SOLID WASTE
MANAGEMENT
c/tbstracts from the oo/
tterature
1964
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SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
c/lbstr acts from the (Literature—1964
This publication (SW-66) was prepared by
JOHN A.CONNOLLY and SANDRA E. STAINBACK
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
1971
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Note: The Federal solid waste management program is unable to furnish
reprints of the cited publications, with the exception of
papers authored by program personnel. If copies of publications
are not available in local libraries, readers should contact the
author(s) or publisher to obtain reprints.
An Environmental Protection Publication
This publication is also in the Public Health Service numbered
series as Public Health Service Publication No. 91-1964, Supplement G;
its entry in two government publication series is the result of
a publishing interface reflecting the transfer of the Federal solid
waste management program from the U.S. Public Health Service to the
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOG CARD NO. 53-60514
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 20402 - Price $2
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FOREWORD TO A BIBLIOGRAPHY
Since its beginning a quarter century ago, the Federal
program in solid waste management has had a number of
organizational aegises as well as several organizational titles.
Throughout this development, however, the program has consistently
maintained a strong, and what has become a highly characteristic,
interest in bibliography—in the world-wide solid waste literature.
The present volume is a continuation of that interest and of the
solid waste bibliography series initiated in 1941.
—SAMUEL HALE, JR.
Deputy Assistant Administrator
for Solid Waste Management
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SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
Abstracts from the Literature
1964
Within the past few years we have been suddenly awakened to the
dangers caused by mismanagement of solid wastes. We are now faced
with dealing with past accumulations of waste, and also with the
tremendous task of establishing new guidelines and solutions to
combat the ever-increasing amounts of waste.
The usual approach to problem-solving is to survey previous
work done in the subject area, but early investigators of the solid
waste problem soon discovered that there was no central, well-organized
source of such information on solid waste management. Efforts to
remedy this situation were implemented through the passage of the
Solid Waste Disposal Act of 1965 (Public Law 89-272, Title II) and its
amending legislation, the Resource Recovery Act of 1970 (Public
Law 91-512, Title I), which authorize collection, storage, and
retrieval of information relevant to all aspects of solid waste
management.
As part of this effort, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's
solid waste management program is updating the Refuse Collection and
Disposal Annotated Bibliography series, initiated during the early
Federal efforts in the 1940's. The present bibliography has been
abstracted and is arranged in categories corresponding to the various
administration, engineering, and operational phases of solid waste
management. Indices include subject, corporate author, author, and
geographical location cited. Addresses of periodical sources are
provided in an index. The literature represented herein does not
include all the solid waste literature published in 1964; 107
periodical and 109 nonperiodical titles covering both the foreign
and domestic literature were screened for inclusion. No effort was
made to separate strictly technical material from that which is more
general.
This publication is the result of the combined efforts of the
Solid Waste Information Retrieval System (SWIRS) and the Franklin Institute
Research Laboratories under contracts PH 86-67-182 and PH 86-68-194.
SWIRS was also assisted in this project by 1970 summer-student employees:
Cynthia Brooks, Susan Brown, and Martha Renner.
--RALPH J. BLACK, Director
Office of Technical Information
Office of Solid Waste Management Programs
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vi
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CONTENTS
Page
Introduction v
Regulations(including Laws and Ordinances) 1
Finances(including Costs, Fees, Taxes, etc.) 4
Storage(including Methods and Equipment) 8
Collection and Disposal—General 16
Collection and Transportation of Refuse 38
Disposal—General 53
Agricultural Wastes 76
Composting 94
Reduction 115
Incineration 116
Incineration—Europe 132
Industrial Wastes 144
Hazardous Wastes(including Radioactive and Pesticides) . 186
Salvaging 192
Salvaging Automobiles 210
Sanitary Landfill 217
Street Cleaning 228
Litter 232
Health and Safety 234
Addresses of Periodical Publications Cited 243
Author Index 248
Corporate Author Index 259
Geographical Location Index 261
Subject Index 265
vii
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REGULATIONS (including Laws and
Ordinances)
64-0001
Arizona supreme court rules for private
haulers. Refuse Removal Journal, 7(2):4,
Feb. 1964.
The Arizona Supreme Court declared that
certificates of public convenience and
necessity could not be required of motor
carriers in the trash collecting business
for trash haulers are private, not public,
carriers. The decision concluded a series
of applications to the Corporation
Commission and litigation which began in
1955. The Corporation Commission, in the
court's opinion, was unreasonably attempting
to grant a monopoly to the appellant's
competitors. The Court also pointed out
that health regulations were not involved
in the case.
64-0002
Chicago ordinance confines dumping to
landfill sites. Refuse Removal Journal,
7(3):24, Mar. 1964.
Chicago passed an ordinance designed to slap
rigid controls on private dumping operations.
The ordinance demands a $50,000 indemnifying
bond, license fees, regular inspections,
daily coverage of refuse, and revocation of
permits for violations.
interests often violate such controls,
and conflict with ambiguously defined
police power. Resolutions of questions
involving constitutional limitations on
coercive forces, especially those
concerning the enforcement strength of
states' and communities' sanitation
programs, are discussed. One Supreme
Court case considered the collection and
disposal problem of garbage and other
solid refuse. The court ruled that
exclusive franchises for companies to
collect and incinerate all refuse from
within city limits were legal, since
health hazard claims supersede claims
of private property rights. Another
decision provided that no one has a
property right in a public nuisance that
is so protected that the community cannot
abate the nuisance without compensation
to the owner for the value of the property.
The court upheld the principle that health
hazards can be eliminated without formal
hearings, though hearings may be requested
later. Similarly, it is legal for proper
bodies to improve or remove unsatisfactory
property which might endanger public
health or safety. Police may establish
habitable dwelling standards, but such
codes must clearly dictate their requirements
and impose a duty to admit inspectors as
the result of three cases. On the subject
of sanitation inspections, those not for
the purpose of obtaining criminal evidence
were judged not unreasonable searches. Any
such criminal evidence procured without
a warrant was not legally valid. Finally,
the court determined that lawfully required
business records could not be withheld
although their contents might be incriminating,
64-0003
City without removal ordinance faces epidemic.
Refuse Removal Journal, 7(10):32, Oct. 1964.
Texarkana, Texas, which has inadequate refuse
removal and disposal facilities, is now facing
an outbreak of encephalitis. The carrier of
this disease is a mosquito, which breeds
in garbage and on animals.
64-0004
Edelman, S. Legal aspects of sanitation
programs. Public Health Reports,
79(8):676-682, Aug. 1964.
Laws, municipal ordinances, and
regulations control activities adversely
affecting the environment. Private
64-0005
An editorial: court decision vital to all
contractors. Refuse Removal Journal,
7(6):26, June 1964.
The U.S. Supreme Court declared that it
would not review a decision by the U.S.
Court of Appeals, which held that private
refuse contractors are not subject to the
Minimum Wage and Hour Law of the Fair
Labor Standards Act. The two year history
of the case, Wirtz (Secretary of Labor)
v. Modern Trashmoval, Inc., in which the
defense contended that the company came under
an exemption covered by Section 13 of the Act
for retail or service establishments, is
presented. The decision is praised because
it will save contractors money.
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Regulations
64-0006
Fletcher, J. G. How Florida's Sanitary
District Law has helped Pinellas County.
Part 1. Public Works, 95(12) :71-73, Dec.
1964.
To provide sanitary service for those people
residing outside municipal limits, the Florida
State Legislature passed, in 1959, the County
Water and Sewer District Law, Chapter 59-466,
Laws of Florida, which became 153, Part II,
of the Florida Statutes. The Act provides for
the creation of special taxing districts
within the unincorporated areas of the counties
with the purpose of providing a water supply
or a sanitary system, or both, as needed by
the particular region; the Act further
provides for establishment of the districts
by the Board of County Commissioners, after
the proper legal requirements have been met.
These requirements are described in detail,
as are the legal experiences of Pinellas
County, which was one of the first counties to
establish a sanitary district. The
establishment of several other districts is
outlined and the point made that the Florida
State Legislature provided an effective health
tool when it enacted this law.
64-0007
Justice Dept. indicts refuse association.
Refuse Removal Journal, 7(1) :16, Jan. 1964.
Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy said that
the Philadelphia Refuse Removal Association
has been indicted on charges of conspiring
unlawfully to fix prices and rig bids for
refuse collection and of threatening and
harassing refuse removal firms which would not
participate in the conspiracy. The indictment
charged violation of Section 1 of the Sherman
Antitrust Act.
64-0008
Krieger, J. H. The law of the underground.
Civil Engineering, 34(3):52-53, Mar. 1964.
The three basic functions of groundwater
management, water supply storage, and waste
disposal, are becoming inextricably interrelated
and should be considered as part of a single
circulating system. The lack of proper legal
measures for pumping water, for utilizing
underground storage, and for the discharges
of sewage and industrial wastes, is discussed
in detail. Suggestions for better coordination
of these functions include: (1) cooperation,
where conflicts exist between agencies; (2)
creation, by state legislatures, of super
agencies that would have overriding regional
power; (3) action by any state in exerting its
authority for the solution of local problems;
and (4) an accelerated program by the Federal
Government.
64-0009
Landlubbers fine liner for littering offshore
waters. Refuse Removal Journal, 7(9):58,
Sept. 1964.
The Cunard Liner Caronia was fined for
littering 3 miles off the New Jersey coast.
Although many ships have been suspected, it
was the first time a major ocean liner has
been observed and accused of littering local
waters.
64-0010
Latest internal revenue code disallows
landfill depreciation. Refuse Removal
Journal, 7(8):33, Aug. 1964.
The Internal Revenue Code should contain a
depreciation allowance for.sanitary landfill
projects, just as it does for the mining, oil
and gas interests. The initiation of a
strong public relations and lobbying program
on the part of the private contractors to bring
such an allowance about is recommended.
64-0011
Legislation dooms dumps in Illinois.
Removal Journal, 7(7):38, July 1964.
Refuse
Legislation passed at the 73rd session of the
Illinois General Assembly and signed into
law by the governor makes it unlawful after
August 26, 1964, to operate an open dump
in which refuse is placed. The law provides
that, ''no dump or site for the placing,
depositing or dumping of refuse. Any such
dump...shall be completely covered with
earth'". It further provides for punishment
by fine in an amount not to exceed $200 for
each offense. Each day of operation in
violation of this act constitutes a separate
offense.
64-0012
Millard, R. F. Legal aspects of public
cleansing. London, Institute of Public
Cleansing, 1964.
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0006-0017
Based on a series of lectures, this monograph
covers the section of the syllabus for the
Testamur Examinations dealing with public
cleansing laws. Part I--England and Wales--
contains sections of the following Acts and
Regulations: Public Health, 1936 and 1961;
Radioactive Substances, 1960; New Streets,
1951; Highways, 1959; Removal of Vehicles,
1961; Housing, 1962; Quarry Fencing, I88/;
Local Government, 1933; Agricultural Powers,
1954, Part II concerns Acts of London:
Public Health, 1936; The London Traffic
Regulations, 1958; Metropolitan Police, 1839;
London Government, 1939; London County
Council; and By-Laws. Sections from Acts in
Scotland are in Part III: Public Health,
1897; Burgh Police, 1902 and 1903; Local
Government, 1908 and 1947; Water, 1946; and
Glasgow Corporation Consolidation (General
Powers) Order Confirmation, 1960. Part IV
contains sections of Acts common to all
areas: Prevention of Damage of Pests, 1949;
Weeds, 1959; Litter 1958; Clean Air, 1956;
Truck, 1831, 1887, and 1896; Payment of Wages,
1960; and Explosives, 1875. Sections from
Motor Transport and Workshops Acts are
obtained in Part V: Road Traffic, 1960 and
1962; Lighting Obligations; Construction and
Use Regulations; Petrol Pumps; Weighbridges;
Vehicle Painting Regulations, 1926; Cellulose
Solutions Regulations, 1934; and Factories,
1961. Appendices to the monograph cover the
London Government Act, 1963; and the Offices,
Shops and Railway Premises Act, 1963.
64-0013
Municipal liability in operation of a village
dump. Public Works, 95(1):60, Jan. 1964.
The problem of governmental immunity in
connection with municipal liability for
torts is much discussed by the courts. In
Jollife v. Village of East Troy (Wisconsin,
1963), the city, although engaged in a
governmental function, was held liable when
a fire on the village dump spread to the
plaintiff's barn. This decision was in
accord with Wisconsin's abandonment of the
governmental immunity doctrine for municipal
tort liability.
64-0014
Otto, F. Refuse as liability and insurance
problem. Technische Ueberwachung, 5(11) :421,
Nov. 1964.
The disposal of refuse always presents
difficulties if the town refuse collection
agency is not consulted. Incineration and
composting are the only two methods of
disposal which are not deleterious to the
groundwater. Three liability cases are
mentioned. The Water Household Law, Section
22, states that liability is incurred, even
if the pollution of the water occurs without
conscious knowledge of the act. Natural
water which has been polluted by solid
material does not automatically become
sewage. (Text-German)
64-0015
Pennsylvania closes down open dumps. Refuse
Removal Journal, 7(10):28, Oct. 1964.
A new Pennsylvania state law, which requires
the closing of all open garbage dumps, has
caused problems for small towns near
Allentown, Pennsylvania. Mayors and
councilmen from four towns whose population is
about 35,000 and which at present have temporary
arrangements with private contractors met
to discuss the problem. The state sanitarian
proposed either landfill operation or the
construction of a cooperative incinerator.
The officials decided to hold another meeting
before reaching a final decision. They were
informed by the State that they have only
weeks to comply with the letter of the law.
64-0016
Proper storage of household wastes equals
labor savings. Refuse Removal Journal,
7(3):30, Mar. 1964.
Passage of an ordinance to assure that house
garbage storage is sanitary and can be easily
handled by the trash collectors is
recommended. The elements such an ordinance
should have are enumerated.
64-0017
Solid Waste Disposal Act of 1964. Compost
Science, 5(1):18-19, Spring 1964.
On April 10, 1964, Congressman John Lesinski
of Michigan introduced H.R. 10807 in the
House of Representatives. The measure, which
was referred to the Committee on Interstate
and Foreign Commerce, was a bill to provide
research, training, and technical and
financial assistance to States for disposal
of solid wastes. The text of the bill is
provided. The bill's main features include
provisions for research and training
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Finances
activities conducted or supported by the
Public Health Service; the construction of
not less than five composting demonstration
plants, plus other municipal refuse disposal
facilities; collection and dissemination
of information; and rendering of technical
assistance to state and local governments.
64-0018
Solid waste legislation. American Journal of
Public Health, 54(12):2097, Dec. 1964.
The American Public Health Association's
recommended federal legislation in the solid
waste field is listed. These include enlarged
research program, technical and financial
assistance, and training of professional
personnel in improved programs.
64-0019
Supreme Court decision concerning the
establishment of a municipal waste removal
system. Wasser und Abwasser, 105(20):549-550,
May 1964.
In a municipality in Germany there was no
type of waste removal system until 1956.
Waste was dumped at the roadside. In 1956 a
private enterprise was established for removing
the waste in that community, but all the
municipality had to say about disposal was
that it considered the removal and elimination
of waste the sole concern of the proprietor
of a house, industrial plant, etc. By local
statute of Sept. 27, 1960, the municipality
set up its own waste removal system which all
the members of the community have to use. The
owner of the private enterprise sued the
municipality and requested a compensation of
10,000 DM. The district court turned down
the claim. The court of appeals sentenced
the municipality to pay an indemnity of 1,000
DM. The German Supreme Court reversed the
decision on the grounds that the municipalities
were given the right by the consideration to
introduce any facility urgently needed by the
public. (Text-German).
64-0020
United States tax court rules for depreciation
of landfill. Refuse Removal Journal,
7(11) :20, Nov. 1964.
The U.S. Tax Court ruled that an owner of
a landfill site is entitled to depreciation
deductions on the space that is filled each
year. The court ruled in favor of John J.
Sexton, owner of John Sexton Contractors
Company in Chicago.
FINANCES (including Costs, Fees, Taxes,
etc.)
64-0021
Caron, A. L. Economic aspects of industrial
effluent treatment. Tappi, 47(9):62A, 67A, 72A,
Sept. 1964.
The costs associated with various effluent
processes for the removal of solids and
substances responsible for oxygen uptake in
streams are briefly discussed. Only effluents
from the pulp and paper industry are
considered, and figures given are only
estimates. Sewering costs and expenditures
for in-plant changes are not included in
quoted costs. The first step in effluent
purification is the removal of settleable
solids; 95 percent of these solids can be
removed in a sedimentation unit. To aid
the removal of suspended materials, coagulants
may be used. Charts show the cost for units
up to 150 ft in diameter capable of handling up
to 9.6 mgd. Clarifier operations costs are
low since little maintenance and low power
are required. Useless sludge obtained from
clarification can be disposed of by one of
three methods: (1) drying in shallow basins;
(2) using a vacuum filter; (3) or a
centrifuge. The first method costs from $1
to $3 per ton of dry solid. Vacuum filtration
costs $350 per sq ft of filter, and centrifuge
disposal costs $6 to $9 per ton of dewatered
solids. Operational and maintenance
requirements for this last type are low;
however, installation costs run about $1,500
per hp. When, owing to its low oxygen
demand, an effluent of high quality is not
produced, secondary treatment is necessary.
Oxidation can be achieved through the
activated sludge process, biological filters,
or aerated stabilization basins. Each method
is explained briefly, but in most cases a
pilot operation is required to determine
specific cost.
64-0022
City saves with refuse transfer system.
Public Works, 95(9):142, Sept. 1964.
Abilene, Texas, has saved an average of $95.55
per day by adopting a. transfer system for
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0018-0027
refuse removal. Four small and six medium
packers travel to the transfer station, where
they discharge the refuse through a funnel-like
hopper into one of the transfer trailers
stationed at a lower level. Remote controls
at the station enable the route unit driver
to control the starting of the trailer engine
and the packing cycle from the upper level.
Compressed refuse deposited by route packers
is recompressed by the trailer's hydraulic
packer plate, which compacts refuse toward
the rear of the trailer to make room for
additional deposits. When full, the trailer
goes to the final disposal area, while a
new trailer -moves into position and the cycle
is renewed.
64-0023
Computing the cost of refuse collection.
Public Works, 95(8):122-123, Aug. 196A.
At a seminar on Solid Waste Collection and
Disposal in 1963 at the University of
Wyoming, the Laramie health officer described
in detail methods for predicting the overall
cost of refuse collection. Assuming a
population of 17,500, equipment costs will
amount to $14,250 and personnel costs to
$62,400 per year. Allowing for miscellaneous
expenses of $10,250, the total annual operating
cost was established at $87,170. After
provisions are made for cost of the disposal
area, including land costs, fencing, roads,
etc., charges for residences and places of
business can be calculated.
64-0024
Contractor shaves $270,000 off city's annual
trash. Refuse Removal Journal, 7(6) :46, June
1964.
When Ottawa Sanitation Services Ltd. became
one of the first Canadian private haulers to
replace municipal collection in 1960, they
reduced annual costs from $947,000 to
$677,000 despite a greater population and
better service. The greater efficiency is
attributed to the company's use of modern
machinery and its intricate routing and
scheduling of collection.
[Washington], U.S. Department of the Interior,
1964. p. 9-32.
The costs of waste disposal installations
ranged from $30,000 to $1,400,000. Costs
varied primarily with depth of disposal well,
type of well completion, amount of coring
and testing, type and amount of surface
equipment required to remove solids and
enhance compatibility, pressure required for
injection of the liquid wastes, and size of
the wellbore and casing. A general estimate
of capital costs to be anticipated for an
injection well under favorable conditions of
well location, drilling, and preinjection
treatment of the waste is tabulated. Data
secured by visits to industrial plants are
discussed in detail and a summary of
operating conditions is presented. For each
plant, the source and nature of the wastes,
surface equipment, well completion, and
geology are described.
64-0026
East, E. W., and V. Gosling. Work study and
incentive bonus as applicable to refuse
collection and disposal at Worthing.
Chartered Municipal Engineer, 91:53-58, Feb.
1964.
Results are reported on a bonus incentive
system based on a work study of a refuse
collection and disposal operation. The
bonuses for the refuse collectors, for
example, ranged from 20 to 50 percent of a
base pay. The base pay for collectors was
based on a satisfactory working rate of 4.77
hr for each 100 bins emptied. A bonus of
30 percent could be achieved readily and
regularly by the average worker. In the
refuse disposal department, a reorganization
permitted a reduction of workers from 22 to
17. The potential savings were fc 3,785, or
5.4 percent, in the collection and disposal
services. Supervision is necessary to
counter any tendency to a lowering of the
standard of service. With the bonus
payments, it was possible to insure
continuity of operation at savings to the
town. A study was conducted by a group of
consultants to determine the value of a
bonus incentive system.
64-0025
Donaldson, E. C. Economics. Discussion of
individual plants. In Subsurface disposal of
industrial wastes in the United States. U.S.
Bureau of Mines Information Circular 8212.
64-0027
Erhard, H. The political economy of waste
elimination. Staedtehygiene, 15(4):87-89,
Apr. 1964.
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Finances
Comprehensive cost analyses for the
elimination of waste for the two Bavarian
cities, Schweinfurt and Lindau/Bodensee, are
presented. In Schweinfurt the yearly amount
of waste is 32,000 cu m of trash and 21,000
cu m of sewage sludge. The results of the
cost analysis are presented in a table. The
least expensive method is trucking the waste
to an abandoned gypsum quarry 17 km away. The
costs would have made necessary an increase
of the service charges by 62.9 percent.
However, with the aim of helping agriculture
to replenish the humus content of the soil,
a composting plant was built where the
non-compostable trash together with
industrial waste is burned. Necessary service
charge increase is 103.2 percent. The trash
is treated according to the Brikollare process.
The waste is mixed with sludge and pressed
into bricks which dry by capillary action.
In the cost analysis for Lindau, composting
and incineration are compared. Sewage sludge
is considered only in the cost analysis of
composting and not of incineration; the cost
increase was 283 and 176 percent, for
composting 131 percent. Composting of waste
benefits the nation by supplying agriculture
with soil conditioners. The government should
subsidize waste composting by loans without
interest for the construction of the
facilities. This policy is practiced in the
Netherlands. (Text-German).
640028
Jensen, H. P. Private collections. In
Proceedings; National Conference on Solid
Waste Research, Chicago, Dec. 2-4, 1963.
American Public Works Association, 1964.
p.91-97.
Municipalities face spiraling costs of refuse
collection and disposal. A number of
municipalities have solved their problems to
a great extent by turning to private enterprise
to handle their rubbish collection and
disposal needs. A schedule of budgeted and
actual collection costs in Oak Park, Michigan,
showing savings with contract collection, is
given. One apparently simple solution to
this problem of disposal costs would be to
convert the waste matter from something that
nobody x^ants and that nobody wants to pay for,
into something that people want and that
people will pay for. Research along these
lines definitely is indicated. The new
concepts and modifications in equipment
reflect not only the growth but the increasing
complexity of the sanitation industry.
Everywhere in the country enterprising
businessmen are rising to these challenges
and in so doing are not only helping themselves
but also are helping to gain for the industry
the respect it deserves.
64-0029
Kingston, G. A. Scrap industry economics. In
Iron and steel scrap in the Pacific Northwest.
U.S. Bureau of Mines Information Circular No.
8243. [Washington], U.S. Department of the
Interior, 1964. p.22-33.
Prices and costs are major determinants in
the economics of the scrap industry. The
price of No. 1 heavy melting scrap is the
pace-setter for the pricing of other iron
and steel scrap grades. Scrap prices are
established essentially by the consumer. A
dealer or broker calls the potential purchaser
to see if he is in the market. In addition, the
consumer or broker might call the dealer to
see what type and quantity are available.
The purchasing agent for the consumer
indicates the current company scrap need
and the price he is willing to pay. If the
consumer finds that there are no offers to
sell at the price offered, he must increase
his offer. There are two principal variables
in marketing scrap: (1) the market price of
scrap; and (2) the cost of transport to the
market. Cost examples are given. Railroad
shipping rates from selected points to
Seattle, Washington, Portland, Oregon, and
Geneva, Utah, are tabulated. For the scrap
dealer, the export market has played an
important role in creating favorable domestic
conditions. Export contracts generally are
signed for shipload quantities to be delivered
within a given period. This results in a drive
to accumulate sufficient quantities, which
necessitates a price increase to draw out scrap
at distance and to speed up the flow of
locally available ferrous scrap. Domestic
consumers are caught by the upward price trend
and have to pay higher prices to maintain
their inventories. The economics of
shipwrecking are discussed.
64-0030
Lossie, B. Count your indirect costs when
pricing customer service. Refuse Removal
Journal, 7(2):25, Feb. 1964.
Steps a small trash company should follow
are listed. These include pricing its
services and counting in the indirect costs,
which comprise labor and operating expenses,
dumping costs, and a planned profit margin.
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0028-0036
64-0031
Lynn, W. R. Systems analysis for solid
waste problems. In Proceedings; National
Conference on Solid Waste Research, Chicago,
Dec, 2-4, 1963. American Public Works
Association, 1964. p.69-74.
A sample is given of the use of systems
analysis in determining the least cost
involved in the disposal of refuse using
any one of five proposed methods.
Comparatively little research has been
directed specifically to application of
systems analysis to solid waste disposal
problems. However, many of the analytical
techniques which have been developed for
other problems can be applied to this area.
Systems analysis provides a tool for
examining complex interrelated municipal
activities, and the solutions obtained by
these methods provide a sound basis for
reaching decisions. These analyses are not
an end in and of themselves but rather are
intended to serve the end of efficient and
effective decision-making. Although some of
the techniques used in these approaches may
be abstract and mathematically complex, the
prime motivation for the analysis is to
obtain useful results and solutions.
a fleet of barges and tugs, which ship
refuse to Staten Island. The metropolis,
divided into 57 sanitation districts and
234 sections, is serviced by a fleet of
1,600 refuse packers. The department is
sliced into bureaus which deal with such
tasks as collection, disposal, maintenance,
and training. The department also maintains
a library and a museum as well as a large
administrative force. Much money also goes
into maintaining a snow alert during winter.
64-0034
Refuse collection and disposal costs in
Detroit. Public Works, 95(9) :152, Sept. 1964.
During the fiscal year 1963, Detroit, Michigan,
collected 3,117,565 cu yd of refuse and
153,370 tons of garbage. Residential rubbish
is collected once in two weeks and residential
garbage once a week. The cost for collection
and disposal of rubbish was $4.24 per cu yd
and for garbage $33.06 per ton. In both
cases, collection represented about 80
percent of the total cost.
64-0032
Middletown bonus scheme success.
Cleansing, 54(2):733, Feb. 1964.
Public
Middletown, England, which had an undependable
refuse collection service that picked up
trash from many areas of the town only once
every three or four weeks during winter, has
greatly improved its service with the help
of an incentive bonus scheme. The city
also trimmed its personnel and reshaped its
routes for efficient weekly pickups.
64-0033
New York City budgets 115 million dollars
for sanitation. Refuse Removal Journal,
7(6) :6, June 1964.
New York City has budgeted over $115 million
for the operation of its Sanitation Department
for the 1964 to 1965 fiscal year. The
department has 14,000 employees, collects
3,700,000 tons of refuse per year, and disposes
of an additional 2,000,000 tons collected by
private contractors. The disposal is processed
by the City's many incinerators or handled
by the Staten Island sanitary landfill, one
of the largest in the world. The city owns
64-0035
Use of computers for refuse disposal methods
and costs. Surveyor and Municipal Engineer,
123(3742):59-60, Feb. 22, 1964.
Refuse collection and disposal should be
integrated in plans for effective disposal at
a minimum cost. Equipment selection and
personnel assignment for collection can be
readily assessed by a computer. The
selection of a disposal system is more
complex and must be one which will provide
for the community needs in the predictable
future for a cost within the financial
capability of the community. A reduction
in the number of disposal plants and the
maximum use of fewer plants of larger capacity
may be indicated by the computer. A problem
involving 25 refuse collection areas and 18
different possible disposal systems and sites
took 37 seconds of computer time to solve
and would have required 6 months for one
man to obtain the same answer. Computers
will provide quick answers to major problems
and reduce expensive planning time.
64-0036
Uzzle, A. B. Garbage goes under ground to
beat costs. American City, 79(2) :34, Mar.
1964.
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Storage
Dunn, North Carolina, buried 55 gal cans with
a wire bail to give the appearance of
backyard pickup. The cost is only as much
as curb pickup.
64-0037
Vogel, H. E. Swiss resort towns have higher
costs for trash removal. Refuse Removal
Journal, 7(11):27, Nov. 1964.
The Swiss Water Pollution Control Association
has investigated local conditions of refuse
removal in the major Swiss tourist centers.
They found widespread indiscriminate dumping
of refuse on lake shores, on mountain slopes,
and in creeks and rivers. The large influx
of tourists during the hotel season and the
trend toward urbanization are responsible
for the inadequate disposal. There are plans
to establish common refuse utilization or
incineration plants and to educate the
tourists.
64-0038
Wuhrmann, K. A. The annual costs of waste
disposal. Schweizerische Bauzeitung,
82(44) -.769-772, Oct. 1964.
Many municipalities are confronted with the
task of planning for new, hygienic ways of
waste disposal. It is easier to assess the
investment costs involved in the new project
than the annual costs which include also
operating costs. Regarding investment costs,
it is difficult to determine the time of
amortization, since in some cases a. composting
plant has been in operation for 50 years,
and in others the equipment has had to be
modified after a few years of operation.
Since technical development in this field
progresses so quickly, the fast pace at which
the equipment becomes obsolete is an essential
factor in determining the time of
amortization. Another important aspect is
the planned maximum capacity vs. the initial
capacity. Calculations should be geared to
the present capacity and not to the ultimately
planned one. The operating costs need to
include personnel, spare parts, improvements,
expansions, repairs, power, fuel, water,
lubricants, elimination of residues, taxes,
insurances, and licenses. An example of
annual cost calculation is given.
(Text-German)
STORAGE (including Methods and
Equipment)
64-0039
The American tour. Public Cleansing,
54(12):1310, Dec. 1964.
The papers and discussion of the paper
sack system at the American Public Works
Association Conference are reported. The
systems at Manchester, England, and Riverdale
and College Park, Maryland, as well as the
general status of paper sacks throughout the
United States are discussed.
64-0040
Bevan, R. E. Manchester's experience with
paper refuse containers. In American Public
Works Association Yearbook 1964. Chicago,
American Public Works Association.
p.206-211.
Manchester, England, is conducting a 3-year
survey on the potentials of paper refuse
containers and concrete stands. In a 3-month
study it was found that the concrete stand
was preferred by householders as both metal
types were blown over by strong winds. A
description is given of some of the
improvements of the bags used for the first
3-month study. There was a reduction in
spillage of refuse during loading and noise
was also reduced to a good degree. There
was also a reduction in time and effort by
the loader, who in the past had to roll and
bang the dustbin from house to street. The
dustbin weighed 23 Ib against the one-half Ib of
the bags. The cost estimate of the system
is also included.
64-0041
Bevan, R. E. More paper sacks in Manchester.
Public Cleansing, 54(1):646, Jan. 1964.
After a 1961 research experiment, Manchester,
England, will gradually expand the paper bag
system. The disadvantages encountered in the
research were largely eliminated by improved
stands and holders and by the addition of
animal guard attachments. Some advantages are
the absence of dust during loading, the
elimination of spillage on pathways and road,
the concealment of the refuse, and the silence
of the operation. The additional costs of the
sacks are broken down. Although tipping sacks
seem to present no problem, other methods of
-------
0037-0047
disposal need to be investigated in order
to discover if sacks would create a problem.
64-0042
Black, R. J. Storage in paper sacks avoids
rats and flies. Refuse Removal Journal,
7(12) :16, Dec. 1964.
Basic factors that determine acceptable refuse
storage conditions in a community, including
the problem of preventing fly larvae, and
different systems of storage are discussed.
Perhaps the problem of improper storage could
be solved by a community-wide installation
of garbage grinders or the provision of
suitable refuse containers as an integral
part of the regular refuse collection service.
Paper bags have justified the latter approach
in some cities by reducing collection costs.
64-0043
Bower-Butterfield refuse sacks. Surveyor
and Municipal Engineer, 123(3759) :42, Feb.
1, 1964.
Early in 1964, Binsac, a paper sack
household refuse system, was scheduled for
marketing by Bowaters, Ltd., and the
Butterfield Group. A new 'Mini-Binsac' for
indoor use was also designed. A growing
interest by potential municipal and industrial
users was reported.
64-0044
The compression of refuse in multi-story
buildings. Public Cleansing, 54(3):794-795,
Mar. 1964.
The 'Deva' Compressor, which compresses
refuse in paper sacks at basement level of
multi-story buildings, is described. Developed
by the Hydraulic Engineering Company, Ltd., of
Chester, England, it consists of a turntable
upon which ten sacks are mounted, a guide
tube which directs refuse into the sacks, a
block plate, and a pressure plate.
64-0045
Connecticut city tests paper bags. Refuse
Removal Journal, 7(8):4, Aug. 1964.
In a subdivision of 147 homes in the
municipality of Milford, Connecticut, an
in-use test program with a new type of refuse
collection system has been initiated. The
system, called Trim Town, replaces
conventional garbage cans with stationary
baked enamel finished steel cabinets and
disposable heavy-duty bags. A homeowner
deposits refuse in the bag through a hinged
and gasketed top lid on the cabinet, and the
filled bag is removed from the receptacle
through a full-length front door. The bags,
which are constructed of two plies of
wet-strength and water-repellent paper, can
be set out in any kind of weather for
curbside or backdoor collection. Flat
bottom construction lets them stand upright
without toppling. The city expects the new
system to speed collection.
64-0046
Containerized system pays off. Waste Trade
World, 105(13) : 14-15, Sept. 26, 1964.
The Manchester originators of the Beattie
system of containerized waste collection
and disposal face a problem in dealing with
municipal authorities and plant officials
because there is no real information available
on the cost of the collection and disposal
due to poor accounting practices. In industry
it is not uncommon to use factory labor to
load the waste into 5-ton trucks and charge
the labor to production costs. Any 5-ton
truck with driver would cost at least fc 60
per month for 20 'lifts' or collections of
a waste container. The Beattie system charges
include fe 4 a month for the average rent of
a container and an average collection charge
of h3 10s. This would give the customer
disposal facilities for 8 cu yd or 5 tons of
material in the case where a container is
collected once a week. The containerized
service provides the customers with the
advantages of hygienic storage, reduced
fire risk, elimination of vermin, and labor
saving by properly sited containers. The
system has handled a variety of material
such as paper, cardboard, wire, broken glass,
tins, paints, rubber incinerator residues,
vegetable matter, and fish waste. With over
40 collections per week for each of seven vehicles
in an 8-mile radius, the amount of
unrestricted tipping service becomes important,
and transfer depots and bulk haulage may
become a necessity.
64-0047
Cost-cutting refuse disposal. Modern
Sanitation and Building Maintenance, 16(12):18,
Dec. 1964.
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Storage
A Pennsylvania warehouse now uses steel
cabinet receptacles with a hinged, gasketed
top lid and hinged full-length door. A
heavy-duty kraft paper disposal bag serves as
a liner in each cabinet. Previously the
warehouse had used swing-top receptacles
with metal liners. Removing the covers,
lifting and emptying the filled liners, and
taking the receptacles to a separate area
took 15 to 20 minutes a day. The
receptacles were rinsed four times a day
and scoured three times a week. The new system
of removing a filled bag and replacing it
with a clean one takes seconds. The bags
are made of two plies of water-repellent
and wet-strength kraft paper, making tote
containers unnecessary.
64-0048
Davies, A. G. Hospital waste problems.
Public Cleansing, 54(3) :807, Mar. 1964.
Guy's Hospital in Southwark, England, uses
the paper sack system of refuse storage.
Difficulty with wet kitchen waste can be
solved by switching to a bag with a waxed
inner lining. Paper bags are expensive,
but they are more sanitary and easier to
handle than conventional containers. The
loaded bags are burned in incinerators
adjoining each ward. The possible effects
if the system were expanded throughout the
United Kingdom are considered. The chute
system's adaptability to hospital life and
chute sanitation are discussed.
64-0049
An editorial. Refuse Removal Journal,
7(7):24, July 1964.
The number of containers in use by private
contractors has increased 400 percent over
4 years. This increase in containerization
is due to the rise of commercialization and
industrialization. Automated collection of
refuse represents tremendous savings in time
and labor, despite problems which must be
solved. The need for containerization will
continue to spiral, and more and improved
containerization will be needed.
64-0050
Ferguson, J. A. The problems of bulk in
refuse; Part II, Storage. Presented at
Meeting of the Institute of Public Cleansing,
Dundee, Scotland, Apr. 8, 1964. 11 p.
General practices of refuse storage in
Dundee, Scotland, are reviewed, considering
problems involving the size, type, and
location of containers. On domestic premises
many refuse storage facilities are inadequate,
thus prompting a need for enlarged receptacles.
However, data indicates that 64 percent of
the work performed in refuse collection
involves the movement of containers, so that
these receptacles should be lighter in
weight, too. Plastic bins are considered,
as a bin with a capacity of 2.6 cu ft weighs only
8% Ib. Use of paper sacks is another
possibility, although problems of cost and
durability arise. In addition, bulk
containers should be placed near access
roads. Shop refuse has not increased in
bulk proportionately with domestic, but
many shop premises are designed without
sufficient refuse storage provisions. Shop
refuse can be stored in interchangeable
semi-trailers, bulk containers, dustbins,
sacks, cardboard boxes, or bales. Office
refuse is of low density--usually clean,
dry paper--and can be stored conveniently
in sacks. Factories, warehouses, and markets
involve storing refuse in bulk, usually in
the same ways described for shops. Refuse
from hotels and restaurants is similar to
house refuse, and licensed premises have
negligible storage problems. The main
complaint in schools involves the
situating of bins near play areas.
64-0051
Fire tests rule out combustible containers.
Safety Maintenance, 128(3):35, Sept. 1964.
As a result of tests conducted by General
Services Administration, combustible trash
containers have been ruled 'completely
unsatisfactory' for use in all GSA buildings.
GSA operates more than 8,000 government
buildings throughout the world. In the
experiment, flames burned right through
nonmetal containers, spilling the fiery
contents on the floor; fires in metal
containers died out.
64-0052
Ford, W., and J. Carswell. It's in the bag
for a second city. American City, 79(5):22
May 1964.
Disposable paper bags are now being used
in Riverdale, Maryland, in place of garbage
cans. Riverdale, with a population of 6,000
is the second city to make the change. The
10
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0048-0057
bags have been received with 92-percent
favorable reaction by householders. They are
suspended from a metal stand, hold twice as
much as regular garbage cans, are sanitary,
light, weatherproof, and require half the staff
and equipment to collect the refuse.
64-0053
Form national council to promote paper sacks.
Refuse Removal Journal, 7(11): 14, Nov. 1964.
The Paper Shipping Sack Manufacturers'
Association set up the National Refuse Sack
Council to promote the use of paper sacks
for refuse storage. Sacks have been cited
as successful in Manchester, England, Sweden,
and Denmark. They improve sanitation and
provide better working conditions for
refuse collection employees.
1,000 customers. The paper bag disposal
system consists of a two-ply paper bag
suspended in a specially designed holder.
The bag is treated to hold both wet and
greasy materials without breaking and has a
capacity equal to more than a 30 gal
galvanized can. The holder is made of
heavy duty steel and is designed to surround
the suspended paper bag completely. The
filled bags are removed twice a week by the
collector and replaced by a fresh bag. The
price of the unit is $15.00 and the monthly
sanitation fee $1.65 as compared to $1.00
for regular collection service. An analysis
of the results, as determined by a
questionnaire showed that 97 percent of the
users found the system more sanitary; 96
percent felt it reduced both spillage and fly
and other insect problems: 93 percent reported
reduced odor and noise, 100 percent approved
of the holder as to appearance; 95 percent
approved its durability, and 96 percent
reported that the lid stayed tightly closed.
64-0054
Fox, G. G. Paper-bag collection on request.
American City, 79(10):14, Oct. 1964.
More than one-fourth of the 4,000 residential
garbage-collection customers in Camden,
Arkansas, elected to pay $0.65 extra per month
in order to have paper-bag refuse collection.
The Garbax Disposal System, developed by the
International Paper Company, utilizes a bag
with more than a 30-gal capacity. The system
is neat and clean, for the two-ply paper bag
is specially treated to hold wet and greasy
garbage without rupturing, and no garbage
ever touches the metal holder. The City of
Camden found the Garbax System to be more
sanitary in regard to insect control and
odors, and collecting the lightweight bags
was a much simpler task than listing the
regular galvanized cans. Collection is
twice a week, and used bags are replaced
with new ones by the collector. Costs to
the customer in Camden are included.
64-0055
Fox, G. G. Paper bag disposal system finds
ready acceptance. Public Works, 95(12):118, 120,
Dec. 1964.
A new paper bag garbage collection system,
called the Garbax Disposal system, is
described. The service was made available
in Camden, Arkansas, and was initially
subscribed to, on a voluntary basis, by
64-0056
Hughes, 0. G. Refuse storage in multi-story
buildings. Royal Societv of Health Journal,
84(6) : 31 9-321 /Nov.-Dec/ 1964.
Due to changes in the content of refuse,
much planning will be necessary to adapt
storage methods to various types of
buildings. The British Standards Institution
has established refuse storage codes. The
need to dispose of refuse quickly has been
done in some areas by means of refuse chutes.
For example: chutes are adjacent to
elevators in Germany and the United States;
chutes and central vacuum system are adjacent
to stairs in Sweden; and there is chute access
from mezzanine landing in Great Britain. To
counteract smells and noise, place the chute
in a separate room, and avoid depositing hot
ashes to prevent fires. The chutes should be
straight and discharge vertically over the
center of the container. The chamber should
be accessible. Sloping curbs prevent bumping
containers. One difficulty with sink grinders
and the Garchey system is the need to store
and collect refuse that will not pass the
appropriate sink gauge. Refuse density is
1 \ cuts per cu yd. One process employs
compression to automatically fill paper sacks
with refuse, producing uniform sized and
nuisance-free packages.
64-0057
Hubs. H. Waste removal--a community task.
Staedtehygiene, 15(6): 1-4, June 1964.
11
-------
Storage
In 1963, the rural community of Ganderkesee
in Lower Saxony, population 15,000, established
a waste removal service with the paper waste
sack system. Participation in the service
is compulsory for every household. The annual
service charge is DM 9, which covers the cost
for the first 18 sacks. Some of the legal
background for the regulations is discussed.
The paper sacks hold 70 liters and are
moisture resistant. They withstand even rain
and snow. The sacks are collected by a
tractor with trailer and by a horse-drawn
carriage. Advantages of the sack system are
noiselessness and the fact that unusual
amounts of waste, as they occur especially
after holidays, are simply taken care of by
extra sacks. No case of fire with the paper
sacks was reported. The paper sack system
appears particularly attractive for rural
communities because no specialized waste
collecting vehicles are required.
(Text-German) (Enclosed Reprint)
64-0058
Jay, G. .T. The Binrota unit. Public
Cleansing, 54(7):1014, July 1964.
The Binrota, manufactured in Great Britain,
is a significant step forward in the
development of the turntable system of
refuse storage. Its chief asset is a
lifting mechanism that hauls the containers
onto the platform. This solves the problem
of water and rubbish spilling into the
circular crack between the platform and the
floor on the ground-level turntable, and it
eliminates lifting heavy containers on the
turntable above ground level.
64-0059
Kaupert, W. Plastic containers for waste
disposal. Staedtehygiene, 15(10) :239, Oct.
1964.
The plastic industry is not yet able to
produce a material which is not flammable
and which holds its shape on heating. The
highest permissible temperature is 80 C; for
short periods of time the material might
withstand 100 C but at any temperature
beyond this point it becomes soft and holes
develop. One could line the plastic cans
with sheet steel which would distribute the
heat rapidly but the costs involved are too
high. Another serious drawback of the plastic
can is that it loses its shape with minor
seasonal temperature fluctuations and that
the color is attacked by light. Presently
Hamburg is engaged in extensive experiments
with plastic containers but it is not bound
by strict fire prevention rules as is Bavaria,
where state authorities decide whether these
containers may be introduced or not.
(Text-German)
64-0060
Kennels use paper sack disposal. Surveyor
and Municipal Engineer, 124(3763):68 , July
18, 1964.
Sacks of special wet-strength kraft paper in
a range of sizes are used by kennels in refuse
collection. Because of ease of handling,
hygiene factors and saving of labor and
time, paper sacks are replacing costly
dustbins.
64-0061
Kruppe, H. Water protection during waste
storage. Technische Ueberwachung, 5(2):69,
Feb. 1964.
With the participation of the appropriate
authorities and industry, a colloquium was
held on October 16, 1963 at Cologne by the
Institute for Industrial Water Management and
Air Purification on the subject 'Storage of
Industrial Wastes.' Reports on the following
subjects were presented: (1) the storage of
industrial wastes from the legal point of
view; (2) the hygienic requirements during
deposition of industrial wastes; (3) the
hydrological viewpoint during the storage of
waste products; and (4) the technological and
industrial possibilities of waste storage.
During the discussion it was emphasized that
the technical and financial problems occurring
during the storage of waste of all kinds can
only be solved with the cooperation of the
town, the community, industry, and the
authorities. (Text-German)
64-0062
Mortensen, L.
popular item.
Apr. 1964.
Rental containers become a
American City, 79(4):34,
The city of Scottsbluff, Nebraska, purchased
ten llj-yard detachable refuse containers
and rented them to its business community for
$2.50 a month. The containers which are
designed to fit various makes of collection
trucks, speed up local refuse collection. The
system was so popular that the city plans
on purchasing more containers next year.
12
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0058-0070
64-0063
Municipality of Montclair, N.J., uses paper
trash containers. Refuse Removal Journal,
7(2):34, Feb. 1964.
Residents of Montclair, New Jersey, can use
a voluntary paper garbage can system at
their own expense. Bags cost $.07; wall
holders, $5.00; and receptacle holders, a
little higher. Residents of College Park,
Maryland, have a compulsory paper can program
and are supplied paper bags and wall holders
free of charge. Past users of the paper cans
said they are more sanitary and convenient.
64-0064
New system halves Maryland community's
collection force. Refuse Removal Journal,
7(5) :29, May 1964.
Riverdale, Maryland, has replaced trash cans
with paper bags through a town council
ordinance. The paper bags are lighter than
garbage cans, and hold as much or more refuse.
They can be loaded directly into the trucks,
eliminating the time and motion needed to empty
the cans. Consequently, it was possible to
reduce the work force from two trucks and
eight men to one truck and four men.
64-0065
New waste disposal method in Braunschweig,
West Germany. Staedtehygiene, 15(3):78,
Mar. 1964.
Because of the great shortage of personnel
and the increasing amount of waste, a new
waste disposal method has been introduced in
Braunschweig, West Germany. Instead of the
110 liter garbage containers, large containers
of 3.7 cu m volume are used. By means of a
hydraulic tilting device attached to trucks,
the containers can be easily loaded and
unloaded. (Text-German)
64-0066
Newburn puts it in the sack. Public
Cleansing, 54(11):1272, Nov. 1964.
Newburn, England, has entered into an
agreement with a house construction firm to
equip paper sack holders into some new homes.
Operation of the system, advantages, and a
cost comparison with bins are presented. The
city has experienced no difficulty in tipping
sacks.
64-0067
One route tests paper bags.
79(8):34, Aug. 1964.
American City,
In Milford, Connecticut, a test program is
being conducted to replace conventional
garbage cans with heavy-duty, disposable
paper bags. Designed to serve as liners,
the bags may be inserted and removed from
steel cabinets without moving the supporting
receptacle. The bags are water-repellant,
noiseless, and sanitary.
64-0068
P. S. L. tests of paper refuse sacks in S.
and D. 'Pakamatic'. Surveyor and Municipal
Engineer, 123(3741):51, Feb. 15, 1964.
The results are given on tests using P. S. L.
(Paper Sacks Ltd.) paper refuse sacks in a
S. and D. (Shelvoke and Drewry, Ltd.)
'Pakamatic' continuous loading collection
vehicle. Sacks of refuse loaded into a
'Pakamatic' were completely destroyed and
there was no loss in vehicle capacity with
the use of sacks compared to loading of loose
refuse. The development of a collection
vehicle with shredders means that separation
and incineration plants can use the paper
sack method of collection as well as
composting plants without risk of the machines
jamming. The resulting paper shreds did not
hinder the manual picking of rags, metals,
or the operation of the magnetic separator.
The hand-filled sacks used in the tests were
2-i cu ft capacity wet strength capacity.
64-0069
Paper sacks for refuse collection. Surveyor
and Municipal Engineer, 123(3753):25, May
9, 1964.
Subjects discussed during a joint meeting
of the Institute of Public Cleansing and the
Association of Public Health Inspectors are
reviewed. The advisability of replacing the
dustbin by paper sacks for refuse collection
and the durability of paper against weather
and animals were considered as well as the
possibility for removal of the social stigma
associated with refuse collectors.
64-0070
Paper sacks in the kitchen. Public
Cleansing, 54(1):695, Jan. 1964.
13
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Storage
In a London restaurant, the sanitary Palfrey
Refusak, on its compact Deva stand, is being
successfully used. Besides being attractive
in appearance and noiseless, the space-saving
sacks have eliminated the problem of refuse
storage.
64-0071
Paper sacks prepared for disposal.
Cleansing, 54(9):1178, Sept. 1964.
Public
Problems associated with passing
refuse-collecting paper sacks through a
separation-type refuse disposal plant have
been dispelled through recent tests in Great
Britain. A packer-loader vehicle collected
numerous filled sacks, cutting them all up
efficiently. The normal separation process
was then conducted with no whole bags evident.
64-0072
Park, J. Receptacle Rembrandts.
City, 79(9) :25, Sept. 1964.
American
A novel method of attracting attention to
trash cans has been employed by the resort
community of Lake Geneva, Wisconsin. Sixteen
trash cans have been artfully decorated on
all four sides with attractive paintings
created by local artists. These attractive
trash cans have kept the streets and walks
cleaner, because people constantly remember
these distinctive containers and their purpose.
64-0073
Pascoe, G. and R. E. Lapar. Clearing refuse
from storage pit corners. Public Works,
95(6) :131 , June 1964.
Poughkeepsie, New York, solved the problem
of cleaning pockets of refuse from the sides
and corners of the storage pit of its
incinerator by attaching extension arms to
the bucket and crane that fed the refuse from
the pit into the furnace.
64-0074
Plastic refuse bags.
39(2) :69, Feb. 1964.
Food Manufacture,
Polyethylene refuse bags, 11 to 28 in. wide
and 24 to 39 in. long, are in use for
disposing of potato waste and spoiled wraps
from food processing. The tough polyethylene
bags, completely waterproof and grease
resistant, are cheaper than other types of
refuse bags and therefore represent an
improvement in the efficient disposal of
waste from the food production line. The
bags are easier to handle than bins and can
be fitted in a holder in seconds. The filled
bag can be sealed and stored anywhere for
convenient collection at a later time.
64-0075
The problems of bulk: storage. Public
Cleansing, 54(7):1019, July 1964.
A paper presented by J. A. Ferguson at a
meeting of the Scottish Centre of the
Institute of Public Cleansing is reported.
Contemporary storage systems' ability to
handle the increased bulkiness of refuse is
discussed. For the most part, containers
have not changed with the changing nature
of refuse and methods of increasing container
size without increasing weight, such as
plastic containers and the paper sack system
are suggested. Bulk containers and
commercial, office and factory storage are
reviewed.
64-0076
Refuse bins instead of refuse barrels.
Technische Ueberwachung, 5(3):108,
Mar. 1964.
The Braunschweiger town authorities replaced
110 liter refuse barrels with masonry refuse
bins with a capacity of 3.7 cu m. Each bin
replaced 25 to 30 refuse barrels. The bins
are transported three at a time on a truck
with a capacity of 5.7 ton and with the
maneuverability to turn in small courts
and pass through narrow gates. The bins
are emptied by hydraulic tilting of the lift
tilt platform. Traveling a daily distance
of 80-100 km, 2 trucks can transport about
180 refuse bins. This is comparable to the
removal of at least 4,500 refuse barrels
(110 liter capacity). A supercargo truck
which carries 7.65 ton is used for the
transport of extra heavy sheet refuse bins,
such as those found in parks. (Text-German)
64-0077
Refuse sack.
1964.
Engineering, 198:649, Nov. 20
The advantages of paper sacks over dustbins
for refuse disposal are briefly discussed.
14
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0071-0081
The sacks are made from two-ply wet strength
kraft paper and will hold wet or oily refuse.
Holders mentioned ranged from free-standing
static or mobile ones to wall-mounted metal
ones. The two points stressed are that when
the output of refuse fluctuates, sacks are
merely changed more or less frequently and
that the final emptying requires only one
trip.
Westvaco system, as a result of observing
their neighboring community of College Park
during a test of the same system the year
before. After a trial period, the town
sent cards to solicit reaction of householders
to the system. The response was 92 percent
in favor. Because of the low cost of the
paper bag system, it is being supplied to
householders at no cost.
64-0078
Rohe, D. L., H. J. Magy, K. E. White, et al.
An evaluation of fly larval migration from
containers of combined refuse in the city of
Compton, California. California Department of
PubJic Health, Bureau of Vector Control, Oct.
1964. 35 p.
The purpose of the study was to evaluate
fly larval migration from refuse containers
in a community where wrapped garbage is
combined with other refuse, stored in the
same container, and collected once-a-week.
Refuse containers from 60 households were
selected for this study. All households
had the following in common: garbage was
combined with other refuse; more than one
person lived in the household; and the
householder was willing to cooperate and not
change from his normal practices of refuse
disposal. The three test groups differed
in the following respects: (1) Group A
used an uncovered storage container and had
a garbage grinder in use; (2) Group B used
an uncovered storage container and did not
have a garbage grinder; and (3) Group C used
a covered storage container and did not have
a garbage grinder. Each group comprises 20
households. The results and recommendations
of the survey are presented. The dominance
of the two species of green blow flies in
the study was of importance because of the
rapid development of these species under the
summer temperatures in Compton. Larvae emerge
within 8 hr of egg deposition. During the
summer, larval growth is often completed
within 3 to 4 days. The mature larvae then
migrate from the refuse container and pupate
in the soil prior to the emergence of the
adult.
64-0080
Shayne, P. E. Containerization. In
Proceedings; National Conference on Solid
Waste Research, Chicago, Dec. 2-4, 1963.
American Public Works Association, 1964.
p.80-84.
The number one problem in the container
industry today is cleaning the container.
Actually local Health Department Authorities
hold the customer responsible for keeping
the trash containers on his premises in a
sanitary condition, but the customer also
demands this service of his trash removal
contractor. Because of the manpower and
the time it takes, cleaning containers
raises the cost of the service considerably.
Collection trucks, because they represent
such a big investment, have to take in about
$30.00 an hr. It takes about 5 minutes to
clean the container. This costs the
contractor $2.50. Three methods are commonly
used to clean a container: spraying a
disinfectant sanitizer into the empty
container; steam cleaning it; or applying
hot water and disinfectant with a turbo-like
spray. What it really needs is some
automatic method of cleaning the container
that would be efficient, save time, and
eliminate the possibility of human negligence.
What is needed is the technique of cleaning
and disinfecting containers while they are
in a dump position above the truck. Other
pertinent problems are also listed. It is
believed that all research in the detachable
container systems industry, as well as in
refuse disposal, needs to be done with the
future in mind, and by improving detachable
container systems, one necessary step forward
will have been taken toward the solution of
the whole refuse problem.
64-0079
Second community adopts the paper bag refuse
system. Public Works, 95(5) :117, May 1964.
The community of Riverdale, Maryland, has
adopted the paper bag system. All of the
1100 householders cooperated in a test of the
64-0081
Shayne, P. Expensive cleaning methods slow
container process. Refuse Removal Journal,
7(4):35, Apr. 1964.
Six basic types of modern automated containers
are discussed. A chief problem such a
15
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Collection and Disposal-General
container presents is the lack of a quick,
inexpensive method of cleaning. However,
the non-automated containers cause the bulk
of difficulties in this area. What is now
needed is some automatic method of cleaning
containers.
Staedtehygiene,
64-0082
Waste disposal in hospitals.
15(3):78, Mar. 1964.
Hospitals are turning more and more to the
use of paper bags for removing the
accumulating waste. Both movable and
stationary racks are available, into which
the bags may be hung. The bags come in two
sizes, 60/70 liter and 110/120 liter.
Hospitals prefer the paper bags to sheet steel
cans because they can be handled noiselessly
and because they are more hygienic.
(Text-German)
64-0083
Waste disposal unit.
Apr. 3, 1964.
Engineering, 197:473,
A ruggedly constructed Wastemaster disposal
unit with pedal operated lid is described.
When the pedal pressure is released, the
lid closes, trapping any odors and reducing
contamination risk. Another advantage is
that the pedal leaves both hands free.
Dumping is performed by moving a lever which
causes the hinged base to fall away.
Dimensions of the sheet steel, zinc plated
unit are given. The standard capacity is
17 cu ft.
protection from freezing by encapsulation or
isolation from damaging temperatures; (2)
insulation and heating of facilities wherever
they may be located; and (3) utilization of
non-frost-susceptible systems. These three
methods are discussed in detail. Since there
are many unanswered questions concerning
arctic water and waste system design,
construction and operation, further research
is indicated in practically every aspect.
Examples are: (1) new concepts of water
supply and waste handling are needed; concepts
are required that will lead to facilities
that will provide water acceptable for reuse
and to facilities that will provide improved
collection and disposal of wastes; (2)
methods must be developed for the utilization
of low temperatures and low temperature
phenomena in water and sewage works; (3)
community planning concepts suited to the
water supply and waste disposal requirements
of the Arctic; and (4) concepts for individual
housing must be better correlated with the
characteristics of the community and utility
service needs. Emphasis should be on the
use of locally available resources.
64-0085
Apply imagination to urban problems.
American City, 79(12):86, Dec. 1964.
Speeches delivered at the 1964 Public Works
Convention and Equipment Show, included two
talks on refuse handling. One outlines the
'do's' and 'don'ts' of specifying an
incinerator, and the other presents the pros
and cons of vacuumized sweeping.
COLLECTION AND DISPOSAL-General
64-0084
Alter, A. J., and F. Asce. Sanitary
engineering in Alaska. Civil Engineering,
34(3):48-51, Mar. 1964.
In arctic engineering, designs have to be
subjected to a thermal analysis as well as
to the-conventional structural, chemical,
biological, esthetic, feasibility, and
functional considerations. All sanitary
engineering design concepts now in use in
Alaska for water and sewage works can be
roughly divided into three categories: (1)
64-0086
Baker, J. S. A cooperative municipal refuse
disposal program Prince George's County,
Maryland. College Park, University of
Maryland, Sept. 1963. 35 p.
A committee was appointed to study a refuse
collection and disposal report prepared for
the Washington Suburban Sanitary Commission
on the Anacostia landfill. The report noted
that the expected life of the Commission's
Anacostia landfill was only five to six
years. This consideration moved the committee
to undertake a study of the feasibility of
forming a cooperative municipal refuse
disposal facility that would be operated by
and available to the cities and towns in
Prince George's County. The services of the
staff of the Maryland-National Capital Park
and Planning Commission were obtained for
16
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0082-0089
locating possible landfill sites that would
conform with regional land use and planning
considerations. The problems involved and
criteria used in selecting landfill sites
are discussed. A detailed description is
given of 15 possible landfill sites and
estimated costs are tabulated. An automatic
data processing system was employed as a
computing aid in determining the most
economical cooperative refuse disposal
program. Two alternatives for refuse
disposal other than the formation of a
municipal cooperative are given. It is felt
that better services can be obtained from a
regional agency than can be provided
independently or through a cooperative
arrangement. Thorough evaluation of the
composting method of disposal is suggested.
64-0087
Baker, J. S. Planning a cooperative municipal
landfill. In A cooperative municipal refuse
disposal program Prince George's County,
Maryland. College Park, University of
Maryland, Sept. 1963. p.5-11.
A problem associated with developing a
cooperative municipal landfill program is
that landfills are limited to fixed geographic
locations that must meet a number of rigid
criteria. The physical location of a
possible landfill site becomes a limiting
factor as well as the charges for the disposal
at the site. The approach taken in this
study was to consider the possible use of
several landfill sites and to investigate the
use of an incinerator and several refuse
transfer stations on a cooperative basis.
The possible use of the composting method was
also investigated. Several private firms
were asked to comment upon the feasibility
of establishing composting plants in Maryland.
The criteria used in selecting possible
landfill sites eliminated any site that would
not serve a population of 15,000 for at least
ten years (a total fill volume of 150 acre-ft).
At least one acre of the site should be
considered unusable for filling because of
land requirements for buildings and roads.
The location of landfill sites on public
lands is highly desirable and every effort
should be made to locate landfill sites that
might allow the reclamation of public
lowlands for recreational or other uses.
Other factors of importance are the geological
formations underlying the proposed landfill
site, and the soil and drainage characteristics
of the site.
64-0088
Baker, J. S. Preliminary site locations. In
A cooperative municipal refuse disposal
program Prince George's County, Maryland.
College Park, University of Maryland, Sept.
1963. p.12-17.
Fifteen sites that may be suitable for use as
sanitary landfills were indentified. A
detailed description of each site is included.
The larger landfill sites are privately
owned and are located, generally, to the
south of the majority of the cities and
towns included in the study. Landfill sites
owned by public agencies are generally smaller,
but are located closer to the population
centers than the larger sites. The costs
of purchasing privately owned land was
estimated to be high, in some cases as much
as $40,000 per acre. Estimated costs of
refuse disposal for each potential landfill
site under various degrees of utilization
are tabulated. The estimates include the
following cost factors: labor for weighing,
compacting, covering and supervision; the
cost of maintenance, repair and operation of
equipment; the cost of utilities including
telephone, heat, light and water; amortization
of the costs of initial land development,
original equipment purchases, and the cost of
purchasing the land; sinking fund requirements
for the replacement of equipment;
administrative costs. Cost projections were
also prepared for an incinerator and for
operating two transfer stations and are
tabulated.
64-0089
Baker, J. S. Designing the cooperative
program. In A cooperative municipal refuse
disposal program Prince George's County,
Maryland. College Park, University of
Maryland, Sept. 1963. p.18-30
Automatic data processing systems were
employed as a computing aid in determining
the most economical cooperative refuse
disposal program possible within the
alternatives available. Descriptions of the
problem and of the instructions given the
computer for solving the problem are presented.
The results of the first cycle are of
significance only if a regional agency, such
as the Washington Suburban Sanitary Commission
or Prince George's County, owned and operated
the sites selected, made the sites available
to private collectors, and the sites were
used to near capacity. The results of the
final cycle indicated the formation of four
separate cooperatives with disposal costs for
17
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Collection and Disposal-General
various landfill sites varying from $1.64 to
$2.39 per ton. The criteria used were
selected with a view toward providing for the
maximum utilization of each of the most
desirable landfill sites. The smallest cities
were removed until the landfill utilization
equaled or was slightly less than the full
capacity of the landfill site. The first
step in the formation of a cooperative would
be appointment of a committee or board,
consisting of representatives from each of
the cities considering participation in
the cooperative, to study the feasibility
of such a program. One method for sharing the
costs of a cooperative landfill is to
distribute the initial and operating costs
on a population basis. Using the example
of the cities that might form a cooperative
with a particular landfill site, a breakdown
of costs for each city is presented.
64-0090
Baker, J. S. Alternatives to a cooperative
program. In A cooperative municipal refuse
disposal program Prince George's County,
Maryland. College Park, University of
Maryland, Sept. 1963. p.31-33.
The two basic alternatives for refuse disposal
other than the formation of a municipal
cooperative are: utilization of refuse
disposal facilities provided by a regional
agency such as the Washington Suburban
Sanitary Commission or Prince George's
County; or establishment of refuse disposal
facilities on an individual city basis. The
Washington Suburban Sanitary Commission has
given no indication of an intent to abandon
its refuse disposal functions in Prince
George's County. Cities and towns could
work toward an improved regional refuse
disposal program by urging the regional
agency to establish several disposal sites
at convenient locations throughout the
County. The regional approach should not
exclude the active participation of
municipalities in the formation of policies
and operating procedures. Some cities may
wish to continue operating their own refuse
disposal facilities or to use private
facilities. As the metropolitan area
expands and landfill sites are depleted,
however, continuation of independent landfill
operations will become less feasible.
Generally, the use of independent refuse
disposal operations will be limited to
cities located on the outer fringe of the
metropolitan area.
64-0091
Barton, A. E. Labour relations in public
cleansing in Great Britain. Presented at
Eighth International Congress of Public
Cleansing, Vienna (Austria), Apr. 14-17.
1964. 13 p.
The history of public cleansing in Great
Britain is traced. Comparative pictures and
job descriptions of the refuse collector in
1900 and in 1964 are provided. The numerous
old and worn out workers on the Cleansing
staff in the early 1900's are noted. A
great part of the work had to be done at
night and there were complaints on the way
men carried it out. The attire of the refuse
collector with his horse-drawn vehicle is
described along with his typical duties. A
53 to 60 hr work week was common. No social
security or welfare benefits were available.
The dustman had to be a tough character to
accomplish this dirty and physically demanding
job which lacked present-day standards and
innovations. The wage increases through the
years are shown, as are the decreasing hours
of work for the various job categories.
'Joint consultation' which enabled the
employed and employee to work together for
their mutual benefit, has been used in
industry but has not been common in Public
Cleansing Departments in Great Britain. The
author describes two Joint Consultative
Committees he has been instrumental in
forming. Each committee, made up of
representatives of all sections, meets the
Head of the Department and his principal
officers at monthly meetings. The influence
of mechanization upon Public Cleansing is
reviewed. Training courses enable promotion
to a higher paying job. The various forms
of social security and welfare benefits,
including sickness and disablement insurance
are described. Trade Union membership is
either compulsory or desirable as it is
thought to have been instrumental in securing
better working conditions and welfare
provisions.
64-0092
Bell, J. M. Development of methods of
sampling and analyzing municipal refuse
Purdue University 1957-1962. Lafayette, Ind.,
Purdue University. 18 p.
The first two years of this project dealt
principally with various sampling methods for
determining the composition of a large
quantity of refuse such as a truckload of
8,000 Ib. Results indicated that one has 95
percent confidence of being no more than 20
18
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0090-0095
percent in error by analyzing a quarter of a
truckload of refuse when estimating such
parameters as percent by weight, percent by
volume, bulk density, percent moisture, percent
ash, and calorific value of the garbage,
combustible, and non-combustible portion of
the refuse. Also included in the first 2-year
study was a sampling procedure in which
samples were obtained on a household basis
in order to show the variation in quantity
and quality of refuse from individual
households throughout a homogeneous
residential area within a community. A
statistical analysis of the data gave some
idea of the necessary number of households to
be sampled in a homogeneous area of a
community in order to obtain a desired
accuracy with a certain percent confidence.
Field studies were conducted in order to
obtain samples of refuse for laboratory
analysis as well as to estimate the accuracy
of the method used in obtaining the samples.
A special study was conducted in the early
part of the project in order to obtain
information concerning the laboratory
technique of drying and grinding refuse
samples prior to subsequent chemical
analyses. Recommendations for future
research are given.
64-0093
Black, R. J. A preliminary report on the
proposed plan to dump refuse at sea by the
City of San Juan, Puerto Rico. U.S.
Public Health Service, Mar. 1963. Up.
Pertinent information was assembled to
evaluate the proposed plan of the City of
San Juan to dump its refuse at sea. Present
disposal methods used by the city and ocean
disposal of refuse by other cities were
considered. Length of ocean haul and
docking and loading facilities were studied.
The City of San Juan is now collecting an
average of 662 tons per day of refuse.
Although crushing or baling would add
approximately $0.80 to $1.00 per ton to the
cost of refuse handled, such processing
might be worth the additional costs provisions,
to reduce floatage problem. Tentative contract
provisions, to be reflected in private
contractors' offers, are critically examined.
It was generally concluded that the dumping
of refuse at sea would provide the city with
inexhaustible refuse disposal facilities at
less cost than other available methods. Total
costs are expected to range from $2.00 to
$3.00 per ton for quantities of 500 to 600
tons per day. It was recommended that wind
and current conditions be observed, transfer
structures and buildings be made of concrete
or brick, alternate disposal facilities be
provided, and wood and similar floating
materials be disposed of at a landfill. Since
the city would be forced to operate landfills
for at least a sizeable portion of its refuse,
suitable lands should be acquired and reserved.
64-0094
Black, R- J- The solid waste problem in
metropolitan areas. California Vector Views,
11(9) :51 , Sept. 1964.
The magnitude of the present solid waste
problems in urban areas is emphasized. The
local government outlay for refuse collection
and disposal, over $1.5 billion, is exceeded
only by expenditures for local schools and
for roads. The private sanitation industry
also expends about $1.3 billion additional
yearly. Major problems discussed include
the population explosion; increasing per
capita rate of refuse production; scarcity
of land for sanitary landfill; pollution from
open dumps; high citizen apathy; air and
water pollution; vector control; occupational
health; accident and fire prevention;
continued, unlawful feeding of raw garbage
to swine; and high accident rate of sanitation
workers, twice that of policemen and firemen.
The author recommends much research in
collection methods, since 85 percent of the
disposal cost is in collection. State legal
authority to provide area-wide refuse service
is badly needed, and has been provided in
only nine states. Legal action coupled with
the growing body of technical information
should enable more cities to cope effectively
with their solid waste problems.
64-0095
Bugher, R. D. Progress begins with research.
APWA [American Public Works Association] Reporter,
Apr. 1962. 1 p.
This editorial points out the concern of
the American Public Works Association over
the fact that very little money is going into
the field of research for development of
improved methods of collection and disposal.
Therefore1, the A.P.W.A. has attempted to
alleviate this problem by publishing a book
on Refuse Collection Practice and by
requesting the Department of Health, Education,
and Welfare to establish a broad program of
basic and applied research in this particular
field of activity. The organization notes
19
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Collection and Disposal-General
that legislation is now in action to support
the kind of program that is really needed.
One study now being conducted by the U.S.
Public Health Service proposes: (1) to dispose
of wastes through chutes connected to a
system of vacuum tubes; (2) to compress
refuse into reusable briquettes; and (3) to
use mathematical models to determine the
optimum refuse collection system in specific
areas.
64-0096
California State Department of Public Healthh.
Environmental health survey for the Santa
•Rosa area. Sonoma County, Calif.
Cincinnati, U.S. U.S., Public Health Service,
Aug. 1963. p. 1-76
Health, planning, public works, and housing
personnel from Sonoma County and seven surrounding
countries attended a course on Urban Planning
for Environmental Health. A survey of the
Santa Rosa area was conducted, findings were
evaluated, and group reports were written.
The reports cover water, sewerage, refuse
collection and disposal, air pollution control,
housing, general environmental health, vector
control, and planning. Recommendations for
improving the environmental health of the
community are listed and a program of
implementation is summarized. A roster of
student and staff participants is appended.
64-0097
California State Department of Public Health.
Refuse collection and disposal. In
Environmental health survey for the Santa
Rosa area. Sonoma County, Calif.
Cincinnati, U.S. Public Health Service,
Aug. 1963. p.29-35.
Private companies operate under contract or
franchise to the individual cities to provide
regular refuse collection service. Refuse
collection in Santa Rosa is a mandatory
service for which $1 is automatically
charged on each water bill. Domestic
garbage is collected weekly and each household
is provided free curb collection of 1 cu yd
of refuse weekly. Packer trucks are required
for the collection of garbage while open
vehicles are used for refuse collection.
The county provides seven disposal sites
containing 97 acres of disposal area but
having an average life expectancy of only 4
to 5 yrs. Twelve ft deep trenches are dug
and designated for public or commercial
disposal and salvage. The refuse, after
burning, is compacted with bulldozers and
covered with a dirt layer every 48 hr. It
costs the county 15 cts per cu yd of
uncompacted refuse to operate the disposal
site. Sixty-five percent of the operational
costs are covered by disposal and license
fees. The refuse is not covered often
enough to prevent fly breeding and the burning
phase causes some air pollution. The
uncovered refuse provides nests for many
vectors and the salvage pile is unsightly.
Special problems are created by the waste
of the fruit processing plants. By relating
the refuse disposal plan to the general
plans it might be possible to create
sanitary landfills on land that can be
reclaimed for future use, such as park sites.
64-0098
California State Department of Public
Health. Vector control. In Environmental
health .survey for the Santa Rosa area.
Sonoma County, Calif. Cincinnati,
U.S. Public Health Service, Aug. 1963.
p.57-61.
In two resort areas, most of the garbage
cans were uncovered and there was a less than
satisfactory system of cleaning the cans. A
tannery proved to be a major source of fly
breeding due to poor sanitation practices.
Neither of the two county dumps had adequate
vector control. Investigation of chicken
and cattle ranches revealed excess storage
of manure. There is a definite vector
problem in the central section of Sonoma
County. The legal right to control vector
problems is derived from two types of
statutory provisions: those relating to the
control of public nuisances and those relating
to the control of communicable diseases. What
is lacking is adequate finances.
64-0099
California State Department of Public Health.
Environmental health survey Greater Santa
Cruz. Santa Cruz County, Calif.
Cincinnati, U.S. Public Health Service, Dec.
1963. 74 p.
Health, planning, public works, and housing
personnel from Santa Cruz County and six
surrounding counties attended a course on
Urban Planning for Environmental Health.
Many hours were spent in and out of class
assembling and evaluating findings, writing
group reports, and preparing recommendations.
The reports covered water services, sewerage
20
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0096-0103
control, housing programs, environmental
health programs, and planning. A list of
references and a roster of staff and
student participants is appended.
64-0100
California State Department of Public Health.
Refuse collection and disposal. In
Environmental health survey Greater Santa
Cruz. Santa Cruz County, Calif.
Cincinnati, U.S. Public Health Service,
Dec. 1963. p.37-40.
Weekly refuse collection service is mandatory
in the city of Santa Cruz for all of the
incorporated area. The service consists of
weekly backyard pickups of one 30-gal can
of garbage and one 30-gal can of rubbish.
The fee for this service is $1.40 per mo for
each premise. The city uses seven radio
equipped packer-type trucks for this service;
also two open-type trucks are available for
rubbish during seasons of heavy needs; 1,181
commercial enterprises are also served by
the city but the pickups and charges are on
the basis of frequency of collection and
volume of material. In some cases, the
city is using bulk bins of 1 and 2-cu yd
capacity for commerical accounts. There is
one disposal site approximately 4 miles west
of the center of the city containing 150 acres.
The site was operating at a cost of 39 cents
per cu yd of refuse in 1962. During the
summer months, landfill is practiced.
During the winter months, some burning is
done. There have been instances where streets
and public places have been littered with
refuse, presumably by persons outside the
city who do not have refuse collection
service. It is recommended the acquisition
of additional disposal sites be considered.
A study should be made to consider increasing
the amount of rubbish collected from each
premise beyond the present limitation of one
30-gal can per week. Street sweepings
containing organic material and waste
building materials should not be accumulated
near the sewage treatment plant.
64-0101
California State Department of Public Health.
Environmental health survey of the Chico area,
Butte County, California. Cincinnati, U.S.
Public Health Service, Sept. 1963. 71 p.
Health, planning, public works and housing
personnel from Butte County and 23 surrounding
counties attended a course on Planning for
Environmental Health. A survey was conducted
of the Chico area, the findings were evaluated,
and group reports were written. The reports
covered water services, sewerage services,
refuse collection and disposal, air pollution
control, housing, general environmental
health, vector control, and planning. A brief
profile of Butte County is presented and a
roster of staff and student participants is
appended.
64-0102
California State Department of Public Health.
Sewerage systems. In Environmental health
survey of the Chico area, Butte County,
California. Cincinnati, U.S. Public Health
Service, Sept. 1963. p.23-28.
A new treatment plant, serving a present
population of 16,000, consists of the
following units: headworks, clarifier, sludge
digester, sludge drying beds, and percolation
and stabilization ponds. The sludge digester
is 60 ft in diameter and has a total volume
or 454,700 gal. It is capable of serving a
population equivalent to about 25,000. The
sludge drying beds are 16,000 sq ft in area
and have been used very little up to the
present time. There are four ponds with an
approximate total area of 102.7 acres. No
city ordinance exists pertaining to the
discharge of industrial or commercial
wastes to the sewers. It is recommended that
the City develop plans for the time when they
can no longer dispose of their sewage on the
property they presently own. The Health
Department should be consulted before any
sludge from the treatment plant is used on
city parks. Laboratory facilities at the
plant should include facilities for testing
dissolved oxygen, sulfides, and detergents.
64-0103
California State Department of Public Health.
Refuse collection and disposal. In
Environmental health survey of the Chico area,
Butte County, California. Cincinnati, U.S.
Public Health Service, Sept. 1963. p.29-33.
Within the corporate limits of Chico, six
private scavengers are licensed to collect
refuse. To pick up one 32 gal can per
week, the maximum chargeable rate is $1.25
per month. Inside the city, leaves and lawn
clippings are removed by the city on those
streets were pavement extends curb to curb.
Garbage disposal units are allowed to be
installed in both city and county areas.
21
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Collection and Disposal-General
Incinerators are permitted within the city
subject to fire department regulation. The
primary city-county disposal area is 3 miles
east of Chico and consists of 10 acres of
land. Maintenance of the city-county site
costs from $2,000 to $2,500 per yr which is
split evenly between the agencies. Burning
is constant and as an open disposal area it
was found to be deplorable. It is recommended
that the site should be immediately cleaned
up and abandoned or converted to a sanitary
landfill. Twice weekly pickups of garbage
should be mandatory during warm weather. The
feeding of garbage to hogs should be
eliminated or conform to state laws.
64-0104
California State Department of Public Health.
Vector control. In Environmental health
survey of the Chico area, Butte County,
California. Cincinnati, U.S. Public Health
Service, Sept. 1963. p.52-57.
Present responsibility for vector control
rests with two agencies--the Butte County
Mosquito Abatement District on mosquito
control and the Butte County Health
Department handling most other vector
control problems. The city dump revealed
an ideal situation for a large rodent
population. Maintenance of the present
municipal refuse disposal site allows
incomplete burning of organic matter which
provides media for fly breeding. In recent
years, wastes from walnut packing operations
have produced large numbers of flies. A
feasibility study should be undertaken of
consolidating the three mosquito abatement
districts of the county. Plans should be made
now for an intensive flea and rodent control
effort on the existing dump site prior to its
abandonment.
64-0105
A cleaner Falkirk. Public Cleansing,
54(4) -.866-867 , Apr. 1964.
The annual report on refuse collection and
disposal of Falkirk, Scotland is reviewed.
A new Lacre Vacuum Sweeper combined with a
system of street washing has improved street
cleaning. The issuance of dustbins under a
Municipal Scheme has improved the storage
and collection of refuse. The city has
tested household refuse in its composting
plant and has found that such refuse compost
is satisfactory.
64-0106
Collect 12,000 tons of refuse monthly from
resort city. Refuse Removal Journal,
7(9):26, 60, 68, Sept. 1964.
Atlantic City, New Jersey, generates 12,000
tons of rubbish each year, not including
garbage. The collection of rubbish from the
city's beach, boardwalk, households and
commercial enterprises is outlined. The
city operates a sanitary landfill and an
incinerator, which burns 300 to 400 tons of
combustible refuse per 24 hr.
64-0107
Creisler, J. Tidal wave creates sanitation
problems. Public Works, 95(12):68-70,
138-142, Dec. 1964.
Sanitation problems connected with damage
done by the tidal wave which hit the coastal
town of Crescent City, California, as a
result of the Alaskan earthquake of 1964,
are discussed. The job of cleaning up was
done in three phases: (1) securing of the
area and posting quarantine signs on all
food establishments; (2) cleanup of debris,
destruction of damaged buildings and removal
of public health hazards by local agencies;
(3) similar action by the U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers. The local agencies began their
phase of the work as soon as the area was
safe; the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers moved
into the area 8 days after the seismic sea
waves hit. Since the city water supply and
sewage system remained intact, the main
sanitation problems were debris removal,
control of damaged foodstuffs and liquor,
and determining the public safety aspects of
buildings damaged by the tsunami. The methods
used to resolve these problems are described
in detail, as are special problems such as
the obtaining of disposal equipment,
systematic inspection and marking of damaged
buildings, and the legal aspects of the
problem. The need for and use of law
enforcement personnel during all phases of
the sanitation program are stressed. Six
weeks from the day the tsunami hit, the
cleanup work was finished and the sanitation
program completed.
64-0108
Daily collection of 25 million Ibs. creates
problem for Ohio. Refuse Removal Journal,
7(11) :26, Nov. 1964.
The State generates 25 million lb of refuse
daily and spends $35 to $40 million annually
22
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0104-0111
for its collection and disposal. A pronounced
trend is the steady and constant change in
the nature of the refuse. There is a decrease
in the per capita production of garbage and
ashes and a corresponding increase in rubbish.
House containers and three types of collection
service in general use--private hauling,
contract collection, and municipal collection
are discussed.
64-0109
Dateline: Vienna. APWA [American Public
Works Association] Reporter,
31(9) :10, 18, Sept. 1964.
Some of the technical papers presented at the
Vienna Congress of the International Public
Cleansing Association are reviewed. Alan E.
Barton of England reported on the improved
working conditions provided for refuse workers.
Minoru Shirakawa reported on public cleansing
practices in Japan. Some of the refuse is
now being collected from plastic containers
instead of the open wooden boxes formerly
used. The water content of refuse in Japan
ranges from 40 to 80 percent; most of it is
used for sanitary landfill, some is burned,
and a small portion is used for making compost.
There are 20 composting plants in Japan
producing about 600 tons of compost per day.
Unfortunately the market for compost is not
very good in Japan. Franz Fischer of
Austria presented a paper on the new 600
ton per day Von Roll incinerator which was
placed in operation in Vienna in May, 1963.
He described a method and calorimeter
developed for the determination of the
calorific value of refuse. R. Dijkshoorn of
the Netherlands presented a paper on a large
centralized incinerator to be constructed in
Rotterdam. Studies are now underway in
Germany and Switzerland on the effect of
incombusted incineration residues on
groundwater. W. Kaupert of Germany discussed
the various types of refuse collection
equipment utilized by German cities.
Pneumatic tipper and the various hydraulic
bin-tipping devices now in use have replaced
strenuous manual loading. 0. Tope of Germany
reported on the wide variety of mechanical
equipment that has been developed for street
sanitation work.
64-0110
DeKalb County, Georgia, Board of Commissioners.
Sanitary operations. Atlanta, Ga.,
International Incinerators, Inc., Dec. 1963.
23 p.
The growth of the DeKalb County, Ga.,
sanitary department and the history of the
county's first incinerator are reviewed. The
incinerator has a capacity of 150 truckloads
and its furnaces maintain controlled heat
between 1,400 and 1,800 F. Two rotary ovens
have a capacity for burning 300 tons per day
of refuse. Smoke passes into a mixing chamber
where water is sprayed through 20 separate
nozzles, picking up soot, ashes, and other
impurities. Residue from the kilns is picked
up by trucks for storage or immediate use.
The county expects to salvage and sell
between 20 and 25 tons of metal collected
daily from the incinerator. A study was
made of refuse preparation, storage,
collection, transportation and disposal in
the county, plus the existing Sanitary
Division problems and the recommended solutions.
To alleviate the unsatisfactory past
operations, the County Board of Commissioners
adopted a new Sanitation Ordinance. The
Ordinance is presented in full. Collection
practices were modified, short and long range
transportation plans were made, and the DeKalb
County Sanitary Division was reorganized. An
organization chart and description of the
Sanitary Division are included.
64-0111
Deming, G. H. Professional training for solid
wastes management (public cleansing) in
Great Britain and other European countries.
Public Health Service. Washington, U.S.
Department of Health, Education, and Welfare,
1964. 63 p.
Although the amount of refuse to be disposed
of and the problems connected with its
disposal are both increasing yearly, the
development of skills and manpower needed
to deal with the situation are not keeping
pace. The consideration of these problems
together with the realization that significant
progress has been realized in Great Britain
in the training of public cleansing personnel,
led to the initiation of this study. The
British experience is examined from the
standpoint of training opportunities offered
by higher educational institutions, the
growth of professionalization in the field
of public cleansing, the role in The Institute
of Public Cleansing and the national
ministries, and the elements of job
satisfaction. In addition, some observations
are noted with respect to training in other
European countries. The British experience
may have utility for those in the United
States who are concerned with the provision
of academic curricula and training facilities
23
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Collection and Disposal-General
designed to meet manpower needs in solid
wastes management.
partially dehydrated feces, (b) satisfactory
odor removal from recycled air, and (c)
complete bacterial removal from vented gases.
64-0112
Dietrich, D. Ephrata, Washington decides
to 'do something' about its garbage disposal
problems. Western City 40(11):34, Nov. 1964.
At Ephrata (7,000 pop.) the 3 man municipal
sanitation crew offers weekly pickup at $1.50
per month. Commercial areas are serviced
more frequently and at a higher rate. All
refuse cans (there is no limit to number)
are required to be placed on elevated racks
18 in. above the ground. If there are any
violations of any of the sanitary
requirements, a bright red warning tag is
left. The crew uses a 20 yd Garwood packer
for pickup and a Caterpillar 955H Traxcavator
at the landfill. Cleaning and maintenance of
equipment is performed on a regular schedule.
The crew is fitted with white uniforms to
present a good appearance to the public. At
the landfill, rotation of two trenches allows
clean dumping facilities each day. Although
there is unlimited public use, they allow no
scavenging.
64-0113
Dodson, J., and H. Wallman. Research on a
waste system for aerospace stations.
Technical Report AMRL-TDR-64-33.
Ohio, Aerospace Medical Research Laboratories,
Air Force Systems Command, Wright-Patterson
Air Force Base, May 1964. 73 p.
An engineering evaluation was conducted to
select an optimum waste management system
for collection, storage, and/or disposal of
feces and urine in a space station under
weightless conditions. Based on this study,
a detailed design of an optimum waste
management system was prepared for a 7-man,
15-day mission. Tests performed on a
breadboard model of the feces collector
demonstrate the feasibility of the selected
approach. The optimum waste management system
is based on separate collection of urine and
feces. The feces are collected, stored, and
partially dried by space vacuum in one piece
of equipment; urine is collected in plastic
urinals, sterilized, and transferred to a
diaphragm-type, spherical, storage tank for
intermediate storage prior to water recovery,
treatment or disposal. Tests performed on
the breadboard model demonstrate the
feasibility of the recommended approach with
regard to: (a) lack of pressure buildup with
64-0114
An editorial. Refuse Removal Journal,
7(10) :12, Oct. 1964.
The United States spends $3 billion annually
to collect and dispose of solid wastes, but
only $200,000 on research in solid wastes.
This compares unfavorably with the percent
of gross that private enterprise sets aside
for research. The shortcomings of the current
ways of disposing of wastes, and research
into the possibility of reclaiming garbage
and rubbish by extracting the basic chemical
components, not just by salvaging the
non-combustibles are discussed.
64-0115
Eldredge, R. W. 1963 Refuse disposal study
St. Joseph County, Indiana. Chicago, U.S.
Public Health Service, 1963. 37 p.
Public Officials requested the Indiana State
Board of Health and the U.S. Public Health
Service to study the refuse collection
disposal practices in St. Joseph County and
make recommendations for the improvement of
service. Results of a field survey showed
that the majority of solid waste disposal
sites were operated as open dumps.
Alternative methods of waste disposal were
investigated. County-operated sanitary
landfills Were recommended. An ordinance to
regulate sites and methods was also strongly
recommended. The ordinance should contain
minimum standards for operation of sanitary
landfills and incinerators. Allowance should
be made for any new or improved methods of
refuse disposal. Location of sanitary
landfill sites should be cooperatively
selected so that maximum usage can be made
of the finished fill by park, industrial,
or recreational facilities. Incineration
should be considered only when available
sanitary landfill sites are too remote for
economical transportation of refuse.
64-0116
Franborough. Public Cleansing, 54(1):670,
Jan. 1964.
According to its annual report on refuse
collection and disposal, Farnborough, England,
24
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0112-0122
was hampered by severe weather, an increase
in work from new development, and a shortage
of labor due to sickness among personnel. In
addition, the existing tipping area will be
exhausted by the end of 1964; a joint
neighboring program with neighboring
communities is recommended. Salvage
collection is profitable.
64-0117
From kitchen sink to refuse tip. Surveyor
and Municipal Engineer, 124(3766):47-48,
Aug. 8, 1964.
A commercial system for the disposal of
household waste is described. Normal refuse
such as bottles, cans, cartons, and kitchen
waste are disposed of through the kitchen
sink and flushed by normal waste water into a
collecting basin from which it is removed
mechanically by tanker vehicle to the
municipal dump. The trap and waste tube are
specially designed to accommodate objects such
as bottles and cans. From the time the waste
is placed in the sink until it reappears at
the dump, it is unseen, untouched, and
without an offensive odor. There are no
moving parts, electrical devices, or grinders.
The collection tankers empty each collection
chamber of both refuse and water by vacuum.
The water is removed by squeezing with hydraulic
pressures up to 1,000 psi inside the tanker
and drained to the sewer through a one-eighth
in. screen. The system is especially adapted
to use in high-rise apartment houses if
installed during construction, but it can be
placed in existing buildings.
64-0119
Gordon, M. Sick cities.
Macmillan, 1964. 366 p.
New York,
64-0118
The golden yellow hearse.
79(3):26, Mar. 1964.
American City,
A golden yellow dead-animal truck responds
to calls to collect large animals that die in
New York City. The average week consists of
six carcasses, most of them horses. The
completely enclosed truck features a large
tail gate that acts as a ramp when folded
down. After the sanitation men attach one
end of a cable to the unfortunate animals'
hind legs, a winch in the back of the truck
pulls it into the enclosure. The carcasses
go to a rendering company nearby which salvages
them for glue, fertilizer and hides. After
a thorough cleaning, the truck gets sprayed
with a sweet-smelling substance.
The problems of cities and of urbanization
are discussed in terms of highways, traffic
problems, air pollution, water supply, parks
and recreation areas, crime and police
protection, fire education, libraries, noise,
waste collection and disposal, taxes and
public expenditures, the overlapping units
of government, and planning. The book
contains 15 chapters and a subject index.
64-0120
Harrogate.
Jan. 1964.
Public Cleansing, 54(1):669,
The annual report on refuse collection and
disposal of Harrogate, England is reviewed.
There is an increase in tonnage and volume,
and the growth of building on the perimeter
of the town is affecting the length of haul.
Refuse is disposed of by controlled tipping
which has resulted in reclaimed land.
64-0121
Haug, L. A., and S. Davidson. Refuse
collection and disposal survey indicates
changing trends in 118 Western cities.
Western City, 40(4):26, 28, 30, 31, 34, Apr. 1964
The current survey indicates that 27 percent
of 118 cities include backyard collection as
part of their basic service. Some cities
collect rubbish from curb or alley and garbage
from the rear year. Often, if there is a
market, waste material is separated into: (1)
clean paper, (2) glass, (3) metals, and (4) food
wastes for hog feed. Most cities report
refuse collection by cities most popular,
followed by private arrangements and contract
services. The size of packers is enlarging,
as shown in Inglewood, California, which uses
38 cu yd capacity packers and in South Gate
with 30 cu yd capacity packers. The packer
design, a relatively new piece of equipment
permits a one-man operation. The vast majority
of cities set maximum container size or
weight by ordinance with the largest number
of cities setting the limit at 30 to 35 gal.
(The article also contains an extensive chart
on 'Collection and Disposal of Garbage and
Refuse in 118 Western Cities'.)
64-0122
Hope, M. C. Keynote address. In Proceedings;
Ad Hoc Conference on Solid Waste Training.
25
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Collection and Disposal-General
Robert A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Center,
Cincinnati, Nov. 4-6, 1964. U.S. Public
Health Service, p.1-6.
Storing, collecting, treating, and disposing
of solid wastes from our communities,
business establishments, industries, and farms
pose problems of mounting complexity and
urgency. Increasing concentrations of
people in urban areas and improved living
standards result in rising refuse/person
production. Furthermore, present management
methods are already largely inadequate for
the problem at hand, and the public is not
demonstrating the requisite concern that
authorities need as a mandate for action.
Solid waste management is, in large part,
a major economic problem. Public and
private costs total about $2.8 billion;
75 to 80 percent of this amount is spent
for collection. Local officials, as in
New York City, Boston, and Los Angeles are
striving to solve the problem. Planning
agencies--multi-jurisdictional,
city-county, and county-have completed
or are in the rocess of producing 31
research studies. State leadership is
essential, yet only nine states have achieved
major progress. In the Federal Government,
the Public Health Service provides technical
assistance, guidance and consultation,
besides economic aid. It is cooperating with
the Tennessee Valley Authority (composting)
the various APWA (handling) , and various
universities (training). More research is
required on the characteristics of solid
wastes and new processes for transportation
and ultimate disposal. Better communication
must exist between researcher and
practitioner. Important legislation has
been introduced but not yet enacted.
The magnitude of the dilemma calls for
combined effort throughout the nation.
64-0123
Hughes, K. S. Dispose of wastes. Sanitation
Series No. 6. U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Federal Extension Service, June 1963. 10 p.
Waste disposal methods for rural areas are
presented. Topics covered include: garbage,
trash, human wastes, sanitary latrines, waste
water, animal wastes, and dead animals. This
booklet is designed as an aid to extension
and village workers in many countries.
64-0124
Jacocks, F. A. Environmental sanitation
surveys. U.S. Public Health Service, Oct.
1962. 12 p.
The need for planning is evident in many
fields--assessing the present situation as
well as the accumulation of data so that
guides can be established for future
activities. With this in mind the Public
Health Service has prepared an Environmental
Health Planning Guide which deals with the
following subjects: health agency operations,
planning agency, air pollution control,
housing programs, radiological health, refuse
collection and disposal, sanitation programs,
sewerage services, and water supply services.
The Guide serves its most useful purpose in
areas where there is no organized planning
group. Field surveys at Omaha, Nebraska;
Lake county, Illinois; and Fort Wayne,
Indiana; are disucssed. Corrective actions
after these surveys are presented. The Public
Health Service believes that it can best
fulfill its obligation in the field of
environmental health planning by use of two
week resident courses, given approximately
twice a year, short (usually two days)
orientation courses, and by assistance in
field demonstrations courses. Places where
these courses are held are given.
64-0125
Kampschulte, J. Urban sanitation. VDI
(Verin Deutscher Ingenieure) Zeitschrift,
106(14):599-603, May 1964.
International problems of waste disposal
and modern ways and means of coping with them
were discussed at two technical meetings.
The meetings were accompanied by an exhibition
of the newest models of street cleaning
machines and waste removal trucks, including
new sweeping machines (one with a loading
capacity of two tons), a number of snow
plows, snow blowers, and sand strewing
vehicles, some with salt blower attachments.
The newest concept in the field of waste
disposal is a recommendation to state the
amounts of waste by weight, the annual
amounts of waste by ton per year. Currently,
plastic waste containers are being tried
out in various cities in West Germany. Paper
bags have been introduced in places (e.g.
hospitals) where it can be guaranteed that no
glowing ashes will be deposited. Large refuse
containers have come into more extensive use,
mainly because they can be removed and
replaced by vehicles operated by one man.
Almost all waste removal trucks are now
equipped with facilities for compacting the
waste to one-third of Its volume. Bulky
refuse is handled by special vehicles with
large conical drums which can crush even
large objects, such as pieces of furniture.
(Text-German)
26
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0123-0129
64-0126
Kaupert W. INTAPUC conference in Vienna,
Austria. Staedtehygiene, 15(8):187-1 89,
Aug. 1964.
An international meeting on waste disposal
problems was held in Vienna, Austria. The
first papers discussed personnel problems
and the work output of street cleaners. It
was pointed out that the work output of a
street cleaner fluctuates between 45 percent
and 28 percent of the standard output,
depending on the width of sidewalks, obstacles,
steps, rain, wind, and working technique. It
was reported from Zurich that a mobile
hammermill equipped with a W motor analyzes
the accumulating waste for qualification as
composting or incineration. It was suggested
that a uniform method of analysis be used
internationally. It was also suggested that
in addition to composting plants, incinerators
are justified in smaller cities. The design
of the new waste incinerator in Vienna, which
consists of three furnaces with a capacity of
200 ton per day each, was discussed. It is
expected that the proceeds from the sale of
heat, which is supplied to hospitals, will
cover not only the operating costs but also
the costs for amortization. In conclusion,
a report on street cleaning vehicles was
given in which a multi-purpose vehicle for
sweeping, washing and snow plowing was
favored. (Text-German)
64-0127
Klock, J. W. The sanitary scientist of 1970.
Public Health Reports, 79(1):71-72, Jan. 1964.
The sanitary scientist must devise and apply
acceptable standards for air, water, waste
disposal, food, and shelter besides discovering
means to reconstitute the wastes produced
into usable commodities. Only when these two
tasks have been successfully undertaken, can
man fully utilize the resources of his
environment. To deal effectively with the
complex cyclic phenomena of nature--biological,
meteorological, and geological-- the scientist
of today must understand all facets of water,
sewage, air, solid wastes, radiological, food
sanitation, epidemiological, and industrial
hygiene problems. Certain fundamental skills
in basic areas are requisite, with a strong
chemical, biological, and engineering
backgrounds preferred. Especially important
areas of study include physical chemistry,
biochemistry, the earth sciences, biological,
and social sciences. Thorough preparation
in mathematics and statistics for interrelation
and quantitative interpretation of these
sciences is also essential. Once adequately
trained, the scientist can then favorably
coordinate the biological, geological, and
meteorological cycles of nature with health
and sanitation concepts.
64-0128
Kuehn, 0. Equipment development. In
Proceedings; National Conference on Solid
Waste Research, Chicago, Dec. 2-4, 1963.
American Public Works Association, 1964.
p.85-90.
The development of changes and advancements
in refuse disposal trucks over the past ten
years, has been very limited. The most
revolutionary change has been the ejector
plate for removing the refuse from these units,
rather than dump type removal. A study
should be made of which size unit is the more
economical from the standpoint of compaction.
At the present time, a 10 or 12 yd body will
hold far more refuse by weight per cu yd than
proportionately can be put into a 20 or 25
yd unit. The items to which research efforts
could be applied are: study of equipment
use-segregating refuse-weight-equipment,
cost-man power-ejector plate, or dump
body-aluminum bodies and frames-plastic
material-all related to refuse truck use;
and engine study-size-HP-torque and formulas
to justify agreed on size of engine, etc.-twin
disc clutches-double reduction rear
axles-lubrication-motor oils, etc.
-transistorized ignition-realistic preventative
maintenance program-wide tread aeroplane
tires. In new incinerators where two or more
cranes are used for bringing the refuse from
the pit up to the charging hopper, a
centralized control room is being advocated.
The advantages of this type of installation
are enumerated.
64-0129
Kumpf, E., and K. Maas. Refuse and waste
removal. International Research Group on
Refuse Disposal (IRGRD) Information
Bulletin No. 20. Washington, U.S. Department of
Health, Education, and Welfare, May 1964.
p.59-60.
This work presents a comprehensive
representation and explanation on the entire
subject of collection, removal, and
utilization of refuse from households,
communities, industry, and trade. Extensive
collaboration with local and foreign
specialists ensures complete and fundamental
27
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Collection and Disposal-General
explanation, including special problems. It
covers all those problems of technical,
organizational, and economical kind, which
always occur in practice. Extensive
information is also given about legal
requirements. This handbook will probably
be extended to four parts and later
supplemented from time to time following
technical developments. The first issue of
276 pages is now available and is highly
recommended.
64-0130
Labor relations in public cleansing. Public
Cleansing, 54(6):933-936, June 1964.
Two papers on labor relations presented by
the president of the Institute of Public
Cleansing of Britain and by the director of
Public Cleansing of Stockholm, Sweden are
reported. The first noted higher living
standards for the workmen as manifested by
greater pay and improved working conditions
and recommended joint consultation between
management and representatives of the workmen.
The second paper recommended the employment
of the incentive bonus system of piece-rates
of work to improve work quality and also
discussed transfer stations and incineration
in Stockholm.
64-0131
Leyland U. D. C. Public Cleansing,
54(1):671, Jan. 1964.
The annual report on refuse collection and
disposal of Leyland, England is summarized.
An increase in weight and volume of refuse,
partly due to town growth, and a rise in costs
is noted. The municipal dustbin scheme and
salvaging have been executed satisfactorily.
64-0132
McKee, J. E. Dimensions of the solid waste
problem. In Proceedings; National Conference
on Solid Waste Research, Chicago, Dec. 2-4,
1963. American Public Works Association,
1964. p.1-7.
It is conventional to divide the solid-waste
problem into two major areas: collection,
including storage, transfer, and transport;
and disposal, including any concomitant
treatment. For refuse, it is estimated that
80 to 90 percent of the total cost is
attributable to collection and transportation,
with only 10 to 20 percent arising from
disposal by landfill operations. If
incineration is employed, approximately 60
percent of the total cost arises from collection
and 40 percent from incineration. In Los
Angeles County, the solid-waste problem is
over four times as large as the liquid-waste
problem on a dry-weight basis, slightly larger
in total annual cost, and over three times
as large on the basis of annual operating
cost. It is expected that comparative figures
for other metropolitan areas will be of a
similar magnitude. Total expenditures for
research in the area of liquid wastes are of
the general magnitude of $10 million per year.
In contrast, the total research expenditures
for refuse collection and disposal probably
do not exceed $200,000 per year. In the
absence of adequate collection aenforced
rules against burning, much of the trash of
a community may be converted into gaseous
pollutants by inefficient combustion.
Sanitary landfill has been shown to be an
effective and economic method of refuse
disposal in most areas. But land suitable
for landfill is fast disappearing in many
metropolitan areas. There is no sizable
market for compost from solid wastes and none
is likely to develop in the near future.
64-0133
Miller, M. The treatment of refuse in the
Soviet Union. Compost Science, 5(2):17-19,
Summer 1964.
A detailed account of refuse collection in
Moscow is presented. For organizational
purposes a district administration and a
communal administration was established.
The district administration removes refuse
daily. The driver's wages are graded and
a bonus incentive system is employed. The
communal administration is responsible for
the supply and upkeep of the refuse containers.
Food residue collection, which is carried out
by the tenants of the buildings, is handled
separately and goes directly to pig food
factories. In 1962, a refuse utilization
plant with a capacity of 400,000 cu m per
year was put into operation. Refuse collection
in Moscow at this time was 1 million cu m per
year. Before the plant was designed, the
composition of refuse was investigated, and
the results are tabulated. One kg of residues
gives 1,400 cal of heat, thus giving a. total
of 15 million kg cal, which is sufficient to
cover all the technological processes in the
plant. The design and reception unit of the
plant is described in detail. The refuse is
carefully sorted and 15 percent of it is
28
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0130-0137
composted. Cost of construction of the plant
has been estimated at 1.24 million rubles.
The factory is self-supporting, since the
receipts from the sale of the recovered scrap
and the 15 percent compost cover the costs.
64-0134
Morristown Chamber of Commerce. Refuse
collection and disposal. In Morristown.
Morristown, Tenn., Feb. 1963. p.18-19.
It is estimated that each person generates
one half ton of refuse per year in
Morristown. Because the characteristics of
refuse vary widely, several methods of
disposal are used. The selection is usually
based on what is locally acceptable and will
cause the least detriment to its environment.
City collection is available within the city
with residential collection once a week
and commerical establishments once a day.
Within the county, the county provides for
the collection of garbage once a week to
approximately 2,500 homes with the remainder
of the county receiving a collection once
each two weeks. All solid waste that is
collected within the city and county is fill
and cover for the garbage and the burning
of brush, sawdust, and wood scraps. This
burning operation contributes to the air
pollution problem and should be discontinued.
There are no regulations governing garbage
containers within the county. Action is
definitely needed as the collection only
once each two weeks creates a health hazard.
The city has a vector control and a continuous
rodent control program.
64-0135
Pacific Southwest Inter-Agency Committee.
Columbia Basin Inter-Agency Committee.
Suggested design criteria for refuse storage
collection and disposal in recreational areas.
Washington, U.S. Public Health Service, 1963.
20 p.
Many of the refuse and solid waste disposal
problems in recreational areas may be unique
to the extent of requiring special studies
and engineering judgment in the selection and
design of suitable facilities. Material is
presented to provide guidelines for
establishing effective sanitary refuse
disposal, practices, to describe various
methods of refuse disposal, and to suggest
procedures meeting public health requirements
with a view to promoting uniformity of
practice. The procedures presented are not
proposed as firm standards or as regulations.
Preparation of refuse, storage containers, and
container racks is described. Collection
trucks suitable for use in recreational areas
are considered. Disposal by sanitary landfill
is recommended where possible and incineration
is suggested as the next best method. Emphasis
is placed on special procedures to prevent
rodents and wild animals from interfering with
the handling of solid wastes in parks,
campgrounds, and picnic areas.
64-0136
Pacific Southwest Inter-Agency Committee.
Columbia Basin Inter-Agency Committee.
Storage of refuse. In Suggested design
criteria for refuse storage collection and
disposal in recreational areas. Washington,
U.S. Public Health Service, 1963. p.4-6
Draining and wrapping of garbage prevents
corrosion of cans and odors. The collection
of garbage from recreational areas for hog
feeding should be discouraged. Bundles of
bulky wastes should not weight more than
about 50 Ib, and their length should not
exceed 4 ft. All garbage should be kept in
durable, watertight, rust resistant,
non-absorbent, and easily washable containers
that are covered with closefitting lids and
furnished with suitable handles. Lining the
container with paper or providing a disposable
plastic liner will aid in maintaining
cleanliness. The conventional heavy-duty
galvanized iron garbage can with recessed
bottom of 20 to 30 gal capacity meets all
requirements. Special attention should be
given to the construction and location
of containers in campgrounds and picnic
and cabin areas where animals are encountered.
The containers should be effectively anchored.
All garbage containers at food service
establishments should be kept on concrete
slabs or elevated metal stands. All storage
racks should have open bottoms and should hold
containers at least 12 in. off the ground.
Concrete slabs are generally not as
satisfactory as racks. When any liquid or
solid residue remains, it should be washed
from the can and flushed into the sewage
system. In campgrounds and picnic areas,
cans are generally located near roads for
convenience.
64-0137
Pacific Southwest Inter-Agency Committee.
Columbia Basin Inter-Agency Committee.
Collection of refuse. In Suggested design
29
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Collection and Disposal-General
criteria for refuse storage collection and
disposal in recreational areas. Washington,
U.S. Public Health Service, 1963. p. 7-9
Frequent, systematic, and reliable collection
service should be the goal of every
development. The frequency of collection
will vary according to the type of facility
being served, but, in general the following
periods should prevail: daily for large
food service establishments; twice weekly
for residential areas; and daily to once
or twice weekly for picnic areas, campgrounds,
and parking areas. Collection of refuse in
recreational areas may be provided by
contract, by the concessionaire operating
the area, or by the agency responsible for
the administration of the area. Combined
collection prevents some abuses and conditions
that are conducive to high pest and vector
populations. Most state laws require that
garbage be adequately heat-treated to kill
animal disease organisms before being fed to
hogs. Modern, enclosed, liquid-tight truck
bodies prevent scattering of loose material,
leakage of liquids, and minimize odor
production. Compactor trucks are practical
for large areas because they have an
increased load capacity. Open trucks may be
used for three limbs, trimmings, and
noncompressible items, including ashes. The
following types of collection trucks are
considered satisfactory for recreational
areas: trucks with dump or fixed-type,
watertight bodies; can-exchange trucks;
and enclosed trucks equipped with power
elevators and/or mechanical compactors.
recreational areas, this method is the best
alternative where landfilling is not practical,
Multiple-chamber incinerators are described
because they can be expected to burn refuse
with a minimum discharge of air contaminants.
The incinerator should be located in an
inconspicuous spot as near as possible to
the center of the area to be served. The
site should be accessible by road, preferably
those that are not used by the public. Where
bears are prevalent, the incinerator
should be charged as soon as possible and
the area fenced to minimize attraction.
Incinerator size can be determined from the
amount of refuse to be burned on a Ib per
day basis. Basic refuse quantities are
listed for lodges and hotels, campgrounds,
picnic areas, and park headquarters. Garbage
grinding and hog feeding may also be
practiced.
64-0139
Personnel management in cleansing service.
Public Cleansing, 54(10):1223, Oct. 1964.
At the meeting of the Junior Members'
Discussion Group of the Institute of Public
Cleansing's Scottish Centre, the personnel
officer of the Cleansing Department of
Edinburgh presented a paper 'Personnel
Management in the Cleansing Service.' The
history, definition and scope of personnel
management in the cleansing service, the
needs of recruitment, communications and
relations with staffs, and training are
discussed.
64-0138
Pacific Southwest Inter-Agency Committee.
Columbia Basin Inter-Agency Committee.
Disposal of refuse. In Suggested design
criteria for refuse storage collection and
disposal in recreational areas. Washington,
U.S. Public Health Service, 1963. p.10-19.
Sanitary landfills are widely used where
suitable unwooded land is conveniently
located because both initial and operating
costs are generally low. Equipment, personnel,
and operating procedures for the trench
method, ramp or progressive slope method, and
area method are described. Valleys and
ravines may be used as landfill sites if
operations do not interfere with natural
drainage. Well designed and efficiently
operated incinerators eliminate food for
bears and rats and breeding places for flies.
Since incineration has proved to be an
effective means of refuse disposal in
64-0140
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0138-0145
34,000 tons of local refuse is described.
The plan involves controlled dumping 7 miles
from Preston in Lancashire in an area which
should be adequate for 110 years. A transfer
loading station was provided so that the
house-to-house collection vehicles could
discharge their contents to be picked up by
large trucks with the capacity to move the
refuse in bulk to the dump. The transfer
station and the surrounding areas are kept
clean by highly efficient dust collectors.
discussion session follows each paper.
Summary reports were offered at the final
session of the conference. The conference
was sponsored by the Environmental Sciences
and Engineering Study Section of the U.S.
Public Health Service in cooperation with the
American Public Works Association held at
the University of Chicago, Center for
Continuing Education. The conference was
supported by a Public Health Service Grant.
64-0142
Proceedings; Ad Hoc Conference on Solid Waste
Training. Robert A. Taft Sanitary Engineering
Center, Cincinnati, Nov. 4-6, 1964.
U.S. Public Health Service. 71 p.
The conference pointed out weak areas in
solid wastes services and facilities and
made recommendations for improvement.
Problems exist with litter, special wastes,
lack of communication, and unpassed
legislation The agenda included discussion
on storage, collection, disposal, planning,
implementation of a program, the role of
education and training courses. The Public
Health Service bears the major burden for
building a training program for all levels of
responsibilities. The roles of State and
local agencies and universities are discussed.
64-0143
Proceedings; National Conference on Solid
Waste Research, Chicago, Dec. 2-4, 1963.
American Public Works Association, 1964.
228 p.
The major objectives for this conference as
set forth by the planning committee were: to
stimulate research on problems in the field;
to stimulate young researchers to work in
the field; to point out resources for support
of research in the field; to delineate the
solid waste problems by operational people;
and to project future needs in order to plan
for long-range problems. The 2% day meeting
provided an opportunity for each group to
communicate their view to the other groups.
The proceedings represent the latest ideas
on the research needs in this area, as seen
by the conference participants. Various
papers are presented from each of the groups:
quantities and characteristics of solid
wastes; waste collection, storage, and
transportation; treatment and disposal of
solid wastes; and processing, conversion,
and utilization of solid wastes. A lengthy
64-0144
Public Works operations in Milwaukee. Public
Works, S95(9):84, Sept. 1964.
The services of the Milwaukee Bureau of
Public Works are described. These include
garbage collection, incineration of refuse,
traffic sign installation, sewer maintenance,
and snow and ice control. Over 123,000 tons
of refuse were collected in 1963, at a total
expenditure of $3,338,000. Combustible refuse
burned amounted to 126,377 tons in 1963. The
estimated snowfall in 1963 was 34 in. This
required 24 ice control and salting operations
and three plowing operations, which cost the
city an estimated $800,000.
64-0145
Purdue University. A report on the sampling
and composition of municipal refuse.
Lafayette, Ind., 1962.
On March 6, 1961, a one-year refuse survey
was initiated between the City of Bloomington
and Purdue University. The purpose of the
survey was to supply Purdue with basic data
to statistically evaluate a proposed sampling
method for determining the composition of
municipal refuse, and to make available the
basic data for use by the City to determine
future methods of refuse collection and
disposal. A total of eight sampling areas
was chosen for the study. The sample areas
consisted of a total of 582 people and 182
housing units. The total quantity of refuse
contributed by the sample areas was collected
by a special crew and brought to a central
location for further processing. Each
area's refuse was separated into
three categories: paper, wood, leaves, etc.;
garbage; and non-combustibles. At eight
different times throughout the year the total
quantity of refuse produced by the City of
Bloomington was weighed at a local weighing
station. This provided a check for the
calculated sample weights. The total quantity
of material, weight and volume, for the entire
31
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Collection and Disposal-General
city varied from a low in March to a high in
October and July. The bulk density was, in
general, higher during the fall and winter
than during the spring and summer. Perhaps
the most significant result of the data
obtained was the relatively low percent of
combustibles and garbage in the refuse as
compared to values obtained by surveys in
other cities. The percentage of
non-combustibles was high. The high percent
of ash content results in an unusually low
Btu value for the total refuse.
64-0146
Quake victims engaged in gigantic clean-up
job. Refuse Removal Journal, 7(5):8, May
1964.
Anchorage's private refuse haulers and the
Department of Sanitation are laboring hard
to clean up the tons of rubbish caused by
the earthquake of March 27. One hundred
downtown buildings and 50 percent of the
other large structures will probably have to
be torn down. Since all the rubbish probably
can't fit in the city's one sanitary landfill,
it might be buried in the gullies and
craters wrought by the quake. The city's
sanitation operations under normal
circumstances are also described.
64-0147
Refuse collection and disposal. In
Environmental health survey Wayne Township,
New Jersey. Cincinnati, U.S. Public Health
Service, July 1964. p.23-30.
Wayne Township has 9,400 dwellings and 625
commercial and industrial establishments.
The collection of refuse with few exceptions
is by private scavengers. A 1963 survey
indicated that 97.5 percent of homes have
collection service. The remaining dispose of
their refuse by on-site burial. Scavengers
are licensed by the Health Department and
uniform fees of $1.75 per month for two
collections per week with curb service or
$3 per month for collection at the door
are charged by all scavengers. Collection
charges for commercial establishments vary
from $5 to $300 per month. Disposal of
refuse is by sanitary landfill on meadow
lands in North Arlington and Rutherford.
There is a privately owned dumping area used
for demolition waste and household refuse
exclusive of garbage which is in good
condition. Maintenance of a small town dump,
about 2 acres in extent, is unsatisfactory.
It is recommended that a master refuse
plan be prepared for Wayne to include
cooperation with other communities, Federal
and State agencies, and universities. It
was also suggested that the private dump be
cleaned up and that dumping at the town dump
be terminated.
64-0148
Refuse collection and disposal. In Training
course environmental health survey, report
and recommendations, Greater San Buenaventura,
California. U.S. Public Health Service,
Mar. 1964. p.39-42.
Separate collection of garbage is required
in San Buenaventura, California. It is
available at no extra cost. There are no
requirements regarding refuse collection.
The garbage collector has a contract with the
city and hauls and disposes of refuse at a
nearby hog farm. The need for these two
different services is questionable. The city
ordinance on collection vehicles is extremely
lax, but the streets appear exceptionally clean
and litter-free. The urban fringe is serviced
by private transaction with individual
refuse collecting agencies. Permits for
refuse collectors are obtained at the sheriff's
office, but he imposes no regulations upon
the operation. County and private sanitary
landfills are the method of refuse disposal.
The private landfill is used by most city
collectors due to the lower charges there.
Approved individual incinerators are allowed
to operate from 7 am until 12 noon. The
restrictions are lax in this area, also.
Recommendations by the group of health
officials include: a feasibility study of
a municipal or franchise refuse collection
operation; a county-wide master plan for
disposal to meet expanded needs; the need to
reduce fly breeding; the setting of higher
standards for private collectors; the
installation of garbage grinders; and the
elimination of backyard incineration.
64-0149
Refuse. In Environmental health
report/Macon, Georgia. Macon, Apr. 1964.
p.8-12.
There is a need for more rigid control and
enforcement of the collection ordinance of
Macon-Bibb County. Through the efforts of
only one man in the enforcement section of
the Public Works Department, approximately
100 violators have been convicted during the
32
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0146-0152
year. Macon, through the Department of
Public Works, provides refuse collection
service to 100 percent of the city residences
twice weekly. The residential area is
divided into 46 collection routes of 850
units of pickup. The growth trend during
the past 2 years indicates a yearly increase
of 800 units. Industries within the city
dispose of their own solid wastes. The City
of Macon owns and operates two areas for
dumping solid wastes. Combustible and
non-combustible wastes, excluding garbage
and putrescible matter, are deposited on an
open dump. Residential refuse and putrescible
waste from commercial establishments and
industries are incorporated in a sanitary
landfill. The open dump, while being
sheltered from the view of the public, presents
an unsightly appearance. No covering
operation is carried on at this dump. The
sanitary landfill has encountered problems
during wet seasons. The lack of funds,
personnel and cooperation of other agencies
defeat any organized control of the sites. A
list of recommendations for the future is
furnished. The study is co-sponsored by
The Georgia Department of Public Health in
cooperation with The University of Georgia
and the U.S. Public Health Service.
64-0150
Refuse. In Environmental health report of
Augusta, Georgia. Richmond County Department
of Health, Aug. 1964. Section 111.
It is estimated that over 91,000 tons of
refuse are produced annually in all of
Richmond County and by 1985 this amount will
increase to about 177,000 tons. Consideration
was given to refuse collection and disposal
in the City of Augusta as well as the entire
county of Richmond. The City of Augusta
provides regular refuse collection and
disposal service to all residents, business
establishments, and industrial firms within
the city limits. No fees are charged for
this service. Garbage collection is daily.
Disposal of Augusta refuse is by one modified
sanitary landfill. Broad criteria for a
successful facility of this type includes
freedom from odor nuisance, fly breeding,
rodent harborage, and smoke problems. The
Augusta landfill fails to meet any of these
standards. Refuse is covered but not
adequately. A heavy fly population was noted
at the time the fill was surveyed, and trash
as well as garbage was burning and smoking
heavily. The city's budget provides for
$380,000 for collection and disposal. Refuse
disposal at the Fort Gordon Military
Reservation is accomplished by means of an
efficiently operated standard sanitary
landfill within the reservation area. A
list of recommendations for future action is
furnished. The survey is co-sponsored by
the Augusta Chamber of Commerce,
Augusta-Richmond County Planning Commission,
Georgia Department of Public Health in
cooperation with The University of Georgia,
Georgia Department of Industry and Trade,
and U.S. Public Health Service.
64-0151
Savage, E. P., M. D. Bogue, and W. G. Brown.
A study of rodent control problems in Boston,
Massachusetts, 1963. Atlanta, U.S. Public
Health Service Communicable Disease Center,
Feb. 1963. 49 p.
On June 6, 1962, the Boston City Health
Department requested the Public Health Service
and the Massachusetts State Department of
Health to determine the magnitude, nature,
and causes of rodent infestations in Boston,
and to recommend procedures whereby the city
could reduce the rodent problem. The study
that resulted covered: exterior surveys of
3,647 premises located in 150 city blocks;
inside inspection of 1,784 buildings,
including 46 food establishments; and an
analysis of the Back Bay rodent control
program. All the evidence collected on the
surveys in Boston indicates a high degree
of container-damage by refuse collectors
so that the containers could not be covered.
Rats.were noticed in food establishments and
in parks and parkways, but were minimal in
waterfront areas, granaries, and warehouses.
There is evidence that drainageways may serve
as a hub for rodent infestations in adjacent
areas. Recommendations were made to the
Boston City Health Department in the areas
of': personnel; food establishments; and the
storage, preparation, collection and disposal
of solid wastes. It was recommended that the
Department employ a full-time qualified rodent
control supervisor to direct and coordinate
all rodent control activities within the
city. Results of all studies made in the
Boston area revealed that the potential for
rodent infestation is city-wide, but that
rodent problems are greatest in Dorchester,
Back Bay, Roxbury, Charlestown, and
Allston-Brighton.
64-0152
Solid waste handling in metropolitan areas.
Public Health Service Publication No. 1554.
33
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Collection and Disposal-General
Washington, U.S. Government Printing Office,
1964. 41 p.
This Public Health Service publication was
prepared for the Surgeon General's Advisory
Committee on Urban Health Affairs by the
National Center for Urban and Industrial
Health, Bureau of Disease Prevention and
Environmental Control. The table of contents
lists the following: The Problem; Public
Health Implications: Economic Impact; Legal
Aspects; Effect of Community Differences and
Technological Advances; Lack of Public Concern;
Development of Standards; Research and
Training; The Metropolitan-wide Approach;
State and Local Action; Role of the Public
Health Service; Policy Questions; and a 43
citation bibliography.
64-0153
Statistics on the removal of solid waste.
Wasser und Abwasser, 105(24):670-671,
June 12, 1964.
In the series 'Reports from Stuttgart on
residential water economy' there appeared an
'evaluation of the statistics on solid
waste disposal in the year 1961', edited by
Michael Ferber of the Technical University
of Stuttgart. The data published in this
booklet are of great importance for the
evaluation of the problem of waste disposal.
The statistics comprise 583 municipalities
having a population of more than 10,000 and
a total population of 32.2 millions which is
about 55 percent of West Germany's entire
population. 533 municipalities with a total
population of 31.4 millions have made
participation at a waste collection service
compulsory. The average amount of waste by
weight was 249 kg per resident per year, by
volume, 734 liters per resident per year.
The specific weight was 340 per kg cu m.
On the average one truck was available for
removing the waste of 10,200 residents; 389
municipalities had weekly waste collecting
schedules; 53 collected waste once or twice
and 134 twice a week. The 533 municipalities
reported a total amount of approximately 8
million tons of waste for the year 1961 of
which 97 percent were dumped, 2.2 percent
burned, and 0.82 percent composted. The
statistics further pointed out that 147
municipalities have disposal sites for only
2 to 6 years, 71 for 6 to 10 years, and 77
for more than 10 years. (Text-German)
64-0154
Stead, F. M. Ecological considerations,
administration of solid waste collection
and disposal systems and research implications,
In Proceedings; National Conference on Solid
Waste Research, Chicago, Dec. 2-4, 1963.
American Public Works Association, 1964.
p.12-15.
Environmental sanitation programs in the
United States are based on three assumptions:
unwanted waste products are best handled by
discharge into the environment; having done
this, man can be adequately protected at the
point of exposure or at the point of
consumption; and the needed action can be
taken to protect the public health with
virtually the unlimited use of the police
powers, no other considerations intervening,
to avoid a disastrous effect. Today 90
percent of the people in California live in
an area where the transparency of the air has
been drastically reduced. Eighty percent of
the people live in areas where there is a
marked detrimental effect on vegetation and
agricultural crops of one sort or another.
Seventy percent live in an area where during
many days of the year there is severe
physiological discomfort. Looking to the
future there are only two choices. The
present rear guard action can be continued
with the certainty of final defeat, or a
new concept can be adopted--one with a
prospect of permanent success. The
geographical denominator is set by the
topography, not by the political boundary.
In the case of solid waste, some thought must
be given to converting useless organic
materials to a resource of value. Organic
wastes must be thought of as a savings
account--a working supply of basic materials,
not only for the production of fabrics,
structural materials, and chemicals, but
also as a source of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
sulphur, and other materials which can be
reprocessed.
64-0155
S^ad, F. M. Solid waste collection and
disposal systems--ecology, administration,
research. Compost Science, 5(1):5-6,
Spring 1964.
Due to the current rapid rate of change, the
present concepts of environmental sanitation
programs will soon be obsolete. Sanitation
programs are based on three assumptions.
First, unwanted waste products are best
handled by discharge into the environment.
Second, man can be protected at the point
of exposure. Last, we can take any degree
of action requisite to protect public health.
With respect to water resources, the State
34
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0153-0158
of California is greatly concerned by
increasing mineralization. The principal
source of this mineral burden is agriculture.
Chemical usage has increased the mineral
content of irrigation return flows until
now they endanger water supply systems. Two
choices exist. Present action can be
continued with only bleak prospects or new
concepts can be adopted. An example of the
latter is the development of an environmental
health program--a total system to handle air,
water, and land resources. This can be
accomplished either on a state or regional
basis, for the common denominator is
topography. Solid wastes must be converted
to usable materials to produce fabrics,
structural materials and chemicals, and to
form substances that can form living
materials. By composting and placing compost
in a compact fill and consolidating all
organic wastes, this task can be achieved.
The water carriage principle for transporting
wastes must be replaced by utilizing wastes
at processing sites. Finally, the public
interest must be completely identified and
decision-making machinery put into operation
for ultimate success.
64-0156
Steady progress in cleansing in Mombasa.
Public Cleansing, 54(1):672, Jan. 1964.
Refuse collection and disposal on the
tropical island of Mombasa is reviewed.
A reduction of 789 days in absence from
sickness and a low labor turnover are noted.
Trailers transport the refuse to controlled
tipping areas. The regulation requiring the
use of dustbins causes problems because it
is not being enforced.
64-0157
Sumner, J. Technical developments in refuse
collection and disposal. Public Cleansing,
54(4):822, Apr. 1964.
Modern technical developments in refuse
collection and disposal in Great Britain are
surveyed. Trends in the character of
refuse--such as an increase in weight and
volume and a decrease in density--and their
effect on refuse handling are analyzed.
Developments are discussed: (1) refuse
storage, including lighter containers, chutes
systems, turntable carrying 4 to 6 containers
at the receiving end of a chute system.
Garchey system, kitchen grinders, and
containerization; (2) collection vehicles,
including different kinds of compression
equipment and material used to construct
vehicle bodies; (3) refuse disposal, including
sanitary landfilling, pulverization,
incineration and composting; (4) methods of
refuse collection, including the dustless
loading system and the paper sack system;
(5) transfer loading stations, which vary
from the relatively simple to the more
mechanized type; and (6) methods to avoid
polluting ground water.
64-0158
Sundquist, S. Labour relations in public
cleansing. Presented at Eighth International
Congress of Public Cleansing, Vienna (Austria) ,
Apr. 14-17, 1964. 30 p.
In Swedish labor relations an increased
productivity is one of the basic prerequisites
for the achievement of a higher standard of
living. The endeavors of employers and
workers are manifested in the agreements
between various employers' associations and
the respective trade unions, for example,
regulations for the application of piece-work
contracts. Public Cleansing in Sweden is
chiefly conducted by municipalities and in
Stockholm the municipal cleansing department
is responsible for street-sweeping, and
refuse collection and destruction. Some
conventional methods of work in public
cleansing in Stockholm are discussed.
Manual street-sweeping is done on a
piece-contract, and streets are classified
as to working effort required. The results
of time and motion studies of manual sweeping
are given. The principal sweeping of dust
from roadways and gutters is done by
sweeper-collector machines paid on
piece-contract. Every machine has an
instrument recording its operation. In
Stockholm the flushing of roadways with water
is used to complement machine sweeping and
these operations are reviewed. Gullies are
cleaned by machine with an average of 2.5
cleanings per gully per year. The landlord
is responsible for the collection and disposal
of refuse in dumping grounds indicated by
the municipality. An account of the piece-work
times is provided. The activities of the
one incinerator plant at Loevsta and the
transfer stations are described. The
Department of Public Cleansing in Stockholm
is responsible for snow clearing and sanding.
Eight percent of the total volume work load
is rated for piece-work. This has the
advantage of establishing high quality
standards.
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Collection and Disposal-General
64-0159
Tauber, F. The industry at the INTAPUC
exposition. Staedtehygiene, 15(10):236-239 ,
Oct. 1964.
Many companies from all over Europe
participated at the exposition in Vienna,
Austria. A multi-stage traveling grate
furnace and a rotating tube furnace were on
display. A special feature of the incinerator
by Maslit Export AB, Sundbyberg, is the
furnace which is inclined so that the waste
glides down to the grate by gravity. In the
section on street cleaning machines, an
automatic sweeper which operates pneumatically
through a circulating air current was shown.
Waste containers with a volume of 3.7 cu m
were exhibited together with the vehicle
for transporting these containers. Three of
these containers can be transported at a
time and they can be emptied conveniently
through tilting devices. Various types of
waste removal trucks and sweeping machines
were also on display. (Text-German)
64-0160
Training course environmental health survey,
report and recommendations, Greater San
Buenaventura, California. U.S. Public
Health Service, Mar. 1964. 78 p.
This publication is a report of an
environmental health survey of the city of
San Buenaventura, California, and adjacent
areas of Ventura County. It was conducted
as a training exercise during presentation
of the course, Urban Planning for
Environmental Health, February 24 to 29, 1964.
It contains recommendations for a proposal,
approach, and follow-up for an environmental
health plan. This was drawn up by a team
composed of Public Health Service and State
Health officials. Group reports are contained
on the subjects of water services, sewerage
services, refuse collection and disposal,
vector control, air pollution control,
housing programs, environmental health
programs, and planning. Illustrations,
charts, and additional data are contained
as supplements to the group reports.
64-0161
Turkey's capitol modernizes entire
sanitation system. Refuse Removal Journal,
7(8):25, Aug. 1964.
The old method of trash collection and
disposal in Istanbul, Turkey is compared
with a newly introduced modern method modeled
after those of the American city. The
modern method will retain horse-drawn carts
to negotiate the narrow and crooked streets
of the city's ancient section. Otherwise,
there will be a complete modernization of
the sanitation system.
64-0162
U.S. Public Health Service. Environmental
health survey Greater Lexington area.
Cincinnati, Apr. 1963. 85 p.
At the mutual request of the Lexington-Fayette
County Department and the Kentucky State
Department of Health, the U.S. Public Health
Service conducted the training course, Urban
Planning for Environmental Health, Apr. 1
to 12, 1963, in Lexington, Kentucky. Through
the use of personal observations and interviews
with people in both official and nonofficial
capacity throughout the area, information was
obtained during a two day period regarding
local environmental health conditions. The
group reports cover general health services;
planning; water supply services; sewerage
services; solid waste storage; collection and
disposal; housing, air pollution control
and radiological health. Recommendations
were summarized and a class roster appended.
64-0163
U.S. Public Health Service. Sewerage services.
In Environmental health survey Greater
Lexington area. Cincinnati, Apr. 1963.
p.49-55.
A newly completed sewage treatment plant,
costing approximately $3 million, provides
primary and secondary treatment (90 to 95
percent BOD reduction) for 8 mgd (million
gallons per day) with a capacity of 12 mgd
and capabilities of expanding to 27 mgd. It
uses the activated sludge type process and
has Town Branch as its dilution stream.
Approximately 26 percent, or 9,000 homes in
the Lexington area, use septic tanks as a
method of sewage disposal. Sewer problems
originate not because of poor facilities or
lack of sewers but because some of the urban
area people are unwilling to give up septic
tanks due to the expense. Industrial wastes
are presently governed by a city ordinance
requiring pre-treatment to bring it down to
an unobjectionable level. It is recommended
that the standards, specifications, and policy
for sewerage system and sewage treatment plant
approvals be improved so that municiDalities
36
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0159-0167
may be assured that small interim systems that
will be absorbed later into a municipal system
will meet the requirements of the major
system. The establishment of an up-to-date
comprehensive drainage plan for the present
and future urban areas was also suggested.
64-0164
U.S. Public Health Service. Solid waste
storage, collection and disposal. In
Environmental health survey Greater
Lexington area. Cincinnati, Apr. 1963.
p.56-61.
A field review of residential storage
provided evidence of a high degree of
compliance with local ordinances, rules and
regulations, which require metal containers
of 30-gal capacity or less, with tight
fitting covers. In commercial areas, rubbish
was often placed for collection without the
provisions necessary to prevent scattering
and open burning was occasionally practiced.
In both the city and the county there is
twice a week collection of garbage and
household wastes and once a week collection
of rubbish. In the city, bulky items or
large accumulations of rubbish are also
collected upon request. Garbage and household
wastes are collected from the backyard using
the tub-out method, and rubbish collections
are made from the curb. In 1962 this service
required the use of 21 packer trucks, 10
open-bed trucks, and 108 men at a cost of
$433,151. This averages $1.78 per residence
per mo. A 200-ton per day incinerator is
operated by the city on a 5-day wk, 16 hr
per day schedule. During 1962, the
incinerator burned an average of 140 tons
per day of refuse with an operating cost of
$2.36 per ton. The city also operates a
dump for the disposal of rubbish, incinerator
ash, construction and demolition wastes, and
non-putrescible industrial wastes. The
county government has not provided adequate
disposal facilities. It is recommended that
all open burning and dumping of refuse be
discontinued and the sites improved to abate
any nuisance.
31 municipalities use some type of regulated
collection system. The other municipalities
are served by private collectors. A
compulsory collection system with monthly
charges is used in 16 municipalities. In
15 municipalities, and in the unincorporated
areas, private refuse collection service is
not mandatory. Residents who elect to use
the services of one of the private collection
companies pay them a monthly charge. The
survey disclosed that 24 of the 31
communities wery not providing garbage or
mixed refuse collection often enough during
warm weather to prevent excess fly
production. Sixteen communities were not
using enclosed type collection trucks. Of
the 21 refuse disposal sites in the county,
only 10 are sanitary landfills operated
by municipalities and the county. The
other sites are trash dumps, open pit
dumps, burning dumps, landfills covered
infrequently, or a combination of
unsatisfactory methods of waste disposal.
There are three transfer stations to reduce
hauling costs. By 1970, when the population
of King County is expected to reach 1,175,000,
the county will have to dispose of almost
one million tons of waste per year. A list
of recommendations is listed for the County.
This study was made by the U.S. Public Health
Service.
64-0166
What will be on show at Margate.
Cleansing, 54(5):874, May 1964.
Public
The equipment to be displayed at the 1964
British Institute of Public Cleansing
Conference at Margate is described. Snow
equipment, pedestrian and driver controlled
mechanical sweepers, gully emptiers, refuse
control tractors for use on controlled tip
sites, protective clothing, paper sack
systems, and various packer vehicles are
discussed. The new types of machines and
their new features are reviewed.
64-0165
U.S. Public Health Service. Solid wastes.
In Environmental health study 1963-Seattle
and King County. 1963. p.28-29.
Several methods are used in King County for
solid wastes collection. All of the county's
64-0167
What's on at the pictures.
54(9):1155, Sept. 1964.
Public Cleansing,
Eight films on refuse collection and
disposal available from the film library of
f-he Institute of Public Cleansing are listed.
37
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COLLECTION AND TRANSPORATION
OF REFUSE
64-0168
All waste is not the same--but it must be
removed. Staedtehygiene, 15(10):242-243 ,
Oct. 1964.
To aid in forecasting of future trends in
the design of trash collecting vehicles,
some statistics on the physical properties
of waste are compiled. In 1961, the average
specific weight of municipal waste was 350
kg per cu m, generated at a daily rate of
2.25 liter per inhabitant. These numbers
can be projected to become 300 kg per cu m
and 2.8 liter per inhabitant for 1964, and
250 kg per cu m for 1970. These forecasts
for the specific weights are confirmed by
the observation that only 11.5 percent of
the households have central, remote, oil or
gas heating systems and that this share will
not change substantially in the near future
for socio-economic reasons. The volume will
continue to increase for some time to come.
This is mainly due to increased use of
packing material which rose from 32.2 kg
per inhabitant in 1950 to 84.6 kg in 1962.
Commercial and bulky waste together constitute
less than 7 percent of the municipal waste;
their specific weight is estimated to be
around 100 kg per cu m. For industrial
waste average values are not useful since
they depend too much on the various industries.
(Text-German)
64-0169
Anderson, R. L. Refuse collection equipment
and manpower requirements. In American
Public Works Association Yearbook, 1964. Chicago,
American Public Works Association.
p.149-152.
Twelve conditions influencing service and
costs are discussed. The Solid Wastes
Committee is currently working on sophisticated
analysis of a comprehensive refuse survey.
There is no prospect for any dramatic
breakthrough to revolutionize equipment or
manpower requirements of refuse systems, but
there is room for continuing improvement in
management, equipment and techniques to be
applied by alert and imaginative administrators.
64-0170
Australian town develops its own collection
system. Refuse Removal Journal, 7(9) :74,
Sept. 1964.
Trash collection in Waverly, New South Wales,
Australia is described. Present day practice
is compared with that of the past. The
collection trucks unload into a collection
trailer, which transports the rubbish to the
city dump.
64-0171
Backyard service improved by use of small
vehicles. Refuse Removal Journal, 7(1):24,
Jan. 1964.
Trash collectors now drive small three-wheeled
satellite vehicles into the backyards of
Claremont, California. This innovation has
saved $10,000 per year in salaries, lessened
back injuries, and freed trucks from waiting
at curbs for backyard trash pickups.
64-0172
Biggest-ever cleansing exhibition.
Cleansing, 54(12) :1325, Dec. 1964.
Public
The equipment exhibition at the German
Conference at Munich is reported. Equipment
included refuse collection trucks (where
the accent is on dustless loading), tractors,
sewer cleaning vehicles, sweepers, and bulk
containers.
64-0173
Bowerman, F. R. Los Angeles develops
transfer stations for eight large trailers.
Refuse Removal Journal, 7(10):16, Oct. 1964.
Transfer stations in general and in Los
Angeles in particular are discussed. There
are two kinds of transfer stations--a direct
one and one in which the refuse is rehandled.
State motor vehicle codes provide the
guideline for the measurements of the transfer
trucks. Los Angeles uses a direct station
that allows for storage of refuse during
peak periods. Los Angeles is also
experimenting with the use of sewage to
transport some solid wastes.
64-0174
Bowerman, F. R. Transfer operations. In
Proceedings; National Conference on Solid
Waste Research, Chicago, Dec. 2-4, 1963.
American Public Works Association, 1964.
p. 75-79.
38
-------
0168-0179
The transferring of refuse from the relatively
small collection vehicle with its limited
payload to a large bulk-hauler is not a new
practice; such systems have been in use for
a number of decades. It is an axiom in
materials handling that each time a material
is rerhandled, the total cost rises; this is
the principal advantage that direct dump
transfer stations have over other types using
storage and re-handling. However, another
equally important axiom in materials handling
is that intermediate or re-handling steps
are justifiable if the net effect is a
reduced unit cost for handling. Usually the
latter results from a compacting step which
increases the density of the material and
allows more units of weight to be handled
in the same space. State motor vehicle codes
usually stipulate permissible gross tonnages
for highway hauling and add certain limits
on wheel and axle loadings. The ultimate
goal of refuse transfer stations is to
provide for the transferring of refuse at
an optimum spacing to minimize non-productive
travel of refuse collection vehicles. A
number of schemes appear to be competitive:
the use of pit and crane for overhead direct
loading of trailers; the use of shaker pans
or belt conveyors designed to accept sudden
influxes of large quantities of refuse; and
the use of containerization or baling as a
step just prior to loading the transfer
vehicle.
64-0175
British city installs new refuse transfer
system. Refuse Removal Journal, 7(6):33, 36,
June 1964.
To solve their disposal problem for 34,000
tons of refuse each year, the City of
Preston, England, decided to use a. 600 acre
tract landfill area 7 miles from town. Since
it would be economically unfeasible for
collection trucks to make the daily 14-mile
round-trip haul, the old existing incinerator
was demolished and a modern transfer station
was constructed in its place. Refuse
collection vehicles drive into the facility
at ground level and dump their loads onto a
concrete-floored area measuring 125 x 85 ft.
A small caterpillar-type bulldozer, with an
8 ft blade, pushes the refuse through two
loading chutes in the concrete floor. Rubbish
falls through openings directly into
top-loading transfer vehicles. Two 49 cu yd
and two 38 cu yd capacity carriers transport
the solid waste to the landfill area. The
average depth of fill is 14 ft, and it is
estimated that it will take 110 years to
use up the entire site.
64-0176
Calculation of rental charges and financing
equipment purchases. In Solid waste disposal
and municipal equipment ''rental''. New
York, Buttenheim Publishing Corporation,
June 1963. p.71-76.
To make a motor-equipment pool self-supporting
the rental charges should include the cost of
operations and depreciation. The operating
charge not only includes direct costs such
as gas, oil, repairs, and servicing, but also
a share of the overhead cost. The true cost
of operating city-owned equipment includes
such factors as insurance, licenses, taxes,
building maintenance and depreciation, rents,
light, heat, water, telephone, etc. The most
difficult of all costs to administer is
probably that of equipment's operating life.
However, equipment suffers its greatest loss
in value during the first year or two, and
rarely does it lose all of its value. Rental
systems that include depreciation automatically
allow for the purchase of a replacement piece
of equipment.
64-0177
Chicago considering new transfer sites.
Refuse Removal Journal, 7(1): 34, Jan. 1964.
The City of Chicago is considering a plan
to establish three special collecting and
transfer sites for bulk trash, one each in
the north, central and mid-south sections
of the city. This plan might eliminate the
inefficiency of hauling bulk trash to a
central dump, where each load wastes a great
deal of space.
64-0178
Chicago sanitation bureau 'sells' community
on its daily service. Refuse Removal
Journal, 7(12):10, Dec. 1964.
Chicago's Sanitation Bureau which employs
3,000 men is a 'tightly run ship.' Fifty
ward superintendants keep the Commissioner
informed about collections, damaged city gear,
etc. Foremen are authorized to write tickets
for some 35 sanitation offenses. Chicago's
15,015 alley blocks are hazardous for
sanitation men, for they are unpaved, muddy
after rains, slick with ice in the winter,
and infested with rats.
64-0179
Cobey markets new side-load packer. Western
City, 40(7):49, July 1964.
39
-------
Collection and Transportation of Refuse
The Cobey Corporation offers a new side-load
packer and refuse body available in 16, 18,
20, and 24 cu yd capacities. Refuse emptied
through the side door openings is forced to
the rear of the body and compacted with
pressure up to 79,500 Ib by a packer platen.
This platen is operated by an injection arm
and double-acting hydraulic cylinders. There
is less cylinder packing, less strain and
wear on each section, and dead weight is
eliminated. There is also a topslide opening
door through which the most bulky refuse can
be loaded.
64-0180
Collection by train. Public Cleansing,
54(4):855, Apr. 1964.
The train is composed of small containers
for the purpose of maintaining a twice-weekly
collection. This operation, which takes
place in Valdosta, Georgia, eliminates the
expensive replacement of compression-type
vehicles. Three small trailers are pulled
by a small four-wheel-drive vehicle. In the
collection, a man brings the bin to one of
the trailers for emptying. One man is
assigned to each trailer and they arrive
for emptying the bins in sequence. As the
man empties his bin, he steps into the
pulling vehicle and draws the train forward
ready for the next man to arrive. The
tractor unit is equipped with a two-way
radio to contact a larger packer truck when
the train is full. The cost of the train is
$6,000 less than a compaction type vehicle,
its operation and maintenance is 20 percent
of the cost of the vehicle it replaces, and
savings in labor, is $5,000 per train per
year.
64-0181
Colorado School of Mines Research Foundation,
Inc. The transportation of solids in steel
pipelines. Golden, 1963. 125 p.
Current interest in the transportation of
solids in steel pipelines has pointed out
the necessity for a comprehensive compilation
of information pertaining to this mode of
conveyance. Data were collected from the
technical literature in order to make it
available to industry in a form useful for
preliminary design studies. Included are
chapters dealing with the theoretical and
practical aspects of designing, operating,
and maintaining a solids pipeline as well as
data sheets of successfully operating pipeline
systems, Some of the types of materials being
transported in these systems are: borax
plant refuse, cleaning plant refuse, coal
and coal refuse, power plant fly ash, gold
slime, uranium-bearing gold slime, sand fill,
and iron ore tailings. An extensive
bibliography is appended. (The preparation
of the Technical Committee on Pipe of
American Iron and Steel Institute, New York,
N.Y.)
64-0182
Colorado School of Mines Research Foundation,
Inc. Pneumatic transport of solids in
pipelines. In The transportation of solids
in steel pipelines. Golden, 1963.
p.55-56.
Pneumatic transport in pipelines has been
used commercially in transporting granular
solids for many years. Advantages of
pneumatic transport of solids are as follows:
straight line conveying is eliminated, one
system can serve any number of feeder or
discharge points, dust hazards are eliminated,
handling losses are low, and the operation
is clean and safe. Disadvantages include
high capital cost, high power cost, and the
fact that the system is uni-directional.
Pneumatic transport systems can be classified
according to their air requirements and their
operating pressures. The system usually
includes the following four components: a
conveying pipeline; a prime mover such as a
blower, exhauster, or pneumatic pump; a
feeder to introduce the solids, a dust
collection system at the discharge point.
The effects of various parameters--such as
pipe diameter, size, shape and amount of
solids; and gas velocity on friction losses
in a pneumatic transport system are not yet
completely understood. The most comprehensive
theories on vertical and horizontal pneumatic
transport of solids are summarized.
64-0183
Contractor replaces fleet every four years.
Refuse Removal Journal, 7(5):16, 24, May 1964.
Sanitation Service Company in Santa Barbara,
California, sells its trucks every 4 years
to keep maintenance costs down while
enhancing the total value of its fleet.
The company's penny-accounting route-cost
analysis breaks operations down to minute
specifics, enabling the company to make
improvements in tire, trucks and other
equipment for efficiency. Despite a
40
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0180-0190
considerable increase in business, the firm
has been able to reduce its fleet and trim
its payroll.
64-0184
Convention literature averages ten pounds of
trash per person. Refuse Removal Journal,
7(9):44, 54, Sept. 1964.
A recent convention of 800 teachers at an
Atlantic City hotel added 8,000 Ib (or
10 Ib per person) to the normal amount of
refuse collected weekly by one of the trucks
of ABC Refuse Removal Service. This company
has four Leach packers on International
Harvester chassis and 300 one and two yard
containers to serve 135 hotels, restaurants
and commercial stops, two golf clubs, and
the State Marina, a series of long docks.
number of trailer containers, was recently
adopted by the City of Tucson, Arizona. Two
advantages of this system are maximum
maneuveribility in negotiating the city's
narrow alleys and streets and flexibility in
adjusting the load capacity of the vehicles
to the area serviced.
64-0187
Davies, A. G. Central buying agencies for
municipal vehicles. Public Cleansing,
54(9):1160, Sept. 1964.
Pros and cons of bulk buying, whereby
authorities make joint orders for equipment
from manufacturers in an attempt to reduce
prices is considered. Disadvantages outweigh
advantages, mainly because central buying
would tend to create monopolies.
64-0185
Danforth, H. L. Train transfer garbage
operation makes for quick, quiet service in
Tucson. Western City, 40(4):24-25, Apr. 1964.
Tucson has found that their new train transfer
system is economical. On most routes garbage
is picked up by an International Scout towing
3 containers. When these containers are
filled, the garbage is transferred to the
'mother truck', having a 24 yd compaction
type body with a front end loading device.
Other such compactor trucks are used to
pick up the heavier commercial stops. At
Tucson, the average number of stops is 5,500
per day. Tucson has reports that there have
been no vehicular accidents involving the
trains since they were put in service 5
months ago. One of the most important aspects
of the system is supervision. Transfer points,
routes and pick-up schedules must be carefully
pre-planned to keep the operation running
smoothly. Though this system has met
favorable public reaction, there has been a
problem with spillage during the transfer
from trailer to truck which must be corrected.
This sytem is very flexible and can be
arranged to fit various areas.
64-0186
Danforth, H. L. Tucson inaugurates train
transfer collection system. Refuse Removal
Journal, 7(1):8, Jan. 1964.
The train system for refuse collection, which
consists of a towing vehicle and a varying
64-0188
Davies, A. G. Why not mammoth collection
vehicles. Public Cleansing, 54(4):343,
Apr. 1964.
The problem of refuse transport over a
considerable distance is considered. The
bulk haulage vehicle operated from a transfer
station is costly, unsightly, and perhaps
unsanitary. The use of three-axle, six-wheel
refuse collection vehicles, capable of
leading the whole day's refuse with only one
journey to the point of disposal is
recommended. To accomplish this, improved
compression units must be manufactured.
The cost advantage of this system over both
the transfer station and haulage by the
conventional refuse packer trucks is outlined.
64-0189
Dead seals part of hauler's city contract.
Refuse Removal Journal, 7(2) :6, Feb. 1964.
The seal-collecting operation of Aladdin
Sanitation & Engineering Corp. of Santa
Monica and Malibu, California is described.
The company operates a special unit which
collects dead animals and 100 to 150 dead
seals a year as well as regular refuse.
64-0190
Dustless loading. Public Cleansing,
54(10):1217, Oct. 1964.
41
-------
Collection and Transportation of Refuse
Drawbacks to the dustless system of refuse
collection and methods being employed in
Great Britain to overcome them are discussed.
The chief handicaps are the weight, costs,
and the restrictions arising from the need
to purchase a standard bin. Plastics have to
some extent alleviated the weight problem,
and one firm has developed a portable
adapter for its shutters which allows the
use of two types of bin.
64-0191
An editorial. Refuse Removal Journal,
7(5):26, May 1964.
The problem of recruiting the right kind of
personnel for refuse collection results from
the lack of pride of many sanitation employees
in their work. An educational program for
employees on the size and importance of the
refuse and collection industry is necessary
to instill a sense of pride in their work.
64-0192
An editorial. Refuse Removal Journal,
7(11):10, Nov. 1964.
Refuse collection operators often entrust
expensive equipment to careless employees,
then wonder why the value of such equipment
depreciates so quickly. The refuse industry
also suffers from the operator who treats his
trucks well, but fails to keep them neat in
appearance. A clean and efficient image is
essential to good public relations in refuse
management. A refuse contractor has a service
to sell, and it must be pleasant. Workers
should be neat and courteous and must display
competence.
64-0193
Electro-hydraulic refuse lorry.
198:631, Nov. 27, 1964.
Engineering,
A new electro-hydraulic refuse lorry exhibited
by Eagle Engineering Company Limited is
discussed. The principle employed in this
vehicle is to have two electro-hydraulically
operated moving barriers at the rear of the
body that continuously force refuse toward
the front and simultaneously compress it.
The two sizes of refuse collection body now
in production have capacities of 35 and 50
cu yd of uncompressed refuse. Rocking
motion is derived from a pair of hydraulic
rams, on each side of the body. The
pump supplying the rams is driven electrically
from the front of the vehicle engine. While
tipping, the entire compression unit is
raised clear of the discharged refuse.
64-0194
Fehn, C. F., J. 0. Hall, M. Rosenthai, et al.
Bulk storage and mechanized collection of
combined refuse. Public Health Reports,
79(5):413-416, May 1964.
Recently developed systems for bulk storage
and mechanized collection of combined refuse
provide for in-place, mechanized transfer of
refuse from bulk-storage containers to
large-capacity compactor collection trucks.
This system eliminates the need to transport
bulk-storage containers to disposal sites.
Capacities of containers range from .5 to 8
cu yd. They are constructed of heavy-gauge
metal, can exclude small animals and insects,
and are neither unsightly nor malodorous.
Self-loading, compactor-type trucks empty
containers at storage points in less than a
minute. The process consists of: engaging
the container with the truck's lift mechanism,
lifting and inverting the container over the
truck's opening, and righting the empty
container. Special refuse storage bins,
quantities of small containers, refuse
separation and numerous personnel are not
required, but operational difficulties do
exist. Keeping the heavy doors closed,
preventing indlgents from obtaining shelter
in them, and effective cleaning pose real
problems. Valdosta; Georgia was one of the
first cities to install such a container
system. This city installed 278 containers
and purchase two collectors. Businesses pay
service charges, depending on volume collected.
Savannah, Georgia also installed a similar
system, employing 367 containers and two
trucks. Schools, public housing authorities,
and a few businesses reimburse the city for
its use. Tables indicate refuse collection
costs. With continued improvement, parks,
roadside rest stops, and other recreational
sites should gain benefits already enjoyed by
commercial, industrial, and public housing
areas.
64-0195
Garrison, W. T., 0. T. Gay, and M. D. Bogue.
Public Works, 95(6) :121, June 1964.
Madison County, Alabama, has instituted a
unique system of collecting refuse in rural
areas. The key element of this new system
42
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0191-0200
is the use of detachable bulk-storage
containers of 6 and 8 cu yd capacities, placed
at strategic locations along roads and
highways. Householders tore the refuse in
the containers which are collected twice
weekly by a packer truck.
64-0196
Getting rid of refuse. Fluid Power
International, 29(336):95-97, Mar. 1964.
A special loading and transport system, known
as the Maximum Payload (M.P.L.) and developed
to overcome the problem of transporting large
quantities of domestic refuse to disposal
areas, is described. The system makes use
of a refuse baling-press, a hydraulic power
and control unit, and a new type of refuse
transport vehicle. The baling-press reduces
80 cu yd of refuse into a single cartridge
which is then loaded into the cylindrical
body of the road transport vehicle. Details
of each part of the system and its operation
are given. The baling-press unit consists
of a cylinder which is divided into a
compression chamber, a charging chamber, and
a piston-accommodation chamber and which is
fitted with a loading hatch. All linear
motions are hydraulically powered and
controlled by the Vickers Sperry Rand 400-gal
capacity hydraulic power unit with two pumps.
The transport vehicle has a cylindrical body
and is similar to those used by petroleum
companies for bulk transportation of fluids.
A uni-directional ejection piston is built
into the body of the vehicle and is retracted
by the introduction of the refuse-cartridge.
This action applies sufficient pressure to
maintain the cartridge-form during the trip
to the disposal point and to eject the
cartridge on arrival. The installation of
the system at a refuse station on the
Thames River is described.
64-0197
Householders prove one man's trash is
another's treasure. Refuse Removal Journal,
7(6):37, June 1964.
Emptying homes of rubbish was the first phase
of a cleanup program on Staten Island. The
drive put New York's Sanitation Department
three days behind schedule and prompted
widespread scavenging by residents of one
another's curbside rubbish. Householders'
comments on the scavenging are also presented.
64-0198
Hydraulic press aids refuse disposal.
Engineering, 197:202, Jan. 31, 1964.
A special loading and transport system to
handle lightweight, less dense refuse is
described. It consists of a refuse baling
press and an entirely new refuse transport
vehicle. The operation and construction of
these units is discussed. The press is
divided into a compression chamber, a
charging chamber and a piston accommodation
chamber. All linear motions are hydraulically
powered. The refuse emerges from the press
as a cartridge, 21 ft long and 7 ft in
diameter and is pushed into the special
cylindrical vehicle. A unidirectional
ejection piston built into the vehicle applies
pressure to maintain the cartridge form
during its journey and finally ejects it.
64-0199
Johnson, B. B. Motorized refuse collectors.
American City, 79(2):103, Feb. 1964.
The 16,000 population city of Claremont,
California's success and savings in using
small, crew-driven transfer vehicles to carry
refuse from back yards to collection trucks
is described. The city allows up to 400 Ibs
of refuse per residence. This system also
enables the crew to cover more homes daily.
64-0200
Kaupert, W. German refuse collector types.
Presented at Eighth International Congress
of Public Cleansing, Vienna (Austria), Apr.
14-17, 1964. 10 p.
An alphabetical list describes the design
and features of German refuse collectors.
The Faun-Werke has been manufacturing the
roller-drum refuse collector, the body of
which does not give continuous loading. The
degree of compaction does not meet present-day
requirements. It is being superseded by a
new type of compaction collector which makes
possible continuous loading and greater
compression. The Haller body has remained
the same but had increased compression due
to various improvements in construction.
As soon as the pile of refuse has reached the
required height, a screw located directly
beneath the top of the receptacle carries it
forward until the body below the screw is
full, and the compaction process begins as
refuse is squeezed through the screw. Keller
& Knappich produces the KUKA refuse collectors
43
-------
Collection and Transportation of Refuse
which load refuse by means of tipper and
conveyor wheel into a rotating drum with
helical vanes. This type of body produces a
homogeneous, uniformly-moistened refuse
content, which helps to reduce dust formation
during dumping. It is the only type that
unloads without the need for tipping, with
the same direction of rotation and raised-end
cover. Magirus, like Faun, compacts the
refuse as it is forced into the box-shaped
body. The loading mechanism consists of two
scoops, the filler or feed scoop, and the
presser or charging scoop, which are
synchronized and convey the refuse under
pressure into the body of the vehicle. The
Man refuse collector is designed for domestic,
shop and bulky refuse in addition to providing
bin-hoisting and tipping devices for indoor
refuse containers, etc. Alternation of a
conveyor with a presser plate forces the refuse
in a rapid, continuous operation., achieving
the desired compression.
64-0201
Kaupert, W. Modern vehicles and equipment
used by German Public Cleaning Services.
Presented at Eighth International Congress of
Public Cleansing, Vienna (Austria), Apr. 14-17,
1964. 21 p.
Topics discussed are: refuse, which is
categorized and the collector capacity given
in relation to refuse volume and weight; the
suitability of refuse collections in relation
to size, compression, and hygiene; German
refuse collector types, with a description
of the design and features of the products
of five German chassis- and body-constructing
firms; and refuse collection with high
capacity bins, which discusses the economic
advantages as well as recommended specifications.
64-0202
Kunsch, W. M.
Mar. 1964.
Public Works, 95(3):105,
Waterbury, Connecticut, has a policy of
replacing four of its twenty refus---. collection
packers with new units each year. This
policy reduces maintenance costs. The
operation of the city's landfill and
incinerator are also described.
64-0203
Landman, W. J. Designed to work hard.
American City, 79(3):106, Mar. 1964.
By efficient planning and building, Hempstead,
New York 350,000 population, changed from
contract to all municipal refuse collection,
saving about 10 percent over contract rates.
Their program is briefly explained.
64-0204
Lewis, W. A. The problems of bulk in refuse;
Part III-- 'Collection' . Presented at
Meeting of the Institute of Public Cleansing,
Dundee, Scotland, Apr. 8, 1964.
The pattern for future refuse in Dundee,
Scotland, is one of ever-increasing bulk.
With respect to collection methods, all that
this increase requires is adequate bin space.
Lighter-weight receptacles are being considered,
as the weight ratio between bin and contents
is a definite disadvantage. If provision is
made in the design of buildings for sufficient
storage accommodation, great savings can be
made in the number of collections each week.
Collection from multi-story buildings would
perhaps be most economical if the American
system were employed, using containers of
4 to 12 cu yd capacity. Another method
proposed for high flats would discharge refuse
into a fixed hopper, from which the contents
could be emptied with a vehicle underneath.
Trade refuse collection can be made more
efficient with the cooperation of shop owners
in packing and storing refuse. Based on a
recent test in Greenock, a load from 240
houses would weigh 3 tons 4 cwts and occupy
23 cu yd. Any of today's compression vehicles
could accommodate this volume in one load.
One problem arising is that the ratio between
vehicle weight and refuse weight is becoming
greater. Also, with the rising paper and
cardboard content of refuse, it would be
economical to initiate salvage collection.
One method for this collection is the
provision of a separate salvage section at
the front of the vehicle body. The loss of
refuse space in a compression vehicle would
not be great.
64-0205
London's ire raised over dustless bin.
Removal Journal, 7(5):4, May 1964.
Refuse
The Streets Committee in a report to London's
Common Council recommended the use of closed
trucks and containers for refuse collection
and storage. The city is buying the trucks,
but it must overcome 'red tape' before it
can purchase the special containers.
44
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0201-0211
64-0206
Mammoth vehicles--mammoth headaches.
Cleansing, 54(5):907, May 1964.
Public
Anticipated difficulties in operating
speculated mammoth-sized refuse collection
vehicles of 50 cu yd capacity is discussed.
These vehicles would need to be emptied
only once a day and would transport the refuse
directly to the disposal site. Problems of
tip site maintenance with all deliveries being
made within an hour in the evenings, the lack
of maneuverability of large vehicles in tight
areas and cul-de-sacs, and the probability
of even longer hauls to dump sites are all
considered impediments to acceptance of the
large collection truck system.
64-0207
Manufacturer adapts refuse collection system
to handle metals. Refuse Removal Journal,
7(7):13, July 1964.
The Transmission Division of Clark Equipment
Company has installed a new refuse collection
system in the Jackson Iron Works. The system,
which collects scrap iron, has increased the
contractor's per trip haul from 1.3 to 15
tons. The collection system includes a
stationary hydraulic compactor.
64-0208
Meiller Kipper bulk container refuse unit.
Surveyor and Municipal Engineer, 124(3761):45,
July 4, 1964.
A hydraulically-operated handling unit,
which can be mounted on a standard truck
chassis, loads, carries and dumps full bulk
refuse containers. The containers of varying
capacities, designs, and types are independent
of the handling unit and can be loaded by
hand or dumper.
64-0209
Memorandum of evidence on refuse collection.
Chartered Municipal Engineer, 91:29-30,
Jan. 1964.
The possibility of refuse collection methods
being a source of litter and the problem of
unauthorized private dumping are both reviewed.
The best method of collection is for the
collector to take the storage container from
the storage site and dump it in an adequately
sized collection truck (preferably a dustless
loading type). This results in a much
cleaner collection system than curb collection,
especially with a bonus system. Garden
refuse should be composted and not collected.
Builder's materials should not be removed
free of charge. Abandoned cars which cannot
be traced should be removed. A cooperative
venture of several towns could provide the
equipment at a central point to cope with
the special problem of abandoned cars.
64-0210
Metro, A. A. No refuse refused.
City, 79(4):117, Apr. 1964.
American
Mayor Edward D. Bergin's citywide clean-up
program for Waterbury, Connecticut, called
for designating given collection areas well
in advance, and placing a second notice in
the newspaper with a collection time schedule
to give peopJ e ample time to clean cellars,
attics, and garages. Everything was picked
up, regardless of size, shape, or weight.
Street department crews followed the collectors
to clean up the streets and gutters and patch
the streets, and water-department personnel
inspected and painted all hydrants. The
special collection weighed in at 5,000 tons,
and included refrigerators, stoves, water
tanks, and bed springs. The outlying areas
posed no problem because people could place
rubbish on curb lawns and driveways. The
central high-density area was another matter.
To make room for the rubbish, all parking
was banned a day in advance and on the
collection day, and traffic was barred from
narrow one-way streets. The collection force
consisted of twelve trucks with Leach
packer-type bodies and two open-body trucks.
The campaign required 52 working days and
covered every street in the city of 107,000.
64-0211
Municipal equipment 'rental' . In Solid
waste disposal and municipal equipment
'rental' . New York, Buttenheim Publishing
Corporation, June 1963. p.64-70.
An increasing number of cities administer
their motor vehicles on a rental basis every
year and many of them offer all types of
equipment. The benefits include an upgraded
standard of maintenance, a more orderly way
to replace old and inefficient models with
new models, maximum use of all equipment, and
a positive knowledge of what it costs to
operate the various pieces of equipment. The
best method of managing municipal equipment
45
-------
Collection and Transportation of Refuse
is to establish a centralized equipment
maintenance service including central control
over the procurement and use of the equipment.
Under such a system equipment of a specialized
nature may be assigned to certain departments
on a full-time basis to different departments
as the need arises. Some cities find it
possible to control all equipment through a
central agency. In general this agency becomes
part of the department of public works. A
central control organization, by adopting the
rental method, can become self-tui.porting. This
requires careful administrative book-work.
Examples of municipal rental are given.
64-0212
New cleansing depot and garage for Dumfries.
Public Cleansing, 54(7):1004, July 1964.
Purposes of the new Cleansing Department
depot at Dumfries, Scotland are to accommodate
vehicles of that Department and others of the
Council, to provide for vehicle maintenance,
and deal with recovered waste products. A
detailed picture of building layout and
function on the unusual site is presented.
64-0213
New York City opens a $22 million sanitation
department building. Refuse Removal Journal,
7(10):35, Oct. 1964.
A new central repair shop will house New
York City's entire repair and maintenance
unit, which services over 2,200 collection
trucks and street cleaning units as well as
other municipal vehicles. The shop will also
be the headquarters for three refuse collection
districts.
South Milwaukee, Wisconsin, which had an
inefficient, unsanitary, and expensive system
of refuse storage and haphazard collection
routes, passed a refuse storage ordinance
and revised its collection routes for greater
efficiency and sanitation. A public relations
campaign, which included the distribution of
a pamphlet explaining the new ordinance,
helped make the changes acceptable to the
public and thereby to the city council.
64-0216
Pollock, K. M. Venice, without streets,
moves refuse by water. Refuse Removal
Journal, 7(10):10, Oct. 1964.
Venice, the Italian City which has canals
instead of streets operates 25 refuse
gondolas each with a two man crew and two
metal containers. The refuse, the bulk of
which is garbage, is transferred to scows,
towed 20 miles out into the Adriatic Sea
and dumped overboard.
64-0217
Preventative maintenance program helps keep
Seattle's refuse trucks operating. Western
City 40(5):47, May 1964.
The Washington National Disposal's fleet
maintenance program keeps its 42 Leach
Packmasters in tip-top shape and is still
economical. Phase one of its 4 phase program
consists of a daily soap and water wash
down of each truck. Phase two has three
maintenance operations: 1) basic maintenance
service every 4 weeks; 2) tune-up every 12
weeks; and 3) service of the 'rolling'
mechanisms every 48 weeks.
64-0214
No flying papers at this transfer station.
American City, 79(6):26, June 1964.
This refuse truck-to-barge transfer station
is completely enclosed in such a way that no
refuse can blow around or float into the
Thames River during dumping. There have been
no complaints about this clean operation, and
loaded vessels may easily transfer wastes to
outlying disposal areas.
64-0215
Pedo, D. J. Reorganization cuts refuse
collection costs. Public Works, 95(7):110,
July 1964.
64-0218
Propose 105 mile pipeline to transport refuse
in Germany. Refuse Removal Journal, 7(11):24,
Nov. 1964.
Germany is considering a proposal to construct
a 105 mile pipeline to carry garbage from
northern Germany to the North Sea coastline,
where it will be used to build up the land.
Other methods of waste disposal have proved
unsatisfactory, The pipeline would also
transport waste water.
64-0219
Refuse collecting vans. Engineering, 198:619,
Nov. 13, 1964.
46
-------
0212-0224
Three refuse collection vehicles from a
public works exhibition are briefly discussed.
Made on the Swedish Norba system, they are: a
manual loader, for ordinary collection; a
dustless loader, for municipal bin schemes;
and a dual purpose unit for both. Compression
and choice of chassis are mentioned. Main
attributes of the Norba system include:
maximum payload; saving in tipping space;
and solid tips. Any type of garbage, refuse
and light scrap is acceptable to these
vehicles.
64-0220
Relander, B. Collections pose major problem.
Waste Trade World, 105(20):66, Nov. 14, 1964.
Finland has an increasing demand for waste
paper as the result of modernizing and
expansion of paper and board mills, with a
demand in 1965 estimated at 125,000 tons,
which will not be met at the present
collection rate of 24 percent of the
production of 400,000 tons. Because of the
high charges for freight, large scale imports
are expensive. While the paper collection
from commercial sources is almost 100 percent,
there is a problem in organizing collections
from private homes and other small sources
because the large country is so sparsely
inhabited. The efforts to collect waste
paper include thousands of collection points
operated by junk dealers, co-operative stores,
and private merchants all over the country.
For every kilo of waste paper brought to the
center, the collector receives coupons which
enable him to buy wrist watches, cutlery,
etc. at reduced prices in addition to being
paid cash for the paper. Collections are
made in the name of charities, with the paper
being collected at regular intervals by
professional truck drivers. Collections for
charities are arranged several times a year
by volunteers with the aim of effectively
clearing the area of paper stocks. Janitors
are either paid directly for waste paper
from apartments or payments are made to
trade unions. These drives are supplemented
by propaganda through the press, radio,
television, and schools.
first installed at Hammersmith, is reviewed
after 14 months during which time 11,743 tons
of refuse was handled. To facilitate the
employment of specialized vehicles, transfer
stations were introduced at intermediate
points between collection and disposal. At
the Hammersmith transfer point, the refuse
is compacted by press for transport to the
disposal site 18 miles from the transfer
station. The M.P.L. system is in essence a
transport system designed to move larger loads
in fewer trips and delivers a denser, more
compact load which takes up less room at the
dump.
64-0222
Roland, F. Illinois residential route adds
500 new customers per year. Refuse Removal
Journal, 7(8):18, Aug. 1964.
Monarch Disposal Company of Wood Dale,
Illinois, has renewed a 5 year contract with
Elk Grove, a new community of 3,000 homes,
still growing at a rate of 500 houses per
year. Monarch also has other household
and commercial routes in the Chicago area.
64-0223
Samans, H. Hygienic removal of garbage from
markets. Staedtehygiene, 15(10):234, Oct.
1964.
The removal of garbage from markets in
large cities by trucks is both uneconomical
and unhygienic. In many German cities, among
them Munich and Stuttgart, the garbage is
collected by underground conveyor belts which
transport the garbage to a heavy duty hammer
mill, also installed underground. There the
garbage is cut into small bits and sprayed
with water. The resulting slurry is emptied
into the municipal sewer system. Supplemented
by a magnetic iron collector, the equipment
accepts hard material like wooden boards and
bottles. Some large hotels use similar
garbage disposal systems. A hammermill is
shown in two photographs. (Text-German)
64-0221
Report on the M.P.L. refuse transport system.
Surveyor and Municipal Engineer, 123(3752):35,
May 2, 1964.
The M.P.L. (Maximum Pay Load) system of
household and industrial refuse transport,
64-0224
Self delivery is no help to collection.
Refuse Removal Journal, 7(12):30, Dec. 1964.
The Kewalo and Kapalama incinerators at
Honolulu are operating at full capacity with
about 200 tons per day at each unit.
Division personnel have to turn away
47
-------
Collection and Transportation of Refuse
individuals who deliver refuse, since the
incinerators are not designed for
do-it-yourself disposal. Individuals and
businesses should have their trash in place
for collection, to facilitate proper pick-up
service. Tree trimmings, which are not cut
into 36 in. lengths, have to be taken either
to the Waipahu or Kailua landfills.
64-0225
Shih, C. C. S. Hydraulic transport of solids
in a sloped pipe. Proceedings of the
American Society of Civil Engineers Pipeline
Division, 90(PL2) :1-1 4, Nov. 1964.
The effects of pipe slopes on the energy
gradient of the flow mixtures, as well as the
functional relationships among the pertinent
physical quantities involved in the
transportation of solids by water in a pipe
is discussed. Three slope angles of the
pipe, horizontal, 8.73 degrees and 17.71
degrees, were used for the experiments and
each different angle was tested exactly
the same. The solids concentration was
approximately 18 percent for all runs. These
solids consisted of % in. wooden balls that
had been soaked until they became waterlogged,
giving them a specific gravity slightly
greater than one. Three general conclusions,
supported by evidence presented in tables
and graphs, are stated as a result of the
experiments: (1) For a given concentration
of solids and flow rate, an increase in pipe
slope causes a rise in head loss; (2) the
effect of pipe slope on head loss becomes
more pronounced for higher solids
concentrations; and (3) the rise of head loss
for a given pipe slope is caused by the
increase of either the solid concentration
or the flow rate of mixtures.
64-0226
Snow thoughts in the sunshine. Public
Cleansing, 54(9):1132, Sept. 1964.
The vehicle and appliance exhibition at the
66th annual conference of the Institute of
Public Cleansing in Margate, England is
discussed. Equipment included snow cleaning
appliances, refuse collection vehicles, bins,
bulk containers, mechanical sweepers,
pulverizing units, and tractors. A trend
toward compression collection vehicles with
continuous loading mechanisms and increased
use of plastics in brushes, bins, trucks,
and protective clothing is noted.
64-0227
Southwark new refuse transfer station.
Surveyor and Municipal Engineer, 123(3747):46,
Mar. 28, 1964.
The new Southwark Borough refuse transfer
station, designed to replace the rail
conveyance of refuse to the dump at Longfield
in Kent by trucks, is described. The local
collection vehicles dump their refuse on an
elevated platform. The refuse is pushed
through slots in the platform by a loading
shovel into the bulk transport trucks on a
low level road under the platform for the 25
mile trip to Kent. The concrete structure
has no ledges and water is available for
hosing the platform and for water sprinkler
nozzles to control dust when required. The
through put of the station will be 34,000 tons
per year and will contribute to the increased
efficiency of the refuse removal procedures.
64-0228
Special trailers solve Miami's hauling
problems. Refuse Removal Journal, 7(4):6,
Apr. 1964.
A special trailer had to be designed to
improve the hauling of tons of non-burnable
matter and incinerator residue from Miami's
two incinerators to a single municipal
landfill site. Formerly, the non-combustibles
were hauled through the streets in open-body
dump trucks, causing complaints from the
householders about the stench, the spillage
of tin cans, and the streams of ash-saturated
water that dribbled from the tailgates of the
vehicles. The body of the new trailer is
completely closed, yet low enough in height
to clear the top of the incinerator ash
tunnels. It has a one-piece, cylindrical,
all welded steel frame and body, equipped
with a hydraulic packing mechanism. The
problems Miami encountered in searching for
landfill sites are also described.
64-0229
Stirrup, F. L. Transfer loading stations.
London, The Institute of Public Cleansing,
1963. 56 p.
The scope and method of investigating are
reviewed. A detailed examination of existing
methods covered the following: a converted
destructor plant, borough of Hornsey; simple
transfer stations, boroughs of Hammersmith
48
-------
0225-0232
and East Barnet; a transfer depot with par'
separation, borough of St. Pancras; a tra*
depot with full separation, city of Salfora
Possible future developments include
extraction of materials for salvage, reduction
of volume by bulldozer, pulverizing,
pulverizing-Gonard system, compression
within the vehicle, and compaction within the
depot. The conversion from road to rail
transport is discussed. Costs for separation
and baling, transfer loading, controlled
tipping and incineration, depots and
overheads, allocation of load charges, and
refuse baling tests in the city of Salford
are also covered. The appendices itemize
the costs of the various operations.
64-0230
Stragier, M. 'Refuse wrangling' in the
old west. Western City, 40(9):50, Sept. 1964.
Scottsdale, Arizona, 'The West's Most Western
Town* , has set up a train transfer system
for their 13,000 residential and 750
commercial accounts. Their trains have 3
trailers towed by a Dodge pickup mounted
with an extra container in place of the
pickup bed. They haul about 400 compacted
yd per day, 6 days per week from a town of
44,000. Each train ( 'calf in Scottsdale)
services an average of 870 residences per day.
The packers ( 'cows' ), with 28 yd bodies,
can easily contain 3 to 4 calfloads. The
foreman, inspector and superintendant are
known as 'bulls' and the crew wears
western style uniforms. Because the crew
made such an impression with the children,
the city offered honorary membership in
the Refuse Wranglers for any child who kept
the alley behind his home clean.
64-0231
Tchobanoglous, G,, and G. Klein. An
engineering evaluation of refuse collection
systems applicable to the shore establishment
of the "U.S. Navy. Berkeley,
"University of California, College of Engineering
and School of Public Health, Feb. 28, 1962.
478 p.
On May 20, 1959, the Navy entered into a 2
year contract with The Regents of the
University of California covering the refuse
collection operations of the shore
establishments of the D.S. Navy. Refuse
production and collection were studied at all
facilities at each selected activity. The
areas covered include: office buildings,
stores, grounds, ships, and housing areas.
The systems investigated were hauled-container
and stationary-container systems, with and
without transfer stations for transfer from
collection vehicle to haul vehicle. The
types of equipment studied include
self-loading collection vehicles, collection
vessels, large trailers, and compacting and
non-compacting vehicles as well as the
equipment used at different types of transfer
stations. Cost estimates were made for
equipment, labor, and operating expenses.
Work methods and time-study data for
refuse-collection operations were obtained
by a survey team. A comparative economic
analysis between five different collection
systems, for the collection of rubbish from
three typical naval installations producing
about 9.7, 19.4, and 29.1 cu yd per day of
rubbish, found that the system using
self-loading compactors was the most
economical, regardless of the haul distance.
64-0232
Tchobanoglous, G., and G. Klein. General
considerations. Refuse production. In An
engineering evaluation of refuse collection
systems applicable to the shore establishment
of the U.S. Navy. Berkeley, University
of California, College of Engineering
and School of Public Health, Feb. 28, 1962.
p. 17-46.
Data are presented on refuse production and
a classification of refuse collection systems.
A classification of refuse and definition of
terms is given. Some of the more important
factors which affect the type and quantity of
refuse produced from naval installations
(exclusive of domestic refuse from naval
housing areas) include the following: type
of facility, level of activity, and climate
and geographical location. The overall
rubbish production rates and number of rubbish
pickup points for five naval installations
are compared and tabulated. It was found
that the distribution of quantities of rubbish
production from pickup points followed a
similar pattern at each of the installations--
28 percent of all pickup points generated
a quantity of rubbish in the range of 0 to 5.0
cu yd per week. Refuse production data for
specific facilities cover: buildings
producing rubbish only; commissary and
exchange stores; civilian cafeterias, Navy
galleys, and service clubs; ships; piers,
docks, berths, and shipbuilding ways; and
station grounds. Where possible, daily
refuse production data for facilities were
subjected to statistical analysis. The
49
-------
Collection and Transportation of Refuse
quantity of domestic refuse collected from
housing facilities operated or used by the
Navy depend on factors such as: packaging,
garbage grinders, incineration, and collection
frequency. Three typical naval housing areas
were studied in Northern and Southern California.
The systems were classified as to mode of
operation, equipment used, and the type of
refuse collected.
64-0233
Tchobanoglous, G., and G. Klein.
Hauled-container systems. In An engineering
evaluation of refuse collection systems
applicable to the shore establishment of the
U.S. Navy, Berkeley, University of
California, College of Engineering and
School of Public Health, Feb. 28, 1962.
p.47-98.
The hauled-container systems ovserved during
this study can be classified into the
following three categories: hoist-truck
system, frame-loaded container system, and
trash-trailor system. The equipment used in
hoist-truck collection systems consists of
open or covered metal containers, generally
ranging from 2 to 15 cu yd in capacity, and
of one or more truck bodies on which is
mounted a mechanism capable of hoisting
the containers from the ground to the truck
and of discharging the container contents.
The frame-loaded-container system also has
one driver and truck perform collection and
haul. The containers are usually larger
(10 to 40 cu yd) and are slid onto the truck
on a special frame, e sually they are dumped
by tilting the frame and are especially
suited for collection of non-putrescible
rubbish. The trash-trailer system consists
of large semi-trailers, which are used as
storage containers, and a tractor for hauling.
At the disposal site, trailers require
auxiliary power equipment and personnel for
unloading. This system is used for areas with
high rubbish production rates. Maintenance,
health and safety aspects, operation, typical
costs of owning and operating are discussed
for each system. The containers and vehicles
are illustrated.
64-0234
Tchobanoglous, G., and G. Klein.
Stationary-container systems. In An
engineering evaluation of refuse collection
systems applicable to the shore establishment
of the U.S. Navy. Berkeley,
University of California, College of
Engineering and School of Public Health,
Feb. 28, 1962. p.99-174.
Stationary-container systems are those in
which the containers used for the storage of
refuse remain at the point of refuse
generation and refuse from a large number of
containers is loaded into the collection vehicle
before a trip to the disposal site. The
stationary-container systems include those
employing self-loading compactors, those employing
manually loaded vehicles, and those employing
vessels. The self-loading compactor system
consists of open or covered containers and
collection vehicles equipped with a loading
mechanism capable of unloading the
contents of the containers into the body of
the vehicle. The capacity of the containers
varies from 0.5 to 8 cu yd. The two types of
operations involved in manually loaded
vehicle systems are operations associated
with the appearance of the station and
its grounds and the collection of refuse
from housing areas. The containers range in
size up to 55 gal oil drums and the
vehicles are compacting or non-compacting trucks
varying in capacity between 9 and 30 cu yd.
Refuse produced aboard ships is collected
with the aid of YG scows and LCM's.
Personnel, collection procedures, survey data,
disposal sites, and typical costs
estimates are included for each system. The
containers, trucks, and ships are
illustrated.
64-0235
Tchobanoglous, G., and G, Klein. Systems
employing transfer operations. In An
engineering evaluation of refuse collection
systems applicable to the shore establishment
of the U.S. Navy. Berkeley,
University of California, College of
Engineering and School of Public Health,
Feb. 28, 1962. p.175-260.
The employment of transfer operations is
either dictated by necessity, such as in the
collection of refuse from moored ships, or
indicated as a result of economic
considerations. Refuse, collection bodies,
or containers may be transferred from the
collection to the haul vehicle with or
without the aid of a transfer station.
Transfer methods, facilities, equipment
sanitary conditions, vehicles, personnel,
costs, and economic considerations are
covered for small, medium and large capacity
transfer stations, stations employing
compaction facilities, and stations used in
50
-------
0233-0240
conjunction with ships and collection vessels.
Systems where transfer takes place from a
collection to a haul vehicle without the
benefit of fixed transfer station facilities
employ loaders and trailers; dump trucks,
fork-lift loaders, and specially designed
containers; and two trucks equipped with
frame-loading mechanisms. Equipment,
vehicles, and operational data are discussed
and illustrated.
64-0236
Tchobanoglous, G., and G. Klein. Design of
refuse collection systems. In An
engineering evaluation of refuse collection
systems applicable to the shore establishment
of the U.S. Navy. Berkeley,
University of California, College of
Engineering and School of Public Health,
Feb. 28, 1962. p.261-311.
The procedures which can be used to design
and evaluate collection systems and
operations are outlined. The conditions
which must be evaluated before a suitable
system can be selected are: refuse
production; number and location of pickup
points; refuse production rates; disposal
methods and sites; physical characteristics
such as climate, topography, and layout of
streets; and health, safety, and aesthetic
considerations. Systems and equipment which
may be used are summarized in a table. Design
entails determining container, labor and
vehicle requirements, and laying out
collection routes for hauled-container or
stationary-container systems and/or systems
usiii^ transfer stations. A typical analysis
of the relative economy of equivalent refuse
collection systems is illustrated. Container,
equipment, and operating costs are considered
as well as round-trip haul distances. For
the systems examined and assumptions noted,
the system using a self-loading compactor
was found to be the most economic for any
practical haul distance at each of the three
sizes of installations considered.
64-0237
Three-wheel carts double number of daily
collections. Refuse Removal Journal, 7(5):34,
May 1964.
Cleveland Heights, Ohio, has switched to
small, three-wheeled vehicles to hoist trash
cans from back yards to curb-side pickup
areas and has thereby increased the number
of household stops from 300 to 700 per day
and trimmed its manpower requirements from
76 men to 52.
64-0238
Tompkins, V. Truck-mounted chipper-container.
American City, 79(12):18. Dec. 1964.
Walla Walla, Washington, has mounted a
brush-chipping unit with a container to store
tree chips on a refuse packer. The completed
unit is compact and flexible for easy
on-the-spot removal of brush.
64-0239
Tottenham's policy on clearance of blockages
in refuse chutes. Public Cleansing,
54(10):1199, Oct. 1964.
Tottenham, England, has instituted a
special unit to clear stoppages in chutes
and to clean and disinfect chutes and
receiving containers. The unit consists of
two men and a delivery-type vehicle with a
rear tail lift, which elevates containers
into the truck. The vehicle is also equipped
with chute clearance rods, grapnels, water
hose and reel, water kegs, brooms, shovels
and disinfectant.
64-0240
Transfer station saves nearly $100 a day.
American City, 79(9):25, Sept. 1964.
A transfer system initiated in Abilene,
Texas in Mar. 1961 resulted in savings of
$95.55 a day. Abilene's transfer station
consists of an earth fill ramp from which
the packers discharge refuse through a
funnel-like hopper into the trailers. Two
Hobbs Hyd-Pak trailers, of 42 cu yd capacity
each, service the four small and six 16 yd
collection trucks. The hopper sides combine
with the trailer's folding roof doors to
guide the refuse into the trailer. Remote
controls enable the collection truck drivers
to start the trailer engine and packing cycle
from the upper level of the transfer station.
The transfer system also improves the use
of manpower and permits more efficient
scheduling of collection vehicles.
51
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Collection and Transportation of Refuse
64-0241
Trow, J. Vehicle test in Sheffield.
Cleansing, 54(7):990, July 1964.
Public
Sheffield, England, has added a Dennis
Poxit Major III and a Sheroke and Drewry 35
cu yd Pakamatic to its refuse collection
fleet of about 80 Shefflex vehicles. All
its vehicles have incorporated into them a
rear low loading mechanism that requires bins
to be lifted only 2 ft off the ground.
64-0242
Tyson, C. B. Refuse collection train improves
service. Public Works, 95(1):99, Jan. 1964.
Valdosta, Georgia, has switched to refuse
collection trains, which consist of three
4 yd Lo Dal containers mounted on wheels and
towed by an International Scout. Packer
trucks dump the contents of the trailers
into their bodies. The reason for the
switch is that the initial purchase price,
operating costs and manpower requirements
are less for a train than for the conventional
collection system of packers.
64-0243
Vehicle and equipment exhibition.
Cleansing, 54(6):947, June 1964.
Public
The vehicle and equipment show at the Eighth
International Congress on Public Cleansing in
Vienna is reported. The display include the
Purswagen, a refuse collection vehicle
manufactured in the Netherlands with mechanical
loading, continuous feed and partial
compression; the Kuka compression vehicle
which accepts bulky items; and the
Lesa-Unimog vehicle which has no back wheel
axle, uses front-wheel drive, and is used
for bulk containers.
64-0245
Vehicles on hire in Lanarkshire now.
Cleansing, 54(12):1316, Dec. 1964.
Public
According to its annual cleansing report,
Lanarkshire, Scotland set up a central
Transport Department to provide and maintain
vehicles for other county departments.
64-0246
Walla Walla designs mechanized brush chippers.
Western City, 40(8):34, Aug. 1964.
In order to increase mobility and efficiency
a Pak-Mor barrel packer was mounted on a
1957 Ford V-8 chassi which was first shortened
by cutting off the front end of the barrel
to allow space to mount the chipper. In order
to get the chips into the packer, a round
galvanized pipe 13 in. in diameter and 12
gauge sheet metal was manufactured. The
unit is very compact and flexible and solved
the brush and limb disposition problem at
Walla Walla.
64-0247
Wallis, H. F. Gaps in the refuse collection
services. Public Cleansing, 54(3):770,
Mar. 1964.
A memorandum on refuse collection submitted
by the Council for the Preservation of Rural
England (CPRE) to the Ministry of Housing
and Local Government is reported. The CPRE
recommends strong regulations for the
provision of adequate dustbins by householders,
builders and others; weekly collection;
elimination of roadside pickups; provision
for removal of bulky refuse by local
authorities; a regular review of the number
and size of litter bins; and incentive
schemes to boost employee morale.
64-0244
Vehicles. Public Cleansing, 54(2):812,
Mar. 1964.
A meeting of the Junior Members' Discussion
Group in Glasgow, Scotland is reported. The
meeting consisted of a demonstration of
modern refuse collection vehicles, street
cleaning vehicles, and mechanical gully
emptiers, and a discussion of such topics as
loading capacity, crew accommodation,
equipment for bulky wastes, and suction
sweepers.
64-0248
Wrong body and chassis combination may have
drastic effect on costs. Refuse Removal
Journal, 7(12) :24, Dec. 1964.
Guidelines for selecting new equipment for
refuse collection vehicles are presented. The
refuse collector should keep in mind that
the true costs are those run up by the unit
during its entire life cycle, not just the
first costs. Some factors to be considered
are operating costs and maintenance labor
costs.
52
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0241-0253
64-0249
Xanten, W. A. Waste collection, storage,
and transportation. In Proceedings; National
Conference on Solid Waste Research, Chicago,
Dec. 2-4, 1963. American Public Works
Association, 1964. p.65-68.
Two broad categories of solid wastes are
discussed: refuse incident to the ordinary
conduct of a household (including yard refuse);
and all other special categories inclusing
commercial and industrial wastes. Because
of the differences in methods of approach,
nomenclature, record keeping, cost accounting,
and a number of other variables, cost
comparisons between cities is not only
difficult, but can be dangerously misleading
unless carefully interpreted. Great strides
have been made in the areas of improved
collection equipment, containerization, and
the design and operation of transfer and
marine loading stations. As a community
increases in size and complexity the solid
waste problems mount in a geometrical rather
than an arithmetical progression. Such
elements as lengths of haul, requirements for
more expensive disposal mechanisms to maintain
high-level and nuisance-free sanitary controls,
dense traffic patterns, higher service
frequencies, etc. all tend to emphasize the
need for adequate administration and
management and careful long-range planning.
It is claimed that a research project has
been recommended to establish the intrinsic
value of compost in the United States in
collaboration with the Department of
Agriculture.
64-0250
Yankee contractor 'sweetens' clients with
scented trash. Refuse Removal Journal,
7(4) :8, Apr. 1964.
The Elm City Sanitation Service which services
ten communities of southwestern New Hampshire
sprays its loaded household collection with
pine scent frequently and washes its truck
daily. Other ways in which the company tries
to enhance the popular concept of refuse
collection in the area it services are also
described.
York, Buttenheim Publishing Corporation, June
1963. 82 p.
A series of articles that appeared in The
American City, which are of use for reference
purposes and in-service training, are presented,
The first section is a collection of papers
on various phases of refuse disposal,
delivered originally at the Solid Wastes
Conference held at the University of
Pittsburgh. These papers cover: thp sanitary
landfill, incinerator design, planning
municipal composting, compost plant design
and operation, combined disposal of sewage
compost plant design and operation, combined
disposal of sewage sludge and refuse, an
over-all engineering evaluation, the area-wide
approach to refuse disposal, and composting
costs in Israel. The second section dea3s
with the interesting growth of municipal
motor equipment departments that own, maintain,
and rent the equipment to the operating
departments, and through this arrangement
they pay for the maintenance and purchase of
new equipment as needed. The rental rates
are especially revealing as an indication
of operating costs.
64-0252
Antarctic refuse problem.
95(7):118, July 1964.
Public Works,
The method of refuse removal used by the
United States McMurdo Station in Antarctica
is to pile the refuse on the ice covering
the bay in front of the station; annually,
when the ice breaks up, the refuse is carried
out to sea. This method worked well from
1955 to 1962. However, in 1963 the ice
failed to break up on schedule and, as a
result, nearly two years' refuse has
accumulated. Fortunately this is not serious,
since there are no winged insects in
Antarctica to breed in the garbage, and the
cold prevents decomposition. The refuse
cannot be buried since the ground is always
frozen, and it can be burned only under rigid]y
controlled conditions, because of the fire
hazard involved.
DISPOSAL-General
64-0251
American City Magazine.
and municipal equipment
Solid waste disposal
'rental' . New
64-0253
Automated waste disposal.
128(3):55, Sept. 1964.
Safety Maintenance,
The typical belt-fed incinerator, such as
that in Girard, Ohio is described. Details
of the building for unloading refuse, the
sorting area to collect salvageable materials,
53
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Disposal-General
the hinged-steel belt conveyor system, the
burner, and the forced air system and control
center are presented.
64-0254
Await report on dumping in ocean by 12th
largest liner. Refuse Removal Journal,
7(11) :34, Nov. 1964.
The S. S. Caronia, charged by the Federal
Government and the State of New Jersey
with dumping refuse into offshore water, was
granted a deJay in the proceedings until they
could conduct their own investigation of
the incident. The case is expected to be
settled out of court.
64-0255
Baumgartner, D. J. Water supply and waste
disposal problems at remote Air Force sites
in Alaska. Technical Note No. TN-62-1. Fort
Wainwright, Alaska, Arctic Airomedical
Laboratory, Mar. 1063. 6 p.
Wast disposal and water supply problems at
remote Air Force sites are presented. These
problems affect health, well-being, aesthetic
conditions, and convenience, which influence
man's ability to function effectively in
cold environments. Specific problems and
their solutions are discussed and illustrated.
Examples include: disposal of waste in areas
where water as not readily available. An
aerobic recirculating vaste system for
conservation of water and disposal of wastes
has been developed to solve this problem. In
circumstances where privies or bucket toilets
are in use, continued efforts to develop electric
incinerating toilets are warranted. The main
objective is the provision of equipment which
requires little maintenance and performs adequately
under the environmental conditions at remote
installations. (Defense Documentation Center
for Scientific and Technical Information
AD-411 319)
64-0256
Bell J. M. Characteristics of municipal
refuse. In Proceedings; National Conference
on Solid Waste Research, Chicago, Dec. 2-4,
1963. American Public Works Association,
1964. p.28-38.
Present methods of sampling and analyzing
municipal refuse, present research, and
recommended studies are discussed as a
spin-off from research work done at Purdue
University during the last 6 years toward the
development of a practical and reliable
technique for sampling and analyzing municipal
refuse. Field studies were conducted in order
to obtain samples of refuse for laboratory
analysis as well as to estimate the accuracy
of the method used in obtaining these samples.
Sample areas were selected by stratified
random sampling after the city had been
classified into high, medium, and low
socio-economic strata on the basis of housing
and/or property market value. A logarithmic
relationship was found between the sampling
ratio and the average percent sampling error.
A linear regression analysis was made by the
method of least squares. The linear equation
is given. The entire quantity of each
material received was shredded to a maximum
size of 2 to 3 in. A 'representative'
sample of from 1,000 to 3,000 g of the material
was selected and placed in a plastic container
and dried to a constant weight of 70 F.
Weighings were made before and after to
determine percentage of moisture and then
ground to a maximum 2 mm for chemical
analysis. The methods of laboratory analyses
are outlined. A list of recommendations for
future research is offered. It is concluded
that a better understanding of the chemical
composirion of refuse will facilitate the
design of more efficient recovery methods
for utilizing part of the refuse as part of
a planned conservation program.
64-0257
Braun, R. Analysis and valuation of solid
refuse with regard to incineration and
composting. Presented at Eighth International
Congress of Public Cleansing, Vienna (Austria),
Apr. 14-17, 1964. 3 p.
The quantity, the nature, and the composition
of the refuse to be processed must be
estimated when planning solid refuse treatment
either by incineration or by composting.
Refuse may be either reduced to its different
ingredients and analyzed afterwards, which
is tedious and inaccurate, or the whole
sample can be ground, homogenized, incinerated
and analyzed. The Public Cleansing Department
in Vienna has used a large calorimeter to
determine values after incinerating the
contents of a garbage can with a gas flame.
This method, which has been later improved,
obviates the tedious sorting and preparing of
the samples, but requires a large number of
determinations. A simpler and more accurate
54
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0254-0262
method makes use of a mobile hammer-mill which
grinds the refuse and reduces it to gross
pieces which are then homogenized into typical
samples of raw refuse. These are later dried,
pulverized and analyzed in a powder state.
Plants must be erected for the removal of
refuse in general rather than solely for
domestic refuse. Composting can be utilized
for the sole purpose of converting refuse
into humus or can be used to produce a
saleable product which can be used for soil
improvement. The compostibility of refuse
must be determined and kinds of refuse which
are in principle compostible are: domestic
refuse, sewage sludge, and industrial refuse
of an organic nature. Industrial waste may
complicate the composting process due to its
one-sided chemical composition, and preliminary
processing may be necessary. The object of
the investigation of the original material
is to ascertain whether it guarantees a final
product containing sufficient humus-forming
substances.
64-0259
Bulk refuse handler. Engineering. 198:649,
Nov. 20, 1964.
A bulk refuse handling unit made by Powell
Duffryn Engineering Company Limited is
described. The unit incorporates a dust
sealed loading hopper and has a capacity of
6 cu yd. A range of sizes and types including
an end-loading vermin-proof, fire-proof
container are mentioned. Thiy unit is best
used in multi-story flats, markets, and
abbattoirs.
64-0260
Burnley's solution to the rubbish dump.
Public Cleansing, 54(3):801, Mar. 1964.
Burnley, England, has begun a campaign to
reduce the problem of rubbish dumped on
empty lots by offering and advertising services
to remove the rubbish.
64-0258
Braun, R. Analysis and valuation of the
final products (incineration residues and
compost). Presented at the Eighth
International Congress of Public Cleansing,
Vienna (Austria), Apr. 14-17, 1964. 4 p.
The method used for the determination of the
degree of incineration should consider
calorific production and the dumping of the
combustion residues. There is an economical
limit which prescribes the degree the
non-combusted material must be incinerated.
There is a possibility that non-combusted
organic particles when putrefied may have a
harmful influence on ground water, but this
danger with regard to incineration residues
is not very great. The loss on ignition which
is used as a measure for the incineration
degree for solid fuels has doubtful
application to the valuation of the
incineration degree of refuse-slag in
connection with the effect on ground water.
Other methods of analysis are discussed. A
compost improves in quality in proportion to
its content of humus-forming substances, and
the quality of the organic substances must
be determined as well as the contents. The
composition of compo-t is discussed with
respect to research work and methods of
analysis. The problems associated with the
production of auxines during the putrefaction
process of organic matter are enumerated. A
standardization of the methods of analysis
on an international level is necessary for
correct interpretation.
64-0261
Carmichael, W. Changing composition of
domestic refuse. Surveyor and Municipal
Engineer, 123(3755):49-50, May 23, 1964.
The problem of the change in bulk of refuse
and its effect on refuse disposal is discussed.
In Edinburgh, the bulk of refuse has increased
by 160 percent, but only 20 percent by weight
in the last 15 years, while the density has
been more than halved. The total volume of
refuse collected is increasing at 7.5 percent
a year; the total weight of combustible and
organic matter is increasing at the rate of
20 percent a year, while the total weight
of ashes (dust and cinders) decreases 5
percent a year. Dumps are being filled 60
percent quicker than ten years ago. The
Edinburgh separation-incineration plant built
to handle 240 tons of crude refuse a day in
1938 can handle only 150 tons today. For each
100 tons of crude refuse treated in separation
and incineration plants, 60 tons have to
be taken to the dump. Composting offers
some dump economy. Refuse will continue to
increase in bulk and decrease in density,
requiring improvisation and adaption of
existing methods and plants and difficulties
in design of new treatment plants because of
the changing composition of the refuse.
64-0262
Carmichael, W. The problem of bulk in refuse
as it affects refuse disposal. Presented at
Meeting of the Institute of Public Cleansing,
Dundee, Scotland, Apr. 8, 1964.
55
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Disposal-General
From an analysis of Edinburgh's refuse over
a period of 15 years, general tendencies in
large cities can be expected to included
augmented total bulk (with increasing
population) , increased amount of combustible
and organic matter, and decreased percentage
of ashes in refuse. A principal problem is
scarcity of tipping sites, but reducing
refuse bulk by increasing density (as by
pulverization) would be helpful. Incineration
or composting can aid in reducing both bulk
and total weight. In many cases, the need
for treatment plants has been accelerated
by this scarcity of tipping space.
Incineration is not only a satisfactory
solution for disposing of low-density domestic
refuse at present, but may serve extensively
in the disposal of future refuse which may
have even lower density and minimal ash
content. However, increased concern with air
pollution generates a need for alternative
means of treatment, such as transfer plants
working in conjunction with compressor
bulk-carriers, pulverizers, or bulldozers.
Increased bulk in industrial wastes can be
kept manageable by separate waste paper
collection. Data is provided to illustrate
the average densities of refuse and the
treatment of refuse.
64-0263
Clark & Groff Engineers. Sanitary waste
disposal for Navy camps in polar regions.
Part II. Final report. Port Heuneme,
Calif., U.S. Naval Civil Engineering
Laboratory, May 1962. 115 p.
Existing practices with recommendations for
research and improved waste handling concepts
for littoral and ice installations are
summarized. Effects of the polar environment
and military characteristics are evaluated.
Present practices and research were
investigated through field visits to artic
installations, interviews, conferences, and
correspondence. After the establishment of
aesthetic and sanitary criteria, a broad
spectrum of waste handling processes was
evaluated and the most promising system
concepts were selected. It was concluded
that the regeneration of potable water
from the sanitary wastes would solve the water
supply and waste disposal problems
simultaneously and entirely within the
encapsulated environment of the polar
camp. The proposed system consists of
minimum flush tiolets, combination
of all wastes, and regeneration by a high
temperature oxidation (HTO) unit or by
vacuum distillation with catalysis. In
the event that water supply is not a problem,
wastes can be collected; disinfected by waste
heat, steam or electricity; and discharged
to snow, ice sump or marine outfall. For
isolated areas and small groups of men, a
recirculating synthetic flushing fluid unit
would give adequate solution to the human
waste problem with optimum water conservation.
64-0264
Creisler, J. A whale of a problem. Public
Works, 95(1):80, Jan. 1964.
Del Norte County, California, could not
apply the conventional methods of disposal
of dead marine animals to a whale stranded on
South Beach, because the whale was still
alive. After unsuccessful, humane attempts
at killing the mammal, the county finally
resorted to dynamiting it.
64-0265
Davies, A. G. Refuse disposal--problem and
task of our time. In Proceedings; Second
International Congress, International Research
Group on Refuse Disposal, Essen, Germany,
May 22-25, 1962. p.1-24.
The indiscrimate dumping of refuse must cease,
for it bears no thought to problems of water
pollution, vermin breeding or general nuisance.
Harnessed to mechanical power, it can enable
the recovery and utilization of land. Unless
scientists offer radical opportunities for
change, it seems that incineration, pulverising
and composting are the available alternatives
for ultimate disposal. There is a need for
research and development with funds from the
national level in each country, in order
that experimental work can be undertaken to
the best advantage. The circumstances must
be created whereby it becomes possible to
adopt the most efficient and appropriate
method of disposal in each case, with
finance forming a supplementary factor
rather than a primary one. Although
there are signs of changing tendencies, the
cheapest approach to an individual problem is
not always the best.
64-0266
D.C. officials seek new disposal sites.
Refuse Removal Journal, 7(2):34, Feb. 1964.
56
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0263-0269
The nation's Capital is running out of disposal
sites for the ash residue that is generated
by its four incinerators. The city's one
sanitary landfill is expected to be used
up within another year. Modern packaging
techniques receive the blame for the
ever-growing load of waste. No one has yet
come up with a solution.
64-0267
Des Rosiers, P. E. Investigation of low-cost
sanitation systems; branch report. Fort
Belvoir, Va., U.S. Army Engineer Research
and Development Laboratories, Nov. 19, 1962.
77 p.
An extensive survey was made of the literature
on sanitation systems applicable to the
treatment of human wastes in fallout shelters.
Preliminary Laboratory tests of various
chemical agents were conducted to determine
effectiveness for control of objectional
odors and to measure the bacteriocidal and
bacteriostatic properties of the chemical
agents. Conclusions are that the sanitary
vault concept has inherent advantages that
should be evaluated under realistic fallout
shelter conditions in order to determine
optimum design and acceptability features.
The masking of odors is considered to be a
poor method of odor control. A minimum air
recirculation rate of 2 cu ft per min in the
privy tested is effective in controlling the
level of odor. Chemical treatment of human
wastes collected in open containers can
effectively suppress odors. Three combinations
of readily available and relatively
inexpensive chemicals found effective were:
cupric sulfate, sodium bisulfate, and
mineral oil; saponified cresylic acids and
mineral oil; and boric acid, sodium perborate,
and mineral oil. The dual purpose container,
with proper chemical treatment of waste,
can serve as a suitable means for collecting
and storing of human excreta over a period
of at least seven days.
64-0268
Des Rosiers, P. E. Evaluation of human waste
disposal systems. In Investigation of
low-cost sanitation systems; branch report.
Fort Belvoir, Va., U.S. Army Engineer
Research and Development Laboratories, Nov.
19, 1962. p.1-36.
It is the objective of this study to evaluate
technically human waste disposal methods,
known or as yet unconceived, for possible
use in fallout shelters. The essential
characteristics of such a unit are:
acceptance of any wastes without subsequent
handling; a safety factor for over-crowding
and modular desing. Applicability of standard
sewage disposal methods to fallout shelters,
biological decomposition, gas production in
sewage digestion, and currently available
household sewage treatment devices are
reviewed. Approaches to the problem are:
individual disposal bag method; maceration,
or a sanitary vault. Disposal of human
excrement in individual soft-plastic or
rubber containers, tightly sealed and
deposited into a common receptacle, should
be considered. The container would be a
non-permeable bag attached to a toilet seat.
Excreta can be treated in a manner that is
acceptable if it is mechanically reduced
to a size where disinfectants can come in
intimate contact with it, and the liquid is
separated from the solid waste and eventually
treated for possible reuse. The sanitary
vault would be a single valut or receptacle
which would initially contain a supply of
disinfecting and odor control chemicals
designed to receive all wastes. Of
considerable value is the fact that a
sanitary vault will function effectively
without electric power, mechanical parts,
or running water.
64-0269
Des Rosiers, P. E. Investigation of chemical
odor control methods for treatment of human
wastes. In Investigation of low-cost
sanitation systems; branch report. Fort
Belvoir, Va., U.S. Army Engineer Research
and Development Laboratories, Nov. 19, 1962.
p.27-70
It is the objective of this study to evaluate
effective chemical sanitizing methods for
use in treating and deodorizing human wastes
in the confined environment of fallout shelters.
Effective sanitizing methods for the treatment
and deodorizing of human wastes must be
primarily concerned with either bacteriostatic
or bacteriocidal measures. A laboratory
screening test was devised to initially select
agents which would be effective in deodorizing
and treatment of wastes. Those agents selected
were: hydrated lime, hydrated lime and
charcoal, mixed cresylic acids, and borax.
They were then subjected to privy studies.
Results showed that three combinations of
readily available and relatively inexpensive
chemicals are effective in suppressing odors
in an open container which is used as a
receptacle for human excreta. Any one of the
57
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Disposal-General
chemical combinations, CuS04, NaHS04, mineral
oil; CuSOA, NaHS04, mineral oil, cresylic
acids; boric acid, sodium perborate, mineral
oil; and saponified cresyclic acids, mineral
oil, will reduce odor to a level which is not
objectionable. If the count of viable
organisms is used as a criterion for
evaluation, the greater effectiveness of
cupric sulfate and sodium bisulfate is
unquestioned. From the data accumulated, with
odor suppression and bacteriocidal action
both considered, this combination of chemicals
would be preferred.
64-0270
Disposal of waste oil, tires and building
materials surveyed. APWA [American Public
Works Association] Reporter,
31(1):20-21 Jan. 1964.
This article presents the results of a survey
of 38 cities, population over 100,000, in
relation to disposal of waste oil, tires,
and building material. There are two tables
which list the cities using private disposal
methods and/or public disposal methods. Of
those cities where the materials are disposed
privately, waste oil is most commonly
reclaimed, waste tires are disposed in
landfills or dumps, and building materials
are disposed of in landfills. Of the 26
cities that assume disposal responsibilities,
8 use landfills to dispose of waste tires,
and 17 use landfills for disposal of building
material. Most cities are satisfied with
their disposal methods. While current
regulations and disposal practices have
eliminated air and water pollution problems
in 24 cities, only a small portion have
specific regulations for disposal of waste
oil, tires, and building materials.
64-0271
Disposal of wastes in South Australia. Good
Health for South Australia, 126, 10-13,
Oct. 1964.
Methods of refuse disposal in South Australia
are: a) controlled tipping; b) dumping and
burning; and c) disposal into the sea. The
most practical and cheapest method is
controlled tipping. The reclamation of land
is shown in Marion, where a soccer field
has been developed over a tipped area. A
proposal to assist in the disposal problem
is to use the tidal swamp in Port
Adelaide-Salisbury area where thousands of
acres of mosquito breeding swampland are
available, and could be converted into useful
recreation areas. Controlled tipping should
be the main method used, with a large modern
destructor for the disposal of burnable
refuse.
64-0272
Disposal system. Modern Sanitation and
Building Maintenance, 16(8):33, Aug. 1964.
The Auto-pak eliminates the need for separate
incinerator stack and destructor room. As
trash is placed into a refuse hopper, an
electric eye activates the system's hydraulic
packing mechanism. Refuse falls to the
bottom. The packing ram moves forward with
a force of 40,000 Ib, compacting refuse to
less than 25 percent of original volume.
64-0273
Donaldson, E. C. Disposal wells. In
Subsurface disposal of industrial wastes in
the United States. U.S. Bureau of Mines
Information Circular No. 8212. [Washington], U.S,
Department of the Interior, 1964. p.6-8.
Where the manufacturing process is dependent
upon inunterrupted operation of a
waste-disposal well, some companies have
provided a standby well. The waste stream is
split either by separate injection pumps or
by valves from a common manifold. Sometimes
monitor wells are pumped and sampled once a
month to test the quality of water from the
lowest fresh water aquifer. For the average
chemical waste disposal well, a 15 in.
diameter hole is drilled about 200 ft below
the deepest fresh water aquifer, where ten
!?-in. OD casing is set and cemented to the
surface. A cased-hole or open-hole completion
method can be used. Unconsolidated sand
formations may be gravel-packed to prevent
sand cavings from filling the bottom section
of the injection casing and thus restricting
the outward flow of fluids. Disposal wells
are equipped with tubing when corrosive waste
is to be injected. Tubing that is internally
coated with plastic or cement commonly is
used. When the well is completed, drilling
mud is washed from the face of the formation
by pumping water into the tubing and allowing
it to circulate to the surface through the
annulus between the tubing and the casing.
Acidizing and hydraulic fracturing of the
formation are used to increase the injectivity
of newly completed wells and to stimulate
58
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0270-0277
old wells that have become plugged with
suspended solids.
64-0274
Donaldson, E. C. Surface equipment used in
waste disposal. In Subsurface disposal of
industrial wastes in the United States.
U.S. Bureau of Mines Information Circular No.
8212. [Washington], U.S. Department of the
Interior, 1964. p.2-6.
The essential units of a typical system for
subsurface disposal of waste consist of
sump, separator, clarifier, filter, chemical
treater, surge tank, and pump. The amount
and type of equipment necessary to prepare a
waste mixture for injection depends upon the
amount and size of suspended solids in the
waste, the pure size of the formation matrix,
the chemical compatibility of the waste and
formation water, and the corrosiveness of
the waste. The removal of suspended solids
is unnecessary where the disposal formation
is limestone or dolomite containing
interconnected vugs and fractures. A cement
sump tank or a 30,000 to 50,000 gal steel
tank provides storage for collecting and
mixing waste streams. Large, shallow, open
ponds provide sufficient detention time to
permit natural sedimentation of particulate
matter from the waste during passage from
the inlet to the outlet. The ponds are
commonly equipped with aerators to oxidize
iron and manganese salts to insoluble forms
that precipitate in the agitation pond.
Aqueous chemical wastes usually contain large
amounts of particulate matter such as polymeric
floes, dirt, oil, and grease that can plug
the disposal formation. The sedimentation
process can be accelerated by adding a
flocculating agent. Dual filtration is used
to condition waste for disposal into sandstone
formations with small pore sizes. When the
waste contains microorganisms, a small amount
of a suitable bactericide is added.
64-0275
Dove, L. A. The area-wide approach to refuse
disposal. In Solid waste disposal and
municipal equipment 'rental' . New York,
Buttenheim Publishing Corporation, June
1963. p.51-56.
A regional or area-wide approach to refuse
disposal is in keeping with the trend toward
metropolitanization that is evolving in most
urban areas. A new level of area-wide self
government or a regional planning agency
empowered to make decisions of importance to
the total urban community is necessary. Some
of the legislative acts and policy measures
that a regional body should consider with
regard to area-wide refuse disposal include:
taking immediate action to ban the open dump;
adopting minimum standards for refuse
disposal operations over the entire region;
adopting a comprehensive area-wide ordinance
to regulate and control the disposal and
dumping of refuse; consideration of controlling
rates at disposal sites or effectively
districting the total region under study; and
preserving certain sites with optimum
characteristics for refuse disposal for
future needs. Factors such as the most
favorable soil conditions to minimize water
pollution, meteorological conditions, and
the over-all effect on the transportation
network should be given full consideration
in site selection. The kaleidescopic pattern
of financing refuse collection and disposal
in any given area makes it impractical to
generalize on solutions to this problem.
64-0276
An editorial.
7(3):14, Mar.
Refuse Removal Journal,
1964.
In many areas the so-called shortage of
disposal sites is an artificial one created
by the opposition of the uninformed public.
An educational program to enlighten the public
about the many problems related to refuse
collection and disposal is needed. Such a
program should be sponr-ored by the National
Council, supported by the entire Sanitation
Industry, and developed and carried out by
experts in public communications.
64-0277
An editorial. Refuse Removal Journal,
7(8) :14, Aug. 1964.
The shortage of disposal sites is discussed.
In the future there may be 'disintegrating-
plants' that will turn refuse into gas
which will vanish into the atmosphere or
space-penetrating missiles which will transform
the universe into a giant disposal facility.
Now, however, perhaps the key is the
development of a really workable method of
composting. Hopeful signs in this direction
are plans by Westinghouse to build compost
plants and the Solid Haste Disposal Act of
1964 currently before Congress.
59
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Disposal-General
64-0278
Eldredge, R. W., and H. J. Dominick.
1963-1964 Refuse disposal study: Winnebago
County, Illinois. 1964. 39 p.
Winnebago County, Illinois, is about 91 miles
northwest of Chicago. Rockford, the county
seat, is an industrial city employing most of
the residents of the County who are employed
in manufacturing activities. By 1970 the
population of the County may be about 300,000
with Rockford having about 200,000. The
problem of refuse disposal is compounded not
only by the rapid increase in household units
but also by the increasing amounts of refuse
generated by each unit. The present study
describes the methods of refuse disposal,
gives a brief history of Rockford's disposal
facilities in the County, and investigates
possible ground water pollution by sanitary
landfills. Conclusions and recommendations
are given in the Introduction.
64-0280
Examination of refuse samples. Technische
Ueberwachung, 5(4):141, Apr. 1964.
A movable outfit for the examination of
refuse samples was procured by the Research
and Development Institute in Stuttgart. With
this equipment, it is possible to obtain the
necessary data to make appropriate
recommendations for the removal or use of
the different kinds of refuse, which in the
course of a year are recorded in the books
of the Association for Communal Transport.
Comparisons are made of the various methods,
such as deposition in the raw or prepared
stage, incineration, composting, and removal
in conjunction with liquid waste. The
equipment consists of a filtering device,
which divides the refuse into three particle
sizes, a grinder for pulverizing, portable
containers for samples to 500 kg, a conveyor
belt, a spring balance and sets of pulleys.
The chemical, physical and biological analysis
takes place in the laboratories of the
Institute in Stuttgart. (Text-German)
64-0279
Emanuel, C. F. Waste disposal in space
vessels. Journal of the Water Pollution
Control Federation, 36(10) : 1229-1239, Oct.
1964.
In the aerobic degradation of combined
feces and urine, there is one resistant
fraction which is brown and called
'hestianic acid' . It possesses a complex
and heterogeneous structure, is strongly
acidic, and has an inability to dialyze.
The acid was found to be either poly-disperse
or quite impure and contains neither protein
nor polysaccharide. Spectrographic analysis
indicated the presence of nitrogen and
carboxyl groups. Hestianic acid did not
appear to arise from bile and blood
substances. The ubiquitous melanines are
suspected of being the source of hestianic
acid because of structural and chemical
composition similarities. Because of the
resistance of this pigment to biological
degradation, the problem of freeing the
reactor from this refractory material will
require special consideration. The alkaline
permanganate degradation, hydrolytic
degradation with sulfuric acid, tryptic
hydrolysis, perchloric acid hydrolysis,
dichromate oxidation, and hydrolytic reduction
with zinc and hydrochloric acid analytical
processes were employed to obtain results
in this paper. Additional data and tables
are contained within this paper to support
the conclusions given.
64-0281
Faith, W. L. Air pollution research--
reflections and projection. Journal of the
Air Pollution Control Association,
14(9):367-369, 371, Sept. 1964.
In this general review of past, present, and
future of problem-oriented research in air
pollution, solid waste disposal is presented
as one of the areas where engineering research
can have a real impact on air pollution
control. The methods of solid waste disposal
practiced at the present time include:
uncontrolled open burning (as in municipal
dumps); controlled open burning (weed
control programs); incineration; sanitary
landfill; and composting. The most widely
used, uncontrolled open burning, is the most
obnoxious from the air pollution viewpoint.
In spite of its intolerable aspects, the
other disposal methods also have their problems
and the town dump continues to pollute the
air. The Taft Sanitary Engineering Center
has conducted some excellent -research'on
incineration, but much is unknown about all
forms of solid waste disposal. The need for
greater research expenditures in the study of
the disposal of solid waste is apparent when
it is realized that the daily production of
solid waste on a dry basis is three times
that of the weight of our sewage. In this
review and prediction article, solid waste
disposal is considered as one phase of air
60
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0278-0285
pollution research. The conclusions in
regard to air pollution apply also to solid
waste disposal. There is more money at the
present than capable manpower, and the
funds are outrunning good ideas. The chief
source of funds for air pollution research
(and solid waste disposal) will be the U.S.
Public Health Service which will underwrite
most of the air pollution work in universities
and, to a lesser extent, at the state
envir onment al leve1.
64-0282
Faust, S. D., and M. C. Manger.
Electromobility values of particulate matter
in domestic wastewater. Water and Sewage
Works, 111(2):73-75, Feb. 1964.
Information on the quantitative
electromobility values of particulate matter
in domestic wastewater would be useful in
the evaluation of the electrochemical
phenomena involved in the removal of waste
substances by various chemical and biological
treatment processes. A study was therefore
done to determine the sign of particle charge
and the magnitude and distribution of
electromobility values of particulate matter
in a typical domestic wastewater.
Electromobility values were determined by
the Briggs cell technique. It was found
that the particles are negatively charged
and have electromobility values ranging of
-0.55 to -3.75 mu per sec per v per cm for
707 observations. Specific conductance, pH,
and instantaneous wastewater flow influenced
the distribution of the electromobility
values about a normal probability curve. A
normal distribution about an average value
is to be expected because of the heterogeneous
chemical composition of the supracolloidal
and colloidal fractions of domestic sewage
and indicates that the association of
counterions with the various particles is
governed by probability within the well-defined
laws of electroneutrality.
64-0283
Feitchinger, C. Needed: more facts on
waste disposal. Nation's Cities,
2(9):24-26, Oct. 1964.
As the problems of solid waste disposal grow
more difficult and expensive to solve because
of the growth of the urban population and
more rigid requirements of land, air, and
water pollution control, it appears that more
basic and applied research is necessary on
solid waste disposal to provide the decision
makers with necessary facts to replace the
trial and error methods being applied now.
Efforts of the town of Irondequoit, New York,
with a population of 60,000 and very little
industry to solve their waste disposal problem
are discussed. The advantages and disadvantages
of sanitary landfill at the low cost of
$1.25 per ton, incineration at $6.00 per ton
and composting at $3.25 per ton were reviewed.
Land-fill was eliminated due to lack of space.
Cost, air pollution, and equipment obsolescence
were the disadvantages of incineration that
led to an interest in composting. A study
was made of the NORCO process in Jamaica and
a proposal was received from NORCO to build
a composting facility and charge the community
$3.25 per ton for handling the refuse and
guarantee the effectiveness of the process
and the absence of odor, smoke, noise, or
attraction of insects and rodents. Public
interest and support is lacking, as is a
definitive third party objective study of
the alternatives. Such a study would be a
legitimate role for the federal government
by providing disinterested data for the
formulation of public policy.
64-0284
Ferber, M. The waste problem is a planning
problem. Brennstoff-Waerme-Kraft,
16(8):373-375, Aug. 1964.
Facts and conditions which must be considered
by the community in formulating plans for
organization of disposal of waste are
discussed. All planning starts with an
estimate on the amount of waste expected and
the cost of its collection. This will
determine the location and number of the
waste treating facilities. The different
methods for waste treatment are discussed
and the advantages and disadvantages of each
are presented. In certain cases, a
combination of methods like incineration and
composting could be employed. Finally, it is
suggested that possibilities should be more
thoroughly investigated to reduce the amount
of waste produced by industry and households.
Foundry sand and packing material are cited
as examples. (Text-German)
64-0285
Forester, D. F. Problems of bulk in refuse--
'output' . Presented at Meeting of the
Institute of Public Cleansing, Dundee,
Scotland, Apr. 8, 1964.
61
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Disposal-General
Analyses of domestic refuse from the City of
Glasgow are given and corresponding tables
are included. Data indicates the tendency
over a 15-year period to employ forms of
heating other than solid fuel, thus lowering
the percentage of dust and cinder content in
refuse. If this trend continues, the already
increasing paper content will rise still
further.. In addition, the introduction of
'smokeless zones' by the government's Clean
Air Act has increased trade refuse commitments.
There is no great variation between 1947 and
1963 in bone, vegetable, and putrescible
content of refuse. If the percentage should
increase, however, the most economical
methods of disposal would have to be
reconsidered. An increase of 40 percent since
1947 in metal content implies needed
consideration for most efficient means of
its disposal, also. However, the most
significant change is in the amount of paper
content, which has increased from 5 percent
to 22 percent, disregarding paper and
cardboard collected separately for salvage.
Three and a half million tons of paper and
board were consumed in Scotland in 1939,
while at present this amount equals some
5 million tons. Assuming a density of
1 to \\ cwts per cu yd, this data implies
numerous problems of bulk in refuse and its
disposal.
64-0287
Freund, A. W., and C. J. Altenburg. Report
on waste disposal system. Mohole Project for
Brown & Root, Inc., Machinery. Study No.
M-46. New York, GibKB & Cox, Inc., Sept.
1964. 29 p.
This report presents the results of a study
for the disposal of all burnable rubbish.
When considering all the facts, including
maintenance and operation of equipment,
manning to operate the equipment, fire
hazards involved, housekeeping, weight, and
cost, a baling machine is recommended. The
baling machine would be installed and all
bales of rubbish would be disposed of ashore
or at a distant point at sea via the supply
vessel. If an incinerator is desired, then
the capacity of this unit should be about
120 Ib per hr. The 75 Ib per hr capacity
incinerator initially selected is considered
to be too small to meet the recommendations,
and the installation of an incinerator will
increase topside weight in the range from
about 6,375 Ib to 11,500 Ib. The use of a
baling machine appears to be better, but
storage problems for the bales and handling
problems associated with the space for unloading
for the bales onto the supply vessel must also
be considered.
64-0286
Frechen, B. 1963 Meeting of the Association
for Waste Water Technology, North
Rhine-Westphalia regional section. Wasser
und Abwasser, 105(8):211-212, Feb. 1964.
The tenth annual meeting of the North
Rhine-Westphalia regional section Association
for Waste Water Technology was held in
Bochum on Nov. 15, 1963. Five lectures
presented there are briefly reviewed. Their
titles are: "Urban problems in Bochum";
''Measures for tank and tank truck accidents'';
''Accident prevention in sewage systems'"; and
''Trash and sewage sludge''. Combined
elimination of trash and sludge by incineration
and by composting was discussed. It was
pointed out that the sludge need be
concentrated only to a water content of 90
percent for economic incineration. For a
city with a population of 100,000, the daily
costs for the elimination of sludge is 500 DM
as compared with 350 to 400 DM for combined
composting. The last lecture, "Clean water
maintenance'', dealt with new waste water
purification plants in the Ruhr-Lippe area.
(Text-German)
64-0288
Freund, A. W., and C. J. Altenburg. Types
and classification of wastes and incinerators.
Incinerator capacity. In Report on waste
disposal system. Mohole Project for Brown
& Root, Inc., Machinery. Study No. M-46.
New York, Gibbs & Cox Inc., Sept. 1964.
p.3-12.
The Incinerator Institute of America has
assigned type numbers to waste materials
depending upon their source and composition
and has classified incinerators by types,
burning rate, and type of waste to be burned.
Some of these classifications are presented.
Differences in operation and spark arresting
devices on the Navy shipboard type and
commerical incinerators are described. The
amount of rubbish is estimated at approximately
920 Ib per day. An 8 hr operation is
considered most practical for marine watch
standards and on this basis the incinerator
capacity is estimated at 115 Ib per hr.
64-0289
Freund, A. W., and C. J. Altenburg. Alternated
method for disposal of rubbish. Weight
62
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0286-0293
comparison. In Report on waste disposal
system. Mohole Project for Brown & Root,
Inc., Machinery. Study No. M-46. New York,
Gibbs.& Cox, Inc., Sept. 1964. p.18-22.
Since it is not desirable to dispose of all
rubbish and other burnable waste materials
by dumping in the sea, it appears that the
next best, lightest in weight, and least
costly method of disposal is by baling and
disposal of the bales ashore or at a distant
point at sea via the supply vessels. A
handpowered baler is described. A room set
aside for the storage of the waste bales must
be provided. The size, weight, and number of
bales to be handled is given. A table is
presented to indicate a comparison of top
side weights for various size incinerators
and baling machines.
64-0290
Geldreich, E. E., H. F. Clark, and C. B. Huff.
A study of pollution indicators in a waste
stabilization pond. Journal of the Water
Pollution Control Federation, 36(11):1372-1379,
Nov. 1964.
Waste stabilization ponds represent an
economical method of waste disposal, largely
due to reported high coliform removals.
Bacteria such as coliform indicate pollution
removal. Studies of the effectiveness of
fecal coliform and streptococcous groups as
indicators were made on a prison dairy farm.
Characteristics looked for were: constant
occurrence in human feces; consistent presence
v.n sewage and polluted waters; and ability
for accurate enumeration. Raw sewage
employed was composed of domestic
and laundry wastes. Relative densities of
bacterial indicators were determined for four
seasonal periods of the year. Raw sewage
coliform densities per 100 ml were 3.2,
3.3, 3.3, and 2.4 million during spring,
summer, autumn, and winter respectively.
Fecal coliform levels ranged between 790,000
and 920,000 per 100 ml during spring, summer,
and winter, but inexplicably jumped to
2.65 ml in autumn. Fecal streptococcal
densities varied from 2.1 to 4.1 million.
These densities must be qualified because the
pond was used in dairy operations. The pond
caused total coliform population reductions
from a minimum of 85.9 percent to a maximum of
94.4 percent. Fecal coliform reductions were
between 87.9 percent and 98.3 percent,
fecal streptococcal from 97 percent to 99.8
percent. S. bovis, absent from workers'
feces, appears to be an excellent indicator
of non-human animal pollution. The possibility
of securing false positive reactions from
organisms associated with soil was demonstrated,
For this reason, fecal coliform and
streptococcus tests yield more valuable
information than total coliform alone.
Included data show information such as
identification schemes and bacterial
discharges, reductions, and distributions.
64-0291
Getting rid of solid wastes. Good Health for
South Australia, 126:7-9, 26, July 1964.
Open dumps and controlled tipping are
discussed. Burning in open dumps causes air
pollution problems, unpleasant odors, and an
increasing volume of complaints of nuisance.
It is important to set controlled tipping
areas away from water sources to prevent
pollution. High accident and sickness rates
of the Department of Sanitation of New York
City, and the series of tests an applicant
must complete are reported. These include
a rigorous physical fitness test. Even
though these applicants pass the fitness
tests, there is an unfavorable comparison
with those of the policemen, firemen, and
stevedores in the same city.
64-0292
Good neighborliness. Public Cleansing,
54(2):731, Feb. 1964.
The advantages of regional! disposal of
refuse in England whereby many communities
share the same dump under one authority are
discussed. The County Planning Department
of Lancashire is among the front runners in
regional disposal, for it requested the
scheduling of nearly 2,000 acres for this
purpose. Good neighborlinesŁ should be the
guiding principle in setting up such disposal.
64-0293
Good on waste, bad on dogs. Public Cleansing,
54(12):1334, Dec. 1964.
According to the annual cleansing report of
Burnley, Scotland, salvaging is successful.
Refuse should be pulverized or composted
before tipped because of the changing nature
of refuse. The cleansing and transport
superintendent of Burnley is dissatisfied
with the citizens' lack of concern regarding
a good public cleansing system.
63
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Disposal-General
64-0294
Goode, C. S. San Diego disposal plan
provides for a 20-year population increase.
Refuse Removal Journal, 7(12):18, Dec. 1964.
San Diego County has developed a refuse
disposal plan which will form the basis of
planning for the next 20 years. The plan
calls for operation of 22 refuse disposal
sites by the county and three by the City of
San Diego to accommodate the present 1.2
million population and ultimately twice that
number. The majority of the disposo! sites
now are controlled burning dumps. The great
number of canyons make the terrain ideal for
sanitary landfill sites. Completed and
planned conversions of landfill sites into
usable land are.described. Communities must
develop master plans for refuse disposal
sites--with imagination and foresight.
Research into guides for constructing
buildings over sanitary landfills is also
necessary.
64-0295
Gordon, M. The city dump. In Sick cities.
New York, Macmillan, 1964. p.229-248.
Boston is given as an example of the problem
of solid waste disposal in an urban situation.
For 27 years (1922-1959) Boston dumped 25
perrii".'. of its refuse on Speciacle Island,
which is 2 miles offshore in Boston Bay and
contains 50 acres. The rubbish became so
high (35 to 45 feet) that it became
uneconomical to pile it higher. In 1959 an
incinerator was put into operation. It was
capable of burning 900 tons of refuse daily,
which was 60 percent of all the rubbish
Boston was then producing. Across America
the problem of disposal is becoming common
and acute. Dump sites are scarce and arouse
neighborhood antagonism. Refuse itself is
increasing: there are more people and each
generates more refuse. The average person
produces almost 3% Ib per day compared with
2 Ib per day 20 years ago. Even cities with
decreasing population have an increasing
disposal problem: Washington, D.C.'s
population declined from 802,000 in 1950 to
764,000 in 1960 but its refuse increased from
2.7 million to 3.5 million cu yd. The dump,
the sanitary landfill, the problems of the
small governmental unit (the county in which
Pittsburgh is located has only three times
Pittsburgh's population but 129 separate
government units), the hog as a consumer of
man's waste, the declining use of the ocean
as a receptacle, the problems of collection
and haulage, household garbage grinders, and
composting are all discussed in this survey.
The experience of certain cities and countries
in dealing with these problems is cited.
64-0296
Greenleaf, J. W., and B. A. McAdams.
Designing an ocean outfall for North Miami
Beach. Journal of the Water Pollution Control
Federation, 36(9):1107-1115, Sept. 1964.
Four plans for treatment plants and three
points of disposal for the City of North
Miami Beach, Florida are outlined. The first
of these plans (Plan A) would be to discharge
a highly-treated sewage effluent into the
Intracoastal Waterway near the Sunny Isles
Causeway. Plan B involved the continuous
discharge of treated sewage effluent into
Biscayne Bay at Baker's Haulover Cut. Since
the dilution factor is so great here, the
sewage effluent would be disinfected to a
somewhat lesser degree than that at Sunny
Isles. The third plan (Plan C) involved the
discharge of sewage, which had undergone only
primary sedimentation into Biscayne Bay at
Baker's Haulover Cut on the outgoing tide.
The final plan (Plan D) considered discharge
to the Atlantic Ocean through a submarine
outfall. Chloride, pollution, float, bacterial
die-out, and dilution tests were run on the
Miami Beach outfall. Upon the conclusion of
studies, all tests proved favorable to Plan
D. Data and illustrations give the results
of tests performed.
64-0297
Halmos, E. E. Missile base water and waste
facilities. Water and Sewage Works,
3(4) :176-179, Apr. 1964.
Sewage disposal for Merritt Island, Florida,
will be surprisingly simple despite the
location and nature of the community. The
66,000 acre community will be the site of
the final drive in the U.S. race to the
moon, and will have a daily population of
about 10,000 persons. Although the area is
nowhere more than 7 ft above groundwater, no
problem of contaminating local underground
supplies is expected to arise. First, all
water for drinking and process use will be
piped from 25 miles away, and secondly, little
handling of contaminating chemicals is to
be done on the site. In addition, wastes
from more normal industrial processes are
handled by individual septic systems. A
concrete-walled, activated sludge treatment
plant is designed to provide primary and
secondary treatment for a capacity of
64
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0294-0301
310,000 gpd. Three lift stations, each
equipped with injector-type pumps, serve
the 63 by 100 ft one-story plant. The water
supply, piped from Cocoa, Florida, must serve
not only normal sanitary purposes, but
industrial process and a closed hot-water
heat system as well. Pipes are set about
7 ft below ground surface.
64-0298
Importance of research into refuse disposal.
Surveyor and Municipal Engineer,
124(3770):64-65, Sept. 5, 1964.
The importance of refuse disposal and the
lack of data and research upon which to base
control work are emphasized. The interest of
the Federal government in the United States
in solid waste disposal is given as an
example as to what should be done in Britain.
It was indicated that in the United States
financial and technical support was given to
programs of solid waste disposal research on
a nation-wide basis including the erection,
maintenance, and operation of pilot plants
for composting, incineration, grinding,
disposal to sewers and salvage. Controlled
dumping for land recovery is also being
investigated. It is urged that in Britain
the research into the numerous unsolved
problems should be government sponsored and
financial support be given to municipalities
to erect pilot plants. Some of the problems
worthy of investigation include: a
determination of the temperatures required
to kill pathogens in material being dumped;
and the question as to whether the temperatures
required to kill pathogens in sludge will
kill the useful components of the compost.
The need for research into operational
efficiency and economy is obvious.
64-0299
Improved conditions and lower costs in refuse
disposal. Surveyor and Municipal Engineer,
123(3751):59-60, Apr. 24, 1964.
The new Hove refuse disposal and salvage
plant is described. In the new plant the
tailings, after the removal of two-thirds
of the total weight as salvage, are
incinerated. The operation results in
better working conditions and increased salvage
income. Out of a weekly 316 tons of salvage
material, there were 4.5 tons of bottles,
45 tons of paper, 18 tons of cans, and 4.5
tons of rags. Magnetic separators before
and after screening give the maximum recovery
of ferrous material (9 tons a week). The new
plant is the answer to the lack of durrping
area in Hove.
64-0300
Jacobson, A. R. Home waste disposal in Alaska.
Public Works, 96(3)140, Mar. 1963.
A waste disposal system incorporating a
marine toilet, chlorinator, hand pump and
storage tank was constructed and evaluated
by the Environmental Sanitation Section,
Arctic Health Research Center, Anchorage.,
Alaska. The aim of the project was to
provide a satisfactory indoor toilet unit
not requiring a constant supply of water or
electric power for operation. The two units
tested operated by recirculating the flushing
water, thereby eliminating the need for a
water source, and used a hand-operated pump
which eliminated the need for power. The
system proved acceptable when tested by a
two-member household over a 6-month period,
but was not aesthetically acceptable to one
member of a second household. It is designed
to save on the use of potable water, the very
small amount of effluent (1 qt per day per
person) virtually eliminating the usual
problem of disposing of the large quantities
of liquid wastes from toilets. However, the
problem of final disposal of the tank
contents has not been entirely solved.
64-0301
Jensen, H. P. Problem facing industry today.
Refuse Removal Journal, 7 (9):46, Sept. 1964.
Problems currently facing the sanitation
industry are discussed. The use of disposal
sites is a major cost factor, increasing 240
percent since 1955. State licenses are also
costly. A number of municipalities such as
Waukegan and Rockford, Illinois; Boston,
Massachusetts; and Oak Park, Michigan, have
largely solved their problems by turning
to private enterprise. Toronto, Canada, is
an example of a city that has benefited from
the use of sanitary landfiJls. What is now
needed is research into solid waste disposal,
including methods of making solid wastes usable,
and public awareness that sanitary landfill
sites need not be nuisances. Typical
provisions in municipal ordinances as a
guide to local officials are given. Garbage.
rubbish, mixed refuse, ashes, bulk refuse,
dead animals, hazardous refuse, household
waste, institutional waste, commercial waste,
industrial waste, building waste, a licensed
65
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Disposal-General
waste collector, and building debris
definitions are given.
64-0302
Johnson, R. L., F. J. Lowes, R. M. Smith, et al.
Evaluation of the use of activated carbons and
chemical regenerant.- in treatment of waste water.
U.S. Public Health Service, May 1964. 48 p.
The capacities of six activated carbons for
the soluble organics in filtered secondary
effluent were obtained by use of a
continuous flow, column-type test. Results
varied from 7 to 13 g COD per 100 g of
carbon. Because of the manner in which the
test was carried out, only the carbon with
the smallest capacity was loaded to the
maximum extent possible. The chemical
regeneration of exhausted carbon was
investigated by use of nine inorganic
oxidizing agents. Only hydrogen peroxide was
capable of restoring measurable adsorption
capacity after more than two cycles of
exhaustion and regeneration. The economic
feasibility of chemical regeneration is not
promising. The report includer. explanatory
tables and figures.
64-0303
Joyce, R. S., and V. A. Sukenik. Feasibility
of granular, activated-carbon adsorption for
waste-water renovation. AWTR-10. U.S.
Public Health Service, May 1964. 32 p.
Granular, activated carbon in packed-bed
column contactors was shown to remove much
of the organic matter including
alkylbenzenesulfonate from municipal waste
water. The COD of a secondary effluent
was reduced to about 12 to 20 ppm and the
ABS was removed almost entirely. When an
ABS breakthrough concentration of 0.5 ppm
is used as a criterion of carbon exhaustion,
the amount of carbon required for
countercurrent contacting is less than 1
Ib per 1,000 gal. For the process to be
economical the carbon must be reactivated and
re-used. Thermal reactivation in a steam-air
atmosphere was found to be technically feasible.
With reactivation, the total cost of carbon
adsorption was estimated to be less than 10
cents per 1,000 gal for plant? treating 10
mgd of waste water. The report includes
explanatory figures and tables.
64-0304
Kampschulte, J. Waste utilization. VDI
(Verein Deutscher Ingenieure) Zeitshcrift,
106(14):603-617, May 1964.
The various ways of eliminating waste employed
in countries of Western Europe are discussed.
A backward trend can be observed in the
sorting out of junk from waste material, with
the exception of magnetic removal of metal.
Composting plants, however, are on the rise.
The Netherlands have 15 composting plants
and a new one is in the planning ptage. A
new composting-incineration plant in Bucchs,
Switzerland, has been taken into operation.
Pictures of this new plant and a detailed
description are given. Near Zurich and near
Geneva, waste-sludge compCoHng plants have
been built. Composting plants in
Switzerland, England, France, Sweden, and
Germany are discussed. The cities of
Manchester and Twickenham plan to build
composting plants with capacities of 250
tons per day and 40 tons per day. In East
Germany, the natural composting method is
used, which is explained in some detail. A
waste-sludge composting plant is in operation
in Schweinfurt, West Germany, where sludge
and waste are mixed and compacted into cubes
for rotting. In Heidelberg, compost is
produced in a rotting tower according to the
multibacto method. New waste incinerator
plants are being erected all over Europe.
All the larger and more important plants are
described in detail and illustrations are
given. Most exhaustively treated are the
new plants in West Germany, but others (in
Austria, Italy. Netherlands, Switzerland,
England, Denmark, and Sweden) are also
discussed, with illustrations and
cross-section diagrams. (Text-German)
64-0305
Lane, J. M. An over-all engineering evaluation.
In Solid waste disposal and municipal
equipment 'rental' . New York, Buttenheim
Publishing Corporation, June 1963. p.40-45.
One of the first steps toward a solution of
the solid waste problem is to determine the
quantity of wastes which must be disposed of.
Weighing the refuse over a period of time
provides the best method. To determine the
feasibility of the various disposal methods
some knowledge of the characteristics of the
wastes must be known but the published data
on their physical and chemical composition
is meager. To determine whether the disposal
facilities will be adequate to serve the
community in the future, their characteristics
and the trends in production must be studied.
Even though the open dump has been accused
and found guilty, it is stil.1 used by many
as a means of disposal. Hog feeding is still
in use in many areas. Its economics depend
upon the conditions of the hog market and the
66
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0302-0309
length of haul to the hog farm. The major
advantage of sanitary landfill is its low
first and operational cost. The sanitary
landfill method is most attractive
to the small community with a limited budget
and submarginal land within a short hauling
distance. One disadvantage of the sanitary
landfill is that its capacity is limited and
when it is exhausted officials must find
another site of adopt another disposal
method.
64-0306
Lane, J. M. An over-all engineering
evaluation. In Solid waste disposal and
Eunicipal equipment 'rental' . New York,
Buttenheim Publishing Corporation, June
1963. p.46-50
High-temperature incineration, as practiced
today, provides a means for the disposal of
refuse without creating nuisances. Properly
engineered, an incineration plant will answer
the needs of a community for the foreseeable
future. It reduces the refuse to inert gases
discharged to the atmosphere and an inert,
inoffensive, easily compacted ash well suited
for landfill. Only 20 to 25 percent of the
waste materials by weight remains as ash. The
reduction in their volume is even greater.
Some are able to apply the heat content from
combustion for useful purposes. The site
requirement for a incinerator is much smaller
than for a sanitary landfill and its location
is not nearly as restricted. Combustion
computations depend on the moisture content,
heat value, and ultimate analysis of the
fuel. Engineers have long realized the
desirability and economical advantage of the
joint disposal of refuse and sewage solids.
More than 20 years' experience in burning
sludge solids has shown one of the most
important requirements for success is that of
constant agitation. The utilization of the
heat content of the refuse gas to evaporate
the free moisture from the sludge solids and
support their combustion has proved to be the
most successful joint disposal method to date.
64-0307
Lawson, S. P. Economic and sanitary disposal
of waste from small communities. Water and
Waste Treatment, 9(12) :584-588, Mar.-Apr. 1964.
The problem of how a small community shall
treat its wastes to the maximum advantage of
the community is discussed. The discussion
includes an illustration of the dynamic F/M
(food to microorganism) ratio in order to
emphasize that the design of a waste plant
is not only a problem in hydraulics and
structural design. The solution proposed
for the treatment of unreticulated small
community wastes is the application of
fundamental metabolic studies to a general
case. There is a need for fundamental basic
research and for biologically trained
engineers who can assess the practical
applications of these basic studies. It is
emphasized that the smaller community, being
closer to the land, is interested in the
reconditioning of waste as a product for
reuse and the maximum use is made of sludge
and anaerobic decomposition. The idea is
advanced that water-borne sewerage is one of
the basic causes of food shortage in the
world. Sketches are given of treatment plants
suitable for small communities. The smaller
the community, the greater the need for
qualified advice and the less the need for
packaged units based on claims rather than
an objective bioengineerip.- approach.
64-0308
Ledbetter, J. 0. Air pollution from aerobic
waste treatment. Water and Sewage Works,
111(1) :62-63, Jan. 1964.
Aerosols, givsr off through aerobic waste
treatment, are air suspensions of particulates
which may emerge as droplets. The droplets
evaporate, leaving the nuclei of solid wastes.
Waste treatment plant odors originate in
influent from sewers, deposits of grit and
grease, stabilization, and anaerobic conditions.
Methyl mercaptans, methyl sulfides. and amines
plus indoles and skatoles have been cited as
the most common offenders. Aerosols may be
attenuated by covering the surface with a
permeable plastic fi]m that permits passage
of air but not water, using a spray of
harmless water to knock down the aerosols,
or collecting the aerosol above the unit and
removing particulates. Combustion, adsorption
by activated carbon, and absorption into a
liquid are the most effective odor control
methods. Future efforts will be directed
toward more efficient oxygenating of liquid
wastes by smaller volumes of air. Municipal
incinerators wilJ be installed at plants.
64-0309
Leone, D. E., and R. J. Benoit. Biological
treatment of concentrated human waste.
Journal of the Water Pollution Control
Federation, 36(12) : 1512-1523, Dec. 1964.
67
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Disposal-General
A stud;; is reported on the biological
treatment of human wastes. The experimental
waste contained 20 percent urine, 20 percent
feces, and 60 percent water. The concentrated
waste was inoculated with activated sludge,
and the results were based on the chemical
oxygen demand, total solids, and chemicaJ
analyses made before and after digestion of
the waste with controlled pH and temperature.
Highly concentrated human waste can be
stabilized by activated sludge into rapidly
settling solids and a clear odorless liquid
in only a few hours. A 10-1 volume of
activated sludge will easily stabilize
human urine and feces with 15 percent of the
raw waste solids transformed into gases and
water. An additional 15 percent reduction
can be obtained in the raw waste solids by a
prohibitively prolonged anaerobic digestion.
64-0310
Ludwig, H. F., E. Kazmierczak, and R. C.
Carter. Waste disposal and the future at
Lake Tahoe. Journal of the
Sanitary Engineering Division, American
Society of Civil Engineers, 90(SA3):27-51,
June 1964.
To protect the beauty of Lake Tahoe, the
buildup of nitrogen and other nutrient
substances in the lake from community wastes
produced in the Tahoe Basin will have to be
reduced. A study was initiated which provided
for: collection and evaluation of background
information on geography, climatology,
hydrology, geology, land use patterns, water
supply, and sewerage facilities; sampling
and analysis both of the lake waters and of
representative streams in the basin; tests
for evaluating ground capacities for receiving
effluents by infiltration; and several special
studies including evaluation of the biological
productivity of the lake waters based both
on laboratory and in situ testing. Three
alternative feasible methods of disposal, for
which costs are competitive, were recommended:
(1) export from the basin to Nevada, other
than via the Truckee River, where the waste
effluent would be valuable for irrigation
purposes; this plan would include sufficient
treatment to meet regulatory standards,
including protection of public health; (2)
discharge to the Truckee River. following a
similar high degree of treatment; (3) discharge
of treated effluents to the lake water,
through outfalls reaching adequate depths,
following special tertiary treatment for
removal of both nitrogen and phosphorus.
However, this method requires pilot scale in
situ demonstration before its effectiveness
can be known. The cost of all alternatives
is in the range of $400 per 1,000,000 gal.
64-0311
McCarty, P. L., I. J. Kugelman, and A. W.
Lawrence. Ion effects in an aerobic
digestion. Stanford, Department of Civil
Engineering, Stanford University, Mar. 1964.
152 p.
Effects of inorganic and organic ions on
anaerobic waste treatment process were
investigated. Anaerobic treatment is an
efficient method for treating many organic
wastes. It is used to treat concentrated
sludges from municipal waste treatment and
concentrated and dilute waste from industry.
Because waste is converted to methane gas, a
useful product, anaerobic treatment is more
advantageous than aerobic. It also produces
more complete degradation and less biological
cells. Anaerobic treatment still is not
widely employed, due to the lack of
understanding of the complex effects of high
concentrations of inorganic materials
normally present in industrial and municipal
wastes. Sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium,
and ammonium cations were first studied.
These ions, commonly found in sewage sludge
and industrial wastes, are relatively soluble
under anaerobic conditions. Each ion had
an optimum condition, at which treatment
efficiency was best. Antagonism occurred
when at least one ion's optimum concentration
counteracted another's inhibitory concentration.
Heavy metals --copper, zinc, nickel, and iron
were studied next. Only iron was not toxic
to the process. Precipitating the heavy metals
with sulfides relieved their toxicity.
Sulfides are often produced in treatment
from degradation of sulfates and protein
reduction. Sulfide addition must be done
with care, for they are corrosive and toxic
at low or high concentrations, unless present
as insoluble metal precipitates. Volatile
acids were found to result from, not cause
failure of the anaerobic progress. More than
one digestion parameter must be considered
to control anaerobic treatment.
64-0312
Michaels, A. Treatment and disposal of
solid wastes. In Proceedings; National
Conference on Solid Waste Research, Chicago,
Dec. 2-4, 1963. American Public Works
Association, 1964. p.99-107.
There are three major reasons for considerable
immediate concern about the refuse disposal
68
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0310-0315
problem: overall population growth; growth
of urban areas; and increased per capita
production of refuse. If such trends
continue, it is reasonable to conclude that
the acuteness of the refuse disposal problem
can be defined as a geometric progression
when related to time. In addition to
incineration, the other methods of disposal
are sanitary landfilling and open dumping,
composting, hog feeding, garbage grinding,
salvage and reclamation, and dumping at sea.
The methods are briefly described. In order
to determine the areas of greatest need from
a research standpoint, it is advisable to
first note the current status of the science
and art of refuse disposal, and then point
out the problem areas. The problem areas
are discussed in length. At the present
time, the problem of sludge disposal is in
some respects comparable to the problem of
refuse disposal and the use of garbage
grinders would aggravate this problem.
Therefore it is suggested that there is a
need to research such processes as:
incinerating sludge in combination with
refuse; disposing of sludge with refuse in
sanitary landfills; and disposing of sludge
and refuse combining by composting. Under
certain particular conditions, some salvaging
and reclamation has proven economical.
Another major problem which is rapidly
becoming most acute is that of the disposal
of abandoned automobiles, which is primarily
a problem in economics.
64-0313
Morgan, P. E., and E. F. Clarke. Preserving
domestic waste samples by freezing. Public
Works, 95(11) :73-75, Nov. 1964.
Freezing was investigated as a means of
obtaining both chemical and biological
stability of waste samples for an extended
period of time. The main chemical analyses
performed on sewage from the City of Ames,
Iowa, were the biochemical oxygen demand test
(BOD), the chemical oxygen demand test
(COD), solids and nitrogens. Comparisons
were made between fresh samples and ones
that had been frozen for 2,3, and 6 days.
The collection of the samples is described;
the time elapsed from collection to depositing
in the deep freeze did not exceed 30
minutes. The results of three complete series
of tests, presented in a table and series of
granhs, showed that: (1) the COD shows no
significant change between the fresh and
frozen samples; (2) the solids content of
the samples remained essentially unchanged
after freezing; (3) the various forms of
nitrogen present remain' r> the same, on both
the fresh and frozen samples; (4) no
conclusions could be presented in regard to
the BOD determination, since the presence
of toxic material in the samples caused
unpredictable behavior. Conclusions are
that there is no significant change due to
freezing in the composition of domestic waste.
64-0314
Morris, J. C., and W. J. Weber. Adsorption
of biochemically resistant materials from
solution. 1. U.S. Public Health Service,
May 1964. 74 p.
Studies on the kinetics of adsorption on
granular carbon showed that: (1) Uptake from
dilute solution proceeds slowly for compounds
of high molecular weight such as
tetradecylbenzenesulfonate and
dodecylbenzenesulfonate; equilibrium obtains
only after several weeks; (2) The rate of
adsorption is a linear function of the square
root of concentration, that is, a greater
fraction of solute is adsorbed per unit time
the more dilute the solution, which implies
that the process favors removal of trace
quantities; (3) Rates of adsorption decrease
considerably with increasing size of
adsorbate when the amount adsorbed per unit
time is expressed in molar units, when
expressed in weight units the effect is much
less pronounced; (4) The configuration of
the adsorbate molecule affects rate of uptake:
molecules with highly branched structures are
removed much more slowly than those of
identical molecular weight but with a
configuration that permits coiling or
attainment of compactness; (5) Rates of
adsorption per unit weight of carbon vary
reciprocally as the square of the diameter
of individual carbon particles; and (6) The
rate of adsorption of alkylbenzenesulfonates
increases with decreasing pH of the solution.
The findings correlate with equations derived
for infraparticle diffusion, which indicates
that the rate of adsorption is controlled by
rate of diffusion of solute within the
micropores of the carbon. The report includes
explanatory tables and figures.
64-0315
Municipal waste treatment progress. Public
Health Reports, 79(7) :612, July 1964.
The year 1963 surpassed all previous levels
for construction of municipal waste facilities,
with contract awards of $679 million.
69
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Disposal-General
Municipal construction was 25 percent over
1962 and 50 percent higher than 1961.
Including other construction costs, this
represents an expenditure of $820 million in
1963. Associated with it was federal aid
under the Water Pollution Control and Public
Works Acceleration Program totaling $160
million and $660 million in state and local
funds. A steady improvement in pollution
control from municipal wastes occurred from
1960 through 1963. Because of new needs,
however, all available federal, state and
local resources will be required to maintain
current progress in water pollution abatement.
The survey found 2,677 communities lacking
sewers, with 1,462 communities possessing
obsolete or deficient treatment plants. The
estimated cost to rectify these two situations
is $1.9 billion.
64-0316
New York apartment building installing trash
destructor. Refuse Removal Journal, 7(3):22 ,
Mar. 1964.
An automatic refuse disposal method is being
built in the new Pavilion, a 35-story luxury
apartment house on New York's east side. The
new technique eliminates unsightly ash cans
because it employs a burning and conveyor
system that passes the ashes directly from
the building to the collection truck.
64-0318
Okey, R. W., R. L. Cohen, and D. D. Chapman.
Effects of miscellaneous wastes mesophilic
activated sludge: soaps, detergents, and
vomitus. Brooks Air Force Base, U.S. Air
Force School of Aerospace Medicine, May 1963.
9 p.
Effects of soap, synthetic detergents, and
vomitus on the performance of high solids
mesophilic activated sludge biologic-type
waste reactors designed for extended manned
space flight are reported. System
performance was determined by oxygen uptake
measured by microrespirometer and degree of
side effects. Castile soap and the detergent
sodium dodecyl sulfate were metabolized
rapidly, and no deleterious side effects were
exhibited. Eight other cleansing agents had
serious disadvantages due to slow
biodegradabilty or extreme foaming or both.
The relationship between biodegradibility
and chemical structure of the nonionic
and anionic synthetic detergents is
discussed. Human stomach content of
nonpathologic origin was found to be
rapdily metabolized, and pH depression
as would result from the discharge of
vomitus through a waste treatment system
had only slight observable metabolic effect
though pH 4. The disposal of selected
cleansing agents, vomitus, and pH depressant
substances posed no apparent problems.
64-0317
Okey, R. W., R. L. Cohen, and D. D. Chapman.
The effects of miscellaneous wastes on
mesophilic activated sludge: cellulose.
Brooks Air Force Base, U.S. Air Force School
of Aerospace Medicine, 1962. 8 p.
A broad spectrum microbial culture similar to
activated sludge in utilizing cellulose has
been evaluated for its ability to utilize
wastes. The metabolism of cellulose was
followed in Warburg and substrate depletion
studies by utilizing measurements of chemical
oxygen demand. Activated sludges were
developed on cellulose as a sole carbon
source and on human waste with added cellulose
designed to simulate the waste which would be
received in a remote environment. From the
Warburg and substrate depletion studies,
constants of first-order oxidation rate were
obtained. The first-order oxidation constants
were found to vary between 0.0133 and
0.0146 reciprocal hrs. It was observed
that a lag period varying from 400 to 1,500
minutes precedes the utilization of cellulose
by the microbial system.
64-0319
Poepel, F. and K. Hunken. The waste problem
in large cities. Wasser und Abwasser,
105(18) :481-485, May 1964.
A survey of methods for cleaning waste water,
of various types of purification plants, and
of the various ways of eliminating household
and industrial wastes as well as sludges is
given. The most common method of waste
removal is deposition. In the area
Mannheim-Ludwigshafen-Frankenthal, West
Germany, about ten large disposal sites are
presently in use. The dumping of waste is
the simplest and least expensive method.
Incineration and composting are two rival
methods. The composition of the waste (i.e.
the ratio between the easily combustible
substances and the substances decomposable
by bacteria) determines which method to
choose. Investigations showed that combustible
substances are preponderantly contained in
industrial wastes, while domestic waste is
composed of a greater part of putrescible
substances so that incinerator plants are
commonly located in industrial centers. As
far as household wastes are concerned, the
70
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0316-0324
question of whether to incinerate or compost
is far more difficult to decide. The mere
fact such wastes are suited for composting
is not enough. A comparison of the costs
involved in both methods will decide the
question. (Text-German)
64-0320
Portable stations for refuse analysis.
Wasser, Luft and Betrieb, 8(5):277, May 1964.
The Research and Development Institute in
Stuttgart, in cooperation with the Engineer
Bureau for Health Technique, has developed
a portable refuse analyzer, which was
designed and built by the firm of Hazemag,
Muenster. This device has been used in
Schleswig-Holstein since 1963. The maching
is mounted on a trailer and its portable
aspect allows it to service four different
places within one week. The analyzer
determines the moisture content of the refuse
on the spot. The other samples are air-dried
and sent to the laboratory at Stuttgart,
where the total organic content, the ash,
the amount of active organic carbon, the
available organic nitrogen, the cellulose
and salt content, as well as the amount
of active toxic materials, are determined.
The pH, the calorific, and self-heating
value are determined as a control test for
its fitness for composting. (Text-German)
64-0321
Quon, J. E., W. 0. Pipes, and J. A. Logan.
Combustion of human waste and product
recovery. Technical Note TN 62-16. Fort
Wainwright, Arctic Aeromedical
Laboratory, Oct. 1963. 8 p.
Study on the kinetics of combustion of
volatilized wastes was continued. A new
method of carbon dioxide analysis was tried
and proved more satisfactory than the Orsat
Apparatus. Algal growth studies (Chlorella)
with the ash from the volatilization chamber
were continued. Additional information on
the relationship between residual weight and
oxygen supply, and between residual carbon
and oxygen supply was obtained with the
volatilization chamber operated at 200 C.
Results showed the characteristics of the
raw urine and feces mixture were very
similar to those reported previously. The
carbon content with respect to time indicated
that a relatively short period of high
temperature is sufficient to volatilize the
waste, provided the waste is in a predried
state. From the standpoint of waste disposal,
it may suffice to reduce the carbon content
of the waste to less than 40 percent. The
solubility of the residue varies for different
raw samples. A comparison of the solubility
data at 300 C and 400 C shows that the weight
of soluble material increases with the
degree of oxidation of the organic matter in
the waste. Algal growth was not supported by
a carbon and nitrogen source alone.
64-0322
Quon, J. E., W. 0. Pipes, and J. A. Logan.
Gross chemical changes of human waste
undergoing thermal decomposition. Technical
Note 63-13. Fort Wainwright,
Artie Aeromedical Laboratory, Oct. 1963. 9 p.
Detailed characterization of the
volatilization of human wastes is studied.
Gas analyses on the volatilization chamber
effluent were made, using an Orsat Apparatus.
Solubility and carbon content of the residue
after ignition at 400 C were determined for
different rates of air supply to the
volatilization chamber. A series of
experiments to determine if the solids
residue remaining after the volatilization
of human wastes contained nutrients adequate
for algal growth was also undertaken. Tables
were compiled showing the characteristics
of the raw urine and feces mixture, solubility
of residue, the residual weight and carbon
content of the ash with respect to time for
different operating conditions of the
volatilization chamber, distribution of
carbon in the various forms, and the
qualitative growth characteristics of
Chlorella.
64-0323
Refuse disposal by contract extraordinary.
American City, 79(2) :38, Feb. 1964.
Bidding opened by St. Petersburg, Florida,
for a 300 ton per day refuse disposal facility
under a 20-year contract is described. The
specifications and requirements for the
project are briefly outlined.
64-0324
Refuse disposal plan for the Detroit region.
Detroit Metropolitan Area Regional Planning
Commission, 1964. 189 p.
The scale of the disposal problem of garbage
and rubbish was examined and projected to
71
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Disposal-General
1980. Existing and proposed methods of
disposal were evaluated as to their adequacy,
feasibility and costs. Two alternate plans
were formulated, with engineering costs
computed and organizational methods suggested.
Plans for the re-use of sanitary landfill areas
were developed in relation to the Commission's
recreation and land use plants. The results
of these steps are presented in this report.
The report is divided into six parts, each
of which is further divided into chapters.
Subject headings for the parts are:
Introduction, Refuse Collection, Disposal
of Refuse, Land Use and Refuse Disposal,
Regional Plan for Disposal of Refuse, and
Future Land Use for Refuse Disposal Areas.
Appendix A is concerned with garbage and
rubbish collection and disposal in the
Detroit metropolitan region and Appendix B
deals with suggested minimum standards. An
organizational chart of the planning
commission executive committee and staff is
also given.
64-0325
Refuse Removal. Technische Ueberwachung,
5(1):34, Jan. 1964.
In this summary of an article on refuse
removal by W. Spichal in Gesundheits-Ing.
(84(4):97-102, 1963), controlled storage,
composting, and incineration are discussed.
The amount composition, heating value, and
source of refuse in two large cities are
tabulated in the original article. In
choosing a removal method, knowledge of the
composition and heating value is particularly
important. At the present time, most of the
refuse is stored. Control methods for storage
include protection of the drinking water and
avoidance of bad odors and vermin. Physical
and biological measures yield a better end
product during composting. Three different
methods of refuse removal are cited and
illustrated. Incineration is considered the
most hygienic method. The composition of
the refuse and the proper design of the
incinerator to prevent dust discharge are
important considerations in this method.
(Text-German)
64-0326
Research on refuse disposal. Surveyor and
Municipal Engineer, 123(3753):32-33, May 9,
1964.
Subjects presented in a paper delivered by
the International Research Group on Refuse
Disposal were an analysis and evaluation of
refuse for incineration and composting, and
an analysis and evaluation of the products
of these disposal methods. Tedious,
expensive systems for examination of
individual incinerator constituents were
discussed and the idea of collective analysis
suggested. Also, international standardization
of the method of analysis was advised.
Biological processes during composting
were mentioned. The effect of compost on
plants and soil was compared with that of
stable manure.
64-0327
Research work on refuse disposal. Public
Cleansing, 54(6):936, June 1964.
A report on the work to date of the
International Research Group on Refuse
Disposal (IRGRD) is summarized. The paper
provided analysis and evaluation of refuse
for disposal by incineration and composting
and of the final products of these methods.
Composting was approached in two ways--as
producing a harmless material for dumping
and as producing a saleable product. The
effect of dumped incinerated refuse on ground
water was also considered.
64-0328
Rogus, C. A. Refuse quantities and
characteristics. In Proceedings; National
Conference on Solid Waste Research, Chicago,
Dec. 2-4, 1963. American Public Works
Association, 1964. p.17-27.
The lack of essential information on the
quantity and characteristics of refuse can
be attributed to the following: complexity
of measurement; difficulty in standardizing
sampling and laboratory techniques; general
failure to recognize the need for this
information; and geographical distribution.
Only a nation-wide, centrally directed effort
will provide the required answers. The
various solid wastes now extant in this
country are defined and described; the several
criteria that affect the quantities and
character of refuse produced are discussed;
existing knowledge of quantities and
characteristics is reviewed; and the types
of information required are suggested,
including reasons therefor. Although in the
past and to a substantial degree even today
quantities are reported by volume, usually
cu yds, it is almost self evident that
reporting by weight, in Ibs or tons, is the
72
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0325-0332
more accurate method. The factors which
affect refuse characteristics and the total
output for municipal handling are enumerated.
It is concluded that there now exists a lack
of consistently dependable knowledge of refuse
quantities and their seasonal and yearly
variations and changes. There is a similar
lack of information as to refuse
characteristics, and physical and chemical
properties. The absence of this essential
information largely exists because the
required overall nation-wide development of
uniform standards of measurements and of
analysis has not been made to date.
64-0329
Rolle, G. Problems in analysis of refuse,
compost, and sewage sludge. In International
Research Group on Refuse Disposal (IRGRD).
Information Bulletin No. 20. Washington, U.S.
Department of Health, Education, and Welfare,
May 1964. p.51-55.
A simple orientation for a practitioner is
to know the moisture content, total and
usable organic matter, and the calorific
value. These data are of interest in all
disposal methods. Additional data must be
known when dealing with industrial wastes.
When examining compost, it is desirable to
know such things as elemental composition,
pH, and organic content. Because of the
heterogeneous nature of composts and refuse,
problems exist in sampling, drying, grinding
and homogenizing. The problem is to get
results which are representative of the
material. The accuracy of analysis plays an
important role in the choice of methods, as
does the element of time. The goal is to
obtain comparable results from all
participating laboratories through unified
and standardized methods of analysis. This
is only possible if the laboratory equipment
is very similar.
financing the construction and maintenance
of these facilities. The idea is presented
that the Ministry of Housing and Local
Government--not the Ministry of Transport--
should pay these costs.
64-0331
Scott, M. The future of San Francisco Bay.
Berkeley, University of California,
Sept. 1963. 125 p.
The Institute of Governmental Studies provides
a comprehensive overview of the entire bay
dealing with: an account of the history of
the division of the bay among many private
owners and units of government; the physical,
economic, and political pressures affecting
use of the bay and tending to reduce its
size; the economic resources that may be
jeopardized by further unplanned and
uncontrolled filling; the increasing need to
use the bay for the disposal of wastes and
flood waters, and the potential conflict
between these requirements and demands for
various filling projects; the great potential
of the bay for meeting regional recreational
needs; and the political choices and decisions
facing the people of the Bay Area as they
seek to safeguard the bay for present and
future generations. The preparation of a
plan as a first step is ending the present
costly and potentially ruinous piecemeal
planning and development of the bay and shore
areas is proposed. Areas discussed are: the
divided bay; the shrinking bay; the productive
bay; the polluted bay; the neglected bay; and
the future bay maps, bibliography, and
appendices are furnished. As the population
steadily increases to the 14 million mark for
the area, the daily accumulation of solid
wastes will rise to 28,000 tons, and if sanitary
landfill method of disposal should continue
to be used, a great many square miles of
San Francisco and its marshlands may disappear.
64-0330
Sanitary facilities on country main roads.
Surveyor and Municipal Engineer, 124(3782):30,
Nov. 28, 1964.
Reports and talks given since 1960 on
providing sanitary facilities and litter bins
for through traffic on country main roads are
reviewed. It is recommended that washing
facilities be included in the project, and
that the resulting sewage should be dealt
with by small domestic-type automatic disposal
works. The main concern in the article is
64-0332
Shaeffer, J. R., B. von Boehm, and J. E.
Hackett. Refuse disposal needs and practices
in northeastern Illinois with refuse disposal
policies for northeastern Illinois. Technical
Report No. 3. Chicago, Northeastern Illinois
Metropolitan Area Planning Commission, June
1963. 72 p.
A technical report on present refuse disposal
practices and facilities and future refuse
disposal needs in northeastern Illinois,
preceded by an official statement of policy
73
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Disposal-General
on refuse disposal planning which was adopted
by the Northeastern Illinois Planning
Commission on April 18, 1963, are presented.
Chapters cover: refuse disposal—a
metropolitan problem; status of refuse
disposal, 1960; methods of refuse disposal;
multipurpose concepts in refuse disposal;
refuse disposal and ground-water pollution;
the relation of refuse disposal to urban
society; space needs for refuse disposal;
and a metropolitan approach to refuse disposal.
All of these topics are discussed in relation
to the northeastern Illinois refuse situation.
Appendices give present disposal space
requirements; life of existing sites; other
statistics on refuse disposal sites and
incinerators; and ownership and remaining
capacity of refuse disposal sites by
counties in northeastern Illinois.
64-0333
Skitt, J. Disposal works: plant and
maintenance. London, Temple Press Books
Ltd., 1964. 74 p.
Each of the successive operations which take
place in a normal disposal works is examined
in detail including: the reception hopper,
screening, magnetic separators, belt
conveyors, dust control, the furnace, power
production, trade refuse incinerators, general
considerations, and maintenance.
solid wastes sponsored by the Public Health
Service and the American Public Works
Association on Dec. 2, to 4, 1963. The
volume of solid waste has grown more rapidly
than the population at the same time that the
available economic space for waste disposal
has declined. A graph is given showing the
growth of refuse and population coincident
with the decline in the available land. The
ideal method of disposal would be to convert
the wastes into useful marketable forms by
swift, inoffensive, silent, economical, and
invisible processes. In the meantime, the
engineers will settle, for compaction into
bales for burial, controlled combustion
without flyash or noxious fumes that will
reduce the weight load by 90 percent, and
better means of disposing of residue, junk,
and organic wastes. Since collection and
transportation amounts to 85 percent of the
waste disposal budget, the hope is for
effective methods of disposal within the
home, but garbage disposals transfer the
load to the sewers and incinerators produce
air pollution. Machines costing up to a
million dollar? are available for shredding
old automobiles after removing the battery,
radiator and tires and burning the upholstery.
Vegetable wastes, formerly diRcarded by the
housewife, are now stacked near the packing
plant. It was agreed that the research budget
of $200,000 for the Public Health Service for
the management of the $3 billion expenditure
in solid waste disposal was inadequate.
64-0334
Smoke control problems. Public Cleansing,
54(2):752, Feb. 1964.
Tht: meeting of England's North-Western Centre
is reviewed. The Cleansing and Transport
Superintendent of Burnley spoke on the
problems affecting his department since the
institution of smoke control; such as
inadequate bin size, excess refuse created
by public holidays, removal of refuse from
multi-story flats, and inadequate incinerators.
Possible solutions are offered in the
discussion afterwards.
64-0335
Solid Research needs for solid wastes.
Public Health Reports, 79(2):97-100,
Feb. 1964.
Trends in the nature and amount of solid
wastes and the means of disposal were
reviewed at a conference on research on
64-0336
Taking a well-planned approach to waste
disposal. Chemic,?.! Engineering, 71(5):48-50,
Mar. 2, 1964.
The disposal of liquid wastes by pumping
into deep wells is discussed. Oil and gas
companies have used deep wells for over 60
years to dispose of brines. NASA plans to
use a deep well to dispose of spent acid used
to clean out lines in a rocket plant near
New Orleans. A paper plant in Pennsylvania
has plans for underground disposal of spent
liquor. In sorae cases, chemical pretreatment
provides for flocculation, neutralization or
sterilization before pumping underground. It
is important before initiating such a program
to review the state laws, subsurface
geological conditions, and chemical or
physical problems which might result.
Sandstone strata are suitable if they are
permeable and porous enough. Limestones are
highly suitable pnd their permeability can be
increased by hydrochloric acid. The volume
of waste should be reduced by concentration
74
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0333-0340
or by removal of relatively harmless
constituents. Liquid wastes can be
advantageously disposed of in many cases by
pumping into deep walls.
64-0337
Teletzke, G. H. Wet air oxidation. Chemical
Engineering Progress, 60(1):33-38, Jan. 1964.
Wet air oxidation is the process of oxidizing
organic matter in the presence of liquid water.
In treatment of concentrated industrial waste
streams, the objective is to reduce the oxygen
demand of the waste stream before discharging
to a receiving body of water. The objectives
in treating sewage sludge are to eliminate any
potential health hazards and to economically
reduce the volume of solids remaining for
disposal. The waste or sludge, ground to
ij-in. size, is delivered to the storage tank
to be preheated to 60 to 80 C. The material
to be oxidized has a high water content and
low fuel value. It is brought into the
system by a positive displacement high
pressure pump where it joins a mete.red
amount of air. The mixture passes through
a series of heat exchangers and is brought up
to 200 C at which oxidation proceeds
spontaneously. The oxidation products leave
the reactor at temperatures of 220 to 320 C.
Gases are separated from the liquid stream.
A major part of power requirements may be
recovered. Insoluble org.ir-ir removal is
accomplished both by solubilization and
oxidation. Sludge volurj, reductions of 50
to 90 percent are expected with a short
settling period after oxidation. Both raw
and digested sludge have been handled.
Organic nitrogen in sludge is converted to
ammonia which can nearly quantitatively
be returned to the biological treatment step
and reutilized for treating industrial wastes
deficient in nitrogen. Data, flow diagrams
and graphs are included. Table one lists
typical operating conditions for several
sludge oxidation plants.
64-0338
University of West Virginia sets up first
solid wastes course. Refuse Removal Journal,
7(11) :31, Nov. 1964.
The West Virginia University Department of
Civil Engineering will offer a three-credit-
hour graduate course in Solid Waste Disposal.
The course will be a part of an air pollution
control graduate training program.
64-0339
Waste analysis with a mobile station. Wasser
undAbwasser, 105(38):1062-1063, Sept. 1964.
To decide in each rase which is the most
expedient and most economical method of waste
disposal, prior investigations as to the
amount and the composition of waste are
necessary. For an efficient analysis, the
Institute for Research and Development in
the Field of Industrial and Residential Water
Economy as wel] as Waste Problems, in
cooperation with the Bureau for Health
Technology, developed a mobile station for
waste analysis which has been in operation
since August 1963. The station, erected
on a movable trailer, comprise0 a sifting
machine, a hammermi]], and the necessary
accessories like conveyor belt and scales.
Approximately 3 cu m of waste are taken,
crusher! and thoroughly mixed. The water
contents of the waste must be determined
immediately. Then 21 samples are taken,
dried and sent to the laboratory in Stuttgart,
West Germany, where the organic and toxic
substances, the ash cellulosis, salt, nitrate,
carbon contents, the pH value, heating value
and the self-heating ability ^required for
composting) are determined. This sample
analysis of waste must go on throughout the
year to get an idea of how the seasons affect
the waste composition. The costs for this
analysis are cop-posed of the rent of the
station (annual operating costs per station--
14,000 DM), of the salaries for the personnel
in thr> laboratory (usually one engineer and
one technician), of the travelling expenses
for the personnel, and of the money for
transportation of the station, the laboratory
tests (1,000 DM per week), and the evaluation
of the analysis.
64-0340
Waste treatment digest. Water and Waste
Treatment, 9(12):608-610, Mar.-Apr. 1964.
Five papers on waste treatment are reviewed:
(1) In a study of the settling properties of
humus in settling tanks, >_t was found that
the degree of purification in the filter has
a maior effect on the settling: the average
concentration of suspended matter discharged
increases linearly with decreasing rpecific
surface of the filter. (2) In an
investigation of the treatment of gas-liquor.
it was shown that the biological treatment of
convent Lona.l gas-liquor can be carried out
to a high degree of efficiency at loadings
of the order of 60 Ib PV per 1,000 cu ft per
day are possible. (3) An investigation is
75
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Agricultural Wastes
reported on the amount of additional
percolatrjng filter capacity required vhen
spent liquors from carbonizing plants are
discharged to sewers; assuming an effluent
BOD of 8 ppm, the additional filter
capacity required when continuous vertical
retort liquor was added to Knostrop sewage
was from 0.65 to 1.14 cu yd. (4) The new
sewage works at Dunctable which features 14
acres of oxidation .lagoons and serves 36,000
persons has a dry weather flow of 2.2
million gal per day, of which 300,000 gal
are trade waste. Because of the low dilution,
the effluent standard is 15 ppm BOD and
15 ppm suspended solids. (5) In a program of
field testing for flotation thickening of
waste activated sludges, the Koline-Sanderson
Corporation found that flotation aids such
as polyelectrolytes were necessary in order
to provide loadings of 3 Ib per sq ft per hr
with a 4 to 6 percent solid sludge.
64-0341
Winton, J. The detergent revolution.
Chemical Week, 94(22):111-126, May 30, 1964.
'Hard' detergents are only partly destroyed
in sewage treatment plants and eventually
foam up in surface and tap water. Foam
reduces sewagp plant efficiency and
necessitates costly chemical or mechanical
control means. Only 40 to 60 percent of
alkylbenzene sulfonate (ABS) which results is
degraded under secondary sewage plant
treatment. The maximum permissible level of
ABS in drinking water is 0.5 ppm. Variations
in operating conditions of secondary sewage
plants can reduce the 95 to 98 percent
biodegradability theoretically attainable
with linear alkylate sulfonate (LAS). The
most popular test for biodegradability is
dosing river water with surfactant and the
process of aerobic biodegradation is followed
analytically until the residual surfactant
concentration levels off. Most industry
centers on two tests: activated sludge
revealing variations in surfactant molecular
structure, and fill and draw. Demand for
heavy-duty, high-foaming solid formulations
has reached its peak. Normal paraffins are
being used as starting materials for linear
alkylate and secondary alcohols. Alcohols
will enter detergent markets mainly as
ethoyether sulfate anionics and ether alcohol
nonionics. LAS does not degrade significantly
under aerobic conditions at temperatures
between 10 and 35 C. Clay minerals do not
appreciably absorb ABS from waste water.
ABS is adsorbed under conditions of saturated
flow through soils. Coliform bacterial
populations were discovered in household
disposal and in downstream well systems
resulting from switching from detergent to
soap.
64-0342
Wuhrmann, K. An investigation on the
significance of plant size for refuse disposal
by incineration or composting in rural areas.
In International Research Group on Refuse
Disposal (IRGRD). Information Bulletin No. 20.
Washington, U.S. Department of Health,
Education, and Welfare, May 1964. p.41-51.
In refuse disposal plants, plant size is an
important fact in specific operating costs.
This is because only low value products are
treated. The smaller the community, the
higher per capita construction costs are.
In rural areas, complete disposal facilities
are not needed because some dumping can be
done. With a greater density of population
or higher per capita yield, the characteristics
will change so that appropriate treatment
costs must be added to the smaller hauling
costs.
64-0343
The year in Manchester. Public Cleansing,
54(2):735, Feb. 1964.
Some notable items of the annual report of
the Cleansing Department of Manchester,
England, are: percentages of solid wastes
disposed of at different sites; the effects
of the paper bag system; the effects of
reorganization which has increased personnel
productivity 50 to 80 percent; the fostering
of morale by bonus payments; and a discussion
of the problem of illegal dumping.
AGRICULTURAL WASTES
64-0344
Adams, J. L. Hydraulic manure systems. In
Proceedings; Second National Symposium on
Poultry Industry Waste Management, Lincoln,
May 19-20, 1964. University of Nebraska.
p.149-159
Since fresh hen manure consists chiefly of
bacteria, it should be theoretically possible
to provide an environment which would allow
76
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0341-0346
these microorganisms to convert the organic
solids of the manure to gases, which could
then be removed by forced ventilation.
Unfortunately, effir.-ient reduction of the
solids by bacteria without odor requires:
aerobic bacteria; temperatures above 50 F;
sunlight and/or aeration; and extreme dilution.
Fresh hen manure is about 80 percent water.
The addition of water while pumping greatly
facilitates the flow of the material, and the
equipment and power needed to move large
quantities of liquid is very small in
comparison with that needed to move semi-solid
manure. Agitation is necessary either
immediately before or during pumping to
move the sludge. The difficulties encountered
in handling manure hydraulically are reported.
Disagreeable odors are encountered particularly
in situations where ventilation is poor. A
outboard motor was modified to provide the
necessary agitation. Special equipment may
be needed where gravity spreading is not
possible. Advantages of the hydraulic systems
currently in use are: flexibility of time
of cleaning; ease of handling; the fact that
the gases released may be less objectionable
than high concentrations of ammonia
characteristic of decomposing poultry
manure; the control of flies; less
expensive equipment required; and the fact
that temperatures :'n houses over large liquid
filled pits are more constant. The space in
pits required to provide storage for manure
at 80 percent moisture was calculated to be
1.45 cu ft for 90 Ib of manure. A pit is
diagrammed and the features of its design
discussed.
64-0345
Aust, A. Social, legal and economic
considerations of animal production in
urbanization. In Proceedings; Second National
Symposium on Poultry Industry Waste
Management, Lincoln, May 19-20, 1964.
University of Nebraska. p.225-240
The growth of urbanization and the social
developments which have been affected by it
are discussed. Those social developments
that restrict the location of new industrial
animal processing plants and impede the
operation of existing plants are: the growth
of large concentrations of people in close
proximity; the technological advances achieved
in the last 25 years: and the growing
affluence, education, and cultural
sophistication of our society. People are
becoming more critical of obnoxious industrial
practices, and are more insistent that
corrective measures be taken. The legal
developments which have been accentuated by
urbanization are discussed. These legal
developments are a direct result of the social
developments and may be categorized into: (1)
planning controls; (2) public health controls;
(3) public safety codes; and (4) aesthetic
controls. Planning control'? include zoning
and land use control and such techniques as
the Master Plan and the Capital Improvements
Program are used. The public health controls
include waste and sewerage disposal, and air
pollution control. Public safety controls
include building codes, fire prevention codes,
and safety or accident prevention codes.
Aesthetics of urban life is documented by a
Supreme Court decision. The three courses of
action open to the poultry processing
industrialist are: the laissez-faire
approach; the self-sufficient or self-contained
approach; and the cooperative or good citizen
approach. The cooperative good citizen
approach in conjunction with the local city
planning department is suggested.
64-0346
Barnebey, 0. L. Odors and their control. In
Proceedings; Second National Symposium on
Poultry Industry Waste Management, Lincoln,
May 19-20, 1964. University of Nebraska.
p.57-65.
Five problems relating to odors and air
pollution are: (1) genera] housekeeping;
(2) the feather problem, which would not
exist if there vas prompt removal of the
feathers; (3) odorous and dryer gases
produced by cooking feathers which can be
removed or diminished by piping into scrubbing
towers: (4) feather meal dust from grinding
and drying which can similarly be removed
through ducts to scrubbing towers; and (5)
'holding ponds' for organic waste which are
open-topped anaerobic reactors with no means
of destroying the gases produced and hence
are to be condemned. A collecting duct system
operating under suction will bring all the
gaser, to a central location for deodorizing
treatment. The gases are first cooled and
treated by washing with water sprays, wet
plates, etc. After a thorough scrubbing with
water the gases should be contacted with
'knockout plates' or their equivalent to
provide surface for removing the entrained
water. The addition of an alkali to remove
hydrogen sulfide along with other organic
compounds may be desirable together with
further purification by passing the gas
through activatpr! carbon. The activated
carbon will absorb odors and other organic
compounds to a high percentage by weight of
77
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Agricultural Wastes
carbon but will eventually become saturated
and require distilling by steam to remove
the gases. The equipment needed is described.
64-0347
Bell, D., J. Mamer, R. Peters, and 0. D.
Forker. Urbanization's impact on
California's poultry industry. Pacific
Poultryman, 68(2):12-14, 62, 65, Feb. 1964.
The shifts in California's egg industry,
aspects of zoning as they affect poultrymen,
the fly problems and factors affecting
relocation of poultry farms as a result of
urbanization were discussed at the Western
Poultry Congress in San Jose, California,
November 1963. The poultry population in
California is estimated at 32 million layers
in 1964. About 25 counties in California
have been or are in the process of establishing
exclusive agricultural zones. The fly problem
is a very extensive one throughout California
and is growing in size and intensity. Present
studies being made in aerobic composting,
suggest this method could be an answer to the
problem of manure and other organic wastes.
It is suggested that the poultry industry
develop a program to bring about systematic
storage, collection and management of all
wastes capable of producing domestic flies.
64-0348
Black, R. J. Public Health aspects of poultry
waste management. Presented at the National
Symposium on Poultry Industry Waste Management,
Lincoln, May 13-15, 1963. University of
Nebraska. 3 p.
In the poultry industry, optimum utilization
and reduction of both liquid and solid wastes
are essential for economic, production in small
as welJ as large operations. Wastes which
cannot be utilized must be disposed of in a
suitable manner. Practices are changing so
rapdily in the poultry industry that there is
insufficient technical information available
to deal effectively with many of the problems.
Some poultrymen have already constructed
facilities for the lagooning of poultry manure
even though the basic research work necessary
to establish design parameters and to determine
the limitations of this, method is still
underway. Another problem that has concerned
the poultry industry and public health workers
is saltnonellosis. Since offal generally is
sold as raw material for rendering or
processing into animal and poultry feed, care
must be taken to handle these by-products to
prevent their innoculation after heat
treatment. If not, new birds are soon
infected by the feed. Poultry solid waste
problems have been largely ignored. This is
serious on light of the fact that, today,
individual poultry ranches commonly have
flocks of 40,000 to 50,000 birds, and
continued urbanization has steadily gobbled
up nearby undeveloped property.
64-0349
Black, R. J. Sanitary landfilling of poultry
wastes. Presented at the National Symposium
on Poultry Industry Waste Management,
Lincoln, May 13-15, 1963. University of
Nebraska. 5 p.
There are two types of sanitary landfill
operations of interest to the poultry industry
in disposing of poultry wastes., which include
manure-, feathers, litter, carcasses, and offal.
They are the public sanitary landfills that
are operated for the disposal of refuse and
other solid wastes, and the sanitary landfills
that are operated for on.ly the disposal of
poultry wastes. Costs of operation, types
of wastes accepted, methods of financing,
and user charges vary widely, so that local
conditions and hauling distances must be
investigated to determine the feasibility of
utilizing sanitary landfill facilities for the
disposal of poultry wastes. When poultry
wastes are disposed of by themselves, trenching
is the method of choice, because poultry
wastes ordinarily can be expected to have a
high water content during at least part of
the year. If the poultry wastes are so
liquid that the earth cover sinks, the only
recourse is to use a 2 to 3 in. layer of
straw of other dry waste, material for cover
to prevent fly oviposition. While the
average poultryman may not have suitable land
of equipment to operate a sanitary landfill
for his own use, it may be feasible for
severaJ poultrymen to jointly finance such
operations. Two phases of fly control work
that are import-ant in the operation of sanitary
landfills are preventing further oviposition
and preventing fly emergence. Further
oviposition can be prevented by covering all
exposed wastes. Field tests have, shown that
under usual conditions, a 6-in. layer of
compacted cover prevented fly emergence.
(Separate Paper)
64-0350
Bloodpood, D. E. Waste disposal concepts.
In Proceedings?; Second National Symposium on
78
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0347-0353
Poultry Industry Waste Management, Lincoln,
May 19-20, 1964. University of Nebraska.
p.11-22
The decomposition process and the mechanisms
of manure disposal are discussed. Septic
tanks have been used for controlled
decomposition for many years. More recently,
the solids in sewage and industrial wastes
have been removed in settling tanks and then
transferred to heated digestion tanks where
decomposition takes place. The seemingly
omnipresent organism?, that carr*' on the
decomposition require hydrogen, carbon,
oxygen, nitrogen, phosphate, and small
amounts of other elements. These anaerobic
organisms require oxygen derived from
compounds in which oxygen is part of the
molecule. The solids from sewage and garbage
are readily decomposed by anaerobes. The
application of the anatrobic process in a
lagoon is considered for poultry waste.
Laying hens produce 142 Ib per yr of manure
with a moisture content of 75 percent. A
house with 12,000 hens will contribute solids
equivalent to the suspended sewage from a
city with a population of 6,000. The factors
important in anaerobic digestion are: pH,
alkalinity, volatile acids, nitrogen, loading
rate, and temperature. Most lagoons digesting
sewage sludge operate in the alkaline range,
the system being dependent upon nitrogen.
The first step in the decomposition of organic
matter to carbon dioxide and methane is the
conversion of the organic solid;: into volatile
organic acidt. The maximum loading rate has
not been determined for anaerobic systems.
Anaerobic decomposition in a temperature
range of 90 to 100 F seems to be optimum.
Lagoon construction and opera' io.- are
discussed. To prevent the possibility that
the high nitrogen content might result in
too high a concentration cf ammonium
bicarbonate, a small flow throup.'r. t^e lagoon
is suggested. Sludge must be removed from
the lagoons periodic;:; "..y
64-0351
Breakthrough in poultry manure. Compost
Science, 5(2) :30, Sumnir.r 1964.
A British firm, Hydraulics Developments, Ltd.,
had developed f process of drying poultry
manure droppings and producing a dry sterile
powder for use as a natural organic fertilizer.
Analyses of 10 samples have an average
reading of 5.3 percent phosphate and 2.1
percent potash. The company installed a
plant on 20,000-bird battery unit in
Berkshire, and the product is sold to
horticulturists. The plant handles from 1 to
2 tons of droppii^rs in 1 to 2 hr. Droppings.
which go into a brick-lined pit outside the
battery houses, are transport:'' by a covered
auger into the gas-fired plant.
64-0352
Brender, M. Lagoons--sink or swim. In
Proceedings; Second National Symposium on
Poultry Industry Waste Management, Lincoln,
May 19-20, 1964. University of Nebraska.
p.183-192.
The collection and disposal of poultry feces
are discussed from an historical point of
view. New innovations in the egg plant are
described. The layers are housed four to a
cage in a 'stair-step' arrangement over
manure and water storage tanks, also called
'indoor lagoons' . In the multiple deck
system either hand or power scraping is
required to drop the manure into the tank
or indirectly into a truck. In an 'indoor
lagoon' poultry manure goes into a suspension
during the first and second week, but with
the continuous addition of manure, sludge
builds up on the bottom of the tank. The
construction of an outdoor lagoon is described.
Odor is the major problem encountered with
lagooning, although the author's outdoor
lagoon was odorless, suggesting that the gases
were being carried aloft. Variations of
lagoons and hydraulic engineering for disposal
of poultry manure are: catch manure in
waterproof tanks; keep it covered with water
at all times; move it out before it settles
down; haul it and spread it on fields, or
stabilize it on 'outdoor lagoons' ; and
operate by gravity. Future waste disposal
research is discussed.
64-0353
Bristow, A. K. From farm wastes to fertility.
Compost Journal, 22(6) :13, Dec. 1963-Jan.
1964.
Organic irrigation is commented on as a
possible means of using farmyard muck.
Because chemical fertilizers are thought to
be easier to use, farmers generally let this
muck drain off their land. In England and
New Zealand, milking sheds and pig pens are
often located near streams causing gross
water pollution. If sludge were stored in
a large tank and pumped to fields, it could
be profitably used as an organic fertilizer.
On farms that are already equipped with
organic irrigation systems the farmers have
all been pleased with the results.
79
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Agricultural Wastes
64-0354
Broiler house litter for finishing steers.
Pacific Poultryman, 70(11):54, Nov. 1964.
Broiler house litter with a right hull base
can be used as satisfactorily as roughage
for finishing yearling steers, providing a
smaller quantity of long hay is fed to prevent
bloat. This observation was made at the
Arkansas Agricultural Experiment Station
where comparisons were made on the feeding
of rice hulls without fat, chicken litter
with fat added, and chicken litter without
fat. The addition of fat to the litter
ration seemed to depress feed intake and
gains for the first month. Afterward,
however, intake and gains were good.
64-0355
Chambers, C. W., and N. A. Clarke. Health
aspects of poultry waste disposal. In
Proceedings; Second National Symposium on
Poultry Industry Waste Management, Lincoln,
May 19-20, 1964. University of Nebraska.
p.193-212.
The diseases that are a potential threat to
man by direct or indirect exposure to poultry
wastes are disucssed. These diseases are
caused by microflora. The three categories
of disease-producing agents discussed are
bacteria, fungi, and viruses. Without
microflora to decompose plant and animal
wastes these materials would accumulate and
would not be returned to the soil and water
for reuse. In most instances transmission
of the disease to man is by: direct contact
with waste; ingestion of waste via contaminated
food or drink; inhalation or contact with
contaminated dust, or spray; and contact
with vectors such as flies or other insects.
Salmonellosis, an illness caused by bacteria,
is the most common disease transmitted from
fowl to man. Eggs are a frequent source of
infection. Other bacterial diseases that
affect fowl and are transmissible to man
are undulant fever, tuberculosis, and
tularemia. Two virus diseases that are
carried by poultry and are transmissible to
man are psittacosis and Newcastle disease.
A fungus disease associated with poultry
wastes is histoplasmosis, which cannot be
transmitted directly from fowl to man.
Cryptococcosis is another fungus disease.
Infected or carrier fowl and health hazards
in poultry wastes are inspearable. A way
to terminate the transmission is by continuing
and intensifying the pullorum (Salmonella
pullorum) test program. Testing to eliminate
psittacosis from breeding flocks is beneficial.
Poultry processing affects the health of
both the employee and the consumer, and
sanitary measures are discussed. Improved
processing techniques should be developed.
Problems encountered from the disposal and
the spreading of manure are mentioned. All
conditions that can result in multiplication
of disease-producing organisms should be
controlled. Efforts should be made to block
disease-producing potential at the source.
64-0356
Gulpin, C. Equipment for disposal of
agricultural effluents. Chemistry and
Industry, 2(9):350-353, Feb. 19, 1964.
Only recently have farmers in Britain begun
to handle manure as slurry. The average
daily amount of undiluted slurry to be
disposed of is about 5.1 gal per dairy'cow,
1,6 gal per fattening pig, and 6.2 gal per
100 head of poultry. Other agricultrual
effluents include those from silage making.
Transferring manure to storage tanks can be
handled by mechanical scrapers, slatted
dunging passages, and tractor-mounted yard
scrapers. Hosing slurry into drainage
channels can be effective under proper
conditions, Collection rainfall in the
manure storage tank should be avoided. Type
of manure utilization and frequency and method
of distribution govern tank size. A large
lagoon emptied by a piped distribution system
is sometimes practical. With a cylindrical
tank design, a mobile stirrer and submerged
shaft-driven pump are effective in mixing.
Distribution equipment may involve a fixed
pump with buried main and rainers, a large
tanker with pipe line, or a. medium or small
tank distributor. Detailed descriptions are
given of each of these four methods. Labor
requirement for distributing 1,000 gal by
spreader tank is 135 man-minutes, and by
pipeline distribution, 30 man-minutes. Some
of the unnecessary mechanical handling
problems associated with the disposal of
slurries are being solved, though problems of
uniform application and of odor still exist.
64-0357
Eby, H. J. Anaerobic lagoons--theory and
practice. In Proceedings; Second National
Symposium on Poultry Industry Waste Management,
Lincoln, May 19-20, 1964. University of
Nebraska, p.77-91.
Despite the lack of objections to aerobic
farm waste disposal lagoons by state public
80
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0354-0360
health officials, the aerobic lagoon has the
following drawbacks: relatively large land
areas required; relatively large quantities
of water required; and enroachment of
urbanization. While the original BOD of
material entering an aerobic lagoon can be
reduced by up to 100 percent, algae
leaving the lagoon in the effluent, if not
supplied with nutrients, will die and
contribute to stream pollution. Where
influent continues to be added, eventually
there will be a build-up of organic and
mineral matter to the point where green algae
can no longer live and produce and the lagoon
then becomes anaerobic. Anaerobic bacteria
develop which produce most disagreeable odors.
In the anaerobic phases of decomposition
organic waste is not broken down as well,
thus causing a build-up of sludge directly
proportional to the loading rate. The
establishment of standards for sewage
treatment is complicated by the erratic and
fluctuating set of values found with the
livestock enterprise. Enough water
flow per animal unit must go through the
lagoon to carry off the digested material so
that dissolved solids do not build up to the
saturation point. Design recommendations are
discussed for anaerobic lagoons. Because
the anaerobic lagoon does not depend upon
the growth of algae, sunlight is not
important and the lagoon need not be limited
in depth. Depths of at least 5 to 10 ft are
recommended. The allowable loading rate for
human and animal wastes to assure stabilization
is presented in tabular form. The detention
time is discussed. The operation of the lag
lagoon constructed at the Swine Research Farm
of the University of Maryland is described.
64-0358
Eby, H. J. Disposal of poultry manure and
other waste. U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Agricultural Research Service, 1964. 10 p.
Spreading on fields (dry or wet), ground or
pelleted home garden fertilizers, lagooning,
laboratory work (BOD), composting, and disposal
through municipal sewage plants are discussed.
Also, several methods for disposal of dead
birds are given. Advantages and disadvantages
of each method of disposal are listed, so
that the reader may choose which would be
best for his particular needs.
64-0359
Englebrecht, R. S., B. B. Ewing, and R. L.
Hoover. Soybean and mixed-feed plant
processing wastes. Journal of the Water
Pollution Control Federation, 36(4):434-442,
Apr. 1964.
Soybeans have become an important crop for
American agriculture and are used for many
purposes besides animal consumption. Wastes
from normal operation in the processing of
soybeans can be adequately controlled in the
plant so that the streams carry only a
nominal organic load. Studies were conducted
on a processing plant in Illinois and several
facts were established. Accidental spills
of molasses, condensed fish solubles (CFS),
stabilized fats, and soybean oil introduce
serious shock loads to receiving streams.
This could be prevented by removing the
softened sludge, fly ash, and soot. A
holding tank prevents accidental discharge.
Routing of wastewater through detention ponds
can prevent overloading the stream. A pond
was constructed which consisted of settling
basins, a holding pond and an aeration spray
system. A continuous monitoring program of
the combined waste flow, treatment pond, and
receiving stream has been carried out by
sampling twice a week. Combined settling of
the inorganic sludges provided satisfactory
disposal and also made possible reuse of the
clarified water. Data and charts supplement
material and facts in this paper.
64-0360
Faith, W. L. Odor control in cattle feed
yards. Journal of the Air Pollution Control
Association, 14(11):459-460, Nov. 1964.
With the population explosion into the
suburbs, cattle feed yards which were
formerly miles from residential areas are
now neighbors to housing developments. The
odor from improperly operated yards has
resulted in complaint and indignation by the
new neighbors, The fattening of cattle is
big business and still growing with 9
million cattle, each of which produce 26 Ib
of excreta, including 15 Ib of urine per day.
In California there are 500 feedlots with
3,500 to 32,000 head in the peak season.
There are two types of odor: the odor from
fresh manure is dissipated rapidly as the
excreta cools and is not offensive. However,
if the material does not dry out, highly
odorous products are produced by putrefaction.
The program at a 10,000 to 12,000 head feed
yard with 70 acres of usable corral was built
on good housekeeping. All piles of manure
were removed; the corrals were scraped down
to bare earth. The accumulations of
hard packed anaerobic manure were removed
81
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Agricultural Wastes
from around mangers and water troughs. Pools
of water or wet areas were avoided in the
corrals. The manure was removed from the
yards three times a year and the ground was
scarified to promote aerobic conditions
followed by spraying with 1 percent (200
Ib per acre) of potassium permanganate
solution. Odors which developed in dumps or
ditches were controlled by the use of
permanganate, either solid or in solution.
The housing boom which brought residential
areas into close proximity to feed lots has
resulted in complaints of the odor, which is
being minimized by controls.
the strength of fruit canning wastes by
institution of waste-saving and
waste-prevention practices. Fruit acids
and sugars in the waste stimulate rapid and
abundant microbial growth in the stream. The
most common and expected pollution effect is
depletion of the oxygen demand supply in the
stream to a level at which fish life is killed.
If utilization of oxygen is continued without
replenishment, anaerobic decomposition of
the waste begins with production of odors,
discoloration of the stream, and other
nuisance conditions. Treatment and disposal
methods are discussed.
64-0361
Feeding potential of reclaimed fecal residue.
Compost Science, 4(4):32, Winter 1964.
Formerly, swine were used to salvage grain
voided in cattle feces. Since grains are
now ground for feeding, there is a decline
in interest in this procedure. Nevertheless,
feces from fullfed cattle contain appreciable
amounts of undigested feed residue. Odors
and flies are caused. Research is conducted
to recover some of the fecal feed and to
effectively dispose of organic residues
voided by confined cattle.
64-0362
Fruit processing industry. Public Health
Service Publication No. 952. Washington,
U.S. Department of Health, Education, and
Welfare, 1964. 15 p.
The nature and source of the liquid wastes
are discussed and the inplant practices which
are known to improve waste disposal situations
are described. Practical procedures are
discussed which may reduce the volume and
the strength of the waste load and, thus,
reduce total waste treatment costs. Water
conservation in canning is discussed briefly
in connection with its effect on waste
problems. The principle methods of treatment
generally recognized to be of value are
outlined. A flow chart of fruit processing
showing water use and sources of waste is
given. The sources and estimated average
volumes of waste waters from the processing
steps in the canning of fruits are presented.
Generally, it can be assumed that fruit
canning produces a liquid waste approximately
10 times the strength of domestic sewage when
expressed in terms of BOD. Each canning
waste-treatment problem needs special study.
Significant reductions can be made in
64-0363
Hart, S. A., and W. C. Fairbank. Disposal of
perished poultry. In Proceedings; Second
National Symposium on Poultry Industry Waste
Management, Lincoln, May 19-20, 1964.
University of Nebraska, p.213.
Despite the best operation and management of
egg farms the mortality rate is 1 to 1'<
percent per month, a loss of 1 chicken per
day for each 2,000 to 3,000 birds housed.
These chickens may die from disease,
cannibalism, heat, and other causes.
Poultrymen get rid of dead birds in various
ways, some of which create health hazards--
for example, throwing the carcasses to
vultures and skunks, or improper burial that
pollutes underground water. Disposal of birds
must be prompt, sanitary, efficient, and
economical. The volume-weight relationship
of dead chickens was. determined. Disposal
techniques may have to consider stabilizing
the degradable meaty portion, with handling
and long-term storage for the more inert bones
and feathers. Rendering probably is the
preferred method. Poultry pose both physical
and economic burdens on rendering operations.
Disposing of dead matter involves storage
and processing. Burial, the oldest method
for disposing of flesh, is truly storage,
coupled with biodegradation. Burial pits
or dry cesspools usually consist of a bored
and covered dry well with a lidded top through
which the dead bird is dropped. A second
burial scheme is the heated septic tank,
which is storage combined with accelerated
biodegradation. Freezing dead birds stops
putrefaction and is prompt, sanitary, and
efficient. Chemical storage, for example,
pickling in 2 or 3 percent formaldehyde
solution, is cheaper than freezing. Most
municipal dumps will accept dead birds for a
fee. Bird maceration is not presently
feasible. Proper incineration is a most
satisfactory disposal technique, although
82
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0361-0366
more expensive and less sanitary. Enzymes
to aid biodegradation are still of
questionable value. Presently it costs
between 0.6 to 5 cents each to dispose of
dead chickens.
64-0364
Hart, S. A. Manure management in poultry
waste disposal. Agricultural Engineering,
45(8):430, Aug. 1964.
Manure management was the principle subject
at the Second National Symposium on Poultry
Industry Waste Management held in May at the
University of Nebraska. At the meeting a year
ago, the emphasis was on outlining the
overall problem of poultry waste, but
this year the attention was confined to
a consideration of the possible solutions.
The aerobic and anaerobic degradation of
organic wastes including manures wass
discussed and related to the problem of
stabilizing chicken manure. The discussion
at the previous meeting had emphasized the
desirability of manure lagoons. Further
research indicated that only anaerobic lagoons
hold much to offer as a method of
handling the large volumes of organic waste
from large-scale poultry farms. Even where
land area is not limited, the availability
of water could restrict the use of the
aerobic lagoon. The methods of moving
poultry manure from where it is defecated to
the lagoon or other treatment facility was
discussed by the group. The legal facets
and the actual practice of dead bird disposal
were discussed. The need for adequate
environmental control by all segments of
society, including agriculture, to protect
our heritage of a bountiful and enjoyable
place to live was stressed. The interest in
the subject is evidenced by the attendance of
90 representatives of universities, government
agencies, industry, and commercial agriculture.
64-0365
Hart, S. A. Processing agricultural wastes.
In Proceedings; National Conference on Solid
Waste Research, Chicago, Dec. 2-4, 1963.
American Public Works Association, 1964.
p.168-174.
The manure wastes from cattle feedlots pose
a problem typical of nearly all of agriculture's
discard dilemma. Often this manure is spread
on fallow land. This only transfers the
problem from feedlot to field; it solves
nothing. If the haul is distant, it may
involve processing. Processing is the
second of three steps in the management of
agricultural wastes. Processing is preceded
by collection, and is followed by utilization
or disposal. The methods of manure processing
as used today, and those which may offer some
hopes for the future are reviewed. Storage,
drying, composting, digestion, and lagoons in
addition to other methods are discussed. The
activated sludge process is aerobic degradation
and stabilization in a water medium.
Laboratory studies on the potential of this
for highly diluted hog manure indicate that
BOD reductions of 70 to 80 percent are
readily obtainable. It is uneconomic to
expect endogenous and complete stabilization,
but activated sludge degradation of manure
may have some potential. Cull and overripe
fruits and vegetables left in the field, and
all tree prunings, stubble, and unharvestable
plant parts pose a difficult and expensive
waste management problem. These wastes are
generally disposed of in three ways: plowing
into the soil; burning; and surface spreading.
Agricultural wastes--both manures and field
trash--are not wastes separate from the rest
of the society's discards. Research is
needed in the area of more complete utilization
of organic matter through new processes and
techniques.
64-0366
Hart, S. A. Sanitary engineering in
agriculture. Compost Science, 4(4):11-15,
Winter 1964.
There are four kinds of agricultural wastes:
livestock manure, crop residues, dead animals,
and chemical residues. Twenty-five percent
of lifetime excretion of beef cattle is
in the corral. Manure from birds is discharged
in a concentrated area at a rapid rate. At
a cost of 0.9 cent per Ib for collection, a
farmer would have to pay $200 per cow per year.
The four steps in management of manure are:
collection, processing, storing, and
utilization or disposal. The farmer may
wash out the barn or treat it like a solid.
Manure must be either stored in fly-tight
containers or dried. Using fuel heat is
expensive. California uses sun drying.
Manure is too wet to be composted unless
mixed with carbonaceous material. Digestion
is too expensive. The anaerobic manure
lagoon seems to be the best method of
treatment since it needs minimal sludge
removal. The major disposal of manure is
returning it to the soil. Drying reduces
weight and volume and concentrates fertilizer
nutrients. But manure is not as good as
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Agricultural Wastes
chemical fertilizer. Manure can be used for
vitamins, hormones, and drugs. It is used
for fuel in India. Perishable fruits and
vegetables, which are harvested in several
pickings, rot and breed the fruit fly
(Drosophila) which causes disease. When
cereal stubble is incorporated into the soil,
it ties up nutrients for the next year's
crops; burning it causes air pollution. The
future for dead animals is dim because
synthetic detergents have reduced the market
for fats.
64-0367
Hart, S. A. Thin spreading of slurried manures.
Transactions of the American Society of
Agricultural Engineers, 7(1):22-25, 28, 1964.
Manure disposal is a vexing problem of
concentrated livestock farming, largely
because manure is a prime breeding medium
for flies and poses serious odor and
sanitation problems. Manure is valuable as
a soil additive or fertilizer, but it is
difficult to stabilize. A spreading and
drying scheme has proved a successful solution,
possessing the potential for processing and
increasing the utilization of manure. Manure
from modern dairy, beef, and swine feedlots
contains no bedding or litter. It averages
25 to 40 percent solids on a wet-weight basis.
It is desirable to have manure as dry as
possible to prevent fly breeding. The study
determined that thin spreading, layer upon
layer, day after day, could accomplish
effective dyring. Spreading must be reduced
in thickness as summer wanes, due to shorter
daylenght, and generally lower temperatures.
Odor were not an overwhelming obstacle in the
study. Nitrogen loss did occur, but this is
a reasonable sacrifice for the sanitary
stabilization achieved. In the study itself,
six 12 by 22 ft chicken manure plots and six
identical dairy manure plots were each dosed
with 47 cumulative layers of the
appropriate manure slurry on a five-time
per week schedule. Different thicknesses
were tested. Chicken manure slurries averaged 19.
percent total solids, and dairy averaged 13.7
percent. The land area required for cumulative
layering was found to be large--less than 200
sq ft per cow and 1 sq ft per chicken. A
future possibility lies in injecting manure
slurries, Data discusses complete study
results.
64-0368
Hart, S. A., and P. H. McGauhey. Wastes
management in the food producing and processing
industries. In Proceedings; Eleventh Pacific
Northwest Industrial Waste Conference,
Corvallis, Oreg. Sept. 1963. p.92-100.
The magnitude and nature of the waste disposal
problem from the viewpoint of the food industry
is discussed. Agriculture is the biggest
producer of waste with 25 cu yd of manure and
8 tons of cull fruit and field trash produced
per American family annually in the United
States. Manure treatment is the most
pressing problem. Presently most manure is
placed on fields but its collection and
spreading makes it more expensive than
commerical fertilizers. Stalks, stems and
leaves are generally plowed under. Tomato
skins and seeds can serve as animal feeds, and
fruit pits may be made into charcoal. The
management of wastes is essential, and to
ignore or make only half-efforts at effective
disposal is to endanger our environment.
Passing of the wastebasket from producer to
consumer, or from farmer to processor is not
suitable. The solution will come through
education of the citizens, farmers, and
producers to realize that coordination of
waste disposal will yield a more satisfactory
solution, that disposal must be financed, and
research must be instituted into economical
and feasible methods of community waste
disposal.
64-0369
Howes, D. E. Programs and legislation for
dead bird disposal. In Proceedings; Second
National Symposium on Poultry Industry Waste
Management, Lincoln, May 19-20, 1964.
University of Nebraska, p.215-224.
The need for a complete security management
program for the poultry industry based upon
disease prevention is noted. The poultry
industry has become increasingly dependent
upon drugs and vaccines, resulting in poor
management practices. Drugs are inadequate
as the sole means of defense and should be
used only for the treatment of specific
diseases. Live virus vaccines have stimulated
other diseases. The most important problem
remaining is to prevent mechanical spread of
diseases such as fowl typhoid, fowl cholera,
infectious bronchitis, Newcastle disease,
CRD, and fowl pox. Of primary importance is
the fact that dead carcasses may contain
disease agents for long periods. Thus,
adequate and prompt destruction of carcasses
must take place on the ground where death
occurs. Legislation has been initiated in
many states to assure proper disposal.
Because every farm is endangered through
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0367-0372
disease-carrying vectors from diseased
carcasses on a neighbor's farm, full
participation is necessary if a plan of
operation is to be effective. The education
of producers to the total security management
program is the function of the State Extension
Service. Leadership by a strong industrial
organization or federation of poultry
organizations is needed. A suitable law
providing for adequate disposal of dead birds
on the premises, through use of disposal
pits or incineration is suggested. Adequate
time for an educational program to be carried
out before the law is strictly enforced is
necessary. The experience of Virginia in
drafting a suitable law is drawn upon. A
series of general meetings were held by
Extension Poultry Specialists and Department
of Agriculture personnel to explain the law
and to discuss and evaluate disposal methods.
64-0370
Jeffrey, E. A., R. Ricketts, and W. C.
Blackman. Aerobic and anaerobic digestion
--characteristics of livestock wastes.
University of Missouri Bulletin,
Engineering Experimental Station,
Engineering Series Bulleint No. 57,
65(2):1-105, Jan. 16, 1964.
This laboratory study was initiated with the
purpose of determining the aerobic and
anaerobic degestion characteristics of
livestock wastes. Hog, cow, and sheep manure
were digested anaerobically in bench-scale
digesters. First stage BOD and oxidation
rate constants were measured for these same
wastes. A BOD and COD correlation was
determined for each waste and the rate and
degree of biodegradation of hog wastes in
aeration tanks was investigated. The
conclusions drawn in each phase of this study
are correlated in the final chapter, and
example calculations are presented for hog
wastes. The quantity of waste required to
treat the wastes, either aerobically or
anaerobically, is considered in the final
chapter, and it is shown to be a practical
problem from the standpoint of the adequacy
of many farm water supplies.
64-0371
Johnson, C. Liquid handling processes for
poultry manure utilization. In Proceedings;
Second National Symposium on Poultry Industry
Waste Management, Lincoln, May 19-20,
1964. University of Nebraska, p.161-181.
An integrated system concept for liquid manure
handling that has been operating for a year
and five months with considerable success is
described. The labor-reduction characteristics,
sanitation control, and water recirculation
aspects differentiate this poultry waste
system from others to date. The Rolland
Congdorn farm in East Longmeadow, Massachusetts,
is the site. The installation consists of
conventional commercial cage units, arranged
double-deck, upper tier back to back, and
lower tier spaced about 8 in. apart.
Droppings from the upper cage fall upon a
1/8 in, sheet of cement asbestos board, sloped
toward the center. Droppings are scraped
twice weekly from this board, from which they
fall into the liquid trough below. The
design of the concrete septic tank is described.
The steps taken at the time of removal of 8
days accumulation of droppings under each
line of cages are enumerated. This
accumulation normally can be removed in 18
minutes. The estimated contracted cost for
the installation would be about $1 .00 per
bird, which would be $0.247 per bird with
over 7,000 birds, over a 10 year period,
including a 3-time per year removal of the
sludge from the tank. The 7,000 bird flock
would yield 487 tons of fertilizer per year.
Liquid manure retains more of the nitrogen,
phosphorus, and potassium. The five E's of
manure disposal systems are: Economics,
Esthetics, Effectiveness, Efficiency, and
Ease. A scale for qualitative evaluation of
the latter is presented. The use of lagoons
in areas where land values are high make it a
prohibitive investment. The advantages of
the liquid manure system described are
pointed out.
64-0372
Ludington, D., and A. T. Sobel. Hydraulic
collection of poultry wastes. In Proceedings;
Second National Symposium on Poultry Industry
Waste Management, Lincoln, May 19-20,
1964. University of Nebraska, p.115-135.
'Hydraulic collection of poultry manure' in
the United States implies a pit of varying
depth and width, with or without water added
initially. The possibility of manure disposal
in these pits altered their name to 'indoor
lagoons.' The advantages of hydraulic
collection are reduction in odors, the
possibility of scheduled cleaning, more
uniform yearly indoor temperatures, less
labor requirements, and lower fly production.
Some type of mechanical device for cleaning
the hydraulic pits is a necessity, and this
operation is described. For poultry manure
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Agricultural Wastes
to be moved mechanically, it must have a
moisture content approaching 85 percent. This
increase in liquid content is accomplished
by the bacterial activity which destroys some
of the solid matter, although this is not
sufficient and supplemental water must be
added either at the beginning of loading,
during loading, or just before cleaning.
The results of laboratory tests to determine
the extent of bacterial activity in poultry
manure are presented in graphs. Although
about half of the solid matter is consumed,
the total mass remaining in a pit which must
be removed and disposed of is almost unchanged.
Pit accumulation and design can be estimated
by taking batch process data, which was
projected to continuous feed process data,
and relating it to an actual pit. Factors to
be considered in estimating the time required
for handling and spreading are: size and
number of tanks for hauling, rapidity of
loading, distance of hauls, mechanical
reliability of equipment, availability of
land, and number of birds. The biggest
advantage of the hydraulic system is its
flexibility in cleaning. Because of safety
and the difficulty in cleaning, pits should
be confined by walls and limited to 3 ft in
depth. Because of the dilution required,
more material must be handled when using a
hydraulic system.
64-0373
Manure as fuel. Pacific Poultryman,
70(11):46, Nov. 1964.
A patent on a process for compressing broiler
and laying house deep litter into briquettes
to be used as fuel for heating broiler houses
and greenhouses has been issued in England.
Tests have shown that the heating value of
these briquettes is 8,000 Btu per Ib,
according to Poultry Farmer and Packer. For
wood, the Btu rating is 9,000; coal, 13,000;
coke, 13,300; and oil, 19,000.
64-0374
Moisture level favoring little house flies.
Pacific Poultryman, 70(11):32, Nov. 1964.
Studies conducted in California indicate that
the little house fly (Fannia canicularis) is
most likely to deposit its eggs in poultry
manure that has about equal parts of water
and dry manure. Droppings that are very wet
or very dry have little attraction to the
fly. When cracks developed in the mixture
of 42.8 percent and 60 percent moisture, eggs
were deposited in them.
64-0375
Morris, G. L. Extended aeration waste
treatment plants. In Proceedings; Second
National Symposium on Poultry Industry Waste
Management, Lincoln, May 19-20, 1964.
University of Nebraska, p.45-56.
The extended-aeration waste treatment process
is a modification of the activated-sludge
process, the principal differences being in
the unit capacities, the load applied, and
the aeration contact time. There is an
absence of primary settling of waste In the
extended-aeration process and the return of
all settleable solids from the final settling
tank to the aeration tank. Accumulation of
solids within the system is an inherent
characteristic of an extended-aeration plant,
and the plant's efficiency is related to the
amount of solids discharged in the effluent.
Although the major application of the
extended-aeration process has been to sanitary
waste, the treatment of organic industrial
wastes amenable to biological
oxidation-reduction reactions is being
considered. The design of extended-aeration
plants is discussed. The principal
information necessary for design of a plant
is: (1) the total organic load expressed in
terms of BOD and suspended solids; (2) the
total waste volume to be treated with an
evaluation of the minimum, maximum, and
average flow correlated with the run-off
period; (3) the degree of treatment necessary
to satisfy the surrounding environment in
terms of effluent discharge, air pollution,
solids disposal, and aesthetic values.
Typical design values are listed. The
sludge-holding tank reduces the volatile
fraction of excess sludge to make it suitable
for sand drying beds, lagoons, and other
disposal methods. Ponds for the storage
of plant effluent for several days will affect
reasonable solids control and maintain
phytoplankton at a reasonable level. The use
of slow sand filters is an effective
effluent-polishing device. The advantages
and disadvantages of extended-aeration plants
are discussed, as is their use for processing
industrial waste.
64-0376
Nicholas, R. C., K. E. H. Motawi, and J. L.
Blaisdell. Cooling rates of individual fruit
in air and in water. Michigan Agricultural
Experiment Station Quarterly Bulletin,
47(1) :51-64, Aug. 1964.
Cooling experiments included tunnel cooling,
in which cold air at 31 to 32 F was the heat
transfer medium for cooling apples of
86
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0373-0379
different sizes one at a time at different
air velocities, and water cooling, in which
apples were cooled in running water at 32 F
at different water flow rates. The
experimental cooling curves were compared with
a theoretical model of heat transfer: heat
loss from a sphere initially at uniform
temperature to surroundings at constant
temperature, and with a finite surface heat
transfer coefficient. The experimental
results, particularly with air cooling,
suggest that the theoretical model, together
with fundamental properties of the fruit
and the medium such as thermal diffusivity,
a thermal conductivity, and surface heat transfer
coefficient, can be used to predict the
cooling curve.
64-0377
No flies because birds use entire litter
area. Pacific Poultryman, 70(11):41, Nov.
1964.
Flies are no problem for John L Kanst,
Corcoran, California, who has a flock of
5,000 layers and also runs a dairy. His
housing is of the deep litter type on concrete
floors, and he allows about 21 per 4 sq ft of
floor space per bird. The important point he
makes is that every portion of the entire floor
area is available to the birds at all times.
There are no exposed areas of droppings, for
the manure mixes with the litter, drawing
the moisture out of the droppings and making
them unattractive to flies.
64-0378
Ostrander, C. E. Hydraulic manure handling
in laying houses. In Proceedings; Second
National Symposium on Poultry Industry Waste
Management, Lincoln, May 19-20, 1964.
University of Nebraska, p. 137-147.
The disposal of poultry manure has received
much attention recently due to the high
density laying operations on individual farms.
Generally, 100 layers per day will produce
0.5 cu ft, 3.6 gal, or 25 to 30 Ib of manure.
One pound of fresh manure will be produced for
each pound of feed used. Although there is
no one system of handling poultry manure
for all situations, the hydraulic sys\tem
(collecting poultry manure in water pits)
works very satisfactorily for many operations.
Advantages of handling poultry manure in
liquid form are: flexibility of cleaning,
reduction of odors, reduction of labor in
handling manure, less mechanization required,
control of flies, and control of temperature
in the poultry house. The hydraulic system
with tanks 2 or more ft deep will operate 2
or more years before cleaning is required,
under slat floors, and 6 months under
stair-step cages. The tanks can be cleaned
by gravity with the aid of a false end gate
to encourage flowing. If the laying house
is built on flat ground, the liquid manure
must be pumped into the spreaders. This
requires a minimum of a 3-in. pump. The
hydraulic system reduces odors because the
water in the tanks acts as a seal, trapping
most of the gases. The pits or tanks, with
a nearly flat bottom, should be 24 to 36 in.
deep to allow for cleaning. Recommendations
for adding the hydraulic system to remodeled
houses are given. The hydraulic system,
although often referred to as 'inside
lagoons', does not operate under
photosynthesis. There is little digestion,
although some liquefaction takes place which
aids in cleaning. The main disadvantage of
the system is that it does not dispose of the
manure itself.
64-0379
Palmer, L. M. What's new in manure disposal.
Agricultural Engineering, 45(3):134-135 ,
Mar. 1964.
A panel discussion held at the December 1963
meeting of the American Society of Agricultural
Engineers is reported. Twelve different
methods of manure disposal which were
discussed included both the dry and wet
methods. In the dry method the manure is
dried out or incinerated as soon as possible
to reduce the odor and fly problem. In the
wet method, the manure is liquefied with water
for ultimate disposal on crop land or in
lagoons and it is this method which is
getting the most attention from farmers.
Poultrymen, hog producers, and dairy farmers
are adapting their buildings to liquid manure
systems. Poultrymen use water-filled tanks
under their cages or slats. Completely
slotted floors are the best type for pigs
with provisions made to catch the dung in
water. The problem with lagoons is the size
required for aerobic conditions. For
northern poultry farms, an acre of lagoon
would be required for every 1 ,000 hogs for
aerobic conditions. Doubt was expressed as
to whether there was an aerobic livestock
lagoon in the country, except as a research
project. Anaerobic lagoons are feasible,
but eventually the accumulated digested sludge
must be disposed of. Incineration of manure
may be the answer to the poultry waste
87
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Agricultural Wastes
problem. The manure has a high carbon content
and evolves a large amount of heat which can
be used to dry out manure with up to 60
percent moisture.
64-0380
Perry, C. A. Identification and control of
odors from animal wastes. In Proceedings;
Second National Symposium on Poultry Industry
Waste Management, Lincoln, May 19-20,
1964. University of Nebraska, p.67-73.
Molds, fungi, and bacterial organisms which
are present in all organic matter are
responsible for producing odors. Decomposition
takes place in aerobic and anaerobic conditions.
In contrast to anaerobic bacteria, aerobic
bacteria cause rapid decomposition and
produce little odor. Anaerobic bacteria form
foul, putrid, rotten-smelling by-products,
which when concentrated into an air mass that
moves over a populated urban area, cause
numerous complaints. The City of Pomona
brought a suit against two cattle feedlots,
with nearly 20,000 cattle 3 to 5 miles from
the edge of the residential area. A feedlot
sanitation management program and a system to
measure the results are outlined. In the
spring of 1961 the two cattle feeders started
removing a winter's accumulation of manure
from the corral. Odor control chemicals were
included. The program called for continuous
manure removal, and reshaping the corral
floors to keep them drained and dry. The
subjective approach of measuring and
identifying odors using the sense of smell
was adopted. Three or four persons from each
complaint area were enlisted. The old,
hard-packed, deep manure layers were removed
from the feedlots and the continuous cleanout
and sanitary practices effected. The
frequency of offensive odors coming from
livestock operations greatly diminished. The
management procedures were officially adopted
as standards of operation and an ordinance
governing cattle feedlot operations was
avoided.
64-0381
Forges, R. Aerobic stabilization ponds. In
Proceedings; Second National Symposium on
Poultry Industry Waste Management, Lincoln,
May 19-20, 1964. University of Nebraska.
p. 23-43.
Aerobic ponds operate with dissolved oxygen
present, though oxygen must be absent in the
bottom zone. The loading must be restricted
so that the algae can liberate sufficient
oxygen to permit aerobic decomposition.
Organic materials are decomposed by bacteria
to produce carbon dioxide, water, inert
residues, and soluble nutrients. These
nutrients supply the requirements for
photosynthesis by algae. Loadings of up
to 100 Ib of BOD per acre per day are
acceptable and even higher loadings may be
possible where climatic conditions are
suitable. Temperature affects the rates of
decomposition and algal respiration; low
temperatures reduce both rates. Where ice
forms, ponds are effectively sealed and odors
are associated with these anaerobic conditions,
after the ice cover disappears. The addition
of sodium nitrate or artificial aeration is
suggested for an additional source of oxygen.
Stabilization ponds should be located far
from housing and water supplies. The shape,
liquid depth, pond bottom, dikes, inlet,
outlet, surface runoff, maintenance, and
pond efficiencies are discussed. Data is
supplied on the ponds in use for poultry
waste treatment. One acre of an aerobic pond,
where ice--cover does not persist will probably
provide adequate treatment of manure wastes
from 3,000 chickens if sufficient water is
available. While stabilization ponds are
not the answer in every case, they do provide
another tool to assist in control of waste
problems.
64-0382
Porges, R. Wastes from the poultry processing
industry. Technical Report W62-3. Cincinnati,
U.S. Public Health Service, 1962. 40 p.
A study of the poultry processing industry
was undertaken because of the interest shown
by regulatory agencies, industry, consulting
engineers, and others concerned with water
use and waste disposal. The average poultry
processing plant is a modern, highly
automatic establishment processing in the
neighborhood of 50,000 birds per day. The
various operations may be grouped under the
general headings of receiving, killing,
defeathering, evisceration and cutting, and
packing, The blood from the killing station
represents the waste of greatest pollutional
significance, Defeathering and eviscerating
operations account for a sizeable portion of
the total plant waste load. The large
majority of poultry establishments have
flow-away systems consisting of flumes to
receive wastes and wash waters. Recovery of
blood, feathers, and offal for by-product
salvage or separate disposal significantly
reduces the pollutional load. Untreated
88
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0380-0388
poultry wastes have the following pollutional
effects upon receiving streams: reduction of
available oxygen, deposition of solids,
addition of floating matter, and increase of
coliform color, and inorganic mineral content.
Poultry wastes most often are discharged to
municipal treatment facilities. Various
methods employed for treatment of poultry
plant wastes are: primary settling, chemical
treatment, trickling filters and the activated
sludge process, stabilization ponds, and land
irrigation.
64-0383
Portable scoop-sled for manure removal.
Pacific Poultryman, 68(1):50-51, Jan. 1964.
Poultry manure is removed from below the
group cages on the plant of Winlock Farms,
Winlock, Washington, twice a year and is used
by dairy farmers for their pasture and crop
land. A 40-in. wide scoop-sled is used in
the 5-ft wide pit below the 3 by 5 back-to-back
group cages to bring the droppings out of the
house, up through a 10 in. auger and onto a
manure spreader or truck for hauling. The
scoop-sled, the steel cable used to draw it
back and forth, the cable and pulley anchoring
device at one end, and the 5 horsepower
electric motor at the other end are moved
from one 240-ft long pit to the next one as
the cleaning progresses. It takes about 600
hr per year to clean out manure from under
40,000 layers.
Italian swine houses and a brief note
on the removal of feces are described. Water
jets flush the manure to outlets and then to
large underground masonry tanks.
64-0386
Questions litter use as animal feed.
Poultryman, 70(11):50, Nov. 1964.
Pacific
Bruce Poundstone, secretary of the Association
of American Feed Control Officials, says that
poultry house litter is not a satisfactory
animal feed. Drugs administered to chickens
in feed or water pass through the gut unchanged
and remain in the litter. These drugs may
be toxic to cattle and other livestock. In
addition, poultry diseases can be carried to
cattle unless the manure is sterilized.
64-0387
Reeder, N. Hog manure too valuable"to waste.
Nation's Agriculture, 39(5):14-15, foay 1964.
Hog manure has a high value as fertilizer
and is no more expensive to pump out and
spread than it is to run off into a lagoon.
The new hog house used with this idea has
gutters under slotted flooring and is
accessible from outside. The pumping system
used must be built to withstand vacuum pressure.
64-0384
Poultry manure superior fertilizer for
tomatoes. Pacific Poultryman, 70(11):72,
Nov. 1964.
Three groups of tomato, cabbage, and egg
plants were used in a test conducted at
Colorado State University. One group was
fertilized with a chemical solution, another
with fresh poultry manure, and the third with
fermented poultry manure. At the end of 6
weeks, the plants grown on fermented manure
had more leaves, heavier stalks, looked
healthier, and showed better color. Tomatoes
were producing more and larger fruit. Plants
grown on fresh manure were not as vigorous,
but were better than those in the chemical
solution group.
64-0385
Pratelli, G. Swine housing trend in Italy.
Agricultural Engineering, 45(11):616, Nov.
1964.
64-0388
Riley, C. Dewatering poultry manure.
Agriculture, 71(11);527-529, Nov. 1964.
In the dewatering of poultry manure, the
problem is to convert an unpleasant,
difficult-to-handle product, which cannot be
given away, into a cake which can eventually
be sold with the proper type of marketing.
Normal industrial appliances do not dewater
poultry manure well and the best results
would be obtained by drying with heat. One
thousand birds in cages will produce 2 tons
of fresh manure a week at 76 percent moisture,
which can be dried to 20 percent at a cost of
$10 per ton for the dried material. In the
operation of the drier it would be important
to plan the system so that there is a constant
input in order to balance the heat and airflow,
and to control the load in a sensible manner.
The system could be planned to empty a tier
or block of cages at one time, or the drier
could be operated at a fixed time from
stored droppings. The nitrogen-phosphorus-
potassium content has a value of $8 a ton
89
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Agricultural Wastes
compared to the cost of $10 a ton for the
preparation of the dried material, which
seems to store well in polythene bags.
Dewatering of poultry manure is a relatively
untried process. Plants do exist which can
dewater poultry manure satisfactorily once
the initial problems of handling are overcome.
However, the process is not self-supporting
and the question as to costs is still undecided.
64-0389
Rose, W. W., J. Chapman, and W. A. Mercer.
Composting fruit waste solids. In Proceedings;
Eleventh Pacific Northwest Industrial Waste
Conference, Corvallis, Ore., 1963. p.32-50.
An initial study was made of the feasibility
and requisite optimum conditions for
satisfactory composting of fruit waste solids
on a commercial basis. The procedure used
A ft by A ft by 5^ ft bins and a concrete
pad for mixing and turning the compost. Five
experiments were run. The first determined
optimum weight rations of unpulverized peach
solids to recycle compost. Initial moisture
of 60 to 65 percent was recommended. The second
showed that by grinding the peachwaste the
time to form stable compost was cut in half.
The third indicated that the initial low pH
of the waste which slowed the beginning of
the compost cycle, could be raised by adding
0.5 percent lime after 6 days which shortened
the cycle by several days. The 4th showed
that the initial addition of 0.5 percent
lime decreased the time lag before pH rise
from 9 to 3 days. The 5th showed the effects
of nitrogen, nitrogen plus lime, and lime
alone on fruit waste and sawdust. The nitrogen
and lime gave the optimum results. Much
study on the field level is still to be done.
Detailed charts, tables, and analysis of the
experiments are included. The feasibility
of composting fruit wastes was shown.
64-0390
Sacca, G. Comparative Bionomics in the genus
Musca. Annual Review of Entomology, 9:341-358,
1964.
Various species are discussed. Sixty valid
species are distributed in the Palearctic,
Ethiopian, and Oriental zoogeographic regions.
Flies' reproductive habits are described.
Flies are more, motile in warmer temperatures.
Heaps of refuse provide flies with food and
heat due to the fermentation process.
Production of new individuals is huge there
and on dung hills, due to the abundance of
larval food made of organic residues of
animal and vegetable origin which have long
fermented, and are mixed with inert material
that helps its aeration. When temperatures
allow the winged insects to fly, the dumps
are a source from which masses of adult flies
move toward human dwellings. Musca may transmit
diseases through: ingestion of pathogenic
agent and deposition with fecal spots;
swallowing the agent and deposition by vomit
drops; or spreading through the external
surface of the body. Flies feed on human
feces which may contain viruses. Shigella
dysenteriae has been found in the intestinal
tract of flies. Epidemics of infant summer
diarrhea are strongly affected by the
presence of a large fly population. A house
fjy may be a carrier of tape worms, and
nematodes whose eggs may adhere to
the fly's legs. Many species of fungi
and arthropods are parasites of flies.
(Flies may act as true intermediate hosts.)
64-0391
Scheusener, P. E. Research needs in rural
waste utilization. Agricultural Engineering,
45(9):492-495, 499, Sept. 1964.
Research scientists should devote more effort
and original thought to the problems of
rural waste disposal which range from feces
to fungicides, from products of putrefaction
to pesticides and from stream sediments to
smog. The problem is not to find research
projects in the disposal and utilization of
agricultural waste, but to comprehend the
wide scope of the total problem of rural-waste
utilization. Five systems of organization
are proposed: systems for human environment;
systems for animal and wildlife environment;
systems for plant environment; systems for
processing agricultural products; and the
social system. The proposed areas of research
include: sampling methods and equipment for
the air, soil, and water environment;
identification of waste material; chemical,
physical, and biological properties of rural
waste products; engineering criteria for
systems such as lagoons, iri:?.gation
operations, aerobic, anaerobic, etc.;
establishment of 'safe levels' of
wastes in the environment; and the
reaction of wastes to the air, soil,
and water environment, and their ultimate fate
in those environments. Severe problems exist
in large housing areas where no municipal
sewers exists, and possible disposal fields
are small and the soil is impervious. The
performance equipment for handling animal
excreta has not been determined. The long
90
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0389-0394
term security of man on this plane*- depends
on how well the earth can accommodate both
man and his wastes.
64-0392
Smith, S. M., and J. R. Miner. Stream
pollution from feedlot runoff. Bulltitin
No. 2-1 . Topeka, Kansas State Department
of Health, Jan. 1964. 24 p.
The principle data were collected from three
different streams. These are the Whitewater
River near Potwin in the Walnut River Basin;
the Cottonwood River near Emporia in the
Neosho River Basin; and Fox Creek, a
tributary of the Cottonwood River near Strong
City. Additional information is given
concerning pollution below a feedlot on
Level Creek in Morris County in the headwaters
of the Neosho River. Pollution from anima]
feedlots enters a stream with the
surface runoff, and therefore discharges into
the watercourse only as long as runoff
occurs from that area. If a feedlot
is designed so that no water passes
over the lot except that which falls on it,
the runoff ceases soon after the rainfall
stops. Game fish are frequently trapped in
the polluted waters. The most severe
conditions do not occur at minimum flow, but
after the stream begins to rise. The nature
of the pollution in terms of several common
water quality parameters is shown. The effect
of the heavy organic pollution of the
streams is reflected in the dissolved
oxygen demand. Water quality parameters
are presented for all of the areas.
The investigation indicates that the runoff
is characterized by a high BOD, high
ammonia content, and heavy bacterial
populations. The pollution is intermittent.
since it occurs during the following runoff,
but it causes a severe slugging effect on
the stream. Serious depletion of the
dissolved oxygen content of the stream may
also occur.
64-0393
Stead, F. M. Social and legal implications
of organic waste management. In Proceedings;
Second National Symposium on Poultry Industry
Waste Management, Lincoln, May 19-20,
1964. University of Nebraska, p.93-114.
After an historica3 overview of the
development of environmental health in the
United States, the present practices and
problems relating to managing of solid waste
are discussed. The systems approach is
recommended for complex environmental problems.
Our public health programs have developed
primarily along lines of containment, which
is out of step with today's environmental
problems. Trends in public health are
toward skillful management of the environment
with both the consent and cooperation of the
people, shifting from protection of people
to protection and wise management of natural
resources. Managing man's environment is
actually a management of organic material,
the surplus of which is organic wastes. The
special characteristics of water and their
relation to water uses are discussed. The
varied uses of organic waste are mentioned
along with their lack of management and
appropriate conservation measures. The first
step to be taken is to apply the aerobic
stabilization process to convert putrescible
and bulky organic wastes into a useable
agricultural commodity. The transformation
of present landfill operations into sites
where all types of waste organic matter would
be converted to compost is envisaged. The
possible use of algae for producing food,
and other technological innovations are
noted. The environment will be increasingly
man-dominated; organic material is probably
man's greatest resource. The greatest good
for all must be the criterion in balancing
of equities between private enterprise and
the public interest. Two major developments
are: the establishment of a useable scale
of values for the public interest, and the
development of public decision-making
machinery geographically matched to the public
resource problems.
64-0394
Taiganides, E. P. Agricultural solid wastes.
In Proceedings; National Conference on Solid
Waste Research, Chicago, Dec. 2-4, 1963.
American Public Works Association, 1964,
p.39-50.
The largest single problem in confinement
production involves manure handling and
disposal. The odor and fly nuisance of
manure, the large quantities produced daily,
the decline of manure as a competitive
fertilizer, and the encroachment of urban areas
on production units complicate the problem
of livestock and poultry waste handling,
treatment, and disposal. Little basic
research has been done on methods of manure
disposal. Virtually no information on manure
management is found other than in the popular
press. Technical papers based on research
are nonexistent. Most of the feed ingredients
91
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Agricultural Wastes
of animals are excreted in the feces
and urine. The amount of each feed
constituent found in manure depends on the
size and kind of animal, its condition, the
environmental temperature, the feed conversion,
and the water consumption of the animal. On
the basis of these parameters, the quantity
and composition of manure can be estimated
theoretically. The average daily production
and composition of farm animal manures is
tabulated. Although manure disposal is
perhaps the number one problem in livestock
production, there are five other distinct
sources of agricultural wastes whose handling
and disposal can be just as problematic.
These include human wastes from the rural
population, crop residues, wastes from rural
industries, agricultural chemical residues,
and disposal of 30 million dead birds from
poultry production units. No satisfactory
method of farm wastes disposal has yet been
advanced.
64-0395
Taiganides, E. P. Anaerobic digestion of
poultry manure. World's Poultry Science
Journal, 19(4):252-261, Oct.-Dec. 1963.
Anaerobic digestion as a method of treating
farm poultry waste is discussed. Advantages
of this method are the stabilization of the
manure, removal of the nuisance and
pollutional characteristics of manure, and
the conservation of the fertilizer value of
the manure. The major disadvantage is the
high initial cost. On the basis of a volatile
solids loading rate of 0.2 Ib per day per cu
ft and a 23 day detention period, the digester
a capacity required is approximately 0.37 cu
ft per hen. A 20,000 hen flock will require
a digester with 7,400 cu ft capacity. The
initial total cost of such a digester will
range from $11,000 to $25,000; the income from
using the available combustible gas produced
at 5,400 cu ft per day could be $900 to
$1,200 per year. Design considerations and
cost figures based on manufactured sludge
digestion equipment for different size
digesters are discussed.
64-0396
Taiganides, E. P. Disposal of animal wastes.
In Proceedings; Nineteenth Industrial Waste
Conference, Lafayette, Ind., May 5-7, 1964.
Purdue University Engineering Extension Series
No. 117. p.281-290.
The increased use of confinement production
of farm animals has created a problem of
waste disposal. Livestock and poultry
confinement units with 10,000 to 30,000
population equivalents exist, and
the number of such units is increasing. A
study of the properties, handling, treatment,
and final disposal of these animal wastes is
presented. The physical and chemical properties
of manures from swine, hens, turkeys, and
cattle are listed in a table. Using that
data the guide values for average daily
manure production and composition are given
in another table. The biological properties
are described and the major fertilizing
elements of the complete animal excrement
per 1,000 Ib of live animal weight are given
for hens, hogs, and cattle in terms of
Ib per day and Ib per yr. The elements
included are: nitrogen, phosphorus, and
potassium. The pounds of minor fertilizing
nutrients (calcium, magnesium, sulfur, iron,
zinc, boron, and copper) in 1,000 gal of
fresh animal manure are given for hens, hogs,
and cattle. The mechanical and
hydraulic handling of these wastes is
described. Physical treatment by storing or
drying is reviewed. Drying, either natural
or artificial, stabilizes the manure to some
degree, reduces its weight, and lessens it
attractiveness to flies. Dehydration,
pelleting, and bagging of chicken manure might
be profitable at $20 per ton if a market for
large quantities could be developed. Chemical
treatment is summarized. Biological treatment
in lagoons is now being scientifically
investigated at Iowa State University. There
is at present no entirely satisfactory
method for the disposal of farm wastes.
64-0397
Taiganides, E. P. Theoretical considerations
of anaerobic lagoons for poultry wastes. In
Proceedings; Second National Symposium on
Poultry Industry Waste Management, Lincoln,
May 19-20, 1964. University of Nebraska.
p.251-261 .
Lagoons for the treatment and disposal of
farm animal wastes are not the panacea they
are reputed to be by the farm press. They
have not been found suitable for the
treatment of animal manures because of their
high land surface and water requirements.
The design criteria for the reduction of the
solid matter of manure have not been
established. Generally, lagoons are
judged by the following criteria: stabilization
of the influent, control of odors, control of
flies, and appearance. A properly functioning
anaerobic lagoon should produce no vile odors.
The main factors in anaerobic digestion are:
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0395-0404
temperature, loading rate, solids concentration,
detention period, volatile acid concentration,
solid matter accumulation and scum formation,
essential nutrients concentration, toxic
substances, and pH. Some of the design
criteria for anaerobic lagoons discussed are:
size, water depth, inlet, outlet, shape, and
location. The most advantageous time to
start a lagoon is during the summer. Seeding
procedures are discussed. Mixing aids the
manure degradation process. Flies will not
breed in an anaerobic lagoon unless a scum
forms. Good bacteria husbandry dictates the
continuous feeding of the lagoon, except
when it is frozen. The value of anaerobic
lagoons will be better defined after the end
of experiments now in progress.
National Symposium on Poultry Industry Waste
Management, Lincoln, May 19-20, 1964.
262 p.
Twenty-two papers were presented at the
National Poultry Industry Waste Management
Symposium held at Lincoln, Nebraska May 20,
1964. Topics discussed included: waste
disposal concepts, principles and practices
of aerobic treatment in waste disposal, odors
and their control, anaerobic lagoons, social
and legal implications of organic waste
management, hydraulic collection of poultry
waste, health aspects of poultry waste
disposal, dead bird disposal methods--programs
and legislation, social, legal, and economic
considerations of animal production in
urbanization.
64-0398
Taiganides, E. P., et al. Properties and
pumping characteristics of hog wastes.
Transactions of the American Society of
Agricultural Engineers, 7(2):123-124, 127,
129, 1964.
The largest problem resulting from hog
confinement involves manure handling and
disposal. The quantity and quality of manure
are affected by hog size, food intake type
and quantity, water intake quantity, and air
temperature. When temperature averaged 80 F,
the daily manure quantity was 2.44 Ib per 100
Ib of live weight. When temperature averaged
64 F, 5.1 Ib per 100 Ib of live weight were
produced. The smaller quantity in summer was
due to high evaporation losses of water.
Since the pH ranges from 7.5 to 8.5, it is
favorable for biological decomposition.
Nitrogen was 7 percent of the total dry
matter. Total solids composed 17 percent of
the manure with volatile solids, 83 percent
(dry basis), and 14 percent (wet basis). The
production of BOD and COD was 0.35
Ib per 100 Ib of live weight daily, and 1.20
mg per mg of volatile matter, respectively.
Copper added as an antibiotic to hog feed
might be toxic to the bacterial population
in the manure. The solid content of the
manure 'pumped varied from 13 to 16 percent;
no water or bedding was added. Auger and
diaphragm tests disclosed that manure can be
pumped with greater efficiency and less
power consumption than water. The results of
the pumping tests were presented graphically.
Data on manure properties is given.
64-0399
University of Nebraska. Nebraska Center for
Continuing Education. Proceedings; Second
64-0400
Vector control. In Training course
environmental health survey, report and
recommendations, Greater San Buenaventura,
California. U.S. Public Health Service,
Mar. 1964. p.43-46.
The potential extension in San Buenaventura,
California, of suburban living and industrial
organizations into agricultural areas
necessitates planning and implementation of a
well conceived vector control program. The
past 10 years have revealed a multitude of
vector-borne disease cases. Important vector
sources in the area are bodies of water,
animal manures, and refuse. No planned
comprehensive control program exists for
rodent control, fly and gnat control, and
mosquito control. Budgets for vector control
are nonexistent. No single agency keeps a
complete record of nuisance complaints.
Recommendations by the group of health
service officials included a comprehensive
survey of the extent and nature of the vector
problems, establishment of a vector control
program, giving responsibility for the
operation of the vector control problem to
the County Health Department, and employment
of qualified vector control specialists by
the County Health Department. Illustrations
of the vector sources are contained within
the report.
64-0404
Walsh, J. D. A survey of fly production in
cattle feedlots in the San Joaquin Valley.
California Vector Views, 11(6):33-39, June
1964.
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Composting
During 1961 and 1962 an investigation was
carried out to study the production of flies
in the feed trough, feed apron, water trough,
under the fence, and the corral surface of
cattle feedlots in the San Joaquin Valley.
Samples, approximately one-half pint each,
were taken at each of the sites in the
corral. It was decided that one to ten
larvae per sample would be considered a
light infestation. The house fly, Musca
domestica, and the hiting stable fly,
Stomoxys calcitrans, were the most prevalent
and important flies found to occur in the
feedlots. The following conditions were
found responsible for fly production: damp
areas adjacent to the water troughs,
individual droppings of which 64 percent
were classified as heavy, accumulations of
wet manure pushed under feed troughs, residues
left in the feed trough, accumulations of
manure under corral fences, and unsanitary
horse stable conditions. No fly production
was found on the concrete feed apron.
Suggested fly control measures include: a
10 to 20 ft cement apron with a 1 ft slope
away from the manger around the feed trough,
the use of wire or cable instead of wooden
fencing and reduction in the diameter of
fence posts in the corral, and frequent
removal of soiled bedding and damp manure
and checking of watering troughs in horse
stables.
nutrients they contain. Availability of
cheap chemical fertilizers gives the farmer
little incentive to adopt this method of
disposal. The increased use of water in the
interest of hygiene, and the trend toward
fewer and bigger herds, accentuate this
problem. Disposal to irrigation ponds,
discharge to sewers, separate biological or
chemical treatment, septic tanks, and
production of silage liquor represent other
possible methods of effluent disposal. Sewer
discharge is the least propitious of the
various means, for resulting effluents
usually have higher permanganate values
than those resulting from treatment of
domestic sewage.
COMPOSTING
64-0403
Against composting. Public Cleansing,
54(4):864, Apr. 1964.
The United States, in general, is against
composting because of unsuccessful attempts
to clear economic hurdles. Americans consider
their refuse poor raw material for compost.
64-0402
Wheatland, A. B., and B. J. Borne. Treatment
of farm effluents. Chemistry and Industry,
2(9):357-362, Feb. 29, 1964.
The waste waters from farmyards arise chiefly
from animals' housing, and include contaminated
surface water from open yards and washings
from milking parlors and dairies. The volume
and strength of the wastes depend largely on
the manner of housing. The volume of water
used on dairies may range up to 30 gal per
cow per day. All of this water does not
require treatment as effluent. Data explains
the volume and composition of waste waters
from cowsheds and milking parlors. Dung
contains a smaller proportion of organic
matter readily broken down by biochemical
action than urine. Relatively little water
is used for washing down in piggeries, and
piggery effluents are usually smaller in
volume, but are much stronger than those from
cowsheds. Because of the cost and difficulty
of treatment, strong liquors, and, where
possible, washings from cowsheds and similar
buildings should preferably be irrigated on
land where use can be made of the plant
64-0404
Ahrens, E. Effect of municipal composts on
numerical development of azotobacteria. In
International Research Group on Refuse
Disposal (IRGRD) Information Bulletin No. 19.
Washington, U.S. Department of Health
Education, and Welfare, Dec. 1963. p.14-19
The effect of municipal refuse on azotobacteria
was recently studied with respect of
temperature effects, moisture content, and
inhibitory materials. Temperature was found
to have an adverse effect, destroying all the
bacteria within three days after the composting
process had begun. Therefore, the addition
of these nitrogen-fixing organisms in the
beginning of the process is useless. When
the temperature of the piles was held constant
at the maximum level for bacterial growth, it
was noted that different piles had different
effects on growth rate. Data for this test
is given in a table and it can be concluded
from it that these bacteria cannot maintain
themselves in non-decomposed material. A
sample of compost was then taken from one of
these piles, allowed to compost for another
18 weeks at 25 C and tested for effects of
94
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0402-0407
moisture on the bacteria. The organisms
had a higher survival rate in the damp
material. Further attempts were made
to show that inhibitory agents, but the results
given showed inhibitory action is not a
specific characteristic of municipal refuse.
approach to composting is to figure that the
cost of composting must be shared equally by the
refuse producing cities and the compost
users. No difficulties have been experienced
in selling the compost at less than $5.00
per ton.
64-0405
Black, R. J. Dutch use composting for
one-third of trash. Refuse Removal Journal,
7(1):20, Jan. 1964.
Thirty percent of all refuse in the
Netherlands is disposed of through composting,
reflecting a European trend and contrasting
with the failure of such attempts in
America. The Dutch can easily sell the end
products, agricultural compost and hot-bed
manure, at the rate of $5.00 per ton. The
City of Arnhem uses a Rasping System, which
is highly efficient. Other cities use
various kinds of composting systems. The
Dutch government promotes composting by
assisting cities in the marketing of the
final product and by operating a fleet of
railway cars to haul refuse.
64-0406
Black, R. J. Recent composting developments
in the Netherlands. In American Public Works
Association Yearbook 1963. Chicago, American
Public Works Association, p.199-207.
Several composting plants in the Netherlands
were visited. Arnhem's plant is one of the
newest Rasping System installations. On an
annual basis, approximately 26,000 tons of
refuse are processed to produce 19,000 to 20,000
tons of compost and heating or hotbed manure.
After separation, the refuse is discharged
into the rasping machine (A Dorr-Oliver Refuse
Treator), which reduces most of the refuse to
particles which pass through 22 mm holes.
After setting 4 to 6 weeks on brick pavement
with built-in drains, a rubber-tired front
end loader and a mobile conveyor-type windrow
turner are used to mix the refuse, to add
water, and to form the final windrows. After
two months, the compost is ready for sale.
Operating costs of the Arnhem Plant were
reported to average $0.70 per capita served
per year, The Dutch Government assists in
the marketing of the compost. The Soest-Baarn
composting plant uses continuous mechanical
composting with positive airation. After
sorting, salvage, and electromagnetic
separation of ferrous metals, the refuse is
loaded into a Dano Biostabilizer. The Dutch
64-0407
Braun, R. Biological processes during
composting, with special regard to hygiene.
Presented at Eighth International Congress
of Public Cleansing, Vienna (Austria),
Apr, 14-17, 1964, 7 p.
The different composting processes which are
caused by microorganisms can be divided into
two groups, the processes which bring about
a chemical, physical and biological
transformation of the organic substance, and
the processes which have an influence on
pathogenic micro-organisms. The factors of
special importance for the putrefaction
process are: self-heating, aeration, humidity,
microorganisms, and hygienization.
Putrefaction is an exothermic process caused
by micro-organisms. This self-heating caused
by intense microbial activity has three phases:
phase of rising temperature, thermophilic
phase, and phase of diminishing temperature.
The first phase is marked by very sudden
proliferation of the mesophilic bacteria.
The main stage of decomposition is completed
by the cooling down phase. An aerobic
putrefaction results not only in a longer
and an incomplete decomposition and in the
production of unpleasant odors, but also
gives no assurance of the hygienization of
the material. Sixty percent has been found
to be the most favorable amount of humidity
for the decomposition of refuse composts.
Actinomyceta and fungi are the most active
in the putrefaction of organic substance.
The ratio between thermophilic and mesophilic
bacteria rapidly increases when the
temperature in the pile rises above 45 C,
and this can be used to determine whether
the heat generated in the compost has been
sufficient. Sewage sludge can be transformed
into hygienic material by treatment with
temperatures over 100 C or by combustion. A
mixture of refuse and sewage sludge given
a hot putrefaction treatment with temperatures
over 70 C will destroy all the pathogenic
bacteria, but there is a considerable loss
of valuable organic substances. Later, a
lower temperature was found to be lethal.
A combined effect of temperature and of the
inhibitors, which are secretions of the
organisms, leads to perfect disinfection
of compost.
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Composting
64-0408
Braun, R. Effect of compost on plants and
soil. Presented at Eighth International
Congress of Public Cleansing, Vienna (Austria) ,
Apr. 14-17, 1964. 3 p.
Some of the recent research work of the effect
of compost on plants and soil is summarized.
Investigations at the Groningen Institute
for Soil Fertility concluded that with most
plants tested, the application of compost
improves growth, increases productivity, and
increases the organic content of a soil. If
compost increases the humus contents of soils
with less than the optimum by one unit, the
average increase in productivity will be
between 5 and 10 percent. It has been found
that humus in the form of compost can correct
extreme soil conditions. Forestry composts
(dry leaves, bushes, peat, etc.) have a high
carbon/nitrogen ratio and putrefy very
slowly (2 to 3 years). Additions of fresh
refuse which has been ground and putrefied
may shorten the process to about 5 months.
Refuse compost has been found to be of the
greatest importance in viticulture as a
substitute for organic fertilizers. It
supplies the soil with humus-forming substances,
thus improving the physical structure, and
reducing erosion. Applications of compost
have increased the crops of fruit trees and
have improved the texture of heavy soils to
such an extent that they could be used for
horticulture. Recultivation in mining areas
is possible through the use of compost.
can be combined with the addition of organic
material, for example fine grained urban
refuse compost or fine grained, specially
treated, old sphagnum peat. Subsoil ploughing
with a special type of plough, mixing some
top soil or some peat layers with the sandy
subsoil has a similar effect. The result of
such measures is the distrubance of subsoil
stratification, and, in addition, the
initiation of favorable conditions for
biological activity in the subsoil. This
process, which is a combination of mechanical
and biological homogenization of the
subsoil, will enlarge the total volume of
soil available for the plant root system.
Experiments in young fruit plantations are
promising. In the Netherlands, poor, sanriy
soil is intensively mixed to a great depth
(often 1.5 m) and organic material including
urban refuse is mixed to depth of approximately
0.080 m.
64-0410
Cairo refuse disposal. Surveyor and
Municipal Engineer, 123(3740):55, Feb. 8, 1964.
A brief description is given for a pending
investigation of Cairo's refuse disposal
problems by a British composting team. An
overall assessment 3 s planned for converting
Cairo's rubbish into organic fertilizer to
boost Egypt's agricultural production and to
reclaim desert wastes. A commercial scale
plant recently shipped to the area is briefly
described.
64-0409
Buringh, P. Some new possibilities for the
use of urban refuse compost in soil improvement.
In Proceedings; Second International Congress,
International Research Group on Refuse
Disposal, Essen, Germany, May 22-25, 1962.
p.1-12.
The possibility of adding fine grained organic
matter or urban refuse compost to certain
subsoils in order to stimulate and increase
root development is emphasized. Urban refuse,
stable manure, and other organic material
added to the soil is almost always given to
the top soil, the tilled layer. It does
not, therefore, contribute to root development
in deeper soil layers. The homogenization of
the stratified subsoils by subsoiling, deep
ploughing, and other mechanical means is a
good starting point in the improvement of
such soils. Various investigations have
shown that this activity is usually not enough.
Recent experiments in the Netherlands have
shown that a mixing of the stratified subsoils
64-0411
Carlyle, R. E., and S. Brotonegoro. Composting
refuse in Indonesia. Compost Science ,
5(1):22-25, Spring 1964.
A composting experiment utilizing refuse
from the city of Bogor, Java, Indonesia, is
described. Freshly collected refuse was
sorted to remove debris other than plant
waste and stacked into four piles. The
dimensions of each pile were 2 by 2 by "\\
m and its weight about 1.2 tons. The piles
were turned by hand and moisture was maintained
between 60 to 70 percent. The course of
decomposition was followed by weekly
determinations of pH and carbon-nitrogen
ratio changes. The study also included a
comparison of sheltered and non-sheltered
composting, as well as the effect of adding
nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers. Tabulated
and graphically illustrated data showed that:
(1) erection of bamboo and palm leaf shelters
96
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0408-0416
over the composting piles was not beneficial
under the climatic conditions of West Java;
(2) the addition of nitrogen and phosphorus
in the form of commercial fertilizers did not
benefit the composting process. The raw
waste apparently contained enough of these
elements for normal decomposition; and (3)
the' waste can be composted in a maximum of
29 days, during which time the carbon-nitrogen
ratio was reduced to between 1:10 and 1:15.
The material was reduced in bulk by more than
one-half and had a chocolate brown appearance
and a texture consistent with good compost.
Smaller cities can convert organic wastes
into useful compost by using this cheap and
simple method.
64-0412
Caspari, F. Capillary drying of mixtures of
city refuse and sewage sludge. Compost Science,
5(2):21-23, Summer 1964.
A new process, capillary drying, converts
city refuse and sewage sludge simultaneously
and rapidly into an easy-to-handle and neat
product. No odors deveJop during the process
and the finished product has a variety of
application possibilities. The process is
described in detail and illustrated by a
flow diagram. Partly dewatered sewage sludge
and treated city refuse are mixed together,
compressed by presses :!nto briquettes up to
approximately one-third of their original
volume, and subjected to an instantaneous
fungal growth. Within a short time the
briquettes heat up to 50 to 70 C, thereby
destroying the still-existing pathogenic
bacteria and worm eggs, and the entire
mixture is dried without creating any
appreciable odors. By this process the
concentrated and fermented substance of refuse
and sludge can be stored in a very limited
space, or can be piled up in the open for an
indefinite period of time. The material can
be reactivated by the addition of water and
used for aerobic humidifying in compost heaps,
and as mulch for surface covering. Untreatable
rejects, which amount to 10 to 12 percent by
weight, are burned.
64-0413
Cheadle and Gatley to compost the Simon way.
Public Cleansing, 54(3):796-798, Mar. 1964.
A paper on the methods of refuse disposal
prepared for the Cheadle and Gatley Urban
District Council of England, and the resultant
composting plant to be built by the Council
are reported. The plant has three digesters
and thorough dust extraction, and allows for
easy expansion, and conversion to a
pulverization unit.
64-0414
Clark, J. W. Composting domestic refuse in
a 'home unit' . Compost Science, 4(4):16-17,
Winter 1964.
Thermophilic microorganisms oxidize and
stabilize organic material in composting. A
home composting unit was constructed from a
55 gal steel oil drum equipped with a central
rotating drum and hand crank. Holes were cut
for ventilation and covered with copper
screen. Using garbage from a family of four,
grass cuttings, weeds and some paper, the
composter will produce about two cu ft of
good humns every 45 to 60 days. The large
compartment is filled half-way with clippings.
Garbage is distributed over the surface; the
lid is closed and the crank rotated. This
turning mixes the composting material with
the new garbage and aerates the mixture.
When the larger compartment is full, garbage
is placed in the smaller compartment. If it
is rotated too much, the wet material will
ball up. Water is drained from the garbage
and spread over the surface of the composting
material. The composter will reach 145 F.
64-0415
Compost. Public Cleansing, 54(9) : 1174-1177 ,
Sept. 1964.
A meeting of the Junior Members Discussion
Group of the Institute of Public Cleansing
held in Midlothian, Scotland, is reported. A
speech was presented on the city's composting
pl?nt, which converts sewage sludge as well
as refuse into compost. The group also
discussed composting in general, touching on
its development and the pros, cons, and the
guidelines that governs its-; use.
64-0416
Composting. Public Cleansing, 54(4):858,
Apr. 1964.
A conference called by the Community Council
for Lancashire, discusses composting. The
Council is attempting to encourage production
of reliable, cheap, and effective means of
improving the fertility of Lancashire gardens
and lots. The City of Leicester's composting
97
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Composting
plant, which includes a furnace that burns
non-compostable refuse is described.
64-0417
Composting plant for reclaiming refuse.
Engineer, 217(5653):974 , May 29, 1964.
The background of refuse disposal and
composting problems in the United States,
and the refuse reclamation process developed
by Westinghouse and Naturizer, Inc. are
described. The completely enclosed plants
use a 6 day nuisance-free method that enables
municipalities to dispose of trash and
garbage rapidly, efficiently, and economically.
The process is made up of the functions of
receiving, salvage, preparation, digestion,
and finishing. During the preparation, a
pulverator moistens, and a grinder chews
the refuse. The digester consists of six
insulated cells. High sterilizing
temperatures are produced by the decomposition
of aerobic, thermophilic microorganisms.
A rundown on the qualities and uses of the
final compost is presented. The
Westinghouse-Naturizer composting plant in
San Fernando, California is described.
64-0418
Composting refuse and sewage sludge. Surveyor
and Municipal Engineer, 124(3784) :33, Dec. 12,
1964.
The combination of sewage sludge and
toxm refuse in a composting plant at
Leicester is discussed as an answer to
the problem of a lack of dumping areas in
proximity to towns. The quality of the
finished compost is important and the
rejection of cinders and glass is necessary.
The water content of the compost must be
kept around 55 percent to prevent an anaerobic
nuisance or odor which requires that the
sludge be partially dewatered. The Komline
coil spring filter proved to be economical
for dewatering the sludge. The reject rates
which have been quoted as between 13 and
15 percent are important in the economics of
composting. The value of the final product
appears to be in doubt since the intangible
claims as a 'soil conditioner7 will have
to be judged by crop yields. In Jersey, the
authorities give away the compost. It is
concluded if the material can be disposed of
without producing unsightly abandoned dumps,
the costs of the composting plant are
justified.
64-0419
Composting treatment of town refuse and
sewage sludge. Surveyor and Municipal
Engineer, 124(3786):19, Dec. 26, 1964.
The discussion is given on a paper of L. P.
Brunt who had described a method of mixing
town refuse and sewage sludge to prepare
a compost which provides a means of
eliminating the refuse and also be a
fertilizer source. Among the questions raised
were: the problem of fine glass and metal
which caused trouble to cattle; the use of
P. V. C. containers; and the decrease in
paper and vegetable matter in refuse. The
question of a market for fertilizers made
from composts of refuse/sludge mixtures was
raised. Research Institutes commonly advise
the use of artificial fertilizers and issue
warnings about certain metals in compost
such as zinc. Mr. Brunt replied to some
of the queries as follows. Working on the
basis of free compost, a composting plant is
cheaper to install and run than an incinerator.
Although the character of refuse is changing,
the change is not expected to be rapid
enough to affect any reasonable planning
period.
64-0420
Davies, A. G. An appraisal of composting in
England. Compost Science, 5(2):29-30, Summer
1964.
The economics of compost production are
discussed. It is pointed out that a
composting plant should not be expected to
be financially self-sufficient. Direct cost
comparisons between one method and another,
or even where the same technique is adopted,
have proved impossible because many factors
and local circumstances have to be taken into
account. The organic content of the refuse,
the method of composting, the degree of
pre-separation, the final quality of the
compost and the income from sales, directly
affect the costs involved. While the
resulting end product of composting does not
necessarily have to be sold, the income from
such sales can be a welcome offset against
production expenses. A stable end product
of known and suitable formula and an
appropriate system of marketing are two
essentials for the successful sale of compost.
64-0421
Davies, A. G. An English analysis of
composting circumstances. Public Cleansing,
54(4):362, Apr. 1964.
98
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0417-0426
Government endorsed composting schemes from
a good cross-section of plants are recommended.
Economical considerations alone should not
form the basis of whether or not to employ
composting. The Fermascreen system is
discussed.
64-0422
Davies, A. G. A further evaluation of compost.
Public Cleansing, 54(3):783, Mar. 1964.
An excerpt from a speech on composting by
the Manager of Cleansing of Edinburgh, Great
Britain, at a meeting of the Institute of
Public Cleansing is presented. The outlook
on composting is shifting from that of a
profit-producing enterprise to one of an
efficient method of refuse treatment.
Scientific investigation to evaluate the
benefits of municipal compost to the land
is needed. As land space decreases and
incineration is prohibited by air control,
composting, and pulverization are the only
alternatives.
The plant can receive most types of industrial,
commercial, and residential refuse, with
workmen at selection conveyors diverting
salvageable material to storage hoppers
in four categories: cardboard and paper;
lightweight ferrous articles, rags, glass,
plastic, and rubber; heavier ferrous articles;
and aluminum articles. Non-salvageable
material is thoroughly mixed and moistened
in a rotating drum, and then flows into a
grinder equipped with flails on a rotating
shaft. As the material is ground, it is
pushed into a digester with six cells and
steel apron conveyors to move refuse into
and through them. Aerobic thermophilic
microorganisms, which digest the material,
give off odorless carbon dioxide and water
vapor. Since their metabolic processes
produce the high temperatures at which they
thrive, no outside source of heat is required.
The resulting compost, which has less than
20 percent of the volume and 80 percent of
the weight of incoming refuse, is stored in
bulk or bagged for sale.
64-0423
Detroit Metropolitan Area Regional Planning
Commission, Detroit planning group doubts
practicality of composting processes. Refuse
Removal Journal, 7(10):25, Oct. 1964.
Two basic methods of composting, the failure
of a compost plant in Phoenix, Arizona, and
the success of composting abroad are discussed.
Composting has succeeded abroad because of
the intense agricultural need for compost
there. Composting is impractical for Detroit
because the salvage and separation process
would be too costly to develop and the end
product could not find a ready market.
64-0424
Disposal system makes cash from trash.
Engineering News-Record, 172:32, Mar. 26, 1964.
A completely enclosed refuse disposal system
that reclaims saleable material designed by
Westinghouse Electric, is described. Some
of the advantages over presently used
incinerators and sanitary landfill operations
include: elimination of fill areas, odors,
fires and smoke; reduction in haulage
distance because plants can be located in
center of collection areas; and reduction
in costs through reclamation of marketable
material (almost 100% of all domestic refuse
can be converted into saleable products).
64-0425
Dried manure plants flourish. Compost
Science, 5(1) :31, Spring 1964.
A new manure dehydrating plant near the
Forth Worth Stockyards is described. The
manure is stockpiled in long rows where it
is turned frequently to speed drying and
decomposition. This greatly reduces odors
and, at the same time, kills any young plants
that may have begun to grow. The product
is ground and shredded, moved through a
gas-heated dehydrating drum, screened,
sacked, weighed, and conveyed into boxcars or
trucks. Three tons of manure produces about
2 tons of dehydrated plant food. The plant,
which is automated and employs 18 to 20
people, can produce 100 tons a day during
rush season. One of the disadvantages of
setting up a manure dehydrating plant is
that capital outlay is at least $100,000
before production can begin, and that
national distribution is a necessity.
64-0426
Egyptians ponder Cairo compost plan. Refurp
Removal Journal, 7(4): 12, Apr. 1964.
To alleviate the disposal problem for Caiio's
3,500,000 population, a 5-year consultancy
contract was placed with with Compost Engineers,
Ltd. The aim of the study is to turn rubbish
into organic fertilizer for agriculture and
desert reclamation. A 1V ton capacity test
99
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Composting
rig made in Britsir. was shipped Cairo, to
aid in field trails and in making an overall
assessment of the city's refuse disposal
problem.
6*0427
Etherton^ H. L. Oregon farmers save money by
composting. Compost Science, 5(1):20-21,
Spring 1964.
A method is described for the composting of
screenings, a by-product of the seed cleaning
mills. One such operation takes place on a
1,000 acres English Rye Grass farm in Lebanon,
Oregon, which also contains a warehouse and
seed cleaning mill. The dry screenings are
dumped into the composting area the latter
part of January. Several weeks of rainfall
will introduce enough moisture to start the
composting cycle. About the third week of
March, the pile will be stirred by a specially
constructed stirring machine. This automatic
stirring machine was constructed from old
automobile parts and scrap materials. The
machine is powered by a 1938 Ford V-8 engine
and has a hydraulic raising and lowering
mechanism. The stirring will produce a heavy
heat (170 F) in the pile, which will quickly
kill all seed germination. The pile is
stirred a second time about the middle of April,
which completes the composting cycle. The
farm composts 500 cu yd of material annually;
the weight of the finished compost, which has
a dark brown color and a strong earthy odor,
is 1,200 to 1,500 Ib per cu yd, depending on
the moisture content. The finished compost,
which is spread en the land to a depth of
about 6 in., produces excellent crops without
the use of any commercial fertilizer.
64-0428
Farkasdi, G. Experiments on the effects various
additives on windrow composting of refuse and
sludge. In International Research Group on
Refuse Disposal (IRGRD). Information Bulletin
No. 19. Washington, U.S. Department of Health
Education, and Welfare, Dec. 1963. p.19-27.
Experiments were conducted to settle conflicting
reports concerning the action of additives on
windrow composting of refuse and sludge. These
tests were to determine only whether or not
the additive accelerated the process. Special
attention was given to speed of temperature
rise and to ammonia content. The effectiveness
on fermentation cell proces.- was not
considered. Three additive accelerating
agents were used: (1) 'Edafil,' (2) 'Proteg
Oleo' and (3) 'Zusatze-Frankfurt.' The
compost piles were of uniform dimensions and
each was turned after the third, sixth and
ninth weeks. After fourteen weeks, the piles
were dismantled. It was concluded, after all
tests had been run and tabulated, that the
additives showed little if any effect.
64-0429
Fischer, F. Eight years of composting in
Vienna, Compost Science, 5(2):28, Summer 1964.
The composting plant erected in Vienna in 1956
has been in continuous operation and turns out
various grades of compost according to the
rate of admixture of mineral nutrients. Capital
and operating costs are kept at a minimum by
an inexpensive production process, and due to
its excellent properties the compost meets
with a ready market. The plant is able to
operate without any outside financial
assistance, since the sale of the compost
covers not only the running costs, but also
the interest on, and repayment of, the credit
raised for the equipment. Unfortunately the
yearly amount of refuse handled by the plant
is only 6 percent of the total refuse collected.
64-0430
Frangipane, E. Composting of solid city
waste. In Proceedings; Second International
Congress, International Research Group on
Refuse Disposal, Essen, Germany, May 22-25,
1962. p.1-18.
The technique of processing garbage into
compost is examined and the various major
methods available at the present time are
analyzed. Composting may be divided into two
distinct treatment phases: mechanical
treatment including sorting, homogenization,
or crushing, and screening; and biological
treatment involving anaerobic or aerobic
processef Natural composting methods
include any method in which the biological
phase develops after the arrangement of the
waste material in heaps on adequate land
prepared to this end, and the fermentation
process is allowed to unfold naturally in
the open until the waste material
has reached the required degree of maturation.
Mechanical treatment in crushers or by means
of a rasp can follow or precede the phase of
biological transformation. Artificial composting
systems are subdivided into static and dynamic
systems. Static systems provide that well
sorted, screened, crushed, and homogenized
material should be deposited in silos into
which compressed air is injected, together with
water or some other liquid in order to wetten
100
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0427-0434
the material if the humidity content should
fall too low. Dynamic systems were developed
to keep the material in constant movement,
submitting it simultaneously to huroidification
and aeration in optimum proportions for a
better and more active development of the
aerobic fermentation process.
64-0431
Franz, M. Large-scale composting in the
Soviet Union. Compost Science, 5(2):19-20,
Summer 1964.
A review of three reports, recently translated
from Russian government journals, shows the
value of composted wastes in building soils
and increasing crop yields. Corn, which
received compost application in the winter
time over snow, yielded crops equal to those
obtained when the compost was applied in the
spring. Other important facts cited are:
(1) Composting on all types of soil resulted
in an increase in harvest in more than 80
percent of 250 experiments carried out with
winter wheat, rye, spring wheat, corn, and
potatoes; and (2) Through composting, one ton
of manure was made to do the work of three,
and frequently did better. The superiority
of compost over manure was indicated hv the
following data: compost containing less
than 20 percent manure actually increased
crop yield more than manure when tested on
rye and winter wheat; use of compost caused
fewer weeds, and poorer soils responded better
to compost than did richer lands. Data
presented further showed that seeding compost
with benevolent fungus will offset the attacks
of fusarium wilt. Compost with trichoderma
is also active in the suppression of rhizoconia
of the potato, fusariodal and anthracknoid
withering of flax root mold in cereals, and
black stalk in cabbage.
64-0432
Furlow, H. G., and H. A. Zollinger.
Westinghouse enters composting field. Compost
Science, 4(4):5-10, Winter 1964.
Open dumping and burning are unacceptable
methods of disposal. Urbanization makes land
for landfills expensive or unavailable. The
refuse reclamation process developed by
Naturizer, SACS, and Westinghouse, performs
the functions of receiving, salvage,
preparation, digestion, and finishing.
Approximately 20 percent of incoming refuse
can be removed and disposed of directly to
markets. The salvage section consists of
four successive selection conveyors for paper,
glass, rags, plastics, and rubber; ferrous
metals; and aluminum. The remaining material
is mixed and moistened in a pulverator.
Grinding is essential for fast decomposition.
The digester provides a favorable environment
for aerobic thermophilic microorganisms. The
fine material is separated from the coarse.
Material not decomposed is sent to a landfill.
The humus is used for soil conditioning. The
San Fernando plant uses special flail grinders.
Reclamation plants use a small amount of land
and are pollution free.
64-0433
Glathe, H. Microbiological processes in
composting and their physical and chemical
effects. In Proceedings; Second International
Congress, International Research Group on
Refuse Disposal, Essen, Germany, May 22-25,
1962. p.1-13.
The first and most important purpose of
composting is to make a product unexceptionable
from the sanitary point of view. The second
purpose is to make a product that can be
considered as a soil improvement item. The
importance of mesophilic microorganisms in
the creation of sanitary conditions is stressed.
Whenever higher temperatures are required,
self-heating must be promoted. The three
stages of self-heating are: the stage of
rises in temperature, the thermophilic or
disinfecting stage, and the cooling stage. No
clear data are available on the changes in
types of microorganisms in composting. The
importance of vaccines recommended for composting
is as guides and activators of rotting processes.
Orientation of the composting process differs
very much according to the various procedures.
In order to determine the methods and measures
most safely leading to the aim proposed, ways
and means must be available to assess in
figures the results obtained, through these
measures. The value to be determined is the
degree of rotting or degree of maturation.
Maturation is achieved only when the material
is no longer in a position to produce heat;
rotting, however, must be interrupted earlier
so that the soil may receive the largest
amount possible of organic substances. The
last stage in rotting may occur in the soil
itself.
64-0434
Gotaas, H. B. Compost-plant design and
operation, In Solid waste disposal and
municipal equipment 'rental'. New York,
Buttenheim Publishing Corporation, June
1963. p.30-35.
101
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Composting
Many fundamental factors affect the design of
compost processing plants using biological
methods. These include the proportion of
organic matter and the carbon-nitrogen ratio
of the refuse, size of refuse particles,
moisture content of the refuse, temperature,
aeration, pH, testing and quality control,
fly and odor control, and pathogenic-organism
and weed-seed destruction. Transportation
costs are a major factor in determining the
most satisfactory location of a plant. Economy
of transportation relates not only to the raw
refuse but also to marketing the finished
product and salvable materials. Compost
preparation involves grinding or shredding the
material to a size suitable for composting.
If sewage sludge is to be composted with
refuse, it should be added either as a liquid
or as a filter cake after the shredding of the
refuse. The mixing of the sludge and refuse
is by means of a rotating tube or by a rotating
auger in a stationary tube. The aerobic
decomposition and stabilization process may be
either of two general methods: windrows or
bins turned every few days to maintain aerobic
conditions, or mechanized horizontal or vertical
silo types of digesters in which the material
moves mechanically more or less continuously
to provide aeration.
64-0435
Hilkenbaumer, F. Experiences on the use of
compost in fruit-culture. In Proceedings;
Second International Congress, International
Research Group on Refuse Disposal, Essen,
Germany, May 22-25, 1962. p.1-13.
Experimental research was done on the effects
of garbage sludge compost and its possible
use in orchards. The effect of such compost
on soils, on the physiological output, on
growth, on yields and quality of the fruit
was analyzed. The possible harmful effects
of garbage sludge compost were analyzed in
detail, namely, their lower damage limit on
the various soils and for particular bases
of fruit trees. The material used was the
composted city compost of Baden-Baden from the
Dano process. The humus fertilizers were
compared with peat fertilizers, manure, and
straw. In the course of three years, 100 tons
per ha of garbage sludge compost induced
higher yields of 13 to 76 kg per tree, as
against mineral fertilizing with apples on
strong developing clone bases in clay and
sand. Peat fertilizer had a similar effect.
In spite of repeated increases in harvests
of apples and common cherries, there was also
more growth of offshoots in most humus cases,
as compared to mineral fertilizing only. In
the drought year 1959 in the open, and during
a drought period in container experiments,
trees showed better foliage and less early
leaf drop when the soil was in optimum
condition of city compost and peat fertilizing.
On the basis of current findings, additions
of more than 100 tons per ha of garbage sludge
compost are not required for a positive effect.
64-0436
Integrating sewage and refuse disposal at
Leicester. Surveyor and Municipal Engineer,
124(3782):19-21, Nov. 28, 1964.
Leicester is planning on the installation of
an integrated treatment of all of its sewage
and refuse. Sludge from the sewage treatment
works, together with the refuse will be
hygienically converted into a useful
agricultural compost. The refuse is sorted
to remove the larger objects which are
incinerated. Waste paper, rags, non-ferrous
metals, and glass are taken to a salvage area
for sorting and baling. A magnetic separator
removes ferrous material. The sorted refuse
and sludge filter cake are continuously
rotated in a drum for 4 to 5 days during
which time mechanical breakdown, surface
disturbance, and aeration are continuous,
and biological oxidation of the organic
material takes place. The 130 F temperature
which is lethal to pathogenic bacteria promotes
a rapid decomposition of the material. The
stabilized material is screened and some of
the material is ground before the compost
is stored for maturing. The works were
designed to serve a community of 360,000.
The estimated cost was fc 3,720,000. The
principal trade wastes are from hosiery,
footwear, light engineering, painting, textiles,
chemical manufacturing, and gas plants.
Composting was selected on the basis of cost.
64-0437
International Research Group on Refuse
Disposal (IRGRD). Information Bulletins Nos.
19 and 20. Washington, U.S. Department of
Health, Education, and Welfare, Dec. 1963
and May 1964. 67 p.
This group of papers is a publication of the
International Research Group on Refuse Disposal
(IRGRD). It is divided into two sections. The
first contains six papers concerning the
effects of the composting process on bacteria,
mold fungi, and azotobacteria. Also presented
are the effects of additives on compost. The
second section contains articles on the
analysis of various problems of municipal
refuse removal including verterinary hygiene
102
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0435-0440
requirements and a description of a new
machine for grinding bulky refuse. A report
on the Eighth International Congress of Public
Cleansing is also included. Each article has
tables and graphs supporting its conclusions.
64-0438
Keller, P. Analysis and evaluation of solid
waste with regard to composting. In Proceedings;
Second International Congress, International
Research Group on Refuse Disposal, Essen,
Germany, May 22-25, 1962.
Garbage, sewage sludge, and industrial and
trade wastes of an organic nature are analyzed
with regard to their compostability, that is,
whether they can be disintegrated aerobically
by microorganisms and by a phase of higher
temperature to form a product that is sanitary
and without odor that may be deposited without
concern. In the chemical analysis of domestic
waste, sampling is important. An actual
representative sample of garbage can only be
taken once the waste to be composted is reduced
in size. Composting trials are made either in
small heaps 1.5m high and 3 to 4 m long, or
in plastic baskets with perforated walls. If
in a composting trial, there is no rise or no
adequate rise in temperature, proof is given
that one or several factors determining the
microbial disintegration are not as they
should be. In garbage rich in paper, the
periodical determination of cellulose
contents also represents a useful method in
the control of the rotting process. Analysis
and evaluation of solid waste with regard
to compost use involves evaluation of the
quality of the compost, its chemical compostion,
structure, and appearance. A general chemical
analysis and various methods for composting
trials are described in the appendices. The
general analysis supplies information
essentially on the relation between organic
and inorganic substances, between total organic
substances and organic substances that can be
disintegrated, and between the latter and
essential nutrients.
64-0439
Kick, H. Experiences on the use of compost for
the recultivation of mining regions. In
Proceedings; Second International Congress,
International Research Group on Refuse
Disposal, Essen, Germany, May 22-25, 1962.
p.1-12.
Results obtained from experiments show that
garbage composts, garbage-sludge composts,
and also sewage sludge composts can be
utilized for soil amelioration purposes,
provided that the cost of transportation and
the cost for the distribution of the material
can be kept within acceptable limits. A
thorough knowledge of the soil properties and
of the properties and composition of the
composts can be assessed with a fair degree of
accuracy and give a good basis for possible
utilization. The Rhineland coal areas may be
supplied immediately with garbage compost in
the amount of 300 tons per ha. This amount of
compost corresponds to the yearly garbage
produced by some 1,200 to 1,500 people. If
sewage sludge alone is used without garbage,
then it will not be difficult to use the
amounts produced yearly by some 2,000
people. Up to the year 2,000, the area
estimated necessary for mining purposes will
be some 25,000 ha, and every year some 300
ha should be returned to agricultural purposes.
The compost produced by some 450,000 people
can be used every year on this surface. The
experiences with garbage compost in vineyards
on sloping ground have shown that such composts
can be used advantageously to protect the
slopes against any erosion damage and also
to promote reforestation.
64-0440
Knoll, K. H. The influence of various
composting processes on non-sporeforming
pathogenic bacteria. In International
Research Group on Refuse Disposal (IRGRD).
Information Bulletin No. 19. Washington, U.S.
Department of Health, Education, and Welfare,
Dec. 1963. p.1-7.
It has been found through many years of
experimentation that in composting, the
raw material goes through several decomposition
temperature zones. This is true no matter
which process is used. These heat zones are
responsible for the destruction of all foreign
compost germs and substances. In the tests
described, two different strains of typhoid
were placed into composting material. One
set of tests was run with the bacteria in
sealed ampoules and in the second set, they
were innoculated directly into the compost.
This was repeated for each of the four
different temperature zones as given in the
tables. Resistance to the heat differed
according to the strain of bacteria used and
whether they were in ampoules or not. The
exception was zone four, where temperatures
ranged from 65 C and up. Here, all bacteria,
regardless of any factors were destroyed
within one day. Although high temperatures
were shown to be the main destructive agent,
microbial antogonisms aided the sterilization
as shown by the shorter life of the strains
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Composting
exposed directly to the compost. Graphs and
tables which give complete results are
included.
64-0441
Krige, P. R. The utilization of municipal
wastes. Council for Scientific and Industrial
Research, 1964. 71 p.
As a result of towns having difficulties with
respect to their dumping sites and concern
being shown by the South African Soil
Conservation Board, an experimental compost
plant was erected in Pretoria. With the
guidance of the Council for Scientific and
Industrial Research (CSIR), a comprehensive
study was made on the problem of utilizing
urban wastes with particular attention given
to the production of compost. This report
presents their results. It includes their
original plans, analysis of refuse to be
handled, characteristics of composting, all
pertinent chemical and biological information,
field tests to be conducted and costs
involved. Also presented are various tables
and graphs as technical information.
64-0442
Krige, P. R. Salvaging procedure and marketing
of salvaged items. In The utilization of
municipal wastes. Council for Scientific and
Industrial Research, 1964. p.31-33.
The salvaging procedure and the marketing of
salvaged items from refuse collections in the
city of Johannesburg, South Africa are
discussed. Clean corrugated draft boxes are
the only salvageable item on the refuse trucks.
They may be recovered from the tipping hopper
manually. Bottles and broken glass are
extracted manually from the elevator belt at
the tipping house. The first mesh screens
out the 'fines' and dust which are used for
refuse tip covering. The remaining three
meshes screen out organic matter which make
desirable soil builders. Bones are extracted
manually from the horizontal picking belt and
placed in large bins. Soiled paper is taken
out at the same time and conveyed to the
sorting floow. Rags are removed manually and
stored. A magnetic separator extracts the
ferrous metals and transports them to the
baler. The remaining bulk is transported to
the disposal site. Those products which are
salvaged are sold to contractors: they make
collections regularly. A table containing
the breakdown of refuse collected over a. two
month period is included.
64-0443
Krige, P. R. Engineering aspects of mechanized
composting with specific reference to the CSIR
research plant. In The utilization of
municipal wastes. Pretoria, S. Afr., Council
for Scientific and Industrial Research, 1964.
p.34-44.
In the CSIR research composting plant,
mechanization does not extend beyond the
biological stabilizer and the provision of
rotary screens at the inlet and outlet ends
of the main unit. As drawings show, rotary
screens filter out 'fines' at the inlet end
and grade the compost at the outlet end. From
the screen, the refuse passes into bins and
is raked into the paths of scoops. A large
constantly rotating drum, the main unit for
the primary biological stage, receives scooped
refuse. The drum facilitates charge aeration
by 24 air inlet nozzles. After time in the
drum, the compost enters the outlet end of
the screen. Due to experience with the plant,
additional scoops and rakes were added, main
gear box overheating was halted, moisture was
prevented from entering the slip ring unit, and
the jamming of the outlet door was stopped.
Keeping air inlet nozzles clean, stopping
drum 'climbing' , and protecting the
stabilizer door, air nozzle cylinders, and end
plates against excessive wear represent other
improvements made. Recommendations were made
for future designs. All bolts going through
the drum should have the head on the drum's
inside. Drums should possess a two-speed
arrangement and contain precautions against
dust formation. At least one manhole should
be on the maximum circumference of the drums.
Steps should be taken to prevent charge sliding
over the shell of the drum and fittings. The
girth rings' width, upon which the drum rolls,
should be increased and motors placed at the
outlet end of screens.
64-0444
Krige, P. R. Costs involved in the production
of compost from municipal wastes. In The
utilization of municipal wastes. Pretoria,
S. Afr., Council for Scientific and Industrial
Research, 1964. p.56-58.
The probable costs of manufacturing compost
are analyzed and explanations for the data
given are included. The influences of local
circumstances and costs make impossible any
general conclusion regarding the economics
of composting municipal wastes. However, the
likely trend of costs indicates that such
composting can be economical, in comparison
104
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0441-0448
with dumping, if the composting plant is
situated near the residential area. Compared
with the costs of the research plant in
Pretoria, savings can probably be made if more
composting units are operated simultaneously.
In order to arrive at comparable cost figures,
all operations must be expressed in common
units of time, distance, volume, or weight.
Re-introduction of 'fines' after composting
is also economically considered.
64-0445
Leatherhead compost. Public Cleansing,
54(1):650, Jan. 1964.
Compost produced from refuse in Leatherhead,
England, has been marketed quite successfully.
Sales have approached 3,000 tons and 6,500
bags in a 12-month period. Prices vary
depending upon where they are consumed and how
they are delivered. Chemical analysis of
the compost revealed moisture, 38.30 percent;
volatile matter, 23.50 precent; non-volatile
matter, 38.20 percent; total nitrogen in dry
solids, 0.88 percent; phosphoric acid in dry
solids, 0.59 percent; potash in dry solids,
0.33 percent; and calcium in dry solids, 2.86
percent. The pH of the aqueous extract was
found to be 6.90.
and a period of maturing, a compost is
produced.
64-0447
Leicester's sewage and composting plant.
Public Works, 95(1):118, Jan. 1964.
An $11.2 million combination sewage and
composting plant of Leicester, England, is
described. It covers an area of 93 acres
and has been designed to take a dry weather
flow of 20.6 mgd from a population of 329,000,
with provision for extensions to take 22.5
mgd. The incoming flow will pass through
mechanically raked screens, disintegrators,
and detritors. There are four digestion tanks,
each tank fitted with a scraper and four
mixing units which circulate the sludge
through a water-heated jacket. Lagoons are
provided to give some sludge storage capacity
and provide for sludge thickening. Four
vacuum coil filters dry the sludge received
from the digestion plant, the resulting cake
being mixed with the household refuse in
Dano Bio-Stabilizers for four days. Fermentation
is encouraged by blowing air into the mass of
refuse.
64-0446
Leicester, England builds compost plant.
Compost Science, 5(1):14, Spring 1964.
A $10 million sewage disposal works and
composting plant is nearing completion in
Leicester, England. The plant is built for
the combined disposal and treatment of the
whole city's sewage and refuse. The layout
and equipment of the plant is described in
detail. Glass, paper, rags, and metals are
removed from the household refuse in a salvage
house before the refuse is fed to the rotating
stabilizers. The salvage house will also
contain for Komline-Sanderson vacumm coil filters
which will dry the sludge received from the
sludge digestion plant. The resulting cake
is mixed with the household refuse for 4 days
in Dano bio-stabilizers. Fermentation is
encouraged by blowing air into the mass of
refuse. The operation takes place -at the
temperature which is lethal to pathogenic
bacteria and promotes the rapid decomposition
of the material. After crushing and screening,
64-0448
Martin, P. Plant pathology problems in refuse
composting. In International Research Group
on Refuse Disposal (IRGRD). Information
Bulletin No. 19. Washington, U.S. Department of
Health, Education, and Welfare, Dec. 1963.
p.7-11 .
The spread of disease organisms by composting
is a distinct possibility because of the
large amounts of vegetable and garden wastes
in it. Because of this, a study has been
conducted to determine the influence of
composting on these bacterial and nematode
pathogens. Plasmodiaphora brassicae (cabbage
hernia), which is effective only In acid soils,
can be checked by the addition of compost.
Also affected by compost application in
Heterobera rostochiensis, although in this
case it is supposed that the compost increases
the host plant's physiological resistance.
Other diseases such as Olpidium brassicae and
Rhizoctonia solani are destroyed by the high
temperatures occurring during the composting
process. Complete tabular results are included
in the article. (An excerpt of this appears
in Compost Science 6(3):23, Autumn-Winter
1966.)
105
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Composting
64-0449
National Canners Association Research
Foundation. Composting fruit and vegetable
refuse. Part II. Investigation of composting
as a means for disposal of fruit waste solids.
Washington, Aug. 1964. 51 p.
A program was initiated to develop and
evaluate methods of handling and disposing
of organic refuse giving particular attention
to waf.te materials from canning and associated
agricultural operations. Studies covering
the period 1961 to 1963 are described. The
results of the investigations indicated the
potential feasibility of aerobic composting
as a means of disposal for high-moisture fruit
and vegetable wastes. Particularly encouraging
was the absence of odor and fly problems.
Municipal compost, rice hulls, and coffee
grounds were mixed with the fruit wastes to
absorb the moisture. Chemical additives such
as lime and urea produced a more favorable
environment for microbial growth during the
compost process. Particular emphasis was
given to the frequency with which fresh waste
could be added to the compost piles. In
the thermophilic range, the stabilization
of fruit and vegetable wastes decelerated
with subsequent waste additions. Future
experiments will compare forced aeration with
mechanical turning as means of maintaining
conditions required for optimum growth of
aerobic microorganisms. Since the feasibility
of windrow composting was demonstrated, the
mechanics of collecting, grinding, and
distributing the wastes to the win.Ji-ows will
receive attention. An investigation concerned
with the fate of the compost process on
pesticides will be conducted.
64-0450
National Canners Association Research
Foundation. Introduction. First-year program
on bin-composting (1961). In Composting fruit
and vegetable refuse. Part II. Investigation
of composting as a means for disposal of fruit
waste solids. Washington, Aug. 1964. p.1-10.
A survey of methods of handling organic refuse
indicated that high rate aerobic composting
might afford an acceptable method of treatment
and utilization waste solids from the processing
of fruits and vegetables. It was concluded
that the high carbon content of fruit and
vegetable wastes, present in the form of sugars
and fruit acids, would be easily broken down
and assimilated by suitable microorganisms.
The composting experiments for 1961 were carried
out in six-open-top, redwood bins. For each
experiment the solid fruit wastes and a
moisture-absorbent material were weighed
before mixing. On the day following the
initial filling of each bin, the compost was
mixed and aerated by turning with a shovel.
The compost was then turned each day for 5
days, and then on alternate days until the end of
the cycle. Temperature measurements were
made daily and grab samples were analyzed for
carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium,
moisture, and pH value. The results of these
preliminary investigations on waste solids
from the canning of apricots and cling peaches
indicated that composting offered a feasible
and esthetically acceptable method of disposal.
Dry materials, such as municipal compost or
rice hulls can be used to absorb the moisture
from fruit wastes. The optimum initial
moisture concentration was in the range of
60 to 65 percent. The maximum weight ratio
of fruit to dry material was 250 Ib of peach
solids to 100 Ib of municipal compost.
Grinding the fruit shortened, by approximately
50 percent, the time required for stabilization
of composted of ungrounded fruit. Reductions
ranging up to 70 and 59 percent occurred in
the initial weight and volume of the mixtures.
Offensive odors did not develop.
64-0451
National Canners Association Research
Foundation. Second-year program on
bin-composting (1962). In Composting fruit
and vegetable refuse. Part II. Investigation of
composting as a means for disposal of fruit
waste solids. Washington, Aug. 1964. p. 11-30.
The fruit waste used in the second-year
studies was from either apricot or peach
canning. In the first experiment, apricot
waste was passed through a Rietz Disintegrator.
The ground material was layered into the bins
with municipal compost serving as the moisture
absorbent. Lime was added to the second bin
on the 7th day of composting at the ratio of
1 Ib to 200 Ib of fruit waste mixture. Because
the bin with added lime provided a better
environment for bacterial growth, the
temperature increased more rapidly than in
the control bin. In the second experiment,
lime was added into the mixture in an effort
to create more optimum conditions for microbial
activity and shorten the time required for
waste stabilization. The beneficial effect
of adding lime was demonstrated. An additional
experiment was designed to show the effect of
adding nitrogen in the form of urea to one lot
106
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0449-0455
of compost, urea and lime to a second, and
lime only to a third. When lime or urea only
was added, the pH rise was not as pronounced
as that which occurred when the two chemicals
were combined. Because urea supplied a
readily available form of nitrogen, bacterial
growth was stimulated, thereby stabilizing
the waste at a faster rate than in the compost
without urea. In the final experiment, rice
hulls were used as the moisture-absorbent
material, ground peaches as the waste source,
and the bins were utilized in a manner to
that of the previous experiment. Chemical
analyses are given.
64-0452
National Canners Association Research
Foundation. Windrow composting of fruit
waste solids (1963) . In Composting fruit and
vegetable refuse. Part II. Investigation of
composting as a means for disposal of fruit
waste solids. Washington, Aug. 1964. p.31-40.
Field-scale experiments were conducted to
evaluate windrowing as a composting method.
Equipment was modified for the purpose of
mixing, aerating, and turning the compost
windrow. Windrows were turned each day,
and samples were taken for routine pH and
moisture determinations. To study the effect
of periodic additions of fruit waste, four
windrows were built using rice hulls as the
moisture-absorbent material. The advantages
of continually adding waste to the active
compost mass were: that biological decomposition
proceeded most rapidly at thermophilic
temperatures, and that the removal of moisture by
evaporation was maintained at its highest
rate. Results showed an increase in ash,
phosphorus, and potassium as waste was added
to the windrows. In the final experiment,
coffee grounds were used as the
moisture-absorbent material. Approximately
5,000 Ib of waste was added to 15 cu yd of
grounds, then mixed and turned each day.
Only one addition of waste was added to the
windrow. The buffering capacity of the coffee
grounds prevented a pronounced increase in pH.
The coffee grounds apparently contained
sufficient organic material to prolong
microbial growth after the waste had been
utilized. It was surmised that coffee grounds,
after undergoing the initial process, would
behave as did recycled sawdust in previous
experiments.
64-0453
National Canners Association Research
Foundation. Forced aeration compost study.
In Composting fruit and vegetable refuse.
Part II. Investigation of composting as a means
for disposal of fruit waste solids.
Washington, Aug. 1964. p.41-48.
Between canning seasons, small-scale experiments
were conducted on forced aeration composting.
An air duct was installed under the bottom
floor of a specially constructed bin. The
floor was drilled with holes to permit the
air to penetrate through the compost mass.
Rice hulls were used as the moisture-absorbent
material. The waste was obtained from grocery
stores and consisted largely of leafy vegetable
wastes. During the experiment a total of
3,630 Ib was added in 36 additions. The
experiment was terminated after 71 days
because the waste did not appear to be composting
in a satisfactory manner. Temperature
elevation did not follow additions of fresh
waste. As the experiment progressed, the
maximum temperature became lower and several
attempts were made to revitalize the
composting process. Waste additions were
discontinued for several days in an effort to
bring down the moisture content. Because of
a heavy ammonia smell, the composting mass
was aerated for long periods of time. This
failed to cause any significant changes.
Nutrients in the form of diamonium phosphate
and dried yeast likewise failed to reactivate
the process.
64-0454
New sewage works commissioned at Leicester.
Surveyor and Municipal Engineer, 124(3773) -.25-27,
Sept. 26, 1964.
The new 20 million gal daily sewage works in
Leicester opened on Sept. 23, 1964, is described
with special mention of the eventual use of
the sludge from this plant being mixed with
the city refuse to produce an agricultural
compost. While the compost plant is expected
to produce a marketable product, the main
consideration in building the $1 million
compost plant was the shortage of dumping
sites in the area. The sorted refuse and
waste and the sludge filter cake will be
fermented at 130 F for 4 days with aeration.
64-0455
Niese, G. Tests for determining the rotting
degree of waste compost using a self-generated
heating capacity. Information sheet 17.
Zurich, Switz., International Work Organization
for Refuse Research, May 1963. 25 p.
The influence of progressive rotting on the
self-generated heating capacity of waste
107
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Composting
composts was studied in the laboratory of the
Institute for Agricultural Microbiology of
the Justus-Liebig University in Geissen. The
tests were carried out in Dewar containers,
which were put in an incubator. The counting
of germs was carried out according to the
Koch method of pouring slabs at breeding
temperatures of 25 C and 35 C. With increasing
times of rotting, the maximum temperatures in
the test decrease. This is true for test
material obtained from stack compost, as well
as for a mixture of waste and decayed sludge
which had been stored for 4 weeks at different
temperatures. It was also shown that there
is a relationship between the maximum
temperature rise during the test and the feed
materials, which are used for the microorganisms.
Estimates of the degree of rotting can be
proposed from an examination of maximum
temperatures reached.
64-0456
Nowak, W., A. Netzsch-Lehner, and L. Seibold.
Effects of a waste-sludge compost on
microorganisms. Staedtehygiene, 15(10):224-228,
Oct. 1964.
Bacteriological investigations of the soil
fertilized with a combination waste/sludge
compost were made and compared with manured
soil. To take account of the seasonal
influences, four series of tests were conducted
(in fall, late fall, spring, and in summer).
The samples taken from the late fall test
series showed primarily the existence of both
rod-shaped bacteria and cocci. Fungi and
various algae were also present. Bacteria and
cocci were also found in the spring and
summer test series. The summer test series
showed the most intensive growth of
microorganisms. The detailed results of
these tests are compiled in five tables.
A long-lasting improvement in the fertility
of the soil treated with sludge/waste compost
could be observed in some samples. This
permits the conclusion that a certain
fertility-promoting property can be ascribed
in some instances to the sludge/waste compost.
But no general conclusions can be drawn. The
applicability of this kind of fertilizer must
be decided in each individual case (Text-German)
64-0457
Obrist, W. Experiments on the effect on
windrow composting of ground household refuse.
In International Research Group on Refuse
Disposal (IRGRD). Information Bulletin No. 19.
Washington, U.S. Department of Health,
Education, and Welfare, Dec. 1963. p.27-36.
The mixing in of various additives of
bacterial, enzymatic, or chemical nature in
refuse composting is tested to determine their
value. The experiments were carried out in
plastic bags of 30 kg capacity. Three
different series were run, each consisting of
a different refuse composition. Each series
consisted of a control and five bags with the
various additives. The following items were
tabulated and presented: temperature,
moisture content, and pH value, in all the
series; germ count and cellulose activity in
individual series. Each different additive
had a slightly different effect. The
microorganism additives showed a minor
influence on temperature and germ counts.
Organic nutrients, sugar, cellulose, and sludge,
caused slightly stimulated decomposition.
Inorganic nutrients caused a positive influence
on decay characteristics and an increase in
germ count and cellulose activity. In
conclusion it was stated that microorganisms
were practically useless, and organic and
inorganic nutrients were only useful in refuse
of one-sided composition.
64-0458
Process unit was marketable goods from
garbage. Chemical Engineering, 71(8):90-92,
Apr. 13, 1964.
A new refuse handling process is described,
It can be operated in the heart of a city
and minimizes disposal problems. The nuisance-
free reclamation plan which has a capacity
of 150 ton per day of refuse salvages valuable
scrap, and turns the rest of the refuse into
a compost which has value as a soil conditioner.
The incoming refuse is sorted to remove large
salvage items such as bed springs. About 20
percent of the incoming refuse is sorted for
rags, paper, metals, rubber, plastics, and
glass. The selection conveyors are elevated
to allow the manual pickers to drop the
sorted material to shredders, bailers, and
containers below. The residue from the
salvage operation is mixed and moistened in
a rotating drum before being finely ground in
an impact mill having flails fastened to a
rotating shaft by chains. The digester
consists of enclosed steel apron conveyors
that travel 8 hr and are stationary for 16 hr.
The decomposing material spends 6 days in the
unit with a transfer from one conveyor to
another every day and an additional grinding
after the third day. The operating temperature
is maintained under 160 F during the aerobic
fermentation by ventilation. The final
compost has less than 20 percent of the volume
and 80 percent of the weight of the incoming
108
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0456-0463
refuse and can be used as a soil conditioner
to complement chemical fertilizers. Chemical
technology has contributed to the success of
this refuse handling plant which has been in
use for 9 months at San Fernando, California.
64-0459
Pulverising--a step towards compost. Surveyor
and Municipal Engineer, 124(3776):33B, Oct. 17,
1964.
In the 'Fermascreen' composting plant,
Compost Engineers, Ltd. claim that with the
'Seerdrum CE30' there is a 2 hr conversion
process with automatic salvage and rejection
separation. In a new unit under development,
the crude refuse is pulverized in the refuse
collection vehicle which reduces the volume
to produce what the manufacturer describes as
an attractive end product suited to
nuisance-free landfill operations. The
pulverizer should be of interest to authorities
in need of land for controlled dumping.
64-0460
Removing glass fragments from compost.
Compost Science, 5(1):21, Spring 1964.
The development of a new method for the
removal of glass fragments from compost
processed from garbage has been reported by
Leon Zeldis of Tel Aviv, Israel. The method
has been patented by the Israel Mining
Industries laboratories in Haifa, and
exploitation rights have been granted to the
Industries Development Corporation.
64-0461
Research reports on composting. APWA
[American Public Works Association]
Reporter, 31(1): 16, Jan. 1964.
The main objectives of the National Institute
for Water Research Council for Scientific and
Industrial Research, South Africa, were to
reduce waste; pollution and to convert
municipal waste into humus, economically. A
pilot composting plant was established and
the following conclusions were reached: (1)
Refuse composition was not a critical factor;
(2) Optimum moisture content improved the
decomposition and the quality of the end
product by increasing the nitrogen and
phosphorus contents; (3) Artificial aeration
must be adequate during stabilization; (4)
The drum promoted rapid decomposition and
produced a stabilized matter with no offensive
odor; (5) Compost produced under controlled
conditions would be safe to public health; The
mechanized installation of CSIR produced a
compost free of ascaris ova; and (6) Distance
of haul and the number of units are the
deciding factors regarding economics. It was
recommended that further field tests assess
the value of compost.
64-0462
Rodale, J. I. Can we clean the atmosphere. In
Our poisoned earth and sky. Chap. 29. Emmaus,
Pa., Rodale Books, Inc., 1964.
Air pollution and means of combating it are
discussed. Six advantages of composting over
incineration are listed: (1) It produces
virtually no air pollution; (2) The organic
materials are converted to a valuable end
product; (3) Other useful materials, such as
rags and metals, can be salvaged easily because
of a composting plant's method operation;
(4) Compost plants can be centrally located,
reducing the hauling costs that are so often
a drawback of the landfill method; (5)
Dewatering sewage solids can be easily handled
in a properly designed compost plant at about
half the cost of conventional disposal methods
in a modern sewage plant; (6) This method of
sewage disposal also control to a large
extent, one of the worst sources of water
pollution.
64-0463
Sanford, C. F. Why Elmira, New York chose
composting. Compost Science, 5(2):5-7,
Summer 1964.
After reviewing the possibilities open to the
City of Elmira for refuse disposal, the City
Manager recommended composting as the method
best suited to the needs of the community.
Savings of as much as $30,000 per year are
considered a possibility, and the objectionable
pollution caused by burning of refuse would be
eliminated. On the basis of the recommendation,
the City Council authorized a contract on
July 24, 1964, with National Organic Corporation
of Atlanta, Georgia, for handling the City's
garbage and rubbish waste through compost for
a period of 20 years beginning November, 1965.
Under the agreement, Elmira will furnish a
minimum by 20,000 tons of refuse a year which
will be processed by National Organic at a cost
of $4.35 per ton. Estimated cost for the plant
is $500,000.
109
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Composting
64-0464
Shatzel, L. R. Composting methods at Kingston,
Jamaica. Compost Science, 4(4):22-23, Winter
1964.
Kingston, Jamaica (population 420,000) has a
composting installation owned by National
Organic Corporation (NORCO). Refuse is dumped
into a concrete pit. An agitated belt carries
the refuse to the grinders. Liquids are
drained off through holes in the belt into a
sump pit. Glass, ceramic, and stone are
freely ground. Metal items are reduced to
approximately half-inch size. Material is
discharged into a dump truck which transports
the material to an adjacent field where it
receives a bacterial inoculation. The matter
is deposited in windrows for bacterial
'seeding' . Rate of flow is approximately
30 tons per hr. A temperature of 140 F is
reached in 36 hr. An agitated screen sifts out
the end product. Close to the sifting screen
is an automatic bagging machine which packages
the completed organic compost for sale as
fertilizer and soil conditioner.
64-0465
Shuval, H. I. Composting costs in Israel.
In Solid waste disposal and municipal equipment
'rental' . New York, Buttenheim Publishing
Corporation, June 1963. p.57-63.
The cost of handling raw refuse in Israel's
composting plants totals $4.50 per ton in Tel
Aviv and $5.75 in Haifa. These are equal to
or only slightly higher than some incineration
costs. Some communities in the United States
and other countries may find composting
favorable economically if a minimal market for
compost develops. An economic analysis of two
Israeli composting plants is given. A good
market for composted municipal refuse of high
quality exists in Israel, and is predicted to
continue in the future. In both plants,
revenue from the sale of compost alone does not
cover all production costs. If the income
from salvage falls considerably, as it may do
at times, the revenue from the municipal
subsidy may be the deciding factor in whether
the plants operate profitably or not. If a
favorable market can be developed for the sale
of compost, even at a nominal price, composting
of municipal refuse may well become an
economical solution for many American cities
as it has already shown itself to be in
Israel and other parts of the world.
64-0466
Sign agreement for plant construction.
Refuse Removal Journal, 7(2):35, Feb. 1964.
National Organic Corporation (NORCO), Atlanta,
Georgia, has entered into an agreement with
the M. W. Kellogg Company, a subsidiary of
Pullman Inc., naming the firm exclusive
engineers and contractors for construction of
National disposal plants throughout the world.
NORCO has specialized in the development of
composting as a means of waste disposal,
using a mechanical and biochemical process
for converting city garbage and refuse into a
useful organic fertilizer.
64-0467
Spitzer, E. F. Composting--its role in
European disposal--Part I. American City,
79(1):102, Oct. 1964.
The status of composting in Europe with
emphasis on Rome, Vienna, and the Netherlands,
particularly the Arnheim plant in the latter
country is presented. Despite a ready market
for compost, there is a trend toward
incineration, which prevents composting plants
from overproducing. Open dumps are also still
widely used.
64-0468
Spohn, E. Waste elimination by composting.
Staedtehygiene, 15(4):80-84, Apr. 1964.
Most compost made from domestic trash is not
true compost but a mulch which is full capable
of undergoing further aerobic decomposition.
Ignorance of this fact has caused some damage
in agriculture, and, consequently, some critical
market situations for this mulch. On the other
hand, compost from trash can replenish the
badly needed humus of soils. In fact, trash
and sewage are not wastes, but raw materials
to be protected from destruction. The compost
plant in Blaubeuren produces ripe compost
from trash and sludge which is safe for
sowing and planting. The worst kind of mulch
comes from the Dano process. It must rest for
several months before it can be used. A new
process is utilized in Schweinfurt where
trash and sludge are pressed into bricks.
They heat up until the ripening process stops
because of lack of humidity. Then the bricks
can be safely piled and stored. They can be
used as mulch or, after a further resting
period with increased humidity when they
completely decompose, can be used as compost.
Rules a community should observe when
contemplating acquiring a composting plant
are: not waiting until all landfills are
used up; advertising the compost well in
advance to ensure a good market; obtaining help
110
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0464-0471
from the specialists; and keeping some dumping
sites in reserve in case of emergency.
(Text-German)
64-0469
Stickelberger, D. How the Caspari compost
system works. Compost Science, 5(1):15-17,
Spring 1964.
After a review of the various unsatisfactory
methods employed for disposal of refuse and
sludge, the Caspari compost system is described.
The garbage is passed through a rasping machine
and blended with fresh or processed dewatered
sludge in the naturally obtained proportions.
The blended mixture is briquetted under a
pressure of 400 psi. The mass is reduced to
one-third of the original volume, although no
liquid leaks out during the process. The
whole process is completed in 10 to 20 minutes,
including the baling and storing by fork lift
trucks in the curing room. Spontaneous
fungus growth initiates a biological reaction
which is not yet fully understood. Temperature
rises rapidly up to 160 F inside the briquettes,
thereby killing pathogenic germs and eggs of
ascarides. The briquettes can be stored in
the free air until they are needed for a
variety of agricultrual uses. Advantages of
this method are: no bad odors develop; manual
labor is eliminated, since the whole process
can be mechanized and automatically controlled;
process time is cut from months to 20 minutes;
handling and storage are simplified; and
volume is reduced to one-third. A pilot plant
process based on this method, the Brikollare
process, has been developed at Schweinfurt,
where the first full scale plant for 80,000
inhabitants will go into production this fall.
64-0470
Strauch, D. Garbage disposal from the
veterinary health viewpoint. In Proceedings;
Second International Congress, International
Research Group of Refuse Disposal, Essen,
Germany, May 22-25, 1962. p.17.
Compost, especially that made from combined
sludge and garbage, may contain the pathogenic
agents of epizootics. In Germany, whenever an
epizootic occurs, the official veterinarian
investigates the causes of the outbreak. If
the outbreak is believed due to the use of a
compost that is not free of pathogenic agents,
the compost producer must prove that his method
is safe. Besides pathogenic agents of zoonoses,
there are also many specific agents pathogenic
to animals in sewage and sludge. Reliable data
are available on the fact that the generally
practices mesophilic rotting of sludge does
not kill all pathogenic agents. Experiments
carried out in the Baden-Baden composting plant
showed that the agents of psittacosis,
paratyphoid fever, and swine erysipela are
inactivated at the time of the first turning
over of the compost heaps and can no longer
be found alive in the garbage samples. This
is also true for the bacillus of anthrax, but
safe destruction of the anthrax bacillus calls
for a degree of constant humidity of at least
55 percent in the original material. The
addition of 'vaccines' did not seem to
influence in any way the pathogenic agents
contained in the compost. Examination of the
conditions required for 'cold composting'
showed that anthrax bacilie survived up to
251 days. The procedure, therefore, cannot
disinfect a compost.
64-0471
Surber, E. Experiences on the use of compost
in forestry. In Proceedings; Second
International Congress, International Research
Group on Refuse Disposal, Essen, Germany,
May 22-25, 1962. p.1-8.
Various types of composts have been used in
the last decades for soil amelioration in
reforestation, In order to maintain at a
high level the productivity of tree nurseries,
the soil should be given a good structure that
must be preserved over long years. The best
results are obtained with well prepared and
well putrified compost made essentially with
organic material. In forestry, systematic
composting will, of course, first of all use
material from the forest itself. The material
essentially used is leaves, twigs, peat green
manuring, and straw. Such material with a
wide C/N ratio (50:1) rots very slowly without
adequate preparation. Trials have shown that
such composting could be promoted and
considerably shortened by mechanical fiber
reduction on the original material, a reduction
in the C/N ratio, and control and orientation of
temperature and aeration. Adequate preparation
and supervision can bring the rotting process
down to 4 months. A variety of hammer mills
can be used for mechanical fiber reduction.
The reduction of the C/N ratio is obtained by
adding nitrogen containing substances such as
urine and ammonium sulphate. Increased
aeration and temperature control is secured
by repeated turning of the heaps. An addition
of fresh garbage compost strongly promotes
the rotting process. Mixed composts, with
equal parts of leaves, twigs and fresh garbage
compost give the best growth results. Mature
111
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Composting
garbage compost is essentially used for the
planting of forest trees, as it is even better
then mixed compost. Some data on sale
possibilities in forestry in Switzerland are
given.
64-0472
Thackrey, T. 0. The coming struggle to
breathe. Saturday Review, 47(41) -.23-25 , 114,
Oct. 10, 1964.
Pollution in the United States is examined.
The biological waste reduction plan of Phoenix,
Arizona, is studied. Examples of different
types of pollution are cited and the solutions
now in effect are given. The city of Phoenix,
Arizona, was involved in one of the most promising
waste disposal projects, involving a 20 year,,
contract with a private firm for the operation
of three biological waste reduction plants.
The city paid the company a disposal rate of
$1.25 per ton. Refuse was collected by dump
trucks, dumped into a pit, and conveyed to a
sorting house to get rid of non-compostable
material. It was shredded, and finally fed into
a large digesting drum where conditions for
maximum bacterial action were controlled. Time
of conversion was 24 to 30 hr. The compost
was then sacked and sold. However, because
of various difficulties, plant operation was
discontinued.
64-0473
Tietjen, C. Conservation and field testing
of compost. In Proceedings; National Conference
on Solid Waste Research, Chicago, Dec. 2-4,
1963. American Public Works Association, 1964.
p.175-186.
While at present 'composting' ranks with
incineration and sanitary landfilling as a
method of refuse disposal in many countries,
it must be realized that three groups of
persons ordinarily participate in the composting
of refuse: the producers of solid waste and
the officials and boards responsible for
providing sanitary collection and disposal
facilities; the inventors and builders of
compost processing equipment, and the compost
producers; and the farmers and gardeners who
are the expected buyers of compost products.
The three most important requirements concerning
compost quality are: an absence of substances
that are injurious to man, crops, and soil; a
high content of organic matter and plant
nutrients; and a low content of useless
substances like stones, slags, fragments, and
plastics. The importance of the composition
of refuse, moisture content, aeration, heating,
and processing time have been demonstrated in
numerous investigations. Some of the composting
methods are illustrated and described with
supporting data. The effects of crop yield
are summarized in graphs. It is suggested
that composting time in windrows or piles
should be shortened as much as possible, by
transferring organic decomposition process to
plowed land by utilizing a method of sheet
composting. The energy-releasing process for
solid conservation must be utilized and crop
production under a variety of ecological
conditions must be learned.
64-0474
Toth, S. J. Agriculture uses for hardboard
plugs. Compost Science, 5(2):24-28, Summer
1964.
The study was initiated to determine if it
would be possible to prepare a satisfactory
compost from hardboard plugs without shredding,
and to determine if the product could be used
as a mulching material. Three large batch
composting studies and a laboratory composting
study were conducted during the course of the
investigation. In batch No. 1, fertilizer
5-10-10 was used as the nitrogen source,
while in batch No. 2 a mixture of organic and
inorganic nitrogen-containing material was
used. Batch No. 3 utilized dried poultry
manure in conjunction with the hardboard plugs.
In the laboratory study, batch No. 2 compost
was used. Their resulting composts were
analyzed for nitrogen, potassium, and
phosphorous. Nitrogen availability studies
were also conducted. The results indicated
that it was not possible to prepare a
satisfactory compost from hardboard plugs due
to the physical nature of the material, and
that the nitrogen present in the various composts
prepared was relatively unavailable for plant
use. Comparisons were made between hardboard
plugs, wheat straw, peat moss, and composted
hardboard plugs to determine the value of the
plugs as a mulch. Findings indicated that
hardboard plugs and composted hardboard plugs
were effective mulches for controlling weeds
and for conserving soil moisture. They were
more effective than peat or wheat straw when
applied at a mulching depth of between 2 and
4 in. Hardboard plugs are not toxic to the
plants and can be reused for mulching.
64-0475
Turner, W. A., and A. Sowerby. To compost
or to burn. Public Cleansing, 54(5):909,
May 1964.
112
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0472-0480
A paper entitled 'Refuse disposal with special
reference to composting and incineration' ,
presented at a British Public Cleansing
Institute held in Middlesbrough, England is
discussed. Controlled tipping was treated as
becoming a system of the past. Determining
and comparing efficiencies and expenses of
incineration and composting is not feasible,
because of variation in materials, location
of plants, variety of methods, screening,
transportation, and ultimate deposition of the
end products. A description of the 13
ton per day pilot plant composting operation
at Middlesbrough, and an analysis of the
compost are included. Demand for the compost
in agriculture was questioned. Refuse disposal
techniques may be established on the merits of
the system for efficiently and sanitarily
disposing of wastes, and not on the demand
and value of end products on salvageable
materials. Incineration using stainless-steel
cones is presently being investigated in
Germany.
64-0476
Turn-key composting plants.
95(6): 86, May 1964.
Public Works,
Westinghouse plans to build reclamation plants
using a composting process that allows for
rapid, efficient and economical disposal of
trash. One plant has already been built in
San Fernando, California, which has been
successful. The compost product has been used
as a soil conditioner.
64-0477
Von Klopotek, A. Mold fungi and refuse. In
International Research Group on Refuse
Disposal (IRGRD). Information Bulletin No. 19.
Washington, U.S. Department of Health,
Education, and Welfare, Dec. 1963. p.11-14.
The action and appearance of mold fungi during
various composting processes was examined.
The experimental results are included in two
accompanying tables. Promoting agents were
tried on compost during several trials, but
their effects proved to be negligible because
variation in composition, moisture content,
and heat from pile to pile had a greater
biological influence. Piles from Baden-Baden
were compared with those from Bad Kreuznach
and Heidelburg in the main body of the tests.
It was found that increasing temperatures
caused greater fungi growth. Also noted was
a corresponding change in the composition
of the flora. Up to 45 C Geotrichum increased
by at 55 C the flora was solely Cladosporium.
Between the 45 to 55 C increase the fungi
count decreased because the organisms which
account for the most growth, namely Geotricum
and Mucorineen, could not survive the heat.
After the pile was fully composted and temperature
began dropping, fungi started to reappear,
growing from the outside toward the middle.
These late appearing fungi are mainly
thermophilic. Final samples taken from the
piles showed that the appearance of fungi was
highly dependent on the material, moisture
content, and temperature of the pile.
64-0478
Waste disposal in Israel. Wasser und
Abwasser, 105(20):555, May 15, 1964.
According to a report by L. Watson, Haifa,
Israel composts 60 to 70 percent of its
entire city waste. The ministry of health
permits only two methods of waste disposal:
orderly dumping and composting. The composting
plants are in private hands but receive
subsidies from the municipalities. The
amount of the subsidies is coupled with the
cost of living. For every cu m of compost
sold a small charge is collected from the
compost producer which goes into a fund for
financing research in the field of waste
disposal. (Text-German)
64-0479
West Indies compost operation supplies island
plantations. Refuse Removal Journal, 7(3):20,
Mar. 1964.
The end material of a composting plant in
Kingston on the island of Jamaica is valuable
as a natural fertilizer and soil rebuilder.
The refuse is ground, treated with bacteria
to accelerate deterioration, and then the
product is composted. The compost pile develops
an interior temperature up to 160 degrees, which
in effect, pasteurizes the rubbish, in addition
to hastening decomposition. The plant and the
composting operation are described in detail.
64-0480
Westinghouse offers to build plants to solve
refuse disposal problem. Western City
Magazine, 40(3):46, Mar. 1964.
The new Westinghouse Electric Corporation's
refuse reclamation plant is completely
enclosed. There are no odors, fires, rodents
113
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Composting
or smoke, and it prevents air and water pollution.
The pulverator reduces the size of the material
and mixes it with water to quicken bacterial
action. After grindings, it is sent to the
first of six digester cells for decomposition.
These six cells, arranged in two tiers of
three cells each, brings about decomposition
in days instead of weeks.
64-0481
Weststrate, W. A. G. Composting of city
refuse. In Proceedings; National Conference
on Solid Waste Research, Chicago, Dec. 2-4,
1963. American Public Works Association,
1964. p.136-147.
A brief description of each of the four systems
of composting is given: (1) the Van Maanen
system; (2) the Rasping system; (3) the Dano
system; and (4) the Hammermill system. The
fermentation processes and the uses of
compost are discussed. The main problem is
how municipal refuse can be processed to
reduce the amount of unworkable residue,
without detracting fron the quality of the
compost. The field of fermentation has been
widely researched. Investigators have proven
that disease germs cannot survive the long
period during which a temperature of 50 to
80 C is maintained. Compost is considered
harmless from the hygienic point of view,
provided it has been subjected to fermentation
at elevated temperatures. This is particularly
significant in the case of bacteria present
in sewage sludge when it is mixed with refuse.
Therefore, sewage sludge should always be added
to the refuse before the fermentation process
takes place. To be sure that pathogens are
destroyed, the temperatures during fermentation
should be raised. In the case of aerobic
fermentation, there is always a rise in
temperature; in the case of anaerobic
fermentation the temperature rises, but very
little. It is important to study the use of
compost as manure and as a means of improving
the soil. If the compost is not put to use,
all efforts to produce it are of no avail. The
only remaining possibility is to use the
compost as cover material on a sanitary landfill.
64-0482
Wicker, W. J. A new look at refuse composting.
Public Works, 95(10) :131, Oct. 1964.
The operation of the composting plant in
Kingston, Jamaica is described. The plant is
successful in Jamaica and would be successful
in the United States.
64-0483
Wiley, J. S. A report on three manure composting
plants. Compost Science, 5(1):15-16, Summer 1964.
Three manure composting plants are described.
A windrow composting plant treats a mixture
of feedlot manure from 5,500 steers, and meat
packing wastes, including blood. The windrows
are about 5 ft high and contain approximately
1 ton of wastes per m ft of length. Windrows
are turned six times during the 6 week composting
period. The resulting compost is processed
through a h in, vibrating screen, a 3/16 in.
rotary drum screen, a miller-type impact
mill, and a concurrent, single-pass, rotary
drum drier. Only minor fly problems were
encountered by the use of this method.
Composting of chicken manure by rotary drum
and windrow composting is the method of the
second plant. During experimental runs it was
learned that the moisture content of chicken
manure must be lower, in the range of 35 to 40
percent, than for composting other wastes.
Addition of carbonaceous wastes at a 1:1 ratio
improved the structure of the chicken manure
for aerobic composting and minimized the loss
of moisture and ammonia. A Eweson Rotary Drum
Composter was under test for composting
straight chicken manure. Each drum holds
about 150 tons, is divided into three
compartments, and has a retention time of 6
days. Air is blown into the discharge end
of the drum, Mud-ball formation was encountered
at a moisture content of 38 to 42 percent.
As of February 1964, no satisfactory runs
had been made in the rotary drum unit. The
need for addition of dry, low-nitrogen wastes
is evident.
64-0484
World's largest composting plant for Santo
Domingo. Surveyor and Municipal Engineer,
123(3752):58, May 2, 1964.
The world's largest composting plant with a
capacity of 800 tons a day is planned for
the City of Santo Domingo in the Dominican
Republic. The capacity figures are indicated.
The plant will handle 80 tons of unsegregated
refuse an hour for 10 hr per day. The plant
operator, National Organic Corp. of Atlanta,
Georgia, operates a plant in Kingston,
Jamaica, and sells the end-product as an organic
fertilizer. The City of Santo Domingo has
contracted to provide a minimum of 100,000
tons of refuse a year over a 20-year period,
and to pay a dumping charge to cover the
operating costs. The plant will cost $1,300,000
and will be built on a 20 acre site provided
by the city.
114
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0481-0489
REDUCTION
64-0485
Bretzke, D, J. You must have a garbage-disposal
unit. American City, 79(6) :177, June 1964.
Thornton, Colorado, has passed ordinances
requiring garbage disposal units in all
homes, and 99 percent of the city's 3,000
homes now have them. The ordinances and
their effect on the community are reviewed.
64-0486
Crushing refuse with the Gorator.
Brennstoff-Waerme-Kraft, 16(8):404-405 , Aug.
1964.
The inclined disk machine or Gorator consists
of a cylinder in which a disk rotating at
high speed and inclined towards the shaft
crushes, mixes, and kneads the supplied refuse.
Besides solid material like wood, small metal
parts, and bottles, it also accepts fibrous,
pasty, and viscous material. Gorators
with 2.5 m diameter and 3,000 hp are
being developed. Gorators are used to
homogenize raw material in the chemical
and paper industry and to treat refuse in
waste burning facilities. (Text-German)
64-0487
Crusher saves space.
Apr. 1964.
Factory, 122(4):169,
Crushing rejected tin cans is recommended
to save space and manpower. A high speed
can filling line kicks out punctured,
dented cans and their contents flow into an
adjacent 55 gal drum. An operator then throws
the empty can into a combination can and
bottle crusher. Crushed cans require less
space to store, and only one trip to the
dump is necessary per week.
64-0488
Rummer, F. A new machine for grinding bulky
refuse. In International Research Groups on
Refuse Disposal (IRGRD). Information Bulletin
No. 20. Washington, U.S. Department of Health.
Education, and Welfare, May 1964. p.56-59.
The Firma von Roll AG, Zurich, decided
several years ago to build a new machine.
They needed a machine made principally for
shredding bulk refuse and which met rigid
requirements. The requirement of ease of
charging was solved hy a large horizontal
opening which requires no special feeding
arrangement. The cutting process was done
by durable and exchangeable knives each of
which has four cutting edges. These shred
all bulky material. The third requirement
of minimum power was taken care of by
special construction details. A very
practical hydraulic drive and a power intake
of 37 kw were two of these details. The
machine was equipped with automatic controls
which permit the elimination of labor
except for the crane operator for charging
the machine. The machine was installed
on a building-block foundation in order
to lower costs and to satisfy the widest
range of customers. This machine for
shredding is very suitable for communities
which still dump their refuse. Illustrations
of the apparatus are contained in the
article.
64-0489
Neidl, G. Newer methods for refuse treatment.
Wasser, Luft und Betrieb, 8(12):734-738,
Dec. 1964.
A new method of homogenizing all kinds of
refuse, such as litter, carcasses,
digested sludge, fuller's earth from oil
refineries, waste from large chemical
plants, articles of clothing, dishes,
leather goods, etc. by means of a gorator
is described. Gorators have enormously high
shearing speeds (30 to 40 m per sec and more)
and homogenize the refuse into a stable
but pliable consistency. Several gorators
are described and illustrated. They can
operate at temperatures as high as 400 to
600 C, and can be used as mixers,
homogenizers, and pumps. Gorators on the
market at the present time range in size
from 30 mm diameter to 1.5 m diameter
with a motor strength of 320 p.s. Larger
machines of 2.5 m diameter are expected in
production during 1965 to 1967. These
machines will be able to crush and homogenize
sofas, automobiles, etc. It is possible to
install a gorator in the cellar of a large
building under the refuse chute. The
resulting homogenized refuse then goes into
the town sewage system. The durability of
the gorators has been very good; constant
operation of 3,000 to 5,000 hr is no
exception. A complete refuse-treating plant
utilizing a gorator is described and illustrated.
The treated refuse can be used as fuel or
compost. Experiments are in progress on
115
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Incineration
combining treated refuse with cement, water,
and plastic to produce building stones. The
cost of the plant and the personnel
necessary to operate it are discussed.
(Text-German)
64-0490
Gates, E. T. Refuse disposal--why
pulverization? Public Cleansing,
54(10) :1201 , Oct. 1964.
The Chief Public Health Inspector and
Public Cleansing Office of Worthing,
England, outline the reasons why refuse
should be pulverized before tipped.
Pulverized refuse is odor-free, more
aesthetic, more sanitary, denser (thereby
prolonging the life of the tip), economical,
and unnecessary to cover. The author,
whose city tips pulverized refuse, also
answers often asked questions on
pulverization and lists firms that
manufacture pulverizing units.
The use of disposers created no serious
problems in the sewage system. BOD and
suspended solids were increased by 20 percent
and 25 percent respectively by persons using
disposers over those who did not use them.
Since there was some question about the exact
load contributed by disposers, the General
Electric Company agreed to fabricate enough
prototypes to make another analysis.
Therefore Hoffman Heights was consigned
338 portable disposers. This analysis
showed the contribution per individual per day to
be 0.052 Ib/BOD and 0.064 Ib of
suspended solids. These figures will help
in the design of new sewer systems and
treatment plants. The tables included in
this article concerned the folJowing:
(1) Los Angeles area communities with
disposer ordinances; (2) average wastewater
characteristics and treatment costs; (3)
Denver area communities with disposer
ordinances; (4) average wastewater
characteristics and treatment costs at
Aurora; and (5) average load contributed by
disposers in Aurora.
64-0491
Pulverization. Public Cleansing,
54(7):1006, July 1964.
The meeting of the Midland Center of the
Institute of Public Health, at which R. H.
Smedley of Stafford, England, presented a
paper entitled 'Pulverization' , is reported.
Incineration and controlled tipping are
obsolete. Reasons why Stafford chose
pulverization are given. The unit
consists of rotary drum screen with opposite
rotation knives. Composting is the hope
of refuse disposal. In the discussion
afterwards it was agreed that modern
incineration and controlled tipping could
be operated efficiently and sanitarily.
64-0492
Watson, K. S. Solving community garbage
problems by the use of disposers. Western
City, 40(4):36-39, Apr. 1964.
Some 64 cities have ordinances requiring
the use of disposers. In Los Angeles, due
to the use of disposers and frozen and
prepackaged foods, the average of garbage
collected totalled a decrease of 0.25 Ib
between the years 1951 to 1960. Aurora
was chosen as a test city for the use of
disposers for a 5-year period ending 1962.
INCINERATION
64-0493
Air pollution. In Environmental health
survey, Wayne Township, New Jersey.
Cincinnati, U.S. Public Health Service, July
1964. p.35-40.
The Wayne Township zoning ordinance
specifically prohibits industry commonly
associated with air pollution. Disposal
of garbage by incineration is also
prohibited by an ordinance. The Agricultural
Extension Service reports that air pollution
attributable to automobile exhaust has
affected vegetable and flower farms.
Existing ordinances will not protect Wayne
from sources outside the community. It is
recommended that existing statutes and
ordinances to control air pollution in
Wayne be more strictly enforced. Wayne
should prohibit all open burning and
institute an active program for the control
of noxious weeds.
64-0494
Benline, A. J. Air pollution from the
municipality and the ;home and its control.
In Proceedings; National Air Pollution
116
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0490-0497
Conference, Washington, Dec. 10-12, 1962.
Public Health Service Publication No. 1022.
1963. p. 103-105.
Air pollution attributable to homes originates
with two basic operations. These are the
operation of heating plants and of refuse
disposal or incineration equipment. Minor
air pollution problems result from poor
placement of ventilators in buildings with
basement garages and from the discharge of
lint, odors, and steam from such domestic
devices as domestic clothes dryers or air
conditioners. There is also the problem
of dust emissions encountered during the
construction or demolition of residential
and other properties. Many municipalities
are operating residential housing properties
which create pollution problems. Even more
frequently, municipalities contribute to
their own air pollution from the operation
of sewage treatment plants, asphalt plants,
incinerators, powerplants, vehicles used
in public transportation, and similar
installations. The city without an
effective public refuse collection and
disposal system leaves homeowners with
little alternative but to employ backyard
incineration as a means of disposal.
Where the city provides municipal refuse
incineration, air pollution frequently is
created from the operation of large
incinerators. Methods for the correction
of air pollution from boilers are well
known. Correction of air pollution
problems can be handled through education
of the public and effective enforcement
techniques.
64-0495
Blowers accelerate incineration.
Engineering News-Record, 173(1):102,
July 2, 1964.
A fully enclosed, automatically controlled
refuse disposal system that uses forced air
to accelerate burning of waste material is
described. No fuel is used once the refuse
is ignited. Two 9,500 cfm blowers feed air
to the incinerator with air velocity
gradually and automatically increased to
force lighter material into suspension until
it is completely burned. The system includes
a building for unloading refuse; commercial,
industrial, and residential refuse is
dumped at the sorting platform, where men
remove salvageable material. A
pneumatic-tired pusher is used to
push non-salvageable material onto a
pair of hinged-steel belt conveyors which
feed towards the center of the building.
Here the refuse is discharged into a
4-ft-wide, 100-ft-long inclined conveyor,
which carries it to the burner 40 ft above
ground. Refuse is discharged into the
burner in a continuous controlled flow
and 90 percent is completely burned. The
remainder, a combination of ash and
non-burnable waste, can be removed by a
conveyor located in the base of the burner.
Fly ash is trapped by screens located at
the top of the burner. An accessory
system is available to eliminate smoke.
64-0496
Boston seeks federal aid to construct two
incinerators. Refuse Removal Journal,
7(8):22, Aug. 1964.
Boston, Massachusetts, is planning to
construct additional incinerators to
reduce the burden of its over-taxed
disposal facilities. Financing of the
project will be by a community facilities
loan from the federal government. The
initial loan will be for $75,000 or one
percent of the total cost ($7.5 million)
for initial planning. A consulting firm
is to be hired upon approval of the loan
to determine if incinerators are the
solution to the problem. Construction of
additional incinerators will permit the
discontinuance of the city's open dump.
The existing single incinerator
produces about 1,000 ton per week of residue
and creates the problem of locating proper
landfill sites. The additional incinerators
would solve many of the problems involved in
refuse disposal at present. Another
solution which was considered was the use
of sea-going incinerator ships.
64-0497
Boston turning to marine incinerators.
Refuse Removal Journal, 7(7):4, July
1964.
The Metropolitan District Commission of
Greater Boston, Massachusetts, expects to
receive authority for operating a fleet of
seagoing incinerators as a means of solving
the area's acute refuse disposal problem
and at the same time reduce air pollution.
The plan calls for the conversion of several
117
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Incineration
World War II Liberty Ships to ocean-going
incinerators at an estimated cost of $1.5
million per vessel. Preliminary studies indicate
the ships could handle up to 1,200 tons of
rubbish daily, compared to 600 tons handled
by most well-designed land incinerators,
which normally cost about $4,000 per ton of
capacity. Therefore, a land incinerator
with capacity equivalent of one ship would
cost over $4 million.
64-0498
Bremser, L. W. Incineration. In
Proceedings; National Conference on
Solid Waste Research, Chicago, Dec. 2-4,
1963. American Public Works Association,
1964. p.108-119.
A brief historical review on the development
of the incinerator used for refuse is
given. Very little is known about the
material to be burned. Some research has
been done on the composition of refuse
produced in a few midwestern cities but
more of such research is needed in other
areas of the country. Development of methods
of automatic charging will be made more
difficult by the physical qualities of
refuse. Refuse may mat and tangle and its
components may be of all sizes and shapes,
making it very difficult to handle
mechanically. Perhaps pre-processing to
achieve a physically more uniform material
would be in order. Modern incinerator
designs require that the refuse be moved
vertically a long distance in order to have
gravity flow through the plant. This is
costly when the tons involved are considered.
It might be possible to reduce this
distance by improved furnace arrangement.
If this difference in elevation is
necessary, it would seem more practical to
elevate the residue which is a relatively
small portion of the original weight of
refuse. In the furnace itself, maintenance
is a major problem. Even in the most
efficiently operated plants, the maximum
load factor obtainable is less than 90
percent because of routine maintenance
outages. Perhaps study would reveal
other methods of utilizing the available
heat besides steam generation. One
possibility might be the use of the waste
heat in the conversion of saline water
to potable water. In summary, research is
needed in all phases of incineration.
64-0499
Central incineration. In 1964 Sanitation
Industry Yearbook. New York, RRJ
Publishing Corp., 1964. p.18.
Central incineration, including its
advantages and disadvantages, costs, site
selection, truck scales, methods of
charging refuse into incinerators,
effective combustion temperatures,
combustion chamber, and fly ash, is
discussed. Screens, air requirements,
refractories, stacks, residue handling,
transportation of residue, design and
construction operation, maintenance, air
pollution control, and fly ash emissions are
also discussed. Incinerator, furnace,
combustion chamber, and subsidence chamber
are defined.
64-0500
Cerniglia, V. J., and H. J. Campbell. We
borrowed from the steel industry. American
City, 79(5):89. May 1964.
Incinerator design borrowed from the
steel industry, to reduce incinerator
maintenance problems is discussed. In
Oyster Bay, New York, the 500 ton per day
incinerator became overloaded, maintenance
and cleaning time were high, and efficiency
was down. The modifications made, including
thinner, sectionally-supported, air-cooled
incinerator walls, the use of slag-resistant
super-duty fire brick, and use of
stronger-bonding, tongue-and-groove-brick
are discussed. Results include 20 percent
increased capacity, lower burning
temperature, one-fourth the cleaning
time, and lower maintenance time.
64-0501
Chesarek, R. F. How to select an
incinerator bucket. American City,
79(8):80-82, Aug. 1964.
The incinerator bucket or grapple serves
as the key link between the incoming
material and the furnaces. The three-line
cable plan, using one cable for closing the
bucket and two cables for holding the bucket,
works best. The head of the bucket consists
of the head block, head sheaves, guide
rollers, related pins, and attached members
118
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0498-0505
or the hold lines. If the bucket remains
vertical at all times, little bending of
the cable over the rollers occurs. The
corner bars attach the bucket head to the
scoops. The simplest arrangement consists
of a single pin connecting all four
corner bars and also serving as the head
sheave pin. The scoops used in incinerator
service are the closed-scoop, or bucket,
and the tine, or grapple. Scoops have limited
pick-up ability, but serve as a good
clean-up tool. The grapple yields an
average of 40 percent more pick-up
capacity, but has higher cost, greater
weight, and is a poor clean-up tool. For
new installations, bucket size must be
related to crane selection. Incinerator
buckets are lightweight, although extremely
lightweight ones wi]3 not take the abuse.
Most incinerator buckets are constructed
of mild carbon steel, although some
critical items of tine-type grapples should
be made of more adequate material. On
doubtful items, manufacturers* standards
should be accepted.
64-0502
Chicago incinerator turns rubbish into
saleable products. Refuse Removal
Journal, 7(2):18, Feb. 1964.
The residue of a rotary type kiln plant
owned by Incinerator, Inc. in Stickney,
Illinois, 7 miles southwest of Chicago,
can find ready cash markets. The saleable
components are reclaimable metal, cinder,
and steam.
secondary combustion. Each comparative
test was conducted on the same day as its
base test which reflected normal plant
operating conditions. Thermocouple lances
were used to obtain gas temperatures. A
375 Ib per cu yd density for wet refuse was
achieved by spraying the refuse in the pit
for 24 hr prior to testing. An analysis
of the test results shows that the
combination of high- and low-pressure
overfire air has a direct bearing on
increased capacity. Arithmetical
averages of furnace outlet temperature
indicate more efficient burning of
average refuse with proper proportions
of underfire and overfire air. Fly-ash
carryover should be an area for separate
studies. Secondary combustion was
minimized or eliminated with proper
proportions of high- or low-pressure air.
64-0504
Dry dust collectors.
Apr. 1964.
Factory, 122(4):88-89,
Seventeen dust collecting and filte~J.n;j
units are given individual five line
summaries including a picture. Several
developments mentioned are reverse air
jet flushing, aluminum grate with built-in
suction, electrostatic particle removal,
fan suction, and glass fiber lint filters.
The 17 units discussed appear in the
equipment catalog section of the publication.
64-0503
Cohan, L. J., and R. C. Sherril. An
investigation of combustion air for refuse
burning. Presented at National Incinerator
Conference, American Society of Mechanical
Engineers, New York, May 18-20, 1964.
A test program was set up, using the
incinerator of a major municipality, with
the following objectives: to determine
the location and effectiveness of overfire
air; to determine the location and
effectiveness of overfire air in
conjunction with its ratio to undergrate
air in order to determine burning rates,
fly-ash carryover, furnace temperatures,
64-0505
Dust removal in refuse incinerator plants.
Wasser, Luft und Betrieb , 8(7):426-428 ,
July 1964.
A short review of the different incineration
systems is presented. In refuse incinerators
which use the heat utilization principle,
dust removal is not a problem. However
in smaller plants, a dust removal apparatus
is necessary. Experiments with American
air filters have shown that the wet dust
remover 'ROTO CLONF' and the fly dust
remover 'AMER-clone' as well as the
'Dustbox' and the 'AMER-therm' dust
removers can be installed. An incinerator
used for the incineration of paper was
fitted with an AMER-clone filter.
Measurements showed that the dust concentration
in the crude gas was 210 mg per cu Nm,
119
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Incineration
while after filtration it was only 36.9
mg per cu Mm. It was concluded that crude
gas with dust concentrations of not more than
1,000 mg per cu Mm can be controlled by
this method. To control larger dust
concentrations, experiments were conducted
with a silicon glass fiber hose filtering
apparatus, which is illustrated. Measurements
showed that the dust concentration in the crude
gas was 30.8 g per cu m, while only 0.071
g per cu m was found in the filtered gas.
64-0506
East Ohio Gas Company. Residential
incineration and its benefit to your
community. Jan. 196A. 23 p.
A study was made to determine whether
or not communities have benefitted by the
enactment of ordinances requiring
installation of incinerators or sink
grinders. A representative sample of
communities was selected, and personal
interviews were conducted with Service
Directors or other persons responsible for
garbage and rubbish collection and disposal.
Over half of the communities in the Cleveland
area having ordinances were contacted.
Communities not having ordinances were also
contacted to determine whether or not their
collection and disposal problems were more
acute than those communities with ordinances.
64-0507
Fishermen fight Boston plan to incinerate
refuse on ships at sea. Refuse Removal
Journal, 7(11) :16, Nov. 1964.
Boston, which has no adequate means of
refuse disposal, will try to pass a bill
through its legislature to authorize burning
of refuse aboard incineration ships and
dumping the residue 20 to 25 miles out at
sea. Commercial and industrial fishermen
claim that this proposal would be a grave
danger to local and world fishing.
64-0508
Garbage to gallons with new plant. Water
Works and Waste Engineering, 1(2):53,
Feb. 1964.
The first plant using heat from a refuse
disposal plant to convert sea water to fresh
water, will be built by the Hempstead,
New York, Department of Sanitation. The $6
million plant will include four AMF Maxim
Aqua-fresh heat recovery evaporators. Each
of the units could provide up to 112,000
gal of fresh water a day, if operated at
full capacity. Present plans call for the
operation of only three of the units at
one time, with the fourth held on stand-by.
64-0509
Gorman, B. Noteworthy features.
City, 79(7):94, July 1964.
American
The new incinerator of Garden City,
New York, features a naturally lighted
firing floor, twin receiving bins and an
inline layout that reduces the crane span is
discussed.
64-0510
Hangebrauck, R. P., D. J. von Lehmden, and
J. E. Meeker. Emissions of polynuclear
hydrocarbons and other pollutants from
heat-generation and incineration processes.
Journal of the Air Pollution Control
Association, 14(7):267-278, July 1964.
A source sampling program on the measurement
of pollutant emission levels from a
variety of sources includes a section on
the incineration and the open-burning of
commercial and municipal solid wastes. In
addition to the over-all emission data, a
primary objective was to establish the
relative importance of various combustion
processes as contributors of benzo(a)pyrene
and other polynuclear hydrocarbons with
demonstrated or potential carcinogenic
properties. Charts show the design and
operational summary of incineration sources.
64-0511
Haden J. L. Incinerator model convinces
public. Public Works, 95(7):94, July 1964.
A pit-and-crane incinerator with an
ultra-modern design is being built at
Lowell, Massachusetts. A unique feature is
the discharge of residue into containers,
which will then be lifted onto specifically
fitted trucks, rather than direct dumping
from the discharge hopper into receiving
vehicles. A display scale model version of
the polynuclear hydrocarbon content of
particulate matter emitted from incineration
and open-burning sources.
120
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0506-0515
the incinerator helped "sell"' it to the
public.
64-0512
Herring, F. W. Effects of air pollution
on urban planning and development. In
Proceedings; National Air Pollution
Conference, Washington, Dec. 10-12, 1962.
Public Health Service Publication No. 1022.
1963. p.190-199.
Questions are likely to arise, not so much
on the basis of need for air resource
management, as on the ability to predict and
control air quality, on the type of agency
best fitted to do the job, and on the
administrative tools available or inventable.
The chief sources of air pollution are
industries, home heating and backyard
burning, and burning dumps. Agricultural
practices like smudge burning and airplane
spraying of insecticide may also be sources
of pollution. Vehicles of transportation
are the chief mobile source. Open burning
of the accumulated waste and refuse of the
cities is usually the first to be prohibited
in any air pollution control program Planners
may make burial of comminuted material with
alternate compressed layers of earth the
occasion for planning new sites for
recreation or light building. Also to be
encouraged is joint financing among
communities of a plant to convert organic
materials from waste into usable forms, or
joint financing of an efficient incinerator
for combustibles. In Los Angeles County in
1959, it was found that residential land uses
contributed less than one percent of the
total contaminant emissions after prohibition
of backyard burning. The planner's problem
in air pollution control is one of locating
residences, industries, and agriculture,
parks, recreation areas, and freeways so as
to minimize conflicts of interest while
permitting normal area growth. Regional
planning and some limited type of
metropolitan government is necessary.
64-0513
Hiller, H., and L. Mackowski. A method
of determining the heating value of
heterogeneous waste. Gas, Wasser, Waerme,
18(2):26-29, 1964.
For determining the heating value of
heterogeneous waste a test incinerator was
constructed, equipped with an adjustable
gas burner whose heat development could be
measured. Thermometers and a meter to
measure the amount of flue gas were
installed. The combustion chamber was
designed to hold about 20 kg of waste. An
illustration and detailed description of
the test setup are given. The apparatus was
calibrated with fuels of known heating value.
The well-mixed and crushed waste was
weighed, filled loosely in the combustion
chamber, and ignited. When the flue gas
temperature and the carbon dioxide contents
in the flue gas sank, the incineration
process was considered completed. The
remaining ash was weighed. For the
theoretical evaluation of the experiment
the following data were obtained: amount
of heating gas and flue gas, carbon dioxide
content of the flue gas, amount of cooling
water and condensation water, temperature
of flue gas before and after cooling, and
water temperature before and after entrance
into the refrigerator. The surplus heat
calculated from these data and referred to
the unit of weight, yields the incineration
heat (upper heating value) of the waste.
A numerical example is given.
(Text-German)
64-0514
Honeycomb armour protects tipping floors.
American City, 79(6) :26, June 1964.
A veneer honeycomb of steel mesh and
concrete filler protects the Merrick, Long
Island, New York 40 by 70 ft incinerator
tipping floor. This saves the under floor
from the abrasion of track-type vehicles.
64-0515
Incineration of household refuse. Surveyor
and Municipal Engineer, 123(3755):51-52 ,
May 23, 1964.
The incineration characteristics of
household refuse are reported as the
result of tests performed to determine the
effect of high ash and pulverizing. The
normal operation of the incinerators
involved includes facilities for removing
cans, pre-picking, and pulverizing. The
samples included: (1) pulverized refuse
with cans removed; (2) ash removed as
well as tins, but not pulverized; and (3)
a sample representing British summer refuse,
but with more glass than normal and
pulverized. Sample 1 was typical of the
high ash British winter refuse and sample
2 was typical of the U.S. refuse. It
121
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Incineration
was found that the high ash content and
pulverization speeded the combustion.
Samples 1 and 2 burned uniformly and a
small water-spray cleaned the flue gases.
With sample 2, the mass had to be poked and
the burner had to be switched on to complete
combustion. The smoke emission was dense
at times and the after-burners had to be
ignited for short periods. No trace of
glass could be found in the pulverized
sample ash. The ash in sample 1 mixes with
the vegetable matter and absorbs the
moisture which increases the burning rate.
The glass in sample 3 does not absorb the
moisture and thus the burning rate is slower
than in sample 1.
64-0516
Incinerator. Engineering, 197(5105):284 ,
Feb. 21, 1964.
The Advel Venturi incinerator for disposal
of general refuse, confidential documents
and garden rubbish are described. The shell
is mild steel sheet; grate and secondary
air feed are cast iron. With the
exception of the grate components, all
parts are hot dip galvanized. The
secondary air flow unit is explained as a
hollow, conical part in the center of the
grate to increase air flow and provide
balanced combustion at the center of the
incinerator. Models available have 3.4 and
5 cu ft capacities.
64-0517
Incinerator. Engineering, 198(5149):823,
Dec. 25, 1964.
The Sealed Flame disposal unit made by
Universal Machinery and Services Limited
is described. Reported to be entirely
smokeless with every type of refuse
(wet or dry), four models with capacities
ranging from 26 cu ft to 170 cu ft are
discussed. Approximate burning rates are
given for each. The arrangement of the air
tubes make it impossible for the material
being burned to lie flat with the result
that everything is surrounded by air and
burnt right through.
64-0518
Incinerator develops power and produces
own fresh water. Public Works, 95(5):152.
May 1964.
The new 750 ton per day refuse disposal plant
being built for the Town of Oceanside,
Long Island, New York, has a waste heat
recovery complex providing both power
generation and salt water conversion. The
plant design and equipment is described.
With the large quantity of steam
available, it was determined to be
economically feasible to use desalting
units in place of the condensers that would
otherwise have been used in the steam
cycle. The exhaust steam from the various
turbines and the excess steam is used
in inexpensive single-stage, single-effect,
submerged-tube evaporators to produce
about 115,000 gal of fresh water per day for
in-plant uses. The total construction
cost of this unique plant will be about
$6,000,000.
64-0519
Incinerator for harbor debris and demolition
materials. Public Works, 95(9):140,
Sept. 1964.
A special incinerator was developed to
facilitate the incineration of large wood
piles, timber beams, floating debris, and
demolition products found in harbor areas
such as New York. Without further processing,
materials ranging from a few inches to
30 ft in length can be destroyed by this
incinerator, which incorporates a new method
of charging and a stoker system compatible
with the type of material to be destroyed.
A traveling crane with specially designed
grappling hooks, similar to cranes used in
logging operations, handles the large
pieces. The charging gates are to be
installed adjacent to each other, so that
when operated together they will provide
a 30 by 8 ft opening for charging. The
pneumatically or electrically operated gates,
in tandem, can be controlled by the crane
operator. The incinerator will use
inclined alternate moving stoker bars,
which will provide for initial drying
and ignition at the point of entry, and will
gradually move the debris forward to the
high temperature end of the incinerator for
complete destruction.
64-0520
Incinerator for unsorted waste. Food
Processing, 25(12):100, Dec. 1964.
The new KVS incinerator, which handles
unsorted, wet and dry refuse, and which
meets all local air pollution ordinances
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0516-0525
is described. The heart of the system is a
perforated, stainless steel rotating cone
which continuously tumbles waste material
during combustion. Small-sized ash and
non-combustibles fall through the
perforations onto a grate.
64-0521
Incinerator saves 25 percent in disposal
expense. Modern Hospital, 1 02(5) :1 38-1 40 ,
May 1964.
By installing its own gas-fired incinerator,
the 300-bed Grandview Hospital of Dayton,
Ohio, has eliminated flies, odors, unsightly
accumulation of waste, and the noise of
trash collection operations. The rising
cost of the previously employed collection
service was another disadvantage of the
older system. The new incinerator, which
had a daily capacity of 950 Ib, will keep
pace with the hospital's growth and with
the increased use of disposable and packaged
supplies. The automatically timed
incinerator can handle both plastic and rubber
items, plus organic wastes from surgery. It
is attended by two part-time employees.
Cost of the incinerator itself is $9,800.
64-0522
Incinerator uses cone-shaped grate.
Refuse Removal Journal, 7(11) :30,
Nov 1964.
A radically new incinerator for municipal,
commercial, industrial, and institutional
use disposes of waste materials with
complete burning of all objectionable
odors, total fly ash removal and minimum
ash residue, A chief feature of the
incinerator is a cone-shaped steel grate
which continuously tumbles the refuse.
This tumbling action helps to break the
refuse into smaller pieces, providing
maximum surface air exposure.
64-0523
Incinerators in Northeastern Illinois.
Public Works, 95(10):174, Oct. 1964.
There are ten incinerators in use in
northeastern Illinois with a total rated
capacity of 4,762 ton per 24 hr, and an
•effective capacity' of 5,354,000 cu
yd per year based on 250 full working days pel-
year and 4.5 cu yd of refuse per ton. These
data are based on the 1960 Eastern Illinois
Metropolitan Area survey of the area
by the North-Planning Commission.
64-0524
Jacke, W. Costs and economy of waste
incinerator plants. Staedtehygiene,
15(7):166-167, July 1964.
The costs of a waste incineration plant
are mainly determined by the size of the
waste storage bunker, by the flue gas filters
necessary to comply with the air pollution
regulations, and by the means required to
cool down the flue gases to 300 C, the
operating temperature of the electro filter.
Carefully conducted cost investigations
showed that a waste incinerator, operated
in connection with a low-pressure steam
generator, is most economical. Total costs
in this case run at about $4.50 per ton of
waste. Part of the costs can be recovered
by selling the steam, ash, and scrap metal.
If there is no possibility of using the
heat, the flue gases must be cooled down
by either adding cold air or by injecting
water. The first method can be discarded
because of high costs due to the increase
of volume of the flue gas. With the
second method the total cost per ton of waste
run at $5.50 because of the water costs
involved. A less expensive third method
has been developed. The flue gas is cooled
by generating low pressure (14 atm.) steam
which is subsequently condensed in an
air-cooled condenser and the water is used
again. The investments are about the same
as for the water injection method; the
total costs per ton of waste, however, are
much lower. (Text-German)
64-0525
Long Island incinerator to convert salt
water. Refuse Removal Journal, 7(3):12,
16, 25, Mar. 1964.
An ultra-modern, 700-ton capacity incinerator
being built at Hempstead, located on the
South Shore of Long Island, New York, will
also contain a unique saline conversion unit
capable of changing over 300,000 gal of
salt water to fresh water daily. The
incinerator will utilize waste heat from its
own furnaces as the fuel source. The water
will generate electric power for the plant
through a steam turbine. The plant will
need 288,000 gal of water every 24 hr. The
conversion unit is being installed because
123
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Incineration
no fresh water is readily available and
salt water would cause marine growth in the
pipes. This conversion eliminates the
normal requirements of a deep water well
and an extensive steam condenser complex,
and it prevents huge reserves of water from
being drawn from the Township's already
overtaxed underground resources.
64-0526
Meissner, H. G. Air pollution from
incinerators. Civil Engineering,
34(9):40, Sept. 1964.
Design and operation of the furnace as the
keys to the control of air pollution from
incineration are examined. The control of
combustion air is vital to the performance
of an incinerator.
64-0527
Meissner, H. G., and H. C. Johnson.
Discussions of 'The problems of applying
incinerator criteria.' Journal of the Air
Pollution Control Association, 14(9):366-377,
Sept. 1964.
The contentions that flexible criteria are
more desirable than rigid criteria for
incinerators, that rigid criteria hold
back design improvements, and that
efficiency of operation and construction
costs should be considered in rating
incinerators, are attacked as invalid. The
incinerator criteria are compared to the
building codes and specifications which
define what is acceptable so that the
designer will know in advance what to
expect and how to plan. With flexible
criteria, the examiner's personal opinion
may decide approval or disapproval.
Provision is made in both the New York
City Criteria, and in the Los Angeles
Criteria for experimental or temporary
permits with the final approval given when
the incinerators are found to operate
satisfactorily. The rating of incinerator
design on the basis of efficiency of
operation and construction costs is totally
unacceptable to a control agency, since
this would favor a poor design. The tests
described in the original paper on three
incinerator designs were of such short
duration and under such unfavorable
operating conditions that the results
would be considered unsatisfactory for all
three designs. Test results will not be
representative of actual emissions unless
the materials burned represent the usual
type of refuse to be burned and the incinerators
are operated in the manner expected
of the majority of the operators.
64-0528
Moore, H. C. Express concern for air
pollution at incinerator conference. Heating,
Piping and Air Conditioning, 36(8) :102-103,
Aug. 1964.
Papers presented at the First National
Conference on Incineration held in New
York, May 18-20, 1964, are summarized.
Technical sessions, devoted to different
phases of the incinerator process as well
as to the material and equipment involved,
covered general design, refractories,
furnace design, materials handling, heat
transfer and recovery, air pollution
control, incinerator plant operation,
instrumentation and controls, and apartment
building incinerators. Highlights of
the thirty-two papers presented include:
(1) the responsibility of a consulting
engineer in laying out a plant to meet all
current requirements of design and
performance; (2) a review of various
control methods for air pollution; (3) the
removal of fly ash by electrostatic
precipitation; (4) the effect.of furnace
design and operation on air pollution;
(5) health aspects of air pollution from
incinerators; (6) the development of
continuously fed furnaces with boiler
location on top; and (7) operating problems
in a large plant.
64-0529
New York incinerator burns one million
dollars a day. Refuse Removal Journal,
7(5):30, May 1964.
An incinerator of the New York Federal
Reserve Bank burns old and frayed silver
certificates. The New York bank is one of
twelve banks throughout the country that
destroys millions of dollars daily. Federal
Reserve notes are separated from the silver
certificates and are shipped to the Treasury
in Washington for destruction. Destruction
of the silver certificates is also
discussed.
64-0530
Nine towns ask for refuse area plan.
Removal Journal, 7(6):26, June 1964.
Refuse
124
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0526-0535
Nine towns in Northern Westchester County,
New York, have petitioned the Board of
Supervisors to set up a refuse district
that would build and operate a multimillion
dollar incinerator at Croton Point Park
on the Hudson River, adjacent to the Harmon
Yards of the New York Central Railroad. The
towns claimed that urbanization had eliminated
suitable incinerator sites in the nine-town
area. The board ordered a study of costs
of the proposed district and incinerator,
which the nine towns would share on a
cooperative basis.
64-0531
Officials complain pressurized cans
endanger employes. Refuse Removal Journal,
7(3) :27, Mar. 1964.
Department of Sanitation heads in some
communities are urging residents to store
pressurized cans in separate receptacles,
where collection crews can hold them aside
for disposal in landfill operations, since
these cans explode when they hit the flames
in incinerators, thereby injuring
incinerator stokers.
64-0532
Omaha plans paunch manure incinerator.
Engineering News-Record, 173(20):59-62,
Nov. 12, 1964.
Paunch manure, the undigested material
consisting principally of straw, hay, or
corn, and gastric juices, found in slaughtered
beef cattle, poses a difficult disposal
problem in Omaha. An entirely new method
of disposal developed by city engineers
and due for initiation in November 1966,
is described. The paunch manure will be
transported through city sewers to a
treatment plant where it will be separated,
dewatered, and burned. Since the packing
plants where the manure originates are on
high ground, the hydraulic gradient is
steep enough to keep it from settling and
lodging. A series of separation tanks
allows the paunch manure to settle
while channelling off the effluent for
treatment in the existing sewage plant. To
solve a tough dewatering problem, a brewing
industry press was found to work. Material
fed in at the top is compressed by a wedging
action as the rotation of two opposed
perforated disks carries it downward.
Moisture escapes through the perforations
and goes to the regular treatment plant,
while the dewatered material goes by belt
conveyor to a surge pile en route to the
incinerator, a rotary kiln much like those
used in the manufacture of cement. The
installation is expected to cost $1.9 million,
with maintenance and operation cost expected
to be $147,900 annually.
64-0533
A ram-fed incinerator.
79(12):69, Dec. 1964.
American City,
Three of the distinctive features of the
new, attractive incinerator in Clearwater,
Florida, are: a ram feeder that places the
refuse in the furnace; a quench tank and
drag conveyor which produce a cooled,
dust-free incinerator residue; and the use
of the effluent from the adjacent
sewage-treatment plant as the process water
for the entire operation, and the return
of all waste water to the sewage-treatment
plant for reprocessing before its discharge
into the bay.
64-0534
Rasch, R. Furnaces for waste incineration.
Brennstoff-Waerme-Kraft, 16(8):376-382,
Aug. 1964.
The various kinds of furnaces suitable for
waste incineration are surveyed. The
designs are classified according to their
capacity, kind of grating, furnace material,
and utilization of the combustion heat.
Dust removal from the flue gas and the
treatment of the slags (sintering, granulation)
are also discussed. It is pointed out
that, in order to ensure the most economical
operation of a waste incinerator plant, it
is necessary to carry out extensive preliminary
studies to estimate the amount of waste
expected, the costs of waste collection,
and transportation of the ashes. Revenues
from the sale of heat, electricity, and
processed slags should not be overestimated.
(Text - German)
64-0535
A regional approach to refuse disposal.
American City, 79(6) :94, June 1964.
New Haven, Connecticut, and two neighboring
towns plan to build an incinerator to
replace open dumps. The 750 ton per day
plant, and financing and billing programs are
described.
125
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Incineration
64-0536
Rihm, A.
Air pollution control in New York State.
Civil Engineering, 34(2):56, Feb. 1964.
The Air Pollution Control Board set up
in 1957 in New York State is described.
Built on an effective legal foundation,
the Board has grown in influence and
effectiveness. The personnel, and services
such as air monitoring, are explained.
The Board also initiates control rules
which help abolish problems from rubbish
burning, automobile exhaust, and inefficient
incineration.
64-0537
Riley gas or oil fired incinerator.
Surveyor and Municipal Engineer,
124(3764):44, July 25, 1964.
The Riley 'Gaserator' , a commercially
available highly rated incinerator
developed for the destruction of hospital
and similar waste, is described, and the
manufacturer's claims are listed. The
device may be operated with gas or oil as
auxiliary fuel to insure complete combustion
of malodorous combustible gases. An
installation in a 400 patient and staff
general hospital consumes 580 Ib of waste per
hr with a gas consumption of 1 ,500 cu ft or
7.5 therms. General refuse, kitchen, and
pathological waste, as well as dressings
and material from the operating theatre, are
included in the charge. There is no smoke
emission and the residue of bottles and cans
is completely sterile. The equipment occupies
a ground area of 20 by 30 ft. The equipment
is made in 10 sizes to burn from 300 to
6000 Ib per 8 hr day. The equipment can handle
waste products from factories which normally
cause disposal problems. The basis of the
operation is the injection of secondary air
after the products of combustion has passed
from the initial combustion chamber. This
permits the destruction of all smoke
producing elements.
64-0538
Rogus, C. A. Incinerator design. Part I.
In Solid waste disposal and municipal
equipment 'rental' . New York, Buttenheim
Publishing Corporation, June 1963. p.13-18.
Disposal of refuse by incineration is
inherently prompt, thorough, and complete.
The capability of incinerators to dispose
of all but the bulkiest solid wastes is
matched only by the sanitary-fill method.
The major disadvantages of incineration
are: higher initial costs of construction,
generally higher costs of operation and
maintenance, and the need for secondary
disposal of the residue. The design should
relate over-all incinerator capacity to the
amortized life of the plant and the estimated
quantities and types of refuse anticipated
within this life. The design also must
relate the fact that incinerators operate
best at 80 to 85 percent of rated capacity.
Incinerator furnaces may be circular, square,
or rectangular chambers equipped with either
stationary or moving grates of the rocker,
reciprocating, or traveling types. The
principal components of a typical
incinerator consist of: receiving and
storage facilities, refuse-handling
facilities, furnaces, residue-removal system,
fly-ash removal system, and exhaust gas
system. Extensive field tests indicate that
for practically all operating conditions
and types of mixed refuse, the use of 50
percent underfire air and 50 percent
overfire air provides the maximum burning
rate consistent with a good residue and the
minimum emission of particulate matter.
64-0539
Rogus, C. A. Incinerator design. Part II.
In Solid waste disposal and municipal
equipment 'rental' New York, Buttenheim
Publishing Corporation, June 1963. p.19-24.
The basic elements that affect initial costs
of incinerators are: type of foundations
required; degree of refinements required
locally against dust, odor, and stack
emission; interior clearances for headroom,
maneuvering, and operating space; capacity of
storage pits; enclosure or non-enclosure of
tipping floor area; and enclosure or
non-enclosure of furnace and operating
areas. The best performance requires
skilled operation and supervision based on
meaningful operating data gathered with the
aid of proper instrumentation. The three,
major variables controlling efficiency of
burning are refuse, air, and water. The skill
used in their proportioning and points of
application should be guided by pertinent
data obtained from instrumentation. To date,
too few instruments are installed, and even
fewer are used and kept in operable condition.
Information that should be obtained on a
continuing basis includes: quantities of
refuse charged and residue taken out;
stoker speeds and cumulative footage
traveled; and amounts and locations of
under-fire and over-fire air. Maintenance
126
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0536-0543
should be of both the preventive and routine
type. The cost of proper maintenance may
be expected to run between 5 and 10 percent
of the total cost of operation.
64-0540
Rogus, C. A. Municipal incineration of refuse:
foreword and introduction. Journal of the
Sanitary Engineering Division, American
Society of Civil Engineers, 90(SA 3):13-26,
June 1964.
Dumping refuse is unsanitary and hazardous
to health. Reduction disposal practices
have decreased with the development of
synthetic detergents and fertilizers and
with the high costs of odor-reduction
equipment. Piggeries necessitate separate,
costly collection. Grinding of garbage is
quite sanitary, but can be costlier
than incineration. Domestic incinerators
are beneficial in reducing the municipality's
load, but may be unsafe. Operating elements,
requirements, and costs of both composting
and sanitary landfill are included. Major
components and functions of municipal
incinerators include tipping floors,
storage pit, furnaces and residue system,
combustion and substance chambers, and
chimneys. Incineration is prompt, thorough,
and complete. Its major disadvantages are
higher costs, need for skilled operators,
and the need for secondary disposal of
residue. Incinerator operation in the
United States began in the late 1800's. In
1929 three 500-ton incinerators were
opened in New York City, triggering similar
progress across the continent. Until
about 1930, operation costs were reduced
through salvaging marketable products, but
these salvagables were replaced by plastics
and synthetics. In determining a plant's
design capacity, consideration must be
given to the plant's objective, its
amortized life, type of refuse processed
and variations in refuse output, number of
plants, operating shifts, and plant
operating factor. Incineration costs are
enumerated, and tables are included. Research
needs are discussed, including auxiliary
heating, stack emissions, and other
nuisance and abatement measures. Alternate
methods of disposal, such as dumping on
land, dumping into lakes and oceans,
grinding, domestic incineration, etc.,
are discussed.
64-0541
Sager, J. C. Minneapolis-Saint Paul
sanitary district incinerates scum. Water
and Sewage Works, 111(9):393-396, Sept.
1964.
Various methods of scum collection and
disposal used at the Minneapolis-Saint
Paul Sewage Treatment Plant since 1938 and
found to be relatively unsatisfactory are
described. Inquiries into incinerators
and Bump pumps starting in 1957 led to the
development of a scum incineration system
which is described through several stages
of modification. Diagrams and photographs
of the final sy?ten. are included. The
process of scum collection consists of hand
skimming with special rakes in scum
troughs. Successive equipment in the
process includes a disintegrator, 3-in.
Bump pump., decanted liquid receiver.
feeder tank, and 2-in Bump pump. The
incinerator has no moving feeding equipment
or grates, and has primary and secondary
combustion chambers. The draft is controlled
by an automatic motorized guillotine damper
in the breeching. The 4 oil burners
are automatically controlled, and burn
No. 2 oil with an indicating pyrometer
for each and a cut-off at 1,600 F. During
the first three months of 1964, 630.5 ton
of decanted scum were incinerated using
an average of 5.8 gal of No. 2 oil per ton of
scum.
64-0542
Sea-going trash burners. Engineering
News-Record, 172(7):51, Feb. 13, 1964.
A $2 million scheme to coivprf old
World War II Liberty ships into floating
refuse incinerators for the Boston
metropolitan area is reported. Trucks
would load the incinerator ships, which
would sail 20 miles out to sea, fire up
their incinerators, and dump the ashes
at sea.
64-0543
Shequine, E. R. Steam generation from
incineratior.. Public Works, 95(8):92,
Aug. 1964.
The potentials for energy recovery from
refuse incineration are examined.
Different types of steam-generating
boilers are discussed. The plant at
Hempstead, New York, is a relatively
good model of an incinerator fully
utilizing waste heat.
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Incineration
64-0544
Skitt, J. The furnace. In Disposal works:
plant and maintenance. London, Temple Press
Books Ltd., 1964. p.37-58.
The historical development of the furnace
for refuse incineration is reviewed.
Probably the mort important development was
that of forced draught, in which air was
forced through from the underside of the
grate, obviating the need for high chimney
stacks and slowing the rate of the gases,
movement through the flues for more efficient
combustion. The incineration unit today
is built of steel casings with division
plates built up to the grate level. At
grate level, which is a suitable height for
stoking and clinkering, the only separation
of cells is the division casting. The
firebars are located on the front deadplatc
and rest on the back casting. The roof of
the furnace is in the form of a firebrick
arch. At one end of the continuous grate is
the combustion chamber into which the
intermingling gases pass. Modifications of
the modern incinerator are discussed. The
furnace, by securing complete combustion,
renders refuse innocuous. To achieve
complete combustion there musL be an adequate
quantity of air supplied to the furnace, the
temperature of the furnace must be
correct and the intermingling of gases must
be sufficient. The efficient cleaning of
flue gases is accomplished through an
apparatus referred to as the Wator
Trough. Electrostatic precipitation is the
most efficient, yet the most expensive method
for flue dust extraction. Dust passing
through an air gap between negative and
positive electrodes becomes ionized and
moves toward the positive electrode.
Incinerators which use different principles
of operation are the revolving grate type
and the stepped grate type. The operation
of the Morse Boulger incinerator, which is
currently in use in the United States, is
discussed.
64-0545
Skitt, J. Trade refuse incinerators. In
Disposal works: plant and maintenance.
London, Temple Press Books Ltd. , 1964.
p.60-61.
Trade refuse incinerators are used for the
bulky refuse which cannot be handled by the
separation plant. This refuse consists of
furniture, carcasses, offal, and bulky trade
refuse which were previously burned in
the combustion chamber. Trade refuse
incinerators ususHly consist of one cell
only, although more than one may be required
if general incineration is not practiced.
The location is of particular importance
because of the need for the direct
discharge of waste materials into the
furnace without handling. An existing
chimney stack should be used. High-pressure
air is used when burning 'difficult'
material. An independent unit warrants
serious consideration in large plants and
can provide heat for the hot-water and
heating system. The design of the furnace
is similar to that used for domestic refuse
although certain design problems must be
taken into account. In order to allow the
feeding of bulky material with as little
breaking up as possible, it is necessary
to have a large opening. Although feeding
from the top is itself most desirable it
is likely to weaken the main arch and this
can be resolved by arranging the storage
platform so that charging can be made
through an aperture in the top of one of
the side walls of the furnace. The grate
must be of very substantial construction
and the possibility of dispensing with the
grate and having the firebed on the firebrick
floor with primary air at, or very near to
the ground level should be considered.
Because considerably higher temperatures
can be expected than in a house-refuse
incinerator, maintenance tends to increase.
Considerable heat and adequate combustion
space must be provided, or the provision
of an 'after burner' may be necessary.
64-0546
Small plant sludge incinerator. Engineering
News-Record, 172(20):50, May 14, 1964.
A small sludge incinerator, called the
cyclo-sludge destructor, was designed
for economical operation in a small plant.
It can follow-up any type of dewatering
apparatus, such as a centrifuge, a vacuum
filter, or a screen. Operating costs of
this automatic incinerator depend on the
extent of combustibility and the moisture
content of the sludge. After dewatered
sludge is delivered to the incinerator's
hopper, a screw conveyor pushes it into
the system where it is finely divided,
mixed with air, and blown into the
combustion tube. A rins burner raises
the temperature in the tube to about 1,800
F, which ignites the air-sludge mixture
immediately. Combustion of the mixture
itself helps maintain the necessary burning
temperature, and the burners automatically
switch to a low fire after combustion is
well established. Gases are scrubbed and
128
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0544-0550
cooled in a water spray before dispersion to
the atmosphere. It is claimed that
combustion is sufficiently complete that
the discharged gases contain no smoke, odor
or other pollutants. The burners can
operate on natural gas, methane, butane,
or No. 2 fuel oil. The cost, including
installation, is about $15,000.
64-0547
Stenburg, R. L. Modern incineration of
community wastes. Civil Engineering.
34(9):40-41, Sept. 1964.
The increasing use of incineration for
the disposal of solid wastes in both
municipal and smaller units is discussed
along with the problems that have
developed in some cases. The expenditures
in some cases may be in the millions.
Communities such as Winchester, Kentucky,
population 10,000, has a 100 ton per day
incinerator. Excessive discharges of smoke
and fly ash force the abandonment of many
incinerators not designed for optimum
combustion. The backyard incinerator with
a single-chamber design has been banned in
Los Angeles. Municipal incinerators have
been taken out of service in Los Angeles
because they could not comply with the
air-pollution control ordinances. Although
excessive emissions from incinerator stacks
often reflect inadequacies in design
of gas combustion equipment and gas
conveying flues, poor operating procedures
and improper firing practices are often
responsible for excessive emissions.
Continuous charging into multiple chamber
units has improved combustion. Water
spray scrubbers which have been effective
on smaller units are now being tried
experimentally on municipal units. Good
design and good operating procedures are
necessary for incinerator operation.
64-0548
Stenburg, R. L. Modern methods of
incineration. Air Engineering, 6(3):20-21,
34, Mar. 1964.
Improvements in incinerator designs and
operating practices are requisite for
more effective air pollution control. The
principal difficulties in burning solid
waste materials are nonuniformity of
fuels and engineering, ignorance of certain
basic combustion concepts in incinerator
design, and firing practices. Single
chamber units, for example, are still
employed without sufficient arrangement to
promote good mixing between volatilized gases
and oxygen. This hampers the escape of
unburned compounds to the atmosphere.
Similarly, complete combustion requires
mirtmum temperatures ranging from 1200
to 1600 F; many plants never exceed 1000 F,
again leading to pollution. Turbulence
requirements also are too often overlooked,
especially in the lower micron ranges. Water
spray scrubbers can reduce particulate
emissions below 0.85 Ib per 1000 Ib flue gas by
diminishing the amount of underfire air
flow; however, they also are not employed
on a wide-scale basis. As included figures
show, work must be done in incinerator
design and operation to bring about needed
improvements. Elimination of cold furnace
burning, single chamber units, cyclic type
burning, and natural draft systems are
advocated strongly. A means of dealing
with excessively wet refuse, achieving
better levels of combustion, building units
operable by untrained personnel, and
establishing continuous feed systems must
be discovered and implemented.
64-0549
Stephenson, J. W. Get the best incinerator
for your engineering dollar. In American
Public Works Association Yearbook. Chicago,
American Public Works Association, 1964.
p.198-203.
The need for good qualified engineers to
design refuse incinerators is stressed.
There should be constant consultation
between engineer and manufacturer during
the design period. The engineer must be
able to determine the type of equipment
such as the stoker, based on his knowledge
and experience. It is important not to cut
corners on design and construction of
incinerators. The contractor's reT-onsibility
and the municipality's responsibility are
explained. Due to air pollution control
requirements, the cost per ton daily has increased
from $3,000 several years ago to $4,000
to $6,000 today.
64-0550
Stephenson, J. W. Planning for incineration.
Civil Engineering, 34(9):38-39, Sept 1964.
The need for control by state health
authorities (similar to that exercised
over water and sewage treatment plants)
over municipal incinerators and other
129
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Incineration
refuse disposal facilities is discussed.
Minimum design criteria should be
established as well as minimum standards
of operation. If possible every
engineering contract for the design and
supervision of the construction of an
incinerator should include provisions
for the designing engineer to supervise
plant operations for 6 months to a year.
A performance-type specification may be
desirable in the facilities for fly-ash
removal. While plans and specifications
must be complete, leaving as little as
possible to the discretion of the
contractor, he sho-jld not be relieved of
the responsibility of furnishing materials,
workmanship, and equipment in accordance
with specifications. No engineer should
attempt to include major equipment in his
design without the advice of the
manufacturer on its application. The final
decisions and the responsibility for the
design of an incinerator must be with the
engineer.
64-0551
Three-stage incinerator.
25(8):126, Aug. 1964.
Food Processing,
The Model FG4-4 gas-fired incinerator
installed at Borden's Farm Products in
Newark, New Jersey, has three burning chambers
through which refuse passes. It saves
$2,000 per year in labor handling costs, and
meets Newark's air pollution requirements.
64-0552
Undercover agent. Public Cleaning,
54(12):1360, Dec. 1964.
The totally sealed flame on-site unit
produced by Universal Machine and Services
Limited of Great Britain is designed to
give completely smokeless and odorless
disposal of any type of combustible material
with simple loading and operation.
64-0553
U.S. Public Health Service. Division of
Air Pollution. Proceedings; National Air
Pollution Conference, Washington, Dec.
10-12, 1962. Public Health Service
Publication No. 1022, 1963. 436 p.
The conference was called to proved a forum
in which the many segments of society
involved with, and affected by, air
pollution could present their ideas and
recommendations for more effective control
of a growing environmental problem. The
views of public administrators, scientists,
physicians, engineers, industrialists,
urban planners, and many others are presented.
The sessions and panel discussions covered:
statesmanship in air pollution control; air
pollutants from the automobile, truck, and
the bus; air pollution from industrial
plants, powerplants, and the municipality;
health considerations; agricultural,
natural resource, and economic considerations;
applying measuring and monitoring knowledge
to air pollution control; applying control
equipment and meteorological control
knowledge; applying legislative and
regulatory knowledge; and applying public
information and sociological knowledge to
problems of air pollution. Appendices
include listings of the staffs of committees
related to the conference; statements by the
National Association of Manufacturers, and
the Public Health Service; listings of
exhibits and film programs; and an index
of participants.
64-0554
Velzy, C. R., and C. 0. Velzy. Unique
incinerator develops power and provides
salt water conversion. Public Works,
95(4):90, Apr. 1964.
The new incinerator at Hempstead, New York,
which consumes 750 tons per day, provides
special features for burning bulky
rubbish, converts salt water to fresh
water, and fully utilizes waste heat.
64-0555
The Victor 2, gas-fired incinerator.
Smokeless Air, 34(129):256, Spring 1964.
The Victo-^ 21 to 2 cu ft incinerator,
which will effectively destroy large loads
of placenta, hospital dressings, ward waste,
etc., is described. It is listed by the
Gas Council as a recommended appliance
complying with the Clean Air Act. To
operate the incinerator, a foot pedal is
depressed which opens the leading door to
make the waste matprial, a dial is set to
thr reaulred burning period, and the
incinerator then operates automatical.'y
with a cutoff when the burning period has
been completed. Two safeguards for
reloadirg during burning are described.
130
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0551-0560
64-0556
Voelker. E. M. The problems of applying
incinerator criteria. Journal of the
Air Pollution Control Association,
14(9):363-365, Sept. 1964.
The many different standards and criteria
adopted by community, county, and State
Air Pollution Control Authorities, which
appear in some cases to be based on
individual whims and not on a consensus
of experienced designers, have confused
the designers of incinerators. The need
for test procedures and incinerator criteria
acceptable to all Air Pollution Control
Authorities is of vital importance to the
incinerator industry. Incinerator criteria
are in two categories: the rigid criteria
in the form of charts and diagrams covering
only Type 1 and 2 Wastes; and the flexible
criteria covering all types of wastes by
setting minima and maxima governing the
incinerator design. In the East, there are
rigid criteria, based on the assumption
that combustion chamber, while in the Far
West there are criteria based on the
assumption that multiple chambers are
required for complete, combustion. In
Allegheny County, Pennsylvania the products
of combustion exceed 5 ft per second, while in
Columbus, Ohio, there must be an area
where the combustion products exceeds 55
ft per second. There are schematic drawin?-
of five incinerators, each with a rated
capacity of 1000 Ib per hr of Type 1 Waste.
One manufacturer has incinerators
constructed for test purposes which conform
to the fhroe leading codes, the New York
City, the Los Angeles, and the Incinerator
Institute of America. The latter code
incinerator was 20 percent more efficient
than the Los Angeles, and 100 percent more
efficient than the New York code
incinerator. The variety of code criteria
emphasizes the need for a universal cod^
to end the confusion.
64-0557
Walker, A. B. Electrostatic precipitators.
American City. 79(9):U8, 150. 152, Sept. 1964.
Tests on electrostatic precipitators
indicate that they can practically eliminate
the noxious fly ash from large incinerator
stacks. With the possible exception of bag
filters, not yet used for this purpose on
a commercial scale, electrostatic
precipitators appear to be the only practical
type of collector able to operate at required
high recovery levels. Application of
industria]-typs precipitators appears
most logical for larger incinerators where-
operating conditions are relatively stable.
They are not now recommended for
application to small flue-fed or fixed-grate
incinerators, such as those used in
apartment houses or commercial buildings.
But they are practical right now for
municipal and industrial plants for
50 ton per day capacity and up. These
conclusions and many others are presented,
on the basis of tests conducted at the
East 73rd Street incinerator of New York
City's Department of Sanitation.
64-0558
Waste elimination. Plastics World,
22(12) :52, Dec. 1964.
Installation of a gas-fired incinerator
at Willson Products Division plant in
Reading, Pennsylvania, eliminated a 100-mile
weekly refuse trip and freed a man for other
plant maintenance duties. Most of the
company's production waste is in the form
of plastics cuttings with felt, paper, wood,
and rags making up the balance. When the
county imposed dumping restrictions, the
firm decided to install an incinerator.
Drums are brought to the incinerator area
from throughout the plant; they are fed
to the unit one at a time. By 3:00 pm,
the daily accumulation of trash is
completely burned. The resulting ashes,
plus non-combustible waste, amount to only
a partial load for a private cartage truck
which stops twice a week at the plant.
Despite the fact that plastics and felt
are difficult to incinerate, combustion
within the incinerator is complete.
Subjected to three stages of combustion,
the approximate weekly load of 100 drums
of trash is reduced to less than two drums.
64-0559
Wegman, L. S. Planning for incineration.
Civil Engineering, 34(9) :35, Sept. 1964.
Requirements that should be considered in
planning an incinerator are discussed. These
include: capacity, location, topography,
the prevention of air and water pollution,
subsoil exploration, residue disposal,
the storage bin size, costs, and the
changing habits of people.
64-0560
Weisburd, M. I. Air pollution control field
operations manual; a guide for inspection
131
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Incineration-Europe
and enforcement. Washington, U.S. Public
Health Service, 1962. 285 p.
Much of the information included here is
based on the 14 year experience accrued by
the Los Angeles County Air Pollution Control
District, and was originally used to prepare
a training manual for the field personnel
of the Los Angeles District. In implementing
a practical field control operations program,
the considerations that must be taken into
account are: the air pollution saturation
potential of the air space, the pollution
zone, and the pollution potentials. The
organization of the Air Pollution Control
Agency, its field operations, and the role of
the air pollution inspector are described in
detail. The laws of air pollution control
are reviewed as well as the promulgation
of control and detection are illustrated.
Tracking sources of public nuisances such
as odors, stains and deposits, and methods of
handling citizen complaints are considered.
Sample forms used by the Los Angeles Agency
are included where pertinent. A detailed
subject index completes the manual.
64-0561
Wrecking firm plans new disposal plant.
Refuse Removal Journal, 7(3) :23, Mar. 1964.
Ashland Reduction Co., a subsidiary of
National Wrecking Co., has asked the zoning
board to grant a special use permit for
the construction of a $2.5 million debris
incinerator near the Union Stock yards in
Chicago. The proposed incinerator is
designed to burn about 12,000 tons of debris
a day. Privately owned public incinerators
were legalized recently by the city council
to permit wrecking companies to burn debris
from razed buildings, since suburban dumps
refuse to accept city debris. The three
city incinerators are designed for burning
refuse, and are not open to wrecking
companies.
INCINERATION-Europe
64-0562
Andritzky, M. Extension of the waste
incinerator power plant in Munich.
Brennstoff-Waerme-Kraft, 16(8):403, Aug. 1964.
An extension of the waste incinerator plant
in Munich, West Germany, is planned. The
boiler will produce 365 tons of steam per hr
at 540 C. Twenty percent of the steam is
produced from waste (40 ton per hr), the rest
from coal. The generators have a capacity
of 110 MW. Part of the energy will be used
to supply heat to a nearby housing development.
A diagram of the steam generator is shown.
(Text-German)
64-0563
Ball, A. Refuse incineration: a modern
approach to an old problem. Public Cleansing,
54(6):963, June 1964.
The incinerating process developed by CJB's
Associates at Esslingen, Germany is described.
The process is the latest in incinerator
design. A grab lifts the refuse from a large
capacity, totally enclosed receiving hopper,
and feeds it into the furnace. Odors are
destroyed by the furnace temperatures. The
advanced design of the furnace, which allows
for efficient turnover of refuse, keeps the
grate small and eliminates after-burning. The
grab feed is preferred over a conveyor belt
because it gives the operator greater control.
The incinerator can be operated by only three
men.
64-0564
Barrel-grate incinerator rounds out third
test year. Power, 108(5) :74, May 1964.
The Flingern Plant of the municipal generating
station in Dusseldorf, Germany, has completed
3 successful years of burning garbage on a
barrel-grate test incinerator. Laws adopted
between 1957 and 1959 aimed at controlling
waste disposal prompted the test installation
when engineers were asked to experiment with
garbage burning for generation of steam and
electricity. On a 4-day week schedule, the
test unit has been successful in both
generation of power and maintaining air
pollution within limits. A diagram and
photographs of the test unit are included.
64-0565
Berne, Switzerland, makes thermal power from
waste. Refuse Removal Journal, 7(4):14,
Apr. 1964.
In Berne, Switzerland, a municipal incinerator
heats a complex of hospital buildings, supplies
all the necessary steam used by a large
commercial canner of food items, and generates
electricity for industrial, commercial, and
132
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0561-0570
in-plant use. The problems which brought
about this incinerator are also discussed.
64-0566
Ceud Mille Failte- at Gowan.
54(6):955, June 1964.
Public Cleansing,
The replenished Gowan Refuse Disposal Plant
in Glasgow, Scotland, which burns 600 to 800
tons of refuse daily is described. The new
specialized equipment added to the plant
includes dust extractors, heat exchangers, and
a separate trade waste furnace for bulky
items. The plant, which utilizes waste heat
for electricity, is designed to prevent
emission of any grit or fume nuisance. Also,
the new General Workshop for vehicle maintenance
at Polmadie is described.
64-0567
A city fights for its waste.
Brennstoff-Waerme-Kraft, 16(8):408, Aug. 1964.
The city of Frankfurt a.M., West Germany, sued
an owner of 26 small apartments who installed
a small incinerator in order to use only
three instead of ten trash cans. The
incinerator was licensed by the state authorities.
The court sided with the city on the grounds
that many small incinerators add to air
pollution and that they might economically
hurt waste incinerators operated by the city.
The defendant appealed. (Text-German)
for generating electricity and part of it will
go to a remote heating station. The waste
will be driven to the plant by trucks and
railways, tipped into a waste storage room with
a capacity of 4,000 cu m and brought from
there to an intermediate storage room and
to the furnaces by two cranes. Electrofliters
will clean the waste gases from dust. The
waste gases will leave through a 180-m-high
chimney. The costs of the incinerator plant
are 45 million DM. (Text-German)
64-0569
Continuous loading smokeless incinerator.
Smokeless Air, 34(130):341, Summer 1964.
Bering Engineering Ltd. of Camberley has
announced further improvements in their
Kleenaire Smokeless Incinerators. The two
larger models with capacities of 9.9 cu ft
and 6.4 cu ft have been redesigned to
incorporate an extra large loading door to
allow them to be refilled when the incinerator
is lighted without the emission of smoke or
flames. An ash door is fitted to facilitate
emptying. The new Mark III range has three
main advantages over previous models: (1)
The volume of rubbish that can be incinerated
daily has been considerably increased with
continuous loading; (2) The ease of filling
the incinerator makes it suitable for use
where women may be required to operate it;
and (3) It is feasible to place it under cover
fitting a suitable flue to the outlet.
64-0568
Construction of a waste incinerator plant in
the power station Muenster in Stuttgart.
Wasser und Abwasser, 105(42):1182-1183 , Oct.
16, 1964.
In Stuttgart, West Germany, 330,000 cu m of
household waste, 80,000 cu m of industrial
waste, 24,000 cu m of street rubbish, and 6,000
cu m of bulky waste accumulate annually which
make together about 440,000 cu m of waste
with a weight of about 200,000 tons. The
major part of the household waste will in the
future be burned in the power station Muenster.
The incineration will reduce the waste to one
third of its weight. The iron parts will be
separated from the slag by magnets, compacted
into packages and sold. Part of the slag will
be used as raw material in the construction
industry. Two furnaces are presently being
built, a third one is planned for later
construction. Part of the heat will be used
64-0570
Diamant, R. M. Modern methods of refuse
disposal on the continent. Heating and
Ventilating Engineer, 38(449):329-330, 334,
Dec. 1964.
The Volund system, a continuous system of
refuse incineration consisting of swinging
gratebars, is described. From a grate, used
for drying and ignition, the refuse passes
into a slightly inclined rotating drum, lined
with refractories. All combustible matter is
burned due to the continuous rotation and the
supply of combustion air, with the slack which
emerges from the drum falling into a wet
extractor. The Lyons Plant, which consists of
four Volund furnaces, each with a capacity of 10
tons per hr, is described. It operates
completely automatically with a grab collecting
the refuse and feeding it into the furnace.
Heat is reclaimed from the incinerator, using
a boiler, and the steam produced is given off
to the municipal power station nearby. The
133
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Incineration-Europe
flue gases are cleaned mechanically by
multicyclone extractors and two furnaces are
each connected to a chimney which is 230 ft
high with an upper diameter of 12 ft. The
Frankfurt system, where a special thermal
power station has recently been constructed,
is also described. It is designed to handle
1,000 to 1,100 tons of refuse in 24 hr,
although its current operating load is 600
tons in 24 hr. Various methods of refuse
disposal are mentioned.
64-0571
Dijkshoorn, R. The refuse-incineration plant
in Rotterdam. Presented at Eighth International
Congress of Public Cleansing, Vienna (Austria).
Apr. 14-17, 1964. 12 p.
The development of refuse incineration plants
in the Netherlands is reviewed. The
construction of a refuse incineration plant
must take into account shifts in population.
There has been an increase in the calorific
value of refuse and a levelling off of
seasonal variations. The refuse incineration
installation in Rotterdam is discussed, and
the determining factors for its general
conception, the architectural lay-out,
technical equipment, and the utilization of
the heat produced are all described. The
refuse incineration installation of the city
of Rotterdam which had been in existence since
1912 did not meet modern demands and the steady
dispersion of dust was a constant nuisance. It
was decided again to erect only one central
installation. A total of 5,500 ton per week of
material is to be incinerated. One-half of
the installation is to be inactive during the
summer. Two-thirds of the refuse is to be
collected by barges and one-third by cars. An
installation has been chosen which will allows
the maximum utilization of the heat produced
during the combustion process. The heat will
generate electric current for the public
supply network. Plants for district-heating
were abandoned due to irregular topography.
The construction of the boiler is specially
adapted to the incineration of refuse. At
the upper part of the fire grate there is
a large combustion chamber with two uptakes,
where the flue gases are cooled by exposed
tubes in the wall. Boiler specifications are
provided. Four electrostatic filters are to
be used for the best possible elimination
of the flue ashes from the flue gas. A
126 hr per week operation is required to meet
the increased amount of refuse and rising
calorific value.
64-0572
Electricity from rubbish.
Elektrizitaetswirtschaft, 63(11):380-381 ,
May 1964.
Fifty years ago at the meeting of the
Association for Power Plants in Kiel, West
Germany, the main speaker, Tillmetz, pointed
out that waste incineration is also the
concern of power plants. He said that in the
year 1914, England, the mother country of waste
incineration, had 200 plants in 160 cities.
The surplus heat of 65 plants was converted
into electricity. The first incinerator plant
on the Continent was erected in Hamburg in
1892 and from then on waste incinerator plants
increased in number and improved considerably.
Tillmetz demanded that incinerator plants be
located in the center of a city to save
transport costs. The amounts delivered to
the plants should agree with the daily
capacity of the furnace to avoid expensive
storage. Waste must remain invisible on its
way from the household to the furnace. The
loading of the furnaces is best done
mechanically. As far as the economy is
concerned, Tillmetz claimed that 1 kg of
steam can be generated from 1 kg of waste, if
the furnace is mainly fired by coal and
only small amounts of waste are added. If
steam is delivered to a power plant requiring
6 kg of steam per kWh, at best 167 kWh can
be gained from 1 ton of waste. This output
is considerably lower when only waste is
burned in the furnace. Thus it was realized
50 years ago that waste incineration does not
bring any great profits. (Text-German)
64-0573
The Essen-Karnap waste incinerator plant.
Brennstoff-Waerme-Kraft, 16(2):76, Feb. 1964.
By August 1964 the world's largest waste
incinerator will go into operation at the
Karnap power station of the
Rheinisch-Westfalisches Elektrizitatswerk AG
in Essen. Two thousand one hundred and sixty
tons of refuse will be burned daily.
(Text-German)
64-0574
European practice in refuse burning. Civil
Engineering, 34(9):40, Sept. 1964.
European incinerator firing methods, according
to their present design concepts are summarized,
The design of completely water-cooled
furnaces with full heat utilization and wide
grates is characterized.
134
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0571-0578
64-0575
Fischer, F. Possibilities of utilization of
energy and residue from incineration. In
Proceedings; Second International Congress,
International Research Group on Refuse
Disposal Essen, Germany, May 22-25, 1962.
p.1-22.
A number of possibilities are available to
use the energy produced in garbage incineration,
but the most important from the economic
viewpoint seems to be its use for heating
purposes. Consumers must be found and they
should be in a position to buy heat produced
all the year round. Power production from
the heat obtained in garbage incineration is
possible but calls for further investment in
equipment, unless the steam can be directed
to existing power stations. The scoriae
obtained as residual material in garbage
incineration can be used after adequate
processing in road and lane building and also
in building stone manufacture. The
Riepel-Scherer-Riedel garbage melting process
makes it possible to produce a phosphate
fertilizer from the scoriae. Garbage
incineration is not only a means of disposing
of the large amounts of garbage available,
but also an economic process due to advanced
technology. Efforts must be made in view of
developing further possibilities of use and
progress, with the assistance of science and
technique.
64-0576
Fischer, F. The refuse incineration plant in
Vienna. Presented at Eighth International
Congress of Public Cleansing, Vienna
(Austria), Apr. 14-17, 1964. 22 p.
The historical development of a
refuse-incineration plant in Vienna is traced
from its conception in 1927 to the erection
of the city's first composting plant in 1956.
The first-grade compost produced meets with
a ready market and as a result the composting
plant operates without any outside financial
assistance. However, it has failed to cope
with the refuse disposal problem. In considering
incineration, many tests had to be performed
to determine the calorific value of the
refuse. The most suitable site for the
destructor had to be determined. The City
of Vienna decided to erect several low capacity
plants distributed throughout the town to
decrease traffic problems. Sixty percent
of Vienna's refuse was at one time burned,
but the volume increased to such an extent
that the incineration plant was able to
handle only half of it. The refuse collectors
empty their contents unsorted into the bunker
and a grab crane lifts the refuse and drops
it into the storage hoppers where it then falls
on to the drying grate where it is dried and
ignited by radiant heat. The first
refuse-incineration plant built in Vienna on
the Von Roll system has proved its worth. The
performance of the plant with its steam-generating
capacity of 1.6 surpasses all expectations.
The uninterrupted operation of the plant
throughout the night and during weekends
ensures a high utilization rate, and the use
of the heat finances operating costs and
contributes to the capital outlay. A second
incineration plant is being planned and much
of the experience gained from the first will
be utilized. The heat produced during the
summer will be utilized to a much greater
extent for the generation of electricity.
64-0577
Fords use J. Thompson incinerator. Surveyor
and Municipal Engineer, 123(3739):39, Feb. 1,
1964.
The incinerator installed by Ford at Dagenham
in Britain which can handle up to 40 tons of
refuse per 8 hr day of cellulose, packing
material, ferrous scrap, and other floor
sweepings is described. Sorting facilities
are provided along the length of the first
elevating conveyor to the primary reception
hopper. A magnetic separator removes all of
the ferrous scrap. Paper and cardboard removed
in sorting is baled. The grates in the
incinerator are arranged so that the incoming
refuse is swept by hot gases from the burning
out grate to lower the moisture content of
accrued refuse before it comes to the burning
out grate. Adequate quantities of secondary
air are provided. Compliance with the Clean
Air Act is ensured by scrubbers and at no
time will the density exceed Ringleman No. 2
on the Ringleman Scale. It is anticipated
that there will be no grit emission.
64-0578
Frank, B. Experiences with the incineration
of industrial wastes at BASF.
Chemie-Ingenieur-Technik, 36(11) :1098-
1103, Nov. 1964.
The incinerator plant of the Badische
Anilin- & Soda-Fabrik AG, Ludwigshafen,
has been in operation since October 1960 and
has thus far burned 120,000 tons of chemical
waste in 24,000 operating hours, i.e. it
burned 5 ton per hr producing 30,000 ton of
slag and ash. After 20,000 operating hr
the tubes coming in contact with the flames
135
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Incineration-Europe
showed signs of corrosion. For their
protection smooth self-cleaning shields will
now be installed. Apart from this restorational
work which is presently performed, an
expansion of the incinerator plant has become
necessary. Since the composition of the waste
changed and now comprises almost 50 percent
of semifinished plastics vs. 15 to 18 percent
in 1960, BASF decided to build two new
incinerators, each consisting of a rotary
drum, an afterburning chamber (both lined with
highly heat resistant corrundum), a waste heat
boiler and a joint stack gas duct. The new
plant will have a capacity of 50 ton of
waste per day at a heating value of 5,000 to
10,000 kcal per kg. The temperature in the
combustion chamber is raised to 200 C by the
injection of steam. Pulverized, granulated,
and viscous wastes are pumped into the
incinerator. The bulky waste reaches the
incinerator on a conveyor belt. The stack
gas is cooled down to 350 C in the waste
heat boiler. The heat is used for producing
steam. The stack gas leaves through a steel
duct which is 120 m high. Costs for the two
incinerators with a combined capacity of 50 ton
per day will amount 5 million DM. All
incinerator facilities combined represent
an investment of 20 million DM with about
1 million DM annual operating costs.
(Text-German)
64-0579
Frank, B. Industrial waste disposal through
incineration. Dechema Monographien,
52(895-911):241-258, 1964.
Industrial waste differs greatly in its
composition from household waste. The gaseous,
liquid, pasty, and solid industrial wastes
demand special types of incinerators. In some
cases, certain production residues such as
sulphite solution and chips of wood can be
incinerated together with conventional fuels
such as coal, etc. The incineration of waste
aims at a considerable reduction of the volume,
at freeing the waste from organic matter,
and at converting it into a slag containing
only inorganic constituents. Organic substances
in aqueous solution, and waste gases of
widely varying composition, call for additional
technical development of the incinerating
equipment. The object and purpose of waste
incineration should be to produce only residues
which can be deposited without contamination
of the groundwater. In the present state of
technical development the flue gases can be
kept free of dust and soot; a certain amount
of sulphur dioxide and hydrogen chloride must,
however, be accepted. The Badische Anilin
& Soda Fabrik AG erected an incinerator in
1960 which is suited for the effective
incineration of the multitude of different
industrial wastes accumulating at this
chemical plant. The incinerator corresponds
in its construction to a large extent to
domestic waste incinerators; however, the
interior of the furnace has been coated with
a different material to withstand the higher
heating value of industrial wastes. A detailed
description of the experiences with the
new incinerator is given as well as several
illustrations of the major component parts.
(Text-German)
64-0580
Fulham's new refuse destructor on site of two
previous plants. Surveyor and Municipal
Engineer, 123(3737):24-25, Jan. 18, 1964.
The scheme used in the reconstruction of the
Fulham mechanical handling plant is presented.
The plant now provides for satisfactory
treatment of refuse under good working conditions
by separation, salvage, and incineration.
Main concerns in its renovation included the
removal and disposal of saleable materials,
glass, and 'fines' and the extraction and
consolidation of dust. A diagrammatic layout
of the plant, and a list of engineers and
contractors involved in the reconstruction
are given.
64-0581
Gerhardt, R. , and H. Ermer. Planning and
construction of the incinerator plant in
Neustadt Holstein, Germany. Staedtehygiene,
15(1):5-13, Jan. 1964.
The city of Neustadt, Germany, has a population
of 15,000. In 1962 the city was confronted
with the problem of disposal of the increased
amounts of waste. The available sites were
all filled to capacity. A composting of
waste was not feasible because the city has
no use for compost as fertilizer. The
decision was made to build an incinerator
plant with a capacity of 30 ton per day.
The trucks bringing the waste will be emptied
into a storage chamber which is kept under
reduced pressure. A crane will bring the
waste to the loading funnel of the incinerator
and via a hydraulically operated loading
device, the waste will reach the grate of
the furnace. An oil burner will aid the
incineration blown under the grate. The flue
gases will leave the combustion chamber with
a temperature of 900 or 1,100 C, depending on
the heating value of the waste. In a heat
exchanger the temperature of the flue gases
136
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0579-0585
will be reduced to 350 C, with a filter
subsequently cleaning the flue gases which
escape in the air through a double-walled
chimney. The total investment costs for the
plant are estimated to amount to about 1
million DM. The operating costs will be
24.60 DM per ton of waste. The major
constituent parts of the plant are described
in detail. (Text-German)
64-0582
Haller, R. The clarification and incineration
plant in Ebingen, West Germany. Wasser und
Abwasser, 105 (38) : 1049-1 050, Sept. 18., 1964.
In Ebingen, West Germany, a clarification
plant was built comprising four settling tanks,
an accelerator, cyclator. dehydrator, and an
incinerator. In 1961 a trash preparation
facility was added. The household trash is
crushed in a hammer mill and the iron parts
are removed from the waste and compacted into
cubes weighing about 30 to 40 kg. The crushed
waste is either incinerated or composted. The
detvdrated sludge from the settling tank can
be added to the waste in the furnace. Since
Januarv 1964, flammable industrial waste such
as packing material, cardboard reels, and
plastic covers has been incinerated. This
material has yielded much higher stack gas
temperature? so that an adjustment of the
cooling and filterinf: system became nece?snry.
The furnace operates 24 hr a day at a mean
temperature of 700 C. Sludge containing 16
percent solids is incinerated at the rate
of 3,5 cu m per hr (or of 1.2 cu m per hr in
terms of 50% solids). (Text-German)
64-0583
Kachulle, C. The planning of plants for the
elimination of solid waste (Part I). Wasser,
Luft und Betrieb, 8(5):267-270, May 1964.
The development of incinerator plants is
discussed. The first incinerator plants
(which did not utilize the heat produced)
were put into operation in England (1874) and
the United States (1885). The latter now has
in operation 500 such plants. The composting
of waste has its origin in China where 3,000
years ago laws were passed ordering the
composting of all waste. But an increasing
amount of inorganic substances among the waste
nowadays makes the composting more difficult,
so that we have to turn more and more to
incineration. The 'Workgroup Ruhr for
Collecting, Eliminating and Utilizing Waste
and Rubbish' has worked out eight guidelines *o
a more efficient waste incineration which are
cited at full length. They call for cooperation
between engineers, scientists, and municipalities
in tackling waste elimination problems and
projects, for the development of new
incineration methods, for experimental plants
designed to provide experience with new methods,
for limitation of construction costs, etc.
The Rhein-Westphalian Electric Company (RWE)
received an order to develop experimental
incinerator plants for burning domestic
waste. Over a period of 2 years the cities
concerned collected data on the amounts of
waste accumulating, its weight, and its
volume. The RWE investigated the grain size
distribution, water content, amount of
organic substances, and the heating value of
the waste. The collected data convinced the
Workgroup Ruhr to recommend the incineration
system I used in Essen Karnap. A brief
description of this system is given.
(Text-German)
64-0584
Kachulle, C. The planning of plants for the
elimination of solid waste (Part II). Wasser,
Luft und Betrieb, 8(6) :359-362, June 1964.
The investment and operating costs of an
incinerator plant with a capacity of 2,160 tons
per 24 hr, calculated on the basis of
January 1962 prices, are given. The investment
costs plus the costs of financing (16 year
loan) plus repair costs are 6,450,000 DM.
About 3.2 million DM will not be covered by
the gains from the sale of heat and scrap
and must be raised annually by the municipalities.
These results are considerably lower than the
values estimated by the Workgroup Ruhr--
investment costs 15,000 DM per ton per day
and 12 to 13 DM per ton balance. Furthermore,
the operation of an experimental plant over
a period of several years had been just
recently terminated with positive results.
The Rhine Westphalian Electric Company
designed this plant for a capacity of 100 to
120 tons per day according to system II of
the plant in Essen Karnap without, or with
negligible, heat utilization. The differences
between incinerator plants in the United
States (no attempts at heat utilization) and
Europe (heat utilization, requiring proximity
to residences and expensive architecture) are
briefly outlined. A cost comparison (Table 2)
between plants without heat utilization
(Philadelphia) and those with heat utilization
(Vienna) indicates that the sale of heat is
hardly worth the trouble. (Text-German)
64-0585
Kallenbach, K. A waste incinerator plant
with roller grate burner for the City of
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Incineration-Europe
Hagen. Brennstoff-Waerme-Kraft,
16(8) :406-407, Aug. 1964.
The City of Hagen, West Germany, plans the
construction of a waste incinerator for 400
tons per day. Although the prime interest
is the incineration of waste, the heat
produced will be sold commercially. Since
the plant is located in an urban area, special
attention is paid to the problem of storing
the waste and removal of the slag.
Electrofliters and a 70-m-high chimney are
provided. Iron is collected magnetically from
the slag, compressed and sold commercially.
Construction time is estimated to be 20 months.
(Text-German)
furnaces. Only if the accumulating amount of
bulky wastes is great, as in large port cities,
is a crushing process necessary. In both
small and large furnaces, the most important
part of the incinerator is the grate. The
commonest types of grates and the outstanding
characteristics of each are tabulated. Brief
descriptions of the traveling grate, the
roller grate, the Von Roll grate, and the Martin
grate are given, most of which are used in
large furnaces. A small incinerator plant
without heat utilization has been erected in
Gluechstadt, Germany. Another small incinerator
plant will go into operation in Neustadt. The
mode of operation of these furnaces is
explained. (Text-German)
64-0586
Kampschulte. The present state of waste
incineration in Hamburg. Staedtehygiene,
15(4):84-86, Apr. 1964.
Hamburg, the city where the first incinerator
plant of the continent was put into operation
in 1896, has gradually enlarged and streamlined
its incinerator plant built in 1931 by the
addition of three Von Roll furnaces (capacity
200 tons of waste per 24 hr), making a total
of five. An old incinerator plant which had
been in operation for 48 years has been closed.
Because of the satisfactory experiences with
the first two furnaces the three new ones are
also equipped with slag generators. The waste
heat boilers each have a capacity of 20 tons
of steam per hour, a test pressure of 21
atmospheres at 350 C which is kept constant
with automatic regulators. Because of the
three new furnaces the fourth turbogenerator
set can be put in operation so that there are
now two sets with 1,000 kw per 6,000 V each
and two sets with 6,400 kw per 6,000 V each.
Although the plant is equipped with
electrofilters, the chimneys (31 m) are not
high enough. Dust pollution occurs in
unfavorable weather. Seven photographs
illustrate the exterior and interior
appearance of the plant. It is expected that
1.5 million cu m of waste will now be burned
annually and approximately 50 million kwh of
electricity generated. (Text-German)
64-0587
Kaupert, W. Waste incineration in large and
small furnaces. Staedtehygiene, 15(5):109-111.
May 1964.
If incineration is to take place in a small
furnace, the waste must be crushed first, a
requirement generally not necessary for large
64-0588
Kmoch, H. Automatic control of waste
incinerators. Brennstoff-Waerme-Kraft,
16(8):402-403, Aug. 1964.
The necessity for automatic controls in waste
incinerator plants is discussed. In two
schematic drawings of plants, the measuring
and sampling points are shown, together with
the location of the control equipment such as
valves, etc. Transducers and actuators are
energized by compressed air. (Text-German)
64-0589
Lytham St. Annes refuse plant modernized.
Surveyor and Municipal Engineer, 124(8775):40,
Oct 10, 1964.
The new features of the modernized B 100,000
refuse disposal plant at Lytham St. Annes are
described. The new plant was made necessary
by the increase in population, the rise in
the yield and bulk of the refuse as well as
the age of the existing plant. The capacity
of the new plant is 65 tons which could be
increased to 85 tons a day. There are 36,300
persons in 12,672 homes with a refuse yield of
14,491 ton per year in the area. The 120
cu yd reception hopper handles the light
density refuse without choking. The mechanical
handling and screening plant includes an
electromagnetic separator for the removal of
cans which are baled in a press. The residue
from the screening plant is incinerated in a
4-cell Heenan Trough Grate Unit.
64-0590
Modern refuse incinerator plants.
Cleansing, 54(2):702, Feb. 1964.
Public
138
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0586-0595
European incineration in light of the quantity
and characteristics of European refuse and the
requirements of waste heat utilization is
analyzed. A steady increase in weight,
volume, and heat potential of refuse is noted.
The characteristics of refuse seem to be
governed by locality, season, and the local
economic situation. The historical development
of the Von Roll-type system, discerning a trend
toward maximum heat utilization and increased
furnace capacity, is traced. The energy
producing power of refuse is discussed.
Incinerators connected to a network of large
capacity utilizing steam, are recommended.
The incinerator of Berne, Switzerland, is
discussed.
chamber which coverts the preheated smoke-air
mixture into a combustible gas reducing the
gas comsumption in the afterburner to a
minimum. The unit can use bottled or standard
supply gas for the afterburner as well as an
oil-fired system if required. The whole of
the front may be opened to take bulk refuse or
an auxiliary door may be used for smaller
items. An estimated 45 minutes is required
to dispose of a load of refuse containing
rubber, plastics, vegetable, and animal matter
with no smoke and only a small amount of dry
ash. The incinerators are built by Universal
Machinery and Services Ltd.
64-0591
Mueller, W. The waste incinerator plant of
the City of Ludwigsburg. Staedtehygiene,
15(12) -.266-268, Dec. 1964.
On August 17, 1964, construction was started
on the waste incinerator plant of Ludwigsburg,
West Germany. It will supply electric power
and remote heating. The two furnaces each
have a capacity of 200 ton of waste per day.
Since the plant is located in a residential
area, all precautions are taken to avoid air
pollution and odors. The air for the furnaces
is taken from the waste storage bunkers, thus
reducing the air pressure in them. A crane
dumps the waste into a water-cooled input
shaft which ends in a drying grating. The
hydraulic staircase grating is supplemented
by mechanical pokers. The slag is dumped into
a water basin and then stored. The furnace
temperature does not exceed 1000 C. Each
boiler produces 23 ton of steam per hr at 45
atmospheres and 450 C. Electrofilters and a
100-m-high chimney effectively control smoke
and dust problems. Total electric power will
be 9 million. (Text-German)
64-0592
New all-purpose refuse incinerators demonstrated.
Surveyor and Municipal Engineer,
124(3777):61-62, Oct 24, 1964.
Two incinerators were demonstrated at an
exhibition sponsored by the National Society
for Clean Air in October 1964 by burning all
of the rubbish left over from the displays
as well as refuse brought in from the outside,
such as bags of animal bones. The two sealed
flame waste disposal units operated throughout
the 3-day meeting to demonstrate the guaranteed
smokeless incineration of any refuse. The
double sleeve stack incorporates a mixing
64-0593
New disposal plant for Fulham. Public
cleansing, 54(3) :776, Mar. 1964.
A new separation and incineration plant in
Fulham, England, is described. Some of its
features are a hydraulically operated
regulatory beam in the refuse reception hopper;
a dust extraction plant; an elevator conveyor
that transfers crude from hopper to a rotating
screen which separates the ash and other fine
material from the refuse; an electrically
driven bottle pulverizer; two waste heat
boilers; and metal and paper balers.
64-0594
New t 1-*Ł m. refuse disposal plant for
Glasgow. Surveyor and Municipal Engineer,
123(3751):21-22, Apr. 25, 1964.
A description of the site, buildings, and
operation of a new plant for refuse disposal
in Glasgow is given. Special emphasis is on
removal and baling of paper, electro-magnetic
recovery of tin and ferrous metals, capture
and consolidation of dust and cinders, and
final incineration. The incinerator units and
the separate trade's wastes incinerator with
associated waste heat boiler are discussed in
detail.
64-0595
New refuse plant for Lytham St. Annes.
Cleansing, 54(12) :1314, Dec. 1964.
Public
The operation of a new incineration plant
in the British borough of Lytham St. Annes
is described. The plant extracts and bales
all salvageable material. The plant, which
now has four conveyor-fed incinerator cells,
allows for the addition of two new incinerator
cells, dust trap, and chimney to cope with
139
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Incineration—Europe
the expected increase in the production of
refuse.
64-0596
Ochs, H. J. Installation of air filters in
incinerator plants. Wasser, Luft und Betrieb,
8(9):535-537, Sept. 1964.
Special filters were developed between March
and July 1962 for an incinerator plant in
Hamburg, Germany, to remove the large amounts
of dust present in the incinerator air.
Tabulated data shows that the dust content
of the air used for incineration is between
3.1 and 34.5 mg per cu m. After determination
of the particle sizes of the dust, an
automatic, metallic rotary air filter of the
class A coarse filter, whose upper particle
size limit is 8 micrometers, was installed.
The apparatus is illustrated. To clean the
filter, the wetting agent container was
equipped with nozzle connections, which
pushed the wetting agent under pressure through
the filter cells. The wetting agent absorbed
the dust and was then removed through the
bottom of the wetting agent container, passed
through a sedimentation vessel and a filter
was subsequently recirculated. Since the dust
stream has a pH of 8, a special surfaces
treatment was provided for the rotary filter
elements. (Text-German)
avoided by increased grate movement, heat
passage can be improved during heating up,
and total combustion can be bettered by
increasing the height of the layers by means
of a retention pendulum, by means of pits or
drums. Various incineration systems are
briefly described: the Horsfall incinerator,
the Boussange kiln, the Heenan and Froud kiln,
the Davor plant, the Oecare kiln, the Venien
kiln, the Martin repulsive grate, the Volund
system, the Von Roll incinerator, and the
Dusseldorf system.
64-0598
Practical experience in incineration.
Cleansing, 54(6) :939, June 1964.
Public
Two papers on waste-heat utilization from
incineration are summarized. The development
and operation of the Rotterdam
electricity-generating boiler plant is
described. The attached power station is
equipped with three turbo generators of
7,000 kw each. The operation of the Vienna
plant, which uses the Von Roll system to
produce heat, is detailed. The plant also
has an emergency power plant which generates
electricity in case of failure in the city's
main supply.
64-0597
Palm, R. Conventional methods of incineration.
In Proceedings; Second International Congress,
International Research Group on Refuse Disposal,
Essen, Germany, May 22-25, 1962. p.1-18.
Efforts should be made to bring the garbage
without previous treatment, drying, or sorting
directly into the feeder of the incinerator,
but it is advantageous to allow the garbage
to settle one or two days, even when it is
very wet. Hydrocarbon gas is then formed
that facilitates ignition of damp garbage.
Drying grates should be installed ahead of
the incinerating grates. Carbonization gas
is produced from dry garbage at temperatures
of 250 to 300 C. For this reason, garbage
could be ignited without difficulty, but in
order to secure total incineration and to
deal with slag, special efforts are required.
As soon as incineration temperature is too
high, it must be directed to the cold
combustion air flow. If drying through top
heat is too intense, the surface of the
garbage might tend to form a crust.
Bitumen thus formed clogs together when they
are not gasified. Crust formation can be
64-0599
Rasch, R. Third waste technology meeting in
Stuttgart, Germany. Tonindustrie-Zeitung und
Keramische Rundschau, 88(6):139-140, 1964.
On February 21, 1964, a waste technology
meeting was held at the Institute of Technology,
Stuttgart, Germany. The possibilities and
limits of waste incineration were discussed.
Although waste becomes more voluminous, its
weight per person and per-year decreases. The
heating value, considered in relation to
water and ash free substance, decreases too.
The decreasing amount of coal ash among the
waste is disadvantageous to the melting
behavior of waste ash. The melting point of
slag was found to lie between 850 C and 1 ,200
C in Europe and 1,450 C in the United States.
The ash from waste incinerator plants in
Duesseldorf and Stuttgart-Muenster, Germany,
is mentioned briefly. (Text-German)
64-0600
Rasch, R. Waste incineration and slag
utilization. Tonindustrie-Zeitung und
Keramische Rundschau, 88(14);317-325, 1964.
140
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0596-0605
Various aspects of waste incineration are
reviewed. Waste is difficult to treat because
it is so heterogeneous in composition, Its
constituents vary greatly in size. A separation
of the waste according to size prior to
incineration proved to be very efficient. By
this method the bulky waste is retained in
a sieve and passed to a shaft furnace. In a
second sieve, the medium sized waste
constituents are retained, crushed and mixed
with the residues from the shaft furnace.
They are burned in a shaking grate furnace.
A table shows the constituent parts of the
waste in percentage by weight in the countries
of Germany, England, the Netherlands, and
Switzerland. The various types of incinerators,
with and without grate, are reviewed and
illustrated. The slag remaining from
incineration is rich in carbon which makes a
sintering process possible. A table showing
in detail the various components of slag is
given. Slag from waste incineration contains
metal, glass, ash, etc., in varying quantities.
For sintering the slag, the sinter aggregates
are used as additives with the Lurgi sinterband.
Sintered slag of good quality can be used
instead of pumice in the production of
construction material. (Text-German)
64-0601
'Refumatic' Incinerator.
54 (7):1045, July 1964.
Public Cleansing,
The British-manufactured Refumatic is a fully
automatic incinerator especially designed for
blocks of flats. Installed at the base of a
vertical chute system, the incinerator
comprises a main combustion chamber, a smoke
burn-off chamber, a water-wash chamber which
collects the fly ash, an induced draught fan
which withdraws the waste gases from the water
wash and discharges them directly to the
chimney, and a control system.
64-0602
Refuse incineration and steam raising.
Surveyor and Municipal Engineer, 124(3777):46,
Oct. 24, 1964.
Steam raising capacities in Great Britain from
the incineration of refuse are inadequate.
Initial and maintenance costs are excessive
in relation to the value achieved. Two
interesting but conflicting American theories
on this idea were presented. It was generally
agreed that the quantity and nature of the refuse
burned varies with the standard of living.
These qualities affect the rate and the way of
burning and, therefore, the products of
combustion. Atmospheric pollution as a result
of incomplete combustion is discussed.
64-0603
Refuse incineration for power production at
Munich. Surveyor and Municipal Engineer,
124(3782):29, Nov. 28, 1964.
Refuse incineration used for power production
reduces the coal shortage and tipping problems
in Munich. The plant designed to burn pulverized
coal and refuse in two separate furnaces of
high pressure steam generator is described.
The problems and reasons for two separate
furnaces are discussed including design and
arrangement of heating surfaces, temperature
and percentage of components, and efficiency.
The operation of the plant is sketched from
reception to discharging of the ash.
64-0604
Refuse incineration in the Netherlands.
Surveyor and Municipal Engineer,
123(3754):32a-32b, May 16, 1964.
The Netherlands, forced to turn from composting
to refuse incineration, examined available
systems. Some form of heat recovery and
utilization was demanded, but separation of
recoverable materials was not considered
necessary. Seasonal variation in the nature
and quantity of refuse to be handled was
reviewed. Generation of electricity was
decided upon for heat utilization and the
construction of boilers and power station
explained.
64-0605
Refuse incinerator designed for a charge of 2
x 6 tons per hour. Wasser, Luft und Betrieb,
8(7):438-439, July 1964.
An incinerator is described in which the
weighed refuse is deposited through seven
refuse locks with automatic swing gates into
the refuse reserve bin. One of the locks,
which is used for bulky refuse, has an impact
crusher connected to it. A grabbing crane
serves both the impact crusher and feeding
hopper. Downshafts supply the refuse to the
incinerator and incineration proceeds by
means of several travelling grates designed
in a steplike arrangement. The generated heat
is diminished by a waste heat boiler situated
above the incinerator chamber and the smoke
gas escapes by way of an electrofliter through
the chimney. A part of the preheated air is
141
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Incineration-Europe
reused as incineration air and the rest
escapes through the chimney. A return for
the smnke gas is provided to maintain the
temperature at the incinerator exit when
necessary. The slack, which is formed at the
bottom of the vessel, is broken up and
transported over a magnetic drum to a high
bunker. The metal separated by the magnetic
drum is transported to the ribble press
(Schottpakertierpresse). A schematic diagram
is provided. (Text-German)
64-0606
Refuse smelting facility at the Volkswagen
plant. Brennstoff-Waerme-Kraft, 16(2):76,
Feb. 1964.
The Volkswagen plant plans to install a smelting
furnace operating on the FLK-principle (flame
chamber process) to treat 5 tons per hr of all
kinds of refuse. In the FLK-process the burning
material itself furnishes the furnaces lining,
thereby allowing temperatures of operation
above the melting point of slag. Refuse
with low heat content can be used without
additional fuel. The flue gas is free of
dust and smoke. The heat obtained is used
in the central heating system of the plant.
(Text-German)
64-0607
Report on the exhibit of chemical apparatus
(ACHEMA), 1964, pertaining to the field of
sanitation. Staedtehygiene, 15(12):282-286,
Dec. 1964.
The exhibit of chemical apparatus, taking place
in Frankfort/Main, West Germany, in intervals
of 3 years, is the world's largest of this
kind. As far as the solid waste problem was
concerned, the 1964 ACHEMA stressed the theme
'Waste Incineration'. In this field a
tendency towards the revolving cylindrical
furnace as the preferred incinerator could be
observed. It is ideally suited for incineration
of all kind of waste, including sludges, as
well as for containers of various shapes and
sizes. (Text-German)
64-0608
Spitzer, E. F. European incinerators.
American City, 79(11):85, Nov. 1964.
Incineration in plants in Paris, Vienna,
Rotterdam, Frankfurt, and Amsterdam is
discussed. A general characteristic of
European plants is the utilization of steam
to produce heat and electricity. A change in
the quantity and quality of European refuse
is noted.
64-0609
Stabenow, G. European practice in refuse
burning. Presented at 1964 National Incinerator
Conference, New York, May 18-20, 1964.
American Society of Mechanical Engineers. 9 p.
The practice and type of design in some of the
European municipal incinerators are described
and special attention is given to the design
of grates. The incinerators include: the
Volund incinerator at St. Ouen (Paris), the
Martin incinerator at Munich, the incinerator
at Duesseldorf, the Von Roll incinerator at
Hamburg, the Karnap installation at Duesseldorf,
the Esslingen incinerator at Stuttgart, and
the Semler incinerator. Data is given on
amount of refuse per capital, analysis of refuse-,
and heat recovery. Traveling, reciprocating,
reverse acting Martin-type, and multiple
rotating drum grates are illustrated and their
advantages and disadvantages discussed. It
was concluded that magnetic separation of
iron from refuse before the furnace is not
desirable as case, wire, and springs promote
better aeration for combustion. Grates should
be kept as wide as practicable for a minimum
refuse bed thickness. Practically all European
units with capacities of 5 ton per hr and over
were furnished with waste heat boilers and
heat utilization is. in most cases, for power
generation in combination with municipal
district heating systems. The rigid European
Hust emission specifications of 0.15 to 0.25
Ib per 1,000 Ib gas at 50 percent excess air
make the use of electrostatic precipitators
mandatory. Auxiliary ignition burners are
usei4 for small installations only.
64-0610
Test on incineration in Great Britain.
Cleansing, 54(6):978, June 1964.
Public
Simon Handling Engineers, Ltd. of Great
Britain has experimented with the Morse-Boulger
fully automatic incinerators used in the
United States to test how effectively British
refuse would burn. Results indicate that there
is an advantage in pulverising refuse before
incineration and that the quantity of ash
produced in the United Kingdom will not hamper
satisfactory operation of the incinerator.
64-0611
Vienna's incineration plfirt . Surveyor and
Municipal Engineer, 123(3754):32-32a,
May 16, 1964.
142
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0606-0616
Transportation problems and the desire for
complete heat utilization forced Vienna to
erect a number of lower capacity incinerator
plar.ts rather than one larger one. The first
of these plants was built according to the
Von Roll System. Generation of electricity,
automatic cleaning of the flue, and use of
waste oil are described. Problems created by
briquette ash and some possible solutions are
discussed.
64-0612
Waste burning and sintering facility in Berlin,
Brennstoff-Waerme-Kraft, 16(9):409, Aug. 1964.
In Berlin-Ruhleben a. waste burning facility is
being built by the municipal authorities. At
a cost of 71 million DM it will convert 2,000
tons per day of refuse and sewage into 1,000
tons of sintered additives for concrete.
Scheduled for completion in 1968, it will
process about one-half of the total daily
refuse of Berlin. (Text-German)
64-0613
A waste incinerator for Darmstadt.
Brennstoff-Waerme-Kraft, 16(8):408, Aug. 1964.
The incinerator plant in Darmstadt, West
Germany, now under construction, will handle
200 tons of waste per day. The waste need
not be sorted or crushed. The grate is
supplied by the Von Roll AG in Zurich, the
boilers by MAN. The waste is burned at 1,000
C and waste gas filters are provided.
(Text-German)
64-0614
Weber, E. Dust and waste gas output of a
domestic waste incinerator, Staub, (6):210-216,
June 1964.
A domestic waste incinerator (volume of
combustion chamber 400 liters) installed in
the basement of an apartment house with 40
units has been investigated with respect to
its dust and waste gas output. The process
of combustion has been closely observed and
22 measurements of the dust contents in the
waste gases have been made at intermittent
days. The amounts and the temperature of
waste gases leaving the chimney have been
constantly checked and the weather conditions
have been observed. The mean value of emitted
dusts was found to be 0.238 g per cu m of
waste gas which was above the value permitted
by the VDI (Association of German Engineers)
recommendations. Experiments with a choke
valve installed in the chimney showed that
no lasting decrease of the dust contents could
be achieved. The installation of a scrubber
became necessary, which reduced the dust
contents effectively to 0.0289 g per cu m
of waste gas. Various tables give a detailed
listing of all values obtained in measurements
with and without choke valve and scrubber.
The pungent odors arising at the beginning of
the incineration have been largely eliminated
through giving the incinerator a heating-up
period of about 90 minutes to achieve a high
temperature before loading it with waste.
(Text-German)
64-0615
Winnacker, K. Elimination of industrial
wastes as a technological task.
Chemie-Ingenieur-Technik, 36(1):1-8, Jan. 1964.
Examples taken from the chemical industry
illustrate how pollution problems were solved.
Methods of cleaning polluted water and air
are thoroughly discussed. For incineration of
chemical waste, special incinerators are
being developed. A diagram is given of the
incinerator used by the Badischen Anilin-
& Soda-Fabrik AG., Ludwigshafen, Germany. The
waste goes first to the drying grate and then
to the main grate. The slag residues are
discharged by a conveyor belt. The furnace
also has a chamber for the incineration of
liquid waste. Another possibility for
incinerating chemical waste is the rotating
drum furnace used by the Dow Chemical Company,
which is suited for burning liquid and solid
waste. The rotating drum is lined with a
fireproof material. The Farbwerke Hoechst,
Germany, experimented with a melting chamber
furnace. An illustration of this furnace is
given, (Text-German)
64-0616
The world's largest waste incinerator plant.
Chemie-Ingenieur-Technik, 36(2) :167, Feb. 1964.
The world's largest waste incinerator plant
is presently being built by the Deutsche
Babcock & Wilcox-Dampfkessel-Werke AG,
Oberhausen. Located in Essen-Karnap, it is
designed and will be operated by the
Rheinisch-Westfaelische Elektrizitatswerk AG
for the generation of electric power. When
completed, the plant will incinerate 2,000
tons of waste per day. (Text-German)
143
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Industrial Wastes
64-0617
Wotschke, J. Universal waste removal and its
realization by the flame chamber smelting
process. Brennstoff-Waerme-Kraft,
16(8):383-392, Aug. 1964.
In a general discussion on waste removal
problems it is pointed out that it is desirable
for economic reasons to have one process by
which all kinds of refuse can be treated with
the least amount of preprocessing. The flame
chamber smelting process (FLK-process) is said
to fulfill these requirements. The basic idea
is to raise the operating temperature to about
1,250 C at which combustible material is
vaporized and non-combustible material is
melted and drained. The refuse itself is
used to protect the furnace walls from the
high temperatures. The energy consuming
process of vaporization forms a heat protective
layer. The flue gas is remarkably free of
dust since it must pass through the thin film
of molten slag forming on the surface of the
burning refuse. Some theoretical background
on the FLK-process is presented, together
with some preliminary experimental results.
Schematics for a FLK-furnace for 1 ,000 kg per
hr and photographs of a prototype under
construction are also given. (Text-German)
Ultraviolet absorption is useful to check
for destruction of aromatic rings. New
analytical methods are needed.
64-0619
Alyamovskiy, V., et al. Wasteful Burning
of rubber plant products. In USSR industrial
development. Soviet chemical industry. No.
82 (JPRS:19,863). Washington, U.S.
Department of Commerce, Joint Publications
Research Service, June 1963. p.1-2.
Poor utilization of industrial wastes in a
rubber tire plant results in significant
economic losses. Only 40 tons out of 170
tons of burnt rubber were processed in one
plant. If the rubber had been utilized
completely, it would have resulted in a
saving of 100,000 to 120,000 rubles. Other
methods of utilization of rubber waste
would result in a saving of 260,000 rubles.
Examples of utilization of waste in other
industries are discussed. (Translation of
an article in the Russian language newspaper
Izvestiya, Moscow, Feb. 20, 1963) (Defense
Documentation Center AD-412 089)
INDUSTRIAL WASTES
64-0618
Abernathy, A. R. Measurement of microbial
degradation of sulfonated lignin. In
Proceedings; 19th Industrial Waste
Conference, Lafayette, Ind., May 5-7, 1964.
Purdue University, Engineering Extension
Series No. 117. p.602-615.
A comparative study was made of six methods
of measuring microbiological degradation of
lignins. The six methods were: (1) direct
photometric; (2) indirect photometric; (3)
gravimetric; (4) chemical oxidation; (5)
methoxyl determinations; and (6) elemental
analyses. Marasperse CB was the lignin
sulfonate used. It was found that the degree
of lignin removal by microbial cultures
depends upon the method used to evaluate
lignin concentrations. No one of the
presently used tests is adequate for
calculations of lignin removal or
destruction. When lignin sulfonate is the
only carbon source present, microorganisms
do attack it. Most attack seems to occur
at the side chain. The preferred tests are
the Folin-Denis test and the COD test.
64-0620
American Sugar Cane League. Cane sugar
industry (Industrial waste guide). Public
Health Service Publication No. 691.
Washington, U.S. Public Health Service, 1963.
19 p.
Available information on the nature, types,
and amounts of wastes produced by the sugar
cane industry, and the methods which have
been developed and used to overcome or
minimize the harmful effects of waste
effluents are summarized. The magnitude
of the problem, description of process,
volume and character of wastes, pollutional
effects, remedial measures, sampling and
analytical procedures are presented. A
simplified flow diagram for raw cane sugar
manufacture is given. There are several
sources of waste waters leaving cane sugar
factories. Of these sources, only two are
major: cane wash water; and floor washings.
Waste water from cane wash plants is very
high in BOD and is produced in large
quantities. Special impounding basins or
treatment methods are required for
stabilization of this type of waste.
Floorwashings, boiler blowdown, and soda
and acid wastes are small in volume but
fairly high in BOD. This material is
usually handled by detention basins.
144
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0617-0623
64-0621
Amero, C. L. Continuous centrifugal
dewatering of waste sludges. In Sludge
concentration, filtration, and incineration.
Continued Education Series No. 113. Ann
Arbor, University of Michigan, School of
Public Health, 1964. p.139-151.
A centrifuge is described. Basically, it
consists of a two-member rotating element,
bowl, and conveyor, completely enclosed by
a stationary housing properly baffled to
prevent remixing of the separated
solids and liquids which discharge from
opposite ends of the bowl. A typical
centrifuge is shown in cross section in a
figure and a cutaway view in another. The
theoretical basis for this activity is given
in a formula. The settling velocity of
solids and, therefore, the clarifying
capacity of a given size of centrifuge
operating at a given speed, will increase
with greater particle size, increasing
density difference between solid and liquid,
and decreasing viscosity of the liquid
carrier. Greater radial acceleration of
the particles will also increase the
clarifying capacity of a centrifuge.
Acceleration can be increased either by
increasing the speed or the size of the unit.
Actual performance can not be predicted
by these theoretical factors which are
guides. The use of solid bowl continuous
centrifuges in domestic and industrial
waste sludge handling has been increasing.
Several examples are cited: North San
Mateo, California; Concord, California; and
San Leandro, California. A summary of test
results at the primary treatment plant
in Amherst, Massachusetts, is presented
in a figure. The economic advantages
of this method are stressed.
64-0622
Atkins, P. F., and 0. J. Sproul. Feasibility
of biological treatment of potato processing
wastes. In Proceedings; 19th Industrial
Waste Conference, Lafayette, Ind.,
May 5-7, 1964. Purdue University Engineering
Extension Series No. 117. p.303-316.
The rural areas where most potato processing
plants are located frequently have no waste
treatment plants or, if they do, the
addition of this organic content waste may
seriously overload them. The feasibility
of biological treatment for a combined
potato processing waste from a plant using
lye-peeling has been studied. Data on
waste characteristics from these plants
were obtained. Detailed studies were made
of the complete mixed activated sludge
method and of the possible use of the
contact stabilization method. Two surveys
were made of the processing plant: one
in October 1962; and the other in July 1963.
Changes made within the plant between the
two surveys resulted in a 50 percent
reduction in plant BOD, a 30 percent
reduction in suspended solids, and a
reduction of about 10 percent in water
usage. Since lye-peeling produces wastes
with a pH of 11.7, two approaches were
taken in the biological treatment feasibility
studies: one of treating straight potato
processing waste; and the other of pretreating
the waste with sulfuric acid to reduce the
pH to a more favorable range of 8.0. The
results of these studies are presented in
two tables. It appeared that effective
BOD removal (98%) was possible by a
completely mixed activated sludge system,
that pH adjustment was not necessary, and
the detention times were fairly long (15 to
20 hr). Further studies conclusively
demonstrated that potato processing
wastes can be treated by a completely
mixed activated sludge system at a solids
level of 4,000 mg per liter and a detention
of 6 to 8 hr. BOD reductions of 95
percent or higher can be expected. The
contact stabilization process appears
feasible and should be studied further.
64-0623
Batz, M. E. Deep well disposal of nylon
waste water. Chemical Engineering Progress,
60(10):85-88, Oct. 1964.
Subsurface disposal of concentrated nylon
waste is efficient and is drawing increased
attention. The Chemstrand Company nylon
plant at Pensacola, Florida, is the
largest of its kind in the world. In a
period of 10 years, the plant production
was tripled. The problem of keeping waste
treatment abreast of production became
difficult. The United States Geological
Survey conducted subsurface experiments
with nylon waste disposal. An experimental
well was drilled in a limestone formation
for the experiments. Research was also
conducted on the nature of the waste.
Surface treatment for settling and aging
would still be necessary in order to
maintain a pH below 5. The well casing
was API steel to prevent pollution of
potable water. A complete stainless steel
injection system was installed. Two
monitor wells were drilled nearby. When
turbidity is greater than 10 ppm, the
system is shut down to allow additional
145
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Industrial Wastes
settling. It is not necessary to pretreat
or filter the waste. This system is very
economical and dependable. The capital
and operating costs are about one-tenth
that of the bio-oxidation system. Additional
data and illustrations are contained
within the report.
64-0624
Baumgartner, D. J., and C. F. Walters.
Treatment of undiluted human waste by the
activated sludge process. Fort Wainwright,
Alaska, Arctic Aeromedical Laboratory, Mar.
1964. 20 p.
An activated sludge system was operated to
confirm field investigations which
indicated that a 423-gal recirculating
activated sludge system could adequately
treat the undiluted human wastes from ten
men for 6 months and provide an effluent
acceptable for use as a flushing fluid. In
addition, the level and the effects of
overloading were noted. The effect of
high pH on odor production was observed,
and the importance of pH control between
6 and 7 was demonstrated. The feed COD
of 44,000 mg per liter (BOD = 21,000 mg per
liter) was reduced by about 90 percent and
the estimated water savings for toilet flushing
was estimated at greater than 90 percent.
64-0625
Belokon, A. Production of metatoluidine
from wastes. In USSR industrial development.
Soviet chemical industry. No. 72
(JPRS:19,362). Washington, U.S. Department
of Commerce, Joint Publications Research
Service, May 1963. p.27-29.
Metatoluidine, an essential dye component
for movie film color, can be produced from
material previously thought to be waste. By
utilization of this waste material,
metatoluidine production cost is reduced to
one-third of the previous cost. (Translation
of an article by A. Belokon in the Russian
language newspaper Rabochaya Gazeta,
(Workers' Gazette), Kiev, Feb. 8, 1963)
(Defense Documentation Center AD-408 897)
64-0626
Black, R. J. Combined disposal of sewage
sludge and refuse. In Solid waste disposal
and municipal equipment 'rental' . New
York, Buttenheim Publishing Corporation,
June 1963. p.36-39.
Combined disposal of sewage sludge and refuse
by sanitary landfilling, incineration, or
composting can result in worthwhile savings
to the community, if these facilities are
located so as to minimize hauling costs.
This may be impossible to accomplish in some
local situations. Only an evaluation of
the possible satisfactory alternatives,
including costs, can provide the information
needed to choose the disposal methods best
suited to local conditions. The composting
of digested sewage sludge with sawdust
and shavings is more economical than other
methods of sludge processing under favorable
climatic conditions. Researchers report
that the use of digested sewage sludge to
make artificial topsoil over completed
sanitary landfills in New York cost only
a third as much as importing natural top
soil. Some sanitary landfill operators
bury sewage solids, bar screening, grit
and dewatered digested sludge along with the
refuse.
64-0627
Bramer, H. D., and R. D. Hoak. Zeta
potential and sedimentation practice.
In Proceedings; 19th Industrial Waste
Conference, Lafayette, Ind., May 5-7, 1964.
Purdue University Engineering Extension
Series No. 117. p.977-885.
The development of an instrumental means
for determining and controlling coagulant
dosages in the treatment of industrial
wastes by sedimentation is reported. The
processes of interest include the
clarification of suspensions of inert
solids, of slurries produced in neutralizing
waste acids, and of oil suspensions.
Suspended particles of relatively large
size and very dense chemical precipitates
are of interest rather than the colloidal
particles and light floes of concern in
water purification. Jar tests and
electrokinetic measurements are currently
used to evaluate coagulants. Jar tests try
to duplicate plant practice in laboratory
tests of various coagulant dosages and
flocculation techniques; results are
evaluated in terms either of residual
suspended solids after a settling period
or of resulting sludge density.
Electrokinetic measurements are used to
determine the magnitude and nature of the
charges on the surfaces of the suspended
particles, and then to evaluate coagulant
dosages by the extent to which the particle
mobilities are neutralized. Results are
expressed in terms of particle mobilities or
of average zeta potentials. These two
146
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0624-0629
techniques have proved useful in many
applications but of little or no value in
others. Several different systems have
been tried. A readable electrical signal
can be obtained from a suspension in which
the particles are moderately charged.
Getting a signal that is reproducible,
interpretable, and independent of solution
pH or conductivity is, however, difficult.
The system reported consists essentially
of two electrodes of similar metals connected
to a high impedance DC amplifier with an
open-loop gain of about 1,000. Several
traits of the apparatus have been carried
out with electrodes placed directly in
process streams in water purification
and waste treatment plants. The readings
were often directly related to observed
changes in either process variables or in
the composition of the plant influents. The
readings were not consistently interpretable,
however, in terms of measurable variations
in the plant effluents. The failure to
measure other variables, principally, pH,
probably accounted for the inconsistencies.
The instrument seems to be useful as a
laboratory tool rather than for in-line
measurements at present.
64-0628
Brink, R. J. Operating costs of waste
treatment in General Motors. In
Proceedings; 19th Industrial Waste
Conference, Lafayette, Ind., May 5-7, 1964.
Purdue University Engineering Extension
Series No. 117. p.12-16.
The cost of treating industrial waste
varies in the industry and within the
industry, for in any particular plant there
may be oil wastes, paint, plating, or a
combination of wastes. Each disposal unit
has its own peculiar problems. In cost
analysis the handling of sludge is important;
some plants can use sanitary sewers. Others
must incinerate, dewater and dump, dewater
and incinerate, or use biological reduction.
The quantity and type of sludge and
community requirements are determining
factors. Citizen response is important.
When a major problem of pollution is
corrected, several smaller problems may
become noticeable, if the community has
become pollution conscious. The only
available figures on disposal operating
costs for GM are at Buick which has the
most completely integrated facility in GM
for the manufacture of cars. A mixed waste
of soluble oil, insoluble oil, alkalies,
paint, thinners, chrome, cyanide, power
house blow down, and washer dumps is
treated. These wastes, because of
variations in concentration, must be treated
in batches. The chemical costs for a
six-month period are given in a table. The
chemicals are alum, ferrous sulfate, lime,
Jaguar (a coagulant aid used in processing) ,
Separan (a coagulant used in treating
sludges to bring the solids content to a
level that can be concentrated on vacuum
filters) , and sulfuric acid. The sludge
is concentrated, and the solids vacuum
filtered and dumped into trucks and
hauled to dumps for disposal. A breakdown
of costs per month is given. The sludge
costs per 1,000 gal of raw waste processed
were: labor-waste plant $0.06 per 1,000,
labor-others $0.27 per 1,000, and materials
$0.09 per 1,000 or a total of $0.18 per 1,000.
If disposal sites become scarce other
means of final disposal must be found and
there is now some study of this. Oil
salvage helps to offset costs in the total
cost picture. A recovery value of $77,211
for a six-month period is shown. The total
treatment costs are given in a table and
come to between $2.06 and $2.17 per 1,000 gal.
Depreciation and insurance account for $986
of this. Costs may be lowered by a strong
program of preventive maintenance, by
automation, by segregating wastes, and by
other methods. Automation is not a great
factor at Buick for the operation is
scattered over great distances and a
mixed waste with a single operating unit
is the most economical.
64-0629
Burkank, N. C., et al. Isolation and
identification of anaerobic and facultative
bacteria present in the digestion process.
In Proceedings; 19th Industrial
Waste Conference, Lafayette, Ind., May 5-7,
1964. Purdue University Engineering Extension
Series No. 117. p.552-577.
Two main groups of bacteria have been
reported in sewage sludge: the
saprophytic acid formers; and the methane
formers. The saprophytic bacteria are
naturally abundant in sewage, reproduce
rapidly in the digestion process, and
produce the volatile acids which can occur
in large quantities in anaerobic digesters.
The methane formers use the end products
of the acid forming bacteria. These
two groups live in symbiosis in the same
environment. Methane bacteria ferment
only very select substrates, do not
ferment carbohydrates and amino acids as
do the common saprophytic bacteria, and
their population in sewage is small.
147
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Industrial Wastes
Methane gas is one of the end products
produced by them. The present study had
five facets: (1) to improve and simplify
the equipment used to cultivate these
bacteria; (2) to improve identification
techniques; (3) to isolate and identify
those bacteria present in the most numbers
in a laboratory digester fed sewage sludge;
(4) to correlate this population with the
biochemical reactions in the digestion
process; and (5) to isolate and identify the
bacteria in the treatment plant of a meat
packing plant. The diagram of a laboratory
digestor is given. Photographs
of a laboratory anaerobic sludge digestor
and an inert atmosphere chamber are given.
A simplified anaerobic culture tube was
developed and is described in detail.
The direct count procedure was found to be
effective in showing significant variations
in the population of a sewage sludge digestor.
At efficient rates of digestion the
predominant species were Cl. carnofoetidum
and Bacillus knefelkampi in population
ratios of one to seven, respectively.
64-0630
Butler, J. A case history and evaluation
of waste treatment problems at the D. M.
Bare Paper Company. Tappi, 47(11):82A, 85A,
92A, Nov. 1964.
A survey of waste treatment problems
encountered by a papermill is reviewed
with respect to stream and ground water
pollution. Full waste treatment by the
industry is now compulsory. Using the
soda process, a 70 ft diameter clarifier
providing a 3-hr settling period removed
most suspended solids and 25 percent of the
BOD from a flow of 1.7 mgd with 7,000
Ib per day suspended solids and'1,000 Ib per
day BOD. A sludge lagoon received settled
sludge. Converting to the bleached kraft
process rendered this treatment inadequate.
Study showed that with adjustment of pH to
6 to 8, and the addition of nutrients, a
secondary process with activated sludge
could remove 90 percent of the BOD from
the wastes. The basic layout for a new
system included two parallel aeration tanks
and two 65 ft diameter final clarifiers.
The aerators are hydraulically designed
for two opposing flow patterns providing
for conventional activated sludge, sludge
reaeration, and step aeration processes.
A treated effluent with less than 100 ppm
suspended solids can be produced. Interfering
substances are soap content in lagoon
waste, titanium filler, or chlorine dioxide.
Some changes for the operation are suggested
to overcome these interferences.
64-0631
Buxton, D. H. Model tests of a slurry
channel for fly ash disposal. British
Hydromechanics Research Association, Oct. 1964.
17 p.
Experiments with a model of the proposed
West Burton-Peterborough fly ash disposal
channel are described. The investigation
aimed at proving the design of a slurry
channel and accessories intended to keep
the concentrated slurry that is discharged
into the channel on the move with no appreciable
deposit of the slurry on the channel bottom.
Preliminary studies were made using clean
water as the working fluid. Dust was added
to the water to form a slurry of 40 percent
concentration by weight. The final design
of an ejector, found from water tests, was
then tested with the slurry. Any tendency of
the ash to settle was determined by
sounding the whole length of the channel
bottom. Tests indicated that a workable
system can be designed to handle a slurry
of up to 50 percent concentration, provided
that the agitator jets are distributed along
the channel to give a general swirl, and have
sufficient velocity to cut through deposits
of ash on the bottom of the channel. A
final test was performed with agitators
positioned along the center line of the
channel and arranged so that the discharge
was directed along the floor in a downstream
direction. Three agitators with 3/8-in.
diameter orifices were spaced equally between
each pair of ejectors and each agitator
discharged approximately 5 gpm of slurry.
The concentration of the slurry was
30 percent by weight. It was effective
in keeping the slurry in suspension and
the floor of the channel was reasonably
clear of slurry mounds.
64-0632
Buzzell J. C., et al. Biological treatment
of protein water from manufacture of potato
starch. Part 1. Water and Sewage Works,
111(11):R306-R309, Nov. 1964.
The purpose of the study was to investiagate
the biological treatment of protein water
derived from the manufacture of potato
starch, since untreated protein water has
been the source of a variety of problems
when discharged into streams. Relevant
literature pertaining to waste analysis,
recovery processes, and treatment methods
was reviewed with the conclusion that little
information is available about methods of
diminishing the pollution resulting from the
manufacture of potato starch. The origin
148
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0630-0635
and characteristics of potato starch wastes
are discussed with a table giving the wastes
from analysis of a typical continuous process
starch factory. During the initial study
phase, protein water from an operating
starch plant was used. However, it became
necessary to duplicate a starch plant, on
a laboratory scale, in order to continue
the supply of protein water. The synthetic
waste had essentially the same characteristics
as the plant protein water except for BOD
where the high value of the plant waste was
not reached by the synthetic waste. The
biological treatment methods employed were
activated sludge, using a five compartmented
plastic rectangular box, and trickling
filters, including both standard and high
rate filtration. These methods, and the
process of their operation, are described.
Protein water analysis includes BOD,
alkalinity, acidity, pH, total nitrogen,
phosphorus, and turbidity.
64-0633
Buzzell, J. C., et al. Biological
treatment of protein water from manufacture
of potato starch. Part 2. Water and
Sewage Works, 111 (11):R310-R315, Nov. 1964.
The experimental results and discussion of
a study on two biological treatment methods
of protein water from the manufacture of
potato starch are presented. Studies were
conducted on activated sludge, carried out
in five parallel compartments, and on
trickling filters, involving both standard
and high rate filtration. Results presented
for activated sludge included operating
data, loading intensity, BOD removal,
and effluent characteristics. The greatest
source of difficulty was the lack of control
adequate to maintain a constant loading
intensity. Results presented for the
trickling filters include the effluent
characteristics and BOD removal for
standard and for high rate biological
filtration. The relationship between
hydraulic and organic loading rates is
given. It was found that the activated
sludge treatment gave BOD removals of
about 95 percent at loading intensities
up to 80 Ib of BOD per 1,000 Ib of mixed
liquor suspended solids per hour of aeration.
Standard rate trickling filters gave BOD
removal of 90 percent or better with
organic loadings up to 1,300 Ib of
BOD per acre ft per d BOD removals of 90
percent or better were obtained on high
rate filters with loading up to 3,000 Ib.
A higher organic loading limit for high
rate filtration might be obtained with a
larger size stone than that used in this
study. It was concluded that protein water
from the manufacture of potato starch was
successfully treated by standard biological
treatment processes.
64-0634
Byrd, J. F., and J. H. Walter. Joint
municipal-industrial treatment of combined
wastes. Chemical Engineering Progress,
60(1):44-48, Jan. 1964.
The advnatages and prlblems involved in
treating industrial wastes with domestic
sewage in municipal treatment plants are
becoming more generally recognized as this
practice grows. The advantages are:
savings to the municipality and to the
industry in initial costs and operating
costs, the opportunity to employ
specialized personnel, less space required,
and the Improvement of the susceptibility
of industrial waste to biological decomposition
by the presence of domestic sewage. Two
major problems arise under this method.
Some materials should be excluded
entirely from such a system. A lower
limit is necessary on the pH of substances
entering the sewers and a restriction on
fats, oils, or greases. Whether sewage
charges should be based on volume or
property tax is another pertinent problem.
64-0635
Caron, A. L., and W. L. Carpenter. Effects
of polyelectrolytes on primary deinking and
boardmill sludge and on effluent clarification
of deinking effluent. In Proceedings;
19th Industrial Waste Conference, Lafayette,
Ind., May 5-7, 1964. Purdue University
Engineering Extension Series No. 117. p.139-145
The vacuum filter leaf test, laboratory
sized sludge thickeners, and a pilot
flotation cell were used to evaluate the
effects of polyelectrolytes as conditioning
agents from primary papermill sludges.
Polyelectrolytes as flocculents to aid
primary sedimentation were also evaluated
on a mixture of de-inking washer waste
water and white water. The vacuum filter
test leaf was evaluated at several dry and
form cycles, but the data reported are from
a 30 second form time and a 30 second
dry time which gave the highest hourly
loading rates. All filtrations were made
at a 15-in. mercury vacuum. The studies
indicate that polyelectrolytes would be
useful as conditioning agents for sludges
149
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Industrial Wastes
difficult to thicken and de-water. In the
case of effluent from the de-inking process
mixed with white water, suspended solids
concentration effluent was vital and the
most significant gain was in increased
settleability. Evaluation on the site is
important since dosage was dependent on
sludge type and composition and clarification
of de-inking effluent was dependent on
strength. Sludge thickening rates can
be increased 55 percent at a dosage of 0.06
percent dry solids basis in the case
of boardmill clarifier overflow and about
14 percent at 0.12 percent dry solids
dosage for de-inking primary sludge. A
supernatant was obtained with increased
clarity over gravity thickening. Final
concentration of the thickened sludge did
not seem to be improved over gravity
thickening, however. Flotation thickening
increased solids concentration of the final
product less than 10 percent. The polymers
tested are not applicable to flotation
thickening of these sludges. Vacuum
filtration of both de-inking and primary
boardmill sludge conditioned with
polyelectrolytes increased the loading
rate and the drainage rates by more than
150 percent. While the use of
polyelectrolytes on a mixture of de-inking
washer water and white water did not increase
suspended solids removal it did result in
a 40 percent increase in settleability.
64-0636
Centrifuge reduces sludge disposal costs.
Public Works, 95(7):133, July 1964.
A centrifuge to dewater digested sludge at
the Westchester County, New York, sewage
treatment plant has cut the number of barge
trips to sea from seven to two or three per
month. The plant uses a 40 x 60 in. Bird
continuous solid Bowl centrifuge, equipped
for the use of flocculating chemicals should
a more completely clarified liquid be required.
The centrifuge raises the solid contents
of the digested sludge from 2.9 percent
to not less than 10 percent, a consistency
that will permit maximum tonnage of solids
per load, and at the same time be fluid enough
for efficient sluicing from the barge.
Provision is made for bypassing the
centrifuge with digested sludge should
it be necessary to dilute a more concentrated
centrifuged product to maintain the 10
percent consistency.
64-0637
Coerver, J. F. Anaerobic and aerobic ponds
for packinghouse waste treatment in Louisiana.
In Proceedings; 19th Industrial Waste
Conference, Lafayette, Inc., May 5-7, 1964.
Purdue University Engineering Extension
Series No. 117. p.200-209.
The operations of ponds for treating
slaughterhouse wastes at Houma, Louisiana,
and similarly-designed installations at
Slidell and Gonzales have been studied. The
installations consist of three ponds in
series: an anaerobic pond, a transitional
pond, and an aerobic pond. The ponds at
Houma remove 98.1 percent of the BOD
applied. Most of the BOD is removed
in the anaerobic pond where 879 Ib per acre per
day have been removed. The pond is only 2 ft
deep with an applied loading of 950 Ib per
acre. Equivalent BOD removal per acre-ft of
volume in the anaerobic pond could be
achieved with more depth. Consistently
satisfactory results in the mature pond
installations at Gonzales and at Slidell
confirm this. Volume rather than surface
area appears to be the critical feature in
anaerobic ponds although most of those
studied are shallow. The smaller the surface
area the sooner the important crust is
formed over the surface. Current design
criteria for anaerobic ponds are: a
minimum volume of 1 acre-ft for each 500
hogs slaughtered per week; long and narrow shape
with length at least three times the width
to facilitate cleaning with a dragline;
1 acre of water surface area for each 667
hogs slaughtered per week; one-third transitional
pond surface and two-thirds aerobic pond surface;
a liquid depth of 4 to 5 ft; and aerobic
ponds with the least possible perimeter
with inlets at the center. These ponds
have given satisfactory results, are the
least expensive treatment units to build and
operate, are reliable, and are free from
odors except during initial operation.
64-0638
Cooley, A. M., E. D. Wahl, and G. 0. Fossum.
Characteristics and amounts of potato
wastes from various process streams. In
Proceedings; 19th Industrial Waste
Conference, Lafayette, Ind., May 5-7, 1964.
Purdue University Engineering Extension
Series No. 117. p.379-390.
The Red River Valley of North Dakota and
Minnesota is flat with meandering streams
flowing only during the spring runoff. Any
discharge of industrial wastes into these
streams immediately results in nuisance
development. The area is usually third
in potato production in the U.S. Nearly
3 million hundred weight were processed
150
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0636-0640
(dehydrated, frozen french fries, potato
flour, starch) in 1962 to 1963. About one
bushel in four is discarded as preparation
waste in processing. Plant surveys were
made and the characteristics of the wastes
examined. Better production methods might
decrease the wastes. Lye peeling, steam
peeling, and abrasive peeling were studied,
as well as the wastes from potato starch
manufacture. The wastes are very different
and their characteristics have a great
effect on treating and stabilizing effluents.
The dehydration process and the methods
used in the manufacture of potato flakes,
potato chips, and potato starch are outlined
with special reference to disposal problems.
The strengths of the waste streams from
these plants are summarized in a table. The
figures are based on 5-day BOD and the
figure of 0.17 Ib per population equivalent.
Clarifiers with a 2 hr detention time
caused a decrease in organic loading
of more than 50 percent in the potato
wastes from the chip plant and more than
60 percent for the flour process using
steam peeling. Neither the flake plant
nor the starch plant had treatment systems.
The population equivalents for commercial
sized plants per ton of raw potatoes
indicate the magnitude of the problem when
sewage disposal facilities of towns with
populations of 2,000 to 40,000 are used for
these effluents. A starch plant using
200 tons per day raw potatoes is equivalent
to a town with a population of 70,600.
Primary treatment in which solids are
removed mechanically is effective in
lowering the organic content in most of
the streams of these processes.
64-0639
Copeland, G. G., and J. E. Hanway. Treating
waste NSSC liquors in a fluidized-bed reactor.
Paper Trade Journal, 147(41):40-41, Oct. 1963.
The fluidized-bed process in the treatment
and disposal of NSSC waste liquor is
described. Mill liquor of approximately
115,000 gal per day of 8 to 10 percent solid
content is fed to a three-effect evaporator
where it is reduced to 28,800 gal of 35
percent solid content. This is fed into
the fluidized-bed reactor through an
injector-type nozzle extending to within
about 12 ft of bed surface when operating
with a six foot deep bed. Steam is the
driving fluid in the nozzle. A temperature
of 850 F is maintained above the freeboard.
The liquor feed then either falls into the
bed or is deposited on rising entrained
dust particles. These dust particles
eventually become large enough to fall and
remain on the bed or are carried out by
exhaust gasses, separated in a cyclone
collector, and recirculated to the bed by
a screw conveyor. The effluent gasses from
the cyclone are discharged into the
atmosphere after scrubbing. The organic
material on the bed is oxidized at 1325 F
and fluidized by air introduced into the
firebox. The pelletized product is
discharged from the reactor to silo storage.
The system has many practical aspects. The
total cost of the plant was less than
$500,000. Operating cost has been less than
$3 per ton of pulp. Anticipated scaleing
problems were minor, with a once a week
boil-out proving to be sufficient. This
process is used in a paper mill, but is
useful to other industries.
64-0640
Copeland, G. G. Water reuse and black
liquor oxidation by the Container-Copeland
Process. In Proceedings; 19th Industrial
Waste Conference Lafayette, Ind., May 5-7,
1964. Purdue University Engineering Extension
Series No. 117. p.391-401.
The Container Corporation of America
operates a sulfite mill at Carthage,
Indiana, which produces corrugating medium
for shipping containers by the neutral
sulfite semi-chemical process. Capacity
is 170 tons per day which is made from 130
tons per day of virgin pulp and 40 tons per
day of waste paper from old corrugated
containers. The plant was converted to neutral
sulfite pulping of the local hardwoods in 1958.
For 50 years the mill discharged effluent
directly into the Big Blue River (which
has a low summer flow of 20,000 gal per min),
but for the last 25 years stream control
regulations have been imposed in increments
based on a reduction of a diminishing
balance. Generation BOD of this mill
in process waters is about 50,000 Ibs per day.
Stream control regulations have reached a
point of 99 percent removal of BOD
(really 100% in practice) although there
is no economic and acceptable process for
this. The Sveen Pedersen clarification
process based on chemical flocculation
of suspended solids and flotation separation
of fibers from the water provides reusable
water containing 0.3 Ib of suspended
fibers or solids per 1,000 gals. Chemical
costs for recycled water are about 25
cents per ton of pulp. The Container-Copeland
process is described and a schematic
flowsheet given. The process involves
evaporation of waste liquors in triple
151
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Industrial Wastes
effect forced circulation evaporators
from an incoming concentration of 9 to
10 percent solids to 35 percent solids.
The thickened liquor is then injected into
a specially designed fluidized bed reactor
in which an oxidizing atmosphere using air
is maintained for combustion of the organic
content of the black liquor. The
carbon-hydrogen content of these organics
is burned to carbon dioxide and water, and
vented to the atmosphere. The cooking
chemicals are deposited in the fluid bed
where they pelletize and form nuclei for
continued pelletization. The temperature
of the whole operation is 1300 F. The
system is fed continuously and discharges
pellets of inorganic salts continuously.
The end product pellets consist of a
mixture of sodium sulfate-sodium carbonate
in the same ratio as the similar mixture
used in the cooking liquor preparation.
Pellet size is 10 to 48 mesh.
64-0641
Davis, H. W., J. A. Biehl, and R. M. Smith.
Pollution control and waste treatment at an
inland refinery. In Proceedings; 19th
Industrial Waste Conference, Lafayette, Ind.,
May 5-7, 1964. Purdue University Engineering
Extension Series No. 117. p.126-138.
The refinery at Robinson, Illinois, consists
of crude distillation, vacuum distillation,
fluid catalytic cracking, light ends, and
alkylation units. The refinery has its own
steam and electric generating plant, and the
usual tank farm with fuels and gasoline
blending facilities. The capacity is about
65,000 barrels per day (summer, 1964). Waste
control includes slop oil recovery with two
API separators (traps), tankage, and a
rotational vacuum precoat filter. Wastes
from all sources in the refinery are
collected in an underground oily sewer
system and discharged to the treatment
plant by a 30 in. sewer. The layout of the
plant sewer system and of the treatment
plant are shown in figures. A table
summarizes the composition of each of
the major waste waters by the unit producing
them. Oil disposal, water waste treatment,
and recent refinements are described in
detail with figures and photographs. The
management of this refinery believes that
the solutions are economical and that no
major capital investment will be necessary
soon.
The Institute for Industrial Water and
Air Pollution Control conducts meetings
in regular intervals to discuss all pressing
questions in the fields of water and air
pollution and solid waste. The last
meeting held on October 16, 1963, dealt
with the deposition of industrial wastes.
Several papers were presented discussing
legal aspects, hygiene, possible dangers
to the groundwater, and economical
questions. Almost all speakers stressed
the opinion that the technical and
financial problems involved in the dumping
of waste on disposal sites can be effectively
solved only by a close cooperation among
municipalities. (Text-German)
64-0643
Dias, F. F., and J. V. Bhat. Microbial
ecology of activated sludge. Applied
Microbiology, 12(5):412-417, Sept. 1964.
The microbial ecology of activated sludge
was investigated. Over 300 bacterial strains
were isolated from seven samples by plating
on sewage agar. Bacteria of the genera
Zoogloea and Comamonas predominated. Many
isolates (51%) showed sudanophilic
inclusions of poly-B-hydroxy-butyric acid.
Sudan is a stain, largely used to determine
fats. Sodophllic material was accumulated
on media containing starch in 34 percent
of the isolates. Sodophilia is defined
as the reaction shown by leukocytes under
certain conditions when treated with iodine.
A large number required vitamins and/or
amino acids for growth. None of the
isolates tested for their ability to cause
changes in sterilized sewage produced an
effluent comparable in quality to the
activated sludge control, although the
activated Zoogloea produced activated
sludge-like floes, therefore demonstrating
its importance in the aerobic biological
methods of waste water treatment. A study
of 150 bacterial strains isolated from raw
sewage revealed that they differed from the
sludge isolates in several respects.
Coliforms, which constitute nearly 25
percent of sewage isolates, were rarely
encountered in sludge. It appears, in
conclusion, that flora is responsible in the
metabolism of soluble substrates, while
protozoa have the ability to remove the
particulate fraction, including the bacteria
that come in with the sewage. Data
summarizes all results of the study.
64-0642
Deposition of industrial wastes. Wasser
und Abwasser, 105(6):153-154, Feb. 1964.
64-0644
Donaldson, E. C. Subsurface disposal of
industrial wastes in the United States.
152
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0641-0646
U.S. Bureau of Mines Information
Circular No. 8212. [Washington], U.S. Department
of the Interior, 1964. 33 p.
A study of subsurface waste disposal in
the United States shows that in eight states a
wide variety of industrial wastes are being
injected into formations ranging in age from
Precambrian to Recent. More than 30 wells
ranging in depth from 300 to 12,000 ft are
used for waste disposal into subsurface
formations which include unconsolidated
sand, sandstone, vugular limestone, and
fractured gneiss. Surface equipment used
in waste disposal, and drilling and completion
methods for disposal wells are described in
detail. Data secured by visits to industrial
plants are discussed, and a summary of
operating conditions is presented. It was
generally concluded that each waste disposal
problem must be evaluated separately.
Selection of surface equipment for
preinjection treatment of the waste is
contingent on the type of formation
available. A buffer zone of water
compatible with the injected waste can be
created within the formation by pumping
a large volume (250,000 gal or more) of
fresh water into the formation before
injection of the waste is started. Careful
design and the use of plastic well tubing,
together with maintenance of either diesel
oil or an inert gas in the annulus between
the tubing and casing, are effective means
for dealing with corrosive wastes. Sand
incursion into the bottom of the well can
be avoided by packing gravel in a reamed
cavity at the bottom of the well. The
use of a waste reservoir exposed to the
atmosphere should be avoided.
64-0645
Dornbush, J. N., and J. R. Andersen.
Lagooning of livestock wastes in South
Dakota. In Proceedings; 19th Industrial
Waste Conference, Lafayette, Ind., May 5-7,
1964. Purdue University Engineering Extension
Series No. 117. p.317-325.
The animal waste load of the north-central
region of the United States is equivalent
to 500 million people. This waste load is
concentrated in large production units.
Field spreading may be more costly than the
value of the wastes as fertilizer.
Lagooning is the most popular method now
because little labor is required, nuisance
is immediately reduced, and water is not
greatly polluted. Many criteria used
have been those of lagooning of domestic
wastes. These are not applicable to farm
animal waste disposal with their high solids
concentration. The present report is on two
kinds of research: (1) a field study of
lagoons now in operation in South Dakota;
and (2) an investigation of the operation of
a poultry lagoon in the field and in
the laboratory, together with changes in
operation which changed an odorous situation
to a properly functioning unit. In the first
study, about forty livestock manure lagoons
were studied. Most were for hog and poultry
wastes, operate anaerobically, and
performed satisfactorily. Only indoor
poultry lagoons constructed under slat
floors have consistently proved unsuccessful.
A physical feature or poor operation
accounts for the other failures. The study
of the poultry manure lagoon summarizes
fresh chicken manure characteristics, reports
the physical observation made from June
through November and chemical analyses made
from June through October, and operational
changes made. Lagoons must maintain
anaerobic action and should be loaded on a
volatile solids basis just as other sludge
digesters are. A loading rate of 5 to 10
Ib volatile solids per 1,000 cu ft of lagoon
volume is satisfactory where winter
conditions result in storage for long periods.
Mixing to disperse sludge deposits is
necessary to avoid offensive odors. An
adequate water depth to make mixing easier
is desirable. Depths of 5 to 8 ft should
be considered.
64-0646
Dougherty, M. H. Activated sludge treatment
of citrus waste. Journal of the Water
Pollution Control Federation, 36(1):72-79,
Jan. 1964.
The treatment of wastewaters is a problem
of the citrus processing industry. Studies
at the University of Florida indicate the
activated sludge process to be the method
of choice for treating citrus wastewaters.
In these studies, the raw waste was prepared
by diluting the juice with tap water to the
desired solids concentration. The nutrient
supplements were dissolved in the waste,
and a sample was taken for immediate analysis.
During processing, samples of the untreated
waste, aeration liquor, treated waste, and
excess sludge were taken daily. COD,
and total and organic solids analyses on
the treated and untreated waste, and total
solids analyses on the excess sludge were
run 5 days per week. The pH of the treated
waste, aeration liquor, and untreated
waste, and the percent sludge by volume
in the aeration liquor and treated waste
153
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Industrial Wastes
were determined 7 days per week. Excellent
treatment was accomplished with the system.
The treated waste contained less than 2
percent of the BOD of the untreated
waste. Inorganic nitrogen and phosphate
nutrients helped to treat the waste. If
sludge was removed too rapidly, the degree
of treatment was reduced. More than 20
percent of the total solids were recovered
as dry excess sludge. Data and tables
support conclusions given in this paper.
64-0647
Draper, R. E., and F. C. Mercier. Hydraulic
barker effluent clarifier at Wood Products
Division, Weyerhaeuser Company, Everett,
Washington. In Proceedings; Eleventh
Pacific Northwest Industrial Waste Conference,
Corvallis, Oreg., 1963. p.168-171.
A system is described for recovering the
bark from water used in barking operations
at sawmills and purifying the effluent from
the mills to safe standards for river
disposal. Two screening operations and a
Dorr-Oliver clarifier are used to reduce
suspended combustible solids to 20 ppm in
waste water, lower than commission control
requirements. The larger bark particles
are used as fuel for the mill's power
plant.
64-0648
Dreier, D. E., and J. D. Walker. Grease
incineration. In Proceedings; 19th
Industrial Waste Conference, Lafayette,
Ind,, May 5-7, 1964. Purdue University
Engineering Extension Series No. 117. p.161-166.
Grease in sewage comes from many sources:
kitchen fats; soaps; garbage fed through
household grinders; and industrial sources
such as packinghouses and garages. Grease
and oil accumulations interfere with
anaerobic digesters, and the problem of
disposal has led to a study of incineration.
Greasy skimmings contain three overlapping
components: fibrous trash; the grease
itself; and ash. Preparation for incineration
consists of first pumping the decanted grease
from the accumulating tanks through a
grinder which reduces the size of the trash
particles to a size that can be handled by
a metering pump. A hammer-mill type with
%-in. slots is satisfactory. The grease
then flows into a day tank and is further
decanted. A small amount of heat speeds this.
After decanting, a powerful propeller
mixer-blender churns the contents of the
tank to a uniform consistency after
which the mixture is ready to be fed into
the incinerator by any good positive
displacement pump. The incineration must
take place at above 2000 F since mercaptans
are destroyed at 1,850 F and the
hydrocarbons produced at lower temperatures
are resistant to oxidation up through
1800 F. Air pollution and odors are thus
avoided. To handle the unavoidable small
water pockets the furnace must have an
area of heated refractory and intensely
burning material. The incinerator must be
easy to operate and simple to maintain.
The Circular Hearth Type Greaseburn unit
with a forced draft continuously and
completely incinerates decanted grease and
other skimmings without using auxiliary
fuel and discharges the combustion gases
(before dilution at the stack) at temperatures
from 2000 F to 2500 F. The design is
illustrated in a schematic drawing, and the
performance of the unit described. The
unit is available in several sizes with
capacities from 300 to 1200 Ib per hr of wet
grease.
64-0649
Drew, E. A. Sewage treatment and trade
effluent control. Royal Society of Health
Journal, 84(3):159-162, May-June 1964.
The two stages in effluent treatment are
carbonaceous and nitrogenous oxidation. Raw
sludge settling in the sedimentation tank
is decomposed anaerobically in the digestion
tanks. Organic matter is broken into
simpler organic acids which are broken down
to methane and carbon dioxide. Effluent
strength can be reduced by the following
means: decrease of effluent strength by
slaughterhouse blood drip trays;
screening frozen vegetable preparation
water; evaporating or filtrating distillation
wastes; salvaging cereal; and pretreating
farm wastes. The adverse effects of toxic
elements can be reduced if they flow at a
steady rate. The majority of metals are
brought out of solution and precipitated in
the sedimentation tanks and pass to the
digestors, thereby minimizing the quantity
to be handled in the secondary biological
treatment. Nitrobacter and Nitrosomonas
are responsible for converting ammonia to
nitrate. Dichlorphenol has been found to
inhibit sludge digestion in a concentration
of 20 ppm, while 25 ppm had no effect. There
is an increased risk of sewer blockages
due to conveying grease, rubber, and plastic
wastes. Screens, macerators, comminutors,
grit channels, etc., lead to deposition of
154
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0647-0653
material. Rate of sludge drying depends
on sludge nature.
64-0650
Drying and compressing sewage sludge.
Compost Science, 4(4) :32, Winter 1964.
A mechanical treatment for sewage sludge
dehydrates fresh and rotting sludge by means
of centrifugal power, and compresses the
sludge to about 77 percent. The sludge
will be changed into a paste form. It is
compacted without chemical additions so as
to be suitable for use in agriculture and
industry. The centrifuge works automatically
with a low energy requirement, and can be
installed on about one or two sq m area.
64-0651
Ettelt, G. A. Activated sludge thickening
by dissolved air flotation. In Proceedings;
19th Industrial Waste Conference, Lafayette,
Ind., May 5-7, 1964. Purdue University
Engineering Extension Series No. 117. p.210-244.
Sludge thickening became an urgent research
problem at the Chicago Southwest plant when
the Zimmerman Wet Oxidation (Zimpro) Process
was considered as a method for final disposal
of activated sludge. In order to maintain
this combustion process on an energy basis,
the sludge must contain a minimum COD
of 30 g per liter. A COD of 60 g per liter
would enable the process to be self-sustaining.
This represents an activated sludge
solids concentration of 3 and 5 percent
respectively. Thickening by settling
produces concentrations of 1.2 to 2.5
percent, although if 50 percent by weight of
preliminary sludge is used, 5 percent solids
is possible, but the activated sludge
handling capacity is markedly decreased.
Mechanical flotation is described, but the
gain in solids thickening over settling is
not significant. Dissolved air flotation
is based on the small bubble diameter
resulting from air released from solution.
Air is added to a solid suspension and the
mixture elevated to a high pressure. Since
the solubility of air increases with
pressure, the air dissolves. The pressurized
suspension is then released into a chamber
at a reduced pressure where air in excess
of the decreased solubility forms the tiny
bubbles. Formulas are developed, and the
theoretical aspects of flotation discussed.
Experiments were carried out and the results
showed that activated sludge was thickened
to a higher solids concentration by flotation
(4%) than by settling (2%) in a full-scale
unit. Maximum floated solids production of
12 tons per day and 55 percent solids recovery
was obtained at a loading of 22 ton per day
(13.5 Ib per sq ft per day). The addition of 20 Ib
Purifloc 601 (Dow Chemical) per ton solids doubled
the floated tonnage and increased total
solids recovery to 99.6 percent for the
loading of 26 ton per day. Inlet design was
the most critical structural feature for
flotation in order to provide minimal
turbulence. The tray modified expansion
well produced the best results. The total
area used by the three inlets was less than
50 percent of the flotation unit area.
Higher air to solid ratios at constant
overflow rate improved performance.
64-0652
Evanson, A. E. Power or pollution--the use
of lumber industry waste for electric power
generation. Seattle, Cornell, Rowland, Hayes,
& Merryfield, 1964. 7 p.
The use of lumber industry waste for the
generation of electric power is suggested
as one possible solution for eliminating the
air pollution problem from this source. The
major advantage of the proposal is that it
can be immediately applied without further
development of methods or of special
processing equipment. Arguments are set
forth to show that the burning of wood
waste for power is economical, since it can
produce useful amounts of power at a cost
less than that of any other fossil fuel.
While such a use is economic within the
framework of the regional and national
economy, it is not at present economical for
the individual lumber producer, unless some
adjustments to procedures for purchasing
the power generated and for taxing the
investment are made.
64-0653
Fisk, W. W. Food processing waste disposal.
Water and Sewage Works, 111(9) :417-420,
Sept. 1964.
Two distinct methods of waste removal
employed by two baby food plants within the
Gerber organization are described. At the
first plant, facilities for waste start with
tapered gutters spaced uniformly throughout
the whole operation from preparation through
labeling. Water is introduced at the
shallow high end of each feeder gutter so
that waste can be transferred from all
plant areas to a main gutter which is
155
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Industrial Wastes
tapered from each end to 3 drains. Waste
is dropped from these drains to a grinder
and then to a screening plant for separation
of liquids and solids. The solid
particles are transferred to hoppers for
animal feed, and the liquid is piped to a
nearby river. The plant is geared to take
2^ mil gal of waste water daily. An
important feature is that the continuous
transfer of waste is accomplished entirely
by gravity, so that maintenance for the
system is very low. The second plant
involves a very different principle, since
it is much larger, and there are no natural
water resources for handling the large
quantity of waste. A full scale operation
of spray irrigation of all plant waste water
is used. Waste water is separated from
solids on a shaker screen, and the solids
are disposed of as animal feed. The
irrigation farm is composed of 140 acres
with 17,000 ft of 10-in. asbestos-cement
pipe laid 40 in. underground between the
plant and the farm. A permanent irrigation
installation is laid out with main lines
and laterals, permitting alternate spraying
of various sections. The sprinklers are
capable of delivering 81 gal per minute over
a 210 ft diameter area. Crab grass is used
mainly as the cover crop, and every 2 or 3
years subsoiling 2^ ft into the ground over
the entire irrigated area is necessary to
prevent the formation of a heavy crust.
Tests have shown that continuous irrigation
has not caused any measurable effect on
groundwater level or quality. It was
concluded that both methods of waste
disposal have proven most effective at
each respective plant.
64-0654
Fossum, G. 0., A. M. Cooley, and E. D. Wahl.
Stabilization ponds receiving potato wastes
with domestic sewage. In Proceedings; 19th
Industrial Waste Conference, Lafayette,
Ind., May 5-7, 1964. Purdue University
Engineering Extension Series No. 117. p.96-111.
The operating characteristics of two
lagoons in northern North Dakota, severely
overloaded with industrial wastes, have
been studied for 40 months. One of the
lagoons serves Park River, population less
than 2,000, with a primary lagoon of 25
acres and a secondary lagoon of about 10
acres, in operation since 1955. A flake
plant using the lye-peeling process located
in Park River uses well water with a total
solids contents of about 5,000 ppm. Graton,
population under 6,000, has two lagoons
70 acres in area with the influent piping
so arranged that they can be operated
in series or in parallel. A flake plant
using the steam-peeling process, and a
starch plant are located there. The
lagoons have been in operation since
1957. The study began in January, 1961,
when all three of the processing plants
were discharging their wastes to the
lagoons after first running them through
primary sedimentation basins. The sludge
settled was disposed of, and the liquid
effluent sent to the lagoons which were
known to be receiving a heavy organic
loading with resulting odor problems in
the summer of 1960. The lagoons were
studied for volatile, fixed, and total
solids, BOD, pH, alkalinity, and (when
aerobic) for dissolved oxygen and COD.
The results of these studies are presented
in tables for each of the lagoons. It was
found that potato wastes combined with
domestic sewage are digested readily even when
the organic loading from the
processing plants was more than 15 times
the organic loading from domestic sewage.
While this digestion can take place either
anaerobically or aerobically, the former
leads to objectionable odors and other
nuisances. Even with high pH wastes,
carbonate alkalinity was found only during
the time photosynthesis occurs. During
the summer, potato processing wastes plus
domestic sewage can be applied at well over
the usual figure of 20 Ib of BOD per acre per
day for northern climates. (It may be that
in September and October the amounts could
be 50 to 60 Ib of BOD per day.) Aerobic lagoons
like these will remain aerobic until the
BOD concentration reaches 200 or more
ppm, but do not again become aerobic until
the BOD falls below 100. Potato
organics adversely affect surface reaeration
by damping out wave action particularly
during anaerobic conditions. During periods
of heavy ice cover organic solids do not
settle in appreciable amounts. During the
winter months these lagoons are merely
storage ponds. The accumulated load
must be stabilized during the short summer.
64-0655
Garrison, W. E., J. D. Parkhurst, and
C. A. Nagel. Gas recirculation--natural,
artificial. Water Works and Wastes
Engineering, 1(2):58-63, Feb. 1964.
The high cost of sludge handling facilities
demonstrates the necessity of achieving
dependable accelerated digestion. To
accomplish this high-rate digestion, (a
loading in excess of 0.15 Ib of volatile
156
-------
0654-0658
solids per day per cu ft of digestion tank
capacity) Los Angeles employs two types of
gas recirculating digesters. The first
is a natural recirculating type which
depends on the percolating of the gas
produced during digestion to accomplish the
mixing of the sludge. The other type uses
artificial circulating means such as
impeller units, gas mixers, or external
mixing pumps. These two types of digesters
produce digested sludge which meets the
accepted requirements of less than 400
ppm of volatile acids, low odor level, good
drainability, and neutral pH. To obtain
the preceding results consistently, five
factors should be considered in the design
and operation of sludge digesters. Mixing
and gas circulation should be thorough enough
to bring raw sludge into intimate contact with
the digesting mass. Grit deposits should
be minimized to maintain maximum active
volume in the digestor. Also uniform
temperatures (90 F to 95 F) and loading
rates (in this case 65 to 75 thousand gpd)
need to be maintained along with the
elimination of any toxic wastes before they
can enter the digesters. Included in the
article are sample charts of the criteria
used as daily checks on the efficiency
of the digesters.
64-0656
Gaudy, A. F., and M. Ramanathan. A
colorimetric method for determining chemical
oxygen demand. In Proceedings; 19th
Industrial Waste Conference, Lafayette,
Ind., May 5-7, 1964. Purdue University
Engineering Extension Series No. 117. p.915-926.
Using a. variety of waste waters (including
raw sewage from Stillwater, Oklahoma,
primary effluent from Stillwater, refinery
waste, and primary effluent from Oklahoma City)
a thorough study has been made of COD
determinations by the standard titrimetric
procedure as compared with colorimetry.
The results, presented in seven figures
and one table, indicate that the two
procedures yield comparable COD values.
When the turbidity of the refluxed sample
is low, the correlation between the two
methods is very good. If addition of the
catalyst at the beginning of the reflux period
leads to precipitation of silver chloride,
an alternate procedure wherein the sample
is refluxed in the absence of silver sulfate
followed by refluxing in its presence
avoids the formation of a precipitate when
high chloride concentrations are present.
This study did not include using a
shortened reflux period or altering the
normalities, etc., recommended in Standard
Methods, although these alterations may be
applicable to many local situations. The
only purpose of the study was to determine
if colorimetry was a reliable replacement for
the titration procedure. It is concluded
that the colorimetric test provides a
reliable and quantitative procedure which
yields results comparable to those of the
standard titration technique. The fact that
it requires less technical skill and is quick
may encourage more laboratory control in
sewage treatment plants.
64-0657
Gaudy, A. F., and B. G. Turner. Effect of
air-flow rate on response of activated
sludge to quantitative shock loading.
Journal of the Water Pollution Control
Federation, 36(6):767-788, June 1964.
The effects of air supply during short term
quantitative shock loading on the
biochemical efficiency (as measured by the
rate of substrate removal) of an activated
sludge are given. The aeration rate was
varied in an experimental activated sludge
to which concentrated organic substrate was
added to give shock loading. Dissolved
oxygen and total solids tests were run on the
sludge before and after the addition of
the organic substrate. Warburg studies were
made on the original and mixed sludge with
COD and solids being measured hourly.
The oxygen uptake on the Warburg respirometer
was recorded throughout the experiment. The
values of oxygen tension which affect
metabolic rate lie below 0.5 mg per liter of
dissolved oxygen. The increase in metabolic
activity with increasing air flow rate was
not very great. The short term absence of
dissolved oxygen will not seriously affect
the substrate removal of the process.
64-0658
Gaudy, A. F., et al. Symposium on joint
vs. separate treatment of municipal and
industrial wastes. Journal of the water
Pollution Control Federation, 36(3):345-361,
Mar. 1964.
Legal, technical, operational, and economic
aspects are discussed. A fair distribution
of treatment costs should be determined.
Most municipalities have authority to tax
property directly to pay for public services.
The contract should describe type and
quantity of waste, facility ownership, and
leasing provisions. A single combined
157
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Industrial Wastes
treatment plant costs less. Admixture of
the city's domestic wastes would reduce the
company's nutrient requirements. The
charge for disposal services could be
related to volume, BOD, COD, solids,
or peak discharge rates. Highly septic
sewage can cause odor. If industry decides
to abandon an operation which has received
expensive facilities at municipal cost,
the city will not have more jobs and will
lose money. To control effluents, we must
control influents. Controlling wastes at
the source will affect manufacturing
operations: improved process efficiency;
increased corrosion; slime and heat
exchange surface; production schedule
change; raw materials change; and location
change. Recirculation is an example of
containment and diversion to control wastes
at source. Waste treatment is not always
the most effective and economic way to
reduce industrial pollution. Most industries
are not located adjacent to a municipal
wastewater treatment plant. When facilities.
have been developed without regard to the
needs of industry, the city is usually
reluctant to assuire any responsibility for
industrial wastewaters. The volume of
waste can influence the size of sewers,
pumping equipment., and settling tank
volumes. Where the industrial load does
not exceed 10 percent on a volume or
pollutional basis, operation is financed
through general 'ad valorem' taxes.
yield and the average BOD removal did not
vary significantly. The results of variations
of detention time and solid:" concentration
are shown in tables. When detention time was
constant, and solids concentration and BOD were
varied, the sludge yields were constant.
Keeping the applied BOD constant,
increasing solids concentration and
decreasing detention time increased sludge
yields. The relatively low BOD removal
was attributed to the substrate used. In
Series I, the sludge bulked faster as the
solids concentration and applied BOD
increased. In Series II, bulking was faster
with higher solids concentration and lower
detention time. The sludge bulked faster
in Series III as detention time? increased
and applied BOD increased. It was
concluded that even at the same sludge
loading ratio, variations in detention time,
solids concentration., and applied BOD
cause different responses by activated
sludge. Sludge yields at a constant
loading ratio are a function strictly of
detention time. A constant sludge loading
ratio results in constant BOD removal.
The speed with which a sludge bulks is a
function of solids concentration in the
aeration tank. The dominant visible
organism present in all sludges was
Sphaerotilus, and like BOD removal, is a
function only of loading and/or chemical
composition of the substrate.
64-0659
Genetelli, E. J., and H. Heukelekian.
Components of the sludge loading ratio and
their effect on the bulking of activated
sludge. In Proceedings; 19th Industrial
Waste Conference, Lafayette, Ind., May 5-7,
1964. Purdue University Engineering Extension
Series No. 117. p.456-46f>.
The type of organic material present in
the substrsr.s ;.reatly affects the bulking
phenomena, loading, expressed in Ib of
BOD per 1,000 cu ft of aeration tank, volume,
is related to the quantity of material in
the substrate ,-ind BOD removal efficiency.
Factors not taken into account in tank
volunes are the amount of solids under
aeration and the length of the aeration
period. Parameters concerning the
activated sludge process are reviewed
from the literature. Three continuous-flow
laboratory scale units were set up. The
substrate used was casein hydrolysate, and
the sludge loading ratio was 0.5 Ib
BOD per Ib MLVSS. The results are
summarised in tables. The percent sludge
64-0660
Gerster, J. A. Cost of purifying municipal
waste waters by distillation. Public Health
Service Publication No. 999-WP-6- Cincinnati,
U.S. Department of Health, Education, and
Welfare, 1963. 43 p.
Desk top studies of the cost of distillation
of waste water are made with the types of
equipment proposed for use with sea water.
The estimates are based upon those for sea
water, but are modified to conform with the
differences in composition of sea water and
waste water, and differences in the modes
of operation for the two feeds. The smaller
concentration of scalling materials in
waste water should allow distillation to be
carried out at a higher temperature than
can be used with sea water. The smaller
total contaminant concentration results
in a smaller boiling-point elevation.
Because of the need to dispose of the
blowdown permanently, it is necessary to
concentrate to a far greater extent than in
the case of sea-water distillation. Three
types of equipment: Multi-stage flash;
multiple-effect; and recompression-flash;
158
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0659-0664
appear economically promising. For all types
of equipment the cost for the distillation
step alone is somewhat less than for sea
water, but inclusion of costs for feed
pretreatment and ultimate disposal of
blowdown bring the cost up to about that
for sea water.
64-0661
Goodman, B. L. Processing thickened sludge
with chemical conditioners. In Sludge
concentration, filtration, and incineration.
Continued Education Series No. 113. Ann
Arbor, University of Michigan, School of
Public Health, 1964. p.50-87.
A review is presented of the history,
chemistry, and modern practice of sewage
sludge conditioning for vacuum filtration
with 72 references, five figures, and one
table. The scope is the role of chemical
conditioners in processing sewage sludges.
Terms such as sludge, precipitation,
coagulation, flocculation, and coagulant
demand, are defined, and the history of
chemical use in sewage treatment traced
from the French in 1740 to the present.
Specific chemicals are cited (sulfuric acid
and lime, later ferrichloride) and the
dose rates given from the literature.
Modern concepts of sludge chemistry are
described in detail; the inorganic chemical
reactions which take place between coagulants
and the bicarbonate alkalinity of sewage
and between the coagulants themselves when
more than one is used are given. For
example, aluminum sulphate reacts with
bicarbonate alkalinity to yield calcium
sulfate, aluminum hydroxide, and carbon
dioxide. Fundamental colloid forces are
described and illustrated in a figure.
The physical factors affecting chemical
conditioning requirements are: point of
conditioner application, mixing, detention
time, filter aids, and type and condition
of equipment. The development and control
of a sludge conditioning program is
discussed in terms of the most important
variable: the coagulant dose rate. The
Buchner funnel method and other methods for
controlling the day-to-day operation of
sludge conditioning are described in detail.
Illustrations are given. Modern sludge
conditioning practice is summarized.
A recent study was made to determine the
dispersion patterns of flies from a small
Mexican slaughterhouse. This survey was
undertaken because of the concern caused
by the number of salmonellae these flies
carry. Approximately 200,000 flies in
and around the slaughterhouse were marked
by spraying them with a 1 percent aqueous
solution of uranin. During the next 6 days
the flies were collected at six different
sites which were from one-tenth to 3 miles
from the plant. A total of 543 marked flies
belonging to six species were recovered,
the majority of them being the common
housefly, Musca dof.estica. This group
of flies yielded seven salmonellae and
two shigellae. Five of the salmonellae
were recovered from sites one and two, which
were respectively 0.10 and 0.15 miles from the
slaughterhouse. In conclusion, it was
decided that this ready dispersion of
salmonellae contaminated flies constituted
a definite health hazard.
64-0663
Grieves, R. B., and D. Bhattacharyya. The
foam separation process: a model for waste
treatment applications. In Proceedings;
19th Industrial Waste Conference,
Lafayette, Ind., May 5-7, 1964. Purdue
University Engineering Extension Series No.
117. p.965-976.
A model has been developed to provide
a quantitative description of the
continuous foam separation process. Much
of the development is analogous to
solid-liquid adsorption, replacing the
solid phase with a gas phase and including
the important factor of entrainment.
Considering the liquid-solution phase as
a single equilibrium stage, relations have
been derived and verified. The
mathematical terms are defined in a
nomenclature section. It is hoped that
this approach may be applied to more
complicated, multi-stage systems
involving foam reflux, and feed into the
foam phase. Although only pure
surfactant-water systems have been treated,
it is hoped that this basic approach may be
applied to the industrial and domestic
waste treatment and thus assist in the
further utilization of the foam
separation process.
64-0662
Greenberg, B., and A. A. Bornstein. Fly
dispersion from a rural Mexican slaughterhouse.
American Journal of Tropical Medicine and
Hygiene, 13:881-886, 1964.
64-0664
Guccione, E. Wet combustion of sewage
sludge solves disposal problems. Chemical
Engineering, 71(11) : 118-120 , May 25, 1964.
159
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Industrial Wastes
Sewage sludge, an aqueous dispersion of
organic matter, burns and gives energy like
a fuel. The Sanitary District of Chicago's
Southwest Works has a plant which disposes
of the sludge load from two million people.
The plant, consisting of four 50 ton per
day 'Zimpro' units, lacks such 'normal'
equipment as filters, sludge digestion units,
incinerators, and other auxiliary equipment.
Operating in a closed system with oxidation
occurring in water, there is neither
odor nor air pollution. In addition,
maintenance, operation, and power costs are
far below normal, the last ideally costing
nothing due to self-generation. As
included data demonstrates, the total
$23.30 per ton expense is $14.70 less than
the heat drying method, and the former
figure will continue to decrease. In the
process, sludge is continuously fed into
aeration tanks where it is mixed with
pressurized air. The air flowrate depends
on the nature and type of organic waste.
Wastes then flow into final settling
separation tanks where the effluent sewage
is discharged into the Chicago Sanitary
and Ship Canal; the activated sludge is
sent to be mixed with raw sludge to a 3
percent concentration. The sludge
next enters the Zimmermann process where
combustion occurs, in an aqueous phase,
without heat dissipation. Hot gases and
steam leave the reactor and are employed
for power generation and heat recovery
(measured at 80% chemical oxygen demand).
The treated waste or ash, now mainly
inorganic, leaves the system with excess
water, free of pollutants and virtually
odorless.
64-0665
Hammarstrom, E. C. Mechanical aspects
of vacuum filtration. In Sludge concentration,
filtration, and incineration. Continued
Education Series No. 113. Ann Arbor,
University of Michigan, School of Public
Health, 1964. p.101-104.
Remarkable progress has been made in the
last 15 years in the development of the
continuous drum type filter specifically
designed for sewage. Previously attempts
were made to adapt an industrial type unit
to sewage, but an industrial type filter
is designed for a clear filtrate while a
sewage plant is designed to dewater the
maximum amount of suspended solids.
Industrial filters may be rated at 1 to 4
Ib per sq ft per hr and sewage filters at 5 to !
Ib per sq ft per hr. Industrial filters are
usually a capital expenditure and their
operation and maintenance an expense item. In
a public agency, it is usually easier to get
sufficient money to build a plant than to
operate and maintain it. Before World War
II, the principal types of filters were
tight woven cloth fabrics. It has since
been learned that an open mesh, such as
was found with the coil spring filter
media, or metal meshes and open synthetic
fiber cloths would produce much better
filtration particularly with the vacuum
filtration units dewatering undigested
sewage sludges. Some belt type filters
have been used, but their value remains to
be determined. Practical suggestions are
made for maintenance and operation from
the mechanical point of view.
64-0666
Hanson, A. M., and T. F. Flynn. Nitrogen
compounds in sewage. In Proceedings; 19th
Industrial Waste Conference, Lafayette, Ind.,
May 5-7, 1964. Purdue University Engineering
Extension Series No. 117. p.32-44.
The organic constituents of normal urine
include 25 gm per liter urea, the major
organic constituent with lesser amounts
of non-protein nitrogen in creatine,
uric acid, and ammonia. The chemical
constituents of feces are also listed.
Stool nitrogen is less than 10 percent
of urinary nitrogen and is excreted at an
average rate of 1.3 gm per day. The major
source of nitrogen in human wastes is urea,
which, with ammonia, accounts for 85 percent
of the nitrogen excreted. Three sewage
plants in the Albany metropolitan area
have been studied: the Colonie plant serves
3,400 people and a few industries, a bakery
principally; the Delmar plant serves 9,000
people, with no known industrial wastes;
and the Albany plant serves 130,000 with
a few industrial plants. Although
Rosenthal's colorimetric method for the
determination of urea is sensitive enough,
the recent variation of Ceriotti and
Spandrio is recommended. The fresher the
sewage, the greater the concentration of
urea. Median values found were: Colonie,
raw 18.3, final 3.0; Delmar, raw 9.6,
final 3.5; and Albany raw 7.3, final 2.1
mg per liter. The sum of the ammonia and
urea nitrogen as expressed as a percentage
of total nitrogen (Kjeldahl nitrogen) was
calculated from median values obtained during
6 to 8 months. These were: Colonie, raw,
79.1, final 76.1; Delmar, raw 81.2, final
82.7; and Albany, raw 80.9, final 85.5. The
highest concentration of urea was found
in Colonie sewage, with unexpectedly high
160
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0665-0669
residual concentrations in the effluent.
This plant has secondary treatment, but
is hydraulically overloaded. To determine
the effect of secondary treatment on
hydrolysis of urea, some samples were
collected from a similar plant at Rotterdam
which is not overloaded. Secondary
treatment reduced urea concentrations
to very low values. Methods for the
determination of protein nitrogen were
compared and the findings are discussed.
64-0667
Hart, S. A., and P. H. McGauhey. The
management of wastes in the food producing
and food processing industries. Food
Technology, 18(4):30-36, Apr. 1964.
The management of wastes from the food
producing and food processing industries
is aggravated by the emphasis on the
cheapness rather than the adequacy of the
method. Problems, and possible approaches
to a solution are explored. Five to 10
Ib of solid waste are left in the field or
processing factory, and many gallons of
waste water are discharged for each pound
of food produced for the household.
Agriculture is by far the greatest producer
of wastes. Three Ib of manure are produced
for each quart of milk, and 1.09 billion
cu yd of manure are produced each year in
the United States. Photographs of a corn
field, a waste pile of tomatoes, cull fruit,
and a tomato harvester in action illustrate
the problem. A series of photographs of
spray irrigation and ridge-and-furrow
irrigation illustrate methods of disposal
of cannery wastes. The incineration of
cereal stubble and tree prunings only adds
to the air pollution problem. From 1
quart to 4 gal of liquid waste are produced
at the cannery for each pound of fruit
or vegetable produced. There appears to be
no simple solution to the problem, but the
approach needs to be based on a program of
education of the citizen, the politician,
and the food producer. In addition, there
must be a program of research into economical,
technologically feasible methods of waste
disposal with the funds coming from public
sources, because the food industry appears
unable to resolve the problem.
64-0668
Heinicke, D. New technological viewpoints
in the treatment of waste water and waste
material with special regard to the waste
water of the chemical industry. DECHEMA
Monographien, 52(895-911):31 -51 , 1964.
In the purification of industrial effluents
and chemical processes for detoxication,
flocculation for the precipitation of
colloidal and fine suspended matter, and
biological treatments for decomposing organic
impurities in effluents have proved most
effective. An account is given of
effluents issuing from oil refineries, coke
ovens, and pharmaceutical) and chemical
plants. The sludge produced in the process
is either anaerobically treated and then
used as fertilizer, or it is thickened,
dehydrated, and burned. The sludges coming
from domestic purification plants are mostly
anaerobically decomposed but many of the
sludges coming frm". industrial waste
waters are not putrescible. The
dehydration of sludges can be performed
with centrifuges or with filters, vacuum
rotating filters, or filter presses. The
advantages and disadvantages of the various
methods are briefly assessed. Additives
such as flocculants or ash are mostly used
in the filtering process. For the
incineration of the dehydrated sludge
rotating tube furnaces, story furnaces,
and turbulent layer furnaces are used.
The combined sludge/waste incineration
had been realized for the first time in a
South German municipality. In this case,
the sludge is dehydrated in centrifuges
and vacuum filters and passed to a
seven-storied furnace. The waste is crushed
in a hamjnermill and directly supplied to
the combustion stage of the furnare.
(Text-German)
64-0669
Hubbe.11, G. E. Theory and application
of vacuum filtration. In Sludge
concentration, filtration, and incineration.
Continued Education Series No. 113. Ann
Arbor, University of Michigan, School of
Public Health, 1964. p.88-100.
Filtration is the process of separating
solids from a liquid by passing the
liquid through a porous medium on which
the solids remain t~o form a cake. Vacuum
filtration of conditioned sewage sludge
takes place on a rotary type filter made of
cloth, steel mesh, or steel coil springs.
The filter medium is constantly passing
through the sludp.e and, by means of a
vacuum, picks up solids to form a cake
which is then partially dewatered and
discharged as a wet cake. The filtrate,
less the solids deposited in the cake, is
generally discharged back into the sewage
plant infjuent. A series of 16 equations
is developed to show the general theory of
161
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Industrial Wastes
filtration from Poiseville (1842) up to the
present. From the practical standpoint, the
variables in the operation of a given sewage
sludge filter as related to theory are:
conditioning agents; vacuum; percent form
time; drum revolutions; drum submergence;
and filter media. The engineer often does
not depend on these theoretical equations,
but must depend upon the technical assistance
of filtration equipment manufacturers.
Perhaps the most important value obtained
from a study of the theory of filtration
is the development of the concept of the
specific resistance of sludge as a means
of evaluating laboratory tests of conditioning
agents to assure maximum cake production
at minimum cost.
64-0670
Imhoff, K., and K. R. Imhoff. Natural
procedures for dewatering of digested
sludge are still economical. Gas und
Wasserfach, 105(26) :710-715.. June 26, 1964.
Examples are presented which illustrate a
recent trenJ toward natural dewatering
of digested sludge at important sewage
treatment works in the United Stater.
Canada, England, and Germany. The chief
factor in a movement toward the use of
drying beds, lagoons, and wet disposal
for agricultural use has been the relative
economy of these methods compared with
processes such as vacuum filtratiou and
heat drying of fresh sludge. Cost
calculations pnd distance considerations
are presented, and discussen with regard
to conditions in Germany. The use of new
sludge lifting machines--which might be
expected to double the drying capacity
of beds--js advocated for communit:ii'Ł of
over 30,000 inhabitants. (Text-Germ.rir)
64-0671
Industrial waste and the local authority.
Surveyor and Municipal Engineer, 123(3738):27,
Jan. 25, 1964
As dumping space within economical trucking
distance becomes scarce, municipal authorities
become reluctant to accept refuse from private
trucking firms handling indu.-tripJ waste
under contract. There is no statutory
obligation in Britain to accept potentially
hazardous waste from industrial vaste
disposal firms. The hazard to workers and
trespassers from chemical wastes and highly
flammable materials increases the cost of
dump operation, and authorities regard the
mixing of industrial and domestic refuse with
justifiable suspicion. Transfer stations
can provide for economy by permitting the
use of larger trucks on longer hauls to
distant private dumps. For mixed dumping
of domestic and industrial refu;.e? the
best plan is to fill the lower levels with
industrial waste, and the top 6 to 8 ft
should be filltul with the domestic refuse
which would more readily support
growth.
64-0672
Industrial waste removal. Public Cleansing,
54(2):715, Feb. 1964.
The Powell Duffryn organization developed
the Dempster system of industrial refuse
collection and storage in England in 1960,
and thereby instigated a containerization
boom. Reasons why private enterprise can
effect industrial services more advantageously
than local authority are listed.
Containeri"stion solves the problem
of storage and collection of industrial
refuse in England.
64-0673
Jaag, 0. The contribution of the industry
for keeping the water and the air clean.
DECHEMA Monogrpphien, 52(895-911):1-29,
1964.
The three problems of waste water
purification, air pollution, and solid
waste removal are discussed. As far as
the last subjeel is concerned, sanitary
landfills are discussed and explained, but a
growing shortage of disposal sites made it
necessary to turn to other methods such as
composting or incinerating. A brief review
of the essential features of both methods is
given. (Text-German)
64-0674
Jenkins, S. H., D. G. Keight, and A.
Ewins. The solubility of heavy metal
hydroxides in water, sewage, and sewage
sludge. International Journal of Air and
Water Pollution, 8(11/12):679-693 , Dec. 1964.
Although heavy metals in solution are
discharged into many sewage systems and
salts of some of these metals are known
to inhibit biological activity, the extent
of such inhibition occurring under treatment
plant conditions is uncertain. The
162
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0670-0676
soluble metal ion mainly causes interference
with biological oxidation, and if
precipitation of the metal occurs then
inhibition severity is correspondingly
reduced. Experiments were performed
to determine the precipitation of certain
heavy metals by sewage, and the effect
of such factors as metal concentrations
and pH upon precipitation. Domestic
sewage, sampled when the sewage was at its
minimum as well as its maximum strength,
precipitates soluble copper salts. The
extent of precipitation occurs almost
instantaneously. Percentage of copper
precipitated increased with copper
concentration utilized. With higher than
neutral sewage pH's, a higher percentage of
precipitation can be expected. Very acidic
sewage would therefore inhibit precipitation.
Similar results were generally obtained with
soluble nickel salts, except total
precipitation did not reach so high a level.
A major difference was the ineffectiveness
of lowering pH on nickel precipitation.
Zinc behaved much more like copper than
nickel. Precipitation of hexavalent
chromium depends upon a long period of
contact and neutral conditions. Included
data point out all results of the study.
64-0675
Jenkins, S. H., and J. S. Cooper. The
solubility of heavy metal hydroxides in
water, sewage, and sewage sludge.
International Journal of Air and Water
Pollution, 8(11/12):695-703, Dec. 1964.
Heavy metals in industrial waste water
which is discharged into a sewerage system
become concentrated in the sewage sludge
as a result of precipitation. Since
digestion of such sludge occurs in the
presence of high concentrations of heavy
metals, it was inferred that the metals
must be present in an insoluble form. The
actual solubility of the heavy metals in
dried sludge containing a high concentration
of metal was determined by percolating
water through a column of dried sludge and
analysing the filtrate. This showed that
the concentration of copper never rose above
3 ppm. At the beginning of the percolation
process and at the end, it fell to zero.
Nickel was extracted more easily; the
concentration reached 21 ppm, but
eventually fell to below 1 ppm. Zinc
was also dissolved, the concentration
in the filtrate rising to a maximum of 42
ppm zinc, and then falling to zero. Iron
was insoluble. If the proportions of
sludge and soil were the same as those
present when sewage sludge was used
agriculturally, the water extracts
contained, at the most, only traces of the
metals. By percolating a series of buffered
citric-acid-ammonium citrate solutions
through the sludge at pH values ranging
from pH 2 to pH 6, it was found that heavy
metals were extracted more readily and
concentrations in extracts of over 1000
ppm were obtained. While up to 50 percent
of the calcium was extracted this way,
only 5 percent of the sodium and potassium
could be removed.
64-0676
Jones, P. H. The effect of temperature
and oxygen tension on one of the
microorganisms responsible for sludge
bulking. In Proceedings; Nineteenth
Industrial Waste Conference, Lafayette,
Ind., May 5-7, 1964. Purdue University
Engineering Extension Series No. 117. p.902-914,
Evidence is presented that several
filamentous microorganisms are perhaps more
closely associated with the bulking phenomenon
than Sphaerotilus, but because of similarities
in morphology and because of a lack of
information regarding the physiological
responses of Sphaerotilus, many of these
organisms have been incorrectly identified.
The literature on the characteristics of
Sphaerotilus and of Geotrichum is reviewed
(20 references). Experimental procedures
are described and the results reported in
figures and tables. Geotrichum and
Sphaerotilus are very similar and probably
have been mistaken for each other in the
past. Morphologically, Sphaerotilus is a
filament of ensheathed cell showing
occasional false branching while Geotrichum
displays similar morphology by
fragmentation of mycelium. The holdfast
of Sphaerotilus is very similar to the
arthrospore of Geotrichum after the
germination of mycelium. Both organisms:
(1) favor high carbohydrate nutrient sources;
(2) tend to form long slimy sheep's tails
when growing attached in such conditions;
(3) grow cottony colonies on agar; (4)
form coherent pellicles on broth cultures;
(5) grow as small pellets on the bottom
of a liquid culture; and (6) have
characteristic sudanophilic refractile
bodies, Microscopically the continuous
protoplasm filled tubes of Geotrichum can
look like empty Sphaerotilus sheathes.
However, Sphaerotilus requires a complex
organic medium for growth and Geotrichum
will grow on chemically defined medium.
Geotrichum's specific growth rate appears
163
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Industrial Wastes
to be a great deal higher than that of
Sphaerotilus. Geotrichum has a wider pH
range than has Sphaerotilus. Geotrichum
has an unusual specific growth rate versus
temperature relationship, following a
straight line arithmetic instead of a
straight line logarithmic (exponential)
pattern. It can grow satisfactorily
at dissolved oxygen levels as low as
0.1 mg per liter.
64-0677
Katz, W. J., and A. Geinopolos. Dissolved
air flotation as a method of thickening
aerobic biological solids. In Sludge
concentration, filtration, and incineration.
Continued Education Series No. 113. Ann
Arbor, University of Michigan, School of
Public Health, 196A. p.17-36.
Dissolved-air flotation was first used in
industry to remove suspended matter from
paper wastes, laundry wastes, soap wastes,
machine shop wastes before their discharge
into a body of water or before re-use of
the water and/or recovery of the suspended
matter. Dissolved air flotation is being
used not only as a method of solids
separation for clarification purposes, but
as a method for dewatering of aerobic
biological solids in sewage treatment plants.
Flotation is particularly useful in
thickening activated sludge, which is most
difficult to concentrate. A description
of the dissolved-air flotation process is
given. A flow diagram of the process is
shown in a figure. This illustrates a
specific flow pattern, covered by patents,
but also illustrates the general principles
involved in the method. The object of the
process is to attach a fine air bubble to
the suspended matter and cause the material
to separate from the water in an upward
direction. Other figures present the effect
of the air-charged stream on the rate of
rise, the solids concentration gradient in
the floated sludge blanket, the apparent
viscosity of activated sludge vs. time,
the relationship between percentage of
solids and viscosity of activated sludge,
the effect of temperature on the viscosity
of activated sludge, the effect of surface
tension on bubble size, the effect of high
molecular weight polyelectrolytes on the
flotation thickening of activated sludge,
and a comparison of gravity thickening and
flotation thickening in mixtures of activated
and primary sludges. The process
performance has been analyzed by a study
of the comparative effectiveness of
thickening activated sludge by gravity and
by dissolved-air flotation. The gravity
unit was 70 x A6 x 1A ft. The
flotation unit was 15 x A x 9 ft. The
results are given in tabular form. Another
study has been made of a flotation thickener
at another plant. Performance data were
obtained from Mar. 1959, through May 1961.
The results of this study are reported.
64-0678
Kehrberger, G. J., et al. BOD
progression in soluble substrates. In
Proceedings; Nineteenth Industrial Waste
Conference, Lafayette, Ind., May 5-7, 196A.
Purdue University Engineering Extension Series
No. 117. p.953-96A.
Temperature affects the rate of substrate
utilization in two ways: first, on the rate
of reaction of the organisms and the
substrate; and secondly, on the diffusion of
substrate to the organisms. The purpose
of this paper is to present a model of a
biological system based on the principles of
transport phenomena which offers an
explanation of the effect of temperature
on the rate of substrate utilization.
Although the concepts presented are based
on studies of the microbial degradation
of glucose, a soluble substrate, they are
applicable to any growing microbial system.
Seven figures and many formulas are presented.
The conclusion is reached that the effect
of temperature on the utilization of substrate
in a quiescent BOD bottle is controlled
by the change in the rate of diffusion of
substrate to the bacterial cells with
temperature. Mixing the BOD bottle
during incubation makes the system more
closely approximate the reaction limiting
64-0679
Kennedy, R. R. Thickening by elutriation
and chemical coagulation. In Sludge
concentration, filtration, and incineration.
Continued Education Series No. 113. Ann
Arbor, University of Michigan, School of
Public Health, 196A. p.37-A9.
Elutriation is defined as to purify by
washing and straining or decanting. It is
also a process of sludge conditioning
in which certain constituents are removed
by successive decantations with fresh water
or plant effluent, thereby reducing the
demand for conditioning chemicals. The
disposal of solids from sewage during
treatment has always been one of the
164
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0677-0681
problems of effective sewage disposal. The
process of elutriation was developed and
its use justified, because of the reduced
amount of chemicals required for vacuum
filtration of sludge. Iron salts, usually
ferric chloride, have been used as the
coagulating agent. If used in the quantity
necessary to reduce the high alkalinity
of the normal digested sludge, the cost may
be high. Elutriation can reduce the
alkalinity and thus the amount of coagulating
chemical used by one-half to one-fourth.
A figure illustrates the flow of a two-stage
elutriation system in which the sludge
proceeds from the primary digestion unit
to the secondary digestion unit, thence
into the first elutriation tank and on
into the second elutriation tank in
preparation for chemical conditioning and
filtration. A modification of the cycle
in which the sludge proceeds from the
primary digestion tank through an
elutriation basin into the secondary
digestion tank (really a holding tank),
and thence into elutriation before
proceeding to chemical conditioning and
filtration is also shown. The theory and
the operation of this process are summarized.
Elutriation is being used in the thickening
and consolidation of raw sludges (the
Torpay process). Part of the large quantity
of water may be required to keep the
settled sludge in an aerobic condition
rather than for washing out undesirable
elements. Results have been quite erratic,
and data now being collected will indicate
more fully the applicability of elutriation.
Another use is interstage elutriation for
the treatment of sludge between a primary
digester and a secondary digester with the
purpose of thickening rather than the
reduction of alkalinity. This has proven
to be effective. Buoyant gases are removed,
the specific gravity of the sludge increased
and a denser sludge produced. The theory
and practice of chemical coagulants is
discussed and findings are presented in a
table.
64-0680
Kiess, F. Treatment of sewage sludge. In
Proceedings; Second International Congress,
International Research Group on Refusal
Disposal, Essen, Germany, May 22-25, 1962.
The most important methods of sludge
treatment and of sludge pretreatment for
subsequent composting with garbage
are surveyed. All artificial drainage
methods endeavor to obtain drainage water
from the sludge as free of solid residual
materials as possible, or totally free
of such materials, so that it may be
returned without any further treatment to
the purification plant. These methods
include the use of vacuum filters, pressure
filters, and filter presses. No dynamic
procedure can be used as a single phase
procedure for the drainage of normal sludges.
A second stage must nearly always follow,
as it is not possible to obtain a filtrate
or a centrifuge overflow or a sieve passage
free of solid materials after the first
operation. Centrifuges, the Russel sieve,
the Edco filter, the Heymann Sieve, and
the Rhewum Sound Sieve are discussed. When
the final product is to be not only a
dispersible sludge with a 65 to 70 percent
water content, but a strewable dry product,
then the drainage stage must be followed by
a drying process: hot air drying; joint
sludge garbage composting; or Popel's press
drying procedure. Combined procedures for
the drainage, drying and disposal of sludge
include: the Starcosa drainage procedure
according to Opelt; the Wegmann-Gujer
procedure with addition of ash; the Lurgi
ash procedure; the Passavant sludge treatment
method with the addition of ash; and the Fige
method of the Ems Association. The combined
ash procedures will probably be used more
and more in large urban areas and in
industrial areas, whereas smaller towns
and rural areas will continue to use the
drainage methods.
64-0681
Koenig, L. Ultimate disposal of advanced
treatment waste. U.S. Department of Health,
Education, and Welfare, May 1964. 141 p.
Cost estimates are made for ultimate
disposal of the contaminants resulting from
complete renovation of a municipal waste
water. The processes investigated are
injection to underground formations,
placement in underground cavities, and
spreading. Figures and references are
included in each part. Part 1. Conditioning
and injecting costs varied from $0.13 to
$27 per 1,000 gal injected (7,000 ft, 260
psi wellhead pressure, 1.187 fluid density)
as the capability decreased from 2 million
to 1 ,000 gal per day. Injection is very
much cheaper than wet oxidation, but may
be limited by availability of injection
sites. Part 2. For disposal of
advanced-treatment wastes in cavities mined
by conventional methods, fixed costs alone
vary from $243 to $72 per day, respectively.
Costs for disposal in cavities created
by nuclear blasting are highly speculative.
165
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Industrial Wastes
Fixed costs vary from $139 to $0.269 per
1,000 gal per day. Disposal to cavities
created by mineral mining is considered.
Injection is preferable to placement in
cavities where possible. Part 3. Spreading
costs varied from $0.30 to $0.001 per 1,000
gal as the capability varied from 1,000 to
10 million gal per day. Land costs between
$25 and $1,000 per acre had very little
effect on over-all cost. The costs are 1
percent or less of those for any other
disposal method because of potential ground
water pollution.
64-0682
Komolrit, K., and A. F. Gaudy. Substrate
interaction during shock loadings to
biological treatment processes. In
Proceedings; Nineteenth Industrial Waste
Conference, Lafayette, Ind., May 5-7, 1964.
Purdue University Engineering Extension
Series No. 117. p.796-810.
The heterogeneous populations used in
these experiments were developed from
sewage seed obtained at the municipal
treatment plant in Stillwater, Oklahoma.
Systems xirere started using dulcitol, sorbitol.
ribose, and glycerol as sole carbon sources.
Each day a small amount of the previous
day's growth was transplanted into fresh
medium. They were thus 'young' cells.
For each experiment, cells were harvested
from these units near the end of the log
phase of growth, washed in 0.05 M phosphate
buffer, pH 7, and resuspended in fresh medium
containing the same carbon source on which
they had been growing. Aeration was begun,
and samples were withdrawn for measurements
of substrate removal and biological solids
production. After substrate removal was
well under way, another carbon source was
rapidly introduced. Thus each system
received a qualitative shock load while
it was rapidly metabolizing the carbon source
to which it was acclimated. The biochemical
response was examined by continuous sampling
and analyses for specific carbon sources and
total COD removal. A unit which did not
receive the shock was a control. The
results are described in detail and given in
eight figures. Fructose inhibited sorbitol
removal just as glucose has been reported to.
Control systems for fructose and sorbitol
are also shown. It is seen that fructose was
eliminated at about the same rate in the
control and in the combined system while
sorbitol is greatly retarded in the combined
system as compared to the control. In both
control systems comparison of COD and
specific substrate tests showed no release
of intermediates during the metabolism of
fructose or sorbital. It was therefore
concluded that the subtraction technique was
valid for this system, and that sorbitol
removal was curtailed in the presence of
fructose. The introduction of glucose
caused an immediate disruption of dulcitol
metabolism. The findings are discussed and
a generalized metabolic flow chart for
various carbohydrates and related sugar
alcohols presented.
64-0683
Krebs, R. D., and J. H. Hunter. Evaluation
of soils and use of soil surveys for
engineering purposes in urban development.
Washington, Federal Housing Administration,
1963. 71 p.
The widespread conversion of rural areas
to urban and suburban developments in recent
years has necessitated the use of single
unit sewage disposal system depends upon
the design of the system and the ability
of the soil to absorb the effluent. In this
report, soil is considered in detail
together with the geologic, hydrologic, and
topographic conditions that may exist at
individual sites. Soil evaluation requires
consideration of the position, profile, and
performance of the soil. Rating soils for
individual sewage disposal systems is
difficult. The suitability of the soil may
be rated as favorable, conditional, and
unfavorable. Rating soils using pedological
soil survey reports and maps is discussed.
(Defense Documentation Center AD 435164)
64-0684
Kugelman, I. J., and P. L. McCarty. Cation
toxicity and stimulation in anaerobic waste
treatment. II. Daily feed studies. In
Proceedings; Nineteenth Industrial Waste
Conference, Lafayette, Ind., May 5-7,
1964. Purdue University Engineering
Extension Series No. 117. p.667-686.
Most of the studies on cation effects have
been made on a slug basis in which a
sudden addition of a cation or a cation
combination is made to an active bacterial
population. Although such a situation might
occur, a more likely one is that high
concentrations of a cation would always be
present in the waste. The present study was
made of a system to which cations were added
daily with the waste substrate to a
continuously operating treatment system.
It was found that the phenomena and
166
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0682-0687
relationships observed in slug feed
studies for cation effects are applicable
to daily feed operation. Acclimation to
the toxic effect of a cation will take
place under daily feed operation and
acclimation increases the tolerance level
to the toxic effect of a. cation two or
three times. Acclimation and antagonism
can take place at the same time. When
this happens, cation toxicity is
alleviated to a greater extent than by
either process alone. Sodium produces a
significant block in synthesis at
concentrations below those at which it
will affect the rate of acetate utilization.
With a 15 day retention time, and an
organic loading of 0.5 gm per liter acetate,
the upper limit of cation concentration
with no antagonists present is 0.3 M for
sodium, 0.35 M for potassium, 0.15 M for
calcium, and 0.0065 M for magnesium. Under
the same conditions, but with antagonists
present, the upper limit of cation
concentration was not exceeded in the present
study, but was greater than 0.35 M for
sodium, 0.35 M for potassium, 0.20 M for
calcium, and 0.14 M for magnesium.
64-0685
Kulsehov, P. Expedite the construction of
chemical plants in Western Kazakhstan and
utilize liquid wastes at the Zaprozh'ye
Coke-Chemical Plant. In USSR industrial
development. Soviet chemical industry.
No. 65 (JPRS:18,851). Washington, U.S.
Department of Commerce, Joint Publications
Research Service, Apr. 1963. p.15-18.
Personnel of the Zaporazh'ye Coke-Chemical
Plant devised a process to extract salts
from spent sulfur-purification liquor which
had previously been discarded together with
liquid wastes into the phenol sewer-age.
Studies performed on this extraction process
led to design and construction of a
semi-industrial installation which has
produced 10 tons of salt. One component
of the extracted salts--sodium thiocyanate
is particularly valuable.
64-0686
Lamb, R. A suggested measure of toxicity
due to metals in industrial effluents,
sewage and river water. International
Journal of Air and Water Pollution,
8(3-4):243-249, Mar.-Apr. 1964,
Colorimetric methods are used for
detection and estimation of metals in
sewage and effluents. Pyridyl azo-resorcinol
(PAR) was used as a reagent since it
produced a reddish brown color with iron,
cobalt, nickel, copper, zinc, calcium,
vanadium, lead, uranium, titanium, and the
rare earth metals. It was decided to base
the calibration on iron, a nontoxic metal.
An upper pH limit of 4 is suggested
to ensure that the metals are completely in
solution before addition of PAR. Utilizing
sampling results, it was decided to measure
the optical density at a final pH of 9
and a wavelength of 500 mu. A portion of the
sample was pipetted into a 100-ml beaker;
one ml metanil yellow-indicator was added.
The solution was titrated with 1 N sodium
hydroxide until a yellow color was obtained.
Ten ml PAR were added, followed by 20 ml
of concentrated buffer solution. Calibration
graphs based on iron were prepared using
ferric and ferrous ammonium sulphates. They
were found to be identical. All metals studied
produced a color which was stable for at
least 15 minutes. An analysis of a plating
shop effluent both before and after treatment
is given in tables. Optical density per
wavelength curves and optical density per
concentration graphs are shown. Data on
optical densities and metals and their
PAR factors are included.
64-0687
Lauria, D. T., and C. A. Willis. Treatment
studies of combined textile and domestic
wastes. In Proceedings; Nineteenth Industrial
Waste Conference, Lafayette, Ind., May 5-7,
1964. Purdue University Engineering Extension
Series No. 117. p.45-58.
Pilot plants are often necessary to determine
the treatability of the wastes and to
obtain criteria for the most economical
design. Pilot plant studies were performed
to evaluate a low-loading, completely mixed
biological process for the treatment of
combined domestic and industrial wastes in
the town of Valdese, North Carolina. Valdese
has a population of 6,000; several textile
mills produce more than 80 percent of the
total waste flow from their dyeing and
finishing processes. There are two sewage
treatment plants, but the larger is not of
sufficient capacity and is almost inoperable.
The combined flow of sewage and wastes is
2 million gal per day, and, in 20 years, it is
expected to be 4 million gal per day. A
completely mixed, long-term aeration
process was selected partly because waste
loads are reduced on Sundays. The pilot
plant consisted of: a 1,500-gal aeration
tank and mechanical aerator (surface), both
167
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Industrial Wastes
constructed of brick and plastered
inside and out and made watertight; a
settling tank with a sludge recycle pump;
and a positive displacement pump with
multiple-sized sheaves to feed waste from
the holding tank to the aeration tank.
Results indicate that BOD reductions
of 90 percent can be obtained up to BOD
loadings of at least 2.0 PPD BOD applied
per Ib of sludge. About 38 percent of
removed BOD is oxidized, and 62 percent
converted to new growth. The sludge
endogenous respiration rate is about 8
percent per day. Oxygen requirements
are about 0.55 Ib per Ib of removed BOD,
and net sludge production of 0.35 Ib of
solids per Ib of removed BOD. Because
of an alpha factor of 0.5 and proposed
aerating conditions, aerators must transfer
an equivalent 3 Ib of oxygen to water at
20 C and 0 mg per liter oxygen for each
Ib of oxygen required in the mixed liquor.
For sludge removal the required settling
tank loading is about 35 PPD sludge solids
(dry basis) per sq ft of surface area.
Excess sludge removal will be by
centrifugation and landfill. The size
of chlorine feed machines must be large
enough to provide a dosage rate of 10 mg
per liter. The estimated cost of the
plant is $535,000 for a 3.2 mgd facility.
64-0688
Lawrence, A. W., P. L. McCarty, and F. Guerin.
The effects of sulfides on anaerobic treatment.
In Proceedings; Nineteenth Industrial Waste
Conference, Lafayette, Ind., May 5-7, 1964.
Purdue University Engineering Extension
Series No. 117. p.343-357.
The effects of soluble and insoluble
sulfides on anaerobic treatment were
studied in laboratory digesters receiving
sulfide additions daily. After a
discussion of the theory of the chemical
relationships involved, the experimental
results are presented in nine figures.
Equilibrium concentrations of soluble
sulfide up to 200 mg per liter sulfide had
no significant toxic effects on anaerobic
treatment with daily feed operation, but
concentrations above 200 mg per liter
sulfide produced severe toxic effects and
complete cessation of gas production. These
inhibitory concentrations of sulfides
affect gas production first of all, and
significant volatile acid accumulation
takes place much later, only after gas
production has been severely retarded.
Iron can be used to 'inactivate' sulfides
or reduce sulfide toxicity by precipitating
sulfides from the biological environment.
Insoluble iron sulfide has no significant
effect on anaerobic treatment in
concentrations of at least 400 mg per liter
of sulfide. It was also observed that the
concentration of sulfides in solution in the
digester is equal to the concentration of
soluble sulfides and sulfide precursors
entering with the waste, minus the amount
of sulfides expelled with the digestor gas.
The quantity of sulfides lost with the
daily gas is related to the solubility of
hydrogen sulfide, the digestor pH, and the
relative daily gas production.
64-0689
Levin, G. B., and J. M. Barnes. Froth
flotation for harvesting algae and its
possible application to sewage treatment.
In Proceedings; Nineteenth Industrial Waste
Conference, Lafayette, Ind., May 5-7, 1964.
Purdue University Engineering Extension
Series No. 117. p.421-434.
The possibility of harvesting only part
of the algae and recycling the remainder
in a continuous growth system has been
investigated. Since successful operation
depends on the viability of the algae in
spite of exposure to the low pH of the
harvester, the viability of cells repeatedly
exposed to harvesting conditions was
determined, and their subsequent growth in
fresh media, and in supplemented,
unsupplemented, and diluted harvest liquor
recorded. The experimental procedures are
detailed. Chlorella pyrenoidosa was
inoculated into 700 ml of a urea medium
and cultured for 10 days. A harvest-growth
cycle was repeated five times with the only
variable the length of the culturing period.
It was found that the liquor does support
growth of the algae, but not as well as the
fresh medium. Whether the smaller amount
of growth in the liquor cultures was caused
by depletion of nutrients or a build-up of
auto-inhibitory metabolic products was further
investigated. The results of studies of
the viability of cells harvested from urea
medium and resuspended in fresh urea medium
are reported in tables. Percent harvest,
culture densities,and cost considerations
are discussed. The harvesting of mixed
algae cultures in two sewage lagoons in
Falls Church, Virginia, is also reported. The
principal conclusions from the study are
that the froth flotation process approaches
a level for the economical harvesting of
algae for any purpose: mass production of
food or fodder; use in spacecraft or closed
ecological system; clarification of algae
168
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0688-0692
from oxidation pond effluent; and
reclamation of algae in oxidation ponds
for economic use. The method may have an
application as a new sewage treatment
process or as an adjunct to conventional
processes.
If a lag time is to be determined in the
BOD test, some factor, such as cell
mass, which has a finite value at zero,
must be determined. Data from a plateau
BOD progression, with normal and
semilogarithmic plots, yield much
information not available from 5 day BOD.
64-0690
Lewis, J. W., and A. W. Busch. BOD
progression in soluble substrates. VIII. The
quantitative error due to nitrate as a
nitrogen source. In Proceedings; 19th
Industrial Waste Conference, Lafayette,
Ind., May 5-7, 1964. Purdue University
Engineering Extension Series No. 117. p.846-870.
Ordinarily the BOD test is run for 5
days, stopped, and ultimate or 20 day BOD
values calculated. An excess of ammonia
nitrogen is usually present, but the period is
considered to be too short for significant
nitrification to take place. In studying
complex industrial wastes, the BOD test
is frequently run for 20 days, and
nitrification is a problem. The effects
on the BOD test of the substitution of
nitrate for ammonia as the nutrient
nitrogen source were studied. The
theoretical considerations are reviewed
and discussed. A schematic representation of
aerobic bacterial metabolism is given, and
the valence states of nitrogen, and schematic
representation of inorganic nitrogen
metabolism is presented. The experimental
procedure is described and illustrated. The
findings are reported in 6 tables and 7
figures. The nitrate form of nitrogen is
not a suitable source of nutrient in the
BOD test. Any nitrogen form not of the
ammonia valence will cause lower values of
BOD when there is a requirement for
nutrient oxygen. Nitrates are a suitable
source of nutrient nitrogen in a bacterial
growth system if the only requirement is
that growth not be nutrient limited. When
the nitrogen is provided in nitrate form,
the nitrogen requirement for the metabolism
of glucose is less. The use of BOD:N
ratios is inaccurate, uneconomical, and
misleading. We need a simpler method
for the determination of the correct
nitrogen requirement in a given waste,
considering the particular form of nitrogen
to be provided. The term 'chemical
nitrogen' is inaccurate and misleading when
it is applied to dissimilatory denitrification.
The nitrogen is the oxidant and the degree
of reduction of the nitrate determines the
concentration of nitrate needed for the
oxidation of a given amount of substrate.
The term 'lag time' is frequently misused.
64-0691
Listoe, M. J. Lynnwood sewage treatment
plant reduces and incinerates sludge.
Western City, 40(3):27-30, Mar. 1964.
The Lynnwood sewage treatment and disposal
plant, located on a half-acre site, serves
a population of 10,000; it is capable of
serving 22,000 and can be enlarged to serve
60,000. This plant contains the first
installation of a Dorr-Oliver FS Disposal
System which is effective and economical
in disposing of sewage and sludge without
digestion. Lynnwood uses a centrifuge for
sludge dewatering and a high temperature
reactor for conversion of dewatered
sludge to a sterile ash of about 1 percent
of the sludge. Construction cost totaled
$218,000. Lynnwood's new sewage system,
construction because the old had two
different drainage basins, includes 41
miles of new sanitary sewers and treatment
facilities at a cost of $2,600,000.
64-0692
Lowry, J. A review of current improvements
in drag type sludge collectors. Water and
Sewage Works, 111(10):471-472, Oct. 1964.
Some current improvements in drag type
sludge collectors are described. Any design
features for improving the service life
of chains should take particular account of
the chain barrel since this is the area
of maximum wear and when worn through
requires chain replacement. A modification
affecting chain life consists in curving
the side bars to match the radius of the
sprocket rim, and flanging the side bar both
top and bottom to provide a substantial area
of contact. Incorporation of this feature
into the CS-720-S chain is described. In
sludge collection, the load the conveyor
must drag is largely its own weight,
and hence a weight savings here is almost
directly converted into longer chain life.
One aspect of reduced conveyor loading is in
the flight or drag itself, which is normally
made from Redwood or Douglas fir lumbers.
However, after about 6 months submergence,
the lumber becomes waterlogged and will
169
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Industrial Wastes
not float. Recently, a hollow, sealed
extrusion of polyvinyl chloride fitted with
snap-on wear shoes, has been developed.
The combination of the CS-720-S chain with
the polyvinyl chloride buoyant flight has
much potential for increased conveyor life.
The sliding friction of the conveyor system
is drastically reduced on a permanent basis
with substantial reduction of operating
costs.
64-0693
Malina, J. F., and H. N. Burton. Aerobic
stabilization of primary waste water sludge.
In Proceedings; Nineteenth Industrial Waste
Conference, Lafayette, Ind., May 5-7,
1964. Purdue University Engineering
Extension Series No. 117. p.716-723.
The data presented concern the breakdown
of organic solids, the fate of nitrogenous
compounds, and the environmental
characteristics during aerobic stabilization
of primary sludge. The apparatus and
procedures are described and a schematic
drawing of the laboratory scale digester
presented. The sludge samples were
collected at the San Marcos Sewage Treatment
Plant, San Marcos, Texas, fed through a
0.5-in. mesh wire screen, homogenized for
1 min in a blender, and stored at 4 C.
Samples were analyzed weekly to estimate
the concentration of total and volatile
solids, ammonia, organic nitrogen, COD,
alkalinity, and volatile acids, as well
as the pH and ORP. An initial charge of
6 liters of the primary sludge, diluted to
a total solids content of about 2 percent
was added to each stabilization unit and
aerated for 4 weeks to acclimatize the
microbial population to the aerobic
environment. Daily addition of water to
make up for evaporation and changes in
sludge volume from microbial decomposition
maintained a constant sludge volume of 6
liters. The results are given in a table.
It was found that primary waste water
sludge can be stabilized effectively
without the addition of any seed material.
At a loading of 0.14 Ib VS per day per cu ft the
breakdown of volatile solids was greater
than at a loading of 0.10 Ib per VS per day
per cu ft. About 43 and 33 percent of the
volatile solids were degraded at the high
and low loadings, respectively. The
average pH of the effluent sludges was 8.0
for the low and 7.90 for the high loading.
The aerobically treated sludge was relatively
well oxidized, for the redox potentials were
greater than +250 mv with respect to hydrogen
at the two loadings. There is a release
of dissolved organic matter which is used
by the microbial population. The chemical
oxygen demand of the treated sludge was
46 percent of the COD in the feed
material at the higher loading. However,
the supernatant after treatment contained
between 18 and 28 percent of the COD of
the supernatant of the feed material.
Volatile acids concentrations in the effluent
at both loadings were less than 26 mg per
liter as acetic acid. Concentrations of
ammonia and organic nitrogen in the aqueous
phase decreased during aerobic treatment of
sludge. About 98 percent of the dissolved
nitrogen in the feed was removed at the low
loading and about 94 percent at the high
loading. Similar reductions in the
concentrations of ammonia were observed.
Trace concentrations of nitrites, and
concentrations of nitrates almost equal
to the ammonia content were found in the
effluent supernatant, so nitrification of the
ammonia was taking place.
64-0694
Mercer, W. A. Industrial solid wastes; the
problems of the food industry. In
Proceedings; National Conference on Solid
Waste Research, Chicago, Dec. 2-4, 1963.
American Public Works Association, 1964.
p.51-64.
Regardless of the degree of centralization
and automation in food growing and
processing in the future, the amount of
inedible solid refuse can change little in
proportion to edible portions of the raw
food. In the field and at the processing
plant much greater accumulations of wastes
can be expected whose proper disposal
or utilization will demand the best efforts
of engineers, scientists, and all who are
concerned with environmental health problems.
At present, there exists an urgent need for
aesthetically-acceptable, rapid, reliable,
and economically-feasible methods for disposal
or utilization of the wastes accumulated
in the growing, harvesting, and processing of
fruits and vegetables. It is an alarming
fact that if open dumping or landfill disposal
were suddenly prohibited, no alternative
methods having established reliability and
feasibility are available. A survey of
other possible methods of disposal for
these wastes indicated that high-rate
aerobic composting should be investigated.
A second phase of the current experimentation
is investigating the mechanics of continuous
composting. Research programs designed to
establish the technology and feasibility of
community-wide, area-wide waste management
170
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0693-0697
must be undertaken. To implement these
waste management efforts, surveys must be
made to ascertain the types of wastes
occurring in a given area, the volumes of
these wastes, and the time of the year when
each is most prevalent.
64-0695
Mills, R. E. Process waste burner destroys
liquid organic chemical x^astes safely. Water
and Sewage Works, 111(7):337-340, July 1964.
An open ground-level process waste burner
installed by Dominion Rubber Company Ltd.
at one of its plants to dispose of organic
process wastes is described. The unit
chosen was from National Airoil Burner Co.,
and employed primary and secondary
refractories, cone air regulator, detaching
gear, cylindrical gas pilot burner, and SAB. 3
burner gun. A total of 150 tons of process
wastes are disposed of through the burner
annually. The bulk of the wastes can be
grouped into three main classes of waste:
chlorinated hydrocarbons, waste hydrocarbons,
and waste alcohols. The initial cost was
$2.966; the operating cost is reasonable
C$0.0084 per Ib of waste burned) . Maintenance
cost is higher than expected, due to pump
corrosion (amounting to $1 ,200 per year).
Steps are being taken to decrease
maintenance. Burner operation is independent
of wind direction, but the unit should not be
operated during an atmospheric inversion.
64-0696
Newton, D. Thickening by gravity and
mechanical means. In Sludge concentration,
filtration, and incineration. Continued
Education Series No. 113. Ann Arbor,
University of Michigan, School of Public
Health, 1964. p.4-16.
Thickening is the process of increasing
the concentration of sewage solids after
the initial separation from sewage, to
reduce the liquid sludge volume to be handled
in subsequent sludge disposal processes.
Thickening by gravity means is essentially
a sedimentation process. It occurs in all
sludges after the initial separation of
solids from the liquid phase in the zone of
hindered settling. The solids particles
agglomerate, water is rejected to some
extent as the particles draw together and
become denser, and the increasing density
itself assist in consolidating the lower
portion of the sludge blanket. This
thickening action is relatively slow, as
compared to the initial separation phase,
and may require several hours. The common
uses of thickening undigested sludge are:
reducing the volume to reduce heating loads,
to increase displacement periods, and to
permit higher solids loadings per cu ft of
digester capacity; reducing volumes of
sludges to be hauled to sea; and increasing
solids concentrations and reducing the
chemical requirements for raw sludge disposal
by vacuum filtration. The early developments
and applications, and modern equipment and
facilities are described. All the
controlling factors of this type of thickening
are not fully understood, but there is
sufficient information to enable one to
design and operate gravity thickeners in a
satisfactory manner with much economy in
the resulting sludge disposal processes.
The operating results of 11 plants located
around the United States are summarized
in a table. Another table presents the
gravity design factors, suggested for
circular units, for various sludges and
combinations. Equipment should be rugged,
and submerged equipment should not have
surfaces on which sludge can accumulate.
Plunger pumps, in duplicate, are most
suitable, and high discharge heads in the
sludge piping can be expected. No cost
statements are given since they vary greatly
with local conditions. Unless power costs
are favorable, gravity thickening and
thickening by pressurized air flotation
may cost about the same with initial cost
favoring gravity thickening. Gravity
thickening has a definite and continuing
place in the handling and processing of
sewage sludges .
64-0697
Oil refinery waste disposal. Water Works
and Wastes Engineering, 1(11):47, Nov. 1964.
The wastewater disposal system at the new
refinery of the Standard Oil Co. at
Pascagoula, Mississippi, segregates all wastes
according to quality and pollutant content.
The three main segregations are: sanitary
wastes; storm water; and process wastes.
Process wastes are segregated based on
their oil, ammonia, sulfide, and water-soluble
organics contents. Oil contaminated water
drains to one of two oily water sewer systems.
Each system has a multi-channel,
API-type oil-water separator. Process
wastewaters highest in ammonia and hydrogen
sulfide are steam stripped. The stripper
bottoms are combined with other ammonia and
sulfide-containing waters, and fed to a
sulfide oxidizer to remove more ammonia
171
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Industrial Wastes
and oxidize essentially all of the sulfides.
The wastewater streams from the oil-water
separators, the sulfide oxidizer, and the
sanitary wastes from septic tanks are
combined. After pH adjustment, they are
fed to a biological oxidation pond for
oxidation of organics. A separate system
has been provided for a large volume stream
involving a short-time discharge--about
every two years. This stream, high in
sodium sulfite, is stored in a chemical
oxidation pond until its oxygen demand
has been satisfied. Controlled dilution
water is provided in the refinery effluent
canal to further lower pollutant concentrations.
64-0698
Olson, 0. 0., W. van Heuvelen, and J. W.
Vennes, Aeration of potato waste. In
Proceedings; 19th Industrial Waste Conference,
Lafayette, Ind., May 5-7, 1964. Purdue
University Engineering Extensions Series No.
117. p.180-194.
Lagoons are used extensively in North
Dakota to treat domestic waste. Only one
major community does not use lagoons and
159 do. The design standard is a 5 day
BOD loading of 20 Ib per acre per day
with 120 days retention. One acre is required
for each 100 population. The liquid depth
is from 3 to 5 ft. An experimental aerated
lagoon was constructed at Park River to
pretreat the combined waste of a small
potato-flake plant and the domestic wastes
from a town of 1,800. Before the
construction of the new lagoon there were
two in use: one of about 24 acres, and the
other of about 8. A 25 HP Vortair aerator
was installed in the one-acre cell, and the
raw waste brought in below it. Theoretically,
2,250 Ib of oxygen per day are provided
in the cell and, with an 8 ft liquid depth,
retention time varied from 14 days for
domestic waste to 6 days during potato
processing. Normal domestic sewage treated
in this cell exerted, a 5 day BOD loading
from 192 to 438 Ib per acre per day. Studies
of the operation of the unit showed that it
could be loaded at about 300 Ib per acre per
day and still provide about 90 percent
BOD reduction even when the temperature
was less than 5 C. During the
potato-processing period, when caustic
was used, the waste strength increased to
2,500 Ib BOD per day, and the pH was
11.6, which prevented any reduction, since
few organisms can grow in this alkalinity.
Because the processing period lasted only
3 weeks there was insufficient time to
adjust the pH. A study will be made of
the effects of circulating waste from the
primary lagoon to the aerated cell to
maintain a pH of 10 or less during the
potato-processing period. The installation
of an aerator at Grafton during the winter
months is described and. although it does
not supply adequate oxygen for complete
stabilization of the organic matter present,
it does reduce sludge accumulation in the
area of the inlet, supplies oxygen
throughout the lagoon in the winter, and
thus maintains an active algae population.
64-0699
O'Rourke, J. T., H. D. Tomlinson, and
N. C. Burbank. Variation of ORP in an
activated sludge plant with industrial
waste load. Water and Sewage Works,
111(11):R318-R324, Nov. 30, 1964.
Oxidation-reduction potential (ORP)
measurements were studied as a method for
control of operations in an activated
sludge treatment plant employing the Kraus
nitrification process. Measurements were
taken using an ORP meter, with the electrodes
being checked before each observation by
reference to a quinhydrone solution at two
pH values. Flow rate and organic loading
rate as measured by chemical oxidation
demand (COD), and air supply as measured by
dissolved oxygen (DO) were also selected
for study. It was found that a 15-fold
variation in organic loading created a
significant variation in ORP and DO. ORP
values in the aeration basin ranged from
a minimum of -5 to a maximum of +130
millivolts, and the DO varied from 0 mg
per liter to a high of 6.2 mg per liter. A
review of the ORP and DO data, relating
particularly to the aeration basin, indicated
that the plant was operating at a level
during the week which utilized practically
all of the aeration capacity, whereas on
weekends there was excess aeration capacity.
By use of the ORP it would be possible to
adjust the volume of air supplied to suit
the need of the organic load. The ORP
electrode coupled with the DO electrode,
relayed to a visible meter on a control
board, gives a plant operator an immediate
view of biological operations, as well as an
indication of the variation in load coming
to the plant. Since the measurement of rate
of change of ORP to indicate the activity
of mixed liquor was demonstrated, it was
suggested that ORP electrodes, with certain
specifications, be made commerclallv available
as a valuable diagnostic and control tool
for sewage treatment.
172
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0698-0703
64-0700
Pialthorp, R. E. Potato waste treatment.
In Proceedings; Eleventh Pacific Northwest
Industrial Waste Conference, CorvalUs
Oreg., 1963. p.101-109.
A discussion is included on the water
pollution from potato processing plants in
Idaho, whose capacity has increased ten
fold in ten years to 2h billion Ibs per
year in 1961. Approximately \ billion Ib
of this is waste, much of which in the
past has been run into rivers. Feeding of
filtered or salvaged potato waste to
livestock is now practiced. Research is
needed to find other used for the 300
million lb of potato material to be
collected from the waste water before.
dumping into Idaho's rivers.
Sludges formed during electroplating
processes cannot be simply dumped, because
of their toxicity These sludges contain
metal hydroxides and cyanides. Before
incineration, the water content of the
sludge is reduced to about 60 percent using
a filter press. The residue is then burned,
together with chips of wood at temperatures
between 900 and 1100 C, in a conically
shaped rotating furnace. In this way the
metal hydroxides are converted to metal
oxides and organic compounds are destroyed.
The ashes can be deposited safely in dumps.
A sludge incinerator located in an
automobile plant in Bavaria is described
and presented in photographs and schematic
drawings. It is capable of handling up to
8 tons of sludge daily. (Text-German)
64-0701
Parkhurst, J. D., and S. R. Sanders.
Centrifuging and screening of sludge.
Water and Waste Treatment, 9(12):596-598,
Mar.-Apr. 1964.
The sludge processing method employed by
the Los Angeles County Sanitation Districts
is discussed. Prior to 1959, the digested
sludge was processed on open drying beds,
but odors began to present a serious
problem to neighboring residential
developments. In 1959, based on a year
test operation, a sludge dewatering
station was established which employed five
40 by 60-in. centrifuges without the use
of chemicals or thickening agents. A system
of vibrating screens provides a centrifugate
suitable for ocean disposal, if desired.
Sludge centrifuging may take place either
prior to or following the screening operation.
Durinjr fertilizer production, the sludge
cake is hauled to the adjacent drying area.
The thickness of an odor-preventing sawdust
cover is determined by the condition of
the sludge. Combined operating and maintenance
costs of the station average about $4.00 per
dry ton of recovered solids. A present
average of 1 million gal of liquid sludge
is being processed each day. In addition,
space requirements are low, and no chemical
pre-treatment is necessary.
64-0702
Pepperl, H. Incineration of electroplating
sludges by means of a conical furnace.
Brennstoff-Waerme-Kraft, 16(8):399-401,
Aug. 1964.
64-0703
Pfeffer, J. T., and J. E. White. The role
of iron in anaerobic digestion. In
Proceedings; 19th Industrial Waste
Conference, Lafayette, Ind., May 5-7, 1964.
Purdue University Engineering Extension Series
No. 117. p.887-901.
A study has been made to determine the
role of iron in anaerobic digesters using
synthetic substrate which consisted of
glucose, ammonium chloride, potassium
dihydrogen phosphate, and sodium
hydrocarbonate dissolved in tap water.
The substrate initially contained 4.0
g per liter of glucose and sufficient
nitrogen and phosphorus salts to produce
a C:N:P ratio of 100:5:1. Sodium
hydrocarbonate was added in sufficient
quantities with the substrate to maintain
the pH in the digestor between 6.5 and 7.
The substrate was added to the digestor at
the rate of 0.5 liter per day. Each
digestor had a capacity of 7.5 liters
and a retention time of 15 days. The
following salts were used: ferrous chloride;
aluminum chloride; and calcium chloride. They
were added daily on a batch basis. The
addition of iron in proper concentrations
to digesters fed synthetic substrate
produced efficient digestion. The role
of the iron is one of reducing the soluble
phosphate concentrations in the digestor by
chemical precipitation. A definite
relationship exists between the
fermentation of the volatile acids and the
soluble phosphate concentration. The most
effective digestion took place when the
soluble phosphate concentration was less
than 50 to 60 mg per liter. The addition
of proper concentrations of aluminum and
calcium produced the same effect as the
173
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Industrial Wastes
iron. But excessive concentrations of any
salts tested resulted in reducing the
soluble phosphate to such a low
concentration that microorganisms were
unable to metabolize the substrate because
phosphorus was limiting.
64-0704
Pohland, F. G. General review of literature
on anaerobic sewage sludge digestion.
Purdue "University Engineering Extension
Series No. 110. Lafayette, Ind., 1962.
45 p.
A literature review is directed toward a
discussion of available information concerning
the two phases generally considered
responsible for anaerobic decomposition and
methods utilized for control of the process.
Cognizance of the importance of the physical,
chemical, and biological factors influencing
sludge stabilization has stimulated numerous
investigations into the basic concepts of
anaerobic digestion in an attempt to lead to
a better understanding of the process.
Sludge digestion is regarded in terms of
two main and entirely different processes:
the first, liquefaction and hydrolysis;
the second, fermentation and gasification.
The former process is assigned the function
of rendering the complex and larger sized
materials into forms more readily available
for methane fermentation organisms, which
take part in the latter process and convert
the liquefied and hydrolyzed materials into
methane and carbon dioxide. The preliminary
stage and subsequent gasification must work
in harmony or the whole process of digestion
is upset. The factors leading to
liquefaction, and gasification and the factors
affecting anaerobic digestion and their
control are discussed.
64-0705
Pohland, F. G., and R. J. Engstrom.
High-rate digestion control. I. Fundamental
concepts of acid-base equilibrium. In
Proceedings; Nineteenth Industrial Waste
Conference, Lafayette, Ind., May 5-7, 1964.
Purdue University Engineering Extension
Series No. 117. p.80-90.
The origin, relationships, and significance
of the acidic and basic constituents of
digestion are reviewed with special emphasis
on periods of retarded digestion. As
organic material is decomposed and transformed
during digestion, several intermediate and
end-products accumulate and predominate.
Hydrolysis of fats and oils, and fermentation
of carbohydrates and proteins give rise to
the intermediate organic fatty acids of
which acetic, propionic, and butyric are
the most abundant. The relative
concentrations of these are dependent upon
digestion conditions. The organic acids
are fermented to methane and carbon dioxide,
usually by the beta oxidation mechanism.
Decomposition of proteinaceous material
produces ammonia as hydrolysis and
deamination of the constituent amino acids
take place. Ammonia will ionize in solution
and participate in the equilibrium established
between itself and the acid products of
digestion either as an acid-salt or as a
bicarbonate alkalinity. This bicarbonate
alkalinity and the organic acids are a
significant part of the a.cidic and basic
constituents accumulating during anaerobic
digestion. Alkalinity insufficient to
neutralize the accumulated organic acids is
the major cause of pH depression during
retarded digestion. If the concentrations
of free acids and the buffering potential
of the system are known, neutralization
requirements can be determined. The buffering
potential is dependent upon the types and
concentrations of acids and bases present
and their associated equilibria. The most
important acid-base equilibrium during
retarded digestion at a low pH is
between representative organic acid,
acetic acid, and its acid-base counterpart,
ammonium acetate. The. best way of
determining acid-base equilibria during
digestion is by evaluating the concentrations
of acids, bases, salts and their ionization
in solution and effect on pH response.
64-0706
Prakasam, T. B. S., and N. C. Dondero.
Observations on the behavior of a microbial
population adapted to a synthetic waste.
In Proceedings; Nineteenth Industrial Waste
Conference, Lafayette, Ind., May 5-7, 1964.
Purdue University Engineering Extension
Series No. 117. p.835-845.
Experiments were carried out to determine
if acclimated sludge shows the true
heterogeneity of typical activated sludge,
which remains stable through the reported
diauxlc phenomenon, and thus confirming
the concept of diauxic or biphasic growth.
The experimental design is described, and the
plating of settled sewage, activated sludge,
or adapted sludge is shown in a figure.
Tables give the results of bacterial counts
for settled sewage, activated sludge, and
adapted sludge. It was concluded that the
174
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0704-0709
sorbitol-adapted sludge system described in
these studies is not typical of activated
sludge. The sludge that was developed in
the adaptation medium was not flocculent in
nature. The system was far from physiological
heterogeneity as was indicated by replica
plating studies and differential test (IMViC)
for coliforms, which showed that all the
viable plate counts represented coliforms
solely. The development of such a system
may be partly attributed to the composition
of the basal medium, which should not be
considered a substitute for domestic waste
nor as a growth medium for the heterogeneous
population of sewage or activated sludge.
The selectivity of the medium also narrows
down the population of sewage, harboring the
species that can thrive in the basal medium,
the so-called 'synthetic waste'. Though
this system is similar to that reported by
others, its behavior is such that caution
should be used in applying or interpreting
results obtained with such a model to
biological waste treatment processes like
the activated sludge process.
64-0707
Pump-cyclone solves solid waste problem.
Factory, 122(10):187 , Oct. 1964.
A combination pump-cyclone arrangement
handles waste containing fine solids
(abraded mixture of sand, aluminum oxide).
Drum polishers discharge medium into a
channel through a filter. The pump takes
the polishing medium and feeds it into a
cyclone which separates the solution, Solids
remain in a settling tank and liquid is
passed to the sewer.
64-0708
Purdue University. School of Civil
Engineering. Proceedings; Nineteenth
Industrial Waste Conference, Lafayette, Ind.,
May 5-7, 1964. Engineering Extension Series
No. 117. 1084 p.
The Nineteenth Industrial Waste Conference
was sponsored by Purdue University in
conjunction with the Indiana State Board
of Health", Certain agencies of the State
of Indiana also supported the Conference.
Seventy-nine papers were presented. The
first part of the conference dealt with
the operation and control of water
pollution control facilities and the papers
covered a wide range of topics within that
general area. The second part dealt with
basic research on the physical, chemical,
and/or biological phenomena of waste
treatment processes. In this part of the
Conference, such topics as the acute toxicity
of some heavy metals to different species
of warm water fishes, an automated BOD
respirometer, and electrodialysis in waste
water recycle were discussed. There are
many charts, graphs, and photographs
throughout and many of the papers have
extensive bibliographies.
64-0709
Quirk, T. P. Economic aspects of
incineration versus incineration-drying. In
Sludge concentration, filtration, and
incineration. Continued Education Series
No. 113. Ann Arbor, University of Michigan,
School of Public Health, 1964. p.158-176.
Recovery of the costs of sewage treatment
is possible by three means: the generation
of electricity; the sale of treated effluent;
and the sale of sludge as a soil conditioner.
The sale of sludge probably receives the most
attention in planning. Site limitations or
the comparable cost of alternate sludge
disposal methods may require the evaluation
of thermal disposal. Evaluation of the
relative economics of incineration versus
drying is pertinent to the selection of the
final flow sheet. Selection of the more
costly, dual-purpose flow sheet should be
based upon a detailed analysis of market
demands and selling price. Economic
justification should be established for a
range of market conditions in accordance
with the anticipated variation in local
demands. High-temperature deodorization
is costly, and its effect on site evaluation
and selection of an alternate flow sheet
requires careful study. Economic justification
for the incinerator-drying system requires
sufficient product income to defray the
additional costs required over systems
which offer no possibility of cost
recovery, A comparative cost technique
is presented that may provide an economic
basis for flow sheet selection. This
technique may prove useful in other
applications. Specific costs were
analyzed for a medium-sized installation.
Alternate flow sheets included multiple
hearth and flash drying equipment.
Average costs for both systems show that:
(1) full cost recovery should not be
expected; (2) a deodorization requirement
will exert a significant influence on the
market conditions required to justify
an incinerator-drying flow sheet; and (3)
a demand for at least 25 percent of the
annual sludge production would justify an
175
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Industrial Wastes
incineration-drying flow sheet under the
extremes of operating cycle and selling price.
and alcohol as a source of various organic
chemicals.
64-0710
Rasmussen, A. E, Digesters beat incineration.
American City, 79(12) : 100-1 01 , Dec. 1964.
The new sewage treatment plant in Sioux
City, Iowa, which employs digesters and
sludge beds, was chosen over two other types
because of its low operating costs. The
installation consists of four 75-ft diameter
digesters. Two are used as settling tanks.
Partially digested sludge flows from
them to the main digestors. The decomposition
of this sludge results in the production of
sewage gas which is sold after it has gone
through a scrubbing procedure. This returns
a profit of about $7,500 a year. In
deciding to use this type of plant, two other
possibilities were considered, a vacuum
filter incinerator, and a sludge thickener
with incineration. A table is given which
supplies the total financing of all three
plants considered. The sewage gas purifier
is a conventional type using wood chips
impregnated with iron oxide to oxidize
hydrogen sulfide gas produced. A new
method of rejuvenating the wood chips allows
them to remove three times as much sulphur
as the old methods. A technical explanation
is presented.
64-0711
Recent developments in chemical industries
relating to ethyl alcohol, its byproducts
and wastes. Journal of Scientific and
Industrial Research, 23(4):129-1 31 , Apr. 1964.
A summary of the Symposium on New
Developments in Chemical Industries
Relating to Ethyl Alcohol, Its Byproducts
and Wastes, held in New Delhi, Oct. 14 to
16, 1963, is given. The results of studies
presented in a number of papers at the
symposium were classified for convenience
of discussion as follows: (1) economy of
energy means; (2) equipment for production
of ethyl alcohol and its byproducts; (3)
automation and instrumentation; and (4)
industrial utilization of alcohol, its
byproducts and wastes. Some comments are
made about the cost of producing acetaldehyde
from petro-ethylene as compared with alcohol.
The other papers presented dealt with the
production of acetic acid from alcohol, the
activity of alumina catalysts during
dehydration of alcohol to ethylene, the use
of alcohol in the production of pesticides,
64-0712
Reverse procedure--pumping into a well.
Public Works, 95(9):84, 86, Sept. 1964.
The Hammermill Paper Co. has completed the
first of a proposed series of deep wells
costing about $400,000 each, which promise
almost unlimited capacity for disposal of
untreated effluent from the company's
pulping operations. The well, which will
carry daily 500,000 gal of pulping liquor to
a brine-bearing limestone formation some
1,600 ft below the surface, is the first
of four wells designed to handle some 2
million gal per day. A second well is now
being drilled to an even deeper formation
that may provide many times the capacity
of the first. In order for a deep disposal
well to meet the requirements of the State of
Pennsylvania for this type of use, at least
four requisites must be met: (1) absolutely
no usable water, gas, oil, or other valuable
mineral deposits can be in evidence while
drilling the well; (2) there must be an
adequate cover of impermeable rock above the
limestone formation; (3) the limestone
formation must contain brine to indicate that
it is of no value; and (4) the brine must
have a hydrostatic pressure to indicate
that the formation is tightly sealed and
not draining into some other strata. All
of these requirements are met in the first
well. Nevertheless, Hammermill's research
department is continuing its search for an
economical method to treat the effluent,
to recover the significant value of chemicals
which are lost in the deep well disposal
method.
64-0713
Riebel. A new method for the removal of
sludge from drying beds. Staedtehygiene,
15(11):256-258, Nov. 1964.
In the municipal sewage treatment plant of
Giessen, West Germany, the dry sludge was
loaded manually on trucks. Considerations
of costs and availability prompted the
city administration to replace the manual
labor by power equipment. Tests of
commercially available power shovels,
however, proved unsatisfactory. Therefore,
a new power shovel was designed. The basic
equipment is a 4.2 ton tracked bulldozer.
The specially-designed shovel of 850 liter
capacity is 2450 mm wide, which is half the
176
-------
0710-0716
width of the drying bed. Steel teeth at
the front edge and rubber rollers in the
rear ensure that only sludge and no gravel
is picked up. To support the bulldozer,
paths had to be built into the beds. They
consist of 30 cm wide concrete slabs hinged
together. The power shovel can clear 12.5
beds per day at a cost of 27.20 DM per bed.
Manual labor would have needed 12.5 days
at 236,00 DM per day. Thus the city of
Giessen will save annually about 100,000
DM. The power shovel is shown in action in
five photographs. (Text-German)
ABS in secondary effluent. A 10 to 45
percent diminuation on COD was observed
after foaming was performed. Some evidence
exists that COD removal increases as
surfactant concentration in secondary
effluent decreases. Efforts to enhance
the contaminant removal obtained by foaming
through the addition of surface-active and/or
non-surface-active materials have been
unsuccessful to date. Total dissolved solids
and chloride ion have been found to be
unaffected by the foaming process. An
increase in pH upon foaming suggests that
weakly acidic substances are being removed.
64-0714
Rotondo, V. J. 'Honey wagon' sludge
disposal. Water Works and Wastes Engineering,
1(8):59-60, Aug. 1964.
A method of eliminating the detrimental
effects of discharging 'honey wagon' sludge
into the main wastewater treatment units of
an activated sludge plant is described. The
'honey wagon' sludge was degritted by use
of a 12 in. DorrClone, a hydroclone capable
of removing grit down to 150 mesh. The
heavy solids in the degritted sludge are
allowed to settle in a 5,000 gal storage tank
until the contents can be pumped directly
to the digester. The elimination of the
'honey wagon' sludge from the primary
treatment unit removed the biological
overload and complaints of odor from
neighbors. Satisfactory disposal facilities
are available for private septic tanks and
the treatment plant has controlled its odor
problem.
64-0715
Rubin, E., R. Everett, J. J. Weinstock, et al.
Contaminant removal from sewage plant effluents
by foaming. Public Health Service Publication
No. 999-WP-5. Cincinnati, U.S. Public Health
Service, Dec. 1963. 56 p.
A review of foam separation, preliminary
batch experiments, continuous-feed foaming
experiments, tandem continuous-feed
foaming of secondary effluent, contaminant
removal capability and miscellaneous
investigations are discussed. The
feasibility of employing a foaming process
to remove refractory materials from secondary
effluents using both batch-foaming and
continuous-feed-foaming techniques were
investigated. A correlation has been
demonstrated between residual alkyl benzene
sulfonate concentration and the volume of
aeration air available per unit mass of
64-0716
Bussell, R. A. Theory of combustion of
sludge. In Sludge concentration, filtration,
and incineration. Continued Education Series
No. 113. Ann Arbor, University of Michigan,
School of Public Health, 1964. p.152-157.
Incineration has the dual purpose of
reduction of volume and sterilization of
the solid end products of the disposal
process. The incineration characteristics
of sludge include: moisture, volatiles,
inerts, and calorific value. The sewage
plant operator has some control over
moisture, and the thermal load which its
presence puts on the drying phase of
incineration has a resulting effect on the
auto-combustibility of the sludge. Inerts
are to some extent controlled by the degree
to which conditioning chemicals are added as
an aid to vacunrr filtration. Volatiles
and inerts both affect the calorific value
of the dry filtered cake. Incineration
equipment must be designed to handle a
sludge having a wide range of qualities,
since the characteristics are variable.
The incineration process is described in
terms of the thermodynamics of the drying
process which may be divided into three
phases: raising temperature of filter
cake to 212; evaporating water from filter
cake; and increasing water vapor temperature
to incinerator exit gas temperature.
A typical example is given in which the
entering sludge cake temperature is 60 and
the incinerator discharge gas temperaturr-
is 600. The absorptions which occur for
1 Ib of filter cake moisture in terms of
Btu per Ib are given. The thermodynamics
of the combustion process are described, and
the basic combustion equations are given.
Other topics discussed are: excess air;
combustion; furnace explosions; odor
production; and secondary combustion problems.
177
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Industrial Wastes
64-0717
Salotto, B. V., E. F. Earth, W. E. Tolliver,
et al. Organic load and the toxicity of copper
to the activated sludge. In Proceedings;
Nineteenth Industrial Waste Conference,
Lafayette, Ind., May 5-7. 1964. Purdue University
Engineering Extension Series No. 117. p. 1025-1 034.
The pilot plants used were designed for
complete treatment of sewage employing
primary settling, aeration with continuous
sludge return, and secondary settling. Sewage
was fed at a constant rate. Sludge from the
secondary settler was pumped to the first
chamber of the aerator at a rate of about
35 percent of the sewage flow. Sludge-
wasting rates were adjusted to hold
mixed-liquor volatile-suspended-solids
concentrations at 1,000 to 1,200 mg per
liter. Total detention time was 9 hr with
a flow of 100 gal per day. Three identical
pilot plants were operated in parallel.
One unit received undiluted sewage at a
constant rate. One unit received undiluted
fortified (homogenized fish meal) sewage
at a constant rate. Copper sulfate solution
was introduced at the sewage feed inlet
continuously. The other two units were fed
the same sewage diluted about 2:3 with tap
water. The effects of two copper
concentrations were studied at each organic
load level. The 5 mg per Jiter copper run
lasted about 6 months and was followed by
the 1 mg per liter copper run which lasted
about 2"j months. The experiment.-3! conditions
are summarized in a table; and the methods of
sample collection and analysis described in
detail. The results are presented in 7
tables and 5 figures. Moderate variations
of organic loading did not significantly
affect the toxicity of copper to the
activated sludge process under these
experimental conditions. Increasing the
organic load increases the COD of the
effluent. The effect of 5 mg per liter
copper fed continuously to a low-organic
loader1 unit had about the same effect on
COD of the effluent as doubling the
organic load. The suspended solids in the
final effluent were higher than expected
with activated sludge treatment. Organic
loading altered the distribution and form of
metal during the 5 mg per liter copper
studies. The unit receiving the high
organic load was more efficient in the
removal of copper and produced a higher
ratio of soluble to total copper in the
process effluents.
64-0718
Schraufnagel, F. H. Waste disposal by ridge
and furrow irrigation. M.S. Thesis,
University of Wisconsin, Madison, 1963. 50 p.
An evaluation of the ridge and furrow
irrigation as a method of waste disposal is
reported. The limitations and potentials of
the method are discussed. Prior to 30 years
ago little use was made of ridge and furrow
irrigation exclusively for the disposal
of industrial wastes. In the 1930's,
several vegetable canning plants in Iowa
began using this method. During the past
10 to 12 years about 40 milk plants in
Wisconsin and Minnesota installed ridge and
furrow systems, and the method has been used
to treat a variety of other liquid wastes.
Since 1950 some waste disposal fields
have been replaced by spray irrigation.
Others continue to operate satisfactorily,
producing virtually a complete degree of
treatment with little effort. There are,
however,. some unsatisfactory systems.
The various waste disposal systems and
related aspects are presented. Conclusions
are enumerated. Where conditions are
suitable, ridge and furrow irrigation of
putrescible organic wastes can accomplish
a high degree of treatment of low cost
and with little maintenance.
64-0719
Sedimentation practices for paper industry
wastes; progress report. Committee on
Industrial Waste Practice. Paper No. 4165.
Journal of the Sanitary Engineering Division,
American Society of Civil Engineers,
90(SA6):41-49, Dec. 1964.
A questionnaire was sent to 75 separate
paper industry mills to determine: (1)
quality of waste waters; (2) design
characteristics of sedimentation facilities
including detention time, overflow rate
and solids loading; (3) types of treatment
in use; (4) efficiency of sedimentation;
(5) type of construction of sedimentation
basins; (6) sludge characteristics; and
(7) sludge disposal methods. A total of
27 replies (36%) was received. Tabulated
and graphically presented data indicated
that: (1) raw waste water from paper
industry mills is widely variable as to
the quality characteristics of BOD and
suspended solids, even among mills producing
similar products; (2) in many cases
sedimentation alone is extremely effective
in the purification of paper industry
waste water; (3) no correlation could be
found, on an overall industry basis, or
on a mill product basis, between purification
results and the calculated design factors
of detention time, overflow rate, and
solids loading, for operating plants; and (4)
sedimentation design is a separate problem
for each mill.
178
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0717-0723
64-0720
Seminar on sewage sludge and waste. Wasser
und Abwasser, 105(14):369, Apr. 3, 1964.
The Workgroup for Municipal Waste Disposal
will hold a seminar on 'Sewage Sludge and
Solid Waste' at the Technical Academy in
Wuppertal from April 27 to 29, 1964.
The preparations for the meeting are
conducted by Mr. Rosenberg. (Text-German)
64-0721
Senn, M. J., and E. M. Wylie. We must stop
contaminating our water. U.S. Public Health
Service, Jan.-Feb. 1963. 7 p.
Discoveries of the outbreaks of infectious
hepatitis and detergent suds problems
plaguing many communities indicate that the
perils to health from polluted water are
steadily increasing. Aside from the
pollution of rivers and streams, there is
the contamination of underground water by the
wastes and chemicals poured into the soil
by sewage systems, industry, and agriculture.
The most immediate concrete action that can
be taken is the rigid control and eventual
elimination of private septic tanks in the
densely populated areas surrounding cities.
Many of the municipal waste treatment
processes in use today were designed for
the wastes of forty years ago. Ships and
boats that abound in lakes, rivers, and
coastal waters usually do not have facilities
for the treatment and disposal of shipboard
sewage. Pesticides and herbicides scattered
over crops, lawns, and trees can permeate
the soil and underground waters and may
reach reservoirs of drinking water. Ten
questions are asked on the topic, 'How
Safe is Your Water Supply?', and appropriate
literature is suggested. (Reprinted with
permission from American Home, January-
February 1963)
64-0722
Shannon, E. S. Handling and treating
petrochemical. Water and Sewage Works,
3(5):240-245, May 1964.
The waste control policy of a petrochemical
complex places primary responsibility for
control and treatment of wastes upon the
various plants' operating superintendents.
Waste control is considered an operational
cost and receives the same attention as
product production. The waste control
department monitors the wastes of various
plants, and acts as a consultant to the
operating supervision and engineering
department on waste control problems in
existing plants, and on features concerning
waste control in designing new plants. Data
shows the distribution of a petrochemical
barrel, the cracking process, ethylene
purification, and butadiene finishing. The
refinery complex operates under an order
restricting the discharged waters to contain
not more than 5 Ib per day phenol, 15 ppm
oil, and the pH to be between 5.8 and 10.3.
The plant was designed for tight waste
control. Sewers are separated into
uncontaminated cooling water, process
water, sanitary sewage, chemical wastes,
sewer which can receive copper compounds,
and surface run-off. Special cooling water
systems were constructed. Process wastes,
consisting of about 250 gpm, are pretreated
in an A.P.1. separator equipped with
a pre-aeration step. This step breaks oil
emulsions, separates carbon from oil
and strips lighter hydrocarbons from the
water waste. About 40 percent of the total
COD load is removed here. The combined
wastes are pumped over one or two biological
towers. The second is used as a polishing
filter in series with and following the
activated sludge step. Various problems
were encountered and solved.
64-0723
Sherbeck, J. M. The operation and
maintenance of a multiple hearth type
incinerator. In Sludge concentration,
filtration, and incineration. Ann Arbor,
University of Michigan, School of Public
Health, 1964. p.177-185."
Two factors determine the efficient
operation and maintenance of an incinerator,
the materials used in construction and the
design. The operation of a multiple
hearth incinerator is reported. It is a
14 ft 3 in. diameter, 6 hearth incinerator,
24 ft 4 in. high with individual hearth
sizes from 3 ft 4J-j in. to 2 ft 3 in. The
larger hearths are on top to accommodate the
unburned bulk. Each hearth is on top to
accommodate the unburned bulk. Each hearth
has a set of arms extending from a center
shaft. The center shaft rotates
counterclockwise. The arms are equipped with
teeth arranged to move the sludge in and
out alternately through the incinerator.
The teeth also plow and turn over the sludge,
leaving a 4 in. layer of ash on each hearth.
Oxygen is obtained through a blower which
produces 1,550 cu ft of air per minute. The
ash after having been rabbled to the number
6 hearth drops into a 500 gal tank of water
179
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Industrial Wastes
for disposal. The slurry formed is pumped
to a lagoon every 30 minutes. The incinerator
is designed to handle 3,250 Ib per hr of wet
cake containing 65 percent moisture and 70
percent volatile solids. The ash handling
equipment is designed to remove all ash
and pump it to a lagoon 1,500 ft away.
The procedures used in starting up are
given in detail. The daily record form
that is used is shown in a figure. Operational
problems are discussed and illustrated.
Maintenance problems are outlined.
64-0724
Simple separator solves sludge-disposal
problem. Chemical Engineering, 71(25):102,
Dec. 7, 1964.
The DCG (Duel Cell, Gravity) solids
concentrator, a continuous filter that
operates by gravity, is described. It
requires no vacuum or pressure, and no
sludge conditioning by lime or ferric
chloride. Dewatering is accomplished
in the first nylon mesh cell and cake
formation in the second. This unit is
available in four sizes.
64-0725
Simpson, G. D., and S. H. Button.
Performance of vacuum filters. In Sludge
concentration, filtration, and incineration.
Continued Education Series No. 113.
Ann Arbor, University of Michigan, School
of Public Health, 1964. p.126-138.
Seven vacuum filter plants of different
sizes and types have been studied. The
criteria for the evaluation are described
and discussed and the results of the study
presented in tabular form. The plants are:
(1) Cleveland, Westerly; (2) Dayton; (3)
Cleveland, Southerly; (4) Cincinnati, Mill
Creek; (5) Indianapolis; (6) Minneapolis-St.
Paul; and (7) Detroit. General data are
given for each of these, including the type
of sludge, the average number of tons of
sludge solids per day, the total solids
concentration in percent, the volume
content in percent, and the alkali as calcium
carbonate mg per cu liter. The number,
size, total area, media type, and mesh of
the filters used are given. The filter
loadings and performance are given in a
table. Included are the period of the
study in months, the total dry solids load
in tons, the chemical doses, the yield, the
filter operating hours, and the total solids
removed by filter in percent. The
characteristics of the filter cake and
filtrate are given in another table. Costs
are also given. The data presented illustrate
well the differences to be found associated
with type of sludge, the size of the plant,
and other pertinent factors.
64-0726
Sludge concentration, filtration, and
incineration. Continued Education Series
No. 113. Ann Arbor, University of Michigan,
School of Public Health, 1964. 187 p.
These papers were presented at the
Inservice Training Course on Sludge
Concentration, Filtration, and Incineration
in 1963. Among the subjects discussed
were: thickening by gravity and mechanical
means; dissolved air flotation as a method
of thickening; elutriation and chemical
coagulation as methods of thickening;
processing thickened sludge with chemical
conditioners; vacuum filtration; the
operation of vacuum filters; centrifugal
dewatering; the combustion of sludge; the
relative economics of incineration and
incineration-drying; and the operation
and maintenance of a multiple hearth type
incinerator. Charts, diagrams, and photographs
are used to illustrate the papers.
64-0727
Sludge disposal system. Water and Waste
Treatment, 10(3):151, Sept.-Oct. 1964.
The F-S Disposal System which provides a
controlled process for the complete disposal
of organic sludges by combustion in a
fluidized bed is described. Thickened
sludge which has been dewatered in a rotary
vacuum filter is fluidized in an upward
moving stream of air. The fluidized air is
provided by suspending an inert sand bed
within the reactor. A rapid combustion
occurs as a results of the immediate
dispersion of the solids in the sand bed.
The reactor operates at 2 psi from 1300
to 1,600 F. The final effluent from the
sewage treatment can be used in the scrubbers
for the combustion gases. The system has
the advantages of low area requirements,
low maintenance cost, no odor, and no
pollution. Sludge handling problems are
minimized because the reduced volume of
inerts can be disposed of simply and
inexpensively.
180
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0724-0730
64-0728
Smith, Lloyd L., and R. H. Kramer. Some
effects of paper fibers in fish eggs and
small fish. In Proceedings; Nineteenth
Industrial Waste Conference, Lafayette, Ind.,
May 5-7, 1964. Purdue University Engineering
Extension Series No. 117. p.369-378.
Many estuaries and rivers receive large
quantities of bark, groundwood, and chemical
pulp wastes from paper mills. The present
report is on the effects of various wood
fibers on: (1) the survival of rainbow and
brown trout eggs; (2) survival, growth, and
vigor of trout alevins; (3) growth of trout
juveniles; and (4) survival and indicators
of stress in walleye fingerlings and adult
fathead minnows. Materials and methods
are described. It was found that brown
and rainbow trout eggs incubated in 60,
125, and 250 ppm suspensions of conifer
groundwood had a 95 to 98 percent (brown
trout) and 98 to 100 percent survival in
all treatments. The effect of conifer
groundwood at levels of 0, 60, 125, and 250
ppm on trout alevins was tested by noting
growth, respiratory rate, and rate of oxygen
uptake. Survival rate descreased rapidly
with increase in fiber load, and reached
zero in one lot of rainbow trout at 250
ppm of fiber. Growth was markedly decreased
as fiber load was increased: from .0213
in controls to .0062 at 250 ppm in brown
trout; from .0345 in controls to .0061 at
250 ppm in rainbows. Rate of oxygen uptake
declined markedly as fiber concentrations
rose and corresponded to the decline in
respiratory rate. Subsequent growth of
the alevins in clear water as juveniles
was reduced. Fathead minnows kept for
96 hr in suspensions of aspen groundwood
from 0 to 2,000 ppm at oxygen saturation
showed no significant effects. With conifer
groundwood a similar series showed increased
mortality at 738 and 2,000 ppm. At reduced
oxygen levels significant changes in
fathead survival were observed as fiber
loads increased in only one case with aspen
groundwood. Walleyes tested with reduced
oxygen levels showed marked decrease in
survival as fiber levels increased. These
effects were most acute with conifer
groundwood where there were no survivors
at 272 ppm, and 20 percent survival at
74 ppm.
64-0729
Stahl, R. W. Survey of burning coal-mine
refuse banks. U.S. Bureau of Mines
Information Circular No. 8209. [Washington],
U.S. Department of the Interior, 1964.
Refuse banks may be ignited by the following
means: spontaneous ignition, careless
burning of trash, forest fires, camp fires,
and intentional ignition. All except
spontaneous ignJ tion can be eliminated by
patrolling the disposal area. Sealing outer
surfaces can minimize spontaneous ignition.
Fires can be extinguished by flooding
the bank with water, covering with a
mantle of smothering material, pumping
limestone slurry into boreholes, water
sprays, isolating the area, or compacting
and sealing the area. Fencing the disposal
area, proper construction, and elimination
of paper, timber, and burnable trash can
prevent most fires. Maps of mining areas
and a figure showing geographic distribution
by state are included. West Virginia has
213; Pennsylvania, 117 bituminous and
25 anthracite; Kentucky, 49; and Virginia,
27. Tables give the following data on the
495 banks in 15 states surveyed: county;
name, population and distance of nearest
town; size and status of bank; status and
stage of fire, and topography. Fifty
percent of the banks are in the late
burning stage; 40 percent are within 1
mile of a town.
64-0730
Sussman, V. H., and J. J. Mulhern. Air
pollution, from coal refuse areas. Journal
of the Air Pollution Control Association,
14(7)=279-284, July 1964.
Although coal refuse disposal piles have
been burning and causing air pollution
since coal mining first started, little
has been done to control these fires. They have
been regarded as an unavoidable and natural
by-product of coal mining, and it was
believed there was no means of averting such
fires. A chart indicates the extent of the
problem, showing the increase in refuse
production while the coal production
remains constant. Twenty percent of the
65 million tons of bituminous coal produced
in Pennsylvania and 20 to 50 percent of
the raw anthracite in Pennsylvania was
rejected as refuse. The coal refuse with
less than 25 percent combustible contains
coal, slate, shale, bone, calcite, gypsum,
clay, pyrite, and marcasite. It is dumped
in piles from 20 to 300 ft high which may
contain millions of tons. These piles are
ignited by spontaneous combustion,
carelessness, or intent. The ignition results
from oxidation of carbonaceous and pyritic
material in the refuse which, in the
presence of air, produced enough heat
to ignite the piles, which then emit sulfur
181
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Industrial Wastes
dioxide and hydrogen sulfide in addition
to the smoke, carbon monoxide, and the public
nuisance caused. Three photographs show burning
piles of coal refuse, A table shows the
number of burning refuse banks by state
with 213 in West Virginia, and 142 in
Pennsylvania. A chart shows the sulfur
dioxide and hydrogen sulfide concentrations
in a community adjacent to a burning refuse
pile. Controls are based on keeping air
out of the piles by compaction of the refuse
which has been ground to less than 2 in.
size. Fires are fought by quenching with
water or by use of a lime-soda slurry. The
control of coal refuse piles in
Pennsylvania has"been placed under the Air
Pollution Control Commission, which issues
permits and investigates fires which might
cause air pollution.
64-0731
Talbot, J. S., and P. Beardon. Deep well
disposal has possibilities. Chemical
Engineering, 9(1):72-74, Jan. 1964.
The disposal of industrial effluents
by deep well disposal which has long been
used in the oil and gas industry is
reviewed. A detailed geological examination
of the proposed area is necessary to
determine the presence and extent of a
vertical impermeable strata and a permesble
and porous strata into which the effluent
may be injected. The usual procedure is
to pump the effluent under pressure
which may reach as high as 3,500 Ib per sq
in. with the rates in the 10 to 2000 gal per
minute with the usua] range being 100 to
330 gal per minute. Sulfuric acid could
react with a calcium chloride brine to
plug the aquifer with calcium sulfate.
Underground disposal offers a method of
getting rid of effluents if the hazards to
potable water and mineral deposits are
recognized.
64-0732
Talbot, J. S., and P. Breardon. The deep
well method of industrial waste disposal.
Chemical Engineering Progress, 60(1):49-52,
Jan. 1964.
The oil and gas producing industry which
has used the deep well method of liquid
waste disposal for years recognizes it as
safe, efficient, and permanent. These
factors which must be considered by prudent
operators are discussed in detail: State
laws concerning such disposal; general legal
aspects; subterranean geology; groundvater
hydrology; injection pressures and volumes;
chemical and physical problems of injection;
preliminary disposal well design and
estimated costs; surface equipment design
and estimated costs; and cost of operation.
64-0733
Tassoney, J. P., R. L. Albright, and E. B.
Stuart. Batch process removes oil, fat, and
grease. Water Works and Wastes Engineering,
1(8):38, Aug. 1964.
Successive chemical treatment and contaminant
removal under continuous operator
surveillance insures a high degree of
treatment for a difficult to handle waste
produced in the manufacture of lubricating
greases and other petroleum lubes and
specialty products. This will help abate
pollution in the Allegheny and Ohio rivers.
The Humble Oil and Refining Company, the
developer of this form of waste treatment,
produces wastes that are small in quantity,
but complex in composition. The primary
contaminants are fats, grease, and oil.
Humble employs sequential accumulation,
equalization, flotation, coagulation,
sedimentation, and separation in single tank
to handle the small-volume highly variable
waste.
64-0734
Tenney, M. W., and W. Strumm. Chemical
flocculation of microorganisms in biological
waste treatment. In Proceedings; Nineteenth
Industrial Waste Conference,, Lafayette, Ind. ,
May 5-7, 1964. Purdue University Engineering
Extension Series No. 117. p.518-539.
Although biological treatment of wastes is
superior to chemical treatment for the
removal of soluble organic matter, interest
in chemical methods has been revived,
particularly to process biologically
treated effluents when additional
purification is needed. Chemical treatment
is used for the removal of phosphates.
Research was conducted to investigate the
extent that chemical flocculation methods
can complement and partially substitute
for biological treatment. The efficiency
of biological treatment depends upon
flocculation. The use of chemical techniques
for flocculation reduces the detention time
of the biological unit. The flocculation
of bacteria is discussed. Factors
affecting the stability of microbial
dispersions include hydrogen ion, the
182
-------
0731-0737
physiological conditions of the cells, and
polymers of biological origin. A high
degree of control in the flocculation of
microorganisms and the precipitation of
phosphate can be achieved by control of
pH and degree of agitation. The flocculation
experiments carried out with samples from
cultures are discussed. Chemical elements
added for the flocculation of dispersed
microorganisms have the following
requirements: they should become strongly
bonded to the microbial surface by chemical
or electrostatic forces; and should be able
to form linear polymers capable of uniting
the microbial particles into a loose
three-dimensional structure. Synthetic
polyelectrolytes and metal coagulants are
discussed. Experiments were conducted to
test whether chemical flocculability, like
bioflocculation, is affected by the
physiological conditions of the microorganisms.
The quantity of chemical flocculents
necessary can be predicted from the
concentration of microorganisms and the
phosphate content of the solution. Chemical
flocculation of microorganisms, like
biological flocculation, can be interpreted
in terms of a. polymerbridge between the
individual microbia; particles.
64-0735
Tenney, M. W., R. H. Johnson, and J. H.
Symons. Minimal solids aeration activated
sludge. Paper No. 3790. Journal of the
Sanitary Engineering Division, American
Society of Civil Engineers, 90(SA1):23-42,
Feb. 1964.
Complete mixing activated sludge systems
were tested on a laboratory scale to observe
their performance under high organic
volumetric loadings and short solids retention
times. Tabulated and graphically presented
data show that the systems operated
effectively under these conditions with
rapid removal of soluble organic matter from
solution. Extensive consideration was also
given to the problem of the treatment or
disposal, or both, of the large quantity
of solids created in highly losJi-f activated
sludge systems. The feasibility of using
either moderate or extended solids aeration,
complete-mixing activated sludge, chemical
treatment, or an oxidation pond, was
investigated for treatment of material
from the highly loaded, highly
wasted complete-mixing activated sludge
system. Illustrated data show that: at
high primary volumetric organic loadings,
a second stage complete-mixing activated
sludge system with a longer solids retention
time will improve the over-all soluble
organic removal; aluminum sulfate coagulation
was an effective means of concentrating
the dispersed, minimal-solids aeration,
complete-nixing activated sludge effluent;
and an oxidation pond receiving such
effluent was effective in treating the
solids and metabolizing biodegradable
soluble COD without odors or problems.
64-0736
Thompson, R. N., J. E. Zajic, and E. Lichti.
Spectrographlc analysis of air-dried eewage
sludge. Journal of the Water Pollution
Control Federation. 36(6):752-759 , June 1964.
Tests were made from samples of thirteen
different treatment plants in Oklahoma. A
table is presented showing the percentages
of each element presen. in the sludge. The
ones found in major quantities: one percent
and greater, were aluminum, calcium, iron,
magnesium, silicon, and in one plant, vanadium.
Other elements are grouped as intermediate,
0.01 to 1.00 percent, and trace, 0.001 to 0.01
percent. Spectroscopy can determine if
there are sufficient Quantities of toxic
inorganics in sludge to be harmful to
flora and fauna which aid in waste treatment
processes. Several examples are given.
Spectroscopy is also suggesŁ>:••' as a method
to determine if there are large enough
percentages of valuable metals to warrant
commercial recovery of them from the sewage
sludge. Oklahoma City is used as a
demonstration of this fact, showing that
up to $17,000 worth of silver and large
amounts of other valuable metals went into
fertilizer every year.
64-0737
Treatment of combined municipal and
industrial wastes, British Chemical
Engineering, 9(2):71-7?, Feb. 1964.
The combination of industrial wastes with
domestic sewage in municipal sewage plants
is discussed. In those cases where the
industrial and municipal wastes are
compatible, there are significant benefits.
The unavailability and cost of land on many
industrial sites is a factor favoring
the discharge of industrial effluents to the
sewer. It is obvious that inflammable.
explosive: materials, rapidly settling solids,
corrosive wastes, or toxic metallic salts
should be excluded from municipal sewers.
There must be mutual trust and cooperation
to have a successful program of joint
183
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Industrial Wastes
treatment ot industrial and municipal
wastes. Procter and Gamble has succeeded
in discharging 80 percent of the effluents
from its plants into municipal sewers. It
was concluded that tests conducted with the
cooperation of the municipal authorities
may show that factory effluents may be
treated more efficiently and economically
by the municipal sewage plant than by the
factory treatment plant.
64-0738
Van Kleeck, L. W. Operation of vacuum
filters. In Sludge concentration, filtration,
and incineration. Continued Education
Series No. 113. Ann Arbor, University of
Michigan, School of Public Health, 1964.
p.105-125.
The factors, other than mechanical, which
affect vacuum filter operation are: (1)
types of filter medium; (2) sludge
characteristics; and (3) sludge conditioning.
Types of filter medium include: (1) cloth
media; (2) cloth media with string discharge;
and (3) permanent media such as enmeshed
coil springs or stainless steel woven wire
belting. The characteristics of sludge are:
(1) size and shape of solid particles; (2)
the alkalinity of sludge water; (3) the
ratio of volatile matter to ash; (4) the
percent of sludge solids; (5) raw sludge
versus digested sludge filtration (a table
gives a comparison); (6) industrial wastes
as contaminants, and (7) sludges requiring
no conditioning chemicals. The
conditioning of sludge is accomplished by:
(1) solids concentration (not less than
5%); (2) chemicals (usually ferric chloride
with or without lime); and (3) elutriation.
These factors are discussed and technological
details given from experience. The
mechanical operation of mechanical filters
is described and data presented. Maintenance
and computations for control and optimum
performance of vacuum filters are given.
Design features for the improvement of
vacuum filter operation are also listed.
The future of vacuum filtration depends on
research and the practical developments
in this and other dewatering processes.
64-0739
Wahl, E. D., A. M. Cooley, and G. 0. Fossum.
Digestion of potato waste substances-laboratory
conditions. In Proceedings; Nineteenth
Industrial Waste Conference, Lafayette, Ind.,
May 5-7, 1964. Purdue University Engineering
Extension Series No. 117. p.291-302.
Three distinct studies are reported: (1)
the determination of the rate of oxygen
uptake by potato substance; (2) activated
sludge treatment of potato waste media; and
(3) the improvement in the digestion rate
of potato waste media. The degree of release
of cellular material (by grinding or cooking)
has considerable effect upon the rate
of oxygen uptake. The maximum rate occurs
with the cooked potato. The pH, if in the
range 7 to 9, has little effect upon the
rate. The results of the study of activated
sludge treatment are discussed. The results
were so unpromising that the work was
discontinued. In the third part of the study
it was found that the waste material
was extremely variable, and there were thus
large variations in the BOD initially
present. The slicer waste used did not
respond well to treatment. Fortunately,
this waste is settleable and can be removed
mechanically from plant streams without
using biological methods. Work has been
partially completed on a lye peeler
supernatant and a similar experimental design
used on this waste.
64-0740
Washington, D. R., L. J. Hetling, and S. S.
Roa. Long-term adaptation of activated
sludge organisms to accumulated sludge mass.
In Proceedings; Nineteenth Industrial Waste
Conference, Lafayette, Ind., May 5-7, 1964.
Purdue University Engineering Extension
Series No. 117. p.655-666.
The specific sludge system investigated was
a heterogeneous extended aeration type. The
first phase of the study was to determine
under laboratory conditions the period and
extent of adaptation of the organisms to
the degradation of normally biologically-inert,
volatile solids. The second phase was a
study of the influence of the adapted
organisms on the accumulation of sludge
materials resulting from different types of
organic wastes. 'Adaptation' is used in
a broad sense to include physiological
adaptation, mutation, and selection. The
phase one results raised more questions
than they answered. Were the normally
biologically-inert, volatile solids
metabolized by unique species of
microorganisms or by common ones which
underwent physiological adaptation of their
enzyme system? An organism closely related
to Pseudomonas fluorescens was the only
bacterial species isolated on nutrient agar
from activated sludge actively degrading the
normally biologically-inert volatile solids.
This adapted organism was able to reduce the
184
-------
0738-0743
inert sludge by about 50 percent and could
be inoculated into other carbohydrate-fed
activated sludge systems (it was uncertain
whether it could be inoculated into other
systems). Once the portion of the sludge
to which the organism is adapted is
metabolized, the organism apparently is
unable to continue the degradation of this
material as it is produced so the system
returns to a sludge accumulation rate typical
of equilibrium systems. It is not clear if
there is long-term cyclic reduction in the
accumulated volatile solids.
64-0741
Whaley, H. P. Waste disposal and reuse of
waste water in taconite ore beneficiation
operations. In Proceedings; Nineteenth
Industrial Waste Conference, Lafayette, Ind.,
May 5-7, 1964. Purdue University Engineering
Extension Series No. 117. p.27-31.
Twenty-four million long tons of taconite
are mined a year by the Erie Mining Company
in Hoyt Lakes, Minnesota. An additional 13
million long tons of waste rock and surface
material are hauled to dumps of the iron
formation. Water is used in the grinding
process, as an aid in the magnetic
separation of the iron ore, to convey the
products of a concentrator (both waste and
the desired final product) , as a. motivating
force in the siphon-sizers, as a dust
collector, as a coolant for the lubricants
and parts of the furnace, and in many other
ways. About 11 tons of water are required
for every ton of crude ore processed.
At this plant this amounts to 120,000 gal
per minute or 720,000 tons of water per
day. The geographic features and the
regulations of the State of Minnesota make
it necessary that a minimum of 108,000 gal
per minute be reclaimed since only 12,000
gal per min can be taken from a reservoir.
Water is reclaimed by the use of tailing
thickeners overflow and water from the
tailing basin. Four tailing thickeners
with a retention time of 3.5 hr and 0.5
ton per day cautisized corn starch are used.
Cautisized starch has proved to be an
effective and economical flocculent. The
requirements for the flocculent are: (1)
to provide an overflow with no more than
300 ppm total solids; (2) to have no
harmful effect on any part of the process;
(3) to be easy to feed and handle; (4) to
cost the least per ton of material treated,
from the tailings thickener 70 percent of the
water is recovered (94,000 gal per min).
The tailing basin complex covers 1700
acres in the first, 800 acres in the
second, and 200 acres in an emergency basin.
The factors controlling clarification are
area of water surface, depth, temperature,
ice coverage, wave action, pH of basin water,
and minerals in the tailings. A floating
pump house (a barge 60 ft x 80 ft with
five pumps with a total capacity of 35,000
gpm) is located near the center of the basin
and normally reclaims 20,000 gal per min.
The pump's suctions are in sectional pumps
equipped with adjustable weirs to skim
off only the surface water. Fifteen million
tons of tailings are deposited on the
disposal area annually. Water is used as
the medium for transport through pipelines.
This water is very dirty after contact with
the ore and must be clarified before reuse.
The disposal system is closed; the only
water loss is from evaporation, water driven
in the agglomerating operation, seepage
at a reservoir, and water entrapped with
the tailings themselves. The steps being
taken to grow plants on the dams are also
described.
64-0742
What to watch for in sludge-cake storage.
American City, 79(2):35, Feb. 1964.
A specially designed storage bin, which
stores sewage sludge dewatered on vacuum
filters, is used by San Francisco's Department
of Public Works. The sludge can be
transferred conveniently from the storage
bin to sanitary fills for disposal. The
storage bin was designed to receive 100
tons of sludge from a conveyor belt able to
deliver 1h tons an hr. To provide positive
control at the discharge portion of the bin,
the designers provided eight horizontal
shear gates, 4 x 8 ft in size. Each gate
serves a quarter of the storage bin. The
gates are operated hydraulically from controls
located on the side of the bin. They open
and close at a speed of approximately one-tenth
of a ft per sec. Eighty tons of sludge a
day for 5 days a week can be moved by the
unit, which cost $50,000. The use of
vacuum filter drying, rather than dewatering
in flash driers, has produced a savings
of $42,000 annually.
64-0743
Williamson, J. N., A. H. Heit, and C. Calmon.
Evaluation of various adsorbents and
coagulants for waste-water renovation,
AWTR-12. U.S. Department of Health,
Education, and Welfare, June 1964. 91 p.
185
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Hazardous Wastes
Minerals, industrial by-products,
proteinaceous materials, and conventional
water treatment agents were among the
commercially available materials tested for
the treatment of waste waters. Activated
carbon was used as a reference. Minerals
treated with salts of tetravalent metals,
most conventional coagulants, and proteins
coagulated in the presence of mineral acids
exhibit affinities for the organic-solute
phase of secondary waste-water effluents.
Hydrophobic proteins and organic anion
exchangers will also remove organic solutes
from waste water. The problem of
irreversible organic fouling requires more
attention if exchangers are to be considered
in advanced waste treatment. Precoagulation
of the higher molecular species of organics
is suggested as a fouling preventive measure.
This study demonstrated the feasibility,
at least from a mechanical standpoint, of
incorporating solid adsorbents into the
sludge blanket process for water treatment
in the presence or absence of coagulants.
The sludge blanket process can combine the
virtues of the finely-divided, large-surface-
area forms of solids and floes (normally
associated with batch treatment techniques
or vacuum filtrations) with the maintenance
of relatively high flow rates, normally
associated with columnar-bed techniques.
Material cost factors are discussed for
various materials tested and for the
treatments involving their use. Explanatory
figures and tables are included.
64-0744
Woods, C. E., and J. F. Molina. Glycine
uptake by anaerobic waste water sludge. In
Proceedings; Nineteenth Industrial Waste
Conference, Lafayette, Ind., May 5-7, 1964.
Purdue University Engineering Extension
Series No. 117. p. 1011-1024.
Proteins occupy a central position in the
structure and function of living matter.
About 70 percent of the organic material in
living cells is protein while the protein
content in domestic waste water sludge is
30 to 50 percent. Proteins are polymers of
amino acids and the hydrolysis of amino
acids results in a mixture of amino acids
and ammonia. Amino acids satisfy the
requirements of microorganisms for nitrogen,
carbon, and energy. The primary objectives
of the present study were to estimate the
extent and rate of hydrolysis of proteins in
the anaerobic treatment of sludges, to
estimate the uptake rate of glycine by the
heterogeneous microbial population, to
differentiate between the biological uptake
and the nonbiological uptake, and to
evaluate the effects of glycine concentration
on glycine uptake. The equipment and
procedures used are described. The physical
and chemical characteristics of the sludges
from anaerobic digestion systems are given
in a table. The glycine-1-carbon fourteen
uptake versus time is shown in a figure. It
was found that about 38 percent of the
proteins were hydrolyzed during the first
stage of digestion. However, the
concentration of free amino acids decreased
during the first stage of digestion which
indicates that they were taken up at a
slightly higher rate than the rate of protein
hydrolysis, namely between 0.07 and 0.13
mg per liter per minute. The results of
uptake studies using carbon fourteen tagged
glycine indicate a rate of about 0.026
mg per liter per minute for sludge in the
first stage of digestion. The uptake of
glycine consists of a rapid nonbiological
uptake completed in about 2 minutes
following by a biological uptake of about
10 mins after which there is no
appreciable uptake. The rate of glycine
uptake is affected by both the temperature
at which the sludge was incubated and the
condition of the sludge.
64-0745
Wulf, H. The incineration of sludges with
oil vaporizing burners. Brennstoff-Waerme-kraft,
16(8):397-399, Aug. 1964.
Industrial sludges can be incinerated very
economically by means of 'Ghelfi' oil
vaporizing burners. These burners consist
of three coaxial tubes. One carries the
oil, one the steam for vaporization of the
oil, and the innermost carries the sludge.
Liquid industrial waste with a water content
as high as 97 percent can be burned. High
combustion temperatures ensure that
non-combustible material is molten and
then granulated. The flue gas is therefore
free of dust. Two examples for sludge
incinerators are described briefly, one with,
and one without utilizing the heat of
combustion. (Text-German)
HAZARDOUS WASTES (including
Radioactive and Pesticides)
64-0746
Davies, A. G. Disposal of radio-active wastes.
Public Cleansing, 54(3):773, Mar. 1964.
186
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0744-0749
Methods of disposal of radioactive waste are
surveyed. The activity level of some wastes
is reduced by a chemical process. The
strongest possible precautions are exercised
in disposing of radioactive solids wastes in
sea, river, and sewers. The chief problem for
local authorities is the disposal of such
wastes by small users. In Great Britain some
use has been made of abandoned mine shafts.
The establishment of a British national
disposal service for radioactive wastes is
recommended. Most radioactive isotopes
can be disposed of by incineration without
risking contamination of the atmosphere. A
Canadian study on the effects of radiation is
reported.
64-0747
Faust, S. D. Pollution of the water
environment by organic pesticides. Clinical
Pharmacology and Therapeutics, 5(6):677-686,
1964.
Pesticides and their formulations impart
off-tastes and off-odors to drinking water at
very low concentrations. These substances
enter ground and surface water through direct
application for control of aquatic weeds,
trash fish, aquatic insects, percolation and
runoff from agricultural lands, drift from
aerial and land applications, and discharge
of industrial and cleanup waste waters. A
comprehensive study of the distribution of
toxaphene, 0.05 mg per liter, a pesticide is
reported. Esters of 2,4-D (Dichlorophenoxyacetic
acid) are used for aquatic plant control in
reservoirs for drinking water supplies. Data
suggests the use of ultraviolet irridation
for oxidation of dichlorophenol at potable
water treatment plants but usage is
insignificant in decomposition of 2,4-D.
Organic pesticides found in the water
environment in concentrations less than 5.0
mg per liter have toxic effects on aquatic
life and are concentrated by food chain
organisms into fish or shellfish. Trace
amounts may not have been present long enough
or in sufficient concentrations to gather
epidemiological evidence. Since the
concentrations of several organic thiophosphates
and 2,4-D producing tastes and odors are far
below subtoxic levels by factors ranging from
17 to 113,000, threshold taste and odor levels
can be used to establish drinking water
standards with the appropriate safety factors.
Data on distribution residues and treatment
is given.
64-0748
Henderson, C. B., K. D. Johnson, K. E. Rumbel,
et al. Standard operating procedures for
safe handling of beryllium. Edwards AFB,
Calif., Air Force Flight Test Center, 1962.
26 p.
Waste disposal of beryllium is discussed in
this study. Beryllium-containing gases
require an adequate dust collection system.
Wet scrubbing, dry filtration, and
electrostatic precipitation have been
satisfactory. Discharge of beryllium-containing
liquid waste should comply with applicable
local ground-water stream pollution control
ordinances. Beryllium contaminated
combustible wastes should be kept segregated
from non-contaminated wastes. The degree of
classification of such wastes will depend
upon the method of disposal. Combustible
contaminated beryllium wastes should be burned
periodically so as to preclude excessive
accumulation. Non-combustible contaminated
beryllium wastes may be buried in a suitable
burial pit or at sea. (Defense Documentation
Center for Scientific and Technical Information.
Unclassified AD 461288) Furnished under
contract by Atlantic Research Corp.,
Alexandria, Va.
64-0749
Meyer, K. P. Evolution of the problems of
occupational diseases acquired from animals.
Industrial Medicine and Surgery, 33(5):286-296 ,
May 1964.
In the United States there are 23 infections
that man can contract from animals primarily
in the course of his occupation. Anthrax is
an occupational infection of shepherds, farmers,
butchers, skinners, and tanners, and
veterinarians. The most frequent mode of
infection of herbiovores is food or insect
bites. Industrial anthrax is caused by
inhalation of spore-bearing dust from infected
wool, and plagues the goat hair industry in
the United States. Brucellosis, or undulant
fever can be contracted through drinking raw
infected milk, or through contact with an
infected cow and calf at the time of abortion.
In recent tabulations, packing house workers
had the highest incidence of undulant fever.
The ability of the parasite to infect
through nearly any tissues makes prevention
difficult. Leptospirosis is associated with
occupational exposures among veterinarians,
abattoir and sewer workers, dog breeders,
and gardeners. Infection in man is accidental,
and usually represents the end in the chain
of transmission. The key to the spread is
the widespread excretion of leptospires in
the urine of the carrier animals. A group of
occupational infections were traced to
unsanitary poultry processing houses heavily
187
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Hazardous Wastes
infested by rats. Spread of the disease can
be suppressed by trapping or poisoning rats
in sewers. Extent of occupational diseases from
animals should be determined, as well as the
source and modes of transmission. Steps for
prevention .and control must be taken.
64-0750
Michaelsen, G. S. Waste handling. In
Proceedings; National Conference Institutionally
Acquired Infections, Minneapolis, Sept.
4-6, 1963. Atlanta, U.S. Public Health Service,
1964. p.65-69.
Solid wastes in hospitals are divided into
reusable items and disposable items. In the
area of disposable solid waste, the combustible
trash constitutes the greatest volume as well
as a highly suspected waste, which accumulate?
in the hospital. As a part of a study of
solid waste problems, 3,186 items of 42
different kinds were found in 104 waste
baskets. The potential for spread of
contamination by handling this type of waste
becomes serious when it is considered that
the wastes are laundry hampers, carts, buckets;
that some is wrapped and some is loose; some
of it is wet or bloody; and some of it is
stored in patients' rooms, in utility areas,
in trash chutes, and in incinerator rooms.
The potential hazard of handling combustible
trash can be greatly reduced by using liners
in all receptacles. These should be tied or
stapled shut when full and transported to the
point of disposal. During periods of severe
overloading of incinerators, unburned or
incompletely burned infectious material may
escape from the incinerator stack. If the
stack is close to a fresh air intake, it is
then possible for infectious material to be
brought back into the hospital. Non-combustible
trash such as the metal parts of disposable
plastic devices, plaster casts and food tins,
can be buried on a trash dump or a sanitary
landfill.
64-0751
Now, refrigeration for radioactive sludge!
Modern Refrigeration, 67(798):898, Sept. 1964.
A new experimental refrigeration machine to
concentrate radioactive sludge by freezing
and controlled melting is described. The
unit consists of a low carbon steel tank, a
brine handling set, and electric reheat
system. Brine, the heat transfer media, is
circulated through vertical, stainless steel
seat exchanger plates located in the tank.
The brine is refrigerated by a R-22 condensing
set, which includes a semihermetic Worthington
7.5 hp compressor, a water cooled condenser,
and electric heater. The cycle of freezing
and melting is automatically controlled by a
clock-driven programmer. The tank is equipped
with a slanting bottom and a gauge to check
the sludge level. Valves are located at
different tank levels to drain off
non-radioactive sludge before reaching the
radioactive parts.
64-0752
Paul, R. C. Crush, flatten, burn, or grind?
The not-so-simple matter of disposal.
Hospitals, 38(23) :99-101, 104-105, Dec. 1,
1964.
In consideration of the relative merits of
disposable versus reusables for hospital use,
the problem of disposing of the disposables
is often neglected. In a change-over to the
volume use of disposable items, it is
important that the plant engineer, the
executive housekeeper, and the laundry manager
work closely with nursing and purchasing to
plan for changes in procedures and equipment.
A picture is given of a disposal unit at the
Baylor University Medical Center which crushes
and flattens cans and bottles to reduce the
volume of waste and permit more waste to be
removed with each truck trip. A hydraulic
packer is shown which compresses 100 cu yd
of loose trash into 24 cu yd before incineration.
A syringe crusher is shown which breaks
disposable syringes so that they cannot be
used in an unauthorized manner. It was found
that when paper towels were supplied to each
patient's room, an additional waste basket
was required, the maintenance costs from
plugged toilets increased, the labor charge for
emptying and washing wastebaskets increased
by 30 percent, but the volume of cloth towels
did not decrease. Housekeeping departments
have had to increase their trash handling
facilities and personnel to keep up with the
ever increasing amount of trash such as paper
cups, pitchers, washcloths, bath mats, caps,
towels, preoperative sets, etc. The incinerator
load per patient per day has increased from
8 Ib to 10 Ib in the last few years.
Pathological material should be burned in a
separate unit for this purpose. The method
of handling and ultimate disposal of
disposable items should be planned in advance
of their use.
64-0753
Pesticide residue problems probed. Chemical
and Engineering News, 42(16):32-33, Apr. 20,1964.
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0750-0756
Endrin, a widely used pesticide, is the most
likely cause of the massive fish kills which
occurred in the lower Mississippi River late
in 1963. The U.S. Public Health Service
report on the incidents touched off investigations
by the Senate Subcommittee on Reorganization
and the Department of Agriculture. During
the Senate hearing several facts were brought
out. Residues of endrin and dieldrin have
been found in the drinking water of New
Orleans and in the waters of the lower
Mississippi. The U.S. Public Health Service
has started an investigation of all major U.S.
river basins to determine the presence of
the pesticides. Suggestions were made to
ban these pesticides from agricultural use.
There was speculation that spills from
pesticides producing or repackaging plants
were the source of pollution. Endrin was
found to be the cause of the fish deaths.
Representatives from two major chemical
companies manufacturing the pesticides
contested the results from the U.S. Public
Health Service research. In conclusion, one
of the representatives presented reports
from a fish kill in 1960. In this one, the
symptoms were similar, but the killing agent
was a bacteria, Aeromonas liquefaciens.
64-0754
The President's Science Advisory Committee.
Use of pesticides. Washington, The White
House, May 15, 1963. 25 p.
Information relevant to pesticides was
reviewed, including experimental data and the
various administrative procedures which are
designed for the protection of the public.
The material standard of living has been
greatly elevated during the 20th century by
increased control of the environment and
pesticides have made a great impact by
facilitating the production and protection of
food, feed, and fiber. Although pesticides
remain in small quantities, their variety,
toxicity, and persistence are affecting
biological systems in nature and may eventually
affect human health. Four classes of
pesticides are described. The land area treated
with pesticides is approximately 1 acre of 12
within the 48 states and about 45 million
lb are used each year. Methods of pest
control without chemicals are examined and
the conclusion is reached that more active
exploration of these techniques may yield
important benefits. The role of government
agencies in pesticide regulation is discussed.
Recommendations are directed to an assessment
of the levels of pesticides; to measures which
will augment the safety of present practices;
to needed research and the development of
safer and more specific methods of pest
control; to suggested amendments or public
laws governing the use of pesticides; and to
public education.
64-0755
Radiological Pollution Activities Unit.
Process and waste characteristics at selected
uranium mills. Cincinnati, Robert A. Taft
Sanitary Engineering Center, U.S. Public
Health Service, 1962. 93 p.
The findings of detailed studies of process
and waste flows at five typical uranium mills
are reported. The studies were initiated in
1957 by the Public Health Service for the
purpose of characterizing the liquid and solid
wastes resulting from uranium milling processes,
particularly radioactive wastes arising from
the extraction of uranium from its ores.
Specific objectives of the studies include
detailed analysis of the extraction process,
characterization of the resulting liquid
wastes, evaluation of their water pollution
and public health significance, and development
of adequate and suitable waste control
measures. The processes investigated are:
the resin-in-pulp uranium extraction process;
the acid leach-solvent extraction uranium
refining process; and the carbonate leach
uranium extraction process. The five mills
typified the processes normally encountered,
i.e., acid or alkaline leaching of the ore,
concentration and purification of the leach
liquor by ion exchange of solvent extraction,
and chemical precipitation of the dissolved
uranium. Although the radioactive materials,
especially Radium 226, were of primary
interest in these studies. Useful information
regarding the chemical characteristics of
milling wastes was also obtained.
64-0756
Safe disposal of empty pesticides containers
and surplus pesticides. Washington,
Agricultural Research Service U.S. Department
of Agriculture, 1964. 6 p.
A guide is presented with recommendations for
farmers, commercial pesticide applicators,
city, state, and federal pest control officials,
and others who use large quantities of
pesticides. Pesticides and containers should
be kept in a separate building or room or in
an enclosure. Weedkillers, herbicides or
defoliants should not be stored in the same
room with insecticides. Volatile materials
such as 2,4-D and its derivatives can
contaminate other pesticides. Chlorate salts
189
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Hazardous Wastes
can create a fire or explosion hazard. A
procedure for the disposal of pesticide
containers is outlined. Containers which
have held weedkillers such as 2,4-D and its
derivatives should not be burned. These
containers are disposed of by breaking the
glass containers and chopping holes in metal
containers. All weedkiller containers must
be buried to a depth of 18 in. at a safe
disposal site or taken to a dump where they
will be covered with soil. If burning is
not possible, a thorough rinsing procedure
will eliminate much of the pesticide residue
and hazard. Surplus pesticides should not
be taken to a public dump or incinerator.
Left over spray mixture should be poured into
a pit dug in sandy soil.
64-0757
Solidification process looks at long-term
nuclear-waste storage. Chemical Engineer,
71(24):74, Nov. 23, 1964.
General Electric Company has developed a
continuous phosphate-glass solidification
process for long-term storage of nuclear
wastes. The process concentrates the waste
into a congealed solid, which is stored in
a vessel.
produced. In Low-level radioactive wastes;
treatment, handling, disposal. Washington,
U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, 1964. p.313-314,
Solid wastes originate in all operations of
the nuclear energy industry. They may occur
from direct operations, for example, as
contaminated paper, laboratory glassware, and
equipment, or they may be the end products
of other operations, as for example, chemical
slurries and sludges, evaporation solids, and
ion-exchange resins. Combustible wastes
include air filters; paper; wood; clothing;
and biological materials such as human and
animal excreta, autopsy specimens, laboratory
animals, and vegetation. Contaminated
laboratory and process equipment that cannot
be decontaminated satisfactorily, such as
glassware, pipes, pumps, concrete, sludges
from chemical precipitation plants, evaporator
bottoms, incinerator ash, and ion-exchange
resins, are included in the category of
noncombustible wastes. If the objects are
small, they may be packaged before disposal;
if large, they may be disposed of without
packaging. The small isotope user or
hospital may produce a few cu ft of waste,
while a national laboratory may generate
hundreds of thousands of cu ft of solid wastes
annually. Waste production figures are
summarized and data from British sources are
given.
64-0758
Straub, C. P. Low-level radioactive wastes;
treatment, handling disposal. Washington, U.S.
Atomic Energy Commission, 1964. 430 p.
Techniques of handling, treatment, and
disposal of low-level wastes which arise in
all nuclear energy operations are described.
Guides to radiation-exposure assessment are
given. Topics covered are: sources,
quantities, and composition of radioactive
wastes; collection, sampling, and measurement
of gaseous, and solid wastes; discharge to
the water, soil, and air environments;
removal of radioactivity by water treatment
processes; treatment of radioactive material
by biological processes; on-site treatment;
handling and treatment of solid wastes; and
public health implications. Standards for
protection against radiation and site
selection criteria are appended. Specific
examples of packaging and treatment of wastes
and their disposal on land and in the ocean
are described in some detail.
64-0759
Straub, C. P. Handling and treatment of solid
wastes. Solid wastes. Quantities of waste
64-0760
Straub, C. P. Handling and treatment of solid
wastes. Collection, sampling, and measurement.
In Low-level radioactive wastes; treatment,
handling, disposal. Washington, U.S. Atomic
Energy Commission, 1964. p.314-318.
Containers used for the collection of low-level
radioactive solid wastes range from fiber drums,
cardboard boxes to 55-gal steel garbage cans
or drums, usually lined with polyethylene,
waterproof paper, or chemically treated paper
bags. In some installations, collections
follow notification that the waste container
has been filled or that established permissible
exposure levels have been reached. Several
laboratories utilize steel Dempster-Dumpster
bins and trucks for the collection of filled
waste containers and for their transport to
the on-site disposal area. Protective
clothing is used by personnel in sorting and
packaging operations. Where an inhalation
hazard exists, the workers also wear protective
respirators or filter type assault masks. In
the case of shipment for off-site disposal,
great care is taken in packaging. Steel
drums are used for slurries, sludges, and
loose bulky materials; the wooden and concrete
190
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0757-0764
boxes for trash and miscellaneous Items.
Containers are generally marked to indicate
date, levels of activity, and nature of the
materials. For off-site shipment, packaged
wastes are usually loaded into AEC-owned
trucks or are shipped by common carrier.
U.S. Navy crews normally load materials when
Navy facilities are used for sea disposal.
Maintenance costs for an institutional
incinerator amounted to less than $1 per month
over a period of almost two years of operation
during which 3,400 Ib of assorted combustibles
were processed. The cost of incineration at
one laboratory amounted to $2,68 per cu ft
for 8 hr and $1.60 per cu ft for 24-hr operation
schedules, as compared with solid storage
costs of $9 per cu ft.
64-0761
Straub, C. P. Handling and treatment of solid
wastes. Waste handling. In Low-level
radioactive wastes; treatment handling,
disposal. Washington, U.S. Atomic Energy
Commission, 1964. p.318-325.
Before disposal either on land or into the
ocean, the combustible or compressible wastes
can be concentrated by baling or by
incineration. Three laboratories are cited as
baling wastes, using hydraulic baling
machines or a hand-operated baler. A typical
layout for a waste incinerator is illustrated.
It consists of a sorting chamber, an air
intake, the incinerator itself, and ash hoppers.
A fly-ash settler, an adiabtic cooler, a
Venturi scrubber, a cyclone-water scrubber, a
gas heater, and filters are used to cleanse
the flue gases before they are released
through the stack. Experience has shown that
approximately 95 percent of the activity is
retained in the ash, about 4.5 percent is
removed by the scrubbing systems, and about
0.5 percent is handled by the filters. Five
land disposal sites in the United States have
been designated for the receipt and burial of
packaged radioactive wastes. Different
procedures are used for the burial of alpha
and beta contaminated wastes. Accurate records
are kept of the material placed into the
trenches and their locations should be marked
on plot maps. Materials for disposal into
the ocean are packaged in drums with sufficient
concrete added to cause the drums to sink.
The containers are transported to barges and
the barge is towed 600 miles out to sea.
64-0763
Tsivoglou, E. C., and R. L. O'Connell. Waste
guide for the uranium milling industry.
Technical Report W62-12. Cincinnati, U.S.
Public Health Service, 1962. 78 p.
The guide is intended for the use of public
health and water pollution control agencies,
mill operators, and others in their efforts:
(1) to evaluate the potential hazards
associated with mill wastes; (2) to determine
the effectiveness of existing mill waste
control practices; (3) to estimate the effect
of future mills on their local stream
environment and locate mill sites so as to
minimize such adverse effects; and (4) to
find more effective methods of waste control
and treatment. Various phases of mill
processes, process waste, pollution effects of
waste, and pollution abatement methods are
discussed and presented. The uranium milling
industry is a major source of radiological
pollution of the acquatic environment. It is
only by employing the most careful and deliberate
waste control measures that this potential
threat can be prevented from becoming an
actuality. Chemical and radiological pollution
of ground waters by uranium mill wastes has
been shown to occur. The extremely long
half-life of the major radioisotope involved
(radium-226), whose half-life is 1,620 years,
means that permanent control of ore residues
is required. Acceptable methods of very
long-term storage and retention need to be
found.
64-0762
Straub, C. P. Handling and treatment of solid
wastes. Waste handling. In Low-level
radioactive wastes; treatment, handling,
disposal. Washington, U.S. Atomic Energy
Commission, 1964. p.325-326.
Data show that the cost per cu ft of
waste collected for on-site burial ranged
from $0.77 to $0.90; shipment for land
disposal, from $1.45 to $3.38; shipment for
ocean disposal, from $0.97 to $5.78.
64-0764
Walter, C. W. Disposables, now and tomorrow:
for the surgeon, many advantages, but still
some problems. Hospitals, 38(23):69, 70, 72,
Dec. 1, 1964.
The advantages and disadvantages of using
disposable supplies in the hospital are
reviewed with emphasis on the intangibles.
The disposable supplies are a benefit and
convenience in the care of the patient and
have the advantage of standardization. One
of the main intangibles is faulty technique
191
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Salvaging
which may result in the sterile items becoming
contaminated in use or in preparation for use.
Getting rid of used disposables presents a
problem because of bulk. Discarded needles
and cutting edges are an occupational hazard
to personnel. The combing of the dumping
area by children for items of interest for
play and various attempts to salvage materials
and devices show that trauma and the spread
of infectious disease are real hazards in
the disposal of disposables. The safe disposal
begins with the user who first discards the
disposable. Infectious and radioactive
materials and unused drugs must be discarded
in containers for special processing. Cannulated
needles must be broken and cutting edges
protected and these items should be collected
in containers that can be transported as
are. The ultimate disposition by prompt
incineration or by destruction and burial is
the responsibility of the hospital. Lint
from the careless disposal of paper and
nonwoven products results in a serious problem.
Following disintegration in washers, the short
fibers coat the textiles and are thus spread
throughout the hospital. Dressings and paper
should be kept out of soiled linen. The
successful use of disposables requires
comprehensive and thorough training of
personnel.
64-0765
Weeren, H. 0. Pipe radioactive wastes to
shale beds. Conventional components comprise
a unique system. Heating, Piping, and Air
Conditioning, 36(11):122-123, Nov. 1964.
A study of Oak Ridge National Laboratory on
the piping and injection of radioactive wastes
into shale beds is described. Several 40,000
gal batches of intermediate level waste
solution, mixed with cement and other additives,
were injected into a shale formation at a
depth of about 900 ft. Each injection sets
up a thin, roughly horizontal grout sheet
several hundred feet across. The equipment
used consists of a waste transfer pump and
spare, four bulk storage tanks for the
cement and other additives, a jet mixer, a
surge tank, a high pressure injection pump,
a stand-by injection pump and mixer, and
assorted valving and special equipment.
Some of the equipment is installed in cells
to reduce the radiation exposure to operators
and to limit the area that would become
contaminated in case of a leak. The two
phases involved in each waste injection are
described and at the end of the second phase
a plug of cement is pumped down the injection
well and allowed to set to seal the injection.
Other steps in the process prior to injection
are described, such as transferring the waste
solution from the laboratory system to the
waste storage tanks by piping and the mixing
of the radioactive waste with cement.
64-0766
Wilcox, F. W. The role of government and
private enterprise in radioactive waste
disposal. Frankfort, Kentucky Department
of Health, 1964. 12 p.
Source and quantity of radioactive waste,
waste management, sea burial, return to the
AEC, incineration, release to the environment,
land burial, regulatory authority, special
problems, and land burial site selection are
discussed. Charts and summary furnished.
Numerous geological and hydrological
investigations must be performed before any
land burial site can be authorized. This
investigation can get extremely involved
as the following agencies must be contracted
for guidance and assistance before any final
decisions can be reached: Atomic Energy
Commission, U.S. Public Health Service, U.S.
Geological Survey, Pollution Control
Commission, and numerous state governmental
agencies. Contrary to popular opinion
radioactive waste disposal is not big business.
The largest company in this field at present,
with three separate facilities in three states,
employs fewer than twenty persons. Liquid
wastes continue to present a significant
problem to the industry even though 15 years
of experience with tank retention of high level
slurries indicates that this type of storage is
safe as an interim measure but conversion to
solids is an ultimate necessity.
SALVAGING
64-0767
Abubacker, K. M. , C. T. Mehta, and N. S.
Krishnan. Recovery of pure germanium dioxide
from germanium waste. Research and Industry,
9(6) :166-168, June 1964.
A procedure is given for recovering transistor
grade german-ium from wastes containing
impurities such as indium, gallium, and tin.
Since there are no mineral deposits of
germanium in India, the recovery of this
high-cost material is important. A flow sheet
is given covering the recovery of germanium
based on a combination of chemical and
metallurgical methods. It must be born in
192
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0765-0770
mind that the reagents must be repeatedly
distilled in quartz assembly in the last
stages of the purification to eliminate
impurities. The germanium dioxide which was
obtained from the hydrolysis of germanium
chloride is filtered, washed, dried, and
ignited at 1000 C. This germanium dioxide is
heated in pure graphite boats in a current of
pure hydrogen or ammonia at 600 to 650 C for
reduction to germanium which is then fused
for 30 minutes at 1000 to 1100 C and cooled in
a stream of pure nitrogen. The last impurities
are removed by zone-melting under vacuum or
in an inert atmosphere to obtain transistor-grade
germanium. The whole process of recovery is
one requiring careful control. For example,
in the washing with acetone and ashing below
650 C to destroy organic matter, the
temperature is critical, since germanium oxide
sublimes at 710 C. A highly sophisticated,
sensitive procedure is described for the
recovery of transistor-grade germanium from
wastes containing impurities such as silicon,
aluminum, iron, copper, nickel, antimony,
arsenic, boron, and indium.
64-0768
Boris, H. No 'bounce' in waste rubber. Waste
Trade World, 105(20):52, Nov. 14, 1964.
The various aspects and problems of the waste
rubber industry are reviewed for 1964 with
special note being made of the deterioration
of the market for scrap tires. The waste
rubber industry is changing, and the firms
both large and small that have gone out of
business because of the low returns are not
being replaced. Some of the firms are
diversifying by going into plastics to keep
going. The waste rubber industry has a
problem in common with all segments of the
waste and reclamation industry--that of
finding suitable premises for storage that
will meet with the approval of the local
authorities. The use of synthetic material
has reduced the demand for rubber waste. The
rubber waste exports in 1962 were 27,398 tons
worth E933.390; in 1963 the tonnage was
25,885 valued at fc817,273, while for the first
6 months of 1964 the exports were 12,725 tons
worth i452,870. Scrap tires are a glut on
the market with no encouragement for merchants
to collect or handle them since the prices
offered by the reclaimers are much too low.
Scrap tires are piling up all over the country
and are not being collected. The merchants
are selling their stocks at uneconomic prices
and not replenishing their stock as it is
depleted, and the reclaimers are being supplied
only on a hand-to-mouth basis. The demand
for high grade tire casings is good and the
remolders are working at capacity with plenty
of casings available. Foreign markets are
good for quality tire casing of the right
size. The export market appears to be better
than the domestic.
64-0769
Bottenfield, W., and N. C. Burbank. Putting
industrial waste to work; Mead's new lime
kiln recovers waste lime mud. Industrial
Water and Wastes, 9(1):18-21, Jan.-Feb. 1964.
Until recently, lime mud, left from the kraft
process of wood pulp at Mead Corporation,
Chillicothe, Ohio, was dumped as waste. A
lime recovery system, centered around a
Traylor rotary kiln, cost $1.4 million.
Coincident with construction of a new
causticicizing operation, it will permit the
plant to increase its pulp production to 500
tons daily. The 300-ft-long rotary kiln,
operating on a 24-hr-per-day, 7-day-per-week
basis, produces 160 tons of quicklime daily--Mead'
current requirement. This represents a raw
materials saving of $1600. Recovery rate
is over 97 percent. Lime mud from the
clarifier is drawn from the bottom and
concentrated to 40 percent solids. The kiln
is driven by a 100 hp electric motor through
a gear reducer at 0.75 rpm. Conversion of
lime mud to calcium takes place at temperatures
above 1650 F.
64-0770
Bovier, R. M. New system eliminates fly ash,
salvages sulfur from flue gases. Modern Power
and Engineering, 58(5):86-89, 140, 142, May
1964.
Development of a sulfur-smoke removal system
for eliminating essentially all solids and
most sulfur fumes discharged into the
atmosphere while burning high ash, high
sulfur-content bituminous coal in power plant
boilers is described. One of the most
promising dry methods known was the process
whereby sulfur dioxide is removed from flue
gas by oxidation to the trioxide with
condensation as sulfuric acid, which if
produced in acceptable quality and sufficient
quantity could be used commercially. In
1961 a pilot plant was set up in conjunction
with Boiler No. 15 at Pennsylvania Electric
Co.'s Seward Station in order to test whether
this method was operationally and economically
feasible. A flow diagram and photographs are
given which illustrate in detail the process
as put into operation at the plant. After
leaving the boiler, the flue gas passes
193
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Salvaging
through a mechanical dust collector and then
through a high temperature electrostatic
precipitator, where virtually all of the fly
ash is removed. Other steps in the process
include a converter, a rotary air preheater,
and an electrostatic acid mist collector.
Pilot plant test results indicated that 90
percent of the sulfur in the coal could be
recoverable at a concentration of about
70 percent sulfuric acid. In a 1,000,000
kw station with a 90 percent load factor, it
was estimated that about 750 tons of 100
percent equivalent concentrated acid would be
recovered in a 24 hr day. Fixed charges and
operating costs were estimated at about $7 per
ton of acid. The pilot plant thus demonstrated
economic and operational feasibility of the
system.
64-0771
Brown, C. Research pays dividends. (1).
Waste Trade World, 105(8):9, 12, Aug. 22, 1964.
The waste trade would do well to investigate
the possibilities of expanding its markets
through research. Some trades and industries
invest large amounts of money on research to
make certain they have a supply of new ideas
and new methods, while others spend little,
trusting in traditional methods. No
industrialist can close his mind to what is
going on around him or to future needs if he
wants to stay in business. A great deal of
research is down to earth and fai- from the
glamor of space exploration, nuclear energy,
and aircraft manufacture. Bread and butter
projects involve the development of new
methods for increasing output or cutting costs,
new materials for old, new ways of using old
materials, and new answers to everyday problems.
Research is making steel castings stronger,
glass more durable and versatile, and furniture
more functional. Factories are becoming
more pleasant places to work. The industry
that is involved in research can extend its
markets. It is time for the waste trade to
become research-minded and reap the benefits.
64-0772
Brown, C. Research pays dividends. (2). Waste
Trade World, 105(9):11, 14, Aug. 29, 1964.
Practical uses of the wastes which have
resulted from research are given. A search
for a use for sugar, in case it became a
waste by overproduction, found that it could
be made into a detergent. It was discovered
that a durable, goodlooking cloth could be
made from pineapple leaves and that rice
husks could be mixed with cement to make
building blocks. One of the outstanding
accomplishments in research was the discovery
that the 5 million tons of groundnut shells
which were of little use as fertilizer or
fuel could be made into a chipboard with a
resin binder. The manufacture of the
chipboard, which is suitable for partition
walls and ceilings, can give a local industry
built on waste, which is important in places
such as India. In order for 'dirt cheap'
wastes to be useful, they must be used in
local industry since in most cases waste is
not worth shifting because the transport
costs are usually too high. In the field of
waste disposal and in all other fields, the
results of research do not earn their way
unless action is taken by potential users.
Many brilliant discoveries are not utilized
quickly in industry because of the sheer inertia
of management. Since investing in research
means spending money, the results have to be
demonstrable.
64-0773
Chipper. Electrical World, 162:116, Oct. 5,
1964.
The Snowmobile-Fitchburg chipper unit, an
eight-wheeled Muskeg Carrier vehicle which
converts wood that is up to 7 in. in diameter
into chips, is described. The chipper handles
with ease all cuttings, including branches,
limbs, and brush which can be chipped into
mulch and blown out the chute. It travels
over snow, mud, or swampland with ease, but
is used the year around rather than strictly
in foul weather. It has proven as versatile
as it is maneuverable on a number of clearing
and brush-maintenance jobs. The equipment is
available from F. A. Bartlett Tree Expert Co.,
1770 Summer Street, Stanford, Connecticut.
64-0774
Closed circuit mill. Factory, 122(6) :162,
June 1964.
The idea of replacing ground-up sand with
ground-up waste to make silica flour, a
basic cement ingredient, is expressed. Using
a vibrating ball mill, the company greatly
reduced cost as no separation is needed, even
for fine grade cement.
64-0775
Cross, B. Hydrolysis process makes molasses
from wood. Chemical Engineering, 71:40, 42,
Aug. 3, 1964.
194
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0771-0779
The 500,000 gal per day of wash water from
the first stage of hardboard plant containing
5 percent dissolved and colloidal solids
(including simple sugars and polysaccharides)
is used as a source of molasses acceptable as
a livestock-feed. In this process, the
conversion of wood cellulose to sugars depends
on high-pressure steam treatment of wood
fibers. The by-product wash liquor from the
hardboard plant is concentrated from 5 percent
solids to 45 percent in a battery of spray
dryers in which the droplets fall against a
stream of exhaust gases from a gas-turbine
generating plant. The liquor is further
concentrated to 55 percent solids in a
vertical-tube, falling-film separator. The
50,000 gal per day molasses is neutralized
from pH 3 to pH 6 to 6.5 with lime slurry. The
molasses produced (called Masonex) costs
$20.00 per ton compared to $31 for cane
molasses. The Masonex has both pentose and
hexose sugars which were formed when the wood
fibers were blown with steam in the manufacture
of the hardboard. The molasses has a
potential market as a chemical raw material
as well as its established use as a livestock
feed. Photographs show the digestion of the
wood chips with steam, the falling-film
evaporator, and the washing of the milled
pulp to obtain the wash liquor that is
evaporated to obtain the molasses. The
production of molasses suitable for livestock
feed from wood-pulp wash waters is a
profitable sideline for a Mississippi
hardboard plant.
64-0776
Dewberry, E. B. How shrimps are canned at a
New Orleans factory. Food Manufacture,
39:35-39, July 1964.
The processing operations at the New Orleans
plant of the largest independent producer of
canned shrimps in the world are described. A
waste separator or scrubber, which has rubber
rollers, is finely adjusted to remove all loose
waste materials from the meats. All waste
from machines is collected, dehydrated and
ground into meal. Analysis shows that it
contains 32 to 35 percent protein, 8.9 percent
nitrogen and 10 percent ammonia. The meal is
sold for stock feed or is used in the
manufacture of fertilizers.
64-0777
Duct system handles scrap paper. Factory,
122(7):140, July 1964.
An automatic duct system handling scrap paper
cuts costs 50 percent and increases disposal
to 1,000 Ib per hr. Pneumatic ducts suck
scrap from trimmers through flange-connected
piping to a material exhauster. It blows the
scrap up to roof piping and over to a
separator. Here air is removed from the paper
as it falls down a feed chute into a baler.
When the scrap builds up to the height of a
photoelectric cell in the chute, a hydraulic
ram automatically compresses it to bale
length. An operator ties off the bale, and
it is weighed and shipped.
64-0778
Dumping more scrap.
July 1964.
Factory, 122(7) :142,
Self-dumping hoppers handling 35 percent more
scrap are used to replace open-topped metal
boxes for collecting and moving shavings and
reject from lathe, hobbing, and gear cutting
machines. Fork lift trucks pick up the
hoppers and deposit the scrap into truck
trailers. A spring latch activates the
hopper. It rolls forward, dumps, and rolls
back into upright locked position to receive
the next load.
64-0779
Ficker, S., and A. Stieler. A new method
of reclaiming scrap rubber. Rubber Age,
95(6):890-893, Sept. 1964.
The processes adopted for the mechanical
separation of crushed tire material have
rarely met demands with regard to good
separation of the rubber granulate and the
cord fibers, or, if met, the plant investment
and energy costs were excessively high. Hence
the rubbfer reclaiming industry is still
dominated by chemical and especially thermal
processes, which also suffer a number of
disadvantages. A new mechanical process for
reclaiming scrap rubber, especially old tires,
is described which is characterized by an
electrostatic separation stage. The processing
stages include screening, sifting, and
electrostatic separation. After leaving the
sifter, the fiber-rubber mixture is fed into
a Venturi whirler and moistened. The
conditioned mixture is precipitated in a
connected cyclone and then conveyed to the
electrostatic separation unit where rubber
and fibers are separated in four series-connected
separators. In the electrical fields of the
individual separation stages, special discharge
electrodes cause a selective electrical charge
of the fibers which separates them from the
mixture. The electrical fields of the four
separation stages are energized via a
195
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Salvaging
high-voltage cable by means of a high-tension
rectifier. The separating efficiency can be
regulated by varying the feed rate, the rotor
speeds, the electrode voltage, and the external
setting of the splitters. Depending on the
composition of the mixture to be treated, it
is possible to obtain 75 to 80 percent by
weight of granulated rubber having a
concentration of 98 percent. Suggestions
are made to insure optimum conditions for
the process, particularly with regard to the
utilization of the cord fibers. It is
concluded that this process opens up new
prospects for the rubber and plastics industry,
offering the possibility of recovering
individual components of various compound
materials.
64-0780
Filling an old sewer with pulverized fuel
ash. Engineering, 197:293, Feb. 21, 1964.
Pulverized fuel ash is reported to have been
used successfully for internally supporting
about 1,200 ft of a 72 in. sewer which had
reached a dangerous condition due to mining
subsidence. Reasons for using fuel ash and
the procedure for filling are discussed. The
ash was found to spread easily and fill in
all awkward cavities. Compaction was entirely
satisfactory. Manpower was concentrated on
the surface with only occasional visits below
ground.
64-0781
Fly ash plant in operation. Electrical World,
162:61, July 13, 1964.
A plant for converting fly ash into three
grades of lightweight aggregate by balling
and then sintering is described. An
important factor is the angle of the fly ash
balling drum. This angle, formerly proprietary
information, is 11 degrees. The advantage
of fly ash aggregate is that it weighs only
1,800 Ib per cu yd as compared with 3,000 Ib
per cu yd for the usual pebble and sand
mixture. Formerly it cost a utility company
$210,000 annually to dump 350,000 tons of
fly ash. Now the lightweight aggregate sells
for $5.50 per ton. It is estimated that 11
million tons of fly ash are generated annually,
and that this figure will rise to 16 million
tons within a few years. Company officials
believe that all fly ash production could be
absorbed by the concrete and asphalt industries.
64-0782
Fly ash steals the show at ECSA meeting.
Rock Products, 67(10):102, 104, Oct. 1964.
Papers having to do with the use of lightweight
aggregates in making concrete presented at
the Expanded Clay and Shale Association's
mid-year meeting in New York in Aug. 1964, are
briefly summarized. A paper of special
interest described production techniques for
sintered fly ash aggregate, a first-class
construction material that is of value for use
in all forms of poured lightweight concrete
and for the fabrication of structural
building units. The pozzolanic strength of
fly ash aggregate is superior to that of the
raw material from which it is produced.
Long-term improvements in strength have been
demonstrated by its use. Other papers were
concerned with the effect of accelerated
curing conditions on the creep and shrinkage
properties of concretes of the type frequently
used in precasting plants, the variation in
properties among concretes made with different
lightweight aggregates, and the advantages of
lightweight concrete.
64-0783
Fly ash usage studied in three-year project.
Engineering News-Record, 172:160, Mar. 19, 1964.
The Battelle Memorial Institute in Columbus,
Ohio, is studying commercial uses for fly
ash in a 3-year project. The variability in
quality of fly ash, depending on the coal and
boiler used, is a major problem. The first
part of the study will deal with the causes of
variability and with ways to make fly ash more
consistent. The second part will inquire
into its uses, such as filler in asphalt
pavement or lightweight aggregate in concrete.
64-0784
Frances, J. M. Mine-waste reclamation via
vegetative stabilization. Kansas City, Mo.,
American Society of Agronomy, Nov. 16, 1964.
More than 200 acres of 'tailings'--mine
waste—had accumulated since the late 1920's
at a Bethlehem Steel Company dump site
outside Lebanon, Pennsylvania. During 1961
to 1962, when the company began to relocate
its Lebanon facilities, a protective covering
of vegetation was decided upon to prevent
dusting. Despite a discouraging soil analysis,
a variety of alkaline-tolerant shrub and tree
seedlings were planted; and with a hydroseeding
technique and a slurry mix of mulch, fertilizer,
and grass seed, a \- to ^-inch mantle was
hydraulically applied. The planting was
completed in less than 4 months and has
survived, with continued good growth and
color, 2 years of severe weather. In addition,
196
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0780-0788
the growth of various evergreens was
successfully supported by an experimental
plot which had not been stabilized in any way.
This program is indicative that similar mine
waste areas can be reclaimed, preventing
barrenness and real estate loss.
64-0785
From old poles, new garden sculptures.
Electrical World, 162(7):18, Sept. 14, 1964.
Cedar power poles, once used by Seattle City
Light to carry transmission and distribution
lines, are sold by the utility at $.10 per ft
for use in bulkheads and pilings. In
addition, a dozen per year go to Seattle's
Pacific Prevocational School, where they are
cut into 3-ft lengths, split in half, and
then carved into sculptures by the students.
64-0786
Furlow, H. G., and H. A. Zollinger.
Reclamation of refuse. Westinghouse Engineer,
24(3):80-85, May 1964.
Dumping and burning are unacceptable. Landfill
sites soon become filled. Incineration is
expensive, contributes to air pollution, and
leaves a residue to be disposed. A reclamation
process was developed by Naturizer, Inc., SACS,
Inc., and Westinghouse. Scales weigh trucks
for computing charges. Refuse is dumped onto
the floor. A vertical steel apron conveyor
controls the amount of material. Paper, rags,
metals, rubber, plastics, and glass (about 20
percent of tonnage) are removed for markets
by conveyors. The remaining material is
mixed and moistened in a pulverator. Moisture
is increased from 25 to 55 percent moisture.
Grinding speeds decomposition by exposing
more surfaces for bacterial action. The
digester consists of six cells, insulated to
retain heat. Temperature is kept under 160
degrees. After digestion the material is
ground and screened. Final compost has 20
percent of volume and 80 percent of weight of
incoming refuse. Compost is a source of
humus for soil conditioning. A plant with a
capacity of 300 tons per day costs $3,500,000.
Disposal by landfill cost about $1.00 per ton
but hauling costs are high. Incineration
costs between $3.00 and $13.00. Sewage sludge
with 5 percent solids would provide the right
amount of moisture.
64-0787
Garland, S. T. Can the nation afford waste?
Waste Trade World, 105(20):65, Nov. 14, 1964.
Britain as a trading nation imports most of
her raw materials and exports finished
products, which places a pressure on the
economy to keep imports in balance. The
salvage of usable waste materials should
be encouraged by the government because this
salvage represents millions of pounds which
would otherwise be spent abroad. Actually,
waste is a valuable raw material which can be
reused many times. Scrap metal, rubber,
plastics, and especially paper can be salvaged
to avoid imports. The increasing demand for
paper and packaging material has resulted in
30 percent of the raw materials in the paper
trade in Britain coming from salvaged paper and
packing material. The addition of a small
amount of virgin pulp can result in satisfactory
reuse of the waste paper as cartons and
containers with a saving in terms of imports
of at least fc60 million. It is urged that
since waste recovery is big business,
legislation should be introduced to ensure
its healthy growth. Millions of pounds
have been spent on research on machinery and
techniques of recovery and this work becomes
more important as paper technology advances.
The problem of contraries is becoming more
difficult as they interfere with proper
pulping. The contraries include paper clips,
rubber bands, wet-strength paper, tar and
plastic coated papers, cellophane, and
polyethylene. The British Waste Paper
Utilization Council is working in a drive in
which they urge governmental and industrial
support to produce waste paper free of the
harmful contraries.
64-0788
Gentile, P. Resources for the future and
industrial conservation. In Proceedings;
National Conference on Solid Waste Research,
Chicago, Dec. 2-4, 1963. American Public Works
Association, 1964. p.187-190.
Typically, municipal rubbish contains papers,
cans, other metals, glass, rags, cardboard,
tree clippings, and a wide variety of lesser
amounts of miscellaneous materials. Some
of these items, if separated economically,
one from the other, could be used immediately
in a variety of industries and may possibly
be converted into the raw materials of an
industry yet to be born. Without first
separating the many fractions contained in
rubbish, industrial conversion is unbearably
complicated by the presence and nature of
materials deleterious to the conversion process.
At the same time, salvageable materials will be
lost or so altered as to lose much of their
value. Further, conversion of solid wastes
into only one or possibly two marketable
197
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Salvaging
products critically limits the number of
markets which can be reached. Because of the
enormous quantities of materials produced
even from a conversion plant, of modest size,
any limited market is soon oversupplied, the
result being lower and lower commodity prices.
It is important to carefully combine the
elements of 'separation' and 'salvage'
into a complete conversion system in order
to develop a greater variety of by-products
and distribute the resultant items and raw
materials to the most diversified market
possible. This, then, has the effect of
avoiding the supersaturation of any single
market. Various separation equipment offered
for sale and the techniques used are described,
and some of the results obtained from these
processes are discussed.
64-0790
Instant baling helps beat big wastepaper
problem. Modern Sanitation and Building
Maintenance, 16(2):30, Feb. 1964.
The Pan Am building management found that
baling or binding the waste paper on the
premises makes the job of removal easier.
Waste paper is stored for 24 hr and then
separated into salvageable paper, newspapers,
tabulating cards, stationery, etc. Pernicious
contraries consisting of unsalvageable rubbish
are separated also. Salvageable material is
dumped onto a conveyor belt and carried into
an automatic baler. As soon as 1,000 Ib of
paper is in the baling machine, an electric
eye cuts the bale off, and the bale is bound
with a wire.
64-0789
Hayward, S. G. Waste paper is vitally
important. Waste Trade World, 105(20):63-64,
Nov. 14, 1964.
This review of the waste paper industry
discusses the general problems and the
importance of improving the quality and
providing a dependable flow of waste paper
to the paper and board mills. The British
Waste Paper Utilization Council, which represents
both the paper and board makers and the waste
paper group, has accomplished a great deal in
the last five years in impressing the waste
paper producers of the seriousness of
pernicious contraries in the waste. In addition
to contact with individual companies and trade
associations, the problem has been publicized
through the national as well as the trade
press. An attempt has been made to eliminate
the pernicious contraries at the source, and
to see that paper and board containing these
pernicious additives are quickly recognizable.
With waste paper prices unduly depressed and
increased costs of transport, collection, and
overhead, some salvagers of waste paper are in
difficulty. In producing 4,000,000 tons of
new paper and board, the mills use 1,420,000
tons of waste paper annually. The local
authorities supply the lower grade used chiefly
by the board mills, which account for 30
percent of the waste paper. The balance,
including the better grades, is produced by
the waste paper dealers. The dealers are
the only collecting agency equipped to sort
the waste, and without such sorting service
there would be a shortage of the better grades
for the paper mills and for export (100,000
tons annually). A healthy outlook is indicated
for the waste paper industry if cooperation
between the mills and the dealers continues to
exist.
64-0791
Isotalo, I., L. Gottsching, N. E. Virkola,
et al. Sawdust kraft pulp manufacture and
its use in printing paper. Paper Trade
Journal, 148(28):49, July 13, 1964.
The suitability of sawdust originating from
a sawmill gang saw and edging saw for kraft
pulp manufacture was studied. Pulps of
different cooking degrees were prepared from
sawdust originating from pine, spruce, and
a mixture of 70 percent pine and 30
percent spruce in rotating laboratory digesters,
Mixed sawdust was also cooked together with
normal pine chips. Both bleached and
unbleached pulps were tested for their
ordinary paper-making properties, and the
printing properties of the bleached pulp made
from the mixture of pine and spruce were
studied. The results indicated that kraft
pulp with normal yields can be prepared from
sawdust, with a cooking time that is somewhat
shorter than usual. The strength properties
of this pulp are clearly inferior to those of
pulps made from chips, but are comparable with
the corresponding properties of a number of
hardwood pulps. The bleaching of sawdust
pulp is fully comparable to the bleaching of
chip pulp with the opacity of the bleached
pulp being somewhat superior to that of a
corresponding chip pulp. For the manufacture
of printing paper, sawdust kraft pulp is
considerably inferior to birch kraft pulp as
regards breaking length and surface strength,
but its other printing properties, stretch,
tearing strength, and folding strength are
not inferior.
64-0792
Jain, N. C., J. Singh, and D.. D. Singh.
Hardboards from lignocellulosic wastes.
198
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0789-0794
Research and Industry, 9(4):104-106,
Apr. 1964.
There are large quantities of different
lignocellulosic waste materials in different
industries which have a potential for use in
the preparation of hardboards which have not
been investigated. Since it may be difficult
to find enough of one particular waste to
meet the requirements of a hardboard plant,
it is desirable to study the suitability of
as many different waste materials as possible.
Therefore, hemp waste and timber waste from
processing deodar, rosewood, irul, and veneer
waste were investigated by varying the duration
of cooking with 2 to 10 percent sodium
hydroxide in an open-pan digester from 2 to
4 hr. The material was then passed through a
condux mill, converted into a wet mat, and
hot-pressed to hardboard at a pressure of
56 kg per sq cm for 20 minutes at a temperature
of 160 C. Table 1 shows the ratio of solid
to liquid, the percent alkali, the cooking
time, and the characteristics of the resulting
boards. Density, mositure content, bending
strength, and water absorption are recorded
together with the effect of oil and
heat-tempering on bending strength and water
absorption. Table 2 shows the same information
for mixed veneer waste. Untempered deodar
wood waste gave a high bending strength and
rosewood gave the poorest values. Boards from
veneer wastes gave bending strength values as
high as 495 kg per sq cm which was increased
by oil-tempering at 170 C for 2 hr. The
suitability of several types of lignocellulosic
wastes for use in hardboards is reported.
64-0793
Kantawala, D., and H. D. Tomlinson. Comparative
study of recovery of zinc and nickel by ion
exchange media and chemical precipitation.
Water and Sewage Works, 111(11):R280-R286,
Nov. 30, 1964.
Efficiency of recovery of zinc and nickel
from typical industrial wastes by ion exchange
and observations of the effects of repeated
usage of the resin on recovery efficiency are
described. Efficiency of this method was
compared with that of a chemical precipitation
method, using lime, which has been extensively
utilized in the recovery of metallic ions.
A diagram of the equipment used is shown. The
resin (Dowex SOW by 8) was a styrene polymer
of the sulfonic acid type, crosslinked with
divinylbenzene. Chemical precipitation
takes advantage of the low solubility of
metal hydroxides to force them out of solution
by increasing the hydroxide ion concentration
of the solution. Lime was used as the source
of hydroxide ions. It was found that the
efficiency of the ion exchange resin used in
this study to recover zinc decreased from 99
percent to 64 percent with four consecutive runs
and to recover nickel, decreased from 100
percent to 52 percent with three consecutive runs.
This decrease in the efficiency of the resin
with repeated use was probably due to decrease
in efficiency of regenerant. The chemical
precipitation method showed an increase in
the recovery of zinc from 20 percent with
simple flocculation without any lime addition
to 99 percent with 1.76 mg of lime per mg of Zn
in the waste at a pH of 10.0. Recovery of
nickel by chemical precipitation showed an
increase from 55 percent without any lime
addition to 98.5 percent with 250 mg per liter
of lime. The optimum quantity of lime
required to precipitate zinc and nickel was
nearly equal to the theoretical requirement to
precipitate the metals completely. It was
concluded that operation and control of
hydrogen form cation exchange units during
exhaustion cycles can be accomplished
conveniently with the use of parameters like
pH and specific conductance.
64-0794
Kingston, G. A. Iron and steel scrap in the
Pacific Northwest. U.S. Bureau of Mines
Information Circular No. 8243. rWashington],
U.S. Department of the Interior, 1964. 50 p.
The report surveys the supply and consumption
of iron and steel scran in the Pacific
Northwest, including Idaho and Montana, with
emphasis on Oregon and Washington. It points
out factors influencing the supply and
consumption of scrap materials, such as the
complete dependence of steel ingot producers
in these States on scrap as a metal raw
material and the sizable quantity of scrap
exported from Seattle and Portland to Japan.
The pattern of the industry is presented as a
movement of materials from their diverse
sources to the consuming market. The
geographic locations of the consuming industries
in relation to the areas generating scrap
materials and the movement pattern of the
supply from source to destination strongly
influence the cost of the commodity. The
best measure of the scrap supply available
in an area is experienced in terms of how
much scrap was withdrawn at a given price.
Total withdrawals from Oregon and Washington
are projected to 1.8 million tons by 1985,
60 percent (1.1 million tons) of which will
be heavy melting grades. Numerous charts
are given in addition to four appendices.
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Salvaging
64-0795
Levine, S. Is the fly ash disposal problem
solved? Part 1. Rock Products, 67(6):60-61,
June 1964.
Three sintering plants which have gone into
operation in the past year for conversion of
fly ash into lightweight aggregate for concrete
block manufacture and structural concrete
application are mentioned. The continuous
sintering process using a Dwight-Lloyd type
of traveling grate is the basis for production
of indurated fly ash pellets at the three new
processing facilities. The chemical composition
and physical properties of fly ash are noted,
and the continuous sintering process is
described. Advocates of fly ash use for
lightweight aggregate cite four reasons why
investment and operating output of a fly ash
sintering plant should be less than a similar
plant for expanded clay or shale: (1) Fly
ash is a by-product, so that no mining or
quarrying is required; (2) Fly ash is already
fine enough for sintering, so that no crushing
or grinding is required; (3) Fly ash contains
'built-in' fuel in the form of unburned carbon;
and (4) Power plants are located near
metropolitan areas, which are the principal
market for lightweight aggregates.
64-0796
Lumber waste creates pollution.
Science, 4(4):32, Winter 1964.
Compost
Since as much as 50 percent of a log is waste
material that is burned at small lumber mills,
it contributes to air pollution. Oregon State
University researchers suggest that better
utilization is the only solution to the
burning of logging wastes.
64-0798
McGaugey, P. H. Processing, converting, and
utilizing solid wastes. In Proceedings;
National Conference on Solid Waste Research,
Chicago, Dec. 2-4, 1963. American Public Works
Association, 1964. p.149-158.
Freedom to manage wastes by simply exporting
from the city is now vastly constrained.
Already it is difficult to export rubbish,
garbage, cannery wastes, and debris from urban
redevelopment and freeway construction.
Burning it at any economically feasible
location faces restraint by air pollution
authorities, and landfill presupposes the
availability of cheap unoccupied lands. Thus,
the problem of disposing of large volumes of
both solid and liquid wastes within the confines
of the city is added to such traditionally
unexportable problems as vector control,
housing, mental health, and environmental
sanitation, to which it bears an increasingly
distinguishable relationship. Thus far no
one has suggested a way in which research can
be brought to bear on the problem of processing
the remains of old houses and tree trunks
whether for disposal or conversion to
something useful. Processing of cannery wastes
by methods other than fermentation is currently
the subject of research. Business judgement,
shrewdness, expert knowledge of markets,
willingness to work long hours, and access
to non-union labor among family or associates
may be the factors which enable one salvage
contractor to make a profit in a situation
where another might be unable to survive.
There are several problems in the utilization
of sewage sludge. As with animal manures and
compost, there is no agricultural demand for
it. The cost of processing is high. In the
absence of utilization as a strong motive in
wastes management, research on processing
and converting of wastes has proceeded in a
partial vacuum.
64-0797
MacDonald, D. Sintering profit from a
waste-disposal problem. Chemical Engineering,
71(18):34, Aug. 31, 1964.
The Waylite Company has developed a sintering
process that can convert fly ash into at least
1,000 tons per day of aggregate for concrete
in three high-quality, lightweight grades.
The company has a highly automated plant in
River Rouge, Michigan, which converts the
fly ash from the coal-burning operation of
the Detroit Edison Co. The new aggregate is
valuable to concrete users because its
lightness reduces shipping costs.
64-0799
Million a year from scrap. Waste Trade World,
105(25) :14, Dec. 19, 1964.
The Wrapping Reclamation Co. of Budapest with
300 employees is making almost 1,000,000 a
year from waste that normally would go
discarded. The company has contacts with
all the factories and industrial cooperatives
in Hungary and buys 6,500 tons of rubbish as
raw material each year. The business is based
on the buying and reclaiming of useless objects,
with glassware the largest portion, including
everything from medicine bottles to acid
carboys. Steel plate barrels used to
200
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0795-0802
import carbide are converted to bitumen
containers and supplied to the Pet Nitrogen
Co. to replace 175,000 imported bitumen
barrels which had cost $1.00 each. Salvage
material includes scrap material and cardboard
cartons which are made into wooden packing
cases and paper sacks. Over 12,000,000 boxes
have been returned to shoe factories alone.
Based on their success, the company is asking
for a governmental committee to co-ordinate
work between Hungary's industrial ministries
and the Packaging Technique Institute for the
purpose of extending salvage operations.
64-0800
Mueller, W. J., S. Palinchak, and P. B.
Stickney. Low-volatile coal fines as a
filler-extender. Rubber Age, 95(6):407-412,
June 1964.
The purpose was to determine the amount of
low-volatile bituminous coal fines that could
be added or substituted in rubber compositions
without significantly affecting physical or
mechanical properties. Compounding was carried
out on a 6 by 12 in. laboratory mill and in
a size B Banbury. Rubber compositions were
mixed and molded in accordance with accepted
laboratory techniques following an ASTM-15-62T
method. Procedures used for testing included
Mooney scorch and cure time, stress-strain,
hardness, compression set, tear resistance,
heat aging, crack growth, heat buildup, quality
index, Banbury mixing power requirements,
and compound Mooney. Four tables show
bituminous coal fines in a passenger-tire-tread
composition containing ISAF carbon black
(mill-mixed) or HAF black (Mill-mixed) , or
prepared from an HAF-black masterbatch or
an ISAF-black masterbatch. A fifth table
gives the use of bituminous coal fines in
reclaimed rubber. It was found that the
addition of 7.5 to 10 phr of bituminous coal
fines to black-filled SBR compositions (both
mill-mixed and masterbatches) did not affect
properties. Similar results were observed with
reclaim compositions, where up to 15 phr of
the coal fines could be used. In some
compositions, odor and staining were reduced
by the presence of the coal fines. It was
concluded that the bituminous coal fines are
a unique material which can be used by the
rubber compounder to reduce costs without a
significant sacrifice in properties.
64-0801
Naik, B. N. Putting leather waste to use.
Compost Science, 4(4):29-30, Winter 1964.
Nitrogen is one of the most essential major
plant nutrients. Leather waste, which
consists of shavings or cuttings left in the
fashioning of different leather goods, contains
8 to 14 percent of nitrogen in the form of
proteins. But due to the 'tanning' process,
the proteins are rendered refractory and it
takes time to decompose, resulting in the low
availability of nitrogen. It is necessary
to process this material to render it easier
for nitrification so that it can be used as
manure or fertilizer. Experiments were
performed with vegetable tanned and chrome
tanned leather. The conversion of organic
forms of nitrogen from untreated leather is
very slow as compared to acid-treated ones.
The acids used in the samples were sulfuric
and hydrochloric. Material which is rich in
nitrogen can be converted to a valuable
fertilizer.
64-0802
Nancy, K. H., W. E. Gates, J. D. Eye, et al.
The adsorption kinetics of ABS of fly ash.
In Proceedings; Nineteenth Industrial Waste
Conference, Lafayette, Ind., May 5-7, 1964.
Purdue University Engineering Extension
Series No. 117. p.146-160.
Waste water recovery often uses activated
charcoal as the adsorbent, but it is expensive.
One of the cheapest and most available
materials is fly ash, the waste material of the
electric powder industry which is produced in
large quantities during the burning of
powdered coal at high temperatures. A
1,000-million-watt power plant will produce
1,000 tons of fly ash daily. In 1964 about
20 million tons will be produced in the United
States. Although it has been used as an
adsorbent in Europe, fly ash has been thought
to be poor in comparison with activated
charcoal. The kinetics of adsorption of the
two were believed the same. Fly ash is composed
of silica, iron oxides, alumina, lime, and
carbon. It is fine and has a large surface area
per unit of volume and a wide particle size
distribution. An electron microscope micrograph
is given. The physical properties of five
different types are given in a table. Alkyl
benzene sulfonate (ABS) was used as the
adsorbate in this study, since it is a
characteristic organic refractory in many waste
waters and there are methods for its
determination in dilute solutions. It was
found that the removal of ABS proceeds
rapidly after initial contact and then
continues at increasingly slower rates. Several
days may be required for equilibrium to be
reached. This is a slow process. The rate
of adsorption of ABS was found to be highly
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time dependent. (A formula is developed for
this.) Carbon content was an extremely
important factor. The removal of ABS increased
as the content of carbon increased. Using
1000 mg per liter of fly ash containing 23.27
percent carbon, 74 percent removal of ABS was
achieved in a 2-hr contact. (Fly ash now
available contains between 3 and 30 percent
carbon.) Fly ash should be considered as a
potential adsorbent in waste water renovation.
Topics for further study are given.
64-0803
Nateson, K., D. R. Ketkar, and R. Mallikarjunan.
Beneficiation of dross dust from brass melting.
Research and Industry, 9(12):363-365, Dec. 1964.
Although the dross dust from the melting of
brass contains 30 to 40 percent brass, the
high proportion of non-metallics makes the
dross unsuitable for remelting or recharging
to the melting units. Because of the limited
resources in India of copper and zinc, the
beneficiation of the brass dross to permit
recovery of the metallics would save the
country 200,000 rupees a year in foreign
exchange. Flow sheets are given for two
methods of concentrating the copper found
in the dross on a laboratory scale. A simple
washing with water will increase the copper
from 24 percent in the dross to 39.01 percent
which when followed by wet grinding in a ball
mill and further water washing will give a
concentrate with 44.4 percent copper for a
recovery of metallics of 78 percent. The
other flow sheet shows a concentration from
17.35 percent copper to 30 percent on water
washing and a further concentration to 38.39
percent following treatment with 10 percent
sulfuric acid to give a metallics recovery
of 80.3 percent. It was found that the
acid treatment has a marked effect in
upgrading the simply washed material, but
does not improve the grade of the ground
material. Either process--the water washing
followed by wet grinding and washing or
treatment with sulfuric acid after the initial
washing followed by another washing--will give
a concentrate which, when dried, can be
charged into the melting units. The loss of
valuable brass as dross from an ordnance
factory can be avoided by these methods.
64-0804
New bulk refuse feeder shows promise. American
City, 79(3):34, Mar. 1964.
A new refuse feeder overcomes drawbacks of
apron or vibrating types. Advantages include
greater safety, simplicity of design, feed
accuracy, and lower initial and maintenance
cost. The feeder unit, consisting of a drag
chain conveyor suspended from a carriage,
moves up and down the length of a receiving
hopper beneath. It may be installed in all
plants where refuse is sorted and segregated
from conveyors for salvage purposes.
64-0805
Dates, J. T. How municipalities can use
wood chips. Compost Science, 4(4):24, Winter
1964.
More than 50 cu yd of wood chips are obtained
daily by the Richmond, Virginia, Tree Division.
Composted chips have given the necessary
aeration and relief of compaction for mulch.
Composted chips are favored over raw chips
because it is easier to have effective soil
acidity control.
64-0806
Pardoe, G. C. Big tyre accumulations post
serious problem. Waste Trade World,
105(20):45-46, Nov. 14, 1964.
Outlets for the 12,000,000 scrap tires which
are discarded each year are less than 50
percent and prices are down 50 percent below
those of 2 years ago. The only tires that the
merchants will buy are those with useful
casings or tonnage tires for export.
Passenger casings valued at 15s to B1
when remolded are priced from 2s to 5s when
purchased by the remolders. The small casing
dealers will probably be forced out of
business if the casing prices go any lower.
It is suggested that the original tire casing
with sufficient rubber on the tread area,
properly grooved, is as safe, if not safer,
than a retread. The strength of the tire is
in the cords or canvasses and not in the
rubber. Tire regrooving becomes unsafe when
tires are regrooved that were already too
thin. The whole pattern for scrap tires is
downwards and they will probably become
valueless as is the case in other countries
(except for nominal values to be paid by
reclaimers to cover transportation costs).
The faster car on modern roads will increase
the tendency of the motorist to buy new tires
rather than remolds. This will depress the
the casings price even further. Used tires
should be exported to undeveloped countries
where there is a definite shortage of tires
and casings. The practice of some manufacturers
and remolders of mutilating all worn tires
and casings is wasteful, since these tires could
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0803-0810
be exported at more than -the scrap value.
The future for used tires is in export.
64-0807
Pearson, A. S. Lightweight aggregate from
fly ash. Civil Engineering, 34(9):50-53,
Sept. 1964.
The Consolidated Edison plant for sintering
fly ash for aggregate which can produce
1 ,000 tons per day of usable material is
described. Sintering fly ash was approved by
the New York City Board of Standards and
Appeals as a lightweight aggregate in
construction. In the Consolidated Edison
system alone, 400,000 tons of fly ash were
collected in 1963 with a removal cost of
$1.75 a ton. In 1980, over 25 million tons
of fly ash will be collected in the United
States. Fly ash with a moisture content of
22 percent is pelletized and then sintered
in furnaces into a cake of clustered pellets
and clinker which are broken up and crushed
and screened to conform to ASTM specification
C 330 with a nominal size from 5c in. down to
material retained on a "No. 4 screen. Although
large amounts of fly ash have been used in the
manufacture of cement, stabilization of soils,
and in asphalt pavement, the use as a
sintered light aggregate for concrete
structures and products is the only known
application with the potential capacity for
utilizing fly ash in the volume necessary to
keep abreast of the production.
64-0808
Power station ash aids industrial development
and public recreation and safety. Engineering
and Boiler House Review, 79(4) :137, Apr. 1964.
Examples of the applications of power-station
ash are described. In the Fleetwood project,
pulverized fuel ash is being used to reclaim
about 30 acres of marshland from the sea. The
cost of the project, begun in 1963, will be
more than fe25,000 and it will take about 10
years to complete. A sketch map of the area
is shown and the two-stage reclamation process
is described. First, an earth bund is built
which will be reinforced with stone on the
tidal side to prevent erosion. When completed,
it will keep tidal water out of the 30 acres
of marshland. In the second stage, water-borne
ash will be pumped from a power station onto
the marshland via a 10-in.-diameter pipe.
When the desired level of ash is reached, the
surface will be grassed. In the Chadderton
project, thousands of tons of ash from the
power station have been used to fill in eight
disused mill lodges and ponds which were
dangerous for children playing in the area.
The latest stage of the project involves the
draining and filling-in of two ponds at a
disused brickworks. The ash leaving the
power station is mixed with 18 percent water
to eliminate dust until the project is
completed, and a suitable top dressing will be
provided. In addition to the use of ash for
safety purposes, thousands of tons have been
used to convert a rough, 30-acre site into
attractive playing fields.
64-0809
Pure copper from impure scrap. Coal and Base
Minerals of Southern Africa, 12(9):39, 41,
Nov. 1964.
An industrial plant is described whose
function is to convert certain low grade
copper-based slags and drosses which result
from foundry operations into electrolytic
copper. The basic units consist of a blast
furnace, two rotary furnaces, and an
electrolysis recovery unit. The blast furnace,
originally designed for high grade coke, was
modified for use with local coke with a high
ash residue. The low grade alloy which emerges
from this furnace is unsuitable for direct
electrolysis and has to be further fire
refined by the rotary furnaces for removal of
zinc and iron. After refining in the rotary
furnaces, the metal is cast into 250 Ib anodes
of approximately 95 percent copper purity.
The electrolysis is carried out in 72 cells
working at a current density of 13.5 amps per
sq ft of cathode. Of the 72 cells, eight are
used for the continuous production of starting
sheets and 64 for commercial production. As
each cell contains 12 cathodes, the total
weight recovered after 2 weeks growth in each
cell is approximately 1 ton. The sludge from
the cells is rich in tin and lead and contains
approximately 10 percent copper in a metallic
state. Before recovering the tin and lead
in solder form, the metallic copper is
removed by acid digestion at high temperature.
The tin-lead sludge is dried before being
sold for its tin and lead content to a firm
which specializes in its use. The present
capacity of the plant is about 120 short tons
of electrolytic copper per month, although
provision has been made for the rapid
doubling of this capacity should circumstances
permit.
64-0810
Reddy, K. R. Lignite tar from Neyveli as
road binder. Research and Industry,
9(8):235, Aug. 1964.
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Salvaging
The road binder prepared from Neyveli lignite
tar is not satisfactory because of the large
amounts of paraffins (18% against 5% for a good
binder) , therefore a means of reducing the
paraffin is needed. A road binder can be
made from Neyveli lignite tar (18% paraffins)
by distilling the tar at 280 C (14% paraffins)
and air blowing in the presence of a catalyst
(12% paraffins) in order to increase its
softening point to 54 C. After refluxing
with a small amount of creosote oils and
lignite tar oils, the road binders obtained
conform to most of the specifications for
road tars (IS:215). Compared to the coal-tar
binders, Neyveli lignite tar road binders
have less ductility, less shining appearance,
and a high susceptilility to temperature
changes. Since these defects are due to the
large amounts of paraffins (12% after air
blowing), the necessity to remove the paraffins
from the lignite tar or to reduce them to
some chemical form (by the possible addition
of other chemicals) which would not have
deleterious effects on the other characteristics
of the Neyveli lignite tar is urgent.
Scientists who have worked i-n this field should
share their experience and suggest some
practical, economical, effective method of
removing the difficulties experienced in
utilizing the Neyveli lignite tar.
64-0811
Re-Metal salvage. Waste Trade World,
105(9):10, Aug. 29, 1964.
The services of the Re-Metal Co. .of Bolton
in the reclamation of worn or defective
machine parts including special work involving
the spraying of wear or corrosion resistant
metals are described. A picture is given of
a metal-sprayed roller being ground to size
as typical of the work done. The metal-spraying
technique is useful in rebuilding worn parts
and reclaiming expensive components which
otherwise would be scrapped. It is claimed
that many materials, where the bearing
surface only is worn, can be reclaimed. The
reclamation work is varied and includes shafts,
rotors, armatures, electric motor end shields,
rollers, bowls, crankshafts, and spindles,
which can be sprayed with almost any metal
or ceramic, including steel, bronze, brass,
stainless steels, copper, nickel, zinc,
aluminum, and aluminum bronze. It is possible
to spray hardened parts and the base metal
does not have to be the same type as the
deposited coating. The process does not
generate enough heat to distort the work.
Depending on the requirements, any thickness
from 0.005 to 0.5 in. or over may be deposited
to provide an ideal bearing surface for moving
parts because tt is hard wearing, retains oil,
and had a low coefficient of friction.
Hydraulic rams, sprayed with stainless steel
have a corrosion-resistant, smooth, hard surface
which gives long life to the metal and the
leather. The first order from one customer
was a vacuum cleaner rotor and the second was
a roller weighing 16 tons. The service is
intended to keep many machine parts from the
scrap heap.
64-0812
Revolutionary method of Dr. Caspar!.
Science, 4(4):28, Winter 1964.
Compost
Experiments of Dr. Caspari, Germany, have
shown that a high-quality soil improvement
substance in the form of briquets can be
made from sewage sludge and urban wastes.
64-0813
Sanders, N. Memphis' salvage operations prove
profitable. Electrical World, 161:103,
Apr. 6, 1964.
Conversion of scrap, such as brass fittings
from street light bulbs, insulated copper
wire and lead-covered cable, has been made
a profitable business by a Tennessee company.
A key tool in the scrap conversion is an
incinerator which has modernized the stripping
operation. Gas burners raise the furnace
temperature to 1,200 to 1,600 F to burn off the
insulation from the copper wire. Ashes are
knocked from the wire by hand, leaving the
clean copper. Lead from cables is melted at
750 F and is drawn off to a pig mold protruding
from the rear of the incinerator. Hardened
pigs drop automatically to the floor. Each
lead pig weighs 82 Ib, and each incinerator
load produces 40 to 60 pigs equal to 87,568
Ib per year, which is valued at $8,478. The
ashes are salvaged and sold to junk dealers
at a price higher than that which would be
required to haul them away. In addition,
gas burners in the stack burn the smoke
sufficiently so that only a thin, gray haze
is emitted to the atmosphere.
64-0814
Sattar, A. Fish meal and manure--their
preparations and uses. Compost Science,
4(4):30-31, Winter 1964.
Fishmeal or fish manure in Pakistan can be
prepared by either dry or wet method. In the
dry method marine fish scraps are sundried.
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0811-0818
The product is kept overnight in a kiln and
milled into a fine powder. Because the
product has a bad odor and harmful bacteria
which may affect the taste of eggs and milk
when consumed by poultry and cattle, the
scraps may be processed in modern plants in
which they are pulverized and then subjected
in a digestor to high steam and pressure. Oils
are extracted and used as adhesive for
arsenical sprays. The digested scraps and
offal are dried in a rotary steam-oven at
200 F. The mass is ground into a fine powder
through a roller. Under the wet method, the
material is directly processed without
sun-drying. The product is of better quality.
Fishmeal is used as cattle and poultry feed
to provide protein. The manure supplies
nitrogen and phosphorous to the soil. It is
applied in furrows and trenches after being
mixed with surface soil to prevent its being
taken from the surface by cattle and birds.
It is applied in winter to prevent exhaustive
decomposition in summer.
64-0815
Seek bulk outlets for fly ash. Electrical
World, 161(6):45-46, Feb. 10, 1964.
An investigation was carried out to reveal
areas for which fly ash could be utilized,
such as fill material for embankments and
land reclamation. Field density measurements
showed that the tailgating method of
dispersions resulted in a wide variation in
the shear strength of the tailgated fly
ash, thereby causing local slide failures, A
drawing is given to show the preferred
embankment design. This design uses horizontal
filters to control drainage. It was concluded
that compacting fly ash increases storage
about 27 percent over that realized by
tailgating, and leads to a homogeneous
embankment with high shear strengths. A novel
ash handling system was also described. The
system employs gravity-induced-flow from four
mechanical collector hoppers to a storage silo
where it is then moistened and trucked to a
disposal area.
64-0816
Senning, J. A. Taking profit from waste.
Los Angeles Herald Examiner, No. 300, Jan. 20,
1964.
A new waste disposal machine is described and
its possible uses explored. Called a Lantz
Converter, it takes any plant or vegetable
matter, including wood, and reduces it to a
marketable charcoal. Simultaneously it yields
a combustible gas of which approximately 40
percent is used to fuel the converter and 60
percent is stored for other needs. The
converter produces charcoal in 30 minute
cycles and can handle up to 2 ton per hr.
New York City officials are interested because
of the 200,000 tons of demolition wood which
they have been dumping at sea until now.
Other factions interested are slaughter houses
and coffee makers.
64-0817
Shirksalkar, M. M., R. K. Jain, and J. George.
Fire-resistant building boards from coconut
pith. Research and Industry, 9(12):359-361 ,
Dec. 1964.
Large quantities of unretted coconut husk
pith (a by-product of the mechanical
defibrination of coconut husk to obtain fibers
for bristles or upholstery cushioning material)
are being wasted, which otherwise could be
used in production of fire-resistant
lightweight building boards and in expansion
joint fillers. The unretted pith containing
tannin, pectin, hemicelluloses, etc., was
compounded with hardboard pulp and with a
pulp prepared from banana stems. The sieve
analysis of the pith was given in one table.
Another table shows the properties of the
pith-fiber slabs produced from varying
percentages of fiber and with 50 percent
banana stem fiber. The flexural strength
increases with wood fiber content, with the
modulus of rupture as high as 16.5 kg per sq
cm at 50 percent fiber (average 10.2 kg per
sq cm). A value of 23 kg per sq cm is obtained
with 50 percent banana stem pulp. The 50
percent wood fiber does not propagate flame,
and the banana stem fiber is even more
fire-resistant. Compressibility and recovery
from compression are within the requirements
of IS: 1831 to 1961. Boards containing 30
percent fiber and 70 percent pith should make
a satisfactory expansion joint filler. The
cost is estimated to be Rs 1.90 per sq m for
12 mm thickness. A use for the waste unretted
coconut pith is outlined which provides low
density fire-resistant insulation board
(and is also suitable as an expansion joint
filler) when combined with other fibrous
material.
64-0818
Skitt, J. Magnetic separators. In Disposal
works: plant and maintenance. London, Temple
Press Books Ltd., 1964. p.19-22.
Ferrous metals are generally separated from
refuse before incineration since the presence
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of cans in the furnace is not conducive to a
good clinker. The magnetic pulley arrangement
consits of an electromagnetic head pulley.
The refuse is discharged as the conveyor passes
over the drum, but the ferrous metals cling
to the magnetized drum and follow the
conveyor on its return path until the belt
leaves the drum, when the cans are discharged
separately. A stationary electromagnet of
semicircular cross-section is fitted inside
a rotating drum over which the refuse passes.
Ferrous metals cling to the drum while in the
magnetic field and are carried to the
underside of the drum before being released.
Magnetic separators were at one time fitted
at the discharge end of the rotary screen
where the ferrous metals came under the influence
of the electromagnets. The overhand
magnetic separator is supported at variable
heights above a refuse-carrying belt at a
point beyond that at which hand sorting is
carried out, enabling the extraction of objects
likely to cause a choke. The clearance between
the belt below the magnet and the picking
conveyor should be adjusted to suit the
width to overcome possible chokage. The
overhand separator is now generally accepted
as being the most efficient, with the best
results obtained by installing two separators
on each line with disturbance of the refuse
between them. The use of a magnetic drum or
pulley in addition to an overband separator
has proved a good combination. It is
desirable that all cans accumulate at one baling
point without handling.
64-0819
Sludge treatment and disposal.
95(8):74, Aug. 1964.
Public Works,
In Richmond, Virginia, the sludge from the
sewage treatment plant is digested and then
discharged to open air drying beds. After
drying, it is spread on open fields at the
plant site, and a Payloader is used for
crushing and stockpiling it for later use
on park areas and lawns. A portion of the 52
million cu ft of gas produced was used as fuel
for plant heating and for power for pumping
the raw sludge. A gas pipe break, caused by
a 15-ft-deep scum blanket, damaged a fixed
cover on a 95-ft-diameter digester. The unit
was cleaned and repaired, and a gas mixing
system was installed to supplement the original
mixing equipment. Laboratory work has been
carried on with a pilot scale model digester
built of clear plastic and equipped with
heating and mixing devices. To eliminate or
reduce the need for lime as a neutralizing
agent, extensive studies on digester start-up
and pH control have been conducted.
64-0820
Smith, E. L. Kraft mill chemical recovery
units — the third generation. Paper Trade
Journal, 140(44):30-34, Nov. 2, 1964.
The development of the chemical recovery
furnace through three generations is reviewed.
Detailed diagrams are given of the first-,
second-, and third-generation recovery units
whose capacity increased from 20 pulp tons
per day to 1,000 pulp tons per day. The third
generation of recovery units was initiated in
1954, and although they do not differ radically
from the second generation ones, a number
of new features were incorporated. The 1,000
ton recovery unit, the largest to date, burns
3,000,000 Ib of dry solids per day at 65 to 68
percent solids and generates over 500,000
Ib of steam per hr at 600 psig, 715 F at
superheater outlet. Its features include a
cascade evaporator, black-liquor pumps,
dissolving tank, and F-D fan. Future designs
and new safety features are briefly discussed,
and a detailed diagram of a recently developed
starting burner which incorporates many new
safety features is included.
64-0821
Snyder, M. J. Properties and uses of fly
ash. Battelle Technical Review, 13(2):14-18,
Feb. 1964.
Fly ash is a complex, heterogeneous material
exhibiting wide variations in chemical and
physical properties. A table is given
illustrating chemical variability. As much
as 75 to 80 percent of the ash passes from
the furnace as small discrete particles.
World production and utilization of fly ash
are given. Fly ash is used as a constituent
of concrete to react with calcium hydroxide
at ordinary temperatures and to form
cementitious compounds. The amount of fly
ash added affects the long-time strength of the
concrete, and lowers the water requirements
for concrete mixes. However, fly ash can
also lower both the early strength of
concrete mix and the entrained-air content.
Fly ash is also mixed with lime for soil
stabilization and is used as a mineral filler
in bitumastic road construction. Lightweight
aggregates can be made by sintering fly ash,
and a variety of ceramic products can be made
from fly ash and clay or shale. However,
a lack of fundamental studies of the chemical
reactions and physical interactions between fly
ash and concreting and soil materials has
limited these uses of fly ash. Recently begun
research at Battelle for the Edison Electric
Institute includes studies on the pozzolanic
reactions of fly ash and the mechanism by
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0819-0825
which fly ash depresses air entrainment in
concrete.
64-0822
Story, W. S. Problems of the salvage industry
as they relate to solid waste disposal. In
Proceedings; National Conference on Solid
Waste Research, Chicago, Dec. 2-4, 1963.
American Public Works Association, 1964.
p.159-167.
If the secondary materials industry were to
close its door tomorrow throughout the nation,
cities and municipalities would be faced with
difficult problems of solid waste disposal.
The difficulties encountered would be doubly
and trebly multiplied, and the highways and
byways of the nation would be choked with
old automobiles, old refrigerators, cardboard,
paper, rags, stoves, and everything else of
a solid or semisolid salvageable nature. The
peddlers and other types of collectors, the
little junk dealer, and junk shop operator
are the backbone of the collection of
obsolescent material. Various scrap processing
operations are described. The problems
dealing with tin can scrap are discussed.
As a result of the slowdown in steelmaking
demand for scrap, more and more of this scrap
is finding its way to the dumps. This
presents problems for everyone, and it
represents sheer economic waste of valuable
metallic resources which should not be
permitted. Research in steelmaking can
provide some of the answers to these problems.
Research in cleaning deleterious materials
from steel scrap perhaps can give us other
answers. One area which has not been
researched enough is the salvage area.
64-0823
Tank cars line caisson. Engineering
News-Record, 173(1):84-85 , July 2, 1964.
Faced with one of the most difficult foundation
problems ever encountered in Chicago, the
general contractor saved great expense by
salvaging the tanks from railroad tank cars
for use as caisson liners for foundations
supporting a 30-story office building. The
subsoil profile of the $25 million building
contained a strange inversion of the hardpan
and silt layers which posed a tremendous
obstacle to orthodox caisson-sinking methods.
As fast as the excavators broke through the
layer of hardpan, the silt oozed upward
through the holes. Pumped to the surface,
it might have left empty pockets into which
the hardpan would collapse, creating still
more obstacles to the foundation work. The
plan devised by the engineers--which used as,
the key element the tank cars stripped to
their basic cylindrical shape, is described.
64-0824
Taylor, J. L. Growing importance of alloy
scrap. Waste Trade World, 105(20):48-49,
Nov. 14, 1964.
The use of stainless steels and other alloys
in high performance piston engines has resulted
in an increase in scrap alloys on the market.
There has been a number of larger merchants
who have set up sections to handle alloy
scrap and eliminate the specialized middle-men
except for the complex grades. Some of the
market is restricted by the larger customers'
going into the scrap business themselves and
becoming their own buying agents. In 1962
and early 1963, the only scrap in demand was
that of very high quality and turnings were
without value. Since the latter part of 1963,
the demand for nickel has increased. Most of
the merchants sell to specialized merchants
since most merchants do not have the volume
of material or the knowledge to obtain
customers for their alloys. The drawback of
selling direct is the need to provide metal
of guaranteed specifications, which requires
the use of skilled sorters, who are scarce.
The penalties for supplying alloys with
unwanted elements can be considerable. The
difficult sorting is based on the magnet;
the recognition of the basic grades and
presence of certain elements is determined by
the color of the sparks from the grindstone.
Spot tests which, while reliable, have
become too complicated. A combination of
these tests gives a good degree of accuracy,
but not enough to give any quality guarantees.
For detailed information on establishing the
nickel content of a scrap, chemical or
spectrographic analysis is required, which is
an expense that must be assumed to meet the
customer's requirements.
64-0825
Trigg, C. F. Blast furnace slag and
pulverized fuel ash as road foundation
materials. Roads and Road Construction,
42(495):75-81 , Mar. 1964.
A description, classification, and chemical
analysis are given for blast furnace slag and
pulverized fuel ash. Tests were carried out
in order to determine their suitability as
road foundation materials, including crushing
tests for blast furnace slag and the California
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Salvaging
Bearing Test (C.B.R.), which measures load
penetration. Graphs show grading curves of
the slag and fuel ash as well as penetration
related to load and sinkage related to load.
Laboratory tests--including bulk density and
C.B.R. percent--on blast furnace slag, on
pulverized fuel ash, and on a combination of
the two, are reported along with results on
full scale field compaction of pulverized fuel
ash. Based on crushing values and surface
texture, blast furnace slag was separated
into two grades with 40 percent satisfying
the requirements of Grade No. 1, which provides a
product comparable in strength and fragment
shape to good-quality quarried roadstone and
which, when compacted with fines, offers a
satisfactory road base course. Pulverized
fuel ash is a more uniform product, but its
particle size curve is within the limits of a
poorly graded silt, which under adverse
groundwater and weather conditions is likely
to become unstable and to be affected by
frost heave at shallow depths. If the fuel
ash is used with blast furnace slag, it is
possible that minimum C.B.R. requirements
would be achieved with little difficulty at
an early stage and, due to its age hardening
properties, progressive improvement in the
sub-base course would occur. When used as a
blinding material to fill the voids between
the slag fragments, crushed blast furnace
slag would provide a course with C.B.R. in
excess of 90 percent, but it has the
disadvantage of having a high sulfate content
in relation to the Grade No. 1 slag.
64-0826
Turn waste into sales. Rock Products,
67(5) : 121-122, May 1964.
The conversion of waste to profits at the
Limestone Div. of Wallick Coal, Inc., is
described. A narrowing profit margin from
stripping to get to a 22-in. seam of No. 4
coal made it necessary for stripping cost to
be cut if the operation were to remain
competitive. It was decided to market the
previously wasted limestone, and a new 300 tph
crushing and screening plant was designed and
built. The plant and its operation are
described. In addition, a bag-type dust
collector was installed and the limestone
crusher dust was sold at $3 per ton, a. process
which turned the problem of excessive dust
into a profit. The company has found that
instead of being squeezed out of the market by
the difficulties of mining a marginal deposit,
they are able to remain competitive in the
coal business and have widened their total
marketing horizons.
64-0827
Utilization of metallurgical wastes. Journal
of Scientific and Industrial Research,
23(8):315-316, Aug. 1964.
The National Metallurgical Laboratory,
Jamshedpur, organized a symposium, held
during March 1964, on the utilization of
metallurgical wastes to bring together the
planners, industrialists, and research workers
to assess the situation and exchange views.
A brief, topical survey is given of the papers
presented. The Laboratory reported on work
it had done, including recovery of mine wastes
in the form of low-grade ore discards,
treatment of different types of slags produced
in the iron and steel industry, and treatment
of drosses, swarfs, skimmings, and residues
by various metallurgical techniques. It was
noted that some of the papers from advanced
countries provide research possibilities and
technological information which can be of
benefit to Indian workers. However, any
large-scale undertaking in waste utilization
should necessarily be limited to the
development of indigenous technology since
the waste materials to be handled are peculiar
to India.
64-0828
Utilization of power station by-products.
Waste Trade World, 105(16):24, Oct. 17, 1964.
The uses of pulverized fuel ash and slag tap
clinker in civil engineering and construction
are described. The pulverized fuel ash once
regarded as waste has a potential that was
demonstrated by having the floor and five of the
stand walls of the Central Electricity
Generating Board station at the Manchester
Building Trades Exhibition built of products
containing pulverized fuel ash (PFA) or slabs
of PFA. Several of the exhibits show the use
of PFA as a structural filling, in grouting,
and in large-scale concrete construction to
obtain the maximum reduction of temperature
rise during hydration. The manufacture and
uses of sintered PFA and its value as a
lightweight aggregate are described.
Arrangements are being made to have the Central
Electricity Generating Board's PFA technical
staff concentrate on research and development
of new uses for PFA, disseminating information
and giving technical assistance to potential
users. In the North Western Region most of
the salable output--900,000 tons a year—is
being utilized in civil engineering and the
building industries. From the new cyclone-type
furnace, slag tap clinker--a hard, black,
gritty, granular material which is free from
dust--is obtained. It is inert, free running,
208
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0826-0833
and cannot be compacted, thus it has different
uses than PFA. Although the first cyclone-type
furnace has only recently begun operation,
the material has already established itself
as suitable for winter gritting of roads,
drains, filtering, brick-making, flagging,
road-making, and as aggregate.
64-0829
Waste really pays off. Factory, 122(8):137,
Aug. 1964.
The-General Electric Company's Hanford Works,
Richland, Washington, has several chemical
processing plants and mine production reactors
to make plutonium. In each reactor an
aluminum cladding of fuel elements takes place.
The job of the chemical plants is to
dissolve this cladding and extract plutonium.
In one plant sodium nitrate does the
dissolving. Afterwards, the nitrate goes
with other liquid waste into an underground
storage tank. The nitrate salts drop out of
the solution and form a solid layer at the
tank bottom. Next, the liquid wastes are
transferred to less expensive tanks for
storage. This leaves several feet of solids
at the bottom. Agitation and leaching over
a 3-month period removes 85 percent of the
solids, leaving a solution of 30 percent
sodium nitrate.
64-0830
Waste reclamation plant, termed a success,
gets big company backing. Chemical Engineering,
71(6):88, Mar. 16, 1964.
Salvage and Conversion System's compost
process, which has been offered to municipalities
by Westinghouse Electric Corporation and
which is now used in a 150-ton-per-day plant in
San Fernando, California, is described.
64-0831
Where the board comes from. Public Cleansing,
54(11):1278, Nov. 1964.
The Thames Board Mills, which makes cardboard
out of waste paper, and production of
cardboard in England are discussed. The Mills
can produce 80,000 tons of packaging
cardboard per year. Twenty percent of the
paper and cardboard consumed by the United
Kingdom comes from converted waste paper.
The use of waste paper as opposed to pulp
involves expensive cleaning processes and,
therefore, puts England at a competitive
disadvantage with other countries.
64-0832
Wirt, R. L., and W. A. Rumberger.
Eastern sintering plant now producing fly ash
pellets. Part 2. Rock Products, 67(6):62-66,
June 1964.
The new semi-commercial fly ash sintering
plant of Niagara Mohawk Power Corp., which
converts fly ash from the steam electric-power
station using pulverized coal into
heat-hardened pellets, is described in detail.
A flow diagram of the sintering plant and
photographs of various steps in the' process
are included. Feed preparation, pelletizing,
and sintering are described with detailed
diagrams of each of the three stages. The
sintering machine is essentially a
Dwight-Lloyd type of traveling grate, 3h ft
wide with an active area 44 ft long. The
first half of the area is covered with drying
and ignition hoods. Under the drying hood,
five burners using No. 2 fuel oil and recycled
hot gases from the burning area of the grate
evaporate water from the pellets. Under the
ignition hood, eight oil burners aided by
recycled hot gases maintain a temperature of
about 2,200 F. This raises the temperature
of the pellets high enough to ignite the
unburned carbon in the fly ash as the pellets-
are exposed to the downdraft process air. A
combustion air diagram shows the operating
conditions of the sintering process.
Measurement of operating conditions and
safety-dust handling are mentioned. A major
equipment reference list is given.
64-0833
Wood chips as litter for cattle and poultry.
Agriculture, 71(12):570-574, Dec. 1964.
The use of machine-chipped wood from forest
and sawmill waste as litter for cattle and
poultry is reported. Industrial wood waste
is generally more economical than straw for
all types and systems of cattle housing and
has been used extensively in the United States,
where all species of timber except the
turpentine-yielding pines are acceptable.
The all-purpose chip suitable for both cows
arid poultry should have good absorbency,
be non-toxic, free from dust and splinters,
unlikely to pack down with use, and in
plentiful supply. A flaky type of chip
about 1 mm thick and one-half to three-fourths
of an inch long for poultry and slightly
longer for cattle is considered the most
suitable. A prototype machine to produce
this type of chip was developed at the
Forest Products Research Laboratory by
the modification of a pitprop peeling machine.
A mobile, tractor-driven machine priced
209
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Salvaging Automobiles
at B181 is now on the market. Litter
prepared by the mobile units proved
satisfactory in covered yards, for housed
stock, and for poultry. Pictures are given
showing loose-housed cows resting on a bed
of shavings, the standard chips, and some
fine chips for loose housing. Sawdust has an
advantage for stalls in that it does not get
kicked around. Flakes prepared from air-dry
timber have a moisture content of 28 to 30
percent of their dry weight, but absorb 200
to 300 percent moisture. In none of the trials
was there any injury or irritation to the
cattle or poultry. The extent of their use
as litter will depend on the local price of
straw.
SALVAGING AUTOMOBILES
64-0834
Aderholdt, A. A. The District of Columbia's
car removal program. In Proceedings; National
Conference on Auto Salvage, Washington, Oct. 1,
1964. Institute of Scrap Iron and Steel.
p.T-1 to T-5.
Two programs are described by the Deputy Chief,
Metropolitan Police Department. One is
directed at cars abandoned on private property,
and the other at those left on public space
or the streets. The two programs exist mostly
because of legal technicalities. During the
last 14 months more than 7,000 vehicles have
been moved from private property and 2,500
from public. This does not include all
vehicles, only those 'abandoned', that is,
one stripped of identification, and usually
with the wheels or the motor missing. The
owner has no further use for it and is
trying to get rid of it. The vehicles
removed from private property are not taken
into possession by the police. They are
removed by an auto wrecker from the place of
abandonment directly to his processing yard at
the request of the property owners. The
role of the police is solely one of introduction;
they introduce the property owner to the auto
wrecker or vice versa. It is believed that
the property owner has a right to remove trash
(a used refrigerator, a worn-out bed spring)
from his property. Under District law, a
property owner can be prosecuted for leaving
an abandoned vehicle on his property if it is
there long enough to become a health menace.
The history of this program is traced and
described. Vehicles left on public property
involve the issuance of traffic violation
notices for each illegally parked vehicle.
If there is no response, the vehicle is
impounded and held 60 days. If not
claimed, it is sold at public auction.
This program is also described and the
results given.
64-0835
Background sheet; terms used; statistical
background. In Proceedings; National
Conference on Auto Salvage, Washington, Oct. 1,
1964. Institute of Scrap Iron and Steel. p.A-1,
B-1 to B-5, C-1 .
Certain data are presented as background
material. More than 5 million cars go out
of service each year, and nearly 8 million
new cars are produced each year. The scrap
processor prepares a stripped car for the
use of a steel mill after it has been
stripped of saleable parts by the
autowrecker in an auto graveyard. A junkman
collects miscellaneous waste (iron, paper,
rags, glass), sorts it, and sells it to the
processors. (Junkmen are often one-man
enterprises with little capital investment.)
Changing steelmaking methods have reduced the
demand for scrap; the average annual purchases
for 1960 to 1963 were 26.6 million tons, while in
years 1954 to 1957 the average was 34.8 million
tons. Prices are down. The price for No. 2
bundles made of stripped, baled cars is now
$20 a gross ton, as low as it has ever been.
Modern cars contain much non-ferrous metal
'(copper, rubber, glass, plastic) which must be
removed, since it alters steelmaking formulas.
The labor involved is costly hand labor.
Scrap is iron and steel scrap. Metals include
all non-ferrous metals. Waste consists of
rags, paper, glass, plastics, etc. It is not
destroyed, but is processed and reclaimed for
reuse. Junk is secondary materials sorted
but unprocessed. Scrap is not junk. The
organization of the industry and its
nomenclature are set forth. The sources of
scrap, including prompt industrial and home,
obsolescence, are described. The techniques
and equipment used in p.reparing scrap are
summarized. The names used in the trade for
the different types of finished product are
listed. A page of statistical data is also
presented. Steel ingot production in
millions of net tons, percent of production
capacity, purchased scrap used, price,
total consumption, factory sales of cars,
and cars out of service, are given for the
period 1954 to 19.63.
64-0836
Budin, M. Progress report; New York State
study of auto graveyards. In Proceedings;
210
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0834-0839
National Conference on Auto Salvage,
Washington, Oct. 1, 1964. Institute of Scrap
Iron and Steel. p.R-1 to R-12.
The author and his organization are working
with a committee of the New York legislature.
Their point of view is that of a public
authority: what effects (aesthetic, land
value, economic, tourism,) there are on the
total community. The legislator has to face
certain problems, one of which may be the
storage of automobile bodies whether for
speculation, inventory, or partial dismantling
purposes. Control of these stockpiles may be
necessary in spite of the advances in
industrial technology. Location is a
problem due to zoning. Camouflage may be
a factor. Incineration and the related
problem of air pollution are considerations.
Abandoned autos are a public nuisance, an
eyesore, and a fire hazard. In the total
picture, why should abandoned autos be
thought of as different from any other solid
waste that the community has a responsibility
to handle? The problem has been divided,
for administrative reasons, into two parts:
the economic and technologic aspects (being
attacked by the author's firm); and the
legal (being analyzed by the Office of
Municipal Government in Albany). The scrap
industry has been studied as a whole, and 250
scrap processors, auto wreckers, and junk
collectors in New York State have been
interviewed. Three areas (Syracuse, a
middle-sized city; Amsterdam, a typical
small-sized city of 30,000; and Schoharie
county with no medium or large cities in it)
have been mapped, and every abandoned car,
every scrap dealer, every informal scrap
dealer, and every rural scrap yard that has
grown up on a farm or on farm land has been
located. What was found is described in
detail. As a result of this study, it can
be estimated that there are 300,000 abandoned
cars around the state at the present time.
A scale model of the city of Amsterdam was
made with the cars located on it, and plans
have been made for dealing with the problem.
Quotations from the interviews are given.
64-0837
Callahan, J. M. Obituary of an auto. In
Proceedings; National Conference on Auto
Salvage, Washington, Oct. 1, 1964. Institute
of Scrap Iron and Steel. p.J-1 to J-3.
Nearly 4 million cars are junked each year.
The typical junker is compressed into a
1,500 Ib bale of scrap steel which is combined
with iron ore to produce new steel. The grey
iron, copper, aluminum, lead, solder, tin,
and zinc are also sold to foundries and mills
which may sell it to the auto industry. Auto
wreckers may strip a car of everything but
the carbon steel body. Scrap dealers process
and prepare the body so that it can be dumped
into a steel mill's open hearth furnace. Nine
to 10 years and 90,000 miles after it leaves
the dealer, the average U.S. car is ready to be
junked and is sold to an auto wrecker for $10
to $175. (average: $25 to $45.). The activity
and procedures of a typical wrecker (Babcock
Iron & Metal Company, Detroit) are described.
64-0838
Cooper, A. Derelict cars are wasted assets.
Waste Trade World, 105(20):27-28, Nov. 14, 1964.
Although a million cars a year, representing
500,000 tons of good steelmaking material,
will go to the scrap heap in 1970, there are
economic reasons for recovering abandoned
cars. In addition to the t6 million value
of the junk cars as scrap, they are an
intolerable nuisance. While it is an offense
to abandon a vehicle on a highway or private
property, no arrangements have been made for
dealing with old vehicles left on roads, in
ditches, and in fields where the removal
problem increases. In the United States,
nearly 5 million old cars were scrapped in
1962 to produce 4 million tons of steelmaking
scrap worth 650,000,000. It was found
impossible to deal with the problem effectively,
except to regard it as a national problem.
The same conclusion was reached in Germany,
and eventually Great Britain will have to
consider why such an essential metal is being
wasted in a country which is short of basic
raw materials. Apparently, no single industry
can provide the solution. The scrap industry
could take old cars and make them into
material suitable for use in iron and steel if
the municipal councils would allow the use
of land for breaking up old vehicles, and give
assistance in dealing with the smoke nuisance.
The problem is a national one and can be
resolved only by the combined efforts of
industry and the municipal authorities with
the guidance and cooperation of the government.
64-0839
Dumpsters can handle derelict cars. Public
Cleansing, 54(3):802, Mar. 1964.
A Dumpster developed by the Powell Duffryn
Engineering Co. Ltd. of England can be
utilized to tow away cars. It can also
lift and carry cars that cannot be towed with
a special chain attachment.
211
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Salvaging Automobiles
64-0840
Giles, J. S. The auto graveyard--what to do
about it? In Proceedings; National Conference
on Auto Salvage, Washington, Oct. 1, 1964.
Institute of Scrap Iron and Steel. p.V-1 to V-5.
The secondary materials industry in the United
States and its relation to the solid waste
disposal problem are discussed. Certain facts
are brought out: $3 billion per year gross
sales; 4 million tons of scrap metal salvaged;
8,000 auto graveyards; and every ton of
ferrous metal scrap used again saves up to
2 tons of iron ore, a ton of coke and a half
ton of limestone. Forecasts include: 115
million vehicles by 1984; population 267
million; and no liability insurance available.
The role of the Institute of Scrap Iron and
Steel in the national picture and the salvage
operator in the local community is stressed.
Three factors account for the increase in
junked cars: owners do not keep their cars
as long; 1953 to 1955 was a peak period in
production, and sales and those cars are now
being junked; and basic technological changes
in the making of steel. There is less demand
for automotive scrap. The process of producing
auto scrap is described, and the economic
forces at work are emphasized.
64-0841
Go-anywhere mobile 'car-crusher'. Waste
Trade World, 105(10):7-8, Sept. 5, 1964.
Progress in solving the problem of a million
unwanted automobiles which are expected to
litter Britain by 1970 is anticipated by the
world's largest mobile baling press, which is
capable of pressing two saloon bodies into a
1 ton bale in 3 minutes. The PSC.376 Scrapmaster,
weighing 40 tons and designed to handle 18
cars per hr, without their engines, is mounted
on a trailer. It has an electrically-controlled
hydraulic press with its own self-contained
power plant, fuel tank and hydraulic oil
reservoir. All varieties of metal scrap, as
well as car bodies, can be dropped into the
7-ft wide, 3-ft deep and 20-ft long box for
lateral and vertical compression into compact
bundles. Following this, a hydraulic ram
moving at high speed and low pressure,
which shifts to medium speed and medium
pressure, and to low speed and high pressure
(as the resistance of the scrap increases)
ejects the finished bale. The box closes
at 90-tons pressure and the ram exerts a
pressure of 330 tons. A picture is
given showing the Scrapmaster being loaded.
The whole car, minus only the engine, is
baled (the glass, upholstery, and other
nonmetal parts are removed in the preliminary
burning). The machine can also bale four car
engines at a time. The mobile Scrapmaster
will visit without charge any area which has
from 500 to 1,000 cars. One solution to the
disposal of derelict cars is for local
authorities to operate central dumps, which
could be visited by the Scrapmaster at
periodical intervals when there is an
accumulation of scrap and cars.
64-0842
Green, M. The community and the scrap yard.
In Proceedings; National Conference on Auto
Salvage, Washington, Oct. 1, 1964. Institute
of Scrap Iron and Steel. p.N-1 to N-2.
Scrap processors require a considerable
investment: at least $150,000 to $175,000,
since the press which can take an entire car
body may itself cost $125,000 to $175,000
installed and equipped with the crane, magnet,
and grapple needed to feed it. There are few
national or regional scrap processors. Most
are individually owned businesses operating
in a single community. Some of these date
back to the Civil War. Whether there is a
scrap processor in a community or not, scrap
is produced involuntarily, and something
must be done with it; either the scrap
processor does it or a public agency does it
at public expense. The scrap processor is in
a position the reverse of the car dealer,
although their functions are the same. Almost
all the money the scrap processor spends to
acquire his inventory is spent locally. Very
few other retail stores or manufacturing plants
do this. This has a favorable effect upon
community relations. The local scrap
processor is often a person who has been in
business for years, operates a business of
substance, takes part in community affairs,
and makes most of his expenditures locally.
These factors should have some influence on
community officials in their plans.
64-0843
How an automobile is stripped by a scrap
processor. In Proceedings; National
Conference on Auto Salvage, Washington,
Oct. 1, 1964. Institute of Scrap Iron and
Steel. p.H-1.
Cars compressed in this operation weigh about
3,300 Ib. Materials removed are listed in
sequence: shrinkage, 15 percent, (rubber
mats, hose, glass, seats, rubber, upholstery);
radiator and heater (25 Ib); generator, starter,
heater motor, and horns (50 Ib); die cast and
other white metals (grills, ornaments,
212
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0840-0848
carburetors, fuel pumps, instrument panels,
door handles, 30 Ib); copper wire and cables,
copper tubing (5 Ib); headlights, tail lights,
radio, lights, hubcaps, and all electrical
assemblies (75 Ib); stainless and chrome steel
(5 Ib); tires and tubes (100 Ib); and motor
block and transmission (600 Ib). A total of
1,385 Ib has been removed. The remainder
consists of the body and chassis, front and
rear ends, springs, bumpers, and steel wheels.
It weighs 1,900 to 2,000 Ib.
64-0844
Incineration of automobile bodies. In
Proceedings; National Conference on Auto
Salvage, Washington, Oct. 1, 1964. Institute
of Scrap Iron and Steel, p. 1-1 to 1-2.
Burning automobile bodies is expensive and,
because of the uncertainties of the scrap
market, loans for such equipment have not
been easy to get. An automobile incinerator
is a highly specialized piece of equipment
designed for only one type of scrap which
presently has a low profit margin. When
all useable parts have been stripped from a
car three types of basically ferrous materials
remain: the steel parts (frame and axles);
cast iron (motor); and sheet iron (the auto
body itself). Auto scrap includes the steel
and sheet iron, but not the cast iron, and is
compressed into cubes called No. 2 bundles.
Steel mills specify that non-metallics are to
be excluded; they are buying steel not wood
or rubber. The steel mills are not concerned
with how the non-metallics are removed, but
burning the entire body removes two unwanted
materials--the undercoating and some lead.
Smokeless incinerators are necessary instead
of open burning because of the desire of the
community to control atmospheric pollution.
Research has developed a smokeless incinerator
costing $20,500 to $22,000. The cost per
car would be $7 to $9. Some communities
(e.g. Grand Rapids, Michigan) allow open
burning at specified times during the day
or under specified weather conditions.
64-0845
Kaiser, E. R., and J. Tolciss. Burning proven
best to clean auto steel. Refuse Removal
Journal, 7(11):18, Nov. 1964.
Burning is a practical way to clean auto
steel. What is needed is an economical and
efficient auto-burner furnace which does not
pollute the air. A report given at a New York
meeting of the Air Pollution Control
Association, which establishes basic facts
and equipment needed to operate such a
furnace is discussed.
64-0846
Liebman, H. Statement. In Proceedings;.
National Conference on Auto Salvage, Washington,
Oct. 1, 1964. Institute of Scrap Iron and
Steel. p.U-1 to U-3.
The Director of Operations, Department of
Sanitation, the City of New York, presents data
on the number of cars removed from city
streets. In 1960 only 2,500, in 1961 5,117,
and in 1964 approximately 25,000 cars were
removed. The procedures and problems
encountered, and their present solutions are
described.
64-0847
Manchester, H. Old cars never die. In
Proceedings; National Conference on Auto
Salvage, Washington, Oct. 1, 1964. Institute
of Scrap Iron and Steel. p.X-1 to X-3.
The life history of an automobile bought in
the spring of 1955 and pulled into a giant
wrecking plant in Chicago in early 1963 where
it was after three minutes transformed into an
unrecognizable assortment of basic materials
is described. The process, at the General
Iron Industries' No. 1 plant is described
step by step from the time the car is weighed
on a platform scale until the final bale the
size of a console TV set is produced. The
economics of the industry are surveyed. New
uses of scrapped cars include: reefs of
old cars used as 'apartments' for red
snappers in the Gulf of Mexico; old cars
used to form a reef as part of an island
built by an oil company off the coast of
California; and junked cars used to check
erosion near Jacksonville, Florida.
64-0848
New US car-a-minute grinding process. Waste
Trade World, 105(7):8-9, Aug. 15, 1964.
A 'fragmentizer' which reduces car bodies
to fist-sized metal pellets in one minute is
being tried in California as a solution to
the derelict car problem. The car bodies are
fed to the fragmentizer on a conveyor belt
travelling at 400 ft per sec. In the auto
shredder the cars are battered by 50 hammers,
each weighing 850 Ib and swinging from flywheels,
which smash the car bodies into smaller and
smaller pieces until they drop through spaced
213
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Salvaging Automobiles
bars in the hammer chamber floor into a
rotating magnetic drum. Here, the glass,
rubber, plastics, cloth, copper, and paint
chips are separated to give a final product
of pellet-sized fragments which are 98
percent ferrous and are called Lurmet. A
photograph is shown of the Lurmet fragments
ready for shipment to the steel mills as a
high-quality raw material. The pellets are
a third denser than the usual burned out and
baled auto scrap. Another picture shows
motor car bodies entering the shredder of
fragmentizer on the conveyor to be reduced
in a minute to Lurmet. Bethlehem Steel Corp.
has been testing 15,000 tons of the pellets
in a nearby mill. Although steel production
is increasing and the 1964 production is
likely to be 2 million tons above 1956, the
scrap sales of 2 billion will be one-third
below the 1956 peak. Oxygen furnaces use very
little, if any, scrap; open hearth furnaces
use less scrap with the use of oxygen; and
molten iron is becoming low enough in price
to replace some scrap. Increased sales of
scrap can only come from providing
high-quality scrap at prices competitive to
molten metal prices.
64-0849
Proceedings; National Conference on Auto
Salvage, Washington, Oct. 1, 1964. Institute
of Scrap Iron and Steel. 122 p.
A glossary of terms, some statistics, a
list of participants (at the end, on pages
numbered one through five), and a list of
papers or statements on such topics as the
scrap processor's role in auto salvage,
retired cars as by-products of progress (by
a representative of the Automobile Manufacturers
Association), scrap and the steel industry,
the economics of scrapping a car, legal
aspects, the community and the scrap yard,
new technology, state auto graveyard studies,
and new developments and trends are included.
64-0850
Proler, I., and W. Magness. Technological
developments in the scrap industry - I;
Technological developments in the scrap
industry -II. In Proceedings; National
Conference on Auto Salvage, Washington, Oct. 1,
1964. Institute of Scrap Iron and Steel.
p.0-1 to 0-5, P-1 to P-4.
Part I is a discussion of the technological
changes in the baling, shearing, and shredding
methods of preparing the scrapped automobile
for steel mill or foundry consumption.
Twenty-five or 30 years ago the method was
to chop up or torch the body into pieces small
enough to be baled in a small hydraulic baler.
The understructure of the car was cut by
acetylene torch or small alligator shear
into 5 x 1'< ft pieces or smaller. These were
known as Number 2 heavy melting steel.
Number 2 bundles were 30 x 24 x 24 in. or
smaller, and contained contaminants such as
paint, wood, and non-ferrous metals. The
understructure contained copper. At the blast
furnace, these bundles have to be diluted with
hot metal to keep the residual copper and other
non-ferrous metals to a minimum. Hydraulic
balers then became larger. Alligator shears were
replaced, in some instances, by larger
hydraulic guillotine shears. At present,
balers are able to consume an entire
automobile, with or without the understructure.
Hydraulic shears are able to take an entire
car, compress it, and shear it into a scrap
item known as automobile slabs, or sheared
auto scrap. A film was shown of the largest
baling press in the world in operation at
the Proler Steel Corp. Two automobiles can
be compressed at once in 1^ to 2 minutes. The
scrap is reduced to small bits, and the
contaminants removed. Part II also has a film
narrated by William Magness of Luria Bros.
& Co., New York. A giant unit called a
fragmentizer rips and shreds entire cars with
such violence that the non-ferrous metals,
dirt, rubber, and undesirable matter are
knocked loose for easy separation later.
Product contamination and air pollution are
avoided. The narration of the film included
a description of the procedures used.
64-0851
Rapoport, F. The economics of scrapping a
car. In Proceedings; National Conference on
Auto Salvage, Washington, Oct. 1, 1964.
Institute of Scrap Iron and Steel. p.G-1 to
G-7.
A car costing about $3,000 at birth must be
transformed after death into something with
economic value of about 1 cent per Ib or
$20 per ton. The investment varies from
about $100,000 for an operator in a small
city to about $1 million for a metropolitan
operator. Abandoned and wrecked cars usually
enter the auto-wrecker's yards, where they are
cannibalized of all saleable parts, burned,
and delivered to a scrap processor. However,
so many cars are being abandoned that the auto
wreckers can not handle the flow, so the scrap
processor now often operates a fleet of two
trucks to move the junked cars from the
municipal storage yard to his premises. Two
principal processes are necessary in the
214
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0849-0854
production of good automobile body scrap:
removal of combustible contaminants by fire;
and the physical removal of undesired metal.
Incinerators must be used to control smoke
emission in most communities. Three types of
incinerators are: after-burner; water-wash
type; and electrostatic precipitator. The
after-burner is used by the author's firm.
He describes: the early pilot model that
burned two cards a day; a 20,000 gal tank
converted into a horizontal primary chamber
using propane as a fuel; and the present
incinerator that burns 80 to 90 cars daily and
is refractory lined, conveyorized, and has
automatic temperature controls. The
incinerator requires the use of a crane and
two large lift trucks. Employees include
operators for the equipment, a torch man,
an incinerator operator, and impact tool man
who removes tires and wheels, three teams of
two men each for stripping. Cars are acquired
in an uncrushed and unflattened condition so
that the men can have easy access to remove
parts. The process is described in some
detail.
64-0852
Reichert, D. Legal aspects of the car
disposal problem. In Proceedings; National
Conference on Auto Salvage, Washington,
Oct. 1, 1964. Institute of Scrap Iron and
Steel. p.K-1 to K-7, L-1 to L-5, M-1 to M-5.
Scrap processors alter otherwise useless waste
into something of value, and act as major
sources of raw materials for steel mills and
foundries. Scrap processors have been held
to be manufacturers as far as taxation is
concerned, and certain court decisions are
cited and reviewed in support of this. Scrap
processors are not junkmen, nor are their
premises junkyards. Scrap processors do not
have to be fenced, and legislation requiring
non-transparent fences has been found to be
unconstitutional since there is no compelling
health, moral, or public interest reason for
it. Limited access, zoning, finger-printing
of employees, and other matters of interest
to the trade are discussed from the point of
view of the Special Counsel, Institute of
Scrap Iron and Steel. Two court decisions
illustrating these matters are given.
64-0853
Roblin, D. A. Scrap and the steel industry.
In Proceedings; National Conference on Auto
Salvage, Washington, Oct. 1, 1964. Institute
of Scrap Iron and Steel. p.F-1 to F-8.
Two basic raw materials from which steel is
made are molten pig iron and scrap steel.
Molten pig iron is produced from iron ore in
blast furnaces. Scrap comes from the steel
mills themselves as a by-product since only
70 percent of their product is shipped as
finished products. This is called home scrap.
Purchased scrap is of two kinds: production
or industrial scrap; and new steel resulting
from the production of manufactured products
(flashing in a forge plant, trimmings in a
stamping plant, or turnings in a machine
shop). This material is clean, free of
foreign material, and generally chemically
uniform. The second class is first,
demolition scrap from bridges, oil refineries,
railroads, etc. and second, everything else
(drums, tin cans, and old automobiles). Of
the various types of scrap the old automobile
is in the least desirable category. The old
car contains non-metallic impurities which
reduce the yield when melted. More serious
is the fact that it contains metallic impurities
that are difficult and costly to remove. When
the steel industry reduces the amount of scrap
it purchases, it naturally eliminates the less
desirable items. So, at a time when more cars
are being scrapped, the demand for scrapped
cars becomes negligible. The number of cars
scrapped each year is going to increase.
Certain changes in the steel industry, the
oxygen converter, for example, which can
consume not more than 30 percent scrap, as
opposed to the open hearth which can use 35
to 50 or as high as 60 percent scrap, have
contributed to this lack of demand. A cheap
and ingenious method must be found for
cleaning the old automobile so that economic
value can be realized from this commodity.
64-0854
Roe, S. S. Retired cars: by-products of
progress. In Proceedings; National
Conference on Auto Salvage, Washington,
Oct. 1, 1964. Institute of Scrap Iron and
Steel. p.E-1 to E-8.
Production of vehicles in the 10 year period
before World War II averaged 3.5 million
cars per year, and these cars are now being
discarded. In every year since 1948 production
has been more than 5 million vehicles, and in
1963, it was 9.1 million. Nearly 85 million
vehicles are registered. The importance of
the automobile industry to the economy is
cited: 780,000 employees; one industry in
six is a motor vehicle industry; $12 billion
in special taxes paid by owners; and one-fourth
of all state revenues come from motor vehicles.
About 50 percent of a given model will have
disappeared at the end of about 10 1/2 years.
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Salvaging Automobiles
After about 5 years, the rate of disappearance
begins to accelerate, and this partly explains
the increase in scrappage recently experienced
since the cars produced in the relatively
high production years of the mid-50's have
now reached the age when the annual
disappearance rate is quite high. Charts are
given for motor vehicle production in millions
for 1930 to 1964, motor vehicle registrations
for 1945 to 1964, passenger car survival rates,
and motor vehicle scrappage in millions for
1935 to 1964.
64-0855
Shapiro, I. D. The scrap processor's role
in auto salvage. In Proceedings; National
Conference on Auto Salvage, Washington,
Oct. 1, 1964. Institute of Scrap Iron and
Steel. p.D-1 to D-6.
The terms junkman, auto wrecker, and scrap
processor are defined. The junkman collects
and sorts all kinds of waste. The auto
wrecker strips old cars for the resale of
parts. Both provide raw material for the
scrap processor who prepares the raw material
in shapes and sizes acceptable to mills and
foundries. The scrap processor may use cranes,
trucks, scales, shears, balers, shredders,
incinerators, cutting torches, magnets,
grapples, and other equipment. An investment
of about $250,000 may be required. While old
cars are worth reclaiming, the cycle has
broken down because of changing technology in
steel production with less reliance on scrap
and resultant lower prices. Scrap is bought
by mills and foundries at prices, times, and
quantities they set. Automobile scrap is
costly and difficult to prepare, and
hand labor is involved. The scrap processor is a
manufacturer working in an outdoor factory
with expensive equipment--there are
5-million-dollar shredding machines. More
than 300 hydraulic guillotine shears are in
use in the industry. Some of the problems of
the industry in urban renewal and in community
relations in general are described.
64-0856
'Total loss' cars should be scrapped. Waste
Trade World, 105(18):24, Oct. 31, 1964.
Insurance interests are urging that damaged
cars involved in accidents on which the basis
of payment was that of 'total loss' should be
scrapped and stripped to prevent repair by
unscrupulous and/or incompetent dealers.
Unsound cars which had been salvaged from
road accidents were a road hazard and the
cause of further accidents and substantial
losses to the insurance companies. A large
number of unsound cars would be removed from
the road if all cars involved in 'total loss'
accidents were scrapped for parts, and the
registration book surrendered. The registration
book should be held in any case until the
car is repaired and checked by a competent
engineer, but scrapping is preferred. This
plan presents problems because of the
increasing numbers of cars being scrapped as
a result of rapid obsolescence and lack of
interest in this work, even by specialists
in the field. It is felt that the returns
are too limited for the space, time, and
trouble required in disposal of cars. In
many yards, it is the practice to save
obviously worthwhile materials with little
attention paid to the rest, and to use extensive
burning to save handling costs.
64-0857
Weinstein, A. Report on state auto graveyard
studies. In Proceedings; National Conference
on Auto Salvage, Washington, Oct. 1, 1964.
Institute of Scrap Iron and Steel. p.Q-1.
The author is chairman of the Committee on
State Autowrecking Studies, Institute of
Scrap Iron and Steel. The Committee
is studying the problem of old and abandoned
automobiles. Technological advances in
processing equipment such as the shredders
have eliminated the problem in four major
areas: Los Angeles, Houston, Chicago, and
Kansas City, and perhaps will soon solve
the problem in the larger metropolitan areas.
The problem is related to: population
concentrations; technological advances in
processing equipment; sale value of scrap;
the extent of the export market; cooperation
of government agencies; and the relationship
of the quality of the Number 2 bundles to
the changing technology of the steel industry.
The Committee is working on novel approaches
without reference to what has been done.
Because of the importance of scrap as a
basic raw material for the steel industry, as
an earner of foreign exchange, and as a
conservator of our own iron ore, a solution
must be found.
64-0858
Westminister's way of dealing with the old
car problem. Public Cleansing,
54(11):1297-1298, Nov. 1964.
Westminister has developed a new way of
dealing with the removal and disposal of old
216
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0855-0862
cars and vans. A letter and circular which are
posted in public housing and are advertised
in newspapers announce that the city will
dispose of old cars for a fee. Through this
direct service, the city hopes to eliminate
the annoying administrative work associated
with ordinary procedures of vehicle removal.
The circular outlines the removal and
disposal costs by weight, and gives general
information on how a resident may take
advantage of this service. After the first
6 weeks of operation, four cars had been
brought in by their owners.
64-0859
Where do old cars go to die? In Proceedings;
National Conference on Auto Salvage, Washington,
Oct. 1, 1964. Institute of Scrap Iron and
Steel. p.Y-1 to Y-5.
An interview with Palmer Bell, who runs a
junk yard 8 miles south of Atlanta, Georgia,
is reported. He has 7,000 twisted auto bodies
on his 43-acre lot. He paid $40 to $75
apiece for cars bought from the city's auto
pounds, insurance companies, and private
owners. He sells accessories and parts, but
the metal is of little value. Although 5.3
million cars were scrapped in 1963 (new cars
produced totaled 7.6 million), sales of scrap
to steel mills was down drastically. In 1956
total steel scrap brought $3 billion but in
1958 was down to 1.5 billion and in 1963 was
$1.9 billion. Wreckers can still sell parts,
but the clean-up men, the scrap processors,
can not make money baling cars for the steel
mills. The price for a 1-ton bale is now
$19.84 and the lowest since the war. In
1956 the same sized bale sold for $42.86. The
changeover by the steel mills to the basic
oxygen furnace has halved the amount of auto
scrap used, and it must now be of higher
quality. The difficulties of the auto
wreckers are discussed both in specific,
personal terms ('In Detroit last week,
stocky Samuel Topper,...put it vividly...')
and in terms of the national economy. The
experiments and technological advances of
the Luria and of the Proler firms are
described. The police activity reabandoned
cars is discussed with particular regard
to Chicago's approach.
64-0860
Wolfsohn, V. Legislation, relocation, and
beautification. In Proceedings; National
Conference on Auto Salvage, Washington,
Oct. 1, 1964. Institute of Scrap Iron and
Steel. p.S-1 to S-5.
The author, Director of Public Relations for
the Institute of Scrap Iron and Steel, quotes
from a letter from the sanitarian of Del Norte
County, California, regarding the problem of
abandoned cars there. The experience of the
city of Paterson, New Jersey, with a public
tower is related. Only about 5 percent of
the 140 cars a month that he tows off the
street are ever reclaimed. There is a real
problem of title, and changes in the law are
suggested. The experience of Chicago is cited.
Des Moines, Iowa, is considering the establishment
of a central scrap area. Rome, New York, has
tried this and their experience is reported.
Oklahoma City is trying an urban renewal plan
through which 56 used auto parts and junk
yards will be relocated in an attractively
screened and well-located supermarket for
salvage. St. Paul has had a problem because
its Port Authority condemned an area including
several scrap yards which have no place to
relocate. Gerald Mangle, assistant city
planner of that city, spoke on this problem.
Beautification is mentioned and the instance
of West Virginia, where legislation
supported by 200 auto wreckers has brought
about the planting of 25,000 trees and 10,000
shrubs is cited.
SANITARY LANDFILL
64-0861
Bauman, L. Decomposition creates danger in
landfill. In 1964 Sanitation Industry
Yearbook. New York, RRJ Publishing Corp.,
[1964], p.29.
Sanitary landfills at Arlington, Massachusetts,
and Queens, New York, are examples of
dangerous building up of methane gas formed
by decomposing garbage. A Scottish landfill
inadvertently buried explosive sheets.
64-0862
A big concave blade.
Nov. 1964.
American City, 79(11):10,
Muskegee, Oklahoma, uses a crawler tractor
with a big, U-shaped bulldozer blade for its
sanitary landfill. This unit clears new
areas, excavates the trenches and spreads and
covers the fill much more effectively than
a tractor with a straight blade.
217
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Sanitary Landfill
64-0863
Black, R. J. Sanitary landfills. In
Proceedings; National Conference on Solid
Waste Research, Chicago, Dec. 2-4, 1963.
American Public Works Association, 196A.
p.120-127.
There are four methods currently used to
dispose of refuse on land. They are: open
dumping; controlled burning dumping; refuse
filling; and sanitary landfilling. Commonly
reported operating cost ranges per ton are,
respectively, $ 0.10 to 0.25, $ 0.25 to 0.50,
$ 0.35 to 0.75, and $ 0.70 to 1.50.
Unfortunately, there is more than a little
confusion in the technical literature on this
matter of nomenclature because of the
tendency to label all landfilling operations
as 'sanitary landfills' in the vain hope
that such labeling, by itself, will insure
public acceptance of the operation. Sanitary
landfill is defined as a method of disposing
of refuse on land without creating nuisances
or hazards to public health or safety, by
utilizing the principles of engineering to
confine the refuse to the smallest practical
area, to reduce it to the smallest practical
volume, and to cover it with a layer of earth
at the conclusion of each day's operation, or
at much more frequent intervals as may be
necessary. Two research projects on sanitary
landfilling have been awarded by the Public
Health Service. The title of the project, the
name of the principal investigator, the
institution, and a brief description of the
scope of work are given. More specific
information is needed to plan better and more
economical operations of sanitary landfilling
as a method of refuse disposal for the future.
64-0864
Broffle, R. W. Landfill capacity doubled
by use of compacting method. Refuse Removal
Journal, 7(2) :14, Feb. 1964.
A four-wheel-drive, 50,000-pound compactor
has compressed the layers of refuse and earth
fill to just half the thickness managed by
conventional bulldozers in a Riverside,
California, landfill. As a result, the land
used up for refuse has dropped from an acre
a month to four-tenths of an acre per month.
This system also allows the sanitation
department to maintain hard-surface roads
through the landfill area, cutting tire damage
by 50 percent and reducing axle breakdowns.
Furthermore, it reduces fire hazards to a
minimum since flames cannot work their way
down into the compressed fill. The developing
stages of trash disposal before the city's
final transition to a landfill, and how the
city eliminated the threat of a washout posed
by the landfill's location on river bottom
land are also described.
64-0865
City of 19,000 provides landfill and equipment.
Refuse Removal Journal, 7(8):20, Aug. 1964.
Batavia, New York, has replaced a crawler
type tractor with a rubber tired tractor
loader for its sanitary landfill. As a result,
the city has been able to eliminate two
5-yd dump trucks and their drivers, to save in
overtime and maintenance, and to compact the
refuse and cover material better.
64-0866
Collect 2.8 million tons annually at New
Jersey landfill. Refuse Removal Journal,
7(6):8, 20, 30-31, June 1964.
The history and operation of the Fereday and
Meyer collection company of Newark, New
Jersey, and its subsidiary, Disposal Areas
Inc., which Fereday and Meyer set up in 1953
to handle their huge sanitary landfill at
Elizabeth are described. Fereday and Meyer
services several commercial and industrial
pickup routes in the Metropolitan New Jersey
Area, as well as small town routes. The
landfill's daily intake of refuse from its
own operation, other private haulers, and
municipalities approximates 900 tons. It
has brought more than 1,300 acres of tidal
marshland to grade through the trench and
cover method. Part of the filled section now
supports an industrial complex and some
14,000 ft of arterial roadways.
64-0867
Controlled tipping in Germany. Surveyor and
Municipal Engineer, 124(3782):29-30, Nov. 28,
1964.
A review of a paper concerning refuse disposal
in Germany by controlled tipping is presented.
Some comparisons with the situation in Great
Britain are drawn, and it is shown that the
position in Germany is very poor because of
the degree to which crude rather than
controlled tipping is carried out. Problems
arising from this practice, especially concerning
water pollution and sanitation, are discussed.
Suggestions are made about the machinery
required to maintain a tip and about the
construction of one.
218
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0863-0874
64-0868
Controlled tipping--past, present, future.
Public Cleansing, 54(10) :1229, Oct. 1964.
S. K. Sheldon, Director of Public Cleansing
of Carlisle, England, presented a paper
entitled 'Controlled Tipping--Past, Present
and Future,' at a meeting of the Northeastern
Center of the Institute of Public Cleansing.
He noted that, in the past, controlled tipping
was adequately executed, but now this form
of refuse disposal is generally deteriorating
chiefly because of the change in the nature
of refuse. A critical problem is the
shortage of cover material arising from the
decrease in household ash, which has
traditionally been used as cover. The
solution lies in some form of
pre-treatment--either incineration, composting,
or pulverization. Household refuse is also
analyzed.
64-0869
Denver looks for new disposal sites.
Removal Journal, 7(5):31, May 1964.
Refuse
Denver, Colorado, has three almost completely
filled landfills and one burning dump, which
is about to be scrapped, and is now searching
for new refuse disposal sites. City officials
have filed application with the federal
government for surplus Lowry Field bombing
range land, originally donated to Lowry by
Denver. This area would provide dump space
for another 20 to 50 years.
64-0870
Disposal costs cut by use of landfill.
Refuse Removal Journal, 7(1):28, Jan. 1964.
The City of Calgary, Canada, is saving more
than $300,000 annually by disposing of its
refuse in sanitary landfills. Incineration,
which accounts for 40,000 tons of waste per
year, costs the city about $4.00 per ton as
compared to the $1.25 per ton for the landfill.
both combustibles and noncombustibles
are accepted. The combustibles are burned
in pits, and the noncombustibles are buried.
The sites and method of disposal in burning
pits are described in detail. Over 600,000
tons of demolition and construction wastes
were disposed of in 1963. Abandoned cars
and 110,000 tons of bulky refuse collected
from homeowners added to the load. Disposal
of waste lumber resulting from pier or other
waterfront demolition has been resolved
partially by barging and burning at sea. This
operation is conducted by private companies.
Since, as of January 1, 1966, all outdoor
burning will be prohibited, a decision will
have to be made prior to that time as to the
most sanitary, economical and efficient
method of disposal of these waste materials.
64-0872
Disposal problems in the County of Stirling.
Public Cleansing, 54(9) :1170, Sept. 1964.
The annual report of the Northwestern Division
of Stirling County is summarized. Refuse
disposal problems are caused by the rapidly
diminishing life of the tip and the shortage
of top cover. The solution may lie in
a hybrid disposal plant combining incineration,
composting, and pulverization.
64-0873
Dump areas unsafe for home building? Refuse
Removal Journal, 7(9):58, Sept. 1964.
The County Sanitary Landfill Committee of Los
Angeles, California, has reported to the Board
of Supervisors that old dump areas are unsafe
sites for the construction of residential
housing. It recommends that, when such areas
have been reclaimed, they should be adapted
for open-space recreational use and
low-density industrial utility. The committee
further recommended that building permits for
rubbish disposal sites should be granted only
after the filing of approved engineering plans
designating the proposed future use of the
reclaimed land.
64-0871
Disposal of bulk wastes. Public Works,
95(10) :100-102, Oct. 1964.
At the present time New York City disposes
of its outsize bulky waste at six landfill
sites. Two of these fills are specially
designated as construction waste landfills
where the demolition lumber is burned in
burning pits. At the other four locations
64-0874
Fundamentals of sanitary landfill operation.
Public Works, 95(12):88, Dec. 1964.
Some factors to be considered in establishing
a landfill are location, collection methods,
haul distances, accessibility, types of refuse,
and equipment. The advantages of the landfill
area and trench methods are also discussed.
219
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Sanitary Landfill
64-0875
Gas production in a sanitary landfill. Public
Works, 95(2):84-87, 174, Feb. 1964.
In a 3-year study of the factors controlling
the use of a sanitary landfill site, conducted
by the Department of Civil Engineering at the
University of Southern California, the quality
of the gases produced in the decomposition of
refuse was studied. Temperature and humidity
measurements were also determined. The
method is described, and the following
conclusions given: (1) the gases produced
within the anaerobic landfills consist chiefly
of carbon dioxide and nitrogen. The
concentration of methane depended upon the
moisture content and varied from little more
than a trace, in the landfill constructed
without the addition of water, to that of a
major component in the saturated landfill; (2)
hydrogen was present occasionally in very
small amounts; (3) the production of methane
was markedly increased by surface irrigation;
(4) the concentration of oxygen did not exceed
10 percent; (5) the gases produced appeared
to be under positive pressure and diffused
laterally and vertically downward into the
surrounding earth, as well as upward through
the top cover; (6) the initial peak
temperature within all landfills was reached
within 3 months and occurred at varying depths;
no significantly higher temperatures were
reached thereafter; (7) the initial
temperatures in the aerobic landfill greatly
exceeded those in the anaerobic landfills.
64-0876
Goode, C. S. Utilization of sanitary
landfill sites. In Proceedings; National
Conference on Solid Waste Research, Chicago,
Dec. 2-4, 1963. American Public Works
Association, 1964. p.128-135.
To overcome the various objections and to
convince the Planning Commissions and other
local officials of the necessity for the
location of a proposed sanitary landfill often
requires the efforts of a super salesman. In
most cases, plans are needed. Plans which
merely create a .fairly level area of higher
elevation are usually not convincing. The
opponents of a chosen location and the local
officials will want to know why the refuse
disposal site in this area is necessary. To
answer these questions, the haul distances
and their costs, the relationship of the
chosen site to other disposal areas, its
capacity, the estimated population which can
be served over the useful life of the disposal
facility must be presented. The creation of
a master plan for a rapidly growing community
is quite a problem. Although it is fairly
simple to project the ultimate population
growth on the basis of such things as
topography and the availability of water, it
is practically impossible to predict where
and when increments of growth will occur. The
cooperation of cities and counties is a must.
The coordination with departments representing
city, county, and state planning, highways,
recreation, and schools is extremely helpful.
Some of the problems faced by San Diego
County in the past and some of the projected
plans and the various methods used to overcome
these problems are discussed.
64-0877
Groff, G., and W. A. Taylor. Treatment plant
located on former landfill site. Public
Works, 95(6):105-107, June 1964.
The $1,834,000 primary sewage treatment plant
and interceptor system completed in Missoula,
Montana, in January 1964, will abate the
pollution of the Clark Fork River, and will
service a population of 50,000. Its
construction is unique, since it is located
at a former landfill site. The plant was
designed so that future secondary treatment
can be accomplished with minimal change of
existing facilities. It is a conventional
primary type plant with clarification,
chlorination, two-stage digestion and sludge
drying beds. The plant design and operation
are described in detail and a flow diagram
illustrates how the effluent from clarifiers
doubles back through the chlorine contact tank
located below grit channels and a Parshall
flume. The cost of operating the plant is
estimated at $57,700 per year.
64-0878
Grouting a refuse fill.
95(7):133, July 1964.
Public Works,
Two adjacent blocks of post-war flats in
England were found to be partly over the edge
of a quarry, which had been filled in 1925
with household refuse, and subsequently topped
off with 5 ft of clay. The flats were
founded 2 ft into the clay and had settled
at their adjacent ends by 6 in. and 8 in.
respectively. It was decided to undertake
pressure grouting to correct the situation.
A line of 2 in. primary treatment holes at
6 ft centers was drilled down to the rock
on the quarry side of the blocks. Cement
per sand grout was then injected through the
drilling rods as they were slowly withdrawn,
in order to form a wall of grout under the
220
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0875-0883
quarry side fittings. The pressures employed
rarely exceeded 10 lb per sq in. Injection
continued under the remaining footings,
secondary holes being drilled and injected
to tighten up between the primaries and
ensure support under the whole of the blocks.
Toward the end of the injection, pressures
developed were of the order of 25 lb per sq
in. A total of 66 tons of cement and 37
tons of sand were injected. The work was
completed in March, 1962. Dump-level readings
taken since show that there has been no
further settling.
64-0879
Hansen, D. From missile base to sanitary
landfill. Western City, 40(9):68, Sept. 1964.
The land which Dixon, California, had used as
a dump was needed for expansion of the sewage
treatment plant, and it needed another site.
The Department of Health, Education, and Welfare
donated 20 acres of the former missile base
to the city. A 6-ft fence surrounded the site
as was required, and Arizona cypress trees were
used as screening along the road way. Because
the launching pad foundations were so strongly
built, trenches were excavated parallel to
and between rows of pads. After all the
available land is crossed with parallel
trenches and filled, enough time will have
elapsed to decompose most of the refuse in
the first area used, and the area can be
cross-trenched, thereby making maximum
utilization of the land.
64-0880
Honolulu plans 1,000 yard daily landfill.
Refuse Removal Journal, 7(9):30, Sept. 1964.
A study of the nature of solid wastes generated
in Honolulu prompted a recommendation for a
landfill capable of accepting at least 1,000
cu yd of refuse daily and a special incinerator
to handle refuse high in moisture.
The preliminary considerations for operation
of a sanitary landfill include proper
selection of site, proper design and operation,
and strict adherence to sanitary landfill
standards to preclude operational problems
or public objection. Site requirements, land
requirements and length of haul, equipment
needed, personnel, and additional facilities
are considered. The operation of the sanitary
landfill, with specific recommendations for
areas level, on a slope, in low swampy areas,
and in valleys and ravines are detailed and
illustrated. Problems raised by operation in
a small community, in winter or in inclement
weather are considered. A list of recommended
practices is given with details for operation.
A comparison of sanitary landfill and
incineration as methods for refuse disposal
is given and the advantages and disadvantages
of sanitary landfill are listed. Selected
references and a list of audio visual aids
from the communicable disease center are
included.
64-0882
Kaupert, W. The present method of dumping
waste. Staedtehygiene, 15(4):77-80, Apr, 1964.
Important criteria for dumping waste are
reviewed. For new disposal sites a permit
must be obtained from local authorities; it
has become very difficult to find new sites.
When domestic waste is dumped, it should be
done in layers not exceeding 2 m in height,
and compacted, and covered with a layer of
finely milled or homogenized waste, upon which
a new layer of waste can be deposited. Very
often waste is dumped into deep pits and
compacted so tightly that no oxygen can
penetrate, in which case the rotting process
is greatly slowed down. For instance, in a
5 1/2 m pit, the waste was decomposed only
down to 4 m after 23 years. The bulldozer
has become indispensable at disposal sites.
Compacting prevents breeding of rats and
insects within the waste. (Text - German).
64-0881
Johnson, W. H., and B. F. Bjomson. The
sanitary landfill training guide. Atlanta,
Ga. , Communicable Disease Center, U. S.
Public Health Service, 1962. 20 p.
The sanitary landfill is an effective, proven
method for the permanent disposal of refuse.
It is especially suited for, and commonly
used for, cities of less than 100,000
population, because land is usually available.
64-0883
Ligouri, F. R. Open dump can be operated
without hazard to the public. Refuse Removal
Journal, 7(1):27, Jan. 1964.
The problem of maintaining safe open dumps,
particularly in small towns and rural areas
is discussed. Some steps recommended are
isolating the dump from sensitive land areas,
effectively using rodenticides at regular
planned intervals, dumping at only relatively
small areas at one time, and covering the
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Sanitary Landfill
rubbage with earth. If necessary, communities
could also share the same bulldozer.
64-0884
Maily, H. V. Landfill from eyesore to asset.
Public Works, 95(11):95-96, Nov. 1964.
Wilkes-Barre and three adjoining Pennslyvania
communities joined together to convert 60
acres of an abandoned coal stripping operation,
leased at $1.60 annually, into a centrally
located sanitary landfill. Estimated annual
expenditure for operation on a five-day week
basis was $36,340 or $.39 per capita. In
June, 1964, 3,747 vehicles used the site.
Charges are made according to vehicle size.
The site is worked 10 hr per day, 6 days per
week. Salvaging is discouraged. Burning
and scavenging are prohibited. It cost the
East Side Landfill Authority $2,000 to prepare
the site. A 2% cu yd crawler tractor and a
loader were purchased, costing $30,000 each.
The cost to Wilkes-Barre of operating its
30-year old incinerator had increased from
$20,000 in 1937 to $60,798 in 1963. Since
the landfill operation costs less than $25,257,
the city will save $35,000 each year.
Officials are considering using the old
incinerator to store bulk rock salt.
64-0885
Measuring gas escape from a landfill.
Works, 95(9):163, Sept. 1964.
Public
To measure the rate of carbon dioxide escape
through a 1 ft silt cover over a landfill,
special equipment was designed by Engineering
Science, Inc. An airtight box 4 ft x 16 ft
x 8 in. was laid flat on the fill surface.
The box, open on the flat side down, confined
the volume over a given surface, thereby
confining any gases escaping upward from the
fill beneath the box. The confined mixture
of gases was swept out of the box by slow
induced air movement produced by a small
pump located on the downstream end of the
box, which drew air into four ports on the
upstream end. The four inlet ports were
galvanized pipes stuffed with copper wool
saturated with potassium hydroxide for
removal of any carbon dioxide in the
incoming air. After passing through the box
and sweeping the ground surface, the gas
mixture passed through caustic potassium
hydroxide to absorb the carbon dioxide.
Weight gain of absorbers, over a timed run,
represented carbon dioxide collected. From
theoretical diffusion equations it had been
estimated that 1.2 x 10 to the sixth power
Ib per acre per year of carbon dioxide were
escaping upward to the atmosphere. The direct
measurements, with the above described
monitoring apparatus, showed that the amount
was less than this by a factor of 6.3 times.
Further test incorporating several refinements
are planned.
64-0886
Merz, R. C. Determination of the quantity and
quality of gases produced during refuse
decomposition; second annual report. Los
Angeles, University of Southern California,
July 1963. 31 p.
The second annual report contains a review,
summary and interpretation of all work completed
since December 1, 1961, the start of the
investigation. The results of the laboratory
studies, conclusions, the laboratory procedures,
and a discussion are presented. Supporting
data and numerous illustrations are offered.
Eight 55-gal steel drums were used as
containers for varying amounts of refuse and
the gas production was measured against time
and temperature. The gases were analyzed.
The temperature in all drums rose 10 to 14 F
when the room temperature was maintained
between 90 and 95 F. The volume of gas
produced, as expected, is related to the grass
and garbage content of the refuse; gas
production in one drum was higher than two
others under comparable conditions. The
volume of gas produced is apparently related
to aeration; gas production was higher in
the aerated drum that those which did not
receive air. Carbon dioxide and nitrogen
have been the major gases found in the drums.
Carbon dioxide, except for one drum, has
consistently increased in volume since the
start of the investigation. Methane, except
for minor amounts in one drum, was not found
in measurable volumes in the drums--even that
which was saturated.
64-0887
Merz, R. C., and R. Stone. Factors controlling
utilization of sanitary landfill site; final
report. Los Angeles, University of Southern
California, 1963. 126 p.
A three-year study of the factors controlling
the use of a sanitary landfill site is reported.
The optimum means by which the most waste can
be put into the available volume and at the
same time permit shrinkage prediction was
determined. Six test cells, each 50 ft by
20 ft deep, were constructed at the Spadra
Landfill, Walnut, California, by the County
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0884-0890
Sanitation Districts of Los Angeles County,
a cooperating agency. The conditions of
construction of each cell were varied, and
their influence on the biochemical decomposition
of the organic material was studied. The
planning and execution of the field installation,
the data obtained concerning cell construction,
shrinkage, gas production, temperature and
humidity, and conclusions drawn from the data
are detailed. Numerous illustrations and charts
are presented.
64-0888
Merz, R. C., and R. Stone. The sanitary
landfill site. In Factors controlling
utilization of sanitary landfill site; final
report. Los Angeles, University of Southern
California, 1963. p.6-9
The site chosen was that offered by the
County Sanitation Districts of Los Angeles
County, known as Spadra Landfill No. 2,
located near the City of Pomona, California.
The site covers 128 acres and serves
approximately 180,000 persons. It was
established in 1957. The area finally
selected was a former walnut grove.
Preparation of the site on which the test
cells were to be constructed included clearing
away of the walnut trees, excavation of the
cells, placement of access wells, and
installation of the facilities and instruments
required before placement of refuse. A
trough 50 ft wide by approximately 500 ft long
by 9 ft deep was first excavated. The result
was an in-line series of five cells having the
appearance of a series of truncated pyramids.
Cell 6 was scheduled for full construction
above ground. In the center of each cell there
was erected an access well to provide outlets
for gas collection lines, leach collection
lines, and electrical leads, and a means of
human access for placement of test samples
and equipment as well as the taking of internal
humidity and temperature measurements. Each
access well consisted of a steel pipe 44 in.
diameter by one quarter in. thick by 18 ft
long, with numerous openings cut into the
side. To eliminate the possibility of loss
of water through ground seepage in cell 1,
the bottom was fully covered with a seamless,
impervious, polyethylene membrane having a
thickness of 6 mm.
64-0889
Merz, R. C., and R. Stone. Refuse and soil.
In Factors controlling utilization of sanitary
landfill site; final report. Los Angeles,
University of Southern California, 1963. p. 9-13.
All of the refuse places in the six cells
originated in the residential districts of
the adjoining communities of Pomona, San
Dimas, Claremont, and LaVerne. Further control
was exerted to make certain that only typical
domestic refuse consisting of paper, grass and
garden trimmings, garbage, and miscellaneous
inert material was placed in the cells.
Industrial wastes were excluded. The solid
waste, as finally placed in the cells,
consisted of approximately 65 percent paper,
25 percent grass and garden trimmings, 5
percent garbage, and 5 percent inert, by
volume. In the laboratory, the average
moisture content for the entire mass of refuse
was determined to be 35 percent on a wet
weight basis (54 percent dry weight basis).
The top soil of the entire Spadra site
comprises a thin layer of organic loam. It
was skimmed off and stockpiled for use
elsewhere. The subsoil consists of a
decomposed shale. It is this material which
was used for the buffer strips, for admixture
with refuse, and for final cover on the top
and sides of the cells.
64-0890
Merz, R. C., and R. Stone. Cell construction.
In Factors controlling utilization of sanitary
landfill site; final report. Los Angeles,
University of Southern California, 1963. p.13-39
The six cells were built with an overall depth
of 20 ft. The first five cells were begun
approximately 9 ft below normal ground
elevation, whereas cell 6 was built entirely
above ground. In cell 1, the refuse was
placed continuously until full depth (18 ft)
was reached. As the refuse was being placed,
it was continually watered to refusal so that
the overall cell moisture content was 80.1
percent on a dry weight basis. In cell 2,
the refuse was placed in 4-ft thick layers
separated by 1-ft thick earth covers.
Sufficient water was added to bring moisture
content to 43.5 percent. In cell 3, the refuse
was placed in 4-ft thick layers separated by
1-ft thick earth covers. No water was added.
In cell 4, the refuse was placed continuously
until full depth was reached. Water was
added to a moisture content of 51.9 percent.
A 2-ft thick top cover was added to bring the
overall depth to 20 ft. In cell 5, earth was
admixed with the refuse in the ratio of 1
part earth to 2.2 parts of refuse by volume.
Water was added to moisture content of 34.8
percent. A 2-ft thick cover was used. Cell
6 was built entirely above ground in a
manner that would admit the atmosphere into
the interior of the cell. Refuse was placed
and water was added to a moisture content of
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Sanitary Landfill
89.9 percent. The compaction ratios achieved
are tabulated. Various measuring instruments
are set in place. As the cells were
constructed, half sections of 55-gal steel
drum were located within the cells, 2 with
open end up for the collection of leach and
2 with closed end up for collection of gas.
64-0891
Merz, R. C., and R. Stone. Cell activity.
In Factors controlling utilization of sanitary
landfill site; final report. Los Angeles,
University of Southern California, 1963. p.39-83.
Data indicate that the greatest settlement
has occurred in aerobic cell 6; in the
anaerobic cells maximum settlement has
occurred in cell 4. Cell 4 was constructed
with minimum compaction. Total settlement
figures are presented. During the first two
weeks following completion of construction,
the aerobic cell surface has the greatest
rate of settlement, 7.18 ft per month. This
was followed by the minimum compaction cell
4, 3.42 ft per month, with cells 3, 5, and 2
following in that .order with much the same
rate of settlement, approximately 2.25 ft
per month. Cell 1 had the lowest rate of
settlement, 1.23 ft per month. In the fifth
month, there was only a difference of 0.05
ft in the rates of settlement between minimum
and maximum values. The gases collected within
the inverted collection cans, the leach
collection cans, the DWR tubes, and the
surface collection can, are described and
the access wells were analyzed. A review of
the data shows a general trend of the gas
components, except methane, to fluctuate with
time. The methane component appears in increase
with time. In general, a peak temperature was
reached at each level relatively soon following
completion of construction of the cell.
However, in some cases, a. further slight
increase in temperature occurred with passage
of time. Some odor problems were encountered
during construction in the uncovered cells,
the most severe being in connection with the
saturated cell. The odor disappeared with the
covering of the cell.
64-0892
Merz, R. C., and R. Stone. Supplemental
studies. In Factors controlling utilization
of sanitary landfill site; final report.
Los Angeles, University of Southern California,
1963. p.83-93.
Two preliminary and parallel phases of the
work were carried out. One was a literature
survey, the other was visitation of other landfills
to learn their operating procedures. Operating
landfills visited included: San Diego, California,
and Phoenix, Arizona, where water is being
admixed refuse; Fresno, California, where
compaction is being employed; San Francisco,
California, where the effect of tidal water
is being observed; Burbank, California, where
data on landfill settlements are being
secured; and the City of Los Angeles, Griffith
Park Landfill where a pressure plate is being
used to measure refuse weight. The general
qualitative information thus obtained was
employed to develop the test cells. The
records of more than 1500 trucks were examined
and the maximum and minimum densities were
determined. Time studies were made to find
out how long it took to unload the compactor
type truck of the refuse it carried. Experiments
were carried out to indicate whether or not
the amount of water needed to support the
life of grass and selected shrubbery on top
of a landfill site would be enough to cause
percolation through a known depth of landfill.
A study was made to determine the effects of
moisture and temperature on refuse combustion,
and a safe moisture percentage limit above
which refuse will not spontaneously burn.
The procedure is described.
64-0893
Ministry of Housing and Local Government. New
life for dead lands--derelict acres reclaimed.
London, Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 1963.
30 p.
In England and Wales there are about 150,000
acres of derelict land, much of which could
either be reclaimed for development or
improved. With the recent development of
earth moving machinery, huge quantities of
spoil and waste material, plus the progress
attained in the technique for 'making soil',
derelict land reclamation has become
economically feasible. As a preliminary,
colliery waste must be tested for presence
of toxins. Shale often contains large
amounts of sulphates, which can be toxic to
plants, thus causing restricted plant growth.
As colliery waste weathers, it becomes greatly
acidic. Newly dug soil may be neutral, but
this condition is only temporary. When the
pH reaction is lower than 4.5, three tons of
ground limestone per acre will usually remedy
the calcium deficiency if applied prior to
any organic matter. The application of an
organic fertilizer before cultivation is
essential. A compound fertilizer with a high
potash content should be used. The optimum
rate of seeding appears to be about 65 Ib
per acre. A bibliography is included.
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0891-0898
64-0894
Moveable steel 'face' to refuse tip at
Aldershot. Chartered Municipal Engineer,
91:103, Mar. 1964.
The steel barrier used to replace earth on
the refuse tip at Aldershot is described and
illustrated. The Borough Engineer's staff
at Aldershot designed a steel barrier or
moveable 'face' for the refuse tip to save
money on earth cover. The barrier made of
mild steel plates 8 ft square and 1/4 in. thick
are fixed to a 4 in. channel frame at an angle
corresponding to the tip face, with the lower
legs of the frame acting as skids or runners
on which the barrier can be slid forward as
required. The barrier, which is held in
position by the weight of refuse on the skids,
is pulled forward each day to provide space
for that day's tipping. The need for earth
cover on the working face is obviated by
leaving the barrier or face in position at
the end of the day. A method is given which
eliminates the need for earth cover in a tip
according to the Borough Engineers.
64-0895
New tire for earth-moving machines. Public
Cleansing, 54(2):722, Feb. 1964.
The new Mitio Duratrak pneumatic tire cannot
be punctured from landfill operations. It is
built up of radial laminated segments of
rubber and fabric. A special renewable traction
tread can fit over the tire for use on soft
ground, which thus would render the life of
the tire indefinite. The tire costs 50 percent
more than equivalent pneumatic tires.
unjustified service calls. The new machine
has a 1 3/4 cu yd multi-purpose bucket which
is particularly useful in landfill work. The
955H's primary duty consists of spreading
and compacting refuse on the trench slope,
then spreading cover dirt.
64-0897
Pagan, R., and C. H. Billings. Soil-cement
road on marshland. Public Works, 95(5) :93,
94, May 1964.
In order to reach a new landfill area in the
Borough of Rutherford, a new, inexpensive
roadway had to be constructed by the State
of New Jersey across Berry's Creek. At the
site of the crossing the creek bed was about
150 ft wide and the distance from the creek
bank on the landfill side to the highway
access road was about 520 ft. It was decided
to construct a sub-base using borrowed fill
to support a soil-cement base road. The
embankment construction and the construction
of soil-cement base road are described in
detail. The final cost of the job totalled
$70,000. The actual cost of the surface
was $6,818.75 or $2.73 per sq yd. The road
was used throughout the winter of 1963 to
1964, taking a traffic load of about 100
loaded trucks per day. The surface remained
unbroken and otherwise in good condition.
Considerable deformation of the original
contour and some settling have been observed,
but these imperfections have not detracted
from the overall usefullness of the structure
and it is anticipated that the road will last
at least the life of the fill area.
64-0896
Osborn, V. New equipment cuts landfill costs.
American City, 79(7):27, July 1964.
By replacing a 7-year-old truck-type loader
with a new machine that has a guaranteed
maintenance provision, Springfield, Missouri,
will save an estimated $4,780 on
sanitary landfill costs during the next 2
years. The city accepted the bid offered by
the local Caterpillar dealer for a 955H loader,
with a proposed maintenance cost of $3,500.
Under terms of the maintenance contract, the
dealer furnishes all labor and material
necessary (excluding normal wear items) to
maintain the loader in good operating condition.
The dealer serviceman makes a monthly
inspection, and a suitable replacement
machine must be supplied during prolonged
repair, but the contract guards against
64-0898
Pagano, S. Sanitary landfill operations in
New York State. Public Health Reports,
79(6):543-548, June 1964.
Sanitary landfills are operations in which
refuse is neatly deposited in the ground,
compacted, covered daily with 6 in. of earth,
and compacted again. Modified landfills fail
to meet the last two requirements. This
disposal method is gaining popularity,
especially since it can be operated
inexpensively in many terrains. Sanitary
landfills were made requisite in New York in
an attempt to solve the state's vast refuse
problem. This discussion considers the results
of a 1962 survey of 24 newly-installed
operations. The investigation indicated that
the cost per person of running landfills
generally decreases with increasing population.
Cost itself depends upon price and
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Sanitary Landfill
availability of land, labor, machinery, and
the number of working hours. Inefficient
operation, poor site location, and heavy
clay soils incur high expenses.
Crawler-tractors with front-end loaders are
the most widely used equipment. The ideal
cover material for landfill operations is
a half sand, half clay-silt soil. Stockpiled
cover material should be covered with
vegetation, straw, etc. , to keep it relatively
dry. The number of working hours for
landfills depends on the number of the
population served, varying from 8 to 64 per
week. Burning at sites is undesirable,
resulting in pollution. Fire, blown papers,
odors, and rodents are the only major problems
experienced. Small communities may meet
economic problems by banding together for
landfill operations. Once operations cease,
no future use for sites is generally planned.
Additional data discusses all aspects of the
survey taken.
64-0899
Partridge, J. W. Disposal of solid waste in
rural areas. In Proceedings; Second
International Congress, International
Research Group on Refuse Disposal, Essen,
Germany, May 22-25, 1962. p.1-17.
The main rules to be observed for controlled
garbage dumping are: (1) garbage is dumped
in successive layers of moderate thickness;
(2) the layers are levelled and limited by
banks of less than 45 degrees; (3) dumping
must be compact; and (4) the dumped material
must be covered on the same day with at least
4 in. of earth. In practice, however, many
difficulties arise from controlled dumping.
The various problems are discussed, such as,
garbage transformation process, temperatures,
thickness of the dump, and covering of the
dump. It is preferable to use a heavy vehicle
working rapidly, such as a loader, a
bulldozer and a packing grab. Tightness of
the cover layer is a favorable factor in fire
control. Methane gas might cause accidents
if it penetrates into the cellars of neighboring
houses. Whenever methane is present, the
heap is too high, too packed, or was covered
up with a fresh layer too quickly. Destruction
of insects and rats is one of the aims of
controlled dumping. Common pests are flies,
crickets, and rats. Surveillance is required,
and current types of pesticide are to be
applied. Once completed, dumping grounds can
very quickly be turned into meadows and
cultivation areas, as well as public gardens
and sport grounds.
64-0900
Pound, C. E. Our landfill plays favorites.
American City, 79(1) :85, Jan. 1964.
A county landfill encourages municipal
sanitation departments to incinerate their
refuse before burial. Three truckloads of
raw refuse condense to one truckload after
incineration. Because of limited landfill
sites, a $2.25 per ton disposal fee for raw
refuse against $1 .75 per ton for incinerated
refuse was instigated, allowing savings for
incineration by sanitation departments of
25 percent. The proposed switch to rubber
wheels from track vehicles for better
compacting is also explained.
64-0901
Refuse tipping and land reclamation.
Surveyor and Municipal Engineer,
124(3784):37-38, Dec. 12, 1964.
Bristol's refuse tipping and land reclamation
program is described as one manner of dealing
with disposal problems. Separation of
household waste from industrial waste is
mentioned, as is the increasing amount of
plastic and polythene which does not break
down and which stops circulation through the
tip. Workable tipping sites reasonably
close to the city and located where serious
objections would be unlikely are becoming
scarce. Underground streams and other
watercourses pose a problem. Pulverization,
incineration, tipping into the sea and other
methods are mentioned as alternative solutions.
64-0902
Regional recovery of derelict land.
Surveyor and Municipal Engineer, 124(3779):52,
Nov. 7, 1964.
The advantages of the disposal of refuse by
dumping are discussed in reference to the
recovery of unusable land. While some
heavily urbanized areas require the use of
mechanical means of refuse disposal, disposal
by dumping can be more economical and contribute
to land reclamation. It is estimated that
there are 12,000 acres of holes in the
ground which should be filled in Britain.
This land spoilage is increasing at the rate
of 3,500 acres a year. In South Lancashire,
which has one of the largest areas of land
requiring fill, there is also a problem of
disposal of waste and refuse. The proper
location of transfer stations should
reduce the costs of refuse collection haulage
and allow the bulk hauling at costs of 5 to
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0899-0907
10 shillings per ton depending on the distance.
The future requirements for waste disposal
must be coupled with an estimate of the
production of land made unusable by holes to
make certain that alternative means of
disposal are available before the saturation
point is reached.
64-0903
Sanitary landfill use studies. Public Works,
95(4) :24, Apr. 1964.
A 3-year study of the factors controlling the
use of a sanitary landfill site has been
completed by the University of Southern
California. The purpose was to determine the
means by which the most waste can be put
into the available volume and at the same
time permit shrinkage prediction. Six test
cells, each 50 ft square and 20 ft deep,
were constructed. The conditions of each
cell were varied, and their influence on
the biochemical decomposition of the organic
matter was studied. Reports on two phases
of the work were carried in Public Works, in
September 1961, and February 1964, respectively.
A final report details the planning and
execution of the installation, documents the
data concerning cell construction, shrinkage,
gas production, temperature and humidity,
and presents conclusions. Copies of the
report are available from the Department of
Civil Engineering of the University of
Southern California.
64-0904
Sanitary landfills. Canadian Municipal
Utilities, 102(12):18-22, 50-52, Dec. 1964.
Interviews with Mr. Charles Newbury, a
consultant and scientific adviser in
pollution and hygiene, stress the serious
disadvantages of sanitary landfills: (1)
if not properly covered in, there are odors
and rats which make the landfill unsightly
and lead to health hazards; (2) because of
the gases generated, mainly methane, sanitary
landfills cannot be used to build upon for
40, or maybe even 100 years, unless expensive
precautions are taken; and (3) the use of
ravines for sanitary landfills destroys the
natural landscape. He feels that the solution
lies in more extensive use if incineration
as a means of garbage disposal with a
combination of incineration plus landfill for
burying the ash, as well as the development
of other uses for ash. Mr. Ian McKerracher,
an engineer in charge of sanitary landfill
operations in Toronto, feels that although
there has been some trouble, it has not been
great enough to indicate that landfills are
not the best way to dispose of garbage. He
indicates that there really is not an
alternative since incineration still leaves
50 percent of the refuse, which then has to
be buried, and since it is no longer acceptable
because of air pollution. Incineration to
the point where the material is inert is
tremendously expensive. Some of the problems
facing sanitary landfill operations are leaching
methane gas production, the proper amount of
cover to use, and the ability to plant on the lani
64-0905
Shall we bury refuse or rocket it into space?
Refuse Removal Journal, 7(8):8, Aug. 1964.
Four methods are currently used to dispose
of refuse on land: open dumping; controlled
burning dumping; refuse filling; and sanitary
landfilling. The trend is toward the sanitary
landfill, of which there are basically two
methods: the trench method and the area
method. Factors to be kept in mind in
planning and operating the sanitary landfill
are listed.
64-0906
Two county groups sue for landfill site.
Refuse Removal Journal, 7(1):28, Jan. 1964.
The Bergen County, New Jersey, Board of
Freeholders, and a group of several Essex
County communities will try to initiate
condemnation proceedings against the
Erie-Lackawanna railroad in Bergen Superior
court. Both plaintiffs want to purchase
railroad-owned land for use as a garbage
disposal site. They have offered prices up
to $1,000 an acre, but have been refused
without explanation.
64-0907
Vanderveld, J. Design and operation of
sanitary landfills. In American Public Works
Association Yearbook. Chicago, American Public
Works Association, 1964. p.242-246.
The need for proper selection of landfill
operation sites and the need for experienced
personnel to design the entire operation from
beginning to completion of the project are
discussed. This includes preparing the necessary
technical data such as topographic maps,
geology, soil characteristics, plans and
specifications, and other design features,
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Street Cleaning
and spelling out in detail the complete
operational procedures to be followed. An
important factor in getting the public to
accept the sanitary landfills is good public
relations operations. Public relations
operations in Waukegan, Illinois, are
discussed. A plant in Florida handles 50
tons of refuse each day. Research methods
have been perfected for mixing and treating
sewage and refuse and converting this to
an outstanding and useful fertilizer.
64-0908
Versatile land-rover. Public Cleansing,
54(9):1167. Sept. 1964.
Ripen and Pately Bridge, England, has brought
a Land-Rover vehicle with a dozer blade and a
refuse collection type body, which provides
the versatility necessary for a rural area
with six scattered tips. The vehicle spreads
and compacts the refuse at the tips, tows
other vehicles that have broken down, and
hauls refuse from premises where normal
packers cannot reach because of narrow and
badly surfaced roads.
Whenever refuse is deposited on land, the
potential impact on surface water or
subterranean aquifers by leaching may be
significant. A good site selection can
eliminate many problems. If leaching of a
landfill does occur, it has been shown that
ground water in the immediate vicinity can
become grossly polluted and unfit for
domestic or irrigation use. Ash dumps were
shown to leach soluble salts and alkalies to
the extent of 2.9 Ib per cu yd for cations
and 5.3 Ib per cu yd for anions. The deeper
aquifers can be protected from pollution
by their own impervious layer; however, this
does not protect it from downstream pollution
and subsequent travel of chemical pollutants
to its present location. Data now available
indicate that the pollution of ground water
from a refuse source has been essentially
limited to shallow aquifers, but that deeper
aquifers can be affected. Those landfills
that are not class 'A' operations pose the
most cause for concern. We need to know much
more about both geological and climatic
characteristics that, along with operational
techniques, are so important to short- and
long-term effects of degradation, and to
possible leaching of refuse disposal on land.
64-0909
Want railroad site for dumping area. Refuse
Removal Journal, 7(11):20, Nov. 1964.
Since Newark, New Jersey, is facing an impending
shortage of refuse disposal areas, the city
is taking legal action to foreclose on 39
acres of meadowland railroad property for
back taxes. It intends to use the area for
landfill operations. If the action is
successful, the benefits will show up
immediately in the refuse collection budget,
as not all of the collection trucks will have
to make the long haul to the small town
dumping site now being used. It is planned
to divide the city into two collection zones.
The refuse from one zone will be delivered
to the railroad area site, while the collected
material from the other zone will be carted
to the out of town location. Long range plans
for the proposed new landfill area are to
fill, develop, and then sell the land for
industrial construction. Both composting and
incineration was studied by the city, but it
was decided to continue the landfill system.
64-0910
Weaver, L. Refuse disposal, its significance.
Ground Water, 2(1):26-30, 1964.
STREET CLEANING
64-0911
Annunziata, A. Flushers fill the gap.
American City, 79(5):8, May 1964.
Previous flushing with water improves cleaning
efficiency on streets in Mount Vernon, New
York. Flushing washes refuse to gutters
where it can be easily collected.
64-0912
Billings, G. D. The pros and cons of
vacuumized sweeping. In American Public Works
Association Yearbook. Chicago, American
Public Works Association, 1964. p.180-184.
A brief history of vacuumized sweeping is
presented. One argument for vacuumized
sweeping shows that it provides effective dust
control, and some units make it possible to
trap dust particles as fine as five microns in
size smaller than the human eye can see. All
of the world's leading automobile plants--Rolls
Royce, Cadillac, General Motors, Fiat, Volvo,
Chrysler, Volkswagen and others have used
American-developed vacuumized sweeping for
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0908-0920
many years. Argument against vacuumized
sweeping shows that it is limited to relatively
smooth paved surfaces. While there is
reasonable tolerance of an inch or so with a
vacuumized sweeper, it is obvious it won't
work on cobblestones at all. A brief
explanation is given of some of the tests
the manufacturers run the sweepers through,
to improve on the performance and maintenance
of these units.
Twelve ways to assist in measuring the
adequacy of effectiveness of community street
cleaning programs are listed. Problems in
the city of Baltimore are discussed. The
biggest weakness is the failure of the city to
provide effective control over the parking
and storing of motor vehicles on the streets.
This has severely limited the street sweeping
potential, since the force of ten sweepers
is largely operating on arterial streets
only.
64-0913
Bredell, R. G. 'Unkempt, unswept' label
touches off a storm. American City,
79(10):114-115, Oct. 1964.
Seventeen years ago a book entitled 'Inside
U.S.A.' by John Gunther criticized the
sanitation of Indianapolis, Indiana. In
retaliation, the city began a clean-up
campaign which has won them many civic honors.
The campaign was assigned the name 'Yard
Parks' and began in 1949, but in 1955 the
first signs of real results appeared. The
Board of Public Works, Street Division stepped
up efforts to maintain and improve streets and
curb areas. The project, according to the
article, would never have gotten off the
ground without the help and drive of the
citizenry.
64-0914
Bristling with possibilities.
54(3):805, Mar. 1964.
Public Cleansing,
Burnley, England, has experimented with
polypropylene bristle on both manual and
mechanical sweeping. This has resulted in
a more efficient sweep. It improves the
resilience of the natural bristle.
64-0915
Danforth, H. L. Follow-up sweeper vacuums
up dirt. American City, 79(5):8, May 1964.
Use of small, hand-pushed vacuum cleaners
on wheels to pick up janitor cleanings from
business buildings which are dumped in gutters
after regular street sweeping has improved
downtown appearance in Tucson, Arizona.
64-0917
Edwards, R. A. One flusher for two cities.
American City, 79(6):30, June 1964.
Two Maryland cities, College Park,
population 21,000, and Cheverly, population
6,000, jointly purchased a flusher to clean
their streets. Its use is proportional to
their respective $8,000 and $4,000 investments.
64-0918
Esso T. Let the rain help you sweep.
American City, 79(6):30, June 1964.
Metuchen, New Jersey, uses rainy days to put
otherwise task-less men out assisting
sweeping. The rain softens and holds down
dirt, the sweeper doesn't have to stop for
water, and a truck and loader are available
during inclement weather.
64-0919
Fleming, R. R. How sweepers really perform.
American City, 79(5):113, May 1964.
Results of the magazine's street cleaning
survey of large and small American cities
are reported. The report contains information
on sweepers vs. population and street mileage,
sweeper performance and life, mileage of
brooms of various natural and synthetic
materials, and frequency of sweeping streets
of different areas. The survey also includes
the most pressing problems and the most
appreciated recent development in street
cleaning.
64-0916
Denison, R. E. Methods of evaluating street
cleaning programs. In American Public Works
Association Yearbook. Chicago, American
Public Works Association, 1964. p.153-157.
64-0920
Haley, J. W. Hokie-pokies can't compare.
American City, 79(3):26, Mar. 1964.
In Boston, Massachusetts, two 53-in. path
vacuum sweepers have replaced six men using
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Street Cleaning
pushbrooms and carts. This mechanization, in
traffic-congested areas where big sweepers
cannot operate, has proved to be both
efficient and economical. The small
Tennant 88 vacuum sweepers, which patrol
daily, can control dust without using water.
They dump their loads at selected points
for later pick-up by a loader and truck.
64-0921
Hickok, R. How to cut street-cleaning costs.
American City, 79(7):90, July 1964.
The street superintendent of El Paso, Texas,
outlines the new policies and equipment that
he has introduced for street cleaning and
the consequent improvement over hand labor.
64-0922
Keeping the streets clean.
79(7) :14, July 1964.
American City,
In Chicago, Illinois, mechanical sweepers
cleaned 109,391 curb miles of streets, and
hand labor swept an additional 60,209 curb
miles during 1963. To aid the 100 sweepers,
which the city has in operation, 2,400
vivid plastic litter baskets were added to
12,600 others conveniently placed at strategic
locations. It is anticipated that the
attention-attracting colors of these new
baskets will encourage the public to toss
their litter into them, instead of dropping it
into the streets.
One operator takes care of the entire sweeping
and hauling tasks for Muscatine, Iowa, a city
of 22,000. Near the end of the day he
exchanges the sweeper for a self-contained
Lo-Dal loader to clean up the piles previously
dumped onto the street. This system
eliminated two trucks, a loader, and four
men. However, this method is somewhat slower
and needs supplementing during the early
part of spring cleanup and for leaf pickup
late in the fall. The driver covers about
20 curb-miles during each 8-hr shift, and
the bass-filled brooms run about 175 miles
before they need replenishing.
64-0925
Ministry of Housing and Local Government.
Public cleansing refuse collection and
disposal; street cleansing costing returns
1961-62. London, Her Majesty's Stationery
Office, 1963. 58 p.
Public cleansing costing returns covering the
year 1961-62 are compiled from returns
submitted by local authorities of large urban
areas and a number of selected rural areas in
England and Wales. Collection and Disposal
of House and Trade Refuse, and Street and
Gully Cleansing are the two main areas
discussed. Tables compiled on house and
trade refuse cover: Amounts Collected
per 1,000 of population; Collection and
Disposal-Unit Costs; Range of Costs; Costs
per Ton-Collection; Costs per Ton-Disposal;
Costs per Ton-Labour and Transport; Salvage;
and Figures for Individual Authorities. One
table on Figures for Individual Authorities
is presented for Street and Gully Cleansing.
64-0923
Lucia, F. J. If it works in New York City.
American City, 79(1):100, Jan. 1964.
Major street-cleaning practices and problems
in New York are discussed. This city uses
alternate-side parking bans to facilitate
gutter cleaning in areas with many parked
cars both day and night. Problems of fall
leaf removal and vacant lot clearance are
considered. Replacing wood and natural
fibres with plastics fibres in machine sweeper
brushes extends life ten-fold. Training
operators in the adjusting and use of the
expensive brushes was also initiated.
64-0924
McElwee, W. Sweeping crew shrinks to one
man for two units. American City, 79(7):14,
July 1964.
64-0926
Modern vehicles and equipment in Germany.
Public Cleansing, 54(6):945, June 1964.
Papers on refuse collection vehicles in
Frankfurt, Germany, and street cleaning vehicles
in Hanover are reviewed, Frankfurt heavily
employs mechanical and dustless loading.
The Hanover paper discusses large mechanical
sweepers which can be converted for other
uses.
64-0927
Municipal techniques--'Sanitary Sam' in
Chula Vista. Western City, 40(3):44,
Mar. 1964.
In addition to their regular street cleaners,
the people of Chula Vista, California, have
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0921-0935
'Sanitary Sam'. He is a unique figure, who
travels through the business and residential
districts, picking up trash and debris
that has accumulated since the regular street
cleaner made his rounds. 'Sanitary Sam'
wears a white uniform and travels on a
white three-wheel scooter which houses an
extra large trash can, broom and shovel. At
Chula Vista, 'Sam' is part of the free
civic betterment program and is accepted warmly
by the people. There has been no copyright
placed on 'Sam', since it is hoped that
more cities will take advantage of the idea.
64-0928
New development in gully emptying. Public
Cleansing, 54(2) : 72A-725 , Feb. 1964.
Some features of a new gully emptier, the
Dennis, developed in England, are a scientific
method to test range of vision, optional
left-hand steering for better control of
curbside cleanup, optional power jets for
washing beneath parked vehicles and flushing
debris into the gutter, and pressure spraying
eauipment at the front end of the vehicle.
64-0929
New vacuum train cleans New York transit
system. Refuse Removal Journal, 7(4):18,
Apr. 1964.
New York City has acquired a three-car
vacuum cleaner, more than 150 ft long, to
clean its subway tracks. It cleans from
three to 10 miles of track per hr, depending
upon the amount of debris present. A major
feature of the new cleaner is that it will
be completely protected against fires.
64-0931
Power sweeper cuts uneven broom wear.
Removal Journal, 7(1):33, Jan. 1964.
Refuse
A 4-s-yd power sweeper for municipal use which
is capable of highway speeds to 25 mph is
described. Three brooms and conveyor speeds
are provided and an improved broom suspension
system is incorporated within the machine.
64-0932
Rheinfrank, W. J.
toughest problem.
Apr. 1964.
Solving street cleanings
American City, 79(4):94 ,
The Vacuum truck method of collection of
street sweepings dumped along sweeper routes
in Milwaukee, Wisconsin is described. Here
two vacuum cleaner 16-yd closed collection
trucks replaced crews hand-loading dumped
sweepings into open trucks at 1/3 the cost
of hand-loading.
64-0933
Rossi, R. M. A clean sweep costs more.
American City, 79(6):114, June 1964.
The street cleaning procedures of Riverside,
California, are described, including the use
of night sweeping. Dust, palm fronds, and
limbs resulting from high winds necessitate
modification of manual cleaning systems.
64-0934
Stenman, A. Men and machines cut one third
off sweeping bill. American City, 79(3) :111.
Mar. 1964.
64-0930
Patrick, P. K. Mechanical street cleansing.
London, Temple Press Books, 1964. 48 p.
Information and data on mechanical street
cleaning was obtained from local authorities;
different types and the machines available
in England at the present time were surveyed.
An effort was made to foresee future trends or
developments. Subject headings include:
Introduction, Types of Mechanical Sweepers,
Selection and Operation of Mechanical Sweepers,
Mechanical Sweeping of Footways, Economics of
Mechanical Street Cleansing, Maintenance,
and Conclusion. Two appendices give a
classified summary of mechanical sweepers and
suction cleaners and a record of brush wear
on mechanical sweepers.
Street cleaning procedures which cut costs
from $4.68 per curb mile to $3 per curb mile
in Fresno, California, are described.
Route-and-procedure analysis with the help
of drivers accounted for the savings. A
service-rating system has improved the work
of the men.
64-0935
Tope, 0. Modern street cleaning vehicles
and equipment of German Public Cleansing
Department. Presented at Eighth
International Congress of Public Cleansing,
Vienna (Austria), Apr. 14-17, 1964. 28 p.
The objectives of and hindrances of public
cleansing are discussed. Because of financial
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Lt*'er
reasons, the shortage of labor, the high labor
cost, and the need for obtaining maximum
cleaning performance, mechanization of street
cleaning has not yet achieved its full
potential. For economy and sanitation,
Heidelberg and Hannover 30 years ago,
introduced system-bins for the reception of
street sweepings. The sweepings are picked
up by hand only once and are taken to a
collecting point where the filled bins are
emptied into special refuse, collecting
vehicles and exchanged for empty ones. An
increase of sweeping performance and easing
of working conditions was effected by
introducing tricycles which were ridden like
bicycles or driven by auxiliary engines, and
which carry either two refuse bins of 60 liter
capacity or one 110 liter bin. Vehicles
carrying a crew of three and the number of
bins required are also used. The development
of light and efficient small engines resulted
in a number of small sweeping machines which
serve for sprinkling and sweeping as well
as for gritting and snow plowing. Sweeping
machines now in use feature disc-shaped
side brushes which feed the sweepings to the
brush equipped pick-up belt. A supply of
water for sprinkling is available. Some of
the machines are equipped with blowers to
suck up the dust, and today, most of the
pick-up sweeping machines use a suction
device. The general requirements of sweeping
machines are discussed. Special models
developed for salt spreading are described.
The removal of snow is becoming increasingly
mechanized, using rotary snow plows, blower-type
loaders, and shovel loaders. Thirty-seven
illustrations of street cleaning vehicles
with specifications are included.
64-0936
A truck-loading street sweeper. American City,
79(1):33, Jan. 1964.
Australian-designed street sweepers which
can empty their hoppers directly into a
truck were to be used in crowded Tokyo during
the 1964 Olympics. At least 20 of the 5%
ton machines would be used. Hopper capacity
was three cu yd, and sweeping widths were 7^
ft and 10^5 ft with one and two side brooms,
respectively. The machine can also discharge
debris onto the ground if required. Design
features include dual controls, broom
adjustment from the cab, and simplified
maintenance.
64-0937
Vacuum cleaner supplants brooms. American
City, 79(7):14, July 1964.
A new vacuum cleaner with a yard-wide snout
cleans the streets and gutters of Kitchener,
Ontario, Canada more efficiently than was
formerly done by brooms and carts. Powered
by a 6 hp Briggs and Stratton engine, the
Giant Vac costs $470.25, plus extra bags at
$32.50 each. Each bag holds 11J'2 cu ft and
one night's work in Kitchener fills about
\\ bags. The vacuum cleaner picks up
everything, including bottles, without
stirring up any dust. The steel impeller
smashes the bottles to bits as it draws them
in and a deflector prevents the resulting
sharp slivers from piercing the bag.
64-0938
'We'll try anything...'
95(9):118, Sept. 1964.
Public Works,
Since the Los Angeles County Highway Maintenance
Department cleans close to 165,000 miles a
year at a cost of $550,000 and wears out
$50,000 worth of brooms, constant surveillance,
record-keeping and experimentation is
essential for good economy. A tachograph
is mounted in each of the 47 sweepers operated
by the county. This device records how
far a sweeper traveled in a day, how fast it
was driven, and how long the broom was
functioning. These data permit analysis of
the life of not only the machine and its
components, but of the various brooms mounted
upon it for experimental purposes. In addition,
the operator files a daily report, explaining
downtime, and reporting water consumption
and contacts with property owners. The
necessity for cost-keeping stems from the
high increase in the cost of broom materials,
which has risen from 8 cents per Ib to as
much as $3.50.
LITTER
64-0939
Circus clown aids cleaner city drive. Refuse
Removal Journal, 7(6):35, June 1964.
A 13-ft circus clown (on stilts) tossing
litter into an oversized basket is another
publicity gimmick for New York City's cleanup
campaign. The Sanitation Department also
plans to install 60,000 litter baskets
throughout the city. The approach of the
World's Fair prompted the drive.
232
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0936-0946
64-0940
Kentucky fights litterbugs.
95(10):103, Oct. 1964.
Public Works,
Kentucky's fight against litter along its
highways is described. One of the state's
weapons is a public relations program which
includes meetings with clubs and service
and civic groups.
64-0944
Littering of Jersey beaches is growing.
Refuse Removal Journal, 7(8):12, Aug. 1964.
Problems New Jersey has in keeping its
beaches clean are discussed. Some of the
beach rubbish results from illegal dumping at
sea.
64-0941
Land usage and litter.
54(6):970, June 1964.
Public Cleansing,
On a recent train journey, it was possible
to see how householders discard their unwanted
belongings on another person's property.
These actions suggest that those concerned
are not utilizing their education. The
common attitude seems to be that discards
must be disposed of no matter what the
eventual resting place. All people should
educate themselves to keep tidy at all times.
This would bring a silent revolution in the
appearance of Great Britain.
64-0942
Litter clean-up out of the ordinary.
City, 79(4):34, Apr. 1964.
American
Two cities have different youth projects to
aid general clean up. Portsmouth, Virginia,
employed forty otherwise unemployed boys on
a 40-hr week for the summer at $.50 per hr
plus a $.25 per hr performance bonus. This
cut down summer mischief and cleaned up the
city. Pleasant Hill, California, lets
juvenile traffic offenders work 6 hr on
Saturday per $5 fine on roadside cleanup
work. This allows the youth to pay for the
offense instead of the parents.
64-0943
Litter left-and right.
July 17, 1964.
Engineering, 198:65,
A complaint against the indifferent attitude
of the public toward the litter problem is
discussed. An example is given to show some
idea of the extent of the situation in the
city, and indicates that it is worse in the
country. Major offenders are paper refuse
and unwanted cars abandoned on the street.
The one suggested solution is to reduce layers
of paper and cardboard packaging to a simple
plastic wrapping.
64-0945
Paper sacks for holiday litter. Waste Trade
World, 105(22) :22, Nov. 28, 1964.
Holiday litter at caravan sites can be
minimized by the substitution of a paper-sack
system of refuse disposal for over-flowing
dustbins. At the Crystal Palace (London),
site of one of the largest caravan groups,
the staff was unsuccessful in disposing of
rubbish by burning, storing in 40-gal drums,
and trampling in the dustbins. Their experiments
with the Palfrey 'Refusacks' were so
successful that the system was adopted all
over Britain. The proprietors of several
other caravan sites prefer the use
of the 'Refusacks' because of the ease of
handling compared to the heavier dustbins.
It is possible to give each new arrival a
fresh container regardless of the collection
frequency and one sack holder will replace
several dustbins that would only be used
during peak holiday periods. The 'Refusack'
system is suitable for all weather and is
ideal for rush periods during Bank Holidays
when the litter is the greatest and the
collections are restricted because of
limited staff.
64-0946
Polyethylene litter baskets.
22(8):19, Aug. 1964.
Plastics World,
The City of Chicago has been using
brightly-colored polyethylene litter baskets
to clear the Loop area of unsightly trash.
Citizens have given excellent acceptance
and cooperation resulting in a cleaner city
and substantial cost reduction in maintenance
of old metal baskets. The baskets cost $10.50
each in comparison to $14.00 each for metal
units. The baskets are 27 Ib lighter than
their counterparts, and there is an advantage
in handling and storage, but there was a
potential problem in considering Chicago's
wind and cold. The problem was solved by
riveting two 8-in. strips of metal, one
on the inside and one on the outside bottom
of each unit. Tests show the units to
withstand wind forces of 35 mph. The units
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Health and Safety
were clamped with a quick release clamp to
utility poles.
64-0947
Tons of rubbish from the tinker district.
Public Cleansing, 54(3):815, Mar. 1964.
Sanitation news from Birmingham, England,
which includes a report on a clean-up campaign
directed at the excessive litter in yards
and gardens of a certain area of the city
is reported. The litter was caused by
overcrowding resulting from the immigration
of Irish tinkers.
HEALTH AND SAFETY
64-0948
Aaberg, H. C. Farmers and ranchers interest
in zoonotic diseases. Continued Education
Series 124. In Proceedings; Institute on
Occupational Diseases Acquired from Animals,
Ann Arbor, Mich., Jan. 7-9, 1964.
Farmers and ranchers have a two-fold interest
in the control and eradication of zoonotic
diseases: the tremendous economic loss from
diseased animals; and the well-being of their
families and the consumers of animal products.
Tuberculosis, although of greatly diminished
importance in the United States, requires
rigorous attention to prevent complacency
which would allow the disease to spread.
Brucellosis eradication has been highly
successful in the United States due to a
rigorous eradication program. Leptospirosis ,
a widely distributed disease occurring in
cattle, swine, and dogs as well as rodents, the
coon, beaver, and the muskrat, is a confusing
disease and its control is far from adequate
requiring further research. Trichinosis has
been reduced by the cooking of garbage fed to
swine thus reducing its incidence in humans.
Psittacosis is transmitted by parrots and
parakeets, and poultry are known to be
infected. The sharp reduction of incidence
in the preceding diseases in animals has
resulted in a corresponding decrease in
incidence in humans. The programs which have
effected this result deserve widespread support.
64-0949
Anderson, R. J. Public health aspects of the
solid waste problem. In Proceedings; National
Conference on Solid Waste Research, Chicago,
Dec. 2-4, 1963. American Public Works
Association, 1964. p.8-11.
The movements of the explosive expansion of
the chemical industry, the surging trend
toward living in cities or metropolitan areas,
and the continued growth of the whole
industrial complex, with its accompanying
effect on the general environment have
aggravated in increasing measure, the problems
of water pollution, air pollution, radiation
hazards, the need for additional work in
occupational health safe guards, restaurant
sanitation and general milk and food purity
activities, and research into the dangers
of the use of pesticides, among others. The
most prevalent disposal system of serious
danger to health is the open dump, with its
flies and rats. Poor refuse handling
commonly provides food for flies, cockroaches,
and domestic rodents. Open cans and bottles
catch and hold water in which mosquitoes can
breed, so that many individual citizens
unknowingly but actively encourage the
proliferation of these disease-carrying pests.
The fly infested refuse that is ordinarily
collected during warm weather must be
carefully handled to prevent fly production.
In order to prevent fly emergence by
compacting the cover material at sanitary
landfills, a California study showed that
there were four essential factors to
consider: soil that can be compacted,
suitable equipment for compacting the soil,
adequate range of soil moisture, and adequate
thickness of cover.
64-0950
Beaver, P. C. Cutaneous larva migrans.
Industrial Medicine and Surgery, 33(5):319-321,
May 1964.
Cutaneous larva migrans is a form of
dermatitis characterized by linear lesions
marking the migratory paths of larval
parasites. The infective stage occurs most
commonly in damp, shaded soil. Hookworm eggs
reach the soil in feces, so the infective
stage larvae tend to be concentrated
at the defecation site. The most important
cause of cutaneous larva migrans in this
country is believed to be one of the cat
hookworms. Since cats bury their feces,
they ordinarily select easily excavated
defecation sites. Besides the hookworms, there
is a group of intestinal nematodes whose
larvae develop directly in the fecal mass, or
in water. The lesions of these worms are
relatively wide and progress remarkably fast,
and the worm tends to be inactive for periods
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0947-0954
of several days or weeks. The skin migration
phase of these infections is self-terminating,
and is usually followed by larval migration
to the lungs or other organs. Freezing or
chemical blistering of the epidermis is the
only effective means of treatment. As
an occupational disease, cutaneous larva
migrans is most frequently seen in plumbers,
electricians, and construction workers who are
required to be in contact with damp or wet
soil contaminated with feces of cats or dogs.
The only practical preventive measure is
avoiding contact with infective soil or water.
64-0951
Bonus plan lowers accidents, downtime for
California firm. Refuse Removal Journal,
7(1) :15, Jan. 1964.
ABCO Disposal Corp. of Gadena, California,
has a strict safety program, which has
greatly reduced accidents. Some features
of the program are monthly bonuses to safe
drivers, automatic transmission to relieve the
jerking and swinging of the truck containers
and drivers' fatigue, and regular inspection
of vehicles and personnel to make sure they
have donned their safety equipment. This
plus a modern efficient accounting system has
increased the size of the clientele.
64-0952
Clarke, N. A., and P. W. Kabler. Human
enteric viruses in sewage. Health Laboratory
Science, 1(1):44-50, Jan. 1964.
Viruses causing poliomyletis, hepatitis,
meningitis, and diarrhea are excreted in the
feces. A hepatitis epidemic was due to
sewage contamination of water supply in New
Delhi, India. Although any type of enteric
virus can be found in sewage, fluctuations in
the predominant type of virus detected in
sewage apparently occur. Expected density
was 700 virus units per 100 ml raw untreated
sewage. A maximum density of 20 units per 100
ml during cold and 400 units per 100 ml during
warm months were reported. The enteric
virus-coliform ratio in sewage is about one
to 100,000. The gauze pad sampling technique
is superior to grab sampling. Tables show
that viruses survived longer at 4 C than at
28 C. Sedimentation in an Imhoff tank for
two hours had no destructive action on virus.
Sewage treatment does not necessarily destroy
Coxsackie virus. Filter effluent contained
virus as often as raw sewage. Data indicates
that 90 to 98 percent removal or inactivation
of virus by activated sludge, an adsorption
phenomenon, involves aeration and settling of
the floe. Number of viruses increased as
sewage passed through the plant. Chlorination
reduces the number.
64-0953
Clarke, N. A., G. Berg, P. W. Kabler, et al.
Human enteric viruses in water: source,
survival, and removability. Advances in
Water Pollution Research, 2:523-541, 1964.
A survey investigated the problem posed by
human enteric viruses in water and sewage.
The efficacy of current water and sewage
treatment processes in removing or destroying
these agents was examined, data was presented,
and recommendations were made. The viruses
occur at relatively low densities in sewage.
Survival times of enteric viruses and
indicator bacteria in water depend largely on
the nature of the water. Viruses appear to
survive longer in water that is relatively
unpolluted or grossly polluted. Indicator
bacteria survival periods in surface waters
appear to be directly related to the water's
pollution. The activated sludge process
removes 90 to 98 percent of enteric viruses
in raw sewage. The flocculation process,
using either alum or ferric salts, can remove
95 to 99 percent of Coxsackie A2 viruses
from water in single-stage flocculation, or
more than 99 percent in double-stage
operations. Virus removal parallels removal
of bacteria and turbidity. Hypochlorous acid
inactivates viruses in water highly affectively.
The rate of inactivation depends on the
specific virus, pH, temperature, and contact
time. Iodine and hypoiodous acid are highly
efficient in destroying enteric viruses. A
discussion followed presentation of the paper
and made three points. Viruses which hardly
multiply at all in surface water are related
to a faecal contamination of the water. The
correlation between the presence of viruses
in water and epidemiology is not yet definitely
established. Our conception of artificial
water purification needs reassessment. The
amount of nitrogenous matter discharged
into rivers above catchments of water
destined for consumption should be reduced.
64-0954
Control of external parasites of chickens
and pigeons. University of California,
Agriculture Extension Service, Feb. 1964.
9 p.
Effective and safe chemical control of the
common ectoparasites of chickens and pigeons
235
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Health and Safety
presents a vital problem. The residues of
insecticides could affect the meat and eggs
at the time of marketing. To prevent this,
several measures have to be taken. All
precautions on the insecticide label should be
followed for use and storage. Read and follow
the label instructions. Avoid inhalation
of the insecticide. Do not smoke or eat
during application of the insecticide. Change
clothing and wash thoroughly immediately after
application. Dispose of all mixed unused
insecticide sprays and empty containers
safely. Burning of combustible containers
and washing and destroying the noncombustible
ones is recommended. All insecticides
should be kept in their original containers
and placed in a storage area that can be
locked. Do not store them near food, feed,
or medication of any kind. Insecticide
contamination of eggs, feed, and water should
be avoided. Additional data on how to treat
chicken and pigeons for mites, ticks, and
fleas is given in the report.
Recent data shows that the explosive
manufacturing industry ranks far more
favorably than the wastewater industry in
injuries from on-the-job accidents. It seems
that disease hazards in wastewater treatment
plants are of the type that are not clearly
recognized as such until disabilities result
from them. Fungi potentially pathogenic for
man have been isolated from sewage and
polluted water. Salmonella infect their hosts
through the alimentary tract and are discharged
in the feces. Food processing wastes add
Salmonella to sewage. Shigella organisms
causing leptospirosis, mycobacterium
tuberculosis, endatnoeba histolytical, and
hepatitis virus may be present. Sludge spread
on soil may spread infection. Persons
occasionally fall into aeration tanks, grit
removal basins, or major sewer outfalls. The
actual incidence of infectious and parasitic
diseases acquired from sewage work is probably
not very high. More data is needed on illness
among sewage workers and waste treatment
plant operators.
64-0955
Cutler, J. C., E. C. Chamberlayne, and B.
D. Blood. Occupational disease problems with
reference to agriculture in Latin America.
Continued Education Series No. 124. In
Proceedings; Institute on Occupational
Diseases Acquired from Animals, Ann Arbor,
Michigan, Jan. 7-9, 1964. p.394-430.
A review of the information on acquired
diseases of the agriculture industry in
Latin America is presented. Anthrax,
Brucellosis, Hydatidosis, Leptospirosis,
Q fever, Tuberculosis as well as several other
diseases of much smaller incidence are
considered. Information concerning their
incidence in workers in various South American
countries is presented by specific location,
animals involved, and work carried out by
the humans found to be infected. Much
statistical information on these topics is
tabulated and examined along with maps
indicating occurrence. A high health risk is
still present for the agriculture industry
employees due to the zoonoses which exist in
the environment, even where safe water supplies,
good sewage disposal, and even mechanized
farming exist.
64-0956
Dixon, F. R., and L. J. McCabe. Health aspects
of wastewater treatment. Journal of the
Water Pollution Control Federation, 36(8):984-989,
Aug. 1964.
64-0957
Douse the fire without dumping the load.
American City, 79(2):38, Feb. 1964.
Two 2^-in. fire-hose couplings installed on
top of refuse truck bodies provide an
inexpensive solution to fire problems,
according to Edward H. Stelle, Supervisor
in the Washington Suburban Sanitary
Commission's Refuse Division. In the past,
refuse truck drivers promptly dumped the load
in the street and called the fire department
when they noticed signs of fire coming from
the packer unit. This resulted in a messy
situation requiring extensive cleanup work.
Also, if the fire had already damaged the
hydraulic equipment, the load could not be
dumped. With hose couplings installed on the
top of the bodies, all the firemen have to do
is attach their hoses and flood the interior
with water. This extinguishes the fire and
the truck can proceed to the disposal site with
little mess or loss of time.
64-0958
Eagen, J. H. Environmental health implications
of solid waste disposal. Presented at Western
Branch Meeting of the American Public Health
Association, Salt Lake City, May 20, 1964.
14 p.
The storage, collection, and disposal of solid
wastes is one' of the major environmental health
problems which presently face urbanized
236
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Health and Safety
0955-0962
mankind. There are three basic areas in which
the environmental health profession can attack
the solid waste problem: urban environmental.
health planning, encouragement of a
comprehensive research effort, and application
of technical knowledge. This can be
accomplished by exhorting local government to
recognize and assume its responsibilities to
provide adequate collection and disposal by
promulgating appropriate statutues,
ordinances, and regulations to permit a
multi-jurisdictional approach to the problem and
formal control over the operational practices.
At the present time, only $200,000 per year
of public money is going toward research in
an area where the annual expenditures for
operation approach $3 billion. The
application of technical knowledge that is
now available to upgrade existing
unsatisfactory operations by converting dumps
to sanitary landfills and to train operators,
particularly in incineration plants, is
needed.
64-0959
Fire engine at dump site upsets budget.
Refuse Removal Journal, 7(11):29, Nov. 1964.
Flash fires and the inability to properly
handle the amount of debris delivered to the
city dump have caused the authorities of
Bayonne, New Jersey to reexamine their
entire system of refuse collection and
disposal. Since the town is an industrial
area and manufacturing waste is sometimes
inflammable, the dump would have to be
continued in operation if only as a place to
dispose of the incinerator residue. The cost
of maintaining a fire department unit at
the dump site for 12 to 14 hr every day
has made the dump too costly for the
municipality to run. A suggested solution
by the Bayonne City Council president is
to hire a private contractor to operate the
dump. At present, the Public Works
Department is making a study of the future
disposal needs of the city.
64-0960
Greenburg, B. Experimental transmission of
salmonella typhimurium by houseflies to man.
American Journal of Hygiene, 80(2):149-156,
Sept. 1964.
For this study, a dog drank milk containing
210 x 10 to the eighth power S. typhimurium.
Flies were colonized and left unfed immediately
before exposure to the dog's feces. Atole, a
Mexican drink, was placed in the flies' cages
for seven hours. Ten volunteers drank the
Atole. Stool specimens were tested. The
degree of contamination per fly was low. Five
of 20 flies were positive with counts between
43 and 635 S. typhimurium. Eight of the 10
Atole specimens contained S. typhimurium
ranging from 5 x 1,000 to 64 x 10,000.
S. typhimurium was recovered from the feces
of six volunteers. Extension of the
experimental standing period for the Atole
to 24 hr could have produced a significant
infection dose. Virus cannot multiply in
food. Bacterial infections can occur through
fly contamination of food. Tables show mouse
infection-rate and housefly transmission of
S. typhimurium.
64-0961
Harrell, R. E. The known and unknown of the
occupational mycoses. Industrial Medicine and
Surgery, 33(5):306-307, May 1964.
Six different mycoses are discussed with
respect to their role as occupational hazards.
The diseases mentioned are: (1) Histoplasmosis;
(2) North American blastomycosis;
(3) Coccidioidomycosis; (4) Cryptococcosis;
(5) Sporotrichosis; and (6) Candidiasis.
Histoplasmosis, caused by Histoplasma
capsulatum, can be contracted most readily
by contact with chicken feces. For this
reason, farmers are among the most susceptible
persons. North American blastomycosis, a
systemic fungus infection, seems to have no
occupational aspect. Most reports indicate
that the disease has come from dog bites.
Coccidioidomycosis is carried by the
Coccidioides immitis spore and is found
mainly in the Southwest. Any outdoor
profession is therefore vulnerable. Also
Negroes have been found to be extremely
susceptible. Cryptococcosis, a fungus disease
carried in pigeon feces, has little
occupational aspects except for people who
may clean out areas rich in pigeon manure.
Sporotrichosis, which enters the body through
open wounds, had its largest outbreak in a
mining operation in South Africa where workers
were picking it up from splinters in mineshafts.
Also susceptible are occupations where minor
wounds are frequent. The last of the diseases
mentioned, Candidiasis, is most harmful to
those whose occupations require an increased
exposure of their hands to water.
64-0962
Kelly, S., and W. W. Sanderson. Attenuated
polioviruses in sewage. Journal of the Water
Pollution Control Federation, 36(7):905-913,
July 1964.
237
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Health and Safety
Twenty-four strains of poliovirus type-1, and
nine of type-3 were isolated from sewage
collected in the pre-oral vaccine period in
Albany, New York and nearby communities.
They were examined for temperature (ret) and
elution (E) markers for neurovirulence traits.
The ret marker was examined by end point
titration and limited thermal exposure method.
The E market was examined by elution from
alumina gel. The ret- designated the strain
that was less complete at 40 C than at 37 C.
The rct+ was the strain which grew well at
either temperature. The ret-markers were
present in strain from sewage collected
before the oral vaccine. Six type-1 and one
type-3 strains were ret- by both methods. One
type-3 strain was rct+ by both methods. The
remaining strains were rct+ or- by one or both
methods or rct+ or ret- by one method only.
The rct+ and ret- markers were found in strains
from the same sewage sample. There was no
evidence that sewage treatment affected the
distribution of the ret or E markers. E+
markers indicate attentuation and E- indicates
neurovirulence. E+ markers were present in
92 percent of the type-1 and 66 percent of
the type-3 strains. They paralleled ret
markers determined by EP method in 32 percent
of type-1 strains and by LTE method in 89
percent of type-3 strains. Data, and tables
support conclusions given in this paper.
64-0963
Lamb, G. A., D. Y. Chin, and L. E. Scarce.
Isolations of enteric viruses from sewage
and river water in a metropolitan area.
American Journal of Hygiene, 80:320-327,
1964.
The prevalence of enteric viruses in sewage
from Chicago and in water samples from the
Upper Illinois River was investigated. From
164 sewage and water samples, 122 viruses
were recovered. Many of these viruses were
polioviruses and coxsackieviruses. Specimens
were taken from 12 locations, situated in
relation to Chicago's three major sewage
treatment plants. Sewage treatment by
activated sludge is employed in all the
plants. In each plant, four sample areas were
selected river water both one mile above and
below the plant and raw and treated sewage.
Samples were collected by the modified gauze
pad method. Specimens were identified and then
inoculated into suckling mice. Viruses were
contained in 49 percent of the samples. As
data demonstrates, virus was detected in 80
percent of raw sewage samples, 52 percent of
treated sewage, 6 percent of river water
above the plant, and 13 percent of river
water below the plant. Samples collected in
July and August had the highest frequency of
virus recovery month while October had the
lowest. Higher raw sewage virus isolation
percentages were reported by this study as
opposed to others. This may be due to
population density, seasonal or yearly
variation, prevalence of enterovirus infection
in the population, or collection methods. The
study also demonstrates that discharging
effluent into the river contributes to
surface water pollution below the outfall.
Besides viruses mentioned earlier, echovirus
type 7 was found, probably the cause of
much minor illness and subclinical infection
in the population. Type 1 reovirus was also
discovered.
64-0964
Liebmann, H. Parasites in sewage and the
possibilities of their extinction. Journal
of the Water Pollution Control Federation,
36(3):304, Mar. 1964.
Worm carriers of the human population and
domestic animals determine the types and
number of parasitic worms and eggs found in
sewage. They are introduced through domestic
sewage and wastewaters by slaughter houses and
meat and fish packing industries into bodies
of water. According to the Munich studies,
approximately 1 billion worms and/or eggs
per day enter cities with one million plus
population by means of raw sewage into sewage
treatment plants (at least 10 percent
originating with humans). Chemical extinction
and biological purification of parasites are
either unpractical or ineffective. Worms and
eggs must be allowed to settle out; then they
are removed from the sewage and deposited in
sludge where either heating or long-term
oxygen deprivation must take place.
Sedimentation of sewage and sludge digestion
therefore offers the best parasite extinction
method.
64-0965
McLean, D. M. Contamination of water by
viruses. Journal of the American Water
Works Association, 56(5) :585-591 , May 1964.
A recent study has shown that opportunities
for the spread of waterborne infections may
be provided either by recreational bathing
facilities or by public or private drinking
water supplies. Swimming pools are operated
either as 'overflow-refill' pools in which
5 to 15 percent of pool volume runs to waste
daily, or as recirculating pools where water
is filtered and then returned to circulation
238
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0963-0969
daily. Wading pools are operated as
'fill and draw'- each day the entire volume
is removed and replaced with fresh water.
As data demonstrates, overflow-refill pools
were found to contain more enteric bacteria
per day in a low socioeconomic district, but
less yearly amassed concentration than a
recirculating pool in a higher socioeconomic
district. Free chlorine residuals in each
pool eliminated all viruses. The disinfectant
properties of bromine were examined, and
found most satisfactory. Another study
revealed higher concentrations of organisms
on swimming pools' surfaces than in water
1 ft below the surface. Wading pools showed
high indexes of coliform organisms until
compounds giving chlorine residuals were
added. Though no viruses were recovered,
lakeshore studies revealed gross bacterial
contamination, containing high coliform -
organism indexes. Drinking water
contamination appears to significantly
correspond to infectious hepatitis outbreaks.
Following pollution with human sewage, three
types of water supply were found to contain
the virus. They are: groundwater from springs
and wells, cross connections between
reticulated services, and river water. Clearly
all possible contamination sources of water
by sewage should be eliminated. Chlorination
is a necessity.
64-0966
Mann, U. T., and G. E. Griffin. Cost of
safety. Journal of the Water Pollution Control
Federation, 36(2):168-175, Feb. 1964.
The cost of setting up a safety program is
difficult to evaluate, for neither the
expenditure of time and energy, nor the
results of such a program, can be measured
easily in monetary terms. Good safety
programs are essential in reducing the
accident-frequency rate, which is considerably
higher for sewer departments than for the
explosives manufacturing industry. Too often
loss of life results from disregarding safety
procedures and equipment. The County of
Westchester, New York, provides sewage
maintenance crews with inexpensive but
effective equipment for testing sewer manholes
and pump suction wells for hydrogen
sulfide, air deficiency, and flammable gas.
Deaths are most often due to asphyxiation.
Pumping stations or treatment plants can be
equipped with safety features at nominal
costs. Providing explosion-proof equipment,
however, may increase an item's cost by as
much as $1 ,200. Such costs may be minimized
by arranging plant units so that hazardous
locations are kept to a minimum.
64-0967
Ravenholt, R. T. History, epidemiology, and
control of typhoid fever in Seattle. Medical
Times, 92(4) :342-352, Apr. 1964.
Seattle grew rapidly during its first century
of existence. This growth overloaded the
community's water supplies and waste disposal
means, resulting in much morbidity and
mortality from enteric diseases, especially
typhoid fever. Seattle suffered its worst
epidemics in 1889, 1890, 1907, and 1909.
Thousands became ill and hundreds died. The
greatest mortality rate, 166 per 100,000
population, occurred in 1889 due to a water
shortage. The city then received its water
supply from various private companies. In 1890,
when Seattle established its own Water
Department, the major water source also
served as an important receptacle for sewage.
The ramifications of this system are obvious.
Changes were made, but they generally were
insufficient to meet the needs. Aggravating
this situation, water shortages were making
fires a real threat. Seattle thus began
vigorous preventive measures in 1911--
explaining to citizens the necessity of
boiling their water or treating it with
chlorine. A new water system was constructed,
employing rigorous supervision and chlorination,
Due to such planning and vigilance, there has
been a dearth of water and milk-borne outbreaks
of typhoid during the past 50 years. Similar
advances have been made regarding milk,
plumbing, sewerage, and immunization. Many
advances, for example, have occurred in
production methods, processing, and
distribution of milk, leading to decreased
deaths from diarrhea and enteritis. A Public
Health Laboratory has operated since 1901
and stands as an excellent check against future
epidemics. Included data provide statistics
on disease deaths.
64-0968
Sanitation work is most dangerous. In 1964
Sanitation Industry Yearbook. New York, RRJ
Publishing Corporation, [1964]. p.28
A year-long study of New York City's
sanitation workers reveals that the only
occupational category that had a higher
percentage of injuries was that of loggers.
According to the report, a sanitation worker
walks 14 miles and lifts 6 tons every working
day.
64-0969
Sheppard, P. E. Safety survey analysis.
[Chicago] American Public Works Association
239
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Health and Safety
and the Association Division of the National
Safety Council, Sept. 1964. 11 p.
The purpose of this survey was to determine
the present status of safety programs and
accident prevention efforts in the area of
public employees. A total of 1 ,872 survey
forms were mailed to the mayor or city manager
of all U.S. cities with more than 10,000
population. Two hundred and forty (13%)
returns containing usable information were
received. Cumulative statistics are given.
There is much data on accident experience,
insurance costs, safety programs, methods
used in reporting accidents, etc. There
is a breakdown of the injuries within given
city-operated departments, i.e. police, fire,
hospitals, sanitation. Several tables give
the frequency, severity of work injuries,
for refuse collection specifically. Also
included is the accident record of a sample
city (one year experience), listing location
of injuries, types of accidents, employee's
actions, and paid time lost (workdays).
64-0970
Soil-transmitted Helminths. Report of a WHO
Expert Committee on Helminthiases. Technical
Report Series No. 277. Geneva, World Health
Organization, 1964. 70 p.
The public health importance of all
helminthic infections is discussed.
Geographical distribution, factors influencing
transmission, and pathogenesis of diseases
caused by these intestinal parasites are
reviewed. Interrelations between the host
and the parasitic worm are considered, and
techniques of study are reviewed. Natural
immunity to such infections can be acquired,
but research for control of these diseases is
recommended. Disposal of night-soil has
proven quite successful in preventing the
contamination of the soil and the development
of the infective stages of the parasites.
Control measures are directed towards effective
disposal and treatment of feces. In direct
disposal methods, it is vitally important
that contamination of soil, groundwater,
and surface water, does not occur. Excreta
should be inaccessible to pests, and should
not be handled. The conservancy method of
disposal (utilizing human feces as fertilizer)
can be dangerous if certain precautions are
not taken. Composting ensures aerobic
decomposition, a process which hastens the
killing of helminth eggs. However, odors
produced and disposal of undigested material
are serious disadvantages. Sewage disposal
methods should be studied for their safety, for
agricultural use of sludge is considered by
some to be a factor in the transmission of
helminths. Techniques for heating of sludge
to kill Ascaris and Trichuris eggs may
be applicable.
64-0971
Strauch, D. Requirements of veterinary hygiene
in the removal of urban refuse. International
Research Group on Refuse Disposal (IRGRD).
Information Bulletin No. 20. Washington, U.S.
Department of Health, Education, and Welfare,
May 1964. 5 p.
All refuse coming from residences, stores,
and commercial and industrial plants is
designated as urban refuse. The amount of
urban refuse varies widely. Laws almost
totally prohibit the dumping of it.
Incinerators are one answer to the refuse
problem, but their great expense makes them
prohibitive. Smaller communities turn
increasingly to composting their refuse.
Pathogens which endanger the health of man
and animals are found in refuse and sewage
sludge. The greatest danger lies in animals
which are fed infected domestic refuse.
Trichinosis is the outstanding example of
this. Sewage sludge contains pathogens
harmful to man and animal. They settle in
the sludge during sewage treatment. It is
emphasized that sludge be treated the same as
sewage when viewed from the disease standpoint.
Tubercle bacillus have been found in dried
sewage sludge after two years. It was found
through experimentation that it was possible
to destroy pathogens by using certain
composting methods. Composting of underground
refuse with sewage sludge, of ground refuse
without sludge, and of refuse with sludge
from a stabilizer were the three methods.
Composting will be used increasingly in the
future.
64-0972
Terry, L. L. Health and psychological aspects
of the city. Public Health Service Publication
No. 1249. Washington, U.S. Government Printing
Office, June 1964. 11 p.
Urban planning for health is immensely complex.
It involves all the traditional health
protective measures—collection and disposal
of wastes, control of water and air pollution,
protection of food, control of insects and
rodents, hygiene of housing—in a constantly
changing environment. It is related to
problems of topography, traffic flow, zoning,
and other matters of urban planning. It calls
for cooperative effort among numerous interests,
240
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0970-0977
professions, and groups. Technical
considerations must be balanced against
economic, legal, sociological, and political
factors. Above all, urban planning for health
calls for widespread public understanding
and support. The U.S. Public Health Service
has established a Metropolitan Planning and
Development Branch which has developed an
'Environmental Health Planning Guide'
designed to help communities to evaluate
health-related services and facilities from a
planning standpoint. The Guide emphasizes
long-range planning and deals primarily with
air and water pollution, sewerage, refuse
collection and disposal, and housing. The
professions of architecture and public health
have many problems to solve in the future that
will involve joint planning and action.
(Excerpts from a speech delivered, 96th Annual
Convention of the American Institute of
Architects, St. Louis, Mo., June 17, 1964.)
64-0973
Time to tackle health problems. American
City, 79(8):34, Aug. 1964.
At a conference on 'Environmental Health
Problems' at the University of Michigan
School of Public Health, the problems of water
supply sewage, air pollution, and waste
disposal were discussed. Since the typical
city dweller creates one ton of solid waste
annually, and since our expanding population
will cause an increase in the total volume
of solid wastes, the nation's metropolitan
areas will be paralyzed by uncontrollable
health problems unless they take immediate
measures to cope with trends in the environment.
Control measures at the highest practical
level of government, and a definite platform
on environmental health by each political
party are recommended.
64-0974
U.S. Public Health Service. Environmental
health survey Wayne Township, New Jersey.
Cincinnati, July 1964. 66 p.
A course on Urban Planning for Environmental
Health was conducted cooperatively with the
State of New Jersey Department of Health and
the Township of Wayne and brought together
health, planning, public works, and industrial
personnel and lay citizens. The class
conducted an environmental health survey of
Wayne Township on June 2 to 4 and 9 to 11,
1964, as a training exercise. The students
spent many hours interviewing local people
and preparing recommendations. The group
reports cover: water services, sewerage
services, refuse collection and disposal,
housing, air pollution, shore and lake
sanitation, general sanitation, and planning.
A student roster and a list of staff
participants is appended.
64-0975
U.S. Public Health Service. Food-borne
disease investigation: analysis of field
data. Washington, U.S. Government
Printing Office, 1964. 34 p.
Diarrhea and abdominal cramps are the dominant
symptoms in Salmonella gastroenteritis. They
are usually accompanied by vomiting, chills,
and fever. Salmonella bacteria are found in
the intestines of almost all poultry and
hogs. They are, therefore, transmitted in
animal food products, or by certain other
foods that come in contact with them.
Salmonellae may also be transmitted by
infected humans who do not wash their hands
well after a bowel movement, and who then
handle food. Salmonellosis is rarely fatal
except in elderly people. When proper
sanitary operating procedures are applied,
outbreaks can be controlled.
64-0976
Wastes endanger country's health. Refuse
Removal Journal, 7(5):14, May 1964.
Norman E. Tucker of the U.S. Public Health
Service in Cincinnati, Ohio, and Prof. Morton
S. Helbert of the University of Michigan School
of Public Health said that the nation's
metropolitan areas will paralyze themselves
with uncontrollable health problems unless
they take immediate measures to cope with
trends in the environment. They spoke at a
conference on 'Environmental Health Problems'
at the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor.
64-0977
Weibel, S. R., F. R. Dixon, R. B. Weider, et
al. Waterborne-disease outbreaks, 1946-1960.
Journal of the American Water Works Association,
56(8):947-958, Aug. 1964.
During the period 1946 to 1960, there were
228 disease outbreaks or poisonings attributed
to drinking water. It appears, despite
incomplete reporting, that there has been
a consistent downward trend in the number of
waterborne-disease outbreaks. Infectious
hepatitis is definitely accepted as a
241
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waterborne disease. A 7 to 9 year, besides
a seasonal, cycle can be recognized. Most
epidemics and cases of waterborne diseases
were classified as gastroenteritis. This
category and 'diarrhea' are not specific
diseases. Typhoid, being a recognized,
severe disease was well reported. It caused
39 outbreaks with 506 cases. Water utilities
in America do a tremendous job in producing
safe water and preventing waterborne disease.
The annual rates of illnesses are nearly the
same for public and private supplies. Within
the periods 1920 to 36 and 1938 to 45,
untreated groundwater most frequently caused
outbreaks. During this study period, public
supplies caused 31 percent of outbreaks and
77 percent of cases; private 69 percent and
23 percent. In private supplies source
pollution and untreated water produced the
major harm, the biggest problem being well
pollution. Inadequate treatment control
created the majority of public supplies'
diseases. Peaking of outbreaks for private
supplies occurred during summer
months, probably resulting from increased
numbers of susceptible individuals utilizing
normally polluted water. Facilities serving
more than 100,000 people accounted for less
than 1 percent of cases, but 10 percent of
outbreaks. Untreated water, employed by 8.6
percent of the population, cause 35 percent
of disease among these people.
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ADDRESSES OF PERIODICAL PUBLICATIONS CITED
Advances in Water Pollution Research, Pergamon Press, Inc., 44-01 21st St.,
Long Island City, N.Y. 11101.
Agricultural Engineering, American Society of Agricultural Engineers,
2950 Niles Rd., St. Joseph, Mich. 49085.
Agriculture, Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 49 High Holborn, London
W. C. 1, England.
Air Engineering, Business News Publishing Co., 450 W. Fort St., Detroit,
Mich. 48226.
American City, Buttenheim Publishing Corporation, 757 Third Ave., New
York, N.Y. 10017.
American Journal of Hygiene (was changed to American Journal of
Epidemiology), Williams & Wilkins Company, E. Preston St.,
Baltimore, Md. 21202.
American Journal of Public Health and the Nation's Health, American
Public Health Association, Inc., 1740 Broadway, New York, N.Y. 10019.
American Public Works Association Reporter, American Public Works
Association, 1313 E. 60th St., Chicago, 111. 60637.
American Public Works Association Yearbook, American Public Works
Association, 1313 E. 60th St., Chicago, 111. 60637.
American Society of Agronomy, 677 South Segoe Rd., Madison, Wis. 53711.
American Society of Civil Engineering Proceedings, 345 E. 47th St.,
New York, N.Y. 10017.
Annual Review of Entomology, 231 Grant Ave., Palo Alto, Calif. 94306.
Applied Microbiology, Williams & Wilkins Company, E. Preston St.
Baltimore, Md. 21202.
Battelle Technical Review, Battelle Memorial Institute, 505 King Ave.,
Columbus, Ohio, 43201.
Brennstoff-Waerme-Kraft, VDI-Verlag GmbH, Postfach 1139, 4 Dusseldorf,
Germany.
British Chemical Engineering, Heywood-Temple Industrial Publications,
Ltd., 33-39 Bowling Green Lane, London EC1, England.
Bulletin of the World Health Organization, Columbia University Press,
2960 Broadway, New York, N.Y. 10027.
California Vector Views, State Department of Public Health, Bureau of
Vector Control, 2151 Berkeley Way, Berkeley, Calif. 94704
Canadian Municipal Utilities, Monetary Tiroes Publication Ltd., 341
Church St..Toronto 2, Canada.
Chartered Municipal Engineer, (Was changed to Journal of the Institution
of Municipal Engineers), 25 Eccleston Sq., London, England.
The Chemical Engineer, The Institution of Chemical Engineers, 16
Belgrave Sq., London, England.
243
-------
Addresses of Periodical Publications Cited
Chemical Engineering, McGraw-Hill, Inc., 330 W. 42nd St., New York,
N.Y. 10036.
Chemical and Engineering News, American Chemical Society, 1155 16th
St., N.W., Washington, D. C. 20036.
Chemical Engineering Progress, American Institute of Chemical Engineers,
345 E. 47th St., New York, N.Y. 10017.
Chemical Week, McGraw-Hill, Inc., 330 W. 42nd St., New York, N.Y. 10036.
Chemie-Ingenieur-Technik, Verlag Chemie, Papellale 3, GmbH, 6940
Weinheim/Bergstr., Germany.
Chemistry and Industry, Society of Chemical Industry, 14 Belgrave Sq.,
London SW1, England.
Civil Engineering, American Society of Civil Engineers, 345 E. 47th
St., New York, N.Y. 10017.
Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics, C. V. Mosby Company, 3207
Washington Blvd., St. Louis, Mo. 63103.
Coal, Gold and Base Minerals of Southern Africa, Pitheah Press, Ltd.,
Fourth Floor, Wynrop House, 91 Mooi St., Johannesburg. South Africa.
Compost Journal, New Zealand Organic Compost Society, 875 Ferry Rd.
Christchurch, New Zealand.
Compost Science, Rodale Press, 33 E. Minor St., Emmaus, Pa. 18049.
DECHEMA--Monographien, Verlag Chemie GmBH, Pappelalle 3, 6940
Weinheim/Bergstr., Germany.
Electrical World, McGraw-Hill, Inc., 330 W. 42nd St., New York, N.Y.
10036.
Elektrizitaetswirtschaft, Stresemannalle 23, 600 Frankfurt am Main,
Germany.
Engineer, Morgan Brothers Ltd., 28 Essex St., Strand, London, England.
Engineering, Engineering, Ltd., 36 Bedford St., London, England.
Engineering and Boiler House Review, Engineering Review Publishing
Company, Ltd., Braywick House, Maidenhead, Berks, England.
Engineering News-Record, Fulfillment Mgr., Engineering News Record,
PO Box 430, Hightstown, N.J. 08520.
Factory, McGraw-Hill, Inc., 330 W. 42nd St., New York, N.Y. 10036.
Fluid Power International, Grampian Press Ltd., The Tower, 229-243
Shepherds Bush Rd., Hammersmith, London W. 6, England,
Food Manufacture, Grampian or Media Sales and Service, 20 Vessey St., New
York, N.Y. 10007.
Food Processing, Putman Publishing Company, 111 E. Delaware Place,
Chicago, 111. 60611.
Food Processing Industry, NTP Business Journals Ltd., 33-39 Bowling
Green Lane, London, E.C. 4, England.
244
-------
Addresses of Periodical Publications Cited
Food Technology, Institute of Food Technologists, Suite 2120, 211 N.
LaSalle St. Chicago, 111. 60601.
Gas und Wasserfach, Verlag R. Oldenbourg, Rosenheimer Str. 145, 8000
Munich, 80, Germany.
Gas, Wasser, Waerme, Gusstrausstrasse 30, Vienna 1041, Austria.
Good Health for South Australia, Department of Public Health of South
Australia, Adelaide, Australia.
Ground Water, Water Well Journal Publishing Company, 811 No. Lincoln
Ave., Box 222, Urbana, 111. 61801.
Health Laboratory Science, Q Corp,, 49 Sheridan Ave,, Albany, N.Y.
12210.
Heating and Ventilating Engineer and Journal of Air Conditioning,
Technitrade Journals, Ltd., 11/13 Southampton Row, London W.C. 1,
England.
Heating, Piping, & Air Conditioning, Van-Nostrand-Reinhold Co., Inc.,
120 Alexander St., Princeton, N.J. 08540.
Hospitals, American Hospital Association, 840 N. Lake Shore Dr.,
Chicago, 111. 60611.
Industrial Medicine and Surgery, Box 546, Kendall Station, Miami,
Fla. 33156.
Industrial Water and Wastes (Was changed to: Water and Sewage Works),
Scranton Publishing Company, 35 E. Wacker Dr., Chicago, 111. 60601.
Institute of Sewage Purification, Journal and Proceedings, (Was changed
to Water Pollution Control) , Institute of Water Pollution Control, 49-55
Victoria St., London, England.
International Journal of Air and Water Pollution (Was changed to
Atmospheric Environment), Pargamon Press, Headington Hi 11 Hall, Oxford,
England.
Journal of Air Pollution Control Association, 440 Fifth Ave., Pittsburgh,
Pa. 14213
Journal of the American Water Works Association, American Water Works
Assoc., 2 Park Ave., New York, N.Y. 10016.
Journal of the Sanitary Engineering Division, American Society of
Civil Engineers, American Society of Civil Engineers, 345 E. 47th
St., New York, N.Y. 10017.
Journal of Scientific and Industrial Research, Hillside Rd., New Delhi,
India.
Journal of Water Pollution Control Federation, 3900 Wisconsin Ave.,
N.W., Washington, D.C. 20016.
Los Angeles Herald Examiner, Hearst Corp., 1111 South Broadway, Los
Angeles, Calif. 90054.
Medical Times, Romaine Pierson Publishers, 80 Shore Rd., Port Washington,
N.Y. 11050.
245
-------
Addresses of Periodical Publications Cited
Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station Quarterly Bulletin, Agricultural
Experiment Station, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Mich.
48823.
Modern Hospital, McGraw-Hill Publishing Company, 1050 Merchandise Mart,
Chicago, 111. 60654.
Modern Power and Engineering, Maclean-Hunter Publishing Company, Ltd. ,
481 University Ave., Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
Modern Refrigeration and Air Control, (Was changed to Modern Refrigeration
and Air Conditioning, Davis House, 64/77 High St., Box 109, Croydon,
Surrey, England.
Modern Sanitation and Building Maintenance, Powell Magazines, Inc.,
855 Avenue of the Americas, New York, N.Y. 10001.
Nation's Agriculture, American Farm Bureau Federation, Box 628,
Lawrence, Kans. 66044.
Nation's Cities, National League of Cities, 1612 K St., N. W.,
Washington, D.C. 20006.
1964 Sanitation Industry Yearbook, RRJ Publishing Corporation, 210 E.
53rd St., New York, N.Y. 10022.
Pacific Poultryman, Watt Publishing Company, P.O. Box 950, Redlands,
Calif. 92373.
Paper Trade Journal, Lockwood Trade Journal Co., Inc., 551 Fifth Ave.,
New York, N.Y. 10017.
Plastics World, Rogers Publishing Co., Inc., 3375 S. Bannock St.
Englewood, Colo. 80110
Power, P.O. Box 430, Hightstown, N.J. 08520.
Public Cleansing, The Institute of Public Cleansing, 28 Portland Place,
London, England.
Public Health Reports, HSMHA, Room 4B-44, Parklawn Building, 5600
Fishers Lane, Rockville, Md. 20852.
Public Works, Public Works Journal Corporation, 200 S. Broad St.,
Ridgewood, N.J. 07450.
Refuse Removal Journal, (Was changed to Solid Waste Management/
Refuse Removal Journal), RRJ Publishing Corporation, 150E. 52nd St.,
New York, N.J. 10022.
Research and Industry, Publications and Information Directorate, Council
of Scientific and Industrial Research, Hillside Rd., New Delhi, India.
Roads and Road Construction, Carriers Publishing Company, Ltd., 147
Victoria St., London, England.
Rock Products, Maclean-Hunter Publishing Corporation, 300 W. Adams
St., Chicago, 111. 60606.
Royal Society of Health Journal, 90 Buckingham Palace Rd., London
England.
Rubber Age, Palmerton Publishing Company, Inc., 101 W. 31st St., New
York, N. Y. 10001.
246
-------
Addresses of Periodical Publications Cited
Rural and Urban Roads, Reuben H. Donnelley Corporation, Magazine
Publishing Division, 209 W. Jackson Blvd., Chicago, 111. 60606.
Safety Maintenance, (Was changed to Environmental Control and Safety
Management), A. M. Best Company, Park Ave., Morristown, N.J. 07960.
Saturday Review, Saturday Review, Inc., Division of McCall Corporation,
380 Madison Ave., New York, N.Y. 10017.
Schweizerische Bauzeitung, Zuerich-Giesshuebel, Staffelstr 12, 8021
Zurich, Switzerland.
Smokeless Air, Field House, Breams Buildings, London E. C. 4, England.
Staedtehygiene, Nuer Hygiene-Verlag in Medizinisch-Literaris Chen
Verlag, Dr. Blume and Co. Ringstr 4, 3110 Uelzen, Germany.
Staub, VDI-Verlag GmbH, Graf-Recke Str 84, 4 Dusseldorf, Germany.
Surveyor and Municipal and County Engineer, (Was changed to Surveyor and
Municipal Engineer), 40 Bowling Green Lane, London E. C. 1, England.
Tappi, Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry, 360
Lexington Ave., New York, N.Y. 10017.
Techische Ueberwachung, (Was changed to Waerme), Technischer Verlag Heinz
Resch KG, Postfach 60, Munich, Germany.
Tonindustrie-Zeitungund Keramische Rundschau, Hermann Heubener Verlag
KG, Postfach 68, 3380 Goslar, Germany.
Transactions of the American Society of Agricultural Engineers, 420
Main St., St. Joseph, Mich. 49085.
VDI (Verein Deutscher Ingeniewe) Zeitschrift, VDI-Verlag GmbH,
Postfache 1139, 4 Dusseldorf, Germany.
Wasser und Abwasser, Gas und Wasserfach (GWF), Rosenheimer Str. 145,
Munich 8, Germany.
Wasser, Luft und Betrieb, KG Kiauss Kopt-Verlag Fuer Wirtschaft GmbH,
Lessingstri 12-14, Mainz, Germany.
Waste Trade World and Iron and Steel Scrap Review, McLaren and Sons,
Ltd., Davis House, 69/77 High St., Croydon, Surrey, England.
Water and Sewage Works, Scranton Publishing Co.. Inc., 35 E. Wacker
Dr., Chicago, 111. 60601.
Water and Waste Treatment, Dale Reynolds & Co., Ltd., Craven House,
121 Kingsway, London, England.
Water Works and Wastes Engineering, (Was changed to Water and
Wastes Engineering), Rueben H. Donnelley, Corp., 466 Lexington Ave.,
New York, N.Y. 10017.
Western City, League of California Cities, 702 Statler Center, Los
Angeles, Calif. 90017.
Westinghouse Engineer, P.O. Box 2278, 3 Gateway Center, Pittsburgh, Pa.
World's Poultry Science Journal, World's Poultry Science, Assoc.,
Agriculture House, Knightbridge, London, England.
247
-------
AUTHOR INDEX
AAuERG* H.C.
64-0948
ABuRiMATHY* A.R.
64-0618
ABU3ACKER* K.M.
64-0767
ADAMS' J.L.
64-0344-
ADLRHOLDT* A. A.
64-0834
AHKENS* E.
64-0404
ALuRIGHT* K.L.
64-0733
ALTEIMBUKG* C.J.
64-0287* 64-0288* 64-0239
ALTER* A.J.
64-U084
ALYAMOVSKIY* V.
64-0619
AMtRO* C.L.
64-0621
ANDERSEN f J.R.
64-0645
ANDERSON* R.J.
64-0949
ANDERSON* R.L.
64-0169
ANL'RITZKY* M.
64-0562
A.
64-0911
F.
64-OOSif
ATKINS, P.F.
64-0622
AUbTr A.
64-0345
BAKER» J.S.
64-0086* 64-0067f 64-0086»
64-0089f 64-0090
BALL* A.
64-0563
O.L.
BAKNES» J.W.
64-0689
BAhTONr A.E.
64-0091
BATZ* M.E.
64-0623
BAUMANr L.
64-0861
BAOMbARTNER*
D.J.
64-0255* 64-0624
BEARDOIM* P.
64-0731* 64-0732
BEAVER* P.C.
64-0950
BELL* D.
64-0347
BELL* J.M.
64-0092* 64-0256
bELOKON* A.
64-0625
E3ENHNE* A.J.
64-0494
BENOIT* R.J.
64-0309
bEVAN* R.E.
64-0040* 64-0041
BHAT* J.V.
64-0643
BHATTACHARYYA* D.
64-0663
BIEHL* J.A.
64-0641
BILLINGS* C.H.
64-0897
BILLINGS* G.D.
64-0912
BJORNSON* b.F.
64-08B1
BLACK* P.J.
64-0042* 64-0093* 64-0094*
64-0348* 64-0349* 64-0405*
64-0406* 64-0626* 64-0863
BLACKMAN* W.C.
64-0370
BLAISDELL* J.L.
64-0376
BLOOD* B.C.
64-0955
BLOODGOOO* D.E.
64-0350
BOGUE* M.D.
64-0151* 64-0195
BORIS* H.
64-0766
BORNE* 3.J.
64-0402
BORNSTEIN* A.A.
64-0662
BOTTENFIELD* W.
64-0769
BOVIER* R.Ni.
64-0770
BOWERMAN* F.R.
64-0173* 64-0174
BRAMER* H.D.
248
-------
Author Index
64-0627
BRAUN* R.
64-0257* 64-0258* 64-0407,
BR.-DELL* R.G.
64-0913
bRLMSEK* L.W.
64-0498
BRtNDER, M.
64-0352
BRLT2KE* D.J.
64-0465
BRINK* R.J.
t>4-062fe
bRlSTOW* A.K.
64-0353
BRCFFLE, R.W.
64-0864
BROTGNEGORQ, S.
64-0411
BROWN* C.
64-0771, 64-0772
BRohN* W.G.
64-0151
BUuIN* M.
64-0836
BUoHER, R.u.
64-009b
BURPANK, N.C.
64-0629r 64-0699, 64-0769
BUKlNGH, P.
64-0409
aUKTON* H.M.
64-0693
BUSCHr A.W.
64-0690
BUTLER* J.
64-0630
BUATONr D.h.
64-0631
BU2;Zfc.LL» J.C.
64-0632 r 64-0633
BYKDr J.F.
64-0634
CALLAHANf J.M.
64-0637
CAtMON* C.
64-074i
CAMPBELL » h.J.
64-0500
CAKLYLEr R.E.
04-0411
CAKM1CHAEL* W .
64-0261 » 64-0262
A.L.
64-0021» 64-0635
W.L.
64-0635
CARSWELLr J.
64-0052
CAhTER» R.C.
64-0310
CASPARIr F.
64-0412
CERNIGLIAr V.J.
64-0500
CHAMBERLAYfjEr Ł.C.
64-0955
CHAMBERS? C.W.
64-0355
CHAPMAN* D.O.
64-0317f 64-0318
CHAPMAN, J.
64-0389
CHE5AREK* R.F.
64-0501
CHIN, T.D.Y.
64-0963
CLARK* H.F.
64-0290
CLARK» J.W.
64-0414
CLARKE* E.F.
64-0313
CLARKE* N.A.
64-0355* 64-0952, 64-09P3
CObRVER, J.F.
64-0637
COHAN* L.J.
64-0503
COHEN* R.L.
64-0317* 64-0318
COOLEY* A.M.
64-0638* 64-0654* 64-07719
COOPER* A.
64-0836
COOPER* J.S.
64-0675
COPELAND* C.G.
64-0640
COPELAND* 6.C.
64-0639
CREISLLR* J.
64-0107* 64-0264
CROSS* 8.
64-0775
CULPIN* C.
64-0356
CUTLER* J.C.
64-0955
249
-------
Author Index
DAiMFORTH. h.L.
64-0185. 64-01fc6. 64—0915
DAvIDSOh. S.
64-0121
DAvIES. A.6.
64-0046. 64-01S7. 64-0186.
64-0265. 64-0420. 64-0421,
64-0422, 64-0746
DAvIS. H.W.
64-0641
DELING. G.H.
64-0111
DEi\ISON» R.E.
64-0916
DES HOSIERS. P.E.
64-0267. 64-0268. 64-0269
DEWBERRY. E..B.
64-0776
DIAMANT* R.M.
64-0570
DlAS» F.F.
64-0643
DltTRlCH* D.
64-0112
LloKSHOORNr R.
64-0571
DIXON» F.R.
64-0956
DO^SONf J.
64-0113
DCrlliMlCKf h.J.
64-027b
DONALDSON* E.C.
64-0025» 64-0273. 64-0274.
64-0644
DOiMDEROr N.C.
64-0706
DOKNbUSH. J.N.
64-064b
COuGhEKTY. M.H.
64-0646
DOVE. L.A.
64-0275
DRAF'ER. R.t.
64-0647
LRLIER. D.E.
64-064fa
DRtW. E.A.
64-0649
EA6EN. J.H.
64-0958
EAST. EtW.
64-002o
ŁBY» H.J.
64-0357. 64-03b8
EOELMAU. S.
64-0004
EDWARDS. R.A.
64-0917
ELDREDGF. K.W.
64-0115. 64-027P
EMANUEL» -C.F.
64-0279
ENOELBRECHT. R.S.
64-0359
64-0705
ERhARD. H.
64-0027
ERMER» H.
64-0581
ESSO. 1.
64-0916
ETHERTON. h.L.
64-0427
ETTELT. S.A.
64-0651
EVANSONf A.E.
64-0652
EWING. B.fc.
64-0359
EW1MS. A.
64-0674
FAIRBANKS ^-C.
64-0363
FAITH. W.L.
64-0261. 64-0360
FARKASDI. fa.
64-0426
FAUST. S.D.
64-0282. 64-0747
FEhN. C.F.
64-0194
FE1TCHINGEK. C.
64-02E3
FERSER. M.
64-0284
FEKGUSON. J.A.
64-0050
FICKER. S.
64-0779
FISCHER. F.
64-0429. 64-0575. 64-0576
FISK. Vt.lN.
64-0653
FLEMING. R.R.
64-0919
FLETCHER. J.6.
64-0006
FLYNN. T.F.
250
-------
Author Index
o4-0666
w.
64-005i
FCKEbTER* D.F.
64-0285
FOKKEK, O.U.
64-0347
FObSUNi* 6.C.
64-0636r 64-0654* 64-0739
F0x» G.G.
64-005H* 64-0055
FRANCES* J.M.
64-0784
FPANGlPANEr E.
64-0430
FRANK* B.
6H
FRANZ*
bt-0
B.
bb
A.lv
64-0579
S.T.
6^-0787
6Aivf
-------
Author Index
HAYWARQ* S.Gt
61-0789
HEiNlCKE* D.
64-0666
HEIT* A.H.
64-0743
HENDERSON* C.B.
64-0748
HERRING* F.W.
64-0512
HETLING* L.J.
64-0740
HEUKELEKIAN* H.
64-0659
HlCKOKf R.
64-0921
HIL.KENBAUMER* F.
64-0435
HI|_LŁR» H.
64-0513
HOAK* RtD.
64-0627
HOoVER* R.L.
64-0359
HOPE* M.C.
64-0122
HO*Eb* C.E.
64-0369
HUoBELL* 6.E.
64-0669
HUFF* C.b.
b4-0290
HUGHESr K«S.
64-0123
HUGHES* O.G.
64-0056
HUnS* H.
64-0057
HUNKEN, K.
64-0319
HUNTERt J.H.
o4-C683
IMHOFF» K«
64-0670
IMHOFFf K.R.
64-0670
ISoTALO» I.
64-0791
JAA6» 0.
64-0673
JACKE' W.
64-0524
JACOBSONr A.K.
64-0300
JACOCKS* F.A.
64-0124
JAIN» N.C.
64-0792
JAIM» R.K.
64-0817
JAY- G.T.
64-0056
JEFFREY* E.A.
64-0370
JENKINS* S.H.
64-0674* 64-0675
JENSEN* H.p.
64-002a* 64-0301
JOHNSON* B.B.
64-0199
JOHNSON* C.
64-0371
JOHNSON* H.C.
64-0527
JOHNSON* R.H.
64-0735
JOHNSON* RtL.
64-0302
JOHNSON* W.H.
64-0881
JONES* P.H.
64-0676
JOYCE* R.S.
64-0303
KAbLER* P.W.
64-0952
KACHULLE* C.
64-0583* 64-0564
KAISER* E.R.
64-0845
KALLENBACH* K.
64-0585
KAMPSCHULTE* J.
64-0125* 64-0304* 64-0586
KANTAWALA* D.
64-0793
KATZ* W.J.
64-0677
KAUPERT* W.
64-0059* 64-0126* 64-0200*
64-0201* 64-0587* 64-08P2
KAZMIERC2AK* E.
64-0310
KEHRBERGER* G.J.
64-0676
KEIGHTr D.G.
64-0674
KELLER* P.
64-0438
KELLY* S.
252
-------
Author Index
64-0962
KENNEDY, R.R.
&4-0679
KETKAR, O.K.
64-0803
KICK, H.
61-0439
KltSSf F.
64-0680
KINGSTON* (3. A.
64-0029, 64-0794
KLLIN, 6.
64-0231, 64-0232, 64-0233,
64-0234, 64-0235, 64-0236
KLoCK' J.W.
64-0127
KMuCH, H.
64-0586
KNuLL, K.H.
64-0440
KOtNIG, L.
64-0681
KOwOLRlT, K.
64-0682
KRAMER, R.H.
64-0726
KRtBS> R.D.
64-0683
KPlEGERr J.H.
64-0008
KRlGt, P.R.
64-0441, 64-0442, 64-0443,
64-0444
KR1SHNAN, M.S.
64-0767
KRUPPE, H.
64-0061
KUtHN, 0.
64-0126
KUGELMAN, I.J.
64-0311, 64-0664
KUuESHOV, P.
64-0685
KUMMER, F.
64-0488
KUWPF» E.
64-0129
KUuSCH, W.M.
64-0202
LAMD, (3.A.
64-0963
I_A(.|6» R.
64-0686
LANDMAN, W.J.
64-0203
LANE, J.M.
64-0305, 64-0306
LAPAR, R.E.
64-0073
LAURIA, D.T.
64-0667
LAWRENCE' A.W.
64-0311, 64-0683
LARSON, S.P.
64-0307
LEDBETTER, J.O.
64-0308
LEONE, D.E.
64-0309
LEVIN, G.S.
64-0689
LEVINE, S.
64-0795
LEViIS, J.W.
64-0690
LEV.IS, W.A.
64-0204
LICHTI, E.
64-0736
LIEflMAN, H.
64-0846
LILBMANN, H.
64-0964
LIGOURI, F.R.
64-0883
LISTOE, M.J.
64-0691
LOGAN, J.A.
64-0321, 64-0322
LOSSIE, 6.
64-0030
LOWRY, J.
64-0692
LUCIA, F.J.
64-0923
LUDINGTON, D.
64-0372
LUUWIG, H.F.
64-0310
LYNN, W.R.
64-0031
MAAS, K.
64-0129
MAC DONALD, D.
64-0797
MACKOWSKI, L.
64-0513
MAGNESS, W.
64-0850
MAILEY, H.V.
253
-------
Author Index
R.
64-0884
MALlNAr J.F.
64-069,3
MALLIKARJUhAN.
64-0803
MAMER' «J.
64-0347
MANCHESTER* H.
64-0847
M AMGt.R. M.C.
64-0262
MAuN» U.T«
64-0966
MA«TIN. P.
64-044d
MC ADAMS r b.A.
64-029b
MC CAbEr L.J.
64-095&
MC CARTYf P.L.
b4-0311» 64-06U4. b4-0686
MC ELWEE. V».
64-0924
MC GAUHEY. P.H.
64-036fa, 61-06o7f
MC KtE J.E.
64-0132
MC LEAN' D.M.
b4-0965
MELKER» J.E.
64-0510
MEHTA' C.T.
64-0767
MEISSNERf H.G.
64-0526. 64-0527
«I.A*
b4-0389f 64-0694
F.C.
64-0647
MEKZr R.C.
fa4-0886r 64-0887.
64-0889r 64-0690t b4-0891»
64-0892
MEYER' K.F.
64-0749
MICHAELS* A.
64-0312
MICHAtlLSEN, G.S.
64-075C
MlLLARD» R.F.
64-0012
MILLER» M.
64-0133
MILLS* R.E.
64-0695
MINER* J.R.
64-0392
MITROf A.A.
64-0210
MOLINA. JtF.
64-0744
MOORE. H.C.
64-0526
MORGAN. P.tl.
64-0313
MOKRIS. 6.L.
64-0375
MORRIS. J.C.
64-0314
MOKTENSEN. L.
64-0062
MOTAWI. K.E.H.
64-037u
MUELLER. W.
64-0591
MUELLER. W.J.
64-0800
MULHERN. J.J.
64-0730
NAGEL' C.A.
64-0655
NAIK. B.N.
64-0801
NANCY. K.H.
64-0802
NATESON. K.
64-0803
NEIDL» G.
64-0489
NETZSCH-LEHNER. A.
64-0456
NEhTON. D.
64-069b
NICHOLAS. R.C.
64-0376
NIESE. G.
64-0455
NOMAK. W.
64-0456
GATES. E.T.
64-0490
DATES. J.T.
64-0805
OBRIST. W.
64-0457
OCHS. H.J.
64-0596
O'CONNcLL. R.L.
64-0763
OKEY. R.W.
254
-------
Author Index
64-0317* 64-0318
OLbOlM* 0.0.
64-0698
O'ROUKKEf J.T.
64-0699
OSoORN* V.
64-0896
OSTRANDER* C.E.
64-0376
OT]Of F.
64-0014
PAGAN' A.R.
64-0897
PAGANO* S.
64-0398
PAILTHOKP* R.E.
64-0700
PAi_INCHAK* S.
64-0800
PALM* R.
64-0597
PALMER' L.M.
64-0379
PA^QOE* G.C.
64-0806
PAr^K* J.
64-0072
PAKKHUKST* J.D.
64-0655* 64-0701
PAKTRIDGE* J.W.
64-0899
PASCOE* 6.
64-0073
PATRICK* P.K.
64-0930
PAUL' R.C.
64-0752
PEARSON* A.S.
64-0807
D.J.
64-0215
H.
o4-0702
PERRY* C.A.
64-0380
PETERS* R.
64-0347
PPtFFER* J.T.
64-0703
PIPES* W.O.
64-0321* 64-0322
F.
64-0319
F.Gt
64-0704* 64-0705
POLLOCK* K.N'.
64-0216
PORGES* R.
64-0381* 64-0382
POUND* C.E.
64-0900
PRAKASAM* T.B.S.
64-0706
PRATELLI* 6.
64-0335
PROLER* I.
64-0650
QUIRK* T.P.
64-0709
GUON* J.E.
64-0321* 64-0322
RAMANA1HAN* M.
64-0656
RAU* S.S.
64-074U
RAPOPORT* F.
64-0851
RASCH* R.
64-0534* 64-0599* 64-0600
RAS'-ilJSSEN* A.E.
64-0710
RAVENHULT* R.T.
64-0967
REODY* K.R.
64-0810
REEDER* N.
64-0387
RE1CHEKT* u.
64-0852
b»
64-0220
RHE.INFRANK* W.J.
RICKETTS* R.
64-0370
RIE13EL
64-0713
RlriM* A.
64-0536
R1LEY* C.
64-0388
ROBLIN* O.A.
64-0653
ROuALE* J.i.
64-0462
ROE* S.S.
64-0854
ROGUS* C.A.
64-0328* 64-053?* 64-0539*
64-0540
255
-------
Author Index
ROME* O.L.
61-0078
ROLAND* F.
61-0222
ROLLED G.
64-0329
ROSE* W.W.
64-0389
ROSSI' R.M.
64-0933
ROTONDO' V.J.
64-0714
RUBIN' E.
64-0715
RUMBERGER' W.A.
64-0832
RUSSELL* R.A.
64-0716
SACCA> G.
64-0390
SAbEK» J.C.
64-0541
SALOTTO' B.V.
64-0717
SArtANS' H.
64-0223
SANDERSt N.
64-0813
SADDERS' S.R.
64-0701
SANDERSON' W.W.
64-0962
SANFORD' C.F.
64-0463
SATTAR' A.
64-0814
SAVAGE, E.P.
64-0151
SCARCE. L.E.
64-0963
SCHLEUSENER' P.E.
64-0391
SChRAUFNASELr F.H.
64-0718
SCoTTf M.
64-0331
SElBOLUr L.
64-0456
M.J.
64-0721
J.A.
64-0816
SHANNON' E.S.
64-0722
SHAPIRO. I.D.
64-0855
SHATZELr L.R.
64-0464
SHAYNE» P.E.
64-0080» 64-0081
SHEAFFER* J.R.
64-0332
SHEPPARO' P.E.
64-0969
SHEQUINEr E.R.
64-0543
SHERBECK' J.M.
64-0723
SHERRILL' R.C.
64-0503
SHIHr C.S.
64-0225
SHIRKSALKAR» M.M.
64-0817
SHUVALr H.I.
64-0465
SIMPSON* 6.D.
64-0725
SINGH' D.D.
64-0792
SINGH' J.
64-0792
SKITT' J.
64-0333' 64-0544' 64-0545'
64-0818
SMITH' E.L.
64-0820
SMITH' L.L.
64-0728
SMITH' R.M.
64-0641
SMITH' S.M.
64-0392
SNYDER' M.J.
64-0821
SOBEL' A.T.
64-0372
SOWERBY' A.
64-0475
SPITZER' E.F.
64-0467' 64-0608
SPOHN' E.
64-0468
SPROUL' O.J.
64-0622
STABENOW' G.
64-0609
STAHL' R.W.
64-0729
STEAD' F.M.
256
-------
Author Index
64-0154, 64-
STE.NBURG* R.L.
64-0547* 64-
STLNMAN* A.
64-0934
STLPHENSON, J.W.
64-0549* 64-
STiCKELBERGER* D
64-0469
STlCKNEY* P.B.
64-0600
STIEI_ER» A.
64-0779
STIRRUP* F.L.
64-0229
STQNŁ» R.
64-0887* 64-
64-0690* 64-
SToRY» W.S.
64-0822
STRAGIER* M.
64-0230
STRAUB* C.P.
64-0756. 64-
64-0761* 64-
STRAUCHr D.
64-0470» 64-
STRUMM. W.
64-0734
STUART* E.B.
64-0733
SUKENlKf V.A.
64-0303
SUf,NER» J.
64-0157
SUNDQVISTf S.
64-0158
SURBER. E.
64-0471
SUSSMAN> V.H.
64-0730
SUTTONr S.H.
64-0725
SYMONSr J.H.
64-0735
TAlGANIDESr E.P.
64-0394r 64-
64-0397» 64-
TALBOTr J.S.
64-0731» 64-
TASSONEYf J.P
64-0733
TAuBERr F.
64-0159
TAYLOR* «J»I-.
0155r 64-0393
0548
0550
0688* 64-0889,
0891, 64-0892
0759, 64-0760,
0762
0971
0395, 64-0396*
0398
0732
64-0824
TAYLOR, W.A.
64-0877
TCHOBANOGLOUSf G.
64-0231* 64-0232* 64-0233*
64-0234* 64-0235* 64-0236
TELETZKEr 6.H.
64-0337
TENNEY* M.W.
64-0734* 64-0735
TERRY* L.L.
64-0972
THACKREY* T.O.
64-0472
THOMPSON* R.N.
64-0736
TIETJEN* C.
64-0473
TOLCISS* J.
64-0845
TOMLINSON* H.D.
64-0699* 64-0793
TOMPKINS* V.
64-0238
TOPE* 0.
64-0935
TOTH* S.J.
64-0474
TRIGG* C.F.
64-0825
TROW* J.
64-0241
TS1VOGLOU* E.G.
64-0763
TURNER* B.G.
64-0657
TURNER* W.A.
64-0475
TYSON* C.B.
64-0242
UZZLE» A.B.
64-0036
VANDERVELD* J.
64-0907
VAN HEUVELEN* W.
64-0698
VAN KLEECK* L.W.
64-0738
VELZY* C.O.
64-0554
VELZY* C.R.
64-0554
VENNES* J.W.
64-0696
VOELKER* E.M.
257
-------
Author Index
64-0556
VOGELf H.E.
64-0037
VOw BOEHM, B.
64-0332
VON KLOPOTEK, A.
64-0477
VON LEHMDEM D.J.
64-0510
WAhL, E.D.
64-0638, 64-0654, 64-0739
WALKER, A.B.
64-0557
WALKER, J.D.
64-0648
WALLIS, H.F.
64-0247
WALLMAN, H.
64-0113
WAcSH, J.D.
64-0401
WAi_TER, C.w.
64-0764
WALTERf J.H.
64-0634
WALTERSr C.F.
64-0624
fcASHINGTON* D.R.
64-0740
WATSONr K.S,
64-0492
WEAVER, L.
64-0910
WEBER* E.
64-0614
WEdERi W.J.
64-0314
WEŁRENr H.O.
64-0765
WEGMANr L.S.
64-0559
WEIBEL, S.R.
64-0977
WEUJSTEIN, A.
64-0857
WEISBURD, M.I.
64-0560
WESTSTRATE, W.A.G.
64-0481
WHALEYr H.P.
64-0741
WHEATLANDr A.B.
64-0402
WHITE, J.E.
64-0703
WICKER, W.J.
64-0482
WILCOX, F.W.
64-0766
WILEY, J.S.
64-0483
WILLIAMSON, J.N.
64-0743
WILLIS, C.A.
64-0687
WINNACKER, K.
64-0615
WINTON, J.
64-0341
WIRT, R.L.
64-0832
WOLFSOHN» V.
64-0860
WOODS, C.E.
64-0744
WOTSCHKE' J.
64-0617
WUHRMANN, K«
64-0342
WUHRMANN, K.A.
64-0038
WULF, H.
64-0745
WYLIE» E.M.
64-0721
XANTEN, W.A.
64-0249
ZAJIC, J.E.
64-0736
ZOLLIN6ER, H.A.
64-0432, 64-0786
258
-------
CORPORATE AUTHOR INDEX
AEROSPACE MEDICAL RESEARCH LAL,. (b57uTH), BRIGHT-PATTERSON AFB> OHIO
64-0113
AIR FORCE FLIGHT TEST CENTER, EDWARDS AFfl, CALIF.
64-0748
AMERICAN PUBLIC VvORKS ASSOC . , CHICAGO, ILL.
b4-0143> 64-0169, 61-0549, 64-0907,
64-0912, 64-0916' 64-0969
AMERICAN SUGAR CAmE LEAGUE.
b4-0620
ARCTIC ALROMEDICAL LABORATORY, FOKT ,/A:NIVRIGHT» ALASKA
64-0255' 64-0321, b4-Q322' 64-0624
ARMY ENGINEER RESEARCH A,-iD DEVELOPMENT LAB.r FORT BELVOIR, VA.
b4-C267, 64-C268' b4-0269
ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION, ,-iASHINGTON, D.C.
64-0758, 64-0759' b4-0760, bt+-0761,
64-0762
bKITiSh HYDROMECHANICS RESEARCH ASSOCIATION, LONDON (ENGLAND).
64-U631
BUREAU OF MINES, WASHING fuii, D.C.
64-0025, 64-0029, 64-0^73, 6^-^274,
64-06^4, 64-0729' 64-0794
CALIFORNIA UEPT. OF PUBLIC HEALTH, SACRAMENTO.
b4-C078, &4-C096, 64-0097, 6^-0098,
64-0099, 64-0100, 64-0101, 64-0102,
64-0103, 64-0104
CALIFORNIA UNIV., BERKELEY.
64-0231, 64-0232' 64-0233, o4-i';234,
04-0235, 64-023&' b4-0331, o
CITY CF MACONf GA.
COLORADO SCHOOL OF MlfjES RESEARCH FOU-'iDATlON' INC., GOLDEN.
64-0181, 64-C182
COLUMBIA BASIixl INTER-A3EUC Y COHMI fTEE
04-0135, 64-0136' 64-0137, b4-0i38
CORNELL r HOLLAND, HAYES HND MERRYFIELJ, SEATTLE* ORE.
64-0652
COUi%ClL FOR SClEiMT'IFIC AijD IhDuSTKlAL RESEARCH, pRETORM
(SOUTH AFRICA)
6^-0441, 64-0442' b4-0443» b4-0444
DE KALti COUNTY BOARD OF CUMMISSIUNERS ' GA.
64-0110
i-IEiMT OF AGRICULTURE' WASHlNGTOrj, D.C.
b4-0123» 64-0358' u4-075&
ENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION, AHQ WELFARE, WASHINGTON, D.C.
64-0681, 64-0743
DETROIT , METROPOLITAN AREA REGIONAL PLANNING COMM., MICH.
64-0324, 64-0423
EAST OHIO GAS COMPANY, 0,,IO
64-0506
FEDERAL MOUSING AuMlNlSTkATION, ^MbHligGTONr D.C.
6<-r-0683
GlaBS Ai-:u COX, INC., NEw YORK
64-02b7, 64-0288' b4-0k:d9
HOUSb! CF REPRESENTATIVES SUBCOMMITTEE ON SCIENCE, RESEARCH, DEVELOP-
MENT, WASHINGTON, D.C»
t>Jt-0342, 64-0437
INSTiTuT^ OF PUBLIC CLEAi jSlNG , LOiMUO, j (EWGLAfJD).
o4-0012
INSTITUTE OF SCRAP IRON ,^-iu STEEL, WASHINGTON, D.C.
64-0835, 64-0843, b4-0d44, t>
259
-------
Corporate Author Index
INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF PUBLIC CLEANSING
64-0201
INTERNATIONAL RESEARCH GROUP ON REFUSE DISPOSAL.
64-0129* 64-0329* 64-0404* 64-0440*
64-0448* 64-0457* b4-0477* 64-0488*
INTERNATIONAL WORK ORGANIZATION FOR REFUSE RESEARCH*
SWIT/ERLAND.
64-0455
KANSAS STATE DEPT. OF HEALTHf TOPEKA.
64-0392
KENTUCKY DEPT. OF HEALTH, FRANKFORT.
64-0766
MARYLAND UNIV.* COLLEGE PARK.
64-0086* 64-0087* 64-0088* 64-OG89,
64-0090
MICHIGAN UNIV.' ANN ARBO;<. SCHOOL OF PUBLIC HEALTH.
64-0621* 64-0661* b4-0b65* 64-U669,
64-0677* 61-0b79» 6
foi+-071b» 64-0723* o
ZURICH*
MINISTRY OF HOUSING AND LOCAL GOVERNMENT* LONDON (ENGLAND).
64-0893* 64-0925
MORRISTOftN CHAMBER OF COMMERCE* TENN.
64-0134
NATIONAL CANNERS ASSOCIATION RESEARCH FOUNDATION, WASHINGTON. D.C.
64-0450* 64-0451* 64-0452*'
64-0453
NATIONAL SAFETY COUNCIL, CHICAGO* ILL.
64-0969
NAVAL CIVIL ENGINEERING LAD.* PORT HUENEME* CALIF.
64-0263
NEBRASKA UNIV.* LINCOLN.
64-0399
NORTHEASTERN ILLINOIS METROPOLITAN AREA PLANNING COMMISSION* CHICAGO.
64-0332
PACIFIC SOUTHWEST INTER-AGENCY COMMITTEE.
64-0135* 64-0156* 64-0137' 64-3138
PRESIDENT'S SCIENCE ADVISORY COMMITTEE; WASHINGTON* D.C.
64-0754
PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE* WASHINGTON* D.C.
64-0093' 64-0111* 64-0115* 64-0122,
64-0124, 64-0142' o4-0l47* 64-0148*
64-Ol51» 64-0152* o4-0160» 64-0162*
64-0163* 64-0164* 64-0165* 64-0302*
64-0303* 64-0314* o4-0362» 64-0382*
64-0400* 64-0493* 64-0653* 64-0560*
64-0660* 64-0715' 64-0721* b4-0755*
64-0763* 64-0801* o4-0972* 64-0974*
64-0975
PURDUE UNIV.* LAFAYETTE, IND.
64-0092* 64-0145' b4-0704» b4-0708
RICHMOND COUNTY uEPT. OF HEALTH, liA.
64-0150
SCHOOL OF AEROSPACE MEDICINE' BROOKS AF3, TFX.
64-0317, 64-0318
STANFORD UNIV.' CALIF.
b4-0311
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA. LoS ANGELES.
64-0886* b4-0887' 64-0888' 64-0^09*
b4-0890* b4-0891» b4-0892
'WISCONSIN UNIV., wAUiSON
04-0718
HEALTH ORGANIZATION, GENEVA (SWITZERLAND).
04-0970
260
-------
GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION INDEX
AFRICA
EGYPT
CAlROr 64-0410, 64-0426
KENYA
MOMBASA* 64-0156
SOUTH AFRICA* 64-0461
JOHANNESBURG* 64-0442
PRETORIA* 64-0441, 64-0443*
64-0444
AhlTAhCTICA* 64-0252
ARCTIC* 64-0263* 64-0300* 64-0624
ASIA
SOUTHEAST ASIA
INDONESIA* 64-0411
AUSTRALIA* 64-0271
WAVERLY* 64-0170
CANADA* 64-0224* 64-0746
CALGARY* 64-0870
KITCHENER* 64-0937
DOMINICAN REPUBLIC
SANTO DOMINGO* 64-0484
EUROPE* 64-0053* 64-0056, 64-0109*
64-0111* 64-0125* 64-0133* 64-0159*
64-0304* 64-0467* 64-0570* 64-0574*
64-0600* 64-0605, 64-0608* 64-0609
AUSTRIA
VIENNA* 64-0126* 64-0257*
64-0429, 64-0576* 64-0598*
64-0611
FINLAND* 64-0220
faERMANY (WEST), 64-0014, 64-0019,
64-0059* 64-0200* 64-0201*
64-0218* 64-0223* 64-0286,
64-0319* 64-0320* 64-0339*
64-0477* 64-0572* 64-0575*
64-0579, 64-0563* 64-0534,
64-0587, 64-0588* 64-0597,
64-0606, 64-0614* 64-0617,
64-0642* 64-0668* 64-0867*
64-0935
BADEN-BADEN* 64-0435* 64-0470
BERLIN* 64-0612
8LAUBEUREN, 64-0468
BRAUNSCHWEIG* 64-0065, 64-0076
COLOGNE* 64-0061
DARMSTADT* 64-0613
OUESSELDORF* 64-0564
EBINGEN* 64-0582
ESSEN* 64-0573, 64-0616
ESSLINGEN, 64-0563
FRANKFORT/MAIN, b4-0607
FRANKFURT, 64-0567, 64-0926
GANDERKESEE* 64-0057
GlESSEhl* 64-0713
HAGEN* 64-0505
HAMBURG* 64-0586, 64-0596
LINDAU/BODENSEE, 64-0027
LUDW1GSBURG* 64-0591
LUDWIGSHAFEN, 64-0578, 64-0615
MUNICH* 64-0172* 64-0562*
64-0603
NEUSTADT* 64-0581
SCHWEINFURT* 64-0027, 64-0468,
64-0469
STUTTGART, 64-0153, 64-02*0,
64-0568* 64-0599
WUPPtRTAL* 64-0720
GREAT BRITAIN* 64-0012, 64-0039*
64-0069* 64-0071* 64-0091*
64-0117, 64-0130, 64-0157,
64-0190* 64-0214, 64-0226*
64-0227* 64-0229* 64-0247*
64-0298* 64-0330* 64-0334*
64-0340* 64-0353* 64-0356*
64-0373* 64-0413* 64-0416*
64-0420* 64-0421* 64-0422*
64-0459* 64-0592* 64-0601*
64-0602* 64-0610* 64-0631*
64-0671* 64-0672* 64-0746*
64-0768* 64-0787* 64-0789*
64-0831r 64-0839* 64-0841*
64-0856* 64-0878* 64-0893*
64-0902* 64-0908* 64-0925*
64-0928* 64-0930* 64-0941
ALDERSHOT* 64-0894
BERKSHIRE* 64-0351
BIRMINGHAM* 64-0947
BOLTON* 64-0811
BRISTOL* 64-0901
BURNLEY* 64-0260* 64-0293*
64-0914
CARLISLE* 64-0868
DAGENHAM* 64-0577
DUMFRIES, 64-0212
DUNDEE* 64-0050* 64-0204
EDINBURGH* 64-0139, 64-0261,
64-0262
FALKIRK* 64-0105
FARNBOROUGH* 64-0116
FULHAM* 64-0580* 64-0593
GLASGOW* 64-0285* 64-0566*
64-0594
HARROWGATE* 64-0120
HOVE* 64-0299
LANCHASHIRE* 64-0292
LANARKSHIRE, 64-0245
LEATHERHEAD* 64-0445
LEICESTER, 64-0418, 64-0436,
64-0446, 64-0447, 64-0454
LEYLAND* 64-0131
261
-------
Geographical Location Index
LONDON* 64-0205* 64-0945
LYTHAM ST. ANNES* 64-0589*
61-0595
MANCHESTER* 64-0040* 64-0041*
64_0016» 61-0313* 61-0838
MARGATE* 61-0166
MIDDLESBROUGH* 64-0175
MIDDLETON* 61-0032
MIDLOTHIAN* 61-0415
NEWBURN* 61-0066
PRESTON* 61-0111* 61-0175
SHEFFIELD* 61-0211
SOUTHWARK* 61-0018
STAFFORD* 61-0191
STIRLING COUNTY* 64-0872
TOTTENHAM* 61-0239
WESTMINSTER* 61-0858
WORTHING* 61-0026* 61-0190
HUNGARY
BUDAPEST* 61-0799
ITALY* 61-0385
VENICE* 61-0216
NETHERLANDS* 64-0105, 61-0106*
61-0109* 61-0604* 64-0836
ROTTERDAM* 61-0571* 64-0598
SWEDEN* 64-0130* 64-0158
SWITZERLAND* 64-0037* 64-0471
BERNE* 64-0565* 64-0590
ZURICH* 64-0488
INDIA* 64-0767* 64-0603
JAMSHEDPUR* 64-0627
NEW DELHI* 64-0711
ISRAEL* 64-0465
nAIFA* 64-0478
TEL AVIV* 64-0160
JAMAICA* 64-0283
KINGSTON, 64-0464* 64-Q479* 64-0482
JAPAK* 61-0109* 64-0936
MEXICO* 64-0662
PAKISTAN, 61-0814
PUERTO RICO
SAN JUAN* 64-0093
SCUTu AMERICA* 64-0955
TURKEY
ISTANBUL* 64-0161
UNITED STATES* 61-0017* 64-0056,
61-0121* 64-0270* t>4-0273* 64-0271*
61-0295* 64-0293* 64-0403* 64-0553*
64-0556* 61-0725, 61-0729* 61-0840*
64-0860* 64-0919, 64-0969
ALABAMA
MADISON COUNTY, 64-019b
ALASKA* 61-0081* 61-1)255* 61-0300
ANCHORAGE* 64-0146
ARIZONA* 64-0001* 61-0892
PHOENIX* 61-0472
SCOTTSDALE* 64-0230
TUCSON* 64-0185* 64-0186*
61-0915
ARKANSAS
CAMDtN* 64-0054* 61-0055
CALIFORNIA* 64-0331* 64-0347*
64-0360* 64-0374* 61-0377*
64-0492* 64-0621* 64-0875*
64-0891* 64-0892, 64-0903*
64-0949
BUTTL COUNTY. 64-0101* 64-0102*
64-0103* 64-0104
CHULA VISTA* 64-0927
CLAREMONT* 64-0171
COMPTON* 64-0078
CRESCENT CITY. 61-0107
DE NORTE COUNTY* 61-0264
DIXON 64-0879
FRESNO* 64-0934
GAOENA* 64-0951
LAKE TAHOE* 64-0310
LOS ANGELES* 64-0173*
64-0527, 64-0560, 64-0655
LOS ANGELES COUNTY, 64-0701,
61-0873* 61-0938
PLEASANT HILL* 61-094?
RIVERSIDE* 64-0864* 64-0933
SAN BUENAVENTURA* 64-0148*
64-0160* 64-0400
SAN DIEGO COUNTY* 64-0294*
64-0876
SAN FERNANDO* 64-0417, 64-0458,
64-0476, 64-0830
SAN FRANCISCO* 64-074?
SAN JOA9UIN VALLEY* 64-0401
SANTA BARBARA* 64-018?
SANTA CRUZ COUNTY* 64-0099,
64-0100
SANTA MONICA* 64-0189
SONOMA COUNTY* 64-0096,
64-0097* 64-0098
WALNUT* 64-0887, 64-0888*
64-0889* 64-0890
COLORADO
AURORA* 64-0492
DENVER* 64-0492, 64-0869
THORNTON* 64-0485
CONNECTICUT
MILFORD* 64-0045* 64-0067
NErt HAVEN* 64-0535
ivATERBURY* 64-0202* 64-0210
DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA* 64-0266*
64-0834* 64-0957
FLORIDA* 61-0616* 64-0907
262
-------
Geographical Location Index
CLEARWATER, 64-0533
MERRITT ISLAND* 64-0297
MIAMI, 64-0228
NORTH MIAMI BEACh* 61-0296
PENSACOLA, 64-0623
PINELLAS COUNTY, 64-0006
ST. PETERSBURG, 64-0323
6EORGIA
ATLANTAt 64-0359
AUGUSTA* 64-0150
DE KALB COUNTY* t>4-0110
MACON* 64-0149
SAVANNAH* 64-0194
VALDOSTA, 64-0180* 64-U194,
64-0242
HAWAII
HONOLULU* 64-0224* 64-0860
IDAHO* 64-0029» 64-0794
ILLINOIS, 64-0111, 64-0222*
64-0332, 64-0359, 64-0523
CHICAGO* 64-0002, 64-0020*
64-0177, 64-0178, 64-0502,
64-0561, 64-0651* 64-0664,
64-0823, 64-0859, 64-0922*
64-0946, 64-0963
ROBINSON* 64-0641
WAUKEGAN* 64-0907
WINNEBAGO COUNTY, 64-027b
INDIANA
BLOOMNGTON, 64-0145
CARTHAGE, 64-0640
INDIANAPOLIS, 64-0913
ST. JOSEPH COUNTY, 64-0115
IQwA
AMES, 64-0313
MUSCATINE, 64-0924
SIOUX CITY, 64-0710
KANSAS, 64-0392
KENTUCKY* 64-0940
LEXINGTON, 64-0162, 64-0163,
64-0164
LOUISIANA* 64-06J7
NEW ORLEANS* 64-0776
f-iARYLAND» 64-0039* 64-0357
BALTIMORE* 64-0916
CHEVERLY* 64-0917
COLLEGE PARK* 64-0917
PRINCE GEORGL'S COUNTY* 64-0086*
64-0087, 64-OOt8» b4-0089,
64-0090
RIVERDALE, 64-0052* 64-0064*
64-0079
MASSACHUSETTS
AMHERST* 64-0621
ARLINGTON, 64-0861
BOSTON* 64-0151* 64-0496*
64-0497, 64-0507, 64-0542,
64-0920
LOWELL, 64-0511
MICHIGAN
DETROIT, 64-0034, 64-0140,
64-0324, 64-0423, 64-0837
OAK PARK* 64-0028
RIVER ROUGE* 64-0797
MINNESOTA* 64-0541, 64-0638
HOYT LAKES, 64-0741
MISSISSIPPI, 64-0775
PASCAGOULA* 64-0697
MISSOURI
SPRINGFIELD, 64-0896
MONTANA, 64-0029, 64-0794
MISSOULA, 64-0877
NEBRASKA
LINCOLN, 64-0399
SCOTTSBLUFF, 64-0062
NEW HAMPSHIRE, 64-0250
NEW JERSEY, 64-0009, 64-0254,
64-0906, 64-0944
ATLANTIC CITY, 64-0106, 64-0184
BAYOiNiNE* 64-0959
LLIZAPETH, 64-0866
METUCHEN* 64-0918
MONTCLAIR, 64-0063
NEWARK, 64-0551, 64-0^09
RUTHERFORD* 64-0897
WAYNe., 64-0147, 64-0493,
64-0974
NEW YORK, 64-0529, 64-0530*
64-0536* 64-0836* 64-08P3*
64-0898
ALBANY* 64-0666, 64-0962
BATAVIA, 64-0865
ELMIRA, 64-0463
GARDEN CITY* 64-0509
riEMPSTEAO, 64-0203, 64-0508,
64-0525, 64-0543, 64-0554
IRONDEQUOIT, 64-0283
MERRICK, 64-0514
MOUNT VERNONr 64-0911
NEW YORK CITY* 64-0033*
64-0118, 64-0213, 64-0291,
64-0316, 64-0527, 64-0557,
64-0790* 64-0807, 64-0846,
64-0871, 64-0923, 64-0929,
64-0939, 64-0968
OCEANSIDE, 64-0519
OYSTER HAY, 64-0500
POUGHKEEPSIE* 64-0073
GUEENS, 64-0861
STATtN ISLAND, 64-0197
263
-------
Geographical Location Index
WESTCHESTER COUNTY, 64-0636t
64-0966
NORTH CAROLINA
DUNN» 61-0036
VALDESE* 64-0688
iNiOKTH DAKOTA* 64-0638* 64-0654,
64-0698
OHIO, 64-0108
CHILLICOTHE, 64-0769
CLEVELAND* 64-0237, 64-0506
DAYTON* 64-0521
GIRAkD* 64-0253
OKLAHOMA* 64-0656* 64-0736
MUSKOGEE* 64-0862
STILLWATER* 64-0682
OMAHA* 64-U532
OREGON* 64-0029* 64-0794* 64-0796
KING COUNTY* 64-0165
LEBANON* 64-0427
SEATTLE COUNTY* 64-0165
PENNSYLVANIA* 64-0015* 64-0712*
64-0730
LEBANON* 64-0784
PHILADELPHIA* 64-0007
READING* 64-0558
WILKES-BARRE. 64-0884
SOUTH DAKOTA* 64-0645
TENNESSEE
MEMPHIS* 64-U813
MORRISTOWN* 64-0134
LARAHIE* 64-0023
U.S.S.P.* 64-0431* 64-0619* 64-0625*
64-0685
MOSCOW* 64-0133
TEXAS
ABILENE* 64-0022* 64-0240
EL PASO* 64-0921
FORT WORTH* 64-0425
SAN MARCOS* 64-0693
TEXARKANA* 64-0003
VIRGINIA
FALLS CHURCH* 64-0689
PORTSMOUTH* 64-0942
RICHMOND* 64-0805* 64-0819
WASHINGTON* 64-0029* 64-0383*
64-0794
EPHRATA* 64-0112
EVERETT* 64-0647
LYNNEWOOD* 64-0691
RICHLAND* 64-0829
SEATTLE* 64-0217, 64-0785*
64-0967
WALLA WALLA* 64-0238, 64-0246
rtEST VIRGINIA, 64-0338
WISCONSIN, 64-0013
LAKE GENEVA* 64-0072
MILWAUKEE, 64-0144, 64-0215,
64-0932
rtYOMING
264
-------
SUBJECT INDEX
ACCIDENT PREVENTION
SLE SAFETY AND ACCIDENT PREVENTION
ADMINISTRATION
SLE MANAGEMENT
AEROSPACE RESEARCH
StE SPACE CRAFT
AGRICULTURAL WASTES
CHEMICAL RESIDUES. 64-0366
COMPOSTlNGr 64-0449* 64-0450*
64-0451i 64-0452* 64-0694
CONFERENCE* 64-0399
CROP RESIDUES* 64-0365* 64-0366*
64-0427, 64-0667r 64-0694
DAIRY FARM, 64-0290, 64-0367
DISPOSAL' 64-0365, 64-0368, 64-0369,
64-0394, 64-0396
EFFLUENT DISPOSAL, 64-0402
HYDRAULIC DISPOSAL SYSTEM, 64-0344,
64-0372, 64-0378
ODORS, 64-0346, 64-0380
POULTRY, 64-0344, 64-0346, 64-0347,
64-0348, 64-0349, 64-0363»
64-0364, 64-0371, 64-0395
SOYBEAN, 64-0359
UTILIZATION, 64-0353* 64-0356,
64-0358, 64-0367, 6I+-0391,
64-0393, 64-0772, 64-0817
AIR POLLUTION
BURNING WASTES, 64-0494, 64-0512,
64-0796, 64-0844, 64-0645
CuNTROL EQUIPMENT, 64-0504, 64-0560,
64-0577, 64-0596, 64-0601, 64-0609
DUMPS, 64-0730
LAVvS CONCERNING, 64-0493* 64-0553,
64-0560
OuORS, 64-0346
StfOKE CONTROL, 64-0334, 64-0553
SOURCES OF, 64-0261* 64-0462,
64-0494, 64-051U* 6^-0512*
64-0553
AEROBIC WASTE TREATMENT* 64-0306
STANDARDS* 64-0527* 6^-0536*
64-0556, 64-0560
SURVEYS* 64-0160
ANALYSIS
SEE REFUSE; COMPOSITION
ANIMALS
DtAD* 64-0123* 64-0189* 64-0264*
64-0363* 64-0366, 64-0369* 64-0545
COLLECTION METHODS* 64-0118
DISEASE CARRIERS* 64-ooo3* 64-0749*
64-0950* 64-0954* 64-0955*
64-0960* 64-Q961* 64-0975
FcED* 64-0653* 64-0775* 64-0776,
64-0814, 64-0947* 64-0971
FROM CATTLE MANURE* 64-0361
FROM POULTRY LITTER* 64-0354*
64-0386
FEED LOTS* 64-0360* 64-0365*
64-0380* 64-0392* 64-0396*
64-0401
LITTER* 64-0833
AREA-WIDE APPROACHES TO WASTE MANAGEMENT
COMPOSTING PLANT* 64-0413
GENERAL DISCUSSION OF* 64-0152*
64-0275
GROUND WATER POLLUTION* 64-0008
INCINERATION PLANT* 64-0530* 64-0535
PARTICULAR AREA* 64-0006* 64-0292*
64-0324
RESEARCH STUDIES* 64-0122
SANITARY LANDFILLS. 64-0086*
64-0087* 64-0089* 64-0090*
64-0884* 64-0900
AUTOMOBILES* SCRAP
ABANDONED, 64-0209* 64-0846*
64-0858* 64-0859* 64-0943
LAWS CONCERNING* 64-0834*
64-0836* 64-0838* 64-0852*
64-0860
CONFERENCE* 64-0849
COSTS* 64-0858
ECONOMICS* 64-0838* 64-0840*
64-0851, 64-0856
EQUIPMENT* 64-0850* 64-0851*
64-0855* 64-0859
BALERS* 64-0841* 64-0847
CRUSHERS* 64-0841* 64-0847
DUMPSTER* 64-0839
FRAGMENTIZERS* 64-0848* 64-0857
TOWING* 64-0839
GENERAL DISCUSSION OF* 64-0835*
64-0854
GORATOR SYSTEM* 64-0489
INCINERATION* 64-0844* 64-0845*
64-0851
INSURANCE ASPECTS* 64-0856
JUNK YARDS* 64-0836* 64-0840*
64-0842* 64-0857* 64-0859*
64-0860
SANITARY LANDFILL* 64-0871
STRIPPING* 64-0843
UTILIZATION* 64-0847, 64-0353
WRECKERS* 64-OB37* 64-0855
BALING
INDUSTRIAL WASTES* 64-0287, 64-0289
BONUS
SEE INCENTIVE BONUS SCHEMES
BUDGET
SEE COSTS* MANAGEMENT
265
-------
Subject Index
BULKY WASTES
COLLECTION* 61-0210
INCINERATION* 6i-osi5* 6i-ob5i*
64-0566, 61-0587
SANITARY LANDFILL, 6i-oa7i
SHREDDING, 6i-oi88
StE ALSO GRINDING? REDUCTION OF
REFUSE
CALORIFIC VALUE
StE REFUSE
CARCASSES
SEE ANIMALS, DEAD
CELLULOSE
DISPOSAL' 61-0317
CHUTE SYSTEM
stE COLLECTION OF WASTES
CLEANUP PROGRAMS* 6i-oi97* 6i-o260»
61-0913, 61-0939, 61-0912* 61-0917
CLIMATE
EFFECTS ON DISPOSAL METHODS*
61-0081* 61-0252
COLLECTION OF WASTES
BULK CONTAINERS, 61-0016* 61-U062*
61-0065* 61-0076* 61-0060* 61-0195
ChUTE SYSTEM* 61-0018, 61-0056*
61-0239
COSTS* 61-0031, 61-0051* 61-0091,
61-0169, 61-0925
BACKYARD VERSUS CURB PICKUP*
61-0036
DETERMINATION OF* 61-0023*
61-0030, 61-0231, 61-0218
MUNICIPAL VERSUS CONTRACT
COLLECTION, 61-0021* 61-0028*
61-0203
TRAIN SYSTEM* 61-0180
DLAD ANIMALS* 61-0118, 61-0189
DUSTLESS SYSTEM, 61-0190* 61-0205
EQUIPMENT, 61-0137, 61-0169*
61-0200, 61-0211, 61-0218*
61-0921* 61-0926* 61-0932
FEDERAL GOVERNMENT FACILITY*
61-0231* 61-0232* 61-0233*
61-0236
FOLIAGE, 61-0238* 6i-o?i6, 61-0933
GARCHEY SYSTEM, 61-0117
GLNLRAL DISCUSSION OF, 61-0129*
61-0132, 61-0209, 61-0219
HISTORY, 61-0091
LAWS CONCERNING* bl-0003* 61-0007*
61-0016, 61-0215, 61-0217
LOADING DEVICES, c,i-02os
MOTION PICTURES ABOUT, 6i-oi67
MULTI-STOHY BUILDINGS, 6i-oii7,
61-0201, 61-0915
PAPER SACK SYSTEMS* 61-0010*
61-0012* 61-0015* 61-0052*
61-0053* 61-0051* 61-0055,
61-0063* 61-0061* 61-0066*
61-0067* 61-0069* 61-0077*
61-0079
PARTICULAR COUNTRY* 61-0109*
61-0133* 61-0153* 61-0157,
61-0161* 61-0201* 61-0220*
61-0217* 61-0926
PARTICULAR MUNICIPALITY AND REGION*
61-0096* 61-0097* 61-0099*
61-0100* 61-0101* 61-Olln,
61-0112, 61-0116* 61-0120,
61-0131* 61-0131* 61-0111*
61-0117* 61-0118* 61-0119,
61-0150* 61-0156* 61-0170*
61-0171, 61-0201* 61-0205,
61-0210* 61-0216* 61-0221*
61-0230* 61-0237* 61-0239*
61-0210* 61-0211
PARTICULAR STATE (U.S.)* 61-0108
PERSONNEL* 61-0178
SALARIES* 61-0026* 61-0052
PRIVATE COLLECTION FIRMS* 61-0001,
61-0005, 61-0007* 61-0021*
61-0028* 61-0030* 61-0019,
61-0097* 61-0103* 61-0187*
61-0222, 61-0250
PUBLIC GATHERINGS, 61-0181
RECREATlOjgAL AREAS, 61-0135, 61-0137
REFUSE, AMOUNTS OF, 61-0168
RURAL, 61-0057* 61-0195
SCOOTER SYSTEM* 61-0171* 61-0199*
61-0237
SCRAP METAL* 61-0207
SURVEYS* 6l-0121r 61-0121* 61-0161*
61-0165
TOURIST CENTERS* 61-0037* 61-0106
TRAIN SYSTEM* 61-0180* 61-0185*
61-0186* 61-0230* 61-0212
TRUCKS* 61-0076* 61-0125* 61-0170*
61-0206, 61-0219
COMPACTION* 61-0068* 61-0128*
61-0193* 61-0191
UNDERGROUND CONVEYORS* 61-0223
URBAN PROBLEMS* 61-0119
COMMERCIAL WASTES
RESTAURANT* 61-0070, 61-0181
SPORTS FACILITY* 61-01*1
STORAGE* 61-0050* 61-0062* 61-0075
COMPACTION
EQUIPMENT* 61-0011* 61-0179,
61-0196, 61-0198* 61-0200*
61-0221, 61-0226* 61-0231*
266
-------
Subject Index
64-0272
MtTALS* 64-0207
TRAILER* 64-0022* 6
COMPOSITION OF REFUSE
SEE REFUSE
COMPOST
COMPOSITION* 64-0445* 54-0473
ANALYSIS* 64-0258, 64-0329,
64-0411, 64-0438* 64-0474
EFFECTS ON MICROORGANISMS* 64-0456
EFFECTS ON PLANTS AND SOIL* 64-0326*
64-0408
MARKETING, 64-040j» 64-0405*
64-0418, 64-0420* 64-0429,
64-0445* 64-0464* 64-0465,
64-0484
STORAGE* 64-0424
UTILIZATION, 64-0408, 64-0410*
64-0427* 64-0432, 64-0473*
64-0474, 64-0461
SOIL IMPROVEMENT* 64-0409,
64-0431, 64-0435, 64-0439,
64-0456, 64-0468* 64-0471
COMPORTING
BIN METHOD* 64-0450* 64-0451
BIOLOGICAL DECOMPOSITION* 64-u407»
64-0430* 64-0433* 64-0455*
64-0466, 64-0472
BRIKOLLARE PROCESS* 64-0027, 64-0469
CASPARI PROCESS, 64-0412* 64-0469
COMPARED WITH INCINERATION, 64-0462
COSTS, 64-0027* 64-02fc6, 64-04<*lr
64-0444, 64-0465, 64-0472*
64-0478, 64-0484
CROP RESIDUES, 64-0427* 64-0449*
64-0694
DANO SYSTEM* 64-0406, 64-0435*
64-0446, 64-0447* 64-0481
ECONOMICS, 64-0403* 64-0405*
64-0419* 64-0420* 64-0421*
64-0422* 64-0429* 64-0461*
64-0463
EQUIPMENT, 64-0406* 64-0427*
64-0430, 64-0434
GRINDER, 64-0432* 64-0456*
64-0459, 64-0464* 64-0466*
64-0480, 64-0491
HAMMERMILL, 64-0461
HOME UNIT* 64-0414
ROTARY DRUM* 64-0436* 64-0443*
64-0458* 64-0461* 64-0483
FERMASCREEN SYSTEM* 64-0421* 64-0459
FORCED AERATION* (34-0453
FKUIT AND VEGETABLE WASTES* 64-0389,
64-0449, 64-0450* 64-0451*
64-0452, 64-0453, 64-0694
GENERAL DISCUSSION OF, 64-0430*
'64-0673
HARDBOARD, 64-0474
HYGIENIC ASPECTS* 64-Q4Q7, 64-0440,
64-0448, 64-0470, 64-0477,
64-0481* 64-0970
INSTALLATIONS* 64-0434
FOREIGN* 64-0105, 64-0406,
64-0413* 64-0429* 64-0436*
64-0441* 64-0443* 64-0446*
64-0447* 64-0454* 64-0461*
64-0464, 64-0468* 64-0469,
64-0475, 64-0478* 64-0479,
64-0482, 64-0484* 64-0576
SIZE* 64-0342
UNITED STATES* 64-0417* 64-0424,
64-0458, 64-0463* 64-0472,
64-0480
MANURE, 64-0347, 64-0358* 64-0474*
64-0483
MICROORGANISMS* 64-0404, 64-0433*
64-0437, 64-0440* 64-0440,
64-0455, 64-0457, 64-0477,
64-0479
MOISTURE CONTENT* 64-0404
NORCO PROCESS* 64-0283* 64-0464,
64-0466* 64-0484
ODORS* 64-0450* 64-0453
PARTICULAR COUNTRY. 64-013?,*
64-0304* 64-0319* 64-0405*
64-0406* 64-0410* 64-0411*
64-0416* 64-0420* 64-0426,
64-0431, 64-0441, 64-0461,
64-0465, 64-0467, 64-0478
PARTICULAR MUNICIPALITY ANP REGION,
64-0413, 64-0415* 64-0423
64-0445* 64-0463
RASPING SYSTEM* 64-0481
REFUSE ANALYSIS FOR* 64-0257
64-0438
SALVAGE* 64-0419* 64-0423* 64-0424,
64-0432* 64-0436* 64-0446,
64-0450* 64-0459* 64-0460*
64-0475
SLUDGE* 64-0438* 64-0439* 64-0457*
64-0462, 64-0470* 64-0626* 64-0680
SLUDGE AND REFUSE* 64-0027, 64-0286,
64-0408, 64-0412* 64-041B*
64-0418, 64-0419, 64-0428*
64-0434, 64-0436* 64-0446*
64-0447* 64-0454* 64-0456*
64-0468, 64-0481, 64-0812
SMALL SCALE* 64-0411* 64-0414
TEMPERATURE* 64-0404* 64-0407*
267
-------
Subject Index
64-0428. 64-0433* 64-0440*
64-0455* 64-0477
VAN MAANEN SYSTEM* 64-0481
WtSTlNGHOUSE SYSTEM* 64-0277»
64-0417* 64-0424* 64-0432*
64-0476* 64-0480* 64-0786*
64-0830
WINDROW METHOD* 64-0428* 64-0449*
64-0452* 64-0457* 64-0464*
64-0473, 64-0483
WOOD CHIPS* 64-0805
COMPUTER SYSTEMS PROGRAMS
SEE SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
CONSTRUCTION WASTES
DISPOSAL* 64-0270, 64-0871
CONTAINERS
SEE STORAGE OF WASTES
COSTS
CtNTRAL BUYING* 64-0187
COLLECTION OF WASTES* 64-0023*
64-0024* 64-0028* 64-0030*
64-0033* 64-0034* 64-0036*
64-0037* 64-0040* 64-0203*
64-0240* 64-0925
COMPOSTING* 64-0263* 64-0444*
64-0465
DISPOSAL OF WASTES* 64-0027
64-0030* 64-0031* 64-0033*
64-0034* 64-0035* 64-0038*
64-0086* 64-0093* 64-0259*
64-0324* 64-0925
RURAL AREAS* 64-0342
INCINERATION* 64-0524
INDUSTRIAL WASTES TREATMENT*
64-0021* 64-0025* 64-0762
PAPER SACK SYSTEMS* 64-0054*
64-0055, 64-0066
PERSONNEL
SALARIES* 64-0026
SANITARY LANDFILLS* 6^-ooea* 64-0099
SEWAGE TREATMENT* 64-0660
STREET CLEANING, 64-0925
VEHICLES* 64-0176
COURT CASES
SEE LEGAL ASPECTS OF WASTE MANAGEMENT
CROP YIELD AND POTENTIAL
SLE AGRICULTURAL WASTES? COMPOSTING?
FERTILIZERS» MANURE
CRUSHING
SEE REDUCTION OF REFUSE
DEEP WELLS
COSTS, 64-0025, 64-0623, 64-0681
EQUIPMENT* 64-0274* 64-0644
GEOLOGIC CONSIDERATIONS* 64-0644*
64-0731* 64-0732
LIQUID WASTES* 64-0336* 64-0712
WATER POLLUTION* 64-0273
DEMOLITION WASTES
SEE BULKY WASTES? INCINERATORS*
SPECIAL PURPOSE? SANITARY LANDFILL
DETERGENTS
DISPOSAL* 64-0318
DISASTER WASTES* 64-0107* 64-0146
DISEASES* 64-0003
COMPOSTING EFFECTS' 64-0440*
64-0448* 64-0470
DUE TO ANIMALS* 64-0749
DUE TO HUMAN WASTES* 64-0952*
64-0953* 64-0956
DUE TO POULTRY WASTES* 64-0355*
64-0369
HOSPITAL WASTES* 64-0750
SEWAGE* 64-0962* 64-0965. 64-0967
TRANSMISSION* 64-0470* 64-0721*
64-0948* 64-0950* 64-0955,
64-0960* 64-0961* 64-0970*
64-0971* 64-0975, 64-0977
TRANSMITTED BY INSECTS* 64-0390
DISPOSAL OF WASTES
AIR POLLUTION FROM* 64-0281* 64-0308
AREA-WIDE APPROACH TO WASTE
MANAGEMENT* 64-0094* 64-0275*
64-0292
BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT* 64-0309*
64-0370
CLIMATE EFFECTS* 64-0084* 64-0252*
64-0263
COMMERCIAL AND TRADE* 64-0259
CONFERENCE* 64-0126* 64-0437*
64-0599
CONSTRUCTION OF TREATMENT FACILITIES
64-0315
CONTRACT* 64-0323
COSTS* 64-0031* 64-0034* 64-0342*
64-0925
DETERMINATION OF* 64-0038
COMPARISON OF VARIOUS METHODS*
64-0283* 64-0310* 64-0319*
64-0324* 64-0540* 64-0786*
64-0863
DEAD ANIMALS* 64-0264. 64-0363*
64-0366* 64-0369
DETERGENTS* 64-0341
DISASTER DEBRIS. 64-0107
GENERAL DISCUSSION OF* 64-0132*
64-0251* 64-0262* 64-0265*
64-0284* 64-0291* 64-0305*
64-0312, 64-0340
GOVERNMENT FACILITY. 64-0255
64-0263. 64-0267. 64-026K.
268
-------
Subject Index
64-0269, 64-0297
HISTORY* 64-0583
HOG FEEDING* 64-0305, 64-0949
LAWS CONCERNING* 64-0003* 64-0014*
64-0017* 64-0018
MOTION PICTURES ABOUT* 64-0167
MULTI-STORY BUILDINGS* 64-0316
ORGANIC* 64-0393
PAPER SACK SYSTEMS* 64-0041* 64-oo?i
PARTICULAR COUNTRY* 64-0109*
64-0153* 64-0157* 64-0266*
64-0271* 64-0304* 64-0319*
64-0325* 64-0330* 64-0442*
64-0467
PARTICULAR MUNICIPALITY ANO REGION*
64-0086* 64-0087* 64-0095*
64-0099* 64-0101r 64-0110*
64-0116* 64-0131* 64-0144*
64-0146* 64-0283* 64-0293*
64-0296* 64-0310* 64-0323*
64-0324, 64-0331. 64-0332*
64-0334, 64-0343
PARTICULAR STATE
-------
Subject Index
64-0782* 64-0783* 64-0795,
64-0797, 64-0807, 64-0821
FOOD PROCESSING WASTES, 64-0662
BACTERIA' 64-0629
BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT* 64-0622*
64-0632, 64-0633* 64-0646
COMPOSTING* 64-0369r 64-0449,
64-0450, 64-0451* 64-0452*
64-0694
DISEASES* 64-0749
EFFECT ON SEWAGE* 64-0649
FKU1T, 64-0362* 64-0376, 64-0389*
64-0646
INCINERATION* 64-0551
IRRIGATION WITH, 64-0553* 64-0667*
64-0718
LAGOONS, 64-0637* 64-0654
MICROORGANISMS, 64-0964
POTATO* 64-0074* 64-0622* 64-0632*
64-0633* 64-0638, 64-0654*
64-0698, 64-0700, 64-0739
POULTRY* 64-0345, 64-0382
SOYBEAN, 64-0359
SUGAR, 64-0620
UTILIZATION, 64-0368, 64-03*12,
64-0653, 64-0814, 64-0816
GARBAGE GRINDING
EFFECTS UPON
FLY AND RODENT POPULATION* 64-0076
HAMMERMILL, 64-0223
REGULATIONS, 64-0485
SEE ALSO DISPOSERS
GARBAX DISPOSAL SYSTEM, 64-0054, 64-0055
GARCHtY SYSTEM, 64-0056* 64-0117
GASES
ANALYSIS* 64-0886
GLASS
BOTTLES
CRUSHING* 64-0487* 64-0593
RtCOVERY, 64-0799
REMOVAL FROM COMPOST* 64-0460
GOVERNMENT CONTROLS AND SUPPORT
COMPOSTING, 64-0421
COUNTY LA^S* 64-ooo&
GROUND WATER POLLUTION, 64-ooos
NATIONAL LAWS, 64-0012, 64-ooi7,
64-0298
SCRAP AUTOMOBILES, 64-0838
STATE LAWS* 64-ooo6
GKINDING
BULKY WASTES* 64-0437, 64-0489
COMPOSTING PREPARATION* 64-0417,
64-0422, 64-0432, 64-0458, 64-0459
64-0466
HOSPITAL WASTES, 64-0752
INCINERATION PREPARATION, 64-0515*
64-0610* 64-0648
ROTARY DRUM* 64-0491
SANITARY LANDFILL PREPARATION,
64-0490
SEE ALSO GARBAGE GRINDING
GROUNDWATER
LAWS CONCERNING* 64-0008* 64-0014
POLLUTION* 64-0297
HAZARDOUS WASTES
DISPOSAL* 64-0748* 64-0755* 64-0758*
64-0759* 64-0761* 64-0762,
64-0763* 64-0764* 64-0954
LAWS CONCERNING* 64-0004, 64-0754
STORAGE* 64-0760
HEALTH
SEE PUBLIC HEALTH
HISTORY
COURT CASES* 64-0005
HOG FEEDING
SEE DISPOSAL OF WASTES
HOSPITALS
DISPOSAL OF WASTES* 64-0048*
64-0750* 64-0752* 64-0764
INCINERATORS* 64-0521* 64-0537*
64-0555* 64-0752
STORAGE OF WASTES* 64-0048* 64-0082*
64-0750
HUMAN WASTES
ANALYSIS, 64-0321* 64-0322* 64-0666
BACTERIA, 64-0290
BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT, 64-0309,
64-0624
CHEMICAL TREATMENT* 64-0267
64-0268* 64-0269
COMBUSTION* 64-0321* 64-0322
DISPOSAL EQUIPMENT* 64-0300
DISPOSAL ON SPACE CRAFT* 64-0113*
64-0279, 64-0317* 64-0318
MICROORGANISMS* 64-0952* 64-0953,
64-0970
ODORS, 64-0267* 64-0269
INCENTIVE BONUS SCHEMES* 64-0026*
64-0130, 64-0343* 64-0951
INCINERATION* CENTRAL
AIR FOR COMBUSTION* 64-0503, 64-0526
AIR POLLUTION CONTROL* 64-0494,
64-0495, 64-0526, 64-0527.
64-0544, 64-0547* 64-0548*
64-0557* 64-0564, 64-0566,
64-0568, 64-0591
HYDROCARBONS, 64-0510
AKEA-hlOE APPROACHES TO WASTE
MANAGEMENT, 64-0530* 64-0535
BULKY WASTES* 64-0554
270
-------
Subject Index
CAPACITY* 64-o503, 64-0523
CENTRAL CONTROL? 64-0128, 6i-o5aa
CHARGING* 61-0605
COMBINED *ITH SEWAGE TREATMENT*
61-0533
COMPARED WITH COMPOSTING* 64-0462*
64-0175
COMPARED WITH SANITARY LANDFILLS*
61-0381
CONFERENCE* 64-0523
CONSTRUCTION OF FURNACE
WALLS* 61-0500
WATER-COOLED* 6i-u57i
CONSTRUCTION OF PLANT* 61-0519*
61-0581* 61-0583* 61-0586*
61-0588* 64-0600
FLOORS* 61-0511
COSTS* 61-0027* 61-0068* 61-0197*
61-0524, 61-0539, 61-0540*
61-0517, 64-0549* 64-0581
64-0602
COMPARISON* WITH AND WITHOUT
HEAT UTILIZATION. 64-0584
DESIGN OF PLANT, b4-0538» 64-0539*
64-0549
DuST CONTROL* 64-0505. 61-0580*
61-0586, 64-0593* 61-0594*
61-0595, 61-0596
EMISSIONS FrtOM* 61-0510* 61-0548
EQUIPMENT, 64-0544, 64-0581*
64-0593, 64-0597
BLOWERS* 64-0495
BOILERS* 64-0543, 64-0613
CONVEYORS* 64-0333* 64-0495
CRANES* 64-0501
ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATORS,
64-0557, 64-0571
EXHIBITION* 64-0159* 64-0607
FILTERS* 64-0505* 64-0585*
64-0596* 64-0605* 64-0613
GRABS* 64-0563
GRAPPLES* 64-0501
GRATES* 64-0522* 64-0564*
64-0587* 64-0600* 64-0605*
64-0609
HOPPERS* 64-0333
RAM FEEDER* 64-0533
FINANCING* 64-0495* 64-0535
FLAME CHAMBER PROCESS, 64-ot>i7
FLUE CLEANING, 64-0611
FLY ASH, 64-049b, 64-0510* 64-0557
FKANKFUHT SYSTEM* 64-o570
FURNACES* 64-0333* 64-0534, 64-0544,
64-0597, 64-0617
GENERAL DISCUSSION OF. 64-0499*
61-0534, 64-0538, 64-0539,
64-0510* 64-0559* 64-0599,
64-0673
GREASE* 64-0648
HEENAN TROUGH GRATE, 64-0589
HISTORY* 64-0498* 64-0540* 64-0572*
64-0576* 64-0586
INDUSTRIAL WASTES* 64-0027* 64-0181*
64-0582
LAWS CONCERNING* 64-0493* 64-0550
MAINTENANCE, 64-0333, 64-0498,
64-0500
MARTIN SYSTEM* 64-0609
MORSE 80UL6ER SYSTEM, 64-0544,
64-0610
MULTIPLE HEARTH SYSTEM* 64-0723
ODORLESS, 64-0563
OPERATION OF PLANT* 64-0543, 64-0587
PARTICULAR COUNTRY* 64-0304,
61-0319, 61-0571, 61-0604
PARTICULAR MUNICIPALITY AND REGION,
64-0106, 64-0110* 64-0149,
64-0156, 64-0164* 64-0203*
64-0224* 64-0253* 64-0261,
64-0299* 64-0332* 64-0509,
64-0511* 64-0573* 64-0880
PAUNCH MANURE DISPOSAL* 64-0532
PLANTS* 64-0333
SIZE* 64-0342
PRESSURIZED CAMS* 64-0531
REFUSE ANALYSIS FoR, 64-0257,
61-0515
RESIDUES, 61-0306* 64-0575
ANALYSIS* 64-0258* 64-0515
DISPOSAL* 64-0229* 64-0258*
61-0261, 64-0266* 64-0495*
64-0496* 64-0502* 61-0511,
64-0533, 64-0585, 64-0591,
64-0600, 64-0723* 64-0900*
64-C904
ROTATING CONE* 64-0520* 64-0522
ROTATING DRUM* 64-0570
SALVAGE* 64-0495* 64-0502* 64-0524*
64-0568, 64-0575* 64-0580,
64-0582, 64-0585* 64-0589*
64-0593* 64-0594* 64-0595,
64-0605, 64-0612
SEPARATION SYSTEMS* 64-0333* 64-0816
SLUDGE* 64-0541* 64-0709* 64-0716*
64-0727
SLUDGE ANU REFUSE* 64-0286* 64-0306,
64-0582
SMALL SCALE, 64-0587, 64-0611
SPECIFICATIONS, 64-0085, 64-0550
STANDARDS, 64-0527* 64-0536,
271
-------
Subject Index
61-0550, 61-0556, 64-0583
STORAGE OF WASTES, 61-0073
SURVEY* 61-0523, bi-osas
TEMPERATURE, 61-0503
TtSTING, 61-0610
VOLUND SYSTEM* 6i-05?o, 61-0597,
61-0609
VON ROLL SYSTEM, 61-0576, 61-0586,
61-0590, 61-0597, 61-0609,
61-0611, 61-0613
WASTE HEAT UTILIZATION, 61-0126,
61-0306* 61-0333, 61-0198,
61-0521, 61-0513, 61-0561,
61-0566, 61-0570, 61-0571,
61-0575, 61-0576, 61-0581,
61-0585, 61-0591, 61-0602,
61-0601, 61-0603, 61-0609,
61-0611
DESALINIZATION OF WATER,
61-0508, 61-051b, 61-0525,
61-0551
DOMESTIC HEATING, 61-0562
POWER GENERATION, 61-0518
61-0565, 61-0566, 61-0571
61-0572, 61-0586, 61-0598,
61-0603, 61-0616, 61-0652
WOOD* 61-0519, 61-0652
INCINERATION, ON SITE
APARTMENT, 61-0506, 61-0567,
61-0601, 61-0611
CONFIDENTIAL DOCUMENT DISPOSAL*
61-0516
CuNVEYOR SYSTEM* 61-0316
CORROSION* 6i-057e* 61-0579
COSTS* 61-0506* 61-0516* 61-0578
EQUIPMENT
CHUTE, 61-0601
GRATES, 61-0522
SCRUBBERS, 61-0577, 6i-o6ii
EXHIBITION* 61-0592* 61-0607
FLAME CHAMBER PROCESS, 61-0606
FOLIAGE DISPOSAL* 6i-osi6
HOSPITALS* 6i-ooia* 61-0521,
61-0537* 61-0555* 61-0750,
61-0752
INDUSTRIAL WASTES, 61-0287, 61-0537,
61-0551, 61-0558* 61-0577,
61-0578, 61-0579, 61-0606,
61-0615, 61-0702, 61-0761,
61-0320
MANURE, 61-0379
OQORLESS, 61-0552, 61-0611
PLASTIC DISPOSAL* 61-0558
RECREATIONAL AREAS* 61-0133
RESIDENTIAL* 61-0506
ROTATING DPUM* 61-0615
SALVAGE* 61-0577
SLUDGE* 61-0516, 61-0668* 61-0702,
61-0715
SMOKELESS, 61-0191, 61-0517*
61-0537, 61-0552, 61-0569,
61-0592, 61-0811
STANDARDS, 61-0527, 61-0536,
61-0550, 61-0556
WIRE INSULATION STRIPPING, 61-0813
INCINERATOR INSTITUTE OF AMERICA
CRITERIA* 61-0527* 61-0556
INCINERATORS* SPECIAL PURPOSE
BULKY WASTES* 61-0515
DEMOLITION DEBRIS DISPOSAL, 61-0519,
61-0561
HARBOR DEBRIS DISPOSAL* 61-0519
PAPER MONEY DISPOSAL, 61-0529
SCRAP AUTOMOBILE DISPOSAL* 61-0811,
61-0815, 61-0851
SHIP, 61-0288, 61-0289, 61-0197,
61-0507, 61-0512
TESTING, 61-0513
INDUSTRIAL WASTES
ANAEROBIC TREATMENT, 61-0311
ANALYSIS, 61-0666, 61-0686, 61-0690
BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT, 61-0622,
61-0632, 61-0633, 61-0668,
61-0697, 61-0706, 61-070fl,
61-0722, 61-0731, 61-0739
B.O.D., 61-0690
BULK CONTAINER SYSTEMS, 61-0672
CENTRIFUGING, 61-0621
CHEMICAL, 61-0625, 61-0668, 61-0685*
61-0711* 61-0722, 61-0733,
61-0718, 61-0829
COMBINED WITH MUNICIPAL WASTES,
61-0163, 61-0631, 61-0671, 61-0737
COMPOSTING, 61-0257
CONFERENCE* 61-0612, 61-0658,
61-0708, 61-0711
COST OF TREATMENT, 61-0021, 61-0025,
61-0027, 61-0628, 61-0639,
61-0658, 61-0687, 61-0695,
61-0732, 61-0762
DEEP WELL DISPOSAL* 61-0025,
61-0273, 61-0271, 61-0336,
61-0623, 61-0611, 61-0712,
61-0731, 61-0732
DIGESTION, ANAEROBIC, 61-0703,
61-0705
DISSOLVED-AIR FLOTATION, 61-0677
ELECTROPLATING INDUSTRY, 61-0702
FLUIDIZED BED PROCESSING, 61-0639,
61-0610
272
-------
Subject Index
FOAM SEPARATION PROCESS* 64-0663
FOOD PROCESSING, 64-0362' 64-0382'
64-0620, 64-0622, 64-0632,
64-0633, 64-0638, 64-0646,
64-0649, 64-0653, 64-0654,
64-0662, 64-0667, 64-0694'
64-0698, 64-0700, 64-0718,
64-0739, 64-0776
GENERAL DISCUSSION OF, 64-0345
GROUND WATER POLLUTION, 64-oooa
HAZARDOUS, 64-0671, 64-0755,
64-0758, 64-0759, 64-0760,
64-0761, 64-0763
HYDRAULIC TRANSPORT, 64-0181
FLY ASH, 64-0631
INCINERATION, 64-0537, 64-0551,
64-0558, 64-0745
CHEMICALS, 64-0615, 64-0695
INCINERATION PLANTS
FOREIGN, 64-0578, 64-0579,
64-0615
LUMBER INDUSTRY, 64-0647, 64-0652
MEASUREMENTS, 64-0627, 64-0656,
64-0699
MEAT PACKING PLANT, 64-0629,
64-0637, 64-0662
METAL HYDROXIDES, 64-0675
METAL TOXICITY, 64-0666
METALS, 64-0793
MICROBIOLOGICAL DEGRADATION,
64-0618, 64-0673, 64-0706
MINING, 64-0181, 64-0729, 64-0730,
64-0741, 64-0784, 64-0827
NYLON WASTE WATER, 64-0623
PAPER AND PULP MILL' 64-0630,
64-0635, 64-0639, 64-0640,
64-0712, 64-0719, 64-0769,
64-0775
RECOVERY, 64-0619, 64-0625, 64-0685,
64-0700, 64-0769, 64-0775, 64-0776
REDUCTION, 64-0486, 64-0489
REFINERY' 64-0641, 64-0697, 64-0722,
64-0733
SEDIMENTATION, 64-0627, 64-0719
SEPARATING EQUIPMENT, 64-0647,
64-0707, 64-0724
STORAGE, 64-0061
SUGAR MANUFACTURE, 64-0620
TEXTILE MILL, 64-0687
TREATMENT, 64-0340
WET OXIDATION, 64-0337
INJURIES
SEE SAFETY AND ACCIDENT PREVENTION
INSECTS
DISEASE CARRIERS, 64-0003
INSPECTION, 54-0004, 64-0951
IRRIGATION
SEE FOOD PROCESSING WASTES,
IRRIGATION WITH
LABOR RELATIONS
SEE PERSONNEL, EMPLOYEE-MANAGEMENT
RELATIONS
LAGoONS
ALGAE GROWTH, 64-0689
FOOD PROCESSING WASTES, 64-0637,
64-0654, 64-0698
INCINERATOR RESIDUE, 64-0723
MANURE TREATMENT, 64-0350, 64-0352,
64-0357, 64-0358, 64-0364,
64-0381, 64-0397, 64-0645
ODORS, 64-0352
POLLUTION INDICATORS, 64-0290
LAND RECLAMATION' 64-0218
COMPOST USE, 64-0408, 64-0409,
64-0439, 64-0471
FLY ASH USE, 54-0808, 64-0815
MINE WASTE AREAS, 64-0784, 64-0884,
64-0893
RECREATION FACILITY, 64-0271
SANITARY LANDFILLS, 64-0866,
64-0873, 64-0877, 64-0878
LANDFILLS
SEE SANITARY LANDFILLS
LAWS
COLLECTION OF WASTES, 64-0005,
64-0007, 64-0019, 64-0057, 64-0247
DUMPS, 64-0011, 64-0015
GARBAGE DISPOSERS, 64-0485, 64-0492
GROUND WATER POLLUTION, 64-0014
INCINERATION PLANTS, 64-0550
PUBLIC HEALTH, 64-0003, 64-0004,
64-0012, 64-0016
RURAL AND SEMIRURAL AREAS, 64-0006
SANITARY LANDFILLS' 64-0002, 64-0010
SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT, 64-0017,
64-0018
LEGAL ASPECTS OF WASTE MANAGEMENT
COLLECTION OF WASTES, 64-0001,
64-0004, 64-0005, 64-0007,
64-0019, 64-0178
DISPOSAL OF WASTES, 64-0004
DUMPS, 64-0013
FINES, 64-0009
GENERAL DISCUSSION OF, 64-0152
GROUND WATER POLLUTION' 64-0008
HANDBOOK, 64-0129
INCINERATION, 64-0567
MANURE ODORS, 64-0380
SANITARY LANDFILLS, 64-0010,
64-0020, 64-0906
273
-------
Subject Index
SCRAP AUTOMOBILES* 64-0834* 64-0836,
64-0852, 64-0860
WATER POLLUTION* 64-0254
LICENSES* 64-0002
LITTER
BEACHES* 64-0944
CAUSES OF* 64-0943
CONTAINERS* 64-0072* 64-0330*
64-0922* 64-0939* 64-0945*
64-0946
HIGHWAY* 64-0940
LAWS CONCERNING* 64-0009
PARTICULAR COUNTRY* 64-0941
PARTICULAR MUNICIPALITY AND REGION*
64-0939* 64-0940* 6^-0942* 64-0947
LOADING
HoPPER. 64-0259
POWER DEVICES* 64-0206
MAINTENANCE
SEE EQUIPMENT! TRUCKS
MANAGEMENT
CONFERENCE* 64-0142, 64-0143
EQUIPMENT PURCHASING* 64-0187
GENERAL DISCUSSION OF, 64-0154*
64-0155
MUNICIPAL SANITATION DEPARTMENT,
64-0033, 64-0036
OKGANIC WASTES* 64-0393
PLANNING, 64-0122, 64-0294
TRAINING FOR, 64-om
UKBAN PROBLEMS, 64-0119
MANURE
ANAEROBIC DIGESTION* 64-0395
CATTLE, 64-0360, 64-0361* 64-0401,
64-0402, 64-0483
COMPOSITION* 64-0394* 64-0396
COMPOSTING, 64-0347* 64-0483
CONFERENCE* 64-0399
DISPOSAL* 64-0123, 64-0365, 64-0366,
64-0370, 64-0375, 64-0379*
64-0394, 64-0396
DkYING, 64-0388, fc4-0425
EQUIPMENT FOR DISPOSAL OF* 64-0356,
64-0383
HEALTH ASPECTS* 64-0348, 64-0355,
64-0374, 64-0390, 64-0400,
64-0950, 64-0960, 64-0961,
64-0975
INCINERATION* 64-0532
LAGOONS, 64-0350* 64-0357* 64-0645
LIQUID HANDLING PROCESS, 64-0371,
64-0372, 64-0376, 64-0385
OuORS, 64-0346, 64-0360, 64-0380
POULTRY, 64-0344, 64-0345, 64-0348,
64-0349, 64-0350, 64-0351,
64-0352, 64-0354, 64-035(5,
64-0358, 64-0364, 64-0371,
64-0372, 64-0373, 64-0374,
64-0375, 64-0377* 64-037B*
64-0379, 64-0381, 64-0383*
64-0384, 64-0386, 64-0388,
64-0395, 64-0397, 64-0483,
64-0645
QUANTITY, 64-0394
SWINE* 64-0357, 64-0385, 64-0387,
64-0398, 64-0402, 64-0645
UTILIZATION* 64-0351, 64-0353,
64-0354, 64-0367, 64-0368,
64-0373, 64-0383* 64-0384,
64-0386, 64-0387* 64-0396*
64-0425, 64-0814
M.P.L. (MAXIMUM PAY LOAD)
SEE TRANSPORTATION OF WASTES*
MAXIMUM PAYLOAD SYSTEM
METALS
CRUSHING, 64-0487, 64-0841
MAGNETIC SEPARATION* 64-0223,
64-0299, 64-0594, 64-081fl»
64-0348
QUANTITY IN REFUSE* 64-0285
RECOVERY, 64-0793, 64-0799, 64-0803,
64-0811, 64-0827
SCRAP* 64-0794, 64-0835, 64-0840,
64-0841, 64-0843
COLLECTION SYSTEMS* 64-0207
COSTS* 64-0029
RECOVERY* 64-0778* 64-0809,
64-OR13* 64-0822* 64-0823*
64-0824* 64-0837* 64-0847*
64-0850* 64-0853* 64-0855
MINERALS
RECOVERY* 64-0767* 64-0769, 64-0774*
64-0826
MUNICIPAL SERVICES
SEE COLLECTION OF WASTESJ DISPOSAL
OF WASTES
OCEAN DISPOSAL
BALED REFUSE* 64-0093* 64-0287*
64-0289
FROZEN WASTES* 64-0252
HAZARDOUS WASTES* 64-0758* 64-0761
ILLEGAL DUMPING* 64-0944
INCINERATOR SHIP* 64-0497* 64-0507*
64-0542
MUNICIPAL WASTES* 64-0093* 64-0216
SEWAGE* 64-0296
SEWAGE SLUDGE* 64-0636
SHIP WASTLS* 64-0009* 64-0254
ODORS
SEE HU^AN WASTES* MANURE
274
-------
Subject Index
OIL
DISPOSAL' 64-0270r 64-0641, 64-0697,
64-0722, 64-0733
UTILIZATION, 64-0011* 64-0628
OPEN BURNING
AIR POLLUTION FROK, 64-0281*
64-0493, 64-0512, 64-0536*
64-0871
OXIDATION PONDS
SEE LAGOONS
PACKAGING WASTES
QUANTITY* 64-0168
PACKERS* 64-0179, 64-0188, 64-0230*
64-U238, 64-0241, 64-0242, 64-0246
SEE ALSO TRANSPORTATION OF WASTES*
TRUCKS
PAPER
INCINERATION* 64-0529
QUANTITY IN REFUSE* 64-0265
RECOVERY* 64-0777, 64-0787, 64-0789,
64-0790, 64-0799, 64-0831
SEPARATION FROM DOMESTIC REFUSE,
64-0204, 64-0594
SPECIAL COLLECTION METHODS, 64-0220
PAPER INDUSTRY WASTES
BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT* 64-oe3o
COST OF TREATMENT, 64-0021
DEEP wELL DISPOSAL* 64-0712
FLUIDIZED BED, 64-0640
LIGNIN* 64-0618
RECOVERY* 64-0769, 64-0775, 64-0820
SEDIMENTATION* 64-0719
WATER POLLUTION* 64-0728
PAPER SACKS
SEE STORAGE OF REFUSE
PERSONNEL
ACCIDENTS* 64-oi7e» 64-0291*
64-0951* 64-0966* 64-0968*
64-0969
COSTS, 64-0023, 64-0169
EMPLOYEE-MANAGEMENT RELATIONS,
64-0091* 64-0130, 64-0158
GENERAL DISCUSSION OF. 64-0139,
64-0192
SALARIES* 64-0026, 64-0032
TESTING, 64-0291
TRAINING* 64-om, 64-0127, 54-0142*
64-0152, 64-0191, 64-0338
PESTICIDES
CONTAINER DISPOSAL* 64-0756
STORAGE* 64-0756
TOXIC1TY* 64-0747, 64-0753, 64-0754
TREATMENT, 64-0747, 64-0954
PIPELINES
INDUSTRIAL WASTES, 64-oiei
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING* 64-0182,
64-0225
PARTICULAR COUNTRY* 64-021*
PNEUMATIC TRANSPORT, 64-0182
PLASTIC
INCINERATION, 64-0521, 64-0558*
64-0578
RECOVERY, 64-0779
SANITARY LANDFILL, 64-0901
PLASTIC CONTAINERS
SEE STORAGE OF REFUSE
PNEUMATIC TRANSPORT
SEE PIPELINES
POLLUTION
SEE AIR POLLUTION! WATER POLLUTION
POULTRY
SEE AGRICULTURAL WASTES; FOOD
PROCESSING WASTES; MANURE
PUBLIC HEALTH
AGRICULTURAL WASTES, 64-0355*
64-0386
CLIMATE EFFECTS ON DISPOSAL METHODS*
64-0084
CONFERENCE* 64-0973* 64-0976
GENERAL DISCUSSION OFr 64-0152*
64-0958, 64-0972
LAWS CONCERNING* 64-0001* 64-0004*
64-0006, 64-0012
OPEN DUMPS* 64-0949
SEWAGE TREATMENT* 64-0952* 64-0953*
64-0956* 64-0962, 64-0963*
64-0964, 64-0965
SURVEYS* 64-0096* 64-0099* 64-0101*
64-0124, 64-0160* 64-0162*
64-0165, 64-0974
PUBLIC RELATIONS* 64-0010
EDUCATION OF PUBLIC* 64-0276
LITTER PROBLEMS* 64-0072* 64-0940
PAMPHLET ON NEW LAWS, 64-0215
SALVAGE AND RECLAMATION, 64-0789,
64-0842* 64-0858
SANITARY LANDFILLS* 64-0907
PULVERIZED FLY ASH
SEE FLY ASH
PULVERIZING
SEE GRINDING; REDUCTION OF REFUSE
RADIOACTIVE WASTES
DISPOSAL* 64-0746, 64-0755, 64-0758,
64-0759* 64-0761, 64-0762*
64-0763, 64-0765* 64-0766
FREEZING* 64-0751
STORAGE* 64-0757* 64-0758* 64-0760
URANIUM* 64-0755* 64-0763
RECLAMATION
SEE SALVAGE AND RECLAMATION
275
-------
Subject Index
RECOVERY
SEE SALVAGE AND RECLAMATION
RECREATIONAL AREAS
SEE COLLECTION OF WASTES? DISPOSAL
OF WASTES? STORAGE OF WASTES
REDUCTION OF REFUSE
BOTTLE AND CAN CRUSHER* 64-0487
BULKY WASTES SHREDDING* 64-0488
FOR COMPOSTING* 64-0471
GORATOR* 64-0486* 64-0489
PULVERIZATION FOR SANITARY LANDFILU
64-0490
ROTARY DRUM* 64-0491
SEE ALSO GARBAGE GRINDING* GRINDING
REFUSE
CALORIFIC VALUE* 64-0513
CLASSIFICATIONS* 64-0145* 64-0232*
64-0249, 64-0268
COMPOSITION* 64-0133* 64-0145*
64-0168* 64-0261* 64-0328*
64-0498* 64-0590* 64-0600*
64-0602* 64-0889
ANALYSIS* 64-0092, 64-0126*
64-0256* 64-0257* 64-0262,
64-0280, 64-0285* 64-0313*
64-0320* 64-0321* 64-0322*
64-0326* 64-0327* 64-0329*
64-0339* 64-0438* 64-0441*
64-0515
DEFINITIONS* 64-osoi
QUANTITY* 64-0168* 64-0232, 64-0328*
64-0759
REGIONAL APPROACHES
SEE AREA-WIDE APPROACHES TO WASTE
MANAGEMENT
RESEARCH
CONFERENCE* 64-0143
COSTS* 64-0114
EQUIPMENT DEVELOPMENT, 64-oi28
NEEDS IN SOLID WASTE HANDLING*
64-0095* 64-0127, 64-0152*
64-0771, 64-0772* 64-0958
ROUTES
COST ANALYSIS* 64-0183
RUBBER
DISPOSAL* 64-0270
INCINERATION* 64-0521
RECOVERY* 64-0619, 64-0768* 64-0779,
64-0806
TIRES, 64-0768, 64-0806
RURAL AND SEMIRURAL AREAS
LAWS CONCERNING, 64-0006
SAFETY AND ACCIDENT PREVENTION
FIRE PRECAUTIONS* 64-0957
FLAMMABILITY OF STORAGE CONTAINERS,
64-0051, 64-0059
INCINERATION PLANT* 64-0531
INDUSTRIAL WASTES, 64-0729* 64-0730
PARTICULAR COUNTRY* 64-0286
PROGRAMS* 64-0951
SANITARY LANDFILLS* 64-0861
SEWAGE TREATMENT PLANT* 64-0956*
64-0966
SURVEYS* 64-0968* 64-0969
SALVAGE MATERIALS
SEE FLY ASH? GLASS' METALS!
MINERALS? PAPER? RUBBER? WOOD
SALVAGE AND RECLAMATION
CHEMICAL PRECIPITATION* 64-0793
COAL FINES* 64-0800
COCONUT PITH* 64-0817
COMPOSTING PLANT* 64-0423* 64-0424,
64-0432* 64-0436* 64-0442*
64-0446* 64-0458* 64-0460*
64-0786, 64-0830
CONFERENCE* 64-0849
CONVERTING WASTES TO CHARCOAL*
64-0816
CONVERTING WASTES TO LIGHTWEIGHT
AGGREGATE* 64-0781* 64-0782*
64-0783* 64-0795* 64-0797,
64-0807
COSTS* 64-0029, 64-0781
DROSS DUST FROM METAL PROCESSING*
64-0303
ECONOMICS* 64-0768* 64-0785*
64-0787* 64-0788* 64-0789,
64-0794, 64-0798* 64-0799,
64-0806, 64-0822* 64-0824*
64-0831
ELECTROLYSIS* 64-0809
ELECTROSTATIC SEPARATION* 64-0779
EQUIPMENT* 64-0442* 64-0788
BALERS* 64-0777, 64-0790
BALL MILLS* 64-0774
CHIPPERS* 64-0773
CONVEYORS* 64-0804
HOPPERS* 64-0778
FISH WASTES, 64-0814
GENERAL DISCUSSION OF* 64-0129*
64-0154* 64-0155
GERMANIUM DIOXIDE* 64-0767
INCINERATION PLANT* 64-0253.
64-0502* 64-0577* 64-0580*
64-0589* 64-0593* 64-0594*
64-0818
LEATHER WASTES* 64-0801
LIGNITE TAR* 64-0810
LIGNOCELLULOSIC WASTES* 64-0792
LIMESTONE* 64-0826
LUMBER MILL WASTES* 64-0796. 64-0833
276
-------
Subject Index
MACHINE PARTS* 64-oau
MINING WASTES* 64-0784, 64-0827
MuLCH FROM WOOD CHIPS, 64-0805
PAPER AND PULP MILL WASTES* 64-0769,
64-0775, 64-0820
PARTICULAR COUNTRY* 64-0220, 54-0442
PARTICULAR MUNICIPALITY, 64-0131,
64-0212, 64-0293, 64-0299
PLUTONIUM, 64-0829
POWER PLANT WASTES, 64-0770r
64-0780, 64-0795, 64-0797,
64-0802, 64-0807, 64-0808,
64-0815, 64-0821, 64-0828
64-0832
RAILROAD CARS, 64-0823
RESEARCH* 64-0028, 64-oii4, 64-0335,
64-0771, 64-0772, 64-0788*
64-0798, 64-0822
ROAD FOUNDATION MATERIALS, 64-osio,
64-0825
SAWDUST* 64-0791
SLUDGE* 64-oei2* 64-oei9
SULFUR, 64-0770
TRANSFER STATIONS, 64-0229
WIRES AND CABLES* 64-0813
SEE ALSO AUTOMOBILES* SCRAP
SAMPLING METHODS* 64-0092* 64-0145*
64-0256, 64-0280, 64-0313, 64-0339
SANITARY ENGINEER
SEE PERSONNEL
SANITARY LANDFILLS
ANIMAL WASTES* 64-0349
AREA METHOD* 64-0905
BUILDING ON, 64-0677* 64-0878
BULKY WASTES* 64-u87i
CANYONS, 64-0294
COMPACTION* 64-0864* 64-0682*
64-0890* 64-0899* 64-0900
CuMPARED WITH INCINERATION, 64-0881
COSTS* 64-0088* 64-0870* 64-0884*
64-0896, 64-0897* 64-0898
COVER* 64-0866* 64-0872, 64-0682*
64-0883* 64-0889* 64-0890*
64-0894* 64-0899
CRITERIA* 64-0882, 64-0949
DECOMPOSITION OF REFUSE, 64-0886,
64-0887
EQUIPMENT, 64-0867* 64-0884* 64-0899
COMPACTORS* 64-0864
EARTH-MOVING MACHINE TIRE*
64-0895
LOADER* 64-0896
PACKER WITH BULLDOZER BLADE*
64-0908
TRACTOR WITH BULLDOZER BLADE*
64-0862
TRACTOR LOADER* 64-0865
GAS FORMATION* 64-0861* 64-0875*
64-0885, 64-0886* 64-0887*
64-0891, 64-0899
GENERAL DISCUSSION OF, 64-0301*
64-0305, 64-0573* 64-0874,
64-0376* 64-0881* 64-0904*
64-0907
GEOLOGIC CONSIDERATIONS* 64-0910
INDUSTRIAL WASTES* 64-0761* 64-0901
LAWS CONCERNING* 64-0002* 64-0010*
64-0020* 64-0898
LEACHING* 64-0891
PARTICULAR COUNTRY* 64-0867
PARTICULAR MUNICIPALITY AND REGION*
64-0086* 64-0090* 64-0100*
64-0106* 64-0112* 64-0115*
64-0120* 64-0134. 64-0141*
64-0147* 64-0148* 64-0149*
64-0150* 64-0156* 64-0175*
64-0202, 64-0478* 64-0869*
64-0870* 64-0872* 64-0876*
64-0379, 64-0880* 64-089?
64-0896* 64-0901* 64-0909
PARTICULAR STATE (U.S.)* 64-0898
PRETREATMEMT* 64-0868* 64-0900
RECLAMATION OF LAND* 64-0120*
64-0271, 64-0324* 64-0331,
64-0866, 64-0873* 64-0877*
64-0884* 64-0893, 64-0899*
64-0901, 64-0902* 64-0909
RECREATIONAL AREAS* 64-0135* 64-0138
RESEARCH* 64-0863* 64-0887* 64-0888*
64-0889, 64-0890, 64-0891,
64-0892
SAFETY* 64-0861* 64-0873
SETTLEMENT* 64-0878* 64-0691
SITES* 64-0088* 64-0332, 64-0881*
64-0888
ACCESSIBILITY* 64-0140, 64-0897
ACQUISITION* 64-0228* 64-0266*
64-0276* 64-0277* 64-0869*
64-0906* 64-0909
SURVEYS* 64-0086* 64-0087* 64-0088*
64-0115, 64-0270* 64-0892*
64-0898* 64-0903
TEMPERATURE* 64-0875* 64-0891
TRENCH METHOD* 64-0866* 64-0879*
64-0905
WATER POLLUTION* 64-0278* 64-0901*
64-0910
SCOOTERS* 64-0171* 64-0237
SEASONS
SEE CLIMATE
277
-------
Subject Index
SEWAGE
ANALYSIS* 64-0656* 64-0686
COST OF TREATMENT* 64-0660
DISTILLATION* 64-0660
EFFECTS OF GARBAGE GRINDING,
64-0223, 64-0492
EFFECTS OF INDUSTRIAL WASTES*
64-0634, 64-0649* 64-0654,
64-0658, 64-0666* 64-0675*
64-0687, 64-0699* 64-0737
FOAMING* PROCESS* 64-0663* 64-0715
GROUND WATER POLLUTION* 64-oooe*
64-0683
METAL HYDROXIDES* 64-0674* 64-0675
MICROORGANISMS* 64-0952* 64-0953*
64-0956, 64-0962* 64-0963*
64-0964, 64-0965, 64-0967
ORGANIC MATTER* 64-0302, 64-0303,
64-0717, 64-0735, 64-0740
OUTFALL, 64-0296
PARTICULATE MATTER* 64-0282, 64-o3oa
PLANT COMBINED WITH COMPOSTING
PLANT* 64-0447* 64-0454
PLANT COMBINED WITH INCINERATION
PLANT, 64-0533, 64-0541* 64-0582*
64-0648
SOIL EVALUATION FOR DISPOSAL SYSTEM,
64-0683
TREATMENT, 64-0102, 64-oi63»
64-0314, 64-0624, 64-0659*
64-0660, 64-0678* 64-0689*
64-0704* 64-0715, G4-0743
METAL TOXICITY, 64-0684*
64-0686, 64-0717
SHOCK LOADING* 64-0657, 64-0683
SULFIDE TOXICITY, 64-0688
USE OF IRON IN ANAEROBIC DIGESTION,
64-0703
SEWAGE SLUDGE
SEE SLUDGE
SHIPS
DISPOSAL OF WASTES FROM, 64-0009
SHREDDING
SEE REDUCTION OF REFUSE
SLAG
UTILIZATION, 64-0600, 54-0612,
64-0825, 64-0826
SLUDGE
AuSORBENTS, 64-0743, 64-0802
ANAEROBIC TREATMENT, 64-03H
64-0704, 64-0744
ANALYSIS* 64-0657, 64-0693, 64-0736
BACTERIA* 64-0643
BULKING, b4-0659» 64-0676
CENTRIFUGING* 64-o62i, 64-0636,
64-0650, 64-0680* 64-0701
COMPOSITION, 64-0744
ANALYSIS* 64-0329
CONFERENCE* 64-0720
CONVEYOR, 64-0692, 64-0713
COST OF TREATMENT, 64-0021, 64-0395,
64-0628, 64-0664, 64-0670,
64-0681, 64-0701, 64-0709*
64-0710* 64-0713* 64-0725,
64-0726
DLWATERIN6* 64-0021* 64-0102*
64-0412* 64-0418* 64-0621,
64-0636, 64-0650, 64-0651,
64-0661, 64-0665* 64-0668,
64-0669, 64-0670, 64-0677,
64-0679, 64-0680* 64-0696,
64-0701, 64-0724, 64-0726,
64-0736, 64-0738
DIGESTION, 64-0395* 64-0629*
64-0655, 64-0704, 64-0710,
64-0744
DISPOSAL, 64-0719
DORR-OLIVER FS DISPOSAL, 64-0691,
64-0727
DUMPING* 64-0102, 64-0628
FILTRATION* 64-0661* 64-0665*
64-0669, 64-0680, 64-0725*
64-0726, 64-0738, 64-0742
FLOCCULANTS, 64-0635, 64-0661,
64-0679, 64-0734, 64-0735,
64-0741, 64-0743
GAS UTILIZATION* 64-0710
GRAVITY THICKENING* 64-0696
INCINERATION* 64-0541* 64-0626,
64-0691, 64-0702* 64-0709,
64-0716, 64-0723* 64-0726,
64-0745
LAGOONS, 64-0630, 64-0735
LAND SPREADING, 64-0626, 64-0691
METAL HYDROXIDES* 64-0674* 64-0675,
64-0702
MICROORGANISMS, 64-0317, 64-0318,
64-0676, 64-0734* 64-074P,
64-0956, 64-0964* 64-0970,
64-0971
SETTLING* 64-0714
SEWAGE* BACTERIA* 64-0629
STABILIZATION* 64-0693
STORAGE* 64-0742
TREATMENT* 64-0668* 64-0670
TREATMENT PLANTS* 64-0297, 64-0307*
64-0375, 64-0687, 64-0714, 64-0736
UNDERGROUND DISPOSAL, 64-0681
UTILIZATION, 64-0619
WET OXIDATION, 64-0337* 64-0664
278
-------
Subject Index
SPACE CRAFT
WASTE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM, 64-0113,
64-0279
STANDARDS AND SPECIFICATIONS
GENERAL Discussion OF, 64-0152
REFUSE ANALYSIS, 54-0328
STATIONARY CONTAINER SYSTEMS
Sc.E STORAGE OF WASTES, SYSTEMS, BULK
CONTAINERS TRUCKS, SELF-LOADING
STORAGE OF WASTES
CONTAINERS, 64-0072, 64-oioo,
64-0136, 64-0151, 64-0159,
64-0204, 64-0209, 64-0233,
64-0259, 64-0760, 64-0935
BEATTIE SYSTEM, 64-0046
CLEANING, 64-ooeo, 64-oosi
FLAMMABILITY, 64-oosi, 64-0059
FLY PRODUCTION, 64-0073
LITTER, 64-0922, 64-0939
PLASTIC, 64-0050, 64-0059,
64-0075, 64-0190, 64-0268,
64-0946
COSTS, 64-0946
PAPER SACK SYSTEMS, 64-0040,
64-0041, 64-0054, 64-0066
GENERAL DISCUSSION OF, 64-0249
INCINERATION PLANT, 64-0073
INDUSTRIAL, 64-oo&i, 64-0672
LAWS CONCERNING, 64-0016, 64-0215
MULTI-STORY BUILDINGS, 64-0044,
64-0056
NOISE PROBLEM, 64-0040
PAPER SACK SYSTEMS, 64-0053, 64-0054
PARTICULAR COUNTRY, 64-0157,
64-0201, 64-0325
PARTICULAR MUNICIPALITY AND REGION,
64-0164
PESTICIDES, 64-0756
PLASTIC SACKS, 64-oo74
PUBLIC HEALTH PRObLEMS, 64-0042
RECREATIONAL AREAS, 64-0136
SURVEYS, 64-0121
SYSTEMS, 64-ooso, &4-oos6, 64-0075,
64-0125
BULK CONTAINER, 64-0046,
64-0049, 64-0062, 64-0065
64-0076, 64-0085, 64-0194,
64-0195, 64-0206, 64-0231,
64-0233, 64-0234, 64-0672
DUSTBINS, 64-0077, 64-0105,
64-0131r 64-0190, 64-0205
PAPER SACK LINED CONTAINER,
64-0045, 64-0047, 64-0067
PAPER SACKS, o4-00?9, 64-0040,
64-0041r 64-0042, 64-0043,
64-0044, 64-0048, 64-0052,
64-0055, 64-0057, 64-0060,
64-0063, 64-0064, 64-0066,
64-0068, 64-0069, 64-0070,
64-0071, 64-0077, 64-0079,
64-0082, 64-0343, 64-0945
TURNTABLE, 64-0044, 64-0058
STRt-ET CLEANING
AFTER REFUSE COLLECTION, 64-0210
CLIMATE EFFECTS, 64-0918
COSTS, 64-0925, 64-0934, 64-0936
EFFECTS OF VEHICLE PARKING, 64-0916,
64-0923
EQUIPMENT, 64-0109, 64-0125,
64-0158, 64-0159, 64-0166,
64-0213, 64-0244, 64-0919,
64-0921, 64-0926, 64-0927,
64-0928, 64-0929, 64-0932
BRUSHES, 64-0914, 64-0923,
64-0938
JOINT PURCHASE' 64-0917
SWEEPER, 64-0105, 64-0922,
64-0923, 64-0924, 64-0930,
64-0931, 64-0935, 64-0938
MANUAL, 64-0915
TESTING, 64-0912
TRUCK LOADING, 64-0936
VACUUM, 64-0085, 64-0912,
64-0915, 64-0920, 64-0937
EVALUATION, 64-0916
FLUSHING, 64-0911, 64-0917. 64-0928
NIGHT SWEEPING, 64-0933
PARTICULAR COUNTRY, 64-0926, 64-0935
PARTICULAR MUNICIPALITY AND REGION,
64-0913, 64-0916, 64-0918,
64-C920, 64-0921, 64-0922,
64-0923, 64-0924, 64-0927,
64-0932, 64-0934
SURVEYS, 64-0919
UNDERGROUND, 64-0929
SURVEYS
COLLECTION AND DISPOSAL OF WASTES,
64-0115, 64-0121, 64-0147,
64-0148, 64-0149, 64-0150,
64-0160, 64-0162, 64-0163,
64-0165, 64-0270, 64-0506
INDUSTRIAL WASTES, 64-0719
PAPER SACK SYSTEM, 64-0040, 64-0045,
64-0067, 64-0079
SEE STREET CLEANING, EQUIPMENT
SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
COLLECTION AND DISPOSAL OF WASTES,
64-0035
INCENTIVE BONUS SCHEMES, 64-0026
279
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Subject Index
LE.AST COST DETERMINATION* 64-0031.
64-0035, 64-0086, 64-0089,
64-0183* 64-0186, 64-0231*
64-0234, 64-0236
TAXES
SANITARY LANDFILLS* 64-0010* 64-0020
TRAIN SYSTEMS
SEE TRANSPORTATION OF WASTES
TRAINING
SEE PERSONNEL
TRANSFER SYSTEMS
BULK TRANSPORT TRUCKS, 64-0141,
64-0177, 64-0185* 64-0227
COST OF OPERATING, 64-0022, 64-0088,
64-0165, 64-0186, 64-0229,
64-0235, 64-0240, 64-0902
GENERAL DISCUSSION OF, 64-0174,
64-0235
INDUSTRIAL WASTES* 64-0671
PARTICULAR MUNICIPALITY AND REGION*
64-0175, 64-0229* 64-0230
RAILROAD* 64-0140* 64-0229
SCOOTER* 64-0171, 64-0199» 64-0237,
64-0927
SHIP TO SHORE* 64-0235
SPECIALIZED VEHICLES* 64-0221
TRAILER* 64-0173* 64-0240
TRUCK TO BARGE* 64-0214
TRANSPORTATION OF WASTES
BULK TRANSPORT TRUCKS, 64-0076,
64-0140, 64-0173* 64-0206* 64-0227
CENTRALIZED* 64-0245
GENERAL DISCUSSION OF, 64-0235*
64-0249
INCINERATOR RESIDUE* 64-0228
MAXIMUM PAYLOAD SYSTEM* 64-oi96*
64-0198* 64-0221
MODERN TRENDS* 64-oi74
PACKERS* 64-0121* 64-0188
PIPELINE* 64-0132, 64-0218* 64-0225
RAILROAD* 64-0029, 64-0140
RENTAL OF EQUIPMENT* &4-oi76*
64-0211
SnlP* 64-0214* 64-0216
TRAILER* 64-0228* 64-0233
TRAIN SYSTEM* 64-oiao, 64-oias,
64-0186, 64-0230, 64-0242
TRUCKS
CLOSED* 64-0205
COSTS, 64-0176, 64-0248
CYLINDRICAL BODY* 64-0196* 64-0198
EXHIBITION* 64-0219* 64-0244
HYDRAULICALLY OPERATED* 64-0193
LARGE CAPACITY* 64-0206
MAINTENANCE. 64-0183. 64-0192,
64-0211* 64-0213* 64-0217,
64-0245* 64-0250* 64-0566
PARTICULAR COUNTRY* 64-0200
REAR LOW LOADING MECHANISM* 64-0241
RECREATIONAL AREAS, 64-0137
RENTAL* 64-0176* 64-0211
SELF-LOADING* 64-0194, 64-0231*
64-0233* 64-0234* 64-0239* 64-0932
U.S. PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE* 64-0142
RESEARCH ACTIVITIES* 64-0017
VECTOR CONTROL
FLY* 64-0098* 64-0349, 64-0374,
64-0377, 64-0390* 64-0401,
64-0662* 64-0960
PRODUCTION IN STORAGE CONTAINERS*
64-0078
PARTICULAR MUNICIPALITY AND REGION*
64-0098, 64-0104, 64-0400
PARTICULAR STATE (U.S.)* 64-0347
RODENT, 64-0104, 64-0151
WASTE HEAT UTILIZATION
SEE INCINERATION* CENTRAL
WATER POLLUTION
DETERGENTS* 64-0341
FEED LOT RUNOFF, 64-0392
GENERAL DISCUSSION OF* 64-0721
INDUSTRIAL WASTES* 64-0700, 64-0708,
64-0728
PESTICIDES* 64-0747, 64-0753
SANITARY LANDFILLS* 64-0867. 64-0910
SEWAGE* 64-0963* 64-0965* 64-0967
STORAGE OF WASTES* 64-0061
SURVEYS* 64-0160* 64-0315* 64-0331*
64-0977
TOURIST CENTERS* 64-0037
WINQROWS
SEE COMPOSTING* WINDROW METHOD
WOOD
RECOVERY, 64-0773, 64-0775, 64-0792*
64-0805
UTILIZATION, 64-0647, 64-0785,
64-0791, 64-0796, 64-0816, 64-0833
ZIMMERMAN PROCESS. 64-0337. 64-0651*
64-0664
280
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