United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Office of
Radiation Programs
Washington, D.C. 20460
Technical Report
EPA 520/3-80-008
1980
Radiation
&EPA
A Review of Radiation
Exposure Estimates From
Normal Operations in the
Management and Disposal
of High-level Radioactive
Wastes and Spent
Nuclear Fuel
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High-Level Waste Environmental TECHNICAL REPORT
Standards Program EPA-520/3-80-008
Technical Support Document
A REVIEW OF RADIATION EXPOSURE ESTIMATES FROM NORMAL
OPERATIONS IN THE MANAGEMENT AND DISPOSAL
OF HIGH-LEVEL RADIOACTIVE WASTES AND SPENT NUCLEAR FUEL
William F. Holcomb
OFFICE OF RADIATION PROGRAMS
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
WASHINGTON, D.C. 20460
August 1980
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EPA REVIEW NOTICE
The Office of Radiation Programs, U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, has reviewed this report and approved it for publication.
Mention of trade names, commercial products, or government proposals
does not constitute endorsement.
ii
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ABSTRACT
The Office of Radiation Programs, Environmental Protection Agency,
has prepared this analysis of the radioactive releases during normal
waste management operations and the resulting radiation doses as
technical support for EPA's proposed environmental radiation protection
standards, 40 CFR 191. We reviewed the estimated releases and doses
from preparation for storage or disposal, storage, and emplacement in a
disposal repository. We found that they are small compared to the
releases and doses in EPA's uranium fuel cycle standards, 40 CFR 190.
For Subpart A of 40 CFR 191 on waste management and storage operations,
EPA proposes to extend the limitations of 40 CFR 190 to these
operations.
iii
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PREFACE
The Office of Radiation Programs of the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency carries out a national program designed to evaluate
individual and population exposure to ionizing and non-ionizing
radiation and to promote development of controls necessary for the
protection of the public health and environment.
We prepared this report as a technical support document for EPA's
proposed standards for the management and disposal of spent nuclear fuel
and high-level radioactive wastes.
We encourage readers of this report to inform the Office of
Radiation Programs of omissions or errors. We invite comments or
requests for further information.
OFFICE OF RADIATION PROGRAMS
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
iv
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
EPA Review Notice ii
Abstract ii:L
Preface iv
Table of Contents v
List of Figures vi
List of Tables vi
Glossary viii
1.0 Introduction 1
2.0 Basic Assumptions 3
3.0 High-Level Radioactive Waste Management Operations 5
3. 1 Storage of High-Level Liquid Wastes 5
3.2 Solidification of High-Level Liquid Wastes 7
3.3 Storage of High-Level Solidified Wastes 9
A. Water Basin Storage 9
B. Sealed Cask Storage 9
3.4 Disposal of High-Level Solidified Wastes at a
Repository 12
4.0 Spent Nuclear Fuel Management Operations 13
4.1 Storage of Unpackaged Spent Fuel 13
4.2 Packaging of Spent Fuel for Storage and/or Disposal 14
4.3 Storage of Packaged Spent Fuel 16
4.4 Disposal of Packaged Spent Fuel at a Repository 1?
5.0 Discussion and Conclusions 18
6.0 References 21
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Figure 1
LIST OF FIGURES
High-Level Radioactive Waste and Spent
Nuclear Fuel Management Operations
Table 3.1-1
Table 3.1-2
Table 3.2-1
Table 3.2-2
Table 3-3-1
Table 3.3-2
Table 3-3-3
Table 3-3-4
LIST OF TABLES
Major Radionuclides Released to the Atmosphere
During Normal Operation of a HLLW Storage
Facility 6
Maximum Annual Doses to an Individual Due to
Atmospheric Releases During Storage of HLLW 6
Major Radionuclides Released to the Atmosphere
During Normal Operation of the EPA Generic
Solidification Plant 8
Maximum Annual Doses to an Individual Due to
Atmospheric Releases During Normal Operation of
the EPA Generic Solidification Plant 8
Major Radionuclides Released to the Atmosphere
During Normal Operation of a Water Basin
Storage Facility for HLSW
10
Maximum Annual Doses to an Individual Due to
Atmospheric Releases During Water Basin Storage
of HLSW 10
Major Radionuclides Released to the Atmosphere
During Normal Operation of a Sealed Cask
Storage Facility 11
Maximum Annual Doses to an Individual Due to
Atmospheric Releases During Normal Operation
of a Sealed Cask Storage Facility 11
vi
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Table 4.1-1
Table 4.2-1
Table 4.2-2
Table 4.3-1
Table 5.1
Table 5.2
Major Radionuclide Released to the Atmosphere
During Normal Operation of an ISFS Facility
14
Major Radionuclides Released to the Atmosphere
During Normal Operation of a Packaging Facility
for Spent Fuel 15
Maximum Annual Doses to an Individual Due to
Atmospheric Releases During Operation of a
Combined Receiving, Storage, and Packaging
Facility For Spent Fuel 15
Maximum Annual Doses to an Individual Due to
Releases to the Atmosphere During Normal
Receiving and Handling Operations at a Packaged
Spent Fuel Storage Facility 16
Summary of Maximum Annual Doses to an
Individual Due to Atmospheric Releases During
Waste Management Operations
19
Summary of Major Radionuclides Released to the
Atmosphere During Waste Management Operations 20
VII
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GLOSSARY
ABBREVIATIONS
40 CFR 190 - Code of Federal Regulations, Title 40, Part 190
Ci - Curie
DOE - U.S. Department of Energy
EPA - U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
HLLW - High-level Liquid Wastes
HLSW - High-Level Solidified Wastes
ISFS - Independent Spent Fuel Storage
ISFSF - ISFS Facility
LWR - Light-Water Reactor
MT - Metric Ton
MTHM - Metric Tons of Heavy Metals (i.e. uranium and
Plutonium)
MWd - Megawatt days
NRC - U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission
ORP - EPA's Office of Radiation Programs
UFC - Uranium Fuel Cycle
TERMS
High-Level Wastes:
Spent Nuclear Fuel:
E+00 Format:
Fuel Reprocessing:
Generic:
Off-Gas:
High-level radioactive liquid wastes, or the
products from solidification of high-level liquid
waste, or spent fuel elements if discarded
without processing.
Any fuel removed from a nuclear reactor after it
has been irradiated, usually to the extent that
it can no longer effectively sustain a chain
reaction
Throughout this report, numeric values are
frequently expressed in a modified scientific
format. For example, 0.00456 = 4.56 X 10 may
be written as 4.56 E-03 and 78900 = 7.89 X 10 as
7.89 E+04.
The processing of spent reactor fuel to recover
the unused fissionable uranium and plutonium.
Characteristic of a whole class.
The normal gasborne discharge from any process
vessel or process equipment.
Vlll
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1.0 INTRODUCTION
The Office of Radiation Programs, U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA/ORP). is proposing generally applicable environmental
radiation protection standards for the management and disposal of spent
nuclear fuel, high-level, and transuranic radioactive wastes (1). These
proposed standards would become Part 191 of the Code of Federal
Regulations, Title 40 (40 CFR 191).
Subpart A of the proposed standards applies to normal waste
management operations, which include preparation for storage or disposal
(solidification and packaging of high-level liquid wastes, packaging of
spent fuel), storage, and emplacement in a disposal repository.
EPA's uranium fuel cycle (UFC) standards, 40 CFR 190, do not
include waste management operations (2). For Subpart A of the proposed
40 CFR 191 standards, EPA proposes to extend the limitations of 40 CFR
190 to these operations. We have assessed the potential airborne
releases of radioactive materials during these operations and the
radiation doses due to these releases to ascertain whether they can meet
the UFC standards. Part 190.10 states that normal operations of the
uranium fuel cycle shall be conducted in such a manner as to provide
reasonable assurance that: (a) The annual dose equivalent does not
exceed 25 millirems to the whole body, 75 millirems to the thyroid, and
25 millirems to any other organ of any member of the public as the
result of exposures to planned discharges of radioactive materials,
radon and its daughters excepted, to the general environment from
uranium fuel cycle operations and to radiation from these operations;
and (b) the total quantity of radioactive materials entering the general
environment from the entire uranium fuel cycle, per gigawatt-year of
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electrical energy produced by the fuel cycle, contains less than 50,000
curies of krypton-85, 5 millicuries of iodine-129, and 0.5 millicuries
combined with plutonium-239 and other alpha-emitting transuranic
radionuclides with half-lives greater than one year.
During normal waste management operations, some of the
radionuclides in the wastes are released to the operation's off-gas
streams as volatile gases and particulates. Before the off-gases are
released to the atmosphere, these off-gases are routed to treatment
systems designed to remove the majority of the radionuclides.
Several major factors can affect the potential radiation dose to
individuals and populations as a result of release of radionuclides to
the atmosphere: proximity to the plant, the pathways by which the
radionuclides can reach people, the length of time during which the
radionuclides continue to pose a health hazard, decay time,
meteorological factors, facility capacity, and off-gas treatment.
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2.0 BASIC ASSUMPTIONS
In this analysis, we have examined operations that are the most
likely major steps in the management of high-level liquid wastes and
spent fuel. Figure 1 shows these operations.
The data comes from reports of the Department of Energy (DOE) and
Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC). Some of the data concerns
hypothetical generic facilities; some, actual operations at DOE or
commercial facilities.
For practical purposes the basic assumption for this analysis is
that the only radioactive materials entering the general environment
from the generic facilities are airborne discharges to the atmosphere;
liquid releases or accidental releases were not considered. Water
streams associated with the operations are assumed to be recycled.
The exposure pathways, demography, and other parameters and the
mathematical models relating dose to man for the estimated radionuclide
releases from the generic facilities are described by DOE in
reference 5. The maximum annual doses to an individual are based on a
hypothetical area resident whose habits would tend to maximize his dose.
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High-Level Radioactive Waste and Spent Nuclear Fuel Management Operations
HIGH-LEVEL
WASTE
DISPOSITION
SPENT NUCLEAR
FUEL
DISPOSITION
SPENT FUEL
REPROCESSING
NUCLEAR
REACTOR
HIGH
LEVEL
LIQUID
WASTE
STORAGE
SOLIDIFICATION
PROCESSING
(CALCINATION &
CLASSIFICATION)
T '
i
i
i
i
I
L-
INTERIM
STORAGE
SPENT
FUEL
STORAGE
AT
REACTOR
SPENT
FUEL
STORAGE
AWAY
FROM
REACTOR
PACKAGE
FOR
STORAGE
AND/OR
ISOLATION
DISPOSAL
AT
REPOSITORY
I
DISPOSAL
AT
REPOSITORY
Figure 1
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3.0 HIGH-LEVEL RADIOACTIVE WASTE MANAGEMENT OPERATIONS
We examined four operations in the management of high-level liquid
wastes (HLLW) generated by the reprocessing of spent nuclear fuel: (i)
liquid waste storage; (ii) solidification; (iii) interim storage of the
solidified wastes; and (iv) disposal. The DOE/NRC generic operations
described in this section are based on a 2000 MTHM per year fuel
reprocessing plant, whereas the EPA generic solidification plant is
based on waste received from a 1500 MTHM per year fuel reprocessing
plant.
3.1 Storage of High-Level Liquid Wastes
Table 3.1-1 lists the major radionuclides released to the
atmosphere during the normal operation of a high-level liquid waste
storage facility. Table 3-1-2 indicates the maximum annual doses to an
individual in the vicinity of the HLLW storage facility. DOE estimated
the doses on the basis of the releases in Table 3.1-1.
Each storage tank has a net volume of 1140 cubic meters, and one
tank per year will be filled. The release values are based on the
assumption that the liquid waste generated from reprocessing 2000 MTHM
will fill one tank (3-5). The technology for storage of HLLW is based
on over 30 years' management of defense wastes.
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TABLE 3.1-1
MAJOR RADIONUCLIDES RELEASED TO THE ATMOSPHERE DURING NORMAL
OPERATION OF A HLLW STORAGE FACILITY (5)
Radionuclide
H-3
Sr-90
Ru-106
1-129
Cs-134
Cs-137
Ce-144
Pu-239
Release (Ci/yr)
2.7 E+04
4.9 E-05
1.5 E-03
1.4 E-Q4
9.6 E-05
7.4 E-05
1.9 E-04
1.4 E-09
TABLE 3.1-2
MAXIMUM ANNUAL DOSES TO AN INDIVIDUAL
DUE TO ATMOSPHERIC RELEASES DURING STORAGE OF HLLW
(5)
Organ
Dose (millirem)
Whole Body
Thyroid
Lung
Bone
9.
9.
9.5
E-02
E-02
E-02
3.6 E-07
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3.2 Solidification of High-Level Liquid Wastes
The EPA/ORP staff has prepared a technical document on radiation
exposures from solidification of high-level liquid wastes in support of
EPA's proposed standards, 10 CFR 191. We developed a generic high-level
liquid waste solidification plant and assessed the potential radiation
exposures of atmospheric discharges during normal operations of
calcination and glassification (6).
We used a newly developed computer code, AIRDOS-EPA, to perform the
assessment. Our assessment involved seven radionuclides that account
for 88% of the doses due to the solidification process: H-3, 1-129,
Ru-106, Cs-134, Cs-137, Sr-90, and Pu-239. Table 3-2-1 shows the
estimated releases.
For purposes of comparison, we based our assessment on hypothetical
rural and urban plant sites with widely different population size, food
sources, and weather. After estimating the off-gas releases during
normal operations of the generic plant, we determined the annual
individual doses due to exposure to the radionuclide waste products from
spent fuel that have decayed one year, five years, and ten years before
reprocessing and solidification. Table 3.2-2 shows the maximum dose to
an individual at the two plant sites only for the case where the waste
products have decayed for one year. In the case of the radionuclide
waste products that have decayed for five years or longer, the maximum
annual dose to an individual at either site would be less than 15
millirem (6).
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TABLE 3.2-1
MAJOR RADIONUCLIDES RELEASED TO THE ATMOSPHERE
DURING NORMAL OPERATION OF
THE EPA GENERIC SOLIDIFICATION PLANT (6)
Radionuclide
Plant Release
(One-year decayed fuel)
(Ci/yr)
Iodine-129
Pu-239
H-3
Ru-106
Cs-137
Cs-134
Sr-90
2.94 E-03
5.02 E-07
5.21 E+04
4.80 E+01
1.59 E-02
2.88 E-02
1.12 E-02
TABLE 3.2-2
MAXIMUM ANNUAL DOSES TO AN INDIVIDUAL DUE TO ATMOSPHERIC
RELEASES DURING NORMAL OPERATION OF
THE EPA GENERIC SOLIDIFICATION PLANT (6)
Organ
Dose
(One-year-decayed fuel)
Rural Site Urban Site
Total body
Thyroid
Other organs
lungs
liver
bone
endosteal cells
stomach wall
kidneys
lower large
intestine wall
testes
ovaries
(millirem)
2. 1
2.2
3.5
2. 1
2.4
2.7
2. 1
2. 1
23.7
2.3
1.8
(millirem)
14.5
15.7
21.3
17.
19.
14.
14.
191.
16.
11.
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3.3 Storage of High-Level Solidified Wastes
High-level solidified wastes (HLSW) may be packaged and placed in
interim storage for several years if a geologic repository is not
available, or if heat generated by the packaged HLSW is too great to
permit immediate disposal. DOE and NRC analyzed two generic interim
storage systems for solidified wastes in sealed metal canisters: a
water basin storage system and a sealed cask storage system (3-5, 7-10).
A. Water Basin Storage
The technology for water basin storage of HLSW is based on over 30
years' experience at DOE and commercial facilities in storing spent
fuel. DOE is developing water basin storage of laboratory-generated
HLSW packages. Water basin storage of spent nuclear fuel and of HLSW is
basically the same, although the configuration of the package differs
slightly.
Table 3.3-1 shows the major radionuclides released to the
atmosphere from a water basin storage facility that can store 3500
canisters and requires five years to fill. Table 3.3-2 shows the
maximum annual doses to an exposed individual from these
radionuclides (5).
B. Sealed Cask Storage
In sealed cask storage, HLSW is stored in high-integrity metal
casks shielded by reinforced concrete that are placed in the open at
properly spaced intervals. Air circulates by natural convection between
the shield and the sealed cask and removes heat generated by the wastes.
Since this method does not require capital-intensive facilities, it is
relatively economical. Moreover, the concrete shield provides better
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10
direct gamma radiation protection than the water basins do. DOE is
testing sealed cask storage at the Hanford Reservation with electrically
heated dummy HLSW packages (4,7,10).
Releases of radioactive materials during normal operations of a
sealed cask storage facility are very small. Table 3-3-3 shows
estimated releases from a facility capable of storing some 20,000
canisters at a yearly maximum placement rate of 180 canisters; the spent
fuel has decayed 1.5 years prior to reprocessing. Table 3-3-4 indicates
the maximum annual doses to an individual in the vicinity of the sealed
cask storage facility.
TABLE 3-3-1
MAJOR RADIONUCLIDES RELEASED TO THE ATMOSPHERE DURING
NORMAL OPERATION OF A WATER BASIN STORAGE FACILITY FOR HLSW (5)
Radionuclide
Sr-90
Ru-106
Cs-134
Cs-137
Ce-144
Pu-239
Release (Ci/yr)
1.2 E-05
3-8 E-05
2.4 E-04
2.4 E-04
4.8 E-05
3.6 E-10
TABLE 3-3-2
MAXIMUM ANNUAL DOSES TO AN INDIVIDUAL
DUE TO ATMOSPHERIC RELEASES DURING WATER
BASIN STORAGE OF HLSW (5)
Organ
Dose (millirem)
Whole Body
Thyroid
Lung
Bone
6.4 E-07
3.0 E-09
4.6 E-06
1.1 E-06
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11
TABLE 3.3-3
MAJOR RADIONUCLIDES RELEASED TO THE ATMOSPHERE DURING NORMAL
OPERATION OF A SEALED CASK STORAGE FACILITY (5)
Radionuclide
Sr-90
Ru-106
Cs-134/137
Pu-239
Release (Ci/yr)
1.2 E-07
3.8 E-07
4.3 E-07
3.6 E-12
TABLE 3-3-4
MAXIMUM ANNUAL DOSES TO AN INDIVIDUAL DUE TO ATMOSPHERIC RELEASES
DURING NORMAL OPERATION OF A SEALED CASK STORAGE FACILITY (5)
Organ Dose (millirem)
Whole Body 1.5 E-08
Thyroid 3-9 E-10
Lung 1.4 E-06
Bone 1.5 E-07
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12
3.4 Disposal of High-Level Solidified Wastes at a Repository
Disposal operations for high-level wastes includes: receiving,
inspection, decontamination, repair, emplacement of waste canisters in
the repository and backfilling (3,8,11).
During the normal operations of disposal, small quantities of
radioactive materials can be released to the atmosphere. The filtered
effluents released from the stack of DOE's generic receiving facility
consist of oxides of mixed fission products, such as Sr-90, and
actinides, such as Pu-239. The estimated average annual discharge to
the atmosphere is about 2 E-11 Ci per year; the estimated maximum annual
dose to an individual is less than 1 E-09 millirem (3).
Some releases from a geologic repository can occur during
backfilling operations. They include naturally occurring radon and its
decay products, but the amount is negligible(5).
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13
4.0 SPENT NUCLEAR FUEL MANAGEMENT OPERATIONS
Present United States Government policy is to defer commercial
reprocessing of spent fuel from power reactors. DOE has proposed
several methods of interim storage of spent fuel at either reactor sites
or away-from-reactor independent spent fuel storage (ISFS) facilities
(3-5, 8-25).
We have considered water basin storage of unpackaged spent fuel,
packaging, and extended storage or disposal at an ISFS facility.
4.1 Storage of Unpackaged Spent Fuel
The main difference between water basin storage at a reactor
storage facility and at an away-from-reactor ISFS facility is capacity.
Most reactor storage facilities hold from 50 to 150 metric tons (MT) of
spent fuel; a large ISFS facility could hold up to 18,000 MT of spent
fuel. Consequently, releases and doses from spent fuel will probably be
smaller at a reactor storage facility than at an ISFS facility
(4,10,12). DOE's basic generic ISFS facility will hold 3000 MT of
unpackaged spent fuel; an additional 1000 to 2000 MT could be stored if
extra modules are added.
Releases of radionuclides to the environment from the DOE generic
facility are through the off-gas and ventilation systems. During
receiving and storage operations, ruptured fuel elements will release a
small amount of radioactive material. The basin water will retain most
of the material from ruptured fuel elements; however, the krypton-85 and
carbon-14 in the fuel, and 15& of the iodine-129 will be released to the
building ventilation system as off gases, and then to the atmosphere
(4,5).
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Table 4.1-1 shows the major radionuclides released during normal
receiving and storage operations. DOE assumes the spent fuel is
packaged at the generic storage facility; therefore the annual doses
listed in Table 4.2-2 are due to the combined releases listed in both
Tables 4.1-1 and 4.2-1.
TABLE 4.1-1
MAJOR RADIONUCLIDES RELEASED TO THE ATMOSPHERE
DURING NORMAL OPERATION OF AN ISFS FACILITY (5)
Radionuclide
H-3
C-14
Kr-85
Sr-90
1-129
Cs-137
Ce-144
Release
Receiving
1.3 E+00
3-3 E-03
8.7 E+02
2.0 E-04
5.0 E-05
9.9 E-03
1.8 E-03
(Ci/yr)
Storage
1 . 1 E+00
1.9 E-05
1.7 E+01
3.8 E-05
8.9 E-07
2.4 E-03
2.5 E-05
4.2 Packaging Of Spent Fuel for Storage and/or Disposal
At the DOE generic ISFS facility, the whole spent nuclear fuel
assembly is packaged in steel canisters, which are backfilled with
helium and seal-welded to provide an inert atmosphere that will inhibit
corrosion and aid in transferring the heat from the spent fuel
(4,5,8,10,23,24).
The design characteristics of this generic fuel packaging facility
are based on a processing capacity of 2000 MTHM per year. Table 4.2-1
shows the amounts of radioactive materials released to the atmosphere
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15
during normal operation of the packaging facility (5). Table 4.2-2
lists the combined doses due to the releases to the atmosphere from the
receiving, storage, and packaging operations listed in Tables 4.1-1 and
4.2-1
TABLE 4.2-1
MAJOR RADIONUCLIDES RELEASED TO THE ATMOSPHERE
DURING NORMAL OPERATION OF A PACKAGING FACILITY
FOR SPENT FUEL (5)
Radionuclide
H-3
C-14
C-60
Kr-85
Sr-90
Ru-106
1-129
Cs-134
Cs-137
Ce-144
Release (Ci/yr)
1.3 E+QO
6.6 E-03
6.3 E-04
8.1 E+02
9.9 E-05
2.6 E-04
9.9 E-04
7.2 E-03
5.4 E-03
3.9 E-04
TABLE 4.2-2
MAXIMUM ANNUAL DOSES TO AN INDIVIDUAL DUE TO ATMOSPHERIC RELEASES
DURING NORMAL OPERATION OF A COMBINED RECEIVING,
STORAGE, AND PACKAGING FACILITY FOR SPENT FUEL(5)
Organ
Dose (millirem)
Whole Body
Thyroid
Lung
Bone
6. 1 E-04
1.5 E-02
1.7 E-03
5. 1 E-04
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16
4.3 Storage Of Packaged Spent Fuel
Packaged spent fuel may have to be stored for an extended period
before disposal in a geologic repository if transportation facilities or
disposal facilities are not readily available or if Government policy
prevents disposal (4,5,8,12). Storage alternatives for packaged spent
fuel are: (i) water basin; (ii) air-cooled vault; (iii) surface cask;
or (iv) dry caisson.
No identifiable radioactive releases or doses result from these
storage methods (7). However, small quantities of krypton-85 (about
_7
0.01 Ci/year) and iodine-129 (about 10 Ci/year) might be released at
the receiving and handling facility during repairs to failed canisters.
Table 4.3-1 shows the maximum annual doses to an individual.
TABLE 4.3-1
MAXIMUM ANNUAL DOSES TO AN INDIVIDUAL DUE TO RELEASES
TO THE ATMOSPHERE DURING NORMAL
RECEIVING AND HANDLING OPERATIONS AT A
PACKAGED SPENT FUEL STORAGE FACILITY (5)
Organ Dose (millirem)
Whole Body 1.0 E-09
Thyroid 8.5 E-07
Lung 6.5 E-10
Bone 1.1 E-09
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17
4.4 Disposal of Packaged Spent Fuel at a Repository
Disposal of the packaged spent fuel involves operations similar to
those for packaged HLSW. Estimated releases and doses due to geologic
disposal of spent fuel are similar to those due to HLSW disposal. (See
section 3-4.) Some releases from a geologic repository can occur during
backfilling operations. They include naturally occurring radon and its
decay products, but the amount is negligible (5).
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18
5.0 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
Since the UFC (40 CFR 190) standards exclude waste management
operations, ORP/EPA prepared this review as technical support of EPA's
proposed generally applicable environmental standards for the management
and disposal of high-level radioactive wastes and spent nuclear fuel, 40
CFR 191. For Subpart A of the proposed standards, EPA proposes to
extend the limitations of 40 CFR 190 to these operations. We found that
the radionuclide releases during normal operations of typical facilities
and the resulting radiation doses to be less than the limits in EPA's
uranium fuel cycle standards, 40 CFR 190.
Table 5.1 presents a summary of the individual dose estimates
resulting from each of the operations reviewed, as well as the EPA
standards. Table 5.2 presents a summary of the radionuclide release
estimates from the operations reviewed, as well as the EPA release
limits.
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19
TABLE 5.1
SUMMARY OF MAXIMUM ANNUAL DOSES TO AN INDIVIDUAL DUE TO
ATMOSPHERIC RELEASES DURING WASTE MANAGMENT OPERATIONS
ORGAN
Whole Body
Thyroid
Lung
Bone
HLLW
Storage
9.5 E-02
9.5 E-02
9.5 E-02
3.6 E-07
HLLW
Solidifi-
cation
(Rural Site)
(e)
2.1 E-tOO
2.2 E-tOO
3.5 E400
2.4 E+QO
HLSW
HLSW Sealed
Water Basin Cask
Storage
6.H E-07
3.0 E-09
U.6 E-06
1.1 E-06
Storage
(millirem)
1.5 E-08
3.9 E-10
1.4 E-06
1.5 E-07
HLSW
Disposal
1.0 E-09
(a)
(a)
(a)
ISFSF Spent Fuel
Receiving Storage
Storage &
Packaging
6.1 E-04
1.5 E-02
1.7 E-10
5.1 E-04
After
Packaging
1.0 E-09
8.5 E-07
6.5 E-10
1.1 E-09
Spent Fuel
Disposal
(c)
(c)
(c)
(c)
EPA
UFC
Standards
(d)
2.5 E+01
7.5 E-t01
2.5 E-t01
2.5 E+01
(a) - No data available
(b) - Includes receiving, storage, and packaging
(c) - neglible (less than for repository construction)
(d) - HO CFR 190
(e) - For this summary, only the rural site was considered viable.
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20
TABLE 5.2
SUMMARY OF MAJOR RADIONUCLIDES RELEASED
TO THE ATMOSPHERE DURING WASTE MANAGEMENT OPERATIONS
Operational Releases (Ci/yr)
UFC UFC
Radionuclide Standard Standard
(Ci/GWe-yr) (Ci/yr)
(a)
HLLW HLLW HLSW HLSW HLSW Spent Fuel Spent Fuel Spent Fuel Spent Fuel
Storage Solidifi- Water Basin Sealed Cask Reposi- Receiving Packaging Storage Repository
cation Storage Storage tory & Storage after Disposal
Packaged
Krypton-85
Iodine-129
Alpha (Pu-239)
H-3
Sr-90
Ru-106
Cs-134
Cs-137
Ce-144
5 E+04
5 E-03
5 E-04
(b)
(b)
(b)
(b)
(b)
(b)
2.27 E+06
2.27 E-01 1.
2.27 E-02 1.
2.
4.
1.
9.
7.
1.
(c)
4 E-04
4 E-09
7 E+04
9 E-05
5 E-03
6 E-05
4 E-05
9 E-04
(c)
2.94 E-03
5.02 E-07
5.21 E+04
1. 12 E+02
4.80 E+01
2.88 E-02
1.59 E-02
(0
(c)
(c)
3.6 E-10
(c)
1.2 E-05
3.8 E-05
2.4 E-04
2.4 E-04
4.8 E-05
(c)
(0
3.6 E-12
(c)
1.2 E-07
3.8 E-07
2.4 E-07
1.9 E-07
4.8 E-07
(d)
(d)
(d)
(d)
(d)
(d)
(d)
(d)
(d)
1.7 E+01
8.9 E-07
(c)
1. 1 E+00
3.8 E-05
(c)
(c)
2.4 E-03
2.5 E-05
8. 1 E+02
9.9 E-04
(c)
1.3 E+00
9-9 E-05
2.6 E-04
7.2 E-03
5.4 E-03
3.9 E-OU
1 E-02
1 E-07
(c)
(c)
(c)
(c)
(c)
(c)
(c)
(e)
(e)
(e)
(e)
(e)
(e)
(e)
(e)
(e)
(a) The conversion from Ci/GWe-yr to Ci/yr is based on an LWR operating at 33? thermal efficiency and producing approximately 33
MTHM of spent fuel at a burnup of 33000 MWd/MTHM; all of the releases are based on a 1500 MTHM per year fuel processing
plant (26)
(b) Not included in EPA's UFC standard, 40 CFR 190
(c) Radionuclide not indicated or expected
(d) Estimated release values for all fission products and actinides is 2 E-11
(e) Release values for packaged spent fuel disposal is estimated to be similar to HLSW disposal operations - see (d)
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21
6.0 REFERENCES
1. "Environmental Radiation Protection Standards for High-Level
Radioactive Waste," Federal Register, Vol. 41, No. 235, Monday,
December 6, 1976, page 53363.
2. "Environmental Radiation Protection Standards for Nuclear Power
Operations," Code of Federal Regulations, Title 40, Chap, I,
Subchapter F, Part 190, U.S. Government Printing Office,
Washington, D.C. 1978.
3. Management of Commercially Generated Radioactive Waste - Draft
Environmental Impact Statement, Two Volumes, Report No. m
DOE/EIS-0046-D, U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, D.C., April
1979.
4. Technology for Commercial Radioactive Waste Management, Five
Volumes, Report No. DOE-ET-0028, U.S. Department of Energy,
Washington, D.C., May 1979-
5. Environmental Aspects of Commercial Radioactive Waste Management,
Three Volumes, Report No. DOE-ET-0029, U.S. Department of Energy.
Washington, D.C., May 1979.
6. W.F. Holcomb, et al., Radiation Exposures From Solidification
Processes For High-Level Radioactive Liquid Wastes, Technical
Report EPA-520/3-80-007, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Office of Radiation Programs, Washington, D.C., May 1980.
7- Retrievable Surface Storage Facility Alternative Concepts
Engineering Studies, USAEC Report No. ARH-2888 Rev., Atlantic
Richfield Hanford Company and Kaiser Engineers, Richland,
Washington, July 1974.
8. W.P. Bishop and F.J. Miraglia, Jr. (Eds), Environmental Survey of
the Reprocessing and Waste Management Portions of the LWR Fuel
Cycle, Report NUREG-0116 (Supp. 1 to WASH-1248), U.S. Nuclear
Regulatory Commission, Washington, D.C., October 1976.
9. J. M. Davis, "Demonstration of a Surface Storage System For Spent
Fuel or Waste," paper presented at 70th Annual American Institute
of Chemical Engineer's Meeting, New York, N.Y., November 13-17,
1977.
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22
10. Alternatives For Managing Wastes From Reactors and Post-Fission
Operations In The LWR Fuel Cycle. Volume 3; Alternatives For
Interim Storage And Transportation, Report No. ERDA-76-43, Vol. 3,
U.S., Energy Research and Development Administration, Washington,
D.C. May 1976.
11. Final Generic Environmental Statement on the Use of Recycle
Plutonium in Mixed Oxide Fuel in Light Water Cooled Reactors.
Volume 3; Health, Safety and Environment. Report NUREG-0002, Vol.
3,-U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Washington, D.C., August
1976.
12. Storage of U.S. Spent Power Reactor Fuel, Draft Environmental
Impact Statement, Report DOE/EIS-0015-D, U.S. Department of Energy,
Washington, D.C., August 1978.
13. Storage of U.S. Spent Power Reactor Fuel - Draft Environmental
Impact Statement Supplement, Report DOE/EIS-0015-DS, U.S.
Department of Energy, Washington, D.C., December 1978.
14. Draft Generic Environmental Impact Statement on Handling and
Storage of Spent Light Water Power Reactor Fuel, Report NUREG-O^OI,
U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Washington, D.C., March 1978.
15. Spent Fuel Storage Requirements - The Need for Away-From-Reactor
Storage, Report DOE/ET-0075, U.S. Department of Energy, Washington,
D.C., February 1979.
16. Analytical Methodology and Facility Description Spent Fuel Policy,
Report DOE-ET-0054, U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, D.C.,
August 1978.
17. Independent Spent Fuel Storage Installations (ISFSF). Report
NUREG/CR-0601, U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Washington,
D.C., March 1979.
18. Preliminary Estimates of the Charge for Spent-Fuel Storage and
Disposal Services, Report DOE/ET-0055, U.S. Department of Energy,
Washington, D.C., July 1978.
19. "Storage of Spent Fuel in an Independent Spent Fuel Storage
Installation (ISFSI), Proposed Licensing Requirements," Federal
Register, Vol. *»3, No. 195, Friday, October 6, 1978, page 46309.
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23
20. P. A. Anderson and H. S. Meyer, Dry Storage of Spent Nuclear Fuel,
Report NUREG/CR-1223, U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission,
Washington, D.C. April 1980.
21. G. E. Zima, Independent Spent Fuel Storage Installations (ISFSI)
Annual Report for FY 1978. Report NUREG/CR-0601 (PNL-2880-Battelle
Pacific Northwest Laboratory), U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission,
Washington, D.C., March 1979.
22. Spent Fuel Interim Storage. USDOE Contract EY-77-C-06-1030 Report,
Rockwell Hanford Operations, Richland, Washington, April 12, 1978.
23. M.N. Menon, Spent Fuel Handling and Packaging Program, A Survey of
Hot Cell Facilities, USDOE Report No. HEDL-TME-78-53, Westinghouse
Hanford Engineering Development Laboratory, Richland, Washington,
July 1978.
24. Spent Fuel Packaging For Dry Repositories, USDOE Contract
EY-77-C-06-1030 Report, Rockwell Hanford Operations, Richland,
Washington, April 12, 1978.
25. G.E. Zima, An Evaluation of Potential Chemical/Mechanical
Degradation Processes Affecting Fuel and Structural Materials Under
Long-Term Water Storage. Report NUREG/CR-0668 (PNL-2379-Battelle
Pacific Northwest Laboratory). U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission,
Washington, D.C., May 1979.
26. Environmental Analysis of the Uranium Fuel Cycle: Part IV -
Supplementary Analysis - 1976. Report No. EPA-520/1-76-017, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Radiation Programs,
Washington, D.C., July 1976.
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4. '( ii Ic ;•.[,•! Sul.'itle
A REVIEW OF RADIATION EXPOSURE ESTIMATES FROM
NORMAL OPERATIONS IN THE MANAGEMENT AND DISPOSAL OF
HIGH-LEVEL RADIOACTIVE WASTES AND SPENT NUCLEAR FUEL
BIBLIOGRAPHIC DATA
SHCET
T. I'.epori No.
F.PA-
520/3-80-008
2.
7, Author(s)
William F. Holcomb
'•. ''.-[forming Organization Name and Address
OFFJCF OF RADIATION PROGRAMS (ANR-460)
U. '-.. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
401 M STREET, S.W.
WASH UIGTON, D.C. 20460
n 17 a r. ion Name and Address
Office Of Radiation Programs
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D.C.
3. Recipient'1- Accession No.
5. Kcport D.uc
JUNE 1980
6.
8. Performing Organisation Rent.
No.
10. Projcct/Task/Uork Unit No.
11. Contract/Grant No.
13. Type o( heport & Period
Covered
14.
iry Notes
The Office of Radiation Progrms, Environmental Protection Agency, has prepares
this arui.lysis of the radioactive releases during normal waste management operations
ami the resulting radiation doses as technical support for EPA's proposed
environmental radiation protection standards, 40 CFR 191. Our review includes
<.repaiation for storage or disposal, storage, and emplacement in a disposal
i.opo:; Ltory. We found that they are small compared to the releases and doses in
EPA's manium fuel cycle standards, 40 CFR 190. For Subpart A of 40 CFR 191 on
v.'aste management and storage operations, EPA proposes to extend the limitations
of 40 CFR L90 to these operations.
17. Kcy U'orJ'-. and Document Analysis. I7o. Descriptors
17b. IJemifiers/Opcn-Ended Terms
Haste management operations
Environmental Radiation Protection Standards
40 CFR 191
Radiation doses
17c. rn<-.ATI I'u-IJ 'Group
A f a l \t\ hi 1 ii y St
19. Secuiity Class (This
Kc|>oft)
UNCLASSIFIED
20. Security l.lj -.s ( 1 his
21. No. of Pages
32
22. P
NTis-ss inrv. 10-731 tN!X)KSI 0 1IY ANSI AND UNKSCO.
THIS KOKM MAV UK Kl l>K>):;UC.l-.U
USCOMM-DI
*U S GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: I960 311-11
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