United States
Environmental
Protection Agency
Research and Development
Washington DC 20460
EPA 600/9-80-006
February 1980
RESEARCH
OUTLOOK
1980
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FOREWORD
Research Outlook 1980 marks another mile-
stone in the progression begun in 1978 to present a
balanced five year environmental research plan,
aimed at satisfying short-term regulatory require-
ments and at anticipating future problems. This
progress will continue in the future.
The new research planning system initiated last
year is in place and is working well. We are
continuing to enhance the dialogue established by
the research committee system between regu-
latory, regional and research planners. These
committees will play an even greater role in
preparing future Outlooks, as the multiyear
strategies developed by the committees become the
key building blocks of the plan. The Research
Outlook will also be used increasingly in our
planning process as a guide to future research
needs; the Outlook will therefore both shape and
be reshaped by the strategies.
Once again I want to invite your comments on
the report. It is through constructive comment and
the fresh perspective provided by the Science
Advisory Board, the Congress, the scientific
community and the public that we continue to
improve our plans for environmental research.
Stephen J. Gage
Assistant Administrator
for Research and Development
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CONTENTS
Chapter Page
Introduction, Priorities and Executive Summary 2
Environmental Research Planning and Management 7
Toxic Substances 13
Air 32
Water Quality 54
Wastewaters and Spills 70
Drinking Water 98
Solid and Hazardous Wastes 111
Pesticides 133
Non-ionizing Radiation 143
Noise 150
Energy 159
Anticipating Environmental Problems 183
Appendices
Research Options 198
Interagency Coordination 211
Global Issues and International Cooperation 216
This report is submitted pursuant to
section 5 of Public Law 94-475,90 Stat
2071, which requires the annual submittal
to Congress of a 5-year plan for environ-
mental research.
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INTRODUCTION
Research Outlook 1980 is the fifth in a
series of EPA annual reports mandated by
Congress. The scope and content of the report
series has continually broadened and now
includes a focus on future research and
emerging problems. While the first two
Outlooks described EPA's then existing
research program, the third, Research Out-
look 1978, identified the philosophies that
guide our research and the environmental
issues that were and, in some cases, still are,
developing. In contrast, Research Outlook
1979 addressed research needed to best deal
with environmental problems and stressed
plans to meet those needs. Research Outlook
1980 maintains the progress to effectively
portray EPA's research plans by describing
refinements and extensions to the plans and
by tying the plans closely to the regulatory
needs of EPA. The report also outlines the
emerging problems we have identified and
summarizes dynamic approaches to deal
with them.
EPA's Office of Research and Develop-
ment (ORD) has steadily improved research
planning and management to support these
regulatory programs. This work for the past
year culminated in the establishment and
initial operation of thirteen Research Commit-
tees to better define and formulate future EPA
research. This significant change in the
planning process will result in materially
improved research programs. The Research
Outlook series will be a part of the improve-
ment and, as such, will gain prominence in
the research planning process. Thus, one
major objective this year was to integrate
Outlook into the new planning process and to
increase the use of Outlook within EPA as a
guide to future research needs and emerging
environmental problems.
Research Outlook 1980 describes EPA's
research plan for ten interrelated programs;
each program is discussed in a separate
chapter. The chapters are presented in the
order in which our budget is submitted to
Congress with two exceptions: "Toxic
Substances" is the first chapter to reflect the
importance we attach to the toxics program
and ' 'Anticipating Environmental Problems''
closes the report to leave us with a look to the
future. The chapters include discussions of
environmental concerns, approaches to abate
pollution and the research plan to support the
approaches. Milestones such as major prod-
ucts or primary program events provide a
representative picture of our plans for fiscal
years 1980 through 1984. These milestones
are identified in the research plans at the end
of each chapter by a number/letter designation
(e.g., Al, A2, or C6 or G8); they are also
keyed into the text for easy reference.
The report provides insight into the efforts
to refine and institutionalize the research
planning changes. Research options based on
budget projections for a no growth, moderate
growth (5%) and high growth (10%) scenario
are presented in an attempt to provide an
understanding of major emphases and trade-
offs as defined by the Research Committees.
The relationship of chapter to specific Re-
search Committee is:
CHAPTER
Toxic Substances
Air
Water Quality
Industrial and
Municipal
Wastewaters
Drinking Water
Solid and Hazardous
Waste
Pesticides
Non-Ionizing
Radiation
RELEVANT
RESEARCH
COMMITTEES
Chemical Testing and
Assessment
Gaseous and Inhal-
able Paniculate
Pollutants
Hazardous Air
Pollutants
Oxidants
Mobile Source Air
Pollution
Water Quality
Industrial
Wastewaters
Municipal Waste-
waters and Spill
Prevention
Drinking Water
Solid Waste
Pesticides
Radiation
Noise —
Energy
Anticipating Environ-
mental Problems
Research Options
Energy and nine
Committees
Of interest to all
Committees
All Committees
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Priorities
EPA has been given the lead responsibility
for identifying, evaluating and controlling
environmental pollutants.
Broadly stated, EPA's overall priorities
are to:
• Reduce public exposure to dangerous
pollutants;
• Protect sensitive ecological systems; and
• Improve management of our environ-
mental regulatory programs.
To support EPA's priorities, our research
first addresses those pollutants which present
the greatest health risk. Over the last several
years, we have increasingly focused on deal-
ing with pollutants as they affect human
health, although we also strive to protect the
environment by studying particularly sensi-
tive environmental systems such as wetlands.
The research programs are also beginning to
take a multimedia approach to environmental
protection through evaluation and integration
of environmental problems at every point in
the life of a pollutant—production, transport,
use, discharge or disposal.
The EPA priorities and relevant research
priorities undergo a vigorous annual review in
conjunction with the zero base budgeting pro-
cess. A look at EPA's research budget for the
last two years and proposed for FY 81 shows
that research budget increases have been less
than overall Agency budget increases. This
difference is due chiefly to the Agency's
greater emphasis on regulatory and enforce-
ment activities.
Another trend that reflects changing priori-
ties is an increase in resources for toxics re-
search. From a modest program in FY 79 with
resources of almost $15 million, the Toxics
Research Program in FY 80 was funded at just
under $27 million. Toxics health effects re-
search received the most resources by far,
spurred by the Public Health Initiative that
was sponsored in FY 80 and will be sustained
in FY 81. In concert with the Agency's
priorities, the program to determine ecologi-
cal effects of toxics has also increased sub-
stantially.
Similarly, the budget of the Solid and
Hazardous Waste Research Program, also
once modest, has begun to rise dramatically in
response to increased awareness of problems
associated with hazardous waste disposal.
This upward trend will most likely continue
until problems raised by the Love Canal inci-
dent and other abandoned waste disposal sites
are solved.
In contrast to the above programs, the
Water Quality Research Program, which tra-
ditionally had a large budget, has consistently
experienced budget decreases over the last
several years. Moreover, the focus of the pro-
gram has shifted from research on the more
traditional pollutants to toxic substances. The
majority of the budget decrease has been in
water control technology research.
Finally, an increasing EPA priority is the
integration of all environmental programs.
This integration is essential because legisla-
tion to control pollution now covers all envi-
ronmental media—air, water and land. Previ-
ous air and water legislation had inherent gaps
in the waste disposal cycle by not providing
for control of the disposal of pollutants in or
on land. The Resource Conservation and
Recovery Act (RCRA) closes those gaps and
makes sure there is no "free dumping
ground." This multi-media control requires
an integrated approach to optimize the mix of
environmental controls which will minimize
the adverse effects of pollution. Some integra-
tion can be seen in the efforts to consolidate
our grant and permit programs; integration of
FY79
FY80
FY81
ORD
($M)
324.5
333.3
368.7
AGENCY
($M)
1,175.4
1,260.2
1,391.3
ORD«5
'oOF
AGENCY BUDGET
27.6
26.5
26.5
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water quality, drinking water, solid waste,
hazardous wastes and underground injection
programs will serve as examples for other
areas. Our research programs support these
efforts.
Two prime examples of programs now in-
tegrated are our research efforts in sewage and
industrial sludge disposal and our program
investigating acid rain. Sewage and sludges,
which can contain contaminants adverse to
human health and the environment, can be
dealt with through sound management prac-
tices. Our research, therefore, will develop
better sludge treatment and disposal tech-
niques, such as the use of municipal sludge as
a soil amendment or fertilizer, and will de-
velop sophisticated technologies to help re-
duce future increases in sludge from entering
our air and water. The acid rain research pro-
gram will consist of monitoring and study of
the environmental effects and atmospheric
processes germane to the problem. The
multi-media nature of the acid rain problem is
reflected by the fact that it is discussed in a
number of chapters of this Research Outlook
(i.e., Air, Water Quality, Energy, Anticipa-
tory and Global Issues).
Chapter Summaries
Presented below are brief summaries of the
chapters of this report. These overviews serve
two purposes: first, they highlight the key
planned outputs of each research program for
readers who need- not know the details of
EPA's research programs; and second, they
can illustrate the commonalities and differ-
ences between the programs.
Toxic Substances. Our toxics research
program is designed to meet the respon-
sibilities mandated by the Toxic Substances
Control Act of 1976; it is also designed to
provide information to our other programs
about the character and means to control toxic
substances. The structure that has evolved to
fulfill these dual aspects of our program is:
research into the effects of toxics, identifica-
tion of the receiving environmental media and
related effects, characterization of the types
of toxic pollution and determination of the
sources of toxicants.
Reflecting this structure are our four
research study areas: (1) health effects—to
concentrate on the delayed or cumulative
effects of toxicants on humans; (2) environ-
mental effects—to investigate the ecological
effects and chemical fate of compounds in the
environment; (3) monitoring support — to
develop and refine the methods to measure
and monitor toxicants and to assure the
quality of pollution samples and data; and
(4) industrial processes — to identify tox-
icants from generic industrial processes
common to broad classes of industries.
Air. Our air pollution research program
continues to provide research to help abate
pollution and support Air Quality Standards.
The six areas of study are: (1) criteria
pollutants—to identify and quantify human
health effects of air pollution exposures as
determined through animal models, clinical
studies and epidemiological studies; the
resulting information will provide a base for
review of the National Ambient Air Quality
Standards; (2) hazardous pollutants — to
provide information for the identification and
control of potential atmospheric carcinogens,
and to study chronic effects from non-
carcinogenic pollutants; (3) long range
transport and transformation — to shift our
perspective from local to regional-scale
phenomenon and problems and to predict
reductions of regional effects through applica-
tions of control technologies; (4) particles—
to characterize atmospheric particles includ-
ing their sources and to determine the health,
ecological and visibility effects and means for
control; (5) vehicles—to assess health effects
pertaining to diesel emissions; (6) global—to
understand the large-scale and long-term
effects of air pollution on the biosphere.
Water Quality. Our water quality research
program will provide the assessment methods
and information necessary to assist federal,
state and local governments in identifying
optional water quality goals and cost-
effective strategies for achieving those goals.
Emphasis of our research will be on the
human and ecological effects of potentially
toxic chemicals that either exist in our waters
and sediments now or that may be released
into them in the future. The research areas of
study are: (1) pollution sources—to identify
and characterize sources and receiving waters
and to develop new measurement techniques;
(2) environmental fate — to determine the
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persistence, distribution, and transport of
discharged pollutants; (3) human health and
environmental effects — to determine the
effects of exposure to toxicants in water; and
(4) cost-effectiveness of management tech-
niques especially for non point sources—to
define and quantify pollution abatement costs
including energy costs and to evaluate the
effectiveness of control methods.
Wastewaters and Spills. The wastewater
and spills research covers industrial waste-
waters, municipal waste waters, and
emergency spills. The industrial wastewater
research program has three major study areas:
(1) industrial source characterization and
assessment—to detect, identify and predict
industrial pollutant impacts on water as well
as cross-media impacts on land and air;
(2) control methods evaluation, research,
development and demonstration—to define
the degree to which pollutants can be treated
and to optimize and improve existing and
innovative or nontreatment technologies;
(3) recycle/reuse—to develop and evaluate
recycle/reuse technologies for specific indus-
trial processes.
The municipal wastewater research pro-
gram is divided into nine areas of study:
(1) developing and evaluating treatment
processes; (2) land treatment and aqua-
culture; (3) sludge processing, use, and
disposal; (4) toxics control; (5) improving
the operation and reliability of publicly-
owned treatment works (POTWs); (6) help-
ing small communities choose treatment and
disposal alternatives; (7) controlling pollu-
tion from urban runoff; (8) using treated
water; (9) innovative and alternative technol-
ogy-
The emergency spills research program is
designed to assist industry and governments
by developing technology and procedures for
dealing with spills. The program also studies
the fate and effects of spills and the restoration
of the spills environment.
Drinking Water. Our drinking water
research program is designed to provide
information that will enhance the scientific
and technical foundations underlying national
drinking water regulations and regulations to
protect groundwater quality. The research
will identify drinking water contaminants and
their distribution in water supplies, define the
contamination effects on human health,
establish analytical procedures to monitor
contaminants and describe beneficial changes
in treatment processes or technologies for
organics, inorganics and microbial contamin-
ants. In addition the program will gather
baseline information on groundwater conta-
minants. This will assist in ranking the
seriousness of potential contamination
sources.
Solid and Hazardous Wastes. The solid
and hazardous wastes research program
supports EPA's stepped approach to solid
wastes management including both the
short-range and the long-range priorities
developed in response to the Resource
Conservation and Recovery Act. The number
one priority of the Act is the concern for
public health and safety; this concern is also
EPA's chief goal for implementation of the
Act's programs. Our research in support of
the Act is divided into four study areas:
(1) identification, assessment, quality assur-
ance and technical assistance in support of
EPA efforts to promulgate and enforce the
hazardous waste regulations; (2) develop-
ment and testing of technologies to treat and
contain hazardous waste in order to minimize
or eliminate their hazards; (3) assessment of
the risks associated with hazardous waste and
the monitoring of the transport and fate of this
waste; (4) development of a balanced pro-
gram to manage non-hazardous waste and
high-volume waste.
Pesticides. The pesticides research plan is
designed to support EPA requirements
specified by the Federal Insecticide, Fungi-
cide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) as
amended, and the amendments to the Federal
Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FFDCA).
The research study areas for the support of the
requirements are: (1) protect public health
and the environment — to identify popula-
tions-at-risk, assess population exposures,
and determine adverse effects to health and
ecology; (2) minimize introduction of pes-
ticides into the environment—to develop data
to support strategies that will decrease future
pesticide dispersion.
Nonionizing Radiation. Our research
program that supports environmental radio
frequency radiation guidance will develop
assessments of the health risks posed by
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continuous low-level exposure to such radia-
tion. The three major study areas are: (1) bio-
logical effects—to demonstrate the existence
of reproducible biological effects and to
establish dose-response models; (2) mecha-
nisms of interaction — to determine the
manner in which nonionizing radiation
interacts biophysically and biochemically
with living systems; (3) human studies—to
carry out epidemiological and clinical studies
to determine the effects of radio frequency
radiation exposure in human populations.
Noise. The noise research, being managed
by the Office of Air, Noise, and Radiation, is
designed to support the responsibilities set
forth in the Noise Control Act of 1972, as
amended by the Quiet Communities Act of
1978. There are three specific research study
areas: (1) improve existing data—to increase
the health and welfare noise data base, refine
existing criteria and quantify nonauditory
dose/response criteria; (2) health effects—to
thoroughly understand the health implications
of noise and to assure the benefits of noise
control actions; (3) noise control—to develop
means to control noise including
transportation-related noise, machinery
noise, and home interior noise.
Energy. The energy and environment
research program is an interagency effort to
provide the information necessary to strike a
balance between ample domestic energy
production, reasonable cost, and environmen-
tal quality. The program is divided into a
health and environmental effects program and
a pollution control technology program.
The health and environmental effects
program is designed to study consequences of
energy extraction, processing, combustion,
and disposal of residual materials. Effects
will be studied for energy-related air pollution
and leachate hazards; advanced fuels and
advanced fuels combustion processes effects
will also be studied as will offshore drilling.
Effects studies will include mine reclamation,
pollutant deposition on ecosystems and
effects of energy-related toxicants. Atmos-
pheric transport and effects research projects
include: (1) transport and dispersion of power
plant stack plumes at short range, (2) trans-
port, transformation and dispersion of energy
pollutants at long range, (3) acid deposition,
(4) visibility impairing haze, and (5) synfuel
atmospheric pollution.
The control technology program is divided
into three study areas: (1) solid fuel extraction
— to develop and demonstrate methods to
control, treat and abate pollutants from
mining andbeneficiation, especially surface
mining in the western United States; (2) con-
ventional combustion — to develop and
demonstrate cost-effective control technol-
ogy to be used in conjunction with utility and
industrial processes, especially technology to
control sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, and
particulates; (3) fuel conversion for synthetic
fuels—to evaluate control technology for the
major process streams of synfuel processes,
in particular coal liquefaction and gasification
and oil shale processes.
Anticipating Environmental Problems.
Our anticipatory program is designed to
support EPA's regulatory activities and to
look over the horizon to identify trends
affecting the future environment. The goal is
to identify the specific types of changes that
will affect the future environment, then
identify and classify problems that may result
from these changes. This information will
assure that proper exploratory research can be
instituted. Environmental problems fall into
five classes: (1) known problems of known
scope; (2) known problems of unknown
scope; (3) potential problems contingent on
technological, economic, or other discontin-
uities or changes in trends; (4) unknown
problems which are potentially discernible;
and (5) unknown problems not likely to be
discernible. The mainstream of Agency
research and regulations focuses on the
environmental problems of the first class,
where the effort involves precise quantifica-
tion of problem and scope and appropriate
regulatory response. The area of greatest
interest for the anticipatory research program,
however, are the middle three classes where
we can bring light to poorly understood
problems, identify the lead indicators of
changing trends and uncover altogether new
and pressing environmental issues.
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ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH
PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT
The planning and management of
research must be dynamic* EPA's
research plan supports regulations
and anticipates problems*
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Over the past two years, EPA has instituted
major changes in the planning and manage-
ment of research to support its regulatory
programs. These changes are intended to
better integrate the Office of Research and
Development into the mainstream of the
Agency's activities and thereby enhance the
responsiveness of the research program to
EPA's regulatory and enforcement needs.
Responsiveness Through
Joint Planning
The Research Committee System. The
key feature of the Agency's new joint re-
search planning process is the establishment
of the Research Committee System. The sys-
tem is an outgrowth of a pilot project, initiated
in 1977, that investigated the feasibility of
planning ORD research programs by commit-
tees composed of representatives from ORD,
the regulatory program offices, EPA Re-
gional Offices, the Office of Enforcement and
the Office of Planning and Management.
Major goals of the pilot project were to de-
velop research plans and multi-year strategies
which are closely attuned to the research
needs of the Agency and to forge a link be-
tween EPA's research and development ac-
tivities and the program offices responsible
for developing regulations. Initially, five
committees were formed to address: pes-
ticides, mobile source air pollution, particu-
late air pollution, drinking water, and indus-
trial wastewater.
The success of the pilot effort led the
Agency in 1979 to increase the number of
committees from five to twelve. Four of the
original five pilot committees have been re-
tained; the fifth, the Particulate Air Pollution
Committee, has been expanded to encompass
gaseous, as well as particulate, pollutants.
The seven additional committees address
oxidants, hazardous air pollutants, radiation,
municipal wastewater, water quality, solid
waste, and toxics testing and assessment.
Recently, ORD established a thirteenth Re-
search Committee that will deal with energy.
The nature of the energy program is such that
it, in part, is complementary to established
program areas; nevertheless, it also maintains
a strong multi-media perspective and reflects
an important interagency partnership. In areas
where the energy and non-energy programs
are complementary, ORD has aligned the en-
ergy program with the established commit-
tees. However, the Energy Research Commit-
tee devotes special attention to the multi-
media and interagency aspects of the energy
program. The new group is also responsible
for a multi-year research strategy for the en-
tire energy program. They are also responsi-
ble for maintaining close coordination with
the other committees, especially during the
planning process which produces ORD's pro-
gram plans for each fiscal year. As the Energy
Research Committee becomes fully opera-
tional in the coming months, about 93% of
ORD's total program will be planned within
its framework.
Each of the thirteen committees is specifi-
cally oriented to users of research information
and thus is aligned to a major regulatory sub-
ject area which, in turn, corresponds to the
organization and mission of a particular regu-
latory program office. To strengthen the
research/regulatory bond, each committee is
co-chaired by a senior manager from ORD
and a senior manager from the committee's
corresponding regulatory program office.
Membership and active participation on the
committees has also been sought from EPA's
Regional Offices, Office of Enforcement, and
Office of Planning and Management.
The responsibilities of the Research Com-
mittees are to:
• Review the upcoming year's (e.g., FY
81) research plans and formulate appro-
priate recommendations to improve
them;
• Participate in the development of budget
year plans (FY 82);
• Review the quality of ongoing and re-
cently completed research (e.g., FY 80);
• Develop a multi-year research strategy
with sufficient detail for use as a primary
planning document in subsequent years
(e.g.,FY 83, 84, etc.).
It is that last responsibility—development of a
research strategy—which is the focal point of
each committee's deliberations. These re-
search strategies are revised annually and
provide the basis for preparing annual budget
and other planning documents.
Further progress in the committee system
has resulted from the recent ORD establish-
8
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ment of a Research Council to coordinate
committee activities. The Council, chaired by
ORD's Assistant Administrator, is composed
of ORD co-chairmen from each of the thirteen
committees and the Director of ORD's Office
of Research Program Management. ORD's
Deputy Assistant Administrators are ex of-
ficio members.
The concept of the Council grew from
ORD's early recognition of the need to coor-
dinate Committee activities in order to op-
timize the use of resources and to disseminate
significant research findings to the many
users of ORD's research results. The Re-
search Council serves as a focal point for dis-
cussing multi-media issues, exchanging in-
formation related to committee activities, re-
solving issues of concern to two or more
committees, and guiding the work of the
committees. Overall, the Research Council
serves as an integrating forum with a multi-
media perspective.
The establishment of the Research Com-
mittees and the Research Council represents a
major change in the way EPA plans research.
Although the system has been in full opera-
tion for less than a year, the research program
has already become focused more closely on
the research needs of EPA. The coming years
promise to continue the progress.
The Research Outlook. With the advent
of the research committee system, future Re-
search Outlooks will acquire new impor-
tance in the planning process. The Research
Outlook will maintain a dynamic relationship
with the Research Committees and with their
main product, the research strategy. Outlook
will give the committees guidance for delib-
erations, especially in revising the strategy;
the research committee strategies, which
specifically delineate research needs and
plans, will, in turn, help to shape Outlook.
The future Research Outlooks will also con-
sider the results of strategic analyses and cur-
rent research, such as anticipatory research.
as well as insights from top environmental
researchers.
The Research Outlook 1980, the fifth in
PLANNING AND IMPLEMENTATION SCHEME IN ORD
GRANTS-
COOPERATIVE
AGREEMENTS
SCIENCE
ADVISORY
BOARD
FORMAL
AGENCY
OMB,
CONGRES-
SIONAL
BUDGET
PLANNING
PROCESS
SPECIAL
GROUPS,
INDIVIDUALS
SUCH AS NAS,
IRLG
RESEARCH
(COMMITTEES
STRATEGIC
ANALYSIS
GROUP
IN-HOUSE
LAB WORK
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RESEARCH COMMITTEES AND CORRESPONDING PROGRAM
OFFICES
PROGRAM PROGRAM DAA'S ORD RESEARCH
OFFICE OFFICE COMMITTEE
OFFICE OF AIR,
NOISE AND
RADIATION
OFFICE OF
WATER AND
WASTE
MANAGEMENT
OFFICE OF TOXIC
SUBSTANCES
OFFICE OF RADIATION
PROGRAMS
OFFICE OF MOBILE
SOURCE AIR
POLLUTION CONTROL
OFFICE OF AIR
QUALITY PLANNING
AND STANDARDS
OFFICE OF WATER
PROGRAM
OPERATIONS
OFFICE OF WATER
PLANNING AND
STANDARDS
OFFICE OF DRINKING
WATER
OFFICE OF SOLID
WASTE
OFFICE OF TESTING
AND EVALUATION
OFFICE OF PROGRAM
INTEGRATION AND
INFORMATION
OFFICE OF PESTICIDE
PROGRAMS
RADIATION
MOBILE SOURCE AIR
POLLUTION
OXIDANTS
GASEOUS AND
INHALABLE PARTICU-
LATE POLLUTANTS
HAZARDOUS AIR
POLLUTANTS
MUNICIPAL WASTE-
WATER AND SPILL
PREVENTION
INDUSTRIAL
WASTEWATER
WATER QUALITY
DRINKING WATER
SOLID WASTE
TESTING AND
ASSESSMENT
E
N
E
R
G
Y
C
O
M
M
I
T
T
E
E
PESTICIDES
the series, is the first to consider the research
committee strategies, although some strate-
gies and this year's Outlook were developed
concurrently. More effective use of the re-
search strategies will be made in future Out-
looks.
Research Planning Goals. EPA research
planning goals over the next several years are
to:
• Refine the strategies for all research
committees;
• Refine and improve the research commit-
tee system as a whole;
• Synchronize the research committee
schedule with the Agency's zero base
budget schedule;
• Better integrate the research committees
into the Research Outlook develop-
ment;
• Ensure the prominent place of the Re-
search Outlook in the planning process.
Responsiveness Through
Better Management
In addition to the improvements made in
EPA's research planning process, the Agency
10
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has also initiated several changes in its
research management.
Organizational Changes. EPA has been
under increased pressure to provide higher
quality management of several key research
areas. In 1979, the Office of Research and
Development took a major step to respond to
those pressures. ORD realigned its laboratory
reporting relationships to consolidate func-
tional or discipline groupings. This action
established: 1) the Office of Health Research
to manage health effects research, 2) the
Office of Environmental Processes and
Effects Research to integrate environmental
transport, fate and effects research, 3) the
Office of Environmental Engineering and
Technology to integrate control technology
and hazardous waste research, and 4) the
Office of Health and Environmental Assess-
ment (OHEA) to improve coordination of
effects assessment activities. The OHEA will
produce guidelines for several types of risk
assessments required for development of EPA
regulations. OHEA will also oversee the
assessments prepared by regulatory program
offices to ensure reasonable conformity to the
guidelines.
ORD continues to experiment cautiously
with matrix management approaches, primar-
ily to improve the coordination and delivery
of high visibility, short-term research prod-
ucts (e.g., the Diesel Particulates program).
In the future, a limited number of similar
matrix management programs—including the
Acid Precipitation program—will be estab-
lished.
Research Program Reviews. Credibility
and integrity of all data generated for EPA
decisions are essential. EPA has therefore
acted during the past year to build appropriate
review mechanisms into its scientific and
technological efforts. The Office of Research
and Development has issued guidelines for
those reviews in order to distinguish between
planning and resource allocation reviews and
the reviews of ongoing research and technical
results. In addition to routine laboratory
reviews, the guidelines call for quarterly
reviews of cross-cutting issues to provide the
Assistant Administrator of Research and
Development with fresh perspectives and
sound judgments from scientific experts
outside of ORD. Programmatic reviews
conducted along the same lines as the research
areas of the established Research Committees
are encouraged. In all cases, ORD will
attempt to strengthen outside advice and peer
review.
Long Term Research and Grant Proce-
dures. ORD is taking steps to assure that EPA
addresses the most important future problems
and attracts the best scientific talent to work
on the problems. These steps mainly involve
research grants, the primary mechanisms
available for attracting the talent and support-
ing innovative ideas. ORD is endeavoring to
make the scientific community more widely
aware of research grants and is encouraging
much greater competition for them; ORD is
also attempting to ensure that grants are
awarded on the basis of merit through en-
hanced peer review. Recent administrative
actions to improve grants included a rigorous
review of the existing grants procedure and
subsequent recommendations for improve-
ment. One improvement now being im-
plemented is the creation of an Office of
Exploratory Research to provide the organiza-
tional capability for anticipating emerging
environmental problems and providing re-
sponsive research. The new office will also
consolidate the tasks of scientific peer review
and administration of research grants, this
latter task to include an expanded research
proposal solicitation system.
Improving Accountability. Effective
management of research programs requires
the monitoring of often-abstract performance
indicators. Identification of the proper degree
of monitoring and of the correct indicators is
essential to achieve a balance between project
accountability and management flexibility.
ORD, in its attempt to attain that balance, has
developed a system to reliably track projects
to determine if they produce the critical
outputs required by EPA Program and Re-
gional Offices, as identified by the Research
Committees. The tracking system is still
being refined; current efforts are attempting to
reduce the number of products that must be
tracked. In another step to improve accoun-
tability, ORD has significantly streamlined
the preparation of laboratory implementation
plans which, taken as a whole, compose
ORD's annual operating plan. One key
streamlining action has been to focus the
11
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plans on project products, thereby enhancing
accountability through better tracking and
management. This and other changes have
reduced the amount of paper, time, effort and
cost associated with developing the operating
plan.
Accountability of the most important
product of EPA's research program — the
proven scientific information that it develops
— will also be improved. In 1978, EPA-
supported research resulted in more than 600
articles in peer-reviewed journals; during
1980, a new technical information policy will
be implemented to improve the quality and to
increase the flow of such information. Under
this new policy, increased emphasis will be
placed on publication of research results in
respected journals and significant im-
provements will be made to the manner in
which research information is communicated
to those who need it. In a related step, a major
technical information initiative is now
underway to consolidate most of the informa-
tion transfer activities pertaining to EPA's
research program and to provide quality
control of technical information products.
The goal of this initiative is to improve both
the scientific quality and the cost-
effectiveness of EPA's research information
output.
Research Management
Goals
EPA research management goals over the
next several years include:
• Enhancement of peer review
• Refinement of program review proce-
dures, including Research Committee
reviews
• Improvement of grant solicitation and
review procedure, especially for long-
term research
• Continuation of the matrix management
experiment
• Development and improvement of a
reliable tracking system.
12
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TOXIC SUBSTANCES
Chemicals may pose risks to man and
the environment* EPA is conducting
research to understand those risks
and to minimize them*
13
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The fundamental purpose for EPA's toxic
substances research is to provide accurate,
scientifically rigorous, timely information
and data collection methodologies to support
decisions to regulate and control man-made
toxic materials in the environment. This
research effort may be viewed from two
perspectives. First, under the broad authority
granted EPA by the Toxic Substances Control
Act of 1976 (TSCA), our research will
develop methods to test and assess toxics and
will gather and analyze information necessary
for us to understand potential hazards posed
by chemicals to human health and the envi-
ronment. The second, and larger, perspective
Many of EPA's research
programs are in some
way concerned with
toxic chemicals.
however is that many of EPA's other federally
mandated research programs are in some way
concerned with toxic chemicals and thus may
be useful for solving the toxic substances
dilemma. In fact, except for research of
nonionizing radiation, noise, and some parts
of our drinking water program which deal
with bacteria and virus control, a significant
portion of our research is now concerned with
characterizing and controlling pervasive toxic
substances.
To effectively meet the toxics challenge,
our research structure is designed to address
the primary aspects of the hazardous chemical
problem: the sources of pollution (e.g.,
energy production and manufacturing), the
types of pollution (e.g., solid waste, panicu-
late emissions), the receiving environmental
media (e.g., air, water, sediment), and the
effects related to each of these stages of a
toxic's presence in the environment. This
structure, which has evolved from combina-
tions of past and present programs, takes
advantage of the multidisciplinary scientific
skills already assembled and organized to
study particular toxics problems.
The research information we gather must
meet the immediate needs of TSCA im-
plementation; the information must also fill
some gaps in our knowledge about methods to
control long-term environmental pollution
problems. But because our information is to
support regulatory decisions, we must thor-
oughly understand and appreciate the goals of
the regulators as well as the pressures they
face. Their prime regulatory difficulty is, in
essence, how to maximize social benefit from
modern technology while limiting associated
risk to a permissible level. This "maximum
benefit at acceptable risk'' is the foundation
for the expanding body of Congressional
regulatory legislation on the environment and
public health.
Legislative Authority. Legislation to
control toxic emissions consists of a number
of federal laws to protect people and the
environment from hazardous substances.
These laws for the most part evolved from
earlier public health protection efforts of
limited scope and of different control
philosophy. For example, the intent of major
environmental legislation passed in the early
1970's was mitigation of pollutants in specific
media after the fact, that is, after pollutants
were already in the environment.
Two more recent pieces of legislation,
TSCA and the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide,
and Rodenticide Act of 1972 (FIFRA), are
specifically written to prevent future hazard-
ous contamination from new chemicals being
placed on the market. These Acts stress
protection of the total environment and were
designed to supplement rather than override
existing pollution control laws. A third piece
of notable legislation, the Federal Water
Pollution Control Act, sets effluent standards
for 65 classes of pollutants and is thus the first
law that mandates a toxic chemical control
effort.
Research done under all of these mandates,
we expect, will provide the necessary insights
for government, industry, scientists, and the
public to grasp the problems posed by toxic
chemicals and may also heighten the general
expectation that they will be corrected or
prevented. But toxic chemical control will be
neither immediate nor simple.
The Chemical Problem. Industrial data
help illustrate the complexity of chemical
control: In November 1977, the American
14
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Chemical Society's registry of chemicals
listed almost four and a half million distinct
chemical substances—and this roster only
included compounds cited in literature since
1965. The number of chemicals currently in
commercial production in the U.S. is well
over 40,000 with at least 50 substances
manufactured in amounts exceeding 1.3
billion Ibs/yr. The $113 billion generated per
year through production and distribution of
chemicals by over 115,000 businesses ac-
counts for 7% of the U.S. Gross National
Product. Today, a direct relationship exists
between the escalating industrial growth in
our country and sharp increases in the
production and use of chemicals. These
increases are projected to continue with, for
example, a high demand in the plastics
industry for such basic organics as vinyl
chloride, styrene, and propylene oxide. Yet,
while these and other manufactured chemi-
cals may be used in medicines, in the produc-
tion of more and better consumer goods, and
in fertilizers that increase food production,
the risks they pose cannot be ignored.
The frequency with which toxic substances
occur in the environment and the adverse
effects attributed to them have both increased
markedly in recent years. Of note, a number
A number of substances
have been identified that
require priority
investigation and
possible regulation.
of substances now known to be adverse to
human health such as mercury, kepone,
chloroform and chlorinated dioxins, were not
so identified until after having caused their
damage. Therefore, the crux of the toxics
control dilemma is how to anticipate the
existence of such substances and circumvent
their deleterious impact.
Since research into chemical usage has
been largely limited to the study of acute toxic
effects, little is known about the environmen-
tal transport and fate, biological pathways,
and the chronic long-term effects of most
substances. Contributing to our lack of
knowledge is a shortage of laboratory facili-
ties and professionals trained in toxicology,
industrial hygiene, pathology, and other
relevant disciplines.
Based upon the information we do have,
however, a number of substances have been
identified that require priority investigation
and possible regulation. The following give
even more urgency to our work:
• PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls) are
appearing in fish at unacceptable levels
in fisheries across the nation. Although
banned for unenclosed uses since July 1,
1979 by TSCA, PCBs will remain as
persistent toxic agents in the sediments
of streams, lakes, and coasts. Substantial
amounts of PCBs are also contained in
sealed capacitors and transformers.
• Preliminary laboratory test results indi-
cate that some diatoms, algae, and
phytoplankton (the foundation of the
marine food chain) are sensitive to
ultraviolet light and may be endangered
if worldwide emissions of ozone deplet-
ing substances continue, allowing pro-
gressively more ultraviolet light to pass
through the ozone layer of the atmos-
phere.
• The Love Canal landfill in Niagara Falls,
New York was recently discovered to be
the disposal site for over 21,000 tons of
chemical wastes including highly toxic
substances such as benzene hexachlo-
ride, hexachlorobutadiene, trichloro-
phenol and dichlorobenzene, etc.; over
$2 billion in personal liability damage
claims have been filed due to chemical
leakages.
• A two-year study conducted by the
Environmental Defense Fund and the
New York Public Interest Research
Group has found that the Hudson River is
contaminated by a spectrum of toxic
substances including PCBs, benzene,
xylene, cyclohexane, tetrahydrofuran,
toluene, and chloroform.
• Asbestos fibers have been found in the
lungs of most persons tested. According
15
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RECOGNIZED HAZARDOUS AGENTS*
CHEMICAL
Acrylonitrile (AN)
Arsenic
Asbestos
Benzene
Beryllium
Cadmium
Sulfur dioxide
Vinyl chloride (VC)
Lead
USE
manufacture of
acrylic fibers,
synthetic rubbers
and plastics
pesticides and
manufacture of glass
roofing, insulation,
certain cement pipe,
flooring, packing
and gaskets, friction
materials coating,
plastics, textiles and
paper
octane booster in
gasoline; manufac-
ture of numerous
other chemicals
manufacture of
rockets and airplanes,
ceramic parts and
household appliance
circuitry
electroplating;
in certain plastics,
pigments and other
products
preservation of fruits
and vegetables; dis-
infectant in breweries
and food factories;
bleaching of textile
fibers; solvent
plastics; refrigerant;
organic synthesis
tank linings and pip-
ings storage batteries,
ceramics, plastics,
and electronic
devices; gasoline
additive
HAZARDS
highly toxic; possibly
carcinogenic and
teratogenic
poisonous; causes
dermatitis, muscular
paralysis, damage to
liver and kidneys;
possibly carcinogenic
and teratogenic
carcinogenic to
industrial workers
and immediate
families
causes leukemia and
chromosomal damage
in exposed workers
causes fatal lung
disease, heart prob-
lems, enlarged liver
and spleen, kidney
stones and cancer
causes kidney
damage and
emphysema; possibly
carcinogenic,
teratogenic and
mutagenic
intensely irritating to
the eyes and the
respiratory tract;
causes extensive cor-
rosive environmental
damage
systemically toxic;
carcinogenic
intoxicant and
poison; causes
additional subclinical
effects
EPA
REGULATORY
ACTIONS
risk assessment for
new performance
standards for air
emissions
investigation of air
exposure to arsenic;
review of uses in
fungicides and
herbicides
assessment of sources
and uses; planning
of new regulations
under Clean Air Act
for existing buildings
listing as hazardous
air pollutant;
analysis of
population health
effects to assess risks
and determine
control options
controlled under
hazardous air
pollution standards
effective 10/77
studies to regulate air
sources based on
health impacts,
carcinogenic risk
sources, and environ-
mental impacts of
control options; use
as fungicide under
review
setting of criteria
revision schedules
5/80, as EPA criteria
air pollutant
proposal of VC
hazardous air
pollutant amend-
ment 6/2/77 to
reduce emissions
to zero
setting of ambient air
standards; revision of
national primary
drinking water regu-
lations; criteria set
for lead in ambient
waters; setting of
industrial effluent
guidelines and levels
in solid wastes;
analysis of
environmental and
economic impact
16
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RECOGNIZED HAZARDOUS AGENTS*
CHEMICAL
Mercury
PBBs
PCBs
Chlorinated solvents
Chromates
Coke oven emissions
Dibromochloro-
propane (DBCP)
Ethylene dibromide
(EDB)
Ethylene oxide
•Tfeken from "Hazardous
USE
electrical apparatus;
preparation of other
chemicals; medicines
and pharmaceutical
products; paints and
pesticides
flame retardant
insulation for heavy
duty electrical
equipment
dry cleaning and
degreasing opera-
tions; aerosol sprays,
paints, certain
cleaners and
pesticides
paints and pigments,
fungicides, wood pre-
servatives and
corrosion inhibitors
emitted in coke pro-
duction for the iron
and steel industry
soil fumigant;
nematocide
additive in leaded
gasoline; pesticide;
solvent and interme-
diate industrial
chemical
auto antifreeze;
sterilization of
medical equipment
HAZARDS
causes severe nervous
system damage and
kidney destruction
accidentally mixed
with animal feed in
1973, causing
possible human ill-
ness and the destruc-
tion of thousands of
farm animals
possibly carcinogenic;
causes nerve, skin
and liver damage
cause depression of
the central nervous
system and heart
functions, liver
problems; possibly
carcinogenic
cause skin ulcers and
kidney inflamma-
tion; possibly car-
cinogenic; toxic to
fish and other animals
cause lung cancer
and other illnesses
causes sterility and
cancer
possibly carcino-
genic, mutagenic and
teratogenic
mutagenic in
humans; causes tes-
ticular damage; eye
and respiratory tract
irritant; skin blister-
ing agent
EPA
REGULATORY
ACTIONS
controlled under
hazardous air pollu-
tion standards
effective 10/77
investigation of the
need to regulate
manufacture and use
as flame retardant
setting of final rule
prescribing disposal
and marking require-
ments effective 4/18/
78; ban on production
(as mandated by
TSCA) proposed
6/7/78
regulation plans for
chloroform in drink-
ing water, and for
perchloroethylene
under Clean Air Act
revision of 1976
drinking water and
water quality stan-
dards; listing as
hazardous substance
under FWPCA §311
determination of
whether to list as
"new source or
hazardous" pol-
lutant under Clean
Air Act; Water
Programs assessment
to propose effluent
guidelines
review of pesticide
use
Environmental
Defense Fund petition
(8/77) to regulate;
review of pesticide
and other uses
review of uses as
insecticidal,
fungicidal, and
bactericidal fumigant
Substances" (EPA, November 1978) and The 9th Annual Report of the Council on Environmental
Quality (1978), pp. 186-192.
17
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to researchers at the University of
Chicago, asbestos participates that have
an iron-containing coating, are present in
96 percent of urban dwellers who have
been examined. Despite OSHA and EPA
standards for occupational exposure and
air emissions, there is growing concern
that public exposure to asbestos gener-
ally may be increasing.
Regulation Under TSCA. TSCA is de-
signed to help eliminate existing and future
threats to public health and to the environment
posed by toxic substances. Several key
provisions within TSCA serve to fill gaps in
earlier-promulgated mandates.
• manufacturers and/or processors may be
required to test new and existing chemi-
cals for potential health and environmen-
tal effects;
• a premanufacture notification process is
required for all new chemicals and
chemicals proposed for significant new
use (although certain exemptions are
possible);
• EPA can limit processsing, production,
distribution, disposal, or use of chemi-
cals to prevent unreasonable risks to
health or environment (providing that
regulation under other statutes is not
more appropriate);
• reports may be required to provide
information concerning the commercial
distribution and exposure of toxic sub-
stances; health and safety studies may
also be required.
The Implementation of TSCA. To date,
TSCA implementation has involved defini-
tion and initiation of preliminary test schemes
and assessment approaches. Over the next 5
years EPA will revise and expand health and
environmental effects test methods and will
develop standards for characterizing chemi-
cals and their fate. Standards for environmen-
tal effects testing will likewise be developed.
Toxic Substances
Research and
Development Program
Three goals provide the framework for
ORD's toxic substances research program:
provide specialized technical assistance to
resolve complex problems, develop research
capabilities to meet TSCA implementation
time frames, and develop a comprehensive
long-range program to continuously refine
test methods and assessment schemes.
ORD will support EPA's toxic substances
program by providing the expertise and
methodology for required tests and by aiding
the Office of Pesticides and Toxic Substances
(OPTS) in toxic substances hazard and
exposure assessment. OPTS will require
improved hazard assessment test evaluation
procedures, both to analyze data from indus-
try sources and to support its own results for
regulatory purposes. Improved exposure
assessment tests will give additional depth to
the program by allowing EPA to clearly
evaluate exposure levels from a variety of
pollutants and the consequent hazard they
pose to humans and the environment. Expo-
sure parameters to be documented include
toxic chemical release, fate, use, distribution,
and disposal.
Chemicals of specific
regulatory and research
interest will be studied.
Additonally, ORD will aid OPTS in a
number of special projects not necessarily in
response to any one section of TSCA. Chemi-
cals of specific regulatory and research
interest will be studied, as will improved
methods for risk assessment. Exploratory and
confirmatory studies such as the biological or
climatic impacts of stratospheric ozone
reduction will also be undertaken. Thus,
ORD's research program will effectively
converge with EPA's effort within OPTS to
implement TSCA by studying, evaluating,
and documenting the health and environmen-
tal impacts of toxic substances.
ORD's program is designed to support
EPA's toxic effort by:
(1) developing first generation testing
standards to define health and ecologi-
cal effects;
18
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THE THREE MAIN SOURCES OF INFORMATION ON THE
ACUTE AND CHRONIC EFFECTS OF A CHEMICAL
rir i
EPIDEMIOLOGICAL
LONG-TERM
ANIMAL STUDIES
SHORT-TERM
TESTS
(2) providing analyses of ambient pollutant
transport and fate;
(3) determining the ambient presence of
selected toxic substances;
(4) recommending alternative manufactur-
ing process options for the processing
and/or production of potentially
hazardous or toxic materials;
(5) providing technical expertise and
specialized equipment to agency oper-
ating programs.
Most FY 80 research activities supporting
TSCA will continue into the future. FY 80
budget increases will both expand base
programs and provide resources for ORD's
Public Health Initiative (PHI), the first toxic
substances program that assesses their envi-
ronmental pathways and integrates this data
with human exposure and adverse health
effects. PHI identifies the value of using
predictive models in assessing risk and
hazards and responds to the need for more and
improved programs which have direct bearing
on health and environmental quality.
Program Strategy. Four study areas
provide the framework for EPA's overall
toxics research program: (1) health effects,
(2) environment, (3) monitoring support, and.
(4) industrial processes.
Each of these areas requires the develop-
ment and application of validated measures
and techniques to assure quality. Our quality
assurance program will cover personnel,
methods, equipment and data handling
procedures to guarantee the precision and
accuracy of data bases used for risk assess-
ment and regulatory decisions. This program
will be applied to each of the Agency study
areas individually and as they function in
EPA's integrated toxics research system.
Health Effects Research
Historically, testing chemical substances
on experimental animals to predict toxicity in
humans has concentrated on acutely lethal
effects. Now, however, we are giving more
consideration to delayed or cumulative toxic
effects.These effects are being measured
through tests capable of determining chronic
toxicity through examination of diseased
organic tissue. A number of factors, however,
complicate all toxicity testing. Past tests and
experience have confirmed, for example, that
the route of entry of a toxic substance into a
body dramatically affects the nature of its
toxicity. Other factors include differences in
species and/or sex sensitivities or suscep-
19
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tibilities, as governed by metabolism and
hormonal controls.
To date our research has been specific to
investigation of single chemicals, but now
needs a broader scope to facilitate the design
of convenient, valid model systems that more
completely define human health effects. We
also need to know more about the kinds of
toxicity that may be escaping our detection;
more prospective-predictive research is
needed.
More prospective -
predictive research is
needed.
Strategy. The Agency's research program
follows four basic lines of inquiry: (1) What is
the full range of human diseases stages that
could result from exposure to environmental
chemicals and chemical classes? (2) What are
the appropriate test systems and/or animal
species that may be cost effectively and
reliably employed to detect chemically
induced disease processes? (3) What critical
life processes impact quantitative extrapola-
tion between species? and (4) How does
man's sensitivity to particular types of
toxicity correlate to that of various test
species?
Extrapolation to Man. Knowing the
biochemical and physiological similarities
and differences between man and exper-
imental animals is necessary to construct test
systems that can quantify responses relevant
to humans. Yet while such correlating infor-
mation has the largest impact on our regu-
latory decisions, our understanding in this
area is only rudimentary. This could lead to,
for example, the acceptance of a substitute
substance more toxic to man than the com-
pound it replaces. We also have the need for
epidemiologic research to determine post
facto toxicity in humans.
Target Organ Toxicity. A considerable
amount of our target organ research is
directed at studying the nervous system, a
specific target for most toxic substances. Our
neurotoxicology efforts will concentrate on
the evaluation of promising neurobiological
test methods. (Al, A2, A3, A4) Ultimately,
we will select those tiered tests (screening,
evaluation, and risk assessment levels) that
prove most appropriate to the regulatory
process. (B8, B9, BIO, Bll) Other significant
target organs include the cardiovascular,
pulmonary, reproductive, endocrine, renal
and hepatic systems, and the exocrine proces-
ses. (Bl through B7, B12 through B20)
Mutagenesis. Existing test systems require
further refinement to acquire the desirable
characteristics of specificity, reproducibility,
high sensitivity, and ease of performance.
Tiered testing will include study of point
(gene) mutation, chromosomal alterations,
and primary DNA damage and repair. We
will also study existing bioassays to deter-
mine their genetic basis and apply this
knowledge to develop new mathematical
models for mutagenesis hazard assessment.
(D4, D5, D6, D7)
Carcinogenesis. The fact that mutagenic
activity in short-term tests seems to correlate
with carcinogenic activity in whole animals
allows mutagenesis tests to be used in
screening chemicals for their potential car-
cinogenicity. Key first-level carcinogenesis
tests include the Ames Salmonella mutagen
assay and in vitro and in vivo cytogenetics.
The Agency is also developing improved
The nervous system is a
specific target for most
toxic substances.
second-level tests with a greater sensitivity to
carcinogens, and greater accuracy for measur-
ing such factors as pharmacokinetics. (Dl,
D2, D3) In the future, it is thought that such
second-level tests may supplant third-level
tests (full-term, chronic testing) thereby
significantly reducing the costs of risk
assessment testing.
20
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Teratogenesis. The significance of the
wide range of embryonic and fetal changes
witnessed in test animals must be researched.
We are also lacking the ability to extrapolate
animal data to human populations, particu-
larly in terms of dose-response and threshold
effects. Further study must be made of in
utero exposures that may alter postnatal
functions of a wide variety of organ systems.
(Cl through C7)
Metabolism. Studies of the effects of toxic
substances on test organisms' metabolism
will facilitate: (1) determining which species
is most proximate to man, (2) identifying
those metabolic processes involved in syner-
gisms and antagonisms; (3) clarifying the role
of toxics bonding to DNA in mutagenesis/
carcinogenesis testing and hazard assess-
ment. Because of the wide differences
between species being tested, all our toxic
substances studies must include examinations
into the intrinsic sensitivity of a given species,
as well as its general metabolic response to
foreign substances. (D8 through D20)
Environmental Research
The need exists for an investigation into the
ecological effects and chemical fate (transport
and persistence) of various compounds in the
environment. In order that those substances
that are toxic can be identified prior to their
causing environmental damage, EPA must
(1) develop test methods and assessment
schemes to define the exposure, hazards, and
risks posed by toxic substances; (2) develop
screening methodologies for the rapid evalua-
tion of large numbers of chemicals; (3) trans-
form state-of-the-art techniques into schemes
for use in initial TSCA implementation.
Testing Methodologies. We will be de-
veloping methodologies for testing ecological
effects and environmental fate of toxic
substances as mandated by TSCA. Our
ecological effects tests are developed to
assess:
• Adverse effects of substances on certain
species which may, in turn, result in
significant ecological damage;
• Indirect human exposures and impacts
resulting from the uptake and concentra-
tion of substances by a given species; and
• Potential impacts of toxic substances on
humans by evaluating specific effects on
other species and on ecosystems.
In developing these tests,emphases are placed
on cost effectiveness and simplicity. Among
the many research areas studied are: the food
chain system, the plant and animal life cycle,
behavioral toxicology, pollen assays, algae
and phytoplankton assays, and plant and
animal uptake studies.
Emphases are placed on
cost effectiveness and
simplicity.
Environmental fate tests define what
happens to a chemical once it is introduced in
the environment, that is, in which part of the
environment (air, water, soil, and biota) the
chemical may accumulate, and for how long
and in what form the chemical will persist.
Fate tests are necessary to provide data for
exposure assessment. Current environmental
fate research will be used to produce support
documents for testing of existing chemicals
and premanufacturing testing to be carried out
by industry. These documents will better
define test limits and applicability and, where
possible, indicate how tests might be made
both more cost effective and broadly appli-
cable. Other environmental fate studies being
conducted include: (1) development of
improved methods for estimating volatility of
chemicals in water; (2) definition of relation-
ships that exist between various physical
chemical properties of soil/sediments and the
measured adsorption and desorption
isotherms; (3) development of methods to
assess biodegradation processes, and reac-
tions of toxic chemicals in air. (El through
E5, E8)
Screening methodologies under develop-
ment are capable of predicting the biological
activity of toxic substances as well as their
fate characteristics. Such screening tech-
niques will be especially helpful in identify-
21
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ing a chemical's potential for causing adverse
effects in more advanced testing. In the
future, screening methods will be capable of
estimating chemical transport, fate and
effects in laboratory ecosystems and micro-
cosms. However, considerable advancements
will have to be made before chemicals can be
effectively screened in such microcosms.
Among the extensive research supporting this
future objective are studies of: structure/
activity relationships, comparative tox-
icology, ecosystem process methodology,
behavioral toxicology, biochemical/
physiologic responses, and methodologies for
predictive models. (E6, E7, E9, E10)
Exposure Assessment Models. Data
derived from health effects screening research
will provide a basis for developing mathemat-
ical models for estimating potential exposures
to toxic substances. Mathematical models are
now being developed to estimate how and
where toxic chemicals enter various environ-
mental media (loadings), their transport,
degradation and distribution (exposure)
characteristics, and their impacts on humans
and the environment (dose responses). These
models will allow EPA to tie quantitative
estimates of human and environmental effects
to projected loadings of a particular toxic
chemical into the environment. Thus, the
environmental risks associated with various
management alternatives can be estimated
and cost-effective regulatory and manage-
ment enhanced.
Environmental risks
associated with various
management alternatives
can be estimated.
Corresponding exposure models for air,
terrestrial, estuarine, and marine envi-
ronments are also under development, along
with basic dose response models for various
critical species of aquatic and terrestrial
organisms, including man. Properly inte-
grated, these models will provide the basis for
multimedia risk assessments. (Fl through F6)
Currently, mathematical model results are
being compared with analytical data obtained
from a wide range of laboratory and field
ecosystems to determine the validity of the
model's conceptual basis. For these tests,
controlled ecosystems such as macrocosms,
channels, field plots, etc., are dosed with a
toxic chemical and the resulting concen-
Engineering tests must
balance cost and
performance.
trations, distributions, and effects are mea-
sured. These data are compared with the
results derived from models that represent the
specific environmental conditions existing in
the controlled ecosystem. Such tests are
crucial to the ultimate use of the model; only
after they are successfully completed can
engineering testing begin to assess the
model's utility. These engineering tests must
balance cost and performance; therefore, the
model's scale and resolution are tuned to
achieve a desired level of output at an
appropriate cost. (F7 through F10)
Monitoring Support
Monitoring is the means by which we
characterize and quantify toxic chemicals in
the ambient environment; this is essential for
evaluating risks to man and the environment.
Much of the data collected under TSCA will
be provided by monitoring programs sup-
ported by other environmental legislation.
Three major activities characterize ORD's
monitoring program: (1) methodology devel-
opment and measurement systems research,
(2) field collection methodology and monitor-
ing activities, and (3) quality assurance.
These efforts complement TSCA by: (1)
filling gaps in the data base on existing
chemicals; (2) assessing exposure to specific
substances, and (3) assessing the effective-
ness of TSCA control strategies.
22
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Methodology Development and Mea-
surement Systems Research. This research
area seeks to develop methodologies for
identifying and quantifying new and existing
toxic chemicals or their major degradation
products in air, soils/sediments, biological
matrices, and commercial products. Such
toxicants vary widely in chemical characteris-
tics and detectability and will continue to
present detection and analytical complexities
for us well into the future. A vigorous,
broadly based analytical chemistry program is
therefore mandatory. In addition, the large
quantities of samples that require analyses for
TSCA implementation creates a need to
increase the speed with which samples can be
handled and to reduce per sample costs.
Existing chemical screening methods will be
streamlined, and nonextractive multi-element
methods will be developed. (Gl through G9)
Existing chemical
screening methods will
be streamlined.
Current methods for collecting and analyz-
ing toxic organics in the atmosphere are
inadequate. Systems must be designed that
are sensitive to the specific differences of the
various geographical areas of the country.
Techniques for separating complex mixtures
in air samples must be improved. (G9)
Research will be conducted to develop
appropriate sampling and analysis techniques
for the full range of potentially toxic organic
materials. This effort will include a new
initiative to deal with the tracking and control
of toxic air pollutants.
Our knowledge concerning the measure-
ment of organics in soils/sediments and
sludges is severely limited. Those soils/
sediments and sludges are, however, major
sinks for many toxic chemicals. Thus, our
research will have to develop methods to
separate, characterize and quantify toxic
chemicals that bind to these media. (G13)
To minimize the efforts put into expensive
quantitative analysis, research into additional
biological monitoring methods will be under-
taken to develop a series of qualitative
screening methods to indicate the presence of
specific pollutants in biological systems. The
first method to be developed will be for the
extremely toxic substance, tetrachlorodiben-
zodioxin.
Commercial products are another source of
trace organics that we will address in our
research effort. Identification of these toxic
substances will be achieved through separa-
tion techniques, such as solvent extraction ion
exchange and selective absorption and vol-
atilization. The identification techniques used
will also be evaluated to establish their
suitability to detect impurities. Validated
methods can then be used for the testing
required by TSCA. Efforts will focus on
determining trace levels of PCBs. (Gl, G2,
G3)
Field Collection Methodology and
Monitoring Activities. Field studies are
necessary to develop and/or apply improved
data collection techniques. In our field
studies, we will concentrate on collecting data
on those pollutants pertaining specifically to
TSCA or to enforcement actions.
Our major effort to date for measuring
ambient levels of air pollutants has involved
the use of the gas chromatograph/mass
spectrometer (GC/MS) to screen for nearly
Future program
emphasis will shift to
developing field
monitoring techniques.
100 organic compounds collected from
various industrial facilities. While we will
continue to refine GC/MS data collection/
sample preparation and extend our known
toxic materials spectra data bank, future
program emphasis will shift to developing
23
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field monitoring techniques. (HI through H7)
We will continue to validate environmental
models that predict ambient pollutant trans-
port, fate and/or effects to determine the
degree of their accuracy. A series of pro-
tocols, or "how to" manuals, will be devel-
oped that will describe field programs de-
signed to collect the data necessary for model
validation. (H4, H5, H7)
Quality Assurance. The quality assurance
program will function as a reviewer of both
EPA's environmental monitoring program,
and the research supporting the standardiza-
tion of monitoring methods and protocols
under TSCA.
The program will also assist OPTS by
developing guidelines for good laboratory
practices, to be used by industry in response
to TSCA testing protocol requiremetns for
environmental effects. Additional assistance
will be provided as needed for drafting the
quality assurance sections of specific testing
protocols. (II through 14)
Industrial Processes
Research
EPA will continue to carry out systematic
assessments to identify the toxic pollutants
discharged to air, water, and solid media by
chemical manufacturing processes. This
work originally focused on product-specific
commercial processes, such as those used to
produce trifluralin, atrazine, nitrobenzene,
aniline, alkyl amines and acrylonitrile.
However, our emphasis has recently shifted
to achieve broader industry coverage by
focusing on the toxic discharges and product
contaminants from generic processes such as
halogenation, amination, oxidation, and
nitration. In the future, generic process toxic
discharges for a number of chemical process
industries, including pesticides, industrial
chemicals, pharmaceuticals, food additives,
petroleum refining, textile fibers, and dyes
and inks, may be examined. (Jl, J3, J4)
The Organic Chemical Producers Data
Base (OCPDB) is an information source
receiving increased use by the regulatory
offices of the Agency. Recently, OCPDB has
been expanded to include information on
potential hazards involved in the production
and use of some 600 organic chemicals.
Further OCPDB expansion will include data
on the various satellite industries such as
plastics, dyes and pigments, pharmaceuti-
cals, etc. Additionally, it has been proposed
that data on the exposure potential inherent in
various chemical uses be developed. Also,
further work on structure-activity relation-
ships will be investigated as the relate to
carcinogenicity. This information will be of
particular value to OPTS in assessing the
potential hazard involved in a given chemi-
cal's manufacture and use.
We will be paying special attention to
highly toxic co-products and by-products that
are formed in the manufacture of important
industrial chemicals. First to be studied will
be chlorinated dioxins, formed as by-products
in the manufacture of certain herbicides and
wood treating chemicals. This study will
include the preparation of a comprehensive
report on the occurrence and properties of
chlorinated dioxins. Additionally, technical
assistance will be provided at locations where
the occurrence of chlorinated dioxins in
industrial waste is a serious problem. The
assistance will include recommendations of
applicable methods for destruction/
detoxification. (J2)
Through in-process evaluations of specific
manufacturing processes, the toxic chemi-
cal(s) inadvertently generated and introduced
into products can be ascertained. Such
evaluations can also pinpoint those in-process
toxic chemical sources that will require
regulation under TSCA and other applicable
statutes. Over the next five years, we will
focus upon developing alternative manufac-
turing methods and operating conditions so as
to reduce toxic product contaminants.
Further, we will evaluate the possibility of
developing substitutes for chemicals that pose
toxic threats.
Over the next five years, EPA will continue
its research into sophisticated toxic chemical
treatment or destruction technology with the
ultimate goal of developing zero-pollutant-
discharge manufacturing technology. (J5)
This effort will be international in scope and
will include cooperative ventures with other
agencies, universities, and industry. (J6)
24
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TOXICS RESEARCH PLAN
PROGRAM AREA FISCAL YEAR 1980
FISCAL YEAR 1981
FISCAL YEAR 1982
FISCAL YEAR 1983
FISCAL YEAR 1984
HEALTH EFFECTS
Development of a
National Neurotoxic-
ological Research
Facility
Acquire and implement
computer systems to
support neurotoxicology
research programs in
developing a battery of
short-term test pro-
cedures to evaluate
neurotoxic responses.
Al
Implement neuro-
chemical and mor-
phological indicators of
the effects of toxic
substances. A2
Validate and implement
a battery of tests for the
effects of toxic sub-
stances on learning,
memory and perform-
ance in non-human
primates. A3
Validate and implement
a battery of tests for the
effects of toxic sub-
stances on learning,
memory and perform-
ance in non-human
primates. A4
Target Organ Toxicity
—Immune System
Ol
Determine the relative
sensitivity of a battery
of standard immuno-
logic parameters to toxic
substances in the mouse.
Bl
Develop an animal
model for evaluating the
effects of toxic
substances on immuno-
surveillance against
tumor cells. B2
Determine the applica-
bility of existing models
for effects of toxic
substances on pulmonary
defense against infec-
tious respiratory
disease. B3
Validate the animal
model's utility with oral
and inhalation routes of
exposure to toxic
substances. B4
Test the effects of inha-
lation of selected
chemicals from several
chemical classes using
the pulmonary infectivi-
ty model. B5
Compare the sensitivity
of the infectivity of
model to other assays of
host defense mech-
anisms. B6
Correlate in vitro to in
vivo exposure models. B7
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TOXICS RESEARCH PLAN(CONT'D)
PROGRAM AREA FISCAL YEAR 1980
FISCAL YEAR 1981 FISCAL YEAR 1982 FISCAL YEAR 1983 FISCAL YEAR 1984
—Nervous System
Evaluate the visual-
evoked-response as an
indicator of neuro-
toxicity. B8
—Reproductive
System
Develop procedures to
assess motility and
viability of sperm cells.
B12
Evaluate the sensitivity
of various testing proce-
dures for the measure-
ment of locomotor
activity. B9
Compare methods for
the rapid evaluation of
the effects of toxicants
on learning in rodents.
BIO
Improve testing proce-
dures to assess sperm
count techniques. B13
Develop and validate
developmental neuro-
toxicology (behavioral
teratology) testing pro-
cedures in rodents. Bll
Publish report on
chemically-induced
alterations in sexually
dimorphic patterns in-
cluding correlations of
anatomical and behavior-
al differentiation, fertili-
ty, fecundity and the on-
togeny of infertility.
B14
Characterize and validate
known chemical agents
producing comparable
toxic effects for predictive
effects in man. B15
Develop FSH, LH,
FSH-RH, LH-RH, and
steroid profiles in male
and female rodents. B16
Evaluate in vivo and
in vitro HCG, LH and
pituitary extract stimu-
lated leydig cell testoster-
one production. B17
Investigate the
physiology of lactation
and the transport of
toxic compounds to
sucklings. B18
—Cardiovascular
System
Initially define chemical
classes which impact
cardiovascular func-
tional pathology. B19
Compare the white
carneau region with
other species as a means
for detecting athero-
sclerosis. B20
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PROGRAM AREA FISCAL YEAR 1980
FISCAL YEAR 1981
FISCAL YEAR 1982
FISCAL YEAR 1983
FISCAL YEAR 1984
Develop values for fetal
hepatic glycogen,
EKG's, renal alkaline
phosphatase, pulmonary
lecithin/sphingomyelin
ratios, and CNS protein
and DNA in normal
fetal development. Cl
Study the relationship of
maternal toxicity to the
outcome of embryonic
and fetal development.
C2
Report the results of ex-
periments to validate
proposed short-term in
vivo screen by the testing
of a significant number
of diverse compounds of
known teratogenic
potential. C3
Final report of research
on the relationship of
morphological and func-
tional cardiac alterations
in mammalian fetuses
with their ECG's. C4
Reports on feasibility
and significance of ultra-
sonic vocalizations in
neonatal rodents as an
indicator of the general
health status of neonates
exposed to toxic
substances in utero. C5
Report the quantitative
and qualitative responses
of the fetal development
of rodent and non-
rodent species (including
man) to aminopterin.
C6
Effects of selected
chemicals on functional
toxicity in fetal organ
systems and the post-
natal sequelae of such
toxicity. C7
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00
TOXICS RESEARCH PLAN(CONT'D)
PROGRAM AREA FISCAL YEAR 1980 FISCAL YEAR 1981 FISCAL YEAR 1982 FISCAL YEAR 1983 FISCAL YEAR 1984
Carcinogenesis and
Mutagenesis
Examine an augmented
cellular activation sys-
tem for detecting carcin-
ogens. Dl
Evaluate the extent of
DNA binding of chemi-
cal carcinogens in sen-
sitive and resistant ro-
dent strains. D2
Evaluate five selected
chemical carcinogens for
response via topical and
parental application in
the SENCAR system. D3
Develop a bladder cell
cocultivation system for
identifying mutagens.
O4
Determine the potential
of the L-5178Y mouse
lymphoma assay to
detect both gene muta-
tion and chromosomal
alteration involving the
thymidine kinase locus.
D5
Begin investigations into
the DNA repair response
in selected strains. D6
Report on potency cor-
relations between results
in short-term mutagenic-
ity /carcinogenicity bio-
assays and long-term
carcinogenicity bioassays.
D7
Report on systems for
detecting chemically in-
duced aneuploidity. DID
Continue comparative
DNA repair studies and
complete in vivo meta-
bolic analysis. D8
Evaluate five selected
chemical carcinogens for
skin tumor response in
the SENCAR system
following oral applica-
tion. D9
Isolate and identify the Determine interspecies Field trial of
Develop methods for
adduct of one chemical differences in the level methodology in human different chemical ad-
carcinogen to hemo-
globin for use in
epidemiology studies.
D13
and type of adduct for-
mation. D14
Determine the relative
potency of 12 chemical
carcinogens in the
hepatic island assay. D15
study population with
two chemicals. D16
ducts. D17
Apply methodology to
field project. D18
Assess an additional 12
chemicals in the hepatic
island system. D19
Report on specific gene
mutation assays using
cells from exposed
humans. Dll
Finalize hemoglobin
adduct system. D20
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PROGRAM AREA FISCAL YEAR 1980
FISCAL YEAR 1981
FISCAL YEAR 1982
FISCAL YEAR 1983
FISCAL YEAR 1984
ENVIRONMENTAL
RESEARCH
Testing Methodologies
Validate algal assay
methods for testing of
toxics. El
Validate Daphnia life-
cycle test for toxics. E2
Validate test for toxics in
embryo/larva stages of
fathead minnows. E3
Testing protocols for
evaluating the per-
sistence of toxics in air.
E4
Standard methods for
octanol/water partition
coefficient determina-
tion. E5
Microcosm for screening
of toxics in marine
organisms. E6
Structure-activity con-
cept for predicting tox-
icity and ecological
effects of toxics. E7
Protocols for leaching
of chemicals in soils. E8
Structure-activity con-
cept for predicting,
transport and fate of
toxics. E9
Multiple assay techni-
ques for interspecies
interaction. E10
Exposure Assessment
Testing of EXAMS
using large laboratory
neo-systems. Fl
Data system for monitor-
ing population exposure
and estimating tech-
niques. F2
Models for predicting
transport and fate of
toxics in soils F3
Prototype environmental
model for toxic concen-
tration prediction in
multimedia environ-
ments. F7
Preliminary evaluation
of food chain models.
F8
Terrestrial models for
assessment of exposure
to toxics. F9
Validate models
developed for predicting
toxic concentration in
air. F10
Quantitative models for
toxics in the marine
environment. F4
Microcosms for predict-
ing concentration of tox-
ics in the terrestrial
environment. F5
N>
VO
Models for predicting
toxic concentration in
air. F6
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TOXICS RESEARCH PLAN(CONT'D)
PROGRAM AREA
MONITORING
Methodology Develop-
ment and Measure-
ment System Research
FISCAL YEAR 1980
Determine effectiveness
of brake cleaning
methods in limiting
asbestos exposures. Gl
FISCAL YEAR 1981
Publish method for
routine analysis of
aldicarb. G4
FISCAL YEAR 1982
Extend "production
type" GC/FTIR system
to specified pollutants.
G7
FISCAL YEAR 1983
Publish method for
measuring organics in
marine systems. G10
FISCAL YEAR 1984
Publish methods for
measuring toxics in
specific products. G12
Field Collection
Methodology and
Monitoring Activities
Determine effectiveness
of dye tracers for detect-
ing freon leaks from
automobile air condi-
tioners. G2
Method for measuring
PCB'sinoil. G3
Publish field methods
for three specific chro-
mophoric compounds
including benzidene (air
measurements). HI
Publish field methods
for separation and
analysis of polar and
hydrophilic compounds
(air measurements.)
H2
Feasibility of microbial
systems for rapid detec-
tion of dioxin. G5
Complete "production
type" GC/FTIR
system and protocol for
analysis of dioxin in
environmental samples.
G6
Publish field methods
for screening specific
toxic air pollutants.
H3
Collect monitoring data
at selected sites for
assessment studies. H4
Publish methods for
measuring specific
organics in sediments.
G8
Publish streamlined
method for multielement
analysis. G9
Publish protocol on
multimedia field pro-
cedures to validate a
stream model. H5
Feasibility of microbial
systems for rapid detec-
tion of specific organic
compounds. Gil
Publish field methods
for screening additional
toxic air pollutants. H6
Publish methods for
specific organics in sedi-
ments. G13
Publish method for use
of microbial system for
rapid detection of
specific pollutants. G14
Publish protocol on-
multimedia field pro-
cedures to validate
selected model. H7
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PROGRAM AREA FISCAL YEAR 1980
FISCAL YEAR 1981
FISCAL YEAR 1982
FISCAL YEAR 1983
FISCAL YEAR 1984
Quality Assurance
INDUSTRIAL
PROCESSES
Publish good laboratory
practices guidelines for
transport and fate and
environmental processes.
II
Publish quality assur-
ance protocol for
measuring asbestos in
ceilings. 12
Develop and initiate
testing of model to in-
dicate toxic environ-
mental risk resulting
from the manufacture of
a chemical. Jl
Prepare reference
manual on dioxins to in-
clude (1) sources, (2) de-
gradation and transport,
(3) disposal and decon-
tamination, (4) toxicity,
(5) sources of human ex-
posure, (6) analytical
methods, and (7)
regulatory considera-
tions. J2
Implement mandatory
quality assurance pro-
gram. 13
Develop guidelines and
protocols as required. 14
Provide an updated
model of economics and
costs in the chemical
process industries:
• structure of the
chemical industry
• market movements
• market practices
• research and develop-
ment and innovation in
the industry
• toxics impact assess-
ment J3
Extend chemical in-
dustry model and:
• Develop systematic
method for selecting
chemical substances for
investigation or for
regulatory action under
TSCA.
• Provide technology
assessments on produc-
tion/use/consumption/
disposal of priority
pollutants.
• Prepare integrated
assessment on specific
chemicals health effects,
technology and control
systems of regulatory ac-
tions. J4
Using chemical industry
model, evaluate alter-
native manufacturing
methods to reduce pro-
duct(s) contamination
and waste emissions
from processing steps.
35
Design and implement a
program for use of
generic and alternate
processes approaches by
regions. 36
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AIR
Dirty air can cause disease*
EPA's research helps to maintain
good air quality*
32
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Each year over 200 million tons of harmful
gases and particles pollute America's air.
Yet, were it not for the development and
deployment of the technologies that control
emissions of air pollutants we would experi-
ence far dirtier air. However, some of the
control techniques may need to be improved.
For example, fine particulates which may
cause lung damage are not perceptibly kept
from the air by application of conventional
devices. And in the future we may see
increases in the net amount of pollutants
emitted to the air if continued industrial
growth is not matched by concurrent ad-
vances in process and control technology.
Toxic air pollution may
cause cancer, mutation,
or birth defects.
Air pollution can cause or contribute to the
chronic diseases of asthma, emphysema,
bronchitis, lung cancer, leukemia, and heart
disease. Toxic air pollution may cause
cancer, mutation, or birth defects. Those who
suffer from these effects of air pollution need
not live near the source of that pollution, for
pollution plumes can be transported great
distances. People and the environment far
downwind can feel the impacts of the original
pollutants or some new pollution products
created by chemical combinations, reactions,
and subsequent transformation of the many
substances in the atmosphere we must
breathe.
Approach to Protect the
Public Health and Welfare
The Clean Air Act provides the legal tools
to control air pollution. Under the act, EPA is
directed to set ambient air quality standards
that protect the public health (primary stan-
dards) and welfare (secondary standards).
These primary and secondary standards are
established for pollutants emitted by either
stationary or mobile sources. Standards were
originally set for paniculate matter, SO2, CO,
hydrocarbons, NO2, and total oxidants; a later
standard was adopted for lead and a standard
for ozone replaced the total oxidant standard.
Every five years EPA reviews the criteria on
which these standards are based and deter-
mines if revisions are necessary.
EPA is also responsible for limiting emis-
sions of air pollutants that are hazardous to
human health. Currently, hazardous air
pollutant regulations exist for asbestos,
beryllium, mercury, and vinyl chloride;
regulations for benzene are under develop-
ment. Under investigation are many other
chemicals, primarily potential carcinogens,
to determine whether they present a signifi-
cant risk to the public. EPA will develop
emission regulations for major sources of
those hazardous materials which are shown to
be dangerous.
We will also continue to emphasize na-
tional emission standards for new or modified
stationary pollution sources as well as control
of mobile sources including diesel cars and
trucks.
Meeting the EPA standards is a responsibil-
ity of each state through development and
implementation of State Implementation
Plans (SIPs). These SIPs limit emissions from
existing sources, set timetables for com-
pliance by air polluters and define monitoring
procedures. But air pollution is a multi-state
Air pollution is a
multi-state problem.
problem that cannot be controlled by unilat-
eral action by any one state. Our evolving
research approach therefore is to study air
pollution control at the regional scale.
Currently identified problem regions include:
(a) The Northeast Corridor, which is
densely populated and downwind of
heavily industrialized areas;
(b) The Ohio River Valley, in which coal is
intensively used but which conse-
33
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quently influences air in the eastern and
northeastern states;
(c) The Sun Belt, which is currently
undergoing rapid population growth
and which may experience more coal
combustion for power generation and
industrial production;
(d) Southern California, which has unique
problems of photochemical pollution
created by a large mobile population
and uncommon climatic conditions;
(e) The area east of the Rocky Mountain
Region, which has an abundance of
energy resources and presently has
pristine air quality; and
(f) Northern states and Canada, which
have the problem of acid precipitation.
Research to Help
Abate Pollution
Sound scientific information is necessary
to: 1) determine the adequacy of existing air
quality standards, 2) establish new standards,
and 3) devise methods for controlling air
pollutants. EPA's air quality research pro-
gram is designed to provide the requisite
information in a timely manner. Our research
program includes the study of health and
environmental effects of air pollutants, the
atmospheric transport and transformation of
the pollutants, technologies to detect, mea-
sure, and control them, and the global
significance of air pollution. We specifically
focus on criteria pollutants, hazardous pollu-
tants, particulates, and vehicle emissions.
The research will stress projects to determine
the health effects of air pollution. Coordi-
nated studies will include animal toxicology
investigations, clinical studies and
epidemiological studies.
Criteria
The Clean Air Act Amendments of 1977
mandated that EPA review and, where
appropriate, revise the National Ambient Air
Quality Standards and the criteria upon which
they are based. The review and possible
revision is to be completed by the end of 1980;
future reviews are to take place at five year
intervals thereafter. Our health effects re-
search program will provide a definitive data
base for the review of ambient pollutant
criteria as well as the revision of criteria
documents, where appropriate. On the basis
of such criteria reviews and revisions, the
adequacy of ambient standards can, in turn,
be effectively reviewed. The next round of
criteria and standards review, scheduled for
the mid 1980's, will draw, in part, on data
developed from our animal toxicology
studies, clinical studies, and epidemiology.
(Al through A7)
In the toxicology studies animal models
will be developed to simulate stressed indi-
viduals and to obtain dose-response data for
air pollution doses at or near the current
standards. Such studies optimize the relation-
ship between animal and human response data
and thus provide our best understanding of the
damage air pollutants can inflict on pulmo-
nary functions and other vital processes. The
studies can also provide guidance for clinical
and epidemiological studies. (A10, A12
through A15, A18 through A24)
Carefully controlled clinical laboratory
studies will obtain human dose-response data
using healthy volunteer male subjects. Data
The new approach
focuses on control of
atmospheric
carcinogens.
will be obtained under normal conditions and
under stressful temperature and exercise
conditions. As with the animal studies,
exposures will be at and near the current
standard levels for pollutants either alone or in
combination, e.g., ozone and SO2. Similar
exposure studies will be conducted on volun-
teers who suffer from various afflictions,
e.g., asthma, emphysema, and bronchitis.
(A8, A9, All, A17, A25)
Epidemiological studies will concentrate
on those regions in which the current air
quality standards are exceeded. These studies
will determine whether the health of the
populace in the poorer air regions varies
34
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significantly from the health of those living in
the better air areas. Many of these studies are
planned for completion in 1983, in time for
the next evaluation of the air quality standards
due during the 1983-1985 period. (A 16, A26)
Hazardous Pollutants
EPA has recently developed and plans
to implement a systematic approach for reg-
ulating toxic air pollutants. The new ap-
proach focuses on control of atmospheric
carcinogens.
Currently we are screening a large number
of organic chemicals to estimate their poten-
tial as human carcinogens and the rate at
which people are exposed to them at current
patterns of emissions. From this screening we
estimate that about forty chemicals per year
will be selected for a detailed evaluation and
approximately six per year may be selected
for regulation if the detailed evaluations
suggest a significant degree of risk and cancer
incidence.
ORD's basic support activities will include
verification of emission factors, field verifica-
tion of exposure estimates, development of
monitoring devices for regulatory enforce-
ment purposes, determination of transforma-
tion rates in the atmosphere, verification of
the efficiency and development of control
devices, and verification of costs of control
systems.
The air industrial program will undertake
over fifty projects during the next few years to
support development of various control
standards for a broad range of industrial
categories. The studies will range from
generic and specific control technology
development, process modification, and
product substitution, to changes in operating
practices of industries.
We will also better identify potential
carcinogens and determine whether they
occur at significant concentrations in ambient
air in order to decrease uncertainties about
exposure risks. This risk data will provide
direct support to regulatory decisions based
on risk assessments. Our hazardous pollutants
research will also describe non-carcinogenic
health effects.
Hazardous air pollutants emitted because
of brief control equipment malfunctions and
the resulting health effects are of concern to
EPA's Office of Enforcement. That Office
needs better information about the conse-
quences of enforcement decisions which
either shut down a source temporarily out of
compliance with standards or allow it to
continue to operate and pollute while control
equipment repairs are being made. The
information that ORD plans to provide to the
Office of Enforcement will come from
development and evaluation of continuous
monitors for chemicals for which regulations
are imminent.
Identification of Potential Carcinogens.
The early identification and characterization
of hazardous substances is of prime interest to
EPA. To minimize the time needed to charac-
terize potentially hazardous substances, a
research program for the development of
rapid screening techniques has been initiated.
Currently, animal screens require 2 to 3 years
to evaluate the toxicity of a substance;
however, new techniques promise to reduce
Chemicals will enter the
regulatory process in a
sequence based on our
estimates of the potential
danger.
the time to 12 to 18 months. Other screens
using bacteria, human and animal cells,
plants, and fruit flies are being evaluated,
and, if they can be developed into a reliable
battery of tests, will further reduce the time
and money needed for evaluation of a sub-
stance. Existing tests are being used to
prioritize substances for further testing. (B11)
Our initial screening of these methods to
determine their capabilities to identify chemi-
cals, indicate mutagenic activity, and deter-
mine biological effects will be completed
shortly. A major field study to characterize
hazardous pollutants in ambient air will then
be initiated. The main study results will be a
list of the airborne chemicals with high
biological activity. These chemicals will
35
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enter the regulatory process in a sequence
based on our estimates of the potential
danger. (Bl, B2, B7, B8)
Improved Risk Estimates. To improve
our ability to estimate risk resulting from
exposure to carcinogens, we will emphasize
three research areas: in vitro studies, animal
toxicology studies, and epidemiological
studies of occupational groups and general
populations. Animal models will be devel-
oped for assessing carcinogenicity of air
pollutants; epidemiological studies will be
conducted in those areas where high levels of
air pollution and high rates of genetic diseases
are known to coexist. Studies will also be
undertaken to assess how air pollution
exposures contribute to adverse health effects
in persons who are exposed to pollutants that
arrive via multiple routes. We will improve
statistical techniques for handling data from
morbidity and mortality studies and will also
develop and standardize measurement
methods and personal monitors to provide
better dose-response measurements for both
clinical and epidemiological studies. (B3,
B9, BIO, B12 through B15)
Control Technology Development. Our
control technology research will cover a wide
range of activities including fundamental
studies, generic and specific control technol-
ogy development, economic evaluations,
We will emphasize
control of volatile
organic compounds.
process changes, product substitution, and
maintenance and operating practices. As part
of our research program we will develop
technologies for controlling harmful toxic
emissions and will also quantify any induced
pollution effects from the control devices.
The requisite information will come from
characterization and assessment studies. We
will emphasize control of volatile organic
compounds, since they are the predominant
class of chemicals identified with car-
cinogenic activity; their control can also help
the atmosphere. (B16 through B19, Jl
through J4)
Non-Carcinogenic Effects Associated
with Chronic Low Level Exposures. The
major portion of ORD's near-term air pollu-
tion health effects research will be to control
carcinogens. But to limit ourselves to only
carcinogenic effects would be short-sighted;
therefore, we will devote some similar
research efforts (albeit at a lower level of
funding) to non-carcinogenic effects. In vitro
screening and animal toxicology testing of
ambient air samples will be carried out.
Epidemiological studies will be completed in
areas of known high disease rates to identify
chemicals which cause significant adverse
health effects. These data will be used to
define risks associated with exposure to
non-carcinogenic air pollutants. (B4, B5, B6)
Long Range Transport
and Transformation
Past pollution research projects were gen-
erally laboratory studies and relatively small
scale field studies. But as our understanding
of the problems has deepened, our research
perspective has shifted and we now realize the
necessity of viewing air pollution on a
regional scale. Findings from European and
U.S. studies on pollutant transport and
transformation, in particular, have led us to
shift the current research approach to empha-
size the regional scale. Our long-term re-
search and development plans in air quality
characterization, transport, and transforma-
tion have thus moved from the city-specific
urban scale to state and interstate problems.
Consideration of the interstate transport
problem is required of State Implementation
Plans (SIPs) as part of the effort to:
• achieve acceptable levels of ozone, PM,
and NO2;
• prevent significant air quality deteriora-
tion; and
• assure good visibility
In many areas, O3 and sulfate from distant
upwind sources contribute significantly to
local ozone and PM burdens; other pollutants
may also be subject to long-range transport.
Furthermore, reactive air substances from
upwind sources may cause locally emitted
36
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pollutants to more rapidly form secondary
pollutants, sulfate, O3, and NO2.
The long range transport and transforma-
tion research is designed to provide the basis
for developing models to predict the reduction
of these regional effects through the applica-
tions of control strategies. The pacing items in
development of long range transport models
are available and reliable mathematical
constants to characterize processes and
adequate data from experimental mea-
surements with which to evaluate the accu-
racy of the models. Our research program will
measure the key parameters which charac-
terize transformation, wet and dry deposition,
dispersion, and transport and will obtain a
data base of meteorological and air quality
information to test final model outputs and
various modules of air quality models.
Model development is usually com-
plemented by field measurements. Such
measurements are designed to test specific
models or model components and to compare
model predictions with real data. This interac-
tive process will produce models better able to
represent and predict actual events.
Our model development/field measure-
ment efforts will emphasize:
• Determination of model parameters such
as meteorological transport and disper-
sion factors, chemical transformation
rates, and removal rates;
• Collection of field data to improve and
validate models for power plant plumes,
urban plumes, regional pollution, and
prolonged elevated pollution episodes
and visibility impairment;
• Validation of models that determine
transport of air pollution between the
United States and Canada; and
• Documentation of the significance of the
long range transport of air pollutants and
the significance of formation of secon-
dary air pollutants during transport as
such formation applies to pollutants,
acid rain, and regional visibility reduc-
tion.
One effort that is designed to achieve the
above objectives is the STATE (Sulfur
Transport and Transformation in the Envi-
ronment) program. Under this program a
series of specific field studies will be con-
ducted to ascertain the individual and com-
bined impacts of power plant plumes, and
urban and regional-scale pollution. Air
quality data from STATE will be obtained on
key air pollutants such as ozone, sulfates, and
nitrates. With these data we will assess the
capabilities of air pollutants to produce wide
scale visibility impairment during prolonged
We will assess the
capabilities of air
pollutants to produce
wide scale visibility
impairment.
elevated pollution episodes which frequently
occur in the summer and early fall. (C2, C7)
We are also developing a regional-scale
photochemical air quality simulation model to
help us determine the environmental signifi-
cance of the transport of ozone and its
precursors over long distances. The model
will allow decision makers to better evaluate
the impact of local oxidant control plans on
surrounding regions and will provide an
opportunity to assess the regional approach to
oxidant control planning. This regional scale
modeling program is designed to permit
model development, refinement, evaluation,
and verification and to provide a framework
from which model research and development
can evolve to meet future regulatory require-
ments. A field measurement program will
evaluate, refine, and verify our first genera-
tion regional photochemical air quality
simulation model. The field studies will focus
on a series of experiments designed to
evaluate and refine formulations of specific
physical/chemical phenomena. (C3, C6, C9,
Cll)
We will also begin the development of an
aerosol module for the regional model.
Emphasis will be on the long range transport
of fine/inhalable particulates to an area east of
Columbus, Ohio and north of Richmond,
Virginia. A first generation regional fine/
37
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inhalable paniculate model will be available
in early FY 82, development of a visibility
module for incorporation in the regional scale
fine particulate model is planned to begin in
FY 82, and a regional visibility model for the
eastern United States will be available in late
FY 83. Throughout these efforts, model
evaluation and testing will be undertaken
using field data. (C8)
Another current project is our three-year
Northeast Regional Oxidant Study (NEROS)
which has as its primary objective the evalua-
tion and verification of a regional model and
its subcomponents. Ultimately, however, the
objective of NEROS is to apply the model to
assess the impact of oxidant control plans on
ozone transported from one urban center to
another. The regional model will be available
and sufficiently verified to warrant applica-
tion jn 1982 SIP revisions if emission inven-
tories are provided for urban areas located in
the Northeastern Corridor (i.e., from Balti-
more-Washington to Boston). This model
may be extended west in FY 82/83 to include
the Ohio Valley region. (Cl, C5)
The demand for
improved air quality has
increased.
Further experimental study of photochemi-
cal pollution/precursor transport phenomena
and continued refinement of our regional
model will be tentatively planned for the Sun
Belt area during FY 82 through FY 85. This
new experiment on air transport and trans-
formation has as one of its primary objectives
the study and development of modeling
approaches for complex air flows introduced
by land-sea interaction. Large urban and
industrial complexes in the area will be
studied and modeled to determine their
contribution to the long range transport of
photochemical pollutants and precursors.
(C12)
Modeling to Predict Diffusion Over
Complex Terrain. The demand for improved
air quality has increased but so too has
industrial and economic development, espe-
cially in mountainous regions. These coun-
terpoints underscore the need for methods to
intelligently site pollution sources and test
ambient air quality. Research needed to make
the siting decisions has lagged, however, due
to the high cost of extensive field data for
model development. This situation has
become particularly critical for atmospheric
dispersion data in areas of complex terrain
where transport and diffusion processes are
extremely complicated.
To deal with this problem, EPA has
mounted a major research effort that will sig-
nificantly improve the reliability of models of
air pollution dispersion from large sources in
complex terrain. A July 1979 workshop gen-
erated a set of program recommendations,
which are being reviewed and implemented.
The workshop concluded that one of the most
pressing complex terrain modeling problems
is the calculation of ' 'ground-level'' concen-
trations when a stable plume encounters a ter-
rain obstacle. The workshop recommended
that model development focus on isolated,
simple terrain obstacles. As the program de-
velops we expect to expand the types of plume
configurations and terrain complexity that are
modeled. We also intend to address the statis-
tical problem of the probability that a plume
will be transported to the vicinity of certain
terrain obstacles. Concurrently we will con-
duct scaled fluid modeling studies to further
increase the analytical basis for model
development. (Dl, D2)
Acid Precipitation. Acid rain is caused by
transport and transformation of air pollutants.
The acidity comes from the accumulation of
strong acids, H2SO4 and HNO3, in falling
raindrops. Power plants burning fossil fuels
are a significant source of atmospheric SO2,
which is the precursor of H2SO4. However,
currently there is not a good understanding of
the relative significance of various sources of
nitrogen oxide (precursors of HNO3) such as
power plants, lightning, and fertilizers.
Acid rain harms vegetation, accelerates
weathering, corrodes and degrades construc-
tion materials, increases the acidity of surface
waters, and can kill sensitive biota in lakes,
38
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either directly or indirectly by accelerating
leaching of toxic materials into the water. The
impact of acid rain on the aquatic ecosystem
can be especially severe in poorly buffered
impoundments and streams.
President Carter recently established a
ten-year comprehensive Federal Acid Rain
Assessment Program to be planned and
managed by a Standing Acid Rain Coordinat-
ing Committee. As part of this program, EPA
will determine the present and future degree
to which acid precipitation will affect water
quality and impair forest and crop production.
In addition, to better devise control plans,
EPA will study the basic mechanisms of acid
EPA will study the basic
mechanisms of acid
precipitation formation.
precipitation formation. The ability to design
these control plans also depends upon devel-
oping an understanding of recovery rates and
mechanisms (i.e., in what way and how
quickly can we de-acidify water systems?).
The approach to support these information
needs will be to establish a permanent
monitoring network to routinely collect data
about the chemical composition of precipita-
tion, the significant sources of precursors and
transformation pathways of pollutants, the
atmospheric dispersion, transformations, net
pollutant removal, and the nature and mag-
nitude of ecological disturbances to agricul-
tural land, forested land, range lands, urban
land, and surface waters in the United States.
(El through E14)
Participate Matter
Research
Fine particles (particles and aerosols with
diameters below 2.5/im) can be emitted di-
rectly from combustion sources, or can be
formed in the atmosphere from gases and
vapors there. The gases and vapors can
undergo both rapid reactions near the sources
(SO3 to H2SO4) or slower reactions well
downwind of the originating sources to form
various sulfates, ammonium nitrate and or-
ganic aerosols (SO2 to sulfate, NO to nitrate;
higher molecular weight organic vapors to or-
ganic aerosols). Particles containing metallic
elements in this size range represent direct
particle emissions (lead aerosol, vanadyl sul-
fates and other vanadium salts, zinc salts);
other particles in this same size range are also
predominantly from anthropogenic sources.
The quantity of directly emitted particles
compared with the amount generated in the
atmosphere is inadequately defined. It is im-
portant to quantify these contributions to op-
timize emission control strategies.
Particles larger than 2.5;u,m diameter are
formed mainly by mechanical processes in
industrial activities, by resuspension of dusts
in urban areas (construction activities, street
dusts), and by natural processes and agricul-
tural activity. For control strategy purposes, it
is important to determine whether particles in
this range originate from anthropogenic or
natural sources.
Airborne particles cause or contribute to
adverse health effects as well as welfare ef-
fects such as visibility degradation and soil-
ing. Recent research has indicated that ad-
verse health effects from particles are associ-
ated with the smaller size fractions, especially
those particles with an aerodynamic diameter
of less than IS^im because they penetrate the
upper respiratory system. The EPA Fine Par-
ticulate Research Program is directed mainly
at particles less than 15 /Am in diameter. (Fl
through F16)
The major research in the area of fine par-
ticulates characterization includes:
• The characterization of source emission
and ambient aerosols (size, distribution,
amount, composition, mass, etc.);
• The determination of the health, ecologi-
cal, and visibility effects both alone and
in combination with other substances
found in the air;
• The determination of the mechanisms,
rates, and products of conversion of
gaseous pollutants to fine particulates;
• The determination of the relative contri-
bution of different sources to ambient
fine paniculate concentrations;
39
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• The development of methods to relate
sources of pollution to the ambient levels
of particles;
• The development of methods to allow the
design of strategies to reduce the ambient
particles to an acceptable concentration;
and
• The development of instrumentation
needed to measure particles by size and
chemical composition and to assure that
the resulting regulations can be enforced.
In addition to particulates characterization,
our research will develop data for particulates
control.
The research to control particulates to keep
them out of the air will be in three main areas:
1) control of sulfate particles by SO2 control;
2) control of nitrate precursors by NOX con-
trol; and 3) direct control of paniculate emis-
sions including particles less than 2.5/u.m in
diameter. (F20 through F23)
This work will help with development of a
rational control strategy that is based on the
functional relationship between the ambient
air aerosol distributions and concentrations
and the emission sources of particles and pre-
cursor gases. Understanding such relation-
ships is essential to the development of effec-
tive and enforceable SIPs. The relationship
depends on the emission rates of the sources,
chemical reactions and physical processes
which convert gases and vapors to aerosols,
terrain conditions, meteorological paramet-
The research program
will emphasize
laboratory and chamber
measurements.
ers, weather patterns, and rates of dry and wet
deposition.
As part of our support for the development
of these critical relationships, the research
program will emphasize laboratory and
chamber measurements to identify the most
important chemical and physical processes
and mechanisms. The work will include di-
rect field measurements to obtain data on the
interaction between chemical-physical-
meteorological parameters for rates of forma-
tion, dispersion, transport, and deposition.
Increased control efficiencies of con-
ventional particulate sources required by
emissions regulations will also be supported
by our research. Such support will be derived
from evaluations of existing techniques and
devices to determine their possible use at
higher efficiency levels and from evaluations
of control device modifications to delineate
their suitability for operation under more ad-
verse conditions or on untried but essential
future applications. The progression of our
work will be to: field test suitability of exist-
We will identify,
evaluate, and develop
important advances in
control technology.
ing devices; test modified devices in labora-
tory pilot and field configurations; and fi-
nally, complete our engineering evaluations
of modified or newly applied devices on a
scale large enough for setting standards and
for evaluating cost performance.
The research will also emphasize the
evaluation of new particle control technology
that may significantly reduce equipment size,
increase removal efficiency, and potentially
apply to previously uncontrolled sources. We
will identify, evaluate, and develop important
advances in control technology. Pilot scale
demonstrations will be conducted for fine par-
ticulate collection systems at industrial
sources. Such industrial sources include coal
strip mine haul roads, iron and steel plants,
and small coal consuming energy sources.
Specific projects include investigation of
magnetic separation of fine particles in the
iron and steel industry, development of strat-
egies and methods for fugitive emission con-
trol, and study of electrostatic enhancement
of fabric filters.
40
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Implementation of these programs and
others will depend on the availability of
adequate sampling and analysis techniques.
Despite past progress, the identification and
verification of sampling devices that provide
a sharp, reliable particle separation at 15 fjun
is not complete. We will therefore continue to
work to develop measurement techniques and
instrumentation for sampling and analysis of
paniculate sources and particulates in am-
bient air.
Inhalable Particulate Network (IPN).
The present health based ambient standard for
paniculate matter (PM) (also referred to as
Total Suspended Particulates) is not size
specific. However, particles of greatest
concern are those which can be inhaled into
the respiratory system. We have identified
those particles smaller than 15 //.m (aero-
dynamic diameter) as most likely to be
responsible for human health effects. Other
considerations motivating our research and
the review of PM criteria include ongoing
litigation over review and revision of the
criteria document, and recent data which
Particles of greatest
concern are those which
can be inhaled into the
respiratory system.
show that more than 400 areas in the United
States currently do not meet the ambient
standards.
To help revise the standards, if necessary,
and to help prepare control strategies, we
must first identify what portion of suspended
paniculate matter consists of inhalable
particulates (IPs). An inhalable particulate
network will supply us this important infor-
mation. The first phase of the network,
already in place, consists of nearly 100
sampling stations at selected sites across the
United States. Sites given preference were
those locations with an on-going or historical
health studies data base. Samples will provide
data to identify mass ratios and will help
determine localized source influences by
analysis of samples. The distribution of these
measurements across selected metropolitan
areas will be determined as will an indication
of the impact of localized source contri-
butions.
The data collected from the IPN can also be
used for:
• comparison with existing PM mea-
surements from other samplers including
the hi-vol and the British smoke shade
sampler;
• relating health effects to control strate-
gies; and
• support for planning if the standard is
revised.
We must also ensure data accuracy; therefore,
sampler reproducibility data will also be
collected. (F17, F18, F19)
Visibility. An analysis of visibility mea-
surements at selected national weather sta-
tions shows decreasing visibility over the last
25 years. Visibility decrease can be correlated
with SO2 emissions and with ambient concen-
trations of sulfate and other components of
total suspended particulate matter. Observed
improvements in visibility in the West during
the last five years appear to have been
associated with decreases in SO2 emissions
from smelters.
The visual quality of air is readily per-
ceived by the public. Better visibility is
desirable for aesthetic purposes. But good
visibility may also provide a degree of public
health protection because some of the visibil-
ity degrading particles are the same as those
which cause health problems. We expect to
derive some needed information about visibil-
ity degrading particles from other projects
which will study inhalable particles. For
example, ambient air samples from the
projects will determine concentrations of
particles less than 15 /urn and 2.5 ju,m in
diameter, and control technology will be
investigated for application to particles in the
same size ranges.
EPA is mandated to regulate air pollution to
protect visual quality. To provide the scien-
tific basis for this mandate, we will quantify
the physico-chemical nature of visibility
degrading aerosols for urban and rural areas.
41
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We will also develop acceptable measure-
ment methods and air quality simulation
models to establish the relationship between
ambient air observations and pollution
sources.
We will conduct field investigations of
visibility in the eastern states to characterize
the contribution of urban and rural aerosols to
visibility reduction. The urban studies will
attempt to measure three-dimensional pollut-
ant profiles in the urban zone and in the urban
plume. This data will be used to characterize
aerosols and to validate air quality simulation
models that relate visual quality to emissions.
These urban studies will be carried out in
three types of eastern cities: predominantly
heavy industry, mixture of heavy and light
industry, and predominantly non-industrial.
The rural studies, on the other hand, will
attempt to determine the atmospheric aerosol
extinction budget, and the contribution of
sulfate, nitrate, carbon, and minerals to
aerosol light scattering/absorption as a
Better visibility is
desirable for aesthetic
purposes.
function of aerosol diameter. We will also
determine if the relationship between aerosol
light scattering/absorption and fine mass
concentration can be used as equivalent
indicators of visual quality. (G3, G6, G7)
We are particularly concerned about
visibility in pristine areas (Class I areas). Our
work will analyze existing information on
visibility conditions and trends, determine
appropriate instruments for measuring visibil-
ity, establish a monitoring network in Class I
areas, determine sources of visibility
aerosols, develop plume blight and regional
haze models, obtain field data to evaluate and
improve models, and provide validated
models. (Gl, G2, G4, G5)
The results of this work are expected to
predict the impact of new and existing sources
of pollution on visual air quality in urban and
pristine areas.
Vehicle Particulate
Emission—A New
Variation on an Old
Problem
For many years passenger cars and trucks
have been important sources of ambient air
particles, and they continue to contribute
most of the finely dispersed lead aerosol,
some elemental carbon, and the organic mat-
ter associated with the carbon. In recent
years, about 10 percent of the fine particles in
the air have come from these transportation
sources.
Catalytic control systems for passenger
cars and EPA rules phasing lead alkyl anti-
knock compounds out of gasoline are mark-
edly reducing the total contribution of mobile
sources to ambient air particulates. In 1977,
these pollutants were down 30 percent from
the all-time high in 1974. Still lower levels are
projected through 1983. However, the intro-
duction of diesel engines in passenger cars
and an increased number of diesel urban
trucks threatens to considerably increase
vehicle-produced particle emissions in years
following 1985. Current projections suggest
that by the year 2000 atmospheric paniculate
material from the diesels and other vehicles
could be double the amount emitted in 1977.
Over the past five years, ORD has devel-
oped information and measurement methods
for developing regulations that limit vehicular
paniculate emissions. We are now pursuing
an assessment of technology to control diesel
emissions from exhaust systems. ORD data
have played a part in EPA's development of
regulations covering diesel passenger cars.
Regulations for heavy duty trucks will be
promulgated afterward.
Diesel Emission Health Effects. Evidence
of mutagenic chemicals in diesel exhaust par-
ticles has recently been found. These chemi-
cals are structurally related to polynuclear
aromatic hydrocarbons which are known car-
cinogens. But overall mutagenic activity that
has been caused by the organic materials in
diesel particles is higher than can be explained
by the minor amounts of polynuclear aromatic
hydrocarbons (PAHs) present. Either the
concentration or the potency of these chemi-
cals must be greater than the PAHs in diesel
42
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exhaust particles. In either case, the presence
of these hazardous chemicals may not be best
addressed by regulations limiting the mass
emissions rate of particles. Consequently,
ORD's research will gather data that will de-
termine the need for regulation above and be-
yond particle mass emissions standards.
The ORD program gives high priority to
the analysis of the possible health risk Ameri-
We will therefore
quantify public
exposures to diesels.
can people face from diesels. Our preliminary
risk assessments, using admittedly fairly
crude assumptions about exposure and po-
tency, suggest a significant risk of cancer
from exposure to diesel soot. We will there-
fore quantify expected public exposures to
diesels and will study the effects on human
health of exposure to diesel particles. To this
end, a major effort will produce data about the
comparative potency of different types of par-
ticulates to produce cancerous tumors in ani-
mals and in other biological test systems. This
effort will compare the tumor-causing po-
tency of organic extracts from diesel soot and
other combustion aerosols to organics from
coke ovens, roofing tar, and cigarette smoke
condensate. Human epidemiological data
available for these latter materials will aid in
the comparison. (H5, H7, HI3)
The health effects research program uses a
battery of tests run in parallel to develop
cancer dose-response data in whole animal
experiments and in tissue culture systems. A
number of test systems are being used because
comparative potency risk assessments ob-
tained from any single system alone may be
too uncertain for effective use. Tests being
conducted include both short-term mutation
and carcinogenesis of bioassays. Such tests
will provide semi-quantitative information
needed for predicting expected mechanisms
and responses in whole animal testing. The
most quantitative data available, however,
comes from whole animal skin-painting ex-
periments. Intratracheal instillations will
provide information on the cancer potency of
extracts in the critical exposure area, the lung,
while whole animal/whole exhaust inhalation
experiments may provide ' 'yes or no " infor-
mation on the capacity of diesel exhaust to
cause lung tumors. These experiments might
also indicate whether exposure to diesel
exhaust could predispose people to adverse
health effects such as pulmonary fibrosis or
emphysema. (H6, H10, H14, HIS)
Atmospheric concentrations of particulates
estimated from several time scenarios of die-
sel market penetration and pollution control
measures have already been calculated from
available paniculate organics emissions fac-
tors and meteorologic models for St. Louis,
Kansas City and other cities. Similar esti-
mates for other cities are being calculated
from models that use ambient air lead as a
surrogate for paniculate material. Other mod-
eling techniques will be employed to estimate
maximum and average exposures received by
commuters so we can estimate the number of
people exposed to various concentration
levels of diesel particles. This information
and the comparative carcinogenic potency
data will be factored into risk assessment
models. (H4, H12)
Characterization Research. Our charac-
terization research is best defined as the pro-
cess to identify and measure the diesel emis-
sions of interest from a variety of sources
under different operating scenarios. This
characterization research will help answer
certain questions regarding control of muta-
gen diesel emissions, questions associated
with comparison of other combustion
sources, gasoline and synthetic fuels, and
with strategies for control. For example, a key
control strategy question deals with where
and when regulation might achieve the most
health benefits while causing the least eco-
nomic disruption.
We will concentrate on improving expo-
sure estimation techniques. This work will in-
clude direct measurement of exposure to die-
sel mutagens at the New York City Port Au-
thority Bus Terminal. Smog chamber exper-
iments will be used to estimate the impact of
photochemical conversion on the mutagen
organics. (H2, H3)
43
-------
At present, only crude semi-quantitative
measurement methods are available for the
mutagen organics in the particulates and no
methods have yet been developed to collect
gas phase hydrocarbon for bioassay tests. But
even with the existing techniques a survey of a
large number of sources under variable condi-
tions would be extremely expensive. Further
compounding this problem is the fact that a
number of control systems or alternatives are
to be assessed. To rectify this situation, we
will initiate in FY80 a substantial effort to
develop very simple, inexpensive measure-
ment techniques. This work will concentrate
on methods to collect gas phase samples and
to identify the compounds which produce
mutagenic activity and on discovering a
Continued basic and
applied studies will
investigate the effect of
fuel type.
rapid, effective chemical means to measure
them. Until such methods are available, how-
ever, measurement of mutagen emissions
from a variety of sources will continue using
existing procedures.
Recent studies have also demonstrated the
importance of the type of diesel fuel in the
generation of mutagenic emissions. Contin-
ued basic and applied studies will investigate
the effect of fuel type. One study using pure
hydrocarbon fuels may produce information
to help us understand the formation chemistry
of these compounds and, therefore, the most
efficient means of control.
While the prime thrust of the scheduled re-
search is the evaluation of vehicles as sources
of particle mutagens, we will continue to con-
duct some comparable studies using a few sta-
tionary sources such as oil-fired residential
furnaces. Using the techniques developed for
diesel engine research, attempts will be made
to determine the rate at which these sources
emit mutagenic material. (HI)
Past regulation research support is a con-
tinuing requirement to ensure proper EPA
regulatory decisions. Characterization of die-
sel emissions will be needed in FY82 and be-
yond for new fuel-efficient prototypes of fu-
ture automobiles. However, current informa-
tion on the prospect for mutagen control is
virtually nonexistent. Also, there are some
vast differences in emissions from currently
uncontrolled vehicles. Therefore, for FY81
and beyond ORD will continue to provide
EPA's Office of Air, Noise, and Radiation
with information about combustion sources of
mutagen organics. As part of this research,
various emission control devices are sched-
uled for testing and development. (H9, HI 1)
To directly support the regulatory respon-
sibilities of the Office of Air, Noise, and
Radiation, ORD has scheduled improved
health risk and control technology assess-
ments for FY80 and 81. Follow-on support
for regulation development after FY81 is sug-
gested by past similar mobile source problem
areas. As new information relative to the
emissions of specific mutagenic compounds
becomes available, this follow-on work will
include additional health effects experiments
to study the relationships between whole
extract and compound potency with the ulti-
mate goal of improving the risk assessment
process and expanding information on ac-
ceptable risks. (H8)
Global
Man's activities have caused vast increases
in atmospheric concentrations of a large
number of contaminants including hydrocar-
bons, halocarbons, and carbon dioxide.
These materials are expected to have deleteri-
ous effects on air quality, climate, and
stratospheric ozone.
Global atmospheric research studies per-
formed and funded by EPA have centered on
halocarbon reactivity and persistence and
ozone produced from hydrocarbon emissions.
Other research to understand the global ef-
fects of CO2 emissions is being conducted by
the Department of Energy. (II through 15)
Halocarbons. The tropospheric persis-
tence of many halocarbons permits their up-
ward diffusion into the stratosphere. For
highly halogenated chemicals, photolysis in
the stratosphere is the primary atmospheric
removal mechanism, but unfortunately, this
44
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process also leads to the destruction of the
vital ozone layer in the earth's upper atmos-
phere. Depletion of the ozone layer would
expose the earth's surface to short wavelength
ultraviolet irradiation (UV-B). An increase of
UV-B exposure would produce additional
cases of human skin cancer and would likely
have immediate detrimental effects on aquatic
and terrestrial ecosystems. Halocarbons in the
stratosphere can also cause temperature
An increase of UV-B
exposure would produce
additional cases of
human skin cancer.
changes by altering the normal solar absorp-
tion of the stratosphere. This could result in
serious climatic changes in the lower
troposphere.
Our halocarbon research program will con-
tinue efforts to characterize halogenated
chemicals in the troposphere to determine the
atmospheric burden, growth rate trends, and
atmospheric residence times. We will per-
form field measurements as well as laboratory
and modeling studies to improve our under-
standing of the reaction mechanisms and rates
at which halocarbon chemicals react in the
atmosphere and diffuse into the stratospheric
ozone layer. These studies will attempt to
identify halocarbon atmospheric reactions
products such as phosgene, acid chlorides,
and halogenated PAHs, which may pose a sec-
ondary hazard to human health and welfare.
Ozone. Other research will continue to
study the poorly-understood exchange of
stratospheric and tropospheric air masses.
Past attempts to quantify stratospheric O3
fluxes to the troposphere have not been suc-
cessful in predicting expected rural O3 levels.
Determination of the contribution of these
fluxes to ambient O3 levels is crucial to our
understanding of interregional movement of
ozone. Our studies will continue to refine the
7Be/O3 ratio technique, a method which as-
sumes minimal decay rates of 7Be and O3
from the stratosphere to ground level. Accu-
rate 7Be measurements can help determine the
stratospheric contribution to ambient O3 con-
centrations.
Welfare Effects. Welfare effects research
is defined in Section 203(h) of the Clean Air
Act to include effects on soil, water, crops,
vegetation, animals, wildlife, etc., as well as
effects on economic values, personal comfort
and well being. EPA's process to set and re-
view air quality standards requires that at least
every five years the scientific data base on
welfare effects be reviewed and updated
where appropriate just as is done for the
human health effects data base.
Future welfare effects research will more
effectively address the issue of the signifi-
cance of agricultural losses caused by air pol-
lution. The work will include a comprehen-
sive study of agricultural areas under the Na-
tional Crop Loss Assessment Network. Nor-
mal crop culture conditions will be main-
tained under ambient and simulated regimes
of known air pollution levels (ozone and SO2)
and subsequent reductions of crop growth,
quality, and yield will be translated into eco-
nomic losses which can be used to model pre-
dictions of national welfare effects impacts
over a range of air quality scenarios. Result-
ing data will support the planned 1984 review
and revision of SO2 and O3 air quality criteria
documents. The data will also be useful to
states for developing strategies to implement
welfare standards; the data will also be of use
to EPA for evaluating the adequacy of the
state strategies.
Our research to determine the effects of air
pollutants on structural components and func-
tional processes of natural ecosystems will
rely on long-term ecosystem field research.
One project will study the ecosystem effects
of graduated ambient concentrations of ozone
in a mixed conifer forest ecosystem of south-
ern California. A proposed study in the Ap-
palachian Mountains of western Virginia will
address the effects of ambient ozone concen-
trations on an eastern mixed deciduous forest.
The purpose of these ecosystem studies is to
develop correlations between oxidant dose
and ecosystem response. Other welfare ef-
fects research covering visibility degradation
and acid precipitation has been described
earlier.
45
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AIR RESEARCH PLAN
PROGRAM AREA FISCAL YEAR 1980
FISCAL YEAR 1981
FISCAL YEAR 1982
FISCAL YEAR 1983
FISCAL YEAR 1984
CRITERIA
Criteria Development Criteria for six hazard-
ous pollutants (each
year). Al
Complete SO particu-
lates air quality criteria
document. A2
continuing
Review pollutants associ- Review and revise lead
ated with synfuels. A4 air quality document.
A5
Review and revise ozone
air quality criteria docu-
ment. A6
Complete review of
hydrocarbons. A3
Review of CO air quality
criteria document. A7
Health Effects
Complete exposure
chamber studies of the
effects of nitrogen diox-
ide on healthy and as-
thmatic human subjects,
with bronchial stress.
A8
Complete exposure
chamber studies of ef-
fects of ozone on healthy
and impaired human
subjects, exercise and
heat/humidity stressed.
All
Complete exposure
chamber studies on
human subjects of
threshold and stress
studies on ozone,
nitrogen dioxide and
sulfur dioxide effects.
A17
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PROGRAM AREA FISCAL YEAR 1980
FISCAL YEAR 1981
FISCAL YEAR 1982
FISCAL YEAR 1983
FISCAL YEAR 1984
Complete preliminary
exposure chamber
studies on human sub-
jects of ozone effects at
levels at and near exist-
ing air quality standards.
A9
Complete studies on the
effect of O3 and NO2 on
protein leakage into the
animal lung. AID
Complete examination
of effects of O3 and NO,
on glucose—6 phosphate
deficient animals. A12
Determine effects of
NO: and O3 combina-
tions using the pentobar-
bital induced sleeping
time model. A13
Develop animal model
systems to investigate
the cardiovascular
system and assess the ef-
fect of Oj and NO2
alone and in combina-
tion using these models.
A14
Determine effects on O,
on asthma mechanisms
and lung pharmacology
(prostaglandin E2
metabolism; thrombox-
anes; and histamines in
animals. A15
Complete acute respira-
tory disease study in Los
Angeles basin. A16
Determine effects of
NOa and O3 alone and
in combination on
xenobiotic pharmaco-
kinetics. A18
Complete development
of a lung immunology
model. A19
Determine effects of O,
and NO: combinations
on lung anti-oxidant
metabolism in young
adult and aged animals.
A20
Provide a model for
extrapolation of effec-
tive concentrations of O3
and NOi between
animals and man. A21
Determine effects of
chronic exposure to a
low baseline level of
NOZ on which are super-
imposed peaks of NO,
on host defense mechan-
isms and pulmonary
function. A22
Develop and utilize with
O, and NO, additional
cardiovascular animal
models. Determine ef-
fects of O3 and NO,
alone and in combination
on asthma mechanisms
and lung pharmacology
(PGE2 metabolism,
thromboxanes, hista-
mines, and angiotensin)
in animals. A23
Determine susceptibility
of young animals to O3
and NO,. A24
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oe
AIR RESEARCH PLAN (CONT'D)
PROGRAM AREA FISCAL YEAR 1980
FISCAL YEAR 1981 FISCAL YEAR 1982 FISCAL YEAR 1983
FISCAL YEAR 1984
HAZARDOUS
POLLUTANTS
Develop and utilize (O,
and NOj) models of
immunologically and
pharmacoligically in-
duced airway resistance.
A25
Complete data analysis
and report preparation
for Texas Gulf Coast
Asthma Study. A26
Characterization and
Assessment
Pilot study to character- Characterize ambient air
ize ambient air. Bl at one urban site. B7
Conduct field studies for
3 chemicals per year
designated by OAQPS.
B2
Provide guidance for
mutagenic and
teratogenic risk assess-
ment. B3
Develop model for
assessment of chronic
non-carcinogenic health
effects. B4
Evaluate interaction of
metals with neural
pathways. B5
Evaluate neurochemical
indicators of hazardous
pollutant exposure.
B6
Report on concentrations
and transport and fate
of halocarbons. B8
Model validation
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PROGRAM AREA FISCAL YEAR 1980
FISCAL YEAR 1981
FISCAL YEAR 1982
FISCAL YEAR 1983
FISCAL YEAR 1984
Health Effects
Select study sites and
design studies of the ef-
fects of acute exposure
to hazardous air
pollutants. B9
Select study sites and
design studies of effects
of long term exposure to
hazardous air pollutants.
BIO
Complete validation of
short term techniques
for screening and rank-
ing effects of hazardous
pollutants on host
defense mechanisms. Bll
Complete data collection
for case control study of
cancer in Contra Costa
County California. B12
Utilize the validated
short term exposure tech-
nique to rank hazardous
pollutants for lung tox-
icity. B13
Complete concentration
response inhalation
studies of several arsenic
compounds on host
defense mechanisms. B14
Complete inhalation test-
ing of the effects of
several (at least 6)
chemicals on host
defense mechanisms.
B15
Control Technology
LONG RANGE
TRANSPORT AND
TRANSFORMATION
Conduct second phase
ofNEROS. Cl
Conduct first PEPE
study. C2
Report on Tennessee
Plume Study (TPS) C3
Conduct first cold
weather plume study.
C4
Complete evaluation of
incinerator performance
on acrylonitrile and
ethylene dichloride proc-
ess vent gases. B16
Results of NEROS. C5
Evaluate reactive plume
models with TPS data.
C6
Assess, identify, and
document VOC prob-
lems in the metal finish-
ing industry. B17
Evaluate regional model
with NEROS and PEPE
data. C7
Results of Fine Inhaled
Paniculate Regional
Modeling Study
(FIRMS). C8
Develop leak occurence
frequency data and
emission factors for syn-
thetic organic chemical
manufacturing facilities.
B18
Demonstrate improved
VOC capture systems
for solvent evaporation
operations. B19
Validate reactive plume
model. C9
Results of Northeast
Visibility Experiment
(NERVE). CIO
Validate regional model.
Cll
Results of Gulf Coast
Regional Experiment on
Air Transport and
Transformation. Cll
COMPLEX
TERRAIN
First field experiment
completed (small hill
study). Dl
Product computerized
model for application to
selected complex terrain
situations. O2
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AIR RESEARCH PLAN (CONT'D)
PROGRAM AREA FISCAL YEAR 1980
FISCAL YEAR 1981
FISCAL YEAR 1982
FISCAL YEAR 1983
FISCAL YEAR 1984
ACID
PRECIPITATION
Evaluate Euromap and
other long-range
transport models. El
Evaluate atmospheric
acid deposition on lakes
in northern Minnesota.
E2
Identify terrestrial eco-
systems sensitive to acid
deposition in the north-
eastern U.S. E3
Establish weekly sampl-
ing for core network of
40-50 stations nationally.
(System will operate for
10 years with annual
reporting.) E4
Document geographic
distribution of sensitive
aquatic ecosystems and
those exhibiting symp-
toms of acidification.
E5
Report on 3-year event
sampling from regional
network in northeastern
U.S. E7
Report on attempt to
develop a practical
measurement technique
for dry deposition. E8
Report on the effect of
comlex meteorology on
long-range transport.
E9
Report on results of
manipulative studies of
lakes involving intention-
al acidification. Ell
Report on weathering of
materials based on con-
trolled laboratory and
field experiments. Ell
Report on field studies
to define the long-range
transport of pollutants
in the planetary boun-
dary layers. E13
Report relative damage
associated with sulfates
and nitrates. E14
PARTICLES
Health Effects
Document different
structural materials most
prone to acid deposition.
E6
Report on effects of acid
deposition on major
U.S. crops and forests.
E10
Complete exposure
chamber studies on nor-
mal human subjects of
effects of single species
of particulates. Fl
Initial report on effects
of paniculate air pollu-
tion on asthmatics
(Denver). F2
Complete exposure
chamber studies on
humans of effects of
combinations of sulfate
and nitrate aerosols with
ozone, nitrogen dioxide
and sulfur dioxide. F4
Determine acute and in-
termittent effects of
(NH^SO,, NH
-------
PROGRAM AREA FISCAL YEAR 1980
FISCAL YEAR 1981
FISCAL YEAR 1982
FISCAL YEAR 1983
FISCAL YEAR 1984
Prepare report on studies
of participate air pollu-
tion and human health
effect. F3
Develop and test an
animal model for effect
of pollutants on viral
disease. F6
For commonly used
laboratory animals,
determine regional
deposition curves as a
function of particle size.
F7
Complete inhaled particle
epidemiology problem
definition study. F8
Determine the effect of
complex pollutant mix-
tures (including oxidants,
organics, sulfur species)
on host defense mechan-
isms and pulmonary
function. F13
Synthesis of animal and
human initial deposition
data into a model to
relate exposure condi-
tions used in animal
studies with comparable
exposures of humans
that would likely be
necessary to produce
similar biological ef-
fects. F16
Monitoring
Establish an additional
100 IPN monitoring sites
nationwide. F17
Establish final 100 IPN
monitoring sites
resulting in a total of
300 sites. F18
Assess continuing need
for changes in IPN net-
work. FW
Control
Complete preliminary Final report on evalua-
characterization of IP tion of new fine particle
emissions to extend exist- control technology. F22
ing IP data base. F20
Report on effect of elec-
trostatic precipitation of
fine particle control.
F21
Report on optimum wet
scrubber operations. F23
VISIBILITY
Report on VISTTA-II
field data. Gl
Validate plume blight
model. G4
Conduct field study on
regional haze. G6
Report on validation of
regional haze model. G7
Analysis of VIEW data.
G2
Report on field study in
Northeast city. G3
Report on field study in
Class I area. G5
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(Jt
AIR RESEARCH PLAN (CONT'D)
PROGRAM AREA FISCAL YEAR 1980
FISCAL YEAR 1981
FISCAL YEAR 1982
FISCAL YEAR 1983
FISCAL YEAR 1984
VEHICLE
PARTICLES
Report on emission fac-
tors for particles,
mutagens and harmful
gases from diesel,
catalyst and leaded gaso-
line fueled passenger
cars. HI
Demonstrate paniculate
controil technology for
diesel emissions. H8
Characterize emissions
from 6 trucks and buses.
H9
Fuel effects and char-
acterization of diesel
ticulate emissions.
HU
Field study to determine
population exposures to
diesel emissions. H12
Final report on intra-
tracheal instillation. HIS
Report on diesel exhaust
transformation products
using smog chamber. H2
Final report on N.Y. bus
terminal characterization
study. H3
Trend reports to measure
effects of increased diesel
usage. H4
Critical review of epide- Report on in vivo
REPORT UPDATED EVERY SIX MONTHS
Final report on epide-
miology studies. H5
Report on in vitro
studies. H6
Report on risk assess-
ment of diesel exhaust.
H7
studies of carcinogenesis/ miology studies. H13
mutagenesis. H10
Report on in vitro
studies on non-
carcinogenic toxic
effects. H14
REPORT UPDATE
REPORT UPDATE
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PROGRAM AREA FISCAL YEAR 1980
FISCAL YEAR 1981
FISCAL YEAR 1982
FISCAL YEAR 1983
FISCAL YEAR 1984
GLOBAL
POLLUTION
CONTROL
TECHNOLOGY
Stratospheric 03 intrusion
measurements. II
Report on ambient levels
and reactivities of
terpenes. 12
Report on presence of
methyl chloroform and
other halocarbons in the
atmosphere. 13
Develop and evaluate
photochemical air simu-
lation models for use in
assessing the dispersion
and impact of ozone
and its precursors on air
quality. 15
Complete evaluation of
foreign basic oxygen
furnace process second-
ary emission control. Jl
Report on fate and trans-
port of halocarbons and
carcinogenic halo-
carbons. 14
Complete single com-
partment full scale
demonstration of elec-
tric field fabric filter. J2
Transfer technology
from high resistivity
ESP (precharger)
demonstration to com-
mercial practice. J3
VI
Issue final report on
technical and economical
feasibility and long term
reliability of a fabric
filter operating on a
large utility boiler burn-
ing western low sulfur
coal. J4
-------
WATER QUALITY
Water is one of our most precious
natural resources* EPA is working to
understand water ecosystems and the
consequences of water pollution*
-------
The objective of EPA's water quality
research program is to provide the assessment
methods and information necessary to assist
federal, state, and local governments in
identifying their optimal water quality goals
and in evolving cost-effective strategies for
achieving those goals. The objectives of
EPA's water quality management program
are (1) to identify current and future water
quality needs and goals; (2) to develop
cost-effective strategies for maintaining and
achieving water quality goals; and (3) to
implement these strategies through orches-
trated federal, state, and local participation.
Research to support these management
program objectives is outlined in three
chapters of this Outlook: this chapter,
"Wastewater and Spills," and "Drinking
Water.'' Taken together, these three chapters
present a comprehensive view of ORD's
research effort on all fronts of the nation's
water pollution problem.
Water Pollution Sources
Water can be polluted in many ways; some
are obvious, some subtle and complex. Most
direct of the methods is point source pollu-
tion. Here, pollutants enter a body of water
from one single point or source, such as an
industrial waste discharge pipe. With point
source pollution, it usually is a relatively
simple matter to sample discharged material,
then analyze it to determine the types and
amounts of pollutants being released into the
water.
Non-point source pollution data, however,
is much harder to come by, mainly because its
sources — runoff from agricultural fields,
harvested timberlands, urban areas, and
mines — are so diverse, widespread, and
intermittent. These sources can be major
pathways to water for toxic materials and
polluting nutrients.
Most perplexing to researchers, however,
is when pollutants transfer from one medium
to another—intermedia transfer—refusing to
respect science's artificially drawn "me-
dium" lines. Substances often move from the
air to the ground to the water and then
sometimes back to the ground again in river
and lake bottoms. When this happens, pollut-
ants can accumulate as sediments or they can
accumulate in the water's biota or move back
again to the atmosphere through processes
such as volatilization. Pollutants typically
transferred from air to water include acids,
metals, nutrients, PCBs, and DDT.
There are other major sources of physical,
chemical, and biological degradation of water
Pollutants typically
transferred from air to
water include acids,
metals, and nutrients,
PCBs, and DDT.
besides those just mentioned. These include
poorly located or operated landfills, hydro-
logic modifications, such as channelization,
impoundment, dredging, and spills of
hazardous chemicals and oil. These, plus a
host of others, result from human-generated
activities.
Growing Concerns
One of our foremost concerns in the area of
water quality is the toxic potential of the
chemicals that either exist in our waters and
sediments now or may be released into them
in the future. It is thought that the presence of
some of these substances may lead to envi-
ronmental damage or possible carcinogenic,
mutagenic or teratogenic consequences.
Today, tens of thousands of chemicals are in
production; those that could present a water
pollution threat probably exceed 10,000. As
the chemical industry continues to grow, the
potential for the release of toxic pollutants to
the environment and subsequent water quality
degradation increases.
While the provisions of the Toxic Sub-
stances Control Act are intended to protect the
environment from much of this increase, the
possibility of increased effluent or accidental
discharge, as well as the ever-present danger
posed to water quality by toxics in the air,
continues to exist. We know, for example,
55
-------
that over 50 percent of the PCBs entering the
upper Great Lakes comes from the atmos-
phere, and that these pollutants do not only
have immediate effects while in the water
column, but may also acutely affect aquatic
life by entering the sediment, to be released at
a later time, or by bioaccumulating in the food
chain—on a potential path to man.
We remain concerned with the increased
amounts of conventional pollutants and
nutrients expected to be generated in the
future. Although we have made considerable
progress in controlling these conventional
pollutants, our projections indicate increases
in both point and non-point sources. Such
increases could lead to plant and animal
Over 50 percent of the
PCBs entering the upper
Great Lakes comes from
the atmosphere.
overgrowth in lakes, reservoirs, and es-
tuaries, resulting in the depletion of oxygen
and a number of other significant ecological
changes. Phosphorus and nitrogen in rain and
dry fall, for example, are significant sources
of nutrients to large water bodies, but they
may present a problem in streams, lakes, and
estuaries, as have the non-point source
phosphorus in the subestuaries of the Virginia
section of Chesapeake Bay.
Finally, we are concerned with the relation-
ship between water resource management
practices and surface and groundwater qual-
ity. Poor management of consumptive water
may reduce the amount of water available to
dilute incoming pollution loads, thereby
making the water that is left of poorer quality,
while other water misuse may add to the
pollution loads to both surface and ground-
waters. Seepage of irrigation waters from
unlined canals, for example, can result in a 50
percent water loss, while other poor water
management practices can produce irrigation
return waters contaminated with salt and
agricultural chemicals. In non-irrigated areas,
changing land use causes alterations in the
nature of the runoff which, in turn, affects
concentrations of pollutants reaching surface
and groundwaters.
Water Quality
Management—
Past and Future
Control of pollution at the source, through
innovative technologies, has proven particu-
larly effective for point sources of con-
ventional pollutants. The major emphasis of
the national water quality program over the
past seven years, therefore, has been to base
control requirements on such available
technology, without a site-by-site assessment
of water quality impacts. The controls were
implemented for point sources through
technology-based effluent limitations for
industry and through secondary treatment
requirements for municipal wastewater
treatment plants. They, in turn, led to the
concept of Best Management Practices
(BMPs) for agriculture, silviculture, and
other non-point sources. However, such
control has not been proven broadly effective
for such sources in terms of water quality
improvements.
In the future, the technology-based con-
trols of the past will, however, not achieve the
water quality standards of the Clean Water
Act in all areas of the nation. We thus
anticipate an increased need for reliance on
water quality-based management strategies.
In addition, the nation's economic and energy
problems will require that increased consid-
eration be given to the cost effectiveness of
pollution control measures. Our research plan
reflects these viewpoints.
Criteria to support the Clean Water Act
standards must be broadened to include an
understanding of the physical, biological, and
chemical ramifications of existing and antici-
pated water use. This is especially important
in the development of future non-point source
controls that must take into consideration the
vast range of effects of a given pollutant in its
various forms. We must also be able to
56
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realistically assess non-point control needs,
and factor into water quality management the
role of sediments as a source, a carrier, and
pollutant sink.
The Research Plan
Our water quality research program is
aimed at providing the tools and information
necessary for making scientifically defensi-
ble, cost- and energy-effective pollution
abatement decisions that will allow for the
optimum use of water resources with mini-
mum ecosystem impacts. Our program plan
for the next five years is to concentrate on
those technical areas that will help support
decisions on:
• future water quality standards;
• water quality-based effluent limitations;
• second generation technology-based
effluent guidelines;
• hydrologic modifications;
• innovative and alternative control
technologies; and
• NFS management strategies.
Research attention will be given to:
• development of cost-effective tech-
niques to measure and predict pollutant
loads that enter or recycle within water
systems;
• development of techniques to estimate
and measure the distribution, concentra-
tion, and duration of pollutant exposures
to humans and components of aquatic
environments;
• development of techniques to predict the
impacts of hydrologic modifications;
• assessment of pollution effects on hu-
mans and selected organisms within the
aquatic environment;
• the response of aquatic systems to the
stress of pollution; and
• development of energy-efficient and
cost-effective control techniques.
The plan itself is structured around the
current water quality goals set forth by
Congress and around the information needs
expressed by federal, state and local water
resource managers to meet those goals. If, in
the future, goals are modified or a serious gap
in information emerges as our understanding
of the problem deepens, our research plan will
be modified accordingly. If a shift is made
from achieving water quality goals through
regulation to achieving them through incen-
tives , our research plan will also be modified
to identify and assess promising implementa-
tion strategies consistent with such an ap-
proach.
Scientific Basis for
Water Quality Research
Each of our water quality research efforts is
designed to fill gaps in knowledge essential
for efficient future water quality manage-
ment. Underlying this research is the belief
that tomorrow's water management will
require an even more comprehensive insight
than does today "s. We believe that in the
future, individual water systems will have to
be viewed as a part of a total ecosystem and
that consideration will have to be given to
simultaneous stresses from point sources,
non-point sources, intermedia exchanges,
and natural events. Relationships between
Tomorrow's water
manager must have
up-to-date information.
water quantity and quality and between
surface and groundwater quality will also
have to be taken into account. Additionally,
tomorrow's water manager must have up-to-
date information on the state of the water
ecosystem in order to predict the conse-
quences of the multiple stresses being placed
on it. The following descriptions of our
research encompass these beliefs and the idea
that to ensure water quality in the future, the
right planning must be done today.
Pollution Sources
Research to identify and characterize
sources of pollution has three areas of
emphasis: methods development, source
characterization and measurement, and
ambient water characterization.
57
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Methods development refers to proce-
dures to identify and measure specific pollu-
tants in specific sources. Gaps in current
methods, especially in such areas as organic
chemicals, metals, and organo-metal com-
pounds analysis, will be resolved through
research directed at specific pollutants as well
as broad classes of pollutants. (Al)
Narrow spectrum or single-chemical refer-
ence methods will be designed to measure
specific toxic pollutants, especially those
newly added to the priority pollutant list. This
research is expected to assist National Pollu-
tion Discharge Elimination System (NPDES)
permittees to self-monitor effluents. The
reference methods will be designed with an
eye toward a minimum amount of instrumen-
tation, expertise, and cost. (A2, A7, A8, A9,
A14, A19, A22).
Broad spectrum measurement methods will
be developed to quantify a wide range of
specific chemicals or classes of chemicals
found in effluent discharges and ambient
water samples. Although more complex than
single-chemical methods, broad measure-
ment methods will be particularly useful for
scanning water to detect the presence of
unanticipated compounds and for confirming
the accuracy of self-monitoring results
reported from a large number of samples from
diverse sources.
A general guide for water sample analysis,
or a master analytical scheme, will be
developed to ensure consistent measurements
of pollution. This guide will draw together
and integrate recent advances in all areas of
We will also develop
surrogate or screening
methods.
sample analysis, i.e., sampling, concentra-
tion, clean-up, and identification using
GC/MS. Following testing, the guide will be
applied — first to volatile organics, then,
when separation techniques and liquid
chromatography/mass spectrometry inter-
faces are improved, to non-volatile organics
in water and wastewater, and finally, to
sediments, sludges, and biological tissue.
(A3, A4, A10, A26)
In addition to the guide, we will also
develop surrogate or screening methods that
can rapidly and inexpensively detect signifi-
cant levels of toxic chemical classes in water.
These methods will aid us in identifying toxic
"hot spots" — areas that warrant more
detailed qualitative and quantitative analysis.
The use of such screening techniques will
significantly reduce the cost and time required
to analyze pollutant samples, thereby en-
abling us to allocate our resources faster and
more effectively. (All, A13, A15, A21)
We will also develop cost-effective analyt-
ical methods that accurately measure indivi-
dual species of toxic metals, including species
produced by reactions with chlorine and other
disinfectants in water supplies. Since such
methods are currently unavailable, mea-
surements today must be made for total metal
concentrations rather than for individual
species of toxic metals. More refined methods
will enhance the capability to measure only
those chemical forms that are biologically
available and on which water quality criteria
are based. (A12, A18)
Source characterization and quantifica-
tion involves providing a data base for use in
estimating pollution loads from the four types
of pollution sources: point, non-point, mul-
timedia, and existing or background levels.
Such research is vital because effective water
quality controls can only grow out of a
knowledge of the pollution sources and the
synergism that exists between them.
Point source characterization and quantifi-
cation is discussed in chapter 6, "Wastewater
and Spills." Non-point source agricultural
and urban pollution loads for selected pollu-
tants can be estimated from models such as
the NPS, ARM, and SWMM loading models,
although many of them have not been ver-
ified. A greater gap exists in our understand-
ing of pollutant loads from most other types of
land use. Working with the U.S. Department
of Agriculture (USDA), EPA's Office of
Water Planning and Standards and others, we
will do limited field testing and validation of
selected methods for estimating the pollutant
loads in runoff from different land uses.
58
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Multimedia interrelationships will focus on
transfers between the atmosphere and water
and between water and sediment. In the near
future, we will begin to quantify atmospheric
contributions of certain alien biotic sub-
stances to each of the Great Lakes and to the
Chesapeake Bay. Acid rain effects on the
water quality of our northeastern lakes and
streams and the resultant ecosystem stresses
will also be characterized. (A5, A16, A17)
Ambient water characterization deter-
mines what pollutants already exist in a
system. To make accurate determinations, we
will have to develop a number of programs
and methods. An integrated baseline monitor-
ing program that can identify and measure
toxic pollutants in sediment and biota as well
as in water is currently unavailable. Also
lacking is a method that can optimize the
design of an ambient monitoring program by
providing the ideal number and placement of
stations, parameter selections, and monitor-
ing frequencies. And while existing systems
Screening methods will
be developed for routine
use in network
operations.
may be capable of monitoring basic paramet-
ers, a practical means to assess the distribu-
tion of trace organics is needed. Also needed
is a method that can evaluate the cost effec-
tiveness of alternative monitoring network
designs and optimize such networks.
The actualization of these methods and
programs will be pursued in a number of
ways. The feasibility of a major comprehen-
sive monitoring program will be determined.
Screening methods will be developed for
routine use in network operations. Monitor-
ing network operations will be provided and
network optimization techniques will be
developed as ORD assists the Office of Water
Planning and Standards in evaluating and
improving the cost effectiveness of its
nationwide monitoring network.
In the ambient water characterization
effort, emphasis will be on developing
biological monitoring systems as well as on
refining existing monitoring techniques, such
as the Coastal Environmental Assessment
System and Mussel Watch, an early warning
system designed to measure concentrations of
certain organic chemicals and heavy metals in
biota. To define ocean disposal criteria, we
will evaluate the composition of benthic
communities in coastal waters where wastes
are discharged or dumped. Evaluation of
remote sensing as a monitoring tool and as a
source of land use data will also continue, and
validations of the accuracy and reliability of
water quality measurement and monitoring
systems will be supported by the development
and supply of necessary reference materials
and quality control procedures. (A6)
Environmental Fate
Decisions that affect the protection of man
and his environment from pollution must take
into consideration the persistence, distribu-
tion, and transport of pollutants discharged
into the environment—the "fate" of pollu-
tants. We view the issue of environmental fate
as the vital intermediate step that ties a
pollutant's source and volume to the specific
health or ecological effects it may have. Such
understandings, we believe, are required for
more cost-effective, well-formed manage-
ment decisions on risk analysis, waste load
allocations, improved management practices,
and refined chemical registration and control.
By definition, the predetermination of a
pollutant's fate in the environment is a
predictive process, rather than an after-the-
fact characterization that may be possible
following an environmental mishap. Thus,
environmental fate assessments must rely on
experience and scientific models to represent
future events. These models must be based on
four basic procedures:
• formulation of the model structure or
hypothesis;
• quantitative descriptions of pollutant
transport, fate, and effect processes;
• characterization of the environment; and
• testing and verification of the model.
Using reliable predictive models, a pollu-
tant's concentration and duration at various
59
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locations in the water system can be esti-
mated. Then, best control and management
strategies can be applied so that future
pollution can be reduced to the degree
necessary to permit desired water uses.
While a number of adequate water quality
models exist today to predict common pollu-
tion parameters in streams, rivers, lakes, and
estuarine environments, they are inadequate
for dealing with most toxic chemicals or most
pollutants common to non-point sources.
Thus, future emphasis will be both on
Future emphasis will be
both on verifying
existing models to
eliminate deficiencies
and on the development
of new models.
verifying existing models to eliminate de-
ficiencies and on the development of new
models to better predict the fate of pesticides,
toxic chemicals, sediments, and nutrients, so
that current and future environmental man-
agement needs can be met. Increased empha-
sis will also be given to technology transfer
to state and local water managers. (Bl, B2,
B3, B5, B14)
Building water quality and quantity fore-
cast models requires an understanding of the
behavior of the pollutant involved, i.e., the
pathways and forms by which the pollutant
enters the system, the various transport,
transformation, and degradation processes
acting on it, and the physical, chemical, and
biological characteristics of the receiving
waters. Accordingly, our research will
include study of the environmental processes
that dictate the behavior of toxic chemicals
and nutrients, especially those transport
processes involved when the toxics exist as
particulates or are associated with particu-
lates. (B6, Bll, B12)
We have made considerable progress over
the last several years describing several of the
more significant fate processes affecting
pollutants in solution, i.e., hydrolysis,
photolysis, biodegradation, volatilization,
etc. Information from such fate process
descriptions and from laboratory-derived
coefficients for individual chemicals serve as
important inputs for meeting the second basic
requirement for a reliable predictive water
quality model. In the coming years, we will
seek to complete this descriptive work, then
gradually shift emphasis to characterizing
sediment and soils sorption/desorption pro-
cesses and other key processes that act on
chemicals in the sorbed state. Attention will
also be given to other processes found to be
germane to priority list pollutants.
Also in the environmental fate area, models
used primarily for making site-specific waste
load allocation decisions need to be updated
with recent hydrodynamic and pollutant
loading estimates. Such refinements will
result in models more site specific for
particular environments and better equipped
to evaluate impacts of certain pollutant loads
on specific systems. A series of such models
will be tested and evaluated. An example is
our nutrient-phytoplankton models currently
used in the Great Lakes to simulate load
reductions. Application of these models will
help reduce the time and cost of performing
waste load studies at each site. We also plan to
develop and evaluate several non-site-
specific model assessment techniques for
future screening and gross planning purposes.
These include calibrating generalized models
for regional or area application. At present,
we are far more confident of our models that
predict water quality impacts from point
sources than of those that predict impacts
from non-point sources. This is due in part to
the fact that there is still a great deal to be
learned about sediment pollution processes,
and in part to the fact that the fate of non-point
loads is heavily influenced by meteorologic
and hydrologic variables. (B15, B16)
Research emphasis will also be on the
refinement and application of exposure
assessment models that have been developed
for pesticides and toxic chemical evaluation
60
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and regulation. These models are particularly
useful for evaluating the exposure of specific
toxic chemicals in general environments, and
are valuable in determining the fate of certain
new chemicals. In these models, a wide
variety of general environments such as
ponds, rivers, or lakes in different locations
are characterized, and estimates can be made
of the range of concentrations for a specific
chemical in the water, biota, and sediment.
Validation of these existing freshwater
environment models will continue over the
next several years in laboratory microcosm
studies as well as in the field. (B4, B7, B8,
BIO, B13,B17, B19, B20)
As indicated previously, a major gap in our
knowledge of pollutant fate is a clear under-
standing of the behavior of chemicals in soils
and sediments. We plan to study the processes
involved in the movement of toxic and
nutrient pollutants from water to sediments
and vice versa. One particular concern is the
adsorption and desorption that takes place
during sediment resuspension, transport, and
redeposition. Information generated from
such sediment studies will be particularly
useful in making management decisions to
mitigate the impact of in-place toxic sub-
stances, such as the PCBs in the Hudson River
and Bay, the kepone in the James River, and
By linking ecosystem
models to water quality
models, we will be able
to assess the threat posed
to humans.
other sediment-related non-point source
runoff. The information will also be useful in
predicting impacts from dredge and fill
operations. (B6, B9, Bll)
A final environmental fate research objec-
tive will be to enhance our capability to
predict environmental effects resulting from
specific short-term or long-term exposure
levels. Research to obtain this objective will
attempt to develop ecosystem effects models,
then link them to water quality predictive
models so that particular damage can be
estimated (e.g., fraction of a particular fish
species that could be killed) for any given set
of water quality conditions. Also, by linking
ecosystem models to water quality models,
we will be able to assess the threat to hu-
mans from the consumption of marine food
products contaminated by ocean disposal
practices.
Deterrnining Effects on
Human Health and the
Environment
People can be exposed to harmful sub-
stances in water by direct contact with water
or by consuming contaminated freshwater
and marine food products; aquatic systems
themselves can be seriously impaired by
pollutant-induced changes in the system. To
make the rational decisions necessary to
protect human health and aquatic ecosystems,
we must apply our pollutant sources data to
environmental fate modeling systems and
then integrate that information to derive the
data necessary to determine health and
ecological effects.
The criteria now supporting water quality
standards are limited; in addition, they only
relate the concentration and length of expo-
sure of a given material to a degree of effect in
a specific organism. The criteria do not
adequately address chronic effects in signifi-
cant species, nor do they adequately consider
the ecological significance of the bioaccumu-
lation of a chemical in a plant or an animal.
The criteria also do not consider sensitive or
important parts of the ecosystem that are in
special need of protection, and for which
criteria should be established; nor do they
discuss the impacts of non-point-related
intermittent exposure to a pollutant. The
criteria are further limited in that they only
address the chemical quality of the body of
water, not its physical features (e.g., sedi-
ment, composition, bottom configuration,
depth and flow patterns), features that may be
61
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vital for the achievement of specific water
uses such as maintenance of a sports fishery.
In addition to the need for expanding the
criteria, there is also a need for evaluating and
improving the methods being used to develop
the criteria. (C4, C6)
We are particularly
concerned about
developing an
understanding of
wetlands.
Our effects research program is designed to
address these needs. In our research, we will
improve our understanding of the structure
and function of selected natural ecosystems;
the information gained will provide us with a
baseline against which changes can be
measured and assessed and rates of recovery
determined. We will also assess the impor-
tance of sediments and other non-point source
pollutants and determine the physical habitat
necessary for maintaining desired fish
species. (C2, C9 through C13)
We are particularly concerned about devel-
oping an understanding of wetlands, such as
marshes that support a variety of aquatic life
and vegetation. Our projects in the area will
include examinations of wetland soils and
plants and the duration and frequency of their
inundation. We will also address the wet-
lands' productivity and functions, such as
nutrient transport, and their effects on water
quality. Additionally, our research will
attempt to produce a precise wetlands defini-
tion that can be used by the Agency, a crucial
need since wetlands are currently subject to
major pressures for alternative use. We will
also evaluate the results of the use of wetlands
for wastewater treatment. (C15)
Since the most critical of all marine
ecosystem habitats are estuarine, we will
continue study of the structure, function, and
resiliency of typical estuarine habitats, with a
focus on their importance to the whole marine
system. We will examine impacts from such
common activities as:
• commercial and industrial siting on the
waterfront or seabed;
• land development for housing and recre-
ational activity;
• dredging and harbor construction and
related dredge spoil disposal;
• industrial effluents and sewage dis-
charges; and
• commercial harvesting of shellfish.
(Cll)
Our Chesapeake Bay Program research
will concentrate on three priority areas of
estuarine impact:
• accumulation of toxics in the food chain;
• the overabundant growth of plants and
animals; and
• the disappearance of submerged aquatic
bay grasses.
Our Great Lakes program will be devoted to
similar areas pertaining to large lake systems,
with emphasis on problems associated with
the accumulation of PCBs and other organic
toxicants in the food chain.
The most critical of all
marine ecosystem
habitats are estuarine.
Existing or potential hazards to the envi-
ronment and to man from single toxic pollu-
tants or complex pollutant mixtures in the
food chain must be evaluated. (C13) Our
research to support these evaluations will
include development and validation of realis-
tic test procedures. We will continue develop-
ing whole life-cycle tests to study effects such
as reproductive success and growth rates.
Embryo-larval tests will be included as
substitutes for full life-cycle tests. We will
also examine variable/multiple environmen-
tal parameters such as salinity on bioassay
responses. Short-term and chronic bioassay
methods will be expanded to include ad-
ditional species that are more representative
of a wide range of environments.
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Certain organisms (especially marine
bivalves) that concentrate pollutants many
times over their levels in natural waters (i.e.,
bioaccumulate) pose a distinct threat to man.
Our research will be directed toward deter-
mining the movements involved in the
bioaccumulation of single pollutants or
pollutants in complex mixtures. We will
examine the effects accumulated pollutants
have on the fecundity and/or viability of
larvae, on pollutant depuration, on pathologi-
cal damage, and on the potential carcinogenic
properties of the pollutants themselves.
The information gained from these studies
will validate biological monitoring programs
and will help fill the gaps in existing criteria.
It will also provide the basis for the develop-
ment of those aquatic ecosystem effects
models that will be linked to water quality
models, for the estimation of specific damage
to a species in a given set of water conditions.
Information to Manage a
System Cost*Effectively
Adequate information on pollution control
technologies and a good sense of the cost-ef-
fectiveness they offer are both necessary for
formulating realistic water quality manage-
ment options. Our control technology devel-
opment and evaluation plans for point sources
may be found in chapter 6, "Wastewater and
Non-point source
pollution can be
controlled by a variety of
best management
practices.
Spills," but in general we will continue to
improve our capability to define and quantify
water quality benefits and pollution abate-
ment costs, specifically construction, opera-
tion, and energy costs. (D2, D4, D9, D13,
D17)
Non-point source pollution can be con-
trolled by a variety of best management
practices including structural techniques such
as terraces, grassed waterways, and runoff
storage facilities, and non-structural tech-
niques such as street sweeping, real-time
fertilizer and pesticide management, mini-
mum tillage programs and zoning
restrictions. Similar watershed management
approaches are applicable to the restoration
and maintenance of water quality in lakes.
Our research, carried out jointly with
USDA and others, will develop and provide
limited evaluation of methodologies for
selecting and assembling best management
practices suitable for use under varying
climatic, physiographic, and other environ-
mental conditions, practices that will achieve
optimum receiving water quality benefits.
Initially, we will evaluate the effectiveness of
existing conservation practices as potential
BMPs with emphasis on selection for specific
locations. Finally, we will develop techniques
to evaluate the cost effectiveness of using
combinations of BMPs. In this effort, our
emphasis will be on using field evaluation
data to test and demonstrate BMP capabilities
and to evaluate the ability of specific practices
to achieve water quality goals. Similar efforts
will be carried out to identify the most
effective techniques both for restoring and for
maintaining our water quality. (Dl through
D4, D6 through D8, D10 through D12, D14
through Dl6, C8)
Working with USDA and others, we will
also evaluate new or improved BMPs to
identify the advantages and limitations that
such strategies as incentives and regulations
will have on the implementation of NPS
control programs on public and private lands.
When recommending management alterna-
tives, we will take into full consideration
potential social acceptability, energy re-
quirements, and cost-effectiveness relation-
ships. In addition, where best management
practices may not be the most efficient means
for alleviating non-point source impacts to
offset pollutant harm, we will examine
comprehensive approaches, such as total
watershed management, in which control of
pollutant sources is combined with the design
of in-stream systems to protect associated
wetlands and downstream water quality.
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WATER QUALITY RESEARCH PLAN
PROGRAM AREA
Sources and
Ambient Pollutant
Identification and
Measurement.
FISCAL YEAR 1980 FISCAL YEAR 1981
Develop first generation
methods for genera
pollutants. A-l
FISCAL YEAR 1982 FISCAL YEAR 1983
Continuing Activities
FISCAL YEAR 1984
Selected priority toxic
pollutants (w/emphasis
on water and
wastewater.) A-2
Develop broad spectrum
measurement techni-
ques.A-3
Broad spectrum meas-
urement technique for
volatile organics in
water and
wastewater.A-4
Additional priority toxic
pollutants (w/emphasis
on water and
wastewater). A-7
Reference measurement
methods for remainder
of priority toxic pol-
lutants. A-9
Continuing Activities
Correct deficiencies in
selected reference
measurement methods
for priority pollutants in
sludge, biota, sediment,
soil, leachate, waste-
water. A-14
Correct deficiencies in
selected reference
measurement methods
for priority pollutants in
aqueous and related ma-
terials. A-19
First generation broad
spectrum measurement
technique for non-
volatile organics in
water and
wastewater.A-10
Expand broad spectrum
organics measurement
methods for application,
to sediment, soil, sludge,
and leachate. A-20
Develop rapid screening
biochemical/biological
methods for toxicants in
water. A-U
Continuing Activities
First generation bioassay
methods for rapid
screening of toxicants in
complex effluents. A-15
Improve and expand
biological/biochemical
rapid screening methods
for toxicants. A-21
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PROGRAM AREA FISCAL YEAR 1980
FISCAL YEAR 1981
FISCAL YEAR 1982
FISCAL YEAR 1983
FISCAL YEAR 1984
Characterize typical con-
tribution of pollutants
from selected point and
non-point sources,
including atmospheric
contributions. A-5
Continuing Activity
Characterize at-
mospheric contributions
to water pollution. A-16
Analytical method
development. A-6
Continuing Activity
Treated reference
Multielement measure- Identify frequently oc- Reference methods for
method for asbestos in ment technique for sedi- curring toxic organics in toxic chemicals added to
water and wastewater.
A-8
ment soil, and suspend-
ed particulates. A-12
First generation
biological/biochemical
rapid screening methods
for toxicants in water.
A-13
industrial effluents. A-17
Measurement technique
for speciation of toxic
metals. A-18
EPA priority pollutants.
A-22
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WATER QUALITY RESEARCH PLAN
PROGRAM AREA FISCAL YEAR 1980
FISCAL YEAR 1981
FISCAL YEAR 1982
FISCAL YEAR 1983
FISCAL YEAR 1984
Environmental Fate
Workshops on uses of
existing predictive
models for assessing
nonpoint and point
source impacts on
receiving water quality.
B-l
Water quality modeling
center for model
dissemination and
limited technical
assistance. B-2
Water quality predictive
model. B-3
Continuing Activity
Continuing Activity
Evaluate selected water
quality predictive
models for use in assess-
ing NFS pollution and
control measures in
Chesapeake Bay
area.B-5
Expand water quality
predictive models to ad-
dress sediments in
streams. B-9
Expand predictive
models to address
selected priority toxic
pollutants in streams
and impoundments.
B-10
Joint center (w/opera-
ting programs) for rou-
tine production of trans-
port and fate processes
data. B-14
Improved nutrient cause
and effect models for
AWT facility and NFS
control planning and
tradeoff analysis. B-15
Field validation of
selected water quality
models that address
common pollutants and
associated NFS
loadings. B-16
Field validation of
detailed irrigation-return
flow model for predic-
ting water quality
changes resulting from
NFS
implementation.B-18
Expand water quality
predictive models to ad-
dress additional priority
toxic chemicals. B-19
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WATER QUALITY RESEARCH PLAN
PROGRAM AREA FISCAL YEAR 1980
FISCAL YEAR 1981
FISCAL YEAR 1982
FISCAL YEAR 1983
FISCAL YEAR 1984
Identify role of
sediments as a source
and sink of toxicants in
Great Lakes. B-6
First generation
capability to predict
sorption and desorption
of pollutants to and
from sediments. B-ll
Characterize transport
and fate of PCBs in
Great Lakes. B-12
Model set for assessing
selected toxic chemicals
in Great Lakes. B-17
Exposure assessment
predictive model. B-4
Refine and validate
Exposure assessment
model for predicting
toxic organic chemical
persistence and fate. B-7
Characterize transport
and fate of selected
pollutants in subsurface
environment. B-8
Characterize subsurface
environment as it in-
fluences pollutant
transport and fate. B-13
Exposure assessment
model for predicting
movement, cycling, fate,
and speciation of toxic
metals in aquatic
systems. B-20
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WATER QUALITY RESEARCH PLAN
PROGRAM AREA FISCAL YEAR 1980
FISCAL YEAR 1981
FISCAL YEAR 1982
FISCAL YEAR 1983
FISCAL YEAR 1984
Environmental
Effects
Criteria for marine
recreational waters. C-l
Interim criteria protec-
tive of aquatic life for
current priority toxic
pollutants C-2
Criteria for fresh recrea-
tional waters. C-3
Appraise applicability of
bioassays using short-
lived species to predict
human health effects.
C-4
Appraise health effects
posed by selected priori-
ty toxic pollutants. C-5
New test procedures for
characterizing chronic
effects of toxicants on
marine aquatic life. C-6
Assess impacts of
sediments on aquatic
biota and define aquatic
habitat criteria for
streams in areas polluted
by non-point sources.
C-7
Characterize ecosystems
effects from intermittent
exposures to selected
NFS pollutants. C-9
Criteria protective of
acute and chronic effects
on aquatic life for
selected priority
pollutants. C-10
Characterize fate and
effects of ocean dispos-
ed water (support 301(h)
permit activities). C-ll
Characterize bioac-
cumulation properties of
priority pollutants
through fresh and
marine food chain and
impact on humans. C-12
Ecosystem models for
transmitting intermittent
water quality levels into
ecosystem effects. C-14
Continuing Activities
Characterize the func-
tions and productivity of
wetlands. C-15
Assess human exposure
and risk from marine
food products con-
taminated by ocean
disposal practices in-
cluding dredge spoil.
C-13
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PROGRAM AREA FISCAL YEAR 1980
FISCAL YEAR 1981
FISCAL YEAR 1982
FISCAL YEAR 1983
FISCAL YEAR 1984
Water Quality
Management
Procedure for evaluating
and ranking alternative
agricultural best
management practices
(BMPs). D-l
Document effectiveness
of in-place management
practices for controlling
pollution from urban
runoff. D-2
Complete evaluation of
first generation clean
lakes projects and
publish lake restoration
guidance manual. C-8
Interim protocols for
selecting site specific
agricultural BMPs D-3
Interim methodology for
evaluating urban storm-
water quality manage-
ment alternatives. D-4
First generation methods
for assessing water
pollution control
impacts. D-5
Evaluate biological
improvements in receiv-
ing waters resulting from
implementation of
BMPs in selected rural
areas. D-6
Evaluate selected urban
runoff pollution
management practices.
D-7
Interim summary of
influences of land use
solids disposal practices,
and pollution on urban
runoff pollution
management strategies.
D-8
Framework of
systematic procedures
for calculating water
quality improvements
from proposed alter-
native point and non-
point source control
strategies. D-9
Improve characteriza-
tion of soil processes for
model refinement and
BMP selection. D-10
Evaluate biological im-
provements in receiving
waters resulting from
implementation of
BMPs in selected urban
areas. D-ll
Update evaluation of
effectiveness of
implemented urban
runoff management
practices. D-12
Compile dollar values to
be assigned to various
water quality improve-
ments, for use with pro-
cedures for calculating
net and value of site
specific water quality
benefits. D-13
Coordinate with USDA
to document effec-
tiveness of BMPs for ir-
rigated agriculture and
nonirrigated agriculture.
D-14
Technique for assessing
irrigation return flow,
pollutant sources and
BMP effectiveness. D-15
Evaluate additional ur-
ban runoff pollution
management practices
(sewer flushing &
various in-line control
systems.) D-16
Systematic procedures
for calculating and com-
paring costs and benefits
of proposed point and
non-point source control
strategies. D-17
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WASTEWATERS AND SPILLS
Wastewaters may introduce toxicants
into the environment. EPA is
developing methods to better treat
and recycle wastewaters*
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The daily discharge of industrial and
municipal wastewaters in the United States is
estimated to be 100 billion gallons, a total
equivalent to the average flow of the Missis-
sippi River at St. Louis. These wastewaters
contain chemicals, suspended solids, bac-
teria, and viruses — many dangerous to the
environment and to public health. Depending
on their concentrations, the toxic chemicals in
wastewater can cause cancer, mutations, birth
defects and a variety of other human health
effects. In our streams and lakes, wastewater
pollutants can deplete the dissolved oxygen
levels required for support of aquatic life,
make the water cloudy or colored, or lead to
otherwise unsightly effects. Wastewaters
finding their way below the earth's surface
can also seriously affect the quality of our
groundwater supplies.
The Problem—
Industrial Wastewater
About two-thirds of the nation's point-
source wastewaters are "industrial." The
character of industrial wastewater varies,
however, from fairly innocuous cooling
waters to the highly toxic wastewaters from
such industries as solvent and dye manufac-
turing, electroplating, and pesticides produc-
tion. Wastewaters generated by industry can
contain enormous quantities of BOD, COD,
suspended solids and nutrients, and a wide
variety of acids, alkalies, salts, heavy metals,
synthetic organic chemicals, inorganic solids,
oil, and grease.
According to Department of Commerce
projections, United States manufacturing
industries will more than triple their present
production output by the year 2000. Projec-
tions also point, however, to an important
trend toward higher industry water recycling
and reuse. Thus, while gross manufacturing
use of water is projected to increase from 153
billion gal/day in 1975 to 371 billion gal/day
in 2000, total discharges are projected to
decrease from 60 billion gal/day to 6 billion
gal/day over the same period. These projec-
tions assume that major water users, includ-
ing the emerging synfuels industry, will adopt
water recycle/reuse technology. Much of that
technology, however, is still to be developed
and demonstrated. And while water recycle/
reuse will decrease wastewater discharges,
the remaining concentrated residues will still
have to be safely disposed of—by destruc-
tion, conversion to a harmless form, release to
the air, water or land, or by incorporation into
some useable product.
The Problem—
Municipal Wastewater
Over 22,700 municipal wastewater treat-
ment plants currently exist in the United
States. These plants treat the domestic wastes
of over 164,000,000 people, as well as a
significant amount of industrial discharge.
The plants discharge 26 billion gallons of
wastewater daily into our nation's waterways,
lakes, oceans, and land surfaces; in addition,
our waters are subjected to another 16 billion
gallons of wastewater per day from urban
runoff. If all of our municipal wastes are not
correctly treated and managed, they might
become agents of diseases such as cholera,
typhoid fever, and other enteric infections;
improper treatment can also contribute to the
deterioration of our water resources.
By the year 2000, treated municipal
point-source discharges will amount to
between 72 percent and 88 percent of the total
point-source discharges of biochemical
oxygen demand, suspended solids, nitrogen,
and phosphorus. The nature of these munici-
pal discharges will, therefore, play an impor-
tant role in determining the nation's overall
water quality. Currently, there is not adequate
information to define the present contribution
or project the future contribution of priority
pollutants in municipal point-source dis-
charges.
Controlling Industrial and
Municipal Wastewater
The legislative basis—industrial waste-
water. The discharge permit, issued by state
regulatory agencies or EPA, is the legal
mechanism used to control industrial
wastewater effluents. This permit is generally
based on industry-wide effluent guidelines
published by EPA. Current guidelines are
"technology based"; that is, they are based
on the level of pollution control for an
industrial discharge that can be achieved by
71
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available and proven control technology.
Originally, guidelines focused primarily on
gross pollution parameters (e.g., BOD,
COD, and suspended solids) and on a few
selected pollutants or pollutant classes of
known concern (e.g., mercury, cadmium,
PCBs, chlorinated hydrocarbons, etc.).
Recently, however, impelled by a 1976
Consent Decree settlement with the Natural
Resources Defense Council and by 1977
amendments to the Clean Water Act, EPA has
been reviewing and revising these technol-
ogy-based guidelines, giving special attention
Provisions of the Clean
Water Act also call for
discharge limits.
to the 21 industries and 129 priority pollutants
identified in the Consent Decree.
Provisions of the Clean Water Act also call
for discharge limits which, when required,
can be substantially stricter than technology-
based limits. They allow for the setting of
discharge limits aimed at maintaining a
specified quality in the receiving waters
themselves, not just in waste water effluents.
These ' 'water quality-based'' standards can
be applied when the level of control possible
through a technology-based standard will not
achieve receiving water quality suitable for
desired water uses.
Over the next few years, technology-based
guidelines will be employed for Best Con-
ventional Technology (BCT), Best Available
Technology Economically Achievable
(BATEA), and Best Management Practices
(BMPs). This effort will result in the best
possible near-term control of industrial
pollutants; it is calculated to alleviate the most
serious point-source pollution problems and
encourages the application of already existing
pollution control technologies and methods.
The approach aims to minimize the discharge
of conventional and the specified 129 priority
pollutants to the greatest degree economically
and technically feasible.
The Clean Water Act establishes a national
goal of "no discharge" of pollutants to
United States navigable waters by 1985. One
way to achieve this goal, even in the face of
constant proliferation of new chemicals and
increased manufacturing, is to recycle and
reuse wastewaters. This method can aid in the
control of water pollution as well as effec-
tively increase our nation's water supply, a
particular benefit to areas of the country
subject to periodic and increasingly frequent
water shortages.
The Clean Water Act also provides for
local control over industries that discharge
their wastes into municipal sewage collection
systems. When wastes are discharged in this
way, a municipality can require an industrial
discharger to apply on-site pre-treatment or
otherwise restrict the release of certain waste
constituents that are either not effectively
handled by the treatment plant or which
adversely affect its operation.
The legislative basis—municipal waste-
water. The discharge permit, issued by state
regulatory agencies or EPA, is the legislative
mechanism for controlling municipal
wastewater effluents. This permit is based on
either (1) a minimum national secondary
treatment standard of 30 mg/1 suspended
solids (SS) and 30 mg/1 biochemical oxygen
demand (BOD), or (2) a water quality-based
standard. Approximately 7,600 municipal
treatment plants are bound to water quality-
based standards for nontoxic pollutants and
require either higher levels of SS and BOD
removal or removal of additional contamin-
ants such as coliforms, ammonia, nitrogen, or
phosphorus. For those facilities bound to
secondary treatment standards, the Federal
Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of
1972 additionally stress the need for
wastewater recycling and reuse, especially
land treatment, toxics control, and improved
pollution control in rural areas where con-
ventional sewage collection or septic tank
treatment is impractical. Toxic control will
emphasize the 129 Consent Decree Pollut-
ants.
The Clean Water Act of 1977 provides
funds for the construction of municipal
wastewater treatment facilities; specific
set-asides for individual home waste treat-
ment facilities and innovative and alternative
72
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technologies that emphasize cost reduction,
energy conservation, toxics control, im-
proved reliability and the recycling/reuse of
water, nutrients, and sludges are also
provided for. The Act requires the promulga-
tion of guidelines for sludge disposal and use
on the land, encourages aquaculture (the
take-up and use of wastewater by waterborne
plants and other organisms) and wastewater
land treatment, and allows for the waiving of
secondary treatment requirements for marine
discharges providing certain criteria are met.
Publicly owned treatment works (POTW)
toxics control for substances primarily of
industrial origin will be achieved mainly
through pretreatment regulations for indus-
tries whose wastes feed into POTW facilities.
The Research Plan—
Industrial Wastewater
EPA's industrial wastewater research plan is
designed to provide information on the
cost-effective control of industrial pollutant
discharges. To accomplish this task, we must:
• detect and identify pollutants;
• determine their source and the form and
concentrations in which they are dis-
charged;
• establish their susceptibility to known
methods of treatment and control;
• develop and demonstrate treatment
methods or non-treatment alternatives
including techniques for recycle/reuse
for those pollutants not susceptible to
known control methods; and
• develop monitoring methods to assure
that waste discharges do not violate
quality guidelines.
This chapter will emphasize the engineering
and technological aspects of the plan. For
projected research on analytical and monitor-
ing methods, and on fate and transport of
water pollutants, see chapter 5, "Water
Quality."
The four basic research objectives of the
wastewater treatment and control program are
the following:
1. To increase the efficiency of pollutant
removal beyond present limits;
2. To increase the performance reliability
of available control methods;
3. To reduce the costs and energy require-
ments necessary to construct and oper-
ate treatment and control facilities;
4. To emphasize the beneficial use of
nutrient materials, properly treated
sludges and renovated wastewaters and
to optimize the use and production of
energy in POTWs.
Our research to support technology-based
standards focuses on the assessment of
available technology and on bringing newly-
developed control methods into practical use.
Our research to support water quality-based
standards explores and develops new tech-
niques and adapts and extends existing ones to
achieve ever-higher control levels for selected
pollutants.
Previous emphasis in dealing with indus-
trial water pollution problems involved
control at the point of discharge. Such
improved end-of-pipe technology develop-
ment is still a necessity, but in the near future,
non-treatment techniques that reduce toxic
and conventional pollution problems while
Improved end-of-pipe
technology development
is still a necessity.
conserving water, energy, and other re-
sources will have a major program emphasis
as well, particularly for new pollution
sources.
In addition to our interactions within EPA
and with other federal agencies, we will
continue to meet with industry and university
experts to avail ourselves of their particular
insights and expertise. Over the next five
years, industrial wastewater research and
development may be categorized into one of
three areas:
1. Industrial source characterization and
assessment;
2. Control methods evaluation, research,
development, and demonstration;
3. Recycle/reuse research, development,
and demonstration.
73
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Industrial Source Characterization and
Assessment
Our approach in this area involves desk-top
analyses of the manufacturing processes and
unit operations of concern. The analyses to be
performed by expert chemists and engineers
will be to provide insight into which waste
products will most likely be generated and
emitted to the environment. These analyses
will be designed to predict pollutant impacts
on air and land, as well as on water, so that
important cross-media implications of indus-
trial water pollution control will not be
overlooked. Following the desk-top effort,
field sampling and analysis at industrial plant
sites will be conducted. Both conventional
pollutants and specific chemical compounds
will be measured. Where possible, these
characterization and assessment studies of
specific industries will be generalized to
industries with similar discharges.
The most crucial prerequisite for a charac-
terization and assessment program is depend-
able analytical methods. (Gaps in existing
measuring technology and an outline of our
program to fill them are discussed in chapter
5, "Water Quality.") For the efficient study
of industrial wastewater, we are particularly
in need of developing indicators that signal
the presence of both individual and groups of
toxic components, and surrogate parameters
Conventional pollutants
and specific chemical
compounds will be
measured.
that indicate their quantity. The use of such
indicator/surrogate analysis methods will
reduce the number of parameters necessary to
characterize the pollution and toxic potentials
of industrial waste streams. Parameters to be
considered will include measurements of
chemical compounds or classes of com-
pounds and bioassy-type measurements
where a property of a waste stream such as its
"toxicity" will be evaluated. (IA20)
A continuing source assessment effort is
contemplated. Sites will be selected based on
the technical information required, but
selection will also reflect specific Agency
policy and regulatory needs and concerns. In
addition, the program will evaluate energy-
conserving process changes to determine their
environmental implications. (IA18)
Control Methods Evaluation, Research,
Development, and Demonstration
Treatability—Information that defines the
degree to which various pollutants can be
removed or ' 'treated'' by candidate technolo-
gies is imperative for guidelines development
and the issuance of discharge permits. We
will, therefore, conduct research to determine
and/or predict the ' 'treatability'' of specific
A Treatability Manual is
being prepared.
toxic pollutants and/or classes of pollutants by
a wide range of physical, chemical, and
biological waste treatment processes. (IB1,
IB2, IB3, IB6, IB10, IB18, IB21) Basic
treatability data applicable to both industrial
and municipal waste treatment are currently
being collected, and a Treatability Manual is
being prepared as a reference for effluent
guideline developers, permit writers, and
design engineers. (IB4) The manual will
include data on a wide range of compounds,
operational data for the control facilities
employed, and design criteria for various
technologies, and will be updated and reis-
sued periodically. (IB12, IB16, IB19, IB20)
Pollution control guidance documents cover-
ing treatability and other environmental
issues will also be prepared for emerging
industries. One such document on geothermal
energy has already been completed while
others on oil shale, coal conversion, and
gasohol production are planned. (IBS, IB7,
IBS) Others will be prepared as appropriate.
(IB 14, IB 15)
A compound's treatability depends on the
various chemical interactions that take place
within complex effluents. A full understand-
74
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ing of all the mechanisms and interactions
involved presents a significant research
challenge (IB 17), and it is doubtful that a
complete theoretical understanding will ever
be reached. However, empirical data will be
developed that will provide a basis for
estimating the ability of various treatment
processes to remove both conventional and
priority pollutants. (IB 13, IB23)
We will also work at identifying treatability
surrogates—chemical compounds or other
measurable parameters that will respond to
treatment in the same manner as those
compounds or as whole classes of materials of
concern. (IB11) Once such a surrogate is
identified for a given type of treatment such as
biodegradation or adsorption, it could be
utilized in place of measuring a number of
actual compounds, reducing the complexity
and cost of evaluating treatment alternatives
and of monitoring and controlling treatment
processes and treatment trains.
We will also often be interested in deter-
mining the ability of a control method to
reduce the "toxicity" of a waste, perhaps
without even knowing or understanding at the
time what chemical entities are being re-
moved. Thus, development of biomonitoring
methods that indicate toxicity will aid in
determining how effectively a given control
method treats toxics.
Treatment technology and non-treatment
alternatives — Defining the efficiency of
treatment processes for individual toxic
pollutants is but a small part of the total
industrial pollution control picture. We must
Conventional as well as
new technology will be
evaluated.
also optimize and improve currently available
treatment methods, and develop innovative
technologies or non-treatment alternatives to
meet new pollution control challenges.
We are currently developing tools to
perform pilot-scale experiments with a
variety of treament process modules, either
singly or in combination. There will be both
fixed facilities and mobile units that can be
taken to industrial plant sites. These facilities
will be useful in the development and testing
of industrial direct discharge and pre-
treatment control technologies, and will allow
EPA to react quickly to new problems by
providing the technological information and
recommendations necessary for their control.
Conventional as well as new technology
will be evaluated through analysis of avail-
able data, from bench-scale and pilot-scale
experiments, and from prototype full-scale
installations. New and modified biological
and physical/chemical treatment processes
will be examined to determine their relative
Cross-media impacts
will be identified and
evaluated.
cost/performance effectiveness. (IC11)
Cross-media impacts will be identified and
evaluated; for example, the amounts of
volatile organic compounds stripped to the air
during aeration of wastewater treatment will
be measured. Using such data, decisions can
be made to determine where such pollution
releases to the atmosphere may themselves
need to be controlled to prevent air quality
degradation. As new control technology is
developed and introduced into practice, it will
be necessary for us to take those analytical
methods devised for pollution detection and
measurement and adapt them for compliance
monitoring and on-line control of treatment
processes.
Throughout our wastewater control tech-
nology development program, close attention
will be paid to ways to reduce cost and energy
consumption. (IC5) Once installed, treatment
technology will be monitored to determine
real world performance and to provide
feedback to the research program.
There are a variety of alternatives to
end-of-pipe treatment that are either existing
75
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or under consideration. Any of these could be
used alone or in combination with treatment
for pollution control. In some instances
different raw materials could be used or new
manufacturing techniques employed. Im-
proved housekeeping through application of
Best Management Practices may also prove
effective. (IC9, IC20)
We will evaluate and model selected
chemical reactions used broadly in the
chemical industry. This effort will help us to
predict the occurrence of toxic constituents in
We will evaluate and
model select chemical
reactions.
the wastewaters produced and to identify
possible process changes, raw material
substitutions, or other techniques that could
eliminate or minimize the generation of the
toxic wastes. One possible approach, for
example, is to "re-design" chemical prod-
ucts to make them less polluting, more
treatable, or non-persistent in the water
environment. (IC24)
The conversion of "hard detergents" to
' 'soft detergents'' some dozen years ago is an
example of this approach. As viable non-
treatment alternatives are identified (1C 17,
IC25), the program will also define the
optimum balance of treatment and non-
treatment alternatives in combination. (IC22)
We will encourage industry and assist
where funding permits in developing and
demonstrating less polluting manufacturing
concepts (IC23), ranging from innovative
process modifications to entirely new man-
ufacturing techniques. These concepts may
be an outgrowth of fundamental research, or
may, by contrast, be concepts in full-scale
practice in other industries or in a foreign
country. Here, the need may be to adapt and
demonstrate the technology for American
industrial practice to assure its technical and
economic soundness. The metals industry,
for example, might benefit from exposure to
the innovative technology found in European
and Japanese installations rebuilt following
World War II. Much of foreign technology is
designed with energy conservation as a high
priority, since most foreign countries face
generally higher fuel costs. (IC2)
Recycle/Reuse Research, Development,
and Demonstration
While we agree with the Department of
Commerce that a major shift by industries to
recycle/reuse water systems lies ahead, we
feel that much remains to be accomplished
regarding these systems before their wide-
scale adoption can be expected. Many of
these advances must and will be made by the
industries themselves as new sources or
reliable water supplies dwindle and as
effluent limitations become more stringent.
Thus, to some extent the move to water
recycle/reuse is a natural, almost inevitable,
circumstance. We will attempt to accelerate
that move by concentrating our efforts on
those situations where:
• highly toxic chemicals are involved and
their release into the environment must
be reduced to the absolute minimum
level; and
• alternative solutions to pollution control
problems are not being brought rapidly
into full-scale practice.
For several years we have been studying
operational recycle/reuse systems to facilitate
the development of effluent guidelines.
Sometimes, however, the data are not suffi-
cient for drawing conclusions on the trans-
ferability of a given system to industrial plants
of various sizes and types. In the future, we
will use an approach that will enhance
consistent evaluations of existing systems and
will facilitate applicability in a variety of
installations. (ID4) We will also plan to
amplify our efforts on those industrial pollu-
tion problems where water recycle/reuse can
result in more cost-effective pollution
control.
The factors that influence strong interest in
recycle/reuse are several:
• the severity of the existing water pollu-
tion control problem;
• the amenability of the problem to con-
ventional control;
76
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• the extent of the water demand;
• the relative cost of alternative control
methods; and
• the extent to which recycle/reuse can
directly satisfy EPA regulatory program
objectives.
Based on these factors, example industries
likely to require recycle/reuse technology are
organic chemicals manufacture (including
pesticides, dyes, plastics, etc.), iron and
steel, and textiles. (ID 1, IDS, ID6)
In the near term, the greatest potential for
success in stimulating acceptance of recycle/
reuse systems may lie in those applications
and with those pollutants for which we have
the most existing data. For this reason, we
will include demonstrations of recycle/reuse
where conventional pollutants and high water
use are at issue. Over the longer term,
however, it is our objective to place prime
focus on recycle/reuse as a tool for resolving
otherwise intractable or particularly costly
pollution control problems involving toxics-
containing effluents.
Why a Fundamental
Research Component
Is Needed
An "outlook" for future research would
not be complete without mention of longer-
term fundamental research needs and goals.
Such work is necessary to develop a data base
for solving the "next generation" of industr-
ial waste pollution problems, to allow in-
telligent extrapolation of current knowledge
to new applications, to enhance our ability to
react to unexpected events, and to aid in the
training of experts upon whom EPA and
others can depend. Specifically, our re-
searchers will need to know more about the
mechanisms and kinetics involved in the
generation and destruction/detoxification of
industrial pollutants and about the mecha-
nisms that separate such pollutants from
water. Our goal should be to achieve a basic
understanding of industrial pollution prob-
lems and the various methods for their
control, ensuring that informed decisions can
be made for the optimum, most cost-effective
solution for each.
The Research Plan—
Municipal Wastewater
The municipal wastewater research plan is
designed to provide technical information on
the design, operation, cost, and performance
relationships of municipal pollution control
technology alternatives. Our goal is to
optimize the environmental efficiency of
municipal wastewater treatment facilities, to
beneficially utilize nutrients in wastewaters
and sludges and to optimize the energy
aspects of municipal wastewater manage-
ment. Specific objectives of our research
program are to provide wastewater treatment
and associated sludge disposal technologies
that:
• reduce capital and operating expendi-
tures;
• consume less energy and resources or
actually produce useful energy or other
valuable by-products;
• are environmentally safe with regard to
water quality, air quality, and land
utilization criteria for all intended uses;
• operate reliably and provide a high level
and/or a comprehensive pollutant re-
moval capability;
• provide sanitary waste disposal alterna-
tives regardless of location or site-
specific constraints; and
• are compatible with or adaptable to
existing facilities, technologies, and
other regulatory programs.
To meet these objectives, research will be
carried out in the following areas:
• developing and evaluating municipal
wastewater treatment processes;
• land treatment and aquaculture;
• sludge processing, use, and disposal
• toxics control;
• improving the operation and reliability of
POTWs;
• helping small communities choose
treatment and disposal alternatives;
• controlling pollution from urban runoff;
• using water that has been treated;
• innovative and alternative technology.
Where appropriate, research efforts will be
coordinated with EPA regional offices,
regulatory and enforcement agencies, and
interested industrial and municipal parties.
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Research Program
Areas
Developing and Evaluating Municipal
Wastewater Treatment Processes. The
predominant BOD and suspended solids
removal methods employed in the United
States are activated sludge, trickling filters,
and stabilization lagoons. Because of the
extensive use of such biological processes in
municipal wastewater treatment facilities, our
program will give high priority to bringing
costs down and developing more energy-
efficient biological systems capable of the
traditional functions of organic carbon and
suspended solids removal as well as phos-
phorus and nitrogen control. (MA2, MA7)
We will pursue the development of higher
rate and less land-intensive processes for
future treatment plants. Vertical systems such
as deep shaft aeration systems (MA6) com-
bining attached and suspended growth reac-
tors (MA5) will be evaluated, as will fluidized
bed reactors (MA9) and multipurpose
reactor/clarifiers. We will also evaluate such
new concepts as batch processing in place of
continuous flow systems, and develop im-
proved methods for the control of toxics.
The majority of municipal secondary
treatment facilities depend on the transfer of
oxygen for efficient operation. Since oxygen
Ultraviolet light and
ozone are the prime
candidates for replacing
chlorination.
transfer is a significant cost- and energy-
intensive process, we will direct efforts to
increase the efficiency of this operation. The
application of aeration technology to the
process, for example, would increase transfer
efficiency from the current 5 percent to a more
acceptable 15 percent and could, on a national
basis, result in an annual operating cost
saving of $60,000,000. (MA8)
Since hazardous chlorinated organics can
be formed when chlorine is used for disinfec-
tion, we must provide municipalities with
other more environmentally acceptable
choices. Currently, ultraviolet light and
ozone are the prime candidates for replacing
chlorination and both are about to enter
full-scale second-generation application.
(MAI, MA4) Initial test results and field
evaluations showed these alternatives to be
practical, efficient, and not cost prohibitive.
Land Treatment and Aquaculture. We
are presently studying three major types of
land treatment systems. (MB1) Slow rate
systems are the most commonly used, and, in
most cases, we have reliable criteria available
for their design and operation. Overland flow
systems are the least used, owing primarily to
the paucity of design data and lack of operat-
ing experience. (MBS) Rapid infiltration
systems are fairly widespread, but several
questions regarding their design and opera-
tion have restricted their use. (MBS)
The thrust of our research in this program
area is to develop reliable design and operat-
ing criteria for all three types of systems
enabling us to utilize them to their fullest
extent and under all possible operating
conditions. Research will focus on:
• the design and proper operation and
maintenance of rapid infiltration and
overland flow systems;
• optimizing the treatment capability of all
land treatment systems;
• assuring maximum protection for the
groundwater; and
• minimizing potential problems related to
disease transmission, heavy metals, and
toxic organics.
Major concerns posed by the implementa-
tion of land treatment involve disease trans-
mission (MB7), particularly by viruses; the
fate of heavy metals in the soil (MBS), their
uptake by crops, and migration to groundwa-
ter; and the fate and transformation of toxic
organics. Research aimed at examining these
concerns will be ongoing over the next five
years.
The use of wastewater for aquaculture is a
wastewater treatment thought to have great
potential. Aquaculture, as defined by our
program, is the use of water plants, particu-
78
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larly the water hyacinth, and other aquatic
organisms to take up, use and therefore
biologically modify the wastes in wastewater.
Our program does not include the use of
potential food sources for treatment. Re-
search into various aquaculture processes is
currently being conducted by several organi-
zations and agencies, including EPA.
The EPA aquaculture research program,
though not a major one, has nevertheless
availed itself of experts in the field to set
research priorities and establish a five-year
wastewater aquaculture research plan. Em-
phasis is being given to the development of
systems utilizing aquatic macrophytes,
particularly water hyacinth. (MB4, MB6)
Care is being taken in the design and location
of these systems to prevent the creation of
nuisance infestations in surrounding areas. A
POTW sludge
processing and disposal
can account for as much
as 50 percent of total
wastewater treatment
cost.
few systems have been built and are operat-
ing, and additional pilot-scale and devel-
opmental systems are being planned. Ad-
ditionally, EPA is conducting research into
the use of natural and artificial wetlands for
wastewater treatment and management
(MB9), and the use of finfish systems for
advanced treatment, particularly nutrient
removal. (MB2)
These systems have potential as effective
wastewater and wastewater nutrient recycle/
reuse processes. Certain systems may also be
used to produce energy, converting the
harvested biomass into gas. Our research
program is committed to developing effective
and economical aquaculture processes as
wastewater treatment alternatives.
Sludge Processing, Use, and Disposal.
POTW sludge processing and disposal can
account for as much as 50 percent of total
wastewater treatment cost. Recently it has
been found, however, that in some cases
sludge can be converted into resources, and
can even return some treatment costs. There
have also been recent improvements in sludge
treatment, disposal, and utilization technolo-
gies, particularly in the long-neglected area of
sludge disinfection. One outstanding devel-
opment has been sludge composting, a
process that essentially pasteurizes sludge, at
a low capital cost and with minimal odor
problems. (MC3, MC9) New methods for
thermal conversion of sludge, such as low-air
combustion, co-incineration with refuse, and
the burning of dewatered sludge with no other
auxiliary fuel for conventional incineration,
have also been developed and demonstrated.
We will continue our search for improved
cost- and energy-effective processing routes
and methods for sludge land treatment and
disposal. Emphasis will be placed on develop-
ing improved stabilization methods for the
destruction of pathogens. Where land treat-
ment and disposal are not feasible, we will
work to improve environmentally sound and
energy-wise methods of thermal sludge
processing. (MC4, MC5, MC6, MC10,
MC11)
Currently, one of the most cost-effective
uses of sludge is as a soil amendment or
fertilizer in agriculture and for land reclama-
tion. (MC6) While such use is common in the
United States, it has been generally thought
applicable only to small rural communities.
Working with the USDA and the City of
Chicago, we are demonstrating the potential
of this particular use for larger cities.
While researching the land treatment of
sludge, we realize that such treatment poses
some threat to the environment. We know that
despite processing, some pathogenic or-
ganisms are apt to persist; heavy metals and
toxic chemicals will also be present in trace
amounts. We are thus concerned that effects
such as plant uptake may occur. We are also
still uncertain about disinfection requirements
and acceptable cadmium loading rates, and
are yet unsure of what constitutes a
"stabilized" sludge. Nutrient content, pH
management, and the effect of certain agents
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in the sludge on the mobility of heavy metals
are also of concern. We must, therefore,
examine these parameters and potential
effects, and develop measures to minimize
them to assure cost effective wide-scale
application of sludge on agricultural lands.
In the past, we have worked closely with
the USDA Beltsville Research Center to
identify long-term environmental effects of
sludge utilization. We have also worked with
the Food and Drug Administration to examine
transfer of toxics to the human food chain. We
are currently working with these agencies and
the academic community to determine the
nature of crop uptake of potentially toxic
metals, including cadium.
Our future efforts will be directed toward
indentifying methods to reduce levels of toxic
metals and organics in sludge to make it more
amenable for land use. We will examine the
long-term impacts of sludge-spreading on a
variety of soils and crops, and will also
attempt to determine the fate of the organics
when the sludge/organics mixture is applied
to the land. (MCI2) In the event that the
uncertainties associated with sludge applica-
tion to food crops are not resolved, the
program will evaluate non-food crop land
application alternatives as well as ' 'sludge to
useful products" conversion technologies.
(MC2, MC7, MC8, MC13)
The immediate objective
of the toxics control
program is to clearly
define the municipal
wastewater problem.
Toxics Control. All municipal waste-
waters, whether derived from purely domes-
tic sources or from mixed industrial/domestic
sources, contain many toxic metals and
organics on the priority pollutant list. In a
two-city survey, 29 of the 129 pollutants were
detected in domestic wastewater and 49 in
industrial/domestic wastewater.
The immediate objective of the toxics
control program is to clearly define the
municipal waste water problem. The objective
will be accomplished by acquiring data bases
on the occurrence of priority pollutants in
municipal wastewater influents, effluents,
and sludges. To this end, surveys of some 65
cities are currently being conducted by the
Office of Research and Development (MD2)
and by the Office of Water Planning and
Standards. As a corollary, a second, short-
term objective has been the development or
modification of analytical procedures to allow
the data base collection to proceed.
A principal near-term objective of the
municipal program, in conjunction with the
industrial wastewater research program, is the
assessment of the treatability/removability of
priority pollutants by a variety of treatment
processes including biodegradation, carbon
adsorption, and air stripping. (MD1, MD3)
With the enormous number of compounds to
be tested as part of this assessment effort, we
are working on methods of accurately fore-
casting the behavior of a compound in a given
treatment process without actually having to
test that particular compound. This can be
accomplished by relating the fundamental
characteristics of a compound, such as the
parachor number, partition coefficient, and
molecular weight, to known treatability/
removability parameters.
For the short term, we will conduct tests to
determine how organic compounds concen-
trations change from influent to effluent
during sludge treatment. This change or
removablility is influenced in a complex
process such as activated sludge by several
processes, mechanisms operating concur-
rently and interdependently, including strip-
ping, biodegradation, adsorption, precipita-
tion, hydrolysis, etc. A clearer understanding
of removability can provide a deeper insight
into the general effectiveness of the process
itself.
A final objective to be pursued concurrent
with other program goals, but at a more
modest rate, is the development or modifica-
tion of processes that enhance the removal of
metals and toxic organics. We will attempt to
determine those operating conditions under
which treatment plants can provide the
maximum removal of contaminants. We will
80
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also seek to develop modifications to con-
ventional and/or physical-chemical plants to
achieve removals required to meet stream
quality standards or standards for reuse at the
lowest possible cost. (MD4, MD5, MD6)
Improving the Operation and Reliability
of POTWs. Despite the billions of dollars
spent on POTW construction, as many as 50
percent of the plants are not meeting antici-
pated performance goals, largely because of
As many as 50 percent
of the plants are not
meeting anticipated
performance goals.
improper plant operation and deficiencies in
plant design. EPA, therefore, is placing
emphasis on improving the design, operation,
reliability, and cost effectiveness of existing
and future POTWs.
To this end, our research program will
study relationships between plant design,
influent characteristics, operation and main-
tenance practices, facility management, and
plant performance. Our work will help to
pinpoint design deficiencies as well as
facilitate the development of criteria for
improved and cost-effective performance.
Emerging treatment processes and tech-
niques, land application systems (ME3), and
alternative treatment technologies including
energy utilization (ME1) will be considered.
We will also demonstrate the effectiveness
of our Composite Correction Program (CCP)
(ME4), a new approach for correcting operat-
ing deficiencies in POTWs. The CCP ap-
proach makes use of a comprehensive EPA
plant performance evaluation to identify
problems in all areas of plant operation.
Remedial solutions through technical assist-
ance, training, and follow-up monitoring and
assistance are then recommended.
Improved automation of plant operations
and methods of instrumentation will also be
given attention. (ME2, ME5) Protocols or
Measurement Assurance Programs (MAPs)
that will detail purchase specification, proce-
dures for bench acceptance testing, field
installation, field acceptance testing, and
required maintenance will be developed for
families of instruments or sensors. Situations
in which a given instrument should not be
used will also be specified by MAPs.
Helping Small Communities Choose
Treatment and Disposal Alternatives.
Historically, most homeowners, public
officials, and engineers have favored using
public sewerage systems to deal with munici-
pal wastewater. Despite significant advances
in alternative technology development and
new laws encouraging low-cost alternative
technology in rural areas, treatment practices
have remained largely unchanged. However,
as costs of conventional sewerage and treat-
ment for many small rural communities are
being proven excessive on a per capita basis,
lower-cost alternatives (e.g., pressure,
vacuum, and small-diameter gravity systems)
are being adopted, and today these individual
or on-site treatment systems serve 29 percent
of the nation's homes. EPA efforts are
therefore being directed to the study of
alternative on-site systems and the develop-
ment of alternative low-cost centralized
wastewater technology.
We will continue to provide information
We will investigate
cost-effective alternative
systems.
for upgrading and managing wastewater
technology in small rural communities.
(MF1, MF2, MF3, MF4) We will investigate
cost-effective alternative systems and will
develop practical handbooks for on-site and
small community systems. The handbooks
will discuss plant design, operation, and
management, and will outline the compara-
tive advantages and disadvantages of alterna-
tive systems. We will also study the possibility
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of modifying existing on-site systems. Ad-
ditionally, we will begin examination of
alternative systems for seasonal dwellings and
commercial establishments. In this area, both
unique problems and opportunities exist, and
both will require the application of innovative
technologies and management practices.
Finally, the program must anticipate the
residential building technologies of the decade
to come. We will need to work toward the
development of wastewater systems in line
with the energy-efficient nature of the
dwellings future technologies will create.
Controlling Pollution from Urban Run-
off. Though storm sewer discharges and
combined sewer overflows are two of the most
predominant forms of urban wastewater
runoff, it has been only in the last 10 or 15
years that control of pollution from this runoff
has been seen as significant.
Although urban runoff typically occurs for
only brief periods, the discharge can result in a
very large quantity of pollutants entering
receiving waters. It has been estimated that on
an annual basis, the discharge of oxygen-
demanding materials from urban runoff can
approximately equal the discharge of secon-
dary effluent from dry weather facilities, and
sediment discharge can exceed the sediment in
dry weather discharge. In addition, during
discharge, various amounts of nutrients and
organic and inorganic toxic materials are
released to receiving waters. The impact of all
these materials on the receiving water, how-
ever, is clouded by the intermittent nature of
the unban runoff discharges they are contained
WET WEATHER TREATMENT PLANT PERFORMANCE DATA
DEVICE
DESIGN
LOADING
CONTROL RATE
ALTERNATIVES (gpm/ft2)
REMOVAL EFFICIENCY (%)
BOD,
SS
PRIMARY
Swirl
Concentrator
Microstrainer
High-Rate
Filtration
Dissolved Air
Sedimentation
60
20
24
2.5
0.5
25-60
40-60
60-80
50-60
25-40
50
70
90
80
55
Representative
Performance
40
60
SECONDARY Contact
Stabilization
Physical-Chemical
75-88
85-95
90
95
Representative
Performance
85
95
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in. Harmful effects, it is thought, will likely be
site specific, depending largely on the nature of
the receiving water (MG2, MG8), with the
most significant problems probably those
posed by suspended solids and coliforms.
It has been estimated that the costs for
controlling urban runoff using structural
methods could be as high as $300 billion. To
reduce the amount of capital required for
control, EPA has investigated a variety of Best
Management Practice alternatives. Each BMP
offers a partial solution to runoff problems, and
employs techniques such as improved surface
sanitation (street sweeping), storage in the
sewer system, control via chemicals, use of
natural drainage and porous pavement (MG6),
use of natural and man-made wetlands (MG7),
sewer flushing (MG4), and erosion and
sedimentation control (MG4). Many of the
BMPs being considered control pollution at its
source rather than at the end of the pipe. They
offer multiple benefits of lower cost, earlier
results, and improved and cleaner neighbor-
hood environment. (The efficiency of various
structural methods (MG3) that remove pollu-
tants from urban runoff is shown in the table.)
The reduction of excessive flows through
improved infiltration inflow control (MG5)
and the proper disposal of sludge residues from
wet weather control facilities (MG9) are also
important areas of research.
Using Water That Has Been Treated.
When the President established water conser-
vation as the cornerstone of our future water
resources policy, national attention was
turned to water reuse. Advances in treatment
technology, the need for alternate supplies to
Defining treatment
technology for potable
use, however, is more
difficult.
meet future water demands, and the impacts
of short-term drought conditions on water
supplies have also helped pique interest in
reuse applications.
Currently, we can identify the treatment
technology required for several reuse applica-
tions, among them agricultural, recreational,
and industrial. For these applications, quality
requirements have been partially, if not
completely, defined. Defining treatment
technology for potable use, however, is more
difficult, since there is yet no consensus on
the degree of treatment necessary to guarantee
public safety. (See chapter 7, "Drinking
Water.")
In addition to the potential health hazards
posed, the high cost of processing wastewater
for potable use has historically limited its
appeal. Other water resources have generally
been available at lower cost, and while this
may have been due in the past to pricing
below actual acquisition, treatment, and
Only about 25 percent
of water used in the
average home needs be
of potable quality.
distribution costs, reuse today must compete
on a true-cost basis.
It is anticipated that when water is reused,
high-quality water will not be used for a
purpose that can tolerate a lesser degree of
purity. This source substitution method
allows conserving of approved sources of
potable water by using poorer-quality water
for such functions as toilet flushing and lawn
watering, methods already employed in
water-short areas. Since only about 25
percent of water used in the average home
needs be of potable quality, i.e., for drinking,
cooking, laundry, and bathing, the broad-
scale potential of source substitution to
expand water reuse is significant. We will,
therefore, work to explore the cost effective-
ness of using multiple-distribution systems to
deliver both potable and non-potable water.
Until more is known about the health
effects of the residues found in high-quality
wastewater treatment effluents, any potential
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reuse situation that poses health questions will
not be sanctioned. To determine effects, we
will implement long-term demonstrations
investigating feasibility and practicability of
reusing wastewaters for potable purposes.
Evaluation studies of the potential for potable
reuse have been funded in Denver, Colorado,
(MH1, MH2, MH3) and Orange County,
California (MH4). Additionally, short-term
research will evalute new process alternatives
to achieve low levels of organic residues.
Innovative and Alternative Technology
(I&A). The municipal wastewater treatment
program in FY 79 initiated a support effort to
provide technical consultation and necessary
technical manuals to support the I&A prog-
ram 's legislative authorities specified in the
1972 Clean Water Act and administered by
the Office of Water Program Operations. This
innovative and alternative technology prog-
ram provides technical support to EPA
Regional Offices and to the Office of Water
Program Operations; it also functions as a
major research arm of the overall municipal
wastewater program. Recently, a technical
advisory group made up of I&A and other
municipal wastewater program personnel was
formed to assist the Agency in meeting the
requirements of the Clean Water Act. The Act
charges EPA to encourage the construction
and use of those innovative and alternative
municipal treatment technologies that stress
cost reduction, reclamation, energy conserva-
tion, and reuse. Additionally, the Act estab-
lishes a national goal that, during the three-
year funding period ending in FY81, over 25
percent of the construction grant funds for
new POTWs be used to build facilities that
employ such I&A technology.
To this end, we will publish an updated
Innovative and Alternative Design Manual
(Mil), initiate field evaluations of I&A-
approved projects (MI2), maintain a clear-
inghouse of program activities, and publish
periodic progress reports (MI3). We will also
evalute emerging technologies to determine
whether they qualify as innovative and
alternative technology. Additionally, design,
performance, and cost data on novel aspects
of I&A technology will be summarized,
evaluated, and published for wide dissemina-
tion. Novel aspects could include the use of
solar power, energy recovery schemes,
biomass conversion technologies, by-product
recovery alternatives, and aquaculture
options.
Emergency Spills
Research
Oil and hazardous substance spills occur as
a result of accidents, equipment malfunction,
human error, and deliberate discharge.
Approximately 15,000 spills occur annually
in the United States, contaminating the land,
water, and air with noxious or toxic liquids,
solids, and vapors. Spill results can be
extensive property damage, death or personal
injury from fire and explosion, or intake of
toxic substances, the latter sometimes result-
ing in chronic effects such as increased
incident rates of cancer or birth defects. Spills
can render drinking water supplies unfit for
human consumption, and can destroy coastal
Spills can render
drinking water supplies
unfit for human
consumption.
and inland aquatic food sources and make
recreational areas unusable.
Recognizing the potential for disastrous
effects from spills, Congress addressed the
problem by including Section 311 in the
Federal Water Pollution Control Act
(FWPCA) in 1972. Amended twice since
then, Section 311 of the Act states that it is the
policy of the United States to prohibit the
discharge of oil and hazardous substances into
United States waters. It assigns the responsi-
bility of carrying out this mandate to EPA and
the U.S. Coast Guard. By separate agree-
ment, the Coast Guard has accepted responsi-
bility for transportation-related spills on or
adjacent to coastal waters and the Great Lakes
while EPA has responsibility for spills on
inland waters.
Under the mandate of the FWPCA and the
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National Contingency Plan, EPA is required
to perform three functions dealing with
emergency spills:
• Promulgate regulations and guidelines
for the designation, prevention, control,
removal, and disposal of oil and hazard-
ous substance spills;
• Provide enforcement of these regulations
and the penalty provision of FWPCA;
• Provide On-Scene Coordinators (OSC),
people specially trained and equipped to
monitor and advise in control, removal,
and disposal of spilled materials and in
the restoration of areas damaged by the
release of oil or designated hazardous
substances.
The Resource Conservation and Recovery
Act, Toxic Substances Control Act, and Safe
Drinking Water Act also spell out specific
EPA spills responsibilities.
Emergency Spills
Research and
Development Program
The emergency spills response research
program primarily assists both industry and
government by drafting guidelines and
developing hardware and techniques for
dealing with spills. The guidelines provide
suggested methods for responding to, clean-
ing up, and mitigating the effects of spills.
Additionally, ORD provides support at the
scene of a spill by offering technical assist-
ance personnel and special equipment for
on-site response, clean-up, aerial surveil-
ORD provides support
at the scene of a spill.
lance, analytical support, and mitigation.
The development of new techniques and
equipment has traditionally been an ORD
function supporting the Agency's environ-
mental protection programs. The new
technologies provide technical data to support
future regulations, and commercialization of
these technologies is one objective of the
emergency spills research and development
program. The oil spill and hazardous sub-
stances spill program has an excellent record
in this regard, having developed 17 major
prototype systems for use at emergency spill
sites, 7 of which are now commercially
available.
There are two major objectives of the
current spill program:
• To demonstrate technology and tech-
niques for protecting the water, land, and
air from accidental releases; and
• To identify environmentally sound
methods for the disposal of contaminated
wastes associated with clean-up opera-
tions .
The objectives are being pursued in six areas
of emergency spill research and development:
• Prevention
• Notification and response
• Control and removal
• Ultimate disposal
• Fate and effects
• Restoration.
Each area has ongoing and planned research
and development to fill the gaps in scientific
data or control technology and techniques,
helping to protect the public from the effects
of spills. Within each area, the current
research and development effort generally
places a greater emphasis on hazardous
substances spills than on oil spills.
Vital to the overall spills program is our
comprehensive surveillance and analysis
capability. This capability provides the
foundation for all spill response research and
development, beginning with prevention
where it assists in contingency planning for a
single potential spill site or for an entire
watershed area, and ending with the analysis
of final restoration activities; it is of incalcul-
able value during the response to a spill
situation for initial response assessment. Due
to its value, ORD expects to continue techni-
cal support in this area and perform additional
research and development to provide real-
time surveillance capabilities using the
Enviro-pod program. The Enviro-pod cur-
rently is operational with vertical and
forward-looking normal and infrared aerial
photograpic imagery.
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EMERGENCY SPILL EQUIPMENT DEVELOPED BY ORD
• Mobile Physical/Chemical Treatment System—a trailer-mounted system for the treatment of contam-
inated water using granular-activated carbon (built by O.H. Materials, Inc., Findlay, OH.)
• Cyclic Colorimeter—capable of detecting heavy metals in water (marketed by Calspan Corp., Buffalo, NY).
• Hazardous Materials Detection Kit—designed to detect and monitor the location of chemical spills in
water when the identity of the chemical is known (marketed by Hack Co., Ames 1A).
• Organo-phosphate Pesticide Detection and Warning System—designed to detect and monitor for
pesticides in water (manufactured by Midwest Research Institute, Kansas City, MO).
• Foam Dike System—capable of providing an "instant dike" from a portable backpack apparatus for the
emergency containment of spilled hazardous substances (marketed by MSA Research Corp., Evans City, PA).
• Dynamic Inclined Plane Skimming System—a vessel for removing spilled oil from choppy harbor waters
at 2 knot currents (marketed by J.B.F. Scientific Corp., Burlington, MA).
• Acoustic Emission Earth Dam Spill Alert Device—a passive device for determining the stability of earthen
dams containing hazardous chemicals.
• Mobile Chemical Laboratory—contains a sophisticated complement of instruments (GC, IR, AA, etc.)
for performing analyses at chemical emergency situations in remote field locations.
• Spill Assessment Laboratory—a mobile laboratory equipped to perform in-field treatability studies for
cleanup of hazardous materials spills and industrial dump sites.
• Safety/Decontamination/Office Trailer—a mobile field office and safety station that provides office
space for the EPA On-Scene Coordinator at a spill site, a storage location for safety and communications
equipment, and an emergency shower for cleanup personnel.
• Mobile Stream Diversion System—a trailer-mounted pumping and piping system for the diversion (up to
3,000 feet) of small (up to 12.5 cfs) streams that have been contaminated by spills; isolates the contaminated
segment of the stream to facilitate clean-up operations.
• Mobile Froth Flotation System—a trailer-mounted froth flotation system to clean oil-contaminated beach
sand.
• Pump/Collection Bag System—a pallet-mounted emergency collection bag and pumping system con-
sisting of a 7,000-gallon furled teflon-coated urethane bag and battery-powered or explosion-proof gasoline
motor-driven pumps; temporarily stores spilled hazardous chemicals.
• Gelling Agent System—a trailer-mounted multipurpose gelling agent system for solidifying and immobil-
izing spilled hazardous liquids and preventing their penetration through the soil into ground water supplies.
• Spill Alarm System—an in-stream warning system consisting of a number of individual probes and
sensors (TOC, conductivity, UV absorption, etc.); for the continuous detection of a broad variety of spilled
hazardous materials in water.
• Enviro-pod Aerial Monitoring and Surveillance System—a compact reconnaissance system designed to be
secured to conventional aircraft to provide vertical and forward-looking photographic images of high
resolution.
• Water Jet Boom System—a system capable of moving spilled oil horizontally relative to the water it
floats on (even in the presence of waves) for either diverting the oil in high-water currents or increas-
ing the effective encounter width of skimming equipment.
Spills Prevention. A portion of the ORD
spills program is dedicated to the develop-
ment of technology to reduce the number and
severity of spill incidents. (SA2, SA4, SA5,
SA6) The Department of Transportation has
promulgated regulations directed toward the
safe transportation of oil and hazardous
materials. The EPA program will develop
technologies and protocols for increasing
safety at impoundment areas, plants, loading
sites, and storage facilities. The Agency will
also maintain close coordination with the
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Department of Transportation to improve
safety and reduce accidents during the
transportation of oil and hazardous sub-
stances.
The output of the prevention portion of the
spills program will be employed by manufac-
turers, users, transporters, and disposers of
hazardous chemicals to select and install
fail-safe level gauges, transfer lines, coupl-
ings, and seals, and will allow government
and industry to more readily recognize
spill-prone situations. Research will also
provide the basis for mandated federal
regulations on hazardous spills prevention.
FY80-85 spills prevention research includes a
progressive program to first statistically
analyze historical spills data and then,
utilizing the results of this analysis, develop
and demonstrate fail-safe and cost-effective
devices for the prevention of spills in the areas
of greatest benefit. (SA4) The analysis will
take into consideration not only the
probability of future occurrences, but other
aspects such as expected frequency, cause,
volume, and cleanup cost as well. This effort
is being coordinated with a review of current
oil spill prevention regulations to determine
Recommendations will
be made for new oil spill
prevention techniques.
their effectiveness. (SA3) Both engineering
and procedural aspects of these regulations
will be evaluated, and recommendations will
be made for both new oil spill prevention
techniques and for guidelines for improving
prevention practices. Ultimately, study
findings will be used in the preparation of
revised oil spill prevention regulations.
The chemical manufacturing, transporta-
tion, and waste disposal industries will also be
studied to determine which chemical and
waste-handling technologies are the most
cost-effective. (SA5) Results of this study
will then be used to establish priorities for our
development of prototype spill prevention
techniques and equipment for these
industries. (SA6)
In the specific area of pesticides applica-
tion, ORD expects to complete (in FY80) a
report on the prevention and control of
spillage from both aerial and ground applica-
tion. (SA1) This report will provide
background for establishing guidelines for
users of pesticides.
Overall, spill prevention research and
development has the goal of providing EPA
with the technical information necessary for
the eventual promulgation of guidelines that
establish a "standard of care" regarding spill
prevention, control, removal, and site
restoration.
Notification and Response. Past notifica-
tion and response research and development
has resulted in the development of commer-
cially available detection and identification
kits and personal protective clothing. Ad-
ditional work is required to ensure that rapid
notification and proper response can be made
to any spill. Those who respond to hazardous
materials spills, in particular, must have
quick, accurate information on the nature of
the spill and on the type of personal protection
required. Experience shows that dependence
on bills of lading and placards is frequently
misleading and often dangerous. Work in the
notification and response area is being closely
coordinated with the Coast Guard.
A high priority of the notification and
response program is the development and
demonstration of protective equipment and
safety devices for spill response personnel.
(SB 1) Equally important is the preparation of
an emergency action manual for situation
assessment, identification and detection of
spilled material, confinement of spills, and
control of air pollution. (SB2, SB3) This
manual will be designed to enhance currently
available manuals that deal almost exclu-
sively with fire and explosion.
The longer-term program goals will be
supported by two other efforts. The first will
involve the development of computer models
for spill plume movement. (SB4) These
models will provide response personnel with
the capability of predicting the movement of
hazardous substances in air, surface water,
and groundwater. The second effort will
involve the development and demonstration
87
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of additional identification and detection
devices including field kits and flow-through
spill alarm systems.
Spills Control and Removal. Spills
control and removal research and develop-
ment develops and demonstrates equipment
to clean up and remove spills of common oils,
organic chemicals, toxic heavy metal salts,
pesticides, and complex industrial wastes.
The effectiveness and efficiency of spills
control and removal equipment bears directly
on the intensity and extent of a spill situation.
The physical extent of the spill in turn relates
directly to the number of individuals affected
and the severity of the impact on human
health and safety and on the environment.
The major focus of the research and
development program is on the development
of rapidly deploy able, simple-to-operate
equipment that will be effective in temporar-
ily limiting the spread of spilled material.
(SC2, SC5, SC7, SC9, SC10) Next in impor-
tance is the development of on-site technol-
ogy for control and recovery of spilled
The major focus is on
the development of
rapidly deploy able,
simple-to-operate
equipment.
hazardous substances. (SCI, SC5) This
technology serves a double purpose, directly
enhancing the cost effectiveness of cleanup
operations while decreasing the dangers
posed by transport; objectives are reached by
providing an on-site capability for the
reclamation, detoxification, or destruction of
oil and hazardous substances.
A third part of the spill control and removal
research and development program deals with
the problem of air pollution control in the
event of spills of gases or volatile hazardous
substances, a major concern of public health
and safety officials. ORD is preparing
emergency manuals to provide air pollution
control guidance for the first personnel at the
scene of a spill. (SC3) These manuals will
supplement currently available manuals with
information on the best operational practices
and the best available equipment and
techniques for retarding the rate of transfer of
Present methods require
extensive use of
manpower and
equipment.
spilled material to the open air and for
inhibiting the flow of ground-hugging toxic
and flammable vapors.
Shoreline protection and restoration is
another aspect of the spills control and
removal program. (SC8) Despite continuing
efforts to the contrary, most offshore spills
result in significant shoreline contamination
involving environmental insults to estuarine,
ocean, and inland areas having recreational,
esthetic, or commercial value. The state of the
art for the cleanup of shorelines is primitive.
Present methods require extensive use of
manpower and equipment that in some cases
can be more environmentally damaging to the
shoreline than to the spilled material itself. A
major technical development effort is needed
to address this problem.
The final aspect of the spills control and
removal program is operation of the Oil and
Hazardous Materials Simulated Environmen-
tal Test Tank (OHMSETT) facility to test and
evaluate new equipment and techniques as
they are developed. Of major concern at this
time is the testing and evaluation of chemical
and biological agents that are preintended for
use under conditions where present mechan-
ical clean-up technology is not adequate, or
where mechanical cleanup would be more
damaging to the environment than no cleanup
at all.
Ultimate Disposal of Spills Residue. The
fourth area of research and development deals
88
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with the ultimate disposal of recovered spill
residues. Although recycling of these resi-
dues is the most desirable method of disposal,
it is not always technically or economically
feasible. The program is thus geared to the
development of a number of innovative
alternatives to residue disposal. These are:
• Conversion of refractory organics to
carbon dioxide, water, salts, etc.;
• Immobilization of toxic constituents so
that they present no greater leaching
hazard than they do in natural rock or
mineral formations; and
• Application of sophisticated degradative
microorganisms and nutrients.
The decision to focus on these specific
techniques is based on a previously prepared
assessment of various hazardous substances
disposal alternatives. Candidate techniques
will be investigated at the bench and pilot
scale where transportable and mobile disposal
systems will be developed for on-site
detoxification/destruction of concentrated
residuals from spill cleanup operations.
(SD1) The most promising techniques will
then be further refined and demonstrated as
full-scale prototypes. (SD2)
Fate and Effects of Spills. In fate and
effects research, ORD is studying the ecolog-
ical effects of acute discharges of hazardous
substances. (SE1, SE2, SE3) All those who
respond to, clean up, and dispose of spills of
hazardous materials face the problem of
determining what will happen to the environ-
ment if cleanup is imperfect and/or if nature
alone takes its course, without active cleanup
action. The thrust of the research and devel-
opment effort is to determine when nature can
cope with the spill or when spill by-products
and degradation present short- or long-term
hazards that must be addressed. This informa-
tion is also essential for determining when
sufficient cleanup has been accomplished.
Restoration of Spills Environment.
Federal, state, and local officials need
procedures to first assess the extent of spill
damage and its impact on human health and
the environment and then restore the spill
environment through removal operations and
by enlisting the aid of natural processes such
as accelerated microbial degradation. The
restoration of spills environment area of the
research and development program concen-
trates on the assessment/restoration
decision-making process (SF1) and on the
development and field testing of experimental
restoration techniques and prototype
equipment. (SF2)
89
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INDUSTRIAL WASTEWATER RESEARCH PLAN
PROGRAM AREA FISCAL YEAR 1980 FISCAL YEAR 1981 FISCAL YEAR 1982 FISCAL YEAR 1983 FISCAL YEAR 1984
Industrial Source
Characterization and
Assessment
Up-date characterization
for "21 industries, 129
pollutants," including the
following industries: or-
ganic chemicals, iron and
steel, non-ferrous metals,
petroleum refining, pet-
roleum chemicals and
coal-fired power plants
IA1,B6
Multimedia assessments
of coal gasification and
liquefaction, coal clean-
ing, advanced oil and gas
production and recovery,
and alternative energy
conserving industrial pro-
cesses IA2
Provide data back-up for
pretreatment regulations
IA3
Assess fuel grade alcohol
production (for gasohol)
IA4
Effluent characterizations
of various waste-to-energy
processes IA5
Characterize hazardous
organics in the effluent of
a petroleum refining com-
plex IA8
Characterize mining
wastewaters and assess
impacts of surface mining
regrading procedures IA9
Environmental assessment
of in-situ coal gasification
and atmospheric and pres-
surized fluid bed combus-
tion IA10
Assess western geother-
mal brine disposal options
IA11
Characterize industrial
discharges from additional
industries for other toxic
pollutants. IA12
Complete data base on
pesticides intermediates
and their control IA13
Complete data base for
development of pesticides
effluent guidelines not
included in 1983 regula-
tions IA14
Quantify magnitude of
water-quality limited
problems and identify
limiting parameters IA15
Reassess impacts of con-
ventional pollutants in-
dustry IA16
Assess additional geoth-
ermal brine disposal op-
tions, including ocean
disposal (continuing
through FY 83) IA17
Characterize and assess
wastewaters from
technologies using energy
conserving or less pollut-
ing process or production
modifications IA18
Compare cost effective-
ness of combinations of
technology-based and am-
bient water-quality-based
control strategies IA21
Assess new technologies
with high potential for
ground water impacts,
e.g., solution mining of
uranium IA22
Evaluate new processes
developed to utilize non-
petroleum-based feed-
stocks or to otherwise
conserve energy resources
IA23
Define effluent charac-
teristics of new manufac-
turing methods developed
to meet new markets and
to comply with energy and
materials limitations IA24
Characterize and assess
industry with increased
consideration for
socioeconomic and cost-
benefit factors IA2S
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PROGRAM AREA FISCAL YEAR 1980
FISCAL YEAR 1981
FISCAL YEAR 1982
FISCAL YEAR 1983
FISCAL YEAR 1984
Assessments at various oil
shale retorting sites (con-
tinuing through FY 81)
IA6
Identify potential cross-
media impacts of waste-
water treatment (continu-
ing) IA7
Characterize and assess
modified manufacturing
processes, emerging in-
dustries, and new
technologies (continuing)
IA19
Initiate broad use of
bioassy techniques for
characterization of in-
dustrial effluents IA20
Treatability
Determine treatability of
" 129 priority pollutants''
by conventional and ad-
vanced technology (with
Municipal Program) IB1
Determine treatability of
pesticides and their inter-
mediates where data are
not available (contuing
through FY 82) IB2
Expand treatability data
base IB3
Issue treatability manual
containing treatability data
on numerous compounds,
operational data on in-
dustrial control facilities
and design data on control
technologies IB4
Publish pollution control
guidance on low-Btu coal
gasification and direct coal
liquefaction; preliminary
guidance on fuel grade
alcohol production (for
gasohol) IBS
Establish quick-response
capability for provision of
new treatability data IB6
Publish pollution control
guidance on oil shale
conversion and on atmos-
pheric and pressurized
fluid bed combustion IB7
Issue pollution control
guidance on fuel-grade
alcohol production (for
gasohol) IBS
Identify control needs
currently technologically
or economically unattain-
able IB9
Determine treatability of
newly recognized toxic
pollutants IB10
Identify additional
indicators/surrogates for
measures of treatability
(continuing) IB11
Maintain and update treat-
ability data base (con-
tinuing) IB12
Analyze, classify, and
correlate treatability data
aimed at improving ability
to predict removals for
stricter standards and/or
newly recognized pollut-
ants (continuing) IB13
Publish revised geother-
mal pollution control
guidance IB14
Publish additional pollu-
tion control guidance as
appropriate (continuing)
IB15
Initiate work on revising
the treatability manual
IB16
Explore basic mechanisms
of removability in most
important treatment pro-
cess (continuing) IB17
Determine treatability of
conventional pollutants to
higher levels of removal
IB18
Compile treatability data
from reuse/recycle appli-
cations and demonstra-
tions (continuing) IB19
Issue a revised treatability
manual IB20
Determine treatability of
compounds generated
from processing non-
petroleum-based feed-
stocks and from emerging
industries IB21
Increase emphasis on
' 'toxicity'' bioassys for
evaluation of treatability
IB22
Correlate treatability data
to allow predictive model-
ling of treatment
technologies IB23
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N)
INDUSTRIAL WASTEWATER RESEARCH PLAN
PROGRAM AREA FISCAL YEAR 1980
FISCAL YEAR 1981
FISCAL YEAR 1982
FISCAL YEAR 1983
FISCAL YEAR 1984
Treatment Technol-
ogy and Non-
Treatment Alterna-
tives
Evaluate control methods
for " 1 29 " pollutants for
the chemical process
industries to achieve re-
quired control at reasona-
ble cost and energy use
IC1
Examine foreign iron and
steel and copper-lead
smelting wastewater con-
trol technologies for pos-
sible transfer to the United
States IC2
Assess management
methods for sedimentation
ponds used in the mining
industry IC3
Demonstrate disposal of
geothermal brines to
waterfowl wetlands IC4
Identify potential energy-
Identify control alterna-
tives for economically
marginal industries IC8
Submit recommendations
on BMP's for strip mining
of coal and for mining of
phosphate, uranium, and
conventional metals IC9
Conduct laboratory /bench
scale development/
evlauations of conven-
tional treatment for resis-
tant synfuels wastewaters
IC10
Develop/demonstrate im-
proved biological and
physical-chemical treat-
ment technologies (con-
tinuing) IC11
Demonstrate centralized
treatment of metal finish-
ing wastes 1C 12
Develop bench/pilot-scale
textile wastewater control
technology to support
1983 guidelines, including
nonconventional pollut-
ants and pretreatment
regulations IC13
Evaluate semi-works scale
wastewater control
technology for oil shale
retorting (continuing
through FY 84) IC14
Laboratory /bench scale
development of innovative
control technologies for
synfuels wastewaters
IC15
Evaluate pilot-scale treat-
Demonstrate additional
applications of centralized
industrial treatment IC18
Evaluate and develop
advanced separations
technology (continuing)
IC19
Submit recommendations
on BMP's for additional
industries IC20
Demonstrate advanced
separation and treatment
technology for high pol-
lutant removals IC21
Determine the relative
roles of treatment and
non-treatment alternatives
IC22
Demonstrate joint EPA-
industry non-treatment
alternatives IC23
Develop technologies for
chemical modification of
hazardous wastes for
pollution control and
resource recovery IC24
Model non-treatment al-
ternatives for detailed
evaluation of environ-
mental benefits and
economic incentives IC2S
saving industrial waste-
water treatment alterna-
tives IC5
Evaluate pilot wastewater
control technologies for
waste-to-energy processes
(continuing through FY
81)IC6
Develop pretreatment
control strategies and
methods (continuing) IC7
ment of synfuels waste-
waters IC16
Evaluate non-treatment
alternatives (continuing)
IC17
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PROGRAM AREA FISCAL YEAR 1980
FISCAL YEAR 1981
FISCAL YEAR 1982
FISCAL YEAR 1983
FISCAL YEAR 1984
Recycle/Reuse
Develop recycle/reuse
concept for fiberglass
textile industry ID1
Evaluate metal finishing
wastewater recycle system
ID2
Develop laboratory/pilot
scale recycle/reuse
technique for ash slucing
systems at power plants
n>3
Collect data on water use
and analysis of industrial
recycle/reuse applications
(continuing) ID4
Demonstrate recycle/reuse
for targeted industries,
such as food processing
organic chemicals, iron
and steel and textiles IDS
Demonstrate hyperfiltra-
tion of textile dyeing
wastewaters for reclaim-
ing water, chemicals and
energy ID6
Compile cost comparisons
between recycle/reuse and
effluent treatment (con-
tinuing) ID7
Determine renovated
water quality requirements
for recycle/reuse purposes
(continuing) IDS
Demonstrate recycle/reuse
for second tier of indus-
tries with high potential to
solve toxic discharge
problems through
recycle/reuse ID9
Examine various
recycle/reuse technologies
to determine factors in-
hibiting commercializa-
tion ID10
Demonstrate recycle/reuse
for next priority industries
ID11
Develop recommenda-
tions on industries that
could achieve zero dis-
charge through adoption
of recycle/reuse ID12
Assess industrial
recycle/reuse to alleviate
water supply shortages
ID13
Develop improved in-
dustrial recycle/reuse
technologies ID14
Update user's manual for
industrial recycle/reuse
ID1S
MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER RESEARCH PLAN
PROGRAM AREA FISCAL YEAR 1980
FISCAL YEAR 1981
FISCAL YEAR 1982
FISCAL YEAR 1983
FISCAL YEAR 1984
Municipal Wastewa- Demonstrate full scale
ter Treatment
Processes
SO
OJ
ultra-violet light disinfec-
tion MAI
Design manual of lagoon
upgrading techniques
MA2
Publish assessment on
health effects associated
with microbial aerosols
from activated sludge
plants MA3
Demonstrate ozone disin- Field evaluate deep shaft Evaluate Bardenpho Pro- Evlauate full scale
fectionof200FC/100ml
Standard. MA4
Field evaluate activated
biofiltration system MAS
aeration technique MA6 cess MA7
Evluate field scale of new
generation high efficiency
submerged aeration
equipment MAS
fluidized bed carbonace-
ous removal MA9
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MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER RESEARCH PLAN
PROGRAM AREA FISCAL YEAR 1980 FISCAL YEAR 1981 FISCAL YEAR 1982 FISCAL YEAR 1983 FISCAL YEAR 1984
Land Treatment and
Aquaculture
Summary report of exist-
ing land treatment system
studies MB1
Evaluate effectiveness of
an introduced fish species
in wastewater treatment
aquaculture system MB2
SOTA design report on
overland flow system
MB3
Preliminary design criteria
for water hyacinth
municipal waste treatment
MB4
Develop nitrogen man-
agement model for slow
rate and rapid infiltration
system MBS
Report on evaluation of
water hyacinth harvesting
and utilization for com-
posting and biogas con-
version MBA
Assess health effects
associated wth microbial
aerosols from spray irri-
gation systems MB7
Report transport transfor-
mation of toxic substances
through soil treatment
system MBS
Assess treatment effec-
tiveness of artificial wet-
lands for treatment and
managing municipal
wastewaters MB9
Sludge Processing,
Use and Disposal
Design manual for sludge
treatment and disposal
MCI
Market study of non-food
crop sludge utilization
MC2
Evaluate within-vessel
composting MC3
Evaluate producing road
aggregate from sludge and
refuse incinerator ash
MC4
Determine feasibility of
producing synthetic as-
phalt from liquefaction of
sludge MC5
Design manual for sludge
utilization on the land for
food crops MC6
Demonstrate use of tur-
bine using digester gas to
meet plant energy re-
quirements MC7
Update of health risks
associated with land appli-
cation of municipal sludge
MC8
Field evaluate composting
on a barge MC9
Evaluate advanced
techniques for controlling
emissions from thermal
conversion process MC10
Begin evaluating opera-
tion of synthetic asphalt
from sludge liquefaction
MC11
Evaluate plant uptake and
accumulation of toxic
organics MC12
Demonstrate using sludge
to produce a valuable
non-food crop MC13
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PROGRAM AREA FISCAL YEAR 1980
FISCAL YEAR 1981
FISCAL YEAR 1982
FISCAL YEAR 1983
FISCAL YEAR 1984
Toxic Control
Determine treatability of
all non-carcinogenic
priority organic pollutants
MD1
Priority pollution remova-
bility studies at 25 POTWs
MD2
I
Treatability studies of
carcinogenic priority pol-
lutants MD3
Evaluate toxic metal strip-
per MD4
Evaluate ozone/carbon ad-
sorption for toxics re-
moval MD5
Evaluate UV/ozone for
disinfection and trace
toxic organic control MD6
Improving Operation
and Reliability of
POTWs
Small Community
Treatment Alterna-
tives
Urban Runoff
Produce an energy as-
sessment procedures man-
ual ME1
Initiate SOTA on applica-
tion of computer technol-
ogy to control POTWs
ME2
Guidelines for commun-
ity-wide managememt of
on-site wastewater sys-
tems MF1
Evaluate sewer flushing as
low cost non-structural
CSO control method MG1
Conference on urban
stormwater and CSO
impacts on receiving
waters MG2
tn
Determine operating and
maintenance practices and
problems related to land
treatment ME3
Determine toxics as-
sociated with on-site sys-
tems MF2
Evaluate CSO control with
SWIRL regulator/
separator and with
discoscreen/disinfection
MG3
Evaluate alternative best
management practice for
CSO abatement MG4
Evaluate insituform re-
mediation of infiltration/
inflow problems MGS
Complete state-wide im-
plementation of composite
correction program ME4
Complete SOTA on com-
puter control of POTWs
ME5
Publish septage manage-
ment handbook MF3
Evaluate new porous
pavement concepts MG6
Evaluate feasibility of
utilizing marshland for
urban runoff control MG7
Field-verify unsteady state
dissolved oxygen impact
of urban runoff on
receiving stream MGS
Evaluate best techniques
for rural community cost-
effectiveness and de-
velopment of management
system MF4
Evaluate land disposal of
sludges from wet weather
control facilities MG9
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vo
Ov
MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER RESEARCH PLAN
PROGRAM AREA FISCAL YEAR 1980
FISCAL YEAR 1981
FISCAL YEAR 1982
FISCAL YEAR 1983
FISCAL YEAR 1984
Reuse
Complete construction,
shakedown and initiate
stable operation of 1 MOD
potable reuse evaluation
facility MH1
Begin animal feeding
experiment related to
potable reuse evaluation
MH2
Complete interim report
on potable evaluation
facility product water
quality MH3
Compile animal health
effects studies using re-
claimed effluents from
Water Factory 21 MH4
Innovative and Update innovative and Initiate field evaluation of Publish evaluation report
Alternative alternative design manual I&A approved projects on I&A program in
Technologies I&A Mil MI2 meeting national goals
MI3
EMERGENCY SPILLS RESEARCH PLAN
PROGRAM AREA FISCAL YEAR 1980 FISCAL YEAR 1981 FISCAL YEAR 1982 FISCAL YEAR 1983 FISCAL YEAR 1984
Prevention
Notification and
Response
Prevention and control of Statistical analysis of
spills from pesticide appli- spills SA2
cation SA1
Evaluate effectiveness of
SPCC regulations SA3
Develop/evaluate fail-safe Develop spill prevention
devices SA4 techniques and equipment
SA6
Risk analysis of chemical
industry SA5
Develop/evaluate person- Spills identification and
nel safety devices SB1 detection SB3
Prepare emergency action
manual SB2
Prepare emergency action Model spill plume move-
manual SB2 ment SB4
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PROGRAM AREA FISCAL YEAR 1980
FISCAL YEAR 1981
FISCAL YEAR 1982
FISCAL YEAR 1983
FISCAL YEAR 1984
Control and Removal Evaluate systems for
treating soils SCI
Develop/evaluate systems
for separating substance
from water SC2
Develop/evaluate systems
for mitigation of air
pollution SC3
Organize national confer-
ence on control of
hazardous material spills
SC4
Organize national confer- Organize national confer- Evaluate second genera-
ence on the control of oil ence on control of tion containment systems
spills SC5 hazardous materials spills in water courses SC6
SC4
Prepare user manuals for
spills control equipment
and techniques SC7
Develop new technology
for shoreline protection
and restoration SC8
Organize national confer-
ence on the control of oil
spills SC5
Evaluate second genera-
tion containment systems
on land SC9
Develop second genera-
tion instream treatment
systems SC10
Develop/evaluate systems
for mitigation of air
pollution SC3
Organize national confer-
ence on control of
hazardous materials spills
SC4
Ultimate Disposal
Investigate mobile dis-
posal systems for on-site
detoxification of residuals
SD1
Develop/evaluate most
promising techniques SD2
Fate and Effects
Restoration
Identify gaps in know-
ledge on accelerated re-
covery of spills areas SF1
Identify data gaps for Determine effects and
hazardous substances SE1 persistency data SE2
Develop/evaluate restora- Prepare restoration man-
tion techniques SF2 ual SF3
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DRINKING WATER
Our drinking water can contain a
number of contaminants. EPA
conducts research to improve
drinking water quality and to prevent
groundwater pollution.
-------
People who live or travel in certain foreign
countries are familiar with the unpleasant and
sometimes painful problems that can result
from unsafe drinking water there. In the
United States, however, most of us scarcely
give our drinking water a thought, believing
that we can depend on its purity. Usually, we
can. But our move from a rural agricultural
society to an urban industrial one has changed
the nature of our drinking water, particularly
with respect to organic contaminants, and this
change, together with our improved analyt-
ical and health assessment methods, has
resulted in an increased concern over drinking
water quality. Of note:
• A 1969 community water supply study
estimated that 8 million people were
being served potentially dangerous water
from perhaps 5,000 community water
supply systems. The study revealed
problems with equipment design, con-
struction, condition of basic water
treatment plants and training and experi-
ence of plant operators. Overall, smaller
systems were found to have more prob-
lems than larger ones. These 1969
findings were supportd by later studies.
• Studies begun in 1970 of public water
supply systems in 13 states showed that
many systems did not meet bacteriologi-
cal standards during one or more of the
months in the 12-month period prior to
the studies. A number of systems did not
meet standards during surveillance while
others were shown to require either
additional treatment facilities or signifi-
cant modifications in their operation.
• EPA is currently analyzing data on
public water supply systems reported by
states. This will measure the degree of
compliance with standards.
The need for national drinking water
standards had been discussed for many years
prior to these studies. Then, in the early 1970s
the debate was focused by the detection of
asbestos fibers in the Duluth, Minnesota,
water supply system, and by the discovery
that the New Orleans water supply system
contained 66 organic chemicals.
In December 1974, the Safe Drinking
Water Act was passed. Since that time, the
major research emphasis has been on the
problems of organic and inorganic chemicals
in drinking water. As we move into the 1980s,
a major effort will be made to further define
and deal with the problems of organic
contaminants.
The Tools to Ensure Safe
Drinking Water: Future
Approaches
Safe drinking water is primarily the respon-
sibility of state and local governments; how-
ever, through the Safe Drinking Water Act
and other legislation, Congress has directed
that the federal government accept responsi-
bility as well by developing and promulgating
national drinking water standards and by im-
plementing a national drinking water and
groundwater program. These standards spec-
ify the maximum permissible contaminant
levels (MCL) necessary to protect public
health and welfare. The drinking water stan-
dards are of particular concern to us because
of their tie-in to other serious issues facing
EPA today. These include the defining of
hazardous wastes, setting criteria for land
treatment and reuse projects, and setting
criteria and standards for water quality and
groundwater contamination.
Since 1977, interim primary drinking water
regulations covering bacteria, turbidity, inor-
ganic chemicals, radionuclides, and certain
pesticides have been in effect. Soon these
standards will be supplemented with regu-
lations to limit the amounts of chloroform,
other trihalomethanes, and synthetic organic
chemicals in drinking water. In the near fu-
ture, EPA will concentrate on development of
Groundwater pollution
will receive significant
emphasis.
additional MCLs for specific organic car-
cinogens such as carbon tetrachloride and tri-
chloroethylene, and on revision of existing
standards to incorporate new data. We also
plan to develop and define methods to control
99
-------
harmful inorganic contaminants—especially
those that may increase the incidence of car-
diovascular disease—and to assess effects of
direct or indirect additives to drinking water.
Groundwater pollution will receive signifi-
cant emphasis through studies that will desig-
nate sole source aquifers. Recently proposed
underground injection control regulations
may also require research to assure protection
of our ground water supplies.
Research for Improving
Drinking Water Quality
and Preventing Ground-
water Deterioration
EPA conducts research to enhance the sci-
entific and technical foundations underlying
National Drinking Water Regulations and
regulations that protect ground water quality.
The objectives of our research are to:
• Identify substances that occur in drinking
water supplies at a sufficient number of
locations to warrant regulations.
• Define drinking water contamination ef-
fects on human health.
• Establish analytical procedures to moni-
tor contaminants.
• Describe changes in treatment processes
or new treatment technologies that are
required to minimize contaminant forma-
tion or reduce concentration levels.
The contaminants under study fall into four
categories: organic, inorganic (including as-
bestos), microbiological, and those affecting
groundwater.
Organic Contaminants
A tremendous number of organic com-
pounds can find their way into drinking water.
Over 900 of these compounds have been iden-
tified at concentrations greater than 1 part per
trillion. To adequately support decisions on
organic contaminants, our research program
is designed to provide methods to detect,
identify, and monitor organic compounds.
(A3, A4, A8, A14, A17, A20). The program
is also designed to provide tools to determine
health impacts from contaminants and
methods to control contaminants and the by-
products they may form during treatment.
100
Work in the development of analysis
methods to identify and measure pollutants in
drinking water is coordinated with similar ef-
forts being carried out for wastewater pro-
grams and to support water quality decisions
(see Chapters 5 and 6). In the future, we will
emphasize development of analytical meth-
ods to concentrate, isolate, and characterize
non-volatile organic substances. These tech-
niques will assist us in arriving at general con-
clusions about the toxicity of such com-
pounds. Methods to isolate non-halogenated
products such as epoxide and quinones will be
developed as well. These substances may be
formed by reactions of disinfectants with or-
ganic substances already in water.
A Master Analytic Scheme will be sup-
ported by our research. The scheme will allow
broader exposure assessment studies and,
Quality assurance will
be promoted.
subsequently, detection of organic com-
pounds which we cannot now measure.
Quality assurance will be promoted
through standardized monitoring methods
and by supplying workers in the field with
standard samples and pertinent reference ma-
terials. We will continue to validate our
analysis methods, with particular emphasis
placed on those methods used to analyze syn-
thetic organic chemicals. Alternate test pro-
cedures to measure MCL contaminants will
also be developed and evaluated. (A21)
Two types of organic compounds still elude
identification and measurement by gas chro-
matography-mass spectrometry: those that
are non-volatile and thus will not pass through
the chromatograph, and those whose mass
spectral "fingerprints" are not on file. We
will work to develop techniques to identify
and measure non-volatile compounds and
those compounds that cannot be identified by
mass spectral matching.
Our research into organic contaminants of
drinking water will focus on their car-
cinogenic effects with attention given to
-------
mutagenic and teratogenic effects. The bulk
of the work will involve the suitable prepara-
tion of organic concentrates for testing and the
subsequent identification of biologically act-
ive fractions. Key compounds will then re-
ceive long-term toxicologic study. (A5, A6,
A9, A10)
Human health data will be collected from a
variety of epidemiological studies, starting
with those communities where the occurrence
of cancer exceeds expected rates. Drinking
water quality in these and other communities
will be defined by both chemical analysis
methods and screening tests. Health risks can
be derived from these epidemiological, chem-
ical, and toxicologic findings and guidelines
for limiting the amounts of several chemicals
in drinking water can be established.
In order to identify any measurable in-
creased risk of disease, EPA will also study
populations whose drinking water is contami-
nated by only a few identified synthetic or-
ganic compounds. The study will be accom-
plished with the use of some novel ap-
proaches, and will provide valuable data on
the human health effects of long-term expo-
sure to environmental contaminants. We will
also compare the incidence of disease in vari-
ous populations which have drinking water
similar in trihalomethane concentrations but
disimilar in non-trihalomethane organics.
These studies will produce estimates of risks
associated with the non-trihalomethane or-
ganics. (Al, All, A12)
Further efforts will develop bioassay pro-
cedures that point to specific health effects
The Ames test may not
be sensitive enough.
risks and that may be used for drinking water
monitoring. Since current test systems such as
the Ames test may not be sensitive enough for
use with unconcentrated waters and may pro-
duce questionable quantitative and qualitative
relationships to human health risks, we will
give serious consideration to the development
and modification of bioassay methods capa-
ble of characterizing the hazards found in
drinking water supplies. After the methods
are developed, standardized, and applied,
these short term in vivo assays may be used in
place of the detailed chemical analyses that
would otherwise be required if maximum con-
taminant levels were established for indivi-
dual compounds. (A15, A18)
Short term in vivo assays are presently in
use to test water from 15 American cities and
from pilot plants studying alternate treatment
One epidemiological
study indicates possible
significant associations
between drinking water
quality and birth defects.
techniques. We will attempt to adapt the as-
says to detect carcinogenic and mutagenic
drinking water hazards. Successful adapta-
tion will have definite advantages over cur-
rent in vitro tests.
The possibility that drinking water con-
tamination may cause birth defects will also
be investigated. Although past EPA laborat-
ory studies of drinking water concentrates
found no teratogenic effects, one epidemi-
ological study indicates possible significant
associations between drinking water quality
and birth defects. We will undertake further
epidemiological studies to determine if any
constituents of drinking water are associated
with birth defects and whether the relation-
ship is causal. The studies will include both
organic and inorganic contaminants.
Reducing Organic Contaminants and
Controlling By-Products of Treatment.
Various surveys have shown that certain or-
ganic compounds retain their form through
rivers, reservoirs, treatment, and distribution
systems. They also demonstrated that other
organic compounds formed or added during
101
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water treatment are equally persistent. How-
ever, data from pilot plant activities and mod-
ular- and full-scale field evaluations have
demonstrated that by modifying disinfec-
tion/chlorination and treatment practices, a
considerable reduction in certain organic
chlorination by-products can be attained.
Currently under study are the organic halogen
(OX) compounds that occur widely where
chlorination is practiced. Research will con-
centrate on the influence that environmental
factors such as precursor concentration, disin-
fectant dose, temperature, pH, and time have
on the rate and quantity of OX material
formed. (A2) In addition, large-scale pilot
plant and full-scale plant projects are planned
to study the fate of various organics, not only
during water treatment but throughout the en-
tire system—from reservoir to tap. The objec-
tive of the projects will be to provide more
economical and efficient treatment methods.
The research will focus on optimizing the re-
moval of disinfectant by-product precursors
through the use of various unit processes such
as coagulation and bioxidation.
Field-scale research projects will be con-
ducted in cooperation with utilities and local
and state governments to determine how ef-
fectively and at what cost certain in-place ex-
perimental treatment processes remove spe-
cific environmental contaminants. We plan to
evaluate existing, in-place unit processes
such as coagulation, granular activated car-
bon beds, powdered activated carbon,
The studies' results will
facilitate our ability to
prudently prescribe
water treatment.
polymetric resins, ozonation, aeration, ozo-
nation/ultraviolet (03/UV), oxidation plus ad-
sorption, and chlorine dioxide. (A7, A13,
A16, A20) Emphasis will be on large-scale
(modular) experimental applications of con-
trol technology in support of proposed
amendments to the Interim Primary Regu-
lations for organic chemicals, as well as on
contemplated revised MCLs.
These field-scale research projects on sys-
tems already in-place are necessary to deter-
mine how existing technologies will perform
under actual operating conditions. Further-
more, the studies' results will facilitate our
ability to prudently prescribe water treatment
when any health risk from organics is sug-
gested and monitoring is not practical.
Inorganic Contaminants
A number of inorganic constituents includ-
ing nitrates, metals, radionuclides, and asbes-
tos have been found in tap water in the United
States. Epdemiological studies have sug-
gested that small concentrations of inorganics
in drinking water may significantly relate to
cardiovascular disease. Our research program
is designed to locate and measure inorganic
pollutants, study their health impacts and
evaluate means to control their occurrence in
drinking water. (Bl, B2, B4) Methods for
analyzing inorganics need to be improved and
we will work toward this. We will develop
analytical methods for species of inorganics,
improve our multielement analysis capabili-
ties, and work to develop real-time inorganic
monitoring devices. (B21, B27, B30)
Studies will also estimate human exposure
to radioactive nuclides by determining the oc-
currence of radon and radioactive nuclides in
drinking water. To provide a basis for
reevaluating drinking water standards, water
samples will be analyzed for radium 226,
radium 228, gross alpha and gross beta ac-
tivity, tritium, strontium 90, and radon. (B9)
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipe is com-
monly used for transmitting potable water.
During the PVC manufacturing process,
however, various organotin compounds are
used as stabilizers. We need to develop
methods to identify and measure these com-
pounds in drinking water. Similarly, polynu-
clear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) can
occur in drinking water from some coatings
on metal pipes. Our research will determine
the contribution this source makes to finished
water PAH concentrations.
Effluents from advanced wastewater
102
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treatment plants will also be analyzed to de-
termine the efficiency of tertiary treatment for
removing trace elements of inorganics. (B3)
To ensure accurate asbestos fiber counts, we
are attempting to improve collection, ship-
ping, storage, and preparation of water sam-
ples. (B7,B14)
Health Impacts — Inorganics. Past
studies have revealed a potential link between
cardiovascular disease and drinking water. To
date, however, most of the epidemiological
studies suggesting this link have been rather
broad in nature, concentrating more on geo-
graphical areas than on the health histories of
specific individuals. Thus, there is a need to
further evaluate other known cardiovascular
risk factors such as smoking, family history,
exercise, and diet in relation to drinking water
We will continue
toxicologic studies on
lead to determine
whether central nervous
system development
may be hampered.
quality data. We will thus initiate a prospec-
tive study of cardiovascular disease in a group
of middle-aged men. Tap water used by the
participants will be characterized for some 80
elements, but physical exams, interviews and
laboratory tests will also be included to estab-
lish other cardiovascular disease risk factors.
The results of this study will enable identifica-
tion of any critical elements in the water and
will allow for a precise quantification of the
degree of risk such elements present in con-
junction with other known non-water risk fac-
tors. If drinking water elements are causally
implicated, the National Research Council es-
timates that optional conditioning of drinking
water could reduce the annual cardiovascular
disease mortality rate by as much as 15 per-
cent in the United States, thereby saving an
estimated 150,000 lives per year. (B19)
Other epidemiological studies are planned
to establish the relationship between car-
diovascular disease — particularly hyperten-
sion — and sodium and 35 other inorganic
contaminants that may occur in drinking wa-
ter. Long-term toxicologic studies will also be
initiated to determine the impact that various
combinations of barium, calcium, mag-
nesium, lead, cadmium, and sodium in water
have on cardiovascular disease development.
(BIO, Bll, B16, B17, B22, B23, B28)
Other adverse health effects linked to the
inorganic contaminants of drinking water will
also be studied. We will continue toxicologic
studies on lead to determine whether central
nervous system development may be ham-
pered by what are considered today to be
normal human blood lead levels. The
bioavailability of certain metals — including
lead—in hard and soft waters and in food will
be compared, and safe levels will be deter-
mined. (B18)
Asbestos is an inorganic of particular con-
cern because it is a possible carcinogen and
co-carcinogen. Studies will determine
whether asbestos from mining operations,
asbestos-cement water pipes, and natural ero-
sion contributes to increased cancer rates. We
also plan to sponsor some small short-term
animal experiments to examine the effects of
various asbestos fiber lengths and to explore
the causal mechanisms which may determine
the potential of asbestos to be a co-
carcinogen. (B15)
Certain inorganic, organic, or microbiolog-
ical contaminants of drinking water will also
be studied to determine if an association exists
between them and neurologic diseases such as
multiple sclerosis. Metallic toxins and viruses
are considered by some researchers to be pos-
sible predisposing factors for some of these
chronic diseases. Protocols for the evaluation
of additives used in treatment of drinking
water will also be developed.
Controlling Inorganics. Treating water
for the removal of inorganics can present a
technological problem, particularly for small
communities. To alleviate this problem, EPA
will improve treatment technologies. Our ef-
fort will include investigations of those
polymers that may be used to improve coagu-
lation or filtration as well as those that soften
water to reduce radium, iron, manganese, and
103
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calcium. Bench and pilot-level studies will
examine a number of treatments and proces-
ses for their effectiveness in removing arse-
nic, barium, cadmium, chromium, fluoride,
lead, mercury, nitrate-nitrogen, and selenium
and radionuclides. (B5, B6) These studies
will consider removal via:
• conventional water treatment processes
of alum and iron coagulation
• lime and excess lime softening
• powdered and granular activated carbon
• ion exchange
• activated alumina treatment
• reverse osmosis
Our work will focus on applying technol-
ogy to small communities. Several studies
Our work will focus on
applying technology to
small communities.
will develop design, operating, and economic
data for technologies capable of removing one
or a combination of contaminants from a vari-
ety of source waters. (B12) Field testing and
cost analysis of in-place full-scale facilities
will be a necessary aspect of this future work.
We will also examine existing package plant
systems being used by small communities to
determine the effectiveness of the systems in
removing contaminants from a variety of sur-
face waters; a technical evaluation of the
package plants will be provided to allow more
widespread application of effective systems
by small utilities. Methods to minimize costs
of successful treatment technologies will be
emphasized (B20, B24, B25, B26), and
evaluations of home treatment devices are
planned. Finally, we will identify critical
water stabilization factors and will develop
cost-effective treatment methods to prevent
corrosion of metal pipes. (B13)
Microbial Contaminants
Chlorination has been the primary method
used in this country to destroy microbes in
drinking water. But, though this disinfection
process has proved to be highy successful in
reducing waterborne disease, we are still con-
cerned about the microbiological contamin-
ants in drinking water, particularly in light of
the use of alternate disinfectants and possible
changes in treatment processes. (C2, Cll)
Our concern has been deepened by the dis-
covery of disinfectant-resistant pathogens and
by the fact that in widespread areas of Amer-
ica only limited treatment is applied to purify
water.
In cooperation with the Center for Disease
Control, outbreaks of waterborne infectious
diseases will be investigated to identify the
etiological agents in water, to determine their
route of entry, and to recommend corrective
action to prevent recurrence. (Cl) Particular
attention will be paid to the role played by
exotic or newly identified bacterial agents of
gastroenteritis, e.g., Aeromonas, Campylo-
bacter, Yersinia, andLegionella, as well as to
viral and parasitic agents. We will also con-
tinue to study the parasite Giardia to deter-
mine its occurrence in and route of transmis-
sion to man. Data from these studies and from
investigations of the efficiency of various
treatment processes for deactivation or re-
moval of the agents will be used in recom-
mending control methods to break the disease
cycle. (C4, C8, C13, C14, C15) Current
studies will be expanded to investigate the
health significance of Giardia in surface wa-
ters that have received minimal or no treat-
ments, and Giardia cysts that occur in wild
Water quality
monitoring is an
ongoing process.
animals inhabiting watersheds. Epidemiolog-
ical studies to determine the incidence of
giardiasis in those who consume contami-
nated waters will also be initiated. (C7, C9)
Water quality monitoring is an ongoing
process but the traditional concept of deter-
mining water quality by measuring indicator
organisms rather than specific pathogens is
104
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frequently challenged. We will therefore
evaluate the efficacy of the standard coliform
test and investigate the possibility of using
other indicators. We will also continue to im-
prove microbiological sampling procedures
and analytical methods for both indicator or-
ganisms and pathogens, including viruses and
protozoans. (C5, C6, CIO)
Pilot and field-scale studies will determine
whether changes in treatment processes bring
about new microbiological problems. These
studies will examine such changes as shifts in
the location of disinfectant dosing, the use of
alternative disinfectants, conversion from
rapid sand filters to granular activated carbon,
and use of biologically activated carbon and
other methods to reduce undesirable treat-
ment by-products. Field studies are planned
to evaluate how water turbidity effects the ef-
ficiency of microbiologic disinfectants. Also
to be studied are the physical, chemical, and
microbial characteristics that permit the
growth of microbes in water distribution sys-
tems with inadequate treatment practices,
such as poor pipe corrosion control (C8,
C12, CIS)
Groundwater
Contamination
For many areas of the country, the only
groundwater data available is that which is
generated when serious episodes of ground-
water contamination occur. Such a general
lack of baseline data precludes attempts to
rank potential contamination sources, to
evaluate their relative adverse impacts on
human health, and, in many instances, to de-
fine feasible pollution prevention and control
techniques. Our research program is designed
to provide the methods for gathering this base-
line information.
To assure the success of this data-gathering
effort, it is important that we have the ability
to accurately measure contaminants in
groundwater. Thus, we will develop standard
tests for determining rates at which contamin-
ants move through the ground and changes in
groundwater, particularly for industrial
wastes containing significant amounts of
organic solvents. We will also emphasize
tests to determine the gross biological activity
in saturated and unsaturated soils and will
describe methods for the effective use of
tracers, such as radioisotopes, to investigate
groundwater. (Dl, D5, D7)
Methods of characterizing the earth's
subsurface will receive special emphasis,
particularly because in selecting sites for
underground waste storage and disposal
facilities, knowledge of the vulnerability of
underlying aquifers is vital to the maintenance
of groundwater quality. We will evaluate
surface resistivity techniques for use in
locating contaminated areas in the subsurface
We will study priority
organic pollutants in a
soil profile.
environment. Natural microbiological popu-
lations in groundwater under varying hydro-
geological situations will also be studied, and
the presence of aerobic and anaerobic species
and cyclic population densities will be
examined. Our projects are designed to
determine those parameters important in
contaminant transport and how they vary
within soil and aquifer systems. Finally, we
will conduct trace elements analyses to
correlate the background quality of the
aquifer with aquifer type and age. (D2, D9)
Knowledge of the transport and fate of
contaminants in groundwater is needed to
determine the degree of protection necessary
to maintain water quality. A great deal of
information on the movement of metals and
inorganic chemicals in the saturated and
unsaturated zones of the earth's subsurface
has already been generated by the U.S.
Geologic Survey. Organic chemicals, too,
have been implicated in a number of ground-
water contamination incidents and mic-
robiological contaminants have been discov-
ered in many rural wells.
Our transport and fate studies will concen-
trate on the transport and transformation of
specific organics and viruses. (D4, D8) We
will study priority organic pollutants in a soil
105
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profile to evaluate the probable groundwater
impacts in the event that such compounds are
released into the soil. The results of this
research will be particularly important in
predicting the consequences of chlorinating
wastewater prior to land application and using
such products as septic tank cleaners.
We also plan to examine the transport and
fate of a selected group of organic compounds
in simulated high-rate land application
Reclaiming polluted
groundwater is a
relatively expensive
long-term process.
wastewater treatment systems. Models to
describe the behavior of these pollutants will
be developed, tested, and refined. (D8)
Finally, the persistence of many consent
decree compounds in aquifers will be studied.
Included in the study waterill be phenols,
phthalates, volatile chlorinated hydrocar-
bons, chlorinated benzenes, and aromatic
ethers.
When conflicts arise about potential
aquifer use, data must exist to facilitate
informed decision making. Information on
the impacts of specific sources of ground-
water contamination and the economic bene-
fits gained from not polluting must be
weighed against groundwater degradation.
(Dl 1) To provide the information necessary,
our research effort will first seek to under-
stand the transport and fate of pollutants, then
characterize subsurface environments, and
finally concentrate on the specific pollution
sources. This work will supplement studies
on the background quality of groundwater in
34 states, studies that have so far identified 19
discrete sources of groundwater contamina-
tion ranging from septic tanks and cesspools
to air pollution. (D12) The new research will
provide information about several other con-
tamination sources, among them improper
water well construction and the costs involved
to eliminate contamination. Techniques to re-
habilitate wells at a reasonable cost will be
evaluated.
Other planned research projects will con-
centrate on a variety of other areas:
• methods to calculate the radius of areas
influenced by injection wells
• development of models to describe
phenomena associated with groundwater
recharge, i.e., where waste from ad-
vanced treatment facilities is injected
into groundwater, either to reduce the in-
trusion of saltwater or to provide water
for eventual reuse (D6)
• studies to promote groundwater protec-
tion through better construction, opera-
tion, and maintenance of septic tanks (in
cooperation with the wastewater pro-
gram—see chapter 6)
• studies into the extent and type of or-
ganics and viruses moving into soils and
groundwater from high-rate land applica-
tion systems (D3, D10)
Reclaiming polluted groundwater is a rela-
The persistence of many
consent decree
compounds in aquifers
will be studied.
lively expensive, long-term process, a pro-
cess traditionally not undertaken because less
expensive water sources have been available.
However, as incidents of aquifer pollution
proliferate, and as the number of water-short
areas in the nation increases, the reclamation
of groundwater becomes an attractive alterna-
tive. EPA plans to develop a groundwater
reclamation research program that will use as
its partial base results from our transport and
transformation studies and groundwater
methods development research. (D10)
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DRINKING WATER RESEARCH PLAN—ORGANICS
PROGRAM AREA FISCAL YEAR 1980 FISCAL YEAR 1981 FISCAL YEAR 1982 FISCAL YEAR 1983 FISCAL YEAR 1984
Health Effects
Concentrate and chemi-
cally characterize organics
compounds from 5 cities
water. Al
Select and evaluate indices
of health significant or-
ganics. A5
Health effects results on
relation of chlorination to
cancer. A6
Determine association
between cancer and expo-
sure to drinking water
contaminants. A9
Compare toxicity of or-
ganic reaction products
and disinfectant concen-
trates. A10
Epidemiological study of
health effects of chlorine
dioxide. All
Evaluate health effects of
various treatment
methods. A12
Select organic parameters
which can be used for
standards setting. A15
Toxicological and epi-
demiological validation of
health significance of
organic parameters. A18
Apply short-term bioassay
in a national drinking
water survey. A19
Treatment Methods
Analytical Methods
Publish interim treatment
guide for organic treat-
ment processes. A2
Quality assurance pro-
gram to support monitor-
ing requirements of Safe
Drinking Water Act -
evaluation samples, per-
formance evaluations etc.
A3
Publish protocol for
broad-spectrum analysis
of volatile organics. A4
Report on regeneration of
granular activated carbon
at field scale. A7
Analysis of field scale
evaluation of organics
control methods. A13
Annual Evaluations
Report on control methods
to avoid forming or control
disinfection byproducts.
A16
Evaluate and analyze
economics of treatment
method to meet organic
maximum contaminants
levels. A20
Systems analysis to de-
termine feasibility of
major comprehensive
monitoring program to
determine distribution of
trace organics. A8
Evaluate methods for
identification and mea-
surement of nonvolatile
trace organics. A14
Establish computer library
of all organic compounds
found in water. A17
Develop improved
analytical methods for
organics of health signifi-
cance. A21
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o
oe
DRINKING WATER RESEARCH PLAN—INORGANICS (incuding Asbestos)
PROGRAM AREA FISCAL YEAR 1980 FISCAL YEAR 1981 FISCAL YEAR 1982 FISCAL YEAR 1983 FISCAL YEAR 1984
Health Effects
Epidemiological studies to
evaluate current arsenic
drinking water standard.
Bl
Determine if methemo-
globinema occurs in high
nitrate areas. B2
Identify inorganics in
water treatment effluents.
B3
Symposium on drinking
water quality and cardio-
vascular disease. B4
Report on epidemiology of
dental flourosis. B8
Report on occurrence of
radionuclides and radon in
drinking water. B9
Determine effects of by-
products of corrosive
water. BIO
Report on health effects of
barium. Bll
Determine relationship
between asbestos and
cancer. BIS
Determine toxicity of
inorganics in advanced
waste treatment effluents.
B16
Determine effects of lead
on susceptible popula-
tions. B17
Report on relative body
burden contribution of
drinking water contamin-
ants. B18
Effects of inorganics on
cardiovascular disease in
two animal models. B19
Reports of relationship of
nitrates to health. B22
Assess health effects of
additives. B23
Determine species of
inorganic contaminants in
drinking water and toxic-
ity related to speciation.
B28
Treatment Methods
Report on bench scale
studies for control of
inorganics. B5
Interim report on adapting
treatment methods for use
by small systems. B16
Report on use of package
water treatment plants in
small communities. B20
Evaluate cost of processes
to meet revised regula-
tions. B24
Evaluate disposal methods
for wastes from water
treatment plants. B29
Treatment Methods
Evaluate removal of inor-
ganics by nonconventional
treatment processes. B6
Evaluate treatment
methods for prevention of
corrosion. B13
Report on field evalua-
tions of treatment methods
for small systems. B2S
Evaluate ion exchange
regeneration. B26
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PROGRAM AREA FISCAL YEAR 1980
FISCAL YEAR 1981
FISCAL YEAR 1982
FISCAL YEAR 1983
FISCAL YEAR 1984
Analytical Methods
Quality assurance prog-
rams to support monitor-
ing requirements of Safe
Drinking Water Act -
evaluation samples, per-
formance evaluations, etc.
Reference techniques for
measuring asbestos. B7
Rapid screening
techniques for identifying
asbestos. B14
Annual report
Compare several methods
of multi-element analysis.
B21
Analytical methods for
species of inorganics. B27
Develop real-time in-
organics monitoring
devices. B30
DRINKING WATER RESEARCH PLAN—MICROBIOLOGY
PROGRAM AREA FISCAL YEAR 1980 FISCAL YEAR 1981 FISCAL YEAR 1982 FISCAL YEAR 1983
FISCAL YEAR 1984
Health Effects
Annual review of water-
borne disease outbreaks.
Cl
Determine minimum oral
infectious dose of selected
enteric viruses. C2
Annual Report
Determine significance of
Giardia in water supplies.
C7
Determine effect of
changes in water treatment
on low-level viral trans-
mission. Cll
Report surveillance of
waterborne disease at the
local level. C13
Treatment Methods
Report on effect of home
water treatment devices on
bacterial levels and endo-
toxic occurrence. C3
Determine microbiologi-
cal implications of alter-
native treatment methods
including alternative dis-
infectants. C4
Evaluate effects of turbid-
ity on bacterial survival.
C8
Report on Giardia cyst and
ova removal by filtration.
C9
State of knowledge on
growth of microorganisms
in water distribution sys-
tems. C12
Evaluate effects of alter-
nate treatment methods on
bacterial levels. C14
State of knowledge report
on microbial control in
drinking water treatment
and distribution systems.
CIS
-------
DRINKING WATER RESEARCH PLAN—MICROBIOLOGY
PROGRAM AREA FISCAL YEAR 1980 FISCAL YEAR 1981 FISCAL YEAR 1982 FISCAL YEAR 1983 FISCAL YEAR 1984
Analytical Methods
Quality assurance pro-
gram to support monitor-
ing requirements of Safe •
Drinking Water Act-
evaluation samples, per-
formance evaluations, etc.
C5
Establish transit time for
microbiological samples
C6
Annual Report
Improve methods for
detecting viruses in water
supplies CIO
DRINKING WATER RESEARCH PLAN—GROUNDWATER
PROGRAM AREA FISCAL YEAR 1980 FISCAL YEAR 1981 FISCAL YEAR 1982 FISCAL YEAR 1983 FISCAL YEAR 1984
Ground Water
Methods for detecting
contamination in the sub-
surface environment using
selected biochemical indi-
cators. Dl
Manual of groundwater
sampling practices. D2
Report on radius of
influence of injection
wells. D3
Report on movement of
organics in the subsurface
environment. D4
Define use of chemical
and radioisotope tracers in
ground-water investiga-
tions. D5
Report on groundwater
recharge. D6
Methods for detecting
plumes of contamination
under waste sources, spills
and leaks. D7
Report describing the
transport and transforma-
tion characteristics of
selected toxic organics and
viruses in high-rate and
irrigation land treatment
projects. D8
Describe the natural
geochemistry of ground-
water. D9
Report on reclamation of
contaminated aquifers.
D10
Evaluate the cost of
degrading groundwater
quality. Dll
Protocols for determining
pollution potential of
activities in a specific
geographical area. D12
-------
SOLID AND HAZARDOUS WASTES
Proper hazardous waste management
eliminates the public health threat*
EPA research emphasizes hazardous
waste identification, treatment and
containment*
m
-------
The recent discovery of a number of
dangerous situations that resulted from past
hazardous wastes site mismanagement has
made the establishment of a comprehensive
national program to ensure the proper future
management of hazardous wastes a major
EPA priority.
EPA estimates that between 30 and 40
million tons of hazardous wastes are gener-
ated annually in the United States by 17 major
types of industries. This amounts to between
300 to 400 pounds of hazardous wastes per
capita each year requiring special handling.
Distinguishing the wastes that require this
special handling from among the 4 billion
tons of solid waste each year that come from
American homes, factories, farms,, mines,
and other sources makes the hazardous wastes
management process a difficult one. As many
as 3 billion of those 4 billion tons are mining
and agricultural wastes which, though they
must be handled properly, do not pose an
immediate threat to public health and safety.
A major focus of EPA's research effort has
become the development of criteria to distin-
guish those wastes that are hazardous from
those that are not.
EPA employs a stepped approach to solid
wastes management:
1. Reducing the generation of waste at the
source by improving production proces-
ses, increasing durability and product
life, and other techniques.
2. Removing both materials and energy
from the waste stream to maximize
recycling and resource recovery.
3. Ensuring that those wastes that cannot
be eliminated or recovered are stored,
transported, treated, and disposed of by
procedures that guarantee public health
and safety and the integrity of the
environment.
The first two elements of this strategy are
key goals in EPA 's long-range solid wastes
management program and research effort.
The immediate threats posed by improper
solid wastes disposal, especially of hazardous
wastes, have made the third element the major
short-range priority.
The EPA stepped approach to solid wastes
management, with its short- and long-range
priorities, was developed in response to
Congress's passage of the 1976 Resource
Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA,
SOURCE
NATIONAL ANNUAL SOLID WASTE GENERATION
MILLIONS OF TONS
SEWAGE SLUDGE
MUNICIPAL AND COMMERCIAL
I TOTAL
AMOt NT H AZARDOU.S
4,005.5
30-40*
vvysk-s yrt- found in ;ill i'ive sources for solid \ussle
112
-------
P.L. 94-580). In RCRA, Congress recog-
nized the gravity of the hazardous wastes
disposal situation and called for direct EPA
action to remedy it. The Act mandated a
stringent "cradle to grave" monitoring
program to record and regulate the handling
of hazardous wastes from generation to
disposal. Those elements of RCRA dealing
with non-hazardous wastes were also written
to assure public health and safety. Of note, the
Congress also clearly
established resource
conservation and
recovery as a
major priority.
Act requires the compilation of an inventory
of those facilities not meeting minimum EPA
guidelines for the siting and operation of solid
wastes disposal facilities. Congress also
clearly established resource conservation and
recovery as a major priority in the solid wastes
management effort.
EPA's research reflects RCRA's overall
solid wastes management strategy, and the
program will support RCRA's implementa-
tion. It also assures that the law can be strictly
enforced and rationally applied under the
broad variety of circumstances presented by
our nation's complex economy and environ-
ment. The products of our research efforts are
intended for use by industry, other federal
agencies and state and local governments. In
EPA's effort, attention has been focused on a
number of research priorities. These include:
• Identification, assessment, quality as-
surance, and the technical assistance in
support of EPA's efforts to promulgate
and enforce hazardous wastes regu-
lations under RCRA; this will be done
while developing a strategy to manage
the handling of uncontrolled sites as they
are discovered; special attention will be
paid to the development of a technical
information base that can be used di-
rectly by individuals responsible for
writing permits for hazardous waste
treatment, storage and disposal;
• Development and testing of technologies
to treat and contain hazardous wastes in
order to minimize or eliminate their
hazards;
• Assessment of the risks associated with
hazardous wastes and the monitoring of
the transport and fate;
• Development of a balanced program to
manage non-hazardous wastes and
high-volume wastes (those that are
generated in large quantities and that
may require special disposal research
and development); this will be done
while addressing the complex energy
and resource use allocations associated
with solid and hazardous wastes.
The establishment of research priorities has
been closely coordinated with the Office of
Solid Waste and its RCRA responsibilities.
Those research areas that have been desig-
nated "short-term" high-priority areas that
are ongoing or scheduled to start in early FY
80. In most cases the data produced by this
short-term research are directly required by
RCRA or are in support of RCRA standards
Establishment of
research priorities has
been closely coordinated
with the Office of
Solid Waste.
and guidelines. Adequate funding is expected
in these areas.
"Medium-term" research refers to data to
be produced by FY 83 or 84. Some of this
longer-term work is already underway to meet
medium RCRA needs while other projects
will be started in out years. Out-year funding
is anticipated for these medium-term projects.
"Long-term" research refers to outputs to
113
-------
SHORT, MEDIUM, AND LONG-TERM RESEARCH NEEDS IN RESPONSE
TO THE RESOURCE CONSERVATION AND RECOVERY ACT (RCRA)
Research Categories
^"^s. Research Areas
RCRA Programs ^"X.
Section 1008: Guidelines
Section 2003: Resource Recovery and
Conservation Panels
Section 3001: Identification and Listing
of Hazardous Waste
Section 3002: Standards Applicable to
Generators of Hazardous Wastes
Section 3003: Standards Applicable to
Transporters of Hazardous Wastes
Section 3004: Standards Applicable to
Owners & Operators of Hazardous Waste
Treatment, Storage, and Disposal
Facilities.
Section 3005: Permits for Treatment,
Storage, or Disposal of Hazardous
Wastes.
Section 3007: Inspections
Section 3008: Federal Enforcement
Section 3010: Effective Date
Section 4002: Federal Guidelines
for Plans
Section 4004: Criteria for Sanitary
Landfills
Section 4005: Upgrading of Open
Dumps
Section 7003: Imminent Hazard
Section 7007: Grants or Contracts for
Training Projects
Section 8001: Research Demonstrations,
Training and Other Activities
Section 8002: Special Studies
Section 8003: Coordination, Collection,
& Dissemination of Information
Section 8004: Full-Scale Demonstration
Facilities
Section 8005: Special Study & Demon-
stration Projects on Recovery of Useful
Energy & Materials
Section 8006: Grants for Resource
Recovery Systems and Improved Solid
Waste Disposal Facilities
Hazardous Waste
Identification
Quality Assurance
...
NA
...
...
NA
...
***
***
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
Waste
Characterization
...
NA
...
...
***
***
...
...
"
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
Abandoned
Facilities Response
...
NA
NA
NA1
NA
NA'
NA
NA
NA
NA
..
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
Pollution Migration
and Retention in Soils
-
NA
NA
NA
•
NA
NA
NA
NA
•
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
Hazardous
Waste
Technology
Treatment
..
-
NA
NA
...
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
e
o
'3
I
1
H
..
NA
NA
NA
...
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
Is
..
NA
NA
NA
...
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
Hazardous
Waste
Effects
Health Effects
*
NA
•
NA
-
•
NA
NA
NA
NA
•
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
Transport and Fate
*
NA
NA
NA
*
*
NA
NA
NA
NA
**
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
High
Volume
Wastes
.=
i
*
NA
..
NA
*
*
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA'
NA
NA
**
NA
NA
NA
Electric Utility and
Fuel Processing
*
NA
..
NA
•
•
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA'
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
Non-
Hazardous
Wastes
11
..
..
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
..
***
..
NA
NA
...
NA
-
•
Waste-as-a-Fuel
•
..
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
•
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
*
*
Note: All research products are intended for use by federal, state and local governments.
Also Note: All research, development, and demonstration pertaining to hazardous wastes will take place at federal facilities or on federal lands.
LEGEND:
1. Short term need if generator is responsible or proven * Long Term
responsible for abandoned site. ** Medium Term
2. Unless open dump is associated with a mine. *" Short Term
NA Not ADDlicable
114
-------
be produced in FY 85 and beyond. This
category contains a number of lower-priority
projects that will be started in out-years if
funds are available.
All of our research pertaining to hazardous
waste will be conducted on federally owned
lands or in federal facilities.
Hazardous Waste
Identification
The fact that only 30 to 40 million tons out
of the more than 4 billion tons of solid wastes
generated annually is hazardous severely
complicates proper hazardous wastes man-
agement and treatment. Segregation is diffi-
cult and even further complicated by the
variety of sources generating hazardous
wastes—sources that are all on the rise and
estimated to continue growing at a rate of 3
percent each year. By the year 2000, annual
hazardous wastes generation could top 75
million tons.
Hazardous wastes are emitted from or
found in pipes, ponds, lagoons, settling
tanks, and countless other media at countless
sites nationwide. They can be solid, liquid,
sludge, or gaseous. RCA defines a waste as
hazardous if' 'because of its quantity, concen-
tration or physical, chemical or infectious
characteristics it: (a) causes or significantly
contributes to an increase in mortality or an
increase in serious irreversible or incapacitat-
ing reversible illness; or (b) poses a substan-
tial present or potential hazard to human
health or the environment when improperly
POTENTIALLY HAZARDOUS WASTE GROWTH PROJECTIONS
INDUSTRY
1 Batteries
2 Inorganic Chemicals
3 Organic Chemical, Pesti-
cides, and Explosives
4 Electroplating
5 Paint and Allied Products
6 Petroleum Refining
7 Pharmaceuticals
8 Primary Metals Smelting
and Refining
9 Textile Dyeing and Finishing
10 Leather Tanning
11 Special Machinery
12 Electronic Components
13 Rubber and Plastics
14 Waste Oil Re-Refining
AMOUNT
(Million Metric Tons/Year)
1974
DRY
0.005
2.000
2.150
0.909
0.075
0.625
0.062
4.454
0.048
0.045
0.102
0.026
0.205
0.057
WET
0.010
3.400
6.860
5.276
0.096
1.757
0.065
8.335
1.770
0.146
0.163
0.036
0.785
0.057
1977
DRY
0.082
2.300
3.500
1.316
0.084
0.715
0.070
4.732
0.500
0.050
0.094
0.036
0.242
0.074
WET
0.164
3.900
11.666
4.053
0.110
1.841
0.074
9.104
1.870
0.143
0.153
0.078
0.944
0.074
1983
DRY
0.105
2.800
3.800
1.751
0.105
0.811
0.104
5.536
0.179
0.068
0.157
0.050
0.299
0.144
WET
0.209
4.800
12.666
5.260
0.145
1.888
0.108
10.418
0.716
0.214
0.209
0.108
1.204
0.144
jrowth*
'74-'83
2000
40
77
92
40
30
68
24
373
51
54
92
46
253
*Figures based on dry weight quantities.
115
-------
treated, stored, transported, or disposed of or
otherwise managed.'' The wide assortment of
sources, sites, forms, and characteristics
makes proper identification, hazard assess-
ment, and quality control a difficult task for
EPA, one requiring accurate testing methods
and procedures. The top priority of the
research program is the development of such
testing tools.
Four major research areas provide support
for the promulgation of EPA regulations
under RCRA. These areas are:
• Measurement — Better analytical data is
essential if EPA is to make more in-
formed decisions. Obtaining this data
will require standard methods and pro-
tocols for analyzing hazardous wastes.
The research must first examine existing
methods and protocols, then, if needed,
new methods and procedures must be
developed and tested to fill any gaps.
Accuracy, reproducibility and precision
are of the utmost importance to support
RCRA enforcement. (AI, A2. A7, Al 1,
AI4)
• Monitoring—With improved procedures
and protocols in place, EPA will be able
to better fulfill its responsibilities under
RCRA to monitor hazardous wastes
generation, storage, transport, treat-
ment, and disposal. However, such a
monitoring effort requires a systematic
approach, and guidelines for such an
approach currently do not exist. The
development of monitoring guidelines
has been given a high priority, and when
established must specify methods, pro-
cedures and protocols. (A 10) Site selec-
tion guidelines will be needed for states
and localities to determine hazardous
wastes disposal site suitability and to
establish whether or not existing sites
pose hazards to public health and safety.
(A 10)
1 Quality assurance—In order to guarantee
the reliability of both the measurement
and monitoring programs and to defend
them against legal challenges, a quality
assurance program is required. Research
will assist in the program's establishment
by providing standard reference materi-
als, developing minimum laboratory
standards and practices, establishing a
laboratory evaluation program, initiating
a laboratory intercomparison program,
and devising a procedure to evaluate
equivalent methods. (A3, A4, A5, A6,
A8, A9, A12)
116
-------
• Technical assistance—The complexity
of the problems presented by hazardous
wastes challenges both EPA headquar-
ters and regional program staffs. The
research program responds to that chal-
lenge by providing support in such areas
as remote sensing (through aerial photo-
graphy, for example), complex sample
analysis, and quick-response methods
for analyses that regional laboratories do
not have the facilities or standard
methods to perform. (A13)
The quality assurance program will be a
major research priority during the next five
years, and while development of such a
program for hazardous wastes is a highly
All of our research
pertaining to hazardous
wastes will be conducted
on federally owned lands
or in federal facilities.
complex task, the program should be fully
operational within the five-year period. A
major effort will also be geared toward the
characterization of specific hazardous wastes
streams.
The past mismanagment of hazardous
wastes sites has produced serious threats to
human health and the environment in every
region of the country. The consequent need
for remedial action has revealed how little is
actually known about the potential conse-
quences of improper waste handling, or how
to deal with those consequences when they
arise. No single case has focused more
attention on the hazardous wastes site issue
than the discoveries made in the Love Canal
area of Niagara Falls, New York. Here a
former chemical dump site, around which
later developed a residential neighborhood,
was linked to human liver and kidney ail-
ments as well as to other chronic biological
impacts, including miscarriages and birth
defects. In addition, long-term repercussions
resulting from exposure to known and sus-
pected cancer-causing agents is anticipated.
EPA has evaluated other dump sites for the
feasibility of remedial action. A first concern
in these and other such cases is to prevent
pollution from migrating from the site to the
surrounding environment. But to quantify
fully the impacts that these incidents have
had, or will have, on the environment and
upon the people living nearby, requires
further extensive research.
The EPA estimates that thousands of sites
where wastes have been improperly dumped
still remain to be discovered. The Agency
also recognizes that the potential effects from
site wastes will differ dramatically from site
to site. Certainly, not all such incidents will
be of the proportion of Love Canal. On the
contrary, it is expected that most of the sites
yet to be discovered will be small.
A key short-range EPA research product
will be the development of a protocol to be
used by state and local governments for
quantitatively determining the degree of
hazard .posed by an uncontrolled site. The
protocol will address such considerations as
potential movement to the surrounding
environment (B3), potential for public expo-
sure, nature of the pollutant materials on the
site, and potential consequences of waste
reactivation. Field evaluations will be con-
ducted at actual dump sites on federal lands to
test the effectiveness, durability, cost, and
technical feasibility of remedial clean-up
schemes that provide permanent uncontrolled
site containment. Also evaluated on federal
lands or in federal facilities will be technolo-
gies for the on-site treatment or destruction of
hazardous wastes, leachates, and contami-
nated groundwater. (B2, B3, B4, B5, B6)
A guidance manual will be published along
with unit technology design and operations
manuals outlining specific quick-response
treatments and containment technologies for
states and localities to deal with uncontrolled
waste site situations. (B7, B8) Improved
methods for decontaminating soils in the
vicinity of polluted sites and improved,
multipurpose mobile clean-up equipment will
also be developed. (Bl, B9, BIO, Bll)
117
-------
Innovative Management
Technologies
Next to an enforceable regulatory program,
the most important step in guaranteeing
public protection from the effects of hazard-
ous wastes involves the development of the
best possible wastes handling technologies
and procedures. The complex individual
nature of each waste complicates such an
effort, however, since virtually every waste
has its own unique storage, treatment, and
disposal requirements. While several ade-
quate disposal facilities exist, many are below
RCRA standards, and when the quantities of
hazardous wastes requiring handling increase
because of RCRA, the capacities of these
facilities will be severely taxed.
At present, 70 to 80 percent of all hazard-
ous wastes from the key producing industries
is disposed of at the site where it is generated.
It is estimated that today only 10 percent of all
hazardous wastes is managed in accordance
with the standards proposed by EPA under
RCRA. Another 10 percent is incinerated
without proper controls and fully 80 percent is
disposed of in sorely inadequate landfills,
lagoons, or ponds.
RESEARCH EFFORTS ON REMEDIAL ACTION
AT UNCONTROLLED WASTE SITES
LOCATION
Li Par! Landfill,
Gloucester Co.,
NJ
La Bounty
Landfill,
Charles City, IO
Municipal
Landfill,
Windham, CT
Candy Box Farm
Landfill,
Coventry, RI
Kin-Buc Landfill
Edison, NJ
Love Canal
Niagra Falls, NY
TYPES OF
WASTES
INVOLVED
Hazardous
Organics
Arsenic-laden
pharmaceutical
sludges
Municipal wastes
Chemical wastes
including sodium
aluminum hydride
Assorted chemical
wastes
Barrels, drums
and bulk
chemical wastes
AREA
POLLUTED
Alcyon Lake
Cedar River
Local drinking
water reservoir
Nearby cranberry
bog and swamp
Air and ground-
water in area
Basements of
homes; yards in
residential
neighborhood
RESEARCH
ARRANGE-
MENT
Contractual
Contractual
Contractual
Contractual
Technical
assistance
Technical assist-
ance to New York
Department of
Environmental
Conservation
REMEDIAL
ACTIONS
RECOM-
MENDED
Too Early
Regrading of
surface with 2 ft.
of clay cap (may
add grout curtain
or bottom seal)
Surface capping
with clay
Too Early
Containment
strategies
Various strategies
for containment
of remaining Vi
of site not
covered in
emergency
clean-up
Note: All research, development and demonstration pertaining to hazardous wastes will take place at federal facilities
orjMLfederal lands.
118
-------
TECHNOLOGICAL RESEARCH NEEDS FOR UNCONTROLLED
HAZARDOUS SITES CONTROL PROGRAM
PROBLEM
SURFACE WATER CONTROL
GROUNDWATER CONTROL
CHEMICAL IMMOBILIZATION
PLUME MANAGEMENT
ON-SITE TREATMENT/
DESTRUCTION
RESEARCH FOCUS
Contour grading, diversion, surface sealing,
revegetation, etc.
Bentonite Clay-Slurry Trench, cutoff walls, grout
curtains, sheetpiling cutoff walls, bottom sealing, etc.
Chemical fixation, injection
Ground water/ leachate extraction, injection tech-
niques, leachate/polluted groundwater collection
and treatment
Mobile spill clean-up equipment, modified multiple-
stage thin film distillation, lagooning (dewatering,
fixation, treatment stabilization), modular biological
treatment methods (chemical stabilization, nutrient
injection and microbe injection), and on-site bulk
waste encapsulation
Note: All research, development, and demonstration pertaining to hazardous wastes will take place at federal facilities or on
federal land.
There are four basic categories of hazard-
ous wastes management technology. These
are recycling/reuse, treatment, thermal
decomposition (incineration), and contain-
ment (disposal). Required present and future
incineration and disposal facility capacities
for the 17 major industries that generate
hazardous wastes have already been estab-
lished. But similar projections for treatment
processes are yet to be made. The costs of
developing such facilities as required under
RCRA poses a potential economic hardship
for some hazardous wastes generators and this
subsequently points to the need for the
development of new and innovative hazard-
ous wastes facilities and control technologies.
RCRA enforcement will place significantly
increased demands on the already strained
hazardous wastes management industry. In
response to the increased demands, EPA's
hazardous wastes technology research objec-
tive is to develop and make available the
technological information necessary to up-
grade existing hazardous wastes facilities as
well as for the installation of new facilities.
EPA realizes that it is not feasible to study
each hazardous waste stream and every
potential technology. A good deal of the
research effort is being assumed by the waste
generators themselves as a result of the
economic incentives provided under RCRA.
EPA's hazardous wastes technology re-
119
-------
search program is concerned with the follow-
ing types of waste:
1. Highly hazardous wastes (for example,
those containing highly toxic or bioac-
cumulative compounds such as PCB,
TCDD, cadmium, beryllium, etc.).
2. Wastes from industry groups composed
primarily of relatively small companies
such as those that work with specialty
chemicals, wood preservatives, or
leather tanning or secondary non-
ferrous industries, companies that
would likely be unable to conduct
effective research and development on
their own.
3. Wastes from industry groups most likely
to suffer the greatest economic impact
from RCRA enforcement (for example,
metal finishing and electroplating).
4. Wastes that would most likely be best
managed off-site, in centralized public
or private facilities.
Top-priority EPA technology research
needs include the continued development,
validation, and testing of incineration systems
for reliability (Dl); the ongoing testing of
various technologies to neutralize, detoxify,
and destroy hazardous wastes (C3); and the
assessment of volatilization problems of
hazardous wastes placed into surface im-
poundments (E3). The work will take place in
federal installations or on federal lands.
Among the efforts to be undertaken by
EPA's hazardous wastes management
technology research will be less than full-
scale performance tests of promising control
technologies for priority hazardous wastes
streams. (C7) Research will also focus on the
possibility of adapting existing non-
hazardous treatment technologies for use with
hazardous wastes. Additionally, thermal
combustion and containment technologies as
well as industrial process technologies will be
studied for their potential application to
priority hazardous wastes streams. (C2)
Profiles will be developed and published to
Legend
• Landfill
®Incinerator
GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION OF HAZARDOUS
WASTE MANAGEMENT FACILITIES
120
-------
CURRENT AND PROJECTED HAZARDOUS WASTE
DISPOSAL TECHNOLOGIES (millions of metric tons)
INDUSTRY
1 ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS
2 ELECTROPLATING*
METAL FINISHING
3 INORGANIC CHEMICALS
4 LEATHER TANNING &
FINISHING
5 METALS SMELTING & REFINING
6 ORGANIC CHEMICALS
(Segments Analyzed)
7 PAINTS & ALLIED PRODUCTS
8 PETROLEUM REFINING
9 PETROLEUM RE-REFINING
10 PHARMACEUTICALS
11 RUBBER
12 PLASTICS
13 SPECIAL MACHINERY
14 STORAGE & PRIMARY BATTERIES
15 TEXTILES
16 EXPLOSIVES
17 PESTICIDES
TOTAL
Annual Waste Generation
.064
.64
3.8
.17
12.8
.34
.22
1.5
.074
.073
.050
.900
.075
.15
1.7
.09
.7
23.3
1977 Projected
Landfill
Secure Landfill
— .039
.064 .64
1.3 3.8
.17 .17
8.4 7.8
.214 .056
.11 .12
1.3 1.2
.074 .074
.008 .008
.05 .050
— —
.075 .064
.15 .15
1.7 1.7
— —
.002 .03
14.3 1 15.9
1977 Projected
Incineration
Incineration
— .025
— —
— —
— —
— —
.03 .284
.11 .10
— —
— —
.065 .065
— —
.90 .900
— .011
— —
— —
.09 .09
.008 —
1.2 1.9
1977 Projected
Other* Techniques
Other** Techniques
— —
— —
2.5 —
— —
4.4 5.0
.07 —
— —
.2 .3
— —
— —
— —
— —
— —
— —
— —
— —
.68 —
7.8 6.0
i
* Other techniques for 1977 include lagoon, landspreading, deep-well injection, and sea disposal.
** Projected techniques include landspeading, lagoon, and deep-well.
Source: Drafl Economic Imna.-l Analysis (Keeulalorv Analysis SuDDlemenO for Subtitle C. Resource Conservation and
Recovery Act of 1976. Prepared by Office of Solid Waste. USEPA, January 1970, pp. 100 and 101.
121
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outline performance characteristics of tested
technologies in specific hazardous wastes
streams. Included will be preferred modes of
operation, operational difficulties incurred,
capital and operating costs, energy require-
ments, and estimates of the technology's
compatibility with other waste streams. (C5)
Efforts will also be made to develop and
verify quick-indicator procedures capable of
predicting the compatibility of a given control
technology with a specific waste stream.
Engineering design, operation, and safety
requirements for hazardous wastes control
technology unit operations and processes will
be developed and disseminated along with
user-oriented protocols for hazardous wastes
technology problem assessment, technology
selection, and control system design. (C4)
Evaluations will also be made of novel
hazardous wastes control technologies that
offer prospects for improved performance,
safety, energy efficiency, cost effectiveness
or unique applicability to problem waste
streams. (C7)
Examples of short-range research projects
in each technology area include the following:
• Treatment—Development and less than
full-scale testing of bio-degradation
processes and technologies capable of
concentrating a number of priority
hazardous wastes streams, thus allowing
for their centralized treatment, (Cl)
• Thermal Decomposition (incineration)
—Conducting laboratory-scale thermal
decomposition studies of selected pure
compound and hazardous wastes streams
to identify required destruction condi-
tions and the potentially hazardous
PROJECTED GROWTH OF THE HAZARDOUS WASTE
MANAGEMENT INDUSTRY, 1983
ITEM
U.S. Demand1
(million wet metric tons/yr)!
Number of Companies
Number of Facilities
Capacity Required to Meet Demand on an
EPA Regional Basis (million wet metric tons
per year)
Forecasted Capacity by EPA Regional Basis
(million wet metric tons per year)
Revenues (1980 dollars in millions)
Employment (number)
Tangible Assets (dollars in millions)
GROWTH
BASED ON
HISTORIC
TRENDS
4.5
75 to 85
130 to 140
5
8.3
$210 to $225
2,100
$210
GROWTH BASED
ON APPLICA-
TION OF NEW
DISPOSAL
REGULATIONS
8.9
90 to 100
160 to 170
11.0
(12 with 10% excess)
9.1
$460 to $490
4,500
$560 to $700
'Quantity of wastes available For treatment and disposal.
'Includes water weight.
122
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by-products of the thermal decomposi-
tion process. (D2, D3, D4, D5, D6, D7)
• Containment (disposal) — Development
and verification on federal land of a
protocol for predicting the composition,
rate of generation, and total quantity of
leachates from hazardous waste land
disposal facilities and the development
of a quick-indicator test for predicting
the growth and movement of leachates
and leachate contaminants from land
disposal facilities. (El, E2, E4, E5, E6,
E7, E8, E9, E10)
Tracking Pollutants and
Their Health Effects
Both hazardous and non-hazardous wastes
disposed of on land generate gases and liquids
(called leachates) as by-products of waste
decomposition. Predicting the movement of
these gases and leachates within the disposal
facility has been a long-standing problem
faced by facility managers. Monitoring the
transport and fate of both substances is also an
important disposal concern, since both gases
and leachates eventually escape from the
facility into the surrounding environment.
Because of this eventuality, an assessment of
the effects that the gases and leachates might
have on the health of persons exposed to them
must also be made. This ultimate concern for
public health and safety reflects the number
one priority of RCRA and EPA's chief goal in
its subsequent implementation.
To track the movement of pollutants at
disposal sites, monitoring methods that allow
the use of selected indicators to detect
biochemical contamination in subsurface
environments will be developed. (Gl) Pro:
tocols will be developed for the use of
chemical and isotope tracers in groundwater
investigations. (G2) The use of thermoplastic
casings to prevent deterioration of wellbores
will be evaluated as will economical tech-
niques for restoring wells that have failed.
Methods for predicting leachates and gas
migration from solid wastes landfills and
from certain hazardous wastes sites will also
be studied. The design of soil covers to
minimize the release of vapors from disposal
sites is but one example of the kind of research
effort in the works. (G3, G4)
Developing methods to accurately predict
the movement of toxicants and other wastes is
also a priority. (G5, G6, G7, G8) These
efforts are all a part of EPA's high-priority
program to make land disposal of hazardous
wastes as safe, as reliable, and as easy to
control as technologically possible.
EPA needs to provide for technical sup-
port, chemical, biological, epidemiological,
lexicological, and clinical tests where appro-
priate to determine the risks from hazardous
waste sites. The effort will include primarily
coordination of various work done by other
agencies such as the National Cancer Insti-
tute, National Institute of Environmental
Health Sciences, Center for Disease Control
and National Center for Health Statistics.
Often in dealing with hazardous waste
disposal sites, it is not possible to eliminate
the hazardous materials from the environ-
ment, i.e., some hazardous substances, no
matter what is done, will continue to show up
in food, drinking water or the air. In such
cases it is necessary to provide an estimate of
the residual risk as a function of various
control and abatement actions.
Research in the risk assessment area may
include efforts to:
• Determine which measurements are
needed to ascertain exposure and to
calculate risk, i.e., air exposures, drink-
ing water exposures, levels of substances
in soils;
• Determine the critical population at risk
and for which health effects;
• Extract from available data a dose-
response relationship in the areas and
routes of exposure of interest;
• Perform short-term tests where needed
and useful;
• Provide from the above, an estimate of
the number of persons affected for health
effects of concern and an estimate of the
increased individual risk for the most
exposed group. (Fl through F7)
High-Volume Wastes
While hazardous wastes occupy the top
priority in the ongoing research effort, they
123
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are not the only wastes that are difficult to
manage or that pose a potential threat to
public health and safety. In terms of quantity,
the 3-billion tons of high-volume wastes from
mining operations and other sources, for
example, present serious management prob-
lems. While most of these wastes are inert,
some are potentially hazardous, and have thus
been classified along with other high-volume
wastes by EPA. The designation indicates
that these wastes will receive special research
and development attention because of the
extremely high rate at which they are gener-
ated and the potential environmental threat
they may pose.
The high-volume wastes research effort is
projected to concentrate primarily on deter-
mining potential dangers posed by such
wastes and on setting control priorities. Some
very large mining operations, such as for sand
and gravel are already known to produce
totally inert wastes; other mining operations,
such as for coal that produce some hazardous
wastes, have been studied extensively and
will thus, require little additional work. Still
other mining operations, however, such as
mercury mining, result in potentially highly
toxic wastes though they produce smaller
volumes of waste. Other mines produce
high-waste volumes, but their full hazard
potential is still to be investigated. Such
mines include uranium, phosphate, and
metallic ore mines.
There are several high-volume wastes
research efforts planned. Among them are:
• Cost assessments of RCRA impacts on
various mining operations;
• Surveys of the best management prac-
tices in mines;
• Evaluations of the best practices for
mining waste storage, treatment, and
disposal;
• Preparation of a management practices
guidance document for handling coal
mining wastes. (II, 12,13,14)
The high-volume waste research and
development program also applies to coal ash
and flue gas desulfurization (FGD) from all
steam power plants. Full-scale field evalua-
tions will be undertaken to determine which
disposal methods will enable compliance with
proposed RCRA performance standards and
what the costs would be to the utility industry
to bring all disposal sites to compliance
levels. (Jl, J2) In addition, EPA will assess
the potential dangers posed by disposal and
reuse of coal ash and FGD waste, and
investigate damage cases relating to coal ash
and FGD waste disposal. An example of such
While most of these
wastes are inert, some
are potentially
hazardous.
a potential danger is the emission of radioac-
tive radon gas from coal ash used in building
materials, from reclaimed coal ash storage
sites, or from fugitive emissions during coal
ash transportation. (J3, J4) Data that charac-
terize and compare the wastes generated by
industrial boilers and utility boilers will also
be developed.
In the long-term, three combustion wastes
— hog fuel ash, refuse-derived fuel ash
(RDF), and oil field steam generation ROD
waste (J5)—will be added to the high volume
wastes research and development program.
Other research will involve the potential
waste streams associated with geothermal
energy.
Non-Hazardous Wastes
Until RCRA came into existence in 1976,
the major focus of EPA's research effort in
solid wastes was on non-hazardous wastes,
specifically municipal solid wastes. This
emphasis grew out of the legislative mandates
of the 1965 Solid Waste Disposal Act as
amended by the Resource Recovery Act of
1970. While RCRA clearly set top priorities
on hazardous wastes management, it also
gave EPA the responsibility for managing
municipal wastes as well.
Over 150 million tons of municipal wastes
are generated annually. Sewage sludge
accounts for an additional 5 million tons and
124
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construction/demolition debris adds another
45 million tons. This brings the total to over
200 million tons of wastes, a figure that is
growing each year. There are an estimated
20,000 disposal facilities to manage these
wastes around the country, but many are
located in areas unsuited to waste disposal
and/or are improperly operated.
Improper disposal has resulted in the
contamination of surface and groundwaters,
exposure of humans to toxic or pathogenic
There are an estimated
20,000 disposal
facilities.
wastes, explosions of landfill gas, contamina-
tion of croplands with heavy metals, air
pollution, and destruction of wetlands,
critical habitats, and other sensitive areas.
Groundwater contamination is particularly
serious, since ground water is the water source
for half of the United States population and
the rehabilitation of seriously contaminated
groundwater is both costly and time consum-
ing. It has been estimated that over half of all
disposal facilities leak contaminants into
groundwater supplies. (See chapter 7,
"Drinking Water.")
Solid wastes management is also expen-
sive. It is, in fact, the second most costly
municipal service — behind education, but
ahead of police and fire protection and transit
and other services. Under RCRA, an inven-
tory of municipal wastes disposal facilities
not meeting standards set by EPA for sanitary
landfills is to be compiled. In addition, both
RCRA and our national priorities give im-
petus to the continuation of many ongoing
research efforts in municipal wastes resource
conservation and recovery program.
Research to predict and track the release of
contaminants from disposal operations in-
volving hazardous wastes is also being
applied to the release of contaminants in
non-hazardous waste facilities. Other non-
hazardous wastes research priorities include
controlling the decomposition of wastes
within municipal landfills and the migration
of gas and leachates. Additionally, EPA is
SPECIAL WASTES
(Metric Ton /yr)
WASTE
Cement Kiln Dust
Utility Waste (fly ash, bottom ash,
scrubber sludge)
Phosphate Mining, Beneficiation,
and Processing Waste
Uranium Mining
Other Mining Wastes
Gas and Oil Drilling Muds and Oil
Production Brines
QUANTITY
12 million*
66 million*
400 million
150 million
3 billion*
5 million*
POSSIBLE HAZARD
Alkalinity and heavy metals
Heavy metals (trace
Radioactivity (low levels)
Radioactivity
Heavy metals, acidity
Alkalinity, heavy metals, toxic
organics, salinity
NOTE: It is not yet known how much of the total quantity of waste marked with an asterisk (*) is, in fact, hazardous waste.
125
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attempting to develop a disposal facility
environmental evaluation procedure, one that
spells out cost-effective, environmentally
sound methods for the disposal of non-
hazardous wastes and remedial actions that
should be taken to clean up non-hazardous
wastes facilities. (LI through L9)
Wastes-to-energy conversion methods are
also a priority of the research program, with
special attention being given to the monitor-
ing and evaluation of systems developed
during previous research efforts. Develop-
ment of secondary materials specifications to
facilitate recycling is also slated for attention.
(Kl through K8)
Final Thoughts
EPA's solid and hazardous wastes research
strategy is clearly designed to tackle the
toughest wastes management problems. The
protection of public health and safety is
currently the primary program concern, and
not until the RCRA-mandated hazardous
wastes regulatory program is in place can
EPA's concern lessen. However, develop-
ment of safe, efficient, cost-effective
methods for handling hazardous wastes is also
being given a great deal of attention.
EPA is carefully monitoring and coordinat-
ing its solid and hazardous wastes research
activities with other federal and non-federal
study efforts in the same field. The research
strategy reflects this interface as well as the
needs and priorities pinpointed by EPA
Regional Offices.
Only through a balanced and carefully
The protection of public
health and safety is
currently the primary
program concern.
gauged research effort can EPA provide the
technical, scientific, and procedural informa-
tion necessary to alleviate the nation's solid
and hazardous waste management problems.
Unless such an effort is vigorously pursued,
repetition of the events associated with the
Love Canal area will continue to occur. With
the proper research, however, past misman-
agement can be rectified, future harmful
incidents can be prevented and public health
and safety can be assured.
126
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SOLID AND HAZARDOUS WASTE RESEARCH PLAN
PROGRAM AREA FISCAL YEAR 1980 FISCAL YEAR 1981 FISCAL YEAR 1982 FISCAL YEAR 1983 FISCAL YEAR 1984
HAZARDOUS
WASTE IDENTIFI-
CATION
Quality Assurance
(QA) Program
This program is to
develop the necessary
protocols to sample,
analyze, identify, and
characterize hazardous
wastes
Provide new reference
"standard" materials Al
Perform laboratory inter-
comparison studies A2
Establish QA program for
uncontrolled site program
A3
Adapt and validate exist-
ing sampling, extraction
and analytical methods
from other EPA programs
to RCRA, Subtitle C
regulations A4
Institute a repository and
review system for tapes
and data AS
Develop QA methods and
materials for volatiles A6
Publish laboratory evalu-
ation criteria, methods and
procedures manual A7
Perform a QA training
program AS
Validate methods and
extablish QA procedures
for newly identified
hazardous materials A9
Establish protocols for
field monitoring of reme-
dial actions A10
Perform hazardous waste
characterization for high
priority industries All
Develop procedures for
re-evaluating data in the
repository A12
Develop innovative sam-
pling and analytical pro-
cedures A13
Perform hazardous waste
characterization for all
other industries A14
-------
oo
SOLID AND HAZARDOUS WASTE RESEARCH PLAN
PROGRAM AREA
FISCAL YEAR 1980 FISCAL YEAR 1981 FISCAL YEAR 1982 FISCAL YEAR 1983
FISCAL YEAR 1984
Uncontrolled
Facilities Response
This area validates
various surface and
groundwater control
schemes and chemical
immobilization to
contain pollutants
emanating from waste
disposal sites.
HAZARDOUS
WASTE
TECHNOLOGY
Treatment
Evaluate mobile in-
cinerator Bl
Adapt existing technology
for ' 'quick fix " remedial
measures for uncontrolled
dump sites B2
Develop protocol for
quantitatively determining
the degree of hazard of an
uncontrolled facility; pro-
duce engineering design
guidance for leacnate
collection systems for use
by states and local
governments B3
Develop and field verify
engineering design guid-
ance for selection of cover
materials for infiltration
control and volatile con-
trol at land disposal
facilities. B4
Evaluate the effective-
ness, durability, cost, and
technical feasibility of
remedial action schemes
for permanent contain-
ment of polluting sites B5
Develop methods for
locating and repairing
landfill and surface im-
poundment liner failures.
B6
Develop and publish a
guidance manual for re-
medial action technology
at polluting hazardous
waste sites B7
Develop a series of
unit-technology design
and implementation man-
uals for specific quick-
response, treatment and
containment technologies
B8
Develop improved
methods for decontamina-
tion of soils in the vicinity
of polluting sites B9
Develop improved,
multi-purpose mobile
clean-up equipment and
initiate efforts to encour-
age commercial construc-
tion and operation of
proven units BIO
Develop, construct and
field demonstrate at fed-
eral sites, technology for
on-site treatment/
destruction of hazardous
waste, leachates, and
contaminated groundwa-
ter, complete short term
monitoring of demonstra-
tion site. Bll
This technology is
defined to include
recycle, detoxification,
and biological
treatment of hazardous
wastes.
Develop and field-scale
testing of biodegradation
processes and
technologies for concent-
rations of priorty RCRA
hazardous waste streams
Cl
Evaluation of techniques
for reducing hazardous
wastes by industrial pro-
cess changes and recycle
of hazardous wate stream
components C2
Identification and testing
of treatment technology
operation requirements for
partial de-toxification of
high hazard wastes C3
Develop and disseminate
standard performance
testing protocols for
hazardous waste treatment
processes and systems
tested by industry, waste
management facility
operators, EPA and states
C4
Develop technology pro-
files for performance,
cost, waste stream com-
patibility and energy effi-
ciency capabilities C5
Evaluate technologies and
methods for upgrading
safety, performance and
capacity of existing
hazardous waste treatment
facilities C6
Piolt-scale testing and
demonstrate novel
emerging, high technol-
ogy hazardous waste
destruction methods C7
-------
PROGRAM AREA FISCAL YEAR 1980
FISCAL YEAR 1981
FISCAL YEAR 1982
FISCAL YEAR 1983
FISCAL YEAR 1984
Thermal Decomposi-
tion
This technology is
defined to include all
types of incineration.
Containment
This technology refers
to the concept of
confining the waste
within a specified land
space in the ground and
the potential
environmental influ-
ences of this
confinement.
Conduct laboratory-scale
thermal decomposition
studies of selected pure
compounds and hazardous
waste streams to permit
preliminary screening and
identification of required
destruction conditions and
potentially hazardous de-
composition products Dl
Conduct field-scale test
bums on specific waste
streams to determine
parametric conditions for
complete destruction of
classes of hazardous
wastes in a commercially
available hazardous waste
incinerator to provide
assistance to EPA regional
permit writers and for a
quick response basis D2
Evaluate feasibility of
using existing alternative
combustion facilities for
co-combustion of certain
hazardous waste streams
D3
Develop and field-verify a Measure and evaluate the
protocol for predicting
composition, rate of gen-
eration and total quantity
of leachates from hazard-
ous waste land disposal
facilities El
Develop quick indicator
test for predicting the
attenuation and movement
of leachates and leachate
contaminants from land
disposal facilities E2
quality and quantity of
volatile emissions from
surface impoundments
and land fills E3
Develop and verify means
of transferring small-scale
compustion test results to
field-scale testing condi-
tions and requirements.
Develop a waste stream/
inceneration technology
compactability pro-
tocol. D4
Develop and validate
standard sampling and
on-line testing analysis
procedures and equipment
for monitoring full-scale
test burns and for permit
compliance monitoring
D5
Establish a 30-year test for
a liner testing program E4
Establish a 30-year field-
testing program for fixa-
tion, stabilization, and
bulk encapsulation of
hazardous wastes ES
Develop advanced air
pollution control technol-
ogy for hazardous waste
incineration. D6
Evaluate and test
techniques and incinerator
design modifications to
reduce energy require-
ments in hazardous waste
incineration
Evaluation of quick indi-
cator methods for liner/
waste compatibility, per-
meability, durability and
protocol for comparing
predicted performance of
alternative liner designs
E6
Evaluation of quick indi-
cator tests for predicting
leachability, durability,
longevity, and compati-
bility of waste/process
combinations E7
Conduct pilot-scale
studies of emerging im-
proved incinerator con-
cepts D7
Investigate advanced liner
designs E8
Monitor industrial ac-
tivities on land cultivation
of hazardous waste E9
Conduct demonstration of
inactive mine storage/
disposal of encapsulated
hazardous wastes E10
-------
SOLID AND HAZARDOUS WASTE RESEARCH PLAN
PROGRAM AREA FISCAL YEAR 1980 FISCAL YEAR 1981 FISCAL YEAR 1982 FISCAL YEAR 1983 FISCAL YEAR 1984
HAZARDOUS
WASTE EFFECTS
*Risk Assessment
Perform health effects
overview for one or two
hazardous waste aban-
doned sites Fl
Perform health effects
overview for one or two
hazardous waste aban-
donded sites F2
Establish a health effects
emergency response capa-
bility to conduct epidemi-
ological investigations of
acute human exposures to
environmental contamin-
ants from hazardous
wastes F3
Perform first set of
epidemiological studies by
emergency response team
F4
Develop protocols for
biological screening
methods for potentially
hazardous wastes F5
Determine regulatory
thresholds for all IARC
and NCI known human,
suspect human, and
known animal carcinogens
which pose a one-in-105
hazard to human health if
specific carcinogen were a
drinking water contami-
nent F6
Validate analytical
methods capable of de-
tecting these carcinogens
at the regulatory threshold
F7
Transport and Fate
Develop analytical
methods for use in
subsurface environment to
detect biochemical con-
tamination using selected
indicators Gl
Protocols for using chemi-
cal and isotope tracers in
groundwater investiga-
tions G2
Evaluate use of thermop-
lastic casing to prevent
deterioration G3
Evaluate economical
techniques to restore wells
which have failed G4
Evaluation of predictive
methods for leachate and
gas migration from solid
waste landfills and from
certain hazardous waste
sites G5
Evaluate design criteria
for transport characteris-
tics of metals, organic and
inorganic contaminants
and viruses G6
Identify and assess
transport/retention
mechanisms for organic
wastes G7
Field verfication of
methods and transport
mechanisms for organic
and inorganic contamin-
ants and their movement in
soil G8
*EPA to encourage research along these lines funded by other agencies.
-------
PROGRAM AREA FISCAL YEAR 1980
FISCAL YEAR 1981
FISCAL YEAR 1982
FISCAL YEAR 1983
FISCAL YEAR 1984
HIGH VOLUME
WASTES
Mining
This area is concerned
with the characteriza-
tion and identification
of mining wastes
Design management stan- Characterize and design
dards for mining wastes II management standards for
red and black muds. 12
Characterize and design
management standards for
oil shale mining and
beneficiation 13
Evaluate innovative waste
handling and treatment
technologies for mining
wastes 14
Energy
The utility industry
wastes are
characterized and their
impact on the
environment is
determined
Determine design standard
for management of coal
ash and flue gas desulfuri-
zation waste Jl
Determine costs for utility
industry compliance with
RCRA performance stan-
dards J2
Determine what protion of
coal ash and FGD waste is
in the special waste
category J3
Determine coal pile drain-
age effects on groundwa-
terJ4
Characterization and
comparison of electric
utility coal ash and FGD
waste with industrial
boiler waste; hog fuel ash;
RDF ash; oil field steam
generation FGD waste J5
Determine design stan-
dards for management of
geothermal energy waste
36
Evaluate innovative waste
handling and treatment
technologies for mining
wastes J7
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SOLID AND HAZARDOUS WASTE RESEARCH PROGRAM
HIGH VOLUME WASTES
PROGRAM AREA FISCAL YEAR 1980
FISCAL YEAR 1981
FISCAL YEAR 1982
FISCAL YEAR 1983 FISCAL YEAR 1984
NON-HAZARDOUS
WASTES
Municipal Solid
Wastes
This area concerns the
effect of municipal solid
wastes on the
environment and the
potential for resource
recover,' of this waste.
Therefore, it will be
divided into Resource
Recovery and
Landfilling,
Resource Recovery
This subsection is
concerned with the
recovery of wastes from
the municipal waste
stream and the use of
wastes-as-fuel.
Development and assess-
ment of resource recovery
from glass and plastic
wastes Kl
Evaluation of impedi-
ments to economical re-
source recovery systems
K2
Priorities for resource
recovery research K3
Develop improved
technologies for forecast-
ing quantities and com-
position of solid waste K4
Preparation of RDF for
cement kiln firing K5
Environmental assessment
of co-firing of waste with
coal K6
Evaluation of resource
recovery potential from
hazardous and high vol-
ume wastes K7
Process and environmen-
tal evaluation of full-scale
resource facilities K8
Landfilling
This subsection is to
assess the measures to
be taken to measure
and control the
potential environmen-
tal problems from
landfills.
Summary and assessment
of leachate production LI
Demonstrate surface cap-
ping as a remedial action at
a landfill site L2
Develop a manual of
practice on impacts of
solid waste disposal on
surface and groundwater
L3
Fate of heavy metals
during landfill stabiliza-
tion L4
Monitor remedial site
which was surface capped
L5
Develop a manual of
practive on groundwater
sampling techniques and
municipal waste disposal
sites L6
Develop leachate produc-
tion forecasting technique
to guide the design,
operation,and permitting
constraints for specific
landfill sites L7
Evaluate various control
methods to minimize
environmental impact of
landfills subject to RCRA
regulations L8
Evaluate various methods
to stabilize landfills to
minimize environmental
impact L9
-------
PESTICIDES
Pesticides will continue to play an
important role in our economy* EPA
research determines adverse health
and ecological effects and develops
means to reduce the dangers*
133
-------
Pesticides play a vital role in our economy
and in our lives. They help to create the
abundance of food and fiber in our country,
and protect the public health by controlling
insects and other pests. But because pes-
ticides are primarily designed to kill or
otherwise affect the biological behavior of
living organisms, they must be considered
potentially hazardous. The hazards they pose
are not only to humans but to other life as
well, including wildlife and livestock. Pes-
ticides, therefore, must be carefully con-
trolled in the environment.
Some of the pesticides that were developed
during or immediately following World War II
were chemicals that persisted in the environ-
ment after application. Wide use of these
pesticides in agriculture quickly followed.
Today several billion pounds of pesticides are
used annually in the United States; however,
many of the newer pesticides are less persis-
tent in nature. The near future, on the other
hand, will see development of pest control
methods which include biological controls
and more degradable products.
Because of increasing awareness about the
accumulation and effects of persistent pes-
ticides, which have been found in air, water,
soil, and human tissue samples, there is a
great deal of public concern about the safety
of these compounds. Since 1970, EPA has
banned most uses of the most persistent
chemicals (e.g., DDT, mirex, kepone, aldrin,
dieldrin, chlordane, and heptachlor), and is
now encouraging the use of integrated pest
control methods, rather than rote chemical
protective spraying.
Protecting the Public and
the Environment
Laws to protect the public and the envi-
ronment from the potential hazards of pes-
ticide use are the Federal Insecticide, Fun-
gicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) as
amended, and the pesticide amendments to
the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act
(FFDCA). The FIFRA requires a premarket
clearance by EPA for all pesticide products to
be used in the United States. The FFDCA
permits EPA to establish a tolerance (accept-
able residue level) for pesticide residues in
food or livestock feed crops.
The FIFRA (amended in 1972, 1975, and
1978) requires EPA to balance the risks and
benefits of a pesticide's use. Manufacturers
are required to send to EPA data about the
risks of a pesticide's use; these data typically
encompass toxicology (primarily studies on
laboratory animals), chemistry, environmen-
tal fate, and fish and wildlife hazard studies.
EPA has authority to refuse registration or, in
cases of products already on the market, to
EPA has banned most
uses of the most
persistent chemicals.
cancel or suspend registration if the risks from
certain or all uses of a pesticide are found to
outweigh the benefits to society.
The amendments to FIFRA have given
EPA two major tasks to accomplish: the
reregistration of all pesticides now on the
market and the classification of all pesticides
into general use or restricted use. Restricted
use means that a pesticide is to be used only by
or under the supervision of trained, certified
applicators. More than a million farmers and
professional applicators have been certified to
handle restricted-use pesticides, and more
than 300 pesticide uses have been or are
proposed to be restricted. EPA is now em-
barking on the massive job of reregistering
some 35,000 pesticide products (made from
about 1,500 principal active ingredients) in
accordance with the most current scientific
standards. An EPA proposal, with which
Congress agreed and set forth in the 1978
FIFRA amendments, is that reregistration and
future registrations be accomplished through
development of a registration standard. The
standard will enumerate all approved formu-
lations, uses, and restrictions, and will be
based on all relevant data about a pesticide "s
effects, including the same kinds of data now
required for regulating new products but
which have never before been collected for
the older pesticides. This novel approach to
134
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pesticide registration offers the advantage of
making only one comprehensive risk/benefit
decision per chemical, rather than the re-
source-intensive and wasteful product-by-
product approach taken in the past. Even so,
the enormous task of developing registration
standards for all pesticides will take approxi-
mately 10-15 years.
The Research Plan
We believe that to properly protect the
public from unreasonable pesticide risks
while at the same time assuring the continuing
benefits from the pest control afforded by
these compounds, a strong research effort is
needed to provide a sound scientific basis for
these regulatory activities.
The pesticides research plan focuses on
data and techniques for assessing potential
health and environmental risks, and tech-
niques to minimize introduction of pesticides
into the environment.
Developing Scientific and
Technological Informa-
tion to Help Protect Public
Health and the
Environment
Three basic elements are necessary to
evaluate potential overall human health
hazards and environmental hazards from
pesticides: (1) identification of the population
at risk; (2) assessment of population expo-
sure; and (3) determination of adverse effects
to health and ecology. Our pesticides research
program is designed to provide scientifically
sound, legally defensible, and publicly
acceptable information to support decisions
on pesticides.
Populations at Risk
The registered uses of a pesticide help to
determine population groups susceptible to
risks through direct exposure, including
applicators, loaders, mixers, and for-
mulators. If a compound is used on a food
crop in a way that leaves a residue at harvest,
however, then the general population be-
comes the population group at risk. The total
volume of the chemical produced and its use
is important in defining the overall size of the
population at risk from it.
There are various population groups that
may have unusual susceptibility to some
compounds. These groups include the very
young and the very old, who may be more
sensitive to chemicals than median-age
groups; women of childbearing age who
should be carefully protected from com-
pounds known to have teratologic effects; and
persons acutely or chronically ill with certain
diseases that may decrease resistance to the
adverse health effects of pesticides. Once
exposed to pesticides, some people experi-
ence reduced resistance to infection or to
other forms of disease. Studies also indicate a
relationship between nutritional status and
susceptibility to chemical injury in exper-
imental animals and, in a few instances, in
humans. Pesticides also may interact with
drugs, chemicals, and other pesticides.
Knowledge of individuals' therapeutic,
occupational, and other histories may there-
fore be important in defining population
groups with unusual risks.
Certain plant and animal communities that
occupy critical niches in ecosystems may also
be especially susceptible to pesticides, and if
these communities are harmed, entire ecosys-
tems could be adversely affected. We will
therefore also develop information on these
plant and animal populations, particularly as
they relate to human populations.
Determining Routes of
Exposure
Both humans and animals are exposed to
pesticides through dermal, inhalation, and
ingestion routes; non-human organisms are
also exposed through their food chains and the
water, air, soil, or sediment in which they
live. To assess the hazard a chemical poses,
we must understand the magnitudes, dura-
tion, and timing of exposure to the pesticide
that both humans and the environment experi-
ence. Exposure of the human population to
pesticides occurs through occupational,
dietary, or environmental routes.
Occupational exposure. Occupational
exposure to pesticides occurs in a wide range
of durations and frequencies with a variety of
materials. The farmer may treat his crop only
135
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once or a very few times per season; the
commercial applicator, spray pilot, or pest
control operator, however, may use pes-
ticides every working day during the year.
Migrants and other crop workers may be
exposed to pesticides on a regular basis.
(B2, B4)
Measurement Methods
Although satisfactory methods to measure
exposure are now available for some com-
pounds (such as the chlorinated hydrocarbon
pesticides), better methods are needed for the
carbamate pesticides, among others. We will
develop and validate techniques and pro-
tocols, with appropriate quality control
procedures, for measuring amounts of pes-
ticides in air, water, soil, sediment, tissue,
and commercial products. Emphasis will be
on multi-residue methods, collection devices,
separation techniques, and advanced in-
strumentation applications, especially high-
pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) and
gas chromatography/mass spectroscopy
(GC/MS). Immunochemical and other in-
novative methods will also be explored.
Studies will continue to develop advanced
methods to increase sensitivity and resolution
of our procedures and instruments. Special
emphasis will be on development of methods
for analyzing pesticides bound to soils and
sediments.
Environmental exposure. The general
population is exposed to pesticides through
food, water, air, and possibly through other
media. Although methods are available to
estimate total exposure, we must develop
additional methods capable of defining man's
exposure to newly introduced pesticides in the
various media.
Pesticides entering the environment can be
transported through air, water, soil, sedi-
ment, and biota, including components of th
food web consumed by man. Thus, data on
routes of exposure are not only essential for
gauging ecological effects but are also
important in estimating human exposures. We
will identify the important exposure routes for
selected pesticide classes and for their major
uses, and will then develop and validate
techniques for estimating the amounts of
pesticide chemicals that enter these exposure
routes. (Bl, B3, B5)
We also plan to study interactions of
pesticide chemicals with air, water, sediment,
and soil and the action of organisms on the
chemicals. This will support development of
test protocols for evaluating the environmen-
tal transport, transformation, and distribution
of pesticides. We will characterize environ-
mental interactions by determining the role of
environmental factors (e.g., temperature) in
controlling the rates and extent of the trans-
formation. In accomplishing this, we will
address: (1) sorptive processes in soils and
sediments; (2) methods to predict light
scattering and sorption in natural waters; (3)
role of soil and sediment in pesticide chemis-
try; and (4) improved techniques for deter-
mining microbial degradation kinetics of
pesticides in soil, water, and sediments. (B6,
B8.B10)
The degradation of a pesticide in soils is
one of the most important factors in determin-
ing the environmental impacts of that pes-
ticide. However, little is known about how
pesticides are affected by different soil types
in different geographic locations. Degrada-
tion studies, therefore, should investigate the
rate constants of hydrolysis and microbial
degradation in selected soil systems to
provide information that could be extrapo-
lated to any soil system. (B9)
We are also concerned with the new
pesticides such as growth regulators, juvenile
hormones, and slow-release pesticides, that
are coming into use. Transport and fate of
such pesticides must be fully understood,
since improper use could adversely affect
beneficial organisms. (B7)
To comprehend the many simultaneous
transformation processes of specific pes-
ticides in marine, fresh-water, estuarine, and
soil systems, we will construct controlled
laboratory ecosystem models to test transfor-
mations. Semicontrolled field studies in
outdoor natural settings will help validate our
findings. We will construct and refine models
that predict pesticide behavior until they
attain the appropriate degree of utility,
confidence, and reliability. (B9)
Biological transformation can be studied
by determining the metabolism, rate paramet-
ers, and kinetics of detoxification in exper-
imental animals. We will, therefore, develop
mathematical models to predict the phar-
136
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macodynamics of pesticides as a function of
structures and classes of pesticides. Such
studies will also provide information about
the fate, distribution, and accumulation of
pesticides in organisms and tissues, and about
the mechanism of action of pesticides.
We will also develop models to predict
exposures of humans and other species to
pesticides in the food chain. To develop such
models, the following data are necessary:
bioaccumulation characteristics, environ-
mental process parameters, use patterns,
physical/chemical properties of the pes-
ticides, and input or loading of pesticides.
(B3, B7)
Technology is being developed for inte-
grating and analyzing pesticide data to
estimate environmental exposure. The tech-
niques will be consistent with those for
non-pesticide toxic substances. (B7)
Adverse Effects from
Pesticides
Health effects. There is a need for close
coordination between exposure research and
effects research to define the degree of hazard
posed by exposure to a pesticide. For many
pesticides, pesticide by-products, metabo-
lites, and biotransformation products, exper-
imental methods can now detect very low
levels of chemicals.
Basic effects research involves study of the
effect of pesticides on persons having been
exposed to them. The studies with experi-
mental animal models, selected to provide
maximum information on hazards to man,
will use both acute and chronic dosing for
oral, dermal, and respiratory routes of
exposure. (Cl)
In addition to information on lethality and
signs of intoxication, we will collect informa-
tion on biochemical effects,including en-
zymes and gross histopathology. Special
studies will include determining teratogenic-
ity, mutagenicity, and carcinogenicity. We
will emphasize development of improved
protocols to provide more sensitive and more
efficient testing methods than those now
available. (C3)
In all of these effects studies, we will
emphasize the correlation of any observed
adverse effect with a known dosage level of
pesticide or, where possible, with the level of
a parent compound or its metabolite(s) in
urine, blood, or body tissue. Because true
doses to people are almost never known, such
excretory or storage levels often provide the
only means with which to compare the toxic
level of an animal model with the actual
exposure level in man. Also, damage to
Damage to human
tissues at early stages is
difficult to measure.
human tissues at early stages is difficult to
measure, but excretory and tissue levels can
be measured. When these levels are compared
with the tissue levels and tissue damages in
animals that have resulted from known
exposure, more reliable extrapolations of
both exposure and damage to humans may be
made.
Biological control agents are a special
problem, since their potential hazard is not
confined to the effects of the pesticides
themselves, but involves, among other
things,'the possibility of mutation, biotrans-
formation, or other change that could convert
an insect toxicant into a mammalian toxicant.
Since traditional toxicological methods are
not adequate to assess the potential hazard of
biological materials, such as insect viruses,
bacteria, and hormones, standardized pro-
tocols must be developed to provide adequate
and safe testing procedures for potental
registrants who will develop new mate-
rials. (C6)
We will emphasize studies designed to
provide improved methods for extrapolating
animal test data to man, particularly in the
area of mutagenesis. Research will include
attempts to develop improved experimental
animal models as well as procedures designed
to yield more valid and meaningful mathemat-
ical models that can convert animal data to
data applicable to humans. (C3, C5)
Environmental effects. There is no single
toxicity test that can measure the effects of
137
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pesticide exposure on organisms, popula-
tions, and ecosystems. We will, therefore,
develop protocols that include a tier system of
biological testing to evaluate the effect or
potential effect of pesticides on the environ-
ment. These tests must be developed in such a
way that the resulting protocol can be trans-
formed to data requirements for industry.
(CIO, Cll) We will concentrate on:
• techniques and protocols to measure the
acute, chronic, and "no-effect" levels,
and ecosystem effects from realistic
pesticide exposures;
• techniques for studying mechanisms of
mutagenic, teratogenic, and car-
cinogenic effects of pesticides on sensi-
tive organisms, and
• techniques for evaluating effects of
biological control agents (such as juve-
nile hormones and viruses) on non-target
terrestrial, fresh-water and marine or-
ganisms.
At present, the major criteria used to assess
the risks or potential impact of a given
chemical or pollutant complex are death and
sublethal effects revealed by relatively
short-term toxicity tests. These criteria,
however, lead to laboratory results that may
not predict subtle, long-term, or even acute
effects in the actual environment. Despite
their drawbacks, the criteria of death of test
organisms and sublethal effects of pollutants
(resulting from controlled laboratory expo-
sure of test organisms to known concentration
Understanding these
basic mechanisms may
enhance predictions of
effects and impacts.
of pollutants) are the best available ap-
proaches to predicting the impact of pollut-
ants, and, therefore, the best basis for
formulating environmental quality standards.
Another research approach attempts to
improve the predictive basis for the regulation
of specific pollutants. This approach involves
investigation of basic molecular, biochemi-
cal, physiological, cellular, and pathological
mechanisms through which specific pollutant
agents cause damage or elicit toxic responses
in organisms (from microbes to man). Under-
This research approach
should not replace
existing standard assay
methods.
standing these basic mechanisms may en-
hance predictions of effects and impacts of
toxicants on organisms. Many examples in
modern toxicology and pathobiology have
shown how partial or complete elucidation of
a basic mechanism of toxicity for specific
toxicants has led to realistic predictions of an
effect, control, or regulation, and a remedy
for the exposed organism, e.g., organophos-
phate poisoning.
The objective of this investigative ap-
proach is to gain a complete understanding of
how and why pollutants damage organisms.
Partial understanding of the mechanisms,
however, can be useful as well (i.e., an
understanding of the nature of damage at the
cell level, but not at the molecular level, may
serve a useful prupose). This research ap-
proach should not replace existing standard
assay methods, but should better explain the
results obtained by those methods, as well as
predict long-term effects that are not revealed
by the standard empirical approach.
Integrated Pest Management (IPM).
During the past several years, a conscious
effort to develop and demonstrate effective
strategies to manage pests had been made.
Since such strategies need to be based on
sound biological, ecological, environmental
and economic information, the IPM program
is designed to couple ecological and biologi-
cal information with economically acceptable
practices to keep the pest populations at levels
that do not cause economic hardship to food
138
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producers or urban dwellers. The program is
fully coordinated with the U.S. Department
of Agriculture (USDA).
The goal of our IPM research is to combine
non-chemical and chemical controls to reduce
pesticide use while maintaining food and fiber
production and quality. Information about
IPM control strategies and techniques will be
distributed to agricultural and urban users by
the extension service of the USDA and
through trade publications, consultants, and
technical and professional societies.
While researching pest management, we
will continue to study individual crop ecosys-
tems. Every crop has its own special set of
research needs and its own unique pest
management problems. Crops that are most
Every crop has its own
special set of research
needs.
extensively grown and that require heavy
pesticide use will receive the major research
effort. Crops that are being studied include
cotton, alfalfa, soybeans, apples, rice, and
corn. Some insect/multicrop interactions
have also been studied in this program.
Major insect pests will be indentified for
intensive study first. Then, for each crop,
insect population dynamics and biological
and ecological influences will be carefully
determined, and their interactions with the
plant community identified. The effects of
natural field control mechanisms such as
predators, temperature, moisture, and dis-
eases will also be identified and studied. The
research information will then be incorpo-
rated into mathematical models so that control
techniques and control strategies may be
developed for a range of situations in each
crop system. (Dl through D5)
Since the use of pesticides within and
around homes and urban work places is a
continuing concern, especially when people
are unaware of potential dangers from close
proximity to hazardous pesticide compounds,
we will investigate possible alternative
controls for pests found in and around urban
structures. Improved sanitation in conjunc-
tion with trapping and the use of predator
insects, animals, and birds is the present
emphasis of the program. Information will
also be gathered on pesticide-use practices
and social attitudes regarding pests and pest
management in urban situations.
Quality Assurance
for Pesticide
Measurements
EPA uses the best available measurement
methodologies to determine pesticide expo-
sures, monitor environmental and human
pesticide burdens, and assess pesticide
effects. Data that results from the mea-
surements are used in decision-making and
therefore their precision and accuracy must be
acceptable to all parties affected by EPA's
decisions. A quality assurance program
provides measurement systems of verified
performance characteristics and quality
control mechanisms that assure continual
operation of the measurement systems within
verified performance limits.
A repository of pesticide chemicals of
Major insect pests will
be identified for
intensive study first.
known purity is maintained to supply analysts
with suitable reference and calibration mate-
rials. Pesticide chemicals incorporated into a
variety of environmental materials (biological
tissues, soil, or water) also serve as reference
samples for maintaining the satisfactory
performance of measurement systems. Ana-
lytical supplies, rigorously examined for
compliance with quality control specifi-
cations, are furnished to help the national
monitoring network develop comparable
data on human and environmental pesticide
residues.
139
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PESTICIDES RESEARCH PLAN
PROGRAM AREA FISCAL YEAR 1980 FISCAL YEAR 1981 FISCAL YEAR 1982 FISCAL YEAR 1983
FISCAL YEAR 1984
Populations at risk
Technical assistance in
measuring human en-
vironmental exposures Al
continuing
Studies of specific uses of
pesticides in agriculture,
homes and gardens to
evaluate human exposure
potential A2
Complete field study
assessing fate and effects
of pesticides in an orchard
eco-system A3
Complete studies of
natural ecosystems to
determine survival,
growth, reproduction and
gross pathological
changes in community
structure and test or-
ganisms A4
Determining routes of
exposure
Estimates of environmen-
tal exposures for high
interest pesticides,
selected by OPP, under
various hypothetical ag-
ricultural application re-
gimes Bl
continuing
Assist in developing
guidelines for estimating
pesticide exposures of
various occupationally
and environmentally ex-
posed groups for use by
registrants B2
Analytical technology for
evaluating human expo-
sure to biological agents
for controlling pests B3
Improve protocols for
testing pesticide transfor-
mations in water B6
Evaluate the effectiveness
of selected protective
equipment in reducing
pesticide exposures B4
New validated
methodologies for deter-
mining human exposure to
pesticides through dermal
and inhalation routes B5
Improve methodologigies
for multi-media estimates
of pesticide exposures.
-------
PROGRAM AREA FISCAL YEAR 1980
FISCAL YEAR 1981
FISCAL YEAR 1982
FISCAL YEAR 1983
FISCAL YEAR 1984
Improve test protocols for
transport and fate of
pesticides in marine and
coastal waters.
Adverse effects of
pesticides
a) Health effects
Toxicological and chemi-
cal scientific data to
support regulatory efforts
Cl
continuing
Improve validated analyti-
cal methods and good
laboratory practices for
detecting and measuring
pesticides whose health
effects are to be deter-
mined C2
Improve methods for
assessing pesticide expo-
sures in terrestrial envi-
ronments
Improve protocols for
testing leaching of pes-
ticides in soils
Quantified health effects
of generic chemical pes-
ticides now registered. C4
New toxicological
methodology for evaluat-
ing the effects of biologi-
cal pest control agents C3
Evaluate health effects of
biological control agents
C6
Validate short-term bioas-
say testing program for
estimating genetic or
long-term toxicologic re-
sponses to pesticides C5
b) Environmental
effects
Test results of acute and
chronic toxicity of pes-
ticides to aquatic and
estuarine organisms C7
continuing
Data on the effects of
encapsulated pesticides on
test organisms C8
Data on the toxicological
impact and bioaccumula-
tion of wood preservatives
in terrestrial ecosystems
C9
Methodology for studying
and data on subacute,
chronic and reproductive
impact of ingested pes-
ticides in avian species
Cll
Microcosm methodology
for determining the fate
and effects of pesticides in
terrestrial ecosystems C12
New or improved methods
for determining acute and
chronic effects of pes-
ticides on marine or-
ganisms and ecosystems
C13
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PESTICIDES RESEARCH PLAN
PROGRAM AREA FISCAL YEAR 1980
FISCAL YEAR 1981 FISCAL YEAR 1982
FISCAL YEAR 1983 FISCAL YEAR 1984
New or improved methods
for determining acute and
chronic effects of pes-
ticides on marine or-
ganisms and ecosystems
CIO
c) Integrated pest
management
Publish strategies and
tactics of insect pest
control for pome and stone
fruits, alfalfa, cotton, pine
bark beetles, soybeans and
citrus Dl
IPM tactics for control of
musk thistle D2
IPM tactics for control of
soil anthropods in com D3
Demonstrate regional
multi-crop IPM strategy
with determination of
environmental risks and
bnefits D4
Interim results of 15
university IPM projects on
soybeans, and apples D5
Quality Assurance
for Pesticide
Measurements
Analytical support to
national epidemiological
monitoring activities El
Maintain and upgrade
repository of pesticide
calibration materials E2
continuing
Complete performance
evaluations of analytical
procedures for alkyl-
phosphate in urine and
toxaphene in soil E3
New special pesticide
reference materials for
alkyphosphate in urine and
toxaphene in human tissue
and soil E4
continuing
-------
NONIONIZING RADIATION
We are exposed to an increasing
number of radiofrequency sources*
EPA is examining potential biological
effects of prolonged exposure to this
type of radiation*
143
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Nonionizing radiation, NIR, is a general
term to describe electromagnetic energy
radiated at wavelengths longer than ul-
traviolet light. The NIR spectrum includes
visible light, infrared rays, radio frequencies
(RF), and the low frequencies used for
electric power transmission and distribution.
Our present concern is with nonionizing
radiation at frequencies from 1 to 101S Hertz
(Hz), especially the VHP and microwave
frequencies, which fall into the 300 to
300,000 MHz range. Such frequencies are
emitted by a variety of sources. Every day we
are exposed to broadcast TV, radio waves,
and radiations from such commonplace items
as walkie-talkies, radio-telephones, CB's,
traffic radars and microwave ovens. Less
apparent but equally as pervasive are sources
that include tracking and weather radar
systems, satellite communications systems,
medical diathermy units, industrial RF heat
sealers and high voltage power lines. Public
exposure to RF radiation will increase in the
Public exposure to RF
radiation will increase in
the future.
future, not only from the expanded use of
existing sources but also from new sources
such as a potential space-based electric power
supply system capable of transmitting solar
power to earth via microwaves.
In recent years, there has been increasing
public interest in the potential biological
effects of RF radiation. Congressional hear-
ings on radiation health and safety, inquiries
into the irradiation of the U.S. Embassy in
Moscow, and challenges to the construction
of high voltage power lines all point to a
growing general concern over the effects of
nonionizing radiation exposure.
RF energy reaching an organism is mea-
sured by power densities. Power densities are
expressed as the number of milliwatts on an
area of one centimeter squared (mW/cm2).
Scientists agree that for frequencies above 10
megahertz power densities exceeding 100
mW/cm2 are likely to cause adverse human
effects such as cataracts. Currently, the
heating of body tissue is the only mechanism
that can explain most of the effects resulting
from high-level RF exposure. Other research
Densities exceeding 100
mW/cm2 are likely to
cause adverse human
effects.
points to the possibility that some of the
effects associated with chronic, low-level
exposure to RF radiation, however, may
result from nonthermal mechanisms.
Based upon the thermal mechanism, the
American National Standards Institute
(ANSI), a public organization concerned with
worker safety, decided that there should be a
limit on the power density to which a worker
may be exposed. In 1966, this group recom-
mended a voluntary guideline of 10 mW/cm2
based upon estimated rises in tissue tempera-
ture from microwave radiation. Soviet and
East European scientists, however, have set
far more stringent occupational standards
based on alleged low-level effects. The Soviet
standard, for example, is currently about 10
/uW/cm2 (microwatts per cm2) depending
upon the frequency, 1,000 times lower than
the level recommended by ANSI. Still, a
recent EPA study calculated that 99% of the
U.S. population is continuously exposed to
lower levels of RF radiation than even that
which is allowed by the Soviet standard. Even
the RF levels generated by FM radio and UHF
TV transmitters, the most significant U.S.
sources of radio frequency radiation emitted
into the general environment, are relatively
low except at locations very near to the
source's antenna.
Recent results from EPA and other U.S.
144
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research into RF radiation are beginning to
demonstrate the need for far greater eaution
than we have previously thought necessary.
These findings indicate that at relatively low
levels, chronic exposures to RF radiation can
produce a variety of effects in laboratory
animals. Morphologic changes in brain
tissue, immunological and behavioral
changes and blood chemistry effects have
been observed in animals exposed to frequen-
cies of 425, 918, and 2450 MHz at a variety of
power densities at or below 10 mW/cm2.
Recent experiments studied the interactive
effects between microwaves and a commonly
used tranquilizer. It was demonstrated that the
behavior of rats was modified when they were
exposed to an average power density of 1
mW/cnr at 2450 MHz while under the
influence of the tranquilizer. However, no
behavior change was noticed in rats exposed
to either the microwaves or the drug alone.
Hematological and morphological changes
have been reported in the spleen and thymus
of mice exposed to pulsed microwaves (3105
MHz). Immunological changes have been
observed in test animals at 5 mW/em:, with
yet other studies demonstrating the increased
release of calcium from the brain resulting
from exposures to amplitude modulated (AM)
147 MHz radiation at 0.8 mW/cm:. Calcium
is important to the brain in that it helps exert
control over the nervous system.
These results all combine to suggest that at
certain frequencies the 10 mW/cm: standard
PROJECTED!
4000
3000
2000
1000
TRANSMITTERS
& BOOSTERS
IMS
So«m: HKIroaksladusWol Association, ElKIrontc M»rktl IM« Book, 1977.
145
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does not provide an adequate safety margin,
and today ANSI is proposing to lower the
standard to 1 mW/cm2 in the frequency range
for human resonance (30-300 MHz), i.e., the
range within which man absorbs the
maximum energy.
Although OSHA has endorsed the ANSI
voluntary standard, there is at present no
legally enforceable occupational or environ-
mental exposure standard. Only the Depart-
ment of Defense, on its own initiative, has
prescribed the ANSI standard for its person-
nel. Recently, however, OSHA began its
process to develop an occupational exposure
standard. Similarly, EPA's Office of Radia-
tion Programs has announced its intention to
develop environmental RF radiation guidance
for the general public by 1981.
EPA needs scientifically sound data to
support this planned environmental guidance.
Ultimately a full assessment of the health
risks posed by continuous low level exposure
to RF radiation must be made before definit-
ive guidance can be given. However, this is a
long-term prospect, and the interim guidance,
scheduled for development in 1981, will be
derived from a less than complete data base.
In the near term, our multidisciplinary
research program is designed to provide EPA
and other concerned federal agencies with an
understanding of the following:
• biological effects of prolonged exposure
to environmentally significant frequen-
cies—such as FM and UHF-TV frequen-
cies (A 1 through A7)
• mechanisms of interaction between NIR
and biological systems (Bl through B9)
• potential effects in exposed human
populations as determined by
epidemiological and clinical studies (Cl
through C4).
Biological Effects
The primary NIR health effects research
objective is to demonstrate the existence of
reproducible biological effects and to estab-
lish dose-response models. To identify the
health effects of exposures to environmen-
tally significant RF radiation, we will conduct
interdisciplinary studies of prolonged expo-
sures to low-level radiation (A-l, A3, A5,
A6). Such studies will examine the behav-
ioral, immunologic, hematologic, physio-
logic, reproductive, genetic and teratogenic
consequences of prolonged pre- and postnatal
exposure to include multigenerational expo-
sures. This research will be aided by im-
proved dosimetric analyses employing infra-
red thermography and by computer modeling
of thermal energy distribution in the human
body (Bl). Effects from pulsed (radar)
radiation versus continuous wave (broadcast)
radiation will also be examined (A2).
To interpret how effects in animals may
relate to this health risk posed to man, we
We need the tools and
methods to detect and
monitor subtle changes.
need the tools and methods to detect and
monitor subtle changes. On the theory that RF
exposure may manifest itself as a low level
stressor, we plan to develop indices for
evaluating the degree of stress induced by RF
exposure (B6). We will also try to determine
how temperature, humidity and other physi-
cal factors such as amplitude-modulation
interact with microwaves to produce synergis-
tic effects (A4, A7, B8). Recent studies have
indicated that the operant behavioral perfor-
mance rates in rodents decrease markedly
when slightly elevated air temperatures are
combined with RF radiation at power densi-
ties of 5 to 15 mW/cm2. Primate studies will
attempt to replicate these findings (A4).
Mechanisms of
Interaction
To direct efficient experimental investiga-
tions it is important to know how NIR
interacts biophysically and biochemically
with living systems. Such an understanding is
also essential for making valid assessments of
potential NIR hazards. Therefore, a major
emphasis of our work over the next five years
will be directed toward identifying the
mechanisms by which NIR interacts with
146
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biological systems, to include determinations
of how NIR may damage cell membranes or
cell biopolymers (e.g., enzymes and proteins)
(B2, B3, B4).
For biological tissue to show any effect it
must absorb energy from NIR. To determine
the relationship between NIR frequency and
such energy deposition in tissue, we are
scanning a range of frequencies from 250 to
8000 MHz to examine how they interact with
cellular and subcellular systems (B5, B9).
Results from this continuing effort will assist
in identifying those discrete frequencies that
may produce biological effects. This will
subsequently help us in establishing the focus
of future animal studies (B7).
We know that nonionizing energy is not
absorbed uniformly by biological systems;
rather, it is distributed in patterns of concen-
trated energy termed "hot spots." The
physiological significance of ' 'hot spots'' in
critical tissues will be examined by exposing
rodents and monkeys to chronic, low-level
NIR and studying their physiological, behav-
ioral and thermoregulatory responses (B6).
The central nervous system has been
identified as a prime target for the effects of
NIR. Further central nervous system research
will be concerned with the effects of NIR on
Nonionizing energy is
not absorbed uniformly
by biological systems.
the energy production and metabolism of the
brain, and on the interaction of NIR with
neural membranes (B3). We will continue to
be concerned with extremely low frequency
AM exposures which have been found to be
effective in inducing the loss of calcium from
brain tissue (B8).
Human Studies
Our primary concern is with the effects of
human exposure to NIR at very low levels.
Epidemiological and clinical studies will be
conducted to determine the effects of RF
radiation exposure in human populations. A
study in Portland, Oregon, to be completed in
1980 (C2), will provide information about the
possible correlations that exist between
cancer incidence and current urban, ambient
RF densities. A study of men exposed to radar
Human studies research
will increase in this
program over the next 5
years.
during World War II will provide insights into
the association between the prolonged expo-
sure to pulsed, microwave radiation and its
long-term effects, particularly as they relate
to longevity and cause of death (C3).
It is anticipated that human studies research
will increase in this program over the next 5
years. Prior to further epidemiological work,
however, we must identify and characterize
potential study populations for their suitabil-
ity for follow-up and the availability of
exposure estimates (Cl). When we have this
information, we will be ready to more
confidently conduct epidemiological and
clinical investigations (C4).
Coordination
Although our research program is planned
primarily to support the specific regulatory
needs of EPA, there are a number of research
areas and needs common to all involved
federal agencies. EPA is an active participant
in several bi- and multi-agency activities.
Among these is the Interagency Regulatory
Liaison Group (IRLG). This Group, com-
prised of EPA, FDA, OSHA, and CPSC is
charged with coordinating the regulatory and
research activities of those agencies with
potentially overlapping authority. The
Radiofrequency Microwave Committee of
IRLG is composed of representatives from
EPA, FDA, and OSHA with observers from
FCC and NIOSH. The National Telecom-
munications and Information Administration,
147
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with the assistance of EPA and other federal
agencies, is working to design a govern-
ment-wide research program in nonionizing
radiation health effects. This BENER
(Biological Effects of Nonionizing Elec-
tromagnetic Radiation) task force has devel-
oped a set of seven research objectives
common to all federal agency programs.
These are to:
• determine population exposure;
• determine energy absorbed;
• determine the biological consequences
of exposures;
• develop instrumentation and exposure
measurement systems;
• conduct risk assessments;
• conduct impact assessments; and
• recommend control measures.
These objectives provide a framework within
which EPA-specific research can be devel-
oped, and it is expected that their fulfillment
will lead to a sounder basis for regulatory
decisions. EPA is also closely associated with
DOE, both as manager of the Satellite Power
System Microwave Health and Ecology
Program, and as a member of the Interagency
Group on High Voltage Transmission Lines.
PROJECTED INCREASES IN SAFETY AND
SPECIAL RADIO SERVICES
Industrial
Land
Transpor-
tation
1972
1974
1976
1978 1980
Year
1982
1984
1986
(Primarily Medium Power Base Stations But Includes Ships and Aircraft:
Low Power Mobile Transmitters Generally Not Included)
Source: Electronic Industries Association, Electronic Market Data Book, 1977
148
-------
NON-IONIZING RADIATION RESEARCH PLAN
PROGRAM AREA FISCAL YEAR 1980 FISCAL YEAR 1981 FISCAL YEAR 1982 FISCAL YEAR 1983
FISCAL YEAR 1984
Long Term Low Level
Exposure Studies
Biological Effects
Mechanisms of
Interaction
Human Studies
Health effects results from
tests on rats chronically
exposed to 915 MHz Al
Relative immunologic ef-
fectiveness of pulsed
versus CW radiation at
VHF-TV frequencies A2
Internal temperature pro-
file in exposed animals Bl
Determine the effects of
radio frequencies on bio-
polymers using the spec-
trophotometric technique
62
Effects of RF radiation on
neuronal membrane B3
Identify and characterize
potential study popula-
tions Cl
Findings on the frequency
with which tumors occur-
red for high and low ratio
emission densities in the
Portland, Oregon area C2
Identify the dominant
lethal/mutagenic effects in
rats of continuous pro-
longed exposure to 915
MHz A3
Findings on the influence
of temperature and
humidity of operant and
spontaneous behavior of
rodents and primates of
FM frequencies A4
Effects of intrauterine and
postnatal exposure to 2450
MHz on infant mortality in
squirrel monkeys AS
Determine the effects of
RF membranes using the
fluorometric technique B4
Determine absorption
spectra of molecular,
cellular and tissue samples
exposed to frequencies
ranging from 250 to 8000
MHzBS
Evaluate the Selye Syn-
drome aspects of exposure
B6
Effects of exposure to
radar during World War II
C3
Pathology results from
lifetime exposures of mice
of 2450 MHz A6
Results from simultaneous
FM and UHF-TV fre-
quency exposure of ro-
dents A7
Identify the range of
power levels at which
biological effects occur B7
Determine the range of
AM frequencies at which
biolobical effects occur B8
Determine the biological
absorption potential of
frequencies in the 25-8000
MHz range (continuing)
tie to bioeffects B9
Clinical investigations of
persons prior to and during
occupational exposure C4
-------
NOISE RESEARCH
Noise surrounds us* EPA is studying
possible health effects from noise and
is developing methods to diminish
the general din*
150
-------
Recent data demonstrates that a substantial
number of Americans are exposed to levels of
aircraft and road noise well in excess of the
L*dn = 55dB identified by EPA as the level
necessary to protect the public health and
welfare. Today, over 100 million Americans
are exposed to traffic noise of Ldn = 55dB or
greater, and over 20 million are exposed to
Ldn = 65dB or greater. It is estimated that
approximately 40 million Americans are
exposed to aircraft noise of Ldn = 55dB or
greater and 5 million to Ldn = 65dB or
greater.
These figures represent a marked increase
in the number of Americans exposed to
various noise levels in the last ten years. Over
the last two decades, there have been signifi-
Over the last two
decades, there have been
significant increases in
the number of noise
sources.
cant increases in the number of noise sources.
There are more cars, trucks, motorcycles, and
other vehicles on our highways than ever
before. There are more office typewriters,
more houses equipped with air conditioners
and noise producing "labor-savers," and
more industrial plants.
In EPA's 1976 Urban Noise Survey, it was
found that generally, no one noise source
stood out in peoples' minds. Rather, in areas
away from the direct impact of freeway or
aircraft noise, most people thought of com-
munity noise as a general din, made up of
many sources rather than one or two. But
when noise sources were cited by those
surveyed, vehicle noise sources were most
often mentioned, particularly motorcycles,
*Ldn, known as the day-night sound level, is a 24-hour
measure of noise weighted to consider certain annoying
frequencies (A-weights) and noises that occur during
nighttime quiet.
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
APARTMENT NEXT TO
FREEWAY
3/4 MILE FROM TOUCH-
DOWN AT MAJOR
AIRPORT
^DOWNTOWN WITH
SOME CONSTRUCTION
ACTIVITY
DURBAN HIGH DENSITY
APARTMENT
DURBAN ROW HOUSING
ON MAJOR AVENUE
O)LD URBAN
RESIDENTIAL AREA
•WOODED RESIDENTIAL
AGRICULTURAL
"CROP LAND
-RURAL RESIDENTIAL
-WILDERNESS AMBIENT
EXAMPLES OF OUTDOOR
DAY-NIGHT AVERAGE
SOUND LEVELS IN dB
MEASURED AT VARIOUS
LOCATIONS.
large trucks and cars. In the immediate
vicinity of airports, aircraft noise was the
major complaint.
Although certain noise sources are per-
ceived as more annoying than others, it is the
combination of the total number of sources
that determines an environment's noise level.
Mission
EPA has a mandate to protect the popula-
tion from noise pollution that may jeopardize
public health and welfare. The Noise Control
Act of 1972, as amended by the "Quiet
151
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24% NOISE
14% HEAVY TRAFFIC
STREET REPAIR
STREET LIGHTING
CRIME
COMMERCIAL & INDUS-
TRIAL DEVELOPMENT
LITTER
DETERIORATING HOUSING
ODOR
ABANDONED BUILDINGS
UNDESIRABLE NEIGHBORHOOD CONDITIONS:
UNITED STATES COMPARATIVE RANKINGS. 1976
Communities Act of 1978" (PL 95-609),
stipulates that specific and increased knowl-
edge concerning the effects of noise on people
is essential for EPA to carry out this mission.
Specifically, EPA is authorized to:
• Coordinate all federal agencies' pro-
grams that relate to noise research and
noise control;
• Establish federal noise emission stan-
dards for commercial products;
• Assist communities in developing and
implementing a noise control program;
• Provide information to the public regard-
ing the hazardous effects of noise and the
noise levels associated with such effects.
Over the past few years EPA has gained
extensive experience in monitoring, coor-
dinating and conducting research on noise
effects and noise control. This research has
been primarily for and with other federal
agencies.
The EPA noise research program, adminis-
tered by the Office of Air, Noise and Radia-
tion, is designed to:
• Improve the health and welfare noise
data base, refine existing criteria, and
develop quantified non-auditory dose/
response criteria;
• Fill in research gaps and deficiencies to
obtain a thorough understanding of the
health implications of noise, and to
assure that health benefits can be prop-
erly ascribed to all noise control actions
taken on federal, state, and local levels;
• Develop noise control methods and
technologies.
In general, noise has several effects:
• Direct effects on the auditory system;
• Indirect effects on health (non-auditory);
• Effects on social well-being and eco-
nomic factors such as productivity;
• Effects on the overall quality of life.
Noise abatement would result in reductions
of hearing loss, reductions of non-auditory
health effects, decreases in speech inter-
ference, and decreases in sleep disruption. It
would increase learning by children living or
studying in a setting with high noise levels,
152
-------
300
100
10
0.1
0.01
ESTIMATED
RURAL
AREAS
TOTAL
AIRCRAFT
INCREMENT
URBAN NOISE
FREEWAY
INCREMENT
20 30
RESIDENTIAL NOISE ENVIRONMENT OF THE
NATIONAL POPULATION AS A FUNCTION OF EXTERIOR
DAY-NIGHT AVERAGE SOUND LEVEL.
increase worker productivity, and, to some
extent, it would lessen incidents of social
disruption. Also, the reduction of noise could
be expected to reduce people's general
annoyance levels and, thus increase the
subjective well-being. In short, noise abate-
ment would enhance the quality of life.
Current State of Health Effects Informa-
tion and Criteria. The effects of noise on
learning, work performance and productivity,
and social behavior are relatively well-
documented, and dose-response relationships
can be developed in the near future. Limited
dose-response effects criteria are already
available for noise-induced hearing loss,
speech communication interference, commu-
nity annoyance, and sleep disturbance. These
relationships and criteria are not static
however, and a substantial portion of the
current EPA research program is directed at
their refinement.
Use of Health Effects Information and
Criteria. Adequate health effects informa-
tion and criteria form the bedrock upon which
any environmental regulatory program
stands. For noise, emissions limits will be set
only after careful consideration of such
information, and only after careful examina-
153
-------
tion of related dose-response criteria. In its
noise research program EPA puts this health
effects information and criteria to four basic
uses:
• To support EPA product regulations and
labeling action;
• As an essential rationale for the devel-
opment of community noise control
programs;
• To develop a concise, accurate up-to-
date public information program de-
signed to communicate the possible
health and welfare effects of noise
exposure;
• To provide support to other federal
agencies in implementing their pro-
grams.
Health Effects Research
The most widely researched, best docu-
mented effects of noise relate to hearing loss,
the most prevalent occupationally-induced
disease. (Al) Non-auditory health effects
however, have not been well-researched in
the United States. While the annoyance
effects of exposure to different levels of noise
is well documented, the underlying
physiological and psychological effects are
still unclear, though it is currently believed
It is currently believed
that noise acts as a
biological stressor.
that noise acts as a biological stressor. As
such, it produces or contributes to effects on
the body that are typical of "stress diseases"
including hypertension, other cardiovascular
ailments, ulcers, migraine headache, etc.
These effects however, have not been thor-
oughly quantified, nor has it been proven
whether they become chronic after protracted
exposure.
Since 1977, EPA, with co-support from
NIH-NIEHS, has been sponsoring primate
research on the consequences of long-term
exposure to "realistic" noise exposures. One
key finding to date indicates a sustained 30%
increase in blood pressure of primates as a
result of exposure to noises similar to those
encountered daily by millions of Americans.
These increases in blood pressure show no
indication of returning to normal levels even
after a full month of post-exposure quiet.
Health effects assessments that indicate
that special emphasis should be placed on
research on parts of the body other than the ear
were completed in 1979 by a Federal Agency
Noise Effects Research Panel, the National
Academy of Sciences' Committee on Hearing
and Bioacoustics, and the International
Commission on the Biological Effects of
Noise. This non-auditory research is needed
to expand the existing cardiovascular lit-
erature (primarily Eastern European) which,
while strongly suggesting an association
between high noise exposure and hyperten-
sion, falls short of actually demonstrating a
cause-effect relationship. The program will
thus address those areas where there already is
some evidence that long-term exposure may
result in damaging effects. (A2, A3, A4)
Included are studies of:
• Noise as a possible factor in cardiovascu-
lar disease;
• Occupational and social noise exposure
to determine whether chronic non-aural
health effects result;
• Special adverse responses to noise in
children —• including cardiovascular
effects, cognitive and social develop-
ment;
• Reproductive and fetal effects of noise
exposures in women;
• Endocrinological and immunological
effects;
• Adverse health effects of sleep depriva-
tion and disruption caused by chronic
exposure to noise;
• Interactive effects of other factors with
noise, such as chemical and physical
agents, and other stressors;
• Other studies of highly exposed groups
in the area of stress related morbidity;
• Human response to aversive noise expo-
sures.
The results obtained from these studies
conducted over a period of years should
154
-------
enhance our health and welfare data base and
help generate criteria to better assess noise
control measures and their alternatives.
By 1985 other noise effects and human
response criteria will also be generated and/or
refined for other body systems, for reproduc-
tion, for children, for sleep interference, and
for general health consequences.
Noise Control Technology
A fundamental understanding of the source
of machinery and construction equipment
noise, surface transportation noise, and
aviation noise exists. However, in many
situations it has been impossible for industry
to introduce quiet machinery because such
equipment does not exist. In addition, noise
control methods must still allow equipment to
meet high productivity requirements.
Many of the principal sources of noise
associated with surface transportation vehi-
cles (e.g., diesel engines, tire-roadway
interaction, and wheel-rail interaction) are
common to many classes of vehicles. Thus,
the ability to significantly reduce the noise
from these few principal sources would result
in reductions of a great many specific noise
sources.
Past technology has enabled the aircraft
industry to make major gains in reducing
Improved noise control
technology must be
developed and applied to
new automobiles and
trucks.
aircraft noise. Additional gains can be
expected with the application of present
technology. If still greater progress is to be
achieved in the future, however, more must
be understood about the precise nature of such
noise.
Surface Transportation Noise. Recent
studies by the U.S. Department of Transpor-
tation and EPA have indicated that unless
remedial action is taken, the population
exposure to environmental noise due to
surface vehicles will increase substantially.
To stave off potential community noise
control actions as has been experienced at
airports—for example, the curfews, limited
operations, and use restrictions—-improved
noise control technology must be developed
and applied to new automobiles and trucks.
The EPA highway noise research, devel-
opment and demonstration program, involves
the near-term development and testing of
noise control methods in internal combustion
reciprocating engines (B6), and in medium
and heavy duty trucks. (B2, B5, B7)
Another effort will determine whether
reliable methods can be developed to predict
the relative noise contribution from individual
tire design parameters, including materials,
and whether such predictions can be used in
tire design to reduce noise generation without
compromising safety or ride characteristics.
(B3, B4)
Aviation Noise Research. Today, more
than 60% of the total federal funding in noise
research has been for programs aimed at
reducing aircraft-generated noise. In the past,
significant reductions in aviation noise were
accomplished through the introduction of the
high bypass ratio turbofan engines and duct
acoustic liners to suppress fan tones. Future
progress in aviation noise reduction, how-
ever, will be more difficult to achieve because
no single major source remains. Rather, today
a wide variety of noise sources contribute
relatively equally to total aviation noise.
Thus, research must now be directed at these
noise sources concurrently.
What is known is that the trend of near-term
relief from aviation noise through applica-
tions of previously demonstrated technology
will reverse as the aviation industry grows
unless additional noise control actions are
implemented. These future actions depend
heavily upon current research into such facets
of aviation noise as advanced, quiet, efficient
small propellers for general aviation aircraft.
Machinery Noise. The on-the-job expo-
sure to machinery noise probably affects more
people for longer periods of time, than all
other sources of noise.
To date, modifying existing equipment to
155
-------
respond to near term occupational safety
requirements and hearing conservation pro-
grams has been the principal effort. While
such activity has led to significant noise
reductions for a few isolated pieces of
specialized equipment, reduced levels are still
excessive, particularly in the mining and
industrial environment.
Currently, however, EPA is participating
in a number of joint agency projects underway
at federal facilities. These focus on machinery
noise abatement in industrial environments
(with the U.S. Navy Naval Sea Systems
Command), and measures to reduce noise
exposure in an electical power generating
plant (with the Tennessee Valley Authority).
EPA is also taking part in inter-agency
efforts to investigate methods for reducing
construction site noise from construction
equipment (with the U.S. Army's Construc-
tion Engineering Research Laboratory and the
Federal Highway Administration).
The results of these efforts will be utilized
in preparation of a construction site noise
control handbook to assist federal, state, and
local agencies in their efforts to ameliorate
noise problems arising from public or private
construction activity.
To help identify future industrial ma-
chinery noise abatement research, we have
established three basic study elements:
(1) Technology Assessment - to categorize
and prioritize major noise problems of
industrial machinery and/or processes,
taking into consideration such criteria
as usage commonality across industry
lines and severity of worker exposure
(2) Health and Welfare Assessment - to
develop model(s) for quantifying the
impacts of industrial equipment noise
to determine exposure levels, hearing
loss potential, communication inter-
ference for workers, and other risks in
high noise workplace environments
(3) Economic Assessment - to assess the
costs involved in quieting equipment to
various levels for the industry, or
industries, identified in the technology
assessment element of the program.
Program results will be useful to OSHA,
NIOSH and all others involved in the serious
problem of industrial machinery noise.
Finally, noise reduction in the home is the
subject of a joint EPA program with DOE,
HUD, and NBS. The program will determine
the compatibilty of energy conservation and
noise reduction in home construction and
evaluate low-noise interior environments
which use quiet appliances and quiet heating
and ventilating equipment.
156
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NOISE RESEARCH PLAN
PROGRAM AREA FISCAL YEAR 1980 FISCAL YEAR 1981 FISCAL YEAR 1982 FISCAL YEAR 1983 FISCAL YEAR 1984
Noise induced hearing Longitudinal study on
loss
children Al
Non auditory
physiological effects
Animal studies on car-
diovascular disease A2
continuing
Complete temporary shift
study in children Al
Incidence of hearing loss
in U. S. population Al continuing
Complete study of social
handicap of noise induced
hearing loss Al
continuing
Complete epidemiological Complete retrospective
feasibility sutdy A2
Human studies and clini-
cal investigations (car-
diovascular) A2
epidemiological analysis
A2
continuing
Controlled epidemiologi-
cal study A2
Community response
Complete psychoacoustic Complete study on short Complete study on con-
study of engine brake duration intusive noise A3 struction site noise A3
noise A3
Complete study on night-
time weighting penalty A3
Sleep disturbance
Noise disturbed sleep
health consequences
(animal and human
studies) A4
continuing
-------
cc
NOISE RESEARCH PLAN
PROGRAM AREA FISCAL YEAR 1980
FISCAL YEAR 1981 FISCAL YEAR 1982 FISCAL YEAR 1983 FISCAL YEAR 1984
Control technology
development
Engine technology as-
sessment Bl
Initially evaluate 4 quiet
heavy duty trucks and 3
quiet medium duty trucks
B2
Identify quiet tire/
pavement characteristics
B3
Develop and evaluate
quiet production type tire
and quiet pavement sur-
face B4
Initiate heavy/medium Install and evaluate mod-
duty truck testbed program ified engine in a heavy
B5 duty truck B6
Evaluate experimental
quiet tire B7
-------
ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENT
America can achieve ample energy
production and still maintain
environmental quality* EPA's
research supports these goals*
159
-------
The spiraling cost of imported oil, the
revolution in Iran and the gasoline lines in the
summer of 1979 have intensified efforts to
reduce national dependence on imported oil.
The President has proposed a comprehensive
and aggressive program to reduce this de-
pendence and its deleterious effects on the
nation's security and economy. The program
emphasizes the use of domestic energy
supplies, particularly coal, oil shale, uncon-
ventional natural gas and heavy oil, while
encouraging energy conservation.
Assuming these conservation and produc-
tion initiatives are successfully implemented,
projections of U.S. energy resource require-
ments indicate a massive increase in both coal
mining and utilization as well as major growth
in the use of other fossil fuels. Coal mining in
the United States is projected to increase from
the current 700 million tons annually to 1.4
billion tons in 1990 and 1.9 billion tons in
2000. Although most of this growth is
associated with conventional coal combus-
tion, the production of synthetic liquids and
gases from coal is expected to consume 120
million tons by 1990 and 300 million tons in
2000. To meet energy needs, the next few
Energy resource trends
are moving away from
traditional sources.
years will also probably see the birth of a
major oil shale industry producing up to
400,000 barrels of oil per day in 1990 and 1.2
million barrels per day in 2000.
Energy resource trends are moving away
from such traditional sources as on-shore oil
and gas wells, and toward resources with
higher environmental damage potential: coal
(especially from western surface mining), oil
shale, offshore oil and gas wells, uncon-
ventional natural gas and heavy oil. The
trends also point to the increasing growth in
the use of nuclear energy to generate electric-
ity and indicate an increasing interest in the
use of solar and geothermal energy sources.
With the increased use of the dirtier fossil
fuels, a major threat to human health and
environmental protection is posed. Problems
could potentially emerge at each step in the
fuel cycle—fuel extraction, processing and
use. Increased coal and oil shale mining may,
for example, increase erosion that sub-
sequently creates a runoff that could contami-
nate surface waters. Or, the processing of coal
and oil shale to produce synthetic fuels could
result in the release of emissions and effluents
contaminated with toxic materials. In any
event, despite current regulations, increased
coal combustion will result in the increased
production of particulates, nitrogen oxides,
sulfur oxides and solid wastes.
Major environmental legislation in the last
decade has attempted to reduce environmen-
tal degradation caused by effluents and
emissions from energy and industrial sources.
New and existing energy facilities must all
comply with portions of the Clean Air Act,
the Clean Water Act, the Safe Drinking Water
Act, and the Resource Conservation and
Recovery Act. Generally this legislation
mandates use of effective control technology
to minimize air, water and land pollution. Our
energy research program therefore comple-
ments and supplements our programs to deal
with those forms of pollution (see also the
chapters on Air, Water Quality, and Solid and
Hazardous Waste).
Research Program
EPA's energy and environment research
program is an interagency effort that will
provide the information necessary to develop
scientifically defensible policies that strike
the all-important balance between ample
domestic energy production, reasonable cost
and environmental quality. To achieve this
objective, our interagency program is split
into two major areas of research effort. The
first area is concerned with the health and
environmental effects that stem from major
current and emerging energy processes, while
the second seeks to develop cost effective
pollution control technology. Program em-
phasis over the next five years will be to
generate information that supports establish-
ment and implementation of technology-
based and environmental guidelines and
standards.
160
-------
QUADS OF ENERGY
© Vi 5 Eh O fJ»
COMPONENTS OF DOMESTIC COAL UTILIZATION
(Assumes implementation of President's Import Reduction Program.)
, „ * ,a •jjjjjj"*'"'
.,*,,«, , ( ^
'~'i >•£•*:* (g'j ' '' '.»,4-;
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1975 1990 2000
ELECTRIC UTILITIES
i," •*. \ 1 ' * ','-., : •
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'»"§•/ .-, , ; ,', ' '
y ^i *
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"*\ J> » r">>'< s* , / ,' *'f •
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L*."?'v"fi!^5'>%,'',Vi- V-'' 'j ,", '
^•"iKW''s *$•*•*•" '"^ **' v"") "-
¥^f sS,^ ";vL",/rf-.<'H4' v ~ '
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1975 1990 2000
INDUSTRIAL
fftttftlfl
CM . Combusliim
CK . Cokli
• I.I - l.lqw
•8
faction
iesiiott
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1975 1990 2(KK)
CONVERSION
The overall design of the program allows
for the generation of information to minimize
environmental damage from energy systems,
but management decisions must be made
about which of those systems receives study
priority. We have chosen to focus primarily
on the current and projected coal fuel cycle as
well as the oil shale cycle. Uranium and
off-shore oil and gas extraction operations
will also be studied but to a more limited
extent.
The decision to structure our program in
this fashion was based upon the consideration
that coal and oil shale use over the next fifteen
years will probably grow faster than the use of
other fuel sources with coal expected to be the
dominant fuel employed for electricity
production. Coal will also grow in importance
as a feed stock for synthetic liquids and gases.
In addition, coal and oil shale both demon-
strate the potential for creating major envi-
ronmental problems throughout the fuel
cycle.
Health and
Environmental
Effects Program
The energy health and ecological pro-
gram is an interagency effort under EPA's
direction that seeks to clearly define energy-
related health and environmental problems
and make them the subject of individual or
cooperative research efforts. The agencies
participating in the program and performing
research are, in addition to EPA, the Depart-
ment of Energy, the Department of Agricul-
ture, the Department of the Interior, National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration,
National Aeronautics and Space Administra-
161
-------
DOMESTIC FOSSIL ENERGY
RESOURCE REQUIREMENTS
1975/1990/2000
QUADS OF ENERGY
5 S S £ §
44.8
—
16 1
ES
EU
32.3
ES
EU
.
-
-
^^™
El)
1975 1990 2000
COAL
30.5
27.4
HO
20.4
OF
OS
-
-
1 1
OF
os
-
-
-
1 .
OS
1975 1990 2000
OIL
18.5 18.5
OF OF
OS OS
17.0
-
-
1975 1990
GAS
OF
OS
2000
LEGEND
. ES Eastern Stri
EU Eastern Und
tog
j Mining
er-
ground Mining
" OF Offshore
IS In-Situ
S Surface
* HO Heavy Oil
2.2
0.8
* r~s~h
T^-
1975 1990 2000
OIL SHALE
(Assumes implementation of (he President's Import Reduction Program.)
tion. National Bureau of Standards, National
Institute of Occupational Safety and Health,
National Institute of Environmental Health Sci-
ences, and the Tennessee Valley Authority.
Health Effects
This program seeks to identify and improve
estimates of health impacts from non-nuclear
energy-related pollutants. While some of
these impacts are direct, others may be very
subtle and insidious. In this latter group,
relating specific health effects to specific
causes can be particularly difficult. Thus, the
research performed in the program seeks to
develop and validate the tools, the techniques
and the models necessary to first accurately
identify energy-related pollutants and their
combinations which are health hazards, and
then examine the basic mechanisms involved
as the pollutant interacts with the body to
produce its effect. (A3, A4, A5, A6)
The health effects problems will be studied
by individual agencies or by interagency
teams. The agencies participating in the
energy/health programs are EPA, DOE,
NIEHS, andNIOSH.
Air Pollutants Resulting from Combus-
tion of Fossil Fuels. Criteria pollutants are
those for which health- and environmental-
based ambient standards have been set. All of
these pollutants are generated in significant
quantities by the combustion of fossil fuels.
They include sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides,
suspended particulates, nonmethane hyd-
162
-------
U.S. NON-FOSSIL ENERGY
RESOURCE REQUIREMENTS
1975/1990/2000
15
O
(*
to
z
w
b
O
C/5
Q
10
9.0
1.8
-
~|-
13.3
URANIUM
? 7
3.2
3.2
-^ — r-J
HYDROELECTRIC
SOLAR I
O OTHER
H \ HEYTIN'"1 AMrv
AIR COf
i ip INDUST
HEAT
2.5
Ffc
ii, Jil
0 |TPT| HA|
SOLAR
vlDITIONINO
RIAL PROCESS —
1.1
0.3' •
^ r~ A 1
OTHER
rocarbons, carbon monoxide, and lead. A
great deal of information has been generated
describing the health effects of these sub-
stances; however, our knowledge and under-
standing in this area is constantly expanding,
and as the effects of these pollutants become
more clearly defined, emission and/or am-
bient standards are revised accordingly.
Noncriteria pollutants are those for which
ambient standards have not been generated,
and include many substances known to have
deleterious health effects, such as sulfuric
acid, nitric acid, nitrates, metallic oxides,
other organic and inorganic species — and
more hazardous air pollutants such as heavy
trace metals (except lead), asbestos, cad-
mium, vinyl chloride, and benzene.
The health impacts of these pollutants
range from slight to severe depending on the
level of exposure, the pollutant, the suscepti-
bility of the individual, etc. Such impacts may
be restricted to the present generation, with
damage ranging from temporary, reversible
alterations of physiological function, to acute
organ dysfunction, and to the induction of
cancer. Pollutant agents can also affect the
unborn generation, either directly by action
on the developing fetus or indirectly by
163
-------
SIMPLIFIED U.S. DOMESTIC FUEL FLOW: 1990
;|'RIM \R\ M 1 I .s
l-\ IK \CIION
t ONN I.RMON TRI Al-
MKNI I'KOCI SS
SK'ONOAR^ FlIKI s
IITILITY
ELECTRIC POWER
TRANSMISSION,
TRANSPORT
UTILIZATION OKVK'KS jj
It \NIIM \V_Jj \IUI\K |\
1 . ' ! !>.: I'l'.TROCHEMICALi!
ill.lijlllQUID] UHS, ' | J! ~"-~ ,
': iiR1"!"!!'1','! !'l ii'' ' "f'i! 'i'1; ; '"i1'1; i~nn~iii"i'j!i"it;i!"i"i'
ll^,, ,,| • 11'' ,| 'V T » i •''I'..-,'!M 'ji'iii .,- (iifi^LjL
Urn1,!1!!' ll i1 ,ii V , ,'|[ El ^ 11 /f
I it . J Ml,[II,I ,t I , l' ' II x //
;ELECTRIC Al
DEVICES
metallic processes o™™*
lighting !i\lures
spaceheatinj;
home/office applmnces
industrial machinery
transportation vehicles
water healing
air conditioner
J
DK VICES
trunsporlation vehicles
furnaces, boilers, sieve:
gas lurbini's
water heating^"—™—
spaceheating • • '
SOLID FUEL DEVICES
* furnaces, boilers.-—..
LEGEND: major encrg> -related pollution potentials
LAND
-------
damaging the germ cells of the prospective
parents, the ultimate manifestation being
genetic damage, resulting in malformations,
dysfunctions, behavioral disorders, mental
retardation, or cancer. (Al, A2)
Current research to preclude such impacts
includes a major effort that involves the
development and validation of biological
screening tests that can quickly, accurately,
and economically identify potentially hazard-
ous compounds or agents. (A3, A4, A5)
Evaluation tests are also being developed for
use when a screening test indicates that an
agent is biologically active. Ideally, these
evaluation tests will be useful not only to
expand screening test information, but will
also facilitate human risk assessment for the
agent in question. (A2)
Additional health impact research involves
clinical studies to determine, under controlled
conditions, the functional effects of the less
noxious pollutants. (Al, A2) Making use of
volunteer subjects, such studies also serve to
identify susceptible subgroups. Another
phase of the effort involves epidemiological
studies to ascertain the impacts of pollutants
on human health in high population density
areas where air quality standards are some-
times exceeded. (Al, A2) These clinical and
epidemiological studies, in addition to animal
inhalation toxicology studies, will provide the
scientific evidence necessary to set meaning-
ful and legally defensible air quality
standards.
Fossil Fuel Leachate Hazards. Water-
borne pollutants from non-nuclear energy
sources are found in effluents from fossil fuel
cycle processes (including mining/drilling),
transportation, storage, and in leachates from
residues such as mine tailing, control systems
sludges and spent oil shale. Research in this
area includes conducting epidemiological
studies of populations exposed to drinking
water contaminated by fossil fuel processes,
and developing techniques for toxic samples
procurement from leachates for use in animal
toxicology studies. (A7, A8, A9) In addition,
bioassay screens and predictor tests are being
developed and validated for use in identifying
hazardous substances in aqueous waste
streams. (A3, A6)
Advanced Fuel Combustion Processes
and Synthetic Fuels. Advanced fossil fuel
processes are potential generators of products
and residuals which may be extremely
hazardous to human health. The fluidized bed
combustion of coal for example, generates an
organic-coated fly ash that is different in
geometry from that produced by conventional
coal combustion. A study that assesses the
relative health risks of these two combustion
processes is currently underway. (A10)
Synthetic fuel technologies such as oil shale
processing, coal gasification, and coal
liquefaction generate products and by-
products which without adequate controls can
yield significant quantities of toxic sub-
stances .
Our immediate research concern is for the
health of workers in these advanced fossil fuel
and synthetic fuels industries. The program is
currently conducting industrial hygiene
The program is currently
conducting industrial
hygiene studies.
studies to detect and identify pollutants in the
workplace, while placing workers under close
medical surveillance. (Al 1, A12) In addition,
prospective epidemiological studies will be
carried out, to consider such biological end
points as dysfunctions of the reproductive,
pulmonary, and nervous systems, as well as
cancer of the skin, liver and lung. (A 12) Also
planned are animal toxicological studies of
new products and residuals.
Environmental Effects
Offshore Drilling. Oil and gas drilling and
other energy related activities are increasing
in estuarine and offshore environments. EPA
has the legislative mandate in Section 402 of
the Clean Water Act of 1977 to issue National
Pollution Discharge Elimination System
(NPDES) permits for discharges. However,
not enough information on technical condi-
tions exists. Thus, data on application factors,
bioaccumulation, and Maximum Allowable
165
-------
MILLIONS OF TONS
gig 1 g 1
GROWTH IN EMISSIONS/WASTES FROM
STATIONARY SOURCES
tmm
-
-
i-
®
J— L
®
-®
£ 1 1
TOTAL
SUSPENDED
PARTICU-
LATES*
4
®
-
-
-
—
(*)
^
£ 1 1
SULFUR
OXIDES*
wenergj and induMria 10
_P=1|_
®l-
r-
F=fc
®r
s
®l
§
NITROGEN
OXIDES*
(«
) = NET EMISSIONS
(After Treatment)
«
®
-
-
-
-
<+)
& 1 i
UTILITY
COAL ASH/
SLUDGES
W)
r-
o\
1 — b-
®
1
®
-
-
-
-
-
-
|
OIL
SHALE
WASTES
Toxicant Concentration (MATC) will be
derived in order to assess the ecological
hazards of oil spills, drilling fluids, drilling
muds, drill cuttings, deck drainage, produced
water, biocides, vented gas, and packer fluids
discharged from offshore and estuarine oil
and gas drilling operations. (Bl, B2, B3)
Mine Reclamation. Management prac-
tices are needed to protect and maintain top
soil returned to and and semi-arid areas of
western coal mining regions which have been
surface-mined. This phase of the program
will provide: (1) practices to prevent arid
control erosion; (2) methods to control the
movement of water in reclaimed areas; and
(3) means to improve or maintain the quality
of water moving from mined areas into
watercourses. (B4, B5, B9) The use of
organic and inorganic waste materials such as
fluidized bed wastes and municipal waste-
water sludge for revegetation will be studied.
Food crops and other vegetation grown during
reclamation and revegetation will be evalu-
ated for use by livestock and wildlife. (B8)
Optimum control and use of precipitation,
and the long-term impacts of various post-
166
-------
mining land uses will also be considered in the
development of plant covers necessary to
reclaim surface-mined lands in the West. (B6)
Research will continue with an existing
extensive effort by the USDA.
Technology is also needed for the reclama-
tion of areas disturbed by uranium exploration
and for hazardous tailings from past uranium
mining. (B7) Research will provide regu-
latory guidelines for uranium mining, from
exploration to the final disposal of the
tailings.
Evaluation of Energy Related Toxic
Substances. The biological effects of
energy-related pollutants that are transferred
Research will continue
with an existing
extensive effort by the
USDA.
to the sediment layers of water masses will be
studied along with the impacts those pollut-
ants have on invertebrate trophic levels of
food chains. (Bll) Changes involving the
behavior of animal communities as a result of
these pollutants will also be examined. (Bll)
The long-term consequences of such
effects must be understood to evaluate and
predict the pollutant's potential damage to
living systems. Required is an adequate
information base with qualitative and quan-
titative data on the structures and concen-
trations of the primary contaminants, to
include petroleum hydrocarbons found in
living organisms. (BIO through B16)
Pollutant Deposition on Ecosystems.
Field and laboratory research will provide
technical information for the use and protec-
tion of forestry, agricultural, and recreational
resources. The environmental impacts of
conventional gaseous air pollutants (i.e. SO2,
NOX, O3) and the wet and dry deposition of
materials will be studied and evaluated.
Specific areas of research include an assess-
ment of atmospheric deposition effects on
fish, wildlife, and their habitats, an evalua-
tion of those areas in Minnesota and Wiscon-
sin sensitive to acid precipitation and the
integrated activities pertaining to the ag-
ronomic impacts of atmospheric pollutants.
(B17 through B22)
Synthetic Fuels. Research will be initiated
to develop a data base related to the environ-
mental effects associated with synthetic fuels
and advanced energy technologies. Activities
will focus on the impacts of coal gasifica-
tion/oil shale development and other energy
technologies on aquatic systems, and the
impacts of atmospheric emissions from new
energy technologies on components of ter-
restrial ecosystems. Guidelines will be
developed to mitigate the environmental
effects associated with the accelerated extrac-
tion of coal and oil shale. (B23 through B28)
Atmospheric Transport
and Effects
Energy related atmospheric effects are
described in greater detail in chapter 4,
"Air." The Interagency Energy/
Environment Research Program focuses on
the following research subjects:
Transport and Dispersion of Power
Plant Stack Plumes at Short range. For an
existing or planned fossil-fueld power plant in
flat terrain, it is relatively straightforward to
estimate gaseous and particulate pollution
concentrations a short distance from the
stack. Various models for that purpose
provide reasonable predictions of annual,
seasonal, daily and hourly mean concentra-
tions of SO2, NO/NO2 and total suspended
particulates (TSP). Difficulties arise when a
plant is, or will be, located in complex terrain,
such as a river valley, a plateau surrounded by
a ridge, or at a land/sea interface. In such
cases model predictions of mean or instan-
taneous pollutant concentrations may be off
by as much as an order of magnitude.
A three year effort will be initiated to
develop a functional model for power plant
dispersion in complex terrain. Research will
include measurements of the impacts that
topographic obstacles such as mountains or
ridges have on plumes and the plume
dynamics and dispersion studies over com-
167
-------
AIR, WATER AND SOLID WASTE ENVIRONMENTAL
LAWS IMPACTING FOSSIL ENERGY FACILITIES
RELEVANT AUTHORITY
IMPACT
Clean Air Act Amendments of 1977
• Set New Source Performance Standards
(NSPS) for energy industries (Section 111).
• Set National Emission Standards for Hazard-
ous Air Pollutants (NESHAP) for selected
industries (Section 112).
• Implement Prevention of Significant Deteri-
oration (PSD) Program (Section 160).
• Achieve Ambient Air Quality Standards (Sec-
tion 109).
• Set Lowest Achievable Emission Rates
(LAER) (Section 171).
• NSPS set for fossil utility boilers; industrial
boiler NSPS being developed; oil shale, coal
gasification, and liquefaction in planning stage.
• NESHAP requirements for synthetic fuels
industry being evaluated as process plans become
firm.
• PSD permits required for all New Sources
(coal-fired boilers and synthetic fuels plants) to
prevent increases in paniculate and SO2 levels in
areas having good air quality.
• Require utilization of appropriate control
technology to reduce emissions to levels required
to meet State Implementation Plan (SIP) goals.
• Require level of pollution control technology
greater than that which would normally be
required by SIP for plant siting in non-attaiment
areas.
Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1977
• Set discharge limits based on best conventional
technology for energy industries (Section 306).
• Set discharge limits based on best available
technology for toxic pollutants (Section 307).
• Issue and enforce discharge permits to achieve
above limits and to meet water quality standards
(Section 402).
• Effluent guidelines for steam-electric industry
issued, industrial boilers must meet guidelines for
specific industry; effluent guidelines being planned
for oil shale and coal gasification and liquefac-
tion facilities.
• For designated toxic pollutants best available
control technology will be required, and will have
greatest impact on the design of synfuel plants.
• Permits for electric utility plants and other
industries being issued based on effluent guide-
lines; permits for synthetic fuels plants will be
issued on basis of best information available until
guidelines are issued.
Safe Drinking Water Act of 1974
• Review projects for possible danger to under-
ground drinking water supplies (Section 1424).
• All projects receiving federal assistance will be
reviewed for processes impact on groundwater
quality as it may impact drinking water.
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act of 1976
• Set criteria for defining hazardous waste
(Section 3001).
• Define acceptable disposal practices for
hazardous wastes (section 3008).
• Set guidelines for non-hazardous waste
disposal (Section 4004).
• Proposed procedures for determining if wastes
are hazardous have been issued.
• Utility wastes and spent oil shale classified as
"special" wastes; if hazardous, they must meet
monitoring requirements but not disposal
requirements; best economically attainable
disposable technology will be defined.
• Disposal guidelines for non-hazardous utility
waste will be completed in 1981, other energy
wastes subject to state guidelines.
168
-------
plex terrains. (Cl, C2, C3, C4) This should
provide EPA's Office of Air Quality Planning
and Standards with a practical, flexible, tool
to determine criteria pollutant dispersion in a
variety of locations.
Transport, Transformation and Disper-
sion of Energy Pollutants At Long
Range.Under certain conditions, power
plants and other industrial sources can affect
the air quality on a regional scale, i.e., up to a
1,000 km radius and beyond. Effects such as
persistent regional pollution episodes, visibil-
ity impairing haze, and acid rain are all
consequences of long-range transport and
transformation of primary pollutant emis-
sions. At present, we cannot predict the air
pollution impact of single or aggregate power
plants on a regional scale. Research, there-
fore, will assess various existing models for
their suitability and their accuracy in predict-
ing the impact of a single or a cluster of power
plants on the air quality within a 100-1,000
km radius. (C5) This effort will be augmented
At present, we cannot
predict the air pollution
impact of single or
aggregate power plants
on a regional scale.
by the development of a new generation of
computer models capable of predicting air
quality on a regional scale. (C6, C7, C8) Data
from past and future field experiments will be
used for model validation; major field valida-
tion studies will occur in FY82. (C8)
Acid Deposition. Acid deposition, also
known as acid rain, may be one of the most
significant environmental problems of the
coming decade. It already poses an environ-
mental threat to our forest, agricultural, and
aquatic resources, a threat that could intensify
with full scale development of our fossil fuel
resources. The objective of our research
program is to develop information on acid
deposition which will assure that the nation's
energy needs are met without sacrificing
environmental quality. (C5, C6, C7, C8) Our
acid rain research is discussed in detail in
chapter 4.
Visibility Impairing Haze. Gaseous
emissions from power plants, industries, and
urban areas can be transformed into fine
particulates (aerosols) which, in a certain size
range, are effective scatterers of sunlight.
High concentrations of such aerosols are the
cause of hazy conditions that occasionally
blanket large regions of the continent, notably
the northeastern United States. In addition,
single, large, coal-fired power plants may
cause what is referred to as ' 'plume blight,'' a
phenomenon paticularly noticeable in the
western United States that occurs when
certain gaseous pollutants are converted into
aerosols far downwind from the stack. Plume
blight has been known to obscure some of the
nation's most scenic areas including the
Grand Canyon, Mesa Verde National Park
and others.
The prevalent particulates that impair
visibility seem to be ammonium sulfates, and
secondary pollutants, that are transported
long distances. The chemical, kinetic and
dynamic processes involved with changing
stack emissions to visibility-impairing haze
are poorly understood at present. (C9, CIO,
Cll) Research into the haze problem is
further discussed in chapter 4.
Synfuel Atmospheric Pollution. Because
large scale synfuel plants are not yet in
operation in the United States, our research
program must concentrate on monitoring and
measuring synfuel air pollution effects at
existing pilot and demonstration plants, in
simulated laboratory and photochemical
chamber experiments, and possibly at foreign
synfuel operations. (C12, C13)
The expected atmospheric emissions from
synfuel operations can be divided into two
categories: those criteria pollutants (SOX,
NOX, CO, TSP) from conventional boilers
that provide the energy and steam for synfuel
plants, and those non-criteria pollutants from
leaks, vents and accidental releases from the
actual synfuel process. The latter category of
pollutants is expected to be composed of
volatile and non-volatile organic and car-
bonaceous matter. The organic emissions
169
-------
from synfuel operation will probably pose the
greatest health and ecological hazard.
Specific research projects to be performed
are:
• Apply models for pollutant transport and
dispersion at short range (0-10 km) to
predict ambient mean concentrations of
benzene, polyaromatics, mercaptans,
thiophenes and other potential organic
volatile pollutants from synfuel opera-
tions. Use foreign commercial plant
source emission data, and/or pilot plant
emission inventory. (C13)
• Apply models for pollutant transport,
transformation and dispersion at long-
range (0-1,000 km) to predict the forma-
tion of secondary reaction products, such
as inhalable fine organic particulates.
(C13)
• Accelerate laboratory and "smog
chamber" investigations on photo-
chemical transformation rates of organic
pollutants anticipated to be emitted from
synfuel operations. (C12)
Control Technology
Program
This program is divided into three major
categories: solid fuel extraction, conventional
combustion, and fuel conversion.
Solid Fuel Extraction. Increased coal use
in the next twenty years is expected to
accelerate surface mining in the west as well
as underground mining in the east. Coal
extraction research will focus on defining
pollution sources from active mines, and on
the development and the demonstration of
methods to control, treat and abate pollutants
from mining and beneficiation processes. (D1
through D5, D7, D8, D16) Environmental
control information that is compiled will be
supplied to regulatory and control agencies,
as well as to the mining industry. The bulk of
this research effort will be directed at surface
mining in the West where huge energy growth
is projected, and where a lack of adequate
environmental data and the fragile nature of
ecosystems in such arid regions, make the
West a prime area of concern. (D5)
The projected rapid growth of uranium
mining may lead to surface and groundwater
contamination, fugitive dust emissions, and
problems of solid waste disposal. Current
technology to control these problems is not
adequate to fully protect human health and the
environment. State-of-the-art control
technology used in other mining activities
will be evaluated for possible transfer or
adaptation to uranium mine problems. (D16)
Environmental control procedures will be
studied for active uranium mining operations
The bulk of this research
effort will be directed at
surface mining in the
West.
as well as for large abandoned open pit mines.
(D16) If sufficient manpower and budget
resources are available in the future, control
procedures for the mines will be developed.
We will also attempt to develop new or
improved methods to reduce radiation from
the mining and milling of uranium ores.
Because we expect large scale shale
extraction as part of future oil shale indus-
tries, our research will evaluate control
technology and techniques that can protect
surface and subsurface water from the effects
of runoff caused by extraction and spent shale
disposal. (D6, D9 through D15, D17, D19)
Conventional Combustion. Conventional
combustion will continue to be the prime
method to utilize coal well into the twenty-
first century, despite the growth of a major
coal-based synfuel industry. The National
Energy Act of 1978 mandates conversion of
many utility and industrial power facilities
from oil and gas to coal, and prohibits all new
oil or gas utility boilers. The President has
proposed additional legislation to promote the
early retirement of existing oil-fired power
plants by 1990. Evolving energy policies are
clearly emphasizing an increased reliance on
coal for electricity and steam generation. This
nationwide movement to increased coal
underlines the need for the development of
economical and effective control technology
170
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for pollutants generated during coal combus-
tion. The main pollutants are sulfur oxides,
nitrogen oxides, particulates and associated
solid wastes of fly ash and sulfur sludge. The
primary objective of our research is to
develop and demonstrate cost effective
control technology to be used in conjunction
with utility and industrial processes to render
them less environmentally damaging.
Sulfur Oxide. A major environmental goal
is the control of sulfur oxide emissions from
coal combustion at utility and industrial
facilities. Projected coal combustion in-
creases over the next twenty years will tend to
neutralize air quality gains that might have
otherwise accrued as a result of current sulfur
oxide regulations, including the recently
promulgated New Source Perfomance Stan-
dards for utility boilers. Sulfur oxides are the
precursors to the formation of sulfate particu-
lates which have been implicated as the major
contributors to the increased acidity of
precipitation (see chapter 4, "Air").
EPA and DOE are cooperating to upgrade
flue gas desulfurization techniques (FGD)—
currently the only sulfur control technology
capable of general application in the next ten
years. Estimates are that by 1990, electrical
utilities will have invested between $10 and
$20 billion for the construction and operation
of FGD units.
Although some commercial FGD in-
stallations are now performing reliably and
effectively in the United States and abroad,
major technological improvements are possi-
ble through application of research, develop-
ment and demonstration. Overall, program
research goals include: higher reliability and
performance (El) of lime and limestone
scrubber systems, demonstration of environ-
mentally acceptable sludge disposal prac-
tices, and low system cost. (E5) To help meet
these goals and to provide support for regu-
latory and enforcement activities, EPA will
work closely with utilities and industries to:
(1) develop and evaluate low cost dry scrub-
bing systems as an alternative to wet scrub-
bing, (2) demonstrate organic additives as an
adjunct to limestone scrubbing in order to
improve SO2 removal performance and to
lower costs, and (3) define acceptable sulfur
sludge disposal practices. (El through E5)
Nitrogen Oxides. Recent studies have
projected a steady growth in annual NOX
emissions, and by the year 2000, it is ex-
pected nitrogen oxide emissions will double.
Significant increases in NOX emissions and
potentially stricter NO2 ambient air standards
such as those short term standards outlined in
the 1977 amendments to the Clean Air Act
could mean a manifold increase in Air Quality
Control Regions designated nonattainment
areas.
EPA has embarked on an aggressive NOX
control technology program to mitigate
increased national NOX emissions from
increased direct coal combustion and the
projected burning of coal- or shale-derived
synthetic fuels. (E6 through El3) This
program is focusing primarily on utility and
industrial boilers that account for more than
half of all today's stationary source NOX
emissions. (E9, El 1, El2) The program for a
low NOX pulverized coal burner is designed to
lower uncontrolled NOX emissions by 85
percent. The low NOX burner has achieved
emission rates as low as 0.15 pounds of NOX
per million BTU as compared to current
regulated emission rates of 0.5-0.6 pounds.
EPA has embarked on
an agressive NOX control
technology program.
The program will soon enter the prototype
development stage and field demonstrations.
(E8) Two industrial boilers and one utility
boiler will be retrofitted with the low NOX
burner for an eighteen month demonstration
program to be completed in 1983. (E9)
Successful demonstration of this nitrogen
oxide control technology could allow ex-
panded use of coal and coal-derived fuels with
only minimal environmental impacts.
Those combustion conditions conducive to
low NOX emissions are also conducive to SO2
removal by limestone in the burner's flame
zone. Thus, efforts are currently underway to
define the applicability and economics of a
171
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simultaneous SO2 and NOX control technol-
ogy that involves injecting a limestone-coal
mixture into a low NOX burner. (E6) Using
the system, bench scale tests have demon-
strated potential SO2 emissions reductions of
more than 80% for high sulfur coal. Current
plans call for continued experimentation to
determine conditions that could yield 90+%
reductions in potential SO2 emissions and to
define the processes necessary and the costs
involved in achieving a reduction of this
level. If the program proves successful,
preliminary economic studies indicate that
substantial savings of SO2 control costs could
be realized.
Synthetic fuels are often high in nitrogen
content and upon combustion can yield high
NOX emission rates. EPA research will define
the conditions under which synthetic fuels can
be burned in compliance with environmental
regulations. (El3)
Particulates. Fine particulates are a health
hazard because they can bypass the body's
respiratory filters and penetrate directly into
the lung. Fine particles in the atmosphere
remain airborne for extended periods of time,
obstruct light, and cause limited visibility or
haze. Furthermore, toxic metals and hazard-
Synthetic fuels are often
high in nitrogen content.
ous compounds which tend to adsorb or
condense on fine particles are often trans-
ported through the air by them. Ambient
particles originate either as primary emis-
sions, or may be secondary pollutants,
transformed from gaseous emissions such as
SO2. Our research into the particle problem
will develop economical paniculate control
technology for fossil fuel combustion and
other industrial sources of directly-emitted
particulates. Over the next five years this
program will focus on the following objec-
tives:
• Develop low cost control technology for
fossil fuel combustion sources. Low
sulfur coal combustion methods will be
emphasized as post-combustion electro-
static precipitators and fabric filters are
relatively expensive. Particular attention
will be placed on particle prechargers
which offer great potential cost savings.
(E15, E17)
• Develop a data base for particle size
distributions for energy and industrial
sources. This effort will help EPA
consider appropriate control strategies
should it revise the current total sus-
pended particulate standards or replace
them with inhalable (fine) particulate
standards. (El4)
Environmental Assessment. Regulatory
attention to date has been focused primarily
on conventional large volume air pollutants
such as sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides and
particulates. However, conventional combus-
tion of coal, wood and oil fuels also yields
emissions of other materials such as polycyc-
lical organic materials, heavy metals, and
radionuclides that are potentially hazardous.
The objective of the conventional combustion
environmental assessment program is to
identify, and quantify such emissions and to
determine their potential health and ecologi-
cal impacts. (El8) Where appropriate the
effectiveness of conventional control
technology will be evaluated.
Fuel Conversion — Synthetic Fuels. To
support the nation's renewed interest in
synthetic fuels as an alternative to imported
oil, EPA is accelerating its program to
evaluate and develop the controls needed for
synfuel processes. (Fl through F18) The
acceleration of this program is considered to
be particularly important because incorpora-
tion of effective environmental controls at a
formative stage can facilitate the synfuel plant
permit and leasing process, while at the same
time assuring immediate environmental
protection. (Fl, F2, F3, F5, F8, Fll) The
major synfuel processes near commercializa-
tion are direct and indirect coal liquefaction,
coal gasification, and oil shale retorting.
Pollutants resulting from these forms of coal
and oil shale use generally differ from those
associated with normal coal combustion.
Synfuel processes, for example, generally
result in far fewer emissions of conventional
air pollutants such as sulfur oxide and
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SYNTHETIC FUEL PROCESSES
COAL GASIFICATION
Status
High BTU gas: Lurgi technology utilizing
gasification, purification and methanation is
close to commercial. All major components
proven; however, integration at commercial
scale not yet accomplished and cleanup
systems untried at commercial scale.
Medium/Low BTU gas: Technology is com-
mercial with over 100 operating plants, most
outside the U.S. However commercial exper-
ience lacking on gas and water cleanup.
Major Environmental Concerns
• Sulfur compound emissions
• Particulate and trace element emissions
• Organic emissions; particularly benzene,
phenols and polycylic aroma tics
• Contamination of surface and groundwaters
from landfills and ponds
• Worker exposure to toxic and carcinogenic
materials
• Subsidence and aquifier disruption (second
generation in-situ gasification)
INDIRECT COAL LIQUEFACTION (Coal Gasified Then Catalytically Converted to Liquids)
Status
Two classes of processes are commercial: (1)
methanol plants using any of five processes
have been used in United States and are cur-
rently used overseas. Additional step allow-
ing high octane gasoline production from
methanol close to commercialization, (2)
Fisher-Tropsch, which produces a variety of
fuel products, is operating in South Africa.
Major Environmental Concerns
• Same as Coal Gasification Above.
DIRECT COAL LIQUEFACTION (Hydrogenation of Coal in Coal-Liquid)
Status
Several processes have been pilot tested in-
cluding Solvent Refined Coal-II, Exxon
Donor Solvent, H-Coal and Synthoil Pro-
cesses require scale up to large pilot or
demonstration plants scale before commer-
cial plants can be built in late 1980's or early
1990's.
Major Environmental Concerns
• Sulfur compound emissions
• Particulate and trace element emissions
• Organic emissions; particularly benzene,
phenols and polycyclical aromatics
• Contamination of surface and ground-
waters by leaching from landfills and
evaporation ponds
• Fuel product(s) toxicity
OIL SHALE PROCESSING
Status
Several above-ground and in-situ retorting
processes have been evaluated at pilot scale
and are near commercial: Union, Colony-
Tosco and Occidental and Rio Blanco (in-situ)
have all initiated projects for the production
of oil from shale at or near commercial scale.
Major Environmental Concerns
• Sulfur emissions
- Particulate emissions
• Organic emissions; particularly high
molecular weight compounds
• Environmentally acceptable disposal of
spent shale
• Contamination of surface and ground-
waters from evaporation ponds
• Worker exposure to toxic and carcinogenic
materials
• Aquifier contamination from terminated
retort (in-situ)
173
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nitrogen oxide; however, the potential for
emissions of high molecular weight organics
and other toxic materials is greatly increased.
The EPA program will accelerate efforts to
evaluate control technology for the major
process streams of first and second generation
synfuel processes. Research will evaluate
both the performance and the cost of control
technologies for the major coal liquefaction,
gasification and oil shale processes. (F10,
F18) Primary and secondary pollutants from
the processes will be identified and quantities
estimated; methods of pollution control will
be identified and carefully evaluated. (F4, F6,
F10, Fl 8) Air, water and solid waste effluents
will be studied from all process sources,
including the conversion process, the envi-
ronmental controls process and any ancillary
processes such as oxygen production and
steam generation. (F6, F10, F14, F18) This
program is being carefully coordinated within
EPA so that results can assist air, water and
solid waste regulatory and enforcement
offices to effectively perform their regulatory
and permit duties.
The major near term research program
outputs will be a series of Pollution Control
Guidance Documents for the major synfuel
processes. (Fl, F2, F3, F5, F8) The doc-
uments, to be published in the next two years,
will provide detailed environmental control
guidance to synfuel developers and permit-
ting authorities prior to promulgation of
legally binding standards. Such guidelines are
expected to expedite the permit process by
defining best available control technology.
Concurrent and subsequent research will
support technology-based emissions/effluent
standards to be set by EPA sometime after
1982. (F15)
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ENERGY RESEARCH PLAN
PROGRAM AREA FISCAL YEAR 1980 FISCAL YEAR 1981 FISCAL YEAR 1982 FISCAL YEAR 1983
FISCAL YEAR 1984
HEALTH EFFECTS
Determine health
effects of criteria and
noncriteria pollutants
from fossil fuel
combustion (EPA,
NIEHS)
Initiate a balanced pro-
gram of epidemiological,
clinical and toxicological
studies to determine the
impact of criteria and
non-criteria pollutants
emanating from fossil fuel
combustion processes on
the respiratory, cardiovas-
cular and digestive sys-
tems. Al
Evaluate the relationship
between risk to human
health and energy-related
pollutants A2
Develop and validate Develop and validate
Correlate results of
bioassy screens and
predictor tests (EPA,
NIEHS, National
Laboratories)
Determine health
hazards of fossil fuel
leachates and specific
energy-related pollut-
ants (EPA, National
Laboratories)
sensitive, quantitative, re- short-term in vitro tests
liable, and accurate with in vivo chronic
techniques for identifying exposure tests for mixtures
hazardous wastes and of energy-related pollut-
screening effluents and ants. AS
emissions from energy-
related facilities. A3
Improve short-term test
procedures and dosimetric
techniques for evaluating
body burdens of energy
related hazardous mate-
rials A4
Initiate epidemiologic
studies of populations
exposed to drinking waters
contaminated by leachates
from fossil fuel cycle
processes. A7
Improve models for ani-
mal data interpretation and
extrapolation. A6
Provide information on the
relationship between
human health effects and
water-borne, energy-
related water pollutants.
AS
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ENERGY RESEARCH PLAN
PROGRAM AREA FISCAL YEAR 1980 FISCAL YEAR 1981 FISCAL YEAR 1982
FISCAL YEAR 1983
FISCAL YEAR 1984
Provide additional infor-
mation on the synergistic
effects of cadmium with
other pollutants. A9
Analyze human risk of
fluidized bed combustion
vs. conventional coal
combustion. A10
Improvement of data
base on health
impacts fuel
processes, products,
and residuals (EPA,
DOE, NIOSH)
Continue industrial
hygiene and medical sur-
veillance of occupational
groups from the synfuel
industry. All
Continuing
Activity
Provide initial exposure
assessment of health ef-
fects on workers in the
synthetic fuels industry
All
ECOLOGICAL EF-
FECTS
Offshore drilling
(Department of
Commerce (NOAA),
Department of the
Interior,
Department of
Energy,
Environmental Pro-
tection Agency)
Identify potential areas of
environmental impact.
Develop assessment
methods for coastal and
off-shore impacts. Bl
Initiate on-site research in
potential impact areas. B2
Continuing
Activity
Prepare guidance docu-
ments for placement of
drilling structures and
develop management
plans for drilling ac-
tivities. B3
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PROGRAM AREA FISCAL YEAR 1980
FISCAL YEAR 1981
FISCAL YEAR 1982
FISCAL YEAR 1983
FISCAL YEAR 1984
Mine reclamation
(Department of
Agriculture,
Environmental Pro-
tection Agency,
Department of the
Interior)
Develop and establish
management practices for
mined lands B4
Develop practices to con-
trol errosion and maintain
water quality. B5
Develop new plant mate-
rials for the reclamation of
arid and semi-arid areas.
B6
Identify reclamation prac-
tices for uranium mining
so as to minimize fugitive
dust problems. B7
Investigate methods for
culture of feed and food
crops on coal-mined
lands. B8
Prepare user-manuals and
handbooks for reclamation
of surface mined lands and
for monitoring potential
impacts. B9
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-4
oc
ENERGY RESEARCH PLAN
PROGRAM AREA FISCAL YEAR 1980 FISCAL YEAR 1981 FISCAL YEAR 1982 FISCAL YEAR 1983 FISCAL YEAR 1984
Energy related toxic
substances
(Department of
Commerce (NO A A),
Department of
Energy,
Department of Health
& Human Services
(NIEHS),
Tennessee Valley
Authority,
Environmental Pro-
tection Agency)
Atmospheric pollu-
tion impacts
(Tennessee Valley
Authority,
Department of
Energy,
Department of the
Interior,
Environmental Pro-
tection Agency)
Initiate and continue re-
search to determine the
ecological and economic
impacts of air pollutants
from energy technologies.
B17
Evaluate toxicity of
biocides from cooling
towers, leachates from
scrubber sludge and fly
ash, and petroleum hyd-
rocarbons. BIO
Complete evaluation of
impacts of pollutants from
power plants of northern
great plain ecosystems.
B18
Identify potential effects
on trophic structure, be-
havior of aquatic or-
ganisms, and bioaccumu-
lation impacts. Bll
Provide impact data for
consent decree water
pollutants. B12
Develop test methods and
evalutation procedures for
determining environmen-
tal impacts of toxic
pollutants B13
Provide screening
techniques to determine
impacts of toxic materials
on the environment and
transfers to human food
sources. B14
Provide guidance for
compliance with Class 1
Air Quality Regulations.
B19
Develop biomonitoring
plans for evaluating
energy technologies. B15
Provide risk assessment
data relevant to impacts of
energy-related toxicants.
B16
Provide air quality as-
sessment information re-
levant to economic im-
pacts on agriculture
natural systems. B20
Develop models for asses-
sing pollutant impacts on
fish, wildlife, and their
forest or aquatic habitats.
B21
Contribute to the national
programs involving the
environmental effects of
acid precipitation and
gaseous pollutants. B22
Synthetic fuels
(Environmental Pro-
tection Agency,
Tennessee Valley
Authority, and other
interagency organi-
zations)
Plan water use/impact
studies, air effects re-
search. B23
Initiate projects for the
development of concep-
tual models. B24
Evaluate the bio-impacts
of enhanced oil and gas
recovery methods, and the
disposal of synfuel wastes.
B25
Develop conceptual mod-
els for synthetic fuels. B26
Develop impact strategies
from available knowledge
and initiate the evaluation
of mitigation activities.
B27
Evaluate the impacts of
coal gasification and oil
shale technologies on
aquatic environments.
B28
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PROGRAM AREA FISCAL YEAR 1980
FISCAL YEAR 1981
FISCAL YEAR 1982
FISCAL YEAR 1983
FISCAL YEAR 1984
ATMOSPHERIC
TRANSPORT AND
EFFECTS "
Complex Terrain
Model (EPA in
cooperation with
NOAA, EPRI).
Regional modeling of
energy pollutant
dispersion and
transformation.
(EPA, DOE, TVA,
NOAA in cooperation
with EPRI)
Computerized model of
criteria pollutant disper-
sion from variable height
stacks in complex terrain.
Initiate plume impactation
study. Cl
Predict air quality impact
from single or aggregate
power plants on a regional
scale, such as the Ohio
Basin, the Northeast, or
the western United States.
Include modules for acid
rain, visibility impairing
haze, and hazardous fine
particulates.
Conduct workshop to
assess state-of-the-art and
define research gaps. C5
Initiate model develop-
ment. C6
Complete plume impacta-
tion study. C2
Initiate full scale plume
study. C3
Deliver model and users
guide. C4
Complete empirical
models. C7
Refinement of models. C8
Visibility protection Identify sources and
of federal Class I
Areas. (EPA in
cooperation with
DOE, EPRI)
causes of anthropogenic
haze which impairs visi-
bility in our National
Parks, and occasionally
blankets the whole Eastern
seaboard.
Establish monitoring sta-
tions for visibility and
visibility impairing
aerosols. C9
Continue monitoring and
model development for
visibility impairing haze
dispersion. CIO
Provide recommendations
for visibility conserving
strategies. Cll
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oo
ENERGY RESEARCH PLAN
PROGRAM AREA
FISCAL YEAR 1980 FISCAL YEAR 1981 FISCAL YEAR 1982
FISCAL YEAR 1983
FISCAL YEAR 1984
Synfuel atmospheric
effects. (EPA, TVA,
DOE)
CONTROL
TECHNOLOGY
Extraction
Characterize emissions,
and develop atmospheric
transport, transformation
and dispersion models for
pollutants which may be
emitted from boilers,
leaks, vents and accidental
releases of synfuel plants
and oil shale operations.
Plan approach through
Interagency Committee.
C12
Complete interim study of
surface mine sedimenta-
tion ponds. Dl
Complete preliminary as-
sessment of Northern
Great Plains coal mining
area. D2
Provide users manual on
acid mine drainage re-
habiliation. D3
Complete characterization
and control technology
assessment of solid wastes
produced from non-coal
mining activities. D4
Complete assessment of
impact of western coal
development on surface
and groundwater. D5
Develop revegetation
techniques for spent oil
shale. D6
Complete revised technol-
ogy requirements for
water discharged from
mining operations. D7
Provide manual of
methodology for control-
ling fugitive dust from
surface mines. D8
Evaluate effectiveness of
oil spill regulations. D9
Provide users manual for
oil spill prevention. D10
Deliver synfuel dispersion
models. C13
Assess potential pollution
problems from tertiary oil
and gas recovery. Dll
Assess impact of oil shale
disposal and develop
appropriate control
technology. D12
Complete control technol-
ogy guidance for offshore
oil and gas production.
D13
Determine leaching
characteristics of raw oil
shale. D14
Complete design criteria
for on-shore and off-shore
pollution control equip-
ment. D15
Complete environmental
assessment of uranium
production and evaluate
available control technol-
ogy. D16
Assess impact on ground-
water of in-situ oil shale
operations. D17
Provide manual of
techniques for removal
and control of oil spilled
on land and water. D18
Provide users manual for
oil spill control in cold
climates. D19
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PROGRAM AREA FISCAL YEAR 1980
FISCAL YEAR 1981
FISCAL YEAR 1982
FISCAL YEAR 1983
FISCAL YEAR 1984
Sulfur Oxide Control
Complete full scale testing
of adipic acid modified
limestone wet scrubbing to
increase scrubber reliabil-
ity and lower cost. El
Initiate long term evalua-
tion of the performance
and reliability of a full
scale utility boiler spray-
dryer SO2 control system.
E2
Prepare SO2 control
technology assessment re-
port to aid in the four year
review of the standard of
performance for utility
boilers. E3
Prepare SO2 control
technology assessment re-
port to be used in the
four-year review of the
standard of performance
for industrial boilers. E4
Initiate the full scale
testing of simultaneous
limestone-coal injection
into the low NOx coal
burner. E5
Nitrogen Oxide
Control
Complete the demonstra-
tion of coal/limestone
pellets as a low cost,
simultaneous SOx and
NOx control method. E6
Complete the evaluation
of fuel efficient NOx
controls for stationary
internal combustion en-
gines. E7
Complete prototype scale
research and development
for a low NOx emission,
heavy oil burner which can
be used in oil field steam
generators. E8
Complete the demonstra-
tion of the low NOx coal
burner on two industrial
boilers and one utility
boiler. E9
Complete the demonstra-
tion of dry NOx control for
small gas turbines using
conventional fuels and
synthetic oil. E10
Prepare NOx control
technology assessment re-
ports for the four year
review of the standards of
performance for utility
boiler and gas turbines.
Ell
Prepare NOx control
technology assessment re-
port for the four year
review of the standards of
performance for industrial
boilers and internal com-
bustion engines. E12
Initiate the evaluation to
determine the applicability
of combustion modifica-
tion concepts to synthetic,
high nitrogen fuels so that
these fuels can be used in
compliance with existing
regulations. E13
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ao
ENERGY RESEARCH PLAN
PROGRAM AREA FISCAL YEAR 1980 FISCAL YEAR 1981 FISCAL YEAR 1982 FISCAL YEAR 1983 FISCAL YEAR 1984
Participate Control
Characterize inhalable
participate matter emis-
sions from priority point
and non-point sources.
£14
Preliminary full scale
demonstration of elec-
trostatically enhanced
fabric filters as a means of
increasing air to cloth ratio
for utility baghouses. E15
Demonstration of the
commercial viability of a
pre-charger as a means of
augmenting electrostatic
precipitator performance
of high resistivity fly ash.
E16
Complete assessment of
long term feasibility of
using fabric filters on large
scale utility boilers using
low sulfur western coal.
E17
Environmental As-
sessment
SYNTHETIC FUELS
Complete PCGD1 for
leading oil shale in situ and
surface retorting processes
Fl
Complete PCGD for low
BTU coal gasification
based on Wellman-
Galusha and Stopic pro-
cesses F2
Complete PCGD for indi-
rect coal liquefaction
processes based on
Fischer-Tropsch, Mobil M
Gasoline and coal-to-
methanol processes F3
Characterization of
emissions/effluents from
wide variety of coal
gasification, coal lique-
faction and oil shale
retorting processes F4
Complete PCGD for high
BTU coal gasification
based on Lurgi process F5
Pilot control technology
evaluation of sulfur con-
trol at Occidental oil shale
site F6
Develop disposal/
treatment techniques for
spent shale F7
Complete PCGD for direct
coal liquefaction based on
SRC process F8
Complete study of impacts
resulting from handling of
direct coal liquefaction
products F9
Complete study compar-
ing near term synthetic
fuels processess as to cost
of control, efficiency and
environmental impacts
F10
Support for the regions in
permit application review
Fll
Characterize POM, heavy
metal and readionudide
emissions from conven-
tional combustion
sources. E18
Revised PCGD completed
for indirect coal liquefac-
tion processes based on
Koppers Totzek and
Texaco front-end gasifi-
cation processes F12
Revised PCGD completed
for low BTU coal gasifi-
cation processes based on
in situ coal gasification
F13
Assessment of car-
cinogenic impact of
synthetic fuel processing
F14
Additional effluent/
emission data provided for
near term technologies in
support of control
technology based regulat-
ory program F15
Revised PCGD for direct
coal liquefaction proces-
ses based on SRC II and
H-coal demonstrations
F16
Revised PCGD for oil
shale processes based on
in situ processes F17
Complete study compar-
ing first and second
generation synthetic fuels
processes as to cost of
control, efficiency and
environmental impact F18
'PCGD—Pollution Control Guidance Document containing interim emission/effluent guidelines and suggested pollution control technology. The suggested EPA
regulatory approach to the President's synthetic fuels initiative requires PCGD's for near term technologies by late 1980 at the time commercial synthetic fuels enter the
design stage.
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ANTICIPATING FUTURE
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
We must look ahead to identify trends
which could adversely affect our
environment* EPA's anticipatory
research program is designed to
do this*
183
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Introduction
Our research program is designed to
support EPA's regulatory activities and to
look over the horizon to identify trends
affecting our future environment. For the
nation to avoid or effectively mitigate future
problems, adequate information must be
available to Agency research and develop-
ment planners. ORD's 1978 establishment of
the Anticipatory Research and Strategic
Analysis programs was a major step to assure
that such information would indeed be there
when required.
The need to link EPA's anticipatory
research with strategic planning is clear.
Many, if not most, major environmental
problems we face today were potentially
discernable before they fully revealed them-
selves. Problems with pesticides, fertilizer
runoff, hazardous wastes, and the air pollut-
ing emissions of mobile and stationary
sources could have been foreseen.
Much of the stress on the environment can
Much of the stress on
the environment can be
directly attributed to
increases in the national
and global population.
be directly attributed to increases in the
national and global population. Compound-
ing that stress, in many parts of the world, is
increasing per capita consumption. Together
or separately, these increases result in more
resource exploitation, more energy use, more
or larger industrial facilities, more by-
products, and more waste.
With environmental stress as a by-product
of people and their activities, population and
economic growth trends are useful first order
leading indicators of the environmental
future.
In our program, we seek to look beyond
these basic indicators; however, our goal is to
first identify specific types of changes that
may affect the future environment. Then we
must identify and classify the future problems
that may result from these changes so that
proper exploratory research can be instigated.
Classes and Causes
of Environmental
Problems
To organize our research effort we divide
environmental problems into five classes:
• known problems of known scope;
• known problems of unknown scope;
• potential problems contingent on
technological, economic, or other dis-
continuities or changes in trends;
• unknown problems which are potentially
discernible;
• unknown problems not likely to be
discernible.
The mainstream of Agency research and
regulation focuses on the environmental
problems of the first class, where the effort
involves precise quantification of problem
and scope and appropriate regulatory re-
sponse. The areas of greatest interest for the
anticipatory research program, however, are
the middle three classes where we can bring
light to poorly understood problems, identify
the lead indicators of changing trends, and
uncover altogether new and pressing envi-
ronmental issues.
When looking to the future to study
environmental problems it is often more
advantageous to look at their potential sources
than at the problems themselves. To this end,
we have categorized the seven most prolific
sources of such problems:
• driving forces of population and eco-
nomic growth;
• new technological development;
• wider scale, or more intensive, use of
established technologies;
• latent or dormant problems in current
technologies which may surface in the
future;
• neglect in planning for the total life cycle
of a technology;
• new knowledge resulting from sensitive
measurement and detection capabilities;
• changes in social attitudes and values.
184
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TWENTY-FIVE YEARS OF POPULATION GROWTH:
MEDIUM SERIES
1975 POPULATION
4,090 MILLION
Northern America,
Western Europe,
Japan, Australia and
New Zealand: 708
million
U.S.S.R. and Eastern
Europe: 384 million
Temperate South
America: 39 million
Remainder Latin
America: 286 million
Africa: 399 million
India: 618 million
Indonesia: 135 million
Remainder Asia and
Oceania: 586 million
2000 POPULATION
6,350 MILLION
Northern America,
Western Europe,
Japan, Australia and
New Zealand: 809
million
U.S.S.R.
and Eastern
Europe: 461
million
Temperate
South America
53 million
Remainder
Latin America:
584 million
Africa: 814
million
China (PRO: 1329
million
Remainder Asia and
Oceania: 1,054 million
India: 1,021
million
Indonesia: 226
million
SOURCE: Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. "Illustrative Projections of World Populations
To The 21sl Century." Current Population Reports, Special Studies Series, 23, No. 79.
185
-------
As a result of a thorough study of problem
sources, many of tomorrow's problems have
already been recognized and are receiving
considerable attention in ORD's research
program. In general, these problems, for
which there is now a firm basis for concern,
and whose scope is being actively deter-
mined, share three characteristics:
• There is a clearly discernible trend;
• There is an experiential or theoretical
basis for believing that, if continued, the
trend will result in a major problem;
• There is little likelihood that, without
intervention, the trend will change so as
to reduce or modify the impending
problem.
Risks posed by these future problems are
many. Two significant examples directly tied
to the driving forces of population and
economic growth, for example, include the
greenhouse effect from carbon dioxide and
the alarming increases in acid deposits
resulting from the wider scale and inade-
quately or uncontrolled use of fossil fuels.
These problems also illustrate the profound
implications that a shift in scale which
exceeds the carrying capacity of the system
can have. A second set of potential future
problems currently under study involves new
technologies and their potential for introduc-
ing materials into the biota alien to its genetic
experience. Such are the stresses placed on
the biota from modern chemical industry
waste products and microwave radiation.
GROWTH OF HUMAN ACTIVITIES
AFFECTING THE STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT,
SELECTED INDICATORS, BY REGIONS,
1965-1975
Percentage increase 1965-1975
Value of agricultural production
Value of industrial production
Urban population (a)
Passenger cars in use
Energy consumption
Gross Domestic Product (b)
Private Final Consumption
Expenditure
NORTH
AMERICA
23
30
21
45
41
33
42
JAPAN
25
124
19
684
119
125
112
AUSTRALIA
AND
NEW
ZEALAND
23
39c
22
71
58
54
57
OECD
EUROPE
24
42
19
100
39
45
48
OECD
TOTAL
23
42
20
75
46
44
49
(a) OECD estimates, (b) 1970 prices and exchange rates, (c) Australia only.
Source: OECD, The State of the Environment, Paris 1979, page 41.
186
-------
U.S. AND GLOBAL CONTRIBUTIONS TO TOTAL FOSSIL
FUEL-INDUCED CO2 RELEASE
50
b
u
<
2
a,
u
~
10
10
1975 1985 2000 2030
COAL
1975 1985 2000 2030
TOTAL OF ALL FOSSIL FUELS
Sources: ('hen, h.. R. C . Winter, and M. K. Bergman, •( O from Kossil Fuels: Adapting lu llncerlainl>," submitted fur publication.
Note: These hypothetical high and low growth projections bracket an> likel) future growth in fossil fuel-incuded (X), releases.
Many future environmental problems will
also arise as the result of a past neglect of the
full life cyce of a technological system, or
from current industrial practices that hide
problems. There are today, for example,
virtually thousands of industrial waste sites
which may contain hazardous chemical
wastes and which may present future prob-
lems . In the case of Love Canal and the Valley
of the Drums, two instances where severe
damage has already taken place, these prob-
lems were not identified until toxic wastes
created highly undesirable consequences.
Aquifer degradation from the combination
of excessive depletion of water tables and the
introduction of contaminated replacement
water is another example of a potential,
latent, life cycle problem. This problem may
become particularly severe in the West with
the development of new energy souces.
Large-scale exploitation of fossil fuel re-
sources in the West may also result in latent
environmental hazards posed by pollutants
leaching from waste heaps. Prevention is
complicated by the high cost of plant growth
to restrict leaching, and the difficulty of
stabilizing the heaps against landslides.
New concerns can be created or uncertain-
ties clarified as results from new epidemiolog-
ical studies or from refined physical, chemi-
cal, and biological detection techniques
become known. The relationship between
cigarette smoking and lung cancer is the
classic example. More recently, research
defining the subtle side effects of microwave
radiation illustrates the potential for new
knowledge to focus concern.
Changes in social attitudes and values are
also coming to be recognized as a major
source for potential environmental impact.
The migration to the so-called sun belt, for
example, coupled with the tendency of
migrants to attempt to recreate their previous
environment is bringing about major envi-
187
-------
ronmental stresses. The extreme air pollution
on the front range of the Rockies around
Denver is a now well-established example of
how mass immigration can impact a fragile
and limited environment.
Current program research addresses all
these problems, issues, and concerns. To
prepare for the future, all efforts are being
made to change those known problems of
unknown scope to known problems whose
scope is also known, but a number of potential
problems are yet to be fully defined. Here,
trends are less clear and the experiential and
theoretical base for understanding is less
certain. Still, many may deserve wider
attention by the policy and research com-
munities now, if for no other purpose than to
clarify their potential significance and to
define a well-ordered strategy for coming to a
fuller understanding of their management.
New Chemical
Industries—New
Environmental Problems
The products and by-products of the
nation's chemical industries pose among the
most pervasive, diverse, and intractable
threats to our environment.
Petroleum has been the basic feedstock of
the synthetic-organic chemical industry. That
basic feedstock may change, however, as
coal, liquids, wood, and other plant products
become more attractive, more economical,
and more able to meet environmental stan-
dards. Chemical industry production process-
es may also change radically, as biological
and biochemical know-how points to more
effective methods. Finally, the end products
and by-products of the chemical industry may
ACIDITY OF PRECIPITATION OVER EASTERN U.S.
1955-1956
1972-1973
5.60
AVERAGE pH OF PRECIPITATION
5.00
Source; Adapted fr«m Chemical and Engineering News, Nov. 12,1976, p, 3i, with permission.
188
-------
CLASSES AND CAUSES OF FUTURE
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
CAUSE OF
PROBLEM
Changes in
social values.
New
knowledge.
Population
and economic
growth.
Neglect of life
cycle.
Neglect of life
cycle.
More intensive
use.
New
technology.
POTENTIAL
PROBLEM
Indoor pollution
from domestic toxic
materials, such as
carbon monoxide
and accumulation of
offensive odors.
Removing or adding
trace materials in the
human, animal, and
plant environments.
Irreversible melting
of the polar ice cap.
Clean up after a
nuclear event or
reactor decom-
missioning.
Dam silting.
New environmental
pollution from cad-
mium, lead, sulfur,
zinc, nickel, and
other materials.
Ocean pollution from
industrial pollution.
DESCRIPTION
Energy conservation in space
heating results in substantially
lower rates of air turnover.
Growing knowledge of the role of
trace materials, and increasingly
sensitive instruments for their
detection and measurement may
call for new measures to regulate
trace materials.
If the greenhouse effect from
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere,
from expanded use of organic
fuel, is a real threat the heat could
melt the ice at the poles and flood
most coastal areas.
We may be unprepared to clean
up after a nuclear power plant
accident or a limited nuclear
exchange.
A major spate of contemporary
dam building occurred during the
second quarter of the 20th century.
Therefore, during the first part of
the next century silting may
become a world- wide problem.
Only two of the 25 largest dams in
the world were completed before
1955 (1932 and 1940).
It is plausible that electric cars
may develop into a substantial
fraction of the auto fleet. They
would have to use some kind of
battery storage system based on
lead, mercury, cadmium, sulfur,
zinc, nickel, or other materials not
now generally deployed in the
environment in large quantities.
With the large scale mining of the
seabed resources possible, we find
that we have relatively little under-
standing of the effects of the '
oceanic equivalent of mine tail-
ings. Mine operations are likely to
raise large quantities of trace
materials, as well as vast quan-
tities of particulates, into the life
zones of the ocean.
CLASS OF
PROBLEM
Known problem,
unknown scope. ,
Known problem,
unknown scope.
Unknown problem,
potentially discernable.
Known problem,
unknown scope.
Known problem,
unknown scope.
Contingent problems.
Contingent problem.
189
-------
CLASSES AND CAUSES OF FUTURE
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
CAUSE OF POTENTIAL DESCRIPTION
PROBLEM PROBLEM
More intensive Rural land The general lack of land use
use. pollution. control in rural America coupled
with the increasing rate of intro-
ducing new technologies into rural
America will lead to greater waste
disposal, land pollution and
aesthetic problems.
Scale. Destruction of As industrialization proceeds in
ancient and modern the Third World, at current low
architectural and standards of pollution control,
structural artifacts. structural artifacts and art work,
such as the Taj Mahal, will
undergo serious deterioration.
Neglect of life Urban vermin. Rats, roaches, and other vermin
cycle. in urban areas are increasingly
resistant to control agents, while
the use of control agents is being
more restricted. Aside from the
offensive nature of vermin, they
are disease vectors.
Neglect of life Sulfur wastes. The growing use of sulfur-rich
cycle and fossil fuels will, under present
scale. regulations, lead to the accumu-
lation of large quantities of sulfur
from de-sulfurization.
Disposal presents problems.
CLASS OF
PROBLEM
Known problem,
unknown scope.
Known problem,
unknown scope.
Known problem,
unknown scope.
Known problem,
unknown scope.
themselves be different, as in the future new
chemicals based on new feedstocks and new
processes are produced, and as new materials
and uses are required.
Major changes in the chemical industry are
not only the result of the quest for new
discoveries. Many new industries or rela-
tively unimportant industries and processes
have been stimulated or changed as the
chemical industry as a whole works to
accommodate present energy and environ-
mental problems. This chapter reviews some
impending changes and their environmental
implications. In almost every case we will be
dealing with feedstocks, processes, and
products that may present new or unsuspected
problems of unknown scope.
Some New Chemical
Feedstocks
The primary impetus behind the recent
interest in wood is its potential as an energy
source. Once, however, the technological
capabilities are in place to continually
cultivate, harvest, distribute, and process
large quantities of wood as an energy source,
the next obvious step will be to consider wood
as a feedstock for basic industrial chemicals.
At least four wood compounds are attractive
in this regard: cellulose, lignin, vanillin, and
terpenes (which are polymers of isoprenes
and in the family of chemicals related to
turpentine).
Research into the use of these raw materials
190
-------
SCHEMATIC OF GASOHOL PRODUCTION
FEED
BY-PRODUCT
AND
GASOHOL
Source: Chambers, R.S., R.H. Heretldcim, .f J. Joyce, P.S. Rentier, "Gasohol: Does II or Doesn't II Produce Positive Net Kn
Science^M, 789(1979),
as chemical feedstocks came to an abrupt halt
decades ago with the growth of a chemical
industry based upon petroleum. For forty
years now, the commercial petrochemical
industry has produced tens of thousands of
individual chemicals, many of whose effects
are known. But if we turn to new raw
materials, it is uncertain what the nature of
these new chemicals might be. Today,
relatively little is known about the nature of
the tens of thousands of compounds which
could be produced from a wood base and used
as herbicides, pesticides, monomers, and
polymers. Families of chemicals based on
terpenes or vanillin may, for example, turn
out to be substantially more or less threaten-
ing to people and to the biota than petrochem-
icals. Timely, general laboratory investiga-
tions could establish such patterns and
generate data necessary to inform decisions
about promoting or discouraging mass
switching to these new chemical bases.
Similarly, public policy concerning these raw
materials could be informed in an early and
useful way by a clear understanding of the
total cycle involved in their use, to include the
nature of wastes generated, alternative modes
of waste disposal, and the impacts of these
wastes on the natural and man-made envi-
ronment.
The potential production of alcohol-based
automobile fuel is another example of the
chemical industry's response to the growing
concern over the nation's energy indepen-
191
-------
dence and the rising cost of petroleum.
With the widespread use of alcohol-based
fuels, orgasohol, numerous problems will be
presented. At the use end, it is known that a
large percentage of automobiles operate at far
from optimum tuning, timing, and combus-
tion efficiency. Consequently, we may expect
that the production of partial combustion
products, such as acetaldehyde, resulting
from use of these fuels may create new and/or
severe air pollution problems, though as it
stands today, our alcohol-based fuel emis-
sions data is not adequate to tell us to what
degree — a potential problem of unknown
scope.
The major environmental problems from
the use of gasohol, however, may not result
from its combustion, but rather from gasohol
production. These risks have recently been
inventoried in an Office of Technology
assessment memorandum. Using sugar and
starch as the alcohol base, it was estimated
that to have a significant effect on automotive
fuel cost and availability, as many as 30-70
PROJECTIONS OF ETHANOL PRODUCTION
ONS OF GALLONS OF ETHANOL/YEAR
B
1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984
YEAR (SIGNIFYING END OF CALENDAR YEAR)
1985
^ The leehnical production limit ol ethanol,
D I noffioal DOK Polio Projections (November 1979).
O I-"inure from s. 9132—Svntuels Bill; Passed Senate in Ihe 9f.lh Coneress, Isl Session on November 8. 1979.
0 DO!-' Polio Review Projections (June 1979).
192
-------
AREAS SUITABLE FOR GUAYULE PRODUCTION
Source: Foster, Kennith E., el. at. A Sociotecfanlcal Survey of Guayule Rubber Commercialization. A State-
of-the-Art Report for the National Science Foundation, Division of Policy Research and Analysis, by the Office
of Arid Lands Studies, University of Arizona, Tuscon, Arizona and Midwest Research Institute, Kansas City,
Missouri, April 1979.
million additional acres in intensive crop
production would be required. This, in turn,
implies:
• accelerated erosion (5-10 ton/acre/year);
• increased pesticide use;
• increased demand for natural gas for
fertilizers;
• turning 10-30 million acres of unman-
aged ecosystems (forests) into managed
ones (crop lands).
Distillation of the sugar and starch to
remove the alcohol implies:
• pollutants from coal or biomass combus-
tion used to power the distillation process
(50,000-70,000 BTU/gal);
• chemical and biological oxygen demand
of effluents from "stillage";
• difficulty of monitoring decentralized
distillation of gasohol.
Guayule, a plant indigenous to the south-
west United States and Mexico and a potential
source of natural rubber, is a somewhat
esoteric example of a potential environmental
pollutant. Guayule was evaluated on a pilot
scale during World War II as a source of
rubber. Those investigations demonstrated
unequivocally that the latex produced by that
plant is effectively the equivalent of latex
from rubber trees. Latex is a polymer of
isoprene, which in turn is related to the class
of chemicals known as terpenes, mentioned
earlier. The extensive future use of guayule,
however, would also present the complex,
systemic problems that would accompany the
movement to a wood-based chemical industry
or to gasohol production.
A specific environmental problem result-
ing from the large-scale cultivation of guayule
could be the release of terpenes into the
atmosphere in such quantities as to create a
haze of oxidizable hydrocarbons. Such a
terpene haze hangs over and provides a name
for the Great Smokey Mountains. While a
similar problem may not occur in most places,
several areas well suited for growing guayule
are near urban centers with already significant
air quality problems.
This potential problem is notable since it is
assumed that guayule will either be ignored as
a source of latex rubber or become a massive
new cultivated crop, effectively responding to
the demands for natural latex rubber. Early
193
-------
experiments on plant characteristics and their
environmental implications could have a
significant effect on public policy toward
promoting or discouraging guayule cultiva-
tion.
Coal as a Major
Chemical Feedstock
There will almost certainly be an expanded
use of coal as an energy source. Conse-
quently, coal is already the subject of exten-
sive environmental pollution research. As
with wood, we may anticipate that the
increased availability of liquids fuels (syn-
crude) from coal as energy sources will lead to
consideration of these same liquified fuels as
chemical feedstocks. However, solvent-
refined coal yields liquified fuels containing
relatively large amounts of aromatic com-
pounds whose chemical nature raises the
possibility of potential health effects. It is
already well known, for example, that
polynuclear aromatic compounds are often
carcinogenic. Liquified fuels refined from oil
shale, an alternative to coal, will also contain
polynuclear compounds which carry car-
cinogenic and other health threats. The
gasification of coal, and alternative method to
produce liquid fuels (methanol), raises
problems analogous to those already dis-
cussed in gasohol. Additionally, as with
wood, the wide-scale adoption of methanol as
a basic chemical feedstock raises the question
of its potential to generate new environmental
problems.
Biotechnology—
A Chemical Biological
Process Revolution
Our growing ability to manipulate genes in
lower and higher organisms places us on the
brink of many new industrial processes. This
biotechnology industry is likely to begin with
the manipulation of genetic material in
bacteria and other single cells organisms, and
then progress to higher species. Virtually
nothing is known, however, about the poten-
tial environmental problems associated with
such an industry. The concerns to date have
largely focused on limited but significant
public health threats thought to be potentially
posed by genetic manipulation. Concern over
the implications of recombinant DNA re-
search was initially expressed by the scientific
community and later by the general public.
This concern has been manifest in 16 congres-
sional bills, a scattering of local legislation,
and volumes of congressional reports and
hearings—all since 1974.
Today there are about 400 applied genetics
research and development projects underway
in 15 countries. The scientific base generated
by these projects is likely to explode into
many applications in the years ahead. Projects
include:
• invstigating the use of bacilli to improve
natto (fermented soybean) production in
Japan;
• procedures to transfer the ability to
utilize nitrogen to plants by using genes
from bacteria transmitted by a virus;
• production of insulin by bacteria;
• production of viral antigen for use in
vaccines by bacteria; and
• use of bacteria to produce biochemicals
of industrial importance.
The potential applications of this technology
are limited only by the imagination.
Although precise figures are not available,
it is known that most large pharmaceutical
companies are investigating biotechnology,
and that four firms have been founded since
1971 primarily to explore these new genetic
horizons. The market value of these firms is
estimated to be $225 million dollars.
The potential for the rapid and vast growth
of biotechnology points to the need for timely
investigations into its possible environmental
effects. For example, while the agricultural
industry would benefit from crops genetically
engineered to require little or no nitrogenous
fertilizer, the environmental ramifications of
such plants, ones which could outgrow their
neighbors, should be considered. Similarly,
while the benefits of producing an organism
capable of rapidly converting cellulose to
alcohol are obvious, its consequences on the
environment are not. What is to keep this
organism from multiplying beyond our need
for it? What risk could it pose?
While most such research has emphasized
direct containment of hazards from such
organisms, manipulated organisms could still
accidentally be introduced into the environ-
194
-------
ment. Moreover, many of the potential future
applications of this technology, particularly
in agriculture, would call for the deliberate
release of these organisms. Once released,
their dissemination depends upon whether
they survive and/or colonize. Once estab-
lished in colonies, they could possibly impact
severely on the environment. Thus, direct
containment of the manipulated organism is
only a part of the potential environmental
concern.
To date, academic biotechnical research
has generally been voluntarily conducted
under guidelines established by the NIH
(although 13 countries with ongoing RDNA
research have no guidelines). Significantly,
no adverse effects have been detected, and the
results of a number of experiments have
indicated that there may, in fact, be less
danger than had been anticipated. These
findings have led to the relaxation of the
original academic research guidelines, which
were highly restrictive.
Guidelines have not been extended to
industrial laboratories, although voluntary
compliance has been the rule. However, the
question of ecological impact has not been
investigated, a question that may be of the
UNDERSTANDING MANIPULATED ORGANISMS
AS AN ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARD
STEP
ACTION
Introduction
into the
Environment
Accidental
Deliberate
Establishment
as Permanent
Survival
Colonization
Impact on Man,
Animals
Impact on
Biosphere
CONDITION
Laboratory Accident
Industrial Use of
Fermentor
Application of
Biocides (Oil,
Hazardous
Chemical
Degraders, etc.)
Effect of Sewage
Plants
Available Niches
Available Hosts
Positive
Neutral
Negative
The probability for each step must be either measured or estimated. The total probability
of establishment as a permanent species will be the product of the individual values. Thus, if
either C, or Cj were zero, no permanent impact would be expected.
195
-------
greatest concern in industrial settings, owing
to the potential quantities of artificially
produced organisms that may eventually be
involved. In any event, the profound implica-
tions of the industrialization and the wide-
spread agricultural application of synthetic
and manipulated organisms must be under-
stood as a basis for making well-informed
environmental policy. Research initiated by
ORD in FY1980 marks the beginning of this
wide-ranging examination.
A New Chemical Product
—Composite Materials
A major future problem might potentially
be posed by the increased use, recycling, and
combustion of composite materials. These
innovative composites, fiberglass being the
most common, are usually made up of
microscopic fibers of high strength materials
such as carbon, beryllium, quartz embedded
in a matrix. Dispersion of these fibers into the
environment and subsequent uptake by
humans may lead to diseases analogous to
black lung, bageosis, asbestosis, and other
chronic illnesses known to result from the
inhalation of microscopic fibers. Such health
impacts are of primary EPA concern. A
second, more specific, concern involves
carbon fibers and their characteristics as
electrical conductors. These fibers are cur-
rently an element in composites being used in
high performance aircraft. In the event of an
accident, the resulting fire or explosion could
release vast numbers of these carbon fibers
into the atmosphere. When these particles
settle, it is feared that they may have a highly
disruptive effect on electric motors and other
electrical equipment. A government-wide
study of composite materials is now in
progress under the Office of Science and
Technology Policy.
What To Do
The development of alternative feedstocks
and alternative fuels, the move to new
resources and materials, and the search for
new organisms all pose environmental prob-
lems. Several of these problems are already
known, but are of unknown scope, while the
existence and significance of others has yet to
be discovered. Still other problems are highly
conjectural, but are, nonetheless, of major
potential import. In any case, however, the
need for anticipating these problems and
planning for their solution is clear. Such
anticipatory knowledge and future-oriented
strategic planning requires:
• Examining technologies in their total
economic, social, and institutional
context.
• Examining the total life cycle of a
technology from its earliest research and
development stages through demonstra-
tion, pilot testing, practical application,
growth, and the ultimate disposal of
waste and dismantlement of facilities.
• Recognizing that field and laboratory
research are among the most effective
means of enlightening decisions; while
Such health impacts are
of primary EPA concern.
some research must be fundamental and
long-term, such as effects studies involv-
ing weather, ecosystems, and epidemio-
logical consequences, short-term
laboratory and field investigations may
be adequate for clarification of key
uncertainties.
• Giving explicit attention when studying
technologies to their potential side
effects and unanticipated consequences,
so frequently the origin of environmental
problems.
• Monitoring the environment, technolog-
ical change, lead indicators, and social
values to expand the policy decision-
making information base, and to gain an
understanding of problems not ac-
cessible through standard field and
laboratory research.
To fulfill the anticipatory research pro-
gram's objective of developing an early
understanding of potential problems, and
either short circuiting them or moderating
their consequences, policy makers and the
concerned public must be kept abreast of
these problems and of their implications for
policy.
196
-------
Anticipating Problems
and Exploratory
Research
To best support EPA's basic mission, the
search for and anticipation of future problems
must be linked to systematic exploratory
research, capable then of determining the
scope and significance of these problems.
Several steps are currently being taken to
improve ORD's strategic, anticipatory, and
exploratory research capabilities. One such
significant step is the ORD Office of Explora-
tory Research. The overall goal of this office
is to identify and forecast new problems and
Several steps are
currently being taken to
improve ORD's
strategic, anticipatory,
and exploratory research
capabilities.
to build the scientific foundation for their
future study within EPA's regulatory research
programs. Specific objectives are to:
• Establish an Agency interdisciplinary
strategic analysis capability to determine
future environmental trends, and to
identify and evaluate potential environ-
mental problems. The resulting forecasts
will then take into account the full life
cycles of new and existing technologies
(including ultimate disposal), will iden-
tify their side effects, and will base
quantitative growth projections on a full
examination of all the driving forces
behind their development. These fore-
casts will be incorporated into an annual
Environmental Outlook report.
In many cases, the forecasts will begin
with an assessment that clarifies the
seriousness of a problem and the extent
to which it demands further considera-
tion. These may be broad, integrated
assessments, such as those found in the
1979 EPA Energy From the West fore-
cast for energy development in the
western United States, or they may be
mini- or small-scale assessments. Re-
sults from such forecasting activities
may in some cases lead to larger-scale
special studies to develop more in-depth
knowledge on a specific problem or
category of problems. One such study
now underway is EPA's acid rain re-
search program, an outgrowth of an
anticipatory research effort that is cur-
rently at the point of maturing into a
full-scale ORD research activity.
• Establish a series of institutional research
centers to complement EPA laboratories
and foster long-term studies of the
environment. Four such centers have
already been established (groundwater at
the University of Oklahoma, Rice Uni-
versity and Oklahoma State University,
epidemiology at the University of
Pittsburgh, basic environmental control
technology at the University of Illinois,
and marine sciences at the University of
Rhode Island) and additional centers are
in the planning stage. These centers will
provide the nucleus for ORD's long-term
research and will be a key component in
ORD's expanding effort to explore new
problems.
• Build a strong research grant program to
provide support for the best scientific
ideas and research scientists. As it enters
the 1980's, EPA research must delve
deeper and yet more imaginatively into
the mysteries of the environmental
sciences to reach the new plateau of
scientific understanding vital for our age
and future ages. EPA must now go
beyond the traditional defensive research
of the 1970's. To this end, ties to the
university community will be strength-
ened, and a climate of cooperation will
be fostered among government
laboratories, universities, and industrial
research institutions.
These initiatives provide an enlightened
framework for developing new knowledge
and exploring new problems. They combine
to form a foundation for the 1980's and
beyond; they build on the past, and point over
the horizon to assure a better future.,
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APPENDIX A
RESEARCH OPTIONS
The plans discussed in the previous chap-
ters of Research Outlook 1980 reflect the
priorities set and research needs defined
through the new research committee system.
The following outline of research options and
resources is also an outgrowth of the new
committee system. At present, there are two
research areas for which no research commit-
tee exists—anticipatory research and noise.
Anticipatory research is currently being
evaluated to determine how it best can be
served by the committee system; noise
research is currently administered by the
program office. Both are presented here in
separate discussions.
For each of the following sections, three
separate research scenarios are described: no
budget growth, moderate budget growth (5%
per year) and high budget growth (10% per
year). The resource projections, in constant
dollars (thousands), are based on the FY 81
President's budget submission, with FY 80
resources included for comparison. It is to be
noted that the percentages being used to
quantify growth are estimates, and may, in
fact, be reduced in some areas as the fiscal
year proceeds, or may, in certain critical
areas, be exceeded. For the purposes of this
document, however, they serve as overall
yardsticks for comparative multi-year pro-
gram projections.
Toxics
Chemical Testing and Assessment
Research Committee
CHEMICAL TESTING AND
ASSESSMENT RESEARCH
COMMITTEE
Fiscal 1980: $27,820
GROWTH
NO
MODERATE
HIGH
1981
36,538
38,365
1982
36,538
40,283
1983
36,538
42,298
40,192 44,211 48,632 53,496
1984
36,538
44,413
All figures shown in thousands of dollars,
and rounded to the nearest thousand
No Growth Scenario. Under a no growth
budget, our research effort will be directed
toward the continued development of health
and environmental test methods and standards
for characterizing toxic chemicals and their
fate. Simple test procedures will be developed
to determine whether a given substance
requires further investigation. If such a need
is indicated, more extensive, confirmatory
tests will be used to better quantify the nature
of the substance. This extensive testing will
then be followed by hazard assessments to
evaluate, through workable models, the
pathways and effects of human and environ-
mental exposure. EPA guidelines and pro-
tocols will ensure the adequacy of tests which
may be used by industry laboratories to test
new chemical substances.
Moderate Growth Scenario. We will
continue development of the scientific data
base necessary to clearly evaluate exposure
levels and resulting hazard potentials to
humans and the environment from a variety of
pollutant concentrations and transport path-
ways. The parameters of environmental
exposure including chemical release, fate,
use, distribution and disposal and resulting
ecosystem effects will be studied in detail.
The parameters of human exposure, particu-
larly molecular indicators that determine
chemical presence and dose, will be studied
for several classes of compounds. This
dosimetric information will then be correlated
with data on mutation and tumor induction
developed in short term in vitro and in vivo
bioassays. Metabolism and target organ
toxicity studies will be accelerated and
expanded to include multiple species; this so
that more and better data can be generated to
extrapolate to the human level. Monitoring
technology will be improved especially for
multi-species detection and quantification.
This information will be used in concert with
health and environmental effects data in
recommending alternative manufacturing
and/or processing options to industry.
High Growth Scenario. We will perform
health and environmental effects research
modeling using systems that take into account
the multiple interactions of toxic chemicals
occuring in the environment and in receptor
organisms including man. These data are
198
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essential in any assessment of the envi-
ronmenetal impact of toxic chemical release.
Air
Hazardous Air Pollutants
Research Committee
HAZARDOUS AIR POLLUTANTS
RESEARCH COMMITTEE
Fiscal 1980: $8,324
GROWTH
NO
MODERATE
HIGH
1981
9,590
10,069
1982
9,590
10,573
1983
9,590
11,101
10,549 11,604 12,764 14,040
1984
9,590
11,656
All figures shown in thousands of dollars,
and rounded to the nearest thousand
Under Section 112 of the Clean Air Act
Amendments, the term "hazardous air pol-
lutant" is defined as "an air pollutant to
which no ambient air quality standard is
applicable and which in the judgment of the
Administrator causes, or contributes to, an
increase in serious, irreversible, or inca-
pacitating reversible illness.'' The Office of
Research and Development's research on
hazardous air pollutants has focused on vinyl
chloride, benzene, mercury, cadmium,
asbestos, beryllium, etc. Over the next
several years, ORD's emphasis will be
shifting from research on the heavy metals to
more research on organic chemicals that have
a high potential for being human carcinogens.
ORD's basic support activities for this
program include: in vitro animal toxicology
and epidemiological studies, identification
and characterization of hazardous air pollut-
ants, determination and verification of
emission factors including the transport and
fate of pollutants, and their transformation
rates in the atmosphere, and development and
verification of monitoring and control de-
vices.
No Growth Scenario. In response to the
growing need to identify and understand the
hazardous air pollutants present in ambient
air, increased program emphasis will be
placed on pollutant characterization. With a
constant total budget, increases in this area
will be offset by decreases in research
examining the noncarcinogenic health effects
of hazardous pollutants.
Moderate Growth Scenario. With a five
percent budget growth, the non-carcinogenic
health effects work could be retained. Efforts
in ambient air characterization could also
increase.
High Growth Scenario. Ten percent
growth would enable ORD to develop valida-
tion monitoring methods. These methods
would be used to verify the effectiveness of
hazardous air pollution controls.
Oxidants Research Committee
OXIDANTS RESEARCH
COMMITTEE
Fiscal 1980: $16,117
GROWTH
NO
MODERATE
HIGH
1981
17,189
18,048
1982
17,189
18,951
1983
17,189
19,898
18,908 20,798 22,878 25,166
1984
17,189
20,893
All figures shown in thousands of dollars,
and rounded to the nearest thousand
Carbon monoxide, ozone, photochemical
oxidants and nitrogen oxides are the air
pollutants that fall within the purview of the
Oxidants Research Committee. By 1983,
ORD must present an updated data base to
support maintenance or revision of the
Ambient Air Quality Standards for ozone,
photochemical oxidants and nitrogen oxides.
ORD's major research activities to improve
the data base for these pollutants are : acute
and chronic animal toxicological studies,
199
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controlled human exposure (clinical) studies,
epidemiological studies, studies to detect,
understand and predict the impact of these
pollutants on terrestrial ecosystems, studies
on the transport and fate of these pollutants in
the atmosphere, and research on the devel-
opment of new and/or improved methodolo-
gies and instruments.
No Growth Scenario. In accordance with
criteria document revision schedules, ozone
health effects research will diminish follow-
ing publication of test results. Subsequently,
carbon monoxide health effects work will
increase. Oxidant characterization, transport
and fate, and control technology research
levels should remain relatively constant.
Moderate Growth Scenario. With growth
in the budget, we will study the health effects
of additional photochemical oxidants such as
nitric acid, PAN and formaldehyde. We will
also undertake more studies of the health
effects of chronic exposure to ozone, nitrogen
dioxide and carbon monoxide.
High Growth Scenario. This scenario will
enable us to develop and validate ozone and
NOX models that can predict the impact of
powerplants on distant areas. This informa-
tion will help EPA in determining the allowa-
ble increments of these pollutants for those
areas protected by the Prevention of Signifi-
cant Deterioration provisions of the Clean
Air Act.
Gaseous and Inhalable Particles Research
Committee
GASEOUS AND INHALABLE
PARTICLES RESEARCH
COMMITTEE
Fiscal 1980: $32,993
GROWTH
NO
MODERATE
HIGH
1981
43,418
36,139
1982
43,418
37,946
1983
34,418
39,843
37,860 41,646 45,811 50,392
1984
34,418
41,836
All figures shown in thousands of dollars,
and rounded to the nearest thousand
Over the next few years, major emphasis
will be placed on developing short-term tests
which can help us assess the chronic health
effects of exposure to gaseous and particulate
pollutants.
No Growth Scenario. If the gases and
particles budget were to remain constant,
work on acute health effects would have to be
reduced.
Moderate Growth Scenario. With five
percent growth, we will undertake additional
work to further our understanding of interreg-
ional air pollutant transport. We will also
develop improved measuring techniques for
use especially in conjunction with epidemio-
logical studies.
High Growth Scenario. With ten percent
growth, our program will be augmented by
the development of additional source and
ambient air characterization methods to assist
in tracing ambient pollutants back to their
point of origin.
Mobile Source Research Committee
MOBILE SOURCE RESEARCH
COMMITTEE
Fiscal 1980: $8,760
GROWTH
NO
MODERATE
HIGH
1981
8,971
9,419
1982
8,971
9,890
1983
8,971
10,385
9,868 10,855 11,940 13,134
1984
8,971
10,904
All figures shown in thousands of dollars,
and rounded to the nearest thousand
Diesel emissions are currently a major
focus of the mobile source research program.
We expect that this emphasis will diminish
following pertinent regulatory actions. De-
velopment of short-term tests which can help
assess health effects of chronic exposure to
mobile source pollutants will, however,
continue. Potential future program growth
may come from the need to assess the impacts
of the use of synthetic fuels in motor vehicles.
200
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Water Quality
Water Quality Research Committee
WATER QUALITY RESEARCH
COMMITTEE
Fiscal 1980: $24,379
GROWTH
NO
MODERATE
HIGH
1981
21,457
22,530
1982
21,457
23,657
1983
21,457
24,840
23,603 25,963 28,560 31,416
1984
21,457
26,082
All figures shown in thousands of dollars,
and rounded to the nearest thousand
The Water Quality Research Committee is
concerned with research pertaining to criteria
development, non-point source assessments,
dredge and fill disposal, lake protection,
loading assessment, wetlands, ocean dis-
posal, ambient toxics monitoring, socioeco-
nomic evaluations, and the Great Lakes and
Chesapeake Bay programs.
Over the next several years we expect a
continued or increased demand for water
quality research. During this period, EPA is
likely to consolidate its programs and:
• Expand enforcement efforts for technol-
ogy-based effluent limitations;
• Expand controls for toxic substances;
• Evaluate those situations where technol-
ogy-based effluent limitations may not
alone be appropriate, either because
water quality goals cannot be achieved or
because they can be achieved with lower
cost alternatives (e.g., Section 301 (h) of
the Clean Water Act);
• Continue evaluation of alternatives for
waste disposal, such as ocean dumping
or placement of dredge spoil;
• Integrate further water quality planning
with water resource management ef-
forts; and
• Continue its actions to protect sensitive
systems such as wetlands.
These activities will require:
• Expanded and more efficient pollutant
measurement methods accompanied by
rigorous quality assurance guidelines;
• Data to support balanced health and
environmental criteria for additional
numbers of toxic pollutants;
• More sophisiticated and definitive meth-
ods for measuring and assessing the
effects of stress on water ecosystems,
including wetlands; and
• More discriminating methods for as-
sessing the impacts on water quality
of alternative pollution management
strategies.
No Growth Scenario. Most research efforts
are likely to remain at their current level or
increase. One area that may see a decrease is
research on management of nonpoint source
discharges, where, over the past decade, we
have developed a number of management and
assessment methods currently coming into
use.
Moderate Growth Scenario. With an
increase of five percent we will expand our
efforts in developing criteria and methods
1) for deciding which water quality situations
would justify deviations from technology-
based effluent standards, primarily in marine
waters; and 2) for selecting and evaluating
projects in which defined water quality goals
for entire watersheds are to be achieved, such
as those projects funded under the Clean
Lakes Program.
High Growth Scenario. Under a high
growth budget we will undertake a major
effort to evaluate the risks to human health
from polluted surface waters. In addition, we
will significantly expand our development
and standardization of measurement
methods, primarily for toxics, as well as
further increase our development and testing
of criteria for achieving water quality goals
through integrated watershed management.
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Wastewaters and Spills
Industrial Wastewater Research
Committee
INDUSTRIAL WASTEWATER
RESEARCH COMMITTEE
Fiscal 1980: $18,443
GROWTH
NO
MODERATE
HIGH
1981
17,634
18,515
1982
17,634
19,441
1983
17,634
20,413
19,397 21,337 23,471 25,818
1984
17,634
21,434
All figures shown in thousands of dollars,
and rounded to the nearest thousand
The Industrial Wastewater Research
Committee oversees research and develop-
ment on industrial effluents, recycle/reuse
options and treatability.
No Growth Scenario. Under this scenario,
research on health effects and marine ecology
will be supported at a very low level. The
industrial program will continue to rely on the
health and marine ecology data being ob-
tained as part of other non-industrial efforts in
the water quality medium. In the short term,
this will also be the case for freshwater
ecology, although in FY82, according to
current projections, freshwater research
specifically tailored to industrial wastewater
will be instituted. Ambient freshwater quality
has become increasingly important in deter-
mining the directions taken in industrial
wastewater high control technology.
Other activities, such as technical support
and quality assurance, are projected at
essentially constant levels. It is anticipated
that moderate resources would be shifted into
the control technology area.
Moderate Growth Scenario. Research
aimed at developing or applying analytical
methods for pollutant characterization will
continue to be important under all scenarios.
To optimize overall use of ORD resources,
the industrial program will, where possible,
obtain such data from other related ORD
water quality programs. Within the industrial
program itself, however, levels of support for
analytical methods and pollutant characteriza-
tion are estimated to remain at a constant level
as need for such information will continue as
new pollutants are introduced into wastewater
streams.
Moderate growth scenario expansion
emphasis is characterized by the increased
support of freshwater ecology and control
technology. Resource support for control
technology will be applied principally to
recycle/reuse solutions to toxic pollutant
problems. The remaining areas of the industr-
ial program would remain comparatively
constant .
High Growth Scenario. In a high growth
situation, the industrial program will expand
on research undertaken in the preceding two
scenarios. Freshwater ecology research will,
for example, receive yet more support.
Primary expansion will, however, be man-
ifest in the control technology area, where
again the focus would be on recycle/reuse
projects. In addition, the level of support for
health effects and marine ecological research
will be increased for those projects targeted at
industrial problems not supported through
other programs.
Municipal Wastewater Research
Committee
MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER
RESEARCH COMMITTEE
Fiscal 1980: $21,551
GROWTH
NO
MODERATE
HIGH
1981
20,931
21,977
1982
20,931
23,076
1983
20,931
24,230
23,024 25,326 27,859 30,645
1984
20,931
25,441
All figures shown in thousands of dollars,
and rounded to the nearest thousand
202
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The research covered under this committee
supports EPA activities in the areas of
municipal wastewater and sludges, oil and
hazardous spills, and response to controlled
hazardous waste disposal sites. This latter
area is currently listed as EPA's top priority
and as such will require a constant level of
research support for all budget options.
No Growth Scenario. Under a no growth
budget, research emphasis will be placed first
on uncontrolled hazardous waste disposal
sites: new or improved sampling and analyt-
ical protocols and methodologies will be
developed; a quality assurance program for all
data developed (in support of enforcement
action against the owners of these sites) will
be established; and existing and proven spills
technologies for remedial action will be
adapted. While effort in the quality assurance
area may not be as intense once the program is
well in place, it is anticipated that work in the
other areas will continue at least at their
current levels throughout the entire five year
period.
In the spills area, efforts will be placed on
hazardous spill prevention, and will focus
only on those prevention techniques shown by
historical data to have the greatest potential
for use. In the municipal wastewater area,
research will deal primarily with the devel-
opment and evaluation of innovative and
alternative technologies with particular
emphasis on energy efficiency and the use of
water treatment systems for pollutant re-
moval.
Moderate Growth Scenario. In addition to
the research activities identified under the no
growth option, a moderate growth budget will
allow EPA to focus greater attention on
hazardous spill prevention and to develop
technologies for the ultimate disposal of
hazardous material residues recovered during
spill cleanup. For municipal wastwater and
sludges, a moderate growth in the budget will
enable the further development and demon-
stration of overland flow wastewater treat-
ment technology. It will also enable resolu-
tion of the health issues associated with the
land application of sludge and will allow for
the development of the data necessary to
recommend environmentally acceptable
management methods for municipal
wastewater sludges.
High Growth Scenario. The research
activities associated with the no and moderate
growth budget options will be greatly ex-
tended under the high growth option. In the
spills area, it will be possible to mount a
progressive program to statistically analyze
historical spill data, then, based on these
results, develop and demonstrate fail-safe
devices for the prevention of spills in those
areas of greatest potential benefit. High
budget growth will also enable an analysis of
the chemical manufacturing, transportation,
and waste disposal industries to determine the
most cost-effective technologies for handling
chemicals and chemical wastes. Results of
this analysis would be used to establish
priorities for the development of prototype
spill prevention techniques and equipment for
these industries.
In the municipal wastewater and sludge
area, high growth in the budget will allow
EPA to address two additional areas identified
as high priority by regulatory programs.
Specifically, EPA would provide expert
technical support and continue development
of new or improved on-site wastewater
management systems. EPA would also de-
velop improved analytical protocols for toxic
materials in municipal wastewater, determine
the fate of toxicants in publicly owned
treatment works, and develop control options
and technologies to limit the discharge of
toxic pollutants to the environment.
Drinking Water
Drinking Water Research Committee
DRINKING WATER RESEARCH
COMMITTEE
Fiscal 1980: $22,546
GROWTH
NO
MODERATE
HIGH
1981
27,446
28,818
1982
27,446
30,259
1983
27,446
31,772
30,191 33,210 36,531 40,184
1984
27,446
33,361
All figures shown in thousands of dollars,
and rounded to the nearest thousand
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The Drinking Water Research Committee
addresses organic, inorganic, and mic-
robiological contaminants in water supplies.
The Committee also addresses ORD's
groundwater research program.
No Growth Scenario. Plans for FY81 call
for an increase in the dedication of resources
to water supplies serving small populations.
The ultimate goal of this effort is to provide
these small systems with information to
evaluate an economical pollution control
capability. To this end, the program will
support the development of cost effective
technology for small systems. The program,
to be conducted at federal facilities, will also
support:
(1) Provision of cost data and information
on treatment methods usable by small
towns;
(2) Development of a program which calls
for multi-community cooperative ar-
rangements;
(3) Evaluation of generic drinking water
treatment systems to allow certification
of such systems.
Since little is known about groundwater
contamination, the major research effort in
this area will initially involve the gathering
and analysis of information. Emphasis will
then be shifted toward establishing a scientific
basis for developing methods to prevent or
ameliorate groundwater contamination.Over
the FY82-84 period, the groundwater re-
search program will focus on four areas:
(1) development of problem assessment
methods; (2) characterization of the behavior
of selected pollutants in the subsurface
environment; (3) development of waste
source control criteria; and (4) transfer of
information to the user community. Under a
no growth budget, the current emphasis on the
health effects of organic contaminants in
drinking water and the methods for their
control will continue.
Moderate Growth Scenario. Under a
moderate growth option, analytical methods
to identify contaminants in drinking water
will be developed or improved as appropriate.
Groundwater research will be used to develop
methods for reclaiming aquifers contami-
nated by toxic chemicals. Greater emphasis
would also be given research into the health
effects of synthetic organics and methods for
their control.
High Growth Scenario. With a high growth
option, the drinking water program will build
on those efforts outlined in the no and
moderate growth scenarios. Additionally,
groundwater research will be accelerated and
efforts aimed at developing more effective
means for identifying abandoned toxic chem-
ical dump sites posing a threat to ground-
waters would be supported.
Owing to the magnitude and complexity of
the problem, health and control technology
efforts will continue to focus on the chemical
contamination of water supplies. Health
effects activities will center on identifying
those compounds and classes of compounds
posing the greatest health risks and on
assessing the potential extent of those risks.
Control technology activity will focus on the
field evaluation of chemical contamination
control systems to establish reliable cost and
operating information.
Solid and Hazardous
Wastes
Solid Waste Research Committee
SOLID WASTE RESEARCH
COMMITTEE
Fiscal 1980: $8,596
GROWTH
NO
MODERATE
HIGH
1981
26,446
27,768
1982
26,446
29,156
1983
26,446
30,614
29,090 31,999 35,199 38,719
1984
26,446
32,145
All figures shown in thousands of dollars,
and rounded to the nearest thousand
The Solid Waste Research Committee
plans research for:
• Control technology for solid waste,
hazardous waste and resource recovery;
• Sampling and analytical methods and
protocols for hazardous waste;
• Hazardous waste risk assessment.
204
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With the possible exception of toxics
research, solid waste research, emphasizing
hazardous waste, should be the major growth
area for EPA over the next five years. The
need for emphasis on hazardous waste re-
search is underlined by such incidents as those
at Love Canal, New York; Kin-Buc, New
Jersey; Toone, Tennessee and LaBounty,
Iowa, which have demonstrated the dramatic
effects that past mismanagement of hazardous
wastes can have. To assure that today's
regulations for hazardous waste management
will avert such problems in the future, it is
essential that the regulations be supported by
an active research program.
For FY81, EPA has developed a budget
initiative for hazardous waste which would
almost double the current level of solid waste
research spending. A key component of this
initiative is the establishment of a program to
develop new or improved sampling and
analytical methodologies and validation
procedures for hazardous waste identifica-
tion. The initiative also calls for the creation
of a quality assurance program to assure the
validity of all data generated. Additionally,
EPA will accelerate its efforts in incinerator
and land disposal research for hazardous
wastes as a result of an amendment to the
FY80 budget and a supplement to the FY81
budget request. Taken together, these ac-
tivities represent the Office of Solid Waste's
highest research priorities.
To compensate for the lack of emphasis
previously given hazardous wastes under
EPA's research program, all funds available
under the three budget growth options for the
next five years will be spent on some aspect of
hazardous waste research (i.e., identification,
disposal and treatment technology, and
effects).Work in the area of nonhazardous
waste, including resource recovery, will, for
the most part, be phased out by FY81 and
would only be resumed if there were a major
increase in solid waste research resources.
No Growth Scenario. Under a no growth
option, hazardous waste identification re-
search during the first two to three years will
emphasize the development of sampling and
analytical protocols, quality assurance and
the evaluation of existing procedures. During
the remaining years of the plan, emphasis will
shift more toward waste characterization,
exposure assessment, and the development of
new sampling and analytical methods. In the
technology area, throughout the five-year
plan, effort will be directed toward develop-
ing a technical information base which can be
used by individuals writing permits for
hazardous waste treatment, storage, and
disposal. Research emphasis here would be
placed primarily on the thermal decomposi-
tion and containment of hazardous waste.
Under the no growth option little or no
attention will be paid to research in hazardous
waste risk assessment.
Moderate and High Growth Scenarios. To
build a broad information base as rapidly as
possible hazardous waste research under
either moderate or high budget growth will
emphasize the same key areas identified for
the no growth option. It may, however, be
possible to focus on waste characterization,
exposure assessment, and the development of
new sampling and analytical methods earlier
in the planning period. In the technology area,
more attention will be paid to hazardous waste
treatment while efforts in the thermal decom-
position and containment areas will be
intensified.
The main beneficiary of increases under
either the moderate or high growth options
would, however, be hazardous waste risk
assessment. Although the level of resources
for this area will be nowhere near those for the
other areas, either option would make it
possible to establish a credible program
dealing with the risks associated with hazard-
ous waste exposures.
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Pesticides
Pesticides Research Committee
PESTICIDES RESEARCH
COMMITTEE
Fiscal 1980: $12,744
GROWTH
NO
MODERATE
HIGH
1981
9,436
9,908
1982
9,436
10,403
1983
9,436
11,443
10,379 11,417 12,559 13,815
1984
9,436
12,015
All figures shown in thousands of dollars,
and rounded to the nearest thousand
Non-Ionizing Radiation
Radiation Research Committee
RADIATION RESEARCH
COMMITTEE
Fiscal 1980: $3,085
GROWTH
NO
MODERATE
HIGH
1981
3,181
3,340
1982
3,181
3,507
1983
3,181
3,683
3,499 3,849 4,234 4,658
1984
3,181
3,867
All figures shown in thousands of dollars,
and rounded to the nearest thousand
No Growth Scenario. Under a no growth
budget, human exposure efforts will be de-
creased. A small effort will be started to sup-
plement environmental exposure studies.
More resources will be applied to research on
biological control methods and teratology and
to the mandatory EPA Quality Assurance
program.
Moderate Growth Scenario. With a mod-
erate growth in resources greater emphasis
could be placed upon: quality assurance for
measurement of pesticides in agricultural
soils, environmental exposure assessments,
and health effects studies.
Development of test procedures for biolog-
ical pesticides will also be emphasized.
High Growth Scenario. Under a high
growth budget, efforts in providing quality
assurance to measurement of pesticides in
urban soils would be added to the program.
Procedures for carrying out exposure studies
will also be developed and validated for use
by industry as part of its required pesticide
registration procedures. Also to be developed
would be short term screening procedures to
reduce the time required for reproductive and
teratology studies.
Program emphasis in the Radiation Re-
search Committee is on the health effects on
non-ionizing radiation.
No Growth Scenario. Over the period
FY82-84, a major shift in this program is
expected because reaching completion will be
a series of projects to determine basic health
effects of environmentally significant fre-
quencies of non-ionizing radiation. Attention
will then logically shift toward research on the
dose-response relationships of such effects
and the effects of lifetime exposure to
resonant frequencies. It is expected that this
shift will be in the animal model portion of the
program.
Moderate Growth Scenario. Increased
levels of support realized in this program will
be directed toward increasing our understand-
ing of the interaction mechanisms that exist
between electromagnetic radiation and bio-
logical systems. Theoretical studies of
mechanisms will be supported and exper-
imental studies of membrane/biopolymer
responses will be accelerated.
High Growth Scenario. Under a high
growth budget, the program efforts outlined
in the first two scenarios will be sustained,
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with increased resources applied primarily in
the area of human studies. For example, it
will be determined whether it is necessary to
replicate a current study of metropolitan area
radio frequency density and cancer incidence;
if replication is needed, the high growth
scenario will permit its support. In addition,
this scenario will permit an expansion of
projected clinical investigations of popula-
tions exposed to relatively high NIR levels.
Noise
(No Research Committee)
NOISE
HEALTH EFFECTS AND CONTROL
TECHNOLOGY
Fiscal 1980: $1,160
GROWTH
NO
MODERATE
HIGH
1981
2,227
2,338
1982
2,227
2,455
1983
2,227
2,578
2,450 2,695 2,964 3,261
1984
2,227
2,707
All figures shown in thousands of dollars,
and rounded to the nearest thousand
The noise research effort is currently
devoted to health effects studies and technol-
ogy development programs which directly
apply to regulatory program needs. It is
administered by EPA's Office of Noise
Abatement and Control.
No Growth Scenario. Under a no growth
option, most funds will be applied to research
on non-auditory physiological health effects
for ultimate use in criteria development.
Some small studies will be undertaken in
sleep disturbance, community response and
noise induced hearing loss. In technology
development programs, primary emphasis
will be placed on surface transportation noise
control.
Moderate Growth Scenario. An increase in
resources for noise research would be applied
to initiatives in non-auditory effects, commu-
nity response studies, sleep disturbance
studies and initial technology related to
industrial machinery noise control.
High Growth Scenario. A high growth
budget would be used to expand the three
priority areas of research: non-auditory
physiological effects, community responses
studies and sleep disturbance studies.In
addition, an effort would be made to conduct
special studies in the area of noise induced
hearing loss. Tests and facilities would be
expanded to maintain a continuing evaluation
and technology validation program covering
emerging technological developments.
Energy
Energy Research Committee
ENERGY RESEARCH COMMITTEE
Fiscal 1980: $101,000
GROWTH
NO
MODERATE
HldH
1981
107,599
112,979
1982
107,599
118,627
1983
107,599
124,559
118,358 130,194 143,214 157,535
1984
107,599
130,787
All figures shown in thousands of dollars,
and rounded to the nearest thousand
The Energy Research Committee addresses
the environmental implications and health
effects from a broad spectrum of means of
producing energy. The energy production
areas of concern include conventional com-
bustion, advanced technologies for using
fossil fuels, and sophisticated technologies
for producing new energy supplies such as
synthetic fuels.
No Growth Scenario. In the near term the
role to be played by synthetic fuels in this
nation will be a significant one. Accordingly,
even with level funding, attention in the
several disciplinary areas which constitute the
energy program will be shifted toward
synthetic fuel study.
In the atmospheric transport and effects
207
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area, for example, the chemical behavior and
physical dispersion characteristics of synfuel
plant plumes will be studied.
In the health effects area, preliminary
knowledge of the hazardous pollutants that
may be generated by synfuels dictates that
epidemiological studies be initiated for
synfuel industry workers. Initial efforts will
key on industrial hygiene and close medical
surveillance of the synfuel workers.
FY 80 sees the initiation of an integrated
program of epidemiological, clinical and
animal inhalation toxicology studies. This
effort will be fine-tuned and will contribute to
the review of ambient air quality standards for
criteria pollutants as required by the 1977
Amendments to the Clean Air Act.
In addition to the health effects of air
pollutants, the health program will also be
concerned with pollutants in the form of
leachates that may contaminate drinking
water supplies. Epidemiological studies
examining the impact of waterborne energy-
related pollutants on human health are already
underway. Under a no growth scenario such
studies will continue. Additional research has
recently been initiated on the environmental
impacts of the use of synthetic fuels and other
new energy technologies. It is expected that
research into the impacts of pollutants from
these synthetic fuel and other energy technol-
ogies will be increased in FY 83/84, as
development of test methodologies and
mitigation procedures for conventional
energy technologies is completed. At this
time, water use and impact sutdies will be
expanded, and the bio-impacts of enhanced
oil and gas recovery and the disposal of
synfuel wastes will be evaluated. Research
will also begin into the reclamation of oil
shale extraction sites.
In the control technology area, the fuel
extraction program will define the environ-
mental problems associated with extraction of
energy resources, including coal, oil shale,
oil and gas for both traditional and advanced
recovery methods. Emphasis will be placed
on western coal development and its impact
on surface and groundwater contamination
and on those technologies close to commer-
cialization which offer near-term, low-risk
opportunities for performance enhancement
and cost reductions.
Current funding levels in the control
technology area will allow for preparation of
synthetic fuels pollution control guidance
documents and the support of control
technology based standards for a few selected
oil shale and coal liquefaction synfuel
technologies.
Moderate Growth Scenario. In this
scenario, emphasis in the health effects area
will be on synfuels, and will include surveil-
lance of synfuel industry workers and an
increase in the effort to develop bioassays for
detection of hazardous synfuel products and
residuals. In addition, human health studies
into the effects of air pollution from fossil fuel
combustion will be expanded.
In the atmospheric transport and effects
area, a moderate growth scenario allows for
the acceleration of two efforts: synfuels and
acid deposition. The nature of the synfuels
effort was discussed in the no growth
scenario. In light of projections that nitric acid
will account for an increasing proportion of
the acids in acid deposition, research efforts
would concentrate on the elucidation of NOX
atmospheric transformation processes.
The environmental effects area would
support studies on the biological impacts
associated with the increased use of water for
energy technologies. The work will be
performed for basin-wide regions. Added
resources would also allow for the develop-
ment of water use optimization schemes for
conventional and new energy technologies. In
addition, field studies involving the environ-
mental effects of acid precipitation will be
expanded to provide a more complete under-
standing of the impact of this phenomenon on
terrestrial ecosystems.
In the control technology area, beyond
those efforts highlighted in the no growth
option, fuel extraction studies would be
performed to assess the impact of solution
mining techniques for uranium extraction.
Studies will also evaluate control technology
for secondary and tertiary on-shore oil and gas
production facilities.
The expansion of the conventional combus-
tion program will allow for the development
and evaluation of nitrogen oxide control
technologies for sources other than utility and
industrial boilers. Also, enhanced funding
will permit development of technologies
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which could help abate the urban particulate
problem by controlling emissions from paved
and unpaved roads and other non-stack
sources.
Additionally, expansion of the synfuels
control technology program will allow for the
publication of pollution control guidance
documents and will permit development of
the data base for technology-based standards
for all major synthetic fuel processes in the
areas of oil shale, coal liquefaction and coal
gasification.
High Growth Scenario. In the health
effects area, a high growth option will most
significantly accelerate EPA's effort to
determine the hazards associated with the
synthetic fuels industry. Included in this
research would be the detailed and long-term
epidemiological study of workers in those
countries where various emerging synfuel
technologies are already in use. A high
growth budget will also permit expansion of
animal toxicology studies with synfuel
products, by-products and residuals. Such
studies could be carried out both in the worker
population and for the population at large.
In the atmospheric transport and effects
area, the research effort to determine rates of
dry deposition of atmospheric pollution will
be accelerated. Such information is needed
for the development of valid air pollutant
dispersion models.
In the environmental effects area, a high
growth option will allow building on those
research activities described in the moderate
growth scenario. Specific activities will
involve an accelerated synthetic fuels pro-
gram to include an FY81/83 evaluation of the
environmental impacts associated with de-
velopment of enhanced oil and gas recovery
technologies and those impacts surrounding
disposal of synfuel wastes. Through this
accelerated effort, the program should, by
FY83, be able to provide assessment proce-
dures and protocols for evaluating the impacts
of synfuel technologies. The early reprog-
ramming of resources in FY83 will provide
additional funds for research into the terrest-
rial and aquatic effects of acid precipitation
and will also allow for the expansion of heavy
metals research into the ecological effects of
wastes from surface mining activities.
The control technology area will build on
those efforts described in the moderate
growth scenario. Studies on fuel extraction
will also be performed to determine both the
adequacy of control methods and the envi-
ronmental problems posed by the extraction
of natural gas from unconventional sources,
including tight sands, Devonian shales and
geopressurized reservoirs.
Efforts in the conventional combustion
program will include evaluation and devel-
opment of far-term technologies still at the
bench or small-pilot scale level but that offer
major performance improvement potential
within the next 5 to 10 years. Two current
techonologies with such potential are cataly-
tic combustion and pulverized coal NOX/SOX
control through burner modification and
alkali addition.
An increased level of resources for synfuels
control technology would allow for the
development of a more comprehensive and
reliable data base for the preparation of
guidance documents and standards. Ad-
ditional synfuel facilities could be tested and
assessed and the control technology test
program expanded.
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Anticipating
Environmental Problems
Anticipatory Research
ANTICIPATING
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
Fiscal 1980: $14,600
GROWTH
NO
MODERATE
HIGH
1981
14,745
15,482
1982
14,745
16,257
1983
14,745
17,069
16,220 17,842 19,626 21,588
1984
14,745
17,923
All figures shown in thousands of dollars,
and rounded to the nearest thousand
The Anticipatory Research Program was
instructed in 1978 to : (1) identify and
characterize emerging problems before
serious environmental crises occur; (2)
develop approaches for investigating long-
term problems; and (3) conduct basic studies
needed to support applied research activities.
Given the anticipatory and exploratory
character of this research, the pattern of the
program's budget is one of transition as the
anticipatory and exploratory mix changes and
as the identification and characterization of
emerging problems lead to new priorities
being identified.
No Growth Scenario. Under a no growth
budget, this pattern would continue, with the
introduction of newly identified emerging
problems limited by the resources made
available when projects are completed and/or
a research effort is transferred to another
research program. For example, in the FY81
budget, some activities within the areas of
freshwater fate studies, marine science and
cancer research were considered to be suffi-
ciently well developed to be transferred to the
toxics medial budget. Special studies dealing
with acid rain, biological monitoring and
economic benefits research will remain at
current levels.
The program would emphasize further
problem identification and assessment. Based
on current knowledge, high priority topics
include recombinant DNA and biotechnolo-
gies, the effects of environmental pollution on
the aging process and tracing the lifecycle of
dangerous substances.
Moderate Growth Scenario. Under this
scenario, research dealing with the deposition
of dry acidic materials would be accelerated
and an expanded assessment of acid rain
problems beyond the Northeast could be
developed. The economic benefits program
would be expanded to include studies of
"incidents" such as Love Canal and the
aesthetic/ recreational benefits of water
pollution control activities.
High Growth Scenario. Under a high
growth budget, research on topics requiring
long-term studies would be initiated; empha-
sis would be on expanded studies of basic
phenomenon of interest to the mission of the
EPA. Expanded studies of the long-term
impact of chemical poisons on soils, of
neurotoxicological and behavioral effects on
humans, and of pollutant effects on terrestrial
wildlife could be initiated. The scope of
projects undertaken in FY79/80 at the univer-
sity research centers could be expanded as the
results of earlier studies identify new avenues
of research.
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APPENDIX B
INTERAGENCY COORDINATION
Research Outlook 1980 outlines EPA's
five year environmental research and devel-
opment plan. However, these planned efforts,
directed to satisfy the research needs of
EPA's mission, account only for approximately
one-quarter of all federally funded environ-
mental research; the remaining three-quarters
is being performed by agencies other than
EPA.
ORD recognizes the need to coordinate its
research activities with those carried out by
other federal agencies. Duplication of work
must be avoided, research products must be
mutually utilized, and expertise must be
shared. Simply stated, all federally sponsored
environmental research efforts should sup-
plement and complement one another. To this
end, ORD coordinates its efforts with over 40
federal agencies through either committee
activities or joint research. We consider this
coordination to be extremely valuable and
plan to continue, and in some cases
strengthen, these bonds in the future.
While space does not permit discussion of
each interagency project, the following
activities are included in Research Outlook
1980 to provide a flavor of the type of joint
research efforts in which ORD engages. For
the most part, these efforts have recently been
initiated, attesting to the fact that cooperation
in the environmental research field is strong
and dynamic.
National Toxicology
Program
EPA has recently started substantive
participation in the National Toxicology
Program (NTP). The broad goal of this
program is to strengthen the Department of
Health, Education and Welfare's activities in
the testing of chemicals of public health
concern, as well as in the development and
validation of new and better integrated test
methods. Specific goals for the program are
to:
• Broaden toxicological characterization
of those chemicals being tested
• Increase the rate of chemical testing,
within the limits of available resources
• Develop and begin to validate a series of
protocols more appropriate for regu-
latory needs
At present, research under NTP is carried out
for the Food and Drug Administration (FDA),
the National Cancer Institute (NCI), the
Center for Disease Control/National Institute
for Occupational Safety and Health (GDI/
NIOSH), and the National Institute of Envi-
ronmental Health Sciences (NIEHS). For the
FY 79 program these federal agencies dedi-
cated a total of $41,000,000.
Development and approval of an annual
plan are central to the effective planning,
coordination and operation of the National
Toxicology Program.
The program's annual plan includes:
• Current toxicology testing capacity (i.e.,
dollars, positions, and space) and how
that capacity is utilized.
• Amount of test capacity that may be
available in the coming year.
• Plans for test development and validation
of test systems that take into account
research opportunities and needs.
One of the major objectives of the NTP is to
develop and validate those new or improved
toxicological methods required by regulatory
agencies. An additional objective is to ensure
the efficient and proper toxicological evalua-
tion of substances that may pose a threat to the
public health and which, therefore, may
require regulation. These substances have
already been identified and prioritized by the
Executive Committee, on which EPA and
other chemical regulatory agencies actively
participate, and several areas of research in
methods development and validation consid-
ered of central importance to the research and
the regulatory agencies have been specified.
Thus, it is expected that major NTP objectives
will begin to see immediate realization.
Through the National Toxicology Pro-
gram, regulatory agencies also have the
opportunity for more direct input in determin-
ing which compounds are to be selected for
the NCI carcinogenesis bioassay testing
program. We believe that this is extremely
important since federal statutes such as the
Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA), the
Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetics Act
(FFDCA), the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide
and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA), and the Clean
211
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Air Act (CAA) already direct industry to
perform routine testing of most compounds.
The involvement of regulatory agencies in the
selection process will thus help assure that the
chemicals addressed by NTP are only those
that are not already required by law to be
tested by industry, and that the use of NTP
personnel, facilities and monies is optimized.
National Center for
Toxicological Research
(NCTR)
For the past several years, EPA has been
providing resources to the NCTR for the
upgrading and expansion of their testing
facilities. These sophisticated long-term
testing facilities may be used for testing those
chemicals for which there are likely to be no
proposed test rules. Low production chemi-
cals could be tested to increase available
toxicological data, which, when appropriate,
could then be applied to high production
chemicals for which little data exists. NCTR
will enable us to expand our chemical data
base and provide services for which there are
currently no facilities within the ORD.
Task Force on
Environmental Cancer
and Heart and
Lung Disease
The Task Force on Environmental Cancer
and Heart and Lung Disease, established by
Public Law 95-95, provides a focal point for a
concerted attack on the national problems of
environmentally-related cancer, and heart
and lung disease. Congress directed the Task
Force to recommend comprehensive research
programs that would: 1) quantify the relation-
ship between environmental pollution and
human cancer, heart and lung disease, and 2)
reduce the risk and incidence of such dis-
eases. In addition, Congress directed the Task
Force to stimulate cooperation among federal
agencies, coordinate all relevant research,
and report annually to Congress on the
progress and difficulties in reaching these
objectives.
The Task Force, chaired by EPA, is
composed of representatives from the Na-
tional Cancer Institute; National Heart, Lung
and Blood Institute; National Institute for
Occupational Safety and Health; National
Institute of Environmental Health Sciences;
National Center for Health Statistics; Center
for Disease Control; and the Food and Drug
Administration. Since the Task Force's
inception, ORD has actively participated on
the formal Task Force, as well as on its
Working Group and in project goups as well.
Over this period, Task Force efforts have
focused on:
• Standardization of measurements and
tests
• Evaluation of the public and health
professionals
• Exposure and metabolic mechanisms
• Information exchange
In 1979, the Task Force published a directory
of interagency groups working in environ-
mental health, listed data bases for federal
research programs, assisted in the develop-
ment of plans for the collection of environ-
mental health data, and identified and
classified the relevant funding of each
member agency.
ORD participation in these efforts will
continue.
Acid Rain
Coordination Committee
Recognizing the potential seriousness of
the acid rain problem, the President in his
Second Environmental Message to Congress
in August 1979 called for a minimum $10
million per year to be spent on acid rain
research over the next ten years. In response,
an interagency Acid Rain Coordination
Committee was recently established, co-
chaired by EPA and the Department of
Agriculture, to plan and coordinate the
overall federal research effort. ORD is
currently woking closely with the other
involved agencies in the development of this
plan.
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Interagency Committee
for Stratospheric Ozone
Protection (ICSOP)
The Interagency Committee for Stratos-
pheric Ozone Protection, established under
the Clean Air Act, consists of representatives
of twelve federal agencies engaged in various
aspects of research and monitoring related to
the stratosphere, especially stratospheric
ozone. The ICSOP is chaired by the EPA
Assistant Administrator for Research and
Development. Three ICSOP subcommittees
deal with: (1) atmospheric sciences, (2) health
effects, and (3) biological and ecological
effects that pertain to stratospheric ozone and
ultraviolet radiation. Research plans have
been developed by these subcommittees and
recommended to the federal government as
fruitful pursuits that will fill important
knowledge gaps and will improve data
quality. The recommended plans will also
reduce data uncertainties, thereby strengthen-
ing the scientific base that supports policy
decisions. The research recommendations are
currently being evaluated.
Interagency Task Force
on Environmental Data
and Monitoring
In his 1977 environmental message, the
President called attention to deficiencies in
the nation's environmental data and monitor-
ing programs.These deficiencies included
inadequate monitoring design, poor quality
data assurance, poor coordination, and
insufficient data and analytical information
for environmental assessments, policy devel-
opment and program evaluation.
To help overcome the deficiencies, the
Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ)
established an Interagency Task Force com-
posed of representatives from CEQ, the
Council of Economic Advisors, and the 17
federal departments or agencies responsible
for environmental data and monitoring
programs. EPA, with its large programs in air
and water quality monitoring, was an active
participant in the Task Force. The participa-
tion included preparation of an inventory of
monitoring programs and a review of
previously-identified issues including an
analysis of the issues. A Task Force report to
be released shortly calls for improved coordi-
nation and makes specific recommendations
for quality assurance and data systems.
Committee on Ocean
Pollution Research and
Development and
Monitoring
In May 1978, President Carter signed
Public Law 95-273 — the National Ocean
Pollution Research and Development and
Monitoring Planning Act. This Act required
that the Executive Branch "establish a
comprehensive 5-year plan for federal ocean
pollution research and development and
monitoring programs in order to provide
planning for, coordination of, and dissemina-
tion of information with respect to such
programs within the federal government."
Specifically, this plan must include a
detailed inventory of existing federal pro-
grams, an assessment and ordering of national
needs and problems, and an analysis of the
extent to which existing programs assist in
meeting these priorities. The plan must also
include recommendations for changes in the
overall federal effort where deemed neces-
sary, and a report on budget coordination
efforts. The Administrator of the National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
(NOAA) is responsible for preparing the plan,
after consultation with the President's Office
of Science and Technology Policy and other
federal agencies involved in ocean pollution
research, development, and monitoring
activities.
An interagency Committee on Ocean
Pollution Research, Development, and
Monitoring (COPRDM), created in June
1978 by the President's Federal Coordinating
Council for Science, Engineering, and
Technology, was responsible for gathering
and analyzing most of the information re-
quired for preparation of the first federal plan.
NOAA's Deputy Administrator served as
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chairman of COPRDM, EPA's Assistant
Administrator for Research and Development
was Vice Chairman. Four working subcom-
mittees formed by COPRDM developed
specific portions of the 5-year federal plan.
The subcommittees were: (1) National Needs
and Problems; (2) Research and Develop-
ment; (3) Monitoring; and (4) Data Collec-
tion, Storage, and Distribution. In addition to
EPA involvement on these subcommittes, the
Agency was also represented on the Federal
Plan Task Force, established to develop the
first federal plan which has its basis in the
subcommittee reports.
The second federal plan is due to Congress
by February 15, 1981. The interagency
Committee and its newly organized staff (on
which EPA is represented) are currently
working to meet this mandated deadline.
Over the next year, EPA and the other federal
agencies on COPRDM will each develop a
prospectus of their five-year plans for ocean
pollution research. A series of workshops will
also be held to critique the federal plan and to
convey the comments to the public.
Intergovernmental
Science, Engineering, and
Technology Advisory
Panel (ISETAP)
The Office of Science and Technology
Policy (OSTP) and the Intergovernmental
Science, Engineering, and Technology Advi-
sory Panel (ISETAP) staff, with substantial
assistance from the ORD, have recently
issued a report that summarizes the problems
of hazardous waste management and outlines
the scientific and technical needs for better
addressing the waste problems. In the report,
ISETAP identifies hazardous waste manage-
ment to be one of the highest priority prob-
lems faced by state and local governments.
The report recommends what existing knowl-
edge should be applied and what research and
technology development should be under-
taken over the next five years (FY 80-84) to
achieve significantly more effective man-
agement of hazardous wastes.
If recommendations with near-term impli-
cations were to be implemented, according to
the report, improvements in handling existing
waste disposal sites — determining those
which pose the greatest threats and the nature
of their threat—could occur rapidly. Other
report recommendations with longer-term
implications include: 1) a call for improved
procedures and data to define wastes and
waste sites in terms of degree of hazard they
pose to human health and the environment; 2)
new and improved technologies for destroy-
ing or detoxifying future waste streams as
well as mixtures of wastes already in ' 'prob-
lem '' sites; 3) criteria for siting new facilities;
and 4) an environmental research center
dedicated to hazardous waste.
In preparing this report, OSTP reviewed
federal hazardous waste research activities;
drew on the results of eight workshops that
involved extensive participation by more than
100 scientists, engineers, and representatives
of all levels of government; interviewed
numerous state and local representatives and
analyzed survey responses from fifty states
and eight-one cities and countries; commis-
sioned five papers; and visited several of the
ORD laboratories which fund virtually all of
EPA's hazardous waste research activities.
To date, the cooperation which has taken
place between EPA.OSTP, and ISETAP has
provided EPA researchers with unique and
valuable insights into solid and hazardous
waste problems and research needs, insights
that are now being integrated into EPA's
research efforts in this area. EPA plans to
continue to seek input from OSTP and
ISETAP both to structure its own research
program as well as to review the products of
the interagency effort.
Integrated Pest
Management:
Cooperation with USDA
and the Interagency
Task Force
ORD has been actively coordinating the
Integrated Pest Management Research Pro-
gram with other federal agencies since the
inception of the program in 1972. That years *
President's Environmental Message initiated
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the first major IPM research program, known
as the Huffaker Project, funded by EPA, the
U.S. Department of Agriculture and the
National Science Foundation. This particular
project has recently been completed and the
major findings will soon be reported in an
IPM textbook. Coordination with the USDA
is continuing, however, on several other
smaller IPM projects, including work on
international activities.
A major new effort to improve coordina-
tion and communications with USDA is now
underway. To assure that two new major
EPA-initiated IPM research programs—the
first a fifteen-university consortium studying
apples, alfalfa, soybean, and cotton; the
second a six-university consortium studying
the control of mosquitos in riceland — are
fully coordinated with USDA, a joint man-
agement and funding agreement has been
developed with the USDA's Science and
Education Administration (USDA-SEA). In
the near-term, this agreement allows for the
joint management and co-funding of the
15-University Four Crop IPM Consortium
Project. USDA-SEA will provide $1.5M to
match EPA's $ 1.5M for the third year of this
project (FY 1981 budget). In addition, USDA
will provide personnel to serve on a project
overview and review team to assure that the
project is fully coordinated with USDA's
research, extension and education activities.
A similar management team will also be
established for the rice/mosquito consortium
project.
Coordination of
Energy Research
An important segment of the energy/
environment program is carried out by
agencies other than EPA:
The National Institute of Environmental
Health Sciences
The National Institute of Occupational
Safety and Health
The Department of Energy
The National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration
The Tennessee Valley Authority
The National Aeronautics and Space
Administration
The Department of the Interior
The Department of Agriculture
The National Bureau of Standards
Over the years, these agencies have devel-
oped a working partnership for the efficient
planning and carrying out of the interagency
energy program. The upshot of this effort is
that today differing agencies with differing
perspectives are able to work together to
address a set of problems which are and will
continue to be of great national significance.
Each agency brings to the partnership its own
special combination of facilities and experts,
which, in concert, have resulted in the design
of a program that encompasses the many
facets of America's energy future, with
interagency cooperation particularly strong in
the areas of health and environmental effects.
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APPENDIX C
GLOBAL ISSUES AND INTERNATIONAL
COOPERATION
The Environmental Protection Agency
recognizes the need to protect our nation from
pollution generatedl)y neighboring countries,
as well as the need to join others in protecting
the global commons. We therefore engage in
a variety of international activities aimed at
abating transboundary and global pollution,
and at obtaining technology and expertise for
the solution of domestic problems.
The Office of Research and Development
often plays an important role in these en-
deavors. We are called upon to lend our
expertise and provide technical assistance in a
wide variety of cases—ranging from monitor-
ing air and water quality to working with
foreign governments to design environmental
control legislation and regulations.
This international cooperation has also
provided us with the opportunity to learn from
others, most significantly in the area of
environmental control technology develop-
ment. In several countries, this technology
has reached a more advanced stage than in the
United States. Our expanded knowledge of
these advances has helped us to avoid dup-
licating technology development. It has also
enabled us to determine those best available
technologies which truly reflect the state of
the art in pollution control.
Working in cooperation with foreign
nations has also provided us unique oppor-
tunities for the gathering of environmental
information. For example, we are learning a
great deal about acid rain from Canada and the
Scandinavian countries, and our study of the
unfortunate release of dioxin in Seveso, Italy
continues to provide us with important
epidemiological data on the effects of this
highly toxic chemical.
Domestic environmental concerns have
been traditionally reflected in the type and
amount of research and development dedi-
cated to international activities. Most coun-
tries cite air pollution as the most pervasive
nationwide environmental problem; con-
sequently international air quality studies
receive the most resources, followed by water
quality, toxic substances, and hazardous
wastes. The importance placed on toxic
substances control is clearly illustrated by the
fact that such activity is the focal point for
much research.
Globally, the U.S. research interfaces most
heavily with the industrialized countries of
Europe, particularly Norway, France, Ger-
many, Sweden, the Netherlands and Great
Britain. This European emphasis becomes
even more pronounced when the multilateral
environmental organizations of which we are
a member are taken into account, as the
Economic Commission for Europe (ECE),
and NATO's Committee on the Challenges of
Modern Society (CCMS), are essentially
European communities. Our involvement
with Canada and Mexico reflects our mutual
need to deal with common border issues. In
Asia, we have a major commitment with
Japan. Our involvement with Egypt, India,
Pakistan and Poland stems primarily from the
availability of Special Currency Funds in
those countries.
Global Issues and
Research and
Development
Involvement
A number of environmental research and
development issues are and will remain in the
forefront of EPA's international research
effort over the next several years. The
following topics are meant to give a flavor of
the many and diverse areas in which we will
be involved. They do not by any means, how-
ever, represent our entire research and devel-
opment international cooperative efforts.
The Long Range
Transport of Acid Rain
The movement of air pollution across
national boundaries is one of the most
significant environmental issues being dealt
with on the international level, as evidenced
by the attention being given today to the
environmental problems associated with acid
rain. Acidity measurements and studies
conducted by Scandinavian countries since
1970 have confirmed the correlation between
the transport, transformation, and deposition
of sulfates and nitrates and the high acidity in
Swedish and Norwegian rivers and lakes. The
exact sources of the emissions causing this
problem have not been pinpointed; however,
sources in Great Britain, West Germany,
216
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Poland and other parts of Europe have been
implicated.
The acid rain phenomenon has sub-
sequently been identified in other parts of
Europe as well as in the United States. (See
chapter 4, "Air.") The most significant
international aspect of the problem is that, due
to the long range transport of pollutants, the
amount of pollution falling in one country is
often determined by the pollution control
policies of another. Thus, resolution of the
problem requires that first all parties involved
must understand the scope of the problem and
the costs and benefits to each country in
controlling it. Secondly, the parties must then
mutually agree to develop a joint program to
control sources that contribute to the problem.
To take even the first step requires both a
substantial research effort to develop quan-
titative relationships between the emissions,
their transport, and the fate of the acid rain, as
well as an extensive analysis of the damages-
versus-abatement costs inherent in different
international solutions. To this end, we will
continue to work with the ECE on the control
of long range transport of air pollution and
with Canada on joint studies of acid rain
transport and on talks leading to air quality
agreements.
Global Atmospheric
Pollution
Certain substances, though relatively
innocuous in isolation, pose major environ-
mental threats as a result of their ability to
modify the atmosphere. When such modifica-
tion occurs, the amount or the nature of solar
radiation reaching the earth's surface may be
altered with ensuing highly serious effects.
(See chapter 4, "Air.") Nowhere can this be
more graphically illustrated than in the
"greenhouse effect" theory that many have
suggested will be the future result of increas-
ing concentrations of CO2 in the atmosphere,
an increase that correlates with the expanded
combustion of 'fossil fuels over the last
century. The atmospheric concentrations of
CO2, according to the theory, may prevent
sunlight which falls on the earth and is
converted to infrared wavelengths from
radiating back into space. This, in turn, raises
the average temperature of the earth, which
results in climate changes and in the possible
melting of the ice-caps.
While there is sound thinking behind this
theory, it is difficult, however, to prove that
the events it foretells will come to pass.
Currently, it is not clear what natural mecha-
nisms may yet come into play to counteract
further increases in CO2 concentrations. It has
been suggested, for example, that absorption
in the ocean or increased plant growth may
well keep CO2 from reaching significantly
higher levels. There are also questions about
the effectiveness of atmospheric CO2 in
blocking infrared radiation. And finally,
because of the complexity of the earth's
weather system it is difficult to measure an
average temperature of the globe; the only
available data, in fact, indicating a slight
cooling rather than a warming trend, possibly
attributable to changes in sunspot activity or
the presence of fine paniculate matter in the
air.
If, however, the CO2 buildup does prove to
have serious consequences, it will require
major worldwide coordination of the fuel
combustion process. And because it would be
impractical to scrub CO2 from exhaust gases,
as is now being done with SO2, control would
necessitate drastic changes in combustion
techniques. One alternative may be to switch
from the use of coal, natural gas, and oil to
non-hydrocarbon sources of energy such as
solar power and nuclear energy.
Our international activities in this area will
focus on the following:
• United Nations Environment Program
(UNEP) in concert with the U. S. Climate
Research Program. In particular, studies
to gain a better understanding of the
interactions between CO2, climate pro-
cesses, and the impact of climate var-
iability in order to more accurately assess
the consequences of possible CO2
build-up.
• International Council of Scientific Union
(ICSU) SCOPE program to examine the
carbon cycle.
Stratospheric Ozone
(See also chapter 4, 'Air")
A related problem concerns the effects of
man's activities on the ozone layer in the
217
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stratosphere. This protective layer now
prevents certain potentially hazardous solar
radiated ultraviolet wavelengths from reach-
ing the earth, but were it to be reduced, a
predicted increase in the incidence of human
skin cancer might occur. Plant growth,
ecosystems and organisms, and climate might
also be adversely affected.
The major agents to impact on the ozone
layer that rise from man's activities are
halocarbons (notably freon) and, to a lesser
extent, chemical fertilizers. In light of a
recently released National Academy of
Sciences report, "Stratospheric Ozone De-
pletion by Halocarbons," which indicates
increased scientific confidence that halocar-
bons do reduce stratospheric ozone and a
companion report, "Protection Against
Depletion of Stratospheric Ozone by Chlorof-
luorocarbons," which indicates adverse
health, ecological and climatic effects from
ozone depletion, the immediate issue is that
action must be taken to reduce emissions;
international cooperation will be required.
Our ozone activities will include participation
through UNEP in the international scientific
community to increase and disseminate
knowledge about stratospheric ozone deple-
tion and to make recommendations about
reducing the use of halocarbons,, especially as
aerosol propellants.
Toxic Substances Testing
and Control
The passage of the Toxic Substances
Control Act (TSCA), which establishes a
mandatory system for the testing and certifi-
cation of chemicals, evidenced our national
concern over the control of toxic substances.
Because the legislation applies equally to
domestic production and to imports, it is of
international significance. Nations exporting
chemicals and chemical goods to the U.S.
must thus adhere to specific standards if their
American markets are to remain open to
them. As a corollary, TSCA helps guard
against the export of banned toxic substances
to less developed countries, which may lack
the necessary regulatory protection.
Our international toxic substances testing
and control research efforts will focus princi-
pally on test development, safe disposal and
clean-up methods, and health effects. We will
be working primarily with the following
organizations and countries:
• OECD — the principal international
forum for toxic substances control
• Japan and Germany (and other indus-
trialized nations) — to compare
epidemiological data
• France—to develop quick and reliable
toxicity tests for screening new products
• CCMS—to study methods for handling
and disposing of hazardous wastes
• International Maritime Consultative
Organization (IMCO)—to regulate the
incineration of toxic substances at sea
• Japan — to develop technology for
dredging bottom sediments containing
toxic substances
• WHO—to develop health effects criteria
documents and a new chemical safety
program
• UNEP —for the International Register
for Potentially Toxic Chemicals
• Italy—to follow the progress of clean-up
from the Seveso dioxin spill.
Marine Resources
The last few decades have seen fundamen-
tal changes in the way man uses and impacts
upon the living and inanimate resources of the
sea. Growing populations and increased
demand coupled with advances in commer-
cial fishing technology have led to intensified
exploitation of fisheries. The continued
exhaustion of land-based oil resources has
resulted in the development of a major
off-shore oil industry. Serious consideration
is now also being given to mining the deep sea
bed for manganese and other minerals.
Finally, accelerated ocean transport of oil and
other materials has greatly increased the
frequency of harmful spills.
Beyond the problems posed in maintaining
stocks of commercial fisheries, we must
ensure that the yield of these fisheries remains
fit for human consumption. It is known, for
example, that many aquatic and marine
species, such as mollusks, can accumulate
and concentrate trace quantities of metals or
toxic substances to levels which threaten
human health. The movement of these species
ignores national boundaries, making it a
problem of international scope.
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The exploitation of ocean resources can
also raise issues that require worldwide
cooperation and control. Only,recently, for
example, a catastrophic runaway of the Ixtocl
oil well in Mexico's Bay of Campeche created
an oil spill which eventually washed up on
United States shores. The intensive multina-
tional drilling in the North Sea, whose waters
touch the shores of Norway, France, Den-
mark, Germany, the Netherlands, and the
United Kingdom, also creates the potential
for a severe ecological disaster with signifi-
cant international ramifications. Clearly,
then, such operations must be carried out in a
way that minimizes the chances for such
disasters.
Mining the sea bed also raises the potential
for environmental damage, though it is
uncertain how such damage would be man-
ifest. One possible effect of tampering with
the ocean bottom might be an alteration in the
overall productivity of seas; however, much
remains to be learned about the sensitivity of
this ecosystem. It is also thought that the
large-scale disturbance of bottom sediments
might affect pelagic fish life or temperature
and current patterns.
Also posing a threat of international scope
is the growing ocean-going trade of petroleum
and other chemicals. Large-scale accidental
spills such as those recently involving the
supertankers Amoco Cadiz and the Argo
Merchant have significantly disrupted local
ecosystems, and raised significant public
concern.
Focal points for our marine research are:
• CCMS—Pilot study on management of
estuarine problems using the Chesa-
peake Bay and determining problems
associated with competing uses
• IMCO—Regulations to prevent tanker
spills
• Intergovernmental Oceanographic
Commission (IOC) — International
exchange of oceanographic data
• Intergovernmental Council for Explora-
tion of the Seas (ICES)—Special studies,
e.g. environmental impacts of the
Amoco Cadiz spill
• Group of Experts on the Scientific
Aspects of Marine Pollution (GES AMP)
—Special studies, e.g. vessel discharges
of hazardous chemicals.
Environmental Data
Systems
Before international action can be taken to
protect the environment, it is essential that the
true state of the environment be established.
Consequently, a large part of our international
monitoring effort will focus on the develop-
ment of monitoring equipment, the design of
monitoring networks, and the calibration of
instruments.
The ultimate success of such an effort will
depend, in part, on the compatibility of data
collected from different countries; thus the
techniques and instruments used to measure a
given pollutant must be standard so results
from different locations can be compared.
Historically, this has not always been the
case. For example, British methods of
measuring particulates are based on opacity or
particle density as compared to United States
measurements based on particulate mass.
This lack of standard technique has made it
difficult to make mutual use of data generated
in related health effect studies.
An effective monitoring network is capable
of providing a true picture of pollutant
problems over a wide area. The design of such
networks will be a future cooperative interna-
tional research and development effort, and
will work toward improving the present
distorted worldwide pollution picture brought
about by the clustering of monitoring stations
near urban concentrations and in but a few
countries.
A related problem involves finding loca-
tions where baseline measurements can be
taken to establish the natural background
levels of pollutants. Such levels reflect only
those pollutants generated through natural
processes such as photosynthesis or volcanic
eruptions. It is, however, difficult to find
places uncontaminated by man-made pollut-
ants, and many such measurements are now
being made at mid-ocean, or in the remote
interiors of continental land masses.
Future cooperation will involve:
• CCMS—A pilot study led by France on
the remote sensing of marine pollution
• UNEP — Participation in the Global
Environmental Monitoring System
(GEMS) which aims for the establish-
ment of at least one major monitoring
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station per country (through collabora-
tion with WHO and WMO)
• Federal Republic of Germany—Estab-
lishment of standard biological material
specimens for experiments measuring
the accumulation of pollutants.
Desertification and
Deforestation
Desertification is the process by which,
usually through man's activities, fertile land
loses its ability to support plant and animal
life.
A classic example of desertification is now
taking place in the Sahel, the southern fringe
of the Sahara desert, where recent drought has
combined with overgrazing to destroy the
ground cover necessary to keep soil in place.
Topsoil is thus being blown away and is
gradually being replaced by sand. Similar
desertification took place in the American
Midwest during the 1930's, when drought
combined with intensive and inappropriate
agriculture to produce the Dust Bowl.
The problem of desertification is particu-
larly prevalent in developing countries. Here,
medical advances have resulted in explosive
population growth; at the same time, old
farming methods, which were in harmony
with the land, are giving way to more
aggressive forms of agriculture to feed this
population. The result is a vicious cycle
where inhabitants are overusing land to
provide sustenance for more mouths, yet
while doing so, losing more and more of this
land to desertification.
Deforestation is a quite similar phenome-
non, occurring when man overtaxes the
forests for fuel and wood, and for grazing for
animals. Subsequent loss of land cover
increases erosion which, in turn, reduces the
ability of the land to retain moisture during
dry spells.
With proper techniques, desertification and
deforestation can be controlled or even
reversed. More needs to be known, however,
about the ways that ecosystems sustain
themselves, and better techniques for fore-
casting variations in these ecosystems must be
developed.
Our efforts will focus on the following:
• Egypt—Development and verification of
the computer model SAMDENE, which
predicts the effect of climatic variables
on desert growth
• Mexico—Methods to abate the increas-
ing salinity of the Colorado River
(caused by irrigation and other with-
drawals in the United States) as it flows
across the border
• CCMS — Pilot study led by France to
improve our hydrological forecasting
capabilities.
Radioactive Waste
Management
As more nations turn to nuclear power as an
energy source, the issue of the safe disposal of
nuclear wastes will become increasingly
important. This is a multi-faceted issue that
involves both the management of spent
nuclear fuel and the disposal of high- or
low-level wastes. A significant corollary to
the radioactive waste problem is that since
some nuclear material from the wastes could
be used in weapons, secure and cost-effective
management alternatives could well lessen
the likelihood of the unauthorized prolifera-
tion of such weapons.
At present, there is a steadily growing
accumulation of spent fuel at operating
nuclear power plants. In the very near future,
the amount of this spent fuel will exceed the
storage space available at reactors. It will then
be necessary to either move it offsite to
reprocessing plants, to find interim storage,
or to see to its ultimate disposal. Each of these
options involves that major precautions be
taken to protect the environment.
The proper handling of high- or low-level
wastes is also vital to protecting the environ-
ment. These radioactive by-products of
nuclear power generation are classified
depending primarily on the intensity of their
radiation levels. High-level waste, although
very small in physical volume, requires heavy
shielding and remote handling. It must be
kept in isolation for thousands of years before
its radioactivity decays to ambient levels.
While there are currently several disposal
options available that make use of stable
geological structures, the option selected in
220
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the United States, however, must also satisfy
specific environmental criteria now under
development.
This problem of high-level waste is interna-
tional in scope. Suitable geological structures
for disposal may exist only in a few places
around the globe. Countries possessing only
one or two reactors may find it uneconomical
to develop their own natural disposal facili-
ties. Finally, the improper disposal of nuclear
wastes in one country could result in the
spread of radioactivity to other countries.
Low-level nuclear waste consists of mate-
rial slightly contaminated with radioactivity.
Compared to rygh-level waste it can be
handled with a minimum of special equip-
ment and shielding. However, precautions
must be taken to keep this material from
entering biological pathways where it could
be reconcentrated to hazardous levels. In the
past, low-level wastes in the United States
have been disposed of at commercially-
operated landfills. The performance at these
landfills has generally not been satisfactory,
however, and has led to the new regulations
currently being formulated by the Nu-
clear Regulatory Commission, with EPA
assistance.
While the land disposal of low-level waste
is the most common practice, a number of
European countries also dump nuclear waste
into the Atlantic Ocean. This is done under
the surveillance of the Nuclear Energy
Agency and OECD and is permissible under
current treaties. The ocean dumping of
high-level waste, however, is prohibited.
It is anticipated that, as low-level waste
quantities increase filling suitable land sites,
more countries will turn to ocean dumping.
While this form of disposal is also a future
option for the United States, the integrity of
the environment would be protected under the
regulations of EPA's ocean dumping permit
program.
In the future we will continue our involve-
ment in the following international efforts
currently underway to deal with nuclear waste
issues:
• International Nuclear Fuel Cycle Evalua-
tion (INFCE) group, an interagency task
force under the leadership of the State
Department, that works with more than
thirty countries—to find an international
solution to the interim spent fuel storage
problem
• OECD (with the Nuclear Energy
Agency) — to develop a set of policy
recommendations for high-level waste
disposal, including legal, financial, and
administrative aspects
• Nuclear Energy Agency — to establish
appropriate standards for packaging and
monitoring low-level wastes, as well as
defining suitable ocean sites
• International Atomic Energy Agency—
to develop standards and criteria for
various radionuclides.
Development and
Environmental Planning
Perhaps the most pervasive problem under-
lying the implementation of international
environmental programs is the reconciliation
of such programs with the specific national
and international needs and development
plans of individual nations. Still, no country
operates in an environmental vacuum.
Whether it be protection of endangered
species, prudent use of marine resources, or
control of pollutant discharges into the global
commons, the environmental actions of one
country inevitably mesh with those of others.
So too do economic actions. Over the last
decade, currency crises, oil embargoes, and
food shortages have all served to demonstrate
the increasing economic interdependence of
nations. While the industrialized nations seek
to adjust to these new patterns of trade and
economic growth, the less developed coun-
tries are becoming more aggressive in trying
to raise their standards of living. Further
complicating the situation is the emergence of
several new categories of nations — OPEC
countries, medium developed countries such
as Brazil, and fourth world countries, such as
Bangladesh — each with unique national
problems and objectives. It is impossible,
however, to separate these national problems
from the state of the international physical
environment.
In the fourth world, for example, the
fundamental problem is one of sheer survival.
Here, overpopulation in lands of marginal
productivity has already created severe cases
221
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of soil exhaustion, desertification, and
deforestation. Thus, with few or no resources
to trade for the necessities of life, these
countries must develop plans to both conserve
existing land, water, and fuel and cope with
adverse demographics. In some cases, these
plans may involve technological fixes, but in
others, reaching national goals may require
large-scale resettlement and societal change.
In doing so, a significant threat to the
environment is posed.
Far more fortunate are the OPEC nations,
notably the Arab states, that have sufficient
incomes to deal with the needs of their
populations, even where the land is not
particularly fruitful. Their national develop-
ment plans reflect this wealth. However,
these countries are also tempted by heroic
engineering projects to meet their needs, such
as towing icebergs from Antarctica for water,
which may have profound environmental
implications. Required here as an adjunct to
development plans are integrated technology
assessments to determine those projects that
represent only the wisest financial and
environmental investments.
Traditional third world countries such as
India are aiso planning for their national
economic futures. In the past, it has been
assumed that these nations would attempt to
parallel the pattern of economic development
set by the Western industrialized countries.
Today, however, this path is being questioned
as the changes in social structure and capital
and labor distributions necessary to accom-
plish this objective are now being more
carefully considered. There has even been
some recent question as to whether the
traditional western pattern of development is
entirely desirable even in the industrialized
countries. In any event, to make the rational
decisions they must, these third world coun-
tries require national planning models capable
of predicting the economic, social, and
environmental costs and benefits offered by a
variety of development scenarios.
Circumstances will inevitably lead differ-
ent countries to seek different kinds of
planning tools. What is ultimately required on
the broad scale, however, are highly flexible
models capable of working on the local
project level as well as on national and
international development scenarios. In
addition, means to incorporate environmental
concerns into decision-making processes
resulting in regulation and control must be
found. In the United States, this is being
accomplished at the federal level by means of
the environmental impact statement and
through EPA or state agency enforced envi-
ronmental standards. Other approaches,
however, are also possible. The Polluter Pays
Principle approach, adopted by the OECD,
for example, employs economics as the
method to shift decisions in the direction of
environmentally favorable alternatives. Other
techniques involve mediation or arbitration.
The methods of regulation and control
adopted by each country will reflect the
individual circumstances of each nation. It is
expected that the relative importance given
local versus national decision-making bodies
will also vary widely. Strongly centralized
countries, such as France, will most probably
impose national standards, while countries
such as Germany, where power is tilted
toward the states, will tend towards local
action. Different legal traditions and eco-
nomic structures will also affect the nature of
decision-making.
We will continue to work with the follow-
ing groups to help ensure that each country's
process is compatible:
• UNEP and ECE — to develop overall
policies and guidelines
• OECD—to develop statistical indicators
of environmental quality to complement
economic statistics
• Bilaterals—to develop standard methods
for assessing environmental impacts.
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OPERATIONS
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HEALTH EFFECTS
DIVISION
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MODIFICATION
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RESEARCH
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RTF, NC
HEALTH EFFECTS
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CINCINNATI, OH
NATIONAL
CENTER FOR
TOXICOLOGICAL
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JEFFERSON, AR
OFFICE OF
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ENVIRONMENTAL
CRITERIA &
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RTF, NC
ENVIRONMENTAL
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OFFICE
CINCINNATI, OH
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QUESTIONS AND COMMENTS
The following senior ORD managers had lead responsibility for the individual chapters. You are
invited to call them with your questions and comments.
CHAPTER
Environmental Research
Planning and Management
Toxic Substances
Air Pollution
Water Quality
Waste water and Spills
Drinking Water
Solid and Hazardous
Waste
Pesticides
Nonionizing Radiation
Noise
Energy
Anticipating Environmental
Research Needs
CONTACT ORGANIZATION TELEPHONE
Samuel Rondberg
Michael Waters
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