POLYCHLDRINATED BIPHENYLS
1929 - 1979:
FINAL .REPORT
May 1979
U.S. EJ^VTRaMEOTAL PROTBCTICN AGENCY
Office of "toxic Substances
Washington, D. C. 20460
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This document is available in limited quantities through the U. S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Industry.Assistance Office, Office of Toxic
Substances (TS-793), 401 M Street, S.W., Washington, D.C. 20460.
This document will subsequently be available through the National
Technical Information Service, Springfield, Virginia, 22151.
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560/6-79-004
POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYLS 1929-1979 :
FINAL REPORT
Final Report
Submitted,to:
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Toxic Substances
Washington, D.C. 20460
Attention: Mr. Thomas E. Kbpp
Project Officer
Contract No. 68-01-3259
Submitted by:
VERSAR, INC.
6621 Electronic Drive
Springfield, Virginia 22151
(703) 750-3000
May 16, 1979
C
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This report has been reviewed by the Office of Toxic Substances, U. S.
Environmental Protection Agency/ and approved for publication. Approval does
not necessarily signify that the contents reflect the views and policies of
the Environmental Protection Agency, nor does mention of tradenames or cottner-
cial products constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.
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This document is available in limited quantities through the U. S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Industry Assistance Office, Office of Toxic
Substances (TS-793), 401 M Street, S.W., Washington, D.C. 20460.
This document will subsequently be available through the National
Technical Information Service, Springfield, Virginia, 22151.
-------
This report has been reviewed by the Office of Toxic Substances, U. S.
Environmental Protection Agency, and approved for publication. Approval does
not necessarily signify that the contents reflect the views and policies of
the Environmental Protection Agency, nor does mention of tradenames or ccrrmer-
cial products constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.
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PREFACE
This report summarizes the work on Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PQBs) that
Versar performed for the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency under Contract
No. 68-01-3259. Mr. Thomas E. Kopp was the Program Manager for the EPA
throughout the performance of this work, and his patient support is gratefully
acknowledged.
PCBs were first manufactured in canmercial quantities in the U.S. in
1930, and during the next 40 years they were widely used as solvents, resins,
and electrical dielectric liquids. Recognition of their environmental persis-
tence and toxicity in the late 1960's eventually led to a ban on the manufac-
ture and use of PCBs in the Toxic Substances Control Act of 1976. This report
summarizes the use of PCBs and much of the early literature on the uses and
toxicity of this material. In addition, the report reviews the regulatory
actions that have been taken to limit the hazards to health and the environment
resulting from the accumulation of PCBs in the environment and from their con-
tinued use in certain electrical equipment. The report is primarily a summary
of the reports that Versar has prepared in support of the EPA's regulatory
activities involving PCBs.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.0 INTPODUCTION
2.0 POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYLS.
2.1 History of PCB Usage 1
2.2 PCB Use Restrictions and Government Regulations 5
3.0 CONTRACT SUPPORT OF EPA ACTIONS ON PCRS 7
3.1 Support of Office of Toxic Substances 7
3.2 Support of the Criteria and Standards Division 10
3.3 Support of PCB Work Group - Disposal and Marking Regulations. 12
3.4 Support of PCB Work Group - PCB Ban Regulations 13
3.5 Support of EPA Office of Planning and Management -
PCB Ban Regulations 14
APPENDIX A - FEDERAL REGISTER NOTICES REGARDING PCBs
APPENDIX B - CONTRACTOR REPORTS TO EPA RELATED TO PCBs
APPENDIX C - SUMMARY OF MAJOR VERSAR REPORTS REGARDING PCBs
ill.
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1.0 INTRODUCTIOSI
On June 26, 1975, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency awarded
contract no. 68-01-3259 to Versar, Inc. Under this contract, it was antici-
pated that Versar would be assigned a number of tasks to assess the micro-
economic impacts of regulatory alternatives which the EPA would consider for
various toxic substances. The first task assigned under this contract required
Versar to review and sumnarize the existing data on the use of polychlorinated
biphenyls and to identify the industrial segments that might be dinpacted by
regulations limiting the use of PCBs.
Before this task was completed, PCBs became a major issue within EPA,
and the scope of the work assigned to Versar was increased as the agency
required additional support. This report summarizes the work that Versar
performed over the next four years for the EPA under the subject contract and
a follow-on contract that was closely related to this work. All of this work
supported regulatory activities involving PCBs, so the description of the work
performed necessarily includes a history of the use of PCBs, a summary of
regulatory development, and references to related research and reports.
2.0 POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYLS
Polychlorinated biphenyls are a group of related compounds formed by the
addition of chlorine to the aromatic hydrocarbon "biphenyl." The reaction
can be described by the following equation:
H
Fed,
H+nCI,
X+nHCI
H
X X X X
WHERE X = nCI, 10-nH
2.1 History of PCB Usage:
PCBs were first synthesized and described in 1881 (Schmidt, 1881).
Commercial production of PCBs did not become possible until after an economical
method was developed during the 1920s for the manufacture of biphenyl from benzene.
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Biphenyls were first produced in commercial quantities in the U. S.
by Swann Research, Inc., of Anniston, Alabama. Shortly after they started
manufacturing biphenyls, Swann Research described the manufacturing process
(Jenkins, 1930) and the properties of the PCBs they were marketing under the
tradename Aroclor (Penning, 1930). The various Aroclors were described as
mixtures of chlorinated diphenyls with a wide range of properties from a
light oil to a hard resin depending on the degree of chlorination. A number of
commercial applications were suggested, including use in varnish, as a
fireproof ing agent for wood, in electrical equipment as a liquid dielectric
and as a component of electrical insulation, as an ingredient in adhesives, as
a replacement for Canada Balsam in microscopy, as a substitute for chicle in
chewing gum, and in miscellaneous uses including printing inks and textile
finishing (Penning 1930). A separate technical article described the compati-
bility of PCBs in nitrocellulose lacquer resins (Jenkins, 1931). The first
major use of PCBs was apparently as a liquid dielectric in capacitors manu-
factured by General Electric Co. starting in 1930 (Clark, 1962). General
Electric also developed the use of PCBs in other electrical applications as
described in articles published during the 1930s (Clark, 1934; Clark, 1937).
PCBs were manufactured at the Anniston, Alabama, plant by Swann Research,
Inc. and its corporate successor, Monsanto Chemicals Co., until the plant was
shut down in 1971. Monsanto also manufactured PCBs at its plant at Sauget,
Illinois, until 1977. The only other known U. S. manufacturer of PCBs was
Geneva Industries of Houston, Texas, which manufactured PCBs for heat transfer
applications from 1972 through 1974.
Most of the applications of PCBs that had been suggested in 1930 proved
to be successful. PCBs were used as heat transfer liquids in critical appli-
cations such as food processing (Smith, 1955; Coulson, 1957), in various elec-
trical applications (Clark, 1962), in sealants (Skrentny, 1971), in carbonless
copy papers (Masuda, 1972; Lister, 1972), and in paint (Young, 1974). Poly-
chlorinated terphenyls were suggested as a carrier for insecticides (Tsao,
1953; Sullivan, 1953). A Monsanto marketing guide to PCBs which was published
in the late 1960s also described their possible use as expansion media in tempera-
ture sensing bellows devices, as liquid sealants for furnace roofs, as sealers for
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gaskets, as dedusting agents, in insecticides, in casting waxes, in abrasives,
in lubricants and cutting oils, in adhesives, in polishing waxes and impregnat-
ing compounds, in coatings, in inks, in mastics, in sealing and caulking com-
pounds, in tack coatings, and as plasticizers in plastics, paint, varnish, and
lacquer. (Monsanto, undated). In addition, a number of other uses of PCBs
had been patented over the years (for a list of patents see: Interdepartmental
Task Force on PCBs, 1972, pp. 70-74).
The available data on the toxicity of PCBs was first summarized in an
article published in 1931 (Smyth, 1931). Skin problems attributed to PCB
exposure were later reported to be associated with various industrial pro-
cesses including PCB manufacturing (Jones, 1936), capacitor manufacturing
(Mayers, 1936), industrial painting (Birmingham, 1942), and electrical cable
insulating (Good, 1943). Systemic effects of exposure to mixtures of chlorinated
organic compounds including PCBs were also noted during the 1930s (Drinker, 1937)
and were evaluated by animal exposure studies (Bennett, 1938; von Wedel, 1943;
Miller, 1944.) In much of this early work, the toxicity studies used
commercial mixtures which included chlorinated naphthalenes, and the effects of
PCBs were not conclusively demonstrated (Drinker, 1939). Animal exposure tests
eventually defined the toxicity of PCBs (Treon, 1946; Mclaughlin, 1963; American
Industrial Hygiene Assoc., 1965), and reports of worker health problems became
limited to unusual situations (i.e., Meigs, 1954). Information on the toxicity
of PCBs led the investigation of PCBs as a possible cause of chick edema disease
(McCune, 1962; Flick, 1965) which was later demonstrated to be caused by con-
tamination of feed with chlorinated dibenzodioxins.
During the early 1960s interest increased concerning the biological effects
of environmental levels of chlorinated pesticide residues such as DDT and chlordane.
Measurement of low levels of these compounds in biological samples required the
development of sensitive analytical procedures that could both separate the
pesticides from each other and from similar compounds and measure the amount of
each compound present. The technique that was developed to perform this
analysis was gas chromatography. In this method, a small amount of sample is
introduced into a long heated tube which is packed with a material that has
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different adsorption characteristics for the different compounds in the
sample. The tube is then flushed with an inert gas, and the different com-
pounds are swept out of the tube at different times past a detector that is
sensitive to the presence of chlorinated organic compounds and that gives a
response proportional to the amount of chlorinated material in the stream of
inert gas. The time required for each compound to move through the tube depends
on the temperature, the type of packing, the rate of flushing with inert gas,
and the characteristics of the particular compound. Therefore, the identifica-
tion of the compounds in the environmental sample depends on knowing the reten-
tion time of the compounds and the response of the detector to each compound.
This requires that known compounds be run through the column and detector, and
as a result, only known compounds can be identified. Gas chromatography proved
to be a very useful method for determining the concentrations of low levels of
pesticides in environmental samples, but the detector usually recorded the
presence of a number of chemicals that could not be identified by comparison
with known pesticide chemicals.
In 1966, Soren Jensen attempted to identify the unknown compounds that
were being recorded during routine pesticide analyses. In order to determine
when the unknown compounds first appeared in biological samples, be analyzed
feathers, fron eagles that had been taken for museum collections. He found
the unknown materials in feathers collected as early as 1944, before the wide-
spread use of chlorinated pesticides, and so concluded that the unknown materials
were not pesticides or degradation products of pesticides (Jensen, 1972). By
testing chlorinated materials that were in wide use before 1944, he eventually
identified commercial PCBs as the source of the unknown compounds, and published
this finding in late 1966 (Jensen, 1966).
A full discussion of the presence of PCBs in pesticide analyses was
published in 1967 (Widmark, 1967), and this set off a number of investigations
to determine the extent of environmental contamination by PCBs. The discovery
that PCBs were cannon in the environment in sufficient concentrations to affect
the reproduction of wild birds was published in 1968 (Risebrough, 1968). This
article was picked up in the press which started the widespread concern about
possible human health effects from PCBs in the environment.
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PLEASE RETURN TOJ
NCIC/OTS CHEMICAL LIBRARY.
401 M ST., S.W., TS-793
WASHINGTON, D.C. 20460
The Yusho incident that occurred in Japan during the summer of 1968 added
to the public concern over the toxicity of PCBs. This was a case of widespread
PCB poisoning caused by contamination of cooking oil. The PCBs were used
a heat transfer liquid on the high temperature side of a heat exchanger used
to pasturize the oil. Over 1000 people were seriously affected by eating con-
taminated oil (Kuratsune, 1971). The resulting concern over PCBs led to regula-
tory activity and increased research throughout the world. In July of 1971, a
similar incident in the United States contaminated a considerable quantity of
chicken feed as the result of leakage of PCB heat transfer fluid. The U.S.
Food and Drug Administration eventually destroyed thousands of chickens and
eggs that were fed this contaminated feed (Pichirallo, 1971). Starting in 1970,
Monsanto voluntarily limited sales of PCBs to closed electrical equipment
applications (Wood, 1975) and recommended that existing PCB-filled heat
transfer systems be drained and refilled with non-PCB fluid (Monsanto, 1972).
This voluntary ban was completed by the end of 1973. Monsanto closed the
Anniston, Alabama, manufacturing plant at this time.
By 1972, a great deal of research had been completed on PCBs and was
summarized in various review articles covering their toxicity (Kimbrough, 1972;
Kimbrough, 1974), environmental impact (Peakall, 1972; Hammond, 1972), environ-
mental distribution (Nisbet, 1972), uses (Broadhurst, 1972), presence in food
(Fries, 1972) and chemical analysis (Reynolds, 1971). The basic information
on PCBs was later compiled in the monograph "The Chemistry of PCBs" (Hutzinger,
1974). The amount of published information on PCBs has continued to grow
rapidly since the early 1970s and is now most accessible through published
literature surveys (Fuller, 1976; Kbrnreich, 1976) and annotated bibliographies
(Quinby, 1972; Office of Water Resources Research, 1973; Office of Water
Research and Technology, 1975; Cavagnaro, 1978).
2.2 PCB Use Restrictions and Government Regulations
The Yusho incident created considerable concern in the U. S. over
possible contamination of food by PCBs. The U. S. Food and Drug Administration
started routine sampling of foods for PCBs in 1969, and soon found that PCBs
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were present in fish from the Great Lakes, that there was PCB contamination of
milk caused by use of PCBs as a solvent in pesticide sprays and as a compo-
nent of sealants used in farm silos, and that there was contamination of
chickens resulting from PCBs introduced into the feed as a component of ground
bread cartons and wrappers. It has since become apparent that the presence of
PCBs in fish is a problem that has existed since at least 1964 (Hartsough, 1965),
although PCBs were not identified as the cause of the problem until 1971
(Aulerich, 1971; Aulerich, 1973).
From 1969 through 1971, the FDA established action levels for PCBs in food
at 0.2 ppm in milk, 5 ppm in edible flesh of fish, 5 ppm in poultry, and 0.5
ppm in eggs. In 1970, the FDA prepared a surrmary of the available information
on the chemistry and toxicity of PCBs (U. S. Department of Health, Education,
and Welfare, 1970). In 1972, the FDA published a notice of proposed rulemaking
(Federal Register, 37FR 5705). The U. S. Department of Agriculture also
prepared a report on ways that it could act to limit PCB contamination of Food
(U. S. Department of Agriculture Ad Hoc Group on PCBs, 1972.) In 1973, the
FDA formally established limits for PCBs in food and animal feed (Federal
Register/ 38FR 18096). The FDA proposed a revision of these limits in
1977 (Federal Register, 42FR 17487) , but no action has yet been taken on
this proposal.
During 1970, the Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ) studied regulatory
approaches to the problem of toxic chemicals in the environment. In its report
"Toxic Substances" published in 1971, CEQ identified PCBs as a major problem
(Council on Environmental Quality, 1971). The initial response of the respon-
sible agencies was to establish a task force to review the available informa-
tion on PCBs and recommend regulatory alternatives (Interdepartmental Task
Force on PCBs, 1972).
During 1973 and 1974, the EPA proposed the establishment of water quality
criteria for PCBs in industrial discharges as part of a program for establish-
ing such criteria for a larger group of pesticides. However, PCBs were not
covered in the effluent standards that were eventually promulgated.
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The Occupational Safety and Health Administration adopted the standards for
PCB exposure in industrial air that had previously been established by the
American industrial Hygiene Association. The National Institute of Occupational
Safety and Health conducted a major review of available data and an extensive
program of industry assessment in the mid 1970s, and the final report recom-
mended that the allowable concentration of PCBs in the work place be reduced
(NIOSH, 1977). However, OSHA has not yet taken action on this recommendation.
Government actions restricting the use of PCBs were not limited to
the United States. Japan banned the manufacture and use of PCBs in the early
1970s because of public pressure following the Yusho incident. Sweden banned
the use of PCBs at about the same time. International actions were also taken
to reduce the risk of food contamination by PCBs during the early 1970s (OCED,
1973; OECDCouncil, 1973; The Council of the European Communities, 1976).
3.0 CONTRACT SUPPORT OF EPA ACTIONS ON PCBS
3.1 Support of Office of Toxic Substances
During 1974 and 1975, the Office of Toxic Substances sponsored a
series of review studies to identify regulatory alternatives for various
specified toxic substances. Contract 68-01-3259 was awarded by the EPA to
Versar on June 26, 1975, to support similar work on additional chemicals.
The first task on this new contract was assigned by the EPA Technical
Project Officer, Mr. David Garrett, on June 27, 1975. This task required
the contractor to study the role of PCBs in the U.S. economy and prepare
a draft report by October 31, 1975, identifying and screening alternative
regulatory and non-regulatory control options: Study of Regulatory Alterna-
tives for PCBs; Draft Interim Report - Task I, October 31. (Unpublished -
Superceded by "PCBs in the United States... .";)
As part of the review of PCBs, the Office of Toxic Substances
sponsored a national conference on PCBs in Chicago on November 19 thru
21, 1975.
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The Technical Coordinator of this conference was Mr. Thomas Kbpp of the Office
of Toxic Substances. Several major articles on the environmental effects of
PCBs that appeared in the popular press shortly before the conference (Boyle,
1975a; Boyle, 1975b) caused considerable public interest in the conference and
a number of demands that EPA regulate PCBs. Dr. Robert Durfee of Versar parti-
cipated in this conference and presented a paper summarizing the background on
PCBs as presented in the draft report (Durfee, 1975).
Because of the increasing importance of PCBs to the activities of the
Office of Toxic Substances after the conference, the EPA assigned Mr. Kopp
as Technical Project Officer on the contract and had the contractor expand
the draft interim report and prepare four special reports under Task I.
The Versar Program Manager in charge of this work was Dr. Robert Durfee. The
following reports were submitted in response to this directive:
The Handling and Disposal of Electric Transformers; Special Report,
Task I (December 5, 1975). Non-proprietary sections included in
"PCBs in the United States "
Results from Review and Analysis of 308 Letter Responses on PCB Manu-
facturing, Usage, and Disposal in United States Industry: Special
Report (December, 1975).
* Toxicological Studies Conducted Under Task I: Special Report (February
19, 1976). Incorporated in "PCBs in the United States..." as Appendix F.
* Development of an Economic Analysis Methodology for Evaluating Regula-
tory Alternatives for PCBs: Special Report, Task 1 (March 9, 1976).
Unpublished.
* PCBs in the United States: Industrial Use and Environmental Distribution
Final Report, Task I (February 25, 1976). EPA 560/6-76-005. NTIS
PB 252 012.
At about the same time that Task I \ias expanded, the EPA directed the con-
tractor to perform two additional tasks. Task II was a study of wastewater treat-
ment technology that could be used to reduce the concentration of PCBs in industrial
effluents. This work was supported by Clark, Dietz Associates who performed the
industrial economic analysis under subcontract from Versar as provided by Modifica-
tion 1 to the contract. Task III was a plan for an assessment of the use of PCBs
summary of report in Appendix C.
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in the investment casting industry and the resulting environmental
impacts. Versar program managers were Mr. Donald Sargent on Task II and Dr.
Robert Durfee on Task III. The following reports were submitted in response
to these work directives:
* Assessment of Wastewater Management, Treatment Technology, and
Associated Cost for Abatement of PCBs Concentration in Industrial
Effluents; Final Report, Task II.(February 3, 1976).EPA 560/6-
76-006. NTIS PB 251-433/AS.
* Development of a Study Plan for Definition of PCBs Usage, Wastes, and
Potential Substitution in the Investment Casting Industry: Final
Report, Task III. (January, 1976) EPA 560/6-76-007. NTIS PB 251-842.
Based on these three tasks and on other work performed within the Environ-
mental Protection Agency, the EPA published recommended disposal procedures for
PCBs (Federal Register, 41 FR 14134) and proposed effluent standards for PCBs
in the water discharges from PCB manufacturers and from capacitor and transformer
manufacturers that used PCBs (Federal Register, 41 FR 30468).
Senator Gaylord Nelson introduced an amendment to the Toxic Substances Control
Act (TSCA) on March 26, 1976. This amendment required the EPA to establish label-
ing and disposal requirements for PCBs and mandated an eventual ban on the manu-
facture and processing of PCBs. This amendment was incorporated into TSCA as
Section 6 (e) and became a legislated requirement when TSCA was signed into law
on October 11, 1976. The effective date of TSCA was January 1, 1977.
On July 15, 1976, EPA modified the contract to support additional studies
on several aspects of PCBs. EPA technical supervision of this work was the
responsibility of Mr. Kbpp. Under this contract modification (Mod. 4), four
formal tasks were established and two additional reports were prepared for
internal EPA use. The Versar program manager for this work was Mr. Robert Westin,
with each report being the responsibility of a Versar Task Manager who was as
the principal author of the report. The following reports were submitted in
response to the requirements of this contract modification:
*See summary of report in Appendix C.
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* PCBs Involvement in the Pulp and Paper Industry: Final Report, Task IV.
EPA 560/6-77-005, NTIS PB 271-071/6WP. February 25, 1977.
* A First Order Mass Balance Model for the Sources, Distribution, and
Fate of PCBs in the Environment; Final Report, Task V.'
EPA 560/6-77-006, NTIS PB 270-220. July, 1977.
* Assessment of the Environmental and Econcmic Bnpacts of the Ban on
Snports of PCBs: Final Report, Task VI. EPA 560/6-77-007, OTIS
PB 270-225. July 1977.
* Assessment of the Use of Selected Replacement Fluids for PCBs in Elec-
trical Equipment: Final Report, Task VII. EPA 560/6-77-008, NTIS No.
forthcoming. April, 1979.
Environmental Discharges of PCBs Associated with the Manufacture and
Use of PCBs and PCB-Containing Equipment? (Contains EPA proprietary
Information, submitted to EPA Enforcement Division.) October 29, 1976.
Usage of PCBs in Open and Semi-Closed Systems and the Resulting losses
of PCBs to the Environment. (Contains EPA proprietary information,
submitted to EPA Enforcement Division). September 30, 1976.
3.2 Supportjjf the Criteria and Standards Division
Versar provided support to the Criteria and Standards Division of
EPA under three separate contract modifications. All of the work involved support
of the effluent standards for PCBs by performing additional technical and economic
analysis of the feasibility and costs of various pollution abatement technologies.
The EPA Technical Program Manager on this work was Mr. Thomas Kopp, and the EPA
Task Manager was Mr. Ralph Holtje of the Criteria and Standards Division. The
Versar Program Manager was Mr. Donald Sargent. The contract modification require-
ments and the reports submitted were as follows:
Modification 2 (Feb. 27, 1976): Provided for the analysis of the
economic impacts of the proposed regulation by Jack Faucett
Associates under subcontract from Versar and for the review of
the Final Task II report by Versar.
*See summary of report in Appendix C.
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* PCBs Water Elimination/Reduction Technology and Associated Costs:
Manufacturers of Electrical Capacitors and 'Transformers; Addendum
to Final Report, Task II. EPA 440/9-76-020. July 2, 1976.
Recommendations as to PCB Sampling Sites and Sampling Points at
Industrial Sources: Special Report. August 17, 1976.
* Economic Analysis of Proposed Toxic Pollutant Effluent Standards
for Polychlorinated Biphenyls; Transformer, Capacitor, and PCB~
Manufacturing. (Prepared by Jack Faucett Associates) EPA 230/1-
76-068. October, 1976.
Modification 3 (June 10, 1976): Provided for additional assessment
of wastewater management and treatment technology and support of
EPA during formal hearings and rulemaking proceedings.
Costs for U.V. - Ozonation Process: Addendum to Final Report,
Task II. September 27, 1976.Unpublished.=
* Detailed Cost Estimates for Alternative PCBs Treatment Technol-
ogies Applied to Hypothetical Large arid Medium Sized PCB Capacitor
and Transformer Manufacturing Plants. Addendum to Final Report,
Task II. October 15, 1976. Unpublished.
Cost for Equalization Basin Based on Bentonite Clay Liner Special
Renort, October, 1976. Unnublished.
* Impacts of Substitutes for PCBs on Fire Hazards in Commercial and
Residential Buildings; (Draft) Special Report. October, 1976.
Unpublisned.
* Recent Advances in PCBs Detoxification in Wastewater: Supplement
to Final Report, Task II. January 18, 1977. Unpublished.
* PCB Levels in Non-Contact Cooling Waters and Other Effluents from
Capacitor and Transformer Production Facilities; Supplement to
Final Report, Task II. January 18, 1977. Unpublished.
* Refinement of Alternative Technologies and Estimated Costs for Re-
duction of PCBs in Industrial Wastewaters from the Capacitor and
Transformer Manufacturing Categories. January 19, 1977. Unpublished.
* Costs Associated with Installing Production Equipment for Use of
Nbn-PCB Dielectric Fluids in Transformer and Capacitor Manufacture;
Supplement to Final Report, Task II.January 19, 1977-Unpublished.
*See summary of report in Appendix C.
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On February 2, 1977, the EPA promulgated effluent standards restricting
any discharges of PCBs in the wastewaters fron manufacturers of PCBs or from
capacitor and transformer manufacturing plants that used PCBs after February 2,
1978 (Federal Register, 42 FR6531).
3.3 Support of PCS Work Group - Disposal and Marking Regulations
Section 6 (e) (1) of the Toxic Substances Control Act required the EPA
to regulate the labeling and disposal of PCBs by July 1, 1977. On December 8,
1976, the EPA announced the formation of a PCB Work Group to write the proposed
rules. The contractor provided staff support to this work group, providing a
number of special reports as requested, performing the economic impact analysis
of the proposed regulation, and providing testimony at the rulemaking hearing.
The contract was modified on March 25, 1977, (Mod. 6) to authorize this addi-
tional technical and economic support. The EPA Project Officer for this work
was Mr. David Wagner, and Mr. Thomas Kopp remained the Technical Project Officer
in charge of the total contract. The Versar Program Manager was Mr. Robert
Westin. The following reports were submitted in support of the development of
the PCB Marking and Disposal Regulations:
Assessment Methodology for labeling and Education to Assure the
Proper Disposal of PCBs; Special Report. November, 1976.
Analysis of the Economic and Technological Constraints on the Disposal
of PCBs: Special Report. November 22, 1976.
PCB Disposal Regulations; Problem Areas and Regulatory Alternatives:
Special Report. December 10, 1976.
Estimated Usage of Electrical Equipment Containing PCBs: Special
Report. December 23, 1976.'
Recommended Label Requirements and Suggested label Formats: Special
Report. January 12, 1977.
Draft Notice of Public Meeting - PCBs. January 10, 1977.
Garments on PCB Definitions to Subcommittee on Manufacturing Bans.
January 14, 1977.
frSee summary in Appendix C.
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Draft Notice of Proposed Rulemaking, Preamble, and Labeling and
Disposal Regulations; Special Report. January 21, 1977; revised
February 4, 1977.
Labeling and Disposal Regulations; Revised Draft. January 27, 1977.
Draft Preamble to PCB Disposal Regulation. December 29, 1976:
revised January 12, 1977; revised February 4, 1977.
Economic Impact - Summary and Conclusions; Special Report. March 14,
1977.
Statement of Economic Consequences of the Rule: Special Report.
April 12, 1977.
* Microecononic Impacts of the Proposed Marking and Disposal Regulations
for PCBs. April, 1977. EPA 560/6-77-013, NTIS PB 267-833.
EPA formally proposed the rules for marking and disposal of PCBs on
May 24, 1977 (Federal Register, 42 FR 26564). Rulemaking hearings were held
on June 24, 27, 28, and 29. Mr. Westin of Versar presented testimony on the
economic impacts of the proposed regulation at the hearings on June 29. The
EPA promulgated the PCB Disposal and Marking Regulations on February 17, 1978
(Federal Register, 43 FR 7150) and issued corrections on August 2, 1978 (Federal
Register, 43 FR 33918). The effective date of the regulations was April 18,
1978.
3.4 Support of PCB Work Group - PCB Ban Regulations
Sections 6(e)(2) and 6(e)(3) of the Toxic Substances Control Act
banned the manufacturing, processing, distribution, and use of PCBs after
January 1, 1978, except in a totally enclosed manner; completely banned the
manufacture of PCBs after January 1, 1979; and completely banned the process-
ing and distribution in commerce of PCBs after July 1, 1979. However, the Act
also authorized the EPA to exempt those activities involving PCBs that did not
present an unreasonable risk of injury to health or the environment provided
*See summary in Appendix C.
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that good faith efforts were made to develop an adequate substitute for PCBs
in that use. On June 27, 1977. the EPA announced the formation of a PCB work
group to develop proposed regulations implementing these provisions of the act,
and announced public meetings on the subject to be held in Washington, D.C. on
July 19, 1977 (Federal Register, 42 FR 32555).
EPA modified the contract on June 26, 1977, (Mod. 7) to provide for
support during the development of the proposed ban regulations. EPA Project
Officers continued to be Mr. Wagner and Mr. Kopp. Versar's work was supervised
by Mr. Westin. Versar prepared briefing papers for the work group prior to
the public meetings and submitted them to the work group as the special report:
Potential Impacts of the Bans on PCB Manufacturing, Processing, and Use;
PCB Activity Analysis Papers (July 11, 1977).* Following the public meetings,
the work group prepared a draft of the proposed regulations (August 30, 1977),
and the contractor submitted a formal report on the economic impacts of these regular
tions: Microeconomic Impacts of the Draft "PCB Ban Regulations": Draft
Report (September 18, 1977). Formal proposal of the ban regulations was
delayed while the Work Group prepared the final version of the Disposal and
Marking Regulations, and on December 30, 1977, EPA announced that it would not
enforce the January 1, 1978 ban on open system activities involving PCBs until
after formal ban regulations were promulgated (Federal Register, 42 FR 65264 ).
The work group continued to revise the draft proposed regulation,
and Versar submitted a major revision of the economic impact analysis reflect-
ing the changes in the proposed regulation and including appendices character-
izing the U.S. waste oil industry and presenting a formal microeconomic analysis
of the supply and demand effects of the PCB Ban on the electric equipment indus-
try: Microeconomic Impacts of the Draft "PCB Ban Regulations": Revised Draft
Report (March 8, 1978).*
3.5 Support of EPA Office of Planning and Management - PCB Ban Regulations
In early 1978, the EPA transferred responsibility for the analysis of
the economic impacts of the PCB ban regulations from the PCB Work Group to the
*See surrttiary in Appendix C.
-14-
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Office of Planning and Management. On .April 19, 1978, the EPA awarded contract
number 68-01-4771 to Versar for additional economic analysis, preparation of a
revision of the previously submitted draft economic impact report, and support
during the public hearings on the proposed regulations. The EPA Technical Pro-
ject Officer was Mr. Steven B. Malkensen, Office of Planning and Management.
The Versar Program Manager was Mr. Robert Westin. In May, 1978, the contractor
submitted the revised report: Microeconomic Impacts of the Proposed "PCS Ban
Regulations"* that was issued in support of the proposed regulations as EPA
Report No. EPA-560/6-77-035.
The EPA formally proposed the PCB Ban Regulations on June 7, 1978
(Federal Register, 43 FR 24801). Public Hearings were held in Washington,
D. C., from August 21 through September 1, 1978. Mr. Westin of Versar pre-
sented testimony on the economic impacts of the proposed regulations on Sep-
tember 26, 1978.
Following the hearings, EPA continued to revise the ban regulations.
On November 1, 197 8, EPA published interim procedural rules for filing and
processing petitions for exemptions from tha January 1, 1979 bans on manufactur-
ing of PCBs (Federal Register, 43 FR 50905;. On Januarv 2, 1979, *T>A Announced
that it would not enforce the prohibitions on PCB manufacturing, processing,
distribution in commerce, and use until after formal promulgation of the PCB
Ban Regulations (Federal Register, 44 FR 108).
On November 15, 1978, Versar submitted a draft report on the economic
impacts of the draft ban regulations: PCS Manufacturing, Processing, Distribu-
tion in Commerce, and Use Ban Regulation: Economic Impact Analysis; Draft
Final Report. A major revision of this report was submitted on December 22,
1978. On December 27, 1978, EPA modified contract 68-01-4771 to extend the
duration of the contract and to fund further revisions of the economic impact
analyses as required by additional changes to the draft regulation. Mr.
Stephen Weil was assigned to be the EPA Technical Project Officer for this
contract modification. The contractor submitted the final revision of this
*See summary in Appendix C.
-15-
-------
report on March 30, 1979.* EPA issued the final regulations on April 19, 1979.
Formal promulgation of the regulations through the Federal Register was expected
to occur by the end of May, 1979.
*See summary in Appendix C.
-16-
-------
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Fries, G.F. (1972). "PCB Residues: Their Significance to Animal
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-18-
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References (Continued)
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-19-
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References (Continued)
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(1975). PCB in Water: A Bibliography, Vol. 2. Springfield, Va.: National
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-20-
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References (Continued)
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U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare (1970). Supplement 1 -
Status Report on the Chemistry and Toxicology of Polychlorinated Biphenyls
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Von Wedel, H.; Holla, W.A.; Denton, J. (1943). "Observations on the Toxic
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Widmark, G. (1967). "Possible Interference by Chlorinated Biphenyls."
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References (Continued)
Wood, David (Monsanto Industrial Chemicals Co.) (1975). "Chlorinated
Biphenyl Dielectrics - Their Untility and Potential Substitutes." Conference
Proceedings: National Conference on Polychlorinated Biphenyls (Report No.
EPA-560/675-004). Washington, D.C.: Office of Toxic Substances, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, March, 1976, pp. 317-324.
Young, D.R.; Heesen, T.C.; McDermott, D.J.; Smoklev, P.E. (1974). "Marine
Inputs of Polychlorinated Biphenyls and Copper from Vessel Antifouling
Paints." Southern California Coastal Water Research Project, TM 212,
(May, 1974).
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APPENDIX A
FEDERAL REGISTER NOTICES REGARDING PCBs
-------
A-l
Environmental Protection Agency
Effluent Limitations (§ 307a Clean Water Act)
Date
Vol. Pacres
July 6, 1973 38 18044-5
Sept 7, 1973 38 24342-4
Dec 27, 1973 38 35388-95
Subject
Proposed List of Toxic Pollutants,
Including PCBs.
Promulgated List of Toxic Pollutants,
Including PCBs.
Proposed Water Effluent Standards,
Including PCBs.
Mar 5, 1974 39 8325-6 Public Hearings on Effluent Standards.
Mar 21, 1974 39 10603-4 Correction - Effluent Standards.
Jul 23, 1976 41 30468-77 Proposed Effluent Standards.
Feb 2, 1977 42 6531-55 Effluent Standard Regulations.
Spill Reporting Requirements (§ 311, Clean Water Act)
Date
Vol. Paaes
Subject
Feb 16, 1979 44 10266
Definition of "Discharge" under Clean
Water Act.
Feb 16, 1979 44 10271-84 Defines Reportable Quantities of PCBs
Spilled into Waterways, Reporting
Requirements and Fines.
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A-2
Disposal and Marking Regulations (§ 6el) Toxic Substances Control Act
Date
Apr 1, 1976
Dec 8, 1976
Jan 5, 1977
Jan 19, 1977
Apr 21, 1977
Vol. Pac
41 14134-36
41 53692
42 1067
42 3701-2
42 20640-44
May 24, 1977 42 26564-77
Jul 15, 1977 42 36484-85
Subject
Recommended Disposal Procedures.
Panel Discussion/Formation of PCB Work
Group.
Rescheduling of Meeting.
Notice of Jan. 24, 1977 Public Meeting.
Proposed Procedures for Rule-Making under
Sect. 6 of TSCA.
Proposed Marking and Disposal Regulations.
Deadline for Reply Comment Period.
Feb 17, 1978
Jul 18, 1978
Aug 2, 1978
Aug 25, 1978
Oct 26, 1978
Dec 20, 1978
43 7150-64
43 30882-3
43 33918-20
43 38087-88
43 50041
43 59432-3
Promulgated Marking and Disposal Regulations.
List of Approved PCB Disposal Facilities.
Corrections to Marking & Disposal Regulations.
List of Approved PCB Disposal Facilities.
List of Approved PCB Disposal Facilities.
List of Approved PCB Disposal Facilities.
Mar 12, 1979 44 13575
Request for Comments on Citizens' Petition to
Give Regional Administrators Authority to
Approve Alternate Disposal Methods.
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A-3
Ban Regulations (§ 6e2, 6e3, etc.) Toxic Substances Control Act
Date
Jun 27, 1977
Dec 30, 1977
Vol. Pages Subject
42 32555 Notice of July 19 Chicago Hearing.
42 65264 Notice that EPA Would Not Enforce Ban on
Uses in "Other Than a Totally Enclosed
Manner."
Jun 7, 1978 43
Jun 7, 1978 43
Aug 25, 1978 43
Sept 22, 1978 43
Nov 1, 1978 43
24802-17
24818
38057
43048
50905-07
Jan 2, 1979 44 108-109
May '-',/, 1979 44
Proposed Ban Regulations.
Requires Notification of Intent to Export.
Incorporates Hearing Record of Effluent
Standard Regulations into Hearing Record
for Ban Regulations.
Notice of Cross-Examination of Versar.
Interim Rules: Applications for Exemption
from PCB manufacturing ban.
Notice that enforcement is postponed until
regulations are promulgated.
Promulgated Ban Regulations
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Food and Drug Administration
A-4
Date
1972
Vol. Pages Subject
37 5705-5707 Notice of Proposed Rule-Making.
Jul 6, 1973 38 18096-103 Limits of PCBs in Foods, etc., Aug. 8
Corrections.
1975
40 11563-66
Apr 1, 1977 42 17487-94
PCBs in Paper/Food Packaging Material.
PCBs in Food - Proposed Changes.
National Cancer Institute
Date
Vol. Paaes
Apr 21, 1978 43 17060
Subject
Carcinogenicity of Aroclor 1254.
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APPENDIX B
VERSAR REPORTS TO EPA RELATED TO PCBs
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B-l
Contract 68-01-3259 - EPA; Mr. Thomas Kbpp, EPA Technical Project Officer
Office of Toxic Substances
Durfee, R. L.; Contos, G. Y.; and Whitmore, F. C. "Study of Regulatory Alterna-
tives for PCBs," Draft Interim Report, Task I. October 31, 1975. Unpublished.
(Superseded by PCBs in the United States...")
Westin, R. A. "The Handling and Disposal of Electric Transformers," Special Report,
Task I, EPA Proprietary Data. December 5, 1975. Unpublished. (Non-proprietary
parts included in "PCBs in the United States...")
*Pallotta, A. J. "Toxicological Studies Conducted Under Task I: Special Report."
Washington, D. C.: Office of Toxic Substances, U. S. Environmental Protec-
tion Agency, February 19, 1976. (Included in "PCBs in the United States..."
as Appendix F).
*Durfee, R. L.; Contos, G. Y.; Whitmore, F. C.; Barden, J. D.; Hackman, E. E.;
and Westin, R. A. "PCBs in the United States: Industrial Use and Environ-
mental Distribution," Final Report, Task I (EPA 560/6-76-005). Springfield,
Va.: National Technical Information Service (NTIS PB 252-012), February 25,
1976.
*Mosbaek, E. (Jack Faucett Associates), "Development of an Economic Analysis
Methodology for Evaluating Regulatory Alternatives for PCBs," Special Report,
Task I. March 9, 1976. Unpublished.
Contos, G. Y. and Durfee, R. L. "Results from Review and Analysis of 308 Letter
Responses on PCB Manufacturing, Usage, and Disposal in United States Industry."
(EPA Proprietary Information, submitted to EPA Enforcement Division) November,
1975. Unpublished.
*Contos, G.; Durfee, R. L.; Hackman, E. E. (Versar, Inc.), and Price, K. (Clark,
Dietz and Associates). "Assessment of Wastewater Management, Treatment
Technology, and Associated Cost for Abatement of PCBs Concentration in
Industrial Effluents," Final Report, Task II (EPA 560/6-76-006). Springfield,
Virginia: National Technical Information Service (NTIS PB 251-433/AS),
February 3, 1976.
*Barden, J. D. Durfee, R. L. "Development of a Study Plan for Definition of
PCBs Usage, Wastes, and Potential Substitution in the Investment Casting
Industry," Final Report, Task III (EPA 560/6-76-007). January, 1976.
Springfield, Va.: National Technical Information Service (NTIS PB 251-842).
*Carr, R. A.; Contos, G. Y.; Durfee, R. L.; Fong, C. C.; and McKay, E. G. "PCBs
Involvement in the Pulp and Paper Industry" Final Report, Task IV
(EPA 560/6-77-005). Springfield, Virginia: National Technical Information
Service (NTIS PB 271-071/6WP), February 25, 1977.
*Summary included in Appendix C.
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B-2
*Whitmore, F. C. "A First Order Mass Balance Model for the Sources, Distribution,
and Fate of PCBs in the Environment," Final Report, Task V. (Report No.
EPA 560/6-77-006), Springfield, Va.: National Technical Information Service
(NTIS PB 270-220), July, 1977.
*Burruss, R. P. "Assessment of the Environmental and Economic Impacts of the
Ban on Imports of PCBs," Final Report, Task VI. (Report No. EPA 560/6-77-007),
Springfield, Va.: National Technical Information Service (NTIS PB 270-225),
July, 1977.
*Westin, R. A. "Assessment of the Use of Selected Replacement Fluids for PCBs
in Electrical Equipment," Final Report, Task VII. (EPA 560/6-77-008),
Springfield, Va.: National Technical Information Service (NTIS No. forthcoming),
Carr,R. A.; DeFries, R.; and Fensterheim, R. "Environmental Discharges of PCBs
Associated with the Manufacture and Use of PCBs and PCB-Containing Equipment."
(Contains EPA Proprietary Information, submitted to EPA Enforcement Division)
October 29, 1976. Unpublished.
Dentel, S., and Kuniansky, S. "Usage of PCBs in Open and Semi-Closed Systems
and the Resulting Losses of PCBs to the Environment," Draft Final Report.
(Contains EPA Proprietary Information, submitted to EPA Enforcement Divi-
sion) . September 30, 1976. Unpublished.
Office of Water Planning and Standards: Mr. Ralph Holtje, Criteria
and Standards Division
Sargent, D. L. "An Approach to Zero Water Usage and Runoff Control for First
Tier PCB User Industries," Extension to Task II, June, 1976. Unpublished.
*Sargent, D. L. and Contos, G. Y. "PCBs Water Elimination/Reduction Technology
and Associated Costs: Manufacturers of Electrical Capacitors and Trans-
formers," Addendum to Final Report, Task II. (EPA 440/9-76-020) Washington,
D. C.: Criteria and Standards Division, U. S. Environmental Protection Aaency,
July 2, 1976.
Contos, G. Y. "Recommendations as to PCB Sampling Sales and Sampling Points at
Industrial Sources," Special Report. August 17, 1976. Unpublished.
*Mosbaek, E. (Jack Faucett Associates, Inc.) "Economic Analysis of Proposed
Toxic Pollutant Effluent Standards for Polychlorinated Biphenyls: Trans-
former, Capacitor, and PCB Manufacturing." Washington, D. C.: U. S.
Environmental Protection Agency (Report No. EPA 230/1-76-068), October 1976.
*Contos, G. Y. "Costs for U.V.-Ozonation Process," Addendum to Final Report,
Task II. September 27, 1976. Unpublished.
*Sargent, D. L. and Contos, G. Y., "Detailed Cost Estimates for Alternative PCBs
Treatment Technologies Applied to Hypothetical Large and Medium Sized PCB
Capacitor and Transformer Manufacturing Plants," Addendum to Final Report,
Task II. October 15, 1976. Unpublished.
^Summary included in Appendix C.
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B-3
*Contos, G. Y. "Cost for Equalization Basin Based on Bentonite Clay Liner,"
Special Report. October, 1976. Unpublished.
*Westin, R. A. "Impacts of Substitutes for PCBs on Fire Hazards in Commercial
and Residential Buildings," Draft Special Report. Washington, D. C.: Criteria
and Standards Division, U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, October, 1976.
Unpublished.
*Durfee, R. L. and Hackman, E. E. "Recent Advances in PCBs Detoxification in
Wastewater," Supplement to Final Report, Task II. Washington, D. C.:
Criteria and Standards Division, U. S. Environmental Protection Agency,
January 18, 1977. Unpublished.
*Durfee, R. L. and Carr, R. A. "PCB Levels in Non-Contact Cooling Waters and
Other Effluents from Capacitor and Transformer Production Facilities,"
Supplement to Final Report, Task II. Washington, D. C.: Criteria and
Standards Division, U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, January 19, 1977.
Unpublished.
*Durfee, R. L.; Sargent, D. H. and Contos, G. Y. "Refinement of Alternative
Technologies and Estimated Costs for Reduction of PCBs in Industrial Waste-
waters from the Capacitor and Transformer Manufacturing Categories."
Washington, D. C.: Criteria and Standards Division, U. S. Environmental
Protection Agency, January 19, 1977. Unpublished.
*Durfee, R. L. and Westin, R. A. "Costs Associated with Installing Production
Equipment for Use of Non-PCB Dielectric Fluids in Transformer and Capacitor
Manufacture," Supplement to Final Report, Task II. Washington, D. C.:
Criteria and Standards Division, U. S. Environmental Protection Agency,
January 19, 1977. Unpublished.
PCB Disposal and Marking Work Group; Mr. David Wagner, EPA Project Officer
"Assessment Methodology for Labeling and Education to Assure the Proper Disposal
of PCBs." (Outline of the technical assessment that would be required to
support the regulations for the labeling of PCBs) November 1976. Unpublished.
"Analysis of the Economic and Technological Constraints on the Disposal of PCBs,"
Special Report, November 22, 1976. Unpublished.
"PCB Disposal Regulations: Problem Areas and Regulatory Alternatives."
December 10, 1976. Unpublished.
"Estimated Usage of Electrical Equipment Containing PCBs." December 23, 1976.
Unpublished.
"Recommended Label Requirements and Suggested Label Formats." January 12,
1977. Unpublished.
"Draft Notice of Public Meeting - PCBs." January 10, 1977. Unpublished.
* Summary included in Appendix C.
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B-4
"Garments on PCB Definitions to Subcommittee on Manufacturing Bans."
January 14, 1977. Unpublished.
"Draft Notice of Properse Rulemaking, Preamble, and Labeling and Disposal
Regulations" (Revised 2-4-77). January 21, 1977. Unpublished.
"Labeling and Disposal Regulations" Revised Draft. January 27, 1977.
Unpublished.
"Draft Preamble to PCB Disposal Regulation." December 29, 1976, (Revised
January 12, 1977, February 21, 1977). Unpublished.
"Econonic Impact - Summary and Conclusions," (Early Draft of Marking and Dis-
posal Economic Impact Report). March 14, 1977. Unpublished.
"Statement of Economic Consequences of the Rule" (Draft Section for Preamble
to Marking and Disposal Regulation). April 12, 1977. Unpublished.
*Westin, R.A.; Fourt, L.; Drabkin, M.; Guinan, D.; Berkey, D.; Frankel, I.;
and Sood, D. "Microeconomic Impacts of the Proposed Marking and Disposal
Regulations for PCBs," (EPA 560/6-77-013). Springfield, Va.: National
Technical Information Service (NTIS PB-267-833), April 1977.
*"Potential Impacts of the Bans on PCB Manufacturing, Processing, and Use: PCB
Activity Analysis Papers," Special Report. July 11, 1977. Unpublished.
Westin, R.A.; Fourt, L.; Drabkin, M.; Berkey, D.; Woodcock, B.; and Sood, D.
"Microeconomic Impacts of the Draft PCB Ban Regulations," Draft Report,
(based on August 30, 1977 draft of regulations). September 28, 1977.
Unpublished.
*Westin, R.A.; Fourt, L.; Berkey, D.; and Woodcock, B., "Microeconomic Bnpacts
of the Draft PCB Ban Regulations," (Includes Appendices C: "Characterization
of U.S. Waste Oil Industry," and D: "Supply and Demand Effects of PCB Ban on
the Electric Equipment Industry."). March 8, 1978. Unpublished.
Contract 68-01-4771
Office of Planning and Management: Mr. Steven Malkenson, Mr. Stephen Weil,
EPA Technical Project Officers
*Westin, R.A.; Fourt, L.; Berkey, D.; and Woodcock, B. "Microecononic Impacts
of the Proposed PCB Ban Regulations" (EPA 560/6-77-035) Springfield,
Virginia: National Technical Information Service (NTIS PB-281 881/3WP),
May, 1978.
*Westin, R.A.; Woodcock, B., "PCB Manufacturing, Processing, Distribution in
Commerce, and Use Ban Regulation: Economic Impact Analysis," (EPA 230-
03/79-001). Washington, D.C.: Office of Planning and Management, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency.
*Suntnary included in Appendix C.
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B-5
Other Contracts
Whitmore, F.C. "Destruction of Polychlorinated Biphenyls in Sewage Sludge
During Incineration" Final Report (EPA Contract 68-01-1587) Springfield,
Virignia: National Technical Information Service (NTIS PB-258 162), 1975.
Sargent, D.H.; Carr, R.A.; and Vogel, G.A. "PCBs Removal in Publicly-Owned
Treatment Works," Final Report, Task 13. EPA Contract 68-01-3273, Washing-
ton, D.C.: Criteria and Standards Division, Office of Water Planning and
Standards, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, December 15, 1976.
Versar, Inc., "Gross Annual Discharge to the Waters in 1976 - Polychlorinated
Biphenyls," Revised Report No. 16, Task II. (EPA Contract 68-01-3852)
Washington, D.C.: Monitoring and Data Support Division, Office of Water
Planning and Standards, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1978.
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APPENDIX C
SUMMARY OF MAJOR VERSAR REPORTS REGARDING PCBs
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C-l
TOXICOLOGICAL STUDIES CONDUCTED UNDER TASK I
Special Report February 19, 1976
(Included in "PCBs in the United States..." as Appendix F)
This study presents the results of two general areas of effort concerned
with PCBs: the toxicology of PCBs and the testing of potential substitutes for
PCBs.
The toxicological aspects of PCBs are sunmarized, with emphasis placed on
potential human health hazards caused by widespread use of PCBs in the United
States. Tests have been conducted on the toxicity and carcinogenicity of PCBs
in a variety of animals including rats, dogs, rabbits, and monkeys. In addi-
tion, there was an incident in Japan where approximately 1,000 people consumed
rice oil that was contaminated with PCBs.
Reviewing the results of these studies led to several important conclusions.
PCBs tend to localize in certain tissues and do not break down easily in the
body, leading to cumulative or chronic toxicity. Early toxicological evidence
concerning the chronic adverse health effects of PCBs from experimental animals
such as mice and rats and from observational data in humans has more recently
been supplemented by additional experimental findings in monkeys. A close
correlation exists for PCBs between the symptoms noted in humans and those
noted in monkeys, suggesting that the dose/response relationships and meta-
bolic and excretion phenomena in humans are similar to those in monkeys.
According to some pathologists, PCB exposure can cause cancerous liver lesions.
Evidence from short-term (several months) exposure and chronic exposure in
animals and humans demonstrates that PCBs are a significant health hazard.
Following the review of the toxicological potential of PCBs, a study was
made of the procedures necessary for evaluating the potential hazards from
possible PCB substitutes. Preliminary information necessary for a thorough
investigation of a substance includes:
1) Physical and chemical properties
2) Manufacturing processes and possible losses
3) Chemodynamics, environmental alteration, and bioaccumulation.
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PCBs IN THE UNITED STATES:
INDUSTRIAL USE AND ENVIRONMENTAL DISTRIBUTION
FINAL REPORT, TASK I
February 25, 1976
EPA 560/6-76-005
OTIS PB-252-012
TABLE OF CONTENTS
SECTION TITLE PAGE
I Introduction 1
II Summary 4
III Conclusions and recommendations 25
IV Chemical and physical properties of PCBs 31
V Industrial characterizations 54
VI Waste treatment technologies 145
VII Production and distribution 198
VIII Substitutes for PCBs 220
IX PCBs release and cumulative environmental loads 286
X Inadvertent ambient reactions as routes of entry of
PCBs into the environment 297
XI Movement of PCBs in the environment - general
distribution model 314
XII Regulatory actions on PCBs 322
Ap. A. PCB adsorption testing by XAD-4 resin A-l/A-3
Ap. B Macroreticular resins from Rohm and Haas Co. B-l/B-7
Ap. C Non-carbon adsorbtion and other research stage
PCB treatment technologies C-l/C-18
Ap. D Mass balance model for PCB distribution D-l/D-46
Ap. E Background data used to construct the model for
PCBs in Lake Michigan E-l/E-21
^P* F Toxicological Studies F-l/-
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03
This report summarizes the production, use, and distribution of poly-
chlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in the United States. The information was obtained
by detailed studies of the production of PCBs, the use of PCBs by first tier
user industries, the past and present generation and disposition of PCB-contain-
ing wastes, environmental transport and cumulative loads, potential alternatives
to PCB usage, inadvertent losses to and potential formation of PCBs in the
environment, and current regulatory authorities for PCBs control.
It is estimated that approximately 1.5 billion pounds of PCBs have been
sold for industrial use in the U. S. since initiation of production around 1930.
Of this amount, at least 95 per cent is still in existence; most is in service
in capacitors and transformers, but about 290 million pounds are believed to
reside in landfills and dumps and about 150 million pounds are believed to be
"free" in the environment. The magnitude of these values indicates that there
is a strong future threat from PCBs in land disposal sites.
In 1974, U. S. use of PCBs sold by Monsanto, the sole domestic producer,
was distributed between capacitor manufacture (22 million pounds) and transformer
manufacture (12 million pounds). Imported materials amounted to about one per
cent of U. S. industrial purchases of PCBs in 1974; about 400,000 pounds (of
decachlorobiphenyl) were used in investment casting, and an estimated 50,000
pounds of new material were used in specialized heat transfer systems.
Although PCB content in industrial wastes can be reduced through various
approaches (treatment, substitution, etc.), the large amounts of PCBs already
contained in land disposal sites present a severe hazard for the future.
Further study of this and other aspects of the PCBs problem, and determination
of ways to minimize the hazard, are recanmended.
MDnsanto and portions of the electrical equipment industry which use PCBs
have greatly reduced PCB releases to water and land over the past few years,
primarily through improvement of plant housekeeping, improved waste collection
and handling, and disposal of liquid wastes through incineration. Waterborne
effluents from PCBs production and first-tier use currently release amounts to
the environment which are very small in comparison to the amounts entering land
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C-4
disposal sites fron these industries. However, these effluents can have severe
local impacts, as evidenced by the current PCB problem in the Hudson River.
There is no plant-scale process used at present for the specific purpose
of removing PCBs from industrial wastewater. The best available treatment tech-
nology for removal of PCBs from wastewater is carbon adsorption after removal of
solids, oil, and grease. Carbon treatment can produce end-of-pipe PCBs
concentrations of one ppb or less. Other adsorbents, such as resins, also
appear effective to this extent. The most promising method of those water
treatment technologies under development for PCBs destruction is ultraviolet-
catalyzed ozonation. "Zero discharge" to water of PCBs from production and
first-tier use is available only through extensive water reuse plus extensive
incineration of lightly contaminated wastewaters.
Incineration is an effective method of disposal for liquid PCBs. Land-
filling is the only generally available disposal method for PCBs-contaminated
solid wastes, but incineration of these wastes is technically feasible.
Significant amounts of solid PCB (decachlorobiphenyl, or deka) wastes are
stored or disposed of on land by the investment casting industry. Air emissions
of deka may also be significant in amount, but no evidence of potential health
hazards from this material has been reported.
The total present use of PCBs for open and semi-closed applications is
not known but is believed to be small in comparison to closed electrical system
use. A few capacitor manufacturing plants report recent use of PCBs in vacuum
pumps, and a significant amount of carbonless copy paper containing PCBs must
still be in inventory and in files.
PCBs are uniquely suited to the requirements of capacitors for A. C. service.
Although a number of potential substitues for this application are under devel-
opment and test, they are all more flammable than Aroclor 1016 and neither their
performance in service nor their potential toxicity to man and other species
have been evaluated sufficiently to allow a definitive comparison with. 1016.
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C-5
Alternatives to PCB use in new transformers are available. In addition,
testing of promising substitute fluids (termed "self-extinguishing") is under
way; these fluids may gain industry-wide acceptance within three years as sub-
stitutes for PCB fluids. At present, choice of PCB-filled transformers
appears to be based primarily on cost considerations.
No technical barriers to substitution for PCBs (deka) in investment cast-
ing waxes are apparent. Several potential alternatives have been previously
used by this industry.
Atmospheric fallout is a major source of PCB input to freshwater systems.
In Lake Michigan, the PCB: contribution at present appears to be much larger
than the total PCB inputs fror. point sources such as minicipal sewage treat-
ment and paper recycling.
The importance of atmospheric transport of PCBs relative to other potential
inputs to water indicates that the availability of environmental sinks from
PCBs is limited, possibly due to short residence times to evaporation in sea
water.
Chlorination of waste biphenyl in industrial wastewaters discharged into
municipal sewers is a potential mechanism for inadvertent production of PCBs.
At present, regulatory authority over PCBs in the United States is not
sufficient to significantly reduce future PCB inputs to the environment, although
inputs directly to the waterways from industrial sources can be reduced from
their present level. Current disposal practices, except for incineration, tend
to delay instead of prevent the PCB' entry into the "free" (available to the
biota) state, and these practices are regulated only minimally.
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DEVELOPMENT OF AN ECONOMIC ANALYSIS METHODOLOGY
FOR EVALUATING REGULATORY ALTERNATIVES FOR PCBS
Task I, Special Report March 9, 1976
(Prepared by Jack Faucett Associates under Subcontract to Versar)
Unpublished
This report presents factors to be taken into account when evaluating
alternatives to PCBs to arrive at fair and reasonable time restrictions
on the use of PCBs. Also included are a critique of previous estimates
of the cost of regulating PCBs, suggestions for improving such estimates,
and a survey of the technological aspects of PCB controls.
The following regulatory alternatives are considered:
1) Regulation based primarily on chlorine content of Aroclor
2) Regulation based primarily on type of use
3) Regulation based on responsibility of user
4) Regulation of new PCBs
5) Regulation of phase-out for PCBs currently in use
6) Regulation oriented toward control of waste
7) Regulation oriented toward protection of population from
exposure to PCBs
After possible regulatory options were identified, a study was made of the
information required to evaluate the various alternatives. It was decided that
comprehensive information in each of the following areas was needed:
1) Present manufacturing and use
2) Future substitutions and product changes
3) Methods of release to the environment and transport and fate in the
environment
4) Toxicity, including exposure levels and results of past incidents
5) Effect, legality, and options for regulation
Covered under the study of technological aspects of PCB controls are:
1) Current and suggested regulations for reducing exposure to PCBs
currently in the environment
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07
2) Waste disposal control
3) Effects of phasing out PCB use
4) Limitations on the use of new PCBs in investment casting wax, small
capacitors, large power factor capacitors, and electrical transformers
Factors that were analyzed for each of the products above are:
1) Risks from continued use
2) Present alternatives
3) Effect that timing of a ban would have on cost and availability of
alternatives
4) Benefits from use of alternatives
5) Cost of ban of PCBs
This report reaches the following conclusions:
1) A total ban on PCBs will have only a minor effect on the current
environmental problem but will be necessary in the long run.
2) The smooth transition to PCB alternatives is unlikely because of
uncertainty about the rationale for and probability of a PCB ban.
3) Many of the opinions and cost estimates uncovered in this research
indicate that there has been more preparation for debate than for
orderly changeover
4) Estimates of costs and benefits should be clearly explained to provide
incentive for every accurate data supply.
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ASSESSMENT OF WASTEWATER MANAGEMENT, TREATMENT TECHNOLOGY.-
AND ASSOCIATED COSTS FOR ABATEMENT OF PCBs CONCENTRATIONS
IN INDUSTRIAL EFFLUENTS
FINAL REPORT, TASK II
February 3, 1976
EPA 560/6-76-006
NTIS 251-433/AS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
SECTION TITLE PAGE
I Introduction 1
II Summary and conclusions 4
III Recommendations 15
IV Water use and waste characterization 18
V Selection of pollutant parameters 79
VI Wastewater treatment technologies 84
VII Cost of treatment and control technologies 138/227
Ap. A Plant 106's position statement on Dew's SFX-4169
capacitor dielectric liquid A-l/A-2
Ap. B PCB adsorbtion testing by XAD-4 resin B-l/B-3
Ap. C Description of macroreticular resins from Rohm
and Haas Co. C-l/C-6
Ap. D Non-carbon adsorbtion and other research stage
PCB treatment technologies D-l/D-18
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09
This report presents the findings of a study of available wastewater
management and treatment technology for the purpose of determining toxic pollu-
tant effluent concentrations and daily load achievable in three industrial
categories: polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) manufacturing; capacitor manu-
facturing; and transformer manufacturing. All plants in these categories have
PCB discharges to either waterways or sewage treatment plants, under normal
operating conditions. All plants have discharges to storm sewers or directly
to waterways under heavy rainfall conditions.
Extensive survey of wastewater treatment technologies and cooperative
laboratory work with several suppliers of treatment equipment and research
facilities confirmed that carbon adsorption technology is the best current can-
didate for successful removal of PCBs from the wastewaters. Uv-ozonation was
considered as an alternative. This technology is still in the research stage;
however, it offers potential of complete destruction of PCBs all the way to C02,
water, and HC1.
Another adsorbent technology now in the development stage, AMBERLITE
polymeric adsorbents, has demonstrated a PCBs removal efficiency that was roughly
equivalent to carbon during laboratory tests. Further testing is needed with
this adsorbent to accurately assess its potential .
For scrap oils and burnable solid wastes generated at these plants, high
temperature, controlled incineration offers a straightforward method of destruc-
tion, whereas scientific landfilling appears to be the best suited mode of
disposal for nonburnable contaminated solids.
Zero discharge objectives can be best achieved by eliminating discharge
streams and developing recycle systems. All non-contact cooling water would
be pretreated. The portion of the pretreated water which would be used in the
plant would be treated with carbon, while the excess water would be incinerated
in a specially designed system which would allow for energy recovery.
Supporting data, rationale for the selection of above recommended treatment
technologies and associated costs are contained in this report.
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010
DEVELOPMENT OF A STUDY PLAN FOR DEFINITION
OF PCBs USAGE, WASTE, AND POTENTIAL SUBSTITUTION
IN THE INVESTMENT CASTING INDUSTRY
FINAL REPORT, TASK III
JANUARY, 1976
EPA 560/6-76-007
NTIS PB 251-842
This report summarizes the use of decachlorobiphenyl (deka) and poly-
chlorinated terphenyls (PCTs) as wax fillers in the investment casting indus-
try and develops a detailed study plan of the industry. Significant information
gathering efforts would be required to establish a complete picture of the
practices, processes, and products of this industry, which in this instance, is
taken to include casting wax manufacture as well as wax usage in foundries.
Definition of the waste streams and emissions from the processes used will
require sampling and analysis and gathering available process data from the
industry.
An approach to determining the most suitable alternatives to decachloro-
biphenyl and PCTs is presented. Filler substitutes and the use of unfilled
waxes are the two general alternatives to be studied. At present there appear
to be no technical barriers to discontinuation of deka and PCTs as fillers,
although use of alternatives may increase product cost on the order of 10 per-
cent. In determining the most premising alternatives, product and process
oriented technical factors must be evaluated, but potential environmental and
human health effects may prove to be the most important factors in selection.
An approach to comparison of alternatives based on technical factors and toxi-
cology data is presented. However, it is anticipated that toxicological data
on most alternatives, and also on the currently used materials, will be sparse.
The success of information gathering and in-plant sampling efforts is
expected to depend heavily on use of Section 308 (FWPCA) authority. Air
emission sampling would be very important to the establishment of an overall
process material balance and definition of process losses to the environment.
-------
PCBS INVOLVEMENT IN THE PULP AND PAPER INDUSTRY
FINAL REPORT, TASK IV February 25, 1977 EPA 560/6-77-005
NTIS PB-271 017/6WP
This paper discusses in detail the sources, distribution, and losses of
PCBs in the U. S. pulp and paper industry. The major use of PCBs in the indus-
try was as an ink solvent in carbonless copy paper that was manufactured by
various paper mills for NCR from 1957 to 1971. Since 1977, PCB levels in
recycled paper have diminished rapidly but PCBs are still present in the
effluent water from companies that recycle waste paper.
Arcclor 1242, a PCB mixture containing 42% chlorine, was used as a solvent
for color reactants which were then microencapsulated and applied to one side of
the carbonless copy paper. The microspheres ruptured and released the dye under
high pressure, such as would be applied by a pen or pencil. 44,162,000 pounds
of Aroclor 1242 were used for this purpose during the period 1957-1971. The
average content of PCBs in the paper was 3.4%. A minor use of PCBs in the
paper industry/, was in inks, which consumed approximately 50,000 pounds of PCBs
from 1968 to 1971.
Recycling of wastepaper is a large part of the paper industry. Wastepaper
is the third most important source of pulp behind pulpwood and forest product
wastes. 19% of the annual output of finished paper is recycled each year. There
are 230 paper mills that produce pulp completely derived from wastepaper and
550 other facilities that use 10-15% secondary fiber in their pulp production.
PCB concentrations in paper products, paper mill effluents, and sludges
have declined sharply since the use of PCBs in carbonless copy paper was ter-
minated in 1971. Concentrations in paper products are now in the 0-1 ppm range.
Sludges have been in the < 1 to 24 ppm range which is common for municipal
sewage treatment plants. The major reasons behind this sharp reduction in PCB
concentrations are the elimination of PCB use and the disposal each year of
81% of the annual, paper production via incineration or landfillinar together
these removed approximately 80% of the PCBs fron the paper cycle each vear.
A small amount of PCBs is added to paper products each year because of the
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012
presence of PCBs in plant influent water, but this contribution does not appear
to be significant at present.
Prediction of PCBs in paper mill effluent and products by using a mathemati-
cal model of the industry indicates that PCB concentration reached its peak
during 1970-71 and is declining to pre-1957 levels because amounts of PCBs in the
recycled wastepaper stream are also declining.
Qn-site measurements and laboratory experiments have shown that PCBs are
attracted to the fibers rather than to the water in which they are carried. Dis-
charge of PCBs from a paper mill appears to be by way of suspended solids and
removal of these suspended solids should substantially reduce PCB effluents.
The paper industry as a whole is continuing to develop and install water
recycling technology in order to minimize waste treatment costs and recover
chemicals, heat, and raw materials. New treatment systems also offer the pro-
mise of reduced PCB discharges. Some data indicate, that PCBs are being re-
moved from influent streams and are becoming fixed in the paper products, there-
by producing a net reduction in PCBs which are free in the environment. However,
these PCBs could be re-released when the paper products are disposed of.
It is believed that essentially all of the PCBs used in the production of
carbonless copy paper have been released to the environment. Half are believed
to reside in landfills and the remainder have been dissipated.
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A FIRST ORDER MASS BALANCE MODEL FOR SOURCES,
DISTRIBUTION, AND FATE OF PCBs IN THE ENVIRONMENT
FINAL REPORT, TASK V
JULY, 1977
EPA 560/6-77-006
NTIS PB 270-220
The work presented here, an extension of that reported in the Task I
report, is an attempt to answer the question, "How did it cone about that
a compound, such as the PCBs, is so widespread an environmental contaminant?"
The work involves the construction of several descriptive mathematical models
made necessary by the lack of historical data and the absence of a large base
of reliable contemporary measurements. The work is necessary since the measure-
ments that do exist strongly suggest that the PCBs are a persistent menace to the
biosphere and hence that actions to control them cannot be delayed while a truly
adequate data base is obtained.
The basic model is constructed on a mass balance principle; that is, all
the PCB input to a restricted region of the lithosphere may be accounted for by
solution, by uptake on suspended solids, and by uptake within the biota, with the
remainder of the input PCBs being carried off by the "loss" processes consisting
of surface co-distillation, carrybff by outflowing streams, and entrapment within
the sediments.
The model is somewhat complicated by the necessity of an analytic expres-
sion for the PCB input rate as a function of time; i.e., the driving function.
In the absence of a sufficient amount of data, a model has been constructed to
account for the losses to the environment, for the free or "wild" PCB lead, and
for the atmospheric reservoir of PCBs. The actual relationship of the various
parts of the model are shown in Figure I.
Environmental Load Model
Appendix C and Appendix D attempt to determine the magnitude of the total
environmental load, the free environmental load, and the atmospheric reservoir
of PCEs, all as functions of time.
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C-14
Figure I
Schematic Showing Relationship of the Various Sections of Eeport*
Environmental
Load Model
(C)
Free PCB
Load Model
(0
Atmospheric
Reservoir
Model
(C)
Surface
Co-Distillation
Model
(3)
Lake Michigan
Model
(2) (3)
Fish Uptake/
Clearance
Mode
(6)
Great Lakes
Model
(4)
1 Continental '
1 Atmospheric I
I Model I
l_
Sediment
Suspended
Solids
Model
(B) (3)
*The number or letter associated with each block refers to section dealing directly with
the subject matter.
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C-15
The results of this analysis are:
a. In 1975, the total environmental PCB load is estimated to be 3.76 x
108 Ibs. within the continental United States.
b. In 1975, the total free or mobile PCB load in the continental
United States is estimated to be 8.31 x 107 Ibs. The remainder
of the total environmental load is thought to be encapsulated in
one form or another (in landfills, for example).
c. As of 1970, the cumulative atmospheric reservoir contained some
6 x 107 Ibs. of PCB indicating a rather rapid exchange between the
total mobile PCBs and the atmospheric reservoir.
d. As of 1975, the PCB concentration in the air near Lake Michigan
was of the order of 10 yg/m3.
e. The estimated half life for fallout from the atmospheric reservoir
is 0.9 years.
f. The average chlorine number for environmental PCBs is of the order
of 4.32.
Results of Mass Balance Model Applied to Lake Michigan
The results of this analysis are :
a. A plausible scenario indicates a present-day PCB concentration (water
plus suspended solids) of the order of 7-10 ppt.
b. Atmospheric fallout constitutes the major input of PCBs to Lake
Michigan.
c. Surface evaporation or co-distillation (the exact nomenclature
is not known because the process is incompletely understood)
constitutes a significant PCB loss mechanism.
d. The presence of suspended solids within the water column can be
expected to have a dominant effect on the actual (filtered)
aqueous concentration.
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C-16
e. The sediments should act as a significant sink for the removal of
PCBs from the water column.
f. Even though there is considerable uncertainty as to the proper value
for some of the important parameters, the sheer bulk of the water
mass makes the aqueous concentration essentially independent of these
parameters over wide ranges.
g. 70 years would be required to reduce the present PCS concentration by
one-half in the absence of all external sources.
Results of Mass Balance Model Applied to the Entire Great Lakes System
a. A plausible scenario leads to an estimate of aqueous PCB concentrations
within the range of measured values, i.e., less than 40 ppt.
b. The estimated average PCB concentration in the sediments of lake
Erie and Lake Ontario fall within an order of magnitude of other
estimates.
c. The estimated fallouts in 1974 onto Lake Erie and Lake Ontario both
fall within a few percent of other estimates.
d. Point source inputs, when introduced into Lake Erie and Lake Ontario,
led to PCB concentrations in the aqueous phase as well as within the
sediments which are within a factor of 2 or 3 of direct observation.
e. The lifetime of the present PCB loads in the absence of all sources
can be estimated.
Other Results
Other results obtained somewhat incidentally to the main effort include:
a. An estimate of the bioconcentration rates of PCBs for a trout
(about 4 x 106)-
b. An estimate that, for the trout, the uptake of PCBs from contaminated
food is 50 times greater than from respiration.
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C-17
c. The MacKay and Vfolkoff model for co-distillation is apparently not
applicable in the situation where infalling PCB complicates the situa-
tion.
d. The significant difference in activity of PCBs in bulk solution
compared to that in the surface layer is probably the driving force
for the creation of a surface concentration gradient.
e. A formulation is developed that suggests the possibility of an analy-
sis of the continental PCB atmospheric reservoir.
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ASSESSMENT OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL AND ECONOMIC
IMPACTS OF THE BAN ON IMPORTS OF PCBS
FINAL REPORT, TASK VT
JULY 1977
EPA 560/6-77-007
NTIS PB 270-225
This report summarizes an investigation into the uses of imported PCBs
in the United States and a determination of the economic impacts which may
occur as a result of the impending ban on importing PCBs. Imported PCBs are
currently used only for the maintenance of two types of mining machinery
produced in the past by Joy Manufacturing Co. PCBs may also be a significant
contaminant in polychlorinated terphenyls (PCTs) which wax manufacturers
import for use in tooling compounds and investment casting waxes. However,
the sole U.S. distributor of PCTs is currently guaranteeing that such con-
tamination is less than 0.05%.
PCE fluids were used as coolants in minina machinery because of their
low combustability, low electrical conductivity, and inertness which mini-
mizes system corrosion even at continuous high operating temperatures. The
two types of mining machinery manufactured by Joy which use PCBs are loaders,
of which there are approximately 350 and which were last produced in 1973,
and continuous miners, of which there are approximately 50 and which were
last produced in 1970. Converting the motors in the loaders to air cooling
would cost about $6,200 per loader. Converting the continuous miners would
require replacement of the cutting heads and would cost about $65,000 per
miner. As a result of the Toxic Substances Control Act, owners of the
machinery which use PCB fluids have three options:
1) Petition for an exemption to the Act.
2) Bear the cost of converting the machinery motors to air-cooling.
3) Scrap the machinery.
PCTs are used in wax formulations known as tooling compounds, which
are used to provide support to thin walled objects so that they may be
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OFFICE OF TOXIC SUBSTANCES c~19
CHEMICAL LIBRARY
machined without being damaged. After machining, the tooling compound is
removed either by melting or by using an aqueous acid solution. The sole
producer of tooling compounds which contain PCTs is M. Argueso & Co. of
Mamaroneck, N.Y.
Investment casting is a method of producing metal castings which may
have complex shapes and which have a surface finish and dimensional toler-
ance which cannot be matched by other casting processes. It involves first
making a pattern out of wax,- the pattern is then covered, or "invested,"
with a refractory coating which hardens at room temperature. The wax is
then melted and/or burned out of the mold. The metal is then poured in and
allowed to harden. Investment casting is best suited to the production of
a large volume of small, intricate parts made of metals which are difficult
or impossible to machine.
PCTs are used in investment casting waxes for several reasons. They
make the wax harder at all temperatures below the melting point; they cause
the wax to harden faster by improving thermal conductivity; and they reduce
the coefficient of thermal expansion of the wax, resulting in improved di-
mensional accuracy in the finished casting. Detailed data on PCT loss to
the environment is not available, but possible sources of loss include mold
production, mold dewaxing, mold firing and preheating, and wax reclamation.
There are eleven manufacturers of investment casting waxes in the United
States; three currently use PCTs in their formulations, and three others
did in the past but no longer do so. All three current users of PCBs receive
them from the same distributor.
The following points with respect to PCT use in tooling compounds and
investment casting waxes are noted:
1) PCT containing casting waxes cost 15C to 25C per pound more than
non-PCT containing waxes and comprise less than half of the total
sales of manufacturers who sell them.
2) Of the three manufacturers of PCT containing waxes who ceased using
PCTs in their waxes within the past decade, none seems to have been
placed in an unfavorable competitive position.
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C-20
3) One investment casting foundry, General Electric, has ceased using
PCT waxes. They have apparently found adequate substitutes for use
in casting turbine blades, an application which is critically de-
pendent upon high dimensional accuracy and extremely fine surface
finish.
4) From 2 and 3 above, it appears that acceptable substitutes for PCT-
containing waxes are available.
5) If imported PCTs are found to contain PCBs in excess of 0.05%, the
EPA can take action to ensure adequate quality control.
6) If PCTs are found to "present an unreasonable risk of injury to
health or the environment," they may be banned.
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C-21
ASSESSMENT OF THE USE OF SELECTED REPLACEMENT FLUIDS FOR
PCBs IN ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT
Final Report, Task VII, April 1979 EPA 560/6-77-008
NTIS No. Forthcoming.
This report discusses the use of PCBs as dielectric liquids in trans-
formers, motors, electromagnets, and capacitors. The performance criteria
for replacement liquids are summarized and alternative technologies are
reviewed.
The major alternatives to the use of PCBs in tranformers are:
• Dry type transformers, including gas-filled and cast coil construc-
tion
• Oil-filled transformers located in safe locations or installed in
a vault
• High fire point liquid dielectric-filled transformers, including
silicone, paraffinic hydrocarbon, and synthetic hydrocarbon liquids
• Non-PCB askarel liquids based on chlorinated benzenes
PCB filled electromagnets may be replaced with available oil-filled,
high-fire point liquid-filled, or dry type units. Dry air-cooled motors are
also available for most of the previous applications using PCB-filled elec-
tric motors.
Alternative capacitor liquids are:
Phthalate esters
AUcylated monochlorodiphenyl oxide
Isopropyl biphenyl
Other possible capacitor dielectric liquids are also discussed, and
the status of dry film capacitors is reviewed.
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C-22
PCBS WATER ELIMINATION/REDUCTION TECHNOLOGY AND ASSOCIATED COSTS,
MANUFACTURERS OF ELECTRICAL CAPACITORS AND TRANSFORMERS
ADDENDUM TO FINAL RETORT, TASK II
JULY 2, 1976
EPA 440/9-76-020
The general potential for reduction of water use in the electrical
equipment manufacturing industry is favorable, since water has to be carefully
excluded from the internals of both transformers and capacitors for the units
to meet product and performance specifications. Newer plants in these
categories, particularly those of smaller size, use much less water per unit
of PCS use than the older plants. However, the existing plants would require
a combination of process and plant modifications and wastewater treatment and
recycle to achieve a goal of no discharge of PCB-contaminated waters. This
addendum to the Task II report summarizes the quantities and sources of the
wastewaters; describes the available alternative technologies for reducing
or eliminating the discharges on a source-by-source basis; and tabulates the
estimated costs for achieving such reduction or elimination.
Section 2.0 of this report addresses the point sources from the capaci-
tor and transformer manufacturing industry with the absolute goal (with a
single exception from one plant) of no point-source discharges of any waters.
Extensive applications of process changes (from wet to dry unit processes or
unit operations), of water segregation practices, of water treatment and re-
cycle practices, and of water-quantity reduction practices were investigated.
The residual contaminated wastewaters not eliminated by these practices were
then hypothesized to be "incinerated," e.g., heated to a sufficiently high
temperature for a sufficiently long time to ensure destruction of PCB con-
taminants.
Section 3.0 presents the technologies and costs for eliminating PCB
contamination of rainwater runoff from manufacturing plants in this industry.
Section 4.0 presents the technical basis and estimated costs for three
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023
alternative approaches to PCBs reduction in the direct discharges from this
industry to waterways. The technology and costs presented are based on
those of Reference 1 and Sections 2.0 and 3.0 of this Addendum. The ap-
proaches were selected to offer a range of PCBs control at various levels
of costs.
The estimated costs are as accurate as was possible within the scope of
work. Based on previous experience in this area, we feel that the least re-
liable costs tabulated are those for waste stream segregation. Costs for
segregation are highly variable from plant to plant, and accurate estimation
is-only possible as a result of detailed study of plant layout, piping, etc.,
which was beyond the scope of this study.
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C-24
ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF PROPOSED TOXIC POLLUTANT EFFLUENT
STANDARDS FOR POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYLS;
TRANSFORMER, CAPACITOR, AND PCB MANUFACTURERS
October 1976 EPA 230/1-76-068
(Prepared by Jack Faucett Associates Under Subcontract from Versar)
This report presents an assessment of economic impacts from PCB effluent
controls. Because of the cost of required effluent controls, it is estimated
that a minimum of nine and maximum of all eleven direct discharging plants
will stop using PCBs depending on the particular regulation issued. Accord-
ing to industry opinion, the estimated minimum is very unlikely because
additional PCB controls would encourage stopping use of PCBs. Decisions
against investment in control equipment does not mean, however, that the impacts
of these regulations are zero. Company decisions to cease PCB use will have
impacts, particularly with regards to the timing of the decision to stop
using PCBs. The earlier the switch to substitutes the more likely that pro-
duct prices and performance will change in the transition.
There is evidence that some industries will cease PCB use prior to imple-
mentation of Section 307(a) controls. That evidence is based on investment
analysis of probable effects on company profits, announced decisions such as
those by General Electric and Monsanto, and capacitor/transformer users'
preparations for PCB substitutes. These decisions are significant in light
of the range of government alternatives that were considered. A major force
in government controls affecting PCB use is the Toxic Substances Control Act,
which will prohibit the use of PCBs in capacitors and transformers by 1980.
The EPA proposed toxic pollutant effluent standards for PCBs in July 1976,
and EPA is scheduled to promulgate regulations in January 1977. Depending on
the final standard, the affected plants which continue PCB use are likely to
install one of the treatment technologies presented below. Circumstances at
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C-25
each plant could cause deviations in technology costs from the following
sutmiaries:
Government
Regulatory
Options
A
B
C
Zero
Discharge
Potential Technology
Process Change & Carbon Treatment
Maximum Carbon Treatment
Minimum Carbon Treatment
Process Change and Recycle
Average Investment
Cost/Plant
$ 527,000
$1,207,000
$ 392,000
$ 555,000
The cost of each of the technologies varies considerably among plants, but
the above costs are an average of investment costs for model plants that
were considered.
Since few if any plants will actually install effluent control equipment
in response to Section 307 (a) directly, economic impacts can be viewed as
emanating from timing of decisions. Monsanto's voluntary ban on PCB produc-
tion and the new Toxic Substances Control Act will effectively terminate PCB
use by 1980 independent of Section 307 (a) provisions.
Total investment costs and total annual costs for each of the four
treatment technologies are given in the table below. Our analysis focuses
on the 11 direct discharging plants of the 37 plants that manufacture PCB
transformers and capacitors.
The following sunmaries are based on analysis of investment, i.e., in-
vestment to meet only federal effluent controls under Section 307 (a), for
model plants. Conclusions on whether companies with plants similar to each
model would actually install the specified treatment are based on a com-
parison of present costs of the equipment.
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INVESTMENT AND ANNUAL COSTS FOR DIRECT DISCHARGING TRANSRDRMER
AND CAPACITOR PLANTS
(Millions of Dollars)
Number of Plants that would
Install Treatment:
Transformer
Capacitor
0
1
Required Treatment
B C
0
0
0
2
Zero Discharge
0
1
Total Investment:
Transformer
Capacitor
a
0.0
.26
0.0
0.0
0.0
.23
0.0
.31
Total Annual Cost:
Transformer
Capacitor
0.0
.14
0.0
0.0
0.0
.10
0.0
.19
a) Investment analysis indicates an acceptable return on investment.
to
a\
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C-27
Alternative A Treatment Costs
EPA standards which would lead firms to invest in Alternative A would
cause 5 direct discharge capacitor plants and all 5 direct discharge trans-
former plants to stop using PCBs in January 1978 rather than by 1980 as
would otherwise occur. The one remaining direct discharging capacitor man-
ufacturer could comply with the regulation by installing the necessary treat-
ment equipment. These early curtailments in production would reduce industry-
wide production capacity of PCB capacitors by about 35 percent and of PCB
transformers by about 50 percent. Industry-wide investment for control equip-
ment would be $ .26 million with annual costs of $ .14 million.
Alternative B Treatment Costs
EPA standards which would lead firms to invest in Alternative B would
cause all capacitor and transformer plants among the direct discharges to
stop using PCBs in January 1978 rather than by 1980 as would otherwise occur.
These early curtailments in production would reduce industry-wide production
capacity of PCB capacitors by about 45 percent and of PCB transformers by
about 50 percent.
Alternative C Treatment Costs
EPA standards which would lead firms to invest in Alternative C would
cause 4 direct discharge capacitor plants and all 5 direct discharge trans-
former plants to stop using PCBs in January 1978 rather than by 1980 as would
otherwise occur. The two remaining direct discharging capacitor manufactur-
ers could comply with the regulation by installing the necessary treatment
equipment. These early curtailments in production would reduce industry-
wide production capacity of PCB capacitors by about 30 percent and of PCB
transformers by about 50 percent. Industry-wide investment for control
equipment would be $ .23 million with annual costs of $ .10 million.
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C-28
Zero Discharge Treatment Costs
EPA standards which would lead firms to invest in zero discharge would
cause all but 1 direct discharge capacitor plant and all 5 direct discharge
transformer plants to stop using PCBs in January 1978 rather than by 1980 as
would otherwise occur. The one remaining direct discharging capacitor manu-
facturer could comply with the regulation by installing the necessary treat-
ment equipment. These early curtaiLnents in production would reduce industry-
wide production capacity of PCB capacitors by about 35 percent and of PCS
transformers by about 50 percent. Industry-wide investment for control
equipment would be $ .31 million with an annual cost of $ .19 million.
The following economic impacts for the eleven direct discharge plants
are based on industry trends as well as data collected from transformer
and capacitor users and producers directly.
Average transformer price increases due solely to PCB effluent controls
will be minimal because (1) PCBs used by direct discharge plants represent
less than 10 and possibly only 5 percent of total transformers and (2)
other expected controls and voluntary bans will already have caused a
further shift to non-PCB units. The price adjustment for the less effective
non-PCB transformers could be significant, but little of this increase can
objectively be attributed to Section 307 (a) controls.
The dollar value of all transformer sales is likely to increase more
because of higher costs with PCB substitutes than they decrease because of
demand response to higher prices. However, recent data indicate that an
increase in imports could easily offset any increase from higher prices,
leaving domestic producers with slightly lower dollar sales.
Industry-wide capacitor price increases due solely to changes resulting
from PCB effluent controls are likely to be less than 5 percent in 1977 and to
decrease to less than 2 percent as PCB substitute technology improves by
1980. All environmental controls combined can generate up to a 20 percent
increase in average capacitor prices. However, only part of that increase
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C-29
can be attributed to Section 307 (a) effluent controls which will affect
only six specific plants in the entire 19 plant capacitor industry. The
remaining plants will be covered by a future regulation, however.
There are no significant effects on energy consumption, balance of
payments, or employment. The announced and apparent shifts to non-PCB units
and the expected demand for capacitors and transformers are likely to increase
rather than decrease sales and industry-^wide employment. However, to pre-
vent losses to foreign competition, domestic producers might have to absorb
some cost increases in lower profits. Since all of the affected plants
are either part of a much larger company or have a reasonably good PCB al-
ternative, reduced profits will not necessarily lead to significant reduc-
tions in employment. There will be no reductions if sales in fact do in-
crease and if similar numbers of people are needed to manufacture non-PCB
units.
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C-30
COSTS FOR UV - OZONATION PROCESS
Addendum to Final Report, Task II September 27, 1976
The costs presented in the Task II Final Report were reevaluated based
on new tests that determined that complete removal of the organic content
in wastewaters is not required prior to removal of the PCBs.
Comparison of the terminal treatment capital costs of UV-ozonation
systems with carbon adsorbtion systems for reducing the concentration of
PCBs in effluent waters to below 1 ppb indicated a greater than 50% higher
cost for ozone system over the carbon system. However, combining the pre-
treatment costs with the terminal treatment costs results in UV-ozonation
system costs about 5 to 10 percent higher than the carbon system costs.
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031
DETAILED COST ESTIMATES FOR ALTERNATIVE PCBs
TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES APPLIED TO HYPOTHETICAL LARGE AND MEDIUM SIZED PCB
CAPACITOR AND TRANSFORMER MANUFACTURING PLANTS
Addendum to Final Report, Task II October 15, 1976
The three treatment alternatives for which costs were estimated are:
A) Process and plant modifications and pretreatment of process water.
B) Maximum use of carbon adsorption.
C) Minimum treatment.
The estimates for these three alternatives are:
Plant Medium Plant
2,500,000 Ibs. PCB 500,000 Ibs. PCB
use/yr. use/yr.
Alternative A Capital Investment $1,997,900 $647,000
Annual Cost 528,900 164,700
Alternative B Capital Investment 3,811,400 935,500
Annual Cost 922,900 222,300
Alternative C Capital Investment 1,588,400 575,500
Annual Cost 374,000 138,200
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C-32
COST FOR EQUALIZATION BASIN BASED ON BENTONITE CLAY LINER
Special Report October 1976
The capital cost for the equalization basin with a bentonite clay lining
is shown below. This cost was estimated based on a basin volume of three
tines the design flow, 24 hour residence time/ and $5.00 per cubic yard of
excavation cost consistent with the Task II report basis for the reinforced
concrete equalization basin. The report also summarizes total installed
costs, maintenance costs, and operating costs, and compares these costs to
those estimated for concrete storage basins described in the Task II Final
Report.
Bases: 1. 24 hour retention
2. 3 times normal flow
2
3. Bentonite lining at 80 tons/acre and lining cover @ $0.3/yd
4. 12 ft depth
5. 10 ft water depth
6. L/W - 2.0
Flow (gpn)
Liquid Vol. (1000 gal)
Width (ft)
Length (ft)
Excavation Cost
($1000)
Lining & Cover Cost 0.5 0.7 1.3 2.3 4.1 7.6 18.4
($1000)
Total Basin Cost 3.1 5.8 11.5 22.8 45.1 89.6 236.4
($1000)
Pumps & Sump ($1000) 20 20 21 22 27 32 42
Total Basin & Pump Cost 23.1 25.8 32.5 44.8 72.1 121.6 278.4
($1000)
20
36
24
48
2.6
40
176
34
68
5.1
80
345
48
96
10.2
160
690
68
136
20.5
320
1380
96
192
41
640
2760
136
272
82
1700
7340
222
444
218
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C-33
IMPACTS OF SUBSTITUTES FOR PCBs ON FIRE HAZARDS IN COMMERCIAL
AND RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS
(Draft) Special Report October, 1976
This report reviews the technologies that were being developed for the
replacement of PCBs as dielectric liquids in transformers and capacitors. All
of the potential substitute liquids are more flammable than PCBs, and this
flarnmability presents a potential fire hazard. The report reviews the changes
in design and the effects of changing fire codes and insurance underwriter's
requirements on limiting the potential hazard resulting from the use of sub-
stitutes for PCBs in electrical equipment.
The report concludes that there is no basis to assume that properly
engineered and tested equipment would result in an increase in risk. Any
safety problems that occur may be the result of inadequate testing and evalua-
tion prior to commercial introduction of the electrical transformers and
capacitors that use the substitute materials.
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C-34
RECENT ADVANCES IN PCBs DETOXIFICATION IN WASTEWATER
Supplement to Final Report, Task II
January 8, 1977
This report summarizes a brief study made to update information on methods
(other than adsorption) for removing or detoxifying PCBs present in industrial
wastewater. Information was obtained from Westgate Research and Houston Research
on UV-catalyzed ozonation, from Envirogenics Systems Company on catalyzed re-
duction, and from Environment Canada and others on biodegradation.
In the area of UV-ozonation, both Westgate Research and Houston Research
have run tests in which the level of PCBs has been reduced almost to the detec-
tion limit of 0.1 ppb. Both companies have stated that they can provide an
operational operating costs for a 640 gpm system at $1,750,000 and $120,800/yr.,
respectively. The decomposition products of UV-ozonation of PCBs are not
known at this tiite. The catalyzed reductive declorination process being
developed by Envirogenics has been tested on PCBs. A 75 ppb concentration of
the PCB isomer 4,4;-dichlorobiphenyl was reduced to about 1.0 ppb. The Enviro-
genics process is currently being used at the Velsical Chemical Corporation
plant in lyfemphis where it was put into service in mid-May. It is expected that
a contamination level of 1000-15000 ppm of heptachlor and 500-700 ppm of endrin
will be reduced to less than 1 ppb of total contaminants. Envirogenics is
expecting a grant to set up a plant-scale system to handle PCBs at one of the
GE plants. Decomposition products of this process are being investigated.
The work being conducted on biodegradation by Environment Canada has pro-
duced a bacterial strain which subsists solely on PCBs. However, this process
is not yet ready for commercial scale demonstration because the lowest PCB
concentration reached (as of August, 1976) is 19 ppb.
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C-35
PCB LEVELS IN NCN-CONTACT COOLING
WATERS AND OTHER EFFLUENTS FROM CAPACITOR
AND TRANSFORMER PRODUCTION FACILITIES
Supplement to Final Report, Task II
January 19, 1977
This work provides a tabulation and analysis of the current status of
non-contact cooling water waste streams from the capacitor and transformer
production facilities which use PCBs.
Data on PCB levels in 1974-75 and 1976 samples from cooling water effluents
from PCB capacitor and transformer manufacturers were obtained for ten streams
at six different facilities. All but one of the 1976 levels were below 10 ppb
total PCBs, and five were at 2 ppb or lower. These levels are compared to
combined plant effluents and rainfall runoff samples at four plants. The
highest and most variable PCB levels occurred in runoff samples, and the
lowest and least variable occurred in the cooling water effluents. In general,
one to two ppb appears to be a typical PCBs level for non-contact cooling
water in this industry for plants which practice good plant-housekeeping and
segregate their cooling water.
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036
REFINEMENT OF ALTERNATIVE TECHNOLOGIES AND ESTIMATED
COSTS FOR REDUCTION OF PCBs IN INDUSTRIAL
WASTEWATER FROM THE CAPACITOR AND TRANSFORMER
MANUFACTURING CATEGORIES
Supplement to Final Report, Task II
December 16, 1976
This report augments and refines the available information on technology
and estimated costs for abatement of PCB discharges from the capacitor and
transformer manufacturers who use PCBs in their products. It includes:
1) A description of modifications being performed at
two GE plants to reduce PCB effluents;
2) An updated cost estimate for UV-ozonation;
3) A cost estimate for the use of bentonite-lined equalization
basins;
4) A general review of the current industry trends towards abatement
of PCB discharges.
As of September, 1976, GE had reduced PCB discharges from 8 to 9 pounds per
day to one pound per day at their Fort Edward and Hudson Falls manufacturing
plants. This was accomplished by:
1) Segregating wastewater;
2) Preventing spills and leaks from contaminating clean water;
3) Decreasing wastewater volume;
4) Eliminating batch dumping;
5) Treating sanitary wastewater at Fort Edward.
Additional projects intended to reduce PCB discharge to less than 1 gram
per day were underway and were scheduled for implementation by April or May, 1977.
These include:
1) Recirculating non-contact cooling water;
2) Consolidating discharges and impoundment basins;
3) Treating impounded water at Fort Edward.
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C-37
The cost of constructing and operating an equalization basin based on the
use of a bentonite clay lining was calculated and conpared with figures which
had been previously derived for a concrete lined basin. It was determined
that the annual operating cost for a bentonite lined basin was approximately
half that for a concrete basin the same size. In actual practice, however,
the bentonite lined pond would be much larger than a concrete lined basin in
order to reduce the frequency of pond dredging and cleaning. Thus, the costs
for the two alternatives will be more nearly equal.
Vfestgate Besearch Corporation's continuing UV-ozonation development pro-
gram has produced some system simplifications which made it necessary to re-
estimate the cost of removing PCBs in a UV-ozonation treatment plant. The new
treatment costs ranged from $16.00/1000 gal. for a 20 gpm plant to $1.50/1000
gal. for a 1,700 gpm plant. Typical costs for PCB removal using activated
carbon range from $4.47/1000 gal. for 20 gpm capacity to $1.18/1000 gal. for
1,700 gpm.
An examination of current industry trends towards abatement and disposal
of PCBs revealed several things. Calgon is furnishing GE with carbon adsorption
technology and generally agreed with the technical conclusions and cost estimates
determined by Versar. There are at least three PCB users which have no discharge
of process water or non-contact cooling water to waterways or PCTWs. Segrega-
tion of cooling water streams appears to be well in hand or underway in five plants.
Three potential suppliers of incinerators for waste PCB-containing liquids in-
dicated that they could supply incinerators within 6 to 18 months of receiving
an order.
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C-38
COSTS ASSOCIATED WITH INSTALLING PRODUCTION
EQUIPMENT FOR USE OF NON-PCB DIELECTRIC
FLUIDS IN TRANSFORMER AND CAPACITOR MANUFACTURE
Supplement to Final Report, Task II January 19, 1977
This report summarizes the costs associated with the expected changeover
from polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and PCB-containing askarels to substitute
(non-PCB) dielectric fluids in the manufacture of transformers and capacitors.
The approach taken was to contact industry representatives at the various
meetings of industry comnittees dealing with disposal of obsolete PCB-contam-
inated equipment and waste oils. In addition, discussions were held with other
industry personnel from whom information on similar matters had been obtained
in the past.
The results indicated that no significant process changes would be
required of any producer to convert to a PCB substitute. However, minor to
extensive retooling will be required for most capacitor producers that produce
their own containers and/or utilize their product capacitors in assemblies
(ballast assemblies, for example). Design, testing, and other activities re-
quired by the product changes will also result in costs associated with the
changeover but not with process changes. In addition, clean-up and disposal
costs will be borne by all firms.
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C-39
MICROECCNQMIC IMPACTS OF THE PROPOSED MARKING
DISPOSAL REGULATIONS FOR PCBs
FINAL TASK REPORT
April 1977
EPA 560/6-77-013
NTIS PB 267-833/3WP
This study evaluates the economic impact of the draft regulations for the
marking and disposal of PCBs. The report includes estimates of the quantities
of PCBs and equipment containing PCBs that will be affected, present and future
required availability of PCBs, PCS disposal facilities, secondary costs (in-
cluding storage), recordkeeping, transportation, and the cost of the actual
marking. The economic analysis includes estimates of additional costs by
year and economic sector, effects on price, investment requirements, and
employment. Finally, the effects of compliance on energy requirements and on
the availability of strategic materials are estimated.
The basic disposal requirement for all PCBs is controlled use and storage
followed by high temperature incineration. The proposed regulations are very
specific on what is to be done and how it is to be done. Consideration of the
present lack of incineration facilities and the high costs which would be
incurred by requiring removal and special handling of fluorescent light ballasts
and small capacitors have resulted in the following exemptions from the basic
requirements of incineration:
1) Until July 1, 1979, non-liquid PCB mixtures, PCS capacitors, and PCB
fluorescent light ballasts may be disposed of in chemical waste
landfills.
2) PCB containers may be decontaminated by triple rinsing.
3) PCB transformer may be rinsed and disposed of in chemical waste
landfills.
4) Small PCB capacitors in electrical equipment do not have to be
removed before disposal of the equipment.
5) Small capacitors and fluorescent light ballasts used in private
homes may be disposed of as municipal solid waste.
6) Material or equipment containing less than 500 ppm of PCBs will
not require special handling or disposal.
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C-40
Most storage areas, required by the regulations will be established by
office and commercial buildings, electrical repair shops, and small industrial
buildings for the storage of small capacitors and fluorescent light ballasts
removed during normal maintenance. Cost of establishing a small storage area
is estimated at $145 with an annual operating cost of $95/year. It is suggested
that these costs may be reduced by using unused space and establishing the area
during a time of slack labor demand. A larger area, such as required by utilities
and transformer repair shops is estimated to cost $1,000-$5,000 to establish
and $2,125 to operate annually.
The draft regulations require that chemical waste landfills used for the
disposal of PCBs be approved by the EPA Administrator for that purpose. At
present there are sixteen chemical waste landfills in the U.S., but none have
been approved for PCB disposal. Average cost for disposing of materials in
these landfills, including freight and state fees, is estimated at $3.00 per
cubic foot of material.
There are currently nine commercial incinerators with the capacity to
destroy liquid PCB waste. In addition, three of these facilities have the
capacity to destroy PCBs contained in solid wastes. Charges at these facilities
are 7-14C/ib. for liquid waste and $40/drum for solid waste. Estimated operating
cost of a unit capable of shredding and disposing of capacitors is 52£/lb. It
may also be possible to dispose of PCB liquids in cement kilns and power boilers.
Shipping charges for liquid PCB wastes in 55 gallon drums range from $1.14 to
$6.24 per hundred pounds depending upon the number of drums and the shipping
distance. In addition, there may be a charge of $2.85 per platform handling
for each drum. There will also be additional recordkeeping charges of $2 to
$5 per item.
For estimating the total cost to industry which will be incurred in
complying with the draft disposal regulations, three options were identified.
Option 1 assumes that all PCB capacitors are removed from equipment before it
is scrapped. Option 2 assumes that 2/3 of all small appliance capacitors, HID
capacitors, and fluorescent light ballast capacitors are not removed from the
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C-41
equipment but are disposed of as municipal solid waste while the remaining
1/3 are incinerated. Option 3 allows the disposal of fluorescent light ballasts
in chemical waste landfills.
Associated with each of these regulatory options are aggregate, industry-
wide costs for decontamination, storage, landfill and incineration costs,
transportation costs, and recordkeeping costs. The maximum expected cost for
decontamination of askarel filled transformers is $365,000 per year. The cost
for storing PCBs prior to disposal is estimated to be $8.2 million the first
year (including cost for setting up storage areas) and $4.2 million per year
in subsequent years. The maximum expected cost for disposal in chemical land-
fills is expected to be $5.5 million. The estimated incineration costs range
from $134 million per year for Option 1 to $39 million per year for Option 3.
Estimated transportation costs for incinerating PCBs vary from $7.4 million
to $13.2 million per year, depending on how many incinerators are assumed with
the various disposal options. Recordkeeping costs are estimated to be $8 million
initially plus $4.0 million per year thereafter.
m addition to the economic impacts which will result from the disposal
regulations, there will also be substantial costs incurred due to the marking
regulations. Manufacturers will be faced with major retooling costs, on the
order of $25,000 each, in order to comply with the proposed regulations. The
majority of the marking cost, however, will be borne by the present users of
PCS electrical equipment who need to mark existing equipment. The total cost is
estimated to be $33.2 million.
Ihe aggregate effects which the proposed marking and disposal regulations
will have on the electrical pricing, energy consumption, and strategic materials
are slight. The price of electricity will increase by an average of 0.06%.
The upper bound estimate for increased energy consumption is 17,700 Bbl/day.
Rsclamation of copper windings from transformers may be inhibited but the
total amount affected would be less than 1% of the total copper reclaimed every
year in the U.S. and is an insignificant portion of the copper consumed each
year.
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C-42
POTENTIAL IMPACTS OF THE BANS ON PCB MANUFACTURING, PROCESSING, AND USE
Special Report, PCB Activity Analysis Papers
July 11, 1977
This report describes the current uses of PCBs in the United States and
draws particular attention to those uses which present environmental hazards
or problems of a regulatory or economic nature.
At the present time the only uses of PCBs in the United States are in
capacitors, transformers, and the maintenance of a number of mining machines
formerly manufactured by Joy Manufacturing, Inc. Capacitor and transformer
manufacturers and transformer maintenance shops currently receive their PCBs
from Monsanto, the sole U.S. producer of PCBs. Monsanto intends to stop
manufacturing PCBs by August 1977, and will cease shipment from inventory as
of October 1977, even though the Toxic Substances Control Act permits the
manufacture of PCBs for use in a totally enclosed manner through January 1979.
Small custom chemical companies may be attracted to this market, requiring
definition of allowable manufacturing processes and/or air and water emission
regulations. Another possible source of PCB "manufacture" which may arise
is the reclamation of used askarels from transformers. This may create some
regulatory difficulties.
It appears that either presently or in the near future, GE and Westinghouse
will be the only companies who will service PCB transformers. With the sole
domestic producer of PCBs about to cease production, GE and Westinghouse will
be forced to decide whether to import PCBs before January 1, 1977, in order to
meet an anticipated upward trend in PCB use by the transformer service industry.
GE has indicated that in no event will they stockpile more than a 1 or 2 year
supply.
In any event, the transformer repair industry will remain a potential
source of PCB emissions for the immediate future. PCB air emissions from the
repair shops may need to be monitored and regulated. The majority of documented
PCB releases attributable to the transformer repair industry have occurred
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C-43
while transporting filled transformers by truck. Draining of transformers
before they are shipped would alleviate this problem.
Retrofilling of all PCB transformers with silicone based oil is possible
but is not justified on either economic or environmental grounds. The cost
would be $45,000-$50,000 each for the largest units, and the increased risk of
spills makes this environmentally unattractive. Generally, when a transformer
is retrofilled, some of the PCBs remain trapped in the windings. However, it
may be possible to remove nearly all the remaining PCBs by periodically
filtering the new transformer fluid through activated carbon until the PCBs
are reduced to an acceptable level.
The users of PCB equipment may be categorized as utility, commercial-
industrial, and residential. It appears unlikely that PCBs used in residences
(low voltage capacitors) present any great danger because only small amounts
of PCBs are present in any residence and there is little chance that one of
these capacitors will rupture upon failure. There is a much greater danger
from utilities and commercial-industrial users. Spills or losses are known
to occur from, damaged equipment and through improper handling of PCB liquids.
It is estimated that 78,295 pounds of PCBs will be released into the environ-
ment each year from utility transformers and capacitors.
It may be possible for PCBs to enter the environment as a contaminant
in another chemical or as a by-product of some chemical process. PCB has been
reported as a low-level contaminant in some cases where water containing
biphenyl is chlorinated. PCBs already free in the environment may become more
of a hazard if contaminated sewage sludge is used as a soil conditioner.
Unless carefully worded, regulations to enforce the ban on "distribution
in commerce" could have adverse effects on inventories, equipment resale, and
maintenance. Strict enforcement could result in the scrapping of large inven-
tories of capacitors without any decrease in the potential for environmental
damage. Another question to be considered is that raised by the disposal of
PCB wastes in a landfill. That is, when the title to the material passes from
the original owner to the landfill operator, does this constitute "distribution
in commerce"?
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044
IMPACTS OF THE DRAFT "PCB RAN REGULATIONS"
(Draft Report) March 8, 1978
This report analyzed the economic impacts of an early draft of the pro-
posed PCB ban regulations. The draft report was used by EPA in preparing the
final proposed regulations. The material in this report was superseded by
the report of the same title published in May, 1978, except that this draft
report included two appendices that did not appear in the published version.
Appendix C of the draft report, "Characterization of U.S. Waste Oil
Industry," described in detail the uses of waste oil and characterized the
structure of the waste oil collecting and re-refining industry.
Appendix D of the draft report, "Supply and Demand Effects of PCB Ban,"
presented a formal microeconomic analysis of the supply, demand, and price
effects of the increased demand expected for substitutes for PCBs. The purpose
of this exposition was to correct an error in a similar analysis previously
published by Ashford and Murry of MIT^ ' .
(1) Ashford, Nicholas A., Murry, Albert E. (1976) The Impact of Governmental
Restrictions on the Production and Use of Chemicals: A Case Study on
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (Report No. CPA-76-3/b).Cambridge, MA:Center
for Policy Alternatives, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, April 30,
1976.
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C-45
"MICROECONCMIC IMPACTS OF THE PROPOSED "PCB BAN REGULATIONS"
MAY 1978
EPA 560/6-77-035
NTIS PB 281 881/3WP
The purpose of this study was to evaluate the economic impacts of the
proposed "PCB Ban Regulations." These regulations were prepared by the Office
of Toxic Substances of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency with the
technical support of the Interagency PCB Work Group. These regulations implement
the bans on various PCB activities which were established by Congress in Section
6(e) of the Toxic Substances Control Act - Public Law 94-469.
The economic costs reported are those directly and indirectly attributable
to those changes in future PCB activities which would be caused by implementa-
tion of the proposed regulations. From the wording of Section 6(e) , it is clear
that the "intent of Congress was to ban the manufacture of PCBs after .^December
31, 1978, and to ban the distribution of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) after
June 30, 1979. Therefore, the long-term costs of using substitutes for PCBs
will be a consequence of this legislated ban on the manufacture of PCBs and
not a consequence of discretionary regulatory actions taken by the Environmental
Protection Agency.
This analysis of the proposed regulations considered both the direct costs
of complying with the requirements and the indirect effects of these requirements
on price levels, capital needs, employment, energy consumption, and the avail-
ability of strategic materials. The calculated economic impacts were the
incremental impacts of the proposed regulations on a base of 1976 practices
as modified by the previously promulgated PCB effluent standards and the marking
and disposal regulations. The costs of these other PCB regulations were con-
sidered during their development and are not considered to be a result of these
proposed ban regulations.
The expected transitional and long term costs resulting from the proposed
regulations are summarized in the following tables. The report also estimated
employment effects and other economic consequences.
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Table 1
Transitional Cost Inpacts of Proposed PCS Ban Regulation
I ton (Chapter)
rCU Transformers:
Manufacturer cl
nan on Rebuilding (4)
Fbregone Savings
lost Service Tiine
Transformer Service (5)
Lost Wages
Spill Prevei
locomotive Tr,
Retrofill Program
Processing Program
final Analy
Deporting
Spill Preva
PCD Capacitors
Equipment H
Inventory 01
Oil Filial Transformers (7)
Mining Machines (8)
Rebuild loader's
Scrap Continuous Miners
Reporting Costs
Spill Prevention Plans
$ Million Per Year
Succeeding $ Million
1979 Years 'total
in up costs (16)
1(4)
|3
$ .1
0 $ .1
14.3 3.4% less 420
per
year
une 2.4 3.4% less 75
ce (5)
>n Plan
bniiars (6)
•am
irain
for PCBs
m Plan
iign(15)
escence (3)
era (7)
d Disposal
per
1
1
7
0 2.7
0 .1
.005
.02
*
1
year
0 1
0 1
0 7
(2 years) 5.4
(1983) .1
0 .005
0 .02
0 1
24 3.4% less 700
per year
Conplete by Dec. 31, 1981
COiplete by Dec. 31, 1901
.02 0
.04 0
.6
.02
.04
Estimated
Reliability
of -mtal
-50% 1500%
±50%
150%
1100%
±1004
120%
120%
120%
1100%
150%
1100%
130%
120%
±50%
1100%
150%
*Data not available to su(>porL estimate; probably small cost intact.
n
,t>
CTi
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Table 1
Transitional Cost Impacts of Proposed PCS Ban Regulation (Continued)
I tail (Cliaptcr)
Uectranagnets (9)
Replacement Cost
Report ijtg
Cnipressora (12)
Reclaimed Oil
19)
lost
or Costs
IDS (10)
lachi nes
>1 Sampling
sntion Plans
ition
ic Systems
it ion
Interruptions
lystans (11)
0
tost of Synthetic Road
rial
)ost of Road Oil
rtion of Reclaimed
a Fluid
Pitjnnntis (14)
inges
$ Million
1979
$ 3.5
.5
.8
.2
.5
7.3
3.6
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C-48
Table 2
long Term Cost liipacts of Proposed PCB Ban Regulations^
Transformers: (Chapter 16)
Increased cost of non-PCB transformers $0 to 10 million/year
Increased fire losses Data not available
Capacitors: (Chapter 15):
Increased cost of non-PCB power factor
capacitors $5.5 to 10.9 million/year
Increased cost of non-PCB capacitors $7.8 to 10.3 million/year
(+ 50%)
Increased fire losses Data not available
Decreased service life Data not available
Dairylide Yellow Pigment (Chapter 14)
Increased cost of substitute pignnents $10 to 25 million/year
TOTAL $23 to 56 million/year
Present value of long term cost iirpacts assuming 10%
discount rate = $230 to 560 million
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C-49
PCB MANUFACTURING, PROCESSING, DISTRIBUTION IN COMMERCE-, AND
USE BAN REGULATION: ECONOMIC IMPACT ANALYSIS
FINAL REPORT
MARCH 1979
EPA 230-03/79-001
NTIS No. forthconing
This report is a revision of the report "Microecononic Hinpacts of the
proposed PCB Ban Regulations." The report summarizes the economic impacts
of the promulgated ban regulations and incorporates the information made
available during the rulemaking hearings on the proposed regulation. The
total economic costs and estimated pounds of PCBs diverted from the environment
by the regulation are summarized the following Table.
-------
Economic Costs of the PCB Ban Regulation
Chapter
Number Item
Total Cost
$ Million
3
3
5
5
6
7
8
9
Pounds PCBs Diverted
from the Environment
500
Cost per Pound
of PCBs
$ 2,000
Scrap Spare PCB 1
Capacitors
Remove PCB Capacitors 1,000 5,360 $187,000
from Equipment in These costs will be significantly reduced or eliminated if EPA
Inventory
grants exemptions from the "distribution in coirmerce" ban.
Ban Rebuilding 397 to 771 (30 yrs) 47,000 to 925,000
Askarel Transformers
Retrofill Railroad
Transformers to 6%
Retrofill Railroad
Transformers from
6% to .1%
6.7
5.15
Require Incineration of 96 to 510 (30 yrs)
Transformer Oil
Special Storage Areas *
at Transformer Service
Stops
Retrofill/Ban PCB Miner 2.6 to 4.3
Motors
**(3.76 million Ib)
total
**(80,240 Ib. total)
200,000
Ban Rebuilding Electro-
magnets
.96
? (27,500 Ib total)
200 to 2,000
$429 to $16,400
**(>$!.75)
**(>$68)
$480 to $2,550
? (>$94 to $155)
$480 to $4,800
*Information not available in record to make estimate.
**Figure represents total amount of PCBs in this use. Information not available in record to
make an estimate of amount diverted from the environment.
o
Ul
o
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ECONOMIC COSTS OF THE PCB BAN REGULATION (Continued)
Chapter
Number
10
11
12
13
14
14
15
16
16
17
Total Cost Pounds PCBs Diverted
Item $ Million from
Decontaminate Hydraulic 21.4 to 25
Systems
Decontaminate Heat 12.8 to 17.2 1,
Transfer Systems
Decontaminate Compressors .2
Ban Use of Waste Oil on 0 to 31.7/year
Roads
Phthalocyanine Blue pigments .425/year
Diary lide Yellow Pigments ,478/year
Spill Materials (50-500ppm) -
to Chemical Waste Landfill *
Ban New Large PCB Capacitors 5.5 to 11/year
Ban New Small PCB Capacitors 6.6 to 18.9/year
Ban New PCB Transformers 0 to 10/year
the Environment
470 to 2,390
872 to 2,496
*
8,073/year
544/year
4 4 I/year
*
14,200
6,930/year
12,000/year
Cost per Pound
of PCBS
$6,000 to $53,000
$6,870
*
$0 to $3,925
$781
$1,084
$182
$387 to $775
$950 to $2,730
$0 to $833
*Information not available in the record to make estimate.
n
en
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BIBLIOGRAPHIC DATA 1. Report No. 2.
SHEET EPA 560/6-79-004
4. Tide and Subtitle
Polychlorinated Biphenyls 1929-1979: Final Report
7. Authors)
Robert A. West in
9. Performing Organization Name and Address
VERSAR, Inc.
6621 Electronic Drive
Springfield, Virginia 22151
12. Sponsoring Organization Name and Address
Office of Toxic Substances
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D. C. 20460
3. Recipient's Accession No.
5. Report Date
Ifev 16, 1979
6.
3. Performing Organization Repc.
No. 474. 5F
10. Project/Task/Work Unit No.
11. Contract/Grant No.
63-01-3259
13. Type of Report & Period
Covered
Final Report
14.
15. Supplementary Notes
EPA Program Manager: Mr. Thomas E. Kopp
16. Abstracts
The primary emphasis of this report is a summary of the work that Versar
performed in support of the EPA's regulatory activities involving polychlori-
nated biphenyls over the past four years. The report includes summaries of
24 reports on PCBs that Versar submitted to EPA during this period. Also
included are a summary of the uses of PCBs from 1929 through 1979, a review of
much of the early literature on the uses and toxicity of PCBs, and a discussion
of the various regulatory activities that limited human exposure to PCBs and
eventually banned their manufacture, processing, and use.
17. Key Words and Document Analysis. 17a. Descriptors
Polychlorinated biphenyls
PCBs
Regulations
Water Pollution Abatement
Economic Analysis
Toxic Substances Control Act
Toxicity
Environmental Transport
Effluents
I7b. Identifiers /Open-Eaded Terms
17c. COSAT! Fie id/Group
18. Availability Statement
19.. Security Class (T'nis
Report)
UNCLASSIFIED
20. Security Class (This
Page
UNCLASSIFIED
21. No. of Pages
90
22. Price
FORM r»Tis-39 iREv. 10-73) ENDORSED SY ANSI AND UNESCO.
THIS FORM MAY 3E REPRODUCED
USCOMM-QC 328S-P7
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