Aspects of Pesticidal use
of Toxaphene and Strobane
on Man and the Environment
Environmental Protection Agency
December 1974
-------
Prepared for the Office of Pesticide Programs
Environmental Protection Agency by:
Special Working Group on Toxaphene and Strobane
Chapter I William V. Hartwell, Ph.D.
Chapter II Padma R. Datta, Ph.D.
Chapter III Merle Markley
Chapter IV Jacob Wolff (retired)
Chapter V Economic Evaluation Branch, C&D, OPP,
Arnold Aspelin, Ph.D., Chief
Chapter VI Samuel C. Billings (retired)
Edited by: William V. Hartwell, Ph.D. (Group Leader)
Library Assistance of:
Mr. Robert Cedar
Mrs. Claudia Lewis
-------
Aspects of the Pesticidal use of Toxaphene-Strobane
on Man and the Environment
Table of Contents
Page
Chapter I Pharmacology and Toxicology of
Toxaphene and Strobane 7
Chapter II Chemistry and Methodology of
Toxaphene 26
Chapter III Environmental Effects of
Toxaphene and Strobane 50
Chapter IV Toxaphene Residues in Crops
and Food Items 161
Chapter V Economic Evaluation of Toxaphene 175
Chapter VI Summarized Review of the Uses of
Toxaphene and Strobane in Relation
to the Hazards of Safety of Continued
Use 227
-------
SUMMARY
Toxaphene and Strobane are chlorinated camphenes which are
prepared from raw materials derived from different sources. Alpha
pinene obtained from pine stumps is the starting material for pre-
paring toxaphene whereas the terpene faction from other sources
is used as starting material for Strobane.
These chlorinated terpenes have been widely used to control
a variety of.insects which occur on cotton, small grain, corn and
sorghum, field and seed, other field crops, vegetables, and live-
stock. Available records indicate that Strobane has not been
manufactured since the 1969-1970 season.
Toxaphene is more toxic than DDT in laboratory animals but
less toxic than Endrin, aldrin/dieldrin or heptachlor.
Aquatic organims are highly sensitive to toxaphene but extensive
fish kills have not been reported from its use. Because of this
high sensitivity toxaphene has been used as a piscicide for trash
fish. However, this use is no longer allowed due to the adverse
effects on non-target aquatic species.
Routine monitoring studies of water from the major watersheds
of the United States have not indicated the presence of toxaphene.
Since 1970 use of toxaphene has increased. This increase
in use may be attributed to the need for relatively persistent
pesticides to control pests on cotton following cancellation of
DDT. Unlike endrin, major fish kills have not been reported from
this increase.
-------
INTRODUCTION
Toxaphene and Strobane are prepared by the chlorination of
camphenes. Starting material for toxaphene is primarily of alpha
pinene, whereas starting material for Strobane containes a mixture
of terpenes.
Toxaphene has been used as a pesticide since 1947. Prior
to that date initial patents for toxaphene had been issued to Hercules,
Incorporated, which has been the major U.S. producer. When patent
rights expired in the middle 1960's several companies began producing
substances identical to toxaphene. Among these companies is Tenneco
Chemicals, Inc. which produced Strobane. The product which Tenneco
sells today is identical to toxaphene and is called Strobane-T;
Strobane has not been manufactured since 1970.
Available information indicates that the amount of toxaphene
used in 1973 was 128 percent of the amount used in 1970 and that
this amount was 125 percent of the amount used in 1969. Comparable
data are not available for Strobane-T; however, it is reasonable
to believe that the estimates presented for toxaphene describe
Strobane-T since the major use patterns of these two products are
similar. At present 647 labels for these pesticides are registered
by 147 applicants.
In 1973 60 percent of the toxaphene produced in this country
was used on cotton; 5 percent was used on each category such as
vegetables, small grains, corn/sorghum, and forage/seed crop;
-------
10 percent on other field crops; and 10 percent on livestock.
In terms of geographical distribution in 1973 28 percent was used
in the Southeast - Mid-Atlantic region, 26 percent in the Mid-south;
10 percent in the Southwest, 9 percent in the Pacific - Far West,
7 percent in the Intermountain West - Midwest and less than 1 percent
in the Northeast. . '
The pharmacological action of, toxaphene is similar to that
reported for other chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides with central
nervous systems being primarily affected. The effects usually
occur within one hour after the exposure, and death, which usually
occurs within 4-8 hours, may be delayed as long as 74 hours.
In the intestinal tract toxaphene is absorbed more rapidly from
vegetable oils than from petroleum products. Results of acute
exposure with experimental animals indicate little difference in
rates of absorption between sexes.
Storage equilibrium is reached within one week of continuous
exposure, and quantities in fat are usually 1/4 - 1/8. of the dietary
level. When feeding is stopped toxaphene levels decrease rapidly.
Amounts of toxaphene excreted in cow/s milk were similar to amounts.
found in fatty tissue - i.e., about 1/1QQ of the feed.
Although possible metabolites of toxaphene such as keto-toxaphene
and hydroxy-toxaphene have been synthesized, evidence to support
that these products are degradation products of biological processes
has not.been reported.
-------
Acute oral toxicities of toxaphene in experimental animals
are greater when edible fats are used as a solvent. With rats
fed toxaphene in corn oil LD5Q'a were 60 mg, and in kerosene, 190
mg per kg. In eye irritation studies 0.1/ml of a 20 percent solution
of toxaphene in kerosene caused mild irritation in eyes of rabbits
after 14 consecutive daily exposur.es, and in guinea pigs similar
results were obtained with 0.05 ml. The eyes were hot injured
and irritation abated within 10 days after withdrawal. In subacute
studies with dogs occasional stimulation of the central nervous
system and degenerative changes, in liver parenchyma and renal tubules
were observed after 44 and 106 days of daily oral treatment with
4 mg/kg toxaphene. Available data indicate that adult goats and
cattle can withstand higher doses of toxaphene than immature animals.
In many instances the death observed among young calves following
dipping operations with 0.75 percent toxaphene preparations made
from emulsifiable concentrate was attributable to swallowing.
In chronic studies 200 ppm in diets of dogs cause liver necrosis
after 4 years; with animals treated daily with twice this amount
one half survived a comparable period of time. Signs of intoxication
or tissue damage were not observed in monkeys treated with 0./8
nig/kg/day for two years.
No difference in reproduction, fertility, or size, viability,
or anatomical structure of progeny was.reported between controls
and rats fed 100 ppm in diets during a three generation reproduction
study. Occurrence of mutagenic effects were similar among controls
and rats treated orally or interperitonealy with 180 mg per kg
-------
toxaphene. No studies for carcinogenicity have been reported
for toxaphene; however, evidence of cancer has not been detected
in any of the reported chronic studies. With Strobane hepatic
granulomas have been reported among rats that inhaled air for six
months which contained 8.3 mg per liter of an aerosol containing
Strobane. Similar results were observed in rabbits 30 days after
the fourth daily treatment at the rate .of 100 mg/kg with. Strobane
in corn oil. .
The chemical structure of toxaphene has not been distinctly
defined. Results of recent studies suggest that the toxaphene
(and Strobane-T) probably is a mixture of at least 170 chlorinated
derivatives of camphene. However, a comparison of physical, clinical,
and biological assay data on toxaphene produced between 1947 and
1970 (23 years) indicate consistent uniformity of the product produced
by Hercules, Incorporated during this period. For samples with
known exposure to toxaphene described methodology for detection
is adequate. However, lack of specificity and sensitivity of chemical
methods for testing preclude positive indentification of toxaphene.
The Joint Expert Committee on Pesticide Residues reported
that in 1968 an acceptable daily intake (API) °r tolerance could
not be established until additional information was obtained.
Requested information included residue on plants, animals and their
products (including photo-oxidation products), residues in processed
vegetable oil, cereals after processing, criteria for controlling
-------
degree of chlorination, development of comparative evaluation of
regulatory analytical methods, and complete toxicological studies
with standardized technical producte. At the time of this writing
the official report of the Joint FAQ/WHO meeting on pesticide residues
in 1973 had not been issued. Present evidence suggests that an
ADI cannot be established. Although FAO specifications for toxaphene
have been met by one Hercules, Inc., available data may not be
pertinent to toxaphene from othes sources.
General tolerances of 7 ppm were allowed for fruits and vegetables
under Section 408 (3469) of the Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic
Act after the 1950 Rose Hearings. Lower level tolerance resulting
from petitions are 5 ppm for small grains and cotton seed, 3 ppm
for bananas, 2 ppm for dry soybeans; 7 ppm in fat of meat from
beef, goats, hogs, horses and sheep; 6 ppm in refined oils; and
interim tolerances of 1 ppm on alfalfa and 0.05 ppm QL'.25. ppm in
fat) in milk. Temporary tolerances of 7 ppm are allowed on sugar
beets and sunflower seeds.
Aquatic organisms are highly sensitive to toxaphene, but extensive
accidental fish kills have not been reported from its use. The
high toxicity to aquatic organisms including fish and some waterfowl,
persistence in water, and accumulation of residues in aquatic plants
and animals prompted U.S. Department.of Interior to ban the.use
of toxaphene on Federal lands and Federal aid projects. Resistance
to toxaphene has been reported in mosquitofish, green sunfish,
-------
golden shiners, frogs, clams, crayfish and fresh water shrimp taken
from water near areas of heavy prolonged use.
Toxaphene accumulates through biological process in the fat
of lower aquatic members of the food web and may be passed on to
higher aquatic forms following use to control trash fish. High
levels of toxaphene have been detected-in birds which were found
dead in the areas after treatment.
Under laboratory conditions the LD50 for toxaphene in birds
varied from 40 mg/kg to bobwhite quail to 316 mg/kg for sandhill
cranes. Five day LC50 values for bobwhite quail is 834 ppm and
564 ppm for mallard ducklings. Decreases in populations of native
birds have been observed following treatment of rangelands with
toxaphene spray or bait for grasshopper control.
The susceptibility of microtine rodents to toxaphene has lead
to the use of this material to control high infestations of meadow
voles and other rodent pests.
Toxaphene is registered for use to control ectoparasites
on livestock and residues of 7 ppm are allowed in the meats from
the treated animals. Although toxaphene accumulates in the fat
of animals - it decreases rapidly following removal of the exposure.
Beneficial insects are susceptible to toxaphene; however,
treatment with this material does not appear to effect the eggs,
has some effects on larvae, and moderate to high effects on adult
forms. Use of toxaphene on legume seed crops is considered safe
for honey bees since it induced less than 10 percent mortality
-------
in bees during field tests during the bloom stage. Dust formulations
are less toxic to bees than sprays.
Toxaphene has not been detected in major water sources of
the United States. The relatively low level of sensitivity of
analytical procedures may be.the influencing factor. Toxaphene
is absorbed from water onto particles .of soil and organic matter
and settles into the bottom sediment. Amounts in sediment have
been proposed as indices of use. Toxaphene residues in pond water
adjacent to areas of heavy treatment increased with use during
the season.
Following applications toxaphene has been detected in air
taken from areas adjacent to areas of use. Greater amounts were
detected following use of dust than liquid spray.
Residues in plants are greater following treatment with water
emulsions than with other preparations. With birdsfoot trefoil
residues decreased from 5 ppm to Q.15 ppm 48 days after treatment.
In alfalfa reduction of more than 70 percent occurred within 31
days of treatment. No obvious effects on plant metabolism have
been attributed to toxaphene wher.ea,s treatment with methyl parathion
may delay initiation of fruiting branches and production .of floral
buds.
Time required for the reduction in soil of one half the applied
amount was 2.0 years for soil from B.eltsville, Maryland, and 0.8
years for Mississippi and New Jersey soils.
8
-------
Chapter I
Pharmacology and Toxicology of Toxaphene and Strobane
The pharmacological action and mammalian toxicity of toxa-
phene have been known for at least 20 years, and essential information
for prevention and treatment of poisoning may be found in several
commonly used references (Am. Med. Assoc., 1952; Hayes, 1963;
Hercules, Inc., 1970; von Oettingen, 1963).
I.A. Pharmacology
The basic mechanism for toxicity to toxaphene has not been
studied. However, due to close similarity in pharmacological
actions of toxaphene and DDT it is possible an explanation of
action of toxaphene would be supported by the findings with DDT.
Effective use of phenobarbital and other barbiturates to treat
acute poisoning from both compounds add possible substantiation
for the proposed similarity of pharmacological action.
The effects caused by an acutely toxic dose of toxaphene
typical of other chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides include
salivation, nausea or vomiting, hyperexcitability, tremors, spasms
of back and leg muscles, chronic convulsion, and tetanic contractions
of all skeletal muscles (Am. Med. Assoc., 1952; FAO/WHO, 1968;
Hercules, Inc., 1970). Most of these effects are the results
of diffuse stimulation of the cerebrospinal axis. With lethal
-------
doses tetanic muscular contractions cause .arrested respiration
which increase in amplitude and rate as the muscles relax (McGee,
j2t al_., 1952; Negherbon, 1959). These effects usually appear
within one hour after the exposure, and death, which usually occurs
within 4-8 hours, may be delayed as long as 74 hours.
I.A.I. Absorption;
Toxaphene may be absorbed through the skin, lungs or intestinal
mucosa. Amounts absorbed are related to the physical form and
the carrier or solvent. Dermal absorption from dust is less
than from sprays or oil emulsion (Lehman, 1948). In the intestinal
tract toxaphene is absorbed more rapidly from digestible vegetable
oils than from kerosene (Treon, et^ al_., 1952). Results of acute
exposure indicate little difference in rates of absorption between
sexes of experimental animals.
I.A.2. Storage and Excretion;
Distribution and storage of toxaphene following oral and
dermal exposures as studied in several species are summarized
in Table I.A. Storage equilibrium is reached after one week of
continuous exposure and quantities in fat usually are 1/4-1/8 of
the dietary level. Thin layer chromotographic examination
of extracts of fat indicate that most tissue residue was unchanged
toxaphene (Dalton, 1966). When feeding was stopped, toxaphene
levels in tissue decreased rapidly. Within eight weeks after
stopping the feeding trials levels of toxaphene in fat of sheep
10
-------
and cattle decreased to 0.5 and 3.0 ppm (Lehman, 1952; Claborn,
1956).
Table I.A.
Storage of Toxaphene in Fat Tissue After Prolonged Feeding
Species
Rat
Dog
Cattle
Sheep
Dietary
Level
400 ppm
1600 ppm
20 ppm
20 ppm
20 ppm
10 ppm
5 ppm
100 ppm
100 ppm
25 ppm
25 ppra
100 ppm
100 ppm
25 ppm
25 ppm
Duration
2 yrs.
2 yrs.
6 mos.
1 yr.
2 yrs.
2 yrs.
2 yrs.
1 mos.
4 mos.
1 mo.
4 mos.
1 mo.
4 mos .
1 mo.
4 mos.
Storage
Level
360 ppm '
205 ppm
4 . 0 ppm
4.2 ppm
5.5 ppm
2.3 ppm
L7 ppm
26 ppm
38 ppm
2 ppm
12 ppm
22 ppm
20 ppm
2 ppm
8 ppm
Method
insect
bioassay
Org. Cl.
and
TLC
Org. Cl.
Org. Cl.
Reference
Lehman, 1952
Hercules T105A
Claborn, 1956
Claborn, 1956
Amounts of toxaphene excreted in cow's milk were similar
to amounts found in fatty tissue (Zweig, 1963), or about 1/100
of the feed content.
l.A.3. Metabolism;
Metabolism of toxaphene has received little attention. Toxa-
phene is an ill-defined mixture of chlorinated camphenes which
11
-------
consists of over 170 components (.Cassida, e£ al^., 1974). Attempts
to introduce functional groups into toxaphene by in vitro chemical
reaction have been unsuccessful, and the availability of model
compounds as authentic reference standards for various separation
and detection systems has been limited.
Recently, samples of "keto-toxaphene" and "hydroxy-toxaphene"
were prepared by Buntin (1970). Camphor was chlorinated to a
value corresponding to the addition of seven atoms of chlorine.
The resulting keto-camphor, a viscous pale yellow liquid, was re-
duced with lithium aluminum hydride to form "hydroxy-toxaphene."
These compounds are less toxic to flies and rats than toxaphene;
gas chromatography shows they elute with the early peaks of toxa-
phene .
Cleanup techniques applied to keto-toxaphene and hydrox-toxa-
phene show that the former survives fuming sulfuric acid, but that
hydroxy-toxaphene does not. Dehydrohalogenation (as applied to toxa-
phene prior to gas chromatography) showed that these compounds are
retained in the alkaline aqueous phase when they are extracted with
hexane. Both compounds are extracted by hexane from distilled water.
Weathered toxaphene residues from alfalfa were examined for the
possible presence of keto-toxaphene. No evidence for their presence
was found by Carlin (1970).
12
-------
In. an attempt to study the metabolism of toxaphene in the honey-
bee, Jumar and Sieber (1967) conducted experiments to determine residues
in rape seed oil, honey and bees. They applied ^CI-tagged toxaphene
to rape plants and determined that residues were transmitted to rape
seed oil in the range of 0.3 to 1.5 ppm, depending on the method of
application. Honey made by bees exposed, to the toxaphene-treated
rape plants contained less than 0.01 ppm toxaphene. The study on
09
toxaphene in the bee employed Br-toxaphene (one Cl atom replaced
by "^Br). More than 95 percent of toxaphene absorbed by bees from
feeding was stored briefly in the body before release as a chlorine-
containing, water-soluble compound which was not identified.
I.E. Toxicity;
Acute toxicity to toxaphene and strobane has been measured by
oral, dermal, intravenous, eye, and inhalation routes of exposure.
Acute toxicity measurements by oral, dermal and intravenous
routes in several species are presented in Table I.B.
13
-------
Table I.E.
Acute Toxicity of Toxaphene and Strobane
Animal
Route
LD50
mg/kg Body Weight Vehicle
Toxaphene*
Rat
Dog
Mouse
Rat
Rat
Rat
Guinea pig
Guinea pig
Dog
Dog
Cat
Rabbit
Rabbit
Cattle
Goat
Sheep
Rat
Rabbit
Rabbit
Strobane**
Rat
Guinea pig
Dog
* Hercules T105A
** Negherbon, 1959
intravenous
intravenous
oral
oral
oral
oral
oral
oral
oral
oral
oral
oral
oral
oral
oral
oral
dermal
dermal
dermal
oral
oral
oral
13
5-10
112
60
90
190
270
365
49
250
25-40
75-100
250-500
144
200
200
930
4000
250
200
250
200
peanut oil
peanut oil
corn oil
corn oil
peanut oil
kerosene
corn oil
kerosene
corn oil
kerosene
peanut oil
peanut oil
kerosene
grain
xylene
xylene
xylene,
dust
peanut oil
corn oil
corn oil
corn oil
14
-------
Slight variance in acute toxicity of toxaphene and strobane
occurred among the various species. The toxicity of toxaphene is
influenced by the solvent or vehicle used. When administered orally
as a solution or emulsion, it is more toxic in a digestible vegetable
oil than in an oil such as kerosene. Toxicity of toxaphene by skin
absorption is much less from an inert dust than from an oily solution.
In acute dermal studies with strobane 10 percent of the skin
of shaved rabbits was exposed to oil solutions which contained
0.05 - 0.25 gm. strobane. No deaths occurred within one week when
corn oil, white oil, paraffin oil, Ultrasene Sonneborn #51, or
debose was used as solvent. However, within 30 days 50 percent
mortality occurred among animals treated with 0.1 gm, and 75 per-
cent mortality within 34 days with 0.2 gm (Negh'erbon, 1959).
Administration for 14 consecutive days of a 20 percent solution
of toxaphene in kerosene to the eyes of rabbits (0.01 ml) and guinea
pigs (0.05 ml) caused mild irritation of the eyelids with loss of
hair around the eyelid. The eye was not injured and the irritation
in the eyelids was abated within 10 days (Hercules T-105A).
In acute inhalation studies 3.4 g/1 of 40 percent toxaphene dust
in air killed approximately one half of the exposed rats within one
hour (Hercules T-105A). With strobane rats were exposed to aerosol
vapors 10 seconds each 10 minutes over 8 hour periods, corresponding
to continuous inhalation exposure of 20 mg strobane per cubic foot.
Effects of these exposures included transient lack of desire for food
without further evidence of intoxication (Negherbon, 1956).
15
-------
I.C.I. Subacute oral toxicity;
Subacute studies have been made in rats, guinea pigs, dogs,
cattle, sheep, rabbits, and humans with toxaphene administered
by oral, dermal, and respiratory routes of exposure. Hercules
(T-105A) contends that outward signs of toxicity were not observed
in rats fed dietary levels of toxaphene-as high as 1200 ppm for
60 days. In another study rats and guinea pigs were intubated with
kerosene solutions of 5 percent toxaphene 5 days per week for
6 months at dosage rate of 6 and 48 mg/kg (approximately equiva-
lent to 100 and 800 ppm, respectively in diet) without gross
toxic effects. Ortega, et al., (1951, 1957) fed 50 and 200 ppm
to small groups of rats for 9 months. At these levels no signs
of toxicity occurred, and food consumption and growth rates
were not inhibited. Slight changes were observed in livers from
3 to 12 rats fed 50 ppm, and.distinct changes in 6 of the 12 fed
200 ppm. Increases in enzyme activity of liver microsomal enzyme
of rats occurred at dietary levels of 5 ppm and above (Kinoshita,
et_ al., 1966).
Groups of dogs received capsules of toxaphene at 4 mg/kg
for 44 and 106 days. Occasional stimulation of the central nervous
system occurred a short time after administration. Degenerative
changes were observed in liver parenchyma and renal tubules (Lackey,
1949).
16
-------
Cattle and sheep were fed diets containing toxaphene levels
as high as 320 ppm for 134 and 151 days. Stimulation of central
nervous system with tremors was observed in steers fed 320 ppm,
but no hematological or pathological changes were noted in tissues.
I.C.2. Subacute Dermal Toxicity;
Dermal exposures at the rates of 332 mg/kg in mineral oil
containing 20 percent toxaphene for 14 days were fatal to 73 per-
cent of the rabbits tested (Hercules T-105A). When dust prepa-
rations containing 5, 40, and 50 percent toxaphene were applied
to skin of rabbit at 100 mg/kg/day for 30 days and at 200, and
500 mg/kg/day for 14 days all animals survived.
Groups of 10 rabbits were exposed on each of 5 days per week
for 90 days to 1-4 ml of white oil which contained 1 percent strobane,
With 1 ml no deaths occurred. With 2 ml 2 deaths occurred, one
after 7 treatments and one after 35. Four deaths occurred with
the 4 ml treatment, one after 7, one after 22, one after 23, and
1 after 74 doses (Negherbon, 1956).
Application of a dust preparation containing 40 and 50 per-
cent toxaphene to the skin of dogs at 200 and 500 mg/kg/day for
32 days did not cause toxic effects. Toxaphene applied in mineral
oil or dimethyl phthalate at 600 mg/kg/day for 10-22 days to shaved
skin of dogs did not cause toxic effects .(Lackey, 1949).
Radeleff and Bushland (1950) applied toxaphene (dip and spray)
to the skin of many large animals including cattle, sheep, goats,
17
-------
horses, and swine. The data indicate that adult animals can with-
stand higher doses of toxaphene than immature animals. Adult cattle,
sheep, goats, and swine tolerated repeated applications of a 2 percent
spray or a single application of a 4 percent spray without observed
toxic effects. Suckling calves tolerated repeated applications of
sprays containing 0.75 percent toxaphene derived from emulsifiable
concentrates and wettable powders; however, dipping of very young
animals caused swallowing of the dip and, therefore, was approached
with caution. A single application of an 8 percent spray has been
fatal to suckling calves. An 8 percent dip has been fatal to sheep
and goats, but not to cattle (Hercules T-105A).
Applications of cotton patches treated with toxaphene to the
skin of 200 human subjects caused no primary irritation or sensi-
tization. Application of an aerosol spray containing toxaphene
to the skin of 50 human subjects daily for 30 days at a dose of
300 mg/day produced no toxic manifestations (Hercules T-102A).
I.C.3. Subacute Inhalation:
In a series of experiments with toxaphene aerosols, animals
were exposed 6 hours per day 5 days each week. The mortality
findings are reported in Table I.C.
18
-------
Table I.C.
Subacute Inhalation Studies with Toxaphene*
Toxaphene
Concentration Test
in mg/1 of Air Form Animals
Length of
Test Period Survival
0.50
0.20
0.04
0.25
0.04
0.012
0.004
mist rats 3 weeks
mist rats, rabbits 3 weeks
mist rats, rabbits 3 weeks
dust rats
dust rats, dogs,
guinea pigs
1 week
3 months
dust rats, dogs, 3 months
guinea pigs
dust rats, dogs, 3 months
guinea pigs
no observed effects
no observed effects
no observed effects
0%
dogs 33%; guinea pigs
80%; rats 73%
dogs 50%; guinea pigs
100%; rats 100%
no observed effects
*(Hercules T-105A)
Severe weight loss preceded all deaths. Hematologic and
blood chemistry measurements were within normal range. Several
surviving female rats exhibited slight focal hepatic cell
necrosis; other gross and histopathologic findings were normal.
Fifty human volunteers inhaled 0.0004 mg/1 of toxaphene
mist for ten minutes per day for 15 days. There were no sub-
jective or objective effects.
A mist containing 0.25 mg of toxaphene per liter of air was
inhaled by 25 humans for thirty minutes each day for 13 days. There
was no evidence of local or systemic toxic manifestation (Shelanski,
1947).
19
-------
I.D. Chronic Oral Toxicity
Toxaphene has been fed daily in the diet of rats for 2 years.
The highest level which produced no toxic effect was 25 ppm. The
lowest level which produced slight damage to the liver was 100 ppm.
Higher levels (1000, 1500, 1600 ppm) produced some signs of CNS
stimulation as well as nonspecific liver pathology typical of chlori-
nated hydrocarbon exposure (Hercules T-105).
Fitzhugh and Nelson (1951) fed 25, 100, and 400 ppm in diets
of rats for 2 years. Significant changes were observed in the livers
of rats receiving 100 and 400 ppm.
Rats were fed diets containing 50 - 500 ppm strobane for 2 years.
Highest daily dosage fed without gross effects was 500 ppm (Negherbon,
1959) .
Toxaphene was administered daily to dogs in a dry diet for
2 years and in capsules as a solution in corn oil for 4 years.
When fed at a level of 40 ppm in the dry diet for 2 years, there
was slight degeneration of the liver, while at 200 ppm for 2 years,
there was moderate degeneration of the liver (Treon, et^ a!U, 1952).
After administration of toxaphene by capsule to 4 dogs at a
dose of 5 mg/kg/day (approximately equivalent to 200 ppm in the
diet) for 1360 days (almost 4 years), there was liver necrosis. At
a dose of 10 mg/kg/day to 2 dogs, one died after 33 days and the
other was sacrificed after 1260 days (Hercules, T-105A). When fed
to dogs at dietary levels of 5, 10, and 20 ppm for 2 years, none
20
-------
of the feeding levels prod- ced any change revealed by organ weights,
gross or microscopic examination, or any of the clinical or organ
function tests (Hercules T-105A).
Monkeys were administered toxaphene in their food at a con-
centration of 10 to 15 ppm (0.64-0.78 mg/kg/day) for 2 years.
Treon, et al., (1952), found no signs of intoxication and no evidence
of damage to the tissues as determined by histological examination
(Hercules, T-105A).
I.E. Reproduction, Teratology, Mutagenesis, and Carcinogenesis:
A three generation reproductive study was conducted according
to currently accepted protocol on rats fed 25 and 100 ppm toxaphene
(Kennedy, ^t al_., 1973). No differences between control and
toxaphene treated animals were reported for reproduction per-
formance, fertility, lactation or viability size and anatomical
structure of progeny.
In dominant lethal assays conducted with 8-10 weeks old ICR/Ha
Swiss mice dosages of toxaphene in the range of 3-180 mg/kg were
administered by oral or intraperitoneal routes (Epstein, et al.,
1972). Occurrence of mutagenic effects among the controls and
the animals treated with toxaphene were similar.
No studies for carcinogenity have been reported for toxaphene.
However, no evidence of carcinogenic action was reported in any of
the chronic toxicity studies previously described. With strobane
hepatic granulomas were reported among rats which were exposed
daily for 6 months to aerosolized strobane which was admitted
21
-------
into chambers of the rats at 100 gm of aerosol per 12 cubic feet.
Hepatic granulomas were observed at autopsy among rabbits 30 days
after the fourth daily dermal exposure to strobane in corn oil at
100 rag/kg. In rats fed diets containing 500 ppm strobane for two
years, cellular infiltration was observed in all livers examined
and one of four contained granuloma (Shelanski, 1955). A sig-
nificant increase in hepatomas was observed in the males of strain
FB6AKFI mice which survived daily oral treatments of 4.6 mg/kg
strobane for two years (Innes, et_ al., 1969). The hepatomas which
were subsequently classified as lymphomas occurred in the surviving
11 of the 18 animals started on the study two years before.
22
-------
Bibliography
Amer. Med. Assoc. Committee on Pesticides. Pharmacological
properties of toxaphene, a chlorinated hydrocarbon insecti-
cide. J.A.M.A. 149;135-137. 1952.
Buntin, G.A. Hercules Research Center, Wilmington, Delaware,
unpublished results. 1970.
Carlin, F.J. Hercules Research Center, Wilmington, Delaware,
unpublished results. 1970.
Clayborn, H.V. U.S. Department of Agriculture ARS. 33-25. 1956.
Cassida, J.E.., Holmstead, R.L., Khalifa, S., Knox, J.R., and
Ohsawa, T. Toxaphene insecticide; A complex biodegradable
mixture. Science 183:520-521. 1974.
Dalton - Storage of Toxaphene in Fat Tissue After Prolonged
Feeding. 1966.
Epstein, S.S., Arnold, Elsie, Andrea, Jean, Bass, Willa, and
Bishop, Yovenne. Detection of Chemical mutogene by
Dominant Lethal Assay in the mouse. Toxicol. Appl.
Pharmacol.23:288-325. 1972.
FAO/WHO, Incomplete citation; referred to on p. 1. 1968.
Fitzhugh, O.G. and Nelson, AA. Comparison of chronic effects
produced in rats by several chlorinated hydrocarbon in-
secticides. Federation Proc. 10;25. 1951.
Hayes, W. J., Jr. Clinical Handbook on Economic Poisons -
Emergency Information for Treating Poisoning. Public
Health Publication No. 475, U.S. Govt. Printing Office,
Washington, D.C. pp. 71-73. 1963.
Hercules, Inc. Toxaphene, use patterns and environmental aspects,
Bull. 172 pp. 1970.
Hercules - Technical Bulletin No. T-105A.
Innes, J.R.M., Ulland, B.M., Valeric, M.G., Petrucelli, L.,
Fishbein, L., Hart, E.R., Pallotta', A.K., Bates, R.R.,
Falk, H.L., Gart, J.J., Klein, M., Mitchell, I., and
Peters, J. Bioassay of pesticides and industrial chemicals
for tumorigenicity in mice; A preliminary note. J. Nat.
Cancer Inst. 42(11):111-114. 1969.
23
-------
Jumar and Siber. Residues studies in rapeseed oil and honey
with toxaphene - 36C1. Z. Lebens, - Unters, Foroch.
133:357-364. 1967.
Kennedy, G., Frawley, J.P., and Calander, J.C. Multi-generatic
reproduction study in rats fed Delnou, Herban, and Toxaphene.
Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 25:589-596. 1973.
Kinoshita, F.K., Frawley, J.P., and DuBois, K.P. Quantitative
measurement of induction of hepatic microsomal enzymes by
various dietary levels of DDT and toxaphene in rats. Toxicol.
Appl. Pharmacol. 9:505-513. 1966.
Lackey, R.W. Observations on the acute and chronic toxicity of
toxaphene in the dog. J. Ind. Hyg. Toxicol. 31:117-120. 1949.
Lehman, A.J. Bull. Assoc. Food And Drug Officials 12:47. 1948.
Lehman, A.J. Bull. Assoc. Food and Drug Officials 16:47. 1952.
McGee, L.C., Reed, H.L., and Fleming, J.P. Accidental poisoning
by toxaphene. J.A.M.A. 149:1124-1126. 1952.
Negherbon, W.O. Toxaphene-Handbook of Toxicology. Vol. III.
Insecticides, a compendium, pp. 754-769. 1959.
Ortega, P., Hayes, W.J., and Durham, W.F. Pathologic changes in
the liver of rats after feeding low levels of various in-
secticides. A.M.A. Arch. Pathol. 64:614-622. 1951.
Ortega, P., Hayes, W.J., Jr., Durham, W.F. Pathologic changes
in the liver of rats after feeding low levels of various in-
secticides. A.M.A. Arch. Pathol. 48:387. 1957.
Radeleff, R.D. an Bushland, R.C. Acute toxicity of chlorinated
insecticides applied to livestock. J. Econ. Ent. 43(3);358-364.
1950.
Shelanski, A.H. Unpublished data. August 21, 1947.
Shelanski, M.V. Chronic oral toxicity study with B.F. Goodyear
Chemical Company strobane, unpublished report. 1955.
Treon, J.F., Cleveland, F., Poynter, B., Wagner, B., and Gahegan, T.
The physiologic effects of feeding experimental animals on diets
containing toxaphene in various concentrations over prolonged
periods. .Unpublished report of the Kettering Laboratory. 1952,
-------
von Oettingen, W.F. Poisoning - A guide to clinical diagnosis
and treatment. W.B. Saunders Co., Phila, Pa. 627 pp. 2nd
Ed. 1963.
Zweig, G., Pye, E.L., Sitlani, R., and Peoples, S.A. Residues
in milk from dairy cows fed low levels of toxaphene in
their daily rations. J. Ag. Food Chem. 11:70. 1963.
25
-------
CHAPTER II
Chemistry and Methodology of Toxaphene
The chemical structure of toxaphene is not distinctly identified.
The comparison of physical, chemical data (infrared absorption, gas
chroma'tograms) plus bioassay data with female houseflies show that
toxaphene produced during 1949-1970 (23 years) is quite uniform in
its properties.
Analytical methods (total chlorine spectrophotometric and
gas liquid chromatography) as described in literature is satisfactory
for samples with known history (Crop sprayed, feeding studies).
In evaluation of residue data obtained by gas chromatography (GLC),
one must examine whether the total method involved acid clean-up
and partial dehydrohalogenation prior to G.L.C. The modified GLC
method for toxaphene is superior to previously reported general
GLC but additional improvement for specificity and sensitivity is
warranted.
The monitoring data of toxaphene from environmental specimens
must be carefully scrutinized for the statements of special pre-
treatment of samples prior to analysis, sensitivity of the G.L.C.
method and lower limits of detection based on fortified samples.
Furthermore, the re-examination of the retained environmental samples
by the improved GLC-clean-up method for toxaphene is highly desirable
to verify previously reported residue results in the literature and
-------
to assess the degree of persistence and/or hazards, if any, to the
environment.
; CHEMISTRY
II.A. Definition, Preparation and Chemical Structure of Toxaphene
Toxaphene is defined as chlorinated camphene 67-69% chlorine.
Toxaphene is prepared by chlorination of the bicyclic terpene camphene
to contain 67-69% chlorine. This material has the empirical formula
C]_0H^QClg. Chlorination-grade camphene is prepared by the isomeri-
f-
zation of^ -pinene, a product derived from the Southern pine tree.
Some tricyclene may accompany the camphene, but less than 5% other
terpenes are present. The structures of some of these terpenes are
shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Structure of Some of these Terpenes
(I) «< -Pinene
(II) Camphene (III) Tricyclene (IV) Cyclofenchene
(VII) Y -f enchene (VIII). Bornylene
Cl
Cl
Cl
(IX) Dibentene (X) Toxaphene
(XI) Toxaphene (Messing).
-------
The structure X is generally used to 'identify the chemical
toxaphene. The only published chemical structure that is more detailed
than X is that suggested by Messing (1956), who proposed structure
XI, though apparently with qualifications (Donev and Nikolov (1965),
Nikolov and Donev, (1965)).
II.B. Physical and Chemical Properties of Toxaphene.
Toxaphene is an amper, waxy solid with a molecular weight-of
414 and melting point 70°-90°C. The physical and chemical properties
are shown in Table 1.
TABLE 1
Physical and Chemical Properties of Toxaphene
Solubility Vapor
Pressure
Highly Soluble 0.2-0. 4mm
in most organic at 25°C.
solvents, but 3-4 mm
Specific
Gravity
at 100°C/
15.6°C.
1.63(avg)
Pounds
per
Gallon
at 75°C.
13.8
Viscosity
Centripose/
C °
89/110°C.
57/120°C.
. 39.1/130°C.
Specific
heat
cal/g/°C
0.258/41°C.
0.260/95°C.
greater in
aromatic
solvents.
Soluble in
water
ca 0.5 ppm
at 90°C.
II. C.I. Manufacturing Process and Production of Toxaphene
The commercial production of toxaphene (U. S. Patents 2,565,471
and 2,657,164, Hercules) consist of reacting camphene with chlorine
for 40 hours at 70°C and activated by ultraviolet irradiation and
certain catalysts to yield the final product of chlorinated camphene
-------
with a chlorine content 67-69 percent. The final product is a
relatively stable material with a mild terpene odor and is a mixture of
related compounds and isomers.
Toxaphene produced by Hercules is regularly bioassayed and
subjected to chemical and physical tests batch by batch during
manufacturing process.
Control of camphene feedstock quality and process variables is
important in achieving a chemical substance of uniform properties.
The specification item of infrared absorptivity at 7.2 u (micron)
used to distinguish toxaphene from other chlorinated terpene products
such as strobane. A typical electron capture gas chroinatograms are
also prepared for each batch to check the uniformity of the materials.
Product specifications for toxaphene as shown below has been
established by Hercules.
Product Specifications
Total organic chlorine, % by weight . 67.0-69.0
Acidity, % by weight as Hcl 0.05% maximum .
Drop softening point, 0°C 70 minimum
Infrared absorptivity at 7.2 ji 0.0177 minimum
Specific gravity at 100°C/15.6°C 1.600 minimum
II.C.2. Uniformity of Toxaphene Production
Bioassay is carried out regularly in each batch in order
to obtain standards of identity appropriate for specifying,
purchasing or evaluating toxaphene insecticides. The most con-
venient test organism is housefly, however, bioassay with other
29
-------
insects such as plum curculio and southern armyworm is also
recommended by Hercules Company.
Zweig (1971) reported that a series of nine samples from retained
toxaphene production manufactured by Hercules in the interval 1949-1970
was bioassayed against female houseflies by the topical method. A
laboratory toxaphene standard sample was used for comparative purpose.
Zweig (1971) also obtained infrared absorption spectra arid
electron capture gas chromatograms of the above series of nine
samples of toxaphene. The results indicated that the toxaphene
regularly produced by Hercules during the past 23 years is quite
uniform in its properties.
II.D. Composition of Toxaphene
A large number of chlorinated terpene components are present
in toxaphene and is due to the complexity of the chemical reactions
in the synthesis of toxaphene. The chlorine content in the com-
mercial product limited to 67-69% since insecticidal activity peaks
sharply in that band. A typical gas chromatogram suggests that
30 or 40 principal constituents may exist. Separation of these
components by a variety of means has been attempted. A description
of the two most successful methods and their results are shown below.
II.D.I. Fractional Crystallization Method
Fractional crystallization applied to toxaphene utilized iso-
proponal solvent and carried through 5 levels, combining mother
liquor and precipitated crops to obtain additional fractionation.
Five crops (3 crystalline and 2 non-crystalline) were obtained.
30
-------
Melting points varied widely, but insecticidal activity as measured
by housefly bioassay was practically uniform. The results are
summarized in Table II.
TABLE II.
Properties of Fractions From
Fractional Crystallization of Toxaphene
%Kill (FliesBell Jar)
Sample
Toxaphene
22
24
26
28
30
Melting Range
-
234-239°C
208-210°C
184-187°C
Noncrys talline
semisolid
Viscous liquid
0.1%
AV.
56(9)*
70(9)
80(9)
78(9)
44(9)
40(9)
Cone.
S.D.**
11.3
5.4
8.8
9.3
8.1
8.3
0.05%
AV.
33(8)*
39(8)
40(8)
40(8)
29(8)
22(8)
Cone.
S.D.**
16.1
8.1
11.8
11.4
13.4
7.5
(*) Numbers in parentheses are numbers.of determinations.
(**) S.D. = standard deviation of test results.
II.D.2. Craig Liquid-Liquid Separation Method
A 100-stage Craig liquid-liquid extractor was used with solvent
pairs that included isooctane-acetonitrile, isoocCane-methyl cello-
solve and isooctane-dimethylformamide. The isolation of the individual
31
-------
components was unattainable as indicated, by lack of sharp peaks. The
broad spread of the resolved sample and the uneven contour of the
Craig's peaks profile do indicate some separation.
The system isooctane-acetonitrile concentrated ca 10% of
the samples in the most polar phase and the chemical substance
was relatively non-toxic to flies.
Fractions separated in the system isooctane-methyl cellosolve
were tested individually. The results indicated the chemical compo-
nents of lower toxicity to be present at both ends of the most polar
and least polar spectrum. The toxicity of the middle fractions of this
system are comparable to the middle fractions of the isooctane
acetonitrile system. The biological data for the indicated fractions
shown in Table III.
II.E. Analytical Methodology of Toxaphene
The analytical method for toxaphene analysis in formulation
were described in two recently published books. (Dunn, 1964 and
Row, 1970). These methods are based on analytical techniques such as:
(1) Total chlorine method (metallic sodium reduction); (2) Total
chlorine method (sodium biphenyl reduction); (3) Infrared spectro-
photo:aetry; and (4) Colorimetric (diphenylamine-zinc chloride).
In residue analyses for toxaphene, there were no analytical
residue method based on gas chromatographic technique until 1963,
ty
(Coulson, 1959). Th:jLs, any toxaphene residue data reported in
literature, at least until 1963, were obtained by 'conventional
spectrophotometric residue methods. Until about 1963, the two
-------
TABLE III
Craig Countercurrent Fractionation of Toxaphene
. % of
Original
Fraction No . Sample
X9675-23-A
-B
-C
-D
-E
Toxaphene
X9675-31-A
-B
-C
-D
-E
Toxaphene
11.4
33.8
37.8
9.9
7.2
Standard
Tubes 5,10,15
Tube 45
Tube 85
Tube 125
Tube 185
Standard
at
% Fly Kill
Indicated Concentration
Topical Application
0.6 mg
3
41
100
75
35
91
7
31
100
79
0
91
0.5 mg
0
22
100
54
3
81
0
22
. 97
63
3
57
0.4 mg
0
0
79
19
0
28
0
16
57
28
0
29
Solvent System
Isooctane-
Acetonitrile
Isooctane-Methyl
Cellosolve
33
-------
methods of choice for residue analyses of toxaphene were: total
chlorine determination and colimetric method. However, the total
chlorine method is non-specific which measure total chloride
of the sample and the colimetric method is of low sensitivity.
Furthermore, both methods require rigorous "clean-up" procedure
due to possible interferences from plant and animal extractives.
Infrared spectroscopic method has never been used for residue '
determination due to lack of sensitivity.
Since about 1963, the gas chromatographic methods were employed
to determine toxaphene residues in agricultural commodities (food,
fiber, and feed), mammalian tissues and other natural specimens.
The reported residue data must be very carefully scrutinized for
the inherent difficulties for toxaphene analysis due to (1) the
heterogenous composition of toxaphene and related chlorinated camphene
products, (2) presence of other chlorinated hydrocarbon or pesticides
such as PCB or DDT, etc., in various samples.
II.E.L. Clean-up Procedures
The two techniques, which are widely used to clean-up extracts
of samples for toxaphene residue analysis are described by Reynold
(1969). Absorption chromatography on selected florisil permits
removal of plant pigments and some waxes; also separation of toxa-
phene from a few chlorinated pesticides. The separation of the mpst
thiophosphate materials is accomplished by elution of toxaphene with
6% (U/V) diethyl ether in hexane. The treatment of sample extracts
with concentrated sulfuric-fuming sulfuric acid (1:1) mixture
34
-------
separates the fats and oil from toxaphene. In this technique, a
1:1 mixture of the sulfuric acids is ground with celi-te 545 and
packed into a chromatographic column. A hexane solution of the
extract containing fatty substances poured on the top of the column.
The sulfonated fats and oils are retained on the column, while the
toxaphene is eluted with hexane or 6% (U/V) diethyl ether in
hexane.
Kawano et al , (1969) stated that the treatment with con-
centrated sulfuric-fuming nitric acid mixtures did not alter the
analytical characteristic of toxaphene. Erro et al, (1967),
reported that the nitration of the sample extract removed DDT as an
interferring material in toxaphene residue analysis.
The two published methods for eliminating polychlorinated
biphenyl (PCB) interferences from chlorinated hydrocarbon pesti-
cides residues were evaluated for toxaphene residue analyses.
Reynolds (1969), published a method in which, PCB's along
with heptachlor, aldrin and DDE are eluted from florisil column
with 200 ml of hexane, but lindane, heptachlor epoxide, dieldrin,
ODD and p,p DDT required 250 ml of 20% ethyl ether in hexane for
complete elution.
Armour and Burke (1970), reported a method which involved
elution of PCB's from Silicic acid/celite 545 column with 250 ml of
hexane, while DDT and its analogs were eluted with 200 ml of a mixture
of 1% acetonitrile + 19% hexane + 80% methylene chloride.
35
-------
Both these methods found to be satisfactory to toxaphene
residue analysis. In literature, the Reynold's method is preferred
since it is a clean-up and separation on a single column. Armour and
Burke's method is a two stage column chromatography since it requires
prior clean-up on florisil column.
II.E.2. Chromatographic Methods
II.E.2.1. Paper Chromatography
Mills (1959), reported paper chromatographic methods for detection
and semi-quantitative estimation of chlorinated pesticides including
toxaphene. The limit of detection for toxaphene is about 0.2 micrograms.
Sherman and Zweig (1971) stated that the chromatograms of clean-up
extracts resulted in streaks instead of clearly defined spots.
II.E.2.2. Thin-layer Chromatography (T.L.C.)
Several thin-layer chromatography methods were published in
literature for detection and quantitative estimation of toxaphene.
The most preferred thin-layer chromatographic were those published
by Schecter (1963) and Moats (1966). In these T.L.C. system, the
aluminum oxide plates are spotted with clean-up extract and
developed with hexane as mobile phase. After completion of solvent
development, the plates are irridated with U.V. light to identify
toxaphene. The limits of sensitivity is at the 0.5 microgram
level. The methods, however, suffer from diffuse patterns and/or
multispots.
*
II.E.2.3. Gas Chromatography
The first gas chromatographic method for chlordane, strobane
and toxaphene was reported by Coluson (1962). Gaul (1966), published
36
-------
gas chromatographic method for chlordane, toxaphene and strobane.
In both of these methods, toxaphene resulted in multi-peaks, at
least seven peaks. Witt et al, (1962) attempted to reduce these
multi-peaks into a single peak using a 1-1/4 foot long column instead
of the conventional 6-foot column length. They reported that, using
microcoulometry detection system, a 0.5 microgram (pg) of toxaphene
could be detected at a retention time less than 2 mins.
Terriere et al, (1966) reported a gas chromatographic
method for determination of toxaphene level in water, aquatic
plants and fish from lakes treated with toxaphene. They found
that the apparent levels of toxaphene in untreated control samples
ranged from an average of 0.38 ppb in water to 0.55 ppm in fish.
They also noted that the absolute identification of single peak
is impossible even after use of a short length column which
decrease the resolution of toxaphene isomers.
Bevenue and Beckman (1966), published a "fingerprint" gas
chromatography methods for positive identification of toxaphene.
They used the three major characteristic peaks on 5% ZF-1/Chromosorb-
W column, eluting after DDT, thus differentiating between DDT and
toxaphene. The sensitivity of detection of toxaphene with EC
detector is found to be 2 nonagram (vjg) under ideal conditions
but more generally 5-7 nonagram is detectable. The authors,
however, cautioned the reliability of these gas chromatographic
residue data for the identification of toxaphene residue in
agricultural commodities.
37
-------
Further investigation into the '3 peak' phenomena at the
later part of the gas chromatograms may possibly produce a .
definitive fingerprint of toxaphene. Gaul (1966), has recommended
the use of the planimetry of the last four peaks as a quantitative
measurement of toxaphene in the presence of DDT. If Kelthane is
present in the sample, superimposing a toxaphene standard at
about the same concentration as the unknown sample will .correct
the situation of interpretation of gas chromatograms. Erro (1967),
reported that the last four peaks of toxaphene chromatogram are
not always observed and sample containing toxaphene must be
treated with concentrated sulfuric-fuming nitric acid mixture.
t
Kawano et al, (1969), showed that the concentrated sulfuric acid-
fuming nitric acid treatment does not appreciably alter toxaphene
and isomeric chlorinated camphene, but'such treatment effectively
removes residues of other chlorinated pesticides such as: DDT,
aldrin, telodrin, heptachlor, kelthane,'perthane, tedion and
trithion.
Archer and Crosby (1966) described an electron capture gas
chromatographic method for quantitative determination micro
quantities of toxaphene in milk, fat, blood and alfalfa hay after
a pre-treatment of samples with KOH in ethanol for clean-up
procedure and partial dehydrohologenation. The gas chromatographic
column used were consist of 5% DC-710 silicone oil and 5% silicone
oil and 5% SE-30 at 200°C. This method resulted in a single
38
-------
modified toxaphene peak with retention time at 3.50 min. and
was used for quantitative analysis and qualitative identification
purposes. This peak has a shorter retention time than the modi-
fied peaks of DDT group (DDE and related compounds commonly
encountered in samples).
The recommended gas chromatographic method, in literature,
for the toxaphene residue analysis is as follows: A sulfuric
acid-Celite 545 column clean-up followed by dehydrohalogenation
and gas chromatography as modified by Archer and Crosby (1966).
The sulfuric acid column separates fat and oil and the dehydro-
halogenation yields a characteristic, reproducible pattern for
dechlorinated toxaphene (Carlin, 1970).
The sample to be analyzed is dissolved in n hexane and put
through a sulfuric-Celite column with 100 ml of redistilled
>) -hexane. After evaporation solvent hexane, the sample extract is
treated with ethanolic 25% KOH at 75-80°. for 15 rains. The
reaction mixture is diluted with water and extracted with
0.5 ml h -hexane and an aliquats of the hexane layer are gas-
chromatographed. The conditions for gas chromatography are as
follows: Column - 9-foot x 1/8 inside diameter
Packing materials - 1:1 mixture 5% SE 30, 5%
DC 710 silicone oil on (100/120)
gas chrom (^
Column temp. - 200-210°C
Detector - electron capture detector
39
-------
Column conditioning for 2 days at 250°C is highly desirable.
The area of major peak of dehydrohalogenated toxaphene eluting at
about 4.5 min. or the entire trace is measured by triangulation
and use for quantitative estimation.
For some sample, if additional clean-up is required, this
is done by florisil chromatography, toxaphene eluting with "6%
ethyl ether in petroleum ether" fraction. A thirty nanograms of
toxaphene produced 80% of full scale deflection with a 1 milli-
volt recorder (Archer and Crosby, 1966).
The recommended gas chromatographic conditions for unmodified
toxaphene are as follows:
Column - glass column 5 foot x 1/8 i.d.
Packing Material - 3.8% UCW-98 on Diataport S
(80/100 mesh).
Column temperature - 150°C
Carrier gas - Nitrogen 45 ml/rain.
II.E.2.4. Residue Analysis by Gas Chromatography
Gas chromatographic analysis of toxaphene show that a definite
identification by distinct peaks or fingerprints is unsatisfactory
due to the heterogenicity of the compound. A distinct improvement
of elution pattern was resulted from chemical modifications by
acid treatment and/or dehydrohalogenation. Crop samples with a
known spray history can be analyzed by gas chromatography or
other analytical methods such as total chlorine, spectrophotometry.
-------
Environmental samples of soils, water, air, wildlife, and fish
and human specimens, which have been analyzed chlorinated pesticides
by G.L.C. without prior chemical treatment cannot be unequivocally
equated for toxaphene residue. There are several examples in
literature for this fact. Burke and Giuffrida (1964), reported
the retention times relative to Aldrin, of the major peaks of
toxaphene on 10% DC200 at 200°C and a carrier gas flow of 120 ml/min.
to be: 2.34; 3.06; 3.61; 4.51 (Aldrin = 1.00). Under the same
conditions, DDD has a relative retention time 2.33 and p,p'DDT
3.03.
Gaul (1966), illustrated that methoxychlor has the same
retention time as one of the major peaks of toxaphene possible
the 4.51 min. peak reported above.
Therefore, an attempt must be made to evaluate reports of
the presence or absence of toxaphene residues in natural speci-
mens of unknown spray history in order to make a judgement of
the validity of the reported findings. Although, the gas
chromatographic methods used had apparent success to analyze for
toxaphene with high degree of certainty. Most of the published
residue data analyzed by G.L.C. did not use chemical pre-treatment
method except in case of residue data cited by Archer and Crosby,
(1966). Furthermore,, most of the toxaphene residue data reports
rely on the multi-peak phenomenon of toxaphene and few authors in
published literature state their inability to identify and quantify
toxaphene due to complexity of the G.L.C. elution pattern.
-------
II.E.3. Spectroscopic Methods
Spectrophotometric methods may be used to assay toxaphene
formulation. These methods are moderately sensitive for quali-
tative and quantitative analysis of residue of toxaphene. The
greatest shortcoming of these methods is the need for exhaustive
column clean-up since certain micro-quantities of plant waxes
develop colors and interfere with the detection of toxaphene.
These methods are useful as confirmatory test.
II.E.3.1. Colormetric
Hornstein (1957), published a colormetric method using thiourea
and KOH to give yellow color and was used satisfactorily for
estimation of toxaphene. Graupner and Dunn (1966), described
a colormetric method which involves the development of a greenish-
blue color by reaction of toxaphene with diphenylamine in the
presence of zinc chloride. This method has been applied to both
formulation and residue analysis. Nikolov and Donev (1963),
developed a colormetric method using alkali and pyridine to form
reddish brown color with toxaphene. This method appears to be
unsatisfactory because of poor precision and accuracy.
Lisk (1960), described a colormetric method which involves
combustion of the sample in a Schoniger flask and spectrophoto-
metric determination of chloride based on the displacement of
thiocyanate from mercuric thiocyanate in the presence of ferric
ion.
42
-------
Klien and Lisk (1967), compared the residue data of toxaphene
on kale obtained by the diphenyl amine colorraetric method with
gas chromatography data. Agreement was good at residue levels
ca ppm. The treatment of sample extracts with concentrated
sulfuric-fuming nitric acid mixture resulted significantly
reduced blank color formation.
II.E.3.2. Infrared Spectroscopy
Clark (1962), described a infrared spectroscopic method for
quantitative determination of toxaphene in formulation (dust,
wettable powder or emulsifiable concentrate). This method also
can be used to measure toxaphene and DDT simultaneously.
Concentrations of each component are read from calibration
curves prepared from ccl4 - solutions of known toxaphene/DDT
content, by reading maximum and minimum absorbancy bands at
7.8 u and 6.0^ (micron), respectively for toxaphene and 9.1 p.
and 5.8 ji for DDT.
Czech (1964), developed a rapid infrared method for toxaphene
in animal dip and sprays which was based on the principles of
Clark (1962) method. In a series of publications, Czech (1965a,
1965b), presented a rapid versatile test for toxaphene and many
chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides. The USDA (1964), published
a "Testing Procedure for Emulsifiable Concentrate of Toxaphene",
which presented a compilation of infrared procedures.
II.E.3.3. Total Chlorine Methods (Amperometrictitration)
In these methods, an isopropyl alcohol solution of toxaphene
sample is treated with metallic sodium or a benzene solution '.of
43
-------
the sample is reduced with sodium biphenyl reagent. The liberated
chloride is then titrated by a nitrobenzene modification of the
Volhard procedure. An alternate organic chlorine method for
toxaphene sulfur dust involves the liberation of chloride by the
Parr peroxide bomb method and the determination of chloride by
the above method.
II.E.3.4. Schoniger Combustion
Hudy and Dunn (1957), described a method for the determination
of toxaphene residue in animal fat, butterfat. This method involves
combustion of sample followed by amperometric titration of the
liberated chloride with silver nitrate. Sensitivity of the method
was 5 mg of toxaphene.
Zweig et al, (1963), described a "total organic chloride"
method in which they combined the Schoniger combustion method,
following sulfuric acid treatment and amperometric titration of
the liberated Cl~ ions. The overall sensitivity of 0.02 ppm
toxaphene in whole milk was obtained. This method is recommended
for samples of a known history.
II.E.3.5. Active Metal-Reaction Methods
In residue analyses of chlorinated hydrocarbon, including toxa-
phene, the sodium reduction techniques are widely used.
Phillips and DeBenedictis (1959), described a modified
sodium-isopropanol reduction method for the determination of
toxaphene or other chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides. Ligget,
-------
(1964), Chapman and Sherwood (1957), used sodium biphenyl to
determine organic chlorine. Menville et al, (1959), and
Koblitsky et al, (1962), employed sodium dispersion technique
for the decomposition of organic chlorine and was found to be
specifically applicable for the estimation of chlorinated pesti-
cides in animal fat.
Beckman et al, (1958), described a decomposition method for
the determination of total organic chlorine, which consist of
sodium-liquid ammonia decomposition of the sample, followed by an
amperometric titration using coulometrically generated silver ions.
Cotlove et al, (1958), described an instrument named the
automatic chloride titrator and commercially available at present.
This instrument has a silver coulometer to generate the reagent
and an amperometric end-point detecting system that automatically
stop the titration after the end-point is reached. The time
needed to complete the titration is recorded on a built-in electric
timer. The time is easily related to the chloride content of
the sample. In literature, this instrument is preferred for the
quantitative measurement of chloride resulting from the above
mentioned analytical techniques.
-------
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Archer, T. C., and Crosby, D.G. Gas chromatographic measurement of
toxaphene in milk, fat, blood and alfalfa hay. Bull. Exp. Cont.
and Toxic. 1: 70, (1966).
Armour, A., and Burke, A. Method for separating polychlorinated
biphenyls from DDT and its analogs. J_. of A.O.A.C. 53(4) :
761-768, (1970).
Beckman, H. F., Ibert, E. R. , Adams, B.B., and Skoolin, D.O.
Determination of total chlorine in pesticide by reduction with
a liquid anhydrous ammonia-sodium mixture. J. Agric. and Food
Chem. 6: 104, (1958).
Bevenue, A., and Beckman, H.F. The examination of toxaphene by gas
chromatography. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. i_: 1, (1966).
Boyle, H. W. , Burttschell, R. H., and Rosen, A. R. Infrared identifi-
cation of chlorinated insecticides in tissues of poisoned fish.
Chem. Ser., 207-218 pp. (1966).
Bugg Jr., J. C., Higgins, J. E., Robertson Jr., E. A. Residues in
fish, wildlife, and estuaries. Pesticides Monitoring Journal 1 (3);
9, (1967).
Burke, J., and Giuffrida, L. Investigation of EC gas chromatography
for the analysis of multiple chlorinated pesticide residues in
vegetables. J. Assoc. Offie. Anal. Chem. 47; 326, (1964).
Chapman, F. W., and Sherwood, R. M. Spectrophotometric determination
of chloride, bromide and iodide. Analytical Chemistry 29: 172,
(1957).
Clark, W. H. Infrared analysis of insecticides to determine toxaphene
alone or in the presence of dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT).
J. Agr. Food Chem. 1£: 214, (1962).
Cotlove, -E., Trantham, H. V., and Bowman, R.L. An instrument and method
for automatic, rapid, accurate, and sensitive titration of chloride
in biologic samples. J. of Laboratory and Clinical Medicine 51;
461, (1958).
Coulson, D. M., Cavanagh, L. A., and Stuart, J. Gas chromatography
of pesticides. J. Agri. and Food Chem. 7: 250, (1959).
Coulson, D. M. Gas chromatography of pesticides. Adv. Pest Control
Res, (ed. by R.L. Metcalf) Interscience: 153-190 pp., (1.962).
-------
Czech, F. P. Rapid infrared method for toxaphene in animal dips and
sprays. J. Assoc. Of fie. Agr. Chem. 47: 591, (1964),
Czech,F. P. Rapid quantitative vatside check test for chlorinated
hydrocarbons in aqueous emulsions: toxaphene and lindane.
J. Assoc. Of fie. Agr. Chem. 4£: 334, (1965).
Czech, F. P. Rapid quantitative vatside check test for chlorinated
hydrocarbons in aqueous emulsions: methoxychlor, DDT, dieldrin,
and chlordane. J. Assoc. Offie. Agr. Chem. 48: 1121, (1965).
Czech, F. P. Rapid analysis of malogenated organic insecticides in
aqueous animal dips, using sodium biphenyl. J. Assoc. Offie.
Agr. Chem. 51.: 568, (1968).
Donev, L. and Nikolov, N. I. Sone structural changes during exhaustive
chlorination of Camphene and Bornylchloride. Zh. Prikl. Khim.
(USSR) 38: 2603 (1965), C.A. 64: 3605h (1966).
Dunn, C. L. Toxaphene in analytical methods for pesticides, plant
growth regulators and food additives, Vol. II (G. Zweig, ed.)
523-543 pp., (1964), Academic Press.
Erro, F., Bevenue, F., and Beckman, H. F. A method for the determination
of toxaphene in the presence of DDT. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxic.
2_: 372, (1967).
Gaul, J. A. Quantitative calculation of gas chromatographic peaks in
pesticide residue analyses. J. Assoc. Offie. Anal. Chem. 49:
389, (1966).
Graupner, A. J., and Dunn, C. L. Determination of toxaphene by a
spectrophotometric diphenylamine procedure. J. Agr. Food Chem. 8:
286, (1966).
Hornstein, I. Colorimetric determination of toxaphene. J. Agr. Food
Chem. .5: 446, (1957).
Hudy, J. A., and Dunn, C. L. Determination of organic chlorides and
residues from chlorinated pesticides by combustion analysis.
J. Agr. Food Chem. _5: 351, (1957).
Kawano, H., Bevenue, A., Beckman, H. F., and Erro, F. Studies on
the effect of sulfuric - fuming nitric acid treatment on the
analytical characteristics of toxaphene. J. Assoc. Offie. Anal.
Chem. 52; 167, (1969).
Klein, A. K., and Link, J. D. Field weathering of toxaphene and
chlordane. J. Assoc. Offie. Anal. Chem. 50: 586, (1967).
47
-------
Koblitsky, L., Adams, H. R., and Schechter, M. S. A screening method for
the determination of organically bound chlorine from certain insecti-
cides in fat. J. Agr. and .Food Chem. 10; 2-3, (1962).
Li, C. F., Bradley Jr., .R. L., and Schultz, L. H. Fate of organo-
chlorine pesticides during processing of milk into dairy products.
J. Assoc. Offie. Anal. Chem. 53.: 127, (1970).
Liggett, L. M. Determination of organic halogen with sodium biphenyl
reagent. Analytical Chemistry 26: 748, (1964).
Lisk, D. J. Rapid combustion and determination of residues of
chlorinated pesticides using a modified Schoniger method. J_.
Agri. and Food Chem. 8: 119, (I960).. ~~
Menville, R. L. and Parker, W. W. Determination of organic halides
with dispersed sodium. Analytical Chemistry 31; 1901, (1959).
Messing, V. Khim Svedsta Zhaschitii Rasteni 3: 70 (19560. This
journal is not listed in Chem. Abstracts or Current Contents.
No C.A. listing for V. Messing.
Mills, P. A. Detection and semiquantitative estimation of chlorinated
organic pesticide residues in foods by paper chromatography. J_.
Assoc. Official Agr. Chem. 42_: 734, (1959). ~
Moats, W. A. Analysis of dairy products for chlorinated insecticide
residues by thin layer chromatography. J. Assoc. Offie. Agr.
Chem. _4£: 795, (1966).
Nikolov, N. I., and Donev, L. D. A photometric method for the
determination of polychloroterpenes. Zh. Analit. Khim. 18:
532, (1963); CA 59, 4494.
Nikolov, N. I. and L. D. Donev. Relationships between content of
bound chlorine and some properties of chlorinated terpenes.
Zh. Prikl. Khim. _38 (3): 612-617, (1965). C.A. 62:16302nd (1965).
Phillips, W. F., and DeBenedictis, M. E. Sodium reduction technique
for microdetermination of chlorine in organic insecticides. J_.
Agr. and Food Chem. _7_: 1226, (1959).
Raw, G. R. CIPAC Handbook, Vol. I - Analysis of technical and formu-
lated pesticides, publ. by Collaborative International Pesticides
Analytical Council Ltd.: 132-170 pp. (1970).
Reynolds, L. M. Polychlorobiphenyls (PCB's) and their interference
with pesticide residue analysis. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol.
4_: 128, (1969).
-------
Schaffer, M. L., Peeler, J. T., Gardner, W. S., and Campbell, J.E.
Pesticides in drinking water - waters from the Mississippi
and Missouri Rivers. Environ. Sci. & Tech.3; 1261, (1969).
Schechter, M. S. Comments on pesticide residue situation. J. of
A.O.A.C. 4£ (6): 1063-9.
Sherma, J., and Zweig, G. Paper Chromatography, Vol. II of Paper
Chromatography and Electrophoresis. Academic Press, p.359,(1971).
Stanley, C. W., Barney II, J. E., Helton, M. R. and Yobs, A. R.
Measurement of atmospheric levels of pesticides. Envir. Sci.
and Tech. 5.: 431, (1971).
Terriere, L. C., Kiigemagi, U., Gerlach, A. R., and Borovicka, R.L.
The persistence of toxaphene in lake water and its uptake by
aquatic plants and animals. J. Agr. Food Chem. 14: 66, (1966).
U. S. Department of Agriculture, Agr. Research Service Publ. TSC-0264,
(June 1964).
U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Food and Drug
Administration, Pesticide Analytical Manual, Volume I, Second
Ed., 1968.
U. S. Patent No. 2,565,471. Insecticidal Compositions compromising
chlorinated camphene. August 28, 1951.
U. S. Patent No. 2,657,164. Chlorinated camphor and fenchene as
insecticides. October 27, 1953.
Witt, J. M., Bagatella, G. F., and Percious, J. K. Chromatography of
toxaphene using a shortened column. SRI Pesticide Res. Bull. 2:
4, (1962).
Zweig, G., Pye, E. L., Sitlani, R., and Peoples, S. A. Residues in
milk from dairy cows fed low levels of toxaphene in their daily
ration. J. Agr. Food Chem. 11; 70, (1963).
Zweig, G., An unpublished special report on toxaphene chemistry
submitted to the Hazardous Materials Advisory Committee of EPA.
-------
Chapter III
Environmental Effects of Toxaphene and Strobane
The high toxicity to fish and other aquatic organisms includ-
ing some species of waterfowl, persistence in water, and the ac-
cumulation of toxaphene residues in plants and aquatic animals
prompted a ban on its use on Federal lands and federal aid proj-
ects by the U.S. Department of Interior.
III.A. Toxicity to Aquatic Organisms;
Aquatic organisms are highly sensitive to toxaphene, but
extensive accidental fish kills have not been reported from its
use.
HI.A.I. Toxicity to fish:
High toxicity to fish was summarized by Pimental 0-971).
TLM and LC^g values for some species are presented in Table III.A.I.
An early study by Ginsburg (1947) on goldfish (Carassius auratus)
showed that 50 percent mortality occurred at 0.033 ppm and 100
percent at 0.063 ppm. Mayhew (1955) showed an LC-^gg of various
concentrations to rainbow trout as follows: 1.0 ppm 4 hrs.;
0.5 ppm 12 hrs.; 0.25 ppm 12 hrs.; 0.1 ppm 16 hrs.; and
0.05 ppm also 16 hrs.
50
-------
TABLE III.A.I
Toxicity Values for Various Fish to Toxaphene
Fish Species
Rainbow trout
Rainbow trout
Largemouth bas
Brown trout
Bluegill
Carp
Black Bullhead
Goldfish
Coho salmon
Rainbow trout
Yellow perch
Channel catfish
Redear Sunfish
Goldfish
Fathead minnow
Bluegill
Exposure ^50
Time (hr) (ppm)
24
48
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
Q
0
Q
Q
0
0
Q
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
.05
.0028
.0.02 .
.003
.0035
.004
.005
.0056
.008
.011
.012
.013
.013
.014
.014
.018
Source
Mayhew, 1955
FWPCA, 1968
Macek
Macek
and
and
Henderson
Tarzwell ,
Macek
Macek
and
and
Henderson
Tarzwell ,
Macek
Macek
Macek
Macek
Macek
Macek
Macek
Macek
and
and
and
and
and
and
and
and
McAllister
McAllister
, Pickering
1959
McAllister
McAllister
, Pickering
1959
McAllister
McAllister
McAllister
McAllister
McAllister
McAllister
McAllister
McAllister
, 1970
, 1970
and
, 1970
, 1970
and
, 1970
, 1970
, 1970
, 1970
, 1970
, 1970
, 1970
, 1970
51
-------
Table III.A.I (cont'd.)
Fish Species
Fathead minnow
hard water
soft water
Guppies
Chinook salmon
Coho salmon
Rainbow trout
Rainbow trout
Stone rollers
Goldfish
Golden shiner
Bluntnose minnow
Black bullhead
Exposure
Time (hr)
96
96
96
96
96
96
96(53°F.
96(53°F.
96C73°F.
96(53°F.
96(73°F.
96(73°F.
96(53°F.
96(73°F.
96(53°F.
96(73°F.
)
)
)
)
)
)
)
)
)
)
LCrQ Source
(ppm)
0.0051 Henderson, Pickering and
Tarzwell, 1956
O..OQ75 Henderson, Pickering and
Tarzwell, 1956
0.02 Henderson, Pickering and
Tarzwell, 1959
2.5 ppb Katz, 1961 (TLM)
9.4 ppb Katz, 1961 (TLM)
8.4 ppb Katz;, 1961 C?LM)
0.0084 (TLM) Mahdi, 1966
0.014 (TLM) Mahdi, 1966
< 0.005 (TLM) Mahdi, 1966
0.094 (TLM) Mahdi, 1966
0.05 (TLM) Mahdi, 1966
0.006 (TLM) Mahdi, 1966
0.03 (TLM) Mahdi, 1966
0.0063 (TLM) Mahdi, 1966
0.025 (TLM) Mahdi, 1966
0.0018 (TLM) Mahdi, 1966
Bandt (1957) reported that toxaphene used to control field
mice in Germany was washed into a stream and caused fish
mortality. Experiments showed that amounts of 0.125 mg/ai/1
52
-------
was toxic to rainbow trout and carp.
Henderson, et al., (1959) found that among ten chlorinated
hydrocarbon compounds, all except BUG were extremely toxic to
fish with 96 hr. TLM values generally below 0.1 ppm. Changes
in water quality characteristics (pH, alkalinity, hardness)
had no apparent effect on toxicity. The amount of toxaphene
that may be applied to the water surface to produce a 96 hr.
TLM was 3.5 ppb or 0.03 Ib. per surface acre of water 3 feet
deep.
Katz (1961) in addition to data in the above table also
reported the TLM of toxaphene to th.reespine stickleback
(Gasterosteus aculeatus at 5 and 25 parts per thousand salinity
and obtained 96 hr. exposure figures of 8.6 and 7.8 ppb, re-
spectively.
Workman and Neuhold (1963) described lethal concentrations
of toxaphene for goldfish, mosquitofish (Gambusia affinis) ,
and rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) as fiducial limits of a
24 hr. LC5Q in ppm (goldfish) as: .005 .066 for "sinking" and
.005 - .040 for "floating" type toxaphene. The "floating" type
was formulated to mix simultaneously with water and does not
settle to the bottom whereas the regular insecticidal type does.
Rainbow trout showed -.015 .054 for sinking and .047 .049 ppm
53
-------
for floating types. For mosquitofish the extremes were .005 -
.049 for sinking as opposed to .008 .059 ppm for floating
formulations. These extremes .were based upon water of
differing qualities from three sites in Utah.
Butler (1963) showed 24 and 48 hour TLM values for white
mullet (Mugil curema) of 0.0055 ppm fox both exposures. In
1964, Butler reported the concentration of strobane and
toxaphene in sea water causing 50 percent mortality, 24 and
48 hr. EC50 to juvenile fish as: 0.055 and 0.0085 mg/1 strobane
for sheepshead minnow (Cyprinodon variegatus), and 0.0022 and
0.001 for toxaphene on spot, Leiostomus xanthurus.
Ferguson, et^ aJL, (1965) reported upon the tolerances of
black bullheads (Ictalurus melas) and mosquitofish from a
transect of the lower Mississippi River. Approximate 36 hr. '
TLM values in ppb from four main river sites for mosquitofish
showed 20 ppb while a resistant population gave 480 ppb.
Mississippi River data on black bullheads from three sites
gave 36 hr. TLM readings of 12.5, 50, and 22.5 ppb. A
susceptible population elsewhere showed 3.75 ppb.
Use of toxaphene used on 16 North Dakota lakes caused
residues from 0.005 to 0.035 ppm. At levels below 0.025 ppm in-
complete mortality of fishes occurred. Concentrations of
-------
0.025 0.035 ppm induced complete mortality. Five of seven
lakes where kills were complete were successfully restocked
within seven months after treatment (Renegar, 1966).
Lethal concentrations of toxaphene were determined for the
stoneroller, golden shiner, goldfish, black bullhead, and
bluntnose minnow in water at 53°F«, 63°F-, and 73°F«; rainbow
trout were tested at 53°F« Toxicity of toxaphene increased
as the temperature increased. The 96-hour TLM values were
below 0.1 ppm of toxaphene in all species tested. Goldfish
were the most tolerant of the species tested and sensitivity
other species could not be ranked due to similarity of
results obtained (Mahdi, 1966).
Chronic exposure of spot, Leiostomus xanthurus, to sublethal
concentrations of toxaphene in sea water was conducted by Lowe
(1964). Earlier tests had shown that exposure to 0.5 ppb caused
mortality in 5 days, but concentrations of 0.1 and 0.01 ppb
were less than the lethal level throughout a 5-month exposure
period. Fish surviving chronic exposure were subjected for 48
hours to concentrations of 0.5, 1.0, 2.0 and 3.0 ppb to determine
if resistance had been acquired. Mortality in groups at 3.0
and 2.0 ppb was 100 percent and no mortality at 0.5 ppb.
Hussein, et al., (1967) reported that lowering the temperature
55
-------
of water reduced the toxicity.of.toxaphene for Gambusia sp. and
Tilapia zllli. Toxaphene concentrations ranging from 1.0 to
0.072 ppm at 32°C. caused 100 percent mortality at exposures
of 8 hours or less. Similar tests at 16°C. showed 100 percent
mortality in both species after exposure to 1.0 or 0.165 ppm
within 29.5 hours. At this lower temperature, 0.072 ppm cased
67 percent mortality to Gambusia after 68.5 hours and 73 percent
mortality to Tilapia after 28 hours.
Macek, et al., (1969) studied the effects of temperature
on the susceptability of blue gills to toxaphene. Data are
presented in Table III.A.2.
TABLE III.A.2
11,50 values (micrograms active ingredient/liter for
bluegills tested against toxaphene
Temperature - C°.
Exposure
time 12.7 18.3 23.8 R.I.S.*
24 hours 9.7 6.8 6.6 1.46
96 hours 3.2 2.6 2.4 1.71
R.I.S. = relative increase in susceptibility
Histopathological effects were found in the head region
of striped mullet (Mugil cephalus) embryos exposed to toxaphene
for 96 hrs. at concentrations up to 0.5 ppm. Glandular structures
in the optic region were larger and more numerous when exposed
to the higher concentrations. These structures appeared to be
56
-------
raucous glands and their anomalous condition may have been due
to epithelial irritation. Histopathological effects were also
noted in larvae of largemouth. bass, (Micropterus salmoides).
Necrosis was found in kidney tissues and the lining of the di-
gestive tract of larvae exposed for 14 days to 1Q percent of
the 96 hrs. TL,5Q administered in the food. There wa.s near
total destruction of the kidney tubules (Courtenay and Roberts,
1973).
In the comet strain of goldfish, exposure to 1.8 ug/1 toxa-
phene at 25°C. for 96 hours produced severe changes in behav-
ioral patterns. At 264 hrs. exposure under the same conditions,
the 1.8 ug/1. group again showed stronger signs of behavioral
pathology, although they were able successfully to perform tasks
of some complexity. Moderate behavioral pathology was detected
in the 0.44 ug/1 group with fewer parameters showing abberations,
The 0.44 wg/1 group showed increasing evidence of toxication
by toxaphene. Thus at 96 hours behavioral pathology was detect-
able at a concentration of toxaphene 1/25 of that necessary
to produce a TLM. One of the major pharmacological effects
was a heightening of responsiveness to external stimuli (Warner,
et. al., 1966).
III.A.la. Toxaphene as a piscicide;
Lennon, jet^ al., (1971) reviewed the history of the use
of toxaphene that 0.04 mg/1 (ppm).killed all fish in a small
57
-------
pond. Tarzwell (1950) suggested that the compound may be use-
ful in fish management. First major field trails as a fish
toxicant were conducted by Hemphill (1954) in two Arizona
lakes in 1951. A concentration of 0.1 mg/1 (ppm) eliminated
the rough fish, including carp in one lake and greatly reduced
their numbers in another. The killing action of toxaphene was
slow in comparison with rotenone and extended over a period
of days. Insect life in the lakes was severely affected, but
not eliminated.
Tanner and Hayes (.1955), evaluating toxaphene use in
Colorado, indicated that a lake may be treated effectively
with the compound for about $0.10/1,000 m3 as compared with
$0.77/1,000 m3 with rotenone. Admitting that toxaphene is
attractive from the standpoint of economy, they advised that
it is an extremely powerful poison of greater toxicity to
warmblooded animals than rotenone. Toxaphene may persist for
at least 7 months at toxic level in a lake at pH 8.0 or higher.
In Michigan, Hooper and Grzenda (1957) demonstrated that
toxaphene is more toxic to fish in hard water than in soft water,
and more toxic in warm water than in cold water. Although toxa-
phene at 0.1 mg/1 gave good results against fish, the lakes re-
mained toxic for periods of 2 to 10 months. Bottom invertebrates
50
-------
were killed in large numbers, .but quickly reappeared in abund-
ance.
The observation that 5 ug/1 (ppb) of toxaphene in hard
water killed small fish, but left large blueglll and large-
mouth bass unharmed, prompted Fukano and Hooper (1958) to
suggest that the compound had potential as selective poison.
Stringer and McMynn (1958) applied the compound at 0.01 to
0.10 mg/1 in eight alkaline lakes in British Columbia, and
eliminated all fish and amphipods. The lakes were still toxic
to fish 9 months after treatment. In a follovjup study,
Stringer and McMynn (I960) discussed methods for dispensing
toxaphene, the killing time for fish, the lower, lethal concen-
trations for a number of fish species., and factors influencing
degradation. They pointed out that small concentrations of
toxaphene applied to control cyprinids and cottids in deep,
clear, stratified lakes in British. Columbia may persist at
toxic level for 2 years. On the other hand,, detoxification
proceeds so rapidly in some turbid lakes that relatively high
concentrations produced only partial fish, kills.
Tests of toxaphene against fish in the laboratory and
field were conducted in Iowa by Ros,e (1958). Over 25 ug/1 was
necessary to kill carp and bullh.ea.ds in cold clear water whereas
200 ug/1 were needed with, the same species in highly turbid
water. Silt was suspected of having a direct detoxifying effect.
59
-------
Results of 4 years of reclamation efforts with toxaphene
in Nebraska lakes were reviewed by McCarraher and Dean (1959).
They found that at least 0.5 mg/1. of toxaphene was required
for complete kills of fish in Sand Hill likes haying moderate
alkalinity, high turbidity, and pR 8.5 to 9.5 They recorded
serious problems, however, during aerial applications. An
aerial application of 0.61 mg/1. of toxaphene in one lake
killed every wild duck, but carp and bullheads survived. A
similar application of 0.52 mg/1 in another lake killed all
fish, but also killed 33 percent of the mallards and 29 percent
of the gadwalls, but less than 10 percent of the gulls and
grebes present in the treated area. Each of the aerial appli-
cations of toxaphene was accompanied by losses of waterfowl
ranging from 15 to 100 percent. Dead mammals possibly associat-
ed with the operations included raccoon, dog, skunk, and cow.
In contrast, there were few mortalities of birds when toxaphene
was sprayed in the water from a boat.
Gebhards (I960) documented the increasing use of toxaphene
in States and provinces of western Nor.th America. He also dis-
cussed the toxicity of toxaphene to humans, livestock, water-
fowl, fish, and aquatic invertebrates, and stated that the
factors increasing 'the rate of detoxification of toxaphene are
sunlight, high concentration of dissolved oxygen, high tempera-
ture, water circulation, and turbulence. Kallman, Cope, and
60
-------
Navarre (1962) demonstrated that aquatic vegetation in a
treated lake accumulated high concentrations of toxaphene and
that rainbow trout and black bullhead concentrated the toxicant
Within their bodies. Hunt and Keith (1963) discussed the bio-
logical magnification of toxaphene residues that resulted in
death of birds. Following treatment of Big Bear Lake in
California, Johnson (1966) recommended that toxaphene not be
used as a fish poison anywhere in the State. Terriere, et al.,
(1966) observed the persistence of toxaphene in Oregon lakes.
up to 6 years, with residues accumulating up to 14 ppm in rain-
bow trout and 17 ppm in aquatic plants. Similar studies were
performed with toxaphene by Nehring (1964), Johnson, Lee, and
Spyridakis (1966), Henegar (1966), and Moyle (1968).
A survey in 1966 indicated that toxaphene ranked second
to rotenone as a fish toxicant in the United States, but
ranked first in Canada (Stroud and Martin, 1968). The limited
use of the toxicant against fish in Germany was described by
Anwant (1968). Applications of the compound as a fish toxi-
cant declined rapidly in the United States in the late 1960 "s
however, due in part to a ban imposed by the U.S. Department
of the Interior in 1963 (Dykstra and Lennon, 1966). This ban
was prompted by the persistence of toxaphene in water, its high
toxicity to invertebrates and vertebrates, especially waterfowl,
and accumulation of residues in plants and animals. Further
61
-------
use of toxaphene as a fish toxicant in Federal projects or
federally aided projects was forbidden. Walker (1969) observ-
ed that toxaphene has been one of the mos.t extensively misused
fish toxicants in the United States and Canada.
Big Kitoi Creek, on Afognak Island> Alaska, was treated
with toxaphene in July 1961 to remove sculpins predaceous on
pink salmon fry. Dispersion and penetration of toxaphene into
the streambed were determined, as well as time required for
detoxification. The population of sculpins in the creek before
treatment was estimated at 30,000, of which 82 percent were
in the size range considered predaceous on pink salmon fry.
Extent of predation was determined by examination of stomachs
of 180 sculpins. Considering the rate of predation, it was
estimated that, of 847,500 + 418,600 fry in the gravel
3 months before treatment, 12 percent may have been eaten by
sculpins before the fry migrated to salt water. Toxaphene was
applied for 18.5 hours at an average concentration of 1.5 ppm.
Assuming that, if the creek had not been treated, 30,000
sculpins would have been present in the spring of 1962, then
the treatment possibly saved approximately 135,000 pink salmon
fry in 1962 (Meehan and Sheridan, 1966).
An experiment was conducted to determine whether toxaphene
can be used to eradicate lake-dwelling sea lampreys and to de-
termine its effect on fish populations. In East Bay, a 78acre
62
-------
lake on the Sucker River, Alger County, Mich., an estimated
concentration of 100 parts per billion was maintained for 14
days. The sea lamprey larvae were more res.istant to toxaphene
than were the fish, but a complete kill was indicated. One
year after treatment, sea lampreys were absent from the lake,
while the fish population had recovered (Gaylord and Smith,
1966) .
III.A.l.b. Effects on crustaceans:
Since many pesticides were developed to control terrestrial
arthropods, marine crustaceans might well be expected to be
sensitive to the same chemicals. Butler (1963) reported the
results of bioassays on brown shrimp (Penaeus aztecus) and
blue crabs.(Callinectes sapidus). Concentrations of toxaphene
in sea water causing mortality or loss of equilibrium in 50
percent or more of the test animals were: brown shrimp -24
hours, EC5Q - 0.0066 ppm; 48 hours, EC5Q - 0.0049 ppm; and
blue crab - 24 hours, EC5Q - 0.33 ppm.
Laboratory tests were conducted to determine 96 hour
TL5Q values for toxaphene under different conditions of salinity,
temperature and dissolved oxygen on developmental stages of
blue crab, pink shrimp (Penaeus duorarum), drift line crab
(Sesarma cinereum), and mud crab (Rhithoropanopeus harrissii).
63
-------
The 96 hour TL^g for various stages,of drift line crab larvae
were 0.054 ppb for stage I zoea, increased about 1Q fold to 0.76
ppb for stage II zoea and 0.74 ppb for stage III zoea; increased
about 10 fold again to 6.8 ppb. for stage IV zoea and 8.4 ppb
for the megalopa. The 96 hour toxaphene TL^Q for pink shrimp
decreased from 2.2 ppb for nauplii, to 1.8 for protozoea to 1.4
ppb for mysis. The 96 hour toxaphene TL^Q for stage I of the
mud crab was 43.75 ppb.
George, et^ al_., (1957) reported upon the effects of aerial
applications of strobane of 0.3 Ib./acre on wildlife in tidal
marshes of Delaware. No marked differences, were observed in mor-
tality between treated vs. control areas for fish (16 and 14
percent dead) or to blue crabs (Calljnectes sapidus). However,
marsh fiddler crabs (Uca pugnax) decreased 68 percent on the
treated areas compared with 16 percent on the control. This
was one of the dominant crustaceans in the area and provides
food for birds and mammals.
The insecticide tolerances of two crayfish, populations
(Procambarus acutus) in South Central Texas were studied by
Albaugh (1972). LCcQ values at 48 hours for crayfish from an
uncontaminated area and adjacent to a treated cotton field were.
60.7 and 90.2 ppb, respectively. In contaminated habitats in
the Mississippi River delta, fres.h w.ater shrimp (Falaemonetes
kadiakensis) were 6-25 times more resistant to seven insecticides.
64
-------
(including toxaphene) than shrimp from an uncontaminated area
(Naqvi and Ferguson, 1970). In an earlier report by Ferguson,
.§£. JLk-» (1965) this same species of fresh water shrimp from a
bayou fed by runoff from treated cotton fields was exposed for
36 hours to several concentrations of toxaphene and found to
have TLM values 3 times those of shrimp from an untreated area.
A fresh water shrimp Gammarus lacustris, common in prairie
fresh water lakes and ponds and readily collected and cultured,
was found to be a sensitive bioassay organism for the rapid
detection of chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides in aqueous
suspension. This shrimp was most.sensitive to-lindane and endrin
and levels as low as O.Q1 ppm can be detected in 54 and 175 minutes,
respectively. The LieQ values (letha,l time for 50 percent knock-
down) for toxaphene based upon duration .of exposure was 460 minutes.
at 0.05 ppm; 360 at 0.1; 96 at 0.5; and 72 at 1.0 ppm (McDonald,
1962).
III.A.I.e. Effects on Mollusks:
Oysters and other shellfish, are highly susceptible to effects
of pollution. They have limited mobility with, feeding and respira-
tion requiring exposure of gill cilia and oral cavity to large
amounts of circulating water. These activities must be stopped
by closing the shell if bivalves are to ayoid pollution. Pesti-
cide effects can be measured by inhibition of shell growth (Mason
and Rowe, 1969) .
65
-------
Butler (1963) found that the concentration of toxaphene in
sea water causing a 50 percent decrease in shell growth for 96
hour exposure was 0.057 ppm.
Oysters (Grassestrea virginica), were reared from juveniles
to sexual maturity in flowing sea water chronically polluted with
low levels (3.0 ppb) of DDT, toxaphene and parathion and mixtures
of the 3 chemicals. Oysters grown in the mixture (1 ppb each
of the three chemicals) were about 10 percent less in body weight
than the controls after 9 months. Weights and heights of separate
groups (1 ppb each of DDT, toxaphene or parathion) were not statistically
different from the controls. In oysters reared in the pesticide
mixture, tissue changes were observed in kidney, visceral ganglion,
gills, digestive tubules, and tissues beneath the gut. Oysters
accumulated relatively high levels of toxaphene (30 ppm by the
24th week) but dropped to 3.0 ppm 4 weeks after the end of pesticide
exposure (Lowe, et_ al., 1971). The amount of residual toxaphene
found in oyster tissues after 10 days exposure to 0.05 ppm toxaphene
was 146 ppm, or a biological concentration of 2920 x (Wilson,
1966).
Chlorinated pesticides levels in the eastern oyster were
studied from selected estuarine areas of the South Atlantic and Gulf
of Mexico (Bugg, et_ al^., 1967). In general these were either not
detected or were found at relatively low levels. Toxaphene was found
in only 6 of 133 samples with a median of 0.08 (range
-------
Creek, Brunswick, Ga., was studied. In the estuary, the sediments
near a toxaphene plant outfall were found to be contaminated with
toxaphene approaching 2,000 ppm and oysters collected 2 miles
from the outfall were found to contain residue levels near 6 ppm.
Analyses of oysters and sediment before and after dredging operations
revealed no significant increase of toxaphene residues resulting
from the dredging and resultant spoil runoff (Durant and Reimold,
1972).
After 4 weeks exposure of 0.1 ppm of toxaphene, 50 percent
of the oyster population died. Only 1 ppb inhibited the development
of clam eggs by 50 percent and also reduced the growth of mature
oysters after 7 days of exposure by 64 percent (USDI, 1960). Molluscs
in lakes, however, were apparently unaffected by a dosage of 0.1
ppm toxaphene (Hooper and Grzenda, 1957).
The snail population in a marsh treated with toxaphene at
2 Ib/A (105 ppm in water) was zero in about 10 days (Hanson, 1952) .
The snails did not start to reinvade the treated areas until a
month had passed.
Mortality of Belzoni (resistant) and State College (susceptible),
Mississippi clams (Eupera singleyi) was checked by exposure to
various concentrations for 72 hours (Naqvi and Ferguson, 1968).
Six of 20 susceptible specimens succumbed to 300 ppb toxaphene
and all were killed by 700 ppb. Among resistant individuals only
3 were killed at 300 ppb and maximum loss of 12 was reached at
600 ppb. The same trend was evident among snails (Physa gyrina)
where at 350 ppb 16 susceptible but only 4 resistant snails died.
The LD100 values for the two groups were 450 and 550 ppb.
67
-------
III.A.l.d. Effects on amphibians;
Frog and toad control was discussed by Mulla (1962). He
showed the toxicity of toxaphene to tadpoles of the anurans Rana
catesbeiana, Bufo borealis, and Scaphiopus hammondi to be such
that complete kill occurred at application rates of 0.1 to 0.5
Ib/ac. On a golf course, 95 to 98 percent of juvenile toads were
controlled with a combination of toxaphene and DDT at 2 and 1 Ibs/ac.
In 1963 Mulla reported further on effects of 0.5 Ib/ac. toxaphene
and reported 100 percent kill of both mosquito fish and tadpoles
of the bullfrog, Rana catesbeiana, after 24 hours exposure. Exposure
to 0.1 Ib/ac. toxaphene has no effect on tadpoles after 6 days.
Bioassays with the northern cricket frog, (Acris crepitans),
southern cricket frog (A. gryllus) and for Fowler's toads (Bufo
woodhousei fowleri) were made with specimens collected near cotton
fields and from pesticide-free areas (Ferguson and Gilbert, 1967).
Population tolerance appeared to reflect environmental contamination
and probable history of exposure. With A. crepitans from an area
bordered on one side by a cotton field 36 hour TIMjQ values were
0.5 mg/ml and 5.4 mg/ml from a site surrounded by cotton fields.
Extremes for ]3. w. fowleri were 0.6 mg/ml (bordered on one side
by cotton) to 50.0 mg/ml (surrounded by cotton).
Sanders (1970) determined that the 24-hour LC5Q for Fowler's
toad tadpoles and chorus frog (Fseudacris triseriata) tadpoles
exposed to toxaphene was 0.60 ppm and 1.7 ppm, respectively. For
the toad the 48-hr. LC50 was 0.29 and the 96-hr. LC5Q was 0.14 mg/1.
68
-------
Extended exposure effects on the chorus frog .showed 0.7 for 48
hours and 0.5 mg/1 for 96 hours.
III.A.I.e. Effects on Other Organisms:
Laboratory bioassays were conducted with toxaphene to determine
\
its toxicity and immobilization values for two species of daphnids,
Daphnia pulex and Simocephalus serrulatus. Estimated 48-hour
EC5Q immobilization values, in micrograms per liter, for S_. serrulatus
were 19 at 60°F. and 10 at 70°F. For D. pulex it was 15 at 60°F.
It ranked fourth most toxic among 12 chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides
(Sanders and Cope, 1966).
The growth of pure cultures of marine phytoplankton in the
presence of 17 toxicants was reported by Ukeles (1962). Toxaphene,
a mixture of chlorinated camphenes, was the most toxic of the
chlorinated hydrocarbons tested. A concentration of 0.01 ppm
was tolerated by four species but 0.15 ppm was lethal to all organisms.
Monochrysis lutheri showed a striking sensitivity to this compound
and as little as 0.001 ppm was lethal.
The effects of toxaphene upon phytoplankton of a Colorado
reservoir were investigated by Hoffman and Olive (1967) . The selected
area was treated with enough of a water emulsifiable preparation
of 60 percent toxaphene to cause a residual of 0.1 ppm. Following
the application of toxaphene, protozoans decreased from high counts
taken in October to zero in December. No protozoans were collected
from the water surface until May. Fish toxicants reduced the
-------
size of the rotifer populations. Populations of Entomostraca in
treated lakes decreased to zero. Experiments by Hemphill (1954)
and Moretti (1948) indicated that Entomostraca are also killed
by toxaphene.
An earlier study by Gushing and Olive (1956) dealt with effects
of toxaphene upon the macroscopic bottom fauna of the same lake.
Toxaphene applied at 0.1 ppm had a marked effect upon the Tendipedidae
(Chironomidae) population. Living larvae were absent from samples
taken 3 days posttreatment, and recovery was not complete until
9 months later. Chaoborus larvae exhibited no immediate effects,
but were absent 6 months after poisoning and did not reappear
before the study ended. Oligochaetes showed no adverse effects
from toxaphene but rather increased during the study period.
The effect of toxaphene on the benthos of a thermally-stratified
lake in Wisconsin was observed by Hilsenhoff (1965). Chaoborus
larvae were the only profundal benthic organisms that were adversely
affected by treatment of a dimictic lake with toxaphene to eradicate
undesirable fish. The larvae were eliminated, and had not become
reestablished 2 years after treatment. Subsequent to the removal
of the fish, a large population of Chironomus larvae appeared,
and when the lake was restocked with 7 species of fish, the larval
population dropped to its former level. More than a year after
treatment, a sustantial'population of Procladium larvae appeared,
probably resulting from the removal of carp and consequent reduction
in turbidity, increased growth of rooted aquatic vegetation and
restoration of higher dissolved oxygen levels. The temporary
-------
absence of fish also favored an increase in the physid snail population,
Grzenda, et_ al^., (1964) studied effects of chemical pollution
on zooplankton, bottom fauna, and fish populations in a northern
Alabama drainage system. Toxaphene and BHC were present in all
water samples collected in 1959 and 1960 in amounts considered
to be sublethal to aquatic animals in a single dose. Mean seasonal
recoveries for toxaphene ranged from 29 to 140 ppt. Individual
samples varied from 10 to 217 ppt. There was no convincing evidence
that continuous toxaphene contamination resulted in gross damage
to any of the animals studied. Scarcity or fluctuations may have
resulted from other unfavorable conditions such as changes in
discharge and high turbidity.
Pesticide effect on growth and assimilation (^ C) in a fresh
water alga was evaluated by Stadnyk, j^t al_. , (1971). Low density
populations of green alga, Scenedesmus quadricaudata, were studied
in terms of growth and metabolism rather than death. Concentrations
of 0.1 and 1.0 mg/1 toxaphene were used. Toxaphene decreased
cell number at both levels of treatment, but cell biomass was
reduced only 3 and 4 percent. In two day cultures at the higher
concentration there was a 450 percent increase in carbon fixation.
The susceptibility of millipedes to insecticides was studied
by Fiedler (1965). Three millipede species, Spinotarsus fiedleri,
Poratophilus pretorianus, and P_. robustus, causing damage to potatoes
and other plants in South Africa, were checked for pesticide
effects. Percent mortality in 7 days after being dipped for 30
seconds in 0.2 percent EC toxaphene was 60 percent for Spinotarsus
71
-------
and 0 for Poratophilus spp. When exposed in bait form, toxaphene
mortality to gpinotarsus was 30 percent in 7 days but again had
no effect on the other genus.
Development of resistance by the tobacco bud worm, Heliothris
virescens in Texas to toxaphene + DDT and Strobane + DDT occurred
during the period 1963-65. During this period the 1059 for toxaphene
+ DDT increased from 0.57 to 3.52 mg/g of larvae and for Strobane
from 0.51 to 11.12 mg/g. These values indicated an increase in
resistance of the tobacco bud worm of approximately 6-fold to
toxaphene + DDT and 22-fold to Strobane + DDT (Adkisson, 1967).
Laboratory studies were reported in which planktonic animals
and algae, periphyton, and insect nymphs were exposed to toxaphene
in both single applications of 0.03 ppm and chronic applications
of 0.01 and 0.02 ppm. The results showed that single sub-lethal
doses of toxaphene are insufficient to produce accumulations in
fish-food organisms which would cause fish mortalities, but with
chronic doses, the amounts accumulated by Daphnia and periphyton
can be toxic to fish. This explains the long residual period
of toxicity which has been observed when toxaphene is used as
a fish poison (Schoettger and Oliver, 1961).
Toxaphene was used in an experimental program to control
rough fish at Big Bear Lake, San Bernardino County California.
It was applied at 0.2 ppm and was concentrated by plankton and
other members of the food chain. A sample.of a planctor gladocera,
72
-------
collected four months after the application, contained 73 ppm
toxaphene. Fatty tissues of goldfish had over 200 ppm and fat
from a pelican which died at the lake contained 1,700 ppm of toxaphene.
There was a substantial die-off of birds at Big Bear Lake which
was attributed to toxaphene. Cladocera collected at the lake
proved to be toxic when test fed to hatchery trout. Ten months
after the insecticide application, trout were able to survive
in the lake, and it was restocked with catchable trout. Fillets
from trout taken two months later were analyzed and found to contain
3 ppm of toxaphene. This accumulation occurred after the lake
was considered biologically safe for fish (Hunt and Keith, 1962).
Two mountain lakes which were treated with toxaphene to eradicate
the fish were subsequently investigated to determine the movement
and fate of toxaphene in the lakes (Terriere, et^ al_., 1966). The
concentration in the shallow eutrophic lake, initially treated
to contain about 88 ppb of toxaphene in 1961, decreased to 0.63
ppb in 1962, to 0.41 ppb in 1963, and to 0.02 ppb in 1964. The
concentration in the deep oligotrophic lake, initially treated
with about 40 ppb in 1961, declined to 2.10 ppb in 1962, to 1.20
ppb in 1963, and to 0.64 ppb in 1964. Both plants and animals
absorbed toxaphene and apparently played an important role in
eliminating it from the lakes. Plants in the deep lake with water
containing about 2-ppb levels of toxaphene concentrated it to
73
-------
levels as high as 17 ppm, while invertebrates concentrated toxaphene
to maximum levels of 5 ppm (Terriere, et_ a^., 1966). In the shallow
lake the concentration factor was about 500 times for aquatic
plants, 1,500 times for aquatic invertebrates, and 15,000 times
for rainbow trout. In the deeper lake, trout could not be restocked
in the lake for 6 years, although the concentration 3 years after
treatment had decreased to 0.84 ppb.
In a similar investigation by Kallman, Cope and Navarre (1962),
a shallow lake was treated to contain 0.05 ppm of toxaphene. Within
1 month the concentration of toxaphene declined to 0.001 ppm but
remained at about this level for an additional 250 days. Mortalities
in lower aquatic animals of 100 percent which were common after
24 hours of exposure to 0.01 ppm supported findings in the previous
study (Terriere, e± al., 1966). Aquatic vegetation concentrated
toxaphene to high levels (400 times that found in the water).
Residues of pesticides in various components of the Flint
Creek, Alabama aquatic biota were reported by Grzenda and Nicholson
(1965). It appeared that although toxaphene occurred more or less
as a chronic contaminant in water, its occurrence in bottom fauna
was sporadic. Mean residues of 550 ppb were found in Hexagenia
and 430 ppb in a mixture of Ephemeroptera, Trichoptera, Hemiptera
and Odonata. In an earlier paper on the same area, Grzenda, et
al., (1964) concluded that there was no convincing evidence that
toxaphene contamination resulted in gross damage to zooplankton
74
-------
or botton fauna. Sensitivity of the methods used was insufficient
to measure changes in productivity.
In 48-hr-, exposures to various concentrations of nine insecticides,
six species of cyclopoid copepods from a pesticide contaminated
ditch near Belzoni, Mississippi, displayed higher tolerances than
did the same species for areas of minimal pesticide contamination
near State College, Mississippi. Similarly, a clam, Eupera singleyi,
and a snail, ffiysa gyrina, from the Belzoni locality had higher
tolerances to toxaphene than the .same species from near State
College. Extremely high concentrations of 6,000 ppb toxaphene
failed to kill the worm, Tubifex, from Belzoni in 72-hr, tests.
The potential effect of increased tolerances in these invertebrate
species is to increase the amount of pesticide residues available
to higher trophic levels (Naqvi and Ferguson, 1968).
Big Kitoi Creek, on Afognak Island, Alaska, was treated with
toxaphene in July 1961 to remove sculpins predaceous. on pink salmon
fry. Bottom fauna decreased in numbers and weight after the toxaphene
treatment: insects were completely eradicated; some other invertebrate
groups were not completely eliminated, Posttreatment recruitment
of bottom fauna began later in the summer; a year later the pretreatment
levels of biomass had not yet been reached. Species composition
of bottom fauna a year after treatment differed somewhat from
that before treatment (Meehan and Sheridan, 1966).
75
-------
A chronic toxaphene exposure study with brook trout was discussed
in a progress report by Schoettger (1973). Brook trout fry exposed
to toxaphene concentrated the insecticide over 76,000 times, but
adult brook trout concentrated toxaphene by only 16,000 times.
Brook trout adults and fry were exposed to five concentrations
of toxaphene in flow-through diluters for 15 days (fry) and for
161 days (adults). Mean water concentration of toxicant necessary
to produce these concentration factors was 0.502 mg/1.
The LCtjQ of toxaphene tested against various species of arthropods
is found in table III.A.3.
The 48-hour EC^g (immobilization value at 60°F.) for waterfleas,
Simocephalus serrulatus and Daphnia pulex, to toxaphene was 19
ppb and 15 ppb, respectively (Sanders and Cope, 1966).
Certain aquatic Oligochaetes in lakes were apparently unaffacted
by a toxaphene treatment of 0.1 ppm (Hooper and Grzenda, 1957).
Brown shrimp tolerated toxaphene at a dosage of 40 to 50 ppb,
whereas white shrimp has a toleration limit of 75 to 90 ppb (USDI, 1960).
Toxaphene at 0.1 ppm appears to have an inhibitory effect
on 3 groups of plankton (Entoraostr.aca, Rotatoria, and Protozoa)
which are important fish foods (Hoffman and Olive, 1961).
Toxaphene (10 to 60 mg/beetle) was found to prevent oviposition
in coccinellid beetles (Coleomegilla maculata) (Atallah and Newsom, 1966).
-------
The bottom fauna in a lake with a 10 ppb level of toxaphene
declined in number of individuals, but returned to normal density
within 14 days (Hooper, 1960).
TABLE III.A.3
The LCi for various arthropods to toxaphene.*
Exposure LC5Q
Arthropod Species Time (hr) (ppm)
Stonefly
it
it
Amphipod
Stonefly
it
Waterflea
M
ii
Mayfly
Amphipod
(Claassenia sabulosa)
(Pteronarcella badia)
(Pteronarcys californica)
(Gammarus lacustris)
(P. calif ornicus [sic])
(P. californica)
(Daphnia pulex)
(D. pulex)
(Simocephalus serrulatus
(Beatis sp.)
(G. lacustris)
24
24
24
24
48
48
48
48
48
48
48
0.0006
0.0092
0.018
0.180
0.007
0.007
0.015
0.015
0.019
0.047
0.070
Source
Sanders & Cope, 1968
it
it
Sanders, 1969
Cope, 1966
FWPCA, 1968
Cope, 1966
FWPCA, 1968
Cope, 1966
Cope, 1966
FWPCA, 1968
* as listed by Pimentel (1971).
III.A.l.f. Resistance and Other Effects;
While acute and chronic toxicities of insecticides to fish
have been recorded by many workers, Boyd (1964) was one of the
first to point out other possible deleterious effects. He noted
that pregnant female mosquitofish (Gambusia affinis) at almost
any stage of pregnancy may abort when exposed to a pesticide solution,
even though the female survives. About 5 percent of pregnant females
exposed to toxaphene aborted. Aborting was noted only at concentrations
above the threshold toxicity.
77
-------
Approximate LDcQ values were determined for four populations
of mosquitofish (Boyd and Ferguson, 1964). The results showed
resistance and cross resistance in populations having past exposure
to toxaphene. The 36 hr. LO^n values for fish from the four sites
were .01, .16, .06 and .48 ppm, the latter being the heavily treated
area. Evidence favoring a genetic basis for resistance was presented
Wherein toxicity levels remained constant in progeny of resistant
fish which were reared in the absence of pesticides.
The specti^iin of cross resistance in mosquitofish was broadened
to cover strobane by Boyd and Ferguson in another paper in 1964.
Nonresistant fish showed about 70 percent loss after 48 hr. exposure
to 0.1 ppm and 100 percent kill after 9 hrs. at 0.25 ppm. On
the other hand, the resistant population showed no losses until
the 5.0 ppm level was reached, and never exceeded about 60 percent
loss at intervening levels as high as 30 ppm. Strobane resistance,
a material not used in the area before 1963, was considered most
likely a consequence of past selection by toxaphene, a closely
related material. The level of strobane resistance (over 300
fold) actually exceeded that earlier reported for toxaphene (40
fold) by the same authors.
Ferguson, et_ a!L., (1964) studied the resistance to toxaphene
in three species of'fresh water fish - golden shiners (Notemigonus
crysoleucas), bluegills (Lepomis macrochirus), and green sunfish
(Lepomis cyanellus); the results of these studies are summarized
in Table III.A.4.
78
-------
TABLE III.A.A
Comparative Toxicity of toxaphene to resistant (Twin Bayou)
and nori-resistant (State College) strains of fish
36-hour Median Tolerated Limit (ppb)
State College Twin Bayou
Golden shiners 30 1200
Bluegills 23 1600
Green Sunfish 38 1500
Carnivores at the top of the chain such as large-mouthed
bass or crappie were not collected at Twin Bayou. This may be
the result of biological magnification of insecticides having a
more severe effect on animals at the top of a food chain.
The effects of combinations of insecticides on susceptible
and resistant mosquito fish were studied by Ferguson and Bingham
(1966). All possible paired combinations of endrin, DDT, toxaphene
and methyl parathion were used. Whereas the combination of two
insecticides produced higher mortality among resistant fish than
did the individual insecticides, the combination scarcely exceeded
the individual kills of toxaphene in tests of susceptible fish.
Results did not indicate additive effects wherein the combination
mortality exceeded the sum of mortalities produced by individual
insecticides.
Patterns of toxaphene resistance in the mosquito fish were
studied by Culley and Ferguson (1969). Extent of insecticide resistance
79
-------
in a resistant population (Belzoni, Mississippi) was compared
with that of a susceptible population (State College, Mississippi)
using 28 insecticides of 5 major groups. Results of 48-hour
bioassays showed that the resistant strain had developed high
resistance only to the toxaphene-endrin related insecticides.
Strobane showed LC5Q values of 11 and 6,253 ppb for susceptible
and resistant strains, a 568-fold difference. Comparable figures
for toxaphene were 12 and 4,519 ppb, respectively, or a 376-fold
difference.
The toxicities of toxaphene and three other insecticides
to resistant and susceptible mosquito fish in static and flowing
solution were observed by Burke and Ferguson (1969). In static
tests where mortality occurred, increased concentration produced
a corresponding increase in mortality. The same was true in flowing
solutions, and this was true of both resistant and susceptible
fishes. Time-mortality curve tests showed that toxaphene produced
greater mortality in flowing solutions than in static ones. Normally,
pesticide concentrations in natural waters decline, as do concentrations
in static tests. This study showed dynamic tests to be more stringent
that static tests, perhaps unrealistically so.
Resistant green sunfish and golden shiners from near Belzoni,
Mississippi and susceptible individuals of the same species from
near Starkville, Mississippi were compared in 48-hour static bioassays
against six common insecticides (Minchew and Ferguson, 1970).
Green sunfish from the Belzoni population were resistant to chlordane,
-------
heptachlor, lindane and strobane, but not to parathion. Golden
shiners from the Belzoni test group were resistant to lindane
and strobane, 'tolerant to chlordane and heptachlor, and susceptible
to parathion.
.Studies showed that populations of insecticide resistant fish
from near heavily treated cotton fields at Belzoni, Mississippi
were subjected to relatively brief and irregular periods of selection
after rains (Finley, et_ al., 1970). Runoff from cotton fields
increased mortality among caged susceptible and resistant fish.
Residue analyses revealed that DDT and toxaphene were the two
insecticides of selective importance. DDT and toxaphene residues
increased in whole fish and water samples after runoff. In highly
contaminated environments, resistance appears to be essential for
survival of fish populations.
Succinic dehydrogenase activity in mitochondria of insecticide
resistant and susceptible mosquitofish was assayed (Moffett and
Yarbrough, 1972). Intact and disrupted mitochondria from livers
and brains were used. Toxaphene inhibited intact mitochondria
preparations from resistant brain tissue. Succinic dehydrogenase
activity in intact susceptible mitochondria was inhibited by toxaphene.
In mitochondria with disrupted membranes, enzymatic activity was
inhibited by insecticides in both resistant and susceptible fish.
Inhibition of succinic dehydrogenase by insecticides only after
disruption of the resistant mitochondrial membrane indicates that
a membrane barrier exists in insecticide-resistant fish.
-------
Insecticide resistance in mosquitofish from Texas was noted
by Dziuk and Plapp (1973) . The Navasota susceptible population
gave 48-hour LC values as 31 ppb for LC$Q and 63 ppb for LC9Q.
The Bee Creek population showed an LCso value of 212 ppb and 425
ppb for LCgQ. The Old River population showed a 48-hour LC5Q
of 301 and an LCgQ of 612 ppb. The latter figure represented a
9.7X increase in resistance. These figures suggest that a widespread
gradual decrease in susceptibility occurs within the species.
Results suggest that resistant populations of mosquitofish are
more common than previously suspected, especially with the discovery
of resistance as a result of urban contamination in the Bee Creek
population where resistance was 6.8X as compared to the Navasota
susceptible strain.
III.A.l.g. Residues in Fish:
Fish were collected from 50 sampling stations located in
the Great Lakes and in major river basins throughout the United
States as part of a national pesticide monitoring program. Of
the 590 composite samples which were examined, all but 6 contained
DDT or DDT metabolites (Henderson, et_ al_. , 1969). In laboratory
cross check samples, only 1 of 5 laboratories reported toxaphene
at levels of .36 ppm in chain pickerel from Old Town, Maine; 1.06
ppm from white sucker in the Delaware River; 1.25 from white perch
82
-------
in Lake Ontario; and .01 and .24 ppm from Lake Erie fresh water
drum (fall 1967 data only). Scattered positive samples which
were detected in the remainder of the study appear in Table III.A.5.
TABLE III.A.5
Toxaphene residue in fish, 1967-1968
Species Location Residues in ppm
Spotted sucker Cooper River, S. C. .03
Carp Miss. R., Luling, La. .03
Smallmouth buffalo Arkansas R., Pine Bluff .01 and .02
Largemouth bass Keystone Reservoir, Okla. .01
Carp Colorado River, Ariz. .01
Channel catfish Utah Lake, Provo, Utah .01
The monitoring program continued in 1969 with 147 composite
samples collected at 50 stations. No residues of toxaphene were
reported in any of the 1969 samples (Henderson, at al., 1971).
Chlorinated hydrocarbon residues were reported for representative
fishes of the lower Colorado River basin. While most residues
were in the ppb range, toxaphene was a common contaminant at levels
as great as 172.9 ppm (Johnson and Lew, 1970). Fat from carp
collected at Buckeye Canal contained 50.0 ppm and gills of 2 specimens
from Picacho Reservoir had residues of 0.45 and 0.42 ppm. Muscle of
channel catfish contained 6.8 ppm and fat, 11.38 ppm. Threadfin
shad gave whole body residues of 1.05 and gills, 4.75 ppm. The
Sonoran sucker (Catostomus insignis) had skin and muscle residues
up to 5.78 ppm and viscera residues in 8 samples ranging from 2.75
83
-------
to 172.92 ppm. Samples of Gila sucker (Pantosteus clarki) contained
25.0 for whole fish and up to 42.94 ppm for viscera. Collection
sites for the latter two species were Mesa and Tempe Canals.
The ecological distribution of pesticides in the Lake Poinsett,
South Dakota ecosystem was reported by Hannon, et_ al_., (1970).
Toxaphene was present in four species of fish at tissue and fat
levels of 83 and 2705 ppb for white sucker, 176 and 1152 ppb for
carp, and 74 and 1382 ppb for northern pike.
The distribution and magnitude of toxaphene residues among
fish in a northern Alabama watershed which was devoted largely
to cotton production are presented in Table III.A.6. (Grzenda
and Nicholson, 1965).
TABLE III.A.6
Toxaphene residues in fish collected from
the Flint Creek, Alabama Basin
Species
Number of Fish
in composite
Edible
Concentration (ppm)
portion
Non-edible
Green sunfish
Green sunfish
Largemouth bass
Largemouth bass
Largemouth bass
Redhorse suckers
Redhorse suckers
Creek chubs
Creek chubs
Grizzard shad
Warmouth bass
9
7
1
1
1
3
9
3
3
1
1
0.10
0.58
1.60
0.51
0.30
0.95
1.03
0.90
1.02
1.32
0.30
0
1.09
9.15
0.45
0.30
2.93
1.26
2.50
3.30
1.70
0.71
84
-------
Hughes and Lee (1973) studied accumulation of toxaphene in
fish in Wisconsin lakes which had been treated for rough fish
control with 0.1 mg/1 toxaphene. Bluegills stocked 10 to 16 months
after treatment accumulated residues of nearly 10 ug/g and reproduced
successfully. Residue accumulation was more closely related to
fat content, of fish than fish weight. Edible flesh of bluegills
contained less than 10 percent of the whole body burden of toxaphene
residues, and up to 27 percent of the residues in this tissue
was removed by pan frying.
Ettinger and Mount (1967) discuss the need for information
on the interaction of drinking water, stream water quality, and
food standards to assure that a wildcaught fish would be safe
to eat. Although a fish may be killed in water containing minute
quantities of such lethal agents as toxaphene, it may contain
higher amounts of pesticides before death removes it from the
major food chain of man. The authors thus apply the minimum response
level of animal toxicity prepared by W.J. Hayes (Advisory Committee
on use of the Public Health Service Drinking Water Standards -
1965). Hayes' values for lowest dietary level of toxaphene with
minimum effects on rats was 25 ppm from which the authors extrapolated
a maximum reasonable stream allowance of 2.5 ppb. Captured fish
from water containing this amount should not be toxic to man,
and their environment should be suitable for maintaining a harvestable
crop - which means fish survival, reproduction and normal growth.
Additional data are given in Table III.A.7.
-------
Species
TABLE III.A.7
TOXAPHENE RESIDUES IN FISH AND REPTILES
Range or Average
Tissues No. of of Residues Literature
Analysed Specimens Found in ppm Citation
Bass, Largemouth
Micropterus salnoides
Bluegill
Lepomus macrochirus
Bullhead, Black
Ictalurus melas
Bullhead, Brown
Ictalurus nebulosus
Carp
Cyprinus carpio
Catfish, Channel
Ictalurus punctatus
Crappie, Black
Pomoxis nigromaculatus
Chub, Tui
Siphateles bicolor
Fish
Sp. not given
Purapkinseed
Lcponiis gibbosus
Salmon, Atlantic (1962)
Salao s_a_l_ar_ (1963)
(1964)
Shad, Gizzard
Dorosoma cepedianum
Flesh 13 samples 0.0-0.3 Av. 0.05 Keith & Hunt 1966
Viscera 8 samples 0.2-2.0 Av. 1.13 " " "
Whole body? 22 samples 0.0-2.06 Av. 0.48 Epps, ejt al., 1967
Whole body 89 samples 0.37-15.2
Kallman, et a^., 1962
Flesh 3 analyses 0.0-0.19 Av. 0.06 Keith & Hunt 1966
Flesh 1 analysis 0.1 Keith & Hunt 1966
Viscera 2 analyses 0.0-0.1 Av. 0.05 " " "
Whole body? 27 samples 0.0-6.6 Av. 2.23 Epps, et_ al,. , 1967
Fat 8 analyses 0.4 Keith i Hunt 1966
Whole body 3 analyses 0.0-0.1 Av. 0.03 Keith & Hunt 1966
Whole body 29 analyses 0.0-8.0 Av. 1.09 Keith & Hunt 1966
Whole body Not given TR.-8.0
Whole Body 1 analysis 0.04
Keith, 1966
Keith & Hunt 1966
Tissue
extract
Tissue
extract
Tissue
extract
2 analyses 2.6-2.9 Av. 2.75 Terricre, et al..1966
2 analyses 1.11-5.5 Av. 3.24 " " "
2 analyses 1.5-2.J1 Av. 1.8 " " "
Whole body? 17 samples 0.0-4.75 Av. 1.49 Epps, £t al., 1967
"I
86
-------
Table III.A.7 (cont'd)
Species
Tissues
Analvsed
No. of
Specimens
Range or Average
of Residues
Found in ppm
Literature
Citation
Spot
Leiostornus xanthurus
Trout, Brown
Salmo trutta
Trout, Rainbow
Salmo gairdneri (1962)
(1963)
- (1964)
Turtle, Softshell
Trionyx spinifer
Juvenile (No mortality but thickened gill
lamellae at 0.1 and 0.01 ppb)
Juvenile (50% mortality within 6 days at
0.5 ppb)
Butler, 1964b
Butler, 1964b
Tissue
extract
5 + analyses 8.3-24.8 Av. 12.46 Terriere, et al..1966
Whole body 37 sampled 0.43-5.4 Kallman, ejt «a., 1962
Tissue 6 or more . 1.2-12.0 Av. 5.7 Terriere, et al..1966
extract
Tissue
extract
Tissue
extract
Whole body 5/5
Flesh
Viscera
analyses
6 or more
analyses
6 or more
analyses
2.75-13.7 Av. 7.72 " "
3.2-3.8 Av. 3.5 " "
Erickson, 1968
0.13,0.28,0.43,
0.98,1.3
19 analyses 0.0-2.57 Av. 0.22 Keith & Hunt 1966
1 analysis 1.0
Keith & Hunt 1966
III.B. Effects of Toxaphene and Strobane on Wildlife
The available data which describe the effect of toxaphene
on mammals were summarized by Pimentel (1971) in the following
manner. The LD50 for mule deer, 139 to 240 mg/kg. Tucker and
Crabtree (1970) reported that for mule deer the USQ of toxaphene
administered orally in capsules was 139-240 mg/kg- Under similar
method of administration the LD^Q for young mallards was 70.7 mg/kg;
for young pheasants, 40.0 mg/kg; for young bobwhilje quail, 85.4
mg/kg; for sharptailed grouse, 10 to 20 mg/kg; for fulvous tree
ducks, 99.0 mg/kg; and for lesser, sandhill cranes* 100 to 316 mg/kg.
The LC50 for pheasants was 542 ppm, 828 for bobwhiae quail, 538
-------
for mallards, and for coturnix 686 ppm of toxaphene in diets of 2-week-old
birds when fed treated feed for 5 days followed by clean feed
for 3 days (Heath, et_ al. , 1972).
Dahlen and Haugen (1954) reported median lethal dosages of
toxaphene for bobwhite quail were 80-100 mg/kg. The acute oral
LD5o for mourning dove was listed as 200-250 mg/kg. Keith (1964)
checked the acute oral toxicity of toxaphene to young white pelicans
and found that one bird died at 100 mg/kg, another showed no toxication
at 200 mg/kg while a third specimen showed intoxication but survived
at 400 mg/kg. Heath and Stickel (1965).determined the acute LCsO
values of feeding diets containing toxaphene for 5 days followed
by 5 days on clean feed. Following this protocol they derived
LC5Q for bobwhite quail chicks of 834 ppm, and 564 for mallard
ducklings.
Flickinger and Keith (1965) conducted a 3-month study of chronic
exposure of young white pelicans to toxaphene. At 10 ppm in the
diet the only attributable effect was a reduction of ecto - and
endo - parasites. However, 50 ppm produced tremors, convulsions
and death in 4-6 weeks. Effects on parasites were inversely related
to the amount of pesticide in the diet.
The comparative toxicity of several pesticides to bobwhite
quail was determined by feeding tests. Toxaphene, incorporated
in the diet at 0.1 percent caused 100 percent kill in 13 days,
while 0.05 percent produced 75 percent mortality in 25 days (Linduska
and Springer, 1951).
-------
DeWitt (1956) reported upon effects of strobane to bobwhite
quail and pheasants. Symptoms of acute toxicity and heavy mortality
resulted when young quail chicks were fed diets containing 300
ppm strobane, but normal survival occurred at 50 ppm. With lower
levels growth rates were supressed. Feeding 500 ppm throughout
the winter to adult birds had no apparent effects upon survival
or weight gains. Approximately 50 percent of the experimental
birds survived after receiving 50 ppm strobane in the growth,
winter maintenance and reproduction diets. For quail fed 50 ppm
strobane during winter and spring, neither egg production nor fertility
were affected. However, hatchability was reduced 15 percent and
chick survival was only 60 percent that of the controls.
According to Genelly and Rudd, (1956a) thirty-three pheasants,
including 3 males, survived three months feeding trials with diets
containing 300 ppm toxaphene. However, pheasants at this dosage
lost weight. Egg production hatchability was reduced significantly
in the group fed 300 ppm toxaphene. Mortality of young was significantly
greater than that of controls for the first two weeks (Genelly
and Rudd, 1956b).
Post (1949) reported the following LD5Q values for toxaphene:
chukar partridge - 50 mg/kg; pheasants - 200 mg/kg; and sage grouse
90 mg/kg. He commented further upon the effects of toxaphene and
chlordane bran bait for grasshopper control. Range lands totaling
89
-------
4,205,708 acres in Wyoming were treated in this manner in 1949
and 1950. On 1,200 acres of baited land effects of pesticides
were found in 18 dead or ill birds. Another 122 birds were found
dead or affected in baited plots, but cause of death could not
be proved. One muskrat, three skunks and one field mouse were
found dead in baited plots. When a marsh in North Dakota was treated
with toxaphene at 2 Ib/A (105 ppm in water), sora, coot, and black
tern produced no young; however, the red-wing blackbird production
was not affected (Hanson, 1952). Toxaphene and oil proved harmful
to all animal life studied except adult birds and some small crustaceans.
Only six birds were known to be reared from 21 nests or broods.
The effects of toxaphene poisoned grasshoppers upon pheasant
chicks was investigated by Harris (1951). Three birds which were
fed diets of poisoned grasshoppers at 35 days of age were all
dead after 84 hours. They had consumed an average of 52.6 grams of
grasshoppers. Another group of 5 birds, age 41 days, died within
72 hours of exposure (4 within 48 hours). Average intake was 24
grams per bird. Another group, which also had access to clean
mash and water, ate 71.7 grams of grasshoppers each over a 10-day
period but did not succumb. These results suggest that young
pheasants can be killed by eating poisoned grasshoppers.
Wildlife effects from grasshopper insecticides sprayed on
shortgrass range were studied by McEwen, et_ a!L., (1972). Toxaphene
90
-------
was sprayed at the rate of 1 Ib. insecticide in 3/4 pint of fuel
oil per acre on about 177,000 acres of blue grama grassland in
New Mexico for control of the range caterpillar. In the first
week post-treatment, no change was observed in bird numbers on
the census lines, and no mortality. During the second week
post-spray, birds decreased significantly in comparison with untreated
grama rangeland in the same area. Three horned larks, two meadowlarks,
one killdeer, one cowbird, and one mourning dove were found dead
on the sprayed area. Analysis of the carcasses indicated toxaphene
residues ranging from less then 0.1 to 9.6 ppm. Toxaphene was
not detected in four horned larks collected live before spraying,
but ranged from 0.4 to 1.0 ppm in four horned larks and one meadowlark
collected live 2 to 3 weeks postspray.
The effects of toxaphene on wildlife when used as an aerial
spray for grasshopper control were reported by Finley (1960).
Rangeland on the Crow Indian Reservation, Montana was treated
with 1.5 Ib./acre. Nearly all casualties resulting from toxaphene
were associated with a stock pond. Total wildlife casualties
included 20 birds, 17 reptiles and 53 amphibians. Bird species
containing toxaphene residues included meadowlark, Wilson phalarope,
killdeer, house wren, and Brewer's blackbird.
Four samples of range caterpillars contained from 7.2 to 34.Q
ppm toxaphene, and four postspray samples of blue jgrama had from
6.7 to 51.6 ppm. Of three deer mice and one grassliopper mouse
91
-------
collected on the edge of the sprayed area, only one specimen contained
detectable toxaphene. Seven months after the toxaphene application,
two grass samples and four horned larks were collected for analysis.
The grass samples (mostly blue grama) contained 5.5 and 8.3 ppm
toxaphene, while the horned larks had from 0.2 to 0.8 ppm. Conclusions
from this study were that toxaphene at 1 Ib/acre had a severe impact
on the grassland fauna and ecosystem (McEwen, at al_., 1972).
Tucker (1971) reported that the percentage of egg shell thinning
in coturnix quail 7 days after an oral dosage of 10 mg/kg was only
0.5 percent different from the control. However, this species
is considered refractory to the egg shell thinning phenomenon.
III.B.I Use of Toxaphene for Vole Control;
Serious vole infestation in German forests, and the failure
of traditional methods of control, led to extensive trials of several
chemical methods in 1954 and 1955. The results are reported by
Schindler (1955) and (1956), who indicated that the compounds toxaphene
and Endrin, which are widely known as insecticides, were highly
effective for control of voles at application rates about five
times those normally recommended for insecticide purposes. It
appears that because of their almost continuous feeding habit
and consumption of large quantities of treated vegetation, the
animals are killed by oral poisoning within a few hours after
treatment. These rates are equivalent to 1.78 to 2.68 lb. active
92
-------
toxaphene per acre. No injurious effects were observed among
game, birds, and livestock which inhabited the several thousand
hecares which were treated. It was suggested that the susceptibility
of voles to the toxins, compared with other vertebrates is associated
with their exceptionally large feeding capacity in relation to
their body weight.
Preliminary experiments on the use of toxaphene for the control
of shorttailed voles in young forest areas in Great Britain were
made by Holmes, et_ al_., (1958). The short-tailed vole, Microtus
agrestis L., is essentially a grassland animal, with a marked
perference for the dense low cover of rank grasses and herbaceous
species commonly present in young forest plantations, derelict
agricultural areas, and waste land. Forest planting operations
invariably favor an increase in vole populations, owing to the
unchecked growth of grass and general herbage following exclusion
of grazing animals from the planted area. Under tihese conditions
the vole population may rise to a high level, causing considerable
damage to the planted crop.
Results of first trials in 1956 at two forest sites indicated
reductions in vole numbers on treated areas, but plot sizes were
inadequate to give conclusive results. The main trial in 1957
was carried out on two-acre unit plots, and results show generally
high levels of control with toxaphene at 2.25 Ib. per acre. Toxicity
hazards to domestic animals, and wild birds and aninals other
than voles, are not fully known, and practical applications are
93
-------
not recommended until these hazards can be assessed in more extensive
trials.
Control of meadow mice in orchards was reported by Eadie
(1959). Toxaphene has been used to some extent to control meadow
mice in California and Washington, as well as in Europe, where
it has been used successfully to control some types of field mice
in young forest plantations. Trials with toxaphene ground sprays
were conducted from 1952 to 1958 in New York. The material used
was toxaphene emulsifiable concentrate (6 pounds of actual toxaphene
per gallon) applied at the rate of 5 pounds of actual toxaphene
per acre. Good reductions in population (84-100 percent) were
obtained in light to medium mowed cover, but the percentage of
kill dropped sharply in heavy or matted, unmowed cover. One plot
with heavy to medium cover and old mowings showed an 84 percent
kill, but plots with heavy, matted, and unmowed cower throughout
showed kills of only 40 and 60 percent.
III.B.2. Residues in Wildlife:
Data pertaining to residues in fish and wildlife are presented
in Tables III.B.2. Robinson (1950) found residues in dead birds
collected from two areas adjacent to Nebraska lakes treated for
fish control. In one group, taken from a lake treated at 0.05 ppm,
residues in birds were blue-winged teal - 4.7 and 9 l?pm; sandpiper -
10 ppm; and shoveller - 12 ppm. At a second lake treated at 0.4
-------
ppm, night heron contained 64 ppm, coot 17 ppra, and mallard 10 ppm.
Finley (1960) studied effects of a 1.5 Ib./ac. toxaphene
application for grasshopper control on the Crow Indian Reservation,
Montana. Toxaphene was found in all except one bird analysed.
Results were: meadowlark 12-67 ppm; meadowlark nestling 8 ppm;
Wilson's phalarope 70-265 ppm; killdeer 6.440 ppm; adult house
wrens - 165 ppm; and one Brewer's blackbird -19 ppm.
Some reptile and amphibian data were: painted turtle (3 young) -
154 ppm; tiger salamander larvae 15-100 ppm, and leopard frog 68-520 ppm.
Residues in pond water 4 hrs. after first spraying was ^-02
ppm and 6 hrs. after second spraying about .03 ppm.
TABLE III.B.2
TOXAPHENE RESIDUES IN WILD BIRD TISSUES
Range or Average
Species
Blackbird , Brewer ' s
Euphagus cyanocephalus
Coot, American
Fulica americana
Cormorant, Double-Crested
Phalacrocorax auritus
Cowbird, Brown-Headed
Molothrus ater
Dove, Mourning
Zenaidura macroura
Tissues
Analysed*
WB found
dead
WB found
dead
WB
Carcass
found dead
WB found
dead
WB found
dead
No. of
Specimens
1/1
1/1
2/2
1/1
1/1
1/1
of Residues
Found in ppm
5.0
17.0
2.2-9.5 Av. 5.8
9.5
0.98
Tr.
Literature
Citation
Keith, J.O.,
Keith, J.O.,
Keith & Hunt
Keith, J. 0.
Hillen, 1967
Hillen, 1967
1966
1966
, 1966
, 1966
*WB-whole body; L-liver; K-kidney; H-heart; BM-breast muscle
95
-------
TABLE III.B.2 (cont'd.)
Species
Duck, Mallard
Anas platyrhynchos
Duck, Shoveler
Spatula clypeata
Egret, cosunon
Casmerodius albus
Grebe, Eared
Podiceps caspicus
Grebe, Western
Aechrcophorus
occidentalis
1950
1960
Gull, Ring-Billed
Larus delawarensis
Heron, Black-Crowned
Night
Nycticorax nycticorax
1960
Tissues
Analysed"
WB found
dead
WB found
dead
WB
Carcass
WB
WB
Fat
WB
Carcass
Fat
Fat
WB?
WB
Carcass
WB found
dead
No. of
Specimens
1/1
1/1
1/1
3 samples
analysed
A samples
5 samples
analysed
5 samples
analysed
8 samples
analysed
6 samples
analysed
2 samples
analysed
1 sample
analysed
No. not
given
3 samples
analysed
1 sample
analysed
1/1
Range or Average
of Residues
Found in ppm
10.0
12.0
17.0
Av. 9.2
0.0-17.0 Av. 6.92
0.0-4.0 Av. 1.9
0.0-39.0 Av. 12.66
0.0-0.8 Av. 0.02
Av. 0.3
Av. 31.5
4.8
Up to 5.0
0.0-15.0 Av. 5.0
15.0
64.0
Literature
Citation
Keith, J.O.,
Keith, J.O.,
DeWitt, et al
Keith, J. 0.,
Keith, J.O.',-
Keith, J.O.,
Keith & Hunt,
Keith & Hunt,
Keith, J.O.,
Keith, J.O.,
Keith & Hunt,
Keith, et al.
Keith & Hunt,
Keith, J.O. ,
Keith, J.O.,
1966
1966
., 1962
" 1966
1966
1966
1966
1966
1966
1966
1966
, 1966
1966
1966
1966
*WB-whole body; L-liver; K-kidney; H-heart; BH-breast muscle
96
-------
TABLE III.B.2 (cont'd.)
Species
Heron, Great Blue
Ardea herodias
Killdeer
Charadrius vociferus
Kingbird, Western
Tyrannus verticalis
Lark, Horned
Eremophila alpestris
Meadowlark, Western
Sturnella neglecta
Pelican, White
Pelecanus
ery thr orhynchos
1960
1960
1960
1961
Tissues
Analysed*
TO
WB
Carcass
WB
WB found
dead
WB young
WB sacri-
ficed
WB found
dead
WB found
dead
WB
WB Young
LI 1 bird
kf
L) 1 bird
K)
1/2 bird (
L 1 bird<
K (
H.L.K.BM
L
K
Carcass
L
K
H,L,K,BM
No. of
Specimens
1/1
1/1
1/1
2/2
1/1
1/1
A/A
3/3
3/3
2/2
3/3
1/1
1/1
\ 1/1
A9 samples
analysed
3 samples
analysed
3 samples
1 sample
3 samples
3 samples
12 samples
Range or Average
of Residues
Found in ppm
10.0
10.0
10.0
6.0
9.6
A.O
O.A1-0.96 Av. 0.7
Tr., 2.5,3.3
Tr.,Tr., 0.6
13.0
3.0
8.0
13.0
9.0
1A.O
A.O
7.0
A.O
0.0-82.0 Av.. 3.6
7.0-9.0 Av. .8.0
A. 0-14.0 Av. 10.33
Same data giran in
A.O
8.0
10.3
7.6
Literature
Citation
DeWitt, et al., 1966
Keith & Hunt, 1966
Keith, J.O., 1966
Keith, J.O. , 1966
Hillen, 1967
Keith, J.O., 1966
Hillen, 1967'
Hillen, 1967
Hillen, 1967
Keith, J.O. , 1966
Keith, J.O., 1966
(DeWitt, et al., 1962
(DeWitt, et al. , 1962
(DeWitt, et al., 1962
(DeWitt, et al . , 1962
(DeWitt, et al., 1962
(DeWitt, et al_. , 1962
(DeWitt, et al. , 1962
Keith & Hunt, 1966
Keith & Hunt, 1966
Keith & Hunt, 1966
Keith, J.O., 1966
Keith, J.O. , 1966
Keith, J.O. , 1966
Keith, J.O., 1966
Keith, J.O., 1966
*WB-whole body; L-liver; K-kidney; H-heart; BM-breast muscle
-------
TABLE III.B.2 (cont'd.)
Species
Phalarope, Wilson's
Steganopus tricolor
Sandpiper
Sp. not given
Shrike, Loggerhead
Lanius ludovicianus
Teal, Blue-Winged
Anus discors
Wren, House
Troglodytes aedon
Tissues
Analysed*
WB found
dead
WB found
dead
WB sacri-
ficed
WB
WB
Range or Average
No. of of Residues Literature
Specimens Found in ppm Citation
4/4 41.0
1/1 10.0
1/1 Tr.
3/3 7.0
2/2 41.0
Keith, J.O., 1966
Keith, J.O., 1966
Hillen, 1967
Keith, J.O., 1966
Keith, J.O., 1966
*WB-whole body; L-liver; K-kidney; H-heart; BM-breast muscle
98
-------
TABLE III.B.2
TOXAPHENE RESIDUES IN BIRD TISSUES AND EGGS
Species
Range or Average
Tissues No. of of Residues Literature
Analysed Specimens Found in _ppm Citation
Tissues
Pelican, White
Pelecanus
erythrorhynchos
Lark,Horned
Eremophila alpestris
Shrike, Loggerhead
Lanius ludovicianus
Blackbird, Red-Winged
Agelaius phoeniceoiis
Eggs
H,L,K,M Not given 82.0
WB?
mi
WB?
4 shot
7 found
1 shot
Fat, ) Not given
B,K,L,H, )
Gizzard, M)
Cormorant, Double-Crested Yolk
Phalacrocorax auritus
0.7
Tr. - 9.6
0.7
BSFW Publ. 43, 1967
BSFW Publ. 43, 1967
BSFW Publ. 43, 1967
BSFW Publ. 43, 1967
Tr. in all tissues El Sayed, et_ ad., 1967
2 samples 10.0
Keith & Hunt, 1966
Duck, Gadwall Yolk
Anas strepera
Gull, Ring-Billed Yolk
Larus delawarensis
5 samples Av. 0.04
analysed
1 sample 0.2
Keith & Hunt, 1966
Keith & Hunt, 1966
Pelican, White
Pelecanus
erythrorhynchos
Tern, Forster's
Sterna forsteri
Egg
Yolk
22 analysed 0.0-6.7 Av. 0.39
Same data given in
1 sample 15.5
Keith & Hunt, 1966
Keith, 1966a
Keith & Hunt, 1966
99
-------
III.C. Effects on Domestic Animals;
Formulations of toxaphehe such as dusts, dips and backscrubbers
are registered for the control of ectoparasites on livestock.
Several studies have been performed to determine the effects of
toxaphene used for these purposes. Seventeen heifers and young
cows weighing from 500 to 800 Ibs. were fed varying amounts of
bran grasshopper baits containing toxaphene. Sublethal doses
were between 35 - 110 mg/kg. The lowest lethal dose was 144 rag/kg
(Marsh, £t al., 1951).
Marsh (1949) fed hay treated with toxaphene to 14 yearling
steers. Two steers receiving hay treated at 8 Ib./ac. developed
temporary nervous symptoms but recovery was rapid. Feeding period
was 4+ months and average daily toxaphene intake was 7.9 mg/kg.
Fourteen lambs fed similar doses of toxaphene treated hay (1,
2, 4 and 8 Ib./ac.) showed no toxic symptoms. Welch (1948) reported
that one steer given 50 mg/kg toxaphene exhibited no toxic effects.
Radeleff (1949) reported on experimental oral drenching of
goats and sheep. Doses of 50, 100, 170 and 250 mg/kg of toxaphene
were toxic in 13 trials. One hundred mg/kg was fatal to one of
two sheep, 170 mg/kg killed one goat of four animals, (2 sheep,
2 goats) and 250 mg/kg killed 3 of 5 animals (1 sheep, 2 goats).
Adipose tissues from animals fed 4 months on alfalfa hay
which had been sprayed with toxaphene at 1 and 2 Ib./ac. showed
toxaphene concentrations of about 25 and 300 ppm, respectively.
Concentrations in commercial meat cuts from these same animals
100
-------
showed toxaphene concentrations of ^ll.O ppm to 7 ppm, respectively.
Fatty tissues of a steer fed hay treated twice with 4 Ib./ac.
toxaphene contained 700 ppm, while lean meat was 35 ppm. Results
of analysis of fat samples taken by biopsy from steers at 11,
19 and 23 weeks after feeding contaminated hay was terminated
showed that most toxaphene had been eliminated by the eleventh
week. Sheep retained more residues in commercial cuts and less
in fat than steers. No residues were found in sheep slaughtered
7 months after termination of treating with toxaphene-treated hay
(Diephuis and Dunn, 1949).
The toxicity of synthetic insecticides to dogs was reported
by Batte and Turk (1948). The smallest dose of chlorinated camphene
was 20 rag/kg. This did not produce death but did cause convulsions.
Nunn (1952) mentioned that 12 of 14 dogs housed in kennels previously
sprayed with 0.62 percent toxaphene in water were poisoned, of
which 3 died. Poisoning resulted from drinking from puddles or
from absorption through foot pads or other skin areas.
The inherent danger of using toxaphene for control of ectoparasites
on mammals was pointed out by Shone (1961). Animals with very
little body fat are far more susceptible than fat animals, and
young animals more susceptible than adults.
Radeleff and Bushland (1950) discussed the acute oral toxicity
of insecticides applied to livestock. Adult goats were all affected
at oral administrations of 50, 100, 170 and 250 mg/kg. One of
three goats died at 170 mg/kg, while all three subjects died when
given 250 mg/kg. Three adult sheep were treated to each of these
1G1
-------
4 dosage levels. None were affected at 50 mg/kg. All others
were either affected or died. One death occurred at the 100 mg/kg
level and two at 250 mg/kg. Some deaths occurred among suckling calves
sprayed at 8, 4, 1.5 and 1 percent with single or double applications.
Only 1 of 8 calves was affected at the 0.75 percent level despite
being exposed to 8 applications. One steer was affected by an
8 percent dip, but only 1 of 20 animals showed such response at
4 percent. Goats were more sensitive - 2 deaths and 1 affected
at 8 percent, but 3 were unaffected at 4 percent. Two sheep were
affected and one died from the 8 percent dip. Two of three were
affected but none died at 4 percent.
Eubank (1964) reported staggering and convulsions in 33 yearling
calves from home treatment of fuel oil containing a liberal amount
of toxaphene as a dermal application for tick control. All animals
subsequently recovered following use of antidote and scrubbing
with water and detergent.
Choudbury and Robinson (1950) fed 40 percent WP toxaphene
to goats. Successive daily dosages of 25, 37.5, 50, and 75 mg/kg
caused no effects in one goat. When dosages were increased to
100 mg/kg on day 9 and 10 and 150 mg/kg on day 11, death occurred.
A second animal which received 100 mg/kg on days 1 and 2 and 150
mg/kg on day 3 died on day 4. A third goat which received a single
150 mg/kg dose died the next morning.
Bushland, et_ al., (1948) applied dips and sprays containing
1.5 percent toxaphene in attempts to induce pesticide poisoning
1 09
-------
in cattle, sheep, goats, hogs and horses. Two series of tests
were made, and treatments were applied eight times at 4day intervals.
Observations were continued at least 30 days after last treatment.
No apparent injury was noted.
III.C.I. Residues in Milk and Meat:
: Carter, et_^i*» (1949), studied the chlorinated hydrocarbon
content of milk from cattle sprayed for control of horn flies.
The maximum and average amount of organic chlorine content from
toxaphene in milk from two dairies was 0.6 and 0.1, and 0.2 and
0.1 ppm, respectively.
The effect of toxaphene on dairy cows was reported by Leighton,
et. al^ , (1951). A jersey cow which was fed 2.5 grams daily for
46 days plus 10 grams per day for an additional 14 days died with
omental fat content of 67 ppm chlorine. Other animals at higher
dosages showed chlorine residues in omental fat of 126 and 160
ppm-. Normal chlorine content was considered to be about 5 ppm.
Feeding of toxaphene-treated hay to dairy cows for 112 days
did not influence hay or grain consumption, milk or butterfat
production, or alter the liver and kidney tissues. Toxaphene
was found in the milk of cows receiving hay treated with 1,2 and
4 Ib./acre in the ranges of 2.3 - 2.5 ppm, 3.9-4.3 ppm, and 8.3-18.2 ppm,
respectively (Bateman, ejt al. , 1953).
Claborn, jit a]L, (1960) reported that strobane residues in
the fat of steers after each of three spray treatments (2 percent
solution) reached 20.4, 32.4 and 33.9 ppm, respectively. These
-------
residues diminished to 0.8, 3.3 and 4.1 ppm in 14 weeks after
last spraying. For heifers comparable figures were in the range
23.632.2 ppm after the sixth spraying and 1.63.9. ppm 14 weeks
after spraying ceased. Toxaphene in fat of calves sprayed with
0.5 percent emulsion preparations in one case showed an average
accumulation of 11 ppm after 12 successive weeks of spraying.
This dropped to 2 ppm 6 weeks after spraying ceased. The spraying
of cattle with 0.5 percent strobane emulsion or suspension provided
additional data on residue buildup and elimination from fat.
Each group included 3 steers and 3 heifers. Two weeks after
the twelfth spraying the emulsion group averaged 6.6 ppm in
fat which dropped to 2.8 ppm 6 weeks post spray. Comparable
figures for the suspension spray were 5.9 ppm strobane in fat
2 weeks after the 12th spray and 2.6 ppm 4 weeks later (Radeleff,
ej^ al_., 1951; Claborn, £t al_., 1953). Amounts of toxaphene found
in fat of sheep and cattle during feeding period and after .feeding
was terminated are presented in Table III.C.I.
TABLE III.C.I
Toxaphene - Domestic Animals
Toxaphene residue storage (ppm) in the fat of cattle
and sheep receiving known amounts in the diet
Weeks feeding Weeks after feeding stopped
Animal Dosage 4 8 12 16 4 8 20 32 36
3 ewes and 100
3 wethers-Av. ppm 22 21 25 20 12 0.5
104
-------
Table III.C.I (cont'd.)
Weeks feeding Weeks after feeding stopped
Animal
3 steers and
2 heifers-Av.
3 ewes and
3 wethers-Av.
3 heifers and
2 steers
Cattle (2) Av.
Dosage
100
ppm
25
ppm
25
ppm
10
4
26
2
2
4
8
34
2
4
12
33
3
10
16 4 8 20 32 36
38 14 3
8
12
Sheep (2) Av. ppm
The same author strudied strobane and toxaphene residues in
milk from cows sprayed twice at 3-week intervals with 0.5 percent
of both emulsions and suspensions. First day after the first spray
residues of strobane in milk were 0.61-0.87 ppm. These declined
steadily each sampling date thereafter. On post-spray day 14 the
milk residues were 0.0-0.13 ppm. On the second day after the
second spray treatment, milk residues were in the range 0.55 - 0.69 ppm.
After 14 days milk residues were 0.0-0.4 ppm. The first day after
toxaphene treatment residues of toxaphene in milk x^ere 0.55-0.82. Twenty-one
days later these residues in milk declined to 0.03-0.21 ppm.
Post-second spray data showed 2nd maximums of 0.51, 0.59,
0.92 and 0.70 ppm. Three weeks after second treatment these
values dropped to 0.06, 0.05, 0.04 and 0.0 ppm, respectively.
Strobane and toxaphene were sprayed daily (2 cows on each
test) for 21 days with 1 oz. of 2 percent oil solutions. Strobane
reached maximum values in milk of 0.30 and 0.39 ppm which dropped
105
-------
to 0 and 0.02 fourteen days after spraying ceased. Toxaphene
reached maximum figures of 0.32 and 0.50 ppm 3 days after spraying
started but dropped to 0.07 and 0.06 on post-spray day 21.
Sixteen lactating dairy cows were placed on dairy rations
containing 0 to 20 ppm of toxaphene for 77 days. Their milk was
sampled periodically and analyzed for toxaphene by a total chloride
procedure. It was estimated that toxaphene concentrations of less
than 1.0 ppm in the daily ration resulted in less than 0.03 ppm
of toxaphene in the milk. Uncontaminated milk was produced by
all but one animal within 14 days after taken off toxaphene diets.
Maximum residues obtained in milk from the 20 ppm/daily intake
diet were 0.26 ppm on the 49th day of test whereas those fed 15
ppm daily reached 0.34 ppm on the same day (Zweig, ej^ a^., 1963).
Data presented in table III.C.2. show that toxaphene given
in feed to cows at levels of 20, 60, 100, and 140 ppm was secreted
in milk at all dosage levels. Highest level recorded was 2.51
ppm at the 8th week of 140 ppm dosage. There was a rapid decrease
in the residue to the level of 0.1 to 0.3 ppm the first week after
feeding ceased; further decreases were at a slower rate for animals
fed more than 20 ppm. Toxaphene residues in omental fat in cows
given treated feed daily ranged from 8.4 to 24.3 ppm for the three
highest dosage levels at the end of the 8-week feeding period (Claborn,
£t al., 1963).
106
-------
TABLE III.C.2
Toxaphene In milk from cows fed varying levels of toxaphene in the diet
Dosage No. of Toxaphene in milk (p.p.m.)
(ppm) Cows
Weeks after
Weeks of feeding feeding ceased
1 23456781 2 3
20 3 Av. 0.20 0.26 0.26 0.36 0.33 0.37 0.27 0.23 0.07 0.02
60 3 Av. 0.56 0.61 0.75 0.68 0.63 0.71 0.49 0.48 0.13 0.10 0.0
100 3 Av. 0.87 0.01 1.01 1.15 0.97 0.96 0.86 0.91 0.15 0.13 0.1
140 3 Av. 1.44 1.67 1.80 1.89 1.50 1.64 1.71 1.82 0.32 0.40 0.2(
Control 2 Av. 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.06 0.16 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.0(
From Claborn, Vt al_. , 1963
The fate of organochlorine pesticides during processing of
milk into dairy products was studied by Li, et_ al., (1970). Residue
analyses of these dairy products and by-products indicated pesticide
stability for ordinary processing operations and slight change
in residue content after storage at refrigeration and room temperatures
for six months. Concentrations of toxaphene increased slightly during
storage of milk and milk products, suggesting that a re-orientation occurred.
Toxaphene (100 percent) was fed daily at the rate of 15 mg in
acetone/kg and residue content of milk analyzed 10 days after
initial treatment. Fat from ten samples of raw whole milk contained
20.8 to 30.1 ppm.
The amounts of toxaphene found by Roberts and Radeleff (1960)
in the fat of hogs sprayed with a 5 percent toxaphene emulsion
are shown in the Table III.C.3. No toxaphene was present in the
1 01
-------
omental fat at either 4 or 6 weeks after one or two sprayings of
toxaphene. Toxaphene was present in renal fat 4 weeks after treatment,
but not after 6 weeks. The residues were greater in the animals
that received two treatments. On the basis of these results,
it appears that meat from toxaphene-treated hogs is safe for human
consumption if the animals are slaughtered 6 weeks after spraying
once or twice with 0.5 percent toxaphene.
TABLE III.C.3
Toxaphene found in the fat of hogs, calculated from
organic-chlorine content and corrected for controls.a
Weeks After
Treatment
4
6
4
6
Control
Number of
Animals
One Spray
3
3
Two Sprays
3
2
6
Omental
Fat
-0.21
-1.42
-0.40
-1.93
4.60
Renal fat
0.81
-0.18
1.14
-0.36
3.96
a Negative values indicate less organic chlorine than was found in the
control sample.
The effect of injection of toxaphene on hatchability of fertile
chicken eggs was investigated by Smith, et_ a!.., (1970). Toxaphene
at 1.5 mg/egg injected with a corn oil carrier into the albumin
prior to incubation resulted in no decrease in hatchability. Similarly,
strobane at doses up to 6 mg per egg produced no apparent deleterious
effects.
108
-------
Sherman and Ross (1961) studied the acute and subacute toxicity of
insecticides to chicks and reported that the acute oral LD^Q of strobane
to female chicks was 139 mg/kg.
III.D. Effects on Beneficial Insects:
The occurrence of sone unusual insect outbreaks after application of
pesticides to control cotton pests suggested that these materials might
be detrimental to the natural enemies of the target pests (Newsom and
Smith, 1949). A study area received 2 applications of 20 percent
toxaphene dust plus 40 percent sulfur at 11.4 Ibs./ac./application and
another site 6 applications of 10.6 Ibs./ac. each. Toxaphene was more
destructive to the big-eyed bug, Geocoris punctipes, and the flower- bug,
Orius insidiosus, than BHC, DDT, calcium arsenate or chlordane but did
not significantly reduce the Coccinellidae (lady beetles) .
Campbell and Hutchins (1952) conducted tests on the ladybeetle,
Scymnus sp., which showed 72 percent mortality in 72 hrs. and 84 percent
at 96 hrs. at a 2.5 Ib./ac. application rate. Two other species were reduced
85 and 61 percent 96 hrs. after dust application. Hemipterous insects
in both laboratory and field tests were more seriously affected than
the coccinellids.
The repellent properties of toxaphene dust to the alkali bee
(Nomia melanderi) were studied by Menke (1954) . Application of 15 percent
toxaphene dust at 30 Ibs./ac. to blossoming alfalfa had little effect on
alkali bee activity.
The total population of insects and spiders occurring in experimental
cotton fields near Waco, Texas was studied in relation to effects of
various insecticide treatments. Toxaphene-sulfur dust applied after two
109
-------
early-season toxaphene-DDT sprays gave the lowest population of injurious
insects and the highest population of beneficial insects (Click and
Lattimore, 1954).
Gaines (1954) studied the effect on beneficial insects and spiders
of toxaphene 20 percent-sulfur 40 percent applied for cotton insect
control. An early July treatment (8 Ibs./ac.) was follewed 3 weeks later
by 10 more applications 4 or 5 days apart (2 at 10 lb./ac.; 4 at 12 Ibs./ac.;
and 4 at 15 Ibs./ac.). After the second to fourth application of the regular
boll weevil control program, beneficial insect and spider populations were
practically eliminated. These included lady beetles, flower bugs,-lace
wing, Geocoris, assassin bugs, spiders, and syrphids. A follow-up study
verified these findings (Gaines, 1955).
A test was conducted in the Panhandle area of Texas on effects of
toxaphene (1, 2, 3 or 4 applications sprayed at 2.1 Ibs. a.i./ac.) on
insect control and seed yields. All treatment helped control lygus,
leafhoppers and thrips while seed yield gained 2.7 to 22.8 percent.
Toxaphene had very little effect on populations of pollinating insects
(Daniels, 1955).
The covergent lady beetle, striped collops and spotted lady beetle
are important insect predators on pests affecting cantalope and
alfalfa near Phoenix, Arizona. These species, held for 24 hours on
plants treated with 10 percent toxaphene dust, showed mortalities of
12, 32 and 36 percent, respectively (Harries and Valcarce, 1955).
Experiments were conducted to study the control of insect pests
of hairy vetch. A single treatment of 2 Ibs. toxaphene plus 0.25 or
110
-------
0.125 Ib. demeton provided seasonal control of lygus bugs and pea aphids
with minimum damage to pollinating insects (Weaver and Garner, 1955).
The beneficial insects in California cotton and alfalfa fields
play an important role in the natural control of insect pests. Studies
were made to evaluate effects of pesticides on predators of the Genera
Orius, Geocoris, Nabis, Chrysopa and Hippodamia. A toxaphene-DDT com-
bination was listed highly toxic while toxaphene alone (3.5 Ib./ac.) was
considered moderately toxic (van den Bosch, ejt^ aJL. , 1956).
Stern, jet al^., (1959) also conducted field tests to determine the
relative toxicity of pesticides to certain entomophagous insects which help
control field crop pests in California. A DDT-toxaphene mixture
(1, 3 and 2.6 Ibs., respectively) proved extremely toxic to Hippodamia
convergens, Geocoris spp. , Orius sp., Chrysepa spp., Nabis ferus, Sinea
diadema, and to syrphids. Toxaphene alone (2.7 Ib./ac.) was less toxic
than DDT or the DDT-toxaphene mixture.
Sprays containing parathion, malathion, demeton, endrin or toxaphene
applied to alfalfa in Oklahoma caused marked reductions of the total
arthropod populations. Reductions were greater for the phytophagous
species than for entomophagous species. Effects on certain predators
created favorable conditions for prey species which later became more
numerous in the sprayed plots than in the untreated checks. Toxaphene
at 3 Ibs./ac. was generally less effective than 1/4 to 1/2 Ib./ac. of the
other chemicals (Fenton, 1956).
Ill
-------
Laboratory tests were made of the toxicity of several insecticides
to beneficial insects on cotton (Burke, 1959). Toxaphene-DDT was fourth
least toxic among 10 formulations using the petri-dish method against
Hippodamia convergens, and second least toxic when applied topically.
Median LD5Q was 1.069 mg/g body weight. Toxaphene was the least toxic
material tested against Orius insidiosus.
Initial and long term effectiveness of soil applications of toxaphene
was determined in the field against Hippolates collusor gnats
in California. Toxaphene EC 8 at 17.2 Ibs./ac. provided 77 percent
control after one month, 41 percent after one year, and 13 percent
control after two years (Mulla, 1961). Field studies of toxaphene
used as a soil toxicant to control the Mexican fruit fly were
conducted by Shaw and Riviello (1961) during the rainy season
at Cuernavaca. Toxaphene 60 EC applied at 50 Ib./ac. gave 30,
12, 13, 18 and 6 percent mortality at 1, 58, 135, 219 and 289
days after treatment.
The contact toxicity of 61 pesticides was determined by exposing
5 parasitic hymenopterous and 6 predatory coccinellids to day-old residues
at rates commonly found on orchard crops (Bartlett, 1963). Toxaphene
persistence was rated medium to high. Toxicity ratings were given
in three categories: H (high)-LT5Q-^24 hrs.; M (medium)-LT5Q P"
24 hrs. and<^100 hrs.; and L (low)-I/ISO'S 100 hrs. With these parameters,
toxaphene rated M-H(l) or H(5) on Hymenoptera species. It was
112
-------
less toxic to the coccinellids with four rated M, and one each
listed L-M and L. Bartlett (1966) later discussed the effects
of these toxicants as stomach poisons on two species each of parasitic
Hymenoptera and predatory coccinellids. Toxicity here was expressed
as high if 1X50<^1 day; M if^l and<^4 days; L if^>4 days; and
0 if none. Toxaphene at low concentrations in honey gave figures
of 0,0,0-L and 0-M; at high concentrations results were 0,0-L and
L-M twice.
Toxicity of 60 pesticides to eggs, larvae, and adults of
green lacewing, Chrysopa carnea, was tested at dosages similar
to those used in orchards by Bartlett (1964). Toxaphene spray
had no effect upon eggs, and LT^Q ratings of M-H on larvae, and
H (<^24 hrs.) upon adults.
Adult lady beetles, Coleomegilla maculata, were treated topically
with toxaphene-DDT, and toxaphene alone to evaluate effects on
reproductive and survival potentials (Atallah and Newsom, 1966).
Toxaphene caused a decrease in longevity and prevented oviposition;
the diapausing beetles withstood higher doses than active beetles.
The experimental population was heterogenous in its response to
toxaphene. Toxaphene-DDT mixture exhibited strong synergistic
action, decreased longevity, and decreased reproduction to about
one third of controls. It had no effect on survival potential
of the F^ generation.
Insecticides resistance in Bracon mellitor, a parasite of boll
weevil, was studied in Mississippi by Adams and Cross (1967). Potential
resistance was determined by treating each of 5 test groups for 5 or more
-------
generations. Four fold increases in tolerance were noted in groups
treated with DDT, carbaryl and methyl parathion. Treatment with
equal parts of DDT and toxaphene showed resistance 8 times that
of the original generation. One group treated only with toxaphene
showed no significant increase in tolerance.
Effects of insecticide applications in Texas on beneficial
insects and spiders were recorded by Walker, et &L_. , (1970). Results
showed that at dosages appropriate for cotton fleahopper control,
toxaphene reduced populations of beneficial arthropods. Beneficial
levels tended to resurge after treatments were stopped, but remained
somewhat lower than the untreated controls as shown in Table III.D.I.
TABLE III.D.I
Totals per acre of spiders and three beneficial
insects following toxaphene application
Treatments
Sampling
Dates
6/27 - 7/1
7/7 - 7/10
7/14 - 7/18
(Two insecticide applications)
three beneficial insects*
Toxaphene
Control 1 lb.?C.
(twice)
5950 1248
4539 3474
9215 5351
6-17- and
Control
5937
6799
9911
6-24-26-
Spiders
Toxaphene
1 Ib./ac.
(twice)
1758
2983
4833
*Hippodamia conyergens, Orius insidiosus and Scymnus spp.
-------
III.D.I. Effects on Bees;
The choice of an insecticide to be used on legume seed crops
in bloom should be determined by its hazard to bees as well as
the economic effectiveness in controlling harmful insects (Lieberman,
jet al., 1954). Tests were conducted in 1950, 1952 and 1953 to
learn effects of various chemicals on honey bees from applications
made on seed alfalfa before 7:00 A.M. or after 7:00 P.M. On the
basis of 10 percent mortality being the limit for sanction, toxaphene
was classified as safe.
The toxicity of agricultural chemicals was studied by Eckert
(1949). The LD50, as determined by feeding caged bees known quantities
of toxaphene in 20 percent sugar sirup, was 22.0 ug per bee in
72 hours. Stomach poison time was 5-24 hours, and contact poison
in 1 - 3 hours. Weaver (1953) found toxaphene, both as a dust
and a spray, to be the least toxic for bees of nine compounds
tested on cotton. It showed only slight toxicity and repellency
resulted from applications to cotton.
Jones and Connell (1954) reported on oral LD^Q of 39.8 ug
for 24 hrs. Low toxicity of toxaphene was observed to bees in
both stomach and contact poison tests. Atkins and Anderson (1954)
rated toxaphene as moderately toxic to bees. Mortality of bees
from exposure to 200 and 400 mg of toxaphene dusts after 72-hr, was
only 30 and 21 percent, whereas mortality from numerous other
compounds over a shorter time span was 100 percent. Further work
by Anderson and Atkins (1958a) confirmed the low toxicity of toxaphene
to bees. They advised correct timing and dosage and that toxaphene
115
-------
should not be applied directly on bees in the field or at the
colonies (1958b).
The effect on honey bees of toxaphene and strobane applied
to white clover pasture in New Zealand was recorded by Palmer-Jones,
e_t al^. , (1958). Toxaphene dust and spray when applied at 5 Ib.
a.i./ac, did not cause bee mortality or adverse effect upon brood.
Strobane caused slight mortality of field bees but bees at the
hive and brood were unaffected.
Toxaphene resistance in honey bees was studied by Atkins
and Anderson (1962). The number of hours required for a 10 percent
toxaphene dust to kill 50 percent of the. test population increased
from 140 hours in 1952-1953 to 560 hours in 1961. In addition,
20 and 40 percent toxaphene dusts, used concurrently, caused no
mortality above the normal check bee level after 96 hours.
The contact toxicity of toxaphene to honey bees in Egypt
was investigated by Ibrahim, e_t a!L., (1967). Toxaphene application,
at the rate of 3, 4 or 5 liters per feddan (1.038 ac.), did not
cause mortality to honey bees 6 hours after exposure.
Todd and Reed (1969) indicated that pollen and nectar by
honey bees gathering from an alfalfa field sprayed with 3 Ib.
toxaphene and 0.5 Ib. endosulfan was reduced by one half. Pollen
collection remained suppressed for several days.
116
-------
Commercial applications of toxaphene, DDT and Dylox at 4,
2 and 1 Ibs. per acre caused a reduction in bee visitation for
2 days but bee kills in excess of pretreatment levels were not
detected (Atkins, et_ al., 1970).
Mortalities in Egypt among caged honeybees exposed to cotton
plants sprayed in the field with toxaphene, DDT-lindane and dieldrin
were recorded by Wafa, ej^ aJU , (1963). An average of counts made
for 15 days after spraying showed the following losses: control - 2.7;
toxaphene - 7.79; DDT-lindane - 22.24; and dieldrin - 57.41 percent.
When toxaphene 60 percent e.c. was applied at 3.5 1/ac., maximum
mortality, which was 62.9 percent the day after spraying, did
not exceed 10 percent during the balance of the 15-day test. In
another study with bees collected in the field over an 8 day period
post-spray mean mortalities of 4.42 percent occurred in the control
area and 38.94 percent in the toxaphene-treated field.
Percentage mortality of honeybees at successive intervals
after direct application of 10 percent toxaphene dust was 21 at
6 hours, 89 at 12 hours and 98 at 18 hours (Anderson and Tuft,
1952).
Weaver (1949, 1950, 1951, 1952) commented on the toxicities
of various organic insecticides to honeybees. At a temperature
of 94°F. the oral MLD to toxaphene was 0.27778 mg/gm body weight.
The safest of field-tested insecticides in dust, form was a mixture
containing 20 percent toxaphene - 40 percent sulfur. Eight weekly
-------
field applications of this mixture in dosages ranging from 10 -
40 lbs./ac., killed only 0.77 percent of the bees. Sprays were
considered more toxic than dusts when applied directly to bees.
Small colonies of bees were placed in screened areas 36 feet long>
set up over two rows of cotton. Toxaphene (20 percent) did not
repell the bees and was not highly toxic. Toxaphene produced
a higher mortality on the second rather than any other day. Total
mortality during the season was 11.6 percent.
III.E. Occurrence in Water
Routine monitoring (Brown and Nishioka, 1967; Lichtenberg,
et jjQ. , 1970; Manigold and Schultze, 1969; and Wershaw, e t al.,
1969) of waters of the United States has not indicated the presence
of toxaphene.. One reason may be that the amount required for
detection in routine screening analyses is greater than that of
most pesticides reported. This point was brought out by Weaver
(1965) in his survey of chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides in
major U.S. river basins. For example, toxaphene detection was
beyond the scope of the procedure used although it is one of the
more heavily used pesticides. Similarly, Schafer, et^ a^., (1969)
did not detect toxaphene during their survey of pesticides in
drinking water from the Mississippi and Missouri Rivers. Lichtenberg
(1971) states that the minimum toxaphene concentration required
for recognition in his monitoring of 1 liter water samples is
1 ug/1, although lesser amounts may be determined in samples in
which presence of toxaphene is anticipated.
118
-------
Monitoring of agricultural pesticides in sediment and water
in the Mississippi River delta by Agricultural Research Service,
USDA (1966) showed a few samples with trace amounts of toxaphene
in water. However, 18 of the samples of sediment collected from
surface water sources at various sites contained 0.04 to 7.1 ppm
strobane/toxaphene. Surface water residues were from 0.1 to 8.65
ppb in 4 positive samples. Three positive quick runoff samples
contained 0.9, 1.17 and 2.48 ppb, and a sample from one well contained
5.0 ppb.
When 26.8 kg/ha of toxaphene was applied to cotton during
the 1969 growing season, natural runoff was checked between July
11, 1969 and January 5, 1970. Of 26.8 kg/ha of toxaphene applied,
0.36 percent Was detected in runoff, and 75 percent of the toxaphene
in runoff was in the sediment fraction. When DDT and toxaphene
were applied to the same plot at seasonal rate of 13.4 and 26.8
kg/ha, respectively, 1.03 percent of the DDT and 0.61 of the toxaphene
were found in runoff. Toxaphene residues in pond water from adjacent
foliar applications varied from ^1 ppb before spraying to 65 ppb
about midseason (Bradley, et, al. , 1972) .
Insecticide contamination in tile drainage effluent from
irrigated land in the San Joaquin Valley of California was investigated
by Johnston, et_ al_. , (1967). Relatively small amounts of pesticides
were found in tile drainage effluent, but higher concentrations
119
-------
were found in effluent from open drains where both surface and
subsurface drainage waters were collected. Traces of residues
were found in the irrigation water applied to tile drained farms.
When the concentration factor is considered, i.e., depth of irrigation
water applied/depth of drainage water removed, on a unit basis,
the total quantity of insecticide residues in tile drainage effluent
did not exceed and was generally less than the total quantity
of residue applied in the irrigation water. Tile effluent averages
of toxaphene from one plot were 50,175, and 550 ppb for first,
second and third floodings, respectively. From a second plot levels
were 500, 50 and 0 ppb, and from a third area only an initial
/
first flooding residue of 100y> ppb was detected. Toxaphene was
detected in 13 of 66 samples of tile drainage effluent in concentrations
varying from 0.13 ug/1 to 0.95 ug/1 and averaging 0.53^g/l. Sixty
of 61 water samples from surface drains that collected surface
and subsurface water were positive for toxaphene. Concentrations
varied from 0.01 ug/1 to 7.90 ug/1 and averaged 2.01 ug/1. The
predominant residues found in surface water were DDT/DDD and toxaphene.
The average concentration of toxaphene was higher than any other
chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticide and it was found most frequently.
Annual reports of the San Joaquin District, California Department
of Water Resources (1963-1969) presented data on toxaphene occurrence
in Central Valley tile drainage effluent, in surface waste water
drains from irrigated areas, in other Central Valley surface water,
120
-------
and in bay and ocean water. Twelve percent of 422 water samples
from San Joaquin Valley tile drainage systems contained toxaphene
in concentrations ranging from 0.02 ug/1 to 1.26 ug/1. Forty-eight
percent of 447 Central Valley agricultural surface water drains
contained concentrations within the range 0.04 - 71.0 ug/1.
Surface water flows directly into drains under some conditions
(Beck, 1971). Toxaphene was found in 12 percent of 712 other
Central Valley surface waters in concentrations ranging from 0.02
ug/1 to 0.93 ug/1, and in 4 percent bay and ocean water samples
in concentrations 0.03 Ug/1 to 0.06 ug/1.
The amount of toxaphene in sediment undoubtedly reflects
th'e degree of useage as well as watershed soil management practices.
In California Bailey and Hannum (1967) found higher amounts of
toxaphene in sediment than in water (Tables III.D.I and III.D.2.).
Generally, sediments of smaller particle size had higher pesticide
concentrations that those of larger size.
TABLE III.E.I.
Toxaphene in California Sediments 'Ju
Source
Max. Min. Average
Streams
Sacramento River at Walnut Grove
Little Connection Slough at
Altherton Road
San Joaquin River at Antioch
Bays
San Pablo Bay at Pt. San Pablo
So. San Franci&co Bay at San
Mateo Br.
130
110
88
57
170
140
110
99
121
-------
TABLE III.E.I (cont'd.)
Source
Max.
Min.
Average
Agricultural Drains
Reclamation District #108 Drain
Staten Island Drain
Roberts Island Drain at Whiskey
Slough
210
110
380
* Bailey and Hannum, (1967). The method of reporting concentration is
unique and not relatable to ug/g of sediment in the usual manner.
Concentrations are reported as parts of pesticide per parts of wet
sediment. A representative location of the sample was dried and a
moisturecontent determination was made. The pesticide concentrations
were then adjusted to parts per parts of dry sediments from the
relationship Cs=100C-CwSm in which Cs=dry weight pesticide concentration
Sd
in overlaying water sample; Sm=percent soil moisture in sample; and
Sd=percent dry material in sample.
TABLE III.E.2.
Toxaphene Concentration in California Surface Water (pg/1)*
Sampling Station Max. Min. Average
Sacramento River at Walnut Grove
Mokelumne River at Highway 99
Little Connection Slough at
Altherton Road
Delta Mendoto Canal at Head
San Joaquin River at Antioch
Suisan Bay at Martinez
San Pablo Bay at Pt. San Pablo
San Francisco Bay at Berkeley Pier
0.40
0.12
0.32
0.09
0.23
0.03
--
0.03
0.05
0.05
0.03
0.10
0.04
0.16
0.08
0.15
0.06
0.08
0.13
122
-------
TABLE III.E.2. (cont'd)
Sampling Station
Max.
Min.
Average
So. San Francisco Bay at San Mateo Br.
San Joaquin River at Vernalis
San Joaquin River at Fremont Ford
Salton Sea near North Shore
Alamo River
All American Canal at Alamo River
__
0.93
0.46
0.40
0.65
0.08
_
0.02
0.04
0.05
0.30
0.04
0.26
0.26
0.13
0.14
0.47
0.06
* Bailey and Hannum, (1967). Sample size 5 liters; analytical method,
microcoulometric gas chromatography; sensitivity of method, 0.02 to
0.05 ug/1.
Bailey and Hannum (1967) analyzed more than 630 samples taken in
California of surface waters, agricultural drainage, sediments and
aquatic organisms. Although toxaphenc was recovered at 14 of 20 sampling
stations, amounts found were less than 1 ug/1.
Largest amounts of toxaphene were found in water from agricultural
drains. Temporal distribution was related to agricultural drainage
practices and to runoff from heavy rainfall.
Nicholson, et_ al^., (1964) investigated the seasonal distribution of
toxaphene in the Flint Creek system of Alabama using the carbon
adsorption method. The mean seasonal recoveries of toxaphene from the
summer of 1959 through the fall of 1960 ranged frsm 29 to 140 ppt.
Grzenda and Nicholson (1965) studied soil fwm cotton field, water
and river bottom sediments, and bottom fauna and 31sh at Flint Creek,
Alabama, to determine the distribution of toxaphem, among biotic and
abiotic components of a stream system. Amounts of toxaphene found in
123.
-------
river water varied from 30 to 140 ppt. No toxaphene was recovered
from river bottom sediment. This was reflected in infrequent
occurrence of toxaphene in bottom fauna. All fish samples, however,
contained toxaphene.
Nicholson, et al^., (1966) studied a 400/sq. mile cotton producing
area in the Flint Creek watershed in Alabama. During the 6 1/2 year
study period the annual cotton acreage varied from 12,700 to 16,500.
Water samples of 2,000 to 10}000 gal. were processed through activated
carbon adsorption units for recovery of insecticides. Analysis was
by gas chromatography.
A peculiarity of the method was that water was extracted over periods
1 to 2 weeks thus averaging peak occurrences. The extended sampling
period insured against missing toxaphene if its presence was discontinuous.
The values were not absolute because of possible incomplete extraction
from water and recovery from carbon. The sampling devices were operated
almost continuously for the entire study period. The authors attributed
the presence to toxaphene in Flint Creek primarily to surface runoff.
Mean toxaphene residue recoveries in water in ppt by season were: summer -
15-140; fall - 23-67; winter - 5-111; and spring - 1-61 ppt.
Nicholson, et_ al., (1966) also showed the relative importance of
sediment versus solution in the transport of toxaphene, DDT and BHC in
Flint Creek, Alabama. Suspended sediment seemed less frequently involved
in toxaphene and BHC transport than in DDT transport. This suggests the
affinity of solid substrates for toxaphene in low water concentrations
is less than for DDT. This contention is supported by frequent detection of
toxaphene in clarified and treated municipal drinking water while DDT rarely
was found.
124
-------
Barthel, e£ al_., (1966) studied agricultural chemicals contained in
stream bed materials of the Lower Mississippi River. Toxaphene/Strobane was
found only in one 5-mile stretch in the vicinity of West Memphis, Arkansas.
Amounts detected varied from 0.10 to 0.60 ppm and were attributed to
upstream agricultural usage.
III.F. Occurrence in Air
The use of agricultural chemicals for pest control has caused
undesirable residues in adjacent areas. Extent of contamination
is related to the method of application with aerial spraying or
dusting probably creating the greatest hazards. As early as 1945-46,
losses of dairy animals in California were attributed to drifting
calcium arsenate. Drift problems became more acute with the increase
in the u'se of herbicides such as 2,4-D.
Akesson and Yates (1964) studied the drifting of dust and
spray formulation. Emulsions were applied at the rate of 4 Ib./ac.
toxaphene as compared with 27 pounds of dust per acre which contained
4 Ib. toxaphene. During trials wind velocity was 3-4 mph. Amounts
of toxaphene detected at all points down wind was 4 to 10 times
higher from the dust than from the spray.
A study of airborne particulate pesticides in urban atmospheres was
conducted by Tabor (1965). Samples were collected in eight agricultural
communities and in four communities with active insect control
programs. Ambient concentrations of toxaphene were found in 3
of 5 samples of air from Newellton, Tensas Parish, Louisiana in
125
-------
amounts as large as 15 ng/m^. Extensive cotton plantings were
located on three sides of the community. Data also were obtained
for an area completely surrounded by cotton fields. There 6 of
15 samples from Leland, Washington County, Mississippi, contained
toxaphene ranging from 1.2 to 7.5 ng/nP (Tabor, 1966).
The effects of simulated rain and dew on the toxicity of ULV
sprays of Strobane to the bollworin and boll weevil in Texas were
studied by Nemec and Akesson (1969). The available data indicate
that the toxicity of the pesticide to these two plant pests, when
used as ULV sprays of emulsifiable or water-miscible formulations,
may be reduced significantly if subjected to rain or applied to
plants wet with dew. A strobane-inethyl parathion mix (1 Ib. ai
each/ac.) gave 100 percent kill to bollworm larvae through 72
hours without rain. Simulated rain of 1.0 inch applied to plants
1 hr. after insecticide treatment caused a kill of 33 percent
in 48 hours. With an Azodrin - Strobane mixture (0.5 - 0.25 Ib. ai/ac.,
respectively) a 95 percent kill was obtained with no rain and
only 28 percent kill after 48 hours with rain exposure as given above.
Stanley, e^ al_., (1971) set up a pilot study for measuring the
extent of atmospheric contamination by pesticides at nine localities
in the U.S. Samples were analysed for 19 pesticides and metabolities.
Only DDT was detected at all localities. Toxaphene levels in three
samples taken at Stoneville, Mississippi were 1110,151 and 81 ng/m3.
Selected results for the first day of each week of sampling for Stoneville
-------
are given in Table III.E.l.. Maximum toxaphene levels found at
three additional sites were: Dothan, Ala. -68.0 (11); Orlando,
Fla. -2520 (9); and Stoneville, Mississippi -1340 (55) ng/m3.
Figures in parentheses indicate number of samples containing detectable
amounts.
TABLE III.F.I
Toxaphene Found in Air Samples from Stoneville, Mississippi
The First Day of Each Sampling Week
Date Toxaphene level, ng/m3
August 14-15 283
August 21-22 373
September 11-12 701
October 2-3 161
July 1-2 68
July 15-16 116
July 29-30 62
August 12-13 135
IH.G. Effect on Plants
Study of insecticide residues on forage crops is of importance since
the levels remaining at time of harvest may be stored in animal fat or
r'i
-------
secreted in the milk. George, et al., (1967) studied residue
persistence of toxaphene e.c. on red clover at application rates
of 1, 2, 3, 4 and 6 Ib. actual ingredient per acre. Samples taken
69 days after last application of 1, 3, 4 and 6 Ib./ac. contained
<0.1 ppm, while the 2 Ib./ac. rate residues were ^0.1 to 0.29
ppm.
Screenings from Ladino clover seed grown on fields which had
been treated with toxaphene (2 Ib./ac. May 28 plus 3 Ib./ac. on
July 5) and harvested 30 - 60 days later, were analyzed as composite
samples. Subsequently the composites were separated into 13 fractions.
The composites contained 21.1 ppm. Seventy percent of this toxaphene
occurred in clover chaff and soil (Archer, 1970). In another
study, Archer (1968) reported 65.7 ppm toxaphene on ladino clover
seed screenings. Toxaphene residues in alfalfa pellets produced
from 75 percent seed crop threshings and 25 percent screenings
varied from 6.3 to 16 ppm. Toxaphene residues in lucerne and clover
as determined by Adamovic and Hus (1969) ranged from 0.5 to 200
ppm.
The rate of disappearance of toxaphene used on birdsfoot trefoil
in Vermont was reported by MacCollum and Flanagan (1967) . Toxaphene
residues (day 0-5.03 ppm) diminished rapidly but were still detectable
(0.15 ppm) 48 days after application. Seed production from the
treated plot was 6 percent less than the check area.
128
-------
In Montana treatment of alfalfa with water emulsion caused
greater toxaphene residues than treatment with the dust formulation
(Laakso and Johnson, 1949). Losses of toxaphene up to 72.9 percent
31 days after application were noted following water emulsion
treatment. Rate of loss was greatly decreased after baling and
storage.
Alfalfa sprayed with large concentrations of toxaphene (250
mg/1) was air dried, sunlight dried, and dried under ultraviolet
light. Maximal residue losses which were 19 percent, 54 percent,
and 46 percent, respectively, occurred approximately within 7 days
after application and plateaued thereafter. No photochemical
degradation products were detected (Archer, 1971).
Osborn, e^ al_. , (1960) studied persistence of toxaphene residues
on forage under sprayed pecan trees. Initial deposits of 488-672 ppm
resulted from two spray applications of 6 Ib. of wettable powder
(40 percent toxaphene) per 100 gal. made at two week intervals.
Residues ranged from 69 to 126 ppm after weathering 2 weeks and
23 ppm after 10 weeks.
Residues in vegetable crops following soil applications of
toxaphene were measured by Muns, _e_t al_., (1960). Sugar beets,
radishes, potatoes and table beets grown in soil treated with
3 Ib./ac. contained 0.0-0.4 ppm when harvested 5 to 18 weeks after
treatment.
Brett and Bowery (1958) studied toxaphene residues on snap
beans, tomatoes, and collards dusted when ready for harvest at
30 Ib./ac. Toxaphene residues persisted for at least 12 days
129
-------
on collards and snap beans. There was no detectable residue on
tomatoes after the ninth day. Bean residues decreased from 8.1
ppm on day 0 to 1.52 ppm on day 12; residues on collards were
168 ppm on day 0 and 4.9 ppm on day 13; on tomatoes, 4 ppm on
day 0 and 0.15 ppm on day 9.
Toxaphene residues on cotton plants during a 15-day period
after a third spraying were determined (El Sayed, et_ al_., 1962).
Amounts of toxaphene lost at 5, 10 and 15 days after treatment
were 39.3, 68.2 and 81.9 percent, respectively.
Roark, ££ al.-, (1963) studied the effect on cotton caused
in Mississippi by different pesticide formulations x^hich were
applied during the first 6 weeks of growth. Methyl parathion
delayed initiation of fruiting branches and production of floral
buds. However, there were no obvious effects on plant metabolism
from treatment with toxaphene. Similar results were reported
by Mistric, et^ al., (1970) from North Carolina. Methyl parathion
caused a 510 day delay in squaring and consequent delay in maturity
whereas mixtures containing toxaphene caused neither delayed growth
nor decreased yield.
Rates of growth were studied with plants maintained in
quartz sand. Effects were studied of insecticidal soil residues
on plant growth in quartz sand fortified with 30 ppm toxaphene.
With corn roots, growth was 87 percent of check plot and the stem
was 88 percent. With peas from toxaphene treated soil root growth
130
-------
was 108 percent of the check plots and stem growth 114 percent.
Effect of 30 ppm toxaphene on respiration of root tips expressed
as ul oxygen uptake per 100 rag fresh weight in percent of control
was: corn-93.9 percent; oats-78.8 percent; peas-99.0 percent;
and cucumber-119.3 percent. In general, chlorinated hydrocarbons
inhibited plant growth less than the organophosphates or carbaryl
(Lichtenstein, et^ £l., 1962).
The mixing of several pesticides for use in a single application
.against different pests is a common practice among apple and pear
growers. Kiigemagi and Terriere (1963) checked persistence of residues
on pears in Oregon where toxaphene at 3 - 4.8 Ib./ac. was applied
in a mixture containing DDT. The harvest residue of toxaphene
was 0.66 ppm as compared to the FDA tolerance of 7.0 ppm. Minimum
time interval between last spray and harvest for toxaphene to
reach 1/3 of tolerance was calculated at 28 days.
The inheritance of phytotoxicity of toxaphene to oats was
examined by Gardenhire and McDaniel (1970) . The reaction was found
to be controlled by a single major gene, with susceptibility conditioned
by the dominant allele. Toxaphene effect appeared to be localized
and caused discoloration and eventual death of leaf tissue contacted
by the spray. New growth appeared normal. Toxaphene and not
the solvent carrier appeared to cause the damage.
Control of soil insects attacking vegetables during early
growth is carried out in Trinidad by application around individual
-------
seedlings (Hagley, 1965). Applications of 1.4 and 14 Ib. ai/ac.
were made to 2 - to 3-week~old seedlings. No adverse effects
occurred after 4 weeks with the 1.4 Ib./ac. rate. The high treatment
rate reduced the growth rate of cauliflower and tomato seedlings.
Toxaphene reduced the size of Chinese cabbage seedlings but did
not affect root development. The high rate of treatment caused
severe marginal and interveinal chlorosis and necrosis of the
lower leaves, and resulted in death of one third of the tomatoes
in the second and third weeks of growth.
Beckham (1965) studied the response of cotton plants to various
pesticides. While his experiments with toxaphene included this
compound only when mixed with DDT, there appeared to be no significant
difference as to insect control, plant growth or average yield.
Residues of toxaphene found on corn plants treated for European
corn borer in Iowa were analysed by Fahey, ^t al., (1965). Toxaphene
(65 percent EC) applied to corn plants at 1.5 Ib./ac. deposited
initial residues of 1.1 to 11.9 ppm. These residues decreased
to less than 2 ppm 30 days after treatment. Residues from granular
material also applied at 1.5 Ib./ac. dropped from 6.9 ppm on day
of application to 2.0 on day 30 and 1.7 ppm on day 65 post-treatment.
One of the earliest studies on the effects of chlorinated
camphene (toxaphene) on plants was reported by Morrison, et al. ,
(1948). An experimental plot was treated at the rate of 27.5 Ib.
ai/ac. Following this treatment twenty-nine different vegetables,
132
-------
some seeded and others transplants were planted on test plot.
Plant injury was not observed throughout the season. Cullinan
(1949) reported on the general soil stability of chlorinated hydrocarbons
but found that toxaphene does break down under certain conditions.
Toxaphene will depress growth of some seedling plants when applied
to the soil at 25 Ib./ac. The toxicity of toxaphene tended to
decrease with time. The compound was apparently affected by soil
fungi and bacteria. Foster (1948) also noted that toxaphene tended
to decompose in soil and become nontoxic to plants after several
months.
Results of a survey of toxaphene residues on 1970 U.S. auction
market tobacco were reported by Domanski and Sheets (1973) . Approximately
26 percent of the flue-cured tobaccos contained toxaphene, but
most values were below 1 ppm. Toxaphene was present in 4 of 22
burley samples, but these were at relatively low levels. Most air-cured
and fire-cured samples contained toxaphene; a few concentrations
were above 8 ppm. One dark aircured tobacco sample contained 12
ppm.
In a similar study of tobacco products in 1971, Domanski,
et al., (1973) found that toxaphene was present in all products
except regular cigars. Toxaphene residues in cigarettes averaged
3.3 ppm, in chewing tobacco 1.4, in snuff - 1.2, in cigars - 0.6,
little cigars - 0.6, and in pipe tobacco 1.6 ppm.
133
-------
III.H. Fate in Soil
The long time use of persistent pesticides such as toxaphene
and their resulting ubiquitous occurrence has prompted much public
concern about the effects of such compounds on the environment.
Pilot studues were conducted nationwide at 51 locations over
three years (1965-67) to determine existing pesticide residue
levels in soils. Samples were taken from areas regularly treated,
infrequently treated, and in locations with no known previous
use of insecticides. Soils from areas where cotton and vegetables
are grown contained 0.66-9.38 ppm toxaphene/Strobane in 60 percent
of the fields.- Only one orchard (3 percent of total sampled)
contained toxaphene residues (7.72 ppm). Soils from twelve percent
of all small grain-root crop areas contained toxaphene in amounts
from 0.11 to 2.01 ppm. Toxaphene residues were not detected in
limited or no use areas (Stevens, ejt al_., 1970).
A follow-up survey was conducted by Wiersma, e_1^ al^, (1972).
Pesticide residues in cropland soil for 43 States and non-cropland
soil for 11 States were measured. On cropland soil 4.2 percent
of the sites sampled contained toxaphene residues within the range
0.10 to 11.72 ppm. Only one of 199 non-cropland samples contained
toxaphene. The amount detected was 0.52 ppm.
From 1953 to 1957 annual applications of 20 Ib./ac./yr. of
toxaphene were worked into California Holtville sandy clay. A
rank of decreasing persistence (persistency index: 1.00 = no
degradation or other disappearance during the first year) over
134
-------
an 11-year period placed toxaphene treatments at 0.18 which suggests
a low persistence (Hermanson, ejt^ al. , 1971).
Movement and distribution of toxaphene in a heavy clay soil
was studied on three Blackland Prairie watersheds in Texas. Less
than 22 percent of the toxaphene applied over a 10-year period
was recovered in the top 5 feet of soil. Ninety to 95 percent
of the toxaphene was found in the upper 12 inches. A higher percent-
age was recovered in a field receiving 10 Ib./ac. of toxaphene
than 2 fields receiving 18 and 22 Ibs. The reason for this seeming
contradiction remains unknown (Swoboda, et_ al. , 1971). Thomas
(1970), who made a progress report on the same study mentioned
that profile studies from waterways were found to contain almost
no toxaphene. A silt sample contained only 0.06 ppm toxaphene.
One hundred kg/ha of toxaphene was applied to Dunbar topsoil
in the South Carolina Coastal Plain. Loss from topsoil and accumulation
in underlying ground water was monitored for 1 year. Loss from
topsoil appeared to occur in two stages. The second (major) stage
was crudely linear on a log residue vs. log time plot. Half residence
time in the topsoil was about 100 days. Toxaphene was found in
the underlying ground water within 2 months after application
to topsoil and persisted during the entire year (La Fleur, et al. ,
1973).
The residual effect of insecticides applied to meadow and
pasture control of the European chafer was investigated by Shorey,
et al. , (1958). Loss of residues and effectiveness as measured
by chafer control showed that Strobane at 5 and 10 Ib./ac. and
10 r-
ob
-------
toxaphene at 10 and 20 Ib./ac. did not afford adequate control
during the first or succeeding years.
Persistence of toxaphene in air dried soil samples was recorded
by Westlake and San Antonio (1960). Levels of toxaphene as shown
by plotted curve, decreased from 140 to about 85 ppm over a 6-year
span.
The fate of organic pesticide residues in soil, as reported
by Adams (1967) , was recalculated in terms of half lives in soil
with data taken from Foster, et_ al_., (1956). The approximate
half life of toxaphene in soil as 2.0 years for Beltville, Maryland,
0.8 for Mississippi, and 0.8 for New Jersey.
Distribution of chlorinated insecticides in cultivated soil
(Congaree sandy loam) in Maryland was studied by Nash and Woolson
(1968). Study plots were treated with a total of 73 or 146 kg/ha
as frequently repeated foliar applications during the 1951, 1952
and 1953 growing seasons. Between 85 and 90 percent of the toxaphene
residues were found in the upper 23 cm of the soil profile, which
probably corresponded to the cultivated layer. Residual amounts
remaining after 12 years (in 1964) were 51 percent of total application
and 75 percent of 1954 assay. The amount of toxaphene remaining
in the same soil type after 14 years was 45 percent of that applied.
Treatments and maintenance of the soil were such that leaching,
volatilization, photodecomposition, mechanical removal, and probably
biological decomposition were at a minimum. This value probably
approachs the upper limit of persistence in the soil (Nash and
Woolson, 1967).
lob
-------
In 1969 the pesticide concentrations of 20 randomly selected
Mississippi Delta Lakes were evaluated. The DDT complex and toxaphene
were the prevalent pesticides found in bottom sediments. Toxaphene
ranged from 0.0 - 2.47 ppm with half the lakes being negative
for this chemical, but all lakes contained pesticides of some
kind (Herring and Cotton, 1971).
Reimold and Durant (1972) made surveys of toxaphene levels
in Georgia estuaries which received effluent material from a toxaphene
manufacturing plant. An initial sample'of ground wood particles
and mud contained 4,200 - 4,700 ppm toxaphene when analyzed by
three different laboratories. Similar samples taken about 2 months
later at the same site and at the mouth of the stream contained
1566 ppm, and 310.7 ppm, and dredge spoil in the effluent area
contained 30.6 - 32.8 ppm toxaphene. Concentrations in marsh
surface sediment decreased with exposure to sunlight.
Monitoring of pesticides in agricultural soils of the Mississippi
River delta was conducted by the Agricultural Research Service,
USDA (1966). Determination of Strobane/toxaphene residues was
attempted in 1964 on a few samples. In cultivated land, average
levels ranged from 0.88 ppm to 3.78 ppm.
Soil samples collected from 33 cotton fields within the Flint
Creek basin, Alabama, had no recent treatments so residues were
137
-------
at least one year old. Toxaphene was present in 57.6 percent of the
samples, with mean concentration of positive samples of 0.71 and a
range of 0.16 to 1.6 ppm (Grzenda and Nicholson, 1965).
138
-------
Literature Cited
Adamovic, V.M., and Hus, M. Determination of toxaphene residues
in clover. Mikrochim. Acta 1:12-15. 1969.
Adams, C.H., and Cross, W.H. Insecticide resistance in Bracon
mellitor, a parasite of the boll weevil. £. Econ. Ent.
60(4):1016-1020. 1967.
Adams, R.S., Jr. The fate of pesticide residues in soil. Jour.
Minn. Acad. Sci. 34(1):44-48. 1967.
Akesson, N.B., and Yates, W.E. Problems relating to application
of agricultural chemicals and resulting drift residues.
Ann. Rev. Ent. 9;285-318. 1964.
Adkisson, P.L. Development of resistance by the tobacco bud worm
to mixtures of toxaphene or strobane plus DDT. J. Econ. Ent.
69(3):78-791. 1967.
Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture.
Monitoring agricultural pesticide residues. A preliminary
report of studies on soil, sediment and Water in Mississippi
River Delta. U.S.D.A., ARS 81-13. 1966.
Albaugh, D.W. Insecticide tolerances of two crayfish populations
(Procambarus acutus) in South-Central Texas. Bull. Environ.
Contam. + Toxicol. 8(6):334-328. 1972.
Anderson, L.D., and Atkins, Jr., E.L. Toxicity of pesticides to
honeybees in laboratory and field tests in Southern California,
1955-1956. J. Econ. Ent. 51(1) ;103-108. 1958a.
Anderson, L.D., and Atkins, Jr., E.L. Effects of pesticides on
bees. California Agric. 12(11) :3-4. 1958b.
Anderson, L.D., and Tuft, T.O. Toxicity of several new insecticides
to honey bees. J_._ Econ. Ent. 45(3) :466-469. 1952.
Anon., Annual reports of The San Joaquin District, California Depart-
ment of Water Resources. 1963-1969.
Anon., Toxaphene status report. Special rept. to the Hazardous
Materials Advisory Committee, Environmental Protection Agency.
155 pp. Nov. 1971 (Also listed under Guyer, et^ a^. , 1971).
139
-------
Anon., Wildlife Research - Problems, Programs, Progress. Div. of
Wildl. Res. Kept, for 1966. U.S. Dept. of Interior, BSFW
Publ. 43. pp. 58, 64-65. 1967.
Anwand, K. Die Regulierung des Fischbestandes durch Melipax-
Spritzmittel (Toxaphen)., Dtsch. Fisch. - Ztg. 15(4):113-118.
1968.
Archer, I.E. Quantitative measurement of combinations of aramite,
DDT, toxaphene and endrin in crop residues. Bull. Environ.
Contain. & Toxicol. 3(2):71-79. 1968.
Archer, I.E. Toxaphene and DDT residues in ladino clover seed
screenings. Pest. Monitor. J. 4(2):27-30. 1970. See also
Environ. Health Abst., 1(7):27-30. 1970.
Archer, T.E. Toxaphene residues on alfalfa hay exposed to drying
by sunlight, ultraviolet light, and air. _J_._ Dairy Sci.
54(8):1180-1183. 1971.
Atallah, Y.H., and Newsom, L.D. Ecological and nutritional
studies on Coleomegilla maculata DeGreer. III. The effect
of DDT, toxaphene and endrin on the reproductive and survival
potentials. J. Econ. Entomol. 59(5);1181-1187. 1966.
Atkins, E.L., Jr., and Anderson, L.D. Toxicity of pesticide
dusts to honeybees. J. Econ. Ent. 47(6) :969-972. 1954.
Atkins, E.L., Jr., and Anderson, L.D. DDT resistance in honey
bees. J. Econ. Ent. 55:79-792. Resistance to DDT carried
over to some other chlorinated hydrocarbons.
Atkins, E.L., Jr., Anderson, E.A., and Greywood, E.A. Research
on the effect of pesticides on honey bees 1968-69. Part II.
Amer. Bee J. 110(11):426-429. 1970.
Aubry, J., Gatineau, M., and Saint-Leger, L. Note sur la toxicite
a 1'egard du pigeon, du coq et du rat blanc. Ann. Epiphyties
(Paris) Livraison du no. 2 de 1954. p. 199-202. 1954.
Bailey, T.E., and Hannum, J.R. Distribution of pesticides in
California. J_._ Sanitary Engineering Div. , Proc. Amer. Soc.
Civil Engineers, SA5:27-43. 1967.
Bandt, H.J. Toxic or non-toxic to fish? Dtsch. Fisch. Ztg.
4:170-171. 1957, Litber. Was. Abwass. Luft W. Boden
1957.6.168. (Water Pollution Abstracts 31(12):431(no. 2448).
1958.
-------
Barthel, W.F. , Parsons, D.A., McDowell, L.L., and Grissinger, E.H.
Surface hydrology and pesticides. In; Pesticides and their
effects on soils and water. ASA Spec. Publ. //8. Soils
Science Soc. Amer., Madison, Wis . pp. 128-144. 1966.
Bartlett, B.R., The contact toxicity of some pesticide residues
to hymenopterous parasites and coccinellid predators. J. Econ.
56 (5): 694-698. 1963.
Bartlett, B.R. , Toxicity of some pesticides to eggs, larvae and
adults of the green lacewing, Chrysopa carnea . J. Econ. Ent .
57(3):366-369. 1964.
Bartlett, B.R., Toxicity and acceptance of some pesticides fed to
parasitic hymenoptera and predatory coccinellids . J. Econ.
Ent. 59 (5): 1142-1149. 1966.
Bateman, G.Q., Biddulph, C., Harris, J.R., Greenwood, D.A., and
Harris, L.E. Transmission studies of milk of dairy cows
fed toxaphene-treated hay. J. Agr. Food Chem. 1(4) ;322-324.
1953.
Batte, E.G., and Turk, R.D., Toxicity of some synthetic insecti-
cides to dogs. £._ Econ. Ent. 41:102-103. 1948.
Beck, L.A. , Senior Sanitary Engineer, Calif. Dept. of Water Re-
sources, Sacramento, Personal Communication, 1971 (as listed
in Guyer, et^ al . , 1971, p. 87).
Beckham, C.M. , Response of the cotton plant to foliar applica-
tions of several organophosphorus and chlorinated hydro-
carbon insecticides. Ga. Agric . Exp. Sta. Mimeo . Ser . No.
236: 11 pp., 1965. Maturity development not affected by
any treatments tested.
Benson, W.R. The chemistry of pesticides :Biological effects of
pesticides in mammalian systems. Ann. N.Y. , Acad. Sci.
160(1) :7-29, 1969.
Bouchet, Y., and Ilami, M. , New possibilities for differentia-
tion of oat varieties through standardized applications
of toxaphene. Ann. Amelior . Plantes (Paris) 21(1) :87-91.
1971.
Boyd, C.E., Insecticides cause mosquito fish to abort. Progr .
Fish Cult. 26:138. 1964.
Boyd, E.E., and Ferguson, D.E., Susceptibility and resistance
of mosquito fish to several insecticides. J. Econ. Ent.
57 (4): 430-431. 1964.
141
-------
Boyd, E.E., and Ferguson, D.E., Spectrum of cross-resistance to
insecticides in the mosquito fish, Gambusia affinis.
Mosquito News 24(1):19-21. 1964a.
Bradley, J.F., Jr., Sheets, T.J., and Jackson, M.D. DDT and
toxaphene movement in surface waters from cotton plots.,
N.C. Univ. Agr. Exp. Sta. J. Environ. Quality 1(1):102-1Q4.
1972.
Brett, C. and Bowery, T.C., Insecticide residues on vegetables.
J. Econ. Ent. 51(6):818-821. 1958.
Brown, E., and Nishioka, Y.A. Pesticides in selected western
streams - A contribution to the national program. Pest.
Monitor. J. 1(2);38-46. 1967.
Bugg, Jr., J.C., Higgins, J.E., Robertson, Jr., E.A. Residues
in fish, wildlife, and estuaries. Pesticides Monitor. J.
1(3) :9. 1967.
Burke, H.R. Toxicity of several insecticides to two species of
beneficial insects on cotton. J. Econ. Ent. 52(4):616-618.
1959.
Burke, W.D., and Ferguson, D.E. Toxicities of four insecticides
to resistant and susceptible mosquito fish in static and
flowing solutions. Mosquito News 29(1):96-101. 1969.
Bushland, R.C., Wells, R.W., and Radeleff, R.D. Effect on
livestock of sprays and dips containing new chlorinated
insecticides. J. Econ. Ent. 41;642-645. 1948.
Butler, P.A. Commercial fisheries investigations, pp. 11-25,
In: Pesticides-Wildlife Studies. U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Serv. Circ. 167, 1963a.
Butler, P.A., Commercial fisheries investigations - chronic
exposure of fish to pesticides. In; Pesticide - Wildlife
Studies, 1963. pp. 5,9,26-28. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Serv.
Circ. 199. 1964.
Campbell, W.V., and Hutchins, E. Toxicity of insecticides to
some predaceous insects on cotton. J. Econ. Ent.
45(5):829-833. 1952.
Carter, R.H., Wells, R.W., Radeleff, R.D., Smith, C.L.,
Hubanks, P.E., and Mann, H.D. The chlorinated hydrocarbon
content of milk from cattle sprayed for control of hornflies,
J. Econ. Ent. 42:116-118. 1949.
142
-------
Choudbury B. and Robinson, V. Clinical and pathological effects
produced in goats by the ingestion of toxic amounts of
chlordane and toxaphene. Amer. J. Vet. Res. 11:50-56. 1950.
Claborn, H.V., Bowers, J.W., Wells, R.W., Radeleff, R.D., and
Nickerson, W.J. Meat contamination from pesticides. Agr.
Chem. 8(8):37-39. 119. 1953.
Claborn, H.V., Mann, H.D., Ivey, M.C., Radeleff, R.D., and
Woodward, G.T. Excretion of toxaphene and strobane in the
milk of dairy cows. J. Agr. Food Chem. 11(4):286-289. 1963.
Claborn, H.V., Radeleff, R.D., and Bushland, R.C. Pesticide
residues in meat and milk. U.S. Dept. Agric., ARS. 33-36.
1960.
Cope, O.B. Toxicities and tolerances of new insecticides in re-
lation to wildlife and fish. Calif. Mosquito Control Assoc-.
Proc. and Papers 1948:26-29.
Cope, O.B. Contamination of the fresh water ecosystem by pesti-
cides. J. Appl. Ecol. 3 (suppl.):33-44. 1966.
Courtenay, Jr., W.R., and Roberts, Jr., M.H. Environmental
effects on toxaphene toxicity to selected fishes and
crustaceana. Off Res. and Monitor., U.S. E.P.A., Washington,
D.C. EPA-R3-73-035. 73 pp. 1973.
Culley, D.D. , Jr., and Ferguson, D.E. Patterns of insecticide
resistance in the mosquito fish, Gambusia affinis. J. Fish.
Res. Bd. Canad. 26(9) ;2395-2401. 1969.
Gushing, C.E. , Jr., and Olive, J.R. Effects of toxaphene and
rotenone upon the macroscopic bottom fauna of two northern
Colorado reservoirs. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 86:294-301.
1956.
Dahlen, J. H., and Haugen, A.O. Acute toxicity of certain insecti-
cides to the bobwhite quail and mourning diwe. J. Wildl.
Mgt. 18(4)=477-481. 1954.
Daniels, N.E. Insects affecting alfalfa seed production.
J. Econ. Ent. 48(3) ;339-34Q. 1955.
DeWitt, J.B. Toxicity of chlorinated insecticides to quail and
pheasants. Atlantic Naturalist 11C3) :115-118. 1956.
143
-------
DeWitt, J.B., Crabtree, U.G., Finley, R.B., and George, J.L.
Effects of pesticides on fish and wildlife: a review of
investigations during 1960. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Serv.
Circ. 143. pp. 11,42,47. 1962.
Diephuis, F., and Dunn, C.L. Toxaphene Residues IV: Toxaphene in
tissues of cattle and sheep fed toxaphene-treated alfalfa.
Montana State Coll., Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 461:22-26. 1949.
Domanski, J.J., and Sheets, T.J. Insecticide residues on 1970
U.S. Auction market tobacco. Tobacco Science 17(8):29-31.
April 13, 1973.
Domanski, J.J., Laws, J.M., Haire, P.L., and Sheets, T.J. In-
secticide residues on 1971 U.S. tobacco products. Tobacco_
Science 17(12):80-81. June 8, 1973.
Duggan, R.E. Residues in food and feed: pesticides in vegetable
oil seeds, oils, and by-products. Pest. Monitor. J.
l(4):2-7. 1968.
Durant, C..J. , and Reimold, R.J. Effects of estuarine dredging
of toxaphene-contaminated sediments in Terry Creek, Brunswick,
Georgia 1971. Pest. Monitor. J. 6(2);94-96. Sept. 1972.
Dykstra, W.W., and Lennon, R.E. The role of chemicals for the
control of vertebrate pests. E.F. Knipling (Chrm.): Pest
control by chemical, biological, genetic and physical means.
A symposium. U.S. Dept. of Agric.., ARS 33-110. 1966.
Dziuk, L.J., and Plapp, F.W. Insecticide resistance in mosquito
fish from Texas. Bull. Environ. Contam. and Toxicol.
9(1):15-19. 1973.
Eadie, W.R. Toxaphene - for control of meadow mice in orchards.
Farm Research 25(1) ;15. Mar. 1959. N.Y. State Agric.
Exp. Sta., Geneva, N.Y.
Eckert, J.E. Determining toxicity of agricultural chemicals to
honeybees. J. Econ. Ent. 42(3):261-265. 1949.
El Sayed, E.I., Graves, J.B., and Bonner, F.L. Chlorinated
hydrocarbon insecticide residues in selected insects and
birds found in association with cotton fields. J. Agr.
Food Chem. 15:1014-1017. 1967.
El Sayed, M.M., Awad, M..H. , Affifi, S.M.M., and El Assi, S.M.R.
Toxaphene residues on cotton plants. Agr. Res. Review
(Cairo) 40(2):90-97. 1962.
144
-------
Epps, E.A., Bormer, F.L., Newsom, L.D., Carlton, R., and Smitherman,
R.O. Preliminary report on a pesticide monitoring study in
Louisiana. Bull. Environ. Contam. and Toxicol. 2:333-339.
1967.
Erickson, J.D. Toxaphene poisoning of trout. American Fishes
and U.S. Trout News 12:4-5. 1968.
Ettinger, M.B., and Mount, D.I. A wild fish should be safe to eat.
Environ. Sci. Technol. 1(3):203-2Q5. 1967.
Eubank, N.H. Toxaphene intoxication from home treatment. Vet.
Med. 59(6) :584. 1964.
Fenton.'F.A. The effect of several insecticides on the total
arthropod population in alfalfa. J. ECon. Ent. 52(3):428-432.
1959.
Ferguson, D.'E. In less than 20 years/Mississippi Delta wildlife
developing resistance to pesticides. Agr. Chem. 18(9):32-34.
Sept. 1963.
Ferguson, D.E., and Bingham, C.R. Effects of combinations of in-
secticides on susceptible and resistant mosquito fish., Bull.
Environ. Contam. and Toxicol. 1(3):97-103. 1966.
Ferguson, D.E., and Gilbert, C.C. Tolerances of three species of
anuran amphibians to five chlorinated hydrocarbon insecti-
cides. J. Miss. Acad. Acad. Sci. 13:135-138. 1967.
Ferguson, D.E., Cotton, W.D., Gardner, D.T., and Culley, D.D.
Tolerances to five chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides in
two species of fish from a transect of the lower Mississippi
River. J. Miss. Acad. Sci. 11:239-256. 1965a.
Ferguson, D. E., Culley, D.D., and Cotton, W.D. Tolerances of
two populations of fresh water shrimp to five chlorinated
hydrocarbon insecticides. J. Miss. Acad. Sci. 11:235-237.
1965b.
Ferguson, D.E., Culley, D.D., Cotton, W.D., and Dodds, R.P.
Resistance to chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides in
three species of freshwater fish. BioSci. 14(11);43-44.
1964.
Fiedler, O.G.H. Susceptibility of millipedes (Diplopoda) to
insecticides. J_._ Entomol. Soc. Southern Africa 27(2) :219-225.
1965.
145
-------
Finley, M.T., Ferguson, D.E., and Ludke, J.L. Possible selective
mechanisms in the development of insecticide resistant fish.
Pest. Monitor. J. 3(4) :212-218. 1970.
Finley, Jr., R. B. Direct and indirect effects of some insecti-
cides on western wildlife. Proc. Western Assoc. State Game
and Fish Comm.:21-129. 1960.
Flickinger, E.L., and Keith, J.O. Effects of DDT and toxaphene
in diets of young white pelicans, pp. 34-35. IN: The
effects of pesticides on fish and wildlife. U.S.Fish
and Wildlife Service Circ. 226. 1965.
Foster, A.C., Boswell, V.R., Chisholm, R.D., and Carter, R.H.
Some effects of insecticide spray accumulations in soil on
crop plants. USDA Tech. Bull. 1149., 1956. (From litera-
ture cited - Adams, 1967).
Fukano, K.G., and Hooper, F.F. Toxaphene (chlorinated camphene)
a selective fish poison. Prog. Fish Cult. 20:189-190. 1958.
FWPCA. Water Quality Criteria. Rept. of the Nat'l. Tech. Adm.
Comm. to Seer, of the Interior. Fed. Water Pollution Contr.
Adm., U.S.D.I. 234 pp. 1968.
Gaines, R.C. Effect on beneficial insects of several insecti-
cides applied for cotton insect control. J. Econ. Ent.
47(3):543-544. 1954.
Gaines, R.C. Effect on beneficial insects of three insecticide
mixtures applied for cotton insect control during 1954.
J. Econ. Ent. 48(4) :477-478. 1955.
Gardenhire, J.H., and McDaniel, M.E. Inheritance of reaction to
toxaphene in oats. Crop Sci. 10(3) :299-300. 1970.
Gaylord, W. E., and Smith, B.R. Treatment of East Bay, Alger
County, Michigan with toxaphene for control of sea lamprey.
U.S.D.I. Fish and Wildlife Serv. Resource Publ. 11, pp. 1-7.
1966.
Gebhards, S.V. A review of toxaphene for use in fish eradication.
Idaho Department Fish and Game. 14 pp., Mimeo., Mar. 3, 1960.
Genelly, R.E., and Rudd, R.L. Chronic toxicity of DDT, toxaphene
and dieldrin to ringnecked pheasants. Calif. Fish and Game
42(1):5-14. Jan. 1956a.
Genelly, R.E., and Rudd, R.L. Effects of DDT, toxaphene and
dieldrin on pheasant reproduction. Auk 73(4):529-539.
1956b.
146
-------
George, D.A., Butler, L.T., Maitlen, J.C., Rusk, H.W., and
Walker, K.D. Insecticide residues on forage crops. U.S.
Dept. Agric., report ARS-33-112. 18 pp. 1967.
George, J.L., Darsie, Jr., R.F., and Springer, P.P. Effects on
wildlife of aerial applications of strobane, DDT, and BHC
to tidal marshes in Delaware. J_._ Wild. Mgt. 2(l):42-53.
1957.
Ginsburg, J.M. Tests with new toxicants, in comparison with DDT,
on mosquito larvae and fish. Proc. 34th Ann. Meeting, N.J.
Mosquito Extermination Assoc., pp. 132-135. 1947.
Click, P.A., and Lattimore, W.B., Jr. The relation of insecticides
to insect populations in cotton fields. J. Econ. Ent. 47(4):
681-684. 1954.
Grzenda, A.R-. , and Nicholson, H.P. Distribution and magnitude of
insecticide residues among various components of a stream
system. Trans. South. Water Resources Pollut. Control Conf.
14:165-174. 1965.
Grzenda, A.R., Lauer, G.J., and Nicholson, H.P. Water pollution
by insecticides in an agricultural river basin, II. The
zooplankton, bottom fauna, and fish. Limn, and Oceanogr.
1964.
Guyer, G.E., Adkisson, P.L., DuBois, K., Menzie, C., Nicholson, H.P.,
and Zweig, G. Toxaphene Status Report. Special report to the
Hazardous Materials Advisory Comm., E.P.A., 155 pp., 1971.
Hagley, E.A.C. Effect of insecticides on the growth of vegetable
seedlings., J_._ Econ. Ent. 58(4) :777-788. 1965.
Hannon, M.R., Greichus, Y.A., Applegate, R.L., and Fox, A.C.
Ecological distribution of pesticides in Lake Poinsett,
South Dakota. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 99(3):496-500. 1970.
Hanson, W.R. Effects of some herbicides and pesticides on biota
of North Dakota Marshes. J. Wildl. Mgt. 16:299-308. 1952.
Harries, F.H., and Valcarce, A.C. Laboratory tests of the effect
of insecticides on some beneficial insects. J. Econ. Ent.
48(5):614. 1955.
Harris, B.K. The effects of toxaphene poisoned grasshoppers upon
pheasant chicks. North Dakota State Fish and Game Dept., Div.
of Fed. Aid, Project 7-R. 8 pp. 1951.
147
-------
Heath, R.G., and Stickel, L.F. Protocol for testing the acute
and relative toxicity of pesticides to penned birds.
pp. 18-24. IN: The effects of pesticides on fish and wild-
life. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Serv. Circ. 226. 1965.
Heath, R.G., Spann, J.W., Hill, E.F., and Kreitzer, J.F. Com-
parative dietary toxicities of pesticides to birds. Spec.
Sci. Rept. Wildlife No. 152. B.S.F.W.. U.S.D.I., 57 pp. 1972.
Hemphill, J.E. Toxaphene as a fish toxin. Prog. Fish-Cult.
16(l):41-42. 1954. (Referred to by Hoffman and Olive,
1961).
Henderson, C., Johnson, W.L., and Inglis, A. Organochlorine
insecticide residues in fish. Pest. Monitor. J.
3(3):145-171. 1969.
Henderson, C., Inglis, A., and Johnson, W. L. Organochlorine
insecticide residues in fish - fall 1969 National Pesti-
cide Monitoring Program. Pest. Monitor. J. 5(1):1-11. 1971.
Henderson, C., Pickering, Q.H., and Tarzwell, C.M. Relative
toxicity of ten chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides to
four species of fish. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 88(1):23-32. 1959.
Henderson, C., Pickering, Q.H., and Tarzwell, C.M. Toxicity of
organic phosphorus and hydrocarbon insecticides to fish.
Biol. Probl. Water Poll., Trans. (2nd) 1959 Seminar,
Robert A. Taft San. Eng. Center Tech. Rept. W60-3:76-92.
1959.
Henegar, D.L. Minimum lethal levels of toxaphene as a piscicide
in North Dakota Lakes. Investigations in fish control. 3.
U.S.D.I., Fish and Wildlife Serv. Resource Publ. 7, pp. 13-16. 1966.
Hermanson, H.P., Gunther, F.A., Anderson, L.D., and Garber, M.J.
Installment application effects upon insecticide residue
content of a California soil. J. Agr. Food Chem.
19(4):722-726. 1971.
Herring, J., and Cotton, D. Pesticide residues of twenty
Mississippi Delta lakes., Proc. 24th Ann. Conf., S.E.
Assoc. of Game and Fish Comm. Sept. 27-30, 1970, Atlanta,
Ga., pp. 482-488. Publ. in 1971.
Hillen, R.H. Special report-pesticide surveillance program -
range caterpillar control project. Coifax and Union Cos.,
New Mexico, Bur. Sport Fish, and Wildlife, Div. Wildlife
Services, Fort Collins, Colo. 31 pp. 1967.
148
-------
Hilsenhoff, W.L. The effect of toxaphene on the benthos in a
thermally - stratified lake. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc.
94(3):210-213. 1965.
Hoffman, D.A., and Olive, J.R. The effects of rotenone and
toxaphene upon plankton of two Colorado reservoirs.
Limnol. Oceanogr. 6:219-222. 1961.
Holmes, G.D., Brown, R.M., and Ure, R.M. Preliminary experiments
on the use of toxaphene and endrin for the control of short-
tailed voles in young forest areas. Report on Forest
Research (British). pp. 148-156. 1958.
Hooper,., F.F. Population control by chemicals and some resulting
problems. Seminar on Biological Problems in Water Pollution.
U.S. Public Health Serv., Trans. 2:241-246.
1960.
Hooper, F.F., and Grzenda, A.R. The use of toxaphene as a fish
poison. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 85:180-190. 1957.
Hughes, R.A., and Lee, G.F. Toxaphene accumulation in fish in
lakes treated for rough fish control. Environ. Sci. &
Technol. 7(10);934-939. Oct. 1973.
Hunt, E.G., and Keith, J.O. Pesticide - Wildlife Investigations
in California-1962. Proc. 2nd Ann. Conf. on the Use of
Agr. Chemicals in Calif., 8 Jan. 1962, Univ. Calif. Davis.
29 pp. 1962.
Hussein, M.F., Badir, N., and Boulos, R. Studies on the effect
of insecticides as an ecologically induced limiting factor
to the life of some fresh water fishes. III. Effect of
temperature on toxaphene toxicity to Gambusia sp. and
Tilapia zilli. Zool. Soc. Egypt Bull. 21:22-28. 1966-67.
Ibrahim, S.H., Madkour, A.M., and Selim, H.A. Contact toxicity
of some new insecticides and acaricides to honeybees. Agr.
Res. Rev. 45(2) ;141-146. 1967. Toxaphene least toxic of
4 insecticides tested.
Johnson, D.W., and Lew> S. Chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides
in representative fishes of Southern Arizona. Pest.
Monitor. J. 4(2):57-61. 1970. See also Environ. Health
Abst. 1(7):2765. 1971.
149
-------
Leighton, R.E., Kuiken, K.A; and Smith, H«A. Effects of toxaphene on
dairy cows. Texas Agric. Exp. Sta. Prog. Rept. #1409:5 pp. 1951.
Lennon, R.E., Hunn, J.B., Schnick, R.A., and Burress, R.M. Reclamation of
Ponds, lakes and streams with fish toxicants: a review. FAO Fisheries
Tech. Paper 100. FIRI/T100. Rome. 1970. Reprinted by USDI. Fish &
Wildl. Serv., BSFW, 1971.
Li, C. - F., Bradley, R.L., Jr., and Schultz, L.H. Fate of organochlorine
pesticides during processing of milk into dairy products. J. Assn.
Off. Anal. Chem. 53(1)=127-139. 1970.
Lichtenberg, J.J. Analytical Quality Control Laboratory, EPA,
Cincinnati, Ohio. Personal communication. 1971. (as
listed by Guyer, et a^., 1971, p. 88).
-?
Lichtenberg, J.J., Eichelberger, J.W., Dressman, R.C., and
Lonbottom, J.E. Pesticides in surface waters of the United
States - A 5-year summary, 1964-1968. Pest. Monitor. J.
4(21):71-86. 1970.
Lichtenstein, E.P., Millington, W.F., and Cowley, G.T. Effect
of various insecticides on growth and respiration of
plants. J. Agr. Food Chem. 10;251-256. 1962.
Lieberman, F.Y., Bohart, G.E., Knowlton, G.F., and Nye, W.P.
Additional studies on the effect of field applications
of insecticides on honeybees. J. Econ. Ent. 47(2):316-320.
1954.
Lowe, J.I. Chronic exposure of Spot, Leiostomus xanthurus to sub-
lethal concentrations of toxaphene in sea water. Trans. Amer.
Fish. Soc. 93(4);396-399. 1974.
Lowe, J.I., Wilson, P.D., Rick, A., Wilson, A.J., Jr. Chronic ex-
posure of oysters to DDT, toxaphene and parathion. Proc.
Nat. Shellfish Assoc. 61:71-79 (1970; publ. 1971).
McCarraher, D.B., and Dean, J.L. The results for four years of
fish eradication work with toxaphene in Nebraska. Presented
at 21st. Midwest Wildlife Conf., Minneapolis, Minn. 10 pp.,
mimeo., Dec. 7-9, 1959.
McDonald, S. Rapid detection of chlorinated insecticides in
aqueous suspension with Gammarus lacustris lacustris.
Canad. J. Zool. 40:719-723. 1962.
151
-------
Johnson, W.C. Toxaphene treatment of Big Bear Lake, Calif.
Calif. Fish and Game 52(3);173-179. 1966.
Johnson, W.D., Lee, G.-F., and Spyridakis, D. Persistence of
toxaphene in treated lakes. Aijr and Water Pollut. Int. J_._
10:555-560. 1966.
Johnson, W.R. , Ittihadieh, F.T., and Craig, K.R. Insecticides
in the tile drainage effluent. Water Resources Research
3(2):525-538. 1967.
Jones, G.D.G., and Connel, J.V. Studies of the toxicity to worker
honeybees (Apis mellifera L.) of certain chemicals used in
plant protection. Ann. Appl. Biol. 4(2) -.271-279. 1954.
Kallman, B.J., Cope, O.B., and Navarre, R.J. Distribution and
detoxication of toxaphene in Clayton Lake, New Mexico.
Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 9(l):14-22. 1962.
Katz, M. Acute toxicity of some organic insecticides to three
species of salmonids and to the threespine stickleback.
Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 90(3);264-268. 1961.
Keithj J.O, Toxicity of DDT and toxaphene to young white pelicans,
pp. 50-51, 66. In: Pesticide - Wildlife Studies. U.S. Fish
& Wildl. Serv. Circ. 199. 1964.
Keith, J.O. Insecticide contaminations in wetland habitats and
their effects on fish-eating birds. J. Appl. Ecol. 3:
(suppl.): 71-85. 1966a.
Keith, J.O. The effect of pesticides on white pelicans. 4th
Conf. Use of Agr. Chem. in Calif., Feb. 8, 1966, Davis,
Calif. 8 pp. 1966b.
Keith, J.O., and Hunt, E.G. Levels of insecticide residues in
fish and wildlife in California. Trans. 31st. N. Amer.
Wildl. & Nat. Resources Conf. :150-177. 1966.
Kiigemagi, V., and Terriere, L.C. Multiple residues of several
chlorinated pesticides on pears. J_.^ Econ. Ent_._ 56(3) .'343-344.
1963.
Laakso, J.W., and Johnson, L.H. Toxaphene residues on alfalfa.
Montana State Coll. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull^ 461:5-15. 1949.
LaFleur, K.S., Wojeck, G.A., and McCaskill, W.R. Movement of
toxaphene and fluometuron through. Dunbar soil to underlying
ground water. J. Environ. Quality 2(4) ;515-518. 1973.
150
-------
McEwen, L.C., Knittle, C.E., and Richmond, M.L. Wildlife effects
from grasshopper insecticides sprayed on short-grass range.
J. Range Mgt. 25(3):188-194. 1972.
McGinnis, D. Investigations of residual toxaphene effects in six
Matanuska Valley lakes. Alaska Sport Fish Investigations
Rep. No. 11-1, Vol. 6, pp. 217-230. Mimeo. 1965.
MacCollom, G.B., and Flanagan, T.R. Endrin, toxaphene, and
dalapon effects on birdsfoot trefoil seed yields and
residue disappearance. J. Econ. Ent. 60(4) :1174-1175.
1967.
Macek,-K.J., and McAllister, W.A. Insecticide susceptibility
of some common fish family representatives. Trans.
Amer. Fish. Soc. 99(l);20-27. 1970.
Macek, K.J., Hutchinson, C., and Cope, O.B. The effects of
temperature on the susceptibility of bluegills and rainbow
trout to selected pesticides. Bull. Environ. Contain. +
Toxicol. 4(3):174-183. 1969.
Mahdi, M.A. Mortality of some species of fish to toxaphene at
three temperatures. U.S.D.I., Fish and Wildlife Serv.,
Invest. in Fish Control, Research Publ. 10, 10 pp. 1966.
Manigold, D.B., and Schultze, J.A. Pesticides in selected western
streams - A progress report. Pesticides Monitor. J_.
3(2):124-135. 1969.
Marsh, H. Toxaphene Residues III. Experimental feeding of toxa-
phene treated alfalfa to cattle and sheep. Montana State
Coll. Agr. Exp. St. Bull. 461:16-21. 1949.
Marsh, H., Johnson, L.H., Clark, R.S., and Pepper, J.H. Toxicity
to cattle of toxaphene and chlordane grasshopper baits.
Montana State Coll. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 477. 11 pp. 1951.
Mason, J.W. II, and Rowe, D.R. How pesticides are threatening
our oysters. Ocean Ind. 4(7);6Q-61. 1969.
Mayhew, J. Toxicity of seven different insecticides to rainbow
trout, Salmo gairdnerii Richardson. Proc. Iowa Acad. Sci.
62:599-606. 1955.
-------
Meehan, W.R., and Sheridan, W.L. Effects of toxaphene on fishes
and bottom fauna of Big Kitoi Creek, Afognak Island, Alaska.
U.S.D.I. Fish and Wildlife Serv. Resource Publ. 12, pp. 1-9.
1966.
Menke, H.F. Repellency of toxaphene dust and parathion spray to
Nomia melanderi in blossoming alfalfa. J. ECon. Ent.
47(3):539-540. 1954.
Minchew, C.D., and Ferguson, D.E. Toxicities of six insecticides
to resistant and susceptible green sunfish and golden shiner
in static bioassays. J. Miss. Acad. Sci. 15:29-32. 1970.
Mistric, W.J., Jr., Covington, B.M., and Smith, F.D. Effects of
methyl parathion, DDT and toxaphene on the boll weevil, boll
worm, and cotton plant in North Carolina. J. Econ. Ent.
63(2):596-599. 1970.
Moffett, G.B., and Yarbrough, J.D. The effects of DDT, toxaphene
and dieldrin on succinic dehydrogenase activity in insecti-
cide - resistant and susceptible Gambusia affinis. J. Agr.
Food Chem. 20(3):558-560. 1972.
Moretti, G.P. Chlorinated insecticides and their toxicity to
certain aquatic arthropods and vertebrates. Atti. Soc.
Sci. Mus. Civico Storia Nat. 87:5-39. 1948. (in Chem.
Abst. 45(9):3979f, 1951). (Referred to by Hoffman and
Olive, 1961).
Moyle, J.B. Review of toxaphene as a piscicide. Minn. Dept.
Conserv., Div. Game and Fish, Sect. Tech. Services,
Spec. Publ. No. 50, 8 pp. 1968.
Mulla, M.S. Control of Hippelates gnats with soil treatment
using organochlorine insecticides. J. Econ. Entomol.
54(4):637-641. 1961.
Mulla, M.S. Frog and toad control with insecticides.
Pest Control 30(10):20t 64. 1962.
Mulla, M.S. Toxicity of organochlorine insecticides to the
mosquitofish and the bullfrog. Mosquito News 23(4):299-303.
1963.
Muns, R.P., Stone, M.W., and Foley, F. Residues in vegetable
crops following soil applications of insecticides. J. Econ.
Ent. 53(5):832-834. 1960.
153
-------
Naqvi, S.M., and Ferguson, D.E. Pesticide tolerances of selected
fresh water invertebrates. J. Miss. Acad. Sci. 14:120-127. 1968.
Naqvi, S.M. and Ferguson, D.E. Levels of insecticide resistance
in fresh-water shrimp, Palaemontes kadiakensis. Trans. Amer.
Fish. Soc. 99(4) :696-599. 1970.
Nash, R.G., and Woolson, E.A. Persistence of chlorinated hydro-
carbon insecticides in soils. Science 157:924-927. 1967.
Nash, R.G., and Woolson, E.A. Distribution of chlorinated insecti-
cides in cultivated soils. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. Proc.
32:525-527. 1968.
>
Nehring, D. Die toxizitat von toxaphen und endosulfan (Thiodan)
gegennuber Fischen und Fischnahrtieren unter besonderer
Beruchtischtingung der Regulierung des Fishchbestandes in '
Seen. Dtsch. Fisch. - Ztg. 11:298-303. 1964.
Nemec, S.J., and Adkisson, P.L. Effects of simulated rain and
dew on the toxicity of certain ultra-low-volume insecti-
cidal spray formulations. J. Econ. Ent. 62(l):71-73. 1969.
Newsom, L.D., and Sndth, C.E. Destruction of certain insect
predators by applications of insecticides to control cotton
pests. J. Econ. Ent. 42(6) :904-9Q8. 1949.
Nicholson, H.P. Livers of fish from Tombigbee - Alabama river
complex north of Mobile, Alabama (Oct. 1964). Science
158:871-876. 1967.
Nicholson, H.P., Grzenda, A.R., Lauer, G.J., Cox, W.S., and
Teasley, J.I. Water pollution by insecticides in an
agricultural river basin. I. occurrence of insecticides in
river and treated municipal water. Limnol. and Oceanog.
9(3):310-317. 1964.
Nicholson, H.P., Grzenda, A.R., and Teasley, J.I. Water pollution
by insecticides: a six and one-half year study of a watershed,
Proc. Symp. on Agric. Waste Water. Rept. No. 10 of Water
Resources Center, Univ. of Calif., Davis, pp. 132-141. 1966.
Nunn, J.R. Toxaphene poisoning in dogs. Vet. Med. 47(6);256-257.
1952.
Osburn, M.R., Dawsey, L.H., and Woodham, D.W. Insecticide residues
on forage under sprayed pecan trees. J. Econ. Ent. 53(5) : 719-
721. 1960.
-------
Palmer - Jones, T. Laboratory methods for measuring the toxicity
of pesticides to honey bees. New Zeal. Agric. Res. 1(3):290-
300. 1958.
Pimentel, D. Ecological effects of pesticides on non-target species. Exei
Off. of the President, Office of Science & Technol., U.S.G.P.O., Wash.
D.C., pp. 70-74. 1971.
Post, G. Two new insecticides: the present knowledge of the
effect of toxaphene and chlordane on game birds of Wyoming.
Wyoming Wild Life 13(4);8-13, 37-38. 1949.
Post, G. Effects of toxaphene and chlordane on certain game birds.
J.. Wildl. Mgt. 5(4) :381-386. 1951.
Radeleff, R.D. Toxaphene poisoning: symptomatology and pathology.
J. Vet. Med. 44:436-442. 1949.
Radeleff, R.D., and Bushland, R.C. Acute toxicity of chlorinated
insecticides applied to livestock. J. Econ. Ent. 43(3).'358-
364. 1950.
Radeleff,. R.D., Claborn, H.V., Beckman, H.F., Wells, R.W., and
Bushland, R.C. Toxaphene residues in fat of sprayed cattle.
Vet. Med. 46(8):305-308. 1951.
Reimold, R.J., and Durant, C.J. Survey of toxaphene levels in
Georgia estuaries. Tech. Rept. Series No. 72-2. Ga. Marine
Sci. Center, Univ. System of Ga., Skidaway Island, Ga. 51 pp.
1972.
Roark, B., Pfrimmer, T.R., and Merkl, M.E. Effects of some
formulations of methyl parathion, toxaphene and DDT on the
cotton plant. Crop Sci. 3(4) ;338-341. 1963.
Roberts, R.H., and Radeleff, R.D. Toxaphene residues in hogs.
J. Econ. Ent. 53(2):322. April, 1960.
Robison, W.H. Analyses for toxaphene in bird carcasses collected
by State of Nebraska's Game, Forestation and Parks Comm.,
U.S.D.I., Fish and Wildlife Service, B.S.F.W., Spec. Rept.,
Wildlife Res. Lab., Denver, Colo. 3 pp. 1959.
Rose, E. Further notes on toxaphene in fish population control.
Iowa State Cons. Comm., Fish and Game. Quart. Biol. Rept.
10(2):5-7. 1957.
Sanders, H.O. Toxicity of pesticides to the crustacean, Gammarus
lacustris. Tech. paper 25. Bur. Sport Fish, and Wildlife,
U.S.D.I., 18 pp. 1969.
155
-------
Sanders, H.O. Pesticide toxicities to tadpoles of the western
chorus frog. Pseudacris triseriata, and Fowler's toad,
Bufo woodhousii fowleri. Copeia 2;246-251. 1970.
Sanders, H.O., and Cope, O.B. Toxicities of several pesticides to
two species of cladocerans . Trans . Amer_._ Fish. Soc.
95(2)=165-169. 1966.
Schafer, M.L., Peeler, J.T., Gardner, W.S., and Campbell, J.E.
Pesticides in drinking water: water from the Mississippi
and Missouri Rivers. Environ. Sci. Technol. 3(12) :1261-1269.
1969.
Schindler, U. Allge. Forstzeitsch 33/34, page 384. 1955.
Schindler, U. F.A.O. Plant Protection Bull. IV. No. 5.
pp. 67-68. 1956.
Schoettger, R.A. Quarterly Progress Report. U.S.D.I., BSFW,
Fish-Pesticide Research Laboratory, Columbia, Mo. July-
Sept., 1973. pp. 7-9.
Schoettger, R.A., and Olive, J.R. Accumulation of toxaphene
by fish-food organisms. Limnol. and Oceanog. 6:216-219.
1961.
Shaw, J.G., and Riviello, M.S. Exploratory studies with soil
toxicants to control the Mexican fruit fly. J. Econ. Ent.
54(4):666-668. 1961.
Sherman, M., and Ross, E. Acute and subacute toxicity of
insecticides to chicks. Toxicol. and Appl. Pharmacol.
3:521-533. 1961.
Shone, D.K. Chemical poisoning of domestic animals. Rhodesia
Agr. J. 58:223-229. 1961.
Shorey, H.H., Evans, W.G., Burrage, R.H., and Gyrisco, G.G.
The residual effect of insecticides applied to meadow
and pasture sod for control of the European chafer.
J. Econ. Ent. 51(6):765-767. 1958.
Smith, S.I., Weber, C.W., and Reid, B.L. The effect of injection
of chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides on hatchability of
eggs. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 16CD =179-185. 1970.
Spector, W.S. (Ed.) Handbook of toxicology. NAS-NRC Wright
Air Development Center Tech. Rept. 55-16. Vol. 1. 408 pp.
1955.
-------
Stadnyk, L., Campbell, R.S., and Johnson, B.T. Pesticide effect
on growth and C-14 assimilation in a fresh water alga.
Bull. Environ.. Contain. Toxicol. 6(1): 1-8. 1971.
Stanley, C.W., Barney II, J.E., Helton, M.R., and Yobs, A.R.
Measurement of atmospheric levels of pesticides. Environ.
Sci. and Techn. 5:431. 1971,
Stern, V.M., Van den Bosch, R., and Reynolds, H.T. Effects of
Dylox and other insecticides on entomophagous insects attack-
ing field crop pests in California. J. Econ. Ent.
53(l):67-72. 1959.
Stevens, L.J., Collier, C.W., and Woodham, D.H. Monitoring pesti-
cides in soils from areas of regular, limited, and no pesti-
cide use. Pest. Monitor. J. 4(3) :145-164. 1970.
Stringer, G.E., and McMynn, R. Experiments with toxaphene as
fish poison. Canad. Fish Cult. 23:39-47. 1958; Biol.
Abstr., 1961, 36, 6648.
Stringer, G.E., and McMynn, R.G. Three year's use of toxaphene
as a fish toxicant in British Columbia. Froc. 40th Ami.
Conf. Western Assoc. of State Fish and Game Comm., Salt
Lake City, Utah. pp. 241-248. 1960.
Stroud, R.H., and Martin, R.G. Fish Conservation Highlights
1963-1967. Sport Fishing Institute, Washington, D. C.
147 pp. 1968.
Surber, E.W. Chemical control agents and their effects on fish.
Prog. Fish Cult. 10(3)=125-131. 1948.
Swoboda, A.R., Thomas, G.W., Cady, F.B., Baird, R.W., and Knisel,
W.G. Distribution of DDT and toxaphene in Houston black
clay on three watersheds. Environ. Sci. and Techno!.
5(2):141-145. 1971.
Tabor, E.G. Pesticides in urban atmospheres. J. Air Pollut.
Control Assoc. 15(9):415-418. 1965.
Tabor, E.G. Contamination of urban air through the use of
insecticides. Trans. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 28(5) :569-578.
1966.
Tanner, H.A., and Hayes, M.L. Evaluation of toxaphene as a fish
poison. Quart. Rept., Colo. Fish. Res. Unit, 1(3/4) :31-33.
1955.
-------
Terriere, L.C., Kiigemagi, U.s Gerlach, A.R., and Borovicka, R.L.
The persistence of toxaphene in lake water and its uptake by
aquatic plants and animals. J. Agr. Food Chem. 14:666-69.
1966.
Thomas, G.W. Movement of insecticide in soil and water. Entry 5.
1472, Water Resources Research Catalog, Vol. 6, 653 pp. 1970.
Todd, F.E., and Reed, C.B. Pollen gathering of honey bees reduced
by pesticide sprays. JL Econ. Ent. 62(4) :865-867. 1969.
Tucker, R.K. Chlorinated hydrocarbons cause thin egg shells but
so may other pollutants. Utah Science. Agric. Exp. Sta.
32(2):47-49. 1971.
Tucker, R.K., and Crabtree, D.G. Handbook of toxicity of pesticides
to wildlife. U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serv., Bur. Sport Fish, and
Wildl. Resource Publ. No. 84. 131pp. 1970.
Ukeles, R. Growth of pure cultures of marine phytoplankton in the
presence of toxicants. Appl. Microbiol. 10(6) :532-537. 1962.
U.S.D.I. Effects of pesticides on fish and wildlife. A review of
investigation during 1970. Fish and Wildl. Serv., Bur^ Sport
Fish, and Wildlife Circ. 143.52 pp. 1960.
U. S. Dept. of the Interior, Bur. Sport Fish, and Wildl. Serv.
laboratories at Columbia, Missouri and Denver, Colorado;
and the laboratory at Gulf Breeze, Florida, formerly B.C.F.
and now E.P.A. unpublished data.
Van den Bosch, R. , Reynolds, R.T., and Dietrick, E.J. Toxicity
of widely used insecticides to beneficial insects in
California cotton and alfalfa fields. J. Econ. Ent.
49(3):359-363. 1956.
Wafa, A.K., El Nahal,A.K.M., and Ahmed. S.M. Toxicity of some
insecticides to honeybees. Bull. Soc. Entomol. (Egypt)
47(1):1-12. 1963. Toxaphene treated plants remained toxic
to honey bees for 2 days.
Walker, C.R. Problems in clearance and registration of chemical
tools used by fish culturists and fisheries biologists,
pp. 1-139. IN: U.S. Bur. of Sport Fish, and Wildlife,
Registration and clearance of chemicals for fish culture
and fisheries management, Washington, D.C. U.S. BSFW. 1969.
158
-------
Walker, J.K., Jr., Shepard, M., and Sterling, W.L. Effect of
insecticide applications for the cotton fleahopper on
beneficial insects and spiders. Tex. Agric. Exp. Sta. Prog.
Rept. 2755:1-11. 1970
Warner, R.E., Peterson, K.K., and Borgman, L. Behavioral pathol-
ogy in fish: a quantitative study of sublethal pesticide
toxication. J. Appl. Ecol. 3(suppl.):233-247. 1966.
Weaver, L., Gunnerson, C.G., Breidenbach, A.W., and Lichtenberg,
J.J. Chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides in major U.S. river
basins. Public Health Reports 80(6) :481-493. 1965.
Weaver, N. Toxicity of certain organic insecticides to honey
,bees. J. Econ. Ent. 42(6) ;973-975. 1949.
Weaver, N. Toxicity of organic insecticides to honey bees:
stomach poison and field tests. J. Econ. Ent. 43(31:333-337.
1950.
Weaver, N. Toxicity of organic insecticides to honey bees: con-
tact spray and field tests. J. Econ. Ent. 44(3):393-397.
1951.
Weaver, N. The toxicity of organic insecticides to honey bees.
J. Econ. Ent. 45(3) ;537-538. 1952.
Weaver, N. Toxicity of insecticides to honey bees. Tex. Agric.
Exp. Sta. Prog. Rept. 1554:1-3. 1953.
Weaver, N., and Garner, C.F. Control of insects on hairy vetch.
J. Econ. Ent. 48(5):625-626. 1955.
Welch, H. Tests of the toxicity to sheep and cattle of certain
of the newer insecticides. J. Econ. Ent. 41:36-39. 1948.
Wershaw, R.L., Burcar, P.J., and Goldberg, M.C. Interaction of
pesticides with natural organic material. Environ. Sci. and
Technol. 3:271-273. 1969.
Westlake, W.E., and San Antonio, J.B. Insecticide residues in
plants, animals and soils, pp. 105-115. IN: The nature
and fate of chemicals applied to soils, plants and animals.
U.S. Dept. Agric. ARS 20-9. 1960.
Wiersma, G.B., Tai, H., and Sand, P.F. Pesticide residue levels
in soils, FY 1969 - National Soils Monitoring Program.
Pest. Monitor. J. 6(3):194-228. 1972.
-------
Wilson, A.J. Chemical assays, pp. 6-7. IN: Annual Report
of the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries Biological Laboratory,
Gulf Breeze, Florida, F.Y. ending June 30, 1965. U.S. Bur.
Comm. Fish. Circ. 247. 1965.
Workman, G.W., and Newhold, J.M. Lethal concentrations of toxa-
phene for goldfish, mosquito fish, and rainbow trout, with
notes on detoxification. Prog. Fish Culturist 25:23-30.
1963.
-------
Bibliography *
Alexandrescu, S., and Serban, M. Toxicity to bees of some insecti-
cides as determined by laboratory and field tests. An. Inst.
Cercet. Prot. Plant. Inst. Cent. Cercet^ Agr. 4:411-417. 1966.
Althaus, H., and Jong, B. "Drinking water and pesticides. Gas-u.
Wasser-Fach. (Germany), 106:599 (1965); Water Pollut. Abs.
(Brit.), 41:171 (1968).
Anderson, D.W., Kickey, J.J., Risebrough, R.W., Hughes, D.F., and
Christensen, R.E. Significance of chlorinated hydro-carbon
residues to breeding pelicans and cormorants. Canad.
Field-Nat. 83(2) :91-112. 1969.
Anon. (?) National Acad. Sci. - Nat'l Research Council Publ.
920-A. 1962. Evaluation of Pesticide-Wildlife Problems.
Anon. Wildlife losses. Agr. Chem. 17(4):61-62. April 1962.
Archer, T.C., and Crosby, D.G. Gas chromatographic measurement of
toxaphene in a milk, fat, blood and alfalfa hay. Bull. Environ.
Contain. & Toxicol. 1:70. 1966.
Aubry, J., Gatineau, M., and Saint-Leger, L. Note sur la toxicite
a 1'egard du pigeon, du coq et du rat blanc. Ann. Epiphyties
(Paris) Livraison du no. 2 de 1954. pp. 199-202.~ 1954.
Author not given. Title-Effect of Wind and other factors on the
toxicity of certain pesticides. J. ECon. Ent. 46(2):341-349.
1953.
Author not given. Effect of temperature and humidity on the toxicity
of certain insecticides. J. Econ. Ent. 42(3):429-433. 1949.
Bailey, G.W., and White, J.L. Factors influencing the adsorption,
and movement of pesticides in soil. Residue Rev. 32:29-92.
1970.
Balon, E.K. Fish population of the inundated arm of the Danube
near Bratislava. Bologia (Bratislava) 21(4) .-295-307. 1966.
(slovak or Czech), Toxaphene lethal dose was 0.02 ppm in
summer and 0.3 ppm in winter.
Benson, W.R. The chemistry of pesticides: Biological effects of
pesticides in mammalian systems. Ann. N_._Y._ Acad. Sci.
160(1):7-29. 1969.
*References reviewed but not sited in this report.
-------
Bouchet, Y., and Ilami, M. New possibilities for differentiation
of oat varieties through standardized applications of toxaphene.
Ann. Amelior. Plantes lP§_ris_}_ 21(1) ;87-91.
Butler, P.A. Effects on commercial fisheries. IN: Effects of
pesticides on fish and wildlife: a review of investigations
during 1960. U.S. Fish & Wildl. Serv. Circ. 143. pp. 23,43,44.
1962.
Butler, P.A. Monitoring pesticide pollution. Bio-Science 19(10):889-891.
1969.
Butler, P.A., Wilson, A.J., and Rick A.J. Effect of pesticides on
oysters. Proc. Natl. Shellfish Assoc. 51:23-32. 1960.
Castro, C.E., and Belser. Pesticide pollution of the air studied.
Environ. Sci. Technol. 2(10) :799-783. 1968.
Choudbury, B. Pathological effects of chlordane and toxaphene ingested
in toxic amounts. Ind. Vet. Jour. 29:279-291. 1953.
Cope, O.B. Toxicities and tolerances of new insecticides in relation
to wildlife and fish. Calif. Mosquito Control Assoc. Proc. and
papers. 1948:26-29.
Cullinan, P.P. Effects of some of the newer organic chemicals on
plant life. Agr. Chem. 2(5) ;18-20. 1947.
Cullinan, F.P. Some new insecticides - their effect on plants and
soils. J. Econ. Ent. 42:387-391. 1949.
Davis, H.C. Effects of some pesticides on eggs and larvae of oysters
(Crassostrea virginica) and clams (Venus merceiiaria) . Comm.
Fish. Rev. 23(12):8-23. 1961.
Davis, H.C., and Hidu, H. Effects of pesticides on embryonic development
of clams and oysters and on survival and growth of the larvae. U.S.
Fish & Wild. Serv. Bull. (Fisheries) 67(2) :393-404. 1969.
Dean, J., and Sharp, R. Experimental use of toxaphene as a fish
eradicant. U.S.D.I., B.S.F.W., Mpls., Minn. Reg. Off. Special
Kept. 6 pp. 1958.
Dunachie, J.F., and Fletcher, W.W. An investigation of the toxicity
of insecticides to birds eggs using the egg-injection technique.
Ann. Appl. Biol. 64:409-423. 1969.
Eno, C.F., Wilson, J.E., Chishplm, R.D., and Koblitsky, L. Effect of
soil applications of six chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides on
vegetable crops and soil micro-organisms. Proc. Fla. State Hort.
Soc. 77:223-229. 1964.
-------
Ent. Res. Div., ARS,USDA. Residues in fatty acid, brain and milk of
cattle from insecticides supplied for grasshopper control on range
land. J. Ent. Soc. Amer. 52(6) ; 1206-1210. 1959.
Fahey, J.E., Murphy, R.T., and Jackson, R.I). Residues of chlorinated
hydrocarbon insecticides found on corn plants treated for European
corn borer. Iowa State J^ Sci. 39(4) :437-447. 1965. Field corn
and factory waste residues, including toxaphene, did not exceed
0.5 ppm after 30 days.
Ferguson, D.E. In less than 20 years/Mississippi Delta wildlife developing
resistance to pesticides. Agr. Chem. 18(9) :32-34. Sept. 1963.
Ferguson, D.E. The compatible existence of nontarget species to pesticides.
Bull. Ent. Soc. Amer. 15(4);363-366. 1969.
Ferguson, D.E., Ludke, J.L., Wood, J.P., and Prather, J.W. The effects
of mud on the bioactivity of pesticides on fishes. J. Miss. Acad.
Sci. ll;219-228. 1965.
Ferguson, D.E., Ludke, J.L., Finley, M.T., and Murphy, G.G. Insecticide-
resistant fishes: a potential hazard to consumers. J. Miss. Acad. Sci.
13:138-140. 1967.
Foster, A.C. Phytotoxic effect of DDT and other chlorinated hydrocarbon
insecticides. Assoc. Southern Agr. Workers Proc., 45:143-144.
1948.
Fribourg, H.A., and Stanley, W.W. Effect of heptachlor and toxaphene
on stand of ladino clover. J. Sci. Food Agr. 12(5):225 May 1961;
also in J. Econ. Ent. 53(6) ;1134-1135. Dec. 1960.
Gaines, J.C., and Dean, H.A. Insecticide tests for boll weevil control
during 1948. J. Econ. Ent. 42(5) :795-798. 1949.
Gaines, T.B. Acute toxicity of pesticides. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol.
!4(3):515-534. 1969.
Gjullin, C.M., Cope, O.B., Quisenberry, B.F., and DuChanois, F.R.
The effect of some insecticides on blackfly larvae in Alaskan
streams. J. Econ. Ent. 42:100-105. 1949.
Grant, B.F. Pesticide influence in channel catfish culture. Presented
at 32nd. Midwest Fish and Wildlife Conf. , Winnipeg. Manitoba,
Dec. 6-9, 1970.
Graves, J.B., and Mackensen, 0. Topical application and insecticide
resistance studies on the honeybee. Jj_ Econ. Ent. 58(5):990-993.
1965. Toxaphene plus DDT showed synergism.
-------
Grayson, J. McD. Selection of the large milk weed bug through
seventeen generations for survival to sublethal concentrations
of DDT and toxaphene. J. Econ. Ent. 46(5) :888-890. 1953.
Greenwood, M.L., and Tice, J.M. Palatability tests of potatoes grown
in soil treated with the insecticides benzene hexachloride,
chlordan, and chlorined camphene. J. Agr. Research 78:477-482.
1949.
Gruch, W., and Steiner, P. Zur toxicologie der Insektizide. Literatur
ubersicht. 2 Teil:Toxaphen - Gruppe. Mitteilungen aus der
Biologischen Bundesanstalt fur land - und Forstwirtschaft.
Berlin - Dahlem Heft 102. " Dec. 1960. 64 pp.
Grzenda, A.R. A five-year statistical survey of cotton insecticide
usage in a large Alabama watershed. J. -Georgia Entomol. Soc.
1(2):1-10. 1966.
Gunther, F.A., Westlake, W.E., and Jaglan, P.S. Reported solubilities
of 738 pesticide chemicals in water. Residue Rev. 20:1-145. 1968.
Hachman, H. Tailoring a wood treatment for the marine environment.
Amer. Wood Preservers Assoc. Proc. 66:3-42. 1970.
Hamar, M. Prospects of the utilization of insecticides in controlling
some field rodents. Probl. Agr. 18(9):48-57. 1966. Toxaphene
plus aldrin or endrin totally destroyed Microtus arvalis.
Hamar M., and Tuta, A. Rythm of recovery of Microtus arvalis Pall.
populations after treatment with toxaphene. An. Inst. Cercet.
Pentru Prot. Plant 6:423-431. 1968 (RVM). No decrease in mouse
population of clover fields when toxaphene applied during breeding
season.
Hercules, Inc. (Anon.).. Toxaphene - use patterns and environmental
aspects. 172 pp. 1970.
Hetrick, L.A., and Moses, P.J. Value of insecticides for protection
of pine pulpwood. J. Econ. Ent. 46(1):160-161. 1953.
Hill, D.W., and Carty, P.L.M. Anaerobic degradation of selected
chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides. J. Water Pollut. Control
Fed. 39(8):1259-1277. 1967.
Hochman, H. Tailoring a wood treatment for the marine environment.
Proc. Amer. Wood-Preserv. Assoc. 66:38-42. 1970.
Hocking, B. The honeybees and agricultural chemicals. The Bee
World 31(7):49-58. 1950.
-------
Hughes, R.A. Studies on the persistence of toxaphene in treated
lakes. PhD thesis, Univ. of Wise. 1970. Univ. of Microfilms,
Inc., Ann Arbor, Mich. 274 pp. 1970.
Humanson, H.P., Gunther, F.A., Anderson, L.D. and Garber, M.J.
Installment application effects upon insecticide residue
content of a California soil. J. Agr. Food Chem. 19:722.
1971.
Johansen, C.A. Bee poisoning, a hazard of applying agricultural
chemicals., Wash. Agric. Exp. Sta., Circ. 356:1-13. 1965.
Johansen, C.A. The bee poisoning hazard from pesticides. Wash.
Agric. Exp. Sta. Bull. 709:1-14. 1969.
Johansen, C.A. Digest of bee poisoning, its effects and prevention.
The Bee World 47(l):9-25. 1966.
Jones, K.H., Sanderson, D.M., and Noakes, D.N. Acute toxicity data
for pesticides (1968). World Rev. Pest. Contr. 7(3);135-143.
1968.
rtf
Jumar, A., and Sieber, K. Residue investigation with Cl toxaphene
in rape oil and bee honey. Z_._ Lebensmittel. Unterforsch.
133(6) :357-364. 1967.
Kaplan, H.M., and Overpeck, J.G. Toxicity of halogenated hydrocarbon in-
secticides for the frog Rana pipiens. Herpetologica 20(3):163-169.
Sept. 1964.
Katz, M., Pederson, G.L., Yoshinaka, M., and Sjolseth, D. A review of
the literature of 1968 on waste water and x^ater pollution control:
effects of pollution on wildlife. J. Water Pollut. Control Fed.
41(6):994-1016. 1969.
Keith, J.O., Mohn, M.H., and Ise, G.H. Pesticide contamination in
wildlife refuges, pp. 37-40. IN; The effects of pesticides on fish
and wildlife. U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serv. Circ. 226. 1965.
Kinoshita, F.K., Frawley, J.P., and DuBois, K.P. Quantitative measurement
of induction of hepatic microsomal enzymes by various dietary levels
of DDt and toxaphene in rats. Toxicol. and Appl. Pharmacol.
9:505-513. 1966.
Klein, A.K., and Link, J.D. Field weathering of toxaphene and chlordane.
J.A.O.A.C. 50(3):586-591.
Knipling, E.F., and Westlake, W.E. Insecticide use in livestock production.
Residue Rev. 13:1-32. 1966.
160-e
-------
Koeppe, R. Toxicology and toxicity of toxaphene with respect to fish and
aquatic food animals. Z. Fischerie 9:771-794. 1961. Toxaphene 10
times as toxic as lindane to fish species tested.
Krump (sic) Results of a study of field mouse control using toxaphene.
Allg. Forstzeitschrift (Munchen) 11(15). 1956. [From German
abstract by Ruhl in Z. Jagd-wissensch. 3(1).]
Lee, G.F., and Hughes, R.A. Progress report on persistence of
toxaphene in treated lakes. Univ. of Wise. Water Chem.
Lab., 4 reports, 51 pp. mimeo. 1966-67.
Lehman, A'.J. The toxicology of the newer agricultural chemicals.
Bull. Assoc. Food and Drug Officials 12(3):82-89. 1948.
Linduska, J.P., and Springer, P.P. Chronic toxicity of some new
insecticides to bob-white quail. U.S.D.I. Fish and Wildlife
Serv. Spec. Sci. Report: Wildlife No. 9. 11 pp. 1951.
Lingren, P.O., Ridgway, R.L., Cowan, Jr., C.B., Davis, J.W., and
Watkins, W.C. Biological control of the boll worm and tobacco
budworm by arthropod predators affected by insecticides.
J. Econ. Ent. 61(6):1521-1525. 1968.
Luedemann, D., and Neumann, H. Action of modern insecticides on
organisms in fresh water. Anz. Schadlingskunde 35:5-9. 1962.
Luedemann, D., and Neumann, H. Acute toxicity of present contact
insecticides for fresh-water animals. Z_^ Angew. Zool.
48:87-96. 1961. Young rainbow trout and pike caused distress
by 0.05 mg/1 of toxaphene and death by 0.2.
McGinnis, D. Investigations of residual toxaphene effects in six
Matanuska Valley lakes. Alaska sport fish investigations
rept. No. 11-1, Vol. 6, pp. 217-230. Mimeo. 1965.
Mathis, W., and Quaterman, K.D. Field investigations on the use
of heavy dosages of several chlorinated hydrocarbons as mosquito
larvicides. Amer. Journ. Trop. Med. and Hyg. 2(2):318-324. 1953
Mayhew, J. The use of toxaphene as a fish poison in strip mine ponds'
with varying physical and chemical characteristics. Proc. Iowa
Acad. Sci. 66:513-516. 1959 .
Miles, J.R.W., Sans, W.W., Wressell, H.B., and Manson, G.F.
Growth-dilution as a factor in the decline of pesticide
residues on alfalfa-grass forage. Can. J. Plant Sci.
44(1):37-41. 1964.
-------
Mitchum, D.L. Study of fish toxicants. Wyo. Game and Fish Lab. Res.
Rept. Proj. FW-3-R-10, Job 2F, pp. 28-32. 1963.
Morrison, H.E., Crowell, H.H., Crumb, S.E., Jr., and Lauderdale, R.W.
The effects of certain new soil insecticides on plants. J. Econ.
Ent. 41:374-378. 1948.
Mrak, E.M. Report of the Secretary's Commission on pesticides and
their relationship to environmental health. Effects on non-
target organisms, pp. 140, 177-228. U.S. Dept. of Health,
Education and Welfare. 1969.
Needham, R.G. Effects of toxaphene on plankton and aquatic invertebrates
in North Dakota lakes. U.S.D.I. , Fish and Wildl. Sery. Resource
Publ. 18, pp. 1-16. 1966.
Negherbon, W.O. Handbook of Toxicology, Vol. Ill, Insecticides,
pp. 754-769. W.B. Saunders, Phila., Pa. 1959.
Newsom, L.D. Consequences of insecticide use on non-target organisms.
Ann. Rev. Ent. 12:257-286. 1967.
Nicholson, H.P., Water contamination by pesticides. J. S.E. Sect-':'
Amer. WaterWorks Assoc. 32(1):8-20. 1968. ' '"
Nicholson, H.P., Grzenda, A.R., and Teasley, J.I. Water pollution
by insecticides. J. S.E. Sect. Amer. Works Assoc. 32(l):21-27.
1968.
Nusslein, F., and von Xylander, E. Observations on effect of
toxaphen on game animals. Z. Jaggwissensch. 2(4) :229-235.
1956. German with English summary.
Oderkirk, G.C., and Fitzwater, W.D. Orchard Mouse Control by ground
sprays. Special report to Branch of Predator and Rodent Control,
Fish and Wildl. Serv., U.S.D.I. 1952.
Palmer, J.S., Toxicologic effects of dual application of Bayer 21/199
and toxaphene on yearling cattle and young calves. Vet. Med.
58(11):872-874. 1963.
Palmer-Jones, T., Forster, I.W., and Line, L.J.S. Effect on
honey bees of toxaphene and strobane applied to white
clover pasture. N. Zeal. Agr. Res. 1(5) :694-706. 1958.
Pardini, R.S., Heidker, J.C., and Payne, B. The Effect of some
cyclodiene pesticides, benzenehexachloride and toxaphene on
jnitochondrial electron transport. Bull. Environ. Contam.
and Toxicol. 6(5):436-444. 1971.
-------
Parker, J.R. Toxaphene applications to alfalfa for the study
of residues and their effects on livestock. Montana
State Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. #461:3-4. 1949.
Parker, W.L., and Beacher. J.H. Toxaphene, a chlorinated hydro-
carbon with insecticidal properties. Del. Agr. Exp. Sta.
Bull. 264, 27 pp. (Tech. No. 36). 1947.
Polivka, J.B. Residual effectiveness of some organic insecticides
in control of Japanese beetle larvae. J^. Econ. Ent. 46(3):517-
519. 1953.
Pourtallier, J., and Taliercio, Y. Toxic residues in honeys.
II. Detection and estimation of pesticide residues. Bull.
Apic. Inform. Doc. Sci. Tech. 10(1):51-62. 1967 (Fr.)
Prevost, G. Use of fish toxicants in the Province of Quebec. Can.
Fish. Cult. 28:13-35. Dec. 1960.
Roark, R.C. A digest of information on toxaphene. U.S.D.A., ARS,
Bur. Ent. & Plant Quarantine. E-802. 85 pp. June 1950.
Rosen, A., and Kraybill, H.F. Organic pesticides in the environment.
Amer. Chem. Soc. Symposium. Advances in Chemistry Series^ 60:19. 1966.
Roth, W. Pesticide residues in dairy products. Proc. Ann. Wash.
State Univ. Inst. Dairying 31:38-42. 1962.
Rousseau, M.M. Etude de la toxicite du toxaphene sur quelques
animaux superieurs. Bull. Acad. Vet. France 2:97-101. 1956.
Royer, L.M. Bioassay method for the determination of toxaphene in
lake water. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canad. 23(5) :723-727. 1966.
Rucker, R.R. Ground Water toxic to fish. Proc. NW Fish Culture
Conf., 87 p. 1967.
Rudd, R.I., and Genelly, R.E. Pesticides: their use and toxicity in
relation to wildlife. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game Bui. No. 7_>
1-209 pp. 1956.
Saha, J.G. Significance of organochlorine insecticide residues in
fresh plants as possible contaminants of milk and beef products.
Residue Rev. 26:89-126. 1969.
Sanders, H.O., and Cope, O.B. The relative toxicities of several
pesticides to naiads of three species of stoneflies. Limnol.
Oceanogr. 13(1) ;; 112-117. 1968.
Smith, N.R., and Wenzel, M.E. Soil microorganisms are affected by
some of the new insecticides. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. Proc.
12:227-233. 1947.
-------
Stanley, C.W. Study to determine the. atmospheric contamination by
pesticides. Final Report, Midwest Research Inst. 99 pp., 1968.
Stone, M.W. , and Foley, F. Residues in vegetable crops following
soil applications of insecticides. J. Sci. Food Agr.
12 (3): 128. Mar. 1961.
Street, J.C., Mayer, F.L., and Wagstaff, D.J. Ecological significance
of pesticide interactions. Ind. Med. Surg. 38(11) :4Q9-414 1969.
Stringer, G.W. , and McMynn, R.G. Three years' use of toxaphene as
a fish toxicant in British Columbia. Can. Fish-Cult. 28:37-44.
1960.
Stute, K. Toxicity of toxaphene. Westfael. Bienen-Ztg. 74:262-264.
1961.
Tarzwell, C.M. Effects of DDT larviciding on wildlife. V. Effects
on fishes of the routine manual and airplane application of DDT
and other mosquito larvicides. Publ. Health Serv. Rpts .
65:231-255. 1950.
Tenneco Chemicals, Inc. (Anon.). Strobane - T Toxaphene Notice;
Response to Federal Register notice, vol. 37(146) :15194. July 28,
1972.
Terriere, L.C., and Ingalsbe, D.W. Translocation and residual action
of soil insecticides. J. Econ. Ent . 46:751-753. 1953.
Todd, F.E., and MacGregor, S.E. Insecticides and bees. U.S.D.A. ,
Agriculture Yearbook, pp. 131-135. 1952.
U. S.D.I., BSFW, laboratories at Columbia, Mo. and Denver, Colo.;
and the laboratory at Gulf Breeze, Fla., Formerly BCF and
now EPA. Unpublished data.
Van Middelem, C.H., Genung, W.G., Kelsheimer, E.G., Kuitert, L.C.,
and Waites, R.E. Toxaphene residues on pangola grass. J. Sci.
Food, Agr. 12(2) :71(?) - 75. Feb. 1961.
Veith, G.D. , and Lee, G.F. Water chemistry of toxaphene: role of lake
sediments. Environ. Sci. Technol. 5(3) :230-234 . 1971. See also
Environ. Health Abst. 1(7) :2793. 1971.
Vrochinskii, K.K. Accumulation of pesticides in hydrobionts.
Gidrobiol. Zh. 6(4) :126-131. 1960.
-------
Ware, G.W., Cahill, W.P., Gerhardt, P.O., and Witt, J.M.
Pesticide drift (Fart 4) on target deposits from aerial
application of insecticide. J. Pharmacol. and Pharmacog.
22(7):1982-1983. 1970.
Warnick, B.C. Growth rates of yellow perch in two North Dakota
lakes after population reduction with toxaphene. U.S.D.I.,
Fish and Wildl. Serv. Resource Publ. 9_, pp. 1-9. 1966.
Wene, G.P. Effect of some organic insecticides on the population
levels of the serpentine leaf miner and its parasites. J. Econ,
Ent. 48(5) ;596-597. 1955.
Wille, J.E. Biological control of certain cotton insects and
application of new organic insecticides in Peru. J. Econ.
Ent. 44(1):13-18. 1951.
Wollitz, Robert E. Effects of certain commercial fish toxicants
on the limnology of three cold-water ponds. Montana. Proc.
Montana Acad. Sci. 22:54-81. 1962.
Wojtowski, F., and Hess, E. Effect of thiodan, toxaphene,
terpentol, and lindane-activated terpentol on honeybees.
Rocz. Wyzoz_._ Szk. Roln. , Poznaniu 29:291-229. 1966.
Wojtowski, F., Hess, E., and Wiolkaniec, Z. Toxicity of
more important pesticides to honeybees. Biul. Inst.
Ochr. Rosl. 44:249-261. 1969.
160^
-------
Chapter IV
Toxaphene Residues in Crops and Food Items
IV.A. Introduction
Toxaphene is defined in Sec. 180.138 of the pesticide regulations
as chlorinated camphene containing 67 percent - 69 percent chlorine.
A recent report (Casida, et al., 1974) involving the fractionation
of toxaphene by thin-layer chromatography and column adsorption
chromatography together with further resolution by combined gas-liquid
chromatograph (GLC) - mass spectroscopy techniques reveals a complex
mixture of at least 175 polychlorinated C]_Q compounds. The types
of compounds include C^Q H]_Q Cl-^Q, CJ^Q H^g_n Cln and C^Q Hi6_n
Cln where the chlorine number is 6,7,8 or 9. It is believed
that the majority of the ClOHig. Cln compounds are polychlorobornanes
and that the C-^QH^g_nCln compounds are polychlorobornenes and
that the ^lO^lS-n^n compounds are polychlorobornenes, polychlorotricyclenes
or both. One toxic component is 2,2,5-endo, 6-exo,8,9,10-heptachlorobornane,
The FAO-WHO has assigned the "generic" name "camphechlor"
to this insecticide and has developed specifications for the
technical material (Dept. of State, 1972). These include an
infrared absorptivity maximum at 7.2 urn maximum acidity (based
on percent by weight of HC1), a minimum softening point and a
minimum specific gravity. The material produced by Hercules,
Inc. over the past 20 years was relatively uniform and was the
basis for these specifications. Available residue and toxicity
studies were performed using such materials.
16]
-------
In the usual residue analysis, by GLC with an electron capture
detector, toxaphene appears to contain about 30 components. These
multiple peaks tend to interfere in the determination of other chlorinated
hydrocarbon pesticides, such as DDT. Conversely, the presence of
toxaphene may be obscured by interference due to other chlorinated
hydrocarbon compounds in the substrate.
IV.B. Tolerances
U.S. Tolerances
The general level of 7-ppm for tolerances of toxaphene under
Section 408 [3469] of the Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act arose
from the 1950 Spray Residue Hearings. The crops covered by the
tolerances established at that time, and others at the 7-ppm level,
are shown below. For convenience, in some cases, the crop groupings
under Section 180.34(f) of the pesticide regulations (Part 180,
Subchapter E, CFR) are indicated without naming the individual
crops of the groups.
7ppm. Citrus fruits, corn, cucumbers, fruiting vegetables, the major
leafy vegetables (broccoli, brussels sprouts, cabbage, cauliflower,
celery, collards, kale, kohlrabi, lettuce, and spinach), nuts
(hazel, hickory, pecans and walnuts), peanuts, the major pome
fruits (apples, pears and quinces), several root crop vegetables
(carrots, horseradish, the onion group, parsnips, radishes and
or radish tops and rutabagas), the major seed and pod vegetables
(beans - including dried beans; okra and peas), most of the small
fruits (blackberries, boysenberries, cranberries, dewberries,
loganberries, raspberries, strawberries and youngberries) ,
and the major stone fruits (.apricots, nectarines and peaches).
n C9
-------
Only about 25 percent of the above tolerances were established
via the petition routes. The remaining lower level tolerances for
crops-all resulting from petitions-are:
5 ppm. The small grains (barley, oats, rice, rye, sorghum
and wheat).
5 ppm. Cottonseed. (This tolerance is for chlorinated terpene
of molecular weight 396.6 containing 67 percent chlorine).
Expressed in this manner, the tolerance includes Strobane
residues which are chemically indistinguishable from those
of toxaphene).
3 ppm. Bananas (with no more than 0.3 ppm in the pulp) and
pineapples.
2 ppm. Soybeans (dry form). This tolerance originally was
established to cover a combined DDT - toxaphene use with a
maximum combined residue of 3.5 ppm (1.5 ppm of DDT and 2
ppm of toxaphene).
There also are tolerances of 7 ppm for residues of toxaphene in
the fat of meat from beef, goats, hogs, horses and sheep. These
tolerances, which cover residues resulting from dermal applications
to livestock, were established via the petition route.
Section 180.318 of the pesticide regulations established
interim tolerances for toxaphene residues in or on alfalfa at 1 ppm
and in milk at 0.05 ppm (equivalent to 1.25 ppm in the fat of milk).
In addition there are temporary tolerances of 7 ppm for residues
in or on sugar beets and sunflower seeds.. These tolerances were
established in conjuction with experimental permits.
-------
A food additive tolerance of 6 ppm for residues in crude soybean
oil is "out-of-date". Such tolerances now are established only on
refined oils.
Foreign Tolerances
The following tolerances were in effect as of May 1973.
Canada:
7 ppm. Fruits (citrus, pears and strawberries), meat, fat
(cattle, goats, sheep and swine) and vegetables (beans,
black-eyed peas, broccoli, brussels sprouts, cabbage, cauliflower,
celery, eggplant, kohlrabi, lettuce, okra, onions, peas and
tomatoes).
5 ppm.' Barley, grain sorghum and rice.
3 ppm. Oats, pineapples, rye and wheat.
Germany:
0.4 ppm. Cherries, pears, plums, raspberries and strawberries.
The Netherlands;
0.4 ppm. Fruit and vegetables (except potatoes).
These tolerances are similar to those in effect in 1968
(Corneliussen, 1970).
Canada added the tolerance on rye and Germany apparently revoked
a tolerance of 0.04 ppm on other plant products.
IV.C. Policy Considerations for Residues
Section 180.3 of the Pesticide Regulations deals with tolerances
for related pesticide chemicals. Paragraph d(3) provides that
where both Strobane and toxaphene are used on the same crop,
-------
the combined residues shall not exceed the highest tolerance
level for either pesticide (this applies only to cottonseed with
a tolerance of 5 ppm. The regulation was written in anticipation
of other tolerances being established for Strobane). Paragraph
e of this Section includes toxaphene in the class of chlorinated
organic pesticides. Where a crop bears residues of two or more
pesticides in this class, there are additional limitations on
the combined residues over and beyond the individual tolerance
levels. The limitations vary with the availability of analytical
methods for the individual pesticides and other regulations which
permit exception (such as DDT and toxaphene on cottonseed where
both pesticides may be present at their respective tolerance
levels). In general, the percentage that residues comprise of
the tolerance level, for each pesticide is calculated and the
sum of the percentages may not exceed 100.
In 1969 the Chemistry Branch, Registration Division reviewed
the established tolerances for toxaphene. The data of the 1950
Spray Residue Hearings were re-examined along with subsequent
data from various sources. Considerations of the data and the
use patterns led to the conclusion that the tolerances for the
pome fruits could be reduced to 3 ppm and that tolerance of 2
ppm would be adequate for citrus fruits, cucumbers, grain crops,
certain leafy vegetables, nuts, peanuts, seed and pod vegetables
and small fruits. No further action was taken on the possible
reduction of the established tolerances pending resolution of
-------
the many inadequate feeding restrictions on toxaphene labels and
in the absence of a poultry feeding study.
On May 5, 1972 (Pesticide News Letter, 1972), the Food and
Drug Administration published the following "action levels" for
toxaphene residues in commodities which are not covered by tolerances:
1 ppm
Fruits
Figs
Grapes
Melons
Plums
Potatoes
Pumpkins
Squash
Summer Squash
Sweet Potatoes
Turnips
Turnip Greens or Tops
Winter Squash
Blueberries
Cherries
Currants
Vegetables
Artichokes
Asparagus
Beets
Mustard Greens
7 ppm
Poultry (fat)
IV.D. Acceptable Daily Intake
In 1968 the FAO-WHO reported that before an acceptable daily
intake (ADI) or tolerance could be established, further information
would be needed in the following:
1. Data on the uniformity of the technical product:
a) variability in biological activity
b) variability in chemical composition as determined by
various analytical methods
-------
c) variability in the raw material and final product from
different sources
d) criteria for controlling the degree of chlorination
2. Information on the nature of residues in plants, animals
and their products, including possible photo-oxidation products.
3. Additional data on crop residues from supervised trials.
4. Residue data for
a) poultry, cattle, sheep and swine
b) unprocessed and processed vegetable oils
c) cereals after processing into flour, bread, etc.
5. Development and comparative evaluation of regulatory,
analytical methods.
6. Complete toxicological studies with a standardized
technical product, the constituents of which have been identified,
At this time, the official report of the joint FAO/WHO meeting
on pesticide residues in 1973 has not been issued. However, we have
been advised-informally-by participants, that it was decided that an ADI
cannot be established at this time. Although some of the deficiencies
cited in the 1968 report have been resolved, and the FAO specifications
for toxaphene have been met by one manufacturer (Hercules, Inc.), the
available residue and toxicity data may not be pertinent to toxaphene
from other sources. In addition, although there are no adverse data for
toxaphene per se, there is a general question regarding the carcinogenic
potential of chlorinated pesticides.
1R7
-------
IV.E. Residues in Food
General Comments
Toxaphene shows little, if any, translocation in plants. Crop
residues result from surface deposition and root crops would be
expected to have only trace contaminative residues. The major
mode of residue dissipation is volatilization. The available
data on crops indicate a half-life on the order of 1-2 weeks.
The GLC patterns obtained in chemical analyses show that crop
residues consist primarily of unchanged toxaphene.
The persistence of residues in soil varies with conditions.
High application rates and incorporation into the soil enhances
persistence (Nash and Woolson, 1967). The major mode of dissipation,
as in the case of crops, appears to be volatilization; residues
show little tendency to leach (Swoboda, et_ cil_. , 1971). However,
some of the residues are probably degraded by soil micro-organisms
(Paris and Lewis, 1973). The present use patterns for toxaphene,
involving foliar applications to crops, do not present a problem
of soil persistence from the viewpoint of residues in food. Residues
in xvhole milk are about 1-2 percent of the level in cattle feeds.
Levels in the fat of meat of cattle and other ruminants are about
1/2 of the level in the feed. The maximum residues in the fat
of livestock from the registered dermal uses run about 4-5 ppm.
The GLC patterns obtained in chemical analyses of fat show that
the residues are primarily unchanged toxaphene. However, a report
on milk (Li, et_ al^, 1970), where only three of the toxaphene
-------
peaks were found, indicates that the residue in milk may consist
of an altered form of the pesticide.
The processing of food for canning or cooking, with such steps
as washing, peeling, and heating typically remove 20-60 percent of
toxaphene residues. The trimming of meat or cooking at high temperatures
also will remove some residue. However, the processing of milk to dairy
products such as cream, butter, buttermilk or cheese causes no
reduction of residues on a butter fat basis (Li, et a_l., 1970).
Monitoring and Surveillance Data
The report on the EPA "National Soils Monitoring Program
For Pesticide Residues - FY 1970" (Private Communication, A.B.
Crockett, 1971) includes data for toxaphene residues on 4 crops
in 35 States. On cotton (stalks and green bolls) residue values
ranged from 0.7-56 ppin. Other residue values were well below
tolerance levels viz; cottonseed 0.05-2 ppm; corn (stalks) 0.1 - 1.4
ppm; mixed hay 0.1 ppm (no tolerance here, but the level is quite low),
and soybeans 0.1-0.4 ppm. There are no comparable data for the 1969
program, but the use patterns were similar. In 1969 1.9 percent of
all sites were treated with an average of 11.1 kg of toxaphene per
hectare. In 1970 2.45 percent of all sites were treated with an
average of 10.7 kg of toxaphene per hectare. In both years use was
concentrated in the cotton growing States with 14 percent or more of
the sites being treated only in Alabama, Georgia, Mississippi and
South Carolina.
IRQ
-------
An unexpected side-effect of the use of toxaphene on cotton is
the presence of residues in commerically grown catfish (Paris
and Lewis, 1973). A 1970 study of 50 catfish farms in Arkansas
and Mississippi showed toxaphene residues of 0.2 to 21 ppm averaging
2.1 ppm in the edible portions of 96 percent of the 54 fish samples
that were analysed. Seven percent of the samples had residue
values in excess of the 5 ppm FDA action level. (FDA has informally
advised that this would be the action level for fish). The average
toxaphene level exceeded those for DDT, aldrin and dieldrin,
endrin and mercury. A statistical analysis of the data indicated
that cotton cropping was the primary source of contamination
to the fish ponds. The routes of movement, however, could not
be defined.
Between 1962 and 1970 the Food and Drug Administration conducted
market-basket studies on pesticide residues in the food supply.
Typically 30 composites each of 12 commodity groupings were analyzed
for about 30 pesticides each year. No toxaphene was reported
for the years prior to 1966. The data, where toxaphene was found
(Duggan, 1977; Corneliussen, 1966, 1970, 1972), show that values
of 0.1 ppm or higher were encountered infrequently, mostly in
the Los Angeles District, and involved only 3 of the commodity
groupings. The data for these groupings are tabulated below:
-------
Garden Fruits Leafy Vegetables Meat, Fish & Poultry
Year
1966-7
1967-8
1968-9
No. of
Positive
Composites
-
2
6
Range
(ppm)
-
0.09-0.19
0.03-0.23
No. of
Positive
Composites
1
-
3
Range
(ppm)
0.39
-
trace-
0.33
No. of
Positive
Composites
-
1
1
Range
(ppm)
-
0.38
0.19
1969-70 2 0.13-0.15 -
A summary of the results of over 100,000 samples of raw agricul-
tural commodities examined by FDA between 1963 and 1969 (Duggan,
et^ aJ^. , 1971) shows toxaphene residues to occur relatively infrequently.
The incidence of residues on 21 commodities (or groups of commodities)
exceeded 2 percent only in the case of leaf and stem vegetables,
vine and ear vegetables (for imported samples), cottonseed products
(the highest at 29 percent), peanut products and soybean products.
The average residues found were all ^0.1 ppm except for leaf
and stem vegetables at 0.2 ppm (1.2 ppm for imports), tree nuts
at 0.2 ppm (1.6 ppm for imports), and refined cottonseed oil at
0.12 ppm. The report also includes data for over 12,000 domestic
and almost 4,000 imported meat samples examined by the Consumer and
Marketing Service, USDA. The incidence of residues was on the order of
1 percent and average residues were no more than 0.01 ppm. No residues
were found in over 3,000 samples of poultry examined in 1968-69. The data
for calendar year 1973 (private communication, W. A. Rader) show
a similar pattern. However an examination of the individual values
shows a number of samples with toxaphene residues on the order
171
-------
of several ppm; but only one of 1355 samples of the meat (fat)
of horses, cattle, calves, lambs and swine had a residue in excess
of the tolerance of 7 ppm. Similarly for poultry only one of
1162 samples had a residue exceeding 7 ppm.
An examination of the submittals from the FDA Division of Regulatory
Compliance under the Interdepartmental Agreement on Pesticides shows
that during the period 1968-1973 the number of samples which included
tolerance residues of toxaphene was minimal.
-------
Bibliography
Casida, J.E., Holmstead, R.L., Khalifa, F. , Knox, J.R., Ohsawa, T.,
Palmer, K.J., and Wong, R. Toxaphene Insecticide. A Complex
Biodegradable Mixture. Science, 183, 520. 1974.
Chemistry Branch, Registration Division (F.D.R. Gee) evaluation of
PP //OEO 833 dated 8/27/69.
Corneliussen, P.E. Pesticide Residues in Total Diet Samples (IV).
Pesticides Monit. J. 2(4);140. 1966.
Corneliussen, P.E. Pesticide Residues in Total Diet Samples (V).
Ibid. 4(3) :89. 1970.
Corneliussen, P.E. Pesticide Residues in Total Samples (VI).
Ibid. 5(4) :313. 1972.
Department of State, Agency for International Development, Pesticide
Manual, Part III Specifications (RVR Consultants 9/72). 1972.
Duggan, R.E.., Barry, H.C., and Johnson, L.Y. Pesticide Residues in
Total Diet Samples (III). Pesticides Monit. J. 1(2) :2. 1967.
Duggan, R.E., Lipscomb, G.Q., Cox, E.L., Heatwole, R.E. and
Kling, R.C. Pesticide Residue levels in Foods in the United
States from July 1, 1963 to June 30, 1969. Ibid. 5(2):73. 1971.
FAO/WHO, Evaluation of some pesticide residues in Food FAO/PL:1968
M/9/l:WHO/Food Add. /69.3S. 1968.
Li, C.F., Bradley, R.L., Jr., and Schultz, L.H. Fate of organochlorine
pesticides during processing of milk into dairy products.
J.A.O.A.C. 53, 127. 1970.
Nash, R.G. and Woolson, E.A. Persistence of Chlorinated Hydrocarbon
Insecticides in Soils. Science 157:924. 1967.
Paris, D.F. and Lewis, D.L. Chemical and Microbial Degradation of
ten selected pesticides in aquatic systems. Residue Reviews
45:114. 1973.
Part 180, Subchapter E, Chapter 1, Title 40, Code of Federal
Regulations.
Pesticide News Letter, No. 122, June 27, 1972.
17H
-------
Private Communication from A.B. Crockett of Technical Services
Division, O.P.P., EPA.
Private communication from Dr. W. A. Rader, Animal, Plant Health
Inspection Service, USDA.
Swoboda, A.R., Thomas, G.W., Cady, F.B., Baird, R.W. and Knisel, W.G.
Distribution of DDT and toxaphene in Houston Black Clay on Three
Watersheds. Environ. Sci. and Tech. 5(2) :M1. 1971.
174
-------
CHAPTER V
ECONOMIC EVALUATION OF TOXAPHEJIE
Toxaphene was produced in an estimated amount of 55 million pounds
in 1973. The four manufacturers were Hercules, Incorporated, Tenneco,
Incorporated, Helena Chemical Company and Gonford Chemical Company. In
197*» these companies continue to produce this insecticide.
The use of toxaphene is widespread, for both crop and non-crop
purposes. By far the largest use is on cotton, vith livestock rest
control ranking second. Other crop uses include soybeans, peanuts, vege-
tables - cabbage, carrots, celery, lettuce, onions, tomatoes, sweet corn,
and so forth, and small grains.
Insecticide usage on cotton has always been large and toxaphene,
since,the ban of DDT, has become one of the major chemicals applied to
r- '
'i
cotton. It is used to control the boll weevil.and bollvorra primarily,
but also for controlling such insects as beet armyworras, cabbage loopers,
cutworms, plant bugs, cotton fleahoppers and thrips. Seldom applied in
straight formulations, most cotton growers use toxaphene in combination
with methyl parathion in a 2 pound active ingredient: 1 pound active in-
gredient ratio.
In 1973 it is estimated that slightly over !|8 million pounds of
toxaphene were used on cotton throughout the Cotton Belt. The Southeast
used slightly less than 50 percent of this 22 su Hi on pounds, with the
Delta states using approximately 20 million pounds. The remaining 6 million
pounds were used by the states in the Southwest and West.
175
-------
The cost of a season-lone pro^r'r-j.i of the toxaphene-methyl parathior.
formulation on cotton in the United Ctates is estimated to be $99-'J million.
A program employing ;::ethyl parathion alcne - the favored alternative to
the combination currently in vide UE3.ge - would cost approximately
$117-6 million. The increase in cost is $].8.1 million. University ex-
periments on the efficacy of alternative insecticides indicate no signifi-
cant difference in yield or quality arising when methyl paratliion is
used alone instead of in formulation with toxaphene.
The toxaphene-methyl parathior. program cost represented 2.90 percent
of the value of production plus support payments for all U. S. Upland
cotton harvested in 1973- If the methyl parathior. program v.-ere imple-
mented (as it has been in some areas of the West) this percentage would
ji
increase by'"I 53 to 3.^3 percent. The estimates of this report would
i
indicate that growers in some regions have definite economic justification
for their expressed opposition to turning away from the present program.
On livestock, target pests of toxaphene include cattle lice, sar-
coptic scabies, screvworm, ear tick, sheep tic};, sheep scab, and others.
Because of its broad spectrum control and general effectiveness, toxaphene
is the most widely used of the insecticides on livestock in general. Beef
cattle accounted for 76 percent of its use in 1971-
One reason for the large use of tcxaphenc en beef cattle is the
Federal quarantine program for the eradication of sarcoptic scabies. In
1973, 2.9 million head of cattle were treated in this program, 95 percent
dipped in toxaphene. In 1971* fewer cattle are expected to be treated since
-------
outbreaks of these pests have been reduced. In Texan aior.e from 1971
to March, 1971', 3-5 million cattle have been treated at an estimated
cost of $.10 per head. The cost to the rancht-rs, however, is estimated
to be $10 per head. This figure includes trim loss at slaughter, labor,
moving cost, and potential weight loss incurred in the drives to the
dipping vats.
In the control of lice, nariy ranchers are moving toward the use
of a systemic insecticide in place of the old standby, toxaphene. The
syste:aic controls both sucking lice and cattle grub - a problem throughout
our country - vhile toxaphene controls only the biting lice. The systenics
are generally more expensive than toxapheno (delr.av would cost $.20 per
application per head) and less residual, but the estimated ?5 percent weight
loss resulting if sucking lice are uncontrolled ir.akes this added expense
r
worth'it to many ranchers.
The minor uses of toxaphene include soybeans, peanuts, vegetables-
and small grains. On soybeans, carbaryl (sevin) is used quite extensively,
also, despite its higher toxicity to honeybees and reported phytotoxioity
to some varieties. Carbaryl approaches the broad spectrum of insect
control by toxaphene on peanuts. Other chemicals cay be used as substi-
tutes on the peanut acreage - diazinon, jnethoiychlor, and r.alathion - but
they are less residual and require more frequent applications to attain
comparable control. Lanr.ate (methomyl) is a general substitute for toxaphene
on vegetables, while for certain specific pests various substitutes are
available. For control of the pests of the snail grains carbaryl is a
reconmended substitute, with ethyl and/or methjl parathion suggested as
substitutes for certain specific insects.
17.7
-------
Production and Use Patterns
IndustryDescription
Toxaphene vas produced in the amount of approximately 55 million
pounds by four producers in 1973, perhaps as much as 85 percent by Hercules.
Table 5-1 lists these manufacturers end their plant locations. In 197'1
these same companies continue to produce this insecticide.
Table 5-1
Manufacturers of Toxaphene and Plant Location, 1973
Manufacturer
Hercules, Inc. Brunswick, Georgia
Helena Chemical Co. Memphis, Tennessee
t
Sonford Chemical Co. Houston, Texas
Tenneco Inc. Fords, Hew Jersey
Hercules, Incorporated produces a diversified line of industrial
chemical and related products derived from four cain sources - cellulose,
rosin and terpenes, nitrogen, and petroleum. In 1972 commercial saJ.es pro-
vided 88.2 percent of the total net sales and operating revenues, while space
and defense volume provided the remainder. The synthetic fibers industry con-
tributed twelve percent to total commercial sales ($93.6 million).
Within the synthetics department of Hercules, insecticides make up
a small portion of the total number of products nroduced. Besides toxaphene,
178
-------
which is produced at their Brunswick, Georgia, plant, other insecticides
produced by this department include thiophc.-phate, De.lnav (:norc corrjuonly
known as dioxathicn - a substitute for toy.aphc-r.e's use against livestock
pests), Torak (dialifcr), Thanite, and diGthyltcluanide.
Tenneco, Incorporated, is a natural gas pipeline operator with
diversified interests in integrated oil and gas, chemical, packaging,
manufacturing, shipbuilding, and land use businesses and holds related
investments in the insurance and banking fields.
Of Tenneco's 1972 operating revenue - $3.3 billion - chemicals
provided 9-5 percent or $277 million. The largest contributor to their
operating revenues in that year v.'as r.iade by the machinery, equipment,
and shipbuilding operations (37.5 percent or $1.2 billion).
Helena. Chemical and Sonford Chemical together produced an estimated
four million pounds of technical toxaphene in 1973. These companies
market their toxaphene and many of its formulations through Vicksburg
Chemical, in the case of Helena Chemical Company, and Bison or Riverside
in the case of Sonford.
Formulators of toxaphene nu.-r.ber over 150. These companies distribute
toxaphene in forms, often in combinations with other pesticides, popular
for usage on the crops and livestock in their areas. Forms conunonly used
in many areas are an emulsifiable concentrate and a dust. Tcxaphene is
most often combined vith methyl parathion for use on crops (cotton in
particular). On livestock it is used as a back-rub, spray, or dip.
179
-------
Geor.raphic Use
Domestic. Estimates of domestic utilization are available from
USDA pesticide use data. For the years 1966 and 1971 Table 5-2 sr.rmarizes
toxaphene's domestic disappearance. Among its crop uses, cotton far
outshadova all others as a major user of this insecticide. Livestock
usage comes next in importance, in terns of total poundage, with soy-
beans and peanuts ranking third and fourth. Estimates of production
for 1972 indicate that about 76 million pounds were produced vith 58
million being used domestically and- 18 million being exported. V.'ith
the demise of DDT, toxsphene, by itself and in combination with other
insecticides, is being used as a substitute which is perhaps part of
the explanation for the jump in domestic use between 1971 and 1972.
Regional usage of toxaphene is delineated in Table 5-3.
Foreign. Foreign usage of toxaphene follows the same pattern as
the domestic usage - cotton and livestock are the principal uses, followed
by the smaller uses on vegetables, small grains, peanuts and soybeans.
Manufacturing plants of this insecticide are known to be located in
Nicaraqua and Mexico, with Russia believed to have production facilities,
also. Another facility is scheduled to be in production by 1976 in Brazil
vhen Hercules do Brasil Productos Quimicas Ltda. (Hercules Inc. solely
ovned Brazilian subsidiary) completes construction of its plant with an
1 "Production, Distribution, Use and Er.virorcer.tal 1,-pact potential of
Selected Pesticides" by Edward W. Lawless et_. al. , 1971*.
180
-------
Table 5-2
Toxap'ienc Uso - Total ''zvnia<-.Q and
Acreage by Crop, 1956 and 1071
Corn
Cotton
Wheat
Other Grains
Soybeans
Tobacco
Peanuts
Other
Field Crops
Alfalfa
Other Hay
and Pasture
Irish Potatoes
6ther Vegetables
Citrus
Apples
Fruits and Nuts
Nursery,
Greenhouse,. . ..
Total Croj~
b/
Livestock
c/
Other
' Total
1971
Mil lien
Pounds A. 1.
.102
28.112
.026
.462
1.524
.206
1.356
.035
.018
.032
.142
.628
.009
-
.058
.027
32.857
4.575
^
.022
37.464
;:i 1 1 ion
Acres
.140
3.2Vb
.025
.387
.951
.020
.472
.061
.016
.023
.047
.175
.002
-
.007
H.A.
5.601
19£5
.';i 1 1 ion
Pounds A. I .
.004
27.345
.270
.152
.976
.150
.980
.107
.101
.009
.124
.684
-
-
.015
.002
30.924
3.670
.011
34. COS
ili 1 1 ion
Acres
.020
3. SSI
.155
.092
.543
.061
.237
.056
.044
.008
' .077
.205
-
-
.004
.
5.383
»/ Includes all crops, pasture, rangeland and land in sumer
fallow.
b/ Includes livestock buildings.
C/ Includes pesticides for all other noncro? and nonlivestock
uses.
Source: Quantities of_ Pesticides Used t^y_ Farmers vi 19S6, 1971.
-------
Table 5-3
Regional Patterns of Tcxnphone Karri Use -
Region
Northeast
Lake Stat
Corn Bolt
Northern
Plains
Appal ac hi
Southeast
Millio:
1971
es
a 2
15
Delta States 10
Southern
Plai ns
Mountain
Pacific
Total
Source:
2
1
32
. O'tO
.189
.087
.196
.369
.75^
.69'",
.238
.300
.867
Quantities of
is
2
13
7
14
1
30
cf ?cu
3 9'?S
.OOli
.111
.1403
.007
.521
.7^0
.176
.952
.1420
.560
.92h
Pest ic id
nds
.
1.
.
1).
11.
10.
c;
X* >
1.
?ll
_t^ .
es U
-;
003
050
300
001
200
500
300
100
000
800
200
sed by I
Million:
_
.021
.159
.059
.210
2.11;-
1.59C
.96;
.355
.09?
5.601
?.rr.erE: in
E of A;
.002
.013
.307
.008
.5-Vi
1.533
1.233
1.301;
. 217
.202
5.383
19'?!;,
:rcs Treated
.196):
,
,
1.
1.
2.
1.
8.
1966,
020
050
900
002
100
800
200
liOO
200
POO
000
1971.
USDA - ERS
82-
-------
Figure 5-1
Regional Patterns of Toxaphene Farm Use, 1971
; L~'.'^ STATIC i>N
1.238 Ibs
.359 acresf
=";rl;:;^ i \ ^ i
^. "
acres,' --'j
Note: All fig'^res times 10 .
U.i. OJPARTUSKT OF AGRICULTURE
NIG. £RS O77A-47 {SI ECONOMIC
- j
-------
expected annual capacity of 25 million pounds. The United States itself
IS knovn to export to.xapher.e, which contributes to the supply available
for foreign use. In 1972 exports vere estimated to be ]8 million pounds
. 1
a.i.
The United States appears to be playing the role of trend-setter
in the use of pesticides in addition to its many other trend-setting
activities. Thus, any restriction on domestic usage of a pesticide
brings about repercussions in the world market for that pesticide, elimi-
nating r.uch of the use of the pesticide overseas. Restriction is not
the only influencing factor in foreign narkets. The establishment of
tolerance levels in meat residues plus the pro-slaughter intervals re-
quired domestically are known in foreign ccur.t-rics and influence practices
concerning the use of a particular pesticide such as toxaphene with its
7 ppm tolerance level and 28 day pre-slaughter interval.
"Production, Distribution, Use. and Environmental Impact Potential of
Selected Pesticides", Lawless ct. al.,
-------
Toxapher.e Use on Cotton
In 1973 about 12 million acres of cotton were harvested in the
United States. Production amounted to approximately 13 million bales
with a value of almost $2.8 billion. The states of Arkansas, California,
Mississippi, and Texas accounted for slightly over 70 percent of this
production. When support payments were added to the value of production,
the figure for U. S. Upland cotton alone increased from $2.7 billion
(value without support payments) to $3.'i billion.
Insecticide usage on cotton has alvays been large. AL"iost half of
all, the insecticides used by farmers on crops has been on cotton. Among
these insecticides, tcxaphene has been one of the most extensively used -
prior to 1973, in formulations with TD7 and others and after DDT's ban,
in formulations with methyl parathicn. Tcxapher.e's use on cotton, in
fact, far outshadows its other uses, crop and noncrop. In 1971, 28.1
million pounds active ingredient - 85 percent of its total crop usage
that year - were used on 3-3 million acres for an average of 8.6 pounds
a.i. per acre, up from the 1966 average of 7-0 pounds a.i. per acre.
As a cotton insecticide, toxaphene is ained at controlling such
insects as beet armyvorms, boll weevils, bollw:rms, cabbage loopers,
cutworms, plant bugs, cotton fleahoppers, and thrips. When the figures
. concerning annual loss due to these pests are perused the large usage
of insecticides on cotton is core easily understood. The estimated
1Data on support payments for American-Pir.a for 1973 were not available
at the time of this report.
185
-------
Table 5-1'
Cotton: Acreare, Planted ar.n !:2rvectc-d, ?.-c due-tier., and
Yield Per Acre or: Harvested Acreage, Ky Kc^icns, 1973
Region
(a)
V7est '
(b)
Southvest
(c)
Delta
(d)
Southeast
Total
Planted
1,000
Acres
I,iil2
5,979
3,672
1^39
12,502
fi Q >--*' rr>
/j
of Total
11.3
1*7.8
29.1;
11.5
100.0
Harvcs
1,000
Acres
1,397
5,7^6
3,!'80
1,366
11,90=
ted Acreage
%
of Total
11.7
It7.9
29.0
ll.lt
100. 0
Production
1,000
Bales of
2,550
5,106
3,985
1,320
12,96.1 1
%
Total
19-7
39- ^
30.7
10.2
00.0
Yield/Acre
On Harvests
Acreace
Pounds
876
1*27
550
I.61)
519
(a) California, Arizona, New Mexico, and Nevada
(b) Texas and Oklahoma
(c) Missouri, Arkansas, Tennessee, Mississippi, Louisiana, Illinois,
and Kentucky
(d) Virginia, :!orth Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, and
Alabama
Source: Cotton Situation, February^ 197h, EP.S-USM
186
-------
average annual Ions in the period 1951 to 19^0 vns in excess of $'176
million. The less of cotter, growers to the boll weevil alone has been
estimated to be about $200 .'-illicr! annually and the suppression treatments
cost an additional $75 million. More recent estimates shov average louses
to cotton insects amount to over $2^.00 an acre vith insect suppression
costing more than $13-00 per acre.1 The average annual loss, in per-
centage terms, that r.-iybe attributed to various cotton pests is shovn
in Table 5-5.
Table 5-5
Average Annual Loss Attributable to Specified Cotton Pests
Insect t Avcrore Ar-.r.-.i-.ij .'.o.".-:( ")
Boll Weevil 8.0
Bollwornis 'i. 0
Lycus. Bugs, Cotton Fleahcpper, & Other Sucking Insects 3.'i
Thrips, Spider Mites, Cotton Aphid, Cabbage I/ocper,
Cotton Leaf Perforator, Pink Hollvorm, Heet
Ariayvora, Cotton Leafworn, and other Insects 3. 6
Total 19.0
Source: national Cotton Council of America
As would be expected, the regional use pattern of toxaphene is
literally dictated by its use on cotton. Over three-fourths of its total
poundage used on crops in 1971, 26 million pounds, vas used in the
National Cotton Council of America.
187
-------
Southeast and Delta states of Arkansas, Mississippi, Louisiana, AlaV:una,
Georgia, South. Carolina ar.cl Florida. ("or a. :r.crfc detailed regional
breakdown, see Table 5-5 above.)
Chemical A] terr.ativcs
Methyl parathicn ranks high on the lint of subcti tutor, for toxaphcnc's
visage on cotton. In most areas it is a highly effective compound against the
boll weevil and members of the bollworn complex as a contract spray at rates
of one to two pounds per acre.
This insecticide was produced by four manufacturers throughout the
United States in 1972. Production- vas reported to be slightly in excess
of 51 nillion pounds with four plants producing End a fifth available.
Total annual capacity of these five plants is ir. excess of 100 million
pounds. In 1973 there were reported to be, once again, four producers,
but one company had been replaced by another and annual capacity had
o
increased slightly to an estimated 106 million pounds. It seems that
even if the extreme assumption is r.ade that all the toxaphene usage on
cotton is replaced by methyl parathion and the accompanying increase in
the number of applications is accounted for (necessitated by the decrease
in the period of effectiveness of .-ethyl parathion), existing facilities
do have the capacity to handle the svitch in usage.
There are so:ne disadvantages to using me'-hyl parathion as opposed
to toxaphene. As mentioned above, its residual effectiveness is shorter,
requiring r.ore applications during a growing season. During a ten-week
^"Production, Distribution, Use and Environmental Impact Potential of
of Selected Pesticides," K3I Report.
2 A??3 Directory of Chcrr.ical Producers, USA, CIS, SRI
188
-------
period, 23 applications of r.ethyl parathion vculd be required (at. 3-day
intervals) as opposed to toxapher.e's 1^ applications (j-day intervals).
An important factor in areas with shor". grcv: r.g season- v.-ould be the
delay in maturity in r.ost varieties of cotten. It apparently acts as
a stimulus to cause excessive vegetative growth in itself, and if coil
moisture and fertility are high the plants -..-ill respond by growing
o
taller and delaying maturity. Methyl parathion is highly toxic and
all presently registered formulations (except a dry formulation of less
than-two percent a.i. content) present serious .hazards to operators and
persons entering treated areas soon after application without adequate
protection. It is also highly toxic to honeybees and to other beneficial
insects.
Other insecticides that might substitute for toxaphene on cotton
acreage include azocrin and carbaryi (serin). Asodrin has been shown
to be only marginal in effectiveness on cotton pests. Its high toxicity
to birds is another factor causing disfavor to be shown for use of this
insecticide. Carbaryi by itself is not highly effective and molasses
is often added to it to increase its effectiveness. This mixture, too,
has generally little success where insect infestation levels are high.
Insecticides registered in the not-too-distant past and showing
promise for bollwora control include fundal, galccron, and phosvel
(experimental label only). Lannate shows some premise, but is not
Generally accepted period of effectiveness for toxaphene applications
is 5 to 7 days and for methyl parathion 3 to 5 zsys.
2
Weaver, J.B., Jr. and. Lawrence H. Harvey, "A Comparison of Toxaphene
and DDT with Methyl Parathion on 1)9 Varieties a^d Strains of Cotton".
183
-------
fully registered for use on cotton. Fcr.cap }'., a forur.ulrition of nicro-
capsuler, cor.tair.ir.s ::.ethyl piirathion dispersed in water, has recently been
given nn experir.or.tal label for use or. cotton. It has several advantages
over the usual formulation of nethyl rarathion as an er.ulsif iable concen-
trate: (a) lover toxicity, both orally and dermally; (b) longer effective
control range - 5 to 7 days as opposed to the 3 day effectiveness of
methyl parathion in its more usual form; and (c) field data show it is
more efficacious, also, with yields of I.!i57 pounds of seed cotton per
acre as opposed to a yield of 1307 pounds when nethyl parathion was ap-
plied as an e~ulsifiable concentrate.
Mori-Chnrdcal Alternatives
(l) Releases of green lacewing ana certain parasitic wasps to control
the bollworn and pink bollworr.1. are being made. Additional research on
mass production, tiding, release methods, and other operative techniques
needs to be completed before the potential effectiveness of this method
can be fully determined.
(2) A bacterium (Bacillus thuringiensis) has been registered for use on
cotton and a Heliothis virus has been given an experimental label. Additional
research is required to improve production methods, reduce costs, and pro-
vide consistent results before insect diseases will be practical tools for
cotton producers.
(3) A new genus of the nematode .'-'erithidae (anthor.crous grand Is) has been
found that parasitizes the boll weevil. This neraatode causes the weevil
to emerge from hibernation abnormally early - four to six weeks before the
cotton is even planted - and finding no cotton plants to feed on, it dies,
-------
Table 5-6
Toxapher.e Used on Cotton, Total Cost (Material and Application)
oi L.U:
Region-
West
Southwest
Delta
Southeast
Total
Prororori :
en Cotton
( 3 . 000 r.oi
3,627
2,690
19, 7^6
22,090
^8,153
!-?t:-v1 7 -.rv: :.:::-. rrcrr:.".. bv Porj cr.r, .
Total
:r.ds) ""( £1^000)""
6,851
5,03^
l'7,075
'i 0,570
99,530
1973
Cost
Ketiiyl Parathiorr-
($.1 ,000)
6,029
5,625
60,732
It 5, 231
117,617
I/
~ As designated in Table 5-1;.
i/
Calculations of total cost for toxaphene-methyl parathion treatment based
on a $2.70 r.aterial cost per acre-applicatior. plus a $1.00 application cost
per acre-application; the formulation used, is 2 pounds a.i. coxaphar.e and
1 pound a.i. nethyl parathion.
37
Calculations of total cost of proposed r.ethyl parathion program are based
on a $1.75 r.aterial cost per acre-application plus a $1.00 application cost
per acre-application; the forr.ulaticn assirr.ei is 1 pound a.i.; and appli-
cations increase by 50 percent due to the shorter residual quality of methyl
parathion (except in certain areas cf the Vest, - see text); the mix of cotton
acreage treated with ether insec-iciies re~a:ns constant when shift to the
methyl parathion program, is rr.ade; and total production does not c'nanr.e when
toxaphene-.~eth.yl parathicn is no longer used (the increase in the nur.ber of
applications when r.ethyl parathion is used is considered to give comparable
insect control).
Note: Table based on estimates of Acreage and araulication rates as re-
ceived in personal communications with entomologists in the regions.
See list of entomologists contacted at end of chapter.
-------
releasing the female r.er.atcdes in the- soil to infest later Generations
of veeviJs. Continued research is in prepress and vhcn the life cycle of
this nematode is knovr. it -ay be possible- to mass produce this parasite
as & natural method to aid in ccr.trol of the boll veevil.
(li) Cotton varieties resistant to insect attack arc not currently
available.
(5) The sterile male technique cannot presently be utilized to control
cotton pests.
(6) Promising leads into insect hormones and phercrcor.es to control or
manipulate insect pests exist but further research is necessary.
Intcrratsd Pest '!2n":'~'::'.or.t Prsrv.fr.s in Cotton
Integrated pest management programs were begun in iH cotton-producing
states in 1972. Ideally, these programs follow an approach which maximizes
natural controls of pest populations. An analysis of potential pests is
made, and based upon knowledge of each pest in its environment and its
natural enemies, farming practices are modified (such as changes in planting
and harvesting schedules) to affect the potential pests adversely and to
aid natural enemies of pests. Once these preventive measures are taken,
the fields are monitored to determine the levels of pests, their natural
enedies, and important environmental factors. Only vhen the threshold level
at which significant crop damage from the pest is likely to be exceeded
should suppressive measures be taken.
Some states had begun programs before this tise.
192 .
-------
Initially set dew:; as three-year projects, funding from US DA is
distributed on a fcrr.v.la 'baaed on ccttcn acreage in each state. Additional
funds are provided "cy '.ho Cooperative "::ter.sio:.' rervices and there: is signifi-
cant but lesser direct regulatory ana research t-~port of programs. Besides
being economically practical for the grower, these projects nuot supply
insect control as good or better than that provided by customary practices.
Yield and quality canr.ot be reduced and new or improved control practices must
be compatible with other pest control and agror.'t^iic practices, and with local
environmental conditions. Hew envircrjr.ental ar.z pesticide regulations riust
be met.
In actuality, the urinary emphasis of these projects to date, has been
placed on the applications of insecticides basc-i on eccr.c~.ic thresholds of
insect-pests: This will hopefully ii::iit the prj-tice of insecticide appli-
cation'by the calendar and bring about a schedule based on economic need.
With the demise of BDT and the wariness vith which all the other
organochlorines (including toxaphene) are now being viewed, there is an
emphasis in research to find some substitutes aacng the organophosphates
for cotton insect control. This switch has chr^ed the economics of pest
control. Besides being less residual, these irsscticides are generally more
disruptive to the beneficial insect cor.plex.
These factors emphasized the need for a revaluation of pest control.
All too often the objective has been tc kill irsects rather than to prevent
economic loss. Entomologists and growers alike .hs/e often lost sight of this
objective in their zeal to maintain a "clean fj-aM". The killing of insects
193-
-------
belov a sub-economic lcvc-1 for the sake cf having a "clean field" is a
luxury that can r.o longer be afforded. Research in California. seems to bear
this out.
One prominent characteristic of recent bcllvorm control ro.-earch
that has stocci cut has nee;1, the cor.ci ctc-r.t I:.:!: cf correlation be-
tvecn vorm reduction ar.u yield. In mar.;,1 cases the r.o^t effective
treatments from the standpoint of v;erm t opu la tier, reduction have
resulted in our Icvest yields. Often the untreated checks have har-
vested nore lint per acre than the seemingly effective treatments. 1
In Texas, the growers have begun to delay the initial treatments of
their cotton acreage until early July realizing that throughout June there
are enough predators present in the fie.1.ds to control the heliothip problem.
Results of a three year study of a pest management program in the Pecoc area
demonstrate the economic benefits in terms of reduced costs resulting from
2
the program as opposed to a season-lcr.£ preventive program. Yields of
the acreage in the management programs did not significantly differ from
the yields of the acreage treated in the conventional manner.
Unfortunately, there are very little data on the actual types of
insecticides used in these management programs. USDA-ERS is at present
beginning to monitor the growers in the programs for ncre detailed infor-
mation on all types of pesticides employed. Robert van den Bosch, noted
for his vork in pest management, has stated that
"to best fit the integrated control purpose, insecticides shculd
have certain attributes in addition to killing capacity. These
are (i) relative selectivity, (ii) limited reoiduality and (iii)
manageability. The residual organochlori:.es do not fit this formula,
1 J. Hodge Black in Kern Cotton, March 5, 1971-
f
T. L. Pate, ot al, A Management Program to ?e.iuce Cost of Cotton Insect .
Control in the Pecos Area, Texas A&M University,, Texas Agricultural Experiment
Station, February, 1972.
-------
and because of this they have virtually 1:0 place in 'ho integrated
control scheme. These materials are, is: fac1-, 'lany luir.'s' insec-
ticides, prc£rar~.ed by their very character} sties of bread plectrum
toxicity, lorn-las:, inr; e;'f c-ct., ;-.:-. d lev; cert, to do the impossible -
provide unij&ter'il rest control... Ur.cser '. riterratcd co'i-rcl the
crops and their associated ir.cect porujaticr.s are mc::i 'cored, and
decisions to use ir.r.c-eticides arc- bused or. ir.fcrr.ation derived
from these :::or.itcrinrs. In this vay i nsacirldido us arc- is pin-
pointed us to vh.er: end where it is ntcu-CEf-.v/. ?urthsr:nore,
knowledge of cro".) develornent ar.d pest behavior, bic.locy and
seasonal activity permits flexibility in the kinds of materials
that may be used." l
As the concepts of antedated control become more widespread, there
should be definite changes in the types of chemicals used and the tlriin~
of their applications. Also, the percentage of total variable cost of
cotton production contributed by pesticides (estimated at 15 percent in
f
19Y2)" should decrease. As the details of these programs become available
it shall be winteresting to see if these changes come about.
Alternative Production Costs
The insect problem in cotton varies with the region in question.
In the Southeast and Southwest the major pests are the bollworm and the
boll weevil. In these areas, also, the tobacco budworm occassionally
reaches levels of high infestation and becomes important from an economic
standpoint. Moving further west, the pink bollvorm becomes the major pest
of Arizona's cotton acreage while lygus bugs are the dominant problem in
California.
van den Bosch, Robert, "Statement on Aldrin-Cieldrin."
o
figures obtained from Irving R. Starbird, E3B, USDA, Fibers Section.
195
-------
Pesticide usage varies due to the diversi-y of major pests in the
cotton producing states. In general, the sar.e ch^racals or combinations
are available in all areas, but practices with regard to the use of these
che:rdcals change from one end of the Cotter: Belt to the other.
In 1972, fifteen percent of the total variable cost per harvested
acre of cotton production was accounted for by insecticides, herbicides,
defoliants, and other chemicals. Insecticides alone accounted for 7 percent
of the total variable cost. Since then, despite "he increasing costs of
all inputs in cotton production - many production items have exhibited a
26 percent increase in price vith fertilizer and rotor supplies increasing
by 52 percent since 1972 - insecticides have aairr.ained their percentage
2
share of the total.
Specific insecticides have been videly urea on cotton over the
years'. Prior to its cancellation, DDT was prodigiously applied to cotton
acreage, quite often in formulations vith toxsphese or toxaphene-methyl
parathion. With the demise of DDT, the mixture cf toxaphene-methyl
parathion has taken over the number one spot, is terms of amounts used,
in the ranking of insecticides used on cotton. Today, this combination
is well promoted by formulators throughout the Cctton Belt, resulting
in an extensive amount of toxaphene being used cr. cotton. Table 5-6
presents the estimated total poundage used on ;:tton by areas of the
United States.
Other chemicals include flame cultivation oil, spreaders, stickers,
mulsifying agents, and seed treatment chemicals.
n
Sterbird, Irving R. "Costs of Producing Upl£=d Cotton in 1972",
Cotton Situation, April, 197*1, USDA-EHS.
-------
TabDe 5-6 also presents the er.t:r.::;led coi;ts of the use of the
toxaphenc-methyl parathion ccr.bir.ati r.n (straight toxaphcr.e is rarely used
on cotton) as based en the fcllo-.:ir.f, assumptions:
(a) all acrc-::re (as estimate;: cy cr.tcmo'cf;; nts in the arc-as
delineated) is treated v:';h tcxapher.e-methyi parathion in
a 2 pound active ingredient + 1 pound active ingredient
formulation per acre;
and (b) the total cost per acre per application is $3-70 (material
cost per acre is $2.70 plus a $1.00 per acre fee for appli-
cation).
The cost of a season-long program using the alternative most.widely
suggested for use, methyl parathion, vas also estimated and presented in
Table 5-6. The assumptions for this are as follows:
(a) all acreage is treated with r.ethyl parathion in a 1 pound
active ingredient formulation;
(b) the number of applications increases by 50 percent due to
the shorter residual quality of methyl parathion (except
'in Arizona, Hew Mexico, and Nevada where it is indicated
that equal numbers of applications provided equivalent control);
(c) total cost per acre per application is $2.75 (material cost
per acre is $1.75 and the fee for application is $1.00 per
acre);
(d) the nix of cotton acreage treated vith other insecticides
remains constant when the shift to the methyl parathion pro-
gram is made;
and (e) total production does not change vhe:i toxaphene-methyl para-
thion is no longer used; the increise in the number of appli-
cations necessitated vhen methyl rirathicn is used is con-
sidered to give comparable insect rontrol.
In the northern-most growing areas the use of nsthyl parathion, especially
vhen begun early in the season and continued throughout, results in delayed
maturity of the plant and causes some Doss to tie growers - estimated at
-------
25 to 3C£ every four years. The tobacco budvorm is resistant to the
organophosphates in areas of the Southeast and Southwest and when
infestation levels arc high the use of methyl parathion in combination
with another cherr.ical (toxaphene, cndrin, S?I5,...) is necessitated for
effective control. (Tests showed no significant difference in yield
on acreage receiving 12 applications of methyl parathic.n and the check
*->
plots when infestation of the tobacco budworin was high.) This implies
a higher cost outlay and would increase the season-long treatment costs
in these areas.
Results of field tests in various areas of the Cotton Belt indicate
that there is no significant yield or quality difference arising from the
use of methyl parathion alone as opposed to the toxaphene-sicthyl parat'nion
mixture. See Table 5-7- Appendix tables present the results of other
efficacy tests of insecticides on cotton. (Present research is concentrating
on insecticides of families other than the organochlorines and other formula-
tions than the typical EC - eir.ulsifiable concentrate.)
Cotton production costs would increase by slightly over $10 million
in the United States if a program using methyl parathion alone were imple-
mented. In terms of the proportion of value of production (plus support),
1
Personal cocr.unicaticn with Dr. R. L. Robertson, Department of Entomology,
North Carolina State University.
2
Personal cor-munication with Dr. D. F. Glower, cotton research entomologist,
Louisiana State University.
3current research in Texas indicates that insecticide use on cotton may have
gone full-circle back to dust formulations. See Hanna, R. L., "A Quarter
Century of Cotton Insects in the Brazos Valley, unpublished manuscript.
198
-------
Table 5-7
Effectiveness of Several Insecticides Agains
Boll Weevil, Bollv.-oiT., and Tobacco 2udvor:.i
on Cotton, V.'iico, Texas, 19^3 .!/
Insecticide
and done
(Pounds/Acre)
Methyl
parathion (0.75)
Methyl oarathion
(0.75)" +
DDT (1.0)
Toxapher.e (2.0)
+ methyl
parathion (0.75)
Toxapher.e (2.0)
+ DDT (1.0)
Toxapher.e (2.0)
+ DDT (1.0)
+ methyl
parathion (0.75)
Check
Percent
bo] 1 veTvn.l-
punctured
squares
(6 LV Applic
15.6 a
15.1 a
lli.O a
17.9 a
15.0 a
21.8 a
Percent
in/iut-en hy
Heliothir, STJT).
Squares Bolls
aticns ) , Ju3y 17 - August
10.2 b 13.8 b
9.1) be 8.1 c
10.3 b 10.5 c
8.2 c 10.0 c
9-1 be 8.9 c
16.5 a 20.2 a
Yield
(pound
seed
cotton
per acre)
9
967 a
961 a
9')2 a
916 a
1018 a
556 b
1 Means followed by the saae letter are not significantly different
at the 5-percent level of confidence by Duncan's multiple range
test.
Source: "Field Evaluation of Insecticides for Control of the
Boll Weevil, Eollvorr. ar.d Tobacco Sudv:,: on Cotton,
Waco Area, Central Texas, 1963," C.H. Covan and
J.W. Davis, in I nvc-sti rations of Cher.; js. Is for Control
of Cotton Injects in 'rex;:.-, I?c3, ~--^.-s Ai.'-i University,
Texas Agricultural jixperiner.t; Statior..
-------
Table 5-8 illustrates the .53 percent increase that results - the
toxaphene-:ricthyl parat'nion pror.v;ur>. rerreser.tr, 2.90 percent of the 1973
value of production v.-hile the prcnran usir.£ r.ethyl parathion by itiicOf
represents 3-''3 percent. Once again, regional differences exist and
these figures indicate that growers in the Delta and Southeast have
economic justification for their opposition to turning avay from the
present program (utilising the toxaphene-~;ethyl parathion formulation)
than growers in the West (where many have voluntarily made the switch
already) and Southwest.
-------
Table 5-8
Cotton: Value- of Production Plu.- ?;-,
and Calculated Insecticide Prcr.;
of this >-.oii:-.t, V;
3rt Faynent:; Received by Growers
.I/ Costs as a Percentuce
-"icr.s. 1973
Value of Production
Region -' ?ius
West
Southwest
Delta
Southeast
Total
(U.S. Uplan
]L/ Pee Table 5-6
2] As designated
3/ Figures from
Sunoort Payments ^J
($i",ooo)
657,666
1,378,003
969,297
1.28,71.3
3,1)33,709
d)
in Table 5-1).
Cron Values , Januarv
Toxaphenc Methyl
Parathicn Pixgrarri
Cost as % of Value
of Production Plus
Sunnort Payncnts
l.O'i
.37
Jt.86
9.1.6
2.90
1971; , Crop Reporting Bo
Methyl Parathion
Program Cost as %
of Value of Pro-
duction Plus Sup-
port Pav:.-.ont?
.92
.1)1
6.27
10.55
3.1)3
ard, SRS,
USDA.
-------
Toxaphene Ur.e on Livestock
In 1971> ''-6 million pounds of toxaphene were used en livestock,
by far the largest share on beef cattle (?6 percent). So.r.e of the
target pests at vhich tcxaphene is aimed include cattle lice, sarcoptic
scabies, screwvorm, ear tick, sheep tick, sheep scab, and others.
Toxapher.e along with three other insecticides (dichlcrvos, mcthoxychlor,
and carbaryl) were the leaders for treating livestock in 1971.
In 1965 annual losses caused by livestock pests to all types
of livestock were estimated to be $5-00 million.1 Prior to the USDA
state cooperative programs the annual loss to the cattle industry from
scabies r.ite was c-iS.S nillion. The loss to the sheep industry if sheep
scabies vere-net controlled was $13.6 million.
s
Although there are many insecticides used on livestock, toxaphene
is the most widely-used because it is highly effective and controls
a broad spectrum of livestock pests, thus requiring a minimum number
of applications for effective control. The uses of toxaphene and its
raajor substitutes by type of livestock for the years 1966 and 1971
are summarized in Table 5-9.
For livestock dipping and spraying of toxaphene, as well as to
provide for its possible entry into the animal diet, a tolerar.ee of
7 ppra. in neat fat has been established. Regular examination of tissues
fron neat animals and poultry slaughtered in federally inspected plants
1"Losses in Agriculture Handbook No. 291," Agricultural Research Service,
USDA, August, 1965.
202
-------
TABLE 5-9
Quantities of Selected Insecticides (Toxaphene and Its Major Substitutes) Used on Livestock, by Type
of Livestock, United States. 1966 and 1971
Dairy Cattle
Insecticide 1966 1971
(1,000 Ibs. )
Toxaphene 138 200
Lindane 2>i l'i
Methoxychlor 883 872
Ruelene 1 2
Counaphos 1 18
Ronnel 36 33
Malathion " 196 1^2
Diehlorvos 8^6 2.109
Carbaryl I 18
DDT 29 55
Beef Cattle
1966 1973
(1,000 Ibs.)
3,180 3, ^83
1'JO 226
597 1,011
128 215
Ii23 1^7
29!* 381j
331* 357
'3 153
135 196
Mi 7 158
Hogs
1966 ; 1°71
(1,000 Ibs.)
266 81:3
12'i I6'i
Ik 58
_ *
1 2
3l* kk
65 88
15 26
1 52
16 27
Poultry
1966 1971
(1,000 Ibs.)
22 k
5 5
k 9
-
9 *
2k 7
121 38
2 75
1*07 928
8 *
Sheep
1966 1971
(1,000 Ibs.)
51 39
6 It
5 18
-
1
2 1
2 3
2
_ *
2 3
Other
1966 1971
( 1 , 000 Ibs . )
33 6
It 3
6 20
_
jt
1 1
17 2!.
1 33
h *
3 2
Total
1966 1971
(] ,000 Ibs.)
3,670 h,575
293 kl6
1,509 1,958
129 217
1*3" 168
391 ^70
735 652
907 2,398
5';8 1,19^
5C5 2k 5
to
o
C,-
*Less than 500 pounds.
Source: Quantities of Pesticides Used by Farmers in 1966, 1971, USDA-ERS.
-------
are allcved for in USDA Cor.sur.cr Protection Pro,Trr_T,D. Tabulations
were nadc of anjir.alc inspected in 19c9 and the first half of 1970
showing detectable residues of sc:r.e chlorinated pesticides in 90 percent
of the samples. In 1969 toxrphene va.s found in only 2 of the 3,lo9
meat ss.-r.ples and 2 of the 2,199 poultry samples. In the first six
months of 1970, 3 of the 1,871 meat samples and none of I,'i86
poultry samples contained toxapher.e.
In the sane samples for 19o9 and early 1970, sone of toxapherie's
substitutes that were found as residues in the samples with lov/ fre-
quency included chlordane (2) and methoxychlor (7M- Others appearing
with so:newhat greater frequency included lindsnc (505) and heptachlor
(752). Although residues vere found in all of these, it should be noted
that the levels of these residues did not exceed .50 ppm. (fat basis).
The Nation's farmers and ranchers had 127.5 million cattle and
calves in their herds on January 1, 197^, up 5-percent frcra a year
earlier. Sheep and lar.b numbers declined 7 percent and chicken numbered
around two percent less than a year ago. Hogs and pigs increased in num-
ber by 3 percent.
This inventory of cattle and calves is tie highest on record and is the
seventh consecutive year of increase. The numter of beef covs increased 5
percent tut the number of dairy cattle decline-:; 3 percent. The value of
cattle and calves on farms and ranches amounted to $'i0.9 billion, an increase
of 3^ percent over a year ago. The average value per head increased from
$252 on January 1, 1973, to $321 on January 1, I971*. Milk covs produced
nearly ') percent less milk in 1973 than during the previous year.
204
-------
The average value per head of all sheep and lamb increased fron
$26.'iO on January 1, 1973 tc c;32.70 per head on January 1, 197!l, resultinr
in a total value of $5;:0.7 million. The average value per head of hogs
was $60.1)0 compared to $-2.00 a year earlier. Total value of all hogs
and pigs on hand vas $3-7 billion, an increase of ^8 percent over the pre-
vious year.
Alternative Production Costs
Toxaphene's largest use on beef cattle is in the Federal quarantine
program to control scabies. In the list of permitted pesticides, there
arc two insecticides reco:an\e:ided for control of this disease - toxaphene
and heated line sulphur. A year ago 2.9 million head of beef cattle ver
-------
TABLE 5-10
Leading Livestock States
Number on Fams and Ranches, January 1, 197**
All Cattle and
State
Texas
lova
I.'ebraska
Kansas
Missouri
Oklahoma
California
South Dakota
Wisconsin
Mi nncsota
Colorado
Montana
Calves
1,000
Head
16,250
7,660
7,!<10
6,990
6,200
6,020
5,2!}0
5,000
It.liOO
U,2liO
3,7>'U
3,380
Beef Cows that
have Calved
r, trite
Texas
Missouri
OKI a horn a
Nebraska
South Dakota
Kansas
I ova
Montana
Mississippi
Florida
Kentucky
North Dakota
1,000
Head
6,'i70
2,59''
2,379
2,2)t8
2,058
2,050
1,790
1,71.6
1,285
1 , 282
l,2l>7
1,178
Cattle on Feed
State
Texas
Iowa
Nebraska
California
Kansas
Colorado
Arizona
Illinois
Minnesota
South Dakota
Oklahor.a
Ohio
1,000
Head
2,205
1,715
1,525
i,;joh
1,1 CO
930
609
530
i.r.h
381
292
280
Sheen and Lamb
State
Texas
WyoininG
Colorado
California
Couth Dakota
Montana
Utah
I!ev; Mexico
Idaho
Ohio
I ov;a
Arizona
1,000
Head
3,200
1,505
1,150
1,122
976
791'
782
708
665
5«r:
'yv
1,97
?iF. Cron - 1973
State
Iowa
Illinois
I'i s:;ouri
1 nil I ana
Minnesota
;:-_-b:-.-;:;r-.a
Oliio
South Dakota
K::n::a3
II'.'i-Lh Carolina
'..'L:;cc!!cin
Georgia
1,000
Head
19,062
11,223
6, 5!> 3
6,7^.1
6,07!'
^,695
3,137
3,132
3,033
2.n!:o
2^026
2,1=37
8ND
Source: South Dakota Agricultural Statistics, South Dakota Crop and Livestock
Reporting Service, May,
-------
As the only existing pei"r.itted alternative to toxaphenc, heated lime sulphur
is not entirely acceptable; its use requires ::.uch more care thin does the
use of toxaphcne and it is much more expensive. Although it is not as
effective on some of the scabies, it can be used on lac toting anir.als
and in this capacity it vas used on 5 percent of the cattle dipped in
1973. To be effective, the sulphur must be heated to a range of 95° to
105° F. (suggested in U. S.), therefore making it less convenient to
use. It is also very corrosive to equipment used in its application and
extreme care must be taken in the cleaning of this equipment vhen appli-
cations are complete.
Present methods cf toxaphene's use on mites are in concentrations high
enough to kill all pests present at the time. This assures that no nites
remain to develop a resistance to the insecticide. Even cattle that have
been exposed to the scabies r.ite are treated as an extra assurance of the
complete eradication of these pests. As far as ticks are concerned,
resistance has posed no problem over the years. Animals presented at
the border are to be free of ticks. Detection, hovever, is relatively hard
in these circumstances, but tests run on Mexican ticks have indicated that
they are not developing a resistance to toxaphene.
As seen in Table 5-10, Texas leads all other states in the niober
of livestock on ranches and farms. In this state, since the latest enact-
ment of the quarantine in 1971, 3.5 million head of beef cattle have been
dipped through March of this year. The estinsted cost of the toxaphene
dip used is $.10 per head ($350,000 for the period in question). The cost
207.
-------
to the ranchers, though, is CKt::::aled at $10 per head - including trim
loss at daughter, labor, r.ovir.g cost, r.nd potential vcight loss - for
a total of $35 million.
Toxaphene's use is also air.ed at controllir.g horn fly, stable fly,
face fly, lice, and tick problems in various types of livestock. For
these purposes it is usually applied as a spray or backrub and has a 3 to
'4 veek period of effectiveness. Alternatives suggested for control of these
pests include coujuaphos, cydrir., dioxathion, ronnel, dclnav, and corlan.
All of these are more expensive than toxaphene (delnav would cost $.20
per application per head) and their period of effectiveness is 2 to 3 weeks
implying the necessity of r.cre frequent applications.
Many ranchers are r.ow turr.ir.g avay frc:n the use of toxaphene and turn-
ing to a systonic insectidice instead. Toxaphene controls the biting lice
that irritate the livestock while the systemic controls both sucking lice
and cattle grubs in one application. These systenics do necessitate more
frequent applications and therefore a larger cost due to the cost of round-
ing up the livestock more ofter, but this ir.ay be worth it as it is estimated
that there is a 25 percent weight loss if the sucking louse is uncontrolled
and cattle grub is a problem throughout most of the country. (See Figure 5-2. )
208
-------
'Figure 5-2"-
oro
svVp'r-'1
8-,--J/';"/.
Distribution cf- Cattle Grubs
\">
'. > *
rv ^
> 1
/
/^>;
'(f-., '':(
,-t i -% -, v j ^e . ' \
..v-li^
~^^->
"N \
^ \
V .:>)
vj c.s. iv-rt-
./ Coo,., rmt. -
*«.
!». ?Pt.
:-i7"
ir*d In r,cnnt**l<
Ptint Pi
"""""",:» =7. i«.
-------
Minor Uses of Toxnrh'jne
Ranking third and fourth ii; tcxaphene usage are soybeans and peanuts,
with usage in 1971 at 1.5 million pounds and 1.'i million pounds, respec-
tively. Production of soybeans in that year vas 1,17(5 million bushels.
Peanut production totalled 2,9f'2 million pounds.
Since 1971, production of both these crops has increased considerably.
Production of soybeans in 1973 vas 1,567 million bushels, up 33 percent
from 1971, vith a yield of 27.8 bushels per acre on the 56.'* million acres
harvested. Value of production was $3,81(9 million. Peanuts were up 15
percent over 1971- Yield vas a record 2,299 pounds per acre from the
harvested 1,!:99,700 acres. This vas valv.od at $553 million.
The soybeans plant can withstand moderate foliage loss without
seri6us yield reduction particularly if injury occurs to the plant before
the pod is set. Insects that feed on the pods, however, can reduce yields
significantly. Because soybeans can withstand some defoliation, the need
for insecticides to control foliage feeders varies vith locale and season
depending upon insect population. The Southern states with their heavy
populations of both foliage and.pod feeding pests require treatment of
their soybean acreage.
In an effort to control the foliage feeders armyworms, blisters
beetles, cutworms, grasshoppers, and others - the usual practice is to
apply toxaphene as needed when insects appear in damaging numbers.
Lepidoptera can best be controlled by making applications when larvae
210
-------
are small. The migrating insects (arnyvor:::s and grasshoppers) can often
be controlled by spraying cr.ly the field rr.argir.c to Torn a barrier to
migration and, thus, obtaining protection of soybeans by trcatn.ent of
a relatively snail area of the field.
The major pod-fceding inject pests are the corn earv;orm and stink
bugs. The corn earvorm consumes the pods while stink bugs such the sap
from the young beans reducing yield and quality. Control is usually
required about the tine of blossom fall vhen there are more than three
vorms or one stink bug present per foot of rev.
In 1973 there vcre six states that each produced over 100 million
bushels of soybeans - Arkansas, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Minnesota, and
Missouri. Collectively these states produced I,0o5 miljicn bushels. In
the Southeast, where pests flourish and insecticide use on soybeans is
historically the highest, production totalled 69 million bushels, four
percent of the United States total for that year.
Carbaryl's usage in terns of poundage is almost equal to that of
toxaphene in the control of soybean pests, despite the fact that it is
reportedly less effective against all except f^r the Mexican bean beetle.
It is also quite toxic to honeybees and is reported to encourage :r.ite
buildup and is phytotoxic to scr.e varieties of soybeans, "alathion
and riethoxychlor are used but are generally not effective in the control
of nixed populations of insects. Ethyl or methyl parathion are effective
against stink bugs by themselves, but are normally used in combination
vith toxaphene to reduce the number of required applications and provide
control of other insects present.
211
-------
Major peanut pes'ts include corn earvor.r.r,, cutvonr.s, arnyvonris , green
clovervorr.s, leaf hoppers, stink ln;^s. thrips, and velvet bean caterpillars.
The nature of injury produced by insects on peanuts is sir.iiJar to soybeans.
In addition, thrips may cause dar.age to seedlinr, and young peanut plants
by their feeding which causes malformation of leaves, and injury and
destruction of terrr.inal buds. In short, growth is retarded and yield
reduced. The nymphs and adults of the leafhopper such the sap from the
plants reducing vigor, growth, and ultimately, yield.
For thrip control two to three pounds of tcxaphene per acre in the
form of an emulsion is applied to the foliage of the seedling or young
plante. For leaf hoppers, applications are started in midJuly and con-
tinued at 3-weck intervals.
The big producing area of peanuts, the Southeast, is historically
the .area with the largest usage of insecticides on the crop. Georgia
alone produced over one billion pounds of peanuts in 1973 with the four
states in the Southeast together producing 1,921,550,000 pounds and using
lit percent of all insecticides on peanuts (based on 1971 usage). Virginia
and North Carolina produced a record large crop of 766 million pounds.
The Appalachian states, including Virginia and "orth Carolina, are the
second largest area user of insecticides or. pear.uts.
Carbaryl is the only material approachir..; the broad spectrum of insect
control by toxapher.e on peanuts. Diazinon, methoxychlor, and malathion-
may be used as substitutes, but their periods of effectiveness are shorter
necessitating nore frequent applications to attain the required control.
-------
In 1971 about tvo percent of the crop usage of i oxaphene vas on
vegetables, ir.cludir. cabbage, carr^'..~, eel _)", lettuce, onions, vc:::atoes,
sweet corn, and so fcr-h. It was usc-d in r-.n effort to control sue:; pests'
as arnyvorws, cutvorr.s , thrips, flea beetles, corn earv:or:n, cabbage loopers,
grasshoppers, tomato fruit vorms and to.T.ato russet ~itcs. For the period
1951 to I960 the estir.a^ed average annual loss to all vegetables due to
insects vas $185 million.
The 1972 value of production for the 22 vegetables and melons
monitored by the Crop Reporting Board, SE3, U3DA, '.."as $1.8 billion, an
increase of $.1; billion from 1971. Planted acreage in 1973 vas 1,718,960
acres, an increase cf 2 percent over the 1971 acreage.
A general, bread spectrum substitute for Lo.-.aphene on vegetables
is inethomyl (Lannate). For certain specific pests various substitutes are
available: diazinon and nalathion for thrip control; flea beetle control
may require the use of carbaryl and methoxychlcr in the absence of
toxaphene; endosulfan, r.ethoxychlor and naled an blister beetles; carbaryl
for corn earwor-n: on sveet corn; and parathior. or dusting sulfur and the
tomato russet mite.
Small grains accounted for 1.1» percent of the crop usage of toxaphene
in 1971. The pests at which its use is directed- include arnyvorrris, grass-
hoppers, morrr.on cricket, and the rice stink b'lg on rice. The 1951 to I960
estimated annual loss due to insects on wheat, larley, and oats vas 6.1
percent. Damage to rice by the stink bug vas -estimated to be approximately
three percent.
213
-------
Anr,yvor:ns fluctuate rrcr.tr/, undergo; r.g cycler-, which reach destructive
peaks at varying pericos. Du-'r.ngc is done by tho larvae in the for:?, of
consuming the foliage ar.d young rrain heads. These pests r.asc; migrate
from field to field so that spraying the field margins to create barrier
strips nay help prevent this trend. Cutvorns feed on foliage and cut
off the plants at the soil line. Toxaphene is applied as an emulsion
spray to plants and the soil surface.
Grasshoppers lay their eggs in the ff.ll, usually confining this to
limited areas of uncultivated land or clover, alfalfa and stubble fields.
Spraying of these hatching areas is the most economic method of control
since, v'nen the grasshoppers are small, they are easily killed. V.;hen
they reach the migrating stage, the method of creating barrier strips
may be employed. Application of toxaphene for arr.yvorn and cutvorm
control will also provide control for grasshoppers.
The rice stink bug does its damage by sucking the contents from
the developing rice grains, leaving an osipty seefi coat or a discolored
spot on the seed levering yield and quality. Toxaphene is applied as
an emulsion spray to control this pest.
Carbaryl is a possible substitute for the use of toxaphene on all
these pests of the small grains. Major disadvantages to its use as coin-
pared to the use of toxaphene include a shorter period of effectiveness,
higher toxicity to beneficial insects (bees, in particular), and more
variability of effectiveness of control vith varying veather conditions.
214.
-------
Ethyl and/or methyl parathion are suggested as substitutes in control
efforts of several of these pests.
215
-------
-------
Table A-l
Effectiveness of Several Insecticides and Combinations (with and without DDT) ]_/
Applied As Sprays Against the Bollv/onn and the Boll Weevil, Florence, S.C., 1967
Seasonal -Square Infestation
Insecticide % punctured
(Ibs. a. i. /acre) by boll
weevil s
% injured
by boll
worms
% bolls
injured by
boll worms
1967, 18 applications, July fi
Methyl parathion, 0.75
Methyl parathion + DDT, 0.75 + 1.0
Toxaphene + methyl parathion, 2.0 + 0.75
Toxaphene + DDT, 2.0 +1.0
Toxaphene + DDT, + methyl parathion,
2.0 + 1 .0 + 0.75
12 a
8 ab
7 ab
10 a
5 b
4.0 a
1.8 be
2.2 b
1.0 cd'
0.7 d
14.9 a
5.5 be
6.2 b
5.4 be
2.6 c
Yield of
seed
cotton/
acre (Ib.)
to Oct. 5
875 b
1461 a
1220 ab
1380 a
1514 a
]_/ Means followud by the same letters are not significantly different according
to Duncan's multiple range test at the 5% level.
Source: "Evaluation of Substitutes for DDT in Field Experiments for Control
of the Bollwoi-m and the Boll Weevil in Cotton: 1967-69", A. R. Hopkins, et.
a!., Journal of Economic Entomology, Vol. 63, No. 3, pp. 848-850.
-------
Table A-2. Comparison of yields from insecticicial treatments
for pink bollv/onn control. Phoenix, 1967.
Treatment
Check
Thuricide
Toxaphene-Dylox
Ho bam
Methyl Parathion
C'P -47114
Toxaphene-i'lethyl Parathion
GC 6505
Toxaphene-Azodrin
Azodrln
Tovaphene-DDT
loxapherie-Azinphosmethyl (Guthion)
Azinphosmethyl (Guthion)
Rate
Ib./A
2 qts.
3-1.5
1.0
0.5
1.0
3-. 63
1.0
3-. 63
0.63
4-2
3-1
1.0
Mean Plot
Yields
201.0
285.0
355.0
358.5
378.5
395.0
396.5
413.5
418.0
430.5
431.5
453.0
485.5
Stat. Siq.
53 1%
a a
b b
c c
c c
cd cd
cd cd
cd cd
de cde
de cde
de cde
de cd"
ef de
f e
1
Duncan's Multiple Range Test; treatment means followed by the sane
letter are not significantly different.
Source: "Evaluation of Insecticides for Pink Bo11 worm Control,"
T. F. Watson and D. G. Fullerton in Progressive
Agriculture in Arizona, Vol. XXI, No. 2, pp. 4-6.
-------
Table A-3. Effectiveness of insecticid:-s for lieliothis control,
Experiment 4, College Station, 1970 !_/
Percent Hellothi s D^:,i'^2J
seasonal averaqo Seed cotton
Treatment and dosage
Toxaphene-methyl parathion
(2.0-1 ..9 Ib per acre)
ULV
Conventional emulsion
Methyl parathion
(1.5 Ibs. per acre)
ULV
Conventional emulsion
Outside Check
Squares
9.94/
15. C
10. 04/
17.1"
35.0
boils
11.5
12. C
9.647
18.7
23.2
per acre 3/
788
705
837
615
_]_/ Main plots 0.25 acre, 32 rov/s wide, 4 replications of 4 treatments;
4 applications of insecticides from July 27 to August 17, 1970.
2/ Heliothis infestation 52" tobacco budv/orm and 48fJ bo 11 worm.
3_/ Estimated from boll counts.
4/ Significantly less than paired figure for conventional spray.
Source: "Field Tests ef Chemicals for Control of Tobacco Budworms
and Bolh.'orms on Cotton, College Station," R. L. Hanna, in
Investigations of Chemicals fpjr Control of_ Cotton insects
in Texas, 19_70-71, Texas AiM University - Texas Agricultural
Experiment Station.
219
-------
Insecticide
Table A-4
(Pounds A.I./Acre)
Yield Seed Cotton/Acre (Pounds)'
Control (untreated)
Methyl Pa rath ion
Toxaohene + Methyl Parathion
Methyl Parathion (encapsulated)
Galecron + Methyl Parathion
' -
(1.0)
(3.0 + .75)
(1-0)
(.25 + 25)
695.25
1844.75
1952.75
1608.25
1641.50
c
ab
a
ab
ab
_!_/ Means followed by the same letter are not significantly different at the
5% level according to Duncan's multiple range test.
Source: North Carolina State University Experiment - Insecticide
Screening Test, Rocky Mount, North Carolina, 1971
-------
Table A-5. Effectiveness of insecticides for lloljot|vrs_ control in
cotton (surv.iary --5 replications) Lxpcripient 2, College
Station, 1971
Lbs. per
Insecticide Acre
Methomyl Dust
Galecron --
Fundal
Phosvel (ULV)
M. Parathion
(Encapsulated)
M. Parathion
(ULV)
Mob am
(MCA 600)
M. Parathion
EPN
Toxaphene
H. Parathion
M. Parathion
1 (Encapsulated)
Orthene *
Check , ^
0.5
1.0
1.0
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.0-0.5
2.0-1.0
0.8
1.5
Percent !!::! iotiii s
Squares?/ Dol
7
8
14
11
13
15
14
19
16
19
16
38
.6 a
.6 ab
.8 cd
.9 be
.4 bed
.5 . cd
.8 cd
.5 cd
.5 cd
.1 d
.7 cd
.4 e
2.
2.
7.
7.
8.
9.
11.
12.
15.
17.
17.
27.
I/ Injury
"1 s2/
0
3
5
9
2
6
5
8
1
8
8
3
a
a
ab
be
be
be
be
be
be
c
c
c
Yield Lbs._2_/
Seed Cotton
1340
1437
1205
1126
1061
928
936
946
860
844
928
418
ab
a
a be
bed
cd
cd
cd
cd
d
d
cd
e
J/ Percentages of bollworms and tobacco budwoms estimated by collecting
I eggs v/eekly and rearing for identification as larvae. Eags collected
1 7/20 were 34% tobacco bud-..-ornr, 8/2, 23-i; 8/10, 51%; 8/16, 75%; 8/23, 95%.
2/ Means of 3 May-planted and 2 July-planted plots. Statistical sep-
aration of means based on analysis of variance and Duncan's multiple
range test.
Source: "Field Tests of Chemicals for Control of Tobacco Buc!v:orms and
Bollwonr.s on Cotton, College Station," R. L. Hanna, in
Investigations crf_ C_;'.a:"ic?.l s fo_r_ Control o£ Cotton I meets
iD. JjL>-ifLi> 1 970-71, Texas i-.U-\ University - Texas Agricultural
Experiment Station.
221
-------
ro
£0
ro
Table A-6. Yield in pounds of lint per acre at five field locations, and the average yield of the five
fields in relation to the insecticide treatment and .yield in equivalent untreated check plots.
Treatment
Untreated check
Bacillus thuringienses
Sevin 15/100
Methyl parathion
Sevin 8/100
Source: "Bollworm Control
April 12, 1971.
1
Field Number
1 2
857
914
831
747
760
1084
992
1035
1020
976
\JL
1053
1053
1037
375
339
4
1133
1139
990
1198
1076
5
1227
1006
1134
906
584
Averace
Yield/
Acre *
1071 a
1021 a
ir:25 a
949 ab
847 b
Average
Number
Treatments
0
8.8
4.2
7.0
8.2
1969", J. Hodge Black, in Kern Cotton,
TREATMENTS AS FOLLOWS: (a) Untreated check - early season lygus and mite control as needed (all plots in
(c)
in
4
each field treated the same); (b) Bacillus thuringiensis applied as needed based upon worm counts;
methyl parathion applied as needed based on worm counts; (ci) sevin and sulfur dust at 4 pds active
per acre (applications made at 15 small worms per 100 plants as needed); (e) sevin and sulfer dust
pounds active per acre (applications made at 8 small worms per 100 plants as needed).
followed by the same letter do not significantly differ as indicated by Duncan's multiple range test.
-------
Entomologists Contacted
Cotton
1. ])r. Roy J. Lebctter, Department of 7.colijrY-E.titcmo.LC£y, AUGUST. Uni vcrsity.
2. ' Dr. T. F. V.'atscn, Department of .":.: cmnlf-r/v, University of Arisen?., Tucson.
3- Gordon Barr.es, Extension Ir.tomolc.-i st, Ur-ivc-rrity cf Arkansas, Little Rock.
h. Dr. W. G. Eden, Depar^mer.t of Entom-jlcry, Florida State University.
5. Dr. Tandarday, Field Entcmoloiriot, University of Georgia, Tifton.
6. Dr. R. A. Scheibner, ;>:r,art:v?r.t c;"1 Irr:tcr::.lcry, University of Kentucl'.y.
7- Drs. L. D. I.'ewsome and D. F. Clov.-er, Department; of Entornolooy, Louisiana
State University.
8. Ji;r. Ha-ncr, extension Ir.to:::ologiDt, Mississippi State University.
9. Dr. R. L. Robertson, Department of Er.tor.olc^y, ^orth Carolina State
University.
10. Dr.' D. C. Peters, Department of Sntcriolc./, 0-:laho.~a State University.
11. Dr. L. M. Sparks, Depc.rt:::ent of llnto-olcgy, South Carolina State
University.
12. Drs. Ray Frisbie ar.d Lynn Hanna, Extension Entc:r.ologist and Associate
Professor, C'exas Ai." Univej-sity.
13- Vernon Burton, Extension Er.tor:olo.~ist, University of California-Davis.
Livestock
1. Dr. W. C. Clyr.er, A>-ea Entomologist, Texas AL'-I University, Amarillo.
2. Dr.,H. L. Brooks, Department of Entoclcry, Kansas State University.
3. Dr. 'J. F. Butler, Department of Entor.ologj- and ^eratologi", University
of Florida.
1*. Dr. Gen Schubert, Chief Staff Veterinarian, Animal Health Division,
APHIS.
5. W. M. Hantsbarger, Department of Zoology--Entomology, Colorada State
University.
6. Dr. G. D. Thomas, Department of Entomology, University of Missouri-
Columbia.
7. Dr. J. B. Campbell, Department of Entomology, University of Nebraska.
8. Dr. Wayne Berndt, Extension Entomologist, South Dakota State University.
9. Dr. J. S. Lloyd, Division of Plant Science-Entomology Section, University
of Wyo.'aing.
223
-------
Strobane
A chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticide, strobane is very similar to
toxaphene. It cane into sone prordr.er.ee during the 1960's for use on
cotton and, to some extent, as s. nothproofer and household insecticide.
Farm use of strcbane for 1966 and 1971 is summarized in Table
In 1966 its use vas reported in the Appalachian, Delta, and Southeast
regions, the largest amount (97 percent) in the Delta states of Arkansas,
Louisiana, and Mississippi. Its use in 1971 vas reported in the Appala-
chian and Mountain regions. All of its farm use for each of these survey
years was reported for cotton pest control.
Table
Quantities of Strobane Used on Cro?s and Acres Treated, 1966 and 19T1
Pounds Active Ingredient Acres Treated
Year -1, OOP- -1,000-
1966 2,016 225
1971 216 18
Source: Quantities of Pesticides Used bv_ Farmers, 1966 and 1971,
USDA-SRS.
-------
The principle registered uses of strobane are on cottonv usually
in formulations with DDT, nethyl parathion, or both. It is applied
in rates of 1 to U pounds active ingredient per acre. A tolerance
level of 5 pp^ has been established on cotton seed for strobane's
use. Its pesticidal efficacy appears to be quite close to that of
toxaphene. See Table
In a concentration of 5 percent strobane has been registered as
a mothproofer for the treat.-r.ent of woolens and fabrics subject to
damage by fabric pests. A 2 percent concentration is registered for
use as a household insecticide, when combined with synergized pyrethrin
and other ingredients. Strobane is used as a residual ingredient in
pesticides for use in coinmercial premises outside of the edible pro-
ducts area. Another registered use is in a 3 percent concentration
for purposes of embalming.
The only remaining producer of strobane ic Tenneco, Incorporated.
Indications are, however, that they have not produced any in the last
five years. Thus, any strobane that is being used is from the surplus
built up'when it was in production or from importation. As a proprietary
chemical, importation figures are unavailable.
225
-------
Table
Comparison of Effectiveness of Conventional
Low-Volure Sprays of Certain Insecticides Against
Adult Boll Weevils Cared cr. treated Plants, Colle-e Station, 1963
Insecticide(s)
Guthion
Methyl parathion
Azodrin-M. parathion
EPN-M. parathion
Guthion (ME)-M. parathion
EPN-M. parathicn
EPN
Azodrin
Strobane-M. parathion
Toxaphene-H. parathion
Malathion
Sevin
Toxaphene-DDT
Insecticide(s)
Actual toxicant,
pounds per acre
0.25
0.25
0.3125-0.25
0.25-0.25
0.09-0. 375
0.125-0.125
0.25
0.625
1.0-0.25
1.0-0.25
1.0
1.6
2.0-1.0
1
Percent kill,
1*8 hours
a
100
a
100
a
100
a
100
a
100
a
98
a
97
a
95
a
93
a
93
ab
' 78
be
68
d
1*8
Means designated by the same snail letters are equal and are different
from all other means at the 5-percent level of probability.
Source: Nenec, S.J. and Adkisson, P.L. "Laboratory Tests of Insecticides
for Bollvorm, Tobacco Budvom and Boll V.'eevil Control" in
Investigations c_f Cher.icr-.ls for Comrol of; Cotton Insects in Texas,
1968, Texas ASJ'l University, Texas Agricultural Experiment Station.
-------
CHAPTER VI
Summarized Review of the Use of Toxaphene and SUrobane
in Relation to the Hazards or Safety of Continued Use.
VI.A. Toxaphene:
Toxaphene insecticides, as developed by the Hercules Powder
Company of Wilmington, Delaware, have been registered for a variety
of purposes on agricultural crops, in premises, and on livestock since
the early 1950's. The earliest registrations were on vegetable and
forage crops. However, agricultural uses expanded rather rapidly
to include many fruits, vegetables, and field crops, including the
small grains. However, usage on animal feed crops did not persist
since it was not possible to obtain necessary tolerances in milk
and poultry products. Tolerances on a considerable number of fruits
and vegetables were established as well as in the fat of meat of
slaughter animals and on the principal small grains.
Table VI.A. contains the registered uses, tolerances and registered
substitutes for toxaphene. It will be noted that there are tolerances
of seven parts per million on a considerable variety of fruits and
vegetables as well as in the fat of meat of cattle, goats, hogs,
horses, and sheep. In addition, there are tolerances of 5 parts
per million on a variety of small grains and on cotton seed, as well
as certain tolerances for toxaphene alone or mixed with DDT on soybeans.
Clearances for use on bananas is also noted. However, usage on fruit
and vegetable crops has never expanded to any great extent. In
22?
-------
recent years, major uses of this pesticide have been combined with DDT
to control a variety of insect pests on cotton, including the boll
weevil and bollworm; as water-based dips and sprays for biting
flies, ticks and lice on slaughter livestock, and the last two for
corn earworm and other leaf-eating insects on peanuts and soybeans.
Although certain home mothproofing treatments were registered,
the household applications never became important. Similarly, soil
treatments and lawn applications never became major uses.
Toxaphene is a relatively persistent complex chlorinated hydro-
carbon insecticide with a fairly broad spectrum of toxicity to leaf-
eating pests and external parasites of animals. It has not created
any major problem of environmental pollution, although it has a
relatively high toxicity to fish.
228
-------
TABLE VI.A.
Cro;> or Site
°*_.-'M-:' 11 cat ion
S^XU TREATMENT: VEGETABLES
.iiFAsZ' P-i'-.s»
w;^"-7t ~"~
Tolerance
(ppm or
nor.-.'ood)
NF
REGISTERED USES OF TOXAPHENE
Dosage Ibs. per Acre
or Concentration Limitations
2.0 oz/bu. seed
Tests
Seed treatment. Do Seed-corn maggot
not. use as food or wireworms
feed.
Substitutes
chlordana, heptachlor,
lindane
(Croon, velvet, Lir-a,
Cow: Lies
NF
Soybg 3P.s
2.0 oz/bu. seed
2.0 02/bu. seed
2.0 oz/bu. seed
2.0 oz/bu. seed
2.0 oz/bu. seed
Seed treatment. Do
not use treated seed
for food or feed.
Seec' treatment. Do
r.ot use as food or
feed.
Seed treatment. Do
not use as food or
feed.
:;coil treatment. Do
not u.-jc as food or
feed.
Seed treatment. Do
not use as food or
Seed-corn maggot
wireworms
Seed-corn maggot
wlreworns
Seed-corn maggot
wireworns
Seed-corn rcaggot
wireworr.-.s
Seed-corn maggot
Uireworras
chlordane, diazinon,
heptachlcr, lindane
chlordane, lindane
chlordane, diazinon,
lindane
heptachlor, lindane
diazinon, heptachlor,
lindane
-------
TABLE VI.A. (cont'd.)
Crop or Site
of Application
Tolerance
(pp::: or
nun-food)
FOLIAGE TREATMENT: FRUITS AND NUTS
Apples
Dosage Ibs. per Acre
or Concentration
16.0
Limitations
l)o not apply after
.second cover spray or
within 40 days of
harvest.
Pests
Eastern tent
caterpillar
Grasshoppers
Registered Substitutes
carbaryl, lead arser.ate,
n-.alathion, nethoxychlor,
parathion
to
CO
Apricots
Bananas
(not more
than 0.3
in pulp)
12.0
1.5
(3 pints of
80% liquid
concentrate/A)
Do not apply after
second cover spray
or within 40 days
of harvest.
1 day. Apply by
aircraft as ultra-
low volume (un-
diluted spray.
Grasshoppers
caterpillar
Grasshoppers
Leaf eating
caterpillars
Ceramidia species
parathion
malathion, nethoxychlor,
parathion
trichlorfon
-------
KO
CO
. Ci'.O? Oi\ TOLHIl/'J-ICii
i_'52 (?P~ or
r.or.- foot'.)
(Cont.)
ROSACE
(Ibs. ncr
Acre)
LTXT.7ATT.OXf;
Do not graze treated
area to dairy ari::'.als
Leaf eating trichiorfon
caterpillars
Paaches
Pears
50.0
5.0
16.0
or animals hein;:.
finished for si ai: .".liter.
To be applied to trunk
and soil. Do not apply
when fruit in prv::
-------
10
CU3
to
:;;.-;' ox
USE .
(ppm or
nor.-food)
(Ibs. per
Acre)
LIMITATIONS
Ri-T.TSTK^KO f.K^.ST7'":-7^
C-jinecs
Kickorv nuts
Pcsnr.s .,
10.0
10.0
1.50
"CI.IACS TREATMEN'T; VEGETABLES
7
6.0
(cry, green,
Grasshopper
parathion
Dust or spray. No time
limitations.
No tine limitations.
Rci.i-bnr.ncd leaf cavbaryl, Can!o:ia, :\iradr.n,
roller lc;:d ar;:enaLc, :v.aiathio.i,
parathion, ryania
Lygus bugs
Oriental fruit, r.ioth
Thrips
Pecan weevil
Pecan-nutcase
bearer
EPi«, guthicn, :r.al.-.thior.,
parathicr., 'ThioJ.'.n
Dust or spray. No time
limitations.
Pecan weevil EPX
Spittle bugs C'jthion, parathion, Tr.iodan
Walnut caterpillar
Fall webworr.is
Walnut caterpillar
No limitations on use o.t" Army-worms
shelled beans as human
food. Do not apply dusts to
green or snap beans within Mexican bean
7 days of harvest. Do not beetle
apply sprays to green or
snap beans after pods begin
to form. Do not feed treated
vines to dairy animals or
animals being finished for
slaughter.
carbaryl, methyl parathion
para t h i.o"., t r ich 1 or for.
c.".r!i.-.ry! , di.-.::: p.on, '.H'X,
Gi:i:!:io:-, ,::.'. I :>. i'.-.i on , r:.c;\iz>:
chior paratliion. i'ho.uirin,
rotonor.o, Tr iL'>. ic-n, ?!;ojpha
do:\, tvichloric'.'.
-------
(p;>". or
non-food)
(drv, jrecn,
lir..-.)
(cc::r.)
Broccoli
Brussels Sorouts 7
DOSACii
(Ibo. per
Acre")
8.0
LIMITATIONS PESTS
Bean leaf hopper cnr!i.~.ryl , :v.lc:d, c;.;:-.ir.cr.,
n-.ct'r.vl :v.rathion, paravhior.,
Phosdrin
Do not apply after edible Armyvorn-.s c.-u:!>.-.ryl, ~v.-thyl par.-.thion,
parts begin to form or par.-'.lhion
within "30 days of harvest.
Cabbage loopcr n.iU'd. Hi: t'lior.. i..:n:i;;to ,
i'iu'i.i! r i \\, '1'ii lovi:'.::
Imported cabbage c;::-!-..-.vy 1, :-,.;lod, C::::.io:;,
worm Lr.nnn to, li:\;l.-.:-.c , :..,'.I..'_'.'.icr.,
p;:r.: Ll'.i.o::, Phojurin, Ti'.iod.'.r
Serpentine leaf Phosdrin
miner
Cabbage caterpillar -.:-..: I .ill; io:i
;; y n c r ; i:: o d py r c t h r in o
syncr)-.i::cd pyrct';-.ri:-.s
di.".::inon
Cabbage worn
Diar.-.ondback tr.oth
Corn carwor^i
Ru tv-'orms Dylox b.'.it
Flea beetles syr.cr^ir'.cd pyrctl-.rins
Green peach aphid cia-incr.
-------
z:.:,> c:> TOLii:i.'.::(
US 2 (ppr.-. or
nor.-food)
DCSAC
(Ibc. pci
Acre"*
LIMITATIONS
PKSTS
Brocco]i
Erus-.cls Snro-jtr.
^Cont.)
Colerv
5.0
Fioli! crickets
Salt :::ar:;h caterpillar
Cr.n:: r.hoppors
Stink iiu;':"-
Tortoise beetle
Venerable weevil
Aphid:;
Do not apply after plants Cabbage worms
start to bunch or after
plants arc half -.nature.
lind.nnc, nvilatb.ier.,
par. ".ti: ion, Phoscria,
Celery leaf tier lindano , parathion.
CO
10.0
lir.cianc, Thor.d
nalod
PhosUrin
Cu tworsnc
Fr.ll armyworms
Serpentine leaf
r.;incr
Tnrips
Vegetable weevil
Leaf r.-.it-.cr p::rat':iion
Imported cabbage worn-.
Green peach aphid syncr<;i^cd pyrctl-.vins,
Thiod.:.-.!
Loopcr;:
Arir.ywornis
30 days. Dust,spray or Cutworms
granular formulations. Fire ant
Do not feed'treated forage
to dairy aninalc or ar.irr.als ?ruiu tree leaf
being finished for slaughter. roller
Thrips
Western Tussock
ir.oth
dia^inon
paratnion, caroarvl
-------
'; rr.C;» CX TCLSilAXCE ' DOSAGE
. { USE . (ppr.i or (Ibs. per
non-food) Acre)
:itn:s:
(Con:.)
s ,
i '
i
i ; 5.0
EO '''
* . ' Collards 7 2.0
$ *** '*
4.0
LIMITATION'S
Wet or dry bait formu-
lation. Do not apply
broadcast when edible
parts arc present.
To be applied as a soil
treatment when no fruit
is present. Do not feed
treated forage to d.vii'y
ani:nals or animals being
finished for slaughter.
Single application.
14 days, (dust)
23 days, (spray)
21 days, (dust)
PF.STS S:T.TST:-".P>"D S"riSTT7i:7F.S
Grasshoppers
Cutwor-s chlorcane
Grasshoppers chlort.-.nc
Cutwonr.s , chlordane
Grasshoppers chlordane
Ar:r.y worms carb.-.ryl, me't'r.oxycl-.lor ,
parat::i.on
Cabbage loopcr Bacilli::: t'.'.ru i:v;ionr. is ,
iVilcd, Ji:-..;:v.-.o, :-.i 1 .: Lh ;.
Coi'n
2.0
Granular formulation European corn
only. Do not feed ensilage borer
fro;:i treated corn to dairy
anir.-.als or r.niv.:al:; being
finished for slau^'nter. Do
not ^ra^c dairy a:u':-.:als on
treated stover within 4
v:ooks of slaughter. No
limitation on use of
grain.
carb.'.ryi . di-'s.:i".o:\, l^P
par.iti'.iua, ryar.i.i
-------
CO
""; c:::'):1 0:1
Corn
(Cor.t.)
Cotton
r.on-fooiO
DvJJACK
(Ibs. per
Acre)
LIMITATIONS
(cottonseed)
6.0
4.0
Do not feed treated Arr.-,yvorms
forage Co dairy aniir.als
bein?, finished for Corn, carworn
slaughter. No li;:iiCations
on use of grain.
-Do not graze dairy animals Eoll weevil
or animals bcir..~ finished
for slaughter in fields
treated late in the season.
Bollworm
Beet arir.yworm
Cotton leaf
perforator
Cotton leaf
Fall armyworrns
Fieahoppers
c.-.rii.-j-.-yl, :v..'t!iyl p.:v:.t!:i.on,
c:ii'li;:i-y I, ciiloronno ,
i! i."i:: in or., r.x1 Lhoxvclil or
c!;!.or<:;::ic. t-nOrin, i^VX,
parnLlsio:-., r.-.^E'.iyl Crirhicn,
A:u-.d:-;:'., car:>.-.ry I , eruivin,
i-:r.\, r.-cLi-.yl p.-ivati-.ior.,
Si.roh.-i;-.!.'
. L-J-. io;-. ,
j',:..!:-in. c:::-;.:i:-y I , ;.:.:].; chion,
::u-t!.yl ;i..y.. vision. Xoti-.yl
Tr : ::.: : o:-. , ;->.-. r." cii ion,
triciilor :'cn
c.-. -.-:-..-. ryl, ,.:-.,!: in, Sirobnnj,
triciii.-.r l\-n
carhary!, ciiiordnn,-, cndrin,
r.-.otiiyi :i.".v,;-;:iio:-i, Strob.-.no
Bi.!v:.n, c r.r :-,.-. ry 1 , chlcrdanc ,
r..-,!oi:, ^norir., C;: = ;-.io:-.,
r-vJlati^on, v.of.-.yl par^Lhion,
-------
(?p~ or
non-food)
DOSAGE
(Ibs. per
Acre)
LIMITATIONS
Cotton
(Cor.;.)
Leaf worm
Arr.iyvorin
Wcbworms
Flea beetles cnurin, trichlor^on
Garden wcbwom c.-.i'iv.ry 1. oiuirin, C;;tr.ion.
;:..:!. :Lh: o:\, ::;jLhyl p.'.iv. Lhion,
Sti'o'n.T.io
Grasshoppers cc.ri-.c:ry 1. c:iloro;:no ,
:;-.al.iLi:-:.iir., :v.jL'nyl pr.rr.Li'.ion,
Si:rii!>:::-.u
Lygus bugs B.i.drin, c;:r':.i.'.ry 1 . ciilorc.r.nc,
Xirids c;-.('.V.i n, :.:: l.itiiior.. ::-.v.:th.yl .
p',:o:; ;!:.::.'itior , S t rob;:no,
trier. Lor l.nn
Stink bugs cr.rh.-.ry! , :.>-L'!:y! par;-.L:iion,
lir icii i 01': ?r.
Thrips I',i.i'.rin , c.-irlviry} , cr.iirir.,
Yellow striped c-.u:vin, ;::ct:-.yl p.irathisn,
anr.yrfor^a trie':: lor Ton
Dylox bait
Darkling ground trichlorTon
beetles
-------
*::.:.> o.i
uss
Cotton
(Cor.t.) .
'i'0:.£.\AXC£
(??:.-. or
non-food)
DC^ACii
(Ibs. per
Acre) LJKITATTOXS FKSTS RKf:TS7"T:-T> S:;^.S7TT:'7"S;
Loaf tier
Cov.-3'c.-.s
8.0
4.0
3.0
Pink boilv:orn
Cabbage loopor
Tobacco budworm
Horn worm
/
Do not .apply after bolls Garden wcbworm
open.
V.'eatcrn ycllov-
stripcd ar-.ywor
Stink Bugs
Apply with DDT r.s an
undiluted (low voluir.c)
spray by aircraft. Do
not r;ra:;c dairy ar.iraals
or ar.iiii.-.ln bein;- fiivi.r.hcd
for slaughter on treated
areas. Do not feed treated
cotton tra:.;h to c:;;iry
animals or aniir.alu being
finished for :;ls;i;',l!tur.
Ko limitation on u-.ie of Scan leaf hopper
she! Ice! pea:; a:; !ui:-.:an
food. Do r.ot apply to
cowpcas to be u:;cd .is Bean leaf roller
green snaps after pods
bojin to form. Do not
feed treated vir.es to dairy Cowpcas curculio
ar.innls or aniirals being
finished for slaughter. Cutworms
Darkling ground
beetles
Lygus bugs
Southern grccr.
otin'.-; bug
carbaryl, cndrin, Cut!;ion,
Dylox :-.ait
c.-.rbaryi, rr.cthyl p.-rathion,
Ti.iodan , _ trich lor ion
carbaryl, malathion, -cthox
en lor, parathior.
carbary 1, --.cthoxychlor ,
para L'.i ion
carbaryl, Cuthion, "niocaa
carbarvl
Guthion, parathior.
-------
C::G:> c:; TCI.L::U:-:C£ BORAGE
US3 (pp- or (Ibs. per
non-food) Acre) L7XTTATTOKS
Cr.inbnrrJ.es ' 7 5.0 Do not apply after frr.it
starts to for::'.. .
Cucur.bcrs 7 3.0 Do not apply after edible
parts start to form, l-'.zy
be injurious to plant growth.
Er^olnn.s 7 3.0 5 days.
PK^TS RKr.TST"^^ S"'"..C.TTT::~:;^
Army worm:;
Grasshoppers carh.iryl
Cucumber beetles carb.-.rvi, Ci: tr. io:i , r..-.lathicr. ,
li:-.:';. ;.«.:, :r.ethoxychlor , par -
t'.iio:-', Tiiiodan
Flea beetles par.ithiov.i
Annyworms c.'ivb.-iry I
Blister beetle naled, parati'.ior., Thioclan
Colorado potato carb.'.ryl, "-.ct'.'.oxyc::lor ,
beetle paraihion', T.'.ioc.in
Cucuir.ber beetles
Cutworm:; carbnry 1
Flea beetles carb.:ryl, .a1.»id, Ii:'.o2:'.o,
Leaf hoppers
Serpentine leaf r.ir.cr nalcd, lir.Jar.e, n.-.rat'.-.ion
Vecctablc veovil
6.0 Do not apply after edible
parts start to form.
-------
i USE . (r-p- or
non-fooc)
Ko'nlrr.bi ' 7
_,.
DOSAGE
(Ibs. per
Acre1)
LIMITATION'S PESTS KKnTSTi'nF". .'-."".-T-V-FS
8.0 Do not
parts
within
apply
begin
30 da
to
ys
fter edible Corn carwortn
forr; or
of harvest. Cutv;orr.a r.-.i-ti-.yl ;vi:v: thio-n ,
trie!'. Io-.-f-.i-.-.
Imported cabbage- H,:c LI ".*.::; C:*.::;-1 :i.-i <.:::.: i:.,
:..-!l;:L::"i
-------
CKO.' 0?, TOLlirV.r.'C:i DOSAGE
:^SZ (??"' or (Ibs. per
r.3-.-''cod) Acre) LIMITATIONS PKS7S
to:tr.cn . Flea beetles carbaryl, r.-.r.thyl par.-.thior.
(Cont.)
Grasshoppers ?:;osdrir.
Salt -riarsh cater- naicd, :v:;osdrin, trici-.lorion
.. ' pillars
Tiirips allet;-.rin, Di-Sys:or.
Loopors Tiiioc-.-.i, allcth-rir.,rori:har.c
^..^ Stink b;:Gs
Tortoise beetle
! Vegetable weevil
to ''.,, ' f:iylli^
^ ' Ly-'us ir,;;-s
bP^ > '
r^ '-.. Falao ci-.inch bugs
***^ ' v.'p.bwori^n
Okra 7 5.0 Do not apply after pods Cutworms Phoscrin
besin to form.
Serpentine lenf niner narathi
Tt'.rips
Crickets
Tortoise beetles
Salt !-.v.rs!i caterpillars
Caij'jnge looper
Grasshoppers
Stink bu;;s
7 5.0 Do not apply after pods begin Leaf miners
to form if pods are to be
used as food, or within 7 days Lygus bugs
of harvest of pods arc not to Ar:;:ywor:i:s
be used as food. "Co not feed Cutworm;
vines to dairy anir.ials or Fall r.r:.:yv.-or--.s
aninials being fattened for Flea beetles
slaughter. Vegetable weevils
. Cov;pca curculio
-------
(pp::i or
r.or.- food')
(Ibs. per
Acre)
LIMITATIONS
PKS7S
3.0
6.0
2.0
5.0
5 days.
Do not apply after peppers
begin-to form.
Do not apply after edible
parts start to form.
Arir.ywor-s
Blister beetles
Colorado potato
beetle
Cutworms
Flea beetles
carlv.ry 1, ::vt::yl p.-irau>.ion
carliavyi, ir.ctl'.oxyc'nlor
c.'irb.-.ryl, :r.echyl p:;i-at:'.io"
cr.rbary 1 , n.iloci, :r.oi:'.oxyc:iior,
n-.L-tiiyl par.nt!'. ioii, p.-.iv.thion,
Fruit worms
llornworrr,
Pepper weevil
c.nrbavy 1 , :v.ct'.-.oxyc'.-. lor
carbaryi , paraLhion, Tiiiod.'.n
Serpentine leaf ir.ir.cr c.i,\::i:;o:i, n.-.lk.->:, d-:~othcct
.1 in Jane, para i.'.: io;-.
I.oopern
Lea Choppers --.^
S;:lt r.-.arsh caterpillar
Cabbage loopcr
Crn:j;'.l:oppers
Stink bu;-,a
Tortoise beetle
Crickets
Vegetable weevils
-------
USE
(pp::; or
non-food)
DOSACii
(Ibs. per
Acre)
LIMITATIONS
Pineapples
Potatoes
Extended
2.25 Apply when first whorl
of flowers is open and
repeat 7-10 days Inter.
Do not feed waste froin
treated pineapples to
daii-v or neat r.nimnla.
/
/
20.0 Prcplantinr; "soil tre.itr.-cnt
at time of planting. Single
application.
^
6.0 Foliage trcatrr.er.i: only.
No time li-.iations.
Eatrachcdera species
lenidoptcrans larvae
Batrachcdera species
lepidoptcrans larvae
(nuraosis)
Arr.'.yworms
00
Colorado potato c.-.riv.ry 1. ch lord.::-..?, c;i;-.j:ir.on,
beetle nnHY., :'.:i.t'".io:-., r.^lhoxycliior,
Cutworms p.-iv.-iul! i.on
Foliar caterpillars r.:t-:.;-.y I p.-ir.nt'.iion, p.-.rj L'-.ior.,
Flea beetles c.-.rlv.ry ! , (!i.i::i::o::, :-..-.U-u,
C;:th:o:i, i-.-.oti-.yL p.-.i-atliion,
Grasshoppers :;:.-.l.-.Li-.icn, parr.:'.:: en, Iv.:or,drin
Horraor^ car'.>;.:; I, paraLnio:'., T::iocan
Leaf hoppers
parr.t'.-.ion,
Phoscrin
-------
CK
(ppn or
non-food)
LCSAG2
(Ibs. per
Acre)
LIMITATION?:
PF.S7S
Pot.-:toor,
(Cont.)
Rutabagas
/
6.0 Do not use treated tops
for food or feed.
Potato aphicis
c! 1.-.:: v nor., i-.r. 'i. o u,
ci l:v.o Ci'.o.i LC , Cu til i or.,
~.".lnt;iio;-. r.uti:"1 '>T>-;
riioailrin, par a th ion
Tortoise beetle
European corn borer carbaryl
Serpentine leaf borer
Salt marsh caterpillar
Cabbage loopcr
Stink Ini^r.
Cr Lckctr.
To-.n.-.to russet mite
P:;yllid:;
P-1 i:; Lor bit^i;
I.y;'.i;u '«:)'.:'.
l;al:;e cliinch bugs
Cabbar,e worms
Cu tworns
Flea beetles
carb.-.ryl, rr^ilat!:ion,
parr, tl'.ion
ch] ovJc.r.e
cnrbaryl, n-.ethoxychior
Spinach leaf miner
Su;-,.ir beet wcbvorm
Ar:::yworni
Salt ::v.rsh caterpillar
Cabbage loopcr
Gra:;s!ioppors
Stink bu'-a
Tortoise beetle
Crickets
Tcrr-ato russet tr.itc
-------
CTI
TCLEIL'.NCS
(ppm or
non-food)
DOSAGE
(Ibs. per
Acre)
LIMITATIONS
PESTS
2.0 23 days. Do not apply n-.orc
than once after heads ;:tart
to form. Do not i-.rnxc dairy
anir.ial.s or a:ii;-.:aU'. hoi;-.;;
finiohed for .-, L:u:.;>'.tor on
treated fields. :)o not
ensile treated forai-,!..
3.0 40 days. Do not apply more
than once after heads start
to for:n. Do not ;*,r.".:'C dairy
ani-ials or animals being
fini'jl-.C'j for ola;:;',htc--r on
treated ficlda. Do not
ensile treated forage.
Chinch bu£s
par a th i.or
Cutworms ;:-.OL:-.yl ;\
Uriel: lo-.-
Corn lantern fly
Fall artr.yvorms'
Grasshoppers
Lessor corn stalk
borer
Mormon crickets
Flea beetles
r.-idiion, j;
:>n
rath ion,
Crickets
Blister beetles
Sori'.huin v.-cb'.-.-orm
Garden webwor:::
Fai::e chinch bug
parat'.iio:'
2.0 3.0
(soybeans dry form)
3.5
(combined toxaphenc
and DD, toxaphene
not to exceed 2.0 pp:r.)
6.0
(crude soybean oil)
Apply with DDT as an undi-
luted (ultra-low volu-ic) spray
by aircraft. Do no!: apply
closer than 21 days before
harvest. Do not r.u-.he ::iorc
than two applications after
pods forr.;. Do noc food plants
treated with tox.-'.pi-.er.c-DDT or
ensilage nu-ide fro::i treated
plants to poultry, dairy
ar.inals or anirulr. being
finished for slaughter.
Velvet bean caterpillar
Bo 11 worm
Corn carworra
Bean leaf beetle
Ar-iywcr:-
Crasshopper
Blister beetles
Green clover wors-.
-------
to
J Li'SIi (">?" or (Ibs. per
non-food) Acre) LIMITATIONS
Sovbc-.-.nr. . Do not feed soybean nill
(Cont.) trar.h to livestock cr
poultry.
2-41bs. 21 days. Do not feed treated
(dust or plants or ensilage r.-.ade from
spray) treated plants to poultry,
PESTS R~r.TST~.rx~n S;:~.STT~:T~S
Velvet bean caterpillar
Bollworni
Corn carv.'orrr.
2.0
(soybeans, dry
fonr.)
6.0
(crude soybean
oil)
4.0
dairy anirr^ls or animals being Bear, leaf beetle
finished for slaughter. Do not Arr.-.yworn;
feed mill trash to livestock Grasshopper
or poultry.
Blister beetle
Green clover wo
Arniyworms
Bean leaf beetles
Blister beetles
Corn cirwora
Crickets
Flea beetles
-ryl, n-.cthosychlor,
.parat'.'.ion
carb.-.ryl, rr.ethyl par.-;
carharyl, r:cthyl para;
para ti'iion
carbc.ryl --.othyl psrathior
r.:otl:oxychlor
carbarvl
Grasshoppers
Green clover worm
Lcs:;er corn stalk
borer
Southern £reen stink c.trbary 1., rr.ethyl para'
bug Til led.;:-.
Ti-.ripG carbaryi, r.v.lr.thion,
Velvet bean ccter- carbr.ryl, r-.othrxyc'.-.ior
pillar ~oL::yl parat:iio.i,pr.rr.t:
V,'ebworrr.s carbr.ryl, rr.etr.yl parati
-------
Scvasans
Snlnnch
(pp:r-. or
r.or.-food}
DOSACK
(Ibs. per
'
LIMITATIONS
Strawberries
4.0 Do not apply" after seedling
stage.
2.0 21 days. Do not apply
more than once per
season.
3.0 Do not apply after fruit
starts to form.
Alfalfa caterpillar
Cu tv.-or-is
Mexican bean beetle
Salt :n.ir.-;h caterpillar
Eollvcirni
Cabbage loopcr
Alfalfa loopcr-
Ariv.yworir.s
Cabbage worms
Cabbage loopcr
Cutworms
Crccn peach aphid
Serpentine leaf
miners
Strawberry crovn
borer
Strawberry weevil
Tiirips
Cotworms
. Spittle bugs
Lygus bugs
Cu tworr.-.s
(plant beds)
:::etho:-:ychlor
c.nrbaryl, r.-nled, --.ethyl
pa rath Lou, par a th ion
r.:: 1 Ov! , :.:0thoxych lor ,
p-irathion
p
paratiiion
chlorJane
T.cthoxycl1. lor
Diptcvex bait, methyl
parathior.
-------
USE . (PP" o-
nor.-£ood)
Tomatoes
DOSAGE
(Ibs. par
Aero1)
2.0
5.0
2.0
LIMITATIONS
1 day. .
3 days.
1 day.
Pi'.STS
I *Two pour.d rare only.
Armyworr-.s
Blister 'beetles :-;;.lo..!, ::;L.-tho:-:yi-iilcr,
ivir.-il'.iii.-:!, TH-O.!.-.;:
Cabbage looper- j'-.ic i.!. Is'.:: Lh::r; :-.;.: *,:-. ::,
n.: I..!, :..'-'t'.;yi p;.:'.: t:i or..
riu>::.!ri.::, ,Mi';;Li: io:i, T!;iocan
Colorado potato e.-.vXiryl, :"..".lev!, i"..:t io:;,
beetles lind..:-.>. :::.: U-.L:-. ir.:.
Cutworms c.:r!.'.;ry L
Flea beetles c.:yb;:::v! , c!ilo:-.:.-.:-.o, r.r.loi,
Grasshoppers'-'-' Cuth i.c:i .I'ho.-'.dvir., :i.-.i\-.:'.:io:i
Green ch.rysanchen-.urn --.ethyl pnr..th io;-., p.".y.:ti:icr.,
apb.ids Pho.'jiirin
Russet niites nalcd, i/.cc!;yl par." thion,
Pi;OL;c:r;.:i. ;->r.rat:'.ior.
Serpentine leaf chlori!:'.::c , din::i .:.-J::. ;-..:ioc,
-incrs <.'.L".~-~'.:c.::--c., Ci:tI-.:.-.:-., l::i;:^:-c,
tric::lor io:i
Tnrips Guthio-.i, lindanc.parath.ion
I J
-------
jo-.~.toos
iO!.!-:KAXC!i
(pp:« or
nor.-feed)
DO.'iACli
(Ibs. per
Acre')
LIMITATIONS
Toir.ato fruit worm c.-.rb.-.ry!, cryolite- bait,
nalcci, Cv.thion, :v.cu:'.oxycr
Leaf miners
llornworms
Crickets
ijar."Lw!'.io:i
to
2.0
5.0
1 day.
3 days.
Salt marsh caterpillar
Tortoise beetle
Vegetable weevil
Tomato psyllid
Corn carworn
Tomato horn wonn cr.rb;;ryl,
FOLIAGE Tr.SATMESiT: BUSH A-ND VINE FRUITS
3Iac!:bjrL-ics 7 25.0 Prcplar.tin^ soil treatment Cutworms
or when r.o fruit is present.
Loganberries
25.0
5.0
Wet or dry bait formulation.
Do not apply broadcast when
edible parts arc prcccr.t.
or :c:i
cliioriiano
-'Xot on loganberries.
-------
to '
cn
O
(p;-,;i; or
r.on-fooc'.)
SCWACli
(Ibs. per
Acre}
LIMITATION'S
Alfalfa Extended
(Seed Production)
FOP-AGE CROPS
Do not feed treated forage
to dair>' anir.uls or aninuls
being finished for slaughter.
2.5 Apply in early spring or after Alfalfa cater- Ear i tin.-. t.ir.:r: r. . v:-..::.;,
cutting before new growth is pillar c..-.;>..;:% I, .:..;.'./ L ;-.:. .-.t::ior
4 inches tall. .::>:L'.-.i-xvc'.ilor . i'iio.-.d-.-j.:-.
3.5 Do not feed treated forage Alfalfa' leaf hopper cariiaryl, Cr.Lhi.ou, --a 1.:;;h ion,
iv.othyi j'aratliion, ::.<. tiiOMychios
Alfalfa loopcr pyr.-t.hr In:;, rot^-.-.o-o
Alfalfa weevil c! i/..: i :-.o:-.. v"n::i ii.:., :V.:'..J;::-.,
Clover leaf weevil r.:.;1. .:_:. :.>:., :-v-U::.->x
Cutworms r.:OL:;yi p.;v:; t'.; Liv..
Corn cutworm
Flea beetles r.;oclioxyolilor , ir.cti-.y 1 pa-.itr.:
Grasshoppers cr.vi>::ry : , cir..:i.r.^::, -.-.:;! v!v!.
Mormon crickets
Pea aphids i!o:::cl:iv.-., ili.i.-. L:;o:i. Cut!;ion,
Plant bugs Ci:t!;ior., ::::; laChio:-., -othvl
-.r.iilon , ur ic:;lor fon
Spittle bugs Guti-.ion," -r.IjtV.ior.,
-------
JO
.'-.Ol' OS
USE .
Y'CLUiiANCE
(pp:r. or
no--food)
DOSAGE
(Ibs. pc
'Acre)
LIMITATION'S
?~STS
CSO?S : Al f.-lfa
(Cone.)
Extended 25.0
Svish r.nd Vine Fruits:
31c.c'.<::orrics
Eoyce.r.berrics
Dc-wbcrric-s
A.O
Apply as a prcplnntinc soil
trc.ntncr.t or before edible
parts start to form. Siaylc
application.
Do not apply after fruit
begins to for;?.. '
Stink bu^s
Sweet clover weevil
Thrips'
Wobworas
Yellow striped
ari;iywor;n
Crickets
Leafrollers
Ti'.rce-covered
alfalfa hopper
Cu t-.vorna
Cutworms
r.ialr. ihi on, Uric!:! or for.
Urich !or:"on
::-... I.'.:yi p.!;-.-. chi o:-., ;->::rr.t
Ur I ci: U.r Con
Green clovcrworm r.aU:J.
Lcafhoppcrs dia::i
Alfalfa wcbworm r.alcx!
Tortrix ;::oth
parauhion
Dyiox bait
-------
! C.:>',.' ox
KO
CJ1
to
\ bas. (Pi'"1 or
! nor.-food)
IX Jo AC !i
(Ibs. per
Acre)
LIHT.TATI 0:\T>
PF.STS
Cranberries 7
: Raspberries
: Youncbcrrics 7
Strnvbcrrics
Raspberries 7
25.0 Prcplanting soil treatment
or when no fruit is present.
Single application.
5.0
25.0
5.0
25.0
5.0
4.0
Wet or dry hnit formulation.
Do not apply broadcast when
edible parts arc p;:e:;<_'iit .
Prcplantinc soil treatment
or when no fruit is present.
Single application.
Wet or dry bait for.-.-.ulation.
Do not apply broadcast when
edible parts arc present.
Prcplanting soil treat::ient
or when no fruit i:~. present.
Single application.
Viet or dry bait formulation.
Do not apply broadcast when
edible parts arc prosor.t.
Do not apply after fruit
begins to form.
Cutworms
Grasshoppers
Cutworms
Cutworms
Grasshoppers
Grasshoppers
chlord.v.-.o .
ch Lord.'.r.o, lir.Jav
chlovi'U'.r.o
carbaryl
-------
1 c:;^:' OR TG;,!;KA::CE
| USE (pr.:-.-. or
r.or.-foo:!)
SOIL AXD 2AKK TRF.ATXiCNT:
TV-ci'l:ioi:s Fruits ,-iru! Kuts:
Apples ' 7
Apricots
:!::::oir.uts
liickory nuts
Koctarincs
Po.-ciics
Pears
poc.-i-.is
Quinces
Walnuts
DOUACii
(Ibs. per
' Acre) l.IMITATIOX^ VESTS R::T.T$T:V!7:i S:'"* r~"
25.0 Soil application. Apply to
trunk, scaffold branches,
and coil when 'no fruit is
present. Do net fccci
treated for;-.;;.', to dairy
animals or ani::-..-.l:: being
finished for .slaughter .
Single applic.-.tion.
5.0 Ucjt or dry bnie for::ml.Ttion. Crasshopocrs
l~.J..T) AjvD FIBER C^OPS :
Parley 5
Oats
Rice
Do not apply broadcast when
edible parts arc prcjcnt.
25.0 Apply as a preplanning soil
treatment or before edible
parts start to form. Single
application.
Cutworms
chlordar.c
Corn (field and pop) 7
25.0 Apply as a preplanning soil
treatment or before edible
pju-ur- scare to fora. Single
application.
3.5 Do not feed treated forage to Armyworras
dairy animals or .-nir.v-.l:;
being finished for nl::i:;;htor.
No limitations on the use of
Chinch bugs
Cutworms
Grasshoppers
Rice stink bucs
c.-'.rb.-.ryl, :::.-. l::V.:io:-.,
chlori:;::;o
-------
01
n-food)
C-rrnts 7
(root crops)
Garlic^ Locks,
Onior.r, S< Sh.illots 7
DOiACii
(Ibs. per
Acre)
LIMITATIONS..
Cn-lons "
15.0
2.5
15.0
2.5
4.0
5.0
Single preplanning soil
treatment or before edible
parts- begin to j.o::m.
U'ct or dry baic forr.ral.ntions. Crickets
Do not apply vd'.ca edible parts
arc present, UII!C:;G dosage is Cutworms
within limits o£ ot'.icr applica-
tions of t'.iis insecticide. Grasshoppers
Cutworms
Japanese beetle larvae
chlor
-------
ro
en
tn
j CSi.;' CXI TOL.'CUAXCE
* o'Sii (ppr.i or
r.or.-f.-ioc!)
Horseradish 7
7
I '
t
Parsr.ins' 7
"Potatoes Extended
c.
DOSAGii
(Ibs. per
Acre) T.TXT7AT70XS
3.0 Do not use treated tops
as food or feed.
15.0 Single prcplnntiv.;; soil
treatment or before edible
parts l-cjjin to forx.
2.5 Wet or dry l>ait formulations.
Do not apply w!:e:i edible i>arts
arc present, unlc;;:; dosap.c is
v^ within limits of other applica-
tions of (ii is inseiticide.
5.0 Do not use tops for
food or feed.
15.0 Single- preplan tin;; soil
treatment or before edible
parts bej;in to form.
2.5 Wet or dry bait formula-
tions. Do not apply when
edible parts arc p"_'e:; ! . , . . S
Flea beetles carbnryl
Cutworms chlordanc
Japanese beetle larvae
Crickets , c;i;l or<'.:i::e
Cutworms c!: 1 oi'i'..:no
Grasshoppers chlor J.:::o
Kolc crickets c!:Jord.::-.e
Grasshoppers carb.-.vy '.
,,...,.. . :,..._,.,,
Japanese beetle larvae
Crickets
Cutworms
Grasshoppers
Kolc crickets
Radishes
15.0 Single preplanning soil
treatment or before edible
parts bcjjin to for:::.
2.5 Wet or dry bait fo:-iulations.
Co not apply when edible parts.
ere present, unlcs:; dosage is
within limits of other applica-
tions of this insecticide.
Cutowrms
Japanese beetle larv;
Crickets
Cu t worms
Grasshoppers
chlordane, ri:
.e chlordar.e
-------
(P:<::: or
nor.-food)
Radishes:
(field,greenhouse) 7
UOSACii
(Ibs. per
'Acre)
LIMITATIONS
5.0 No time limitations.
Cu r.woiY.ts carbary 1
Fcliaj-.e caterpillar cr.rb;-.ryl , p
to
CJ1
Rutabagas
SOIL AND BARK TREATMENT:
(r.or.-root crops)
Ee.-r.s 7
25.0
2.5
25.0
2.5
Single preplanting soil
treatment or before ccJiblc
parts begin to fo"n.
Wot or dry bait formula-
tions. Do not apply when
edible parts are present:,
unless dosage is within
limits of other applica-
tions of this insecticide.
Salt marsh caterpillar
Cabbage looper
Grasui-.oppers
FJ.i-a booties
S 1 Lr.!< 1'vij1.:'1
To:: 1.011:0 booties
Gi'iclcoLs
Toiv.ato russet mite
Cutworms chlorca-.-.c
Japanese beetle larvae c::lordr.:-.
Crickets
CXi twornis
Craushoppcrs
>;olc crickets
Cu tworr.-.s
ch 1 orc..-.n
Single preplanting soil
treatment or before edible
parts begin to form. Japanese beetle larvae chlorci.-.nc
Wet or dry bait formulations. Crickets
Do not apply when edible parts Cutworms
arc present, ur.lcs-; dosage is Grasshoppers
within limits of other appli- . Mole crickets
cations of this insecticide.
-------
J USE
(rip:-.-, or
non-rood)
(Ibs. per
Acre")
LIMITATIONS
snap)
to
CJ1
5 days. Do not Toed treated Bean loaf roller carbaryl, Cut!-, ioa,
(dust only) vines, (forage) Lo dairy r.ni-
nals or animal
finished lor s
r.vethoxychior, p.".:-;:tiiion
c.-.rbaryl, r.-.ethoxyrhlor,
Phosiit in
cariraryl, metr.yi par".t:iior.(
Ti:ioc!.-.n
ir.eti'.y 1 par a th ion, trich Ior£on
Bean ly-cacnid
Corn carwora
Cowpca curculio
Cutworms
Darklinr,
beetle
Flea beetles
Garden wcbworm
Grasshoppers
Ly gu s bu ;;s
Pea weevil
Salt marsh caterpillar riio::.
phoip!u-.!v,i(';on. trie!:).or Ton
Tlirips
paral'hion, p'.io:;p:-.r.:-.'.ii':or. ,TDE,
Uriel1.1 or L'o n, Tr i t'n ion
Bean leaf skclctonizcr
Bean leaf beetle pyrcthrir.s
'Southern green stink bu£s
Loopcrs
Cucumber beetles
-------
EO
CJ1
CO
USE
(ppra or
r.cr.-fooc)
EC TIS (Cont.) '
and snap)
Brussels Sprouts 7
DOSAGE
(Ibs. par
Acre")
LIMITATIONS
PF.S
8.0 Do not apply after edible
parts begin to form or
within 30 days of hr.rvcot.
Cabbage loopcr
Stink bur,:;
Tortoi:;e beetle
Vegetable weevil
Tobacco buciworins
Armyvoras
Cabbage loopcr
Imported cabbage
wortn
Thrips
carbaryl, methyl parr.thion
n.-.lcd, Guf.'.ion, I.;-.:-.:-.ate,
tln.on, riiojorin.T.-.i.v.Ian
carbaryl, :-.,:U-d, C.ithior.,
pa iv. tl si. o:-., 'I'hosUrin, I'lir-dar.
Serpentine leaf ir.iner r!-.o:;.!ri:
Cabbage caterpillar r.ialathior
Cabbage worm sy;-.c'r;.',i.:e(.;
Diaiv.ondback r.'.oth syr.^-i j'.x-.-.od
Corn carvorms dia:'.i:-.o:i
Irlea beetles uy:-.orgi-:od
Green poach aphid dia^inon
Field Crickets
Salt mari;h caterpillar
Crasr.'noppers
Tortoise beetle
Vegetable weevil
Aphicls
-------
en
(JD
L'JS (op:n or
r.or.-fooc)
Bir.rx^vcc! nc.is
*Cowpeas only.
Broccoli 7
r.n:ssolr. Snrouts 7
7
7
:..
Japanese beetle larvae chi^r lur.c
Crickets
Cutworms
Grasshoppers
Mole crickets
Ci: twonns
c!: lord. ::>.
chlord.'.iio
Japanese beetle larvr.c
Cricicct:;
Ci:tworr.;s
Crass hoppers
Kolc crickets
ci: Icr.i.-.i-.o
chlordano
chlord.-.nc
-------
r.or.-food)
(Ibs. per
Acre)
LIMITATION
PF.STS
Cabh.ic.c
(Cone.)
4.0 Do not apply after heads
start to form.
carbary!, ::-.ot!;yl p.-.rathion,
par;:thio:i
lii-.ii.ino, ::..-.'..-.Uhi0:1, ;v.v;;thion,
Arrr.yvorins
Cabbn;;e loopcr
Imported cabbage worm car!:.-.ryl, r.r.icd, C-.:ti:io:i,
L.-'.n:-..-. Lo., ii r.,:.:r.o ,;-.:'. lac hi on,
pare:'oiio:-., I'/.c^c"!". ,'J.V.ioJ-n
Tnrips li'.icinr.o, .-.-.o.thvi p.-.rr.c':-.ion,
paratiiio:;
Serpentine leaf miner Pl;o:;;iriii
Cnbhajc caterpillar nalati\io:i
Dian;ondb".ck r.-.oth r.ynor;'.i-'oj pvrethrinr.
Corn carworir.
-------
(pp:r. or
nor.-food)
(Ibs. per
Acres'}
LIMTTATTOXS
Ciullflover
to
en
25.0 Single prcplantinp soil ' Cutvor-s
treatment or before edible
parts-begin to form. Japanese beetle larvae chlordar.c
2.5 WcU or dry br.it Cor:::u3ationj. Crickcliu cii; or,'.a:-.o
Do not apply when edible parts
arc present, unlcs:: lorcauc
vjithin limits of other appli- -
cations of this insecticide. Grasshoppers ch lora.xr.c
v >!olc crickets c:-.lovJa;-.e
8.0 Do r.ot apply after edible Anr.ywor-.s c.'.vb.-.ryi, :-..'t::yl
parts bcgiii to for:n or pr.r.-;:':.U.-.-i, p.-.-.-.-.ii:_o;-.
within 30 days of harvest. ' .
Cabbage loopcr r.alvVi, (.';;:;: i'o:i, I..::v/.::to, lir
C:.-.:K- , :: :! ,\l':: I <;:*,, p;;r.it'.il.ii:1i,
?;-.osi!r: :'., V.. Ui.I.::-.
Imported cabbage worn-. c;;v':<.". i'y : . :./. Lv-.'., r.it'iior.,
I..::i::.-.Lc, !.-:;-..:.::-.o, :::::lr.';::-;c
p.-.r ..;'::: on, :.1'.-.C::J.rii-..'/.-.ioJ.^r
Tiirips li:-.J.-.;-.^, ::ouhyl paruthio.-,
parr.t:-.;o::
Serpentine leaf miner I :-.o.u;i-ir.
Cabbage caterpillar :-::!.:: :i i or.
Imported cabbage worn :.>:-.»:.-.L-.o-J pyx-or!:rir.s
Dian-.or.dback r.oth
Corn carworrr. ciia::i:-.or.
Cutvorxs Bylox bait
-------
V».tW. C-*
use
(ppn or
non-food')
BO-AG!-:
(Ibs. per
Aero1)
LIMITATION'S
Ca-.iliflov.'or
(Cone.)
Carrots
Ccl.irv
'5.0 No time limitations.
5.0 Do not apply after plants
start to bur.ch or after
plants are half mature.
Flea beetles syner;;i::ed pyrcthrir.s
Green peach aphid dia::inon
Field crickets
Salt i;'.::r:-.h caterpillar
Stink bu;'.
Tortoise beetle
Vegetable weevil
Aohi
-------
r.cr.-fooc)
DOSACI;
(las. per
Acre}
LT.MITATT.ONS
?F57S
Colcrv
(Con:.)"
Corn
25.0
2.5
25.0
2.5
Leaf miner pc.rathion
Imported cabbage worm
Green peach aphid synergi::cd pyrethr
Loopcrs
ins, .mocan
Single preplanning soil
treatment or before edible
parts begin to form.
Cutworms
chlorJr.r.c, c.ia::ir.
Wet or dry bait formulations. Crickets
Do not apply when edible parts
arc present, unless dosage is Cutworms
within limits of other appli-
cations of this insecticide.
lir.cic.nc , 'par;; t
Japanese beetle larvae ch.l.ord.-:-.c
ci; i'o rU:: r.e
c!: lordc.no
c'". ] or Jar.c
r.ir.on,
hio:i
Single prcplantini; soil
treatment or before edible
parts begin to fortn.
Grasshoppers
Xolc crickets chlorcc.no
Cutworms c!ic.::inon
Japanese beetle larvae chlorcane
Wet or dry bait formulations. Crickets
Do not apply when edible parts
are present, unless dosage is Cutworms
within limits of other appli-
cations of this insecticide. Grasshoppers
ch.lorJar.e
Mole crickets
-------
~1
cn
Ci;:X' Gl', VULli.V-.NCE DOoACli
j USE (pp-.v. or (Ibs. per
non-food) Acre.)
Cuci-.r.bors . 7
Eerolant
25.0 Single preplanning :;oil treat-
ment or before edible pai'ts
begin to form.
2.5 Wet or dry bait fonv.ulations.
Do not apply when edible parts
are present, unlesj dosage is
within limits of other appli-
cations of this insecticide.
25.0 Single prcpinnting noil
treatment or before edible
parts begin to form.
2.5 Wet or dry bait f ornr.il ations .
Do not apply when edible parts
are prcscn t, iinle:;r, dosage is
within limits of other appli-
cations of this insecticide.
25.0 Apply as a prcplanting soil
treatment or before edible
parts begin to form. Single
application.
25.0 Single soil application only.
Do not apply after first
cultivation.
Cutworms uia:-.ir.r
Japanc.se beetle larvae chl
Crickets chlorda
Cutworms chlorcla
Grasshoppers ' chlord.:
Mole crickets chlord-i
Cutworms ciil ord.
Japanese beetle larvae ciil.
Crickets ch iovt'.i ^:o
Cutworms ch;.ord.'.r.o.
Grasshoppers aldrin, chiordanc
Mole crickets chl3iV..'.:-.e
Cutv.-orms dia:: ir.o:~.
Southern corn-rootwoi'm r>'.
-------
(pp~ or
non-food)
COii/.Cii
(Ibs. per
Acre.)
LIMITATION
Pcar.-.;ts
(Cont.)
6.0 Do not feed treated forage
to dairy animals or ar.i-uls
being, finished for slaughter.
Corn carworm
Cutworms
Flea hopper
Green clover worm
Leaf hoppers
car iiary 1
c.-.rbaryi, :r.cthoxychlcr, '
CO
CD
CJ1
25.0
2.5
Single prcplanting :;oil
treatment or before edible
parts begin to form.
Leaf worms
Red-necked peanut
worn
Southern green
stink bug
Thrips
Velvet bean
caterpillar
Fall ar;nyworm
Cutworms
Japanese beetle
larvae
Wet or dry bait formulations.
Do not apply when edible parts Crickets
arc present, unless dosage is Cuti.-or-s
within linits of'other appii- .Grasshoppers
cations of this insecticide. ' Koie crickets
paratl'.ion
cr.rb
car b
aryl.i-.-.r.l.
r y 1 , -x:
thion.pr.r
':-. o x y c '. -. 1 o r
chlorJ.ar.
-------
! 'JiE . (ppm or (Ibs. per
nor.- food) Acre1) LIMITATIONS
Pon:i?rs
?i~c-ncos 7 25.0 Single prcplantinj; soil
treatment or before edible
' parts- begin to form.
'
2.5 Wet or dry bait formulations.
Do not apply when edible parts
arc present, unless dosage is
within limits of other appli-
cations of this insecticide.
Sninacn'- 7 25.0 Single preprinting soil
X treatment or before edible
parts begin to form.
2.5 V.'ct or dry bait formulations.
Do not apply when edi.ble parts
, are present, unless dosage is
within limits of other appli-
cations of this insecticide.
Tomatoes 7 ^ 25.0 Sinclc nrcnlantina soil
treatment or before edible
parts begin to form.
2.5 V.'ct or dry bait formulation.-..
Do not apply when edible parts
are present, unless dosage is
within limits of', other appli-
cations of this insecticide.
i
i
i
PF.STS
Cu tworms
Japanese beetle
larvae
Crickets
,
Cutworms
Grasshoppers
Mole crickets
Cutworms
Japanese beetle
Crickets
Cutworms
Grasshoppers
Hole crickets
Cu tworms
Japanese beetle
larvae
Crickets
Cu tworms
Grasshoppers
Mole crickets
chlovdane , dia^inon,
hoptachlor, lindanc
chlordar.c
chlordanc
chlordanc
chlordanc
chlordanc
chlordanc , diazinon
larvae
chlordanc
chlordanc
chlordane
chlor J.'inc
chlord.'inc , dia^incrv,
p.'ir.^ p 'i i on
chlordanc
chlord".:-.c
chlordano
c'.ilordr.nc
chlordanc
-------
"V
(pp-.-.-. or
non-food)
BOSACii
(Ibs. per
Aero)
LIMITATIONS
PF.STS
ANTMAI.S :
Beef cattle
7 0.6% Dip. Do not apply within
(in fat) (in water) 28 days of slaughter.
V.
*Mith other ingredients.
fif c.-.ttle
0.67. Spray. Do not apply within
(sprcy) (in fat) (in water) 28 days of slaughter.
Korr.fly
Gnats
Mosquito
Sarcoptic ir.ange
Screw worm*
Spinosc ear tick
Ticks
Scabies
Chorioptic sites
Psoroptic sites
Cm to
llornf Ly
Lice
Kosquite
Doln.-'v, co-.r.v.-iphoo, 1 ir.i'.ar.c
nii-tlioxyohlor, -: l.-.t!:io:i,
ronnol
lir.da;'.o, ..alathion, rotcr.cr.e
c c u rr.r. p h o :V , . 1 i r. c! r. r. o
Dc.lr.av, cour.;.ip;'.c^ , lir.Jar.o
cii chl orvo.-:
t:;o>:ye!: lor,
rcr.rvcl,
1 'in Chi or. , lin-I-^c ,::,.: i^chion
r.-.^Li.oxyci'.lcv , or;: fo:v.uCo , roc
r.o:-.c
cicnlorvos
-------
! US2
(??--. cr
(Ibs. per
Acre")
LIMITATIONS
Roof citcle
(spray)
Sarcoptic mango lii;.!.!!-.^, ::-.'.l.-itliio:i.
OT) '
CO
*V.°ith other ingredients.
goof cattle 7 5.0%
(dust) (in fat) (dust)
Beef c.ittlo 7 5.07.
(dust bag) (in fat) (dust)
Bocf c.ittlc 7 ,_ 8.07.
(backrubbcr) (in fat) ' (in oil)
Dust animals thoroughly.
Do not apply within 28
days of slaughter.
Applied in dust bags, with
other ingredients. Do not
permit aniinnlo ccco:;s to
dust bn-s for 30 days prior
to slaughter.
Apply by backrubbcr:; . Do
not permit animals :!cce:;a
to trcat-'.enL within 24 days
of slaughter.
Screw worm*
Spinose car tick
cou:-.:.ij->!io:-., liiui.inc,
round
Scabies
1'acc fly
C'norioptic rnites
Psoroptic reites
Lice
Horn fly
Face fly
Cnats
liorn £ ly
Lice
Kosquito
Ticks
Dol-.iav, carbaryi, c
liudane, real athion
1 ii'l.d.'i:"'.o, ;:io ;:hoxy cli I or ,
ro v o:io;:c
co-.ini.-ipi-c.-r., cvoroxyrT.io.-;
Dil".;iv, Cint::ion, lir.,:
r.:alat:iion, r.:ctho>:ychlo
-------
! c;:o!- on TCL-ruMc;; DOSAGE
< L'Si - (?->--. or (Ibs. pet
non-food) Acre1)
Beef cattle 7 5.07.
(in fat) (in oil)
Beef entitle 7 2.07.
(in fat)
Coats, Shcco 7 0.67.
(dip)
'.i
LIMITATION'S ?~STS H"r.-S7"^7.D p:'*S~TTr7rs
Apply sparingly by brush
or sponge. Wet tip:; of
the hair. Do not soak
the hide.
Apply locally as screw- Ear tick cov >''o>-
worai and ear tic.k treat-
ment. Formulated in cor.- Screw-worn ' cou-anhos
bination with other
insecticides as sniear or
liquid.
Dio. Do not aoply v;ithin Kcds co TI-O- D^-l ;,-...;,_c
28 days of slaughter. Do --.a lath: on, ro-.'.nol
not use on dairv coats.
Fleece worms
coi::-..-.p!:o:;, DC-1;-..-. v , lindar.o,
rounoi
Psoroptic ma
Screw-worm
Ticks
c'r.lcr , ror.p.ol, ci'ui'omate
cov.iv.apho:;, lip.J.-.p.c, ro:-.r.oi
Gor.ts, Sheep
(spray)
7 0.67.
(in fat) (in vater)
Spray. Do not apply within
23 days of sl=u£h:cr. Do
not: use on dairy goats.
Scabies
Chorioptic rr.itoo
Psoroptic mites
Fleece worm
cour.-jphoo , Delr.av, lir.tlano ,
-------
1 ,... v> r.,
1 *"£scrt
TOLEilA.'CCE
(pp- or
r.sr.-foofi)
DOaACii
(Ibs. per
Acre1)
LIMITATIONS
Coats. Shoeo ' 7
(Spray). (in fat)
(Cone.)',
0.67, Spray. Do not apply within
(in water) 28 days of slaushtcr. Do
not u§c on dairy £oats.
(oust)
Sheep 7
(in fat)
' 5.07.
(dust)
Bust animals thoroughly.
Do not apply within 28
days of slaughter.
Kcds
Lice
Psoroptic mange
Scrc'.v-worm
Ticks
Scabies
Chorioptic mites
Pjoroptic mites
KcJs
Coats. Sheet? 7 2.07. Apply locally as screw-
worm and fleece worm treat-
ment. Formulated in combi-
nation with other insecticides.
Swir.e 7 0.67. Dip or spray. Do not apply Lice
(in fat) (in water) within 23 cays of slaughter.
*Xot for dip.
oumnphoK , lir.tl.v.-.o, ror.:-.ol
C.o:.::v..".;x:o.'. , cr. /'.'.". ry , Do i:-.,-.v,
cro uoi< '"'O o 1 i r.v..'. .'.
Lice
Fleece worm
Screw-worm
coi::-.:.-. ;-.:..-:: , 1 i:-.0..-.:-.o , r.-p Uthior.
Dclr.nv
DoL-av
-------
j USE (??^i or
non-food)
Sv;i.r.e
Swine
(dost)
Swine
(bnckrubber)
2C3AC1:
(Ibs.
Acre)
5.07.
(dust)
S.07.
per
Dust a
Do not
days o
Apply
Do not
LIMITATIONS
niir-.als thoroughly
apply within 28
f slaughter.
by rubbing devices
permit animals access
Pr.STS R/.rtTST:-^"-! :\'--^T~T.:-!f.
Sarcoptic r/.an^e r";lr t'%-1' on v"o^"~ "Cd
pyreLi-.rins
Tick:;
C!;orioptic mites
T^oroptic it-.ites
syncrgi:;ec! pyreth.rins
Sarcoptic tr.angc
AGRICULTURAL PREMISES;
Ar. :-:'. Is Shelters
to this treat-lent within 28
days of daughter.
400 p.g/sq. Dust or spray. Apply to in-
ft. tcrior and exterior sur-
faces, also exterior of
dairy barns.
Flics
(oxclucir.g dairy barns,
-i;k roo~s, and poultry houses)
Grain elevator:
400 rcg/sq. Apply to interior :irul
ft. exterior surface o.a ;i
residual treatment. 3o
not apply to or con-
taminate grain or other
foods.
Grain and
Cereal Pests
-------
j t'SE . (??-' or
non-food)
Grass 7
(range only) (in fat of
rr.cat from
cattle, coats,
; ho~j .horses,
i and sheep)
! Forage
Extended
DCWAC-i
(Ibs. p
Acre)
1.5
2.0
(in water)
or
LIMITATION
Only one application per
season.
Do not apply
per season.
more than once
Do no't {-.raxc
.p.., p-v" --.-.. r , ---,--. --
Army worm n'.olhv 1 ;>:;v. i:... i or. , ;s.. ;\: t:: ion
' Chi_crs
Corn-earworra
Cutv.-orns parntl.ion
Grasshoppers c.".rb.-.x~y 1 , ch Lor<'..:r.e , di.-,-
:: i.r. o : . , n .". 1 .: d , :::. '. 1 . . t '. '. i o : . ,
dairy animals in treated
fields. Do not i^razc .neat
ani-.-als in treated fields
within 6 weeks of slai.:i-,..tcr.
Do not apply to forage to
be sold commercially or
shipped interstate.
'.vebworn-.s
Flea beetles
Lcafhoppers
Thrip:;
Loo;>lr.;; f.rai:swor^. complex
V.:;.-.a! >o n
-------
C.;:-.-;' C!; TOLiiilA.'.'CH DO^ACii
USE (ppr.: or (Ibs. per
no:-.- Hood) Acre) LIMITATIONS priSTS
Di'jch Iv. :-'.'. u . ' Chir.r.crs
I-': .' '. ci bor'Uirs
?.«-. ;»!. ti'.os Crickets
V.-. c Ar. t "la r. ds - Grasshoppers
" Ticks
Cutworms '
Flc-.:cr f.nrdcn NF ' 5 or 5 Ibs. per ' Bacworm
Diar-.tF, 100 gals. ^.water-full
Crr.::r;ntals , covcrane sprays.
-.r.c. Sii.-.ric trees
,.TT<.T:.,_^ 0. .,,.,._ .
ci.JorC.-.-.-.o
carb.-iry 1 , ch lonl.-.no ,
ralcd iicit-ci'.lo--
ma lath ion
ciilorc!:i:-.e,Garco-.-.a
Bic!rin,carh::rvl , c'r, lorcar.c ,
ciia::ir.o:: , i! i:::-'^::"..Li.- ,
:v.al;:Li!iiii-., p.:r;.t.':-. i. ..:-. ,
trici: i or i on , Ti'i Li-.io:-.
Blister beetles
Box elder bus
Cabbage loopcr
Canker worms
Catalpa \.'oriii
Cycla:::en mite
Elm leaf beetle
Fall arr.yvorm
Fall wcbvor:r.
Froghoppor
Gladiolus Tnrips
carbaryl,' Motc:-:;y.-. Lo>: I\
carbary 1, ci-.lovc.nr.o
Zeetran
c.ii'bary 1, ;:-.cti-.oxyc:.icr,TDii
cnrb.'.ry 1 , ciil(>:'i'..!:1:c) Di-Systor
Mi-U.".-::y:; to>:-X , : > L:io:-:y c'.ilov,
ci: lord.-. no, r.techoxych lor
c:ilori!.n:-.e , t!ia:-: i::o:'. ,
r.:CL::oxyc':ilor, crichlorion
ir.i lath ion
-------
ro
! C;:;:/ OS
(pp~ or
ncrv-iood)
DOSACE
(Ibs. per
Acre)
a:-.;! Si-.;.t'.c Trees
; (COST.)
-Systemic soil application
VrSystenic soil application
Lace burs
>'aplc worn-.
May beetles ' c
Miiv.osa wcbworm 1:
Spiny clr.-. caterpillar
Pecan weevil F
Sawfly (on pine) E
Tent caternillnrs c
V.'nlnuc caterpillar
Reel spiciers
Tlirir.:-.
u-x>vhlor
r.r. U-u
inor. .^-L-Dyr.Lo:-
Green striped :r.aplc
Crar.s'.'.oppcrs
Crickets
Leafrollcrs
Cucwor-.r.s
-------
!CO '
(pp::-. or
nor.-f ocrO
DCWACii
(Ibs. per
L!MT.TATir.NT.
PKSTS
Ko^scholdand C6r.:r.orci.i
57. or 67. Spot residual application
(in oil or Protect food from exposur
water)
Flics '
Koscuitocs
Roaches
Silverfish
nro-.-ox-.!", ci-.iori;.-.:-.
hc-pt.-ic'.ilor, li:\^:..::c, :.:..;.
ronnci
clilorci.uic, <;.;:: ii-.or., hvpL.-.c:-. lor
liinl.ii'.o, :v.a!.;t::io:-.v 1-0:1.u-L
propoxcr , chi.-.-,:.-.no , ^.i.-,:
hopt.-scl-.Lor, i:;u:.^:-;>-, :....!.
.Kpihoroofir.g
57. in oil Thoroughly moisten out. Do
not \%-et woolens to be pro-
tected. Protection for one
storage season. Do not treat
furs or lif.ht colored items
subject to staining. Repeat
after laundering or dvyclcaning.
Clothes r-.oth r.-.et'r.oxychlor
-------
Table VLB. Strobane;
This chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticide, which is produced
by Tenneco Company, is very similar to toxaphene and is categorized
in the ingredients statement labeling as terpene polychlorinates
with 65 percent of chlorine. The starting material for this
pesticide consists of terpene polypinene and related terpenes.
This pesticide came into some prominence in the middle to late
1960's, primarily as a pesticide for use on cotton, but to some
extent as a mothproofer and household insecticide.
The pesticidal value of these products so far as they have
been investigated, appear to be closely related to those of toxaphene.
The principal registered applications of Strobane are on cotton
and are covered by a 5 parts per million tolerance on cotton seed
for both Strobane and toxaphene. In addition, Strobane at the
level of 5 percent has been registered as a mothproofer for the
treatment of woolens and fabrics subject to damage by fabric
pests. It is also used at the 2 percent level as an ingredient
in household insecticides in combination with synergized pyrethrin
and other ingredients. In addition, it is used as a residual
ingredient in commercial premises outside of the edible products
area. Wet spray application may contain up to 2 percent Strobane.
Table VLB. contains registered uses, tolerances and registered
substitutes for Strobane.
-------
TAIJLK VLB.
REGISTERED USES OF STKOBANF.
Crop or Site
of Application
Cotton
Tolerance
(ppra or
non-food)
Dosage Ibs. per Acre
or Concentration
1-4 (Dust or Spray)
ro
KGUSF.HOU) AND COMMERCIAL
PREMISES:
NF
2% in liquid form and
and pressurized dis-
pensers.
Limitations
Usually mixed with
DDT, methyl parathion
or both. Do not feed
gin waste to live-
stock. Do not graze
dairy animals or
animals being fat-
tened for slaughter.
Usually in combin-
ation with synergized
pyro.thrin or other
xngredtents as space
and contact sprays
both indoors and
outdoors. Food
should always be pro-
jected fron-. chemical
contaminations.
Pests
Boll weevil
Boll worm
i'ink boll worm
Thrips
l.i'Ml" worm
Grasshoppers
F.1 en hoppers
ApHids
Certain mites
Cabbage loopers
Cutworms
Fall army worm
Lygus bugs
Flies
Mosquitoes
Other small
flying insects,
roaches, ants,
sp iders,
si Ivorfish,
bed bill's ,
clothes nioths,
carpet beetles,
scorpions, fleas,
earwigs, hornets,
wasps, i'ly i:-..-ig(-.ots,
exposod stages of
various pantry
pests including
various weevils,
beetles, and moths,
infesting grains and
dry cereal products.
Registered Substitutes
toxaphcne
methyl parathion
synergized pyrethrins,
nalathion, ror.nel,
dichlorvos (DQVP)
-------
Crop or Site
of Application
jiolerancc
(ppm or
non-food)
Dosage Ibs.
per Acre or
Concentration
Limitations
Posts
Registered Si:h«:-ieur
COXXHIXIAL US!!:
NF
JO
<
-------
Tolercr.ee Dosage
Crop or Site.. (p?^. or... .Ibs. per Acre.. . . .
of Application r.on-food) or Concentration Limitation per.to
Embalming:
Use on Cadavers. Nr 37. in pressurized Spray in the Flics
dispensers. body openings Fly ir^
UO r,.-'-L\:::.T;c.
Do nut u^c as
a space spray.
Do not treat
clothing.
------- |