EPA-600/R-96-142b August 1996 Report to Congress under CAA Amendments of 1990, Section 901 (e) Public Law 104-549 Assessment of International Air Pollution Prevention and Control Technology Volume!. Technical Report U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Office of Research and Development Washington, D.C. 20460 ------- E-107 (Please read Instructions on the reverse before completi \\ \ |||| || |||||| 1 1| 1 1| 1 1|| ||| ||| I. REPORT NO. 2 — ' ~~~ EPA-600/R-96-142b 4. TITLE 5«NosuBTiTLEAssesament of international Air Pollu- Uon Prevention and Control Technology (Report to Congress), Volume 2. Technical Report /. AUTHORS Clint Burklin. Mahesh Gundappa, and 1 Donna Jones 9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS Radian Corporation P. O. Box 13000 Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27709 12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS EPA, Office of Research and Development Air Pollution Prevention and Control Division Research Triangle Park, NC 27711 . f in mi ii iiini in in mi in in PB97-131379 . REPORT DATE August 1996 . PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE . PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO. 10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO. 11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO. 68-04-0022. W.A. 18 13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED Final: 12/93-12/95 14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE EPA/600/13 is. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES APPCD project officer is Michael A. Maxwell. Mail Drop 60, 919/541-3019. (Richard D. Stern, the initial project officer, is no longer with the Agency.) Volume 1 is an executive summary; Volume 2 is the full report. i«. ABSTRACT report gives results of a study that identifies new and innovative air pollution prevention and/or control technologies, of selected industrialized countries that are not currently used extensively in the U. S. The technologies may be entirely new to the U. S. , or they may be technologies currently in limited use in the TJ. S. thai achieve either a higher level of control than existing technologies or the same level of control more cost effectively. The study addressed technologies that prevent or control the emissions of the following pollutants from each of four sources of air pol- lution: (1) Urban emissions — ozone precursors to include nitrogen oxides (NOx), vola-1 tile organic compounds (VOCs). particulate matter (PM), and air toxics; (2) Motor [vehicle emissions — NOx, carbon monoxide (CO), and PM; (3) Toxic air emissions — jany one of the 189 compounds on the list of hazardous air pollutants (HAPs) in the 1990 CAAA (Title HI); and (4) Acid deposition-- NOx, sulfur oxides (SOx), and. to a lesser extent, VOCs. The report describes the -approach taken to identify potentially useful technologies, gives results of the technology search and evaluation, and des- cribes the selected technologies. 17. KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS |». DESCRIPTORS Pollution Toxicity DNitrogen Oxides Carbon Monoxide jSulfur Oxides Motor Vehicles [Organic Compounds Emission [Volatility IP articles he. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT Release to Public b.lDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS Pollution Control Stationary Sources Volatile Organic Com- pounds (VOCs) Particulate Acid Rain 19. SECURITY CLASS (This Report) Unclassified 2O. SECURITY CLASS (This page) Unclassified c. COSATI Field/Group 3B 06T 07B 13F 07C 20 M 14G 21. NO. OF PAGES 142 22. PRICE EPA Form 2220-1 (9-73) ------- NOTICE This document has been reviewed in accordance with U.S. Environmental Protection Agency policy and approved for publication. Mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute endorse raent or recommendation for use. 11 ------- FOREWORD The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency is charged by Congress with pro- tecting the Nation's land, air, and water resources. Under a mandate of national environmental laws, the Agency strives to formulate and implement actions lead- ing to a compatible balance between human activities and the ability of natural systems to support and nurture life. To meet this mandate, EPA's research program is providing data and technical support for solving environmental pro- blems today and building a science knowledge base necessary to manage our eco- logical resources wisely, understand how pollutants affect our health, and pre- vent or reduce environmental risks in the future. The National Risk Management Research Laboratory is the Agency's center for investigation of technological and management approaches for reducing risks from threats to human health and the environment. The focus of the Laboratory's research program is on methods for the prevention and control of pollution to air, land, water, and subsurface resources; protection of water quality in public water systems; remediation of contaminated sites and groundwater; and prevention and control of indoor air pollution. The goal of this research effort is to catalyze development and implementation of innovative, cost-effective environmental technologies; develop scientific and engineering information needed by EPA to support regulatory and policy decisions; and provide technical support and infor- mation transfer to ensure effective implementation of environmental regulations and strategies. This publication has been produced as part of the Laboratory's strategic long- term research plan. It is published and made available by EPA's Office of Re- search and Development to assist the user community and to link researchers with their clients. E. Timothy Oppelt, Director National Risk Management Research Laboratory 111 ------- ABSTRACT Under Tide EX of the Clean Air Act Amendments (CAAA) of 1990, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is required to assess international air pollution prevention and control technologies that may have beneficial applications to the U.S. air pollution control efforts. This report presents results of a study that identifies new and innovative air pollution prevention and/or control technologies, of selected industrialized countries, that are not currently extensively used hi the United States. The technologies may be entirely new to the U.S., or they may be technologies currently in limited use in the U.S. that either achieve a higher level of control than existing technologies or achieve the same level of control more cost-effectively. In accordance with the Title EX requirements, the study specifically addressed technologies that prevent or control the emissions of the following pollutants from each of four sources of air pollution: • Urban emissions: Ozone precursors to include nitrogen oxides (NO^, volatile organic compounds (VOCs), particulate matter (PM), and air toxics. • Motor vehicle emissions: NOX, carbon monoxide (CO), and PM. • Toxic air emissions: Any one of the 189 compounds on the list of hazardous air pollutants (HAPs) in the 1990 CAAA (Title III). • Acid deposition: NOX, sulfur oxides (SOJ, and to a lesser extent, VOCs. This report describes the approach taken to identify potentially useful technologies, the results of the technology search and review, and a description of the selected technologies. IV ------- ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Richard D. Stern, the former Senior Technical Advisor for International Technology Liaison at the Air Pollution Prevention and Control Division (APPCD), was instrumental in collection and analysis of the candidate technologies, and for final selection of technologies included in this report. Michael A. Maxwell coordinated the external peer reviews and preparation of the final report. Support is also gratefully acknowledged from the staff of EPA's Air Pollution Prevention and Control Division, Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, and Office of Mobile Sources from which valuable guidance and review of the technologies were received during the course of the study. ERG, formerly Radian Corporation, is acknowledged for their role in data gathering and compilation of candidate technologies. ------- METRIC CONVERSION TABLE EPA policy requires the use of metric units; however, at times, nomnetric units are used for the reader's convenience. Readers more familiar with the metric system may use the following factors to convert to that system. Nonmetric cfm ft fli gal in. Ib oz ton Times 0.000472 0.305 0.0929 0.00379 3.79 2.54 0.454 0.0283 907 0.907 Yields Metric m3/s m m2 m3 L cm kg kg kg tonne Vi ------- TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ABSTRACT iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS v METRIC CONVERSION TABLE vi 1.0 INTRODUCTION 1-1 2.0 SCOPE OF REPORT 2-1 3.0 TECHNICAL APPROACH 3-1 3.1 Identification of Key Emissions Sources 3-1 3.2 Development of Criteria for Technology Search 3-3 3.3 Countries Included in the Study 3-5 3.4 Technology Identification and Review Methods 3-5 3.5 Information Gathering 3-7 3.6 EPA Final Review of Potentially Promising Technologies 3-8 4.0 RESULTS '. 4-1 5.0 REFERENCES 5-1 EXHIBITS 1 Key U.S. Emission Sources 3-4 2 Potentially Beneficial Pollution Prevention and Control Technologies 4-2 3 Applicability of Identified Technologies 4-8 ATTACHMENTS A. List of Embassies Contacted A-l B. List of Organizations Contacted B-l vii ------- TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued) Page C. List of People Contacted During this Study C_l D. List of Foreign Technology Vendors Contacted D-l E. Details of the 21 Technologies Identified for Consideration by U.S. Industry ... E-l viii ------- 1-1 1.0 INTRODUCTION Under Title IX of the Clean Air Act Amendments (CAAA) of 1990, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is required to assess international air pollution prevention and control technologies that may have beneficial applications to the U.S. air pollution control efforts. Specifically, EPA is required to: ...conduct a study that compares international air pollution control technologies of selected industrialized countries to determine if there exist air pollution control technologies in countries outside the United States that may have beneficial applications to this Nation's air pollution control efforts. With respect to each country studied, the study shall include the topics of urban air quality, motor vehicle emissions, toxic air emissions, and acid deposition. This report presents the results of the study. An executive summary of this report is contained in Volume 1. ------- 2-1 2.0 SCOPE OF REPORT This report presents results of a study to identify new and innovative air pollution prevention and/or control technologies of selected industrialized countries, that are not currently extensively used in the United States. The technologies may be entirely new to the U.S., or they may be technologies currently in limited use in the U.S. that achieve either a higher level of control than existing technologies, or the same level of control more cost effectively. In accordance with the Title IX requirements, the study specifically addressed technologies that prevent or control the emissions of the following pollutants from each of four sources of air pollution: • Urban emissions: Ozone precursors to include nitrogen oxides (NO,), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), paniculate matter (PM), and air toxics. • Motor vehicle emissions: NOX, carbon monoxide (CO), and PM. • Toxic air emissions: Any one of the 189 compounds on the list of hazardous air pollutants (HAPs) in the 1990 CAAA (Title III). • Acid deposition: NOX, sulfur oxides (SOX), and, to a lesser extent, VOCs. This report describes the approach taken to identify potentially useful technologies, gives results of the technology search and review, and describes the technologies meeting the selection criteria. Within each of the categories described above, the technologies meeting the selection criteria are described with the following information: • Vendor, • Country of origin, • Applicable industries and developmental status of the technology, • Pollutants controlled and secondary impacts (if any), ------- 2-2 • Detailed process description, limitations of the technology, and case studies, • Control costs, and • Comparisons to existing U.S. technologies. The information in the technology descriptions was provided by the vendors, often after multiple discussions for clarification, during the course of the study. Despite these iterations, some technologies have incomplete information in terms of the items listed above. A serious attempt was also made to identify independent sources of information to corroborate vendor claims, and what limited information identified has been presented in this report. Based on the information available, potentially useful technologies were grouped into two categories: 1) technologies currently available for consideration by U.S. industry and 2) technologies which warrant further attention (monitoring/tracking, research, etc.) by U.S. industry in order to acquire additional data for future consideration. ------- 3-1 3.0 TECHNICAL APPROACH The technical approach used in the study included: 1. A preliminary identification of key industrial emission sources in the U.S. that are in need of air pollution control. 2. Development of criteria for a technology search strategy for these sources. 3. Identification of key foreign countries to be addressed for potential technologies. 4. Conduct of an international search to identify potentially promising technologies. 5. Collection of detailed information for the technologies that appeared to meet the goals of the study. 6. Final review of potential beneficial technologies. This section describes hi more detail the technical approach used for these efforts. 3.1 Identification of Key Emissions Sources To define the U.S. ah" pollution prevention and control needs hi each of the four emission categories (urban air quality, motor vehicle emissions, toxics air emissions, and acid deposition), a list of high polluting U.S. industries hi each category was developed. However, since motor vehicles are major urban emission sources and acid deposition sources, the motor vehicle source category was incorporated within the urban air quality and acid deposition categories for this study, including development of the list. Various publications/studies were reviewed to develop the list for each category, as follows: ------- 3-2 Urban Air Quality: For the Urban Air Quality category, the list of pollution sources was developed from an EPA study: Evaluation of Hazardous Air Pollutant Inventories from Three Major Urban Areas (11. This study showed the expected dependence of urban air quality problems on the kinds of industries that have developed in and around three major urban areas. Since many of the pollution sources from the three study areas are common to most urban areas, these sources formed the basis for the list of high polluting industries identified for the urban air quality category. As stated earlier, motor vehicle emissions, a major source of urban emissions, were also included under this category. Toxic Air Emissions: The key sources of toxics air emissions were determined from the results of an EPA study that ranked sources of toxics air emissions based on environmental effects data (2). The study was conducted in 1993 by EPA's Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards (OAQPS) in support of the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990. In this study, approximately 175 emission source categories were ranked according to their national emissions of HAPs and the environmental effects of their emitted HAPs. The environmental effects included: human toxicity, aquatic toxicity, bioconcentration potential, and environmental persistence. Acid Deposition: The key emission sources hi the acid deposition category were identified from a U.S. National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program (NAPAP) study on acid deposition (3). The NAPAP study included a national inventory of point and area emission sources for the year 1985, conducted by the EPA. Major air pollutant emission sources were ranked by their combined national emissions of three key pollutants contributing to acid deposition: SO2, NOX, and VOCs. As stated earlier, motor vehicle emissions, a major source of acid deposition, were also included under this category. ------- 3-3 Control Division (APPCD). The OAQPS reviewers included the Associate Director of Science, Policy and New Programs and the staffs specializing in chemical and petroleum emissions and industrial studies within the Emission Standards Division. The APPCD reviewers included the staffs specializing hi organics control, combustion research, gas cleaning technology, indoor air, and radon mitigation. Exhibit 1 presents the final list based on the inputs from these review groups. Thirty specific source categories (most important for each of the three major source category groups) are identified. However, since each of the studies used to develop the key source lists shown hi Exhibit 1 stressed that there were many uncertainties hi the source's relative emissions impact, the source categories identified as major sources hi their respective categories are listed hi alphabetical order. They are not ranked hi order of importance. 3.2 Development of Criteria for Technology Search To ensure proper screening and prioritization of the foreign pollution prevention and control technologies, specific technology selection criteria were developed as follows: 1. The technology must be applicable to an ah* pollution source listed in Exhibit 1. This ensured that the search remained focused on those foreign technologies potentially benefitting key emission sources hi the United States. Applicability of technology to multiple sources/pollutants was also considered. 2. The technology search would include both clean technologies (pollution prevention) and "end-of-pipe" (pollution control) technologies. Clean technologies include process modifications that result in the minimization or elimination of certain pollutant emissions. ------- 3-4 EXHIBIT 1 Key U.S. Emission Sources Urban Air Quality Automobiles (including heavy-duty and off-road vehicles) Boilers, Turbines, and Heaters Chemical Manufacturing Degreasing/Dry Cleaning Gasoline Distribution (bulk stations and terminals) Petroleum Marketing (vehicle refueling/spillage) Plastics Manufacture Solid Waste Disposal Surface Coating Woodstoves and Fireplaces Toxic Air Emissions Cyanide Production/Coke Ovens Industrial Boilers Lead Smelting Petroleum Refineries Phosphoric Acid Manufacturing Polycarbonates Production Resins Production (amino and acetal) Solid Waste Treatment, Storage, and Disposal Facilities Surface Coating Synthetic Organic Chemicals Manufacturing Industries (SOCMI) Acid Deposition Asphalt Paving Automobiles (including heavy-duty and off-road vehicles) Bakeries Cement Manufacture Chemicals Manufacturing Fossil Fuel-Fired Boilers Gasoline Station Evaporation Loss Petroleum Refining Primary Metals Manufacture Solvent Evaooration fdrv cleanine decreasing, printing, etc.) ------- 3-5 3. The technology was to have attained at least a large pilot-scale demonstration status to ensure that sufficient technical information would be available to review the potential for the selected technologies to meet the U.S. immediate air pollution control needs. This last criterion ensured that the technology review would be based on realistic performance and cost information rather than estimations of projected performance and costs that are generally optimistic. 3.3 Countries Included in the Study Initially, the information search was focused on environmental technologies developed in Japan, Germany, the United Kingdom (UK), and Canada. However, the study was expanded to include Scandinavian and other Western European countries hi recognition of the strong environmental technology development programs initiated in these countries. Later, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Brazil, and Argentina were also added to the study hi recognition of their specific areas of expertise. 3.4 Technology Identification and Review Methods Several methods were used to solicit technical information on candidate foreign technologies. Contacts were established with: • Scientific counselors at 19 key foreign embassies hi the United States (shown hi Attachment A); • Representatives and/or publications from six international organizations: the United Nations (UN), the Center for the Analysis and Dissemination of Demonstrated Energy Technologies (CADDET)*, the World Bank, the UN Environmental Program (UNEP), the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD), and the World Environment Center (WEC) (listed hi Attachment B). *CADDET functions as the International Energy Agency (IEA) center for dissemination of information on end-use technology demonstration projects for all IEA-CADDET member countries. The IEA implements the energy program within the framework of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). ------- 3-6 Fifty-four consultants and/or indigenous (in-country) contacts/researchers (listed in Attachment C) who were knowledgeable about recent developments in foreign technologies; Eight international technology vendors (listed in Attachment D) who initiated discussions hi addition to sending literature; and On-line searches of four key scientific databases [Energy Science and Technology (ES&T), National Technical Information Service (NTIS), Air and Waste Management Association (A&WMA), and Japanese patent (JAPIO) databases] and several national and international publications. The results of this technology assessment produced over 100 leads for potential technologies and over 200 abstracts and articles to review. From the literature and contacts made, over 300 initial candidate technologies were identified to be reviewed for applicability to the project goals. This screening process, which involved evaluating each technology based on the criteria presented in Section 3.2, produced an initial list of 30 potentially innovative candidate technologies. This initial slate of 30 candidate technologies that emerged from the first phase of the information search were reviewed by the same staff groups at EPA that reviewed the pollution source category lists (Section 3.1). These same groups were selected because of their knowledge of air pollution problems and current emerging technologies. These briefings were used to identify additional promising technologies, from the original list of 300, which should be added to the candidate technologies slate and to remove technologies, as appropriate, based on EPA knowledge regarding state-of-the-art technologies. As additional information from various vendors was received and reviewed, 22 additional technologies were identified. By the end of this phase of the study, a total of 52 technologies were identified and their vendors contacted. These 52 technologies corresponded to 10 foreign countries: Australia (1), Denmark (2), Finland (1), Germany (11), Japan (12), the Netherlands (3), Norway (2), Poland (1), Sweden (4), and the UK (15). ------- 3-7 3.5 Information Gathering In this next phase of the study, letters were sent to the vendors of the 52 technologies requesting more detailed information needed to further review the technologies. Eleven specific information needs were requested from the vendors of the technologies as follows: 1. A detailed description of the technology. 2. A statement of the current status of the technology: e.g., research stage, later development, full-scale demonstration, commercially available/existing full-scale applications. 3. Case study descriptions. 4. Identification of the applicable industries/sources and any limitations of the technology within each industry. 5. A list of specific pollutants the technology controls or eliminates. 6. Test data that document the performance of the technology. 7. All requirements for operation of the technology (e.g., feedstock, fuel consumption, energy, space). 8. Quantification of cost information, including capital cost, estimated payback period, and operating and maintenance costs. 9. Secondary pollution impacts (e.g., wastewater discharges, solid waste generation). 10. Any available comparisons of performance and cost reviews with competing U.S. state-of-the-art technologies for similar applications. 11. How the technology performance and cost vary with changes in input parameters. Our information requests also stressed the value and need for independent data corroborating the information developed by the vendor. In some cases, information obtained ------- 3-8 from vendors did not provide enough detail to adequately review the technology with respect to the criteria developed for this study. Follow up calls were made to the vendors to encourage their participation hi the study. At the request of 10 of the vendors/foreign representatives, meetings were held in the U.S. and England to present details of their technology. Twenty-eight technologies were selected for potential inclusion in the filial list. 3.6 EPA Final Review of Potentially Promising Technologies The 28 technologies were reviewed by EPA staff in OAQPS, APPCD, and the Office of Mobile Sources, who were selected for their expertise hi the specific areas of technology. The EPA staff reviewed the technologies based on the information provided for the study and their knowledge of the technologies currently available to address the same source pollutant problem. The 21 technologies that reviewers believe may be useful to U.S. industry appear hi Exhibit 2. Although EPA identified technologies which may be useful to U.S. industries in general, it is important to note this report does not evaluate the applicability of these technologies to any specific U.S. industrial facility. Rather, the report serves as a survey of potentially applicable technologies, and does provide an independent evaluation of vendor information by EPA. EPA review of information provided by vendor does not include an evaluation of technologies relative to then- potential for application to segments of relevant U.S. industries or to the individual U.S. industrial facilities, or the ability of the technology to meet current or anticipated Federal requirements. In addition, these technologies were not compared to current U.S. technologies or to U.S. technologies under development, to determine where the U.S. has a clear competitive advantage, since this was beyond the scope of the report. ------- 3-9 In light of the nature of the review performed, readers are encouraged to contact individual vendors for more specific information related to the potential application of a technology for any individual facility operator's or pollution control agency's needs. ------- 4-1 4.0 RESULTS Exhibit 2 presents the 21 air pollution prevention and control technologies that were identified in this study, as potentially beneficial technologies to bring to the attention of U.S. industry. For each technology, the information in Exhibit 2 includes a short descriptive title; a brief description; the vendor name; country of origin; the applicable industries and/or emission sources; the pollutants controlled; the development status; and available information on performance, cost, and secondary impacts. It is important to stress that information presented hi Exhibit 2 was obtained from the vendor and may, hi some cases, lack detail or the objectivity needed for an in-depth comparison of technologies. Readers are encouraged to contact individual vendors for more specific information relating individual technologies to their specific application. This table is divided into two sections. The first section (Technologies A1-A14) presents those technologies for which enough information was available to determine that the technology is worthy of current consideration by U.S. industry. The second part of the table (Technologies B1-B7) presents technologies that are believed to be feasible and innovative and which may have potential benefits for U.S. industry but which lacked sufficient information for current consideration. However, these technologies should be watched for future consideration as more information becomes available. Details for each technology presented in Exhibit 2 can be found in Attachment E. The applicability of the technologies identified hi this study relative to the 3 major source categories is summarized in Exhibit 3, which shows the 30 specific source categories under the three major source category groups, and the number of international pollution control or pollution prevention technologies that were identified for each source category. ------- EXHIBIT 2 Technology Number* A-l IA-2 A-3 Potentially Beneficial Pollution Prevention and Control Technologies Technology Name and Brief Description Zinc Oxide Process— Waste gas cleaning technology that offers effective removal of SO, while producing no wastewater effluent The Zinc Oxide absorbs the tollutants from annealing and drying kilns in a two- stage countercurrent flow absorber. In the absorber, zinc oxide suspension is added to the top of the column in a concentration above stoichiometric. The waste gas, which is cleaned of most of its dust and erosols in venturi scrubbers prior to column entry, enters the column near the bottom. The hydrogen sulfide and the sulfur dioxide react with the zinc oxide absorber to form Zn(HSO^, ZnSO4, ZnSO,, and ZnS. SOLINOX process for the reduction of SO2-This process comprises a two-step scrubbing process with ts primary objective the reduction of SO, emissions. A proprietary organic adsorbent (polyethylene- glycol-dimethylether) removes the SO, by selective physical) absorption. The organic adsorbent can be regenerated without any losses. The recovered concentrated SO, (90 percent) is cooled and compressed, and can be sold. LINKman Expert-System-Used to optimize the cement manufacturing process and thereby reduce emissions. The process is optimized by continuous monitoring of NO,, CO, and O, emission levels, key temperatures, and the power required to turn the kiln. Vendor/Country of Origin Sachtleben Chemie GmbH Dr. Hans-Dieter Bauerman Duisburg Germany Sachtleben Chemie GmbH Dr. Hans-Dieter Bauerman Germany Image Automation Ltd. Mr. D.W. Haspel UK Developmental Status/Sites in Use Two sites in Germany. 4 facilities in 3 countries: Austria, Germany, Poland. Over 60 plants worldwide in 16 countries (2 U.S.) Targeted Pollutants and Sources, and Secondary Impacts Pollutants: SO, Sources: Chemical Manufacturing (ADP) Secondary Jinpacts: None Pollutants: SO,, PM, HC's, HC1 and other halogen compounds Sources: Primary metals (ADP) Industrial Boilers (TAB, UAP, ADP) Chemical Manufacture (ADP) Secondary Impacts: Recovered SO, and wastewater Pollutants: NO, Sources: Cement Manufacture (ADP) Chemical manufacture (ADP) Secondary Impacts: None Performance Levels 90% reduction in SO,. 97% SO, removal. 85% dust removal. NO, emissions reduced from 500 ppm to 200 ppm. Some SO, reductions also claimed. 9% capacity increase, 3% fuel savings, and 40% reduction in offspec. material produced. Costs $l,080/tonofSO, removed. For 70,000 Nm'/hr plant: Capital costs = $11. 8M operating costs = $1.4M/yr. Capital investment $350,000 for 1.1 M ton clinker plant. Payback period less than 3 months. $1.50 savings/ton clinker. (continued) ------- EXHIBIT 2 (Continued) Technology Number' A-4 A-5 A-6 Technology Name and Brief Description Ftuidized-Bed Sintering System for Pollution Prevention through Energy Efficiency in Iron and Steel Production (DIOS Project)-DIOS process uses fine and granular non-coking coal and iron ore directly for making molten iron without resorting to the coking and sintering operations required in the traditional blast furnace process. DIOS dispenses with coking coal and can utilize non-coking coal directly, thereby ensuring a wider selection of resources to be used in ironmaking. The agglomerating process (sintering and coking) is eliminated, thereby reducing capital expenditures and energy costs. Sulfur emissions are "scarcely measurable" since the sulfur charged is either dissolved into the melted slag and metal, or absorbed onto dust and collected. DIOS uses less energy than a conventional blast furnace and, as a result, less emissions will be associated with the combustion of fuels. Cerafil Low Density Filter Elements-This technology utilizes low-density ceramic filter elements, called Cerafil elements, that are comprised of man-made mineral fibers bonded with organic and inorganic materials to form a porous filtration medium. Particulate matter (PM) in the flue gas forms a dust cake on the outside of the elements. The dust cakes are removed via reverse pulse-jet cleaning. The elements are temperature resistant to 900 *C and resistant to acid and alkali contaminants in the flue gas. For flue gases above 250*C, the Cerafil filter plant eliminates the necessity of gas cooling equipment. Cerafil will also control HC1 and SO2 with the use of a sorbent material (e.g., calcium hydroxide). Cool Sorption Vapor Recovery Units-Controls evaporation losses. When a road tanker is filled, gasoline displaces vapor in the tank. The vapor is piped into the cool sorption unit, washed in a counter-current of cooled kerosine. The mixture is stabilized then fed into a splitter where the kerosine and gasoline (liquid) are separated. Kerosine is cooled and recycled; gasoline is returned to the storage tank. Operation is fully automatic. Active charcoal filter can be added as 2nd staee air ourifier. Vendor/Country of Origin Center Clean Coal Utilization Mr. Elichi Yugeta Japan Cerel, Ltd. Andy Startin UK Cool Sorption A/S Mr. Morten Reimer Hamrrem Glostrup Denmart Developmental Status/Sites in Use 500 tpd pilot plant under study Several full- scale units in use throughout Europe. Commercial in use in Europe at more than 60 units Targeted Pollutants and Sources, and Secondary Impacts Pollutants: SO,, CO2, and other energy related pollutants Sources: Primary Metals Manufacture (ADP) Secondary IlHPa$$: None Pollutants: SOj, HC1, PM Sources: Cement Manufacure (ADP) Industrial Boilers (UAP, TAB, ADP) Solid Waste Disposal (UAP, TAB) Chemical Manufacturing (UAP, ADP) Primary Metals Manufacture (ADP) Secondary ImP??t?: None Pollutants: VOCs Sources: Petroleum Marketing (UAP) Gasoline distribution (UAP) Secondary Impact;: Wastewater Performance Levels "Scarcely measurable" sulfur emissions and 5-10% reduction in CO2. 99.7% PM control. No data on SO2. Meets or exceeds EPA requirements. Costs Costs reduced due to elimination of sintering and coking. $16.2 per ACFM of flue gas treated. Capital costs range from $600Ktol2M. Savings due to product recovery. (continued) ------- EXHIBIT 2 (Continued) Technology Number' A-7 IA-8 A-9 A-10 Technology Name and Brief Description ligh Combustion Efficiency Woodstove with )owndiaft Combustion-Downbuming combustion woodstove used to bum smoke (paiticulate), carbon monoxide, and hydrocarbons that would in a conventional stove be emitted to the atmosphere. This method of burning not only reduces pollution by almost 90 percent as compared to a conventional stove), but also increases net stove efficiency. The CRE woodstove is designed to pall air from outside the top of the stove down into the combustion zone and then completes combustion in a secondary chamber. Burning Image analyZER (BIZER)-Combustion control in kraft pulp mill recovery boilers by use of nfrared fire-room cameras to view smelt pile and digital image processing to provide presentation of ranting information in a dear form. Can be used for automatic burning control, and automatic prevention of disturbances in the fuel bed. ELSORB process-Wet scrubbing method which utilizes a phosphate buffer for absorption of SO, from flue gas. Buffer is stable, nonvolatile, nontoxic, easily available and is continuously recycled to the process after removal of SO, by evaporation. Process produces concentrated SO, for further processing either to HjSO4, or elemental S, or liquid SO,. Water-based Liquid Resins-Proprietary resin dispersion technology used for applying water-based resin adhesives. Resins are free from organic solvents, proteins and starches. Adhesives are nontoxic and can generate higher levels of adhesion through penetration of absorbent substrates Vendor/Country of Origin CRE Group, Ltd UK ABB Industry Oy Mr. Raimo Sutinen Finland Elkem Technology, Inc. Mr. Frank Fereday Pittsburgh, PA Norway Blueminster Ltd. Mr. Trevor Jones United Kingdom Developmental Status/Sites in Use Prototype tested in Russia. Commercially available in Indonesia Demonstration at U.S. facility in NM-1995. Current Austria and Norway foil-scale facilities In use by major European/Lit' 1 manufacturers Targeted Pollutants and Sources, and Secondary Impacts Pollutants: VOCs, PM, CO Sources: Woodstoves and Fireplaces (UAP) Secondary Impacts: None Pollutants: VOC, CO, NO,, PM (through energy efficiency) Sources: Industrial Boilers (UAP) Solid Waste Disposal (UAP) Secondary Jmpacts: None Pollutants: SO, Sources: Industrial Boilers (ADP) Petroleum Refineries (ADP) Secondary Jmpacts.: Minor amounts of water and wastewater Pollutants: VOCs Sources: Resins Production (TAB) Solvent Evaporation (ADP) Surface Coating (UAP) Secondary IlHP?ct?: Wastewater and resin disposal Performance Levels 78% reduction of ordinary stove emissions. 65% reduction of conventional catalytic stove emissions. Maximizes energy efficiency. >95% control. Eliminates VOC emissions from adhesives. Saves drying energy requirements. Costs $1.50 per ton of smoke reduced. $185/yr savings over typical catalytic stoves. Paybacjk 1-2 years. Capital costs 500,000 - $2M. $479/ton SO, removed. Savings potential for HjSO, recovered at $30/ton recovered. Cost savings due to reduced solvent requirements. (continued) ------- EXHIBIT 2 (Continued) Technology Number* A-ll A-12 A-13 Technology Name and Brief Description Airborne 10 Absorption/biodegeneration Agent— A proprietary blend of surfactants that when atomized with water, increases the effective surface area or interface area of the water droplet by 500,000 percent. When introduced into an exhaust gas, the Airborne 10 droplet collides with a pollutant aerosol and absorbs the pollutant. The Airborne 10/pollution aerosol falls to the ground where it is broken down by the natural bacteria present The high droplet surface area and volume allows for more effective gas contact, scrubbing, and, consequently, more effective air pollution control. Oilless, Dry Centrifugal "leak free" Compressors- Dry gas seals offer the advantage of very little leakage, which eliminates the need for a sophisticated seal oil supply system. Enables increased reliability, energy savings, and maintainability, which is required in some fugitive leaks standards. Energy savings by use of magnetic bearings can offer a speed increase of the rotor and a size reduction of the casing. Degreasing with Alkaline Cleaning-Traditional trichloroethylene degreasing process replaced by an alkaline cleaning process. Totally reduces need for solvent. Vendor/Country of Origin Impex U.K. Ltd. I.P. Edgar, Managing Director UK Hitachi Ltd. Mr. Yasyo Fukushima Hitachi U.S. Mr. Peter Bellavigna Japan Thorn Jamkonst AB Mr. Egon Conrad Sweden Developmental Status/Sites in Use Available and in use throughout Europe One full scale commercial application at a petroleum refinery One site participated in study. Targeted Pollutants and Sources, and Secondary Impacts Pollutants: VOCs, toxics Sources: Solid Waste TSDF (TAB) Chemical Manufacturing (UAP, ADP) Synthetic Organic Chem. Mfr. (TAB) Plastics Manufacture (UAP) Bakeries (ADP) Secondary ftn.pa.cts: Water quality Pollutants: VOC (process fugitives and through energy efficiency), CO, NO,, PM (through energy efficiency) Sources: Petroleum Refineries (TAB) Chemical Manufacturing (UAP) Synthetic Organic Chem. Mfr. (TAB) Secondary Impacts: None Pollutants: VOCs Sources: DegreasingADry Cleaning (UAP) Solvent Evaporation (ADP) Secondary frnpacfs: Wastewater Performance Levels 99.8% removal of emissions. 100% control of fugitive compressor emissions. 100% reduction in solvent emissions. Costs $0.37 savings per ton waste processed over traditional scrubbing mechanisms. Relative to typical reciprocal compressor: capital costs 21% less, operating costs 4% less. 20% less than using solvents. (continued) ------- EXHIBIT 2 (Continued) Technology Number' A-14 B-l B-2 Technology Name and Brief Description QSL Process-Designed to treat all grades of lead concentrates and secondary materials. Reactor consists of a horizontal, slightly-sloped cylinder which is divided into oxidation and reduction zones. law material is introduced in the oxidation zone where the lead sulfides are oxidized forming primary ead bullion and a slag containing about 20-25 %PbO. The PbOi» reduced to metallic Pb in the reduction zone by the use of pulverized coal or coke. The off gas which contains • high concentration of SO2 and dust is treated before it is exhausted. The process is designed to include recovery of Cd, Zn, and H£O,. Envirotreat Modified Clays for the Control of VOC in Waste Air Streams— This technology utilizes a range of modified clays that readily react with pollutants contained in waste gas streams. The clays act as a filter to remove the VOCs in the air stream. The Envirotreat clays (E-clays) were developed initially for use in land remediation, but the high reactivity of the clays made them well suited for air pollution as well. The equipment required for implementation is similar to that used with activated carbon processes. Unlike activated carbon which, once saturated with VOCs, must be treated to avoid the reversal of the adsorption process, the E-clays do not require treatment and will not desorb the pollutants back into the environment. Fluidized-bed Cement Kiln Technology-The technology utilizes multiple fluid beds to improve the combustion and heat transfer characteristics of the cement production process, enabling better control of the sintering temperature; reducing Nox and CO2 emissions. The fiuidized bed system also enables lower grades of coal to be used (low carbon and high hydrogen content). Vendor/Country of Origin Lurgi Metallurgie Dr. Andreas Siegmund Germany Rowe Technology, Ltd R.M. Weir, Director UK Center Clean Coal Utilization Mr. Elichi Yugeta Japan Developmental Status/Sites in Use Commercial operation in Germany, Korea, Canada, China Prototype under development Under study since 1986. Pilot plant testing began 1995 (200 ton/day plant) Targeted Pollutants and Sources, and Secondary Impacts Pollutants: Lead, Cd, SO2 Sources: Lead Smelting (TAB) Secondary Im.pa.cts: Process waste and wastewater Pollutants: VOCs, toxics Sources: Solvent Evaporation (ADP) Surface Coating (TAB) Chemical Manufacturing (UAP, ADP) Synthetic Organic Chem. Mft. (TAB) Secondary .Impacts : Solid waste (spent clay) Pollutants: NOX and CO, Sources: Cement Manufacture (ADP) Industrial boilers (ADP) Secondary Impels: None Performance Levels >90% reduction in Pb and Cd emissions. 98% reduction in SO2 emissions, compared to conventional plants. High efficiency expected. NO, levels reduced one-half to one-third compared to typical cement kilns. Reduces CO2 (by 10%), feel consumption, and pollution. Costs $70M capital costs for 75,000 T/yr lead production plant. $90/ton of pollutant removed. Reduces construction costs by 30%, saves 70% of usual space requirements, reduces fuel consumption 10%. (continued) ------- EXHIBIT 2 (Continued) Technology Number' B-3 B-4 Technology Name and Brief Description Oxidation Low Temperature Catalyst for Catalytic Combustion Deodorization/odor Abatement Systems- -Catalyst has unique high activity at low temperatures, allowing for low temperature odor treatment, which eliminates the possibility of NO, formation. Catalyst can resist temperatures up to 800>C, allowing for greater catalyst life and lower operating costs (fewer regenerations/replacements). Ftuidized-bed Heat Treatment of metal components— A gas phase heat treatment process using a fluidized bed of alumina particles. A mixture of gases is used to produce the fluidizing atmosphere for heat treatment of the material immersed in the fluidized bed. Hydrocarbon gases are used for carburizing, ammonia for nitrating, and nitrogen for neutral hardening. The bed is heated by electricity or gas, and quenching is also carried out in a fluidized bed. Because the process areas are enclosed, fugitive emissions can be easily controlled when compared to current molten salt bath heat treatment methods. Vendor/Country of Origin Babcock Hitachi KK Mr. Hiroshi Ichiryu Japan Quality Heat Treatment Pty Ltd. Mr. Ray W. Reynoldson Australia Developmental Status/Sites in Use Two full-scale systems in operation; acrylic acid and styrene monomer plant Four facilities in 3 countries: Australia, Indonesia, Malaysia (2) Targeted Pollutants and Sources, and Secondary Impacts Pollutants: NOj Sources: Chemical Manufacturing (ADP) Secondary Impacts: None. Pollutants: Metals, CN, VOC's, Halogens Sources: Primary Metals Manufacture (ADP) Secondary Impacts* None Performance Levels Produces less thermal NO, with 90% reduction of target pollutants at 350*C with no deterioration at 3,000+ hours of catalyst service. 100% control of chemicals replaced. Costs Capital costs: $1.3Mfor 20,000 NmVhr acrylic plant and $2.8M for 60,000 Nm'/hr styrene monomer plant For 100-275 kg/hr plant, cost savings of $87,000/yr, two-year capital cost payback period. (continued) ------- EXHIBIT 2 (Continued) Technology Number' B-5 IB-6 B-7 Technology Name and Brief Description "BIOTON" Biofilter-Biofiltcr works by providing an environment in which the microorganisms can thrive. The construction of this environment begins with organic-bearing material, such as compost, surrounded by a thin film of water. The compost serves as the nutrient source for the microorganisms until the polluted gas stream becomes the food source. One cubic meter of filter material can provide approximately 10 million particles, and each particle can house up to 100,000 microorganisms. Ecoclean Cleaning Machines— Batch solvent cleaning machines. The cleaning chamber is hermetically sealed during the cleaning cycle. After completion of the cleaning cycle, the solvent vapor is a evacuated from the chamber through a solvent recovery system. F-l Clean-Ultrasonic cleaning and drying batch solvent cleaning machine. Cleaning chamber is closed during cleaning and drying is performed under vacuum with recovery of residual solvent vapors. Vendor/Country of Origin PPC Biofilter/Clair Tec Mr. Scot Standefer Longview, Texas Netherlands Durr Industries/ Automation, Lie. Mr. David Townsend and Mr. Joseph Scapoelilti Germany Tiyoda Mfg. Mr. Mickey Ohkubo Japan Developmental Status/Sites in Use 20+ facilities in Europe Commercially available throughout ' Europe Commercial use in Japan by many large companies. Targeted Pollutants and Sources, and Secondary Impacts Pollutants: VOCs, toxics Sources: Chemical Manufacturing (UAP, ADP) Petroleum Refineries (TAB, ADP) Synthetic Organic Chem. Mfr. (TAB) Surface coating (TAB) Secondary Jn^oacts: Disposal of aged filter material Pollutants: VOCs, toxics Sources: Degreasing/Dry cleaning (UAP) Solvent evaporation (ADP) Secondary Jmpacff: None Pollutants: VOCs, Toxics Sources: Solvent Evaporation (ADP) Degreasing/Dry Clean (UAP) Secondary Impacts,: Sludge from filters Performance Levels . 80-90% control. 99% reduction in solvent use when compared to the conventional open-top vapor cleaners being used in the U.S. 99.99% control. Costs $15-100 per cfm of air cleaned. $30/ton of load degreased. Capital costs $200K - 250K. OO ' A- = Technology is worthy of current consideration by U.S. industry; B- = Technology may have potential benefits for U.S. industry, but sufficient information is lacking. (continued) ------- 4-9 EXHIBIT 3 Applicability of Identified Technologies Emission Source Urban Air Quality Automobiles (also heavy-duty and off-road vehicles) Boilers, Turbines, and Heaters Chemical Manufacturing Degreasing/Dry Cleaning Gasoline Distribution (bulk stations and terminals) Petroleum Marketing (vehicle refueling/spillage) Plastics Manufacture Solid Waste Disposal Surface Coating Woodstoves and Fireplaces Toxic Air Emissions Cyanide Production/Coke Ovens Industrial Boilers Lead Smelting Petroleum Refineries Phosphoric Acid Manufacturing Polycarbonates Production Resins Production (amino and acetal) Solid Waste Treatment, Storage, and Disposal Facilities Surface Coating Synthetic Organic Chemicals Manufacturing Industries (SOCMQ Add Deposition Asphalt Paving Automobiles (inclnding heavy-duty and off-road vehicles) Bakeries Cement Manufacture Chemicals Manufacturing Fossil Fuel-Fired Boilers Gasoline Station Evaporation Loss Petroleum Refining Primary Metals Manufacture Solvent Evaporation (dry cleaning/degreasing, printing) Applicable Air Pollution Prevention and Control Technologies Pollution Control 0 A-2, A-5 A-5, A-ll, B-l, B-5 B-6, B-7 A-6 A-6 A-ll A-5 0 0 0 A-2, A-5 0 0 0 0 0 A-5 A-ll B-l, B-5 A-ll,B-l,B-5 0 A-ll A-5 A-l, A-2, A-5, A-ll, B-l, B-5 A-9, A-5 0 A-9 A-2, A-5 B-6, B-7, B-l 0 Pollution Prevention 0 A-8, A-12 A-12 A-13 0 0 0 A-8 A-10 A-7 0 A-12 A-14 A-12 0 0 A-10 0 0 A-12 0 0 A-3, B-2 A-3, B-3, B-4 A-12, B-2 0 0 A-4, B-4, A-10, A-13, B-3 0 From the list of 21 technologies shown in Exhibit 2, listed here by technology number. ------- 5-1 5.0 REFERENCES Jones, J. W., D. Campbell, P. Murphy, and R. Smith. Preliminary Analysis of Hazardous Air Pollutant Emission Inventories from Three Major Urban Areas. (EPA-600/A-94-007). (NTIS PB94-139508). Presented at the Joint A&WMA/CARB/SCAQMD Conference. Pasadena, California. October 18- 20, 1993. French, C. Schedule for Standards: Methodology and Results for Ranking Source Categories Based on Environmental Effects Data. (EPA-453/R-93-053). (NTIS PB95-187993). Research Triangle Park, North Carolina. September 1993. U. S. Environmental Protection Agency. Acidic Deposition: State of Science and Technology, Volume IV. Ed. P. M. Irving. U. S. National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program (NAPAP). Washington, DC. 1990. ------- A-l Attachment A List of Embassies Contacted Mr. Juan Skaf Science and Technology Counselor Embassy of Argentina Mr. Norman Gomm Industry, Science, and Technology Counselor Embassy of Australia Mr. Bemhard Zimburg Science and Technology Counselor Embassy of Austria Ms. Carmen Lidia Richter Ribeiro Moura First Secretary Embassy of Brazil Mr. Michael Stephens Science and Technology Counselor Embassy of Canada Ms. Grith Becker Commercial Counselor Embassy of Denmark Mr. Gilbert Fayl Science and Technology Counselor Delegation of the Commission of European Communities Dr. Markka Auer Scientific Counselor Embassy of Finland Mrs. Michele Durand Scientific Attache - Biotechnology and Environment Embassy of France Mr. Helmut Lueders First Secretary - Environment Embassy of Germany Mr. Alastair Allcock Science and Technology Counselor Embassy of Great Britain Dr. Emanuele Mannarino Scientific Attache Embassy of Italy Mr. Yukihide Hayashi Scientific Counselor Embassy of Japan Mr. Hans van Zijst Counselor - Environment Embassy of the Netherlands Mr. David Cunliffe Secondary Secretary, Political and Economic Embassy of New Zealand Dr. Gunner Wilhelmsen Scientific Counselor Embassy of Norway Mr. Niels C. Huaffe Science and Technology Counselor Embassy of South Africa Mr. Svante Lundin Science and Technology Counselor Embassy of Sweden Dr. Christoph von Arb Science and Technology Counselor Embassy of Switzerland ------- B-l Attachment B List of Organizations Contacted Ms. Melissa K. Vass Center for the Analysis and Dissemination of Demonstrated Energy Technologies (CADDET) Oak Ridge. TN. USA Ms. Chizuru Aoki United Nations Environmental Program (UNEP) Paris, France Mr. Dariusz Prasek European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD) London, UK Ms. Janice Mazur The World Bank Group Washington, DC, USA Mr. Dennis Nicolay R&TD, Directorate General Xffl/D-2 Commission of the European Community Luxembourg Mr. Tom McGrath World Environment Center New York, NY, USA ------- C-l Attachment C List of People Contacted During this Study Dr. Wolfgang Lanz EG - Forschungs-und Technologic Programme, und EUREKA Wien, Austria Mr. Guillaume Dedeurwaerder Programme de la Poltique Scientifique Brussels, Belgium Mme A. Vankeerbergen Ministere de la Region Wallonne Jambes, Belgium Ms. Angelica Arellano Escalera Program De Control De Emisiones De Fuentes Fijas Santiago, Chile Mr. David Saunders UK EUREKA Office London, England Dr. Heikki Kotilainen TEKES Technology Development Centre Helsinki, Finland Mr. R. Band Obsevatoire des Sciences et des Techniques Paris, France Mr. Phillip Manguin Ministrere de la Recherche et de la Technologic Paris, France Mr. Hans-Hermann Eggers Federal Environmental Agency Berlin, Germany Dr. R. Faust Info-Institut fur Wirtschaftsforschung Munich, Germany Prof. Giancarlo Schileo Coordinatore Nazionale EUREKA Pom** Ttalv Mr. L. Patteet Ministerie van Volksgezondheid en Leeftnilieu Brussels, Belgium Mr. Ghilio C. Grata C.C.E. DGXH Brussels, Belgium Dr. Luis Beilacqua Ministry for Science and Technology Brasilia, Brazil Civ. Ing. Poul Knudsen National Agency of Industry and Trade Copenhagen, Denmark Mr. Wally Ford ETIS Office London, England Mr. Michel Aubert Secretariat Francais d' EUREKA Paris, France Mr. B. Bobe Strategic & Technology Centrale Management Ecole Centrale de Paris Chatenay-Malabry Cedex, France Dr. Olav Hohmeyer ZEW Mannheim, Germany Bundesministerium fur Forschung und Technologie Bonn, Germany Dr. H. Grupp Fraunhofer-Institut fur Systemchnik und Innovationsforschun Karlsruhe, Germany Dr. Ushio Air Quality Bureau Tnlrvn Tapan (continued) ------- C-2 Attachment C Continued Prof. Hidetsuiu Matushita Sbizuoka Prefectual University Shizuoka-ski, Japan Mr. Takao Hamada Overseas Environmental Cooperation Center Tokyo, Japan Bernard Vandervan Studiecentrum Voor Technologic en Beleid TNO Apeldoorn, the Netherlands Dr. Endert Ministry of Science Zoetermeer, the Netherlands MT Hcrnan Tpminink TNO Environmental Research the Netherlands Dr. AFJ van Raan Center for Science and Technology Studies University of Leiden Leiden, the Netherlands Mr. Bjom Henriksen Royal Norwegian Council for Scientific & Industrial Research (NTNF) Oslo, Norway Mr. Andres Zabara Coordinador Nacional EUREKA Madrid, Spain Mr. Anders Sodergem Department of Environment and Energy Ecology House Lund, Sweden Mr. J. Annerstedt Nordic Centre for Innovation T unsl Q r\ Mr. Masaji Okuyama Japan Society of Industrial Machinery Manufacturers Tokyo, Japan Mr. F. Kodama National Institute of Science, Technology and Engineering Polic Tokyo, Japan Dr. Boyd Novem Utrecht, the Netherlands Mr. R.A.J. van Loen Technologic Management Group - TNO Delft, the Netherlands Mr. L. J. A. M. van den Bergen EUREKA Secretariaat Den Haag, the Netherlands Dr. H.P. Dits Directie Organsatie en Informatieverzorging Hoofddirectie Wetenschapsbeleid Minister Van Onderwijs en Wetenschappen Zoetermeer, the Netherlands Mr. Tomas Andrezal Sensor, Incorporated Bratislava, Slovak Republic Sven Erickson Natlikan Stockholm, Sweden Mr. Jan Hjorth Swedish Board for Technical Development Stockholm, Sweden P. Guller Synergo (continued) ------- C-3 Attachment C Continued Mr. Jeff Taylor Energy Efficiency Office Department of the Environment London, UK Mr. David Pounder Energy Efficiency Office Department of the Environment London, UK Mr. Peter Jennings Environmental Business West Devon, UK Ms. Christine Cinnali EPA Washington, DC, USA Mr. William Ellison Ellison Consultants Monrovia, MD, USA The McHvaine Company 2970 Maria Avenue Northbrook, IL, USA Mr. Francis Fox Engitec Impianti S.p.A. Milano, Italy Mr. Thomas Czesky Hahn and Kolb (USA), Inc. Elk Grove Village, EL, USA Mr. Alan Attyerg Haldor-Topsoe Houston, TX, USA Dr. Hillary Newport Environmental Technology Best Practical Hotline London, UK Dr. Jimski University of Sussex Sussex, UK Mr. Ohad Jehassi EPA - Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics Washington, DC, USA Ms. Cybele Martin Research Triangle Institute RTP, NC, USA Mr. JeffHoldridge Japanese Technology Evaluation Center Baltimore, MD, USA Mr. Paul Spaite Consultant Cincinnati, OH, USA Mr. Scot Standefer PPC BIOFILTER Longview, TX, USA Mr. Joel Tapia S&K Products International Chestnut Ridge, NY, USA Mr. Magnus Danielsson Weatherly, Incorporated Atlanta, GA, USA ------- D-l Attachment D List of Foreign Technology Vendors Contacted Mr. Dave Townsend Durr Automation, Inc. Davisburg, MI, USA Mr. Francis Fox Engitec Impianti S.p.A. Milano, Italy Mr. Thomas Czesky Hahn and Koto (USA), Inc. Elk Grove Village, IL, USA Mr. Alan Albjerg Haldor-Topsoe Houston, TX, USA Mr. Jack Riley Lurgi Corporation Baltimore, MD, USA Mr. Scot Standefer PPC BIOFILTER Longview, TX, USA Mr. Joel Tapia S&K Products International Chestnut Ridge, NY, USA Mr. Magnus Danielsson Weatherly, Incorporated Atlanta, GA, USA ------- E-l Attachment £ Details of the 21 Technologies Identified for Consideration by U. S. Industry Technology No. Title Page A-l Zinc Oxide Process for S02 Emission Control in Chemical Manufacturing E-3 A-2 Solinox Process for Reduction of S02 E-9 A-3 Linkman Kiln Control System E-15 A-4 DIGS (Direct Iron Ore Smelting Reduction) Process E-21 A-5 CerafiT Low Density Filter Elements E-25 A-6 Cool Sorption Cold Liquid Absorption Vapor Recovery Process E-30 A-7 Bioreactor for Remediation of Low-to-Medium Level VOC Emissions E-37 A-8 BIZER Process for Combustion Control in Recovery Boilers by Digital Image Processing E-41 A-9 Elsorb® Process for Reduction of S02 E-44 A-10 Blueminster Production Process of Water-based Liquid Resins and Resin Dispersions E-51 A-ll Airborne 10 Absorption Agent Chemical Technology E-55 A-12 Oilless, Dry Centrifugal Leak-free Compressors for Fugitive Emission Control and Energy Efficiency E-60 A-13 Degreasing with Alkaline-based Cleaners E-65 A-14 QSL Lead Smelter Reactor E-69 B-l Use of Envirotreat Modified Clays for the Control of VOC in Waste Ah* Streams E-76 ------- E-2 Technology No. Title Page B-2 Fluidized-bed Cement Kiln Technology E-80 B-3 Low-temperature Catalytic Incineration E-85 B-4 Fluidized-bed Heat Treatment of Metal Components E-90 B-5 Bioton Biofilter for Control of Air Pollutants E-97 B-6 Ecoclean Cleaning Machines SOS, 81S, and 83S for Degreasing E-100 B-7 F-l Clean Ultrasonic Cleaning Machine for Degreasing E-104 ------- E-3 TECHNOLOGY NUMBER: A-1 ZINC OXIDE PROCESS FOR SO. EMISSION CONTROL IN CHEMICAL MANUFACTURING Vendor: Sachtleben Chemie GmbH Duisburg, F.R.G. 1.0 PROCESS DESCRIPTION / The Zinc Oxide process is a waste gas cleaning technology that offers effective removal of H2S and S02 while producing no wastewater effluent. It was developed for compliance with German air regulations at the vendor's lithopone (a zinc sulfide white pigment) plant. The process uses the Zinc Oxide process to absorb the pollutants from annealing and drying kilns in a two-stage countercurrent flow absorber. A predecessor technology was implemented at Sachtleben's titanium dioxide pigment facility in 1991; this facility also uses a Zinc Oxide absorption system in addition to a sulfuric acid and peroxide absorption system. In the absorber, a zinc oxide suspension is added to the top of the column in a concentration above stoichiometric. The waste gas, which is cleaned of most of its dust and aerosols in venturi scrubbers prior to column entry, enters the column near the bottom. The hydrogen sulfide and the sulfur dioxide react with the zinc oxide absorber to form Zn(HS03)2, ZnS04, ZnS03, and ZnS. The scrubbing liquor overflow from the top column section is sent to the bottom section where the excess absorbent is used to complete the reactions. A demister is included at the column top, which uses process water to remove suspension droplets carried in the gas stream. The two sections of the column are packed with a conventional plastic packing material that has high efficiency and low pressure loss. The material discharging from the bottom of the column is a mixture of zinc sulfate, zinc sulfide, zinc sulfite, and excess zinc oxide. This mixture is pumped to a zinc liquor treatment tank and reused in the production process. At the titanium dioxide facility, following the removal of dust and sulfuric acid aerosols, the gas stream passes through two absorption columns. In this system , the type and design of the absorption agent is variable to market conditions (i.e., the availability of the various absorption agents). The first column has the flexibility to utilize a sulfuric acid/hydrogen peroxide mixture, ------- E-4 a zinc oxide slurry, or a caustic soda solution for the conversion of sulfur dioxide to sulfuric acid, which is recovered for use or for sale. The second column typically uses zinc oxide slurry or caustic soda solution for the conversion of hydrogen sulfide and sulfur dioxide into zinc sulfate and zinc sulfide, which can be used in another facility, or marketed. If the zinc products cannot be used or marketed, the zinc oxide can be recovered, generating a pure sulfur dioxide stream which can then be used or marketed as a raw material. The existence of process waste at zinc smelting facilities is a primary concern. Typical components of the waste are: 7 percent zinc, 50 percent iron, and 10 percent sulfur. The use of the Walz process to recover zinc from this residue is a possible use of this waste. In the Walz process, zinc products react to form zinc oxide in the presence of coal in a rotary kiln. The zinc oxide is removed from the exhaust gas of the kiln by filters. The exhaust gas contains normal combustion products and 3-6 g/Nm3 sulfur dioxide. To remove the sulfur dioxide, the Sachtleben Process is used. A one stage countercurrent absorption column running with a zinc oxide slurry absorbs the sulfur dioxide to form zinc sulfite. The zinc sulfite bottoms is then roasted to produce zinc oxide and almost pure sulfur dioxide, which can be then further reacted to form sulfuric acid. This process can similarly be used to clean the tail gas from a sulfuric acid plant. 2.0 CURRENT STATUS The technology is currently utilized by its manufacturer, Sachtleben Chemie, at its Duisburg location in two factories: • Since 1991, for the exhaust gas from the titanium dioxide factory. • Since 1994, at the lithopone plant for the exhaust gas from its annealing and drying kilns. 3.0 CASE STUDY The lithopone factory has been in full scale operation since the end of 1994, with approximately 98 percent availability (operational capacity) during its initial seven months. The titanium dioxide plant has been 92 percent available since 1991. The data for the lithopone and'titanium dioxide facilities are listed in the table below. ------- E-5 Table 1-1. Parameter Gas flow (Nm3/hr) Inlet loading (mg/Nm3) S02 S03 H2S Dust Outlet emissions (mg/Nm3) SOx H2S Dust Lithopone Plant 58 1700 92 300 105 <180 <3 <30 Value Titanium Dioxide Plant 61,000 6.6-4.4 1.4-0.8 0.2-0.18 1.2-0.38 S02 <20 S03 <22 <2.5 <20 4.0 APPLICATIONS/LIMITATIONS Industries: • Chemical Manufacture Limitations: High capital requirements (particularly in the case where the raw absorption products cannot be reused and a zinc oxide recovery process must be added. • Maximum inlet pollutant concentrations 5.0 CONTROLLED POLLUTANTS • SOX (S02 and S03) H2S ------- E-6 6.0 TEST DATA The testing information was acquired from the performance of the technology at the two Sachtleben facilities in 1991 and 1993-94. Cold tests of the operations were performed to resolve control behavior difficulties and any other spurious engineering problems. The inlet and outlet streams of the absorption columns were monitored continuously. According to monitoring data, the target of reducing the waste gas pollutant load was achieved almost immediately. A June 6, 1995, report was done by the German testing firm RWTOV on the Sachtleben Lithopone facility at Duisburg to the test emissions of the waste-gas cleaning system. The test was performed by placing continuous emission monitors in six sites on and around the plant: The gas stream was measured for velocity of flow, stack pressure, gas temperature, and humidity. A gravimetric evaluation was also performed. The CEMs were initially tested for sensitivity using N02, S02/ NO, CO, and C02. Samples were also taken from filters strategically placed in the gas stream. Three examinations were run on the process. Test results show that the waste gas cleaning process successfully lowered SOX concentrations from 1665-2045 mg/m3to 13-19 mg/m3. 7.0 OPERATIONAL/PROCESS PARAMETERS The lithopone and titanium dioxide plants have the process requirements shown in the table below. Table 1-2. Parameter Gas Electrical power Process water Zinc oxide Hydrogen peroxide Lithopone Plant (58 Nm3/hr) 1585kW 10m3/hr 1 30 kg/hr _ Titanium Dioxide Plant (61,OOONm3/hr) 750 kW 15m3/hr 540 kg/hr 1 60 kg/hr ------- E-7 8.0 COSTS The following data was provided for the Lithopone plant: Table 1-3. Parameter Value Capital cost Operating costs Cost basis $15.82 million $2.03 million/yr DM For a typical plant, the following cost data were provided by the vendor: Table 1-4. Parameter Capital cost Payback period Interest rate Maintenance (annual) Operation (annual) Electrical power Compressed air Water Washing agent Personnel Miscellaneous Cost per ton of pollutant Currency Basis Value $4.0 million 1 0 years 8-10 percent $200,000/yr $425,200 $36,700 $106,000 $216,000 $800,000 $175,000 $1,080/ton DM 1995 9.0 SECONDARY IMPACTS No secondary impacts if the absorption by-products of zinc sulfate, zinc sulfide, zinc sulfite, and excess zinc oxide are all reused. ------- E-8 10.0 COMPARISON WITH U.S. TECHNOLOGIES No comparisons available. 11.0 VARIATIONS For a constant flowrate, a rise of pollutant concentration (H2S, S02) has the following effects: • More of the ZnO slurry will be needed. • The scrubbing sections will require more plastic packing material. • The increased pressure drop from the increased packing corresponds to a increased power for the exhaust fan. 12.0 COMMENTS • Looks like a technology that would be potentially applicable to the metallurgy industry • Does seem to have a high potential for negative secondary environmental impacts ------- E-9 TECHNOLOGY NUMBER: A-2 SOLINOX PROCESS FOR REDUCTION OF S02 Vendor: Sachtleben Chemie GmbH Duisburg, F.R.G. 1.0 PROCESS DESCRIPTION The SOLINOX process comprises a two-step scrubbing process with its primary objective the reduction of S02 emissions. In the first step of the Solinox process, the flue gas is cooled by a water spray which also removes most of the dust, halogenated hydrocarbons (HF, HCI), and heavy hydrocarbons. The cooled flue gas enters a second nonaqueous scrubbing column in which S02 is removed with a proprietary organic adsorbent (polyethylene-glycol-dimethylether) by selective (physical) absorption. The organic adsorbent can be regenerated without any losses. The regeneration of the organics is achieved by heating the rich adsorbent to 100-1400°C and passing through a packed separator. The recovered concentrated S02 (90 percent) is cooled and compressed, and can be sold. This process is capable of controlling S02 in flue gases meeting TA-Luft (FRG) standards. The SOLINOX process is also a cost efficient alternative as S02 concentrations in flue gases increase, maintaining performance as concentrations vary, even as operation exceeded design capacity 25 percent. 2.0 CURRENT STATUS The SOLINOX technology has been installed at a number of facilities as shown in the table below. ------- E-10 Table 2-1. Status Full scale Country Austria Facility Zinc and lead smelter Flue Gas (Nm3/hr) 30,000, and 50,000 Year 1986/ 1988 Full scale Austria Cellulose (pulp) factory 100,000 1987 Full scale Germany Spar roaster 25,000 1990 Full scale Coal-fired boilers and sulfuric 225,000 acid plant 1993 Full scale Germany Rotary kilns Ba2S production 70,000 (design) (Sachtleben) 1993 Full scale Poland Copper foundry (Legnica) 250,000 1993 (est) The SOLINOX processes at the above facilities were first installed on a pilot scale basis and then developed into full scale units. At two locations, the units are no longer in operation due to process changes that do not require S02 control. 3.0 CASE STUDY Sachtleben Chemie GmbH (Duisburg) This facility produces titanium oxide and other white pigments on a zinc-barium base (lithopones) for paints. Its operations include a reduction-oxidation reaction in which concentrated barium sulfate (92-93 percent) is reacted with cokes in a natural gas-fired rotary kiln, and S02 is formed as an undesired by-product (up to 0.5 percent of the flue gas). The concentration of S02 was found to vary considerably as uncontrollable process conditions change (in addition to operational load). Halogen and hydrocarbon levels also were to be controlled to meet German standards. ------- E-ll In order to control the volume of flue gas and hence reduce the capital costs of the Solinox control technology, natural gas was combusted with pure oxygen. This reduced the volumetric flue gas flow rate to 2,000 m3/hr and improved operation of the kiln. Prior to S02 removal, dust was removed by an electrostatic precipitator from flue gas that had been cooled from 600°C to 350°C. The emission reductions achieved by the Solinox process at Sachtleben were: S02 - 97 percent (0.12 g/m3 exhaust) dust - 85 percent Regeneration of the rich organic adsorbent was achieved by heat exchange of waste heat (steam) available from other processes in this facility. The recovered S02-rich gas product, which also contains co-absorbed hydrocarbons, was converted to H2S04 in an existing plant. Other case study information was available for lead and zinc mills in Austria. The Solinox process was used to achieve 97.7 percent S02 control at the lead facility at 96.1 percent S02 control at the zinc facility. 4.0 APPLICATIONS/LIMITATIONS Industries: • Primary Metals industry Chemical Manufacture (pulp, pigment) • Industrial Boilers (coal-fired) Limitations: • Best suited for gas with a high concentration of pollutants • Minimum level of S02 in flue gas is 0.3 volume percent (technical) or 2000 ppmv (economic) • Cost effectiveness will improve as sulfur dioxide fraction increases • Degree of control depends on design • Deposition of sulfur in heat exchangers and columns (pebble filter) might be a concern, and is dependent on fraction of H2S in adsorbent ------- E-12 5.0 CONTROLLED POLLUTANTS SOX (S02 and S03) • Hydrocarbons (such as benzene and naphthalene) • Halogen compounds, such as HCI • Paniculate matter 6.0 TEST DATA Tests performed at the Sachtleben facility on November 11, 1991, and December 13, 1993, show the following control efficiencies for gas flows of 25.8 and 20.1 Nm3/hr respectively. Table 2-2. Pollutant S02 HCI HF Benzene PM Control Efficiency Gas Flow: 25.8 Nma/hr 99.8 97.7 92.5 89.9 48 (percent) Gas Flow: 20.1 Nm3/hr 98.5 99.2 78.6 57.7 18.4 7.0 OPERATIONAL/PROCESS PARAMETERS The following table shows the operating parameters from the Sachtleben facility. ------- E-13 Table 2-3. Parameter Value Design capacity 70,000 Nm3/hr Temperature (inlet) 300°C Pressure absorbent regeneration 0.5 bar S02 mass flow 250 kg/hr S02 mass flow variation (inlet) 100-400 kg/hr Dust mass flow (inlet) 5 kg/hr 8.0 COSTS The costs presented below are from the Sachtleben facility (design capacity 70,000 Nm3/hr). Table 2-4. Parameter Value Capital costs (investment) $11.8 million Operating costs $1.4 million/yr Cost year/basis 1990 (DM, at 1.40 DM/$) Interest (inflation) rate 2 percent (assumed) 9.0 SECONDARY IMPACTS • Recovered concentrated S02, (80-90 volume percent), that also contains some VOCs, must be refined for reuse or disposed. • Wastewater from bottom of aqueous scrubber will require further treatment. 10.0 COMPARISON WITH U.S. TECHNOLOGIES None available. ------- E-14 11.0 VARIATIONS Solinox process maintains stable performance as S02 levels in flue gas vary. 12.0 COMMENTS • Potentially feasible for high sulfur coal application ------- E-15 TECHNOLOGY NUMBER: A-3 LINKMAN KILN CONTROL SYSTEM Vendor: Image Automation Ltd. London, U.K. 1.0 PROCESS DESCRIPTION The Linkman system is an automated expert kiln control system designed to mimic best operating practices and maintain optimum process conditions in the production of cement. Typical emission reductions of NOX are 25 percent; up to 50 percent has been demonstrated. Cement is made by burning fuel together with limestone and clay, shale or slate, yielding a clinker which is then ground with gypsum to produce cement. The process is carried out in large rotating kilns and as it is complex, it is easy to lose control and make sub-standard product. To obtain a good quality product the temperature of the kiln must be regulated. A stable kiln process is reached between the temperatures of 1,400 and 1,600°C; at higher temperatures, energy consumption is high due to both the increased level of heat and the energy required to grind the hard clinker produced. To achieve a softer high quality clinker, the process must be operated at the lower end of the temperature range, thereby reducing both NOX and SOX levels which increase with higher temperatures. Therefore, in a more controlled system the temperature is kept lower, hence lower emissions and savings in energy use. In the Linkman system, data from the plant relayed to the control center includes: • Percent 02, CO, and NO at kiln inlet and /or preheater exit • Percent 02 and CO at precalciner outlet • Raw material feed rate • Coal feed rate kiln burner • Coal feed rate precalciner burner • Air flow rates cooler fans • Kiln amps • Kiln hood pressure ------- E-16 • Pressure under the first grate cooler chamber • First grate cooler speed • Kiln speed • Tertiary air temperature • Gas temperature outlet at the different cyclones • Preheater waste gas temperature • Gas temperature at kiln inlet • Burning zone pyrometer • Position of tertiary air damper • Stack emissions • Position of IDF damper Laboratory data that is relayed to the control center includes: • Lime feed, silica ratio, and alumina ratio • Kiln feed percent calculation • Clinker free lime per unit weight • Clinker volatiles (S03, K20, etc.) 2.0 CURRENT STATUS The Linkman technology has been introduced in over 60 cement plants world-wide and is diversifying into other processes where this type of control is needed, including a lubrication oil plant run by BP and float glass lines run by Pilkington Glass. Table 3-1 lists a few of these facilities. In addition to the facilities mentioned above, there are also facilities in the following countries: Australia (1), Brazil (7), Chile (1), Costa Rica (1), Ecuador (2), France (1), Germany (2), India (2), Indonesia (1), Italy (2), Mexico (6), South Africa (3), South Korea (2), Switzerland (2), U.K. (9), and U.S. (2). ------- E-17 Table 3-1 Site/Company Controlled Process Blue Circle Cement Aberthaw, U.K. National Cement Co. Lebec, U.S.A. Ciments d' Obourg SA Obourg, Belgium Ciments Lafarge Havre-Saint Vigor, France Canakkale Cimento Sanayi AS Mahutbay, Turkey Orissa Cement Ltd Sundagarh, India Cementeria di Merone SPA Merone 1, Italy Bunder Cementwerke AG Untervaz, Switzerland Ssang Yong Industrial Dong Hae, South Korea Blue Circle Cement Lichtenburg, South Africa PT Semen Cibinong Narogong, Indonesia St. Lawrence Cement Mississauga, Canada 1 preheater kiln 1 long dry kiln, cooler 2 wet process kilns 1 preheater kiln 1 precalciner kiln, cooler 1 precalciner kiln, cooler, raw mill 1 Lepol kiln, cooler 1 preheater kiln, mill 1 precalciner kiln 1 preheater kiln 1 precalciner kiln, 2 preheater kilns, coolers 1 twin-tower precalciner kiln, cooler, mill These Linkman operations total over 1.3 million hours of on-line closed loop control in the cement industry from fully commercially operating systems. 3.0 CASE STUDY Blue Circle Cement, Hope Works, Kent, U.K. In the early eighties, the Energy Efficiency Office set up a project to demonstrate how, by the use of high level computer control, a consistent maximum output of high quality could be produced from a kiln at minimum operating costs. The project involved several companies, the ------- E-18 host company, Blue Circle Industries Pic; the monitoring contractor, WS Atkins Management Consultants; and the equipment manufacturer, SIRA Ltd. In March 1985, high level control was applied as an experiment to one of the two kilns at Hope Works, which produce 1.1 million tons of concrete clinker per year. Using the existing proprietary process control system, a maximum of 60 percent availability of time on high level control was reached. In the summer of 1986, in conjunction with SIRA, a new system was developed and named Linkman. It provided much greater availability and reliability, and by February 1987, high level control was operational for 70-90 percent of the time. Using NOX as an indicator of kiln temperature, the process reduced specific energy consumption and increased clinker production. The life span of the kiln refractory lining was also increased. By reducing the operating temperature, NOX emissions were reduced by 25 to 50 percent. In addition to increased output and improved clinker quality, a reduction of 7.7 percent in kiln fuel consumption was achieved. A U.K. government energy audit identified a cost saving of $1.5/ton of clinker, giving an annual saving of approximately $1,500,000 and a payback period of less than three months, for 1.1 million tons of cement clinker produced per year. 4.0 APPLICATIONS/LIMITATIONS Industries: • Cement Manufacture • Chemical Manufacture (titanium dioxide) • Other industries: De-asphalting plant Catalytic cracker Lime-recovery plant Lubricating oil production Float-glass production Any industry where process performance is dependent on that of the operator ------- E-19 5.0 CONTROLLED POLLUTANTS • NOX (reduced by 25 and 50 percent) • Paniculate matter emissions minimized (not quantified by vendor) 6.0 TEST DATA None available. 7.0 OPERATIONAL/PROCESS PARAMETERS Process requirements include adequate quality of existing instrumentation for implementation of the system and the requirement that all key supervisory control parameters are available through an appropriate sensor. 8.0 COSTS Financial details are based on the case study (see Section 3) at the Blue Circle Cement plant in Kent, U.K., that produces 1.1 million tons of concrete clinker a year: Table 3-2 Parameter Value Capital costs (investment) Estimated payback period Operating costs and maintenance costs Annual savings Savings per ton of clinker Cost year basis $324,800 Less than three months Not available $1,488,000 $1.50 1987 U.K. pound 9.0 SECONDARY IMPACTS No data available. 10.0 COMPARISON WITH U.S. TECHNOLOGIES None available. ------- E-20 11.0 VARIATIONS NOX emissions may vary with different flame shape, burning zone material temperature, and other process dynamics. However, if the combustion system, NOX monitor, and kiln gas sampling mechanism are all in good operating condition, and the oxygen target is high enough, then the Linkman system should be able to maintain a stable operation in the kiln. 12.0 COMMENTS Process controls described improve energy efficiency; however, there is not enough information to determine what makes this process control different from others. ------- E-21 TECHNOLOGY NUMBER: A-* DIOS (DIRECT IRON ORE SMELTING REDUCTION) PROCESS Vendor: Clean Coal Utilization Tokyo, Japan 1.0 PROCESS DESCRIPTION DIOS process uses fine and granular non-coking coal and iron ore directly for making molten iron without resorting to the coking and sintering operations required in the traditional blast furnace process. In DIOS, non-coking coal is charged into a smelting reduction furnace either directly or after cooling, while iron ore is charged into the furnace after prereduction in a fluidized bed to produce molten iron. The following advantages are expected: • While coking coal is a prerequisite to the blast furnace process, DIOS dispenses with coking coal and can utilize non-coking coal directly, thereby ensuring a wider selection of resources to be used in ironmaking. • Start-ups and shut-downs of operations are easier with DIOS than the blast furnace process, thereby enhancing flexibility in production. • The agglomerating process (sintering and coking) is eliminated, thereby reducing capital expenditures and energy costs. • The export gas can be easily controlled, thereby optimizing operational efficiency. • An approximately 10 percent reduction in production cost of molten iron is expected as compared with the blast furnace process. • C02 emissions will be reduced by 5-10 percent in the heat-efficient DIOS process, as compared with the blast furnace process. • Sulfur emissions are scarcely measurable since the sulfur charged is either dissolved into the melted slag and metal, or absorbed onto dust and collected. DIOS uses less energy than a conventional blast furnace and, as a result, less emissions will be associated with the combustion of fuels. ------- E-22 In addition, DIOS does not require the horizontal coke ovens, sintering plant or pelletising plant normally required by a blast furnace. As a result, energy costs will be less and no pollutants associated with these operations will be produced. 2.0 CURRENT STATUS DIOS is currently at the late development stage. The DIOS project is an 8 year program started in April 1988. The first three years of the project were conducted at five leading Japanese steel plants. Following these studies, a 500 t/d pilot plant was constructed at NKK's Keihin Steel Plant and completed in 1993. Operational tests are being conducted at this plant and are expected to be completed by March 1996. 3.0 CASE STUDY Table 4-1 Facility Keihin Steel Plant Capacity 500 t/day 1 80,000 t/yr Country Japan Year 1993-1996 Status Pilot 4.0 APPLICATIONS/LIMITATIONS Industries: • Primary Metals manufacture (iron) 5.0 CONTROLLED POLLUTANTS S02 C02 The sulfur is almost entirely absorbed in fine dust or iron ore in the preheating and pre-reduction furnaces. More than half of this is recycled to the smelting reduction furnace, with the remainder being passed through the cyclone prior to being collected by the scrubber. This is removed for commercial recycling. Emissions will be (5-10 percent) less than those produced by a conventional blast furnace. ------- E-23 6.0 TEST DATA Although it is claimed that gaseous sulfide was scarcely measurable in the exhaust, no details are provided. 7.0 OPERATIONAL/PROCESS PARAMETERS The following table provides operational information for the DIGS and pilot plant in Japan. 8.0 COSTS No financial details were provided, although the vendors believe that DIOS could operate at around 10 percent less than a conventional blast furnace due to the elimination of agglomerating process (sintering, and coking). 9.0 SECONDARY IMPACTS No additional secondary impacts reported for the DIOS process as compared to conventional iron production. 10.0 COMPARISON WITH U.S. TECHNOLOGIES No comparison was presented, is available although it was noted that similar processes are under research by AISI in the U.S. and Hismelt in Australia. 11.0 VARIATIONS No data provided. 12.0 COMMENTS • The most significant advantage is the elimination of the traditional coke making process, which results in very hazardous emissions with an associated high risk. Table 4-2 ------- E-24 Equipment Specifications Production rate Coal consumption Raw material feeding Iron ore Coal Flux Preheating furnace Type Temperature Residence time Pre-reduction furnace Type Inner diameter Height Capacity Temperature Residence time Smelting reduction furnace Type Inner diameter Height In furnace pressure Oxygen rate Nitrogen rate Gas reforming Fine coal addition Tapping device Type Diameter 500t/d(21t/h) 780-950 kg/t max 45 t/h 25t/h 4.6 t/h Fluidized bed 500'C 20 minutes Fluidized bed 2,700 mm 8,000 mm max 39 t/h 700° C 60 minutes Iron bath furnace 3,700 mm 9,30Q,mm <2.0kgfcnY2G(bar) 10,000 - 13,000 Nm3/hr, max. 20,000 Nm3/hr 500 - 6,000 nm3/hr max 4 t/h Opener-mudgun 70mm Steady state 1-2 hours after start-up ------- E-25 TECHNOLOGY NUMBER: A-5 CERAFIL" LOW DENSITY FILTER ELEMENTS Vendor: Cerel Ltd. U.K. 1.0 PROCESS DESCRIPTION This technology utilizes low-density ceramic filter elements, called Cerafil® elements, for the removal of smoke, dust, and fume particles from the flue gases generated by many industrial processes. Cerafil* elements are comprised of man-made mineral fibers bonded with organic and inorganic materials to form a porous filtration medium. These individual elements are loaded into cells that comprise the filtration plant. The flue gases are drawn through the elements, such that the paniculate matter (PM) collected forms a dust cake on the outside of the elements. The dust cakes are removed via reverse pulse-jet cleaning. The advantages of the Cerafil* filter elements over traditional fabric media are: • Temperature resistant to 900°C. • Thermal shock resistant. • Resistant to acid and alkali contaminants in the flue gas. • Can operate under variations in gas velocity and temperature. For flue gases above 250°C, the Cerafil® filter plant eliminates the necessity of gas cooling equipment that would typically be required for operation of fabric filters. Also, the Cerafil® filter produces a dry waste in comparison to the sludges generated by liquid scrubbers. Cerafil® will also control HCI and S02 with the use of a sorbent material (e.g., calcium hydroxide). ------- E-26 2.0 CURRENT STATUS This technology is commercially available and in several full-scale industrial applications throughout Europe. Five are listed in the table below. Table 5-1 Application Location Soil remediation Clinical waste incineration Waste tire incineration Coal processing Secondary aluminum processing NBM Bodemsanering B.V., the Netherlands Alexandra Hospital, U.K. Avon Tires Ltd., U.K. Coal Products, Ltd., U.K. Brent Smelting Works, U.K. 3.0 CASE STUDY Coal Products, Ltd., Coventry, U.K. Coal Products, Ltd. decided to use a Cerafil® filter bed plant to control their paniculate emissions. The facility manufactures a smokeless fuel derived from coal. The fuel, called Homefire, is produced by eliminating the low-temperature tars which make coal smoke when burning. Particulate emissions emanate from the Coal Products, Ltd. process waste gas that is incinerated in two boilers at the facility. The gas contains tars, volatiles, coal fines, methane, hydrogen, and carbon monoxide. A Cerafil* filter plant was fitted to the exhaust stream of one of the boilers in October 1991, after an extensive pilot plant trial period. The filter contained 2400 Cerafil® S-1000 elements, and had a design capacity of 25,000 Nm3/hr and a temperature range of 250-300°C. Inlet dust loading on the filter varied from 3.0-30.0 g/m3, with particle sizes ranging from 1.9 to 54 /jm, and 50 percent less than 7.2 //m. The outlet dust loading was typically in the 2.0-4.0 mg/m3 range. ------- E-27 Difficulties occurred when incomplete combustion of the waste gas produced fires in the Cerafil filter plant. The Cerafil filter plant was refitted in January 1993, with modifications to ensure fire suppression and filter bypass. The Cerafil filter plant has operated trouble free since, with an outlet dust concentration of less than 4 mg/m3. A second filter plant was installed on the second boiler in August 1992, incorporating the changes to the unit on the first boiler. This second boiler has operated with the Cerafil filter control system with only minor difficulties since installation. 4.0 APPLICATIONS/LIMITATIONS Industries: • Cement Manufacture • Industrial Boilers • Solid Waste Disposal • Primary Metals Manufacture Limitations: • Gas must be dry, since liquid will damage the filter » Temperature must be less than or equal to 900°C 5.0 CONTROLLED POLLUTANTS This technology is designed to control: • Paniculate • HCI and S02 (with the use of a sorbent material) 6.0 TEST DATA The vendor provided information for a smokeless fuel manufacturing facility, where the inlet dust concentration was 500 mg/m3 and mean particle size was 4.8 //m. At this facility, the outlet dust concentration was found to be 1.5 mg/m3, for a control efficiency of 99.7 percent. ------- E-28 7.0 OPERATIONAL/PROCESS PARAMETERS For a 24,000 ACFM filter plant the following are required: Electric power for draft fan and reverse jet pulse cleaning, at 50 kW/yr Compressed air for pulse cleaning, at 2 liters of air per cleaning 8.0 COSTS For a filter plant that treats 24,000 ACFM, contains 1,512 filter elements, and operates 8 hr/day, 5 days/week: Table 5-2 Parameter Value Capital cost of filter plant Cost per element Percent of capital cost for elements Cost per ACFM of flue gas treated Electricity Daily inspection Maintenance Replacement elements Currency basis $400,000 $38 per element 14.5 percent $16.15 $10,810 $370 $820 $24,000 (1 set every 4 years) British pound, 1995 ($1.6/pound) 9.0 SECONDARY IMPACTS No secondary impacts are found in excess of the usual dust disposal common to other particulate control devices, such as fabric filters and ESPs. 10.0 COMPARISON WITH U.S. TECHNOLOGIES For a control device serving a 200 ton/day glass furnace and treating 21,700 ACFM of flue gas at 200°C, comparisons of Cerafil® to traditional dust cleaning are shown in the table below. ------- E-29 Table 5-3 Control Device Electrostatic precipitator Electrified granulate bed filter Bag filter Cerafil® filter Capital Cost 1.89 1.68 0.95 1 Relative Cost Operating Cost 0.71 0.91 1 1 The data above was based on a survey by the Energy Efficiency Office in the U.K. Although the flue gas temperature was only 200°C, the ceramic filters compared favorably to the existing technologies. As compared to electrostatic precipitators, the ceramic filter is smaller, less expensive, and more adept to handling surges in particle loading. When compared to fabric filters, ceramic filters can operate at higher flue gas velocities and temperatures (up to 900°C), with only a slight increase in capital cost. 11.0 VARIATIONS No significant variations in filtration efficiency with changes in flue gas paniculate loading. 12.0 COMMENTS • Feasible for high temperature applications • Long term stability may be a question • Need more information to determine applicability for gas treatment of acid deposition emission sources ------- E-30 TECHNOLOGY NUMBER: A-6 COOL SORPTION COLD LIQUID ABSORPTION VAPOR RECOVERY PROCESS Vendor: Cool Sorption A/S Glostrup, Denmark 1.0 PROCESS DESCRIPTION Cool Sorption's Cold Liquid Absorption (CLA) vapor recovery process provides a cost effective alternative to reduce VOC emissions from gasoline and crude oil handling operations. This process is well-suited for processes such as fuel terminals, with large vapor flows. The system is very efficient, particularly for larger (heavier) hydrocarbon molecules. In the CLA process, incoming vapors, that consist of a mixture of hydrocarbons and air, pass through an absorber column packed with rings. In the column, the mixture is scrubbed by the counter-current flow of a cold absorbent (often kerosene) which removes up to 98 percent of the hydrocarbon content. The absorption of the hydrocarbons is dependent on both the vapor pressure and the temperature of the absorbent. The temperature of the absorbent is maintained at -25"C, which facilitates the condensation of higher hydrocarbons. Other factors affecting the efficiency are the ratio of absorbent to vapor flow, the height of the column, and type of packing material. In addition, a feed-forward control can achieve a quick response if the volume of vapor entering the unit varies significantly. This occurs most often during road tanker loading operations, and is less necessary during ship loading. The rich absorbent from the column is then directed to a splitter, where the hydrocarbons are stripped. The two-stage splitter column is packed with rings and operates on the reflux principle. The reflux condensator at the top of the column prevents the absorbent from being carried over. The top product of the splitter column is condensed and absorbed in a re-absorber column. In this column, the vapors are washed in a counter-current flow of liquid gasoline or crude oil at ambient temperature. The lean absorbent from the splitter vessel is cooled by a heat exchanger and a chiller in connection with a standard industrial refrigeration unit. (Ammonia is used as the refrigerant.) The process unit is intrinsically safe, although a flame arrester may be installed on the outlet of the absorption column. ------- E-31 2.0 CURRENT STATUS The CLA process was developed and patented in 1982. Currently, the process is applied by most European oil companies. The vendor claims that in 1991 more than 60 units were in operation. Some example installations are shown in the table below. Table 6-1 Status Pilot plant Facility/Application Shell/refinery Capacity 500 m3/hr Vapor Recovery 0.8 liters/m3 Country Denmark Full-scale DSM/chemical plant > 99 percent the Netherlands Full-scale Exxon U.K./road tanker terminals > 90 percent United Kingdom Construction of world's largest vapor recovery unit OTS* Sture Terminal/ ship tanker loading operations 1 7,000 m3/hr 400 tankers/yr 50,000 m3 liquid hydrocarbons/yr Norway OTS = Oseberg Transport system which is owned by Statoil (majority share), Norsk Hydro (operator). Saga, Elf, and Mobil 3.0 CASE STUDY Exxon Research Center in the U.K. tested two CLA units at road tanker loading terminals in 1988. These units were operating directly on vapor displaced from bottom loading of road tankers. There were no vapor returns from top loading bays or storage tanks. Three out of four tests showed average control efficiencies > 95 percent, which met the US EPA emission limit of 35 mg hydrocarbon/I of product loaded. Kerosene was used as the absorbent and cooled to -20*C. Test data are presented in section 6.0. Tests of a prototype CLA unit for North Sea crude oil showed that methane was the most significant remaining pollutant in the resulting emissions. ------- E-32 4.0 APPLICATIONS/LIMITATIONS Industries: Limitations: Petroleum Marketing Gasoline Distribution (road tankers and ships). The process does not achieve optimum control for diluted vapors, such as those from industrial painting operations (e.g., car painting). The efficiency of the unit decreases with falling molecular weight and inlet concentration. The CLA technology requires road tankers and ships to be fitted with the appropriate equipment. 5.0 CONTROLLED POLLUTANTS VOCs Gasoline vapors Crude oil vapors Control efficiency of 96-99 percent Exhaust emissions of 25-30 g hydrocarbons/m3 VOC emissions primarily generated during ship loading operations can be controlled with an efficiency of 85-90 percent. Tests indicate that most of the remaining hydrocarbon emissions consist of methane. 6.0 TEST DATA Test data for two Exxon (UK) road tankers loading terminals with Cool Sorption CLA units are shown below. ------- Table 6-2 Exxon Test Data Birmingham Parameter CONDITIONS Test date Test period Duration o'f test period with loading Number of trucks loaded Mogas temperature (mean) Air temperature Total loaded m3 (to CLA) Total 4* loaded m3 (to CLA) Total 2 'loaded m3 (to CLA) Total ULP loaded m3 (to CLA) Total diesel loaded m3 (to CLA) Total loaded m3 (not to unit) Total 4* loaded m3 (not to unit) Total 2* loaded m3 (not to unit) Total ULP loaded m3 (not to unit) Total diesel loaded m3 (not to unit) RESULTS Mean vapor flowrate to CLA m3/min Total vapor volume to CLA m3 Mean HC. concentration to VRU volume percent Mean HC vapor flowrate to VRU m3/min Total HC vapor volume to VRU m3 Mean HC concentration from VRU volume percent Mean HC vapor flowrate from VRU m3/min Total HC vapor volume from VRU m3 Mean recovery efficiency (Percent) Product recovered over test period (m3 liquid) Product recovered over test period (kg liquid) Product recovered as percent of product loaded EMISSION RATES (EPA limit: 35 mg/l) mg emitted/liter product loaded Test 1 3/10/88 53 mins 44 mins 6 12.5*C 9*C 188.9 150.9(79.9%) 13.0(6.9%) 5.0 (2.6%) 20.0(10.6%) 4.3 188.8 17.4 0.75 32.9 1.6 0.056 2.5 91.7 0.137 82.9 0.0725 36 Test 2 4/10/88 775 mins 297 mins 35 13*C 7-1 4'C 1044.8 830.8 (79.5%) 71.4(6.8%) 14.0(1.3%) 128.6(12.3%) 256.3 222.7 19.6 0.0 14.0 3.5 1045.2 17.2 0.605 179.8 0.84 0.024 7.3 96.2 0.778 470 0.0745 19 Manchester Test 1 5/10/88 317 mins 168 mins 21 14.3°C 7-C 675.1 523.5 (77.5%) 33.0 (4.9%) 10.0(1.5%) 108.6(16.1%) 4.0 675.8 9.5 0.38 64.2 0.27 0.010 1.65 97.4 0.28 169 0.0415 7 Test 2 6/10/88 313 mins 1 58 mins 22 14.3'C 6-9'C 671.1 542.0 (80.8%) 50.4 (7.5%) 14.0(2.1%) 64.6 (9.6%) m co co 4.3 671.6 9.6 0.41 64.5 0.14 0.0053 0.85 98.8 0.29 172 0.0432 4 Note: 2* and 4* are two gasoline grades. ------- E-34 7.0 OPERATIONAL/PROCESS PARAMETERS The following table shows the process parameters for a CLA unit. Table 6-3 Parameter Value Energy demand Absorbent Recommended temperature absorbent Absorbent to vapor flow ratio dependent on: Pressure loss <0.5 kWh/l recovered product ±10 percent of recovered product needed as fuel (steam and electricity) for cooler kerosene -25'C • vapor composition and concentration; lighter hydrocarbons require more absorbent. • temperature of the absorbent; lower temperatures will require less absorbent. • type of absorbent. There is almost no pressure drop in the CLA system if no flame arresters are applied, and the connecting piping is reduced to a minimum by placing the absorber column next to the ship. In this case, there is no need for compressors or blowers to transport the vapor. 8.0 COSTS Capital costs are dependent on the unit design and therefore may vary considerably. The control efficiency and, hence, costs are a function of: Vapor composition and concentration Type of absorbent Absorbent temperature Absorbent to vapor flow ratio (l/g ratio) ------- E-35 • Dimensions of absorber column (height and packing) • Remaining small hydrocarbons in absorbent Three cost examples provided by the vendor are shown below. Table 6-4 Parameter Type of facility Size Capacity m3/yr m3/day m3/hr Product RVP Efficiency Liters removed Product per m3 vapor Total annual recovery (m3) CLA plant cost Example 1 Crude oil shiploading Large 42,000,000 400,000 17,000 1.1 1.1 45,000 $12 million Values Example 2 Crude oil and gasoline shiploading Small 8,000,000 1 20,000 5,000 0.8 0.8 6,400 $4 million Example 3 Gasoline loading truck terminal Medium 1,400,000 7,000 900 Not specified 1.8 2,520 $600,000 Typical annual operating costs are estimated as follows: • Maintenance: 2 percent of capital costs, per year • Energy: 0.5 kWh/l recovered product In general, large CLA units are more cost effective than smaller units. Since the costs of the unit are dependent on size and design, the payback period may vary from several months to years. Vendor notes that Exxon U.K. purchased their cool sorption equipment to be able to earn money on their U.K. sites. 9.0 SECONDARY IMPACTS Wastewater «0.1 m3/day), as condensate water, that is contaminated with additives and hydrocarbons ------- E-36 10.0 COMPARISON WITH U,S. TECHNOLOGIES • Flaring - no product recovery; and therefore, not a cost effective option. • Carbon adsorption achieves a better control efficiency than the CLA process. However, large scale carbon adsorption applications are not as cost effective as the CLA because of the (high) price of activated carbon. In addition, activated carbon used to collect ketones can lead to spontaneous ignition. 11.0 VARIATIONS Originally, the CLA technology was developed for gasoline applications, but currently it is also used to recover vapors from chemical and crude oil handling operations. The control efficiency of the CLA vapor recovery process is dependent on: • Vapor components and concentration, • Absorbent temperature, • Absorbent to vapor flow ratio (l/g ratio), • Dimensions of absorber column (height and packing), and • Residual small hydrocarbons in absorbent (i.e., temp, of de-absorber column). Dependent on vapor components and concentration, the other four parameters may be varied in order to obtain optimum cost/control efficiency performance. 12.0 COMMENTS • Provides better performance over flaring since no recovery occurs with flaring • More details on construction/installation and operational costs are needed to accurately quantify cost-effectiveness ------- E-37 TECHNOLOGY NUMBER: A-7 BIOREACTOR FOR REMEDIATION OF LOW-TO-MEDIUM LEVEL VOC EMISSIONS Vendor: Sutcliffe Crenshaw, Ltd. Lancashire, U.K. 1.0 PROCESS DESCRIPTION This technology utilizes monocultures of a specially selected and developed strain of naturally occurring microorganism supported in a reactor (Bioreactor SC) to degrade a wide range of chemicals commonly present in industrial effluent air streams. The bacterial strains can handle relatively high concentrations (up to 1000 mg/m3) of individual VOCs or VOC mixtures. The bacteria, or biocatalysts , are held in a specially designed and prepared support in a chamber into which the waste gas stream is passed. This gas stream is preconditioned such that its humidity and temperature are within a suitable range for interaction with the bacteria. Residence time in the bioreactor is comparatively low (only a few seconds). The bioreactor includes a panel-type smoothing filter that serves to moderate temporary solvent peaks. The waste gas stream enters the reactor, flowing over the microorganisms that are located on the support. The microorganisms use the waste air stream as a food source, biodegrading the contaminants and converting them to less harmful products plus C02 and water. 2.0 CURRENT STATUS This technology is commercially available throughout the U.K. and Europe. 3.0 CASE STUDY Commercial case study data was too sensitive at this time to be made available by the vendor. ------- E-38 4.0 APPLICATIONS/LIMITATIONS Industries: • Solvent Evaporation • Surface Coating Limitations: • Not effective on air streams with extremely high concentrations of pollutants (> 1000 mg/m3). • Certain pollutants (toxics) can adversely affect bacteria. 5.0 CONTROLLED POLLUTANTS • VOCs, including chlorinated hydrocarbons 6.0 TEST DATA No test data were available at this time, although data may be accessible by early 1996. 7.0 OPERATIONAL/PROCESS PARAMETERS Based on an example installation with an airflow of 10,000 Nm3/hr, an influent VOC concentration of 300 mg/m3, and 1,920 operating hours per year, the process requirements are: Table 7-1. Parameter Value Space 9 m2 Electrical power 20,000 kWh (nominal) Water 42 m3/yr Steam 266,800 kg/yr Nutrients 565 kg/yr ------- E-39 8.0 COSTS Based on the above example installation (airflow 10,000 Nm3/hr, VOC concentration 300 mg/m3, operating 1,920 hours per year) the costs of the bioreactor are: Table 7-2 Parameter Value Capital costs Payback period Electrical power Water Steam Nutrients Total utility Cost per ton of pollutant controlled Currency basis $144,000-$168,000 3.8 years $1,200 $18 $6,450 $181 $7,890 $1.39/ton British pound (1995) 9.0 SECONDARY IMPACTS The annual cleaning of the biocatalyst bed uses wash water that requires wastewater treatment. 10.0 COMPARISON WITH U.S. TECHNOLOGIES According to a September 1993 Environmental Business report, running costs are shown to be 85 percent less than activated carbon, 93 percent less than incineration, and 67 percent less than scrubbing. 11.0 VARIATIONS The bioreactor efficiency may vary with pollutant type and concentration. ------- E-40 12.0 COMMENTS Technology appears feasible but more test data would be useful to more accurately determine performance ------- E-41 TECHNOLOGY NUMBER: A-8 BIZER PROCESS FOR COMBUSTION CONTROL IN RECOVERY BOILERS BY DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING Vendor: ABB Industries Oy Helsinki, Finland 1.0 PROCESS DESCRIPTION The Burning Image Analyzer (BIZER) is a system that utilizes digital image processing to calculate and supervise smelt bed conditions in recovery boilers. BIZER monitors the interior of the recovery boiler by fire-room cameras. The recorded video information is then converted to digital form by digital image processing techniques. The analyzing system has been designed to identify and quantify important features of the camera picture and present the obtained information to the boiler operator. The first step in this process transfers a standard video signal from the fire-room cameras to the analyzer's grabbing module and digitizes it. The second consists of reducing the image information and filtering out noise and momentary disturbances. The next step is a contrast reduction of the image signal that emphasizes the desired image features by digital enhancement. Lastly, this information is used to search a histogram of desired elements characteristic of combustion and recommend changes to optimize the combustion. BIZER can be an independent monitoring system or work as an integrated part of a recovery boiler control system. The system supervises and calculates smelt bed conditions such as bed height, form, area, symmetry, and temperature gradients. It includes functions for the calculation of burning parameters such as droplet size index, viscosity index, symmetry index, and heat input parameter, and also includes functions for the calculation of heat flow entered in the furnace, burning performance analysis, and knowledge-based Burning Expert modules. BIZER presents the variables describing the performance of burning on a scale ranging from poor to excellent. It can display the variables describing smelt bed burning and behavior in trend form to calculate bed trends. The actual shape of char bed is compared with target images stored in the system's memory. The system generates a synthetic, colored image of the smelt bed for display and gives visual alarms to indicate different degrees of plugging of the camera openings. ------- E-42 BIZER has the flexibility to include other parameters, variables, etc. for calculation and analysis and can be integrated with a recovery boiler control system to optimize smelt bed conditions and combustion. 2.0 CURRENT STATUS Stand alone versions of BIZER are commercially available and are being used in Indonesia. Integration of BIZER and AutoRecovery, another ABB system which is used to optimize recovery boiler operation, has been done only in laboratory studies, but more development is planned. 3.0 CASE STUDY No specific case study information was presented. 4.0 APPLICATIONS/LIMITATIONS Industries: • Industrial boilers Recovery boilers in the pulp and paper industry. Solid fuel fired grate boilers (more development is needed for this application). Limitations: • None listed. 5.0 CONTROLLED POLLUTANTS The BIZER system is not designed to control any pollutants, per se. However, since the system optimizes smelt bed conditions, it reduces the products of incomplete combustion that are characteristic of inefficient systems. These pollutants are CO, VOC, NOX, and PM. 6.0 TEST DATA Although test information was collected during mill trials and installations, ABB does not have any publicly available test results. ------- E-43 7.0 OPERATIONAL/PROCESS PARAMETERS The BIZER system includes a PC (IBM/PC/AT compatible), some dedicated image processing boards, and necessary software modules. Optional equipment includes a black and white monitor, a RGB color monitor, and additional process measurement instruments. The fire-room cameras can be included or purchased separately. 8.0 COSTS The capital costs given by the manufacturer are for a completely integrated system of BIZER technology and their AutoRecovery control system. This cost depends on the scope of the processes installed; it can range between $500,000 and $2,000,000. The payback period is one or two years depending on instrumentation investment, energy prices, etc. 9.0 SECONDARY IMPACTS There are no secondary impacts. 10.0 COMPARISON WITH U.S. TECHNOLOGIES ABB does not know of any competing U.S. firms with a comparable technology. 11.0 VARIATIONS This system does not seem to be affected by variations in pollutant concentration or fuel type. 12.0 COMMENTS • Initial expense is high but payback period is relatively short • Technology is innovative because it combines photo digitizing/analysis and process optimization. It will also likely have wider applications. ------- E-44 TECHNOLOGY NUMBER: A-9 ELSORB® PROCESS FOR REDUCTION OF S02 Vendor: Elkem Technology, Inc. Pittsburgh, PA Elkem Technology AS Kristiansand, Norway 1.0 PROCESS DESCRIPTION The Elsorb process is a regenerate process for S02 recovery that utilizes chemical absorption followed by regeneration. Designed for treating flue gases at utility and industrial sites, the Elsorb process produces S02 which can be converted into liquid S02, sulfuric acid, or elemental sulfur. Over 95 percent control of S02 has been achieved with the process, although the efficiency can vary with S02 inlet gas concentration. In the process, flue gas is first cooled to its adiabatic saturation temperature. The gas then passes through a pre-scrubber to remove HF, HCI, and dust. Contact then occurs between the flue gas and an aqueous sodium phosphate buffer, which flows counter-current in a packed absorption tower (pH of 5-6.5). The S02 is absorbed by the buffer and is recovered by evaporation at 115-120°C followed by condensation. The more tightly packed the absorber, the more S02 can be absorbed. The phosphate buffer is regenerated back to its original, chemically stable form by heating with an external heat exchanger that uses steam as the heating medium. The buffer then passes through a vapor/liquid separator, where S02 is abstracted as a product. To remove S03, appropriate equipment must be included to reduce the amount of buffer being consumed in this stage. The buffer concentrate is then drawn off and sent back to the buffer tank. 2.0 CURRENT STATUS The Elsorb process was tested in laboratory and bench scale models. Two pilot plants were also tested leading to two full-scale installations. These operations are listed in the table below. ------- E-45 Table 9-1 Facility Norwegian Institute of Technology Norwegian Institute of Technology Norwegian Institute of Technology Coal-fired boiler Wellman-Lord 0MV refinery Esso Slagentangen refinery Public Service Co. of New Mexico San Juan Generating Station Status Laboratory Bench scale Pilot plant Pilot plant (1 09 NnrvVhr) Full scale Full scale (Proposed) full scale Year 1985 1988 1990 1991 1993 1993 1995 Country Norway Norway Norway Czech Republic Austria Norway U.S. 3.0 CASE STUDY : was Vitkovice Steel (Ostrava, Czech Republic) Pilot Plant A pilot plant was connected to a boiler at the Vitkovice Steel plant. The boiler burned black coal with a sulfur content of 0.8-1.1 percent. Because of the low concentration of S02, it w decided that the test program should be carried out with an additional amount of S02 spiked from an S02 cylinder in order to obtain a concentration in the influent gas of about 3,000 ppmv. The test program at Vitkovice was completed with a long-term (100 hour) test of the process in the conditions listed in the table below. Table 9-2 Parameter Value Flue gas volume Concentration of S02 in gas Concentration of 02 in gas Absorption temperature Buffer volume to absorber 109Nm3/h 3,000 ppmv 7.7 percent 55°C 151/h ------- E-46 The testing assessed not only the efficiency of the absorption and regeneration units, but also the general operation of the equipment. During the 100 hours of continuous operation, the density of the buffer was also altered to observe the change in S02 absorption. The results obtained are shown in the table below. Table 9-3 Test #1 Test #2 Specific steam consumption Mean concentration of S02 in clean gas Control efficiency 10.2kgH20/kgS02 98 ppmv 96.7 percent 11.2 kg H2O/kg S02 115 ppmv 96.2 percent 4.0 APPLICATIONS/LIMITATIONS Industries: Limitations: Fossil-fuel Fired Boilers. Petroleum Refining. Claus plant tail gas. Sulfuric acid plants tail gas. Rehabilitation of Wellman-Lord plants. • More suited to operations with high concentrations of S02. • Control efficiency dependent upon the inlet gas S02 concentration. • Extra equipment required for the removal of S03. 5.0 CONTROLLED POLLUTANTS SO, • Particulate matter • HF and HCI (with a prescrubber) ------- E47 6.0 TEST DATA Bench-scale A bench scale test program was carried out with 3,000 ppmv S02 in the entering gas and 50"C absorption temperature. An absorption efficiency well above 95 percent, together with an S02 uptake of more than 1.0 mol/l, was generally observed when the liquid circulation rate was properly adjusted to the amount of S02 in the entering gas. The specific energy requirement(s) for regeneration of the buffer, expressed as kilograms of steam required per kilogram of S02 recovered, varied between 9 and 11. This refers to single-effect evaporation. If double-effect evaporation had been used instead, the S-value would be nearly halved. Also a higher S02 concentration in the feed gas, and a lower absorption temperature would reduce S. A buffer oxidation experiment was carried out at a temperature of 55" C, by recirculating the gas and a given volume of S02 loaded buffer over the absorber for an extended time period. The concentrations of S02, NO, and 02 in the gas phase were held at 3,000 ppmv, 1,000 ppmv and 5 volume percent, respectively. The corresponding concentration of S02 in the buffer was 1.5 mol/l. The test was run continuously for 24 hours. The results indicate a buffer oxidation loss of S02 at about 0.5 percent. With this low oxidation rate, it was concluded that full advantage could be taken of the high cyclic capacity of the buffer solution. 7.0 OPERATIONAL/PROCESS REQUIREMENTS The operational requirements for a typical Elsorb process are shown in the table below. Table 9-4 Parameter Value Chemicals Sodium base and phosphoric acid Steam @ 2.7 bar (130°C) 10.1 ton/hr Electric power 9900 kWh/hr Raw water 60 m3/hr Cooling water 196 m3/hr Paniculate load 20-50 mg/Nm3 ------- 8.0 COSTS Elkem have modelled costs on the EPRI model plant. The plant parameters and corresponding costs for application of the Elsorb process are shown in the tables below. Table 9-5 Parameter Value Plant size/type Flue gas volume Fuel Sulfur content Flue gas S02 concentration Flue gas 02 concentration Flue gas temperature Flue gas pressure S02 cleaning efficiency Oxidation of absorbed S02 to sulfate Annual operating hours Absorption temperature Recovered SOz Oxidation product formed (dry) 300 MWE power plant (EPRI model plant) 1,450,000 Nm3/h Pulverized coal 2.6 percent 1,700 ppmv 5 (volume) percent 139°C 99kPa 95 percent 1 percent 6,000 hrs/yr 51CC 6,592 kg/hr 417kg/hr ------- E-49 Table 9-6 Parameter Value- Capital costs Estimated payback period Annual operating costs Control cost Annual operating income Savings potential Cost year basis Interest rate approximately $300/kWe ($90,000,000 for example) No data available $3,800,000 $479 per ton S02 removed $1,800,000 $30 per ton of sulfuric acid produced 1994 9.6 percent Cost estimates were taken from costs for a Wellman-Lord process, due to Elsorb's similarity to this process. 9.0 SECONDARY IMPACTS • Fly ash disposal: • Wastewater: » Solid waste: The collected particulates must be disposed. Small amounts of acidic effluent, with halides and solids from the prescrubber, need treatment before being discharged. Minor amounts of Na2S04 are formed in the oxidation process but can be used in the fertilizer industry. 10.0 COMPARISON WITH U.S. TECHNOLOGIES A study (by Elkem) comparing the Elsorb process with the Wellman-Lord process claims that the Elsorb process offers: • Less chemical consumption • Less waste disposal • More S02 produced • Less problems dealing with the buffer • Less scaling in the evaporator system ------- E-50 11.0 VARIATIONS Control efficiency (90-98 percent) variable with S02 inlet gas concentration. 12.0 COMMENTS • Capital costs may be considered too high for the utility market, therefore, cost-effectiveness may be an issue. ------- E-51 TECHNOLOGY NUMBER: A-10 BLUEMINSTER PRODUCTION PROCESS OF WATER-BASED LIQUID RESINS AND RESIN DISPERSIONS Vendor: Blueminster Ltd. Kent, U.K. 1.0 PROCESS DESCRIPTION Blueminster has developed a low-energy technology for the production of water-based, high solids adhesives and resin dispersions. This technology will eliminate the use of solvents, including both toxic and non-toxic (chlorinated) hydrocarbons, during the resin and polymer blending phase. The technology developed by Blueminster is based on two key processes discussed below. Production of Liquid Resin X and Resin XE in a resin kettle Resin X is manufactured in a stainless steel resin kettle in which rosin reacts with a blend of glycols. The reaction takes place at a maximum temperature of 240°C and takes ±24 hrs. The kettle is heated by electricity or super-heated steam. Liquid Resin X tackifier/plasticizer contributes to the low temperature performance of adhesives. The liquid resin (Resin X) is modified by the addition of surfactants to form Resin XE. Resin XE is a self-emulsifying tackifier that can be added directly without solvent and with simple stirring to a variety of latexes (polymers) to produce water-based adhesives (see below). Production of Water-based Resin Dispersions in a Dispersion Kettle Water-based resin dispersions with high solids content (58-62 percent) are produced from Resin XE. Rapid inversion takes place in a heated stainless steel kettle fitted with a sweep stirrer and a special stirrer. The dispersions are blended (without solvent) with a variety of latexes including styrene butadiene rubber, acrylic, modified acrylic, E.V.A., polychloroprene, P.V.A., and natural rubber, to produce water-based adhesives. Resin XE dissolves higher melting resins to produce dispersions with an improved higher temperature performance. The softening point is increased to 115"C. This technology may also be applied to resin derivatives, hydrocarbon resins, terpene and terpene phenolic resins, coumarone and coumarone indene resins, styrenated resins. The resin to polymer ratios are: ------- E-52 Liquid resin: 20 parts of resin to 80 parts of polymer. A higher ratio of liquid resin gives a softer adhesive. Resin dispersions: One part of resin to one part of polymer Wastewater treatment will be required for the wash water. The treatment consists of neutralizing and filtering out precipitated resinous material. Waste generated during this process is non-toxic resinous material and can be incinerated. 2.0 CURRENT STATUS Major European/international adhesive manufacturers are utilizing the technology on a commercial scale. Several U.S. manufacturers are currently evaluating the technology. No details were provided on the scale of this trend. 3.0 CASE STUDY No information available. 4.0 APPLICATIONS/LIMITATIONS Industries: • Solvent evaporation: production of pressure sensitive and contact adhesives to be used in the following manufacturing industries: tapes and labels coatings flooring leather wood (including furniture) foam vinyl closures, paper, fabrics food packaging (since water-based adhesives are non-toxic, these adhesives are particularly suitable for this source category). ------- E-53 Limitations: The technology does not produce adhesives that can be exposed to total immersion in water for prolonged periods. The drying process of water-based adhesives is slow compared with solvent based adhesives. 5.0 CONTROLLED POLLUTANTS voc Energy-related emissions (CO, SOX, NOX/ PM) Vendor claims that the water-based adhesives require three to five times less drying energy for application than solvent-based adhesives. 6.0 TEST DATA None available. 7.0 OPERATIONAL/PROCESS PARAMETERS Table 10-1 Parameter Value Maximum temperature Reaction time Equipment Energy Space (10 T resin and 5 T dispersion kettles) 240°C ±24hrs Stainless steel kettle needed with appropriate flow and head space Electricity or super heated steam 1000 ft2 floor 20 ft head 8.0 COSTS Costs are defined below for a production unit with a 10 T resin kettle and 5 T dispersion kettle. ------- E-54 Table 10-2 Parameter Value Capital costs Estimated payback period Operating and maintenance costs Cost <$)/T pollutant removed Cost basis $560,000 1-1.5 years $80,000/yr Given the current market price of solvents and the relatively low operational costs of this new technology, it is likely that the water-based resin may be produced at lower cost compared with current solvent-based adhesives, resulting in a cost savings (with less pollution). U.K. pound, 1995 (exchange rate of $1.60/£) 9.0 SECONDARY IMPACTS • Wastewater from wash water. • Non-toxic resinous waste from wastewater treatment. * Combustion products from the incineration of resinous waste. 10.0 COMPARISON WITH U.S. TECHNOLOGIES Blueminster claims that there are no directly comparable state of the art technologies available in the U.S. 11.0 VARIATIONS Energy, fuel consumption, and space are dependent on batch size, that ranges from 0.5 to 20 tons. 12.0 COMMENTS Limitations regarding exposure to water and longer drying times may limit the applicability, but otherwise it appears promising. ------- E-55 TECHNOLOGY NUMBER: A-11 AIRBORNE 10 ABSORPTION AGENT CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY Vendor: Impex Ltd. Herts, U.K. 1.0 PROCESS DESCRIPTION This technology was developed as a method of controlling odor-causing pollutants (VOCs) from industrial and agricultural facilities. Airborne 10 is a proprietary blend of surfactants that when atomized with water, increases the effective surface area or interface area of the water droplet by 500,000 percent. When introduced into an exhaust gas, the Airborne 10 droplet collides with a pollutant aerosol and absorbs the pollutant. The Airborne 10/pollution aerosol falls to the ground where it is broken down by the natural bacteria present. The high droplet surface area and volume allows for more effective gas contact, scrubbing, and, consequently, more effective air pollution control. The Airborne 10 is fed from a tank through a Dosatron proportional injector to the sprayhead. The sprayhead, a REDCO 200/400/500 Series Atomizer Head, consists of an electrically driven rotary machine that produces 80 percent of the sprayed volume in the desired droplet size. 2.0 CURRENT STATUS Airborne 10 is commercially available and in use in Europe. 3.0 CASE STUDY At North West Water's Wastewater Treatment Plant in the U.K., the Sludge Storage and Transfer facility successfully used Airborne 10 in lieu of a biofilter system to eliminate odors. For biofilter system installation, the price tag has been estimated at $800,000'. For the Airborne 10 system, consisting of two atomizers, installation costs were $6,4001 and annual costs were $ 1,600.* 2Based on an estimated s! -fi/British pound conversion rate. ------- E-56 4.0 APPLICATIONS/LIMITATIONS Industries: • Solid Waste Treatment and Disposal • Chemical Manufacturing • Plastics Manufacture • Bakeries (food industry) Limitations: • Only applicable where Airborne 10 outfall can be safely degraded by natural bacteria on the ground, unless mist eliminators are fitted. The collected solute would then have to be treated as a secondary pollutant (by bioremediation/biodegradation or disposal of in accordance with local regulations). 5.0 CONTROLLED POLLUTANTS VOCs • Toxics 6.0 TEST DATA The vendor cited toxicological test data from a 1993 U.S. testing company report that showed Airborne 10 to be nontoxic and innocuous. The vendor also supplied test data that compared Airborne 10 to a U.S. product for hydrogen sulfide removal from air, as shown in the table below. ------- E-57 Table 11-1 Dilution Product Rate U.S. 375:1 Airborne 10 400:1 Final Concentration (ppm) (ppm) On Contact 5 min 1 5 min 48 40 7 <2 500+ <1 7.0 OPERATIONAL/PROCESS PARAMETERS A clean water supply of < 200 ppm total dissolved solids, with a minimum water pressure of 0.5 bar (7.5 psi.) A power supply of 70 watts per spray head. A sufficient number of heads to obtain dispersal and coverage. A Dosatron, or other automatic proportional dosing equipment. 8.0 COSTS For a 1,500 ton/day waste reclamation plant: Table 11-2 Parameter Value Capital cost Payback period Operating and maintenance costs: Chemical Electricity Water Miscellaneous Annual refurbishing Total Cost saving per ton processed Currency basis $5,768 1 month $9,000 per year $50 per year $75 per year $175 per year $2,700 per year $12,000 $0.37 per ton U.S. Dollar (1995) See also Section 3 (case study) for wastewater treatment plant costs. ------- E-58 9.0 SECONDARY IMPACTS • Wastewater: Because Airborne 10 relies on natural bacteria to degrade byproducts, it is possible that ground contamination could result from toxic or otherwise undesirable byproducts that are either toxic to the naturally occurring bacteria or are not degraded. In this case, mist eliminators could be fitted on the unit. Collected solute would be treated as secondary pollutant using bioremediation, biodegradation, or as specified by local regulations. 10.0 COMPARISON WITH U.S. TECHNOLOGIES The Airborne 10 control technology is far less expensive (up to 90 percent less) than scrubbing towers, packed column scrubbers, and cyclonic scrubbers; Airborne 10 is much less expensive than biofiltration. For the reclamation plant discussed in Section 8 (costs) above, a comparison to a typical biofiltration system is as follows: Table 11-3 Parameter Capital cost Financing cost Operating and maintenance costs Value Biofilter $375,000 $250/yr @ 1 5 percent $60,900 per year Airborne 10 $5,767 Not necessary $11,990 See also Section 3 (case study) for a cost comparison at a wastewater treatment plant. 11.0 VARIATIONS For wastewater treatment plants: ------- 12.0 COMMENTS E-59 Table 11-4 Plant Size Amount of Airborne 10 Needed 2.5 MM Gal/day 2 fl. oz. per hour 36 MMGal/day 5.4 gal per month 50 MMGal/day 25 gal per month • Major concerns are pollutant media transfer from one media to another • Fallout control at small sites or on windy days may be problematic ------- E-60 TECHNOLOGY NUMBER: A-12 OILLESS, DRY CENTRIFUGAL LEAK-FREE COMPRESSORS FOR FUGITIVE EMISSION CONTROL AND ENERGY EFFICIENCY Vendor: Hitachi Ltd. Tokyo, Japan 1.0 PROCESS DESCRIPTION This technology utilizes magnetic bearings and nitrogen gas seals in an oilless, dry, centrifugal, leak-free (ODCC) compressor that controls fugitive emissions normally associated with compressors in petroleum refining. The magnetic bearings in the compressor allow the compressor to be smaller in size and less expensive to operate. The conventional oil-fed bearings require a constant source of oil to maintain lubrication. In addition, the magnetic bearing allows the compressor to take full advantage of a high-speed supercritical rotor, that allows for smaller compressor design with decreased cost and power usage. A dry-gas seal used in the compressor's interstage labyrinths prevents complications that accompany lubricated or water-cooled seals. The gas medium (nitrogen) also is used to cool the seals. The amount of nitrogen is controlled via proportional and integral derivative (PID) process controls that are protected by a secondary nitrogen seal. An automatic balancing system (ABS) is also used in the ODCC. The ABS system employs a tracking filter which synchronizes with the rotating speed and can change or reduce the gain (stiffness) at the rotating speed. In effect, this can reduce vibration due to imbalance by allowing the shaft to rotate about its axis of inertia. The Hitachi centrifugal compressor has the following advantages: • Minimizes space requirements for the compressor • Can utilize a steam turbine driver to optimize the plant's utility balance and reduce energy usage • Reduces plant construction cost as well as running expenses ------- E-61 2.0 CURRENT STATUS A Hitachi compressor was put into commercial operation in December 1992 at an Okinawa Sekiwu Seisei Co. (Japan) petroleum refinery. The compressor has run trouble free (8,000 hours) since installation. There have been many other commercial applications since. 3.0 CASE STUDY Okinawa Oil Refinery. At this petroleum refinery, a net gas booster compressor was required for the Continuous Catalytic Regeneration-Platforming Process in the production of high quality gasoline to pressurize the hydrogen-rich gas to the plant header in the refinery. Normally, a reciprocating compressor is used due to the low molecular weight of the gas and the required high-pressure ratio. However, in order to lower the inlet pressure of the process and to increase the inlet volume of the compressor, three (4-cylinder type) reciprocating compressors (2 operating and 1 spare) would be required, each handling 50 percent of the gas flow and operating in parallel. This type of arrangement usually takes up a large amount of space, which was a major concern during the planning stages since space was at a premium. On the other hand, a conventional centrifugal compressor would take up far less room, solving the spacing problem. However, conventional oil-type centrifugal compressors for this application would have required at least three casings, which would have been a disadvantage in terms of both initial cost and operating expenses. At this stage, a magnetic bearing type compressor was proposed, which would only require a two-casing construction. In order to reduce the number of compressor casings to two, a higher rotational speed was required above the capability of standard impeller materials. Table 12-1 below shows the design of the compressors. Tests performed on the compressors demonstrated the suitability of the ODCC for the intended purpose (see also Section 6, Test Data). The machine was put into commercial operation in December 1992, and has been running without any major trouble for over 8,000 hours. The client's operator and maintenance staff are fully satisfied with this machine because there is no need to change any oil filters; no need for cleaning around the machine area; and because of easy machine monitoring in the control room console, especially for bearing temperature, vibration, and current in the bearing. Also, ------- E-62 capital costs, operating costs, and space requirements were all lower with the ODCC as compared to a reciprocating and conventional centrifugal compressor (see also Section 10 costs). Table 12-1 Parameter Low Pressure Casing High Pressure Casing Hydrogen flow (Nm3/hr) Suction volume (m3/hr) Suction pressure (kg/cm2) Discharge pressure (kg/cm2) Speed (1/min) Shaft power (kW) Speed range (1/min) Driver rating 43,691 15,369 3.4 9.3 43,486 6,311 8.1 20.3 10,600 4,120 9,265 - 11,445 (85 percent - 105 percent) 5,300 kW condensing turbine 4.0 APPLICATIONS/LIMITATIONS Industries: Limitations: Petroleum Refineries Chemical Manufacture Synthetic Organic Chemical Manufacturing Due to inexperience with magnetic bearings, problems with heat accumulation occur. 5.0 CONTROLLED POLLUTANTS VOCs (process fugitives) NOX, PM, C02, CO (through increased energy efficiency) 6.0 TEST DATA ------- E-63 The compressor at the Okinawa refinery was shop performance tested in accordance with ASME PTC-10 and was subject to a mechanical running test in accordance with API 617. 7.0 OPERATIONAL/PROCESS PARAMETERS For the two-stage 44,000 Nm3/hr hydrogen compressor at the Okinawa Refinery: • A 5,300 kW condensing turbine for power • Nitrogen for the gas seals • A PID (proportional-integral-derivative) controller for the seals and magnetic bearings 8.0 COSTS See relative cost data below (Section 10). 9.0 SECONDARY IMPACTS No secondary pollution impacts. 10.0 COMPARISON WITH U.S. TECHNOLOGIES According to Hitachi's economic evaluation, the ODCC compares well in terms of cost and space requirements to other compressor types. Table 12-2 shows the comparisons developed by the vendor. ------- E-64 Table 12-2 Relative Costs Parameter Capital (equipment) cost Operating cost Space requirement Reciprocal 1 1 1 Centrifugal 0.9 1.15 0.43 Dry Centrifugal 0.79 0.96 0.39 In addition, the oilless compressor accomplishes equal performance to the reciprocal and centrifugal compressors without the cleaning required for the lubricated-type compressors. 11.0 VARIATIONS None given. 12.0 COMMENTS Cost analysis is limited to capital costs; information provided doesn't address operating cost differences Heat accumulation may be a problem ------- E-65 TECHNOLOGY NUMBER: A-13 DECREASING WITH ALKALINE-BASED CLEANERS Vendor: Swedish Environmental Protection Agency TEM Foundation Lund, Sweden 1.0 PROCESS DESCRIPTION Alkaline degreasing was proposed as a pollution prevention alternative to conventional degreasing with trichloroethylene during a Swedish study conducted from 1987-1991 at a number of small to medium Swedish industrial facilities. A firm that produces lighting fittings and fixtures, Thorn Jarnkonst AB, successfully switched from trichloroethylene to alkaline degreasers for the study. Alkaline degreasers were found to have the following advantages: • No discharge of solvents to the atmosphere • Major reduction in the amount of hazardous waste • Improved working environment with less solvent vapors See details of the process in the case study below. 2.0 CURRENT STATUS Commercially available. 3.0 CASE STUDY Thorn Jarnkonst, Sweden. Thorn Jarnkonst produces 600,000 units of lighting fixtures for indoor use and 150,000 units for outdoor use. The total number of employees was 400 and their revenues in 1993 were $38.4 million. ------- E-66 The main pollution source at Thorn was air emissions from an organic solvent, trichloroethylene, used during parts cleaning. Previous to the study, 16 tons of trichloroethylene were used, with air emissions of 11 tons and 5 tons of hazardous waste. A changeover to vegetable oils was first performed to make degreasing easier. Substitution of alkaline degreasers for trichloroethylene reduced air emissions of trichloroethylene to zero with no corresponding increase in other air pollutants. Wastewater was generated, however, that required neutralization and sludge separation. This wastewater treatment was performed at the on-site wastewater treatment facility. Hazardous waste decreased from 5 tons of trichloroethylene sludge to 1-2 tons of oil bearing sludge that was below the permitted maximum load. 4.0 APPLICATIONS/LIMITATIONS Industries: • Degreasing • Solvent evaporation Limitations: • None provided 5.0 CONTROLLED POLLUTANTS • Trichloroethylene • VOCs (chlorinated) 6.0 TEST DATA No test data were provided. 7.0 OPERATIONAL/PROCESS PARAMETERS • Alkaline reagent • Water • Energy ------- E-67 8.0 COSTS The following table shows the costs of using alkaline degreasers versus trichloroethylene at the Thorn Jarnkonst site. Table 13-1 Cost Item Chemicals Water Energy Labor Cleaning Equipment Total Annual Costs Cost Basis Value $3,400 $13,500 $18,600 $75,900 $2,500 $113,900 $ 1990 9.0 SECONDARY IMPACTS • Wastewater (neutralization and sludge separation). 10.0 COMPARISON WITH U.S. TECHNOLOGIES The following table compares the cost of using alkaline degreasers at the Thorn Jarnkonst facility to the prior use of trichloroethylene at the same site. ------- E-68 Table 13-2 Cost Item Chemicals Water Energy Labor Cleaning Equipment Capital Costs Total Annual Costs Cost Basis Trichloroethylene $3,400' •o $6,700 $75,900 $33,700' $16,900' $136,600 Value Alkaline Degreasers $3,400 $13,500 $18,600 $75,900 $2,500 None $113,900 $ 1990 * For recycling of trichloroethylene 11.0 VARIATIONS No data provided. 12.0 COMMENTS Technology is cost-effective where water and treatment are available. ------- E-69 TECHNOLOGY NUMBER: A-14 QSL LEAD SMELTER REACTOR Vendor: Lurgi Metallurgie Frankfurt am Main, F.R.G. 1.0 PROCESS DESCRIPTION The QSL process is a continuous treatment of metal sulfide concentrates with oxygen. The process is designed to treat all grades of lead concentrates as well as secondary materials. This technology is applicable to the lead smelting industry. The QSL reactor replaces conventional smelting units (sinter plant and blast/shaft furnaces). The lead recovery rate is estimated to be ±98 percent. The QSL process utilizes a bath smelting process that includes submerged high-pressure injection of oxygen and fossil fuels. Two types of redox reactions take place in the process, as shown below. • Autogenous (exothermic) roast-reaction smelting of raw materials containing sulphur and lead: PbS + 1 '/2 02 = PbO + S02 PbS + 2 02 = PbS04 PbS + 02 = Pb + S02 PbS + 2 PbO = 3 Pb + S02 PbS + PbS04 = 2 Pb + 2 S02 • Carbothermic (endothermic) reduction of metal from the slag: PbO + CO = Pb + C02 C + C02 = 2 CO The reduction zone is separated from the oxidation zone by a partition wall which has an underflow for the exchange of slag and metallic lead and an opening for the process gas. ------- E-70 Post combustion of the oxidation and reduction gases is achieved by injection of oxygen- enriched air or oxygen into the reactor via lances. These lances are located in the roof of the reactor. The exhaust with a high concentration of S02 and some dust leaves the reactor at a temperature of 1150-1200°C. Dust can then be largely removed by an electrostatic precipitator. Precipitated flue dust can be recycled to the process or partially withdrawn to recover cadmium contained in the dust. Heat may be recovered by waste heat boilers. Emissions are further controlled by directing the exhaust through a scrubber and sulfuric acid plant. The process is capable of smelting both concentrates and secondary lead-bearing materials like Pb/Ag-residues, Zn-residues, glasses, slags, and battery paste together. If raw materials contain a high amount of zinc, a separate uptake in the reduction zone may be installed for the recovery of zinc as zinc oxide fume. Under stronger reduction conditions, zinc is partially fumed off. After cooling the exhaust, the oxide dust containing a mixture of zinc and lead oxide is collected in a bag filter. Cadmium, found mainly in the flue dust from the oxidation zone, can be recovered as cadmium-carbonate by bleeding the flue dust to treatment in a separate leaching step. If flue gas heat will be recovered in a convective boiler, the temperature is reduced from 1000 to 650°C. This may be achieved by heat exchange in a radiant heat boiler followed by quenching of the gases. At temperatures in excess of this level in the convective section, flue dust becomes sticky and causes clogging. The advantages of the QSL process are: • Direct recovery of lead during the oxidation of the sulfide • Lower amount of slag due to the direct recovery of lead • Lower gas exhaust volume • Less generation of materials to be recycled • High process flexibility • Possibility of zinc, cadmium, and S02 recovery • Lower capital cost than conventional smelting • Lower operating cost than conventional smelting ------- E-71 2.0 CURRENT STATUS The QSL process is based on patents obtained in 1973 for direct smelting of metals from metal sulfide with oxygen in one smelting unit. German regulations adopted in the mid-1980s made it cost-effective to replace conventional lead smelters with QSL technology. The first full-scale commercial lead smelters came into operation in the early 1990s. Table 14-1 Status Pilot Demonstration Full scale* Full scale/ commercial Full scale* Full scale/ commercial Type of Facility Batch process Continuous smelting Lead smelter Lead smelter Lead smelter Lead smelter Lead Production (T/yr) 5,000 30,000 120,000 75,000 52,000 60,000 Country Germany Germany Canada Germany China South Korea Year 1976- 1979 1981 - 1986 Nov. 1989 -Mar. 1990 Dec. 1990 -Mar. 1992 1990 1991 * Natural gas was used instead of the prescribed coal; this caused a sufficient amount of problems to require shutdown. 3.0 CASE STUDY The case studies include the following processes: • Full-scale lead smelter in commercial operation in Germany (75,000 T/yr) • Full-scale lead smelter in commercial operation in South Korea (60,000 T/yr) The early tests and pilot plants primarily focused on the problems associated with the flow behavior of the slag, chemical and physical processes in the area of the reducing nozzles, and service life of various parts of the reactor (injectors, refractory lining). The following is a description of these two facilities. ------- E-72 Table 14-2 Parameters German Facility Korean Facility Production Capacity (T/yr) (lead output) Reactor Dimensions (meters) Total Length/diameter Oxidation Zone Reduction Zone Feed (dry) (tons per year) Raw material Silica Limestone Recirculating oxygen fumes Recirculating leach residue Coal fines Raw Material Feed Mixture (percent) Concentrates Residues Composition Raw Material (percent) Lead Zinc Copper Arsenic Antimony Cadmium Gases to reactor Oxidation (oxygen) (Nm3/hr) Reduction (coal dust) (T/hr) Slag Production (T/hr) Pb content (percent) Lead bullion (T/hr) Exhaust Gas Stream Volume (Nm3/hr) Temperature (°C) Dust (T/hr) S02 (percent) Cadmium Mercury S02 Lead Copper Arsenic 60,000 41 13x4.5 28 x 4.0 22.7 2.7 5.0 1.3 2.8 53 47 35.0 10.0 0.6 0.3 0.3 0.3 7300 1.4 8.8 2.0 7.9 22,000 - 24,000 ±1,200 ±6 8-10 0.001 mg/Nm3 < 0.0005 mg/Nm3 0.01 mg/Nm3 0.1 0.01 < 0.0005 75,000 33 11 x 3.5 22 x 3.0 20.8 0.004 0.3 4.3 1.9 63 37 45.0 5.0 0.7 0.3 0.4 0.05 4700 0.9 7.1 2.5 9.6 30,000 - 32,000 NA 7-8 9- 10 ------- E-73 4.0 APPLICATIONS/LIMITATIONS Industries: Limitations: Primary Lead industry Although originally a lead content in primary slag of 40-50 percent was required, experience has shown that a level of 25-35 percent is possible without substantial increase in flue dust. High levels of PbO in the primary slag reduce the generation of lead fume. The PbO content in the primary slag governs the slag fall (addition of fluxes) and the amount of reductant required. 5.0 CONTROLLED POLLUTANTS Lead Arsenic, cadmium, and S02 (due to reduced mass flow of recycled material) Energy-related pollutants (NOX, PM, CO, and possibly SOX) 6.0 TEST DATA Emissions tests were performed at a German lead smelting plant. Significant emission reductions of lead, cadmium and S02 were found. The QSL technology was shown to meet German air quality standards. The table below presents data for the QSL process and compares the data to a conventional plant. ------- Parameter Lead Arsenic Cadmium S02 Energy per ton of lead produced E-74 Table 14-3 Reduction > 50 percent ± 70 percent ± 70 percent ± 90 percent ± 50 percent 1 00,000 TPY Lead Production QSL Conventional 87 g 400 g - - _ _ 2.6 kg 40 kg 1 .028 1 03 kcal 2.055 1 03 kcal 7.0 OPERATIONAL/PROCESS PARAMETERS The only additional parameter needed for the QSL process is a source of oxygen-enriched air. See Table 14-2 above for the process parameters used in the case studies (Section 3.0). 8.0 COSTS Both the German and Korean operations described in Table 14-2 above have reported that the capital and operating costs of the QSL process are lower than with the conventional primary lead smelting process (sinter/furnace process) built new. However, no details were provided. It should be noted that retrofit of existing conventional furnaces is not possible with the QSL process. The capital costs for the QSL facility in Germany were estimated by the vendor at $70 million (100 million DM). No details are included on what these costs include (e.g., smelter, sulfuric acid facility, power generating plant, control equipment). 9.0 SECONDARY IMPACTS Process waste contains cadmium, arsenic trioxide, and H2S04 (that can be recycled into sellable products). Process wastewater contains sulfuric acid (that may be recovered and used in other on-site processes.) Slag that must be disposed of. ------- E-75 10.0 COMPARISON WITH U.S. TECHNOLOGIES A comparison to the standard lead production process (used in the U.S.), that uses sinter machines and blast furnace, was performed by German authorities. It was found that emissions with the QSL process were 92.6, 93.3, and 98.3 percent, respectively, of the emissions of lead, cadmium, and S02 at conventional lead production facilities. 11.0 VARIATIONS Primary/secondary lead ratio may be varied dependent on the plant design. 12.0 COMMENTS • High initial capital investment may make this technology more feasible for new construction rather than retrofits. ------- E-76 TECHNOLOGY NUMBER: B-1 USE OF ENVIROTREAT MODIFIED CLAYS FOR THE CONTROL OF VOC IN WASTE AIR STREAMS Vendor: Rowe Technology, Ltd. N. Yorks, U.K. 1.0 PROCESS DESCRIPTION This technology utilizes a range of modified clays that readily react with pollutants contained in waste air streams. The clays act as a filter to remove the VOCs in the air stream. The Envirotreat clays (E-clays) were developed initially for use in land remediation, but the high reactivity of the clays made them well suited for air pollution as well. The equipment required for implementation is similar to that used with activated carbon processes. Unlike activated carbon which, once saturated with VOCs, must be treated to avoid the reversal of the adsorption process, the E-clays do not require treatment and will not desorb the pollutants back into the environment. The E-clays work by forming a series of complex chemical bonds with the organic materials in a process that is irreversible. The end material formed by the reaction between the clays and the organic compounds is safe and stable. The E-clays will absorb twenty to thirty times their own weight of organic contamination. This technology is best applied in cases where there are a number of contaminants in the exhaust stream and it is not economical to recover and separate them. It is also effective in the case of a high volume air stream with a low concentration of pollutants. E-clays can also be used in conjunction with activated carbon systems, because long chain organics that typically reduce carbon bed lifespan and reduce efficiency are controlled by the E-clays. 2.0 CURRENT STATUS The E-clays are fully developed and in use as a remediation technology for contaminated land. A prototype design for air pollution has been completed and will be constructed in the near future, at which point full testing on polluted air streams will commence. ------- E-77 3.0 CASE STUDY No case study information available. 4.0 APPLICATIONS/LIMITATIONS Industries: • Surface Coating Solvent Evaporation • Chemical Manufacture Limitations: • As E-clay bonding process is irreversible, industries that rely on solvent recovery would not be suitable. 5.0 CONTROLLED POLLUTANTS VOCs • Dioxins 6.0 TEST DATA The filter media (E-clays) have been tested using the U.S. TCLP (Toxic Characteristic Leaching Procedure) to prove that the clays can be safely deposited in standard landfill sites. However, no tests have been performed at full-scale sites with loaded clays, since a prototype has not been constructed. 7.0 OPERATIONAL/PROCESS PARAMETERS The following are the operational/process requirements for an E-clay system: • Electric power for the air extraction fan • E-clay replacement, that varies according to use, i.e., concentration of pollutants in air stream • Clay filter vessels that range in size from 33' x 25' (airflow of 235 cfm) to 100' x 100' (airflow of 15,000 cfm) 8.0 COSTS ------- E-78 The following are costs for typical E-clay units: Table 1-1 Unit Size Parameter Large Small Capital cost $25,000 $5,000 Clay replacement (annual) $3,000 $100 Cost basis U.S. dollar, 1995 Cost per ton of pollutant removed $90 9.0 SECONDARY IMPACTS • Solid waste: Spent clay must be disposed of at standard landfill sites. The material formed in clay-organic bonding process is stable and safe, and the clays are permeable. 10.0 COMPARISON WITH U.S. TECHNOLOGIES The organo-clays that have been developed in the U.S. were not developed for pollution control, but for other industries. The average cost of these products is $3,000 per ton versus $1,800 per ton for the E-clays. Also, the E-clays are more reactive than U.S. organo-clays and will handle a wider range of contaminants. 11.0 VARIATIONS The capital cost of an E-clay filter is governed by two factors-air flow and the concentration of pollutants. The greater the air flow and/or concentration of the pollutants, the greater the volume of clay required. 12.0 COMMENTS The high volume, low concentration application provided by this technology is extremely important and is presently without effective and economic control technologies. ------- E-79 • Other potential applications could include air streams from groundwater stripping, odor control for rendering plants, fabricated rubber products. • The bed thickness of 0.1 inches that is required for this technology could be extremely difficult to manufacture. Breakthrough due to non-uniformity could be a problem. • Other potential limitations could include hazardous waste disposal costs, solid waste disposal costs. » Many costs were not considered in the analysis including power for the blower, operation and maintenance costs, and waste disposal costs. ------- E-80 TECHNOLOGY NUMBER: B-2 FLUIDIZED-BED CEMENT KILN TECHNOLOGY Vendor: Center for Clean Coal Utilization Tokyo, Japan 1.0 PROCESS DESCRIPTION This technology sinters cement clinker in a fluidized-bed kiln system, comprised of a spouted-bed kiln (granulation), a fluidized-bed kiln (sintering), and a fluidized-bed quencher cooler. This system was developed to improve cement production that is traditionally performed in rotary kilns. The Japanese technology improves the combustion and heat transfer characteristics of the cement production process, enabling better control of the sintering temperature. Unlike rotary kilns, the fluidized-bed kiln has no fire flames and the levels of NOX are therefore very low. When compared with a rotary kiln, the fluidized bed system produces only a third of the NOX, when heavy oil is used as a fuel, and one half when coal is used. Compared with the traditional rotary cement kilns, this technology also cuts energy consumption, thereby reducing C02 emissions. The fluidized bed system also enables lower grades of coal to be used (low carbon and high hydrogen content). This, combined with reduced fuel consumption, results in a 1-12 percent reduction in C02 emissions. The key features of this new technology are: • Improves combustion (sintering) efficiency by 5 percent or more (from 55 percent to 60 percent). • Reduces fuel consumption by 10-12 percent. • Reduces C02 emissions by 10-12 percent. • Saves natural resources by expanding the grades of coal which can be used. • Reduces construction costs by 30 percent. • Saves installation space by 70 percent. ------- E-81 2.0 CURRENT STATUS The program to develop the fluidized-bed kiln was started in 1986 by the Japanese Ministry of International Trade and Industry. A large scale production plant (200 t/day) is under construction and a test operation was to have been started in January 1996. The development schedule is shown below: Table 2-1 Stage Capacity Country Year Comments Feasibility study Pilot Plant Design and Construction Pilot Plant testing Production Plant Design and Construction Production Plant testing Japan 1986 20 t/day Japan 1987-1988 1 /100 scale of actual plant Japan 1989-1992 200 t/day Japan 1993-1995 1 /10 scale of actual plant 1995-1997 3.0 CASE STUDY As this technology is in the development stage, case studies of a commercial system are not available. The details given below are based on a 20 t/day pilot plant operation. In the pilot study, it was found that clinkers can be continuously granulated in the spouting bed kiln (SBK) with no need for seed clinkers. The process was found to be unaffected by the type of fuel used (heavy oil or coal). The diameter of the granules was found to be dependent on the temperature of the SBK and was therefore easily controlled. The size of the granules obtained was found to be very uniform and, consequently, their fluidity in the fluidized-bed kiln (FBK) was easily maintained. In the FBK, the quality of the clinkers was found to be equal in quality to those produced in a rotary kiln. Once again clinker quality was found to be unaffected by the type of fuel used. The system uses a fluidized-bed quenching cooler for maintaining clinker quality and a packed-bed cooler for recovering waste heat. In the pilot plant, the efficiency of waste heat recovery exceeded 80 percent, more than 20 percent higher than in conventional systems. Heat recovery was affected by flow rate in the cooler, clinker size, and cool air intake. ------- E-82 4.0 APPLICATIONS/LIMITATIONS Industries: • Cement Manufacture Limitations: • None cited. 5.0 CONTROLLED POLLUTANTS C02 NOX 6.0 TEST DATA Performance testing on the pilot plant (20 t/day) was carried out from June 1989 to March 1993. NOX emissions test results are shown below. The NOX tests were performed during granulation and sintering of clinkers for normal Portland cement. Table 2-2 NO, Emissions* System Heavy oil fuel Pulverized coal Fluidized-bed cement kiln 60 - 100 ppm 230 - 270 ppm Rotary kiln (traditional) 180 - 220 ppm 350 - 450 ppm ' At conditions with 10 percent 02 ------- E-83 7.0 OPERATIONAL/PROCESS PARAMETERS The specifications of the 20 t/day pilot plant are shown in the table below. Table 2-3 Parameter Value Granulating unit: spouted-bed kiln (SBK) Operating temperature 1,300 to 1,350°C Sintering unit: fluidized-bed kiln (FBK) Operating temperature 1,400 to 1,450°C Cooling unit: fluidized-bed quenching cooler (FBQ) Cooling range 1,400°C to 1,450°C Packed-bed cooler (PBC) Cooling range 1,000 down to 100°C Heat input 670 kcal/kg clinker 8.0 COSTS Although no cost data was supplied, the developers claim that this technology is cost competitive with traditional rotary cement kilns. A feasibility study will be carried out after the test run of the 200 t/day production plant. 9.0 SECONDARY IMPACTS No additional secondary impacts reported as compared to the traditional process. 10.0 COMPARISON WITH U.S. TECHNOLOGIES As far as the developers are aware, there are no similar technologies elsewhere in the world. 11.0 VARIATIONS The clinker quality is expected to be unaffected by the type of fuel used. ------- E-84 12.0 COMMENTS • While technology looks promising, it should be run at production plant level for a period of time to ensure feasibility and cost-effectiveness. • Energy savings are the driver for this technology. ------- E-85 TECHNOLOGY NUMBER: B-3 LOW-TEMPERATURE CATALYTIC INCINERATION Vendor: Babcock Hitachi KK Tokyo, Japan 1.0 PROCESS DESCRIPTION Various catalysts have been developed to facilitate the incineration of pollutants in exhaust streams with low calorific values at low combustion temperature (room temperature to 800"C). This catalytic incineration process provides a means of oxidizing low concentrations of (organic) pollutants by an improved combustion process utilizing noble metals, base metal oxides, and transition metals as catalysts. In the catalytic incineration process, thermal NOX production is also suppressed, as opposed to normal incineration. The catalytic combustion system is composed of a catalytic combustor, heat exchanger, waste energy recovery unit, starting preheater, fan and stack. The catalyst used in the process is in a honeycomb form, thus allowing the gases to flow in a laminar state with a low pressure drop through the catalyst. The catalytic combustor is lined with refractory material and has a framework for dispersing the gases uniformly. In the process, the emission gas is boosted to the required pressure by a blower. In order to achieve complete combustion, the exhaust gas is passed through a heat exchanger to the catalytic combustor. For inlet gases with very low calorific values, the inlet temperature to the combustion chamber must be raised to ensure that the material reaches the complete combustion temperature. A plate type heat exchanger is used for temperatures below 800° C, while shell and tube type heat exchangers may be used for higher temperatures. An auxiliary burner, installed between the heat exchanger and combustion chamber, can be used for this purpose. The combustion heat is further recovered in a waste heat boiler prior to the release of combustion products to the atmosphere. ------- E-86 2.0 CURRENT STATUS Development of the system began in 1982 and it is now available commercially. Two full-scale systems for the treatment of emission exhaust gases have been installed: • At an acrylic acid plant; estimated gas flow is 20,000 Nm3/hr. • At a styrene monomer plant; estimated gas flow is 60,000 Nm3/hr. 3.0 CASE STUDY No data provided. 4.0 APPLICATIONS/LIMITATIONS Industries: Chemical Manufacturing Plastics Manufacture Bakeries (food industry) Any industry with low hydrocarbon emissions. Table 3-1 Industry Types of Emissions Target Chemicals Chemical Plastics Food Paint Adhesive Vent and purge gas Byproduct gas Solvents Kitchen emissions Solvents Solvents Hydrogen, CO, propane, methanol, organic acids Styrene, butadiene Trimethylamine, formalin Acetone, toluene, methanol, formaldehyde Toluene, benzene, acetone, methanol Limitations: Process limited to exhaust gases with low concentrations of pollutants. ------- E-87 To prevent poisoning of the catalyst, potential poisons must be removed prior to combustion. (See Table 3-2 below.) New catalysts are being developed to deal with poisonous chemicals. Table 3-2 Potential Catalyst Poisons Poison Mechanism Effects Metals - Hg, Pb, Sn, Zn Non metals - P, Sb, Bi, As, Si Halogens - Cl, F, Br Sulphur compounds - S02, S03, H2S, thiols Tar materials Chemical combination with active sites Chemical combination with active sites Adsorption on active sites Adsorption on active sites and chemical combination with carrier Permanent poisoning Permanent poisoning Regeneration of catalyst by high temperatures Regeneration of catalyst by high temperatures Deposit on catalyst surface blocking Regeneration by pores incineration removal 5.0 CONTROLLED POLLUTANTS The vendor states that the catalytic combustion process is applicable to the following gases: Inorganic gases: Organic gases: Alkenes: Aromatics: Alcohols: Ethers: Aldehydes: Ketones: Acids/esters: hydrogen, carbon monoxide methane, ethane, propane, butane ethene (ethylene), propene (propylene), butene cyclopentane, cyclohexane, benzene, toluene, xylene, ethylbenzene ethanol, methanol, propanol dimethyl ether, diethyl ether formaldehyde, acetaldehyde acetone, methyl ethyl ketone ethanoic acid, acrylic acid, ethyl acetate 6.0 TEST DATA No full-scale test data were provided. Laboratory endurance test results showed that the catalyst can achieve 90 percent conversion of all targeted chemicals at approximately 350"C ------- E-88 and does not deteriorate beyond this level after 3000 hours of service. The conventional catalysts tested in conjunction with the Hitachi catalysts quickly deteriorated after initial exposure so that after 400 hours of exposure an inlet temperature of at least 500° C was required, with an inlet temperature of 800"C required after about 1000 hours of exposure. 7.0 OPERATIONAL/PROCESS PARAMETERS The following are process parameters for the Hitachi catalysts. Table 3-3 Parameter Requirement Energy potential of gas to be heated Fuel and power Combustion temperature Space 20,000 Nm3/hr system 60,000 Nm3/hr system 40-400 kcal/Nm3 (167.4-1673.6 kJ/Nm3} Electricity and small amounts of LPG or kerosene for the auxiliary burner 400-800"C (depends on catalyst) 12 x 15m (180m2) 19 x 15m (285m2) 8.0 COSTS The following are the costs of the Hitachi catalysts. Table 3-4 Parameter Plant Size (Nm3/hr) 20,000 60,000 Capital costs Operating costs Catalyst exchanging costs Payback period ' Assumed. $1,300,000(1990) Small amount of electricity $360,000 every 3 years' $2,800,000(1993) Small amount of electricity $1,080,000 every 3 years' Vendor claims that the systems have not been running long enough to determine this ------- E-89 9-0 SECONDARY IMPACTS Since the process requires electricity for the blower, and fossil fuels may be used in the auxiliary burner, energy-related air pollution can occur. The catalyst needs to be replaced periodically and the spent catalyst disposed of. 10.0 COMPARISON WITH U.S. TECHNOLOGIES No data available. 11.0 VARIATIONS Various catalysts have been developed for different applications (see table below). However, it should be noted that reductions in temperature and pressure below the optimum range of the catalyst can lead to incomplete combustion. Table 3-5 Catalyst Type* Application Controlled Pollutants (exampte) LT1 LT2 HT2 HT2 HT3 SX1 SX2 Active at low temperatures (100-500DC) Active at room temperature (adsorption and dissociation) Heat resistant up to 1,000°C Heat resistant up to 800°C Heat resistant up to 800DC in very steamy conditions Resistant to S02 poisoning Resistant to halogen poisoning Aldehydes, alcohols, ammonia, amines, CO, etc. Methyl mercaptan, trimethyl amine, methyl sulfide, H2S Alkanes, aromatics, various solvents, organic acids, etc VOC streams VOC streams (containing steam) VOC (containing S02) VOC (containing halogens) •LT HT SX = Low Temperature = High Temperature = Non-metal Poisoning Resistant 12.0 COMMENTS High catalyst cost and catalyst poisoning are both of concern. ------- E-90 TECHNOLOGY NUMBER: B-4 FLUIDIZED-BED HEAT TREATMENT OF METAL COMPONENTS Vendor: Quality Heat Treatment Pty Ltd. Victoria, Australia 1.0 PROCESS DESCRIPTION This technology utilizes fluidized beds for the heat treatment of tool metal. Tool metal is typically heat treated in salt baths or vacuum furnaces for the purpose of obtaining proper metal hardness and microstructure. A new technology developed by Quality Heat Treatment reduces the environmental impact of heat treatment of steel and other tool metals. Steel is hardened by heat treating to improve its properties. Hardening, carburising and nitrocarburising are all steel heat treatment processes that use baths of molten salts, such as nitrites, nitrates, carbonates, cyanides, chlorides, or caustics. The combination of these chemicals and heat not only causes air pollution related health problems, but also creates environmental problems when disposing of the waste. Waste products all require treatment before release to the environment, with the disposal of cyanide salts at $3,300 per ton. A mixture of air, ammonia, nitrogen, natural gas, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), and other gases is used as the fluidizing gas to carry out a heat treatment in Quality Heat's Fluidized-Bed Heat Treatment technology. This technology: • Reduces amounts of effluent • Improves safety and working atmosphere • Reduces the amount of energy used • Improves quality and uniformity of the final product • The use of 120 mesh or {105 fjm) white aluminum oxide significantly reduces the usage of nitrogen. • The computer controlled fluidization optimizes gas usage and heat transfer, reducing the amount of gases used. • Can be run in a fast track line allowing all processes to be performed in line and quickly changed. Speed of heating and cooling is similar to salt baths and can be individually reduced to optimize the heat treatment of each part. Process times also can be reduced. ------- E-91 2.0 CURRENT STATUS The technology is commercially available and is used throughout the world in countries such as Australia, New Zealand, Japan, Germany, Columbia, Egypt, Jordan, China, Malaysia, Indonesia, Taiwan, and Korea. Some locations are shown in the table below. Table 4-1 Status Full scale Full scale Full scale Full scale Country Australia Indonesia Malaysia Malaysia Company Comalco PT Indal Fujisash Aluform 3.0 CASE STUDY Chartered Metal Industries (CMI), Singapore. For the toolroom at the Chartered Metal Industries (CMI) in Singapore, the standard heat treatment process was a cyanide salt bath. Disposal of cyanide salt typically cost $3,300 per ton. In addition, there are the environmental hazards that result from the use of toxic salts, including the neutralization of quench water, oil, cleaning water and washing water, as well as the off-gases that must be chemically scrubbed. CMI replaced their existing salt bath line with Quality Heat fluidized beds. The advantages of the fluidized-bed furnaces included temperature uniformity, atmosphere control, and the environmental benefits of no longer using the cyanide salt. The fluidized beds showed significant cost savings versus the salt baths at approximately $87,000 per year. The loading and handling capacities of CMI's Quality Heat fluidized bed are shown in Table 4-2 below. ------- E-92 Table 4-2 Temperature (°C) Parameter Throughput (kg/hr) Maximum load (kg) Nitrogen (ms/hr) 250 275 300 35 700 180 220 10 1100 100 150 7 4.0 APPLICATIONS/LIMITATIONS Industries: • Primary Metals manufacturing 5.0 CONTROLLED POLLUTANTS VOCs • Halogenated compounds • Metals • Eliminates the use of cyanide (and barium) used in salt baths; therefore eliminates these potential emissions. 6.0 TEST DATA None available. ------- E-93 7.0 OPERATIONAL/PROCESS PARAMETERS The table below shows the operational parameters for the Quality Heat Treatment technology. Table 4-3 Parameter Value Temperature Furnace size Furnace volume (bed) Production loading capacity (per bed) Furnace heat up time (approx. from cold) Safety controls Low gas flow alarm Power failure Over temperature Heating Electricity Fluidizing atmosphere (per bed) Ambient to 1100°C Bed 700 mm diameter by 900 mm deep Load weight of aluminum oxide 615 kg See Table 4-4 below 0.5 hours ambient to 200 °C 1.0 hours ambient to 360 °C 1.5 hours ambient to 500 °C 2.0 hours ambient to 720 "C 2.5 hours ambient to 900 °C 3.0 hours ambient to 1100 °C Shuts off heating if fluidizing gas supply fails An automatic nitrogen by-pass system is provided to protect work Shuts down elements if set temperature is exceeded 125kW See Table 4-5 below ------- E-94 Table 4-4 Throughput (Approximate) 225 kg/hrat 1100°C 300kg/hrat 1000°C 350 kg/hrat 900 °C 400 kg/hrat 700 °C 500 kg/hrat 500 °C 600 kg/hrat 250 °C Maximum Load* 300kg 400kg 400kg 560kg 600kg 600kg Recommended loading capacity based on load weight in steel, including baskets and fixtures, and sized so that no more than 50 percent of open area is occupied by the work load. Table 4-5 Temperature <°C) Room Temperature 250 500 Fluidizing Air (m3/hr) 124at40kPa 70-80 36-38 Inert gas < 1 0ppm 02 (m3/hr) 124at40kPa 70-80 36-38 Carburising gas, Natural, Propane, or LPG (m3/hr) - - 4 at 1 0 percent Ammonia/ Dry ammonia (m3/hr) - - 20 at 50 percent 750 1000 22-24 15-17 22-24 15-17 air flow 12 at 50 percent air flow 2 at 10 percent air flow air flow 12 at 50 percent air flow 2 at 10 percent air flow 1100 13-15 13-15 ------- E-95 8.0 COSTS Costs below are based on the system described in the CMI, Singapore, case study (Section 3.0): Table 4-6 Item Value Capital costs (investment) Estimated payback period Operating and maintenance costs (per year) Energy and salt Total cost savings Cost year basis $180,000 2 years (approximately) $36,000 $51,000 $87,000 U.S.$, 1994 9.0 SECONDARY IMPACTS No data available. 10.0 COMPARISON WITH U.S. TECHNOLOGIES Quality Heat compared their fluidized bed process with similar processes from U.S. manufacturers, and claims that the Quality Heat process offers: • Lower capital costs. • More sophisticated systems. • 20 percent less in hourly running costs. For the cost example above ($180,000 in capital costs for the CMI System), the vendors estimated that the capital costs for atmospheric and vacuum furnaces performing the same processes would be $350,000 and $500,000, respectively. In general, when compared to vacuum furnaces, the Quality Heat System is estimated to have lower operating costs, at $0.33/kg (estimated) as compared to $0.85/kg for vacuum furnaces; 2.5 times lower capital costs; and 1.5 times more capacity. ------- E-96 11.0 VARIATIONS The total mass of metal that can be treated varies with temperature. 12.0 COMMENTS • None provided. ------- E-97 TECHNOLOGY NUMBER: B-5 BIOTON B10FILTER FOR CONTROL OF AIR POLLUTANTS Vendor: ClairTech Utrech, the Netherlands 1.0 PROCESS DESCRIPTION This technology employs biofiltration to treat VOC (odor)-containing industrial exhaust. In Europe, it is a proven technology that is economical for high volume of gasses which have a low concentration of pollutants. The BIOTON system utilizes the natural process of VOC degradation by microorganisms, on compost. The BIOTON biofilter works by providing an environment in which the microorganisms can thrive. The construction of this environment begins with organic-bearing material, such as compost, surrounded by a thin film of water. The compost serves as the nutrient source for the microorganisms until the polluted gas stream becomes the food source. One cubic meter of filter material can provide approximately 10 million particles, and each particle can house up to 100,000 microorganisms. The industrial exhaust first passes over the filter, where the pollutants diffuse into the water phase that contains the microorganisms. The microorganisms subsequently biodegrade the pollutants by oxidation, producing by-products of water and carbon dioxide, the latter of which is emitted to the atmosphere. An alkane, for example, is oxidized to a primary alcohol, then to an aldehyde, and later to an organic acid. Once the hydrocarbon has been converted to an acid, it can be metabolized further to carbon dioxide. Control efficiency is estimated to be as high as 90 percent. During short periods, the concentrations of pollutants in the biofilter can be very high. In these cases, the biofilter will have a control efficiency of 80 percent. This control is achieved by mixing activated carbon through the filter material. 2.0 CURRENT STATUS The BIOTON biofilter is widely used in more than 20 industrial facilities throughout Europe. Industrial facilities using the BIOTON system include Cyanamid, Coca-Cola, Ciba Geigy, Fuji Photo, AKZO Chemical, Cargill, and Novo Nordisk. ------- E-98 3.0 CASE STUDY A large BIOTON filter (approximately 120 m3) was purchased by AKZO Chemical's Sikkens facility in 1988 for control of their paint production process. The exhaust gas volume was typically 5,500 m3/hr, but reached up to 12,000 m3/hr. The gas stream components included xylene, toluene, methyl ethyl ketone, and many other solvents. The main source of these pollutants was cleaning solvents. The biofilter removed approximately 90 percent of the solvents. 4.0 APPLICATIONS/LIMITATIONS Industries: Limitations: • Surface Coating • Chemical Manufacture • Synthetic Organic Chemical Manufacturing • Low to medium inlet concentrations of air contaminants • Temperature range of 18-4VC • High concentrations of acid-forming pollutants limit filter material lifespan 5.0 CONTROLLED POLLUTANTS VOCs • Toxics 6.0 TEST DATA A series of tests were conducted at a Styrene-Butadiene-Rubber plant in Austria in 1989 by ClairTech. The biofilter was tested with an exhaust gas that had styrene concentrations ranging from 10 to 100 ppmv. Although the gas stream contained primarily styrene, smaller quantities of other solvents were also present. The pilot plant treated 128 m3/hr of exhaust gas with a filter volume of 1.6 m3. The residence time of the gas in the filter was approximately 45 seconds; the gas stream temperature was approximately 25°C. The average inlet pollutant concentration was 35 ppmv, with inlet concentrations ranging from 19 ppmv to ------- E-99 74 ppmv. Control efficiencies ranged from 91 percent (at 52 ppmv) to 100 percent. The average control efficiency was 98 percent. 7.0 OPERATIONAL/PROCESS PARAMETERS This technology requires the following for operation: • A fan to move the gas stream over the filter • A recirculating pump in the humidifying column • Water to bring the gas stream to 98 percent humidity. • A temperature range of 18-41°C • Filter water-phase pH of 7. 8.0 COSTS • Capital cost: $15-100 per cfm of treated air 9.0 SECONDARY IMPACTS • The aged filter material must be disposed of in a municipal dump or used in agricultural operations. 10.0 COMPARISON WITH U.S. TECHNOLOGIES No comparisons provided. 11.0 VARIATIONS The biofilter is very sensitive to the concentration and nature of the pollutants. For example, benzene can be successfully biodegraded in a mixed gas stream, while pure benzene is poisonous to the microorganisms in concentrations above 10 ppmv. ------- E-100 TECHNOLOGY NUMBER: B-6 ECOCLEAN CLEANING MACHINES SOS, 81S, AND 83S FOR DECREASING Vendor: Durr Industries (Automation, Inc.) F.R.G. 1.0 PROCESS DESCRIPTION The Ecoclean cleaning machines are self-contained low-emission vapor degreasers (LEVD) that are an alternative to conventional vapor degreasers used throughout industry. The LEVDs are completely enclosed and airtight machines that significantly reduce air emissions and solvent loss. The Ecoclean LEVDs can reduce air emissions by over 99 percent. The machines are designed to use chlorinated solvents such as perchloroethylene, trichloroethylene, 1,1,1-trichloroethane, and methylene chloride. Wastewater discharges are small, and waste solids are equivalent to those currently generated by current vapor degreasing technology. In conventional vapor degreasing, solvent vapors condense on parts, and this condensate drains off the part, carrying the contaminants to a sump. The solvent is re-used until the contaminants accumulate to the point where the solvent is no longer usable and must be discarded. It is estimated that up to 90 percent of the solvent is lost through air emissions. The parts are placed in a basket that is lowered into the machine chamber that is then hermetically sealed shut. The machine proceeds through timed cleaning cycles that can be adjusted by the operator. In the first cycle, the degreasing cycle, solvent vapors are generated in a jacket that surrounds the working chamber. The solvent vapors then pass up through the working chamber, condensing and removing soils and other contaminants from the parts. The condensate passes to a water separator and on to the sump. The next cycle is the condensation cycle, where the remaining solvent vapors are condensed by a refrigerated cooling coil at the bottom of the working chamber. The machine then enters an air recirculation stage, where the air-solvent mixture in the chamber is recirculated through a chiller to further condense out more solvent. The next stage is a carbon heat-up cycle, where the chamber air is heated by a fan and passed through a series of activated carbon filter mats. This cycle allows for solvent captured by the carbon mats in the last cleaning cycle to desorb and be collected in the sump. ------- E-101 To collect the solvent from each cleaning cycle, the chamber air is recirculated in the reverse direction, passing first through the chiller and then through the carbon mats in the adsorption stage. The cool solvent vapor is adsorbed by the carbon mats, allowing for almost no solvent vapor to exhaust out of the chamber when the workload of parts is removed. 2. 0 CURRENT STATUS These machines have been commercially available in Europe, and now are commercially available in the United States through a U.S. affiliate. 3.0 CASE STUDY The Ecoclean 83-S was tested in a case study performed by Battelle Institute, commissioned by the U.S. EPA under the Waste Reduction and Innovative Technology Evaluation (WRITE) Program. The LEVD was shown to reduce air emissions by over 99 percent. It was concluded that the LEVD was a cost-effective air pollution solution with pollution prevention capabilities. 4.0 APPLICATIONS/LIMITATIONS Industries: • Solvent Evaporation (degreasing and dry cleaning) Limitations: • Depending on the model, the weight of parts that can be cleaned is limited. • Depending on the metal being cleaned, the weight of parts and the time required to clean them will vary. Aluminum, for instance, will reach the vapor temperature much more quickly than steel. This difference means that fewer aluminum parts can be cleaned per unit time than steel parts. 5.0 CONTROLLED POLLUTANTS VOCs • Toxics ------- E-102 6.0 TEST DATA Under the Battelle Laboratory program, product quality tests were run on the Ecoclean 83-S using perchloroethylene (PCE) solvent. The test was conducted on machined steel parts contaminated with various amounts of cutting oil. The machine was run through complete cycles nine times. Total cycle time varied considerably with workload mass, while degree of contamination appeared to have little effect. The parts were examined after each run to determine the level of cleaning. No contamination was found on the parts from any of these runs. Furthermore, there was less water combination of solvent that might lead to solvent depletion and acid formation by hydrolysis. To measure emissions from the LEVD, a flame ionization detector (FID) was used. The first FID was inserted into the working chamber of the LEVD to measure the concentration of any residual perchloroethylene following a cycle run. The second FID was used to continuously monitor the emissions around the LEVD, to ensure leak-proof operation. The FID's were calibrated with PCE standards and monitored through a single data capture system. Throughout the test, the exterior FID read at ambient conditions. The interior FID read well below the target concentration of 150 ppm, within a range of 40-50 ppm. When the lid was opened, the exterior FID leaped to 6 ppm, but both FIDs leveled out at 3-4 ppm in a short period of time. In fact, elevated exterior levels did not occur often, and were often remedied with a simple adjustment of the LEVD seal pressure. The typical discharge of solvent, which occurred at the opening of the LEVD lid, was 0.00132 Ib/cycle. 7.0 OPERATIONAL/PROCESS PARAMETERS The following specifications are required for the Ecoclean 83-S: • 93,725 kW-hrs per year electrical power. • Operator time of 5 min/cycle. 8.0 COSTS The Battelle economic evaluation lists the following costs for the Ecoclean 83-S: ------- E-103 Table 6-1 Parameter Value Capital cost $210,000 Payback period 1 o years Operation and maintenance costs $12,673 per year Electricity $0.04/kW-hr Operator and maintenance labor $8/hr Currency basis U.S. Dollar ($) -1993 Cost of workload degreased $30/ton 9.0 SECONDARY IMPACTS • Sludge (landfill disposal) equivalent to conventional degreasers. 10.0 COMPARISON WITH U.S. TECHNOLOGIES According to the Battelle study, the LEVD reduced air emissions by over 99 percent compared with the estimated air emissions from a conventional open-top vapor degreaser of similar size. Furthermore, the Battelle economic evaluation showed that operating cost for the LEVD was $12,673 per year, versus $35,640 per year for the conventional degreaser. According to the evaluation, with a purchase price of $210,000 and payback period of 10 years, a composite savings of $22,967 results. 11.0 VARIATIONS The type of part material dictates how much the LEVD can clean in a set period of time. Also, the amount of cleaning that can be accomplished per unit time is dependent upon how quickly the parts reach the solvent vapor temperature. According to the Battelle study, fewer aluminum parts can be cleaned per unit time, because of aluminum's lower thermal diffusivity than steel. ------- E-104 TECHNOLOGY NUMBER: B-7 F-1 CLEAN ULTRASONIC CLEANING MACHINE FOR DECREASING Vendor: Tiyuda Manufacturing Aichi, Japan 1.0 PROCESS DESCRIPTION This technology employs ultrasonic cleaning in conjunction with a vacuum-sealed hot and cold solvent wash for precision cleaning of parts such a printed circuit boards. The F-1 Clean is designed to use chlorinated solvents such as methylene chloride and trichloroethylene. Over 90 percent of the solvent is recovered through filtration, vapor condensation, and distillation. With the use of a regenerating carbon adsorber system, an overall solvent recovery of 99.99 percent is achieved. The F-1 Clean process begins when the parts are placed into a cleaning chamber equipped with a lid. A vacuum seals the chamber automatically. In the first cleaning stage, warm solvent is introduced into the cleaning chamber. The parts then become completely submerged in the warm solvent. An ultrasonic vibration is then passed through the chamber to aid cleaning. The warm solvent is drained through a warm solvent filter and returned to a warm solvent tank. The next stage employs cold solvent in the same manner, also with ultrasonic vibration to aid cleaning. The cold solvent is drained and returned to a cold solvent tank through a cold solvent filter. The parts are rinsed in pure solvent vapor (generated from the warm solvent tank) and vacuum dried at 680 mmHg. The solvent vapors recovered in the initial venting of the cleaning chamber are recycled through a refrigerated condenser. The three subsequent ventings of the cleaning chamber are passed through a dual-bed, self-regenerating, activated carbon adsorber. Regeneration of the activated carbon occurs under vacuum, by indirect steam heating; the desorbed solvent is routed to a still. The desorbed solvent is distilled continuously from the still through two water separators and then is returned to either the cold or warm solvent tank. The warm solvent tank overflow is also directed to the still. 2.0 CURRENT STATUS The F-1 Clean is in widespread commercial use in Japan by companies such as Hitachi, Hewlett Packard, and Fuji Electric. ------- E-105 3.0 CASE STUDY No case study data supplied. 4.0 APPLICATIONS/LIMITATIONS Industries: • Degreasing and Dry Cleaning Operations • Solvent Evaporation Limitations: • Compatible only with solvents whose boiling points at atmospheric pressure are under 88°C. • Workload limited by size of working chamber. 5.0 CONTROLLED POLLUTANTS This technology controls emissions of: • VOCs (chlorinated) • Toxics 6.0 TEST DATA California's South Coast Air Quality Management District tested the F-1 Clean, Model No. YEV-452-71 using trichloroethylene degreasing solvent. The source test showed the efficiency of the F-1 Clean's system with a carbon adsorber was 99.99 percent. 7.0 OPERATIONAL/PROCESS PARAMETERS Electricity and solvents are needed, based on the size of the unit. 8.0 COSTS Capital costs were estimated at $200,000-250,000, depending on the size of the equipment. ------- E-106 9.0 SECONDARY IMPACTS • Sludge from the solvent filters and tanks must be disposed of in a controlled landfill. 10.0 COMPARISON WITH U.S. TECHNOLOGIES None provided. 11.0 VARIATIONS None provided. ------- Reproduced by NTIS u • 51 s > 0 fl).£ *•» »-:! 0 o o E o 0 ^^ ^•M *r w 0 §.!2 §'5EE £000 M- a1 ~ ± o c . 0 o 05 ajS>c 4-1 Q.0)n 0£.Eo 'i-S (/)*£ w ZowC fc VJ •— ••• National Technical Information Service Springfield, VA 22161 report was printed specifically for your order from nearly 3 million titles available in our collection. For economy and efficiency, NTIS does not maintain stock of its vast collection of technical reports. 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