Apply
Pesticides
Correctly
A guide
for commercial
applicators
l&i
U.S. Department
of Agriculture
U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency
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For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Oflice
Washington, D.C. 20402 - Price $1.60
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Apply
Pesticides
Correctly
Contents
A guide
for commercial
applicators
U.S. Department
of Agriculture
U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency
Preface "*
Introduction i"
Pests H
Insects 1-1
Mites, Ticks, and Spiders 1-3
Snails and Slugs 1-4
Vertebrates I-4
Weeds 1-5
Plant Diseases 1-6
Pest Control 2-1
Principles of Pest Control 2-1
Pest Control Methods 2-1
Putting It All Together 2-2
Pesticides 3-1
The Nature of Pesticides 3-2
How Pesticides Work 3-2
Using Pesticides 3-2
Factors Affecting Pesticide Activity 3-3
Plant Growth Regulators, Desiccants, Defoliants,
and Antitranspirants 3-3
Types of Formulations 3-4
Labels and Labeling 4-1
Using Pesticides Safely 5-1
Protecting Man 5-1
How Pesticides Harm Man 5-1
Symptoms of Pesticide Poisoning 5-2
First Aid Procedures 5-2
Protecting Your Body 5-2
Protecting the Environment 5-4
How Pesticides Harm the Environment 5-4
Soil and Pesticides 5-4
Air and Pesticides 5-5
Water and Pesticides 5-5
Benefits of Careful Use 5-5
Safe Use Precautions 5_5
Application Equipment 6-1
Sprayers 6-1
Dusters and Granular Applicators 6-5
Fumigant Applicators 6-5
Aerosol Generators and Foggers 6-6
Calibration 6-6
Sprayers 6-6
Dusters and Granular Applicators 6-7
Laws and Regulations 7_i
Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act 7-1
Other Regulations 7_1
Transportation 7_i
Aerial Application 7_2
Worker Safety 7_2
Residues 7.2
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Preface
Introduction
This guide has been developed by the
Pesticide Operations Division, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA), and the Extension Service, U.S.
Department of Agriculture (USDA).
The contributors are from State land-
grant universities, other universities,
USDA, EPA, and the pesticide industry.
They include:
J. Blair Bailey, University of
California,
Emerson Baker, Environmental
Protection Agency,
John Boehle, Jr., Ciba-Geigy
Corporation,
James J. Bonin, Consultant,
B. Jack Butler, University of
Illinois,
James E. Dewey, Cornell
University,
Burton R. Evans, Environmental
Protection Agency,
William D. Fitzwater,
Environmental Protection
Agency,
L. C. Gibbs, U.S. Department of
Agriculture,
Edward H. Glass, New York
Agricultural Experiment Station.
Wayland J. Hayes, Jr., Vanderbilt
University,
Fred W. Knapp, University of
Kentucky,
John A. Lofgren, University of
Minnesota,
Otis C. Maloy, Washington State
University,
James F. Miller, University of
Georgia,
Frank Murphey, University of
Delaware,
Edward L. Nigh, Jr., University of
Arizona,
Arthur Retan, Washington State
University,
Harry K. Tayama, The Ohio State
University.
Gerald T. Weekman, North Carolina
State University, joint consultant for
EPA and USDA, organized the project
and served as editor. He was assisted by
Mary Ann Wamsley, USDA.
Many other people contributed greatly
to the book by reviewing it at various
stages. They represent EPA, USDA,
State regulatory agencies, the pesticide
industry, environmental groups, and
applicator associations.
Federal regulations set general and
specific standards that you must
meet before you can use certain
pesticides. This guide contains basic
information to help you meet the
general standards. Because the
guide is for use by all categories of
commercial applicators, some parts
of it may not concern you. The guide
does not include the things you need
to know to meet specific standards
required for your job by Federal
regulations or State law. Your State
Pesticide Regulatory Agency and
your Cooperative Extension Service
can give you this additional
information.
This guide will tell you:
the most common features of
pests, how they develop, and
the kinds of damage they do,
methods you can use to
control pests and how to
combine these methods for
the best results,
how pesticides work,
how pesticide labels can help
you,
how to use pesticides so they
will not harm you or the
environment,
how to choose, use, and care
for equipment, and
the Federal laws that apply
to the things you do on the
job.
The test for certification will be
based on:
general information, and
problems and situations that
occur in the specific kinds of.
pest control jobs you do.
You will have to show that you
know:
the pests you control, and
how to use the pesticides and
application equipment
needed in your job.
111
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Pests
The first step in solving any problem
is to understand what is causing it.
So the first step in your job is to
recognize the pests you need to
control.
We favor certain plants and
animals that provide us food and
fiber. But we also provide good
growing conditions for other plants
and animals that harm them. These
living things that compete with us
for food and fiber, or attack us
directly, arepeste. The living plant
or animal a pest depends on for
survival is called the host.
Pests can be put into five main
groups:
insects (plus mites, ticks, and
spiders),
snails and slugs,
vertebrates,
weeds, and
plant disease agents.
Most applicators know most of the
pests they see on the job. But
sometimes unfamiliar pests may
appear. You can get identification
aids, publications, and pictures to
help find out what they are. But the
best thing to do is to contact local
experts. Ask the Cooperative
Extension Service or a competent
consultant to help you.
Insects
Insects thrive in more environments
than any other group of animals.
They live not only on the earth's
surface but within the soil and in
water. They are at home in deserts,
rain forests, hot springs, snow fields,
and dark caves. They eat the
choicest foods of man's table. They
can even eat the table.
Many types of insects affect crops.
They cause damage in a variety of
ways. They may:
feed on leaves,
tunnel or bore in stems,
stalks, and branches,
feed on and tunnel in roots,
feed on and in seeds and nuts,
suck the sap from leaves,
stems, roots, fruits, and
flowers, and
carry plant disease agents.
The plants are damaged,
weakened, or killed. This causes
reduced yields, lowered quality, and
ugly plants or plant products that
cannot be sold. Even after harvest,
insects continue their damage in the
stored or processed products. Insects
also feed on and in man and other
animals. Some of these pests carry
disease agents which have caused
millions of deaths to man and
livestock.
Not all insects are pests. Some
help man by doing such things as
pollinating plants or feeding on
other insects that are pests.
Recognizing Common Features
of Insects
All adult insects have two things
in commonthey have six jointed
legs and three body regions. But how
do you tell one insect from another?
The most important parts to look at
are wings and mouthparts. Some
insects have no wings. Others have
two or four. The wings vary in
shape, size, thickness, and structure.
Insects with chewing mouthparts
have toothed jaws that bite and tear
the food. Insects with piercing-
sucking mouthparts have a long
beak which they force into a plant or
animal to suck out fluids or blood.
Almost all insects change in
shape, form, and size during their
lives. This change is called
metamorphosis.
Some insects change only in size
as they develop. The adult lays eggs.
A nymph which looks like a tiny
adult hatches from the egg and goes
through several stages. These
nymphs change into wingless adults.
Some insects change form slightly.
Their nymphs hatch from eggs.
These nymphs, which have no
wings, go through several growing
stages. They change into winged
adults.
Other insects change completely.
They go through four stages. The
larva hatches from an egg. It is a
worm, caterpillar, grub, or maggot.
This is the stage in which these
insects grow the most and do the
most damage. When full-grown, the
larva changes into apupa. During
this stage it changes into the adult.
The adult stage usually has wings.
Here are the insect groups that
include most of the insects which
man considers pests. You should be
familiar with the characteristics of
each group that you control and the
type of damage each group does.
Bristletails
No wings.
Chewing mouthparts.
Usually have two or three
long tails.
Young and adult look alike
(no change in form).
Usually found in houses and
other buildings.
Feed on plant fiber cloth and
all starches.
Silverfish and firebrats
belong in this group.
1-1
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Piercing-sucking mouthparts.
Young and adults look alike,
but young lack wings.
Suck the juice from plants
and blood from man and
animals.
Reduce the vitality and yield
of plants and animals, and
may carry plant and animal
disease agents.
Bedbugs are in this group.
Chewing Lice
No wings.
Chewing mouthparts.
Broad head.
Young and adult look alike.
Usually found on birds. They
cause skin irritation and
reduced weight gain and egg
production.
Termites
Swarming termites have four
wings of equal size and
shape; others are white and
have no wings.
Chewing mouthparts.
Young and adults look alike.
Usually feed on wood
products such as fence posts,
timbers, and flooring.
Damage to the wood in
homes and other structures is
common.
Sucking Lice
No wings.
Piercing-sucking mouthparts.
Narrow head.
Young and adults look alike.
Some feed on livestock.
Some carry disease agents.
Their bites may be painful
and cause itching.
Human body, head, and pubic
(crab) lice belong in this
group.
Grasshoppers, Crickets, and
Cockroaches
Some have wings; some do
not have fully developed
wings. Top pair of wings is
leathery.
Chewing mouthparts.
Young and adults look alike,
but young lack wings.
Grasshoppers usually feed on
plant leaves and stems.
Crickets are found in the
field or indoors. They eat
almost anything made from
plants.
Cockroaches often occur in
restaurants, houses, stores,
and offices. They eat the
same foods that man does.
Thrips
Some have fringed wings;
others have no wings.
Combination of chewing
(rasping) and sucking
mouthparts.
Young and adults look alike.
Usually found in flowers or
buds of plants.
May cause misshapen or
poorly developed flowers,
buds, fruits, and leaves.
Aphids, Leafhoppers,
Spittlebugs, and Scale Insects
Some have wings; some do
not.
Piercing-sucking mouthparts.
Young of aphids, leafhoppers,
and spittlebugs look like the
adults.
Adult scale insects are scale-
covered and stay in one place
on the plant.
Suck the juices from plants.
Reduce the vitality and yield
of plants.
Some carry plant disease
agents.
True Bugs
Some have wings; some do
not. Top pair of wings is part
leathery and part
transparent.
1-2
Moths and Butterflies
Most adults have four large
wings with many scales that
rub off easily.
Most moths are a dull brown
co or; butterflies are brightly
colored. *
Mouthparts of some adults
are lacking or are a coiled
tube used for sucking
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Larvae are caterpillars,
usually with six jointed legs
and ten soft, fleshy legs.
Larvae have chewing
mouthparts.
Larval stages are important
pests on many crops. They
damage leaves, stems, tubers,
fruit, and cloth.
Clothes moths are in this
group.
Mouthparts of adults
piercing-sucking, but may be
slightly modified for
sponging, rasping, or cutting.
Young (except mosquitoes)
are maggots.
Head of young usually not
well-defined; mouthparts are
small, dark, and hopklike.
Young mosquitoes live in
water. They have a well-
developed head with chewing
mouthparts.
Maggots usually feed on
plant seedlings and roots, in
organic matter, in water, and
in other damp places.
Some maggots feed on
animals.
Some adults carry disease
agents.
Some flies or mosquitoes in
large numbers reduce the
production efficiency of
animals.
Beetles
Adults with the two top
wings usually hard and shiny
and the bottom wings
transparent.
Chewing mouthparts.
Young are grubs or worms.
Some have no legs; others
have six.
Young and adults are found
on plants, in soil, and in wood
in buildings.
Both the adult and larval
stages may damage stored
food products, plants, and, in
some cases, animals and
animal products.
Mites, Ticks, and Spiders
Mites, ticks, and spiders are closely
related to insects. The main
differences are that the adults have
eight jointed legs instead of six and
have two body regions. They do not
have wings.
Recognizing Common Features
of Mites, Ticks, and Spiders
Mites
Bees, Wasps, Ants, and Sawflies
Most adults have a narrow
waist; sawflies are an
exception.
Some have four wings; some
have none.
Chewing mouthparts.
Most young wormlike with no
legs. The young of sawflies
are caterpillar-like.
Young usually in nests in
soil, or made of mud, paper,
or wax.
Painful sting of many adults
makes some of these a pest.
Others may damage wood
products.
Adults and nymphs have
eight legs; larvae have six.
Very smallabout the size of
the period at the end of this
line.
No wings.
Sucking mouthparts.
Soft-bodied.
Injury they cause usually is
noticed before the mites are
found.
When present on plants in
large numbers, their feeding
turns foliage and buds
whitish, reddish, or brown.
Some may scar fruit.
Some mites make thin webs
on plants.
On animals, they cause
severe skin irritation,
redness, scabs, and scaliness.
Chiggers (also called jiggers
and red bugs) that attack
man are mites.
Flies and Mosquitoes
Adults have only two wings
(other winged insects have
four).
1-3
Ticks
Adults and nymphs have
eight legs; larvae have six.
Leathery or soft (sometimes
colored) body without a
distinct head.
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Piercing-sucking mouthparts
with which they firmly
attach themselves to the host
animal.
Parasitic on animals,
including man.
Must have blood to complete
their life cycle.
Some carry disease agents to
man and animals.
Spiders
Eight legs.
Biting mouthparts.
Vary in length from a
fraction of an inch to 5 or 6
inches.
Useful to man because they
eat insects, but webs and
excretions may be a nuisance.
Black widow and brown
recluse bites are dangerous to
man.
Snails and Slugs
Snails and slugs are members of a
large group of animals called
mollusks. Snails have a hard shell;
slugs have no shell. They feed on
plant foliage. They are pests in
lawns, landscape plantings, and
greenhouses.
Recognizing Common
Features of Vertebrates
All vertebrate animals have a
jointed backbone. They include fish,
snakes, turtles, alligators, lizards,
frogs, toads, salamanders, birds, and
mammals. What may be a pest
animal in some situations may be
highly desirable in others. A
muskrat, for instance, is a fur-
bearing animal, but its burrows may
weaken man-made earthen dams.
Fish
Man has caused most fish
problems. We have put some kinds
where they normally would not have
been. We think some fish are
undesirable because they are not
useful for sport or for food. Others
compete with more desirable species.
Some fish are intermediate hosts for
parasites of man.
Reptiles and Amphibians
Reptiles (snakes, lizards, turtles,
and alligators) and amphibians
(frogs, toads, and salamanders) may
cause local problems. Although most
of them do little damage, many
people fear or dislike them.
Poisonous snakes can be a real
problem. So can snakes and turtles
in fish hatcheries or waterfowl
production areas.
Birds
Bird damage can be quite varied.
It includes:
structural damage by
woodpeckers,
destruction of feed and of
fruit, nut, grain, timber, and
vegetable crops by seed- and
fruit-eating birds,
hazards to animal and
human health caused by
birds like pigeons and
parakeets, and
annoyance caused by birds
roosting near dwellings.
Peck marks, location of damage,
tracks, feathers, and droppings are
signs of bird damage.
Mammals
Damage by mammals is varied.
Some cause serious health problems
to livestock and humans. Disease
agents mammals transmit to man
cause rabies, plague, food poisoning,
and tularemia. Killing of other
animals by mammals is costly. Some
damage fruit, vegetable, nut, grain,
range, and tree crops. The damage
they do to dams and ditches can be
very costly. They damage such
things as lawns, clothing, furniture,
and buildings by gnawing and
burrowing. Mice and rats annoy by
living in our homes, offices, and
factories.
How do you tell what mammal
caused the damage? You can
eliminate some suspects if you know:
which animals are found in
your part of the country,
what kinds of places they live
in, and
what their habits are.
Animal signs (tracks, droppings,
toothmarks, diggings, burrows, hair,
and scent) plus the type of damage
will give you further clues.
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Weeds
A weed is simply "a plant out of
place". Weeds are a problem
because:
they reduce crop yields,
they increase costs of
production,
they reduce quality of crop
and livestock products,
some cause skin irritation
and hay fever. Some are
poisonous to man, his
livestock, and wildlife, and
they spoil the beauty of turf
and landscape plants.
Recognizing Common Features
of Weeds
Before you can control weeds, you
need to know something about how
they grow. One important feature is
the length of their life cycle.
Annuals
Plants with a one-year life cycle
are annuals. They grow from seed,
mature, and produce seed for the
next generation in one year or less.
They may be grasslike (crabgrass
and foxtail) or broadleaved (pigweed
and cocklebur).
Summer annuals are plants that
result from seeds which sprout in
the spring. They grow, mature,
produce seed, and die before winter.
Examples: crabgrass, foxtail,
cocklebur, pigweed, and
lambsquarters.
Winter annuals are plants that
grow from seeds which sprout in the
fall. They grow, mature, produce
seed, and die before summer.
Examples: cheat, henbit, and annual
bluegrass.
Perennials
Plants which live more than two
years and may live indefinitely are
perennials. During the winter, many
lose their foliage and the stems of
others may die back to the ground.
Some grow from seed. Others
produce tubers, bulbs, rhizomes
(below-ground rootlike stems), or
stolons (above-ground stems that
produce roots). Examples: Johnson
grass, field bindweed, dandelion, and
plantain.
Creeping perennials produce seeds
but also produce rhizomes and
stolons. Examples: Bermuda grass,
Johnson grass, and field bindweed.
Biennials
Plants with a two-year life cycle
are biennials. They grow from seed
and develop a heavy root and
compact cluster of leaves the first
year. In the second year they
mature, produce seed, and die.
Examples: mullein, burdock, and
bull thistle.
Simple perennials normally
reproduce by seeds. But root pieces
may produce new plants following
mechanical injury during
cultivation. Examples: dandelions,
plantain, trees, and shrubs.
1-5
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Bulbous perennials may reproduce
by seed, bulblets, or bulbs. Wild garlic,
for example, produces seed and
bulblets above ground and bulbs
below ground.
Recognizing Common
Features of Plant Diseases
A plant disease is any harmful
condition that makes a plant
different from a normal plant in its
appearance or function. Plant
diseases are divided into two groups
based on their cause.
Non-parasitic Plant Diseases
These are caused by non-living
agents. The causes can include such
things as:
nutrient deficiency,
extreme cold or heat,
toxic chemicals (air
pollutants, some pesticides,
salts, top much fertilizer),
mechanical injury, and
lack of or too much water.
These diseases cannot be passed
from one plant to another.
Parasitic Plant Diseases
These are caused by living agents
which live and feed on or in plants.
They can be passed from one plant to
another. The most common causes of
parasitic diseases are:
fungi,
bacteria,
viruses (viroids and
mycoplasmas), and
nematodes.
Insects, which were discussed
earlier, can be another cause. A few
seed-producing plants and some
microbes can cause plant diseases,
too.
Three things are required before a
parasitic disease can develop:
a susceptible host plant,
a parasitic agent, and
an environment favorable for
parasite development.
Fungi are plants that lack green
color (chlorophyll). They cannot
make their own food. There are more
than 100,000 kinds of fungi of many
types and sizes. Not all are harmful,
and many are helpful to man. Many
are microscopic, but some, such as
the mushrooms, may become quite
large. Most fungi reproduce by
spores, which function about the
same way seeds do. Fungi may
attack a plant both above and below
the soil surface.
Smut
Fungus diseases include apple
scab, anthracnose of beans, smut in
corn, and powdery mildew on
landscape plants.
Bacteria are microscopic, one-
celled plants. They usually
reproduce by simply dividing in half.
Each half becomes a fully developed
bacterium. Bacteria can build up
fast under ideal conditions. Some
can divide every 30 minutes.
Fireblight of pears, halo blight of
beans, and bacterial leaf spot on
peaches are caused by bacteria.
Leaf Spot
Viruses are so small that they
cannot be seen with the unaided eye
or even with an ordinary microscope.
They are generally recognized by
their effects on plants. Many viruses
that cause plant disease are carried
by insects, usually aphids or
1-6
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lea/hoppers. Viruses are easily
carried along in bulbs,roots,cuttings,
and seeds. Some viruses are
transmitted when machines or men
touch healthy plants after touching
diseased plants. A few are
transmitted in pollen. At least one
virus is transmitted by a fungus. A
few are transmitted by nematodes.
Wheat streak mosaic, tobacco
mosaic, and corn dwarf are diseases
caused by viruses.
Dwarf Virus
Nematodes are small, usually
microscopic, roundworms, also called
eelworms. Many nematodes are
harmless. Others may attack crops
planted for food, fiber, or landscape
purposes. Some species attack the
above-ground plant parts, such as
leaves, stems, and seeds. But most
species feed on or in the roots. They
may feed in one location, or they
may constantly move through the
roots. Nematodes usually do not kill
Elants, but reduce growth and plant
ealth. They may weaken the plant
and make it susceptible to other
disease agents.
All nematodes that are parasites
on plants have a hollow feeding
spear. They use it to puncture plant
cells and feed on the cell contents.
Nematodes may develop and feed
either inside or outside of a plant.
Their life cycle includes an egg, four
larval stages, and an adult. Most
larvae look like adults, but are
smaller. The females of some, such
as root knot and cyst nematodes,
become fixed in the plant tissue.
death of tissue, such as
blights, leaf spots, wilting,
and cankers.
Identifying Plant Diseases
You cannot always tell one plant
disease from another just by looking
at the plant itself. Because many
disease agents cause similar injury,
you need other evidence. Identifying
the cause is a better way to identify
the disease. You usually need a
microscope or magnifying lens to see
such things as fungus spores,
nematodes or their eggs, and
bacteria. You need more training to
find and identify the cause of a
disease than you need to observe the
effects.
Their bodies become swollen and
rounded. The root knot nematode
deposits its eggs in a mass outside of
its body. The cyst nematode keeps
§art of its eggs inside its body after
eath. They may survive there for
many years.
Development of Plant Diseases
A parasitic disease depends on the
life cycle of the parasite. The
environment affects this cycle
greatly. Temperature and moisture
are especially important. They
affect:
the activity of the parasite,
the ease with which a plant
becomes diseased, and
the way the disease develops.
The disease process starts when
the parasite arrives at a part of a
plant where infection can occur. This
step is called inoculation. If
environmental conditions are good,
the parasite will begin to develop.
This stage before injury develops is
called incubation. If the parasite can
get into the plant, the stage called
infection starts. The plant is diseased
when it responds to the parasite.
The three main ways a plant
responds are:
overdevelopment of tissue,
such as galls, swellings, and
leaf curls,
underdevelopment of tissue,
such as stunting, lack of
chlorophyll, and incomplete
development of organs, and
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Pest Control
To solve pest problems, you must: Pest Control Methods
Identify the pest,
Know what control methods
are available,
Evaluate the benefits and
risks of each method or
combination of methods,
Choose the methods that are
most effective and will cause
the least harm to you and the
environment,
Know the correct use of the
methods, and
Know local, State, and
Federal regulations that
apply to the situation.
Principles of Pest Control
We often talk about the "war"
against insects, plant diseases,
weeds, and rats. In a war between
countries, would a national leader
use only the Army? Wouldn't he also
use other tools, such as the Navy,
the Air Force, and propaganda?
Yet, in our struggle against pests,
how often do we just use the
handiest or cheapest pesticide? How
often do we forget to consider other
methods or combinations of
methods? How often do we forget
about effects on the environment? It
may be too often.
The use of a combination of
methods to control pests is basic to
all pest control. Modern pest control
is:
using all available methods
to keep pests below
economically harmful levels,
and
damaging the environment
as little as possible in the
process.
The challenge lies in our ability:
to control pests so that injury
caused by them is held to a
minimum, and
to recognize when direct
action, such as a pesticide
application, is necessary.
Many pest control methods have
been known and used for years. But
some methods, what we call them,
and the way we put them together
are new. Here are the most
important pest control methods:
Resistant Varieties
Some crops, animals, and woods
resist pests better than others. Some
crops and woods are immune to
certain pests. By using resistant
types, we make the environment less
favorable for pests. This makes it
easier to keep pests below harmful
levels.
Cultural Control
Planting, growing, harvesting,
and tillage practices may help or
harm pests. Cultivating is harmful
to weeds but may result in the
spread of diseases and nematodes.
Other practices such as crop
rotation, methods of construction,
time of planting, and proper
fertilization all affect pests.
Biological Control
Biological control is most common
for insects, mites, and some weeds.
Biological control occurs naturally.
Releasing more of a pest's natural
enemiesparasites, predators, and
disease agentsinto the target area
can increase this natural control.
Many pests come from other
countries. Bringing in their natural
enemies often helps control them.
Mechanical-Physical Control
Some physical methods and
examples of their use are:
traps for rats, mice, and
birds,
barriers to protect against
termites, rodents, and flies,
light to attract or repel pests,
sound to kill, attract, or repel
pests,
heat to kill pests,
cold to kill pests,
radiation to sterilize or kill
pests, and
electrocution to kill pests.
2-1
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Sanitation
Removing the source of food helps
control some types of pests.
Cockroach, rat, and fly control is
often hard unless you remove the
food or filth they feed on.
Putting It All Together
The combination of methods you
choose will depend on the kind and
amount of control you need. The
three main types of controls are:
Prevention
Keeping a pest from becoming a
problem. Includes use of such things
as: '
sanitation,
resistant plants, animals, or
wood,
treated seed,
pesticides,
cultural controls,
quarantines, and
seed certification.
Suppression
Reducing pest numbers or damage
to an acceptable level. Includes use
of such things as:
sanitation,
resistant plants, animals, or
wood,
pesticides, and
cultural controls.
Eradication
Destroying or removing a pest
completely from a crop, an area, or a
geographic region.
Remember, the most important
principle of pest control is:
Use a pest control method
only when that method will
prevent the pest from causing
more damage than is
reasonable to accept.
Even though a pest is present, it
may not do very much harm. It could
cost more to control the pest than
would have been lost because of the
pest's damage.
Legal Control
Legal controls result from Federal,
State, or local laws and regulations.
They include such things as:
quarantines,
inspections,
embargoes, and
compulsory crop or product
destruction.
Pesticides
Pesticides often must be used.
Other methods cannot always
prevent harmful pest levels. Use
pesticides:
where they are needed, and
where they can be used
safely.
Select and use them so they work
with other methods. Be careful not
to harm yourself or the
environment. Using pesticides along
with other methods is often better
than using any one method by itself.
2-2
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After considering all available
control methods, you may decide
that a pesticide is needed. Here are
some things you should know in
order to choose the right pesticide
and use it most effectively.
Pesticides are chemicals used to
destroy, prevent, or control pests.
They also include:
chemicals used to attract or
repel pests, and
chemicals used to regulate
plant growth or remove or
coat leaves.
Here are the types and uses of
pesticides:
Insecticide: controls insects and
other related pests such as ticks
and spiders.
Miticide: controls mites.
Acaricide: controls mites, ticks,
and spiders.
Nematicide: controls nematodes.
Fungicide: controls fungi.
Bactericide: controls bacteria.
Herbicide: controls weeds.
Rodenticide: controls rodents.
Avicide: controls birds.
Piscicide: controls fish.
Molluscicide: controls mollusks,
such as slugs and snails.
Predacide: controls vertebrate
pests.
Repellent: keeps pests away.
Attractant: lures pests.
Plant Growth Regulator: stops,
speeds up, or otherwise changes
normal plant processes.
Defoliant: removes unwanted
plant growth without killing the
whole plant immediately.
Desiccant: dries up plant leaves
and stems and insects.
Antitranspirant: coats the
leaves of plants to reduce
unwanted water loss
(transpiration).
3-1
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The Nature of Pesticides
Pesticides can be grouped according
to their chemical nature. The groups
are:
Inorganic Pesticides
These are made from minerals.
Minerals used most often are
arsenic, copper, boron, lead,
mercury, sulfur, tin, and zinc.
Examples: lead arsenate, Bordeaux
mixture, and Paris green.
Synthetic Organic Pesticides
These are man-made pesticides.
They contain carbon, hydrogen, and
one or more other elements such as
chlorine, phosphorous, and nitrogen.
Examples: 2,4-D, atrazine, captan,
parathion, and malathion.
Living Micro-organisms
These are viruses, bacteria, and
fungi, produced by man. Examples:
the bacterium Bacillus
thuringiensis, and the polyhedrosis
virus.
Plant-Derived Organic Pesticides
These are made from plants or
plant parts. Examples: rotenone, red
squill, pyrethrins, strychnine, and
nicotine.
How Pesticides Work
Pesticides also can be grouped
according to what they do. Many
synthetic organic pesticides work in
more than one way. Read the label
to find out what each pesticide will
do. The major groups are:
Protectants: applied to plants,
animals, structures, and
products to prevent entry or
damage by a pest.
Sterilants: make pests unable to
reproduce.
Contacts: kill pests simply by
contacting them.
Stomach poisons: kill when
swallowed.
Systemics: taken into the blood
of an animal or sap of a plant.
They kill the pest without
harming the host.
Translocated herbicides: kill
plants by being absorbed by
leaves, stems, or roots and
moving throughout the plant.
Fumigants: gases which kill
when they are inhaled or
otherwise absorbed by the pest.
Anticoagulants: prevent normal
clotting of blood.
Selective: more toxic to some
kinds of plants or animals than
to others.
Nonselective: toxic to most
plants or animals.
Pheromones: affect pests by
changing their behavior.
Using Pesticides
Many terms describe when and how
to use pesticides. They are used in
labeling. They also are found in
leaflets and bulletins that you may
fit from your local Cooperative
xtension agent or others at your
land-grant university. You should
know and understand these terms.
They will help you get the best
results from your pesticides with the
3-2
least possible harm to you and the
environment.
When To Use
Terms that tell you when to use
the pesticide product:
Preemergence: used before crop
or weeds emerge. May also refer
to use after crops emerge or are
established, but before weeds
emerge.
Preplant: used before the crop is
planted.
Postemergence: used after the
crop or weeds have emerged.
Preemergence and Postemergence
How To Use
Terms that tell you how to use the
pesticide product:
Band: application to a strip over
or along a crop row or on or
around a structure.
Basal: application to stems or
trunks at or just above the
ground line.
Broadcast: uniform application
to an entire, specific area.
Crack and crevice: application in
structures to cracks and crevices
where pests may live.
Dip: complete or partial
immersion of a plant, animal, or
object in a pesticide.
Band
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Directed
Directed: aiming the pesticide at
a portion of a plant, animal, or
structure.
Drench: saturating the soil with
a pesticide or oral treatment of
an animal with a liquid
pesticide.
Foliar: application to the leaves
of plants.
In-furrow: application to or in
the furrow in which a plant is
planted.
Over-the-top: application over
the top of the growing crop.
Pour-on: pour ing the pesticide
along the midline of the back of
livestock.
Sidedress: application along the
side of a crop row.
Soil application: application to
the soil rather than to
vegetation.
Soil Incorporation
Soil incorporation: use of tillage
implements to mix the pesticide
with the soil.
Soil injection: application
beneath the soil surface.
Spot treatment: application to
small area.
Accuracy Is Important
The rate and time of application of
pesticides are critical. Most
pesticides work at very low rates. If
you use too much, they can harm or
even kill the plant or animal you
wish to protect. Pesticides work best
when applied at specific times.
Applying them before or after the
correct time reduces or even
eliminates their effectiveness.
Since all these chemicals work
in small amounts, be careful to treat
only the intended target. Avoid
getting them on anything else as a
result of drift or of residue in
application equipment or soil.
Factors Affecting Pesticide
Activity
Soil Factors
Organic matter in soils limits
pesticide activity. Soils with high
organic matter content may need
higher rates of pesticides for good
pest control. Follow label
instructions.
Soil texture also affects the way
pesticides work. Soils with fine
particles (silts and clays) provide the
most surface area. They may need
higher rates. Coarser soils (sands)
have less surface area. Use lower
rates on them. Follow label
instructions.
Climatic Factors
Soil moisture and rain affect the
way pesticides work. They also affect
how long pesticides stay on soil and
plants. Pesticides work best with
moderate soil moisture. Wetness
may keep the pesticide from
contacting the soil particles. Rain
causes soluble pesticides to leach
down through the soil. Rain is good
when preemergence pesticides are
applied to the surface. It carries
them down into the soil to the pests.
But rain during or soon after over-
the-top or foliar applications is not
good. It may wash pesticides off the
leaves.
Humidity and temperature also
affect the way pesticides work.
Herbicides work best when plants
are growing fast. High relative
humidity and optimum
temperatures usually cause this fast
growth. High temperatures cause
some soil pesticides to evaporate
quickly. Low temperatures may slow
down or stop the activity of some
pesticides.
Light may break down some
pesticides if they are left on the soil
surface for a long time.
Pesticide Resistance
The ability of pests to resist
poisoning is called pesticide
resistance. Consider this when
planning pest control programs that
rely on the use of pesticides.
Rarely does any pesticide kill all
the target pests. Each time a
pesticide is used, it selectively kills
the most sensitive pests. Some pests
avoid the pesticide. Others are able
to withstand its effects. Pests that
are not destroyed pass along to their
offspring the trait that allowed them
to survive.
When we use one pesticide
repeatedly in the same place, the
pest population sometimes builds up
its resistance. Some pests have
become practically immune to
poisoning by certain pesticides.
Not every pesticide failure is
caused by pest resistance, however.
Make sure that you have:
used the correct pesticide,
used the correct dosage, and
applied the pesticide
correctly.
Your Cooperative Extension
Service can help you find out why
you did not get the desired results.
Plant Growth Regulators,
Desiccants, Defoliants, and
An ti transplants
Plant growth regulators, desiccants,
defoliants, and antitranspirants
change normal plant processes.
How They Work
Plant Growth Regulators
All plant parts are made up of tiny
cells which continually multiply and
3-3
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grow. Plant growth regulators speed
up, slow down, or otherwise affect
cell growth and reproduction. Here
are some ways they are used:
decrease preharvest drop,
increase fruit firmness,
reduce scald,
delay water core (water-
soaked area around core of
fruit),
increase red color,
thin fruit,
increase flowering,
reduce fruit cracking,
promote uniform bearing of
fruit,
control plant height,
prevent or delay sprouting of
tubers,
promote dense growth of
landscape plants,
promote earlier flowering,
prevent seed formation,
induce branching,
reduce suckering,
hasten fruit maturity,
increase seed yield, and
control excessive growth.
Defoliated Cotton
Desiccants and Defoliants
These often are called harvest-aid
chemicals, because they help the
farmer harvest his crop. Both are
used to get rid of leaves, stems, and
weeds in such crops as cotton,
soybeans, and potatoes.
Antitranspirants
By reducing water loss, they can:
prevent winter damage,
maintain color in evergreens,
protect against salt damage,
help protect transplants, and
prevent needle drop on
Christmas trees.
Types of Formulations
Active ingredients are the chemicals
in a pesticide product that do the
work. Active ingredients can rarely
be used in the form in which they
were made. They usually must be
changed or mixed with something
else. Other ingredients may be
added to make them convenient to
handle and safe, easy, and accurate
to apply. These are the inert
ingredients. This mixture of active
and inert ingredients is called a
pesticide formulation. Some
formulations are ready for use.
Others must be diluted with water
or a petroleum solvent. The
directions for use will tell you how to
use a pesticide formulation.
Here are the most common types
of liquid and dry formulations. The
abbreviations are included because
Cooperative Extension Service
recommendations and the labels and
labeling may refer to the
formulations in this way.
Liquid Formulations
Emulsifiable Concentrates (EC or E)
An emulsifiable concentrate can
be mixed with water to form an
emulsion. Each gallon of an EC
usually contains 2 to 8 pounds of
active ingredient. Diluted EC's
usually need little agitation in the
spray tank.
EC's can damage some crops.
These crops may require a different
formulation of the active ingredient
such as a wettable powder or a dust.
Solutions (S)
High ConcentratesThese are
special formulations. They usually
contain 8 or more pounds of active
ingredient per gallon. They may
contain only the active ingredient
itself. Most are designed to be used
as is or diluted with oil or petroleum
solvents. They contain chemicals
that allow them to spread and stick
well. Ultra low volume (ULV)
concentrate materials should be
used without further dilution.
Low ConcentratesThese
formulations usually contain less
than 2 pounds of active ingredient
per gallon. Most of them are
solutions in highly refined oils. They
need no further dilution. The label
will give you directions for use. They
are often used for:
controlling household and
industrial pests,
mothproofing.
livestock sprays, or
space sprays in barns.
Flowables (F or L)
Some active ingredients can be
made only as a solid, or at best, a
semisolid. These are finely ground
and put into a liquid along with
other substances that make the
mixture form a suspension. They are
flowable solids. Flowables can be
mixed with water. They seldom clog
spray nozzles. They need only
moderate agitation. Most of them
handle as well as EC formulations.
Aerosols(A)
These pesticide formulations are
liquids that contain the active
ingredient in solution in a solvent.
More than one pesticide may be in
these formulations. Most aerosol
formulations have a low percentage
of active ingredient. They are made
for use only in fog- or mist-
generating machines. They are used
in structures, greenhouses, and
barns for insect control.
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Liquified Gases
Some fumigants are gases which
become liquid when placed under
pressure. This type of formulation is
stored under pressure. The pressure
may be either high or low,
depending on the product. Some
nematicides, insecticides, fungicides,
and rodenticides are formulated this
way. These formulations are applied
by:
injecting them directly into
the soil,
releasing them under tarps,
or
releasing them into a
structure such as a grain
storage elevator.
Some other active ingredients
remain liquid in an ordinary
container, but turn into a gas or
vapor as or after they are applied.
These formulations do not require
storage under pressure. They must
be put into the soil or confined in a
space before they turn to gas.
Otherwise, they could be lost into
the air.
Dry Formulations
Dusts (D)
Most dust formulations are ready
to use and contain:
an active ingredient, plus
a very fine or powdered dry
inert substance such as talc,
clay, nut hulls, or volcanic
ash.
The amount of active ingredient
usually ranges from 1 to 10 percent.
All the ingredients are ground
into fine, uniform particles. Inert
ingredients are often added so
the formulation will store and
handle well. Some active ingredients
are prepared as dusts because they
are safer for crops in that form.
Dusts always must be used dry.
They can easily drift into non-target
areas. You can get dusts for use on
seeds, plants, and animals.
Dust concentrates are available
for further dilution with dry inert
ingredients before they are ready to
use.
Granules (G)
Granular formulations are dry.
Most are made by applying a liquid
formulation of the active ingredient
to coarse particles (granules) of some
porous material. Often used are clay,
corn cobs, or walnut shells. Granule
particles are much larger than dust
particles. The pesticide is absorbed
into the granule, or coats the outside
of it, or both. Inert ingredients may
be added to make the formulation
handle well. The amount of active
ingredient ranges from 2 to 40
percent. Granular formulations are
safer to apply than EC's or dusts.
They are most often used as soil
treatments. They may be applied
either directly to the soil or over
plants. They do not cling to plant
foliage, but they may be trapped in
the whorls of some plants. Granular
formulations, like dusts, should
always be used dry. Never mix them
with water.
Wettable Powders (WP or W)
These are dry, finely ground
pesticide formulations. They look
like dusts. But, unlike dusts, they
are made to mix with water. Most
wettable powders are much more
concentrated than dusts. They
contain 15 to 95 percent active
ingredientusually 50 percent or
more. Wettable powders form a
suspension rather than a true
solution when added to water. Good
agitation is needed in the spray tank
to maintain the suspension. Good
wettable powders spray well and do
not clog nozzles. They are abrasive
to pumps and nozzles. Most wettable
powders are safer for use on plants
than EC's are.
Soluble Powders (SP)
Soluble powders also are dry
formulations. But when they are
added to water, they form true
solutions. Agitation in the spray
tank may be needed to get them to
dissolve. After that, no more
agitation usually is needed. The
amount of active ingredient in an SP
is usually above 50 percent.
Baits (B)
A bait formulation is an edible or
attractive substance mixed with a
pesticide. The bait attracts pests and
the pesticide kills them when they
eat the formulation. Baits usually
are used to control rodents and
insect pests. They can be used in
buildings or outdoors. The amount of
active ingredient in most bait
formulations is quite low, usually
less than 5 percent.
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Labels and
Labeling
Each time you buy a pesticide, you
also receive instructions to tell you
how to use it. Those instructions are
the labeling.
What is labeling? What is a label?
These words seem alike but they do
not mean the same thing.
Labeling is all information that
you receive from the company or its
agent about the product. Labeling
includes such things as:
the label on the product,
brochures,
flyers, and
information handed out by
your dealer.
The label is the information
printed on or attached to the
container of pesticides. This label
does'many things:
To the manufacturer, the
label is a "license to sell."
To the State or Federal
Government, the label is a
way to control the
distribution, storage, sale,
use, and disposal of the
products.
To the buyer or user, the
label is a main source of facts
on how to use the product
correctly and legally.
The label is a way to tell
users about special safety
measures needed.
Some labels are easy to
understand. Others are complicated.
But all labels will tell you how to
use the product correctly. This
section will explain the items that
must be on a label.
Parts of the Label
Brand Name
Each company has brand names
for its products. The brand name is
the one used in ads. The brand name
shows up plainly on the front panel
of the label. It is the most
identifiable name for the product.
Type of Formulation
Different types of pesticide
formulations (such as liquids,
wettable powders, and dusts) require
different methods of handling. The
label will tell you what type of
formulation the package contains.
The same pesticide may be available
in more than one formulation.
Common Name
Many pesticides have complex
chemical names. Some have been
given another name to make them
easier to identify. These are called
common names. For instance,
carbaryl is the common name for 1 -
naphthyl N-methylcarbamate. A
chemical made by more than one
company will be sold under several
brand names, but you may find the
same common name or chemical
name on all of them.
Ingredient Statement
Every pesticide label must list
what is in the product. The list is
written so that you can see quickly
what the active ingredients are. The
amount of each active ingredient is
given as a percentage by weight or
as pounds per gallon of concentrate.
It can be listed by either the
chemical name or the common
name. The inert ingredients need not
be named, but the label must show
what percent of the contents they
make up.
Net Contents
The net contents number tells you
how much is in the container. This
can be expressed in gallons, pints,
pounds, quarts, or other units of
measure.
Name and Address of
Manufacturer
The law requires the maker or
distributor of a product to put the
name and address of the company on
the label. This is so you will know
who made or sold the product.
Registration and Establishment
Numbers
A registration number must be on
every pesticide label. It shows that
the product has been registered with
the Federal Government. It usually
is found on the front panel of the
label and will be written as "EPA
Registration No. 0000." The
establishment number tells what
factory made the chemical. This
number does not have to be on the
label, but will be somewhere on each
container.
4-1
Signal Words and Symbols
To do their job, most pesticides must
control the target pest. By their
nature, they are toxic. Therefore,
some may be hazardous to people.
You can tell the toxicity of a product
by reading the signal word and
looking at the symbol on the label.
Signal Words
One of the most important parts of
the label is the signal word. It tells
you approximately how toxic the
material is to people. The signal
words that follow are set by law.
Each manufacturer must use the
correct one on every label:
Signal
Words
DANGER
WARNING
CAUTION
Toxicity
Highly
toxic
Moderately
toxic
Low
toxicity
or
Compara-
tively free
from
danger
Appromixate Amount
Needed To Kill the
Average Person
a taste to
a teaspoonful
a teaspoonful
to a table-
spoonful
an ounce to
more than
a pint
All products must bear the statement
"Keep out of reach of children."
One of the best ways to catch a
person's eye is with symbols. This is
why a skull and crossbones symbol
is used on all highly toxic materials
along with the signal word
DANGER and the word POISON.
Pay attention to the symbol on the
label. It is there to remind you that
the contents could make you sick, or
even kill you.
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Precautionary Statement
Hazards to Humans (and Domestic
Animals)
This section will tell you the ways
in which the product may be
poisonous to man and animals. It
also will tell you of any special steps
you should take to avoid poisoning,
such as the kind of protective
equipment needed.
If the product is highly toxic, this
section will inform physicians of the
proper treatment for poisoning.
Environmental Hazards
Pesticides are useful tools. But
wrong or careless use could cause
undesirable effects. To help avoid
this, the label contains
environmental precautions that you
should read and follow.
Here are some examples:
"This product is highly toxic
to bees exposed to direct
treatment or to residues on
crops."
"Do not contaminate water
when cleaning equipment or
when disposing of wastes."
"Do not apply where runoff is
likely to occur."
Labels may contain broader
warnings against harming birds,
fish, and wildlife.
Physical and Chemical Hazards
This section will tell you of any
special fire, explosion, or chemical
hazards that the product may pose.
Statement of Practical Treatment
If swallowing or inhaling the
product or getting it in your eyes or
on your skin would be harmful, the
label will tell you emergency first
aid measures. It also will tell you
what types of exposure require
medical attention.
The pesticide label is the most
important information you can take
to the physician when you think
someone has been poisoned.
Statement of Use Classification
Every pesticide label must show
whether the contents are for general
use or restricted use. EPA puts
every product use into one of these
two classes. The classification is
based on:
the hazard of poisoning,
the way the pesticide is used,
and
its effect on the environment.
General Use
If a pesticide will harm the
applicator or the environment very
little or not at all when used exactly
as directed, it will be labeled a
general use pesticide.
The label on these products will
say:
"General classification."
Restricted Use
A restricted use pesticide is one
which could cause some human
injury or environmental damage
even when used as directed on the
label. The label on these products
will say:
"Restricted use pesticide for retail
sale to and application only by
certified applicators or persons
under their direct supervision."
The restricted use statement must
be at the top of the front panel of the
label.
Directions for Use
The instructions on how to use the
pesticides are an important part of
the label for you. This is the best
way you can find out the right way
to apply the product.
The use instructions will tell you:
the pests the product is
registered to control (Labels
use common names for pests.
Knowing these names will
help you choose the proper
pesticide and find control
information),
the crop, animal, or other
item the product can be used
on,
whether the product is for
general or restricted use,
in what form the product
should be applied,
how much to use,
where the material should be
applied, and
when it should be applied.
Misuse Statement
This section will remind you that
it is a violation of Federal law to use
a product in a manner inconsistent
with its labeling. Do not use a
product on a crop or for a pest not
listed on the label. Do not use it at
more than the recommended rate.
Before the product could be
registered, EPA required the
manufacturer to conduct many tests
to be sure the label directions were
correct. By following them exactly,
you will:
get the best results the
product can give, and
avoid breaking the law.
Reentry Statement
If required for the product, this
section will tell you how much time
must pass before a pesticide-treated
area is safe for entry by a person
without protective clothing. Consult
local authorities for special rules
that may apply.
Category of Applicator
If required for the product, this
section will limit use to certain
categories of commercial applicators.
Storage and Disposal Directions
Every pesticide should be stored
and disposed of correctly. This
section will tell you how to store and
dispose of the product and empty
containers.
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Using Pesticides
Safely
There are two good reasons for using
pesticides safely:
to keep yourself and other
people from being poisoned,
and
to avoid harming the
environment.
Protecting Man
How Pesticides Harm Man
Pesticides can cause injury. They
are toxic. Manufacturers find out
how toxic a pesticide is by testing it
on animals. The product's hazard
the danger that injury will occur to
mandepends on the toxicity of the
active ingredient plus the exposure
to the product during use.
Most pesticides can cause severe
illness, or even death, if misused.
But every registered pesticide can be
used safely if you use proper care.
Children under 10 are the victims
of at least half of the accidental
pesticide deaths in this country. If
pesticides were always cared for
correctly, children would never
touch them.
Many accidental pesticide deaths
are caused by eating or drinking the
product. But some mixers, loaders,
and applicators die or are injured
when they breathe a pesticide vapor
or get a pesticide on their skin.
Repeated exposure to small amounts
of some pesticides can cause sudden
severe illness.
Most pesticides can enter the body
through the skin. You may get more
into your body this way than you
would accidentally swallow or inhale
while working. With some
pesticides, skin contact alone can
cause death.
You should help prevent all
accidents with pesticides:
by using and storing
pesticides away from children
and other untrained persons,
and
by taking care to follow
directions when using them.
Products for restricted use need
special care. The label is your guide.
Symptoms of Pesticide Poisoning
You should know what kinds of
sickness are caused by the pesticides
you use. You also should know the
conditions under which each one
may make you sick.
There are two kinds of clues to
pesticide poisoning. Some are
feelings that only the person who
has been poisoned can noticesuch
as nausea or headache. These are
symptoms. Others, like vomiting,
also can be noticed by someone else.
These are signs. So you should
know:
what your own feelings might
mean, and
what signs of poisoning to
look for in your co-workers
and others who may have
been exposed.
All pesticides in the same
chemical group cause the same kind
of sickness. This sickness may be
mild or severe, depending on the
pesticide and the amount absorbed.
But the pattern of illness caused by
one type of pesticide is always the
same. Having some of the signs and
symptoms does not always mean you
have been poisoned. Other kinds of
sickness may cause similar signs
and symptoms. Headache and a
feeling of being unwell, for example,
may signal the start of many kinds
of illness. It is the pattern of
symptoms that makes it possible to
tell one kind of sickness from
another.
Get medical advice quickly if you
or any of your fellow workers have
unusual or unexplained symptoms
starting at work or later the same
day. If you suspect a person has been
poisoned, do not leave him alone. Do
not let yourself or anyone else get
dangerously sick before calling your
physician or going to a hospital. It is
better to be too cautious than too
late. Take the container (or the
label) of the pesticide to the
physician. Do not carry the pesticide
container in the passenger space of a
car or truck.
Synthetic Organic Pesticides
OrganophosphatesThese
pesticides injure the nervous system.
The signs and symptoms go through
stages. They normally occur in this
order:
Mild Poisoning
fatigue
headache
dizziness
blurred vision
too much sweating and
salivation
nausea and vomiting
stomach cramps or diarrhea
loderate Poisoning
unable to walk
weakness
chest discomfort
muscle twitches
constriction of pupil of the
eye
earlier symptoms become
more severe.
Severe Poisoning
unconsciousness
severe constriction of pupil of
eye
muscle twitches
secretions from mouth and
nose
breathing difficulty
death if not treated.
Illness may be delayed a few
hours. But if signs or symptoms
start more than 12 hours after you
were exposed to the pesticide, you
probably have some other illness.
Check with your physician to be
sure.
CarbamatesThe only
carbamates likely to make you ill on
the job act almost like
organophosphates. They produce the
same signs and symptoms if you are
poisoned by them. But the injury
they cause can be corrected more
easily by a physician. For this
reason, most carbamates are safer
than organophosphates. The label
will warn you of the danger.
OrganochlorinesNot many
organochlorines (chlorinated
hydrocarbons) have poisoned
applicators.
5-1
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Early signs and symptoms of
poisoning include:
headache,
nausea,
vomiting,
general discomfort, and
dizziness.
With more severe poisoning,
convulsions follow. They may even
appear without the warning
symptoms. Coma may follow the
convulsions. The person also may be
unusually excited or irritable.
Nitrophenols and
PentachlorophenolThe signs
and symptoms of skin exposure
include:
redness,
burning, and
blisters.
The signs and symptoms of
poisoning include:
headache,
nausea,
gastric distress,
restlessness,
hot feeling,
flushed skin,
sweating,
deep and fast breathing,
fast beating of the heart,
fever,
ashen color,
collapse, and
coma.
Severe poisoning usually runs a
rapid course. One usually dies or is
almost well within 24 to 48 hours.
Fumigants and SolventsToo
much exposure to these compounds
may make a person seem drunk. The
signs and symptoms are:
poor coordination,
slurring words,
confusion, and
sleepiness.
Repeated exposure to the
fumigant methyl bromide has
caused permanent internal injury
without early signs or symptoms of
poisoning. You can absorb a fatal
dose of it before symptoms appear.
Inorganic Pesticides
Large single doses of most
inorganic pesticides cause vomiting
and stomach pain. The signs and
symptoms depend on the mineral
from which the pesticide is made.
Plant-derived Pesticides
Some plant-derived pesticides are
very toxic. Technical pyrethrum
may cause allergic reactions. Some
rotenone dusts irritate the
respiratory tract. Nicotine is a fast-
acting nerve poison about as
dangerous as parathion. Some other
plant-derived pesticides are
strychnine, rotenone, and red squill.
First Aid Procedures
Read the directions in the
"Statement of Practical Treatment"
on each label. These instructions can
save your life and the lives of your
employees.
If you get a pesticide on your skin:
Remove the pesticide as
quickly as possible. Remove
all contaminated clothing.
Prompt washing may prevent
sickness even when the spill
is very large. Don't Forget
your hair and fingernails.
Water-wettable powders or
suspensions are easy to
remove with plain water. So
are most emulsifiable
concentrates and emulsions.
Solutions of pesticides in
petroleum oil or other
solvents are harder to remove
without soap or a detergent.
Detergents work better.
Washrooms and emergency
field washing facilities should
have detergents rather than
plain soap.
If you inhale a pesticide:
Get to fresh air right away.
If you splash a pesticide into your
mouth or swallow it:
Rinse your mouth with
plenty of water.
Go or be taken to a physician
immediately.
It is sometimes dangerous to
cause vomiting; follow label
directions.
Protecting Your Body
Pesticides can enter the body in
many ways. The main ones are:
getting the pesticide on your
skin,
inhaling it, and
swallowing it.
To prevent this, you must wear
protective clothing and equipment.
No safety recommendations can
cover all situations. Your common
sense should tell you to use more
protection as the hazard increases.
The pesticide label will tell you the
kind of protection you need.
Remember to bathe, using a
detergent, when you finish working
with pesticides or pesticide-
contaminated equipment. Any time
you spill a pesticide on yourself,
wash immediately.
Protective Clothing
Body CoveringAny time you
handle pesticides, you should wear
at least:
a long-sleeved shirt and long-
legged trousers, or
a coverall type garment.
They should be made of closely
woven fabric. When handling
pesticide concentrates or very toxic
materials, you also should wear a
liquid-proof raincoat or apron. Wear
trousers outside of the boots to keep
pesticides from getting inside.
GlovesWhen you handle
concentrated or highly toxic
pesticides, wear liquid-proof
neoprene gloves. However, some
fumigants are readily absorbed by
neoprene. The label will tell you
what kind of gloves to use. They
should be long enough to protect the
wrist. Gloves should not be lined
with a fabric. The lining is hard to
clean if a chemical gets on it.
Sleeves should be outside of the
gloves to keep pesticides from
running down the sleeves and into
the gloves.
HatWear something to protect
your head. A wide-brimmed,
waterproof hat will protect your
neck, eyes, mouth, and face. It
should not have a cloth or leather
sweatband. These sweatbands are
hard to clean if chemicals get on
them. Plastic "hard hats" with
-------
plastic sweatbands are good. They
are waterproof and are cool in hot
weather.
BootsWear unlined neoprene
boots. However, some fumigants are
readily absorbed by neoprene boots.
Follow label instructions.
Goggles or Face ShieldWear
goggles or a face shield when there
is any chance of getting pesticides in
your eyes. Your eyes will absorb
many pesticides. You can wear
goggles alone or with a respirator.
Care of ClothingWear clean
clothing daily. If clothes get wet
with spray, change them right away.
If they get wet with pesticide
concentrates or highly toxic
pesticides, destroy them. They are
hard to get clean by normal
methods. Do not store or wash
contaminated clothing with the
family laundry. Wash hats, gloves,
and boots daily, inside and out.
Hang them to dry. Test gloves for
leaks by filling them with water and
gently squeezing.
Wash goggles or face shields at
least once a day. Elastic fabric
headbands often absorb pesticides
and are difficult to clean. Have some
spares so you can replace them
often, or use neoprene headbands.
Respiratory Protective Devices
The respiratory tractthe lungs
and other parts of the breathing
systemis much more absorbent
than the skin. You must wear an
approved respiratory device when
the label directs you to do so. Follow
the label instructions on respiratory
protection.
You probably will need a
respirator:
if you will be exposed to a
pesticide for a long time,
if the pesticide you are using
is highly toxic, or
if you are working in an
enclosed area.
Cartridge Respirator
Chemical Cartridge
RespiratorYou should wear this
kind of respirator:
when you are exposed to
intermittent concentrations
of a toxic pesticide.
The inhaled air comes through
both a filter pad and a cartridge
made to absorb pesticide vapors.
Most harmful vapors, gases, and
particles are removed. These half-
face masks cover the mouth and
nose. To cover the eyes also, use one
that is combined with goggles or
wear separate goggles.
Canister Respirator
Chemical Canister Respirator
(Gas Mask)You should wear this
kind of respirator:
when you are exposed to a
continuous concentration of a
toxic pesticide.
The canister has longer-lasting
absorbing material and filters than
a cartridge respirator. Gas masks
usually protect the face better than
cartridge types. Neither kind will
protect you during fumigation or
when the oxygen supply is low, as in
a silo.
Supplied Air Respirator
Supplied Air RespiratorYou
may use this kind of respirator when
mixing or applying pesticides:
when the oxygen supply is
low,
when you are exposed to high
concentrations of highly toxic
pesticides in enclosed areas,
as. in fumigation, or
when your work can be done
close to a supply of clean air.
Clean air is pumped through a
hose to the face mask.
Self-contained Breathing Apparatus
Self-Contained Breathing
ApparatusYou should wear this
kind of respirator under the same
conditions as the supplied air
respirator. It does about the same
thing. The difference is that you
carry cylinders of air or oxygen with
you, usually on your back. This lets
you move more freely and over a
wider area then you can with a
supplied air respirator.
5-3
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Selection and Maintenance
Specific types of cartridges and
canisters protect against specific
chemical gases and vapors. Be sure
you choose one made for the
pesticides you are using. Use only
those approved by the National
Institute for Occupational Safety
and Health (NIOSH), or the Mining
Enforcement and Safety
Administration (MESA).
The respirator must fit the face
well. Long sideburns, a beard, or
glasses may prevent a good seal.
Read the manufacturer's
instructions on the use and care of
any respirator and its parts before
you use it.
When applying pesticides, change
filters, cartridges, and canisters if
you have trouble breathing, or if you
smell pesticides. Remove and discard
filters, cartridges, and canisters
after use. Then wash the face piece
with detergent and water, rinse it,
and dry it with a clean cloth. Store it
in a clean, dry place away from
pesticides.
The useful life of a cartridge or
canister depends on:
the amount of absorbent
material,
the concentration of
contaminants in the air,
the breathing rate of the
wearer, and
the temperature and
humidity.
If you have trouble breathing
while wearing a respiratory device,
see your physician to find out
whether you have a respiratory
problem.
Protecting the
Environment
The "environment" is our
surroundings and its many forms of
life. Every plant or animal is
affected by other plants or animals
in the environment. Factors like
rain, temperature, and wind are part
of the environment. We cannot do
much about them. But we can
control some other things, including
the use of pesticides.
Many people consider pesticides a
tool for preserving or improving the
environment. Others feel that they
cause pollution. As a weed is a
"plant out of place," a pesticide
sometimes can be a "tool out of
place". Correct use prevents
pollution by pesticides.
How Pesticides Harm the
Environment
Using pesticides in a way other
than as directed on the label can:
injure plants and animals,
leave illegal residues, and
damage the environment in
many other ways.
Any pesticide can cause harm if
not chosen and used with care. Here
are some ways damage can occur.
Direct Kill of Non-Target Organisms
Do not let a pesticide contact
anything except the target area.
Drift from herbicides can kill nearby
crops and landscape plants. You may
kill bees and other pollinators if you
treat a crop while they are working
in a field. Or you could kill parasites
and predators that help control
harmful insects.
Pesticides are sometimes applied
over a large area. Targets are such
things as mosquitoes, forest insects,
and weeds. Many non-target plants
and animals within the treated area
may be harmed. Plan area projects
with great care so you will not do
irreparable damage to the
environment.
Runoff from a sprayed field can
kill fish in a nearby stream or pond.
Life in streams can be wiped out by
careless tank filling or draining and
improper container disposal.
All of these kills can result in
lawsuits, fines, and loss of
certification.
If more than one pesticide will
control your target pest, choose the
one that is the least hazardous to the
environment and most useful for
your situation. Ask your
Cooperative Extension agent to help
you make this choice.
Persistence and Accumulation
Not all pesticides act the same
after you apply them. Most are in
one of these two groups:
Pesticides that break down quickly
remain on the target or in the
environment only a short time
before being changed into harmless
products. Some are highly toxic.
Others are fairly harmless.
Pesticides that break down slowly
may stay in the environment
without change for a long time.
Often this is good, because you get
long term control. These are called
persistent pesticides. Most of them:
are not broken down easily
by microorganisms, and
are only slightly soluble in
water.
Some persistent pesticides can
injure sensitive crops planted on the
same soil the next year. But they
seem to be of little hazard to the
environment beyond the treated soil.
Other persistent pesticides can build
up in the bodies of animals,
including man. They may build up
until they are harmful to the animal
itself or to the meat eater that feeds
on it. These are called accumulative
pesticides.
Pesticide Movement in the
Environment
Pesticides become problems when
they move off target. This may
mean:
drifting out of the target area
as mist or dust,
moving on soil through runoff
or erosion,
leaching through the soil,
being carried out as residues
in crops and livestock, or
evaporating and moving with
air currents.
Soil and Pesticides
Persistent pesticides may limit
future planting. You can plant only
crops which the pesticide will not
kill or contaminate.
Even pesticides directed at plants
or animals can move to the soil.
They may be washed or brushed off.
They may be worked into the soil
with dead plant parts.
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Air and Pesticides
Pesticides in the air cannot be
controlled. The pesticides can settle
into water, crops, trees, houses, or
barnyards. The wind can carry them
hundreds of miles. Even gentle
breezes can carry them away from
the target.
Water and Pesticides
Water is necessary for all life. But
it is not safe to drink or bathe in
polluted water.
Most fish and other aquatic life
can survive only slight changes in
their environment. Even tiny
amounts of many pesticides can
harm them or destroy the food they
live on. They may die at once, or
there may be chronic effects. The
behavior of an animal can be
changed so that predators can more
easily catch and kill it. Pesticide-
contaminated eggs may not hatch.
Pesticides in water also may harm
other wildlife. Polluted irrigation
water can harm .crops, soil, and
livestock. It can cause illegal
residues in crops, milk, and meat.
Pesticides contaminate water in
many ways. They are applied
directly to water when controlling
some pests. Your State may require
a permit for this. It can be done
safely if you:
choose the pesticides
carefully,
make sure they are
registered for the use
intended, and
apply them when and as
directed.
But water can be polluted if you
use the wrong pesticide or apply it
carelessly.
Pesticides also can reach water
directly as a result of:
drift,
spills,
application to waterways
(ditches and streams), and
incorrect disposal methods.
Pesticides also may reach water
indirectly. This happens because of
erosion, runoff, and leaching. In fact,
most pesticide movement through
air or soil ends up in water.
Benefits of Careful Use
Pesticides help the environment
when they are used correctly. Most
importantly, they can help produce
better quality and higher yields of
food, fiber, and timber by reducing
damage from pests.
Weigh carefully the advantages
and disadvantages of each pesticide
use. Choose the pesticide that will do
the least damage while giving good
control. Finally, plan each part of
the job carefully from beginning to
end.
Be a responsible pesticide
applicator.
Safe Use Precautions
Most parts of your job may involve
some risk of pesticide injury:
hauling pesticides,
storage,
mixing,
calibrating equipment before
use,
loading,
applying,
repairing equipment,
working in pesticide-treated
crops and buildings,
cleaning application
equipment after use,
disposing of surplus
pesticides and empty
containers,
cleaning up spills, and
cleaning protective clothing
and equipment.
Some of these things are done
indoors. Many are done outdoors.
Each one requires some safety
measures to prevent harm to people,
animals, and plants as well as to soil
and water outside the target area.
You can prevent harm from
pesticides if you follow safety
precautions and use common sense.
Here are the minimum safety steps
you should take.
Before You Buy a Pesticide
The first and most important step
in choosing a pesticide is to know
what pest you need to control. Then
find out which pesticides will control
it. You may have a choice of several.
You may need help to guide you.
Common sources of information are
your Cooperative Extension Service,
most agricultural schools, the U.S.
Department of Agriculture, and
pesticide manufacturers and dealers.
At the Time of Purchase
Read the label of the pesticide you
intend to buy to find out:
restrictions on use,
if this is the correct chemical
for your problem,
if the product can be used
safely under your conditions,
environmental precautions
needed,
if the formulation and
amount of active ingredient
are right for your job,
if you have the right
equipment to apply the
pesticide,
if you have the right
protective clothing and
equipment, and
, how much pesticide you need.
Before You Apply the Pesticide
Read the label again to find out:
the protective equipment
needed to handle the
pesticide,
the specific warnings and
first aid measures,
what it can be mixed with,
how to mix it,
how much to use,
safety measures,
when to apply to control the
pest and to meet residue
tolerances,
how to apply,
the rate of application, and
special instructions.
Transportation of Pesticides
You are responsible for the safe
transport of your pesticide.
The safest way to carry
pesticides is in the back of a
truck. Fasten down all
containers to prevent
breakage and spillage.
Keep pesticides away from
food, feed, and passengers.
Pesticides should be in a
correctly labeled package.
Keep paper and cardboard
packages dry.
5-5
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If any pesticide is spilled in
or from the vehicle, clean it
up right away. Use correct
cleanup procedures.
Do not leave unlocked
pesticides unattended. You
are responsible if accidents
occur.
Pesticide Storage
The label will tell you how to store
the product.
As soon as pesticides arrive,
correctly store them in a locked and
posted place. Children and other
untrained persons should not be able
to get to them.
The storage place should keep the
pesticides dry, cool, and out of direct
sunlight. It should have enough
insulation to keep the chemicals
from freezing or overheating.
The storage place should have:
fire-resistant construction,
including a cement floor,
an exhaust fan for
ventilation,
good lighting, and
a lock on the door.
Keep the door locked when the
building is not in use.
The storage building should be
away from where people and
animals live. This will avoid or
minimize harm to them in case of
fire.
Store all pesticides in the original
containers.
Do not store them near food, feed,
seed, or animals.
Check every container often for
leaks or breaks. If one is damaged,
transfer the contents to a container
that has held exactly the same
pesticide. Clean up any spills
correctly.
Keep an up-to-date inventory of
the pesticides you have.
Mixing and Loading Pesticides
Keep livestock, pets, and people
out of the mixing and loading area.
Do not work alone, especially at
night.
Work outdoors. Choose a place
with good light and ventilation. Do
not mix or load pesticides indoors or
at night unless there is good lighting
and ventilation.
Before handling a pesticide
container, put on the correct
protective clothing and equipment.
Each time you use a pesticide,
read the directions for mixing. Do
this before you open the container.
This is essential. Directions,
including amounts and methods, are
often changed.
Do not tear paper containers to
open them. Use a sharp knife. Clean
the knife afterwards, and do not use
it for other purposes.
When taking a pesticide out of the
container, keep the container and
pesticide below eye level. This will
avoid a splash or spill on your
goggles or protective clothing. Do
the same thing when pouring or
dumping any pesticide.
If you splash or spill a pesticide
while mixing or loading:
Stop right away.
Remove contaminated
clothing.
Wash thoroughly with
detergent and water. Speed is
essential.
Clean up the spill.
When mixing pesticides, measure
carefully. Use only the amount
called for on the label. Mix only the
amount you plan to use.
When loading pesticides, stand so
the wind blows across your body
from the right or left to avoid
contaminating yourself.
To prevent spills, replace all pour
caps and close containers after use.
Pesticide Application
Wear the correct protective
clothing and equipment.
To prevent spillage of chemicals,
check all application equipment for:
leaking hoses, pumps, or
connections, and
plugged, worn, or dripping
nozzles.
Use water to correctly calibrate
spray equipment before use. Before
starting a field application, clear all
livestock and people.from the area to
be treated.
Drift is the movement of spray
droplets or dust particles away from
the target area. Drift increases:
as droplet or particle size
decreases, and
as wind speed increases.
It can be minimized if you:
spray at low pressure,
use the largest practical
nozzle openings, and
spray during the calmer parts
of the day.
Vaporization is the evaporation of
an active ingredient during or after
application. Pesticide vapors can
cause injury far from the site of
application. High temperatures
increase vaporization. You can
reduce vaporization by:
choosing nonvolatile
chemical formulations, and
spraying in the cooler parts of
the day.
Cleaning Equipment
Mixing, loading, and application
equipment must be cleaned as soon
as you finish using it. Clean both the
inside and outside, including nozzles.
Only trained persons should do this
job. They should wear correct
protective clothing.
Sometimes you may need to steam
clean equipment or use special
cleaning agents. In other cases, hot
water and detergent may be enough.
Have a special area for cleaning.
It is best for the area to have a wash
rack or concrete apron with a good
sump. This will catch all
contaminated wash water and
pesticides. Dispose of sump wastes
by burning or burial as you would
excess pesticides. Keep drainage out
of water supplies and streams.
Equipment sometimes must be
repaired before it is completely
cleaned. Warn the person doing the
repairs of the possible hazards.
Disposal
Excess Pesticides
EPA recommends ways to dispose
of excess pesticides. Consult local
authorities for procedures in your
area. If you have excess organic
pesticides:
Use them up as directed on
the label.
Burn them in a specially
designed pesticide
incinerator.
If you do not have access to
proper facilities for burning,
bury the pesticides in a
specially designated landfill.
If you cannot either burn or
bury them right away, store
the pesticides until you can.
These recommendations also tell
you how to dispose of excess diluted
liquid pesticides. Add these and
rinse liquids to spray mixtures in
the field when you can. If you cannot
use excess diluted pesticides, follow
the disposal instructions for excess
pesticides.
5-6
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Containers
To prepare containers for disposal:
1. Empty the container into the
tank. Let it drain an extra 30
seconds.
2. Fill it one-fifth to one-fourth
full of water.
3. Replace the closure and
rotate the container. Upend
the container so the rinse
reaches all the side surfaces.
4. Drain the rinse water from
the container into the tank.
Let the container drain for
30 seconds after emptying.
5. Repeat steps 2 through 4 at
least two more times for a
total of three rinses.
Remember to empty each rinse
solution into the tank.
The EPA recommendations divide
containers into three groups. They
tell you how to dispose of each kind.
Group I ContainersThese are
containers which will burn, and:
held organic or metallo-
organic pesticides, but not
organic mercury, lead,
cadmium, or arsenic
compounds.
Here are ways to dispose of them:
You may burn them in a
special pesticide incinerator.
You may bury them in a
specially designated landfill.
You may burn small
numbers of them as directed
by State and local
regulations.
You may bury them singly in
open fields. Bury them at
least 18 inches below the
surface. Be careful not to
pollute surface or subsurface
water.
Group II ContainersThese are
containers which will not burn, and:
held organic or metallo-
organic pesticides, but not
organic mercury, lead,
cadmium, or arsenic
compounds.
Here are ways to dispose of them:
Rinse the containers three
times.
Many large containers in
good shape can be reused by
your supplier. Return them to
the pesticide manufacturer or
formulator, or drum
reconditioner.
You can send or take them to
a place that will recycle them
as scrap metal or dispose of
them for you.
All rinsed containers may be
crushed and buried in a
sanitary landfill. Follow
State and local standards.
You may bury them in the
field.
If the containers have not been
rinsed:
Bury them in a specially
designated landfill.
Group III ContainersThese
include any containers which held
organic mercury, lead, cadmium, or
arsenic, or inorganic pesticides. Here
are ways to dispose of them:
Rinse them three times and
bury them in a sanitary
landfill.
If they are not rinsed, bury
them in a specially
designated landfill.
Cleanup of Pesticide Spills
Minor Spills
Keep people away from spilled
chemicals. Rope off the area a(nd flag
it to warn people. Do not leave
unless someone is there to warn of
the danger.
If the pesticide was spilled on
anyone, give the correct first aid.
Confine the spill. If it starts to
spread, dike it up with sand or soil.
Use an absorbent material to soak
up the spill. You can use soil,
sawdust, or a special product made
to do this. Shovel all contaminated
material into a leakproof container
for disposal. Dispose of it as you
would excess pesticides. Do not hose
down the area. This spreads the
chemical.
Put something on the spill to stop
the chemical action. You may be
able to use common household
bleach or a solution of lye or
ammonia. If you are not sure what
to use, call the chemical
manufacturer. Always work
carefully. Do not hurry.
Do not let anyone enter the area
until the spill is all cleaned up.
Major Spills
The cleanup job may be too big for
you to handle. You may not be sure
of what to do. In either case, keep
people away, give first aid, and
confine the spill. Then call the
manufacturer for help.
The National Agricultural
Chemicals Association has a
Pesticide Safety Team Network.
They can tell you what to do. Or
they can send a safety team to clean
up the spill. You can call them toll-
free any time at (800) 424-9300.
If a major pesticide spill occurs on
a highway, have someone call the
highway patrol or the sheriff for
help. (Carry these phone numbers
with you.) Do not leave until
responsible help arrives.
Report all major spills by phone to
your State pesticide regulatory
agency. You also may need to notify
other authorities:
If the spill is on a State highway,
call:
the highway patrol, or
the State highway
department.
If the spill is on a county road or a
city street, call:
the county sheriff, or
city police.
If food is contaminated, notify:
State or Federal food and
drug authorities, or
city, county, or State health
officials.
If water is contaminated, notify:
State health officials,
regional, State, or Federal
water quality or water
pollution authorities, and
the State fish and game
agency.
Safe-Entry Times
It may be dangerous for an
unprotected person to enter an area
immediately after some pesticides
have been used. The time that must
pass before the area is safe for a
person without protective clothing is
called a safe-entry time, or reentry
period. This time is given on the
label of each pesticide that may
cause a reentry problem. It varies
according to the pesticide applied
and the crop or area treated. These
times have been set to allow harmful
pesticide residues to break down or
disappear. Reentry may pose special
problems in some areas. Check with
local authorities for any special rules
that may apply.
5-7
-------
Application
Equipment
The pesticide application equipment
you use is important to the success
of your pest control job. You must
first select the right kind of
application equipment. Then you
must use it correctly to suit your
needs and take good care of it. These
things are true whether you use
hand-carried, tractor-drawn, self-
propelled, or aircraft-mounted
equipment. Here are some things
you should know about choosing,
using, and caring for equipment.
Sprayers
Your sprayer should be:
designed to do the job you
want to do,
durable, and
convenient to fill, operate,
and clean.
Hand Sprayers
Hand sprayers are for professional
application of pesticides in
structures and can be used for small
jobs around the home and garden.
You can use them in restricted areas
where a power unit would not work.
Advantages
economical,
simple, and
easy to use, clean, and store.
Limitation
frequent lack of good
agitation and screening for
wettable powders. Keep WP's
in suspension by shaking the
sprayer.
Low Pressure Field Sprayers
These sprayers are designed to
deliver low to moderate volume at
15 to 50 psi. Most of them are used
for treating field and forage crops,
pastures, fence rows, and structures.
They also may be used to apply
fertilizer-pesticide mixtures.
Advantages
medium to large tanks,
low cost,
light weight, and
versatility.
Limitations
low gallonage output limits
their use when high volume
is required,
low pressure limits pesticide
penetration, and
agitation is limited.
High Pressure Sprayers
These are often called hydraulic
sprayers. They are designed to
deliver large volumes at high
pressure. They are used to spray
fruits, vegetables, trees, landscape
plants, and livestock. When fitted
with the correct pressure regulators,
they can be used at low pressures.
Applications usually are made at
high gallonages (usually 100 or
more per acre). Even though very
6-1
large tanks are used, they may need
to be filled often.
Advantages
well built,
usually have mechanical
agitation, and
last a long time even when
using wettable powders.
Limitations
high cost,
large amounts of water,
power, and fuel needed,
high tire loads, and
high pressure which makes a
spray that drifts easily.
Air Blast Sprayers
These units use a high speed, fan-
driven air stream to break the nozzle
output into fine drops which move
with the air stream to the target.
The air is directed to either one or
both sides as the sprayer moves
forward. These sprayers are used in
applying pesticides to landscape
plants, fruits, and vegetables, and
for biting fly control. Most air blast
sprayers can be adapted to apply
either high or low volumes of spray.
Advantages
good coverage and
penetration,
low pump pressures, and
mechanical agitation.
Limitations
drift hazards,
chance of overdosages,
difficult to use in small areas,
and
hard to confine discharge to
limited target areas.
-------
Ultra Low Volume (ULV)
Sprayers
Deliver undiluted pesticides from
the air, on the ground, or in
buildings.
Advantages
no water is needed, and
equal control with less
pesticide.
Limitations
does not provide for thorough
wetting,
hazards of using high
concentrates,
chance of overdosage, and
small number of pesticides
that can be used this way.
Sprayer Parts
Tanks
Tanks should have large openings
for easy filling and cleaning. They
should allow straining during filling
and have mechanical or hydraulic
agitation. The tank should be made
of corrosion-resistant material such
as stainless steel or glass reinforced
plastic. If made of mild steel, it
should have a protective plastic
lining or coating. The tank should
have a good drain. The outlets
should be sized to the pump
capacity. If you use dual tanks,
make sure the plumbing allows for
agitation and adequate withdrawal
rates in both tanks. All tanks should
have a gage to show the liquid level.
Flush out the tank, pump, lines,
and nozzles after each day s use and
each separate pesticide use. If
switching to another pesticide where
contamination must be prevented,
wash out with detergent and water
two or three times and then flush
with water. Phenoxy herbicides such
as 2,4-D are hard to remove. After
using them, either follow the special
cleaning procedures noted on the
pesticide label or avoid using the
same sprayer for any other product.
Keep tank clean inside and out.
Tighten or repair all leaky tank
seals or fittings. Make sure sight
gages can be read.
Pumps
The pump must be adequate for
all the spraying pressures you use. It
must provide enough flow to:
supply all nozzles,
allow for hydraulic agitation
when needed, and
leave a reserve to allow for
loss of flow due to wear.
Pumps should resist corrosion and
abrasion. Centrifugal pumps provide
high volume at low pressure. They
are not self-priming. Piston and
diaphragm pumps provide moderate
to high volumes at high pressure.
They are self-priming. Roller and
gear pumps provide moderate
volume at low to moderate pressure.
They are self-priming in most
equipment. Do not use wettable
powder formulations in gear pumps.
If you need pressures above 75 psi,
piston pumps are more likely to
provide them over a long period of
time.
You will damage a pump if you
operate it dry or with a restricted
inlet. Follow the manufacturer's
recommendations for pump
operation. Keep all shields in place.
Strainers (Filters)
Proper filtering of the pesticide:
protects the working parts of
the sprayer, and
avoids time loss and
misapplication due to clogged
nozzle tips.
Filtering should be progressive,
with the largest mesh screen in the
suction line between the tank and
the pump. Put a smaller mesh
screen in the high pressure line
between the pump and the pressure
regulator. Put the finest mesh
screen nearest the nozzles. Do not
use a screen in the suction line of a
centrifugal pump.
Clean strainers after each use.
Replace them if you see
deterioration. Strainers are your
best defense against nozzle and
pump wear and nozzle clogging. Use
nozzle screens as large as nozzle
sizes permit. Screen opening should
be less than nozzle opening.
Hoses
Select synthetic rubber or plastic
hoses that:
have burst strength greater
than the peak operating
pressures,
resist oil and solvents present
in pesticides, and
are weather-resistant.
Suction hoses should resist
collapse. They should be larger than
pressure hoses. All fittings on
suction lines should be as large as or
larger than the line itself.
Keep hoses from kinking or being
rubbed. Rinse them often, inside and
outside, to prolong life. Remove and
store hoses during off season, or at
least store unit out of sun. Replace
hoses at the first sign of surface
deterioration.
6-2
Pressure Gages
These serve as the monitor of your
spraying job. They must be accurate
and have only the range needed for
your work. For example, a 0-60 psi
gage with 2-pound gradations would
be enough for most low pressure
sprayers.
Check frequently for accuracy
against an accurate gage. Do not use
them under too much pressure. Keep
glass faces clean and intact. Use
gage protectors to protect against
corrosive pesticides and pressure
surges.
Centrifugal Pump
Piston Pump
-------
Roller Pump
Strainer
Hose
Pressure Regulators
The pressure regulator must have
a working range that is about the
same as the range of pressure you
plan to use.
Agitators
Make sure your sprayer has
enough agitation. If it does not, your
pesticide application rate may vary
greatly as the tank is emptied.
Bypass agitation may be good
enough for solutions and emulsions.
Use a jet agitator or mechanical
agitator for wettable powders.
Mechanical agitation is the surest
way to get good agitation. It is
expensive initially and is harder to
maintain. Hand sprayers must be
shaken frequently.
Control Valves
These should be large enough so
as not to restrict flow. They should
be easy for you to reach. On-off
action should be quick and positive.
You need to be able to cut off all flow
or flow to any section of the spraying
system. There are many different
kinds of control valves. Be sure you
know how to operate and maintain
the ones on your equipment.
Nozzles
The nozzle helps control the rate
and pattern of distribution. These
things depend on:
the nozzle design or type,
its operating pressure,
the size of the opening,
its discharge angle, and
its distance from the target.
There are six basic nozzle types.
They are:
Solid StreamA type used in
handguns to spray a distant target
and for crack and crevice treatment
in buildings. Also a type used in a
nozzle body to apply pesticides in a
narrow band or inject them into the
soil.
Pressure Gage
6-3
-------
Flat FanThere are three types
of flat fan nozzles:
The regular flat fan nozzle
makes a narrow oval pattern
with lighter edges. It is used
for broadcast spraying. This
pattern is designed to be used
on a boom and to be
overlapped 30-50 percent for
even distribution.
The even flat fan nozzle
makes a uniform pattern
across its width. It is used for
band spraying and for
treating walls and other
surfaces.
The flooding nozzle makes a
wide-angle flat spray pattern.
It works at lower pressures
than the other flat fan
nozzles. Its pattern is fairly
uniform across its width. It is
used for broadcast spraying.
Hollow ConeThere are two
types of hollow cone nozzles:
the core and disk, and
the whirl chamber.
The pattern is circular with
tapered edges and little or no spray
in the center. It is used for spraying
foliage.
Solid ConeThis nozzle produces
a circular pattern. The spray is well-
distributed throughout the pattern.
It is used for spraying foliage.
Atomizing NozzleMakes a fine
mist from liquid pesticides. Used
indoors in special situations.
BroadcastThis nozzle forms a
wide flat fan pattern. It is used on
boomless sprayers and to extend the
effective swath width when attached
to the end of a boom.
6-4
Many spraying jobs could be done by
more than one nozzle type or pattern.
Here are some general guidelines.
For weed control:
regular flat fan,
flooding fan,
even flat fan,
hollow cone.
For disease control:
hollow cone,
solid cone.
For insect control outdoors:
regular flat fan,
hollow cone,
solid cone.
For insect control indoors:
even flat fan,
solid stream,
atomizing.
To minimize drift:
flooding fan,
whirl chamber hollow cone,
keep operating pressures
below 30 psi.
You can get nozzles in many
materials. Here are the main
features of each kind.
Brass:
inexpensive,
wears quickly from abrasion,
probably the best material for
limited use.
Stainless steel:
' will not corrode,
resists abrasion, especially if
it is hardened.
Plastic:
resists corrosion and
abrasion.
swells when exposed to some
solvents.
Aluminum:
resists some corrosive
materials,
is easily corroded by some
fertilizers.
Tungsten carbide and ceramic:
highly resistant to abrasion
and corrosion,
expensive.
Keep nozzles in good working
condition. For most boom
applications, select'nozzles of
uniform type and size.
Nozzle caps should not be over-
tightened. Adjust nozzle distance
and spacing to suit the target.
Follow the nozzle manufacturer's
instructions and the pesticide label.
Allow for crop or weed height if
necessary. Check each nozzle for
uniform flow using water and a jar
marked in ounces. Replace any
whose flow is 5 percent more or less
than the average. Replace any
nozzles having faulty spray patterns.
A good check is to spray on asphalt
pavement. Watch for streaks as you
increase speed or as spray dries.
Clean nozzles only with a
toothbrush or wooden toothpick.
-------
Operation and Maintenance
Always read and follow the
operator's manuals for all your spray
equipment. They will tell you
exactly how to use and care for it.
After each use, rinse out the entire
system. Remove and clean nozzles,
nozzle screens, and strainers. Check
for leaks in lines, valves, seals, and
tank both after filling with water
and during running.
Be alert for nozzle clogging and
changes in nozzle patterns. If nozzles
clog or other trouble occurs in the
field, be careful not to contaminate
yourself while correcting the
problem. Shut off the sprayer and
move it to the edge of the field before
dismounting. Wear protective
clothing while making repairs.
Store sprayers correctly after use.
But first, rinse and clean the system.
Then fill tank almost full with clean
water. Add a small amount of new
light oil to the tank. Coat the system
by pumping tank contents out
through nozzles or handgun. Drain
the pump and plug its openings or
fill the pump with light oil or
antifreeze. Remove nozzles and
nozzle screens and store in light oil
or diesel fuel.
Dusters and Granular
Applicators
Hand Dusters
Like hand sprayers, hand dusters
are for professional use in structures
and can be used in gardens. They
may consist of a squeeze bulb,
bellows, tube, or shaker, a sliding
tube, or a fan powered by a hand
crank.
Advantages
the pesticide is ready to
apply, and
good penetration in confined
spaces.
Limitations
high cost for pesticide,
hard to get good foliar
coverage, and
dust is subject to drifting.
Power Dusters
Power dusters use a powered fan
or blower to propel the dust to the
target. They range from knapsack or
backpack types to those mounted on
or pulled by tractors. Their capacity
in area treated per hour compares
favorably with some sprayers.
Advantages
simply built,
easy to maintain, and
low in cost.
Limitations
drift hazards,
high cost of pesticide, and
application may be less
uniform than with sprays.
Selecting a Duster
Look for a power duster that is
easy to clean. It should give a
uniform application rate as the
hopper is emptied. Look for both
hand and power dusters that keep
the dust cloud well away from the
user.
Granular Applicators
These include:
* hand-carried knapsack and
spinning disk types for
broadcast coverage,
mounted equipment for
applying bands over the row
in row crops, and
mounted or tractor-drawn
machines for broadcast
coverage.
Advantages
eliminates mixing,
is low in cost,
minimizes drift, and
is less hazardous to
applicator.
Limitations
high cost for pesticide,
limited use against some
pests because granules won't
stick to most plants,
need to calibrate for each
granular formulation, and
poor lateral distribution,
especially on side slopes.
Selecting a Granular Applicator
Choose a granular applicator that
is easy to clean and fill. It should
have mechanical agitation over the
outlet holes. This will prevent
bridging and keep flow rate
constant. Application should stop
when drive stops even if outlets are
still open.
Use and Maintenance
Both dusters and granular
applicators are speed-sensitive, so
maintain uniform speed. Do not
travel too fast for ground conditions.
Bouncing equipment will cause the
application rate to vary. Stay out of
any dust cloud that may form.
Watch banders to see that band
width stays the same. Small height
changes due to changing soil
conditions may cause rapid changes
in band width.
Clean equipment as directed by
the operator's manual.
Fumigant Applicators
This equipment is of two types:
that needed to handle low
pressure fumigants, and
that needed to handle high
pressure fumigants which are
kept liquid only by storage in
pressure vessels.
The low pressure fumigators are
gravity or pump fed units. Most high
pressure units use the pressure
generated by the fumigant or a
compressed gas to force the fumigant
into the soil or space being
fumigated.
Selection
Choosing equipment to apply low
pressure fumigants is similar to
choosing a low pressure sprayer. But
corrosion-resistant pumps, tanks,
fittings, nozzles, and lines are
essential. High pressure fumigators
must be able to withstand the
internal pressure created by the
fumigant. Select equipment with
pressure or flow regulators that
assure constant delivery rates.
6-5
-------
Use and Maintenance
Keep the units in good repair.
Make sure there are no leaks.
Replace hoses and fittings as soon as
you see signs of deterioration. Lines
and fittings should~not be located
near the operator. Empty all lines
after application. To avoid
contamination and corrosion, flush
the units after use. Carefully follow
all precautions on the fumigant
label.
Aerosol Generators and
Foggers
Aerosol generators work by using:
atomizing nozzles,
spinning disks, and
small nozzles at high
pressure.
Fogs are usually generated by
thermal generators using heated
surfaces.
Advantages
efficient distribution of liquid
pesticides in enclosed spaces,
efficient distribution of liquid
pesticides in dense foliage,
and
some devices automatic in
operation.
Limitations *
aerosols and fogs extremely
sensitive to drift, and
repeated application needed
to maintain effectiveness.
Selection
Choose an aerosol generator
according to where you will use it
indoors or outdoors. Aerosol and fog
generators are manufactured for
many special uses. Truck- and
trailer-mounted machines are for
use outdoors. Most hand-operated or
permanently mounted automatic
machines are for use indoors.
Use and Maintenance
In general, use and care for an
aerosol generator as you would a
sprayer. They do require special
precautions. Be sure that the
pesticides used in them are
registered for such use. Keep them
on the target. Because of the effects
of weather conditions during
application, follow special use
instructions. The operator, other
humans, and animals must be kept
out of the fog or smoke cloud.
Calibration
Calibration is simply Adjusting
your equipment to apply the desired
rate of pesticide. You need to do this
so that you can be sure you are
using each pesticide as directed on
the label. Too much pesticide is
dangerous; too little will not do a
good job. Only by calibrating
correctly can you safely get the best
results.
There are many ways to calibrate
equipment. The preferred methods
differ according to the kind of
equipment you use. Your
Cooperative Extension Service
personnel can show you how to
calibrate your equipment. Here is
one basic method for sprayers and
another for dusters and granular
applicators.
Sprayers
To apply a pesticide evenly and
accurately, your sprayer must move
at a constant speed. It also must
operate at a constant pressure. Each
nozzle must be clean and at the right
height. All nozzles must be of the
correct type and size for the job.
Each nozzle in the system must
deliver its rated amount of pesticide.
First, choose the speed, pumping
pressure, and nozzle or nozzles that
you want to use. Fill the spray tank
with water and operate the sprayer
in place to fill the plumbing. Top off
the tank and spray a measured area
as if you were applying the pesticide.
Measure the amount of water
needed to refill your tank. This is
the application rate per unit of area.
If it takes 8 gallons to refill the tank
after spraying one acre, you are
spraying at the rate of 8 gallons per
acre. If your sprayer has a tank of
more than 100 gallons capacity, you
should spray an area large enough
to use at least 10 percent of the tank
capacity.
If your sprayer is delivering more
or less spray than the label directs,
you can change the rate three ways:
You can change the pressure.
Lower pressure means less
spray delivered; higher
pressure means more spray
delivered. This is not a good
method, because a pressure
change may change the
nozzle pattern and droplet
size. Pressure must be
increased 4 times to double
theL output.
You can change the speed of
your sprayer. Slower speed
means more spray delivered,
faster speed means less spray
delivered. This method is
practical for small changes in
delivery rate. If you drive
half as fast, you double the
delivery rate.
You can change the nozzle
tips to change the amount
delivered. The larger the hole
in the tip, the more spray
delivered. This is the best
method for making major
changes in the delivery rate
6-6
-------
of sprayers. Always select
nozzles for the job you want
done. Use the manufacturer's
performance charts to make
your selection.
After making a change, you must
recalibrate your sprayer to make
sure the rate is correct.
You have adjusted your sprayer
and you know how many gallons of
spray per unit of area your
equipment will apply. Next you
must find out how much pesticide to
put in the tank to apply the correct
dosage of pesticide. To do this you
need to know two more facts:
How much your sprayer tank
holds.
The amount of formulation to
be used per unit of area. This
will be given on the label.
Suppose your tank holds 50
gallons of spray. The directions say
to apply one pint of formulation on
each acre. In our example, you found
that your sprayer applies 8 gallons
per acre. First find the number of
acres one tank load will spray.
Divide 50 gallons by 8.
50 gallons per tankful
8 gallons per acre
To find the amount of formulation
you must add to your tank so you
can spray 61/* acres with one pint
per acre, multiply 1 pint by 61/*.
1 pint per acre x 6lk acres per tankful
= 61U pints per tankful.
Suppose the formulation of a
pesticide is a 50 percent wettable
powder and you want to apply Vz
pound of active ingredient per acre.
In our example your tank will cover
61/4 acres.
Find how many pounds of
formulation are needed to apply 1k
pound of active ingredient per acre.
There is 1/2 pound of active
ingredient in 1 pound of 50 percent
wettable powder formulation. So you
need to use 1 pound of formulation
for each acre your sprayer will cover.
1 pound per acre x 6 1/4 acres per tankful
= 6'/4 pounds per tankful.
You should add the &k pounds of
wettable powder to a small amount
of water in a clean bucket. Stir .until
it is mixed well and then add this
mixture (called a slurry) to the
partly filled tank. Remember to
operate the sprayer's agitator while
adding the slurry and filling the
tank.
= 61U acres per tankful
Make a slurry
Even after your sprayer is
calibrated, you should recheck it
often. Be sure you are spraying the
same size area for each tankful as
you figured on. If you are spraying
more or less acres than you planned,
stop spraying and recalibrate. If you
have figured wrong or your sprayer
changes its delivery rate, you will be
able to catch it before you make a
major mistake.
Dusters and Granular
Applicators
Read the manufacturer's
operator's manual. Follow
these instructions to set the
gate openings for the product
you are going to use.
Caution: always set the
openings from the same
direction, such as from closed
to open. This will minimize
variations in settings.
Fill each hopper to an easily
determined level.
Operate the equipment over a
measured area or distance at
your normal working speed.
The area should be large
enough to use 1U of the
hopper contents.
Refill the hopper to the same
level, weighing the amount of
pesticide needed to replace
what was used.
The amount of pesticide it
takes to refill the hopper is
the amount applied to the
measured area. If the amount
applied does not fall within 5
percent of the recommended
dosage per unit of area, reset
the gate opening and repeat
the previous three steps.
Keep a record of the area
treated with each filling of
the hopper. This will let you
see any slight change in rate
of application and make the
necessary adjustments.
Add the proper amount of pesticide
6-7
-------
-------
Laws and
Regulations
Without pesticides, we would not
have the food, fiber, and landscape
plants we need. But because
pesticides can be dangerous,
Congress has passed laws affecting
pesticide use. These laws try to
balance the need for pesticides
against the need to protect people
and the environment from their
misuse.
Federal Insecticide,
Fungicide, and Rodenticide
Act (FIFRA), as Amended
You are taking this training because
of a law passed by Congress in 1972.
It is often called by its initials
FIFRA. It requires you to show that
you know the correct way to use and
handle pesticides.
Here are the parts of the law
which concern you the most:
It says that all pesticide uses
must be classified as either
general or restricted.
It requires you to be certified
as competent to use any of
the pesticides classifed for
restricted use, and
It provides penalties (fines
and jail terms) for people who
do not obey the law.
Congress chose October 21, 1976,
as the date for certification to go into
effect. The Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA), acting
under Federal law, has by
regulation set minimum standards
of competency for all commercial
applicators. Your State has
developed a plan for certification of
competency that meets minimum
national standards. The certification
plan in your State will be
administered by a branch of your
State government.
Classification of Pesticides
Manufacturers must register
every pesticide with EPA. By
regulation, when each pesticide is
registered, all its uses must be
classified. EPA must decide whether
each use is a general or a restricted
one.
Under the law, pesticide uses that
will damage the environment very
little or not at all when done as the
label directs can be classified as
general uses.
Uses that could cause damage
even when done as directed on the
label must be classified as restricted
uses. They may be carried out only:
by someone who is certified,
or
under a certified person's
supervision.
Some uses may be general under
some conditions and restricted under
others.
Certification of Applicators
What is certification? It is proof
that you know the safe and correct
way to carry out restricted uses.
Both private and commercial
applicators will have to meet State
and national standards. Your State
has its own program for seeing that
you meet these standards.
Prohibited Actions
The new law names many things
you cannot do. These two concern
you most:
You may not use a pesticide
other than as the label or
labeling directs, except when
special regulations allow you
to use it at a lower rate than
the label recommends.
You may not dispose of any
pesticide or its container
except as the label or labeling
directs.
You also should know your State
and local laws. They may prohibit
more actions than the Federal law
does.
The applicator is responsible for
proper pesticide use.
Penalties
If you violate the FIFRA, you are
subject to civil penalties. They can
be as much as $5,000 for each
offense. Before EPA can fine you,
you have the right to ask for a
hearing in your own city or county.
Violations of the law may also
subject you to criminal penalties.
They can be as much as $25,000 or
one year in prison, or both.
Other Regulations
Transportation
Shipment of pesticides and other
dangerous substances across State
lines is regulated by the Federal
Department of Transportation
(DOT). DOT issues the rules for
hauling these materials.
DOT standards tell you which
pesticides:
are dangerous to man, and
create a health hazard during
transportation.
If you ever haul pesticides
between States, you should know
that:
They must be in their
original packages. Each
package must meet DOT
standards.
The vehicle must have a
correct sign. Manufacturers
must put the correct warning
signs on each package.
The pesticides may not be
hauled in the same vehicle
with food products.
7-1
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TOLERANCE
DATE OF APPLICATION
You must contact DOT right
away after each accident:
a) when someone is killed,
b) when someone is injured
badly enough to go to a hospital,
or
c) when damage is more than
$50,000.
You must tell DOT about all
spills during shipment.
State and local laws may require
you to take additional precautions.
Aerial Application
Application of pesticides from
airplanes also is regulated by the
Federal Aviation Administration
(FAA) and may be regulated by your
State. FAA judges:
the flying ability of pilots,
and
the safety of their aircraft.
FAA rules, too, say that an aerial
applicator may not apply any
pesticide except as the label directs.
Residues
The pesticide that stays in or on
raw farm products or processed foods
is called a residue. EPA sets residue
tolerances under regulations
authorized by the Federal Food,
Drug, and Cosmetic Act. A tolerance
is the concentration of a pesticide
that is judged safe for human use.
Residues in processed foods are
considered to be food additives and
are regulated as such.
Tolerances are expressed in "parts
per million" (ppm). One ppm equals
one part (by weight) of pesticide for
each million parts of farm or food
HARVEST
product. Using pounds as a measure,
50 ppm would be 50 pounds of
pesticide in a million pounds of the
product. The same pesticide may
have a different tolerance on
different products. It might be 50
ppm on grapes and 25 ppm on
apples.
If too much residue is found on a
farm or food product, the product
may be seized or condemned.
The label will tell you how many
days before harvest the pesticide
may be applied. Follow the label
exactly. Then you can be sure you
are not breaking the law.
Worker Safety
The Occupational Safety and
Health Act of 1970 is administered
by the Occupational Safety and
Health Administration (OSHA) in
the Department of Labor (DOL). It
requires anyone with 11 or more
workers to keep records and make
reports. The records must include all
work-related deaths, injuries, and
illnesses. Minor injuries needing
only first aid treatment need not be
recorded. But a record must be made
if the injury involves:
medical treatment,
loss of consciousness,
restriction of work or motion,
or
transfer to another job.
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Other Terms Used
in Pest Control
Some of these words have several
meanings. Those given here are the
ones that relate to pest control.
Abrasion: The process of wearing away by
rubbing.
Abscission: The separation of fruit, leaves,
or stems from a plant.
Absorption: The process by which a
chemical is taken into plants, animals,
or minerals. Compare with adsorption.
Activator: A chemical added to a pesticide
to increase its activity.
Adherence: Sticking to a surface.
Adjuvant: Inert ingredient added to a
pesticide formulation to make it work
better.
Adsorption: The process by which chemicals
are held on the surface of a mineral or
soil particle. Compare with absorption.
Adulterated: Any pesticide whose strength
or purity falls below the quality stated
on its label. Also, a food, feed, or product
that contains illegal pesticide residues.
Aerobic: Living in air. The opposite of
anaerobic.
Aerosol: An extremely fine mist or fog
consisting of solid or liquid particles
suspended in air. Also; certain
formulations used to produce a fine
mist.
Agitation: The process of stirring or mixing
in a sprayer.
Alkaloids: Chemicals present in some
plants. Some are used as pesticides.
Anaerobic: Living in the absence of air. The
opposite of aerobic.
Animal Sign: The evidences of an animal's
presence in an area.
Antagonism: The loss of activity of a
chemical when exposed to another
chemical.
Antibiotic: A substance which is used to
control pest microorganisms.
Antidote: A practical treatment for
poisoning, including first aid.
Aqueous: A term used to indicate the
presence of water in a solution.
Arsenicals: Pesticides containing arsenic.
Aseptic: Free of disease-causing organisms.
Bait Shyness: The tendency for rodents,
birds, or other pests to avoid a poisoned
bait.
Bipyridyliums: A group of synthetic organic1
pesticides which includes the herbicide
paraquat.
Botanical Pesticide: A pesticide made from
plants. Also called plant-derived
pesticides.
Broadleaf Weeds: Plants with broad,
rounded, or flattened leaves.
Brush Control: Control of woody plants.
Carbamate: A synthetic organic pesticide
containing carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen,
and sulfur.
Carcinogenic: Can cause cancer.
Carrier: The inert liquid or solid material
added to an active ingredient to prepare
a pesticide formulation.
Causal Organism: The organism (pathogen)
that produces a specific disease.
Chemosterilant: A chemical that can
prevent reproduction.
Chlorinated Hydrocarbon: A synthetic
organic pesticide that contains chlorine,
carbon, and hydrogen. Same as
organochlorine.
Chlorosis: The yellowing of a plant's .green
tissue.
Cholinesterase: A chemical catalyst
(enzyme) found in animals that helps
regulate the activity of nerve impulses.
Compatible: When two or more chemicals
can be mixed without affecting each
other's properties, they are said to be
compatible.
Concentration: The amount of active
ingredient in a given volume or weight
of formulation;
Contaminate: To make impure or to pollute.
Corrosion: The process of wearing away by
chemical means.
Crucifers: Plants belonging to the mustard
family, such as mustard, cabbage,
turnip, and radish.
Cucurbits: Plants belonging to the gourd
family, such as pumpkin, cucumber, and
squash.
Deciduous Plants: Perennial plants that
lose their leaves during the winter.
Deflocculating Agent: A material added to
a suspension to prevent settling.
Degradation: The process by which a
chemical is reduced to a less complex
form.
Dermal: Of the skin; through or by the skin.
Dermal Toxicity: Ability of a chemical to
cause injury when absorbed through the
skin.
Diluent: Any liquid or solid material used to
dilute or carry an active ingredient.
Dilute: To make thinner by adding water,
another liquid, or a solid.
Dispersing Agent: A material that reduces
the attraction between particles.
Dormant: State in which growth of seeds or
other plant organs stops temporarily.
Dose, Dosage: Quantity of a pesticide
applied.
Emulsifier: A chemical which aids in
suspending one liquid in another.
Emulsion: A mixture in which one liquid is
suspended as tiny drops in another
liquid, such as oil in water.
Fungistat: A chemical that keeps fungi from
growing.
GPA: Gallons per acre.
GPM: Gallons per minute.
Growth Stages of Cereal Crops: (1)
Tilleringwhen additional shoots are
developing from the flower buds. (2)
Jointingwhen stem internodes begin
elongating rapidly. (3) Bootingwhen
upper leaf sheath swells due to the
growth of developing spike or panicle.
(4) Headingwhen seed head is
emerging from the upper leaf sheath.
Hard (water): Water containing soluble
salts of calcium and magnesium and
sometimes iron.
Herbaceous Plant: A plant that does not
develop woody tissue.
Hydrogen-Ion Concentration: A measure
of acidity or alkalinity, expressed in
terms of the pH of the solution. For
example, a pH of 7 is neutral, from 1 to
7 is acid, and from 7 to 14 is alkaline.
Immune: Not susceptible to a disease or
poison.
Impermeable: Cannot be penetrated.
Semipermeable means that some
substances can pass through and others
cannot.
Lactation: The production of milk by an
animal, or the period during which an
animal is producing milk.
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LC50: The concentration of an active
ingredient in air which is expected to
cause death in 50 percent of the test
animals so treated. A means of
expressing the toxicity of a compound
present in air as dust, mist, gas, or
vapor. It is generally expressed as
micrograms per liter as a dust or mist
but in the case of a gas or vapor as parts
per million (ppm).
LD50: The dose of an active ingredient taken
by mouth or absorbed by the skin which
is expected to cause death in 50 percent
of the test animals so treated. If a
chemical has an LD50 of 10 milligrams
per kilogram (mg/kg) it is more toxic
than one having an LD50 of 100 mg/kg.
Leaching: Movement of a substance
downward or out of the soil as the result
of water movement.
Mammals: Warm-blooded animals that
nourish their young with milk. Their
skin is more or less covered with hair.
Miscible Liquids: Two or more liquids that
can be mixed and will remain mixed
under normal conditions.
MPH: Miles per hour.
Mutagenic: Can produce genetic change.
Necrosis: Localized death of living tissue
such as the death of a certain area of a
leaf.
Necrotic: Showing varying degrees of dead
areas or spots.
Nitrophenols: Synthetic organic pesticides
containing carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen,
and oxygen.
Noxious Weed: A plant defined as being
especially undesirable or troublesome.
Oral: Of the mouth; through or by the
mouth.
Oral Toxicity: Ability of a pesticide to cause
injury when taken by mouth.
Organic Compounds: Chemicals that
contain carbon.
Organochlorine: Same as chlorinated
hydrocarbon.
Organophosphate: A synthetic organic
pesticide containing carbon, hydrogen,
and phosphorus; parathion and
malathion are two examples.
Ovicide: A chemical that destroys eggs.
Pathogen: Any disease-producing organism.
Penetration: The act of entering or ability
to enter.
Phytotoxic: Harmful to plants.
Pollutant: An agent or chemical that makes
something impure or dirty.
PPB: Parts per billion. A way to express the
concentration of chemicals in foods,
plants, and animals. One part per
billion equals 1 pound in 500,000 tons.
PPM: Parts per million. A way to express
the concentration of chemicals in foods,
plants, and animals. One part per
million equals 1 pound in 500 tons.
Predator: An animal that destroys or eats
other animals.
Propellant: Liquid in self-pressurized
pesticide products that forces the active
ingredient from the container.
PSI: Pounds per square inch.
Pubescent: Having hairy leaves or stems.
RPM: Revolutions per minute.
Safener: A chemical added to a pesticide to
keep it from injuring plants.
Seed Protectant: A chemical applied to seed
before planting to protect seeds and new
seedlings from disease and insects.
Soil Sterilant: A chemical that prevents the
growth of all plants and animals in the
soil. Soil sterilization may be temporary
or permanent, depending on the
chemical.
Soluble: Will dissolve in a liquid.
Solution: Mixture of one or more substances
in another in which all ingredients are
completely dissolved.
Solvent: A liquid which will dissolve a
substance to form a solution.
Spreader: A chemical which increases the
area that a given volume of liquid will
cover on a solid or on another liquid.
Sticker: A material added to a pesticide to
increase its adherence.
Surfactant: A chemical which increases the
emulsifying, dispersing, spreading, and
wetting properties of a pesticide
product.
Susceptible: Capable of being diseased or
poisoned; not immune.
Susceptible Species: A plant or animal
that is poisoned by moderate amounts of
a pesticide.
Suspension: Finely divided solid particles
mixed in a liquid.
Synergism: The joint action of two or more
pesticides that is greater than the sum
of their activity when used alone.
Target Pest: The pest at which a particular
pesticide or other control method is
directed.
Tolerance: (1) The ability of a living thing
to withstand adverse conditions, such as
pest attacks, weather extremes, or
pesticides. (2) The amount of pesticide
that may safely remain in or on raw
farm products at time of sale.
Toxicant: A poisonous chemical.
Trade Name: Same as brand name.
Vapor Pressure: The property which causes
a chemical to evaporate. The lower the
vapor pressure, the more easily it will
evaporate.
Vector: A carrier, such as an insect, that
transmits a pathogen.
Viscosity: A property of liquids that
determines whether they flow readily.
Viscosity usually increases when
temperature decreases.
Volatile: Evaporates at ordinary
temperatures when exposed to air.
Wetting Agent: A chemical which causes a
liquid to contact surfaces more
thoroughly.
fr U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1975 O-S88-643
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