oEPA
United States Industrial Environmental Research EPA-600/7-80-084
Environmental Protection Laboratory April 1980
Agency Research Triangle Park NC 27711
Exposure to Pollutants
from Domestic
Combustion Sources:
A Preliminary Assessment
Interagency
Energy/Environmenl
R&D Program Report
-------
RESEARCH REPORTING SERIES
Research reports of the Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, have been grouped into nine series. These nine broad cate-
gories were established to facilitate further development and application of en-
vironmental technology. Elimination of traditional grouping was consciously
planned to foster technology transfer and a maximum interface in related fields.
The nine series are:
1. Environmental Health Effects Research
2. Environmental Protection Technology
3. Ecological Research
4. Environmental Monitoring
5. Socioeconomic Environmental Studies
6. Scientific and Technical Assessment Reports (STAR)
7. Interagency Energy-Environment Research and Development
8. "Special" Reports
9. Miscellaneous Reports
This report has been assigned to the INTERAGENCY ENERGY-ENVIRONMENT
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT series. Reports in this series result from the
effort funded under the 17-agency Federal Energy/Environment Research and
Development Program. These studies relate to EPA's mission to protect the public
health and welfare from adverse effects of pollutants associated with energy sys-
tems. The goal of the Program is to assure the rapid development of domestic
energy supplies in an environmentally-compatible manner by providing the nec-
essary environmental data and control technology. Investigations include analy-
ses of the transport of energy-related pollutants and their health and ecological
effects; assessments of, and development of, control technologies for energy
systems; and integrated assessments of a wide range of energy-related environ-
mental issues.
EPA REVIEW NOTICE
This report has been reviewed by the participating Federal Agencies, and approved
for publication. Approval does not signify that the contents necessarily reflect
the views and policies of the Government, nor does mention of trade names or
commercial products constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.
This document is available to the public through the National Technical Informa-
tion Service, Springfield, Virginia 22161.
-------
EPA-600/7-80-084
April 1980
Exposure to Pollutants from
Domestic Combustion Sources:
A Preliminary Assessment
by
Edward T. Brookman and Amnon Birenzvige
TRC Environmental Consultants, Inc.
125 Silas Deane Highway
Wethersfield, Connecticut 06109
Contract No. 68-02-3115
Task No. 112
Program Element No. INE623
EPA Project Officer: John 0. Milliken
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
Office of Environmental Engineering and Technology
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
Prepared for
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Office of Research and Development
Washington, DC 20460
-------
EXPOSURE TO POLLUTANTS FROM
DOMESTIC COMBUSTION SOURCES:
A PRELIMINARY ASSESSMENT
by
Edward T. Brookman
Amnon Birenzvige
TRC - The Research Corporation of New England
125 Silas Deane Highway
Wethersfield, Connecticut 06109
Contract No. 68-02-3115
Task No. 12
EPA Project Officer: 3ohn O. Milliken
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
Special Studies Staff
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711
Prepared for
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Research and Development
Washington, DC 20460
-------
ABSTRACT
Certain domestic combustion sources emit airborne particulate matter (PM),
carbon monoxide (CO), and polycyclic organic matter (POM) in close proximity to
human receptors. The transient ambient concentrations of these pollutants at the
receptor and the corresponding time-averaged exposures have been determined for
the following domestic combustion sources: lawn mowing, chain sawing, charcoal
cooking, indoor gas cooking, and indoor sidestream smoke. An experimental test
program utilizing personal monitoring equipment was conducted to acquire data for
the lawn mower, chain saw, and charcoal grill sources. Literature data were
utilized to assess the indoor sources of gas cooking and sidestream smoke. The
transient ambient concentrations of particulate matter encountered were as high
as 36 times the 24-hour secondary ambient air quality standard of 150 yg/m3 for
TSP. However, the presence of large quantities of noncombustion-related
particulate matter on the filters (e.g., grass particles, sawdust), concurrent lower
values of ambient CO relative to ambient air quality CO standards, and the
absence of detectable POM indicated that these sources probably do not result in
exposures to combustion-generated pollutants that are significant relative to
exposures that would be encountered in general TSP non-attainment areas that are
heavily impacted by stationary and mobile combustion sources.
-11-
-------
CONTENTS
Abstract ii
1. Introduction 1
2. Exposures from Indoor Combustion Sources 3
3. Exposures from Small Internal Combustion Engines
and Charcoal Grills 1*
4. Comparison of Exposures 29
5. Conclusions and Recommendations 36
6. References. . 39
-111-
-------
FIGURES
Number Page
1 Time Variation of Carbon Monoxide Concentrations
in a Typical Split-Levei Dwelling 4
Schematic of Sampling System Used for Domestic
Combustion Field Tests 16
Average CO Concentrations from Charcoal Grills
as a Function of Time 26
-IV-
-------
TABLES
Number
1. Summary of Pollutant Emissions of Gas Appliances
for Several Typical Operating Conditions .......... 6
2. Ratio of Sidestream to Mainstream
CO Emission - Experimental Results ............ 8
3. Aromatic Hydrocarbons Identified in
Tobacco Smoke ..................... 10
4. Number Concentration and Average Size of
Particles Contained in Tobacco Smoke ........... 11
5. Domestic Combustion Field Test Parameters -
Lawn Mowers ............ . ......... 18
6. Domestic Combustion Field Test Parameters -
Chain Saws ....................... 19
7. Domestic Combustion Field Test Parameters -
Charcoal Grills ..................... 21
8. Carbon Monoxide Results from the
Experimental Test Program ............... 24
9. Particulate Results from the
Experimental Test Program ............... 27
10. Source Usage Patterns Based on
TRC Questionnaires ................... 30
11. "Typical" Exposures to Carbon Monoxide
from Domestic Combustion Sources ............ 32
12. "Typical" Exposures to Particulate Matter
from Domestic Combustion Sources ........ .... 34
-v-
-------
SECTION 1
INTRODUCTION
Over the past several years, it has been realized that ambient air quality,
which is frequently measured by only a few monitoring stations in a large
geographical area, may not describe adequately the exposure of the population at
large to air pollutants. As one means of understanding the true situation, the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is conducting a Conventional Combustion
Environmental Assessment (CCEA) program that is directed at assessing emissions
and their associated impacts from utility, industrial, commercial, and residential
combustion processes. The emphasis of the CCEA Program is on traditional point
and area sources (e.g., smoke stacks, material handling, industrial processes,
automobile exhaust) that emit pollutants in quantities that significantly impact
general ambient air quality.
This assessment of conventional sources has led to the question of the
exposure to combustion products resulting from several common domestic
combustion processes* Several readily identifiable "sources" in this category are
indoor gas cooking, food spills on heating elements, sidestream smoke from cigars
and cigarettes, gas-fired laundry driers, space heaters, small internal combustion
(1C) engines such as those in chain saws and lawn mowers, and backyard charcoal
cooking. Although the total emissions from these non-conventional domestic
combustion sources are relatively small and are not expected to contribute
significantly to general ambient air levels of combustion-related pollutants, the
exposures resulting from these sources, which are often "close up" to the receptor,
may be significant in comparison to exposures resulting from emissions from the
more conventional large point and area combustion sources.
TRC-The Research Corporation of New England was contracted by the
Environmental Protection Agency's Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
at Research Triangle Park (EPA/IERL/RTP) to estimate exposures to airborne
contaminants resulting from domestic combustion sources, and to compare these to
exposures generated by conventional combustion sources that affect the general air
quality. In particular, exposures to total particulate matter (PM), carbon monoxide
(CO), and polycyclic organic matter (POM) resulting from indoor combustion
sources, small 1C engines, and charcoal cooking were to be determined. This report
presents the results of this exposure study in the following manner:
o For the indoor air pollution case, exposures were determined primarily
by extracting and analyzing information from previous studies on indoor
air pollution. Specific sources addressed under this category included
-1-
-------
gas cooking and sidestream smoke. Section 2 describes the results of
this literature search.
For the small 1C engines and charcoal cooking categories, an
experimental program was designed and implemented for the purpose of
determining exposures to PM, CO, and POM. The sampling technology
used consisted of personal monitoring systems. The sources
investigated included lawn mowers, chain saws, and charcoal grills.
Section 3 describes this experimental program and the laboratory
procedures required to determine the exposures, and presents the
results of the testing.
Section 4 presents "typical" exposures to domestic combustion sources
and compares these to exposures from other conventional sources. The
"typical" exposures were determined using the results of the literature
search and test program in conjunction with estimated source usage
patterns obtained from literature data and questionnaires.
The conclusions and recommendations derived from this study are
presented in Section 5 and the references cited in the text are given in
Section 6.
-2-
-------
SECTION 2
EXPOSURES FROM INDOOR COMBUSTION SOURCES
The typical American spends the majority of his waking hours indoors. Much
of this time may be spent in the presence of unvented combustion sources such as
gas cooking and cigarette smoking which are major contributors to indoor air
pollution. This section summarizes a literature review on the contributions of gas
cooking and cigarette smoking to the indoor concentrations of CO, PM, and POM.*
CARBON MONOXIDE
Carbon monoxide is generated as a result of the incomplete combustion of
carbonaceous materials. In the outdoors, the main source of CO is the exhaust
from motor vehicles. Indoors, CO can be formed by combustion associated with
gas ovens and stoves, cigarette smoking, space heaters, fireplaces, and spills on
heating elements. The two major CO sources, gas ranges and cigarettes, are
discussed below.
Gas Ranges
A study of indoor-outdoor air pollutant relationships was the subject of a
report by Yocom, Cote and Clink.1 Figure 1, taken from this report, shows the
combined effect of several indoor and outdoor sources on the indoor concentration
of CO, and on its indoor spatial and temporal distribution. The effect of cooking
(3/4-1800 and again on 3/5-2000 and 3/6-0800), operating a motor vehicle inside the
garage having a common door with the house (3/4-2000 and 3/5-0900), and
increased outdoor concentration, presumably due to an increase of traffic density
(3/5-0800 and 1600-1700 and on 3/6-0600), are clearly seen. It should be noted that
the indoor concentration of CO is substantially higher than the outdoor
concentration most of the time. It is also interesting to note that increased CO
concentration in the kitchen (presumably as a result of cooking) does not
substantially affect the CO concentration in the family room. The authors
reported that this house was a split level house with the kitchen elevated above the
family room. This emphasizes the importance of the effect of the layout of the
*POM is also referred to as PAH (polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons) since PAH is
the major subcategory of POM. These two terms are used interchangeably
throughout the report, depending on the reference cited.
-3-
-------
I
5
S
3
6.0
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
CM BEING DRIVEN
OUT OF GARAGE
1200 1700 2200 0300 0800 1300
3/4 (TUES.) 3/5 (WED.)
TIME. HOURS
1800
2300 0400 0900
3/6 (THUR)
Source: Yocom, Cote, and Clink1
Figure 1. Time Variation of Carbon Monoxide Concentrations
in a Typical Split-Level Dwelling
-------
houses on the exposure of its occupants to air pollutants. Similar results on the
relation between indoor and outdoor concentration of carbon monoxide were
reported in a study by Moschandreas.2
Emission rates of domestic gas stoves and ovens were measured in a study by
Cote, Wade and Yocom.3 Their results are presented in Table 1. Other studies
have shown that the emission rate increases as the oxygen supply decreases; i.e., by
operating more than one burner and/or by placing a utensil on the burner.lf'5'6 In
airtight buildings, where the ventilation rate is low, the rate of CO production can
increase substantially after prolonged operation of gas stoves and ovens, as the
normal air oxygen concentration inside the building decreases from approximately
21% to 20% or lower.5
Sidestream Smoke
Smoking is another source of indoor carbon monoxide and several researchers
have measured CO emissions from cigarette smoking. Because the various studies
were done under different conditions (smoking machines vs. humans, various room
or test chamber volumes and ventilation rates, number of cigarettes and total
length of time smoked), it is difficult to make valid comparisons among the various
data.
The non-smoker is exposed to the pollutants that are present in the
sidestream smoke (i.e., the smoke that comes from the smoldering end of the
cigarette and that fraction of the mainstream smoke which is exhaled by the
smoker). The exhaled portion contains some fraction of the pollutants contained in
the mainstream smoke. Hattori and Ro7 reported that 5 mg of CO per minute are
emitted into the atmosphere just from the burning of a cigarette. When the
smoker inhales, the amount of CO emitted in the exhaled smoke is reduced to
about 12% of the 5 mg amount or 0.6 mg per minute. Hoegg8 reported that this
fraction can be as much as 45%.
Several studies were conducted in which CO concentrations were measured in
rooms and test chambers. Penkala and Olivera9 measured a concentration of 21
ppm of CO in a test chamber of 9.175 m3 after three cigarettes were smoked by a
smoking machine. Both the sidestream and mainstream smoke were introduced
into the chamber. Harke et al10 recorded 21 ppm of CO in a 170 m3 room after
108 cigarettes were smoked by 11 people during 2 hours. This study cannot be
considered realistic since it was undertaken to determine whether the CO
concentration can reach a dangerous level under extreme conditions. Under more
realistic conditions, Bridge and Corn11 reported that during a party in a 100 m3
room with a ventilation rate of 10.5 air exchanges per hour, the average CO
concentration in the room over a 1.5 hour time span was 9 ppm. A total of 63
cigarettes and 10 cigars were smoked during the party.
In order to assess the relative exposure to CO of the non-smoker to the
smoker, the ratio of sidestream CO emissions to mainstream CO emissions was
-5-
-------
TABLE 1. SUMMARY OF POLLUTANT EMISSIONS OF GAS APPLIANCES
FOR SEVERAL TYPICAL OPERATING CONDITIONS
Appliance
Older Gas Stove
with Cast Iron
Burners
Newer Gas Stove
with Pressed
Steel Burners
Operation
Pilot Lights
1 Burner-High Flame
3 Burners-High Flame
Oven - Steady -State
Pilot Lights
1 Burner-High Flame
3 Burners- High Flame
Oven-Steady-State
Heat Input
Rate,
kcal/hr
150
2700
6780
2200
100
3500
10200
2200
CO Emission
Factors,
mg/kcal
419
382
475
530
842
510
315
1620
CO Emission
Rate,
mg/hr
62.9
1031
3220
1166
84.2
1785
3213
3564
Source: Cote, Wade, and Yocom3
-6-
-------
measured by several investigators. Their results are summarized in Table 2. The
results suggest that as much as 4.6 times as much CO originates from the.
sidestream smoke as from the mainstream smoke.
Based on CO emitted in the sidestream smoke, Hoegg8 calculated that the
non-smoker in the room is exposed to 0.13-0.21 cigarette equivalents per cigarette
smoked. The cigarette equivalent exposure depends on the room size, ventilation
rate, and the number of cigarettes smoked per unit time.
PART1CULATES AND POLYCYCLIC ORGANIC MATTER
The concentration of gaseous pollutants in the atmosphere may be fully
characterized by a single concentration value (expressed as ppm, ug/m3 or other
convenient measurement unit). Unlike gaseous pollutants, the concentration of
particulate matter in the atmosphere cannot be characterized in a similar manner;
many parameters are needed to describe the physical and chemical properties of
the atmospheric aerosol. For example, information needed to characterize and
quantify particulate matter in the atmosphere can include total particulate loading
(expressed as ug/m3), total number concentration (expressed as cm"3), size
distribution, mass or number concentration in the various size ranges, and detailed
chemical analyses of the particles in the different size ranges. Obtaining all this
information is a formidable and expensive task since no one instrument is capable
of sampling and characterizing the atmospheric particles across the entire size
range. For this reason there are very few studies which fully characterize outdoor
atmospheric aerosols.
In most studies of indoor particulate concentration, the measured quantities
were total suspended particulate matter measured by a low volume sampler.15"21
In most cases, indoor concentrations were lower than outdoor concentrations. The
means of the indoor/outdoor ratios measured by various researchers ranged from
.15 to 1.3. The ratio varied from day to day and depended on the house structure,
the occupants' activities, ventilation rate, etc.
In other indoor studies, the measured quantities were soiling index22'23and
particle mass and number concentrations. 2I*~29 The ratio of indoor/outdoor for
number concentratons of particles ranges from .45 to 3.8. The particle mass of the
outdoor atmosphere particulate loading is concentrated in the larger particle sizes
while number concentration has a maximum at 0.1 um30 and decreases toward the
larger sizes. Apparently, the relative contribution of the small particles to the
total particulate matter indoors is larger than such contribution outdoors. This
conclusion was confirmed in the study by Yocom18 where it was found that the
indoor/outdoor ratio of total suspended particulates in two air conditioned office
buildings in Hartford, Connecticut, was 1:2, while the indoor/out door ratio for
respirable particles was about 2:3. Furthermore, more than 90% of the particulate
loading of the indoor aerosol was in the respirable range (less than "2-3 um in
diameter); in effect, the air conditioning system removed almost all of the larger
particles while having little effect on the smaller particles.
-7-
-------
TABLE 2. RATIO OF SIDESTREAM TO MAINSTREAM
CO EMISSIONS - EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
Reference
Bridge and Corn11
Sporozolini and Savino12
Rosanno and Owens13
Hemperley1 *
Mainstream
Emissions,
mg/cigarette
23
13.4
Sidestream/
Mainstream
4.6
0.17
2.75
1.3-2.5
-8-
-------
Combustion processes such as gas cooking and cigarette smoking contribute
to the indoor concentration of particulate matter16'19'"'31 with cigarette smoke
being the major contributor to the indoor respirable particles.32 As a result, the
indoor aerosols are enriched in carbonaceous compounds.19'22
Reports on detailed analyses of indoor aerosols are scarce. In one report,22
the authors stated that indoor aerosols were enriched in benzene-soluble
compounds relative to outdoor aerosols. In a Bell Laboratory study,33 a variety of
organic compounds were identified in the indoor aerosols, including aliphatic
alcohols, aliphatic acids, ethers, and organic phosphates.
No studies on the analysis of particles emanating from gas cooking were
uncovered by the literature search but several studies dealing with the composition
and size distribution of particles produced during smoking were reviewed.
Stedman31* stated that mainstream tobacco smoke contains 8% by weight of
particulate matter with about 1200 different compounds identified. These include
alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, ketones, aldehydes, alcohols, acids, esters, ethers,
phenols, alkaloids, steroids, polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), various
heterocyclic compounds (containing oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur), and various
metals. Snook et al35 report that almost 1000 PAH have been identified in
cigarette smoke condensate. A list of some of the various aromatic hydrocarbons
identified in tobacco smoke is presented in Table 3. A number of PAH in tobacco
smoke have been identified as active tumorogens35 with the most active among
them being benzo (a) pyrene (BaP).31*
Several investigators measured the number concentration and size
distribution of particles in cigarette smoke. A comparison of their results is
difficult due to differences in the quantity measured (mean number or mean mass,
median number or median mass) and differences in the techniques and
instrumentation used. All of the investigators agreed that the number
concentration of particles in cigarette smoke is more than a billion particles per
cubic centimeter and the particles are in the respirable range. Table 4 summarizes
the results of the various studies.
The exposure of the non-smoker to cigarette smoke depends on the number of
cigarettes smoked per unit time, the room size, the ventilation rate, and the habits
of the smoker. The non-smoker is exposed to the sidestream smoke and to that
portion of the mainstream smoke that is exhaled by the smoker. Hoegg8 reported
that 50-70% of the mainstream particulate matter is exhaled into the atmosphere
if the smoke is not inhaled. If the smoke is inhaled, 30% of the particulate matter
is exhaled into the room.
Hemperley1** reported that mainstream cigarette smoke from nonfilter
cigarettes contains 27.9 mg/cigarette of dry particles with tar, the major
constituent, contributing 20.8 mg/cigarette. Other constituents of the mainstream
smoke are nicotine (0.92 mg/cigarette) and PAH (0.001 mg/cigarette). Hemperley
also reported that the mainstream smoke contains 3.5 x 10"5 mg of benzo (a)
pyrene and 1.3x 10"1* mg of pyrene per cigarette.
-9-
-------
TABLE 3. AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS IDENTIFIED
IN TOBACCO SMOKE
Compound
Compound
Acenaphthene
Acenaphthylene
Alkylbenzo a pyrene
Alkylchrysene
Alkylfluorathene
Alkylpyrene
Anthanthrene
Anthracene
Azulene
Benz a anthracene
Benzene
Benzo b f luoranthene
Benzo g,h,i f luoranthene
Benzo j fluorathene
Benzo k fluorathene
Benzo m,n,o f luoranthene
5H-Benzo a fluorene
HH-Benzo a fluorene
Benzo b fluorene
7H-Benzo c fluorene
HH-Benzo b fluorene
Benzo a naphthacene
Benzo g,h,i perylene
Benzo c phenanthrene
Benzo a pyrene
Benzo e pyrene
Biphenyl
Chrysene
Coronene
Dibenz a,h anthracene
Dibenzo a,i fluorene
Dibenzo a,c naphthacene
Dibenzo a,j naphthacene
Dibenzo b,h phenanthrene
Dibenzo a,h pyrene
Dibenzo a,i pyrene
Dibenzo a,l pyrene
Dibenzo cd,jk pyrene
9,10-Dihydroanthracene
5,6-Dihydro-8H-benzo a cyclopent h -
anthracene
10,ll-Dihydro-9H-benzo a cyclopent -
i anthracene
3,*-Dihydrobenzo a pyrene
16,17-Dihydro-15H-cyclopent a -
phenanthrene
9,10-Dimethylbenz a anthracene
Dimethylchrysene
Dim e thy If luor anth ene
1,6-Dimethylnaphthalene
1,8-Dimethylnaphthalene
2,6-Dimethylnaphthalene
2,7-Dimethylanaphthalene
2,5-Dimethylphenathrene
Ethylbenzene
Ethylbenzene
Ethyltolunes (o-,m-,p-)
Fluoranthene
Fluorene
Indene
Ideno 1,2,2-cd f luoranthene
Ideno 1,2,3-pyrene
lonene
4-Isopropenyltolune
Isopropylbenzene
4-Isopropyltoluene
2-Methylanthracene
9-Methylanthracene
3-Methylbenz a anthracene
5-Methylbenz a anthracene
11-Methyl-llH-benzo a fluorene
Methylbenzo a pyrene
Methylchrysene
8-Methy If luoranthene
1 - Methylnaphtalene
2-Methylnaphthalene
9 - M et hy Iphenan thr ene
1-Methylpyrene
2-methylpyrene
4-Methylpyrene
Methylstyrenes (o-,m-)
Naphthacene
Naphthalene
HH-Naphtho 2,1-afluorene
Naphtho 2,3-a pyrene
Perylene
Phenanthrene
Phenylacetylene
Pyrene
Styrene
Toluene
Triben a,c,h anthracene
1,2,3-Trimethylbenzene
1,2,4-Trimethylbenzene
1,3,5-Trimethylbenzene
1,3,6-Trimethylnaphthalene
Xylenes (o-,m-,p-)
Source: Stedman34
-10-
-------
TABLE 4. NUMBER CONCENTRATION AND AVERAGE SIZE OF
PARTICLES CONTAINED IN TOBACCO SMOKE
Particle Number
Concentration,
per cm3
6.3 x 109
Average Particle
Diameter,
urn
1 x 109 - 5x 10s
Reference
Comments
0.18
0.21
0.15
0.15
0.20-0.23
0.23
0.1-1.0
0.52
Okada and Matsunuma36 Count median diameter
Geometric standard
deviation = 1.^8
Dilution of 1500:1
Mainstream smoke.
Hoegg8
Hoegg8
Keith and Derrick37
Keith and Derrick37
Keith and Derrick38
Stedman31*
Hinds39
Mainstream smoke
Particle size doubles in
4 minutes due to
coagulation
Total no. of particles
emitted = 3.5 x 10.12
Sidestream smoke
Total no. of particles
emitted = 3.5 x 10.12
Most frequently occurring
Number of particles are
particles emitted per
second.
Most frequently
occurring.
Count median diameter
Geometric standard
deviation = 1.69
Dilution of 295:1.
Log normal distribution
of particle size.
Mass median aerodynamic
diameter corrected to
zero time
Unconnected diameter
= .71 um
Geometric standard deviation
= 1.37
Dilution of 10:1.
-11-
-------
TABLE 4 (Continued). NUMBER CONCENTRATION AND AVERAGE SIZE OF
PARTICLES CONTAINED IN TOBACCO SMOKE
Particle Number
Concentration,
per cm3
Average Particle
Diameter,
Vim
Reference
Comments
0.44
0.37
Hinds39
Hinds39
0.42
0.22
Porstendorfer*0
Porstendorfer1*0
Uncorrected diameter = .51 pm
Geometric standard deviation
= 1.49
Dilution of 50:1.
Uncorrected diameter =.44 ym
Geometric standard deviation
= 1.31
Dilution of 700:1.
Mean diameter
Dilution of 10:1.
Mean diameter
Dilution of 3100:1.
-12-
-------
The ratio between sidestream particulate matter emissions and mainstream
particulate matter emissions has been reported by Rosanno13 as 3:1. This
sidestream to mainstream ratio varies from one component to another.
Hemperley1"* reported it to be 3.5 for the total number of particles emitted per
cigarette, 2.1 for tar, 1.8 for nicotine, 3.7 for benzo (a) pyrene, and 3.0 for pyrene.
This indicates that the various components are probably not distributed equally
throughout the entire size range of particles contained in cigarette smoke.
Hinds39 reported that during measurements in indoor public places, the
concentration of nicotine varied from lyg/m3 (in a bus waiting room) to 10.3
ug/m3 (in a cocktail lounge). From these data, the contribution of tobacco smoke
to the concentration of particulate matter was estimated to vary between 40 and
400 ug/m3, respectively. Hoegg8 reported a particulate concentration of 16.65
mg/m3 in a 25 m3 test chamber resulting from the sidestream smoke of 3
cigarettes.
-13-
-------
SECTION 3
EXPOSURES FROM SMALL INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES
AND CHARCOAL GRILLS
Unlike indoor domestic combustion sources, outdoor domestic combustion
sources have not been studied or reported on to any significant extent. It was
therefore necessary to design and implement an experimental program which would
help to determine exposures to emissions from such sources. This section describes
the experimental program and presents the results of the testing.
DESCRIPTION OF EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM
Monitoring Equipment
The initial phase of the experimental program was to select and assemble the
necessary monitoring equipment. The equipment had to be rugged, portable,
compact, and capable of measuring exposures to CO, PM, and POM.
Several companies market devices that measure exposures to CO. After
examining a variety of these instruments, it was decided to utilize the Ecolyzer
9000 CO Dosimeter for the experiments. This Dosimeter, marketed by Energetics
Science, Inc., is a portable, pocket-size instrument that measures cumulative
dosages of CO via a three-electrode electrochemical sensor. This sensor creates a
minute electrical current in the presence of CO and supplies a stable signal
proportional to the ambient CO concentrations. The dosages are stored internally
until the Dosimeter is plugged into a readout unit which gives a digital display of
the cumulative CO exposure in ppm-hrs. The device is 301.5 cm3 in size, weighs
255 grams, and has an accuracy of + 6% of the reading (according to the
manufacturer).
With the CO Dosimeter selected, a means of measuring particulate matter
and POM had to be incorporated into the sampling system. It was decided to use
particulate filter cassettes which utilize 3.6 cm diameter, Millipore type HA,
membrane filters. These filters can be weighed before and after the test to
determine particulate loadings and they can also be analyzed by the fluorescent
spot method1*l to determine POM exposures.
The last item necessary for the sampling system was a pump that would be
portable and that would draw sufficient sampling air through the Dosimeter and the
filter cassette. This presented a problem in that the Dosimeter requires a flow of
only 100-120 ml/min., while a much higher flow is preferred through the filter in
-------
order to obtain a measurable sample. The best arrangement proved to be a Bendix
Super Sampler BOX 44 pump and a flow splitter. The pump is capable of a flow
rate of 3000 ml/min. and weighs only 629 grams. By using a splitter with one leg
containing a small glass capillary tube as a flow restriction, the system was able to
draw 100 ml/min. through the Dosimeter and 2900 ml/min. through the filter.
Calibration was performed by using the flowmeter that is an integral part of the
pump along with a separate flowmeter included with the Ecolyzer equipment.
The total monitoring system thus consisted of a Bendix pump which attached
to an operator's belt, an Ecolyzer CO Dosimeter which fit into a shirt pocket, and a
particulate filter cassette which clipped on the outside of the shirt pocket.
Figure 2 is a schematic of the sampling system.
Source Selection
There are several categories of domestic internal combustion devices
commonly in use. These include push-type lawn mowers, riding mowers, chain
saws, hedge trimmers, lawn edgers, snow blowers, and rototillers. Not all of these
devices are used in most households. The objective of this program is to determine
the exposures to the most common devices that a majority of the population would
receive.
Two different methods were used to determine which devices are the most
common. The literature has some published data on sales of small 1C engines1*2 and
these data were utilized. For example, such data showed that the sales of push-
type mowers were ten times as great as the sales of riding mowers. The other
method was to distrubute a questionnaire among TRC employees asking them which
devices they owned and used. Based on these two methods and discussions with the
EPA, it was decided to test exposures to push-type lawn mowers and chain saws.
Similar reasoning was applied to the charcoal cooking category. There are a
few different methods of igniting charcoal, but by far the most common is with
charcoal lighter fluid and so this was the method selected to be tested.
Description of Field Tests - General
Each field test was conducted by the same operator using identical test
procedures to eliminate unnecessary variables. Two sets of monitoring systems
were utilized. One set was worn by the operator to record his exposures. The
other set was situated in a nearby location that would be unaffected by the source
being tested. The purpose of the second unit was to record the background levels
of CO, PM, and POM.
At the start of each test, the Dosimeters were calibrated and cleared of any
previous dosages. The following items were then recorded on a standardized data
sheet:
-15-
-------
INLET
FILTER CASSETTE
INLET PORT
FLOW SPLITTER
O
FLOW ADJUST
ECOLYZER 9000 CO DOSIMETER
ON/OFF SWITCH
BENDIX BOX 44 PUMP
aOWMETER
Figure 2. Schematic of Sampling System Used For
Domestic Combustion Field Tests
-16-
-------
o Date of test
o Type of source tested
o Description of device
o Meteorological conditions
o Plot plan showing samplers and activity locations
o Dosimeter numbers
o Start time of test
o Beginning pump counter and rotameter readings
o Filter numbers
The monitoring systems were then positioned, the pumps turned on, and the
activity was begun.
At the completion of the tests, the pumps were shut off and the following
items were recorded on the data sheet:
o Mode of operation (continuous or start/stop, fuel usage, etc.)
o Finish time of test and total time source and pump were operating
o Ending pump counter and rotameter readings
o CO exposure readings
o Narrative describing test and any unusual occurrences
The filter cassettes were wrapped in aluminum foil and stored in a refrigerator
until they could be weighed and analyzed by TRC's Chemistry Lab. This type of
filter handling was necessary to minimize degradation and loss of any polycyclic
organic matter.
Description of Field Tests - Specific
A total of fifteen field tests were conducted to assess exposures to domestic
combustion sources: six tests on lawn mowers, four tests on chain saws, and five
tests on charcoal grills.
For four of the six lawn mowing field tests, the same lawn mower was
utilized. This provided a measure of the repeatability of the results. All mowing
was performed in a circular or square pattern so that the results would not be
biased by wind direction. Table 5 provides the test conditions for this source
category.
Four different chain saws were tested under a variety of conditions. The
type and diameter of the wood that was cut varied considerably and the relative
position of the operator to the sawing activity was also different in each case.
Where possible, the operator was positioned so that emissions and sawdust were
blown away from him. Table 6 presents the test conditions.
-17-
-------
TABLE 5. DOMESTIC COMBUSTION FIELD TEST PARAMETERS - LAWN MOWERS
oo
Test Number
Date of 'Test
Test Location
Length of Test
Weather Conditions:
Wind Speed
Wind Direction
Temperature
Cloud Cover
Mower Specifications:
Manufacturer
Model
Approximate Age
Horsepower
Additional Information
Lawn Conditions
1
10-15-79
Manchester, CT
1330-1430
Gusty to 16-32 km/hr
SW
10°C
75%
Sears
-
10 years
3.5
Briggs & Stratton
engine
Exhaust to side
Variable speed.
Grass 7-10 cm long
Heavy leaf cover
in spots.
2
10-16-79
Wethersfield, CT
1350- 1450
~ 8 km/hr
N-E
16°C
10%
-
Gran Prix-WDE 22
2 years
3.5
Briggs & Stratton
engine
Exhaust to side '
Variable speed.
148 cc at 3600 rpm.
Grass 5 cm long
Some leaves
Very dusty in
spots.
3
10-17-79
Glastonbury, CT
1230-1430
Gusty to 16- 32 km/hr
W-N
18°C
75%
Lawn Boy
21 Deluxe- 76 20G
<1 year
-
2 cycle engine
Exhaust down
Single speed
Grass catcher.
Grass 7-10 cm long
Heavy leaf cover
in spots.
4
10-19-79
Wethersfield, CT
1320-1420
~ 8 km/hr
Variable
16°C
100%
- Same as
Grass 10-15 cm long
and thick
Some leaves.
5
10-23-79
Cromwell, CT
1210-1310
Gusty to 16 km/hr
SE-SW
2I°C
75%
Test No. 3 with no grass
Grass 5-7 cm long
Heavy leaf cover
in spots.
Dusty in spots.
6
10-25-79
Fartnington, CT
1200-1330
Gusty to 24 km/hr
SV.'
IO°C
100%
catcher -
Grass !0-15cmlong
and moist
Heavy leaf cover
in spots.
Additional Comments
Grass catcher
attached but left
unzipped. Tended
to fill up in
matter of minutes.
-------
TABLE (,. DOMESTIC COMBUSTION FIELD TEST PARAMETERS - CHAIN SAWS
Test Number
Date of Test
Test Location
Length of Test
8
10-30-79
Glastonbury, CT
1140-1210
9
11-6-79
Ellington, CT
1230-1330
10
11-8-79
E. Hampton, CT
1325-1425
II
11-12-79
E. Hampton, CT
1*20-1520
Weather Conditions:
Wind Speed
Wind Direction
Temperature
Cloud Cover
Gusty to 16-24 kin/hr
N-NE
I3°C
5%
8-l6km/hr
S
IO°C
100%
8-l6km/hr
N-NW
10°C
90%
< 8 krn/hr
S
7°c
100%
Chain Saw Specifications:
Manufacturer
Model
Blade Length
Self-Oiling/Manual
Approximate Age
Stihl
015 AV
35.6 cm
Self-Oiling
2 years
McCulloch
1-70
45.7 cm
Manual
10-15 years
Poulan
40.6 cm
Both
Brand new
Echo
'(52 VL
40.6 cm
Sell-Oiling
< I year
Description of Activity
Small branches (5-15 cm dia.)
placed on cinder blocks (45 cm
above ground) and cut up.
Sawing took place in an
open area.
Large logs (up to 40 cm dia.)
placed on sawhorse (90 cm
above ground) and cut up.
Sawing took place in an
open area.
Pallets and split logs
cut up at ground level.
Sawing took place
adjacent to house.
Cut down a large tree
(30-35 cm dia.) at a
height of 180 cm above
ground and then cut up
limbs on ground.
Sawing took place in
an open area.
Additional Comments
Saw idling most of the time.
Large quantities of saw dust.
produced. Noticeable exhaust.
First time saw used.
Operator directly over
activity.
Large quantities of saw
dust produced when
tree cut down.
-------
The testing of the charcoal grills presented a slight problem in that during a
typical cooking activity, the operator may be near the grill for only a few minutes.
For example, if chicken is being barbecued, the operator lights the coals, comes
back to put on the chicken, comes back again to turn the chicken over, and then
returns one final time to remove the food. The rest of the time he is removed
from such close-up exposures. Such brief exposure duration does not allow time to
obtain meaningful samples. It was thus decided to set up the monitoring system on
a tripod at a location identical to the position a person cooking on the grill would
naturally assume. This would be at breathing level, slightly upwind of the cooking
activity to avoid smoke irritation. As in an actual cooking experience, smoke
would occasionally impact the monitor due to variable wind gusts. The results
obtained would thus provide a measure of the maximum exposure a person could
experience if he stood over the grill the whole time cooking occurred. More
realistic exposures could then be obtained by taking some fraction of the maximum
exposures corresponding to the actual time spent near the grill.
Five charcoal grill tests were conducted. The first two tests recorded
exposures during typical cooking activities (steak, chicken). The next two tests
were designed to measure exposures from just the combustion of the charcoal with
no cooking taking place. The final test was similar to the fourth test except
hamburgers were cooked for a 20-minute period during the test. Readings of the
CO exposures were taken at frequent intervals (every 30 minutes for test 13, every
15 minutes for tests 14 and 15) during these last three tests to determine the peak
exposure periods. Table 7 presents the test conditions for this source category.
DATA AND LABORATORY ANALYSES PROCEDURES
Carbon Monoxide
Carbon monoxide exposures were obtained directly from the Dosimeters using
the Readout at the conclusion of each field test. The Readout gives a digital
reading of cumulative exposure in ppm-hrs. Division of this reading by the
sampling time in hours results in a time-weighted average concentration. The
ambient CO level, obtained from the background monitor, was subtracted from the
CO reading obtained from the operator's monitor in order to get the actual
exposure due solely to the activity being tested.
Particulate Matter
Prior to field testing, the Millipore filters were desiccated over silica gel in a
glass desiccator for 24 hours. The filters were then removed one at a time from
the desiccator and weighed to the nearest 0.01 mg on an analytical balance. After
each filter weight was recorded, the filter was placed on its backing and inserted
into the plastic sampling cassette. The inlet and outlet holes of the cassette were
plugged with plastic stoppers. The completed sampling cassette was then marked
with an identifying number and placed in a desiccator until ready for field use.
-20-
-------
TABLE 7. DOMESTIC COMBUSTION FIELD TEST PARAMETERS - CHARCOAL GRILLS
is)
Test Number
Date of Test
Test Location
Length of Test
Weather Conditions:
Wind Speed
Wind Direction
Temperature
l "loud Cover
Test Specifications:
Type of Grill
Charcoal Type
Lighter Fluid Type
Approx. No. of Briquets
Food Cooked
Distance Between
Monitor and Charcoal
7
10-29-79
Rocky Hill, CT
1840-1900
<8 km/hr
S
10°C
0%
Double Hibachi
Kingsford
Sunshine Lite
30
Steak
61 cm
12
11-15-79
Rocky Hill, CT
1120-1220
8-16 km/hr
W-5W
IO°C
50%
Double Hibachi
Kingsford
Sunshine Lite
40
Chicken/Potatoes
61 cm
13
11-20-79
Rocky Hill, CT
1325-1625
16-24 km/hr
S-W
' |0°C
50%
Double Hibachi
Kingsford
Sunshine Lite
40
None
61 cm
14
12-3-79
Manchester, CT
1205-1505
8-16 km/hr
N-NW
4°C
0%
24" Dia. Grill
Kingsford
Sunshine Lite
80
None
84cm
15
12-4-79
Manchester, CT
1115-1415
16-24 km/hr
N-E
4C(.
75%
24" Dia Grill
Kingsford
Sunshine Lite
80
5 Hamburgers
84 crn
Additional Comments
Smoke affected monitor.
Monitor started when
steak placed on grill.
Smoke had little effect
on monitor. Monitor
started when chicken
was placed on the grill.
Smoke slightly affected
monitor. Monitor started
when charcoal was lit.
No cooking done - just
charcoal combustion.
Smoke slightly affected
monitor. Monitor started
when charcoal was lit.
No cooking done - just
charcoal combustion.
Smoke slightly affected
monitor. Monitor
started when charcoal
was lit. Hamburgers
added after 45 min.
and cooked for 20 min.
-------
Upon completion of each field test, the sample cassette was removed from
the sampling train and the inlet and outlet ports were plugged with the plastic
stoppers. The cassettes were wrapped in aluminum foil and refrigerated until the
laboratory was ready to analyze them. The refrigerated storage time was typically
one to two days.
Upon receiving the samples in the laboratory, the aluminum foil wrapping and
the plastic plugs were removed. The filter cassettes were then immediately placed
in a desiccator. The desiccator was placed in a doubled, black plastic bag to
exclude light and placed in a darkened cabinet at room temperature for 24 hours.
After the desiccating period, the sample cassettes were removed one at a time.
The cassette halves were carefully separated so as not to lose any particulate
matter. The filter was removed from the cassette and weighed on an analytical
balance. The difference between the initial and final weights then equals the total
mass of the collected particulates. Dividing this weight by the sampling flow
volume gives the concentration value.
Polycyclic Organic Matter
Once the filters were weighed, they were analyzed for the presence of POM
by using the fluorescent spot technique as devised by Smith and Levins.1>1 This
method can be used to estimate the order of magnitude concentration of POM in
samples.
The first step in this procedure is the extraction of the filters. After all
glassware has been pre-rinsed twice with methylene chloride, the Millipore filters
are placed in a 250 ml Erlenmeyer flask with 100 ml of methylene chloride. The
flask is then placed on a swirler for 30 minutes. The liquid is carefully transferred
to a 500 ml K-D set-up with a 4 ml calibrated concentrator and the extract
evaporated to 500 yl. The extract is then transferred via Pasteur pipette to 3.5 ml
glass vials (covered with aluminum foil) for storage.
Once the sample has been extracted and concentrated, it is ready for
fluorescence detection via the spotting technique. An 11 cm circle of Whatman
#42 filter paper showing no background fluorescence is selected. Using a template
and sharp lead pencil, nine circles of 2.78 mm diameter are drawn in two rows.
The solution to be spotted is added to the filter paper within two of the circles
using a 1 ul hypodermic syringe. During this step, the filter is supported at the
edges such that the area to be spotted does not touch any surface. The syringe is
rinsed at least three times with methylene chloride to remove any possibility of
cross contamination and then rinsed with one volume of the solution to be spotted.
The syringe is filled with the solution to be spotted and the volume adjusted to 1
yl. The needle tip is touched to the center of the circle while depressing the
plunger and blowing gently on the spot. This procedure is continued until all the
material in the syringe has been added to the circle.
The sensitizer solution used for the technique is naphthalene at a
concentration of 60 yg/yl in methylene chloride. Using a 1 yl syringe, 1 yl of
-22-
-------
sensitizer is added to one of the spots containing the extracted filter solution and
to one other spot. One of the remaining six spots is spotted with an unused filter
extract in order to insure that there is no fluoresence inherent in the extract itself
or the solvents. The other five spots contain various amounts of anthracene (1 ng,
10 ng, 100 ng, 1 ng and 10 yg) which are used for comparison purposes.
Once the spotting has been completed, the filter paper is placed in a
Model C-70 Chromatovue ultraviolet cabinet which utilizes a 254 nm lamp source
to expose the samples. The spots are then visually compared by the unaided eye
within 10 minutes of the addition of the sensitizer. If the sample plus sensitizer
spot fluoresces brighter than the spot with sensitizer alone, the presence of POM is
indicated. Comparison with the anthracene concentrations gives an indication of
the relative sample concentration.
RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM
Carbon Monoxide
The raw data and time-averaged CO concentrations obtained from the
experimental program are presented in Table 8 for all three source categories. The
last column presents the time-averaged concentrations which were calculated by
subtracting the background Dosimeter reading from the source Dosimeter reading
and dividing the result by the length of the test in hours.
The average CO concentrations obtained from the lawn mowing tests are
quite consistent and fairly low, ranging from 1 to 5 ppm. The four tests that were
conducted on the same mower (tests 3-6) show very good agreement with a range
of 2.5 to 4 ppm. Some degree of consistency is expected since the operator of a
lawn mpwer is always in the same position relative to the engine. Differences in
the age and condition of the mower and the lawn conditions did not seem to
produce any noticable variations in average CO concentrations.
The chain saw tests resulted in a large variation in CO exposures. The values
obtained ranged from approximately 1 ppm-hr up to 36 ppm-hrs. The two smaller
CO exposures (tests 8 and 11) were obtained during tests where the diameter of the
wood was small, the chain saws were small, and the cutting took place in open
areas with a crosswind. The value of 15 ppm was obtained using a very old large
chain saw that had noticeable exhaust while cutting large diameter logs. The
cutting took place with a crosswind. The highest value of 36 ppm (test 10) was
produced during a test in which the operator was cutting up logs directly adjacent
to a house. There was no crosswind and thus the exhaust rose straight up. In
addition, the sawing took place at ground level with the operator directly over the
operation. One other possible reason for the high concentration could be that this
was the first time the saw was used and there could be excess emissions during an
engine "break-in" period.
The charcoal grill tests, with one exception, resulted in fairly consistent
average CO concentrations. The first test performed (number 7) may have been
-23-
-------
TABLE 8. CARBON MONOXIDE RESULTS FROM
THE EXPERIMENTAL TEST PROGRAM
-C-
Test
Number
1
2
3
4
5
6
8
9
10
11
7
12
13
14
15
Type of Source
Tested
Lawn Mower
Lawn Mower
Lawn Mower
Lawn Mower
Lawn Mower
Lawn Mower
Chain Saw
Chain Saw
Chain Saw
Chain Saw
Charcoal Grill
Charcoal Grill
Charcoal Grill
Charcoal Grill
Charcoal Grill
Length of
Test, min.
60
60
120
60
60
90
30
60
60
60
20
60
180
180
180
Receptor
Dosimeter
Reading,
ppm-hrs
1
5
5
4
H
5
<1
15
36
4
10
9
38
33
22
Background
Dosimeter
Reading,
ppm-hrs
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
4
3
2
Time-Averaged
CO Concentration,
ppm
1
5
2.5
3
it
3.3
= 1
15
36
4
30*
9*
11.3*
10*
6.7*
CO Concentration/
CO Ambient Air
Quality Standard**
0.03
0.14
0.07
0.09
0.11
0.09
0.03
0.43
1.03
0.11
0.86
0.26
0.32
0.29
0.19
*Maximum values based on continuous operator presence near grill.
**One-hour average CO standard = 35 ppm.
-------
unduly influenced by large quantities of smoke impacting the sampler, thus
producing the high CO level. A concentration of 9 ppm (test 12) was obtained
while cooking chicken for one hour. The monitoring system was turned on
approximately 30 minutes after the charcoal was ignited as this was when cooking
was initiated. Tests 13-15 were all three-hour tests in which the sampling was
begun when the charcoal was first ignited, rather than when cooking would be
started. CO exposures were recorded at frequent intervals to determine peak
concentration periods. The results, corrected for background, are plotted in
Figure 3. Tests 13 and 14 were performed with no cooking taking place. The
higher level of test 13 may be due to the position of the monitor relative to the
burning charcoal. The monitor was only 61 cm from the charcoal during this test
while it was 84 cm from the charcoal for test 14. Additionally, test 13 was
performed in a more enclosed location while test 14 was out in the open with a
better crosswind. Tests 14 and 15 were identical except for the cooking of
hamburgers during test 15. The CO exposure measured during test 15 was lower
than the exposure measured during test 14. This could be due to stronger
crosswinds during this test, thus reducing the impact of the emissions on the
monitor. It could also be due to reduced oxygen from the fat covering the charcoal
and the hamburgers on the grill causing blockage, thus limiting CO production.
It should be noted that the above discussion on charcoal grill exposures is
based on maximum operator exposure. As mentioned previously, actual exposures
would be some percentage of this value corresponding to the time the person is
actually in front of the grill. To get a feel for a more realistic exposure to CO
from charcoal cooking, assume that the operator is exposed to the emissions for 10
minutes out of an hour of cooking. Using a maximum exposure of 12 ppm-hrs, the
operator would be actually exposed to about 2 ppm-hrs during the activity.
Particulate Matter
The results of the participate analyses are given in Table 9 for all three
source categories. No results are given for tests 5 and 7 because the final
weighings of the source and background filters were performed on different days
and, thus, some humidity effects occurred. A final weighing could not be
performed for one of the filters of test 3 due to a small piece of filter destroyed
during handling. The flow volumes given in column four of the table were obtained
from the rotameter readings on the Bendix pumps.
The particulate concentrations obtained from the lawn mower tests range
from 310 to 1600 vig/m3. The two low values (310 and 400 yg/m3) were obtained
using the same mower. This particular mower had a smaller engine than the
mowers of tests 1 and 2 and it also had downward exhaust, rather than to the side
as in the first two test mowers. Grass particles were visible on some of the filters.
-25-
-------
16
14
12
10
L
.TEST 13 - DOUBLE HIBACHI.- CHARCOAL ONLY
TEST 14 - 24" GRILL - CHARCOAL ONLY
TEST 15 - 24" GRILL - CHARCOAL PLUS HAMBURGERS
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0 2.5
TIME (HOURS)
3.0
Figure 3. Average CO Concentrations from Charcoal Grills as a Function of Time
-26-
-------
TABLE 9. PARTICULATE RESULTS FROM THE
EXPERIMENTAL TEST PROGRAM
Test
Number
1
2
3
4
5
6
8
9
10
11
7
12
13
1*
15
Type of Source
Tested
Lawn Mower
Lawn Mower
Lawn Mower
Lawn Mower
Lawn Mower
Lawn Mower
Chain Saw
Chain Saw
Chain Saw
Chain Saw
Charcoal Grill
Charcoal Grill
Charcoal Grill
Charcoal Grill
Charcoal Grill
Difference Between
Receptor Filter Weight and
Background Filter Weight,
ug
280
200
—
70
—
80
40
330
820
920
__
10
-10*
-30*
-40*
Total Flow Volume
Through Filter,
m3
0.17
0.17
0.35
0.17
0.17
0.26
0.09
0.17
0.17
0.17
0.06
0,17
0.52
0.52
0.52
Particulate
Concentration,
ug/m3
1600
1200
.
400
400
310
440
1900
4800
5400
_
60
Particulate Concentration/
Secondary TSP Ambient
Air Quality
Standard**
10.7
8.0
2.7
2.7
2.1
2.9
12.7
32.0
36.0
_
0.4
_
_
—
*Negative values are probably the result of weighing balance sensitivity.
**24-hour secondary TSP standard = 150 ug/m3.
-------
The concentrations obtained from the chain saw field tests showed a wide
variety of values, ranging from 440 to 5400 ug/m3. The highest value was
obtained under conditions in which the operator himself was covered with sawdust
following the felling of a tree. Visible sawdust particles were seen on the filters
following the tests.
There were essentially no participate exposures due to the charcoal grilling
activities. The results obtained from the sources were all very near to the levels
recorded by the background monitors and thus no significant particulate exposure
seems evident from this source category.
Polycyclic Organic Matter
All of the particulate filters were tested for the presence of POM using the
fluorescent spot technique. As discussed previously, this technique is based on
comparing the fluorescence of the prepared samples with that of known
concentrations of anthracene (sensitized with naphthlene). The lowest detectible
amount is 1 ng. The next level of comparison is 10 ng.
Based on this technique, all of the particulate filters displayed levels of POM
that were approximately equal to or lower than the lowest detectible limit of 1 ng.
None of the filters displayed fluorescence that would be comparable to the 10 ng
level.
To provide insight into the levels of POM expected and the sensitivity of the
POM measurements, some brief calculations can be performed. The lowest
detectible amount, 1 ng, would correspond to a concentration of approximately
5 ng/m3 based on the hourly flowrate through the particulate filter. To determine
what levels of POM are expected, published information on automobile and small
utility engine exhaust can be used in conjunction with the lawn mowing results of
this project. Santodonato et al1*2 present information on exhaust emissions from
gasoline automobiles. According to these data, the ratio of particulate to BaP
(used as an index for POM) emission rates is very roughly 250 mg/mile to 5 yg/mile
or 50,000:1. Since no data could be found on emissions of BaP from small utility
engines, it will be assumed that this ratio stays the same for small engine exhaust.
The ratio of CO to particulate emission rates for 4-stroke lawn and garden engines
can be obtained from Hane and Springer1*3 as approximately 100:1. Combining
these two values than gives a ratio for CO/BaP of about 5xl06:l. Using a CO
concentration of 5 ppm for lawn mowing, a concentration of about 1 ng/m3 would
be expected for POM. This level is below the lowest detectible level of about 5
ng/m . Therefore, the results obtained using the fluorescent spot technique seem
reasonable.
-28-
-------
SECTION 4
COMPARISON OF EXPOSURES
One objective of this project was to compare the exposures obtained through
the literature search and the field tests with those from more conventional sources
of pollutants, such as automobile exhaust. To do this properly, the exposures
should be in terms of "typical" exposures based on source usage patterns. The
following subsections establish typical exposures from domestic combustion sources
and compare them with exposures from other sources.
"TYPICAL" USAGE OF DOMESTIC COMBUSTION SOURCES
To obtain information on the usage patterns of the various combustion
sources, a questionnaire was circulated among all TRC employees. Table 10
summarizes the results of this questionnaire for lawn mowers, chain saws, and
charcoal grills. The literature also contained some information on usage patterns.
For lawn mowers, Hare and Springer1*3 presented a value of 40 hours/year (based on
18 times/year), linger and Hecker1*1* used 50 hours/year in their calculations, and
Donahue et al45 gave a range of 30-70 hours/year. Only one value could be found
for chain saws and that was a rough estimate of 3-4 hours/year.lf5 However, this
report was produced at a time when home heating by wood stoves was not nearly as
common as it is today. No information on charcoal grill usage could be found in
the literature.
Based on the information presented in Table 10 and the literature, the
following values were chosen as rough estimates for source usage for individuals
owning and operating these devices:
Lawn mowers: 40 hours/year
Chain saws: 70 hours/year
Charcoal grills: 20 hours/year
It should be noted that these are average values for the New England area. In
southern areas, it is logical to assume that the use of lawn mowers and. grills could
increase proportionally to the duration of warm weather and the use of chain saws
would decrease. For national values, the following gross estimates will be used for
individuals owning such devices:
-29-
-------
TABLE 10. SOURCE USAGE PATTERNS BASED
ON TRC QUESTIONNAIRES
Type of
Source
Lawn Mower
Chain Saw
Charcoal Grill
Sample
Size
36
15
29
Hours/Use
Arithmetic Range
Mean
1.8 0.5-6
2.6 1-8
0.7 0.3-1.5
Uses/Year
Arithmetic Range
Mean
16 8-30
28 2-100
25 3-100
Hours/Year
Arithmetic Range
Mean
29 4-90
72 2-350
18 1.5-60
O
-------
Lawn mowers: 50 hours/year
Chain saws: 30 hours/year
Charcoal grills: 40 hours/year
For the case of gas stove usage, only a very rough estimate can be made.
Assume that a person uses a gas stove six times per week for meals at an average
of one hour per time and twice a day for heating water or warming leftovers at
about fifteen minutes per time. This sums up to about 500 hours per year that the
stove is on. This could be further analyzed by considering that several burners (and
possibly the oven) are usually on while preparing meals while only one burner is on
for heating water. It has been shown3 that emissions increase with an increase in
burner usage. However, the 500 hour estimate is very crude to begin with and
further refinement would be meaningless.
Too many variables exist to estimate yearly exposures to sidestream smoke.
"TYPICAL" EXPOSURES TO DOMESTIC COMBUSTION SOURCES
Based on the results of the experimental test program, the literature search,
and the usage patterns developed above, "typical" exposures to domestic
combustion sources can be established. It is realized that the values obtained will
be very crude due to the limited number of tests, the scarcity of literature
information, and the rough assumptions on usage; however, the values will provide
"ball park" estimates that can be used for comparison with exposures from other
combustion sources.
Carbon Monoxide
Table 11 presents the "typical" exposures to carbon monoxide for New
England and national usage assumptions. The values given for average exposure
(column 2) were selected as follows: the lawn mower exposures varied from 1 to 5
ppm-hrs, so a value of 3 ppm-hrs was chosen; the chain saw exposures were quite
varied but a value of 10 ppm-hrs was felt to be representative; a value of
2 ppm-hrs for charcoal cooking was selected based on the arguments presented in
the previous section of this report. The study by Yocom et al* showed that the CO
exposure was approximately 5 ppm-hrs during gas stove operation (see Figure 1)
and so this value was used. It is also assumed that the person using the stove
remains in the kitchen the entire time the stove is "on". As for sidestream smoke,
not enough information is available to determine "typical" exposures as there are
just too many variables.
-31-
-------
TABLE 11. "TYPICAL" EXPOSURES TO CARBON MONOXIDE
FROM DOMESTIC COMBUSTION SOURCES
Assumed Estimated CO
Type of "Typical" Hourly CO Usage Per Year, hrs. Exposure Per Year, ppm-hrs
Source Exposure, ppm-hrs New England Nation New England Nation
Lawn Mower
Chain Saw
Charcoal Grill
Gas Stove
3
10
2
5
70
20
500
50
30
40
500
120
700
40
2500
150
300
SO
2500
-32-
-------
Particulate Matter
Table 12 presents the "typical" exposures to particulate emissions for both
the New England and national usage assumptions. The average concentrations for
one hour presented in column 2 were obtained as follows: for lawn mowers, the
results for the three different types of mowers were averaged to obtain a value of
1000 yg/m3; for chain saws, all four values were averaged to obtain 3100 ug/m3.
No significant value could be obtained for the charcoal category and thus an hourly
concentration of zero is shown. Not enough literature information exists to
establish estimates of particulate exposures from gas stoves and sidestream smoke.
Polycyclic Organic Matter
Since no significant amounts of POM were detected in any of the samples
(i.e., all levels were equal to or less than the lowest detectible amount of 1 ng), no
"typical" exposures can be determined.
COMPARISON OF EXPOSURES
Having established some "typical" exposures from domestic combustion
sources, the pollutant levels can now be compared with exposures from other
sources of CO, PM, and POM. Comparisons can also be made with the national
standards.
Carbon Monoxide
The national ambient air quality standards for carbon monoxide are a
one-hour average of 35 ppm and an eight-hour average of 9 ppm. Of the three
types of domestic combustion devices tested during the experimental program, only
chain saws appear to result in exposures comparable to exposures encountered in
non-attainment situations. While the average chain saw CO concentration was
approximately 10 ppm, one test resulted in a one-hour average concentration of 36
ppm. The eight-hour standard would not normally apply because domestic
combustion activities are rarely performed for this length of time.
When comparing the exposures obtained from domestic activities with those
from other activities, the domestic exposures seem quite minor. Commuting
activities result in large CO exposures. Numerous studies have been performed in
which CO exposures have been measured while commuting to and from work.
Cortese and Spengler1*6 used CO Ecolyzers in obtaining exposure data on 62
non-smokers, each carrying the monitors for a 3 to 5 day period during commuting
and work activities. Mean one-hour concentrations of 5 to 20 ppm were obtained,
with several hourly readings greater than 35 ppm. Other studies have recorded
average levels up to 54 ppm, with peaks to 120 ppm.1*7 Szalai"8 reported that the
typical heads-of-households in 44 cities in the United States spend an average of
nearly an hour and a half in travel per day or approximately 540 hours per year.
-33-
-------
TABLE 12. "TYPICAL" EXPOSURES TO PARTICIPATE MATTER
FROM DOMESTIC COMBUSTION SOURCES
Type of
Source
"Typical"
Particulate
Concentration,
Ug/m3
Assumed
Usage Per Year, hrs
Estimated
Particulate Exposure
Per Year, yig/m3-hrs
New England Nation New England Nation
Lawn Mower
Chain Saw
Charcoal
Grill
1000
3100
0
70
20
50
30
4000
21700
0
5000
9300
0
-34-
-------
Using an average CO concentration of 15 ppm results in 8100 ppm-hrs per year.
Comparing this number with the values presented in Table 10 shows the relatively
minor CO impact of domestic combustion sources on humans.
Particulate and Polyclyclic Organic Matter
It is not particularly meaningful to compare the particulate exposures
obtained from the domestic combustion tests to those from other sources and, in
fact, such comparisons could be very misleading. The particulate exposures
obtained were based on the total weight of material found on the filters. Size
analyses were not performed and it was evident that large portions of the weight
were due to very large particles of either sawdust or grass. Such particles are well
outside the inhalable size range (<15um in diameter) of particles which is of
primary interest to EPA.
Only one study could be found which reported POM (or PAH) data that could
be used for comparison purposes. Bridbord et al1*9 used benzo(a) pyrene (BaP) as an
index compound for PAH in establishing exposures. They recognized that to the
extent that polynuclear aromatic compounds besides BaP are also present, BaP
represents a poor surrogate for this purpose. Unfortunately, better data were
generally not available. Their results showed that a one pack per day smoker of
unfiitered cigarettes would inhale about 0.7ug of BaP each day. The level was
0.4 ug for filtered cigarette smokers. They also reported BaP indoor
concentrations ranging from 0.3 to 0.14 ug/m3 in a restuarant. In some of their
calculations they assumed ambient BaP levels in urban air of 0.002 ug/m3. The
results of the domestic combustion tests showed levels of POM less than or equal
to 1 ng on the test filter. For a flow volume of 0.2 m3, this would result in less
than or equal to 0.005 ug/m3 which is well below the levels presented by Bridbord
et al for cigarette smoking.
-35-
-------
SECTION 5
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
CONCLUSIONS
As a result of the literature review on indoor domestic combustion sources
and the experimental program on small internal combustion devices and charcoal
grills, several significant conclusions can be drawn regarding exposures to CO, PM,
and POM from such devices. These conclusions are presented below.
o Charcoal cooking results in essentially no significant exposures to PM
and POM and only very minor exposures to CO due to the limited time
an operator is actually near the activity. In actuality, an operator may
be better off standing near the grill than returning indoors to a room
full of smokers.
o The combustion of charcoal alone, with no cooking taking place, seems
to produce peak CO concentrations from 45 minutes to 90 minutes after
the charcoal is ignited.
o Lawn mowing results in very low CO (approximately 3ppm-hrs) and
POM exposures. Paniculate exposures were noted, primarily due to
grass clippings and soil dust on the filters.
o CO exposures from lawn mowing seem to be independent of lawn and
mower conditions, possibly due to the distance between the operator
and the engine exhaust.
o Chain sawing can lead to significant levels of CO (one test resulted in
36 ppm for one hour) depending on crosswind, wood size, chain saw type
and condition, and operator position. It is best to do the sawing in the
open where a crossflow of wind can limit the exposure to the exhaust.
o Chain sawing results in significant participate exposure (up to 36 times
the secondary ambient standard), most likely due to sawdust. POM
exposures were not detected.
o CO concentrations from gas stove cooking are on the order of 5 ppm for
one hour. Particulate and POM exposures could not be readily
determined from the literature.
-36-
-------
Sidestream smoke can lead to relatively high CO levels, but so many
different study and reporting methods exist in the literature that
quantification is not really possible. Even less information is available
for particulate and POM.
The exposures from domestic combustion sources seem to be of minor
importance when compared with exposures from other sources, such as
traffic. While one-hour exposures may be comparable in some cases,
yearly exposures are vastly different due to the limited use of such
devices as lawn mowers when compared with the time spent by most
people in commuting to work.
RECOMMENDATIONS
This project can essentially be viewed as a screening study for domestic
combustion sources. Many variables exist that could affect exposures and only a
few could be examined during the test program. For example, it has been
postulated that lawn mower emissions and exposures can be dependent on load
factor, engine size, grass height, presence of leaves and dust on lawn, moisture of
grass, engine air-fuel ratio, direction of exhaust, use of grass catcher, air
temperature, wind speed, etc. The influence of these variables could obviously not
be assessed in five or six field tests. However, this project did lead to some
interesting conclusions and recommendations can be made for future investi-
gations. These recommendations are presented below.
Chain sawing should be investigated further due to the possibly high
exposure levels that can result from such activity. This should be an
area of increasing interest due to the increased usage of such devices in
these times of home heating by wood stoves.
Other domestic combustion devices that may be used in non-ventilated
areas and/or close to the face of the operator should be identified and
investigated.
Short-term surges that might produce high levels of pollutants, such as
charcoal ignition and engine start-up, should be investigated further.
An operator is normally closer to a lawn mower or chain saw engine
when starting it than when it is running.
Indoor air quality is becoming increasingly important as homes become
more energy efficient. Further experimental testing should be
performed to determine exposures resulting from gas cooking,
sidestream smoke, and other indoor sources of pollution. The data
presented in the literature are not adequate.
Indoor air quality measurements should be made in homes using wood
and coal space heating equipment. The measurement?: should be made
-37-
-------
across a population of users sufficient to describe the spectrum of
equipment type, installation adequacy, and operating procedures.
Further work is needed in defining the size and chemical characteristics
of particulates generated by domestic combustion sources.
A different method for the capture of the particulate matter and POM
should be examined and compared to the one used for this study. A
pump/cassette combination that would obtain a larger air sample
volume might improve the accuracy of the results.
CO Dosimeters should be used for future experiments. These devices
proved to be accurate, easy to use, rugged, portable, and highly
economical with regard to the time needed to apply them.
Analyses or tests should be performed to determine if CO exposures as
measured with the Dosimeter can be used as an index of exposure to
other combustion related pollutants (e.g., combustion generated
particulate matter and POM.)
-38-
-------
SECTION 6
REFERENCES
1. Yocom, 3.E., W.A. Cote, and W.L. Clink. A study of Indoor-Outdoor Air
Pollutant Relationships: Volume II: Summary Report - Supplementary Study.
TRC - The Research Corporation of New England, Wethersfield, Connecticut.
Prepared for the National Air Pollution Control Administration. May 1970.
2. Moschandreas, D.J., J.W.C. Stark, J.E. McFadden, and S.S. Morese. Indoor
Air Pollution in the Residential Environment: Volume I: Data Collection,
Analysis, and Interpretation. Prepared for U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina. Report No. EPA-600/
7-78-229 a. December 1978.
3. Cote, W.A., W.A. Wade and J.E. Yocom. A Study of Indoor Air Quality.
TRC - The Research Corporation of New England, Wethersfield, Connecticut.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 197*.
*. Hollowell, C.D., R.J. Budnitz, G.D. Case, and G.W. Traynor. Combustion
Generated Indoor Air Pollution Field Measurements, 8/75 - 10/75. Prepared
for the U.S. Energy Research and Development Administration. January
1976.
5. Tanaka, M., Y. Kobayashi, and S. Yoshizawa. Indoor Air Pollution Due to
Domestic Gas Range. 3. Japan Air Cleaning Association 9:28. 1971.
6. Sterling, T.D. and E. Sterling. Carbon Monixide Levels in Kitchens and
Homes with Gas Cookers. JAPCA. Volume 29. No. 3. March 1979. pp.
238-2*1.
7. Hattori, H. and T. Ro. Indoor Air Pollution by Tobacco Smoke. Presented at
the 16th Annual Meeting of the Japan Society of Air Pollution, Niigata,
Japan. November 5-7, 1975.
8. Hoegg, U.R. Cigarette Smoke in Closed Spaces. Environmental Health
Perspectives. Volume 2. October 1972. pp. 117-128.
9. Penkala, S.J. and G. DeOliveira. The Simultaneous Analysis of Carbon
Monoxide and Suspended Particulate Matter Produced by Cigarette Smoking.
Environmental Research. Volume 9. 1975. pp. 99-114.
-39-
-------
10. Harke, H.P., A. Baars, B. Frahm, H. Peters, and C. Schultz. The Problem of
Passive Smoking. Internationales Archiv fur Arbeitsmedizin. Volume 29.
1972. pp. 323-339.
11. Bridge, D.P. and M. Corn. Contribution to the Assessment of Exposure of
Non Smokers to Air Pollution from Cigarette and Cigar Smoke in Occupied
Spaces. Environmental Research. Volume 5. 1972. pp. 192-209.
12. Sforzolini, G.S. and A. Savino. Valutazione di un Idnice Zapido di Conlamina-
zion Amsientale da Fuo di Sigaretta in Nelazione Alia Compusizone Delia
Fase Gassosa Del fumo. Estratto Riv. Ital. Igiene Anne. 28:1. 1968.
13. Rosanno, A.T. and D.F. Owens. Design Procedures to Control Cigarette
Smoke and Other Air Pollutants. ASHRAE Trans. 75: 93. 1969.
14. Hemperley, W. Indoor Air Contaminants Due to Tobacco Smoke. Masters
Thesis. University of Texas. 1976.
15. Weatherley, M.L. The Effects of Buildings. Int. 3. Air Wat. Pollut. 10:404.
1966.
16. Biersteker, K., H. DeGraaf, and C.A.G. Nass. Indoor Air Pollution In
Rotterdam Homes. Int. 3. Air. Water Pollution. Volume 9. 1965. pp.
343-350.
17. Padfield, T. The Control of Relative Humidity and Air Pollution in
Show-Cases and Picture Frames. Studies Conservats. 11:8. 1966.
18. Yocom, 3.E., W.L. Clink, and W.A. Cote. Indoor/Outdoor Air Quality
Relationships. Presented at the 63rd Annual Meeting of the Air Pollution
Control Association, St. Louis, Missouri, 3une 14-19, 1970.
19. Goldwater, L.3., A. Manoharan, and M.B. 3acobs. Suspended Particulate
Matter, Dust in "Domestic" Atmospheres. Arch. Environ. Health. Volume 2.
1961. pp. 511-515.
20. 3acobs, M.B., L.3. Goldwater, and A. Fergany. Comparison of Suspended
Particulate Matter of Indoor and Outdoor Air. Int. 3. Air Water Poll. 6:377.
1962.
21. Berdyev, K.B., N.V. Palovich, and A.A. Tuzhilina. Effect of Motor Vehicle
Exhaust Gases on Atmospheric Pollution in Dwelling and in Main Street. Hyg.
and Sanitation (Moscow). 32: 424. 1967.
22. Yocom, 3.E., W.L. Clink, and W.A. Cote. Indoor/Out door Air Quality
Relationships. 3APCA. Volume 21. No. 5. May 1971. pp. 251-259.
23. Casey, G.C.R., 3.3. Phair. R.3. Shephard, and M.C. Thompson. The Effects of
Air Pollution on Human Health. 3. Amer. Ind. Hgy. Assoc. 19:363. 1958.
-40-
-------
24. Shephard, R.3. Topographic and Meteorological Factors Influencing Air
Pollution in Cincinnati. AM A Arch, of Ind. Health. Volume 19. January 1959.
pp. 44-54.
25. Ishido, S., T. Tanaka, and T. Nakagawa. Air Conditions in Dwellings with
Special Reference to Numbers of Dust Particles and Bacteria. Bull. Dept.
Home Econ. Osaka City Univ. 3:35. 1955.
26. Ishido, S., K. Kamada, and T. Nakgawa. Free Dust Particles and Airborne
Micro Flora. Bull. Dept. Home Econ. Osaka City Univ. 4:31. 1956.
27. Ishido, S. Variations in Indoor and Outdoor Dust Densities. Bull. Dept. Home
Econ. Osaka City Univ. 6:53. 1959.
28. Seisaburo, S., K. Kiyoko, and N. Tatsuko. Free Dust Particles and Airborne
Micro Flora. Bull. Dept. Home Econ. Osaka City Univ. 4:31. 1959.
29. Romagnoli, G. Studies on the Climate Conditions in Some Elementary
Classrooms of Novara. Italian Review of Hyg. 21:410. 1961.
30. Junge, C. Comments on Concentration and Size Distribution Measurements of
Atmospheric Aerosols and a Test of the Theory of Self-Preserving Size
Distribution. J. Atm. Sci. 26:603. 1969.
31. Lefcoe, N.M. and J.I. Inculet. Particulate in Domestic Premises; I: Ambient
Level and Central Air Filtration. Arch. Environ. Health. 22:230. 1971.
32. Fujii, S. And O. Minamino. Research Concerning Dust Generation Caused by
Various Movements Indoors. Clean Air Q. Japan Air Cleaning Assoc. 10:60.
1972.
33. Weschler, C.J. Characterization of Selected Organics in Size-Fractionated
Indoor Aerosol. To Be Published.
34. Stedman, R.L. The Chemical Composition of Tobacco and Tobacco Smoke.
Chem. Reviews. Volume 68. 1968. pp. 153-207.
35. Snook, M.E., R.F. Severson, H.C. Higman, R.F. Arrendale, and O.T. Chortyic.
Methods for Characterization of Complex Mixtures of Polynuclear Aromatic
Hydrocarbons. Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons: Third International
Symposium on Chemistry and Biology - Carcinogenesis and Mutagenesis.
Published by Ann Arbor Science. 1979.
36. Okada, T. and K. Matsunuma. Determination of Particle Size Distribution and
Concentration of Cigarette Smoke by a Light Scattering Method. J. Colloid
Sci. 48:461. 1974.
37. Keith, C.H. and J.C. Derrick. Measurement of the Particle Size Distribution
and Concentration of Cigarette smoke by the "Conifuge". Tobacco Science.
Volume 5. 1961. pp. 84-91.
-41-
-------
38. Keith, C.H. and 3.C. Derrick. Measurement of the Particie Size Distribution
and Concentration of Cigarette Smoke by the "Conifuge". 3. Colloid Sci.
Volume 15. 1960. pp. 340-356.
39. Hinds, W.C. Size Characteristics of Cigarette Smoke. Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc.
3. Volume 39. 3anuary 1978. pp 48-54.
40. Porstendorfer, 3. Pie Bestiwmung Grossenverteilung Von Aerosolen Mit Hilfe
Der Radiactiven Markeirung Und Der Spiralzentrifuge.
41. Smith, E.M. and P.L. Levins. Sensitized Fluorescence for the Detection of
Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons. Prepared for U.S. Environmental Protec-
tion Agency. Report No. EPA-600/7-78-182. September 1978.
42. Santodonato, J., D. Basu, and P. Howard. Health Effects Associated with
Diesel Exhaust Emissions. Prepared for U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency. Report No. EPA-600/1-78-063. November, 1978.
43. Hare, C.T. and K.3. Springer. Small Engine Emissions and Their Impact.
Automotive Engineering. Volume 80. No. 7. 3uly 1972. 12p.
44. Zinger, D.E. and L.H. Hecker. Gaseous Emissions from Unregulated Mobile
Sources. 3APCA. Volume 29. No. 5. May 1979. pp. 526-531.
45. Donahue, 3.A., G.C. Hardwick, H.K. Newhall, K.S. Sanvordenker, and N.C..
Woelffer. Small Engine Exhaust Emissions and Air Quality in The United
States. Presented by the SAE Automotive Engineering Congress, Detroit,
Michigan. 3anuary 10-14, 1972.
46. Cortese, A.D. and 3.D. Spengler. Determination of Environmental Carbon
Monoxide Exposures Through Personnal Monitoring - Fixed U.S. Personal and
Transportation Mode Relationships. Presented at the 68th Annual Meeting of
APCA, Boston, Massachusetts. 3une 15-20, 1975.
47. Haagen - Smith, A.3. Carbon Monoxide Levels in City Driving. Arch.
Environ. Health. Volume 12. 1966.
48. Szalai, A. The Use of Time. Mouton, Paris. 1972.
49. Bridbord, K., 3.F. Finklea, 3.K. Wagoner, 3.B. Moran, and P. Caplan. Human
Exposure to Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons. Presented at Symposium on
Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons, Columbus, Ohio. October 17, 1975.
-42-
-------
TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
fPlease nod Iitstnictions on the reverse before completing)
1. REPORT NO.
EPA-600/7-80-084
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION-NO.
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
Exposure to Pollutants from Domestic Combustion
Sources: A Preliminary Assessment
5. REPORT DATE
April 1980
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7. AUTHOR(S)
Edward T. Brookman and Amnon Birenzvige
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
TRC - Environmental Consultants, Inc.
125 Silas Deane Highway
Wethersfield, Connecticut 06109
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
TNE623
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
68-02-3115, Task 112
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
EPA, Office of Research and Development
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
Task Final; 8/79-2/80
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
EPA/600/13
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES iERL_RTp project officer is John O. Milljken, Mail Drop 63, 919/
541-2745. '
is. ABSTRACT The report gives results of a preliminary assessment of exposure to pol-
lutants from domestic combustion sources, some of which emit airborne participate
matter (PM), CO, and polycyclic organic matter (POM) near human receptors.
Transient ambient concentrations of these pollutants at the receptor (and the cor-
responding time-averaged exposures) have been determined for the following domes-
tic combustion sources: lawn mowing, chain sawing, charcoal cooking, indoor gas
cooking, and indoor side-stream smoke. An experimental test program utilizing
personal monitoring equipment was conducted to acquire data for the lawn mower,
chain saw, and charcoal grill sources. Literature data were used to assess the in-
door sources of gas cooking and side-stream smoke. Transient ambient concentra-
tions of total suspended particulate (TSP) matter encountered were as high as 35
times the 24 hour secondary ambient air quality standard of 150 micrograms/cu m
for TSP. However, large quantities on noncombustion-related PM on the filters
(e.g., grass particles, sawdust), concurrent lower values of ambient CO relative to
ambient air quality CO standards, and the absence of detectable POM indicate that
these sources probably do not result in exposures to combustion-generated pollu-
tants that are relatively significant.
17.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
b.IDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
COSATi Field/Group
Pollution
Combustion
Assessments
Measurement
Grasses
Saws
Gasoline
Charcoal
Stoves
Cooking Devices
Smoke
Dust _
Polycyclic Compounds
Organic Compounds
Pollution Control
Stationary Sources
Domestic Combustion
Lawn Mowers
Chain Saws
Side-stream Smoke
Particulate
3B
|2 IB
4B
36C
31
BID
13A
06H
11G
07C
13. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
Release to Public
19. SECURITY CLASS (This Report)
Unclassified
21. NO. OF PAGES
48
20. SECURITY CLASS (Thispage)
Unclassified
22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (9-73)
-43-
------- |