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Preface
This is the fourth annual report to the people of the Pacific Northwest on the status of our
environment. The infprmation presented in this report has been compiled by the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in cooperation with the States of Alaska, Idaho,
Oregon, and Washington. Valuable contributions have also been made by numerous
individuals as well as other institutions.
While the Northwest United States is viewed as being relatively environmentally "clean" in
comparison with other parts of the Nation, there are many problems to be solved. Most
importantly, however, the Northwest is growing—more industry attracts more people—and the
results of that growth are not always environmentally beneficial. The people of the Northwest
consequently face a challenge: accommodating increased growth while retaining one of our
greatest resources, a healthful and beautiful environment.
During May and June 1980, when Mount St. Helens erupted, this report was nearing
completion. With the exception of the presentation on Mount St. Helens, environmental data
used in the report consist of data collected in 1979 and do not reflect the impact of the
volcanic eruption.
Space precludes a complete discussion of the many complex technical and economic issues
associated with environmental protection. Therefore, the interested reader is invited to contact
the Region 10 Office of EPA in Seattle for other publications and additional information. Also,
we encourage suggestions on how future issues of this publication can be made more useful.
Donald P. Dubois
Regional Administrator, Region 10
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Seattle, Washington 98101
December, 1980
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Contents/Summary
Mount St. Helens
The 1980 series of Mount St. Helens eruptions
created troubling uncertainties for environmental
and public health officials in the Pacific Northwest.
The surge of mud, fallen timber and other debris,
plus the heavy fallout of volcanic ash into many
areas of the region, raised questions about the
quality of drinking water, the ability of sewage
treatment plants to withstand the ash flushed into
sewer systems, and the possible health effects on
people from inhaling potentially dangerous
quantities of volcanic dust. Many fears about
serious environmental consequences were quickly
dispelled, but no immediate answers are available
for questions about long-term health effects.
5 Solid Waste and Hazardous
Substances
Problems with traditional methods of solid waste
disposal and the need to conserve natural resources
and energy have prompted the use of new
approaches in Region 10 solid waste management.
In particular, communities are recycling more
recoverable materials and considering energy
recovery from municipal waste.
Production, use, and disposal of hazardous
substances is a major concern in Region 10.
However, stringent regulatory programs, including
new hazardous waste regulations, are being
implemented to better manage these materials.
EPA requires monitoring of radioactive materials
and pesticides, although the states have primary
enforcement duties for controlling these
substances.
9 Air Quality
In 1979, most areas in Region 10 met air quality
standards. Standards for total suspended
particulates were exceeded in 16 areas as well as a
number of others where fugitive dust is a problem.
Sulfur dioxide standards are being exceeded in
three areas of Idaho and one area of Washington.
Carbon monoxide levels in all four states are
expected to be controlled by various transportation
management strategies. Ozone standards were
exceeded in both the Portland and Seattle areas. To
attain standards, controls on point sources and area
sources either have been implemented or are planned.
18 River Water
Portions of many of the Region's major rivers have
marginal water quality with respect to the Federal
water quality goals, and the overall 7-year trend has
shown little improvement. Much o1 the existing
degradation is due to a variety of non-point sources
which should eventually be controlled by area-wide
wastewater management programs. Some is
contributed by point sources, such as industries,
which are controlled through state and Federal
pollution permits. Natural occurrences are also
responsible for some of the problems. The water
quality criteria most often exceeded are those for
temperature, bacteria, nutrient levels, turbidity,
solids, and heavy metals.
Lakes
33
Many of the Region's major recreational lakes have
water quality and other problems which impair their
recreational use—principally algae and aquatic
weed growths and excessive sedimentation. Primary
sources of these problems are stormwater runoff
from urban and agricultural lands, sewage and
septic discharges from residential areas and
recreational facilities, and irrigation return flows. A
variety of measures have been taken to restore the
water quality in some of the lakes.
Marine Water
40
About one-third of the Region's classified
commercial shellfish growing areas are closed
during at least part of the year. These closures are
primarily due to fecal bacteria contamination
caused by inadequate sewage treatment. Others
may be due to seasonal runoff from agricultural and
forestry activities, and industrial point sources, such
as pulp mills. Naturally occurring outbreaks of "red
tide" also necessitate the closure of some areas on
a seasonal basis.
Drinking Water 44
Drinking water in the Northwest and Alaska is
generally considered to be safe, but five waterborne
disease outbreaks have occurred within the past
year, and others are suspected but unconfirmed.
Water system compliance with the bacteriological
standards has remained fairly constant from Fiscal
Year 78 to Fiscal Year 79; however, improvements
have been made in achieving compliance with the
bacteriological monitoring requirements.
Improvements in compliance with both
bacteriological monitoring and standards are
expected to occur in Fiscal Year 80.
Noise 46
The Federal Noise Control Act of 1972 gives EPA
authority to set standards for cars, trucks, interstate
railroads, aircraft, etc. However, the primary
responsibility for noise control rests with state and
local governments. With technical assistance from
EPA as required, each community develops the
programs that meet their unique requirements.
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Summary of
Environmental Indicators
MEDIA
Air Quality
River Water
Quality
Lake Water
Quality
Marine Water
Quality
Drinking
Water Quality
INDICATOR
Number of areas
exceeding standards
Percentage of monitoring
stations meeting water
quality goals (based on
worst 3 months)
Percentage of major
recreational lakes with
little or no use impairment
Percentage of classified
shellfish harvesting
waters open
Percentage of population
served by water supplies
OREGON
CURRENT
STATUS TREND
6
30%
58%
50%
72%
Little
change
Little
change
Little
change
Little
change
Improving
WASHINGTON
CURRENT
STATUS TREND
8
50%
50%
68%
69%
Little
change
Little
change
Little
change
Little
change
Improving
IDAHO
CURRENT
STATUS TREND
5 Little
change
30% Slight
decrease
57% Little
change
64% Improving
ALASKA
CURRENT
STATUS TREND
2 Little
change
10% Insufficent
data
87% Little
change
100%
43% Improving
in compliance with
regulations for bacterial
contamination
Percentage of community
water supplies in
compliance with
regulations for bacterial
contamination
Noise Percentage of population
covered by enforcement
of state/local noise
regulations
Solid Waste Number of recycling
Disposal centers in operation
Number of hazardous
waste handling facilities
in operation
58% Improving 17% Improving 63% Improving 18% Improving
50% Improving 50% Improving
300+ Improving
3 Improving
300+ Improving
4 Improving
5% Little 35% Improving
change
20 Improving 2 Improving
2 Little 0
change
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Mount St. Helens
The eruption of Mount St. Helens occurred
last spring just as this report neared
completion. Consequently, the fallout from
the volcano suddenly threw into question
many of EPA's conclusions regarding the
condition of the environment in the Pacific
Northwest.
Data EPA had collected on levels of turbidity
and solids in the surface waters of
southwestern Washington were made
obsolete by the movement of tons of mud,
fallen timber, and other debris into rivers and
lakes in the immediate vicinity of Mount St.
Helens (see Figure 1). Over a wider area, the
turbidity created in dozens of drinking water
supplies in Washington, Idaho, and Oregon
cast doubt on EPA's assessments of the
drinking water quality in those systems most
affected by mudflows and ash fallout. For a
few days, it was uncertain whether the
turbidity would interfere with the disinfection
needed to assure safe drinking water.
Emissions of ash and various gases produced
what will undoubtedly be long-standing
problems related to attainment of national
ambient air quality standards for particulate
matter throughout the Region. In addition,
serious questions were raised about the
volcano's contributing significantly to acid
rain formation well beyond the borders of the
Pacific Northwest.
The potential for far-reaching effects became
apparent by early July when an English
scientist claimed that ash from Mount St.
Helens was responsible for the unseasonably
cold summer temperatures in Great Britain
and for the rains that drenched the
Wimbledon tennis tournament.
The concerns of the English scientist seem
frivolous when compared with those of people
living in Washington, Idaho, and Oregon in
the aftermath of Mount St. Helens' May, June,
and July eruptions. For people who had to dig
their way out of mudflows or heavy ash
fallout, it was a matter of personal health, and
some very important questions arose. Was it
safe to handle the ash? Was their water fit to
drink? Was the air safe to breathe?
These were the three chief questions facing
EPA and state environmental and health
agencies in the wake of the volcano's
eruptions—in particular the one of May 18.
Within hours of this explosion that blasted
more than 1,000 feet off the top of the
mountain, EPA sent a specially equipped
aircraft over areas of central Washington
downwind from the volcano to measure
radioactivity. No radioactivity above normal
background levels was discovered in the
Figure 1.
Stream Areas Affected by
Ml. St. Helens Mudflows
aerial measurements, which was confirmed
through analyses of ground ash samples
taken the same day.
It was also promptly determined that the ash
was highly conductive. Upon contact with
moisture, deposits of ash on transformers and
other electrical equipment could cause power
outages. Utility operators took the precaution
of using emergency crews to blow ash from
substation transformers before rainfall could
produce interruptions in electrical service.
Rumors that ground-level ash fallout was
highly acidic were rapidly dispelled. U-2
flights discovered high acid content of
particles in the atmosphere, but fears that the
ash might etch painted surfaces of cars or,
worse yet, produce acids under face masks
being used for protection, were alleviated
when tests of ground ash showed almost no
acidity. Also, there were no toxic properties in
the ash. This was established by EPA
personnel who, in the scramble to obtain all
available information about ash
characteristics, acted as a clearinghouse for
analyses quickly performed by state, Federal,
AFFECTED BY MUD FLOWS
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and private laboratories'throughout the
Northwest. The ash did'consist of minute
fractions of cobalt and other inert heavy
metals, but in quantities so small that by
May 21 EPA was able to determine that they
presented no danger to people inhaling
airborne ash or drinking water containing ash
particles.
Of greater concern was the threat to drinking
water posed by the high levels of turbidity in
surface streams and reservoirs receiving
heavy deposits of ash or mud (see Figure 2).
(In the first few days after the May 18
eruption, some drinking water supplies in
southwestern Washington had so much mud
they were facetiously described as "too wet to
plow and too thick to run.") Fortunately, in
those cases where mud clogged drinking
water intakes, system operators were able to
draw water from alternate sources; operators
at other systems with high turbidity levels
adjusted the amount of chemicals used in
flocculation and, by keeping a close watch on
filtration equipment, managed to provide
water that was safe to drink.
Many systems came dangerously close to
running out of water because of the heavy use
of domestic supplies to flush away the
accumulations of ash that paralyzed their
communities. Several systems rationed water
usage, but no community anywhere in the
Northwest ever completely ran out.
The accumulations of ash that were sluiced
into storm drains and sanitary sewers created
problems for the operators of municipal
sewage treatment plants. At one point in
Spokane, a city hit hard by the May 18 fallout,
it was reported that no less than 30 percent of
the influent entering the city's sewer system
consisted of solids. Mechanical equipment
was threatened by the load, making it
necessary to temporarily bypass treatment
facilities. Spokane, like other cities, reduced
treatment levels from secondary to primary to
avoid expensive damage to their equipment.
Managers of local sewerage authorities
correctly preferred to tolerate increased
discharges' of oxygen-demanding materials
from their outfall lines for a few days rather
than risk permanent damage to their systems
that might leave downstream waterways
without any treatment at all for what could
have been months to come.
Water quality standards were undoubtedly
violated in a few areas of the Pacific
Northwest, but EPA and state and local health
officials were more worried about the effects
of violations of national ambient air quality
standards for total suspended particulates
(TSP).
Local air pollution control agencies
throughout the Pacific Northwest recorded
TSP levels far in excess of the standard set to
protect human health. Figure 2 shows the
dispersion pattern from the May 18 eruption
and Figure 3 shows the highest 24-hour
concentrations of particulates observed after
the Mount St. Helens eruptions of last May
and June. Monitors in Yakima, for example,
recorded levels of particulates reaching 30,000
micrograms per cubic meter of air.
Historically, the Pacific Northwest has rarely
experienced air pollution episodes in which
TSP levels even remotely approached the
1000-microgram level, and Figure 3 shows the
normal average 24-hour levels of TSP during
1979.
Figure 2.
Ash Deposits Following
Mt. St. Helens Eruption
The standard set by EPA to protect human
health is 260 micrograms per cubic meter of
air over a 24-hour period. When that standard
is exceeded and weather forecasts indicate
conditions are likely to get worse, air pollution
control agencies begin to consider preventive
actions to protect public health. If TSP levels
reach 375 micrograms for a 24-hour period,
air pollution control agencies issue alerts to
advise susceptible people about dangers to
their health. At 625 micrograms of TSP,
warnings are issued that advise stronger
precautions. At 900 micrograms, the
"emergency" stage is reached and local
governments are empowered to impose
restrictions on personal and commercial
activities that would send TSP concentrations
above 1000 micrograms, at which level there
is significant harm to human health.
At this writing, it is still too early to tell just
how long people living in heavy fallout areas
can expect exposure to TSP concentrations
dramatically above levels that prevailed before
the eruption. Even though local efforts to
Mt. St. Helens^ \
A ^ • Mt. Adams
ASHFALL DISTRIBUTION, generalized
isopachs of thickness (ash depth
on surface)
ERUPTED IN 1800's
ACTIVE CASCADE VOLCANOES
L
1 mm = ,04 in.
5 mm = 1/4 in.
10mm = 1/2 in.
25 mm = 1 in.
50 mm = 2 in.
100 mm = 4 in.
-------
remove ground ash in many communities
bordered on the heroic, enough ash
remained for several weeks after the initial
cleanup to send TSP concentrations soaring
above 1000 micrograms. As one example,
Spokane—despite a successful cleanup of the
ash from the May 18 fallout—experienced
winds on June 1 (a full 2 weeks later) that
caused monitoring equipment to record TSP
in concentrations of more than 2300
micrograms during one 8-hour period.
So much volcanic dust lay on the ground in
many fallout areas that it was subject to
redistribution every time a stiff wind came up.
Figure 3.
Total Suspended Paniculate Levels
Since the Eruption
This worried public health officials who were
trying to accurately assess the risk to public
health. Their job was made difficult by their
inability to predict how long people could
expect to encounter heavy, prolonged
exposure to ash already on the ground. In
addition, they had no way to measure
exposure from the volcano's unpredictable
future eruptions.
Early reports from the Center for Disease
Control (CDC), based on information
collected by epidemiologists about hospital
emergency room visits and hospital
admissions in fallout areas, were not
conclusive about the seriousness of short-
term health effects. While the preliminary
results of CDC's investigations suggested
significant increases in hospital admissions
for a variety of respiratory ailments, CDC had
not—as this article was being prepared—
performed the follow-up studies that would
precisely determine the short- or long-term
risks to human health.
PARTICULATE LEVELS IN MICROGRAMS PER CUBIC METER OF AIR FLOW
200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100
1200 1300
Seattle
Aberdeen
Olympia
i Longview
o Yakima
Richland
Spokane
Portland
The Dalles
Moscow
Boise
Primary Alert
Standard Level
MAXIMUM 24-HOUR AMBIENT TOTAL SUSPENDED
PARTICULATE LEVELS SINCE THE ERUPTION
NORMAL AVERAGE 1979. 24-HOUR AMBIENT TOTAL
SUSPENDED PARTICULATE LEVELS
AMBIENT AIR QUALITY LEVELS REQUIRING ACTION
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Of special concern to CDC was the potential
for people in fallout areas to develop silicosis,
an emphysema-like illness produced by heavy
exposure to crystalline silica, a known
component of volcanic ash. Occupational
standards designed to protect workers from
crystalline silica exist for the workplace, but
none have been devised for ambient air.
Direct correlations have been established
between the development of silicosis and the
exposure of workers engaged for several
years in hazardous occupations, but no such
correlation exists for exposure of the general
population. CDC, in trying to establish that
relationship (if, in fact, any such relationship
exists) was relying on ambient monitoring
data furnished by sampling stations operated
t>y state environmental agencies and local air
pollution authorities in cooperation with EPA.
The state and local agencies had long
maintained monitorirvg stations to collect
information about total suspended
particulates and other air pollutants. With the
eruptions of Mount St. Helens, added
monitoring capability was needed to measure
ambient levels of TSP. State and local
agencies promptly responded to the
challenge. New sampling sites were set up,
new equipment was deployed, and the
frequency of monitoring was increased in
Washington, Oregon, and Idaho. The
monitoring stations used to collect the TSP
data are shown in Figure 4.
At as many sites as possible, equipment was
installed that enabled state and local agencies
to make two kinds of measurements. Not only
would "Hi Vol" samplers be used to measure
TSP, but other equipment ("Dichot"
(Dichotomous) and "IP" (Inhalable
Particulates)] was added to measure that
fraction of total particulates so small as to be
inhalable. Relatively coarse particules (i.e.,
larger than 15 microns) cannot be inhaled;
they usually are trapped in the nose or throat
and can easily be expelled. Particles smaller
than 15 microns, on the other hand, can be
inhaled. And those smaller than 2-1/2 microns
are considered respirable, so tiny they can be
drawn deep into the lungs. Respirable
particles tend to remain lodged in the lungs
for long periods of time and possibly can alter
the body's physiological defense systems.
Data from the monitoring network is
immediately relayed, as soon as available, to
epidemiologists at CDC. This monitoring data
will be used by CDC to make correlations
between ambient exposures and data
collected by CDC's own in-depth
investigations of persons exposed to
potentially dangerous levels of volcanic ash.
Other monitoring data being collected will
help gauge whether emissions from Mount St.
Helens will contribute significantly to the
formation of acid rain, which is a product of
sulfur and nitrogen oxides reacting with water
vapor in the upper atmosphere to cause
drops of sulfuric acid and nitric acid to return
to earth. Although it is well-established that
sulfur oxides can be carried by prevailing
winds for hundreds of miles, not much is
known about the exact process by which acid
Figure 4.
Region 10 Volcano Participate Network
rain is formed or precisely how it is
transported in the atmosphere. Mount St.
Helens' emission of hundreds to thousands of
tons of sulfur dioxide per day was cause for
concern by EPA researchers who had already
been trying to determine the environmental
effects of acid rain.
While there are still many unanswered
questions about the long-term effects of the
Mount St. Helens eruptions on people and the
environment, one fact has clearly been
affirmed: man and his environment can all too
easily become the victims of changes that
upset the fragile balance of our global
ecology. Mankind is vulnerable to
innumerable environmental stresses, some of
which are the result of natural, uncontrollable
events.
HIGH VOLUME AIR SAMPLER
OICHOTOMOUS SAMPLER
INHALABLE PARTICULATE SAMPLER
WASHINGTON
Spokane
Seattle
• Moses Lake
Olympia H Yakima
Mt. St. Helens
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Solid Waste and Hazardous Substances
In general, Region 10 has escaped the
environmental problems found in other parts
of the U.S. No major scale problems from
improper disposal of hazardous substances
have been discovered as yet. The problems
that have surfaced are being dealt with and
remedies are being developed. Open burning
of wastes has been virtually eliminated from
Region 10, but many environmental problems
related to improper disposal of municipal
waste remain, with water pollution being a
major concern. Scarcity of land for solid
waste disposal, concern about limited
resources, and serious health hazards arising
from improper disposal of hazardous wastes
prompted Congress to pass the Resource
Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) in
1976. In addition, other forms of hazardous
substances are regulated by EPA under
authorities of TSCA (Toxic Substances
Control Act) and FIFRA (Federal Insecticide,
Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act). In this
increasingly complex area, Region 10 feels
they are moving in a positive direction toward
protecting human health. The following
section summarizes the solid waste and
hazardous substances problems addressed in
the Pacific Northwest, as well as hazards dealt
with by other means.
Solid Waste Disposal
The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
requires that Federal criteria be established
for evaluating land disposal operations
nationwide. In the past, municipal landfills
could often be described as open dumps.
These criteria have now been developed and
the states in Region 10 have started an
inventory to classify disposal sites. Those sites
failing the criteria will be designated as open
dumps and placed on a state-established
compliance schedule for upgrading or
closure.
Rainwater draining over the surface of a fill,
and filtering into the ground through the
wastes, can dissolve (leach) such undesirable
substances as chemicals and bacteria into
streams and groundwater. Because of the
higher rainfall and greater population west of
the Cascade Mountains, leachate problems
there have been more numerous and serious
than in more arid parts of Region 10. Landfills
such as those constructed in Lane County,
Oregon and Snohomish County, Washington
have been engineered for leachate collection
and treatment. Older landfills which had
serious leachate problems, such as the Cedar
Hills landfill in King County, Washington, have
installed collection systems that pump
leachate into the sewage treatment system.
Other landfills may have to close altogether if
they cannot be effectively upgraded.
There are other problems related to waste
disposal. For example, when garbage
decomposes, methane gas is produced as a
by-product. Methane is toxic to vegetation
and is explosive in certain concentrations.
Decomposition can also produce odors.
Household wastes, in particular, may attract
disease-carrying rodents and insects. Proper
disposal with daily cover and proper
compaction will reduce many of these
problems. Sewage sludge disposal is an
increasing problem as water pollution
regulations become more strict and landfill
space becomes scarce. Alternatives, such as
incineration and the use of sludge on farm
and forest lands, are being tried. In addition,
certain areas have special disposal problems,
such as in Alaska where severe cold makes
disposal difficult.
Resource Recovery
RCRA provides financial assistance to state
solid waste management authorities to
develop and implement comprehensive solid
waste plans, including environmentally sound
disposal methods and recovery and
conservation programs. In addition, the
President's Urban Grant program has
provided funding to Seattle and Portland for
development of recycling and energy recovery
systems. Some municipal wastes, such as
glass, metal, and newspaper, can be recycled,
and much of the rest can be converted to
"refuse-derived fuel" (RDF) or burned to
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Figure 5.
Location of Hazardous Waste and
Resource Recovery Facilities in Region 10
CHEMICAL/WASTE OIL PROCESSORS
OPERATING CHEMICAL LAND FILLS
PROPOSED CHEMICAL LAND FILLS
CONSTRUCTED RDF PLANTS
ENERGY RECOVERY PLANT FEASIBILITY
STUDY UNDERWAY
WASTE EXCHANGES
LOCALITY WHERE RECYCLING FACILITY
AVAILABLE (MORE THAN ONE TYPE
HOUSEHOLD WASTE-GLASS. PAPER.
ALUMINUM. ETC.)
NOTE: State of Alaska is represented at
approximately 30% of true scale.
create steam or electricity. Lane County,
Oregon and Tacoma, Washington are testing
RDF plants. Portland and Roseburg, Oregon
and Cowlitz County, Snohomish County, and
King County, Washington and Boise, Idaho
are also studying the feasibility of converting
waste to energy (Figure 5). The economics of
recycled materials are typically very good in
the Portland and Puget Sound areas, but
recycling programs in Idaho and Alaska suffer
from higher transportation costs and smaller
volumes.
Other wastes with a potential for recovery
include tires, lubricating oil, and wood waste,
which simultaneously present serious disposal
problems. Discarded tires gradually work to
the surface in a landfill, where they trap water,
become a breeding place for mosquitoes, and
pose a fire hazard. Recently, however,
shredded tires were used as a fuel in boilers at
the Georgia-Pacific plywood mill in Toledo,
Oregon. Waste lubricating oil is used on roads
as a dust suppressant, but can contaminate
air and water, plus lead in the oil makes
indiscriminate burning or disposal
undesirable. Oregon has passed a Used Oil
Collection Act that provides for designated
collection centers, which will encourage re-
refining of waste oil. Wood waste, which can
pollute water resources and consume
significant space in landfills, is presently being
used to produce steam in several Northwest
timber mills and utilities, and may also be
used in combination with refuse-derived fuel.
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Hazardous Substances
The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
mandates government control of hazardous
waste from its generation to ultimate disposal,
including a manifest tracking system for
transporting and a permit system for
treatment, storage, and disposal facilities. In
May of 1980 regulations were promulgated
which will implement the Act. Compared to
other parts of the country, there are fewer
industrial sources of hazardous waste in
Region 10. Most of it is created by
manufacturers of chemicals, pesticides, and
metals, petroleum refineries, and
electroplating operations. These sources are
concentrated around Puget Sound and in the
Willamette Valley.
For RCRA to be effective, acceptable
hazardous waste disposal sites must be made
available. Presently, there are two state-
licensed chemical landfills in Region 10—one
at Arlington, Oregon, and the other at Grand
View, Idaho, and a third has been proposed
on the U.S. Department of Energy's Hanford
Reservation in Washington. The availability of
such landfills, coupled with the active
involvement of Region 10 states in hazardous
waste management, has helped prevent
serious incidents involving hazardous wastes
in the Region. Nevertheless, there has been
opposition to using these landfills to dispose
of wastes from out-of-state. In addition, RCRA
does not address the problem of abandoned
facilities which have posed serious health
hazards elsewhere in the country. A national
trust fund for cleanup of abandoned sites has
been proposed, and an inventory of such sites
is being conducted.
Besides landfills, several other approaches to
hazardous waste management in the
Northwest have been taken. Waste exchanges
in Portland and Seattle assist parties
throughout the Northwest wishing to dispose
of a hazardous by-product in locating a
second party that can use or recycle the
material, thereby eliminating a need for
disposal. The second party may be a chemical
processor that uses the waste as feedstock for
another product. Regulations determine how
some substances are used; for instance,
labeling and disposal procedures have been
established for the more than 800 facilities in
Region 10 using or storing polychlorinated
biphenyl (PCS), a toxic substance used in
electrical transformers and capacitors. Some
efforts nave also been made to rectify past
uses of hazardous substances. Each state in
Region 10 will participate in a voluntary
national program to reduce the exposure of
school children to asbestos fiber found in
some school buildings. In addition to long-
term management plans, emergency response
plans have been developed. Units within
several fire departments, including Seattle and
Tukwila, Washington, have been trained to
deal with incidents involving hazardous
materials.
Figure 6.
Hazardous Waste Disposal
Uncontrolled Hazardous Waste
Sites
Unsafe hazardous waste disposal practices
become uncontrolled hazardous waste sites,
and release of chemicals from these sites can
threaten public health or environmental
values. (The Love Canal Chemical Dump in
New York is a prime example. A school and
scores of homes were built close to the dump
and, beginning in 1978, a number of startling
disclosures about birth defects and serious
illness were attributed to the buried
chemicals.)
Past hazardous waste disposal practices in
the Northwest have been surveyed, and
Figure 6 presents the results. Northwest states
generate only 1 percent of the hazardous
waste nationally, and since 1940, all but
approximately 5 percent of these wastes have
been accounted for. Over 250 hazardous
waste generators and disposal sites have been
investigated, and no major problems on the
scale of Love Canal have been discovered.
These findings are attributed to the following:
hazardous waste generation is minimal;
population densities in the Northwest are low,
industry is young compared to other areas of
the country; and adequate (according to state
requirements) hazardous waste disposal sites
have been available for several years.
General On-Site Disposal
Sewered, Recycle
Private Off-Site Disposal
Unknown, Burning
Landfill
37.0% On-Site Storage
-------
Radiation
As Figure 7 shows, every person is exposed to
radiation from naturally occurring,
inescapable sources such as cosmic rays and
soil. Normally, less than half a person's
radiation exposure is man-made. The data in
Figure 7 are based on national statistics, but
are representative for Region 10 as well.
Because the genetic and cancer-causing
effects of radiation are thought to be additive
or cumulative, the radiation dose to
individuals must be kept to the lowest
practicable level. EPA limits the radiation dose
to individuals and to the total population by
monitoring radiation and by setting and
enforcing regulations on radioactivity in the
air, drinking water, surface water, and waste
materials, and from nuclear power plants.
Pesticides
Pesticides are substances used to prevent,
destroy, repel, or mitigate any pest, such as
insects, rodents, weeds, and fungi, as well as
substances used as plant regulators and
defoliants. Improperly used, they can harm
other organisms besides their target, causing
illness or death. The regulation of pesticides
poses some complex policy and technical
issues. Conventional chemical pesticides, by
their very nature, are hazardous; but they are
widely viewed as necessary to maintain
agricultural productivity. In addition, the
hazards of pesticides, especially the long-term
effects, are difficult to assess.
The law giving EPA authority to regulate
pesticides is the Federal Insecticide,
Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA). It
requires that all pesticide producers and all
pesticides to be sold in the U.S. (including
imported products) be registered with EPA.
The pesticide producers must provide
scientific studies to support the registered use
patterns, and must provide proper container
labeling for their products. In addition, they
must maintain detailed records of their
production and distribution.
The EPA and state agencies work together to
regulate the manufacture and use of
pesticides. As of this year, EPA has
established funded cooperative enforcement
agreements with the Idaho, Oregon, and
Washington State Departments of Agriculture,
and a non-funded cooperative enforcement
agreement with the Alaska Department of
Environmental Conservation: This means that
primary enforcement responsibilities covering
pesticide use rests with the states, but EPA
can take further action if warranted.
The major thrust of the FIFRA program is
directed toward pesticide users. Since 1976,
EPA has worked with the states in developing
training and certification programs.
Applicators of restricted use pesticides
Figure 7.
Average Amount of Exposure to Radiation
Per Person Per Year
MAXIMUM EXPOSURE
NOT TO EXCEED 170
MILLIREMS OVER AND
ABOVE NATURAL
BACKGROUND AND
NECESSARY MEDICAL
EXPOSURE
AVERAGE U.S.
CITIZEN'S ANNUAL
EXPOSURE IN
MILLIREMS
INDUSTRIAL VARIOUS
NUCLEAR POWER 002
PRODUCTS. 025
FALL-OUT 2
MEDICAL/DENTAL 20
NATURAL.
COSMIC 45
NATURAL.
TERRESTRIAL 60
(pesticides with greater potential for causing
adverse effects) must be certified to ensure
that they are competent in the use of those
pesticides. EPA and the states combine efforts
to see that pesticides are being used
according to label directions.
After pesticides are used, the Food and Drug
Administration is responsible for verifying that
pesticide residues on raw agricultural
commodities are within required limits.
Environmental monitoring for pesticides is
conducted by certain state health
departments through EPA grants. Region 10
has two epidemiological study groups, one in
Wenatchee, Washington and the other in
Boise, Idaho.
Pesticide registration and resulting use can be
discontinued at any time EPA determines that
unreasonable adverse effects on the
environment outweigh the benefit from
continued use of the pesticide. If further
restricting use of the pesticide cannot correct
the problems, ultimately the product can be
cancelled or suspended. For example, EPA
took emergency action to suspend products
containing 2,4,5-T and Silvex. Cancellation
hearings are in progress and a final
determination will be made regarding the
future of these pesticides.
-------
ir Quality
Air quality in the Northwest is relatively
clean as most areas of the Region comply
with the National Ambient Air Quality
Standards. However, air quality problems
do exist in the more densely populated areas
of the four states; but pollution abatement
controls on point and area sources should
alleviate these problems in the future.
Implementation of these controls continues
to be a cooperative effort among Federal,
state, and local environmental agencies,
industry, and a concerned, informed public.
However, much remains to be done, and this
section gives some insight into the types of
air quality problems faced by the citizens of
Region 10.
Air Quality Standards —
History and Definition
The Clean Air Act of 1970 directed EPA to
establish National Ambient Air Quality
Standards ("ambient" refers to outside or
environmental conditions, rather than indoor
quality), and in 1977, amendments to the Act
required that all standards be met as soon as
possible and practical. In the case of primary
(health-related) standards, the new deadline
is December 31, 1982. Under certain
conditions an extension to December 31,
1987 can be granted for carbon monoxide
and ozone.
The more highly concentrated a pollutant,
the worse its effect on humans and their
environment. Because some pollutants have
both chronic and acute effects on health,
standards are based on their average
concentration over various lengths of time
with a margin of safety included. Pollutants
that exceed secondary standards have
detrimental impacts on the public welfare
and result in deterioration of many
consumer products. Exceeding primary
standards poses a threat to public health. If
the pollutant concentration reaches the alert
Table 1.
Effects of Major Air Pollutants on
Health and Property
level, individuals, industry, and government
should take immediate action to protect
human health by curtailing outdoor
activities, use of automobiles, and certain
industrial operations.
Federal standards have been set for six
major pollutants. Table 1 lists the effects on
health and property that are the normal
result of exceeding those standards.
POLLUTANT
HEALTH EFFECTS
PROPERTY EFFECTS
Total
Suspended
Particulates
Sulfur Dioxide
Carbon Monoxide
Ozone
Nitrogen Dioxide
Lead
Correlated with increased
bronchial and respiratory disease,
especially in young and elderly.
Upper respiratory irritation at low
concentrations; more difficult
breathing at moderate
concentrations (3000 ug/rn^),
correlated with increased cardio-
respiratory disease; acute lung
damage at high concentrations.
Physiological stress in heart
patients; impairment of psycho-
motor functions; dizziness and
headaches at lower concentra-
tions; death when exposed to
1000 ppm for several hours.
Irritates eyes, nose, throat-
deactivates respiratory defense
mechanisms; damages lungs.
Combines with hydrocarbons in the
presence of sunlight to form photo-
chemical smog; irritates eyes, nose,
throat; damages lungs.
Primary concern with young
children. Most pronounced effects
on nervous system (damage may
occur at low levels), kidney
system, and blood forming system
(high levels may have severe and
sometimes fatal consequences
such as brain disease, palsy, and
anemia). Blood levels >30mg/
deciliter are associated with an
impairment in cell function.
Corrodes metals and concrete;
discolors surfaces; soils exposed
materials; decreases visibility.
Corrodes and deteriorates steel,
marble, copper, nickel, aluminum,
and building materials; causes
brittleness in paper and loss of
strength in leather; deteriorates
natural and synthetic fibers; "burns"
sensitive crops.
Corrodes limestone and concrete
structures.
Deteriorates rubber and fabrics;
corrodes metals; damages
vegetation.
Corrodes metal surfaces;
deteriorates rubber, fabrics, and
dyes.
Injures plants through absorption
of soil. Affects nervous system of
grazing animals.
-------
How Air Quality is Measured
Air quality data are collected at monitoring
stations located throughout each of the four
states, primarily in concentrated population
or industrial centers—the most likely
sources of air pollution. Monitoring sites are
designated in this report as
commercial/industrial, residential, or rural.
However, air pollution can originate away
from the monitoring site. High pollutant
levels in a residential area, for example, do
not necessarily indicate the source is located
in that area. Not all pollutants are monitored
continuously at all stations, and monitors are
not located in all counties, primarily because
of the high cost of installation and operation,
but monitors are located in large
metropolitan areas. EPA has estimated the
percentage of days during which
concentrations of the various pollutants
exceeded the standards throughout Region
10 during 1979.
Geographical areas wrthin Region 10 where
source emissions, in combination with
influencing weather conditions, cause air
quality standards to be exceeded have been
designated as non-attainment. Currently, 22
areas in Region 10 fall in this category. All
other areas are classified as attainment. The
original determination of non-attainment
was based on data for 1975 through 1977;
therefore, areas that are presently classified
as attainment may have exceeded the
standards during calendar year 1979 and are
illustrated in this report.
The Regional Air Quality Outlook
Region 10 has relatively few heavily
populated urban centers; in the four states
there are only 6.5 million residents. While air
pollution is not confined to urban areas, it is
most severe where human activity, especially
vehicular activity, is heavily concentrated.
Some violations of National Ambient Air
Quality Standards occur in every state of
Region 10.
During 1979, four of the major pollutants
exceeded standards in Washington, while
three standards were exceeded in both
Idaho and Oregon. Only carbon monoxide
standards were exceeded in Alaska.
Total Suspended Participates
Suspended particulaies are solid or liquid
particles of different sizes having health
effects that vary with particle size and
composition. Particulates can aggravate
asthma and chronic lung diseases; they
increase coughing and chest discomfort.
Some particulates can be toxic or cancer-
causing (lead or asbestos particles, for
example). Particulate pollution may interfere
with visibility, injure vegetation, and
increase cleaning and maintenance costs in
numerous sectors of the economy.
Suspended particulate matter is a
widespread problem throughout the
Northwest. Some particulate emissions
come from so-called point sources, which
are easily identified stationary industrial
sources of emissions, such as smokestacks.
The rest, which cannot be pinpointed to a
specific source, are termed area sources,
such as space heating (resident and
commercial heating units) and fugitive dust.
Fugitive dust can be created by certain
industrial and agricultural operations, and by
vehicles on paved as well as unpaved roads.
In areas with little major industrial
development and low population density,
fugitive dust is composed mostly of natural
soil particles and is believed to be less
harmful to the health. For this reason, many
areas are considered to be attaining air
quality standards even though particulate
standards are exceeded.
Also included under area sources are motor
vehicle tailpipe emissions which we have
classified separately as mobile sources (see
Figure 16, page 17). Figure 8 shows the three
states that exceeded suspended particulate
standards; i.e., at least one monitoring site in
the county exceeded one or more of the
standards for total suspended particulates
(TSP) in 1979. Aside from areas where rural
fugitive dust accounts for exceeding TSP
standards, most violations are focused in 16
areas. Data from these areas are charted on
Figure 9, showing the percentage of samples
that exceeded standards based upon
number of days monitored. (Note that
particulate samples are routinely collected
once every 6 days.)
In Idaho, the Pocatello and Conda-Soda
Springs areas' major point sources of total
suspended particulates are fertilizer and
industrial chemical processors. In the latter
area, fugitive dust from roads and fields also
contributes to TSP levels in excess of the
standards. In Lewiston, the wood products
industry and a kraft pulp mill are the chief
point sources, while in the Kellogg area, the
Bunker Hill Company's smelting operation is
a major source of TSP.
In Oregon's Portland area, motor vehicles
directly or indirectly account for
approximately half the area's suspended
particulates; natural sources, vegetative
burning, and industrial sources contribute
the rest. Wood products, rock products, and
metallurgical industries are the major point
sources, but all have applied reasonable
controls on their emissions. The wood
products industry is also the major point
source in the Medford-Ashland area.
Although the Grants Pass area exceeded
TSP standards, more data will be needed to
assess potential problems there. In the
Eugene-Springfield and Lebanon areas,
burning of slash, field stubble, and other
vegetation, and airborne dust from roads
and fields contribute to particulate levels.
Emissions from the wood products, paper,
and rock products industries also contribute
to the Eugene-Springfield particulate
problem.
10
-------
In Washington's Seattle, Tacoma, and
Spokane areas, fugitive dust from paved and
unpaved roads and construction sites, and
point source industrial emissions caused
TSP standards to be exceeded. The main
source of participates in the Vancouver area
has been traced to the Carborundum
Company, a processor of inorganic
minerals. In the Port Angeles and Longview
areas, suspended particulate levels are
largely due to fugitive dust from log yards
Figure 8.
Air Quality Status —
Total Suspended Particulates
and emissions from the forest products
industry. The Clarkston area's major source
of pollution is pulp mill operations in
Lewiston, Idaho.
Particulate control devices such as
baghouses, electrostatic precipitators, and
scrubbers have been installed on many
industrial sources, and some plants are
scheduled to further reduce emissions in the
future. As existing plants are modified and
new facilities are constructed, the best
technology available to control suspended
particulates will be required. Control of
fugitive dust is more difficult to achieve.
Paving roads and parking areas can help, as
well as improved "housekeeping" in
industrial areas (such as covering hoppers
or conveyor belts or other equipment
transporting raw materials). Construction
sites can be wetted down to reduce dust.
However, it is expected that reduction of
fugitive dust will be very gradual due to the
high cost of control.
• STANDARD ATTAINED OR CONSIDERED TO
ATTAIN STANDARD
| SECONDARY STANDARD EXCEEDED
~^ PRIMARY STANDARD EXCEEDED
I ALERT LEVEL EXCEEDED
D STANDARD EXCEEDED OR CONSIDERED TO
EXCEED STANDARD DUE TO FUGITIVE DUST
-------
Figure 9.
Percent of Observed Days Total Suspended
Participates Exceeded Standards
AREAS
MONITORED
OBSERVED DAYS EXCEEDED (%)
20 40 60
Idaho
Kellogg c/l
R
Lewiston c/i
Pocatello c/l
R
Conda- c/i
Soda Springs r
Oregon
Portland
R
Lebanon c/l
R
Eugene-
Springfield
C/l
Medford-
Ashland R
r
CVI
Grants Pass
I!
Washington
Port Angeles c/i
Seattle c/l
R
_ C/l
Tacoma
R
Longview c/i
Vancouver c/i
Spokane
R
Clarkston c/i
II
;?
_u
nD
i i
"
LiJ
3
M
1
r
ID
— I
J
I]
ii
— 1
D
i i
i
i
(15/55)
[9/55)
(12/53)
(5/60)
(4/61)
(19/56)
(3/55)
(13/60)
(4/60)
(2/28)'
(2/28)'
(3/61)
(12/56)
(10/50)
(6/56)
(2/48)
(2/48)
(6/60)
(14/61)
(7/61)
(18/61)
(3/61)
(4/59)
| (36/56)
(24/60)
(12/61)
(5/30)'
NOTE: Number in parentheses represents total number of
days exceeding standards per number of observation days.
'May not be representative of total problem. Less than 75%
of observation days reported.
Alaska is not illustrated in Figures 8 and 9
since violations in the state are attributed to
fugitive dust. However, the Fairbanks, Alaska
area has a unique pollution problem called
"ice fog" which forms spontaneously at
-40° F when supersaturated water vapor cools
and can no longer hold moisture, forming
ice crystals. At warmer temperatures, -20° F,
ice fog can form around condensation nuclei
such as particulate matter. Deeper layers of
ice fog have been forming more frequently
at warmer temperatures as the population
has increased, with heavy ice fog occurring
approximately 15 days per year. There is no
Federal air quality standard pertaining to ice
fog even though it severely decreases
visibility. Economical control techniques are
presently being researched and evaluated to
help reduce this problem.
To date, the concern in Region 10 has been
to reduce emissions from point sources.
Although most of the industries that produce
significant amounts of particulates have
installed the required control devices,
particulate problems, especially those
resulting from area sources, still remain in
the urban areas.
Sulfur Dioxide
Sulfur dioxide is formed when coal or oil
containing sulfur is burned, or when sulfur is
burned in an industrial process. Breathing
air containing sulfur dioxide can produce
adverse health effects similar to those
described above for suspended particulates.
When sulfur dioxide combines with moisture
in the air to form acidic mist and rain, it can
pose an increased health hazard. In
addition, it corrodes buildings, is harmful to
vegetation, and can deteriorate the water
quality of lakes and streams far from the
source of the pollutant.
Figure 10 shows the air quality status of
sulfur dioxide in Region 10 and Figure 11
compares those areas that exceeded
C/l: COMMERCIAL INDUSTRIAL
R: RESIDENTIAL
r RURAL
1 SECONDARY STANDARD EXCEEDED
"1 PRIMARY STANDARD EXCEEDED
I ALERT LEVEL EXCEEDED
standards. In Idaho, the principal cause of
sulfur dioxide pollution is the smelting of
nonferrous ores (lead and zinc) and the
manufacture of phosphate fertilizer.
In Kellogg, where the Bunker Hill Company
smelts and refines lead and zinc, the rugged
terrain of the Silver Valley inhibits adequate
dispersion of sulfur dioxide, although the
plant's two 700-foot stacks have improved
the situation. However, during frequent
thermal inversions, the plant must follow a
set of procedures to reduce or discontinue
production to keep sulfur dioxide levels
within the standards. The Bunker Hill
Company will conduct further studies to
determine where maximum sulfur dioxide
concentrations occur. The results of these
studies will provide the information
necessary to improve Bunker Hill's
dispersion program to meet ambient
standards until additional controls are
installed.
The major source of sulfur dioxide in the
Pocatello area is J.R. Simplot, which
produces fertilizers and industrial chemicals.
The company is installing additional controls
that should further reduce their emissions by
25 percent. The Beker Industries phosphate
fertilizer plant near Soda Springs is the
major source of sulfur dioxide in that area;
primary sources are two sulfuric acid plants,
both of which operate in compliance with
applicable emission regulations when their
control equipment is functioning properly.
12
-------
Over 80 percent of Washington's sulfur
dioxide pollution comes from industrial
sources and power plants. About half the
emissions in the state are from ASARCO's
Tacoma smelting and refining operations;
however, violations of standards have not
occurred in Tacoma since December 1976.
ASARCO relies on dispersion techniques to
Figure 10.
Air Quality Status — Sulfur Dioxide
meet national ambient air quality standards
by reducing operations when weather
conditions (such as thermal inversions)
prevent adequate mixing. As in the case of
the Bunker Hill smelter, this may only be a
temporary solution until the need for better,
constant control has been established and
equipment installed.
The major sulfur dioxide sources in the Port
Angeles area are ITT Rayonier and Crown
Zellerbach. Based on meteorological
conditions, emission rates, and the
geography of the area, ITT appears to have
the dominant effect on ambient sulfur
dioxide levels.
The pulp mills in southeastern Alaska, major
point sources of sulfur dioxide, comply with
the state's SC>2 air quality regulations. In
1979, the sulfur dioxide standards were not
exceeded. Additional data are needed to
assess potential future sulfur dioxide
problems that could arise from operation of
the pipeline terminal and proposed
construction of a petrochemical plant in
Valdez.
Oregon complies with the National Ambient
Air Quality Standards for sulfur dioxide and
there are no known potential problems in
that state.
STANDARD ATTAINED OR
CONSIDERED TO ATTAIN STANDARD
SECONDARY STANDARD EXCEEDED
PRIMARY STANDARD EXCEEDED
, curki
wm> writa•
Figure 11.
Percent of Observed Days
Sulfur Dioxide Exceeded Standards
OBSERVED DAYS EXCEEDED (%)
1234
Idaho
C/l
Kellogg R
Conda-
Soda Springs c/
Pocatello c/i
Washington
Port Angeles c/i
H_J
I
-p
I
I
(7/341)
(3/341)
(8/348)
(4/333)
(6/194)'
C/I COMMERCIAL INDUSTRIAL
R RESIDENTIAL
r RURAL
NOTE: Number in parentheses represents total number of
days exceeding standards per number of observation days.
'May not be representative of total problem. Less than 75%
of observation days reported.
13
-------
Figure 12.
Air Quality Status — Carbon Monoxide
STANDARD ATTAINED OR
CONSIDERED TO ATTAIN STANDARD
PRIMARY STANDARD EXCEEDED
ALERT LEVEL EXCEEDED
.WRANGELL-
PETEflSBURG
waii.w.ii.« f f
14
-------
Carbon Monoxide
Carbon monoxide is a colorless, odorless
gas—high concentrations can cause
unconsciousness or even death. At
concentrations above the primary standard,
this pollutant can interfere with mental
alertness and physical activity, especially for
persons with heart or lung disorders.
Carbon monoxide is a by-product of fossil
fuels combustion. Its major source is motor
vehicles, and the most severe violations of
standards are recorded where automobiles
are concentrated—in urban areas. Figure 12
illustrates the extent of the carbon monoxide
problem in Region 10, and Figure 13
compares the areas not meeting the carbon
monoxide standard.
Motor vehicles are responsible for about 90
percent of carbon monoxide emissions;
therefore, plans for reducing such emissions
center on improvements to individual
automobiles and to the transportation
system as a whole. As older cars are
replaced by models with up-to-date pollution
control equipment, carbon monoxide levels
should decline. In addition, regular vehicle
inspection and maintenance will ensure that
emission control devices are functioning
effectively. Other measures for mitigating the
carbon monoxide problem are based upon
reducing vehicle miles traveled and include
traffic flow improvements, transit
improvements, carpooling, bike lanes, and
parking management.
The majority of the carbon monoxide
problems in Region 10 are compounded by
adverse climate conditions. During the
winter months, extreme stable inversions
develop in many parts of the Region which
severely inhibit the dispersion characteristics
of pollutants resulting in high pollutant
concentrations. Also, it is difficult to
maintain efficient combustion processes in
cold weather. For example, automobiles in
Alaska take longer to warm up and emit
substantially more air pollutants than at
warmer ambient temperatures; carbon
monoxide emissions during engine warm-up
may account for up to 65 percent of the total
vehicle emissions produced, depending
upon the size of the engine. Therefore,
maintaining a warm engine or reducing
average engine size may be effective in
reducing cold-start emissions. These
emissions are currently uncontrolled, and
the proposed low-temperature emission
standard for automobiles should be effective
in helping to achieve the 90% reduction
mandated by the Clean Air Act through the
Federal Motor Vehicle Control Program.
Through transportation controls previously
identified, EPA is working closely with the
Region 10 states to control emissions from
vehicles and to reduce the number of vehicle
miles traveled in urban centers with high
carbon monoxide levels.
Figure 13.
Percent of Observed Days
Carbon Monoxide Exceeded Standards
OBSERVED DAYS EXCEEDED (%)
10 20 30
Alaska
Anchorage c/i
Fairbanks c/i
Idaho
Boise c/i
Oregon
Portland c/i
Salem c/i
Medford- c
Ashland
Washington
Seattle c/i
Tacoma c/i
Spokane
R
Yakima c/i
Vancouver c/i
I
]
p
]
1
1
1
1
(121/346)
|
(46/324)
(37/323)
(52/339)
(33/359)
(2/301)
I
(80/364)
(14/183)'
(16/271)
(2/359)
(3/350)
(4/319)
C'l COMMERCIAL INDUSTRIAL
R RESIDENTIAL
NOTE: Number in parentheses represents total number of
days exceeding standards per number of observation days.
'May not be representative of total problem. Less than 75%of
observation days reported.
• ALERT LEVEL EXCEEDED
~J PRIMARY STANDARD EXCEEDED
Ozone
Unlike other air pollutants discussed in this
report, photochemical oxidants are not
emitted by industries or automobiles; rather,
they are the product of a chemical reaction
that occurs in the atmosphere when two
other pollutants are present—oxides of
nitrogen (which are discussed below) and
hydrocarbons. The chief sources of
hydrocarbons include automobile exhaust
and volatile organic compounds (VOC) such
as solvents and gasoline. Besides oxides of
nitrogen and hydrocarbons, sunlight is
necessary for the reaction. When all three
are present, a class of chemicals known as
photochemical oxidants is produced, the
most common of which is the gas, ozone.
Air quality standards refer to ozone, and
only ozone is measured by monitoring
instrumentation.
Ozone irritates the eyes and respiratory
system, aggravates asthma and chronic lung
diseases, and reduces lung and heart
capacity. It also probably causes more
damage to plants in the United States than
any other pollutant. Ozone concentrations
greater than the health standard have
occurred in the Portland, Oregon, and
Seattle, Washington, areas, (see Figures 14
and 15) and future monitoring may identify
other areas. Because significant quantities of
the substances that give rise to ozone come
from automobiles, measures taken to
reduce other automobile emissions, such as
carbon monoxide, are also effective in
controlling ozone. Also, measures that
control VOC indirectly lower ozone levels.
(An example is the floating roof for oil
storage tanks that reduces evaporative
losses.)
Figure 14.
Percent of Observed Days
Ozone Exceeded Standards
OBSERVED DAYS EXCEEDED ('".)
1234
Oregon
Portland <
Washington
Seattle ,
"I
(2/353)
(2/355)
NOTE: Number in parentheses represents total number of
days exceeding standards per number of observation days
-------
Figure 15.
Air Quality Status — Ozone
STANDARD ATTAINED OR
CONSIDERED TO ATTAIN STANDARD
PRIMARY STANDARD EXCEEDED
Nitrogen Dioxide
Oxides of nitrogen are gases formed mainly
by combustion. Sources include
automobiles and power plants. Besides
irritating the eyes and respiratory tract and
damaging metal, rubber, fabric, and dyes,
oxides of nitrogen contribute to
photochemical oxidants, as described above.
During 1979, the nitrogen dioxide standard
was not exceeded in any of the Region 10
states.
Lead
In 1978, EPA established an air quality
standard for lead, which is to be achieved by
November, 1982. At this time, the states, in
cooperation with EPA, are gathering data to
identify areas where the standard is being
exceeded. Violations of the lead standard
have occurred in the Kellogg, Idaho, area
where the major sources are the Bunker Hill
Company's lead smelter and general
areawide contamination resulting from 60
years of milling and smelting operations.
Lead violations have also been found in the
Seattle, Washington, area—Harbor Island
due to RSR/Quemetco and along Interstate
5 from Northgate to Spokane Street. The
Puget Sound Air Pollution Control Agency is
developing a plan to clean up the Seattle
area.
Other Hazardous Materials
In addition to the six major air pollutants
discussed above, other hazardous materials
emitted to the air include asbestos,
beryllium, and mercury. EPA is analyzing
other potentially hazardous pollutants, and
standards for these will be developed in the
future, if necessary.
16
-------
Figure 16.
Air Quality Trends
STANDARDS
Trends in Air Quality
Trends in air quality indicate whether air
pollution control activities have been
effective. Figure 16 shows the urban areas in
Region 10 in which air quality standards
were exceeded in 1979. A trend was
established for designated monitoring sites
obtaining data for the 6-year period from
1974 through 1979. Air quality has improved
in some Region 10 areas over the past few
years; however, those improvements may
not be shown in Figure 16 because long-
term trend data is lacking. Also, new sites
have been added within the last year to state
networks, and trends for these areas will be
available in the future.
C/l COMMERCIAL INDUSTRIAL
R RESIDENTIAL
r RURAL
STANDARD ATTAINED OR
CONSIDERED TO ATTAIN STANDARD
SECONDARY STANDARD EXCEEDED
PRIMARY STANDARD EXCEEDED
ALERT LEVEL EXCEEDED
STANDARD EXCEEDED OR CONSIDERED TO
EXCEED STANDARD DUE TO FUGITIVE DUST
INSUFFICIENT DATA BUT
CONSIDERED TO EXCEED STANDARD
IMPROVING TREND
DETERIORATING TREND
NO SIGNIFICANT CHANGE
AREAS
MONITORED
Alaska
Anchorage
Fairbanks
Idaho
Kellogg
Lewiston c
Boise
Pocatello
Conda- c/i
Soda Springs ,
Oregon
Portland
Salem
Lebanon
Eugene-
Springfield
SHORT TERM
ANNUAL
TSP SO, CO O,
Medford-
Ashland
Grants Pass
Washington
Port Angeles
Seattle
Tacoma
Longview
Vancouver c/l
Spokane
Clarkston c
Yakima c
TSP SO2 NO2
CAUSE OF PROBLEM
Mobile & Area Sources
Mobile & Area Sources
Mobile & Area Sources
Mobile & Area Sources
Point Sources
Point Sources
Point & Area Sources
Mobile & Area Sources
Point & Area Sources
Point & Area Sources
Point & Area Sources
Point & Area Sources
Mobile, Area & Point Source
Mobile & Area Sources
Mobile Sources
Mobile Sources
Area Sources
Area Sources
Mobile, Area & Point Sources
Mobile & Point Sources
Mobile & Point Sources
Area Sources
Area Sources
Area Sources
Point & Area Sources
Mobile, Area & Point Sources
Mobile & Area Sources
Mobile Sources
Mobile, Area & Point Sources
Mobile & Area Sources
Point & Area Sources
Mobile & Point Sources
Mobile, Area & Point Sources
Mobile & Area Sources
Area & Point Sources
Mobile Sources
17
-------
River Water Quality
Water quality in Pacific Northwest and
Alaskan rivers is generally good; however,
portions of many Region 10 major rivers
have marginal quality with respect to Federal
water quality goals. This degradation is the
result of both point and non-point sources of
pollution with some problems attributed to
natural causes. Criteria most often exceeded
are those for temperature, bacteria, nutrient
levels, and heavy metals. To attain the water
quality goals, wastewater treatment
programs for point sources and best
management practices for non-point
sources either have been implemented or
are planned.
How River Water Quality is
Determined
When Congress enacted amendments to the
Federal Water Pollution Control Act in 1972,
a national goal was set—"fishable, swim-
mable" waters by 1983 and the states in
Region 10 have adopted that goal. The
purpose of the Act is to protect the quality of
our Nation's waters for a variety of uses,
including public water supply, wildlife, fish
and shellfish, recreation, navigation,
agriculture, and industry. Each water use
depends on certain characteristics, such as
temperature, concentration of dissolved
oxygen, or absence of bacteria, which can
be measured and used to evaluate water
quality. They vary with the chemistry of the
stream being measured, the season, and
other factors.
Region 10 states have specified a limited
number of criteria for water quality
parameters and incorporated them into
water quality standards. In addition, to
reliably compare water quality on a regional
scale, EPA Region 10 developed a
standardized set of parameters and
associated criteria and segregated them into
ten related groups (Table 2). These criteria
are a synthesis of state water quality
standards, National EPA water quality
criteria, information in technical literature,
and professional judgment. Like the state
water quality standards, this more
Table 2.
Criteria Categories for the
Water Quality Index
comprehensive set of criteria is intended to
define water quality levels necessary to
protect human and aquatic life and the
desired recreational uses of river and stream
waters, and thus represent EPA Region 10
water quality goals. More than one criteria
value based on water use may be associated
with certain parameters. For example, most
of the Region's streams are managed to
support cold water game fish species such
as trout and salmon; however, some are
managed as warm water fisheries,
supporting bass, bullhead, etc., which
require less stringent criteria. The water
CRITERIA CATEGORY
EXPLANATION
Temperature
Dissolved Oxygen
PH
Aesthetics
Solids
Radioactivity
Bacteria
Trophic (Nutrient
Enrichment)
Organic Toxicity
Inorganic Toxicity
Water temperature influences the type of fish and other aquatic life that
can survive in a river. Excessively high temperatures are detrimental to
aquatic life.
To survive, fish and aquatic life must have certain levels of oxygen in the
water. Low oxygen levels can be detrimental to these organisms.
pH is the measure of acidity or alkalinity of water. Extreme levels of either
can imperil fish and aquatic life.
Refers to oil, grease, and turbidity which are visually unpleasant. For the
Index, this group is mostly represented by the turbidity parameter, which
is a measure of the clarity of the water, because it is much more widely
measured than any of the others within the group.
Dissolved mineral and suspended material such as mud or silt. Excess
dissolved minerals (hard water) interfere with agricultural, industrial, and
domestic use. Excess suspended solids adversely affect fish feeding and
spawning.
May be in water as a result of radioactive waste discharges or fallout.
Excess levels can harm aquatic and other life forms.
Bacteria indicate probable presence of disease-related organisms and
viruses not natural to water (i.e. from human sewage or animal waste).
Indicates the extent of algae or nutrients in water. Nutrients promote
algae growth. When algae (one-celled water plants) flourish they make
the water murky, and the growths make swimming and fishing
unpleasant. Decomposition of dead algae can decrease dissolved oxygen
concentrations to levels harmful to fish.
Includes pesticides and other organic poisons having same effects and
persistence as pesticides.
Heavy metals and other elements; excess concentrations are poisonous
to aquatic and other life forms. Also includes percent saturations of
dissolved gases in water which can affect the metabolism of aquatic life.
'Approximately 80 parameters were evaluated and condensed to the 10 categories shown here. More
detailed information is available on request.
18
-------
quality of an individual stream or stream
portion may be determined at a monitoring
station by measuring each parameter and
comparing it to the criteria. But to compare
one stream to another, or to compare
segments within a particular stream, a single
inclusive number is useful. Consequently, a
Water Quality Index (WQI) has been
formulated by EPA Region 10 based upon
the aforementioned criteria.
Sources and Control of Water
Pollution
Pollutants that reach the Region's streams
have two general origins: point source
pollution, such as wastewater from
industries, sewage treatment plants, and the
like, that enters streams at an easily
identified location; and less easily identified
non-point source pollution, that consists of
stormwater from urban areas, irrigation
water, and runoff from farm, forest, and
mining lands.
Industries that discharge waste effluent to
streams must have a permit issued by EPA
under the National Pollution Discharge
Elimination System (NPDES) or by states
that have assumed this responsibility.
Through this means, EPA can require that
point source pollutants be removed before
wastewater reaches the river. Since non-
point sources cannot be so easily treated,
"best management practices" are required.
For example, agricultural best management
practices might include waste storage areas
to keep organic wastes from reaching
nearby streams, or contour plowing to
prevent erosion of soil into rivers.
The responsibility for developing methods to
control non-point source pollution has been
given to local and state agencies assigned to
develop water quality management plans as
provided by the Federal Water Pollution
Control Act.
Water Quality Index
In this report, the Water Quality Index compares water quality data measured, primarily, from
October 1977 through September 1979 with the recommended Federal criteria. (Water management
agencies usually operate on a "water year," i.e., October-September, rather than on a calendar year
basis.) This data is collected by various Federal, state, and local agencies and stored in EPA's
computer systems. The final Index number for each station takes Into account the 10 water quality
criteria categories shown in Table 2, adjusted to reflect the severity by which the criteria are
exceeded. Two types of Index numbers are generated: one represents the average annual water
quality, the other shows the worst 3 consecutive months status, which provides a better indication of
the severity of those water quality problems occurring on a seasonal basis. The Index numbers span
a scale from 0 (no measured evidence of pollution) to 100 (severe pollution at all times). In this
report, the scale is divided into three color ranges:
Blue represents streams with Index numbers between 0 and 20. These streams either have no
pollution or are minimally polluted and therefore meet the goals of the Federal Water Pollution
Control Act.
Light brown represents streams with Index numbers between 20 and 60. Such streams are
Intermittently and/or moderately polluted and are considered marginal with respect to meeting the
goals of the Act.
Dark brown represents streams with an Index number greater than 60. These streams are severely
polluted and do not meet the goals of the Act.
The color gray is used in the graphs when the water quality status is unknown because of inadequate
data.
Figure 17.
Water Quality Index Values for
Principal Region 10 River Basins
Klamath
Spokane
Middle Snake
Lower Columbia
Lower Snake
Bear
Kootenai
Upper Snake
Willamette
Oregon Coast
Upper Columbia
Yakima
Clark Fork/Pend Oreille
Puget Sound
Washington Coast
r
\
• ,
• 1
• _ •
• •
On
u
n n
>— -a
UNACCEPTABLE - SEVERE POLLUTION
MARGINAL - INTERMITTENT, OR MODERATE
POLLUTION
ACCEPTABLE - MINIMAL, OR NO POLLUTION
D WORST 3 CONSECUTIVE MONTHS
O ANNUAL AVERAGE WATER QUALITY INDEX
Lack of data precludes calculation of WQI values for Alaska basins.
19
-------
The Regional Overview
The Water Quality Index is used in Figure 17
to compare the major river basins, which
include the principal rivers and tributaries
within Idaho, Oregon, and Washington. (Lack
of data precludes the calculation of WQI
values to represent entire Alaska basins.)
Figure 18 depicts the relative extent of water
quality degradation within each river basin,
and Figure 19 shows similar information on a
regional map. Only three major river basins
(Figure 17) seem to clearly meet the Federal
water quality goals, with both Index numbers
less than 20. Another six generally meet the
goals, except during certain times of the year.
The remaining six basins only marginally
meet the Federal goals, and the majority of
these drain arid portions of the Region that
receive significant non-point source waste
contributions from agricultural and livestock
activities.
Most of the criteria exceeded are those for
temperature, bacteria, trophic, aesthetics,
solids, and inorganic toxicants categories.
Natural conditions such as hot summer
temperatures, low streamflows, and easily
erodable soils also contribute, particularly in
the more arid portions of the Region. In the
Spokane River Basin, high heavy metals
contributions from past and present mining
activities on the South Fork Coeur d'Alene
River drainage in Idaho are primarily
responsible for elevated Index values.
Elevated heavy metals concentrations of
unknown origins also appear in portions of
the Lower Columbia and Lower Snake Basins.
Figure 18.
Miles Within Principal Region 10
River Basins Meeting Water Quality Criteria
RIVER MILES
400
1200
1600
2000
Klarnath
Spokane
Middle Snake
Lower Columbia
Lower Snake
Bear
Kootenai
Upper Snake
Willamette
Oregon Coast
Upper Columbia
Yakima
Puget Sound
Clark Fork/Pend Oreille
Washington Coast
Tanana
Lower Yukon
Susitna
Copper-Gulf
Northwestern Alaska
Arctic Slope
Kuskokwim
Bristol Bay
Upper Yukon
Kenai-Knik
BASED UPON THE AVERAGE ANNUAL WOI:
UNACCEPTABLE - SEVERE POLLUTION
D
MARGINAL — INTERMITTENT, OR MODERATE
POLLUTION
I ACCEPTABLE — MINIMAL, OR NO POLLUTION
I STATUS UNKNOWN
Only the principal river and tributary mileages are shown tor
each basin.
-------
Figure 19.
Water Quality Status of Principal Rivers in
Region 10 (Based Upon the Average
Annual WQI)
Figure 20.
Water Quality Trends in Region 10
NOTE State of Alaska is represented at
approximately 30% of true scale
PERCENT OF STATIONS
40 60 80
Based upon the water quality status during the worst
3 consecutive months per station at 89 monitoring and
stations within Region 10. (Alaska stations, organic and
inorganic toxicant pollution categories not included.)
I UNACCEPTABLE - SEVERE POLLUTION
n MARGINAL - INTERMITTENT. OR MODERATE
POLLUTION
ACCEPTABLE — MINIMAL, OR NO POLLUTION
STATUS UNKNOWN
Data on organic toxicants is lacking for most
streams. Programs are underway, however, to
better define their extent and to develop
realistic criteria for these compounds.
Most of the criteria exceedances indicated in
Alaska are due to natural conditions, such as
glacial activity and spring runoff. Past and
present mining operations may be
contributing to the higher solids and metals
values in some of these rivers.
Regional water quality trends were analyzed
by comparing data from 89 representative
monitoring stations over a 7-year period
(Figure 20). There has been little significant
change at these stations since 1973. Due to
inadequate data, Alaska rivers could not be
included in the analysis, nor were organic or
inorganic toxicants included, since there have
been significant changes in analytical
techniques and reporting procedures over the
time period considered. Although point
source controls have made many
improvements in Regional water quality,
further plans to identify and control non-point
sources are needed to improve water quality
in those stream segments still not fully
meeting water quality goals.
21
-------
The Quality of Oregon's
Principal Rivers
Figures 21 and 22 show that none of Oregon's
principal rivers and streams are severely
polluted all year. The Snake River above
Brownlee Dam (Middle Snake) experiences
severe degradation during some months of
the year. Portions of the Owyhee and Malheur
Rivers are seasonally polluted to almost as
great a degree. Half of the principal rivers
have only marginal water quality on an annual
average basis, and more are similarly affected
at least part of the year. Most of the lesser
quality streams are located in the eastern and
southern parts of the state, and are impacted
by non-point source wastes from irrigation,
agricultural, and livestock activities.
Figure 23 shows the worst 3-month status of
certain Oregon river and stream reaches with
respect to each of the 10 WQI categories.
Some of the man-caused sources of criteria
exceedances are also indicated. Criteria most
frequently exceeded are temperature,
bacteria, trophies, solids, and inorganic
toxicants (basically, heavy metals).
Temperatures exceeding the criteria
contribute to the impairment of cold water fish
species. This condition is somewhat mitigated
by the ability of the fish to migrate to cooler
tributary streams during the warmest periods,
and to partially adapt to the warmer
temperatures. The hot, dry climate in eastern
and southern Oregon with attendant low
streamflows is mostly responsible for these
exceedances. In some streams, however,
these climatic conditions may be aggravated
by irrigation diversions and return flows,
dams, and the destruction of streambank
vegetation. The portions of the Malheur,
Owyhee, Umatilla, and Klamath that are
represented were evaluated against warm
water fishery criteria and subsequently do not
indicate temperature exceedances.
Dissolved oxygen levels occasionally failed to
meet the criteria in the Snake River
immediately below Hell's Canyon Dam and in
the Klamath River near Keno. This is due to
the introduction of nutrients from agricultural,
livestock, and natural sources, which stimulate
algal and aquatic weed growth during the
spring and summer months. The subsequent
decay of these growths and other organic
Figure 21.
Water Quality Status of Oregon's
Principal Rivers
debris introduced by irrigation wastewater
consumes quantities of dissolved oxygen
sufficient to cause the remaining oxygen
levels to fall short of the criteria. In the lower
South Umpqua, low dissolved oxygen levels
appear to be caused by municipal point
sources combined with seasonally low
streamflows during the summer.
The lower John Day and Middle Snake Rivers
show pH values in excess of the criteria.
Natural soil conditions may be the primary
reason in the former case, and agricultural
runoff in the latter.
Over half of the stream segments shown
exceed criteria levels for bacteria and
nutrients. Much of this degradation may be
attributed to runoff from grazing lands,
BASED UPON THE AVERAGE ANNUAL WOI
MARGINAL - INTERMITTENT. OR MODERATE
POLLUTION
ACCEPTABLE - MINIMAL. OR NO POLLUTION
STATUS UNKNOWN
22
-------
croplands, and animal confinement areas.
Municipal point sources also contribute to
these problems in certain areas.
In Region 10, the aesthetics and solids
categories are mostly represented by the
turbidity and suspended solids parameters,
respectively, and are therefore closely related.
High turbidity levels usually indicate similar
levels of suspended solids, which are caused
by the erosion of soil into the rivers and
streams. Both conditions are aesthetically
offensive. Most of those Oregon streams
exceeding the turbidity criteria are impacted
by agricultural runoff during late spring and
summer. The other streams are affected to a
lesser extent during winter and spring due to
Figure 22.
Water Quality Index Values
for Oregon's Principal Rivers
Middle Snake
'Owyhee
"Malheur
John Day, Incl. N. & S. Forks
'Klamath/Williamson/Sprague
Bear Creek (Jackson Co.)
Columbia
Grande Ronde/Wallowa
Tualatin
•Umatilla
Lower Snake
Lower Nehalem
Mainstem, N. & S. Umpqua
Willamette
Lower Siuslaw
Rogue
Deschutes
Lower Clackamas
Mainstem, N. & S. Santiam
McKenzie
The WQI values presented are derived from averaging
WQI values from those river portions with adequate data.
Except where indicated, river portions included are
located only on the main river named.
'Portions of these streams were evaluated using
criteria designed to protect warm water aquatic
species, only.
rainfall and snowmelt runoff. Again, although
many of these conditions are probably natural
in origin, man's agricultural, livestock, and
forestry activities across the state may be
responsible for some of the degradation.
There is a significant lack of data on organic
toxicants in Oregon streams, even though
pesticides and herbicides are widely used in
both agricultural and forestry activities
throughout the state. Regular monitoring for a
relatively small number of these chemicals
has been performed in only a few of Oregon's
streams in recent years. Except for the
Klamath River, where concentrations of the
pesticide Lindane were found in excess of the
EPA criteria for aquatic life in 1976, this
D
•
D
O
UNACCEPTABLE - SEVERE POLLUTION
MARGINAL — INTERMITTENT, OR MODERATE
POLLUTION
ACCEPTABLE - MINIMAL. OR NO POLLUTION
WORST 3 CONSECUTIVE MONTHS
ANNUAL AVERAGE WATER QUALITY INDEX
limited monitoring program has not detected
significant levels of organic toxicants to date.
More widespread sampling for a much larger
number of organic toxicants is being
undertaken to better assess the extent of
these compounds.
The inorganic toxicants category is primarily
represented by the heavy metal parameters
except for the South Umpqua, where only
ammonia data is available. Seasonally low
streamflows combined with sewage treatment
plant effluent probably account for the
elevated ammonia values. The highest levels
of heavy metals occur in the Columbia River
from unknown sources.
EPA stream monitoring for radiation in or near
Oregon occurs quarterly on the Columbia
River near Richland, Washington and Astoria,
Oregon. Although there is insufficient criteria
data available to calculate Index numbers for
this category, observed radiation values at
these sites are less than 5 percent of the EPA
drinking water standard.
River Water Quality Trends
Figure 24 compares the year-to-year water
quality at 22 monitoring stations within or
bordering upon Oregon over the past 7 years.
Although improvements due to point source
controls have been documented, no
significant improvement trends in statewide
water quality are seen because of the
influence of continuing natural and man-
caused non-point source degradation at these
stations.
Looking at the individual water quality
categories and stream segments (Figure 24), it
appears that conditions are deteriorating
somewhat in several of the most degraded
segments, while conditions in the Willamette
River and its tributaries seem to be improving.
The limited amount of data available for
analysis makes it difficult to provide a more
complete evaluation of Oregon water quality
trends at this time.
The Outlook for Oregon
Many existing water quality problems in
Oregon are due to non-point sources of
pollution, especially agricultural sources. To
address this problem, the Oregon Department
of Environmental Quality (DEQ) has assessed
the state's non-point source pollution and is
now developing and beginning to apply best
23
-------
Figure 23. i
River Water Quality Categories
Current Status and Trends in Oregon
Figure 24.
Water Quality Trends in Oregon
RIVER
Middle Snake
Lower Owyhee
Lower Malheur
Lower John Day
Klamath
Lower Bear Creek
(Jackson Co.)
Columbia above
Willamette R.
Columbia below
Willamette R.
South Umpqua
near Roseburg
Middle Grande Ronde
Lower Tualatin
Middle Umatilla
Lower Snake
Lower Nehalem
Main Umpqua
Willamette at
Springfield
Willamette near
Salem
Willamette at
Portland
Lower Siuslaw
Lower Rogue
Lower Deschutes
Santiam near
mouth
Lower
Clackamas
McKenzie
The colors depict the worst three-month status
of each category during the water year 1978/1979
period. The arrows depict category trends as
determined by a non-parametric statistical test
of water year 1973 through 1979 data
/
-------
The Quality of Washington's
Principal Rivers
Figure 25 shows the location and extent of
water quality within Washington's principal
rivers and streams, and Figure 26 compares
their water quality in WQI terms.
On an average annual basis, the majority of
streams generally meet the Federal water
quality goals. The South Fork of the Palouse
currently appears to be the most degraded
Washington stream and does not meet
Federal goals. During their worst 3-month
conditions, over half of the streams may be
considered marginal with respect to the goals.
The marginal rating for the Puyallup/White
system and the Upper Nisqually is primarily
due to criteria exceeded in the aesthetics and
solids categories, caused by glacial meltwater.
In the Lower Columbia, this rating is due to
elevated heavy metals levels from unknown
sources.
Many of the state's water quality problems are
found in the lower portions of the Yakima,
Crab Creek, Walla Walla/Touchet, and
Palouse drainages, where the effects of
climatically induced low streamflows and high
summer temperatures are aggravated by
man's activities. Problems typically
encountered include high levels of bacteria,
turbidity, suspended solids, and nutrients, as
well as elevated summer water temperatures.
Most of these problems are attributed to
agricultural and livestock-related non-point
sources, such as irrigation return flows,
erosion from cultivated dryland areas, and
runoff from grazing areas and feedlots.
Figure 27 shows the status of various
segments of Washington's principal streams
with respect to the 10 WQI categories.
Summer stream temperatures exceed
recommended criteria in the lower portions of
many of the eastern Washington streams. As
in Oregon, natural causes are probably the
major contributors, but human activities
compound the problem. Dissolved oxygen
levels in the Spokane River immediately below
Long Lake Dam fail to meet the minimum
criteria during the late summer and fall. This
condition is caused by the oxygen-consuming
Figure 25.
Water Quality Status of Washington's
Principal Rivers
BASED UPON THE AVERAGE ANNUAL WQI:
UNACCEPTABLE — SEVERE POLLUTION
n
MARGINAL -
POLLUTION
INTERMITTENT, OR MODERATE
ACCEPTABLE - MINIMAL, OR NO POLLUTION
STATUS UNKNOWN
-------
decay of algae and other organic material
within Long Lake, which are either
contributed to or stimulated by upstream
sources. Excessive bacterial levels are mostly
found in the lower portions of eastern
Washington's streams, with irrigation,
precipitation, and snowmelt runoff from
grazing and animal confinement areas the
probable causes. However, sewage treatment
Figure 26.
Water Quality Index Values
for Washington's Principal Rivers
wastes may be primarily responsible for
exceedances in the South Fork Palouse and
Duwamish Rivers.
The most severe exceedances ol the
aesthetics and solids criteria generally occur
in the more intensely farmed areas of
southern and eastern Washington, particularly
during periods of rainfall and snowmelt runoff.
Crab Creek
Walla Walla/Touchet
"Palouse, Incl. S.F.
Puyallup/White
Lower Columbia
Shake
Spokane
Lower Nooksack
Okanogan
Yakima
Nisqually
Upper Columbia
Willapa
Pend Oreille
Stillaguamish, Incl. N.F. &S.F.
Skagit
Chehalis
Green/Duwamish
Cowlitz
Elwha
Wenatchee
Lewis, Incl. E. Fork
Snohomish/Skykomish/Snoqualmie
WOI VALUE
20
40
KO
HO
•_ J
• f
L
• •
•
• m
• mm
•
• •
"•
• mm
•
• mm
•
On
LJ
On
LJ
On
II
On
LJ
<^t n
*-> LJ
n n
\J LJ
3
]
Recent monitoring of the lower Spokane,
Elwha, and Yakima Rivers for organic
toxicants indicates no significant levels of
these compounds. More widespread sampling
for a much larger number of organic toxicants
is being undertaken to better assess their
extent in Washington's streams.
Inorganic toxicants include the heavy metals
zinc, lead, and cadmium, which can harm fish
and persons who eat contaminated fish. A
number of Washington rivers appear not to
meet recently refined Federal criteria.
However, for most of these streams, it is not
clear at this time whether there is a genuine
problem with inorganic toxicants or simply a
problem with insufficiently sensitive analytical
and monitoring techniques. Past and present
mining and smelting activities in Idaho's
South Fork Coeur d'Alene River drainage are
responsible for excessive inorganic toxicant
levels in the Spokane River.
EPA stream monitoring for radiation in or near
Washington occurs quarterly on the Columbia
River near the Canadian border, Richland, and
Astoria, Oregon. Although insufficient criteria
data is available to calculate Index numbers
for this category, observed radiation values at
these sites are less than 3 percent of the EPA
drinking water standard.
River Water Quality Trends
Figure 28 compares the year-to-year water
quality at 39 monitoring stations within, or
bordering upon, the state over the past 7
years. As in Oregon, improvements due to
point source controls have been documented.
No significant improving trends in the overall
water quality status are seen, however, due to
the influence of continuing natural and human
related non-point source degradation at these
stations. Incomplete data from some of the
monitoring stations and variations in the
climate and sampling times combine to add
difficulties to the attempt to analyze water
quality trends.
UNACCEPTABLE - SEVERE POLLUTION
MARGINAL - INTERMITTENT, OR MODERATE
POLLUTION
ACCEPTABLE - MINIMAL. OR NO POLLUTION
'Evaluated using criteria designed to
protect warm water aquatic species only.
D WORST 3 CONSECUTIVE MONTHS
O ANNUAL AVERAGE WATER QUALITY INDEX
The WQI values presented are derived from averaging
WQI values from those river portions with adequate data.
Except where indicated, river portions included are
located only on the main river named.
26
-------
Figure 27.
River Water Quality Categories
Current Status and Trends in Washington
RIVER
Crab Creek above
Moses Lake
Crab Creek
near mouth
Walla Walla
near mouth
Touchet
near mouth
Palouse
near mouth
S.F. Palouse
at Pullman
Puyallup
near mouth
Lower Columbia
above Portland
Lower Columbia
below Portland
Snake at
mouth
Spokane at
Wash./Idaho border
Spokane at Riverside
State Park
Spokane below
Long Lake Darn
Nooksack above
Lyndon
Nooksack
below Lynden
Okanogan
at Oroville
Okanogan
near mouth
Yakima near
Union Gap
Yakima below
Granger
Nisqually
at mouth
Upper Columbia at
Canadian border
Willapa near
Willapa
Pend Oreille at
Idaho/Wash, border
Pend Oreille at
Canadian border
Stillaguamish
near mouth
Sagkit above
Sedro Woolley
Skagit below
Sedro Woolley
Chehalis
near Porter
Green above
Auburn
Duwamish below
Renton treatment plant
Cowlitz
near mouth
Bwha near
mouth
Wenatchee at
mouth
Lewis below
Merwin Dam
Snohomish at
Snohomish
D
n
HUMAN-RELATED CAUSES OF
CRITERIA EXCEEDANCES
Agriculture, animal wastes
Agriculture, animal wastes
Agriculture, animal wastes
Agriculture, animal wastes
Agriculture
Agriculture, point sources
Animal wastes, glacial silt
Point & non-point sources
on tributaries
Point & non-point sources
on tributaries
Upstream agric. waste sources
Upstream mining activities
Animal wastes
Streambank erosion
Animal wastes, agriculture,
point sources
Agriculture, animal wastes
Renton Treatment Plant,
urban runoff, animal wastes
UNACCEPTABLE — SEVERE POLLUTION
MARGINAL — INTERMITTENT, OR MODERATE
POLLUTION
ACCEPTABLE — MINIMAL. OR NO POLLUTION
STATUS UNKNOWN
INADEQUATE, OR NO DATA AVAILABLE FOR
TRENDS ANALYSIS
IMPROVING TREND
DETERIORATING TREND
NO SIGNIFICANT CHANGE
The colors depict the worst three-month status of
each category during the water year 1978/1979
period. The arrows depict category trends as
determined by a non-parametric statistical test
of water year 1973 through 1979 data.
Figure 28
Water Quality Trends in Washington
PERCENT OF STATIONS
40 60
Data based upon the worst 3 consecutive months status
of 39 monitoring stations within, and bordering upon,
Washington. Organic and inorganic toxicant categories
not included.
Figure 27 indicates some improvement in
certain categories in the most-degraded
stream segments in eastern Washington,
particularly with respect to trophic conditions.
In fact, where data is available, it appears that
nutrient levels are declining in many stream
segments across the state. Because limited
data is available for trends analysis, it is
difficult to more completely evaluate water
quality trends within the state at this time.
The Outlook for Washington
The NPDES permit system and
implementation of areawide wastewater
management plans being developed should
correct many of the pollution problems
discussed above. New and improved sewage
treatment plants, improved operation of
existing plants, and best management
practices in agricultural and livestock
operations should most noticeably improve
bacteria, nutrients, and solids levels. The
effect of forest practices on erosion and
temperature levels is being controlled through
the Forest Practices Act.
Programs are underway to determine the
extent of organic toxicants. If significant levels
are found, they are likely to be in metropolitan
areas where the impact of both municipal and
industrial waste discharges are the greatest.
Elevated levels may also be found in streams
that drain agricultural areas with high
pesticide usage.
27
-------
• . <•;
•
-
• *
> <-
Figure 29.
Water Quality Status of Idaho's
Principal Rivers
• -;
The Quality of Idaho's
Principal Rivers
Figure 29 shows the location of the major
Idaho streams and the general extent of
water quality degradation within their
reaches based upon the average annual
WQI. Figure 30 compares'their average
annual and worst
3-month WQI values.
Much of the South Fork Coeur d'Alene River
is affected by wastes from past and present
mining and ore-producing activities within
its basin. Pollution from these activities also
causes the Spokane and main Coeur
d'Alene Rivers to be rated marginal. The
lower Portneuf River has been degraded by
a combination of municipal, industrial,
agricultural, and natural sources. Since the
summer of 1980, however, much of the
municipal and industrial wastewater has
been diverted from the river. Rock Creek,
which flows through Twin Falls, is heavily
impacted by irrigation wastewater entering
its lower reaches.
Most of the other principal streams
monitored in Idaho only marginally meet
Federal water quality goals during their
worst 3-month periods; many of their
problems are attributed to agricultural non-
point sources, particularly in Southern
Idaho. Some stream reaches are affected by
point source discharges from sewage
treatment and industrial plants, for example,
the Boise River and Milner Reservoir, located
on the Snake River. High heavy metals levels
from unknown sources are primarily
responsible for the Lower Salmon and
Clearwater Rivers' marginal ratings. The
remaining streams are located in more
remote areas of the state, lack significant
agricultural, urban, and industrial activities,
and generally meet Federal goals.
Figure 31 shows the worst 3-month status of
various Idaho river and stream reaches with
respect to each of the water quality
categories evaluated by the WQI. Many
stream reaches exceeded the temperature
criteria, particularly in the more arid portions
of the state. The low dissolved oxygen levels
below Hell's Canyon Dam on the Snake
River are discussed under Oregon River
Water Quality.
Excessive bacterial levels occur in some of
Idaho's southern streams, due primarily to
runoff from grazing and animal confinement
areas. Over half of the stream segments
evaluated experience excessive levels of
BASED UPON THE AVERAGE ANNUAL WQI:
I UNACCEPTABLE — SEVERE POLLUTION
D MARGINAL - INTERMITTENT, OR MODERATE
POLLUTION
I ACCEPTABLE - MINIMAL, OR NO POLLUTION
I STATUS UNKNOWN
28
-------
nutrients (trophic category) during at least
part of the year. These are mostly over-
enriched by runoff from irrigated and
dryland agriculture, although secondary
treated sewage may be contributing to these
problems in some streams, such as the
Boise River.
The highest suspended solids levels
observed in the state were found in the lower
portions of Rock Creek, Bruneau River,
Portneuf River, and in the Bear River near
the Wyoming border. Irrigation return flows
are mostly responsible for these levels in
Rock Creek, while rainfall and snowmelt
runoff from dryland agricultural areas
account for the high solids levels in the other
three streams.
Figure 30.
Water Quality Index Values
for Idaho's Principal Rivers
Limited monitoring for organic toxicants in
the water on the Snake, Bear, Kootenai, and
Salmon Rivers has not revealed significant
levels of contamination in recent years. Fish
tissue samples taken at 19 trend stations in
Idaho indicated that no criteria levels were
exceeded for 22 pesticides and other
organics. However, 26 percent and 30
percent of the total DDT and PCS samples,
respectively, exceeded recommended
concentrations for the protection of fish-
eating birds and mammals. Large amounts
of RGB's were released to the Upper Snake
River following the flooding caused by the
failure of the Teton Dam.
High levels of heavy metals from the
aforementioned mining and smelting
WOI VALUE
20 40 60 80 10
Lower Portneuf
Lower Bruneau
S.F. Coeur D'Alene
Lower Boise
Rock Creek (Twin Falls Co.)
Middle Snake
Spokane/Coeur D'Alene
Little Wood
Lower Snake
Bear
Clearwater & Significant Tribs.
Salmon
Kootenai
St. Joe
Weiser
Upper Snake
Clark Fork/Pend Oreille
Blackfoot
Big Wood
Henry's Fork
Payette. Incl. N. & S. Forks
c
A
V
• m
m
• a
•
-•-«
Oi
l
Ojj
L
On
LJ
©n
|>— -n
D n
— n
D
i
The WQI values presented are derived from averaging
WQI values from those river portions with adequate data.
Except where indicated, river portions included are
located only on the main river named.
WORST 3 CONSECUTIVE MONTHS
ANNUAL AVERAGE WATER QUALITY INDEX
sources are causing criteria exceedances in
parts of the Spokane/Coeur d'Alene River
system.
Insufficient criteria exist to allow formulation
of Index numbers for the radiation category.
Compared to the Idaho regulations for
public drinking water systems, however,
recent data shows that a few stream
segments exceeded these criteria. These are
believed to be caused by naturally occurring
uranium in the soils.
River Water Quality Trends
The general water quality picture in Idaho,
as represented by the 28 monitoring stations
evaluated in Figure 32, has exhibited little
apparent change over the past 7 years for
the same reasons explained in the Oregon
and Washington discussions.
Trends within individual categories (Figure
31) indicate improvement in the aesthetics
and solids categories in many of the stream
segments. Segments exhibiting
improvements in the greatest number of
categories are the Kootenai River near the
Canadian border and the Snake River near
Mountain Home.
The Outlook for Idaho
Reductions in point source pollution in
Idaho are being achieved by means of
NPDES permits and earlier cooperative
state, industry, and municipal efforts.
Problems still exist, however, with sewage
treatment, including inadequate treatment
levels, overloading of facilities from
infiltration/inflow, and insufficient dilution of
sewage effluent due to low streamflows.
Food processing industries and mining and
ore processing facilities are other major
point sources requiring improvements.
Agriculture continues to be one of the most
significant non-point sources of water
pollution in Idaho. A Statewide Agricultural
UNACCEPTABLE - SEVERE POLLUTION
MARGINAL - INTERMITTENT, OR MODERATE
POLLUTION
ACCEPTABLE - MINIMAL, OR NO POLLUTION
29
-------
Figure 31.
River Water Quality Categories
Current Status and Trends in Idaho
Figure 32.
Water Quality Trends in Idaho
RIVER
Portneuf
at mouth
Bruneau
near mouth
South Fork Coeur
d' Alene at mouth
Boise
near mouth
Boise at
Lucky Peak Dam
Rock Creek at
Twin Falls
Middle Snake near
Mountain Home
Middle Snake
near Weiser
Coeur d' Alene above
the South Fork
Coeur d' Alene below
the South Fork
Spokane at Wash,/
Idaho border
Little Wood
near mouth
Lower Snake at
Hell's Canyon Dam
Lower Snake
near Lewiston
Bear at
Wyoming border
Bear at
Utah border
Clearwater
near mouth
Salmon
near mouth
Kootenai near
US./Canada border
St. Joe
near mouth
Weiser
at mouth
Upper Snake above
Idaho Falls
Upper Snake
near Burley
Pend Oreille at
Washington border
Big Wood
near mouth
Blackfoot
near mouth
Henry's Fork
near mouth
Payette
near mouth
PERCENT OF STATIONS
40
HUMAN-RELATED CAUSES OF
CRITERIA EXCEEDANCES
Point & non-point sources
Agriculture, animal wastes
Point & non-point sources
Agriculture, point sources,
animal wastes
Agriculture, animal wastes
Agriculture, animal wastes
Agriculture
Upstream mining sources
Upstream mining sources
Upstream waste sources
Upstream waste sources
Non-point sources in
Wyoming & Utah
Agriculture, animal wastes
Point sources, agriculture,
mining
Agriculture, animal wastes
Agriculture
Point sources, agriculture
livestock
Agriculture
Agriculture
Agriculture, animal wastes
The colors depict the worst three-month status
of each category during the water year 1978/1979
period. The arrows depict category trends as
determined by a non-parametric statistical test
of water year 1973 through 1979 data.
Based upon the water quality status during the worst
3 months at 28 monitoring stations within and bordering
upon Idaho. Organic and inorganic toxicity parameter
groups not included.
UNACCEPTABLE - SEVERE POLLUTION
MARGINAL - INTERMITTENT, OR MODERATE
POLLUTION
ACCEPTABLE - MINIMAL, OR NO POLLUTION
STATUS UNKNOWN
IMPROVING TREND
DETERIORATING TREND
NO SIGNIFICANT CHANGE
INADEQUATE OR NO DATA AVAILABLE FOR
TRENDS ANALYSIS
Pollution Abatement Plan was completed in
1979. This voluntary program is being
implemented on a statewide basis, and
specifically using 208 projects in four high-
priority areas: Rock Creek and Cedar Draw
in Twin Falls County, Paradise Creek-South
Fork Palouse River in Latah County, and
Marsh Creek in Bannock County.
Mining activities are another major non-
point source of pollution. Significant
improvement in water quality would result if
discharges from the Bunker Hill Company in
Kellogg were to meet EPA guidelines;
however, runoff from abandoned and
inactive mining operations, which is difficult
and expensive to control, would still create
problems in the South Fork and main Coeur
d'Alene Rivers. State plans to rehabilitate the
South Fork have been hampered by lack of
funds.
30
-------
Figure 33.
Water Quality Status of Alaska's
Principal Rivers
UNACCEPTABLE - SEVERE
POLLUTION
MARGINAL - INTERMITTENT
OR MODERATE POLLUTION
ACCEPTABLE - MINIMAL
OR NO POLLUTION
The Quality of Alaska's
Principal Rivers
Because most of Alaska is remote and
inaccessible, water quality information is
scattered, as well as difficult and expensive
to obtain; therefore half of the state's
principal streams cannot be evaluated.
Available data from October 1977 through
September 1979 were used to indicate the
general status of the principal Alaska rivers.
Where insufficient data existed for that
period, data from October 1972 through
September 1979 were used. Figure 33 shows
the location and water quality status of these
streams, and Figure 34 compares the Index
values from the single stations that represent
each river.
None of the rivers with data appear to be
severely degraded. River segments rated
marginal are primarily exceeding turbidity
(aesthetics), suspended solids, and heavy
metals (inorganic toxicants) criteria on an
intermittent basis. The high levels of the first
two are primarily due to natural occurrences,
such as ice breakup and runoff from the
snowpack and glaciers. Human activities,
such as placer mining and construction, may
be partially responsible, particularly in some
of the smaller tributary streams. Metals
criteria exceedances may be due to a
combination of factors, such as mining
activities, natural geological processes, and
the criteria/reporting problem discussed
earlier.
Figure 34.
Water Quality Index Values
for Alaska's Principal Rivers
WQI VALUE
20 40 60 80 10
Lower Tanana
Lower Yukon
Talkeetna
Stikine
Lower Susitna
Lower Copper
Kobuk
Nushagak
Kuparuk
Gutkana
Lower Kuskokwim
Chena
Upper Yukon
Koyukuk
Colville
Noatak
Innoko
Porcupine
Sagavanirktok
Kenai
Naknek
Karluk
/
1.
• r
L
• r
Ik
w
^
->
w
^
w
^
w
t
w
fc
w
->
Ik
w
It
w
On
U
r\ n
U LJ •
r\ i— i
J LJ *
r\ n •
n
LJ •
/~n
•
fc:
'All marginal rivers exceed sediment criteria which may
be due to natural causes, such as glacial flows.
NOTE: Due to insufficient data, Index numbers could
not be calculated for some rivers. Those values
presented are calculated from only one monitoring
station on each river.
D WORST 3 CONSECUTIVE MONTHS
O ANNUAL AVERGE WATER QUALITY INDEX
^ INSUFFICIENT DATA
31
-------
Figure 35.
River Water Quality Categories
Current Status in Alaska
Figure 35 shows the current status of river
water quality categories in Alaska. The
bacterial problem indicated in the Tanana
River is based upon 1973 and 1974idata and
was due to sewage discharges from the
Fairbanks area into the Chena River, a
tributary to the Tanana. Since late 1976,
these wastes have been diverted from the
Chena River and treated by a new sewage
treatment plant, which discharges to the
Tanana River. Recent data indicate that the
Chena at Fairbanks, once severely polluted
by these discharges, now has acceptable
bacterial levels. This will improve water
quality in the Tanana, although no post-
treatment data are available at this time.
Low dissolved oxygen levels in the Yukon
and Kuskokwim River segments occur in the
winter months due to the ice cover. Low pH
values are occasionally observed in the
Nushagak River for unknown reasons. The
marginal organic toxicant rating for the
Yukon River is due to one 2,4-D sample in
excess of the criteria.
The Outlook for Alaska
The challenge for the future in1 Alaska will be
to preserve the high level of environmental
quality. Greater use of the vast natural
resources of the state and increased
population could result in significant
deterioration of water quality.
Alaska's wastewater treatment program for
municipal and industrial discharges is well-
advanced but not yet complete; therefore
continued emphasis on this program will be
necessary to maintain water quality. Untreated
domestic sewage discharges have been
reduced in areas such as the Chena River
near Fairbanks; however, many other interior
and coastal communities still have inadequate
sewage treatment facilities. Pulp mills are
presently increasing their treatment levels. As
additional industrial treatment needs are met,
water quality in localized areas should
improve.
Urban center growth, resulting in increased
discharges and urban runoff as well as
increased recreational pressures on lakes and
streams, will continue to cause problems in
large communities such as Anchorage,
Fairbanks, and Juneau. Various state and
RIVER
Tanana at
Nenana
'Yukon at
Pilot Station
"Talkeetna R. near
Talkeetna
'Stikine near
Wrangell
"Susitna at
Susitna Stain.
'Copper near
Chitina
'Kobuk near
Kiana
"Nushagak at
Ekwok
'Kuparuk near
Deadhorse
Gulkana at
Sourdough
'Kuskokwim at
Crooked Creek
Chena near
North Pole
Chena at
Fairbanks
Yukon at
Ruby
Koyukuk at
Hughes
Colville near
Nuiqsut
Noatak
Innoko
Porcupine
Sagavanirktok
Kuzitrin
Kenai
Naknek
Karluk near
Larsen Bay
# £
HUMAN-RELATED CAUSES OF
CRITERIA EXCEEDANCES
Natural causes,
possibly mining
Natural causes, possibly
mining, ice cover
Natural causes, possibly
mining, ice cover
Natural causes
Natural causes,
possibly mining
Natural causes.
possibly mining
Spring run-off
Spring run-off
Spring run-off
Spring run-off
Ice, natural causes,
possibly mining
Spring run-off
a
a
STATUS BASED UPON WORST 3
MONTH WQI:
MARGINAL - - INTERMITTENT
OR MODERATE POLLUTION
ACCEPTABLE — MINIMAL
OR NO POLLUTION
STATUS UNKNOWN
"October 1977 - September 1979 data. Evaluations of the
remaining stations based upon data from October 1972 -
September 1979. Insufficient data available for category
trends analysis.
local management agencies are presently
identifying urban problems and developing
prevention programs.
Water quality degradation resulting from
placer mining activities will be difficult to
control. Because of the remoteness of these
areas, technical evaluation of mining effects
and control programs have not advanced. It is
doubtful that mitigation of the effects of placer
mining will be possible in the next few years.
Timber harvesting as a non-point pollution
source will become more significant in the
future. Logging and the road construction that
accompanies it add to the sediment load in a
stream through accelerated erosion,
particularly if the streambank vegetation is
removed in the process. In the past, Alaska's
timber industry existed on publicly owned
timber land. Timber harvesting practices were
rigidly established in lease and contract
stipulations, although contract enforcement
was frequently deficient. Such Federal
controls would not apply to the millions of
acres of land being conveyed into state and
private ownership as a result of the Statehood
Act, Alaska Native Claims Act, and state land
disposal programs.
Construction in general, especially for roads,
railroads, and pipelines also causes increased
erosion and sediment loads. Conditions
unique to Alaska, including permafrost,
unstable stream channels, extreme
temperature ranges, and glacial action
accentuate the problem. Many of these
situations are still being studied. The state is
developing a manual of best management
practices for transportation corridors.
32
-------
Lake Water Quality
Inland lakes and waterways constitute one of
the Region's most important recreational and
commercial resources. It is generally felt that
the lake water quality in the Pacific Northwest
is among the best in the Nation. Only a few of
the major recreational lakes have significant
water quality problems that impair their
recreational use.
How Lake Water Quality is
Determined
A numerical water quality index has not been
developed for lakes, as it has been for rivers.
Instead, the water quality of the Region's lakes
is evaluated based on ecological conditions
(trophic status) and their impact on
recreational use of the lakes. For comparison
purposes, and to help analyze the extent to
which recreational uses are impaired in any
given lake, the measurement criteria shown in
Table 3 were applied.
Factors Affecting Recreational
Uses of Lakes
If a lake is undisturbed by human activities, it
undergoes a natural process of aging known
as eutrophication. Man's activities, however,
may accelerate this process by introducing
nutrients to lake waters through improper
land use and waste disposal practices. Land
use practices on farm land, forests, and
construction sites often result in erosion of
nutrient-rich soils into streams feeding lakes.
Significant quantities of nutrients are also
discharged by sewage treatment and certain
industrial plants and urban, pasture, and
feedlot runoff.
Water quality agencies are concerned with the
trophic status of the Region's lakes because
their many uses depend on their ecological
conditions. Highly eutrophic lakes are
characterized by dense algal blooms, floating
mats of vegetation, and a murky appearance.
Algae are found naturally in every body of
water, but when stimulated by abundant
nutrients, sunlight, and warm temperatures,
they rapidly multiply to become a nuisance to
recreational users while seriously affecting
water quality for other uses. These plant
nuisances may curtail or even eliminate
recreational activities (such as swimming,
boating, and fishing), impart tastes and odors
to water supplies, and cause toxic conditions
which adversely affect other aquatic life in the
lakes. For example, when sufficient quantities
of these growths die, the decaying process
may consume quantities of dissolved oxygen
sufficient to kill fish and other aquatic life. The
recreational use of lakes in itself can affect
water quality. Power boats create waves that
erode banks, contributing to sediment,
nutrients, and muddy water; they also release
mixtures of oil and gasoline and associated
contaminants to the water. Removal of
vegetation along shorelines to enhance public
access can also lead to erosion.
33
-------
Table 3.
Criteria for Evaluating Impairment
of Lakes
DEGREE OF IMPAIRMENT
RECREATIONAL
USE
NONE
CHIIEHIA
SCORE
Swimming Very low bacteria levels
(Fecal coliforms geometric
mean less than 50 per
100 ml)
Fishing No adverse conditions.
Healthy fish population.
Boating Less than 10% of surface
area affected by aquatic
weeds
Aesthetics Objects visible in water to
depth of 10 feet or more
and low phosphorus
(Seechi Disc* at 10 feet;
total phosphorus of less
than 10 ug/l")
SCORE
(No uses impaired)
RECREATIONAL
USE
Swimming
Fishing
Boating
Aesthetics
SCORE (All
RECREATIONAL
USE
MODERATE
CRITERIA SCORE
Mcxli'i.ilr h.irtrn.-i liwh. (T7]
(Fecal coliforms 50 to
200 per 100 ml)>
Slightly adverse condi- f2~]
tions. Slight reduction in
fish population.
10% to 30% affected \2\
Objects visible from 1 .5 to [2]
10 feet and moderate
phosphorus level (Secchi
Disc at 1.5 to 10 feet;
total phosphorus 10 to
20 ug/l)
uses moderately impaired) |5-8|
SIGNIFICANT
CRITERIA SCORE
Swimming Unhealthy bacteria levels
(Fecal coliforms greater
than 200 per 100 ml)
Fishing Adverse conditons. Signi-
ficant reduction in fish
population.
Boating More than 30% affected
Aesthetics Objects not visible beyond
1.5 feet or high
phosphorus level (Secchi
Disc at less than 1.5 feet;
total phosphorus greater
than 20 ug/l)
SCORE (All uses significantly impaired) |
The Regional Overview
The principal recreational lakes within the
Region are of good quality, with relatively few
impairments related to human activities.
Figure 36 compares the percentage of lakes
impaired for recreational use in each state.
Figure 37 shows the location and impairment
status of each lake on regional maps.
Approximately half of the lakes assessed in
Oregon, Washington, and Idaho, and most of
the Alaskan lakes for which there is
information, have little or no recreational
impairment. However, some of these lakes are
approaching a level of eutrophication that
interferes with their desired uses.
The EPA Clean Lakes Program provides
Federal grants to state water quality agencies
to improve lake quality. In Washington, this
Figure 36.
Impairment Status of Recreational Lakes
in Region 10
PERCENT OF LAKES IMPAIRED
20 40 60 80 100
Alaska
Idaho
Oregon
Washington
Based upon evaluation of 145 Region 10 lakes
D
LITTLE OR NO IMPAIRMENT
MODERATE IMPAIRMENT
SIGNIFICANT IMPAIRMENT
STATUS UNKNOWN
'A Secchi Disc is a round black and white plate
suspended on a chain and used to determine water
clarity.
"ug/l = micrograms per liter, a measurement used
for low concentrations of dissolved substances.
program is supplemented by a state lake
restoration program which provides matching
funds to local agencies. Some measures
being implemented to improve lake water
quality include dredging to remove nutrient-
containing sediments and decomposing plant
material that consumes oxygen, flushing,
bank erosion control, aeration, physically
removing aquatic plants, and both chemical
and biological controls to prevent
eutrophication. Through these programs,
many of the high-use recreational lakes in the
Region are being restored and preserved for
future generations.
34
-------
Figure 37.
Water Quality of Principal
Recreational Lakes in Region 10.
I LITTLE OR NO IMPAIRMENT
| MODERATE IMPAIRMENT
I SIGNIFICANT IMPAIRMENT
B STATUS UNKNOWN
Big Lake
Lake Balfmgei
Grppn
Lake Washington
Lake Sammamish
Pine Lake
Lake Meridian
Fcviwirk Lake
Kachess Lake
T.l|i|>- *"<-!.• I linn I :ikr
jato Lake
Long Lake
i in !•.-M i .it-.'
McKay Creek Res
Lake Wallowa
Hells Canyon Res
Losl Valley Res
• Upper Payette Lake
^Payette Lake
Green Peler Res
Foster Res
Fern Ridge Res
£
Cleawnx Lake
Siltcoos Lake Dorena Res Waldo
Tahkemtch •
Lake •Collage
ok Lake
®Suttle Lake
Blue River Res ©Ochoco Res
; KM* MI i i"
• Paulina Lake
Cultus Lake
Pratrie Res
Wickiup Res.
Davis Lake
Odell Lake
Crescent Lake
Hills Creek Res
Grove Res
N Tenmile Lake
S Tenmile Lake
35
-------
Oregon Lake Water Quality
Figure 38 shows the extent and majpr causes
of use impairment for the principal
recreational lakes in Oregon. Seventeen of
these lakes are moderately impaired, mostly
due to aesthetic conditions (algae blooms)
and aquatic weed growths. Nutrients that
support the weed and algal growths are, in
some cases, supplied by bottom muds
accumulated from soil erosion, and in others
are due to septic drainage from recreational
and residential development.
The quality of a few of these lakes has been at
least partially restored. Commonwealth Lake
near Portland, for example, which suffered
from algae blooms and proliferation of aquatic
weeds, was successfully restored by dredging
and flushing with water diverted from a
nearby creek. Riprap, bulkheads, and a
perimeter walkway reduced siltation in the
lake. In Diamond Lake, Douglas County,
nutrients from sewage had accelerated
eutrophication. Sewage was diverted from the
lake drainage, and fish-cleaning and trailer-
dumping stations were installed to further limit
nutrients reaching the lake. Other lakes still
have problems. Blue Lake near Portland, for
example, has high recreational potential, but it
is highly eutrophic with summer blooms of
algae. This is due in part to a nutrient-rich
water supply. On the coast, Devil's Lake
experiences rapid siltation due to stormwater
runoff. Feasibility studies have been initiated
under the Clean Lakes Program for the
restoration of Devil's Lake, Klamath Lake,
Fern Ridge Reservoir, Sturgeon Lake, and
Mirror Pond.
Figure 38.
The Recreational Impairment and Trophic
Status of Principal Recreational Lakes in
Oregon
SURFACE
AREA
NAME (ACRES)
Willow Creek Res. 1,000
North Tenmile Lake 1,000
South Tenmile Lake 1,400
Klamath Lake 59,000
Devil's Lake/Lincoln Co. 600
Blue Lake/Multnomah Co. 65
Emigrant Res.
Siltcoos Lake
McKay Creek Res.
Ochoco Res.
Owyhee Res.
Suttle Lake
Cleawox Lake
Tahkenitch Lake
Hills Creek Res.
Fern Ridge Res.
Diamond Lake
Chinook Lake
Prineville Res.
Crane Prairie Res.
Davis Lake
Wickiup Res.
Lake of the Woods
Henry Hagg Lake
Green Peter Res.
Timothy Lake
Lake Paulina
Odell Lake
Waldo Lake
Crater Lake
Crescent Lake
Lake Wallowa
Cultus Res.
Olallie Lake
Detroit Res.
Blue River Res.
Cottage Grove Res.
Dorena Res.
Foster Res.
Cougar Res.
CAUSE OF PROBLEM
Irrigation withdrawals,
nutrients in sediments
Introduced Nuisance Weeds
Introduced Nuisance Weeds
Nutrients in Sediments
Stormwater
Nutrients in Sediments
Nutrients in Sediments
Irrigation Withdrawals
Introduced Nuisance Weeds
Introduced Nuisance Weeds
Irrigation Withdrawals
Nutrients in Sediments
Nutrients in Sediments
Stream-Fed Nutrients
Septic Tanks
Introduced Nuisance Weeds
Erosion
Shallow Depth
I NON-EUTROPHIC
1 MODERATELY EUTROPHIC
I EUTROPHIC
I LITTLE OR NO IMPAIRMENT
1 MODERATE IMPAIRMENT
| SIGNIFICANT IMPAIRMENT
I STATUS UNKNOWN
36
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Washington Lake Water Quality
Figure 39 shows the extent and major causes
of use impairment for the principal
recreational lakes in Washington. Vancouver
Lake, Moses Lake, and Silver Lake are
considered significantly impaired in two or
more respects. Another 17 lakes are
moderately impaired, mostly due to aesthetic
conditions. Most of the lakes with water
quality problems receive stormwater runoff
and septic tank seepage from lakeside
residential areas. The large lakes and
reservoirs of eastern Washington receive
irrigation return flows and runoff from
agricultural lands that contain fertilizers and
animal wastes which accelerates the
eutrophication processes.
Some measures are being implemented
through the state and Federal programs to
restore recreational amenities. For example,
Medical Lake was treated with alum to
precipitate excess phosphorous to the lake
bottom, to form a layer over the sediments.
This treatment resulted in a 90% reduction in
phosphorous and substantially reduced the
algal growths. Spada-Chaplain Lake had high
levels of turbidity which were reduced by re-
routing stream channels and stream beds to
reduce erosion of clay into the lake and by
revegetating the banks of the lake. Plans to
improve water quality in Vancouver Lake and
Lake Sacajawea include dredging, dilution,
and control of polluting urban and agricultural
runoff.
Figure 39.
The Recreational Impairment and Trophic
Status of the Principal Recreational Lakes
in Washington
NAME
Vancouver Lake
Moses Lake
Silver Lake
Long Lake/Kitsap Co.
Long Lake/ThurstonCo.
Patterson Lake
Lake Ballinger
Pine lake
Lake Sacajawea
Capitol Lake
Fenwick Lake
Wapato Lake
Liberty Lake
Green Lake
Potholes Reservoir
Park Lake
Lake Sammamish
Banks Lake
Medical Lake
Lake Meridian
Big Lake
Hicks Lake
Deep Lake
Lake Quinault
Lake Cushman
Crescent Lake
Lake Whatcom
Lake Ozette
Lake Merwin
Lake Tapps
Lake Washington
Ross Lake
Lake Chelan
Lake Wenatchee
Kachess Lake
Cle Elum Lake
Baker Lake
Osoyoos Lake
Lake Roosevelt
Lake Wallula
SURFACE
AREA
(ACRES)
CAUSE OF PROBLEM
Stream-fed nutrients
Agricultural runoff/erosion
Forest practices
Stormwater
Storm water/possible septic tanks
Stormwater/possible septic tanks
Stormwater
Stormwater/Septic tanks
Stormwater
Stormwater/Stream-fed nutrients
Stormwater
Stormwater
Strmwtr/Septic tanks/Solid waste
Stormwater
Agricultural runoff
Stormwater
Agricultural runoff
Nutrients in sediments
Stormwater
D
NON-EUTROPHIC
MODERATELY EUTROPHIC
EUTROPHIC
LITTLE OR NO IMPAIRMENT
MODERATE IMPAIRMENT
SIGNIFICANT IMPAIRMENT
STATUS UNKNOWN
37
-------
Idaho Lake Water Quality
Figure 40 shows the extent and major causes
of use impairment for the principal lakes in
Idaho. Most impairments appear to be due to
algal blooms stimulated by nutrients from
agricultural runoff and septic tanks. Runoff
from agricultural non-point sources entering
the Snake River upstream of Oxbow and
Brownlee Reservoirs has degraded these two
lakes. Lake Lowell, an off-stream reservoir
near Boise, receives heavy recreational usage
by residents of the Boise Valley. Excessive
algal growth in the summer impairs such use.
The photosynthetic activity and eventual
decomposition of the algae reduce the
dissolved oxygen levels, which may be
adversely affecting the fishery resource of the
reservoir. These conditions are primarily due
to the nutrient enrichment of summer inflows
by agricultural non-point sources.
The water quality of American Falls Reservoir
is affected by nutrients from dryland and
irrigated agriculture, winter discharges of
treated sewage effluent from Pocatello,
phosphate deposits in the soils, and from
many springs in the area.
Measures are being considered to restore a
few of these lakes. Studies have been
performed to better define sources of
nutrients and the other water quality problems
in Lake Lowell. No restoration program has
been initiated, however. The wastewater from
the Simplot Plant at Pocatello and summer
discharges from the Pocatello sewage
treatment plant have been removed from the
Portneuf River, which flows into the American
Falls Reservoir. This, plus the eventual
application of best management practices to
agriculture, should reduce this reservoir's
problems considerably.
Figure 40.
The Recreational Impairment and Trophic
Status of the Principal Recreational Lakes
in Idaho
NAME (ACRES)
Brownlee Res. 15,000
American Falls Res. 56,000
Wilson Lake 600
Lake Walcott 12,000
Portneuf Res. 1,500
Williams Lk./Lemhi Co. 200
Crane Creek Res. 1,000
Lake Lowell 9,600
Lower Granite Res. 8,900
Oxbow Res. 1,500
Hell's Canyon Res. 2,500
Paddock Valley Res. 1,000
Fernan Lake 300
Chatcolet Lake 600
Cascade Res. 30,000
Henry's Lake 2,500
Island Park Res. 7,000
Magic Res. 1,800
Twin Lakes/Kootenai Co. 850
Cocolalla Lake 800
Salmon Falls Cr. Res. 1,500
Lower Goose Cr. Res. 1,000
Fish Cr. Res. 250
Lost Valley Res. 800
Palisades Res. 16,000
Upper Payette Lk. 500
Dworshak Res. 17,000
Sage Hen Res. 300
Anderson Ranch Res. 4,000
Alturas Lake 1,200
Lucky Peak Res. 2,800
Arrowrock Res. 4,000
Priest Lake 24,000
Lake Pend Oreille 94,000
Lake Coeur d'Alene 30,000
Hayden Lake 4,000
Payette Lake 1,000
Deadwood Res. 3,000
Redfish Lake 1,500
Bear Lake 25,000
Spirit Lake 1,300
Upper Priest Lake 5,000
Bulltrout Lake 900
Mackay Reservoir 1,000
Little Camas Res. 1,000
Little Wood Res. 600
Upstream Sources
Natural/Agric. Nonpoint/
Municipal/Industrial R. Sources
Upstream Sources
Upstream Sources
Agricultural Runoff
Recreational Impacts
Natural/Agric. Runoff
Agricultural Runoff
Upstream Sources
Upstream Sources
Upstream Sources
Natural/Agric. Runoff
Septic Tanks/Agric. Runoff
Agricultural Runoff
Agric. Runoff/Munic. R. Source
Recreational Impacts
Septic Tanks/Natural Runoff
Agric. Runoff/Munic. R. Sources
Septic Tanks/Agric. Runoff
Agric. Runoff/Recr. Impacts
Q
J
NON-EUTROPHIC
.MODERATELY EUTROPHIC
EUTROPHIC
I LITTLE OR NO IMPAIRMENT
"1 MODERATE IMPAIRMENT
I SIGNIFICANT IMPAIRMENT
I STATUS UNKNOWN
38
-------
Alaska Lake Water Quality
Little is known about most Alaska lakes.
Several of the more readily accessible lakes
near Anchorage are exhibiting signs of
advancing eutrophication and recreational use
impairment as shown in Figure 41.
Recently the state studied certain lakes in the
Palmer-Wasilla area, a fertile farming region
near Anchorage which is experiencing rapid
residential development. The population has
grown by 15 to 20 percent a year over the past
3 years. The Alaska Department of Fish and
Game has found 36 of .over 100 lakes with low
dissolved oxygen in the winter, although the
cause is unknown. For many lakes, it may be
a natural condition; however, human activities
may be a contributing factor.
The trophic conditions of four lakes near
Wasilla (Lucille, Wasilla, Cottonwood, and
Finger) were studied more intensely. All are
heavily used for recreation, and the public has
expressed some concern about water quality.
Of the four, Lucille is the most shallow, with a
mean depth of 1.7 meters, and also the most
eutrophic. In winter dissolved oxygen levels
drop to almost zero, and the lake has a history
of fish kills. There is considerable algae
growth in the summer, though not yet to the
extent that it interferes with boating. The lake
is not used much for swimming since it is so
shallow. The other three lakes are deeper and
are only moderately eutrophic, with some
algae growth in isolated portions of the lakes.
Alaska is becoming involved in the Clean
Lakes Program and other problem lakes are
being identified.
Figure 41.
The Recreational Impairment and Trophic
Status of the Principal Recreational Lakes
in Alaska
NAME
Lucille
Campbell
Wasilla
Cottonwood
Finger
Harding
Fielding
Summit
Paxson
Big
Kenai
Skilak
Fire
Nancy
Galbraith
Clark
Iliamna
Minchumina
Louise
Schrader
Tustumena
Ward
Blue
SURFACE
AREA
(ACRES)
362
334
250
362
SWIM
12,160
34,320
70,400
640,000
14,720
14,720
74,880
CAUSE OF PROBLEM
Septic Tanks
Sewage overflow and
stormwater runoff
I NON-EUTROPHIC
J MODERATELY EUTROPHIC
I EUTROPHIC
I LITTLE OR NO IMPAIRMENT
J MODERATE IMPAIRMENT
I SIGNIFICANT IMPAIRMENT
I STATUS UNKNOWN
39
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Marine Water Quality
Coastal and estuarine waters contribute
greatly to the commercial and recreational
assets of the Northwest. While the majority of
these waters are relatively free of pollution,
there is some generally localized
contamination from municipal sewage
discharge and from agricultural and logging
operations carried to estuaries by some rivers.
How Marine Water Quality is
Determined
Since sampling and analysis of marine water
is complex and expensive, the amount of
available data is limited, and a marine water
index has not been devised. The quality of
certain saltwater areas, however, can be
inferred from the condition of shellfish.
Shellfish concentrate disease-causing
bacteria, viruses, toxic chemicals, and other
contaminants from the water in which they
live. Consequently, shellfish indicate the
degree of pollution in marine waters and
provide an indirect way of assessing the
success of pollution control efforts.
In this report, marine water quality
determinations are based upon criteria
designed for human consumption of shellfish,
which are established by the U.S. Food and
Drug Administration for the National Shellfish
Sanitation Program. Waters that are free from
fecal contamination (bacteria from sewage),
industrial wastes, radioactive elements, and
biotoxins (certain naturally produced poisons)
are classified as "approved for commercial
shellfish harvesting." "Conditionally approved"
waters may be closed when seasonal
increases in population, freshwater runoff
containing contaminants at certain times of
the year, or temporary malfunctioning of
wastewater treatment plants result in failure to
meet the criteria. Waters found to be
contaminated or suspected of being
contaminated, which would produce shellfish
unsafe for human consumption, are classified
as "closed."
The Regional Overview
A total of 349,000 acres has been classified as
commercial shellfish growing area in Region
10 (see Figure 42). This represents
approximately 2 percent of the classified
growing waters in the Nation. Of the regional
growing area, 72 percent is classified as
approved, 9 percent conditionally approved,
and 19 percent closed. Regionally,
Washington contains the largest percentage
of the total classified area (65 percent or
228,900 acres), followed by Alaska (27 percent
or 92,400 acres), and Oregon (8 percent or
28,100 acres).
Information on the quality of many marine
waters used for swimming and recreational
shellfish harvesting is quite limited. Until more
Figure 42.
Status of Classified Shellfish Growing Areas
in Region 10
is obtained, it is generally not recommended
that these pursuits be undertaken near
sewage treatment plant discharges, in areas
subject to septic tank drainage, or in areas
known to receive agricultural, livestock, or
industrial wastes. When in doubt about the
status of a swimming beach or "sports"
shellfish area, individuals should contact their
county or state health agency for current
information about the quality of the waters in
question.
THOUSANDS OF ACRES
50 100
Washington
Alaska
Oregon
D
APPROVED FOR COMMERCIAL SHELLFISH HARVESTING
RESTRICTED - DEPURATION ONLY
CONDITIONALLY APPROVED FOR COMMERCIAL
SHELLFISH HARVESTING
CLOSED TO COMMERCIAL SHELLFISH HARVESTING
Regional Summary:
Percentage of the Region's
active shellfish areas that are
open for harvesting.
40
-------
Oregon's Marine Waters
Of the 28,100 acres of classified commercial
shellfish growing waters in Oregon, about 25
percent are currently approved for
commercial harvesting and 25 percent are
conditionally approved, depending on specific
conditions that are monitored throughout the
year. Ten percent have recently been
reclassified from closed to "restricted—for
depuration only" (see below). The remaining
40 percent are classified as closed and cannot
be used to produce shellfish for human
consumption. Figure 43 shows the location of
the classified waters in Oregon.
Figure 44 indicates that almost one-third of
Coos Bay is closed to commercial shellfishing
because of bacterial pollution from sewage
Figure 44.
Status of Classified Shellfish Growing
Areas in Oregon
treatment plant discharges, although the
South Slough of Coos Bay is approved for
commercial shellfish harvesting. The state has
recently reclassified the inner portions of
Coos Bay from closed to "restricted—for
depuration only." (Depuration is a process
shellfish can be subjected to which reduces
bacterial contamination to acceptable levels
by utilizing their natural purification abilities.)
Commercially grown shellfish from this area
must be so treated before they are harvested
for sale to the public.
Potential treatment plant failures as well as a
number of non-point sources of fecal
pollution have made it necessary to close or
only conditionally approve Tillamook Bay for
shellfish harvest. Areas of Yaquina Bay are
either closed or conditionally approved due to
non-point source and industrial pollution
problems. The Nehalem River also has
problems related to non-point source
pollution and increasing population density.
Netarts Bay, although not a major commercial
shellfish growing area, is considered to have
good water quality suitable for oyster culture.
Several measures are being taken to restore
Oregon's marine waters for shellfish harvest.
Sewage treatment improvements planned for
the cities of Coos Bay and North Bend should
reduce bacterial pollution in Coos Bay. The
City of Tillamook is constructing a new
sewage treatment plant, and an EPA-funded
project is underway to identify non-point
sources of pollution around Tillamook Bay,
after which a pollution control plan will be
prepared.
THOUSANDS OF ACRES
6.0
Coos Bay
Tillamook Bay
Yaquina Bay
Netarts Bay
Nehalem River
Figure 43.
Water Quality Map of Oregon's Commercial
Shellfish Growing Areas
• Wheeler
NEHALEM BAY
.TILLAMOOK BAY
> Tillamook
NETARTS BAY
('Newport
YAOUINA BAY
• Coos Bay
' COOS BAY
I APPROVED FOR COMMERCIAL SHELLFISH HARVESTING
I RESTRICTED - DEPURATION ONLY
D CONDITIONALLY APPROVED FOR COMMERCIAL
SHELLFISH HARVESTING
I CLOSED TO COMMERCIAL SHELLFISH HARVESTING
1 UNCLASSIFIED AREAS
41
-------
Washington's Marine Waters
Of the 228,900 acres of classified commercial
shellfish growing waters in Washington, about
68 percent are currently approved for
commercial harvesting and 11 percent are
conditionally approved, depending on specific
conditions that are monitored throughout the
year. The remaining 21 percent are closed
and cannot be used to produce shellfish for
human consumption. Figure 45 shows the
location of classified waters in Washington.
The extent of closures in the various
commercial shellfish areas is shown in Figure
46. The approved areas include most of
Willapa Bay, northern and southern Puget
Sound, the Strait of Juan de Fuca, and all of
Figure 46.
Status of Classified Shellfish Areas
in Washington
Hood Canal and the Pacific Ocean beaches.
Central Puget Sound is mostly closed, due to
potential pollution arising from the urban-
industrial areas of Seattle, Tacoma, and
Bremerton. Municipal sewage treatment plant
discharges and septic tank problems also
contribute to closures. In Burley Lagoon, for
instance, 135 acres of oyster-growing area
were closed when the lagoon was polluted
with fecal material from domestic septic tanks
and nearby pastures. Industrial waste
discharges along the Tacoma waterfront have
occasionally degraded water quality and
caused fish kills.
On occasion, harvesting has had to be
restricted in northern and central Puget
Sound because of increased levels of paralytic
shellfish poison. This is a naturally occurring
substance commonly known as "red tide."
Some water quality improvements have been
noted in Everett and Bellingham due to
reduced effluents from the pulp mills in the
area, but additional improvements are needed.
Less than half of the available shellfish
growing area of Grays Harbor is approved for
use. Major point source contributors are pulp
mills and inadequate sewage treatment,
although improved waste treatment programs
have reduced their contributions. Agricultural
activities, coupled with seasonal fluctuations
in freshwater runoff also contribute to water
quality problems. In Willapa Bay, discharges
from municipal sewage treatment plants in the
vicinity of South Bend and Raymond are
Figure 45.
Water Quality Map of Washington's
Classified Commercial Shellfish
Growing Areas
THOUSAND OF ACRES
20 40
t>0
Willapa Bay
Grays Harbor
Northern Puget Sound
& Strait of Juan de Fuca
Central Puget Sound
Southern Puget Sound
Hood Canal
Pacific Beaches (65 acres approved)
/ ^^^^kHoquiam
/ ^M^iwJ -Aberdeen
t;SL5^;
"CBpay City
\ ™
JOL
"1^-—->-^ V\Poil Tuwnsffl
Port Angeles I • V-""ji
Sequtm • '^^.
I * J
D
•
D
APPROVED FOR COMMERCIAL SHELLFISH
HARVESTING
CONDITIONALLY APPROVED FOR COMMERCIAL
SHELLFISH HARVESTING
CLOSED TO COMMERCIAL SHELLFISH HARVESTING
UNCLASSIFIED AREAS
42
-------
primarily responsible for the closure of a small
part of the bay to oyster harvesting.
Because of wastewater treatment programs,
marine water quality in Washington has
improved in recent years. For example,
improved water treatment programs at Grays
Harbor pulp mills have reduced the
contribution of these sources and should
reduce them further in the future. However,
further reductions in contamination from
sewage treatment plants and industrial
discharges will be required to restore those
waters conditionally approved or closed to
shellfish harvesting. At the same time, care
must be taken to maintain high quality areas.
The Pierce County Commissioners have
passed a resolution establishing Burley
Lagoon and three other shellfish growing
areas in Pierce County as "environmentally
sensitive" areas. Population growth along
Hood Canal, for instance, could create
problems in the future.
Alaska's Marine Waters
Of the 92,400 acres of commercial shellfish
growing area that have been classified in
Alaska (see Figure 47), all are open to the
harvest of shellfish (razor clams only). The
remaining areas are unclassified because they
have not been surveyed or monitored for the
presence of paralytic shellfish poison. Alaska's
33,904-mile shoreline encompasses vast
amounts of estuarine and freshwater wetlands
that provide important habitat for aquatic
species. EPA and the State of Alaska are
taking an active role in regulating dredging,
filling, and draining, and other activites that
reduce wetland habitat.
Although no Alaskan coastal waters are
closed to shellfish harvesting, the state has a
potential problem with chronic, low-level oil
pollution in certain areas, such as upper Cook
Inlet and Port Valdez. This oil comes from
such sources as urban runoff, ballast
discharges, and disposal of "formation water"
(wastewater from oil production platforms and
onshore wells discharging into coastal
waters). Oil terminal facilities, tanker traffic,
and petroleum production also generate
potentials for large oil spills. In 1976, the
Alaska State Legislature enacted legislation
which includes a comprehensive oil spill
prevention program. Timely implementation
of this program, together with the
contingency plan which has recently been
developed to deal with oil spills, will help the
state address problems associated with
petroleum industries.
Alaska Lumber and Pulp Company and
Louisiana-Pacific have submitted water quality
data to the state that reveal depressed
dissolved oxygen and pH levels and some
high sulfite waste liquor concentrations in
Silver Bay near Sitka and Ward Cove near
Ketchikan, where the two plants are located.
Seafood processing also contributes
significant levels of nutrients to marine waters.
EPA and the State of Alaska recently
conducted studies at Petersburg, Juneau,
Ketchikan, Akutan, Cordova, and Dutch
Figure 47.
Status of Classified Shellfish Growing
Areas in Alaska
Harbor to determine the environmental impact
of seafood processors' waste disposal
practices. In Dutch Harbor, these wastes
covered the bottom more rapidly than they
could be dissipated, resulting in areas of
oxygen depletion and hydrogen sulfide gas
production. Processors operating at other
locations do not seem to be causing
persistent pollution problems.
Most seafood processors and pulp mills are
presently increasing their treatment levels. As
additional industrial treatment needs are met,
water quality in localized areas should
improve. In other areas, however, increasing
environmental pressures will be experienced
due to the expanding commercial fishing
industry.
THOUSANDS OF ACRES
10 20
Cordova Sector I
Cordova Sector IV
Swikshak
Polly Creek
Areas depicted represent only those portions of the total
estuarine and coastal areas mat have been classified by
the Alaska State Department of Health and Social
Services.
43
-------
Drinking Water Quality
Figure 48.
a. Regional Summary Based on Percentage
of Community Water Systems
b. Regional Summary Based on Population
Served by Community Water Systems
The drinking water supplied to most residents
of the Pacific Northwest and Alaska is
considered safe; however, waterborne disease
outbreaks occasionally occur. In April 1980,
over 200 persons in a Washington community
became ill from a waterborne disease
(suspected to be giardiasis), and during the
fall of 1979, 4 communities in Oregon
experienced waterborne outbreaks of
giardiasis and gastroenteritis affecting over
150 persons. In addition to acute problems
such as giardiasis, long-term or chronic
disease may result from ingesting water
containing certain inorganic or organic
chemicals, as well as radioactive materials.
Few water systems, however, are expected to
exceed chemical or radiochemical standards;
therefore few, if any, cases of chronic
diseases are expected.
Public Water System Program
The Safe Drinking Water Act, passed in 1974,
gave EPA primary responsibility for
establishing drinking water standards and
assuring national program consistency, but
intended that the states implement programs
ensuring public water systems' compliance
with standards.
In Region 10, Alaska, Idaho, and Washington
have assumed primary responsibility for
working with public water systems to
implement drinking water standards. Oregon
has chosen not to assume primary
responsibility. Consequently, since July 1977,
EPA has worked directly with Oregon's public
Rgure 49.
Compliance with EPA Drinking Water
Standards
a. Community Water Systems
NUMBER OF COMMUNITY WATER SYSTEMS
300 600 900 1200 1500
1800 2100 2400 2700
Alaska
Idaho
Oregon
Washington
b. Persons Served by
Community Water Systems
POPULATION SERVED (IN THOUSANDS)
500 1000 1500 2000
2500
3000 3500 4000 4500
Alaska
Idaho
Oregon
Washington
| IN COMPLIANCE WITH BACTERIOLOGICAL CONTAMINANT LEVELS
J MINOR (1 MONTH) VIOLATION OF CONTAMINANT LEVEL
I MAJOR (2 OR MORE MONTHS) VIOLATION OF CONTAMINANT LEVEL
I SUFFICIENT DATA NOT AVAILABLE TO DETERMINE COMPLIANCE
44
-------
water systems to implement the provisions of
the Safe Drinking Water Act. More recently,
EPA and the Oregon State Health Division
(DSHD) joined forces to take advantage of an
existing working relationship whereby OSHD
agreed to cover the drinking water program at
facilities for which it issues food services or
similar licenses. Thus both EPA and OSHD
work with public water systems. Emphasis has
been placed on voluntary compliance with the
National Interim Primary Drinking Water
Regulations, but when voluntary efforts fail,
EPA has been pursuing more formal
enforcement procedures.
The national drinking water standards address
finished water quality characteristics, as
measured in periodic tests. EPA recognizes
that these are minimum standards and are not
adequate in themselves to protect public
health. Therefore, EPA encourages states to
implement comprehensive programs that go
beyond just addressing finished water quality.
The primary means to assure safe drinking
water is for public water systems to have
properly operated, well-maintained, adequate
facilities. A major part of a state's program,
therefore, is evaluation of facility design and
inspection of water systems to determine
facility deficiencies which may present health
hazards. Two Region 10 states, Alaska and
Washington, have state funding programs that
provide financial assistance to municipally
owned water systems for facility
improvements. To ensure proper operation
and maintenance, Alaska and Washington
also have mandatory operator certification
programs. Idaho and Oregon have voluntary
certification programs. All four states, to
varying degrees, sponsor or assist in operator
training activities. Also, to help ensure proper
water system operation and maintenance in
Washington, the state is implementing a
satellite support system program whereby
operation of small systems is provided by a
highly qualified regional support organization.
Fiscal year 1979 represented the second full
year of implementation of the national
drinking water standards. The bacteriological
data from FY79 are presented in Figures 48
and 49. While a significant percentage (50%)
of Region 10's 4,800 community water
systems are not yet conducting adequate
bacteriological water quality monitoring, the
total population served by these systems is
relatively small (16%), indicating that these
systems serve predominantly small numbers
of people.
Seventeen percent of the Region's water
systems, which serve approximately 16
percent of the population, experienced either
major or minor bacteriological standard
violations during FY79. While many causes of
these violations have been corrected, the
number of standards violations actually noted
may increase over the next few years as more
systems conduct required monitoring.
Chemical monitoring data are not yet
available for many of Region 10's public water
systems; however, information presently
available indicates that very few systems will
fail to meet chemical standards. Public water
systems using surface water sources are also
required to monitor for turbidity. Current data
indicate that many systems will be unable to
continuously comply with the turbidity
standard. These systems will require
development of a ground water source,
installation of filtration for the surface water
source, or interconnection with a system
presently meeting standards for safe drinking
water.
Ground Water Protection
The Safe Drinking Water Act also established
a program to protect underground sources of
drinking water (ground water). EPA's role is to
develop national Underground Injection
Control (UIC) regulations, provide oversight,
and ensure national program consistency.
Congress intended for the states to implement
the UIC Program and that EPA would list,
over a period of time, the states needing the
program. Washington and Oregon were listed
in June 1979. Idaho, although not initially
listed, petitioned on July 30,1979, to be
included in the initial UIC listing. Alaska was
listed in March 1980.
The UIC Program in Region 10 was initiated
by the awarding of EPA grants to Idaho and
Washington during December 1979. Alaska
and Oregon have chosen not to participate.
Idaho and Washington are using their
developmental grant funds to collect
background data on aquifers, inventory
injection wells, and evaluate the adequacy of
state laws and regulations for primary
surveillance and enforcement authority. EPA,
in conjunction with the U.S. Geological
Survey and Oregon State University, is
collecting background information for EPA
implementation of a UIC Program in Oregon.
For the State of Alaska, EPA has a similar
agreement with the University of Alaska. EPA
will also be responsible for UIC activities on
Indian lands throughout the Region. The UIC
Program will provide additional protection for
the Region's ground water resources from the
practices of well injection of fluids.
The Region's surface impoundment
assessment (pits, ponds, and lagoons) has
been completed. Approximately 1,200 sites,
accounting for over 2,500 individual
impoundments, were inventoried. While the
study indicates there is a high potential for the
impoundments to contaminate ground water,
to date few actual cases of ground water
contamination have been documented.
"Sole source aquifer designation" is another
feature of the national ground water
protection program. In 1979, the Region
entered into its first full year of implementing
protective activities within the Spokane Valley-
Rathdrum Prairie Aquifer. This aquifer, first
designated a sole source aquifer in 1978,
provides drinking water for about 40,000
Idaho residents and 300,000 Washington
residents in the Coeur d'Alene and Spokane
areas. The designation prohibits any Federal
agency from financially assisting any project
which EPA determines may contaminate this
important aquifer.
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Noise
Only during the past few years has noise been
recognized as a major environmental issue. In
Region 10, noise is not a major problem as
compared to other highly urbanized areas.
Noise control throughout Region 10 is being
addressed by state and local agencies, with
the assistance of EPA, through studies,
establishment of standards, rules, and
regulations. The problem is not limited to
acute situations such as occupational noise
that causes hearing loss, but also includes
chronic community noise, which affects us
physically and mentally by causing
nervousness, tension, and loss of sleep.
Transportation noise dominates the
problem—airplanes, trucks, passenger
vehicles, motorcycles, motorboats, and
snowmobiles are all contributors.
The Federal Noise Control Act of 1972
authorizes EPA to set noise standards for
cars, trucks, interstate railroads, aircraft, etc.
However, primary responsibility for control of
noise rests with state and local governments.
EPA has assisted Oregon and Washington in
developing noise regulations, has helped
Anchorage, Seattle, and Portland develop
noise control ordinances, and has assisted
with monitoring of noise levels from railroad
locomotives, ferries, and auto and motorcycle
racetracks.
• No state agency has statutory responsibility
for noise control in Alaska, and few local
governments have noise abatement
ordinances. In December 1978, the City of
Anchorage adopted a comprehensive noise
control ordinance covering land use and
motor vehicle noise. Law enforcement
personnel are trained to enforce the motor
vehicle standards. Fairbanks is being assisted
through an EPA grant and the University of
Washington Regional Noise Technical
Assistance Center, to conduct a physical
noise survey that will identify major noise
sources.
Idaho has no state noise control program for
stationary or motor vehicle noise sources that
is actively enforced. The Lewiston City
Council recently directed the Mayor to
appoint a citizens' committee to study noise
control and they expect a proposed
comprehensive noise ordinance by November
1980. Other than the current efforts in
Lewiston, the only local ordinances that exist
deal with nuisance-type noises.
Oregon's Department of Environmental
Quality (DEQ.) has developed and enforced
noise control rules since 1974. Rules setting
noise emission limits for new motor vehicles,
including cars, trucks, buses, motorcycles,
snowmobiles, and motorboats, require
manufacturers and Oregon dealers to meet
applicable rules and standards. In-use
operational standards have been established
for motor vehicles to ensure noise control
equipment has neither deteriorated nor been
modified to significantly increase noise
emissions. Such in-use motor vehicle
standards are being implemented by
appropriate enforcement jurisdictions
throughout the state. Through ambient noise
standards, residential and other noise
sensitive property is protected from excessive
noise emissions by industrial and commercial
activities. These standards are primarily
enforced upon verification of a citizen
complaint. New industrial and commercial
sources are subject to ambient limits as well
as nondegradation standards. Airport noise is
controlled under rules that require airport
proprietors to develop an airport noise
abatement program, with land use controls as
well as airport operational controls. Presently,
over 40 technical staff people on a part-time
basis are trained and involved in the
implementation of the DEQ noise control
program.
In addition, DEQ is assisting in development
and implementation of city and county noise
control programs. Often noise is a local
problem needing local resolution; therefore,
DEQ is providing the technical assistance
needed by communities to identify their noise
sources and develop a control program.
Once established, the local program becomes
self-sustaining with assistance from DEQ as
needed.
Already two Oregon cities, Portland and
Eugene, are actively enforcing noise control
ordinances. Portland's noise control staff
responds to complaints and enforces sound
level standards for environmental land use
and nuisance noises. In Eugene, a police
officer team enforces motor vehicle noise
standards.
The Washington Noise Control Act of 1974
gave the Washington State Department of
Ecology (DOE) authority to establish
standards for stationary noise sources, such
as commerce and industry, as well as for
motor vehicles and watercraft. DOE is
authorized to enforce standards related to
land use, while the State Patrol and local law
enforcement agencies enforce standards for
motor vehicles. DOE is assisting the
development and implementation of city and
county noise control programs. Again, noise
is often a local problem needing local
resolution; therefore, DOE is providing the
technical assistance needed by communities
to identify their noise sources and develop a
control program. Once established, the local
program becomes self-sustaining with
assistance from DOE as needed.
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