PESTICIDAL ASPECTS OF CHLORDANE IN RELATION TO MAN AND THE ENVIRONMENT
Prepared July 1972
Amended March 1975
Criteria and Evaluation Division
Office of Pesticide Programs
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D.C. 20460
EPA-540/4-76-006
August 1976
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For sale by
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5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield, Va. 22161
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Mention of trade names or commercial
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Preface
Because of the Environmental Protection Agency's statutory mandate to protect
the public health and well being of its citizenry through control of economic
poisons, a comprehensive effort intended to insure intensive and regular
review of all economic poisons was initiated March 18, 1971, to identify
those pesticides which could represent potential unreasonable adverse effects
on man and his environment. Since that date comprehensive "internal reviews"
have been conducted by staff of the Office of Pesticide Programs on a number
of pesticides. The initial direction for this program came in a statement
outlined by the Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency on March
18, 1971.
This report on chlordane was conducted from 1971 to 1972. The chemistry and
methodology section was amended in 1975. Other sections were updated in
a separate report entitled: Pesticidal Aspects of Chlordane and Heptachlor in
Relation to Man and the Environment - A Further Review, 1972-1975.
This review evaluates scientific data in the areas of fish, wildlife, distri-
bution in the environment (air, soil, water), residues in crops and food items,
and toxicology and epidemiology.
This review summarizes rather than interprets scientific data studied during
the process of reviewing chlordane. It is not intended that this report
correlate data from different sources. The review also does not present
opinions on contradictory findings.
The review of chlordane covers all uses of the pesticide in the United States
and should be applicable to future needs in the Agency. The review was
researched and prepared by the Special Pesticides Review Group, Office of
Pesticide Programs, Environmental Protection Agency.
iii
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Special Pesticide Review Group
Scientific Committee:
0. Garth Fitzhugh, Ph.D., Chairman (retired April 6, 1972)
Homer E. Fairchild, Ph.D., Chairman
Lamar B. Dale, Jr., Ph.D., Executive Secretary
Joseph G. Cummings
Thomas E. DeVaney
John C. Kolojeski
0. E. Paynter, Ph.D.
Fred H. Tschirley, Ph.D.
Clara H. Williams, Ph.D.
Anne R. Yobs, M.D.
Special Working Group on Chlordane:
Ronald J. Baron, Ph.D.
S. C. Billings
Roger L. Pierpont
Mary T. Quaife, Ph.D.
With Library Assistance of:
Robert Ceder
Claudia Lewis
Special Assistance with Amended Text:
George Beusch
Robert Caswell
Editorial Assistance:
Merle H. Markley
Kathy K. Smith
Rosemary Spencer
IV
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Pesticidal Aspects of Chlordane in Relation
To Man and the Environment
Contents
Page No.
Summary
Chapter I.
Summary of Current Pesticidal Uses
of Chlordane with Alternative
Pesticides Available
Summary of Registered Chlordane
Uses and Alternatives
Discussion of Registered Uses
of Chlordane and Its Alternatives . . .
Chapter II. Chemistry and Methodology
Chapter III. Fate and Implications of Chlordane in
the Ecosystem
Chapter IV. Residues in Crops and Food Items . . .
Chapter V. Toxicology and Epidemiology of Chlordane
45
52
65
82
90
v
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SUMMARY
Chlordane has been registered as an insecticide for use in agriculture, homes,
lawns and gardens, and structural pest control since its introduction about
25 years ago. In addition, chlordane has been registered as a herbicide
primarily for the preemergence control of crabgrass. These uses have
resulted in widespread application of chlordane in urban, suburban, and
rural areas.
Chlordane, a chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticide, is a member of the group of
cyclodiene insecticides which includes aldrin, dieldrin, heptachlor, endrin,
thiodan, chlordane and telodrin. Chlordane is a term used to designate a
complex mixture of products. Since 1950 technical chlordane has been manu-
factured by a process which is controlled so that the composition of the
product is relatively constant. This consistency has permitted a more pre-
cise chemical evaluation of its formulations and residues. Chemical and
instrumental analytical techniques are available and have been successful in
terms of sensitivity, precision and accuracy for certain components of the
chlordane mixture.
Chlordane is used primarily as a soil insecticide. Therefore, any considera-
tion of possible environmental effects must place emphasis on the fate of
chlordane in the soil. In most of the registered uses, the rates, methods of
application, and the environmental conditions differ. However, while these
factors may differ, the controlling factors are the characteristics of chlor-
dane. These are persistence, relative immobility in the soil, and a low
propensity for biological magnification.
The present agricultural use of chlordane accounts for approximately 25% of
the annual production. Home use, including turf treatment and garden and
household applications, accounts for 25% of the annual production. Profes-
sional use, primarily termite control, accounts for approximately 50% of the
production.
Chlordane was at one time registered for agricultural application to more
than 100 crops or uses. This involved fruits, vegetables, field crops, and
noncropland applications. A significant use was for soil insect control,
although foliar applications were also approved on fruits and vegetables.
Foliar use has become less important in recent years.
Chlordane persists in the soil. Significant residues of chlordane can be
demonstrated in the soil 10 years after a single application. Therefore,
the depletion of chlordane residues is a relatively slow process. Chlordane
is relatively immobile in the soil. Various workers have demonstrated that
chlordane does not move when applied to the soil and that the majority of
the residues are in the top few inches of soil. Several studies indicate
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that contamination of water by chlordane is not a widespread problem. Waters
examined in 1966 showed positive values of chlordane ranging from 5 to 75
parts per trillion. However, abusive use of chlordane could result in
significant contamination of water.
Earthworms are able to concentrate chlordane from the soil. Traces of hepta-
chlor and heptachlor epoxide have been determined in the fat of starlings.
These birds are not at the top of the food chain but are commonly found in
the diets of raptorial birds. Substantial levels of heptachlor epoxide have
been found in the eggs of the coot, teal, and pheasant. No evidence of
reproductive problems have been associated with these residues.
Residues of chlordane have been evaluated in fish from various bodies of
water. In general, the values found have been less than 0.5 ppm. Fish
examined from the Pacific Ocean failed to show detectable levels of chlordane.
Oysters taken from the South Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico had levels of
chlordane up to 10 ppb.
An examination for the presence of chlordane in water, suspended water plants,
algae, chubs, bass, and clams in water from an area of extensive agricultural
use indicated that the presence of chlordane was minute and no substantial
buildup was evident in any of the organisms or media examined. The concen-
trating factor was 1.91 for algae, 1.20 for chubs, 0.9 for clams, and 0.45
for vascular plants, indicating no magnification of chlordane residues.
On the basis of results of two long-term feeding studies in rats, a no-effect
level for chlordane was established by the FAO/WHO Joint Expert Committee on
Pesticide Residues at 20 ppm; or 1 mg/kg/day. On the basis of the results of
a 2-yr feeding study in the dog, a no-effect level for dogs was established
at 3 ppm or 0.07 mg/kg/day. The acceptable daily intake for man was estimated
by FAO/WHO to be 0.001 mg/kg body weight.
A tolerance of 0.3 ppm was established for 65 fruits and vegetables in 1954.
This tolerance was reappraised and reconfirmed in 1965 by an advisory commit-
tee appointed by the Food and Drug Administration from a panel of experts
nominated by the National Academy of Sciences National Research Council.
Chlordane is absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract, the respiratory tract,
and through the skin. It is stored in adipose tissue of rats, sheep, goats,
and cows and can be found in the milk.
Chlordane acts on the central nervous system, but the exact mechanism of this
action is unknown. Large doses induce nausea and/or vomiting. Low level
administration of chlordane produces histologic changes in the liver and
kidneys of some experimental animals as well as an increase in liver micro-
somal activity.
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Dietary levels (50-100 ppm) of chlordane in the diet produced a significant
effect on reproduction in mice. However, 25 ppm chlordane had no effect on
reproduction in these long-term rat and mouse reproduction studies. No
evidence of teratogenesis was apparent. No specific mutagenic or teratogenic
studies have been carried out on chlordane.
No carcinogenicity studies, per se, have been carried out on chlordane.
However, chlordane was not shown to be tumorigenic in long-term studies in
rats.
Human poisonings and fatalities have been reported from both dermal and oral
exposure to chlordane. In addition, chlordane, by direct circumstantial
evidence, has been implicated as a causative factor in several blood dyscra-
sias, including anemia, leukopenia, thrombocytopenia, and pancytopenia.
Since technical chlordane is a mixture of substances, including alpha-
chlordane, gamma-chlordane, chlordene, heptachlor, hexachlor, nonachlor, and
hexachlorcyclopentadiene, the pharmacological and toxicological properties
may vary from experiment to experiment because of possible variation in the
composition of chlordane. However, the production of chlordane was standard-
ized in 1950 and the hexachlorocyclopentadiene content reduced to a maximum
of 1%. Chlordane produced since that time is considered to be less toxic
than that produced prior to 1950. In fact, the advisory committee appointed
by the FDA in 1965 concluded that the standards of production would allow the
constancy of the technical mixture.
In 1969 the Secretary's Commission on Pesticides and Their Relationship to
the Environmental Health recommended restriction of the usage of certain
persistent pesticides in the United States to specific essential uses which
create no known hazard to human health or to the quality of the environment.
Chlordane was included in their list of pesticides covered in this recom-
mendation.
In a statement issued on March 18, 1971, the Administrator of the Environ-
mental Protection Agency reported: "Active internal review is being
initiated as to the registrations of products containing benzene hexachlo-
ride, lindane, chlordane, endrin, heptachlor and toxaphene, all products
containing mercury, arsenic, or lead, and all others deemed necessary to
review..." In accordance with this charge, the Special Pesticide Review
Group has reviewed the hazards associated with the use of chlordane.
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CHAPTER I
Summary of Current Pesticide Uses of Chlordane
With Alternative Pesticides Available
Chlordane currently has limited use as a foliar agricultural insecticide. In
general, the limitations on the foliar use of chlordane on vegetable crops
include a caution not to apply after edible parts begin to form. In all
instances the applications of chlordane by the foliar route include the limi-
tation not to graze treated fields with dairy animals or animals being pre-
pared for slaughter. In certain fruit registrations there are harvest limita-
tions of from 14 to 30 days following foliar applications. In almost all
instances chlordane is not applied directly to an edible portion of the crop.
Alternatives are available except for the use of foliar applications of chlor-
dane on pineapple to control ants.
Chlordane is registered for foliar use in home gardens on ornamentals, shade
trees, and flower garden plants for a multitude of pests. The uses employ
concentrations of 1-2 lb/100 gal of water for foliar applications. There are
alternatives available for the home foliar uses which are less persistent
and/or less toxic materials.
The major use of chlordane in agriculture is as a soil insecticide. In
general, soil treatment with chlordane controls soil insects such as ants,
wireworms, white grubs, Japanese beetle grubs, white-fringed beetle and cut-
worms. Alternatives other than the chlorinated hydrocarbons are not effective
for certain of these pests. The crops include certain bush and vine fruits,
citrus fruits, deciduous fruits and nuts, field, fiber and forage crops,
grain crops, bananas and various vegetables. The majority of the crops for
which chlordane.has a registered use have a tolerance of 0.3 ppm. The maxi-
mum allowable dosage to be applied to the soil is 10 Ib active ingredient
(AI)/acre. However, the usual rate of application is considerably lower.
The general limitation for the use of chlordane as a soil insecticide is as
a preplanting soil application or when no edible portion of the crop is
present above ground.
The use of chlordane as a soil treatment for the control of insects in lawns,
commercial turfs and nursery plant stock may be employed up to 10 Ib Al/acre.
The situation relative to alternatives is essentially the same as for the
agricultural soil uses described above. Use for nursery stock is extremely
valuable for purposes of quarantine regulations in interstate shipment of
pest-free plants.
Seed treatment application utilizes 2 oz of actual chlordane per bushel of
seed. This application is effective against the following pests: seed-corn
beetles, seed-corn maggots, corn rootworms and wireworms. Seed treatments
are registered with the limitation that the seed not be used as food or feed.
Diazinon is the only nonchlorinated hydrocarbon alternative available. The
approved uses of Diazinonly are limited.
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Chlordane baits are limited to soil treatments for control of grasshoppers,
cutworms, crickets, and mole crickets. This use is limited to those crops
for which soil treatment is allowed. The concentration of chlordane used in a
bait is 1 Ib Al/acre with the limitation of not contaminating edible parts of
the crop.
Nonfood insecticide uses in agriculture include the treatment of agricultural
premises with a 3% oil or water spray or a 6% dust for the control of adult
houseflies, face flies, stable flies and mosquitoes. The limitations on the
use of chlordane for agricultural premises exclude use in dairy barns and
poultry houses and caution that the materials not be applied to food or not to
contaminate feed or drinking water. Adequate alternates are available.
Out-of-doors spray treatments of ditchbanks, field borders, roadsides and
vacant lands for the control of crickets, grasshoppers, mosquitoes, gnats,
flies, ticks, and chiggers employ chlordane at rates of up to 1.5 Ib Al/acre.
Suitable alternate pesticides are available.
Application of household uses of chlordane has been reported as one of the
significant uses. The limitations preclude the use of chlordane in areas
where food is exposed in order to reduce the occurrence of residues on food.
Chlordane is used for household control of ants, ticks, mosquitoes, house
flies, roaches, spiders, scorpions and other general pests using either a 6%
dust or a 3% spray application, usually as a spot treatment. Adequate alter-
nate insecticides are not available for all cockroach species.
Chlordane is used as a 5% dust or a 0.5% dip or spray on dogs for the control
of lice, fleas, ticks, and mange. Limitations preclude use on young animals
or the excessive use of sprays and dips. Alternatives for mange control are
limited to BHC and lindane.
Chlordane is registered as a herbicide for the preemergence control of crab-
grass on lawns. The recommended dosage of chlordane for this treatment is
65-87 Ib Al/acre. Several herbicides are very effective substitutes for this
use of chlordane.
The major use of chlordane in the United States is as a soil treatment around
and under buildings for the control of termites. The usual rate of appli-
cation is 4 gal of a 1% chlordane solution per 10 linear feet along the in-
side and outside of foundation walls and partitions. Aldrin, dieldrin and
heptachlor are the only alternatives available for termite control.
Chlordane is registered as a mosquito larvicide at a rate of 0.2-0.4 Ib AI/
acre in water. It is registered as a mosquito adulticide at a rate of 1 Ib
Al/acre. Paris green is an effective alternate for use as a mosquito larvi-
cide. Chlordane is used in sewage treatment for the contol of Psychoda
larvae at a rate of 0.5 gal (90% concentrate)/3000 gal liquid sewage.
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Table 1 presents the currently registered chlordane uses by use pattern and
the registered alternative pesticides (substitutes) where available. The
conclusions and effects of proposed actions are presented in subsection I.B.
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I.A.
Crop or Site
of Application
Foliage Applications
Agricultural Crops
Blackberry
Blueberry
Grape
Strawberry
Table 1. Summary of Registered Chlordane Uses and Alternatives
Insect Pest
Maximum or Usual
Dosage Rate
(Ib actual
insecticide/acre)
Strawberry root.
weevil adults
Thrips
Strawberry crown
borer
Strawberry root
weevil adulrs
Spittelbug
Cotton
Boll weevil
1.5
Registereu
Alternatives
Chlordane
Limitations
Apply before fruit starts to
form and after harvest.
Dibrom
Guthion
Parathion
Malathlon
Parathion
Carbaryl
Diazinon
Malathion
Methoxychlor
Parathion
Thiodan
Azodrin
Carbaryl
Endrin
EPN
Guthion
Methyl parathion
Methyl trithion
Do not apply after bolls open.
Do not graze dairy animals or
animals being finished for
slaughter on treated fields.
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Table 1. (continued)
Crop or Site
of Application
Insect Pest
Cotton fleahopper
Maximum or Usual
Dosage Rate
(Ib actual
insecticide/acre)
1.5
CO
Darkling beetle
Fall armyworm
1.5
1.5
Grasshoppers
1.5
Registered
Alternatives
Bidrin
Carbaryl
DDT
Dibrom
Endrin
Guthion
Malathion
Methyl Parathion
Parathion
Phosphamidon
Trichlorofon
Carbaryl
DDT
Endrin
Carbaryl
DDT
Endrin
Methyl Parathion
Strobane
Toxaphene
Carbaryl
Malathion
Methyl Parathion
Strobane
Toxaphene
Chlordane
Limitations
Tarnished plant bugs
1.5
Bidrin
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Table 1. (continued)
Crop or Site
of Application
Citrus
Apples
Insect Pest
Thrips
Grasshoppers
(outer foliage to
drip line)
Codling moth
Oriental fruit moth
Plum curculio
Bagworras
Thrips
Flea beetles
Maximum or Usual
Dosage Rate
(Ib actual
insecticide/acre)
1.5
Registered
Alternatives
Carbaryl
DDT
Endrin
Guthion
Malathion
Methyl parathion
Parathion
Phosphamidon
Strobane
Toxaphene
Toxaphene
C- .lordane
Limitations
8
8
8
Carbaryl
Parathion
Malathion
Carbaryl
Carbaryl
Parathion
Malathion
14 days. Apply to trunk and larger
branches and to outer foliage at
drip line.
30 davs
Diazinon
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Table 1. (continued)
Crop or Site Insect Pest
of Application
Apricots Plum curculio
Nectarines
Peaches
Catfacing Insects
Pears Plum curculio .
Thrlps
Flea beetles
Pineapples Ants
Corn (field) Corn earworm
Maximum or Usual
Dosage Rate
(Ib actual
insecticide/acre)
8
8
8
8
8
2
' 1.5 .
Registered
Alternatives
Carbaryl
Dieldrin
Guthion
EPN
Malathion
Methoxychlor
Parathion
Carbaryl
Dieldrin
Guthion
Parathic.'.
Carbaryl
Parathion
Diazinon
Malathion
Diazinon
Aldrin
Dieldrin
Carbaryl
Diazinon
Parathion
Toxaphene
Chlordane
Limitations
30 days
30 days
30 ^ays
30 days
Do not feed bran or husks to
livestock.
Do not feed treated forage to
dairy animals or animals being
finished for slaughter.
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Table 1. (continued)
Crop or Site
of Application
Insect Pest
Maximum or Usual
Dosage Rate
(Ib actual
insecticide/acre)
Registered
Alternatives
Chlordane
Limitations
Corn silk fly
Parathion
No :estriction of grain.
Small Grains
(Barley, Oats,
Rye, Wheat)
Armyworms
Carbaryl
Malathion
Methyl parathion
Parathion (except
on rye)
Toxaphene
Do not apply after heads begin to form.
Do not graze treated fields. No restric-
tion on use of grain.
Rice
Armyworms
Do not apply after heads start to form.
Do not graze treated forage. No restric-
tion on use of grain.
Flax
Crickets
None
Do not apply after blossoms appear.
Do not feed treated forage to dairy
animals being finished for slaughter.
No restriction on the use of treated
grain.
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Table 1. (continued)
Crop or Site
of Application.
Asparagus
Beans
Beets
Insect Pest
Asparagus beetle
(post-cutting use)
Flea beetles
Green stink bugs
Cutworms (climbing
and surface)
Flea beetles
Annyworms
Maximum or Usual
Dosage Rate
(Ib actual
insecticide /acre)
1.0
Registered
Alternatives
BHC
Carbaryl
Malathion
Rotenone
Chlordane
Limitations
Post-cutting only
Carbaryl
Methyl parathion
Methoxychlpr
Carbaryl
Dibrom
Guthion
Methyl parathion
Dylox
Phosdrin
Carbaryl
Malathion
Methoxychlor
Methyl parathion
Parathion
Dylox
Malathion
Methyl parathion
Do not apply to green or snap bean
after pods begin to form.
Do not apply to green or snap beans
after pods begin to form.
Do not apply after seedling stage
if tops are to be u:-:d as food.
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Table 1. (continued)
Crop or Site
of Application
Blackeye peas
(Cowpeas)
Broccoli
Brussels sprout
Cabbage
Cauliflower
Collards
Kale
Kohlrabi
Insect Pest
Flea beetle
Maximum or Usual
Dosage Rate
(Ib actual
insecticide/acre)
Cabbage worms
Flea beetle
Registered
Alternatives
Carbaryl
Methoxychlor
Carbaryl
Guthion
Dylox
Parathion
Carbaryl
Dibrom
(except
kohlrabi)
Cuthion
(except collards,
kale and kohlrabi)
Lannate (cabbage,
broccoli, cauli-
flower only)
Parathion
Phosdrin (except
kohlrabi)
Thiodan
Toxaphene
Carbaryl
Methoxychlor
Methyl parathion
Parathion
Rotenone
Thiodan
Chlordane
Limitations
Do not apply after pods start to form.
Do not apply after e
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Table 1, (continued)
Crop'or Site
of Application
Celery
Cole Crops
Carrots
Corn, sweet
Insect Pest
Armyworms
Flea beetles
Green stink bugs
Harlequin bugs
Carrot rust fly
Corn earworms
Maximum or Usual
Dosage Rate
(Ib actual
insecticide/acre)
2
1.5
Corn silk fly
1.5
Registered
Alternatives
Malathion
Lindane
Phosdrin
Diazinon
Dibrom
Methyl parathion
Parathion
Thiodan
Carbaryl
Dibrom
Parathion
Thiodan
Parathion
Carbaryl
Diazinon
Lannate
Parathion
Thiodan
Toxaphene
Parathion
Chlordane "
Limitations
Do not apply after celery begins to bunch
or after one-half grown.
Do not apply after edible parts start to
form.
No tine limitation
Apply primarily to silks. Do not feed
treated forage to dairy animals or
animals being finished for slaughter.
No restriction on the use of corn as humai
food.
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Table 1. (continued)
Crop or Site
of Application
Cucumbers
Melons
Squash
Insect Pest
Cucumber beetle
Maximum or Usual
Dosage Rate
(Ib actual
insecticide/acre)
1.5
Squash bug
1.5
Registered
Alternatives
Carbaryl
Lindane
Malathion
Methoxychlor
Parathion
Rotenone
Thiodan
Carbaryl
Lindane
Parathion
Thiodan
Chlordane
Limitations
Do not apply af-
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Table 1. (continued)
Crop or Site
of Application
Lettuce
Insect Pest
Armywonns
Lygus bugs
Maximum or Usual
Dosage Rate
(Ib actual
insecticide/acre)
Registered
Alternatives
Dlbrom
Dylox
Lannate
Methyl parathion
Parathion
Phosdrin
Carbaryl
Parathion
Phosdrin
Chlordane
Limitations
Do not apply af ir edible parts .start to
form.
Serpentine leafniner
Dizalnon
Dime cheat-:
Dibrora
Parathion
Okra
Onion
Spotted cucumber
beetle
Serpentine leafminer
Stink bugs
Thrips
Parathion
Phosdrin
Parathion
Toxaphene
Carbaryl
Parathion
Phosdrin
BHC '
Diazinon
Dibroin
Guthion
Malathion
Parathion
Phosdrin
Do not apply after edible parts start to
form.
Do not apply to green or spring onions.
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Table 1. (continued)
Crop or Site
of Application
Peas
Peppers
Potato
Insect Pest
Pea Leafminer
Climbing cutworms
Flea beetles
Serpentine leafminers
Potato flea beetle
Maximum or Usual
Dosage Rate
(Ib actual
insecticide/acre)
1.5
Colorado potato beetle
1.5
1.5
Registered
Alternatives
Parathion
Toxaphene
Carbaryl
Carbaryl
Parathion
Malathion
Lindane
Diazinon
Carbaryl
Diazinon
Dibrom
Dieldrin
Parathion
Phospnamidon
Rotenone
Thiodan
'Carbaryl
Dibrom
Diazinon
Guth'ion
Phosphamidon
Thiodan
Chlordane
Limitations
Do not apply after edible parts are
starting to form.
No time limitation.
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Table 1. (continued)
Crop or Site
of Application
Tomato
Insect Pest
Serpentine leafminer
Flea beetles
Maximum or Usual
Dosage Rate
(Ib actual
insecticide/acre)
1.5
oo
Leafminer
Leafminer
Registered
Alternatives
Diazinon
Dibrom
Dimethoate
Guthion
Parathion
BHC
Carbaryl
Dibrom
IDE
Thiodan
Toxaphere
Carbaryl
Dibrom
IDE
Thiodan
Toxaphene
BHC
Diazinon
Dibrom
Diaethoate
Guthion
Parachion
Phosphamidon
Chlordane
Limitations
Do not apply after fruit begins to form.
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Table 1. (continued)
Crop or Site
of Application
Home Gardens
Flower Garden
Plants
Ornamentals and
Shade Trees
(foliar)
Insect Pest
Ants
Bagworms
Black vine Weevil
adults
Crickets
Earwigs
Elm leaf beetles
Maximum or Usual
Dosage Rate
(Ib actual
insecticide/acre)
1 Ib actual/
50 g^l water
1 Ib actual/
100 gal water
1 Ib actual/
100 gal water
1 Ib actual/
100 gal water
1 Ib actual/
100 gal water
*Soil application
Registered
Alternatives
Dlazinon
Bidrin
Carbaryl
Diazinon
Dinethoate
Dylox
Malathion
Toxaphene
Trithion
Dieldrin
Hepca' '-.lor
Thiodan
Dieldrin*
Dieldrin*
Carbaryl
Dieldrin
Di-Syston*
Lead arsenate
Metasystox-R(R)
IDE
Thiodan
Toxaphene
Ohlordane
Limitations
-------
Table 1. (continued)
Crop or Site
of Application
Insect Pest
Fullers rose
beetle
Grasshoppers
Imported fire ant
(mound treatment)
Lacebugs
NJ
O
Leafminers
Leafrollers
Maximum or Usual
Dosage Rate
(Ib actual
insecticide/acre)
1 Ib actual/
100 gal water
100 ^al water
1 Ib actual/
50 gal water
1 Ib actual
100 gal water
1 Ib actual/
100 gal water
1 Ib actual/
100 gal water
Registered
Alternatives
Lindane
Dieldrin
Heptachlor*
Mirex bait*
Carbaryl
Demeton
Dimethoate
Di-Syston*
Malathicn
Methoxyclilor
IDE
Pyrethrins
Bidrin
Dimethoate
Dylox
Lindane
Malathion
Phosphamidon
BHC
Carbaryl
Diazinon
Diir.ethorte
Pyrethrins
IDE
Chlordane
Limitations
*Soll application
-------
Table 1. (continued)
Crop or Site
of Application .
Soil Application
Agricultural Crops
Blackberry
Insect Pest
Blueberry
Grape
Boysenberry
Dewberry
Huckleberry
Loganberry
Raspberry
Youngberry
Strawberry
Cutworms
Root weevil larvae
Maximum or Usual
Dosage Rate
(Ib actual
insecticide/acre)
2.5-4
10
2.5-4
Registered
Alternatives
Chlordane
Limitations
Japanese beetle bugs
White grubs-
Wireworms
White fringed beetle grubs
Cutworms 2.5-4
Japanese beetle grubs
White grubs
Wireworms
White fringed beetle grubs
Cutworms 2.5-4
Japanese beetle grubs
White grubs
Wireworras
White fringed beetle
Cutworms 2.5-4
Japanese beetle grubs
White grubs
White fringed beetle grubs
Wireworms
Brachyrhir.us weevil 10.
Heptachlor
Heptachlor
Heptachlor
Dieldrin
Heptachlor
Dieldrin
Heptachlor
Heptachlor
(registered on
Boyscr.berry,
dewberry and
raspberry only)
Aldrin
Dieldrin
Preplanting soil application or when no
fruit is present.
Preplanting soil application or when no
fruit is present.
Preplanting soil application or when no
fruit is present.
-------
Table 1. (continued)
CO
ISJ
Crop or Site
of Application.
,
Pineapple
Cotton
Citrus
Peaches
Apple, Pear, Plum
Quince, Apricot,
Insect Pest
Cutworms
Earwigs
Mole crickets
Strawberry root weevil
White grubs
Wireworms
Ants
White fringed beetle
Argentine ant
Little fire ant
Termites
Plum curculio
General soil parts
Maximum or Usual
Dosage Rate
(Ib actual
insecticide/acre)
2.5-4
2.5
2.5
10
2.5-4
2
' .5
2
2
2
>
2
Registered Chlordane
Alternatives Limitations
Aldrin
Dieldrln
Lindane
Toxaphene
Diazinon
Dieldrin ' .
Aldrin
Parathion
Aldrin
Dieldrin
Aldrin Do not feed bran or busk to livestock.
DDT Preplanting soil application.
Heptachlor Soil treatment . Apply when no food is
present.
Dieldrln
Aldrin Soil application when no fruit is
present.
Heptachlor
Cherry, Nectarine,
Prune
-------
Table 1. (continued)
Crop or Site
of Application
Corn(field)
Insect Pest
Asiatic garden beetle
larvae
Cornfield ants
Corn root aphid
Corn rootwrons
Maximum or Usual
Dosage Rate
(Ib actual
insecticide/acre),
2.5-4 .
2-4
2-4
2-4
ix:
u>
Registered
Alternatives
Heptachlor
Heptachlor
Bux
Carbofuran
Dasanit
Di-Syston
Dyfonate
Heptachlor
Phorate
Parathion
Chlordane
Limitations
Preplanting soil application.
Cutworms
2.5-4
Green June beetle
larvae
Japanese beetle larvae
White grubs
2.5-4
Aldrin
Carbaryl
Diaziaon
Heptachlor
Parathion
Toxaphena
Heptachlor
Aldrin
Heptachlor
Parathion
Seed corn beetles
2.5-4
Aldrin
Heptachlor
Thimet (Iowa and
Illinois Only)
-------
Table 1. (continued)
Crop or Site
of Application
Small Grains
(Barley, oats,
rye, wheat)
Soybeans
Flax
Peanuts
Sugar beets
Insect Pest
Seed corn maggot
White fringed beetle
Wireworms
Red harvester ants and
Cutworms
Wireworms
White grubs
Cutworms
Japanese beetle grubs
White grubs
Wireworms
White fringed beetle grubs
Sugar beet root maggot
Maximum or Usual
Dosage Rate
(Ib actual
insecticide /acre)
2.5-4
2.5-4
. 5/colony
2.5-4
2.5-4
2.5-4
33 2.5-4
2.5-4
2.5-4
4
Registered
Alternatives
Aldrin
Heptachlor
Aldrin
Diazinon
Heptachlor
Parathioix
CS- (mound
treatment)
Heptachlor
Diazinon
Heptachlor
Heptachlor
Parathion
Heptachlor
Heptachlor
Diazinon
Di-syston
(limited to
2 states)
Phorate
Chlordane
Limitations
Preplanting soil application
Preplanting soil application
Preplanting soil application
Preplanting soil application
Preplanting soil application
-------
Crop or Site
of Application
Tobacco
ro
Ln
Hops
Sorghum
Insect Pest
Wirewonns
Wirewonns (transplant
solution)
Wirewonns (broadcast)
White grubs (broadcast
White fringed beetle
grubs (broadcast)
Table 1. (continued)
Maximum or Usual
Dosage Rate
(Ib actual
insecticide/acre)
2.5-4
1.5
2.5-4
2.5-4
2.5-4
2.5-4
2.5-4
Registered
Alternatives
Diazinon
Dyfonate
Parathlon
Aldrin
Diazinon
Dieldrin
Heptachior
Lindane
Aldrin
Diazinon
Dieldrin
Dyfonate
Heptachior
Lindane
Aldrin
Dieldrin
Parathion
Aldrin
Dieldrin
Keotachlor
Chlordane
Limitations
Transplanting
treatment
Preplanting soil application.
Preplanting soil application.
-------
Table 1. (continued)
Crop or Site
of Application
Asparagus
Beans
Insect Pest
Cutworms
Japanese beetle grubs
White grubs
Maximum or Usual
Dosage Rate
(Ib actual
insecticide/acre)
2.5-4
2.5-4
2.5-4
Registered
Alternatives
Chlordane
Limitations
White fringed beetle grubs 2.5-4
Cutworms 2.5-4
Japanese beetle grubs 2.5-4
White grubs 2.5-4
Wireworms 2.5-4
BHC
Lindane
Calcium
arsenate
bait
BHC
Lindane
BHC
Aldrin
Lindane
EDB (virewonas only)
Parathicn
Preplanting soil application or at time
of planting or transplanting.
Dlazinon
Heptachlor
Parathion
Toxaphene
Parathion
Heptachlor
Parathion
Diazinon
Heptachlor
Parathion
Preplanting soil application or at time
of planting or transplanting.
White fringed beetle grubs 2.5-4
Heptachlor
-------
Table 1. (continued)
Crop or Site
of Application
Insect Pest Maximum or Usual
Dosage Rate
(Ib actual
Registered Ohlordane
Alternatives Limitations
insecticide/acre)
Beets
Blackeyed peas
(cowpeas)
Cucurbits
Eggplant
Cutworms
Japanese beetle grubs
White grubs
Whiteworms
White fringed beetle grubs-
Cutworms
Japanese beetle grubs
White grubs'
Wireworms
White fringed beetle grubs
White fringed beetle grubs
Cutworms
Japanese beetle grubs
White grubs
2.5-4
2.5-4
2.5-4
2.5-4
2.5-4
2.5-4
2.5-4
2.5-4 .
2.5-4
2.5-4
2.5-4
2.5-4
2.5-4
Preplanting soil application or at time
of planting or transplanting.
Parathion
Diazinon
Preplanting soil application or at time
of planting or transplanting.
Diazinon
Parathion
Aldrin
Dieldrin
Aldrin
BKC
Dieldrin
Lindane
Toxaphene
Aldrin
BHC
Dieldrin
Lindane . '
-------
Table 1. (continued)
Crop or Site
of Application
Insect Pest
Wireworms
Maximum or Usual
Dosage Rate
(Ib actual
insecticide/acre)
2.5-4
NJ
00
Broccoli*
Brussels sprout
Cabbage
Cauliflower
Collards
Kale
Kahlrabi
Cucurbits
White fringed beetle
grubs
Cabbage maggots
2.5-4
2.5-4
Cutworms
2.5-4
Registered
Alternatives
Aldrin
BHC
Dieldrin
EDB
Lindane
Parathion
Aldrin
Dieldrin
Aldrin
Diazinon
Dieldrin
Dyfonate**
Heptachlor
(furrow,
transplant,
water, and
drench. Cab-
bage only.)
BHC
Aldrin
Diazinon
Dieldrin
Lindane
Chlordane
Limitations
Preplanting soil application or at time
of planting or transplanting.
Preplanting soil app.1.-1 cation or at time
of planting or transplanting.
Preplanting soil application at time of
planting or transplanting.
* Aldrin and dieldrin are not registered for use on collards, kale, and kohlrabi.
* Diazinon is not registered on kohlrabi.
EDB registered for use on broccoli and cauliflower only.
**Seed crop only.
-------
Table 1. (continued)
Crop or Site
of Application
Insect Pest
Japanese beetle grubs
White grubs
Wirewonns
NJ
VO
Lettuce
Cutworms
Maximum or Usual
Dosage Rate
(Ib actual
Insecticide/acre)
2.5-4
2.5-4
2.5-4
2.5-4
Registered Chlordane
Alternatives Limitations
Aldrin
BHC
Dieldrin .
Lindane
Aldrin
BHC
Dieldrin
Lindane
Aldrin
BHC
Dieldrin
Diazinon
Lindane
Parachion
Aldrin Preplanting soil application or at time
BHC of planting or transplanting.
Diazinon
Dieldrin
Heptachlor
'(lettuce only)
Lindane
Parathion
Toxaphene
-------
Table 1. (continued)
Crop cr Site'
of Application
Insacc Pest
Japanese beetle grubs
White grubs
Wireworr.s
Maximum or Usual
Dosage Race
(Ib actual
insecticide/acre)
2.5-4
Registered
Alternatives
Aldrin
BHC
Dieldrin '
Heptachlor
(lettuce only)
Lindane
Parathion
Chlordane
Limitations
UJ
O
Celery,
Mole crickets
Root maggots
Carrot rust fly
Cutworms
Japanese beetle grubs
White grubs
2
1.5
2
2.5-4
2.5-4
Aldrin
Diazinon
Aldrin
Diazinon
Dieldrin
Hepbachlor.
(lettuce only)
Lindane
Diazinon
Aldrin
BHC
Diazinon
Lindane :
Parathion '
Toxaphene
Aldrin
BHC
Lindane
Parathion
Preplanting soil application or at tine
of planting or transplanting.
-------
Crop or Site
of Application
Corn (sweet
and pop)
Garlic
Onions
Leeks
Insect Pest
Mole crickets
Wlreworms
White fringed beetle grubs
See field corn
Onion maggots
Table 1. (continued)
Maximum or Usual
Dosage Rate
(Ib actual
insecticide/acre)
Okra
Peas
Wireworms
Wirewonns
2.5-4
2.5-4
2.5-4
2.5-4
Registered
Alternatives
Aldrin
Diazinon
Aldrin
BHC
Diazinon
Lindane
Parathion
Diazinon
Dieldrin
Ethlon
Dyfonate
Parathion
Trithion
Diazinon
Parathion
BHC
EDB
Lindane
Parathion
Diazinon
Parathion
Chlordane
Limitations
Preplanting soil application or at
time of planting or transplanting.
Preplanting soil application or at
time of planting or transplanting.
-------
Table 1. (continued)
Crop or Site
of Application
Parsnips
Mustard greens
U)
N3
Pepper
Insect Pest
Cutworms
Japanese beetle grubs
White grubs
Cutworms
Japanese beetle grubs
White grubs
Wireworms
White fringed beetle grubs-
Cutworms
Maximum or Usual
Dosage Rate
(Ib actual
insecticide/acre)
Japanese beetle grubs
White grubs
2.5-4
2.5-4
2.5-4
2.5-4
2.5-4
2.5-4
2.5-4
Registered
Alternatives
Dieldrin
Dieldrin
BHC
Diazinon
Lindane
BHC
Lindane
Diazinon
Aldrin
BHC
Dieldrin
Diazinon
Heptachlor
Lindane
Toxaphene
Aldrin
BHC
Dieldrin
1 Lindane
Parathion
Aldrin
BHC
Dieldrin
Heptachlor
Lindane
Parathion
Chlordane
Limitations
Preplanting sc-.l application or at time
of planting or transplanting.
Preplanting soil application or at time
of planting or transplanting.
Preplanting soil application or at time
of planting or transplanting.
-------
Table 1. (continued)
Crop or Site
of Application
Pepper
Potatoes
U)
Radish
/
Insect Pest
Wireworms
Wlreworms
White fringed beetle.
Colorado Potato Beetle
Potato flea beetle
Serpentine leafminer
Cutworms
Japanese beetle grubs
White grubs
Wireworms
Maximum or Usual
Dosage Rate
(Ib actual
insecticide/acre)
2. 5- A
2.5-4
2.5-4
1.5
1.5
1.5
2.5-4
2.5-4
2.5-4
Registered Chlordane
Alternatives Limitations
Aldrin
BHC
Diazinon
Dieldrin
EDB
Heptachlor Preplanting soil application or at
Lindane time of planting or transplanting.
Parathion
Aldrin
Diazinon No limitation.
Carbaryl
Malathion No limitation.
Carbaryl
Diazinon
Malathion No limitation.
Diazinon
Diazinon Preplanting soil application or at
Dieldrin time of planting or transplanting.
Dieldrin
Parathion
Dieldrin
Diazinon
Parathion
-------
Table 1. (continued)
Crop or Site
of Application
Rutabaga
Spinach
Insect Pest
White fringed beetle grubs
Cutworms
Japanese beetle grubs
White grubs
Wire worms
White fringed beetle grubs
Cutworms
Japanese beetle grubs
White grubs
Wireworms
Turnips
Cutworms
Maximum or Usual
Dosage Rate
(Ib actual
insecticide/acre)
is 2.5-4
'2.5-4
2.5-4
as 2.5-4
2.5-4
2.5-4
bs 2.4-5
1.4-5
Registered Chlordane
Alternatives Limitations
Dieldrin
Heptachlor
Parathion Preplanting soil application or at time
of planting or transplanting.
Heptachlor
Parathion
Heptachlor
Parathion
Heptachlor
BHC Preplanting soil application or at -.ime
Diazinon of planting or transplanting.
Lindane
Parathion
BHC
Parathion
Lindar.e
BHC
Diazinon
' Lindane
Parathion
Diazinon Preplanting soil application or at time
Parathion of planting or transplanting.
Japanese beetle grubs
2.5-4
Parathion
-------
Table 1. (continued)
Crop or Site
of Application
.
Sweet potato
Tomato
Insect Pest
White grubs
Wireworms
White fringed beetle
Flee beetle larvae
White grubs'
Cutworms
Japanese beetle grubs
White grubs
Maximum or Usual
Dosage Rate
(Ib actual
insecticide/acre)
2.5-4 .
grubs 2.5-4
2.5-5
2.5-5
2.5-4
2.5-4
Registered
Alternatives
Parathion
Diazinon
Diazinon
Dyfonate
Parathion
Parathion
Aldrin
BHC
Diazinon
Dieldrin
Heptachlor
Lindane
Parathion
Toxaphene
Aldrin
BHC
Dieldrin
Heptachlor
Lindane
Parathion
Chlordane
Limitations
Preplanting soil application or at time
of planting or transplanting.
Preplanting soil application or
at time of planting or transplanting.
Preplanting soil application or at
time of planting or transplanting.
-------
Table 1. (continued)
Crop or Site
of Application
Insect Pest
Wireworms
Maximum or Usual
Dosage Rate
(Ib actual
insecticide/acre)
2.5-4
Registered
Alternatives
Aldrin
BHC
Diazinon
Dieldrin
Heptachlor
EDB
Lindane
Parathion
Chlordane
Limitations
Watermelons
Pumpkins
Melons
Squash
Wireworms (transplant
treatment)
White fringed beetle
grubs
Cucumber beetle
Squash bug
Squash vine borer
.75
2.5-4
2.5
Aldrin
Dieldrin
Heptachlor
Thiodan
Carbaryl
Soil Insects
Transplant treatment.
Preplanting soil application or at time
of planting or transplanting.
Do not apply after edible parts start
to form.
General claims for Wireworms, white grubs, Japanese beetle grubs, white fringed beetle and cutworms are acceptable
for soil treatment of all crops listed in the "EPA Compendium of Registered Pesticides."
-------
Table 1. (continued)
LO
Crop or Site
of Application
Home Gardens
Flower garden
plants
Ornamentals and
Shade trees
(soil)
Insect Pest
Mole crickets
Narcissus bulbflies
Seed corn maggots
Black vine weevil
larvae
Maximum or Usual
Dosage Rate
(Ib actual
insecticide/acre)
1 Ib actual/
100 gal water
1 Ib of 6% dust/
75 ft of row
1 level tsp
40% wp per Ib
5 Ib actual/
acre (soil
treatment
Registered
Alternatives
Diazinon
Dieldrin
Dylow
Heptachlor
Dieldrin*
Aldrin*
Dieldrin*
Heptachlor*
Ihiodan*
Chlordane .
Limitations
*Soil applications
-------
Table 1. (continued)
Lawns and Ornamental Turf
Soil and Surface Applications
Registev-d Alternatives
Aldrin
fr
0
o
9
Carbaryl
Diazinon
Dieldrin
Ethion
Dursban
X
n>
o
rr
0)
O
0
Toxaphene
Trithion
oo
Insect ?est
Ants
Asiatic garden
beetle larvae
Boxelder bugs
Chiggers
Chinch bugs
Cicada killers
Wild bees
Cutworms
Earthworms
Earwigs
European chafer larvae
Green June beetle
larvae
Japanese beetle larvae
Lawn moths (sod
webworm)
Mosquito adults
Ticks
White fringed
beetle larvae
White grubs
Wireworas
Imported fire ants
1.5
2.5-5
1
1.5
2
5
5
5
10
1
2.5-5
2.5-5
2.5-5
3
.2-.4
1.5
2.5-5
5-10
5-10
1.5
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X - Registered
Note: Chlordane is registered for control of moles in lawns.
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
-------
Table 1. (continued)
Seed Treatments
Crop Treatment
Beans
Blackeyed peas
Corn
Co.tton
Cowpeas
Oats
Peas
Rice
Rye
Sorghum
Soybeans
Wheat
Insect Pest .
Seed corn beetle
Seed corn maggot
Corn rbotuonn
Wireworms
(Temporary
protection against)
2 oz. actual
insecticide
per bushel
Registered
Alternatives
o
H*
re
K- H- o.
3 g H
3 3
ff
a
it
u
n
31
O
n
s s
3 O
a.
3
(5
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Chlordane
Limitations
Do not use for
food, feed, or
oil purposes
X - Registered
Baits - Chlordane baits limited to soil treatment? are acceptable for use against grasshoppers, cutworms, crickets, and mole
crickets. This type application nay be used only in accordance with approximate "Summary" clearance and limitations on crops
so specified. In general, toxapher.e baits are registered for nar.y of the same uses as chlordane baits. Use of 1 Ib of actual
insecticide per acre. Do not contaminate edible r-'.rts.
-------
Table 1. (continued)
Crop or Site
of Application
Insect Pest
Maximum or Usual
Dosage Rate
(Ib actual
Registered
Alternatives
Chlordane
Limitations
insecticide/acre)
Agricultural Premises
(excluding dairy
barns and poultry
houses)
Housefiles
Outdoor Treatments
Ditch Banks,
Field Borders,
Roadsides,
Vacant Lands
Chiggers
Ticks
Flies
Gnats
Mosquitoes
1.5
1.5
.2-.4
Clodrin
Dibroin
Diazinon
DDVP
Dimethoate
Lindane
Malathiop.
Methoxychlor
Synergized
pyrethrins
Ronnel
Lindane
Toxaphene
Gardona
Lindane
Toxaphene
Lindane
Ronnel
Carbaryl
(Mosquito only)
3% spray (in oil or water). Use as a
residual surface spray. Do not apply
to feed stuffs. Do not contaminate
feed or drinking water.
6% dust. Thorough application to .
interior and exterior surfaces. Do
not apply to feed stuffs. Do not con-
taminate feed or drinking water.
Do nou feed or graze dairy animals or
animals being finished.
-------
Table 1. (continued)
Crop or Site Insect Pest
of Application
Grasshoppers
Crickets
Maximum or Usual
Dosage Rate
(Ib actual
insecticide/acre)
Registered
Alternatives
Carbaryl
Dieldrin
Lindane
Toxaphene
Dibrom
Heptachlor
Malathio-.i
Chlordane
Limitations
-------
Crop or Site Insect Pest
of Application
Household and Commercial Uses
Sprays and Dusts
Ants v
Boxelder bugs
Brown dog ticks
Carpet beetles
Centipedes
Crickets
Houseflies
Mosquitoes
Roaches
Waterbugs
Scorpions
Spiders
Silverfish
Wasps
X - Registered
Dogs
6% Dust
3% spray
Lice
Fleas
Ticks
to
5
5% Dust
.25 or .5% dip
or spray.
Shampoos
Table 1. (continued)
Registered Alternates
§ 3
H- -o >i
to O n>
ro
H- D.
3 1
O H.
3 3
TO
13
3
D.
0)
3
re
0* CL 3*
H- (0 1
BHC
Carbaryl
DDV? (Jet
use only)
Lindane
Malathion
Pyrethrins
(synergized)
Rotenone
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Chlordane
Limitations
Do not use in serving areas
while food is exposed. Do.
not use in the edible pro-
duct areas of food proces-
sing p._ants, res laurants,
or other areas where food
is processed or served.
Spot treatment.
Do not use on young ani-
mals. Do not apply .25% .
solution more than once
per we1*. Do not r.pply
.5% solution more than
once everv 2 weeks.
-------
Table 1. (continued)
Crop or Site
of Application
Insect Pest
Sarcoptic Mange
Herbicide
Preemergence
Crabgraas Control
Termite Control
Buildings Termites
Household and
Industrial
Oil-Treatment
Special Uses
Mosquito Adulticlde
and Larvicide
Maximum or Usual
Dosage Rate
(Ib actual
Insecticide/acre)
5% Dust, .5%
or .25% dip
or spray
65-87 Ib/acre
Registered
Alternatives
Chlordane
Limitations
1-3% Solution
Adulticlde: 1 Ib
Al/acre
Larvicide: 0.2-0.4 Ib
Al/acre
Benefin
Betesan
Dacthal
Siduron
Zytron
Aldrln
Dieldrin
Heptachlor
Carbaryl
'Malathlon
Naled
Pyrethrins .
Para'thion
Paris green
Flit MLO
-------
Table 1. (continued)
Crop or Site
of Application
Sewage Treatment
for Psychoda flies
Insect Pest
Maximum or. Usual
Dosage Rate
(Ib actual
insecticide/acre)
One treatment con-
sists of 1/2 gal of
product containing
1 11 chlordane/gal
Two treatments one
tfeek apart, then
1-2 : reatments per
month during summer
months.
Registered
Alternatives
Mevinphos
plus DDVP
Chlordane
Limitations
-------
I.E. Discussion of Registered Uses of Chlordane and its Alternatives - The
Special Pesticide Review Group has studied the toxicological hazard to man
and the environment associated with the use of chlordane as a pesticide in
the United States. In making this study, the Group has consulted pesticide
experts in EPA and other Federal agencies and has evaluated the information
received in response to the Federal Register notice on October 6, 1971 on
chlordane and heptachlor (36FR19453). The Group considered, but was not able
to fully evaluate, the social and economic effects which would result from
the cancellation of specific uses of chlordane as a pesticide.
In an effort to evaluate the environmental and human health effects of chlor-
dane, broad use patterns were established within the Special Pesticide Review
Group. Basically, the outdoor uses may be grouped into four broad categories
1) foliar; 2) soil treatment; 3) seed treatment; and 4) special uses. The
significant uses of chlordane include application to agricultural crops,
home gardens, ornamental plants, lawns, and for termite control. Other broad
categories include indoor applications for household pests and for use on dogs.
These broad use patterns present distinctly different degrees of hazard to
human health, wildlife, and the environment.
Seed treatments present the lowest order of hazard to human health, wildlife,
and the environment of the four outdoor categories. The treatment procedure
usually involves the application of the pesticide directly at a relatively low
dosage rate at a location remote from the field. This seed treatment is usu-
ally carried out by a commercial seed treatment firm. However, in some in-
stances the pesticide is placed directly into the furrow along with the seed.
In either instance, the furrow is covered with soil, keeping the pesticide
localized.
Soil applications of chlordane present the next lowest order of hazard.
Granulated formulations of chlordane are generally used in this procedure.
These granules are usually applied to agricultural crops as a band over the
row for soil insect control, especially in cornfields. The treated bands
are at least 7 in wide. The applicator is usually mounted on a planter, and
the band of granules is dropped just ahead of it and the press wheel of the
planter. The press wheel may make a slightly concave hand over the row. Most
agricultural granules contain 10 to 20% AI. Following are the significant
advantages for use of granules of a pesticide as far as minimizing environ-
mental contamination: (1) dosages of pesticides in granular form may be kept
at a minimum because drift is minimized, and; (2) minimizes contamination of
the edible portion of the crop because of the more specific placement or ap-
plication before the crop emerges.
Foliar applications present the highest degree of hazard of the three methods
of application of chlordane, both in terms of environmental contamination, and
also in terms of human hazard resulting from residues in food or feed crops.
Pesticides may be applied to plant foliage in the form of either dusts or
sprays. In the latter, wettable powders or emulsifiable concentrates are
mixed with water and are applied by ground or aerial equipment.
45
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Dusts or sprays for foliar applications have the following characteristics:
(1) They are subject to drift, thus contaminating food crops or water outside
of the desired area of application; (2) much of the applied pesticide does not
reach the target area; and, (3) deposits of pesticide are left on the foliage
of treated crops, thus contaminating edible portions.
Of the methods described for the application of chlordane, seed treatment and
soil applications offer the least possibility for environmental contamination
or for the production of residues in food or feed. Foliar applications, on
the other hand, have a great propensity for contamination of food, feed, or
the environment.
The following broad use patterns were established for the systemic review of
chlordane:
I.B.I. Foliar Application -
I.B.I.a. Agricultural Crops - All foliar applications of chlordane on agri-
cultural crops except ant control on pineapple in Hawaii have adequate alter-
nate pesticides. Although some of the alternatives present a greater acute
toxicity hazard, most represent less long-term hazard to man and the environ-
ment than chlordane when used as a foliar spray on agricultural crops. At
the present time, there are no Federal or State recommendations for agri-
cultural use of chlordane as a foliar treatment in the continental United
States. Loss of most agricultural foliar uses would create no adverse econo-
mic impact.
I.B.l.b. Home Gardens and Ornamentals - There were no significant requests
to continue foliar applications of chlordane for home gardens, ornamentals,
shade trees, and flower garden plants. All foliar uses of chlordane to home
gardens and ornamentals have adequate alternate pesticides. At the present
time, there are no Federal or State recommendations for use of chlordane as a
foliar treatment on home gardens or ornamentals. Loss of all home garden
and ornamental foliar uses of chlordane would create no adverse economic
impact.
I.B.l.c. Herbicide for Crabgrass Control - Chlordane is registered as a pre-
emergence herbicide for 'the control of crabgrass on lawns. The rates of
chlordane recommended for this use are 65 to 87 Ib/acre. There are a number
of more widely recommended alternates including benefin, siduron, dacthal,
betasan, and zytron and elimination of this high quantity use of chlordane
would minimize the human and environmental hazard of this pesticide. The ap-
plication rate is in effect a biological sterilizing dose and will probably
restrict most animal life in the soil for considerable periods of time after
application. Loss of this use will present no adverse economic impact.
I.B.2. Soil Applications - The effective alternatives for several of the
significant soil uses of chlordane include the chlorinated hydrocarbons,
aldrin, dieldrin, and heptachlor. Alternatives other than the chlorinated
pesticides are not registered for all uses nor are they likely to give
46
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equivalent control of insects such as ants, seed corn maggots, wireworms,
grubs, cutworms, and termites. This is especially true for certain soil ap-
plications for agricultural crops, lawns, and termite control. These uses
are reported to account for almost all of the poundage of the total chlordane
used in the United States at the present time.
Another consideration in the review of chlordane is the current status of the
registrations of aldrin and dieldrin. Actions against the registered uses of
aldrin and dieldrin could result in an increased use of chlordane. This may
increase the impact upon man and his environment.
I.E.2.a. Agricultural Crops - Under present conditions, 8-10,000 acres of
citrus in California require soil treatment for ant control each year. The
Argentine ant and the gray ant in California do not cause any direct damage
or injury to the citrus tree but their presence in large numbers in the aerial
parts of the tree significantly decrease the effectiveness of natural enemies
against certain primary citrus pests. The Argentine and gray ants destroy
adult parasites and the larvae of predators. The primary problem of the
endemic fire ant in California is direct injury to young citrus trees.
The University of Idaho reports chlordane as an effective soil treatment for
control of the sugar beet wireworm in potato fields. Chlordane was also reported
to have a lesser acute toxicity hazard than two other insecticides on
sugar beet wireworms.
An administrative report of the Economic Research Service, U.S. Department of
Agriculture (May 26, 1972, appended) explains that the total cost to United
States farmers for discontinuing the use of chlordane in 1971 would have been
$1.84 million ($1.56 million for substitute insecticides and $0.28 million
for production losses). The added cost for the substitute insecticides ranged
from a low of $0.18 per acre for cotton to a high of $6.77 per acre for corn.
The added cost for substitute insecticides in potato, tomato, vegetable and
strawberry production is estimated at $2.50 per acre. The per-acre value of
production losses are $23.00 for vegetables, $31.00 for citrus, and $75.00
for strawberries.
Production of cabbage has decreased substantially in the chlordane-realstant
maggot areas of Maine, primarily because of the high cost of Diazinon^in
relation to the value of cabbage and to the poor control obtained with this
pesticide. In many instances a single application of chlordane is sufficient
for wireworm control for several years while other more toxic materials
require several annual treatments.
Increased use of chlordane may result from the cancellation of the soil
insect control uses of other chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides such as
aldrin and dieldrin. Present evidence suggests that any added soil use
of chlordane could increase its impact upon the environment.
47
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I.B.2.b. Home Gardens - Alternatives other than chlorinated hydrocarbon pesti-
cides are not registered for all uses nor are they likely to give equal control
of insects such as ants, wireworms, grubs, cutworms and various other soil
pests. Increased use of chlordane could result from the cancellation of soil
insect control uses for other chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides such as
aldrin and dieldrin.
I.B.Z.c. Lawns, Commercial Turf and Nursery Plant Stock - Alternatives other
than the chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides are neither registered for all
uses nor likely to give equal control of pests such as ants, wireworms, grubs,
cutworms and other soil insects. Increased use of chlordane could result from
the cancellation of soil insect control uses for other chlorinated hydrocarbon
insecticides sucy as aldrin and dieldrin. Loss of the currently registered
insecticidal uses of chlordane as a soil application to lawns, commercial turf
and nursery plant stock will have a significant impact.
There have been numerous indications of the need to continue the uses of
chlordane for control of soil insect pests on lawns, commercial turf and
nursery plant stock. For example, the State of New York recommends the use of
chlordane at a rate of A Ib Al/acre for the control of scarabaeid grubs which
will be sufficient for four seasons of protection. The best available sub-
stitute as recommended by the State of New York is DiazinonR which must be
applied at the rate of 6-8 Ib Al/acre on an annual basis.
It has been estimated that the loss of chlordane and heptachlor for turf use would
result in damage estimated at approximately $0.50 per square foot in Pennsylvania.
One acre of lost turf would cost approximately $20,000 to replace or renew.
Turf grass is a primary agricultural industry in Pennsylvania and the loss of
chlordane for soil insect control would be significantly damaging to the agri-
cultural industry of that State.
The State of Mississippi has indicated that the cancellation of chlordane
would leave no pesticide available for certification for movement of nursery
stock under the provisions of the imported fire ant, white-fringed beetle and
Japanese beetle quarantine progran involving interstate commerce of live plants.
New York State also recommends the use of chlordane to control white grubs and
strawberry root weevils in the New York State Tree Nursery. Chlordane is
used to protect against damage from soil insects on crops that are valued in
excess of $15,000 per acre with experimental trees being valued at upward of
$5 - $10 apiece.
The States of Virginia, West Virginia, North Carolina and South Carolina
recommend chlordane to control insects in nursery beds of tree seedlings needed
to replant cut over timber areas. Total cost of the replanting procedures
in North Carolina is approximately $50-$70 per acre. This forestry based
industry has been reported to provide an estimated 227,000 jobs in North
Carolina. The South Carolina State Commision of Forestry recommends chlordane
for control of white grubs of May and June beetles and grubs of Japanese
beetle in their forest tree nurseries. Without chlordane they would expect
to lose practically all of the tree seedlings. The State of Vermont has
estimated that damage to lawns due to the Japanese beetle larvae and mole
tunneling would be approximately 50% of the turf in that state.
48
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In addition to the above statements found to give specific information of
value in considering use of chlordane on lawns, there have been numerous indi-
cations of the need to continue use of chlordane for control of lawn pests.
I.E.3 Seed Treatments - Alternatives other than the chlorinated hydrocarbons
are not registered for all uses nor are they likely to give control equal to
that available with chlordane. Diazinon is the only nonchlorina.ted hydro-
carbon alternate pesticide available. The registered uses for diazinon are
limited. Loss of the seed treatment uses of chlordane would have\a signifi-
cant impact. 'j
\
VK
I.E.4 Baits - Chlordane baits are indicated to be essential because ho other
materials in baits have the registered spectrum of pest activity. Toxaphene
is one pesticide which might be used as an alternate to retain the specVrum of
activity established for chlordane. Loss of the currently registered usi\s of
chlordane in bait formulations would have a significant impact.
I.E.5. Agricultural Premises (excluding dairy barns and poultry houses). \
Chlordane is registered for control of a number of pests in agricultural prev,
mises, excluding dairy barns and poultry houses, and may be applied in areas M\
where animal feed is stored. There are no suitable alternate pesticides for {'>
control of certain pests infesting agricultural premises. \
V
The uses of chlordane on agricultural premises are similar to the household^.
uses of chlordane in that they are for the control of insects in and around
farm buildings, excluding dairy barns and poultry houses. When used as
intended, these uses should not contaminate food or feed or present an undue
health hazard.
I.E.6. Outdoor Treatments - This use includes ditchbanks, field borders,
roadsides, and vacant land^s. It is recognized that this use is actually a
"foliar use" and general comments of I.B.I are applicable.
I.E.7 Household and Commercial Uses - This use covers the use of sprays
and dusts for control of cockroaches, ants, ticks, and a number of other
household and commercial buildings pests. The insecticide treatments for
pest control are usually applied inside the buildings as well as those areas
near food processing or serving.
The concentrations and use directions for chlordane are regulated by inter-
pretation number 19 of the Regulations for the Enforcement of the Federal
Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act. Petroleum distillate solutions,
diluted or concentrated, water emulsions, dusts, and pressurized dispensers
which deliver a coarse spray are allowed. Pressurized dispensers may not
contain over 37° chlordane while the concentrates may contain up to 12%.
Dusts may not contain more than 6%, chlordane. The directions for liquid formu-
lations and pressurized sprays under all circumstances provide for applica-
tions as a coarse, wet spray or by the use of a paintbrush or similar means.
49
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The use of chlordane to control Psychoda larvae in sewage plants constitutes
a direct, although minimal, contamination of water. Psychoda fly larvae con-
gregate on and clog the filter beds of sewage treatment plants. Chlordane is
currently used at a rate of one-half Ib AI poured over the bed for a period
of one minute during which time approximately 3,000 gal of water will pass the
filter. This gives an immediate dilution to 20 ppm of chlordane in the water.
If the effluent enters a stream flowing at a rate of 500,000 gal of water per
minute, it is diluted to 0.125 ppm in the first minute and to 0.04 ppm by the
third minute.
51
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CHAPTER II
Chemistry and Methodology
II.A. Chemistry - Chlordane is a member of a group of polycyclic chlorinated
hydrocarbons called "cyclodiene insecticides" which include heptachlor,
aldrin, Thiodan^ (endosulfan), and TelodrinR (isobenzan). The first insecti-
cide of the cyclodiene group to be developed was chlordane (M-410, German
designation) which has been industrially manufactured in the United States
since approximately 1947.
II.A.I. Synthesis - The carbon structure of the cyclodienes is obtained by
Diels-Alder addition of an olefin to a chlorinated diene. For the manufacture
of chlordane, hexachlorocyclopentadiene is reacted with cyclopentadiene to
form chlordene (CiQHfcCl^) and this adduct is chlorinated to approximately 65%
as is described in Table 1. The registered mixture of chlorinated products
is called technical chlordane. The synthesis of chlordane is illustrated as
follows:
Mels-Alder
Reaction
hexachlorocyclo-
pentadiene
cyclopentadiene
chlordene
Cl,
II.A.2. Composition - The term chlordane has been used to designate a complex
mixture of chlorinated hydrocarbons, a single chemical substance, and a mix-
ture of isomeric forms (Food and Drug Administration Advisory Committee,
1965). Technical chlordane consists of the alpha and gamma isomers of 1,2,4,
5,6,7,8-octachlor-4, 7-methano-3a,4,7,7a tetrahydroindane (chlordane), hepta-
chlor, nonachlor, isomers of chlordene, and other related compounds. The
alpha isomer and the gamma isomer of chlordane (Velsicol notation) are known
as cis-chlordane and trans-chlordane, respectively. According to Ingle (1965)
technical chlordane is manufactured by a rigidly controlled process. Composi-
tion of preparations obtained by this process are consistent, but technical
chlordane contains a number of compounds.
52
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Table 1. Approximate Composition ciC Technical CUord.ine*
(A) Dlele-Alder Adduet (|>AA) of Pentuchlorocyclopentudlene and
cyclopentadiene C.Qil.rCl,- 2 + Ijf
(B) Ghlorilene learners in order of GLC retention time c-in^(f-^f.
(l) Teomei 1, chlordene-AA: hexachlorocyclopentadlene
(Hex) nnd "Cyclo" I ±_ 1%
(2) Ieomer-2 7-5 i 2^
(3) IsomerB-3 and U (combined) 13 + 2^
(C) Heptachlor C^lljCly 10 + yf,
(D) Chlordane. iBomeru CjQH^Cl,-
(l) Alpha-chlordane if c IB -chlordane) 19 + 3$
(2) Garama-chlordane (trano-chlordane) . 21' +_ ?/<
(E) Nonachlor ci0H5C1 7 - ^
(F) Other ConBtltuents
Hexachlorocyclopentadlene (CrClg) (Hex) Maximum 1^
Octachlorocyclopentene (C^Clo) 1 ^ 1.%
8.5 ± P%
Constitutentc of lover GLC retention
time than C^ClQ, including Hex
Constituents of higher GLC retention
time than nonachlor
*The foregoing approximationn are based uj)on untid.luPted vnlnps derived from
gas-liquid chromato^rnphy. Apparent value:; obtained are typically in["]ueticed
by conditions of analysis and the chroma\.or,i r>ph!c Dystems emplDyed, and vhe
relative response nensltlvity of the compnnonts.
Source: Volsicol Chemical Corporation.
The composition of technical chlordane has been essentially, but not complete-
ly, determined. Reports in the literature based on early work state that
technical chlordane contains 60-75% alpha- and gamma- isomers of chlordane and
25-40% subsidiary products. (Riemschneider, 1963; Melinkov, 1971; Metcalf,
1971; Buchel, 1970). According to data from Velsicol Chemical Corporation, as
presented in Table 1, technical material contains a total of 38-48% of alpha
and gamma chlordane.
Chromotographic techniques were used to detect seven components in technical
Chlordane (Thruston, 1965; U.S. Department of Health Education and Welfare,
1970). Saha and Lee (1969) and Bevenue and Yeo (1969) described 14 distinct
chromatographic components from technical and formulated chlordane. Saha and
Lee (1969) and Polen (1966) using various analytical techniques confirmed the
identity of the major components of technical chlordane, but the assignment
of structures to some of the major components appeared to differ from
structures assigned by others (Hill, 1970).
53
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'Brooks (1974) has written an extensive review of the chemistry of chlorinated
insecticides including technical chlordane and its components.
Riemschneider (1963) reported technical chlordane contained four isomers of
octachlor-adducts, 2-heptachloro-derivatives, 1-nonachloro and 1-decachloro
derivative in addition to hexachlorodicyclopentadiene. Evidence has been
presented by Reimschneider (1963) confirming the structure of the intermediate
hexachlorodicyclopentadiene and the special assignment of isomers of the chlor-
dane synthesis. The major isomers of chlordane have the endo-configuration in
the carbon skeleton. The alpha isomer is an endo-isomer in which the two
chlorine atoms are in a cis-configuration and the gamma isomer is an endo-
configuration in which the chlorine atoms are assigned in the trans-configura-
tion. Different nomenclature systems have been used in the past, leading to
confusion.
Technical chlordane. with a viscosity of 75-120 cetitistokes at 130°F., is a
light yellow oil; d20 1.59-1.63; Nd20 1.57-1.58. The product is practically
insoluble in water (Gunther e_t_al^, 1968) but highly soluble in organic sol-
vents. The aromatic hydrocarbons, ketones, esters and chlorinated solvents
are completely miscible with chlordane. The chlorine content is 64-67%. The
melting points of the cis- and trans- isomers are very close (Benson, 1971).
cis-chlordane 107.0 - 108.0°
trans-chlordane 103.0 - 105.0°
Chlordane is relatively volatile with a vapor pressure of approximately 1x10
(25°C). The FDA Advisory Committee (1965) considered these aspects of the
manufacture, production and identification of synthesis products of chlordane
and noted that the standards of production were such as to allow the constancy
of the technical mixture. This constancy has allowed adequate analyses to be
made of the formulation and residues present. In the case of technical chlor-
dane, despite difficulties inherent with a mixture of components, the current
analytical means for residue determination are apparently successful, in terms
of sensitivity, precisibn, and accuracy.
II.A.3 Chemical Reactions - Chemical reactions of chlordane are many and
varied and a complete analysis of them is beyond the scope of this review.
Some of these reactions have been described in the extensive reviews by
Melnikov (1971) and Buchel (1970) in Wegler (1970) and Reimschneider (1963).
Benson (1969) indicated that the chlorine atoms are relatively unreactive
toward base. The hydrogen and chlorine atoms are not in the proper trans-
planar positions for low energy elimination reactions. The four chlorine
atoms attached to the aliphatic positions are protected from displacement reac-
tion by the bicyclic bridge system. Benson indicated that the two chlorines on
the olefin are also generally unreactive towards base. These chemical condi-
tions generally coincide with the reactions that have been obtained both in
vivo and in vitro with chlordane isomers. However, other data obtained photo-
lytically (Crosby, 1969), and chemically (Chau, 1970) indicate the relative
stability of chlorine atoms on the bicyclic ring.
54
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Chau (1970) has demonstrated that prolonged contact with chromous chloride
solution causes dechlorination of the methylene bridge of heptachlor and
chlordene. Thus, the photolysis results of Crosby (1969) and Chau (1970)
suggest the chlorinated bicyclic ring is not a completely stable entity
and may undergo partial degradation,
II.A.4. Photodecomposition - Light is an important environmental force that
may induce chemical transformation. With some noticeable exceptions, includ-
ing plant photosynthesis, photoperiodism and color photography, most photo-
chemical reactions to sunlight are energized by the ultraviolet (UV) compo-
nents at wave lengths shorter than 400 nm.
Light intensity, including UV, is strongly affected by season, climate, lati-
tude and other factors. The atmosphere effectively absorbs UV light, with
287 nm being the minimum wavelength ever recorded on the earth's surface; 300
nm probably represents the practical UV limit at most locations. The total
intensity at wavelengths below 313 nm increases sixfold from a December mini-
mum of 30 uW/cm2 to a June maximum of 180 yW/cm^ and doubles for each kilo-
meter rise in elevation.
Korte examined the photodecomposition of some components of chlordane in
acetone solution, and observed a high conversion of heptachlor, heptachlor
epoxide, beta-dihydro-heptachlor and chlordane to cage-type compounds. Trans-
chlordane did not yield a product even after 100 hr (Hill, 1970).
Benson et al. (1971) found that chlordane, cis-chlordane, heptachlor and
heptachlor epoxide were converted on photolysis to cage-type compounds, and
isolated them. The materials were irradiated in acetone solution using fil-
ters and as thin films by sunlight or by UV lamps. Although both cis and
trans-isomers were degraded at similar rates, under the conditions employed
only the cis-isomer formed a photo-product which was apparently a half-cage
compound formed through hydrogen migration and carbon-to-carbon bond formation.
The photoisomerization of cis-chlordane was apparently similar to that
produced by photoisomerization of dieldrin. Photolysis of technical chlor-
dane for 70 hr resulted in a complex mixture of products.
Trans-chlordane does not photolyze to a half-cage compound but does disappear
very slowly on irradiation; trans-nonachlor behaves similarly. Also beta-
dihydroheptachlor failed to yield an isolatable compound. Crosby (1969)
studied the photolytic decomposition of aldrin and dieldrin and described
a dechlorinated product resulting from the loss of chlorine from the
olefinic portion of the presumably stable bicyclic ring. Although the .photolytic
alteration of technical chlordane under actual field conditions, in sunlight
from various areas, has yet to be reported, it seems reasonable to assume x
that similar products would be obtained following ultraviolet degradation
of chlordane.
55
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'1I.B. Methods of Analysis - A number of methods have been used for the
determination of residues of organochlorine compounds and most of these can be
used for determining residues of technical chlordane. A gas chromatographic
procedure given in the Pesticide Analytical Manual, Volume I (U.S. Department
of Health, Education and Welfare, 1971). The history of the multiple residue
technique was discussed in a review article by Burke (1971). The section on
gas liquid chromatography discusses this further.
II.B.I.a. Colorimetric and Total Chlorine Methods, and Color Reactions -
These methods were commonly used about 1950-1965 but have largely been super-
seded by gas chromatographic methods.
Following extraction of material from biological samples, various methods have
been used for quantitative determinations of total residues of chlorine-
containing compounds. Chlordane forms several colored derivatives. When an
alcoholic solution of chlordane is heated with KCH and p-aminophenol, a red-
brown color is obtained; with pyridine and ethylcellosolve, a red color; with
pyridine and ethylene glycol, a red violet color; with diethanolamine, a
violet color. These color reactions were demonstrated by Ard (1948), Davidow
(1950), Ordas _et al^ (1956), Malina (1965), and Faucheux (1965). In general,
plant and wax components, which qualitatively interfere with colorimetric
measurements of several of the more commonly used cyclodiene insecticides,
reduce the sensitivity of colorimetric methods for chlordane. Measurement of
total chlorine by sodium biphenyl reduction was considered to be the most
reliable quantitative method for chlordane, but it is not specific. Excellent
agreement has been obtained with this method in several laboratories using
chlordane formulations (Meyer, 1962). A field test developed by Chisholm et^
al- (1962) to examine termite treatments uses a color produced with 2-
phenoxyethanol.
II.B.l.b. Bioassay - Chlordane residues may be determined semi-quantitatively
by bioassay. Several insect species have been used, including housefly
(Stansbury and Dahm, 1951), mosquito (Hartzell et al., 1954), and a parasite
of the oriental fruit moth, Marcrocentrus spp. (Fleming et al., 1951).
Recently, Sadar and Guilbault (1971) suggested the use of the enzyme system,
hexokinase, as a substrate for the determination of several chlorinated pesti-
cides. This enzyme system has a rather unique sensitivity to certain chlorin-
ated insecticides, including chlordane, heptachlor, aldrin and DDT, but not
dieldrin, kelthane or DDT analogues. At best, bioassays have been shown to
be non-specific and relatively insensitive.
II.B.I.e. Thin-Layer Chromatography - Thin-layer chromatography, featuring
various solvent systems and adsorbents, has been used to separate chlordane
isomers from extraneous biological materials. Systems for organochlorine com-
pounds are discussed in the Pesticide Analytical Manual, Volume 1, (U.S. De-
partment of Health, Education and Welfare, 1971). In general, this procedure
has been used as a qualitative tool in combination with gas liquid chromato-
graphic techniques. Means for detection of material on thin-layer chromato-
grams are as varied as the solvent systems employed and generally require the
same reagents and methods used in the colorimetric methods.
56
-------
Faucheux (1965) suggested the use of diphenylamine-zinc chloride as a
chromogenic reagent with a sensitivity of 5 mg. He reviewed the use of
several reagents including N,N-dimethyl-phenylenediamine HCG; methanolamine-
AgNOy, 2-phenoxyethanol-AgN03; bromphenol blue-AgN03; Iodine; H2S03; bromo-
f luorescein-AgNC>3.
II.B.l.d. Gas Liquid Chromatography - Gas liquid chromatography is the method
of choice for the qualitative and quantitative estimation of chlordane residues
in foods (U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, 1971); Noren and
Westdb, 1968; Duggan and Cook, 1971), air (Yobs, 1971a), water (Lamar et al.,
1966; Feltz ejt al^_, 1971; Carver, 1971), human tissue (Weirsma and Sands, 1971;
Yobs, 1971b), fish (Inglis et al., 1971); and wildlife (Dustman et al., 1971).
With GLC techniques contamination in small samples may be measured rapidly with
high levels of sensitivity. In general, this method of detection is at least
10 times more sensitive than the colorimetric methods previously employed. This
is emphasized by the analysis of 1 mg of fish tissue with a precision of 20% and
25 mg samples analyzed with a precision of +5% (Seba and Land, 1969).
The Pesticide Analytical Manual, Volume I Section 302.44c (U.S. Department of
Health, Education and Welfare, 1971) gives the procedure used by the Food and
Drug Administration for determination of residues of chlordane. Technical
chlordane contains several significant components, and the residue of chlor-
dane usually contains these components in proportions different from those in
technical chlordane. The procedure considers all peaks representing the resi-
due. Calculation may be based on the total area of the peaks or by "peak
height addition". Procedures are also given for extraction and cleanup for
the preparation of samples (Chapter 2); for the cleanup on Florisil, technical
chlordane elutes with the first fraction (Eluant A, using 20% methylene
chloride in hexane).
Thompson (1970), examining the in vitro weathering of technical chlordane,
showed that not all peaks in the1 GLC tracing disappear at the same rate. Be-
cause of various rates of volatilization of components in the technical chlor-
dane, the use of signal peaks versus the whole spectrum might well account for
the lower values obtained with GLC than with total chlorine analysis.
Other systems of solvent partitioning have been used. Solvent partitioning
with mixtures of hexane and methanol or ethanol are effective (Saha, 1971).
Noren and Westoo (1968) described a method of analysis using a combination of
dimethylformamide (containing 8% water) hexane partitioning extraction with
a recovery for fortified samples ranging from 83% to 92%. The sensitivity of
the extraction when using approximately 10 g samples of fat appeared to be 10
ppb.
The advent of GLC techniques with the use of sensitive detectors has enabled
the chemist to extend the range of analyses to the submicrogram levels. How-
ever, this technique has introduced some of the following problems 1) coordina-
tion of recent data with those obtained with older methods, primarily colori-
metric analyses; 2) in the case of chlordane GLC assays usually result
in lower numerical values than the total chlorine assays; 3) establishment of
a uniform GLC system for residue determination.
57
-------
Alpha-Chlordane, gamma-chlordane, and particularly oxychlordane and heptachlor
epoxide are difficult to separate on most GLC columns. Conder et al. (1972),
report that a column containing 1.5% 0V 17 plus 1.95% 0V 210 will separate
all four materials.
Su (1973) determined heptachlor epoxide, oxychlordane and certain other pesti-
cides in the presence of PCB's using the Coulson electrolytic conductivity de-
tector in the non-catalytic reductive mode at 660°C, and the column used by
Conder et al. (1972). PCB's are not detected under these conditions.
II.B.2. Interference - Naturally occurring chlorinated materials usually pose
no problem in the determination of chlorinated pesticides by the total chlorine
method (Hylin et al., 1969). Although some chlorine-containing materials have
been found in certain fungi, the possible occurrence of fungal contamination
in samples for chlorinated organic assays is small. The possible interferences
with polychlorinated biphenyl contaminants appear to be significant.
II.B.3. Confirmatory Methods - Because GLC detection systems (electron capture
or flame ionization) are sensitive but cannot provide an unequivocal identifi-
cation based on retention times, various confirmatory methods have been employ-
ed (some in combination with the GLC).
II.B.3.a. GLC - Mass Spectrometry - The use of GLC - mass spectrometry for
the qualitative and quantitative estimation of pesticide residues is one of
the most significant advancements in residue analysis in recent years.
Francis Biros discusses applications of this technique in a chapter entitled
"Applications of Combined Gas Chromatography - Mass Spectrometry to Pesticide
Residue Identifications in Advances in Chemistry Series 104: Pesticides
Identification at the Residue Level (American Chemical Society, L971).
Using the combination of GLC-mass spectrometry, Biros and Walker (1970) showed
that the peak with the retention time of heptachlor epoxide was in fact hepta-
chlor epoxide. An unidentified peak was later found to be the metabolite des-
ignated as oxychlordane.
Without highly specific confirmatory techniques such as mass spectrometry
these residues would not be readily identified. Possible errors have been
made in the past on the identification of some GLC peaks.
II.B.S.b. Neutron Activation - Bogner (1966) reported on the potential use
of neutron activation analysis for the qualitative determination of chlorin-
ated pesticides; primarily the high cost of instrumentation has precluded the
wide acceptance of neutron activation analysis.
II.B.3.C. P-values - Another confirmatory method employs the extraction of
solute between two immiscible solvents. Using this technique Beroza et al.
(1969), developed p-values which they have defined as the fraction of a pes-
ticide which is distributed in the non-polar phase (usually upper) of equal
volumes of a solvent pair. This method has been used as a tool in cleanup
and for confirmatory identification of a pesticide and for selecting solvents
58
-------
for partition cleanup procedures. The p-values for gamma-chlordane have been
reported with 6-solvent pairs (Beroza et al., 1969).
II.B.3.d. Carbon-Skeleton Chromatography - When chlordane is pyrolytically
dechlorinated (hydrogenated, and chromatographed), the method is called
"carbon-skeleton chromatography" (Asai et al., 1967) . The confirmatory tech-
nique of carbon-skeleton chromatography lacks sensitivity (10 ug of sample)
and materials having the same carbon-skeleton, e^g., heptachlor, heptachlor
epoxide, etc., cannot be differentiated. Carbon-skeleton chromatography has
been used successfully to confirm the identity of peaks of GLC which have re-
sulted from interferences by polychlorinated biphenyls (Asai et al., 1971) and
in certain instances will serve as a confirmatory method.
II.B.3.e. Derivatization - A sensitive means for the confirmative determin-
ation of chlordane has been shown to be derivatization. (Chau and Cochrane,
1969a, 1969b; Cochrane, 1969; Cochrane and Chau, 1970). The reaction of chlor-
dane with Potassium tert-butoxide/tert-butanol with subsequent silylation
achieves routine confirmation of chlordane at a level of 10 ppb when 10 gram
samples are used. It was found that cis-chlordane was converted rapidly to
3-chlorochlordene and trans-chlordane was converted slowly to 2-chlorochlordane.
'in combination with GLC simple derivatization is useful in the qualitative con-
firmation of residues.
II.B.4. Formulation Analysis - The Association of Official Analytical Chemists
(AOAC) methods for technical chlordane formulations are the total chlorine method
and the colorimetric methods (Association of Official Analytical Chemists, 1970).
A method for determining the impurity hexachlorocyclopentadiene (Hex) in tech-
nical chlordane is also given. (AOAC, 1975, par 6.229 - 6.232).
A product AG Chlordane consisting of at least 95% of the alpha and gamma
isomers of chlordane has been developed, but it is not registered. Malina
(1972, 1973) has developed an AOAC infrared method for alpha-chlordane and
gamma-chlordane, and a GLC method for heptachlor in AG Chlordane (Associa-
tion of Official Analytical Chemists, 1973).
59
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CHAPTER II
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Ard, J. S. Detection of chlordane (Octachloro-4,7-methano-tetrahydroindane)
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(1969).
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immiscible binary solvent systems for cleanup and identification and its
application in the extraction of pesticides from milk. Residue Rev. 30:1-
61 (1969).
Bevenue, A. and Yeo, C. Y. Gas chromatographic characteristics of chlordane.
I. Effect of an aqueous environment on the heptachlor component.
Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 4^68-76 (1969).
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Bogner, R. I. Potential of neutron activation analysis of pesticides and
metabolites. Radioisotopes in the detection of pesticide residues.
p. 78-89. Int. At. Energy Ag., Vienna (1966).
Boyle, H. W., Burttschell, R. H. and Rosen, A. A. Infrared identification of
chlorinated insecticides in tissues of poisoned fish. Inorganic
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Brooks, G. T. Chlorinated insecticides, Volume I: Technology and application;
Volume II: Biological and environmental apsects, CRC Press, Cleveland (1974)
Buchel, K. H. Chlorkohlenwasserstoffe: cyclodien-inseltizide: Addukte mit
monocyclischen und acyclischen dienophilen. See Wegler, R. 1970,
p. 138-45 (1970).
Burke, J. A. Development of the Food & Drug Administration method of analysis
for multiple residues of organochlorine pesticides in foods and feeds.
Residue Rev. 34_: 59-90 (1971).
Carver, T. C. Estuarine monitoring program. Pestic. Monit. J_. 5^:53 (1971).
Chau, A. S. Y. Chromous chloride reductions. III. Identification of
products obtained from prolonged contact of chlordane and heptachlor
with chromous chloride solution. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol.
5^429-34 (1970).
Chau, A. S. Y. , Cochrane, W. P. Cyclodiene chemistry. III. Derivative
formation for the identification of heptachlor, heptachlor epoxide,
cis-chlordane, trans-chlordane, and aldrin pesticide residues by gas
chromatography. j;. Ass. Offic. Anal. Chem. _52_(_5): 1092-1100 (1969a).
Chau, A. S. Y. and Cochrane, W. P. Cyclodiene chemistry. III. Derivative
formation for the identification of heptachlor, heptachlor epoxide, cis-
chlordane, trans-chlordane, dieldrin and endrin pesticide residues by
gas chromatography. j;. Ass. Offic. Anal. Chem. _52_(6) : 1220-6 (1969b).
Chisholm, R. D., Koblitsky, L. and Westlake, W. E. The estimation of aldrin
and chlordane residue in soils treated for termite control. U.S. Dept.
of Agri. ARS-33-73, June, 1962. Also, see Pest Control. _30-48, 50, 52-53
& 66 (Aug. 1962).
Cochrane, W. P. Cyclodiene chemistry. II. Identification of the derivatives
employed in the confirmation of the heptachlor, heptachlor epoxide, cis-
chlordane and trans-chlordane residues. ^J. Ass. Offic. Anal. Chem.
_5J?: 1092-1100 (1969).
Cochrane, W. P. and Chau, A. S. Y. Use of chromous chloride for the confirm-
ation of heptachlor residues by derivatization. Bull. Environ. Contam.
Toxicol. _5 Q): 251-4 (1970).
Conder, D. W., Oloffs, P. C. and Szeto, Y. S. GLC separation of heptachlor
epoxide, oxychlordane and alpha and gamma chlordane. Bull. Environ.
Contam. Toxicol. 7^:33 (1972).
Crosby, D. C. The nonmetabolic decomposition of pesticides. Ann. N.Y. Acad.
Sci. 160:82-96 (1969). ~~~
61
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Davidow, B. A spectrometric method for the quantitative estimation of
technical chlordane. J_. Ass. Offic. Anal. Chem. 33.:886~94 (1950).
Dustman, E. H., Martin, W. E., Heath, R. G. and Reichel, W. L. Monitoring
pesticides in wildlife. Pestic. Monit. J^. 5>:50-52 (1971).
Duggan, R. L. and Cook, H. R. National food and feed monitoring program.
Pestic. Monit. J_. .5:37-43 (1971).
Faucheux, L. J., Jr. Diphenylamine - Zinc chloride as a chromogenic agent
for the detection of a mixture of DDT, chlordane and toxaphene on thin
layer chromatograms. J_. Ass. Offic. Anal. Chem. 48^:955-58 (1965).
Feltz, H. R., Sayers, W. T., Nicholson, H. P. National monitoring program
for "The assessment of pesticide residues in water." Pestic. Monit. J_.
5^54-62 (1971).
Fleming, W. E., Coles, L. W. and Maines, W. W. Biological assay of residues
of DDT and chlordane in soil using macrocentrus ancylworus as a test
insect. J_. Econ. Entomol. 44:310-15 (1951).
Food and Drug Administration Advisory Committee. Report of an FDA Advisory
Committee, cited in the Federal Register,1965 (65-FR-3563 Apr. 5, 1965)
(1965).
Gunther, F. A., Westlake, W. E. and Jaglan, P. S. Reported solubilities
of 738 pesticide chemicals in water. Residue Rev. ^0_:1-148 (1968).
Hartzell, A., Storrs, E. E. and Burchfield, H. P. Comparison of chemical and
bioassay methods for the determination of traces of chlordane and hepta-
chlor in food crops. Contrib. Boyce Thompson Inst. r7_:383-96 (1954).
Hill, K. R. IUPAC Commission on terminal residues. J_. Ass. Offic. Anal.
Chem. 53/1):987-1003 (1970).
Hylin, J. W., Spenger, R. E. and Gunther, F. A. Potential interferences in
certain residue analyses from organochlorine compounds occurring
naturally in plants. Residue Rev. ^6:127-138 (1969).
Ingle, L. A monograph on chlordane, toxicological and pharmacological
properties, Urbana, 111. (1965).
Inglis, A., Henderson, C. and Johnson, W. L. Expanded program for pesticide
monitoring of fish. Pestic. Monit. J;. JK47-49 (1971).
Lamar, W. L., Goerlitz, D. F. and Law, L. M. Determination of organic
insecticides in water by electron capture gas chromatography. Inorganic
Pesticides ^n the Environment - Ad vane. Chem. Ser. 60^:187-99 (1966) .
Malina, M. A. Collaborative study of chlordane by spectrophotometric method.
J. Ass. Offic. Anal. Chem. 48:573-5 (1965).
62
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Malina, M. A., Rozek, A. and Schwemmer, B. AG Chlordane: development of
methods for its analysis and control. J^ Ass. Offic. Anal. Chem. 55:942
(1972).
Malina, M. A. Collaborative study of methods for the analysis and control
of AG Chlordane and its formulations. J_. Ass. Off ic. Anal. Chem. 56:591
(1973).
Melnikov, N. N. Chemistry of pesticides, Vol. 36 of Res. Rev. (1971).
Meyer, C. F. Colaborative study of chlordane and heptachlor. J_. Ass. Of fie.
Anal. Chem. 45:513-17 (1962).
Metcalf, R. L. The chemistry and biology of pesticides. p. 1-144. In
Pesticides in the Environment. Vol. 1:4970. White-Stevens, R., Ed.,
Marcel Dekker, Inc.,.N.Y. (1971).
Noren, K. and WestHB, G. Determination of some chlorinated pesticides in
vegetable oils, butter, milk, eggs, meat and fish by gas chromatography
and thin-layer chromatography. Acta. Chem. Scand. _22(_7_) : 3389-93 (1968).
Ordas, E. P., Smith, V. C. and Meyer, C. F. Spectrophotometric determination
of heptachlor and technical chlordane on food and forage crops. J_. Agr.
Food Chem. 4_:444-51 (1956).
Polen, P. Chlordane: composition, analytical considerations and terminal
residues. Presented to IUPAC Commission on Terminal Residues, Geneva,
Switzerland (1966).
Riemschneider, R. The chemistry of the insecticides of the diene group.
World Rev. Pestic. Contr. ,2:29-61 (1963).
Sadar, M. H. and Guilbault, G. G. A specific method for the assay of select
chlorinated pesticides. £. Agr. Food Chem. l£:357-59 (1971).
Saha, J. G. Comparison of several methods for extracting chlordane residues
from soil. J_. Ass. Offic. Anal. Chem. 54_:170-4 (1971).
Saha, J. G., Lee, Y. W. Isolation and identification of the components of a
commercial chlordane formulation. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol.
4. (5) : 285-96 (1969).
Seba, D. B., Lane, C. E. Rapid microdetection of organochlorine pesticides
in submilligram fish tissue samples. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol.
4_(5): 297-305 (1969).
Stansbury, R. E. and Dahm, P. A. Alfalfa dehydration upon residues of aldrin,
chlordane, parathion and toxaphene. J. Econ. Entomol. 44:45-51 (1951).
63
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Su, G. C. C. and Price, H. A. Element specific gas chromatographic analyses
of organochlorine pesticides in the presence of PCB's by selective
cancellation of interferring peaks, j;. Agr. Food Chem. ^L:1099 (1973).
Thompson, D. W. Volatility of technical chlordane: An alternative approach
for quantitative measurement of residues. _J. Ass. Offie. Anal. Chem.
_53_(_5):1015-7 (1970).
Thruston, A. D., Jr. Preliminary studies of weathering of chlordane residues.
J_. Ass. Offic. Anal. Chem. 4J3:952-54 (1965).
U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Food and Drug Administration.
Pesticide Analytical Manual, (1970, 1971).
Wegler, R. Chemie der pflanzenschutz und Schadlings-bekampfungsmittel Band 1,
671 pps. Springer-Verlag, Berlin (1970).
Wiersma, G. B. and Sand, P. F. A sample design to determine pesticide levels
in soils of the conterminous United States. Pestic. Monit. J_. 5^63-66
(1971).
Yobs, A. R. National monitoring program for air. Pestic. Monit. J_. _5_:67
(1971a). ~
Yobs, A. R. The national human monitoring program for pesticides. Pestic.
Monit. J. 5:44-46 (1971b).
64
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CHAPTER III
Fate and Implications of Chlordane
in the Ecosystem
III.A. The Fate of Chlordane in the Soil - Chlordane persists in the soil.
Under experimental conditions and actual field application of pesticides
chlordane has been shown to persist for extended periods of time, will not
migrate, and is apparently bound to soil particles. Dependent upon the soil
and climatic conditions, chlordane will dissipate. However, complete removal
of the residue is a slow process. Control of some insect species in the soil
is obtained for considerable lengths of time under most conditions.
Analyses of agricultural lands extensively treated with chlorinated pesticides
do not show the residues as might be expected from results obtained with ex-
perimental plots. For example, there is no indication of why only 10% of the
agricultural soils in Canada show only minute residues of chlordane after
extensive treatments with heptachlor which contains considerable quantities
of Y-chlordane. The possibilities exist that 1) the material is in the
soil and bound so tightly that it cannot be extracted and analyzed or 2)
under field conditions, after agricultural application, dissipation is more
rapid than is anticipated from experimental conditions, or 3) the material
is metabolized to products which are not recognized with the available
methods of analysis.
III.A.I. Build-up and Persistence in the Soil - Chlordane is recommended for
use and is used extensively for soil insect control. Studies have been car-
ried out to determine the duration and extent of soil contamination, either
under experimental or field conditions. In a series of experiments,
Lichtenstein and Polivka (1959) reported the persistence of chlordane in the
soil in Wisconsin. Using bioassay techniques they demonstrated that approxi-
mately 15% of active insecticide materials persisted 12 yr after application
to turf soils. They further demonstrated that chlordane was more persistent
than heptachlor in the soil. This could be due to the differences in the
vapor pressure of the two compounds: chlordane, 1X10-5 mm/Hg; heptachlor,
3X10-4 mm/Hg (Edwards, 1966). (Tables 1, 2, 3 and Figure 1).
Chlordane, when applied at dosages of 8 to 10 Ib/acre for the control of
European chafer, provides complete control for at least seven to eight growing
seasons (Gambrell et al., 1968; Shorey et al., 1958). When chlordane was
applied to Hawaiian soils for the control of subterranean termites it was found
that the material begins to degrade slowly within 4 yr although after 6 yr it
was active as a termite insecticide. In the last three experiments, bioassay
was used as a means of evaluating chemical effectiveness and no indication was
given to the concentration of chlordane in the soil.
In a more recent study, Lichtenstein et al. (1970) determined that approxi-
mately 18% to 20% of an applied dose of chlordane was present in the soil 10
yr after application. Following the application of approximately 7.5 Ib/acre,
a residue of 0.925 ppm was observed after 10 yr.
65
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TABLE 1. Insecticide Vapor Pressures vs. Disappearance from Soils
Insecticide
Average ^ insecticide
in soil after JL_ yr
Vapor pressure
at_ 20°C (mm Hg)
DDT
Dieldrin
Lindane
Aldrin
Chlordane
Heptachlor
80
75
60
26
55
45
l.OxlO"7
Slightly Volatile
l.OxlO-7
9.4xlO-6
Moderately volatile
6.0xlO~6
Volatile
1.0xlO~5
3.0xlO-4
Reprinted from Persistent pesticides in the environment, 2nd ed., by C. A.
Edwards by permission of CRC Press, Cleveland, Ohio (1973).
66
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TABLE 2. Persistence of Some Chlorinated Hydrocarbon Insecticides in Soil
Chemical
Aldrin
Chlordane
DDT
Dieldrin
Heptachlor
Lindane
Telodrin
Average dose in Ib Al/acre
1-3
1-2
1-2% (10)
1-3
1-3
1-2% (5)
k-1
Time for 95%
disappearance (years)
1-6 (3)
3-5 (4)
4-20 (10)
5-25 (8)
3-5 (3*5)
3-10 (6%)
. 2-7 (4)
a. Figures in parenthesis are doses which may be used for particular pests
in unusual circumstances.
Reprinted from Persistent pesticides in the environment, 2nd ed., by C. A.
Edwards by permission of CRC Press, Cleveland, Ohio (1973).
67
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TABLE 3. Persistence (ppm) In soil after 1 and 2 yr.
Insecticide
Aldrin
Heptachlor
Chlordane
Lindane
Dieldrin
DDT
1 yr
25
45
55
60
75
80
2 yr
5
10
15
40
50
Reprinted from Persistent pesticides in the environment, 2nd ed., by C. A.
Edwards by permission of CRC Press, Cleveland, Ohio (1973).
68
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100
DbT
Undone
i
2
i
J
Iteptcclihr
_ . rp
4 H 6 7
i
8
9 10 II
Time [yean)>
Figure 1. Breakdown of chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides in soil
Note: Regression based on all available data.
Reprinted from Persistent pesticides in the environment, 2nd ed., by C. A.
Edwards by permission of CRC Press, Cleveland, Ohio (1973).
69
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Chlordane was more persistent than heptachlor whether the soil was cultivated
or planted in alfalfa. Cultivation reduced the residue level of heptachlor
but not chlordane.
Degradation of a chemical in the soil is a function of many conditions.
Generalizations on the persistence of chlordane in the soil on the basis
of experimental work in another area with different soil types is not valid
(Bess et al., 1966). The penetration of chlordane into the soil is primarily
dependent upon the soil type and the organic matter content. Other factors
such as moisture, pH, silt, and clay content play a lesser role in the pene-
tration and stability (Carter and Stringer, 1970).
The reduction of residues of chlordane is a relatively slow process. Only
45% of the initial dose of chlordane was removed from the soil 1 yr after
application; approximately 3 to 5 yr are required to remove 95% of the
residue of chlordane (Edwards, 1966).
**
Lichtenstein et_ al. (1971) found that, under the conditions of their study,
chlordane does not move when applied to the soil. Ninety-five percent of the
residue was found in the top 6 in of soil, with 52% of the residue being in
the top 2 to 4 in layer,
Chlordane was applied to soil at a rate of 145.7kg/hectare (Nash and Woolson,
1968). Thirteen years after the initial application, approximately 11% of
the total material applied to the soil was present as a residue. Out of 9
chlorinated pesticides examined, chlordane was the least mobile and tended
to remain in the upper soil layers. Except for dieldrin and endrin, cyclodiene
insecticides were present in quantities of less than 11% of the administered
dosage.
Onsager et al. (1970), demonstrated that the loss of chlordane from a loam
soil was proportional to the amount applied. When application rates varied
from 1.25 to 20 Ib /acre, residues after 30 months in the soil were observed
ranging from 0 to 48% of the initial concentration.
Chlordane was applied at 8 and 10 Ib/acre and approximately 18 to 30% of the
applied dose was found as a residue after 12 yr (Steward and Fox, 1971).
Penetration of the pesticide was generally into the top 0 to 4-in layer of
the loam soil although some penetration of 6 to 8 inches was observed.
Studies have been carried out in Canada on residues of chlordane in soils
from various sections (Saha et al., 1968). In agricultural soils in
Northeast Saskatchewan, only one of 20 soil samples examined contained a
measurable level of chlordane (0.02 ppm). Sixteen of the 20 soil samples
had residues of other cyclodiene pesticides.
In the Atlantic provinces of Canada, Duffy and Wong (1967) were able to
detect chlordane in less than 10% of the agricultural lands and only at
concentrations below 1 ppm. For many years the land had been exposed to
heptachlor which was contaminated with high concentrations of Y-chlordane.
70
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A more recent survey of the build-up of chlordane soLls in Saskatchewan
indicated that chlordane was present in 17% of the soils sampled (Saha and
Sumner, 1971). Seven of 41 samples were positive- lor Hi lord.mr with 3 ol
the samples showing residue levels of 0.01 to 0.1 ppm; 3 samples showing
residue levels of 0.11 to 0.5 ppm; and one sample showing a residue level of
3.91 ppm. These soils were sampled from farms having an extensive history
of cyclodiene insecticide applications.
Samples of soil from six states in 1967 showed the most commonly occurring
pesticides to be members of the DDT group, dieldriri, or chlordane (Wiersma
et^ aJ., 1971). Only 5.4% of all samples had chlordane residues. Soils from
four of the six states showed levels of chlordane less than 0.01 - 0.02 ppm.
Gish (1970), in an examination of residues in soils from eight states, showed
that only one area had small residues of ychlordane which presumably came
from contamination resulting from heptachlor application.
Attempts have been made to reduce residue levels in soil with cultivation
(Lichtenstein et al., 1971) or by treatment with activated charcoal
(Lichtenstein ej^ JL^. , 1968; Ahrens and Kring, 1968). This technique does
not appear to be practical on a commercial scale and, on the basis of sur-
veys of agricultural croplands in the U.S. and Canada, is probably not
necessary.
III.A.2. Translocation into Plants - Chlordane, when applied to soil for
control of soil insects, will translocate to certain plants, primarily root
crops.
Onsager et al. (1970) , reported that 2 yr after application of chlordane to
a loam soil small residues were found in sugar beets. The concentrations
were proportional to those applied to the soil.
Winnett and Reed (1968) applied chlordane to a loam soil at a Level of 4 to
6 Ib/acre. Residues of 75 to 100 ppb were detected in potatoes during the
first year of planting. No residues were found after 1 yr. No indication
was given as to the concentration of chlordane in the soil.
.^..,, v.^ ».t. vo-j/uuy d|>pj.j.ea cnxordane at 10 Ib/acre and also,if blind residues
the first year in carrots, sweet potatoes anil rutabagas. Several other crops
were, found to contain no residues. In general, it has been/found that root
crops will absorb small quantities of. chlordane. Carrots, radishes, turnips
and onions have been observed to absorb low levels of pesticides from the
soil. Boyd (1971) demonstrated that chlordane was easily translocated from
soil to alfalfa, but only in the first year after application.
Harris and Sans (1967) found that although residues of insecticides were
present in high levels in soil, the quantities translocated to crops were
not above tolerance levels set for Canadian! agriculture. Although translo-
cation did occur, it appeared to be rather snail. Lichtenstein et al. (1970)
observed that in carrots, the crop which generally absorbs the greatest quantity
of pesticide from the soil, approximately 10 to 15% of the soil residue levels
7.1
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were found in the edible portion. Boyd (1971) reported that the relationship
of the soil residue to the crop residue was not consistent or precl i c: t;ihl e.
Soil containing an average of 0.38 ppm in the top one quarter-inch, and soil
containing 1.32 ppm in the top one quarter-.inch, both gave approximately the
same residue in the alfalfa. Caro (1969) was not able to establish a rela-
tionship between the concentration of pesticide in the soil and that taken up
by plants.
III.B. Build-up of Chlordane in the Water - Several studies have indicated
that contamination of water by chlordane is not a widespread problem. Waters
examined in 1966 showed positive values of chlordane ranging from 5 to 75 ppt.
The sensitivity of the method was reported to be 1 to 5 ppt. (Green et al.,
1966). Water from Galveston Bay was essentially free of chlordane residue in
1964 following a mosquito control program in which chlordane was used (Casper,
1967). Large amounts of chlorinated pesticides applied to crops in the
Mississippi River Delta showed as residues of cyclodiene insecticides in only
two areas close to manufacturing and formulating plants (Barthel e_t_ al^. , 1969).
Schafer e_t ji^L. (1969), examined drinking water, originating I rom the
Mississippi and Missouri rivers, for chlordane and other pesticides. They
observed that chlordane did not appear to be a si nificant contaminant of.
drinking water. Levels above 0.25 ppb were found in 14 of 63 samples of
drinking water examined. Twelve of the 14 samples were from one location
(Kansas City). Twelve of 28 samples taken from the Kansas City area were
positive for chlordane. Examination of raw water showed that 11 of 46 samples
had traces of chlordane. Again the majority of the samples were from the
Kansas City area and all were not uniformly contaminated. Although the study
showed a large proportion of samples containing chlordane (>0.25 ppb) most of
the samples were from one area which apparently had a local contamination.
The chlordane concentration of the Kansas City water samples was in excess of
0.25 ppb. Abusive use of pesticides will result in residue levels in water
as evidenced by Shea (1970) who described the high chlordane content of a
stream into which a commercial applicator had dumped a pesticide.
Measurements of chlordane content in rainwater in the United Kingdom at a
sensitivity of 1-2 ppt showed that no detectable levels of chlordane were
evident (Tarrant and Tatton, 1968). Significant quantities of BHC, DDT and
its analogues, arid dieldrin were observed in rainwater at all t Lines of the
year and in all locations in the United Kingdom.
in vitro studies indicate that chlordane residues in water will not be a sig-
nificant problem. Bowman et al. (1964) , examining the fate of several chlor-
inated pesticides in a static, nonmoving water system concluded that the non-
polar materials will co-distill with water and thus be removed more quickly
than the more polar pesticides. They demonstrated chlordane was removed more
readily than other chlorinated pesticides including lindane, DDT, dieldrin
and heptachlor epoxide. Although these studies do not correlate all of the
factors occurring in nature, it is conceivable that co-distillation phenomena
in the aquatic environment will result in a reduction of the residues of
chlorinated insecticides which might otherwise occur. Further in vitro stu-
dies by Bevenue and Yeo (1969a, 1969b) show that when chlordane is exposed to
72
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water or water vapor, various changes occur, and some of the components are re-
moved with a short period of time. This study indicates that heptachlor, a
natural component of technical chlordane, disappears when exposed to water for
14 days. This study confirms the observations by Bowman ej__ ;i I . (1964) that
heptachlor in aqueous solutions is more volatile and is removed faster than
y-chlordane. The relationship of chlordane to heptachlor in water is similar
to that observed in soil, where because of differences in the vapor pressure,
heptachlor is less persistent.
It has been demonstrated that chlordane residues probably will not occur in
drinking water or water supplies within the United States except under condi-
tions of misuse. However, if contamination does occur the removal of contam-
inants can be accomplished with charcoal (Weber and Gould, 1966). It has been
found that levels of pesticides in the range of 1 to 100 ppb can be effectively
removed from water by activated charcoal filtration.
III.C. Air - The atmospheric contamination by chlordane does not appear to be
a major environmental problem. Tabor (1966) reported the presence of chlor-
dane in air over agriculture and nonurban areas at levels approximating 30
ngm/m . Chlordane was not found in air over urban areas where it had been
used for mosquito abatement programs. In the fall season, when agricultural
use of chlordane ended, atmospheric contamination was not observed in agri-
cultural areas. Jeigier (1969) observed that detectable levels of chlordane
were found in the atmosphere of apartments, stores and cafeterias which had
been treated by professional pest control operators for insect control. Levels
of 0.8-0.92 mg/m^ were frequently observed during the spray operations. Cal-
culations indicated that the high level exposures were significanlty low so as
to not represent a toxicological hazard to the operator.
Examination of chlordane in air of homes treated for termite control showed
essentially that no traces of chlordane from newly treated houses was evident
(Malina et_ al., 1959). Of 12 houses studied, two showed positive levels of
chlordane with a maximum level of 0.04 ug at 126 days after treatment. Con-
centrations of chlordane in the air of houses treated for insect control ap-
pear to be extremely low.
III.D. Effects on Flora and Fauna - As chlordane is primarily a soil insecti-
cide, one of the most significant features of its effect on the environment
should be considered to be its effect on the soil fauna.
Edwards (1969, 1970) evaluated the ecological role played by invertebrates in
the soil and the effects of pesticides on these organisms. A primary role of
the soil fauna is the disintegration and digestion of plant residues to their
organic and inorganic constituents, and working of the products into the soil
structure.
The most important of the animals involved in soil conditioning are the earth-
worms followed closely by related worms and other arthropods. In places where
only a few of these animals are present the soil is usually of poor structure
and contains distinct layers of undecomposed organic matter near the surface.
If there were no invertebrate populations in soils the process of soil
73
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formation would be slow or would stop altogether with drastic effects on the
soil's fertility. Although not all soil animals are beneficial, the vast
majority are vital to the continued well-being of the environment.
The general relationship between the amount of insecticide applied to the soil
and the number of soil animals killed is not directly proportional but is more
nearly logarithmic: a dose 10 times greater may kill only twice as many
animals. It is, however, the more persistent pesticide, rather than the more
toxic ones, that have had the most dramatic affect on the numbers of soil
animals.
The most valuable of all soil invertebrates to man is probably the earthworm;
these animals break down much of the plant debris reaching the soil and turn
over the soil and aerate it. Although earthworms are not susceptible to many
insecticides, chlordane, heptachlor and certain selected organophosphate and
carbamate insecticides seriously decrease populations of earthworms. This
aspect of chlordane toxicity to earthworms is valuable only in its use as a
turf insecticide, whereas on golf course greens the presence of earthworms is
undersirable and control is effected by chlordane. Another aspect is that
chlorinated hydrocarbons can concentrate in the fatty tissues of earthworms,
and although these are not toxic in themselves they may serve as a lower link
in a food chain and as a source of residues in higher animals.
Gish (1970), examining the chlordane residues in soils from agricultural
lands, observed that only one of eight states examined had levels of chlordane
present. On the other hand, there were levels of approximately 25 ppb in
earthworms indicating that earthworms tended to concentrate chlordane in their
bodies when y-chlordane was present below the sensitivity of the methods used
to detect it in the soil.
II.D.2. Microflora - Data on the effects of chlordane on various other non-
target organisms within the environment are scant. Chlordane at 1 ppm was
found to affect phytoplankton by inhibiting carbon fixation (Ware and Roan,
1970). All cyclodiene insecticides, except endrin, were effective in inhib-
iting phytoplankton carbon fixation.
Winely and San Clemente (1970) observed that chlordane inhibited the growth
and nitrite oxidation of Nitrobacter agiles. This organism is vital for the
oxidation of the ammonium ion to the nitrate ion in the soil. The physiologi-
cal effect of the interaction of chlordane with other organisms affecting
nitrate production is extremely important and has not been determined. These
authors also indicated that chlordane inhibited cytochrome-C-oxidase activity
in Nitrobacter.
An examination for the presence of chlordane in water, suspended water plants,
algae, chubs, bass, and clams in water from an area of extensive agricultural
use indicated that the presence of chlordane was minute and no substantial
build-up was evident in any of the organisms or media examined (Godsil and
74
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Johnson, 1968). The concentration factor was 1.91 for algae, 1.20 for chubs,
0.9 for clams, and 0.45 for vascular plants, indicating no magnification of
chlordane residues.
III.D.3. Shellfish - Examination of 132 samples of oysters from the South
Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico areas showed that 20 samples were positive for
chlordane with 19 of the 20 indicating levels of less than 10 ppb and one
sample showing a level of 10 ppb (Bugg et al., 1967). Almost no chlordane was
found to be concentrated in the oyster samples although positive higher values
were obtained for most other chlorinated pesticides. Casper (1967) observed
that oyster samples taken from Galveston Bay in 1964 were free of chlordane
residues which was at that time being used in extensive mosquito control
programs.
III.D.4. Fish - Extensive surveys have been made for chlordane residues in
fish during the past several years. Henderson, et_ _al. (1969), examined 590
fish samples from 50 stations in the Great Lakes and major river basins. One
hundred and twenty-eight samples had residues of chlordane. However, only
two areas (one in New York's Hudson River and one in Alabama's Tombigbee
River) had residues greater than 1 ppm. Of the 128 positive fish samples
obtained, 61 had residues of both chlordane and heptachlor epoxide. In
general, the values were well below 0.5 ppm in most positive samples, and
apparently the residues of chlordane existing in fish are extremely low and
scattered.
Henderson e^ al. (1971), in a continuation of this study reported that resi-
dues of chlordane were found in fish at 6 of the 50 stations examined in 1969.
Positive values were found in 16 of the 147 samples examined ranging from 0.09
to 13.5 ppm. Duke and Wilson (1971) examined the livers of fish from the
Pacific Ocean and found no chlordane present in the 34 species of fish
examined. Other chlorinated pesticides and PCB's were evident. It appears
reasonable to assume at the present time that there is no substantial build-
up of chlordane in fresh water fish, salt-water fish and lower forms of
marine life including the oyster which is well known for its tendency to con-
centrate organochlorine pesticides.
Fish sensitivity to chlordane varies with the species, with fathead minnow
more sensitive than goldfish, guppy, channel catfish, and rainbow trout
(Jones, 1964). Chlordane was found to be less toxic than aldrin, dieldrin
and endrin to the minnow, goldfish and guppy but more toxic than heptachlor.
Chlordane is the least toxic of the cyclodiene compounds to the rainbow trout.
Chlordane was found to be less toxic than DDT, y-BHC and toxaphene to finger-
ling bluegill and large mouth bass. Macek ejt al. (1969), confirmed that
chlordane was less toxic than other chlorinated pesticides to the bluegill.
The following compounds were observed in order of decreasing toxicity:
endrin, toxaphene, aldrin, dieldrin, methoxychlor, lindane and chlordane.
Temperature was shown to have a marked effect on the susceptibility of blue-
gills to chlordane. This may be explained by the increased rate of absorption
or the increased metabolic conversion of chlordane to a more toxic metabolite
at higher temperatures.
75
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III.D.5. Birds - There is little available data on the toxicological hazard
of chlordane to various species of wildlife. Tucker and Crabtree (1970)
reported that the female mallard duck (4-5 months old) was relatively
insensitive to the acute effects of chlordane with an acute LI>5o of 1.2 g/kg.
Wazeter (1968) studied the subacute toxicity of chlordane to the Cotunix
quail (2 weeks old). Quail were fed diets containing chlordane at levels
of 25-200 ppm for 28 days. Death occurred at 200 ppm dietary levels, preceded
by signs of hypoacticity, ataxia and prostration. The same signs were seen
at 100 ppm although no deaths occurred and the animals appeared to recover
rapidly, appearing normal at 28 days. No toxic effects were noted at 25 ppm
in this study.
Although chlordane has been found as a residue in soil and as a contaminant
in water, the build-up in wildlife from environmental exposure does not appear
to be significant. Benson and Gabica (1970) found no chlordane residue in
starlings, although traces of heptachlor and heptachlor epoxide were found in
their fat. These birds are not at the top of the food chain but contribute
to the diets of raptorial birds.
No chlordane was found in eggs of several birds (pheasant, bluewinged teal,
and coots) by Johnson et £LL. (1970). Substantial levels of heptachlor epoxide
were found in all eggs at levels varying from 0-10 ppm in the coot, 7-79 ppm
in the teal and 16-220 ppm in the pheasant. In addition to the high concen-
trations of heptachlor epoxide there was evidence of high concentrations of
other pesticides in the eggs. However, there was no evidence of reproduction
problems.
An examination was made of birds and insects found in association with cotton
fields heavily treated with insecticides including chlordane. No chlordane
was found in any of the bird samples and only a trace of chlordane was found
in an adult mayfly (El Sayed et al., 1967).
76
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CHAPTER III
Biblography
Ahrens , J. F. , and Kring, J. B. Reduction of residues of heptachlor and
chlordane in carrots with soil applications of activated charcoal.
j;. Econ. Entomol. 61: 1540-43 (1968).
Barthel, W. F. , Hawthorne, J. C. , Ford, J. H. , Bolton, G. C. , McDowell, L. L.,
Grissinger, E. H. , and Parsons, D. A. Pesticide residues in sediments
of the lower Mississippi River and its tributaries. Pestic. Monit.
J_. _3(1) : 8-66 (1969) .
Benson, W. W. , and Cabica, J. Insecticide residues in starlings in Idaho.
Bull. Environ. Contam. & Toxicol. 5:243-46 (1970).
Bess, H. A., Ota, A. K. , Kawanishi, C. Persistence of soil insecticides for
control of subterranean termites. J^. Econ . Entomol. 59 (4_) : 911-915
(1966). ~
Bevenue, A., and Yeo, C. Y. Gas chromatographic characteristics of chlordane.
I. Effect of an aqueous environment on the heptachlor component. Bull.
Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 4(2):68-76 (1969a) .
Bevenue, A., and Yeo, C. Y. Gas chromatographic characteristics of chlordane.
II. Observed compositional changes of the pesticide in aqueous and
nonaqueous environments. J^. Chromatogr . j4_2_CO :45-52 (1969b).
Bowman, M. C. , Acree, F. Jr., Lofgren, C. S. , and Beroza, M. Chlorinated
insecticides: Fate in aqueous suspensions containing mosquito larvae.
Science, 146:1480-81. (1964).
Boyd, J. C. Field study of a chlordane residue problem: soil and plant
relationships. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. ^:177-82 (1971).
Bugg, J. C. , Jr., J. E. Higgins, and E. A. Robertson, Jr. Chlorinated
pesticide levels in the eastern oyster (Crassostrea virginica) from
selected areas of the South Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico. Pesti. Monitor.
J^ 1(3):9-12 (1967).
Caro, J. H. Accumulation by plants of organochlorine insecticides from the
soil. Phytopathology, 59_:1191-97 (1969).
Carter, F. L., and Stringer, C. A. Soil moisture and soil type influence
initial penetration by organochlorine insecticides. Bull. Environ.
Contam. Toxicol. 5:422-28. (1970).
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Carter, F. L. , Stringer, C. A., and Beal, R. H. Penetration and persistence
of soil insecticides used for termite control. Pest Contr. 38:18-20,
22, 24, & 62 (1970).
Casper, V. L. Galveston Bay pesticide study water and oyster samples
analyzed for pesticide residues following mosquito control program.
Pestic. Monit. J. 1:13-15 (1967).
Chiba, M. Factors affecting the extraction of organo chlorine insecticides
from soil. Residue Rev. 30:63-113 (1969).
Cohen, J. M. , and Pinkerton, C. Organic pesticides in the environment.
Widespread translocation of pesticides by air transport and rainout .
Amer. Chem. Soc. Adv. in Chem. Series 60:163-76 (1969)
Duffy, J. R. , and Wong, N. Residues of organochlorine insecticides and their
metabolites in soils in the Atlantic Provinces of Canada. J^. Agr . Food
Chem. 15(3):457-64 (1967).
Duke, T. W. , and Wilson, A. J., Jr. Chlorinated hydrocarbons on livers of
fishes from the Northeastern Pacific Ocean. Pestic. Monit . J_.
50(2):228-32 (1971).
Edwards, C. A. Critical reviews in environmental control, 1, CRC Press,
Cleveland.
Edwards, C. A. Insecticide residues in soils. Residue Rev. 13:83-132 (1966).
Edwards, C. A. Persistent pesticides in the environment, 2nd ed., by C. A.
Edwards by permission of CRC Press, Cleveland, Ohio (1973).
Edwards, C. A. Soil pollutants and soil animals. Scientific Amer.
228(14) :88-89 (1969).
El Sayed, E. I. Graves, E. I., and Bonner, F. L. Chlorinated hydrocarbon
insecticide residues in selected insects and birds found in association
with cotton fields. Jf. Agr. Food Chem. 15:1014-17 (1967).
Gambrell, F. L., Tashiro, H. , and Mack, G. L. Residual activity of
chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticide in permanent turf for European
chafer control. J. Econ. Entomol. jrl (6_) : 1508-11 (1968).
Gish, C. D. Organochlorine insecticide residues in soils and soil inverte-
brates from agricultural lands. Pestic. Monit. J^. ^(4_): 241-52 (1970).
Godsil, P. J., and Johnson, W. C. Residues in fish, wildlife and estuaries
pesticide monitoring of the aquatic biota at the Tule Lake National
Wildlife Refuge. Pestic. Monit . £. _l:_21-26 (1968).
Green, R. S., Gunnerson, C. G. , and Lichtenberg, J. J. Pesticides in our
national waters. AAAS Symposium - "Agriculture and the Quality of our
Environment." Dec. 27, 1966.
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Harris, C. R., and Sans, W. W. Absorption of organochlorine insecticide
residues from agricultural soils by root crops. J_. Agr. Food Chem.
15/.861-3 (1967).
Henderson, C., Johnson, W. L., Inglis, A. Organochlorine insecticide
residues in fish. Pestic. Monit. .J. 3(3):145-70 (1969).
Henderson, C., Inglis, A., and Johnson, W. L. Organochlorine insecticide
residues in fish Fall, 1969, National Pesticide Monitoring Program.
Pestic. Monit. J_. , !5Q.)1-11 (1971).
Jeigier, Z., Pesticide residues in the atmosphere. Ann. .N. Y. Acad. S_ci_.
160:143-154 (1969).
Johnson, L. G., Morris, R. L., and Harrison, H. Preliminary study of
pesticide levels on the eggs of Iowa pheasants, blue wing teal and
coots. Bull. Environ. Contain. Toxicol. _5:474-478 (1970).
Jones, J. R. Erickson. Fish and river pollution. Butterworth & Co. Ltd.,
London, pp. 128-141 (1964).
Lichtenstein, E. P., Schultz, K. R. , Fuhremann, T. W., Liang, T. T.
Degradation of aldrin and heptachlor in field soils during a 10-year
period. Translocation into crops. J_. Agr. Food Chem. 18(1) :100-6
(1970).
Lichtenstein, E. P., Schultz, K. R., and Fuhremann, T. W. Pesticides in
soil. Effects of a cover crop versus soil cultivation on the fate and
vertical distribution of insecticide residues in soil 7 to 11 years
after soil treatment. Pestic. Monit. J_. 5(2) :218-23 (1971).
Lichtenstein, E. P., Fuhremann, T. W., and Schultz, K. R. Use of carbon to
reduce the uptake of insecticidal soil residues by plant crops. J_. Agr.
Food Chem. 16:348-55 (1968).
Lichtenstein, E. P., and Polivka, J. B. Persistence of some chlorinated
hydrocarbon insecticides in turf soils. J_. Econ. Entomol. 52:289-93
(1959).
Macek, K. J., Hutchinson, C., and Cope, 0. B. The effects of temperature on
the susceptibility of blue gills and rainbow trout to selected pesti-
cides. Bull. Environ. Con tarn. Toxicol. 4^(3):174-83 (1969).
Malina, M. A., Kearny, J. M., and Polen, P. B. Determination of chlordane in
air of habitations treated for insect control. J_. Agr. Food Chem.
7:30-33 (1959).
Muns, R. P., Stone, M. W., and Foley, F. Residues in vegetable crops follow-
ing soil applications of insecticides. J_. Econ. Entomol. 53:832-4
(1960).
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Nash, R. G., and Woolson, E. A. Distribution of chlorinated insecticides in
cultivated soil. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. Proc. 3^:525-7 (1963).
Onsager, J. A., Rusk, H. W., and Butler, L. I. Residues of aldrin, dieldrin,
chlordane and DDT in soil and sugarbeets. J_. Econ. Entomol. 63(4):
(1970).
Saha, J. G., and Sumner, A. K. Organochlorine insecticide residues in soil
from vegetable farms in Saskatchewan. Pestic. Monit. J_. Ml):28-31
(1971).
Schafer, M. L., Peeler, J. T., Gardner, W. S. and Campbell, J. E. Pesticides
in drinking water: Water from the Mississippi and Missouri rivers.
Environ. Sci. Technol. 3_(12) : 1261-9 (1969).
Shea, K. P., Dead Stream. Environment 12:12-15 (1970).
Shorey, H. H., Evans, W. G., Burrage, R. H. and Gyrisco, G. G. The residual
effect of insecticides applied to meadow and pasture sod for control
of the European chafer. J_. Econ. Entomol. _5.1: 765-67 (1958).
Stewart, D. K. R. and Fox, C. J. S. Persistence of organochlorine insecti-
cides and their metabolites in Nova Scotian soils. ^J. Econ. Entomol.
64U):367-71 (1971).
Tabor, E. C. Contamination of urban air through the use of insecticides.
Trans. N.Y. Acad. Sci. ^8(_5) : 569-578 (1966).
Tarrant, K. R. and Tatton, J. C. G. Organochlorine pesticides in rainwater
in the British Isles. Nature, 219 (5155):725-7 (1968).
Tucker, R. K. and Crabtree, D. G. Handbook of toxicity of pesticides to
wildlife. U.S.D.I. Bureau of Sprot Fisheries and Wildlife. Resource
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Ware, G. W. and Roan, C. C. Interaction of pesticides with aquatic micro-
organisms and plankton. Residue Rev. _3.3:15-45 (1970).
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Unpublished study by International Res. & Dev. Corp., submitted by
Velsicol Corp. (1968).
Weber, W. J., Jr., and J. P. Gould. Sorption of organic pesticides from
aqueous solution. Advan. Chem. Ser. No. 60:280-304. (.1966); See also
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(1967).
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Wiersma, G. B., Sand, P. P. and Schutzmann, R. L. National soils monitoring
program - six states, 1967, Pestic. Monit. j;. _5(2J : 223-227 (1971).
Winely, C. L. and San Clemente, C. I. Effects of pesticides on nitrite
oxidation by Nitrobacter agiles. Appl. Microbiol. 19(2):204-19
(1970).
Winnett, G. and Reed, J. P. Aldrin, dieldrin, endrin, and chlordane
persistence a 3-year study. Pestic. Monit. J[. ^(3): 133-6 (1968).
81
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CHAPTER IV
Residues in Crops and Food Items
IV.A. Tolerances - During the year 1950, public hearings were held on
tolerances for certain pesticides on raw agricultural commodities. At
that time toxicity and residue data for chlordane were presented. Taking
all the evidence into consideration, and on the basis of criteria for
safety at that time, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) deemed that the
margin of safety was sufficient to justify a tolerance of 0.2 ppm for resi-
dues of chlordane in or on 46 raw agricultural commodities (Federal Register.
March 11, 1955;^20 FR 1473).
In 1963, FDA reevaluated the toxicological data on chlordane and found the
available data inadequate to support a conclusion regarding the safety of
the tolerances for chlordane and proposed that these tolerances be repealed
and a tolerance of zero be established for all listed crops (Federal Regis-
lejL, December 5, 1963, 28 FR 12938). The Velsicol Chemical Corporation
challenged the decision by the FDA, and the National Academy of Sciences,
National Research Council appointed an FDA Advisory Committee to review the
situation. The Advisory Committee recommended that the tolerance level of
chlordane remain at 0.3 ppm. The FDA, after consideration of the findings
and with the recommendations of the Advisory Committee and other available
data, concluded that a tolerance of 0.3 ppm chlordane containing not more
than 1% of the intermediate compound hexachlorocyclopentadiene be estab-
lished on various raw agricultural commodities (Federal Register, April 5,
1965, 65 FR 3563).
Tolerances for chlordane were reviewed by the Food and Agricultural
Organization/World Health Organization (FAO/WHO) (1968), and the following
levels were presented: United States, 0.3 ppm (on wide variety of foods,
approximately 50 individual crops); Canada, 0.3 ppm (on a wide variety of
foods); European Economic Community, 0.2 ppm (combined total of all
cyclodiene residues on fruits and vegetables); Netherlands, Belgium,
Luxembourg, 0.1 ppm.
IV.B. Acceptable Daily Intake - On the basis of results of two long-term
feeding studies in the rat, a no-effect level was established at 20 ppm;
or 1 mg/kg/day (FAO/WHO, 1968). On the basis of the results of a 2-yr.
feeding study in the dog, a no-effect level for dog was established at 3 ppm
or 0.07 mg/kg/day. The acceptable daily intake for man was estimated to
be 0.001 mg/kg body weight (Food and Agricultural Organization/World Health
Organization, 1968).
IV.B.I. Acceptable Daily Intake - Chlordane residues in crops and food items
were evaluated by the 1967 FAO/WHO Joint meeting (FAO/WHO, 1968). In general, the
data suggest that the highest residues consistent with good agricultural practice
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will result in residues in root crops and, under certain conditions, in the
leafy and stalk vegetables. General information concerning residues resulting
from uses constituting good agricultural practice are summarized in Table 1.
TABLE 1. Residues of Chlordane in Crops
Crop Residue (ppm)
Alfalfa 0.01-0.16
Barley, grain 0-0.06
Barley, straw 0.98-2.65
Beans <0.01
Beets 0.17
Beet tops 0.01-0.1
Bell Peppers
Broccoli
Cabbage
Cantaloupe 0.01-0.1
Carrots 0.01-1.5
Collards
Cucumbers 0.08
Eggplant
Lettuce 0.04
Peaches 0.08
Peanuts 1.74
Pineapple 0.15
Potatoes <0.01-0.23
Radishes 0.03
Rutabaga 0.08-0.5
Snap beans <0.01
Strawberries <0.01
Sweet potatoes 0.01-0.4
Sugar beets 0.04-0.37
Tomatoes . <0.01
Turnips 0.01-0.16
Turnip tops 0.01-0.1
IV.B.2. Residues in Meat, Milk, and Eggs - Chlordane is absorbed from the
gastrointestinal tract and through the skin. It is stored in the meat and
adipose tissue, accumulates in the milk, and will pass into eggs. Administra-
tion of chlordane either by a single dermal application (Kawar, e^ al., 1968),
in the feed (Carter _et £l_. , 1953; Herrick £t _a_l. , 1969), or from being fed
in pastures containing chlordane residues (Westlake et^ al. , 1963; Knipling and
Westlake, 1966) has been shown to result in significant residues in milk, meat
and eggs.
83
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Westlake et al. (1963) observed that cows grazing on pastures to which levels
of 0.5 Ib/acre had been applied showed an average of 0.03 ppm chlordane in
their milk. Lower treatment levels of chlordane produced no milk residues.
Heptachlor epoxide was observed in the milk samples and may have risen frrom
the presence of heptachlor (6.4%) in the chlordane formulation or might be
an artifact related to the presence of oxychlordane.
Tuinstra (1971) examined human milk and reported the presence of 0.06 ppm
heptachlor epoxide although no chlordane was observed. Saha (1969a) reviewed
some early data showing residues in milk and fat from chlordane-treated crops
and from chlordane-treated animals. He concluded that chlordane occurring as
a residue in food crops will pass into milk.
Chlordane as a soil contaminant will migrate to certain crops. However, the
probability is small that contamination of meat and milk will result from
such residues.
Herrick et al. (1969) fed chickens levels of 0.08 ppm chlordane in feed for
one week and detected no residues in the egg. They reported that a subsequent
study at higher dosages resulted in residues in eggs which were reduced very
slowly upon cessation of the feeding. The administration of 10 to 15 ppm
chlordane to hens for five days resulted in residues of chlordane in fat (11
ppm) light meat (2.1 ppm) and dark meat (2.3 ppm). Hens, fed chlordane-
containing diets for 5-1/2 months, were found to have residues of chlordane-
containing materials in the fat and egg yolks. The residues in fat consisted
primarily of 0-chlordane, nonachlor, oxychlordane and compound E (probably a
chlordene isomer). The total residues in fat were not substantially removed
upon cessation (for periods of up to 30 days) of feeding.
Chlordane in commercial animal feed, as a source of residues in meat and milk,
has been shown to be generally in the range of less than 0.05 ppm.
IV.C. Pesticide Monitoring
IV.C.I. Market-Basket Surveys - Surveys of foodstuff for the presence of
chlordane have demonstrated that chlordane is infrequently present and only
in low levels. Fifty percent of over 50,000 total samples taken during the
period of 1964 to 1966 by the FDA contained pesticide residues. Approximately
0.1% of the samples contained residues of chlordane. Kraybill (1969), Duggan
(1969) and Duggan et^ al. (1971), examining the market-basket surveys of the
FDA, reported that chlordane was present above tolerance levels in only 17
of 25,000 samples examined. Chlordane is not among the top 10 chlorinated
pesticides usually found as residues in food.
An examination of the chlordane residues in food in the United States from
1963 through 1969 indicated that there were traces of chlordane found on
several domestic food crop items. The average value of these residues was
between 1 and 5 ppb and was less than 1% of the samples tested. Occasional
higher values were obtained which were always lower than 0.5 ppm. In the
following products no residues of chlordane were observed: milk, dairy
84
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products, fruit, vegetables (leaf and stem), beans, meat (fat), eggs, fish,
animal grains, infant and junior foods, nuts, and milk. Traces (0.001-0.005
ppm) were found on the following items: grains and cereals, vine and ear
vegetables, root vegetables, poultry, shellfish, soybean products, corn,
grain and oleomargarine. Finite residues were found on several cotton seed
products: seed, 3 ppb; crude cotton seed oil, 14 ppb; cotton seed meal, 8
ppb; refined oil, 6 ppb; corn oil, 77 ppb.
IV.B.2. Other Residue Surveys - Field, wholesale and retail market sampling
of agricultural commodities in Georgia indicate that levels of chlordane
(some slightly higher than tolerance) were not widespread (Brown, 1969). In
two of the three years during which the samples were taken, levels of chlor-
dane above tolerance were reported.
Of 66 samples of a total diet in England and Wales taken in 1966-67, no
chlordane (with a limit of sensitivity of 1 ppb) was observed (Abbott et al.,
1969). Small quantities of Heptachlor epoxide were reported in meat, fat
and cereals. .
IV.C.3. Residues on Prepared Foods - Chlordane may become a contaminant of
foods by several means in the household. The most obvious means of contamina-
tion is by direct treatment of cupboards (Wright and Jackson, 1971) by
absorption from chlordane-treated shelf paper (Yeo and Bevenue, 1969a). Un-
packaged wheat flour, polished rice and sugar were reasonbly effective in
absorbing volatile components of chlordane. Chlordane will penetrate packag-
ing materials and contaminate foods.
IV.D. Effect on Food Flavor - Although chlordane may be present in foods as
a result of soil application, several studies have shown that its probable
presence in food will result in no off-flavor or reduction of quality of the
agricultural product. Studies have been reported for potatoes (Kirkpatrick,
1955; Greenwood and Tice, 1949), strawberries (Sweeney e_t_ aJU , 1968) and
peanut butter (Gilpin et^ al., 1954). Although these studies did not measure
the residue levels in the food it was assumed that a concentration of chlor-
dane was present. However, Morgan et al. (1967) found residue levels greater
than 1 ppm in peanuts following treatment at 2 Ib/acre.
IV.E. Removal of Residues - When excessive pesticide residues occur in food
and other media there are several common procedures for the removal of these
contaminants. Street (1969) reviewed the common procedures for the removal
of residues from food and from the environment including removal of residues
from animals which might be contaminated. The problem of removing residues
from soil and water takes on a significant dimension and removal is not only
generally ineffectual but costly and prohibitive.
General methods including cultivation, planting absorbable crops, carbon
absorption and leeching, all of which generally transfer the residue from one
environmental factor to another. Many food processing operations, including
washing, cooking, heating, etc., reduce the residues of most materials on
85
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food, depending primarily on the individual compounds. Cooking procedures
which remove fat are generally helpful in removing chlordane residues from
meat (Liska and Stadelman, 1969).
The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry Commission on Terminal
Residues (Egan, 1969) considered the influence of cooking or processing
operations on the nature and extent of residues of chlordane. Simple cooking
had no significant effect on the level or composition of residues although
processing operations for milk drastically reduced residues in certain products
A reduction of almost 90% of the residue found directly after spraying alfalfa
was obtained by standard handling and drying procedures normally used (Dahm,
1962). In the normal commercial production of vegetable oils, processes,
including hydrogenation and carbon clarification, removed all traces of
chlordane residues (Gooding, 1966).
Several recent studies have indicated that processing of milk into various
products is effective in reducing chlordane residues (McCaskey and Liska,
1967; Li ejt al. 1970).
Approximately 90 to 100% of chlordane residue in potatoes was observed to be
present in the peel and removal of the peel effectively reduced chlordane
levels to zero (Saha et al., 1968). Boiling whole potatoes for 25 min re-
moved only minute quantities of the residue while baking at 400°F for 1 hr.
was effective in removing 80% of the residue. Washing and boiling rice con-
taminated with clordane was effective in removing 60 to 80% of the residue
(Bevenue and Yeo, 1969). Cooking wheat flour was somewhat less effective but
did remove an average of 53% of the residue. During the processing of chicken
containing residues of chlordane, the pesticide content was dramatically re-
duced (Me Caskey et^ al^. , 1968). Cooking chicken which contained from 2.1 to
2.3 ppm in meat, for 3 hr reduced the pesticide level to 0.8 ppm. When chick-
en was processed most pesticides associated with the fat were removed when the
fat content was reduced by cooking. Apparently, with chlordane, washing and
cooking are effective means of reducing residues in certain instances.
86
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CHAPTER IV
Bibliography
Abbott, D. C. , Holmes, D. C., Tatton, J. 0. G. Pesticide residues in the
total diet in England and Wales, 1966-1967. II. Organochlorine pesti-
cide residues in the total diet. J_. Sci. Food Agr. 2!0(4) 245-9 (1969).
Revenue, A., Yeo, C. Y. Effects of the cooking process on the removal of
chlordane residues from wheat, flour and rice. Bull. Environ. Contain.
Toxicol. 4.(6): 370-4 (1969).
Brown, J. D. Pesticides residue levels among fresh fruits and vegetables in
Georgia. 10 p. IJ. of Ga. College of Agriculture Experiment Stations
Res. Report 42, March (1969).
Carter, R. J., Hubands, P. E., Poos, F. W. , Moore, L. A., and Ely, R. E.
J_. Dairy Sci. 36.:1972 (1953).
Carter, R. H. , Hubanks, P. E., Poos, F. W., Moore, L. A., and Ely, R. E. The
toxaphene and chlordane content of milk from cows receiving these
materials in their feed. J_. Dairy Sci., 36: 1172-77 (1953).
Dahm, P. A. Effects of weathering and commercial dehydration upon residues
of aldrin, chlordane and toxaphene applied to alfalfa. J_. Econ. Entomol.
45_: 763-66 (1952).
Duggan, R. E. , Pesticide residues in food. Ann. N_. Y_. Acad- Sci. 160:173-82
(1969).
Duggan, R. E., Lipscomb, G. 0., Cox, E. L., Heatwole, R. E., and Kling, R. C.
Pestic. Monit. J_. 5.(2) :73-212 (1971).
Egan, H. IUPAC Commission on Terminal Residues. ^J. Ass. Offie. Anal. Chem.
52^(_2): 299-304 (1969).
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations/World Health Organization.
1967 Evaluations of some pesticide residues in food (1968).
Gilpin, G. L., Redstrom, R. A., Reynolds, H. and Poos, F. W. Flavor of peanut
butter as affected by aldrin, chlordane, dieldrin, heptachlor and toxa-
phene used as insecticides in growing peanuts. ,J. Agr. Food Chem.
(21): 778-80 (1954).
Gooding, C. M. B. Fate of chlorinated organo pesticide residues in the
production of edible vegetable oils. Chem..Ind. 344 (1966).
Greenwood, M. L., and Tice, J. M. Palatability tests of potatoes grown in
soil heated with the insecticides benzene, hexachloride, chlordane, and
chlorinated camphene. £. Agr. Res. _78_:477-82 (1949).
87
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Herrick, G. M., Fry, J. L., Fong, W. G., and Golden, D. C. Pesticide
residues in eggs resulting from the dusting and short-time feeding of
low levels of chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides in hens. J. Agr.
Food Chem. 17(2):291-5 (1969).
Kawar, N. S., Bostanian, N. J., and Badawi, S. M. Insecticide residues in
milk of dairy cows treated for control of ectoparasites. J. Dairy Sci.
51(7):1023-5 (1968).
Kirkpatrick, M. E. Flavor of sebago potatoes grown in soil treated with
chlordane, heptachlor, dieldrin, aldrin and endrin. J. Agr. Food Chem.
3^:409-12 (1955).
Knipling, E. F., and Westlake, W. E. Insecticide use in livestock produc-
tion. Residue Rev. 13:1-32 (1966).
Kraybill, H. F. Significance of pesticide residues in foods in relation to
total encironmental stress. Can. Med. Ass. J. 100:204-215 (1969).
Li, C. F., Bradley, Jr., R. L., Schultz, L. G. Fate of organochlorine
pesticides during processing of milk into dairy products. J. Ass.
Offie. Anal. Chem. 53:127-39 (1970).
Liska, B. J., and Stadelman, W. J. Effects on processing of pesticides in
foods. Residue Rev. 29:61-72 (1969).
McCaskey, T. A., and Liska, B. J. Effect of milk processing methods on
endosulfan and endosulfan sulfate and chlordane residues in milk.
J. Dairy Sci. 50:1991-93 (1967).
McCaskey, T. A., Stemp, A. R., Liska, E. J., and Stadelman, W. J. Residues
in egg yolks and raw and cooked tissues from laying hens administered
selected chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides. Poultry jScj^ ^]_(2) :564-9
(1968).
Morgan, L. W., Leuck, D. B., Beck, E. W., and Woodham. Residues of aldrin,
chlordane, endrin and heptachlor in peanuts grown in treated soil.
J. Econ. Entomol. 60:1289-91 (1967).
Polen, P. B., Hester, M. and Berziger, J. Characterization of oxychlordane,
an animal metabolite of chlordane. Bull. Environ. Contain. Toxicol.
5.:521 (1970).
Saha, J. G. Significance of organochlorine insecticide residues in fresh
plants as possible contaminants of milk and beef products. Residue
Rev. 26:89-126 (1969a).
Saha, J. G., Burrage, R. H., Nielson, M. A. and Simpson, E. C. R. Chlordane:
composition of commercial formulation residues in potatoes grown in
treated soil and their reduction by home processing. Pesticide Progress
(16): 117-21 (1968), as cited in Yeo, W. and Bevenue, A. The absorption
of chlordane by wheat flour from chlordane-tested shelf paper. Prod.
Res. 5:325-36 (1969).
88 '
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Street, J. C. Methods of removal of pesticides residues. Can. Med. Ass.
J_._ 100:154-60 (1969).
Sweeney, J. P., Chapman, V. J. and Hepner, P. A. Effect of selected
pesticides on quality of strawberries. J. Agr. Food Chem. 16:632-4
(1968).
Tuinstra, L. G. M. Organochlorine insecticide residues in human milk in
the leiden region. Med. Melk-Zuweltijdschs 25(l):24-32 Abstract in
HAPAB 4(10):561 (1971) (#71-2118).
Westlake, W. E., Corley, C., Murphy, R. T., Barthel, W. A., Bryant, H. and
Schutzmann, R. L. J. Agr. Food Chem. 11:244-47 (1963).
Wright, C. G., and Jackson, M. D. Propoxur chlordane and diazinon on
porcelain china saucers after kitchen cabinet spraying. J. Econ.
Entomol. (640:457-9 (1971).
Yeo, C. Y., Revenue, A. Uptake of chlordane vapors by foodstuffs of low
moisture content. J_^ Ass. Offic. Anal. Chem. 52.(6) : 1206-13 (1969a).
Yeo, C. Y., and Bevenue, A. The absorption of chlordane by wheat flour
from chlordane-treated shelf paper. Prod. Res_. 5:325-36 (1969b).
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CHAPTER V
Toxicology and Epidemiology of Chlordane
V.A. Toxicity to Laboratory Animals - No exact standards of identity exist
for technical chlordane except the percent of chlordane (68-69%) in the pro-
duct. Thus, the pharmacological and toxicological properties may vary from
experiment to experiment bacause of possible variation in the composition
of chlordane. However, Ingle (1952) contends that chlordane is not as toxic
"as reported several years ago," due to elimination of the highly toxic
intermediate, hexachlorocyclopentadiene which is now present in amounts of
less than 1% in technical chlordane. The U.S. specifications of chlordane
call for not more than 1% hexachlorocyclopentadiene.
Technical chlordane, on which the majority of the toxicity studies have
been carried out, is a mixture of substances, including alpha-chlordane,
beta-chlordane, chlordene, hexachlor, heptachlor, nonachlor, and several
minor components including hexachlorocyclopentadiene. The technical grade
is a mixture containing 36-46% chlordane isomers and closely related
chlorinated bicyclic analogs.
Chlordane is absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract, the respiratory
tract, and through the skin (Ambrose et al., 1953). It is stored in the
adipose tissue of, rats, sheep, goats, and cows and is transmitted to the
milk.
Chlordane acts on the central nervous system, but the exact mechanism of
this action has not been elucidated. Large doses induce nausea and/or
vomiting. On repeated dosage, chlordane produces microscopic changes in the
liver and kidneys of some experimental animals. Somewhat different lesions
may be produced by a single fatal dose.
Chlordane stimulates liver microsomal activity. Single doses or multiple
doses at relatively low levels have been shown to increase microsomal
activity in the rat. It has been demonstrated that the acute administration
of chlordane affects steroid action in mammals.
V.A.I. Acute and Subacute Toxicity Studies Chlordane is a central
nervous system stimulant and toxic doses produce hyperexcitability, lack of
coordination, tremors, and convulsions. Barbiturates are effective against
convulsions induced experimentally from all central locations. It, there-
fore, appears that the symptoms of chlordane poisoning have their origin in
the central nervous system (Stohlman and Smith, 1950).
V.A.I.a. Acute and Subacute Oral Toxicity - Radeleff(1948), Choudhury and
Robinson (1950), and Choudhury (1953) described the typical chlorinated
hydrocarbon insecticide signs and symptoms which include motor ataxia,
convulsions and cyanosis followed by death. The pathological signs include
90
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hemorrhage of the gastrointestinal tract, kidneys, lung, and heart.
Pulmonary congestion and edema, and degeneration of the central nervous
system are also observed.
When a diet containing 1000 ppm of chlordane was fed to 12 male rats, all
of them died within 10 days. When 12 rats were fed 500 ppm, all died within
70 days; Nine of 12 rats fed 300 ppm were alive after 100 days (Stohlman
e^al^, 1950).
Daily oral doses of 6.25 to 25 mg/kg of chlordane given to 5 rats for 15 days
produced no tremors or convulsions, but daily doses of 50 mg/kg produced
toxic symptoms and two of the animals died. When chlordane was fed at levels
of 100 mg/kg, all of the animals died. Intracytoplasmic bodies in the liver
cells were found at all levels and their number as in proportion to the dose
used (Ambrose et al., 1953).
Groups of 6 females and 6 males were fed 2.5 ppm or 25 ppm of a sample of
technical chlordane containing 60 to 75% chlordane and 25 to 40% unrelated
products for up to nine months. Centrolobular cell hypertrophy, peripheral
migration of cytoplasmic granules and the presence of cytoplasmic bodies were
observed in 1 male at 2.5 ppm and in 5 males at 12.5 ppm (Ortega et al.,
1957).
Chlordane was given in varying oral doses to dogs for 7 days; convulsions
were seen in one dog at 200 mg/kg (lowest dose) but 700 mg/kg (highest dose)
did not produce any effect (Batte and Turk, 1948).
Four groups of 2 to 4 dogs were given chlordane orally in doses of 5 to
200 mg/kg body-weight. All of the dogs died within periods of 25 days to
93 weeks (Lehman, 1952).
V.A.l.b. Dermal Toxicity - Ingle (1965) observed that hexachlorocyclopentadiene
in small amounts was rapidly absorbed through the skin producing severe liver
damage. He attributes much of the toxicity of early technical chlordane to
its content of this intermediate. Ingle states that the dermal toxicity of
the current technical chlordane is reduced due to its lower content of hexachloro-
cyclopentadiene .
V.A.l.c. Inhalation Toxicity - Ingle (1965) described deaths of pigeons at
FDA and mice at Carworth Farms, Inc. which were placed in an animal room
after it had been cleaned with solutions containing chlordane. Nickerson
and Radeleff (1951a, 1951b) exposed pigeons (60 days) and young chicks (30
days) to high levels of chlordane (Ig/sq ft) with no apparent adverse effects
on either. Moore and Carter (1954) observed that spraying turkey cages with
a mixture of 2% chlordane and 0.4 lindane caused subsequent high mortality of
the turkeys. Findings by Ingle (1965) and others on a wide variety of animals
indicate in early preparations that hexachlorocyclopentadiene, not chlordane,
was probably the primary cause of the irritant and toxic properties of the prep-
aration. Ingle (1965) observed that small amounts of the intermediate were
rapidly absorbed through the skin to produce severe liver damage.
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Table 1. Acute Toxicity of Chlordane in Animals
ANIMAL
Rat
Mouse
Rabbit
Goat
Sheep
Chicken
ROUTE
Oral
Oral
Oral
Oral
Oral
Oral
Oral
LD5Q
200-590*
335-430
430
100-300*
20-40
180
500-1000
220-230
REFERENCES
Ambrose et al.
Ingle, (1955)
Stohlman et al.
Gaines (i960)
FDA (1947)
Stohlman et al.
Ingle (1955)
Welch (1948)
Welch (1948)
Turner and Eden
(1953)
(1950)
(1950)
(1952)
*The differences are explained by the use of different solvents and by the fact that the chlordane produced
prior to 1950 contained a considerable amount of hexachlorocylopentadiene (Ingle, 1965; Lehman, 1952).
-------
V.A.2. Chronic Toxicity Studies - All rats on 1,000 ppm dietary chlordane
died within 10 days; all rats on 500 ppm died within 70 days; and, 3 of 12
rats on 300 ppm died within 100 days (Stohlman e£ al., 1950).
Daily oral administration of chlordane at levels up to 25 mg/kg to rats for 15
days produced no tremors or convulsions, but caused toxic symptoms and death of
2 of 5 rats (Ambrose et al., 1953). Rats fed dietary chlordane for up to nine
months showed cellular alteration of the liver in 1 of 3 males and none of 3
females on 2.5 ppm and 2 of 3 males and none of 3 females on 25 ppm. "Lipospheres"
were observed in the liver cells of one animal at 2.5 ppm chlordane. Hepatic
cell margination and/or hypertrophy were observed in the males at 25 ppm chlordane
(Ortega et al., 1957).
In experiments conducted by FDA, rats were given from 25 to 75 ppm chlordane in
the diet for 2 yr. The two higher levels caused moderate to severe signs of
intoxication. The lowest level caused histologically evident liver damage.
Lehman (1965) reported that all rats fed chlordane at dosage levels of from
2.5 to 400 ppm in the diet for 2 yr showed specific, though minimal hepatic cell
changes characteristic of chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides. These changes
were apparent at the lowest dose, though minimal, and progressively increased
in severity with increasing feeding levels. Liver/body-weight ratios increased
in males at 25 ppm and in females at 75 ppm and were proportionately greater
at higher levels.
Rats were fed 5 to 300 ppm technical chlordane for 2 yr. The lowest level at
which tremors and convulsions appeared (or could be induced) was 30 ppm; growth
was affected at 150 ppm; and liver damage was detected histologically at 10 ppm
(Ingle, 1952). Rats showed no symptoms of toxicity on a diet of 150 ppm
chlordane for 80 weeks, followed by 4 weeks on a chlordane-free diet, and
then starved in an attempt to induce rapid release of residual chlordane from
body fat.
In reinvestigation of the above study, levels ranging from 2.5 to 300 ppm chlor-
dane in the diet were fed (Ingle, 1965). Lowest levels to affect growth and
mortality and to cause microscopically evident liver damage were 300 and 50 ppm,
respectively. Ambrose et al. (1953) fed rats levels ranging from 10 to 1280 ppm
chlordane in the diet for 407 days. Liver weight was increased at 320 ppm and
above. Cytoplasmic vacuoles containing fat and clusters of granules at the
periphery of the cytoplasm were seen in males at 40 ppm and above and in
females at 80 ppm and above.
In dogs fed chlordane at levels ranging from 80 to 320 ppm for up to 90 weeks
(Lehman, 1965) growth was adversely affected at all levels, and all animals
died. In a histopathological examination of the dogs, fatty degeneration of
the liver was found to be the principal lesion at the 200 ppm level.
V.A.3. Reproduction Studies - Rats in a 3-generation reproduction study
received dietary chlordane at levels ranging from 0.3 to 60 ppm. Levels up
to and including 30 ppm chlordane had no affect on fertility, numbers of
young, numbers of litters, or weight, growth, or mortality of the young
animals to weaning. Autopsies of animals, after weaning, showed no gross or
microscopic differences between the goups. At 60 ppm there was a high mortality
in the second ?3 generation during the latter part of the nursing period.
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Those animals that died showed gross and microscopic pathology changes charac-
teristic of chlordane intoxication.
Survivors of this generation, however, showed no tissue changes. A third set
of F3 litters at 60 ppm again showed high mortality during the nursing period
with gross and microscopic tissue changes characteristic of chlordane intoxi-
cation. A third ?3 generation litter from females removed from the 60 ppm
group and placed on a chlordane-free diet for 30 days prior to remating showed
no differences in any respect from control litters. There was no evidence
of teratogenicity or tumorigenicity observed during the study (Food and Agri-
culture Organization/World Health Organization, 1968).
In a review of the perinatal toxicity of chlordane, Khera and Clegg (1969)
reported that control rat pups suckled by parents fed 150 ppm chlordane
exhibited toxicity due to chlordane residues in the milk.
The normally low levels of drug-metabolizing enzymes in the new-born rabbit
were enhanced by treating the rabbit pups or the mothers with chlordane
(Fouts and Hart, 1965). Chlordane apparently was excreted in the milk and
stimulated the rabbit's drug metabolizing enzymes.
Tuinstra (1971) observed that human mother's milk did not contain chlordane
as such but did contain 0.6 ppm heptachlor epoxide. As mentioned in other
sections this observation might well be a combination of materials including
oxychlordane. It was indicated that there appeared to be no physiological
effect on infants to the presence of the chlorinated pesticides in the milk.
Keplinger et al. (1968) reported that 25 ppm chlordane in the diet of mice for
three generations had no effect on reproduction, but 50 and 100 ppm caused
significant effects.
Chlordane is a possible contaminant of milk in the form of heptachlor epoxide
or oxychlordane. Traces of chlordane or its metabolites in milk have been
shown to have an effect on offspring. Apparently this affect appears to be
limited to increased metabolic rates in the liver.
Chlordane fed at 25 ppm in the diet for eight weeks produced levels of 18
and 12 ppm chlordane in the fat of calves and sheep, respectively. After
feeding was halted, the former level declined to zero within 20 weeks and the
latter level was reduced in four weeks (Claborn et al., 1953).
V.A.4. Carcinogenic Studies - No carcinogenicity studies, per se, have been
carried out on chlordane. However, chlordane was not shown to be tumorigenic
in long-term studies in rats (Ingle, 1965) or dogs (Wazeter, 1967).
V.A.5. Mutagenic and Teratogenic Studies - No mutagenic or teratogenic studies
have been carried out on chlordane. However, in long-term rat (Food and
Agricultural Organization, 1968) and mouse (Keplinger et al., 1968) reproduction
studies no evidence of teratogenesis was apparent.
V.A.6. Metabolic Studies - The metabolic fate of chlordane in biological
systems is complicated due to the complex of components in the technical
product. A complete picture of it would have to account for biological fate o
each component, modified by any interaction of those that might occur in vivo.
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Recently, the synthesis of both 14^ radioactive isomers of chlordane was
reported (Korte, 1966). Following administration of these to rodents, chiefly
hydrophilic metabolites and unchanged parent compound were excreted. Follow-
ing an intravenous dose of Q-chlordane to rats the principal excretion was
via the feces with only minute amounts occurring in the urine (Poonawalla and
Korte, 1964).
Oral administration of these radioactive compounds to rabbits caused excretion
of hydrophilic metabolites primarily in the urine and to a lesser extent in
the feces. (Ludwig, 1966). The most polar urinary metabolite was assigned
the structure l-hydroxy-2 chloro-dehydrochlordene, with the stereochemical
configuration of the 1- and 2-substituents unspecified.
However, Brooks (1969) assumes that the 2-chlorine atom will be in the endo-
position and the 1-hydroxy group would be exo, which would imply simple hy-
drolytic replacement of one chlorine atom without inversion. Its molecular
weight was estimated to be 391 and its empirical formula, C^QHyCly. Its acute
toxicity to mice was approximately three times less than that of the a-chlordane
(>1800 mg/kg).
Male rats given an acute dose of a-chlordane intravenously and killed 60 hr
later showed approximately 75% of radioactivity excreted in the feces in the
form of hydrophilic metabolites. There were high concentrations of radio-
activity in both the fat and the GI tract (Poonawalla and Korte, 1964). Male
rabbits orally administered transchlordane for 10 weeks, eliminated 47% of the
dose in urine and 23% in feces. The major hydrophilic metabolite was again
assigned the structure l-hydroxy-2-chloro-dihydrochlordene. However, in this
metabolite derived from ychlordane, the 2-chlorine atom would probably be in
the endoposition, and the hydroxy group would probably be in the endoposition,
again indicating hydrolytic replacement of the chlorine atom or simple oxida-
tive dechlorination (Poonawalla and Korte, 1971).
Recently, a previously unreported metabolite of chlordane was isolated from
mammalian fat milk and cheese (Polen et^ jil_. , 1970, Schwemmer ejt^ al. , 1970;
Lawrence et al., 1970). This metabolite, which often migrates on a GLC column
concurrently with heptachlor epoxide, may have been mistaken for it in residue
analyses of certain foods. The metabolite, oxychlordane, an epoxide derivative
of chlordane is postulated to be l-exo-2-endo-4,5,6,7,8,8-octachloro-2,3-epoxy-
2,3,3a,4,7,7a,-hexahydro-4,7-metahnoindene. The compound is formed from both
a- and y~chlordanes although to a greater extent from the former. When cows
were fed 0.3 ppm cis, trans, or a cis- trans- mixture of chlordane for 30 days,
no oxychlordane was found in milk. Cows on 1 ppm excreted low levels of oxy-
chlordane in milk. Oxychlordane was also found in adipose tissue.
Street and Blau (1971) recently identified a metabolite, l-exo-2-endo-dichloro-
chlordene-2, as an intermediate in the formation of oxychlordane. They found
oxychlordane is produced by oxidative metabolism in rat liver homogenates
fortified with NADP. It is formed very slowly by normal rat liver homogenates
but was readily induced by DDT, dieldrin, heptabarbital and y-chlordane.
Rabbit preparations apparently convert dichlorochlordene readily to oxychlor-
dane but do not readily convert chlordane to dichlorochlordene unless induced
by exogenous substrates in vivo.
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V.A.7. Effect of Chlordane on Enzymes
V.A.7.a. Enzyme Induction - Studies during the past decade have shown that
the duration and intensity of action of many drugs depends upon the activities
of drug metabolizing enzymes located primarily in the smooth endoplasmic
reticulum (SER) of the liver cells. These enzymes catalyze the metabolism
of drugs by many pathways such as: hydroxylation, dealkylation, deamination,
sulfur-oxidation, azo-link reduction, and glucuronide formation.
The acute or chronic administration of a chemical may alter the pharmacologic
activity of another by increasing the amount of drug metabolizing enzymes in
the liver. This may facilitate the inactivation of the drug on the one hand;
on the other it may activate the drug if the compound is metabolized to com-
pounds which possess enhanced physiological activity.
Drug metabolism has been shown to be stimulated in animals by many different
types of drugs and chemicals in the environment, including chlordane. Over
200 drugs and other chemicals are now known that stimulate drug metabolism in
laboratory animals. Several extensive reviews have been published since the
mid-1960's on the inductive effects of chlordane and other chemicals on drug
metabolizing enzymes in the liver (Kuntzman, 1969; Conney, 1969; Street, 1969;
Conney e± ^1., 1969; Kupfer, 1967).
Studies conducted in the last decade demonstrated that treatment of animals
with drugs, polycyclic hydrocarbons, and chlorinated insecticides increase the
activity of liver microsomal oxidative drug-metabolizing enzymes. In turn,
such an increase in microsomal enzyme activity was found to lead to an acceler-
ated transformation of drugs in vivo and cause an altered duration of drug
activity. The most potent inducers of these enzymes are some of the chlorin-
ated insecticides, including chlordane. Single or multiple doses are relative-
ly low levels that significantly increase the microsomal enzyme activity in
rats.
Chlordane has been compared with phenobarbital in its stimulatory action on
hepatic microsomal drug metabolism in mammals. Both agents cause increases in
liver weight, microsomal protein, microsomal NADPH-oxidase, and microsomal
cytochrome CO-binding pigments. Both agents can affect stimulation on drug
metabolism in adrenalectomized or hypophysectomized rats. Ethionine can block
the enzyme stimulation by both agents in normal rats (Hart and Fouts, 1965).
The stimulatory actions of chlordane on microsomal drug metabolism do not add
to those of phenobarbital. The actions of both chlordane and phenobarbital
seem to be associated with a proliferation of SER in the liver cell.
Whether this biochemical and morphological response to chlordane can be con-
sidered to be a hepatoxic effect of chlordane or is rather an adaptive response
to the toxic actions of these chemicals has been under deliberation for a con-
siderable time. Several workers consider this inductive effect on animals and
the associated cellular changes in the liver to be physiological adaptive re-
sponses rather than toxic effects.
96
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It has been well demonstrated that acute administration of chlordane and other
nonspecific inducers of liver metabolizing systems affect steroid actions in
mammals. Chlordane pretreattnent increases metabolism of estradiol-17-B to
polar metabolites (Conney ££_§!_> 1965); decreases the growth promoting action
of testosterone on the seminal vesicles of young rats (Levin et al., 1969);
inhibits the increase of uterine weight caused by estrone (reduces uterotropic
action of estrone); and decreases the concentration of estrone in the uterus
(Welch et_ _al. , 1971).
The metabolism of Cj^-steroids (progesterone and deoxycorticesterone) and a
subsequent decrease in their pharmacological action was stimulated in male rats
by pretreatment with chlordane (Kupfer, 1969). In adult ovariectomized mice,
treatment with chlordane (but not DDT) increases estradiol-17-B metabolism,
reduces estradiol-17-B-or estrone-increases in uterine weight, and decreases
the concentration of estrogen in the uterus (Welch et_ al_. , 1971).
Lage et al. (1967) administered chlordane to adult male squirrel monkeys and
found that the metabolism of digoxin was stimulated (DDT was not active under
the conditions employed).
Pretreatment of rats with chlordane also decreased the toxicity of warfarin
in vivo and increased its metabolism in vitro (Ikeda et al., 1968). Dogs pre-
treated with chlordane followed by dicumarol had a reduced plasma level of
dicumarol and the anticoagulant effect was reduced through the increased meta-
bolism of the drug (Welch and Harrison, 1966).
Rats administered chlordane followed by phenylbutazone did not develop gastric
ulcers as did similar animals treated with phenylbutazone alone (Welch and
Harrison, 1966). The stimulatory effects of chlordane on drug metabolism in
dogs was observed to be prolonged for as long as 21 weeks after discontinuing
chlordane treatment (Burns et al., 1965). Oral treatment three times per week
(5 mg/kg) for 7 weeks resulted in this prolonged accelerated metabolism of
phenylbutazone.
Hydroxylase activity was stimulated in vivo by chlordane while in vitro
chlordane (10-^M) inhibited this enzyme reaction (Welch et al., 1967).
There are apparently substantial differences in the selectivity of drug
metabolizing enzymes and in the stimulation as observed with different inducers
and in various animal strains. Cram and Fouts (1967) observed differences in
two mouse strains when examining the affect of chlordane and DDT on the meta-
bolism of various substrates. In these two mouse strains there are significant
differences in the inductive effects of y-chlordane and DDT. The two mouse
strains not only show similar stimulatory effects of DDT and y-chlordane but
also show differences in their inductive capabilities. The inductive effect
of DDT and chlordane in the squirrel monkey are qualitatively similar (Juchau
et al., 1966; Cram £t al., 1965).
Chlordane is more active than DDT in stimulating drug metabolizing enzymes in
primates although the spectrum of activity in the primates is similar with the
two inducers.
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The newborn infant is more sensitive than the adult to many drugs and ocassion-
ally drugs produce neonatal effects after administration to the mother. An
explanation for the sensitivity of infants to drugs came from the observation
that newborn animals generally lack microsomal enzyme systems for the metabo-
lism of many compounds. The normally low levels of drug metabolism enzyme
activity in newborn rabbits was enhanced by treating the pups or the mothers
they nursed with chlordane (Fouts and Hart, 1965).
The inductive effect evident in animal studies will presumably be observed in
man. Kolmodin et al. (1969) observed that the plasma half-life of antipyrine
in men occupationally exposed to chlordane is shorter, indicating that the
microsomal enzyme system in man is induced.
The enhanced metabolism of chlordane by these inductive mechanisms may lead
to the further formation of oxychlordane, a potent metabolite formed and stored
in mammals. The toxicological significance of this effect has been evaluated
in the chronic studies done with chlordane where induction of oxidative enzymes
through the normal feeding of chlordane in the diet would result in the occur-
ence and storage of oxychlordane.
The inductive interaction involving chlordane and the metabolism of toxicants,
drugs and other substrates in mammals has been demonstrated to be an increase
in enzyme synthesis rather than a stimulation of activity. This increased
enzyme synthesis has apparently manifested itself in production of enzymes
which are not necessarily specific for oxidative mechanisms. For example,
Crevier et_ _al. (1954); Ball jet al. (1954); Kay (1966); Triolo and Coon (1966);
Triolo et al. (1970); Williams and Casterline (1970) ; Casterline and Williams
(1969a, 1969b), reported on the increased activity of esterases following
chlordane treatment. It was postulated that this increased activity was
responsible for the protective effect of chlorinated hydrocarbons when admin-
istered prior to organophosphate and carbamate esters. Williams jet_ _al_. (1967),
assumed that the chlordane-induced increase in liver and serum aliesterase
activity was not primarily responsible for the protective effect of chlordane
against two carbamate insecticides. More recently, Chapman and Liebman (1971)
have assumed that the protective effect of chlordane and other inducing com-
pounds against the toxicity of parathion is primarily due to the oxidative
production of diethylhydrogen phosphate. On the basis of their data it seems
reasonable to assume that the nonspecific oxidative induction mechanism of
chlordane rather than esterase interaction may be responsible for the protec-
tive effect of chlordane against the toxicity of certain organophosphate esters.
The interactions of chlordane with other pesticides has been examined (Williams
and Casterline, 1970; Street et al_., 1969). It was observed that chlordane was
less active than DDT in stimulating EPN detoxication and in the removal of
stored dieldrin from fat. Chlordane decreased the mortality of a carbamate,
Banol(R), but the protective effect was reduced by pretreatment with piperonyl
butoxide.
Several studies have been reported on the interactions of diet and/or essen-
tial dietary factors with chlordane (Casterline and Williams, 1969a, 1969b;
Boyd, 1969; Boyd and Taylor, 1969; Wagstaff and Street, 1971). Animals
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maintained on a protein-deficient diet showed a significant increase in suscep-
tibility to acute chlordane toxicity. In general, it may be concluded that
malnutrition plays a significant role in increasing the toxic effects of
chlordane. Apparently, ascorbic acid is necessary for induction. Reduced levels
of ascorbic acid resulted in lower induction levels of chlorinated hydrocarbons.
Although the report of Wagstaff and Street (1971) did not primarily deal with
chlordane induction the interaction of ascorbic acid in the inductive effects
of chlorinated hydrocarbons was reported. Presumably this would be the same
for chlordane.
V.A.7.a. Miscellaneous Effects - Studies on the mode of action of chlordane
in insects and mammals have been limited to studies of adenosinetriphophos-
phate (ATPase) activity (Koch, 1969; Koch et al., 1969; Chu and Cutkomp, 1971;
Akera et al., 1971). This relationship has not been conclusively defined as
the etiological cause of the central nervous system stimulation seen in
acute toxic response.
Chlordane has been shown to affect oxidative metabolism in a yeast system
(Nelson and Williams, 1971); nitrite oxidation by Nitrobacter agiles (Winely
and San Clemente, 1970); and carbon fixation in aquatic plankton (Ware and
Roan, 1970). Gabliks and Friedman (1969) reported chlordane to be more toxic
than DDT to mouse and human cells in cell culture and indicated that chlordane-
exposed cells were more susceptible to infection by polio virus.
Chlordane had no effect in vitro or in vivo on an enzyme which hydrolyzes 3,
4-dichloropropionanilide (Williams and Jacobson, 1966). Williams (1969) found
that a single dose of chlordane to rats reduced serum (23%) and liver (28%)
glucuronidase activity eight days after administration.
V.B. Human Toxicity and Epidemiology - Fatality in humans has followed ex-
posure to chlordane by both the oral and dermal routes. Acute poisoning may
also follow inhalation exposure to chlordane. Low concentrations, estimated
by Lensky and Evans (1952) to be about 10 mg/kg, result in classic signs of
poisoning, including ataxia and convulsions. The fatal oral dose of chlordane
for man is estimated to be between 6 and 600 g, although death of a patient
with chronic liver disease has followed the exposure to an oral dose estimated
to be between 2 and 4 g. The dermal exposure to 30 g of a 25% solution of
chlordane has resulted in death (Hayes, 1963).
V.B.I. Signs and Symptoms of Poisoning - The signs and symptoms of acute
chlordane intoxication in humans are similar to those observed in poisoning
by other chlorinated hydrocarbons. Irritability, salivation, labored respir-
ation, muscle tremors, convulsions, and death, with or without an immediately
preceding period of deep depression, is a classical pattern of poisoning in
experimental animals. These symptoms, which are referrable to the central
nervous system, have all been observed in humans. In addition, nausea, vomi-
ting, diarrhea, and abdominal pain have been reported to follow the ingestion
of toxic doses of chlordane. Blurred vision, cough, ataxia, confusion, de-
lirium, and mania are further symptoms noted after inhalation and skin absorp-
tion of toxic amounts of chlordane. Acute signs of poisoning usually appear
99
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within 45 minutes after ingestion. Death may occur within 24 hr, but it may
be delayed many days following a toxic dose (Hayes, 1963; Stormont and Conley,
1955).
V.B.2. Laboratory Findings - Laboratory findings are usually negative and
always nonspecific except that chlordane or related compounds may be demon-
strated in stomach contents, urine, or tissues, especially fat (Hayes, 1963).
V.B.3. Treatment - Depending upon the condition of the patient, chlordane
should be removed from the stomach either by an emetic or gastric lavage, fol-
lowed by a saline laxative. Convulsions may be controlled by the use of bar-
biturates alone or in conjunction with calcium gluconate (Hayes, 1953; Stormont
and Conley, 1955).
V.B.4. Human Poisonings - Several deaths have occurred after exposure to
relatively high concentrations of chlordane. In some instances, the poisoning
resulted from the exposure to chlordane in combination with other agricultural
chemicals (Dinman, 1964; DePalma ei_t^ a.l_. , 1970); in other instances the exposure
was to chlordane alone (Derbes et^ aJ^. , 1955; Stormont and Conley, 1955; Lensky
and Evans, 1952; Barnes, 1967; Aldrich and Holmes, 1969; and Curley and
Garrettson, 1969). The high susceptibility of children to chlordane has been
pointed out by several of the above authors.
Convulsions followed by recovery occurred in an infant following a dosage of
about 10 mg/kg and in an adult following 32 mg/kg (Lensky and Evans, 1952).
One person receiving an accidental skin application of a 25% solution amount-
ing to something over 30 g of technical chlordane developed symptoms within
40 min and died before medical attention was obtained (Dadley and Kammer, 1953).
In one patient, known to be an alcoholic, death followed exposure to a low
oral dosage of chlordane (2-4 gin). Microscopic examination of the tissues
revealed severe chronic fatty degeneration of the liver, characteristic of
chronic alcoholism. Although this fatality cannot be attributed exclusively
to chlordane, it is consistent with previous observations that the toxicity
of some chlorinated hydrocarbons is much more enhanced in the presence of
chronic liver damage (Hayes, 1963).
A woman with suicidal intent who ingested 6 g (104 mg/kg) of chlordane in
talc suffered chemical burns of the mouth, severe gastritis, enteritis, dif-
fuse pneumonia, lower nephron syndrom, and central nervous system excitation
with terminal mania and convulsions. Death occurred after 9.5 days. The most
important autopsy findings were those of severe necrotizing bronchopneumonia,
and desquamation and degeneration of the renal tubular epithelium (Derbes
et al., 1955).
An 18-yr old female showed convulsions but recovered after a dose of approx-
imately 30 mg/kg. The amount retained after vomiting was estimated to be 10
mg/kg. Two infants, 15 months and 3 years of age, who ingested chlordane at
10 and 40 mg/kg, respectively, showed signs of severe poisoning (Stormont and
Conley, 1955).
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Chlordane ingestion by a 4-yr-old girl weighing 11 kg., resulted in inter-
mittent clonic convulsions, coordination loss, and increased excitability.
The use of gastric lavage and parenteral phenobarbital was followed by dis-
appearance of these neurological signs and restoration of health. Initially,
urine concentrations of chlordane were high, but fell rapidly to 0.05 ppm on
the third day, although .a sample of urine obtained on the 40th postingestion
day revealed a rise to 0.13 ppm. Serum half-life of chlordane in this patient
was found to be approximately 88 days (Aldrich and Holmes, 1969).
V.B.5. Epidemiological Studies - Workers engaged in the manufacture and for-
mulation of chlordane for periods up to 15 yr have exhibited no evidence of
harmful effects attributable to this insecticide. Air concentrations of 1.7
to 5 mg/m-' have been reported for industrial manufacturing operations with
exposure of personnel to .this level producing no known adverse effects
(Alvarez and Hyman, 1953; Fishbein et al., 1964). In a survey of more
than 1105 persons who had been engaged in pest control operations for 1
to 30 yr (318 for 5 to 19 yr), three cases of toxicity due to chlordane
were reported, the only symtoms specified being dizziness and headache
(Stein and Hayes, 1964). An examination of persons occupationally exposed
to chlordane showed that there were no apparent effects on renal function
(Morgan and Roan, 1969).
Based on direct or circumstantial evidence, chlordane has been associated with
several blood dyscrasias, including anemia, leukopenia, thrombocytopenia, and
pancytopenia (American Medical Association Council on Drugs, 1962).
The role played by exogenous agents suspected of having an etiologic relation-
ship to bone marrow failure is difficult to assess. The number of affected
individuals usually is small in proportion to the population exposed. In
addition, many of the suspected agents fail to reproduce marrow depression in
the experimental animal. Since demonstration of a cause-and-effect relation-
ship between a given agent and bone marrow failure can be established only by
re-exposure of the affected individual, following recovery, such proof can
rarely be established in human beings. Although the evidence implicating many
chemicals, therefore, is entirely circumstantial, observations have been made
with reference to certain agents and sufficient frequency to make a reasonable
supposition as to the etiolgic relationship. That some persons are frequently
exposed to prolonged contact with these agents and suffer no obvious effects
cannot be denied, but the occurrence of bone marrow failure under such condi-
tions is great enough to demand caution in occupational exposure to these agents
(Loeb, 1967).
Hoffman et^ _al. (1964; 1967) and Hayes et^ a^. (1965) state that there is no
evidence of the build-up of chlordane in adipose tissues of humans. However,
in a recent unpublished study, Biros and Enos (1972) report finding a mean of
0.14 + 0.09 (range from 0.03-0.40 ppm) random samples of human adipose tissue
analyzed. Presumably this residue of oxychlordane in human fat has occurred
as a result of exposure to chlordane. The source of exposure to yield these
levels is a point of extreme interest and while it does not appear to result
in any way defined toxicological response, the source of this contamination
should be identified.
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CHAPTER V
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