washington
American Zinc Co. of Illinois St. Clair
Matthiessen & Hegeler Co La Salle
Athletic Mining and Smelting Sebastian
Eagle-Picher Lead Co Okmulgee
New Jersey Zinc Co Bureau
Matthiessen & Hegeler Zinc Harrison
ASARCO Incorporated Moore
The Anaconda Company Cascade
Amax Zinc Kay
The Anaconda Company Deer Lodge
ASARCO Incorporated Potter
Collinsville
Hillsboro
Springfield
Henryetta
Ft. Smith
Hillsboro
Henryetta
Blackwell
Clarksburg
Caney
Cherryvale
Kusa
Terre Haute
Quinton
Peru
Van Buren
Danville
Langeloth
Moundsville
Donora
E. St. Louis
La Salle
Ft. Smith
Henryetta
Depue
Meadowbrook
Dumas
Great Falls
Blackwell
Anaconda
Amarillo
Oklahoma 1925
Illinois 1926
do 1926
Oklahoma 1927
Arkansas 1927
Illinois 1927
Oklahoma 1927
do 1928
W. Virginia 1928
Kansas 1929
do 1934
Oklahoma 1934
Indiana 1937
Oklahoma 1938
Illinois 1939
Arkansas 1947
Illinois 1947
Pennsylvania 1947
W. Virginia 1948
Pennsylvania 1957
Illinois 1958
do 1961
Arkansas 1963
Oklahoma 1969
Illinois 1971
W. Virginia 1971
Texas 1971
Montana 1972
Oklahoma 1973
Montana 1973
Texas 1975
17 American Steel & Wire Co.
2/ Falcon Zinc, Eagle Picher.
-------
Secondary Zinc Smelters Currently in Operation
tacit. ic DmciLing — ~ — —
County
City
T?«-i rf -j en A
State
Pal -i Fr-vvr^ a
rln
Startup
date
1 Q^Q
IV J./
1 QS7
1 QfiO
1/1 Q9Q
I/ 17^:7
0/IQfcA
1Q7A
_!/ Present owner started production in 1943.
2J Shut down in 1973, but started again in 1974.
-------
Copper Smelters Closed Since 1925
(Plants that treated copper ore, concentrates, and other copper materials)
A f *- <-i *-v» u i- r* r*
V\f\
UO — — — — — — — _-.-—_—_—
T\r\ — — — — .— —— _._———_—_,
Hr» — _ _ — — — ___. __
International Smelting Co. (Inspiration
United Verde Copper Co. (Phelps Dodge Corp.)
LAKE PLANTS
County
Shasta
Cascade
Tucson
Salt Lake
Douglas
Middlesex
Lake
Calaveras
Cochise
Yavapai
Near Sunbe
Polk
Silver Bow
Tooele
Pinal
Lyon
Madison
Contra Costa
Queens
Portsmouth
Gila
Ouray
Calaveras
Baker
Yavapai
An
Park
Houghton
- An
An
__QQ__ _
_ _Hrt
— —up — ~ —
City
Ingot
Great Falls
Benson
Garfield
Omaha
Perth Amboy
Leadville
Copperopolis
Douglas
Homboldt
2 am
Isabella
Butte
Tooele
Superior
Thompson
Fredericktown
Martinez
Laurel Hill, L.I.
West Norfolk
Globe
Ouray
Campo Seco
Sumpter
Kennett
Clarkdale
Clemenceau
Reiter
Cooke
Hubbell
Dollar Bay
Houghton
Hancock
State
California
Montana
Arizona
Utah
Nebraska
New Jersey
Colorado
California
Arizona
rtr\
Colorado
Tennessee
Montana
Utah
Arizona
Nevada
Missouri
California
New York
Virginia
Arizona
Colorado
California
Oregon
California
Arizona
An — —
Washington
Montana
Michigan
do
An
UO
An
Capacity
(Tons of
charge)
80,000
800,000
54,000
1,440,000
101,000
120,000
110,000
970,000
11,000
320,000
230,000
600,000
150,000
400,000
40,000
105,000
200,000
94,500
308,000
198,000
91,000
70,000
420,000
1,400,000
275,000
25,000
109,500
225,000
125,000
130,000
55,000
Date
closed
1925
1924
1926
1958
1926
1930
1936
1934
1930
1933
1922
1934
1930
1950
1971
1930
1926
1926
1962
1929
1932
1927
1926
1926
1925
1950
1937
1926
1930
1968
1929
1952
1967
-------
SECONDARY SMELTERS TREATING COPPER MATERIALS
ASARCO Incorporated, Federated Metals Div., 120 Broadway, New York, NY 10005
San Francisco, CA
Whiting, IN
Newark, NJ
Houston, TX
Apex Smelting Co., 6700 Grant Avenue, Cleveland, OH 44105
The G. A. Avril Co., Brass & Bronze Ingot Div., 66 Winton Place Sta.,
4445 Kings Run Drive, Cincinnati, OH 45232
Barth Smelting Corp., 99-129 Chapel Street, Newark, NJ 07105
Bay State Refining Co.,-Inc., 8 Montgomery Street, Chicopee, MA 01021
Joseph Behr & Sons, Inc., 1100 Seminary Street, Rockford, IL 61105
Belmont Sm. & Rfg. Wks., Inc., 330 Belmont Avenue, Brooklyn, NY 11207
Brush Wellman, Inc., 17876 St. Clair Avenue, Cleveland, OH 44110
Elmore, OH
W. J. Bullock, Inc., Box 539, Fairfield, AL 35064
Chemico Metals Corp., P.O. Box 1^7, Alton, IL 62002
Colonial Metals Co., P.O. Box 311, Second & Linden Sts., Columbia, PA 17512
Federal Metal Co., 7250 Division Street, Bedford, OH 44146
Handy & Harman, Attleboro Rfg. Div., Attleboro, MA 02703
Benjamin Harris & Co., llth & State Sts., Chicago Heights, IL 60412
Henning Bros. & Smith, Inc., 91 Scott Avenue, Brooklyn, NY 11237
Hewitt Metals Corp., 12th & Stanley Avenue, Detroit, MI 48208
Imperial Smelting Corp., 1031 E 103rd Street, Chicago, IL 60628
Interstate Sm. & Rfg. Co., 9651 S Torrence Avenue, Chicago, IL 60617
N. Kamenske & Co., Inc., 5 Otterson Court, Nashua, NJ 03060
Kawecki Berylco Inds., Inc., Alloy Div., P.O. Box 1462, Reading, PA 19603
Kearny Sm. & Rfg. Corp., 936 Harrison Ave., Kearny, NJ 07029
Morris P. Kirk & Son, Div. of NL Industries, Inc., 2717 S Indiana St.,
Los Angeles, CA 90023
B5
-------
H. Kramer & Co., P.O. Box 7, No. 1 Chapman Way, El Segundo, CA 90246
H. Kramer & Co., 1339-1345 W 21st Street, Chicago, IL 60608
R. Lavin & Sons, Inc., 3426 S Kedzie Avenue, Chicago, IL 60623
Lee Bros. Corp., P.O. Box 1229, Anniston, AL 36201
Mercer Alloys Corp., P.O. Box 511, Greenville, PA 16125
Metallurgical Products Co., 35th & Moore Streets, Philadelphia, PA 19145
Milward Alloys, Inc., P.O. Box 336, N Transit & Mill St., Lockport, NY 14094
NL Industries, Inc., Ill Broadway, New York, NY 10006
Perth Amboy, NJ
NL Industries, Inc., 4670 Werk Road, Cincinnati, OH 45211
NL Industries, Inc., 1776 Columbus Road, Cleveland, OH 44113
Pittsburgh, PA
NL Industries, Inc., 1015 Locust Street, St. Louis, MO 63101
Dallas, TX
Nassau Recycle Corp., 286 Richmond Valley Road, Tottenville, NY 10307
New England Sm. Works, Inc., 502 Union Street, W Springfield, MA 01089
North American Smelting Co., Marine Terminal, Wilmington, DE 19899
North Chicago Rfg. & Sm. Inc., 2028 S Sheridan Road, N Chicago, IL 60064
River Sm. & Rfg. Co., P.O. Box 5755, Cleveland, OH 44101
Rochester Sm. & Rfg.. Co., Inc., P.O. Box 547, 26 Sherer Street,
Rochester, NY 14611
Roessing Bronze Co., P.O. Box 60, Mars, PA 16046
S-G Metals Inds., Inc., 2nd & Riverview, Kansas City, KS 66118
Geo. Sail Metals Co., Inc., 2255 E Butler Street, Philadelphia, PA 19137
I. Schumann & Co., 22500 Alexander Road, Bedford, OH 44146
Sipi Metals Corp., 1720 N Elston Avenue, Chicago, IL 60622
Sitkin Sm. & Rfg. Inc., P.O. Box 708, Lewistown, PA 17044
South Bend Sm. & Rfg. Co., 1610 Circle Avenue, S Bend, IN 46621
Specialloy Inc., 4025 S Keeler Avenue, Chicago, IL 60632
B6
-------
Lead Smelters Closed Since 1925
CO
T\f\ 1 / — _ — _
rin T/
Hrx— — —— „„_ — ._ _-._ ..__ — _—
International Smelting and Refining Co —
U.S. Smelting, Refining & Mining Co
United States Mining and Refining Co
_!/ 1934 - smelters dismantled, refinery
2/ 1926 - ASARCO Incorporated.
2J 1921 - American Zinc, Lead & Smelting
4/ 1923 - leased to Eagle-Picher Lead Co
County
La Plata
Lake
Salt Lake
Douglas
Middlesex
Contra Costa
Elko
Cherokee
Madison
Newton
Tooele
Nye
Pollanwatomie
Cochise
Madison
Salt Lake
Essex
only.
Co.
•
City
Durango
Leadville
Murray
Omaha
Perth Amboy
Selby
Spruce Mtn.
Galena
Alton
Granby
Tooele
Tonopah
S . Louis
Douglas
Collinsville
Midvale
Newark
State
Colorado
An
Utah
Nebraska
New Jersey
California
Nevada
Kansas
Illinois
Missouri
Utah
Nevada
Oklahoma
Arizona
Illinois
Utah
New Jersey
Capacity
120,000
180,000
150,000
38,000
165,000
216,000
11,000
10,000
128,000
24,000
300,000
30,000
30,000
77,000
78,000
250,000
180,000
Date
closed
1940
1961
1949
1934
1934
1970
1925
1956
1959
1942
1971
1925
1927
1931
1934
1958
1935
-------
Major Secondary Lead Smelting Companies Reporting
to the Bureau of Mines
Company
Plant
ASARCO Incorporated (including
Federated Metals Div.)
Chloride Metals, Div. of Contract
Manufacturers, Inc >
East Penn Mfg. Co
General Battery Corp
Gopher Smelting & Refining Co
Gould, Inc
Nassau Recycle Corp
NL Industries, Inc. (including
Bearings Magnus Div.)
RSR Corp. (including Murph-
Murdock Div. and Quemetco Div.)'
Richardson Graphics-
Schuylkill Metal Corporation
Seitzinger's Inc
U.S.S. Lead Refinery, Inc
Hyman Viener, and Sons
Willard Smelting Company
San Francisco, CA, Whiting, IN,
Omaha, NE, Newark, NJ, Houston, TX.
Tampa, FL, Columbus, GA
Florence, MS.
Lyons Station, PA.
Reading, PA.
St. Paul, MN.
Omaha, NE, Philadelphia, PA.
Tottenville, NY.
Los Angeles, CA, Atlanta, GA
Chicago, Granite City, and McCook, IL
Beach Grove, IN, St. Louis Park, MN
St. Louis, MO, Fremont, NE
Pedricktown, NJ, Cincinnati and
Cleveland, OH, Portland, OR
Dallas and Houston, TX.
City of Industry, CA
Indianapolis, IN, Middletown, NY
Dallas, TX, Seattle, WA.
Philadelphia, PA.
Baton Rouge, LA.
Atlanta, GA.
East Chicago, IN.
Richmond, VA.
Charlotte, NC.
Startup dates not available.
B8
-------
Plants Treating Tin Materials, Closed Since 1925
County
. Hn -
City
Rahway
Philadelphia
Carteret
Laurel Hill, L.I.
Tottenville
Perth Amboy
Sewaren
State
New Jersey
Pennsylvania
New Jersey
New York
New York
New Jersey
Hn
Date
closed
1942
1942
1943
1943
1945
1946
1951
There are no secondary tin smelters in the United States.
recover tin from scrap.
Copper and lead secondary smelters
-------
GOLD
Gold usually in a flotation concentrate, is treated together
with other base metals, particularly copper, at base metal smelters,
hence, there are no gold smelters, as such.
A few mine operators produce a gold-silver bullion product from
cyanide precipitates by fluxing, melting, and refining in relatively
small furnaces. The Bureau of Mines has no record of these operations
since, in the past, statistics on processed gold were collected by the
Office of Domestic Gold and Silver Operations in the Department of the
Treasury. Possibly, Treasury would have historical information
available on these small furnace operations, but the pollution potentials
would seem limited.
Companies currently operating cyanide precipitate reduction plants
of any significance are Homestake Mining Co. at Lead, Lawrence Co.,
South Dakota; Carlin Gold Mining Co. near Carlin, Eureka Co., Nevada;
and Cortez Gold Mines, near Cortez, Lander Co., Nevada. The Cortez
operations are about to close. The Homestake operations date back to
the late 1800's, the Carlin operations began in 1965, and the Cortez
operations began in 1969.
Roasting of gold ores as a means of increasing recovery has been
practiced at mines with refractory ores, but no records have been collected
on this. One of the operations where roasting was significant because
of the large amounts of arsenic in the ore was the Getchell mine in
Humboldt Co., Nevada. The nearest city is Winnemucca. The last year of
production at the Getchell was 1967 and the plant has been dismantled.
Exploration has been conducted at the site recently and consideration is
being given to renewed operations.
BIO
-------
TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Pleat read 1mfractions on the reverse befart completing/
NO.
560/6-77-001
3. RECIPIENTS ACCESSION NO.
TITLE AND SUBTITLE
S. REPORT DATE
The Ecological Effects of Arsenic Emitted from
Nonferrous Smelters
8, PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
AUTHOR(S)
3. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
Francis E. Benenati, Brian H. Winchester,
Timothy P. King
, PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME ANO ADDRESS
Environmental Science and Engineering, Inc.
P.O. Box 13454, University Station
Gainesville, Florida 32604
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
68-01-3248, Task 1
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME ANO ADDRESS
Office of Toxic Substances
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D.C. 20460
13. TYPE Of REPORT ANO PERIOD COVERED
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
IS. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
8. ABSTRACT
This report is an assessment of the ecological effects of arsenic and other
associated contaminants emitted from nonferrous smelters on economically important
plant and animal species in the human food chain. The objective of this study was
to evaluate the latest information available on air, water, and solid waste dis-
charges of arsenic and other heavy metals, along with sulfur oxide emissions from
nonferrous smelters and associated ecological effects. To accomplish this objec-
tive, the study focused primarily on three areas of concern: (1) the extent of
the ecological damage around primary and secondary smelters; (2) the extent that
arsenic, by itself or in combination with other chemicals, caused this ecological
damage; and (3) how present or projected levels of emissions, including no discharge,
affect the levels of damage.
17.
KEY WORDS ANO DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
b.lOENTIFlERS/OPSN ENOED TERMS C. COSATI Field/Croup
Smelters
Arsenic
Arsenic smelters
18. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
1». SECURITY CLASS (Thit Rtport/ 21. NO. Of=
20. SECURITY CLASS (TTtit O»f«;
22. f»«IC£
CPA form 2220-1 (»-7J)
------- |