EPA-908/1-73-001
u
KSM!
FLUORIDE
IN GLACIER NATIONAL PARK:
A FIELD INVESTIGATION
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
REGION VIII
Air and Water Programs Division
Denver, Colorado 30203
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EPA-908/1 -73-001
FLUORIDE
IN GLACIER NATIONAL PARK:
A FIELD INVESTIGATION
Prepared for
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
REGION VIII
Air and Water Programs Division
Denver, Colorado 80203
November 1973
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This report is issued by the Environmental Protection Agency to report
technical data of interest to a limited number of readers. Copies are
available free of charge - as supplies permit - from the Air and Water
Programs Division, Region VIII, Environmental Protection Agency, Denver,
Colorado 80203, or may be obtained, for a nominal cost, from the National
Technical Information Service, 5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield, Virginia
22151.
Publication No. EPA-908/1-73-001
11
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ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Principal technical contributors from the Environmental
Protection Agency were Mr. Kirk E. Foster, Environmental
Engineer; Mr. George A. Cleeves, Meteorologist; and Dr.
Ibrahim J. Hindawi, Plant Anatomist. Dr. 0. C. Taylor,
University of California, assisted as the consulting
Horticulturist.
Norman A. Huey, Air and Water Program Division, Region
VIII, with contractual assistance from PEDCo-Environmental
Specialists, Inc., Cincinnati, Ohio coordinated preparation of
this report.
111
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
ACKNOWLEDGMENT iii
LIST OF FIGURES vii
LIST OF TABLES viii
SUMMARY xi
INTRODUCTION 1
Purpose of the Studies 1
Description of the Area 2
Geography 2
Climatology 3
METEOROLOGICAL STUDY 9
Wind Data 9
Upper Winds 10
Lower Winds 13
Nighttime Air Movements 19
Daytime Air Movements 19
Seasonal Changes 23
Representativeness of Study Period 24
AIR QUALITY STUDY 27
Impact Measurements 28
Correlation of Data: Plate and Limed Paper
Methods 34
Volumetric Measurements 39
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Page
VEGETATION STUDIES 43
Indigenous Vegetation 4
Visual Observations
An
Chemical Analyses.
Histological Examination ^3
Controlled Exposure of Selected Vegetation... 54
APPENDIX: DATA OBTAINED IN VOLUMETRIC SAMPLING 61
vi
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
1 Orientation Map Showing Anaconda Aluminum
Plant and the Glacier National Park Area 4
2 Location of Meteorological Observation
Stations 11
3 Dominant Wind-Flow Patterns Measured June
Through September, 1970 at Blankenship
Station (No. 2) 15
4 Dominant Wind-Flow Patterns Measured June
Through September, 1970 at Rose Station
(No. 3) 16
5 Dominant Wind-Flow Patterns Measured June
Through September, 1970 at DeMerrit Station
(No. 5) 17
6 Wind Rose for the Months of June, July, and
August at Kalispell, Montana (1950 Through
1959) 18
7 Simplified Drawing of Typical Midmorning Wind-
Flow Patterns in Upper Flathead Valley 22
8 Location of Fluoridation Plate Exposure Sites 29
9 Distribution of Average Monthly Fluoridation
Rates 33
10 Location of Volumetric Fluoride Monitoring
Stations and Plant Exposure Shelters 35
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LIST OF TABLES
Table
1 Climatological Characteristics of Glacier
National Park Region
2 Frequencies of Occurrences of Wind Directions
in Summer Measured at Two National Weather
Service Upper Air Stations Nearest to
Columbia Falls, Montana ..................... 12
3 Monthly Fluoridation Rates Measured with
EPA Plates .................................. 31
4 Location and Elevation of Fluoridation
Network Sites In and Near Glacier National
Park ........................................ 32
5 Comparison of Fluoridation Rates Measured
by EPA Plate and Montana Limed Paper
Methods ..................................... 36
6 Conversion of Fluoridation Rates Measured by
Plate Method to Equivalent State of Montana
Values ...................................... 38
7 Summary of 12-Hour Gaseous and Particulate
Fluoride Concentrations Measured in Glacier
National Park and Surrounding Area, June
26 to October 23, 1970 ...................... 41
8 Fluoride Content of Vegetation Samples
Obtained in 1969 ............................ 45
9 Fluoride Content of Vegetation Samples
Collected and Analyzed by University of
California ...................... ..... ....... 50
10 Fluoride Content of Vegetation Samples
Collected and Analyzed by EPA ............... 51
11 Fluoride Accumulation in 1969 and 1970 Needles
of White, Ponderosa, and Scotch Pines Exposed
from June 25 to October 21, 1970 ............ 57
Vlll
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Table Page
12 Fluoride Accumulation in Alfalfa Leaves
and Stems Exposed in 1970 Study 58
13 Fluoride Accumulation in Chinese Apricot
Leaves Exposed in 1970 Study 59
14 Fluoride Accumulation in Gladiolus Leaf
Tissue Exposed from June 25 through
September 14 , 1970 60
IX
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SUMMARY
A reduction plant of the Anaconda Aluminum Company began
operations at Columbia Falls, Montana, in 1955. In 1957 flora
in the vicinity of the plant began to show foliage injury that
is symptomatic of excessive accumulation of fluoride, an air
contaminant emitted from the electrolytic reduction cells used
in primary aluminum smelting.
During the years between the initial observations of
suspected fluoride damage and 1968, when damage to pine trees
became noticeably more widely spread in the area, Anaconda
Aluminum Company twice expanded the plant. Following the
second expansion in 1968, other areas around Columbia Falls and
even areas in the southwestern part of Glacier National Park,
which at its nearest point is 6 miles northeast of the aluminum
plant, exhibited visible damage to flora.
In 1970 the National Park Service, U.S. Department of the
Interior, was concerned that fluoride emissions from the
aluminum plant were being carried into Glacier National Park.
The Park Service requested the assistance of the National Air
Pollution Control Administration, a predecessor of the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), in assessing the effects
of airborne fluorides on vegetation and wildlife in the Park.
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In cooperation with other Federal and state agencies, EPA
conducted field studies in and near Glacier National Park during
1970. This report presents results of the EPA studies, which
include meteorological analyses, measurement of ambient fluoride
concentrations, and assessment of the effects of fluorides on
special test vegetation and indigenous flora within the Park.
EPA also sponsored a more extensive study of vegetation and
wildlife conducted by the University of Montana. Results of
that 6-month study are described in a report, EPA-908/1-73-002.
Investigations performed by the Forest Service are reported in
"Environmental Pollution by Fluorides in Flathead National
Forest and Glacier National Park" (U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Missoula, Montana).
METEOROLOGICAL ANALYSES
Observations of the wind flow at various locations and
elevations indicated two distinct air-flow patterns that affect
the movement of airborne fluorides emitted at the aluminum
plant. Upper-level winds, those at or above the mountaintop,
are most prevalent from the southwest during the summer. Lower-
level winds, those from ground level in the valleys to about
mountaintop level, tend to reverse direction from day to night.
These wind patterns interact to cause transport of fluoride
emissions toward Glacier National Park a major portion of the
time.
In daytime, prevailing up-valley air flows coupled with
southwesterly winds aloft are conducive to the movement of
fluorides across Teakettle Mountain and northeasterly into the
XII
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Park. The nighttime down-valley flow is conducive to movement
of fluorides from the aluminum plant south and southwestward
into Columbia Falls and along the lower valley of the Flathead
River.
The highest concentrations of fluorides are likely to be
carried into the Park during the daytime, principally during
the midmorning hours. The nocturnal flow in the lower Flathead
Valley tends to be sluggish and causes fluorides emitted during
the nighttime hours to accumulate in the valley. After sunrise,
pollutants that have accumulated in the lower valley combine
with continuing emissions and mix in a deepening air layer until
this layer reaches the top of Teakettle Mountain, where the
pollutants are entrained into the upper wind flow. The
pollutants are conveyed by the prevailing southwesterly upper
wind over the upper Flathead Valley and intercept the moun-
tainous terrain within the Park at the height of the upper wind
level. Downward mixing of the air mass in the steep valleys
within the Park is retarded during the morning by deep shadows
that prevent solar heating of the ground. By midday more
vigorous vertical mixing of the air mass in the upper valley
causes a reduction of pollutant concentrations within the
Park.
Summer through early fall appears to be the period of
greatest transport of pollutants toward the Park. Favorable
conditions for this movement are the longer daytime hours and
the prevailing southwesterly winds. During other seasons winds
are usually stronger, so that greater dispersion takes place
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and ambient concentrations are generally lower.
AMBIENT FLUORIDE CONCENTRATIONS
Ambient fluoride concentrations were detected by two
methods: (1) impact measurements made over monthly periods by
exposing chemically treated filter paper at 37 sites, and (2)
volumetric measurements of gaseous and particulate concentrations
over 12-hour periods made at a few sites with electrically
operated samplers.
The impact measurements, which provide an index of gaseous
fluoride concentrations over a period of time, showed rapid
decrease with increasing distance from the aluminum plant,
except in the northeasterly direction. The prevailing wind
patterns and the higher ground elevations of exposure sites in
Glacier National Park both contribute to elevated fluoridation
rates that were measured 10 or more miles from the plant in the
northeasterly direction. Fluoride readings at several sites
within the Park consistently exceeded the State of Montana air
quality standard for fluorides; the average value for the
sampling station on Apgar Mountain exceeded the State standard
by a factor of nearly 2.
The sampling results show that parts of Glacier National
Park, especially the upper slopes of the Apgar Mountain, are
exposed to relatively high levels of atmospheric fluoride.
Consideration of the meteorology, topography, and geography of
the area strongly suggests that high elevations elsewhere in
the Park and the Flathead National Forest are similarly exposed
xiv
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to high ambient fluoride concentrations, the source of which is
the aluminum plant at Columbia Falls.
Gaseous and particulate fluoride concentrations were con-
tinuously measured at four sites at lower elevations along the
Park boundary, where electric power was available. Twenty-four-
hour average gaseous fluoride concentrations exceeded the State
of Montana Air Quality Standard only once during the study
period. At higher, more exposed locations in the Park
concentrations probably exceeded state standards more
frequently.
EFFECTS ON VEGETATION
Study participants collected samples of vegetation in and
near the Park for use in macro- and microscopical examination
and chemical analysis.
An EPA plant pathologist and an independent consultant
observed visible injury to conifers and oi_her vegetation
growing in and around the Park. The older needles of ponderosa
pine growing in an exposed location on the western slope of Apgar
Mountain showed considerable tip burn. Other coniferous species
in the area showed severe foliar necrotic lesions on the 1968
and 1969 needles.
The variability of visible damage to vegetation within the
Park suggests that location, topography, and meteorology, in
addition to the quantity of fluoride emitted by the aluminum
reduction plant, are key factors in exposure of vegetation to
fluorides. For example, vegetation in some areas near the west
xv
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boundary of the Park, presumably protected by topography from ex-
posure to airborne fluorides, appeared free of foliar injury, but
tip necrosis was clearly visible on older needles of sensitive
white pine growing in areas situated deep within the interior of
the Park along the presumed frequent path of the effluent plume
from the aluminum plant.
Histological examination of injured needles from conifers
exhibiting tip burn symptoms showed extensive pathological
changes in the needle tissue that indicate chemical etiology of
the needle necrosis. These changes were not caused by insect
infestation, natural disease, or winter damage.
Injury symptoms on conifers observed in 1970 in all cases
were confined to the older needles - those having initial growth
in 1967, 1968, and 1969- Although the current-year needles of
the affected trees showed no injury symptoms, it is probable
that after longer exposure times these needles will show visible
injury. The extent and severity of burn on 1967 through 1969
needles strongly suggest that serious and irreparable damage to
the Park flora would occur in future years with fluoride
emissions at the pre-1971 level.
Assessment of foliar injury and the probable causative
agent was verified by a consultant associated with the University
of California Research Center at Riverside. Chemical analysis
of necrotic conifer needles at the Riverside laboratory indicated
significant fluoride content, which substantiated the consultant's
initial conclusions that the needle tip necrosis observed on
xvi
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older growth of sensitive pines in Glacier National Park was
produced by ambient levels of fluorides.
Plants especially sensitive to fluorides were grown for
several months in enclosed exposure chambers at three sites.
Chambers equipped with devices to remove particulate and
gaseous fluorides were operated as controls. In other chambers ,
plants were exposed to unfiltered ambient air. The plants
included alfalfa, apricot trees, gladiolus, and several pine
species. Although test procedure difficulties and the short
exposure time hampered the interpretation of results, it is
evident that a greater amount of fluorides accumulated in the
vegetation exposed to ambient air than in plants exposed to
filtered air.
xvn
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INTRODUCTION
PURPOSE OF THE STUDIES
The Anaconda Aluminum Company dedicated a new aluminum
reduction plant at Columbia Falls, Montana, in August 1955.
Although officials of the company asserted that injury to
indigenous flora and fauna by fluorides emitted in the reduction
process would be negligible, the Forest Service, U.S. Department
of Agriculture, observed in 1957 that some of the more suscep-
tible flora in the vicinity of the aluminum plant were visibly
damaged. Little evaluation or research into the extent of
damage was accomplished until late 1969 and 1970.
During the years between the initial observations of
suspected fluoride damage and the more extensive studies,
Anaconda twice expanded the plant. Following the second
expansion in 1968, dead and dying trees were observed over the
entire west face of Teakettle Mountain, which is directly east
of the aluminum plant. In other areas around Columbia Falls,
east of Teakettle Mountain, and even in areas in the south-
western part of Glacier National Park, which at its nearest
point is 6 miles northeast of the aluminum plant, the flora
also exhibited visible damage.
The Anaconda Aluminum Company reported that fluorides
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were emitted during 1969 and early 1970 at the rate of appro
mately 7600 pounds per day (Ib/day) but that emissions were
reduced to about 5000 Ib/day by September 1970. By early ay
1971, emissions were reported to be about 2500 Ib/day.
National Park Service officials became concerned that
fluoride emissions from the aluminum plant were being carried
by prevailing wind currents into Glacier National Park in
sufficient concentrations to harm Park ecology. In 1970 they
requested the assistance of the National Air Pollution Control
Administration, now a component of the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA), in assessing the effects of airborne
fluorides on vegetation and wildlife in the Park.
The EPA field investigations were designed to determine
the predominant patterns of movement of airborne fluorides
from the aluminum plant to the Park, to measure ambient
concentrations of fluorides in the Park, and to assess effects
of fluorides on indigenous flora within the Park. EPA
investigators were assisted by personnel of the National Park
Service, the Montana State Health Department, and the University
of Montana, and by a consulting horticulturist.
DESCRIPTION OF THE AREA
Geography
Glacier National Park straddles the Continental Divide
from the Canadian Border to Marias Pass, 60 miles south. This
section of northwestern Montana includes some of the most
spectacularly rugged mountain country in North America. From
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peaks well above 10,000 feet, the mountains pitch down to
rivers and lakes that are nearly 3,100 feet above mean sea
level (MSL).
The Flathead River system, shown in an area map in Figure
1, drains the western side of the Divide and forms the Park's
western boundary. This drainage area is subdivided into an
"upper valley" with narrow tributary canyons and swift streams
and a "lower valley" more than 15 miles wide, through which the
river meanders to Flathead Lake, approximately 8 miles south-
east of Kalispell, Montana. The river leaves the upper valley
through Badrock Canyon, which also constitutes the south wall
of Teakettle Mountain. The Anaconda aluminum plant is situated
a mile down-river from Badrock Canyon between the river and
the west face of Teakettle Mountain.
Although several ranches are located in the upper valley,
the area is primarily Park and National Forest land, with a
limited road system along the rivers. The lower valley is
relatively broad and flat, with a road network that follows
section and quarter-section survey lines. In addition to
ranching and the ranch-related service industries, a lumber
industry processes timber from the surrounding mountains and
from the upper valley. Low-cost electric power has attracted
some additional industry, principally the aluminum plant at
Columbia Falls.
Climatology
The climate of the Flathead River drainage area may be
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Figure 1. Orientation map showing Anaconda Aluminum Plant
and the Glacier National Park area.
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classed as Alpine with a strong maritime modification. The
range of climate extends from that of the permanently snow-
covered mountain peaks to that found along the shores of
Flathead Lake, where small fruit orchards flourish in a 3-
month frost-free belt.
The higher mountains receive as much as 150 inches of
precipitation annually, primarily as snow, on their west-facing
slopes. Snow accumulates to depths of more than 10 feet during
the winter, and, although the shores of Lake McDonald (3100
feet above MSL) are snow-free by May, drifts may remain on the
lower north-facing mountain slopes into August. Snow-covered
glaciers are permanent features of the high slopes of some
peaks.
Significant differences in temperature, precipitation, and
wind flow are associated not only with elevation but also with
orientation of the mountainsides, proximity of ridgelines, and
location of the larger lakes. Because of its size and depth,
Flathead Lake normally contains a large open water area through-
out the winter. This heat source exerts a strong modifying
influence on the climate of the lower valley.
Selected climatological summary data are presented in
Table 1. The table includes Marias Pass because it lies at
approximately the same elevation as the saddle in Teakettle
Mountain and the Apgar Lookout overlooking West Glacier.
Although this pass is well-removed from the area of study,
its climatic data are thought to be representative of similarly
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Table 1. CLIMATOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF GLACIER NATIONAL PARK REGION.
AND EXTREMES BASED ON APPROXIMATELY 30 YEARS OF RECORDS.)
(NORMALS, MEANS,
(Ti
Station and
Elevation,
ft MSL
Kalispell
2965
West Glacier
3145
Polebridge
3690
Marias Pass
5213
Kalispell
W. Glacier
Polebridge
Marias Pass
Kalispell
W. Glacier
Polebridge
Marias Pass
Kalispell
W. Glacier
Polebridge
Marias Pass
Kalispell
W. Glacier
Polebridge
Marias Pass
Temperature, °F
Mean Daily
Max. Min.
57 31
54 30
53 25
45 23
84 48
80 47
81 41
73 40
56 32
53 33
55 27
49 29
28 12
28 14
28 7
23 7
55 31
53 31
54 25
47 25
Extremes of
Record
Max . Min .
April
81 14
80 3
86 -12
74 -30
July
104 32
98 32
101 27
93 26
October
81 15
79 15
85 -21
82 -7
January
50 -26
49 -37
51 -46
48 -55
Annual
105 -35
98 -37
101 -46
96 -55
Mean No. of Days
that temperature
remained £32 °F
Max . Min .
0 20
a 21
a 26
3 26
0 a
0 a
0 2
0 4
0 21
a 16
a 23
2 21
17 30
18 30
19 30
23 31
52 195
53 192
56 238
94 247
Precit
All
Forms ,
mean
1.04
2.00
1.55
2.93
1.04
1.48
1.18
1.35
1.24
2.57
1.84
3.14
1.37
2.99
2.63
4.17
15.42
29.11
22.32
38.29
itation, inches
Snow and Sleet
mean
2.4
4.5
4.1
25.5
0..0
T6
0
«pb
1.1
2.0
3.1
11.9
20.0
36.6
32.8
44.0
67.3
134.2
119.6
251.3
monthly
max.
8.1
24.0
24.8
87.0
0,0
TD
.0
Tb
9.9
28.0
16.5
61.0
34.8
74.5
91.2
123.0
49.7
74.5
91.2
123.0
a
b
Less than 12 hours
Trace
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exposed locations under study. Much of the Park area under
study is, however, higher than Marias Pass and has a corre-
spondingly shorter growing season and a more severe climate,
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METEOROLOGICAL STUDY
WIND DATA
A meteorological study of air flow was performed to
obtain information on principal wind trajectories in the area
and their influence on transport and dispersion of air con-
taminants from the aluminum plant. Knowledge of the local air-
flow patterns is essential for understanding the emissions
problem and for evaluating data generated in the air quality
and vegetation studies.
The major air-flow patterns in this mountainous area are
those of the upper- and lower-level winds. The upper winds,
as influenced by the major geographic features, reflect the
general motion of the atmosphere near mountaintop level.
Upper winds are measured periodically by free flight balloons,
normally scheduled at noon and midnight Greenwich time. Since
none of these balloon flights originate within the study area,
the upper wind data were obtained from the National Weather
Service's stations at Spokane, Washington (200 miles west of
the Continental Divide) and at Great Falls, Montana (80 miles
east of the Divide). No additional upper wind data were used.
The low-level wind patterns are influenced by the inter-
section of the upper winds with the localized mountain and
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valley winds, the latter often subject to pronounced changes
during a day. Low-level winds may be continuously monitored
by surface-mounted wind recording instruments. For this study,
surface wind data recorded hourly by the National Weather
Service at the Kalispell Airport (located about 8 miles south-
west of Columbia Falls) were supplemented by data from wind
recording instruments operated from mid-June through late
December of 1970 at three sites in the area. The locations of
these sites and their relationship to nearby topographical
features are sliown in Figure 2. Wind sensors at these sites
were exposed 32 feet above ground in open pasture except at
Station 3, where a 40-foot mast barely reached above the
surrounding lodgepole pines.
Upper Winds
The National Weather Service obtains upper air wind
measurements twice each day at Spokane, Washington, 200 miles
west-southwest of the study area, and at Great Falls, Montana,
80 miles to the east-southeast. The frequencies of occurrence
of wind directions for the summer months of 1961 through 1965
are shown in Table 2. At Spokane, the winds 1500 meters above
mean sea level (m MSL) are predominatly from the southwest.
At Great Falls, on the eastern side of the Continental Divide,
the winds at 2000 m MSL are slightly stronger and more westerly.
In the absence of winds aloft data for Glacier National
Park, it is difficult to define the behavior of winds at and
above the general ridge level (about 2000 m MSL). Climatological
10
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values of the 700 millibar (mb) pressure heights (about 3000
m MSL) indicate that during the summer the prevailing winds
should be west-southwest to southwest in the vicinity of the
study area. Downward extrapolation of these winds for 1000
meters should give a more southerly component to the winds
near the ridgeline because of the influence of friction nearer
the ground. Although the magnitude of the direction change
cannot be accurately stated because of the roughness of the
terrain, a change of 10 to 20 degrees is a reasonable estimate.
The winds aloft appear to follow expected meteorological
patterns on the western side of the Continental Divide. The
behavior of large-scale atmospheric motions when encountering
a mountain chain is discussed in most basic texts on dynamical
meteorology. The usual behavior is for the winds on the down-
slope side to be directed to the right of the wind direction
on the upslope side. This appears to be the reason for the
more frequent westerly winds at Great Falls. The magnitude of
the turning is partially dependent upon wind speed. In winter,
when winds are usually stronger, the winds aloft at Spokane
are still predominantly from the southwest, but at Great Falls
the frequencies of occurrence of west and west-northwest winds
increase to 28.6 and 19.5 percent, respectively.
Lower Winds
Data obtained from the three EPA wind recording stations
(Figure 2) indicate marked differences, apparently caused by
the typical mountain and valley local wind-flow patterns.
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Seasonal changes are also apparent. The dominant summer diurnal
wind pattern at low levels is described below; variations that
occur in fall, winter, and spring are mentioned briefly.
Because Station 2 was situated near the mouth of the
Middle Fork River, upslope winds were most frequently registered
as upstream flow. During downslope drainage situations, flow
from the northwest along the Middle Fork often alternated with
that from the North Fork, causing either northwest or northeast
winds during much of the night. At other times, cool air
drained from adjacent mountains. Dominant wind flow patterns
measured during the summer of 1970 at this station are shown
in Figure 3.
The persistent west wind at Station 3, shown in Figure 4,
was attributed to drainage from the Bailey Lake region and to
daytime channeling when southerly and westerly winds in the
lower basin of the Flathead caused outflow around the north
shoulder of Teakettle Mountain.
Nighttime drainage of the large area of higher country
above Badrock Canyon results in very dominant northeast winds
at Station 5, as depicted in Figure 5. The winds persist well
into the daytime before the upslope flow from the valley to
the mountains begins.
Wind patterns for the summer season at Kalispell Airport
are presented in Figure 6. The frequent south and south-
southeast winds are attributed to the daytime up-valley and
lake effects. The frequent winds from the north through
14
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N
NE
D
? SE
g:
I
O
sw
w
NW
I rh-'| I
r---'
i
\
\
N
\
< 5
CO
cc
-------
N
C/J
I
a
x
a
z
g
i—
o
E
Q
TIME OF DAY
Figure 4. Dominant wind-flow patterns measured June
through September. 1970 at Rose Station (No. 3).
Isolines show percent occurrence of wind directions
at indicated times.
16
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N
NE
Si
o
2
i SE
X
u
2 s
u.
O
o
LLJ
O SW
w
NW
20'
<5
i
(/>
<
x' (
' <-B \
V)
tc.
z
oo
i /\
1 x'<5 \
I <5
V
6 8 10 12 2 4 6 8 10 12 2 4 6 8 10 12
-p.m.
-a.m.-
TIME OF DAY
—p.m.-
Figure 5. Dominant wind-flow patterns measured June
through September, 1970 at DeMerritt Station (No. 5).
Isolines show percent occurrence of wind directions
at indicated times.
17
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MILES PER HOUR
5
PERCENT FREQUENCY
Figure 6. Wind rose for the months of June, July, and
August at Kalispell, Montana (1950 through 1959).
18
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northeast sector must be ascribed to nighttime down-valley
flow toward the lake.
NIGHTTIME AIR MOVEMENTS
The lower Flathead Valley from Columbia Falls south to
Flathead Lake is protected to a large extent from the winds
aloft by the mountains that surround it on three sides; it is
relatively open only to the south. During nights when radia-
tional cooling at ground level is effective, the air near the
ground cools rapidly, becomes more dense, and begins to flow
along the ground toward lower elevations. Effluents emitted
from industrial operations are warm and rise until they are no
longer buoyant but remain below the crest of the confining
mountains.
The air from the upper valley drains through Badrock Canyon
and passes Station 5 as a northeasterly wind. This down-
valley wind becomes apparent at 10:00 p.m., reaches a maximum
frequency of 67 percent near sunrise, and usually dissipates
shortly after noon. The same air current is apparent at the
airport, where it is more diffuse and northerly because of the
inclusion of additional air currents as it spreads over the
flat valley floor to Flathead Lake.
DAYTIME AIR MOVEMENTS
At sunrise the west sides of both the upper and lower
valleys, with their east-facing slopes are warmed rapidly; the
opposite valley walls, which remain in deep shadow, are cool.
As vertical currents develop over sun-heated slopes, cooler
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replacement air from the down-valley flow is entrained and
wind directions consequently shift.
As direct sunshine progresses onto the broad lower valley
floor, the related developing vertical currents progress up-
ward into the blanket of stagnant air that accumulated during
the night and mix the air downward to the surface as well as
upward. Mixing continues to deepen until the mountaintop
levels are reached and the valley air begins to be entrained
by the prevailing upper winds.
The shift of wind direction toward the slopes heated by
the early morning sun is most striking at Station 3. This
northeasterly wind appears to blow from the shaded side of
the Apgar Mountains to the sunny side of Teakettle Mountain
between the hours of 7:00 a.m. and 1:00 p.m., exceeding 60
percent frequency from about 8:00 a.m. to about 10:00 a.m.
during the 1970 period depicted in Figure 4. During the morning,
this flow of clean air into the upper valley shields the east
face of Teakettle from effluents being carried aloft.
Up-valley wind flow develops about mid-day, and the mixing
layer deepens until air from above the top of Teakettle is
mixed with surface air throughout the upper valley during much
of the afternoon. By this time, the nighttime stagnant air
has already been carried away from the lower valley by the
prevailing winds, and only the current emissions are mixed
through the deep layer of air to the surface in the upper
valley so that the higher concentrations do not reach the
20
-------
floor of the upper valley.
The overall wind pattern when upper winds are from the
southwest and the lower valley convection has broken through
into the upper flow is shown pictorially in Figure 7. The
viewer looks to the northeast across Teakettle Mountain and
the upper Flathead Valley to Lake McDonald. Direct sunshine
has not penetrated the valleys in sufficient strength by mid-
morning to reverse the down-valley winds along the river
although upslope flow exists on the sunny, east-facing slopes
and the down-valley flow has turned somewhat toward these
slopes. In the upper valley beyond Teakettle Mountain, the
clean air flowing down along the rivers shields the surface
from fluoride-laden air entrained in the upper-level winds.
This is the preponderant mid-morning wind pattern during the
summer.
On days when southwest upper winds prevail, the day's
highest concentrations of fluoride are carried into the Park
during the forenoon. At sunrise the previous night's accumu-
lation of plant effluents together with the current emissions
are held within the lower valley and mixed in a deepening
layer until this layer reaches and is entrained by the upper
flow. The lower valley effluents are then carried in the
upper flow over the upper valley and into the Park, where they
intercept terrain elements common to the height of the effluent
plume. As convective activity increases, the air mass under-
goes more complete mixing to higher levels of the atmosphere
21
-------
to
to
--^ ^^k.sisS^lvdP' ™
Figure 7. Simplified drawing of typical midmorning wind-flow
patterns in upper Flathead Valley.
-------
and the remaining effluents are diluted.
With the increase in surface heating, the typical up-
valley wind pattern develops in both the upper and the lower
valleys, augmented by a lake-to-land breeze from Flathead
Lake.
SEASONAL CHANGES
The southwest through west-southwest daytime winds above
Teakettle Mountain are of major importance, because they
apparently carry effluents from the aluminum plant at Columbia
Falls to the Park. Frequencies of these transport winds are
estimated as follows from considerations presented in the
earlier section on Upper Winds:
SW-WSW DAYTIME WINDS, TEAKETTLE MOUNTAIN
Summer
Frequency,
%
47
Average
speed,
mph
17
Fall
Frequency ,
%
40
Average
speed,
mph
24
Winter
Frequency,
%
46
Average
speed ,
mph
28
Spring
Frequency ,
%
41
Average
spoed ,
mph
25
The highest frequency of wind direction that would carr/
effluents into the Park, and also the lowest average wind
speed, occur in summer. Both factors would lead to relatively
high fluoride levels at receptors. Because the winds tend to
blow toward the Park during daylight hours, the longer summer
days, which average 15.2 hours between sunrise and sunset,
increase the amount of time that emissions are carried into
the Park.
An effort was made to estimate the relative seasonal
23
-------
impact of the aluminum plant on the Park. Qualitative disper-
sion estimates were performed assuming constant fluoride
emission rate and diffusion parameters for the four seasons.
Calculating on the basis of seasonal wind direction frequency,
average wind speed, and duration of sunlight, the relative
impact in summer was equated to 100, with corresponding values
of 43 for fall, 38 for winter, and 54 for spring. The
calculations, however, did not consider the impact of accumu-
lated pollutants transported into the Park as a result of the
local wind-stability pattern discussed earlier. The most
conducive conditions for development of this local pattern
are generally light wind flow together with essentially cloud-
less skies, conditions that normally are most frequent in
late summer through early fall. These considerations suggest
that the potential for damage by fluorides within the Park is
greatest in summer through early fall.
REPRESENTATIVENESS OF STUDY PERIOD
Climatic records for 1970 from the Kalispell Airport,
which is 8 miles southwest of the aluminum plant, have been
compared with the 30-year mean. April 1970 in the Glacier area
appears to have been rather cool and dry with strong surface
winds, while the following 3 months were slightly warmer and
wetter than normal. The fall months were again somewhat cooler
and drier than their "normal" counterparts. Since these were
not major deviations from the normal weather pattern, the data
for 1970 can be considered representative of normal years.
24
-------
Vegetation growth may have been somewhat better than normal
because of the relatively warm, wet summer.
25
-------
AIR QUALITY STUDY
Two basic types of measurements are used to detect
atmospheric fluorides. One, obtained by impaction of air on
a chemically treated surface, indicates fluoridation rate or
2
'dosage,1 given as yg F/cm -day. The other gives concentration
of fluoride in air by volume, that is, yg F/m . For convenience
of reference, the first method is designated as an 'impact'
method and the second as a 'volumetric' method. The impact
measurements are obtained by exposing chemically treated
filter paper to the air in the test area. The inexpensive
impact samplers are readily located at different sites and
are useful in delineating spatial distribution of fluoride
pollution. Since the amount of gaseous fluoride taken up by
the treated paper surface correlated reasonably well with the
amount of fluoride accumulated in vegetation during the same
time interval, the fluoride 'dosage' rate data provided by
this method are useful indicators of potential long-term or
chronic fluoride damage to vegetation.
The volumetric concentration measurements are made with
a sequential sampler that is capable of separating gaseous
and particulate fluorides. Since this type of measurement
requires electric power, the volumetric measurements were
27
-------
limited to a few sites where power was available.
IMPACT MEASUREMENTS
Thirty-six sites for impact sampling were established
throughout the study area within a radius of 20 miles from the
aluminum plant. These sites were arranged so that a represen-
tative geographical distribution of fluoride levels in the
study area might be ascertained. Site locations are shown in
Figure 8.
The sampling devices used by EPA differ from standard
limed paper used by the Montana State Health Department in that
filter paper circles are impregnated with sodium formate
reagent whereas the Montana standard limed paper uses calcium
formate. The methods of exposing these devices to fluorides
also differed. The EPA fluoridation plates were placed in
brackets and attached to posts, utility poles, or trees with
the exposed side facing downward. The State of Montana exposed
the standard limed paper monitors in louvered shelters that
allowed the air to contact both sides of the paper.
At some of the EPA stations, more than one plate was
exposed as a check on reproducibility of results. Since the
EPA plate configuration differed from the standard limed paper
and exposure shelter used by the State of Montana, fluoridation
rates were measured at four sites with both types of devices
to allow correlation of readings given by the two methods.
The plates and limed papers were exposed for monthly intervals
and returned to the laboratory for analysis.
28
-------
Figure 8. Location of fluoridation plate exposure sites.
29
-------
Fluoridation rates obtained in the study area from July
through November 1970 are shown in Table 3. Information on
each site, including elevation, is presented in Table 4.
The significance of the fluoridation measurements in
assessing the potential for fluoride contamination of the Park
is best shown by graphic display of the spacial patterns. The
geographical distribution of the average monthly fluoridation
O
rates in ng F/cm -day over the 5-month period is shown in
Figure 9. Such isopleths are obtained by plotting points of
constant fluoride level based on the available data and
joining these points with smooth-curved contours. A significant
degree of judgment is involved in such construction because
sampling data do not represent the entire area. A further
complication is caused by the uneven mountainous terrain. In
spite of these difficulties, the values clearly decreased as
distance from the aluminum plant increased, except in the
northeast quadrant where the influence of prevailing wind
patterns and higher ground elevations in the Park caused the
fluoridation pattern to be displaced and elongated.
Although there was no volumetric monitoring station atop
Teakettle Mountain, results from the several impact sampling
stations on this mountain indicate a trend of higher fluoride
concentrations with increasing elevation. For instance, at
site 35 on Teakettle and at site 19 on Apgar Mountain, where
high values of fluorides were recorded, the plates were at a
higher elevation than those at any of the other exposure sites.
30
-------
Table 3. MONTHLY FLUORIDATION RATES MEASURED
WITH EPA PLATES
Site
number
la
2a
3a
4a
5
6
a
8*
9a
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20a
21
22
23
24a
25a
26
27
28a
30a
32
33
33M
34
35
36
37a
Fluoridation rate, nq F/cm^-day
July
llb
14b
10b
15b
29
15
14
15
10
9
9
7
10
13
17
12
38
23
20
13
10
8
13
9
24
10
6
10
August
13b
13b
iob
23b
30
10b
9
8
5
5
8
12
19
12
83b
30b
29
16
4b
b
5
18b
8
24b
b
7
7b
6
b
15°
i^
6°
b
6
37
September
9b
20b
iob
llb
32
7b
8
7
4
4
3
3
4
9
14b
6b
43b
21b
48
8
5b
b
5°
13b
5
26b
b
6°
6b
5
b
9°
b
5°
b
5
41
b
50°
October
iob
llb
4b
12b
16
4b
7
6
4
2
2
2
4
5
9b
5b
43b
25b
22
5
4b
b
3°
8b
3
llb
b
4
4b
3
8
10
b
4
b
4
b
91°
November
iob
13b
6b
13b
8
6
iob
23b
37b
5
16b
18b
8b
8b
9
9
Average
monthly
rate
11
14
8
15
27
9
10
9
6
5
6
4
6
9
14
9
46
27
30
9
6
5
14
6
21
7
6
6
8
12
5
5
39
71
9
9
aExposure sites located in or near Glacier Park.
is average of two or more duplicate readings.
31
-------
Table 4. LOCATION AND ELEVATION OF FLUORIDATION NETWORK SITES
IN AND NEAR GLACIER NATIONAL PARK
Site
number
Elevation above
mean sea level,
feet
Location
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
30
32
33
33
34
35
36
37
3150
3100
3200
3250
3040
3000
3145
3145
3800
3350
3500
2993
2900
3250
3400
3320
3100
3050
5200
3150
3580
4200
3150
3400
3280
3400
3260
3145
3400
3070
3050
3050
3920
4200
3400
3250
Glacier Park; near Fire Weather
Station
Blankenship Ranch
Rose Ranch
Near railroad and Blankenship Road
crossing
DeMerritt Property
Northeast of Whitefish
Upper Lake McDonald; at Ranger
Station
Lower Lake McDonald; near Apgar
Camas Creek Road; on trail to
Huckeberry Mountain
North Fork Road; near Big Creek
Ranger Station
North Fork Road; 5 miles north of
Station 3
Northwest end of Lake Blaine
South of Creston; along Highway 35
Highway 2; 2 miles south of Park
headquarters
East side of Teakettle Mountain
North Ford Road; near Turnbull
Creek turnoff
Dehlbom Property
Badrock Canyon
Apgar Lookout
Park Headquarters
Vicinity of Hungry Horse Dam
Emery Hill
Coram
Boehm's Bear Den
Base of Apgar ridge
Red Eagle; near Nyack
Kootenai Creek; east of West Glacier
Southeast side of Lake McDonald
Hill above Park Headquarters
North of Morning Slough Lake
South of Morning Slough Lake
Southeast of Morning Slough Lake
Teakettle Mountain; 3 miles north
of Relay Tower
Teakettle Mountain, 1.5 miles north
of Relay Tower
Hill near gravel pit, on Highway 2
Hill above Park Headquarters; 150
feet below site 30
32
-------
Figure 9. Distribution of average monthly fluoridation rates
(Isoline values in ng F/'-.m^-
33
-------
Thus, the primary area of high fluoridation values appears
about 1 to 2 miles northeast of the aluminum plant on Teakettle
Mountain, and the values increase with increasing elevation of
the sampler. A secondary area of high fluoridation values
appears on the upper slopes of Apgar Mountain, 10 miles from
the plant.
Correlation of Data: Plate and Limed Paper Methods
The Montana State Health Department has adopted ambient
2
air quality standard (0.30 y'g F/cm -28 day) for fluoride based
on the measurement by the calcium formate (limed) paper method.
The Montana State air pollution control regulations include
specifications for preparation, exposure, and analysis of the
paper. Although the plate method used by EPA differs from the
method used by the State, the readings provided by the two
methods can be correlated.
Limed (calcium formate) papers were exposed in louvered
shelters of the type normally used by the State at the four
stations (shown in Figure 10) at which the EPA investigators
measured ambient fluoride concentrations both volumetrically
and by the plate method. Duplicate sets of limed papers were
exposed for calendar-month intervals and were returned to the
State laboratory for analysis. Analytical data furnished by
the State laboratory are given in Table 5 with data obtained
in analysis of the EPA plates, which were exposed at the same
sites for the same period of time. Fluoridation rates obtained
by both methods are expressed in units used by the State,
2
yg F/cm -28 day.
34
-------
Figure 10- Location of volumetric fluoride monitoring
stations and plant exposure shelters.
35
-------
Table 5. COMPARISON OF FLUORIDATION RATES MEASURED BY
EPA PLATE AND MONTANA LIMED PAPER METHODS
Sample,
period
July
September
October
November
December
Station0
number
1
2
3
4
1
2
3
4
1
2
3
4
1
2
4
25
2
4
25
Fluoridation rate, yg F/cm2-28 day
Plate
0.31
0.39
0.'28
0.42
0.25
0.56
0.28
0.31
0.28
0.31
0.11
0.34
0.28
0.36
0.36
0.50
0.47
0.67
Limed
paper
0.23
0.22
0.25
0.45
0.17
0.23
0.11
0.24
0.13
0.14
0.09
0.21
0.17
0.22
0.23
0.42
0.26
0.38
0.62
Ratio:
paper/
plate
0.74
0.56
0.89
1.07
0.67
0.41
0.39
0.77
0.46
0.45
0.81
0.61
0.60
0.61
0.63
0.84
_ _ _ _
0.80
0.92
Data on limed paper measurements supplied by Montana State
Health Department.
Limed papers for August were lost in transit.
f*
All stations are located in Glacier National Park or near the
Park boundary.
36
-------
Comparison of values for the 5-month period disclosed that
those obtained by the plate method consistently averaged about
one-third higher than those obtained by the limed paper method.
Although other factors may contribute to the higher fluoridation
values given by the plates, one explanation for the difference
is the method of exposure. The plate configuration exposes
the filter paper more openly to the atmosphere, whereas the
louvered shelter used by the State may restrict air flow around
the limed papers and offer less ventilation. Statistical
analysis of the two sets of data indicates that the fluoridation
rates given by the plates should be multiplied by a factor of
0.68 for comparability with rates given by limed paper. The
fluoridation rates obtained at all of the EPA stations (Table
3) were multiplied by this factor and adjusted to a 28-day
rate to provide the monthly fluoridation rates shown in Table
6.
These results show that the average fluoridation rates
measured at four of the fifteen stations located in or near
Glacier Park approach or exceed the State standard. The
average value for site 19 on Apgar Mountain exceeds the
standards by a factor of nearly 2. All the monthly readings
obtained during the study at this site were above the State
standard.
Applying the correlation factor of 0.68 and the adjustment
for the 28-day exposure to the projected distribution patterns
shown in Figure 9 suggests that much of the area within the
37
-------
Table 6. CONVERSION OF FLUORIDATION RATES MEASURED BY
PLATE METHODa TO EQUIVALENT
STATE OF MONTANA VALUES
Station
number
lb
27*
3^
4
5
6b
*7
8b
9D
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18b
19b
20°
21
22
23b
24b
25
26
27b
28b
30D
32
33
33M
34
35b
36b
37
Equivalent fluoridation rate, pg F/cm2-day
Minimum
0.17
0.21
0.08
0.21
0.30
0.08
0.13
0.11
0.08
0.04
0.04
0.04
0.08
0.10
0.17
0.10
0.44
0.40
0.38
0.10
0.08
0.06
0.15
0.06
0.21
0.08
0.08
0.06
0.15
0.17
0.08
0.08
0.70
0.95
Maximum
0.25
0.38
0.19
0.44
0.61
0.29
0.27
0.29
0.19
0.17
0.17
0.13
0.19
0.25
0.36
0.23
1.58
0.70
0.91
0.30
0.19
0.15
0.34
0.17
0.50
0.19
0.15
0.19
0.15
0.29
0.11
0.11
0.78
1.73
Average
0.21
0.27
0.15
0.29
0.51
0.17
0.19
0.17
0.11
0.10
0.11
0.08
0.11
0.17
0.27
0.17
0.88
0.51
0.57
0.17
0.11
0.10
0.27
0.11
0.40
0.13
0.11
0.11
0.15
0.23
0.10
0.10
0.74
1.35
0.17C
0.17C
Rates from Table 2.
Stations located in or near Glacier National Park.
'Based on one month's data.
38
-------
20 |jg F/cm -day isoconcentration lines is subjected to long-
term fluoride contamination in excess of the State standard.
This includes nearly all of the higher elevations within the
realm of influence of the aluminum plant emissions.
In summary, the impact monitoring devices proved to be
extremely useful in defining areas of high fluoride concentra-
tion. Fluoridation plates or limed papers can be readily
exposed at sites in the most inaccessible areas of the Park
and surrounding territory and thus can provide surveillance
not obtainable by other measurement methods.
VOLUMETRIC MEASUREMENTS
Volumetric measurements of gaseous and particulate fluoride
concentrations were made at four locations from June 26 to
October 23, 1970. The monitoring stations were located near
the Park boundary from 7 to 11 miles in a northeasterly
direction from the aluminum plant, as shown in Figure 10.
Availability of electric power and nearness to the Park
determined location of the stations.
Atmospheric samples were collected over 12-hour intervals
with a sequential sampler capable of separating gaseous and
particulate fluorides. Gaseous fluorides in the air samples
were selectively absorbed on bicarbonate-coated glass tubes.
After removal of the gaseous fluoride component, the particulate
fluoride component was collected on a chemically treated filter
mounted on the outlet end of the tube. The glass tubes and
filters were returned to an EPA laboratory for analysis. The
39
-------
gaseous and particulate sample components were measured using
a specific fluoride electrode.*
A timer built into the sampler allowed continuous
collection of 12-hour samples from 9 a.m. to 9 p.m. (daytime)
and from 9 p.m. to 9 a.m. (nighttime). Samples adequate for
analysis were obtained approximately 70 percent of the time
that the samplers were operated.
Average concentrations (yg F/m3) of gaseous and particulate
fluorides measured at each of the four stations are summarized
in Table 7. Tabulations of the raw data are given in the
appendix.
The average daily (calendar day) gaseous fluoride concen-
trations recorded at the four stations in or near the Park
(Stations 1 through 4) ranged from 0.06 to 0.10 yg F/m during
the 4-month period. A maximum daily average concentration of
0.66 yg F/m (0.83 ppb) was measured at Station 2 (Blankenship),
During one 24-hour period spanning two calendar days, however,
the average exceeded the State standard (0.8 yg F/m ): the
average at Blankenship from 9 a.m. September 5 to 9 a.m.
September 6 was 0.88 yg F/m .
Gaseous concentrations made up about one-third to one-
half of the total fluoride measured at each station. At all
but one of the stations (Station 3) , 12-hour gaseous fluoride
levels were nearly twice as high during the day as they were
* Anal. Chem. 4_0 (11): 1658-1661. September 1968.
+ Based on conversion factor of 1 part per billion = 0.8 yg F/m
40
-------
Table 7. SUMMARY OF 12-HOUR GASEOUS AND PARTICULATE
FLUORIDE CONCENTRATIONS MEASURED
IN GLACIER NATIONAL PARK AND SURROUNDING AREA,
JUNE 26 to OCTOBER 23, 1970
(pg F/m3)
Station
1
2
3
4
17 b
Fluoride
component
Gaseous
parti-
culate
Gaseous
parti-
culate
Gaseous
parti-
culate
Gaseous
parti-
culate
Gaseous
parti-
culate
Daytime
Maximum
0.34
0.84
0.65
0.73
0.16
0.51
0.48
1.12
3.65
2.70
Average
0.09
0.18
0.12
0.22
0.06
0.12
0.14
0.27
0.48
0.79
Nighttime
Maximum
0.25
1.18
1.02
0.98
0.12
0.32
0.20
1.33
1.05
2.41
Average
0.05
0.13
0.07
0.12
0 .06
0.11
0 .06
0.17
0.18
0.55
24-houra
Maximum
0.25
0.91
0.66
0.64
0.14
0 .36
0.28
0.84
Average
0 .07
0.15
0 .10
0 .17
0 .06
0 .12
0 .10
0.21
'
2.11
1.57
0.33
0 .65
^Average of daytime and nighttime values.
^Special sampling station operated from August 17 to October 21,
1971 at Dehlbom residence about 1.5 miles north of the
aluminum plant.
41
-------
at night. The difference in air-flow patterns during daytime
and nighttime is thought to account for the higher concentra-
tions of gaseous and particulate fluorides during the day.
A tendency toward higher maximum concentrations was
observed at Stations 2 and 4. Stations 2 and 4 are nearer the
aluminum plant and are in line with the predominant air flow
from the plant toward Lake McDonald. Station 3, at which the
lowest values were consistently recorded, is located toward the
North Fork and is evidently largely bypassed by plumes from
the plant.
Midway through the study, sampling was discontinued at
Station 3 and the air sampler was moved to a special sampling
site in the vicinity of Columbia Falls (Dehlbom). Data from
this station, designated 17, are included in Table 7. The
fluoride levels recorded at Station 17 are markedly greater
than the levels recorded at the other volumetric sampling
locations. The tabulation of fluoridation rates in Table 3,
however, lists values obtained at Station 19 oh Apgar Mountain
that are in the same range as values measured at Station 17 by
impact sampling. This suggests that long-term and probably
short-term fluoride exposures at various sites in the Park
may occasionally approach or exceed the levels encountered at
Station 17 located near the aluminum plant.
-------
VEGETATION STUDIES
Phytotoxicity of airborne gaseous fluoride is well docu-
mented in the literature. Fluoride is an accumulative toxicant,
and development of plant injury is usually associated with
fluoride buildup in the leaf over a relatively long period in
contrast to short-time exposure that normally causes injury
with most atmospheric phototoxicants. Also, the fluoride ion
is relatively stable in contrast to many pollutants that break
down or change chemically within the leaf. Leaves on the same
plant can differ considerably in fluoride content because
leaves differ in age or exposure time.
Since deciduous plants lose their leaves annually, there
is no opportunity for buildup of fluorides in the trees from
one year to the next. Conifers, however, retain their needles
and can accumulate fluorides over a longer period of time.
A wide variation in sensitivity is recognized; some species
may accumulate in excess of 100 parts per million (ppm) on a
dry weight basis without displaying any symptoms of injury,
whereas other species may develop extensive areas of dead
tissue when much less fluoride has been accumulated. It is
generally accepted that fluoride concentrations in plants up
to 10 ppm may be considered normal occurrence and that some
43
-------
plants, particularly those closely related to tea, may accumu-
late much larger amounts in the absence of atmospheric con-
taminants. In a plant community such as that found in Glacier
National Park, concentrations exceeding 10 ppm in grasses and
pine needles are probably associated with atmospheric con-
tamination.
In July 1969, prior to the 1970 study period, an EPA
botanist investigated vegetation in the Columbia Falls area
for possible damage from fluoride. Characteristic tip damage
and margin burn were found on pine, apple, and willow trees
and on gladiolus. Chemical analyses, shown in Table 8,
indicated that the vegetation tissue was contaminated by
fluorides.
During the 1970 study period indigenous vegetation was
examined for visible damage, fluoride chemical composition,
and histological damage. In addition studies were performed
with selected vegetation grown under controlled conditions.
INDIGENOUS VEGETATION
Visual Observations
In July 1970 vegetation in Glacier National Park and
surrounding areas was examined for evidence of fluoride-type
markings.
Columbia Falls and Vicinity - Severe needle tip necrosis was
observed on ponderosa pine (P. Ponderosa) at three locations
within Columbia Falls. The injury was confined to needles on
the growth produced in 1968, while the 1969 needles and immature
44
-------
Table 8. FLUORIDE CONTENT OF VEGETATION
SAMPLES OBTAINED IN 1969
Vegetation
F, ug/gm
Lodgepole pine (needle tip)
Lodgepole pine (needle base)
Gladiolus (leaf tip 2 in.)
Gladiolus (leaf base 2 in.)
Apples (leaf margin)
Apples (leaf mid-section)
Willow (leaf margin)
Willow (leaf mid-section)
70
70
170
90
190
150
210
70
45
-------
current-season (1970) needles appeared free of injury. The
brown necrotic tip of 1968 needles was about 2 to 3 centimeters
long on trees in the area. Each necrotic tip showed 2 to 4 dark
brown bands and a sharp line of demarcation between healthy and
necrotic tissue. This symptom is characteristic of injury
produced on sensitive pines by fluorides in polluted atmospheres.
Young pine trees in the ornamental plantings at the
entrance to the Columbia Falls Forest Ranger Station showed
considerable injury of the 1968 needles, less injury of the 1969
needles, and no apparent injury of 1970 needles. The oldest
leaves of a young birch tree growing in the same area were
severely injured. Necrosis at the margin of these leaves
extended between the principal veins almost to the mid-rib.
Younger leaves on the same shoots showed intercostal and
marginal symptoms. The injury symptoms were of the type that
may be associated with accumulation of fluorides.
Ponderosa trees at various points along the highway from
Columbia Falls south to Bigfork were examined for symptoms of
injury by air pollutants. Tip necrosis of needles was observed
for at least 10 miles southeast of Columbia Falls. A large
commercial planting of conifers about 20 miles from Columbia
Falls appeared to be free of injury.
Teakettle Mountain - Young lodgepole pine and other shrubs at the
top of Teakettle Mountain and on the south slope above the
aluminum reduction plant were severely marked with necrotic
lesions. Many of the young pine trees were heavily defoliated
46
-------
and partially or entirely dead. The needle tip necrosis ranged
from red-brown to light brown with numerous dark brown bands.
Typical fluoride-type symptoms were also found on trees at the
top of the mountain.
The 1968 needles of Douglas fir trees were heavily marked
with fleck-like chlorotic lesions and a general golden-brown
discoloration. Needles produced more recently were free of
this symptom. Wild strawberry leaves showed marginal necrosis
and dark purple pigmentation between the major veins extending
toward the mid-rib. Bear grass was severely injured, with
light tan necrosis on the top 10 inches or more of mature
leaves.
North Slope of Teakettle Mountain - Tip necrosis was observed
on 1968 needles of white pine trees scattered along the north
slope of the mountain; the 1969 and 1970 needles appeared to
be free of injury. The symptoms were particularly severe on a
few trees at the base of the mountain on Wright's Ranch.
A young planting of ponderosa pine near Lake Five was
heavily marked with necrotic tips (3 and 4 centimeters long)
on 1968 growth; more recent growth showed no visible symptoms.
Similar symptoms were observed on lodgepole pine (P. Contorta)
along the roadside in the same area.
Glacier Park - Iris growing wild at the site of an old homestead
showed necrotic damage on leaf tips. Necrosis on some of the
oldest leaves extended 6 inches or more. Some tip burn on 1969
needles of a young Douglas fir was also observed at this
location.
47
-------
About 3 miles south of the McDonald Creek bridge at the
base of Apgar Mountain, mature ponderosa pine trees showed
considerable tip burn on 1968 needles. The burn was more
severe on needles growing upward than on those hanging downward
from the shoots. The necrotic tip was 2 to 3 centimeters long
with 3 to 5 dark brown bands. The 1969 needles on many shoots
were considerably shorter than 1968 needles.
White pine trees at Glacier National Park Headquarters
showed necrotic tip burn on 1968 needles and some burn on
1967 needles. The burn was about 5 centimeters long, and
symptoms were much more severe on the lower 30 to 40 feet of
the two trees examined than on the upper portions. Branches
in the tops of the trees exhibited very little injury.
White pine trees at the Lake McDonald Ranger Station and
on the Wheeler property west of the station were marked with
tip burn on 1968 needles. Necrotic areas of tips were 1.5 to
2 centimeters long.
Tip burn was observed on white pines about 6 miles north
of the north shore of Lake McDonald. The trees were growing
on a ledge approximately 500 feet above the highway on the
east side of the stream. Necrosis was found only on the tips
of 1968 needles.
In brief summary of the field observations, necrotic tip
burn on ponderosa pine and necrosis of some leaves on broad
leaf plants were observed near the aluminum reduction plant
and in Columbia Falls. These symptoms appeared to be identical
48
-------
with symptoms characterized as fluoride type. Similar symptoms
on 1968 needles were observed for several miles southeast of
the plant. The symptoms suggest that vegetation in the vicinity
of Columbia Falls was exposed to high atmospheric fluoride
concentrations in 1968 and perhaps early in 1969. Since that
time, injury appears to be light and is probably confined to
a radius of a few miles around the plant. Heaviest injury is
apparent on the south slope of Teakettle Mountain.
Needle burn on 1968 needles of sensitive pine species in
Glacier National Park indicates that excessive fumigation with
fluorides probably occurred in 1968? tissus analyses confirmed
this observation. Observations from the top of Teakettle
Mountain confirm that fluoride-type symptoms are prevalent to
the top of the mountain. Wind movement from the south-southwest
would carry any pollutants reaching the top of the mountain up
the middle fork of Flathead River into the Lake McDonald area.
Although no evidence of recent foliage injury was observed
within the Park, it is possible that chronic symptoms of fluoride
accumulation may be manifested at a later date, as the newer
growth is exposed to low ambient levels of fluoride over an
extended period of time.
Chemical Analyses
Samples of indigenous vegetation were collected during the
summer of 1970. Fluoride content of samples collected and
analyzed by the University of California is reported in Table
9. These samples were obtained from 1968 needles which exhibited
49
-------
tip necrosis. All were obtained from within Glacier National
Park.
Table 9 - FLUORIDE CONTENT OF VEGETATION SAMPLES
COLLECTED AND ANALYZED BY UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA
Sample Fluoride content, yg/g
Needle tip Needle base
Ponderose pine 69 8
White pine park headquarters 29 4
White pine Lake McDonald 12 16
White pine 6 mi. North of 48 4
Lake McDonald
Needles were cut into two approximately equal lengths, and the
tip and base sections were analyzed separately. Before
analysis, samples were dried for 48 hours at 45°C in a forced-
draft oven and were ground to pass a 40-mesh screen. The tip
sections contained both necrotic and green tissue.
Results of the analyses substantiate the conclusions that
needle tip necrosis observed on 1968 growth of ponderosa and
western white pine in the vicinity of Lake McDonald was
produced by fluoride accumulation.
Additionally, vegetation samples exhibiting injury suspected
to be caused by fluoride were collected by an EPA botanist and
analyzed in the EPA North Carolina laboratories. For analysis
the needles were divided into two nearly equal parts — the
tip (top half) and the base (bottom half). Results of these
analyses appear in Table 10.
The normal expected fluoride content of whole conifer
needles is less than 10 ppm (based on control data of the
Forest Service and University of Montana). The fluoride content
50
-------
Table 10. FLUORIDE CONTENT OF VEGETATION SAMPLES
COLLECTED AND ANALYZED BY EPA
(Fluoride in pg/g)
White Pine
Glacier Park HQ, 7/16/70
1967 needles
tip 30
base 12
1968 needles
tip 36
base 13
1969 needles
tip 28
base 8
1970 needles
tip 8
base 5
White Pine
6 mi. N of
Lake McDonald, 7/16/70
1968 needles
tip 19
base 8
1969 needles
tip 54
base 18
Ponderosa Pine
4 mi. SW Park HQ, 7/16/70
1970 needles
tip 10
base 4
Ponderosa Pine
Teakettle Mountain, 7/16/70
1968 needles
tip 295
base 101
1969 needles
tip 213
base 56
1970 needles
34
Ponderosa Pine
Monitoring Site 4, 10/22/70
1969 needles
tip 122
base 9
1970 needles
tip 39
base 11
Ponderosa Pine
4 mi. SW Park HQ, 7/16/70
1967 needles
tip 83
base 8
1968 needles
tip 68
base 5
1969 needles
tip 50
base 9
Ponderosa Pine
Dr. Kruck Residence, 7/16/70
needle ends 312
Ponderosa Pine
Columbia Falls Park, 7/16/70
needle ends
119
51
-------
Table 10- (continued). FLUORIDE CONTENT OF VEGETATION
SAMPLES COLLECTED AND ANALYZED BY EPA
(Fluoride in yg/g)
Lodgepole Pine
4.5 mi. W Park HQ, 7/16/70
1968 needles 63
1969 needles 15
Lodgepole Pine
Monitoring Site 4, 10/22/70
1968 needles 72
1969 needles
tip 61
base 14
1970 needles
tip 15
base 11
Lodgepole Pine
Teakettle Mountain, 7/16/70
1968 needles
tip 328
base 37
1969 needles
tip 260
base 46
Douglas Fir
Middle Fork Ranger Station,
10/22/70
1968 needles
tip
base
1969 needles
tip
base
1970 needles
tip
base
141
32
74
16
20
5
Birch
Columbia Falls Ranger Station
7/16/70
1970 leaves
Bear Grass
Park HQ, 10/22/70
Snowberry
Monitoring Site 4
10/22/70
94
43
52
-------
of many of the samples reported in Table 10 is much higher than
this background level of 10 ppm. Accumulation in the tip
portion of the needles ran as high as 141 ppm, and only two
of the samples showed fluoride levels as low as background when
the tip and base measurements were combined. The data further
confirm that fluoride has accumulated in the tissue of vegetation
growing in and near the Park in sufficient quantities to produce
the observed tip necrosis.
Generally, the fluoride accumulation in 1968 needles was
greater than in 1969 needles, and in 1969 needles than in the
current 1970 needles. The high fluoride content of 1968 and
1969 needle growth may reflect exposure to higher ambient
fluoride levels during these years as well as cumulative effects
of the longer exposure period.
The high fluoride content (43 yg F/g) of bear grass
collected at Park headquarters exceeds the State standard of
35 ppm for forage, considered to be the maximum safe concentra-
tion for animal ingestion.
Histological Examination
Injured needles from Park trees showing burn symptoms
were examined microscopically. By means of a hand-sectioning
technique, tissue sections were obtained without the distortion
induced by killing or dehydration of the tissue. Clear and
workable sections were obtained by softening the hard tissue
in a solution composed of 20 percent glycerin, 10 percent
alcohol, and 70 percent distilled water. Thionine stain gave
53
-------
clarity and resolution to the initial stages of injury. Sections
were taken from the green, uninjured portion of the needles
immediately preceding the demarcation line between injured and
uninjured tissue.
Examination of the specimens revealed that the parenchymatous
tissues of palisade and spongy cells were collapsed and some
chloroplasts had lost their integrity. The epithelial cells of
the resin canal showed swelling and expansion. The vascular
bundles were distorted and adjacent cells had collapsed.
The extensive changes in the injured needle tissue indicated
that the causative agent of the needle necrosis was chemical.
CONTROLLED EXPOSURES OF SELECTED VEGETATION
Cylinder-shaped, fiberglas greehouses were located at
three of the sites where volumetric ambient fluoride measure-
ments were conducted. Stations 1, 2, and 3 (shown in Figure
10) were selected for the exposure tests because of the avail-
ability of electric power and the proximity to the Park.
At sites 1 and 2, shelters of the same type as those used
for ambient expo ures were equipped with filters to remove
particulate and gaseous fluorides. In these control shelters,
ambient air was blown through a series of filters before enter-
ing the shelter and then was pulled from the shelter by an
exhaust blower. In the regular test shelters, unfiltered ambient
air was drawn by the air movement induced by an exhaust blower.
In all shelters, fans circulated air at a rate of about 1 air-
volume-change-per-minute.
54
-------
Plants exposed included ponderosa, Scotch, and white pines,
alfalfa, Chinese apricot, and Snow Princess gladiolus. Trees
were obtained from these sources: white pine—Coeur d'Alene,
Idaho, ponderosa pine—Potamac Valley, Missoula, Montana;
Scotch pine—St. Regis, Montana; and Chinese apricot—Denver,
Colorado.
The pines were 3 to 4 years old and were placed at the
sites 1 to 2 weeks after bud break. The apricot trees were 5
to 6 years old. All trees remained during this exposure period
in the soil in which they were delivered by the nursery.
Gladiolus and alfalfa were grown hydroponically in a
vermiculite support medium. Plastic pots containing the plants
were placed in shallow plastic trays to which a deionized water
netrient solution was added twice a week. On a weekly schedule,
all plants were flushed with distilled water, and the trays
were cleaned to rid them of algae. In the latter stages of
the study heaters were placed inside the shelters to prevent
freezing.
The selected plant varieties were also grown in garden
plots near the shelters at sites 1, 2, and 3. A garden plot
was also established at the air sampling station near Mud Lake
(site 4). Gladiolus and alfalfa were planted in native soil
at each of the garden plots, but the trees were left in their
containers with the original soil. The garden plots were
watered about every other day with deionized water and once a
week with nutrient solution.
55
-------
Moderate tip burn was observed on Gladiolus and Apricot
leaves. Gladiolus were harvested for analysis on September 14
as buds were opening after about 11 weeks of growth. Alfalfa
and part of the apricot leaves were also harvested at this
time. At the end of the 16-week study, the rest of the apricot
leaves and the new growth of alfalfa was harvested. Pine
needles were also collected from the test trees at this time
and were classified as 1969 and 1970 needle growth for analyses.
Samples from plants grown in the exposure shelters and
the garden plots were analyzed at the EPA laboratory in
Durham, North Carolina. Unwashed plant samples were identified,
sorted, oven-dried, and ground for automated wet-chemical
analysis with an autoanalyzer. Results are reported in yg F/g
dry weight in Tables 11 through 14.
Results of the controlled exposure of selected vegetation
indicate that nearly all samples exposed to this ambient air
accumulated more fluoride than did those grown in the purified
air of the control chambers. This accumulation appears to be
of marginal significance, however, it must be remembered that
the vegetation encountered low concentrations of fluoride as
demonstrated by the air quality measurements made at these same
exposure sites.
56
-------
Table 11. FLUORIDE ACCUMULATION IN 1969 AND 1970 NEEDLES OF
WHITE, PONDEROSA, AND SCOTCH PINES EXPOSED FROM
JUNE 25 TO OCTOBER 21, 1970
(yg
Exposure/location
Plant shelters
Site 1
Site 2
Site 3
Garden plots
Site 1
Site 2
Site 3
Site 4
Control shelters
White pine
1969
16.5
8.3
18.3
7.3
11.4
12.7
18.5
6.1
1970
10.6
16.7
25.3
7.8
9.1
6.2
14.2
5.1
Scotch pine
1969
34.5
23.5
10.0
6.3
14.3
9.2
1970
12.6
12.4
8.7
5.5
7.1
5.0
8.2
4.2
Ponderosa pine
1969
36.1
39.6
46.1
19.1
14.3
16.6
19.0
15.5
1970
9.8
10 .7
10.5
7.1
6 .9
6.8
9 .4
5.6
i - -
^Fluoride content of the plants in both control shelters.
57
-------
Table 12. FLUORIDE ACCUMULATION IN ALFALFA LEAVES AND
STEMS EXPOSED IN 1970 STUDY
Exposure/location
Fluoride content, yg F/g
July 24 through
September 14
September 14 through
October 21
Plant shelters
Site 1
Site 2
Site 3
Garden plots
Site 1
Site 2
Site 3
Site 4
Control plant
shelters
13.9
12.5
11.1
21.3
19.3
24.7
32.1
4.4
13.6
11.5
15.1
5.0
58
-------
Table 13. FLUORIDE ACCUMULATION IN CHINESE APRICOT LEAVES
EXPOSED IN 1970 STUDY
Exposure/location
July 14 through
September 14
Fluoride content, yg F/g
September 14 through
October 21
Plant shelters
Site 1
Site 2
Site 3
Garden plots
Site 1
Site 2
Site 3
Site 4
Control plant
shelters
6.7
8.4
10.7
10.2
9.9
9.6
12.8
2.6
15.9
24.3
19 .7
14.6'
2.0
iDate of exposure was July 14 to September 26.
59
-------
Table 14. FLUORIDE ACCUMULATION IN GLADIOLUS LEAF TISSUE
EXPOSED FROM JUNE 25 THROUGH SEPTEMBER 14, 1970
Exposure/location
Plant shelters
Site 1
Site 2
Site 3
Garden plots
Site 1
Site 2
Site 3
Control plant
shelters
Fluoride content, yg F/g
0 to 2 inches
from tip
20.6
24.0
23.9
26.8
43.6
2 8 . 2
12.0
2 to 4 inches
from tip
6.7
12.4
9.9
10.1
9.1
10.9
8.9
4 to 6 inches
from tip
8.1
9.3
10.2
7.5
8.9
9.0
5.2
60
-------
APPENDIX: DATA OBTAINED IN
VOLUMETRIC SAMPLING
61
-------
Station 1 - Glacier Park
DATE
7/ 9
7/ 9
7/10
7/10
7/11
_?/ 1 1
7/12
7/12
"7/13
L-Z/J3.
7/14
7/14
7/15
7/15
7/16
7/16
7/17
7/17
7/18
7/18
7/19
7/19
7/20
JV20
7/21
7/21
7/22
7/22
7/23
7/23
7/24
7/24
7/25
7/25
7/26
7/26
7/27
7/27
7/28
7/28
7/29
7/29
7/30
7/30
7/31
7/31
8/ 1
8/ 1
8/ 2
8/ 2
8/ 3
8/ 3
8/ 4
8/ 4
TIME
900
2100
900
2100
900
2.1 00_
900
2100
900
2.100.
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
9CO
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
SlOO
2100
900
2100
(yg/
CAS PART TOTAL
0.00 0.00 0.00
O.ll 0.00 0.00
0.10
0.06
0.00
0.00
0.09 0.00
O.D7___OiOO_
0.07 0.00
0.00 0.00
0.00
0,00
0.00
o.oo_
0.00
0.00
0.27 0.09 0.36
0.22 0.0 5 Q_,_£7_
0.21 0.27 0.48
0.13 0.05 0.18
0.24
0.11
O.ll
0.09
0.12
0.09
0.09
0.07
0.23
0.12
0.20
0.13
0.23
0.14
0.12
0.00
0.17
0.11
0.14
0.00
0.12
0.10
0.34
O.ll
0 . 1 0"
O.CO
0.09
0.05
0.10
0.05
0.03
0.03
0.05
0.02
0.03
0.03
0.02
0.00
0.12
0.03
0.02
0.02
0.30
0.09
0.02
0,02
0.04
i)i.03__
0.02
0,02
0.31
0.11
0.17
0.05
0.07
0.10
0.11
0.00
0.12
0.05
0.13
0.00
0.25
0.09
0.27
0.12
0.15
0.00
0.08
0.11
0.22
0.09
0.02
0.03
0.18
0.00
0.03
0.01
0.01
0.00
0.59
0.00
0.03
0.05
0.54
0.20
0.13
0.16
_A,JL2_
0.11
0.09
0.54
0.23
0.37
0.18
0.30
0.24
0.23
0.00
0.29
0.16
0.27
0.00
0.37
0.19
0.61
0.23
0.25
0.00
0.17
0.16
0.32
0.1-4
0.05"
0.06
0.23
0.00
0.06
0.04
0.03 ""
0.00
0.71
0.00
0.05 '
0.07
m3)
e/ 5
8/ 6
8/ 6
8/ 7
8/ 7
8/ 8
8/ 8
ft/ 9
8/ 9
8/10
8/10
8/11
8/12
8/12
8/15
8/15
8/16
8/16
8/17
8/17
fl/1 fl
8/18
8/19
8/19
8/20
8/20
8/21
8/21
8/22
8/23
8/23
8/24
8/24
8/25
8/25
8/26
8/26
8/27
8/27
8/28
8/28
8/29
8/29
8/30
8/30
8/31
8/31
9/ I
9/ 1
9/ 2
9/ 2
9/ 3
900 0.03
2100 0.03
900 0.09
2100 0.04
900 0.10
2100 0.06
900 0.05
2100 0.04
900. _ 0.06
2100 0.05
900 0.05
2100 0.06
900 0.05
2100 0.03
900 0.09
2100 0.04
900 0.00
2100 0.03
900 £._15_
2100 0.05
900 D.04
2100 0.03
9DO 0.10
2100 0.02
900 0.09
2100 0.03
900 0.11
2100 0.03
900 0.12_
0.28 0.31
0.05 0,08
0.55 0.64
0.16 0.20
0.36 0.46
0.31 0.37
0.12 0.17
0.22 0.26
0.3SL . jO.45
0.20 0.25
0,71 0.26
0.07 0.13
0.77 0.27
0.10 0.13
0.16 0.25
0.09 0.13
0.00 0.00
0.23 0.26
0.15 0.30
0.12 0.17
.0.05 Q..O9..
0.16 0.19
0.00 0.00
0.02 0.04
O.JA Q^Zi.
0.14 0.17
0.16 O.Z7
0.12 0.15
0.14 0.76
2100 0.04 0.08 0.12
_900 Q..J. 1 0 . 1 2 0 . 2 3
2100 0.05 0.09 0.14
900 0.20^ 0.16 0.36
2100 0.05
900 0.07
2100 0.03
900 0.08
2100 0.02
900 0.09
2100 0.02
900 0.13
2100 0.02
900^0.09
2100 0.02
900 0.02
2100 0.02
900 0.11
2100 0.03
_. 900 _. 0.07
2100 0.05
900 0.12
2100 0.02
900 0. 10
2100 0.02
900 0.09
0.17 0.22
0.05 0.12
0.02 0.05
Q. 11 0.19
0.09 0.11
0.32 0.41
0.10 0.12
0.16 0.29
0.05 0.07
0.08 0.17
0. 12 0. 14
0.01 0.03
0.01 0.03
0.31 0.42
0.18 0.21
0.07 0. 14
0.02 0.07
_ 0.12 ,0.24
0.02 0.04
0.22 0.32
0.18 0.20
0.10 0.19
* 0.0 indicates invalid sampie
62
-------
Station 1 - Glacier Park
9/ 3
9/ 4
9/ 5
X9/ 5
9/ 6
9/ 6
9/ 7
9/ 7
9/ 8
9/ 8
9/ 9
9/ 9
9/10
9/10
9/20
9/2Q
9/21
9/21
9/22
9/2^
9/23
9/23
9/24
9/24
9/25
.3/25
9/26
9/26
9/27
9/27
9/28
_9/28
10/ 1
10/ 1
10/ 2
10/ 2
10/ 4
10/ 6
10/ 6
10/16
10/16
10/17
10/17
10/18
10/18
10/19
10/19
10/20
10/20
10/21
10/21
2100
900
J90JL
0.05
0.08
0.02
0.15
2100 0.25
900 0.19
2100 0.05
900 0.05
2100 0.05
900 0.02
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
0.03
0.08
0.01
0,10
0.02
0.06
0.02
0.05
0.02
0.02
O.OL
0.04
0.01
900 0.06
_2.1.Q.Q CM).2__
900 0.07
2lOO._ .0.01 .
900 0.08
2100 0.01
900 0.02
2100 0.02
900
2100
900
2100
900
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
0.02
0.00
0.09
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.03
0.03
0.01
0.01
0.00
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.09
0.08
0.08
0.01
0.02
0.04
0.02
0.02
0.20
0.19
0.02
0,15
0.30
0.27
0.09
0.12
0.06
0.00
(yg/m )
°-25 10/22
°-27 10/22
°-°* 10/23
Q_,3Q 10^'*
0.55
. 0.46
0.14
0.17
0.11
0.00
900 0.05 6.39 0.44
2100 0.02 0.21 0.23
900 0.02 0.06 0.08
_ 21QQ O.Ql O.IQ Q.ll
0.16 0.19
0.15__0.23
0.01 0.02
0.1 2__ 0.22
0.01 0.03
0.29 0.35
O._03 0.05^
0.16 0.21
0.14 0.16
0.05
0.04
0.08
0.12
0.37
0.23
0.16
0.08
0.25
0.08
0. 14
0.18
0.07
0.00
0.34
0..23
0.07
o.oe
0.15
0.23
0.02
0.02
0.00
1.18
0.21
0.09
0.84
0.98
0.53
0.03
0.04
0.26
0.07
0.07
0.07
_Q.05
0.12
0..13
0.43
0.25
0.23
0.09
0.33
_0.09
0.16
0.20
0.09
0^ 00. .
0.43
0.24_
0.09
0.09
0.18
0.26
0.03
0.03
0.00
1.20*-
0.23
0.11
0.93
1.06 <-
0.61
0.04
0.06
0.30
0.09
0.09
63
-------
Station 2 - Glacier Park
(ug/m )
6/26
6/26
6/27
6/27
6/28
6/28
6/29
6/29
6/30
6/30
7/ 1
7/ I
7/ 2
7/ 2
7/ 3
7/ 3
7/ 4
7/ 4
7/ 5
7/ 5
7/ 6
7/ 6
7/ JZ
7/ 7
7/ 8
11 9
7/ 9
7/10
7/10
-J/ll
7/11
-7/12
7/12
7/.13
7/13
7/14
7/15
7/15
7/16
7/16
__771.7_
7/17
7/18
7/18
7/19
7/19
_J/?o_
7/20
7/21
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900 "
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900'
2100
-------
Station 2 - Glacier Park
8/19
8/20
8/20
8/21
ft/21
8/22
8/22
8/23
8/23
8/24
8/24
8/25
8/25
8/26
8/26
8/27
8/27
8/28
8/28
8/29
8/29
8/30
8/30
8/31
8/31
9/ 1
9/ 1
9/ 2
9/ 2
9/ 3
9/ 3
9/ 4
9/ 4
9/ 5
9/ 5
9/ 6 "
9/ 6
9/ 7
9/ 7
9/ 8
9/ 8
9/ 9
9/ 9
9/10
9/10
.9/11
9/11
9/12
9/12
9/13
9/13
9/1 4_
900
. 2100
900
2100 _
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
" 900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
~" 900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900.
0.14 0.12
.0»03._ _QjJ7
0.19 0.24
.0.05 .0.04
0.23 0.10
0.03 0.12
0.17 0.10
0.04 0.11
0.23
0.06
0.12
0.05
0.14
0.04
0.12
0.03
0.14
0.02
0.07
0.03
0.05
0.02
0.30
0.05
0.13
0.06
0. 19
0.05
0.24
0.05
0.16
0.00
0.09
0.03
0.30
1.02
0.65
0. 1 I
0.00
0.05
0.04
0.04
0.08
0.02
0.16
0.02
0.02
0.00
0.01
0.01
0.00
O.Q5
0.31
~~0. 16
0.04
0. 17
0.09
0.20
0. 12
0.22
0.03
0.15
0.08
0.12
0.04
0.50
0.40
0. 11
0.02
0. 12
0.04
0.44
0.13
0.30
0.00
0.21
0.02
0/30
0.98
0.59
0.16
0.35
0. 12
0.02
0.04
0. 11
0.03
0.13
0.02
cuoz
0.01
0.00
0.02
0.01
0.00
_0.12
(w
0.26
0.30
0.43
0.09
0.33
0.15
0.27
0.15
0.54
0.42
0.28
0.09
0.31
0.13
0.32
0.15
0.36
0.05
0.22
0.11
0.17
0.06
" 0.80"
0.45
0.24
0.08
0.31
0.09
0.68
0.18
0.46
0.00
0.30
0.05
"0.60 '
2.00
1.24
0.27
0.00
0.17
0.06
0.08
0.19
0.05
0.29
0.04
O.A.03 .
0.03
0.03
0.02 __
0.00
0.17
g/m3)
9/14
9/16 _
9/16
9/18
9/18
9/?n
9/20
9/2J
9/21
9/22
9/22
9/21
9/23
9/24
9/24
9/_25
9/25
9/26
9/26
9/27
9/27
9/28
9/28
10/17
10/17
10/18
10/18
10/19
10/19
10/20
10/20
10/21
10/21
2100
_ 900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
0.01
0.14
0.02
0.05
0.03
0.05
0.02
Qn 7
0.03
J3.05
0.04
0.00
0.02
n. i n
2100 0.02
_ 900 0.05
2100 0.02
900 0.05
2100
900
2100
_9QO_
2100
900
2100
900
2100
_ 900_
2100
900
2100
900
2100
0.02
0.05
0.02
_0.07
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.03
0.03
J3.15
0.03
0.06
0.20
0.09
0.09
0.11
0.27
0.05
0.21
o.oe
0.09
0.06
.—0.12
0.06
0.32.
0.10
0- 1 ^>
0.20
0. 32
0.25
0.05
0.19
0.09
0.15
0. 19
_ 0 . 39
0.06
0.25
0.11
0.73
0.35
0.04
0.40
0.60
0.19
0.43
0.12
0.41
0.07
0.26_
0.11
0. 14
0.08
.U « IV
0.09
0.37
0.14
0.00
0.22
0.42
0.27
D.17_
0.07
0.24
0. 11
0.20
0.21
0.46
0.07
0.27
0.12
0. 76
0.38
0.75
0.07
0.46
0.80
0.28
0.52
65
-------
Station 3 - Glacier Park
(Mg/m3)
STT6 —
6/26
6/27
6/27
6/28
6/28
6/29
6/29
_6Z3.0
6/30
7/ 1
7/ 1
_7./._2_
7/ 2
7/ 3
7/ 3
7/ A.
7/ A
7/ 5
7/ 5
' "9TJ7J-
2100
900
~ U.'DS"
0.07
0*08
2100 0.03
900 0.02
2100 0.03
_900 0.05
2100 0.03
900 0.02
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
0.02
0.00
0.05
0.00
0.05
0.00
0.05
0.00
0.05
0.00
0.04
0.16
0.19
0.08_
0.05
0.03
0.05
0.44
0.13
0.05
0.02
0.05
0.05
0.07
0.04
0.00
0.00
_O.P.Q_.
0.00
o.oo
0.00
0.22
0.26
0.16
0.08
0.05__
0.08
0.49
0.16
0.07
0.0*
0.00
0.10
0.00
0.09
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
II 6
7/ 6
7/ 7
U 7
7/ 8
_7/_ 8
7/ 9
_J/_9
7/10
7/10
900 0.00 0.00 0.00
_2100. .,0*0.4 , .0*.00._ 0.00_
900 0.00 0.00 0.00
_2iJOO _U.04 0.00 0.00
900 0.00 0.00 0.00
900 0.00 0.00
2J.OQ_0,.OA_J}.0
-------
Station 4 - Glacier Park
(yg/r )
6/25 —
6/25
6/26
6/26
6/27
6/27
6/28
6/28
6/29
6/29
6/30
6/30
7/ 1
7/ I
7/ 3
7/ 3
7/ 4
7/ 4
7/ 5
7/ 5
7/ 6
7/ 6
7/13
7/13
7/15
.. 7/15
7/16
7/16
7/17
7/18
_ J/18 __
7/19
7/19-
7/20
7/20
7/21
7/21
7/22
7/23
7/23
7/24
_ 7/24
7/25
-7 / O C
I / 1 D
7/26
7/26
7/27
7/27
7/28
__7/28
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
? 100
900
2100
900
... 2100 „
900
_ 2100..
900
2100
900
__2100
900
2100
900
p i on
900
2100
900
2100
900
_ .210.0. .
900
_.__2100
9CO
2100
900
2100
0.08
0.04
0.26
0.12
0.12
0.09
0.12
0.07
0.12
0.05
0. 10
0.09
0.18
0.00
0.00
0.14
0.00
0.20
0.00
0.16
0.00
0.12
0.00
0.09
0.44
0.12
0.14
0. 12
0.24
0.12
0.09
.0.10
0.28
U..J.O
0. 10
0. 16
0.09
0. 12
0. 16
0 07
0.25
0.09
0.11
0.10
0.09
_w_«_U U_
0. 16
0.08 .
0.05
0.04
0.05
.0,04.
0.00
0.24
0.26
0.20
0.19
0.14
0.12
0.14
0.25
0.05
0.08
0.25
0.30
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.05
0.36
0.05
0.03
0.05
0.16
0.07
0.07
0.05
0.37
0.23
0.10
0.07
0. 18
0.69
0.53
0.15
0.48
0. 16
0.15
0.12
0.00
_a^Q3.
0.44
0.16
0.41
0.11
0.12
..0.09
0.00
0.28
0.52
0.32
0.31
0.23
0.24
0.21
0.37
0. 10
0.18
0.34
0.48
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.14
0.80
n. 17
0. 17
0.17
0.40
Q. 19
0.16
0.15
0.65
0.33
0.20
. 0.23 .
0.27
0.81
0.69
0.22
0.73
0.25 ....
0.26
.. 0.22
0.00
QjJJ
0.60
. _0.24._.
0.46
0.15
0. 17
7/29
7/30
7/30
7/31
7/31
8/ 1
8/ 1
8/ 2
8/ 2
a/ 3
8/ 3
8/ 4
8/ 4
8/ 5
B/ 5
8/ 6
8/ 6
8/ 7
8/ 7
8/ 8
8/ 8
8/ 9
8/ 9
8/10
8/10
8/11
8/11
8/12
8/12
8/13
8/13
8/14
8/14
8/15
8/15
... 8./1.6.
8/16
8/17
8/17
8/18
_ 8/19
8/19
8/20
8/20
8/21
8/21
8/22
8/22
6/23
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2 100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
0.03
0.05
0.02
0.10
0.05
0.03
0. 04
0.03
0.04
0.22
0.05
0.03
0.06
0.20
0.04
0.05
0.18
0.07
0.05
0.04
0.18
0.04
0.17
0.05
0.17
0.06
0.24
0.08
0.21
0.03
0.06
0.02
0.00
0.13
0.37
0.16
0.20
2100 0.05
900 0.19.
2100 0.02
900 0.27 .
2100 0.03
900 0.18
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
0.03
0.48 ".
0.06
0.30
0.05
n i 7
0.17
0. 1 1
0.36
0.19
0.02
0.09
0.05
0.22
0.60
0. 11
0.04
_0.04
0. 19
0.07
0.62
0. 18
0.30
0.33
0.09
0.30
0.56
_P^J9
0.46
0. 16
0.41
0. 18
0.21
0. 14
0. 13
0.27
0. 16
0.09
0.00
0. 14
0.37
0. 10
0.27
n 70
0.22
0. 13
0.46
0.24
0.05
0.13
0.08
0.26
0.82
0.16
0.07
0.06
0.25
0.27
0.66
0.23
0.48
0.40
0. 14
...0.34.
0.74
0.23
0.63
0.21
0.58
0.24
0.45
0.22
0.34
0.30
0.22
0.11
0.00
0.27
0.74
0.26
0.47
0.34 0.39
0.11 0.30
0.05 0.07
_0.23 0.50
0.19 0.22
0.30 0.48
,0.23
0.30
0.20
0.26
, 0.39
0.64
0.26
0. 78
0.26
0.56
0.44
1.05 r
67
-------
Station 4 - Glacier Park
8/23 2100
8/2* 900
8/24 2100
8/25 900
8/25
8A26
8/26
8/27
8/27
8/28
8/28
8/29
8/29
8/30
8/30
8/31
8/31
9/ 1
9/ 1
9/ 2
9/ 2
9/ 3
9/ 3
9/ 4
9/ A
9/ 5
9/ 5
9/ 6
9/ 6
9/ 7
9/ 7
9/ 8
9/ 8
9/ 9
9/ 9
9/10
9/10
9/20
9/20
9/21
" 9/21
9/22
9/22
9/23
9/23
9/24
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
"" 2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
~ 2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
z Too
900
2100
900
'"'2100
900
0.05
0.09
0.05
0.10
0.02
0.23
0.02
_O.L2
0.02
0.14
0.02
0.08
0.02
0.25
0.03
0.13
0.05
0.12
0.02
0.23
0.03
0.09
0.00
0.09
0.02
0.18
0.09
0.12
0.03
0.08
0.05
0.08
0.04
0.16
0.02
0.09
0.04
0.12
0. Jl
0.16
0.04
0.02
0.02
0.04
0.01
0.20
0.42
0.08
0.04
0.13
0.12
0.32
0. 11
._ 0.27
0.08
0.29
0.45
0.16
0.04
0.41
0.17
0.12
0.02
0.15
0.06
0.26
0.16
0.00
0.00
0.21
0.02
0.13
"0. 11
0.13
0.03
0.32
0.12
0.11
0.12
0.33
0.03
0.16
0.06
0.26
0.02
0.49
"6.04
0.05
0.03
0.08
0.25
0.46
(yg/m3)
0.47 g ~,
0.17 o/?s
0.09
0.23
0.14
_J2,_51— _
0.13
0.39
0.10
0.43
0.47
0.24
0.06
0.66
0.20
0.25
0.07
0.27
0.08
0.49
0.19
0.00
0.00
0.30
0.04
0.31
0.20
0.25
0.06
0.40
0.17
0.19
O."l6
0.49
"6.05
0.25
0.10
0.38
0.03
0.65
0.08
0.07
0.05
0.12
"0.26
0.66
9/25
9/26
9/26
9/?7
9/27
.9/28
9/28
10/16
10/16
in/17
10/17
10/ 18
10/18
10/19
10/19
10/20
10/20
10/21
10/21
2100 0.02 0.23
. . 900_ 0.20-.0.59
2100 0.03 0.15
900 0.00 0.51
2100 0.02 0.12
900 0.13 0.57
2100 0.02 0.21
__ 900 0.12 _0.38
2100 0.02 0.39
900 0.00 0.00
0.25
.. 0.79
0. 18
0.00
0.14
___0.70.
0.23
__0.50
0.41
0.00
2100 0.02 1.33 1.35
900 0.03 0.1? 0.15
2100 0.02 0.08
900 0.06 J..12
2100 0.05 0.55
900 0.04 0.16
2100 0.02 0.02
900 0.03 0.10
2100 0.09 0.27
900 0.02 0.02
2100 0.04 0.30
0.10
1.18
0.60
0.20
0.04
0.13
0.36
0.04
0.34
68
-------
Station 17 - Glacier Park
-V fl/17
8/18
8/18
8/19
8/19 .
8/20
fl/?0
8/21
_._8/2J
8/22
8/22
8/23
8/P3
8/24
8/25
__6/25
8/26
8/26
8/27
8/27
8/28
8/28
8/29
8/29
8/30
8/30
8/31
8/31
9/ I
9/ 1
9/ 2
9/ 2
9/ 3
9/ 3
9/ 4
~ 9/ 5
9/ 5
9/ 6
9/ 6
9/ 7
9/ 7
9/ 8
9/ 8
9/ 9
9/ 9
9/10
9/10
900 0.00
2100 0,15
900 0.20
2100 O^OB .
900 0.64
2100 D.20-
900 0.78
7100 0.71
900
2100.
3.65X
_ 0^56-
900 1.4r
_210J1__D..36
900 1.53
2100 0.33
900
2100,
1.00
. JD-44 .
900 0.63
..2.100 0,48
900 0.59
2100 0.22
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
_2_1Q.O_
900
2100
900
2100
900
2.1PJD
900
2100
900
2100
900
_2 1.0.0.
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
Ilo5
0.99
0^02
0.97
0.25
0.92
0.41
0.00
_ 0.55.
0.15
0.23 _
0.00
_0.15
0.34
0. 12
0.16
_0.09
0.06
0.04
0.02
Q.03
0.22
0.09
0.05
0.04
0.02
0.08
0.32
0.06
0.00
0.41
(ug/
0.00
0.56
0.45 0.65
.0.06 0.14
0.53 1.17
Q.42_._Q.62
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1.11
1.51
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0.43
0.73
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0.66
0.58
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0.59
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0.69
0.65
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0.55
0.02
1.37
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1.16
1.00
0.15
0.12
0.06
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0.01
0.32
0.06
0.02
0.00
0.59
0.80
0.08
4.76
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2.98
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2.71
0.76
1.73
1.56
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0.97
0.88
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3.46
1.58
0.03
3.21
0.94
1,57
1.53
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1.10
0.17
1.60
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1.31
1.34
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0.28
0.15
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0.06
0.04
0.04
0.54
0.97
0.11
0.06
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0.67
1. 12
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9/11
9/11
9/12
9/12
9/13
9/13
9/14
9/15
9/15
9/16
9/16
9/17
9/17
9/18
9/18
9/20
9/21
9/21
9/22
9/22
9/23
9/23
9/24
9/24
9/25
9/25
9/26
9/26
9/27
9/27
9/28
9/28
10/17
10/17
10/18
10/18
10/19
10/19
10/20
10/20
10/21
10/21
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
0.03
0.02
0.15
0.02
0.72
0.09
0.56
0. 12
0.50
0. 12
0.30
0.10
0.40
0. 16
0.09
2100 0.07
900 0.06
2100 0.05
900 0.03
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
2100
900
0.02
0.03
0.02
0.05
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.03
0.05
0.29
0.15
0.93
0. 16
0.00
0.26
0.00
0.23
0.47
0.26
0.05
0. 11
0.44
0.04
0,04
0.02
0.02
0.00
0.02
2.04
0.48
2.07
0.85
2.15
0.41
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0.06
0.03
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0.30
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.08
0.48
0. 17
0.48
0.12
0.55
1.96
0.58
2.09
0.92
0.00
1.39
0.00
1. 38
1.67
0. 30
0.04
0.44
2.70
0.02
0.20
0.05
0.04
0.00
0.04
2.76
0.57
2.63
0.97
2.65
0.53
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0.00
0.15
0. 10
0.08
0. 35
0.04
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0.13
0.50
0. 19
0.50
0. 15
0.60
2.25
0.73
3.02
1.08
0.00
1.65
0.00
1.61
2. 14
0.56
0.09
0.55
3.14
0.06
0.24
69
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