United States EPA-600/2-81-039
Environmental Protection
Agency March 1981
&EPA Research and
Development
RECEPTOR MODELS RELATING
AMBIENT SUSPENDED PARTICIPATE MATTER
TO SOURCES
Prepared for
Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards
Prepared by
Industrial Environmental Research
Laboratory
Research Triangle Park NC 27711
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RESEARCH REPORTING SERIES
Research reports of the Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, have been grouped into nine series. These nine broad cate-
gories were established to facilitate further development and application of en-
vironmental technology. Elimination of traditional grouping was consciously
planned to foster technology transfer and a maximum interface in related fields.
The nine series are:
1. Environmental Health Effects Research
2. Environmental Protection Technology
3. Ecological Research
4. Environmental Monitoring
5. Socioeconomic Environmental Studies
6. Scientific and Technical Assessment Reports (STAR)
7. Interagency Energy-Environment Research and Development
8. "Special" Reports
9. Miscellaneous Reports
This report has been assigned to the ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION TECH-
NOLOGY series. This series describes research performed to develop and dem-
onstrate instrumentation, equipment, and methodology to repair or prevent en-
vironmental degradation from point and non-point sources of pollution. This work
provides the new or improved technology required for the control and treatment
of pollution sources to meet environmental quality standards.
EPA REVIEW NOTICE
This report has been reviewed by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and
approved for publication. Approval does not signify that the contents necessarily
reflect the views and policy of the Agency, nor does mention of trade names or
commercial products constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.
This document is available to the public through the National Technical Informa-
tion Service, Springfield, Virginia 22161.
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Document No. P-A422
March 1981
Contract No. 68-02-2542 Task 8
Prepared for
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711
The State of the Art of
Receptor Models
Relating Ambient
Suspended Particulate
Matter to Sources
ERT
ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH & TECHNOLOGY, INC.
ATLANTA - CHICAGO • CONCORD, MA • FORT COLLINS, CO
HOUSTON • LOS ANGELES • PITTSBURGH • WASHINGTON, DC
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EPA Project Officers
John 0. Milliken
Robert K. Stevens
Prepared by
John G. Watson
with assistance from
William Baasel
John Bachman
Neil Berg
Glenn Cass
John Cooper
John Core
Russell Crutcher
Lloyd Currie
Joan Daisey
Stuart Dattner
Briant Davis
Ronald Draftz
Alan Dunker
Thomas Dzubay
Robert Eldred
Edward Fasiska
Sheldon Friedlander
Donald Gatz
Glen Gordon
Bruce Harris
Ronald Henry
George Hidy
Philip Hopke
Reginald Jordan
Ted Kneip
Nick Kolak
Ross Leadbetter
Richard Lee
Charles Lewis
Carol Lyons
John Milliken
Jarvis Moyers
John Overton
Thompson Pace
Skip Palenik
Terry Peterson
William Pierson
Kenneth Rahn
Philip Russell
John Spengler
Robert K. Stevens
Warren White
Jack Winchester
John Woodward
John Yocom
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ACKNOWLE DGEMENTS
This report is the product of many minds, as evidenced by the
authorship on the title page.
It results from a two and one half day meeting in which these
researchers and users of receptor models came together in formal and
informal sessions at the Quail's Roost Conference Gaiter of the
University of North Carolina located in Rougemont, North Carolina.
The intimate, tranquil setting and the southern hospitality of the
Quail's Roost was a major ingredient in the success of the meeting,
and the staff, under the leadership of Mr. Charlie Philips, merits
special appreciation.
John Cooper of the Oregon Graduate Center, Ed Macias of
Washington University, John Milliken of EPA, Ron Henry and
John Watson, both of Environmental Research & Technology, Inc.
organized the meeting and moderated its formal sessions. Glen Gordon
of University of Maryland, Jarvis Moyers of University of Arizona,
Skip Palenik of McCrone & Associates, George Hidy of Environmental
Research & Technology, Inc., Phil Hopke of University of Illinois, and
Ed Macias of Washington University led and summarized the task force
discussions to define the state-of-the-art and research needs that
formed the outline of this report.
Special review presentations were prepared by John Cooper,
John Watson, Ron Henry, Rich Lee of U.S. Steel, Tom Dzubay of EPA, and
Sheldon Friedlander of UCLA.
Summaries of daily activities were prepared by Ted Kneip of
New York University, Bill Pierson of Ford Motor Co., and Jack Winchester
of Florida State University.
Bob Stevens, Tom Dzubay and Chuck Lewis, all of EPA, and
Peter Mueller and Ron Henry of ERT provided critical review of the
initial drafts of this document which resulted in substantial
improvements.
The typing and editing support of Marge Hagy, Audrey Rose and
Judith Chow of ERT, above all in the compilation of the bibliography
and reproduction of equations, deserves particular recognition.
111
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The final acknowledgement goes to those pioneers of receptor
modeling who did not participate in the Quail Roost meeting but upon
whose efforts the science is being developed. As much as possible,
relevant references to their work have been included in the
bibliography.
IV
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ABSTRACT
Receptor Models are used to determine the source contributions to
ambient particulate matter loadings at a sampling site based on common
properties between source and receptor. This is in contrast to a
source model which starts with emission rates and meteorological
measurements to predict an ambient concentration.
Three generic types of receptor model have been identified,
chemical mass balance, multivariate, and microscopical
identification. Each one has certain requirements for input data to
provide a specified output. An approach which combines receptor and
source models, source/receptor model hybridization, has also been
proposed, but it needs further study.
The input to receptor models is obtained from ambient sampling,
source sampling, and sample analysis. The design of the experiment is
important to obtain the most information for least cost. Sampling
schedule, sample duration and particle sizing are part of the ambient
sampling design. Analysis for elements, ions, carbon, organic and
inorganic compounds are included in the sample analysis design. Which
sources to sample and how to sample them are part of the source
sampling design.
In order for receptor modeling to become a useful tool, it must
be developed in five major areas:
General Theory - The generic types of receptor model are
related to each other, but that relationship has not been
generally established. A general theory of receptor models,
including the input data uncertainties, needs to be
constructed.
Validation - Simulated data sets created from known source
contributors and perturbed by random error need to be
presented to models, and their source contribution
predictions should be compared to the known contributions.
Several models need to be applied to the same data set and
their results compared.
Standardization - Validated models need to be placed in
standard form for easy implementation and use.
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Measurement Methods - Ambient and source sampling and
analysis methods need to be developed, tested and
standardized.
Documentation and Education - Users need to be informed of
the powers and limitations of these models and instructed in
their use.
VI
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii
ABSTRACT v
TABLE OF CONTENTS vii
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS ix
1. INTRODUCTION 1
2. THE RECEPTOR MODELS 7
2.1 The Chemical Mass Balance Receptor Model 8
2.2 Multivariate Models 14
2.3 Microscopical Identification Models 19
2.4 Hybrid Source/Receptor Models 22
3. RECEPTOR MODEL INPUT DATA 27
3.1 Field Study Design and Data Management 27
3.2 Source Characterization 33
3.3 Analytical Methods 37
4. RECEPTOR MODEL NEEDS 47
BIBLIOGRAPHY 50
vn
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Vlll
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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure Title Page
1 Source Model vs. Receptor Model Block Diagram 4
2 Plot of Predicted vs. Observed Concentration
for Regression 24
3 Example of Source-Receptor Model Hybrid 26
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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
There is a need today to quantify the effects of aerosol sources
on ambient particulate matter loadings. Over one hundred air quality
maintenance areas in the United States are not meeting primary and
secondary Total Suspended Particulate (TSP) Matter Standards. These
areas must submit state implementation plans showing how they will
come into attainment within a specified time period. This involves
the identification of major causes of 24 hour and/or annual standard
violations and the application of a control strategy to eliminate
those causes. The source identification step rarely receives as much
attention as the control of "assumed" sources. The result of this
imbalance can result in expensive controls with little or no effect on
ambient air quality. Industry is reluctant to make expenditures when
it sees no hard evidence that it is a major contributor to
violations. Airshed residents balk at higher taxes and burning and
driving restrictions in the absence of a clear relationship between
those activities and air quality.
As the condition of the environment improves, people become
concerned about certain amenities in addition to health effects.
Industrial sources are often charged as the cause of soiling,
deposition or visibility degradation in a community or area. The
verification of these charges is often left to emotional pleas rather
than to hard technical evidence. When an industry admits culpability,
it still needs to determine which part of its process is the major
contributor.
Standards for suspended particulate matter must be reevaluated
every ten years. At the present time the Environmental Protection
Agency is proposing a size-selective aerosol standard (Miller, et
al, 1979). The economic and monitoring impacts of such a standard
cannot be assessed without determining relative source contributions
to the size-range under consideration.
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Identifying the major sources of ambient particulate matter
loadings was a fairly simple process when values exceeded 500 yg/m
and stack emissions were plainly visible. Control of these emitters
was forthcoming and effective. At levels of 150 to 200 |_ig/nH, the
use of annual emission inventories focused further regulatory efforts
on major sources which have resulted in more successful reductions.
Presently, at levels around 75-100 yg/m3, the uncertainties
involved in these assessments of source contributions are greater than
the contributions themselves.
Source-oriented atmospheric dispersion modeling has been the
major tool used in attributing ambient concentrations to source
emissions. With extensively researched emission inventories and
adequate meteorological information, these models have done a credible
job of predicting non-reacting gaseous pollutant concentrations at
receptors due to specific sources. Many times, however, predicted
concentrations do not compare well with ambient measurements (e.g.,
Guldberg and Kern, 1978).
These source models have not proved themselves adequate for
suspended particulate matter for several reasons. First, particulate
matter emissions are widely dispersed and hard to quantify. Whereas
most gaseous emissions can be confined to specific points (even auto
tailpipes, though numbering in the millions, are identifiable and
confined to roadways and parking lots), particulate matter is produced
from point and nonpoint sources; every square inch of surface crossed
by wind is a potential emitter. Emission factors for area sources are
hard to estimate and display wide variability.
Second, the transport of aerosol is highly dependent on particle
size, with larger particles settling out closer to the emission point
than smaller ones or impacting out on surfaces such as trees or
buildings. The particle size distributions of many aerosol sources
are inadequately characterized or highly variable. Even if the
distributions were available, few source models have developed
mechanisms for aerosol removal. There are source models in which
total reflection at ground level occurs!
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Finally, the complexities of aerosol chemistry, — the
condensation and adsorption of organic vapors — the conversion of
S*^ to sulfate species — is not a part of the standard source
models. Though these models may potentially provide useful insights,
their results must not be relied upon as the definitive statement.
With the development of inexpensive and rapid chemical analysis
techniques for dividing ambient and source particulate matter into its
components has come another approach, the receptor model.
While the source-oriented model begins with measurements at the
source (i.e., emission rates for the period under study), and
estimates ambient concentrations, the receptor-oriented model begins
with the actual ambient measurements and estimates the source
contributions to them. Figure 1 illustrates the difference between
source and receptor models.
The receptor model relies on properties of the aerosol which are
common to source and receptor and that are unique to specific source
types. These properties are composition, size and variability.
The composition of material from one source type is different
from that of another. Auto exhaust particles contain significant
amounts of lead and bromine not found in aerosol from other sources.
The shapes, birefringences and x-ray diffraction patterns of certain
minerals can identify which aggregate storage pile they come from if
the piles contain different minerals.
The particle size distribution is dictated by the processes which
generate the aerosol, the most useful size distinction being between
particles greater than and less than 2 /^m. Willeke and
Whitby (1975), after hundreds of particle size measurements in urban
situations, have found that the mass of most aerosols appears to be
concentrated into two size ranges, commonly termed the coarse
(particles >2/im) and fine (particles <2jLtm) particle modes. Coarse
particles are primarily the result of grinding and errosive
operations, the breaking up of larger material into smaller pieces.
Geological material tends to dominate this mode. Fine particles are
formed by the condensation of gases to particles, chemical reactions
between gases yielding particles, and the coagulation of still smaller
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KNOWN
SOURCE
EMISSIONS
KNOWN
DISPERSION
CHARACTERISTICS
SOURCE
MODEL
ESTIMATED
AMBIENT
CONCENTRATIONS
SOURCE MODELS
SOME KNOWN
SOURCE
CHARACTERISTICS
KNOWN
AMBIENT '
CONCENTRATIONS
^
*.
S
RECEPTOR
MODEL
ESTIMATED
SOURCE
IMPACTS
SOME KNOWN
DISPERSION
CHARACTERISTICS
RECEPTOR MODELS
Figure 1. The source model uses source emissions as inputs, calculates ambient concentrations.
The receptor model uses ambient concentrations as inputs, calculates source contributions.
(From Watson, 1979)
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particles. A dichotomous mass sample, the measurement of the fraction
of the total mass contributed by the coarse and fine modes, is a good
indicator (Dzubay and Stevens, 1975) of the relative contributions
from these two broad source categories. It appears (Heisler et
al., 1973) that finer gradations of particle size at source and
receptor could make these classifications more specific.
The variation of particulate matter properties, both temporally
and spatially, corresponds to variations of source emissions and to
the variability of meteorological transport between source and
receptor. Increases in ambient lead and bromine concentrations during
rush hour could correspond to a known increase in auto exhaust during
those time periods. Rheingrover and Gordon (1980) show spatial
variability of aerosol component concentrations varying precisely with
wind direction, implicating upwind sources known to emit those
components. When the effects of changing meteorology are taken into
account, sources with diurnal, weekly, and seasonal emission
variations will engender similar variations of the components they
contribute to a receptor. Source/receptor distance and wind related
transport cause all source contributions to vary with receptor
location.
The examination of these properties to identify source
contributions is not new. Throgmorton and Axetell (1978) have done a
credible job of tabulating and generalizing applications of receptor
models in the past and Cooper and Watson (1980) and Gordon (1980)
offer excellent reviews of current work. Receptor modeling is an
active area of research which is on the verge of becoming a useful
tool in the ambient monitoring and regulatory process. However, it
needs a unified focus to direct its development.
In an attempt to provide this focus, forty-seven active receptor
model users from government, university, consulting and industry met
for 2 1/2 days in February 1980. They addressed the models and the
information required to use them in six separate task forces:
• Chemical Element Balance Receptor Models
• Multivariate Receptor Models
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• Microscopic Identification Receptor Models
• Field Study Design and Data Management
• Source Characterization
• Analytical Methods
The objectives of these inter-related task forces were to:
• define the state-of-the-art via summaries of past and
present research,
• outline future research required to make the models useful
tools for the scientific community, regulators, and planners,
• suggest vehicles for carrying out that research within the
context of ongoing projects.
This report presents the results of this meeting with sufficient
background material and references on receptor models to make the
recommendations meaningful to uninitiated but potential receptor model
users.
This introduction presents the general concept of a receptor
model, the input it requires, and the output it produces. Chapter Two
will describe chemical mass balance, multivariate, microscopic and
hybrid model approaches, the specific data they require, the
recognized state-of-the-art, and research directions for each model.
Having specified the data required in Chapter Two, Chapter Three
will summarize the state-of-the-art of the methods of obtaining those
data in terms of field study design, source characterization, and
analytical methods. Areas requiring exploration and refinement will
be stated.
Chapter Four makes specific recommendations for meeting the needs
proposed in Chapters Two and Three.
The extensive bibliography following Chapter Four, and the
liberal reference to it thoughout the text, is intended to provide
direction to present and future researchers and users of receptor
modeling methods.
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CHAPTER 2: THE RECEPTOR MODELS
Receptor models presently in use can be classified into one of
four categories: chemical mass balance, multivariate, microscopic,
and source/ receptor hybrids. Each classification will be treated
individually, though it will become apparent that they are closely
related.
The starting point for the receptor model is the source model.
Though the source model may not deliver accurate results under many
conditions, its limitations are primarily due to its inability to
include every environmentally relevant variable and inadequate
measurements for the variables it does include. The general
mathematical formulations, however, are representative of the way in
which particulate matter travels from source to receptor.
In general, the source model states that the contribution of
source j to a receptor, S. £s the product of an emissions rate,
E;, and a dispersion factor, D-,
Various forms for D. have been proposed (Pasquill, 1974,
Benarie, 1976, Seinfeld, 1975), some including provisions for chemical
reactions, removal, and specialized topography. None are completely
adequate to describe the complicated, random nature of particulate
matter travel in the atmosphere. Similarly, E. is difficult to
quantify on an absolute basis for many sources. The advantage of the
receptor model is that exact knowledge of D. and E- is unnecessary.
If a number of sources, p, exists and there is no interaction
between their aerosols to cause mass removal, the total aerosol mass
measured at the receptor, C, will be a linear sum of the contributions
of the individual sources.
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Similarly, the mass concentration of aerosol property i,
will be
Ci = V ai.S.
i-i
where a.. £s the mass fraction of source contribution j possessing
1J
property i at the receptor.
2.1 The Chemical Mass Balance Receptor Model
Equation 3 looks similar to Friedlander's (1973) chemical element
balance which has been used in Pasadena (Miller et al. 1972, Hammerle
and Pierson, 1975), Chicago (Gatz, 1975), Fresno, Pomona, San Jose,
Riverside (Gartrell and Friedlander 1975), New York (Kneip et al 1972,
Daisey et al., 1979), Portland (Henry, 1977, Watson, 1979),
Washington, B.C. (Kowalczyk et al. 1978), Denver (Heisler
et al. 1980, Courtney et al., 1980), Miami (Hardy, 1979),
Smokey Mountains (Stevens et al. 1980), and St. Louis (Dzubay
et al 1980) to assess source contributions. If the p sources are
considered "source types", that is, grouping sources with similar
properties together, the set of equations like Equation 3 for all of
the elemental concentrations is_ the chemical element balance.
A better name for this model might be chemical mass balance.
Historically, elemental measurements were most readily available.
Recent analytical developments allow chemical compounds and ions to be
among the properties considered.
If one measures n chemical properties of both source and
receptor, n equations of the form of Equation 3 exist. If the number
of source types contributing those properties is less than or equal to
the number of equations, i.e., p< n, then the source contributions,
the S. can be calculated.
Four methods of performing this calculation have been proposed,
the tracer property, linear programming, ordinary linear least squares
fitting, and effective variance least squares fitting.
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The tracer element method is the simplest. It assumes that each
aerosol source type possesses a unique property which is common to no
other source type, Equation 3 then reduces to
(4)
for each source j with its tracer t.. It works well when the
tracers meet the following requirements:
at.• perceived at the receptor is well known and
• JJ •
invariant.
2- Ct can be measured accurately and precisely in the
ambient sample.
3. The concentration of property t- at the receptor comes
only from source type j.
These conditions cannot be completely met in practice, and by
limiting the model to only one tracer property per source type,
valuable information contained in the other aerosol properties is
being discarded. Thus, solutions to the set of equations like
Equation 3 have been developed to make use of the additional
information provided by more than one unique chemical property of a
source type, and even that of properties which are not so unique.
The linear programming and weighted least squares solutions deal
with the case of a number of constraints, n, greater than the number
of unknowns, p.
Henry (1977) has applied a linear programming algorithm
(Hadley, 1962) which maximizes the sum of the source contributions
subject to the following constraints:
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0 < S. 1C (5)
•' fc '+3*=
where CT is the uncertainty in the measurement C^.
c.
i
This solution has not developed further.
In the ordinary weighted least squares method, the most probable
values of S. when n>p are achieved by minimizing the weighted sum
of squares of the difference between the measured values of C^ and
those calculated from Equation 3 weighted by OU the analytical
uncertainty of the C^ measurement.
2 Jl ( C. - V a., S. )2 (8)
X =
i= I
This solution provides the added benefit of being able to propagate
the measured uncertainty of the C^ through the calculations to come
up with a confidence interval around the calculated S..
The ordinary weighted least squares solution is incomplete,
however. The ambient aerosol chemical properties, the C. are not
the only observables on which measurements are made. The chemical
properties of the source aerosol, the a.. are also measured
observables, but the errors associated with those measurements are not
included in the ordinary weighted least squares fit.
10
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Dunker (1979) and Watson (1979) have applied the treatment of
Britt and Luecke (1973) to the solution of a set of Equations 3. The
maximum likelihood solution minimizes the function
n ( C. - V a.. S. )2 (9)
2 2
T* c
d * • o *
ij J
where Q^ £g the uncertainty associated with the a- •
ij 1J
measurement.
This solution provides two benefits. First, it propagates a
confidence interval around the calculated S- which reflects the
cumulative uncertainty of the input observables. The more precise the
measurements of the ambient source property concentrations are, the
better the estimate of the source contributions will be. The second
benefit provided by this "effective variance" weighting is to give
those chemical properties with larger uncertainties, or chemical
properties which are not as unique to a source type, less weight in
the fitting procedure than those properties having more precise
measurements or a truly unique source character.
In a series of simulation studies on artifically generated,
randomly perturbed data sets, Watson (1979) shows that these benefits
are indeed realized in practice.
Each least squares solution exhibits instabilities when source
compositions are similar, though not exact. Very large or negative
source contributions result. Other fitting methods such as
constrained least squares (Twomey, 1977) and non-negative least
squares (Leggett, 1977) need to be explored with the addition of the
uncertainties in the source compositions.
The input data required for the chemical mass balance consist of
the following:
1. The concentrations of the chemical components which comprise
the total mass of the sample, the C^, and their
precisions, the 0"-.
1 11
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2. The number, p, and identification of source types
contributing to the receptor samples.
3. The source type compositions, the a£ j , and their
variabilities
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If no other sources of chemical component i exist, E. = \t
F
i greater than one implies sources of component i other than
source b. For example, King et al. (1976) noticed a high Sb
enrichment at one site in Cleveland, Ohio. Further investigation
revealed the existence of a nearby chemical plant producing Sb
compounds.
Ambient aerosol property measurements are quite sophisticated;
the state of source measurements is atrocious. Certain aerosol
property measurements have been made on emissions from geological
material (Rahn, 1976), auto exhaust (Pierson and Brachaczek, 1974),
marine background (Hidy et al. 1974), coal combustion (Gladney et
al. 1976), municipal incinerators (Greenberg, 1978), iron and steel
blast furnaces (Jacko, 1977), tire dust (Pierson and
Brachaczek, 1974), copper smelters (Zoller et al. 1978), vegetative
burning (Core and Terraglio, 1978), kraft recovery boilers
(Watson, 1979) and cement plants. The references cited are
representative rather than exhaustive. These tests seldom provide a
full accounting of aerosol properties, have not taken samples similar
to the ambient samples, report no confidence intervals on the
measurements, and do not fully describe the operating parameters of
the source at the time of the test.
Even if a methodology existed for exactly quantifying the source
type compositions, it is unlikely that all individual emitters would
have the same composition or even that the composition would remain
the same over the period of time during which ambient samples are
taken.
The source contributions of aerosol formed from gaseous
emissions, such as sulfate, nitrate and certain organic species,
cannot be quantified by chemical mass balance methods. Watson (1979)
proposes a unique source type which will put an upper limit on the
contributions of secondary aerosol sources, but it cannot attribute
those contributions to specific emitters.
Even given these limitations, users of the chemical mass balance
feel that the method has been developed to the point where it can
frequently be used as a basis for state implementation plans for the
control of particulate matter pollution. It is conceptually simple,
based on real data, and given the proper input data, it is able to
13
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quantitatively apportion contributions of sources to ambient air
quality. The difference between the mass concentration at the
receptor and the sum of the source contributions offers a consistency
check; if the sum is much greater than the total mass, one or more of
the source contributions have been over-estimated; if the sum is much
less than the mass, sources have been left out or some of those
included do not belong. This same check can be applied to chemical
components not included in the fitting procedure.
Major source contributions are quantified with greater precision
than minor contributions, but this may not be a limiting feature for
many purposes. Watson (1979) observed that the industrial source
contributions to the Portland airshed were subject to large
uncertainties; if their exact determination was required, the results
would have been inadequate. However, for the control-strategy-planning
purposes of that study, they were sufficient for concluding that the
maximum possible industrial contributions were not causing standards
violations.
The future development of the chemical mass balance receptor
model must include:
More chemical components measured in different size ranges
at both source and receptor.
Study of other mathematical methods of solving the chemical
mass balance equations.
Validated and documented computer routines for calculations
and error estimates.
Extension of the chemical mass balance to an "aerosol
properties balance" to apportion other aerosol indices such
as light extinction.
2.2 Multivariate Models
The chemical mass balance uses the aerosol property of chemical
composition. If source and ambient samples are taken in more than one
size range, the size property can be used to separate the contributions
14
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of one source from another. The mass balance presently has no way to
incorporate the variability of ambient concentrations and source
emissions. The multivariate methods can do this.
Linear regression (Kleinman, 1977, 1980, Hammerle and Pierson,
1975, Neustadter et al., 1976), correlation (Moyers et al., 1977,
Cahill et al., 1977) and factor analysis (Hopke et al., 1976,
Henry, 1977) are the forms these models take.
While the chemical mass balance receptor model was easily
derivable from the source model and the elements of its solution
system were fairly easy to present, this is not the case for
multivariate receptor models.
Watson (1979) has carried through the calculations of the
source-receptor model relationship for the correlation and principal
components mpdels in forty-three equation-laden pages. Only a few
highlights can be offered here.
The mathematical obfuscation of these models must not remove the
requirement that every receptor model must be representative of and
derivable from physical reality as represented by the source model. A
statistical relationship between the variability of one observable and
another is insufficient to define cause and effect unless this
physical significance can be established.
The multivariate models deal with a series of m measurements of
aerosol component i during sampling period or at sample site k. From
Equation 3,
C. = > a. . S., k=l...m (12)
ik L^ ij jk
The multivariate models deal only with the C-, with the objective of
predicting the number of sources, p, and which a^. are associated
with which S. or mOre ambitiously, estimating a— and Sj^.
15
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The linear regression model sets
C , = a C . + b C13)
vk uk
where
C C - C C
a = v u v u
— 2
and
Cu - Cu (14)
b = C - a C (15)
v u
with
m
C C = - T] C ,C , (16)
v u *—*. vk uk
m k=l
C , (17)
uk
m
C 2 = - Y, C ,2 (18)
u r—', uk
m k=l
A
and C^k is the value calculated from Equation 12 as opposed to the
measured value, C ,
' vk-
When chemical components u and v originate uniquely in source type j,
cv and Cu can be replaced by Equations 4 in Equations 14 and 15 to
give
a .
b = 0 (20)
The linear regression model yields the ratios of the source
compositions for chemical components unique to one source.
16
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The correlation model relies on the correlation coefficient,
c c - c c
rc c u v u v
f ~2 - 2 \ 1/2 / 2 - 2 X 1/2
( C 2 - C 2 ) ( C 2 - C 2 \ (21)
v u u y \v v /
to measure the extent to which ambient concentrations u and v vary in
the same way. If u and v are from the same source, then Equation 4
holds and upon incorporation into Equation 21
rC C =1 (22)
u v
The traditional factor analysis model transforms equation 12 to
a£. S.J + d. Ui- (23)
where
c.. - c.
cik = —-——~ (24)
jk / —^-_ _ 2 x 1/2
and
S., - S.
(25)
- *ij I ^ " V V ^
~ - C.2
i i
where a^. is called the factor loading, and is related to the
source compositions through Equation 25, and S?^ is called the
factor score, which is related to the source contributions through
Equation 24. The d- and U- are unique factor loadings and scores,
respectively, which are often left out of the analysis. The resulting
is a principal components analysis
17
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i-i
The factor model treats the Cs. as components of a vector
for each chemical component, i, in an m-dimensional space. If
Equation 3 is true, then only p vectors, where p <_ m, in a less
complex p-dimensional space are required to produce the vectors of
C?. This p-space is defined by the eigenvectors of the
correlation matrix of the C?. These p eigenvectors merely define
the space, however, and are not necessarily representative of the
sources, the S? vectors. They must be linearly combined to form
the new source vectors.
Alpert and Hopke (1980) have experimented with an unstandardized
correlation matrix with correlations between samples as opposed to the
standardized correlation between chemical species of Equation 21.
This approach retains more of the information in the data and allows
the proportionality among the chemical species to be maintained.
The foregoing discussion can by no means initiate the casual
reader to the full power and limitations of the multivariate models;
it can only impress on him the complexity of the subject and the
necessity to study it carefully before proceeding.
Multivariate models have been successful in identifying source
contributions in urban areas. They are not independent of source
composition knowledge since the chemical component associations they
reveal must be verified by source emissions analyses. The linear
regression model can produce the typical ratio of chemical components
in a source, but only under fairly restrictive conditions. The factor
and principal components analysis models require source composition
estimates to find the right set of S? vectors, though it seems
that these a^. estimates can be refined as a result of the analysis
(Henry, 1977, Alpert, 1980).
The most important caveat to be heeded in the use of multivariate
models is that though origination in the same source will cause two
chemical components to correlate, the converse, that chemical
18
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components which correlate must have originated in the same source, is
not true. The substitution of Equation 1 into Equation 13 and its
propagation through the subsequent equations shows that the
correlation between elements u and v is a function of the non-source
related dispersion factor, Difc} as well as the source-dependent
emissions factor, E.,
' ik«
The only input data required of the multivariate receptor models
at their present state-of-the-art are the ambient concentrations, the
^ik- This data set must be large (just how large is yet undefined)
and must contain substantial variability. With an estimate of the
ai j , the source compositions and contributions can be refined. No
provision has yet been made for propagating the measurement
uncertainties, the CTC_ and aa_, through the model or of
evaluating their effect on model output as has been done for the
chemical mass balance.
Future development of the multivariate models includes:
• Testing of other multivariate methods. Suggestions include
ridge regression (McDonald and Schwing, 1973) regression
against principal components (Henry and Hidy, 1979),
clustering techniques (Gaarenstroom et al., 1977), time
series analysis (Box and Jenkins, 1976), and non-parametric
(Bradley, 1968) approaches. The formulation and testing of
such models should draw statisticians and applied
mathematicians into working with aerosol study specialists
to become aware of the full range of multivariate methods
available and to apply them appropriately to air quality
problems.
• Creation of simulated ambient data sets from a simple source
model with known source compositions and contributions
perturbed by typical experimental error. The multivariate
models should be applied to these data sets, as did
Watson (1979) for the chemical mass balance, to determine
the extent to which the models can apportion source
contributions under various conditions.
2.3 Microscopical Identification Models
Microscopic identification and classification of individual
aerosol particles into source categories can be a valuable tool for
the study of settled and suspended atmospheric particles.
19
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Many different optical and chemical properties of single aerosol
particles can be measured, enough to distinguish those originating in
one source type from those originating in another. The microscopic
analysis receptor model takes the form of the chemical mass balance
equations presented in Equation 3.
M. = Y *•• S- <28)
i ^-rf ij J
where
M. = % mass of particle i in the receptor sample
a— = fractional mass of particle type i in source type j
S. = % of total mass measured at the receptor due
to source j .
The model of Equations 3 and 28 might be better termed an aerosol
properties mass balance to encompass both the chemical mass balance
and microscopic receptor models.
The solutions to the set of Equations 28 are the same as those
described by Equations 4, 5 to 7, 8, and 9, though only the tracer
method, i.e., each receptor particle type is unique to one source
type, has been used in the past.
The microscopic receptor model can include many more aerosol
property measurements than those used to date in the chemical mass
balance and multivariate models. It has not taken advantage of the
mathematical framework developed in the other two models to deal with
particle types which are not unique to a given source type or the
ambient and source measurement uncertainties.
The data inputs required for this model are the ambient
properties measurements, the M^, and the source properties
measurements, the a^.. To estimate the confidence interval of the
calculated S. the uncertainties (TM and a_ are also
i ii
required. Microscopists generally agree that a list of likely source
20
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contributors, their location with respect to the receptor, and
windflow during sampling are helpful in confirming their source
assignments.
The major limitation of microscopic receptor models is that the
analytical method, the classification of particles possessing a
defined set of properties, has not been separated from the source
apportionment of those particles. Equations 28 have never been used
in this application. The source identification takes place on
recognition of the particle by the microscopist. The particle
properties he uses for this identification are his alone (or his
laboratory's) and are not subject to interpretation by another.
Source contributions assigned to the same aerosol sample have
varied greatly in inter-comparison studies (Bradway and Record, 1976),
but without the intermediate particle property classifications, it is
impossible to ascribe the differences to the analytical portion or to
the source assignment portion of the process.
Many times the microscopist relies on his past knowledge of the
properties of aerosol sources without the examination of local source
material. For example, a coarse particle sample taken in the vicinity
of a coal fired power plant may show a 20% contribution due to flyash
and an 80% contribution due to minerals. As Brookman and Yocom (1980)
point out, the 20% flyash may not have come from the power plant
during the sampling period. An examination of nearby soils could show
a 20% flyash concentration resulting from long-term deposition. Using
one of the least squares or linear programming approaches to the
solution of a set of Equations 28 with local source compositions could
alleviate this problem.
Though the aerosol properties mass balance suggested by the
microscopic models shows promise, it is limited by the lack of a
standardized, reproducible analytical method. A few laboratories are
pursuing the establishment of such a method, however, and the
state-of-the-art of their efforts will be summarized in Chapter Three.
21
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Future development for this model include:
• Creation and acceptance of a standardized methodology.
t The definition of important optical criteria and their
measurement/methods.
• A method of reporting and cataloging source properties by
means of the chosen criteria.
2.4 Hybrid Source/Receptor Models
Until now, the receptor models have been treated as if they were
completely separate entities from the source models. This need not be
the case. Three examples of source/receptor model hybridization show
promise, and many others are probably waiting to be developed. A
source model incorporates measured or estimated values for the
emission rate, E- and the dispersion factor, D- in Equation 1.
Whenever either of these enter the receptor model as observables, it
shall be termed a hybrid model. The three applications considered
here are emission inventory scaling, micro-inventories, and dispersion
modeling of specific sources within a source type.
Emission inventory scaling, proposed by Gartrell and Friedlander
(1975), uses the relative emission rates of two source types subject
to approximately the same dispersion factor (e.g., residential heating
by woodstoves and natural gas) to approximate the source contribution
from the source type not included in the chemical mass balance (e.g.,
natural gas combustion). The ratio of the emission rates is
multiplied by the contribution of the source type which was included
in the balance.
The micro-inventory approach developed by Pace (1979) has been
shown to be a good predictor of annual average TSP based on a detailed
assessment of emissions close to the sampling site. Four types of
emissions are compiled using standard emission factors where
applicable.
o AREA emissions: annual area source particulate matter
emissions within one mile of the monitor. This variable
includes fugitive dust and the influence of the monitor
height.
22
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• POINT emissions: annual point source emissions within
five miles of the receptor.
• LOCAL emissions: annual emissions from traffic-related
sources within 200 feet of the receptor.
• VISPLUME emissions: an indicator variable for the presence
or absence of traffic related/suspended dust plumes from
nearby (200 ft.) streets.
Pace investigated many other variables in multiple linear
regressions with TSP, but found these to be the significant ones.
Figure 2 shows the excellent relationship between predicted and
measured values for the 79 data sets from four cities used by Pace to
derive the following relationship:
Annual Average TSP = 0.0045 (AREA) + 0.00096 (POINT) + (29)
50.5 (LOCAL) + 18.6 (VISPLUME) +
CITY EFFECTS
Pace emphasizes that Equation 29 is not applicable to other
cities in an absolute sense, but he does show, with data from three
other cities, that it is effective in determining the relative
contributions of AREA, POINT, LOCAL, and VISPLUME effects. Large
contributions from LOCAL and VISPLUME indicate that the sampler
location is probably inadequate to represent the airshed as a whole,
and that the best control measures are those taken in the vicinity of
the monitor.
A more specific equation than Equation 29 could be calculated by
adding new data sets to the 79 already in use and recalculating the
coefficients, or by using the existing HIVOL sites to create a new
equation.
The micro-inventory should be a pre-requisite for aerosol mass
balance or microscopic model applications to identify the most likely
sources for sampling, analysis and inclusion in the balance.
A major limitation of receptor models is their inability to
distinguish between specific sources within a source type.
Resuspended road dust may be a major cause of standard violations, but
until the offending roadways can be pinpointed, a control strategy
23
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180
160
140
100
! 80
I
I
I 60
V)
g 40
20
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
PREDICTED CONCENTRATION, MB/m3
Figure 2. Plot of predicted versus observed
concentration for regression.
From Pace (1979)
24
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cannot be implemented. A major limitation of source models is the
necessity to estimate emission rates from the many, diverse producers
of suspended particulate matter. Figure 3 schematically illustrates a
possible combination of the two models. The receptor model quantifies
the source type contributions. Only the major contributors need to be
evaluated for the source model, so that resources which might have
been used to inventory an entire airshed can be concentrated on
determining emission rates from the specific emitters within a source
type. This improved data with fewer source inputs should increase the
accuracy with which the relative contribution from each individual
source type can be calculated. An application of this hybridization
has never been attempted, but it merits exploration.
Two more sets of observables are introduced into the hybrid
models, the emissions factors, the E- and the dispersion factors,
the D. it is the difficulty of quantifying these that led to the
use of a receptor model over the source model in the first place, so
it would seem there is little advantage in re-introducing them. The
advantage of the hybridization is that the number of E- and D.
can be considerably reduced and that the relative values rather than
the absolute values are used. These relative values are more accurate
in most cases.
Still the uncertainties CTg _ and o^ need to be evaluated
and incorporated into any source/receptor hybrid model.
Future areas of development include:
• Theoretical formulation of source/receptor models.
0 Validation tests with real and simulated data.
25
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DATA INTERPRETATION USING DUAL "ODEL APPROACH
TYPICAL INTERACTION 0* SOURCE AND RECEPTOR '1QDELS TO
DETERMINE SOURCES Of TOTAL SUSPENOE D PARTICIPATES
THE DIAGRA*' SHOWS ONE OF SEVERAL POSSIBLE SOURCE DISTRIBUTIONS
Figure 3. This source receptor model hybridization uses
the receptor model to calculate the contributions
of each source type and the source model to quantify
the contribution of each specific source to its
source type. (From ERT, 1979)
26
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CHAPTER 3. RECEPTOR MODEL INPUT DATA
It is evident from the previous chapter that the receptor models,
like all such simplified representations of reality, can return
results no better than the input data with which they are supplied.
The measurements required for the present receptor model
state-of-the-art include particulate matter composition, size and
variability of both source and receptor. Aerodynamic diameter and
variability must be distinguished at the field sampling stage (though
microscopic sizing can provide an £ posteriori estimate of optical
diameters). While real time measurements of particle composition
would be ideal, the state-of-the-art requires laboratory analysis of
particulate matter collected on appropriate substrates.
In this chapter, the collection of input data for receptor models
will be examined.
3.1 Field Study Design and Data Management
Few aerosol characterization studies performed in the past have
been designed with the goal of applying a receptor model. The
receptor models have traditionally been developed and applied after
data collection as a method of interpreting large, complicated sets of
measurements. This has been a productive development mechanism, but
the present state-of-the-art demands a more precise definition of the
goals of a study, the receptor models to be used, the input data
required, and the measurement and quality assurance program to obtain
that input data. These goals might include:
• studies to further validate the receptor models and
measurement methods,
• evaluation of health related particulate matter constituents,
• causes of visibility impairment, and
• providing a detailed breakdown of source contributions to
different particle size fractions in order to devise a
control strategy.
27
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Cost will be the primary controlling factor in the experimental
design in essentially all cases. The cost of obtaining the entire
population of possible measurements is prohibitive. The field study
design must select a subset which is representative of the population
within definable confidence limits and which can be obtained within
the constraints of existing resources.
Several generalizations can be made about aerosol characterization
study design based on past experience.
Existing data should be used to obtain an understanding of the
area under study. These data include historical HIVOL and gas
concentrations, meteorological data, emission inventories, chemical
and optical analyses, and the results of dispersion modeling.
Step-by-step procedures of how to use this information need to be
developed.
Siting of monitoring stations should take advantage of existing
sites with consideration to land use categories and transportation
source influences. Prevailing wind directions and the locations of
important sources should be located prior to siting and used in the
siting process. Source-oriented sites are often useful, but both
upwind and downwind, baseline or background sites are needed. Simple
source-oriented modeling can provide helpful guidance for the location
of sites. Hougland and Stephens (1976) describe an analytical
technique for siting monitors while Stalker and Dickerson (1962) and
Solomon et al. (1977) offer empirical evidence that a small network
can represent an airshed as well as a larger one under certain
conditions. In many cases of current interest, sampling for vertical
stratification may be needed to distinguish between tall stack and
ground level contributions.
The frequency and duration of measurement are important factors;
source contributions at a fixed station are often short-term and to
measure their variability requires sampling times of the same order as
that variation. Twenty-four hour sampling is considered minimal, and
shorter term sampling is often desirable. Less than 12-hr samples are
usually required to relate samples to a constant wind direction.
28
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Measuranents are needed to extrapolate to annual average conditions;
however, it is not necessary to sample daily to achieve this. It is
important to obtain information on both intense pollution conditions
(episodes) and relatively clean conditions. Thus, more samples than
needed should be taken with a subset chosen for detailed analysis
based on meteorological or other factors. Samples should be taken
every day over selected seasonal periods rather than one per third or
sixth day to capture the progression effect of multiday events.
Aerosol sampling devices must be chosen which can obtain an
adequate amount of particulate matter for analysis within the sampling
duration. The samplers must separate the ambient aerosol
concentrations into the desired size ranges with a defined efficiency.
The particle size cuts of the sampler and their variation with
respect to windspeed and wind direction (McFarland et al., 1979) must
be quantified if comparability of results between one study and another
is to be achieved. Several of the sampling devices available for aerosol
characterization studies were intercompared via the simultaneous sampling
of air during sixteen consecutive twelve-hour periods (Camp et al.,
1978). More of this testing and intercomparison work is required of
existing samplers.
For sampling in which the variation of aerosol concentrations
with time is required, the sampler should be able to switch filters
sequentially without operator attention. Camp et al. (1978) report
three commercially available samplers, the automated dichotomous
sampler, the sequential filter sampler, and the streaker sampler,
capable of this.
Because of the re-entrainment and bounce-off problems associated
with cascade impactors, which cause large particles to penetrate to
the small particle stages, virtual impactors (Loo et al., 1975) and
cyclone preseparators (Mueller et al., 1980) are the most commonly
used size separating devices in current aerosol characterization
studies.
In most studies, particularly those in which regulatory issues
are addressed, a 24-hour high volume sample should accompany samples
taken with other devices; the relationship of the aerosol study
samples to the historical total suspended particulate matter data base
can then be evaluated.
29
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Meteorological information which has been useful to receptor
model studies includes temperature, relative humidity, mixing height,
windspeed and wind direction. For hybrid approaches using a source
model, stability class, sigma theta and vertical temperature profiles
may be needed. The wind direction is particularly important for the
verification of certain receptor model source contribution
predictions; definite differences should exist between samples on
which the source is upwind and downwind of the receptor. Kleinman
(1977) incorporated a normalization factor, which is a function of
windspeed and mixing depth, to minimize dispersion related
correlations from his multivariate receptor model. Existing
monitoring at airports, television stations and private facilities may
be sufficient for the aerosol study. These networks, their ability to
meet the requirements of the study, and the data collection procedures
need to be defined as part of the field study design.
Source characterization must be an integral part of any field
study design. A microinventory (Pace, 1979) of each sampling site
should be conducted and specimens of nearby fugitive emissions sources
identified by it should be taken and analyzed. Aerosol properties of
likely point source contributors identified in the emission inventory
must be measured during the course of ambient sampling. Source
sampling and analysis techniques need to be compatible with ambient
techniques. With limited resources, not all sources can be
characterized.
Priority should be given to those sources which are expected to
be heavy contributors on the basis of calculated emissions
(EPA, 1973), and which have not been characterized in previous studies,
The chemical components to be quantified in each sample and the
analytical methods to be used should be specified before the first
sample is taken. The experimental design must be reviewed to assure
that the field samples will be amenable to the chosen techniques.
This requires:
Comparison of component concentrations likely to be found in
samples to the lower quantifiable limits of the analytical
methods. The sampling design or analytical method must be
modified if the majority of the expected amounts are less
than these limits.
30
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• Selection of filter media which will not bias the aerosol
measurement because of variable blank concentrations or
artifact formation of the chemical species to be measured.
If x-ray fluorescence is to be used, the aerosol must be
deposited on the surface rather than inside of the filter to
prevent absorption of x-rays by the filter material.
Simultaneous sampling on more than one substrate may be
required.
• Transport and storage procedures must prevent changes in the
components to be quantified between sampling and analysis.
An overwhelming number of chemical compounds can be found in the
typical urban aerosol, and some subset must be selected for
quantification. Two general rules can narrow the scope of chemical
analysis somewhat. First, the sum of the masses of chemical
components measured should equal, within stated precision estimates,
the total mass concentration of the aerosol. Without this equivalence
one cannot necessarily assign the unaccounted for mass to a source,
nor is it possible to verify the other component quantities via a mass
balance. Thus the first requirement of chemical analysis is that the
major chemical components of total aerosol mass in the sample are
quantified.
The second requirement is that components unique to specific
aerosol sources affecting the ambient sample are measured. The
precise chemical species will depend on the sources in the airshed
under consideration.
Most studies will require measurement of certain "basic"
particulate matter species including ions, elements, and organic and
inorganic carbon.
A quality assurance component must be integral to the study to
verify the accuracy of its measurements and to estimate a precision
for each one. This component should include co-located sampling,
replicate analysis, station audits, data validation, interlaboratory
comparisons and a full set of standard operating procedures. The
quality of the data set generated should be discussed and should
include the results of validation, analysis of outliers and overall
estimates of accuracy and precision.
31
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Every data item should be considered an interval rather than a
number and the precision of each measurement determined from replicate
analysis should be propagated through all calculations
(Bevington, 1969).
The final important ingredient of experimental design is data
management, which is normally carried out by computer. The data must
be organized and merged into uniform formats accessible by the
receptor models. Provisions for the entry and processing of quality
assurance data will greatly reduce the efforts required for this often
neglected study component. All data from initial analyses must be
retained until the sorting of relevant and irrelevant information can
be achieved. Economical accessibility, security and definition of
uncertainty should be keynotes of data management systems for this
work. Organization techniques for "data dipping" subsets of data from
a number of large data bases to a microcomputer must be developed to
maximize economic data handling and computation.
Though the field study design task is presented here as a
separate entity, it requires a knowledge of all other aerosol study
aspects and dictates which subset of the array of tools available will
accomplish the goals of the study within the resources available. No
two field study designs will be alike, but studies with similar goals
should be similar in design.
Several generalized "ideal" or "template" designs to meet the
needs of users with a specific set of goals would be helpful examples
to those designing a field study for the first time.
Future development efforts in field study design and data
management should include:
Develop methodologies for choosing sampler location,
sampling schedule, and sampling devices.
Measure the collection efficiency of available samplers as a
function of particle size, windspeed and wind direction.
Create a series of "typical" design scenarios which can be
specified for different aerosol study objectives.
Develop standardized data bases from which ambient and
source information can be "data dipped."
32
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• Develop standarized receptor models for computer
implementation and standard interfaces to the relevant data
bases.
• Create quality assurance procedures and methods of reducing
the data to assign a confidence interval to each measured
quantity.
3.2 Source Characterization
All receptor models, even the source/receptor hybrids, require
input data about the particulate matter sources. The multivariate
models, which can conceivably be used to better estimate source
compositions, require an initial knowledge of the chemical species
associations in sources. The lack of knowledge of a. . and 0"a. . in
Equations 3, 8, and 9 poses the greatest limitation to receptor
modeling.
Existing data on characteristics of particles from various types
of sources are inadequate for general use, though they have been used
in specific studies with some success. Most of the source tests have
been made for purposes other than receptor modeling and complete
chemical and microscopical analyses have not been completed. Source
operating parameters which might affect the aerosol properties of
emissions have not been identified nor measured. Particle size
separations are rarely the same as those measured in ambient sampling
and no provision is made for likely transformations of the source
material when it comes into equilibrium under ambient conditions.
For receptor modeling, the only source characteristics that are
relevant are those perceived gt the receptor. But if source
components could be separated from each other at the receptor, there
would be no need for a receptor model.
Stack sampling is not sufficient for characterizing all sources
and may not be the best method even for ducted point sources. Because
of condensation of vapors, fallout of very large particles and the
neglect of non-ducted emissions, the materials collected from stacks,
especially those at high temperatures, will often not represent the
particles from the source as observed at a receptor several kilometers
away.
33
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Several source type categories, such as road dust, automobile
exhaust and home heating, contain many individual sources whose
emissions compositions may vary considerably. A source sampling
program for these source types must consider the selection of a
representative subset as well as the sampling mechanics.
At present, most source sampling groups measure elemental,
organic or microscopic components, each depending on its area of
expertise. No complete set of measurements on a single sample exist.
In spite of this criticism of existing source characterization
data, knowledge of several source types and testing methods is
growing. Certain aerosol property measurements have been made on
emissions from geological material (Rahn, 1976), auto exhaust (Pierson
and Brachaczek, 1974), marine background (Hidy et al., 1974), coal
combustion (Gladney et al., 1976), municipal incinerators
(Greenberg, 1978), iron and steel blast furnaces (Jacko, 1977), tire
dust (Pierson and Brachaczek, 1974), copper smelters (Zoller
et al., 1978), vegetative burning (Oregon Department of Environmental
Quality, 1979), kraft recovery boilers (Watson, 1979) and cement
plants which, though semi-quantitative for the most part, have been
useful in applying receptor models. These source characterization
experiences point out some of the considerations which are required of
receptor model source sampling.
For use with receptor models, it is desirable to collect
particles far enough from the source to allow the emissions to reach
equilibrium with the atmosphere, but not so far away that the source
material under test becomes contaminated with aerosol from other
sources .
Armstrong et al. (1978) describe a unique approach of attaching
sampling equipment to tethered balloons which are maneuvered from the
ground into the plume of smokestack emissions. The payload these
balloons can carry is presently low, but conceivably it could be
increased to allow the placement of size-selective sampling devices in
the plumes of tall point sources.
Aircraft sampling in plumes (Mroz, 1976) has long been used, but
it is expensive and difficult. Sampling flowrates need to be
increased because of the short period of time an airplane can remain
34
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in the plume. A real time measurement device, such as a nephelometor,
condensation nuclei counter or S02 monitor, is required to inform
the sampler when it enters and leaves the plume so that sampling can
be started and stopped accordingly. Flowrates must be changed with
airspeed to maintain isokinetic conditions - this makes
size-selective sampling difficult. The high cost and trouble of
aircraft sampling do not encourage its widespread use for receptor
model source characterization.
A promising development is that reported by Rheingrover and
Gordon (1980). Using ambient samplers located in "maximum effect"
areas for specific sources and wind flow patterns, they have
distinguished the composition of a single point source at^ £ receptor.
They then use these source characteristics to represent that source in
areas less affected by that source, where its contribution is not so
obvious. This approach could be incorporated into field study designs
in the following way:
1. After identifying major point sources, determine the
"maximum effect" areas via source modeling.
2. Locate samplers and windvanes at these sites and sample
simultaneously with the other receptor sites.
3. Analyze samples for all days on which the sampler is
downwind of the source.
4. Determine which components of the sample are due to the
source in question.
The last point is the hardest to accomplish and reverts to the
question of, "If that can be done, who needs the receptor model?" The
true advantage of having a sampler in the "maximum effect" area may be
in eliminating the particular source it is intended to monitor from
consideration in the receptor modeling at other sites; if it cannot be
detected where it should hit hardest, then there is little hope of
finding it elsewhere.
In-stack testing procedures are still under development with a
greater inclination on the part of developers to produce samples of
use for receptor modeling. In the past, few stack samples have
35
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obtained more than mass emission rates under stack conditions. New
sampling methods include dilution with clean air to simulate ambient
conditions, filter media amenable to chemical analyses, and samples in
size ranges similar to those sampled in ambient air
(Bruce Harris, EPA/IERL, personal communication, 1980).
Detailed studies of large point sources should be done in such a
way as to enhance the generality of the results. The relevant
operating parameters affecting emission compositions need to be
identified, measured and reported with each source test. It is only
with this information that the test results can be evaluated for use
in receptor model studies other than that for which the test was made.
Studies of motor vehicle emissions are difficult now and will
become even more so as lead is phased out of gasoline. Studies of
tailpipe emissions should be done with dilution and cooling of the
exhaust. A serious drawback of individual automobile testing is the
variability of emissions compositon as a function of car and driving
cycle. In his review of the automobile emissions literature,
Watson (1979) found the lead composition of auto exhaust varying from
12 to 70 percent, depending on the test.
Studies in tunnels (Pierson and Bracheczek, 1976, Ondov
et al., 1979) and along highways (Feeney, et al., 1975), might offer
more representative compositions of the motor vehicle fleet affecting
receptors. At present, no components unique to diesel exhaust have
been found, and with the phase-out of lead in gasoline, the major
tracer for conventional engines is being lost. Much greater emphasis
on the characterization of this universal aerosol source category is
required.
The characterization of fugitive emissions, those originating
from roadways, storage piles, and rock crushers, is extremely
important for the source apportionment of the total and coarse
suspended particulate matter fractions of ambient concentrations.
Once likely sources are identified, ambient samples can be taken at
site or bulk material can be taken to the laboratory, resuspended and
sampled on a filter substrate and analyzed. Analysis of the bulk
material without resuspension may yield a biased characterization
36
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since the larger particles of the bulk sample which do not remain
resuspended often have compositions differing from the smaller
particles which do remain suspended (Rahn, 1976).
Source characterization results are not located in a centralized
facility which is constantly updated, and each researcher has to
assemble his own collection of results or use the assemblage of
someone else which may not be applicable to the case under study.
Fortunately, the Environmental Protection Agency has established the
Environmental Assessment Data System (EADS) (Larkin and Johnson, 1979)
which contains chemical compositions of particulate matter emissions
tests. This existing computerized structure can provide the
centralized location for receptor model source characterization
information. Procedures such as those described for ambient data in
the previous section, need to be developed which will allow receptor
model users to access this data base over telephone lines. The data
required of receptor model source tests should be incorporated into
the EADS and source characterization results should report this
information in an EADS compatible format.
Future development efforts in source characterization should
include:
Develop new source sampling methods including tethered
balloon and ground based sampling.
Standardize data reporting and management procedures and
store all data in a central data base.
Create a chemical component analysis protocol to obtain
maximum information from each source test.
3.3 Analytical Methods
Many chemical and physical analysis methods exist to characterize
particulate matter collected on a substrate. Though several methods
are multi-species, able to quantify a number of chemical components
simultaneously, no single method is sufficient to both quantify the
majority of the collected particulate matter mass and those components
which serve to identify and quantify source contributions.
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After the composition measurements to be made have been selected,
each analytical method must be judged in terms of four necessary and
three desirable criteria. These apply not only to the analytical
method, but to the laboratory performing the method.
The necessary criteria are:
1. The analytical method must have been developed and tested
specifically for the analysis of suspended particulate
matter.
2. Lower quantifiable concentrations of the method must be less
than the concentrations expected from the ambient samples
taken.
3. The method must be free of biases for all components
quantified.
4. The values achieved by the method must be reproducible
within defined and reasonable confidence intervals.
If an analytical method is successful for certain types of
environmental samples, it is convenient to assume that it is
appropriate for all samples. Hard and bitter experience shows this
not to be the case for suspended particulate matter. Before a
procedure can be accepted, one must have identified and corrected
likely interferences, defined amenable aerosol collection substrates
and sampling requirements, considered the effects of different aerosol
matrices, and verified its ability to meet the final three criteria.
The amount of suspended particulate matter available for analysis
depends on the ambient concentration, the flowrate of air through the
substrate, the sampling duration, and the fraction of the sample
presented for analysis. Cooper (1973) provides a useful tabulation of
typical concentrations and ranges of urban aerosol elemental
concentrations; it would be helpful to update this summary, expand it
to certain chemical compounds, and stratify it by site types (urban,
rural, etc.). The expected amounts available for analysis should be a
factor of ten or more above the lower quantifiable concentrations of
the analytical method.
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Measurement accuracy can only be established through
interlaboratory/intermethod comparisons and the analysis of standard
reference materials. Intermethod comparisons are better for
evaluating accuracy since interlaboratory analyses using the same
method will exhibit the same types of biases. Urban Particulate
Matter Standard Reference Material 1648 (Greenberg, 1979) provides a
means for initial and routine verification of accuracy. The
concentrations of additional chemical components in this standard need
to be quantified and their constancy with time assessed. NBS 16A8 was
collected in St. Louis and is representative of the eastern city
aerosol matrix. Other aerosol standards from a variety of locations
would be helpful for the evaluation of analytical bias.
Replicate analyses of the same sample must return results with a
standard deviation of +_ 10% or less at concentrations greater than ten
times the lower quantifiable limit. The data from replicate analysis
should be used to define the precision of each value measured.
The desirable criteria are:
1. The method should measure a number of components in a single
analysis.
2. The analysis should be non-destructive.
3. The analysis should be cost-effective.
Many analysis techniques are capable of measuring more than one
chemical component of interest with adequate precision, accuracy and
sensitivity. Not only do these methods save the cost of many
individual analyses, they minimize the amount of sample required.
A non-destructive method is preferred since the sample can be
made available for other analyses to verify the non-destructive
results or to complement them with the measurement of additional
chemical components.
Given the choice of analytical methods meeting the necessary and
desirable criteria, the least expensive analysis per sample should be
chosen. This choice may vary with the number of samples to be
processed.
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The range of analytical methods available for particulate matter
analysis is large; many of the available methods are critically
reviewed by Katz (1980). A complete review of all methods applied in
the past with a view toward their use for receptor modeling does not
exist, and its production would be a useful contribution to the
state-of-the-art. Several analytical tools have been found to meet
the stated criteria, or are in the development stages of trying to
meet them, and are being used to supply the input measurements for
receptor models. One means of classifying available and useful
analysis procedures for source and receptor studies consists of the
following categories:
1. Elements with atomic number greater than 11.
2. Carbon
3. Ions
4. Organic Compounds
5. Inorganic Compounds
6. Physical and Optical Properties
Several specific methods belonging to each category and the
extent to which they meet the stated criteria are discussed here
because of their widespread acceptance and use in the field of
receptor modeling. Analytical methods not mentioned here should not
be dismissed; they are also potentially useful. As the extent to
which they meet the necessary and desirable criteria becomes known,
their use for obtaining receptor model input data will increase
accordingly.
Elements
X-ray emission spectroscopy (Giaque et al., 1974, Cahill
et al., 1976) (photon or proton excited) has developed as a reliable,
available, cost-effective and non-destructive elemental analysis
method. More aerosol samples, numbering in the hundreds of thousands,
have been analyzed by this method than by any other. The method
40
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requires aerosol samples uniformly deposited on a thin, flat organic
substrate (Teflon, nuclepore, polycarbonate and cellulose acetate
membrane filters are commonly used). In typical urban samples from 10
to 20 elements are routinely measured. Biases exist due to the
attenuation of light element (e.g., Al and Si) x-rays in coarse
(>2jLim) particles, but corrections (Dzubay and Nelson, 1974) have been
devised and applied. HIVOL samples on fibrous filters are
inappropriate for this method because a portion of the aerosol
penetrates beyond the filter surface and is collected within the
volume of the filter material; the x-rays emitted by these particles
are partially absorbed by the filter material. Spectral interferences
of one element x-ray with another must be accounted for in the data
reduction, but this is usually handled by the computer based spectrum
processing routine (Bonner et al, 1973). Interlaboratory and
intermethod comparisons (Camp et al., 1974, 1975) verify its accuracy
and precision.
Instrumental neutron activation analysis (Zoller et al., 1970,
Dams et al., 1970) is also reliable, available, cost-effective and
non-destructive (though substantial decay times may be required before
the sample can be submitted to other analyses). It equals or
surpasses x-ray emission in sensitivity for many elements and allows
the quantification of a number of rare-earth elements not detectable
by other methods. It is more labor intensive than x-ray analysis and
therefore more costly. The aerosol deposit need not be confined to
the substrate surface since high energy gamma rays experience no
absorption in the filter material. Suspended particulate matter on
glass fiber substrates have been analyzed by neutron activation
(Lambert and Wilshire, 1979) but due to the high and variable blank
concentrations of certain elanents in these filters their use is not
recommended (Gilbert and Fornes, 1980). Several fibrous filters
appropriate for HIVOL sampling (Dams et al., 1972) have been evaluated
and found satisfactory. Most spectral interferences can be eliminated
by optimizing irradiation time, decay time and counting time.
Camp et al. (1974, 1975, 1978) have verified the accuracy and
precision of the method in interlaboratory comparisons.
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Atomic Absorption (AAS), Atomic Emission, (AES) and Inductively
Coupled Plasma/Atomic Emission Spectroscopy (ICP/AES) (Ranweiler and
Moyers, 1972, Olson et al., 1978, Lynch et al., 1980) are destructive
methods, requiring sample dissolution, with the requisite sensitivity
for suspended particulate matter analysis. The AAS and AES analyses
are single element methods while ICP/AES is multi-element. The method
is applicable to aerosol collected on fibrous as well as membrane
filters, though glass fiber substrates with large and variable blank
concentrations bias analytical results. The particulate matter must
be totally dissolved with a minimum loss of elements through
volatilization; more than one extraction procedure may be required,
depending on the elements sought. McQuaker et al. (1979) and
Ranweiler and Moyers (1972) describe extraction procedures and their
successful applications to standard reference materials. The variable
dissolution of particulate matter might be used to identify the
compounds in which elements occur through a series of sequential
extractions (Tessier et al., 1979); this approach has not been tried
for suspended particulate matter. Intel-method comparison results of
particulate matter samples are available for only a few elements (Camp
et al., 1975, Walling et al., 1978, Barbaray et al., 1979); the
results of these intercomparisons are variable, with some elemental
concentrations being reported factors of five and six lower than the
values reported by the other participating laboratories. A systematic
intecomparison with the standard urban aerosol for a variety of
extraction procedures is needed.
Other elemental analysis methods, including spark source mass
spectrometry are available and their appropriateness for suspended
particulate matter analysis needs to be evaluated.
Carbon
Though carbon is indeed an element, its quantification is not
amenable to the aforementioned methods. Because of its large
contribution to both source and ambient suspended particulate matter,
its concentration in samples is important. Combustion in oxygen
followed by C02 measurements, or conversion of COj to CHA and
42
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measurement with a flame ionization detector, can provide reproducible
and quantitative total carbon values. Different atmospheres and
combustion temperatures can provide an operational separation of
elemental and organic carbon (Johnson and Huntzicker, 1978). Nuclear
(Macias et al., 1978), solvent extractions (Appel et al., 1976, 1979),
and light absorption methods have been devised. Macias et al. (1978)
report some intermethod comparison results, but more interlaboratory
work is needed. Carbon values for the NBS 1648 are not reported and
accepted values need to be obtained.
An important development in the measurement and classification of
carbon for receptor models is the quantification of the radioactive
C1* content of suspended particulate matter by low-level counting,
(Currie et al., 1978). Carbon 14 is a unique tracer for carbon from
recently living material; it is nearly non-existent in emissions from
fossil fuel sources.
Carbon analyses should be performed on non-carbon containing
substrates, though there are possibilities of subtracting the filter
blanks (R.K. Stevens, USEPA, personal communication, 1980).
Ions
A wide variety of ion analysis methods exist with adequate lower
quantifiable concentrations. All are destructive, requiring
dissolution of a portion of the sample. For receptor model studies,
the multi-element capabilities of ion chromatography (Small, 1975) and
automated colorimetry (Technicon, 1972) have resulted in the greatest
volume of suspended particulate matter ion analyses being performed by
one of the two methods. Practically all collection substrates are
amenable to these analyses though sulfate and nitrate biases
(Coutant, 1977, Meserole et al., 1979, Spicer et al., 1978) have been
observed due to adsorption of sulfur and nitrogen oxide containing
gases by the filter medium during sampling; the HIVOL glass fiber
filter material experiences this artifact formation. Intermethod
comparisons for ion chromatography (Butler et al., 1978) and automated
colorimetry (Mueller et al., 1980) show them to be accurate and
precise analytical methods for a number of ions.
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Organic Compounds
The number of organic compounds in suspended particulate matter
is high; it will probably be impractical to quantify them all. Those
species important to receptor modeling will be those which are unique
to certain source types and retain their chemical character between
source and receptor. These compounds have not yet been identified,
but a number of methods are under development for that purpose. They
are all destructive and their sensitivities, accuracy and precision
are unknown at the current state-of-the-art. Benzene extraction of
glass-fiber filters followed by weighing of the residue has been
widely used in the past to quantify the organic content of HIVOL
samples, but since Grosjean (1975) showed that this solvent does not
dissolve all organic materials, its use has decreased. Appel et al.
(1979) propose a dual extraction on different sample sections with
cyclohexane and a benzene methanol-chloroform combination; they assert
that these extractions differentiate between organic material of
primary and secondary origins. Daisey et al. (1979) have used ambient
polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbon concentrations in receptor models.
Cronn et al. (1977) have used high resolution mass spectrometry
(Schuetzle et al., 1973) to identify many organic compounds in ambient
aerosols. Standardized procedures, the definition of lower
quantifiable limits, precision, accuracy and interlaboratory
comparisons are lacking for the organic compound analysis methods.
Inorganic Compounds
X-ray diffraction analysis has been applied to suspended
particulate matter samples (Davis and Cho, 1977) and can identify the
types of minerals present (Davis et al., 1979). This identification
is useful in distinguishing the sources of fugitive emissions.
Minerals can be identified very specifically by x-ray diffraction,
even to the extent of measuring crystallographic parameters and
subspecies composition (such as "iron rich chlorite", etc.). Other
inorganic compound analysis methods, such as ESCA, Auger Electron
Spectroscopy, SIMS, Laser Raman, and IR absorption have
44
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received limited study for aerosol analysis and could develop into
useful techniques. Standardized procedures, lower quantifiable
1 units, precision, accuracy and interlaboratory comparisons are
lacking.
Optical and Physical Properties
Microscopy, as noted earlier, can measure many properties of the
aerosol by examining a number of the individual suspended particles
which it comprises. Optical microscopy (McCrone and Delly, 1973,
McCrone et al., 1978) is best suited to the examination of particles
in the coarse mode ( >2 ym optical diameter). Electron microscopy
(Lee et al., 1979) can examine fine as well as coarse particles and
can be automated to reduce subjectivity and analysis costs. Electron
and optical microscopy standardized procedures for preparing samples,
sizing particles, assigning densities, and measuring particle
properties have not been developed; Crutcher (1979) has proposed
procedures for optical microscopy which merit evaluation and
development. Crutcher and Nishimura (1978) have also identified the
sources of experimental error in microscopic analysis results as
sample population statistics, mensuration methods and human factors.
They propose ways to quantify these uncertainties and propagate them
through the final results.
Bradway and Record (1976) and Crutcher (1978) have performed
interlaboratory comparisons of optical microcopical analysis; the
results cast doubt on the accuracy and precision of the method, but
considering the lack of standardization among participating
laboratories, these findings are not surprising. These
interlaboratory tests should be undertaken again after a standard
method is developed.
Development areas for analytical methods applied to receptor
models should include the following:
Critically review all aerosol analysis methods for their
practicality to receptor modeling. Determine the extent to
which they meet the necessary and desirable criteria.
Identify potentially useful methods for development.
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• Develop standard reference materials representing different
ambient and source particulate matter matrices.
Characterize them in terms of relevant aerosol properties.
• Standardize and conduct intermethod comparison tests of
organic compound, inorganic compound, carbon, and
microscopical analysis methods.
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CHAPTER 4: RECEPTOR MODEL NEEDS
Receptor modeling is a new and growing field. Unlike many fields
of science which start with a few key researchers and branch out to
include new ones, receptor modeling's roots are spread over an array
of disciplines and organizations. Nuclear spectroscopists, chemical
engineers, industrial plant managers, regulatory agency personnel —
each has approached the relationship of source to receptor by aerosol
properties from his own point of view. It is not surprising that a
coherent theory of receptor modeling and standardized methodologies
have yet to emerge.
Each of the study areas summarized in the previous sections has
ended with a list of research recommendations. These lists are not
exhaustive, but they do contain those issues which the most
experienced scientists in the field of receptor modeling believe are
in need of resolution for the specific study area. For receptor
modeling in general, five major development areas exist:
The primary need of receptor modeling today is a general theory
within which to operate. Each specific receptor model application
should be derivable from this framework. If not, either the
application of the theory is incorrect, or the theory must be
changed. Throgmorton and Axetell (1978) have compiled the
applications. Henry (1977) and Watson (1979) have outlined the theory
including some of those applications. The theory must be expanded to
include them all.
Next, the applications have to be validated and placed into
standardized forms. Validation should consist of two steps. First,
simulated data sets of aerosol properties should be generated from
pre-selected source contributions as did Watson (1979) in his
simulation studies of the chemical mass balance method. These data
should be perturbed with the types of uncertainties expected under
field conditions. The types of sources and their contributions
predicted by the receptor model application should be compared with
the known source model values and the extent of perturbation tolerable
should be assessed. This will define the precision required of the
input data for the application in question.
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The next step in validation requires a real data set with as many
properties of source and receptor as can be obtained in an area with
well-known sources. All receptor models should be applied and the
results should be examined for a self-consistent picture of source
contributions.
This consistency should include the following elements:
1. Concentrations of all measured species should be predicted
to within a specified tolerance.
2. Concentrations of chemical species which originate in a
source type should be highly correlated.
3. Spatial source contribution fluctuations should be extreme
for point source and smooth for homogeneously distributed.
4. For samples taken during periods of constant wind direction
source contributions should be higher when a source is
upwind of a receptor than when it is downwind.
5. Source contributions to different particle size ranges
should be consistent with the measured size distribution of
the souce emissions.
If a consistent picture does not emerge, the inconsistent applications
must be reformulated or discarded. A systematic elimination of
measurements from the data set should then be made to find the most
cost-effective sampling and analysis scheme to provide valid
information within a specified confidence interval.
The third need is standardization. The receptor model
applications need to be written as standard computer routines, common
data structures that can accommodate uncertainties of the observables
need to be created, and sampling and analysis equipment and procedures
must produce equivalent results. Field study "scenarios" for typical
situations should be proposed.
The fourth need is for aerosol property measurement methods.
Cost-effective aerosol composition size and variability measurements
at both source and receptor are required for receptor models to work.
Their predictions will be only as good as the information presented to
them. Though several sampling and analytical techniques have reached
a high degree of sophistication, many gaps remained to be filled. The
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most important of these is adequate source sampling and
characterization, the lack of which appears to be the major factor in
limiting advances in the state-of-the-art of receptor modeling. A
systematic development of source and ambient sampling and analytical
techniques must be defined, priorities must be assigned, and the work
must be carried out.
The fifth and final need is for documentation and education. The
validation and standardization will go for naught if the practice of
receptor modeling cannot be established at the state implementation
plan level where it is most sorely needed. Major reviews of model
applications, analytical methods, source characterization and field
study design need to be prepared and communicated to those most likely
to make use of them.
The mechanisms for carrying out the research required are not
clear. These mechanisms must be cost-effective while involving as
wide an array of talent as possible. It is evident from the meeting
of experts which generated this report that cross-disciplinary and
inter-institutional approaches to meeting these needs must be fomented.
Enough receptor modeling by other names is going on today that,
with the proper coordination and leadership, the cost of pursuing
these developments should not be prohibitive. Most of the development
should take place within the context of ongoing projects. EPA,
however, needs to provide the direction and small amounts of financing
to get the extra mileage out of these projects.
An EPA task force on receptor models needs to be established. It
should incorporate representatives of the suspended particulate matter
standards making and enforcing, ambient monitoring, and source
characterization entities. This task force should keep itself
informed of the status of non-attainment areas and the studies being
undertaken to formulate implementation plans; its members should also
keep abreast of regional air quality studies funded by EPA and
industry. The task force should define the needs stated in this
49
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report in operational terms which can be economically incorporated
into the ongoing studies, arrange additional financing to cover the
additional scope of work, monitor the progress toward meeting the
needs, and document the results. This has been done in the past for
source models. Receptor models have shown enough potential that they
deserve similar treatment.
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TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing!
REPORT NO.
EPA-600/2-81-039
2.
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION- NO.
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
Receptor Models Relating Ambient Suspended
Particulate Matter to Sources
5. REPORT DATE
March 1981
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
AUTHORIS)
John G. Watson
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO
. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
Environmental Research and Technology, Inc.
696 Virginia Road
Concord, Massachusetts 01742
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO,
CAAN1D
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
68-02-2542, Task 8
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
EPA, Office of Research and Development
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
Task Final; 11/79-9/80
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
EPA/600/13
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES jERL-RTP project officer is John O. Milliken, Mail Drop 61, 919/
541-4125.
. ABSTRACT
report describes the use of receptor models to determine the source
contributions to ambient particulate matter loadings at sampling sites, based on
common properties between sources and receptors. (This is in contrast to using
source models which start with emission rates and meteorological measurements to
predict ambient concentrations.) Three generic receptor models have been identified:
chemical mass balance, multivariate , and microscopial identification. Each has
certain requirements for input data to provide a specific output. An approach that
combined receptor and source models, source/receptor model hybridization, has
also been proposed, but it needs further study. The input to receptor models is ob-
tained from ambient sampling, source sampling, and sample analysis. The design of
the experiment is important in obtaining the most information for the least cost.
Sampling schedule, sample duration, and particle sizing are part of the ambient sam-
pling design. Analysis for elements, ions, carbon, and organic and inorganic com-
pounds is included in the sample analysis design. Which sources to sample and how
:o sample them are part of the source sampling design.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
b.lDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
c. COSATl Field/Group
Pollution Analyzing
Mathematical Models
Receivers Sampling
Particle Density
Dust
Aerosols
Pollution Control
Stationary Sources
Receptor Models
Particulate
13 B
12A
17B
14G
11G
07D
14B
3. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
Release to Public
19. SECURITY CLASS (i
Unclassified
89
20. SECURITY CLASS (This page)
Unclassified
22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (9-73)
89
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