United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Region 8
Water Quality
Branch
EPA908-B-95-900
January 1993
ve'EPA RESTORING AND CREATING
WETLANDS: A HANDBOOK FOR
THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN WEST
COLORADO
MONTANA
NORTH DAKOTA
SOUTH DAKOTA
UTAH
WYOMING
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The contents of this document do not necessarily reflect the
views and policies of the Environmental Protection Agency/ nor
does mention of trade names or commercial products constitute
endorsement or recommendation for use.
-------
EPA/xxx/xxxyxxx
January 1993
Restoring and Creating Wetlands:
A Handbook for the Rocky Mountain West
by
David J. Cooper
Department of Fishery and Wildlife Biology
Colorado State University
Fort Collins, Colorado 80523
Illustrations: Peggy Anderson-Goguen
Editing, production: Sally White
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Contents
Introduction 1
Rocky Mountain Wetland Types 2
Wetland Functions 3
Definitions 3
Impacts to Wetlands 4
Planning the Project 5
Developing Project Goals 5
Choosing the Wetland Type 6
Selecting the Site 7
Collecting the Data 9
Hydrology 9
Surface water 9
Ground water 10
Soil 13
Topographic Surveying 14
Protecting Existing Wetlands 14
Developing a Planting Plan 15
Fresh water marshes 15
Saline marshes 17
Wet meadows 18
Peatlands 19
Riparian woodlands 20
Outside Consulting Expertise 21
Preparing a Budget 21
Considering the Results 22
Factors that could limit project success 22
Planning to evaluate success 22
Implementing the Project 23
Working with Contractors 23
Making Changes during Construction 23
Restoring the Hydrologic Regime 24
Restoring ditched or drained wetlands 24
Restoring filled wetlands 24
Restoring streambanks and riparian wetlands 25
Restoring incised stream channels 26
Restoring streambanks 28
Creating a Wetland Hydrologic Regime 30
Ground water 30
Surface water 32
Restoring Wetland Soils 34
Establishing the Vegetation 34
Field collection of wetland plant seeds 34
Nursery grown seedlings 34
Whole plant collection 35
Stem cuttings 35
Pole plantings 37'
Natural plant invasion 37
Soil seed bank 38
Monitoring to evaluate project success 38
Appendices 41
Nurseries for wetland plants 41
Additional Reading 42
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Introduction
In the scmiarid basins and mountains of
the West, water limits the productivity of
most landscapes. Yet along floodplains, in
marshes, and in other wet areas, productivity
is very high. These wet ecosystems provide
important habitat for many plants and
animate, clean the water that flows through.
can provide flood control value, and also
create an abundance of forage for livestock
and exceptional recreational opportunities.
These areas are wetlands.
In many years, wetlands have saturated or
flooded soils for a long period of time during
the growing season. The saturated soils are
called hydnc because they develop anaerobic
conditions (with no oxygen available to plants
and animal* in the soil) during this period of
saturation. Plants called hydrophytes (water
plants) dominate wetlands. Common
hydrophytes include willows, alders, cotton-
woods, cattails, bulrushes, and many sedges
and rushes. The combination of abundant
water, hydric soils, and hydrophytes occurs
only in wetlands. Many different types of wet-
lands occur in the Rocky Mountain West, in-
cluding marshes, wet meadows, peatlands,
and riparian shrublands and forests. Each
type has unique hydrologjcal patterns and
processes, plant species, and soils.
Human activities have often resulted in
the draining, dewatcring, and filling of Rocky
Mountain wetlands. Although these activities
have made urban and agricultural develop-
ment possible, they have also greatly reduced
the acreage of natural wetlands and
eliminated the beneficial functions wetlands
performed Wetland restoration and creation
is a way to restore these ecosystems that
naturally function to provide clean water,
healthy fish and wildlife populations, and im-
portant recreational opportunities.
Today, many dredge-and-fill activities in
wetlands require a Section 404 permit under
the federal Clean Water Act. Appropriate
mitigation for unavoidable wetland losses is
often a permit requirement. Mitigation usual-
ly involves the restoration of degraded wet-
lands or the creation of new wetlands as
compensation. Many organizations and in-
dividuals are also interested in wetland res-
toration and creation—for waterfowl,
shorebird or fish habitat, for environmental
restoration, or for treatment of urban or
agricultural runoff.
This handbook provides ideas and
methods that will be useful in the design of
wetland restoration and creation projects.
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Introduction
Rocky Mountain Wetland Types
Several different
types of Rocky Moun-
tain ecosystems are
lumped together under
the general term wet-
lands, including mar-
shes, wet meadows,
peatlands, and riparian
shrublands and forests.
Each wetland type has
unique ecological
characteristics. The
methods for restoring
and creating one wet-
land type may not be ap-
propriate for another.
For background, the
four most common
Rocky Mountain wet-
land types are
described below. These
names are used
throughout this hand-
book.
Marshes are wetlands dominated by her-
baceous plants, such as cattails and bul-
rushes. They have standing water for at least
several weeks in most summers, and they
occur at lower elevations in the mountains
and on the plains and intennountain basins.
Water and soil can be fresh or saline. Thus,
salt and fresh water marshes occur.
Wet meadows have water tables near the
soil surface but rarely have standing water
more than 8 inches deep. They are
dominated by herbaceous plants such as
rushes and can occur at any elevation. Water
and soil can be fresh or saline.
Peatlands occur where a constant flow of
ground water reaches the surface, keeping
soils saturated for most of the summer.
Saturation maintains anaerobic conditions
that retard the decomposition of roots and
leaves, which accumulate to form peat. Peat-
lands are typically dominated by sedges, such
as water sedge, and/or willows, such as
planeleaf or wolf willow. The water supply
can have low or high salt content, and it may
be acidic, neutral, or basic.
Riparian wetlands occur on the banks
and floodplains of streams. Flooding, sedi-
ment erosion, and deposition occur frequent-
ly. The soils are mineral sediments. Riparian
wetlands are typically dominated by trees
such as plains or narrowleaf cottonwoods,
willows such as geyer or mountain willow,
alders, and a wide variety of herbaceous
plants such as Canada reedgrass. Although
riparian refers to the banks of streams, in the
western U.S. this term is used broadly by
some land management agencies to mean any
wetland. In this handbook, the stricter defini-
tion is used.
These wetland types clearly have different
hydrologic regimes, soils, and vegetation. Dif-
ferent methods must therefore be used for
restoring and creating each wetland type. If
project goals include creating a marsh for
waterfowl habitat, then the hydrologic regime
required by marsh plant species must be
created, rather than a hydrologic regime
suitable for wet meadow species.
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Wetland Functions
Introduction
Wetlands perform many different ecologi-
cal functions, but it should be understood
that no wetland provides all functions. Wet-
lands are well known as habitat for many
species of wildlife, particularly migratory
waterfowl and shorebirds, fishes, many mam-
mals, amphibians, and songbirds. Many wet-
lands purify water by removing sediment and
converting or using phosphorus and nitrogen
compounds. In addition, wetlands may retain
heavy metals and other pollutants. Storm-
water runoff may be detained in certain wet-
lands, thereby providing flood control. Some
wetlands serve as ground water discharge or
recharge areas. These functions are all
provided at no cost to the public.
The four wetland types described above
each perform different functions. Marshes
are the most important waterfowl habitat in
the region, particularly where the water is
shallow and the vegetation and invertebrate
fauna are diverse. Shorebirds, fishing birds,
many mammal^ and most amphibians
depend on marshes almost exclusively.
Marshes also perform important water
quality functions by assimilating large
amounts of nutrients, sediment, and pol-
lutants. In certain areas, marshes can retain
stormwater and provide important education
and recreation opportunities.
Wet meadows are important filters of
water, removing sediments and pollutants.
They provide very important forage for
domestic livestock and wildlife. Many wet
meadows retain large amounts of snowmelt
water that is discharged to streams and other
water bodies later in the summer.
Peatlands occur where abundant ground
water is discharged. This water is filtered by
the peat soils, and many heavy metals and
pollutants are re-moved. The herbaceous
plants in peatlands provide important forage
for wild ungulates. Peatlands often contain
rare plant species. These ecosystems are
among the most beautiful in the Rocky Moun-
tains.
Riparian wetlands provide important
bank habitat for trout. Dead autumn leaves
falling into streams can get lodged under
rocks and provide food for the stream inver-
tebrates upon which trout depend. Woody
riparian vegetation is critical habitat for
many songbirds. Riparian vegetation also
anchors streambanks and prevents erosion.
Some floodplains can retain water and
reduce the risk of damaging floods
downstream. This water is slowly discharged
back to the stream, helping maintain base
flows later in the slimmer.
When designing a wetland restoration or
creation project, it is important to consider
the functions that will be restored or created
These functions should become a design
focus for the project.
Definitions
The terms mitigation, restoration, crea-
tion, and enhancement are defined here as
they are used in this text. These definitions
are from Lewis (1989, in Kusler and Kentula
1989).
Mitigation: the actual restoration, crea-
tion, or enhancement of wetlands to compen-
sate for permitted wetland losses. Mitigation
must involve the lessening of unavoidable im-
pacts created by a project.
Restoration: the processes of returning a
site from a disturbed or totally altered condi-
tion to a previously existing natural or altered
condition. This process requires some kno»
ledge of the type of wetland that occurred
prior to modification.
Creation: the process of converting a ooo
wetland area to a wetland.
Enhancement: the increase in one or
more values of all or a portion of an exutiaf
wetland by man's activities. Enhance me ni «
not specifically discussed in this handbook.
but many ideas for wetland enhancemeoi
could be derived from the material
presented.
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Introduction
Impacts to Wetlands
Many wetlands in the Rocky Mountain
West have been impacted by man's activities.
Hydrologic changes resulting from the con-
struction of dams and diversion weirs are
most common. These activities reduce spring
and summer stream flows, diminish flooding,
narrow stream channels, eliminate stream
dynamics, and remove sediment from stream
water. Some important plant species, such as
cottonwood trees, reproduce primarily on
the fresh bare sediment produced by flood
waters. The reduction of flooding and spring
flows has limited the natural reproduction of
cottonwoods along many streams.
Wetlands have been drained for agricul-
tural and urban uses. In some areas woody
plants, such as willows, have been removed
from stream valleys to increase hay and graz-
ing lands. Willows provide important wildlife
habitat; in addition, their roots anchor and
stabilize streambanks and provide important
fish habitat. Streambank willow and alder
leaves that drop into the water become the
food that invertebrates consume. Thus, the
aquatic food chain, including trout, depends
upon streamside vegetation.
Removal of willows, channelization, and
removal of sediment upstream can lead to
channel erosion and downcutting. This chan-
nel degradation lowers local water tables,
and can destroy streamside vegetation. The
result is loss of fish and wildlife habitat and
other wetland functions.
Urbanization has resulted in the leveling
of large areas, and wetlands have been
directly filled Urban development also re-
quires large amounts of gravel, much of
which is mined from floodplains. The great
extent of paved streets, parking lots, and
roofs promotes rapid runoff of rain and snow-
melt, making urban streams "flashy."
Stormwater collection systems channel this
runoff to urban streams, which can be badly
degraded. Some urban streams have been
"engineered" or otherwise channelized to
carry this water and to reduce flood hazards.
The natural functions and values of these sys-
tems are lost in the process.
Many of these impacted wetlands can be
restored or new wetlands created to provide
the functions and values that were lost.
Pravloua
land aurfac*
. . ,., — Water
water tabU tabl*
lowarac
INCISED CHANNEL
Channel incision can cause water tables
on floodplains to drop, resulting in the
degradation of riparian wetlands.
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Planning the Project
Planning the Project
Developing Project Goals
Restoring and creating wetlands requires
making dry land wet via seasonal inundation
or a high water table. Project goal should
detail the type of wetland ecosystem and
ecological functions to be developed. The ex-
isting and potential hydrologic regime of a
project site must be carefully studied, and
possible interactions between the land and
water carefully planned. Also, to realize
many of the wetlands functional benefits, ap-
propriate plant species must be established.
If the project is compensatory mitigation
for wetland impacts, will the project be per-
formed oh-sitc or off-site from where the wet-
land impacts are occurring? Is it necessary
for the project to provide in-kind (the same
type of wetland) mitigation, or is out-of-land
(a different type of wetland) mitigation ac-
ceptable? The type of wetland ecosystem that
can be created on any site is often limited by
the existing and potential site hydrologic
regime, climate, and other factors. It may be
most desirable to determine the mitigation
goals, then find a suitable project site.
Another important consideration is the size
of the wetland that is planned.
PROJECT GOALS
• Wetland Functions
Evaluation Criteria
A detailed description of project goals al-
lows a careful plan to be designed, imple-
mented, and later evaluated. When
developing goals, consider the following:
1. Are the project goals compatible with
the environment of the project site?
Planning to create a cattail marsh in a
high mountain environment would be
unsuccessful because cattails are not
sufficiently cold tolerant
2. What will be the project water source?
Determine whether the wetland will
interact with surface water, ground
water, or a combination of the two,
and whether sufficient water is avail-
able for the project. Resolving the
legal issue of water rights for ail con-
sumptive uses is also critical.
3. What is the quality of the water source1
Water with excessive or insufficient
salt, heavy metals, nutrients, and other
substances can doom the project, yet
water quality is usually unknown
without chemical analysis.
4. What types of land-water interactions
can be designed? Will the site have
spring flooding or a high ground water
table? Will it be filled by rainstorm
runoff? Design the hydrologic func-
tions that are desireable and ap-
propriate for the site.
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Planning the Project
5. Does the site have suitable soils for the
proposed plan? Impermeable soils
can Umit ground water connection;
highly permeable soils can prevent
water applied to the surface from
saturating the soil.
6. How will the desired plant species be
established? Establishing the desired
plants on a site is an excellent in-
dicator of project success, but many
plant species are difficult to establish,
and weeds often come to dominate
disturbed soils on project sites.
7. Wetland restoration and creation is
often done to replace lost wetland
functions. Therefore, the project must
be designed to perform these func-
tions. One function may degrade
another wetland function. For ex-
ample, flood control results in sedi-
ment retention. Sediment accretion
can reduce wetland longevity and
cause vegetation changes as well.
Thus, the effect of one wetland func-
tion on others must be considered in
the planning phase.
8. Determine the evaluation criteria for
project success or failure in the plan-
ning stages. Include aspects of the
proposed hydrologic regime, vegeta-
tion, ecological functions, soils, and
other characteristics to be developed
at the site. Carefully planned projects
should be successful. However, unex-
pected events and issues that can jeop-
ardize project success always arise
during and after construction. For ex-
ample, an unusually dry or wet year
can cause plantings to fail. A culvert
inadvertently placed at the wrong
elevation between two portions of a
wetland can cause one area to be too
dry or to have water that is too deep.
Planning the evaluation methods in ad-
vance makes it easier to discover
problems and develop solutions
during and after construction.
Choosing the Wetiand Type
Choosing the correct wetland type for a
site is essential. First consider the regional
climate and the types of wetlands that
naturally occur in the project area. Choose
several existing natural and created wetlands
as reference wetlands to use for comparison
while developing project goals. Study the
hydrologic regime, water chemistry, and
vegetation of the reference wetlands, to
clarify the regional potential. Data from
reference wetlands are invaluable for plan-
ning the proposed project.
Next determine the potential for estab-
lishing the desired plant communities and
wetland functions at the proposed wetland.
Some of the easiest wetland types to create,
such as cattail marshes, are not desirable or
possible in most situations. Again, use the
reference wetlands in the project area to
develop ideas about the wetland community
types that are possible and the plant species
that are present in them.
Consider allowing the wetland functions
to drive the planning process. Each wetland
type provides different ecological functions.
For example, if wildlife habitat is to be the
primary wetland function, first determine the
wildlife species of interest. Developing a wet-
land community dominated by woody plants,
such as willows, is desirable for attracting
warblers and vireos, but a bulrush-dominated
marsh community is more appropriate for
rails, marsh wrens, and white-faced ibis. The
hydrologic requirements of these wetland
community types are very different and must
be planned.
Remember that the time required for es-
tablishing a functioning ecosystem is dif-
ferent for each wetland type. A bulrush
marsh at a low elevation site can be
developed in one or two growing seasons if
the hydrologic regime is properly established
and if the planting is successful the first year.
By contrast, establishing a cottonwood forest
or a sedge-dominated peatland may take
decades, even if the hydrologic regime and
plantings are successful. The most rapidly es-
tablished wetland types (marshes) should not
be chosen merely because short-term success
can be shown. Restoring or creating a more
difficult wetland type may be much more
valuable in the long term. The evaluation of
project success must recognize the time
scales required for the wetland type being
created.
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Selecting the Site
Planning the Project
Each potential
project site should
first be screened for
"red flags," including
hazardous waste
buried in soils, cox
plex or inappropriate
land ownership, ease-
ments or covenants,
accessibility for equip-
ment, presence of
federal- or state-desig-
nated rare and endangered species, and
other site- or region-specific issues.
The availability of water for creating the
appropriate interaction between the
hydrologic regime and the land is paramount
in site selection and must be considered next.
A water table dose to the soil surface,
proximity to a surface water body, or access
to other surface water is key. The project
must, with a reasonable degree of effort,
make the dry projeq site wet.
The land itself should be carefully con-
sidered. It should not currently be important
habitat, and it is desirable if the land is al-
ready disturbed. Examples of sites that have
good potential for wetland restoration and
creation projects are ditched or drained wet-
lands, degraded streambanks, incised and/or
channelized stream valleys, gravel and placer
mines on Qoodplains, barren reservoir and
lake margins, and areas with a water table
close to the soil surface (within 3 to 4 feet).
Although these lands are disturbed or
degraded, all are close to surface and ground
water.
RED FLAGS I
Q Hazardous Waat*
D InaccMcibl*
D Land Covenants
D Rare Species
STTE REQUIREMENTS
rfwater Availability
KDiaturbed Land
y Non-important Habitat
SITE SELECTION
It may also be possible to enlarge an exist-
ing wetland. If this is attempted, make sure
that the existing wetland is protected from
construction activities.
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service National
Wetland Inventory maps can be used to iden-
tify sites with channelized streams and wet-
lands fragmented by filling and draining.
These sites could provide excellent project
opportunities.
Before "Bating designs other than
preliminary concept plans, data on the physi-
cal and chemical characteristics of the site
should be collected and analyzed. Several
sites should be selected for study because
many sites are not suitable for the size or
type of wetland that the project may require
or have the budget to support. For example,
many streams in the West are losing streams,
meaning that the stream water is being lost to
the ground water system. In these valleys, the
ground water is deeper below the soil surface
with increasing distance from the stream. Ex-
cessive depth to water table will make many
types of wetland projects impossible. Some
streams are gaining streams, which receive
ground water and have different oppor-
tunities. By investigating a number of sites,
chances that one will suit the project purpose
are increased.
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Planning the Project
Ground water
monitoring
walli, typ.
Excavation
NO STREAM CONNECTION
GAINING STREAM
LOSING STREAM
Creating a wetland adjacent to an existing swale or channel is possible
only under certain ground water conditions. The top figure shows a
seasonally dry swale with a deep water table. The middle figure is a gaining
stream with a permanently high water table. The bottom figure shows a
losing stream with a seasonally high water table. The proposed excavatwa
shown will create a successful wetland only along the gaining stream.
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Planning the Project
Collecting the Data
HYDROLOGY
rf Water Surface Elevation
D Seasonal Water Level*
G Rood Frequency
D Ground Water Configuration
G Lone-term Hydrotogte Pattern*
SOILS
B Soil Texture
B Salinity
Nutrient*
VEGETATION
i^ Potential Specie*
for each Wetland Type
8 Appropriate Water Level
Propagation Method* tor
Choeen Spade*
PROJECT PLANNING DATA
Field data on the hydrologic regime, soils,
and water chemistry of the proposed site and
a knowledge of the life history characteristics
of the desired plants are essential for design-
ing a successful project. Before any work
begins, establish at least one permanent
benchmark to use for comparing elevations
and cross-checking all aspects of the project.
Hydrology
A thorough study of the existing surface
and ground water hydrologic regime at the
proposed site is the best way to develop a
realistic understanding of the potential for
restoring or creating a wetland there. The
data and analyses will be valuable in goal set-
ting and absolutely critical to the final design,
grading plan, and project cost estimate.
Surface water
If lakes or streams occur near the project
site, water elevation, flow rate, and seasonal
fluctuations are important to quantify. Water
levels and flow volumes in some streams and
lakes in the western U.S. are monitored by
the U.S. Geological
Survey, state govern-
ments, and other agen-
cies, and data are
available to the public.
Where data are ab-
sent, collecting
original data will be i V
necessary. v
Important surface water characteristics to
understand are:
Water surface elevations In relation to
the site. This can be determined by installing
and monitoring staff gauges. These are essen-
tially sturdy rulers anchored in a non-tur-
bulent portion of the stream. The staff gauge
should be surveyed for elevation, and water
levels converted to water elevations. A
hydrograph of water elevation by date for the
period of record can be developed and used
in the planning process. The data are used to
determine the final site elevation for grading
plans. For Cample, on a floodplain, grading
the site to a certain elevation may allow it to
flood, while grading it higher may prevent it
from flooding.
State water laws. When planning a
project that would result in the consumptive
use of surface or ground water, state water
laws must be considered. State law grants
water rights to users, and in most areas all
water is adjudicated to prior uses. It is unlaw-
ful to use water that belongs to someone else.
DATA COLLECTION
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_ 5720 -
03
1>
LU
5719 -
Planning the Project
Seasonal water
level differences. 5721
Knowing the dif-
ference in water eleva-
tion between the
seasonal high and
seasonal low is essen-
tial to the final grading
plan. Use the
hydrograph to deter-
mine die amount of
seasonal change.
Some sites have water
tables that may fluc-
tuate as little as one
foot; others may fluc-
tuate 5 to 10 feet.
The frequency of
flooding and the 5718
potential for damag-
ing effects on the site.
The magnitude of 2-
year, 5-year, 10-year,
and less frequent floods can be determined
using stream gauge records.
Ground water
In most areas, ground water flows
downgradient to, from, or parallel with a
stream. But in some areas, it may not be con-
nected to any identifiable surface waters.
Ground water should be investigated using a
grid of monitoring wells, as shown here.
Wells should be oriented across the site
in lines perpendicular to the flow of water.
Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct
More than one line of wells may be neces-
sary, depending upon the size and complexity
of the site. Wells can be machine- or hand-
augered. They can be shallow but must inter-
sea the water table at all seasons, including
the dry season.
Monitoring walls
Project araa
^
Staff gauga
GROUND WATER MOMTOHWC
Staff gauge
10
-------
Planning th« Project
Cap
UnslotUd PVC
Ill/dull) 8 IjI jll(/ it It,.fli.K \i
rn\i .ill,,I Jl mill wit I/ i.l, ,.
MOMITOfUNO WELL CONSTRUCTION
Wells are constructed of PVC pipe, with
machine- or hand-slotted pipe below the
water level and unslotted pipe above the
water level. The pipe must be capped on
both ends and firmly anchored in the ground
by backfilling with sand or loosely packed na-
tive soil. The slotted PVC pipe must not fill
with sediment.
The depth to water table can be read with
a measuring tape if within 2 or 3 feet of the
ground surface, but if deeper a simple well
reader constructed with an ohmmeter can be
used. The well data should be converted to
depth to water table from the ground sur-
face. If possible, the top of the well casing
should be surveyed to determine its exact
elevation and location. Then water table
depths can be converted to true elevation
and compared from well to well.
11
-------
Planning the Project
The following aspects of ground water
should be investigated.
The depth to
ground water and its
elevation should be in-
vestigated with ground
water monitoring
wells. The ground
water data should be
plotted as hydro-
graphs, with both
depth to water table
and elevation plotted
by date. It may not be
feasible to rely on
ground water as the
primary project water
source if the water
table is more than 4
feet below the soil sur-
face or if there is great
seasonal fluctuation.
o»
1
"3
£fr,
Q -4
Ground Water Hydrographs
-5 -
Ground Surface
WATER LEVELS
— srtei
a-a site 2
5723
5722
5721
5720
.
-O
00
03
I
"5
,o
03
5719
Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct
The seasonal fluctuation of the water
table can be as little as a few inches or as
much as several feet. Quantifying the amount
of fluctuation is important because it helps
determine the final land surface elevation.
For example, site 1 in the above hydrograph
has more than 2 feet of seasonal fluctuation;
site 2 has less than 1 foot.
Ground Water Hydrograph
for wet. dry. and average years
o>
§•
Q
-6 -
Ground Surface
1986 (wet year)
\
\
Estimating where the water table will be
in other years. Although the project grading
creates new ground surface elevations, the
water table fluctuates from year to year. Be-
cause of this, it is important to be able to
predict water table elevations for average,
wet, and dry years. All hydrologic data must
be considered in relation to the multi-year pe-
riodicity of dry and wet climatic cycles. A few
months data on stream, lake,
or ground water levels
should be related to longer-
term data from nearby
streams or lakes by creating
graphs showing water levels
from one station for many
different years, as shown on
the hydrograph to the left.
Precipitation records for the
watershed can also help
determine if data were col-
lected during a wet or dry
year.
Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct
12
-------
Planning the Project
The ground water slope and shape across
the site should be evaluated by creating water
table profiles across the valley. Profiles for
several dates can be created to show how the
water table shape changes seasonally.
Valley Profile
QJ o
CD 3
"eg 2
1
Water Levels. Soring. Summer
fail
50 100
Distance (ft)
150
Soil
Soil is uncon&olidated material that serves
as the rooting medium for plants. Although
most sites La the western U.S. have soils, the
substrate at other sites, such as cobbly placer
mine spoil piles and salt pans, does not sup-
port plant growth and is considered non-soil.
Several soil characteristics are important
in wetland restoration and creation planning.
Some applicable data can be derived from
published U.S. Soil Conservation Service sur-
veys, but site-specific study is usually neces-
sary.
Soil texture. By passing a soil sample
through a series of sieves with different sized
holes, the soil texture, or proportion by weight
of each particle size class (clay, silt, sand),
can be determined Soil texture, along with
measures of soil permeability, is important in-
formation for many projects. Coarse-textured
soils are more permeable to water, and fine-
textured soils are less permeable. Surface
water diverted into a basin with fine-textured
sous may remain perched on the surface be-
cause permeability is slow. This cannot be ei
pected in coarse-textured soils. However,
coarse-textured soils located on a floodplaia
may have a direct connection with the stream
and its water through the ground water.
Soil salinity. Many soils in the western
U.S. have high salt content. If water with ta
electrical conductance greater than 800
umhos/cm is created due to soil salts, saluur>
may become a key site character. Soil saluuit
can be determined in an analytical laboratory
or estimated by creating a saturated soil and
distilled water paste, extracting the water
with a vacuum pump, then measuring its
electrical conductance. Soil extracts with cr»
ductiviry greater than 4,000 umhos/cm" caa
be harmful to plants.
Soil salts can be leached if water passes
through the site. However, if water evapo-
rates from the site, the salt is retained and
salinity increased.
-------
Planning the Project
Soil nutrients and organic matter. Soil
nutrients, particularly nitrogen and phos-
phorus compounds, provide essential
nutrients for plant growth. Total phosphorus
in concentrations greater than approximately
10 ug/1 can lead to the creation of eutrophic
water bodies, with abundant algal growth,
which may be undesirable. Phosphorus can
be released from soil to the water column in
the anaerobic environments created by soil
saturation.
Soil permeability. Soil cores should be
collected and tested in a laboratory for per-
meability rate. A crude method of determin-
ing soil permeability is to pound a steel pipe
into the soil leaving the pipe extending a few
inches above ground. Put a given volume of
water into the pipe and determine the time it
takes to percolate into the soil. This can be
converted into a permeability rate of inches
of water per square inch of land surface per
day. Because permeability can vary over a
site, the soil should be evaluated in at least
three representative places. .
Topographic Surveying
The site must be surveyed prior to final
planning because all work must be based on
true or relative elevations. Accurate eleva-
tions also allow accurate cost estimates.
Elevation data is needed to interpret hydro-
logic data and to create a final grading plan.
It is recommended that one-foot contour
intervals be mapped at a scale of 1 inch = 50
feet. Mapping to 6-inch contour intervals may
be required where the final grading in rela-
tion to water level is critical.
If project budgets make it impossible to
survey the entire site to produce detailed
maps, at a minimum, survey the stream staff
gauges, ground water monitoring wells, and
areas where restoration work may be planned.
Protecting Existing Wetlands
No actions should disrupt the surface or
ground water flow characteristics of sites with
existing wetlands. Construction should occur
at a season when wildlife use is low. Siltation
of existing waterways must not occur, and no
fill material should be stored on site. Any ex-
isting wetlands in the construction area
should be fenced off, and fines leveed for
vehicles that enter the protected area.
14
-------
Developing a Planting Plan
Planning the Protect
The planting plan should be based on the
wetland type to be created, the water table to
be developed, and the types of vegetation
desired. The planting plan must recognize
that each plant species can live and repro-
duce only in a limited range of environmental
conditions. When planning which plant
species to use, the physical environment,
especially air temperatures, proposed water
depth and duration, and salinity of the water
source should be considered. Using this
knowledge a list of potential plant species for
the site can be developed. Different species
are selected for marsh, wet meadow, peat-
land, and riparian wetlands. Within each wet-
land, the species must fit the water table
gradients to be created.
Diagrammatic wetland cross-sections on
these pages illustrate species preferences for
hydrologic conditions. A site planting plan
should include similar diagrams to illustrate
where along the hydrologic gradient each
species should be planted.
After earthwork is completed, the water
table elevations and flooding patterns rarely
are exactly as planned. Water levels should
be monitored immediately, and for several
weeks if necessary, to determine the actual
water levels created. This information must
be used to modify the planting plan. Planting
before monitoring the hydrologic regime as
established can result in plants drowning or
desiccating. Remember that plantings are sus-
ceptible to the stress of high or low water.
Drowning can occur in a matter of days, espe-
cially for seedlings or stem cuttings. On pond
edges wave erosion can destroy planting beds.
Numerous plant species could be used in
restoration or creation projects. A few com-
mon Rocky Mountain wetland species are
listed below along with the types of informa-
tion required for planning. Additional infor-
mation should be sought from local wetland
experts, nurseries (see Appendix), and the
scientific literature.
Fresh water marshes
Conductance <800 umhos/cm';
water up to 2_5 feet deep.
Scirpus lacustris; softstem bulrush
Habitat: Marshes on the plains and basins
up to 9,000 feet elevation.
Hydrologic Regime: Prefers water from 6
to 24 inches deep, but will grow in
drier areas and in sites with water peri-
odically to 3-5 feet deep.
Water Chemistry: Usually in fresh water,
but can grow in areas that are peri-
odically brackish.
Propagation: Easily propagated from vi-
able seeds. Seeds can be stored wet or
dry, but dry seeds may take months to
germinate in a wet environment.
Typha latifolia; broadleaf cattail
Habitat: Marshes on the plains and basins
up to 9,000 feet elevation.
Hydrologic Regime: Prefers water from 6
to 16 inches deep, but will grow in
drier areas and in sites with water peri-
odically to 2L5 feet deep.
Water Chemistry. Usually in fresh water,
but can grow in areas that are peri-
odically brackish (electrical conduc- ^
tance of water up to 1,000 umhos/cm')
Propagation: Easily propagated from
tubers collected in the field. Also vi-
able seeds are produced and ger-
minate readily on damp soil or even
under water. Seeds can be stored wet
or dry.
-------
Planning the Project
I—Arctic Ru«h
FRESHWATER MARSH
i—Arrowhead
r- Broad-leaf CattaJ
, Soft-stem
Bulrush
, Sago
Pond weed
r- Elodea
Mare's Tai
l— Duckweed
Sagittaria spp.; arrowhead
Habitat: Marshes on the plains and basins
up to 8,000 feet elevation.
Hydrologic Regime: Prefers water from 6
to 12 inches deep, but will grow in
drier areas once established.
Water Chemistry: Usually in fresh water,
but can grow in areas that are peri-
odically brackish.
Propagation: Easily propagated from
rhizomes. Viable seeds are produced.
Seeds can be stored wet or dry, but dry
seeds may take months to germinate.
Sparganium eurycarpum;
giant burreed
Habitat: Marshes on the plains and basins
up to 6,500 feet elevation.—
Hydrologic Regime: Prefers water from 6
to 18 inches deep, but will grow in
drier or wetter areas once established.
Water Chemistry: Fresh water.
Propagation: Easily propagated from
rhizomes. Viable seeds are produced.
Seeds can be stored wet or dry, but dry
seeds may take months to germinate.
Potamogeton pectinatus;
sago pondweed
Habitat: This is a true aquatic plant that is
common in ponds and wetlands
throughout the lower elevations.
Hydrologic Regime: Requires standing
water, and will grow in water to more
than 6 feet deep.
Water Chemistry: Fresh to slightly brack-
ish.
Propagation: Produces abundant tubers
and seeds, which are easily collected
in low water.
16
-------
Planning the Project
-Sart Grass
Foxtail
'Barley
.Arctic
Rui
r-Tnr»«-*qu«ft
•AJkali Bulrush
rAKBii suirusn
r-Hardstem Sago
I Bulrush Fpond
Pondweed
Widgeon
Grass
Horned
Pondweed
Saline marshes
Saline water (conductance > 800
umhos/cm ); up to 2-5 feet deep
Scirpus acutus; hardstem bulrush
Habitat: Marshes on the plains and basins
up to 9,000 feet elevation.
Hydrologic Regime: Prefers water from 6
to 18 inches deep, but will grow in
drier or wetter areas once established.
Water Chemistry. Fresh or brackish.
Propagation: Easily propagated from
rhizomes. Viable seeds are produced.
Seeds can be stored wet or dry. Dry
seeds may take months to germinate.
Scirpus americanus; three-square
Habitat: Marshes on the plains and basins
up to 9,000 feet elevation.
Hydrologic Regime: Prefers water from 6
to 18 inches deep, but will grow in
drier or wetter areas once established.
Water Chemistry: Fresh or brackish.
Propagation: Easily propagated from
rhizomes. Viable seeds are produced.
Seeds can be stored wet or dry. Dry
seeds may take months to germinate.
Scirpus maritimus; alkali bulrush
Habitat* Marshes on the plains and basins
up to 6,500 feet elevation.
Hydrologic Regime: Prefers water from 6
to 18 inches deep, but will grow in
drier or wetter areas once established.
Water Chemistry: Brackish or saline.
Propagation: Easily propagated from
rhizomes. Large viable seeds are
produced. Seeds can be stored wet or
dry. Dry seeds may take months to ger-
minate.
17
-------
Planning the Project
Wet meadows
Carex lanuginosa; hairy sedge
Habitat: Meadows with a water table at
the soil surface or occasionally with
shallow standing water. Found up to
8,500 feet elevation.
Hydrologic regime: Prefers wet sites with
periodic shallow standing water or a
water table at the soil surface.
Water Chemistry: Fresh water only.
Propagation: Propagated from rhizomes,
but probably genninable seeds are
also produced.
Juncus arcticus; arctic rush
Habitat: Abundant in wet meadows
throughout the west up to 10,500 feet
elevation.
Hydrologic regime: Water table near the
surface is ideal. Some standing water
is tolerated, but this species will drown
in water over 8 inches deep.
Water chemistry: Fresh or slightly brack-
ish.
Propagation: Easily propagated from
rootstocks. Seeds tiny and germination
not well known.
Deschampsia cespitosa; hairgrass
Habitat: Mainly mid- to high-elevation
wet meadows.
Hydrologic regime: Perfers wet sites
without standing water, but will grow
in a variety of water regimes.
Water chemistry: Fresh water.
Propagation: Easily propagated from
seeds.
Carex nebraskensis;
nebraska sedge
Habitat: Abundant at springs and in the
wetter portions of wet meadows at
elevations below 8,500 feet.
Hydrologic Regime: Prefers constantly
wet sites where the water is not deep.
It does especially well where water is
moving.
Water chemistry: Fresh or slightly brack-
ish.
Propagation: Easily propagated from
rootstocks. Germination of seeds un-
known.
.Nebraska
Sedge
Hargran
Arctic
Rush"^
WET MEADOW
18
-------
Planning the Project
Beaked
Sedge
PlaneJeaf
Wilbw
Peatlanda
Carex aquatilis; water sedge
Habitat: Abundant at higher elevations
from alpine tundra down to 6,000 feet
elevation.
Hydrologic regime: Prefers the wettest
sites that are not deeply flooded.
Water Chemistry. Fresh or slightly brack-
ish water. Will tolerate saline or acid
water and will tolerate significant
heavy metal contamination in soil and
water.
Propagation: Easily propagated from
rootstocks. Seeds germinate but have
low viability. Germination best after
pretreatment by flushing with water
for several days.
Carex utriculata; beaked sedge
Habitat: Abundant at higher elevations
from subalpine down to 7,000 feet
elevation.
Hydrologic regime: Prefers sites that have
spring and early summer flooding up
to 16 inches deep, but that can dry out
later in the summer.
Water Chemistry: Fresh or slightly brack-
ish. Will tolerate saline or acid waters
and will tolerate significant heavy
metal contamination in soil and water.
Propagation: Easily propagated from
rootstocks. Seed germination occurs,
but methods are not well known.
Eleocharis quinqueflora; spikerush
Habitat: Low alpine down to at least 7,000
feet elevation.
Hydrologic Regime: Most common where
there is abundant flowing water, as at
springs.
Water Chemistry: Fresh or slightly brack-
ish.
Propagation: Easily propagated from
rootstocks. Produces viable seeds, but
germinability unknown.
Salixplanifolia; planeleaf willow
Habitat: Low alpine down to at least 7,000
feet elevation.
Hydrologic Regime: Peatland margins
where nutrients are abundant and
water table is near the soil surface
most of the summer. Also, can be
abundant in somewhat drier cir-
cumstances.
Water Chemistry: Fresh or saline.
Propagation: Propagated from stem cut-
tings, but little data on success.
19
-------
Planning the Project
Riparian woodlands
Populus deltoides;
plains cottonwood
Habitat: Floodplains of small to large
streams at elevations below 8,000 feet.
Hydrologic Regime: Spring flooding re-
quired to create bare wet soils as the
germination surface. Adult plants root
to the water table.
Water Chemistry: Fresh water.
Propagation: Easily propagated from
seed, stem cuttings, or poles.
Populus angustifolia;
narrowleaf cottonwood
Habitat: Similar to plains cottonwood, but
at higher elevadons; requirements are
similar.
Sa//x exigua;
sandbar or coyote willow
Habitat: The most common willow on low
elevation floodplains.
Hydrologic regime: On sites that flood pe-
riodically. Can also occur where the
water table is more than 2 feet below
the soil surface.
Water chemistry: Fresh water.
Propagation: Easily propagated from
stem cuttings.
Salix geyeriana; geyer willow
Habitat: This and many other tall willows
are abundant on mountain floodplains.
Hydrologic regime: Prefers areas that
have water tables near the soil surface,
but can tolerate shallow flooding and
deeper water tables as well.
Water chemistry: Fresh water. Some
species can tolerate heavy metal pollu-
tion.
Propagation: Easily propagated from
stem cuttings, but could also be grown
from seed.
Cornus stolonifera;
red-osier dogwood
Habitat: Streambanks throughout the
mountains below 10,000 feet elevation.
Usually understory to cottonwood,
blue spruce, or alder.
Hydrologic regime: Common in areas that
occasionally flood.
Water Chemistry: Fresh water.
Propagation: Stems root easily.
Plains
Cottonwood
Plains
Cottonwoods —r
Cottonwoods
Sandbar
Wibw
20
LOW ELEVATION
RIPARIAN SYSTEM
-------
Planning the Project
AJnus tenuifolia: thinleaved alder
Habitat: Streambaaks at low elevation in
the mountains.
Hydrologic Regime: Prefers floodplains
with periodic but not long-term flood-
ing.
Water Chemistry. Fresh water.
Propagation: Easily grown from seed col-
lected in later summer. Chill seeds and
germinate on moist soil in spring. In-
oculate potting soil with soil collected
from under alders in the field.
Narrow-leaf _
Cotlonwood
Alder —,.
Colorado
Blu« Spruce
-'*& ' 9g
' # A/ ^£y, -
'c>) ' N - .~.;> -
C^A
Red-Osier
Dogwood
•EAVEft COHPLEX OM FLOOOPIAIN
Outside Consulting Expertise
It may be necessary to hire an expert wet-
land consultant to assist with portions of the
goal setting, site selection, pre-planning data
collection, data analysis and project design.
Consultation with stream hydrologists,
ground water hydrologists, topographic sur-
veyors, landscape architects, nurserymen and
other professionals may also be necessary. It
may be desirable to discuss the plans with a
contractor to determine what problems in im-
plementation could occur with the proposed
designs.
Preparing a Budget
The project budget can be developed by
any competent engineer or landscape ar-
chitect. Earthwork should be calculated care-
fully, as this is usually the largest budget item.
The cost of plantings should be determined
after the planting plan is completed. Remem-
ber that the company providing plants should
guarantee their survival. This will help assure
good stock and a careful match of plants to
the hydrologjc regime created. The guarantee
will cost more, but it will relieve any budget
problems should the plantings fail
Estimates for erosion control, weed con-
trol, topographic surveying, monitoring.
project evaluation, and other items should be
included in the project budget.
When the estimate is complete, ten per-
cent should be added to the estimated project
cost for modifications to the project during
its second year. This is essential because it is
no* possible to design projects perfectly, and
because unexpected events, such as a flood,
may make remedial actions necessary.
21
-------
Planning the Project
Considering the Results
Projects aren't always carried out perfect-
ly. An important part of planning is to an-
ticipate difficulties, potential changes in
design as new information occurs, and other
occasions that may call for flexibility. If
project goals are kept in sight, any necessary
adjustments can be made compatible with the
expected results.
Factors that could limit
project success
A number of easily overlooked factors can
create unforeseen and many times uncorrec-
table problems. It is suggested that one per-
son be in charge of the final decisions and all
contractors report to that person.
Grading to the wrong elevation can neces-
sitate redesign of the entire project. It most
commonly occurs due to insufficient or incor-
rect hydrological data, analyses, and assump-
tions. Errors in grading can also occur
because of poor topographic control from er-
rors in the original surveying, or from poor
project supervision. Contractor error is rare,
but contractors may ignore project plans be-
cause they have ideas to make the job easier
for them.
Poor data on soil or water chemistry can
create a saline or eutrophic wetland.
A flood or other unplanned natural dis-
aster should be anticipated when working
near watercourses. Floods can wet the site
and deposit fresh sediment that could
provide an excellent seedbed if planned into
the project. However, an unexpected flood
could undo much of the project. For this
reason, streambank work is suggested for
early summer, after snowmelt runoff. Sum-
mer plantings have time to root and stabilize
the site before the next spring flood. Be
prepared to obtain sand bags or other stabiliz-
ing materials if needed.
Inappropriate matching of plantings with
the hydrologic regime created can cause the
planting to fail Always plan to match plant
species with the environment to be created.
Then determine before planting exactly how
the hydrologic regime of the completed
project compares to the planned hydrologic
regime. Mismatches will result in plant death,
or at least in poor performance that cannot
be blamed on the plant stock.
Grazing by geese, beaver, cattle, deer,
muskrat, and other a«i»naU can destroy plant-
ings. It may be necessary to protect plantings
with fences for a period of time, or to repeat
plantings in some areas. Beavers can be at-
tracted to the new habitat and dam water
delivery systems or culverts. Muskrats bur-
rowing into islands and dikes can render
them porous.
Anticipate weed invasions into the bare
soil areas. Species such as purple loosestrife
or Canada thistle are best dealt with before
their populations become large. In many
areas weeds can become the dominant plants!
Planning to evaluate success
An important part of project preparation
is determining in advance when and how the
success of the final project will be evaluated.
Don't hastily judge project success or failure.
What looks disastrous the first year may end
up successful, and what appears a success
may prove to be a short-lived phenomenon.
Certain agencies may require that a mitiga-
tion bond be held until project success is
demonstrated. In these cases, demonstrating
success is critical.
Timing of the evaluation depends on the
type of wetland and the wetland functions
being restored or created. Herbaceous wet-
lands, e.g., cattail marshes, can be established
more quickly than riparian forests. The
schedule for evaluation must take this into
consideration. Similarly, some wetland func-
tions may not be restored for years, but other
functions may become effective within a rela-
tively short time.
Established wetlands may be evaluated
through the use of permanent plots or other
methods. Both the hydrologic regime and the
success of plantings must be considered.
Techniques are discussed in Monitoring to
Evaluate Project Success, page 38.
22
-------
Implementing the Project
Implementing the Project
The most important aspect of implement-
ing the plan is to work with a contractor who
understands the project goals. Employ a
project coordinator to be on site regularly
and available by telephone daily during all
critical construction phases. The coordinator
will aid contractors in making field decisions
and the inevitable changes to project plans.
The project coordinator must also be respon-
sible for ensuring thai project plans arc fol-
lowed and grades are correct. This person
must have surveying skills to check elevations
from benchmarks, must know how to read the
project plans and to identify plants called for
in the grading plan, and must make observa-
tions and measurements of the hydrologic
regime. This person must also have the
authority to work with the contractor.
Working with Contractors
Few earthwork contractors have worked
in wetlands. Contractors may try to grade
sites like parking lots or make spot decisions
without the benefit of the site analyses or
data. For example, a contractor might be ex-
cavating a site to reach a ground water table
and find that the water table is a foot lower in
November than the grading plan calls for ex-
cavating. Understanding that project success
means wetness, a contractor might make a
field decision to excavate deeper, without
realizing that they are already working at the
annual water table low point. If this un-
planned additional grading were to occur,
spring high-water levels could be higher than
desired, and project goals might have to be
drastically changed. Substantial additional
costs might be incurred trying to salvage the
project.
Contractors can often make valuable field
observations which contribute to project suc-
cess. Encourage this type of communication-
Make sure the contractor knows where
benchmarks are located and who to consult
about changes or new ideas. Insist that grades
be accurate and that absolutely no changes
occur without approval of the project coor-
dinator. The coordinator should never allow
changes without considering their impacts oo
every other aspect of the project.
Erosion control during construction is im
portant, especially when working adjacent 10
an existing water body. Clearly fence off-
limits areas to notify contractors where con-
struction is and is not allowed. Establish fine*
for rules violations.
Making Changes during Construction
Slight changes to the design may often be-
come necessary during construction, but do
not make any changes without considering
the ramifications to all other aspects of the
project. For example, in many areas of the
West, ground water tables are not level but
slope toward or away from a water body, such
as a stream. Pre-project ground water inves-
tigations may have detected >h«, but the plan-
ners were not sure exactly how to grade the
site. An experienced heavy equipment
operator can follow a water table or the top
of the gieyed (grey) soil horizon that marks
the seasonal high water level However, if the
water table is several feet lower on one end o<
the project site than another, sideslope graJ
ing problems may develop.
-------
Implementing the Project
Restoring the HydroJogic Regime
Restoring ditched or
drained wetlands
A ditched or drained marsh or
wet meadow provides one of the
most straightforward restoration op-
portunities. Restoration should be
planned after determining where
the ditches and drain tiles occur
and how the impacted area differs
from unimpacted portions of the
same site or a similar site. This in-
formation will focus the restoration
project and provide criteria for suc-
cess.
Underground tile drain systems
are common in agricultural areas. All drains
must be located, excavated, and at least a few
tiles in each drain crushed. It may be difficult
to determine the exact location of all drain
systems, but usually an outlet to a ditch can
be located.
Ditches are often apparent on aerial
photographs even when they are not apparent
on the ground. Even small ditches divert sur-
face water or intercept ground water flow.
The key is to stop the flow of water. Com-
pletely filling each ditch with the sidecast dig-
gings is the simplest method of restoration,
but it is rarely possible as erosion usually has
removed the material Importing fill is expen-
sive and labor intensive, but it works. It may
be possible to fill the ditch in a few key places
and successfully stop the flow of water.
However, water has a way of making its way
around plugs and flowing back to the ditch.
In Rocky Mountain National Park, large
metal sheets are placed across ditches to act
as dikes. This has
Fill dKch
been effective
where the sheets
are not undercut
and where a small
hand-ring channel
is created to move
water away from
the ditch.
TMt hotoa /
ground water
monitoring w«lls
Excavata
hiatorle
watland
RESTORING -
FILLED WETLANDS
RESTORING
DRAINED WETLANDS
Restoring filled wetlands
Many wetlands that have been filled by
agricultural practices, mine waste, highway
construction, and other activities can be ex-
cavated and restored. Try to locate the filled
project site on old aerial photographs to
determine the shape and sire of the original
wetland. It will also be useful to drill through
the fill to determine the character of the fill
material, its thickness, and the depth to the
old wetland surface (which can be identified
by gleyed soil horizons). Ground water
monitoring wells installed in each drill hole
can help determine if the hydrologic regime
is intact.
If hazardous material (mine tailings,
municipal or industrial waste) is present, the
cost of disposal may make the project expen-
sive. If suspicious fill material is found, it
should be tested in a laboratory to determine
whether problems exist. If the wetland sur-
face is fairly close to the soil surface, the ex-
cavation can be
done relatively
quickly with a
large backhoe.
Heavy equip-
ment should be
kept on the fill
surface and oot
allowed onto
the newly ex-
posed wetland
surface.A
planting plan
can then be
developed.
24
-------
Implementing the Project
Restoring streambanks
and riparian wetlands
Many stream channels and associated
riparian wetlands have been severely im-
pacted by channelization, vegetation removal,
channel incision, mining, and other activities.
Channel incision can lower the local water
table, limit the interaction of stream and
floodplain, and dry up adjacent wetlands.
The removal of streamside vegetation can
allow excessive erosion, causing the stream
channel to become wider and shallower,
which is not desirable.
Streams are a function of their watershed
and immediate environment. Stream channel
characteristics are controlled by the relation-
ships between and among flow volume, total
sediment load and sediment particle size.,
channel bank vegetation, and valley gradient.
Most streams are dynamic, and the channel
characteristics, including position within the
valley, change over time. These dynamics are
essential. Efforts to confine or "stabilize" the
channel with riprap, large boulders, logs, or
structures result in stream and floodplain
changes. These changes cannot be con-
sidered restoration because the natural
processes are eliminated. A stream must be
considered in the watershed context and in
the site-specific context for restoration to be
successful
Channelized streams and streams in val-
leys disturbed by mining or other activities
can be rehabilitated with the aid of a com-
petent stream hydrologist. Methods for
stream design are beyond the scope of this
handbook, but every stream should be
matched to its landscape. Floodplain interac-
tion and well-developed riparian vegetation
must be an integral part of the stream design.
Three factors affect restoration opportunities
for streams and riparian wetlands.
1. Watershed Condition. Watersheds in
poor condition due to overgrazing,
dam construction, urbanization, or
other reasons may have very high or
very low sediment loads or be flashy.
Site-specific restoration cannot repair
problems caused by upstream impacts,
and many riparian restoration projects
fail because of undetected off-site
problems. Streams affected by
upstream impoundments lack sedi-
ment and have "hungry water" that
can erode channel and banks. Streams
receiving abundant sediment from
erosion in the watershed can deposit
this sediment in the channel or
floodplain, burying the vegetation.
2. Stream Channel Integrity. If a riparian
restoration is planned adjacent to an
incised stream channel, the channel
may have to be rehabilitated first. The
interaction of the stream and
floodplain is essential for riparian res-
toration to be possible. Also,
rehabilitating stream channels can
raise local water tables and help sup-
port riparian vegetation.
3. Site Condition. Unvegetated or badly
overgrazed sites may have on-site
erosion problems or support weed
populations. These problems must be
remedied before successful restoration
can occur.
25
-------
Implementing the Project
Restoring incised stream channels
Engineering solutions for incised channels
include the construction of concrete drop
structures, rock-filled gabians, and small
earth dikes. These structures must be careful-
ly designed. They create small impoundments
that store sediment and build up the channel.
Some severely impacted watersheds have
been successfully treated with dozens of small
structures. Local water tables may rise in the
area behind the structure, riparian vegetation
is replenished, and streams have actually
been converted from ephemeral to perennial
flows by these techniques.
Curvad concrata/bouktor
drop structure
EsziZzzz
VBurlad
cutoff wall
Bouldar Drop tiructura
May provida fascia,
taxtura or color
Anchor Into
both banka ft
channal bottom, typ.
Coner«ta Wall
26
-------
Implementing the Project
Anchor wKh
t«nc«posts
Wire fence dikes are an inexpensive solu-
tion for use on small streams. They are built
using steel fenceposts pounded into the
stream channel in one or two rows. Wire is
strung to the posts and filter doth attached
on the upstream side. Automobile tires have
been used instead of filter cloth in some
areas. The dike must be tied into the stream-
banks and the streambed. The structures can
last for many years. They build up sediment
in the channel and raise water tables as well.
Cabto tlrM &
•nehorwtth
ftnccpocts
TlraDlk*
Establishing vegetation on eroded stream-
sides has been used successfully to change
channel characteristics. Willows, alders.
sedges, and rushes can stabilize banks, ac-
cumulate sediment, and over time create a
narrower and deeper channel.
27
-------
Implementing the Project
Restoring streambanks
Streambanks can often be improved simp-
ly by removing livestock to allow existing
streambank vegetation to recover or expand.
Grazing in riparian areas can be eliminated
or reduced using fencing or by developing ad-
ditional water sources away from the stream
to disperse animals throughout the range.
Earthwork to reduce the angle of banks al-
lows plantings closer to the stream and to the
water table elevation. Several configurations
are possible depending upon whether the site
is an outside bank, inside bank, meander, or
straight run. Small terraces adjacent to the
channel can be used to expand the floodplain.
The optimum profile also depends on the size
of stream and type of ecosystem (willow or
grass-sedge) to be created
Slopes of 3:1 or flatter aid plant estab-
lishment. On the insides of meander bends, a
more gentle slope allows flood waters to inter-
act with the newly created floodplain, and
natural recruitment of willows and her-
baceous plants can occur. Plant roots must
grow to the elevation of the stream channel
to be effective in streambank protection. If
the stream undercuts the root mass, erosion
occurs and restoration cannot succeed.
Temporary stabilizing material, such as
netting, brush, or logs, may be useful for bold-
ing cut banks until new planting; have
developed root systems. Wire fences may also
be built parallel with the eroding bank. Dead
plant material stuffed behind and through cbe
wire captures sediment and helps stabilize
the bank.
BEFORE
Out*ld«
AFTER
ALTERNATIVE TREATMENTS FOR
INCISED CHANNELS
28
-------
Implementing the Project
gg&r"-11
I*
.L 1 . I..U •. I...I . .1 ...I ... . I
'
rn
BEFORE
AFTER
AFTER
ALTERNATIVE TREATMENTS FOR
INCISED CHANNELS
29
-------
Implementing the Project
Creating a Wetland Hydrologic Regime
Ground water
Creating a wetland that interacts with a
ground water system is generally done by ex-
cavating soil to create a new land surface at a
lower elevation. The final elevation of the
new surface is the most important design ele-
ment and must be determined precisely.
Baseline data on ground water levels should
be collected during the growing season for at
least one year. That data can be compared to
precipitation, stream flow records, and
ground water data from the same year and
several other years to determine how typical
the year of record was.
The site should be graded to "average"
water year hydrologic conditions with a good
idea of the difference between average and
high and low water years. If the water table is
fairly stable, fluctuating less than 1 foot
during the year, this is not difficult. However,
on sites that experience large seasonal
ground water changes (greater than 3 feet),
grading will be more challenging. Systems
with large seasonal changes in the water table
are likely to experience large differences be-
tween dry, average, and wet years.
Using the ground water hydrograph
shown here, the final elevation for excavation
should be determined for the type of wetland
desired.
For a bulrush marsh, inundation up to 18
inches deep should occur for several months
each summer. The suggested elevation for the
new land surface, using this example, would
be near 5,719 feet.
For a wet meadow, a water table near the
soil surface for much of the growing season is
recommended, but inundation with water
deeper than 8 inches should not occur. A site
elevation near 5,720 feet is suggested.
A riparian woodland adjacent to a stream
channel would have a water table a foot or
more below the soil surface on many years,
with flooding on high water years. A final
grade near 5,721 is suggested.
A peatland should not be attempted at
this site because the hydrologic peak is of
short duration.
Ground Water Hydrographs
0
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•9
£ -2
o>
CO
o
*•*
.c
£
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•5
^'e oroiect ground sunace
•
Proposed Final Grades
Rioanan Woodland
,(«^*"»'»¥ Wet Meadow
/ ' \
* \. Marsn
"/" X
^((-* *•*-*
_L* 1 L , , 1__ 1 _;
5723
5722 H
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Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct
30
-------
The final grade can be level or gently slop-
ing at sites with small seasonal water eleva-
tion variability. Where larger seasonal water
table variability occurs, incorporating at least
2 to 3 vertical feet of relief into the grading
Implementing the Project
plan is advised. This can be accomplished by
creating (1) a sloping surface, (2) a pond with
adjacent terraces, or (3) a scries of small
ponds, mounds, and ridges.
Existing grad«
SIMPLE WETLAND
High wafer
Low wafer
TERRACED WETLAND
HUMMOCK WETLAND
These designs allow portions of the
project site to be in contact with the water
table at all times. During dry years at least the
low areas will be wet, and during wetter years
all but the highest areas will be inundated.
Creating this microtopographic relief will en-
hance ecological diversity and provide a more
flexible fit to a variable water table regime. It
could also relieve the potential problem of
grading an area flat but to the wrong eleva-
tion.
31
-------
Implementing the Project
Surface water
Wetlands can be
created by applying
surface water to dry
land without excavat-
ing. This can be ac-
complished along
existing lake and reser-
voir margins or in exist-
ing dry basins or flats.
Lake and reservoir
margins can be
modified by reducing
steep shoreline
gradients and expand-
ing the shallow water
edge. It might be
necessary to leave a
small breakwater to
allow vegetation estab-
lishment.
A reservoir margin
can also be changed
from smooth to one
with bays. Water depth should be shallow to
allow establishment of marsh plants, such as
cattails, beaked sedge, manna grasses, or
other species.
Diacontlnoua
breakwater
Excavate 4
plant
Wetland creation on reservoirs and lakes
can only be successful where water is main-
tained at a relatively constant and predictable
level during every growing season. Water
supply reservoirs that are drawn down more
than 3 to 5 feet in sum-
mer have shores that
are too dry for wetland
Excavated bay creation.
In some cir-
cumstances, marshes
can be created by ap-
plying surface water to
level, low-lying areas
or to sloping areas on
which low dikes have
been built. The water
supply can be from ir-
rigation ditches or tail-
waters, urban storm-
water runoff, treated
water from industrial
or municipal water
treatment plants,
pumped water from ground water wells, and
other sources. Water must saturate and, if
possible, inundate the soil surface for a long
period of time during the growing season.
This can occur only if the soil permeability
rate and site grade are low enough to allow
available water to remain on the soil surface.
Existing ahoreline
32
-------
EARTHEN DIKE WETLANDS
Marsh or wet meadow creation is also pos-
sible where the water table is relatively dose
to the ground surface. In this situation, the ad-
dition of surface water will cause the local
water table to rise to the soil surface, creating
a ground water mound.
Implementing the Prefect
may take months or years to
occur. Where percolation rates
are high it may be possible to
mechanically compact the sod
This is an expensive option and
should be chosen only after con-
sultation with a soil engineer.
The water to be applied to a
land surface should have low
salinity, because water will be
lost by evapotranspiration and
solutes will accumulate in the
wetland. What begins as a fresh-
water wetland can become sal-
tier over time, causing a change
in the flora, fauna, and wetland
functions. A worst-case scenario would be
salt accumulation leading to the unan-
ticipated death of the desired plant species.
Where moderate- to high-salinity water (con-
ductance greater than 500 to 800 umho&/cm*)
Direction of groundwatar flow
Pr*-proj«ct water tabto
Soil cores should be collected and tested
for permeability rate in a laboratory (see
page 14). Soil permeability rates greater than
1/2 inch per day can cause water to disappear
into the soil faster than it can be replenished.
At this rate, one-half an acre-foot of water
per day would be lost from a 12-acre wetland.
Where a large volume of water is lost into the
ground, off-site impacts should be con-
sidered. The. water will flow downgradient
and can cause water tables to rise in adjacent
areas, affecting nearby agricultural areas or
homes with basements. Because ground
water flow rates are usually slow, impacts
is to be used, salt-tolerant marsh speciev
such as alkali bulrush, three-square and
hardstem bulrush should be planted.
Basins created for surface water applies
tion can be graded to create topographic
relief that enhances site diversity. However
where permeability rates are rapid, grading
could increase permeability and should be
discouraged. Where soil permeability race*
are low and surface water of known
available, applying surface water can be
easy method of creating wetlands.
-------
Implementing the Project
Restoring Wetland Soils
Hydric soils, by definition, occur when
anaerobic conditions exist in a soil. Creating
the appropriate hydrologic regime is all that
is necessary to promote the process of wet-
land soil restoration or creation.
Applying topsoil, organic matter or fer-
tilizer as a soil amendment is usually not re-
quired because most wetland plant species do
not require abundant nutrients. This can save
considerable expense. In certain cases, such
as for germinating water sedge (Carex
aquatilis) plants for peatland restoration, the
original peat soil appears to be ideal material
for a seedbed. However, for restoring ri-
parian vegetation, the placement of topsoil
can be a negative factor keeping the seeds of
cottonwoods and other species from contact-
ing bare mineral soil, which is the preferred
germinating surface.
Establishing the Vegetation
Because the vegetation provides many of
the wetland functions, such as wildlife habitat
and streambank stabilization, successfully es-
tablishing the desired plant species is essen-
tial to project success. If the appropriate
hydrologic regime is restored or created, a
well designed planting plan should be success-
ful. The planting plan should include the
species to be introduced, plant source, timing
for planting each species, location in the wet-
land for each species based upon its water re-
quirements, and if necessary a weed removal
plan. A number of common wetland plants
have been described on pages 15 through 21.
The most common propagation and planting
techniques are presented here.
Field collection of
wetland plant seeds
Seeds can be collected from existing wet-
lands. Seeds should be cleaned and, for most
species, stored moist or wet in a refrigerator
over the winter. Seeds can also be stored in
cloth bags in the field. Most seeds need a
cold period before germination can be ex-
pected. Seeds stored dry for more than a few
months may need a long period of wetting
before they are germinable. Dry storage over
winter will not appreciably reduce viability
for most species. Seeds of different species
should be kept in separate containers, so that
each species can be seeded into the ap-
propriate water regime. This will save seed.
Seeds can simply be spread onto the site,
but this method has many risks. Seeds wash
away along wave-affected shores and in
rainstorms. Many species are hard to seed
under water. Success of seeding for many
species, such as sedges (Carex spp.), is very
low. However, success with most marsh
species, and with cottonwoods and some wil-
lows, can be high in the appropriate habitat.
Species such as cottonwoods and willows
produce seeds early in the summer, and the
seeds live for a short period, ranging from 1
to 6 weeks. These seeds should be collected
as soon as they are ripe and sown onto a
prepared, moist, mineral soil seedbed. Over-
winter storage is not possible.
Nursery grown seedlings
Plants can be propagated in a nursery
using field collected seeds. The seeds can be
germinated in spring, grown in small pots,
and transplanted to the field after the last
frost. Because many wetland plants are
rhizomatous, they spread rapidly. Planting
seedlings is more costly than direct seeding,
but will produce more predictable results.
Seedling mortality can be high where heavy
waterfowl use or frost-heaving occurs.
Many species have seeds that require
specific treatments to germinate, for example.
a period of washing to remove chemical seed
coat germination inhibitors, or seed coat
scarification. This is best done under control-
led, indoor conditions. Species like alder
(Alnus spp.) form symbiotic relationships
with soil bacteria. Sterile potting soil used in
greenhouses will not grow field hardy plants.
Soil must be collected from under existing
alder plants in the field, and small amounts
used to inoculate each pot in which seedlings
are grown. Remember that because peat mini-
ng destroys wetlands, organic soil sources
other than peat, such as leaf compost, are
recommended.
34
-------
Implementing tr» Project
Whole plant collection
Individual whole
plants or sections of
turf can be excavated
with machinery like a
front-end loader.
These methods arc
best used for whole
woody plants, bulrush
clones, and sedge
turfs. Care must also
be taken not to
destroy the wetland
from which plants are
collected. Transplant-
ing should occur im-
mediately, without
storage.
Sections of turf a few inches in diameter,
called plugs, can also be collected from exist-
ing wetlands with an auger or shovel and
trans-planted to a new wetland. This is labor
intensive, but the trans-plants have very high
survival rates when placed in the correct
hydrologic regime.
Plants collected during the summer will
be susceptible to desiccation because they
retain their full leaf area but lose much root
mass during transplanting. To reduce water
loss, prune stems and leaf area back ap-
proximately 50% and keep the root mass
moist.
WHOLE PLANT COLLECTION
STEM curnwo
COLLECTION
TURF
COLLECTION
Stem cuttings
Willows, cottonwoods, and many other woody species have adventitious
buds along their stems from which new leaves, stems, or roots can grow.
Stems of dormant plants should be collected with pruning shears. High suc-
cess has also been proven with summer cuttings.
Cuttings should be at least 18 inches in length, and many studies have
shown that the larger the diameter of the cutting, the higher the probability
of survival, because larger stems
contain more stored food for root
and leaf growth. Cuttings 1/2 inch
to 2 inches in diameter are recom-
mended.
Cuttings must be stored with
their bottom ends in water and
never allowed to dry. They can be
sent to a nursery for rooting in pots
or planted in the field directly,
without pre-treatment. These cut-
tings are easy to collect. Plantings
should be spaced approximately 2
to 3 feet apart.
Stor* cutting*
In water
35
-------
Implementing the Project
For planting, use a
heavy metal rod to open
a vertical hole larger in
diameter than and ap-
proximately 2/3 the
length of the cutting, in-
sert the cutting, and
close the hole. The cut-
ting must be within 10
inches of the mid-sum-
mer water table and in
most instances must
reach the earlier sum-
mer water table.
Place stem*
2'-3' apart
PLAMTIMC
Place cuttings in
horizontal layers along
severely eroded banks
Stem cuttings can also be planted in
bundles or layers and buried along the banks.
These methods are variations on the method
described above, re-
quire larger numbers of
stems, and are recom-
mended only for inten-
sive treatments along
rapidly eroding banks.
Pre-rooted cuttings
from nurseries are more
expensive, but have a
very high chance of sur-
vival in the appropriate
hydrologic regime. They
should be carefully
planted into larger
holes.
JSH LAYERING
Many researchers advise planting stems at
least 18 inches deep, and on reservoir shores
or streambanks where erosion potential is
high planting to 30-36 inches is appropriate.
This will necessitate very long stem cuttings.
Place bundled cuttings
directly in ground
Bury bundle*
BUMBLE!
36
-------
Implementing the Project
Pole plantings
Cottonwood trees can be successfully
planted into banks high above streams by
using stem cuttings up to 20 feet in lengtk
Poles should be col-
lected only in areas
where there are abun-
dant cottonwood sa-
plings. Stems three or
more inches in
diameter should be
collected. Store stems
with their butt ends in
water at all times.
Some researchers have
found the best success
after soaking pole
ends for 10 to 14 days
in a root stimulator, al-
though others have
found that the applica-
tion of fertilizers, hor-
mones, and fungicides
has no survival benefit.
Poles should be
planted into a hole
augered to the water
table and backfilled
completely. If the
ground water has high
salinity (> 3 ppt), pole
planting is not recom-
mended. The pole
must be staked to
prevent wind damage
and fenced to protect
against browsing deer,
beaver, and rabbits.
Natural plant
invasion
Many wetland
plant species are readi-
ly dispersed by wind and wildlife and will
naturally invade the site. Species such as cat-
tails, pondweeds, Chora, many rushes, and
early successional annuals, such as species of
willow herb and Veronica, readily invade
without being planted. In creating or restor-
ing marsh ecosystems, planting nothing can
sometimes result in the development of a
complex plant community. This is not sug-
gested, however, for restoring or creating
riparian, wet meadow, or peatland wetlands.
Natural invasion should be the chosen
method only when wetlands exist nearby to
provide a seed source.
COTTONWOOD
POLE PLANTING
Saa so nil high
waiar tabla
Water <3ppt salinity
Seasonal low
Watar tabla
The benefit of not planting is cost savings,
but there are also many drawbacks. There is
no way to predict which plant species will in-
vade and dominate the wetland, how many
years may be necessary for desired species to
invade, and what weeds could become abun-
dant before the desired vegetation is estab-
lished. In some cases, natural invasion may be
so slow that planting may later be required 10
fulfill permit requirements or to derive the
ecological functions for which the wetland
was built. If not included in the original
budget, these additions may prove difficult to
accomplish.
37
-------
Implementing the Project
Soil seed bank
Wetlands that have been drained within
the last 20 years may retain a viable wetland
plant seed bank. This can be determined by
collecting soil samples and sieving the
material to identify seeds. Viability can be
tested in a lab by applying tetrazotium to the
seed embryo. An alternative, less precise
method is to place samples in watertight con-
tainers and maintain soil saturation for
several months to determine which species
germinate. Dormant seeds may require long
periods of soaking, scarification, or other
treatments to germinate. If viable and ger-
minable wetland plant propagules occur in
the soil seed bank, a planting plan may not be
necessary.
If mitigation is being performed for a per-
mitted wetland fill and the wetland replace-
ment project is type-for-type and will be
located nearby, every effort should be made
to salvage the top 12 inches of soil and
transport this live topsoil to the replacement
site. This soil contains plant roots, rhizomes,
tubers and seeds. Often these plant propa-
gules can resprout or germinate to rapidly
form a plant cover on the new site. If the soil
must be stored for more than a few weeks
in a season other than winter, it should be
covered and kept cool. The longer the
storage period, the less value the material has
for supplying plant propagules. The value of
live topsoil is in its plant propagules.
There are drawbacks to wetland soil stock-
piling. For example, wetland soils are usually
hard to spread. They may contain the seeds
of undesirable weed species, such as Canada
thistle or purple loosestrife; that can establish
quickly on the new surface. If the weed con-
tent is unknown, the soil should not be used.
In some cases, rapid decomposition of sod or-
ganic matter can release a superabundance of
nutrients, which can lead to abundant algal
growth and unpleasant odors.
Monitoring to evaluate project success
Evaluating the project is essential for
determining the successful and unsuccessful
project attributes. Don't hastily judge project
success or failure. What looks disastrous the
first year may end up successful, and what
looks successful may be a short-lived
phenomenon. Certain agencies may require a
mitigation bond be held until project success
is demonstrated. In these cases, proving suc-
cess is critical.
The first monitoring should determine
whether corrective actions are necessary and
should occur immediately after construction.
Questions to be answered by careful monitor-
ing are:
Is the bydrologic regime appropriate and
self-sustaining and will it persist?
If the wetland persists will it perform the
functions for which it was designed?
What type of wetland ecosystem will this
be in 5 or 25 years?
To answer these questions, every monitor
ing program must at least evaluate the follow-
ing parameters: •
1. acreage of wetland created or restored.
2. hydrologic regime of different portions
of the site, especially compared to liui
proposed,
3. success of plantings,
4. volunteer plants established, particulu
ly weeds that could create long-term
problems,
5. functions that could be or are per-
formed by the wetland,
remedial actions necessary to deal
problems, particularly with the
hydrologic regime and
6.
It is suggested that five permanently
marked plots be established during the fini
year in each of the proposed community
types. Within each plot, collect data oo (be
hydrologic regime, canopy cover of each
plant species present, and whether the
38
-------
are hydric. The success of plantings in each
plot should be determined.
The interaction of the hydrologic regime
with the created land surface should be
judged with a series of ground water monitor-
ing wells and staff gauges. If the water table
and/or surface water levels are as planned,
most likely the project will succeed
Careful observation is required to deter-
mine whether the project goals of functional
replacement are successful. This will require
establishing stations to measure particular at-
tributes of interest, including water chem-
istry, wildlife use, and others. Although
several aspects of the project turn out dif-
ferently than planned, the project may still be
a success from a functional perspective.
Implementing the Project
Routinely field-checking the plantings will
help detect problems. The most common
problems relate to inappropriate hydrologic
regimes where the plantings occurred.
Many plantings cannot be considered suc-
cessful until at least one year after planting.
Plants that appear healthy during the second
summer and that occur in the appropriate
hydrologic regime are likely to survive.
Remember to consider measuring the
hydrologic regime in the planting area as a
means of determining whether the habitat is
suitable. Be prepared with temporary
wavebreaks if necessary, or with supplemen-
tal watering during a hot, dry summer. Water-
fowl, particularly geese, can eat large
numbers of plantings in a short time and fenc-
ing may be necessary.
Summary
Restoring and creating wetlands in the
Rocky Mountain West requires a multi-dis-
ciplinary approach. Potential sites should be
carefully chosen to fulfill project goals of
providing wetland functions, a particular wet-
land community type, and the appropriate
size of wetland. Sites should be chosen and
evaluated by collecting data to document the
existing and potential hydrologic regime,
soils, and vegetation. The data must be used
by the project planner to determine if
problems critical to wetland development
occur at the site. These could include a
ground water table that is too deep, soils with
high salt content, or large weed populations.
Study reference wetlands to clarify the site
potential and guide project planning
Restoring and creating the appropriate in-
teraction between land and water is the most
important element of project design.
Accomplishing this will produce the
hydrologic regime necessary for formation of
hydric soils and the establishment of desired
hydrophytes on the site. The goal should
always be to produce a self-perpetuating
wetland.
Because the hydrologic regime of many
ground water and surface water systems in
the West fluctuates greatly between dry and
wet years and because water is scarce, careful
project planning is essential. There is usually
little room for error. With careful data
collection, evaluation, and planning, many
successful projects have been designed and
implemented throughout the West. Restoring
and creating wetlands provides a means of
improving wildlife habitat, cleaning water,
and providing flood control and other impor-
tant ecological functions in the Rocky
Mountain West.
39
-------
Implementing the Project
Notes
40
-------
Appendices
Appendices
Nurseries for wetland plants
Colorado
Fort Collins Nursery
Wholesale Division
2224 N. Shields
Fort Collins, CO 80524
(303) 484-1289
Green Acres Nursery
4990 Mclntyre St.
Golden, CO 80403
(303)279-8204
Little Valley Nursery
13022 E. 136 Ave
Brighton, CO 80601
(800) 221-3241 toll free
(303) 659-6708
Upper Colorado Environmental Plant
Center
U.S.D-A. Soil Conservation Service
P.O. Box 448
Meeker, Colorado 81641
(303) 878-5003
Idaho
Silver Springs Nursery (wholesale)
HCR62,Box86
Moyie Springs, ID 83845
(208) 267-5753
Aberdeen Plant Materials Center
U.S.D-A. Soil Conservation Service
P.O. Box 296
Aberdeen, ID
(208) 397-4133
Montana
Bitterroot Native Growers Inc
(Roxa French)
445 Quasi Lane
Corvallis, MT 59828
(406) 961-4991
(406) 961-4626 fax
Bitterroot Nursery
521 East Side Highway
Hamilton, MT 59828
(406) 961-3806
Lawyer's Wholesale Nursery
950 Hwy. 200 West
Plains, MT 59859
(800) 551-9875 toll free
(406) 826-3883
Montana Environmental Plant Center
U.S.D A. Soil Conservation Service
Route 1, Box 1189
Bridger, MT 59014-9718
(406) 662-3579
New Mexico
New Mexico Environment^ Plant
Center
U.S.D A. Soil Conservation Service
1036 Miller Street SW
Los Lunas, NM 87031
(505) 865-4684
North and South Dakota
Bismarck Environmental Plant Center
U.S.D.A. Soil Conservation Service
P.O. Box 1458
Bismarck, ND 58502
(701) 223-8536
Lincoln Oaks Nursery
P.O. Box 1601
Bismarck, ND 58502
(701) 223-8575
Utah
Lone Peak State Nursery
Utah Dept of Natural Resources
14650 South Prison Road
Draper, UT 84020
(801) 571-0900
41
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Appendices
Additional Reading
Clary, W.P., ED. McArthur, D. Bedunah,
and C.L. Wamboit (Compilers). 1991.
Proceedings ~ Symposium on Ecology and
Management of Riparian Shrub Com-
munities. Intermountain Research Station,
Forest Service, U.S.D.A. 324 25th St. Ogden,
UT 84401.
Cowardin, L.M., V. Carter, and F.C.
Golet. 1979. Classification of wetlands and
deepwater habitats of the United States.
U.S.D.I. Fish and Wildlife Service.
FWS/OBS-79/31. Dip.
DeBano, L f. and W.R. Hansen. 1989.
Rehabilitating depleted riparian areas using
channel structures, pp. 141-148 In, R.E.
Greeswell, et aL Editors. Riparian Resource
Management. Proceedings of a Workdhop,
May 8-11,1989, Billings, Montana. U.S.BLM.
222 N. 32nd St., P.O. Box 36800, Billings,
Montana, 59187.
DeBano, L.F. and B.H. Heede. 1987. En-
hancement of riparian systems with channel
structures. Water Resources Bulletin 23:463-
470.
Garbisch, E.W. 1986. Highways and wet-
lands: Compensating wetland losses. Federal
Highway Administration. FHWA-IP-86-22.
65p.
Jackson, W.L. and B.P. Van Haveren.
1984. Design for a stable chennel in coarse al-
luvium for riparian zone restoration. Water
Resources Bulletin 20: 695-703.
Kusler, J A. and M.E. Kentula, 1989. Wet-
land Creadon and Restoration: The status of
the Science. EPA/600/3-89/038.2 Volumes.
Also, republished by Island Press.
Larson, J.S., C. Neill. Editors. 1987.
Mitigating Freshwater Wetland Alterations in
the Glaciated Northeastern United States:
An assessment of the Science Base.
Published by The Environmental Institute,
University of Massachusetts at Amherst.
Publication No. 87-1.143p.
Manci, KM. 1989. Riparian ecosystem
creation and restoration: A literature sum-
mary. USDI Fish and Wildlife Service
Biological Report 89(20). 59p.
Mutz, K.M., D J. Cooper, M.L. Scott, and
L.K. Miller. Technical Coordinators. 1988.
Restoration, Creation and Management of
Wetland and Riparian Ecosystems in the
American West. A symposium of the Rocky
Mountain Chapter of the Society of Wetland
Scientists. Nov. 14-16, Denver, CO. Published
by the Rocky Mountain Chapter of SWS.
239p.
National Research Council. 1992. Restora-
tion of Aquatic Ecosystems. National
Academy Press. Washington, D.C. 552p.
Platts, W.S. and 12 others. 1987. Methods
for evaluating riparian habitats with applica-
tions to management. U.S.D A. Forest Ser-
vice, Intermountain Research Station,
General Technical Report INT-221.177p.
Proceedings of the Society of Wetland
Scientists Eighth Annual Meeting. May 26-
29, Seattle, WA. Wetland and Riparian
Ecosystems of the American West.
Schneller-McDonald, K., L.S. Ischinger,
and G.T. Auble. 1990. Wetland Creation and
Restoration: A description and Summary of
the Literature. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Biological Report 90(3).
Soil Conservation Service. 1986. Dormant
stock planting for channel stabilization. SCS
Biological Technical Note 22. Phoenix,
Arizona. USDA. 19p.
Soil Conservation Service. 1989. Wetland
development or restoration, national practice
standard. National list of conservation prac-
tices. Washington, D.C. USDA, SCS, 690:1.
Soil Conservation Service. 1992. Wetland
Restoration, Enhancement, or Creation. En-
gineering Field Handbook, Chapter
D.Washington, D.C. USDA, SCS. 79p.
Wolf, R.B., L.C. Lee, and R.R. Sharitz.
1986. Wetland creation, and restoration in the
U.S. from 1970-1985. An annotated bibliog-
raphy. Wetlands volume 6, #1.
Wetlands. Journal of the Society of Wet-
land Scientists contains many articles on wet-
land restoration and creation.
42
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NOTES
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NOTES
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