United States Offlca of
Environmental Protection Research and Development
Agency Washington, DC 20460
EPA-600/R-95-119
August 1995
*EPA Characterization of PM-10
Emissions from Antiskid
Materials Applied to Ice-
and Snow-Covered
Roadways - Phase II
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FOREWORD
The U. S. Environmental Protection Agency is charged by Congress with pro-
tecting the Nation's land, air, and water resources. Under a mandate of national
environmental laws, the Agency strives to formulate and implement actions lead-
ing to a compatible balance between human activities and the ability of natural
systems to support and nurture life. To meet this mandate, EPA's research
program is providing data and technical support for solving environmental pro-
blems today and building a science knowledge base necessary to manage our eco-
logical resources wisely, understand how pollutants affect our health, and pre-
vent or reduce environmental risks in the future.
The National Risk Management Research Laboratory is the Agency's center for
investigation of technological and management approaches for reducing risks
from threats to human health and the environment. The focus of the Laboratory's
research program is on methods for the prevention and control of pollution to air,
land, water, and subsurface resources; protection of water quality in public water
systems; remediation of contaminated sites and groundwater; and prevention and
control of indoor air pollution. The goal of this research effort is to catalyze
development and implementation of innovative, cost-effective environmental
technologies; develop scientific and engineering information needed by EPA to
support regulatory and policy decisions; and provide technical support and infor-
mation transfer to ensure effective implementation of environmental regulations
and strategies.
This publication has been produced as part of the Laboratory's strategic long-
term research plan. It is published and made available by EPA's Office of Re-
search and Development to assist the user community and to link researchers
with their clients.
E. Timothy Oppelt, Director
National Risk Management Research Laboratory
EPA REVIEW NOTICE
This report has been reviewed by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and
approved for publication. Approval does not signify that the contents necessarily
reflect the views and policy of the Agency, nor does mention of trade names or
commercial products constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.
This document is available to the public through the National Technical Informa-
tion Service, Springfield, Virginia 22161.
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EPA-600/R-95-119
August 1995
CHARACTERIZATION OF PM-10 EMISSIONS
FROM ANTISKID MATERIALS APPLIED TO
ICE- AND SNOW-COVERED ROADWAYS—PHASE II
FINAL REPORT
Prepared by:
John S. Kinsey
Midwest Research Institute
425 Volker Boulevard
Kansas City, MO 64110-2299
EPA Contract No. 68-DO-0137
Work Assignment Nos. 111-71 and IV-03
EPA Project Officer Charles C. Masser
Air Pollution Prevention and Control Division
National Risk Management Research Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711
Prepared for:
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards Office of Research and Development
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711 Washington, DC 20460
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ABSTRACT
Several areas of the country in violation of the National Ambient Air Quality
Standard for PM-10 have conducted studies identifying the resuspension of antiskid
materials from urban paved roads as an important emission source. In this study, a
field sampling program was conducted on 47th Street in Kansas City, Missouri, during
February and March of 1993 to quantify the PM-10 emissions associated with the use
of rock salt (NaCI) for ice and snow control. A baseline test was conducted in
September of 1993. The emissions were determined using the exposure profiling
technique. The measured emission factors spanned the following ranges:
• Total PM-10: 0.2 to 1.7 g/VKT (winter tests); 3.9 to 4.9 g/VKT (September test)
• PM-10 lead: 7.5 (10)~5 to 4.5 (10)-4 g/VKT (winter tests)
• PM-10 NaCI: 0.014 to 0.039 g/VKT (winter tests)
The wintertime emission factors for total PM-10 determined in this study were about
an order of magnitude lower than the wintertime factors measured in the 1992 Duluth
Study, which utilized a 90% sand 10% salt antiskid material. The studies concluded
the sand from the antiskid material mixture that remained after the road had dried,
constituted most of the silt loading, and PM-10 emission impact. Whereas the rock
salt was removed from the road mostly in the melting slush and contributed only a few
percent to the residual silt loading.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This report was prepared by Midwest Research Institute's (MRI's) John Kinsey,
with assistance from Chatten Cowherd. Charles C. Masser of the EPA's Air Pollution
Prevention and Control Division served as Work Assignment Manager. Jill Hacker of
the Field Studies Branch of EPA's Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics is the
contract's Project Officer. Other MRI personnel participating in the project were Gary
Garman, John Jones, David Griffin, and Alietia Caughron.
MRI-OPPT\R71-01
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CONTENTS
Abstract ii
Acknowledgments ii
Figures iv
Tables v
1. Introduction 1-1
2. Site Selection 2-1
2.1 Screening methods 2-1
2.2 Site survey and selection 2-2
3. Overall Study Design 3-1
3.1 General air sampling equipment and techniques 3-1
3.2 Testing procedures 3-6
3.3 Chemical analyses 3-8
3.4 Ancillary sample collection and analysis 3-11
3.5 Emission factor calculation procedure 3-12
4. Field Sampling Program 4-1
4.1 Source description and activity 4-1
4.2 Exposure profiling results 4-2
4.3 Results of ancillary sampling and analysis 4-27
4.4 Discussion of results 4-31
5. Quality Assurance 5-1
5.1 Performance audit 5-1
5.2 Data audit 5-1
5.3 Data assessment 5-3
5.4 Report review 5-3
6. Study Conclusions 6-1
7. References 7-1
Appendices
A. Material sampling and analysis A-1
B. Example data forms used for monitoring site conditions B-1
C. Sample calculations C-1
MHI-OPPTW71-01 III
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FIGURES
Number Page
2-1 Location of 47th Street test site 2-5
3-1 a Sampler deployment scheme for winter tests (all horizontal dimensions
nominal) 3-2
3-1 b Sampler deployment scheme for September tests (all horizontal
dimensions nominal) 3-2
3-2 Diagram of high-volume cyclone sampler 3-5
4-1 a Silt-loading history for the winter months of 1993 4-30
4-1 b Silt-loading history for the summer months of 1993 4-30
4-2a Comparison of measured vs. predicted emission factors (Eq. 1-2)
for winter months 4-35
4-2b Comparison of measured vs. predicted emission factors (Eq. 1-2)
for summer months 4-35
A-1 Example data form for storage piles A-4
A-2 Sample riffle dividers A-6
A-3 Example data form for paved roads A-9
A-4 Example data form for silt analysis A-13
MRI-OPP7\R71-01
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TABLES
Number Page
1-1 Emission factors developed during 1992 duluth testing program 1-3
2-1 Description of candidate test sites 2-3
3-1 a Sampler deployment for winter tests 3-4
3-1 b Sampler deployment for September test 3-4
3-2 Quality control procedures for sampling media 3-7
3-3 Quality control procedures for sampling flow rates 3-7
3-4 Quality control procedures for sampling equipment 3-9
3-5 Criteria for suspending or terminating a test 3-9
4-1 a Summary of winter source tests 4-3
4-1 b Summary of September source tests 4-4
4-2 AASHTO guidelines for chemical application rates 4-5
4-3a Results of gravimetric analyses for winter tests 4-6
4-3b Results of gravimetric analyses for September test 4-8
4-4a Summary of experimental results for winter tests 4-10
4-4b Summary of experimental results for September test (BC-12) 4-13
4-5a Results of PM-10 emission factor calculations for winter tests 4-14
4-5b Results of PM-10 emission factor calculations for September test .... 4-15
MRI-OPPTVR71-01
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TABLES (Continued)
Number Page
4-6 Results of chemical analyses for lead by GFAA (winter tests) 4-17
4-7 Results of chemical analyses for sodium ion (winter tests) 4-20
4-8 Results of chemical analyses for chloride ion (winter tests) 4-22
4-9 Results of ion balance for NaCI (winter tests) 4-24
4-10 Compound-specific PM-10 emission factor calculations for lead (pb) . . 4-25
4-11 Compound-specific PM-10 emission factor calculations for sodium
chloride (NaCI) 4-26
4-12 Properties of rock salt samples collected from KCP&R stockpile 4-27
4-13 Results of road surface sampling 4-29
4-14 Predicted PM-10 emission factors from measured surface silt
loadings 4-32
4-15 Predicted PM-10 emission factors from measured surface silt
loadings (1992 Duluth data) 4-33
4-16 Ratio of predicted to measured PM-10 emissions 4-34
MRI-OPPTW71-01
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SECTION 1
INTRODUCTION
Several areas of the country that are in violation of the National Ambient Air
Quality Standard for PM-10 (airborne particles less than or equal to 10 jimA in
diameter) have conducted studies to determine the sources of these emissions. One
source of PM-10 emissions identified in a number of these studies is the resuspension
of antiskid material applied to paved roadways. Antiskid materials may consist of
abrasives, such as sand, stone, cinders, or other materials, applied to the road surface
to improve traction or "deicers," which serve to restore pavement traction by prevent-
ing the formation of ice films, weakening the ice/pavement bond, and/or by melting ice
and snow.
The application of certain antiskid materials, especially low durability abrasives,
can create a temporary, but substantial, increase in the amount of fine particles on the
paved road surface, over and above that which is normally present. Prior research
has established a direct relationship between the loading of silt-size fines (particles
< 75 urn in physical diameter) and the PM-10 emissions generated by vehicular traffic.
The empirical relationship between silt loading and PM-10 emissions is reflected in the
EPA-recommended PM-10 emission factors for paved urban roads. This relationship
was developed from a data base encompassing the results of tests conducted under
dry conditions at eight sites, ranging from a freeway to a rural town road (Cowherd
and Englehart 1984).
According to EPA's publication, Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors
(AP-42), the quantity of dust emissions from vehicle traffic on a paved roadway (per
vehicle kilometer of travel—VKT) may be estimated using the following empirical
expression (EPA 1985):
MRI-OPPT\R71-01
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(1-1)
where: e= PM-10 emission factor (g/VKT)
s = surface silt content (fraction of particles < 75 jim in physical
diameter)
L = total road surface dust loading (g/m2)
More recently, a revised emission factor model for predicting the PM-10
emissions from paved roads has been incorporated into the 5th edition of AP-42
(EPA 1995). This model is expressed as:
where: E = PM-10 emission factor (g/VKT)
s = surface silt content (fraction of particles < 75 \im in physical
diameter)
L = total road surface dust loading (g/m2)
W = average weight (tons) of the vehicles traveling on the road
The total loading (excluding litter) shown in the above equations is measured by
sweeping and vacuuming lateral strips of a known area from each active travel lane.
The silt fraction is determined by measuring the proportion of loose dry road dust that
passes a 200-mesh screen, using a modified version of ASTM Method C 136 (ASTM
1993). Silt loading is the product of total loading and silt content. Average vehicle
weight is determined from observations of the mix of traffic on the road of interest.
In a recent EPA study, a literature search, engineering analysis, and laboratory-
testing program were performed to provide air pollution control agencies with informa-
tion on how to identify appropriate antiskid materials that are both durable and
effective and which produce lower road surface silt loadings and PM-10 emissions
(Kinsey et al., 1990). Although that program provided guidance for the selection of
antiskid materials, no direct information was developed regarding (a) the actual PM-10
emissions related to their use, (b) the changes in surface silt loading resulting from
such application, or (c) the degree of control actually achieved by compliance with the
1-2
MRI-OPPTXR71-01
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material selection criteria developed in the study. Therefore, field testing was needed
to evaluate the applicability of the current emission factor equations (Eqs. 1-1 and 1-2)
for predicting the PM-10 emissions resulting from the use of antiskid materials.
To address the above need, a field testing program was performed by Midwest
Research Institute (MRI) during February and March of 1992 in Duluth, Minnesota
(Kinsey, 1993). During these tests, the PM-10 emissions from a four-lane divided
highway were determined using exposure profiling. Sampling was conducted during a
total of three test periods following two minor storm events.* Moderate quantities of a
sand-salt mixture (90% sand/10% rock salt) were applied to the road during each
storm. The PM-10 emission factors developed in this study are shown in Table 1-1.
TABLE 1-1. EMISSION FACTORS DEVELOPED
DURING 1992 DULUTH TESTING PROGRAM3
Run No.
AY-3
AY-4
AY-5
Array No.
D-1
D-4
D-1
D-4
No. of vehicle
passes
1,175
983
220
650
PM-10 emission factor
(g/VKT)
3.91
10.6
1.44
2.29
From Kinsey (1993).
Due to the unfavorable wind conditions during the mandatory testing periods
following these storm events, the accuracy of the emission factors shown in Table 1-1
may vary by as much as an order of magnitude from the "true" PM-10 emissions from
the test road. Additional measurements were needed, therefore, to supplement the
results of the 1992 study, especially for deicing chemicals. This is the primary
purpose of the work reported here.
In the current program, source testing was conducted during two separate time
periods. The first testing phase, conducted in February and March of 1993, was
devoted to the characterization of emissions from a paved road after the application of
a common deicer (rock salt) consisting primarily of sodium chloride for ice and snow
* Note that the winter of 1992 was very mild and lacked major storm events.
MRI-OPPTW71-01 1 -3
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PM-10 emissions from the same road without the influence of the deicing chemical.
The results of these tests are provided in the following sections and are compared to
the Duluth experimental data obtained in 1992.
The remainder of this report is structured as follows: Section 2 describes the
test site selection process; Section 3 describes the overall study design; Section 4
describes the results of the field sampling program; and Section 5 discusses quality
assurance. Conclusions reached from the experimental data are included in
Section 6, and the references cited in the report are listed in Section 7.
1-4 MRI-OPPTW71-01
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SECTION 2
SITE SELECTION
This section describes the site selection process used in the study. Screening
methods are described first, followed by details related to the specific location
selected.
2.1 SCREENING METHODS
Based on almost 20 years of testing fugitive emission sources, MRI has
developed a number of site selection criteria for most generic source categories.
These criteria are useful as screening tools for evaluating candidate test locations
during the site survey. The following selection criteria apply to roadway source
testing:
1. There should be at least 10 m of flat, open terrain downwind of the road.
2. There should be at least 30 m of flat, open terrain upwind of the road.
3. The height of the nearest downwind obstruction should be less than the distance
from the road to the obstruction.
4. The height of the nearest upwind obstruction should be less than one-third the
distance from the road to the obstruction.
5. A line drawn perpendicular to the road orientation should form an angle of 0 to
45 degrees with the mean daytime prevailing wind direction during test periods of
interest.
6. The mean daytime wind speed should be greater than 4 mph.
MRI-OPPTV)71-01 2-1
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7. The test road should have an adequate number of vehicle passes per hour to
enable completion of a test in less than 3 h, in order that testing can be safely
completed during daylight hours.
8. The traffic mix during a test should be representative of the type of vehicles that
regularly use the road.
In the case of the current program, a number of factors other than those listed
above were given special consideration during site selection. First, although most
previous MRI tests of dust emissions from paved roadways were performed during
warm, dry weather, the present study required testing in cold, wet conditions. The
adverse weather conditions complicated both the deployment and operation of the
sample collection equipment. Second, most previous antiskid material emission
studies paid relatively little attention to the material(s) being applied to the road, the
amount being applied, or the frequency of application (PEDCo 1981; RTF
Environmental Associates 1990). Therefore, some means had to be provided for the
collection of detailed data on source conditions during testing.
2.2 SITE SURVEY AND SELECTION
Based on the best available information, it was decided that one of four local
sites (Table 2-1) currently active in another EPA-sponsored project should be used for
emission testing. Although these sites had been selected for determining seasonal
variations in surface silt loading, suitability for possible source testing also was
considered during site selection. As such, each location provided (a) good orientation
with respect to ambient winds, (b) lack of major obstructions in the prevailing wind
direction, and (c) safe and easy access for installation and removal of sampling
equipment. In addition, each of the sites were located near MRI's main laboratory in
Kansas City, Missouri, which would substantially reduce logistical problems and
response time after a storm event.
2-2 MRI-OPPT\H71-oi
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Table 2-1. DESCRIPTION OF CANDIDATE TEST SITES
Site No. 1: 47th Street (also known as Brush Creek) between Rockhill Road and
Oak Street. This section of Brush Creek is a 6-lane road that is divided by a wide
median. Sampling would take place approximately 385 ft west of the intersection
with Rockhill Road.
Site No. 2: Paseo at 72nd Street. This location is a 4-lane boulevard also divided
by a median. Sampling would take place about 100 ft south of the intersection with
72nd Street.
Site No. 3: Highway 71, in front of Mason Land Reclamation. This is a 2-lane
(one-way) frontage road that is very heavily travelled due to road construction in the
area. Sampling would take place approximately 20 ft north of the entrance to
Mason Land Reclamation.
Site No. 4: 63rd Street (just east of Bums and McDonnell). This is an undivided
4-lane street with a very high traffic volume. Sampling of the emissions from all
4 lanes would be necessary. The sampling area starts approximately 150 ft west of
the intersection at Manchester and 63rd Street.
MRI-OPPTW71-01
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From the four candidate sites, 47th Street between Rockhill Road and Oak
Street was finally selected for emission testing (Figure 2-1). This particular road is a
six-lane arterial maintained as part of Kansas City's boulevard system. The site was
suitable for a number of reasons, including its orientation with respect to either
northerly or southerly ambient winds, good cooperation by the local transportation
agency (City of Kansas City, Parks and Recreation Department), and a desirable
traffic volume during daylight hours.
A few shortcomings were noted, however, with respect to the source testing
that took place at the 47th Street site. Although most of these problems were not
unique to 47th Street, they did substantially influence the tests conducted.
First, because of the unusually high amount of precipitation occurring during
each winter storm, snow was cast by the plows into relatively high piles near the curb
of the test road. When ambient temperatures rose above freezing after the storm, the
snow melt would flow directly onto the road surface, keeping it wet for long periods of
time. Because it had previously been established that emission testing should be
conducted only under dry pavement conditions, opportunities for source sampling were
severely curtailed at ambient temperatures above the freezing point.
Second, the major intersections located on each end of the test section were
controlled by traffic signals. These signals typically caused the vehicles to either
accelerate or decelerate as they passed the sampling equipment. Moreover, this
effect was influenced day to day by weather conditions. A relatively consistent vehicle
speed is desirable during source testing to assure reproducible effects of traffic on
road surface conditions.
Finally, a major construction project for flood control was located about two
blocks south of the test site. Fugitive dust generated from this project had the
potential to influence the measurements made during southerly wind conditions;
however, the wet conditions that existed during most of the testing program are
believed to have reduced the impact of construction dust emissions to a negligible
level. Nonetheless, heavy trucks exiting the project did substantially influence the
results of the September testing by increasing the surface silt loading as described in
Section 4 below.
2-4 MHI-OPPTW71-01
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Figure 2-1. Location of 47th Street test site.
2-5
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SECTION 3
OVERALL STUDY DESIGN
The source-directed field sampling conducted in this study employed the
"exposure profiling" approach to quantify source emission contributions. This section
describes the overall study design, including the procedures used for sample
collection, chemical analysis, ancillary sample collection, and emission factor
calculations.
3.1 GENERAL AIR SAMPLING EQUIPMENT AND TECHNIQUES
As indicated above, the "exposure profiling" technique was used for particulate
source testing. This method is based on the isokinetic profiling concept used in
conventional (stack) testing. The passage of airborne pollutant immediately downwind
of the source is measured directly by means of simultaneous, multipoint sampling over
the effective cross section of the open dust source plume. This technique, which uses
a mass flux measurement scheme similar to EPA Method 5 (EPA, 1994a) for stack
testing, does not require an indirect emission rate calculation through the application
of a generalized atmospheric dispersion model. Further details of the exposure
profiling method can be found in earlier technical reports, such as the 1986 EPA
collaborative study (Pyle and McCain 1986).
For measurement of particulate emissions from moving point sources (roads),
vertical networks of samplers (Figures 3-1 a and 3-1 b) were positioned downwind and
upwind from the edge of the road. The downwind distance of 5 m was far enough
from the road's edge that sampling interferences due to traffic-generated turbulence
were usually minimal, but close enough to the source that the vertical plume extent
could be adequately characterized with a maximum sampling height of about 7 m. In
a similar manner, the 10-m distance upwind from the road's edge was far enough from
the source that: (a) source turbulence did not usually affect sampling, and (b) a brief
MRI-OPPT\R71-01
3-1
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X) High volume sampler w/cydone
A High volume sampler w/Wedding inlet and
critical onfice flow controller
""] Warm wire anemometer
T* Wind vane
Array D3
7.0 m
1.9m
Array U1
Direction of Travel
Figure 3-1 a., Sampler deployment scheme for winter tests
(all horizontal dimensions nominal).
JO High volume sampler w/cydone
A High volume sampler w/Wedding inlet and
critical onfice flow controller
I Warm wire anemometer
Wind vane/propeller anemometer
Wind vane
Array D1
7.0m.
Array D3
7.0m
Direction of Travel
Figure 3-1 b. Sampler deployment scheme for September tests
(all horizontal dimensions nominal).
3-2
MRI-OPPTWl-oi
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reversal did not substantially impact the upwind samplers. The 10-m distance was,
however, close enough to the road to provide the representative background
concentration values needed to determine the net mass flux (i.e., due to the source).
As shown in Tables 3-1 a and 3-1 b, the equipment deployment scheme made
use of three downwind vertical sampling arrays, D1 through D3. Downwind arrays D1
and D3 (as well as upwind array U2) made use of high-volume (hi-vol) air samplers
equipped with cyclone preseparators and critical orifice flow controllers. Arrays D2
and U1 used hi-vols equipped with Wedding PM-10 inlets and critical orifice flow
controllers.
During the winter tests, the two vertical profiler arrays (D1 and D3) were located
about 10m apart. As such, the resultant profiling data can be considered as duplicate
measurements of the same emissions. In the case of the September test, the two
profilers were located a considerable distance from each other and thus represent
independent measures of road emissions.
For each profiling trailer (e.g., Array D1 and D3), PM-10 samples were collected
at four downwind measurement heights. Also, during the winter tests, concentrations
of lead (Pb), sodium (Na+), and chloride (Cl~) were determined in the PM-10 samples
collected at each height for one profiler array per test. The PM-10 (and lead
measurements) made by the two Wedding reference instruments were used for
comparison against data collected by the hi-vol/cyclone samplers.
The primary air sampling device in this program was a standard hi-vol air
sampler fitted with a Sierra Model 230CP cyclone preseparator (Figure 3-2). The
cyclone exhibits an effective 50% cutoff aerodynamic diameter (D50) of approximately
10 microns (|im) when operated at a constant flow rate of 40 cfm (68 m3/h).
Throughout each test, wind speed was monitored by warm-wire anemometers
(Kurz Model 465) mounted at two heights. The vertical profile of wind speed was
determined using data from these sensors, assuming a logarithmic distribution.
Horizontal wind direction was also monitored by a wind vane at a single height, with
5-min averages determined electronically prior to and during the test. The sampling
intakes were adjusted for proper directional orientation based on the approximate
average wind direction.
MRI-OPPTVR71-01
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TABLE 3-1 a. SAMPLER DEPLOYMENT FOR WINTER TESTS
Sampler array ID
U1
U2
D1, D3
D1
D2
D4
No. of
instruments
1
2
4
1
1
2
Measurement
height(s) (meters)
2
1.5,3
1, 3, 5, 7
4
2
1, 5
Type of sampler
or instrument
Hi-vol + Wedding
inlet
Hi-vol + Cyclone
Hi-vol + Cyclone
Wind vane
Hi-vol + Wedding
inlet
Warm wire
anemometer
Parameter(s)
measured
PM-10, Pba
PM-10, Pbb
PM-10 + Na+,
cr, Pbb
(selected arrays
only)
Wind direction
PM-10, Pba
Wind velocity
a Lead analysis by EPA Method 239.1 (EPA 1983a) (inductively coupled plasma atomic
absorption spectroscopy).
b Lead analysis by EPA Method 200.9 (EPA 1994b) (graphite furnace atomic absorption
spectroscopy).
TABLE 3-1 b. SAMPLER DEPLOYMENT FOR SEPTEMBER TEST
Sampler array
ID
U2
D1, D3
D2
D3
D3
D4
No. of
instruments
2
4
1
1
2
1
Measurement
height(s) (meters)
3,5
1, 3,5, 7
2
4
1,5
3
Type of sampler
or instrument
Hi-vol + cyclone
Hi-vol + cyclone
Hi-vol + Wedding inlet
Wind vane
Warm wire anemometer
Wind vane/propeller
anemometer
Parameter(s)
measured
PM-10
PM-10
PM-10
Wind direction
Wind velocity
Wind velocity
and direction
3-4
MRI-OPPTVI71-01
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Back-up Filter
Holder
0 5
I I I I I I
Scale - Inches
Figure 3-2. Diagram of high-volume cyclone sampler.
MRI-OPPT\H71-01
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3.2 TESTING PROCEDURES
3.2.1 Preparation of Sample Collection Media
Particulate samples were collected on either Type AH grade glass fiber or
QM-A microquartz filters. Prior to the initial weighing, the filters were equilibrated for
24 h at constant temperature and humidity in a special weighing room. During
weighing, the balance was checked at frequent intervals with standard (Class S)
weights to ensure accuracy. The filters remained in the same controlled environment
for a second 24-h period, after which a second analyst reweighed them as a precision
check. If a filter could not pass audit limits, the entire lot was reweighed. Ten percent
(10%) of the filters taken to the field were used as blanks. The quality control guide-
lines pertaining to preparation of sample collection media are presented in Table 3-2.
As indicated in Table 3-2, a minimum of 10% field blanks was collected for
QC purposes (von Lehmden and Nelson, 1977). This procedure involved handling at
least one filter in every 10 in an identical manner as the others to determine
systematic weight changes. These changes were then used to mathematically correct
the net weight gain determined from gravimetric analysis of the filter samples. During
field blank collection, filters were actually loaded into samplers and then recovered
without air actually being passed through the media.
3.2.2 Pretest Procedures/Evaluation of Sampling Conditions
Prior to actual sample collection, a number of decisions were made as to the
potential for acceptable source-testing conditions. These decisions were based on
forecast information obtained from the local U.S. Weather Service office. If conditions
were considered acceptable, the sampling equipment was prepared for testing.
Pretest preparations included calibration checks of the various air sampling instru-
ments, insertion of filters, and so forth. The quality control guidelines governing this
activity are found in Table 3-3.
3-6
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TABLE 3-2. QUALITY CONTROL PROCEDURES FOR SAMPLING MEDIA
Activity
QC check/requirement
Preparation
Conditioning
Weighing
Auditing of weights
Correction for handling
effects3
Calibration of balance
Inspect and imprint glass fiber media with
identification numbers.
Equilibrate media for 24 h in clean controlled
room with a relative humidity of 45% (varia-
tion of less than ±5%) and with a tempera-
ture of 23°C (variation of less than ±1%).
Weigh hi-vol filters to nearest 0.1 mg.
For tare weights, conduct a 100% audit.
Reweigh tare weight of any filters that
deviate by more than ±1.0 mg.
Independently verify final weights of 10% of
filters (at least four from each batch).
Reweigh batch if weights of any hi-vol filters
deviate by more than ±2.0 mg.
Weigh and handle at least one blank for each
10 filters of each type for each test.
Balance to be calibrated once per year by
certified manufacturer's representative.
Check prior to each use with laboratory Class
S weights.
Includes field blanks (see text).
TABLE 3-3. QUALITY CONTROL PROCEDURES FOR SAMPLING FLOW RATES
Activity
QC check/requirement
Hi-vol air samplers
Orifice and electronic calibrator
Warm wire anemometers
Single point calibration check using
calibration orifice upon arrival at test site
for comparison against standard table.
Calibrate against displaced volume test
meter annually.
Calibrate annually in standard wind
tunnel.
MRI-OPPT\R71-01
3-7
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Once the source testing equipment was set up and the filters inserted, air
sampling was conducted. Information recorded on specially designed reporting forms
included:
• Air samples—Start/stop times, wind speed profiles, flow rates, and wind direction
relative to the roadway perpendicular (5-min average). (See Table 3-4 for QC
procedures.)
• Traffic count by vehicle type and speed.
• General meteorology—Wind speed, wind direction, temperature, and barometric
pressure.
MRI has developed criteria for suspending or terminating a source test, which
are presented in Table 3-5. With the exception of criterion 3 for the first and last test
conducted (BC-1) and (BC-12), all of the criteria listed in Table 3-5 were met during
the sampling program.
3.2.3 Sample Handling and Analysis
To prevent particulate losses, the exposed media were carefully transported at
the end of each run to MRI's main laboratory. In the laboratory, exposed filters were
equilibrated under the same conditions as the initial weighing. After reweighing, 10%
of the filters were audited to check weighing accuracy.
3.3 CHEMICAL ANALYSES
Selected filters from the winter tests were extracted and chemically analyzed by
an outside laboratory to determine the concentration of Cl~, Na"1", and/or Pb in selected
PM-10 samples collected in the program (see Table 3-1 a). The analytical procedures,
and associated QA/QC, used for this purpose are described below.
3-8 MRI-OPPT\R71-oi
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TABLE 3-4. QUALITY CONTROL PROCEDURES FOR SAMPLING EQUIPMENT
Activity
QC check/requirement3
Maintenance
Operations
Isokinetic sampling
(cyclones)
Prevention of static mode
deposition
Check motors, gaskets, timers, and flow
measuring devices prior to testing.
Start and stop all downwind samplers during time
span not exceeding 1 min.
Adjust sampling intake orientation whenever mean
wind direction dictates.
Change the cyclone intake nozzle whenever the
mean wind speed approaching the sampler falls
outside of the suggested bounds for that nozzle.
This technique allocates no nozzle for wind
speeds ranging from 0 to 10 mph, and unique
nozzles for four wind speed ranges above
10 mph.
Cap sampler inlets prior to and immediately after
sampling.
a n
Mean" denotes a 5- to 15-min average.
TABLE 3-5. CRITERIA FOR SUSPENDING OR TERMINATING A TEST
A test may be suspended or terminated if:
1. Precipitation ensues during equipment setup or when sampling is in
progress.
2. Mean3 wind speed during sampling moves outside the 1.3- to 8.9-m/s
(2- to 20-mph) acceptable range for more than 20% of the sampling
time.
3. The angle between mean wind direction and the perpendicular to the
path of the moving point source during sampling exceeds 45 degrees
for two consecutive averaging periods.
4. Daylight is insufficient for safe equipment operation.
5. Source condition deviates from predetermined criteria (e.g., occurrence
of wet pavement conditions).
a "Mean" denotes a 5- to 15-min average.
MHI-OPPT\R71-01
3-9
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3.3.1 Chloride Analysis
Selected filter samples were extracted following the 40 CFR 50, Appendix G,
procedure (EPA 1994c) and analyzed for Cl~ using EPA Method 300.0 (EPA 1983b).
These procedures involved the extraction of the sample using dilute nitric acid,
followed by analysis using ion chromatography. Replicates, spikes, spiked duplicates,
split samples, blanks, calibration checks, reagent checks, and detection limit checks
were used to assure quality control during the analyses.
3.3.2 Sodium Analysis
Sodium content (Na+) of selected filter samples also was determined in the
program. The filters were first extracted using the 40 CFR 50, Appendix G, procedure
and then analyzed by EPA Method 273.1 (EPA 1983c). These techniques consist of
sample extraction using dilute nitric acid, followed by flame atomic absorption spectro-
scopic analysis. Replicates, spikes, spiked duplicates, split samples, blanks, calibra-
tion checks, reagent checks, and detection limit checks were used to assure quality
control of the analyses.
3.3.3 Lead Analysis
Selected filters were analyzed for Pb content using the 40 CFR 50,
Appendix G, extraction procedure (EPA 1994c), followed by either EPA Method 239.1
(EPA 1983a), or EPA Method 200.9 (EPA 1994b) for analysis. These techniques con-
sist of sample extraction using dilute nitric acid, followed by either inductively coupled
plasma (ICP) or graphite furnace atomic absorption (GFAA) spectroscopic analysis.*
Replicates, spikes, spiked duplicates, split samples, blanks, calibration checks, reagent
checks, and detection limit checks were used as part of the QA/QC for the analyses
conducted.
* Note that the samples from the two Wedding samplers (Arrays U1 and D2) were
analyzed by the EPA Method 239.1, and the samples from the profilers (Arrays U2,
D1, and D3) were analyzed using the EPA Method 200.9. This was the result of a'
problem at the subcontractor laboratory where the filter extracts from Arrays U1
and D2 were analyzed by ICP instead of GFAA and inadvertently discarded after
analysis. In the case of the profiler filter extracts, the same samples analyzed for Cl~
were also used for the determination of lead content by GFAA.
3-10
MRI-OPPT\R71-01
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3.4 ANCILLARY SAMPLE COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS
The types of ancillary samples and information collected were divided into two
broad categories: antiskid materials and roadway surface samples, and source
activity levels. Each category is described in greater detail below.
3.4.1 Material Sample Collection and Analysis
In conjunction with the emissions tests, samples of the antiskid material applied
to the road (winter testing only) and the dust on the road surface were obtained.
These samples were needed not only to evaluate the performance of existing
emission models but also to develop improved models for antiskid materials.
3.4.1.1 Sampling and Analysis of Antiskid Materials—
To characterize the deicing chemical (rock salt or NaCI) applied during the
study, appropriate material samples were collected and analyzed for silt content. Grab
samples were taken from the stockpiled material distributed by the spreader trucks.
The standard MRI procedures used for the collection and analysis of stockpile
samples are provided in Appendix A.
To further characterize the deicing compound, the percent insoluble matter was
determined using ASTM Method E 534 (ASTM 1991). This property was determined
to be a good general indicator of overall silt production potential as determined in the
laboratory study described earlier (Kinsey et al., 1990).
3.4.1.2 Road Surface Sampling and Analysis—
Surface sampling was conducted on both the westbound and eastbound lanes
of 47th Street during the course of the program. The specific procedures used to
collect and analyze paved road surface samples to determine silt loading are
described in Appendix A.
In addition, ASTM Method E 534 (ASTM 1991) was used to determine the
water insoluble fraction of the silt determined by dry sieving. This property was used
as an indirect indicator of residual salt remaining on the road surface.
MHI-OPPTW71-01
3-11
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3.4.2 Source Activity Monitoring
Vehicle-related parameters were obtained using a combination of manual and
automated counting techniques. Pneumatic tube axle counters were used to acquire
traffic volume data. Because these counters only record the number of passing axles,
it was also necessary to obtain manual traffic mix information (e.g., number of axles
per vehicle) to convert axle counts to the number of vehicle passes. Vehicle mixes
were observed visually. Comparison of the observed vehicle mix to the pneumatic
counter totals allowed the accuracy of the axle counter to be assessed. A radar gun
was used during selected tests to determine the average speed of vehicles passing
the sampler array.
Detailed information was collected by the Kansas City Parks and Recreation
Department (KCP&R) personnel on the weather and condition of the pavement during
the course of each winter storm and the types and amounts of deicing chemical
applied. Although MRI was not directly responsible for collecting these data, this
information was used to supplement the data obtained on source activity. MRI did,
however, perform a gravimetric calibration of a typical spreader used by KCP&R to
determine the equivalent amount of salt applied to the road from the data provided.
Additional surface sampling was conducted at various points in time under a
companion study, which was used to develop a silt-loading "history" of the test road.
Sample forms completed by KCP&R personnel are included in Appendix B.
3.5 EMISSION FACTOR CALCULATION PROCEDURE
To calculate emission rates, a conservation of mass approach was used. The
passage of airborne particulate (i.e., the quantity of emissions per unit of source
activity) was obtained by spatial integration of distributed measurements of exposure
(mass/area) over the effective cross section of the plume. Exposure is the point value
of the flux (mass/area-time) of airborne particulate integrated over the time of measure-
ment or, equivalently, the net particulate mass passing through a unit area normal to
the mean wind direction during the test. The steps in the calculation procedure are
described below.
3-12 MRI-OPPTW71-01
-------
3.5.1 Paniculate and Compound-Specific Concentration/Exposures
The concentration of PM-10 measured by a sampler is given by:
C = 103 JH (3-1)
Qt
where: C = participate concentration dig/m3)
m = participate sample weight (mg)
Q = sampler flow rate (m3/min)
t = duration of sampling (min)
The concentration (Cj) of Na+, Cl~, or Pb measured by the sampler is given by:
C, - -!Hl (3-2)
1 Qt
where: Cj = concentration of component i determined by filter analysis (jig/m3)
rrij = mass of component i collected on the filter (fig)
Q = sampler flow rate (m3/min)
t = duration of sampling (min)
To be consistent with the National Ambient Air Quality Standards, all
concentrations and flow rates are expressed in standard conditions (25°C and
101 kPa or 77°F and 29.92 inHg).
The isokinetic flow ratio (IFR) is the ratio of a directional (i.e., cyclone)
sampler's intake air speed to the mean wind speed approaching the sampler. It is
given by:
IFR = .0- (3-3)
all
where: Q = sampler flow rate (m3/min)
a = intake area of sampler (m2)
U = mean wind speed at height of sampler (m/min)
The above ratio is of interest only in the sampling of total particulate, since
isokinetic sampling ensures that particles of all sizes are sampled without bias. Note
that because the primary interest in this program is directed to PM-10 emissions,
MHI-OPPTW71-01
3-13
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sampling under moderately nonisokinetic conditions poses no difficulty. It is typically
accepted that 10 ^im (aerodynamic diameter) and smaller particles have weak inertial
characteristics at normal wind speeds and, thus, are relatively unaffected by
anisokinesis (Davies 1968). Therefore, IFR was not calculated in the current program.
Exposure represents the net passage of mass through a unit area normal to the
direction of plume transport (wind direction) and was calculated by:
E10 = 1CT7 x CUt (3-4)
where: E10 = PM-10 exposure (mg/cm2)
C = net concentration (|J.g/m3)
U = approaching wind speed (m/s)
t = duration of sampling (s)
Compound-specific exposures (i.e., for Na+, Cl~, and Pb) can be found analogously.
Exposure values vary over the spatial extent of the plume. If exposure is
integrated over the plume-effective cross section, then the quantity obtained repre-
sents the total passage of airborne particulate matter (i.e., mass flux) due to the
source.
For the test roadway, a one-dimensional integration scheme was used:
E10 dh (3-5)
- r
Jo
where: I = integrated PM-10 (or compound-specific) exposure (m-mg/cm2)
E10 = PM-10 (or compound-specific) exposure (mg/cm2)
h = vertical distance coordinate (m)
H = effective extent of plume above ground (m)
The effective height of the plume (H) in Eq. 3-5 is found by linear extrapolation of the
uppermost net concentrations to a value of zero.
Because exposures are measured at discrete heights of the plume, a numerical
integration is necessary to determine I. The exposure must equal zero at the vertical
extremes of the profile (i.e., at the ground where the wind velocity equals zero and at
the effective height of the plume where the net concentration equals zero). However,
3-14 MHI-OPPT\R71-01
-------
the maximum exposure usually occurs below a height of 1 m so that there is a sharp
decay in exposure near the ground. To account for this sharp decay, the value of
exposure at ground level is set equal to the value at a height of 1 m. The integration
is then performed from 1 m to H using Simpson's approximation.
3.5.2 PM-10 Emission Methodology
The emission model for PM-10 generated by vehicular traffic on roadways,
expressed in grams of emissions per vehicle-kilometer traveled (VKT), is given by:
e = 104 1 (3-6)
N
where: e = PM-10 emissions (g/VKT)
I = integrated PM-10 exposure (m-mg/cm2)
N = number of vehicle passes (dimensionless)
Similar results also can be generated for NaCI and Pb by substituting the appropriate
integrated exposure into the above calculation.
MRI-OPPT\R71-01
3-15
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SECTION 4
FIELD SAMPLING PROGRAM
This section discusses the results of both the winter and September 1993
phases of the field-sampling program conducted on 47th Street.
4.1 SOURCE DESCRIPTION AND ACTIVITY
As stated in Section 2.2, the test site used in the experimental program was
located on 47th Street between Oak Street and Rockhill Road in Kansas City,
Missouri. This street has six lanes, which are used by commuter traffic to and from a
major shopping and business area of the city at an approximate volume of
30,000 vehicles per day. Data collected during field sampling showed that essentially
all of the traffic consisted of two-axle, light-duty vehicles traveling at an average speed
of 46 km/h (29 mph). Surface loadings, determined both visually and by sampling,
were generally very low, with nominal silt loadings in the range of 0.2 g/m2.
During the winter tests, exposure profiling was performed after three storm
events occurring on: February 15 and 16; February 25; and March 18 and 19, 1993.
After the February 15 and 16 storm, three tests were attempted with two of these
being complete runs. For the February 25 storm, one complete test was performed.
During this particular test, however, the road surface was initially damp and later
became wet with snow melt. Therefore, these particular data were not included in the
emission factor calculations. (Note that this run sampled fine salt spray produced by
passing vehicles and not particulate matter in the traditional sense.) Finally, an
additional test was completed after the March 18 and 19 storm. A summary of the
test conditions for each winter sampling period is provided in Table 4-1 a.
During the first storm, approximately 5 in of snow fell on 47th Street during a
36-h period. Five applications of rock salt were applied to the road during the course
MRI-OPPT\R71-01
4-1
-------
of 29 h, totaling 886 kg/lane-km (3,100 Ib/lahe-mi). During the February 25 storm, a
total of 11 in of snow fell over a 24-h period. In this case, five applications of rock salt
were applied during a period of 16 h, totaling 886 kg/lane-km (3,100 Ib/lane-mi).
Finally, during the last storm tested on March 18 and 19, a 1-in snowfall occurred
during a 36-h period. During the final storm, only one application of rock salt was
applied to 47th Street, totaling 177 kg/lane-km (620 Ib/lane-mi).
In September 1993, one successful test was performed 2 days after a major
rain storm. During this test, 47th Street was used by heavy vehicle traffic exiting the
flood control project located south of the test site. The heavy trucks exiting the project
tracked out mud and dirt, causing a substantial increase in the silt loading measured
on the road surface as compared to the winter testing. This increase in silt loading
was reflected in the measured PM-10 emissions provided below. A summary of the
September test is shown in Table 4-1 b. (Note that the two profiling towers should be
considered independently and not as collocated measurements.)
The rock salt application rates used by KCP&R during the winter testing are
fairly typical of most other transportation agencies as determined in a previous survey
conducted by MRI (see Table 4-2). Further, most of the material applied was either
eliminated with the snow melt or sprayed into the air as droplets by passing vehicles.
Thus, the dry surface loadings observed after a storm were generally very low.
4.2 EXPOSURE PROFILING RESULTS
Summaries of the exposure profiling tests conducted on 47th Street were
provided previously in Tables 4-1 a and 4-1 b. The test results are discussed in detail
below with the particulate sampling data described first, followed by the results of the
chemical analyses and ancillary sampling/analysis.
4.2.1 PM-10 Sampling Results
The results of the gravimetric analyses performed on the filter samples
collected in the field are summarized in Tables 4-3a and 4-3b for the winter and
September tests, respectively. Using the raw data provided in Tables 4-3a and 4-3b,
the measured (i.e., blank-corrected) PM-10 concentrations were determined for the
various sampling locations using the calculation scheme outlined in Section 3.5.
4-2 WRI-OPPT\R71-01
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TABLE 4-1 a. SUMMARY OF WINTER SOURCE TESTS
Operating period
Test
ID
BC-1
BC-2
BC-3
BC-4d
BC-5
Date of Sampler
test array
2/17/93 U1
U2
D1
D2
D3
2/18/93 U1
U2
(blanks) 01,2,3
2/19/93 U1
U2
D1
D2
D3
2/28/93 U1
U2
D1
D2
3/20/93 U1
U2
01
02
03
Start tame (h)
1142
1142
1335
1228
1227
1555
1555
-
0842
0842
0947
1004
1004
1009
1009
0958
0958
1010
1010
1053
1055
1055
Stop time (h)
1645
1645
1635
1635
1536°
1658
1658
-
1412
1412
1357
1405
1405
1400
1400
1258
1258
1600
1600
1525
1528
1528
Mean wind speed (m/s)"
1.0-m height
-
-
1.8
1.7
1.7
1.0
1.0
-
-
-
3.4
3.4
3.4
-
-
1.7
1.7
-
-
1.1
1.1
1.1
5.0-m height
-
-
3.0
3.0
3.0
1.5
1.5
-
-
-
3.9
3.9
3.9
-
-
2.6
2.6
-
-
1.9
1.9
1.9
Mean wind
direction
(degrees)8
-
-
315
315
312
-
-
-
-
-
200
200
200
-
-
161
161
-
-
11
11
11
Total vehicle
passes during
test period
3807
3807
2245
3061
2342
-
-
-
4518
4518
3577
3552
3552
1760
1760
1371
1371
4655
4655
3617
3639
3639
Total deicer
applied
to roadway
(kg/lane-km)
886b
886b
886b
886b
886b
886b
886b
886b
886"
886"
886b
886b
886"
886b
886b
886b
177"
177"
1779
177"
177"
8 Average of 5-min Integration periods.
b Five passes of 177 kg/lane-km (620 Ib/lane-mi) of 100% rock salt (NaCI).
c Samplers at 1- and 3-m were down for approximately 25 min.
d 03 did not run during this test. Road was wet during the entire test period; therefore this run is referred to as 'salt spray* test.
• One pass of 177 kg/lane-km (620 Ib/lane-mi) of 100% rock salt (NaCI).
MRI-OPPTW71-01
-------
TABLE 4-1 b. SUMMARY OF SEPTEMBER SOURCE TESTS
Test
ID
BC-12
BC-13
(blanks)
Operating period
Date of Sampler
test array
9/16/93 U2
D1
D2
D3
9/17/93 All
Start time (h)
1005
1034
1034
1029
_
Stop time (h)
1156
1155
1155
1152
_
Mean wind speed (m/s)a
1.0-m height
-
1.0
1.0
1.1
_
5.0-m height
-
1.2
1.2
1.3
_
Mean
wind
direction
(degrees)3
-
140
140
144
_
Total vehicle
passes during
test period
-
969
969
1,016
_
a Average of 5-min integration periods.
-------
TABLE 4-2. AASHTO GUIDELINES FOR CHEMICAL APPLICATION RATES (Kinsey et al., 1990)
01
Weather conditions
Temperature
30°F and
above
25°-30°F
20°-25°F
15°-20°F
Below 15°F
Pavement
conditions
Wet
Wet
Wet
Dry
Wet
Dry
Precipitation
Snow
Sleet or freezing rain
Snow or sleet
Freezing rain
Snow or sleet
Freezing rain
Dry snow
Wet snow or sleet
Dry snow
Application rate (pounds of material per mile of two-lane road or two lanes of divided)
Low- and high-speed
multilane divided
300 salt
200 salt
Initial at 400 salt;
repeat at 200 salt
Initial at 300 salt;
repeat at 200 salt
Initial at 500 salt;
repeat at 250 salt
Initial at 400 salt;
repeat at 300 salt
Plow
500 of 3:1 salt/
calcium chloride
Plow
Two- and three-
lane primary
300 salt
200 salt
Initial at 400 salt;
repeat at 200 salt
Initial at 300 salt;
repeat at 200 salt
Initial at 500 salt;
repeat at 250 salt
Initial at 400 salt;
repeat at 300 salt
Plow
500 of 3:1 salt/
calcium chloride
Plow
Two-lane
secondary
300 salt
200 salt
Initial at 400 salt;
repeat at 200 salt
Initial at 300 salt;
repeat at 200 salt
1,200 of 5:1 sand/
salt; repeat same
Plow
1,200 of 5:1 sand/
salt
Plow
Instructions
Wait at least 0.5 h before plowing
Reapply as necessary
Wait at least 0.5 h before plowing; repeat
Repeat as necessary
Wait about 0.75 h before plowing; repeat
Repeat as necessary
Treat hazardous areas with 1,200 of 20:1
sand/salt
Wait about 1 h before plowing; continue plowing until
storm ends; then repeat application
Treat hazardous area with 1,200 of 20:1 sand/salt
-------
TABLE 4-3a. RESULTS OF GRAVIMETRIC ANALYSES FOR WINTER TESTS8
Array ID
Test ID No. No.
BC-1 U1
(2/17/93) U2
D1
D2
D3
BC-2 U1
(2/18/93) U2
D1
(blanks)
D2
(blank)
D3
(blanks)
BC-3 U1
(2/19/93) U2
Sampling
height (m)
1.9
1.5
3.0
1.0
3.0
5.0
7.0
1.9
1.0
3.0
5.0
7.0
1.9
1.5
3.0
1.0
3.0
5.0
7.0
1.9
1.0
3.0
5.0
7.0
1.9
1.5
3.0
Filter ID
No.
9311003
9311001
9311002
9311004
9311005
9311006
9311007
9311008
9311009
9311010
9311011
9311012
9311015
9311013
9311014
9311016
9311017
9311018
9311019
9311020
9311021
9311022
9311023
9311024
9311027
9311025
9311026
Filter tare
weight (mg)
3300.30
3290.35
3303.10
3298.55
3298.95
3281 .00
3291 .90
3290.65
3304.65
3308.85
331 1 .20
3306.30
3252.50
3281 .05
3249.55
3239.00
3291.35
3298.30
3305.10
3319.40
3312.60
3308.85
3300.00
3312.00
3302.90
3329.00
3316.00
Filter final
weight (mg)
3305.55
3295.20
3305.90
3302.70
3301 .60
3282.45
3293.50
3295.55
3304.90
3310.30
3313.90
3308.85
3253.90
3282.00
3250.20
3237.80
3290.70
3298.15
3304.60
3319.55
3313.15
3308.95
3300.10
3311.55
3310.35
3335.65
3321.00
Weight
difference (mg)
5.25
4.85
2.80
4.15
2.65
1.45
1.60
4.90
0.25
1.45
2.70
2.55
1.40
0.95
0.65
-1.20
-0.65
-0.15
-0.50
0.15
0.55
0.10
0.10
-0.45
7.45
6.65
5.00
(Continued)
4-6
MRI-OPPTNR71-01
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TABLE 4-3a (Continued)
Test ID No.
BC-4"
(2/28/93)
BC-5
(3/20/93)
Array ID Sampling
No. height (m)
D1 1.0
3.0
5.0
7.0
D2 1.9
D3 1.0
3.0
5.0
7.0
U1 1.9
U2 1.5
3.0
D1 1.0
3.0
5.0
7.0
D2 1.9
U1 1.9
U2 1.5
3.0
D1 1.0
3.0
5.0
7.0
D2 1.9
D3 1.0
3.0
5.0
7.0
Filter ID
No.
9311028
9311029
9311030
9311031
9311032
9311033
9311034
9311035
9311036
9311039
9311037
9311038
9311045
9311046
9311047
9311048
9311044
9311051
9311049
9311050
9311040
9311041
9311042
9311043
9311056
9311055
9311054
9311053
9311052
Filter tare
weight (mg)
3287.80
3297.55
3290.85
3307.70
3300.10
3293.65
3306.00
3301.20
3317.35
3296.40
3314.65
3302.70
3348.00
3321.80
3311.45
3322.20
3349.15
3339.40
3314.85
3309.00
3301 .75
3303.85
3291.40
3330.10
3322.70
3337.95
3332.95
3332.85
3336.80
Filter final
weight (mg)
3295.80
3304.10
3295.50
3312.15
3307.85
3312.55
3312.85
3306.30
3322.10
3304.50
3321.50
3308.55
3354.45
3327.30
3316.95
3327.15
3355.35
3353.30
3328.00
3321.25
3317.00
3316.25
3302.70
3340.75
3338.15
3352.25
3345.05
3344.05
3347.40
Weight
difference (mg)
8.00
6.55
4.65
4.45
7.75
18.90
6.85
5.10
4.75
8.10
6.85
5.85
6.45
5.50
5.50
4.95
6.20
13.90
13.15
12.25
15.25
12.40
11.30
10.65
15.45
14.30
12.10
11.20
10.60
• Includes all samples collected. All filters are Type AH glass fiber.
b Array D3 did not run during salt spray test.
MRI-OPFAB71-01
4-7
-------
TABLE 4-3b. RESULTS OF GRAVIMETRIC ANALYSES FOR SEPTEMBER TEST
Array ID Sampling Filter ID Filter tare Filter final Weight
Test ID No. No. height (m) No. weight (mg) weight (mg) difference (mg)
BC-12 U2 3
(9/16/93)
5
D1 1
3
5
7
D2a 1 .9
D3 1
3
5
7
BC-13 U2 3
(9/17/93)
(blanks) 5
D1 1
3
5
7
D2a 1.9
D3 1
3
5
7
9311119
9311120
931 1 1 1 1
9311112
9311113
9311114
9312002
9311115
9311116
9311117
9311118
9311121
9311122
9311130
9311129
9311128
9311127
9312003
9311126
9311125
9311124
9311123
3329.10
3321 .25
3320.50
3333.45
3347.85
3344.30
4320.55
3355.00
3344.25
3354.25
3342.80
3328.35
3318.55
3313.70
3334.95
3337.85
3329.55
4323.15
3335.20
3339.50
3341.35
3337.00
3332.55
3324.00
3345.25
3343.10
3353.15
3347.65
4330.30
3373.80
3357.30
3361 .30
3347.75
3329.05
3320.00
3313.60
3334.20
3337.80
3329.40
4323.55
3335.30
3339.75
3341 .35
3337.30
3.45
2.75
24.75
9.65
5.30
3.35
9.75
18.80
13.05
7.05
4.95
0.70
1.45
-0.10
-0.75
-0.05
-0.15
0.40
0.10
0.25
0
0.30
Microquartz filter media. All others are Type AH glass fiber filters.
4-8
MRI-OPPTW71-01
-------
In these calculations, the net sample weight for each filter was first determined by
subtracting the respective average filter blank value (from Tests BC-2 and BC-13,
respectively) from the gross weight difference (Tables 4-3a and 4-3b). The resulting
values were then entered into Eq. 3-1, along with the applicable sampler flow rates
and operating times, to obtain the measured PM-10 concentration at each location.
The results of these calculations are provided in Tables 4-4a and 4-4b for the winter
and September tests, respectively, along with any comments relevant to the
experimental data.
Using the data shown in Tables 4-4a and 4-4b, net (i.e., upwind-corrected)
PM-10 concentrations were calculated at each height by subtracting the average of
the upwind concentrations determined by Array U2. Using these net concentrations,
the net PM-10 exposure was calculated for each sampler location using Eq. 3-4.
Exposure integration was then performed by the two-step process described in
Section 3.4.1 with the effective plume height (H) defined as that height (possibly
extrapolated) at which the net PM-10 concentration was zero. Finally, PM-10
emission factors were calculated from the data using Eq. 3-6. The results of this
analysis are shown in Tables 4-5a and 4-5b for the winter and September tests,
respectively, with a sample calculation for Test BC-5 provided in Appendix C.
Several factors should be noted with regard to the experimental results. First,
the net (i.e., upwind corrected) PM-10 concentrations measured during the winter test-
ing were generally low, whereas those measured in September were relatively high.
Net concentrations ranging from approximately 0 to 15 (ig/m3 for most samplers in the
winter tests (Table 4-5a) were, in many cases, only slightly above background. Higher
net concentrations were obtained in September, however, substantially improving the
reliability of the data.
Another factor involves the exposure profiles themselves. As indicated by
Table 4-5a, in two out of the three winter tests conducted (Tests BC-1 and BC-5), the
profiles are essentially flat (i.e., show little difference with height) over the first 7 m of
the plume. Further, in the case of Test BC-1, only a 5-m plume height was estimated
from the exposure data with corresponding wind speeds ranging from 1.8 to 3.3 m/s.
Exposure profiles of this type are generally indicative of poor plume definition because
of low emission impact (above background) during sample collection. The lack of a
well-defined plume (and associated exposure profile) adversely affected the quality of
the winter emission factors shown in Table 4-5a. No such problems were observed
during the September testing.
MRI-OPPT\R71-01
4-9
-------
TABLE 4-4a. SUMMARY OF EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS FOR WINTER TESTS
Test Array ID
ID Test date No.
BC-1 2/17/93 U1
U2
D1
D2
D3
BC-2 2/18/93 U1
U2
(blanks) D1.3
D2
Sampling
height (m)
1.9
1.5
3.0
1.0
3.0
5.0
7.0
1.9
1.0
3.0
5.0
7.0
1.9
1.5
3.0
-
-
Net
Gross
catch
5.25
4.85
2.80
4.15
2.65
1.45
1.60
4.90
0.25
1.45
2.70
2.55
1.40
0.95
0.65
-0.275
(avg)
0.15
filter weights
Blank
correction
0.15
-0.28
-0.28
-0.28
-0.28
-0.28
-0.28
0.15
-0.28
-0.28
-0.28
-0.28
0.15
-0.28
-0.28
-
_
(mg)
Blank-
corrected*
5.10
5.13
3.08
4.43
2.93
1.73
1.88
4.75
0.53
1.73
2.98
2.83
1.25
1.23
0.93
_
_
Sampler flow
rate
(std m3/min)
1.26
1.28
1.24
1.27
1.26
1.28
1.25
1.32
1.27
1.27
1.26
1.27
1.25
1.26
1.22
_
_
Sampling
time
(min)
303
303
303
180
180
180
180
247
164b
164b
189
189
63
63
63
_
_
Measured PM-10
concentration
(ng/m3)
13.36
13.23
8.20
19.38
12.92
7.51
8.36
14.57
2.54
8.31
12.51
11.79
15.87
15.50
12.10
_
_
Comments/problems
Wind integrator
inoperable. Wind data
collected manually.
W-bound lanes tested.
Test did not meet QA.
Array D3 void due to
malfunction of two
bottom samplers.
Test aborted due to poor
wind direction — blank
run.
_
_
(Continued)
MRI-OPPT\R71-01
-------
TABLE 4-4a (Continued)
Net filter weights
Test
ID
Array ID
Test date No.
Sampling
height (m)
Gross
catch
Blank
correction
(mg)
Blank-
corrected"
Sampler flow
rate
(std m3/min)
Sampling
time
(min)
Measured PM-10
concentration
(ng/m3) Comments/problems
BC-3
2/19/93
U1
1.9
7.45
0.15
7.30
1.21
330
18.28
U2 1.5
3.0
D1 1.0
3.0
5.0
7.0
D2 1.9
D3 1.0
3.0
5.0
7.0
BC-4 2/28/93 U1 1.9
U2 1.5
3.0
D1 1.0
3.0
6.65
5.00
8.00
6.55
4.65
4.45
7.75
18.90
6.85
5.10
4.75
8.10
6.85
5.85
6.45
5.50
-0.28
-0.28
-0.28
-0.28
-0.28
-0.28
0.15
-0.28
-0.28
-0.28
-0.28
0.15
-0.28
-0.28
-0.28
-0.28
6.93
5.28
8.28
6.83
4.93
4.73
7.35
19.20
7.13
5.38
5.03
7.95
7.13
6.13
6.73
5.78
1.23
1.19
1.21
1.22
1.21
1.22
1.27
1.21
1.21
1.22
1.20
1.26
1.21
1.19
1.22
1.21
330
330
250
250
250
250
241
241
241
241
241
231
231
231
180
180
17.07
13.45
27.37
22.39
16.30
15.51
24.01
65.84
24.45
18.30
17.39
27.31
25.51
22.30
30.65
26.54
Winds from S to S-SW
during test period.
E-bound lanes tested.
Test terminated when
lanes became wet.
Average vehicle speed
was 31 mph.
Salt spray test. Data
were not used for emis-
sion factor calculations.
E-bound lanes tested.
(Continued)
MRI-OPPTW1-01
-------
TABLE 4-4a (Continued)
IV)
Net filter weights
Test Array ID
ID Test date No.
D2
BC-5 3/20/93 U1
U2
D1
D2
D3
Sampling
height (m)
5.0
7.0
1.9
1.9
1.5
3.0
1.0
3.0
5.0
7.0
1.9
1.0
3.0
5.0
7.0
Gross
catch
5.50
4.95
6.20
13.90
13.15
12.25
15.25
12.40
11.30
10.65
15.45
14.30
12.10
11.20
10.60
Blank
correction
-0.28
-0.28
0.15
0.15
-0.28
-0.28
-0.28
-0.28
-0.28
-0.28
0.15
-0.28
-0.28
-0.28
-0.28
(mg)
Blank-
corrected*
5.78
5.23
6.05
13.80
13.43
12.53
15.53
12.68
11.58
10.93
15.30
14.76
12.38
11.48
10.88
Sampler flow
rate
(std m3/min)
1.21
1.21
1.22
1.24
1.24
1.21
1.25
1.24
1.24
1.25
1.29
1.24
1.24
1.23
1.25
Sampling
time
(min)
180
180
180
350
350
350
272
272
272
272
273
273
273
273
273
Measured PM-10
concentration
(jig/m3)
26.54
24.01
27.55
31.80
30.94
29.59
45.68
37.59
34.33
32.15
43.44
43.60
36.57
34.19
31.88
Comments/problems
W-bound lanes tested.
Average vehicle speed
was 27 mph.
a Corrected by average field blank values from Test BC-2, Arrays D1, D2, and D3, as indicated.
b Samplers off for approximately 25 min. Run time estimated by field personnel.
MRI-OPPT\R71-O1
-------
TABLE 4-4b. SUMMARY OF EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS FOR SEPTEMBER TEST (BC-12)
W
Array ID
Test date No.
9/16/93 U2
D1
D2
D3
Sampling
height (m)
3
5
1
3
5
7
1.9
1
3
5
7
Net
Gross
catch
3.45
2.75
24.75
9.65
5.30
3.35
9.75
18.80
13.05
7.05
4.95
filter weights
Blank
correction
-1.08
-1.08
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
-0.40
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
(mg)
Blank-
corrected8
2.37
1.67
24.80
9.70
5.35
3.40
9.35
18.85
13.10
7.10
5.00
Sampler
flow rate
(std m3/min)
1.18
1.18
1.19
1.19
1.19
1.18
1.19
1.18
1.19
1.18
1.16
Sampling
time
(min)
111
111
81
81
81
81
81
83
83
83
83
Measured PM-10
concentration
(ng/m3)
18.09
12.75
257.3
100.6
55.50
35.57
97.00
192.5
132.6
72.49
51.93
3 Corrected by average field blank values from Test BC-13 as indicated.
MRI-OPPT\R71-01
-------
TABLE 4-5a. RESULTS OF PM-10 EMISSION FACTOR CALCULATIONS FOR WINTER TESTS
Run
No.
BC-1
(2/17/93)
BC-3
(2/19/93)
BC-5
(3/20/93)
Sampler
Array height
No. (m)
D1 1
3
5
7
D1 1
3
5
7
D3 1
3
5
7
D1 1
3
5
7
D3 1
3
5
7
Net PM,0
concentration
(ng/std mV
8.66
2.20
0.0
0.0
12.11
7.13
1.04
0.25
50.58
9.19
3.04
2.13
15.41
7.32
4.06
1.88
13.33
6.30
3.92
1.61
Wind
speed
(mis)
1.8
(2.6)
3.0
(3-3)
3.4
(3.8)
3.9
(4.1)
3.4
(3.8)
3.9
(4.1)
1.1
(1.7)
1.9
(2.1)
1.1
(1.7)
1.9
(2.1)
Net PM,0 Integrated No. of
exposure exposure vehicle
(ng/cm2)c (m-ng/cm2)" passes
16.8 44.5 2245
6.18
0.0
0.0
61 .8 224 3577
40.6
6.08
1.54
249 606 3552
50.5
17.1
12.6
27.7 135 3617
20.3
12.6
6.44
24.0 118 3639
17.5
12.2
5.53
Measured
PM10
emission
factor
(g/VKT)6
0.20
0.63
1.7
0.37
0.32
a ( ) indicates inter/extrapolated value.
b Net concentration calculated as difference between average upwind concentration and downwind concentration at
each sampler height.
c Rounded to three significant figures.
d Integration scheme assumes constant exposure from 0 to 1 m height with Simpson's approximation used for
integration between 1 m and effective plume height (H). H assumed to be 5 m for Test BC-1 and 9 m for all other
tests.
* Rounded to two significant figures.
4-14
MRI-OPPT\R71-01
-------
TABLE 4-5b. RESULTS OF PM-10 EMISSION FACTOR CALCULATIONS FOR SEPTEMBER TEST8
Sampler
Run Array height
No. No. (m)
BC-12 D1 1
(9/16) 3
5
7
D3 1
3
5
7
(9)
Net PM10
concentration
(ng/std m3)b
241.9
85.18
40.08
20.15
177.1
117.2
57.07
36.51
16.00
Wind
speed
(m/s)
1.0
(1.1)
1.2
(1-2)
1.1
(1.3)
1.3
(1.4)
(1.5)
Net PM10 Integrated No. of
exposure exposure vehicle
(ng/cm2)c (m-\ig/cm2)a passes
118 381 969
45.5
23.4
11.8
97.0 497 1016
75.9
37.0
25.5
12.0
Measured
PM10
emission
factor
(g/VKT)e
3.9
4.9
8 ( ) indicates inter/extrapolated value.
b Net concentration calculated as difference between average upwind concentration (Array U2) and
downwind concentration at each sampler height.
0 Rounded to three significant figures.
d Integration scheme assumes constant exposure from 0 to 1 m height with Simpson's approximation used
for integration between 1 m and effective plume height (H). H assumed to be 9 m for Array D1 and 11m
for Array D3.
6 Rounded to two significant figures.
MRI-OPPTVR71-01
4-15
-------
Several observations also can be made about the emission factors themselves.
First, the emission factors calculated in Table 4-5a appear to be unusually precise in
one of the two tests (BC-5) where collocated profiler data were available. A more
typical degree of precision was observed, however, in the other test (BC-3).
Second, during the first winter storm tested (Tests BC-1 and BC-3), the
emissions appear to increase substantially (a factor of 3 to 8) with time (i.e., the
emission factor for Test BC-1 is lower than that for Test BC-3). This would suggest
that the flushing action of the snowmelt causes the road to be initially "clean" after the
storm (i.e., a low silt loading), but the road becomes increasingly "dirty" as deposition
from vehicles increases the surface silt loading.
Third, the two emission factors obtained immediately after the storm in Test
BC-5 are slightly higher than those measured previously in Test BC-1, even though
much less salt was applied to the road. These data indicate that factors other than
salt application rate (e.g., overall surface silt loading) are better indicators of PM-10
emission potential.
Finally, the emission factors determined in September (Test BC-12) are
substantially larger than even the highest value obtained in the winter (Test BC-3).
The increase in emissions between the two data sets varies from about a factor of 2.5
to more than an order of magnitude. This trend is explainable based on increases in
surface silt loading as discussed in Section 4.4 below.
4.2.2 Results of Chemical Analyses
As mentioned in Section 3.3, selected filters (including blank filters) from each
of the winter tests were submitted for chemical analysis of Pb, Na+, and Cl~ content.
The concentration of lead in the PM-10 samples was determined both upwind and
downwind of the road by two different methods. In the first method, filters from the
two Wedding samplers (Arrays U1 and D2) were acid extracted and analyzed by ICP.
In the second technique, filters from one profiler array (as well as Array U2) for each
test were acid extracted and analyzed by GFAA (see Section 3.3). Since none of the
filters analyzed by the ICP method were above the instrumental detection limit, only
the results of the lead analyses conducted by GFAA will be presented here. These
data are summarized in Table 4-6.
4-16 MRI-OPPT\R71-01
-------
TABLE 4-6. RESULTS OF CHEMICAL ANALYSES FOR LEAD BY GFAA (WINTER TESTS)*
Test ID No. Array ID No.
BC-1 U2
2/17/93
D1
BC-2 U2
2/18/93
(blanks) D1
BC-3 U2
2/19/93
D3
BC-4 U2
2/28/93
D1
Sampling
height (m)
1.5
3.0
1.0
3.0
5.0
7.0
1.5
3.0
1.0
3.0
5.0
7.0
1.5
3.0
1.0
3.0
5.0
7.0
1.5
3.0
1.0
3.0
5.0
7.0
Filter ID No.
9311001
9311002
9311004
9311005
9311006
9311007
9311013
9311014
9311016
9311017
9311018
9311019
9311025
9311026
9311033
9311034
9311035
9311036
9311037
9311038
9311045
9311046
9311047
9311048
Results of
chemical analysis
(ppm)b
3.87
0.63
0.63
0.45
0.34
0.48
0.29
0.29
0.23
0.46
<0.23
<0.23
0.58
0.49
0.97
0.60
0.39
0.39
0.33
0.53
0.53
0.41
0.40
0.35
Mass used in
chemical analysis
(mg)c
1715.32
1614.28
1706.53
1719.36
1769.49
1672.21
1567.14
1646.66
1602.11
1077. 13
1640.08
1711.99
1694.16
1684.37
1667.18
1712.44
1668.99
1330.53
1677.60
1152.42
1630.45
1621.77
1647.18
1847.93
Mass of analyle
on filter (mg)d
0.006638
0.001017
0.001075
0.000774
0.000602
0.000803
0.000454
0.000478
0.000368
0.000495
< 0.000377
< 0.000394
0.000983
0.000825
0.001617
0.001027
0.000651
0.000519
0.000554
0.000611
0.000864
0.000665
0.000659
0.000647
Blank-corrected
sample weight (mg)e
0.006230
0.000609
0.000667
0.000366
0.000194
0.000395
0.000046
0.000070
-
-
-
-
0.000575
0.000417
0.001209
0.000619
0.000243
0.000111
0.000146
0.000203
0.000456
0.000257
0.000251
0.000239
(Continued)
MRI-OPPT\R71-01
-------
TABLE 4-6 (Continued)
00
Sampling
Test ID No. Array ID No. height (m)
BC-5 U2 1.5
3/20/93 3.0
D1 1.0
3.0
5.0
7.0
Filter ID No.
9311049
9311050
9311040
9311041
9311042
9311043
Results of
chemical analysis
(ppm)b
3.49
3.69
4.82
3.53
3.67
3.34
Mass used in
chemical analysis
(mg)c
1620.17
1248.12
1645.88
1652.82
1693.67
1678.21
Mass of analyte
on filter (mg)d
0.005654
0.004606
0.007933
0.005834
0.006216
0.005605
Blank-corrected
sample weight (mg)9
0.005246
0.004198
0.007525
0.005426
0.005808
0.005197
8 Results for one downwind profiler array and upwind Array U2 for each test conducted. Originally, filters from the two Wedding instruments (Arrays
U1 and D2) were to be analyzed for Pb by GFAA. However, due to an error at the subcontractor laboratory, these samples were analyzed by ICP
and the extracts discarded. Therefore, the same extracts used for chloride were analyzed for lead using GFAA, and the results are reported in this
table.
b Parts per million by weight. 1 ng/g = 1 ppm.
0 Mass of filter and PM-10 sample. The filter was divided in half with one half used for chloride and lead analysis.
d Not blank corrected.
6 Blank correction value = 0.000408 mg from Test BC-2, Array D1 applied to analyte mass in previous column.
-------
In the case of sodium and chloride, filter sets from one downwind profiler array
for each test (and Array U2) were submitted for chemical analysis. The purpose of
these analyses was to determine the relative contribution of rock salt to the total
PM-10 emissions from the roadway. The results of the chemical analyses performed
are summarized in Tables 4-7 and 4-8 for sodium and chloride, respectively.
To obtain the equivalent amount of NaCI contained on each filter analyzed, an
ion balance was conducted using a 1:1 molar ratio of Na+ to Cl~. In this evaluation,
the blank-corrected weight of both analytes (Tables 4-7 and 4-8) were used to calcu-
late the stoichiometric quantity of NaCI present in the sample mass. If an insufficient
amount of either ion was present to achieve a suitable balance, it was assumed that
no NaCI was present in the PM-10 sample collected. The results of the ion balance
calculations performed in the study are shown in Table 4-9.
As indicated in Table 4-9, minor quantities of NaCI were found in most samples
collected, with the exception of Test BC-4. As mentioned previously, Test BC-4 was
conducted under wet pavement conditions and thus measured fine salt spray instead
of solid PM-10. For this reason, the data from Test BC-4 were not used in the
derivation of PM-10 emission factors for NaCI as described below.
Using the data shown in Tables 4-6 and 4-9, compound-specific PM-10
emission factors were calculated for both Pb and NaCI. The same calculation proce-
dure outlined previously for total PM-10 (see Sections 3.5 and 4.2.1) was used for this
purpose.
In both cases, the concentration determined at each measurement height was
calculated using the appropriate blank-corrected sample weight and the sampler
operating data shown in Table 4-4a. Net concentrations of both analytes were then
calculated by subtracting the average upwind value, and the applicable emission factor
was obtained by integration of the net exposures. The compound-specific PM-10
emission factors determined in this manner are shown in Tables 4-10 and 4-11 for Pb
and NaCI, respectively.
MRI-OPPT\R71-01
4-19
-------
TABLE 4-7. RESULTS OF CHEMICAL ANALYSES FOR SODIUM ION (WINTER TESTS)
ro
O
Test ID
No.
BC-1
2/17/93
BC-2
2/18/93
(blanks)
BC-3
2/19/93
BC-4
2/28/93
Array ID Sampling height
No. (m)
U2 1.5
3.0
D1 1.0
3.0
5.0
7.0
U2 1.5
3.0
01 i.o
3.0
5.0
7.0
U2 1.5
3.0
D3 1.0
3.0
5.0
7.0
U2 1.5
3.0
D1 1.0
3.0
5.0
7.0
Filter ID No.
9311001
9311002
9311004
9311005
9311006
9311007
9311013
9311014
9311016
9311017
9311018
9311019
9311025
9311026
9311033
9311034
9311035
9311036
9311037
9311038
9311045
9311046
9311047
9311048
Results of
chemical
analysis (ppm)a
209
336
275
326
321
270
188
237
205
257
254
203
238
286
397
246
237
240
285
233
253
244
227
296
Mass used in
chemical
analysis (mg)b
1340.27
1689.58
1592.44
1581.19
1512.22
1619.52
1713.76
1602.28
1633.36
1632.01
1655.76
1589.88
1639.99
1634.02
1642.12
1598.08
1634.73
1989.39
1641.63
1596.26
1721.69
1703.75
1665.68
1475.73
Mass of
analyte on
filter (mg)c
0.28012
0.56770
0.43792
0.51547
0.48542
0.43727
0.32219
0.37974
0.33484
0.47943
0.42056
0.32275
0.39032
0.46733
0.65192
0.39313
0.38743
0.47745
0.46786
0.37193
0.43559
0.41572
0.37811
0.43682
Blank-corrected
sample weight
(mg)d
0.0
0.19330
0.06352
0.14107
0.11102
0.06287
0.0
0.00534
-
-
-
-
0.01592
0.09293
0.27752
0.01873
0.01303
0.10305
0.09346
0.0
0.06119
0.04132
0.00371
0.06242
(Continued)
HRI-OPPTVB71-OI
-------
TABLE 4-7 (Continued)
Test ID
No.
BC-5
3/20/93
Array ID
No.
U2
D1
Sampling height
(m)
1.5
3.0
1.0
3.0
5.0
7.0
Rlter ID No.
9311049
9311050
9311040
9311041
9311042
9311043
Results of
chemical
analysis (ppm)"
259
222
331
269
251
352
Mass used in
chemical
analysis (mg)b
1707.53
1564.74
1670.59
1662.55
1605.52
1660.59
Mass of
analyte on
filter (mg)c
0.44225
0.34737
0.55297
0.44723
0.40299
0.58453
Blank-corrected
sample weight
(mg)d
0.06785
0.0
0.17857
0.07283
0.02859
0.21013
" Parts per million by weight. 1 ppm = 1 jig/g.
b Mass of filter and PM-10 sample. The filter was divided in half with one half used for sodium.
c Not blank-corrected.
d Average blank correction = 0.37440 mg from Test BC-2, Array D1 applied to analyte mass in previous column.
r
MRI-OPPT\R71-01
-------
TABLE 4-8. RESULTS OF CHEMICAL ANALYSES FOR CHLORIDE ION (WINTER TESTS)
ro
ro
Sampling
Test ID No. Array ID No. height (m)
BC-1 U2 1.5
2/17/93 3.0
D1 1.0
3.0
5.0
7.0
BC-2 U2 1.5
2/18/93 3.0
(blanks) D1 1.0
3.0
5.0
7.0
BC-3 U2 1.5
2/19/93 3.0
D3 1.0
3.0
5.0
7.0
BC-4 U2 1.5
2/28/93 3.0
D1 1.0
3.0
5.0
7.0
Filter ID No.
9311001
9311002
9311004
9311005
9311006
9311007
9311013
9311014
9311016
9311017
9311018
9311019
9311025
9311026
9311033
9311034
9311035
9311036
9311037
9311038
9311045
9311046
9311047
9311048
Results of
chemical
analysis (ppm)a
18
20
118
66
38
28
20
19
18
27
14
18
22
24
91
48
17
18
16
<20
47
15
15
16
Mass used in
chemical analysis
(mg)b
1715.32
1614.28
1706.53
1719.36
1769.49
1672.21
1567.14
1646.66
1602.11
1654.92
1640.08
1711.99
1694.16
1684.37
1667.18
1712.44
1668.99
1330.53
1677.60
1709.41
1630.45
1621.77
1647.18
1847.93
Mass of
analyte per
filter (mg)c
0.03088
0.03229
0.20137
0.11348
0.06724
0.04682
0.03134
0.03129
0.02884
0.04468
0.02296
0.03082
0.03727
0.04042
0.15171
0.08220
0.02837
0.02395
0.02684
< 0.0341 9
0.07663
0.02433
0.02471
0.02957
Blank-corrected
sample weight
(mg)d
-0-
0.00046
0.16954
0.08165
0.03541
0.01499
-0-
-0-
-
-
-
-
0.00544
0.00859
0.11988
0.05037
-0-
-0-
-0-
-0-
0.04480
-0-
-0-
0.0
(Continued)
MHI-OPPT\B71-01
-------
TABLE 4-8 (Continued)
K>
CO
Test ID No. Array ID No.
BC-5 U2
3/20/93
D1
Sampling
height (m)
1.5
3.0
1.0
3.0
5.0
7.0
Filter ID No.
9311049
9311050
9311040
9311041
9311042
9311043
Results of
chemical
analysis (ppm)*
20
44
65
69
46
23
Mass used in
chemical analysis
(mg)b
1620.17
1755.74
1645.88
1652.82
1693.67
1678.21
Mass of Blank-corrected
analyte per
filter (mg)e
0.03240
0.07725
0.10698
0.11404
0.07791
0.03860
sample weight
(mg)d
0.00057
0.04542
0.07515
0.08221
0.04608
0.00677
8 Parts per million by weight. 1 ppm = 1 |ig/g.
b Mass of filter and PM-10 sample. The filter was divided in half with one half used for chloride and lead.
0 Not blank-corrected.
d Blank correction value = 0.03183 mg from Test BC-2, Array D1 applied to analyte mass in previous column.
MRI-OPPTW71-01
-------
TABLE 4-9. RESULTS OF ION BALANCE FOR NaCI (WINTER TESTS)8
ro
Sampling
Test ID No. Array ID No. height (m)
BC-1 U2 1.5
2/17/93 3.0
D1 1.0
3.0
5.0
7.0
BC-3 U2 1.5
2/19/93 3.0
D3 1.0
3.0
5.0
7.0
BC-4 U2 1.5
2/28/93 3.0
D1 1.0
3.0
5.0
7.0
BC-5 U2 1 .5
3/20/93 3.0
D1 1.0
3.0
5.0
7.0
Filter ID No.
9311001
9311002
9311004
9311005
9311006
9311007
9311025
9311026
9311033
9311034
9311035
9311036
9311037
9311038
9311045
9311046
9311047
9311048
9311049
9311050
9311040
9311041
9311042
9311043
Cl blank-corrected
weight (mg)
-0-
0.00046
0.16954
0.08165
0.03541
0.01499
0.00544
0.00859
0.11988
0.05037
-0-
-0-
-0-
< 0.00236
0.04480
-0-
-0-
-0-
0.00057
0.04542
0.07515
0.08221
0.04608
0.00677
Na* blank-corrected
weight (mg)
-0-
0.19330
0.06352
0.14107
0.11102
0.06287
0.01592
0.09293
0.27752
0.01873
0.01303
0.10305
0.09346
-0-
0.06119
0.04132
0.00371
0.06242
0.06785
-0-
0.17857
0.07283
0.02859
0.21013
Equivalent mass of
NaCI based
on ion balance (mg)
-0-
0.00076
0.16158
0.13456
0.05836
0.02471
0.00898
0.01417
0.19756
0.04765
-0-
-0-
-0-
-0-
0.07384
-0-
-0-
-0-
0.00095
-0-
0.12385
0.13549
0.07272
0.01116
Stoichiometric quantity of NaCI in sample mass using minimum quantity of either Na* or Cl~ to achieve a 1:1 molar balance.
MRI-OPPT\R71-01
-------
TABLE 4-10. COMPOUND-SPECIFIC PM-10 EMISSION FACTOR CALCULATIONS FOR LEAD (Pb)
Run Array Sampler
No. No. height (m)
BC-1 D1 1.0
(2/17/93) 3.0
5.0
7.0
BC-3 D3 1 .0
(2/19/93) 3.0
5.0
7.0
fO BC-5 D1 1.0
Ol
(3/20/93) 3.0
5.0
7.0
Measured lead
concentration
(lig/std m3)
0.00292
0.00161
0.00084
0.00176
0.00415
0.00212
0.00083
0.00038
0.02213
0.01609
0.01722
0.01529
Net lead
concentration
(ng/std m3)
-0-
-0-
-0-
-0-
0.00291
0.00088
-0-
-0-
0.01113
0.00509
0.00622
0.00429
Wind
speed
(m/s)'
1.8
(2.6)
3.0
(3.3)
3.4
(3.8)
3.9
(4.1)
1.1
(1.7)
1.9
(2.1)
Net lead
exposure
(ng/cm2)b
-0-
-0-
-0-
-0-
0.0143
0.00102
-0-
-0-
0.0200
0.0141
0.0193
0.0147
Integrated No. of
exposure vehicle Lead emission
(m-ng/cm2)0 passes factor (g/VKT)d
2245 Nil
-
-
-
0.0266 3552 7.5 (10)~5
-
-
-
0.155 3617 4.3 (1or*
-
-
" ( ) indicates inter/extrapolated value.
b Rounded to three significant figures.
c Plume height (H) assumed to be 5 m for Test BC-3 and 11 m for Test BC-5.
" Includes only Pb found in particles 5 10 urn in aerodynamic diameter. Rounded to two significant figures.
MRI-OPPT\H71-01
-------
TABLE 4-11. COMPOUND-SPECIFIC PM-10 EMISSION FACTOR CALCULATIONS FOR SODIUM CHLORIDE (NaCI)
cn
Run
No.
BC-1
(2/17/93)
BC-3
(2/19/93)
BC-5
(3/20/93)
Sampler
Array height
No. (m)
D1 1.0
3.0
5.0
7.0
D3 1.0
3.0
5.0
7.0
D1 1.0
3.0
5.0
7.0
Measured NaCI
concentration
(ng/std m3)
0.70682
0.59330
0.25330
0.10982
0.67748
0.16340
-0-
-0-
0.36426
0.40171
0.21561
0.03282
Net NaCI
concentration
Oig/std m3)*
0.70581
0.59229
0.25229
0.10881
0.64802
0.13394
-0-
-0-
0.36316
0.40061
0.21451
0.03172
Wind
speed
(m/s)a
1.8
(2.6)
3.0
(3.3)
3.4
(3.8)
3.9
(4.1)
1.1
(1.7)
1.9
(2.1)
Net NaCI
exposure
1.37
1.66
0.817
0.388
3.19
0.736
-0-
-0-
0.652
1.11
0.665
0.109
Integrated No. of
exposure vehicle NaCI emission
(m-ng/cm2)c passes factor (g/VKT)d
8.83 2245 0.039
7.28 3552 0.021
5.22 3617 0.014
a ( ) Indicates inter/extrapolated value.
' Rounded to three significant figures.
c Plume height (H) assumed to be 9 m for Tests BC-1 and BC-5 and 5 m for Test BC-3.
" Includes only NaCI found in particles s 10 urn in aerodynamic diameter. Rounded to two significant figures.
MRI-OPPT\FT71-O1
-------
As observed from Tables 4-10 and 4-11, the emission factors calculated for Pb
and NaCI are generally very low. In the case of Pb, the emission factors are
negligible as compared to total PM-10 (Table 4-5a). The emission factors for NaCI, on
the other hand, are substantially higher, but still only represent about 1 % to 4% of the
total PM-10 emitted from the road in two of the three tests conducted. These results
indicate that the contribution of both analytes to the total PM-10 emissions is minor.
4.3 RESULTS OF ANCILLARY SAMPLING AND ANALYSIS
4.3.1 Antiskid Material Samples
A sample of rock salt was collected from the KCP&R storage pile according to
the procedures outlined in Appendix A. This sample was split and analyzed for silt
content and percent insoluble matter. The analytical results obtained for the antiskid
material samples collected are summarized in Table 4-12.
In previous research conducted by MRI, a preliminary selection criterion of
< 2% insoluble matter was established by Kinsey et al. (1990) for chloride-based
deicing compounds. As noted from Table 4-12, the average insoluble content of the
salt samples analyzed was only slightly above the 2% value and thus considered
acceptable.
TABLE 4-12. PROPERTIES OF ROCK SALT SAMPLES
COLLECTED FROM KCP&R STOCKPILE
Material property Measured value
Silt content (wt. %)a 1.6
Percent insoluble matter (wt. %) 2.3b
a Percent of material less than 200 mesh or 75 ^im in physical diameter.
b Average of triplicate samples.
MRI-OPPTWI-01
4-27
-------
4.3.2 Road Surface Sampling
Road surface sampling was performed throughout the period that field testing
was attempted. Samples were collected and analyzed to determine silt loading, using
the procedures outlined in Appendix A, and percent insoluble matter using ASTM
Method E 534 (ASTM 1991). Surface samples were collected from both the
eastbound and westbound lanes near the air sampling site. The silt-loading values
and percent insolubles obtained from the various samples collected are shown in
Table 4-13 for the winter tests and for the September tests.
As shown from the surface sampling results in Table 4-13, the silt loadings
measured in the study varied considerably during the course of the study around a
typical value of about 0.2 g/m2. The highest silt-loading value was measured in
September as part of Test BC-12.
Except for the two samples collected in January, the insoluble matter found in
the silt fell within a fairly narrow range of 91% to 98% (i.e., 2% to 9% water soluble
fraction) regardless of time of year. Assuming that all of the water soluble fraction
consists of rock salt, these results would suggest that, except during the especially
heavy salt application periods in January, very little residual NaCI is normally present
in the silt on the road surface. Thus the application of rock salt for ice and snow
control should not substantially affect PM-10 emissions from the road.
Using the data provided in Table 4-13, a "silt-loading history" was developed for
the entire period that samples were collected. This history is provided in Figures 4-1 a
and 4-2b for the winter and summer months, respectively. Also shown in Figure 4-1 a
and Figure 4-1 b are the days when source testing took place, and on Figure 4-1 a the
occurrence of snowstorm events. Rainstorm event records for the period shown in
Figure 4-1 b are not currently available.
Finally, PM-10 emission factor estimates were also calculated from the silt-
loading data shown in Table 4-13 using the existing AP-42 predictive model provided
previously as Eq. (1-1). For comparison, similar calculations were performed utilizing
the new emission factor model shown as Eq. (1-2). Emission factors were predicted
for eastbound and westbound lanes, as applicable, in units of grams per vehicle
kilometer traveled (g/VKT).
4-28 MRI-OPPf\R71-01
-------
TABLE 4-13. RESULTS OF ROAD SURFACE SAMPLING
Road surface
area sampled
•t*.
to
CO
Date
12/23/92
01/06/93
01/15/93
01/26/93
02/18/93
03/07/93
03/20/93
6/10/93
9/15/93
9/16/93
Lane
sampled8
WB
WB
WB
WB
EB
WB
WB
WB
EB
EB
Sample
bag no.
107
97
89
86
43
58
-
53
32
35
ft2
2800
2800
2700
2700
2583
2800
1396
2800
530
722
m2
260
260
251
251
240
260
130
260
49.3
67.2
. Sample
mass
(g)b
380.9
496.6
540.1
426.3
1325.1
378.2
559.5
287.7
134.1
1215.8
Total surface
loading
lb/Iane-mic
19.1
24.8
27.9
22.0
71.6
18.8
55.8
14.4
35.3
235
g/m2
1.47
1.91
2.15
1.70
5.52
1.45
4.30
1.11
2.72
18.1
Silt
content
(wt %)"
1.50
13.1
9.89
13.7
1.1
27.9
12.8
9.11
8.56
7.93
Percent H2O
insolubles
in silt
(wt. %)e
93.9
68.3
62.4
96.1
91. 41
97.5
92.4*
96.7
96.99
97.99
Road surface silt
loading
lb/lane-mic
0.287
3.24
2.76
3.02
0.787
5.25
7.13
1.30
3.02
18.7
g/m2
0.0221
0.250
0.213
0.233
0.0607
0.405
0.550
0.100
0.233
1.44
a WB = westbound lanes; EB = eastbound lanes.
b Sample mass = total net loading.
c Calculated assuming a 12-ft lane width. 1 g/m2 = 12.97 Ib/lane-mi.
d Silt = % < 200 mesh or 75 urn physical diameter determined by dry sieving.
8 Percent of silt mass which is not soluble in water. Used as an indirect indicator of residual NaCI on road surface.
' Average of triplicate analyses.
9 Average of duplicate analyses.
MRI-OPPTW1-01
-------
SILT LOADING'HISTORY (WINTER)
0.6
0.5
•
16
September
2.0
o>
1.0
Figure 4-1 b. Silt-loading history for the summer months of 1993.
4-30 MRI-OPPT\R71-01
-------
The results of these calculations are shown in Table 4-14 for the winter and summer
months, respectively. A similar comparison performed using the Duluth silt loading
data collected by Kinsey (1993) is shown in Table 4-15.
As indicated by Table 4-14, the emission factors predicted from the existing
AP-42 equation (Eq. 1-1) are about twice as large as the paired values calculated
using the new emission factor model (Eq. 1-2) except for the summer measurements
when heavier vehicles were observed. As shown in Table 4-15, the sets of emission
factors obtained from the 1992 Duluth silt-loading data using the two predictive
equations are in close agreement due to a greater proportion of heavier vehicles. It is
also interesting to note that the emission factors predicted from the silt-loading data
using the new model are within the same general range as the measured emission
factors shown previously in Tables 4-5a and 4-5b. This lends additional credibility to
the exposure-profiling results obtained in the current study.
4.4 DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
As shown by the above results, the PM-10 emission factors determined from
the wintertime test data (Table 4-5a) are not related to the amount of NaCI applied to
the road surface during each storm tested. This is consistent with the fact that NaCI
constitutes only a minor portion of the surface silt loading. The NaCI apparently goes
into solution and is largely removed from the road surface before it dries. This
negates an earlier assumption that much of the NaCI dries as a film on the road
surface and is subsequently resuspended by traffic (Grelinger et al., 1988).
The wintertime surface silt loading consists largely of insoluble matter
(Table 4-13) not derived directly from the chemical deicer (rock salt) but instead from
other types of materials. The origin of this loading may be related to pavement wear
and "potholing," which could be an indirect result of the deicing chemical used (Kinsey
etal., 1990).
MRI-OPPTW1-01
4-31
-------
TABLE 4-14. PREDICTED PM-10 EMISSION FACTORS FROM MEASURED SURFACE SILT LOADINGS
Date
12/23/92
01/06/93
01/15/93
01/26/93
02/18/93
03/07/93
03/20/93
6/10/93
9/15/93
9/16/93
Lane sampled8
WB
WB
WB
WB
EB
WB
WB
WB
EB
EB
Road surface silt
loading (g/m2)"
0.0221
0.250
0.213
0.233
0.0607
0.405
0.550
0.100
0.233
1.44
Predicted PM-10 emission
factor: OLD EQ. (g/VKT)c
0.188
1.31
1.15
1.24
0.422
1.93
2.46
0.629
1.24
5.31
Predicted PM-10 emission
factor: NEW EQ. (g/VKT)d
0.134
0.648
0.584
0.619
0.258
0.886
1.08
0.656
1.14
3.72
" WB = westbound lanes; EB = eastbound lanes.
b From Table 4-13a.
c Calculated from surface silt loading using Eq. (1-1).
" Calculated from silt loading and average vehicle weight using Eq. (1-2). Average vehicle weight was 2 tons (1.82 Mg)
based on observations made in the field.
4-32
MRI-OPPTW71-01
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TABLE 4-15. PREDICTED PM-10 EMISSION FACTORS FROM MEASURED
SURFACE SILT LOADINGS (1992 Duluth data)
Date
02/26/92
02/28/92
03/2/92
03/11/92
03/19/92
04/1/92
04/22/92
04/24/92
Lane sampled8
NB-Driving
NB-Passing
SB-Driving
SB-Passing
NB-Driving
NB-Passing
SB-Driving
SB-Passing
NB-Driving
NB-Passing
SB-Driving
SB-Passing
NB-Driving
NB-Passing
SB-Driving
SB-Passing
NB-Driving
NB-Driving
NB-Passing
NB-Driving
NB-Passing
NB-Driving
NB-Passing
SB-Driving and
Passing
Road surface silt
loading (g/m2)"
1.04
0.501
0.529
0.271
0.341
0.0262
0.445
0.295
0.0701
0.0661
0.0382
0.122
0.200
0.164
0.208
0.354
0.0431
0.0788
0.156
0.0618
0.544
0.150
0.133
0.0526
Predicted PM-10 emission
factor: OLD EQ. (g/VKT)c
4.10
2.28
2.38
1.39
1.68
0.215
2.08
1.50
0.473
0.452
0.291
0.738
1.10
0.935
1.13
1.73
0.321
0.520
0.900
0.428
2.44
0.870
0.790
0.376
Predicted PM-10 emission
factor: NEW EQ. (g/VKT)d
3.01
1.87
1.93
1.26
1.46
0.275
1.73
1.33
0.521
0.501
0.351
0.747
1.03
0.905
1.06
1.49
0.380
0.562
0.876
0.480
1.97
0.854
0.790
0.432
" NB = northbound lanes; SB = southbound lanes.
b From Table 4-7 of Kinsey (1993).
c Calculated from silt loading using Eq. (1-1).
" Calculated from silt loading and average vehicle weight using Eq.
(2.72 Mg) based on observations made in the field.
(1-2). Average vehicle weight assumed to be 3 tons
MRI-OPPT\R71-01
4-33
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A comparison of the results of the 1992 Duluth emission study and that of the
current work is also of interest. As can be observed from Table 1-1, the PM-10 emis-
sion factors measured in 1992 for a sand/salt mixture are substantially higher than
those determined after the application of rock salt in the present study, (Table 4-5a) by
as much as an order of magnitude. These data would indicate that the application of
antiskid abrasives is of far greater concern in the control of PM-10 emissions from
paved roads than is the case for chloride deicers. It is recommended, therefore, that
the guidelines developed by the American Association of State Highway and Transpor-
tation Officials (AASHTO), shown in Table 4-1, be used to minimize the amount of
abrasives used for ice and snow control and the resulting PM-10 emissions (Kinsey
etal., 1990).
Finally, a comparison of the measured PM-10 emission factors with those
predicted by Eq. (1-2) from the silt-loading data yields some interesting results. As
shown in Figures 4-2a and 4-2b, the measured emission factors agree well with the
predicted values, taking into account the confidence interval associated with Eq. (1-2).
The 1 a confidence interval for Eq. (1-2), which is a good measure of its average
uncertainty of prediction, is a factor of 4.2. The calculated ratios of predicted to
measured emissions are shown in Table 4-16.
TABLE 4-16. RATIO OF PREDICTED TO MEASURED PM-10 EMISSIONS
Date
2/17
3/20
9/16
Run
No.
BC-1
BC-5
BC-1 2
Array
No.
D1
D1
D3
D1
D3
Measured
silt
loading
(g/m2)
0.061 a
0.55
1.44
Measured
PM-10
emission
factor (g/VKT)
0.20
0.37
0.32
3.9
4.9
Predicted
PM-10
emission factor
(g/VKT)
0.26
1.08
3.7
Ratio of
predicted
to
measured
emissions
1.3
2.9
3.4
0.95
0.76
a Determined on 2/18/93.
4-34
MHI-OPPT\R71-01
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2.5
2.0
1.5
o
<
u.
O
en
CO
LU
S 1.0
a.
"
-
"
-
D
Hi i i i
December '92
KEY
| Measured Emission Factor
0 Predicted Emission Factor (Eq. 1-2)
i i
I'''
i i i i i L
1
I
I
1 1
IB 18 20 22 24 21 21 30
January '93
i
24 6 8 10 12 14 18 IS 20 22 24 26 28
February '93
1
24 6 8 10 12 14 18 18 20 22
March "93
Figure 4-2a. Comparison of measured vs. predicted emission factors (Eq. 1-2) for
winter months.
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
a '
R i
i i i i Q i
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 2
June
1 1
1 1 |
KEY
| Measured Emission Factor
Q Predicted Erosion Factor (Eq. 1 -2)
I
I
I
ii I'
July
i i i i iii
August
I
1
1
i
September
rr
1
CO
co
UJ
? 2
Q.
_)
O
Figure 4-2b. Comparison of measured vs. predicted emission factors (Eq. 1-2) for
summer months.
4-35
MRI-OPPT\R71-01
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SECTION 5
QUALITY ASSURANCE
An independent evaluation of the field and analytical activities on this work
assignment was performed by the Senior Quality Assurance Officer (QAO). The
evaluation procedure included a review of the field and analytical data. The field work
was performed by Midwest Research Institute, and the elemental analyses were
conducted by Galbraith Laboratories, Inc., Knoxville, Tennessee.
5.1 PERFORMANCE AUDIT
The analytical laboratory, through its internal quality control program, analyzed
quality control samples prepared at a theoretical concentration of 2.0 |ig/mL for each
analyte. The average results for the method spikes were 98.5% for the sodium
analyses, 105% for the chlorine analyses, and 99.3% for the lead analyses.
5.2 DATA AUDIT
Two data audits were performed for this work assignment, one on the field data
and the second on the analytical data. A summary of the audit findings are given in
the following subsections.
5.2.1 Field Data
The sampling procedures followed in this field testing program were subject to
quality assurance/quality control (QA/QC) guidelines. As a part of this program,
quality assurance audits were performed to demonstrate that the measurements were
made within acceptable control conditions for particulate source sampling and to
assess the reliability of the field data with respect to the established criteria. The use
MRI-OPFTW1-01
5-1
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of specially designed reporting forms for sampling and quality control data obtained in
the field aided in the auditing procedure.
Three source activity factors pointed out by the Work Assignment Leader (and
mentioned previously in this report) that had an effect on the quality of the field data
collected were: the atypical amount of precipitation received during the test period
and the existence of a major earth-moving project close to the field-sampling location.
These are discussed in Sections 2.2 and 4.2.1.
The quality control criteria established for this program are given in Table 3-3,
"Quality Control Procedures for Sampling Flow Rates," and Table 3-4, "Quality Control
Procedures for Sampling Equipment." During this work assignment, the calibration of
the equipment was checked by the field personnel prior to sampling to ensure that the
equipment was properly calibrated.
The criteria used to define the unacceptable conditions for the collection of
reliable test data are given in Table 3-5, "Criteria for Suspending or Terminating a
Test." Because of adverse meteorological conditions, sampling activity for BC-2
(February 18) did not meet the criterion for wind direction. The data from activity BC-4
(February 25) were not used in the calculations for the emission factors because
melting precipitation caused salt spray during this test instead of PM-10 emissions.
5.2.2 Laboratory Data
A data audit was conducted to evaluate the analytical data generated. The
quality of the analytical data was evaluated against the QA indicators for the
measured data presented in the QAPjP, the analytical methodology, and the project
Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs).
The samples (filters) were initially analyzed using MRI SOP EET-610 to
determine the weight change between prefield and postfield weights. The samples
were equilibrated for 24 h in a clean room that had controlled temperature and
humidity. The filters were analyzed as described in the SOP and were within the data
quality indicators as given in the SOP and the QAPjP.
5-2 MRI-OPPT\B71-01
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The samples (filters) analyzed for Na+ and Cl were extracted using the
leaching procedure described in 40 CFR 50, Appendix G (EPA 1994c). The analytical
procedure used for Cl" was EPA Series 600 Method 300.0 (EPA 1983b); EPA
Method 273.1 (EPA 1983c) was used for Na"1". The samples (filters) analyzed for Pb
were subjected to using EPA Series 600 Method 200.9 (EPA 1994b). The procedures
were followed as described, and the associated quality control data met the
measurement requirements of the analytical procedures and the QAPjP.
5.3 DATA ASSESSMENT
Although the analytical data generated met the quality control criteria
established for this work assignment, field data collection was made more difficult by
environmental factors, many of which were beyond the control of the Work
Assignment Leader, because of the limited sampling windows.
Since the samples were collected under environmental conditions that did not
meet all of the applicable quality control criteria, some of the data may have been
affected. The sampling activities for BC-1 (February 17) lost some data for one tower
(D3) due to a generator malfunction. The sampling data from BC-4 activities
(February 25) were not used for the emission factor calculations because of wet
pavement conditions.
Although an error in the method used by the analytical laboratory for the
analysis of lead and the premature disposal of the lead extracts provided sufficient
data to calculate an emission factor for this analyte. However, as discussed by the
Work Assignment Leader, the amount of both salt and lead found in the samples has
resulted in emission contributions that are just above background levels and should be
considered negligible.
5.4 REPORT REVIEW
During a review for consistency in reporting the analytical data, the report was
found to reflect the analytical data generated for this activity.
MRI-OPPT\R71-01
5-3
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SECTION 6
STUDY CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions were reached as a result of the current study:
1. The wintertime PM-10 emission factors determined in this study of the effects of a
chemical deicer (NaCI) were generally low, ranging from 0.2 to 1.7 g/VKT. In
contrast, the wintertime emission factors measured in the earlier Duluth study of
the effects of antiskid abrasives were about an order of magnitude higher. Thus
the use of antiskid abrasives is much more significant than the chemical deicer, in
terms of PM-10 emission impact.
2. Rather than increasing the surface silt loading, NaCI aids in cleaning the road by
forming slush which is either picked up on vehicle underbodies, cast aside, or
removed as runoff. Little NaCI is left in the residual silt loading once the road
surface has dried.
3. The measured PM-10 emission factors are unrelated to the amount of NaCI
applied to the road, primarily because the NaCI constitutes only a minor portion of
the surface silt loading. Rather, insoluble materials from other sources (possibly
including pavement deterioration enhanced by the NaCI) drives the PM-10
emission rate.
4. The compound-specific PM-10 emission factors for Pb and NaCI, as determined
in the winter testing, ranged from 7.5 (10)~5 to 4.5 (ID)"4 g/VKT and 0.014 to
0.039 g/VKT, respectively. Due to the low magnitude of these emission factors,
the contributions of both analytes to the total PM-10 emissions from the road can
be considered negligible.
MRI-OPPT\R71-01
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5. The PM-10 emission factor equation found in the 5th edition of AP-42 is a reliable
tool for predicting emission rates from measured wintertime silt loading. The
uncertainty in the predictions is well within the previously determined reliability of
the equation.
g-2 MHI-OPPTW71-01
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SECTION 7
REFERENCES
American Society for Testing and Materials. Standard Method of Preparing Coal
Samples for Analysis. Method D 2013-86. Annual Book of ASTM Standards.
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. 1986.
American Society for Testing and Materials. Standard Test Methods for Chemical
Analysis of Sodium Chloride—Method E534-91. Annual Book of ASTM Standards.
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 1991.
American Society for Testing and Materials. Standard Test Method for Sieve Analysis
of Fine and Coarse Aggregates—Method C 136-93. Annual Book of ASTM
Standards. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 1993.
Cowherd, C., Jr., and P. J. Englehart. Paved Road Participate Emissions: Source
Category Report. EPA-600/7-84-077 (NTIS PB84-223734), U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, July 1984.
Davies, C. N. The Entry of Aerosols in Sampling Heads and Tubes. British Journal of
Applied Physics. 2:921, 1968.
Grelinger, M. A., G. Muleski, J. Kinsey, C. Cowherd, and D. Hecht. Gap Filling PM-10
Emission Factors for Selected Open Area Dust Sources. EPA-450/4-88-003 (NTIS
PB88-196225), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, North
Carolina, March 1988.
MRI-OPPTW71-01
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Kinsey, J. S. Characterization of PM-10 Emissions From Antiskid Materials Applied to
Ice- and Snow-Covered Roadways. EPA-600/R-93-019 (NTIS PB93-150209), U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, January
1993.
Kinsey, J. S., P. Englehart, M. A. Grelinger, K. Connery, C. Cowherd, Jr., and
J. Jones. Guidance Document for Selecting Antiskid Materials Applied to Ice- and
Snow-Covered Roadways. EPA-450/3-90-007 (NTIS PB90-183658), U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, January 1990.
PEDCo Environmental, Inc. Denver Demonstration Study. Contract No. C297337,
Colorado Division of Air Pollution Control, Denver, Colorado, October 1981.
Pyle, B. E., and J. D. McCain. Critical Review of Open Source Particulate Emission
Measurements: Field Comparison. EPA-600/2-86-072 (NTIS PB86-239787), U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, August
1986.
RTP Environmental Associates. Street Sanding Emissions and Control Study.
Boulder, Colorado, July 1990.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1983a). Lead-Atomic Absorption Direct
Aspiration-Method 239.1, in Methods for Chemical Analysis of Water and Wastes.
EPA 600/4-79-020 (NTIS PB84-128677), Cincinnati, Ohio, March 1983.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1983b). The Determination of Inorganic
Anions in Water by Ion Chromatography—Method 300.0 in Methods for Chemical
Analysis of Water and Wastes. EPA-600/4-79-020 (NTIS PB84-128677), Cincinnati,
Ohio, March 1983.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1983c). Sodium—Atomic Absorption Direct
Aspiration—Method 273.1, in Methods for Chemical Analysis of Water and Wastes.
EPA-600/4-79-020 (NTIS PB84-128677), Cincinnati, Ohio, March 1983.
7-2 MRI-OPPTW71-01
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U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors,
Volume I: Stationary and Area Sources. AP-42, 4th Edition, Research Triangle Park,
North Carolina, 1985. Supplements A, B, C, D, E, and F - 1986, 1988, 1990, 1991,
1992, and 1993.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1994a). Determination of Particulate
Emissions from Stationary Sources—Method 5, 40 CFR 60, Appendix A, Research
Triangle Park, North Carolina, July 1994.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1994b). Determination of Trace Elements by
Stabilized Temperature Graphite Furnace Atomic Absorption—Method 200.9 in
Methods for the Determination of Metals in Environmental Samples. EPA-600/
R-94-111 (NTIS PB95-125472), Cincinnati, Ohio, May 1994.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1994c). Reference Method for the
Determination of Lead in Suspended Particulate Matter Collected from Ambient Air,
40 CFR 50, Appendix G, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, July 1994.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Compilation of Air Pollution Emission Factors,
Volume 1: Stationary and Area Sciences. AP-42 (5th Edition), Research Triangle
Park, North Carolina, 1995.
Von Lehmden, D. J., and C. Nelson. Quality Assurance Handbook for Air Pollution
Measurement Systems, Volume II, Ambient Air Specific Methods. EPA-600/4-77-027a
(NTIS PB-273518), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park,
North Carolina, May 1977.
MRI-OPPTVR71-01
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APPENDIX A
MATERIAL SAMPLING AND ANALYSIS
Section Title Page
A.1 Sampling and preparation procedures A-2
A.2 Analysis of antiskid material samples A-5
A.3 Paved road surface sampling A-7
A.4 Analysis procedures for paved road samples A-10
MRI-OPPTWI-OI
A-1
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A.1 SAMPLING AND PREPARATION PROCEDURES
For the stockpiled rock salt, the following steps were used to collect a
representative sample for analysis:
1. Sketch plan and elevation views of the pile to be sampled. Indicate if any portion
is inaccessible. Use the sketch to plan where the N increments will be taken by
dividing the perimeter into N-1 roughly equivalent segments.
a. For a large pile, collect a minimum of 10 increments as near to the
mid-height of the pile as practical.
b. For a small pile, a sample should consist of a minimum of 6 increments
evenly distributed among the top, middle, and bottom.
"Small" or "large" piles, for practical purposes, may be defined as those
piles which can or cannot, respectively, be scaled by a person carrying a
shovel and pail.
2. Collect material with a straight-point shovel or a small garden spade. Take
increments from the portions of the pile which most recently had material added
and removed. Collect the material with a shovel to a depth of 10 to 15 cm (4 to
6 in). Do not deliberately avoid larger pieces of aggregate present on the
surface. Store the increments in a clean, labeled container of suitable size (such
as a metal or plastic 19-L [5-gal] bucket) with a sealable polyethylene liner.
3. Record the required information on the sample collection sheet (Figure A-1).
Note the space for deviations from the summarized method.
A-2 MRI-OPPTW71-01
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The sample mass collected should be at least 5 kg (10 Ib). When most
materials are sampled with 10 increments, a sample of at least 23 kg (50 Ib) is typical.
Note that storage pile samples usually require splitting to a size more amenable to
moisture and silt analysis. The following sample splitting procedure was used.
The main principle in sizing the laboratory sample for subsequent silt analysis is
to have sufficient coarse and fine portions to be representative of the material and to
allow sufficient mass on each sieve so that the weighing is accurate. A laboratory
sample of 400 to 1,600 g is recommended because of the scales normally available
(1.6- to 2.6-kg capacities). A larger sample than this amount may produce "screen
blinding" for the 20-cm (8-in) diameter screens normally available for silt analysis.
Screen blinding can also occur for small samples of finer texture. Finally, the sample
mass should be such that it can be spread out in a reasonably sized drying pan to a
depth of < 2.5 cm (1 in).
Two methods are recommended for sample splitting—riffles and coning and
quartering. Since a riffle was used in the current study, only this procedure is
described.
MHI-OPPTW71-01
A-3
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SAMPLING DATA FOR STORAGE PILES
Date Collected
Recorded by
Type of material sampled
Sampling location*
METHOD:
1. Sampling device: pointed shovel (hollow sampling tube if
inactive pile is to be sampled)
2. Sampling depth:
For material handling of active piles: 10-15 cm (4-6 in)
For material handling of inactive piles: 1m (3 ft)
For wind erosion samples: 2.5 cm (1 in) or depth of the
largest particle (whichever is less)
3. Sample container: bucket with a scalable liner
4. Gross sample specifications:
For material handling of active or inactive piles: minimum of
6 increments with total sample weight of 5 kg (10 Ib) [10
increments totalling 23 kg (50. Ib) are recommended]
For wind erosion samples: Minimum of 6 increments with total
sample weight of 5 kg (10 Ib)
Refer to procedure described in Section 4 of "Open Source PM-10
Method Evaluation" for more detailed instructions.
Indicate any deviations from the above:
SAMPLING DATA COLLECTED:
Sample
No.
Time
Location* of
Sample Collection
Device
Used
S/T **
Depth
Mass
of Sample
* Use code given on plant or area map for pile/sample
identification. Indicate each sampling location on map.
Figure A-1. Example data form for storage piles.
A-4
MRI-OPPTW71-01
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Figure A-2 shows two riffles for sample division. Riffle slot widths should be at
least three times the size of the largest aggregate in the material being divided. The
following quote from ASTM Standard Method D2013-72 describes the use of the riffle
(ASTM 1977).
"Divide the gross sample by using a riffle. Riffles properly used
will reduce sample variability but cannot eliminate it. Riffles are shown in
Figure A-2. Pass the material through the riffle from a feed scoop, feed
bucket, or riffle pan having a lip or opening the full length of the riffle.
When using any of the above containers to feed the riffle, spread the
material evenly in the container, raise the container, and hold it with its
front edge resting on top of the feed chute, then slowly tilt it so that the
material flows in a uniform stream through the hopper straight down over
the center of the riffle into all the slots, thence into the riffle pans,
one-half of the sample being collected in a pan. Under no circumstances
shovel the sample into the riffle, or dribble into the riffle from a small-
mouthed container. Do not allow the material to build up in or above the
riffle slots. If it does not flow freely through the slots, shake or vibrate
the riffle to facilitate even flow (ASTM 1977)."
A.2 ANALYSIS OF ANTISKID MATERIAL SAMPLES
The antiskid material sample collected from the KCP&R stockpile was split and
analyzed for both silt content and percent insoluble matter. Silt content was
determined using the procedure outlined in Section A.4 below. ASTM Method E 534
was used to determine percent insolubles in the salt sample collected.
MRI-OPPTVB71-01
A-5
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Feed Chute
SAMPLE DIVIDERS (RIFFLES)
Rolled
Edges
Riffle Sampler
(b)
Riffle Bucket and
Separate Feed Chute Stand
(b)
SEV gni
Figure A-2. Sample riffle dividers.
MRI-OPPT\R71-01
A-6
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A.3 PAVED ROAD SURFACE SAMPLING
In comparison to unpaved road sampling, planning for a paved road sample
collection exercise necessarily involves greater consideration as to types of equipment
to be used. Specifically, provisions must be made to accommodate the characteristics
of the vacuum cleaner chosen. For example, paved road samples are collected by
cleaning the surface using a vacuum cleaner with "tared" (i.e., weighed before use)
filter bags. "Stick broom" vacuums use relatively small, lightweight filter bags, while
bags for "industrial-type" vacuums are bulky and heavy. Stick brooms are thus well
suited for collecting samples from lightly loaded road surfaces because the mass
collected is usually several times greater than the bag tare weight. On the other hand,
the larger industrial-type vacuum bags are not only easier to use on heavily loaded
roads but also can be more readily used to aggregate incremental samples from
several road surfaces. In this study, both types of vacuums were used.
The following steps describe the collection method used for the individual
samples collected:
1. Ensure that the site offers an unobstructed view of traffic and that sampling
personnel are visible to drivers. If the road is heavily traveled, use one crew
member to "spot" and route traffic safely around another person collecting the
surface sample (increment). (Note that a vehicle-mounted arrow board was also
used in the study as an extra safety precaution.)
2. Using string or other suitable markers, mark the sampling width across the road.
(WARNING: Do not mark the collection area with a chalk line or in any other
method likely to introduce fine material into the sample.) The widths may be
varied between 0.3 m (1 ft) for visibly dirty roads and 3 m (10 ft) for clean roads.
When using an industrial-type vacuum to sample lightly loaded roads, a width
MRI-OPPTO71-01 A-7
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greater than 3 m (10 ft) may be necessary to meet sample specifications unless
increments are being combined.
3. If large, loose material is present on the surface, it should be collected with a
whisk broom and dustpan. NOTE: Collect material only from the portion of the
road over which the wheels and carriages routinely travel (i.e., not from berms or
any "mounds" along the road centerline). On roads with painted side markings,
collect material "from white line to white line" (but avoid any centerline mounds).
Store the swept material in a clean, labeled container of suitable size (such as a
metal or plastic 19-L [5-gal] bucket) with a scalable polyethylene liner.
Increments of the same sample may be mixed within the container.
4. Vacuum sweep the collection area using a portable vacuum cleaner fitted with an
empty tared (i.e., preweighed) filter bag. NOTE: Collect material only from the
portion of the road over which the wheels and carriages routinely travel (i.e., not
from berms or any "mounds" along the road centerline). On roads with painted
side markings, collect material "from white line to white line" (but avoid centerline
mounds). The same filter bag may be used for different increments for one
sample. For heavily loaded roads, more than one filter bag may be required for a
sample (increment).
5. Carefully remove the bag from the vacuum sweeper and check for tears or leaks.
If necessary, reduce samples from broom sweeping to a size amendable for
analysis (see Section A.1). Seal broom-swept material in a clean, labeled plastic
jar for transport (alternatively, the swept material may be placed in the vacuum
filter bag). Fold the unused portion of the filter bag, wrap a rubber band around
the folded bag, and store the bag for transport.
6. Record the required information on the sample collection sheet (Figure A-3).
A-8 MRI-OPPT\R71-01
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Date Collected
SAMPLING DATA FOR PAVED ROADS
Recorded by
Sampling location*
No. of lanes
Surface type (e.g., asphalt, concrete, etc.)
Surface condition (e.g., good, rutted, etc.) ___^_
* Use code given on plant or road map for segment identification. Indicate sampling location
on map.
METHOD:
1. Sampling device: portable vacuum cleaner, whisk broom, and dustpan if heavy loading
present)
2. Sampling depth: loose surface material (do not sample curb areas or other untravelled
portions of the road)
3. Sample container tared and numbered vacuum cleaner bags (bucket with scalable liner if
heavy loading present)
4. Gross sample specifications: Vacuum swept samples should be at least 200 g (0.5 Ib),
with the exposed filter bag weight at least 3 to 5 times greater than the empty bag tare
weight.
Refer to procedure described in Appendix C-1 and C-2 of AP-42 (EPA, 1995) for more
detailed instructions.
Indicated any deviations from the above;
SAMPLING DATA COLLECTED
Sample
No.
Vacuum bag
ID
Tare weight (g)
Surface area
sampled
Time
Mass of broom-
swept sample*
' Enter "0" if not broom sweeping is performed.
Figure A-3. Example data form for paved roads.
MRI-OPPTW71-01
A-9
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Broom-swept samples (if collected) should be at least 400 g (1 Ib) for silt and
moisture analysis. The vacuum-swept sample should be at least 200 g (0.5 Ib); in
addition, the exposed filter bag weight should be at least 3 to 5 times greater than the
weight of the empty filter bag. Additional increments should be taken until these
sample mass goals have been achieved. No broom-swept material was collected in
the program.
A.4 ANALYSIS PROCEDURES FOR PAVED ROAD SAMPLES
Paved road samples are not normally oven dried because vacuum filter bags
are used to collect the samples. After the sample has been recovered by dissection
of the bag, it is combined with any broom-swept material for silt analysis. The
following procedure was used for sample analysis.
For the paved road samples, the broom-swept particles and the vacuum-swept
dust are individually weighed on a beam balance. The broom-swept particles are
weighed in a container. The vacuum-swept dust is weighed in the vacuum bag, which
was tared prior to sample collection. After weighing the sample to calculate total
surface dust loading on the traveled lanes, broom-swept particles and the vacuum-
swept dust are combined. The composite sample is usually small and probably will
not require splitting in preparation for sieving. The following steps were followed to
analyze the resulting surface sample:
1. Select the appropriate 20-cm (8-in) diameter, 5-cm (2-in) deep sieve sizes.
Recommended U.S. Standard Series sizes are: 3/e in, No. 4, No. 40, No. 100,
No. 140, No. 200, and a pan. Comparable Tyler Series sizes can also be
utilized. The No. 20 and the No. 200 are mandatory. The other sizes can be
varied if the recommended sieves are not available or if buildup on one particular
sieve during sieving indicates that an intermediate sieve should be inserted.
A-10 MRI-Of»PT\R71-01
-------
2. Obtain a mechanical sieving device, such as vibratory shaker or a Roto-Tap,
without the tapping function.
3. Clean the sieves with compressed air and/or a soft brush. Material lodged in the
sieve openings or adhering to the sides of the sieve should be removed (if
possible) without handling the screen roughly.
4. Obtain a scale (capacity of at least 1,600 g or 100 Ib) and record make, capacity,
smallest division, date of last calibration, and accuracy.
5. Weigh the sieves and pan to determine tare weights. Check the zero before
every weighing. Record weights.
6. After nesting the sieves in decreasing order with pan at the bottom, transfer dried
laboratory sample (preferably immediately after moisture analysis, as applicable)
into the top sieve. The sample should weigh between ~ 400 and 1,600 g (0.9 to
3.5 Ib). This amount will vary for finely textured materials; 100 to 300 g may be
sufficient when 90% of the sample passes a No. 8 (2.36-mm) sieve. Brush fine
material adhering to the sides of the container into the top sieve and cover the
top sieve with a special lid normally purchased with the pan.
7. Place nested sieves into the mechanical sieving device and sieve for 10 min.
Remove pan containing minus No. 200 and weigh. Repeat the sieving in 10-min
intervals until the difference between two successive pan sample weighings
(where the tare weight of the pan has been subtracted) is less than 3.0%. Do not
sieve longer than 40 min.
8. Weigh each sieve and its contents and record the weight. Check the zero
reading on the balance before every weighing.
MRI-OPPT\R71-01
A-11
-------
9. Collect the laboratory sample and place the sample in a separate container if
further analysis is expected.
10. Calculate the percent of mass less than the 200-mesh screen (75-u.m physical
diameter). This is the silt content (see Figure A-4).
ASTM E534 was also used to determine the percent insoluble matter in the silt
samples obtained by dry sieving.
A-12
MR|.OPPT\R71-01
-------
SILT ANALYSIS
Date:
Recorded by:
Sample No.:
Material:
Sample weight (after drying)
Pan + Sample:
Dry sample:
Rnal weight:
Split Sample Balance:
Make
Capacity_
% silt
Net Weight < 200 mesh „
Total Net Weight
Smallest Division
SIEVING
Time: Start:
Initial (tare):
20 min:
30 min:
40 min:
Weight (Pan Only)
Screen
3/8 in
4 mesh
10 mesh
20 mesh
40 mesh
1 00 mesh
140 mesh
200 mesh
Pan
Tare
weight
(screen)
Rnal weight
(screen + sample)
•
Net weight (sample)
%
Figure A-4. Example data form for silt analysis.
MRI-OPPT\R71-01
A-13
-------
APPENDIX B
EXAMPLE DATA FORMS USED FOR MONITORING SITE CONDITIONS
MRI-OPPTW1-01 B-1
-------
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-------
APPENDIX C
SAMPLE CALCULATIONS
-------
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C-6
-------
TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
1. REPORT NO.
EPA-600/R-95-119
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION NO.
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
Characterization of PM-10 Emissions from Antiskid
Materials Applied to Ice- and Snow-covered
Roadways--Phase II
5. REPORT DATE
August 1995
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7. AUTHOR(S)
John S. Kinsey
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
MRI-OPPT/R71-01
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
Midwest Research Institute
425 Volker Boulevard
Kansas City, Missouri 64110-2299
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
68-DO-0137, Tasks 3-71 and
4-3
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
EPA, Office of Research and Development
National Risk Management Research Laboratory
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
Task Final; 1-8/93
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
EPA/600/13
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES APPCD project officer is Charles C. Masser, Mail Drop 62,9197
541-7586. Report EPA-600/R-93-019 (NTIS PB93-150209) is the Phase I report.
is. ABSTRACT The report gives results of field sampling on 47th Street in Kansas City,
Missouri, during February and March 1993 to quantify the PM-10 emissions asso-
ciated with the use of rock salt (NaCl) for ice and snow control. A baseline test was
conducted in September 1993. The emissions were determined using exposure pro-
filing. The measured emission factors spanned the following ranges, in grams per
vehicle kilometers traveled (g/KVT): (1) total PM-10—0.2 to 1.7 (winter tests), and
3. 9 to 4. 9 (September test); (2) PM-10 lead--7. 5 x 10 to the -5 to 4. 5 x 10 to the -4
(winter tests); and (3) PM-10 NaCl--O.Ol4 to 0..039 (winter tests). The winter emis-
sion factors for total PM-10 determined in this study were about an order of magni-
tude lower than those measured in a 1992 Duluth study, which utilized a 90% sand/
10% salt antiskid material. The studies concluded that the sand from the antiskid
material mixture that remained after the road had dried, constituted most of the
silt loading and, therefore, the PM-10 emission impact. The rock salt, removed
from the road mostly in the melting slush, contributed only a few percent to the
residual silt loading.
17.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
b.IDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
c. COSATI Field/Group
Pollution
Particles
Snow
Emission
Roads
Rock Salt
Sands
Pollution Control
Stationary Sources
Particulate
Antiskid Material
13 B
14G
04B.08L
08G
08M
13. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
Release to Public
19. SECURITY CLASS (This Report)
Unclassified
21. NO. OF PAGES
102
20. SECURITY CLASS (This page)
Unclassified
22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (9-73)
C-7
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