••••••••••i
Air Pollution Aspects of Emission Sources
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
A Bibliography with Abstracts
U. S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
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AP96
AIR POLLUTION ASPECTS
OF EMISSION SOURCES:
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION-
A BIBLIOGRAPHY WITH ABSTRACTS
Office of Technical Information and Publications
Air Pollution Technical Information Center
ENVIRONMENTAL, PROTECTION AGENCY
Office of Air Programs
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
May 1971
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402 - Price $2.25
Stock Number 5503-0011
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The AP series of reports is issued by the Office of Air Programs, Environmental Protec-
tion Agency, to report the results of scientific and engineering studies, and information of
general interest in the field of air pollution. Information reported in this series includes
coverage of Air Program intramural activities and of cooperative studies conducted in con-
junction with state and local agencies, research institutes, and industrial organizations.
Copies of AP reports are available free of charge to Federal employees, current contrac-
tors and grantees, and nonprofit organizations - as supplies permit - from the Office of
Technical Information and Publications, Office of Air Programs, Environmental Protection
Agency, P.O. Box 12055, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27709. Other requesters
may purchase copies from the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C. 20402.
Office of Air Programs Publication No. AP-96
11
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BIBLIOGRAPHIES IN THIS SERIES
AP-92, Air Pollution Aspects of Emission Sources:
Municipal Incineration—A Bibliography with Abstracts
AP-93, Air Pollution Aspects of Emission Sources:
Nitric Acid Manufacturing—A Bibliography with Abstracts
AP-94, Air Pollution Aspects of Emission Sources:
Sulfuric Acid Manufacturing—A Bibliography with Abstracts
AP-95, Air Pollution Aspects of Emission Sources:
Cement Manufacturing—A Bibliography with Abstracts
AP-96, Air Pollution Aspects of Emission Sources:
Electric Power Production—A Bibliography with Abstracts
iii
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CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION vii
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. Emission Sources 1
B. Control Methods 51
C. Measurement Methods 176
D. Air Quality Measurements 191
E. Atmospheric Interaction 200
F. Basic Science and Technology 219.
G. Effects - Human Health 229
H. Effects - Plants and Livestock 234
I . "Effects - Materials 237
J . Effects - Economic 239
K. Standards and Criteria 246
L. Legal and Administrative 248
M. Social Aspects 260
N. General 262
AUTHOR INDEX 267
SUBJECT INDEX 275
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AIR POLLUTION ASPECTS
OF EMISSION SOURCES:
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION-
A BIBLIOGRAPHY WITH ABSTRACTS
INTRODUCTION
Electric power production contributes significantly to the overall air pollution level in
the United States. To aid efforts to improve air quality, the Air Pollution Technical Infor-
mation Center (APTIC) of the Office of Technical Information and Publications, Office of
Air Programs has compiled this bibliography relevant to the problem and its solution.
Approximately 1, 040 abstracts have been selectively screened from the contents of
APTIC's information storage and retrieval system to cover the 14 categories set forth in
the table of contents. The compilation is intended to be representative of available litera-
ture, and no claim is made to all-inclusiveness.
Subject and author indexes refer to the abstracts by category letter and APTIC acces-
sion number. Generally, higher accession numbers, representing the latest acquisitions,
cover the most recent material.
All documents abstracted herein are currently on file at the Air Pollution Technical
Information Center, Office of Air Programs, Environmental Protection Agency, P. O. Box
12055, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27709. Readers outside the Environmental
Protection Agency may seek duplicates of documents directly from libraries, publishers,
or authors.
Vll
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A. EMISSION SOURCES
00532
W. S. Smith and C. W. Gruber
ATMOSPHERIC EMISSIONS FROM COAL COMBUSTION -
AN INVENTORY GUIDE. Public Health Service, Cincinnati,
Ohio, Division of Air Pollution. (999-AP-24.) Apr. 1966. 117
pp.
Information concerning atmospheric emissions arising from the
combustion of coal was collected from the published literature
and other sources. The data were abstracted, assembled, and
converted to common units of expression to facilitate com-
parison and understanding. From these data, emission factors
were established that can be applied to coal combustion
processes to determine the magnitude of air pollutant emis-
sions. Also discussed are the composition of coal, theory of
coal combustion, emission rates, gaps in emission data, and
future research needs. (Authors' abstract)
00691
J. M. Leavitt, S. B. Carpenter, and F. W. Thomas
AN INTERIM REPORT ON FULL-SCALE STUDY OF
PLUME RISE AT LARGE ELECTRIC GENERATING STA-
TIONS. Preprint. (Presented at the 58th Annual Meeting, Air
Pollution Control Association, Toronto, Canada, June 20-24,
1965, Paper No. 65-82.)
This paper presents an interim report on the current plume rise
research project conducted by TVA under sponsorship of
USPHS. The first two years of this 3-year study were
completed in spring 1964 and were devoted primarily to field
data collection. The third year will be used for data analysis
and final report preparation. Plume rise data were collected at
six coal-fired steam-electric generating stations within the
TVA system. Unit ratings ranged from 112 to 650 megawatts
with stack heights varying from 170 to 600 feet. Measurement
of plume profile was made by three techniques-ground level
photography, ground level modified transit readings, and
helicopter observations. Meteorological measurements in-
cluded wind direction and wind speed profiles by double-
theodolite technique and vertical temperature profiles by
helicopter. A description is given of the field instrumentation
and data collection program and of a typical day's fieldwork.
Typical data, including plume photographs, wind direction and
wind speed profiles, vertical temperature gradient, and com-
puter plume profile plots, are displayed. (Author abstract)
00943
F. Z. Rohrman and J. H. Ludwig
SOURCES OF SULFUR DIOXIDE POLLUTION. Chem. Eng.
Prog., 61(9):59-63, Sept. 1965. (Presented at the 55th National
Meeting, American Inst. of Chemical Engineers, Houston,
Tex., Feb. 7-11, 1965.)
Authors discuss the sources of sulfur pollution and depict their
results in charts (good analysis). The major areas covered are:
coal combustion; coke; generation of electricity; refinery
operations; ore smelters and roasters' sulfuric acid manufac-
ture; refuse incineration; and coal refuse banks.
00972
M. Mayer
A COMPILATION OF AIR POLLUTANT EMISSION FAC-
TORS FOR COMBUSTION PROCESSES, GASOLINE
EVAPORATION, AND SELECTED INDUSTRIAL
PROCESSES. Public Health Service, Cincinnati, Ohio, Div. of
Air Pollution, May 1965, 53 p.
The source emission factors presented in this report were
compiled primarily for use in conducting an air pollutant emis-
sion inventory. The compilation is the result of an extensive
literature survey and includes emission factors for the prin-
cipal combustion and industrial processes. Obviously, the best
emission factor to use for any specific source of air pollution
is that resulting from source tests of the specific source. Un-
fortunately, many urban areas are not equipped to conduct the
numerous and expensive stack testing studies needed for an
emission inventory. The purpose of this compilation of emis-
sion factors is to provide the best available substitute to air
pollution control agencies unable to conduct extensive source
test programs. In certain cases, particularly in the combustion
and refuse disposal areas, a single number is presented for the
emission factor for a specific pollutant. It should be un-
derstood that the number is usually a weighted average of
several different values found in the listed references. The
compilation of source emission factors presented is, in our
judgment, the most accurate currently available. As new
technical advances are made, however, and additional emis-
sion data become available in the literature, the present com-
pilation should be revised to reflect the newer data and
developments.
01350
S.R. Craxford
AIR POLLUTION FROM POWER STATIONS. Smokless Air
(London), Vol. 36:123-128, 1965.
A large modem power station, for example, a station of 2,000
megawatts capacity, emits annually about the same amount of
atmospheric pollutants-grit and dust, and sulphur dioxide-as an
industrial city of a million inhabitants. The main problem of air
pollution from power stations is to keep short-period max-
imum concentrations within tolerable limits. Grit and dust; and
the natural dispersion of sulphur from high chimneys are con-
sidered.
01480
F. A. Rohrman, B. J. Steigerwald, and J. H. Ludwig
THE ROLE OF THE POWER PLANT IN SULFUR DIOXIDE
EMISSIONS: 1940-2000. Preprint. 1966.
Even a severe realistic control effort will not be adequate to
offset the rapid rise in potential source; sulfur dioxide emis-
sions will increase to between 125 and 175 percent of the cur-
rent level during the 1975 to 1990 period. Continuance of the
degree of control being used today will result in SO2 emission
of 58 million tons by 1990, over two times the present level. It
is tempting to detract from the seriousness of these calcula-
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ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
lions by reassuring ourselves that these are national summaries
and the growth in emission sources will take place outside ex-
isting metropolitan areas and will not greatly influence urban
air quality. Since power plants become the overwhelming
source of SO2 in the future (70 percent in 1975 and 76 percent
in 1980) and since power generation facilities will continue to
be located near the demand, i.e., people, it is probable that the
increase in SO2 emissions will be even greater than the na-
tional average in selected regions of the country such as the
East Coast megalopolis or the southern Great Lakes area.
These, of course, are the areas of highest pollution levels at
the present time.
01489
F. A. Rohrman and J. H. Ludwig
SULFUR IN U.S. COALS. Coal Age, p. 78-79 Dec. 1965.
Data on sulfur contents of the 507 million tons of coal and lig-
nite shipped from mines of the conterminous United States
during calendar year 1964 have been collated and analyzed by
the authors. The average sulfur content of all coal distributed
was found to be 1.95%. One table presented shows sulfur con-
tent of coal from mines in producing States and indicates total
production tonnages of coal for various sulfur content inter-
vals. Another table shows production in tons and life ex-
pectancy of coal mines producing coal containing 1% sulfur or
less. Increased use of coal in the higher ranges will accentuate
the problem of coping with sulfur dioxide in controlling air
pollution.
01510
A. Martin and F. R. Barber
INVESTIGATIONS OF POLLUTION AROUND A MODERN
POWER STATION. J. Inst. Fuel (London), 39(306):294-307,
July 1966.
Sixteen sulphur dioxide recorders have been sited around a
modern 1000 MW power station situated in a rural area. The
recorder layout was in the form of a ring, the radius of which
was the distance of calculated maximum ground-level pollu-
tion. The results from their operation during the period Oc-
tober, 1963, to September, 1964, are reported. On a long-term
basis the overall average effect of the power station on the
concentration of sulphur dioxide as measured at these sites
was small (0.1 to 0.2 p.p.h.m.) compared with that already to
be found in the area (3 to 5 p.p.h.m.). Most of the pollution ap-
peared to come from distant cities and industrial areas. The
most persistent effect from the power station, amounting on
average to only 0.6 p.p.h.m., was to the north-east of the sta-
tion and is thought to be due to the combined effects of wind
frequency and strength in that direction. Short-term (3-min)
power station contributions were often detectable, but under
the dispersing effect of the wind, were not usually persistent
at any one site. There was no significant pollution from the
power station in stable atmospheric conditions, with or
without fogs. The importance of dosage, as well as peak and
mean concentrations, is discussed. It is shown that the power
station pollution and background pollution are rarely additive,
and that only the background has given rise to objectionable
dosages. Modifications to accepted methods of calculation are
proposed, to account for absolute short-term maxima
recorded. (Author abstract)
01816
F.A. Rohrman, J.H. Ludwig, B.J. Steigerwald
COAL UTILIZATION AND ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION.
Coal-Wherever Coal is Concerned 19, (4) 5-7, Apr. 1965.
(Presented at the American Institute of Chemical Engineers
Meeting, Houston, Tex., Feb. 11, 1964.)
In discussing the timely topic of coal utilization and at-
mospheric pollution the authors have focused their attention
on sulfur since that is the prime pollutant in coal. Several
remedies are mentioned including the present trend towards
locating power plants in less populated areas. Other remedies
including treating the coal and/or treating the fuel gas would
be applicable to existing plants. The economics of the various
treatments remain to be determined. (Author abstract)
01842
D. F. Walters and D. O. Martin
AN EVALUATION OF THE AIR POLLUTION ASPECTS OF
THE PROPOSED STEAM-ELECTRIC PLANT AT OAK
PARK, MINNESOTA. Preprint. 1965.
The installation and operation of the 550,000 kilowatt steam-
electric plant at Oak Park, Minnesota, will generate large
quantities of air pollutants, principally sulfur dioxide, nitrogen
oxides, and particulate matter. A 785-foot stack will be in-
stalled to permit dispersion and dilution of gaseous pollutants.
Calculations indicate that ground level concentration of sulfur
dioxide may cause acute damage to vegetation. However, ex-
isting information is inadequate to predict with assurance
whether long-term chronic effects will be experienced by long-
lived vegetation such as trees. It is expected that the human
perception threshold for SO2 will be exceeded occasionally.
Inversion breakup fumigation may produce ground level con-
centrations exceeding the human perception threshold at
distances of ten miles or more. The installation and operation
of a second unit of 750,000 kilowatt capacity will more than
double air pollution emissions. If the 550,000 kilowatt unit is
built and operated, a SO2 monitoring network should be ac-
tivated. This will assist in determining the effects of SO2 on
the surrounding vegetation and people, as well as provide
guides for future installation design. Prevailing winds in this
area are such that air pollutants will often be carried into
Wisconsin. Therefore, officials of that State should take part
in air pollution activities connected with the proposed plant.
Plans and studies should be started now to obviate future air
pollution problems indicated by plans for expansion of this
plant beyond the initial 550,000 kilowatt capacity.
02014
R.E. Holl
(CONTROL OF ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION ON EXISTING
AND FUTURE SITES OF E.D.F. POWER STATIONS.) Con-
troles de la Pollution Atmospherique Sur les Sites des Centrales
Thermiques E.D.F. Actuelles et Futures. Proc. (Part I) Intern.
Clean Air Cong., London, 1966. (Paper IV/2). pp. 84-6.
Since 1959, Electricite de France has been engaged in air pol-
lution control on the sites of existing and future power sta-
tions, in order to measure the effects the stations have on
local pollution and to establish the critical periods when spe-
cial fuels must be burnt. The studies refer to deposited dusts,
high acidity content of the air and black smoke. A special
document gives detailed programme of undertaken research
and the results obtained. (Author abstract)
02290
S.J. Keating, Jr.
SILENT, 3.75 KW, LIQUID HYDROCARBON-AIR FUEL
CELL POWER-PLANT. VOL. I. TEXT ('AFINAL TECHNI-
CAL REPT. MAR. 18, 1965 THROUGH MAR. 17, 1966). Pratt
and Whitney Aircraft, East Hartford, Conn. (Rept. PWA-2816)
May 24, 1966. 82 pp. DDC: AD 484196
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A. EMISSION SOURCES
A powerplant system was established and used to determine
overall powerplant weight, volume and thermal efficiency. For
a 3.75 KW net output powerplant these are 366 Ibs., 14.1 cubic
feet and 36% (LHV) respectively. Other studies were con-
ducted to establish optimum system characteristics and operat-
ing parameters. System transient characteristics were
established as were operating capability and limits. Tests of
three of the components were run and results were evaluated
to verify analytical predictions. The system sound output was
analytically predicted. Finally a preliminary design layout of
the powerplant was made. (Author summary modified)
02501
J. R. Garvey
AIR POLLUTION AND THE COAL INDUSTRY. Mining
Congr. J. pp. 55-65. Aug. 1966.
This paper is a general review of air pollution resulting from
coal combustion, whereof the oxides of sulfur are considered
to be of main public concern. Author advocates realistic regu-
lations in order to enable producers of high sulfur coals to
comply with the ordinances and at the same time protect their
current market.
02549
L. V. Buzunova, A. N. Bokov, A. M. Gurevich, and Z. P.
Nikitinskaya
SLAG HEAPS AS A SOURCE OF ATMOSPHERIC POLLU-
TION. (Otvaly ugol'nykh shakht kak istochnik zagryazeniya
atmosfemogo vozdukha.) Hyg. Sank. 318 (1) 118-20, Jan. 1966.
CFSTI: TT66-51160/1-3
The burning slag heaps of the coal mining districts in the
Rostov Region, where the principle combustible component is
anthracite, do not present any carcinogenic hazard. However,
this conclusion cannot be extended to burning rocks in slag
heaps containing quantities of other grades of coal, such as
bituminous coal, and particularly coal which processes a
higher content of tarry substances. The burning slag heaps
give rise to considerable pollution of the atmosphere by car-
bon monoxide and sulfur dioxide.
02630
Duzy, A. F., and J. B. Walker, Jr.
UTILIZATION OF SOLID FUEL HAVING LIGNITE TYPE
ASH. (In: Proceedings on Technology and Use of Lignite). Bu-
reau of Mines, Pittsburgh, Pa. (Presented at the Bureau of
Mines, North Dakota Univ. Symposium, Bismark, Apr. 29-30,
1965). (Information Circular No. 8304). p. 27-39, 1966.
The impurities in low-rank coals are considered. Although low-
rank coals have a high volatile matter content and a low igni-
tion temperature and are relatively easy to burn, their impuri-
ties may be quite variable or troublesome in boiler design and
operation. Included are sections on types of ash; lignite-type-
ash fuels; mining and preparation of lignite-type-ash coals; ash
fusibility; fouling and slagging characteristics; abrasiveness
and erosiveness of raw coal; upgrading coal; and standards
required.
02631
Sondreal, E. A., W. R. Kube, and J. L. Elder
CHARACTERISTICS AND VARIABILITY OF LIGNITE ASH
FROM THE NORTHERN GREAT PLAINS PROVINCE. (In:
Proceedings on Technology and Use of Lignite). Bureau of
Mines, Pittsburgh, Pa. (Presented at the Bureau of Mines-
North Dakota Univ. Symposium, Bismark, Apr. 29-30, 1965.)
(Information Circular No. 8304). p. 39-50, 1966.
The aim was to present current results of the Bureau of Mines
investigation of lignite ash at Grand Forks Coal Research
Laboratory. The program is described. Included are sections
on the survey of ash characteristics; lignite sampling for the
ash survey; analytical procedures, composition of coal ash;
critical properties of lignite ash; behavior of sulfur in lignite;
and trace elements in lignite ash.
02633
Peck, R. E.
SPECIAL DESIGN FEATURES OF THE LELAND OLDS
POWER STATION OF BASIN ELECTRIC POWER
COOPERATIVE. (In: Proceedings on Technology and Use of
Lignite). Bureau of Mines, Pittsburgh, Pa. (Presented at the
Bureau of Mines-North Dakota Univ. Symposium, Bismark,
Apr. 29-30, 1965.) (Information Circular No. 8304). p. 78-89,
1966.
Some of the special design features necessary for use of lig-
nite in the first 200,000-kw, unit in the Leland Olds power sta-
tion south of Stanton, N. Dakota are described. Lignite has a
lower heating value and a higher moisture content than bitu-
minous coal, and the ash from lignite also has different
characteristics. There are six special design features of the Le-
land Olds station's first unit which were necessitated by the
nature of the lignite fuel it will burn. These features are (1) in-
creased boiler size to produce the necessary steam for a
200,000-kw generator, (2) increased pulverizer capacity
because of the special qualities of lignite, (3) inclusion of a pri-
mary air heater in the airflow system to assure proper drying
of lignite in the pulverizing and combustion states (this equip-
ment was also designed for drop-shot cleaning because of ash
in the flue that gases can deposit in the heat exchangers), (4)
wide separation of pendant boiler tubes to prevent bridging by
ash. (5) more thermoprobes than are usual, in order to monitor
temperatures and keep them in ranges which will prevent buil-
dup of ash and clogging under either low-or-high -temperature
conditions, and (6) more soot blowers than are normal for a
200,000-kw plant in order that the ash produced by lignite
under certain conditions can be effectively removed. These
special features are discussed in detail.
02634
Scott, D.
UTILIZATION OF LOW-RANK FOSSIL FUEL: REPORT OF
SUBSECTION COMMITTEE OF THE CANADIAN ELEC-
TRIC ASSOCIATION (IN: PROCEEDINGS ON TECHNOLO-
GY AND USE OF LIGNITE). Bureau of Mines, Pittsburgh, Pa.
(Presented at the Bureau of Mines- North Dakota Univ. Sym-
posium, Bismarck, Apr. 29-30, 1965.) Information Circular No.
8304) p. 89-99, 1966.
A questionnaire was prepared and circulated to major coal
users, including utilities in the Northern United States, where
considerable research and development is being done on coal
burning and associated work with low-rank fuels. Most users
have run and are running into difficulties (of one form or
another) due in general to the equipment not being complete
enought in its design to cope with the special characteristics of
the fuel used and nature of the environment. The problem
areas are sectionalized, with emphasis on the most prominent
problem, that of boiler fouling. Sections are included on fuel
handling and storage; stoker firing; pulverized firing; slag-tap
firing; fouling of furnaces; ash handling; centrifugal mechani-
cal dust collectors; ash and dust removal; and instrumentation
and controls.
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ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
02765
J.J. Schueneman C.G. Beard, II
CHARLESTON-KANAWHA VALLEY AIR POLLUTION
STUDY A DESCRIPTION. Preprint. (Presented at the 55th
National Meeting, American Institute of Chemical Engineers,
Houston, Tex., Feb. 7-11, 1965, Paper No. 46c.)
The Kanawha River Valley area around Charleston, West Vir-
ginia, contains one of the nation's largest concentrations of
basic chemical production. The chemical processes and other
industrial operations, along with substantial use of coal for
fuel, have resulted in an air pollution problem. The situation is
aggravated by meteorological conditions and a rugged terrain
that hamper atmospheric dispersion of air pollutants. The West
Virginia Air Pollution Commission and the United States
Public Health Service, with many operators, have initiated a
study that encompasses air quality, pollutant emissions,
meteorology, effects of pollution on materials, odors, vegeta-
tion damage, and means of pollution control. The area being
studied and past air pollution studies are described briefly. The
organization, outline, and work plan of the present study are
presented in summary form. (Author abstract)
02860
R.J. Rayliss H.M. Whaite
A STUDY OF THE RADIUM ALPHA-ACTIVITY OF COAL,
ASH, AND PARTICULATE EMISSION AT A SYDNEY
POWER STATION. Intern. J. Air Water Pollution 10, (11-12)
813-9, Dec. 1965 (Presented at the Clean Air Conference, New
South Wales Univ. Aug. 18, 1965.)
A study has been made of the radium alpha-activity in samples
of coal and ash from Pyrmont Power Station, to estimate the
potential health hazard to the general population. From an ex-
amination of probable maximum concentrations at ground
level, it is considered that any hazard to health, by inhalation
of radio- active material, is negligible.
03072
T. R. Brogan and P. Dragoumis
THE DEVELOPMENT OF MHD POWER GENERATORS.
Preprint. (Presented at the National Coal Association Techni-
cal-Sales Conference and Bituminous Coal Research, Inc., An-
nual Meeting, Pittsburgh, Pa., Sept. 14-15, 1966.)
The promise of the MHD concept lies in improving the effi-
ciency of converting the energy of our primary fuels to elec-
tricity. Although MHD may find ultimate application with
nuclear fuel, only combustion-driven generators are deemed
practical for early development. Both the projected economic
performance of nuclear power and the growing concern over
environmental pollution greatly enhance the need for a highly
efficient more economical coal-fired generating system. By
burning less coal per unit of energy output, less sulfur will be
discharged to the atmosphere. Then, too, the economic necess-
ity for efficient recovery of the seed material and the simple
and inexpensive method developed for effecting this recovery,
will insure that the MHD plant effluent is thoroughly cleansed
of particulate matter. With regard to the formation and emis-
sion of various oxides of nitrogen the performance of MHD
cannot be easily predicted at this time. Clearly, the equilibrium
concentration of nitrogen oxides at the combustion of that
which we wish to release directly to the atmosphere. It is not
at all certain that equilibrium will, in fact, be attained in the
combustion chamber. Beyond this, there is also a question as
to the extent to which any concentration of nitrogen oxides
will be 'fixed' in the subsequent expansion through the MHD
generator and stream generator. It is therefore not certain at
present, what means should be utilized to best control the
amount of fixed nitrogen which ultimately reaches the stack.
Measurements indicate that the concentration of nitrogen ox-
ides the effluent from MHD power plants burning coal with at-
mospheric air preheated to 1000 F will be of the same order of
magnitude as from conventional power plants today. For use
of significantly higher flame temperatures attained with higher
preheat, careful attention must be given to MHD generator
design and operation to control the nitrogen oxide concentra-
tion in the flue gas. The relatively small size of the MHD com-
bustion chamber which results from the combustion process
can make it possible to exercise precise control over the gas
composition. The development of MHD has reached the point
where the construction and operation of an experimental MHD
power plant, duplicating, at a level of about 30 MW, all of the
features of a commercial MHD power plant, is technically
feasible and justified by the ultimate promise of the concept.
03113
R.W. Gerstle, S.T. Cuffe, A.A. Orning, C.H. Schwartz
AIR POLLUTANT EMISSIONS FROM COAL-FIRED POWER
PLANTS, REPORT NO. 2. J. Air Pollution Control Assoc. 15,
(2) 59-64, Feb. 19659
The Public Health Service and the Bureau of Mines are con-
ducting a joint study to evaluate a number of flue-gas-stream
components from coal-burning power plants. Emissions of fly
ash, sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, polynuclear hydrocarbons,
total gaseous hydrocarbons, formaldehydes, certain metals,
and carbon dioxide are determined. A previous paper covered
air pollutant emissions from vertical-fired and front-wall- fired
power plant boilers. This paper includes a comparative evalua-
tion of emissions from a tangential-fired and a turbo-fired
power plant boiler. (Author abstract)
03340
J. A. DeCarlo, E. T. Sheridan, and Z. E. Murphy.
SULFUR CONTENT OF UNITED STATES COAL. Bureau of
Mines, Washington, D.C. (Information Circular 8312.) 46 pp.,
1966 GPO 913-499
The sulfur content of United States coals varies widely, rang-
ing from a low of 0.2 percent to as much as 8.0 percent as
mined, by weight, on a dry basis. Perhaps as important as the
amount of sulfur, however, is the manner in which sulfur oc-
curs. Generally, sulfur is present in coal in three forms: as or-
ganic combinations, as pyrite or marcasite, and as sulfates.
The forms of sulfur are important because they generally in-
dicate whether any appreciable reduction in sulfur can be
achieved through conventional cleaning processes. Sulfur held
in organic combinations generally cannot be separated from
the coal substance by conventional cleaning. Sulfate sulfur is
generally quite low and usually is of no great concern. The
pyritic sulfur, however, can vary from a low of 40 percent ot
as high as 80 percent of the total sulfur. Some reduction of
pyritic sulfur can be achieved by crushing and various cleaning
processes, depending upon the manner in which it is dispersed
in the coal. This report attempts to show the sulfur content of
the coal presently produced in the United States and to assess
the remaining reserves of the various ranks of coal in each
State, according to sulfur content. All data compiled in this
review were obtained from industry surveys of the Bureau of
Mines and from U.S. Geological Survey and various State
geological survey publications. (Author Introduction modified)
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A. EMISSION SOURCES
03587
AIR POLLUTION IN THE IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY.
Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development,
Paris, France. June 1963. 135 pp.
The Iron and Steel Committee of the Organisation for
Economic Co-Operation and Development (O.E.C.D.) has in-
vestigated air pollution problems in the industry from the fol-
lowing aspects: technical, Economic, and financial considera-
tions. A discussion of the general considerations of ambient
pollutants, the measurement methods employed in air pollution
determination, gas cleaning equipment and chimneys, air pollu-
tion in the iron and steel industry, observations in iron and
steel works throughout Europe and, legislation and organiza-
tion of future research are included.
03867
WORLD POWER DATA (CAPACITY OF ELECTRIC
GENERATING PLANTS AND PRODUCTION OF ELECTRIC
ENERGY). Federal Power Commission, Washington, D.C.
1964. 16 pp.
Statistics are presented on elect
generating capacity and electric energy production for almost
all countries of the world and a number of their dependencies
for the years 1963 to 1964. Altogether, a total of 147 countries
or dependencies are covered. All of the figures on capacity
and production represent combined total s for electric utilities
and industrial establishments having generating facilities for-
providing all or part of their own requirements. Total world
production of electric power in 1964 amounted to 3.023 trillion
kilowatt hours, an increase of 230 billion kilowatt-hours or
8.2% over 1963. Of the toal world production, 819 billion
kilowatt-hours, or 27%, were produced by hydroelectric
plants. With only 6 percent of the world's population, the
United States accounted for 36 percent of the world's elec-
tricity output in 1964. The next six leading countries combined
produced another 38 percent. Thus, the seven countries
generated almost three-fourths of the total, yet their combined
population was just over one-fifth of the world total. World
per capita production of electric power in 1964 amounted to
931 kilowatt-hours, an increase of 53 kilowatt-hours per capita
over 1963. On the basis of per capita production, the United
States dropped from fourth to fifth place among the world's
highest electric power producers. If total energy consumption
per capita, a more accurate indicator of economic develop-
ment, were used as a basis of comparison, a different grouping
of the nations would result than that shown. The United
States, for example, ranks above any other country of the
world in terms of total energy use per capita. The principal
compilation presents, for each country, 1963 and 1964 data on
installed electric generating capacity and production as well as
population and kilowatt-hours per capita. The predominant
frequency of the current in each country is also indicated.
04224
TUFTS COVE - DUAL FIRING AND CYCLONE FURNACES
FOR 100 MW UNIT NOVA SCOTIA. Eng. Boiler House Rev.,
81(8):234-238, Aug. 1966.
Tufts Cove thermal generating station was commissioned on
September 30, 1965 as a new power source for Nova Scotia in
Canada. The steam generating unit is a Babcock and Wilcox
cyclone-fired radiant type boiler having a continuous steaming
capacity of 725,000 Ib hr. The design pressure of the unit is
2,100 Ib/sq in g with operating steam conditions of 1,850 Ib/sq
in g and 1,010 F at the superheater outlet and a reheat steam
temperature of 1,010 F at the reheater outlet. The overall effe-
ciency of the unit, at a steam flow of 650,000 Ib/hr is 90.3 per
cent when burning Cape Breton coal. This cyclone fired steam
generating unit was selected for Tufts Cove Station on its
suitability for the burning of Cape Breton coal. The flue gas
leaving the air heater passes through an electrostatic precipita-
tor which has a collection efficiency of 95 per cent. The dust
loading of the flue gas leaving the precipitator is guaranteed no
to exceed 3.25 Ib of dust per 1,000 Ib of flue gas adjusted to 12
per cent CO29. The steam generating unit is equipped with a
Diamond automatic sequentially-operated, steam blowing soot-
blower system with 11 retractable blowers in the superheater-
reheater section, 4 rotary element blowers in the economiser
section, 2 non-rotating retractable blowers in the air-heater
cold section and 22 short retractable furnace wall blowers. The
fly ash collected by the precipitator is of a very fine grain
size, approximately 95 per cent under 50 microns in size. Due
to the fineness of this ash and the disposal problem it may
present, the unit is equipped with an ash retiring system. This
system conveys the fine precipitator ash back to the cyclone
furnaces, where it is melted back to liquid and disposed of as
slag into the slag tank. The most prominent physical feature of
the plant site is the 500 ft high chimney, which consists of a
steel reinforced concrete column surrounding an independent
brick lining. The height was decided upon following extensive
wind tunnel tests on scale models of the surrounding terrain
carried out to determine the effect of flue gas dispersal of
various chimney heights. The final cost of the project will be
approximately 17,000,000.
04287
A. P. Baranov
NEW X SOURCES OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY FOR SHIPS.
(Novyye Istochniki Elektricheskoy Energii dlya Sudov.) Su-
dostroyeniye Shipbuilding House, Leningrad, U.S.S.R. 1965.
120 pp. Russ. (Tr.) CFSTI, DDC: AD 630-285
This book, which is the result of an analysis of a great many
articles and much information which is scattered and narrowly
specialized in nature, as well as of some work done by the
author, has attempted to provide basic, and systematized, in-
formation on questions dealing with theory, design arrange-
ments, the characteristics of thermoelectric, thermal emission,
magnetohydrodynamic, electrochemical generators, and the
possibilities of using these generators on board ship.
04333
Jones, J. R.
CONTRIBUTION OF THE COAL INDUSTRY TO SOLVING
THE PROBLEM OF AIR POLLUTION CONTROL. Proc. Am.
Power Conf. 27, 126-36, Apr. 1965. (Presented at the 27th An-
nual Meeting, American Power Conference, Chicago, 111., Apr.
27-9, 1965.)
The efforts of the coal industry to combat the problem of
stack emissions are highlighted. Industry research on sulfur
has focused on the removal of oxides from flue gases and
removal of sulfur from raw coal. Research aimed at learning
more about the forms and occurrence of sulfur in coal is con-
tinuing.
04652
P. A. Berman J. O. Stephens
(ADVANCED COMBINED CYCLE GAS TURBINES FOR
ELECTRICAL POWER PLANTS.) Turbinas de Gas Avanzadas
para las Centrales Generadoras de Ciclo Combinado. Dyna
(Madrid) 41, (11) 623-6, Nov. 1966. Sp.
The improvements in gas turbine design over the last twenty
years are described and future developments are indicated.
-------
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
The simple cycle gas turbine in combination with a steam
generating unit in the combustion zone surpasses the per-
formance of the conventional steam plant. With the great in-
crease in the efficiency of the gas turbine with intermediate
water cooling and reheating, the utility plant has a highly fexi-
ble, efficient method for obtaining electrical power.
04778
O. F. Kennedy
UNITED STATES POWER-PLANT DESIGN TRENDS: 1965.
Proc. Inst. Elec. Engrs., London 113, (1) 149-59, Jan. 1966.
The paper outlines the trends in the design of large units of
generating plant in the United States at the beginning of 1965.
Unit sizes continue to rise, and supercritical steam conditions,
with pressures around 3500 Ib/sq in and temperatures in the
1000-1050 F region, are now nearly always adopted for units
of above 400 MW capacity. Great attention is paid by the
makers of boilers and of turbines to secure higher availability,
because it is now recognized that, as size increases, so does
the difficulty of tracing faults which may arise in operation,
and outage time means money. The trend to larger units is en-
couraged by lower overall costs per kilowatt, and users are at-
tempting to reduce this still further by the adoption of 100%
duty auxiliaries where possible, and careful layout of auxiliary
plant. The mechanism of boiler-tube breakdowns is now more
widely understood, and the tendency is to equip all high-pres-
sure units with condensate polishing plant. More attention is
being paid to the elimination from stack effluent of undesira-
ble products of combustion. The position with regard to com-
puter control of large units is now static, because of difficul-
ties with early units and high prices of computer equipment.
The tendency for manufacturers to increase boiler ratings is
being resisted by users, particularly of coalfired boilers. Much
greater attention is being given to the supervision of shop and
site welding techniques, in an attempt to avoid boiler outage
during operation. (Author abstract)
04937
INFORMATIVE AIR POLLUTION PROBLEMS IN FLY ASH
SINTERING PLANT (INFORMATIVE REPORT NO. 6). J. Air
Pollution Control Assoc. 15, (3) 123-4, Mar. 1965.
The fly ash sintering plant at the Astoria Generating Station of
Consolidated Edison is described. The dust pollution problems
and the corresponding control methods are also described
05011
A. A. Oming, C. H. Schwartz, and J. F. Smith
MINOR PRODUCTS OF COMBUSTION IN LARGE COAL-
FIRED STEAM GENERATORS . American Society Mechani-
cal Engineers New York Paper 64- wA/FU-2. (Presented at the
Winter Annual Meeting, American Society of Mechanical En-
gineers, New York City, Nov. 29-Dec.
-------
A. EMISSION SOURCES
05506
J. B. Kirkwood
THE DESIGN OF CHIMNEYS TO ENSURE EFFECTIVE
DISPERSAL OF POWER STATION EFFLUENTS. Proc. Clean
Air Conf. Univ. New South Wales, 1962, Paper 11, Vol. 1,
17p.
The power stations now being constructed and planned in New
South Wales will be of such large capacity that if troublesome
pollution is to be avoided they must be provided with chim-
neys which will achieve effective dispersal of both dust and
gaseous effluents. The present practice of The Electricity
Commission of New South Wales is to employ chimneys hav-
ing a minimum height equal to 2 1/2 times that of power sta-
tion buildings together with a gas exit velocity of 50-60 ft.
Estimates are presented of the rate of dust deposition and con-
centrations of sulphur dioxide in the vicinity of a chimney
serving 400 MW of generating plant and these indicate that
neither dust deposition nor sulphur dioxide should be
troublesome in the vicinity of future power stations. Further,
it is concluded that the plume from a power station chimney
of this size probably will penetrate a high proportion of at-
mospheric inversions in the coastal area of New South Wales.
Troublesome pollution which has occurred in the vicinity of
power stations in New South Wales has largely been as-
sociated with excessive dust deposition resulting from in-
adequate dust collecting equipment. Another investigator has
dealt with investigations carried out by The Electricity Com-
mission of New South Wales with a view to improving the
performance of electrostatic precipitators used for the collec-
tion of fly ash from pulverised fuel fired boilers. As a result of
this work it is anticipated that undue dust deposition will not
occur in the vicinity of future power stations AA)
05530
R. J. Creagan
PROTECTING AIR RESOURCES WHILE MEETING POWER
DEMANDS FOR TOMORROW'S CITIES THROUGH THE
USE OF ATOMIC ENERGY. Proc. Sanitary Eng. Conf., Air
Resources Planning Eng., Pitts- burgh, Pa., 1965, pp. 67-103.
The purpose of this paper is to indicate how future electrical
utility power requirements can be met with nuclear power
plants without adversely affecting the air resources of the
community in volved. Utility power requirements and the
necessary ore re sources available are indicated. A typical
reactor is described and the associated nuclear power
economics are given. Engineered safeguards are described
with respect to their ability to protect the air environment both
under operating and under assumed fuel meltdown conditions
so that the extremely low radiation levels specified in the per-
tinent code of Federal Regulations are not exceeded.
05846
P. J. Adams
DEVELOPMENT AND INITIAL OPERATION OF OCR
PACKAGED COAL-FIRED BOILER 20,000 TO 50,000
LBS./HR. Preprint. (Presented at the Industrial Coal Con-
ference, Lafayette, Ind., Oct. 8, 1964.)
Design criteria for capacity, pressure, temperature, rail trans-
portability, efficiency, coal, load range, and stack discharge
with dust collectors are stated. Design limitations of size,
stoker size, furnace volume, gas pass areas, reinjection, stack
discharge collector are outlined. Specifications for the final
design are tabulated. The most notable achievement was the
operation of an entirely new product to burn coal with almost
no start-up difficulties whatever.
06040
PRESENT STATUS OF PUBLIC NUISANCE IN ELECTRIC
POWER INDUSTRY OF JAPAN. Central Power Council,
Japan, Overseas Public Nuisance Study Mission, Sept. 1965.
25p.
The status of SO2 and dust fall in Japan is reviewed. The ex-
amples of Yokkaichi and Ube City are cited. The national legal
and administrative aspects are discussed. The electric power
industry of Japan is described. The anti-pollution measures
taken by the electric power industry are outlined including
research programs on diffusion, SO2 removal from stack
gases, prevention of acid smut, and desulfurization of fuel oil.
06351
R. F. Abernathy and F. H. Gibson
RARE ELEMENTS IN COAL. (Bureau of Mines, Washington,
D.C.) (Information Circular 8163). (1963). 73 pp.
Data are presented showing trends in the content of chlorine,
phosphorus, titanium, and manganese although these elements
are not included in the category of rare and uncommon ele-
ments in coal. It is suggested that elements may be called rare
when the amount in the earth's crust is not much greater than
0.01 percent. By uncommon is meant unusual concentrations
of elements greater than normally occur in the mineral matter
of coal. The occurrence of 34 elements in coal is reviewed.
These do not include the elements silicon, aluminum, iron, cal-
cium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, and sulfur, which con-
stitute the main part of the mineral matter in most coals. Some
of the rare elements found in coal probably were derived from
the original coal-forming plant material. Elements occuring in
sufficient concentration to be detected as minerals usually are
considered as extraneous substances deposited in coal beds
from external sources. Three main stages of the enrichment of
elements in coal are suggested: (1) Concentration during the
life of the plants; (2) concentration during decay of the plants;
and (3) concentration during mineralization of the coal. There
are three hundred eighty (380) references.
06978
H. E. Shafer, Jr. C. T. Holland
WESTERN STATES COAL-ASSOCIATED MINERAL OC-
CURRENCES LIKELY TO BE A FACTOR IN LONG RANGE
AIR POLLUTION CONSIDERATIONS.((West Virginia Univ.,
Morgantown, School of Mines.)) (Rept. No. 7.) (Presented at
the Fall Meeting, Society of Mining Engineers and Rocky
Mountain Minerals Conference, Phoenix, Ariz., Oct. 7-9,
1965.) (1965). 13 pp.
The outlook for future coal consumption and the air pollution
problems conncected with it are discussed. Some control
methods currently employed by coal burning installations are
mentioned as well as utilization of by-products such as flyash.
Opposition is voiced against the control of sulfur dioxide emis-
sion from coal by limitation of the sulfur content. It is felt that
with suitable stack height and reasonable limits at ground
level, specific coals with considerable sulfur content can be
burned without providing unhealthful atmospheres. Also
discussed is the emission of radioactive elements from power
plants using organic fuels. It is concluded that coals from the
western states can be expected to produce similar air pollu-
tants as coals produced elsewhere, with the exception of
uranium, which may be present in some western coals in
higher concentrations.
-------
8
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
07570
Kireeva, I. S.
ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION WITH 3,4-BENZPYRENE IN
THE VICINITY OF A COAL BRIQUET FACTORY. (O
zagryaznenii atmosfernogo vozdukha 3,4-benzpirenom v raione
briketnoi fabriki.) Text in Russian. Gigiena i Sanit., 30(7), July
1965. 9 refs. Engl. transl. by JPRS, Hyg. Sanit., 307):126-128,
July 1967. CFSTI: TT66-51033/3
An investigation was conducted of a large briquet factory
which uses 11% coal pitch for the binding of coal fines, so
that the 3,4-benzpyrene content in the coal briquets reaches
0.14%. The process of briqueting includes crushing bituminous
coal and pitch, mixing them in a certain ratio, and molding the
briquets. Determinations were made of the amounts of 3,4-
benzpyrene in the gases discharged by the press shop, in the
atmosphere, and in the dust falling at distances of 200 to
1000m from the factory. Tarry substances were extracted with
pure nonfluorescent benzene and fractionated on a chromato-
graphic column with an activated aluminum mixture. Identifi-
cation of 3,4-benzpyrene was accomplished by comparing the
fluorescence spectra of the individual fractions frozen in liquid
nitrogen against the fluorescence spectrum of a standard 3,4-
benzpyrene. The quantity of the latter was determined
photoelectrically. Thus, 3,4-benzpyrene was found in all sam-
ples within the radius of 1 km from the factory, the concentra-
tion decreasing regularly with increasing distance from the fac-
tory. However, concentrations exceeded the control deter-
minations made on the windward side (0.14-0.30 micro-
gram/100 cu. m.) even at a distance of 1000 m. The results in-
dicate the need to eliminate coal pitch from the technological
process and introduce a new briqueting technology using non-
carcinogenic grades of petroleum bitumens as the binder.*
07642
Gerber, Abraham
THE ECONOMICS OF COAL SUPPLY. American Chemical
Society, Pittsburgh, Pa., Div. of Fuel Chemistry, Preprints,
9(2):18-22, 1965. (Presented at the 149th National Meeting,
American Chemical Society, Division of Fuel Chemistry, Sym-
posium on Fuel and Energy Economics Joint with Division of
Chemical Marketing and Economics, Detroit, Mich., April 4-9,
1965.)
The status of coal in the fuel market and the factors involved
in its decline and acceleration are examined. The efforts of the
coal and transportation industries to reduce the delivered cost
of coal are described. The growth of the electric utility indus-
try and the resulting effect on coal consumption is discussed.
The problem of finding an economical means of elimination
the harmful effects of coal combustion products is also
discussed. The wide range of substitution capabilities among
the several sources of energy, and most importantly the ad-
vent of nuclear power as a competitive source of energy in
coal's largest market, can be expected to elicit the technical
and economic responses from both the coal and transportation
industries that will make possible a rising level of coal use
without significant increases in real costs.
07644
Wagner, H. A.
UNCONVENTIONAL ENERGY CONVERSION METHODS.
American Chemical Society, Pittsburgh, Pa., Div. of Fuel
Chemistry, Preprint, 9(2):94-103, 1965. 5 refs. (Presented at the
149th National Meeting, American Chemical Society, Division
of Fuel Chemistry, Symposium on Fuel and Energy
Economics Joint with Division of Chemical Marketing and
Economics, Mich., April 4-9, 1965.)
The recent accomplishments in the field of direct energy con-
version are important to the power industry since the potential
rewards of lower costs are substantial. The increasing amount
of total energy required to meet the increasing demands in the
chemical industry will dictate some new and unconventional
approaches when reviewing future production costs. Four of
these new methods of power production offer promise of com-
mercial application to power system generation as a means of
reducing production costs. The economic and technical status
are discussed for the following methods: (1) thermoelectric, (2)
thermionic, (3) fuel cells and (4) magnetohydrodynamics.
07645
Robinson, Myles E.
SOME ASPECTS OF THE TRANSPORTATION OF BITU-
MINOUS COAL. American Chemical Society, Pittsburgh, Pa.,
Div. of Fuel Chemistry, Preprints, 9(2):127-147, 1965.
(Presented at the 149th National Meeting, American Chemical
Society, Division of Fuel Chemistry, Symposium on Fuel and
Energy Economics Joint with Division of Chemical Marketing
and Economics, Detroit, Mich., April 4-9, 1965.)
An examination of the changes in the transportation pattern of
bituminous coal is presented. Statistics in the last seven years
have permitted the analysis of coal distribution by method of
transportation, by user category and by district of origin and
states of destination. Tables are presented for each of the
three methods. The transportation patterns for coal in the U.S.
range from the railroads which handle some three-fourths of
all shipments through water and motor carriers, to the
pipeline. Because of its confinement to one producer and its
relatively limited life, the pipeline does not lend itself to
statistical trending but it is briefly discussed. Distribution for
the electric utility market has a more complete accumulation
of data so it is discussed in greater detail.
07647
Vogely, William A.
PATTERN OF ENERGY CONSUMPTION IN THE UNITED
STATES. American Chemical Society, Pittsburgh, Pa., Div. of
Fuel Chemistry, Preprint, 9(2):205-221, 1965. (Presented at the
149th National Meeting, American Chemical Society, Division
of Fuel Chemistry, Symposium on Fuel and Energy
Economics Joint with Division of Chemical Marketing and
Economics, Detroit, Mich., April 4-9, 1965.)
The pattern of flows of energy through the economy of the
United States is an ever changing one. Major shifts in sources
of energy and the uses to which energy is put have occurred
since the beginning of our industrial economy. Within a decade
and a half (1947-1962) there were factors which created a very
different set of energy flows for 1962 from that of 1947. These
changes are examined, hypotheses concerning them are
presented, and projections to 1980 of the pattern are made.
Two views of the energy economy are presented in tables. The
first shows total energy resource consumption by consuming
sector by function. Projections to 1980 are given for each
view. The concluding portion presents a tentative hypothesis
concerning competition among energy sources and energy
trends.
07759
Rohrman, F. A., J. H. Ludwig, and B. J. Steigerwald
LOW-SULFUR RESID SUPPLIES FALL FAR SHORT OF U.S.
NEEDS. Preprint from Oil Gas J., 2p., Aug. 15, 1966.
U. S. refiners are faced with a big demand for low sulfur
residual oils, which cannot be supplied in the desired quanti-
ties at current levels. Because price structures relegate residual
-------
A. EMISSION SOURCES
fuel to a by product status, domestic refiners have been
cutting down on residual yields. The sulfur contents of
domestic-refined residual oil were obtained by a poll of over
99% of all U.S. refining capacity. The results of which are
given. One of the purposes was to determine if additional
sources of low-sulfur residual oil might be economically mar-
ketable to some of the large users on the East Coast. Various
amounts of crudes from these foreign sources are imported
into the U.S. under import allocations. Generally these are
blended with high-sulfur crudes from the Near East or
Venezuela before refining. Only one refinery is known that
refines a foreign, low-sulfur crude to produce a very low-sul-
fur resid. This one is located on the Pacific Coast. Domestic
crudes are subjected to many different techniques dictated by
several different economic motivations. The new basic oxygen
process for the open-hearth steel furnaces will use less
residual oil fuel-also, the strict sulfur limitations on fuels in
certain areas and the greater profit in making light ends all
tend to discourage the production of residual oil. Considering
the very great demand for residual oil in electric-power
generation, coupled with future requirements for low-sulfur
fuels, the nation is certainly faced with a dilemma. The answer
may lie in desulfurization, blending of resids with the lighyer
oils that are lower in sulfur, shipments of low-sulfur resids
from areas of high freight cost, refining of low-sulfur crudes
separate from high-sulfur crudes, mineral additives (dolomite,
magnesium oxide) at the power plant, removal of sulfur oxides
from the stack effluent, or some combination of these.
07793
Lundquist, Nils-Henrick
DEFENSE RESEARCH INSTITUTE BRIEFING ON CUR-
RENT SOURCES. ((Stromkallor.)) Text in Swedish. FOA
Orienterar Om Stromkallor, No. 5:1-39, 1966. English transla-
tion by the Translation Div., Foreign Technology Division,
Wright- Patterson AFB, Ohio, Translation No. HT-6600519,
88p., 1966. CFSTI/DDC: AD 806927
All types of current sources from Volta's pile to the fuel cell
of the space age are discussed. The historical development of
the battery is briefly touched upon. Batteries are grouped into
pri mary and secondary, the former being based on irreversi-
ble reac tions and the latter on reversible reactions. The com-
position of various types of batteries is given with the aid of
photographs and diagrams. Different applications are cited for
the battery. Fuel cells are discussed. The advantages and
operation of the fuel cell are examined. In the final sections of
the article the following current sources are discussed with
pictures and diagrams: thermogenerators, solar cells, ther-
mionic generators, MHD generators, atomic batteries, and
biological batteries. (Author's abstract, modified)
07800
Palo, George P. and Donald B. Weaver
TVA'S FIRST NUCLEAR PLANT. Power Eng., 71(4):38-42,
April, 1967.
Scheduled for commissioning in Oct. 1970, general design and
layout of TVA plant at Wheeler Reservoir, southwest of
Athens, Ala, are discussed; unusual technical features are
elimination of stretch concept, increase in reactor core power
density, stack construction, and two units being built simul-
taneously with startup dates a year apart. (Authors' abstract)
07963
Rohrman, F. A., B. J. Steigerwald, and J. H. Ludwig
POWER PLANT AND OTHER SULFUR DIOXIDE EMIS-
SIONS; 1940-2000. Preprint, Public Health Service, Cincinnati,
Ohio, Division of Air Pollution, ((13))p., ((1965)). 21 refs.
Major sources, potential sources, estimated annual emissions
and the effects of probable control efforts of Sulfur Dioxide to
the year 2000 are discussed. The major sources include power
plant operation (coal and oil); other combustion of coal; com-
bustion of petroleum products (excluding power plant oil;
wmelting of ores; petroleum refinery operation; coke
processing; sulfuric acid plants; coal refuse banks; and refuse
incineration). Annual emission of Sulfur Dioxide is 76.0 million
tons. To indicate a range of estimated future sulfur dioxide
emissions, two control schedules were selected for application
to the major sources of SO2 from the current year to the year
2000. Maximum SO2 emissions will probably occur between
1975 and 1985 for the range of control schemes postulated.
08388
V. E. McKelvey, D. C. Duncan
UNITED STATES AND WORLD RESOURCES OF ENERGY.
Am. Chem. Soc., Pittsburgh, Pa., Div. Fuel Chem., Preprints,
(2):1- 17, 1965. (Presented at the 149th National Meetings,
American Chemical Society, Division of Fuel Chemistry, Sym-
posium on Fuel and Energy Economics, Detroit, Mich., April
4-9, 1965.)
Energy resources must be viewed as a range extending from
reserves in known deposits minable at present prices to
resources that may become usable in the future through
further exploration and technologic advance. Appraised in this
framework, domestic resources of the fossil fuels of the types
now considered usable contain 5.5 to more than 130 Q (i.e., 10
to 18th power Btu), and if very low grade organic-rich deposits
are included, the potential may be more than 1,600 Q. World
resources contain about 23 to more than 475 A, and if very
low grade resources are considered the potential may be more
than 20,000 Q. The energy potential of uranium resources in
the United States ranges from about 0.16 ot more than 280,000
Q, the larger figure depending not only on the use of low-
grade ore but also on the successful development of the breed-
ing process. The energy potential of world uranium resources
similarly ranges upward from 0.34 Q to an order of magnitude
(31.5%) had worked in the mercury mines for up to five years;
United States ranges from 7 to 420,000 Q, and of the world
from 48 to about 7 million Q. In nuclear fusion can be con-
trolled for power generation, the potential energy from
resources of deuterium and lithium are orders of magnitude
larger than the fissionable mineral resources. Deuterium alone
contains potential energy of 7.5 billion Q. Water power,
geothermal energy, solar energy, and tidal power also
represent large potential sources. The almost staggering con-
trast between the magnitude of known reserves minable at
present prices and potential resources minable only at higher
prices or more advanced technology underscores the critical
importance of research, exploration, and development in meet-
ing future needs. (AuthorOs abstract)
08390
H. E. Benson, C. L. Tsaros
CONVERSION OF FOSSIL FUELS TO UTILITY GAS. Am.
Chem. Soc., Pittsburg, Pa., Div. Fuel Chem., Preprints,
9(2): 104-113, 1965. 9 refs. (Presented at the 149th National
Meeting, American Chemical Society, Division of Fuel
Chemistry, Symposium on Fuel and Energy Economics
Detroit, Mich., April 4-9, 1965.)
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10
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
Natural gas has nearly completely replaced the use of coal as
a source of utility gas in the United Sates. The production of
gas from coal, shale, and distillate and residual oils is
discussed in terms of conversion costs. The following
processes for converting coal to gas are described in detail; (1)
Lurgi gasification, (2) Hydrogasification, (3) Hydrogasification
and the steam-iron process. The raw material costs and the
plant investments for gas made by these processes are tabu-
lated. Estimates of gas costs averaged for a 20-year period, in-
dicate that with an improvement in coal gasification technolo-
gy, it would be possible to decrease the cost of utility gas
made from coal by $0.43 per thousand cubic feet for a 90 x
106 BTU/Day plant. Next is described the process for the con-
version of shale oil to gas. This can be accomplished by two
means: (1) to hydrogenate the shale directly, (2) to retort the
material first and then hydrogenate the shale oil. Process
schemes are shown for these routes. The hydrogenation of the
oil and the difficulties involved are described. A summary is
given of: raw material requirments, plant investments and gas
price. This shows that utility gas can be manufactured by the
hydrogasification of oil shale at a reasonable cost. The most
important process variable influencing the cost of utility gas is
the hydrogen/shale ratio.
08391
M. D. Schlesinger, G. U. Dinneen, S. Katell
CONVERSION OF FOSSIL FUELS TO LIQUID FUELS. Am.
Chem. Soc., Kttsburg, Pa., Div. Fuel Chem., Preprints,
9(2): 120-126, 1965. 12 refs. (Presented at the 149th National
Meeting, American Chemical Society, Division of Fuel
Chemistry, Symposium on Fuel and Energy Economics,
Detroit, Mich., April 4-9, 1965.)
Supplies of crude petroleum and natural gas, although abun-
dant, are not inexhaustible, and provision is being made for
the time when our vast coal and oil shale reserves will be
called upon to supply a significant quantity of liquid fuels. The
approach on coal research has been to continue theoretical and
practical studies to reduce costs by improving stages in the
process or by developing new processes. Studies were made in
the following areas: coal hydrogenation, gas synthesis, oil
shale retorting systems, and bituminous sands and other
hydrocarbons. A flexible, integrated plant might emphasize
production of different fuels or byproducts under different
economic conditions and even at different times of the year.
To reduce hydrogen requirements, an alternative is the partial
conversion of coal whereby most of the hydrogen is utilized as
a hydrocarbon product. The char product is used for generat-
ing power or making additional hydrogen by gasification. In
recent years, oil shale research by the Bureau of Mines has
been limited to small scale laboratory studies on refining anal-
ysis. The cost of producing gasoline from oil shale is almost
competitive with gasoline from petroleum on the West Coast.
One of the main problems is the isolated location of major
deposits. The recent process developments discussed have
added more to refined technology rather than to significant
savings in cost. It has been amply demonstrated both in the
United States and elsewhere in the world, that liquid fuels can
be made from coal. Except in isolated cases, costs are too
high for coal to be a real contender with petroleum at current
prices. Only by continued research will the remaining
problems be solved.
08392
J. D. Clendenin
THE UTILIZATION OF COAL. Am. Chem. Soc., Pittsburg,
Pa., Div. Fuel Chem. Preprints, 9(2):222, 1965. (Presented at
the 149th National Meeting, American Chemical Society, Divi-
sion of Fuel Chemistry, Symposium on Fuel and Energy
Economics, Detroit, Mich., April 4-9, 1965.)
A brief survey is presented of current and prospective utiliza-
tion of coals including lignite, (1) in the production of metal-
Seal, chemical and specialty cokes, (2) as fuel for process
steam space and home heating, locomotives and ship bunkers,
(3) In'the manufacture of industrial producer gas and gas for
chemical synthesis, (4) as fuel in cement and lime kiln firing,
(5) at steel and rolling mills and (6) in a variety of specialty
and/or non-fuel uses, including industrial carbons, active car-
bon, fillers, filter aids and media, water treatment, foundry
facing, road building, roofing and coating applications, bar-
becue briquets, fertilizer and soil conditioner, coal-based
plastics, etc. Insofar as possible, information is presented on
process' and product research and other developments that
may affect coal utilization, favorably or unfavorably, in the
areas cited. Since economics of coal utilization cannot be
divorced from economics of coal supply and transportation,
these are touched upon briefly. (Author's abstract)
08393
John M. Ryan
UTILIZATION OF PETROLEUM AND PETROLEUM
PRODUCTS. Am. Chem. Soc., Pittsburg, Pa., Div. Fuel
Chem., Preprints, 9(2):223-230, 1965. 6 refs. (Presented at the
149th National Meeting, American Chemical Society, Division
of Fuel Chemistry, Symposium on Fuel and Energy
Economics, Detroit, Mich., April 4-9, 1965.)
In discussing utilization of petroleum, the existing or potential
technology of oil consumption must be considered, also the ef-
fects of potential changes in supply and of new competitive
forces. The demand for petroleum products in the U. S. will
probably grow at a rate of 2 or 3 per cent a year. Abroad the
annual growth rate will be perhaps twice as great as the rate in
the U. S. 50% of all the oil consumed in the U. S. is used in
the transportation sector. The growth rate will be limited by
the growth of the market. General industry and power plant
use constitute a second market, accounting for 7% of steam
and electric power plant fuel, and 13% of the manufacturers'
heat and power market. Another major market is residential
and commercial consumption in which oil supplies about one
third of the total energy consumed. Resources will not be a
limiting factor either in the U. S. or the free world and there
should be no significant shift in relative fuel prices in the
foreseeable future. It is unlikely that oil demand will be in-
creased appreciably in the U. S. through research in utiliza-
tion. Research on improved exploratory and productive
techniques will probably have a greater influence on domestic
oil demand than will research on oil utilization. The changes in
oil utilization which appear most probable will not alter the
growth rate of oil demand in the Y.S. so much as its composi-
tion. Finally, some research is being conducted today on the
supposition that crude oil is in limited supply and hence that
refined product prices are likely to rise in the near future rela-
tive to prices of competing fuels.
08641
Sullivan, K. M.
THE OPERATION OF A VEKOS POWERMASTER COAL
FIRED FIRETUBE PACKAGE BOILER. Clean Air (J Clean
Air Soc. Australia New Zealand) 1(1):17, 19-23 25 1967
Tests using bituminous coal from New S. Wales were carried
out on a coal fired packaged boiler having a rated capacity of
3,450 Ibs/hour of saturated steam from and at 212 dee F MOO
H.P.) and 150 psig. working pressure installed at the Fuel
-------
A. EMISSION SOURCES
11
Development Centre of the State Electricity Commission of
Victoria. The object of the test was to access the capabilities
of the boiler when operated with several bituminous coals of
varying characteristics. The boiler was examined for ease of
light up, response to load fluctuations, ability to maintain rated
load, degree of attention required by the boiler attendant,
ability to conform to statutory Clean Air Regulations and
operating efficiency. The boiler operated at high efficiency
over a range of loads. Correct adjustment resulted in the boiler
operating at all times within Clean Air requirements. Response
to load fluctuations and ability of the boiler to continuously
exceed rated load was better than anticipated. Attention to the
boiler during operation was negligible. Manual ash clearing
was required, but was not sufficient duration, or frequency, to
cause concern. The satisfactory results of testing, whe n com-
bined with the ease of installation of the fully packaged boiler
and its initial competitive cost, indicate that the unit should
have a wide application on the Australian market.
09075
John G. Noest, George R. Rich
CORNWALL PUMPED-STORAGE PLANT WILL DO MULTI-
PLE DUTIES ON CONSOLIDATED EDISON SYSTEM.
Power, 107(7):56-59, July 1963.
The Cornwall Project uses the Hudson River as its lower
reservoir in the vicinity of famous Storm King Mountain. The
plant has eight units with 225-mw nameplate rating and 250-
mw capability operating at an average net head of about 1050
ft. A major advantage of the project is its flexibility in the
operation of a large interconnected system. The several
aspects of flexibility are: (1) economic peak load generation (2)
spinning reserve (3) lay-up of older stations and (4) weekend
restoration of reservoir level when needed. Another advantage
accrues from the high rate of load pickup possible with hydro
generators. This characteristic will permit slower load pickup
on thermal units, minimizing stack emission which is diccicult
to control at high rates of load incease.
09103
Kalishevskii, L. L. and B. G. Ganchev
A STUDY OF THE CYCLONE PROCESS WHEN BURNING
SOLID FUEL.Thermal Eng. (English translation of: Teploener-
getika), No. 2:70-74, Feb. 1967. 4 refs.
Studies carried out on the MVTU-MoTsKTI cyclone furnace
test rig showed that when burning low-ash Donets gas and
long flame coals in an axial cyclone chamber losses due to un-
burnt carbon for the whole plant, in the best conditions, com-
prised 2-3 percent (there were no losses due to unburnt gases
in all cases), when burning the same fuel supplied tangentially
losses due to unburnt carbon did not exceed 1 percent. The
determination of the combustion efficiency of fuel in the
cyclone chamber (over the inner edge of the throat) revealed
the same level of combustion efficiency with satisfactory con-
ditions, in both types of chamber. However, the pattern of
heat losses differed. The main part of the losses at the outlet
of the axial cyclone were due to unburnt carbon (losses due to
unburnt gases did not exceed 2 percent) and at the outlet of
the tangential cyclone due to unburnt gases (losses due to un-
burnt carbon were less than 2 percent). The gases in the fur-
nace volume after the cyclone burn better than the non-
gasified fuel. Hence the difference in efficiency of the whole
plant.
09161
Gronhovd, G. H., R. J. Wagner, and A. J. Wittmaier
COMPARISON OF ASH FOULING TENDENCIES OF HIGH-
AND LOW-SODIUM LIGNITE FROM A NORTH DAKOTA
MINE. In: Proc. Power Conference 28th Ann. Meeting,
Chicago, 111., April 26-28, 1966, Vol. 28, p. 632-642. 4 refs.
The rate of fouling, as determined both by boiler performance
and by probe tests, is much greater when burning lignite hav-
ing 8 to 10 percent sodium oxide in the ash compared with
burning lignite having less than 2 percent sodium oxide in the
ash. The tests indicate a remarkably high ash collection effi-
ciency of the boiler tubes on the unit tested. Based on short-
time dust loading tests, only 25 and 40 percent of the input ash
can be accounted for in the flue gas for the high and low-sodi-
um coals, respectively. Sulfur oxide determinations indicate
that the sodium level has a profound effect on the SO2 con-
tent of the flue gases. The SO2 increased from about 450 to
850 ppm when changing from high to low-sodium coal. With
low-sodium coal, nearly all the coal sulfur can be expected to
appear as SO2. Based on the results of these tests, a program
designed to supply Hoot Lake Power Station with lignite con-
taining a predetermined level of sodium has been set up. Using
two loading shovels at the mine and adjusting the number of
trucks serving each shovel, the lignite is blended at the tipple
to provide a sodium level determined by the expected electri-
cal load at Hoot Lake. Minor electrical load adjustments can
then be made, if necessary, to accomodate the expected lignite
blend. Sampling and analysis at the plant have shown a very
good correlation with the expected sodium percentages, as
predicted by the blending operation at the mine. Plant operat-
ing results from the first three months using this procedure
look very promising.
09165
Prem, L. L. and T. C. Wang
FLUID METAL AND MHD-STEAM BINARY CYCLE POWER
GENERATION. In: Proc. Am. Power Conference, 28th Ann.
Meeting, Chicago, 111., April 26-28, 1966, Vol. 28, p. 282-292. 9
refs.
The fluid metal magnetohydrodynamic power system is a new
and promising approach toward achieving an economical
topping cycle for central power stations, since it permits rais-
ing the temperature by a few hundred degrees. Atomics Inter-
national's fluid metal MHD concept is reviewed which is in
the preliminary stages of its development, and the MHD steam
binary cycle is described. The results of the experimental pro-
gram aiming at demonstrating this concept are presented in
some detail. An evaluation of plant economy based upon the
proposed binary cycle is also outlined.
09169
Strong, R. E.
ADVANCED DESIGN GAS TURBINES. In: Proc. Am. Power
Conference 28th Ann. Meeting, Chicago, 111., April 26-28,
1966, Volume 28, p. 446-456. 3 refs.
In areas where gas and distillate oil fuels are available as a pri-
mary fuel, the gas turbine may be considered for base-load
operation in some type of combined cycle plant that utilizes
the large quantity of exhaust heat that is available. These
plants are started infrequently and operate for long periods of
time at relatively constant load. An example of such an appli-
cation is the industrial utility center that provides heat as well
as power to the industrial customer. Another application is the
modernization of an existing steam plant with the use of the
gas turbine exhaust in the feedwater heating cycle. For the
-------
12
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
smaller utility, a gas turbine with an exhaust heat boiler
generating steam for a helper steam turbine may be desirable.
A new gas turbine design which is acceptable for use in elec-
tric utility systems is described. The energy in the W-251 tur-
bine exhaust gas can be used either to generate additional
power or to satisfy process requirements. The primary objec-
tives of the design have been to attain the increased per-
formance that goes with a higher turbine inlet temperature,
provide for fast temperature changes, maintain or improve the
life of the hot parts being experienced in the present product
line machines, and to further improve reliability. A 200-Mw
steam injection gas turbine peaking plant is also described.
Specifications have been prepared for a 400 Mw plant which is
comprised of two 200 Mw plants. This new development is
especially suitable for low capacity factor operations.
09194
Meredith C. Gourdine
ELECTROGASDYNAMICS AND THE COAL INDUSTRY.
Preprint. Gourdine Systems, Inc., lip., 1966. (Presented at the
National Coal Association Technical-Sales Conference and
Bituminous Coal Research, Inc. Annual Meeting, Pittsburgh,
Pa., Sept. 14-15, 0966.)
Electrogasdynamics (EGD) is a direct energy conversion
technique for converting the pressure energy of a flowing gas
directly into high voltage electricity. Positive ions are sprayed
on the fly-ash particles in the coal combustion gases by means
of a corona discharge. In the generator, these charged dust
particles carry the charges downstream, piggy-back fashion, to
the collector electrode where they leave the particles and pass
through the external load resistance. This current is forced
through the load resistance as the gas does work in pushing
the charged particles against the opposite electric field in the
generator. The gas suffers a pressure drop while doing this
work. An EGD compressor is an EGD generator operating in
reverse. Instead of extracting electrical power, electrical
power is put in the form of an applied electric field and is
used to pull the charged dust particles through the gas thereby
compressing the gas. The primary advantage of an EGD coal
fired station is the fact that it can operate at higher efficiency
and can be built at a lower capital cost, thus resulting in
cheaper electricity. There are no boilers, no condensers, no
forced air fans, and little requirement for cooling water. There
is no need for inversion equipment or transformers because
the output is high voltage electricity ready for long range
transmission. Thus, unlike MHD, the number of major com-
ponents required is reduced, thereby reducing capital cost.
09353
CLEAN AIR. Roy. Soc. Health J. (London), 86(5):252, Sept.-
Oct. 1966.
From the year 1800 to the end of the century the annual con-
sumption of coal in Great Britain rose from about 12 m. tons
to 170 m. tons. In 1956, inland comsumption of coal reached a
record of 215 m. tons; the amount has since declined and is
now about 180 m. tons a year. The quantity of petroleum oils
used for fuel and power in Britain in the year 1900 was less
than 1 m. tons. By 1956 it had reached 22 m. tons and in 1964
it was 54 m. tons. Public attention was roused to the need
greatly to reduce pollution of the air by smoke and fumes
from coal by the 'smog' of December, 1952, which in a few
days caused an increase of 4,000 deaths above normal for that
time of the year in the London area alone. This led to the ap-
pointment in 1953 of the Government Committee on Air Pollu-
tion and in 1956 to the Clean Air Act. The quantity of smoke
discharged into the air of Great Britain has decreased from 2.7
m tons to 1938 to 2.2 m. tons in 1956 and 1.2 m. tons in 1964.
Progress generally by local authorities in establishing smoke
control areas has been far too slow. Of the number of
premises in the so-called 'black areas' only about 30 per cent
are in the regions so far covered by smoke control orders. One
problem that has not yet been satisfactorily solved is that of
dealing with the increasing discharges of oxides of sulphur
from the sulphur in fuels. Research is in progress but at the
moment the only practicable palliative is that of discharge of
the flue gases from high chimneys to keep down the concen-
trations near ground level. It is estimated that the quantity of
carbon monoxide discharged from petrol-driven vehicles in
Great Britain in 1964 was in the region of 5 m. tons. Improved
combustion in petrol engines and not the use of after-burners
must be the aim and there is no doubt that improved com-
bustion can be achieved.
09482
CONSOLIDATED EDISON COMPANY OF NEW YORK
PLANS WORLD-RECORD 1000-MW UNIT FOR ITS RAVEN-
SWOOD GENERATING STATION. Power, 107(6):53- 56, June
1963.
A proposed power plant to be located in Ravenswood, N. Y.,
is described in detail. The plant is 1000 MW, oil-, coal-, or
natural gas-fired. Specifics on the boilers, turbines, com-
bustion control systems, and condensate systems are
presented.
09539
Zabroske, Tony A.
BOILER CONVERSION REDUCES COSTS AND AIR POLLU-
TION. Plant Eng., 22(6):96, 98, March 21, 1968.
The new, converted boilers at the Stewart-Warner Corp. are
described. Total cost for the conversion of three 500-hp. water
tube boilers from coal to a combination of gas and oil firing
was $79,221. A true internal nozzle-mixing type, steam-atomiz-
ing oil burner was installed as well as a 50,000-gal. oil tank.
Following the conversion, cost of operation has been reduced,
the salary of four firemen eliminated, maintenance costs
lowered, housekeeping easier, smoke control better, and coal
and ash handling eliminated.
09588
Public Health Service, Washington, D. C., Air Pollution
Technical Information Center
AIR POLLUTION ASPECTS OF THERMAL POWER
PLANTS. (AN ANNOTATED BIB- LIOGRAPHY.) 14p., March
27, 1963.
The bibliography contains abstracts of 27 selected references
on the steam plant and air pollution. The oldest reference was
originally presented in 1960; the most recent one was
published in January 1968.
09686
R. L. Duprey
COMPILATION OF AIR POLLUTANT EMISSION FAC-
TORS. Public Health Service, Durham, N. C., National Center
for Air Pollution Control, Publication No. 999-AP-42 67n
1968. 126 refs. '
Detailed emission factors are given for the following processes
and industries: fuel combustion, refuse incineration chemi-
cals, food and agriculture, metallurgical refining, minerals
petroleum, pulp and paper solvent evaporation and gasoline
marketing, and transportation (vehicle emissions).
-------
A. EMISSION SOURCES
13
09737
Ozolins, G., and C. Rehmann
Ozolins, G. and C. Behmann
AIR POLLUTANT EMISSION INVENTORY OF
NORTHWEST INDIANA. (A PRELIM- AIR POLLUTANT
EMISSION INVENTORY OF NORTHWEST INDIANA. (A
PRE- LIMINARY SURVEY, 1966.) Public Health Service, Dur-
ham, N. INARY SURVEY, 1966.) Public Health Service, Dur-
ham, N. C., National Center for Air Pollution Control, APTD-
68-4, 36p., C., National Center for Air Pollution Control,
APTD-68-4, 36p., April 1968. April 1968.
Sources of air pollutant emissions were surveyed to quantify
the
Sources of air pollutant emissions were surveyed to quantify
the total pollution load emitted to the air over the Northwest
total pollution load emitted to the air over the Northwest Indi-
ana communities of East Chicago, Gary, Hammond, and Whit-
ing. The Indiana communities of East Chicago, Gary, Ham-
mond, and Whiting. The emissions are reported on an annual
basis and sub emissions are reported on an annual basis and
subdivided into the five major pollutants: particulates, sulfur
oxides, nitrogen divided into the five major pollutants: particu-
lates, sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons, and car-
bon monoxide. The oxides, hydrocarbons, and carbon monox-
ide. The four major source catagories that were utilized in re-
porting emissions from area and four major source categories
that were utilized in reporting emissions from area and point
sources are: fuel combustion in sta- point sources are: fuel
combustion in stationary sources, fuel combustion in mobile
sources, combustion of refuse, and industrial tionary sources,
fuel combustion in mobile sources, combustion of refuse, and
industrial process losses. The results of this sur process losses.
The results of this survey are reported by city and illustrated
on the grid system established by the Northwest vey are re-
ported by city and illustrated on the grid system estab- lished
by the Northwest Indiana Air Resource Management Indiana
Air Resource Management Program. (Authors' abstract) Pro-
gram. (Authors' abstract)
09831
Walsh, Robert T.
GASEOUS AND LIQUID FUELS. In: Air Pollution Egineering
Manual. (Air Pollution Control District, County of Los An-
geles.) John A. Danielson (comp. and ed.), Public Health Ser-
vice, Cincinnati, Ohio, National Center for Air Pollution Con-
trol, PHS-Pub-999-AP-40, p. 507-514, 1967. GPO: 806-614-30
The burning of gaseous and liquid fuels is so commonplace
that it enters directly into a vast number of air-polluting
processes. The burning of any fuel under less than optimum
conditions produces some quantities of carbon, ash, and un-
burned and partially burned hydrocarbons. In addition, many
fuels contain sulfur and metallic compounds that are, even in
the oxidized state, air pollutants. Air contaminants generated
from fuel burning fall into three categories: (1) Carbon and the
unburned and partially oxidized organic materials that result
from incomplete combustion, (2) sulfur oxides and ash directly
attributable to fuel composition, and (3) oxides of nitrogen
formed at firebox temperatures from oxygen and nitrogen of
the air. Incomplete combustion products can usually be held to
tolerable minimums with proper operation of modern burner
equipment. Sulfur and ash emissions are governed by the fuel
makeup. Nitrogen. Nitrogen oxide concentrations are primarily
functions of firebox design and temperature. The causes of
such phenomena as black smoke, white smoke, sulfur and
nitrogen oxides, and particulate emissions are discussed. Com-
positions of common fuel gases, fuel oils, and their com-
bustion products (both gaseous and solid) are tabulated. Sulfur
removal from fuels and municipal regulations limiting sulfur
compound emission and sulfur content in fuels are discussed.
Combustion products of any given fuel may be determined by
the method illustrated.
09989
Risser, Hubert E.
THE DRIVE FOR CLEAN AIR AND ITS EFFECT ON RELA-
TIVE RESERVES AND AVAILABILITY OF LOW SULFUR
METALLURGICAL COKING COALS-PANEL DIS- CUS-
SION. (PART IV.) Kinzoku (Metals) (Tokyo), 20(4):71-72, April
1968.
A very brief discussion of the sulfur content and resources of
coal in Illinois is presented. The costs of utility and coking
coal in the area are mentioned.
10183
Weaver, Robert D.
FEASIBILITY STUDIES OF THE ELECTROTHERMALLY
REGENERATIVE TRANSDUCER. GeneralMotors Corp., An-
derson, Ind., Delco- Remy Div., Contract DA 33-008-ORD-
2335, Proj. 518-01-001, 143 p., March 30, 1963. 238 refs. DDC:
AD 403290
A new method of converting thermal energy to electricity has
been investigated and the results are presented in this final re-
port under the contract. The method employs electrochemical
principle and the device has been named by Electrothermally
Regenerative Transducer. The possible advantafe of this
Transducer have been evaluated by estimating the weight and
efficiency of systems designed to meet new requirements of
interest to the Army Tank and Automotive Center. Results of
laboratory work, performed to check the theoretical principles
of operation, are included. The study has shown a limiting ef-
ficiency of 35% conversion of heat. A Transducer system
capable of providing 500 ampers continuously at 28 volts, with
a maximum current of 500 ampers at 18 volts, has been
designed. The average efficiency calculated for design is 24%
and the weight is 811 pounds. Laboratory data obtained on sin-
gle electrodes show current densities of more than 25 amperes
per square inch to be possible. It is concluded that further
study of this system is warranted because of its efficiency,
simplicity, silence of operation, and its specific power. Con-
tinuation of work directed at obtaining ope-ating cells is
recommended. (Author s abstract)
10284
Frankenberg, T. T.
HIGH STACKS FOR THE DIFFUSION OF SULFUR DIOX-
IDE AND OTHER GASES EMITTED BY ELECTRIC POWER
PLANTS. Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J., 29(2):181-185, March-April
1968. 6 refs.
Experience with the satisfactory dispersion of hot gases from
two power plants each larger than 1000 MW designed in 1952-
1953 is detailed. The effects of this experience on the design
of 825-foot stacks for the Cardinal Plant is covered, with a
description of test work underway to verify the results. This
includes dustfall and sulfur dioxide sampling at fixed locations.
A case is made for the use of high stacks to control ground
level concentrations, rather than resorting to fuel restrictions
or emission standards which are unnecessary and economically
unsound. (Author's abstract, modified)
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14
10424
Graham J. Cleary
THE CONTRIBUTION OF DIFFERENT SOURCES TO POL-
LUTION BY POLYCYCLIC AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS.
Clean Air (J. Clean Air Soc. Australia New Zealand) 2(1):13-
17, March 1968. 40 refs.
The contribution from automobile exhausts, coal combustion
sources, products from the combustion of gaseous and liquid
fuels, tire rubber, and incinerator effluents to atmospheric pol-
lution by polycyclic hydrocarbons is examined briefly. Con-
centration ratios for the compounds 3,4 benzopyrene/1,12
benzoperylene and for 3,4 benzopyrene/coronene are used to
examine the mode of pollution is Sydney and to compare this
pattern with other cities in Great Britain and the United States
of America. (Author's abstract)
10442
FUELS: ENERGY DEMANDS. WORLD FUEL RESOURCES.
PREPARING FUEL FOR MARKET. PUTTING FUELS TO
WORK. POLLUTION'S CHALLENGE. FUEL'S NEW
ECONOMICS. (SPECIAL REPORT.) Power, 112(6):S1-S48,
June 1968.
With fuels so fundamental to our very existence, a broad yet
detailed look is taken at present technology, starting with an
evaluation of energy demands, then on through the many steps
leading to the application of these fuels. All fuels are con-
sidered coal, gas, oil, nuclear. In a section titled 'Pollution's
Challenge', the problems related directly to pollution control
are reviewed. The combustion of fuel creates the largest single
class of air pollutants; it runs the gamut from boiler flue gas to
automobile exhaust. In nuclear power plants constant vigilance
must be exercised to avoid potential radioactive contamina-
tion. Desulfurization of fossil fuels, treatment of flue gas, ap-
plication of additives to the fuel or by injection to the com-
bustion zone, methods which have a place in the practical
scheme of pollution control.
10444
Ratcliffe, D. B. and A. T. S. Cunningham
THE SEMI-MICRO DETERMINATION OF TOTAL
SULPHUR IN COAL BY THE OXYGEN FLASK METHOD.
Fuel, 47(2):89-92, Mar. 1968. 4 refs.
This paper presents evidence placed before B. S. I. Committee
SFE 45/8 'Analysis and Testing of Coal and Coke' in the
course of its revision of B.S.S. 1016 Part 6-Ultimate Analysis
of Coal: Total Sulphur. It is shown that the oxygen flask tech
nique is suitable for the routine analysis of small samples of
coal. It is also shown that while the precision now obtainable
using this method is adequate for most routine uses, it does
not quite justify the method being included in the Standard
with the Eschka and high temperature methods, as a referee
technique. (Authors' abstract)
10678
Bachl, Herbert
DISTRICT HEATING, WASTE INCINERATION AND ELEC-
TRIC NIGHT-TARIFF HEATING, AND AIR POLLUTION
CONTROL IN MUNICH. Staub (English translation), 28(2): 17-
31, Feb. 1968. CFSTI: XT 68-50448/2
As a result of special meteorological conditions, inversions
fre- quently occur in Munich. First, the results of immission
measurements are reported, which were carried out in dif-
ferent town regions, and then the preventive measures in-
troduced are ex plained. The influence of different types of
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
fuel and of various heights of chimneys on SO2 emissions is
discussed. The develop ment of long distance heat supply and
of electric heating is com bined with direct burning of natural
gas. The power plant which is situated in the town and com-
prises installations for long dis tance heat supply and for
refuse incineration has proved to be highly expedient. Coal is
preferably used as the additional fuel in the power plants situ-
ated at town outskirts, whilst natural gas is used in the power
plants situated in the town centre. 10688 Bachl, Herbert DIS-
TRICT HEATING, WASTE INCINERATION AND ELEC-
TRIC NIGHT-TARIFF HEATING, AND AIR POLLUTION
CONTROL IN MUNICH. Staub (English translation), 28) 2-
:18-31, Feb. 1968. CFSTI: TT 68-50448/2 EMISSION
SOURCES: Domestic heating, Power production, Incinerators
As a result of special meteorological conditions, inversions
frequently occur in 7unich. First, the results of immission
measurements are reported, which were carried out in dif-
ferent town regions, and then the preventive measures in-
troduced are explained. The influence of different types of
fuel and of various heights of chimneys on SO2 emissions is
discussed. The development of long distance heat supply and
of electric heating is combined with direct burning of natural
gas. The power plant which is situated in the town and com-
prises installations for long distance heat supply and for refuse
incineration has proved to be highly expedient. Coal is
preferably used as the additional fuel in the power plants situ-
ated at town outskirts, whilst natural gas is used in the power
plants situated in the town centre.
10740
Calhoun, F. P.
AVOIDING POLLUTION FROM REFUSE DISPOSAL. Mining
Congr. J., 54(6):78-80, June 1968.
The burning refuse pile has been a large contributor to the un-
favorable image of the coal industry. Following a few funda-
mental rules in building the refuse pile can keep the pile from
causing a pollution problem as well as from becoming an
eyesore after it is abandoned. Clearance of all vegetation from
the area, construction of drainage ditches, control of the size
consist to make packing easy, adequate layering of the refuse,
and control of the slope are all factors to be considered in the
formation of the refuse pile.
10743
Christie, John
THE PROBLEMS OF SMOKE CONTROL. Smokeless Air,
38(146):257-262, Summer 1968.
The problem of smoke control are found in both domestic and
industrial furnaces. The household open type fire when burn-
ing bituminous coal can produce a considerable amount of
smoke and since discharge into the atmosphere is at a low
level the pollution problem is aggravated. It is the job of the
local authorities in Great Britain to deal with smoke control
violations. The problems of industrial control are more com-
plex because of the great variation in the industrial plants
under consideration. However smoke attributed to industrial
plants has been reduced by 50% since 1960. Important factors
in this improvement are the recognition of the relationship of
smoke emission to inefficient use of fuel.
10754
Jaffe, Louis S.
AMBIENT CARBON MONOXIDE AND ITS FATE IN THE
ATMOSPHERE. J. Air Pollution Control Assoc., 18(8)-534-540
August 1968.
-------
A. EMISSION SOURCES
15
Carbon monoxide, the most abundant air pollutant found in
the atmosphere generally exceeds that of all other pollutants
combined (excluding CO2). An estimated tonnage of more than
87 x 1,000,000 of CO was emitted in the United States from
major technological sources alone during 1966. More than 90%
of the total CO emitted from fossil fuels is derived from
gasoline powered motor vehicles. Other sources of CO include
emissions from coal and fuel oil burning, aircraft and open
burning. Some CO is also formed by certain vegetation and
marine invertebrates (siphonophores). Chemical reactions of
CO in the upper and lower atmosphere are discussed. Chemi-
cal oxidation of CO in the lower atmosphere by molecular ox-
ygen is very slow. The exact duration of CO in the lower at-
mosphere is not known with certainty; however, the mean re-
sidence time has been variously estimated to be between 0.3
and 5.0 years. In the absence of scavenging processes the esti-
mated world-wide CO emission would be sufficient to raise the
atmospheric level by 0.03 ppm per year, yet the background
levels of CO in clean air do not appear to be increasing.
Several potential sinks are discussed. Knowledge of the
mechanism of process of removal of CO from the lower at-
mosphere is unsatisfactory; the process, at the present time,
cannot be identified with certainty. (Author's abstract)
11411T
M. Andritzky
GARBAGE POWER PLANT MUNICH. (Mullkraftwerk
Munchen.) Translated from German. Brennstoff-Waerme-Kraft
(Duesseldorf) 14(5):232-233, 1962.
The refuse power plant in Munich is described and the
seasonal changes of the garbage collected (composition and
heating value shown in graphs) are described in comparison to
those in Antwerp, Rotterdam and Vienna. The power plant
bums approximately 60% coal dust and 40% garbage in
separate combustion rooms of a common high-pressure steam
generator. The first version of the plant has a capacity of 68
million watts and supplies steam for a long-distance heating
system. After the second construction phase and a capacity of
100 million watts, all garbage collected in the city of Munich
can be burned in this plant. The installation is shown in a dia-
gram. Purification of the flue gas is emphasized. An electro
filter providing 99.75% dust removal is mentioned, and the
pneumatic transport of flue ash from the boiler to a collecting
bunker is described. The proximity of an airport limited the
height of the smokestack to 80 meters.
11413T
H.F. Kammerer
WASTE INCINERATION PLANT WITH HEAT UTILIZA-
TION IN STUTTGART. (Mullverbrennungsanlage mit Heiz-
wacrmeverwertung in Stuttgart.) Translated from German.
Brennstoff-Waerme-Kraft, 14(10):476-478, 1967. 2 refs.
The development of the waste incineration plant with heat
utilization in Stuttgart Germany, is discussed briefly and the
essential elements of the plant are described. It incorporates
the knowledge gained from existing refuse power plants and
experimental plants adapted to local conditions. The power
plant burns heavy fuel oil and refuse in separate combustion
chambers of a common steam generator. Electrofilters with a
98 percent degree of separation are planned for removal of
dust. The heat produced is fed into the city heat supply via the
steam collecting lines of the power plant. The heat utilization
system is illustrated and discussed. A steam generation of ap-
proximately 30 tons/hr per refuse furnace is expected.
Economic aspects, including capital cost, are briefly men-
tioned.
11502
Gerstle, R. W.
ESTIMATING PARTICULATE AND SULFUR DIOXIDE
EMISSIONS FROM FUEL COMBUSTION. Preprint, Public
Health Service, Cincinnati, Ohio, National Air Pollution Con-
trol Administration, 12p., Aug. 1968. 4 refs.
A discussion of how to estimate particulate and sulfur dioxide
emissions from fuel-burning processes is presented. Emphasis
is placed on applying correction factors to these emission
values in order to relate them to the various conditions
specified in regulations that apply to these emissions.
(Author's abstract)
11619
Auckland Air Pollution Research Committee, New Zealand
NINTH ANNUAL REPORT OF THE AUCKLAND AIR POL-
LUTION RESEARCH COMMITTEE FOR YEAR ENDING 31
MARCH 1968. 72p., 1968. 27 refs.
Data are presented pertaining to the pattern of fuel use, future
sources of electrical energy, and meteorological conditions in
the Auckland area. The relative importance of the different
fuels used for domestic, commercial, industrial, and transpor-
tation purposes i considered, and an attempt is made to evalu-
ate the probable rates of emission from their combustion.
Seasonal and regional variations in the use of fuels are noted.
In the case of domestic fuels, there are also daily variations.
Maximum emissions of smoke and other pollutants from
domestic sources occur during the early morning and late af-
ternoon. These emissions often coincide with periods of little
or no air movement. However, the use of coal, wood, coke,
and briquettes is declining in the Auckland area and more
reliance is being placed on cleaner methods of heating, such as
electric heating appliances and oil-fired central heating units.
Upward trends in the production of sulfur dioxide and
nitrogen oxides may be offset to some extent by increasing
electricity consumption. Sulfur dioxide levels could be reduced
by fuel desulfurization processes. Another factor affecting
Auckland's air pollution is the advent of natural gas. Increased
usage of this fuel will assist in reducing levels of all pollutants.
11637T
Andritzky, M.
SECOND EXTENSION OF THE REFUSE POWER PLANT IN
MUNICH. ((Zweiter Ausbau des Mullkraftwerks Munchen.))
Translated from German. Brennstoff-Waerme-Kraft, 16(8):403,
Aug. 1964.
The differences between the design of the second stage of the
refuse power plant in Munich and the first stage are outlined.
The refuse firing in the first construction stage was designed
so that approximately 40 percent of the steam output is ob-
tained from refuse, in the second stage the contribution of the
refuse is only 20 percent. Instead of the two originally planned
steam generators with approximately 32 tons per hour refuse
throughput each, there will only be one with a throughput of
40 tons per hour. The third factor in which the second stage
differs from the first one is that there is no separation in the
former between the combustion chamber for refuse and pow-
dered coal.
11640T
Bachl, Herbert and Franz Maikranz
INCINERATION OF REFUSE IN A HIGH-PRESSURE
STEAM PLANT. ((Erfahrungen mit der Verfeuerung von Mull
in einem Hochdruck- Dampfkraftwerk.)) Translated from Ger-
man. Energie, 17(8):317-326, Aug. 1965.
-------
16
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
Refuse is used as a fuel in two high-pressure superheated
steam boilers at the 'Nord' power station of the Munich mu-
nicipal system. The boilers are designed for burning coal or
refuse, either alone or in combination. The technical features
of the plant are given in detail, including the site-map of the
station, boiler design data, construction history 1961-65, firing
mechanism, and experience in operation. The design and
operation of a refuse shed and crane are discussed, and ex-
perimental runs with coal and refuse firing are described.
Refuse averaged 45-50% of ash and was found to contain only
1.64-2.48% of scrap metal. The storage bin and loading area
did not attract rats or vermin. Refuse feeds of 25 tons/hr were
achieved with a caloric output of 1200-1300 kcal/kg. The per-
centage of refuse in the overall operation will be about 35%.
The refuse-generated power would have negative prices due to
the city subsidies. The financial advantages would benefit the
city administration and the government. Refuse combustion
will supply about 10% of the total future power requirement of
Munich. Air pollution is not discussed, except indirectly, in
terms of the high combustion efficiency of the coal burned,
and the presence of an electrostate precipitator in the system.
11655T
C. KachuUe
REFUSE INCINERATING PLANTS WITH OR WITHOUT
HEAT UTILIZATION. A MAIN SUBJECT OF THE THIRD
CONFERENCE OF THE INTERNATIONAL WORKING
GROUP FOR REFUSE RESEARCH, TRIENT, 1965. ((Abfall-
verbrennungsanlagen mil oder ohne Warmenutzung. Bin
Hauptthema des dritten Kongresses der Internationalen Arbeit-
sgemeinschaft fur Mullforschung in Trient, 1965.)) Translated
from German. Brennstoff-Waerme-Kraft, 17(8):391-395, Aug.
1965
Several refuse research topics were discussed, including refuse
incineration with heat utilization for steam generation. A cost
comparison of a refuse incineration plant in Issy-les Mou-
lineux which has four furnaces with a capacity of 17 tons/hr
each, showed that income from the sale of electric power and
steam exceeds the operating expense. In Glasgow, Scotland, it
was found that the electricity generated in refuse combustion
cannot be sold in Great Britain on a continuous basis. Another
topic discussed was a central refuse disposal plant installed as
additional incineration units in existing power plants. Such an
installation is being operated in Goldenberg., near Cologne,
Germany. The operating capacity of this unit is 1,026,000 tons/
year. The planning and design for the Goldenberg plant are il-
lustrated and discussed in detail, including refuse transporta-
tion from a wide area on compactor trucks with removable
bodies, rubbish and scrap processing, moving grate incinera-
tion, and refuse storage in surrounding mines. The advantages
of large central incineration plants are discussed. No air pollu-
tion control details are given.
11739
Ritchings, F. A.
RAW ENERGY SOURCES FOR ELECTRIC GENERATION.
IEEE (Inst. Elec. Electron, Engrs) Spectrum, 5(8):34-45, Aug.
1968.
Air pollution is one of several factors taken into consideration
in this forecast of the electrical energy picture in the USA
through 1985. Other factors include economics, fuel availabili-
ty, relative plant size, and transportation costs. It is predicted
that the consumption of all forms of raw energy for electric
power generation will increase substantially during the next 15
years, probably at 3 times the rate of total energy consumption
(3.1-4.5%/yr.). By 1985, nuclear energy will provide more than
40% of the electric power produced in the USA, and probably
more than 70% of that produced in New England. Of the 4
major sources of energy currently exploited for electric power
generation: coal, gas, water, and oil (nuclear energy accounted
for only 0.4% of the total output in 1965), coal is the only one
for which the resources are almost unlimited (900 yr. at
present rate of consumption). However, under the Air Quality
Act of 1968, coal or oil-fired generating units 'will either have
to burn the higher-cost, low-sulfur fuels or provide some
means of reducing the SO2 content of stack gases ' ' the
simpler SO2 removal systems, without provision for sulfur
product recovery, may require an investment of $7 to $8 per
kilowatt and result in an owning and operating cost equivalent
to a fuel cost of 3 to 4 cents/MBtu. This will further accelerate
the trend to nuclear energy sources in the traditionally coal
and oil-burning areas.'
11789
Federal Power Commission, Washington, D. C., Bureau of
Natural Gas
PRESENT AND FUTURE USE AND AVAILABILITY OF
NATURAL GAS IN THE MESfNEAPOLIS/ST. PAUL AREA.
24p., Feb. 1969.
The area which the Dept. of Health, Education, and Welfare
proposes to designate as the Air Quality Control Region
(AQCR) consists of the two cities Minneapolis/St. Paul and ten
adjacent counties. The area is supplied with natural gas by one
interstate transmission company, and the gas is distributed by
two major distribution companies. Four smaller distribution
companies and one small municipal system also serve the area
with gas purchased from the transmission company. Virtually
all of these distribution companies have plants to manufacture
propane-air gas which is mixed with natural gas during periods
of peak demand. The transmission company also sells gas
directly to several industrial plants in the area. These compa-
nies, along with the sales volumes, revenues, and rates are
given in a table. Operating statistics are given for five plants.
Four of the plants are major generating stations. The commer-
cial and industrial gas consumption, namely, sales by compa-
nies and gas used in its generating plants for the five years
1963-1967 in the area, are tabulated. The data indicate that the
gas consumption has been increasing by about four percent/yr
and that the average gas prices during the period were fairly
stable. A comparison of fuel prices submitted by the area gas
distributors is given.
11790
Jimeson, Robert M. and James M. Grout
SOLVENT REFINED COAL: ITS MERITS AND MARKET
POTENTIAL. Preprint, American Inst. of Mining, Metallurgi-
cal and Petroleum Engineers (AIME), New York, N. Y., 22p.,
1969. 7 refs. (Presented at the American Institute of Mining,
Metallurgical and Petroleum Engineers, Annual Meeting,
Washington, D. C., Feb. 16-20, 1969.)
The potential market for solvent refined coal is estimated to
be between 17-28 million tons, with the market sufficiently
scattered to support processing plants in at least four coal re-
gions in the United States. Assuming an increasing demand for
low-sulfur fuels, the potential market is expected to increase
40% in the next ten years. Solvent refined coal is the product
of a process which dissolves raw coal in a solvent, separates
the ash from the coal by filtration, and reconstitutes the coal
from the solvent. The reconstituted coal is free of water, low
in sulfur, very low in ash, and sufficiently low in melting point
that it can be handled as a fluid. In its solid state, the product
is brittle and readily grindable into a fine powder.' Markets are
-------
A. EMISSION SOURCES
17
possible in combustion, railroad locomotion, and carbon elec-
trodes. The combustion characteristics of solvent refined coal
are consistent with expected air pollution restrictions on the
emission of sulfur and particulate matter.
11860
Schaffer, S. G. and R. W. Noble
TECHNIQUES FOR THE UTILIZATION OF FLY ASH. Am.
Chem. Soc. Div. Fuel Chem. Preprints, 10(1):73-80, 1966.
(Presented at the American Chemical Society Division of Fuel
Chemistry Symposium on Fossil Fuels and Environmental Pol-
lution, joint with the Division of Water, Air, and Waste
Chemistry, Pittsburgh, Pa., March 22-23, 1966.
Fly ash has been utilized with limited success as filling materi-
al for asphalt roadways and as a substitute for cement in the
production of concrete. Roads with asphalt filling performed
well, but this method of utilization would not nearly approach
the total amount of fly ash produced each year by the electric
industry. Bulk concrete and concrete blocks with fly ash addi-
tives in quantities up to 25-30% show good compressive
strength, and this method of utilization would provide a mar-
ket for all fly ash produced. However, several factors limited
the marketing of fly ash on so large a scale. Among them are
variations in the properties of fly ash from location to location
and time to time; the possibility of staining due to the
presence of iron; transportation costs; and problems of
storage. To date, the most promising method for utilizing fly
ash appears to be as a lightweight aggregate. When sintered
and crushed, the product can be used as a substitute for fine
or coarse aggregate in concrete, concrete block, roadways,
and wherever aggregates are required. The advantage of sin-
tered fly ash aggregate is its weight. When sized to concrete
block grade, sintered fly ash weighs 48-50 Ibs/cu ft. Such a
reduction in block weight can mean a decrease in building
structure, handling, and shipping costs. Concrete and concrete
block using fly ash aggregate greatly exceed minimum strength
requirements.
11968
Bachl, Herbert and Franz Maikranz
FIRING REFUSE IN A HIGH-PRESSURE STEAM PLANT.
(Erfahrungen mil der Verfeuerung von Muell in einem
Hochdruck-Dampfkraftwerk). Energie (Munich), 17(8):317-326,
1965. Translated from German. 26p.
The problem of refuse incineration and refuse utilization was
solved in a new way in the Nord power station of the Munich
municipal power system. Refuse is used as a fully equivalent
fuel in two high-pressure superheated steam boilers. The
boilers are designed for firing coal and refuse alone or in com-
bination. When coal and refuse are combined, 60% of the full-
load heat is supplied by coal and 40% by refuse. When only
refuse is fired, reduced steam pressures and steam tempera-
tures are used without generation of electricity. The installa-
tion can also be converted to gas firing or oil firing. In the pul-
verized coal-firing boilers, refuse is burned on Martin refuse
grates located under the refuse flue gas pass. At full load, a
boiler efficiency 92.5% is guaranteed for all-coal firing; effi-
ciency for combined operations is 85%. The annual capacity of
the boilers is expected to be about 420,000 t/yr of refuse. At
an average refuse heating value of about 1200 kcal/kg, about
500,000 Gcal/hr is supplied the power station by refuse. In
coining years, the plant is expected to meet about 10% of Mu-
nich's power requirements. The boilers and auxiliary plant
equipment are described in detail.
11981
Hradecky, Frantisek
METHOD OF FLY-ASH HANDLING IN LARGE POWER
PLANTS, TRANSPORTATION OF THE ASH TO THE
DUMPS AND INTO OPENCAST MINES AND PITS. In:
Preprints of the Czechoslovak Reports. International Symposi-
um on the Control and Utilization of Sulphur Dioxide and Fly-
Ash from the Flue Gases of Large Thermal Power Plants.
Liblice House of Scientific Workers, 1965, p. 61-70.
In general, hydraulic transportation is employed in
Czechoslovakia for the disposal of ash and slag from thermal
power plants. The materials are hydraulically transported to an
excavator station and from there, by dredge pumps, to a
dump. The method is reliable, but the dumps are a source of
environmental contamination. Other possibilities of ash storage
are represented by waste banks and mine pits. Tranportation
to the pits by means of dust-free rubber bolts would be suita-
ble, but the technology is not sufficiently developed. For
distances to 10 km, pneumatic transportation seems the most
advantageous, although the present equipment does not meet
required technical standards. Problems to be solved involve
the draw-off of fly ash from individual spoil banks to auxiliary
collectors, the transportation of the ash to dispatching silos,
and the problem of transporting slag in pneumatic fly ash
destined for mines. In the mines, a part of the fly ash would
be used for filling and for decontamination purposes; the rest
would be added to waste banks. Theoretical calculations in-
dicate that total power plant ash production could be stored in
pits and waste banks. This solution would bring about better
land utilization, reduce the cost of storing waste materials, and
improve the appearance of the country.
11982
Dousa, Karel
THE EFFECT OF HYDRAULIC FLY-ASH HANDLING ON
LIVING. In: Preprints of the Czechoslovak Reports. Interna-
tional Symposium on the Control and Utilization of Sulphur
Dioxide and Fly-Ash from the Flue Gases of Large Thermal
Power Plants. Liblice House of Scientific Workers, 1965, p.
71-82.
Slag and fly ash are usually conveyed to an excavator tank
from which they are flushed by sluice water through pumps
and pipelines to dumping areas in the hydraulic method of
handling fly ash produced by the combustion of solid fuels.
The stored slag-fly ash material endangers human health by
creating excessive dust, affecting the physical-chemical pro-
perties of surface and underground water, and introducing
noxious elements to the air. Crops, animals, and the forest
economy are similarly affected. These negative effects are
partly attributed to the composition of the waste water and
water levels inadequate to secure the necessary sedimentation
of the slag-fly ash mixture. Sedimentation and aspiration
methods are proposed to reduce the dust nuisance caused by
the dumps along with modifications in the distribution of
transport waters and their mixtures.
11988
Cmarko, Vojtech and Vladislav Kapalin
OCCURRENCE OF ARSENIC EXHALATIONS IN THE COM-
BUSTION OF YOUNGER COAL. In: Preprints of the
Czechoslovak Reports. International Symposium on the Con-
trol and Utilization of Sulphur Dioxide and and Fly-Ash from
the Flue Gases of Large Thermal Power Plants. Liblice House
of Scientific Workers, 1965, p. 159-170.
-------
18
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
The average arsenic values for Czechoslovak coal are 655-875
g/t coal. In contrast, the arsenic content of the Novaky coal
burned by a power plant near Zemianske Kostol is 1.166-1.343
g/t coal. The majority of the arsenic compounds are bound to
fly ash, 20% of which escapes to the atmosphere. The
remainder of the fly ash is absorbed by electrostatic precipita-
tors. The maximum measured concentration of arsenic in the
atmosphere around the plant is 0.069 mg/cu m. One km to the
south of the plant, arsenic values in surface soil are 163-372
kg/soil. Arsenic concentrations in well water are 0.023-1.11 per
one 1 of water. Plant bacteria in the soil have decreased, while
the percentage of sporulating microbes has increased. The
average arsenic content in river water is 0.023 mg/1; in periods
of drought, it increases as much as 10 times. Significant dif-
ferences are noted in the hemoglobin levels in children in the
area as compared to the Slovak average. Acute respiratory dis-
ease and pyodermias are frequent among workers in the re-
gion.
12088
CHEMICAL POWER PLANTS. NUCLEAR OR CONVEN-
TIONAL? Chem. Eng., 75(26):66-68, Dec. 2, 1968.
Alone or in partnership, chemical companies in West Germany
are turning to nuclear power for more economical electricity
and steam. Most large chemical complexes are huge con-
sumers of steam and power on a fairly continuous basis. This
makes them ideal partners for the improved economics of
nuclear generation. In 1967, the total power consumption of
the German chemical industry was 34 billion kwh, of which
46% was produced by the industry itself. This explains the
chemical industry's interest in keeping power costs to a
minimum. The high cost of power generation with coal due to
government controls is another powerful force in the direction
of use of nuclear power.
12120
Duzy, A. F.
AMERICAN COAL CHARACTERISTICS AND THEIR EF-
FECTS ON THE DESIGN OF STEAM GENERATING UNITS.
Preprint, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New
York, 8p., 1959. 13 refs. (Presented at the American Society of
Mechanical Engineers, Annual Meeting, Atlantic City, N. J.,
Nov. 29-Dec. 4, 1959, Paper 59-A242.)
Important coal characteristics are considered with respect to
the design of steam generators, including the major com-
ponents from the coal bunker outlet through fuel equipment,
furnace, convection sections, air heaters, and dust collectors.
Size content, moisture content, volatile-matter content,
calorific value, ash content, and ash-fusion temperature are
discussed, together with sulfur content, size distribution, and
grindability. Theoretical air requirements are determined for
stoker-fired boilers, boilers fired by pulverized coal, and fur-
nace cyclones. Consideration is also given to the deteriorating
quality of coal with respect to quantity and characteristics of
the ash. The unavailability of cleaner steaming coals will
necessitate improvements in metals, methods of controlling
obnoxious flue-gas constituents, methods of ash disposal, and
steam-generator design.
12202
Gluskoter, Harold J. and Jack A. Simon
SULFUR IN ILLINOIS COALS. Illinois State Geol. Surv. Circ.
432, 28p., 1968. 29 refs.
The occurrence and distribution of sulfur in Illinois coals was
described. Sulfur is present within coal as sulfide, as sulfate,
and in organic combination. Sulfide sulfur occurs primarily as
pyrite. Sulfate sulfur is usually of little significance, except m
weathered coals where ferric and ferrous sulfates may be of
importance. There is a wide range of both pyritic and organic
sulfur in face-channel samples of coal, although the range is
less for organic sulfur than pyritic sulfur. Generally, there is a
positive correlation between pyritic and organic sulfur in these
samples. The pyritic sulfur is usually greater in the fusain
bands than in the clarain and vitrain bands. The organic to
pyritic sulfur ratios are higher for both vitrain and clarain,
with clarain being the richest in organic sulfur. Three areas of
relatively low-sulfur coal are sufficiently well known to be
outlined and mapped. These are an area of Herrin Coal in
south central Illinois, an area of Herrin Coal in southwestern
Illinois, and an area of Harrisburg Coal in southeastern Il-
linois. The organic sulfur content is more uniform throughout
a vertical section of a coal seam than is the pyritic sulfur con-
tent. Large vertical variations in pyritic sulfur were commonly
observed. When the mineral bands in excess of three-eighths
thick were disregarded, there was a tendency for pyrite, and
therefore total sulfur content, to be greater in the top and/or
bottom benches of the coal seam. (Author abstract modified)
12266
Steinberg, M., J. Powell, M. Seller, and B. Manowitz
HYBRID FOSSIL-NUCLEAR FUELED MHD POWER CY-
CLES. Brookhaven National Lab., Upton, N. Y., 15p., June
1968. 1 ref. CFSTI: BNL 12569
The H2-O2, the CO-O2, and the CO + H2-air systems are
described and the advantages and disadvantages enumerated.
With the H2-O2 system, coal is reformed entirely to hydrogen
using the gasifying and shift reactions. The ash, hydrogen sul-
fide, and carbon dioxide are removed, and the resulting
hydrogen is burned in the MHD with oxygen from an air
separation plant. Water is added to the combustor as a diluent
for temperature control. It is a fully condensing system, Cs
removal is simpler, and the MHD generator is small. But large
reforming and oxygen plants are needed. A high temperature
heat transfer material is required in the gasifier. With the CO-
O2 system, coal is gasified with recycled CO2 to form CO. the
ash and H2S are removed, and the clean CO is burned with
O2 from an air separation plant. Additional CO2 recovered
from the exhaust gases is added to the gasifier and combustion
to act as a diluent for temperature control. The highest effi-
ciency, potentially 74% or higher, can be obtained in this
system. The reforming investment is reduced. A more efficient
MHD generator can be used. Recovery and recycling of the
CO2 is a disadvantage. The cycle is non condensing. With the
CO + H2 -air system, coal is reformed by partial oxidation
with steam to CO and H2. The oxygen for the reformer is ob-
tained from an air separation plant. The ash and H2S is
removed and the clean CO and H2 is burned in the combustor
using compressed preheated CO air. Nitrogen is used as
diluent. The advantages are that the plant size is reduced by a
factor of 4 and the reforming investment is reduced because
there is no shift reaction. The need for operating with a
balanced or slightly reducing flame in the combustion gases
fed to the MHD to minimize formation of nitrogen oxides is a
disadvantage.
12285
Ernst and Ernst, Washington, D. C.
THE FUEL OF FIFTY CITIES. NAPCA Contract PH 86-68-
37, 95p., Nov. 1968. 12 refs.
The detailed results of a survey of coal, oil, and gas prices and
sulfur content in 50 U. S. metropolitan areas are presented.
-------
A. EMISSION SOURCES
19
The survey was taken from March to June 1968 by telephone,
and results are estimates of various grades of fuels correlated
with sulfur and ash content; prices are shown in dollars per
million British Thermal Units. Prices vary with the quantity
purchased. Four classes of users are defined in terms of the
quantities of each type of fuel consumed: domestic, commer-
cial, and industrial users and power plants. A methodology is
presented for calculating the order-of-magnitude costs of
reducing sulfur oxide and paniculate emissions by changing
fuels in a specific stationary combustion source. Two types of
fuel changes are considered: fuel substitution and fuel
switching. This method permits the costs of air pollution
abatement by fuel change to be estimated rapidly for the 50 ci-
ties of the survey.
12335
Niemeyer, L. E. and F. A. Schiermeier
THE TALL STACK: A QUESTION OF EFFECTIVENESS IN
AIR POLLUTION MANAGEMENT. Preprint, National Air
Pollution Control Administration, Cincinnati, Ohio, Air
Resources Lab., 15p., Nov. 1968.
Studies are being conducted at power plants in western
Pennsylvania to define the meteorological conditions under
which the effluents from a tall stack are brought to the
ground, their frequency of occurrence, the magnitude of the
resulting ground-level concentrations, and the effects of the
emissions on the agricultural economy of the area. In the
meteorological portion of the study, plume rise measurements
up to at least 16 km from a stack will be made with a Lidar
system consisting of a neodymium laser. To determine sulfur
concentrations in a plume, an instrumented helicopter will be
flown through a plume in horizontal and vertical traverses at 1
to 5 km from a plant. Measurements of plume dispersion
statistics, ground-level sulfur dioxide concentrations, and
aereal extent of surface 'fumigations' will be obtained with
another instrumented helicopter and portable ground-sampling
devices. The procedure is to take a temperature 'sounding'
from the surface to 1000 meters or ot an elevation above
plume level. Other specialized atmospheric measurements will
be made to document the ambient meteorological conditions
during an experiment. At selected agricultural sites, the effect
of oxidants, sulfur dioxide, nitroge dioxide, and sulfate on
plant yield and growth will be determined. The data will be
evaluated with reference to the air quality measurements taken
at the site and in terms of distance from the power plants.
12541
Perry, H., J. McGee, and D. Strimbeck
ELECTRICITY FROM COAL. THE CYCLES. PART 2. Mech.
Eng., 90(12):44-47, Dec. 1968.
Supercharged boiler combined-cycle plants can be operated in
various ways with differing problems of cooling water and
dust collection. Operation with all power generated by the
steam plant with the gas turbine generating only enough power
to drive the supercharging compressor would take place at a
turbine inlet temperature of 800 deg. F, a temperature that per-
mits the use of an electrostatic precipitator and SO2-removal
equipment. On the other hand, operation of this cycle so that
15 to 20% of the plant output is from the turbine, would raise
the inlet temperature to 1500 to 1600 deg. F making it necessa-
ry to find other means of dust and SO2 removal. One of the
proposed methods would be the use of a two-state combustion
cycle. A closed cycle gas turbine which shows promise as a
topping unit for the steam cycle is also discussed. An en-
gineering and cost study is needed to evaluate the merits of
the combined system.
12576
Blade, O. C.
BURNER FUEL OILS, 1968. Bureau of Mines, Bartlesville,
Okla. Petroleum Products Survey No. 56., 37 pp., Sept. 1968.
The importance of fuel oils has resulted in the need for more
information by the petroleum industry, manufacturers of heat-
ing appliances, and consumers regarding the types and quali-
ties of the fuels currently being marketed. In this survey, data
on a total of 344 samples of burner-fuel oil are presented. The
fuels were manufactured by 34 petroleum refining companies,
large and small, in 107 refineries throughout the United States.
Summaries of the results of the tests by grades and by re-
gions, compared with data for 1967, are presented in tabular
form.
12619
Bartok, W., A. R. Crawford, H. J. Hall, E. H. Manny, and A.
Skopp
SYSTEMS STUDY OF NITROGEN OXIDE CONTROL
METHODS FOR STATIONARY SOURCES. Esso Research
and Engineering Co., Linden, N. J., Government Research
Lab., Contract PH-22-68-55, Rept. GR-l-NOS-69, 81p., May 1,
1969. 542 refs.
An interim report on a systems study of nitrogen oxide control
methods for stationary sources is presented. The nature and
magnitude of the stationary NOX problem in the U. S. is
defined, and existing and potential control techniques are
identified. A comprehensive, selective review of the pertinent
literature, resulting in over 600 items of specific interest was
conducted. A detailed questionnaire for steam-electric plants
selected on the basis of geographic location and fuel type was
developed. Nitrogen oxide emissions from combustion sources
are estimated by major sectors (including transportation) and
fuel type, for the years 1950, 1955, 1960, 1965, 1970, 1975,
1980 and 2000. Stationary sources account for about 55% and
transportation for 45% of uncontrolled emissions for the
period 1950 through 1980. The contribution of power genera-
tion to the NOX emissions from stationary sources is esti-
mated to increase from 45% in 1965 to 57% in 1980 and 64% in
the year 2000. Studies of NOX control techniques have con-
centrated so far on the identification of promising methods.
Several new approaches are identified with potential for simul-
taneous removal of sulfur and nitrogen oxides. In broad
categories, decomposition, reduction, sorption and oxidation
techniques are studied. Selective NOX reduction techniques
with ammonia or possibly with hydrogen sulfide, aqueous
caustic scrubbing techniques, a modified version of the lead
chamber acid process, and adsorption on some metal oxides
appear to be promising. Known catalysts lack sufficient activi-
ty for catalytic NOX decomposition. Combustion process
modification techniques are potentially the simplest and least
costly approaches to the NOX control problem. However,
demonstrated technology is quite limited at present. Low ex-
cess air combustion, flue gas recirculation, two-state com-
bustion, burner location and spacing, fluidized bed combustion
are prime candidates for further study in this area. The ap-
plicability of specific techniques (alone or in combination with
others) depends heavily on the type and size of combustion
equipment, and on the type of fuel used. Formulation of a
simple, idealized model for NOX formation in combustion
processes has been initiated. This study is aimed at the defini-
tion of requirements for more detailed combustion models,
which could be used for guiding the design of combustion
equipment emitting less NOX. (Author summary modified)
-------
20
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
12633
F. E. Ireland
POLLUTION BY OXIDES OF SULPHUR. Chem. Eng., No.
221, CE261 -262, Sept. 1968.
The sources of sulfur oxide pollution include the combustion
of sulfur-bearing fuels such as coal, coke, and fuel oil, the
manufacture of sulfuric acid, miscellaneous uses of sulfur
dioxide, and the combustion of sulfur compounds in waste
gases from manufacturing processes. This is a brief report of
these pollution sources made to the Working Party on Air Pol-
lution of the European Federation of Chemical Engineering.
13053
Frantz, Robert L.
COAL STRENGTHENS ITS POSITION. Mining Engineering,
21(2):104-107, Feb. 1969.
Coal produces almost 2/3 of all the electrical energy generated
by fossil fuels and 1/4 of all energy consumed in the U. S.
Power company interconnections and cooperative agreements
are being arranged to enhance power supply reliability and
achieve minimum power costs. Many oil companies are seek-
ing coal company affiliations or reserves. These mergers bring
to coal companies a source of capital and expanded base
operation for greater expansion potential. A commercial coal
liquefaction plant will probably have a capacity of 100,000 bbl
per day. It will require coal reserves of 400 to 650 million tons,
with the mines producing 10 to 15 million tons per year. The
magnitude and complexities of new mining operations require
a high degree of engineering analysis and research to deter-
mine economic feasibilities and justify investments. A more
concerted and intensive effort in the coal industry is required
to attract additional manpower and expand training programs
in the areas of production, maintenance, management en-
gineering and safety.
13102
Carter, Christopher and Alwyn Jolly
LONGANNET CHIMNEY. Consulting Eng., 33(6):42-44, June
1969.
The reinforced concrete chimney at the Longannet Power Sta-
tion, Scotland, is 600 ft high and designed to adequately
disperse any contaminants remaining in the flue gas after elec-
trostatic precipitation. The chimney is of multi-flue design with
all boilers emptying into the single chimney for the purpose of
combined efflux velocity for more buoyant gases because of
the slower cooling rate of the greater mass of the combined
gases. The flues extend 30 ft above the windshield of the
chimney. This extension assists appreciably in avoiding
downdrafts. Construction design is discussed.
13141
Kreimann, Herbert H. and Earl K. Rickard
HEAT EXCHANGE SYSTEM FOR HEATING MILL AIR
AND FOR REHEATING STACK GAS SUBSEQUENT TO
WET SCRUBBING. (Combustion Engineering, Inc., Windsor,
Conn.) U. S. Pat. 3,447,492. 3p., June 3, 1969. 3 refs. (Appl.
Dec. 27, 1967, 7 claims).
A fossil fuel-fired steam generator having a wet scrubber for
removing sulfur and other impurities is described. A rear gas
pass in the furnace, through which the combustion gases flow,
is connected to the wet scrubber. A heat exchanger is posi-
tioned in the rear of the gas pass for absorbing heat from the
hot combustion gases before they enter the scrubber. Another
heat exchanger is positioned in the stack for heating the
cleaned gases before they are discharged into the atmosphere.
By raising the temperature of these gases, all the moisture
they contain is evaporated, and they are able to leave the
stack at an increased velocity. Both these factors help prevent
a visible plume of the gases exiting from the top of the stack.
13219
Masek, Vaclav
ARSENIC IN COKE. (Arzen v koksu). Hutnicke Listy
(Prague), 24(5):323-325, 1969. 18 refs.
Arsenic contained in coal used in coke ovens directly in-
fluences the quality of the coke and consequently the quality
of cast iron and steel and of electrodes. The material of prima-
ry importance is black coal, in which arsenic is not evenly dis-
tributed. Arsenic content in a combustible is determined either
by change of arsenic compounds to gaseous arsenic oxides or
by transformation of arsenic compounds to volatile arsenic
trichloride. Field testing of 35 specimens showed that the ar-
senic content is very low (0.002 to 0.005 mg/cu m). The
present average value of arsenic allowed is 0.3 mg/cu m. In all
places tested, the measured value was much lower than the al-
lowable average. Dust taken from different strata at the test
locations showed greater amounts, but still within the allowed
limits.
13261
Voronov, F. D., I. A. Taldykin, B. L. Markov, V. G. Antipin,
and V. F. Bogatenkov
DUST FORMATION IN A TWO BATH STEEL FURNACE.
(Pyleobrazovaniye v dvukhvannoy staleplavil 'noy pechi). Text
in Russian. Izv. Vysshikh Uchebn. Zavedenii Chernaya Met.,
no. 8:62-64, 1968. 2 refs.
Tests carried out on a 215 ton martensite furnace revealed that
tuyere placement plays the greatest role in the production of
lignite smoke, a major constituent of exhaust dust. During fur-
nace operation without oxygen scavenging, the dust content of
exhaust gases during filling, melting, and melt removal is 2.1,
1.4, and 1.3 g/cu m, respectively. Dust samples in this case
contained 70-90% iron oxides, pointing to the metal bath as the
main dust source, the presence of other metal oxides indicat-
ing slag and refractory materials as additional sources.
13292
National Coal Assoc., Washington, D. C., Dept. of Economics
and Transportation
STEAM-ELECTRIC PLANT FACTORS, 1960. Fuel consump-
tion and costss, plant capacity, net generation, 1960, and pro-
grammed capacity, 1961-64. Washington, D.C., National Coal
Assoc., 1961, 37p.
The steam-electric utility plants studied consumed 266.7 mil-
lion tons of fuel, including oil and gas on a coal equivalent ba-
sis, in 1960. This consumption represented increases in the use
of coal, oil, and gas of 6.0, 1.4, and 9.2%, respectively, over
the previous year. A breakdown of fuel consumption for re-
gions is given. Plant capacities, net generation, fuel consump-
tion, and unit costs for steam-electric plants in 1960 are tabu-
lated. Predicted capacities are give for steam-electric,
hydroelectric, internal combustion, gas turbine, and nuclear
plants programmed for or under construction in the period of
1961 to 1964. Trends in the efficiency of coal utilization at
steam-electric plants for the period 1950 to 1959 are discussed
and tabulated. Total fossil fuel usage in the U. S. during the
1951-1960 period increased from 149.5 million coal and
equivalent tons to 266.7 million tons, or by 76.0%. Oil and gas
usage increased 39.6 and 125.4% in the same period. Coal, oil,
-------
A. EMISSION SOURCES
21
and gas represented 66, 8, and 26% of the utilities' total fossil
fuel consumption in 1960. The average 'as burned' cost of
coal, oil, and gas to the utilities in 1960 was 26.0, 34.5, and
23.8 cents per million Btu, respectively.
13293
Arakawa, Yasuo and Yoshio Tanaka
NEW DEVELOPMENTS IN METHODS OF FORECASTING
DEMAND FOR ENERGY. Preprint, World Power Conference,
General Report, Section IA. (Presented at the Tokyo Sectional
Meeting, World Power Conference, p. 185-191, Oct. 16-20,
1966).
The methods employed by 26 countries in forecasting demands
for energy and electric power were evaluated. Two basic
methods of forecasting are common to many countries: (1) the
ecometric method of estimating demands by sectors and re-
gions and (2) the trend method for extrapolating the rate of de-
mand increases in time series. Developing countries often
forecast future demand in the light of past growth of advanced
countries. Few countries consider the limitations of demand
forecasts based on statistical hypotheses; many fail to recog-
nize changes in patterns caused by technological innovations.
It is hoped that demand analysts will discuss these points as
well as methods of forecasting load curves and estimating
repressed demands caused by power shortages.
13316
National Coal Assoc., Washington, D. C., Dept. of Economics
and Transportation
STEAM-ELECTRIC PLANT FACTORS, 1964. FUEL CON-
SUMPTION AND COSTS, PLANT CAPACITY, NET
GENERATION, 1964, AND PROGRAMMED CAPACITY,
1965-68. 1965, 47p.
The 895 steam-electric U. S. utility plants studied consumed
347.3 million tons of fuel, including oil and gas on a coal
equivalent basis, in 1964. This consumption represented in-
creases in the use of coal, oil, and gas of 8.0, 10.1, and 7.3%,
respectively, over the previous year. Fuel consumption by re-
gions, and plant capacities, net generation, fuel consumption,
and unit costs for steam-electric plants in 1964 are tabulated.
Predicted capacities are given for steam-electric, hydroelectric,
internal-combustion, gas-turbine, and nuclear plants pro-
grammed for, or under construction in, the period 1965-1968.
Trends in the efficiency of coal utilization at steam-electric
plants for the period 1954-1963 are discussed and tabulated.
Total fossil fuel usage in the U. S. during the 1955-1964 period
increased from 799.6 million coal and equivalent tons to 347.3
million tons, or by 74%. Oil and gas usage increased by 41.8
and 111.3% in the same period. Coal, oil, and gas represented
68, 9, and 23%, respectively, of the total fossil fuel consump-
tion by utilities in 1955, and 65, 7, and 28% of the total in
1964. The average 'as burned' cost of coal to the utilities
decreased from $6.07 per ton in 1955 to $5.89 in 1964. The cost
per barrel of oil dropped from $2.14 to $2.06 and the cost of
gas per million cubic feet increased from 18.8 to 26.4 cents
during the same period. The national average cost (1955-1964)
per million Btu of coal and oil decreased by 0.6 cents, and gas
increased by 7.3 cents. The cost of coal and oil fell 2.4 and
7.8%, respectively, over the period, with an increase in gas of
40.6%.
13330
Unterberger, O. G. and M. S. Gofman
DUST FORMATION DURING IMPACT IN HAMMER
CRUSHERS. Coke Chem. (USSR) (English transl.), no. 11:44-
48, 1968. 3 refs.
A mathematical analysis of the dust yield obtained from raw
coal mixtures crushed in hammer crushers is presented. Tests
performed with a laboratory-sized hammer crusher gave
results that were in close agreement with the theoretical ap-
proach. Two fundamentally different factors of dust formation
in hammer crushers were found: (1) free-impact dust forma-
tion, and (2) dust formation resulting from abrasion as groups
of particles slid across the working face of the hammer. The
amount of dust formed by abrasion depended on the amount
of dust in the starting mixture, and that formed by free impact
was proportional to the linear speed of the hammers.
13401
Reid, W. T. and P. Cohen
FACTORS AFFECTING THE THICKNESS OF COAL-ASH
SLAG ON FURNACE-WALL TUBES. Trans. ASME (Am. Soc.
Mech. Engrs.), 66:685-690, Nov. 19 9 refs.
An equation is given relating thickness of slag deposit to slag
flow properties, of the temperature of hot and cold sides of
the deposit, and the volume of slag flow. The relative
thickness of slag deposits for typical conditions can be calcu-
lated from this equation, providing a method of comparing the
behavior of different coal ashes on furnace walls. For fixed
furnace conditions, increas in the viscosity of the slag cause
equal increases in the thickness of slag deposit. As the tem-
perature of critical viscosity approaches the temperature of the
furnace side of the slag deposit, there is a large increase in the
thickness for all viscosities. For a fixed temperature of critical
viscosity, there is an equal decrease in the thickness of the
deposit for all viscosities as the temperature of the furnace
side of the slag deposit is increased. The relationship between
slag composition and relative thickness of deposit is shown for
part of the field of composition of coal-ash slags. Increase in
equivalent Fe203 content and decrease in ferric percentage,
decrease the thickness of the deposit; CaO also decreases the
deposit thickness as its content increases, the effect being
greatest with slags containing less than 20% equivalent Fe203.
(Author summary modified)
13410
Jones, J. F., R. T. Eddinger, and L. Seglin
MULTISTAGE PYROLYSIS OF COAL. Chem. Eng. Progr.,
62(2):73-79, Feb. 1966. 3 refs.
Fluidized bed pyrolysis of coal, a process for upgrading coal
by converting it to an oil, a gas, and a char, and to decrease
the delivery of coal energy, is described. The coal used in test-
ing the method was Illinois No. 6-seam coal. Multistage pyrol-
ysis of coal was carried out in four stages. The temperature at
each stage differed;'liquor, char, crude oil, and gas were the
by-products. Gases and dust leaving the reactor were
quenched with water in venturi-type scrubbers and fibrous
glass wool filters. Non-condensable gases were scrubbed to
remove CO2, and yield a 550/btu/cu ft fuel gas, or the gas may
be converted after scrubbing to produce a synthetic pipeline
gas. The gas may also be converted to hydrogen and utilized in
fertilizer. Tables evaluating the economic effects of multistage
pyrolysis are given.
13479
Little (Arthur D.) Inc., Cambridge, Mass.
FUTURE MARKET FOR UTILITY COAL IN NEW EN-
GLAND. Contract 14-01-0001-489, Nov. 1966. CFSTI: PB 174
540
If no action is taken to reduce delivered coal costs from
present levels, utility coal consumption in New England, after
experiencing a steady growth, will reverse and begin a steady
-------
22
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
and continuous decline. At first this will be due to loss of the
existing plant market to residual fuel, and later to loss of new
plant market potential to nuclear power. If, as a consequence
of initiating purchasing and transportation innovations, the
delivered costs of coal can be reduced, coal can experience
expanding demand through 1970. The potential market for coal
appears large and stable enoug to justify taking action to
reduce delivered costs. Incentives for such action in the form
of lower fuel costs, increased coal sales, or higher gross
weight revenues realizable by individual companies seem more
than adequate. There is also the incentive of preserving coal as
an effective competitor in New England's fuel economy.
13494
Dryden, I. G. C.
CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION AND REACTIONS OF COAL.
In: Chemistry of Coal Utilization, Supplementary Volume, H.
H. Lowry (ed.), National Academy of Sciences, Washington,
D. C., Committee on Chemistry of Coal, p. 232-295, 1963. 392
refs.
Various methods of determining the chemical composition of
coal are surveyed. Solvent extraction yields little information
about the coal molecule, apart from a molecular weight dis-
tribution. If solvent extracts contain more than 1 to 5% of the
parent coal, they resemble it closely, provided they are
prepared below 250 C. If prepared above this temperature,
pyrolysis has clearly modified their composition. The best
specific solvents for coal contain a nitrogen atom with a readi-
ly available pair of electrons. Evidence from polarography has
suggested that certain nuclei containing one, two, and three
rings play an important part in coal structure. X-ray histo-
grams suggest that about one-half of the carbon in the nuclei is
almost equally distributed between one, two, and three rings,
but these estimates may be biased toward the larger ring
systems. In the polarography of coal extracts, the frequent oc-
currence of half-wave potentials, for the reduction of aromatic
systems, points to the presence of a considerable proportion
of biphenyl, naphthalene, phenanthrene, and triphenylene
structures. The extent of reduction suggests a minimum poly-
cyclic aromaticity between 0.35 and 0.5. Methods of functional
group analysis and polarography at lower potentials have
shown that the hydroxyl and carbonyl group concentrations
account for 70 to 90% of the O2 in bituminous coal.
Hydrogenation, extensive oxidation, hydrolysis, pyrolysis, and
fluorination are the most interesting reactions of coal, but
furnish only limited information about the structure of coal it-
self.
13511
Sarkar, G. G. and M. K. Sarkar
AN INTEGRATED APPROACH TO EVALUATION OF COAL
WASHING EFFICIENCY. Proc. of the 5th International Coal
Preparation Congress, Oct. 3-7, 1966. 36 refs.
Sharpness Index and Integrated Efficiency were evaluated in
the laboratory as measures of the overall efficiency of coal
washing operations. Sharpness Index is defined as 100 times
the ratio of total misplacements to the amount of near gravity
materials minus 100. Integrated Efficiency is defined as the
recovery efficiency of cleans times the percentage yield of
cleans plus the recovery efficiency of sinks times thhe per-
centage yield of sinks divided by 100. It is concluded that the
values of Sharpness Index and Integrated Efficiency may be
of great help in ascertaining the precision of any coal washing
operation, as well as in the comparative evaluation of results
of one or more separating processes under varying conditions
of washing. Both are expressed on a percentage basis and take
into account the quantitative and qualitative factors of a wash-
ing operation. The partition curve and its derivatives are con-
sidered suitable and will continue to find wide application for
the prediction of the probable results of washing different
types of feed coal by a particular process.
13515
National Coal Association, Washington, D. C., Dept. of
Economics and Transportation
STEAM-ELECTRIC PLANT FACTORS. (FUEL CONSUMP-
TION AND COSTS, PLANT CAPACITY, NET GENERA-
TION, 1963, AND PROGRAMMED CAPACITY, 1964-67.).
Aug. 1964. 47p.
The steam-electric utility plants studied consumed 320.7 mil-
lion tons of fuel, including oil and gas on a coal equivalent ba-
sis, in 1963. This consumption represented increases in the use
of coal, oil, and gas of 9.3, 2.7, and 7.3% respectively, over
the previous year. A breakdown of fuel consumption by re-
gions is given. Plant capacities, net generation, fuel consump-
tion, and unit costs for steam-electric plants in 1963 are tabu-
lated. Predicted capacities are given for steam-electric,
hydroelectric, internal-combustion, gas-turbine, and nuclear
plants programmed for or under construction in the period of
1964 to 1967. Trends in the efficiency of coal utilization at
steam-electric plants for the period 1953-1962 are discussed
and tabulated. Total fossil fuel usage in the U.S. during the
1954-1963 period increased from 175.8 million coal and
equivalent tons to 320.7 million tons, or by 82.4% Oil and gas
usage increased 41.7 and 92.7% in the same period. Coal, oil,
and gas represented 65, 9, and 26% respectively, of the utili-
ties' total fossil fuel consumption in 1954 and 65, 7, and 28%
of the total in 1963. The average 'as burned' cost of coal to
the utilities decreased from $6.31 per ton in 1954 to $6.02 in
1963. The cost per barrel of oil rose from $2.10 to $2.11 and
the cost of gas per Mcf increased from 18.1 to 26.6 cents dur-
ing the same period. The national average cost (1954-1963) per
million btu of coal decreased by 1.1 cents, while oil and gas
costs increased 0.7 and 8.6 cents, respectively. The cost of
coal fell 4.2% over the period, with respective increases for oil
and gas of 7.1 and 49.7%.
13644
Hino, Yoshinori
ON SULFUR CONTENTS IN COMBUSTION GAS FROM
BROWN COAL. (Kattan nensho hai gasu chu no iwo ganyuryo
ni tsuite). Text in Japanese. Netsu Kanri (Heat Engineering,
Tokyo), 21(5):38-43, May 1969.
Of all combustion gases, sulfur dioxide receives the most at-
tention, since the degree of air pollution is generally measured
by the amount of sulfur dioxide. Sulfur in its liquid and solid
states is found in combustion gas whenever it is burned. Ashes
of brown coal contain larger amounts of lime and magnesium
present as CaSO4 and MgSO4. In the case of brown coal from
the Rhine district, Germany, a large quantity of sulfur is found
in the combustion ashes and the amount of sulfur present in
the combustion gas is therefore lessened. More than 30% of
the electric power in West Germany is produced in the Rhine
district. Brown coal, costing little and containing little sulfur in
its combustion gas, is the primary energy source for this elec-
tric power. To discover the outstanding advantage of this coal,
tests were conducted with a variety of equipment in the boiler
of a mountain power plant's briquet factory. Sulfur dioxide
concentrations were measured with Woesthoff equipment and
sulfur trioxide by the Stratmann-Schuster method. To check
the amount of sulfur in combustion gases, the on-balance con-
tent of sulfur in ashes was also investigated. Experimental
-------
A. EMISSION SOURCES
23
results indicate that the longer the combustion gas remains in
the boiler, the greater the amount of sulfur formed.
13785
Teitelbaum, Perry D.
ENERGY PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION IN THE
UNITED STATES: AN ANALYTICAL STUDY BASED ON
1954 DATA. Washington, D. C., Dept. of the Interior, Bureau
of Mines, Report of investigations, 5821, 145p., 1961. 23 refs.
All available statistical data on energy production, transforma-
tion, and use for 1954 were collated and analyzed in detail to
improve the understanding of the economics of energy produc-
tion and consumption. Main topics are: the pattern of energy
flows in 1954; notes and comments on the scope and adequacy
of energy statistics; and energy origin and disposition in 1954
and other years. Numerous tables are presented throughout
text in six appendices. The study presents an energy balance
sheet for the U. S. in 1954, and includes data and discussion
of all forms of coal, gas, oil, wood, and hydroelectric power.
13832
Pope, Evans and Robbins, New York
COAL-FIRED HEATING PLANT PACKAGE: PHASE II RE-
PORT. OCR Contract 14-01-0001-242, 63p., Nov. 1, 1963. CF-
STI: PB 181-585
A complete steam generating package consisting of a bellied-in
header innovation of an 'A' type boiler with a drawer type,
single feed spreader stoker, forced draft fan, ash reinjection/
over-fire air system, and combustion feed and control has
been devised as the ideal combination for a packaged coal
fired boiler. The design provides for a specially designed dust-
collector induced draft fan, and optional economizer, package
to be field installed as a single unit on top of the boiler drum.
Automation is achieved to the extent that only one man is
required for normal operation of the plant. Boilers, coal, and
ash handling systems operate on a fully automatic basis. The
use of a continuous dual-purpose drag chain is an integral part
of the design, the upper run of the chain delivering coal to all
boiler hoppers and the lower run removing the ashes simul-
taneously. Considerable savings in erection costs have been
achieved by extensive packaging of plant auxiliary and con-
struction components. If a comparison is made with recent
boiler plant construction costs, it can be seen that this type of
boiler plant can be erected for a fraction of the cost of a tradi-
tional field-erected plant. (Author summary modified)
13848
Krumin, Peter O.
THE MEIGS CREEK NO. 9 COAL BED IN OHIO. PART III
FURTHER STUDY OF THE CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL
PROPERTIES, AND WASHABILITY CHARACTERISTICS,
WITH A BRIEF REVIEW OF NEW METHODS EMPLOYED.
Ohio State Univ. Studies, Eng. Ser., Eng. Exp. Station Bull.
no. 165, 26(3): 375p., July 1957. 181 refs.
The results of examining some existing methods and of
developing new or modified methods for the determination of
various properties of coal are reported. Equilibrium moisture,
mineral CO2, total S by the LECO high-frequency induction
furnace method, forms of S, low-temperature carbonization,
and float and sink testing of both coarse and fine coal are
covered. The results of studying 57 samples from the Meigs
Creek no. 9 coal bed are given. Seventeen composite samples
were prepared from the 57 individual sections. Each of these
represented the cross section either of separate benches or of
the entire thickness of the coal bed at 14 sampling sites. Fif-
teen of the composite samples were screen-sized, and each
screen size was analyzed for moisture, ash, and S. The results
of screen analyses are presented in tabular and graphical form.
Results of the float and sink tests on the 17 composite samples
are presented in tabular and graphical form, as washability
curves. 'Float ash' curves for various screen sizes obtained
from the same sample for each of 15 composite samples are
presented to show the effect of crushing on ash reduction, or
yield of float coal at a selected constant ash content. Heating
values in all specific gravity fractions of one screen size from
each of the 17 composite samples were determined. The
results of the study of analytical methods and the results of
the investigation of Meigs Creek no. 9 coal are summarized in
63 tables, 134 data sheets, and 29 figures. (Author summary
modified)
13855
Violet, P., A. Aynard, and G. Dumarchey
CHECK ON THE OPERATION OF COMMUNAL CENTRAL
HEATING BOILERS IN LYONS DURING WINTER 1967-
1968. (Controle du fonctionnement de chaudieres de chauffage
central collectif a Lyon pendant 1'hiver 1967-1968). Text in
French. Pollut. Atmos. (Paris), 11(41):15-19, Jan./March 1969.
The Lyons Health Office, working in collaboration with
technicians of the Association Lyonnaise des Proprietaires de
Machines a Vapeur et Electriques and with financial assistance
of the Centre Interproffesionel et Technique d'Etudes de la
Pollution Atmospherique, carried out inspections, during the
winter of 1967/1968 on 44 boilers whose calorific capacities
ranged from 170 therm/hr to 5015 therm/hr. Thirty-nine units
burned fuel oil and five coke or coal. In 97% of the cases, the
Bacharach index was below 6. In 91% of the cases, the tem-
perature of the smoke was below 300 C, with CO2 exceeding
9% for 44% of the operations checked. Forty-seven boilers,
ranging from 50 to 1250 therm/hr, already checked in
1966/1967, were again inspected. A slight improvement was
noted with regard to combustion. (Author abstract modified)
13892
Conklin, Edwin R.
1968 ANNUAL STATISTICAL REPORT: PART 2. Elec.
World, 169(8): 69-96, Feb. 19, 1968.
The electric power industry is expected to add 172,145 Mw to
existing generating capacity by 1974. This increase in capacity
will amount to a gain of 64.5%. By 1974, nuclear power will
account for 12.5% of the industry total as compared to 1.0%
for 1967, and will, therefore, become an important segment of
the electric power industry. The various aspects of electrical
power generation and the capacity additions in different re-
gions of the U. S. are presented graphically and in tabulated
form.
13954
Morrison, Warren E.
THE ENERGY DILEMMA - WHICH FUEL, WHAT MAR-
KET, WHEN/ Preprint No. 65K302, Society of Mining En-
gineers, AIME, N. Y., 26p., 1965. (Presented at Rocky Moun-
tain Minerals Conference, Fall Meeting of the Society of Mining
Engineers, Phoenix, Ariz., Oct. 7-9, 1965.)
The future energy economy is forecast over 5-year intervals,
spanning 15 years, in terms of the future demand for specific
resources and the levels of domestic supply and foreign trade
required to meet this demand. The forecast includes a short-
term forecast to 1965, two intermediate forecasts to 1970 and
1975, and a terminal forecast to 1980. The basis of the forecast
-------
24
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
is the historical balance of gross consumption of energy by
consuming sectors during the period 1947-1963. Through the
application of econometric procedures and forecasting
techniques, the components of the historical balance are pro-
jected forward and composite energy balances are drawn up
for each of the forecast periods. Separate projections are
made for each major energy resources-coal, natural gas,
petroleum, hydropower, and nuclear power; for the four major
energy markets-household and commercial, industrial, trans-
portation, and utility power; and for the basic form that
resources assume within these markets— electricity, direct
fuels, and raw materials. While total energy is projected to in-
crease at a rate of 3.2, petroleum and natural gas will grow at
somewhat slower rates than in the historical period. Neverthe-
less, the two resources are expected to account for 73% of
total energy consumption in 1980. Bituminous coal, due to its
demand for utility electricity, will grow at a rate of 2.4% but
will provide a smaller portion of total energy by 1980. Conven-
tional energy sources will feel the impact of commercial
nuclear power, which will constitute 5% of total energy by
1980. Hydropower will grow at about the same rate as during
the historical period.
13963
Morrison, Warren E. and Charles L. Readling
AN ENERGY MODEL FOR THE UNITED STATES,
FEATURING ENERGY BALANCES FOR THE YEARS 1947
TO 1965 AND PROJECTIONS AND FORECASTS TO THE
YEARS 1980 AND 2000. Information Circ. 8384, Washington,
D. C., Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of Mines, July 1968, 127p.
24 refs.
A simplified energy model for the U. S. is quantified for 1947-
1965. The basic model and calculated quantified structures are
used for a number of analytical case studies that estimate mid-
term and long-range shifts in patterns of energy resources de-
mand and required supply. Historical data series are presented
in the form of integrated energy balances by source, form, and
consuming sector. In case studies I to XII, conditional projec-
tions of historical trends of energy demand and required
supply are made for the midterm period 1966 to 1980. The pro-
jections are carried out by correlation of major energy com-
ponents with relevant independent variables such as major
economic indicators. Simulations of the medium-range projec-
tions to 1980 are carried out by varying the assumptions for
midterm period. Case studies XIII to XXII are long-term con-
tingency or technological forecasts to the year 2000. These
cases assume technological changes or innovations that
produce major shifts in the long term pattern of energy con-
sumption and the mix of required resources. The domestic
resource base is assessed in its ability to meet projected or
forecast demand for energy resources under the midterm and
long-run assumption made in the various case studies. Various
energy issues or problems identified from the analyses of the
case studies are discussed, and possible alternative approaches
to solutions are suggested. (Author abstract modified)
13978
Angelova, G., L. Lazarov, and V. Kovaceva
BEHAVIOR OF SULFUR COMPOUNDS IN COAL DURING
TREATMENT WITH SODIUM IN AN AMMONIACAL SOLU-
TION. (Ueber das Verhalten der Schwefelverbindungen in der
kohle bei deren Behandlung mil Natrium in ammoniakalischer
Loesung). Text in German. Brennstoff-Chem. (Essen),
50(1):11-14, Jan. 1969. 26 refs.
Coal samples with different S contents and of different
degrees of carbonization were treated with sodium in an am-
moniacal solution at -35 C. In this process, a decomposition of
the pyrite and a rupture of C-S-C bonds in the organic con-
stituent occur with formation of mercaptans, sodium sulfide,
and hydrogen sulfide. While the sulfide and disulfide bonds
are readily broken, heterocyclic bonds are not. The above-
mentioned treatment of coal provides a deeper insight into the
nature of the organically-bound S and leads to the realization
that in the cokable and sulfur-rich coals, the share of the rup-
turable C-S-C bonds is considerable, whereas in the less car-
bonized, non-cokable coals, it is quite small. The behavior of
the S- bonds during this treatment is compared with that of the
O-bonds.
14378
Roggendorf, Alexander
DOES THE CHANGEOVER TO GENERATION OF ELEC-
TRICITY IN NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS LEAD ONE TO
EXPECT A CHANGE OF STRUCTURE OF THE CURRENT
DISTRIBUTION NETWORKS/ (Laesst der Uebergang zur
Stromcrzeugung in Kernkraftwerken eine Strukturaenderung
der Stromverteilimgsnetze erwarten/). Text in German. Elek-
trizitaetswirtschaft, 67(3):49-52, Jan. 29, 1968.
Power generation using heavy fuel oil, a by-product in the
refining of mineral oil, is rather new in Germany. Price of
heavy fuel is low, and with the development of oil refineries
everywhere in the country, more such power plants could be
erected. In spite of the fact that nuclear power plants will in-
evitably become predominant within the next ten or twenty
years, these heavy fuel oil-fired power plants will probably
last a long time, since oil will be refined for the use of engine
propellant well into the next century. Furthermore, it is less
expensive to use the heavy oil in power plants than to hydrate
it for additional propellants. With the advent of more nuclear
power plants, the tendency to produce electricity at the site of
consumption rather than erection of long-distance networks
will certainly become more prominent. Industries may then
develop in parts of the country which so far have lacked pri-
mary energy. Network costs will decrease, and industries will
be able to spread out and benefit everyone.
14400
Beveridge, G. S. G. and C. A. MacArthur
SULPHUR EMISSION TO THE ATMOSPHERE. Chem. Engr.
(London), 47(6):304-305, July-Aug. 1969. 7 refs.
The sources of sulfur emission in Great Britain are discussed.
Sulfur pollutants are essentially derived from conversion
processes of the chemical industry, including cement manufac-
ture, metal ore treatment, and smelting, and also from indus-
trial and domestic energy conversion systems. Two examples
of sulfuric acid production and the production of electricity
from coal and oil are considered as representatives of the main
large-scale sulfur sources. Apart from other industrial boiler
installations and domestic users, who are also significant con-
tributors, the sulfur pollution load from existing power
generating stations is much greater than that from the chemical
industry. Several processes are available for reducing or
removing sulfur from oil, but only one-third of the refineries
in England and Wales practice sulfur recovery to any extent.
The present removal method is the desulfurization of fuel. If
emissions from power stations were subject to the same
rigorous scrutiny as those from chemical works, sulfur would
have to be recovered at some stage. If the use of a low-sulfur
source were a condition of fueling power station, low-sulfur
oil might soon be available at competitive cost. The govern-
ment could encourage this availability by exempting low-sulfur
oil from part or all of the fuel oil surcharge. This would give
-------
A. EMISSION SOURCES
25
some protection to the coal industry but would have the
beneficial effect of reducing atmospheric pollution. It seems
unreasonable to accept a high level of pollution from power
plants when chemical and petroleum emission are limited by
considerable capital expenditure.
14478
Seidl, W.
ON THE QUESTION OF POWER PLANT EMISSIONS. (Zur
Frage der Kraftwerkemissionen). Text in German. Brennstoff-
Waerme-Kraft, 21(5):265-267, 1969. 3 refs.
Important developments in the field of CO2, SO2, and fly dust
emissions in the U. S. are briefly summarized. Computations
and estimations of the CO2 emissions conducted by the Na-
tional Center for Air Pollution Control of the Public Health
Service showed that since 1890, the annual CO2 emissions
have increased enormously, and by the year 2000, they are ex-
pected to have increased 18 times. The highest growth has
been predicted to fall within the period from 1965 to 1985. The
CO2 emitted by thermal power plants stems primarily from the
combustion of coal. In the past, thermal power plants played a
rather unimportant role as emission sources for CO2. In the
period between 1980 and 1990, they are estimated to become
major sources of CO2 emissions. By the end of the century,
vehicles will again be the prominent CO2 emission source.
Presently in the U. S., about 40 times 10 to the ninth power
tons per year of CO2 are emitted; this figure will rise to al-
most 100 times 10 to the ninth power by the year 2000. The In-
stitute of Industrial Medicine of the New York University
Medical Center studied fly ash from electrostatic precipitators
in various thermal power plants fired with bituminous coal
from the Appalachians. Their radiochemical analyses yielded
average radioactivities for Ra226 plus Ra228 of 6.2 pc/g. If it is
assumed that a power plant with a capacity of 1000 MW con-
sumes 2,000,000 tons/year of such coal with an ash content of
9%, and if 2.5% of the ash leave the precipitator, a fly ash
emission of 4.5 tunes 10 to the 9th power g/year with a
radioactivity of 28 me/year is obtained. As far as desulfuriza-
tion is concerned, the dolomite process will be used by Union
Electric and the Tennessee Valley Authority.
14574
Dratwa, Heinrich
RIDDING THE AIR OF SULFUR OXIDES - PROBLEMS AND
POSSIBILITIES. (Die Reinhaltung der Luft von Schwefelox-
iden Problematik und Moeglichkeiten). Text in German.
Tech. Ueberwach. (Duesseldorf), 8(5):153-157, May 1967. 40
refs.
Sulfur dioxide tops the list of emitted toxic gases. In the Ruhr
valley alone, 36% of the total quantity of gases emitted to the
atmosphere consists of SO2. Statistics based on fuel consump-
tion show that industry contributes 80.2% and domestic heat-
ing 19.8%. Extensive measurements confirmed these data. It
was found that power plants emit 38%, industrial plants 41%,
and domestic heaters 21%. These emissions are particularly
damaging to plants, while sporadic cases of injury to humans
and animals have become known. In the Federal Republic of
Germany, maximum allowable concentrations have been
legally set which must not be exceeded even temporarily. Fuel
oils are frequently desulfurized prior to use. Coal contains or-
ganically bound sulfur (about 0.6 to 0.9% by weight) and inor-
ganically bound sulfur (can reach 5% by weight). Regulations
exist in West Germany which require switching to low-sulfur
fuels during inversion weather. Construction of high stacks
might be of help in single industrial complexes in the open
country. Another way to avoid SO2 emission and corrosion of
heating surfaces is the use of additives such as dolomite, mag-
nesium oxide, limestone or oxidizing catalysts. Still another
way is the removal of sulfur dioxide from the waste gas by ab-
sorption or adsorption. There are several ways to do this. The
first is to dissolve the sulfur dioxide in special solvents or in
water, but this process is uneconomical up to concentrations
of 10% by volume. The second method is to dissolve sub-
stances in water which bind SO2 or SO3 chemically.
Generally, it can be said about these methods have not been
successful, and there is a preference for SO2 adsorption on
activated charcoal or low-temperature coke.
14701
Bretschneider, B.
MAIN SOURCES OF INDUSTRIAL GASEOUS EMISSIONS.
(Hlavni zdroje prumyslovych plynnych exhalaci). Text in
Czech. Ochrana Ovzdusi, no. 2:26-30, 1969. 29 refs.
Sulfur dioxide is the most harmful gaseous emission in
Czechoslovakia. The primary source of sulfur dioxide emis-
sion, which reached approximately 25 million tons in 1966, are
power engineering, e.g., powerhouses, boiler houses, heat
plants, etc., surface mining of sub-bituminous coal in Northern
Bohemia, and domestic fireplaces. The latter are particularly
important sources of pollution in residential and urban areas.
Powerhouses of the Central Board of Power Engineering emit
as much sulfur dioxide as the powerhouses and boiler houses
of industrial plants. Their emissions contaminate the lower at-
mosphere of whole areas. Air quality in the CSSR, especially
in Northern Bohemia and around industrial complexes, can be
raised by controlling the diffusion of sulfur dioxide and com-
bustion products in the lower atmosphere. Less important
sources of gaseous emissions are metallurgical engineering
plants, which produce both sulfur dioxide and monosulfide,
and chemical works whose emissions, though low, can be ex-
tremely harmful. Emissions from powerhouses of industrial
plants are of local importance.
14794
Matthews, K. J.
CONTROLLING THE LUMINOSITY OF NATURAL GAS
FLAMES IN CONVERTED POWER STATIONS. Termotec-
nica (Milan), 23(8):402-416, 1969. 17 refs. (Presented at the
Convention 'I problemi della combustione-Bruciatori', Milan,
Italy, June 18-19, 1969.)
An experimental natural gas burner, which produces a stable
luminous flame with air velocities similar to those encountered
in current oil burners was used to study the influence of vari-
ous input variables on the flame luminosity, which, together
with radiative power, are controlled by rates of soot formation
and, to a lesser degree, by burnout. Conditions which favor
soot production and hence flame luminosity were established
and were found to be in conflict with the conditions necessary
for good flame stability in converted front wall burners. A two
stage combustion system is therefore suggested. Some gas
should be burnt in a region of low velocity to form a stable
pilot flame which will anchor the rest of the flame. The bulk
of the gas should then be introduced into the air stream at the
same velocity as the air so that a good proportion of it is
heated rapidly in the absence of oxygen to produce soot. The
practical problems involved in such a system are discussed,
and methods of controlling soot burnout by the amount of ex-
cess air in the flame or by the temperature of the secondary
air, and flame radiation by increasing the initial mixing rates,
are considered. The experimental apparatus, methods, and
data are given in detail. The experimental burner had a peak
total flame emittance of 0.4 from a flame only 510 mm thick.
-------
26
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
With the same soot concentration in a power station-scale
flame about 2 m thick, it is calculated that the total flame
emittance, about 0.85, would be comparable with values ob-
tained for oil or pulverized coal flames. Further development
of the stabilizer system should permit another increase in scale
to a full-size power station burner of about 30 MW (100,000 cu
ft/hr).
14980
Vogely, William A.
MODELS OF ALL-GAS AND ALL-ELECTRIC ECONOMIES.
In: Energy. L. B. Holmes (ed.), Evanston, 111., Northwestern
University Press, 1968, Chapt. 7, p. 63-82. 3 refs.
Modern technology is greatly increasing the range of technical
substitution between primary energy resources to provide use-
able energy to people; and areas which are now the sole
province of a single energy source, such as petroleum and au-
tomobile transportation, should in the future become competi-
tive. Ten contingency models of the energy economy are
presented as a guide to energy research and development ex-
penditures. A conventional model, reporting the actual 1966
situation and a probability forecast for 1980 and 2000, is the
starting point of the analysis. Three all-gas models and six all-
electric models are derived. These models illustrate the possi-
bility of achieving resource savings through technology, they
also establish outside parameters for specific fuel use. The
range in gross energy inputs from the highest to the lowest
model is 2.7:1, which widens to 6:1 in terms of resources in
the ground. The most efficient, in resource use sense, is the
all-gas model utilizing small hydrocarbon air fuel cells for on-
site generation of electrical power. The least efficient are oil
fired central generating plants with all energy used in the form
of electricity. However, the actual energy mix will be dete;
mined by economic factors, not absolute efficiency criteria.
(Author abstract modified)
14997
Hilst, Glenn R., John E. Yocom, and Norman E. Bowne
THE DEVELOPMENT OF A SIMULATION MODEL FOR
AIR POLLUTION OVER CONNECTICUT. VOLUME 1.
(SUMMARY REPORT.). Travelers Research Center, Inc.,
Hartford, Conn., Grant RSA-67-4, 66p., Oct. 1967. 3 refs. CF-
STI, DDC: PB 182 608
A working, computer-oriented simulation model of the state-
wide Connecticut air pollution system was developed. This
simulation model is designed to estimate the cumulative air
pollution loading of Connecticut's atmosphere with a spatial
resolution of one mile and a time resolution of one hour. Any
arbitrary distribution of the air pollution sources can be evalu-
ated with regard to resultant air quality over the region. As a
management tool for evaluation of alternative air pollution
control practices, this model provides an unprecedented infor-
mation and evaluation system. In addition to the construction
of this very versatile simulation model, an inventory of the lo-
cation and hour-by-hour emission rates of the varied sources
of five pollutants was completed, the major variabilities of the
atmospheric dispersion processes over Connecticut were as-
sessed. These products serve as the input variables to the
simulation model. The source inventories show that, in 1967,
man-made sources of air pollution in Connecticut will emit
some 300,000 tons of oxides of sulfur, 129,000 tons of the ox-
ides of nitrogen, 1,290,000 tons of carbon monoxide, 328,600
tons of hydrocarbons, and 63,900 tons of suspended particu-
lates. Exemplary calculations of the expected air pollution
levels in Connecticut under various meteorological conditions,
as predicted by the simulation model, are presented. These ex-
amples show clearly the regional variability of air quality; they
illustrate the power of the model to evaluate of complex
planning and control problems inherent in effective air
resource management. Connecticut will have the advantage of
a system that can evaluate the air quality implications of con-
trol plans before they are implemented and also define, in un-
precedented detail, the causes of present and future air pollu-
tion problems. (Author summary modified)
15146
Balazs, Zoltan and Andras Juhasz
EXAMINATION OF THE SULFUR CONTENTS OF THE
BORSOD-BASIN BROWN COALS. (A borsodi barnaszenek
kentartalmanak vizsgalata). Text in Hungarian. Banyasz.
Lapok, 102(6):408-418, June 1969. 9 refs.
Based on 8961 analyses, the average sulfur content of 'Bor-
sod' coals was found to be 2.6%; the upper and lower limits
were 0.5% and 3.5%; 307 petrographical investigations showed
that two-thirds of the sulfur is in globulites thought to be of
bacterial origin. Calculated on the basis of the 307 microscopic
preparations, the sulfur content averaged 3.51% (between 0.8%
and 5.1%). Based on the analysis of 2079 samples, the iso-sul-
fur lines of the five coal fields of the Borsod Basin are shown
on five maps in connection with the caloric value of the in-
dividual areas. The heat value of the basin is below 3600
kcal/kg. As the heating value increases from 0 to 3600 kcal/kg,
the sulfur content increases from approximately 0.7% to 2.7%;
the steepest increase in sulfur content (0.087%/100 kcal/kg) oc-
curs between 200 and 2000 kcal/kg and the smallest increase
(0.029%/100 kcal/kg) between 2000 and 2900 kcal/kg. A theory
is presented to explain the correlation between the high heat-
ing value of the coal and the increase in sulfur content.
15246
Horn, K., A. Knauer, P. Liebscher, and K. Thorandt
ON THE QUESTION OF AIR POLLUTION BY LARGE SOFT
COAL-FIRED POWER PLANTS. RESULTS OF YEAR LONG
DUST FALL MEASUREMENTS IN THE AREA OF
HIRSCHFELDE. (Zur Frage der Luftverunreinigung durch
Grosskraftwerke auf Braunkohlenbasis. Ergebnisse ein-
jaehriger Staubsedimentationsmessungen im Raum
Hirschfelde). Text in German. Z. Ges. Hyg. (Berlin), 14(5):360-
362, May 1968.
In the area of Hirschfelde, East Germany, where air pollution
stems almost exclusively from two soft coal-fired power
plants, dust fall measurements were taken at 10 stations over a
period of one year. Glass containers (DIN standard 5073) with
a collecting area of 63.6 sq cm were set up. The glasses were
filled with distilled water and, in winter, with 100 ml glycerine
as well. Exposure time generally extended over two weeks.
The results show dust fall varies greatly with time and loca-
tion, decreasing with increasing distance from the power
plants. Computation of the frequency distribution of the 248
individual measurements yielded a logarithmic distribution. At
the five stations with the highest dust fall, the average concen-
tration was 725, 276, 143, 128, and 116 g/sq m per day.
15391
Spaite, Paul W. and Robert P. Hangebrauck
ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY THROUGH RESPONSIBLE
RESOURCE MANAGEMENT. Preprint, Canadian Society of
Chemical Engineers, Edmonton, Alberta, lip., 1969 8 refs
(Presented at the Canadian Chemical Engineering Conference
19th, Edmonton, Alberta, Oct 19-22, 1969.)
-------
A. EMISSION SOURCES
27
Sulfur dioxide pollution from power plants using coal
represents a major segment of the total air pollution problem,
requiring the development and use of both short-term and
long-term applications. Remote siting of power plants with tall
stacks appears to become less effective as plant capacities
grow. Other aspects of siting, such as location of plants near
low sulfur western coal reserves and use of advanced lower-
cost power transmission may have more impact. Although
naturally occurring sulfur coal and 'cleaned' coal may provide
a means for minimizing pollution, especially in some areas,
their use is limited. Increased use of desulfurized residual oil
and natural gas becomes uneconomical, in addition to a
shortage of supply. Processes for removal of sulfur dioxide
from power plant flue gas have so far been uneconomical;
thus research is being conducted on a variety of process types
that are capable of application to different segments of the
total problem, such as limestone-based processes (dry injec-
tion and wet lime scrubbers). Programs have also been
developed for coal gasification or conversion to clean fuels.
15517
Public Health Service, Washington, D. C., National Air
Pollution Control Administration
CONTROL TECHNIQUES FOR SULFUR OXIDE AIR POL-
LUTANTS. NAPCA Publ. AP-52, 122p., Jan. 1969. 274 refs.
About 75% of sulfur oxide emissions in 1966 resulted from the
combustion of sulfur-bearing fuels, with coal combustion ac-
counting for the largest part. The economic and technical
aspects of various techniques for controlling these emissions
are examined in detail; they are categorized as (1) change-over
to fuels with lower sulfur content or to another energy source,
such as hydroelectric or nuclear power; (2) desulfurization of
coal or residual fuel oil; (3) removal of sulfur oxides from flue
gas by various processes, including limestone-dolomite injec-
tion and alkalized alumina sorption; and (4) increase in com-
bustion efficiency. Of the industrial sources of SO2 emissions,
nonferrous primary smelting of sulfide-containing metallic ores
such as copper, zinc, and lead is the largest emitter. About
half of the primary smelters in the U. S. now use sulfuric acid
recovery to reduce emissions and at the same time offset
smelter operating costs. Smelters, oil refineries, pulp and
paper mills, steel plants, sulfuric acid plants, waste disposal
processes, and a number of other industrial sources are con-
sidered in terms of present technology for reducing emissions.
The costs of dispersion of sulfur oxides by tall stacks are
briefly discussed as an approach toward reducing the frequen-
cy of high concentrations at ground level in some areas, and
an extensive bibliography on gas dispersion is included. An ap-
pendix on chemical coal processing describes the current state
of development of such methods as gasification and liquefac-
tion for reducing the sulfur content of high-sulfur coal.
15620
Ohya, Masaaki
NITROGEN OXIDES FROM STATIONARY COMBUSTION
FURNACE. (Koteinenshosochi karano chissosankabutsu). Text
in Japanese. Sangyo Kogai (Ind. Public Nuisance), 5(8):448-
456, Aug. 25, 1969. 10 refs.
Sources of nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere and existing
methods of control are reviewed. Nitrogen oxides are moni-
tored mainly by electrical conductivity measurements or
photo-electric colorimetry. In urban areas, they are primarily
produced by the combustion of heavy oil, gasoline, or coal.
The automobile exhaust is the main source of ambient nitrogen
oxides, which are produced by the oxidation of nitrogen in the
combustion chamber air of the engine. Their amount is deter-
mined primarily by the fuel ratio. Nitrogen oxides emission
from stationary combustion furnaces, on the other hand, are
not very serious at present, but have growing importance.
Nitrogen oxides are more difficult to control than sulfur ox-
ides; control is effected either by a wet system using venturi
scrubbers, or a dry system using adsorbents, such as an active
carbon. Several ways are described for controlling combustion.
It is emphsized that those methods of combustion control do
not apply to other harmful pollutants. A method of simultane-
ous removal of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides is also
described, together with the use of a catalyst for converting
SO2 and nitrogen oxides into sulfuric and nitric acids respec-
tively, and subsequently removing these acids by rinsing. Fu-
ture development of control techniques is desired.
15701T
Fortak, H.
COMPARISON OF COMPUTED AND MEASURED MAX-
IMUM AIR POLLUTIONS AND THEIR DISTANCE FROM
THE SOURCE IN THE CASE OF LARGE EMITTANTS. (Ver-
gleich von berechneten und gemessenen maximalen Bodenim-
missionen und deren Entfernungen von der Quelle fuer den
Fall von Grossemittenten.) Translated from German. Free
Univ. of Berlin, Inst. for Theoretical Meteorology, 21p., 1968.
7 refs.
A simplified version of the theory of atmospheric diffusion is
applied to simulate maximum ground-level SO2 concentrations
measured near large power plants. The results depend strongly
on the special form of the plume rise formula. Neither
Csanady's original formula nor the new optimized version of it
give satisfactory results. A slight modification of the exponent
in the optimized Csanady-formula however seems to simulate
the measurements in the best way. The simplest way to deter-
mine the minimum stack height of large power plants is to
limit the calculation to the adiabatic lapse rate and obtain the
stack height from a given equation.
16073
Texas Air Control Board, Austin and Public Health Service,
Durham, N. C., National Air Pollution Control Administration
REPORT FOR CONSULTATION ON THE METROPOLITAN
DALLAS-FT. WORTH INTRASTATE AIR QUALITY CON-
TROL REGION (TEXAS). 29p., Oct. 1969. 7 refs.
A ten-county air quality control regiois proposed to abate air
pollution in the metropolitan Dallas-Fort Worth area. The
proposal is the result of two studies relevant to the problem of
defining the boundaries of air quality control regions. The first
was an evaluation of the area's topography, air pollutant emis-
sions, meteorology, estimated air quality levels, and available
air quality data; and second, a study of the location of popula-
tion and industry, population density, projected growth of
population and industry, and jurisdictional considerations.
Emission densities were calculated from emission quantities
and grid areas. Emissions and meteorological data were used
in a diffusion model to estimate air quality levels. Although
prevailing area winds promote dispersion, thermal inversions
occur about 35% of the time. Dallas and seven other counties
are experiencing suspended particulate levels higher than
background levels. While not an area-wide problem, sulfur ox-
ides are present in Dallas and Tarrant, which are the major
point sources of pollution. Portions of most counties are ex-
periencing carbon monoxide pollution, the distribution of
which correlates with major traffic patterns. Despite the low
air pollution potentional in several counties, it is logical to in-
clude them in the air quality control region, since they too ad-
minister the North Central Texas Council of Governments.
-------
28
16212
DeCarlo, Joseph A., Eugene T. Sheridan, and Zane E. Murphy
SULFUR CONTENT OF UNITED STATES COALS. Bureau of
Mines, Information Circ., no. 8312, 44p., 1966.
The coal reserves of the United States occur in thousands of
different seams that have widely varying sulfur contents. Both
high and low-sulfur coals are mined, with the production of
coals of various sulfur contents depending chiefly upon their
end use. Nearly two-thirds of the total coal remaining reserve
is low-sulfur coal. Roughly, three-fourths is sub-bituminous
and lignite (low rank) and the balance is bituminous and
anthracite. The sulfur content of bituminous coals varies con-
siderably. Approximately 166 million tons of the total bitu-
minous coal was low-sulfur coal. Approximately the same pro-
portion of the total produced could be considered medium-sul-
fur coal, while the remaining balance of about 28 percent had
a high-sulfur content. Anthracite generally contains less than 1
percent sulfur. Sub-bituminous and lignite, also are generally
low in sulfur. Approximately 47% of the bituminous-coal out-
put is burned by electric utilities. Coals so consumed generally
may be classified as medium-sulfur coals, as the average sul-
fur content of shipments to utilities in 1964 averaged about
2.3%. The coking industry probably has the most stringent sul-
fur requirements of any of the major consumer groups
because of the effect of the chemical constituents of the raw
materials on end products. The average sulfur content of coals
carbonized is about 1%. In order to utilize some coals which
contain more than 1% sulfur, the coke industry does con-
siderable blending of medium and low-sulfur coals. Sulfur con-
tent of the coals currently used for other industrial purposes
and space heating in homes, business establishments, schools
and Government buildings probably falls between that used by
electric utilities and coke plants. A survey of coal u;ed by
Government buildings for the year 1964 showed an averaRe
sulfur content of 1.1%. The sulfur content of exported c.al.. i,
low, since the bulk of the exports are metallurgical or special-
purpose coals and contain 0.7% or less sulfur. (Author summa-
ry modified)
16239
Thring, M. W.
FUEL AND ENERGY PROBLEMS IN THE NEXT THIRTY
YEARS. Preprint, Combustion Engineering Assoc. Hayes,
Middx., Great Britain, 21p., 1969. (Presented at the Com-
bustion Engineering Assoc. Meeting, London, April 10, 1969,
Document 8622.)
Within the next 30 years, world fuel requirements will
probably increase by a factor of the order of ten, and im-
proved combustion engineering techniques are necessary for
the proper use of world fuel resources. Even though mole
drilling operations may add to the proved resources of petrole-
um, there are definite and foreseeable limitations to world
hydrocarbon resources. Natural gas is even more limited than
petroleum and also much more difficult to transport. Coal
resources are at least 100 times greater than other hydrocarbon
resources, and it is anticipated that electricity will be
generated from coal by underground gasification and com-
bustion processes. Development of mechanical engineering
techniques should also make it possible to exploit two other
sources of hydrocarbon fuels: the Athabascan tar sands and
Colorado oil shales. Within the next thirty years, the cost of
electricity generated by nuclear fission will drop to about half
the present cost of electricity. Commercial-scale nuclear fusion
processes are likely to be a reality in 40 years. Once they ex-
ist, fuel will be unlimited because deuterium is present in all
water. It is hoped that the thermal efficiency of power stations
will be increased by the use of multifluid cycles and by
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
processes which will run boilers on a heavy fuel oil or will
combine steam engines and gas turbines. Fuel utilization by
railroads will be improved by the use of monorails driven by
linear electric motors. Fuel consumption of ships and airplanes
could be decreased by new propulsion methods in which sur-
rounding air would become the propulsion jet.
16256
Walker, F. E. and F. E. Hartner
FORMS OF SULFUR IN U. S. COALS. Bureau of Mines, In-
formation Circ., no. 8301, 51p., 1966. 2 refs.
Knowledge of the form in which sulfur occurs in coal is basic
in the development of improved sulfur removal methods. Sul-
fur does not occur as an element in coal, but three sulfur
forms in chemical combination are present: combined with the
organic coal substance (organic sulfur); combined with iron as
pyrite or marcasite (pyritic sulfur); and combined as calcium
and iron sulfates (sulfate sulfur). Forms of sulfur are deter-
mined on samples of air-dried coal crushed to pass a 250-
micron sieve. The sulfate sulfur is extracted from the coal
with dilute hydrochloric acid. The pyritic sulfur is extracted
from the hydrochloric acid residue portion of the sample with
dilute nitric acid. The pyritic sulfur is then determined from
the nitric acid soluble sulfur and by calculation from the
pyritic iron which is the nitric acid soluble iron. The organic
sulfur is taken as the difference between the total sulfur and
the sum of the pyritic and sulfate sulfur. A step-by-step
procedure for the determinations was presented. Total sulfur
and sulfur forms for coal in 283 counties in 29 States and 2
fields of the State of Alaska were determined. Samples totaled
approximately 2900 which included most of the coalbeds in the
United States. The results were presented in tabular form.
16410
Ochs, Hans-Joachim
DUST AND GASEOUS EMISSIONS FROM POWER PLANTS.
(Staub-und gasfoermige Emissionen von Kraftwerken). Text in
German. Wasser Luft Betrieb, 12(5):284-288, May 1968. 3 refs.
The pollutants in the stack gases of power plants stem mostly
from residues at the combustion of the various types of fuels
used in such plants. Operation of such plants with preheated
air helps to reduce the emission because fuel is saved. The
higher the temperature of the added air, the less fuel is needed
and the lower are the pollutant quantities in the flue gases.
Three diagrams illustrate this relationship. Recent measure-
ments in the U. S. showed that pulverized coal-fired boilers
with dry slag tap-off have, on the average, pollutant concen-
trations between 5 and 17 g/standard cu m flue gas. A direct
relationship exists between the ash content of the used coal
and the possible dust concentration. The type of firing system
and the composition of the fuel influence the grain size dis-
tribution in the flue gas. The ash content of solid fuels and the
C-content of liquid fuels are the major sources for solid pollu-
tants. The VDI (Association of German Engineers) guidelines
2091 to 2093 and 2096 to 2098 are concerned with dust emis-
sions by power plants and with means to combat such emis-
sions. An example for the computation of the flue gas flow is
given.
16489
Federal Power Commission, Washington, D. C., Bureau of
Power
STEAM-ELECTRIC PLANT CONSTRUCTION COST AND
ANNUAL PRODUCTION EXPENSES, NINETEENTH AN-
NUAL SUPPLEMENT - 1966. Federal Power Commission
Publ. S-185, 173p., Oct. 1967. 60 refs.
-------
A. EMISSION SOURCES
29
This supplement is the latest addition to the continuous com-
prehensive record of the operations of important steam-elec-
tric plants for the 29-year period 1938-1966. Plant investment
costs and the 1966 annual production expenses of 531 plants in
the United States and Puerto Rico are detailed in data sheets.
Five of the plants are nuclear fueled; 519, fossil fueled. For
the first time rural electric cooperatives are reported. The 519
fossil-fueled plants account for 89% of the continental United
States' steam-electric generating capacity of 198,341
megawatts and for 95% of the total net generation in 1966. The
scheduled capacity of fossil-fueled plants under construction
or expansion is 86,000 megawatts in 268 units; that of nuclear-
fueled plants on order, 42,000 megawatts in 56 units. Selected
references are provided to descriptive articles and papers per-
taining to several of the reported plants. Plants are indexed
both alphabetically by name and alphabetically by state.
16492
Federal Power Commission, Washington, D. C., Bureau of
Power
STEAM-ELECTRIC PLANT CONSTRUCTION COST AND
ANNUAL PRODUCTION EXPENSES. TWENTIETH ANNUAL
SUPPLEMENT - 1967. Federal Power Commission Publ. S-
192, 171p., Nov. 1968. 49 refs.
Data for 537 conventional fossil-fueled steam-electric plants in
the contiguous U. S., Hawaii, and Puerto Rico, as well as for
seven small, experimental nuclear-fueled plants are reported,
accounting for over 95% of the total net generation in 1967. In
general, the construction costs per kilowatt of capacity for
fossil-fueled plants placed in service during 1967 were higher
than for those initiated the previous year. The 1967 annual
production expenses, including fuel, increased 0.31 mill per
kilowatt-hour over 1966, or 9%. In each of the preceding nine
years, these costs had decreased over the previous year. The
9% increase is attributed primarily to increased fuel costs. The
1967 national average heat rate for fossil-fueled steam- electric
plants was 10,432 Btu per net kilowatt-hour. About 50% of the
expenditures currently being made for the various research
and development programs by the electric utilities and their
trade associations is going into the nuclear power field, with
major emphasis on fast-breeder reactor plants. By the end of
July 1968, the total nuclear generating capacity scheduled for
service during the period 1968 to 1976, totaled about 60,000
megawatts in 76 plant units. Air pollution, the thermal effects
on sources of cooling water supply, and physical appearance
of system facilities continued to emerge as major social-
economic issues affecting the electric power industry.
Technology for removing participate emissions from power-
plants is available; however, the demand for very high effi-
ciency (99% plus) electrostatic precipitators is growing rapidly.
Commercial devices for removal of sulfur oxides from flue
gases are not yet available.
16722
LaMantia, Charles R. and Edwin L. Field
TACKLING THE PROBLEM OF NITROGEN OXIDES.
Power, 113(4):63-66, April 1969. 9 refs.
The National Air Pollution Control Administration (NAPCA),
an agency of HEW, is now sponsoring a program to define
sources, magnitude, and character of the nitrogen oxide
problem, and to consider various methods for the control of
NOx emissions from stationary sources. NOx emissions are
objectionable because of the brownish color that nitrogen
dioxide gives the atmosphere, and also because of their ten-
dency to promote formation of the photochemical smog
generally associated with automobile exhaust, resulting in vari-
ous eye-irritating compounds such as formaldehyde, acrolein,
and peroxyacyl nitrates. The sources and emission factors of
NOx and various approaches to control, destruction, or
removal are discussed.
16788
Foster, P. M.
THE OXIDATION OF SULPHUR DIOXIDE IN POWER STA-
TION PLUMES. Atmos. Environ., 3(2):157-175, March 1969.
12 refs.
Some theoretical estimates are made of the rate of growth of
H2SO4 droplets nucleated by MnSO4 crystallites in a humid,
SO2 polluted atmosphere. Comparison with experiment sug-
gests that, as the acid concentration within the droplet rises,
the rate of growth decreases as a result of the product acid af-
fecting the rate of SO2 oxidation. For this reason the amount
of droplet growth, and the amount of SO2 oxidation, is very
sensitive to the ambient humidity, and will be greatest for
saturated or very high relative humidities where droplet acid
concentrations are restricted to low values. Similar calcula-
tions relating to the dusty conditions present in power station
plumes are also made. These show that the rates of SO2 ox-
idation observed in these systems can be accounted for by the
catalytic qualities of the iron present in the effluent dust. It is
suggested that other oxides present also play an important part
in this process in that they react with the product acid as it is
formed, thus keeping the droplet in a neutral condition in
which the catalyst is most active. (Author's Abstract)
16855
Fish, B. R.
RADIATION IN PERSPECTIVE-THE ROLE OF NUCLEAR
ENERGY IN THE CONTROL OF AIR POLLUTION. Nucl.
Safety, 10(2):119-130, Mar-Apr. 1969. 35 refs.
Nuclear energy can play a critically important role in combat-
ing the growing assault on the purity of our atmosphere by
supplanting fossil-fuel energy for most of the power plants to
be built late in the century. Even then the same tight control
that is currently exercised over the nuclear industry must
come into being for other industries that are actual and/or
potential polluters of the atmosphere. Several air-pollution dis-
asters of the past emphasize the potential for future disasters.
(Author's Abstract)
16877
Commins, B. T.
FORMATION OF POLYCYCLIC AROMATIC HYDROCAR-
BONS DURING PYROLYSIS AND COMBUSTION OF
HYDROCARBONS. Atmos. Environ., 3(5):565-572, Sept. 1969.
23 refs.
The effect of variations in equivalence ratio (mixture strength)
of a combination of fuel vapor and air on the production of
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons is discussed. The effect of
temperature alone on the production of hydrocarbons is stu-
died by pyrolysing acetylene in the absence of air at tempera-
tures in the range 550-1000 C. The ratios of each polycyclic
hydrocarbon to l:2-benzpyrene have been calculated and it is
found that certain ratios vary markedly when the combustion
conditions are altered. An example is given to show how the
proportion of 3:4-benzpyrene contributed to town air by motor
vehicles can be calculated in a mixed sample of smoke from
motor vehicles and the burning of coal. (Author's Abstract)
-------
30
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
16887
Slansky, Cyril M., Henry K. Peterson, and Vernon G. Johnson
NUCLEAR POWER GROWTH SPURS INTEREST IN FUEL
PLANT WASTES. Environ. Sci. Technol., 3(5):446-451, May
1969.
The potential radiation hazard connected with the release of
Kr-85 from the expanding fuel cycle industry has been studied
in detail. One of the main problems in studying this nuclear
waste management is estimating the rate of atmospheric dilu-
tion of the relatively concentrated off-gas from fuel
reprocessing plants. The major variables are: Rate at which
the waste is generated (the size of the reprocessing plant),
stack height, local meteorology, nature of the terrain, time in-
terval on which the dose is calculated, downwind distance of
the perimeter fence around the plant. These factors and the al-
ternative processes for Kr-85 off-gas treatment are discussed.
16888
Day, C. E., Jr.
HOW WE SPECIFY FUELS FOR OUR PLANTS. Combustion,
40(10):22-25, April 1969.
Specifying of fuels and of fuel characteristics, when done
cooperatively by engineers and purchasing agents, can be a
useful tool for promoting combustion reliability and in obtain-
ing fuel economics. This paper describes how one large indus-
trial fuel consumer specifies fuels to these ends. (Author's Ab-
stract)
16949
Dept. of Interior, Washington, D. C., Office of Coal Research
OFFICE OF COAL RESEARCH ANNUAL REPORT 1968.
56p., 1968.
This report of OCR activities for calendar year 1967 gives
detailed attention to the pilot plant program and to anti pollu-
tion benefits expected to result from the projects under
development. The following pilot plants are described: a flyash
brick plant for determining the commercial possibilities of
flyash-based structural materials; (2) a plant for using pul-
verized coal to remove solids and dissolved organic substances
from sewage and industrial waste waters; (3) a program to
develop coal-fired boilers which use the fluidized-bed com-
bustion process; and (4) a pilot plant for converting coal to
gasoline. Various electric power projects are underway to
develop a coal-energized fuel cell, a coal-fired elec-
trogasdynamic generator, a coal-fired thermionic topper, and a
coal-fired magnetohydrodynamic generator. All have the
potential of achieving overall thermal efficiences of 55-60% or
more, which would greatly reduce emissions of combustion
products, and some of the systems have other beneficial anti-
pollution features as well. The group of projects for develop-
ing practical methods of converting coal to pipeline quality gas
and synthetic petroleum would produce a coal-based fuel able
to meet the most stringent air-pollution regulation, since the
products must meet the same specifications as natural gas and
petroleum for catalytic processing, and would thus have a
negligible sulfur content. A number of OCR projects underway
or planned are directed toward sulfur removal: the fluidized-
bed combustion boiler program, the low-ash coal project, one
of the liquid-fuel projects in which sulfur can be removed and
recovered from char, and a program to produce low-sulfur
boiler fuel using the Consol CO2 Acceptor Process. These are
described briefly in terms of their implications for pollution
control.
17017
Nikolaev, S. P. and S. A. Dymshits
DISCHARGES OF BOILER OPERATED (COAL BURNING)
PLANTS CONVERTED TO GAS BURNING. U.S.S.R. Litera-
ture on Air Pollution and Related Occupational Diseases, vol.
8:93-96, 1963. (B. S. Levine, ed.) CFSTI: 63-11570
To evaluate the efficiency of shale gas combustion chambers,
discharge gases from six chambers were analyzed for sulfur
dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, tarry substances, soot, element
composition, and caloric value. The SO2 content of the gases
ranged from 3.04 to 207.06 mg/cu Nm and the H2S content,
from 0.46 to 4.67 g/100 cu Nm of gas. Products of incomplete
combustion were CO, H2, and CH4. Tarry substances ranged
from 0 to 32.61 mg/cu Nm. The soot present in the gases was
in a high degree of dispersion. Caloric value of the gas was
3234 to 3576 cal/cu Nm in the morning and 3178 to 3632 cal/cu
m in the afternoon. A statistical study of the data gathered in
19 discharge analyses indicated that incomplete combustion
occurred frequently in the chambers. This is attributed in part
to faulty chamber construction, inappropriate chamber size,
changes in composition and pressure of the gas fuel, absence
of control devices, and shortcomings of technical personnel.
17051
Salo, Eric A.
VISIBLE EXHAUST FROM FUEL OILS. Hydrocarbon
Process., 49(2):96- 98, Feb. 1970. 1 ref. (Presented to the Air
Pollution Control Association, New York, June 1969.)
One possible source of emissions opacity is from the forma-
tion of sulfur trioxide, which can form sulfuric acid aerosols
on cooling. Tests run with natural gas and controlled injection
of sulfur trioxide established an approximate threshold of 24
parts per million of sulfur trioxide for visible sulfuric acid
plumes. With the normal rate of conversion in power boilers
of the sulfur dioxide formed from combustion of fuel sulfur
into sulfur trioxide, the threshold fuel sulfur is about 2 1/2%.
This sulfur product is processed from imported stock of
unusual composition. Conspicuous to power plant operators is
the high pour point which makes it necessary to design a fuel
system for a minimum temperature of 130 F or more com-
pared with the common 100 F minimum. Another possible
source of emissions opacity is from the formation of sulfur
trioxide, which can form sulfuric acid aerosols on cooling.
Tests run with natural gas and controlled injection of sulfur
trioxide established an approximate threshold of 24 parts per
million of sulfur trioxide for visible sulfuric acid plumes. With
the normal rate of conversion in power boilers of the sulfur
dioxide formed from combustion of fuel sulfur into sulfur
trioxide, the threshold fuel sulfur is about 2 1/2%. This sup-
ports the policy of specifying a maximum of fuel sulfur of two
percent. The problems of conformance and of enforcement of
the opacity regulations are due mainly to the fact that opacity
is difficult to evaluate with portable instrumentation that in-
spectors could use.
17052
Viland, Clare Kenneth
AIR POLLUTION AND ATOMIC POWER. Mines Mag.
(Denver), 60(1):17, 19-20, 22-23, Jan. 1970.
Some of the facts pertaining to generation of electrical power
by nuclear (atomic) energy are presented. Since (1) nuclear
power plants are incapable of producing an explosion and
radioactive 'fallout', as with a bomb; (2) the reactor fuel,
presently mostly 'enriched' natural uranium containing slightly
more uranium 235 than found in nature, is completely encap-
-------
A. EMISSION SOURCES
31
sulated by suitable metals or alloys thereof; and (3) the reac-
tors themselves are enclosed, and heavily shielded to stop
gamma rays, which are essentially X-rays, emissions to the air
or to cooling water are negligible. Radiation problems to wor-
kers are solved by proper use of shielding, observing proper
distances, and time of exposure. Radioisotopes can be handled
safely by anyone with proper training, facilities, and instru-
mentation. In the separate centrally-located nuclear fuel
reprocessing plants, useful radioactive isotopes are recovered
which are finding increasing use in research, medicine, and in-
dustry. Oil companies may use iron 59 to measure engine wear
and thereby improve lubricating oils.
17184
Shirasawa, Tomiichiro
PUBLIC NUISANCE PREVENTION IN THERMAL POWER
PLANTS. (Karyoku hatsudenjo ni okeru kogai boshi taisaku).
Text in Japanese. Kogai to Taisaku (J. Pollution Control),
1(1):37-40, April 15, 1965.
Three aspects of pollution by thermal power plants are
discussed: smoke emissions; the rise in ocean temperature
together with the contamination of sea water by oil discharges
and boiler waste water; and operating and construction noise.
(1) The present emission standard for sulfur oxides (SO2 +
SOS) in smoke dust is below 0.22 ppm in terms of capacity
proportion; its dust component is below 1.2 g/cu m in case of
thermal power plants. Between 10 and 20 g/cu m of dust is
generally present in stack smoke from coal combustion prior
to dust collection; this means that coal-fired thermal power
plants need to have dust collectors with 90% collection effi-
ciency to meet the smoke emission standard. About three per-
cent sulfur-bearing heavy oil can meet the standard under
proper combustion conditions. The boiler cleansing water
discharge does not markedly affect ocean temperature, since
its initial temperature declines sufficiently in passing through
drain pipes before reaching the sewer outlet. In addition, the
sewer outlet is of sufficient depth. The amount of chlorine
used to protect drain pipes from an encroachment by shellfish
is minimal and generally digested by organic components of
the cleansing water. Other waste water (acid and alkaline),
used for boiler tube washing is discharged after neutralization,
settling, or filtering and can not be the reason for water pollu-
tion. Leakages of oily waste water occasionally occur during
overall inspection of machines or other equipment, but
drainage systems associated with an oil distributor tank should
be able to collect the oil compounds. The major noise in ther-
mal power plants originates in transformers and ventilators
which can make around 100 phon inside a plant, but generally
less, and perhaps 60 phon outside. In preparation for future
plant expansions, many noise suppression devices will be con-
sidered.
17199
Oshio, Toshiki
AIR POLLUTION PROBLEMS IN JAPAN (I). (Wagakuni ni
okeru taiki osen to sono mondaiten (I)). Text in Japanese.
Kogai to Taisaku (J. Pollution Control), 4(4):197-208, April 15,
1968.
It is known that air pollution grows more serious where vari-
ous types of industries are concentrated in one area. The
coastal industrial area in Japan is typical in this respect: the
recent tendency of plants to locate on, or adjacent to the
coastline is particularly reflected in locations of petroleum
refineries and petrochemical plants associated with iron and
steel refineries or with thermal power plants for whom coastal
areas provide shipping advantages. The difficulty of shoreline
air pollution control lies in the diversity of industries involved.
Factors associated with different pollutants generated by in-
dividual plants must be investigated to determine the collective
effect of combined pollutants. For example, where heavy oil is
burned, the determination of the air-pollution load in the im-
mediate area is based on multiple density, which is the product
of the total quantity of exhaust gas emission and respective
density of each pollutant. In addition, several major types of
effects of the concentration of air pollutants after they leave
emission sources should be taken into consideration. Disper-
sion of pollutants depend on the effective emission height of
the chimney, efflux velocity, wind speed, and other geographi-
cal conditions which complicate the behavior of atmospheric
pollutants in coastline areas. The major sources of sulfurous
gases are the thermal power plants, iron-steel refineries,
petroleum refineries and petro chemical plants, but there are
additional pollutants which make the pollution density thicker.
Since sulfurous gas alone may be less important in qualitative
and quantitative respects, other combustion products, such as
metal sulfides or sulfates generated in iron-steel plants, need
to be considered in shoreline pollution abatement programs.
17280
Koutnik, Joseph and Jan Vratny
CONTRIBUTION TO THE PROBLEM OF AIR PURIFICA-
TION IN THE NORTH BOHEMIAN LIGNITE COAL
MINES. (Prispevek k reseni problematiky cistoty ovzdusi v
Severoceske hnedouhelne panvi). Text in Czech. Uhli,
11 (6):218-221, June 1969. 3 refs.
The changes due to a change of coal with a low content of sul-
fur during an inversion period was studied at power plants.
The climate of a very stable boundary layer was divided into
three main types. A very stable boundary layer was defined as
one that spreads between the earth's surface at an altitude no
higher than 2 km/1,25 miles, characterized with a small posi-
tive vertical gradient from the earth's surface to the altitude of
800 m/3200 ft. Individual power plants were evaluated with
respect to coal consumption and power. It is suggested that
during the period of inversion, as announced by the Weather
Bureau, the power plants use the fuel with the lower content
of sulfur.
17357
Chovin, Paul
CHEMICAL POLLUTION OF THE ATMOSPHERE. (La pol-
lution chimique de 1'atmosphere). Text in French. Sci. Progr.
Decour., no. 3417; 35-40, Jan. 1970. 6 refs.
A systematic general review is presented of the origin and na-
ture of chemical pollutants of the atmosphere, of their action
on living beings, and of the battle against atmospheric pollu-
tion. Principle sources of pollutants are the industrial and
domestic heating plants. In regions of high industry concentra-
tion, steel plants and chemical plants emit specific pollutants.
Principal pollutants are sulfur dioxide, sulfur trioxide, carbon
dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitric oxide, nitrogen dioxide,
fluorine, and light and heavy hydrocarbons. Sulfur dioxide is a
byproduct of combustion of fossil fuels containing, on the
average, 3% S (coal in France has about 1% S, some foreign
coals have up to 6% S). Estimated emission of S is as follows:
in France, 2 million tons, in England, 5 million tons, and in the
U. S., 40 million tons a S per year. Sulfur trioxide is largely
due to oxidation of SO2; it combines with moisture to form
H2SO4 which is very noxious. Rain has a beneficial effect by
scrubbing the polluted air. Carbon dioxide is the product of
complete combustion of C; 500 to 600 million tons are esti-
mated to be emitted in England. Carbon monoxide is the
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32
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
product of incomplete combustion, rather rare in industry, but
invariably present in automobile exhaust gas. Nitric oxide and
NO2 are present in low concentrations, but a complex
photochemical reaction produces one type of smog, ozone,
and new chemical compounds such as peracetylnitrate, CH3-
CO-OO-NO2, which has a very strong physiological effect.
Fluorine and its compounds, such as HF, are emitted by fertil-
izer and by aluminum plants. Dusts are emitted by industrial
and domestic heating plants. The action of air pollutants on
bronchi and lungs is disucssed at length. The reaction of the
cardio vascular system and the incidence of broncho-pulmona-
ry cancer are also considered. In the battle against atmospher-
ic pollution laws alone are insufficient, means of measuring
emissions, and enforcing compliance are essential.
17398
Council for Air Pollution Countermeasure, Kashima (Japan)
REPORT ON WHOLE INVESTIGATION OF AIR POLLU-
TION CONTROL MEANS IN KASHIMA AREA, IBARAGI
PREFECTURE. (Taikiosen boshitaisaku chosahokokusho.
Ibaragiken Kashimachiku). Text in Japanese. Sangyo Kogai
(Ind. Public Nuisance), 6(l):32-38, Jan. 15, 1970.
A field survey was conducted to determine the extent of pollu-
tion to be expected following the completion of large-scale in-
dustrial projects in the Kashima district of Ibaragi prefecture.
The estimated production capacities in the district is as fol-
lows: petrochemical plants, 600,000 BSD; thermal power plant,
4,400,000 kw; ethylene products, 1,000,000 t/year; and iron-
steel products, 12,000,000 t/year. Each of the industries sur-
veyed has 28 stack plants, 182 boilers and furnaces, and 153
chimneys. The plants consume annually an estimated 7,600,000
kl of heavy oil, which constitutes 75% of the fuel used. The
estimated quantity of sulfur dioxide emissions is 20,000 cu nm
3/h, which is lower than that predicted for gross heavy oil
burning. The average sulfur content of heavy oil is 1.8%, but if
subsidiary fuels, like by-product gas, and oil are included
together, the figure decreases by 1.4%. Nearly 86% of the total
SO2 emissions from chimneys are discharged from chimneys
more than 100 m in height. It is noted that smoke emissions
can be controlled by supplying electric power and steam from
a central power-station. Factors influencing the dispersion of
pollutants, such as geographical features, weather conditions,
temperature variation, atmospheric inversion layers, and par-
ticularly the occurrence of up and down- air streams, are being
investigated.
17418
Fraser, Thomas W. L. Crentz, and A. L. Bailey
HIGH-SULFUR PITTSBURGH COAL: UPGRADING IN
SOUTHWESTERN PENNSYLVANIA AND NORTHERN
WEST VIRGINIA. Bull Bureau Mines, no. 483, 70p., 1950. 9
refs.
The upgrading of marginal coking coals was studied. Samples
were examined from typical areas of Pittsburgh, with principal
emphasis on the problem of sulfur. The main washing problem
was the removal of sulfur; the removal of ash is relatively
easy. The sulfur problem is increased by the wide variations of
sulfur content, not only in the raw coal but in the float
product. Within the area studied, low-sulfur coal is found
which is adaptable to metallurgical use without washing; areas
of high-sulfur coal are also found. Within the two extremes,
intermediate areas exist that contain some coal matter of
metallurgical quality. A study of the washing characteristics of
the coals showed that no one method of cleaning will result in
a satisfactory solution of the problem of up-grading the high-
sulfur coals. Selective mining, low-gravity separation, fine
crushing and froth flotation, and combinations of the three
must be employed before sulfur can be significantly reduced.
All these methods are difficult to control in the practical
operation of producing and washing coal. A study of the
washability data showed that the raw coal may be classified
with respect to ease of cleaning. Coals containing 1.80% sulfur
in the raw product present no extraordinary technological
problem. Coals containing 1.81 to 2.27% sulfur in the raw state
may be upgraded to metallurgical standards by the develop-
ment and application of intensive preparatory treatment. Coals
of the Pittsburgh bed that contain more than 2.27% sulfur in
the raw state cannot be considered as a metallurgical fuel.
(Author summary modified)
17464
REMARKABLE MEASURES FOR THE IMPROVEMENT OF
AIR QUALITY. (Beachtliche Massnahmen zur Verbesserung
der Luft). Text in German. Wasser Luft Betrieb, 14(l):33-36,
Jan. 1970.
In 1967, a total of 4 million tons of sulfur dioxide were emitted
from industrial sources, particularly power plants. Until 1975,
an increase to 5 million tons is anticipated; from then on, the
SO2 emission will stagnate and eventually decline, due to the
use of nuclear power. Contrary to this downward trend,
fluorine, chlorine, hydrocarbons and numerous odorous pollu-
tants are on an upward trend, due to the expanding chemical
industry. In the metallurgical industry, the sinter capacity has
been doubled; thus, the larger units will emit HC1 and larger
quantities of gaseous fluorine compounds along with SO2. It is
estimated that sintering plants presently already emit as much
fluorine compounds as the aluminum plants. No fluorine
removal method from the waste gases of the ore sintering
plants is yet available. Traffic will further increase, as well as
vehicle emissions. Emissions by domestic heaters will decrease
because electric or central heating will take the place of old
coal or oil fired heaters. To combat the increasing pollution of
air by an overall increase of emissions, the state of North-
Rhine-Westphalia plans to establish emission inventories. Such
inventories have been made in the area around Cologne; other
large cities will soon follow.
17483
Rivera-Cordero, Antonio
THE NUCLEAR INDUSTRY AND AIR POLLUTION. Environ.
Sci. Technol., 4(5):392-395, May 1970.
Sources of air pollution from nuclear industry processes are
reviewed. Studies indicate that radioactivity from a nuclear
power reactor is at least comparable to, if not lower than, that
released by a fossil-fuel burning plant of similar size, and the
safe operation of nuclear reactors with respect to air pollution
has been demonstrated; however, nuclear fuel processing is a
more important source of environmental radioactivity than the
reactor itself. About 99.9% of all nuclear wastes arise through
the reprocessing of reactor fuel, because of the enormous
amount of radioactivity in spent fuel. The gases evolved from
a fuel processing plant are usually contaminated with such
chemicals as nitric acid and organic solvents, as well as with
fission products; but the release of 85Kr to the atmosphere is
probably the most critical air pollution problem in the industry.
Applicable control processes for emissions from the various
nuclear processes are noted. Projects such as 'Plowshare' may
represent an important source of ah- pollution in the future, if
nuclear explosives are used for mining, excavation, and ore
processing. Meteorological analysis can be used to reduce
nuclear process air pollution, especially since continuous
discharge is frequently unnecessary and gases can therefore be
-------
A. EMISSION SOURCES
33
stored for radioactive decay until weather conditions -are
favorable for dilution and dispersion. Nuclear technology has
made positive contributions to air pollution science in recent
years with the development of various tracer techniques and
monitoring instruments.
17542
Takahashi, Kanji
ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION DUE TO ATOMIC ENER-
GY DEVELOPMENT. (Genshiryoku kaihatsu ni tomonau kan-
kyoosen). Text in Japanese. Doboku Gakkaishi (J. Japan Soc.
Civil Engrs.), 55(2):4M2, Feb. 15, 1970. 5 refs.
The release of radioactive substances from atomic power
plants in the U. S. is discussed with reference to protecting the
environment against radioactive contamination. Control mea-
sures center on the diluted low-level waste, the radioactivity
of which is only a fraction of that of total radioactive sub-
stances. These radioactive substances are mainly nuclear fis-
sion products generated by nuclear power plants; their release
to the atmosphere is accompanied by the release of radioactive
air-cooling and corrosive substances. Concerning radioactive
substances in the air and drinking water, the maximum density
of over 200 kinds of nuclei is restricted by law. Similarly,
restrictions are placed on the amount of radioactive wastes
that can be emitted by a plant. Air pollution by atomic power
plants is less than that by thermal power plants. However,
atomic power plants release considerable quantities of tritium.
Fortunately, tritium is not particularly hazardous, and tritium
emissions will not be an important air pollution problem in the
near future. However, consideration must be given to its long
half-life.
17688
Sullivan, Ralph J.
PRELIMINARY AIR POLLUTION SURVEY OF ARSENIC
AND ITS COMPOUNDS: A LITERATURE REVIEW. Litton
Systems Inc., Silver Spring, Md., Environmental Systems
Div., Contract PH 22-68-25, NAPCA Pub. APTD 69-26, 60p.,
Oct. 1969. 89 refs. CFSTI: PB 188071
Arsenic and its compounds are known to be toxic to humans,
animals, and plants. Arsenical dusts may produce dermatitis,
bronchitis, and irritation to the upper respiratory tract.
Medicinal ingestion of arsenic has produced keratoses and
cancer of the skin. The relationship of arsenic to other types
of cancer, particularly lung tumors, is uncertain. Arsenic is
produced by smelters processing arsenical ores. Because there
is no economic incentive to remove arsenic from the exhaust
fumes of smelting, the smelter is a potential local pollution
source. Arsenical compounds are used as insecticides and her-
bicides. The use of arsenic in pesticides has declined since the
appearance of organic pesticides. The largest quantity of ar-
senic is used as a desiccant for cotton prior to machine
picking. As a result, arsenic pollution occurs during cotton
ginning and the burning of cotton trash. Coal also contains a
small amount of arsenic; thus, city air contains a small amount
of arsenic given off by combustion of coal. The 1964, average
daily concentration was 0.03 micrograms/cu m. In general, the
removal of particulate material will control arsenic emissions if
the control equipment operates at approximately 100 C to con-
dense the arsenic fumes. An electrostatic precipitator is re-
ported to reduce the arsenic from 5-17 ppb to 0-4 ppb.
Precipitators, cooling flues, and bag houses are used in the
smelting industry. At a chemical plant in the U.S.S.R., arsenic
removal reached 100% efficiency after wet vacuum pumps
were substituted for fabric filters. Methods of analysis are
available for measuring ambient air concentrations of arsenic.
(Author abstract modified)
17910
Dumont, A. H. and J. L. Guiette
ENERGY PRODUCTION UNITS OF THE 'TURBO-JET'
TYPE. (Les groupes de production d'energie du type 'turbo-
jet'). Text in French. Bull. Soc. Roy. Beige Electriciens,
85(l):21-37, Jan.-March 1969. (Presented at the Societe royale
beige des Electriciens a Bruxelles, Jan. 23, 1969.)
A brief, general description is given of 20- and 40-megawatt
electric power stations using turbo-jet type aviation gas tur-
bines with direct-driven alternators, installed at Langerbrugge
(Belgium) and at Beerse (Belgium) respectively. Schematic
sectional views and photographs of the exterior views of these
stations are shown. The environmental problems posed by the
turbo-jet units are discussed, as well as their typical applica-
tions. The electrical control circuits and the operational
characteristics of the turbo-jet electric power stations, the
economic aspects of their use, as well as their applications as
back-up units in electrical networks, emergency power units,
and as a 'cold reserve' in electrical installations are presented.
The environmental aspects considered in detail are acoustical
vibrations, mechanical vibrations, and smoke emission. As
these power stations are located in residential districts, the
above factors are highly important. High-frequency noise is
generated in the compressor stage by the motion of the rotor
blades past the stator blades and emerges largely through the
air intake. Low-frequency noise is generated in the combustion
chamber and high-frequency noise, from the gas turbine
emerge through the gas outlet. High frequency sound is
emitted by the housing of the unit. The elaborate sound ab-
sorption measures are described and the vibration-isolating
mounting of the unit are discussed. When natural gas is used
as fuel, no smoke is formed. Light virgin naphtha used in
Belgium gives less smoke than kerosene. Changes in existing
combustion-chamber designs resulted in reduced smoke emis-
sion.
18052
Chironis, Nicholas P.
SMALL STEAM ENGINE VIES FOR CARS, POWER
PACKAGES. Prod. Eng., 40(7): 100-102, April 7, 1969.
Many engineers feel the steam engine is a potential replace-
ment for the air-polluting internal combustion engine. It is rela-
tively simple, silent, efficient, produces fewer pollutants, and
it can use cheaper, safer fuels than can other engines. A V-4
steam engine that weighs less than 40 Ib and is so simple it
needs no castings is powering motorboats and being adapted
for use in medium-sized vehicles. Moreover the engine is prov-
ing remarkably successful as the power source for compact,
steam powered, total-energy modules. The total-energy
package is described in some detail with flow sheet and phase
diagram.
18056
Glaser, Peter E.
POWER FROM THE SUN. Mech. Eng., 91(3):20-24, March
1969. 16 refs.
The projection of energy requirements vs fossil fuel availabili-
ty shows that within a few hundred years other energy sources
will be needed. Solar energy, perhaps gathered and focused by
satellites, is one of the sources of energy that may become in-
creasingly important. Some of the features of a satellite
system are discussed. Based on present state-of-the-art of
solar photovoltaic conversion devices there is little likelihood
that the efficiency and cost per unit weight and per unit collec-
tor will be attractive enough to be used for converting signifi-
cant amounts of energy with a satellite system. An entirely dif-
-------
34
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
fercnt type of material for solar energy conversion, organic
semiconductors, are discussed. Problems of power generation
and transmission, and of earth receiving stations are discussed
briefly.
18078
Seaborg, Glenn T.
LOOKING AHEAD IN NUCLEAR POWER. Mech. Eng.,
91 (8): 30-34, Aug. 1969.
With the prospect of increased future requirements for electri-
cal energy it will be important to utilize all fuel sources wisely
and effectively. Current AEC studies are being conducted to
examine all aspects of nuclear energy systems-future power
requirements, economics, conservation of resources, reactor
technology, safety, and the public interest. Various kinds of
breeder reactors are being investigated. The economic ad-
vantages that might accrue from a strong program for the
development of breeder reactors were brought out by a report,
'Cost-Benefit Analysis of the U. S. Breeder Reactor Program,'
completed recently by the AEC. Environmental factors play
an important role in the assessment of the nuclear energy pro-
gram. Air pollution, thermal pollution, and radioactive
discharge are factors that must be kept under control but at a
rational level not a level dictated by public hysteria.
18114
McCartney, J. T., H. J. O'Donnell, and Sabri Ergun
PYRITE SIZE DISTRIBUTION AND COAL-PYRITE PARTI-
CLE ASSOCIATION IN STEAM COALS. CORRELATION
WITH PYRITE REMOVAL BY FLOAT-SINK METHODS. Bu-
reau of Mines, Washington, D. C, Kept. Invest. 7231, 18p.,
1969. 18 refs.
In an effort to correlate the size of pyrite particles in coal and
coal-particle association with the removal of pyrite before
burning, the Bureau of Mines conducted a study of 61 coals
presently being used for electric power production. The results
were obtained by visual microscopic studies of polished
briquets of minus 14-mesh samples. Mean pyrite particle sizes
ranged from 20 to 400 microns and proportions of pyrite con-
tained in coal particles to an extent greater than 50% by
volume (estimated) ranged from 20 to 95%. These parameters
were correlated with reductions in pyrite accomplished by
float-sink tests at 1.60 sp gr on 14-mesh, 3/8-inch, and 1-1/2
inch samples. The correlation coefficients between pyrite
removal and mean pyrite particle size were 0.89, 0.84, and
0.79, respectively, for these samples. Correlation coefficients
between pyrite removal and coal-pyrite association parameter
were 0.92, 0.90, and 0.85, respectively. It is apparent that ex-
lent of pyrite removal can be fairly well predicted from micro-
scopic analysis. (Author's Abstract)
18171
Thicssen, Reinhardt
OCCURRENCE AND ORIGIN OF FINELY DISSEMINATED
SULFUR COMPOUNDS IN COAL. Trans. AIME (Am. Inst.
Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleu Engr.), p. 2431-2444, 1919.
9 rcfs.
All coals that have been examined microscopically contain dis-
seminated microscopic grains of pyrite. These are distributed
very irregularly and usually occur in colonies. Different coal
seams vary in the total content of this form of pyrite, different
horizons differ in the total content, and different parts of a
section may vary widely in the number of globules present.
The majority of globules are roughly spherical in form with a
rough surface, and readily break into numerous minute cubes.
Coals also contain submicroscopic sulfur, probably as organic
sulfur Although the presence of organic sulfur has been
known for a long time, its chemical form is not known. Plants
contain sulfur in two forms: as a component of proteins and as
non-protein sulfur. The sulfur in proteins is universally present
in plants, while the other form occurs only in certain families,
but in some of these it occurs in relatively large amounts. On
decomposition, the sulfur in plants is released mainly as
hydrogen sulfide. Sulfur is absorbed by higher plants as a
sulfate; hydrogen sulfide is toxic and must first be oxidized to
a sulfate. Hydrogen sulfide may be oxidized through the agen-
cy of sulfur bacteria, resulting in sulfates. All plant ashes con-
tain some sulfur. Sulfur is present in peat bogs from 0.29 to
4.21%. Calcium sulfate often crystallizes out when peat is
dried slowly. Peats contain pyrite in the form of microscopic
grains, similar to those found in the lignites, sub-bituminous,
and bituminous coals. (Author summary modified)
18176
Dillard, J. K., and C. J. Baldwin
UTILITIES SEEK TO OPTIMIZE ENERGY ECONOMICS.
Elec. Light Power, p. 84-87, April 1965.
Present trends indicate that there will be increased usage of
mine-mouth plants, EHV transmission, and nuclear generation.
Pooling will take place on a regional basis with an upper limit
of transmission distance of 500 to 700 miles. Economies will
be realized by locating a large portion of the installed capacity
relatively near the load centers. Large nuclear plants will be
applied in areas with fuel costs in excess of $0.25 per million
Btu. Competition from nuclear plants and regional mine-mouth
plants will exert continued downward pressure on coal costs
and rail rates. Studies of the economics of pooling have shown
savings from common economic dispatch and two-way energy
transfer that have amounted to about 3% of the total fuel bill
and investment charges on the bulk power systems of the
pooling utilities. The trend toward larger plant sizes has helped
to establish a competitive advantage for nuclear power where
fuel costs exceed $0.25 per million Btu, since these plants
enjoy an economy of scale beyond that of conventional plants.
The slightly higher initial cost of nuclear power plants is offset
by the progressively lower fuel-cycle costs encountered. The
distances over which pooled power blocks can be economi-
cally transmitted depends on the type of generation, plant size,
the line voltage used, and fuel costs in the relative areas. Fuel
cost vs transportation distance curves are shown. Several
practical examples of economical pooling are given.
18177
Gerber, Abraham, and Bruce C. Netschert
THE ENERGY OUTLOOK FOR THE UNITED STATES.
IEEE (Inst. Elec. Electron. Engrs.) Spectrum, 6(6):38-45, June
1969. 6 refs.
Prevailing trends in U. S. energy production and consumption
are reported, and statements are made concerning the outlook
for the future. Total energy consumption in the U. S. grew at
an average rate of 4.3% in the period of 1961-1966. Rate of
growth for consumption of fuels for the production of elec-
tricity was 7.3%. Fossil fuels are to continue to be the main
source of fuel for electricity with an increase of 3.1%/yr. in
the rate of consumption. Nuclear fuel is beginning to emerge
as a competitor of fossil fuels, but it is not possible to predict
its likely impact on the consumption of fossil fuels in the next
two decades. Sources of all fuel types are discussed. Air pollu-
tion resulting from energy production is discussed. One of the
most important issues is industrial SO2 emission, and the
legislation dealing with this emission. Control by desulfuriza-
-------
A. EMISSION SOURCES
35
lion of fuels, higher stacks, and removal of SO2 from flue
gases is discussed. The impact of measures to abate air pollu-
tion on energy consumption in the near future cannot yet be
forseen.
18276
Evans, R. K.
WORLD FUEL RESOURCES. Power, 112(6):S6-S11, June
1968.
Fuel reserves and new ways of converting them into usable
energy are constantly being discovered. During the past 20
years, more than 364 trillion cu ft of natural gas reserves have
been proved in the U. S. Proven reserves of crude oil in the
world were estimated at 500 billion barrels by the end of 1967.
To fuel the growing number of nuclear power plants, 100,000
tons of uranium will be needed by the end of 1972. The bulk
of the known worldwide reserves of uranium are located in the
U. S., Canada, and South Africa. It is difficult to estimate how
much of a country's coal resource is economically recovera-
ble. According to the U. S. Geological Survey, our recoverable
coal reserves amount to 830 billion tons, a 1500-year supply at
the present rate of consumption. Most coal seams in the U. S.
are more accessible, substantially thicker, and more horizontal
than deposits in other countries, which allows our mines to
develop faster and at lower cost. By-products and refuse are
also valuable fuel resources.
19017
Johnstone, H. F.
REACTIONS OF SULFUR COMPOUNDS IN BOILER FUR-
NACES. Ind. Eng. Chem., 23(6):620-625, June 1931. 12 refs.
(Presented at the American Chemical Society Meeting, 81st,
Indianapolis, Ind., March 30- April 3, 1931.)
In a furnace, the sulfur in coal is converted mainly into sulfur
dioxide. Only about 2% is oxidized to the trioxide, regardless
of the temperature or oxygen content of the gases. The con-
centration of sulfur trioxide in the stack gases is no greater,
therefore, than that in the furnace gases. Flue dust has only
slight catalytic action in the oxidation of sulfur dioxide. When
the sulfur in the fuel exists as sulfuric acid, as, for instance, in
petroleum residues, about 85% of the acid is reduced in the
furnace to sulfur dioxide. The gases contain only slightly more
trioxide than those from high-sulfur coal. When coal is fired
on a stoker, about 30% of the sulfur remains in the ash, at
least a part of which exists as iron sulfide. Particles of dust
containing the sulfide adhere readily to one another and to
metal surfaces, so that hard deposits build up readily both on
boiler and economizer tubes. On boiler tubes, most of the sul-
fur in the slag is lost by oxidation of the sulfides and decom-
position of the sulfates. At lower temperatures, the sulfates
are stable and the slag contains a large proportion of sulfate
sulfur, even above the condensation temperatures of the gases.
Concentrations of sulfur trioxide in the gases as low as 0.015%
raise the dew point to 80-100 C. The hygroscopic nature of
deposits containing ferric sulfate also causes moisture to con-
dense at temperatures considerably above the dew point of the
gases calculated from the partial pressure of water vapor in
the gases. As solutions containing ferric sulfate act as strong
catalysts for the oxidation of sulfur dioxide to sulfuric acid,
the existence of these sulfates in the flue dust is responsible
for an increase in the temperature range of corrosion by flue
gases. Increased moisture content of the gases caused by leaks
or by the use of steam soot-blowers will produce the same ef-
fect. (Author abstract)
19024
Dicks, John B., Jr.
LARGE SCALE POWER DEVELOPMENTS. Tennessee Univ.,
Tullahoma, Space Inst., AFOSR Contract F44620-69-C-0031,
14p., 1969. 3 refs. CFSTI, DDC: AD 701446
The engineering problems, economics, pollution aspects, and
feasibility of technically advanced large-scale central power
plants are discussed. Particular emphasis is given to mag-
netohydrodynamics (MHD) topping of conventional steam
plants. MHD power generation is achieved when an easily
ionized metal such as potassium or cesium is introduced into
high-temperature combustion gas which is expanded to high
velocity and directed into a magnetic field with properly ar-
ranged electrodes and an external circuit. The principle loss in
overall power plant efficiency, currently less than 40%, arises
in the heat cycle. The steam cycle used only a relatively small
portion of the available temperature range, and a much more
efficient cycle might operate by topping the steam cycle with a
device that could operate at the flame temperature or above.
In the MHD cycle, an increase in flame temperature is neces-
sary to produce the required electrical conductivity. In such a
hybrid, the conventional power generating stage would supply
less than 50% of the power. The seed material that is con-
tained in the effluent is expensive enough that particulate and
vapor removal from the exhaust gas would be mandatory.
Overall efficiency of the steam/MHD system lies between 50
and 60%. The cost of nuclear produced electric power has in-
creased from 112 dollars/kilowatt to 160 dollars/kilowatt in the
last few years. A comparison of economics for conventional
coal-fired, nuclear boiling water reactors, and coal MHD
steam systems indicates a possible savings of 70 billion dollars
between now and the end of the century through the develop-
ment of MHD-topped steam plants. The cost of development
would be high, probably involving 237 million dollars in order
to get through the construction of the first large-scale plant
producing 1000 megawatts.
19038
Strimbeck, Donald C., Arthur J. Liberatore, Gerald B. Goff,
and James P. McGee
BUREAU OF MINES COAL-FIRED GAS TURBINE
RESEARCH PROJECT. TEST OF COMBUSTOR AND ASH
SEPARATORS FOR OPEN-CYCLE PLANT. Bureau of Mines,
Washington, D. C., Rept. of Investigations 7295, 12p., Sept.
1969. 2 refs. CFSTI: PB 187742
A down-fired combustor lined with refractory brick proved to
be an efficient means for burning pulverized coal in an experi-
mental open-cycle gas turbine. Efficiency of the combustor
was 95 to 99+ % (compared with 85-90% for the previously
used flame-tube combustors) as a result of better mixing of air
and coal in the combustion zone, longer retention time of coal
in the burning zone, and lower heat loss. Relatively little un-
burned carbon remained in the ash, thereby reducing the mass
load of solids requiring removal; 20% of the particles were
removed from the washout chamber at the bottom of the com-
bustor. The axial-flow separator operating as a single stage
adequately met design specifications calling for low pressure
drop and little gas blowdown loss, while ash load in gas from
the axial-flow separator was about 24 grains/100 scf. Although
the objective of improving the ash separation was not
achieved, the experience indicated that an ash concentration
around 1 grain/100 scf might prove acceptable. (Author conclu-
sions modified)
-------
36
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
19084
Laufhuette, D. W.
PRACTICAL EXPERIENCE WITH DUST RECORDERS FOR
CONTINUOUS MONITORING OF DUST EMISSIONS.
(Betriebliche Erfahrungen mil registrierenden Staubmess-
geraeten zur Dauerueberwachung von Staubemissionen). Text
in German. Mitt. Ver. Grosskesselbesitzer, 49(l):15-23, Feb.
1969. 2 refs. (Presented to the VGB, Emissions Meet., Salz-
burg, Bielefeld, and Saarbruecken, 1968.)
Performance of dust measuring apparatus behind hard coal-
fired boilers in power plants was tested, with the use of elec-
troconductivity analyzers and transmissometers. Parallel
gravimetric measurements were taken for comparison, while
operating the boiler at a constant load of 110 tons steam/h for
the entire test period. The same type of coal was used for all
tests. Electroconductivity analyzers were found to operate re-
liably only at constant load, and to be incapable of adjusting
to changing boiler loads with varying speeds and dust distribu-
tions. Dust was deposited between the sampling probe and the
dust sensor, even when the heater was used to avoid below
dew point temperatures. The ionization tube tended to be worn
through friction of the dusts. Measurements were falsified
through dust deposition in the return duct from the dust sensor
to the cleaned gas duct. A correlation of the photometric mea-
surements and the specific dust content existed, but a transfer
of the found correlation to other similar plants was not feasi-
ble. Only the latter method was found to be suitable within
certain limits (constant load etc.) for continuous dust monitor-
ing in boilers.
19165
Felix, R.
INDUSTRIAL ELECTRO-HEAT APPLICATIONS AND AIR
POLLUTION. (Les applications electrothermiques industrielles
et la pollution de 1'air). Text in French. Preprint, Union Inter-
nationale de rElectrothermie, Paris, 5p., 1966 (?).
Arguments for and against the increased use of electric heating
in industry are discussed. The main objections are that many
plants where electric heating and power are used still give off
fumes, and that the power plants from which the electric
power is derived are themselves sources of pollution. Concern-
ing the first argument, it is pointed out that some plants, such
as those for the making of aluminum and calcium carbide, can-
not use other forms of power and can therefore not be com-
pared. In cases where electric heating is one of several alterna-
tives, the electric power does not in itself create pollution
problems that do not exist when other heat sources are used.
With respect to the problems of electric power plants, it is
noted that substantial progress has been made in developing
nuclear sources of power, reducing the sulfur content of fuel
oil and coal, in providing higher chimneys for the dissemina-
tion of waste gases, in using recovery equipment for exhaust
gases, and in locating power sources at greater distances from
population centers.
19318
Walterscheid, Edward C.
NUCLEAR POWER. Analog Sci. Fiction/Sci. Fact, 86(l):32-69,
Sept. 1970.
Similarities and differences between nuclear and fossil-fueled
electric power plants are discussed. The chief similarity is
their inefficiency. Fossil-fueled plants can achieve net efficien-
cies of 38-40%; light-water-reactor nuclear power plants now
in use in this country achieve a net 32%. Power plants, fossil
or nuclear-fueled must dissipate a tremendous amount of heat
to their surrounding environment. In a fossil-fueled plant,
about 15% of the heat input is lost through the stacks, boilers,
turbines, and for station use. There is no stack loss in a
nuclear plant and other inplant losses amount to 5%. The
remainder of the heat is dissipated to the atmosphere through
condensers which can require large amounts of cooling water.
In passing through the condensers, the cooling water is heated
10 to 20 degrees or more depending on plant design. Almost
1/3 of all the water used in the United States is used as cool-
ing water for these plants. Both nuclear and fossil fueled
plants produce certain waste products which must be dealt
with. The wastes from fossil fueled plants are considered air
pollutants and consist primarily of fly-ash and gaseous oxides
of sulfur, nitrogen, and carbon. Carbon dioxide is being added
to the atmosphere at a rate of 6 billion tons a year by the
burning of fossil fuels. The problem associated with wastes
from nuclear power plants is radioactivity. However, from a
biological point of view, more radioactivity is released to the
environment by operation of a large fossil fueled power plant
than by the equivalent sized nuclear power plant. This release
is in the form of several isotopes of radium present in coal and
oil which are emitted to the atmosphere in fly ash. While this
does not constitute the formation of new radioactivity such as
occurs in a nuclear power plant, it does have a similar effect
on the environment. It is, however, in the formation of new
radioactivity that the future promise of the nuclear power
plant lies. Reactors have been designed that create more
nuclear fuel than they use. When the dwindling reserves of
fossil fuels are considered, these nuclear 'breeder' reactors
look like the best available means of meeting the projected
requirement to quadruple or quintuple our generating capabili-
ty by the year 2000.
19434
Ministry of Labour and Social Welfare, North Rhine-
Westphalia, Germany
KEEPING THE AIR PURE IN NORTH RHINE-
WESTPHALIA. (Reinhaltung der Luft in Nordrhein West-
falen). Congr. Reinhaltung der Luft, Duesseldorf, West Ger-
many, 1969. (Oct. 13-17.) Translated from German. Belov and
Associates, Denver, Colo., 133p., Feb. 11, 1970.
The centers of industrial concentration in North Rhine-
Westphalia are also those of population concentration. The
close juxtaposition of these concentrations of emittants of air
pollutant material and the densely situated population causes
extreme problems. The directed measures of the last ten years
against the unbearable dust load and the harmful sulfur diox-
ide emissions have led to considerable improvements. Mea-
surements show an extraordinary reduction of dust and SO2 in
the air since 1963. While infringements on the dust limit values
were found on 22% of the measurement surface at the
beginning of the measurement period with 5% of the measur-
ing surface violating the SO2 limit value, in the year 1968
violations were 5% for dust and 1% for SO2. These successes
were predominantly due to severe licensing practices for new
industrial plants and improvement programs for existing indus-
tries that do the most to determine emission concentrations:
steel converters, ore sintering plants, coking furnaces, foun-
dries, and steam power plants. The experiences of the last few
years have shown that the problems of air pollution are sub-
ject to change and have a continuous connection with the
developments in technology and production in industry. An in-
crease of around 25% to 5 million tons SO2 emissions per year
is projected from 1967 to 1975. From 1975 on, the production
of electric power, which will then account for 40% of the SO2
emissions, will be considerably influenced by atomic energy;
SO2 emissions will first stop their increase and then start to
-------
A. EMISSION SOURCES
37
decline. Fluorine, hydrocarbons, chlorine, and numerous odor
substances will become the focus of attention. The dust
problem will no longer be a question of loads due to coarse
dust, but dangers to health due to fine dusts. Precipitation
measurements will be extended to include concentration mea-
surements. In the coming 10 years, the State will also take an
increasingly critical look at emissions from automobiles and
domestic heating units. The goal of the State Government is
the development of a control system on a regional basis. Data
banks will be set up to provide regional data on individual in-
dustrial emission sources, as a tool to the development of con-
trol programs. This program has already begun in the area of
metropolitan Cologne and will soon be extended to the
Duisburg/Oberhausen/Mulheim a.d. Ruhr, Essen/Bottrop, Gel-
senkirchen/Wanne/Eicket/Bochum, Castrop/Rauxel, and Dort-
mund regions.
19444
Juentget, H. and K. H. Van Heek
PROGRESSES MADE IN THE RESEARCH OF PYROLYSIS
OF BITUMINOUS COAL. (Fortschritte der Forschung auf
dem Gebiet der Steinkohlenpyrolyse). Brennstoff-Chem. (Es-
sen), 50(6): 172-178, June 1969. 63 refs. Translated from Ger-
man. Belov and Associates, Denver, Colo., 28p., May 12,
1970. (Presented at the DGMK Annual Meeting, Salzburg,
Germany, Oct. 7-9, 1968.)
Research is reported which deals with new work in the field of
coal decomposition at high temperatures (up to 10,000 K), the
state of the knowledge pertaining to reaction kinetics of the
gas formation during thermal decomposition of coal, and the
correlation between bituminous coal analysis and combustion.
Through the development of high-energy plasma burners and
lasers, experimenters can now perform the thermal decomposi-
tion of coal using extremely high temperatures and cor-
respondingly high heating rates. Additionally, differentiating
physical instruments for the determination of the products of
pyrolysis, new methods for the evaluation of measured data
by the use of computers, and new techniques for the heating
of coal samples facilitate exact studies of the reaction kinetics
of the gas formation during pyrolysis. Discussion is presented
pertaining to the thermodynamics of coal at high temperatures,
the kinetics of coal pyrolysis, and the correlation of pyrolysis
with other reactions occurring during the combustion of in-
dividual coal particles.
19511
Biederman, Nicholas P.
CAN NATURAL GAS HELP US SURVIVE ON A POLLUTED
PLANET? Pipeline Gas J., 197(8):46, 48, 50, 52, 54, 56, 59, 60,
62, and 64, July 1970. 16 refs.
The role of the natural gas industry in terms of the overall pol-
lution problem is discussed. The most beneficial use of the ex-
isting supply of natural gas is considered. The areas of air,
water, solid waste, and noise pollution are reviewed from a
historical perspective through to present problems. Classifica-
tion of pollution sources and emissions are given, as well as
costs of control programs, particularly in fuel substitution and
fuel emission control. Domestic pollution, municipal and in-
dustrial waste, and thermal pollution are considered. Electric
power generation is the largest source of thermal pollution.
Even with the total potential reserves, the gas industry cannot
supply fuel to everybody in unlimited quantities. It is essential
that government, industry, and individuals cooperate to insure
that natural gas is used beneficially, rather than simply con-
veniently.
19994
Miner, Sydney
PRELIMINARY AIR POLLUTION SURVEY OF RADIOAC-
TIVE SUBSTANCES: A LITERATURE REVIEW. Litton
Systems, Inc., Silver Spring, Md., Environmental Systems
Div., NAPCA Contract PH 22-68-25, Publ. APTD 69-46, 143p.,
Oct. 1969. 199 refs. CFSTI: PB 188092
Radiation effects on humans are of 2 types: biological (leu-
kemia, cancer, shortened life span) and genetic, which is dif-
ficult to assess. Thus far, the radiation reaching the general
public as a result of the nuclear power industry is insignificant
compared with that from natural sources (radioactive minerals
in the earth and cosmic ray activity), although the proposed
expansion of the industry could give rise to problems from
krypton-85. The nuclear weapons testing programs temporarily
raised radiation levels 5-10% higher than those of natural
sources. Maximum permissible concentrations for
radionuclides released from nuclear plants have been set by
the Atomic Energy Commission. The cost of control
procedures used in the nuclear industry amounts to about 10%
of the total cost of the plant. No data is presently available on
the cost of damage from radioactive pollution of the at-
mosphere, but the atmospheric concentrations of radioactive
substances can be determined by a number of highly accurate,
sensitive methods. These include such sampling methods as fil-
ters, impactors, impingers, and settling trays. Particulate sam-
ples can be analyzed for activity and particle size. Among the
radioactive gases analyzed are iodine, tritium, argon-41, kryp-
ton-85, xenon-133, xenon-135, carbon-14 dioxide, and sulfur-35
dioxide.
20736
Bennett, Raymond R.
ENERGY FOR THE FUTURE. Combustion, 41(10):8-12, April
1970. (Also Ebasco News, 22(8).)
Electrical generating requirements for the next 25 years are
forecast and the various sources of raw energy are analyzed to
obtain an estimate of their proportionate applicability during
that period. It is predicted that coal will lose its high percent-
age of the market but will still provide a significant quantity of
the raw energy requirements. Generation by natural gas will
grow at a much slower rate than in the past, due to competi-
tion from other consumers and a limited proven reserve. Oil
will provide energy to coastal utilities but will be limited to
coastal areas by transportation costs and will not be a domi-
nant energy source. Hydro will diminish in importance and
areas now predominantly hydro will turn to nuclear and coal in
the future. Nuclear energy will achieve a dominant role in
electric utility generation.
20863
Gambs, Gerard C.
THE ELECTRIC UTILITY INDUSTRY: FUTURE FUEL
REQUIREMENTS 1970-1990. Mech. Eng., 92(4):42-48, April
1970.
By 1990, the thermal generating capacity of power plants will
have increased from 270 million kw in 1970 to over 1100 mil-
lion kw. The generation of electricity in 1990 will be four times
the 1970 generation, and the total fuel requirement by 1990
will be nearly five times that of the current level. The types of
fuel which will be consumed in the 1970-1990 period are
discussed. Due to anticipated shortage of coal, comsumption
of coal by electric utilities will peak out at 315 million tons by
1975 and then decline to 226 million tons by 1990. Because of
the availability of oil, and the cost advantage of burning oil in-
stead of coal, oil consumption will grow from the current level
-------
38
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
of 250 million bbl per year to 644 million bbl per year by 1990.
Current consumption of natural gas is now about 3000 billion
cu ft per year and should continue to increase to 6100 billion
cu ft per year by 1990. Hopefully, nuclear shots for gas stimu-
lation will increase gas reserves. It is believed that nuclear
power will grow from the current level of several million kw
to nearly 200 million by 1980 and to 600 million kw by 1990.
The advantages of utilizing uranium ore as a fuel is indicated
by the fact that it takes 17000 tons of coal to equal one ton of
uranium oxide concentrate in energy equivalent.
21191
Sakagishi, Shokichi
ENVIRONMENTAL SECURITY. (Kankyo no anzen). Text in
Japanese. Genshiryoku Kogyo, 16(4):129-132, April 1, 1970.
In view of the anticipated growth of nuclear power plants,
protection of the environment for both plant workers and re-
sidents of surrounding areas must be insured. The major
procedures followed by the Atomic Energy Commission of
Japan to evaluate environmental security around an atomic
plant are as follows: (1) inspection of the dispersion of
radioactive substances to the atmosphere by the Pasquill
method, which is not applicable to gamma radiation and (2) in-
spection of discharged waste water to determine if it meets
present emission standards. At the present time, the effect of
sea water or streams in diluting waste water and the waste
concentrations in marine products are unknown, as is the cu-
mulative effect of the wastes on human health. A recent report
by the Commission indicates that emission rates of radioactive
contaminants contained in wastes are more important than
total emission levels. This means that, even when emission
levels are low, wastes should be discharged only when the
radioactive contaminants are subject to the constant possibility
of irradiation through direct effects as well as through the in-
direct one of the food chain. It is recommended that the
emisssion rate before discharge be measured by an authorized
body and that the effect of mass emissions from all plants in
the area of an atomic energy plant be checked. Since the ac-
cidental release of radioactive substances from plants already
in operation or under construction appears to be minimal, the
remaining security problem is the location of the treatment
facility for solid wastes.
21204
Hals, Finn A.
ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION CONTROL THROUGH
MHD POWER GENERATION. Combustion, 41(ll):27-29, May
1970.
In addition to offering advances in power technology of sig-
nificant benefit to society, magnetohydrodynamics (MHD)
shows promise of solving serious air and thermal pollution
problems faced by steam-electric power plants. The use of
MHD-steam power plant could significantly reduce thermal
pollution of water since, due to higher efficiencies, less than
half the amount of cooling water used by conventional fossil-
fueled steam power plants would be required. Since the sup-
plemental steam turbine can be replaced with a supplemental
gas turbine, MHD generators can be designed to reject all heat
into the atmosphere and none to water. With no cooling water
necessary, MHD generators can be located in water-poor but
fuel-rich areas, opening them to industrialization. Particulate
emission would be controlled by careful electrostatic precipita-
tion, since the economic operation of the plant requires the
recovery of an alkali seed impurity added to enhance electrical
conductivity of the combustion gases. Particulate removal in
excess of 99% is, therefore ensured. The temperatures at
which MHD generators operate make the recovery of nitrogen
oxides and sulfur oxides in the form of nitric and sulfuric acid
technically feasible and economically attractive.
21221
Pels, M. and H. L. Crawford
FEASIBILITY STUDY OF CENTRALIZED AIR-POLLUTION
ABATEMENT. (FINAL REPORT). Battelle Memorial Inst.,
Columbus, Ohio, Columbus Labs. NAPCA Contract PH-86-68-
84, TAsk 12, 51p., Nov. 17, 1969. 35 refs. CFSTI: PB 190486
The technical and economic aspects of a centralized air-pollu-
tion control plant located a distance from seven industrial
plants were investigated. The plants chosen were as follows:
lime, 200 tons/day; cement, 4500 barrels/day; sulfuric acid, 400
ton/day; power, 25 Mw; fertilizer, 570 tons/day; gray iron,
1440 tons/day; and electric arc, 2600 tons/day. Gaseous and
particulate-emission levels were taken from literature sources,
and as far as possible, average values were used for each in-
dustry. The total amount of gases from the plants was 627,000
cfm at 320 F and after mixing. While the centralized control
facility is less expensive to build and operate than individual
control devices, transportation costs are so high as to make
the centralized concept unattractive. The economics would
favor centralized abatement only if each of the seven plants
were located at about 1/2 mile from the central facility. This
distance is considered to be unrealistically close from the
standpoint of an individual plant's land requirements. In addi-
tion to transportation costs, the centralized plant would render
emissions from lime, cement, and sulfuric acid plants value-
less, and any equipment malfunction would release large quan-
tities of pollutants over a relatively small area. Finally, vegeta-
tion growth over buried pipes would be inhibited, leading to
potential esthetic problems. (Author summary modified)
21286
Marquardt, W., R. Hoehle, and U. Schuh
RADIOACTIVE EMISSION BY COAL-FIRED POWER
PLANTS. (Radioaktive Emissionen durch Kohlekraftwerke).
Text in German. Z. Hyg., 16(3):188-191, 1970. 12 refs.
The radium emanation of various coal and ash samples was
determined. For this purpose, 5 g KOH was put into a nickel
container and the water removed by melting over a burner; 5 g
ash (with a particle size of less than 0.25 mm) was added to
the cold melt. Through repeated heating, a clear melt was ob-
tained which was converted into an alkaline iron hydroxide
suspension to which 75 ml concentration HNO3 was added.
The acid solution was diluted. The radium content of the vari-
ous samples thus prepared ranged from 0.6 to 4.7 pCi/g flue
ash. These concentrations agree with those stated in the litera-
ture. No remarkable difference was found between bituminous
coal samples and brown coal samples or between samples with
different geological formation. Differences were discernible
between samples from geographically different sites. From the
quantity of fly ash emitted by coal-fired power plants in the
GDR, no inadmissibly high emission values were detected and
calculated. The calculations were based on the most unfavora-
ble long-term dispersion factor in the atmosphere as it
generally occurs only at a source distance of 1 to 1.5 km. It
was assured that the fly ash has the properties of aerosols
over its entire grain size distribution and that it may become
particularly toxic by readily pentrating into the lungs. The radi-
um concentration caused by coal-fired power stations is at
least 2 to 3 potencies below the admissible values for re-
sidential areas. Measurements of the ThX emission concentra-
tions in random samples revealed that only 0.1% of the max-
imum allowable concentration (7 times 10 to the minus twelfth
-------
A. EMISSION SOURCES
39
power Ci/cu m) was found in the vicinity of large power
plants.
21318
Ebert, Konrad
THE FUTURE ROLE OF COAL IN THE NATIONAL AND
INTERNATIONAL ECONOMY. (Die zukuenftige Rolle der
Kohle in der nationalen und intemationalen Wirtschaft). Text
in German. Glueckauf (Essen), 106(7):337-346, April 2, 1970.
26 refs.
Statistical data indicate that the consumption of coal for power
production will be the same in 1980 as it was in 1967. Mineral
oil and natural gas will be used for covering the increasing
energy demand. Coal consumption will be further on the in-
crease in Eastern Europe while it will markedly go down in
Western Europe. In Poland, soft coal mining rose from 9.3
million tons in 1960 to 24.5 million tons in 1968. In 1985, it will
amount to 33.3 million tons. Of the 128.6 million tons of hard
coal mined in 1968, about 26 million tons were exported.
Power plants are Polands major consumer of coal, followed by
remote heating plants. The same is true for the Soviet Union.
In 1967, 39.3%, of the power was produced with coal; 37.8%
with mineral oil; and 17.2%, with natural gas. In
Czechoslovakia, 84% of the power is produced with coal. This
high percentage will go down to 75.8% in 1970, and 61.2% in
1980 because mineral oil and natural gas from the Soviet
Union will be imported for the balance of the total fuel con-
sumption. In France, coal consumption will go down. In Italy,
more fuel oil will be used than coal. In all other West Europe-
an countries, a similar trend can be observed. This is r ainly
due to the high cost of coal as compared to the lower-priced
mineral oil.
21351
Eisenbud, Merril and Henry G. Petrow
RADIOACTIVITY IN THE ATMOSPHERIC EFFLUENTS OF
POWER PLANTS THAT USE FOSSIL FUELS. Science,
144(3616):288-289, April 17, 1964. 6 refs.
Analysis of the fly ash produced by combustion of pulverized
Appalachian coal shows that a 1000-megawatt coal-burning
power plant will discharge into the atmosphere from about 28
millicuries to nearly 1 curie per year of radium-226 and radi-
um-228. An oil-burning plant of similar size will discharge
about 0.5 millicurie of radium per year. Comparison of these
data with data on the release of fission products from nuclear-
powered generating stations shows that when the physical and
biological properties of the various radionuclides are taken
into consideration, the conventional fossil-fueled plants
discharge relatively greater quantities of radioactive materials
into the atmosphere than nuclear-powered plants of compara-
ble size.
21383
Bowen, H. J. M.
ELEMENTARY CYCLES AND POLLUTION. Missouri Univ.,
Columbia, Proc. Missouri Univ. Second Annu. Conf. Trace
Substances Environ. Health, Columbia, Mo., 1968, p. 171-179.
9 refs. (July 16-18.)
Global chemical contamination or pollution resulting from
human activities is discussed. The two main air contaminants,
resulting from oil and coal burning, are carbon dioxide and
sulfur dioxide. The CO2 contamination is global, since tracer
studies have shown that the half-life of a CO2 molecule is
about 4 years. However, no measurable biological con-
sequences have resulted from the amount of CO2 in the at-
mosphere. Sulfur dioxide pollution is mainly a local problem,
since the half-life of an SO2 molecule is of the order of days.
The natural rate of formation of SO2 has not been measured.
Many workers have shown that S02 from large cities has an
adverse effect on vegetation. More information is needed
about elements which may cycle through the atmosphere,
notably selenium and mercury, neither of which have yet been
detected in the air. The mathematics of complex cycles, such
as the carbon cycle, need further clarification so that the ef-
fects of increasing CO2 contamination may be predicted. Soil
and water pollution are also discussed.
21916
Cember, Herman, Richard W. Smith, and Mary Jane
Oestmann
AN ESTIMATE OF THE INHALATION HAZARD FROM
NEUTRON-ACTIVATED CONCRETE DUST. Am. Ind. Hyg.
Assoc. J., 31(3):327-330, May-June 1970. 12 refs.
An evaluation was made of the radiological health hazard aris-
ing from inhalation of radioactive concrete dust, from a
barytes aggregate concrete used for nuclear reactor shielding.
This study involved (1) generation of airborne concrete dust
particulates; (2) thermal neutron irradiation of the dust sam-
ples; and (3) measurement of the induced radioactivity sam-
ples. Inhalation of airborne activated concrete dust for several
hours, at concentrations that may be encountered in practice,
may be hazardous by ICRP occupational safety criteria, unless
appropriate action is taken to reduce exposure. For example,
exposure, after 13 days of cooling, for 8 hours in a concentra-
tion of 9 1/4 mg/cu m would lead to a 13-week radiation ab-
sorbed dose of 3900 mrads, which is the maximum permissible
concentration according to the ICRP criterion. On the other
hand, waiting 31 days after reactor shutdown, the worker
would have to be exposed to a concentration of 27 1/2 mg/cum
m for 8 hours before exceeding the ICRP recommendation.
21999
Athanassiadis, Yanis C.
PRELIMINARY AIR POLLUTION SURVEY OF VANADIUM
AND ITS COMPOUNDS. A LITERATURE REVIEW. Litton
Systems, Inc., Silver Spring, Md., Environmental Systems
Div., NAPCA Contract PH 22-68-25, Pub. APTD 69-48, 91p.,
Oct. 1969. 104 refs. CFSTI: PB 188093
The effects, sources, abatement, and methods of analysis for
pollution due to vanadium compounds are discussed, as the
average levels noted ranged from below detection (0.003
micrograms/cu m) to 0.30 (1964), 0.39 (1966), and 0.90 (1967)
micrograms/cu m. Major sources are the vanadium refining in-
dustries, alloy industries, and power plants and utilities using
vanadium-rich residual oils. One report on abatement indicated
that an economic gain resulted from extracting vanadium from
steam generators using vanadium-rich fuel. The methods of
quantitative analysis of vanadium in the atmosphere that are
available, including colorimetric, atomic absorption spec-
troscopy, emission spectrography, and polarography, provide
sensitivities in the 0.001 microgram/cu m range. Vanadium is
toxic to humans and animals, especially in its pentavalent
form. Human exposure through inhalation of relatively low
concentrations (less than 1,000 micrograms/cu m) has resulted
in inhibition of cholesterol synthesis, and chronic exposure to
environmental air containing vanadium has been statistically
related to mortality rates from heart diseases and certain can-
cers. Exposure to high concentrations results in physiologically
observable effects of varying severity on the gastrointestinal
and respiratory tracts. Vanadium in fuels was found to be cor-
rosive to heating plants.
-------
40
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
22144
Strat, Georges Le
ANALYSIS OF THE TRACE OF ORGANIC PRODUCTS IN
FUEL COMBUSTION FUMES. (Analyse des traces de
produits organiques dans les fumees de combustion de fuel).
Text in French. Rev. Gen. Thermique (Paris), 8(91-92):665-681,
July-Aug. 1969. 83 refs.
Since 1963, the problem of qualitative and quantitative analy-
sis of combustion gases has been studied in one of the two 24-
burner oil-fired 770-ton/hr-capacity steam generators of the
municipal heating plant at Saint-Ouen (Paris, France) for un-
burned gaseous organic compounds by means of a recording
chromatograph (Perkin Elmer, Model F6) equipped with a
flame-ionization detector, a digital integrator with printout
device and a thermostatically controlled sample heating
chamber as well as a mass spectrometer (C.S.F., Type
SM100). Every phase of this work is described and discussed
in detail, especially the problem of obtaining representative
samples of the combustion gas. The finally adopted procedure,
yielding reproducible quantitative results, involves the use of a
suspension of finely-powdered vegetable charcoal R. P. in
distilled water (1 gram in 100 ml) placed in a bubbling bottle
cooled by melting ice, through which between 200 and 1000 cu
dm of the combustion gas were passed to be partially adsorbed
by the charcoal. To separate the adsorbent, the suspension is
filtered or, preferably, centrifuged. The humid charcoal is
placed, at ambient pressure, into a dessicator containing calci-
um chloride for 24 hr. For desorption of the organic con-
stituents of the combustion gas, an aliquot fraction of the
resulting pulverulent charcoal was placed into a pyrex tube
between two pieces of quartz wool. This tube was attached to
the inlet of a stainless-steel double-tubing immersed in liquid
nitrogen and both were evacuated. After that the pyrex tube
was heated very slowly to about 450 C. Finally the double-u
tubing was closed and placed into the sample heating chamber
of the chromatograph and heated to between 120 and 150 C
for analysis; 2g of charcoal are required to analyze at one time
the organic constituents present in 0.5 cu dm of combustion
gases. A list of 54 different organic compounds identified in
combustion gas samples obtained by the above procedure is
given. Quantitative determinations of 14 organic compounds
cited for illustration yielded concentrations ranging from 2
times 10 to the -5th power to 1.5 times 10 to the -2nd power
grams per one kilogram of fuel oil burned.
22159
Harpporte, Dean R. De
COOLING TOWER SITE CONSIDERATION. Power Eng.,
74(8) :49-51, Aug. 1970.
Site selection for a new power plant now requires expert
evaluation by a hydrometeorologist of the potential effects of
the plant on the environment. No matter what method of cool-
ing heated water is employed, the majority of heat from both
nuclear and fossil-fueled plants is transferred to the at-
mosphere in the latent form through evaporation. When the
heated water is cooled by exposure to a large amount of air in
a cooling tower, resulting intense evaporation produces a
dense cone-shape fog plume from a few feet to several
thousand feet in length. Evaporation over a cooling pond is
less intense, but is spread over a much larger area. Polluting
agents in the plume and fog are heat and moisture. In selecting
a plant site, the hydrometeorologist will first evaluate available
meteorological data, and perhaps conduct a field study to
determine the effects of topography, inversions, and wind pat-
terns on the path and diffuison of potential cooling tower
plumes or pond-induced fog. After the tentative selection of a
site, supervises a fully instrumented, on-site study lasting at
least one year. Wind, temperature, and humidity data are mea-
sured and continuously recorded at several levels of a high
tower; if necessary, additional measurements of temperature
and wind at higher levels are obtained through balloon and
tracer studied. Whether the field studies are limited or
detailed, predictive equations are applied to the field data to
obtain the extent and frequency of the cooling tower plume or
fog from the cooling pond.
22387
Demeter, J. J. and D. Bienstock
SULFUR RETENTION IN ANTHRACITE ASH. Bureau of
Mines, Washington, D. C., Rept. of Investigation 7160, 12p.,
July 1968. 5 refs.
Anthracite from the four producing regions in Pennsylvania
was both ashed in the laboratory and burned on a chain-grate
stoker to determine the sulfur-retention properties of its ash.
The retention of sulfur in laboratory-prepared anthracite ash is
related to ashing temperature and to the amounts of sulfur and
calcium present in the coal. At the usual laboratory ashing
temperature of 750 C, sulfur retention ranges from 0.8 to
13.2% of the total coal sulfur. Sulfur retention in the ash is
negligible, 0 to 0.3%, at 1200 C, which is the thermal decom-
position temperature of calcium sulfate; thus calcium sulfate
does not form and cannot serve as a sulfur-retaining agent. In
several tests the anthracite was mixed with 6 or 10% dolomite
prior to firing in the chain-grate stoker. The dolomite did not
improve sulfur retention due to the high temperature in the
fuel bed. Sulfur retention is, however, related to the unburned
carbon in the ash. The relationship of the percentage of
original coal sulfur retained in the ash (Y) to the percentage of
the original carbon in the coal remaining in the ash (X) is ex-
pressed by Y equals minus 0.579 plus 0.914X. The percentage
of sulfur retained is almost directly proportionate to the per-
centage of original coal carbon in the ash. (Author abstract
modified)
22418
Hasz, Istvan
INFLUENCE OF THE STRUCTURE OF ENERGY CAR-
RIER'S CONSUMPTION ON AIR POLLUTION. (Az ener-
giahordozo struktura valtozasanak hatasa a levegoszennyezett-
segre). Text in Hungarian. Energia Atomtech. (Budapest),
23(5):203-207, 1970.
In addition to meteorological and geographical conditions and
the conditions imposed by urban planning, the greatest in-
fluence on air pollution comes from the quantity and quality of
the fuels consumed in a given area. From an air pollution point
of view, natural gas is the most desirable fuel; city gas is next,
followed by sulfurless oils; other kinds of oils are next, fol-
lowed by coke. The least desirable fuel is coal. The above
ranking is based on the quantity of pollutants liberated from
the different fuels while generating 1 times 10 to the 6th power
Kcal useable heat. A dramatic change took place on a world-
wide scale between 1950 and 1966, in the relative contribution
to energy supply, of petroleum and coal: hydrocarbons in-
creased from 34% to 54% and coal decreased from 59% to
39%. There are several technological-economical reasons for
the increase in the use of hydrocarbon fuels, but air pollution
considerations became lately quite powerful. As a con-
sequence, Western European countries were forced to import
a growing percentage of their energy carriers. The Hungarian
coal reserves are small (good for 80-100 years) and expensive
to use, but inadequate knowledge about the domestic oil
reserves misdirected the Hungarian power industry towards
the use of coal in the 1950's. This caused a significant increase
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A. EMISSION SOURCES
41
in urban air pollution. Petroleum discoveries and better inter-
national cooperation during the second and third 5 year plan
shifted the balance and new customers of energy rely exclu-
sively on gas and oil. By 1980, coal will decrease from 72% in
'60 to 26-29%; hydrocarbons will increase from 21% to 62%.
Some imported electricity from the Soviet Union will be even
used for heating in crowded cities. By 1970, the private (heat-
ing) use of coal will be largely eliminated by district-heating
and conversion to oil and LPG (liquid petroleum gas). The
substituted coal amounts to 10 times 10 to the 6th power
t/year. Therefore, sulfur emission in Budapest will decrease by
57% from 1965 to 1980 and ash production by 81%.
22649
MHD: THE POWER GENERATION PROGRAM FOR EN-
VIRONMENTAL CONTROL. Natl Eng., 74(8):8-10, Aug. 1970.
A group of New England utilities have undertaken the design
phase of a 50,000 kilowatt magnetohydrodynamic power
generation which promises enormous advantages of air and
water pollution control and which, eventually, is expected to
eliminate the need for the steam turbine cycle. In a MHD
generator an electrically conducting hot gas replaces the
copper conductors of present-day power plants; thus, tempera-
tures of 5000 F are typical of MHD operations compared to
peak working temperatures to around 1000 F in present
systems. Because of their higher efficiencies, the total amount
of waste heat rejected by developed base-load MHD power
plants will be less than half that rejected by conventional
power plants of comparable capacity, and less than one-third
that rejected by present-day nuclear power plants. MHD
power plants can also be designed to operate without cooling
water, and thus can eliminate thermal pollution of water. A
reduction in electricity costs of up to more than 1 mill per
kilowatt hr can be expected. Emissions of paniculate matter,
sulfur oxides, and nitrogen oxides are presented tabularly for
conventional steam and MHD power production. A breakdown
of production costs is also presented.
22800
National Academy of Sciences National Research Council,
Washington, D. C., Committee on Air Quality Management
ABATEMENT OF SULFUR OXIDE EMISSIONS FROM STA-
TIONARY COMBUSTION SOURCES. NAPCA Contract CPA
22-69-31, COPAC-2, 75p., 1970. 27 refs. CFSTI: PB 192887
In surveying the sulfur oxide problem and U. S. energy
requirements, it is estimated that the requirement for electrici-
ty will more than triple in the next 20 years and that the use of
coal will triple by the year 2000. These projections are related
to longterm environmental considerations, energy research,
factors of fuel utilization, and time phases of technical
developments. Support of technology development by the coal
industry, equipment manufacturers, utilities, and the federal
government is surveyed, and the present status of research
and technology is reviewed, including brief discussions of nu-
merous specific processes. It is concluded that commercially
proven technology for control of sulfur oxides from com-
bustion processes does not exist and that a high level of
government support is needed in addition to industry commit-
ments to develop the necessary control measures. Certain con-
trol approaches are suggested for support, and a 5-year plan
for future work is presented in which complete development
of the limestone process is given high priority. Elemental sul-
fur is considered a more desirable by-product than sulfuric
acid or sulfur dioxide, and the technology and costs of this
conversion need thorough study.
22867
Davis (W. E.) and Associates, Leawood, Kans.
NATIONAL INVENTORY OF SOURCES AND EMISSIONS.
CADMIUM, NICKEL AND ASBESTOS. 1968. SECTION H.
NICKEL. NAPCA Contract CPA 22-69-131, NAPCA-APTD-
69, 37p., Feb. 1970. 10 refs. CFSTI: PB 192251
The flow of nickel in the U. S. is traced and charted for 1968
in mining and processing, imports and exports, nickel stocks,
and reprocessing (stainless steel, alloy steel, nickel alloys,
electroplating, copper base alloys, catalysts, coinage, and bat-
teries). Consumption was 159,306 tons and domestic produc-
tion 29,215 tons from primary and secondary sources, with
most imports from Canada. Nickel emissions are given by
source and by states, and emissions factors and brief process
descriptions are given for mining and metallurgical processing,
reprocessing, and consumptive uses (oil, gasoline, and coal).
Based on preliminary information, the particle size of nickel
oxide emissions is assumed to be 0.1 to 1 micron. Emissions to
the atmosphere during the year were 6475 short tons. About
83% of the emissions were due to the burning of heavy fuel oil
and coal. Estimates of emissions for mining, metallurgical
processing, and reprocessing operations are based on data ob-
tained by personal contact with processing and reprocessing
companies, and are considered to be reasonably accurate.
Further effort is recommended to confirm the accuracy of the
emissions from the burning of residual fuel oil and coal.
22875
Spencer, John D.
REVIEW OF BUREAU OF MINES COAL PROGRAM, 1967.
Bureau of Mines Information Circ., no. 8385, 99p., June 1968.
72 refs.
Details of environmental studies featured in research and
technological work on coal, and other research relating to the
mining and utilization of coal are presented. Fly ash is evalu-
ated for use in land reclamation and agriculture. Investigations
of desulfurization methods include lime additives, centrifuga-
tion, wet tabling, and others. Programs to locate low-sulfur
coal have been initiated. Sulfur dioxide recovery from stack
gases is accomplished by absorption by alkalized aluminum,
chromatographic sorption, manganese oxide absorption,
limestone addition, catalytic oxidation, and the Reinluft
process. The effectiveness of various methods for decompos-
ing nitric oxide are tested. Costs for cleaning stack gases are
estimated. Chlorine removal from gases and stack sampling
methods are mentioned. The use of coal as a purification
method for sewage is investigated. Studies to determine parti-
cle size ranges in mining operations are discussed. Occupa-
tional health as it relates to mining is studied. The relationship
between coal dust and pneumoconiosis is studied, as well as
methane-coal dust explosions. Gas chromatographic methods
and ventilating systems used in mines are described. Coal
processing and storing methods are discussed. Combustion
research on coal as a fuel for power generation is reviewed,
and catalysts for hydrogen-oxygen fuel cells are tested. Coke
production represents a large market for coal. Gasification
research and hydrogenation methods are disclosed. New uses
for coal include the production of hydrogen cyanide, carbon
black, lignite, and synthetic food for microbes. Composition
and properties of coal and coal products are analyzed, and ar-
senic and fluorine content of coal are determined analytically.
23044
Ireland, F. E.
POLLUTION BY OXIDES OF SULPHUR. Chem. Engr. (Lon-
don), 46(7): CE261-CE262, Sept. 1968.
-------
42
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
Sulfur oxides arise from the combustion of sulfur-containing
fuels such as coal, coke, and fuel oil; from sulfuric acid plants
and miscellaneous uses of sulfur dioxide; and from the com-
bustion of sulfur compounds in waste gases from manufactur-
ing processes. Many investigations have been carried out on
the removal of sulfur from fuel and on the removal of sulfur
oxides from waste gases, but no generally practical methods
have been developed. Thus, recourse is made to dispersion
from suitably tall chimneys to reduce ground-level concentra-
tions to acceptable limits. By controlling burner conditions to
limit excess air in the gases, large users of fuel oil and electric
power plants can reduce sulfur trioxide in waste gases from
40-50 ppm to about 5-10 ppm. In most countries, sulfuric acid
is produced by contact processes that give a final acid emis-
sion to not more than two percent of the sulfur burned. Pro-
vided contact plants are equipped with adequate facilities for
preheating, there should be no adverse local conditions
produced by emissions. However, there is scope for research
into acid mist formation and methods for its prevention at the
source. Emissions from some chemical processes are often
more concentrated than those from the combustion of fuel. It
is common practice to remove the sulfur dioxide in these emis-
sions by scrubbing with alkali solutions.
23170
Castleman, A. W., Jr.
A SUMMARY OF RECENT PROGRESS IN AEROSOL
RESEARCH AT BROOKHAVEN NATIONAL LABORATORY.
Preprint, Brookhaven National Lab., Upton, N. Y., 15p., 1969.
5 refs. (Presented at the Specialist Meeting on the Behavior of
Nuclear Aerosols in closed Systems, Kernforschungszentrum
Karlsruhe, Germany, Nov. 11-12, 1969.) CFSTI: BNL 14271
Progress being made on a program aimed at developing a fun-
damental understanding of the chemical reactions, mechanisms
of release, and transport behavior of the fission products and
radioactive aerosols emanating from nuclear materials under
conditions likely to be encountered in the event of a fast-
breeder reactor accident is described. Experimental work is
designed to provide information on the nature of aerosols
composed of plutonium, uranium, and sodium compounds. A
theoretical program designed to provide a basic understanding
of aerosol behavior in closed systems is described. Computer
codes being developed for use in predicting the time depen-
dence of the mass concentration, number concentration and
particle size distribution are described. The codes are used in
data correlation and evaluation as well as for making scale-up
calculations to realistic power-reactor accident conditions.
23239
Chow, T. J. and J. L. Earl
LEAD AND URANIUM IN PENNSYLVANIA ANTHRACITE.
Chem. Gcol., vol. 6: 43-49, 1970. 8 refs.
Lead concentration, its isotopic composition, and the uranium
content of Pennsylvania anthracites was determined. Mass
spectrometic analyses were performed on samples which had
been pulverized, weighed, and ashed at 425 C to constant
weight. Square root of mass ratio corrections are incorporated
in the data to compensate for velocity discrimination in the
electron multiplier. Lead and uranium concentrations were
determined by the isotope dilution method which is accurate to
0.01 micrograms. The ash content of the four washed Pennsyl-
vania anthracites ranged from 9.5-12.8%, contrasted with the
one Rhode Island unwashed meta-anthracite with 58% ash.
The uranium concentration of three Pennsylvania anthracite
samples was 1.55, 2.10 and 2.65 ppm, respectively. For the
Eastern Middle, Western Middle, and Southern Field
anthracites, the average lead concentration was 11.4 ppm, with
the Northern Field sample having a lead concentration of 33.8
ppm, three times higher than the others. This disparity is also
reflected in the isotopic composition, with the Northern Field
anthracite lead being less radiogenic than the other three leads.
From the isotopic analysis, it is interpreted that common lead
was incorporated into the ancient, bedded plant material in
Carboniferous times prior to coalification, while the uranium
was introduced into the anthracite after coalification.
23359
Bienstock, D., R. J. Demski, and R. C. Kurtzrock
HIGH-TEMPERATURE COMBUSTION OF COAL SEEDED
WITH POTASSIUM CARBONATE IN THE MHD GENERA-
TION OF ELECTRIC POWER. Bureau of Mines, Washington,
D. C., Rept. of Investigations 7361, 33p., March 1970. 19 refs.
CFSTI: PB 190969
Open-cycle magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) elecprical power
generation may play an important role in meeting the demand
for electrical energy because of its high thermal efficiency and
its ability to reduce materially both air and thermal pollution.
In this technique, electricity is generated by the movement of
ionized, high-velocity gases through a magnetic field. For cen-
tral-power station generation, these gases would be produced
by the high-temperature combustion of fossil fuels to which an
easily ionizable material is added. In the experiments
described, pulverized coal was mixed with potassium car-
bonate in concentrations up to 1.23 g-moles/kg coal. Com-
bustion air was enriched with oxygen; coal, seed, and primary
air was passed to cyclone burners. Hot combustion gases from
the burner were then directed through a brick-lined furnace to
a corrosion test tower, where samples of boiler-tube construc-
tion materials were maintained at wall temperatures of 800-
1500 F and exposed to combustion effluent of 1800-2500 F.
After cooling, the gases were passed to a cyclone dust collec-
tor. Practically complete removal of sulfur dioxide was
achieved with the seed addition. Nitric oxide formation fol-
lowed theoretical expectations at combustion temperatures;
some decomposition of NO occurred during gas cooling.
Nitrates in the fly ash were less than 1.7% of total fixed
nitrogen. With aqueous extraction of the fly ash, a maximum
recovery of 75% of the potassium was obtained. Haynes 25
boiler tubes showed no corrosion at wall temperatures of 1500
F in 2500 F seeded flue gas. The stainless steels 310, 316, and
446 were resistant at a metal temperature of 1100 F in gas at
2100 F, but carbon steel and Croloy 5 were attacked at 800 F
wall temperature and 1800 F flue gas temperature.
23379
Dicks, J. B.
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING PROBLEMS IN ENER-
GETICS/MHD. Preprint, American Society of Mechanical En-
gineers, New York, 8p., 1969. 24 refs. (Presented at the Amer-
ican Society of Mechanical Engineers, Winter Annual Meet-
ing, Los Angeles, Calif., Nov. 16-20, 1969.)
Magnetohydrodynamics (MHD) power generation is compared
with coal- fired and nuclear plants in terms of power produc-
tion, economics, and environmental considerations. Nuclear
plants are superior to either conventional steam or MHD
steam plants in terms of air pollution, but only at a great in-
crease in thermal pollution. MHD plants produce less effluent
per kwh than conventional plants due to their higher thermal
efficiency, and because they incorporate very efficient,
economical scrubbing units. Such units remove nitrogen com-
pounds, sulfur dioxide, and almost all paniculate matter. The
problem of thermal pollution as caused by power generating
stations is considered. Technical problems to be solved for the
application of MHD plants are discussed.
-------
A. EMISSION SOURCES
43
23619
Anthrop, Donald F.
ENVIRONMENTAL SIDE EFFECTS OF ENERGY PRODUC-
TION. Bull. At. Sci., 26(8):39-41, Oct. 1970.
Construction of power plants with capacities of a 2300 MWe
magnitude has serious implications for the ecology of the
freshwater or marine systems in which the waste heat is
disposed. Fossil fuel steam generating plants convert only 30-
35% of the total thermal energy into electricity, while the
remaining 65-70% must be dissipated, usually in a body of
water. Nuclear plants are considerably less efficient and are
unlikely to match the efficiency of fossil fuel plants within the
next 20 years. Although the Navajo plant will use cooling
towers, this technique will result in the evaporation of about
30,000 acre-feet of water annually in a region that already suf-
fers a chronic water shortage. Electrical energy production in
the U. S. increased from 180 billio kilowatt hours in 1940 to
1433 billion kwh in 1968. Looking then to the year 2000, the
waste heat that would result from the production of 11.0 tril-
lion kwh of electrical energy would be sufficient to raise the
temperature of the total annual freshwater runoff from the
conterminous U. S. by 24 F. Nuclear power generation offers
the possibility of providing very large quantities of energy
without increasing the carbon dioxide content of the earth's at-
mosphere, but it is beset with many difficulties. Burner reac-
tors consume uranium-235, and if energy consumption con-
tinues to increase as projected, low-cost uranium resources
could be exhausted within half a century. Although breeder
reactors would enormously increase the nuclear fuels available
for energy production by converting nonfissionable uranium-
238 to fissionable plutonium-239, or by converting nonfissiona-
ble thorium-232 to fissionable uranium-233, some 65 such
facilities would be required and the magnitude of thermal pol-
lution would even be greater. To a considerable extent, energy
can be converted into other resources. Also, any program to
control energy consumption must also have as its goal the ter-
mination of population growth.
23652
Hull, Andrew P.
SOME COMPARISONS OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL RISKS
FROM NUCLEAR AND FOSSIL FUELED POWER PLANTS.
Brookhaven National Lab., Upton, N. Y., Hea Physics Div.,
17p., 1970. 16 refs. CFSTI: BNL-14412
A comparison is made of the relative risk of pollution from the
operation of nuclear and fossil fueled electric power plants.
Consideration is given to air and water pollution by effluents,
heat, and radioactivity. The possible effects on human life and
health are considered, both from the possible pollution and
from catastrophic accident. With regard to routine effluents,
nuclear plants produce far less air pollution than their fossil
fueled counterparts. The concentrations of radioactivity in
their liquid effluents are controllable at levels well below
radiation protection standards, and pose no threat to the en-
vironment. Contemporary nuclear plants are somewhat less
thermally efficient than modern fossil plants, but the im-
mediate waste heat problem appears manageable without caus-
ing serious environmental problems in a large body of water.
Nuclear plants now being designed and tested promise to be as
efficient as fossil plants.
23726
Land, George W.
COAL AND CLEAN AIR. Preprint, Society of Automotive En-
gineers, Inc., New York, 7p., 1970. (Presented at the Society
of Automotive Engineers, Inc., New York, (Presented at the
Society of Automotive Engineers, Earthmoving Industry Con-
ference, Peoria, 111., April 14-15, 1970, Paper 700552.)
Data on fossil fuel energy (coal, petroleum, natural gas) con-
sumed in the U. S. since 1920 are presented to show that the
increase in air pollution in recent years is not from coal, which
has remained relatively constant on the average in quantities
used. Evidence is also presented showing that less than 20% of
the pollutants emitted into the air in a typical year arises from
generation of electricit and space heating, the principal uses
for coal. The combustion of coal produces solid and gaseous
pollutants; almost complete control of particulates is techni-
cally and economically feasible, while control of gases, mainly
oxides of sulfur and nitrogen, is much less advanced. Thus,
low-sulfur fuels must be used; however, because of the
shortage of low-sulfur coal in some areas (mainly the Mid-
west), gas or low sulfur oils are substituted. Increases in gase-
ous pollutants in the last 50 years are attributed to increased
use of natural gas and petroleum, and it is concluded tha the
nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons together deserve much more
control effort and research funds than they have received in
comparison to sulfur dioxide, especially in view of their role in
smog formation.
23753
Maxwell, Charles T.
U. S. ENERGY SOURCES IN THE EARLY SEVENTIES.
Lawrence (Cyrus J.) and Sons, New York, Research Dept.,
9p., July 23, 1970.
A new projection of U. S. energy production for the first five
year of the 1970's, which assumes that energy will equal Gross
National Product increases of 4.5% annually, foresees a
restructuring of energy sources, which, unlike earlier predic-
tions, includes a cutback in coal and gas and an advance of oil
into the gap. The slower pace of natural gas production is at-
tributed in part to lack of exploration and development of
reserves due to federal regulation, while coal has financial,
labor, transportation, and pollution problems which could
restrict the industry to gains below the potential demand for
the fuel. Despite its very rapid growth, nuclear energy is not
expected to make an impression on the power 'shortfall' until
the late seventies. Thus oil remains the only fuel source capa-
ble of being efficiently expanded in the near term to make up
the gap; an overall oil growth of over 5% per year is predicted.
Heavy oils can be desulfurized to meet tight pollution stan-
dards prior to burning, generally at an economic price. Most of
the demand growth will be in two product classes, distillates
and residual fuel oil, the latter to replace short gas and coal
supplies in the electric power generation market. The effects
of these changes on the profits of the oil industry are con-
sidered. It is noted that most of the low-sulfur No. 6 fuel oil
imported into the U. S. is from four Caribbean refineries,
where major desulfurization facilties are located.
23884
Beine, Helmut
ON THE CONTENT OF 3,4-BENZOPYRENE IN THE EX-
HAUST FUMES OF DOMESTIC STOVES WITH SOLID
FUEL. (Ueber den Gehalt an 3,4-Benzpyren in de Abgasen
von Hausbrandoefen mil festen Brennstoffen). Text in Ger-
man. Staub, Reinhaltung Luft, 30(8):334-336, Aug. 1970. 24
refs.
The content of 3,4-benzopyrene was determined for emissions
from different types of domestic stoves in which various quali-
ties of coal are burnt. The methods used were gas chromatog-
raphy or thin-layer chromatography, and ultraviolet spec-
-------
44
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
troscopy. The 3,4-benzopyrene emission is particularly high in
the case of nut-size anthracite briquettes burnt in complete
combustion stoves and bottom firing stoves, that is, it lies
between 370 and 380 mg/kg of coal. These high 3,4-
benzopyrene emissions can be reduced to 2,2 mg/kg of coal by
the use of a universal continuous burner.
23954
Steinberg, M., J. R. Powell, M. Beller, and B. Manowitz
A POLLUTION-FREE HYBRID FOSSIL-NUCLEAR FUELED
MHD POWER CYCLE. Brookhaven National Lab., Upton, N.
Y., 48p., March 1968. 13 refs. NTIS: BNL-12319
A hybrid power plant is developed based on a hydrogen-ox-
ygen combustion MHD cycle. Hydrogen is generated by
reforming fossil fuel with nuclear generated steam, and oxygen
is obtained from air in an air separation plant. Steam is in-
jected into the combustion gases to control temperature and
pressure through the duct. A preliminary parametric study of
the cycle efficiency and MHD characteristics is made with
steam and helium as diluent. Overall thermal efficiencies of
55% appear practical with nuclear energy contributing 38% and
coal 62% to the power cycle. Preliminary design capital invest-
ment, production cost, and breakeven fuel cost estimates are
presented. The hybrid system offers a number of technical and
economic advantages. It allows the use of fossil fuel in a pol-
lution-free plant; conventional water and gas-cooled nuclear
reactors can be utilized in an MHD cycle; thermal pollution is
significantly decreased; a clean MHD duct is provided. The
preliminary evaluation indicates that the system allows fossil
fuel to compete with nuclear energy in high fossil fuel cost
areas and conversely, it allows nuclear energy to compete in
low fossil fuel cost areas, thus expanding the market for both
fuel sources. Further detailed investigation of the system is
recommended. (Author abstract)
24005
Cave, G. A.
DUSTS AND SMOKES IN FLUE GASES. Brit. Coal. Util. Res.
Assoc. Monthly Bull., 10(3):61-70, March 1946. 98 refs.
Dusts carried by flue gases are considered with respect to
their composition, mode of formation, and chemical and physi-
cal properties. The materials from which flue dust is formed
derive in part from unbumed carbon and in part from inor-
ganic mineral constituents of coal. They consist of inherent as
well as adventitious ash, and their composition may include
most of the elements in the periodic table. With regard to
boiler corrosion and deposits, the constituents of most interest
are those that influence the fusability of the ash and those that
determine the proportion of ash escaping as volatile material.
Dust-producing materials are released and formed by decom-
position, reaction, volatilization, and mechanical pickup. Pro-
perties of flue dust determining its accumulation on heating
surfaces are density, size, thermal motion, reactivity towards
gaseous flue-gas constituents, and electrical characteristics.
Concentrations of dust in boiler gases depend on local condi-
tions of gas movement; thermal gradient; the particular rela-
tionship between particle size, velocity, and direction of the
gas stream; and on factors connected with the release of dust
from the fuel bed. Size and basicity of ash particles or ag-
gregates in a coal-dust firing system diminishes from the com-
bustion chamber toward the chimney; solids emitted by the
chimney may consist of highly siliceous and refractory single
particles. Smoke-density meters are quite efficient for measur-
ing smokes and suspended particles in flue gases at stack
levels, and a variety of devices are available for separating
dusts from flue gases. In general, the most effective
meteorological element in controlling the concentration of
smoke is turbulence.
24039
Drinker, Philip
AIR POLLUTION PROBLEMS IN THE UNITED STATES.
World Health Organization, Copenhagen (Denmark), Regional
Office for Europe, Proc. Conf. Public Health Aspects Air Pol-
lution Europe, Milan, Italy, 1957, p. 21-36. 11 refs. (Nov. 6-
14.)
As in other countries, the demand for power in the U. S. is in-
creasing steadily, at an estimated 3% annually. Bituminous
coal is still the most used fuel, followed in order by oil and
gas. Some of the coals used in the mid and far-west have a
sulfur content as high as 5%; thus some very large power sta-
tions emit sulfur dioxide in amounts comparable to those from
smelters roasting sulfide ores. There is a general rule in the U.
S. requiring power stations that burn coal in powdered form to
clean their stack effluents of grit and ash before discharge. It
is also common practice to make an extensive meteorological
survey before building a tall chimney, to insure an adequate
height for dispersion of smoke plumes. Pollution from ore
smelters, by fluorides, and from vehicle exhausts, with empha-
sis on smog effects is discussed. Attention has not been paid
to date to nitrogen oxides in chimney gases; these concentra-
tions increase with furnace temperatures, so that the better the
plant is run the more oxides of nitorgen are given off.
Although the technology for control of the more well known
pollutants has made considerable progress, no practical
method has yet been devised for control of nitrogen oxides.
24500
Mie Prefecture (Japan), Public Nuisance Control Bureau
REPORT ON THE SPECIAL INVESTIGATION OF AIR POL-
LUTION IN THE YOKKAICHI DISTRICT. (Yokkaichi chiku
taiki osen tokubetsu chosa hokoku sho). Text in Japanese.
20p., March 1964.
The industrial complexes in Yokkaichi consists of two large-
scale complexes and a heavy-oil combustion steam power
plant; the total amount of fuel oil used per year occupies 99%
of the total. The complexes were built during the period of
economic growth, and little attention was paid to public
nuisance control. Winds blow NW in winter and SE in
summer. The main pollutants are sulfur oxides arising primari-
ly from heavy-sulfur oil combustion. The concentration some-
times goes up to about 0.2 ppm (electroconductivity method).
Soot and dust particles are also a problem, but they are
decreasing over the years due to the decreasing use of solid
fuels. There are, however, individual factories that produce
much soot and dust. Other pollutants include obnoxious odors
and noise. The control measures involve enforcing environ-
mental standards (tabulated); taking appropriate steps such as
treating sulfur oxides arising from sulfuric acid manufacturing
plants; restructuring the urban structure of Yokkaichi; creating
buffer zones between factories and nearby residential areas;
establishing clean-air rooms in medical facilities to treat the
emergency cases of respiratory diseases caused by air pollu-
tion; creating an air pollution monitoring network; and building
meteorological stations.
24508
Chubu Electric Co. (Japan)
MIE STEAM POWER GENERATING STATION. (Mie
karyoku hatsudensho). Text in Japanese. 7p., 1969 (?),
-------
A. EMISSION SOURCES
45
The pamphlet issued by Chubu Electric Power Co. describes
the Mie Steam Power Generating Station in Yokkaichi. The
station is capable of producing 341,000 Kw. It occupies
163,932 sq m, and can store 146,000 tons of coal. The four
generators can operate in the steam temperature range of 510
to 538 C, and their thermal efficiency ranges from 33.4 to
37.6%. Diagrams describe the process of power generation,
and the characteristic features of the stations are explained.
The transition from hydro-electric to stea power generation
from 1954 to 1968 fro Chubu Electric is shown.
24535
Chubu Electric Power Co. (Japan)
CONTROL OF PUBLIC NUISANCE FROM STEAM POWER
STATIONS. (Karyoku hatsudensho no kogai taisaku). Text in
Japanese. 28p., Nov. 1965.
The pamphlet issued by Chubu Electric Power Co. includes
maps indicating the locations of the company's various power
generating stations and the tabulated description of each plant,
together with pollution control capabilities. A detailed diagram
of the general public nuisance control law hierarchy on the na-
tional, regional, and local government level and its relationship
to the Chubu Electric Power Co. is presented. Meticulous
descriptions of how pollution originates in petroleum, petrole-
um-coal, and coal steam power plants and how they can be
controlled are introduced, as well as how ashes and soot can
be removed, how water pollution from power stations can be
controlled, and how obnoxious noise from the stations can be
controlled.
24732
Spaite, Paul W. and Robert P. Hangebrauck
POLLUTION FROM COMBUSTION OF FOSSIL FUELS. In:
Air Pollution-1970 Part I. 91st Congress (Senate), Second Ses-
sion on S.3229, S.3466, S.3546, p. 172-181, 1970. 3 refs.
(Hearings before the Subcommittee on Air and Water Pollu-
tion of the Committee on Public Works, March 16, 17, 18,
1970.)
Currently, emissions of fly ash, sulfur oxides, and nitrogen ox-
ides by fossil fuel burning sources come to about 45 million
tons per year in the United States, and consumption of fossil
fuels is doubling every 25 years. These emissions originate in
power plants industrial boilers, and smaller installations used
for commercial and residential heating. Power production,
which accounts for 70% of the present total sulfur oxide emis-
sions from combustion and over 90% of the total anticipated in
30 years, is by far the most important source judged on the
basis of total contribution from all combustion sources. Even
when consideration of the nature of the control problem is
limited to coal burning power plants, the problem of non-
uniformity in the processes which must be controlled still is
apparent. Factors such as plant size, plant age, and a host of
considerations associated with location make each power plant
a unique control problem. Oxides of nitrogen range from an
estimated 9 million tons at present to about 25 million tons by
the year 2000. Presently available equipment for fly-ash con-
trol does not efficiently collect particles less than approximate-
ly 1.0 micron in diameter. Fine particulates tend to remain in
suspension in the upper atmosphere, where continued build-up
of such materials could produce unacceptable worldwide cli-
mate changes. From the control point of view, combustion
source can be divided into three classes with distinctly dif-
ferent characteristics as far as the nature of the control
problem is concerned: boilers under 500 million Btu/hr capaci-
ty, existing boilers larger than 70 mw, and large new boilers
that will be built in the future and for the most part will be
500-1000 mw in size.
24817
Hoshizawa, Kinji and Kazuo Koyata
FORMATION AND THEIR PREVENTION OF ACID SMUTS
AT OIL FIRED BOILER. (Juyu nensho ni yoru asiddo sumatto
no hassei to sono boshi taisaku). Text in Japanese. Nenryo
Kyokaishi (J. Fuel Soc. Japan, Tokyo), 49(521):656-665, Sept.
20, 1970. 7 refs.
The capacity of thermal electrical generation in Japan recently
reached 27,600,000 kw, or 10 times the 1951 figure. This was
accomplished with 26 million tons of coal and 19 million kl of
heavy oil. The capacity of a single generator has increased
also to about 350-600 mw. The use of heavy oil is expected to
reach 35 million kl in 1971, and 500 million kl in 1975. The sul-
fur content of the fuel is about 2%, requiring stacks as high as
200 m to disperse the gas. Some power stations have changed
to liquefied natural gas. If this contains sulfur, however, acid
smuts are formed by the combination of dust and sulfur triox-
ide gas Field tests indicate that the smuts were mainly formed
in the stack and fell within 400 m from the stack in conditions
of light wind. Full load conditions and load up periods were
critical in terms of smut emissions, which increased with in-
creased excess air. Thre methods of prevention tried against
acid smut emissions were to maintain minimum excess oxygen
under 1.0% in order to decrease the acid dewpoint below the
flue gas temperature; to neutralize SO3 by means of ammonia
injection of over 0.04% by weight of fuel oils; and elimination
of dust, which does reduce the smut problem. Although mea-
sures have been taken to prevent air pollution, little has been
learned regarding the formation mechanism of acid smuts.
24915
Ter Linden, A. J.
AIR POLLUTION IN HOLLAND. In: Problems and Control of
Air Pollution. F. S. Mallette (ed.), New York, Reinhold, 1955,
Chapt. 22, p. 236-244.
Recent investigations made near a large power station in Hol-
land, where people were complaining bitterly about desposited
dust, showed that 75-80% of the dust collected in the exposed
region consisted of particles larger than 50 microns, although
the dust leaving the stacks contained only 10-15% particles
with diameters greater than 50 microns. Thus the weight of the
deposited matter in grains per sq ft per day, not the dust con-
tent of the gases inside the stack, is the measure of the
nuisance in the exposed area. The solution of the dust problem
in the case of coarse particles is to be found in the installation
of selective dust separators with a collection efficiency of
about 100% for particles larger than 40 microns.
24916
Rees, R. L.
REMOVAL OF SULFUR DIOXIDE FROM POWER-PLANT
STACK GASES. In: Problems and Control of Air Pollution. F.
S. Mallette (ed.), New York, Reinhold, 1955, Chapt. 14, p.
143-154. 16 refs.
At a London power station, more than 95% of the sulfur diox-
ide is removed from flue gases derived from 3.8% sulfur oil by
washing the gases with water supplied by the river Thames.
The gas is washed on grid scrubbers, with a small amount of
chalk added to the water to maintain its alkalinity. Crude man-
ganese sulfate is added to the effluent to activate the oxidation
of sulfite in the aeration tank. The effluent also passes through
a settler to remov excess solids before being mixed with 12
times its bulk of water. The product of the treatment, calcium
sulfate, is returned to the river in solution. The defects of the
process are the high cost of maintenance, the extent to which
it cools the gas, and the severe limitations on the sites at
-------
46
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
which it can be used. Alternative processes are the costly
cyclic lime process and the ammonia liquor process, which is
restricted in its application by the supply of ammonia liquor.
24951
Luce, Charles F.
UTILITY RESPONSIBILITY FOR PROTECTION OF THE
ENVIRONMENT. Arizona Law Rev., 10(l):68-73, Summer
1968. (Presented at the Federal Bar Association Bureau of Na-
tional Affairs Briefing Conference, Washington, D. C., March
15, 1968.)
Not only must the public utility supply today's needs of its
customers for electric energy, it must forecast what those
needs will be decades into the future, and make investment
commitments of large sums of capital based upon the
forecasts. Today a new and even larger concept of utility
responsibility is emerging, and it extends not only to concern
for the natural environment, but also for the social and
economic environment of the communities which are served.
The new concept of public utility responsibility is not easily
applied. For example, should a utility spend $140 million to
put 25 miles of transmission lines underground when they can
be placed overhead for 12 million? If so, who should pay the
added costs? In 1967 Con Edison's plants contributed less than
half of the sulfur dioxide in New York City's air and about
15% of the particulates, but by 1980 it expects to generate 75%
of its electricity in nuclear plants, thus eliminating the
smokestacks. Approximately $150 million has been spent on
air pollution control devices, including precipitators that
remove 99% of the ash from the stacks of the coal burning
plants. To make the city less noisy, Con Edison is procuring
new and quieter equipment to break the city pavement, and in-
stalling transformers which produce a minimum hum. Thirty
percent of the new employees last year were Negroes and
Puerto Ricans, while a job training program was offered for
high school dropouts.
24955
Steinberg, M., J. Powell, and B. Manowitz
THE WESTERN COAL DEPOSITS: A NATIONAL SOURCE
OF POWER. Brookhaven National Lab., Upton, N. Y., Dept.
of Applied Science, 28p., Nov. 1969. 40 refs. NTIS: BNL-
50187
To unlock the reserves of the sub-bituminous and lignite coal
field of Montana, North Dakota, Wyoming, and Alaska, it is
proposed that large power plants of -5000 Mw(e) capacity be
located in coal field served by open-strip mining of the rela-
tively shallow thick layers of coal. An efficient power cycle is
conceived that uses gasification for removal and possible
recovery of U-bearing ash and production of gas which can be
burned with air in a large magnetohydrodynamics generator
for the production of high voltage dc. The dc can then be
directly transmitted in a high-capacity, long-distance cryogenic
line. Of the alternatives of shipping coal gas, or electrical
power to the large power-consuming centers of th west and
east, the latter is the most desirable and inherently the most
economical. It is estimated that 100,000 MW(e) could be piped
to the west coast and could interconnect with hydropower
from the north in one big western loop; another 100,000
MW(e) could be piped to the east and south, interconnecting
with the Illinois, West Virginia, and Pennsylvania coal fields.
The entire country would thus be looped with electrical trans-
mission carriers connecting with main energy sources from
which local power grids can draw in preparation for an all-
electric economy. The nuclear plants can either be located at
the same sites as the coal plants or spotted along main feeder
grids around the country. Investment costs for 10 plants giving
a total of 50,000 MW(e) would be 4.35 billion dollars; costs of
transmission lines for 1000 miles would be 2.46 billion dollars.
It is noted that locating the power cycle at the mine site and
the method of transmission, would remove the air pollution
problem from the cities and allow cleaner and quieter use of
electrical power at the consuming center. Electron transmis-
sion, unlike gas transmission, does not require th construction
of an electrical power plant at the energy consuming center.
24978
Lyons, D. E.
LIME AND THE CONTROL OF POLLUTION IN THE
POWER INDUSTRY. Pit Quarry, 63(5):87-89, Nov. 1970.
To meet proposed Federal and State restrictions on the emis-
sion of sulfur oxides, the power industry will probably use
lime, limestone, or dolomite as an additive when burning fossil
fuels. Economic operation of other processes depends on the
sale of byproduct sulfur; due to their high capital cost and the
questionable sulfur market, these methods are not practical for
the industry. Items of equipment that must be installed in a
limestone and/or dolomite additive system include an additive
silo, wet scrubber, feeder, and pulverizer. The limestone is
ground in the pulverizer to the consistency of powder and
blown into the furnace above the fuel and air streams. One
system is designed to remove 90% of all particulate matter en-
tering the scrubber and to reduce the sulfur dioxide level in
the flue gas about 85%. Based on the use of three percent sul-
fur fuel, limestone or dolomite requirements are estimated to
be 108 million tons a year by 1980.
25062
Kobayashi, Osamu
AIR POLLUTION COUNTERMEASURES FOR THERMAL
GENERATING STATIONS. (Karyoku hatsudensho no kogai
taisaku ni tsuite). Text in Japanese. Kagaku Kogyo (Tokyo),
21(12):1624-1627, Dec. 1, 1970.
The demand for power within the area served by Tokyo Elec-
tric Power Company increases by 13% annually. In 1970, the
peak demand reached 15,690,000 kw, exceeding last year's
maximum by over 2 million kw. There is more demand for the
type that permits no power failure, such as demands by infor-
mation centers, medical and transportation facilities, and un-
derground streets. For the moment, electric power generation
is still thermal generation, with heavy and crude oils as fuels.
Five new stations, totaling 7 million kw, are being constructed
after complete agreement has been reached with local au-
tonomous bodies concerning anti-pollution measures. The com-
pany's fuel policy includes obtaining heavy oil with less sulfur,
burning crude oil rather than heavy oil, and the use of
liquefied natural gas. As to equipment, adoption of tall chim-
ney stacks, high capacity dust collection equipment, and ef-
fluent treatment devices can be mentioned. Anti-pollution in-
vestment compared to the total investment on thermal genera-
tion reaches 15-16%. Boilers are equipped with automatic con-
trol devices and efforts are made to prevent acid smut emis-
sion. In accordance with local regulations when a 'critical'
situation is declared, ultra-low-sulfur oil is used. The activated
charcoal method is adopted in smoke reduction and desul-
furization; basic research for this method has been ongoing
since 1963. The principle behind this equipment is: eliminating
soot through dust collectors, then leading the smoke through
the towers filled with activated carbon, and discharging the
cleaned smoke through the chimney stack. The activated char-
coal which adsorbed sulfur dioxide is cleaned with water from
which sulfuric acid is later recovered.
-------
A. EMISSION SOURCES
47
25108
Badzioch, Stanley and Peter G. W. Hawksiey
KINETICS OF THERMAL DECOMPOSITION OF PUL-
VERIZED COAL PARTICLES. Ind. Eng. Chem. Process
Design Develop., 9(4):521-530, 1970. 12 refs.
An apparatus is described for measuring the extent of thermal
decomposition of size-graded coal particles in the pulverized-
fuel size range at temperatures up to 1000 C and times ranging
from 30 to 110 msec. The particles are heated to the decom-
position temperatures at high rates (25,000-50,000 C/sec) com-
parable with those occurring in pulverized-fuel firing. The
yield of volatile products under these rapid heating conditions
was 1.3 to 1.8 times higher than the change in volatile matter
found from the difference between the proximate volatile
matter of coal and that of char. Analysis of data obtained for
10 bituminous coals and one semianthracite yielded empirical
equations suitable for calculating the progress of devolatiliza-
tion of pulverized-fuel particles when their temperature history
is known. (Author abstract)
25196
Shannon, Larry J., A. Eugene Vandegrift, Paul G. Gorman,
Eugene E. Sallee, and M. Reichel
EMISSION AND EFFLUENT CHARACTERISTICS OF STA-
TIONARY PARTICULATE POLLUTION SOURCES. Preprint,
International Union of Air Pollution Prevention Associations,
36p., 1970. 2 refs. (Presented at the International Clean Air
Congress, 2nd, Washington, D. C., Dec. 6-11, 1970, Paper EN-
22F.)
A particulate pollutant system study was undertaken to over-
come deficiencies in our knowledge regarding the nature and
magnitude of particulate pollutant emissions from stationary
sources in the United States. The objective of the study was
to identify, characterize, and quantify the particulate air pollu-
tion burden resulting from stationary sources. A quantitative
ranking is presented of staionary sources, projections of their
potential emission levels up to the year 2000, and information
on the effluent characteristics (particulate and carrier gas) of
the major particulate pollutant sources. A ranking of sources
on the basis of total tonnage of emissions per year was
developed. Total tonnage emitted by a given source or indus-
try was determined from four quantities: an emission factor
for the uncontrolled source; the total tonnage processed per
year by the source; the efficiency of control equipment used;
and the percentage of production capacity equipped with con-
trol devices. In some cases computation procedures based on
outlet grain loadings or material balances were also employed.
The major stationary sources of particulates are electric power
generation plants, the crushed stone industry, agriculture and
related operations, the iron and steel industry, and the cement
industry. Forecasts of the level of particulate pollutants
emitted from stationary sources up to the year 2000 were
developed by taking into account: changes in production
capacity; improvements in control devices; and legislative or
regulatory action to enforce installation of control equipment.
These forecasts indicate that particulate emissions can be
reduced to about one-sixth of the current level by 1980
through the installation of currently available control devices
on all sources. The projections also suggest that reduction of
particulate matter will most likely occur by installation of con-
tro equipment on uncontrolled sources and by shifts to more
efficient types of collection equipment rather than by any
major improvements in the efficiency of a specific type of
control device. A matrix of effluent properties for the major
particulate sources is presented. Particulate characteristics
discussed include particle size, solids loading, and chemical
composition. Carrier-gas properties tabulated include flow rate
and chemical composition. (Author abstract modified)
25213
Hidy, G. M. and J. R. Brock
AN ASSESSMENT OF THE GLOBAL SOURCES OF TROPO-
SPHERIC AEROSOLS. Preprint, International Union of Air
Pollution Prevention Associations, 41p., 1970. 30 refs.
(Presented at the International Clean Air Congress, 2nd,
Washington, D. C., Dec. 6-11, 1970, Paper ME-26A.)
Based on current knowledge of the sources and production
mechanisms of tropospheric aerosols, an assessment is made
of the relative contribution of material from natural and
anthropogenic origins. The survey indicates that more than
half of the aerosol presently in the lower atmosphere comes
from 'secondary' processes such as chemical reactions in the
gas phase. The principal known or suspected participants in
such reactions are volatile hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides, am-
monia, and sulfur compounds such as hydrogen sulfide and
sulfur dioxide. The man-made contribution at this time
amounts to about 6% of the total production rate, which is set
at approximately 10 to the seventh power tons/day. A projec-
tion of the expected production rate assuming middle 1960
control methods suggests that the anthropogenic portion will
increase the total aerosol concentration in the troposphere by
about 11% through the year 2000. This increase will reduce the
visibility by a corresponding amount, and it may reduce the
amount of solar radiation reaching the earth's surface about
2% in the middle latitudes. (Author abstract modified)
25256
Cisler, W. L.
THE MEANING OF ENERGY FOR MAN AND HIS EN-
VIRONMENT AND FOR ECONOMIC PROGRESS. (Die Be-
deutung der Energie fuer den Menschen und seine Umwelt
und fuer den wirtschaftlichen Fortschritt). Text in German.
Brennstoff-Waerme-Kraft, 22(8):381-382, Aug. 1970.
(Presented at the Deutsche Nationalen Komitee der Weltener-
gieKonferenz, Essen, West Germany, April 10.)
Fossil fuels stored in the earth by Natural processes over a
period of about 600 million years are being used in steadily in-
creasing quantities. Also coal has been mined for about 800
years, but half of the total amount was mined and used during
the last 33 years, and about half of all the petroleum used by
mankind was obtained during the past 14 years. It has been
estimated by expert that if the present trend of consumption
continues, the supplies of petroleum, natural gas, oil shale,
and heavy oil sand will be used up in another 100 years, and
the coal supply will be completely consumed in 200-300 years.
In the field of nuclear power, the picture looks a little more
hopeful. Whereas the contemporary types of reactors only
have a 1-2% efficiency, new types being developed promise to
make use of about 80% of the energy in uranium.
25259
WHAT DEMANDS ARE MADE ON THE ENERGY SUPPLY
BY ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN AND THE INCREASING
REQUIREMENTS OF MAN? (Welche Anforderungen stellen
Umweltgestaltung und steigende Bedwerfnisse des Menschen an
die Energiedarbietung?). Text in German. Brennstoff Waerme-
Kraft, 22(8):383-388, Aug. 1970. (Panel Discussion at the Ger-
man National Committee of the World Power Conference, An-
nual Meeting, Essen, West Germany, 1970.)
Representatives of the various power industries (nuclear ener-
gy, soft coal, oil, anthracite, gas, and electricity) discuss the
increasing demands made on the world power supply from a
two-fold standpoint: environment and the human element. At
the present time, fuel oil represents 52% of available power in
West Germany, and is expected to reach 56% by 1980. In the
-------
48
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
powering of motor vehicles, the volatile fuels account for 90%
of the fuel supply and diesel fuels about 60%. In the field of
space heating, light fuel oils account for about 50% of the
power sources used. The petroleum consumption for 1969 was
100,000,000 metric tons, and the estimated annual consumption
for the early 1980's is 180 millio tons. In 1969 the free-world
consumption of aviation fuel was 100 million cubic meters, of
which West Germany used only 1.8 million, or 30 liters per
capita. The projected consumption for 1980 is 9 million cubic
meters, taking into account the expected increase in European
travel by then. Newly constructed power plants put into opera-
tion 1966-1971 have a capacity of 8500 MW. Coal is used as
the fuel for about 25% of the electric plants in West Germany,
and this figure is expected to remain constant for some time.
The projected coal consumption in power plants for 1975 is 34-
37 million tons. Nuclear power by 1980 is expected to be about
15,000-25,000 MW, at which time the demands for electric
power will have doubled, so that this will still represent only
25% of the total picture. Electrical power plants represent 70%
of the consumption of lignite, and new plants using lignite
represent an output of 3000 MW. West German mines can
only deliver an estimated 10,000 tons of uranium, whereas by
1980 a total of 53,000 tons would be needed for West German
nuclear plants, necessitating extensive importation of the ore.
25418
Babcock, Lyndon Ross, Jr.
SOME AIR POLLUTION IMPLICATIONS OF ENERGY
TRANSFORMATION AND USE. Washington Univ., Seattle,
Dept. of Civil Engineering, Thesis (Ph.D.), 1970, 304p. 105
refs.
Descriptive air pollution and energy information are presented
in an attempt to relate energy and urban form relationships to
air pollution. Facets of this information were combined into a
quantitative simulation called urbsim which was manipulated
to show the effects of major variables on overall air quality
and upon energy cost. The response curves suggested that,
from an air quality standpoint, it is desirable to nucleate new
cities rather than to allow existing cities to grow indefinitely.
The validity of the simulation was assessed when urbsim was
used to compare overall air pollution levels in two real cities.
The urbsim ranking agreed well with a ranking derived from
ambient air quality data measured in the same two cities.
Despite its generality and approximate nature, urbsim seems to
be a useful tool for comparing real cities. A means of combin-
ing ambient levels of six pollutants to enable assessment of
overall air quality is presented. Urbsim was used to rank the
severity of major emission categories in the USA. When tox-
icity and population distribution corrections were made, the
relative importance of the automobile as an air pollution
source was reduced. (Author summary modified)
25545
Mashek, V.
SOOT OBTAINED FROM SOLID FUELS. (Sazhi ot tverdykh
topliv). Text in Russian. Gigiena i Sanit., no. 7:85-87, 1970. 11
refs.
Analysis of soot samples taken in the vicinity of the city of
Ostrava, Czechoslovakia, and resulting from the combustion
of coke, anthracite, lignite, lignite briquets, or wood are re-
ported. About half of the material collected consisted of sil-
icon dioxide, with 2-9% iron, 0.3-0.6% sulfur, and trace
amounts of arsenic. Specific surface of the soot was low (2.5-
16 sq m/g) while ash content range from 28 to 82%.
Benzo(a)pyrene content was lowest in coke soot, (0.1-0.2
microg/g) considerably higher in soot from wood (11.5-20.1
microg/g), and anthracite (7.5-9.2 microg/g); the mode of burn-
ing was more important than the type of fuel burned.
25549
Kettner, H. and R. Langmann
OBJECTIONABLE SOOT EMISSIONS. (Zur Frage des
Auftretens von Belaestigungen durch Russ). Text in German.
Oeffentl. Gesundheitswesen (Stuttgart), 32(7):346-348, July
1970. 3 refs.
Soot emission sources include household furnaces, internal
combustion engines, small industries, thermal power plants,
coke ovens, airplanes, nonferrous metal smelting plants, rail-
roads, incinerators, carbon black works, incinerators of
agricultural residues, forest fires, fires from burning old tires,
from old oil and from tar. Soot is not harmful when pure but
soot from sulfur containing heavy oil (smut) contains con-
siderable quantities of sulfuric acid. Soot is also a carrier of
cancerogeni 3,4-benzpyrene in smogs and is a contributory
factor in the formation of smog. Soot is objectionable as a
deposit. An objective soot emission test filters a dust
precipitate deposited in a month through a glass wool filter
and measures the blackness of the stain by an optical electric
reflectometer. The thus obtained soot pollution index is a
dimensionless number which calculated for 1 day lies between
0.2 and 3. This method permits the setting of norms of max-
imally permissible soot emissions which has hitherto not been
done.
25689
Gambs, Gerard C.
POWER PLANT ASH--A NEGLECTED ASSET. Mining En-
gineering, 19(1): 42-44, Jan. 1967.
When coal is burned in electric utility plants, ash is produced
in one of several forms. These include fly ash, bottom ash,
and bottom slag. At the present time, approximately 20 million
tons of these ashes are produced and must be disposed of by
the utilities at a cost of $.50 to $2 per ton. However, when
used to replace a portion of the cement in a concrete mix, fly
ash will produce the highest quality concrete. As much as $.01
to $.02 per million Btu could be taken from the fuel cost for
each ton of ash sold which otherwise must be disposed of at a
cost. Examples of the use of fly ash concrete are indicated.
The relative compression strength of fly ash and regular
concrete is presented, as well as the physical and chemical
analyses of fly ashes used for construction projects. Fly ash
consists principally of the oxides of iron, aluminum, and silica.
These combine with the free lime liberated as the concrete
ages and form additional cementing materials. The use of fly
ash in concrete prevents free lime from being leached. Since
the fly ash is substituted for cement on a pound for pound ba-
sis, fly-ash concrete can usually be sold for about $1 per cu yd
less than regular concrete.
25690
Hirose, Rokuro
CRUDE OH, FUELS TWO 375-MW UNITS IN JAPAN. Elec.
World, 168(26):25-26, 31, Dec. 25, 1967.
Crude oil fuels two 375-Mw units at Chita Thermal Power Sta-
tion of Chubu Electric Power Company, Japan. Even when the
cost of additional protective equipment was included, the cost
of generating power from the crude oil was 10% below that of
generation with residual oil. In the refining process, an esti-
mated 80-90% of the sulfur, as well as other objectionable
constituents, becomes concentrated in the residual oil Thus,
burning crude instead of residual oil reduces sulfur dioxide
-------
A. EMISSION SOURCES
49
pollution of the air. To guard against fire and explosion when
crude oil leaks, gas monitors provide operators with alarm and
lamp indications. Patrolmen are also trained to inspect a
number of additional items during crude-oil firing. Piping is
welded to reduce the possibility of leakage, while other equip-
ment is flanged and grounded to prevent static discharges. For
protection against low-viscosity oil, the rotors are plated with
a special nickel alloy for wear and corrosion-resistant qualities.
Two propeller type agitators prevent accumulation of sludge in
one storage tank, and a nozzle type agitator in the other. The
crude oil flame is shorter than that of residual oil. Several
other differences between the two fuels are mentioned.
25867
Friedlander, Gordon D.
POWER, POLLUTION, AND THE IMPERILED ENVIRON-
MENT, n. EAST, MIDWEST, AND WEST COAST: POLLU-
TION-CONTROL PLANS OF SOME MAJOR UTILITIES;
ROLE OF GOVERNMENT IN ENVIRONMENTAL MAT-
TERS; OTHER PROPOSED SYSTEMS FOR REDUCING
STACK EMISSIONS. IEEE (Inst. Elec. Electron. Engrs.)
Spectrum, 7(12):65-75, Dec. 1970. 3 refs.
A number of the largest utility companies are embarking on
large- scale nuclear generating plant construction programs
that may phase out up to 50% of their fossil-fuel stations by
the end of the 70's. This move is being encouraged by electri-
cal suppliers who, with the utilities and the AEC, are striving
to convince the public that nuclear stations are completely
safe and provide the best means for air-pollution abatement.
Nevertheless, many fossil-fuel plants are still being planned
and built, and more efficient methods of reducing stack gas
emissions will have to be incorporated at these facilities if a
general reduction in air-pollution levels is to be achieved while
simultaneously meeting the accelerating demand for more
energy. Government, too, has a role to play and a responsibili-
ty to fulfill in the public interest by enacting fair and practica-
ble pollution-control legislation, and ensuring the enforcement
of such statutes. (Author abstract modified)
25914
Watanabe, Hironobu
RADIATION SAFETY OF POWER REACTORS. PART I. EN-
VIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION AND ITS EFFECTS TO
THE PUBLIC. (Doryokuro no anzensei. Ichi. Kankyo osen to
sono eikyo). Text in Japanese. Nippon Genshiryoku Gakkaishi
(J. At. Energy Soc. Japan), 12(10):611-619, Oct. 30, 1970. 15
refs.
Radioactive material stored in nuclear power plants are mainly
sintered pellets of condensed uranium oxide and those con-
tained in the fuel rods. The emission of radioactive material
into the environment may be caused by damage on the protec-
tive tubes for fuels. A table of the storage capacity for
radioactive rare gases inside the reactor is given by types of
nuclides, half-life, energy (MeV), emission rate, and maximum
emission rate from exhaust pipes (mCi/sec). Other items
discussed are the mechanism of environmental radioactive pol-
lution, the mathematical evaluation of pollution, and environ-
mental monitoring. A table of the concentration factor (CF)
for edible sections of various marine life such as fish, shellf-
ish, and seaweeds is presented by types of nuclides, the name
of the organism, and CF. The effects of dosages of radioac-
tivity on humans, the exposure quantity in the neighborhood
of a power reactor, and exposure to natural radioactivity such
as cosmic rays are discussed.
25975
Erdmann, Robert C.
POWER: CONTROL OF RADIOACTIVE EMISSIONS FROM
NUCLEAR REACTORS. In: Project Clean Air. California
Univ., Berkeley, Task Force No. 5, Section 8, 7p., Sept. 1,
1970. 7 refs.
Estimates of the level of radioactivity from natural sources
range from 0.1 to 0.8 rem, depending on the area of the world
in which an individual lives. Maximum permissible concentra-
tions are derived or secondary standards, which are intended
to preclude exposure of the public to the annual dose commit-
ment. Example reactor emissions are presented tabularly.
Basic and applied research needed includes a full scale emis-
sions study, monitoring requirements, fuel reprocessing, reac-
tor siting, atmospheric thermal problems, and reactor regula-
tions.
26085
Reardon, W. A., J. A. Merrill, L. D. Jacobson, and W. L.
Bathke
A REVIEW AND COMPARISON OF SELECTED UNITED
STATES ENERGY FORECASTS. BatteUe Northwest,
Richland, Wash., Pacific Northwest Labs., 79p., Dec. 1969. 20
refs.
Energy projections of a number of forecasts are collected and
compared, and the methodology used by the various
forecasters assessed. According to the forecasts examined,
energy consumption in the year 2000, including non-fuel uses,
will be about 170,000 trillion British thermal units if real gross
national product grows at four % per year. Although this
figure appears reasonable, it does not reflect the emerging
concern for protecting the environment. It is possible that fu-
ture government policy in regard to environmental quality and
conservation will lead to a lower level of total energy con-
sumption than would otherwise occur. In addition, the figure
quoted may not adequately reflect possible changes in efficien-
cy of energy conversion and changes in the structure of con-
sumption, especially the larger share going into electric power
production. Oil (including natural gas liquids) is expected to
remain the nation's largest energy source through 2000 and
natural gas (dry) the second largest source. Of three projec-
tions providing figures for both nuclear power and coal at the
end of the century, one estimates that coal will provide
slightly more energy than nuclear, another estimates just the
opposite,,and one foresees a large margin for nuclear. Nuclear
generation is expected to exceed hydroelectric generation
sometime in the 1975-1980 period. In the case of individual
fuels, the forecasts assume unlimited availability at no change
in relative prices. This assumption seems of questionable
validity even for the next decade.
26226
Perrine, Richard L. and Limin Hsueh
POWER AND INDUSTRY: CONTROL OF NITROGEN
OXIDE EMISSIONS. In: Project Clean Air. California Univ.,
Berkeley, Task Force 5, Vol. 1, Section 9, lip., Sept. 1, 1970
32 refs.
When fossil fuels are burned with air some of the nitrogen
reacts with oxygen forming nitrogen oxides; the major source
of emissions of NOx in California is motor vehicles, but sta-
tionary power sources and others also contribute large quanti-
ties. The higher the peak combustion temperature the more
nitric oxide is formed. Most current efforts to deal with the
problem are centered on developing improved combustion
processes and on the design of the burner and type of firing.
-------
50
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
Some improvement may be obtained through combustion
process modifications, but these are constrained by existing
designs, stable operating requirements, and adverse secondary
effects. Some basic approaches which have been developed
for removal of NOx emissions from nitric acid plant stack
gases include catalytic decomposition, catalytic reduction, ab-
sorption on solids, and caustic scrubbing. A number of modifi-
cations to operating conditions or burner design include low
excess air combustion, flue gas recirculation, steam and water
injection, burner configuration, and fluidized bed composition.
The complex interaction of mixing, heat transfer, fluid
mechanics, and chemical kinetics within the burner needs to
be understood. Simplified models of the combustion process
are necessary to aid in the understanding of the critical
processes controlling nitric oxide formation and to provide a
means for the systematic analysis of cause-effect relationships.
26233
Perrine, Richard L. and Limin Hsueh
POWER AND INDUSTRY: PARTICULATES. In: Project
Clean Air. California Univ., Berkeley, Task Force 5, Vol. 1,
Section 11, 3p., Sept. 1, 1970.
Industry is the leading producer of particulate emissions, while
utility power plants are in second place. However, about 10%
of the total airborne particulates result from construction and
demolition, which are very difficult to control. Particle size
range and the operating basis are cited for settling chambers,
cyclones, wet scrubbers, filters, electrostatic precipitators, and
afterburners. Precipitators able to operate at high temperatures
are currently under development, but further research is
needed to develop methods for removal of submicron parti-
cles.
26299
Tello Z., Joaquin
AIR POLLUTION ALONG THE MEXICAN-AMERICAN
FRONTIER. (La contaminacion atmosferica en la frontera de
Mexico con los Estados Unidos de America). Text in Spanish.
Salud Publica Mexico, 12(2):195-198, March-April 1970.
(Presented at the Asociacion Fronteriza Mexicana-Estadu-
nidense de Salubridad, 28th Annual Meeting, Baja, California,
March 16-20, 1970.)
If every city with 50,000 or more inhabitants is to be con-
sidered a potential source of dangerous air pollution, then
there are 36 population centers adjacent to the Mexican-Amer-
ican border, 20 of which are air pollution threats. Of the 21
Mexican communities in this group, 12 have a population
above 50,000. Pollution sources may be classified into four
categories: automotive vehicles (which contribute 50% of the
problem), generation of heat and electric power (15%),
elimination of solid wastes, and industrial activity (30%). Only
58% of the electric power produced in Mexico is from hydro
electric sources. Of the three communities on the border pos-
sessing thermoelectric generators, the largest is at Rosarito in
Baja, California with a capacity of 307,000 kilowatts, operated
in conjunction with an ocean water desalination plant at
Tijuana. The other plants are at Rio Bravo in Tamaulipas
(37,500 kw) and at Ciudad Juarez (15,000 kw). A study of the
border conditions has le to some proposals, which include the
formulation of criteria, acceptable to both countries, for the
classification of pollutants and minimum tolerance, air quality
standards, concerted action against the emission sources, com-
mon agreement as to the incineration of wastes, and agree-
ment on the technological approaches to pollution control.
-------
51
B. CONTROL METHODS
00107
S. S. Griswold
CONTROL OF STATIONARY SOURCES (TECHNICAL
PROGRESS REPT. VOLUME 1). Los Angeles County Air Pol-
lution Control District, Calif. Apr. 1960. 191 pp.
As a result of the intensive source control measures ad-
ministered in Los Angeles County, Virtually all industrial
operations have been brought within the scope of the air pollu-
tion control program. From the melting of metal to the paint-
ing of manufactured goods, specific industrial processes and
equipment have been subject to air pollution control measures.
This volume provides individual discussion of control
techniques applied to the most significant stationary sources of
air contamination. Certain source emission problems, such as
those traceable to the operation of railroad locomotives and
ships, are not discussed in this volume in view of the current
unimportance of the source. The material reported in this
volume generally contains only those developments occurring
subsequent to the publication of the Second Technical and Ad-
ministrative Report on Air Pollution Control in Los Angeles
County, 1950-51. (Author)
00135
T. T. Frankenberg
REMOVAL OF SULFUR FROM PRODUCTS OF COM-
BUSTION. Proc. Am. Petrol. Inst. 45, (3) 365-70, 1965.
(Presented at a Session on Desulfurization and Hydrogenation,
30th Midyear Meeting, American Petroleum Inst. Division of
Refining, Montreal, Canada, May 12, 1965.)
A state-of-the-art paper is presented on various processes for
removing sulfur from flue gas. Current efforts in environmen-
tal control stress the desirability of reducing sulfur dioxide
emission. Four dry processes which utilize different methods
and have different byproducts are discussed. All have un-
resolved problems, and none are economically feasible under
current market conditions. Both capital and operating costs
need to be drastically reduced. (Author)
00140
J. H. Fernandes, J. D. Sensenbaugh, and D. G. Peterson
BOILER EMISSIONS AND THEIR CONTROL. Combustion
Engineering, Inc., Windsor, Conn., and Air Preheater Co.,
Wellsville, N.Y. (Presented at Conference on Air Pollution
Control, Mexico City, Apr. 28, 1966.)
Emissions from combustion sources that are significant from
the standpoint of air pollution include (1) particulate matter,
(2) sulfur oxides, and (3) nitrogen oxides. Particulate matter is
objectionable on esthetic grounds. The technology for its con-
trol well developed, although effort is constantly being made
to improve collection equipment and reduce the cost of a non-
productive operation. Techniques have been developed for
control of SO3 in oil-fired units by means of low-excess air
and additives. Methods for control of SO3 in coal-fired boilers
have not been as well developed as for oil-fired units, but
there is less SO3 present with coal firing. A great deal of work
has been done on control of SO2, both by fuel desulfurization
and by removing the SO2 from the stack gas. Oxides of
nitrogen are important as air pollutants because of their par-
ticipation in the reactions leading to photochemical smog.
Since the localities most subject to photochemical smog are in
oil and gas burning areas, most of the work has been done on
these fuels. The emission of oxides of nitrogen can be signifi-
cantly reduced by using gas fuel or by use of a suitable firing
method and low-excess air with oil fuel.
00205
PROMISE SEEN IN STACK-GAS SO2 REMOVAL. Oil Gas J.,
p.53, May 2, 1966.
Test programs under investigation in stack-gas SO2 removal
are briefly reviewed. They involve the following: Babcock and
Wilson is investigating a process involving injecting alkaline
additives into the hot stack gases and then filtering them thru
fiber glass filter bags. Monsanto Company is investigating a
catalytic oxidation method. The process will remove sulfur
dioxide from the flue gases by oxidizing it to sulfur trioxide
and then condensing the latter to sulfuric acid. Although
specifics are lacking, other companies (such as Isomax, H oil,
and Gulf Oil Company) have been particularly active in the
field of hydrodesulfurization of residual fuels prior to com-
bustion.
00222
M. P. Silverman, M. H. Rogoff, and I. Wender
REMOVAL OF PYRITIC SULPHUR FROM COAL BY BAC-
TERIAL ACTION. Fuel, Vol. 42, 113-124, Mar. 1963.
Incubation of the acidophilic iron-oxidizing bacterium Fer-
robacillus ferrooxidans with coal resulted in the removal of ap-
preciable quantities of pyrite in three to four days. Bacterial
action was most effective with small particle sizes of coal;
more than 80% of the pyrite was removed in some cases. The
relative ease of coal desulphurization followed the order bitu-
minous easier than sub-bituminous easier than lignite owing to
the acid neutralizing capacity of the lower rank coals. How-
ever, pretreatment with acid increased the susceptibility of all
coals, except one lignite, to bacterial desulphurization. The ad-
dition of ferric sulphate increased pyrite removal from all acid-
treated coals. A mechanism for pyrite removal by bacteria is
discussed. (Authors' abstract)
00272
N. Glensy
MECHANICAL HANDLING OF COAL AND ASH. Eng. Boiler
House Rev. (London), 81(6): 170-177, June 1966.
Principal systems now available for coal and ash handling in
small and medium-sized boiler houses are reviewed. Handling
systems for the solid fuel and arrangements for extraction and
disposal of ash are vital elements in the automatic operation of
coal-fired industrial process boilers. Equipment suitable for
removing ash are submerged conveyors, vibratory conveyors
and pnrumatic handling plants. Submerged conveyors or
draglink conveyors are widely used in large installations
-------
52
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
because they require little maintenance and have the ad-
vantage of being completely dust free. Systems can be
designed to handle loads within the range from three-quarters
of a ton to 20 ton/hr.
00276
A. F. Baker, A. W. Deurbrouck, and E. R. Palowitch
SULFUR REDUCTION THROUGH STAGE CRUSHING:
USBM LOOKS AT METHOD TO EASE AIR POLLUTION
FROM NORTHERN APPALACHIAN COAL. Mining Eng.,
18(6):63-65, June 1966.
An analysis of the available data on sulfur reduction in coals
by crushing is given. Crushing samples of the Pittsburgh and
the Lower Kittanning coal beds to finer sizes before washing
did not significantly reduce the sulfur content of the float 1.60
sp gr coal. Samples of the Upper and Lower Freeport coal
beds showed significant sulfur reduction at each successive
crushing stage. Crushing samples of the Upper Kittanning coal
beds from 1 1/2 in. to 3/8 in. top size resulted in a significant
sulfur reduction in a few samples, and further crushing to 14
mesh top size before separating at 1.60 sp gr resulted in a sig-
nificant sulfur reduction in a substantial number of samples.
The removal of the sink 1.60 sp gr material in the 11/2 in. top
size coal reduced the sulfur content of many samples to less
than 2%. In general, the sulfur content of the float 1.30 sp gr
material remained essentially constant for each crushing stage.
00544
FUNDAMENTAL STUDY OF SULFUR FIXATION BY LIME
AND MAGNESIA (FINAL REPORT.) BatteUe Memorial Inst.,
Columbus, Ohio Columbus Labs. June 30, 1966, 50 p.
This study was undertaken to identify the basic factors in-
volved in the capture of SO2 by limestone or dolomite added
with the fuel or blown separately into the hot flue gas of cen-
tral-station boiler furnaces. The report is in 3 parts, following
a brief introduction: thermodynamic considerations, kinetics,
and recommendations for use in the field. An extensive tabula-
tion of the results of the many thermochemical calculations
made during this study is included. Some of the results of this
study can be summarized as follows: (1) Thermochemical cal-
culations based on the best available data show that CaO is
capable, theoretically, at equilibrium of removing all but 1
ppm of SO2 from flue gas at 1770 F; (2) With MgO, the tem-
perature can be no higher than 1200 F for an SO2 level of 1
ppm at equilibrium; (3) Limestone or dolomite added with the
fuel in pulverized-coal-fired boiler furnaces is apt to cause
serious slagging problems, while the probable reaction of CaO
with SiO2 furnace temperatures essentially may eliminate CaO
as a means of capturing SO2 in hot flue gases carrying
suspended coal ash; (4) For maximum effectiveness in coal-
fired equipment, limestone or dolomite should be added at the
point where the flue gas is no hotter than 2000F, probably at
the entrance to the superheater sections; (5) The lower tem-
perature limit where desulfurizing essentially would stop is not
known, but 1000 F appears to be a reasonable temperature
below which no further reactions may occur; and (6) Large
amounts of limestone or dolomite would be necessary to
remove SO2 from the flue gas of a typical boiler furnace. On
the basis of stoichiometric calculations, about 230 tons of
limestone would be needed daily to capture half the SO2
emitted by the boiler furnace of a 500 megawatt unit burning a
fuel with 3% S.
00564
H. Perry
POTENTIAL FOR REDUCTION OF SULPHUR IN COAL BY
OTHER THAN CONVENTIONAL CLEANING METHODS.
Preprint. (Presented at the Symposium on Economics of Air
Pollution Control, 59th National Meeting of the American Inst.
of Chemical Engineers, Columbus, Ohio, May 15-18, 1966,
Paper No. 24 E.)
Significant reduction of pyritic sulfur in coal requires, for
most seams, crushing the coal to fine sizes in order to liberate
the pyrite so that it can be separated from the coal. This
requires that the coal be treated at the point of use since trans-
portation of these fine sizes is expensive. Most conventional
methods of treating coals to remove impurities do not appear
to be suitable for sulfur reduction in these sizes. Treatment of
the coal-pyrite mixture to enhance a physical or chemical pro-
perty of the pyrite to make subsequent separation more effi-
cient and less costly also does not appear to be competitive
with removal of sulfur oxides from flue gases. There is insuffi-
cient information available as to the usefulness of concentrat-
ing tables for removing pyrite and additional research should
be carried out in this field. (Author's summary)
00567
R. E. Zimmerman
THE ECONOMICS OF DESULPHURIZING COAL BY CON-
VENTIONAL COAL PREPARATION METHODS. Preprint.
(Presented before the Symposium on Economics of Air Pollu-
tion Control, 59th National Meeting, American Inst. of Chemi-
cal Engineers, Columbus, Ohio, May 15-18, 19 6, Paper No. 24
D.)
This paper describes various methods for lowering the sulfur
content of coal by removing pyrites or iron sulfides in the con-
ventional coal preparation plants as well as suggested methods
of preparation for maximum pyritic removal by combining the
most efficient known processes. Estimated costs are given and
converted to cents per million Btu.
00568
R. M. Jimerson
UTILIZING SOLVENT REFINED COAL IN POWER
PLANTS. Chem. Eng. Progr. 62(10):53-60, Oct. 1966.
(Presented at the Symposium on Economics of Air Pollution
Control, 59th National Meeting of the American Institute of
Chemical Engineers, Columbus, Ohio, May 15-18, 1966, paper
no. 24 C.)
A process of dissolving coal, removing its ash and some sul-
fur, and reconstituting a uniform 'clean' fuel is described. The
economic aspect of the process and the cost of reducing air
pollution from powerplants by the substitution of 'clean' sol-
vent refined coal for conventional contaminated fuels is esti-
mated. The current and future possibilities and competitive
market for solvent refined coal in the combustion field are
developed. (Author's abstract)
00653
J. Kata
THE EFFECTIVE COLLECTION OF FLY ASH AT PUL-
VERIZED COAL-FIRED PLANTS. J. Air Pollution Control
Assoc. Vol. 15(ll):525-528, Nov. 1965. (Presented at the 58th
Annual Meeting, Air Pollution Control Association, Toronto,
Canada, June 20-24, 1965, Paper No. 65-131.)
The relationship between sulfur in coal, boiler exit gas tem-
perature, and the carbon portion of fly ash has a major effect
-------
B. CONTROL METHODS
53
on the electrical properties of fly ash. Whether effective col-
lection of fly ash is obtained by the electrostatic precipitator
installation alone or the precipitator mechanical combination
depends primarily on a knowledge of this relationship. Fly ash
electrical properties can range from a highly 'resistive' to a
highly 'conductive' state which can appreciably alter the
precipitator collection performance. A correlation of coal sul-
fur and boiler exit flue gas temperature is given to indicate the
probability of expecting an optimum voltage current relation-
ship with different combinations of these factors. Carbon af-
fects the electrical conditioning of fly ash by providing parallel
paths of current leakage through the deposited dust layer.
Therefore, removal of the carbon particles in a mechanical
collector placed before the precipitator can alter the precipita-
tor electrical characteristics. (Author abstract)
00687
F. Nelson and L. Shenfeld
ECONOMICS, ENGINEERING, AND AIR POLLUTION IN
THE DESIGN OF LARGE CHIMNEYS. J. Air Pollution Con-
trol Assoc., Vol. 15(ll):536-539, Nov. 1965 (Presented at the
58th Annual Meeting, Air Pollution Control Association,
Toronto, Canada, June 20-24, 1965, Paper No. 65-144.)
A discussion of the methods used to determine the most
economic design of chimney for a new thermal power station
or large industrial plant is presented, with the objective that
ground level concentration of pollutants will be kept at a
minimum. Attention is paid to the geography and climatology
of the site, with special reference to the frequency and height
of inversions and the prevailing wind direction and speed. A
method is illustrated in using a large thermal power station as
an example. The maximum sulphur dioxide concentrations at
ground level are computed for several chimney heights and gas
exit velocities. The values of these sulphur dioxide concentra-
tions, the capital cost of the chimney, the pumping costs, and
the gas pressures within the chimney are considered in select-
ing a suitable chimney height and a gas exit velocity which will
meet most economically the stated objective. The paper deals
primarily with chimneys for industrial or power boiler plant of
maximum continuous rating greater than 450 million Btu/hr
(about 450,000 Ibs of steam/hr), or to chimneys serving fur-
naces burning fuel at a maximum rate greater than 50,000
Ibs/hr of coal, or 30,000 Ibs/hr of oil. For chimneys serving
plant with smaller heat inputs, chimney selection by reference
to Clean Air Act 1956, Memorandum on Chimney Heights is
suggested.
00975
M. I. Weisburd, (Compiler and Ed.)
AIR POLLUTION CONTROL FIELD OPERATIONS
MANUAL (A GUIDE FOR INSPECTION AND ENFORCE-
MENT). Public Health Service, Washing- ton, D. C., Div. of
Air Pollution, 1962. 291p.
Author discusses sources, control methods, training techniques
and related aspects of air pollution. Document is an excellent
source for specific information on equipment being used in air
pollution control. Pictures, diagrams, schematics and charts
are given.
01187
D. L. Kloepper, T. F. Rogers, C. H. Wright, and W. C. Bull
SOLVENT PROCESSING OF COAL TO PRODUCE A DE-
ASHED PRODUCT. Gulf Oil Corp., Merriam, Kan., Spencer
Chemical Division. Feb. 27, 1965. 469 pp. (Research and
Development Rept. No. 9) CFSTI: PB 167809
This study shows that the ash can successfully be removed
from coal using a process in which: (1) The coal is dissolved in
the presence of hydrogen and using a solvent derived from the
coal itself; (2) The coal solution is filtered to remove the un-
dissolved mineral matter; and (3) The solvent is removed for
recycle and the de-ashed product recovered. The dissolver
area represents the heart of the process and while many varia-
bles need additional study, it has been shown on a gross basis
that using approximately the same reaction conditions will
result in essentially complete solution of a variety of coals.
Hydrogen requirements are low and do not represent an
economic problem. Mechanical problems plagued the filtration
studies but it was possible to prove that well dissolved product
filters readily and that ash values of approximately 0.1% can
reasonably be expected for the final product. Preliminary stu-
dies on the use of a centrifuge to separate undissolved
minerals from the coal solution were somewhat inconclusive.
This study demonstrates that solvent is generated in the
process and that recycled solvent retains its ability to dissolve
coal. The use of solvent generated from the feed coal is a
unique feature of the process. Solvent recovery and product
solidification should not be problems in a commercial unit. A
continuous unit was designed and built and technical feasibility
of the process proven by simultaneous operation of all parts of
the system. Since only small quantities of material could be
made in this unit it was not possible to do more than very
limited testing of the de-ashed product for the potential com-
mercial applications in which it might be considered desirable.
Widespread interest has been expressed in the product and
many requests for materials to test could not be honored due
to the substantial amounts needed for the testing programs.
Market research has shown a potential market for the de-
ashed product of over 72,000,000 tons annually. (Author sum-
mary modified)
01245
G. E. Johnson, L. M. Kunka, and J. H. Field
USE OF COAL AND FLY ASH AS ADSORBENTS FOR
REMOVING ORGANIC CONTAMINANTS FROM SECONDA-
RY MUNICIPAL EFFLUENTS . Ind. Eng. Chem. Process
Design Develop. 4, (3) 323-7, July 1965.
Batch tests of coals and fly ashes were made to determine
their effectiveness in removing organic contaminants from the
final effluent of secondary-treated waste waters. The adsorp-
tive capacity of fly ashes, coals of various ranks, and
pretreated coals was determined and compared with activated
carbon. The coals, though less active than carbon, are relative-
ly inexpensive and can still be burned as fuel after use in
waste-water treatment. Illinois No. 2 seam coal (hvcb) ad-
sorbed about 4% of its weight of materials that consume ox-
ygen (COD) in repetitive contacts with fresh sewage; activated
carbon adsorbed about 10% of its weight of COD at the same
test conditions. A fly ash removed 66% of the COD and 76%
of the synthetic detergents (ABS) present in a single contact
period. The effectiveness of fly ash as an adsorbent improves
with increasing carbon content. Coals pretreated by mild ox-
idation were ineffective as adsorbents. (Author abstract)
01362
E.K. Diehl E.A. Zawadzki
CONTAMINANTS IN FLUE GASES - AND METHODS FOR
REMOVAL. Coal Age, Vol. 70:70-74, Dec. 1965. (Presented at
Technical Sales Conference, National Coal Association and
Annual Meeting of Bituminous Coal Research, Inc., Sept
1965.)
-------
54
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
The relative importance of the harmful pollutants in stack
gases from coal combustion is described. Polynuclear
hydrocarbons, ocides of nitrogen, particulates, and sulfur ox-
ides are considered. Sulfur dioxide removal methods are
described.
01485
H. L. Engelbrecht
ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATORS IN THERMAL POWER
STATIONS USING LOW GRADE COAL. Preprint. (Presented
at the 28th Annual Meeting, American Power Conference,
April 26-28, 1966.)
Author points out that based on present experience dust from
firing systems which use low-grade coal can be successfully
collected in electrostatic precipitators with a high collection ef-
ficiency. Influences and relations to such factors as flue gas
velocity, collecting and discharge systems, sulfur content of
coal, moisture content of the gas, effects of firing system, par-
ticle size distribution, and dust resistivity are delineated. It is
concluded by author that correct design of new installations
must be predicted on the knowledge which has been gained
from installations now under operation.
01493
Squires, A. M.
AN INTRODUCTION TO THE HEAT CYCLE: A MEANS
FOR ELIMINATING SULFUR FROM POWER-STATION EF-
FLUENT WHILE IMPROVING HEAT RATE. Proc. Am.
Power Conf., Vol. 28, p. 505-515, 1966. 7 refs. (Presented at
the 28th Annual Meeting, American Power Conference,
Chicago, El., April 26-28, 1966.)
The Top Heat Cycle uses an oxygen flame to heat steam
directly to temperatures beyond those which may be reached
by indirect transfer of heat from hot flue gases to steam. For
example, an oxygen flame might readily heat steam to 1500F,
say. The limit is about 1250F when steam is heated indirectly
by clean flue gas, and it is about HOOF when dirty flue gas or-
dinarily met with is used. Fuel to the oxygen flame should be
clean and substantially free of sulfur. When power is to be
generated from a 'dirty' fuel, such as heavy fuel oil or coal, a
portion of the fuel is gasified with oxygen and steam to pro-
vide a rich fuel gas, which is cleaned of dust and sulfur com-
pounds. Sulfur is recovered in the elemental form for sale. Ox-
ygen for the cycle may be produced by conventional low-tem-
perature plant. There is a good possibility of obtaining better
results using an improved form of the historic Brin process in
which oxygen was absorbed from air at high temperature by
barium oxide. Equipment for a design using heavy residual oil;
a survey of what the cycle might achieve; and development
problems are considered.
01615
C.C. Shale
PROGRESS IN HIGH-TEMPERATURE ELECTROSTATIC
PRECIPITATION. J. Air Pollution Control Assoc. 17, (3) 159-
60, Mar. 1967. (Presented at the 59th Annual Meeting, Air Pol-
lution Control Association, San Francisco, Calif., June 20-24,
1966.)
Current-voltage relationships are given for a pilot-scale elec-
trostatic precipitator with 3-inch electrode spacing at 80 to
1,500 F and 35 to 80 psig. Direct comparison is made with the
electrical characteristics for a 1-inch spacing at 1,200 F over
the same range of pressure. Experimental results on both
spacings agree well with eklectrostatic theory. Initial dust
removal efficiencies ranged from 90 to 96 percent at 1,460 F
and 80 psig, but continuous operation was not achieved owing
to excessive thermal expansion of the internal parts of the
unit. Design modifications are discussed. (Author abstract)
01712
W. Weyers and L. H. Engels
THE RESULTS OF TECHNICAL MEASURES FOR DUST
REMOVAL IN UNDERGROUND COAL PREPARATION AND
THE ASSOCIATED CONVEYING PLANT. STAUB (English
Transl.) 26, (1) 21-4, Jan. 1966.
Reports on the results achieved with technical methods of dust
removal used in a coal preparation plant and an adjacent con-
veying plant are given; the results are illustrated by means of
efficiency measurements which are described in detail. The
strict requirements for dust removal in the plants have been
fulfilled as a result of close collaboration of all the interested
parties, so that the plant operation does not give rise to any
objections as regards hygienic conditions. (Author summary)
01726
F. Johswich
THE PRESENT STATUS OF FLUE GAS DESULPHURIZA-
TION. Combustion 37, 18-26, Oct. 1965.
The significance and practical possibilities of flue gas
desulphurization were discussed by this author three years
ago. New proposals have been added since then to the
methods known and the subject of this paper is a technical
and economical comparison of all methods. For simplification
the comparison is based upon an oil fired steam power plant
of which the design data are given. The following methods are
discussed: The well known Reinluft and Penelec processes;
the 'Wickert' method, which proposes an additive method
which not only prevents low temperature corrosion in the
boiler but also allows the oxidation of sulphur oxide in boiler
flue gas. Laboratory studies have shown that pulverized
dolomite which is blown into the furnace has a sufficient cata-
lytic effect to oxidize the existing SO2 to SOS thereby forming
calcium and magnesium sulphate. The often suggested 'Wet-
wash' method is considered technically unsound. Tests made
by German plants proved the technical impracticability of this
method. The Double Catalysis method developed by Bayer
Leverkusen, is not really a means for purifying flue gas but
rather an improvement of the normal production method of
sulphuric acid. A Ferro Oxyd' method is described although
experiments were unsuccessful. The Aluminum-Oxide method
by the Bureau of Mines and the German 'Stratmann' method
which proposes to lead SO2 containing waste gas, e.g., flue
gas through layers of active coal are also described. A techni-
cal evaluation of the latter process is given.
01727
Katell, Sidney
AN EVALUATION OF DRY PROCESSES FOR THE
REMOVAL OF SULFUR DIOXIDE FROM POWER-PLANT
FLUE GASES. Preprint, Bureau of Mines, Morgantown, W.
Va., Morgantown Coal Research Center, ((23))p., 1966. 8 refs.
(Presented at the 59th National Meeting, American Institute of
Chemical Engineers, Symposium on Economics of Air Pollu-
tion Control, Columbus, Ohio, May 15-18, 1966.)
An economic evaluation of new methods for removing sulfur
dioxide from powerplant flue gases is presented. Considered
are processes under development or proposed for development
in the United States. Capital and operating costs are
established for an 800-megawatt powerplant and these costs
expressed both as dollars per kilowatt of installed capacity and
-------
B. CONTROL METHODS
55
sollars per ton of coal feed. The operating costs are based on
an assumed 90 percent operating factor for the powerplant.
The change in costs introduced by considering an operating
factor of 50 percent is also shown. (Author's abstract)
017%
P. Sporn T.T. Frankenberg
PIONEERING EXPERIENCE WITH HIGH STACKS ON THE
OVEC AND AMERICAN ELECTRIC POWER SYSTEMS.
Nat. Soc. Clean Air, Proc. Ann. Conf. (An Expanded Version
was Presented at the International Clean Air Congress, Lon-
don, England Oct. 4-7, 1966.) 7 pp. (Also published in: The
Tall Stack for Air Pollution Control on Large Fossil-Fueled
Power Plants, p. 34-42, 1967)
The two Ohio Valley Wlectric Corporation plants with capaci-
ties of 1200 and 1000 MW were pioneering ventures in many
ways. During their design stage, the ten largest thermalelectric
plants operating in the United States had an average size of
less than 600 MW. By 1963 there were 17 plants in operation,
each exceeding 1000 MW. The wind tunnel work and gas dif-
fusion calculations leading to the selection of 683 foot stacks
for the larger plant and 535-foot for the other is described.
Dustfall and SO2 concentration studies in the field began prior
to operation and continued for three years after full commis-
sioning of the plants. Data obtained were used in evaluation of
the diffusion equations, and to judge the correctness of certain
mathematical models covering transient situations. Experience
obtained in operating and maintaining these pioneer stacks led
to modifications in the design of the 825-foot stacks for Car-
dinal Plant near Brilliant, Ohio which will be commissioned in
1966. (Author abstract)
01799
THE DISPOSAL OF COAL REFUSE. J. Air Pollution Control
Assoc. 6, (2) 105-10, Aug. 1965. (Technical Coordinating
Comittee T-4 Coal Report.)
Fires are of general occurrence in bituminous refuse piles
because their construction is such that the air flow falls within
the critical range. This construction is a normal characteristic
of aerial tram, incline, larry, and careless tuck disposal opera-
tions. As such piles become higher, size segregation, void
space between larger pieces, erosion cuts, settlement, and the
development of slip page fissures enable restricted upward cir-
culation of air. This chimney effect within the pile promotes
spontaneous heating and ultimate combustion of the refuse
pile. Many coal operators have found that by observing proper
care in the selection of dump sites and the methods of
disposal, the occurrence of refuse fires can be eliminated.
Such practices in pile construction as compaction by roller in
thin layers, crushing the larger pieces to an intermediate size,
reducing the pile slope, and the use of a terraced face will
reduce spontaneous ignition and permit control of fires in un-
sealed piles. For even better protection against refuse pile
fires, some operators have sealed the piles with clay or fine
refuse. This procedure is very suitable for hillside sites
because the hillside reduces the exposed edge area and clay is
available for the seal at the rising pile level. Methods have
been developed whereby existing refuse-pile fires can be extin-
guished. Water can be used to cool areas to be extinguished,
but the use of water to stop the fire has not been successful.
Satisfactory results have been obtained by sealing the burning
pile with compacted refuse, cleaning plant sludge, or refuse
fines. (Author abstract)
01866
R.A. Glenn R.D. Harris
LIBERATION OF PYRITE FROM STEAM COALS. J. Air Pol-
lution Control Assoc. 12, (8) 388-95;404, Aug. 1962. (Presented
at 23rd Annual Meeting, American Power Conference,
Chicago, 111., Mar. 21-23, 1961.)
This paper presents a discussion of research being conducted
to expand knowledge of the nature and mode of occurrence of
pyrite in coals in an effort to gain information which will ena-
ble the development of new or improved methods for reducing
the sulfur content of coals to levels below that now attainable
by conventional coal cleaning techniques. Application of
modern microscopic and chemical techniques in the charac-
terization of a group of selected high sulfur bituminous coals
has shown that the major portion by weight of the pyrite
present exists as particles large enough to be readily separated
once they are liberated. Laboratory test results indicate that
during pulverization the pyrite tends to concentrate in the vari-
ous particle-size fractions. The microscopic pyrite particles
embedded in the coal substance tend to concentrate in the
very fine fractions, that is, fractions below minus 200 mesh.
The larger pyrite particles that are associated with the mineral
matter tend to concentrate in the greater-than-60 mesh frac-
tion. However, for the full benefits of these results to be real-
ized in commercial practice, much additional research will be
necessary to develop practical pulverizing machinery and
techniques. Where the pyrite sulfur is mainly associated with
mineral matter, there are good prospects of its removal by
adapting presently the organic matter will require the develop-
ment of improved equipment for processing coal in the minus
200 mesh size. (Author summary)
02032
K. Schwarz
(DUST EMISSIONS FROM COAL-FIRED BOILERS IN THE
FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY.) Die Staubemissionen
Kohlegefeuerte Dampfkesselgrossanlagen in Der Bundesrepublik
Deutschland. Proc. (Part I) Intern. Clean Air Cong., London,
1966. (Paper V/8). pp. 136-41.
In the Federal Republic of Germany, rigorous scales were
evolved for the supervision of emissions from industrial plants
by the Federal Regulations issued in 1959 in the interests of
clean air, and by the technical regulations of 1964, which set
limits for these ('Technical Directions for Clean Air, TAL').
This applies in particular for the requirements which were
placed on the emission of dust from large coal-fired boilers
particularly when the fuel has a high ash content. Results of
numerous experiments on large, electric dust removers for
bituminous coal and brown coal-fired boilers - carried out by
the Technical Supervisor Groups in Essen and the Rheinland,
show the developments over the past few years towards ever
higher separating achievements. Effects of various factors, in
particular the properties of the fuel and the combustion condi-
tions , were visible on dust properties and separating results.
The limits reached today in this sector are indicated. (Author
abstract)
02036
G. G. Schneider
INTERNATIONAL DUST AND FUME COLLECTION
PROBLEMS. Proc. (Part I) Intern. Clean Air Cong., London,
1966. (Paper V/12). pp. 149-53.
A general review is presented of problems which affect many
nations. The need for larger and more efficient units, the ap-
plication of electro-filters, legal emission limits, the nomencla-
-------
56
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
ture problem, new techniques which have responded to new
problems, and international financial arrangements are
discussed.
02053
F. Dels.
PRESENT STATE OF DEVELOPMENT OF FLUE-GAS
DESULPHURIZING INSTALLATIONS IN NORTH-RHINE
WESTPHALIA. Stand Der Entwicklung Von Anlagen rzur
Entschwefelung Von Abgasen Im Land Nordrhein-Westfalen.
Proc. (Part I) Intern. Clean Air Cong., London, 1966. (Paper
VI/17). pp. 206-8.
In support of development of flue gas desulphurization instal-
lations by the State of Northrhine-Westfalia dry processes for
desulphurization of hot flue gases are being preferred. Accord-
ing to the Reinluftprocess a plant with a capacity of 55,000 N
cum/h in a chemical factory is being started up. This installa-
tion is coupled with a sulphuric acid plant, a Claus oven plant,
and an oil burning installation. Another plant of this type with
a capacity of 33,000 N cum/h is being erected in connection
with a pitcoal power station in order to test the process with
different kinds of furnaces. At the same power station another
desulphurization process is being tested (Wickert process)
blowing lime or dolomite into the boiler. Finally at a coal-fired
power station another desulphurization plant has to be erected
using absorption of sulphur dioxide on wet lignite coal filters
ash (Still-process). (Author abstract)
02149
(THE PRESENT ASPECT OF PUBLIC NUISANCE PREVEN-
TION CONTROL IS THE ELECTRICITY SUPPLY ENTER-
PRISE IN JAPAN.) Clean Air Heat Management (Tokyo) 15, (3)
6-8, Mar. 1966.
Due to the rapid growth of industry, limited land, and extreme
localization of industry, public nuisance has become a serious
problem in Japan. Among various kinds of public nuisance, air
pollution due to SO2 is most closely related to the electric
power supply industry. The recent switch of fuel in industry
from coal to petroleum caused the increase of SO2 in air to
such an extent that in Yokkaichi the SO2 content in air ex-
ceeded 0.2 ppm and resulted in a serious social problem. In
order to control the situation, the electric power supply is tak-
ing the following measures: use of high-efficiency dust collec-
tor and effective combustion control system; building of high
stacks; use of low sulfur petroleum. The following methods
for reducing SO2 are described: use of additives (CaCo3 or
dolomite powder) and sulfur removal using hydrogen or bac-
teria.
02192
F. E. Gartrell and J. C. Barber.
POLLUTION CONTROL INTERRELATIONSHIPS. Chem.
Eng. Progr. 62, (10) 44-7, OCT. 1966.
Authors conclude that air pollution control and water pollution
control in industrial applications are closely related. Discussed
are the TVA experience with coal-fired power paints and
phosphate fertilizer plants which indicates that application of
one type of pollution control ultimately must include con-
sideration of the other. General aspects of the control equip-
ment (to control fly ash emissions) utilized in the TVA coal-
fired power stations are discussed.
02195
S. Katell.
REMOVING SULFUR DIOXIDE FROM FLUE GASES. Chem.
Eng. Progr. 62, (10) 67-73, OCT. 1966.
The removal of sulfur from ocal prior to its utilization as a
power plant fuel is investigated. An economic evaluation of
new methods for removing SO2 from power plant flue gases is
presented. Processes under development or proposed for
development in the U.S. are considered. Estimated capital in-
vestment and operating costs for 3 dry processes for removing
SO2 from flue gases are projected for an 800-Mw. power plant
burning 3% sulfur coal.
02206
K.S. Watson K.J. Blecher
FURTHER INVESTIGATION OF ELECTROSTATIC
PREdPITATORS FOR LARGE PULVERIZED FUEL FIRED
BOILERS. Intern. J. Air Water Pollution, 10, (9) 573-83, Sept.
1966, (Presented at the Second Technical Session, 1965 Clean
Air Conference, Australia, Aug. 19, 1965.)
Collection difficulties experienced with New South Wales fly
ash appear to be related to the area from which the coal is
mined and dust from at least one south coast mine is markedly
more difficult to precipitate than dust from Northern seams
with dust from the Western fields being intermediate in dif-
ficulty of collection. Flue gas conditioning with ammonia has
been found moderately successful at Tallawarra where it is
now permanently used on two 100 MeW installations.
Evidence of the effect of gas conditioning on the electrical
behaviour of the precipitator is given. The relationship
between migration velocity and gas temperature has been con-
firmed except at Vales Point where a temperature variation of
100 F has no perceptible effect on precipitator performance.
The existence of performance bands due to factors external to
the precipitator has been confirmed and quantitative data on
rapping intensities are available. Accurate measurement of re-
sistivity has been found to be difficult and the value of re-
sistivity measurement as a means of comparing dusts is doubt-
ful. (Author abstract modified)
02311
G.N. Stone A.J. Clarke
POWER STATIONS AND CLEAN AIR. Central Electricity
Generating Board (England) 1963. 12 pp.
This paper discusses the chimney emission problems presented
by power stations and the techniques developed for dealing
with them. Study of chimney plume behavior, instruments
developed to assist in research, and research into dry sorption
processes for removing SO2 from flue gases, are reviewed.
02398
G. Stabenow.
SURVEY OF EUROPEAN EXPERIENCE WITH HIGH PRES-
SURE BOILER OPERATION BURNING WASTES AND
FUEL. Proc. Natl. Incinerator Conf. 144-60, 1966. (Presented
at the National Incinerator Conference, American Society of
mechanical Engineers, New York City, May 1-4, 1966.)
A number of large incinerators in European municipal service
have stoker-fired water-walled furnaces and boilers for power
generation. The paper discusses the principles, stoker design,
burning rates, boiler design and high efficiency dust collection.
Data on nine European and two Brazilian plants of European
design are given. Water-walled furnaces allow the use of low
excess air, which reduces the volume of flue gas to be
cleaned. (Author abstract)
-------
B. CONTROL METHODS
57
02407
D. Bienstock, J.H. Field, J.G. Myers
PROCESS DEVELOPMENT IN REMOVING SULFUR DIOX-
IDE FROM HOT FLUE GASES. I. BENCH-SCALE EXPERI-
MENTATION. Bureau of Mines, Washington, D.C. (Report of
Investigations 5735). 1961. 34 pp.
This report is the first of a series of four publications by the
Bureau of Mines on the engineering development of a process
for removing sulfur dioxide from flue gases. Later reports will
cover the design and operation of a small-scale, pulverized
coal fired furnace, pilot plant investigations, using flue gases
from the furnace, and cost estimates for a commercial installa-
tion. The following subjects are discussed in this report:
Problem of sulfur dioxide pollution. Magnitude of sulfur diox-
ide pollution. Legislation regarding sulfur dioxide. Methods of
reducing sulfur dioxide pollution. Operating procedure. Ab-
sorption. Alkalized alumina absorbent. Effect of alkali, sulfate,
water vapor. Regeneration of spent sodium alumina absorbent.
Proposed industrial application for scrubbing flue gas. Man-
ganese oxide absorbent. Electrolytic regeneration of man-
ganese sulfate; Adsorption. Activated carbons. Molecular
sieves. Oxidation catalysts. Future studies.
02408
J.D. Spencer
BUREAU OF MINES RESEARCH AND TECHNOLOGIC
WORK ON COAL, 1964. Bureau of Mines, Morgantown, W.
Va., Morgantown Coal Research Center 1965. 125 pp.
This report describes the 1964 research activities of the Bu-
reau of Mines, and the results obtained in mining research,
coal storage and preparation, and others. Research on
synthetic fluid fuels and chemicals production from coal, an
important potential use of the solid fuel, continued to be
stressed by the bureau. The production of synthetic pipeline
gas, a natural gas substitute, for example, was the subject of
much study including coal gasifications, gas purification and
gas processing research. Work done by the Bureau on stack
gas purification, in connection with the control of air pollu-
tion, is also reviewed.
02424
E.V. Somers, J.R. Hamm, N.E. Weeks
CONCEPTUAL-DESIGN STUDY: COAL-FIRED GAS-TUR-
BINE POWER PLANT WITH SO2-FREE FLUE GAS.
Westinghouse Research Labs., Pittsburgh, Pa. (Scientific
Paper 66-1DO-HCONS-P3.) Aug. 22, 1966. 18 PP.
The coal-fired combined gas-steam turbine power plant studied
appears capable of producing electrical energy at costs com-
petitive with that produced by coal-fired and nuclear steam
plants. The plant is cost competive for electrical energy in
plant sizes as low as 100 MW. Removal of the sulfur in the
high pressure gasification system affords better than 90%
reduction in SO2 in the flue gas. The cooling water require-
ment for the combined cycle plant is about 40% of that for a
coal-fired steam plant. The components used in the technical-
economic study are either in existence or are small extrapola-
tions of known design technology. The plant is based on 'near-
term' equipment. There remains considerable growth potential
for reduced electrical energy costs because of possible im-
provements in plant components. Development of gasifiers to
handle all run-of-mine coal, including strongly caking coals,
and of gas turbine capable of operating at higher temperatures
promises additional economic gains for coal-fired electrical
energy. (Author abstract)
02442
G. R. Frysinger
A HYDROCARBON-AIR FUEL CELL USING AN ACID
ELECTROLYTE. Army Engineer Research and Development
Labs., Fort' Belvoir, Va., Electrical Power Division. 11 pp.,
June 1966 CFSTI,DDC AD 634677
The utilization of liquid hydrocarbon fuels in a fuel cell to
produce electrical power is of high practical interest. The abili-
ty to utilize the liquid hydrocarbon fractions available from
conventional petroleum refineries at energy conversion effi-
ciencies of 40-60% has the effect of greatly increasing the usa-
ble energy content of our proven petroleum resources. A new
fuel cell concept which utilizes a phosphoric acid electrolyte
offers a highly compact fuel cell assembly which can be used
in a very highly simplified system for the generation of d. c.
electrical power from hydrocarbon fuels. Either the hydrocar-
bon can be reached directly at the electrodes in an anodic ox-
idation reaction or the active hydrogen of the hydrocarbon
molecules can be liberated by a hydrocarbon-stem reforming
reaction and the hydrogen subsequently reacted at the fuel eel
anode. The objective of this paper is to describe the electrode
processes involved in each of these alternatives and to discuss
the hydrocarbon-air fuel cell system which is now possible,
based on the recent achievements from U.S. Army research
investigations. (Author abstract)
02727
R. F. Bovier
SULFUR - SMOKE REMOVAL SYSTEM. Preprint. (Presented
at the 26th Annual American Power Conference, Chicago, 111.,
Apr. 16, 1964.)
Development of an economically feasible system for essen-
tially eliminating all solids and most sulfur fumes discharged
into the atmosphere while burning high ash, high-sulfur con-
tent bituminous coal in power plant boilers may solve one of
our industry's oldest and most vexatious emission problems.
The problem, of course, is how to effectively minimize or con-
trol the stack emission of fly ash and sulfur dioxide. The new
system, as developed through actual pilot plant operation, not
only promises to successfully eliminate one of the remaining
major emission problems associated with the burning of soft
coal, but actually produces sulfuric acid of acceptable qualities
and in quantities substantial enough for economic commercial
use. The purpose of this paper is to describe the unique
system, and how it came about, to explain how it functions, to
point out why it appears to be economically feasible, and to
indicate its value as an additional major tool for improving the
quality of atmospheric conditions in the vicinity of large, new,
coal-burning electric generating stations.
02772
V. H. Sussman J. J. Mulhern
AIR POLLUTION FORM COAL REFUSE DISPOSAL AREAS.
J. Air Pollution Control Assoc. 14, (7) 279-84, July 1964.
(Presented at the 56th Annual Meeting, Air Pollution Control
Association, Detroit, Mich., June 9-13, 1963.)
Large quantities of coal refuse are produced during coal
minimg and cleaning operations. The refuse is deposited in
large piles often containing millions of tons of highly pyritic
coal. The piles often ignite (either spontaneously or through
carelessness) and the burning refuse emits large quantities of
oxides of sulfur and hydrogen sulfide. High concentrations of
these gases have been measured in communities adjacent to
burning piles. There are many of these burning piles in
Pennsylvania and a recent survey by the U.S. Bureau of Mines
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58
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
indicates that a number of other states have similar problems.
The air pollution problem caused by these burning piles was
given a high priority by the Pennsylvania Air Pollution Com-
mission. The Commission's first Regulation is entitled 'To
Prevent and Control Air Pollution From Coal Refuse Disposal
Areas'. This paper describes the nature of this air pollution
problem, abatement and control methods and the regulatory
procedures employed by the Pennsylvania Air Pollution Com-
mission. (Author abstract)
02778
B. H. M. Billinge, A. C. Collins, B. Hearn, and H. G.
Masterson
THE DRY REMOVAL OF SULPHUR DIOXIDE FROM FLUE
GASES. Cost Estimates. Preprint. 1963.
First Order Estimates have been made of the cost of removing
sulphur dioxide from the flue gases produced by a 4,000 MW
station, considering two alternative dry removal processes,
one based on carbon and the other on alkalized alumina as the
solid absorbent. On the basis of the estimates made in this re-
port it has been shown that both processes are economically
attractive, subject to the confirmation, by further research, of
a number of primary cost factors. In the light of present
knowledge the estimated costs of the two processes, for
removal of 50% of the sulphur dioxide, are given. Despite the
slight differential in costs between the two processes it ap-
pears that the alkalized alumina process would be the more
probable one for power station use. (Author summary
modified)
02813
K. E. Yandon
POTENTIAL MARKET FOR DE-ASHED COAL AND ITS BY-
PRODUCTS FOR A PLANT LOCATED IN WASHINGTON
STATE. Preprint. Feb. 1965.
The potential market for the de-ashed coal product, developed
by the process from Spencer Chemical Company, for a plant
located in Washington would have a market range from 3.4
million tons to 10.5 million tons. If we included the possibility
of the by-products entering the petroleum refinery complex,
we could add 1 million tons to 4.8 million tons, or have an
over-all grand total ranging from 4.4 million tons to 15 million
tons. A table shows a summary of the potential market that
de-ashed coal and its by-products could enter from a plant
located in Washington. The total amount of diesel oil con-
sumed by the railroads for the market area designated is re-
ported. Also reported is the total for all uses of diesel oil. The
1961 figure for exports to Japan of petroleum coke and carbon
black are only the amounts that were exported from the U.S.
and not from other sources. (Author abstract)
02908
D. Bienstock, J. H. Field, and J. G. Myers
REMOVAL OF SULFUR OXIDES FROM FLUE GAS WITH
ALKALIZED ALUMINA AT ELEVATED TEMPERATURES .
J. Eng. Power 86, (3) 353-60, July 1964 (Presented at the
ASME-AIEE National Power Conference, Cincinnati, Ohio,
Sept. 22-25, 1963.)
A cyclic process is described for removing the oxides of sulfur
from flue gas by absorption of 625 F and then converting the
oxides to elemental sulfur by reduction of the spent absorbent.
Pilot-plant experiments are reported in which a solid absorbent
of alkalized alumina in free and baffled fall is used to remove
SO2 and SOS from the combustion gas of a pulverized coal-
fired furnace. The absorbent is then regenerated by heating
with hydrogen or with steam-reformed natural gas. Flyash
does not interfere and attrition is negligible. (Author abstract)
02909
R. V. Bins
AIR POLLUTION CONTROL SYSTEM AT BAY SHORE
GENERATING PLANT OF THE TOLEDO EDISON COM-
PANY. Air Eng. 8, (5) 20-2;24, May 1966.
In the complex of equipment to generate electricity for
northwestern Ohio, the boilers at the Bay Shore Power Plant
consume daily an average of 53 railroad cars of coal. Without
the station's existing air pollution control equipment, the daily
consumption of 3,200 tons of coal could cause a great deal
more air pollution than what is now emanating from the 250-
foot tall chimneys. Somewhat more than one half million dol-
lars has been invested for pollution control equipment and
auxiliaries at the Bay Shore Station. Air Pollution control has
become more effective and efficiency has grown and will con-
tinue to do so with advancement in engineering technology.
02931
D. Korol
SEPARATION OF PYRITES FROM COALS. (Wydzielanie
pirytu z wegli.) Prace Glownego Inst. Gornictwa (119)1-12,
1952. CFSTI: 60-21277
The objects of this investigation were to study the possibility
of separating by means of mechanical processing at least part
of the sulfur contained in Polish coals; to earmark those collie-
ries which possess S in such quantitities as to make feasible an
industrial separation of pyrite from coal; to establish the
technological approach. Only pyrite coal is considered herein.
The use of the sulfur obtained from pyrites by the chemical in-
dustries is considered most desirable. Products totalling 69
from 26 collieries were examined as follows: (1) by jigging; (2)
by enrichment of products on concentrating tables (considered
the most appropriate approach); (3) enrichment by flotation,
mostly applicable to slurries. It was established that, by treat-
ment on concentrating tables, pyrite concentrates of S content
above 40% can be obtained from the product of certain collie-
ries; in other collieries, the concentrates separated contained
from 35 to 40% S, or lower. Priority should be reserved for
the construction of small preparation plants, equipped with ta-
bles, attached to collieries which yield, without additional
processing, rich pyrite concentrates.
02970
H. Juntgen and W. Peters
TECHNICAL PRINCIPLES OF SEPARATING SO2 FROM
WASTE GASES. Staub (English Transl.) 25, (10) 60-5, Oct.
1965. CFSTI: TT 66-51040/10
Sulphur removal methods used at present are based on the
separation of flue gas sulphur in the form of SO3, sulphuric
acid or sulphate. These methods require, therfore, oxidation of
the SO2 present in flue gas. It is possible to carry this out in
the gas phase on vanadium, and subsequently to separate the
sulphuric acid formed. If adsorbents containing carbon are
used, the conversion to H2SO4 occurs at the inner surface of
absorbent in the presence of water and oxygen. The absorp-
tion agent can be regenerated either by washing or by reducing
the sulphuric acid with absorption carbon at 350 to 450 C. It
has been proposed, under certain conditions, to separate S02
as metal sulphate by means of reaction with alpha-Mn203, al-
kalized aluminum oxide, alpha-Fe203 and dolomite. (Author
summary)
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B.CONTROL METHODS
59
02971
G. Henrich
PRACTICAL EXPERIENCES IN REMOVING SO2 FROM EF-
FLUENTS OF EXPERIMENTAL AND OPERATING INSTAL-
LATIONS. Staub (English TRANSL.) 25, (10) 65-75, OCT.
1965. CFSTI TT 66-51040/10
The extent of sulfur dioxide emissions in various branches of
industry is given and it is shown that the power industry es-
sentially affects these emissions. Since sulphur removal from
fuel is technically difficult and expensive, the desulphurization
of flue gas at main emission points is the only solution to the
problem. Known methods for flue gas desulphurization are
described and compared, and subsequently some of the
processes tested in pilot plants and on industrial scale are ex-
plained in detail. Numerous data are given on washing
methods with limewater (Battersea) and water (Duisburger
Kupferhutte), and on the adsorption method using semi-coke
(Reinluft-method). (Author Summary)
02974
W. Thieme
MEASURES FOR REDUCING EMISSION FROM DOMESTIC
HEARTHS USING SOLID FUELS. Staub (English Transl.) 25,
(11) 10-3, Nov. 1965. CFSTI TT66-51040/11
Fly ash, fly coke, soot and carbonization vapours and also
gaseous products are formed during combustion of solid fuel.
Emission measurements have shown that the solid matter
present in flue gas from domestic hearths consists mainly of
low-temperature carbonization products. Their amount
decreases with increasing volatile matter content. Coal of a
low matter content, or ovens with a special arrangement for
the combustion of carbonization gas should be used to reduce
the emissions. A universal permanent burner has, therefore,
been developed which permits a considerable reduction in
smoke emission to be achieved. (Author summary)
03045
H.Mori
HANSHIN WET TYPE DUST COLLECTORS. Clean Air Heat
Management (Tokyo) 15, (5) 5-11, May 1966
There are three models of Hanshin Wet Type Dust Collectors
for collecting different kinds of dust and they all operate on
the same principles. Contaminated exhaust gas is forced into a
water tank equipped with turbulance control plates through
nozzles at a high speed. The gas is cleaned while in contact
with the water. The HJ model is for collecting fine particles
from such materials as sand, cement, activated carbon and
brick. The typical collection efficiency for various particle size
distributions is approximately 99%. The HJS model is designed
for use with oil and coal burners. The mechanics of this model
are the same for the HJ models, but the HJS model requires
the addition of a sludge tank. The concentration of soot in the
exhaust gas is reduced by a factor of two. Appropriate sizes of
HJS models for different boiler sizes are tabulated. HJG
models are designed for the treatment of gaseous contamina-
tion in exhaust gas. They have the same structure as HJ and
HJS models except that a de-mister is added at the top of the
tank. The absorption efficiencies for H2S, C12, SO2 and NO2
are tabulated. The efficiency of 98.5% is obtained for H2S by
addition of NaOH to the tank water.
03053
G. A. W. Van Doornum.
SMOKELESS COMBUSTION OF BITUMINOUS COAL. Coal,
Gold, and Base Minerals of S. Africa 14, (7) 32-3, 37, Sept.
1966.
Smokeless combustion of bituminous coal is possible in small
industrial furnaces, boilers and domestic installations. In order
to burn the tar fumes resulting from the primary decomposi-
tion of coal, a secondary source of oxygen must be mixed
thoroughly with the fumes and the combustion temperature
must be at least 700C. Two examples of methods for achieving
this are discussed. One consists of a combustion chamber
which can be incorporated into a variety of appliances; the
other involves the use of a nozzle to produce a tangential air-
jet in a hand-fired vertical boiler.
03232
G. W. Thorn and A. F. Schuldt
THE COLLECTION OF OPEN HEARTH DUST AND ITS
RECLAMATION USING THE SL/RN PROCESS. Can. Mining
and Met Bull. (Montreal) 59, (654) 1229-33, Oct. 1966
The authors describe the dust collection system for iron oxide
dust from the basic oxygen hearths using electrostatic
precipitators, then removing the zinc and lead oxides and sul-
fur compounds by direct reduction in a rotary kiln using the
SL/RN Process. (SL/RN designates the two groups of compa-
nies who developed the process.) In this process bentonite is
added to the dust to form green balls. Then dolomite and
anthracite were added to the balls which were fed into the
kiln. The coal acted as a reductant and also provided energy.
The dolomite removed released sulfur. The results of kiln tests
are presented.
03337
Beinstock, D., Brunn, L. W., Murphy, E. M. and Benson, H.
E.
SULFUR DIOXIDE - ITS CHEMISTRY AND REMOVAL
FROM INDUSTRIAL WASTE GASES. Bureau of Mines,
Washington, D. C. (Information Circular 7836.) 1958. 101 pp.
More progress had been made in removing SO2 from flue
gases by gas-washing processes than by other techniques. The
developed processes include the Battersea, the Howden-I.C.I.
cyclic lime, the basic A12(SO4)3 I.C.I., the Lurgi 'sulfidine',
the Fleming and Fitt dime thy laniline, the ammoniacal liquor,
the Johnstone and Singh Na2SO3, and the Mg(OH)2 system. A
major disadvantage common to all these wet absorption
processes is that cooling of the gases occurs; the scrubbed
gas, which still contains some SO2, loses its buoyancy and
may settle in the immediate vicinity of the plant. No commer-
cial methods based on adsorption have been developed for
removing SO2 from flue gases. However, the use of an ad-
sorption process is conceivable, and fundamental data for ad-
sorption of SO2 on C, SiO gel, Pt, and on the oxides of A, Fe,
and V are presented. Reduction of SO2 with gaseous reac-
tants, H2, H2S, CO, and CH4 occurs at commercially feasible
rates and temperatures. Reduction products include S, H2S,
and CS2. Several commercial processes are based on these
methods. Reduction of SO2 with C in the form of coke and
anthracite has also been practiced on a laboratory and plant
scale. SO2 may be oxidized to SO3 with air or oxygen in the
presence of a catalyst as in the contact-acid process, or with
O3, light, or electrical discharge. Basic metallic oxides in the
solid phase might serve as effective absorbents of SO2 at flue-
gas temperatures. Sulfates formed in the absorption could be
electrolyzed for recovering S as H2SO4 and for regenerating
-------
60
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
metallic oxide. Electrolytic recovery would be desirable at a
powerplant installation, where electrical energy is available at
a low cost. Thermal decomposition of sulfates could also be
employed and SO2 or SO3 recovered. Sulfites formed in the
absorption also could be thermally decomposed or oxidized
with air to the sulfate. The Bureau has considered removing
SO2 from flue gases by develloping absorption processes,
which could be conducted at flue-gas temperatures in order to
prevent loss of buoyancy of the flue gases. Several possible
methods, including both solid-phase and gas-phase reactions,
are suggested as hot-absorption processes.
03581
D. Bienstock and E. M. Murphy
THE CHEMISTRY OF SULFUR DIOXIDE (INTERIM RE-
PORT). Bureau of Mines, Bruceton, Pa. 1956. 63 pp.
This document was prepared to serve as an annotated bibliog-
raphy to orient the early thinking of personnel actively en-
gaged in a cooperative project undertaken by the Bureau of
Mines and Public Health Service for the development of
processes aimed at the removal of SO2 from effluents. Subject
matter includes material on the chemistry of SO2, gas purifica-
tion processes, and reactions which may be of potential value
to the objective of SO2 control. Specific subjects include the
following: Absorption (absorption and regeneration
mechanisms, effluent processes (Battersea-Thames River),
non-effluent (cyclic) processes (use of lime, ammoniacal solu-
tions, sodium sulfite-bisulfite, basic aluminum sulfate, use of
amines - Lurgi sulfidine process, Asarco process); Adsorption
(on C, silica gel, pt and the oxides of Cr, Fe and V); Reactions
with oxides (oxides of Al,Ca,Cr,Fe and Sn); Reduction with
metals (Fe, Mg, Ni); Reduction with gases (H2H2S, CO-Bo-
lidens process-Trail process, methane Thiogen processes-
Asarco process); Reduction with carbon; Electrolysis of sulfur
containing compounds.
03879
W. A. Pollock, G. Frieling, and J. P. Tomany
SULFUR DIOXIDE AND FLY ASH REMOVAL FROM COAL
BURNING POWER PLANTS. Air Eng. 9(9), 24-8 (Sept. 1967).
(Presented at the Winter Annual Meeting and Energy Systems
Exposition, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New
York City, Nov. 27-Dec. 1, 1966.)
A wet scrubber system is described for the removal of sulphur
dioxide and fly ash from coal burning power plant flue gases.
The scrubber utilized was the Turbulent Contact Absorber
(TCA) as designed and manufactured by UOP Air Correction
Division. A TCA pilot scrubber was operated at the Oak Creek
plant of the Wisconsin Electric Power Company during 1964.
Results indicated that, with a sodium carbonate solution as the
scrubbing liquid, an absorption efficiency of 85 percent for
sulphur dioxide and a collection efficiency of 98 percent for
fly ash were obtained. Operating pressure drops for these con-
ditions were in order of 4 in. wg. Also described are separate
tests in which limestone additions were made to the coal prior
to pulverizing and burning in a central station boiler. The ef-
fect on furnace conditions and the extent of removal of
sulphur dioxide in the flue gas were evaluated. A test with
limestone addition in combination with a TCA scrubber needs
to be evaluated. Both the advantages and limitations of this
scrubbing system and the limestone additive, as well as a
general feasibility study for full scale exploitation, are
discussed. (Author abstract modified)
03974
L. M. Exley, A. E. Tamburrino, and A. J. O'Neal, Jr.
LILCO TRIMS RESIDUAL OIL PROBLEMS. Power 110 (4)
69-73, Apr. 1966.
After several years of experimentation, Long Island Lighting
Company has developed an economical and practical method
for reducing the major problems associated with residual fuel
oil. These problems are periodic acidic stack emissions and
high-and low-temperature corrosion on the gas side of the
equipment. Not only have all these been brought under con-
trol, but the methods employed have yielded surprising addi-
tional benefits, with economic return exceeding the cost of
control. Control was obtained through a combination of low
excess air operation and the injection of finely-sized magnesi-
um oxide as an additive into the oil. The problems involved six
tangentially-fired reheat boilers that were commissioned
between 1952 and 1963, located in four separate stations. The
boilers are fired with oil at least part or the time. Some are
fired with natural gas and oil, while others are fired with natu-
ral gas and coal, separately or in combination. Numerous field
investigations have been conducted concerning stack emissions
and internal corrosion. LILCO's successful control of residual
oil-burning problems through low excess air and finely-sized
MgO additive has shown the following: (1) The efficiency of
the oil-fired boilers is raised by at least 1% through lower ex-
cess air, resulting in lower stack losses. Cycle efficiency is im-
proved through higher superheat and reheat temperatures. (2)
Boiler reliability is improved. (3) Stack emissions are under
good control, thus improving company-community relations.
(4) The value of the vanadium byproduct is equal to at least
1.5 times the cost of the additive. (5) Maintenance costs are
substantially reduced. Air heater fouling, for example, is
reduced to the point where washing is done only during annual
inspections. (6) Boiler and flue gas systems are free of slimy,
acidic and odorous deposits. They are, therefore, less
hazardous for maintenance personnel. (7) There is reason to
believe that the coating on furnace waterwall tubes tends
toward reduced internal corrosion. The coating distributes
radiant heat over a greater surface and, in addition, permits
lower burner tilt. This places the maximum heat release
further down into the furnace, where it can be tolerated much
easier than at the top.
04179
Z. Hertvik and O. Kralik
GAS REMOVAL FROM BITUMINOUS COAL PITS IN THE
OSTRAVA-KARVINA DISTRICT. Czech. Heavy Ind. (Prague)
11, 34-6, 1966.
Degassing stations are used to remove gases from bituminous
coal mines, especially in reducing methane exhalation by an
average of 30 per cent. The reduced exhalation makes possible
an improved venting of the pits, smaller air shafts, and thus
reduced investment costs. The pits are also prepared for more
rapid accessibility and for seam working. It becomes possible
to use electric power on a wider scale and thus reduce the use
of compressed air which is more expensive. The removal of
mine gas is controlled and the possibility of its industrial
utilization investigated. Absolute safety of operation of the
degassing station is ensured by its perfect equipment with
safety and control devices. (Author summary modified)
04200
F. E. Gartrell
CONTROL OF AIR POLLUTION FROM LARGE THERMAL
POWER STATIONS. Rev. Soc. Roy. Beige Ingrs. Ind. (Brus-
-------
B. CONTROL METHODS
61
sels) (11) 471-82, Nov. 1966. (Presented at the Symposium on
Air Pollution Control, Essen, Germany, Mar. 9, 1966 and at
the Belgian Royal Society of Engineers and Industrialists
Meeting, Brussels, Belgium, Mar. 16, 1966.)
Measures for the removal of participates from stack gases and
reductions in SO2 emissions as well as the dispersion of emis-
sions by high stacks and control by operational procedure are
discussed. The results of air pollution monitoring near large
power stations of the TVA are reviewed. Gas cleaning devices
have been perfected so that 99.5% of the original ash content
of the coal may be removed, although costs increase rapidly
above 95%. In the future, removal of 99.5% of ash may be
necessary in some plants based on combined mechanical and
electrostatic collectors. There is a trend toward using electro-
static precipitators alone because of the high draft losses with
mechanical collectors. While there are a number of promising
developments in the removal of SO2 from fossil fuels, the
principal reliance for the next few years will have to be placed
on dispersion from high stacks with possible supplementary
operational controls. The height of TVA stacks varies from
150 to 800 ft, and tables are given of relationship between the
maximum ground level SO2 concentration, stack height, and
wind speed. Data are also given of the frequency of occur-
rence of various ground levels of SO2 in the area around the
plants.
04506
I. A. Eldib
PROBLEMS IN AIR POLLUTION AND THEIR SOLUTIONS
WITH NEW TECHNOLOGY (From: Technical and Social
Problems of Air Pollution.) Symp. Metropolitan Engrs. Council
on Air Resources, New York City, 1966. pp. 7-28.
The problems of sulfur dioxide and participates in the at-
mosphere of New York City are discussed. Possible solutions
to these problems lie in the elimination of vehicular emissions
and the re moval of sulfur dioxide from flue gas. Among the
methods proposed to reduce vehicular emissions are the
redesigning of the automobile engine, the use of add-on ex-
haust control devices and four cycle diesel engines versus the
addition of catalytic mufflers, and the possibility of employing
fuel cells for vehicular propulsion are described. Removal of
sulfur dioxide from flue gas is discussed through catalytic ox-
idation and the Reinluft process. The econo mic feasibility of
sulfur dioxide removal from flue gas versus fuel oil desul-
furization is studied, and costs aregiven. Nuclear power may
be utilized to eliminate sulfur dioxide, but disposal of radio-
active wastes presents a formidable problem.
04507
Harris, R. D. and R. G. Moses
STUDIES OF IMPROVED COAL DESULFURIZATION AT
BITUMINOUS COAL RE- SEARCH, INC. (From: Technical
and Social Problems of Air Pollution.) Symp. Metropolitan
Engrs. Council on Air Re- sources, New York City, 1966. pp.
29-36.
Desulfurization studies are reviewed with the aim of overcom-
ing some of the problems of washing pulverized coal in order
to provide improved coal desulfurization at a cost per ton no
higher than pre- sently incurred for washing the coarse
product at the mine. Stu dies indicated that pulverization to
0.01 inch x 0 enhanced clean ability. It is felt that by optimiz-
ing the desulfurization of certain low cost coal cleaning
systems, it should be possible to remove significant amounts
of coarse pyrite from the feed prior to pulverization. Thus, a
lower sulfur coal can be produced than by washing the coarse
product. A program for developing improved coal desulfuriza-
tion processes is described. Topics discussed in elude electro-
static and other separators, and pyrite removal. A flow dia-
gram of the conceptual two stage pulverized coal cleaning
system is provided.
04508
Lemon, L. W. CLEANER ATMOSPHERE BY BAG
FILTRATION OF POWER PLANT STACK
EFFLUENT. (From: Technical and Social Problems of Air Pol-
lution.) Symp. Metropolitan Engrs. Council on Air Re-
sources, New York City, 1966. pp. 37-49.
The control of stack gas effluent from power plants by bag fil-
tra- tion is discussed. The use of cloth filters was considered
imprac tical because of the expected rapid rate of deteriora-
tion. However the introduction of new materials such as sil-
iconized and finished fiberglass teflon or graphicil fiberglass
fabric is expected to greatly reduce the expense of bag
replacement. A brief description is given of the design and
method of operation of the bag filter house in use at an experi-
mental installation of the Southern Cali fornia Edison Com-
pany. Other test installations are also de scribed with en-
couraging results. Runs with normal gas at 270 F without addi-
tive have demonstrated 99.9% removal of particulate matter,
nearly complete elimination of 803 and no visible plume.
Research along other lines is mentioned and the work done by
the Pennsylvania Electric Company on a system to remove
most of the SO2 from effluent gases of coal-fired boilers is
cited.
04516
R. E. George and R. L. Chass
CONTROL OF CONTAMINANT EMISSION FROM FOSSIL
FUEL-FIRED BOILERS. J. Air Pollution Control Assoc. 17,
(6) 392-5, June 1967. (Presented at the 151st National Meeting,
American Chemical Society, Symposium on Fossil Fuels and
Environmental Pol- lution, Pittsburgh, Pa., Mar. 22-25, 1966.)
The topics covered include: air pollution from combustion
sources control of combustion; a case study of Los Angeles
County vs. New York City; and power plant control in Los
Angeles County.
04634
T. P. Varshavskii, A. M. Denisov, L. E. Zlatin, and K. V.
Zolotarev
SMOKELESS CHARGING OF COKE OVENS. Coke Chem.
(USSR) (English Transl.) (6) 26-31, 1965. Russ. (Tr.)
A pilot-commercial smokeless charging plant has been built on
No. 1 battery at the Kemerovo Coke and Chemical Works
along the lines of those at VUKhIN and the Magnitogorsk In-
tegrated Iron and Steel Works. A new smokeless oven charg-
ing system has been devised and introduced on the No. 1 bat-
tery at the Kemerovo Coke and Chemical Works based on
separate consecutive emptying of the charging-car hoppers
(4,3,2 and 1) with suction of the charging gases only into the
coke side collecting main. The possibility of the saleable tar
being contaminated with ash or heavy tar products has been
eliminated. 4.0 tons/day of high-ash tar was obtained from the
coke side collecting main. The nitric oxide content of the raw
gas from No. 1 battery is 16.5 cc/cu meter. Accordingly it is
vital to solve the problem of how to remove the nitric oxide
from the charging gases or how to isolate and utilize them
without purification. The satisfactory operating results of the
plant enable this system to be recommended for works which
do not supply gas to nitrogenous fertilizer undertakings.
(Author conclusions)
-------
62
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
04655
M. Atsukawa, Y. Nishimoto, K. Matsumoto
DRY PROCESS SO2 REMOVAL METHOD. Tech. Rev. Mit-
subishi Heavy Ind. (Tokyo) 4, (1) 33-8, 1967.
The wet process for the removal of SO2 contained in exhaust
gas emitted from thermal power plants has the drawback of
lowering the gas temperature when the SO2 is removed.
Therefore, recently, study has been given to use of the dry
process of SO2 removal. A new dry process was developed
using activated manganese oxide as an absorbent and capable
of recovering ammonium sulfate as a by-product. The process
has been named the DAP-Mn Process. Pilot plant tests have
been made on the flue gas of an oil-burning thermal power
plant and more than 90 percent SO2 was removed. The results
of these tests are given and various problems for the practical
application of the dry process are discussed. (Author abstract
modified)
04755
R. E. Adams, J. S. Gill, W. D. Yuille, L. F. Parsly, C. E.
Guthrie
FILTRATION OF PARTICULATE AEROSOLS UNDER
REACTOR ACCIDENT CONDITIONS. Oak Ridge National
Lab., Tenn. (Rept. No. ORNL-TM-1707.) Dec. 5, 1966. 35 pp.
The effect of accident environments on the performance of
filter systems was studied on both a laboratory and a pilot
plant scale. In the laboratory, the work included the develop-
ment of a simple method for generating a simulant aerosol,
tests of these aerosols to determine then" validity as simulants,
and measurements, under various atmospherees, of the effi-
ciency of high-efficiency filter media for removing these simu-
lant aerosols. Moisture was noted to have a significant effect
on the behavior of the simulant aerosol. A limited number of
tests were conducted at the Nuclear Safety Pilot Plant to
demonstrate the operation of a larger-scale filter system in a
simulated accident environment. (Author abstract modified)
04791
R. Germerdonk
SCRUBBING SULFUR DIOXIDE FROM FLUE GASES.
Auswaschen von Schwefeldioxyd aus Rauchgasen. Chem.
Ingr. Tech. 37, (11) 1136-9, Nov. 1965. Ger.
The expenditures for desulfurization of gases by a wet method
are investigated. An oil-fired powerstation of which the sulfur
dioxide content of smoke gases has to be lowered from 5 g/m3
to approximately 50 mg/m3, serves as a model. The wet
scrubbing method discussed in this paper, although lower in
costs entitles a quite complicated procedure. However, it has
the advantage that by a reduction of 99% of the sulfur con-
tent, only an insignificant amount of residual matter develops.
04842
Harrington, R. E., R. H. Borgwardt, and A. E. Potter
REACTIVITY OF SELECTED LIMESTONES AND
DOLOMITES WITH SULFUR DIOXIDE. Amer. Ind. Hyg. As-
soc. J., 29(2):152-158, March-April 1968. 5 refs. (presented at
the Annual Meeting, American Industrial Hygiene Conference,
Chicago, 111., May 1-5, 1967.)
Tests in a fixed-bed sorption unit were made to evaluate the
reactivity of 10 naturally occurring limestones and dolomites
with sulfur dioxide in flue gas. Reactivity of individual sam-
ples varied with calcination time, calcination temperature, and
reaction temperature; the variations in reactivity among the
different test materials, however, were greater and more sig-
nificant. No correlation was found between differences in
reactivity and chemical composition. Physical properties of the
reactant materials appear to be important in sorbent reactivity.
Although much additional research remains to be done work
thus far indicates that utilizing limestone or dolomite for
removal of SO2 from flue gas should be technically and
economically feasible. (Authors' abstract)
04940
W. T. Sproull
FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRODE RAPPING IN INDUS-
TRIAL ELECTRICAL PRECIPITATORS. J. Air Pollution
Control Assoc. 15, (2) 50-5, Feb. 1965.
The electrodes in industrial precipitators collect many tons of
dust daily, and the efficient transfer of this dust burden to the
hoppers is a challenging problem in mechanical engineering.
Many varieties of devices have been tried; hammers, vibra-
tors, scrapers, water flushing, gas blasting, etc. Impact devices
for this purpose are usually called 'rappers.' Laboratory ex-
periments described in this paper show that normal (perpen-
dicular) rapping is more effective than shear rapping; that
thick dust layers are more easily removed by rapping than thin
ones; that rapping becomes easier with increasing temperature,
within limits; and that the electrostatic forces acting upon the
precipitated dust layer play an important role. Quantitative
data are shown graphically. The relation of these results to
previous studies by other investigators is discussed. (Author
abstract)
05162
National Coal Association, Washington, D.C. (Dec. 1962). 18
pp.
LAYOUT AND APPLICATION OF OVERFIRE JETS FOR
SMOKE CONTROL IN COAL-FIRED FURNACES .
The design, construction and application of overfire jet
systems to prevent smoke from hand and stoker-fired furnaces
is covered. Factors are presented for determining the size,
spacing and disposition of the tubes for introducing overfire
air into furnaces, as well as recommendations for construction
of overfire systems to obtain maximum effectiveness. Overfire
jets eliminate smoke by mixing air and unburned hydrocarbons
under proper conditions of temperature and time for complete
combustion. Although overfire jets are used primarily to
eliminate smoke.their application often promotes increased
combustion efficiency and better furnace performance. It has
been demonstrated that certain advantages, in addition to
smoke elimination, may be obtained where jets are installed.
These are: (1) Reducing slag and soot accumulations on boiler
tubes; (2) shortening the flame which, in turn, reduces stack
temperatures, provided other combustion conditions are
unchanged; (3) reducing excess air required to attain complete
combustion; (4) reducing carbon in the cinder carryover; and
(5) increasing the boiler's range of smoke-free operation by ap-
proximately 20 percent of the boiler capacity. Increases of 2 or
3 percent in boiler efficiency following the installation of jets
are common. In most overfire jet applications air is injected
into the furnace by means of nozzles to produce the proper
mixture of oxygen and hydrocarbons and the required turbu-
lence in the critical zones. Steam-air jets are used when no
blower is available or when a low initial cost installation is
desired. Steam jets should be used alone when the injection of
additional air into the furnace would jeopardize performance.
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B. CONTROL METHODS
63
05163
National Coal Association, Washington, D.C. (Sept. 1961.) 14
pp. (A.I.A. 34-C.)
MODERN DUST COLLECTION FOR COAL-FIRED INDUS-
TRIAL HEATING AND POWER PLANTS .
A general guide is presented to dust collection equipment for
managements considering installation of a new plant or
modernization of an existing plant. It describes currently
available types of equipment and their application to the
several methods of burning coal. Sections are included on iner-
tial collectors, fabric filters, wet scrubbers, and electrostatic
precipitators.
05198
N. E. Brennan
CONTROL OF SULPHUR DIOXIDE EMISSION FOR
PROPOSED 400 MW GENERATING UNIT AT SEWARD
GENERATING STATION, PENNSYLVANIA ELECTRIC
COMPANY . Jackson & Moreland, Inc., Boston, Mass. Nov.
1961.19pp.
The purpose of this study was to determine the most satisfac-
tory method of controlling the future ground level concentra-
tion of SO2 emitted from the chimney of a proposed 400 mw
generating unit, located on the Conemaugh River at Seward,
Pennsylvania. Three methods of control were investigated: (1)
A 99.7% efficient precipitator and a 900 foot chimney was the
basis for comparison, both as regards expense and SO2 ground
level concentration. (2) Use of washed coal with a 99.3% effi-
cient precipitator and a chimney 500 feet high. (3) Flue gas
washing equipment, installed with a 99.7% efficient precipita-
tor and a 500 foot chimney. Minimum chimey height for the
coal washing and gas washing control methods was based on a
reoccurring night-time stagnation layer, reported to be under
700 ft, which effectively seals the valley and prevents disper-
sal of SO2. A 500 foot chimney should be the safe minimum
height, being able to jet the plume through the layer and out of
the valley. Results of the study, indicated that neither coal
washing nor gas washing equipment could be included in plans
for a 400 mw unit. Coal washing is a technically possible, but
very expensive method of controlling the ground level concen-
tration of SO2, when compared to the cost of a tall stack and
high efficiency precipitator. The objective was to produce
similar ground level concentrations by balancing a high effi-
ciency precipitator and a tall stack against a coal washing plant
combined with a shorter stack and a less efficient precipitator.
Because of topographical and meteorological considerations,
the minimum stack height, based on SO2 concentrations,
required with the coal washing plant had to be increased by
about 100 feet to 500 feet, and to maintain the original purpose
of the report the Base Plan chimney height had to be increased
from 700 feet to 900 feet. The resulting reduced ground level
concentration are presented. At the present time, progress in
flue gas washing is such that it is not possible to recommend
any proven process. The non-regenerative limestone process,
which is similar to the Battersea process except that the ef-
fluent is treated, is considered in this report. At best, flue gas
washing must be considered to be still in the experimental
stage, and to date, attempts at flue gas washing have been lar-
gely unsuccessful.
05258
W. L. Sage
COMBUSTION TESTS ON A SPECIALLY PROCESSED
LOW-ASH LOW-SULPHUR COAL (FINAL REPT. MAY-
JULY 1964) Babcock & Wilcox Co., Alliance, Ohio. 1964. 31 pp.
eSRept. No. 4439.)
The purpose of these tests was to determine the burning
characteristics of a fuel obtained by a solvent extraction of the
combustible matter in coal. These determinations were to be
based on laboratory analysis and on firing tests of this fuel in
both the liquid and pulverized form. Laboratory tests were
made to determine the chemical analysis of this fuel and the
remaining ash, its viscosity-temperature relationship, compara-
tive burning characteristic by use of thermogravimetric analy-
sis (TGA) and its grindability. The test coal was fired in the
atomized form employing a conventional type burner em-
ployed for No. 6 fuel oil (bunker C). Firing tests were also
made in a small laboratory furnace using the fuel in the pul-
verized form. Based on results of both the proximate and ulti-
mate analyses, this material appears very similar to a high
volatile bituminous coal except for a reduction in sulphur and
ash content. Ash analyses indicate a tendency for selective
removal of the various constituents, i.e., ash was high in sodi-
um and titanium compared to the normal range of coal ashes.
Thermogravimetric analyses indicate ignition characteristics
similar to a high volatile bituminous coal. However, for
complete combustion or burnout this fuel appears to more
closely resemble a semi-anthracite. The Hardgrove grindability
index is 164, indicating this fuel could be pulverized with low
power requirements. Firing tests in the atomized form indicate
this material can be pumped and burned in the atomized form
provided it is heated to adequate temperatures. For good
pumpability (less than 1000 centipoises) the material must be
heated above 500F, and for atomization (less than 30 cen-
tipoises) it must be heated above 635F. Firing tests in the pul-
verized form indicate this material has ignition characteristics
similar to a high volatile bituminous coal. However, the car-
ryover of unburned carbon more closely paralleled those ob-
tained with low volatile bituminous or semi-anthracity coal.
(Author abstract modified)
05310
Borgwardt, Robert H., Richard E. Harrington, and Paul W.
Spaite
FILTRATION CHARACTERISTICS OF FLY ASH FROM A
PULVERIZED COAL-FIRED POWER PLANT. J. Air Pollution
Control Assoc., 18(6): 387-390, June 1968. 7 refs. (Presented at
the 60th Annual Meeting, Air Pollution Control Association,
Cleveland, Ohio, June 11-16, 1967, Paper 67-35.)
The operating characteristics of a pilot baghouse and the filter-
ing characteristics of fly ash filtered from the flue gas of a
pulverized coal-fired power plant, were studied using
techniques developed in the engineering research laboratories
of the National Center for Air Pollution Control in Cincinnati.
The permeability of the dust cake was found to vary with the
operating conditions of the baghouse in a way which signifi-
cantly affects the pressure drop and power requirements of
the system. (Authors' abstract)
05338
A. M. Squires
TOP HEAT CYCLE FOR CLEAN POWER. Chem. Eng. Progr.
62 (10), 74-81 (Oct. 1966).
The top heat cycle for clean power, together with gasification
and gas purification processes, appears to offer the prospect
for generating electricity from sulfur-bearing fuel with no
discharge of objectionable effluents, and at a cost saving rela-
tive to a conventional power plant. The top heat power cycle
is significantly more efficient than the gas-steam combined cy-
cle, and may furnish the incentive for development of the
required gasification processes. The efficiency improvement
comes about because much more heat can be absorbed by
cycle fluids at temperatures close to the maximum set by tur-
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64
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
bine-blade metallurgy. The quantity of flue gas in the gas-
steam combined cycle is limited by stoichiometry-there is no
incentive to use excess air, as in an ordinary gas-turbine cycle-
and this fact sets a limit on the amount of heat which can be
absorbed at temperatures close to the maximum. Beyond the
limited amount of heat disposable to the gas-turbine cycle
fluid, excess high level combustion heat must be degraded
across boiler surface to boiling water or steam. This limitation
is removed in the top heat cycle since, for a given turbine tem-
perature, the heat which can be added to steam by direct com-
bustion of fuel and oxygen is limited only by steam pressure
and the number of reheats provided. Yet the top heat cycle
retains a substantial part of the Rankine steam cycle's out-
standing advantage of rejecting heat at the lowest possible
level. The top heat cycle appears to offer the prospect that
plant can be provided to generate electricity from a sulfurous
fuel such as Kuwait heavy residue with no discharge of objec-
tionable effluents, and at a cost saving relative to conventional
plant. It is too soon to state quantitatively the advantage of the
cycle, but an interim guess would put the advantage at about 4
cents per MM Btu of fuel burned in first-generation plant,
when fuel costs 30 cents per MM Btu. This for plant using low
temperature oxygen and a fairly modest turbine temperature.
There is at least a fair prospect that a sibnificantly greater ad-
vantage can derive from second and third-generation top heat
plant using oxygen from an absorption-desorption process and
a higher turbine temperature.
05454
H. Perry and J. A. DeCarlo
THE SEARCH FOR LOW SULFUR COAL. Mech. Eng. 89(4)
22-8, Apr. 1967.
Solutions to problems of sulfur oxides from coal such as: low-
sulfur coal, sulfur reduction in coal, and removal of the sulfur
oxides from the flue gas are available, but at a high cost. The
largest reserves of low-sulfur coals are in the West in areas of
low demand or held 'captive' by the steel industry which can
pay premium prices. None of the methods for removing or-
ganic sulfur from coal such as solvent extraction, liquefaction,
gasification, chemical, or bacterial treatments are low enough
in cost to warrant commercial exploitation. Removing pyritic
sulfur (40-80% of the total) involves fine crushing and separa-
tion at the point of use. Further research and development is
needed before any of the separation methods such as magnetic
separation, froth flotation, concentrating tables, or bacterial
action could become commercial. The addition of limestone or
dolomite during combustion offers promise of sulfur oxide
reduction from 25-50% in existing plants. The costs of removal
of the sulfur oxides from flue gas by high temperature
methods such as the vanadium oxide oxidation process, the
Reinluft process, and the alkalized alumina method are still
quite high ($0.75 to $1.50 per ton of coal). This removal from
the stack at high temperatures offers the most promising solu-
tion and new methods could reduce these costs.
05508
J. B. Kirkwood
ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATORS FOR THE COLLEC-
TION OF FLY ASH FROM LARGE PULVERISED FUEL
FIRED BOILERS. Proc. Clean Air Conf., Univ. New South
Wales, 1962, Paper 14. Vol. 2, 20 p.
The performance of electrostatic precipitators is reviewed in
the light of the experience of The Electricity Commission of
New South Wales, and data derived from the analysis of pilot
plant investigations carried out by manufacturers at Commis-
sion power stations. The factors affecting the usefulness of
pilot tests are discussed and it is concluded that performance
in a precipitator is largely independent of gas velocity in the
normal operating range but varies markedly with changed of
specific collecting area. Performance level achieved is low in
comparison with experience in the United Kingdom and the
United States. High dust resistivity and difficulty of rapping
clean the collecting electrodes are major factors affecting per-
formance. Migration velocity decreases significantly with in-
creasing specific collecting area and the results obtained sug-
gest that this effect is more marked than could be accounted
for by changes in size distribution as the gas passes through
the precipitator. It is suggested that the migration velocity of
the finer fractions of dust decreases in successive stages of a
precipitator due to the reduction in dust concentration and
probably also to the removal of the coarse particles. Tests
have indicated that combined mechanical collectors and elec-
trostatic precipitators are less favourable than straight electro-
static units. Gas conditioning tests, particularly with SOS, have
shown that this form of treatment has considerable promise.
(Author abstract)
05516
N. Y. Kirov
EFFICIENT COMBUSTION-THE CONTROL OF AIR POL-
LUTION AT THE SOURCE. Proc. Clean Air Conf., Univ.
New South Wales, 1962, Paper 22, Vol. 2, 22 p.
The basic combustion processes involved in the burning of
carbonaceous fuels are outlined. The requirements for efficient
combustion are then considered and the mechanism of forma-
tion and nature of smoke are discussed and illustrated by ex-
amples from industrial processes. An analysis of the factors
affecting the efficient operation of fuel-using plant and special
reference is made to the effects of smoke and associated
losses from unburnt combustibles. It is emphasized that when
smoke is made, it is accompanied by combustible gases which
are the main source of heat losses, due to incomplete com-
bustion. Finally, the occurrence and significance of sulphur in
Australian fuels is examined in connection with the emission
of acid smuts and sulphur oxides. The paper concludes with a
brief discussion of methods which have been developed to al-
leviate the problems arising from the presence of sulphur in
mineral fuels. (Author abstract)
05529
Cochran, N. P.
PROTECTING AIR RESOURCES OF TOMORROW'S CITIES
MEETING POWER DEMANDS WITH COAL. Proc. Sanitary
Eng. Conf., Air Resources Planning Eng., Pittsburgh, Pa.,
1965, pp. 61-5.
The coal industry generates about two-thirds of the electric
power used in the United States; this power generation
represents an annual coal market of about 200-million-tons-
plus and is growing; and the coal industry can determine to do
whatever is necessary to maintain this market. To insure this
market for the coal company of tomorrow so that the citizen
of tomorrow can live in clear air in a society where electric
power is taken for granted is the aim of the coal industry and
its research people in the Office of Coal Research and other
governmental agencies. Work that has been done to eliminate
pollutants from the products of coal combustion have taken
three historic courses: (1) Elimination or removal of the sulfur
and other mineral matter prior to combustion; (2) Recovery of
potential pollutants from stack gases; and (3) A combination of
the foregoing. The most significant possibility for potentially
reducing air contamination for tomorrow's cities from coal-
fired power plants may lie in the areas of esoteric power
-------
B. CONTROL METHODS
65
generation schemes, i.e., a system for generating power using
a coalefired fuel cell. Preliminary work that has been done to
date indicates the possibility of a direct current power plant of
the future burning coal in a fuel cell system costing about $130
per kilowatt (for large scale plants), with an over-all efficiency
as high as 70 percent. Sulfur in the coal could be recovered as
elemental sulfur following scrubbing and conversion. The sul-
fur so formed might be sold as a by-product or injected into
deep ground strata for disposal. The generation of power using
magnetohydrodynamics holds possibilities for recovery of not
only the sulfur but the oxides of nitrogen present in high-tem-
perature flue gas. Such a system might recover not only the
sulfur but fix atmospheric nitrogen and produce desirable fer-
tilizer by-products. This magnetohydrodynamic system is cur-
rently being studied by OCR and a detailed engineer ing
evaluation of the system may be undertaken.
05531
Tailor, J. P.
THE STUDY OF THE CVX WET GAS SCRUBBER IN ITS
APPLICATIONS ON POWER STATIONS, FOUNDRIES, AND
IRON ORE MILLS. Preprint. (1967).
The Controlled Vortex principle of low pressure, high efficien-
cy cleaning was applied to large volume conditions. In each
case, the waste product must be recovered or disposed of so
as not to create a secondary pollution problem. The total en-
gineering concept is requested by every customer. THIS
MEANS THAT IN EVERY APPLICATION THE GAS
CLEANING DEVICE BECOMES ONLY A SMALL PART
OF THE TOTAL POLLUTION CONTROL SOLUTION.
05853
C. R. Flodin and H. H. Haaland
SOME FACTORS AFFECTING FLY-ASH COLLECTOR PER-
FORMANCE ON LARGE PULVERIZED FUEL-FIRED
BOILERS. Air Repair 5(1), 27-32 (May 1955). (Presented at the
Annual Meeting, American Society of Mechanical Engineers,
New York City, Nov. 28-Dec. 3, 1954.)
A broad view is taken of the term 'performance' of fly-ash
collectors as referring not only to total solids collection or effi-
ciency, but also to operation and maintenance aspects of per-
formance. The relation of plant and boiler design to operation
of collectors has also been considered. The following aspects
of collector performance were covered: (1) SOS is an effective
conditioning agent to improve Cottrell electrical precipitator
performance. The recent trend toward designing boilers for
minimum contact of gases with interior surfaces may reduce
the tendency of oxidation of SO2 to SOS with adverse effects
on precipitator performance; (2) Combination high-efficiency
cyclonic collectors and Cottrell precipitators have both tangi-
ble and intangible advantages in the fine cleaning of pul-
verized-fuel-fired boiler gases; (3) The particle size of the fly
ash from many boilers is about 35% minus 10 microns, which
supports the applicability of high-efficiency cyclonic collec-
tors; (4) The importance of good gas and dust distribution by
the use of turning vanes, splitters, and perforated plate dis-
tribution facilities in the flues ahead of collectors cannot be
overemphasized; (5) The trend toward low air-heater exit tem-
peratures of 275 F. (or less) as opposed to the older practice
of about 350 F. aggravates the condensation and corrosion,
and the operating and maintenance problems in collectors; and
(6) The design of the boiler plant, as well as the design of the
collectors themselves, has a very direct bearing on collector
performance. A check list of collector-design features for
evaluation purposes is given.
05857
D. H. Barnhart and E. K. Diehl
CONTROL OF NITROGEN OXIDES IN BOILER FLUE
GASES BY TWO-STAGE COMBUSTION. J. Air Pollution
Control Assoc. 10 (5), 397-406 (Oct. 1960). (Presente at the
52nd Annual Meeting, Air Pollution Control Association, Los
Angeles, Calif., June 21-26, 1959.)
Two-Stage Combustion with auxiliary-air ports above the bur-
ners is an effective method for controlling the nitric oxide con-
centration in boiler flue gases while still maintaining accepta-
ble boiler performance. While utilizing this method of opera-
tion, with 95% of the combustion air through the burners, the
nitric oxide level was reduced nearly 30% with both oil and
gas firing. A reduction of 47% occurred during full-load oil fir-
ing when the air flow through the burners was 90%. The prin-
cipal gains made in bringing nitric oxide under control are
summarized. Two-Stage Combustion together with monor
changes to the burner (approach-cone vanes out and air re-
gisters wide open) has given a total nitric oxide reduction of
56% when firing oil at full load. As mentioned previously,
similar results can be expected in gas firing. It appears that ad-
ditional reductions in nitric oxide would be possible if the air
flow through the burners were reduced another 5 or 10%. The
limit would be reached when combustibles (carbon, CO, etc.)
were detected at the furnace outlet, or when the burners
became unstable. The Southern California Edison Company
put the Two-Stage Combustion Method into extended test
operation at their El Segundo Steam Station. Although the
fuel-air mixing process requires careful balance between rapid
mixing for best combustion, and delayed mixing for nitric
oxide reduction, the change has not required expensive equip-
ment nor has it involved any extensive alterations to the
boiler. This method of burning has also been incorporated in
the design of two new boilers for Edison's Mandalay Station
and two for their Huntington Beach Station. Two-Stage Com-
bustion is believed to be a practical operating method for the
control of nitric oxide emission from large gas or oil-fired
boilers. (Author summary modified)
05868
H. J. White
EFFECT OF FLYASH CHARACTERISTICS ON COLLEC-
TOR PERFORMANCE. Air Repair 5 (1), 37-50, 62 (May 1955).
(Presented at the Annual Meeting, American Society of
Mechanical Engineers, New York City, Nov. 28-Dec. 3, 1954.)
The primary objectives were to describe the important proper-
ties of fly ash; to indicate the dependence of these properties
on such factors as coal burned and furnace design and opera-
tion; to show the intimate relationship between fly ash charac-
teristics and collector performance; to bring out the principles
and methods used in precipitator design and operation to over-
come adverse characteristics of fly ash; and to indicate future
trends and advances which may be expected in this field. Col-
lector performance is greatly influenced by the diverse physi-
cal and chemical characteristics of fly ash encountered in
practice. The ash characteristics are measurable, but for pro-
jected boilers (which form the large majority of collector in-
stallations) are not in most cases accurately predictable. This
complicates collector design and in some cases necessitates
extensive changes in collector equipment after construction in
order to meet unusually adverse ash characteristics. In
general, conservative design is indicated, since collectors are
expected to perform satisfactorily for whatever type of ash
may happen to occur.
-------
66
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
06062
E.-M. Koschany
THE OPERATION OF ELECTROPRECIPITATORS WITH
PULSE VOLTAGES. (Untersuchungen uber den Betrieb von
Elektrofiltern mil Impulsspannungen.) Staub (English Transla-
tion( 27(4): 5-7 (Apr. 1967). Ger. (Tr.)
Electroprecipitators were investigated by means of impulse
voltages of medium frequency. The results are compared with
those obtained with direct-current voltage. A considerable in-
crease in separation efficiency was found for a dust which, as
regards electroprecipitation, lies in a favourable resistance
range (about 10 to the 9th power ohm cm), and particularly for
dust with highly insulating properties (about 10 to the 13th
power ohm cm), when power was supplied to the elec-
troprecipitator at an impulse voltage of specific direct voltage
components and impulse parameters. (Author's summary,
modified)
06136
H. E. Haley
SO2 REMOVAL PROCESS PROMISES CLEANER AIR. Elec.
World 167, (20) 71-5, May 15, 1967.
Of the dry processes being developed today for the control of
SO2 from boiler stack emissions, the dry limestone technique
has the lowest capital cost. It can be incorporated into existing
as well as new boilers which makes the method both unique
and flexible. The SO2 reacts within the boiler converting gase-
ous SO2 into a form that can be handled as a solid waste. The
powdered limestone is injected into the convection section of
the boiler and is in contact with the stack gases at the critical
temperature of 1000 to 1800 F for less than 3 sec. After
passing through the critical temperature zone, the CaSO3,
CaS, CaSO4, unconverted limestone, and ash are removed by
the existing ash-removal facilities. Electrostatic precipitator ef-
ficiency does not suffer from the additional load. The operat-
ing costs for the removal of 2/3 of the sulfur from the stack
gases are 0.27 mils per kwhr which is equivalent to 5 to 8% in-
crease in power cost for pollution control. The operating costs
for the competitive Reinluft, alkalized alumina, and Penelec
process are 0.19, 0.21, and 0.14 mils/kwhr, respectively, for
100% SO2 removal. However, the capital outlay for the dry
limestone process is $1.00/kw compared to $17.77/kw for the
Reinluft, $10.64/kw for the alkalized alumina, and $21.25/kw
for the Penelec. Technological problems have raised doubt as
to the commercial value of the Reinluft process.
06278
D. Bienstock, J. H. Field, H. E. Benson
SULFUR DIOXIDE IN ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION, AND
METHODS OF CONTROL. (Proc. Symp. Atmospheric
Chemistry of Chlorine and Sulfur Compounds, Cincinnati,
Ohio,) 1957. (1959). pp. 54-62. (Geophysical Monograph No. 3.)
The average sulfur content of coals used in this country is
about 1.9%. The sulfur content of fuel oils will vary greatly
because of the difference in the various crude oils and to a
lesser extent upon the methods of refining. From the com-
bustion of fuel oil and coal, an estimated 18,000,000 tons of
sulfur dioxide, equivalent to 9,000,000 tons of sulfur was
released to the atmosphere in this country in 1955. The under-
sirability of sulfur dioxide in the atmsophere has been recog-
nized because of its highly irritating effect on the respiratory
system, its adverse effect on plant life in concentrations as
low as 0.3 parts per million, and its attack on many metals,
fabrics and building materials. However, after many years
very little legislation has been enacted to set specific limits of
emission of this material except in a few instances in the
vicinity of smelters. Some of the important factors to be con-
sidered in dealing specifically with sulfur dioxide produced in
the combustion of fuels are discussed briefly. These factors
are the following: Recovery of by-products, general process
considerations, reduction of sulfur content of coal before com-
bustion, mechanical cleaning of coal, low-temperature car-
bonization, carbonization in the presence of various gases,
complete gasification of coal, removal of sulfur dioxide after
combustion, and studies using solid absorbents.
06297L
Bureau of Mines, Pittsburgh, Pa., Coal Research Center.
(1966). pp. BM/23-BM/40.
CHARACTERISTICS AND REMOVAL OF PYRITIC SULFUR
FROM SELECTED AMERICAN COALS. (SECTION UV OF
AIR POLLUTION RESEARCH PROGRESS REPORT FOR
QUARTER ENDED DECEMBER 31, 1966.)
There are three interrelated phases to this project. Phase 1
deals with the analysis of coals for total and pyritic sulfur.
Phase 2 deals with the washability of coals selected by Public
Health Service, with regard to the effects of coal size and
specific gravity of the washing medium on the separation of
pyritic sulfur. Phase 3 involves studies of the coals examined
for washability, and of a statistically significant number of
coals analyzed in Phase 1, by means of optical scanning
techniques, to determine the size and mode distribution of the
pyritic sulfur. In phase 1, 19 selected samples were analyzed
for pyritic and total sulfur, in 15 counties in 6 states. In phase
2, seven washability studies on midwest coals were completed.
The samples generally contained large percentages of sulfur,
but unfortunately predominately of the organic form, which is
nonamenable to liberation by crushing. In phase 3, data are
presented for five additional coals relating the reduction in
pyritic sulfur by float-sink cleaning to pyrite size distribution
and coal-pyrite particle association, as determined by visual
microscopic analysis. Mean particle sizes of pyrite in minus
14-mesh samples of these coals ranged from 70 to 440
microns, and reductions in pyritic sulfur ranged from 30 to
63% of the original content. Plots of pyrite reduction versus
pyrite particle size and relative freedom of pyrite from coal,
for all coals studied to date, show good correlation between
these parameters. The relation of pyrite reduction to particle
size appears to be more linear and more significant.
06307
V. I. Uskov
TESTING OF AN ELECTROSTATIC FILTER. (In: Air Pollu-
tion in Mines Theory, Hazards, and Control.) Akad. Nauk
SSSR. p. 238-342, 1962. Translated from Russian. CFSTI: TT
66-51043
An experimental electrostatic filter, was installed at the 'Yuzh-
naya' mine of the Berezovskii Mine Complex in the manway
of the underground milling chamber at the 162 m level. The
filter is designed for the purification of dusty air which is
drawn from under the principal dust sources of crusher9 The
ventilation frame from the crusher was connected to centrifu-
gal fan. Conical diffuser connected to the fan by a rubber hose
was installed in the lower part of the manway and suspended
from a wooden shelf. The shelf was coated with a caly solu-
tion as a sealer. The upper portion of the manway contained,
in addition to the electrostatic filter, high-voltage equipment
from X-ray unit installed on a horizontal concrete platform
and consisting of a KUSA-180 control panel and high-voltage
transformer of the type D-110 with full-wave reactification by
means of four KR-110 tubes. The electrostatic filter was
-------
B. CONTROL METHODS
67
separated from the lower part of the manway by concrete par-
tition. The air purified by the filter was fed to the crosscut of
the cage shaft of the 'Yuzhnyi' pit where it mixed with the jet
of fresh air supplied to the eastern wing of the mine. The
operating of the mine electrostatic filter was based on the prin-
ciple of separate ionization. For the first time in the U.S.S.R.,
a stationary installation of an electrostatic filter was success-
fully employed in a mine for dust removal from air. The elec-
tric method of air purification is efficient, economical and can
be used for the elimination of dust from the air of the prin-
cipal ventilation flows entering the mine and in the un-
derground milling chambers. An electric filter with separate
ionization ensures the purification of air entering the mine to
the extent required by sanitary standards.
06345
J. H. Field
SUMMARY OF VISIT TO EUROPE ON SO2-REMOVAL
PROCESSES (TRIP REPORT). Bureau of Mines, Pittsburgh,
Pa., Coal Research Center. (June 1963.) 51 pp.
A summary of the efforts of some of the European oil compa-
nies, research groups and the Central Electricity Generating
Board of England (responsible for building and operating all
power plants in Britain) in the field of SO2 removal processes
and control is presented. The organizations visited are as fol-
lows: British Petroleum of Germany; Reinluft Company, Ger-
many; Bergbau Forschungs Institute, Essen, Germany; BIMP
Offices in the Hague; Royal Dutch Shell Laboratories, Am-
sterdam; Cherchar Research Laboratories for Coal, France;
Central Electricity Generating Board, Bankside Station; Cen-
tral Electricity Board Research Laboratories, Leatherhead;
Simon-Carves Company, England; D.S.I.R. Research Labora-
tory, Warren Spring, England; British Petroleum Research
Laboratories, Sunbury-on-Thames. In general all agreed: (1)
that restrictions on SO2 emission are forthcoming in England
and Germany; (2) that new processes, such as the Reinluft and
the alkalized alumina, need to be developed; (3) that research
in SO2 removal is increasing in Europe (organizations active in
this field at present being Reinluft, Bergbauforschungs In-
stitute, Esso (Holland), Royal Dutch Shell, the Central Elec-
tricity Generating Board and the D.S.I.R.); (4) that wet
scrubbing processes (including the NH3 process) are not at-
tractive; and (5) that desulfurization of heavy fuel oils is both
technically difficult and very expensive (estimates ran as high
as $5 to $6/ton of fuel for 60-70% removal of sulfur).
06490
R. F. Waters, and H. Kenworthy
EXTRACTION OF GERMANIUM AND GALLIUM FROM
COAL FLY ASH AND PHOSPHORUS FURNACE FLUE
DUST. Bureau of Mines, Rolla, Mo., Rolla Metallury Research
Center (Apr. 1967). pp. (Rept. of Investigations No. 6940.)
Laboratory-scale selective volatilization methods developed by
the Bureau of Mines to recover germanium and gallium con-
centrates from coal fly ash and phosphorus furnace flue dust
are summarized. In the better experiments between 85 and
98% of the germanium was recovered as the lower oxide and
as sulfides, and between 75 and 97% of the gallium was
recovered as the lower oxide and as the trichloride. Grades of
the condensates were inconsistent and varied between a few
tenths of a percent and 8 percent, depending on the method
use. In the primary extractions of germanium alone the degree
of enrichment surpassed 100 to 1, and for gallium the best
ratio was 30 to 1. Upgrading of condensates by vaporization
retreatment and by leaching and precipitation is discussed. An
appreciable degree of mechanical preconcentration by attrition
scrubbing and elutriation was possible on two fly ash samples.
(Author abstract)
06543
D. Bienstock.J. H. Field.and J. G. Myers
PROCESS DEVELOPMENT IN REMOVING SULFUR DIOX-
IDE FROM HOT FLUE GASES. (PART 3. PILOT PLANT
STUDY OF THE ALKALIZED ALUMINA SYSTEM FOR SO2
REMOVAL.) Bureau of Mines, Pittsburgh, Pa., Coal Research
Center 58 pp. (July 1967). RI 7021)
The use of alkalized alumina in removing sulfur dioxide from a
coal combustion flue gas at 625 degrees F was investigated on
a pilot plant scale. The absorber was 26 feet long and 1.6
inches ID. Counter-current gas-solids flow at gas velocities of
8 to 15 ft/sec in the presence and absence of baffles, as well
as solids entrainment at gas velocities of 20 to 23 ft/sec with
solids recycle, were employed. The spent absorbent was
regenerated as a fixed bed with the reducing gases—reformed
natural gas and hydrogen. Twenty cycles of absorption-
regeneration were successfully completed using the alkalized
alumina rolled into spherical granules 10 to 16 mesh. There
was no loss in activity of absorbent toward SO2 with a modest
attrition equivalent to 0.1 percent of the solids feed. Support-
ing studies were conducted on the effect of the sodium con-
tent in the absorbent, the composition of the reducing gas,
thermal treatment to increase absorbent hardness, and removal
of absorbed chlorine from the absorbent. A mathematical
model was formulated to describe the removal of SO2 by al-
kalized alumina from fixed and falling beds. (Author abstract)
06636
Bureau of Mines, Washington, C.C.
AIR POLLUTION RESEARCH PROGRESS REPORT FOR
THE QUARTER ENDED MARCH 31, 1968. In cooperation
with the Public Health Health Service.) (Mar. 31, 1967) 87 pp.
This report covers progress on research in the folloring areas:
Sulfur dioxide removal from flue gas; Removal of sulfur ox-
ides from flue gas with manganese oxide and improved
regeneration; Economic evaluation of processes for the
removal of sulfur dioxide from flue gas; Characteristics and
removal of pyritic sulfur from selected American coals; Pollu-
tion by chlorine in coal combustion; Flame characteristics
causing air pollution; Characteristics and photochemical reac-
tivity of vehicular emissions; Mechanisms of air pollution
reactions; Effects of engine, fuel and combustion system
parameters on vehicular emissions; Composition, smoke and
odor of diesel exhausts.
06697
REPORT ON SULFUR DIOXIDE AND FLY ASH EMISSIONS
FROM ELECTRIC UTILITY BOILERS. Public Service Elec-
tric and Gas Co., Trenton, N.J.; Jersey Central Power & Light
Co./New Jersey Power & Light Co., Morristown; and Atlantic
City Electric b8co., N.J. (Feb. 24, 1967). 67 pp.
Progress to date and attainable goals in reducing sulfur dioxide
and fly ash emissions from utility companies in New Jersey
were discussed. This information will be utilized in formulating
state policies with respect to these pollutants. The following
topics are discussed: Sources of pollution; Status of abatement
efforts; Proposed regulatory limits on sulfur in fuels; Reduc-
tions to be effected by 1968; Studies to effect additional
reductions in near future; Long term solution; and Forecast
sulfur dioxide and Forecast fly ash emissions.
-------
68
06835
STUDIES ON SMOKE PURIFICATION. (Studio sui depurated
di fumo.) Fumi Polveri (Milan) 6 (3), 69-85 Mar. 1966. It. (Tr.)
(Translated as JPRS-R-8463-D.) (Also published in Ind. Ther-
miques Aerauliques, (2) Feb. 1965.)
The purpose was to determine testing conditions for chimney-
mounted smoke purifiers. The ultimate aim was to devise a
method for controlling the efficiency of such devices. Five
devices were tested, none of which had forced draft, mechani-
cal acceleration of the velocity of the combustion gases, or
water scrubbing. The effect of various wind speeds on the
velocities and the pressure drop in the devices was measured
in an experimental tunnel. The capture efficiency of the
devices was tested using cold balsa and silica dusts to simulate
soot agglomerates. The efficiency was further tested on a
restaurant kitchen coal furnace, a screw-shaped coal burner in
a cast-iron boiler, a coal stove and a liquid fuel burner
mounted on the boiler. Stack samples were examined by opti-
cal and electron microscopy and the deposits' acidity was
determined. Some test methods are proposed.
06999L
G. Spengler G. Michalczyk
SULFUR OXIDES IN SMOKE GASES AND IN THE AT-
MOSPHERE - A PROBLEM OF KEEPING THE AIR CLEAN.
(Die Schwefeloxyde in Rauchgasen und in der Atmosphere
Ein Problem der Luftreinhaltung.) VDI (Ver. Deut. Ingr.) Ber.
(Duesseldorf,) (Translated as JPRS R-8462-D.) (1964). 152 pp.
Ger. (Tr.)
Since there are no methods that will, in each and every case
of emissions of sulfur oxides into the atmosphere, reliably
prevent such emissions and at the same time operate with
some degree of economy and efficiency, a compilation of the
literature available on this problem was arranged from a criti-
cal view point. The information is taken from generally availa-
ble literature, private communications and reports by domestic
and foreign agencies in government and industry. The follow-
ing subjects are discussed: The sulfur content of fuels; the for-
mation of SO2, SOS, and sulfuric acid; a general review of the
physiological influences of SO2 on man, animal, and plants;
the corrosion behavior of sulfur oxides; analytical methods for
the determination of sulfur oxides; and legal measures for
keeping air clean in West Germany, Great Britain, Russia, and
the United States. Methods for the removal of SO2 from
smoke gases by absorption, adsorption, catalytic oxidation,
reduction, desulfurization of fuels, and control equipment are
discussed extensively. Some economic and industrial problems
connected with the removal of SO2 and a bibliography of 360
documents and communications are included.
07075
Gosselin, A. E., Jr. and L. W. Lemon
BAG FILTERHOUSE PILOT INSTALLATION ON A COAL-
FIRED BOILER-PRELIMINARY REPORT AND OBJEC-
TIVES. Proc. Am. Power Conf., Vol. 28, p. 534-545, 1966. 3
refs.
A pilot filterhouse was installed in July 1965 at the Mercer
Generating Station of Public Service Electric and Gas Com-
pany. The objectives of the research program are reviewed
and preliminary test observations and experiences of the pilot
bag filter house operation are reported. A general discussion
of the power industry and air pollution, general program
procedure, steam generator effluent investigations, experimen-
tal facility and test program, test observations and ex-
periences, and program status is included. Preliminary per-
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
formance of the pilot filterhouse demonstrated that full scale
application may be economically feasible. A detailed continu-
ous demonstration program is currently in operation at the
Mercer pilot filterhouse over a filter ratio range of 4.5 to 5.0:1,
in an attempt to develop conclusive, practical performance of
a commercial application.
07229
Hertel, W.
FLUE GAS AND ASH DISPOSAL AND MAIN STRUCTURE
OF A POWER STATION. Rauchgas-und Aschenabfuhrung
sowie Haupttragkonstruktion eines Blockkraftwerks. Brenn-
stoff-Warme-Kraft (Duesseldorf) 19 (5), 245-9 (?^v'-1967)
(Ger.)
A design for the building of a 300-mw power station is
presented. A steel chimney placed on top of the building with
the vertical boiler is incorporated for economy. Adjacent is the
generator house on top of which electrofilters, ventilators, and
air pre heaters are located. The structural analysis as well as a
cost estimate os the steel framework is outlined. According to
where the ash mills are located, ash is discharged either
directly under the boiler or in a basement underneath the
boiler house.
07359
Debrun, G.
THE CONTINUOUS MEASUREMENT OF THE DUST CON-
TENT OF THE COMBUSTION GASES, AT THE EXIT OF
THE DUST COLLECTORS IN THE LARGE CENTRAL
POWER STATIONS OF ELECTRICITE DE FRANCE. ((La
Mesure en Continu de l'Empoussierement des Gaz de Com-
bustion a la Sortie des Depoussiereurs des Grandes Centrales
Thermiques E.D.F.)) Text in French. Pollut. Atmos. (Paris),
9(34):84-90, Apr.-June 1967. 2 refs.
The production department of the Electricite de France in an
effort to improve the monitoring of their dust collectors has
conducted an investigation of the various types of continuous
recording instruments to measure the fly ash passing the dust
collectors. The survey showed that the opacimeters are superi-
or to the other devices considered, especially those which
measure the dust content of only a small volume of the total
gas stream. The opacimeter or transmissometer measures the
fluctuations in the light intensity at a photoelectric cell from a
standard light source across the gas stream which result from
the variations in fly ash content of the gas stream. The optical
system is balanced with one beam passing through the gas
stream and one beam which does not, which eliminates
problems from fluctuations in the intensity of the light source.
The device should be accurate within 10%, with the main
sources of error: the fouling of equipment; misalignment of
the light beams; and deterioration of the system. Opacimeters
(transmissometers) are the instruments of choice for continu-
ous monitoring of leakage from dust collectors.
07385
D. T. King
DUST COLLECTION IN COAL PREPARATION PLANTS.
Mining Engr., 19(8):64-69, Aug. 1967.
Particulate collectors which operate by gravity, inertia, cen-
trifugal force, impingement, and electrostatic fields are
reviewed. The chief types of dust collectors such as cyclones,
electrostatic precipitators, fabric filters, multiple cyclone col-
lectors, wet impingement scrubbers, irrigated centrifugal
scrubbers, centrifugal spray chamber collectors, self-induced
spray collectors, wet dynamic precipitators, venturi scrubbers,
-------
B. CONTROL METHODS
69
and disintegrator scrubbers are illustrated by schematic
drawings. The economics for the collection of dust in the cola
industry are evaluated. Some seams give a premium quality
coal dust with lower ash and sulfur content than the larger size
product. The saleable value of such a dust may justify its
recovery in addition to the justifications provided by air and
stream pollution regulations, community good will, potential
damage to plant equipment, better employee relations, and
control of safety hazards.
07416
DUST CONTROL METHODS. Coal Age ,72(8): 56-62, Aug.
1967.
The control of dust, soot, smoke, and fumes that accompany
coal preparation operations has become an important part of
the successful plant as public conern about air pollution in-
creases. In addition to a discussion of the various types of
dust collecting and cleaning systems, the characteristics and
applications of these systems are compared in a chart. Selec-
tion of equipment best suited to handle a specific dust control
problem is thus simplified.
07417
Field, J. H., R. C. Kurtzrock, and D. H. McCrea
HOW TO PREVENT SO2 EMISSION. Chem. Eng., 74(13): 158-
160, June 19, 1967.
A new absorption process for the removal of sulfur dioxide
from flue gases has been developed. The process consists of
contacting the flue gases against an 'alkalized alumina' absor-
bent that reacts with SO2, thus removing it from the gas
stream going to atmosphere. The absorbent medium is a co-
precipiate of sodium and aluminum oxides. Ab2orption in-
volves the oxidation of SO2 and its subsequent reaction with
the metal oxide to form the sulfate. The spent absorbent is
regenerated by contacting it with a reducing gas. Held on the
absorbent as the sulfate , sulfur is reduced to H2S and carried
off as part of the regenerator effluent. The latter is then
processed for recovery of elemental sulfur. The absorber is
designed for 90% removal of total sulfur in flue gas. This al-
kalized alumina process removes SO2 without reducing the
flue gas temperature therefore increases heat-recovery effi-
ciency. The absorbent contacting method for the removal of
sulfur dioxide from flue gases has a low pressure drop and is
flexible in its range of gas velocities, absorbent particle size
and utilization. Its operating costs are also low because the
process makes a valuable byproduct, elemental sulfur.
07425
J. W. Leonard, C. T. Holland, E. U. Syed
A SURVEY OF UNUSUAL METHODS FOR REMOVING
SULFUR FROM COAL. Coal Age, 72(7):90-93, July 1967. 22
refs. (Presented at the Spring Meeting, West Virginia Coal
Mining Institute, Morgantown, W. Va., Apr. 21-22, 1968.)
Electrical, thermal, and chemical methods for the removal of
sulfur from coal are evaluated. These methods require a fine
coal feed similar to that required in coal-burning power plants.
The prospects of applying electrical, thermal or chemical
beneficiation techniques to reduce sulfur in steam coal become
less formidable with the knowledge that many coals when pul-
verized tend to concentrate very high percentages of pyrite in
the larger sizes which commonly represent less than half of
the coal. The chemical processes, unlike the thermal and elec-
trical methods, possess inherent disadvantages in that the fine,
desulfurized coal must be dried, and processing facilities must
be large because of long retention times and bulk of materials.
Thermal and electrical methods permit a continuous operation
confined to relatively limited space requirements, and the
product coal is dry. Unlike conventional methods they do not
appear to have universal application to all coals.
07430
W. A. Pollock, J. P. Tomany, G. G. Frieling
FLUE-GAS SCRUBBER. Mech. Eng., 89(8):21-25, Aug. 1968.
The Turbulent Contact Absorber (TAC), utilizes turbulent mo-
tion of mobile packing to maintain high mass-transfer rates
and efficient particulate collection over a wide range of flows
with low pressure drop in the presence of a dense low pH
slurry. This wet scrubber was tested for sulfur dioxide
removal without sulfur recovery. Limestone injection directly
into a coal-burning furnace to reduce SO2 emission was evalu-
ated separately. From the data developed on the two systems
it appears probable that limestone injection together with wet
scrubber would result in effective simultaneous removal fo fly
ash and sulfur dioxide. Flyash collection efficiencies in the
order of 98% and SO2 removal of 91% can be expected at wet
scrubber pressure drops of about 4.5 in. wg.
07466
Potter, A. E., R. E. Harrington, and P. W. Spaite
LIMESTONE-DOLOMITE PROCESSES FOR FLUE GAS
DESULFURIZATION. Air Eng., 10(4):22-27, April 1968. 17
refs. (Presented at the American Chemical Society, Chicago,
111., Sept. 11, 1968.)
Limestone-dolomite processes offer excellent potential for the
control of sulfur oxide emissions from power plants operating
on fossil fuels. In addition to summarizing present capabilities,
current development work on three such processes is
reviewed, current development work on three such processes
is reviewed. Although calcination, mass transfer, and chemical
reaction are important to desulfurization efficiency, no one
factor is clearly rate-limiting. Engineering considerations such
as sorbent dispersion, tube fouling, corrosion control, and
waste disposal are very important in practical applications. Ad-
ditional data from current and proposed studies are needed to
establish capabilities and economics of the several processes.
Among the methods being evaluated for desulfurization, the
limestone-dolomite processes present distinct advantages for
sulfur oxide pollution control. (Authors' abstract, modified)
07515
Sommerlad, Robert E.
FABRIC FILTRATION - 'STATE OF THE ART'. Preprint,
Foster Wheeler Corp., Livingston, N.J., ((19))p., March 6,
1967. 15 refs. (Presented at the Air Pollution - Electric Genera-
tion Seminar, The Graduate School, Dept. of Agriculture in
cooperation with the Public Health Service, Washington, D.
C.)
The state of the art of fabric filtration as applied to power
plant effluents is presented. Operating principles and cleaning
techniques are discussed along with materials and some design
parameters. Also covered is the past and present work done
on the effective control of visible emissions due to fly ash and
sulfur trioxide. A survey of the development potential of the
baghouse filter for sulfur dioxide removal is presented.
Listings of installations and estimated capital costs are also
presented. (Author's summary, modified)
-------
70
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
07673
Ungoed, W. P. C. and W. J. Needham
WASTE HEAT BOILERS FOR OPEN-HEARTH FURNACES.
In: Fume Arrest- ment, Special Rept. 83, London, William Lea
and Co., Ltd., 1964, p. 54-60. (Report of the Proceedings of
the Autumn Gen- eral Meeting, Iron and Steel Inst., London,
England, Nov. 26-27, 1963.)
The application of waste heat boilers as gas coolers is
discussed and the smoke-tube and water-tube types of boilers
are compared. The boiler design features, heat transfer, tube
formation, and streaming pressures and methods of draught
control are described. Boiler cleaning methods, shot cleaning
for 'on-load' duties, and the statutory requirements on main-
tenance are discussed. The economy of the waste heat boiler
is considered; waste heat steam credits, power generation, and
capital returns on specific 'back pressure' type units are illus-
trated with figures for equipment currently in operation.
07674
Petroll, Joachim, Volker Quitter, Gunter Schade, and Loth- ar
Zimmermann
TESTING CYCLONE SEPARATORS. Staub (English transla-
tion), 27(3):1-10, March 1967. 12 refs. CFSTI: TT 67-51408/3
Earth's cyclone theory was checked experimentally. The tests
were carried out in the research division of the VEB PKM
Kohleverarbeitung, Leipzig. The test dust was soft-coal dust
from the cooling-tower collector of a briquette factory,
separated in banked cyclones. Cyclone separators of different
dimensions and made by different firms were tested under
identical conditions. The test results are compared with the
results obtained by the calculation method for cyclone separa-
tors according to Earth. It has been found that the Earth
theory still does not describe, quantitatively and qualitatively,
the actual conditions in a satisfactory way. (Authors' summa-
ry, modified)
07752
Kopita, R. and T. G. Gleason
WET SCRUBBING OF BOILER FLUE GAS.Chem. Eng.
Progr., 64(l):74-78, Jan. 1968. 5 refs. (Presented at the 62nd
National Meeting, American Institute of Chemcial Engineers,
Salt Lake City, Utah, May 21-24, 1967.)
A wet scrubbing system that can be designed to remove 99
plus percent of the fly ash from the pulverized coal and stoker
fired boilers is described. The same type of system can be util-
ized to remove 70 to 99.5 percent of the sulphur dioxide in the
flue gas depending on the amount and type of absorbing liquid
used. The cost of such a system is such that an early pay-out
could result as compared to the extra cost of low sulphur fuel.
The text and tables illustrate the effeciciencies that may be ex-
pected with respect to both SO2 and particulate matter
removal, suitable materials of construction and various flow
cycles including low-level heat recovery.
07931
Ertl, D. W.
ELECTROSTATIC GAS CLEANING. S. African Mech. Engr.
(Johannesburg), 16(8):159-168, March 1967.
Electrostatic precipitators are a highly developed and efficient
means of cleaning industrial and waste gases, satisfying all
modern hygienic and industrial requirements. Each precipitator
has to fulfill two functions: (1) electrically charging the dust
and capturing it by electrodes which are at earth potential; and
(2) passing this precipitated dust, with minimum re-entrain-
ment losses, into the hoppers underneath the precipitation
field. Parameters influencing the total dust collecting efficien-
cy are: the ratio of the collecting plate area to gas flow rate,
which is a dimension of the precipitator size; the migration
velocity or the velocity by which the dust is attracted to the
collecting plate under electrical forces, which is dependent on
field intensity; the dielectric constant of the dust; the dew-
point of the gas/dust mixture, high dew-point being better
suited for precipitation than a completely dry gas. Factors ad-
versely affecting precipitation efficiency are space charges,
which develop when there are large amounts of very fine dust
in the gas, and dust resistivity, which makes precipitation dif-
ficult when the dust layers have an electrical resistance of
greater than approx. 10 to the llth power ohm/cm. Precipita-
tors are important for thermal power stations where the dust
fineness must also be taken into account in design. The use of
precipitators for blast furnaces and steel works, cement
works, and in the chemical industry, is noted. Dust collecting
efficiencies of 99.5% are not exceptional and greater efficiency
is advisable in continuous operation at numerous plants. For
optimum dust collecting results, the specific dust properties
have to be taken into account during the planning stage of the
whole plant.
07962
Belyea, A. R.
MANGANESE ADDITIVE REDUCES SO3. Power, 110(11):80-
81, November, 1966.
A manganese-containing organometallic compound is now
being used in several stations of Consolidated Edison Com-
pany as an additive in residual fuel oil that has a relatively
high content of sulfur and vanadium. Tests have shown that
the concentration of sulfur trioxide in the flue gases can be
reduced by about 45% at a material cost of less than 0.7 cents
per gal of fuel oil, equivalent to about 0.45 cents per million
Btu. The test program also demonstrated that a reduction of
SO3 from 25 ppm to 14 ppm lowered the dew point of the flue
gases 12 F. Furthermore, the SO3 reduction affects the ap-
pearance of the plume, which is less opaque; burners have a
clearer flame and exhibit less plugging, resulting in a cleaner
boiler.
08080
Kukin, I.
UTILIZATION OF ADDITIVES IN CONTROLLED COM-
BUSTION PRODUCTS. Preprint, Apollo Chemical Corp., Clif-
ton, N. J., 11 p., 1966. (Presented at the MECAR Technical
Symposium on Combustion and Air Pollution Control, Oct. 25,
1966.)
Practical applications of chemical additives for reducing air
pollution with petroleum fuels are discussed. Successful
results have been achieved in the field by the use of additives
for fuel oils, both distillate and residual fuels. The major pollu-
tants are: (1) black particulate matter representing primarily
unburned hydrocarbons; (2) sulfur oxides (SO2 and SO3). With
distillate fuels, where the sulfur content generally is below
0.5%, our primary concern is particulate matter and to a
somewhat lesser degree, carbon monoxide, aldehydes and
nitrogen oxides. With residual fuels, sulfur, as SO2 and SO3,
is the dominant consideration, although the ability to reduce
black smoke emission by means of chemical additive is cer-
tainly a valuable contribution to air pollution control. The
three effective classes of chemical additives are: (1) com-
bustion catalysts, (2) oil-ash slag modifiers, and (3) chemical
neutralizing agents. In some cases, these chemical agents can
be combined to give one or more benefits. In a recent trial at a
-------
B. CONTROL METHODS
71
power plant, one of our products, SSI-3(R), reduced the black
smoke at the same time that it lowered the SO3 content of the
flue gas from 90 to 5 parts per million. The case histories cited
show how chemical additives are being used to reduce air pol-
lution at the same time that they make their contribution to
better overall fuel utilization. AAM
08085
Mullen, J. F.
A METHOD FOR DETERMINING COMBUSTIBLE LOSS,
DUST EMISSION, AND RECIRCULATED REFUSE FOR A
SOLID FUEL BURNING SYSTEM.Preprint, Combustion En-
gineering, Inc., Windsor, Conn., Research and Product
Development, 13 p., ((1966?)).
A method is presented which establishes a means of determin-
ing: 1. Solid combustible losses for solid fuel burning units. 2.
Stack dust emission rates. 3. Recirculated system loadings.
The paper is based entirely on three axioms. 1. All OashO, as
determined from the OproximateO or OultimateO analysis of
fuel, fed to a furnace must be accounted for. 2. The OashO en-
tering a component, or system of components, per unit time,
must be equal to the OashO leaving the same component, or
system of components in the same unit of time. 3. All OashO
has combustible matter associated with it to some degree.
Solid-combustible-loss determination has always been an in-
dustry problem. The proposed method does not prevent one
manufacturer (by means of total or partial reinjection of cin-
ders) from quoting a lower carbon loss than another manufac-
turer, but it does enable one to calculate the effect of a
specific determination on the recirculated flyash loading and
the stack dust loading that will result when total or partial
reinjection is employed.
08146
Uzhov, V. N.
SANITARY-TECHNOLOGICAL EVALUATION OF ASH-
CATCHING SYSTEMS USED IN U.S.S.R. ELECTRIC HEAT
AND POWER PLANTS. In: Survey of U.S.S.R. Literature on
bSair Pollution and Related Occupational Diseases. Translated
from Russian by B. S. Levine. National Bureau of Standards,
Washington, D. C., Inst. for Applied Tech., Vol. 3, p. 87-92,
May 1960. 1 ref. CFSTI: TT 60-21475
Two systems of ash-catching are presently in use in the
U.S.S.R. electric heat and power plants which are burning
hard fuel: 1) dry methods with the aid of battery cyclones and
electrostatic precipitators, and 2) wet processes using centrifu-
gal VTI Scrubbers or MP-VTI wet rod type ash-abators. In the
past electric power plants predominently employed the dry
type of ash-catching equipment; at present the trend has been
reversed and the wet types of ash-catching installations have
been favored predominently. The two ash-catching systems
were evaluated and to make a rational choice between the two
the efficiency of wet system ash-catching equipment did not
exceed 90%. Ash collected by the wet systems presents seri-
ous hauling away problems and makes utilization of the col-
lected ash for commercial purposes difficult, if not impossible.
The ash thus collected must be disposed of at ash dumps,
which in themselves become sources of air dust pollution. Wet
methods of electro-station smoke gas purification can be used
in small electro-stations, especially those located away from
inhabited localities. The installation of wet type ash-collectors
may be sanctioned in old electro-stations in which for reasons
of space scarcity the installation of electrofilters may present
major difficulties. Electro-stations of any considerable size
which are surrounded by inhabited foci must be equipped with
dry system ash-collectors, consisting of combinations of two-
stage ash-collectors: battery cyclones plus vertical electrofil-
ters of the DVP type, or of two or tripolar horizontal elec-
trofilters of the DGP type capable of insuring smoke gas pu-
rification of not less than 95%.
08155
Matsak, V. G.
THE UTILIZATION OF AIR DUST AND SMOKE PURIFICA-
TION EQUIPMENT.In: Survey of U. S. S. R. Literature on
Air Pollution and Related Occupational Diseases. Translated
from Russian by B. S. Levine. National Bureau of Standards,
Washington, D. C., Inst. for Applied Tech., Vol. 3, p. 141-149,
May 1960 CFSTI: TT 60-21475
In purifying air and gases from dust, the following factos must
be taken into account: a)the weight of dust, which may vary
from a few milligrams to tens of grams per cu m of air or gas;
b) the size of dust particles and their weight/number ratios; c)
the chemical composition of the dust and its susceptibility to
wetting by water, oil and similar fluids. Existing means of pu-
rifying air from dust and smoke can be divided into dry and
wet methods. Settling chambers, inertia dust separators,
porous filters, electrostatic precipitators, water spray washing,
and oil filters are discussed.
08228
Reed, Sherman K.
PROJECT COED (CHAR, OIL, ENERGY DEVELOPMENT).
Preprint, FMC Corp., 4p., 1966. (Presented at National Coal
Association Technical-Sales Conference and Bituminous Coal
Research, Inc., Annual Meeting, Pittsburgh, Pa., Sept. 14-15,
1966).
The Char Oil Energy Development (COED) converts coal
economically to synthetic crude oil, fuel gas, and a solid char
fuel. Coal from a mine is crushed to less than 1/8-inch in size,
and fed continuously to a multistage pyrolyzer. In the
multistage pyrolyzer, the coal is fed from one pyrolysis stage
to several others in sequence, each at a successively higher
temperature. Volatile materials from the multistage pyrolyzer
pass to a product- recovery section where oil and liquor are
condensed from the gases. The gases then can be converted
either to a high-Btu gas for pipeline use or to hydrogen for an
ammonia plant or an oil refinery. The oil passes to a hydro-
treating plant where it is reacted with hydrogen to produce a
synthetic crude oil for sale to a petrolem refinery. The solid
residue, char, from the multistage pyrolyzer is a fuel suitable
for powerhouse use.
08342
Teller, Aaron J.
RECOVERY OF SULFUR OXIDES FROM STACK GASES.
Proc. MECAR Symp., New Developments in Air Pollution
Control, Metropolitan Engineers Council on Air Resources,
New York City, p. 1-11, Oct. 23, 1967.
The criteria for the selection of an SO2 recovery process, ex-
clusive of the traditional boundaries of economics, are: (1) sta-
bility of the chemical or physical recovery system to the sub-
micron particulates and sulfur trioxide, (2) stability of the ad-
sorption or catalytic material, (3) turndown capability of the
system and (4) land area required by the recovery system. The
systems under consideration based on a comparison of these
characteristics in addition to the omnipresent economics were
discussed. In spite of the superiority of the regenerative
process, non-regenerative processes are important where
emergency conditions exist or where the lack of available land
area prohibits the installation of a regenerative recovery
-------
72
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
process. Effective recovery of SO2 in a non-regenerative form
can be achieved with lime scrubbing. A second non-regenera-
tive recovery method is the dry reaction of sulfur dioxide, ox-
ygen and lime temperatures in the 1500 deg to 2000 deg F
range. The regenerative processes offer the greatest potential
for economic recovery and a preservation of the natural
resource of sulfur. Among the processes under active con-
sideration are: (1) alkalized alumina adsorption, (2) direct cata-
lytic conversion to sulfuric acid, (3) char adsorption, (4) ab-
sorption accompanied by chemical reaction and (5) reversible
chromatographic separation.
08346
Slack, A. V.
REMOVAL OF SULFUR OXIDES FROM POWER PLANT
STACK GASES: OUTLINE OF MAJOR PROBLEMS. Proc.
MECAR Symp., New Developments in Air Pollution Control,
Metropolitan Engineers Council on Air Resources, New York
City, p. 42-49, Oct. 23, 1967. 2 refs.
The several unresolved problems in reducing sulfur dioxide
emissions from power plants make the status of both removal
and recovery methods uncertain. Some of the problems do not
have any obvious solution: the large tonnage of product made,
both in regard to space for discarding of waste products and
the economics of marketing very large quantities of any sala-
ble material made; declining load factor and variable operation
of power plants, with adverse effect on operation of a chemi-
cal recovery plant; and growing use of nuclear power for new
plants. For some processes, new fossil fuel plants are more
amenable to fitting with sulfur dioxide recovery equipment
than are old ones. The several other problems, mainly having
to do with process operation, are less difficult in some
respects and progress is being made in solving them.
08347
Haynes, W. P.
CURRENT WORK AT THE BUREAU OF MINES ON
RECOVERY OF SULFUR OXIDES FROM STACK GAS. Proc.
MECAR Symp., New Developments in Air Pollution Control,
Metropolitan Engineers Council on Air Resources, New York
City, p. 50-61, Oct. 23, 1967.
The Bureau of Mines is concerned with achieving the most ef-
fective utilization of the nation's natural resources. Economi-
cal recovery of valuable sulfur products from the combustion
of fossil fuels supports both the goal of conservation and
utilization of natural resources, and the national goal of abat-
ing air pollution. The Bureau's broad approach to the total
problem may be divided into two: removal of sulfur from the
coal before combustion and removal of the sulfur oxides from
the products of combustion. Removal of sulfur from fuel oil is
technically feasible and generally adequate when a hydrogen
treatment process is used. The second basic approach—the
processing of combustion furnace atmosphere and stack gases-
-offers the advantage of being versatile, applicable to the burn-
ing of both coal and residual fuel oil. Milestone projects led to
further expansion of the Bureau program of developing
methods of sulfur oxide removal from stack gas. The current
basic program is outlined and discussed. It indues benchscale
studies, improvement of manganese oxide absorption and
regeneration, exploration of solid absorbents for elevated tem-
perature absorption, and evaluation of solid absorbents for the
Teller chromatographic process.
08348
Cahill, William J., Jr.
CONTROL OF PARTICULATE EMISSIONS ON ELECTRIC
UTILITIES BOILERS. Proc. MECAR Symp., New Develop-
ments in Air Pollution Control, Metropolitan Engineers Coun-
cil on Air Resources, New York City, p. 74-84, Oct. 23, 1967.
Paniculate control equipment utilized by Consolidated Edison
in New York City from 1915 to the present is discussed.
Present collectors were designed to collect fly ash from coals
containing approximately 2% sulphur. However, the new air
pollution law in New York City requires 99% collection effi-
ciency on all coal burning equipment by 1969 and requires that
all coals burned by 1971 shall contain not more than 1%
sulphur. On boilers burning the 1% sulphur coal required by
law, the 99% efficiency precipitator would be only about 98%
effective because of the higher resistivity ash. To comply with
this law, Consolidated Edison was confronted with three
possible alternatives: (1) Add collecting surface and electrical
sets to existing 99% collectors to maintain the necessary effi-
ciencies when burning low sulphur coals; (2) add new
precipitators in series with the existing precipitators to in-
crease the efficiency from 97% to 99% and still be able to
burn low sulphur coal; or (3) burn another fuel such as low
sulphur oil or natural gas.
08352
Rowson, H. M.
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS IN SOLVENT RECOVERY.
Proc. MECAR Symp., New Developments in Air Pollution
Control, Metropolitan Engineers Council on Air Resources,
New York City, p. 110-128, Oct. 23, 1967.
The growing understanding of the adsorption process has led
to the ability to modify the properties, such as pore size dis-
tribution and overall activity of the adsorbent, to suit the par-
ticular separation that is required. This has been accompanied
by much development in the last few years of the fixed bed
and fluid bed mechanical contacting that is available to carry
out these separations, and as a result of these parallel develop-
ments, it is now possible to carry out with very great efficien-
cy a large number of complicated separations. The fixed bed
plant consists of a number of vessels containing activated car-
bon into which the solvent laden gas stream is introduced in
turn. The solvent laden stream is allowed to flow through the
carbon bed, the solvent is adsorbed onto the activated carbon,
and the solvent free air is discharged into the atmosphere. In
the fluidized bed process, the solvent laden air or gas stream
is passed upwards through the adsorber vessel which contains
a number of shallow fluidized beds of activated carbon. The
solvent is progressively adsorbed onto the carbon, and the sol-
vent free air is discharged through dust collectors to the at-
mosphere. This process has a number of advantages compared
with the fixed bed process: 1. Exceptional contacting between
solvent and adsorbent giving very high efficiencies; 2.
Complete continuous automatic operation, with minimum labor
requirements; 3. Competitive in cost for the medium and larger
installation; 4. Low stripping steam usage (about half that of
equivalent fixed bed plants). 5. Low ground area requirement;
6. High concentration of solvent in recovered agueous liquor
simplifying onward processing; 7. Inherently safe even with
highly inflammable solvents. Factors affecting the choice of
solvent recovery systems include 1. Air flow, 2. Concentration
of solvent, 3. Solvent type and 4. Operating continuity. For the
majority of applications in a well maintained fixed bed plant,
efficiencies of 97% to 98%, defined as the ratio of solvent out-
let to inlet concentration over the adsorber, are quite easily
achieved. In a well run fluid bed plant, efficiencies of 99%
-------
B. CONTROL METHODS
73
measured over the adsorber are quite readily attainable. Other
new applications for adsorption techniques include the
removal of small quantities of noxious material from large
volumes of air, the separation of hydrocarbon gases, and the
control of SO2 emission from power station flue gases.
08371
Dratwa, Heinrich and Harald Juntgen
THE DESULFURIZATION OF FLUE GAS BY MEANS OF
ADSORPTION COKES WITH VARIOUS PROPERTIES. Staub
(English translation), 27(7):1-19, July 1967. 10 refs. CFSTI: TT
67-51408/7
The expected dust content in the drum waste gases, their de-
pendence on starting material and the manufactured mixture,
the specific properties of these dusts and dust removal was in-
vestigated. Plants were selected by locality, raw material, size
and differing level of equipment. The results of a total of 35
individual studies at 10 plants are presented. The quantity and
particle size of dust in the waste gases of the drum extends
through a wide range. Three groups are seen for dust content,
largely determined by whether the starting material is washed,
unwashed, or processed in mixed components. Given the
capacities of modem cyclone collectors it can be expected that
some 85-92 percent of the dust of this composition will be
retained in the first stage. Efficiency increases with increasing
coarse components up to a possible 95 percent. Good wet
scrubbers separate residual dust from the first stage with effi-
ciencies of 95-96 percent. Fabric or bulk layer filters used in-
stead of wet scrubbers can attain efficiencies aboe 99 percent.
For particles of about 10 and 20 microns the settling velocities
are only 0.8 and 3.2 cm/sec. Coraser particles of 40 microns
settle at 12.8 cm/sec. Being stirred up by tipping processes in
the drums, such particles are easily emitted with the gases.
The drag of waste gases is still so great 55 70 percent, and
sometimes even up to 90 percent of all dust particles in the
waste gases are larger than 40 microns.
08378
Northcott, Elliott
DUST ABATEMENT AT BIRD COAL.Mining Cong. J.,
53(ll):29-34,36, Nov. 1967
Dust abatement methods at the Riverside preparation plant of
the Bird Coal Company are described. Due to the physical lo-
cation of its Riverside preparation plant, the Bird Coal Co. in-
itiated a program of air pollution abatement that resulted in
emission le vels much lower than are typical within the coal
industry. Several modifications to the original flowsheet, as
well as the installation of additional equipment, were necessa-
ry to complete the program. In the overall dust suppression
program at Bird Coal, approximately $400,000 above the
original plant cost has been expended. While it is granted that
the unique location of this particular plant presented it wiht a
relatively uncommon problem, the day is perhaps not too far
off when every plant will be required to meet standards as
stringent as those now attained at Bird Coal CO.
08429
Hangebrauck, R. P. and Spaite, P. W.
CONTROLLING THE OXIDES OF SULFURJ. Air Pollution
Control Assoc., 18(l):5-8, Jan. 1968. 25 refs. (Presented at the
6th Annual Sanitary and Water Resources Engineering Con-
ference at Nashville, Tenn., June 1967.)
Studies of the sources of sulfur oxides pollution show that
combustion of fossil fuels is responsible for 78 percent of the
total emissions to the atmosphere; the remaining 22 percent
comes from other industrial operations, which represent more
than 22 percent of the pollution problem in terms of severe
local nuisances and high ground-level concentrations. The
great diversity in types and sizes of all sources requires an en-
tire spectrum of approaches for control. The possible ap-
proaches to control are categorized to include the desulfuriza-
tion of coal, desulfurization of residual fuel oil, process
modification, and desulfurization of flue gas. Work on specific
possibilities in each of these categories is underway both in
the federal government and in industry.
08470
Zhavoronkov, N. M.
WAYS OF PROTECTING THE ATMOSPHERE FROM POL-
LUTION BY NOXIOUS INDUSTRIAL DISCHARGES. ((Puti
zashchity vozdushnogo basseina ot zagryazneniya vrednymi
promyshlennymi vybrosami.)) Text in Russian. Vestn. Akad.
Nauk SSSR (Minsk), 35(10):61-65, Oct. 1965.
Various problems of air pollution from industrial waste gases
are discussed. Particular emphasis is placed on pollution due
to sulfur dioxide of which 18.5 million tons were discharged in
Russia in 1964. When SO2 is present in high concentrations
(4%), it can be directly processed into sulfuric acid. In flue
gases from coal and oil combustion, however, most of the SO2
is present in concentrations below 1%. A method for the
removal of sulfur from fuel has been developed in Russia, but
is not considered economical. Processing of flue gases with
sorbents seems to be most promising. Two methods have been
developed: the magnesite method and the ammonia-autoclave
method. The first is based on the absorption of SO2 from flue
gases in a magnesia suspension to form a sulfite bisulfite mix-
ture; the sulfite is removed in form of crystals. The second
method is based upon absorption in aqueous ammonia to form
ammonium sulfite and bisulfite. Methods for removing dust
with electrostatic filters are also discussed. The removal of
SO2 from power plant flue gases is considered one of the most
urgent air pollution research problems.
08492
Jirele, Vratislav
EXTRACTION OF BERYLLIUM FROM POWER PLANT
WASTE MATERIAL. ((Extrakce berylia z energetickych od-
padu.)) Text in Czech. Chem. Prumysl (Prague), 17(4):175-179,
April 4, 1967. 6 refs.
Soft coal from the Sokolov region of Czechoslovakia contains
considerable amounts of beryllium which pass into the slag
and fly ash when the coal is utilized in electric power plants.
Significant amounts of toxic beryllium compounds are thus
discharged into the atmosphere. The present study was made
to investigate a process for the recovery of beryllium from
slag or fly ash. Slag containing 800 gm. Be/t. and fly ash from
an electrostatic filter containing 787 gm. Be/t. were used for
the experiments. Dissolution of Be was tested at 25-100 deg C
with HC1, NaOH, H2SO4 and HF. The latter two acids were
found most effective. Slags obtained at different combustion
temperatures were also tested. The use of fluoride fluxing
agents was found to facilitate dissolution of the Be com-
pounds. Separation from acidic solution was tested with solu-
tions of di-(2-ethylhexyl) phosphoric acid (EHPA). The recom-
mended process uses cone. H2SO4 at elevated temperatures
and extraction in three stages with 0.1 M EHPA in kerosene at
a pH of 2.2, resulting in complete transfer of beryllium into
the organic phase. In the presence of high aluminum concen-
trations, a pH of 1.8 is recommended to suppress extraction of
aluminum.
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74
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
08574
THE PURIFICATION OF THE AIR NEAR THERMAL
POWER PLANTS. ((Die Reinhaltung der Luft bei thermischen
Kraftwerken.)) Text in German, Staedtehygiene (Hamburg),
16(9):203-208, Sept. 1965. (Presented at the Pro Aqua Interna-
tional Technical Meeting, Basel, Switzerland, March 1-7,
1965.)
At a 2,000 megawatt plant with a 200 meter chimney, sulfur
dioxide air pollution under average meteorological conditions
is minimal if coal containing 1 percent sulfur is used as fuel. If
fuel oil containing 4 percent sulfur is used, the resulting pollu-
tion is considerable. To control the sulfur dioxide emission in
stack gases, two power plants in London have utilized a wet
purification method for several years. The gas was washed
with river water containing a small amount of calcium, thereby
converting the sulfur dioxide to calcium sulfate. Since this
method is expensive, the dry purification methods (namely the
adsorption on active coal and aluminum oxide) which can be
used without previous cooling of the stack gases, have been
attempted. So far, these methods have been used without
much success.
08584
Winnacker, Karl
REMOVAL OF INDUSTRIAL WASTES AS A TECHNOLOGI-
CAL PROBLEM. ((Be- seitigung van Industriebfaellen als
technologische Aufgabe.)) Text in German. Chem. Ingr. Tech.
(Weinheim), 36(l):l-8, Jan. 1964. 13 refs.
The amount of wastes from various sources and the removal
or con- trol of emissions to the atmosphere are discussed. Sul-
fur dioxide is considered the most important pollutant. Ninety-
five percent of the sulfur dioxide emitted comes from fur-
naces. An apparatus is illustrated which reduced the emission
of sulfur dioxide from 0.2 vol.% to 0.05 vol.% in a sulfuric
acid plant. Sulfur should be removed from coal and fuel oil be-
fore combustion whenever possi- ble. Several wet and dry pu-
rification methods for smoke gas are outlined. In one method
illustrated the SO2 content of the uncooled gas is converted
mostly to SOS and then adsorbed on semi-coke. The sulfur
dioxide was regenerated in concentrated form from the coke at
400 deg. C. Nitrogen dioxide emissions from industrial plants
have become smaller in recent years due to better control
methods, but automobile exhaust gases contain 5,000 p.p.m. of
nitrogen oxides. A table gives the amount of various pollutants
from automobile engines at the various operating conditions.
Smoke and dust as well as tar vapors can be removed electro-
statically.
08713
Taylor, W. G.
SMOKE ELIMINATION IN GAS TURBINES BURNING
DISTILLATE OIL. Preprint, American Society of Mechanical
Engineers, New York Paper 67-PWR-3, 9p., 1967. (Presented
at the ASME-IEEE Joint Power Generation Conference
Detroit, Mich.,Sept. 24-28,1967)
Various methods (Van Brand, Ringelmann, and Bacharach) of
eval uating gas turbine smoke are described and compared.
Two methods of reducting smoke in distillate-oil-fired units are
evaluated. There is no single universal satisfactory system in
use for evalu ating gas-turbine smoke. The Von Brand sam-
pling technique, coupled with photometric readout eliminates
weather and stack size as factors, and reduces human error. It
has good repeatability and can be used to monitor machine
transients. Gas turbines can be made to satisfy all codes by
use of fuel additives or air atomiza tion. Within a few years
the only satisfactory stack will be one which is invisible. This
can be achieved now, except for start-up with a combination
of air atomization and a small quantity of fuel additive.
08825
Zentgraf, Karl-Martin
CONTRIBUTION TO SO2 MEASUREMENT IN FLUE GASES
AND TO FLUE GAS DESULFURIZATION BY COMBINA-
TION WITH ALKALINE EARTH METALS. ((Beitrag zur
SO2-Messung in Rauchgasen und zur Rauchgasentschwefelung
mil Verbindungen der Erdalkalimetalle.)) Text in German. VDI
(Ver. Deut. Ingr. Ingr.) Z. (Duesseldorf), 109(35):1689, Dec.
1967.
An infrared absorption apparatus was used for the determina-
tion of the amount of SO2 in flue gases. The parts of the ap-
paratus were constructed of Teflon, quartz or polyethylene to
prevent the absorption or adsorption of SO2. The transverse
strain sensitivity of the apparatus towards CO and CO2 was
removed by a modification of the apparatus, and the water
content of the gas was reduced by means of a sulfuric acid
drip column. The apparatus proved feasible technologically,
but since its involved calibrations require the use of specially
trained personnel it presents economic difficulties. Experi-
ments for the desulfurization of flue gases were conducted in
a coal-fired wet bottom boiler with a steam capacity of 110
t./hr. A desulfurization of 26-31% was obtained with a double
stoichiometric addition of dolomite-calcium hydroxide at a flue
gas temperature of 1150 deg C. A 19-29% desulfurization ef-
fect was obtained with the 1.2 times stoichiometric addition of
limestone meal (particle size 95% less than 90 micro m at a
flue gas temperature of 1500 deg C. It is not practical to use
desulfurization with fly dust recyclization, since the sinter
products of the desulfurization compounds cause excessive
amounts of dirt. By the use of calcium hydroxide, 70% of the
SO2 is bound as the sulfate and 30% as the sulfite and the
dust discharge is smaller with the use of a desulfurization
compound without fly dust recyclization than during normal
vessel operation with fly dust recyclization. The cost of the
various desulfurization compounds is briefly discussed.
08836
Slack, A. V.
AIR POLLUTION: THE CONTROL OF SO2 FROM POWER
STACKS. PART HI-PROCESSES FOR RECOVERING SO2.
Chem. Eng., Vol. 74, p. 188-196, Dec. 4, 1967. 4 refs.
The technology and economics of ten major processes for
recovering sulfur oxides from power stations are reviewed.
These processes are: manganese dioxide (Mitsubishi); am-
monia (Showa Denko); alkalized alumina; lignite ash (Still);
mixed metal oxides (Grille); Monsanto-Penelec; Kiyoura-
T.I.T.; sulfacid (Lurgi); Hitachi; and Reinluft. All of these fit
into three process types: adsorption, absorption and catalytic
oxidation. Large-scale tests now under way or planned for
these recovery processes are described and their potential im-
pact on the fertilizer industry is evaluated. Other proposed
methods now being investigated on a small scale are also
reviewed.
08863
Reese, J. T. and Joseph Greco
EXPERIENCE WITH ELECTROSTATIC FLY-ASH COLLEC-
TION EQUIPMENT SERVING STEAM-ELECTRIC
GENERATING PLANTS. J. Air Pollution Control Assoc.,
18(8):523-528, Aug. 1968. 8 refs. (Presented at the Winter An-
nual Meeting and Energy Systems Exposition, American
Society of Mechanical Engineers, Pittsburgh Pa Nov 12-17
1967, Paper 67-WA/APC-3.)
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B. CONTROL METHODS
75
Some of the variables which have affected performance of
TVA electrostatic collectors installed at Kingston Steam Plant
and later units installed at Widows Creek and Colbert Steam
Plants are discussed. Exit gas temperatures, sulfur in the fuel,
and acid dewpoint are interrelated variables which exert
pronounced effects on electrostatic fly-ash collectors. When
operating with flue gas at temperatures above the acid
dewpoint, collector efficiency declines as sulfur in the fuel
decreases below about 2.0 percent. When operating with flue
gas at temperatures below the acid dewpoint, performance is
sharply reduced by trace amounts (1-2 ppm) of condensed sul-
furic acid. The exact mechanism by which condensed H2SO4
in flue gas affects precipitator performance is not known;
however, test results indicate that the acid may condense in
such a manner to alter electrical properties of the flue gas or
fly ash. For those units which are designed to operate below
the acid dewpoint, collector performance is restored to ac-
ceptable levels by operating with elevated gas temperatures.
Unfortunately, the loss in boiler efficiency makes the
economics of this approach unattractive. Collector per-
formance can also be restored on units operated below acid
dewpoint by the addition of small quantities (5-15 ppm) of am-
monia to the flue gas. The economics of this method are more
favorable than other remedial measures considered.
08870
Goldberger, W. M.
COLLECTION OF FLY ASH IN A SELF-AGGLOMERATING
FLUIDIZED-BED COAL BURNER. American Society of
Mechanical Engineers, New York, N. Y., United Engineering
Center, 67-WA/FU-3, 16p., 1967. (Presented at the Winter An-
nual Meeting and Energy Systems Exposition, American
Society of Mechanical Engineers, Pittsburgh, Pa., Nov. 12-17,
1967.)
High combustion efficiency and effective ash collection was
observed in bench-scale and pilot-plant fluidized-bed coal bur-
ners. The efficiency of burning pulverized coal was found to
exceed 99 percent. The fluidized-bed coal burners were
operated in a self-agglomerating manner to retain up to 90 per-
cent of the ash fed with the coal. The coal burner system,
which included the fluidized-bed burner plus an external
cyclone, was capable of removing up to 99 percent of the ash
fed and produced hot gases with significantly less dust loading
than the effluent from conventional coal-burning equipment. A
bituminous, Pittsburgh No. 8 coal and a subbituminous coal
from Lake de Smet, Wyo., were used in the study. The ash
from both coals was readily agglomerated and retained in the
fluidized-bed burner. Collection of fly ash and agglomeration
and growth of the bed particles occurred at temperatures as
low as 140 F, although the collection efficiency was not high
below 1900 F. The ash collection rate increased rapidly above
1900 F, but above 2100 F the sticking tendency of the bed was
too great for stable fluidization. A semilogarithmic relationship
was developed for correlating the observed data and for use in
process design and economic evaluation. Dust removal effi-
ciencies calculated by this relationship were found to agree
with experimental values to within plus or minus 6.45 percent,
which was of the order of the experimental errors involved.
(Author's abstract)
08898
Kester, William M., Joseph W. Leonard, and Edwin B. Wilson
REDUCTION OF SULFUR FROM STEAM COAL BY MAG-
NETIC METHODS. West Virginia Univ., Morgantown, Coal
Research Bureau, CRB-31, ((21))p., 1967. 11 refs. (Presented at
the Coal Show of the American Mining Congress, Cleveland,
Ohio, May 15-18, 1967.)
A high-intensity, magnetic separator was used for the dry mag-
netic concentration of Upper Freeport, Redstone, Sewickley
and Pittsburgh coal seam samples. The feed size range, the
separator side slope setting and the intensity of the magnetic
field were varied in order to determine conditions for optimum
separation. Upper Freeport coal yielded an excellent average
pyritic sulfur reduction from 1.44 to 0.28 percent. The average
total sulfur content was reduced from 2.58 to 1.09 percent. The
average Upper Freeport ash is shown to be reduced from
16.37 to 11.33 percent. An average reduction of pyritic sulfur
from 1.07 to 0.53 percent in Redstone coal was achieved.
Average sulfate content was reduced from 0.13 to 0.05 percent
but organic sulfur content did not decrease. Pyritic sulfur in
Sewickley coal was reduced from 1.27 to 0.52 percent and
sulfate sulfur from 0.16 to 0.05 percent. Organic sulfur was
reduced from 1.30 to 1.24 percent. Total sulfur was reduced in
these experiments from 2.73 to 1.81 percent. Sewickley coal,
like the Upper Freeport coal, responded to magnetic separa-
tion with an approximate 5 percentage point reduction in ash,
the most favorable ash reduction of the four coals tested.
08908
Squires, Arthur M.
AIR POLLUTION: THE CONTROL OF SO2 FROM POWER
STACKS. PART IV POWER GENERATION WITH CLEAN
FUELS. Chem. Eng., 74(26):101-109, Dec. 18, 1967. 35 refs.
The technology of two-stage combustion processes for
removal of sulfur from coal and residual fuel oil to be utilized
in steam plants is analyzed. In two-step combustion a first
gasification stage would yield a flue gas containing hydrogen
sulfide. From this elemental sulfur would be recovered and the
clean fuel gas burned in a second combustion step. Various
processes which might be adapted to this two-step combustion
are considered in some detail.
08917
Squires, Arthur M.
AIR POLLUTION: THE CONTROL OF SO2 FROM POWER
STACKS. PART I - THE REMOVAL OF SULFUR FROM
FUELS. Chem. Eng., 74(23):260-268, Nov. 6, 1967. 35 refs.
The first of four articles on the curbing of air pollution
through the control of sulfur dioxide emission from power sta-
tion flue stacks looks into the technology and economics of
removing sulfur from fuels before they are burned. The
progress of work on desulfurization of fuel oil and coal both
here and abroad is traced. While desulfurization processes
have been developed, they do not appear to offer an early,
cheap solution to the SO2 prob lem of the power station.
08919
Snyder, M. Jack
FLY ASH: SPECIFICATIONS, LIMITATIONS, AND
RESTRICTIONS. In: John H. Faber, John P. Capp, and John
D. Spencer (compil- ers), Fly Ash Utilization. BM-IC-8348,
Washington, D. C, Bureau of Mines, 1967, p. 37-45. 9 refs.
(Presented at the Edison Electric Institute, National Coal As-
sociation, Bureau of Mines Symposium, Pittsburgh, Pa.,
March 14-16, 1967.) GPO: 0-268-468
Specifications for fly ash are usually expressed in terms of
cer- tain readily measurable characteristics of the fly ash
which the specifiers have reason to believe are indicative of
the properties that will be achieved in products made from fly
ash. The selec tion of characteristics to be measured has been
based on a wide variety of foundations, ranging from the
results of extensive test- ing programs to rather arbitrary as-
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76
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
sumptions that a given charac teristic is significant. A compli-
cation in determining whether a particular fly ash is suitable
for a proposed application is the fact that different specifying
bodies do not agree on specifica tions. Specifications for fly
ash used as an ingredient in con crete are outlined as
established by ASTM, the Bureau of Re clamation, British
Standards, New York City, and Chicago. Information
developed in a number of research programs on fly ash has led
to doubts not only about the significance of some of the
characteristics being measured but also about the validity of
some of the methods used to measure the characteristics.
Some new characterization methods that may be more
meaningful as a basis for specifying fly ash are suggested. The
results have shown that fly ash has several distinct functions
in concrete. It is (1) a pozzolan, (2) a workability modifier, (3)
a fine aggregate, and (4) an adsorbent of air-entraining
agents.These effects are discussed in terms of their sig-
nificance for specifications.
08921
Skaggs, H. C., and R. E. Morrison
PRODUCING SPECIFICATION FLY ASH. In: John H. Faber,
John P Capp, and John D. Spencer (compilers), Fly Ash
Utilization. BM-IC-8348, Washington, D. C., Bureau of Mines,
1967, p. 52- 57. (Presented at the Edison Electric Institute, Na-
tional Coal Association, Bureau of Mines Symposium, Pitt-
sburgh, Pa. March 14-16, 1967.) GPO: 3-268-468
Experiences of the Kanawha River Power Plant in producing
specification fly ash are discussed. Tests made on Kanawha
fly ash showed the loss on ignition varied from 3.6 to 4.90 per-
cent. Specific gravity was about 2.20 and Elaine specific sur-
face was between 1,800 and 2,000 square centimeters per
gram. The combin ation of silica, alumina and iron oxide
varied between 93.8 and 95.2 percent. The big variable that
could be controlled was loss on ignition. Coal fineness was in-
creased from 70 to 85 percent passing a 200-mesh sieve. This
increase in coal fineness helped reduce loss on ignition but did
not change Elaine finess. Routine test on pulverizer per-
formance was set up whereby the output of the pulverizer ver-
sus primary air flow was plotted. These tests not only revealed
pulverizer performance, but helped keep the fires balanced,
thus further reducing loss on ignition. It was previously noted
in takingfly ash samples that changes in boiler-firing
techniques showed up quite readily in the color of the fly ash.
Cyclone samplers were installed on each of the venturi sec-
tions of the three boiler-outlet ducts on both units. Each sam-
pler was changed every two hours according to a fixed
schedule posted on a specially painted sample board. The sam-
ple board is painted a gray color which represents 2 percent
loss on ignition. With this guide the operator can effectively
take corr ective measures when necessary. Loss on ignition
has now been improved from a former range of 0.6 to 4.90
percent to a present range of 0.5 to 1.28 percent to meet fine-
ness and pozzolanic activity requirements of ASTM Designa-
tion C-350, and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Specification
CRD-C-262. A Hardinge-type ball mill was installed. The mill
takes raw fly ash with a specific gravity of 2.20, Blaine fine-
ness of 1,800 to 2,000 square centimeters per gram and
changes to a specification fly ash with a specific gravity of
2.45, Blaine finess of 2,800 to 3,000 square centimeters per
gram or surface area of 6,800 to 8,500 square centimeters per
cubic centimeters. Pozzolanic activity was increased from a
former 7-day strength of 650-750 psi to 1,240- 1,585 psi.
08922
Zimmer, F. V. 08922 125
PROBLEMS IN FLY ASH MARKETING. In: John H. Faber,
John P. Capp, and John D. Spencer (compilers), Fly Ash
Utilization. BM-IC-8348, Washington, D. C. Bureau of Mines,
1967, p. 58-68. 1 ref. (Presented at the Edison Electric In-
stitute, National Coal Association, Bureau of $mines Sym-
posum, Pittsburgh, Pa., March 14-16, 1968.) GPO: 0-268-468
Many possible uses for fly ash have been tried. Most of them
have been discarded as either unsuccessful or uneconomic. A
few, however, have either developed into actual markets or
are thought to have considerable promise. Some of the present
major markets in the United States are: (1) Mineral filler in
asphalt paving, (2) Cement replacement in concrete, (3) Ce-
ment replacement in concrete products, (4) Constituent in por-
tland ce.emt, (5) Pozzolan in soil stabilization, (6) Raw materi-
al in lightweight aggregate, (8) Fill for land development or
compacted embank ments, (8) Pozzolan in portland-pozzolan
cement, and (9) Grouting agent in oil well cementing. These
major markets along with other smaller markets utilize approx-
imately 1.5 million tons per year in the United States. The rest
is dumped. It is extremely difficult for any suppliers to
develop markets capable of utilizing total production.
Problems commonly faced by supplier marketing fly ash are
discussed for some of the markets listed. Overall marketing
problems include: meeting specifications; transportation rates;
color; and handling.
08923
Philleo, Robert E.
FLY ASH IN MASS CONCRETE. In: John H. Faber, John P.
Capp and John D. Spencer (compilers), Fly Ash Utilization.
BM- IC-8348, Washington, D. C., Bureau of Mines, 1967, p.
69-79. 4 refs. (Presented at the Edison Electric Institute, Na-
tional Coal Association, Bureau of Mines Symposium, Pitt-
sburgh, Pa. March 14-16, 1967.) GPO: 0-268-468
Mass concrete in any volume of concrete cast in place and in-
tended to resist applied loads by virtue of its mass. It is the
material used in concrete dams, flood walls, retaining walls,
navigation locks, and more recently, reactor shields. Advance-
ments in the technology of mass concrete have been directed
primarily to the reduction in the amount of cement in the
concrete. The technical incentive for reduction in cement con-
tent is concerned with the generation of heat within the
concrete. The principal disadvant age to the use of fly ash in
most concrete construction—slow early strength development--
is not a disadvantage and in some ways may be an advantage
in mass concrete. Mass concrete generally is not highly
stressed. In most cases it carries little more than the stress
produced by its own weight. That stress is applied slowly as
the structure is built; as a result early strength is not re quired.
The reduction in heat of hydration at 28 days when fly ash is
introuduced in concrete is a reflection of this delayed strength
development. While the heat ultimately generated in fly ash
concrete may be comparable to the heat generated in concrete
without fly ash, just as the strength ultimately attained by fly
ash concrete is as great as the strength attained by concrete
without fly ash, a portion of the heat generation is deferred
until the center of the mass has started to cool. Hence, the
peak temperature is reduced as is the temperature drop to am-
bient. The use of fly ash in mass concrete by the Bureau of
Reclamation, Corps of Engineers, Hydro-Electric Power Com-
mission of Ontario, and the Tennessee Valley Authority is
reviewed.
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B. CONTROL METHODS
77
08925
Hester, J. A.
FLY ASH IN ROADWAY CONSTRUCTION. In: John H.
Faber, John P. Capp, and John D. Spencer (compilers), Fly
Ash Utilization. BM-IC 8348, Washington, D. C, Bureau of
Mines, 1967, p. 87- 100. (Presented at the Edison Electric In-
stitute, National Coal Association, Bureau of Mines Symposi-
um, Pittsburgh, Pa. March 14-16, 1968.) GPO: 0-268-468
The use of fly ash in Alabama for highway construction is
review- ed. Fly ash has been used in three types of construc-
tion: Lime fly ash base course stabilization, concrete bridges,
and concrete pavement. The additional strength of concrete
made with fly ash results from the elimination of part of the
sand from the concrete mixture and reaction of the fly ash
with the cement. The additio nal workability not only permits
removal of sand but allows replacement of the excluded por-
tion of sand with an equal volume of coarse aggregate.
Concrete containing fly ash displays no advantage over
concrete without fly ash in freezing and thawing and the use
of corrosive deicing salts. A sufficient volume of entrained air
in the concrete should correct this deficiency. Exposure to
sulfate in sea water of the encasements of several older
bridges in concrete containing fly ash seems to confirm the
findings published in other reports that fly ash is an aid in
preventing attack from sulfates, at least in solutions of low
sulfate concentrations. High flexural strength in concrete pave
ment containing fly ash can be obtained even with mixtures of
lower than average cement factors. Test from the concrete
pavements support existing data showing that higher flexural
strength can be obtained from concrete containing a good
grade of crushed lime stone coarse aggregate than from
concrete containing siliceous gravel, even with much higher
cement content of the gravel mixtures. Field tests on concrete
pavement containing fly ash show volume change results very
similar to that expected from average concrete without fly ash
when the water-cement ratio is not excessive.
08926
Belot, Joseph R., Jr.
FLY ASH IN CONCRETE AND CONCRETE BLOCK MANU-
FACTURING. In: John H. Faber, John P. Capp, and John D,
Spencer (compilers), Fly Ash Utilization. BM-IC-8348, Washing-
ton, D. C., Bureau of Mines, 1967, p. 101-106. (Presented at the
Edison Electric Institute, National Coal Association, Bureau of
Mines Symposium, Pittsburgh, Pa., March 14-16, 1967.) GPO:
0-268-468
The use of fly ash in the concrete and concrete block industry
is reviewed. Fly ash is used in this industry because up to 25
percent of cement at 20 dollars per ton can be replaced with
fly ash at 6 dollars per ton and at the same time retain
strength, de crease shrinkage and increase workability.
Problems in handling fly ash, the importance of maintaining
constant quality fly ash, and the promotion of fly ash in
concrete blocks are briefly discussed.
08936
Shafer, H. E., Jr., C. F. Cockrell, K. K. Humphreys, and J.
W. Leonard
STATUS REPORT ON BRICKS FROM FLY ASH. In: John H.
Faber, John P. Capp, and John D. Spencer (compilers), Fly
Ash Utilization. BM-IC-8348, Washington, D. C., Bureau of
Mines 1967, p. 195-203. 4 refs. (Presented at the Edison Elec-
tric Institute, National Coal Association, Bureau of Mines
Sym- posium, Pittsburgh, Pa., March 14-16, 1967.) GPO: 0-268-
468
The Coal Research Bureau at West Virginia University, has
developed a process to produce quality, dry-pressed fly ash-
based brick which conceivably can utilize large tonnages of
ash without much regard to physical and chemical properties
of the ash. Through experimentation, it was found that a fly
ash content of approximately 74 percent combined with about
23 percent coarser aggregate and 3 percent sodium silicate
binder, on a dry basis, appeared to yield a satisfactory
product. Many powerplants, in addition to producing fly ash,
also produce a coarser bottom ash or slag. By using bottom
ash or slag as the coarser aggregate in the mix, a fortuitous
improvement both economically and technically, bricks can be
produced containing about 97 percent coal ash. In areas where
slag is unavailable, agglomerated fly ash, coarser coal refuse,
or sand will suffice as an aggregate since physical rather than
chemical characteristics exert the main influence on the final
fired product. As a result of using the optimization program
for a particular fly ash, brick of better quality than those
previously reported can be produced by slight changes of test
variables. The encouraging results of the initial developmental
research prompted the construction and operation of a full-
scale facility to evaluate the commercial feasibility of the
process. A diagram of the proposed equipment layout and the
proposed flow of raw materials to the finished product is given
08937
Hoy, L. W.
CONSUMER ECONOMICS: USE OF FLY ASH IN
CONCRETE. In: John H. Faber, John P. Capp, and John D.
Spencer (compilers), Fly Ash Utilization. BM-IC-8348,
Washington, D. C., Bureau of Mines, 1967, p. 204-209.
(Presented at the Edison Electric Institute, National Coal As-
sociation Bureau of Mines Sym- posium, Pittsburgh, Pa.,
March 14-16, 1967.) GPO: 0-268-468
Fly ash, used as an admixture and properly proportioned with
the cement, water, and aggregates, can be added economically
to produce a more workable plastic consistency yet does not
reduce the con crete strengthcharacteristics. To accurately
evaluate and im plement the possible use of fly ash as an ad-
mixture to concrete, a testing program was initiated. Design
mixes were calculated and tested. The results are presented in
table form. The fly ash concrete information obtained as a
result of laboratory design, testing, field testing, and mill use
indicates an economic advan tage in many facets of construc-
tion. Some of the more economi cal advantages realized are as
follows: (1) With the addition of fly ash, less water was
required to obtain fluidity and worka bility. The 5,000-psi ulti-
mate strength concrete averaged almost 2 gallons of water per
cubic yard less than the same concrete mix without fly ash,
for a total of approximately 4 gallons of water per cubic yard.
(2) Fly ash particles have a somewhat spherical configuration.
This configuration results in a ball-bearing effect, which allows
the fly ash to flow into voids created by the imperfect mating
of the coarse and fine aggregates with greater freedom and
less friction. (3) The pouring and finishing time of fly ash
concrete can be reduced. On pours of 200 to 450 cu yd of
concrete per day, the finishing time was reduced by 1 to 3
hours with greater workability being evident. (4) With the sub-
stitution of 100 Ib of fly ash and the reduction of one bag of
cement (94 Ib) the net savings is 60 cents/cu yd of concrete to
the Weirton Steel Co.
08938
Capp, John P. and Carl F. Engle
FLY ASH IN AGRICULTURE. In: John H. Faber, John P.
Capp, and John D. Spencer (compilers), Fly Ash Utilization.
-------
78
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
BM- IC-8348, Washington, D.C., Bureau of Mines, 1967, p.
210-220. (Presented at the Edison Electric Institute, National
Coal Association, Bureau of Mines Symposium, Pittsburgh,
Pa., March 14-16, 1967.) GPO: 0-268-468
The results of studies by various groups using raw fly ash and
sintered fly ash as a soil additive are summarized. Fly ash
makes the soil more friable, easier to work and increases the
pH and boron content. It can be used at a rate of 200 tons per
acre in growing corn and as a plant cover to prevent blowing
on fly ash disposal areas. Potatoes grown in fly ash-soil mix-
tures are larger, smoother and without scab. The harvest of
rye, alfalfa, and crimson clover grown in sintered bly ash-soil
mixtures was greater than that of plants grown in control soil
or sintered fly ash alone, with a progressive increase in har-
vest weight accompany- ing an increase in percentage of sin-
tered fly ash. Field expert ments using fly ash in an acid sur-
face-mine spoils plot, considered a 'problem area' by the U.S.
Department of Agriculture Soil Conservation Service are re-
ported in detail. The plot was suit able for growing alfalfa
after conditioning with raw fly ash.
08939
Smith, Dwight K.
UTILIZATION OF FLY ASH EM THE CEMENTING OF
WELLS. In: John H. Faber, John P. Capp, and John D.
Spencer (compilers), Fly Ash Utilization. BM-IC-8348,
Washington, D. C., Bureau of Mines, 1967, p. 221-234. 5 refs.
(Presented at the Edison Electric Institute, National Coal As-
sociation, Bureau of Mines Symposium, Pittsburgh, Pa.,
March 14-16, 1967.) GPO: 0-268-468
Mixtures of fly ash and cement have been used throughout the
United States, Canada, and Europe since its introduction to
the oil industry in 1949. Thousands of wells have been suc-
cessfully cemented with this composition and the total con-
sumption of fly ash has exceeded thirty million sacks. Due to
its special properties, it has had wide usage under diversified
field conditions. Labor atory data on fly ash-cement blends
have been widely supported by field performance to obtaine
(1) lighter wright, (2) improved economics, (3) resistance to
corrosion, (4) low heat of hydration, (5) low permeability, (6)
improved flow properties, and (7) a very ideal material for
downhole applications. (Author's summary, modified)
08940
Bergemann, Georg O.
USE OF FLY ASH IN SPECIALIZED CONCRETE WORK. In:
John H. Faber, John P. Capp, and John D. Spencer (com-
pilers), Fly Ash Utilization. BM-IC-8348, Washington, D. C.,
Bureau of Mines, 1967,p. 235-249. 8 refs. (Presented at the
Edison Electric Institute, National Coal Association, Bureau
of Mines Symposium, Pittsburgh, Pa., March 14-16, 1967.)
GPO: 0-268-468
The utilization of fly ash in the Prepakt (preplaced aggregate)
process is reviewed. Prepakt concrete is produced by preplac-
ing in the forms clean coarse aggregate and filling the voids in
the aggregate with Intrusion mortar. Intrusion mortar is com-
posed of portland cement, fly ash, Intrusion, a water reducer
agent and water sufficient to produce a fresh mortar of thick
cream con sistency. Preplaced aggregate concrete when aided
by fly ash is superior to conventional concrete with respect to
compressive, tensile, flexural, and bond strength, moduli or
rupture and elas ticity; drying shrinkage, permeability; re-
sistance to weathering; and resistance to acids, alkalies, and
sulfates. A few examples of well known structures which em-
ployed the preplaced aggregate method of concreting with the
use of fly ash are: The Mackinac Bridge, a four-lane toll
bridge across the Straits of Mackinac which provides a physi-
cal link between the two peninsulas of the State of Michigan;
the first manmade radar island, Texas Tower No. 2, which
was located in the Atlantic Ocean and served for 7 years as
part of this country's radar warning systems; the under- water
launching pad off the California coast for early experiments
performed with the Navy's solid-fueled Polaris missile; and
the Minuteman Missile Base at Malmstrom Air Force Base,
Montana. Whether it be in new construction or in rehabilitat-
ing existing masonry and concrete structures, the Prepakt
system has a generic term in worldwide construction-thanks
to the beneficial properties of fly ash.
08942
Mielenz, Richard C. and year-to-year market. The importance
of fly ash suppliers in
ASTM SPECIFICATIONS ON FLY ASH FOR USE IN
CONCRETE. In: John H. Faber, John P. Capp, and John D.
Spencer (compilers), Fly Ash Utilization. BM-IC-8348,
Washington, D. C., Bureau of Mines, 1967, p. 271-286. 23 refs.
(Presented at the Edison Electric Institute, National Coal As-
sociation, Bureau of Mines Symposium, Pittsburgh, Pa.,
March 14-16, 1967.) GPO: 0-268-468
The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) has
promulgated and approved three standards that cover fly ash
for use in concrete in which the binding medium is wholly or
in part portland cement. ASTM Designation: C 350, Specifica-
tions for Fly Ash for Use As An Admixture in Portland Ce-
ment Con crete; ASTM Designation: C 311, Methods of Sam-
pling and Testing Fly Ash for Use As An Admixture in Port-
land Cement Concrete, and ASTM Designation: C 340 com-
prises Specification for Portland-Pozzolan Cement for which
certain fly ashes will meet requirements on the pozzolan com-
ponent. Their development and significance are summarized.
These specifications have been modified as data and new test
procedures became available. Addi tional changes are contem-
plated and others may be expected in future years. Neither of
these standards sets forth procedures or recommendations on
the proportioning or control of concrete mix- tures in whch the
fly ash admixture or blended cement may be em ployed. Deci-
sions on techniques of use depend upon the character istics of
the available concrete-making materials, the properties to be
developed in the concrete, and relative cost of alternative mix-
tures at the site of the work.
09163
Knecht, H., W. W. Moore, and F. W. Schmitz
PERFORMANCE RESULTS ON PARTICULATE REMOVAL
UPSTREAM OF AN AIR HEATER WHEN BURNING FUEL
OIL. In: Proc. Am. Power Conference, 28th Ann. Meeting,
Chicago, 111., April 26-28, 1966, Vol. 28, p. 525-533.
To improve the appearance of the stack emissions from a
steam plant with oil burning units, an electrostatic precipitator
was studied. The electrostatic collector was located ahead of
the air heater with operating temperatures between 600
degrees F and 700 degrees F. A mechanical collector was also
used which could be located either before or after the electro-
static section. An electrostatic precipitator, with properly
designed ventilation for preventing acid formation in the insu-
lator compartment, could be expected to perform at efficien-
cies of 90 percent or above, on boilers burning fuel oil. The
performance of the precipitator would likewise be at this level
with the additive (MgO) used. The material collected at high
temperature (600 F to 700 F) will be very low in density and
free flowing to hopper discharge. The material will also be ex-
-------
B. CONTROL METHODS
79
tremely hygroscopic. The removal of this solid material should
have an appreciable reduction on the deposition of this materi-
al in the ductwork, stack and surrounding neighborhood. There
is some evidence stack appearance may be improved because
of the high SO3 content in the collected material. The per-
formance of the mechanical collector was not sufficient to
warrant its consideration for full scale operation.
09191
J. L Burdock
FLY ASH COLLECTION FROM OIL-FIRED BOILERS.
Preprint, UOP Air Correction Div., Greenwich, Conn., 15p.,
1966. 4 refs. (Presented at the 10th Annual Technical Meeting
of the New England Section of APCA, Hartford, Conn., April
21, 1966.)
Centrifugal separators are generally preferred for collecting fly
ash emissions from oil-fired boilers. Selection of centrifugal
collectors depends on three things-size distribution of the par-
ticulate matter, the characteristics of the cyclone, and the
degree of clean-up required. Purchasers of new or replacement
boilers and collection equipment can be sure of getting equip-
ment suitable for the job by exerting more control over equip-
ment specifications. For the best results, collection equipment
should be designed on the basis of careful ash analysis,
knowledge of additives to be used, and the use of guaranteed
rather than anticipated micron efficiency curves.
09195
Katherine C. Hellwig
LIQUID FUELS FROM COAL WITH H-COAL. Preprint,
Hydrocarbon Research, Inc., New York, 6p., 1966. (Presented
at National Coal Association Technical-Sales Conference and
Bituminous Coal Research, Inc., Annual Meeting, Sept. 14-15,
1966, Pittsburgh, Pa.)
The H-Coal process is based upon a new reactor concept
known as the ebullated bed reactor. Dried and pulverized coal
is combined with recycled oil to form a slurry. This slurry is
fed continuously with hydrogen into a reactor containing a bed
of ebullated catalyst. The coal is catalytically hydrogenated
and converted to liquid and gaseous products. Products are
separated and result in fractions of gas, light distillate, mid-
distillate, and vacuum bottoms slurry. In this reactor system
90% of the coal on the moisture and ash-free basis is con-
verted to liquid and gaseous products. Liquid products from
the coal hydrogenation step are hydrocracked, hydrotreated,
and reformed to produce gasoline, No. 2 furnace oil, and a
very small amount of No. 6 fuel oil. All of the No. 2 furnace
oil can be converted to gasoline if desired. Benzene and liquid
petroleum gas (LPG) may be recovered and sold. An economic
summary for an H-Coal refinery with a nominal capacity of
1000,000 barrels per standard day (BPSD) is presented. Three
cases are presented. The first case produces gasoline and fur-
nace oil in a ratio of 2 to 1. The second case produces all
gasoline, and the third case is the same as the second case
with the exception that 12,000 PBD of LPG and 3000 BPD of
benzene are recovered. Based on the progress made in
development of the H-Coal process it is expected to be ready
for commercialization in the early 1970's and will provide the
coal industry with a means to compete for the gasoline market
and to utilize the large reserves of high-sulfur fuel.
09469
Pearson, R. B. and D. B. Leason
INSULATION OF TALL BRICK-LINED CONCRETE CHIM-
NEYS. J. Inst. Fuel, 39(301): 68-88, Feb. 1966
An account is given of a study carried out some years ago on
the chimneys at Belvedere Power Station. The heat losses
from the chimney were studied theoretically and experimen-
tally with a view to minimizing acid deposition within the
chimney. The diffi culties in obtaining experimental results
from a large chimney are emphasized and the results
discussed. The theoretical findings suggested that a substantial
recuction in heat losses could be achieved if the air annulus
wws filled with vermiculite. The practical realization of this in-
sulated chimney is described to gether with the subsequent
measurements of gas and lining temperatures which permitted
the more economic operation of the boilers without increasing
the likelihood of acid deposition. (Authors' abstract)
09496
E. P. Stastay
SPECIFICATIONS FOR ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATOR
COLLECTORS FOR FLY ASH COLLECTION ON INDUS-
TRIAL STEAM PLANTS. Preprint, Indus- trail Gas Cleaning
Institute, Inc., 12p., 1966. (Presented at the Industrial Coal
Conference, Purdue University, Lafay- ette, Ind., Oct. 12,
1966.)
Criteria necessary for choosing among several electrostatic
pre- cipitators submitted as bids on a company purchase offer
are dis cussed. Final stack gas composition and appearance,
precipitator cost, installation costs, associated equipment
(ductwork, insula tion, supporting structure, etc.) costs, and
safety aspects are considered.
09523
Geer, M. R.
PREDICTED RESULTS OF CLEANING APPALACHIAN
COALS AT LOW DENSITY FOR PREDICTED RESULTS OF
CLEANING APPALACHIAN COALS AT LOW DENSITY
FOR SULFUR REDUCTION. Department of the Interior,
Washington, SULFUR REDUCTION. Department of the In-
terior, Washington, D. C., Bureau of Mines, RI-7098, 20p.,
1968. 14 refs. D.C., Bureau of Mines, RI-7098, 20p., 1968. 14
refs.
The Bureau of Mines examined the washability data for 25
Appa-
The Bureau of Mines examined the washability data for 25
Appalachian coals requiring low-density washing to reduce sul-
fur lachian coals requiring low-density washing to reduce sul-
fur con- tent to 1%, using the distribution-curve method. The
purpose was content to 1 percent, using the distribution-curve
method. The purpose was to estimate how closely theoretical
sulfur values could to estimate how closely theoretical sulfur
values could be approached, what yields of washed coal could
be expected, and the be approached, what yields of washed
coal could be expected, and the recovery efficiencies that
might be achieved. Assuming that recovery efficiencies that
might be achieved. Assuming that the run-of-mine coal would
be crushed to 3/8 in. and cleaned in dense- the run -of-mine
coal would be crushed to 3/8 in. and cleaned in dense-medium
cyclones, the calculations indicate that theoretical medium
cyclones, the calculations indicate that theoretical sulfur con-
tents could be approached closely when cleaning at specific
sulfur contents could be approached closely when cleaning at
a specific gravity of separation as low as 1.30. With coals that
gravity of separation as low as 1.30. With coals that have
favor able specific gravity compositions the recovery efficien-
cy antici have favorable specific gravity compositions the
recovery efficiency anticipated for cleaning at 1.30 specific
gravity is pated for cleaning at 1.30 specific gravity is surpris-
-------
80
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
ingly high. Similar calculations for cleaning with concentrating
tables at surprisingly high. Similar calculations for cleaning
with concentrating tables at intermediate specific gravities in-
dicated intermediate specific gravities indicated that theoretical
sulfur contents at 1.50 specific gravity could be approached
closely with that theoretical sulfur contents at 1.50 specific
gravity could be approached closely with some coals but not
with others, some coals but not with others. The calculations
suggest that operating a table at a specific gravity of separa-
tion much lower The calculations suggest that operating a table
at a specific gravity of separation much lower than about 1.50
probably would be than about 1.50 probably would be un-
satisfactory with most coals, unsatisfactory with most coals.
09546
Fernandes, John H., W. Burton Daily, and Robert H. Walpole,
Jr.
COAL FIRED BOILER EMISSIONS AND THEIR CONTROL
BY THE TWIN CY- CLONE. Combustion, 39(8):24-29, Feb.
1968. (Presented at the Industrial Coal Conference, Lafayette,
Ind., Oct. 11-12, 1967.)
In evaluating the standard dry dust collection equipment
available today, there is an area of performance capability
between the con ventional high efficiency mechanical dust col-
lector and the perfor- mance levels of other types of collection
equipment which is not fulfilled. In many instances, this area
of performance will sue cessfully comply with air pollution
control regulations to be enacted in the future. It is in this
range of 85 to 95 percent collection efficiency on dust similar
to coal fly ash that the Twin Cyclone mechanical dust collec-
tor can be most successfully applied. The performance capa-
bilities of the Twin Cyclone mechanical dust collector have
been verified through extensive laboratory and field testing
programs. The achievement of this high level of performance
in a mechanical dust collector has neces- sitated a more so-
phisticated design with many exclusive features. The per-
formance level of a mechanical dust collector in separating
particulate matter is primarily dependent on particle size and
particle density. For this reason, the results obtained in the
field tests on fly ash collection can be applied to other fuels
and materials as an effective air pollution control method or
for pro duct recovery. To date, the company has laboratory
tested the performance of the Twin Cyclone on such materials
as bark char, phosphate dust, begasse ash, sawdust ash, and
salt cake. The sue cess of these laboratory tests has confirmed
the ability of the Twin Cyclone to attain exceptionally high
performance in numerous exceptionally high performance in
numerous fields of particulate fields of particulate collection.
(Authors' summary)
09600
Sherwood, P. T. and M. D. Ryley
THE USE OF STABILIZED PULVERIZED FUEL ASH IN
ROAD CONSTRUCTION. (A LABORATORY INVESTIGA-
TION.) Ministry of Transport, Great Britain, Road Research
Lab., RRL-49, 44p., 1966. CFSTI: PB 176672
The report is divided into four parts consisting of: a study of
the variation in the physical and chemical properties of pul-
verized fuel ash; an investigation of the use of mixtures of
lime and p.f.a. as stabilizing agents for natural soils; an assess-
ment of the suitability of p.f.a. for stabilization with lime or
cement; and an examination of the self-hardening properties of
p.f.a. The investigations show that pulverized fuel ash is suita-
ble for use in the construction of road bases and sub-bases. It
is a cheap and readily available material and its use will help
to reduce the demand for natural aggregate in Great Britain
and at the same time eliminate the disposal problems that are
encountered at power stations. (Authors' abstract)
09607T
Veverka (No initials given)
DESIGN OF AN AMMONIACAL DESULFURIZATION UNIT
FOR 100 MW. ((Entwurf einer ammoru'akalischen
Entschwefelungsstrasse fur 100 MW.)) In: Proceedings of the
International Symposium on Air Purification and the Utiliza-
tion of Sulfur Dioxide and Fly Ash from Steam Power Plants,
Liblice, Czechoslovakia, Oct. 1965, p. 98-104.
A method is presented whereby SO2 is removed from power
plant stack gases with ammonia scrubbing. The gases, contain-
ing 0.15 to 0.30 mole-percent SO2, are cooled to 160 Degrees
C, washed in a 'bicyclic' (two-stage) scrubbing system, re-
heated to increase subsequent thermal plume rise, and then ex-
hausted. The absorption solution is regenerated by boiling.
SO2 in the resulting vapor is condensed and,,dried with
H2SO4. Ammomium sulfate is a by-product. The following
topics are discussed qualitatively: corrosion, system heat
balance, heat conservation, fly-ash removal, materials of con-
struction, and economics.
09666
Perry, Harry and J. H. Field
COAL AND SULFUR DIOXIDE POLLUTION. American
Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York, Paper 67-
WA/PID-6 9p., 1967. 19 refs. (Presented at the Winter Annual
Meeting and Annual Meeting and Energy Systems Exposition,
Pittsburgh, Pa., Nov. 12-17, 1967.)
The scope of the air pollution problem in the U. S. is briefly
reviewed. Sulfur oxides comprise less than 15 percent of total
emissionsk but are of considerable present interest because
most arise from combustion of relatively low-cost coal and
residual oil. Emission limitations for sulfur oxides in several
areas are cited. Ten general methods are enumerated to reduce
urban levels of sul fur oxides and their applicability is
discussed. An up-to-date review is given of methods to remove
sulfur from coal prior to combustion, of injection of limestone
or dolomite into the boiler for in-process sulfur oxides
removal, and of processes to remove sulfur oxides from stack
gases. (Authors' summary)
09699
R. J. Bender
TALL STACKS, A POTENT WEAPON IN THE FIGHT
AGAINST AIR POLLUTION. Power, lll(ll):94-96, Dec. 1967.
Tall stacks for public utilities and industrial plants are an ef-
fective remedy against agseous pollution. While they do not,
obviously, prevent pollutant from reaching the atmosphere,
their diffusing action is such that they reduce contamination at
ground level, to a degree aceptable to the public as well as to
most governing bodies. For example, a chimney can be sized
so as to limit the ground concentration of sulfur oxides at
ground level, anywhere around the plant, to around one-tenth
part per million, which is satisfactory to everyone. (Author's
introduction)
09788
Simon, Herbert
BAGHOUSES. In: Air Pollution Engineering Manual. (Air Pol-
lution Control District, County of Los Angeles.) John A.
Danielson (comp. and ed.), Public Health Service, Cincinnati,
Ohio, National Center for Air Pollution Control PHS-Pub-999-
AP-40, p. 106-135, 1967. GPO: 806-614-30
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B. CONTROL METHODS
81
When high collection efficiency on small particle size is
required, the most widely used method consists of separating
the dust from the air by means of a fabric filter. The fabric is
usually made into bags of tubular or envelope shape. Filter
fabrics normally used to remove dust and fumes from
airstreams are usually woven with relatively large open spaces,
sometimes 100 microns or larger in size. Small particles are in-
itially captured and retained on the fibers of the cloth by
means of interception, impingement, diffusion, gravitational
settling, and electrostatic attraction. Once a mat or cake of
dust is accumulated, further collection is accomplished by
sieving as well as by the previously mentioned mechanisms.
The cloth then serves mainly as a supporting structure for the
dust mat responsible for the high collection efficiency. Select-
ing or designing a baghouse requires the following initial steps:
The minimum volume to be vented from the basic equipment
must be determined according to the principles set forth el-
sewhere in this manual; A maximum desirable baghouse re-
sistance must be estimated; The blower operating point is
selected to provide the minimum required volume at the max-
imum baghouse resistance; A minimum baghouse resistance is
estimated for the condition immediatly after the filter bags are
thoroughly cleaned; A second operating point on the blower
characteristic curve is determined for the clean bag condition;
The minimum filtering area required Ohio, National Center for
Air Pollution Control, PHS-Pub- particular dust or fume being
collected; The calculations are rechecked, with the filtering
area thus determined to ensure compatibility; Recommended
maximum filtering velocities and minimum dust-conveying
velocities for various dusts and fumes are listed. The filtering
media selected for use in a baghouse must be compatible with
the temperature and pH of the effluent. Maximum permissible
temperatures and chemical resistance are listed for the various
filters normally used for filter media in dust collectors. Typical
specifications for a few glass filters are also listed. The instal-
lation and cleaning of filters; disposal of collected dust; and
baghouse construction and maintenance are discussed in detail.
09789
Simon, Herbert
SINGLE-STAGE ELECTRICAL PRECIPITATORS. In: Air
Pollution Engineering Manual. (Air Pollution Control District,
County of Los Angeles.) John A. Danielson (comp. and ed.),
Public Health Service, Cincinnati, Ohio, National Center for
Air Pollution Control, PHS-Pub-999-AP-40, p. 135-156, 1967.
GPO: 806-614-30
The history of electrostatic precipitation, its advantages and
disadvantages, diverse applications, and mechanism are
discussed. The mechanisms involved in electrical precipitation
are treated in detail providing pertinent information on the fol-
lowing: construction; voltage for successful operation
(rectifiers, effects of wave form, controlled sparking rate);
uniform gas distribution; theoretical analysis of performance;
theoretical efficiency; effects of resistivity; and effects of
nonumiform gas velocity. Proportion, capacity, cleaning of
electrical system, accessibility for maintenance, control of gas
flow, control of erosion of dust from electrodes, and power
supply are design factors that are critical elements in an elec-
trostatic precipitator. The fundamental theory of the
mechanisms involved in electrical precipitation is only partially
understood at present. Designs are based either upon previous
experience with similar processes or upon the results of pilot
model precipitator studies. Data is tabulated on; dielectric con-
stants for some common materials; pioneer precipitator instal-
lations (1907-1920); summary of U.S. precipitator installations
in major fields of application; typical precipitator applications
(flow rate, temperature, dust concentration, dust weight, effi-
ciency, cost); suspended paniculate matter in commercial
gases in typical installations; average diameter of particles in
various industrial operations; typical values of drift velocity
encountered in practice for use with precipitators; and typical
values for some design variables used in commercial electro-
static precipitator practices.
09833
Walsh, Robert T.
BOILERS, HEATERS, AND STEAM GENERATORS. In: Air
Pollution Engineering Manual. (Air Pollution Control Dis- trict,
County of Los Angeles.) John A. Danielson (comp. and ed.),
Public Health Service, Cincinnati, Ohio, National Cen- ter for
Air Pollution Control, PHS-Pub-999-AP-40, p. 525- 558, 1967.
GPO: 806-614-40
Boilers, heaters, and steam plants which burn fossil fuels (oil
or gas) produce large quantities of particulates oxides of sulfur
and nitrogen, and acid mist due to hydrolysis of SO3. Particu-
late emission during normal operation and tube cleaning is
discussed. The formation, reactions, kinetics, and equilibria
for NOx and SOx are presented which form the basis for
recommendation on firebox temperatures, combustion oxygen
concentrations, and burner design for optimum performance.
Pollution control equipment, such as cyclones, filters, electri-
cal precipitators, alkaline additives, metal oxide and carbon
filled adsorbers, afterburners, and various scrubbers are
described and evaluated. Experimental data is given for
several methods of control. Lowering excess air, catalytic
decomposition of NOx, reducing flame temperatures, and
eliminating air preheat are also discussed. Consideration is
given to the economics of emission control, especially SOx,
and to thermal efficiency.
09904
Shafer, H. E., Jr., C. F. Cockrell, and J. W. Leonard
PROGRESS REPORT: FLYASH BRICK. Preprint, West Vir-
ginia Univ., Morgantown, School of Mines, ((14))p., 1966.
(Presented at National Coal Association Technical-Sales Con-
ference and Bituminous Coal Research, Inc., Annual
Research, Inc., Annual Meeting, Pittsubrgh, Pa., Sept. 14-15,
Meeting, Pittsburgh, Pa., Sept. 14-15, 1966.)
The disposal problem of flyash is most acute in large
metropolitan areas. A process has been developed making a
dry-pressed flyash based brick, as well as block, tile, and pipe,
which can utilize large tonnages of ash without regard to
physical and chemical properties. Tests demonstrated it was
impractical to consider a 100 percent flyash product. Experi-
ments demonstrated that 72 percent flyash combined with 25
percent coaser aggregate of ash or slag and 3 percent sodium
silicate binder gave the most satisfactory product.
09905
Somers, E. V., J. R. Hamm, and N. E. Weeks
COAL-FIRED TURBINES. Preprint, Westinghouse Electric
Corp., ((18)) p., 1966. 17 refs. (Presented at National Coal As-
sociation Technical -Sales Conference and Bituminous Coal
Research, Inc., Annual Meeting, Pittsburgh, Pa., Sept. 14-15,
1966.)
Gasification of low grade coal followed by H2S removal pro-
vide a source of cheap fuel for gas turbine power plants. Tur-
bine exhaust can be used directly in waste heat boilers, or
because the oxygen content in the exhaust is high, the exhaust
waste heat may be supplemented by burning more fuel.
Economic and design details of such a power plant are
presented. The advantages of such a plant are reduction of
SO2 emission by 90 percent, reduction in thermal pollution of
water by 60 percent, and use of cheap or low grade coals.
-------
82
09923
HOW MUCH DUST IS IN FLUE GAS? Power, lll(S):86-87,
May 1967.
New stack-emission limits increase the importance of dust col-
lectors, but estimating dust content has been difficult. The re-
port of a statistical study is presented which shows a correla-
tion between particulate emissions and the ash content of the
coal burned. Data on emissions from steam plants were sub-
mitted. The concentration at the steam generator outlet was
measured. Size distributions were given also. The major varia-
bles were; particulate emission, size distribution and ash con-
tent. The survey focused on three types of coal-fired steam
generators: pulverized coal; cyclone furnace and stoker fired.
The results are presented.
09971
Dempsey, J. F.
REMOVAL OF SO2 FROM FLUE GAS. (LCD) (FINAL RE-
PORT). AVCO Space Systems Div., Wilmington, Mass., Ad-
vanced Chemical Processes Section, Contract PH-86-67-51,
AVSSD-0411-67-RB, 152 &., Nov. 1, 1967.
Processes for the removal of SO2 from power plant flue gases
were studied. Process models were developed for fluid bed
and transport reactor gas-solid contacting. Using the process
models, the economics of the two types of processes,
dispersed and fluid bed, compared, and operating and capital
costs estimated. Also, the kinetics of the sorption process
were measured and found to be pore diffusion controlled over
most of the possible range of sorbent loadings A rate model
describing the sorption process was developed. The rates of
regeneration of spent sorbent were also measured. The kinetic
data were used as inputs to the process models described
above. (Author's abstract, modified)
09996
Corey, Richard C.
AIR POLLUTION RESEARCH IN RELATION TO COAL'S
FUTURE IN THE ELEC- TRIC ENERGY MARKET. Com-
bustion, 39(10):21-29, April 1968. 16 refs. (Presented at the
75th Anniversary Meeting, Illinois Mining Institute, Oct. 1967.)
The role of the Bureau of Mines in the air pollution field is
that of an agency concerned with the most effective utilization
of natural resources. A projection of the energy requirements
of the nation indicates that coal will continue to be an impor-
tant factor in the rapidly growing electric market. Six impor-
tant possiblities for reducing sulfur emissions from coal fired
electric utility systems include: unconventional electric power
cycles; remotely located nine-mouth power plants; tall stacks;
desulfurization before combustion; addition of compounds that
absorb or react with SO2 in the combustion or post com-
bustion regions in the boiler; removal of SO2 from flue gases
before they are discharged to the stack.
09999
Reid, William T.
SULFUR OXIDES CONTROL IN CENTRAL STATION
POWER PLANTS. Heating, Piping, Air Conditioning,
40(3):148-154, March 1968. 11 refs. 1968. 11 refs.
Stringent restrictions on the amount of pollutant allowed to
reach the atmosphere are leading to critical assessments of
methods of SO2 control. Three methods are available to
decrease the amount of SO2 in flue gas: burn a low sulfur
fuel, desulfurize available fuels, or remove sulfur oxides from
flue gas. Supplies of low sulfur fuels are limited and
economics have made desulfurize of fuels unattractive, there-
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
fore the removal of SO2 from flue gas is investigated. Flow
diagrams for eight systems are presented and their advantages
and disadvantages are compared.
10003
Strauss, W. and B. W. Lancaster
PREDICTION OF EFFECTIVENESS OF GAS CLEANING
METHODS AT HIGH TEMPERATURES AND PRESSURES.
Atmos. Environ., 22):135-144, March 1968. 16 refs.
In the design of clean up systems for advanced power genera-
tion systems it is necessary to know the effects of extreme
temperatures and pressures on the fundamental collection
mechanisms involved in gas cleaning processes. By calculating
the effects of elevated temperature and pressure on the
parameters involved in gas cleaning processes it is predicted
that the collection efficiencies of all processes will be reduced
under these conditions. The most promisi mechanism at high
temperature and pressure appears to be electrostatic precipita-
tion.
10165
Zakieva, S. K., and A. B. Taubman
WETTING AGENTS PROPERTY TO CATCH DUST IN A
DUST CHAMBER. Zh. Prikl. Khim, 32(4):898-800, 1959. 8 refs.
Translated from Russian by B. S. Levine, U.S.S.R. Literature
on Air Pollution and Related Occupational Diseases, Vol. 6,
299p., April 1961. CFSTI: TT 61-21982
A special method was developed based on the use of a labora-
tory dust chamber for the evaluation of dust catching capacity
of wetting agent solutions with a lower surface tension, par-
ticularly in their application to the abatement of deleterious sil-
icon and anthracite dusts. The value of a new synthethic
wetting agent known as RAS-Na in catching silicosis and
anthracosis producing dusts has been established by this
method.
10264
Senyushkin, N. I.
INCREASING THE EFFICIENCY OF SCRUBBERS.
((Povyshenie effektivnosti raboty skrubberov.)) Text in Rus-
sian. Energetik (Moscow), 15(6):15-17, June 1967.
In a thermal power plant using Bashkir coal, four scrubbers
MP-VTI (2600 mm. diameter) were installed in 1965 for the
removal of fly ash. However, several shortcomings in the
design of the scrubber made their operation unreliable. To
prevent clogging of gas passages with fly ash, several stationa-
ry nozzles were installed for flushing the ash from the walls of
the gas ducts and for the wetting of retention grids. PRIOR
TO THESE MODIFICATIONS, THE PRESSURE DROP IN-
CREASED considerably after 96 hours of operation, but after
the modification the pressure drop increased 50 mm. of water
column after 1440 hours of operation. The original four rows
of grids were replaced by two rows of gravel-bakelite grids.
The hydraulic seals and equipment for sprinkling the scrubber
walls were also modified. This modified scrubber has a water
consumption of 46 t./hr. and an efficiency of 92.5%.
10281
SULPHUR: THE ECONOMICS OF NEW RECOVERY
SYSTEMS. Eng. Mining J., 169(5):63-72, May 1968.
Since the turn of the century, low cost Frasch production has
supplied much of the world's sulfur. Beginning in 1963, de-
mand outstripped production and consumption was met by
drawing from inventory. In 1967, sulfur stocks were at an ir-
-------
B.CONTROL METHODS
83
reducible minimum and consumers had to exist on hand-to-
mouth allocations from the major producers. Foreseeing the
tight supply, major producers have spent between $30 and 50
million over a period of a decade to find new reserves without
major success. By-product S has therefore become an impor-
tant feature of the research programs for coal-to-synthetic
fuels. Three of these processes are reviewed.
10336
Sebastiani, Enzo
ELIMINATION OF NITROGEN OXIDES. ((L'eliminazione
degli ossidi di azoto.)) Text in Italian. Securitas (Rome),
51(5):31-44, May 1966. 23 refs.
Some processing for eliminating nitrogen oxides (NO and
NO2) from industrial flue gases are described. There are ab-
sorption processes in alkaline solutions, possibly in the
presence of oxidizing agents absorption processes based on
the use of solid materials with high superficial development;
catalytic reducing processes to elementary nitrogen or am-
monia using palladium, platinum, rhodium or other similarly
based catalysts working under pressure at a high temperature.
As such processes present difficulties from the technical and
economic standpoints when put into practice, the author ex-
presses the hope that the problem will continue to be studied
for the purpose of finding other simpler and more effective
processes.
10399
J. H. N. Jelgersma
LOW-TEMPERATURE CORROSION AND FOULING OF
OIL-FIRED BOILERS. (Corrosie en vervuiling bij lage tem-
peratuur in met olie gestookte ketels.) Text in Dutch. Electro-
Techniek (The Hague), 43(16):359-363, Aug. 12, 1965. 5 refs.
Difficulties encountered with firing heavy fuel oil in steam
power plants are discussed (low-temperature corrosion, foul-
ing, and acid smut emission). These phenomena are caused by
condensation of sulfuric acid from flue gases onto boiler sur-
faces with temperatures below the acid dewpoint. Formation
of SOS, condensation of sulfuric acid, and means to prevent
or reduce either of these processes are discussed, with particu-
lar attention to the oxygen fuel micture in combustion, regula-
tion of SO2 in exhaust gas by monitoring the O2 content, the
use of binding agents (particulate matter, chemicals) to remove
SO3 from exhaust gases, and the use of heat exchangers to
keep flue gas temperature above the acid dewpoint. In order to
provide sufficient ventilation and turbulence during firing,
cylinder-shaped combustion sleeves and a high air velocity are
used.
10493
Copeland, John O.
KILOWATTS AND CLEAN AIR. Preprint, Public Health Ser-
vice, Durham, N. C., National Center for Air Pollution Con-
trol, 21p., May 1968.
The air pollution problem is described as one of emissions, ef-
fects, regulation, and control touching the technical, political,
social, and economic aspects of our society. U. S. Public
Health Service 1966 estimates of 142 million tons of pollutant
emissions p annum are reported by type and source with pre-
dictions for rapid increases unless air pollution is controlled in
the near future. A quality criteria are stressed as necessary
guidelines for control, and published acceptable air quality for
sulfur oxides is compared with levels in more than 20 cities
where sulfur oxides air quality has exceeded acceptable limits.
Authority for control is described as lying with many jurisdic-
tions, with the trend toward centralization to cover every lo-
cality within the United States. T Federal role in air pollution
control is discussed. Control of smoke, particulate, and sulfur
and nitrogen oxides is covered with respect to control capabili-
ties; special emphasis is placed upon various alternatives
available for sulfur oxides control. (Author1 abstract)
10563
Miyajima, M.
AIR POLLUTION CONTROL MEASURES TAKEN AT THE
POWER STATIONS IN YOKKAICHI DISTRICT. Text in
Japanese. Nenryo Kyokaishi 45(474):731-736, 1966. 3 refs.
The number of complaints about fumes, poisonous gas, odor,
fly ash, etc., due to Yokkaichi power stations increased almost
tenfold between 1961 and 1965. While the volume of pollutant
gases emitted from these sources is large, their deleterious ef-
fect is small, due to the means of dispersal employed, such as
accelerated speed of emission, increases in smoke temperature
and intermittent, or batch, release of smoke. In particular, the
subject of stack height and effective stack structure is
discussed. Another approach being utilized is experimentation
with the DAP-Mn (dry) process of SO2 absorption which has
been investigated in five experiments on a pilot plant scale. A
flow-chart of the process is shown.
10591
Origoryan, G. O. and R. M. Kirakosyan
PREPARATION OF AMMONIUM SULFATE FROM LOW
CONCENTRATIONS OF SULFUROUS GASES BY OXIDA-
TION OF SO3 IN THE LIQUID PHASE USING AT-
MOSPHERIC OXYGEN IN THE PRESENCE OF NITROGEN
OXIDES, USED AS INITIATORS. (Poluchenie sul'fata am-
moniya iz nizkokotsentrirovannykh sernistykh gazov
okisleniem SO3 - iona v zhidkoi faze kislorodom vozdukha v
prisutstvii okislov azota, kak initsiatora.) Text in Russian.
Army. Khim. Zh.(Erevan), 20(2):164-169, 1967. 10 refs.
Test results are detailed for an experimental installation where
SOS is oxidized into SO4 using atmospheric oxygen in the
presence of nitrogen oxides as initiators. The method is a con-
tinuous technological process (with recovery of absorbents and
filtrates) for the utilization of weak sulfurous gases and yields
ammonium sulfate and multicomponent fertilizers. The
technological procedure is flow charted. The procedure starts
with a mixture of air and 0.6 1.0% sulfurous anhydride, to be
passed through a suspension of magnesium hydroxide. The
resulting suspension is then oxidized by atmospheric oxygen,
containing 0.002% nitrogen oxides. An almost complete oxida-
tion of magnesium sulfite into magnesium sulfate takes place
in the reactor at 40 Degrees C. The yield, magnesium sulfate,
reacts with ammonia at 60 Degrees C. and pH 7. Magnesium
hydroxide is then returned into the production cycle and the
filtrate, containing ammonium sulfate and Schoenite, reduced
to 1/3 of its volume by evaporation, is cooled to 15 Degrees C.
The Schoenite crystals are then removed (and returned to the
production cycle) and the ammonium sulfate solution
evaporated and crystallized. Results show that 36.9% of the
total ammonium sulfate returns to the production cycle with
the magnesium hydroxide, with 20.8% remaining in the cycle
as a Schoenite component, while 45.2% is extracted as end
product.
10655
Crawford, W. D.
THE COST OF CLEAN ENERGY. Preprint, Consolidated
Edison Co. of New York, Inc., 14p., 1968. (Presented at the
-------
84
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
61st Annual Meeting of the Air Pollution Control Association,
St. Paul, Minn., June 23-27, 1968, Paper 68-3.)
The economic aspects of air pollution control from the electric
utility viewpoint are described. Municipal and state regulations
limiting the allowable sulfur content of fossil fuels are having
the effect of changing fuel use patterns of many of the na-
tion's utilities. The utility companies are faced with increased
costs of lower sulfur fuels and capital expenditures associated
with the fuel changes, as well as with greater uncertainty con-
cerning long term supplies of suitable fuels. Capital costs for
air pollution control are mounting. Electrostatic precipitators
must be built to meet more stringent air pollution codes, and
stack heights may have to be increased to improve discharge
patterns. It is primarily the economic aspect of the removal of
sulfur from coal which has kept that art in the research and
development stage. No financially attractive method of
removal, either before or after combustion, has been
completely tested and proven to date. Nuclear power is the
long range solution to which many utilities look but, in the
shorter view, the power industry must expect continued cost
increases in the areas of fuel and operating expenses, capital
expenditures and research and development.
10680
Martin, G. Blair and John H. Wasser, Jr.
PROPRIETARY ADDITIVES AVAILABLE FOR USE IN
FUELS. (LISTING.) Public Health Service, Cincinnati, Ohio,
National Air Pollution Control Administration, 18 p., 1968.
A compilation of fuels and fuel additives was made to evaluate
the effects of fuel additives on air pollution emissions. The
listing includes the manufacturer of the additive, the additive,
fuel type, additive dose, specific function of additive, and a
description of the additive. 10680 Martin, G. Blair and John H.
Wasser, Jr. PROPRIETARY ADDITIVES AVAILABLE FOR
USE IN FUELS. (LISTING.) Public Health Service, Cincin-
nati, Ohio, National Air Pollution Control Administration, 18
p., 1968. CONTROL METHODS: Fuel additives A compila-
tion of fuels and fuel additives was made to evaluate the ef-
fects of fuel additives on air pollution emissions. The listing
includes the manufacturer of the additive, the additive, fuel
type, additive dose, specific function of additive, and a
description of the additive.
10681
Tennessee Valley Authority
SULFUR OXIDE REMOVAL FROM POWER PLANT STACK
GAS: CONCEPTUAL DESIGN AND COST STUDY.SORP-
TION BY LIMESTONE OR LIME:DRY PROCESS. 91p., 1968.
57 refs. CFSTI: PB-178971
The dry limestone process for the removal of sulfur oxides
from power plant stack gases is of interest because of the low
invest ment involved. A complete study of the design and cost
of a dry lime or limestone injection system is presented. The
following topics are thoroughly discussed: the present status
of dry lime stone sorption, study assumptions and design
criteria, process equipment, effects of limestone injection on
power plant operation, economic evaluation, research and
development needed, limestone sorption studies, limestone
availability and technology, expert mental work supplementing
the design study, and cost estimates for the process.
10692
Kiyoura, Raisaku
STUDIES ON THE REMOVAL OF SULPHUR DIOXIDE
FROM HOT FLUE GASES AS A MEASURE TO PREVENT
AIR POLLUTION. HI. EFFECT OF FLUE DUST ON THE
VANADIUM OXIDE CATALYST UTILIZE BY THE CON-
TACT OXIDATION PROCESS. Preprint, Tokyo Inst. of Tech,
(Japan), lip., 1968. 19 refs. (Presented at the 61st Annual
Meeting of the Air Pollution Control Association, St. Paul,
Minn., June 23-27, 1968, Paper 68-182.)
The Kiyoura-T.I.T. (contact) process deals with the desulphu-
rization of flue gas. It employs vanadium pentoxide as a
catalyst which oxidizes the sulfur dioxide to trioxide, followed
by a gaseous phase reaction with ammonia. The end product,
ammonium sulfate, is removed by an electrostatic precipitator.
Experiments were conducted to determine if dust in flue gas
had any effect on the activity of the catalyst. The results
showed that at the actual operational temperature of 450
Degrees C, ash had practically no effect on the catalyst at all.
10704
Shale, C. C.
ASH ACCUMULLATION ON PRECOTTATOR DISCHARGE
WIRES. Preprint, Bureau of Mines, Morgantown, W. Va.,
Morgantown Coal Re- search Center, 12p., 1968. 13 refs.
(Presented at the 61st Annual Meeting of the Air Pollution
Control Association, St. Paul, Minn., June 23-27, 1968, Paper
68-102.)
Factors from existing precipitator theory and field experience
on industrial precipitators are used in conjunction with in-
terpreta tions from basic corona studies to analyze the cause
for deposition of particles on the high-tension electrodes in an
electrostatic precipitator. A revised theory is presented. The
role of gas turbulence (produced by the electric wind) in caus-
ing deposition on the wires, and the effects of highly resistive
ash after deposi tion, are reviewed. (Author's abstract)
10770
Taylor, W. G., F. F. Davis, Jr., S. M. DeCorso, C. E. Hussey,
and M. J. Ambrose
REDUCING SMOKE FROM GAS TURBINES. Mech. Eng.,
90(7): 29-35, July 1968.
The increase in the use of gas-turbine package power plants
for peaking has resulted in an increase in the use of distillate
oil. The size of smoke particles emitted by gas turbine burning
distil late oil is such that although they are highly visible, they
are difficult to entrap. Control can be achieved by the use of
the either fuel additives or burner-combustor modification. In
view of the increasing stringency of regulations on smoke
emission, it is essential that the physical laws governing smoke
visibility be more widely understood. Some of these physical
laws have been discussed briefly.
40933T
E. Schaufler, K. H. Oehrlich K. R. Schmidt
THE CENTRIFUGAL DUST SEPARATOR. Translated from
German. Staub 23(4):228-230, Apr. 1963. 1 ref.
The principle of a newly developed dust separator is ex-
plained. The operation of the separator is based on a vortex
generated by countercurrent gas injection into the raw gas
moving upwards in a vertical tube. To reinforce the separating
effect a drop shaped bluff body is placed in the tube. Separa-
tion efficiencies for different particle size fractions were deter-
mined in a 200 mm diameter separator. Tests with larger units
(300-1000 mm diameter) have been also conducted. The instal-
lation of a separator into the smoke stack of a power plant (2-
2.5 m in diameter) is being planned.
-------
B. CONTROL METHODS
85
10968
Anon.
POLLUTION CONTROL-AND BY-PRODUCT SULPHUR
TOO. PART 2. Eng. Mining J., 169(6):91-100, June 1968.
The amounts of volatile matter, ash, and sulfur, and the heat-
ing value are the most important characteristics of fuel. The
sources of SO2 in the air are discussed. Four important
processes which are used for removing S from stack gases are:
the alkalized alumina process, the catalytic oxidation process,
the activated char process, and the dolomite injection process.
Flow sheets and some cost data are presented for these
systems. Work being done on removal of pollutants from coal
before burning are discussed. The S levels of coal reserves in
the U. S., which are tabulated by state, show 70% with less
than 1.6% S.
10993
Opladen, H. B.
COMPUTER-OPTIMIZED FIRE REDUCES AIR POLLU-
TION. Instrum. Technol., 15(8):63-66, Aug. 1968.
Increasing emphasis on air pollution control dictates that any
new oil-fired plants include methods for reducing pollutants to
permissible levels. The inherent computational and logical
capabilities of digital computers can be applied to optimize
combustion in oil-fired steam power plant. The computer can
find the necessary percentage of excess air to minimize carbon
monozide without sinsible heat loss. It can also determine the
best pressure for atomizing fuel oils, achieving an oil droplet
size that gives maximum burnout and reduces smoke emission.
11005
Schwarz, O.
RECENT RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT WORK ON
COAL UTILISATION IN THERMAL POWER STATIONS.
UPGRADING AND UTILISATION OF FLY ASH AND SLAG.
Mitt. Ver. Grosskesselbesitzer, 1967 (109):250-261, Aug. 1967.
Translated from German in Brit. Coal Util. Res. Assoc.
Monthly Bull., 32(6):145-151, June 1968.
With developments in power station technology, the handling
of slag and fly ash is undergoing a change. An experimental
sintering plant for study of the effect of sintering on utilization
and recirculation of fly ash is described.
11055
H. Juntgen, W. Peters
RESULTS OF RECENT RESEARCH IN WASTE GAS DESUL-
FURIZATION. Staub (English translation), 28(3):l-6, March
1968. 13 refs. CFSTI: TT 68-50448/3
The development is reported for an imporoved method for
binding SO2 present in flue gas from hard coal firing, which is
tested at present on a semi-industrial scale. Investigations into
the physico-chemical basis of the reaction of alkaline earth
compounds with SO2 are described. In the case of injected
CaCO3 and CaO powders, at a temperature of 800 degrees C,
and SO2 concentration of 1,200 ppm and with stoichiometric
proportioning, a maximum conversion of 50% can only be ob-
tained in a semi-industrial experimental installation. The reac-
tion kinetics under non-isothermic conditions have been in-
vestigated in a laboratory for the purpose of improving the
utilization of powders used as desulphurizers. (Authors' sum-
mary, modified)
11131
Sappok, R. J.and P. L. Walker, Jr.
REMOVAL OF SO2 FROM FLUE GASES USING CARBON
AT ELEVATED TEMPERATURES. Preprint, Pennsylvania
State Univ., Univer- sity Park, Dept. of Materials Science,
(26)p., (1968).
The interaction of a typical flue gas with active charcoal and
bituminous coal char at temperatures between 600-800 deg. C
and atmospheric pressure has been studied. The SO2 in the
flue gas sulfur surface complex. H2S and COS break through
the carbon b interacts with the carbon to form primarily H2S,
COS, and a car bon sulfur surface complex. H2S and COS
break through the car bon bed much in advance of SO2. At
800 deg. C, sulfur retention on the bed exceeds at least 11
weight % before SO2 break-through occurs. The reaction of
H2S and COS with 02 over active char coal at 100-140 deg. C
to produce sulfur, which deposits on the carbon, has also been
studied and found to be feasible. As a result of this study, a
new process is outlined for the removal of SO2 from flue gas,
with the ultimate conversion of the SO2 to elemental sulfur.
(Authors' abstract)
11159
J. F. McLaughlin, Jr.
PROGRESS IN MEETING POWER PLANT AIR POLLUTION
PROBLEMS. EEI Bull. 36 (5), 155-9 (May 1968).
The most difficult air pollution problem for power plants today
is sulfur dioxide. The British approach to the problem is to
support a tall stack policy for the control of emissions from
power plants. Four major sulfur dioxide control processes
under development in the United States are discussed. These
are the Combustion Engineering alkaline additive process, the
Monsanto catalytic gas-phase oxidation process, the Bureau of
Mines alkalized alumina process, and the Wellman Lord
chemical absorption process. A research program is being con-
ducted to de termine the maximum concentration of SO2 that
is compatible with good health. 36(5):155-159, May 1968.
EMISSION SOURCES, CONTROL METHODS: Power
production, Sulfur dioxide, Stacks The most difficult air pollu-
tion problem for power plants today is sulfur dioxide. The
British approach to the problem is to support a tall stack pol-
icy for the control of emissions from power plants. Four major
sulfur dioxide control processes under development in the
United States are discussed. These are the Combustion En
gineering alkaline additive process, the Monsanto catalytic gas
phase oxidation process, the Bureau of Mines alkalized alu-
mina process, and the Wellman Lord Chemical absorption
process. A research program is being conducted to determine
the maximum concen tration of SO2 that is compatible with
good health.
11178
A.K. Jain, P.M. Chen, J.W. Bishop, E.B. Robinson, and S.
Ehrlich
STATUS OF THE DIRECT HEAT TRANSFERRING
FLUIDIZED BED BOILER. Preprint, American Society of
Mechanical Engineers, New York, 12p., 1968. 4 refs.
(Presented at the ASME Annual Meeting and Energy System
Exposition, New York, N. Y. Dec. 1-5, 1968, Paper 68-
WA/FU-J.)
The recent fluidized bed boiler development work sponsored
by the Office of Coal Research and the Department of Interior
is des cribed. Basically the system involves replacement of the
con ventional boiler furnace with fluidized suspension of intert
ma terial into which coal is injected and burned. High-heat re-
-------
86
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
leases and heat transfer direct from bed material to heating sur
face obtained by this process reult in very high steaming
capaci ties from an exceptionally small boiler. From experi-
mental data derived in operation of a full-scale single-module
boiler, packaged railroad transportable units can be built up to
300,000 Ib/hr capacity or larger. The envisioned utility boilers
of 2,000,000 Ib/hr and greater represent about 15 percent of
the overall size of a similar capacity pulverized coal unit. En
visioned large cost savings should make coal more competitive
as a boiler fuel. The use of limestone for sulfur-oxide abate-
ment in this system is far more effective than the open fur-
naces or gas passes of conventional boilers. SO2 reductions of
65 percent have already been accomplished and greater reduc-
tions are antici pated. (Authors' abstract)
11191
Feldman, H. F., W. H. Simons, J. Sax and D. Bienstock
OPERATING COAL-FIRED, OPEN-CYCLE MHD SYSTEMS
AT LOW AIR/FUEL RATIOS. Preprint, American Society of
Mechanical Engineers, New York, N. Y., 9p. 1968. 8 refs.
(Presented at the ASME Annual Meeting and Energy Systems
Exposition, New York, N. Y., Dec. 1-5, 1968, Paper 68-
WA/ENER-15.)
Techniques for increasing the electrical conductivity of corn-
bus- tion products from ash containing coals and char by
operating the MHD generator at air/fuel ratios below stoichiu-
metric and by using a nonsulfur seed are investigated. In the
low air/fuel ratio schemes, additional combustion air is in-
jected downstream from the slag separator to increase the
overall plant thermal efficiency and to eliminate carbon
monoxide from the effluent gas. Data are presented for 0.5
and 4 weight-percent sulfur bituminous coals and a bituminous
coal char seeded with K2CO3 and K2SO4. This study shows
that operation of the MHD generator at below stoichiometric
air/fuel ratios results in a substantial increase in the electrical
conductivity of the combustion products and with it the poten-
tial of lowering magnet and capital costs at the expense of
some thermal efficiency. The greatest increase in electrical
conductivity with nonsulfur containing seed is achieved using
low sulfur (0.5 weight-percent) coal or bituminous coal char.
For high-sulfur (4 weight-percent) fuels, no significant change
in electrical conductivity can be attributed to varying sulfur
levels of the seed. (Authors' abstract)
11215
Saltsman, R. D.
THE REMOVAL OF PYRITE FROM COAL. Preprint, Amer-
ican Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York, 8p., 1968. 7
refs. (Presented at the American Society of Mechanical En-
gineers Winter Annual Meeting and Energy Systems Exposi-
tion, New York, Dec. 1-5, 1968, Paper 68-WA/FU-2.)
The occurrence of pyrite in coal is discussed and a brief
review is made of previous work at Bituminous Coal
Research, Inc., on pyrite removal that led to two substantial
projects. The first of these projects, cosponsored with 12
Eastern utilities, is a program to evaluate methods for optimiz-
ing pyrite removal from the pulverizing mill prior to com-
bustion. The second project is sponsored by the U.S. Public
Health Service and is an evaluation of coal cleaning methods
and techniques for removal of pyritic sulfur from fine coal.
The sulfur contents and degrees of pyrite removal for 44 in-
dustrial coals are discussed and presented. (Author's abstract,
modified)
11229
W. S. Landers
TRENDS IN STEAM STATION DESIGN AFFECTING AIR
POLLUTION. Preprint, American Society of Mechanical En-
gineers, New York 4p., 1966. 8 refs. (Presented at the IEEE-
ASME Joint Power Generation Conference, Denver, Colo.,
Sept. 18-21, 1966, Paper 66-PWR-l.)
The design, location, and operation of coal-burning thermal
electric plants encompass various elements affecting air pollu-
tion, such as plant size and location, stack height, coal used,
ash collecting and handling systems. Trends have developed in
some of these elements as a result of the various factors
governing management decisions on expansion of generating
capacity. This paper identifies these trends by an analysis of
150 coal-burning thermal power units scheduled for initial
operation from 1958 through 1968. (Author's abstract)
11233
J. G. Stites, Jr., W. R. Horlacher, Jr., J. L. C. Bachofer, Jr.,
and J. S. Bartman
THE CATALYTIC-OXIDATION SYSTEM FOR REMOVING
SO2 FROM FLUE GAS. Preprint, American Society of
Mechanical Engineers, New York, 8p., 1968. (Presented at the
American Society of Mechanical Engineers Winter Annual
Meeting and Energy Systems Exposition, New York, N. Y.,
Dec. 1-5, 1968, Paper 68-WA/APC-2.)
The demonstration of a prototype plant to remove sulfur diox-
ide from flue gas by catalytic oxidation is discussed. The plant
has a capacity of 24,000 scfm. It was designed to remove es-
sentially 100 percent of the particulates from the flue
gas.About 90 percent of the sulfur dioxide is oxidized to sulfur
trioxide and removed as 80 percent sulfuric acid. Recovery
and sale of the sulfuric acid from large coal and oil fired
power stations can offset a substantial portion of the cost of
the recovery system. This paper deals with operating ex-
perience with the prototype plant and projected costs of com-
mercial units. (Authors' abstract, modified)
11238
R. R. Dukes, and M. D. Farkas
SULFUR SHORTAGE VS PLANT DESIGN. Preprint, Leonard
Construction Co., Chicago, 111., 25p., 1968. 5 refs. (Presented
at the 61st Annual Meeting, American Institute of Chemical
Engineers, Symposium on Sulfur, Sulfuric Acid and the Fu-
ture, Part I, Los Angeles, Calif., Dec. 1-5, 1968, Paper 5-C.)
Sulfuric acid plants can be built using SO2 bearing gases from
various sources. The most important characteristic from the
viewpoint of economics is the SO2 concentrations. Catalyst
poisons such as fluorides should be avoided, and the SO3 and
particulate contents should be as low as possible. If the S02
content is low, the operating costs will be high because of in-
creased utility requirements as fuel to keep the plant in ther-
mal balance, and a power to supply refrigerated water. The
amortization costs will be high because of the increased capital
requirements. (Authors' summary)
11240
H. L. Falkenberry, and A. V. Slack
REMOVAL OF SO2 FROM POWER PLANT STACK GASES
BY LIMESTONE INJECTION. Preprint, Tennessee Valley
Authority, Chattanooga,((35))p., 1968. ((8))refs. (Presented at
the 61st Annual Meeting, American Institute of Chemical En-
gineers, Symposium on Chemical Reaction Engineering, Part
II, Los Angeles, Calif., Dec. 1-5, 1968, Paper 54b.)
-------
B.CONTROL METHODS
87
A review of limestone injection into power boilers as a means
for removing sulfur oxides from stack gases is given. This in-
cludes a conceptual design and cost study, basic research on
limestone reactivity, and full-scale testing in a power plant.
11247
Jack E. Newell
SULPHUR FROM FLUE GASES A PROCESS EVALUATION
USING ABSORPTION ON ALKALISED ALUMINA. Preprint,
Central Electricity Generating Board, London (England), 17p.,
1968. 6 refs. (Presented at the 61st Annual Meeting of the
Prototype Research and Development of Sulfur Pollution Con-
trol Processes, Los Angeles, Calif., Dec. 1-5, 1968, Paper 54d.)
The alkalised alumina process, has been developed in Britain
using fluidised bed reactors rather than the dispersed phase
system favoured by the original American authors. The func-
tional emphasis for the process in Britain also differs in that
commercial recovery of sulphur is the primary objective, air
pollution control being secondary. Thus, the design aims at
low capital investment and economic commercial operation,
rather than at high gas cleanup efficiency, the plant recovering
sulphur at an almost constant rate regardless of actual sulphur
input and operating 24 hours per day even when the associated
boiler plant shuts down overnight. This has necessitated a new
regeneration system and a different approach to thermal
economy from that described in the author's earlier paper
which aimed at high cleanup efficiency and full thermal in-
tegration with the power station heat cycle. In addition to
discussing the design of process plant, the paper presents cost-
ing and economic evaluation. It also shows the suitability of
the plant for use at large industrial sites other than power sta-
tions. (Author's abstract)
11250
C. F. Scheidel
SULPHUR DIOXIDE REMOVAL FROM TAIL GAS BY THE
SULFACID PROCESS. Preprint, Lurgi Apparatebau
Gesellschaft mbh, Frankfurt (Germany), ((25))p., 1968.
(Presented ath the 61st Annual Meeting, Symposium on Sul-
fur, Sulfuric Acid and the Future, Part II, Los Angeles, Calif.,
Dec. 1-5, 1968, Paper 6 E.)
A sulfur dioxide removal process is described. Gases contain-
ing SO2 are passed through an activated carbon reactor and
optimum removal of SO2 is reached if the gas is saturated
with water at a temperature of approximately 160 degree F.
The bed of activated carbon is sprayed with water. The fol-
lowing process steps are required for wet catalytic conversion
to sulfuric acid: 1) adsorption of SO2 milecules 2) oxidation of
SO2 3) removal of SOS by flushing with water 4) increase of
solubility of SO2 with lower sulfuric acid concentration in
liquid film 5) the rate of H2SO4 adsorption increases with
H2SO4 concentration which slows down SO2 diffusion in ad-
sorbent. A description of the chemical plant and equipment
used in this process is given along with operating costs.
11251
Smith, M. C. and A. A. Salerno
ENGINEERING FOR LOW SULFUR FUELS. Preprint, Amer-
ican Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York, 8p., 1968.
(Presented at the ASME Annual and Energy Systems Exposi-
tion, New York, N.Y., Dec. 1-5, 1968, Paper 68-WA/APC-l.)
Engineering for low-sulfur fuels must recognize several things.
Electrostatic precipitators on low-sulfur coal have lowered ef-
ficiencies. The difficulty of obtaining low fusion point coal
with low-sulfur content for use in wet bottom boilers may
force conversion away from this type of boiler. Low-sulfur oil
may very well have a high pour point which makes heating of
fuel lines necessary. Viscosity limits are necessary to be as-
sured that existing system fuel oil pumps can continue to be
used.
11252
Uno, Tsukumo, Saburo Fukui, Masumi Atsukawa, Masao
Higashi, Hiroshi Yamada, and Kazumi Kamei
SCALE-UP OF DAP-MN SULFUR OXIDE CONTROL
PROCESS. Preprint, Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Ltd., Tokyo
(Japan), 12p., 1968. (Presented at the 61st Annual Meeting,
Symposium on Prototype Research and Development of Sulfur
Pollution Control Process, Los Angeles, Calif., Dec. 1-5, 1968,
Paper 54C.)
A semicommercial plant treating 150,000 Ncum/hr of flue gas
for sulfur oxides removal is now running on at Yokkaichi
power station in Japan. This plant removes sulfur oxides by
the DAP-Mn process which uses activated manganese oxide as
absorbent and recover ammonium sulphate as byproduct. This
paper deals with scale-up problems of the process based on
the data obtained in bench scale apparatus, pilot plant and
semicommercial plant. Most important part of the process con-
cerning scale-up are fluidized bed type of absorber and bub-
bling tower type of oxidizer. We have found that each of them
may be designed based on a reaction rate equation respective-
ly without relation to plant scales if operating conditions of
them are not so different with that of semicommercial plant.
(Authors' abstract)
11253
MONSANTO PROCESS REMOVES SULFUR DIOXIDE
FROM GASES. Edison Elec. Inst. Bull., 36(9):320, Oct. 1968.
Successful operation of a prototype plant to remove sulfur
dioxide from the stack gases of a coal-fired boiler has been an-
nounced. The prototype unit, a catalytic oxidation process
called the Cat-Ox system, removes sulfur dioxide, as well as
fly ash, from the flue gases of a power generating station. The
process involves taking hot (900 F) flue gases directly from the
boiler and passing them first through a hot electrostatic
precipitator to remove fly ash. This precipitator removes ex-
cess of 99.5 percent of the solids from the gas stream. The
gases are then passed through a converter where the sulfur
dioxide is catalytically oxidized to sulfur trioxide. From the
converter the gases are passed through a series of heat
exchangers to recover heat, which is sent back to the boiler
cycle. The heat exchangers cool the gases so that the sulfur
trioxide and the water vapor present in the flue gases com-
bine, but at a temperature still above the dew point of sulfuric
acid. The gases further cooled in an absorbing tower, which
condenses the sulfuric acid. Some of the acid is produced a
mist, which is collected and removed from the system by a
highly efficient mist eliminator. The sulfuric acid is collected
and sent to storage.
11256
SO2 REMOVED FROM FLUE GASES. Oil and Gas J.,
66(46):102, Nov. 11, 1968.
A system now available promises a solution to sulfur dioxide
emission problems in flue gases of boilers. Called the Cat-Ox
system, it is a catalytic oxidation process. The process in-
volves taking hot flue gases from a boiler and passing them
first through a hot electrostatic precipitator then through a
converter where sulfur dioxide is catalytically oxidized to sul-
fur trioxide. From the converter the gases pass through a high-
-------
88
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
level economizer and an air preheater to recover heat which is
sent back to the boiler cycle.
11262
Williamson, Gerald V. and John F. McLaughlin
AIR POLLUTION, ITS RELATION TO THE EXPANDING
POWER INDUSTRY. Union Electric Co., St. Louis, Mo., 16p.,
1966. 6 refs. (Presented at the World Power Conference,
Tokyo Sectional Meeting, Tokyo, Oct. 16-20, 1966, Paper 89.)
Air pollution considerations will be a major factor in the ex-
panding power industry. Micro-meteorological evidence in-
dicates that new plants of 500 to 5,000 MW must be located
and designed with a full understanding of the area's urban air
standards, up to a distance of 25 miles from the site. With the
development of high efficiency dust collectors, stress in the
future will be on SO2 and other invisible gases. The balance of
the paper amounts to a check-list of what the planner-
designers might do, including choice of features of stack
height, position of the stack in the heat cycle, and possible
provisions during pollution emergencies. (Authors' summary,
modified)
11281
Ionics, Inc., Watertown, Mass., Research Div (17)p. July 1966.
A BRIEF DESCRIPTION ON THE USE OF AN ELEC-
TROLYTIC SULFATE CELL FOR THE RECOVERY OF
SULFUR DIOXIDE FROM STACK GAS.
An Electrolytic Sulfate Cell is proposed for the removal of
sulfur dioxide from stack gases. The sulfur dioxide can be
recovered as a concentrated gaseous stream suitable for ulti-
mate conversion to sulfuric acid. The main components of the
Electrolytic Sulfate Cell are an anode, a diaphragm, a cation-
transfer membrane and a cathode. The membrane cell readily
produces 2N sodium hydroxide at the cathode and that the al-
kali concentration was easily controllable. Operating at current
densities of 100 amps sq ft, 2N caustic was produced at the
cathode and IN acid at the anode. The operating temperature
of the cell was 80 degrees C and the feed solution consisted of
10% sodium sulfate. Cell voltage requirements were approxi-
mately 5 volts and cell efficiencies were greater than 90%.
Even lower voltage requirements were achieved in subsequent
investigations. A schematic flow diagram of one possible in-
tegrated system is presented. Preliminary estimates are
presented for the cost of recovering sulfuric acid from stack
gases using an Electrolytic Sulfate Cell. Two cases were stu-
died, one using New York City fuel oil with 0.8% S and the
other coal with 3% S. Total investment is estimated at $4.00
and $11.00 per KW installed for oil and coal-fired stations
respectively. Operating costs including depreciation at 5% are
0.13 and 0.42 mils per KWH generated respectively assuming
energy at 6 mils per KWH. Under these conditions there will
be an operating credit of 0.017 and 0.19 mils per KWH
generated respectively.
11847
Zawadzki, Edward A.
STATUS OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF PROCESSES FOR
CONTROLLING SO2 EMISSIONS FROM STATIONARY
SOURCES. Preprint, National Limestone Inst., Inc., Washing-
ton, D. C., 15p., 1969. (Presented at the National Limestone
Institute, Inc., 24th Annual Convention, Jan. 16, 1969.
The principle sources of sulfur dioxide emissions in the United
States are utility plants and, to a lesser degree, industrial-size
stationary combustion units and smelters. By 1980, the esti-
mated amount of sulfur dioxide emitted to the atmosphere an-
nually will increase to 50 million tons, double the current rate.
Controlling the emissions is difficult, and only limited success
has been achieved to date. The principle factors affecting the
development of pollution control systems, especially for power
plant utilities, are size of unit, age of unit, load factor, and
geographic location. In spite of the difficulties associated with
the processing of flue gases, a large number of processes have
been developed. They fall into two main classes: sulfur
recovery systems that produce a product, and nonrecovery
systems that yield innocuous wastes. The process that appears
most readily adapted to existing power stations of all sizes is
the dry limestone injection process. The capital cost of the
process for a 200-megawatt station ranges from 1.2 to 1.6 mil-
lion dollars. Annual operating cost is about 0.4 to 0.5 million,
with about 20-25% of the cost attributed to the cost of
limestone. Most other SO2 control processes are not economi-
cally suited to 200-megawatt and smaller stations.
11854
Goldschmidt, Klaus
EXPERIMENTS IN THE USE OF WHITE LIME HYDRATE
AND DOLOMITE LIME TO DESULFURIZE FLUE GASES
FROM OIL-AND PULVERIZED COAL-FIRED FURNACES.
(Versuche zur Entschwefelung von Rauchgasen mit Weisskalk-
hydrat und Dolomitkalkhydrat bei Oel-und Kohlenstaub-
Feuerung). Fortschrittber. VDI(Ver. Deut. Ingr.) Z., Ser. 6(21),
133p., Aug. 1968. 47 refs. Translated from German. Franklin
Inst. Research Labs., Philadelphia, Pa., Science Info. Services,
138p.
The suitability of white lime hydrate and dolomite lime
hydrate to desulfurize flue gases was tested by mixing the ad-
ditives with pulverized coal by injecting them into the com-
bustion chamber above the burner of a furnace heated with
pulverized coal and oil. The experiments confirmed theoretical
predictions that, due to the short residence time of flue gases
and additives in a furnace, complete desulfurization is not
feasible. Direct mixing of coal and additive caused formation
of eutectic melts during combustion, leading to heavy caking
of the furnace. Only small amounts of sulfur dioxide were
bound by additive surfaces. A higher desulfurization rate was
achieved by injecting the additive into the zone of the furnace
where temperatures of about 1000 C prevailed. White lime
hydrate was more satisfactory than dolomite lime hydrate,
since the additive contains fewer impurities and the decom-
position pressures of calcium sulfate are lower at constant
temperature than those of magnesium sulfate. The best desul-
furization results were obtained with oil-firing. Here, the addi-
tive depositions on the rear heating surfaces continue to bind
S02 and are the major factors in the totally achieved desul-
furization rate. Despite this, only 50% of the S02 was bound.
11906
Hilder, Wolfgang
A NEW SULPHURIC ACID INSTALLATION REDUCES
SULPHER DIOXIDE EMISSION. ((Neue Schwefelsaureanlage
verringert Schwefeldioxidemission.)) Text in German. Stad-
tehygiene, 19(6):125-127, June 1968.
An increased (24%) consumption of sulfuric acid (H2S04)
(used in the manufacture of fertilizers, vitamin pigments, ar-
tificial fibers, etc.) in the German Federated Republic over the
last 5 years, a 78% H2S04 made in the Chamber and Tower
Process which did not fulfill all purity requirements, and a
shortage of elemental sulfur caused interest in the Pyrite-roast-
ing Process of H2SO4 production. Copper, zinc, and a purple
ore which is a valuable raw material in the iron industry, are
also by-products of this process. With a daily production of
-------
B. CONTROL METHODS
89
650 tons, the new pyrite-burning, H2SO4 installation of the
Hoechst Dye Works is one of the largest plants of its kind.
This non-urban, modern factory, which utilizes a closed com-
bustion and exhaust system and a highly effective noise-isola-
tion system, performs 4 operations: heat utilization, gas clean-
ing, contact, and absorption. The dust-containing mixture of
SO2 and air is freed of floating particles and moisture in
hot.roasting ovens used also in the manufacture of steam and
electricity. The dust from the ovens and from the gas cleaning
is collected for further utilization. The cleaned gases, emitting
only 1/5 the amount of SO2 as the earlier process, escape after
final absorption through a stack 135 m in height. The improved
contact operation, which oxidizes SO2 to SOS, produces most
of the H2SO4 in the Federal Republic (90%) and U.S.A. (95%).
Since only 2% of the SO2 emissions are contributed by all
H2SO4 manufacturers in West Germany, it is a fallacy to be-
lieve that the new installation will reduce atmospheric SO2
pollution substantially. The overwhelming portion of SO2 pol-
lution is emitted from heat or electricity-producing fossil fuel
installations.
11910
CLEAN AIR. (Chistii vozduh.) Text in Russian. NTO-SSSR.,
10(12):17-18, 1968.
In 1967 power plants in the Soviet Union emitted about 7 mil-
lion tons of SO2. SO2 removal from combustion gases is car-
ried out in four ways: 1) Dispersion by means of high chim-
neys; this approach is being studied in the Central Ther-
motechnological Institute, Main Geophysical Observatory, and
in the Erisman Institute of Communal Hygiene. A formula for
calculating the waste in relation to location, topography, and
climatic conditions has been established; this approach was
recognized as promising only for power plants with capacities
up to 2400 megawatts. 2) Preliminary sulfur removal from
fuels has been little studied. 3) Gasification process of
Christianovich in VNIINP and Giprogazoochistka has been
patented. 4) Processes for SO2 removal in solid fuel com-
bustion were presented by V. Lazarev and N. Pitelina. The
most promising, according to economic indexes, are the cyclic
magnesite and ammonia-autoclave methods, which give 95-
95%, and 92% removal rates, respectively. The advantages of
the former are that it uses the cheap magnesite and does not
require cooling and dust removal; the advantages of the latter
are the formation of high purity sulfur and the fertilizer, am-
monium sulfate. The disadvantages of the cyclic magnesite
method are difficulties in working with the suspension, high
fuel consumption, and burning of magnesium sulfite crystals.
The disadvantages of the ammonia autoclave method are the
high ammonia consumption and the necessity for preliminary
dust-removal. The SO2 formed in the petroleum refining is
revoved by the Klaus method or the method of wet catalyzer
to sulfuric acid. There are more than 20 methods for industrial
H2S removal from gases. Most methods have the aim of
technological exploitation of the removal H2S and are not
suitable for sanitary purification. For the latter purpose the
best are the oxidation methods which use adsorption of H2S
to alkaline solutions (soda or ammonia) and oxidation to ele-
mental S by a catalyzer. The oldest, iron-soda method, has
many disadvantages (long duration, detrimental effect on the
equipment, poor gas purification) and is to be replaced in
U.S.S.R. plants manufacturing synthetic fibers, by an alkali
hydroquinone method. Its advantages are: absence of suspen-
sion, simpler procedure of exploitation, and yield of high-puri-
ty sulfur. The method of dry oxidation with activated coal by
which H2S is oxidized to elemental S has the advantage that
the coal functioning as catalyzer and adsorber can remove
H2S, CS2, and other impurities. Hydrocarbons and their
products, which are important air pollutants from the petrole-
um industry, can be
11929
W. R. Browne, and M. Kawahata
FEASIBILITY STUDY - HYDRODESULFURIZATION OF
FUELS UNDER CORONA DISCHARGE CATALYSIS. (FINAL
REPORT.) General Electric Co., Schenectady, N. Y., Advanced
Technology Labs., Contract PH 86-65-1. ((23))p., March 9, 1968.
7 refs.
A corona discharge hydrodesulfurization process was in-
vestigated for fuel oil containing 2.57% sulfur. A concentric
tube, packed-bed reactor was used for the study. Up to 23%
reduction in sulfur content, a linear relationship was shown
between energy input to the oil and decrease in sulfur concen-
tration. The energy required was too high to justify practical
application of the process at its present state of development.
Use of a desulfurization catalyst as a dielectric packing in the
corona reactor improved the efficiency sixfold but rein-
troduced the problem of spent catalyst regeneration. In a
separate short study, powdered bituminous coal was exposed
to hydrogen in a corona discharge in the hope of converting
FeS2 to magnetic FeS. Treated samples are being analyzed by
the U. S. Bureau of Mines. (Authors' abstract)
11976
Veverka, V.
PROPOSAL OF AMMONIAC DESULPHURIZING FOR 100
MV. In: Preprints of the Czechoslovak Reports. International
Symposium on the Control and Utilization of Sulphur Dioxide
and Fly-Ash from the Flue Gases of Large Thermal Power
Plants. Liblice House of Scientific Workers, 1965, p. 23-29.
A bicyclic ammoniacal method of desulfurizing thermal power
plant flue gases is currently under study in Czechoslovakia.
The proposed capacity of available equipment corresponds to
the 100 MW power plant block and is considered the highest
that can be attained at this time. Presumably, the equipment
could be rendered suitable for greater power plant capacities
by connecting parallel lines. According to the proposed
method, combustion products in quantities of approximately
500,000 cu nm/hr, and containing 0.15 to 0.30 mol% SO2, are
cooled, washed in two stages, reheated, and then drawn off to
the stack. Regeneration of the solution, SO2 desorption, and
crystallization of NH4(2)SO4 are included in the circuit of the
first regeneration stage. The condensate resulting from the
cooling of the desorbed SO2 is conveyed simultaneously with
fresh water to the 2nd absorption circuit, where fresh am-
monia is introduced. The diluted solution from the 2nd circuit
is recycled to the 1st circuit. Cooling of combustion products
and fly-ash liquidation are problem areas of the desulfurization
process. Cooling to 35 C is essential. It is proposed to cool the
combustion products in two stages, first by desulfurized
vapors and then by cold air. A wet fly-ash separator will be in-
stalled between the first and second stage coolers. Other
technical and economic problems remain to be solved before
the process is ready for large-scale application.
11985
Babcan, J. and L. Krejcirik
GAINING IRON FROM POWER PLANT ASHES. In:
Preprints of the Czechoslovak Reports. International Symposi-
um on the Control and Utilization of Sulphur Dioxide and Fly-
Ash from the Flue Gases of Large Thermal Power Plants.
Liblice House of Scientific Workers, 1965, p. 111-118.
-------
90
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
Magnetic iron concentrates were experimentally isolated in
granulation combustion chambers from the ashes produced by
coal burning power plants. Laboratory as well as model mag-
netic separation tests were performed and data was obtained
on the possible utilization of power plant ashes as metallurgi-
cal raw material. For a nearly quantitative isolation of mag-
netically separable iron compounds, a magnetic field of rela-
tively low intensity (1.000 Oe) was sufficient. The total con-
centrate yield depends on the coal used and the manner of its
combustion. The quality of the obtained iron concentrates is
very good, equalling in many cases that of concentrates from
the highest quality iron ores. Specific weight of the obtained
concentrates is relatively low, due to the globular shape of the
individual, hollow granules. The concentrates are suitable raw
material for blast furnaces, but, because of their granularity,
they must be agglomerated. (Author summary modified)
11996
Zahradnik, Lubomir and Jan Mazacek
OBTAINING TRACE AND RARE ELEMENTS FROM
POWER PLANT FLY ASH. In: Preprints of the Czechoslovak
Reports. International Symposium on the Control and Utiliza-
tion of Sulphur Dioxide and Fly-Ash from the Flue Gases of
Large Thermal Power Plants. Liblice House of Scientific Wor-
kers, 1965, p. 237-244.
The utilization of power plant fly ash for the production of
rare and trace elements, such as germanium, gallium, berylli-
um, vanadium, boron, and uranium is discussed. The elements
are present in the fly ash produced by the combustion of coal
in chambers where absorption of ash by the slag is high. The
accumulation of the trace and rare elements in the ash matter
depends on the volatility of their compounds produced by
chemical reactions occurring during combustion. Germanium
and gallium show the highest degree of enrichment of al! iracr
and rare elements. Germanium is converted during combustion
to volatile germanium monoxide, germanium monosulfide, and
germanium disulfide. Treatabl concentrations of both germani-
um and gallium are obtained in cyclone slag-top furnaces and
boilers with strap gates. Their accumulation in fly ash may be
due to surface sorption. On the other hand, the presence of
beryllium and uranium is influenced by the disintegration and
escape of vitrain components to the organic matter to which
both metals are bonded. In grate and cyclone furnaces, a two-
stage dust collecting system is used for germanium- or gallium-
containing fly ash; a mechanical separator sorts out gross fly
ash components and an electrostatic precipitator effectively
absorbs the fine fly ash components.
12040
Frankel, R. J.
PROBLEMS OF MEETING MULTIPLE AIR QUALITY OB-
JECTIVES FOR COAL-FIRED UTILITY BOILERS. J. Air
Pollution Control Assoc., 19(l):18-23, Jan. 1969. 16 ref.
Gaseous wastes and particulate emissions are produced in the
process of burning coal to produce electrical energy. In at-
tempting to control these gaseous wastes, changes in the
operation efficiency of boilers and secondary equipment are
likely to result, and in addition liquid and solid waste streams
are produced. The interrelationships among the various forms
of wastes and the effects of air quality control on process effi-
ciency are often overlooked in studies of environmental quali-
ty management. The study was undertaken to evaluate the
technical alternatives for handling gaseous and particulate
emissions from coal-fired boilers and to determine the feasi-
bility of meeting several standards simultaneously. The gase-
ous emissions of major importance in the combustion of coal
are particulates, sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides. Particulates
can be controlled by a trade off among further preparation at
the mine (for additional ash removal), type of boiler, use of
dust control equipment and high stacks for for dispersion of
residual emissions, if ambient air standards are considered.
Sulfur oxides reduction depends currently on fuel substitution,
limestone additives in the boiler and some form of contact
process such as wet scrubbing, or the use of high stacks,
Nitrogen oxides control in coal fired boilers is restricted to
small reductions by either changes in boiler operation, such as
lower excess air levels, adsorption during wet scrubbing or by
dispersion from high stacks. (Author's Abstract)
12091
COAL COMES CLEAN FOR BURNING. Chem. Week,
103(7):64-65, Aug. 17, 1968.
The Bureau of Mines continues to investigate the desulfuriza-
tion of coal despite the many problems. A chart analysis of
coal desulfurization techniques with limited cost information is
presented. A second chart compares the cost information for
sulfur recovery from stack gas by various processes.
12092
FROM COAL TO SULFURIC. Chem. Week, 103(15):83, Oct.
12, 1968.
Operation of a prototype Monsanto Cat-Ox unit at the Port-
land, Pa. station of Metropolitan Edison, a subsidiary of
General Public Utilities, has resulted in the development of
enough data for the design of full-scale SO2 removal units for
a range of boiler sizes. Cat-Ox is a catalytic oxidation system
using an undisclosed vanadium catalyst for making H2S04
from stack gas at new coal-fired electric power plants.
12234
North American Rockwell Corp., Canoga Park, Calif.,
Atomics International Div.
DEVELOPMENT OF A MOLTEN CARBONATE PROCESS
FOR REMOVAL OF SULFUR DIOXIDE FROM POWER
PLANT STACK GASES. (SUMMARY REPORT). Contract PH
86-67-128, AI-68-104, 155p., 1968. 8 refs. CFSTI: PB 179908
A Progress report is presented of a method being developed
for sulfur dioxide removal from power plant stack gases. The
sulfur oxides are absorbed in a molten mixture of lithium,
sodium, and potassium carbonates, reacting with the car-
bonates to form sulfites and sulfates, which remain dissolved
in excess carbonate. The molten carbonate-sulfite-sulfate salt
mixture is then regenerated chemically, converting the sulfite
and sulfate back to carbonate and the sulfur to hydrogen sul-
fide. The carbonate is then recirculated to the scrubber to con-
tinue the process. Testing shows the carbonate melt to be an
excellent absorbent under realistic conditions, with a very fast
reaction rate. The main problem in the absorption process is
one of bringing the sulfur oxides into good contact with the
melt. Recent reduction studies are emphasizing catalysis to in-
crease the rate of the reduction reaction. Regeneration refine-
ment is underway to eliminate sulfur tie-up and foaming
problems from reduction catalysts. Corrosion studies of suita-
ble metals and alloys, and contactor development, are
described.
12253
Perry, Harry and J. H. Field
COAL AND SULFUR DIOXIDE POLLUTION. Preprint, Amer-
ican Society of Medical Engineers, New York, 9p., 1967. 19
refs. (Presented at the American Society of Mechanical En-
-------
B. CONTROL METHODS
91
gineers, Winter Annual. Meeting and Energy Systems Exposi-
tion, Pittsburgh, Pa., Nov. 12-17, 1967.)
Presently about 143 million tons of pollutants per year are
discharged into the air over the United States. Carbon monox-
ide represents about one-half of all pollutants, sulfur oxides
are the next largest pollutant (15% of the total emission) fol-
lowed by hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides. To reduce sulfur
oxide in the atmosphere, the following measures can be taken:
use of low-sulfur fuels; desulfurization of fuel prior to use;
selective mining of coal; injection of desulfurizing additives
into the boiler; removal of sulfur oxides from stack gases;
dispersion and dilution of the sulfur oxides through high
stacks; mine mouth generation of power; and use of nuclear
energy. Removal of sulfur oxide during in-process combustion
has the advantage of being applicable to many existing plants
where stack removal processes would be physically impossible
to install. Reduction of the sulfur content of medium and high-
sulfur coals is particularly beneficial for existing power plants
and for all small installations. Froth floatation is less suited for
this purpose, since pyrite and coal have similar surface proper-
ties. As a consequence, little sulfur reduction is achieved. Ox-
idation of pyrite to sulfur is prohibility expensive. Removal of
SO2 from stack gases offers hope of the greatest reduction of
this pollutant. The Reinluft process, Monsanto process, and
the alkalized alumina process are briefly outlined. Capital in-
vestment of these processes ranges from 10 to 20 dollars per
installed kilowatt with operating cost of about 0.75 to 1.50 dol-
lars per ton of fuel burned after allowing credit for by-
products. Mention of the Japanese Kiyoura process and the
DAP-Mn process is also made.
12308
Borgwardt, Robert H., Thomas A. Kittleman, and Larry G.
Turner
THE DRY-LIMESTONE PROCESS FOR SULFUR DIOXIDE
CONTROL: A FIELD STUDY OF THE ROLE OF OVER-
BURNING. Air Pollution Control Association, New York City,
19p., 1969. 10 refs. (Presented at the Air Pollution Control As-
sociation Annual Meeting, 62nd, New York June 22-26, 1969.)
Two series of injection tests for desulfurization of flue gas
were made on a boiler. The boiler fired No. 6 fuel oil contain-
ing 2.3% sulfur at a rate of 10,000 pounds oil/hour at an
operating load of 150,000 Ibs steam/hour. Four different addi-
tives (2 limestone and 2 dolomites) were used. During the first
series of tests, the effect of boiler load on the degree of burn-
ing of additives injected with the fuel was investigated. During
the second series, the influence of particle size, iron content,
residence time, and injection temperature on the effectiveness
of the additives was studied. The dry-limestone process should
not be applied by injection with the fuel; additives must in-
stead be injected separately to achieve efficient utilization of
the limestone. Overburning is at least partly responsible for
the low efficiencies found when additives are fed to the bur-
ners. The lime produced by injection with the fuel is much less
reactive with SO2 than lime that is not calcined in the com-
bustion zone. Boiler load was an important variable affecting
desulfurization when additives were fed with the fuel. This
was due to the higher excess air used during low load. The
tests indicated that there is an optimum particle size as well as
an optimum injection temperature. Injection temperatures
somewhat higher than 2400 F would be best for 2-micron parti-
cles.
12310
Squires, Arthur M. and Robert Pfeffer
PANEL BED FILTERS FOR SIMULTANEOUS REMOVAL
OF FLY ASH AND SULFUR DIOXIDE: I. INTRODUCTION.
Preprint, Air Pollution Control Association, New York City,
33p., 1969. 32 refs. (Presented at the Air Pollution Control As-
sociation, Annual Meeting, 62nd, New York, June 22-26, 1969,
Paper 69-202.)
Explanatory trials of three panel bed filters (using 16-30 mesh
sand and operating at a face velocity around 12 ft/min) in-
dicated a good probability that such a device can achieve 99%
filtration efficiency on power-station fly ash, while simultane-
ously removing sulfur dioxide. A 'puffback' technique was
used to remove fly ash and a portion of the sand from the gas-
entry face of a panel. Of the three test units used, the first had
2 sides of plexiglass and 2 of metal, while the second was con-
structed entirely out of plexiglass. The third was also plex-
iglass, but with brass louvers. Filter sand did not have to be
rendered free of ultra-fine particles when being cleaned for
reuse. The louvers of the third test unit compel the smoke to
flow upward through special gas treating spaces. This unit also
used 8-12 mesh sand as a 'sealing solid' in addition to the 16-
30 sand used as treating solid. Retaining screens should not be
used at the clean face of the panel bed filter. The reactive
solid used for the removal of SO2 should be regenerated be-
fore returning it to the supply bin. Based upon the experimen-
tal results, a commercial design would appear to provide a gas-
treating capacity per unit ground area on the order of four
times greater than an electrostatic precipitator of comparable
efficiency. A program to develop a practicable panel bed
device for simultaneous removal of fly ash and SO2 is recom-
mended. (Author abstract modified)
12417
Seki, Shingo, Kiyoshi Kasahara, Takeo Kuriyama, and
Makoto Kawasumi
STUDY ON THE UTILIZATION OF CINDER ASH FOR
CONCRETE MANUFACTURING. Electric Power Industry,
Tokyo (Japan), Central Research Inst., TR-C:68001, 26p., Feb.
1969. 9 refs.
In Japan, coal-burning power plants discharge about 600,000
tons of fly ash and about 3,400,000 tons of cinder ash an-
nually. Unlike fly ash, cinder ash is a comparatively coarse
ash that has not been widely utilized in cement manufacturing.
Stream-curing and water-curing processes for its utilization are
detailed. The methods make possible the production of cement
paste, mortar, and lightweight aerated concrete of high quality
from cinder ash, lime, and quenched blast furnace slag without
the addition of portland cement. The maximum compressive
strength of the mortar is 550 kg/sq cm after steam curing at 90
C for the day and 680 kg/sq cm after water curing at 20 C for
91 days.
12424
Skaperdas, George T.
COMMERCIAL POTENTIAL FOR THE KELLOGG COAL
GASIFICATION PROCESS. (FINAL REPORT). Kellogg (M.
W.) Co., Piscataway, N. J., OCR Contract 14-01-0001-380,
Research and Development Rept. 38, 151p., Sept. 1967. 7 refs.
CFSTI: PB 180358
The Kellogg coal gasification process represents a unique new
method for attacking the problem of coal gasification. Steam
and coal are injected continuously into a molten salt bath
where they react to form synthesis gas, a mixture of hydrogen
and carbon monoxide. The necessary heat of the reaction is
-------
92
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
supplied by circulating a heated molten salt stream. In addi-
tion, the molten salt mixture is chosen to catalyze the reaction
so that it can be carried out at a relatively low temperature. In
this report, the research that has been done on the process to
date is summarized. Included are the chemical engineering stu-
dies on which the process is based, optimization studies and
cost analyses of the various schemes under consideration, and
work done in the areas of chemical research and mechanical
development for those portions of the process deemed most
critical. The general objectives of a proposed pilot-plant pro-
gram are outlined. Since oxygen does not have to be added to
the gasifier, the process permits important cost saavings over
presently available processes for gasification of coal under
pressure. Further savings result from the lower reaction tem-
perature, which minimizes the sensible heat duty demands of
the process. Moreover, as the coal is suspended in a salt melt,
the physical properties of coal particles are not critical to the
process. An additional advantage is that molten salt retains the
sulfur originally present in the coal. The process thus
eliminates the pollution problem associated with sulfur dioxide
in stack gases The sulfur retained by the coal can be readily
coverted to elemental sulfur by the Claus process.
12442
Atsukawa, Masumi
CONTROL AND REMOVAL OF SULFUR FROM THE FLUE
GAS OF A LARGE SCALE COMBUSTION PLANT. DRY
PROCESS OF SULFUR OXIDE REMOVAL FROM FLUE
GAS, USING ACTIVATED MANGANESE OXIDE. Taiki Osen
Kenkyu (J. Japa Soc. Air Pollution), 2(l):37-38, 1967. Trans-
lated from Japanese. 8p.
An activated manganese oxide absorption process for remov-
ing sulfur oxide from flue gases was investigated with succes-
ful results in pilot-plant studies conducted by two power com-
panies. The process, which removes both S02 and 803 and
yields ammonium sulfate, combines absorption with dust
precipitation, absorbent regeneration, and ammonium sulfate
crystallization. Homogeneous dispersion of the pulverized ab-
sorbent is obtained by mixing it first with a part of the main
flow of gas and then adding it at high speed to the main gas
flow. Since the tower contains no filler, power requirements
are reduced. Manganese sulfate formed during the reaction,
together with unreacted manganese oxide, flue-gas soot, and
ash, are collected in a multicyclone and electrostatic precipita-
tor. The collected materials are returned either to the absorb-
ing tower or are converted to slurry for use in the regeneration
process. The absorbent is regenerated in the oxidation tower
by treating the slurry with aqueous ammonia under about 5
atm air. The slurry discharged from the oxidation tower is
separated into an ammonium sulfate solution and recovered
absorbent. The former is then introduced to the crystallization
process and the latter is reintroduced to the absorption
process. An advantage of the method is that the structure and
capacity of a boiler are unaffected, since the process is ap-
plicable to normal flue gas temperatures.
12443
Thomas, Stanley
USE OF SOLID FUELS WITHOUT SMOKE EMISSION.
Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Pretoria (South
Africa), Conf. Air Pollution, Capetown, South Africa, 1967,
36p. 3 refs. (Paper no. 2.)
Firing techniques and appliances which ensure the correct con-
ditions for the efficient smokeless combustion of coal are
discussed. These conditions include the provisions of suffi-
cient air to enable combustible hydrocarbons to burn, suffi-
cient turbulence to enable the air and the hydrocarbons to
mix, sufficien time for the combustion process to completed,
and a temperature high enough for the combustible gases to ig-
nite. The mode of combustion, i.e., overfeeding or underfeed-
ing, influences the smoke emission from a firebed. The mode
of combustion is determined by the method of firing by hand
or by the type of stoking appliance, if fired mechanically.
While it is possible to hand fire most boilers with bituminous
coal and at the same time comply with the provisions of the
Atmospheric Pollution Act, it requires a great amount of skill
on the part of boiler house personnel. Therefore, it is advisa-
ble to use either a smokeless fuel (anthracite, semi-anthracite,
coke or char) for hand firing or to use one of the various types
of mechanical stokers that are commercially available. The ad-
vantages of a mechanical stoker is that it fires steadily and
consistently and can be operated mechanically. Moreover, as
coal is fed in a steady stream, the air requirements for com-
bustion can be precisely regulated. There is a mechanical
stoker available for every type of boiler in operation today.
Those discussed are the coking stoker, underfeed stoker, air
modulating underfeed stoker, and fuel/air proportioning modu-
lating stoker.
12446
van Doornum, G. A. W.
PROGRESS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF SMOKELESS AP-
PLIANCES FOR SOLID FUEL. Council for Scientific and In-
dustrial Research, Pretoria (South Africa), Conference on Air
Pollution Capetown, South Africa, 1967, 13p. (Paper no. 6.)
Appliances are described that permit the virtually smokeless
combustion of bituminous coal in domestic heaters and indus-
trial boilers. The design of the domestic appliance is charac-
terized by a separate bunker for the storage of fuel, a provi-
sion that makes it possible to replenish the fuel supply of a
stove without interfering with the combustion process. Pre-
heated secondary air, well distributed, is admitted in an insu-
lated combustion chamber. The hot combustion products can
be used for space or water heating or to heat an oven or hot-
plate. The same principle can be applied on a larger scale, and
hot water generators suitable for apartment buildings are now
being manufactured. On an industrial scale verticle boiler with
secondary air supply, smoke generation is almost completely
reduced by injecting air through a small forge blower. Another
boiler modification described facilitates ash removal from a
boiler.
12503
Battelle Memorial Inst, Richland, Wash.
APPLICABILITY OF ORGANIC LIQUTOS TO THE
DEVELOPMENT OF NEW PROCESSES FOR REMOVING
SULFUR DIOXIDE FROM FLUE GASES. (FINAL PHAS I.)
Contract PH-22-63-19, (114)p., March 1969. 32 rets. CFSTI: PB
183513
A study was undertaken, the purpose being to survey the
literature and, on the basis of the findings, to assess the ap-
plicability of organic liquids to the development of new
processes for removing SO2 from fossil fuel fired power plant
stack gases. This literaOtu search also extended to the process
engineering field to indicate the preferred methods of contact-
ing the sorbent with the flue gas and the preferred technique
of sorbent regeneration and recovery of sulfur values. A
preliminary assessment of the applicability of organic liquids
for cleaning both smelter effluent and power plant flue gases
were made, and conditions required to assure adequate ef-
fluent gas plume dispersion were reviewed. Economic factors
important to the comparison of organic liquids as scrubbing
-------
B. CONTROL METHODS
93
agents were reviewed, along with other means of sulfur diox-
ide removal.
12574
Baxter, W. A.
RECENT ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATOR EXPERIENCE
WITH AMMONIA CONDITIONING OF POWER BOILER
FLUE GASES. J. Air Pollution Assoc., 18(12):817-820, Dec.
1968.9 ref.
Motivated by heightened recent interest, Koppers Co. has
been experimenting with ammonia conditioning of power
boiler flue gases for the purpose of improving the pretipitabili-
ty of the emitted fly ash. Chemical reactions resulting from
NH3 injection are postulated. Measurements on three pul-
verized coal and two cyclone fired boilers, all os which emit
acidic ash, are described. In all five cases, considerable but
varying, increase in precipitator power input and collection ef-
ficiency resulted when gaseous NH3 in the amount of 15 ppm
was injected between the economizer and air preheater. The
conditioned fly ash showed decreased acidity and inconsistent
change in electrical resistivity. Unless air heater temperatures
were unusually high (greater than 400 deg F), tendency of the
air heater to plug was an additional, but unwanted, result. At
one station with high air heater outlet temperature NH3 injec-
tion has been adopted as a permanent solution to community
pressure for reduction of stack discharge. NH3 injection
downstream of the air heater produced no effect. Future plans
are presented to continue the program beyond present results
described in this interim report. Author's Abstract
12581
SULFUR OXIDE REMOVAL FROM POWER PLANT STACK
GAS. USE OF LIMESTONE IN WET-SCRUBBING PROCESS.
Tennessee Valley Authority, 104p., 1969. 22 refs. CFSTI: PB
183908
A report is presented of a conceptual design and cost study
made on methods for removing sulfur oxides from power plant
stack gases. The purpose is to develop, for various promising
processes, the best design possible from existing data, esti-
mate capital and operating costs on a uniform basis, and
recommend further research and development needed. This is
the second study in the series; the first was an evaluation of
the dry limestone method-injection of limestone into the boiler
without subsequent wet scrubbing. One of the objectives in
the present study is to compare the merits of the wet and dry
processes.
12645
SO2 CONTROL PROCESSES FOR STACK GASES REACH
COMMERCIAL STATUS. Environ. Sci. Technol., 2(11):994-
997, Nov. 1968.
The combustion of fuel for power generation accounts for 46%
of the SO2 emitted to the atmosphere, and 58% of that total
results from the combustion of coal. Air quality criteria for
SO2, the prelude to federal control standards, are due from
the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare by the end
of the year. Several processes for control of SO2 in stack
gases which have reached commercial status are discussed.
These include: The Monsanto catalytic oxidation process; the
Combustion Engineering, Inc. alkaline earth injection system;
the Tennessee Valley Authority dry limestone injection
process; the WeUman-Lord, Inc. Clean Air Demonstration
Plant; and the Stone & Webster Engineering Corp.-Ionics, Inc.
caustic scrubbing process. Several other processes that have
not gotten beyond the pilot plant stage are also discussed.
12672
W. M. Crane, T. J. K. Rolfe
STEAM INJECTION AS A MEANS OF PREVENTING
DEPOSIT FORMATION IN ECONOMIC BOILERS. J. Inst.
Fuel, 41(334):426-432, Nov. 1968.
Some coals promote heavy formation of bonded deposits in
shell boilers and this can lead to stoppage of the plant for
cleaning. The work described here was aimed at reducing this
deposit formation. The effect of a steam jet in the furnace
tube on the formation of bonded deposits was assessed using
an Economic boiler while this boiler was being used to supply
the central heating load. A cola with a high chlorine content
was burnt. In one test, used as a control, the boiler was
operated in the normal way to provide the daily demand
without cleaning the tube bank until the combustion chamber
had become severely obstructed by bonded deposits. The
boiler was then cleaned and the run was started again, but this
time steam was supplied to a jet behind the bridge wall. This
run was still in progress at the end of the heating season
when, although slightly more coal than in the control run had
been burnt, the tube bank was comparatively free of deposits.
(Author's Abstract)
12797
Attig, R. C.
PILOT PLANT INVESTIGATION OF THE POTENTIAL OF
DIRECT LIMESTONE- DOLOMITE ADDITIVE INJECTION
FOR CONTROL OF SULFUR DIOXIDE FROM COM-
BUSTION FLUE GASES. Babcock and Wilcox Co., Alliance,
Ohio. Research Center, Contract PH-86-67-127, Rept.
LR:68:4078-01:9 (ES-9477), (44) p., December 10, 1968. CF-
STI: PB 184 049
Pilot plant tests have been made to evaluate the effectiveness
of raw, hydrated and calcined limestones and dolomites in-
jected into the flue gases to reduce sulfur dioxide concentra-
tion. The effects of additive fineness, temperature of injection
and injection rate were also investigated for selected additives.
The influence of limestone and dolomite on fly ash strength
and on coal ash slag viscosity and fusion temperatures has
been determined to evaluate the effect on ash deposition on
furnace walls and in tube banks. The influence of additives on
the ash collection properties as determined by bulk and in situ
resistivity measurements has also been determined. Raw addi-
tives were most effective at Port 1 which is approximately
2300 F. Hydrates were somewhat more effective tha the raw
stones at Port 1, and effectiveness did not decrease when they
were injected into lower gas temperatures. The hydrates as a
class had greater specific surface areas than the raw limestone
prepared in the normal manner. This was believed to be one
factor affecting their effectivenss, and tests with the raw addi-
tives indicated that increased fineness improved performance.
The additives will have varying effects on ash deposition de-
pending on the amount used and on the properties of the addi-
tive and coal ash. For the materials tested thus far, it is ex-
pected that large quantities of additive would decrease the ex-
tent of wall slagging and produce soft deposits under normal
operating conditions. However, the great dust loading may
place a burden on ash-handling and soot blowing equipment.
Fly ash resistivity tests indicate that limestones and dolomites
will make the fly ash more difficult to collect.
13015
Shealey, Leland D.
PRECIPITATORS INSTALLED DURING NORMAL OVER-
HAUL. Elec. World, 171(2):32-34, Jan. 1969.
-------
94
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
Extensive tests on the mechanical dust collectors of the South
Carolina Electric and Gas Company's Urqiihart Plant indicated
efficiencies ranging from 30 to 56%. Inspection showed
plugging and excessive wear of the collector elements. Rather
than restore the collectors of their 87% maximum efficiency
rate, it was decided to install electrostatic pricipitators of a
guaranteed 99% efficiency. The precipitator was installed in
the 75-Mw unit during the unit's outage for overhaul. The
mechanical collector was removed, and the precipitator shell
was fabricated on the ground and lifted into place. Installation
procedures are described. The total installation time was 12
weeks and 1968 cost was $350,000. Performance was above
the 99% rate expected.
13019
Stelle, William W.
TALLEST SMOKE STACK FOR MITCHELL PLANT. Civil
Eng. ASCE, 39(3): 44-47, March 1969.
A 1200 ft smoke stack is under construction at the Mitchell
Plant of the Appalachian Power Company. The tall chimney is
designed to pierce possible low level inversion blankets and
discharge emissions to the atmosphere above. The height of
the tower was calculated using the Bosanquet, Carey, and Hal-
ton equation to determine plume rise, and the Sutton equation
for finding ground levels of sulfur dioxide. The stack will
satisfactorily discharge and diffuse some 15 million Ib of hot
flue gases/hr. A slip form method of construction is being used
for the concrete shell and steel lining.
13051
Leonard, Joseph W. and Edwin B. Wilson
COAL PREPARATION. Mining engineering, 21(2):107-108,
Feb. 1969.
Much of the coal preparation research currently in progress
originated from a comprehensive program developed by the
National Center for Air Pollution Control for reducing sulfur
content of coal. The research programs began with desul-
furization of coals for removal of pyrite by specific gravity
and magnetic separations. Attempts were aimed at obtaining a
high-pyritic refuse as a feedstock to a sulfuric acid plant.
Research is currently centered around a laboratory-sized
model of a commercial, induced roll, magnetic separator which
is capable of creating a magnetic field of 23,000 gauss.
Research on coal preparation in relation to reduction of boiler
tube corrosion is being carried out with the use of limestone
additives, crushing, sizing, and coal cleaning. Treatment of
coal refuse slurries with synthetic organic flocculants and the
effects of low temperature on chemical and physical properties
of coal are also areas of research. Drying of coal by acoustic
energy and cleaning of coal by electrostatic separation are
being studied. The U.S. Bureau of Mines has recently
developed a wideline nuclear magnetic resonance device for
measuring S-33 isotopes, which enables total sulfur content to
be calculated.
13052
BREAKTHROUGH IN COAL COMBUSTION. Heating Ven-
tilating Engr. J. Air Conditioning (London), 42(503):626-628,
June 1969.
By burning coal in a fluidized bed, there is the possibility of
cost savings through reduction in size and complexity. This is
because both the combustion intensity and the rate of heat
transfer can be increased. Since the bed operates at a very low
temperature, corrosion is also expected to be reduced. The
sulfur in the coal, which is normally emitted in the flue gases,
can be retained in the bed, thus reducing air pollution
problems. Smoke emission from domestic heating installations
using solid fuel is being reduced in two ways. The first is the
development of premium solid smokeless fuels for use in open
grates and closed stoves and boilers. The second is the
development of new appliances capable of burning cheap,
highly volatile coals smokelessly. Investigations are also being
conducted to find new uses and to increase the value of the by
products from coal, and to find and develop non-fuel uses for
coal itself.
13057
Debrun, G.
PREVENTION OF ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION CAUSED
BY THE POWER STATIONS OF ELECTRICITE DE
FRANCE. (Les problemes de prevention de la pollution at-
mospherique provoquee par les centrales thermiques Electricite
de France). Text in French. Chim. Ind. (Paris), 99(7):964-968,
April 1968.
Principal pollutants emitted by the French power stations are
fly ash, soot and sulfur oxides. To reduce these pollutants, the
efficiency of dust collectors in old installations has been im-
proved. All new stations are equipped with control apparatus
to monitor the collectors, and existing equipment has been im-
proved with regulation of the gas flow, addition of supplemen-
tary fields, and modernization of generators. Sulfur trioxide in-
jection in the combustion gas has also been tried. Because of
pollution control efforts, the emission of particulates from
French power stations decreased from 109 kilotons in 1959 to
35 in 1966, while power output increased. Soot has been
eliminated in the newer power stations, which burn heavy fuel
oil, through careful control of combustion conditions, while in
older installations the soot is neutralized with an alkaline re-
agent (ammonia, dolomite, magnesia, etc.). Dispersion of
plumes has been accomplished by increasing the height of
chimneys in several cases, and through research, determining
the micrometeorological conditions necessary to disperse
plumes. Research is being conducted in all these areas, and
Electricite de France has set up a laboratory specializing in
problems of atmospheric pollution.
13171
Rose, Harold J. and Richard A. Glenn
COAL CLEANING IN RELATION TO SULFUR REDUCTION
IN STEAM COALS. Preprint, Am. Soc. Mech. Engrs., New
York, Paper 58-A-147, 20p., May 1959. 31 refs. (Presented at
the Annual Meeting of the Am. Soc. Mech. Engrs., New York,
Nov. 30-Dec. 5, 1958).
Presently, about 60% of the bituminous coal used in the
United States is mechanically cleaned. From the operating
standpoint, the cleaning of coal at about 1.60 specific gravity
to remove extraneous impurities is a straight-forward process
which is widely used. Under these conditions, there is efficient
separation of clean and refuse, high capacity of cleaning
equipment, and fairly small loss of Btu in the refuse. As effec-
tive gravity of separation is lowered to attempt more extreme
cleaning, plant operation becomes more difficult, the effective-
ness of separation and/or the capacity drops, and the loss of
Btu in the refuse increases. Because of the chemical and
physical forms in which sulfur occurs in coal, only a small to
moderate proportion of the total sulfur can be removed by any
known coal-cleaning process. The proportion which can be
removed varies considerably with different coal beds and lo-
calities, but the proportion removed is seldom large. The max-
imum removal of sulfur from coal by any known cleaning
process does not approach the possible removal of sulfur diox-
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B.CONTROL METHODS
95
ide from the stack gases after the coal has been burned. Other
approaches to the sulfur problem include the stockpiling of
low-sulfur coal for use when severe smog conditions are pre-
dicted and the placing of new electric utility plants at a great
enough distance from metropolitan areas to disperse stack-gas
emissions. The forms of sulfur in coal, their modes of occur-
rence, and the amounts of each form that are present in typi-
cal coals from several states are described.
13243
Kriz, Milan
DRY METHOD FOR REMOVING SULFUR OXIDES FROM
CHIMNEY SMOKE. (Suche zpusoby cisteni kourovych plynu
od kyslicniku siry). Text in Czech. Sklar Keram., vol. 15:374-
376, 1965. 25 refs.
In 1952, the total emission of sulfur dioxide in Czechoslovakia
reached approximately 2 million tons per year. With the build-
ing of electric power plants, where the primary source of ener-
gy is brown coal with a high content of sulfuric acid, this
figure is growing. In new projects, 25% of the total cost is for
installation of devices to reduce harmful emissions. The 'wet'
removal process cools the emissions, thus reducing their abili-
ty to rise and be dispersed in the atmosphere. The latest trend
is to use a 'dry* process which will remove the sulfur oxides at
the temperature of emission. Three dry methods are commonly
used: adsorption with metal oxides, adsorption of oxides on
carbon, and catalytic oxidation. These methods are described
and examples are given. Because all methods are technically
difficult to achieve and expensive, it is concluded that there
will probably never be an economic means of reducing power-
plant emissions. However, because of the threat of emissions
to the population, an economic method must continue to be
sought.
13394
Austin, H. C. and W. L. Chadwick
CONTROL OF AIR POLLUTION FROM OIL-BURNING
POWER PLANTS. Mech. Eng., 82(4):63-66, April 1960. 2 refs.
California law requires that stack-plume opacity not reach or
exceed Ringelmann No. 2 shade for more than 3 min in any hr.
To comply with this law, the Southern California Edison Com-
pany examined their industrial plumes. Gas emissions were
measured for particulates, SO2, SOS, and NO. Plume opacity
was found to be significantly affected by the amount and size
of particulates, the amount of SOS present, and the amount of
water vapor present. Particulate removal was found to be most
efficient with the use of an electrostatic precipitator which
removes about 90% of the particulate matter. The most effec-
tive removal of SO3, SO2, and NO, 75-90%, could be accom-
plished by the use of a vanadium catalyst at high temperature,
followed by introduction of ozone and electrostatic precipita-
tion. This process proves to be economically unfeasible, how-
ever. It was found that NO formation is best limited by delay-
ing the complete combustion in the boiler and protracting the
flame path.
13501
AIR-POLLUTION CONTROL: THE SULFUR PROBLEM.
Coal Age, 70(8):58- 62, Aug. 1965.
Current research on suifur dioxide elimination from coal and
flue gases is reviewed. Only a fraction of the coal reserves
meets the standards set by the Public Health Service for new
federal installations (0.7% sulfur for coal and 1.0% for fuel
oil), and there is no practical means now available for remov-
ing enough sulfur from coal to make it conform to this stan-
dard. The alternat approach to control of sulfur dioxide emis-
sion is through the application of a process for recovering sul-
fur dioxide from the flu gases after burning but prior to emis-
sion from the stack. A gas-processing device could enable the
reduction of SO2 emission to 300 ppm with a 3.4% sulfur coal,
about 10% of the normal amount for such a coal. Three
processes which appear promising are the Reinluft process,
the alkalized-alumina process, and the catalytic gas-phase
process. Costs for 1965 are given.
13523
Rees, R. Llewellyn
THE REMOVAL OF OXIDES OF SULPHUR FROM FLUE
GASES. J. Inst. Fuel, 26(3):350-357, March 1953. 44 refs.
The development of flue-gas washing at power stations came
about as a result of public pressure which, it is claimed, did
not distinguish sufficiently between discharges from short and
tall chimneys. Modern knowledge concerning the effects of
dioxide upon men and plants has yielded no evidence for the
thesis that ordinary flue gas, discharged hot and at reasonably
high speed from well-designed chimneys, is harmful to health
or to agriculture; on the other hand, washing the flue gas, so
that washing may actually increase the local pollution in cer-
tain weather conditions. It is calculated that existing gas-wash-
ing processes cost the community more than the damage done
by the dioxide that they remove. These processes are wasteful
in that no useful material is recovered from the flue gas. The
world shortage of sulfur has given impetus to the problem of
devising new processes for the recovery or its compounds
from flue gas; the use of gas liquor for the manufacture of am-
monium sulfate from flue gas, which is being investigated in
pilot plants, may provide a limited solution to the problem, ap-
plicable at stations which are situated so that cooling the gas is
not objectionable even when the fuel is rich in sulfur.
13569
Boving, Jens Orten
IMPROVEMENTS IN OR RELATING TO THE TREATMENT
OF WASTE INDUSTRIAL GASES. (Lodge-Cottrell Ltd., Bir-
mingham, Great Britain) Brit. Pat. 435,560. 6p., Sept. 23, 1935.
(Appl. March 23, 1934, 9 claims).
A process of removing sulfur oxides from the effluent gases of
boiler and other power plants is described. The hot gases,
without previous moistening, are contacted with a dry solid
oxide, hydroxide, or carbonate of calcium at 400 to 625 C. The
reaction between the sulfur oxides and the absorbing agent
may be facilitated by mixing the calcium compound with a
catalyst such as iron oxide. An electrical gas cleaner or
cyclone separator may be placed in the path of the gases to
remove any dust that may be present.
13570
Tieman, J. W.
THE SULFUR PROBLEM IN COAL: WHAT'S BEING DONE
TO GET RID OF IT. Preprint, Bituminous Coal Research,
Inc., Monroeville, Pa., 9p., 1967. (Presented at the Industrial
Coal Conference, (Kentucky Univ.), April 12-13, 1967.)
From washability studies, petrographic analyses, and pul-
verization studies concerning the desulfurization of coal, it has
been concluded that for improved pyrite removal, coal should
be cleaned during or after pulverization at the power station.
As a result of these findings, Bituminous Coal Research (BCR)
investigated a two-stage process for cleaning coal using air
classification and electrostatic separation. The air classifier
-------
96
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
was shown to be a good pyrite separator, but electrostatic
cleaning was not successful. BCR then investigated the pul-
verizer itself for pyrite removal. Adjustments of the roll pres-
sure increased the rejects through the tramp iron chute of the
pulverizer to obtain a 25 to 35% reduction in the total sulfur
content of the coal. Coarse materials from the air classifier
that could not be cleaned by electrostatic separation were suc-
cessfully cleaned by a wet method employing a filter rather
than a dryer. It has been shown that the pulverizer alone can
reduce the total sulfur content from 3.96 to 3.03%. If, in addi-
tion, the BCR two-stage system (air classification and wet
cleaning) is used, the sulfur content of the coal can be reduced
to 1.92%.
13578
Kenkyusho, Kogyo Kaihatsu
A PROCESS FOR ELIMINATING SULPHUR OXIDES FROM
COMBUSTION EXHAUST GASES. Brit. Pat. 1,098,557. 6p.,
Jan. 10, 1968. (Appl. May 18, 1966, 6 claims.)
A method is described for eliminating sulfur oxides from com-
bustion exhaust gases by passing them over activated carbon.
The activated carbon is subjected to a three stage treatment
comprising an absorption stage, a washing stage in which the
absorbed sulfur oxides are removed, and a drying stage. In the
drying stage, the sulfur oxides to be removed are divided into
two streams, one of which is used continuously for drying.
Part of the sulfur oxides in this stream are absorbed by the ac-
tivated carbon being dried, and the outlet gas from this stage,
with a lower temperature and lower concentration of sulfur
oxides, is mixed with the second gas stream to produce a mix-
ture of a suitable temperature for the adsorption stage. The
temperature of the gas stream entering the adsorption stage
should be less than 130 C. It is suggested that a coke layer be
provided at the upstream side of the activated carbon to
remove any soot or ash in the exhaust gases which might lead
to obstruction in the layer of activated carbon. This process
may be used by electric power stations where heavy sulfur-
containing oils are burned, and by other industrial plants.
13584
Miller, F. G.
REDUCTION OF SULFUR IN MINUS 28 MESH BITU-
MINOUS COAL. Trans. AIME (Am. Inst. Mining Metallurgical
and Petroleum Engrs.), 229(1):7-15, March 1964. 11 refs.
Pyritic sulfur can be present in all gravity fractions of coal,
but it occurs in increasing quantities in the high gravity frac-
tions. Organic sulfur decreases as the gravity increases in pro-
portion to the amount of carbon-containing material removed
as float. Sulfur removal by froth floatation can be accom-
plished only byremoval of pyritic sulfur. When recovery is
maximum, the floatation tailings contain only pyritic sulfur. In
a rougher float test, floatation should be stopped at some yield
point below that at which the tailings sulfur becomes 100%
pyritic. This will decrease the chances of floating high gravity
materials in all stages, and result in a cleaner product. Three
stage floatation was found to be the best for sulfur removal.
Because hydrocyclones separate primarily by specific gravity,
they are an effective means of removing pyritic sulfur. They
are best used in combination with froth floatation if high
yields are to be obtained because they tend to throw extreme
fines of all gravities to their clean product.
13592
Mitchell, David R. and C. M. Smith
RECLAMATION OF REFUSE AT ILLINOIS COAL MINES.
Illinois State Geol. Surv. Cir. 23, p. 45-52, 1938. 10 refs.
Coal refuse classified as pickings or the waste product from
the hand-picking of coal on picking tables, conveyors, or rail-
road cars is a possible source of pyrite as a by-product in any
process designed to recover coal from the pickings. Coal
would come from the lightest end of such waste, and the
pyrite, having a specific gravity of five, would come from the
heaviest end. After the coal has been removed from the
crushed waste, pyrite could be concentrated by jiggling,
tabling, and possibly by flotation. Pyrite obtained from this
process would meet sulfuric acid manufacturing requirements
of 5% maximum carbon and 40% minimum sulfur. The
economics of pyrite recovery are discussed in terms of 1929-
1933 costs.
13636
Whitehouse, A. G. R.
THE HEAT OF ADSORPTION OF GASES BY COAL AND
CHARCOAL. J. Soc. Chem. Ind., 45:13T-20T, Jan. 15, 1926. 18
refs.
Although the adsorption of gases by charcoal and other sub-
stances has been investigated extensively during recent years,
the thermal change accompanying this phenomenon has
received much less attention. In view of this experiments were
conducted with different types of coal and charcoal to mea-
sure the adsorption of SO2, nitrogen, methane, CO, CO2, and
oxygen using specially designed adsorption apparatus and a
calorimeter. The heat evolved/cc of gas absorbed decreased as
more gas was absorbed; the results obtained with charcoal and
the different coals were very similar. The values obtained for
the heat evolved/cc of gas adsorbed were: CO2.-0.346-0.255
cal; 802:0.627-0.359 cal; methane: 0.245-0.199 cal; oxygen:
0.19-0.17 cal; nitrogen:0.22-0.17 cal; and CO:0.198-0.188 cal.
An equation is given relating the total heat evolved/g of adsor-
bent with the total volume of gas adsorbed/g of adsorbent. The
gases studied were adsorbed more slowly by coal than by
charcoal; the differences were most pronounced in the cases
of methane and nitrogen.
13639
Wilson, Edwin R., Joseph W. Leonard, Richard C. Ulmer,
Robert P. Hensel, and Richard W. Borio
REDUCING THE CORROSIVE PROPERTIES OF UTILITY
COALS THROUGH MODIFICATION OF CURRENT COAL
CLEANING PRACTICES. West Virginia Univ., Morgantown,
Coal Research Bureau TR 32, 16p., Sept. 25, 1967.
By regarding ash, sulfur, and alkali minerals of coal as boiler
corrosion-promoting constituents and the alkaline-earth
minerals of coal as boiler corrosion-retarding constituents, it is
possible to demonstrate the extent to which these minerals can
be concentrated or reduced within selected size and/or specific
gravity (sg) fractions of coal to yield a product which is sub-
stantially less corrosive. These results can be brought about by
modifying current coal-cleaning practices and are often at-
tainable without sacrificing the standard indicators of coal
cleaning performance—ash, sulfur, and recovery. Coal- as-
sociated minerals which occur in nature might be mined and
processed at the coal mine for subsequent addition to the
product where cleaning procedures to reduce corrosion prove
to be inadequate. Studies have shown that an increase of 1%
in the alkaline-earth content of the coal can yield 25% reduc-
tion in the corrosion, rate while a decrease of 0.1% in the sodi-
um oxide content of the coal can yield a 20% reduction in cor-
rosion rate. It is impossible to predict the direction of change
in concentration of these minerals which results from changes
to the sg of separation. A knowledge of both the direction and
magnitude of change in the concentration of minerals which
affect corrosion is necessary. Coal-cleaning schemes must be
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B. CONTROL METHODS
97
developed from detailed knowledge of the coal seam to be
mined. Successful application of the cleaning measures
described could possibly reduce boiler maintenance at power
plants and lead to reciprocal premium-price arrangements for
such coals.
13663
Holbrook, E. A.
THE UTILIZATION OF PYRITE OCCURRING IN ILLINOIS
BITUMINOUS COAL. 111. Univ. Bull., Circ. 5, 14(51), 46p.,
Aug. 20, 1917.
Pyrite occurring in Illinois bituminous coal is usually rejected
as a deleterious impurity. Its heating value is small, and the
sulfur dioxide gas formed from its combustion with water
vapor forms an acid corroding boiler flues and stacks. Experi-
ments were performed with commercial-scale equipment at the
University of Illinois to develop a simple washing or ore-
dressing process for recovering clean pyrite with coal as a by-
product. The power required and the 1912 cost of operation,
as well as of capital investment, were determined for a plant
capable of preparing nearly pure pyrite and commercial coal
comparable to ordinary screenings. The tests indicate that the
separation of pyrite from coal presents no problem when per-
formed by crushers, screens, and concentrating machines
adapted to ordinary ore dressing work. An average plant will
recover 81% of the pyrite in coal. If the middlings product
from the jig are crushed and retreated, recovery will be in-
creased by about 6.4%. This pyrite will average more than 40%
sulfur. The successive steps essential for complete treatment
are illustrated. The amount of coal recovered is considerable,
averaging 18 to 20 t/day. It is emphasized that ordinary coal-
crushing machinery is not suitable for crushing raw pyrite.
Only breakers designed for hard rock should be used. Separa-
tion of pyrite and coal is accomplished by a simple, revolving
screen. A considerable proportion of the crushed ore contains
fine pyrite, and this is separated by an ore-concentrating table.
A process is included for recovering and cleaning sludge
water.
13674
Penny, G. W., J. T. Reese, and J. Greco
ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATION IN THEORY AND
PRACTICE. Eng. Digest, 29(12):61-65, Dec. 1968.
Although electrostatic precipitators are generally assumed to
be efficient in theory and practice, the behavior of dust on the
collecting electrode constitutes a major uncertainty in their
performance. Small differences in the nature of a dust can
have pronounced effects on both spark-over voltage and adhe-
sion, producing large differences in efficiency. For these
reasons, and because a particle is not necessarily caught when
it reaches the collecting electrode, the actual efficiencies of
electrostatic precipitators bear little relation to those predicted
by equations derived from calculated values of drift velocities.
Important variables affecting the performance of electrostatic
precipitators in power plants are sulfur content of the fuel, the
exit temperature of the flue gas, the flow rate of the gas, and
sulfuric acid, produced when the flue gas temperature is below
acid dewpoint. Among the remedial measures undertaken by
TVA to improve the efficiency of its precipitators, the
removal of sulfuric acid by the injection of ammonia into the
flue gas appears to be the most promising. The estimated total
annual operating costs for two units will be about $40,000, a
portion of which may be offset by a reduction in the high
costs of induced-draft fan maintenance arising from excessive
fly-ash corrosion. In addition, the possibility exists that am-
monia feed rates may be reduced as much as 50% by im-
proved methods of distributing the ammonia in the flue gas.
13721
Tanaka, Kusuyata and Hisao Hattori
DESULPHURIZATION AND ATMOSPHERIC DIFFUSION OF
FLUE GAS. Proc., World Power Conf., Tokyo, Oct., 1966, p.
1403-1413. (Presented at the Tokyo Sectional Meeting, Oct. 16-
20, 1966, Paper 145.).
Japan imports 85% of its coal from the Near East, and since
the mean sulfur content of this coal is 2.28%, air pollution is a
pressing problem. Wet methods of desulfurization are not
practical because the required cooling of waste gases
decreases the diffusion of contaminated air in the vicinity of
power plants. Dry methods, including adsorption, absorption,
and catalytic processes, have been studied for 10 years, but
none has yet been put to practical use by power stations. Gas
conveying absorption appears to involve the fewest chemical
engineering problems, and pilot plants are currently experi-
menting with activated manganese and lime blow-in methods.
In the former method, powdered MnO2 absorbs SO2 and SOS
at 100-150 C. The absorbent is separated from the gas by elec-
tric collectors after which part of it is returned to the gas
stream for recycling, and part is regenerated as MnO2. The
lime process does not require regeneration. The construction
of tall chimneys for the diffusion of stack gases is reported.
For prediction of diffusion from chimneys, theoretical in-
vestigations by diffusion equations, field investigations, and
wind tunnel experiments are employed.
13767
Corbett, P. F. and R. F. Littlejohn
REMOVAL OF SULPHUR OXIDES FROM FLUE GASES.
Brit. Coal Util. Res. Assoc. Monthly Bull., 16(10):437-444, Oct.
1952. 53 refs.
Electric power stations represent a case where the treatment
of flue gas to remove SO2 appears practical because of the
large amounts of coal used. A number of suggestions have
been made for reducing SO2 to sulfur, but the SO2 must first
be removed and recovered from the flue gases. The catalytic
oxidation of SO2 to form sulfuric acid has also been sug-
gested. Other methods are the absorption of SO2 in an aque-
ous solution of an alkali or alkaline formate, scrubbing the
gases by calcium polysulfite in the presence of a catalyst to
give a polythionate, and the absorption of sulfur-containing
gases in an alkaline solution of sea salt and its subsequent
electrolysis. The neutralization of SO2 by ammonia has
received much attention because the sulfur is recovered in a
marketable form. The two best known gas washing processes
are those originally installed at the Battersea and Fulham
power stations. The Battersea plant was designed to remove
95% of the SO2 in flue gases from coals whose average sulfur
content was 0.8 to 0.9%. It was based on the catalytic oxida-
tion of SO2 in an aqueous solution followed by neutralization
of the resultant sulfuric acid. Fulham adopted a closed cycle
process based on the production of calcium sulfate. However,
even if all power stations developed processes for recovering
SO2, only a small percentage of the SO2 in the atmosphere
would be removed because of the many other sources of this
pollutant.
13813
Cochran, Neal P.
COAL RESEARCH. Mining Congr. J., 51:83-88, Feb. 1965.
The Office of Coal Research is conducting several programs
on coal conversion and combustion. Research on converting
coal to liquids includes a study on the production of gasoline
from coal, a study on the direct hydrogen-carbon reaction to
produce high Btu gas and liquid fuels, a study on carboniza-
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98
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
lion, including the construction of a pilot plant at the Prin-
ceton Laboratory, and a study for reacting coal and crude oil
residuum in a fluid coker to skim off both the coal and residue
for production of more valuable fuels. A recently completed
program on corona processing revealed that this procedure is
economically unfeasible. Work is continuing in converting coal
to pipeline gas. A slagging, pressure, steam oxygen, fixed bed
gasifier has demonstrated that lignites containing as much as
35% moisture at ash fusion temperatures around 2600 F could
be gasified with high throughput rates and low oxygen con-
sumption. Hydrogasification tests of char at 3000 Ibs have in-
dicated the feasibility of a two-step process of converting coal
to pipeline gas. Coal combustion research programs have
shown that nitrous oxide in stack gases can be reduced 62%
by burning in 5% excess air. Current programs are investigat-
ing reduction of stack gas SO2 pollution through by-product
recovery and production of sulfuric acid.
13817
Pechkovskiy, V. V., A. N. Ketov, T. G. Mal'tseva, and V. G.
Pridatchenkov
THERMOGRAPHIC STUDY OF THE REACTION OF SUL-
FUR DIOXIDE WITH CALCIUM CARBONATE IN AN OX-
IDIZING ATMOSPHERE. (Termograficheskoy issledovaniye
vzaimodeystviya sernistogo angidrida s karbonatom kal 'tsiya
v okislitel 'noy atmosere). Text in Russian. Izv. Vysshikh
Uchebn Zavedenii, Khim. i Khim. Teckhnol., 6(4):991-996,
1963. 11 refs.
The possible usefulness of calcium carbonate as an absorber
of SO2 and SO3 is supported by data from a thermographic
analysis of the system CaCO3(CaO) SO2(SO3) air. Sulfur
dioxide in an oxidizing atmosphere reacts energetically with
calcium oxide produced by decomposition of calcium car-
bonate and limestone, calcium sulfate being formed through a
sulfitation step. Calcium sulfite is the basic product at 300-500
C, calcium sulfate at higher temperatures (up to 1000 C). Cal-
cium sulfate may also be formed through oxidation of SO2 to
SO3 and reaction of the latter with oxygen and calcium car-
bonate. These chemical mechanisms are of importance in the
lime method of removing SO2 from power station flue gases.
Data both from the literature and from new experimental work
were used in the study.
13829
Johswich, F.
WASTE GAS DESULFURIZATION. IMPORTANCE AND
PRACTICAL USE. (Abgasentschwefelung. Bedeutung und
praktische Moglichkeiten). Text in German. Brennst.-Warme-
Kraft, 14(3):105-115, March 1962. 21 refs.
Neither fuel desulfurization nor high stacks are sufficient for
solving the problem of ever more SO2 emitted into the at-
mosphere. The need for an effective and economical waste gas
desulfurization method is pressing. Of the numerous dry and
wet desulfurization processes, none works really satisfactorily.
The wet processes, e.g., the Fulham-Simon- Carves method
and the sodium sulfite/bisulfite-zinc oxide method, have the
disadvantage that the SO2 scrubbing process is accompanied
by a heat exchange between gas and scrubbing fluid. As a con-
sequence, the gas leaves the scrubber saturated with water
vapor and cools further, which leads to caking and lack of
thermal buoyancy so that the smoke plume touches ground
level too soon. The dry methods usually operate on the princi-
ple of SO2 absorption or adsorption on aluminum oxide, man-
ganese oxide, silica gel, and activated coal. The main disad-
vantage of the absorption methods are the high costs. Of the
adsorption methods, the Rcinluft process seems to be the most
promising one. It operates on the principle of SO2 adsorption
and oxidation to SO3 in the presence of oxygen. Through sub-
sequent hydration, SOS is converted into sulfuric acid. Instead
of activated coal the Reinluft process uses semi-coke, which is
activated by soaking in sulfuric acid and driving off the acid at
400 C. Investment costs are 4,300,000 DM (1962) for fuel oil
with 2% S and 4,500,000 DM for fuel oil with 3.5% S. As with
any gas cleaning system, the space requirement is large. No
special stack is required. The process can also be used for
gases which contain H2S, COS, or CS2.
13835
Fraser, Thomas and William L. Crentz
WASHING CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PITTSBURGH
COAL IN A HIGH-SULFUR AREA IN GREENE COUNTY,
PA. Bur. Mines Tech. Paper 689. Bureau of Mines, Washing-
ton, D. C., 1946, 85p. 13 refs.
Approximately 90% of the Pittsburgh-seam coal remaining in
Pennsylvania occurs in the southwestern portion of the state in
Greene and Washington counties and is regarded as the princi-
ple source of metallurgical fuel for the Pittsburgh industrial
area. This coal is known to be high in S content, generally in-
creasing toward the west. The Bureau of Mines undertook an
intensive study of the characteristics of the coal in a typical
area of Greene county to obtain more information about the
nature of the S. Channel, and sometimes bench, samples were
taken from seven working areas of a typical mine in the area.
The samples were float and sink-tested at specific gravities
(sg) of 1.35, 1.45, and 1.60. Sulfur determinations were also
made. A variation of S content of the samples between 0.93
and 3.37% was found. Local groups of samples showed that
distances as small as 100 ft have considerable effect on S con-
tent. A larger portion of the S in high-S samples was in the or-
ganic and finely disseminated pyritic forms, indicating that
peaks of high-S coal will not be leveled to any great extent by
washing. Only coal from below the bearing-in bands responds
favorably to washing. Crushing before separation brought
about no substantial improvement in S reduction unless the
coal was crushed to 28-mesh or finer. Separate handling of the
coal from the working places that produce coal of low float-S
content would make it possible to produce a washed coal of
1.30% S content by washing at 1.6 sg. The yield of this grade
would be 56.6% of the run-of-mine coal, leaving 40.5% from
high-S places to be used as high-S steam coal. Z The largest
yield of low-S coal would be obtained by separate washing at
1.35 sg. Practical application of this scheme must wait for the
development of a washing process that will operate efficiently
at low gravity.
13856
Brennan, Peter J.
COAL RESEARCHERS ARE GRAPPLING WITH SULFUR.
Chem. Eng., 74(21): 114-116, 118, Oct. 9, 1967.
Various processes for controlling sulfur emission into the at-
mosphere, caused by the combustion of coal, are discussed.
Researchers at the U. S. Bureau of Mines Coal Research
Center are studying an approach based on magnetism for
removing pyrites from coal before combustion. They have
found that coal is transparent to certain kinds of microwave
emissions that are absorbed by pyrites: they reason that such
absorption could heat the pyrites to the pyrrhotite-transition
temperature without adversely affecting the coal itself, thus al-
lowing magnetic separation. The pyrites must be heated to this
temperature (about 750 F) because they are only slightly mag-
netic, whereas pyrrhotite is strongly magnetic. The Center has
also developed a two-stage air classification system that takes
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B. CONTROL METHODS
99
advantage of the density differential between coal and pyrites
to clean the coal as it is fed to the burners. Another method
utilizes the difference in hardness between coal and pyrites by
using a tramp-iron chute in the pulverizers to reject larger
pieces of pyrites before grinding. Methods of removing sulfur
from stack gases, such as using dolomite to neutralize SO2 in
combustion gases and adsorption processes, are described, and
some unconventional, relatively inexpensive methods are also
discussed.
13857
Frazier, J. H.
COAL FIRED BOILER STACK EMISSION CONTROL. Nat.
Eng., 73(8):8-10, Aug. 1969.
A large corporation, through various divisions, operates a
large number of coal-fired boilers. When emissions are mar-
ginal, or excessive, the boiler units are revised or replaced to
comply with new regulations regarding stack emissions.
Spreader stoker units are equipped with dust collectors vary-
ing in type, arrangement, and the amount of cinders returned
to the furnace for reburning. Most of these units are also
equipped with either economizers or air heaters for heat
recovery. Pulverizer units have mechanical dust collectors, ex-
cept for four plants where electrostatic units have been in-
stalled. The varying equipment, locale, coal, and new or
foreseeable applicable emission regulations combine to
required a study of emissions from each boiler. However, it is
stressed that testing should only be done to satisfy the opera-
tor or the air pollution control group, since promiscuous stack
testing serves no purpose.
13950
Thurlow, G. G.
FLUID BED COMBUSTION. Preprint, Combustion Engineer-
ing Assoc., Hayes, Great Britain, 16p. Nov. 11, 1968.
(Presented at the Combustion Engineering Assoc. Meeting,
Birmingham, Great Britain, Oct. 15, 1968, Document 8533.)
The technology of fluidized bed combustion and current
research and design efforts in its development are described;
the application of this system to steam and hot-water boilers is
considered potentially the most important advance in the burn-
ing of coal since pulverized fuel firing. The principle of the
system is to feed coal into a fluidized bed of coal and ash par-
ticles; the coal is rapidly dispersed throughout the bed, reacts
with the incoming air, and so is burned. The rapid motion of
the particles gives a high rate of turbulent mixing and
produces a reaction between the coal particles and the air
passing through the bed; also, these same rapidly moving par-
ticles lead to a high rate of heat transfer between the bed and
surfaces in contact with it. By extracting heat from the bed as
combustion proceeds, it becomes possible to keep the bed
temperature below that at which the particles sinter while
maintaining a high rate of chemical reaction and therefore heat
release rate. Consequently, unlike earlier proposals of com-
bustion units using fluidization, the ash particles do not get
sticky and coalesce, but remain as discrete particles, allowing
the heal transfer surfaces to stay clean and effective. By car-
rying out at least 50% of the heat transfer to the water or
steam tubes with the bed, it is expected that smaller, cheaper
boilers can be utilized. In addition, the fact that no surfaces
are exposed to high gas temperatures should lead to savings in
maintenance, while the low bed temperatures should reduce
problems of corrosion, deposition, and atmospheric pollution.
Other advantages, such as in the types and size of coal that
can be burned, are also foreseen. Details of the process are
given, and its application to power station water tube type
boilers and industrial shell-type boilers is described. It is
emphasized that the system is still in the developmental stage,
with many problems still to be worked out. A record of exten-
sive discussions by participants at this and two subsequent
meetings is included.
13983
Idel'chik, I. Ye., V. P. Aleksandrov, and E. I. Kogan
STUDY OF DIRECT-FLOW CYCLONES FOR A GRES ASH-
TRAPPING SYSTEM. (Issledovaniye pryamotochnykh
tsiklonov sistemy zoloulavlivaniya GRES). Text in Russian.
Teploenergetika, no. 8:45-48, Aug. 1968.
A direct-flow cyclone for a GRES (state regional electrosta-
tion) ash-trapping system was tested under laboratory and in-
dustrial conditions both in a self-draughting arrangement
without an intermediate cyclone, and with a forced draught
and an intermediate cyclone to remove dust. The four cyclone
variants tested have a diameter of 350 mm and are described.
The optimum variant (conoidal rosette with a flow gathering
angle of 24 deg) gave a purification coefficient of 61% (as
compared to 49% for the basic variant), but the hydraulic drag
coefficient was significantly increased. The following depen-
dences are plotted: purification coefficient vs degree of suc-
tion; purification factor vs average flow velocity; and frac-
tional purification factor vs particle size.
14001
Copeland, A. E., G. N. Haynes, and C. W. Porterfield
FINE COAL CLEANING WITH TABLES. Mining Congr. J.,
40(10):44-47, Oct. 1960.
Full-seam mechanical mining produces coal which, due to its
increased ash content, requires effective cleaning. Since 1954,
this requirement has been met at the preparation plants of the
Pocahontas Fuel Co. by means of Deister single-deck or dou-
ble- deck cleaning tables. The cleaning capacities of these ta-
bles are determined primarily by the washability of the raw
coal, ash requirements in the clean product, the amount of
refuse in the raw feed, and size and ash content in the raw
feed. In general, the capacity of the tables is decreased by
lower ash requirements in the clean coal, by adverse washa-
bility of the raw coal, by an increase in the percentage of
refuse, and by increased fines in the raw feed. A comparison
of the washabilities of the various size fractions in the raw
feed used at Pocahontas shows a good composite washability
for raw 3/8-in. slack, the size usually tabled. Coarse sizes,
which have a more adverse washability, tend to be cleaned in
the first few of the 20 cleaning zones of a table; a large per-
centage of middle sizes, which have the most favorable washa-
bility, comes off further along on the clean coal side of the ta-
ble; and extreme fines are washed over without any cleaning
in the first few zones because of the rush of feed water.
Cleaning efficiency drops off at about 50 mesh. Maintenance
costs are low for either type table and even lower for a dou-
ble-deck table, since only one drive mechanism is involved.
Similarly, the operating cost of a double-deck table should be
one-half that of the single-deck: only one 3-hp motor is
required.
14057
Ketov, A. N., V. V. Larikov, V. V. Pechkovskiy, and A. S.
Shligerskiy
DRY LIME METHOD FOR REMOVING SULFUR DIOXIDE
FROM TETS FLUE GAS. (Sukhoy izvestkovyy sposob ochist-
ki topochnykh gazov TETS ot sernistogo angidrida). Text in
Russian. Zh. Prikl. Khim., 41(4):725-729, 1968. 3 refs.
-------
100
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
Crushed coal containing 3.76% sulfur was burned under
laboratory conditions at a rate of 2.8 g/min, and an inter-
mediate industrial product containing 5.97% sulfur was burned
at 3.49 g/min, to determine factors affecting SO2 removal from
TETS (heat and electric power plant) flue gas by the dry lime
method. Sulfur dioxide removal at furnace temperatures of
1100-1200 C reached 50-60% with stoichiometric addition of
lime. An excess air factor of 1.15 with 10-20% excess lime is
recommended. The experimental arrangement is described and
data are tabulated.
14087
NEW PILOT PLANTS TACKLE SO2 POLLUTION. Chem.
Eng. News, 44(27): 36-38, July 4, 1966.
By 1980, the coal-fueled electric power industry will produce
about 65% of the total sulfur dioxide emission. To meet
mounting pressure for conversion to natural gas, coal and
power companies are working on facilities for extracting SO2
from stack gases. The most promising of these are embodied
in a Japanese pilot plant at Omuta on the island of Kyushu,
the Monsanto prototype program at Portland, Pa., and the Bu-
reau of Mines pilot plant at the Pittsburgh Coal Research
Center. The Japanese plant will operate a dry catalytic oxida-
tion process on bypass power-plant flue gas. Sulfur dioxide
will be oxidized to sulfur trioxide over vanadium pentoxide at
380 to 450 C. Moisture present in the gas will react with the
sulfur trioxide to form gaseous sulfuric acid, after which am-
monia will be injected into the system to form pure ammonium
sulfate crystals. The Monsanto process is an adaptation of the
contact catalytic procedure in sulfuric acid production. Gas
from coal combustion in the boiler passes first through an
electrostatic precipitator for removal of solid fly ash particles.
In the next phase, vanadium pentoxide converts 90% of the
sulfur dioxide to sulfur trioxide at about 880 F. The Bureau of
Mines has developed an alkalized alumina process for absorb-
ing sulfur dioxide from stack gas and recovering elemental sul-
fur. Desulfurization of coal is considered less promising than
these recovery methods, since most coal contains an irreduci-
ble minimum of chemically bound sulfur.
14137
Pollock, W. A., J. P. Tomany, and Garry Frieling
FLUE-GAS SCRUBBER. Mech. Eng., 89(18):21-25, Aug. 1967.
Results are given of tests on the Turbulent Contact Absorber,
a wet scrubber for removing sulfur dioxide from the flue gas
of central power stations, that is designed and manufactured
by Universal Oil Products Co. This scrubber utilizes turbulent
motion of mobile packing to maintain high mass-transfer rates
and efficient particulate collection over a fairly wide range of
flows with low pressure drop, all in the presence of reasonably
dense, low pH slurry and at high gas velocities. It was con-
cluded after testing that a system comprised of direct
limestone injection into the furnace in combination with wet
scrubbing is practical for the simultaneous removal of fly ash
and sulfur dioxide from coal-burning power-plant flue gases.
Fly-ash collection efficiencies on the order of 98% and overall
sulfur dioxide removal of 91% can be expected with the
system at wet scrubber pressure drops of about 4.5 in. wg. For
a generating capacity of 25 MW equivalent to 100,000 cfm of
flue gases at 300 F, the investment and operating costs as of
1967 are about $10 per kw and $1.17 per ton of coal.
14159
Thomas, Fred W.
TVA'S AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENT PROGRAM. Proc.
Am. Soc. Civil Engrs., J. Power Div., Paper 6483:131-143,
March 1969. 18 refs.
The air quality program of the Tennessee Valley Authority as
related to its fertilizer and coal and nuclear-fired power plants
is reviewed. Preventive aspects of pollution control are basic
to the program designed for steam-electric generating plants.
Plants are located at sites where terrain is favorable to effec-
tive dispersion, and air quality measurements are recognized in
planning and designing plant structures. The program is sup-
plemented by an extensive monitoring system for measuring
sulfur dioxide, fly ash, ozone, and nitrogen oxide emissions.
Mobile sampling equipment is used in conjunction with sta-
tionary monitoring systems because it appreciably shortens the
period required to define air quality in the vicinity of a plant.
TVA also conducts extensive research studies on plume
dispersion, levels of ground level fumigation during inversion
breakup, and chemical processes for the removal of SO2 from
flue gas. At nuclear plants, an extensive network of instru-
ments monitors airborne particulates, radioiodine, heavy par-
ticulate fallout, and rainwater. TVA has sought to prevent
deleterious effects from SO2 emissions primarily through the
use of high stacks designed to limit SO2 concentrations at
ground level. As unit size and plant capacity increase, stack
heights are being raised from 170 to 800 to 1000 ft. With in-
creasing worldwide attention focused on techniques for con-
verting SO2 to sulfuric acid or fertilizer, TVA is now explor-
ing the use of limestone in pulverized coal-fired units and
cyclone-furnace units. Where fly ash creates a nuisance
problem. TVA is substituting 95% efficiency precipitators for
mechanical collectors.
14162
Saltsman, R. D.
FACING UP TO THE SULFUR CONTENT OF COAL.
Preprint, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New
York, United Engineering Center, 8p., 1969. (Presented at the
Industrial Fuels Conference of the ASME, St. Louis, Mo.,
Feb. 11-13, 1969.)
The industrial and commercial users of coal must rely primari-
ly on low-sulfur coal for some time to come. To ensure an
adequate supply of this naturally occurring or pre-processed
low-sulfur coal, it will be necessary to develop efficient air
pollution control devices for the electric utilities. The use of
dry additives, such as dolomite and limestone, could provide
the industrial user of coal with a means for complying with air
pollution control ordinances which require reduction of S02
emission by 30 to 40%. Chemical processing with a central
product recovery and reagent regeneration plant would offer
the industrial user an efficient air pollution control process
that would allow the use of a relatively high-sulfur coal. Other
methods of reducing SO2 emission, such as wet scrubbing and
catalytic oxidation, are also discussed.
14194
Ito, F.
AN EXAMPLE OF SMOKE PREVENTION FOR COAL FIR-
ING APPARATUS OF STEAM JET TYPE. (Joki funshashiki
sekitan nensho sochi ni yoru baien boshi no jitsurei). Text in
Japanese. Netsu Kanri (Heat Engineering) (Tokyo), 20(2):32-
36, Feb. 1968.
A steam jet coal-firing apparatus reduced dust from 2.26 to
0.27 g/cu nm, eliminated black smoke, increased heat efficien-
-------
B. CONTROL METHODS
101
cy to 50%, and lowered exhaust gas temperatures from 329 to
307 C. Coal content of dust dropped from 12.2 to 8.5%. The
size of the apparatus and the number of jets depend on the in-
dividual boiler. The inner diameter of the apparatus ranges
from approximately 3 to 6 mm and nozzle height from 450 to
650 mm. Steam pressure requirements vary from 0.7 to 1.5
kg/sq cm. Preferably, boiler pressure should be above 4 kg/sq
cm. Cost of the apparatus is calculated at 300,000 yen (1968)
for pressure less than 4 kg/sq cm and a heat transfer area
greater than 15 sq m; at 250,000 yen for pressure less than 4
kg/sq cm and a heat transfer area less than 15 sq m; at 120,000
yen for pressure above 4 kg/sq cm and with a heater; and at
30,000 yen for pressure above 4 kg/sq cm but without a heater.
14207
Squires, Arthur M.
AIR POLLUTION: THE CONTROL OF SO2 FROM POWER
STACKS. PART H. THE REMOVAL OF SO2 FROM STACK
GASES. Chem. Eng., 74(24):133-140, Nov. 20, 1967. 34 refs.
By adding finely divided MgO to residual oil and operating
with little excess air, a power company was successful in con-
trolling SO3 emission. A pilot electrostatic precipitator was
tested working at temperatures that could effectively reduce
the opacity of a plume from an oil-fired station. Injecting raw
dolomite or limestone into furnaces provides an easy means of
eliminating SO2 from the stacks of power stations. Another
company reported pilot plant operations in which a
stoichiometric amount of raw dolomite was injected into a
boiler, and a slipstream of flue gas was treated in a pilot
scrubber. More than 90% of the SO2 was removed. In Wiscon-
sin, a company which had not used a scrubber in operations
where a stoichiometric amount of raw limestone was injected,
reported data to support the contention that a system using
limestone could remove more than 80% of the SO2. Methods
of recovering stack-gas sulfur, such as reduction with
methane, are also discussed.
14223
French Electrical Industry (France), Oise Thermal Production
Regional Group
ADAPTATION OF COMPRESSED-AIR SWEEPING INSTAL-
LATIONS ON DUST-REMOVING DEVICES. (Adaptation d '
installations de ramonage a 1' air comprime sur des
depoussiereurs.) Translated from French. (12)p., (1968).
Experiments have been conducted at the Porcheville power
station on compressed-air sweeping devices for dust removers.
The test installation includes 14 sweepers. Each sweeper is
made up of a blowing line and an outdoor sweeping head.
Utilization, operating conditions and costs are discussed. The
results obtained are very satisfactory: the precipitation panels
remained clean after 2 years of operation.
14261
SO2 STACK GAS GIVES (NH4)2SO4. Chem. Eng. News,
44(26):23, June 27, 1966.
Pilot-plant studies are underway in Japan for a dry process for
removing sulfur dioxide from stack gases and converting it to
saleable ammonium sulfate fertilizer. In the recovery
procedure, sulfur dioxide is oxidized to sulfur trioxide over
vanadium pentoxide at 380 to 450 C. Moisture in the gas reacts
with the sulfur trioxide to form sulfuric acid. Ammonia gas is
then injected in the system to form pure ammonium sulfate
crystals. The estimated 1966 cost of the process is 0.09 mill
per kwh, or 44 cents per metric ton of fuel oil, for a 600-Mw
electric power station. The system is expected to obtain 80 to
90% recovery of sulfur dioxide and to produce about 100,000
metric t/yr of ammonium sulfate.
14269
AVCO Corp., Lowell, Mass., AVCO Applied Technology Div.
EVALUATION OF GRANULAR BED DEVICES. PHASE JH.
Contract PH-86- 67-51, AVATD-0107-69-RR, 90p., June 1969.
19 refs. FSTI: PB-185561
Recent interest in dry sorption processes for SO2 removal
from hot stack gases has led to investigation of the concept of
a dry granular bed device used as a simultaneous SO2 sorber-
fly ash collector for power station flue gases. In these devices,
an SO2 sorber such as alkalized alumina would also act as the
granular particles for collecting fly ash. At present, it is not
possible to accurately predict dust collection performance on
granular beds from aerosol filtration theory. A survey was un-
dertaken to identify the most likely candidates among granular
bed devices for power plant services. Most of the devices con-
sidered were panel filters, in which granular material filled a
narrow vertical shaft. In the crossflow configuration as exem-
plified by the Dorfan-Impingo Filter or the Carnegie-Mellon
shaft filter, the granules steadily fall through the shaft, carry-
ing out with them accumulated dust, while the gas flows
through the face of the panel in a crossflow manner. In the
Squires designs, the granular material is held in the bed during
treatment and intermittently removed from the panel by pneu-
matic or mechanical means. The Squires GSC design by virtue
of appropriate internal spacers affords countercurrent gas-solid
contacting. Little detailed data is available on the performance
of the above sorber-dust collectors. Mathematical models for
SO2 sorption on alkalized alumina were developed for coun-
terflow, and fixed bed contactors. Calculations using these
models indicated that there was no critical problem with re-
gard to removal of SO2 under conditions which the developer
of a particular device considered good for dust collection.
Mechanical layouts were developed for the Squires GSC and
crossflow designs to enable arrival at preliminary comparative
cost estimates. Since, of the non-proprietary designs, neither
the Squires nor the crossflow design has been tested to the ex-
tent necessary to demonstrate good mechanical operability, it
is recommended that experimental work be undertaken on
these two concepts. (Author abstract modified)
14270
Hart, S. J.
PROBLEMS OF GASEOUS EFFLUENTS. Preprint, Com-
bustion Engineering Assoc., Hayes, Middx., Great Britain,
20p., May 2, 1969. (Presented at a Meeting of the Combustion
Engineering Assoc., Manchester, March 25, 1969, Document
8603.)
A brief history of clean air and emissions control legislation in
England is given, starting with the Alkali Works Regulation
Act of 1863, which limited concentrations of hydrochloric acid
in the exit gases of alkali processing, and culminating in the
Clean Air Act of 1968. In this legislation, most plants are
required to employ the 'best, practicable means' for emissions
control; in addition, the Alkali Inspector sets presumptive
limits as guidelines for enforcement. Since it is recognized that
in practice, 100% control of pollutant emission cannot be
achieved, adequate stack heights, calculated on the basis of a
formula which takes into account wind speed, emission rate,
and other relevant factors, are a complementary means of
compliance. A general survey is presented of the technology
of cleaning gas effluents by scrubbers and other methods,
using fabric filters for metallurgical fumes and electrostatic
precipitators for cement dust. In 1958, regulations were passed
-------
102
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
to cover very heavy smoke producers, including lime burning
and certain ceramic industries, and paniculate emissions clas-
sified as grit, dust, and fumes from such industrial sources as
electricity production and metallurgical processing. The techni-
cal problems of emissions control in each of these industries
are discussed in some detail. A record is included of the
discussion of this paper by participants at the meeting at
which it was presented.
14294
Ertl, D.
STATE AND FUTURE DEVELOPMENT OF ELECTRIC
PRECIPITATORS FOR CENTRAL POWER STATIONS.
(Stand und Entwicklung von Elektroentstaubem fuer Gross-
kraftwerke). Text in German. Mitt. Ver. Grosskesselbesitzer,
49(3):173-179, June 1969. 8 refs.
In the years 1964/65, only 29% of all electrostatic precipitators
in the Federal Republic of Germany were designed to reach
collection efficiencies of 99% or more; in 1966/67, the percent-
age rose to 50, and in 1968, 80% of the precipitators reached
collection efficiencies of 99.4%. The fraction of precipitators
with collection efficiencies of more than 99.5% rose in those
years from 24 to 50%. Furthermore, in 1964/65, just 44% of
the precipitators were designed for a residual dust concentra-
tion in the cleaned gas of less 100 mg/cu m; in 1966/67, 80% of
the precipitators were designed to reach that goal. No new
plants have been planned in the past two years which do not
fulfill the Technical Directives for Clean Air Maintenance
recommendations. As collecting electrodes, rolled sheet steel
plates are mostly used, and once dust particles are collected,
they are not carried away again by the gas flow. The length of
the ionizing field has been changed from 6 to 12 m over the
last ten years. In some cases, a length of 15 m has been
selected. This tendency was not welcomed at first, but as stu-
dies of the dependence of collection efficiency on field length
show, the latter has no influence whatever. With increasing
size of the precipitator, new guide vanes in the form of per-
forated sheets were required to achieve uniform gas distribu-
tion over a large cross section with a minimum of ducts. To
avoid bypass gas flow, devices which direct the gas flow re-
peatedly into the electric field are required.
14322
Hein, L. B., A. B. Phillips, and R. D. Young
RECOVERY OF SULFUR DIOXIDE FROM COAL COM-
BUSTION STACK GASES. Problems and Control of Air Pollu-
tion Frederick S. Mallette (ed.), New York, Reinhold, 1955,
Chapt. 15, p. 155-169. (Also in: TVA, Wilson Dam, Alabama,
Monthly Rept. 47-A, p. 63-74, March 1955. 12 refs).
Pilot-plant data was obtained with actual combustion gas from
high-sulfur coal for evaluation of the process for the recovery
of sulfur dioxide from dilute gases. The objective was to
establish the effects of the operating variables that are impor-
tant in evaluating the process. The major variables studied
were the recirculation rate, pH, concentration of the scrubbing
liquor, depth of packing, and gas velocity in the scrubber. The
pilot plant consisted of equipment for burning pulverized coal,
for cooling and humidifying the gas, and equipment for
scrubbing the gas with an ammonium sulfite-bisulfite solution.
The effect of recirculation rate on the recovery of sulfur diox-
ide showed increased recovery with increased recirculation
rate up to 5 gal/ min and leveled off above this value. The
recovery of sulfur dioxide decreased markedly below, a pH of
6.3 and loss of ammonia became increasingly pronounced as
the pH was raised. The liquor reciculation rate required to ob-
tain a given recovery increased as the depth of packing was
decreased. There was no significant change in the recovery of
sulfur dioxide as a function of superficial gas velocity. Tests
showed that the recovery of sulfur dioxide decreased and loss
of ammonia increased as the concentration of the scrubbing
liquor was increased. Data showed that the humidifer was ef-
fective in removing both dust and sulfur trioxide from the gas.
Virtually all of the ammonia can be recovered from the
scrubber exit gas by scrubbing with dilute ammonium sulfite-
bisulfite solution in a second-stage tower. The results indicated
that the ammonia scrubbing process can be used to recover
large percentages of sulfur dioxide in stack gas and is operable
over a fairly wide range of conditions, which should make it
easy to control and should permit variation of the process for
a specific installation.
14394
Tanaka, Shichinosuke, Takanao Niwa, Harumi Hirai, Tadami
Imatake, Yoshio Harada, and Yoshiro Sakumoto
OPERATING EXPERIENCE AND CORROSION PREVEN-
TIVE MEASURE OF RESIDUAL FUEL FIRING GAS TUR-
BINE. (Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Ltd., Tech. Rev.,
5(3):196-207, Sept. 1968. 10 refs.
A 15 MW gas turbine is one of the few commercial gas tur-
bines for base load power plants using grade C heavy oil and
operating at an inlet temperature of 732 C. The risk of corro-
sion of turbine blades exists due to the corrosive nature of the
fuel and the increase of radiant heat, resulting from the com-
bustion of the oil, which causes a rise in the surface tempera-
ture of the blades. To prevent blade corrosion and to minimize
the corrosive ash contained in the fuel, the fuel is washed with
water and its water-soluble contents are removed with an
emulsion breaker. Sodium in the fuel is reduced below 5 ppm
and the ash quantity is halved by this treatment. A magnesium
hydroxide inhibitor added to the fuel prevents corrosion by
vanadium compounds. Turbine blades are further protected
against corrosion by coating with Inconel 700 and Inconel X
alloys. After 16,000 hrs of continuous operation, the average
corrosion per blade is only 2.9 g. Deposits on the blade consist
primarily of magnesium and vanadium, whose ratio varies ac-
cording to the position of the blade. Deposits on the com-
bustion basket, which could lead to its deformation, are com-
posed of magnesium. Use of the magnesium hydroxide inhibi-
tor is considered indispensible, but measures to achieve a
more uniform distribution of magnesium are being studied.
14473
Ertl, D.
DEVELOPMENT OF DUST REMOVAL TECHNIQUES FOR
WASTE GASES FROM STEAM GENERATORS. (Entwicklung
der Entstaubungstechnik fuer Abgase aus Dampferzeugungsan-
lagen). Text in German. Tech. Mitt., 62(8):338-342, Aug. 1969.
10 refs.
For cleaning the waste gases from steam generators, dry elec-
trostatic precipitators are almost exclusively used. Therefore,
the operating prinicples and recent improvements of this type
of dust collector are discussed. The newest type of collecting
electrode is the CSA electrode with lengths up to 12 m. The
plate-type electrodes have a thickness of 1.15 to 1.25 mm and
a width of 763 mm. The isodyne electrode W 17 was
developed as an ionizing electrode for operation with the CSA
collection electrodes. For dusts with extremely high resistance,
the band-shaped electrode B 5 is used. The fastening of these
electrodes between the collection electrodes is particularly
problematic. In the U. S., wires are pulled over the entire
length of the field and fastened by weights, while in West Ger-
many, frames are used for fastening the wires. With the latter
-------
B. CONTROL METHODS
103
method, spark erosion is avoided, but frames are very expen-
sive. To obtain a uniform gas distribution, two to three per-
forated plates are installed in the inlet. Louvres are used for
smaller inlets. To avoid by-pass flows, screens must be in-
stalled. In the past ten years, the field heights have increased
from 6 to 12 m. Fears that the higher field length would have
an adverse effect on collection efficiency lead to detailed stu-
dies of the relationship, but no negative influence could be
found. Thin layers of dust on the electrodes with an electric
impedence of 10 to the eleventh power ohm-cm reduced volt-
age and current considerably. A high operating voltage must
be used in this case.
14546
Schwarz, O.
GENERAL VIEWPOINTS AND WORK BY THE HARD
COAL MINING ENGINEERS ASSOCIATION ON DESUL-
FURIZATION OF FLUE GASES. (Allgemeine Gesichtspunkte
und Arbeiten des Steinkohlenbergbauvereins zur
Schwefelabscheidung aus Rauchgasen). Text in German. Mitt.
Ver. Grosskesselbesitzer, vol. 83:67-71, April 1963. 6 refs.
Hard coal contains sulfur in the form of organic sulfur (57%),
pyrite (41%), and sulfate (2%). Of the hard coal mined in the
Federal Republic of Germany, 93% is high-quality coal which
can be sold, and 7% is ballast. The average sulfur content of
all the coal mined in Germany amounts to 0.0144 kg/10,000
kcal. About 40% of the high-quality coal is used for coking,
and 15 to 20% is exported. On the whole, it can be said that
about 50% of the mined coal goes into combustion processes
in which the sulfur is liberated and emitted to the atmosphere.
Thus, out of the 140 million tons of coal mined annually,
705,000 tons of sulfur, 1,400,000 tons of SO2, 1,763,000 tons
of SOS and 2,155,000 tons of H2SO4 are emitted. Not all sul-
fur emissions qualify for desulfurization processes Thus, the
sulfur which can be gained from desulfurization is less than
the amount emitted and is estimated as about 302,000 tons.
The Federal Republic of Germany only has a market for sul-
furic acid, which means that any desulfurization process has
to take this into account. The Mining Engineers' Association
presently operates experimental equipment with which
problems such as the suitability of dry desulfurization for flue
gases from coal-fired furnaces are being studied. The results
are encouraging, but the equipment needs further development
in order to be used in industry.
14566
Bienstock, D., J. H. Field, and J. G. Myers
PROCESS DEVELOPMENT IN REMOVING SULFUR DIOX-
IDE FROM HOT FLUE GASES. 1. BENCHSCALE EXPERI-
MENTATION. Bureau of Mines, Pittsburgh, Pa., RI. 5735,
29p., 1961. 28 refs.
In bench-scale experiments, SO2 in 0.3% concentration was
removed completely from a simulated flue gas without cooling
the gas by using solids at flue gas temperatures common in
power plant practice. A testing program was completed for
screening solids for potential absorbents, adsorbents, and ox-
idation catalysts. The most active absorbents tested were the
oxides of manganese, cobalt, copper, and alkalized alumina.
Manganese oxide forms manganese sulfate by absorbing SO2.
Upon hydrolysis of the sulfate with NaOH, active manganese
oxide is recovered. Electrolysis of the filtrate produces NaOH
for re-use in the process and H2SO4, H2, and 02 as by-
products. The spent alkalized alumina can be regenerated by
reducing with producer gas at 600 C. Effluent gas containing
hydrogen sulfide and carbonyl sulfide can be converted to ele-
mental sulfur. After several absorption-regeneration cycles,
there was no loss in activity or attrition of absorbent. Ac-
tivated carbons, impregnated with metallic oxides, can remove
SO2 at 130 C. At higher temperatures, oxidation of the carbon
occurs. Adsorption of SO2 with molecular sieves is effective
with sieves of pore diameters of 13 A. However, absorption is
preferred to adsorption in the removal of SO2 from hot gases
because of its greater efficiency. A potash-promoted vanadium
pentoxide is very effective in converting SO2 to SO3 in the
temperature range 300 to 400 C. Practically complete conver-
sion of SO2 was obtained with a simulated flue gas at 365 C
and at an hourly space velocity of 1050. Further engineering
and cost studies will be undertaken to determine whether
removal of SO2 by hot solids is feasible on an industrial scale.
(Author conclusions modified)
14632
Haagen-Smit, A. J.
REMOVAL OF PARTICULATE AND GASEOUS CONTAMI-
NANTS FROM POWER PLANT FLUE GASES. Air Pollution
Control Assoc. Los Angeles West Coast Section, Proc. Tech.
Meet. Air Pollution Control Assoc., West Coast Sect., 1st, Los
Angeles, 1957, p. 102-110.
Methods for the removal of power plant flue gases are
discussed. Two pilot plants in operation at the El Segundo
Steam Station are working on the reduction of sulfur trioxide.
One is an APRA unit working on the hot side of the air pre-
heater, and the other is a Western Precipitation unit operating
on the cold side of the air preheater. Many schemes for the
removal of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides are also being
tested with flue gases pumped from one stack through the
laboratory and out to the other stack. Through the loop in the
flue gas line goes 100 cu ft/min of flue gas of relatively con-
stant composition and temperature. Processes such as washing
with water to remove SO2 were considered but were not
economically feasible for large plants. Other processes, such
as scrubbing with ammonium sulfite are not applicable in their
present state to stack gases containing low concentrations of
SO2 found from the combustion of oil. A dry scrubbing
method using adsorption charcoals has promise in that char-
coal has a remarkable ability to remove sulfur from large
volumes of flue gas and can be reused. Since considerable ad-
sorption of SO2 from flue gas is possible at 150 F, cooling the
gas is not necessary. The desorption can be accomplished with
steam, aqueous ammonia, or heating. In this procedure, SO2 is
recovered in concentrations of 50-75% and NO or NO2 is also
adsorbed. The breakthrough point for nitrogen oxides occurs
much earlier than for SO2. Since the adsorption boundary of
SO2 is sharply defined, there is the interesting possibility of
eluting the two components separately at different column
heights. A continuous flow system could then be adopted for
each of the sections. For the control of nitrogen oxides, the
possibility exists of decomposing them. Another approach con-
sists of reduction with carbon, CO, hydrogen, or methane. Ap-
plication of this method to the power plant problem is dif-
ficult, because flue gas contains excess oxygen which rapidly
consumes available reducing agents. Nitrogen oxides removed
by oxidation with HNO3 does not work at low temperatures.
A great deal of research is needed to make these proposed
schemes economically feasible.
14660
Herzog, G.
DESULFURIZATION OF FLUE GASES PROBLEMS AND
SOLUTIONS. (Die Entschwefelung von Rauchgasen
Probleme und Losungswege). Text in German. Energietechnik,
17(12):539-542, Dec. 1967. 9 refs.
-------
104
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
The state of the art of desulfurization methods in East Ger-
many is reviewed. The main emission sources for SO2 in East
Germany are the power production plants and the sulfuric acid
industry. In 1965, the power plants emitted a total of 685,000
tons of SO2. The sulfuric acid plants emitted about 17,500 tons
of SO2 in 1966. No economic desulfurization method yet ex-
ists to cope with these enormous emission quantities. The wet
processes based on absorption of SO2 by aqueous or alkaline
suspensions or solutions have three specific disadvantages.
The gases must be cooled prior to the desulfurization process,
which leads to corrosion problems in the heat exchanger; there
is a waste water problem; and the cold, wet gases have no
thermal buoyancy. Due to such problems, industry has turned
to dry methods in recent years. The Reinluft process for ox-
idation of SO2 to sulfuric acid over an activated carbon
catalyst has been of prime interest, although it is not economi-
cal. A brief outline of the essential principles of this method is
given. Oxidation of SO2 to SO3 and subsequent removal of
the latter by condensation with water to form H2SO4 or by
adsorption on activated coal is mentioned. Studies are
presently underway in East Germany on the binding of SO2 to
alkaline substances such as ash.
14707
Jelen, B.
DEVICES AGAINST DUST NUISANCES. (Zarizeni proti
prasnosti). Text in Czech. Ochrana Ovzdusi, no. 3:33-41, 1969.
Fuels used for power production in Czechoslovakia have a
high ash and sulfur content. They are contributing to pollution
of the lower atmosphere, affecting the health of workers and
the productivity of industrial enterprises. Early conversion to
gaseous or liquid fuels is not foreseen, but fuel dusts can be
substantially reduced by dust collectors. Efficient collectors
exist, and more funds must be provided for their maintenance
and for disposal of the harmful substances they collect. When
equipment is properly maintained, these substances represent
valuable raw materials that can be returned to the industrial
process. Industrial works at Milevsko, Liberec, and Nove
Mesto produce mechanical and wet collectors, electrostatic
precipitators, filters, and accessories required for efficient
operation. This equipment is described in detail, together with
the operating parameters of each item. Further research and
development in this field continues.
14730
Stites, J. G., Jr., W. R. Horlacher, Jr., J. L. Bachofer, Jr., and
J. S. Bartman
S02 CONVERSION. 3. REMOVING SO2 FROM FLUE GAS.
Chem. Eng. Progr., 65(10):74-79, Oct. 1969.
A prototype plant to demonstrate the technical feasibility of a
catalytic oxidation system for removing sulfur dioxide from
flue gas, opened in 1967, using commercial-type equipment
designed to treat 24,000 std cu ft/min; the system permits
cleaning the catalyst from the converter beds without con-
verter shutdown. All fly ash is effectively removed from the
hot furnace gas with the combination mechanical separator
and electrostatic precipitators. The operability of the dust col-
lection system is outstanding; however, experience indicates
that use of the less expensive pneumatic system would be
satisfactory. The converter system provides conversions of
SO2 to SO3 in excess of 90% as long as the proper tempera-
ture is maintained; conversion efficiency of 80% can still be
achieved at 750 F. The flue gas, after enrichment with SO3, is
cooled to just above the dew point in a two-step system in-
volving first a high-level economizer and then a Ljungstrom
air preheater. Over 99.5% of the very fine sulfuric acid mist
particles are formed in the process of cooling SOS-enriched
gas streams removed with a mist eliminator. The prototype
CAT-OX unit is operated at a negative pressure. Motive force
for the flue gas is an induced draft fan following the elimina-
tor. Instrumentation, operations, maintenance, and economic
considerations are briefly discussed.
14838
Borio, Richard W., Robert P. Hensel, Richard C. Ulmer,
Hilary A. Grabowski, Edwin B. Wilson, and Joseph W.
Leonard
THE CONTROL OF HIGH-TEMPERATURE FIRE-SIDE
CORROSION IN UTILITY COAL-FIRED BOILERS. Com-
bustion Engineering, Inc., Windsor, Conn., Research and
Product Development, Contract 14-01-0001-485, OCR R&D
Rept. 41, 224p., April 25, 1969. 35 refs.
Methods by which coal can be processed to reduce corrosion
or damage to fireside surfaces of high-temperature boilers
were investigated. Methods for reducing the amount of pollu-
tants were determined. Certain relationships between coal
composition and corrosion rates were indicated. Based on the
data, the chief constituents affecting corrosion rate are alka-
lies, alkaline earth metals, iron, and sulfur. The combination
of effects of sodium, potassium, alkaline earth metals, and
iron made it possible to explain corrosion rates on most of the
coals tested. A nomograph was constructed whereby the
potential corrosiveness of a given coal can be determined.
Also, amounts of neutrality limes and limestones to be added
can be established from the nomograph. It also provides a tool
by which preparation processes can be modified to reduce the
corrosiveness of coal. These results provided the groundwork
for a corrosion-reduction study of the entire system of opera-
tions, from the seam face where mining begins to the point of
loading for shipment. Principle methods of corrosion reduction
included analysis of the mining system, coal preparation, and
coal additives and blending. To control both sulfur gas emis-
sions and boiler corrosion, it is desirable to maintain an op-
timum balance between the sulfur level of the coal and the al-
kaline earth metals retained in the coal or added to the coal.
Conventional cleaning using gravity techniques can remove
most of the pyritic sulfur and thereby reduce the total sulfur
by 50% or more. Such a reduction greatly reduces the sulfur
but increases alkaline earth percentages as well. (Author ab-
stract modified)
14891
Glenn, Richard A. and Robert D. Harris
LIBERATION OF PYRITE FROM STEAM COALS. J. Air Pol-
lution Control Assoc., 12(8):388-395; 404, Aug. 1962. 2 refs.
The nature and mode of occurrence of pyrite in coal were stu-
died in the laboratory as part of an effort to develop improved
methods for reducing the amount of sulfur in coal prior to its
being burned. Each of five high-sulfur bituminous coals were
analyzed for forms of sulfur and size distribution of the pyrite
particles. The major portion, by weight, of the pyrite in the
samples was shown to exist as particles large enough to be
readily separated once they are liberated. The experimantal
pulverization of coals by impact-shearing, by impact, and by
air jet impingement were carried out. Results indicate that
liberation of the major portion of the pyritic matter and non-
pyritic mineral matter may be accomplished by controlled pul-
verization to sizes coarser than that now obtained in modern
pulverized coal-fired power plants. It was shown that during
pulverization the pyrite tends to concentrate in the various
particle-size fractions. The microscopic pyrite particles em-
bedded in the coal substance tended to concentrate in the very
-------
B. CONTROL METHODS
105
fine fractions, below minus 200 mesh; the larger pyrite parti-
cles, that are associated with the mineral matter, concentrated
in the greater-than-60-mesh fraction. Where the pyritic sulfur
is mainly associated with mineral matter, there are good
prospects of its removal by presently-available equipment.
Removal of the pyritic grains embedded in the organic matter
requires the development of improved equipment for
processing coal in the minus 200 mesh size. (Author summary
modified)
14981
REMOVAL OF SO2* FROM FLUE GAS. AVCO Missiles,
Space, and Electronics Group, Wilmington, Mass., Final Re-
port, 157p., Nov. 1, 1967. 10 refs. CFSTI: PB 177 492
The alkalized alumina for removing of SO2 from power plant
flue gases was studied by developing process models for fluid
bed and dispersed bed sorption systems. Using the process
models, the economics of the two types of contactors were
compared, and operating and capital costs were estimated.
Preliminary calculations indicate that conditions may be ob-
tained under which the process can be operated with only a
small cost penalty. Potentially, with improvement in regenera-
tion and sulfur recovery, the alkalized alumina will operate at
a profit while removing 90%, or more, of the sulfur from the
flue gas. The optimum operating conditions were determined
by estimating the process cost as a function of sorbent load-
ing. The kinetics of the sorption process were measured and
found to be pore diffusion controlled over most of the possible
range of sorbent loadings. The rate of sorption at sorbent load-
ing greater than 2% SO2 is greatly enhanced by the presence
of moisture in the flue gas. At 10% sorbent loading, the rate is
over a 100 times as fast in the presence of 5-7% moisture as in
the dry flue gas. A rate model describing the sorption process
was developed. In the pore diffusion region, the model gives a
good account of itself both in theory and in its ability to corre-
late data, and gives satisfactory description of the sorption
rate at loadings exceeding 2% SO2. The rates of regeneration
of spent sorbent were also measured at various levels of initial
loading from less than 10% of saturation to almost complete
saturation. Regeneration was found to increase with decreasing
hydrogen pressure, and the percent thermal regeneration was
found to decrease as the length of the sorption cycle in-
creased. There was no measurable reduction in the time
required for the sorbent to regenerate to constant weight as
the gas composition was varied from pure hydrogen to pure
carbon monoxide. It is concluded that reformed gases appear
satisfactory as regenerating gases.
15031
Bovier, Ralph F.
SULFUR-SMOKE REMOVAL SYSTEM. Proc. Am. Power
Conf., vol. 26: 138-144, 1964. (Presented at a Symposium on
Air Pollution- Control Aspects.)
A new system for removing fly ash and sulfur dioxide from
power plant stack emissions was tested in a pilot plant. Studies
were based on the assumption that in full-scale practice a rela-
tively high-sulfur content coal (about 3%) would be used, and
that plant capacity would be about 1 million kw. The Sulfur-
Smoke Removal System, (flow diagram given), is an adapta-
tion of the contact catalytic process used in the manufacture
of sulfuric acid, and consists of the oxidation of SO2 to the
trioxide and condensation as sulfuric acid. In this application,
the process varies from the conventional acid plant practice in
that all sulfur values are removed by the most efficient mist
collection system rather than the normal one in which H2SO4
is circulated. Almost 100% of the fly ash is removed by
passing the flue gas through a mechanical dust collector after
it leaves the boiler, and then through a high-temperature elec-
trostatic precipitator. About 90% of the SO2 is removed and
recovered at a concentration of about 70% sulfuric acid. An
economic evaluation indicated that the process would meet all
requirements of operating and economic feasibility.
15092
Nagai, Hirokazu
DESULFURIZATION OF EXHAUST GAS FROM COM-
BUSTION FURNACES. (Nensho haigasu datsuryu sohchi).
Text in Japanese. (Tokyo Shibaura Electric Co. Ltd.,
Kawasaki, Kanagawa Prefecture, Japan) Japanese Pat. Sho44-
11764. 2p., May 29, 1969. (Appl. March 31, 1969, 1 claim).
The vanadium pentoxide catalyst used most frequently for ox-
idation of waste sulfur dioxide in the manufacture of sulfuric
acid loses its activity by contact with water or low tempera-
ture steam. The danger of activity loss is greatest at the base
of the stack, where exhaust gas temperature is lowest. The
problem is solved according to this patent by providing bypass
ducts above and below the catalyst layer. However, when the
bypass ducts are closed to allow oxidation of the sulfur diox-
ide, the catalyst temperature is still too low to effect conver-
sion, and it is not desirable to raise the temperature with a
thermal shock of hot gas. For this problem, a duct carrying
pre-heated air is brought through the catalyst layer so that the
catalyst can be warmed before the bypass ducts are closed.
This hot air duct may also be used to purge the catalyst
between operations.
15148
Siegmund C. W. and E. H. Manny
QUALITY CHANGES OF THE FUEL OIL AT MORE STRIN-
GENT LIMITATION OF THE SULFUR CONTENT.
(Qualitaetsveraenderungen bei Heizoeleinfluss der
Schwefelauflagen). Text in German. Oel Gasfeuerung,
14(9):874-82, 1969. 3 refs.
Limitations on sulfur oxides emissions primarily apply to
power plants which emit 52% of the total sulfur oxides emis-
sions. These emissions can be reduced either by the use of
low-sulfur fuel or desulfurization of the waste gases. Low-sul-
fur fuels are obtained either from crude oil with low sulfur
content or by desulfurization of high-sulfur crude oil. The low-
sulfur crude oil contains paraffin which solidifies between 38
and 40 C so that a temperature of 50 to 55 C must be main-
tained to guarantee smooth flow through the pipe system of
furnaces. If this high temperature cannot be maintained at all
times, distillate fuel oil must be added. In this way, the
viscosity and density of the fuel oil is decreased. As a con-
sequence, lower preheating temperatures are required without
impairing the atomization process. The main advantage of low-
sulfur fuel oil is the low content of ash-forming substances
and asphalt. Distillate fuel oil is practically ash free. Two
methods are available for desulfurization of high-sulfur fuel
oil, namely, catalysis and vacuum desulfurization. Selection of
the method depends on the properties of the high-sulfur crude
oil. Present regulations in New Jersey and New York require
desulfurization to a residual sulfur content of 0.3%. In Califor-
nia, sulfur content is limited to 0.5% by weight. In general, the
quality of low-sulfur fuel oil is better, though the costs are
higher owing to the necessary desulfurization process. For
desulfurization of emissions, alkaline additives or oxidation of
SO2 to SOS and conversion to sulfuric acid can be used.
-------
106
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
15155
Kercher, Hermann
THE REDUCTION OF STACK EMISSIONS AT POWER
PLANTS THROUGH DUST SEPARATION IN ELECTRO-
STATIC PRECIPITATORS. (Die Verminderung des Schorn-
steinauswurfs bei Kraftwerken durch elektrostatische Entstau-
bung). Text in German. Energie (Munich), 21(9):279-86, Sept.
1969. 11 refs.
After reviewing the legal limits (150 mg/standard cu m at new
plants) set for dust emissions by power plants and various
means for dust separation, e.g., cyclones, cloth filters, wet
dust separators etc., attention is focused on the electrostatic
precipitator. Primary factors which reduce the collection effi-
ciency, and measures to avoid them, are discussed. The collec-
tion process in the electrostatic precipitator is theoretically ex-
pressed in the Deutsch formula, which is based on two pre-
sumptions: in each field cross section perpendicular to the
main flow, the unprecipitated dust is uniformly distributed,
and the dust precipitated on the collection electrodes is not
reagitated. According to the Deutsch formula, the larger-sized
unit has the higher collection efficiency and a low gas speed
increases its efficiency. Adequate gas flow into the precipita-
tor is also highly important. The gas must be ionizable. Pure
nitrogen does not have this property, but O2, SO2 and H2O
molecules are ionized easily. Higher gas temperature increases
the mobility of the ions, but above 200 C the gas viscosity im-
pairs the speed of particle movements. Dust particles with a
high fraction of incombustible substance and very fine dust
collector reduce efficiency, while uniform dust and gas dis-
tribution improves the performance of the precipitator. Shak-
ing intervals should be chosen in agreement with the thickness
of dust accumulating in the various sections of the collection
electrodes. Backscattering, caused by high dust resistance, can
also reduce the collection efficiency. The light extinction
method of measuring dust resistance and dust concentration is
briefly reviewed.
15240
Squires, Arthur M.
SYSTEM TO PROVIDE CLEAN POWER FROM RESIDUAL
OIL. Preprint, Air Pollution Control Association, New York
City, 30p., 1969. 14 refs. (Presented at the Air Pollution Con-
trol Assoc., Annual Meeting, 62nd, New York, June 1969,
Paper 69-198.)
If the power industry should gear itself to accept the oil
refiner s high-sulfur discards, the premium cost for low-sulfur
oils to the small non-power user might be reduced by more
than 40%. A plant is described to treat high-sulfur oils at an
existing power station and to supply the station with sulfur-
free fuels. The plant includes oil cracking, oil gasification, and
product desulfurization steps. The latter step employs calcined
dolomite, and sulfur is recovered for sale in its elemental
form. Nearly half of the fuel products are liquid or solid and
can be stored. For a customer station having a load factor of
70%, the station could be turned down to 37% of its rating be-
fore the clean fuel plant need be cut back. The scheme is
nearly a break-even proposition from the energy standpoint,
and there is a good possibility that its adoption could reduce
the cost of electricity below present level. (Author abstract)
15244
Titov, N. G. and L. A. Borozdina
ON THE RELEASE OF SULFUR OXIDES INTO THE AIR
DURING COMBUSTION OF SOLID FUELS. (K voprosu o
vydelenii v vozdukh sernistykh gazov pri szhiganii tverdykh
topliv). Text in Russian. Khim. Tverd. Topi., no. 5:100-107,
1968. 4 refs.
Study of the combustion of sulfur-containing coals from vari-
ous sources has revealed the need for taking into account the
composition and properties of the organic and mineral portions
of the fuel. It was found that with fuels containing calcium
and magnesium humates, the initial combustion stage is ac-
companied by decomposition of the humates with the ap-
pearance of calcium and magnesium oxides which readily com-
bine with sulfur oxides formed during the burn-out of pyrite
and organic sulfur compounds, to yield non-volatile sulfates.
Naturally- occurring calcium and magnesium present in the
coal in the form of gypsum, calcite, ferrocalcite, dolomite,
etc., are not available for such reaction, since formation of
their oxides takes place at too-high temperatures. One means
of combating pollution by sulfurous products of combustion
might be joint combustion with appropriate quantities of
lowland fuels and earthy lignite which usually contain signifi-
cant quantities of calcium and magnesium humates.
15251
Nishimura, Hiroshi and Iwao Osoegawa
RECENT UTILIZATION OF FLY-ASH IN JAPAN. (Wagakuni
niokeru furaiasshu riyo no genjo). Text in Japanese. Nenryo
Kyokaishi (J. Fuel Soc. Japan, Tokyo), 47(490):98-106, Feb.
1969. (1968 Printed in error.) 8 refs.
The fly ash recovered by electrostatic precipitators from dry
bottom boilers, is primarily utilized for fly ash cement and
pozzolan material. In 1966, 645,162 tons of fly ash was used
for this purpose in Japan. In addition, the fly ash recovered by
multi-cyclones is used as a fertilizer called green ash. The fly
ash utilized for this purpose amounted to 81,236 tons in 1966.
The coarse ash from a bottom economizer and air heater is
utilized as a road-base stabilizer called coal sand. Coal sands
from several electric power stations were subjected to various
tests of particle size, compactness, compressive strength, and
CBR. The mechanical properties of the coal sand differed
from station to station, but all of them were useable. During
the past two years, 100,000 cu m of coal sand were supplied to
the Kyushu district. Recovery of vanadium on a boiler-tube
scale began in 1966, and 50 tons of vanadium were recovered
in half a year. The figure will be increased when the recovery
of vanadium from the dust collector, a process now under stu-
dy, will be realized on an economical scale.
15284
Squires, Arthur M., Robert A. Graff, and Melvyn Pell
DESULFURIZATION OF FUELS WITH CALCINED
DOLOMITE. I. INTRODUCTION AND FIRST KINETIC
RESULTS. Preprint, American Institute of Chemical En-
gineers, New York, N. Y., 27p., 1969. 32 refs. (Presented at
the Am. Inst. Chem. Engrs. Annual Meeting, 62nd, Washing-
ton, D. C. 1969, Paper 12C)
Gasification with air and carbonization or cracking serve to
release sulfur from fuels in the form of H2S. Both fully cal-
cined and half-calcined dolomite have the power to accept sul-
fur from H2S according to the reactions (1) (CaO + MgO) +
H2S equal (CaS + MgO) + H2O and (2) (CaCO3 + MgO) +
H2S equal (CaS + MgO) + H2O + CO2; (3) is the reverse of
reaction (2) to regenerate half-calcined dolomite and obtain
H2S in concentrated form. The thermodynamic conditions of
temperature and pressure of each reaction are discussed. To il-
lustrate the technical possibilities, a representative clean
power system for treating coal and producing by-product sul-
fur is described, in which a unitary operation can carbonize
-------
B. CONTROL METHODS
107
coal and desulfurize the products by the action of hydrogen
and a solid acceptor for sulfur. The fuel-processing vessel
operates at 21 atm and houses three fluidized-solids zones: a
'hydrocarbonizing' zone at 760 C, which converts finely
ground coal into gaseous products and coke pellets; a desul-
furizing zone also at 760 C, for removing sulfur both from
gaseous products of carbonization and from coke by the action
of H2 at 5.8 atm and calcined dolomite acting as a sulfur ac-
ceptor; and a calcination zone at about 950 C, for decompos-
ing CaCO3. Each of these zones is described. Several ad-
vantages of the system are given: hydrocarbonization and
desulfurization occur nearly simultaneously; H2 arises au-
togenously, and a separate H2 facility is therefore not needed;
a single processing vessel can handle an outstandingly large
throughput of coal; thermal efficiency of the operation is high
enough to avoid any loss in power generating efficiency, and
the coke pellets are ideal for fluidized-bed combustion by two
current techniques. First kinetic results for reaction (1) above,
conducted on spheres 5 to 8 mm in diameter are discussed,
and a reactor for obtaining differential rate data by following
the change in weight of a sample of dolomite stone is
described.
15357
PROCEDURE FOR DESULFURIZATION OF GASES.
(Precede pour desulfurer les gaz). Text in French. (Farbenin-
dustrie (I. G.) A.-G., Germany) French Pat. 846,165. 4p., Sept.
11, 1939. (Appl. Nov. 17, 1938, 4 claims).
The invention concerns a procedure for elimination of
hydrogen sulfide and/or sulfur dioxide present in gases by
bringing these gases into contact with wet lignite or with wet
solid substances produced from lignite. The sulfur-containing
substances are gasified or distilled at a low temperature jointly
with another fuel. These gases are treated with aqueous
suspensions of powders prepared from lignite or obtained from
it in the course of its treatment. The gases may be submitted
to further purification provided their H2S content is relatively
low.
15358
Mache, A. and R. Authier
CONVERSION OF THE STEAM ELECTRIC GENERATORS
OF THE ARRIGHI CENTRAL STATION TO FUEL OIL.
(Transformation au mazout des generateurs de vapeur de la
centrale Arrighi). Text in French. Le Genie Civil, 142(5):82-
104, March 1, 1965. 1 ref.
An extensive account is given of the history of the Arrighi
steam electro-generating station and of the engineering and
economic aspects of its conversions from powdered coal to
natural gas and, finally, to fuel oil. Operational characteristics
of the latest installations are given, and the environmental
aspect of the station is discussed at some length. During a
total of two years before and after the conversion to fuel oil,
continuous measurements of the SO2 content of the air were
carried out at three locations in the vicinity of the station by
bubbling filtered air through water at a known rate and deter-
mining the rate of formation of H2SO4 in the latter. In the
winter, domestic emissions of SO2 were found to exceed
greatly those of the station, which uses fuel oil with 0.35 to
0.96% S in the winter and with 2.25 to 3.0% S in summer. To
lower the sulfur content of the flue gases, a built-in apparatus
is used to inject powdered dolomite or magnesium carbonate
into the combustion chambers of the boiler furnaces and pow-
dered dolomite only into the combustion gas ducts. The
dolomite powder dosage is 1 kg/ton of fuel oil per % S in the
oil. These injections were found to have beneficial secondary
effects as well. By rebuilding the stacks higher and slimmer
and by elimination of reheaters, the stack exit speed of the
flue gas was raised from 6 to 20 m/sec and its temperature
from 120 to 185 C, thereby raising the altitude of the flue gas
plume 100 m above its pre-conversion value and thus greatly
improving the pattern of flue gas dispersion in the atmosphere.
15378
PROCEDURE FOR PURIFICATION OF COMBUSTION
GASES. (Procede pour 1'epuration des gaz de combustion).
Text in French. (Societe des Forges et Chantiers de la
Mediterranee, France) French Pat. 1,399,747. 3p., May 21,
1965. (Appl. April 10, 1964, 2 claims).
The invention concerns a procedure for purification of com-
bustion gases, particularly of coal or fuel oil-fired boilers, by
means of a heat exchanger made of granulated material and
placed in the combustion gas duct. The granulated material
may itself contain substances which react with SO2 and SOS
contained in the combustion gas. Such as red bauxite slurry
after hardening, or it may be in the form of an inert porous
substance which adsorbs SO2 and SOS, such as kieselguhr.
The surface of the grains of this material removes the film of
acid formed by the reaction of SO2 and SOS with water when
the combustion gas temperature has been lowered sufficiently.
15436
Teller, Aaron J.
RECOVERY OF SULFUR OXIDES FROM STACK GASES.
Preprint, Metropolitan Engineers Council on Air Resources,
New York, N. Y., lip., 1967. (Presented at the Symposium of
the Metropolitan Engineers Council on Air Resources, New
York City, Oct. 1967.)
The following problems are associated with sulfur oxides
recovery: effect and handling of particulates generally in the
micron submicron range following a precipitator or existing in
oil burning effluents; contaminating effects of sulfur trioxide
particulates; wide variation in gas loading with as much as 6:1
turndown; and restricted availability of land in proximity to
power plants. The following criteria should be used for the
selection of a recovery process: stability of the chemical or
physical recovery system to the submicron particulates and
sulfur trioxide; stability of the adsorption or catalytic material;
turndown capability of the system; and land area required by
the recovery system. Effective recovery of sulfur dioxide in a
non-regenerative form can be achieved with lime scrubbing;
however, lime feed must be approximately 125% of
stoichiometric amount in order to achieve 98% recovery,
creating a solids disposal problem. Another non-regenerative
process consists of a dry reaction of sulfur dioxide, oxygen,
and lime at temperatures in the 1500 to 2000 F range, with an
expected 25% recovery; the restrictive factor is the contact
time. Regenerative processes offer the greatest potential for
economic recovery and a preservation of the natural resource
of sulfur and are classified as follows: alkalized alumina ad-
sorption; direct catalytic conversion to sulfuric acid; char ad-
sorption; absorption accompanied by chemical reaction; and
reversible chromatographic separation.
15489
Rees, R. L.
PRESENT PERFORMANCE AND SCOPE FOR IMPROVE-
MENT IN POWER - STATION FLUE - GAS WASHING
EQUIPMENT FOR THE REMOVAL OF SULPHUR DIOXIDE.
Institute of Mechanical Engineering, London, Proc. Conf.
Mech. Engrs. Contrib. Clean Air, London, 1957, p. 34-41. 16
refs. (Feb. 19-21.)
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108
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
The methods of removing sulfur dioxide from power-station
flue gases were reviewed. The Battersea effluent process used
at Battersea and Bankside power stations, removes up to 95%
of the sulfur dioxide. The Howden-I.C.I. cyclic lime process
was formerly used at Tir John and Fulham power stations. The
Fulham-Simon-Carves process for making ammonium sulfate
and sulfur by direct reaction of gas-works ammonia liquor
with flue gases is now undergoing pilot plant trials at Not-
tingham power station. Other ammonia processes that were
developed at Trail Smelter are being considered for use in the
United States of America by the Tennessee Valley Authority.
The removal of pyrites from coal is not generally feasible in
Britain because of the very small size of the pyrites ag-
gregates. The dry removal of sulfur dioxide from flue gases,
which would not entail the cooling of the gas (a most serious
defect of all flue-gas- washing processes because it causes the
discharged gas to sink rather than rise), is again being studied,
but presents formidable obstacles in engineering and chemical
engineering design. (Author abstract modified)
15516
Nelson, H. W., R. E. Schuler, M. J. Shilhan, and R. B.
Engdahl
STUDY OF THE IDENTIFICATION AND ASSESSMENT OF
POTENTIAL MARKETS FOR CHARS FROM COAL
PROCESSING SYSTEMS. Battelle Memorial Inst, Columbus,
Ohio, Columbus Labs., Contract 14-01-0001-1190, Kept. 44,
74p., 1969. 29 refs. CFSTI: PB 182 966
The potential markets for chars derived from coal-processing
conversion systems were identified and assessed. The chars
showed considerable variations in their contents of ash, sulfur,
and volatile matter. The importance of concern for air pollu-
tion is reflected in the choice of fuels used in power plants
and the means adopted to alleviate the emission of sulfur ox-
ides from the stack. Awareness of this problem led to research
on methods of desulfurizing char. A method was suggested in-
volving the contacting of a mixture of char and dolomite with
hydrogen in a rotary bed. The dolomite is regenerated and ele-
mental sulfur is recovered as a by-product. Plants having ac-
cess to medium- or high-sulfur coals will be forced to employ
means of removing the sulfur oxide content of combustion
gases before they are discharged to the atmosphere. Injection
of limestone into the furnace followed by wet scrubbing is
promising but costly. Calculations showed that a desulfurized
char has a premium value when compared with generating
costs using coal with the added costs of removing sulfur ox-
ides from the stack gases. If the desulfurization process is
shown to bear costs, there would be a large market in the Mid-
west and East for the desulfurized char. In combination with
its lack of moisture and hydrogen, the desulfurized char
should show savings in generating costs and thus be a
preferred fuel. Because of high contents of ash and sulfur and
the relatively fine size of the char, which leads to excessive
stack losses, it was concluded that there is little prospect of
finding a market for char in the manufacture of calcium car-
bide. An assessment of the potential usefulness of char as a
component of a blend of coals used in coke ovens for the
production of metallurgical coke showed that the high sulfur
and ash contents would make them unacceptable for use in
blends.
15532
Shale, C. C., W. S. Bowie, J. H. Holden, and G. R. Strimbeck
CHARACTERISTICS OF POSITIVE CORONA FOR ELEC-
TRICAL PRECIPITATION AT HIGH TEMPERATURES AND
PRESSURES. Bureau of Mines, Morgantown, W. Va., Mor-
gantown Coal Research Center, RI 6397, 16p., 1964. 20 refs.
The Bureau of Mines is studying the feasibility of electrical
precipitation for removing entrained solids from gases at high
temperatures and pressures: this method, if applied to new
processes, could open new markets for coal. However, the
highest known combination of temperature and pressure for
which commercial equipment is available is 600 F and 2 atm.
Consequently, a bench-scale precipitator was used to study the
characteristics of positive corona for precipitation under
unusual conditions of temperature and pressures. Electrical
characteristics of positive corona are presented for air in a 2-
inch-diameter electrostatic precipitator operating under dynam-
ic conditions at 600 to 1500 F and 0 to 80 psig. Results show
that current-voltage relationships depend solely on air density.
Comparison of data on positive corona with previously
published data on negative corona demonstrates a higher spar-
kover voltage and a wider range of operability for positive
corona at temperatures above 375 F. The possibility of achiev-
ing higher voltages with positive polarity as indicated by these
experiments implies several advantages for the use of positive
corona in precipitators to allow better removal of suspended
material from hot gases. Based on the physics of an ion in an
electrical field, a theoretical equation is derived to define cur-
rent-voltage characteristics of positive corona in terms of air
density. Constants for the equation are evaluated from test
data. Calculated current-voltage values at different air densi-
ties agree reasonably well with experimental data.
15543
Shale, C. C. and G. E. Fasching
OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS OF A HIGH-TEMPERA-
TURE ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATOR. Bureau of Mines,
Morgantown, W. Va., Morgantown Coal Research Center, RI
7276, 19p., July 1969. 19 refs. CFSTI: PB 185549
A pilot-scale semicommercial high-temperature precipitator
and adjunct equipment for removing solids from coal process
gases are described, and operating characteristics at 1470 F
and 80 psig are presented for both positive and negative polari-
ty. The high-temperature electrical characteristics of negative
corona in a bundle of 6-inch tubes are shown to be similar to
those found previously for a single 2-inch tube. Although the
negative electrical field in a precipitator almost completely
deteriorates at high temperature and low density, high gas den-
sity provides an adequate field to accomplish effective gas
cleanup in a precipitator at this temperature. Dust removal ef-
ficiency in the negative corona ranges 91-96% at maximum
tolerable voltage (36.5 kv) prior to sparking; power input
averages 6.4 kva. Removal efficiency in the positive corona is
only 75-77% even at 54 kv is almost 50% higher than the max-
imum utilized in the negative corona; power input is less than
2.0 kva. Input power-removal efficiency relationships at high
temperature compare favorably with those found in industrial
precipitators operating at much lower temperatures. Voltages
well above the maximum utilized might be used at these
operating conditions to improve the relative effectiveness of
positive corona for cleaning ash laden gases. The use of posi-
tive polarity in a precipitator for cleaning hot gases appears to
be limited to the voltage at which localized flares are
generated under given operating conditions. No apparent insur-
mountable problems were encountered in operating the elec-
trostatic precipitator at 1470 F and 80 psig. Thermal misaligne-
ment of the tube sheet in addition to difficulties with the yoke
and the tube rapper, appear to be mechanical problems that
can be eliminated by design modifications.
-------
B. CONTROL METHODS
109
15544
Hangebrauck, Robert P. and George D. Kittredge
THE ROLE OF COMBUSTION RESEARCH IN AIR POLLU-
TION CONTROL. Preprint, Public Health Service, Cincinnati,
Ohio, National Air Pollution Control Administration, 17p.,
Sept. 1969. 10 refs. (Presented at the Combustion Institute,
Eastern States Section, Technical Meeting, Morgantown, W.
Va., 1969.)
Research and development projects aimed at developing
technology for minimizing emissions from combustion
processes are reviewed. The projects are discussed in relation
to specific pollutants and sources, which include electric
power production, industrial and residential combustion,
refuse combustion, and motor vehicle sources. For stationary
sources of pollution, fluid bed combustion may provide an
economical system of heat generation for reducing emissions
of sulfur oxides, and perhaps nitrogen oxides, from fossil-fuel
combustion by steam-electric power stations. Research is in
progress on models for predicting nitrogen fixation; these
models would be used in design of burners and boilers for low
output of NOx. Another possibility for controlling power
generating systems involves integrating new power cycles with
fuel cleaning. Improved burner and furnace designs offer op-
portunities for reducing pollution from sources other than
power generators. Current development work in incineration
could lead to both lower pollution levels and better use of
resources by heat recovery. For motor vehicle sources of pol-
lution, the possibilities of control are diverse. Industry is con-
centrating chiefly on enhancing combustion in spark-ignition
engines by improving fuel atomization, air-fuel mixing, and
distribution. Also under study are changes in fuel composition,
high-temperature exhaust system reactors, and exhaust gas
recirculation for NOx control. Elsewhere, alternative types of
low-emission propulsion system, in particular Rankine cycle
systems, are under development. Control techniques for diesel
engines are directed toward improving fuels and engine
designs to eliminate smoke and odor. Finally, projects for
reducing emissions from aircraft are underway.
15560
Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Pretoria (South
Africa), Air Pollution Research Group
HOW TO OBTAIN HIGH STEAMING RATES FROM VERTI-
CAL BOILERS FIRED WITH ANTHRACITE. CSIR Res.
Rept. 249, 4p., 1966.
Simple modifications were made in a vertical boiler installation
in an effort to determine whether a high steaming rate was
possible using anthracite instead of bituminous coal with the
object of reducing smoke production. A complete energy
balance for the boiler was obtained. Using bituminous coal in
the experimental boiler, the steaming rate achieved by an ex-
perienced stoker was 14% more than that achieved by an inex-
perienced man. When anthracite coal was used and the stoker
was the same inexperienced man, the stack gas flow dropped
by 51%, and the steaming rate dropped by 25%. When a
forced draught was used with anthracite to bring the stack-gas
flow to about the same as it was when bituminous coal was
used, the steaming rate was 56% higher than when anthracite
was used without a forced draught and 17% higher than when
bituminous coal was used. The highest efficiency was obtained
when anthracite was used with a natural draught. The flow
rate of gases through the boiler is such that some combustion
takes place in the stack, thus causing a heat loss. Worthwhile
savings could be achieved if a simple economizer were in-
stalled above the boiler. This boiler can be applied in industry
if the draught is increased so as to make the stack-gas flow
rate approximately the same as when bituminous coal is used.
15572
Zawadzki, E. A.
LIMESTONE-BASED PROCESSES FOR CONTROLLING
SULFUR DIOXIDE EMISSIONS. Preprint, Illinois Mining
Inst., Springfield, 6p., 1969. (Presented at the Illinois Mining
Institute Annual Meeting, Springfield, Oct. 9-10, 1969.)
A limestone-based process for control of sulfur dioxide emis-
sions from power plants, based on dry injection, is to be
tested at TVA's Shawnee power plant under varying condi-
tions of limestone dispersion, injection temperature,
stoichiometry, limestone type, and particle size. A wet
scrubbing process will also be tested in the same boiler with
some of the same components. Both processes are considered
as prime candidates for control of sulfur dioxide emissions due
to their versatility and their relatively low capital and operat-
ing costs. The wet limestone process will present data on the
following: waste disposal and water pollution potential; loss of
plume buoyancy; corrosion, solids deposition, and process
maintenance; process chemistry and kinetics; and scrubber
type. The dry limestone process can be applied to all boilers of
200 MW or lower capacity and less than 30 years old; average
capital costs will range from $5 to $8 per kilowatt (1969), and
operating costs will average $1.00 to $1.50 per ton of coal. The
wet limestone process is applicable to all existing boilers 20
years old or younger; capital costs will range from $9 to $12
per kilowatt, and average operating costs will range from $0.75
to $1.50 per ton of coal. (Author abstract modified)
15616
Vadot, L., P. Belle and A. Inard
INVESTIGATION OF THE DISPERSAL OF SMOKE AND
DETERMINATION OF THE HEIGHT OF A CHIMNEY.
(Etude de la diffusion des fumees et determination de la hau-
teur d'une cheminee). Text in French. Pollut. Atmos. (Paris),
11(43):131-142, July-Sept. 1969.
The process of smoke dispersal in the atmosphere as emitted
from the chimney of a central heating plant to be located at
the edge of the ZUP area near Grenoble (France) was studied
in the design stages. A hydrodynamic channel was used for
diffusion studies as well as a 1:1000 scale model of the plant
with a chimney and the larger buildings in the neighborhood.
In the analogue model tests, the relative density of atmospher-
ic air was represented by the concentration of NaCl in the
water of the channel; smoke outlet temperatures of 100 or 200
C corresponded to NaCl concentrations of 50 or 150 g/1,
respectively, of the water injected through the model chimney
at the speed of 5 cm/sec. The speed of the water in the chan-
nel could be varied between 5 and 25 cm/sec., corresponding
to wind speeds between 2.34 and 11.7 m/sec. The height of the
model chimney could be varied between 3 and 10 cm. Three
cases of smoke dispersal were studied above a flat terrain; in
the presence of building on the ZUP; and in an atmosphere
with a stable stratification. A total of 32 tests were made and
many photographs of the simulated smoke plume under the
different test conditions which were used in the test evaluation
are shown. On the basis of these tests and other studies, a
chimney height of about 75 m, a minimum outlet speed of 15
m/sec and an outlet temperature of the order of 200 C was
recommended.
15665
Akbrut, A. I., I. Ya. Vinnik, A. I. Gitsarev, and G. A.
Davidovskiy
TESTING THE FIRST ASH-COLLECTING ASSEMBLY
WITH A VENTURI SCRUBBER. (Ispytaniye pervoy zolou-
lavlivayushchey ustanovki so skrubberom Venturi). Text in
Russian. Elektr. St. (Moscow), 3(5):30-33, May 1969. 4 refs.
-------
110
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
The Ural Branch of the ORGRES (State Trust for the Or-
ganization and Rationalization of Regional Electro stations and
Networks) developed and put in operation (in April 1967 at the
Verkhne-Tagil'sk State Regional Electrostation) the first indus-
trial ash-collecting assembly with a venturi scrubber. This as-
sembly has a high efficiency and reliability, assuring a stable
97% removal with an overall hydraulic resistance of 63 126
kg/sq m and a specific water consumption of 130 kg/1000 cu m
(STP). Test operation indicates that this assembly is superior
to multiple rod grids. For boiler installations designed for wet
removal of ash from flue gases, the use of a venturi scrubber
is one practical approach to increasing the efficiency of ash
removal.
156920
Hasebe, S, Takeshi Tsunemoto, Kenjiro Takeshita, and Seiji
Arita
DESULFURIZATION OF COALS IN COKING PROCESS.
(Sekitan no kokusuka katei ni okeru datsuryu). Text in
Japanese. Nenryo Kyokaishi (J. Fuel Soc. Japan, Tokyo),
48(512):892-898, Dec. 20, 1969. 8 refs.
In carbonizing coal at high temperatures, 50 to 90% of the sul-
fur content remains intact. The remaining content of inorganic
sulfur is 62 to 66% and that of organic sulfur, 45 to 75%. Inor-
ganic sulfur can be eliminated to a considerable extent by cok-
ing coal, but the elimination of organic sulfur is extremely dif-
ficult. Several experiments were conducted using Miike and
Matsushima mine coals. Since the most suitable temperature
for desulfurizing coal is 400 to 600 C, an effective desulfuriz-
ing agent and catalyst in this temperature region was sought.
The suitable temperature for the desulfurization using
hydrogen gas was about 800 C, above which the bonding of
sulfur with coal became a great problem. Active hydrogen was
supposed to be more effective than the molecular hydrogen.
Carbonization of coal in the presence of tetraline, isopropyl al-
cohol, or cyclohexane as a source of active hydrogen was ex-
amined. Tetraline was more effective than hydrogen gas in the
temperature region from 500 to 600 C. After transforming or-
ganic sulfur to pyrite sulfur in the presence of the compound,
sulfur was removed by thermal decomposition. Carbonization
with some inorganic compounds other than iron compounds
was examined. Strong bases such as potassium hydroxide and
sodium hydroxide can remove the sulfur, but their unfavorable
effects on the gain and quality of coal prevent their utilization.
Calcium hydroxide increases the sulfur content of coal ob-
tained by fixing the sulfur as sulfur compounds, which can not
be removed by washing with water or acid.
15693
Mukai, Shigeru, Yuriko Araki, Masaharu Konishi, and
Kciichiro Olomura
DESULPHURIZATION OF COAL WITH SOME OXIDIZING
REAGENTS (I). DESULPHURIZATION BY THE TREAT-
MENT WITH CHLORINE GAS AND HYDROGEN PEROX-
IDE. (Sankazai ni yoru sekitan no datsuryu (I). Enso gasu
oyobi kasankasuiso sui ni yoru datsuru). Text in Japanese.
Nenryo Kyokaishi (J. Fuel Soc. Japan, Tokyo), 48(512):905-
911, Dec. 20, 1969. 4 refs.
Desulfurization of coal has been investigated for many years,
but no methods have been developed for industrial use. They
have been studied mainly in the process of carbonization. The
desulfurization method was examined at room temperature be-
fore carbonization. The conventional coal preparation
technique is insufficient to reduce the sulfur content of bitu-
minous coal, which has a high sulfur content. Desulfurization
of Oshima and Ikeshima mine coals by chlorine treatment was
attempted. Coal particles were suspended in water, and
chlorine gas was introduced into this suspension for 0.5-6
hours. The sulfur content of Oshima mine coal containing
2.16% of sulfur decreased to 1.22%; the sulfur content of
Ikeshima mine coal containing 2.58% of sulfur decreased to
1.82%. The desulfurization rate of Oshima mine coal was 42%
and Ikeshima mine coal, 30%. The elimination rate of inor-
ganic sulfur of Oshima mine coal was 95% and Ikeshima mine
coal, 70%. Inorganic sulfur in coal is practically eliminated by
treating with chlorine. Reduction of organic sulfur of Oshima
mine coal was 13% and Ikeshima mine coal, 20%. After car-
bonizing the coal treated with chlorine, the sulfur content of
Oshima mine coal became 0.8% and Ikeshima mine coal, 1.2%.
The total desulfurization rate of Oshima mine coal was 63%
and Ikeshima mine coal, 53%. Unfortunately, however, the
coal treated with chlorine gas showed an unfavorable effect on
the caking property. This difficulty was solved to some extent
by adding some amounts of pitch to the chlorine-treated coal.
Desulfurization by treating with the aqueous solution of 3%
hydrogen peroxide was also examined. Coal particles were
suspended in the aqueous solution of hydrogen peroxide.
Desulfurization rate of Yotsuyama mine coal was about 30%
and Akabira mine coal, about 30%. Inorganic sulfur was prac-
tically eliminated. Caking property did not decrease by treating
with hydrogen peroxide.
15738
Squires, Arthur M.
CONTROL OF SULFUR DIOXIDE IN THE EXHAUST GASES
FROM THERMOELECTRIC PLANTS. (II controllo dell-
'anidride solforosa negli scarichi gassosi della centrali ter-
moelettriche). Text in Italian. Acqua Ind., 9(52):13-15, 17-23,
1967.
Construction of nuclear power plants will not provide im-
mediate relief from the problem of controlling sulfur emissions
from conventional plants, since construction of high-efficiency
plants cannot begin until about 1985. Use of coal and
hydrocarbon fuel oils naturally low in sulfur is impractical due
to inadequate supplies of these materials. Desulfurizing fuel oil
to 1% content costs about 25 cents per million calories, not al-
lowing for profits from sale of by-products. Six desulfurizing
plants in Japan will have a combined output of 187,500 bar-
rels/day. The Japanese goal is to reduce sulfur content to 1.7%
by 1969 and later to 1.1%. The most satisfactory coal desul-
furization process is sifting to remove pyrite particles.
Semicoke is partially desulfurized with hydrogen, the H2S
being trapped by an acceptor such as MnO2, lime, or
dolomite, from which SO2 is then removed as a gas. Reduc-
tion from 3% to 0.3% sulfur is estimated to cost 10 cents/ton
or 1-1/2 cents/million calories. Recovered sulfur is worth 57
cents per ton of semicoke treated. However, large power
plants might find exhaust-treatment methods more economical.
15841
Atsukawa, M., Y. Mizumoto, and M. Tsuda
REMOVAL OF SULFUR DIOXIDE GAS BY FERRIC
HYDROXIDE. (Sanka-yuo gan'yu gasu no suisanka-tetsu
niyoru shori-hoho). Text in Japanese. (Mitsubishi Heavy In-
dustries, Ltd., Tokyo, Japan) Japanese Pat. Sho43-11648. 3p.,
May 16, 1968. (Appl. Feb. 23, 1962, claims not given).
Sulfur dioxide from the exhaust gas of industrial plants, expe-
cially of steam power plants, is collected by the use of ferric
hydroxide aerosol with formation of ferric sulfate which is
then converted by Mn203 into the ferric hydroxide to be recy-
cled for the collection of SO2. The temperature of the S02
which passes the collection hearth is between 100 and 300 C
and it contacts the aerosol for 1.03 sec. The collection efficien-
-------
B. CONTROL METHODS
111
cy in this process is 97.3% and the sulfates produced during
the procedure are changed into useful by-products. The gas
exhausted after this procedure includes no humidity, and there
is no need of a tall chimney to prevent air pollution. Thus, this
method is most convenient and economical.
15844
Atsukawa, M., K. Nishimoto, and Y. Mizumoto
REMOVAL OF SULFUR DIOXIDE GAS BY MANGANESE
OXY-HYDROXIDE. (Sanka-yuo gan'yu gasu no okishi-suisan-
ka mangan niyoru shori-hoho). Text in Japanese. (Mitsubishi
Heavy Industries, Ltd., Tokyo, Japan) Japanese Pat. Sho42-
14712. 4p., Aug. 17, 1967. (Appl. Dec. 27, 1963, claims not
given).
Manganese oxy-hydroxide (MnO(OH)) is used as an absorbent
to remove sulfur dioxide from the exhaust gas of sulfuric acid
factories, metal refineries, or steam power plants. The absor-
bent MnO(OH) is either sprayed as a mixture with manganese
sulfate (wet process) into the exhaust gas or is placed in a bed
as granules or powder while the exhaust gas passes over it
(dry process). The temperature required for reaction is 55 C in
the wet process and 150 C in the dry process. The SO2
removal efficiency is 97.2% in the former process and higher
than 99% in the latter process. The manganous sulfate ob-
tained in these processes is later converted to MnO(OH) by
adding ammonia and oxygen within a glass cylinder. The am-
monium sulfate obtained here may be later converted to am-
monia by adding CaO or Ca(OH)2. Thus, MnO(OH) and am-
monia can be reused in this procedure, making it one of the
most convenient and economical processes for removing SO2
from the exhaust gas of industrial plants.
15902
Jaeger, Walter and Ashutosh R. Majumdar
REMOVING SO2 FROM STACK EMISSIONS. Nat. Eng.,
73(11):16-18, Nov. 1969.
A new wet scrubbing process for the simultaneous removal of
SO2 and fly ash from the tail gas of power plants is based on
the use of a separator in which gases are intensively mixed
with a water alkaline solution, distributed into very narrow
layers, and then subjected to a high linear acceleration fol-
lowed by deceleration. The acceleration and deceleration steps
break down high surface tension between particles, making it
possible for the rinse liquid to pick up paniculate matter. The
enriched rinse liquid, which is recycled through a settling tank,
becomes saturated with fly ash that is removed by vacuum fil-
tration or other separation methods. Part of the fly ash and 60-
70% of the SO2 are absorbed in a packed cooling tower placed
in front of the separator. The remaining SO2 is washed out of
the separator by the rinse liquid. The main absorption process
is the conversion of sulfite to bisulfite. Absorption with am-
monia is recommended since ammonium sulfite can be easily
oxided to salable ammonium sulfate.
15913
Pinaev, V. A. and G. K. Krushinskaya
SORPTION OF SULFUR DIOXIDE BY SEMICOKES MADE
BY LOW-TEMPERATURE CARBONIZATION OF BROWN
COAL. J. Appl. Chem. USSR (English translation from Rus-
sian of: Zh. Prikl. Khim.), 41(12):2449-2451, Dec. 1968. 6 refs.
Experiments were carried out to determine the ability of
semicokes obtained by carbonization of brown coal to remove
sulfur dioxide from gas streams. At 120 deg and below the
sorptive capacity of the semicokes for SO2 in an unhumidified
gas stream was 1.0-1.2 wt%. When the gas stream was hu-
midified, the capacity of the brown coal semicokes for SO2
was approximately 2.3-2.7 wt%. Adsorption of SO2 was ac-
companied by adsorption of water vapor, indicating that the
sorption capacity of semicoke is increased in the presence of
water vapor, which ensures formation of H2SO4 on the adsor-
bent surface. Semicokes with a low sulfur content were
identified in carbonizations carried out at 500-520 deg. Cokes
with initial sulfur contents of 0.2 and 0.3% had sorptive
capacities of 3.5 and 4.0 wt%, respectively.
15933
POLLUTION-ABATEMENT TECHNOLOGY: APPENDIX 5
TO WASTE MANAGEMENT AND CONTROL: A REPORT
TO THE FEDERAL COUNCIL FOR SCIENCE AND
TECHNOLOGY. National Academy of Sciences-National
Research Council, Washington, D. C., Committee on Pollution.
Pub. 1400, p. 181-202, 1966.
The technology required to reach acceptable levels of water,
land, and air pollution is considered. At the present time, im-
provement in water pollution control could be achieved by
wider application of available technology. As better criteria are
developed, and stricter standards set, there will be need for
improved technology. Thus, research and development must
be continued so that the improved technology for the future is
available. Although the technology of burning many types of
materials is well developed, both domestic and municiple in-
cinerators need to be upgraded in efficiency. The effluent
from municiple incinerators contains about 15 pounds of par-
ticulate and about five pounds of undesirable gas for each ton
of waste burned. Disposal of solid wastes by sanitary land-
filling represents an irretrivable loss of land areas and adverse-
ly affects the ecology of swamps and tidal lands. Since land
pollution is closely related to both water pollution and air pol-
lution, work on its abatement must avoid creating the other
kinds of pollution. Primary sources of air pollution are au-
tomobiles and fossil-fueled power plants. Metropolitan areas
are now approaching pollution levels that will not permit
further expansion of power generation without effective con-
trol equipment. The cost of transporting power from distant
plants may be less than the cost of installing and operating
such equipment. Because of engine designing modifications,
long-range abatement of air pollution from automobiles is in
sight.
15946
Ketov, A. N., V. V. Pechkovskiy, V. V. Larikov, and A. S.
Shligerskiy
DRY LIME METHOD OF REMOVING SULFUR DIOXIDE
FROM POWER PLANT FLUE GAS. II. INDUSTRIAL TESTS.
(Cukhoy izvestkovyy sposob ochistki topochnykh gazov lets
ot sernistogo angidrida. Proizvodstvennyye ispytaniya). Text in
Russian. Izv. Vysshikh. Uchebn. Zavendenii, Energ. (Minsk),
no. 2:84-89, 1969. 3 refs.
A gas purifying arrangement patented by the authors has been
tested under industrial conditions. The degree of SO2 removal
was found to increase with lime consumption rate, and
reached 60-78% with lime in amounts of 120-140% of
stoichiometric values. When lime powder is introduced into
the boiler fire box, the dew point drops from 348 to 333 K de-
pending upon the amount of chemosorbent. Greatest purifica-
tion was achieved with frontal jets (inclined to 25 degrees) and
with a combination of frontal (inclined to 15 degrees) and
lateral (at 0 degree) jets. The introduction of lime into the fire
box has no noticeable effect on its operating characteristics or
on the heating surface.
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112
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
15962
Doumani, Thomas F.
PROCESS FOR THE SEPARATION OF SULPHUR DIOXIDE
FROM GASES. (Union Oil Co. of California, Los Angeles) U.
S. Pat. 2,370,020. 4p., Feb. 20, 1945. (Appl. Aug. 16, 1941, 3
claims).
A method is described for recovering sulfur dioxide from sul-
fur- containing gases produced by the catalytic treatment of
petroleum fractions, the burning of sulfite ores in smelting
operations, the burning of high sulfur coals, etc. The method
comprises contacting the gas with an aqueous solution of
nitrogen base and heating the resulting mixture to liberate the
sulfur dioxide. The nitrogen bases, which are obtained from
petroleum, coal tar, bone oil, or their mixtures without previ-
ous purification or, are mixed with water and the mixture is
conducted to an absorption tower. When dissociated from sul-
furous acid by heating, the bases separate as an oil less dense
than the aqueous layer. These dissociated bases are used in
subsequent cyclic and regeneration processes. Depending on
gas and liquid flow rates, the process reduces gases containing
5-10% sulfur dioxide to less than one-tenth sulfur dioxide.
15976
Horvath, Tibor, Karoly Nagy, and Ferdinand Zoltan
PROCESS TO EXTRACT SULFUR DIOXIDE FROM FLUE
GASES WITH SIMULTANEOUS PRODUCTION OF MAGNE-
SIA REFRACTORY FROM MINERALS. (Eljaras fustgasok
kendioxid tartalmanak kinyeresere, magnezit tuzallo anyagnak
kozetekbol valo egyideju cloallitasa mellett). Text in Hungari-
an. (Assignee not given.) Hungarian Pat. 152,841. 4p., Dec. 12,
1965. (Appl. May 2, 1965, 7 claims).
The 0.2-0.5% sulfur dioxide-containing flue gases from power
plants are first cooled to ambient temperatures and dust parti-
cles removed. The gases are then passed to a suitable gas ab-
sorption apparatus and washed with a watery suspension of a
finely ground, preheated magnesium compound such as
dolomite or serpentine. The sulfur dioxide and magnesium will
combine to form mainly bisulfite; the solution will have a mag-
nesium content of 14-19 g/1. If the suspension pH is kept
above 4.75, the purity of the magnesium oxide will be 95-97%.
The other condition of magnesium oxide selectivity is the in-
hibition of the oxidation of the sulfides of the other metals,
e.g., calcium, small amounts of inhibitors, e.g., p-amino-phenol
will suffice. The output of the gas absorption apparatus (or
reactor column) is filtered or centrifuged, and the pure mag-
nesium bisulfide solution heated to 80-100 C. The pH of the
solution is raised to 9 or more by the addition of magnesium
oxide or hydroxide, one or two hrs of stirring the hot solution
will precipitate more than 80% of the magnesium salts in
forms that can be easily filtered from the basic solution. The
filtered salts can be roasted in conventional apparatus at 700-
900 C. The gases are fed to sulfuric acid producing towers; the
magnesium oxide is burned at 1500-1800 C into sintered mag-
nesite. The sulfur dioxide removal from the flue gases is 70-
90% efficient; of this quantity, 40-90% is converted to sulfuric
acid. The conversion of the magnesium containing minerals is
50-90% effective; the magnesite-sinter is 95-97% pure.
16068
Schlachter, D. J.
REDUCTION OF STACK EMISSION THROUGH
MODERNIZATION OF POWER PLANT FACILITIES.
Preprint, Andrew Jergens Co., Cincinnati, Ohio, 13p., 1963.
A company's power plant operations were modernized to meet
new emission standards by replacing a pulverized fired boiler
with a boiler fired by a spreader stoker with a continuous
moving grate. To achieve smokeless combustion, the boiler
was equipped with pneumatic combustion controls, a tubular
dust collector with section damper for low load operation, a
convertible grate damper providing acceptable burning rates at
both high and low loads, and overfire air jets and sidewall air
jets for the proper mixing of fuel and air. Coal is mechanically
distributed over the surface of the stoker grate by feeders
equipped with rotor blades. The boiler satisfactorily meets
steam load requirements of 50,000 Ibs of steam/hr at maxium
loads and 5000 Ibs at minimum loads and simultaneously
reduces stack emissions.
16173
PILOT PLANT ABSORBS SULFUR IN STATION STACK
GASES. Elec. World, 168(15);29-30, Oct. 9, 1967.
A pilot unit for the chemical absorption of SO2 and S03 was
tested for several months in a power plant and was found to
remove more than 90% of sulfur in stack gases and all the fly
ash that remained after gases passed the precipitator. Flue gas
is passed through a reactor which removes both SOS and fly
ash. From the reactor the flow goes to a receiving tank and
then to a special treatment tank. Part of the solution, minus
the SO2, SO3, and fly ash, is returned from the treatment tank
to the reactor from which clean air is discharged to the stack.
The remainder of the solution, which contains the S02
removed from the stack gases, is pumped to a cooler and
stripping column. SO2 vapor passes from the column to a
compressor. The solution is pumped from the stripping column
back to the receiving tank. The recovered SO2 is 99.9% pure
and is marketed to sulfuric acid plants or converted to elemen-
tal sulfur. Estimated annual operating costs for the S02
removal system are $2,008,600. Estimated sulfur recovery is
81,000 tons, the sale of which should cover investment and
operating costs. Investment costs and operating costs are
itemized.
16224
Van Duuren, H. and A. J. Elshout
THE CURRENT SITUATION IN THE ELECTRICITY-
GENERATING INDUSTRY IN CONNECTION WITH THE
CAMPAIGN AGAINST AIR POLLUTION. (De stand va zaken
bij de elektriciteitsproduktiebedrijven in verband met de
bestrijding van de luchtverontreiniging). Electro-Techniek (The
Hague), 44(20):459-465, 1966. 3 refs. Translated from Dutch.
Franklin Inst. Research Labs., Philadelphia, Pa., Science Info.
Services, 24p., May 19, 1969.
Air pollution problems of power stations in the Netherlands
were discussed. Control of air pollution is receiving full atten-
tion on the part of these industries. Data from stations in
operation from 1954 to 1965 provide a description of the mea-
sures taken to avoid pollutant emissions, including flyash col-
lectors and higher chimneys. Since the increasing demand for
power is to a considerable extent covered by the delivery of
electricity, the shift thereby developing from the fueling of
small installations and small power plants to large power
plants already signifies a positive contribution to combatting
air pollution. It is also possible to make air pollution control a
substantial part of the operating management by big invest-
ments in the field. Measurements of the short-term concentra-
tions of SO2 around a number of power plants showed that
these concentrations were lower than the maximum allowable
concentrations. The long-term average concentration due to
the stations was only a small part of the total ground-level
concentration. In spite of the great increase in electricity
productions and the resulting increase in fuel consumption, the
-------
B. CONTROL METHODS
113
increase in air pollution in the Netherlands is not disquieting
as a result of the measures taken by the power plants.
16240
Wahnschaffe E.
CONTRIBUTION TO FORMATION OF SO3 AND SO2 IN
FLUE GASES IN OIL FIRING SYSTEM. (Bin Beitrag zur Bil-
dung von SO3 and SO2 in Rauchgasen einer Oelfeuerung).
Text in German. Mitt. Ver. Grosskesselbesitzer, no. 108:166-
73, June 1967. 11 refs.
The SOS content in flue gases from an oil-fired steam genera-
tor were continuously measured using a sulfotherm, and the
formation of SOS and SO2 was studied. Flue gases with tem-
peratures of 550 and 600 C were filtered and sent to the
analyzer with temperatures above the dew point. The SOS
components were absorbed in condensating water vapor. The
sulfuric acid which forms simultaneously with the sulfurous
acid was thermally separated and cooled. Its electric conduc-
tivity which is proportional to the SOS concentration in the gas
was measured. The measurements showed that the SO3 forma-
tion is inversely proportional to the absolute temperature and
directly proportional to the O2 content. Magnesium oxide
proved to be best suitable for sulfur removal among the oxida-
tion catalysts used as oil additives or blown directly into the
firebox; however, it is uneconomical.
16248
Miller, D. M. and James Jonakin
KANSAS P & L TO TRAP SULFUR WITH FLUE-GAS
SCRUBBER. Elec. World, 169(10):35-36, March 4, 1968.
An air pollution control system now being installed in a coal-
fired power plant comprises a limestone injection and wet
scrubbing system guaranteed to remove 83% of the sulfur
dioxide and 99% of the particulates from flue gas. In addition,
about 20% of the nitrogen oxides will be removed. Limestone,
injected in a furnace at a rate of about 185 Ib per ton of coal,
will be calcined into a more reactive compound that combines
with all the SOS and a portion of the SO2 to form calcium
compounds. The flue gas passes through an air preheater to
the scrubber where the remaining SO2 and fly ash will be
removed. Compounds resulting from reactions in the furnace
and scrubber are precipitated out or dissolved, then sluiced
with the fly ash to a settling pond. Field tests show that
limestone and coal can be mixed without excessive segrega-
tion, that the mixture has little effect on pulverizer power
requirements, and that the furnace will be less subject to
slagging. It is concluded that the limestone scrubbing system is
the most economical for meeting and surpassing future emis-
sion requirements. Initial cost of equipment and installation
will be $3 million.
16250
Parker, William Clifford and Hubert Clarke
FULHAM BASE-LOAD POWER STATION: MECHANICAL
AND ELECTRICAL CONSIDERATIONS. Inst. Civil Eng. J.
(London), vol. 9:17-36, 1938 2 refs.
The design, construction, and operation of a large municipal
coal-fired base-load power station are discussed in detail. At-
tention is focused on the gas washing plant for extracting sul-
fur dioxide from flue gases. The gas is washed with river
water containing lime and other alkalies. In early experiments,
the sulfur dioxide was neutralized by the lime and precipitated
as a mixture of calcium sulfite and calcium sulfate, the latter
crystallizing when formed at concentrations greater than satu-
ration. Crystallization is now prevented by maintaining a
suspension of gypsum crystals in the washing medium. When
more than five percent of gypsum crystals is suspended in a
liquor, which commences in a highly saturated state, the su-
persaturation falls to nothing within almost one minute. In
practice, a delay period of three and one-half minutes is al-
lowed between cycles of the recirculating liquid, so that the
presence of the suspended crystals effectively prevents any
supersaturation existing in the washing liquid from entering the
packed scrubbers. Flue gases are generally as low as 0.0006
grain of sulfur per cu ft. Only traces of dust having a size less
than five micron pass out with the exit gases to the at-
mosphere.
16279
Curran, George P., Carl E. Fink, and Everett Gorin
BENCH SCALE RESEARCH ON CSG PROCESS. OPERA-
TION OF THE BENCH SCALE CONTINUOUS GASIFICA-
TION UNIT. PHASE H. (INTERIM REPORT). Consolidation
Coal Co., Library, Pa., Research Div., Office of Coal
Research, Contract 14-01-0001-415, R and D Rept. 16, 233p.,
1968. 11 refs. CFSTI: PB184720
The salient features of the carbon dioxide acceptor process
were studied and the feasibility of the process determined in a
pre-pilot continuous prototype unit. The unit was designed to
study the operation of a two-vessel system with a simultane-
ous operation of one vessel as a regenerator and the other as
either a hydrodevclatilizer or a gasifier. Sub-bituminous coals
and lignite or lignite chars were used in the study. A number
of dolomites and limestones and a synthetic 'melt' type of ac-
ceptor were also tested. The study demonstrates in particular
the feasibility of handling a dual fluo-solids system with the
acceptor continuously showering through and segregating at
the bottom of a fluidized char under full process conditions of
temperature and pressure. Both dolomites and limestones were
found to maintain the equilibrium activity required to absorb
carbon dioxide. Acceptor conglomeration was not a problem in
the fluidized bed. However, serious operating problems were
found with western sub-bituminous coals due to deposit for-
mation in the regenerator and bulk ash fusion. Excessive parti-
cle swelling and some coking was experienced when these
coals were processed directly in the devolatilizer. Light preox-
idation of the coal at 500 F prevented coking. Coking was not
a problem in the direct hydrodevolatilization of lignites, but
particle swelling occurred and resulted in a low density char.
Lignite preoxidation is suggested to increase the char particle
density. Lignites are sufficiently reactive to permit operation
of the gasifier at 1500 F and a total system pressure of 11 atm.
With less reactive sub-bituminous chars, a gasification tem-
perature 50 F higher is needed to achieve gasification rates
comparable with those of lignite. To achieve adequate CO2 ab-
sorption, the system pressure must be 20 atm. A correlation of
the experimental data is presented which can be used to pre-
dict equilibrium acceptor activity as a function of acceptor
make-up rate and operation temperatures in the gasifier and
regenerator. The sulfur cycle is discussed with respect to sul-
fur pick-up in the gasifier and devolatilizer, sulfur rejection in
the regenerator, and reactions of fuel char sulfur in the
regenerator.
16282
Bechtel Corp., San Francisco, Calif.
ALKALI SCRUBBING TEST FACILITY. PHASE I: PRELIMI-
NARY ENGINEERING. NAPCA Contract PH 22-68-27, 332p.,
May 1969. 124 refs.
Comparative tests of various scrubbers was carried out to
identify those meeting the requirements of limestone injection-
-------
114
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
wet scrubbing process for removing sulfur dioxide and particu-
lates from waste gases emitted by coal-fired power plants and
industrial complexes. The criteria used in selecting scrubbers
were pressure drop, turndown capability, plugging charac-
teristics, mist elimination, and scrubber liquid requirement.
The data obtained for each scrubber are tabulated, as are esti-
mated capital and operating costs. Less expensive design alter-
natives are considered. Also studied was the chemistry of SO2
absorption. In the limestone scrubbing process, which circu-
lates a solution saturated with CaSO3, the shift from
monosulfite is considered the key mechanism responsible for
absorbing SO2 from flue gas. This means that the solution en-
tering the top of the scrubber need not contain Ca(OH)2 if the
required stoichiometric amount of CaSO3 is present. The pH
of the liquor entering the absorber should be between 6-7. As
the liquid passes through the absorber, it absorbs SO2, sulfite
shifts to bisulfite, and the pH falls to between 5-6. In the
liquor circuit outside the scrubber, solution occurs and
Ca(OH)2 forms which then reacts with bisulfite to precipitate
CaSO3. The circulation rate required for given SO2 concentra-
tions is determined by the solubility of CaSO3. If the rate is
too large, a slurry can be used. Final evaluation of scrubber
performance in laboratory facilities will require more data on
sufficient gas-liquid phase equilibrium for gas-phase SO2 con-
centrations.
16346
Uno, T., S. Fukui, M. Atsukawa, M. Higashi, H. Yamada, and
K. Kamei
SO2 CONVERSION-6. SCALE-UP OF A SO2 CONTROL
PROCESS. Chem. Eng. Progr., 66(l):61-65, Jan. 1970. Parts 1-
5. Ibid, Aug. p. 62; Sept. p. 69; Oct. p. 74; Nov. p. 73; and
Dec. p. 61, 1969.
At a semi-commercial power plant, which treats 150,000 cu
Nm hr pf flue gas, up to 90% sulfur dioxide removal is ef-
fected by a process which uses activated manganese oxide as
the absorbent. Ammonium sulfate is recovered as a by-product
through regeneration of the spent absorbent. In the process,
the powdery absorbent is fed to the absorber where it is
dispersed in the flue gas, transported with the gas stream, and
reacted with the sulfur oxides. The resultant manganese
sulfate and the excess of unreacted absorbent are collected in
a mechanical separator and electrostatic precipitator. The
greater part of the collected absorbent is returned to the ab-
sorber as recycled solids and the remainder regenerated and
recycled. Absorption takes place at 100-180 C while the absor-
bent is transported with the flue gas. A recycle-to-refreshed
solids ratio of 6:1 or 7:1 is used, depending on the sulfur ox-
ides concentration of the flue gas. The amount of absorbent
escaping with flue gas is less than 10 mg/cu Nm and its man-
ganese content, less than 15%. The high collection efficiency
of the plant is due in large part to absorbent properties such as
large particle size, high specific density, and optimum electric
resistivity. The absorber scale-up is described in detail and
equations given for over-all reaction rates. The scale-up shows
that the effect of gas velocity and absorbent concentration are
negligible in commercial absorbers, which can be designed on
the basis of the calculated value of mean residence time at
given conditions.
16418
Cortelyou, C. G.
COMMERCIAL PROCESSES FOR SO2 REMOVAL. Chem.
Eng. Progr., 65(9): 69-77, Sept. 1969. 5 refs.
Projections of the amount of sulfur oxides emitted from major
sources for ten year intervals from 1970 2000 are presented.
Four stack gas sulfur removal processes are given economic
and technical evaluation: dry dolomite injection with wet
scrubbing, catalytic oxidation, the alkalized alumina process,
and the Reinluft dry char absorption process. These methods
will find their widest application among large combustion
units, such as power generating stations; in general, they will
not be applied to existing facilities. Cost considerations in-
dicate that the processes will utilize the highest sulfur content
fuel available. The eventual choice of processes will be guided
by stage of technical development, storage, transport, and
marketing costs associated with each type of by-product.
(Author summary modified)
16425
Slack, A. V.
REMOVAL OF SULFUR OXIDES FROM POWER PLANT
STACK GASES: OUTLINE OF MAJOR PROBLEMS.
Preprint, Metropolitan Engineers Council on Air Resources,
New York, N. Y., p. 42-49, Oct. 1967. 2 refs. (Presented at
Symposium Metropolitan Engineers Council on Air Resources,
ONew York City, Oct. 1967.)
Various problems of sulfur oxides removal and its impact on
process possibilities were reviewed. The discussion was
restricted to twelve major removal processes which are being
studied in large test units taking gas from a power plant or
other sulfur dioxide producing plants: injection of pulverized
limestone into boiler; scrubbing exit gas with lime slurry; ab-
sorption in alkalized alumina; absorption in manganese diox-
ide; absorption in metal oxides; absorption in calcium hydrox-
ide; absorption in ammonia solution; continuous adsorption of
cooled gas on carbon with intermittent washing; adsorption of
gas on carbon in cyclic process with separate washing; adsorp-
tion of gas on carbon followed by heating; catalytic oxidation
followed by condensation of acid; and catalytic oxidation fol-
lowed by injection of ammonia. The several unresolved
problems in reducing sulfur dioxide emissions from power
plants make the status of both removal and recovery methods
uncertain. Some of the problems do not have any obvious
solution. These include the large tonnage of the product made,
both in regard to space for discarding of waste products and
the economics of marketing vary large quantities of saleable
material produced; declining load factor and variable operation
of power plants, with adverse effect on operation of a chemi-
cal recovery plant; and the growing use of nuclear power for
new plants. For some processes, new fossil fuel plants are
more amenable to fitting with sulfur dioxide recovery equip-
ment than are the old ones. The main problem with limestone
injection is the short retention time in the boiler and also the
presence of cooled surfaces in the boiler, on which molten
droplets of slag solidify. One of the main difficulties with lime
slurry scrubbing is that the gas is cooled and therefore loses
bouyancy which is important in getting pollutants high in the
air before they drift earthward. Other problems in the process
operation are the presence of undesirable gas constituents in
stack gas, corrosion, gas pressure drop, and low product grade
in recovery processes. The process operation problems are
less difficult in some respects and progress is being made in
solving them.
16496
Denes, S., L. Farkas, and Gy. Varju
HOT-LINE INSULATOR WASHING AS AN EFFECTIVE
MEANS OF COMBATTING HEAVY POLLUTION. Preprint,
6p., 3 refs. (Presented at the Conference Internationale des
Grands Reseaux Electriques, 22nd, Paris, June 10-20, 1968.)
-------
B. CONTROL METHODS
115
In the area of thermal power stations fired by a high ash-con-
tent, low-grade coal, the pollution of insulators can cause
flashovers that jeopardize the continuous operation of outdoor
switching stations. At a Hungarian power station, this problem
was minimized by the development of a mobile insulator wash-
ing unit provided with a water nozzle delivering a single con-
tinuous water jet. The components of the unit are assembled
on a rubber-tire carriage easily moved by two operators. Pro-
tection against electric shock is provided by an automatically
controlled valve for shutting off the water supply to the noz-
zle. All 120 kV insulators of the substation are washed in three
and one-half hours without interference to the normal service
of the high voltage equipment. Neither the conductivity of the
river water used for washing nor the amount of suspended
matter contained in the water have influenced washing opera-
tions. Moreover, satisfactory results have been obtained under
extreme weather conditions. A comparison with silicone-grease
treatments and stationary washing units shows that the method
is more reliable and less expensive.
16500
Mactaggart, E. F.
SULPHUR RECOVERY FROM STACK GASES. A REVIEW
OF CURRENT PRACTICE. Ind. Chemist, 16(190):323-324,
328, Nov. 1940.
Processes for removing sulfur from power station combustion
gases and from smelter gases are summarized. When by-
product recovery is not desired, sulfur can be economically
removed from power plant stack gases by washing the gases
with water. At one power station, 80-90% sulfur removal was
obtained by preliminary washing with water followed by the
passage of the gases through a suspension of chalk in water.
In the case of smelter gases, reduction to sulfur is of interest
when the concentration of sulfur dioxide in the metallurgical
stacks does not exceed two percent. As a general rule, it is
first necessary to concentrate the sulfur dioxide by a process
such as the Ciba, or Sulphidine, process, wherein the sulfur
dioxide is absorbed by a xylidine water mixture, which forms
a homogeneous liquid when the concentration of sulfur dioxide
is more than 100 g/1. On heating to 80-100 C, sulfur dioxide is
evolved. Any sulfate formed remains in aqueous liquid from
which it is removed by sodium carbonate. The xylidine, free
of sulfur dioxide, is cooled and returned to the system.
16502
Cooper, D. R.
LOW EXCESS AIR FIRING LOWERS HEAT RATE AT
LARGE UTILITY. Combustion, vol. 36:28-34, Aug. 1964.
By firing two boilers (each rated at 1,200,000 Ib/hr steam flow
at 1850 psig, 100 F superheat, and 100 F reheat) on 2-2 1/2%
excess air with oil fuel, a steam plant obtained an average
reduction in net heat of 60 Btu/kwh, with a yearly saving in
fuel of $19,350. Nitrogen oxides were reduced from 621 ppm
on normal excess O2 to 452 ppm on low excess O2, a reduc-
tion of 27%. The amount of fly ash collected on low air excess
firing is relatively small, amounting to about 0.15% by weight
of the fuel fired. Under excess firing conditions, as much as
300 Ib of ash per day per unit were collected. There is also an
immeasurable but evident reduction in sulfur trioxide as the
result of low excess air firing.
16510
Padovani, C.
SULFUR DIOXIDE EMISSIONS FROM LARGE HEATING
PLANTS: PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS. PART II. (Emis-
sione di ossido di zolfo delle grandi centrali termiche: problemi
e soluzioni. Parte II). Text in Italian. Riv. Combust.,
22(7/8):389-396, July-Aug. 1969. 65 refs. Part I. Ibid, no. 5,
1968.
The following fuel oil desulfurizing plants are under construc-
tion or in the planning stage: H-oil unit of 24,000 barrels/day
at Shinoiba, Kuwait; an Isomax plant, 35,000 b/d at Mina Ab-
dullah, Kuwait; and an Isomax plant, 40,000 b/d in Chiba,
Japan. The economic problem of providing low-sulfur fuel oil
in Europe differs from that of the United States in that there
is a greater demand for gasoline and medium-to-light distillates
and a higher demand for heating oils, a condition to be even-
tually offset by increasing demands for light petroleum
products in petrochemistry, increased use of motor vehicles,
and greater availability of natural gas. Future projects call for
preliminary gasification under pressure, which can lead to the
formation of hydrogen sulfide gas. Hydrogen sulfide liberated
from the gasified fuel is more easily captured than SO2 in the
exhaust gases, and lends itself more readily to the manufac-
ture of elemental sulfur to be sold as a by-product. Gasifica-
tion provides a fuel gas that can be highly varied in composi-
tion, with almost no additional expenditure of power. By mak-
ing use of the chemical and physical enthalpies of these gases,
the yield of the modern heating plant can be raised by 5-15%,
plus compensations from the sale of by-products.
16548
Atsukawa, Masumi
REMOVAL OF SO2 FROM FLUE GAS OF THERMAL
POWER STATION. (Karyoku hatsudensho haien chu no
aryusan gasu no jyokyo ni tsuite). Text in Japanese. Kogai to
Taisaku (J. Pollution Control), 1(4):219- 224, Oct. 15, 1965.
The flue gas of a thermal power station contains 0.12 to 0.16%
sulfur dioxide, an amount far lower than the allowable limit
stipulated in the Smog Control Law. However, the emissions
are a serious nuisance. The four important countermeasures
are the use of low sulfur-content fuel, limiting the scale of
power stations, diffusion of smog by tall chimneys, and desul-
furization of flue gas. The first three do not give satisfactory
results. The desulfurization of flue gas is more difficult by the
thin concentration and large quantity of gas, low price of by-
products, and so on. The desulfurization method is divided
into wet and dry methods. Drawbacks of the wet method are
the large quantity of water contained in the tail gas and its low
temperature. The wet methods are subdivided into ammonium
sulfate, gypsum, red mud method, etc. The desulfurization
rate of ammonium sulfate method is 97% for flue gas contain-
ing 0.1 to 0.2% sulfur dioxide. The gypsum method can treat
62,500 N cubic meters gas containing 3% sulfur dioxide in a
day. A new catalyst for use in dry desulfurization processes is
activated manganese oxide. As determined by pilot plant stu-
dies, the desulfurization rate of this method is 90% for flue
gas containing 0.1% sulfur dioxide. The dust collection rate is
99% using a mechanical and electrical dust collector. Tail gas
temperature is maintained above 100 C.
16681
Willet, Howard P.
PROFIT ORIENTED SYSTEMS FOR POLLUTION CON-
TROL. American Institute of Chemical Engineers, New York,
N. Y., American Inst. of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum
Engineers (AIME), New York, N. Y., American Society of
Civil Engineers, New York, American Society of Heating,
Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers, New York,
American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York, and
American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, Pa.,
-------
116
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
Proc MECAR Symp., Design and Operation for Air Pollution
Control, New York, N. Y., 1968. p. 75-85. (Oct. 24).
The development of pollution control systems that provide an
economically profitable return on control costs is described; it
is believed that such processes will enhance control activities
by establishing an economic incentive to add to the public
pressures on polluters to install control equipment. Profit
oriented control systems are described for blast furnaces and
the basic oxygen processes in steel fabrication, for foundry
cupolas, kraft pulping, and for sulfur dioxide recovery from
power and sulfuric acid plants. Venturi scrubbers, used to
clean blast furnace gases, make it possible to obtain higher hot
blast temperatures for preheating air blown into the furnaces
and thus improve the economics of their operation. Gas take-
offs installed below the charging door on foundry cupolas
reduce the size of the gas cleaning equipment required and
permit the gas to be used as fuel for preheating air blasts to
the cupolas. A new method recently introduced from Japan,
called the OG Process, has a great profit potential in its appli-
cation to the basic oxygen process in steel-making, primarily
by collecting carbon monoxide without combustion. A series
of pollution control techniques can be applied to the kraft
pulping process to reduce capital and operating costs. An ab-
sorption system to eliminate SO2 pollution from sulfuric acid
plants and to increase plant profits is nearing completion, and
a concept called the Central Processing Approach is described,
involving the establishment of central processing plants, to
permit the profitable recovery of elemental sulfur from the
sulfur oxide emissions of both large and small power produ-
cers.
16720
Stairmand, C. J.
REPORT ON THE REMOVAL OF GRIT, DUST, AND FUME
FROM EFFLUENT GASES. Chem. Engr. (London),
221:CE257-261, Sept. 1968. 17 refs.
In general the difficulty of arresting particles increases with
their fineness: Grit is relatively easy to collect in simple iner-
tial devices while sub-micron fume requires highly so-
phisticated equipment such as electroprecipitators, bag filters,
and high energy wet washers. The performance data and U.K.
costs of twenty types of dust collectors are summarized.
Statutory or presumptive limits of emissions for a number of
process operations in the U.K., Germany, and Switzerland are
tabulated. This is a brief discussion of reports made to the
Working Party on Air Pollution of the European Federation of
Chemical Engineering.
16731
Quig, Robert H.
NEW CONCEPT FOR CENTRAL RECOVERY OF SULFUR
FROM INDUSTRIAL STACK GASES. Chemico World, 4(3):6-
9, April 1969. 6 refs.
The electric utility, fossil fuel, chemical and other heavy in-
dustries are faced with an increasing problem in the control of
sulfur dioxide emissions from their stacks. This article
describes current methods of SO2 control and introduces an
outlook for a new and commercially effective SO2 recovery
system via the central process plant. Since most sulfur
recovery systems appear to require large installations with
high load factors to demonstrate economic returns, the smaller
industrial plant is not in a position to recover stack gas. A ven-
turi scrubbing system that could be installed on an existing
steam plant would scrub SO2 and fly ash from stack gas using
dolomite or lime as scrubbing agents. Using higher grade alkali
materials such as sodium carbonate or magnesium oxide, this
same scrubber could be used in the sulfur recovery system via
the central process plant. Use of the central processing system
will remove sulfur recovery activity with its concomitant
capitalization and operating costs from the industrial and utili-
ty companies.
16746
Halzel, George C.
FLYASH DISPOSAL. Power Eng., 73(6):44-46, June 1969.
Disposal of fly ash from large power plant boilers is becoming
a serious problem for plant designers and municipalities. Sur-
face disposal in ash ponds and ash piles sometimes are sources
of dust and air pollution which is objectionable. Commercial
uses for fly ash have been explored but only a small portion of
the fly ash produced can be consumed in this way. The
Duquesne Light Company at its Colfax Station is now dispos-
ing of fly ash by sluicing it from the station into an abandoned
section of a coal mine. The disposal system and the mine de-
watering system are described. When the new Cheswick Sta-
tion is put into operation the disposal problem will be in-
creased substantially. The company estimates that at that time
it will realize a $700/day saving over conventional disposal
costs.
16815
Williams, David H., Jr., and John T. Dowd
DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION FEATURES OF THE WOO
MW MITCHELL PLANT. Combustion, 41(2):19-23, August
1969.
Air and water pollution control were important considerations
in the design of the 1600 MW Mitchell Plant of the American
Electric Power Co. system. Thermal discharge problems were
avoided by the use of cooling towers designed for a circulating
water flow of 248,000 gpm with a 16 degree approach tempera-
ture and a 28 F range. The selection of the stack height was
deeply studied. The stack for two 800 MW units would have to
provide for the discharge and satisfactory diffusion of approxi-
mately 15,000,000 Ib/hr of hot flue gas. At the discharge tem-
perature of 300 F this represents about 4,700,000 cu ft/min.
The basis for selection of a stack with a height of 1200 ft is
discussed. Construction, scheduling, and control of the total
plant is described.
16851
Cortelyou, C. G.
COMMERCIAL PROCESSES FOR SO2 REMOVAL. Chem.
Eng. Progr., 65(9): 69-77, Sept. 1969. 5 refs.
Several stack gas sulfur removal processes have a potential for
the economic, efficient removal of sulfur compounds before
they enter the atmosphere. These processes are the subject of
a study made by GCA Corporation of Bedford, Mass, for the
American Petroleum Institute. More than 20 processes are
classified as first generation, near first generation, and second
generation processes based on the stage of their development
both technical and economic. The four first generation
processes which are examined more closely in this study in-
clude: Combustion Engineering's Dry Dolomite Injection with
Wet Scrubbing, Monsanto's Catalytic Oxidation Process, U. S.
Bureau of Mines Alkalized Alumina Process, and the Reinluft
Dry Char Absorption Process. Flow diagrams are included for
each of these processes. An 800 megawatt power plant was
considered as a basic unit for comparison of the processes. It
was assumed that such a unit with a 60% load factor would
require 6 mill bbl/yr of heavy fuel oil containing 3% S, a stack
-------
B. CONTROL METHODS
117
gas temperature of 250 F, and power, water, and labor costs
felt to be representative of U. S. industry. The Dolomite Injec-
tion Process has both the lowest capital costs and the lowest
operating costs. In addition to comparing the economics of
each process, the effect of changing variables in the assump-
tions is also examined. Since all of these processes are in a
transitory state of development results of demonstration pro-
jects will help to evaluate the processes.
16862
Stites, J. G., Jr., W. R. Horlacher, Jr., J. L. Bachofer, Jr., and
J. S. Bartman
REMOVING SO2 FROM FLUE GAS. Chem. Eng. Progr.,
65(10):74-79, Oct. 1969.
Several years ago the catalytic oxidation system for SO2
removal from flue gases was demonstrated to be technically
feasible in a small pilot plant which processed 400 scf/min of
flue gas. A prototype plant designed to treat 24,000 scf/min
has been built and operated to provide the process information
required for commercialization. In the first step of the process
hot flue gas is taken directly from the boiler at 950 F, and
passed through a highly efficient, high temperature electro-
static precipitator designed to remove in excess of 99.5% of
the particulates from the gas stream. The gas is then passed
through a converter where the sulfur dioxide is catalytically
oxidized to sulfur trioxide. The gas is cooled to 650 F in a tu-
bular heat exchanger (boiler economizer) to recover heat, then
further cooled in a Ljungstrom regenerative air preheater to
about 450 F (above the dew point of sulfuric acid). The gas
then passes through an absorption tower that used sulfuric
acid as coolant to further reduce the temperature to about 225
F and condense the acid. A Brink Mist Eliminator removes the
sulfuric acid mist from the gas which is ejected via the in-
duced draft fan to the stack. The prototype plant has a demon-
strated capability of removing all of the fly ash, 90% of the
sulfur dioxide, and over 99.5% of the sulfuric acid produced.
Although varying with stack temperature, an acid concentra-
tion of 80% is considered average.
16863
Wein, W.
OPERATING EXPERIENCE WITH POWER PLANT STACKS
AND THEIR DESIGN. Combustion, 41(4):29-34, Oct. 1969.
The requirement for cleaner air has led to the construction of
very high power plant stacks in recent years. Some types of
design that have been used in stack construction in Germany
are discussed. Sources of damage especially in older stacks in-
clude: excessive thermal stresses, too short a drying or heat
up time, and corrosion due to temperatures below the dew
point. Some of the characteristic damages resulting from these
conditions and remedies that can be applied are outlined.
16872
Zentgraf, K. M.
THE PRESENT STATE OF FLUE GAS DESULPHURIZA-
TION. Combustion, 41(5): 6-11, Nov. 1969.
A very large number of methods for the desulphurization of
flue gas from power plants are known and new concepts are
being continuously developed. Only a few of these methods,
however, have extended beyond the theoretical proposal or a
laboratory test. Methods are discussed here which have
progressed further than most concepts and which are being
tested in prototype units or actual power plants. Furthermore,
the operating costs of these methods are discussed as well as
flue gas problems related to the wet scrubbing method. Of the
ten methods tabulated, six methods, which also yield a mar-
ketable product have specific investment costs of between 43
and 85 DM/KW hr. To maintain the operating costs of such
plants within bearable limits, the degree of desulfurization as
well as the sulfur content of the fuel must be high. This way
the fixed cost portion can be reduced and income from the
end product-if easily marketable-could be high. If high sulfur
containing fuel could be obtained at a discount— as practices
already in the USA—these savings would also benefit the
desulfurization process. The rest of the methods given in
Table 2, whose costs are below 17 DM/KW hr, are suited
especially for low plant load factors.
16968
Johnstone, Henry F.
RECOVERY OF SULFUR DIOXIDE CONTAINED IN WASTE
GASES. (Texas Gulf Sulphur Co., New York) U. S. Pat.
2,676,090. 18p., April 20, 1954. 4 refs. (Appl. Jan. 26, 1953, 15
claims).
A process was invented for the recovery of sulfur dioxide
from waste gases resulting from combustion of sulfur-contain-
ing coal or the roasting or sintering of sulfur-containing materi-
als. The waste gas is reacted with an aqueous ammonia solu-
tion in two or more zones. The gases are sequentially passed
from the first zone to the second zone where the gases are ab-
sorbed by the ammonia solutions. A solution of ammonium
sulfite is formed and divided into two portions. Sulfuric acid is
added to the effluent solution and ammonium sulfate and sul-
fur dioxide is formed. Sulfur dioxide is separated from the
solution leaving a residual solution of ammonium sulfate which
is crystallized and recovered. Sulfur dioxide mixed with water
vapor is stripped from the second portion of ammonium sulfite
solution by heating. The water vapor is condensed and the
separated sulfur dioxide is collected. The condensate, com-
posed predominately of ammonia, is recycled to the second
zone. The residual ammonia solution is recycled into contact
with the waste gases in the first zone.
17004
Klimecek, Rostislav, Jaroslav Skrivanek, and Jan Bettelheim
STUDY ON DESULFURIZATION OF WASTE GASES.
(Beitrag zur Entschwefelung von Rauchgasen). Text in Ger-
man. Staub, Reinhaltung Luft, 26(6):235-238, June 1966. 7 refs.
To satisfy the future power requirements of Czechoslovakian
industry in the coming decade, extensive use of lignite is
necessary. Lignite contains 2% sulfur and waste gases contain
0.15 to 0.30% sulfur dioxide. The SO2 emission of a single
steam power plant with a power output of 1000 MW is 100,000
tons/yr. The existing plan to build the required number of
power plants of this capacity in the North Bohemian lignite re-
gion raises a very serious air pollution problem. The Research
Institute for Inorganic Chemistry, evaluated the existing
methods of SO2-removal from industrial waste gases with re-
gard to their effectiveness and economic aspects. The most
suitable SO2 removal method is one where SO2 is absorbed by
aqueous solutions of ammonia or of ammonium bisulfite and
which offer the possibility of producing saleable by products.
So called 'noncyclic' and 'cyclic' variants of these methods
have been developed. A new design of the absorber tower for
implementation of these methods incorporates 26 mm diameter
helices wound of 3 mm diameter aluminum wires with a pitch
of either 12 or 20 windings per 10 cm of height, which perform
the same function as Raschig rings but are superior to them.
The optimal helix dimensions were found by systematic empir-
ical tests the results of three series of which are shown in
three graphs.
-------
118
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
17124
S02. IS IT A HEALTH HAZARD UNDER NORMAL CONDI-
TIONS? WHAT ARE THE PRACTICAL APPROACHES TO
CONTROL? Coal Age, 73(4):72-81, April 1968
Ground-level concentrations of sulfur oxides rarely are of a
magnitude constituting a health hazard. Power and industrial
plants do not add to existing levels when equipped with tall
stacks to insure upper-air dispersion and dilution. Other con-
trol approaches include removal of the oxides from stack
discharges and solvation and conversion of coal. The Dept. of
Health, Education, and Welfare recommends that the SO2 in
the atmosphere in populated areas not exceed an average of
0.1 part per million parts of air more than 1% of the time over
a 24-hr period. There is a growing tendency throughout the
country to require very low sulfur contents in coal and fuel oil
or to forbid their use completely in favor of some other source
of heat; nuclear is preferred, with natural gas as another cho-
ice. Various comments are made by various notables that no ill
effect had ever been recorded for less than 2 ppm, some 20
times the proposed HEW criterion. It is claimed that because
SO2 is one of the most easily measured of the foreign sub-
stances in air, it is frequently used to describe air pollution;
British experience has shown that other substances are far
more harmful.
17250
Kato, Kazuo
STACK SMOKE CONTROL IN A LARGE-CAPACITY
BOILER FURNACE. (Daiyoryo boira no baien boshi ni tsuite).
Text in Japanese. Nenryo Oyobi Nensyo (Fuel and Com-
bustion), 36(8): 753-763, Aug. 1, 1969.
Some practical methods to reduce smoke dust from oil burning
in a large-capacity boiler furnace at a thermal power plant
were discussed. Apparently, the most attainable method was
to control sulfur trioxide and acid smut generation by mixing
some chemicals with heavy oil to promote burning and to
denature generated sulfur dioxide by injection into the emis-
sion gas. A relationship exists between the amount of air
supply and the generation of acid smut and SO3. An increased
air supply is proportional to the increase of SO3 and decrease
of acid smut. Therefore, the minimization of the air supply is
serious in controlling acid smut generation. Factors influencing
oil burning under a fixed amount of air for a large-capacity
boiler are the distribution of a secondary air supply (open-
width of second damper), the amount of circulating gas and
the location of its inflow, the open width of a burner tilting
and the pressure distinction between heavy oil pressure and
aerosol vapor pressure. Other factors include heavy oil tem-
perature and management of the burner chips. Additional
procedures responding to these techniques indicate the necess-
ity of a fixed dust collector, cleaning the chimney, adaptation
of the sulfur dioxide removal instrument, and the promotion of
stack smoke dispersion.
17318
Kriz, Milan, Josef Vejvoda, and Bedrich Kedron
EMISSIONS FROM GAS PLANTS, COKING PLANTS, AND
THERMAL POWER STATIONS AND MODERN METHODS
OF THEIR LIQUIDATION. (Exhalace z plynaren, koksoven,
tepelnych elektraren a moderni zpusoby jejich likvidace). Text
in Czech. Ustav Vyzkum Paliv Monograph, no. 6, 156p., 1969.
Air pollution in Czechoslovakia as caused by gas plants, cok-
ing plants, and thermal power stations is studied. Future
developments in these areas up to 1980 are indicated and ap-
propriate control methods are suggested. The number of Lurgi
gas plants, which are the major sources of town gas, are not
expected to increase, though existing plants will intensify their
operations. The present volume of coke production will remain
unchanged to 1980. Enormous development is expected in the
power station industry, the capacities of which will be
designed for a brown coal with a high sulfur content. The
study discusses dust generation in the Lurgi process and the
most modern control methods used abroad. Desulfurization of
waste gases from Lurgi plants is considered with special
references to the waste gases from a recently installed Rectisol
plant. In considering measures to improve the quality of air
around coking plants, considerable attention is give to gas pu-
rification, tar separation and treatment with ammonia, and
coke-oven gas secondary cooling. A method for the desul-
furization of coke-oven waste gas by vacuum-soda is reported.
A major part of the study is devoted to the problem of remov-
ing SO2 from thermal power plants. Promising dry desulfuriza-
tion processes proposed for other countries, and Czechoslovak
studies on the limestone process, are described. Electrofilters
and other dust collecting systems for thermal plant fly ash are
reviewed. Also considered is the problem of separating arsenic
from the waste gas of one power station. Finally, provisions of
the Czechoslovak Clean Air Act of 1967 are criticized. (Author
summary modified)
17338
Zielke, Clyde W., Howard E. Lebowitz, Robert T. Struck, and
Everett Gorin
SULFUR REMOVAL DURING COMBUSTION OF SOLID
FUELS IN A FLUIDIZED BED OF DOLOMITE. J. Air Pollu-
tion Control Assoc., 20(3):164-169, March 1970. 8 refs.
(Presented at the American Chemical Society, Division of Fuel
Chemistry, National Meeting, 158th, New York, Sept. 7-12,
1969.)
Sulfur removal during combustion of coal or low-temperature
coal char using excess air in a fluidized bed of dolomite was
demonstrated in a continuous bench scale unit. The sulfur
dioxide produced during the combustion is fixed as calcium
sulfate by reaction with calcium oxide in the dolomite as fol-
lows: CaO + SO2 + 0.5 O2 yields CaSO4. The ranges of con-
ditions explored were calcium oxide-to-feed sulfur mol ratios
in the range of 1 to 8, fluidizing velocities of 1.5 and 3.0 ft/sec,
superficial gas residence times of 1 and 2 sec, and tempera-
tures from 1700 to 1900 F, with 120% stoichiometric air at the
operating pressure of 8 psig. The process was operable at all
conditions studied using a highly caking Pittsburgh seam coal
as well as two low-temperature chars. Desulfurization efficien-
cy with a Ca-to-S mol ratio of 1 was 78%; at Ca-to-S ratios of
2 or higher desulfurization efficiency exceeded 90%. Continu-
ous regeneration of the sulfated dolomite using partial com-
bustion of carbon monoxide gas at 1950 F was also demon-
strated. As high as 97% of the sulfur in the dolomite was
liberated as SO2 by this treatment giving a gas that contained
SO2 concentrations as high as 23 times that in the combustion
gases. Dolomite life was investigated, with the dolomite sub-
jected alternately to SO2 absorption during combustion and
subsequent regeneration. It was demonstrated that by
regeneration and re-use of the dolomite, the ultimate S02
capacity can be extended in excess of four times that for a
once-through process. Regeneration also permits recovery of
elemental sulfur by processing the SO2-rich regenerator off-
gas. (Author abstract modified)
17343
Hashimoto, Kiyotaka
THE POINT OF PLANNING AND ITS EFFECT ON OPERA-
TION RESULT OF AN ELECTRIC PRECIPITATOR IN
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B.CONTROL METHODS
119
VARIOUS INDUSTRY SMOKE ABATEMENT (II). TREAT-
MENT FOR WASTE GAS OF A COMBUSTION FURNACE
AT A THERMAL-POWER PLANT (I). (Gyoshubetsu ni miru
denki shujin sochi no setsubi- keikaku to untenkoka (II) —
karyoku hatsudensho no nenshoki haigasu no syori (sono 1)).
Text in Japanese. Kogai to Taisaku (J. Pollution Control),
2(9):657-663, Oct. 15, 1966.
In Japan, coal-burning, heavy-oil-burning, or coal-oil-burning
was adopted for industrial thermal-power generation. Fall-out,
aerosols, and poisonous gases are considered in smoke pollu-
tion prevention. Powdered coal is used for coal-burning ther-
mal power generation in great capacities and stoker-type fur-
naces are not used. This is one reason for so much smoke
dust. The properties of smoke and the amount used in a pow-
dered-coal-burning boiler are influenced considerably by vari-
ous factors. The precipitation percentage must be maintained
at 96-98%. Previously, the smoke of a thermal-power-genera-
tion boiler was not regarded as an object of smoke prevention,
and precipitators were not operated. Now, the utility value of
fly-ash is appreciated, and at almost all thermal-power plants,
the precipitators for fly-ash production are being used. Fly-ash
is chemically stable and is satisfactorily strong for use as
concrete fillers. Various types of precipitators for fly-ash
production were described. A multi-cyclone with a high
precipitation efficiency or an electric precipitator are usually
used as precipitators for smoke pollution prevention at thermal
power plants. Other types cannot be used because of the high
temperature and the large amount of waste gas. A mul-
ticyclone has little effect on precipitation of aerosols. As ther-
mal-power generation grows to a larger scale, the development
of a technique to make the precipitators smaller and more effi-
cient is urgent.
17392
Shirasawa, Tadao
FUELS, COMBUSTION AND SMOKE ABATEMENT. (Nen-
ryo, nensho to baien boshi). Text in Japanese. Nenryo
Kyokaishi (J. Fuel Soc. Japan, Tokyo), 43(451):748-759, Nov.
20, 1964. 20 refs.
Smoke produced by the combustion of fuels is one of the most
common causes of air pollution. The use of smokeless,
ashless, and sulfurless fuels is most desirable. A smokeless
coal developed by the National Coal Board of England is
described. The process employes as a raw material a coal
powder which is distilled for one hour between 375 and 450 C
in a fluidized bed. The resulting powder is formed into the
final product by either a Bronowski or Sharp process. A test
apparatus to study the smoking tendency of coals is explained.
Countermeasures for dust and sulfur are also described. Since
the primary objective of combustion is efficient heating, fuel
firing methods are examined. The nature of the fuel and the
conditions of its mixing with oxygen are among the most im-
portant factors determining soot emission. The study of soot is
very important because radiation from a luminous flame is
emitted by incandescent carbon particles which exist in the
flame under certain conditions of combustion. A wide variety
of soot exists with respect to particle size and chemical com-
positon. Basic studies on the effects of pressure, temperature,
type of hydrocarbon, and additives on the formation of soot
from the flame are reviewed. Chemical processes leading to
the formation of carbon in flames have not been fully un-
derstood. It is concluded that smoke abatement can be
achieved by the application of those techniques of heat
management which have been developed for the purpose of
heat economy.
17531
Porteous, Andrew and Graham B. Wallis
A CONTRIBUTION TOWARDS THE REDUCTION OF ICE
FOG CAUSED BY HUMID STACK GASES AT ALASKAN
POWER STATIONS. Atmos. Environ., vol. 4:21-33, 1970. 10
refs.
The intermittent occurrence of ice fog formed by the freezing
of clouds at super-cooled water at 20-40 C at U. S. Air Bases
in Fairbanks, Alaska causes severe visibility problems. At
these temperatures, water vapor nucleates and freezes on grit
particles to form minute ice crystals that have no appreciable
settling velocity. The principle source of water vapor emis-
sions at the bases are power station stack gases. Dehumidifica-
tion of the flue gases was experimentally studied in a counter-
current scrubbing apparatus to obtain optimum droplet size for
both moisture and grit removal in a spray tower. In counter-
current scrubbing, sprays of cold water are directed into hot
gas flows, with the water droplets in effect forming an effi-
cient counter-current heat exchanger. Heat and mass transfer
proceed simultaneously; the processes are rate controlled.
Based on the experimental results, optimum droplet size for
accomplishing both grid and moisture removal was determined
to be about 1000 micrometer diameter. This permits initial flue
gas velocities of 2.1 reciprocal msec which are low enough to
eliminate the risk of particle entrainment.
17672
Coutaller, J. and C. Richard
IMPROVEMENT OF ELECTROSTATIC DUST-FILTERING
BY SO3 INJECTION. (Amelioration du depoussierage elec-
trostatique par injection de SOS). Pollut. Atmos (Paris),
1967:1-7, Jan.-March, 1967. 2 ref Translated from French.
Franklin Inst. Research Labs, Philadelphia Pa., Science Info.
Services, 17p. July 22, 1969.
Due to its cost and the nature of the product, the use of sul-
furic anhydride in boilers to abate the emission of pollutants is
limited. The essential properties of the injection product and
the technical characteristics of the test installations are
described as applied in a power plant. The undesirable
phenomenon of 'return ionization' can be avoided by condi-
tioning the dust so as to keep its resitivity below the critical
level. SO3 is recognized as one of the most efficient condition-
ing agents. Testing procedures are described. It is concluded
that in three short experiments at Creil and Blenod, the
process of improving electrostatic filtering by SO3 injection
has proven efficient. It provides in the first case, an important
gain in the efficiency (4.5%) and is equivalent to a 3 rd field in
service in the second case. To the investment cost one must
add the product cost and the air-conditioning cost. These are
the maintenance costs that can be evaluated only at the end of
the second phase of a long-term experiment. It is unfeasible to
rely on SO3 as an economic substitute as an element of a
filter. It must remain a complementary mean. If the long-term
experiment proves positive, then SO3 could be considered a
precious but expensive remedy to the dust-filtering in electro-
static filters.
17685
Newell, J. E.
RECOVERY OF SULFUR FROM FLUE GASES BY THE
SODIUM ALUMINATE PROCESS. (Die Rueckgewinnung von
Schwefel aus Rauchgasen mit dem Natriumaluminat-Prozess).
Text in German. Chem. Ing. Tech., 40(21-22):1111-1112, Nov.
1968. 1 ref.
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120
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
One-third of the 3.2 Mio tons of sulfur dioxide emitted yearly
into the atmosphere by the combustion of oil and coal in En-
gland is caused by the plants of the Central Electricity
Generating Board (CEGB); in endeavoring to keep the SO2
concentration near the ground at a low level, the board has
selected the sodium aluminate process. The CEGB is planning
to use a fluidized bed reactor and to regenerate the contact
catalyst with natural gas. The reactor intended for recovery of
120 tons of sulfur per day consists of a multi-tier arrangement
of 21 cm deep fluidized beds of 1.6 mm diameter contact parti-
cles working in parallel. At a gas speed of 1 m/sec, a flue gas
temperature of 310 to 330 C, and a working period of the con-
tact in the reactor of about 2 hours, a 90% desulfurization of
the flue gas is attained; the contact mass takes up about 5
weight % of S. The heating of the charged contact to 700 C,
its regeneration by natural gas, and the cooling of the ac-
tivated contact to the reactor temperature is effected on three
stationary beds, to which true contact is successingly trans-
ported. The reduction of the sulfate to hydrogen sulfide during
regeneration by natural gas proceeds almost as rapidly as
when hydrogen is used. About 2.5 weight % of S is expected
to be ultimately retained by the contact mass. The H2S
originating during regeneration is reduced to elementary S in a
Claus-process installation. In addition to marketable S, heat is
recovered, since both the process of desulfurization of the flue
gases and that of contact regeneration are exothermic.
17782
Barnhart, Donald H. and Erie K. Diehl
CONTROL OF NITROGEN OXIDES IN BOILER FLUE
GASES BY TWO-STAGE COMBUSTION. J. Air Pollution
Control Assoc., 10(5):397-405, Oct. 1960. 9 refs. (Presented at
the Air Pollution Control Association 52nd Annual Meeting,
Los Angeles, Calif., June 22-26, 1959.)
The results are reported of a program to control concentra-
tions of nitrogen oxides, particularly nitric oxide, in flue gases
from power plants burning residual fuel oil and natural gas.
Preliminary development considerations and investigations are
described; the latter were carred out using a water-cooled tun-
nel 12 ft in diameter and 22 ft long, designed to accomodate
and test full-size burners. The introduction of a portion of the
combustion air through the burners, and the remainder at
some point beyond the burners, is the underlying principle of
one method of reducing nitric oxide formation, termed 'Two-
Stage Combustion.' This method, with auxiliary-air ports
above the burners, was effective while still maintaining ac-
ceptable boiler performance; with minor changes to the
burner, a total nitric oxide reduction of 56% was achieved
when firing oil at full load. Similar results can be expected in
gas firing. It appears that additional reductions would be possi-
ble if the air flow through the burners were reduced another 5
or 10%.
17905
McLaughlin, J. F. and J. Jonakin
SO2 TRAPPED IN FULL SCALE SYSTEM. Elec. World,
168(20): 108-110, Nov. 13, 1967.
In order to determine the feasibility of removing sulfur dioxide
and particulate matter from gases in a wet scrubber, a labora-
tory pilot plant was constructed and tested. A controlled
amount of sulfur dioxide, additive, and fly ash was added to
the stack gas of a natural-gas-fired boiler; the mixture was
passed through a wet scrubber. The gas was sampled before
and after the scrubber to determine the removal efficiency.
The results are tabulated. Ninety-eight to 99% sulfur dioxide
removal and 98 to 99.6% dust removal were obtained. The
next phase of the investigation was conducted to determine
whether or not the laboratory pilot data could be confirmed on
a commercial size unit. In addition, furnace operating condi-
tions during dolomite injection were studied. In the full-scale
tests, dolomite was introduced to one furnace of a 325,000
KW, twin-furnace steam generator. Dolomite was injected in a
sufficient quantity to react with all the sulfur dioxide produced
when coals containing 2.8 to 3.8% sulfur were burned. The
other furance was operated at the same firing rate and with
the same fuel but without additive or scrubber. The results of
the field tests are given. The data shows that sulfur dioxide
removal can be maintained at a very high level (95% or better).
Flow charts of the system are presented.
17979
Rudorff, D. W.
FULHAM WASHES FLUE GAS. Power, vol. 81:341-343, June
1937.
The flue-gas-washing plant of the 300,000-KW Fulham power
plant in London (England), which will, when completed, con-
sume 2200 tons/day of coal containing from 0.75 to 1.5% sulfur
employs the Hondeu-ICI system of gas scrubbing which is
capable of reducing the sulfur compounds in the flue gas to
0.02 grains/cu ft and its dust content to 0.08 grains/cu ft and
its dust content to 0.08 grains/cu ft (at 1 atm and 32 F). In this
scrubbing system, the intimate contact between flue gas and
washing liquid is obtained by a combination of rain and sur-
face-film action. Milk of lime is added to the washing water to
achieve a substantially complete absorption and neutralization
of sulfur dioxide and other acid constituents of the flue gas.
This lime combines with carbon dioxide absorbed from the
flue gas to produce (insoluble) chalk and (soluble) calcium
bicarbonate. The latter is the active absorbing and neutralizing
agent and fresh amounts of it are formed from the chalk as the
absorption of SO2 and other acids proceeds. To keep up the
supply of calcium bicarbonate and to prevent the recirculating
liquor from becoming acid, fresh milk of lime is fed into the
system at a rate proportional to the acid absorption. The pH
valve of the washing liquor is maintained at 6.7 to 6.8 at the
scrubber inlet and at 6.4 to 6.6 at the scrubber inlet and at 6.4
to 6.6 at the liquor exit from the scrubber. SO2 and SO3 con-
tained in the flue gas are absorbed as calcium sulfite and calci-
um sulfate and the washing liquor becomes charged with these
relatively insoluble compounds. When the degree of their su-
persaturation attains an empirically determined limit, their
precipitation is allowed to take place in vertical delay pipes of
large cross-section and considerable length. The sludge accu-
mulating at the bottom is continually withdrawn and passed
into a thickener plant from which the clarified liquor is
returned to the scrubber; the thickened sludge is discharged
into a barge.
18034
Remirez, Raul
CATALYTIC ROUTE IS READY FOR FLUE-GAS CLEANUP
JOBS. Chem. Eng., 76(9):86-88, April 21, 1969.
The Cat-Ox process, which desulfurizes by the catalytical ox-
idation of SO2 to SOS and the subsequent formation of
H2SO4, is said to remove all of the fly ash and 90% of the
SO2 contained in flue gas while recovering high strength sul-
furic acid for sale. Tests conducted in a prototype unit have
proved the feasibility of the process and have solved problems
such as fly ash buildup in key pieces of equipment. A process
flow sheet and some economic data are included.
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B. CONTROL METHODS
121
18045
Stelle, WUliam W.
TALLEST SMOKE STACK FOR MITCHELL PLANT. Civil
Eng. (N.Y.), 39(3): 44-47, March 1969.
A 1600 Mw power plant in West Virginia features a stack 1200
ft. high, perhaps the world's tallest. Dictating the height were
such considerations as ridges up to 650 ft. high, and acceptable
levels of SO2 concentration at ground level downwind. The
stack has a concrete shell (slipf ormed) and steel lining. Some
details of the design features and the bases for design are
given.
18063
Love, L. R. and S. F. Whirl
DUQUESNE LIGHT BURIES ITS FLY-ASH PROBLEM. Coal
Age, 74(3):90-94, March 1969.
The troublesome air pollution problem of handling fly ash and
the equally troublesome water pollution problem of disposing
of acid mine water are being solved simultaneously by sluicing
alkaline fly ash into an abandoned section of a deep mine and
pumping neutral or slightly alkaline water to the river. The
disposal system has operated continuously for 18 mo. at
Duquesne Light Co.'s Coif ax power station and Harwick mine.
The system is described in detail, discharge water quality is
discussed, and a limited appraisal of the economics of the
system is made.
18110
Ludwig, John H.
AIR POLLUTION CONTROL TECHNOLOGY: RESEARCH
AND DEVELOPMENT ON NEW AND IMPROVED
SYSTEMS. Law and Contemporary Problems, 33(2): 217-226,
Spring 1968. 11 refs.
In the area of control of pollution from stationary sources,
major research and development is now concentrated on the
control of sulfur oxides. In the future there will be expanded
programs for other pollutants, especially nitrogen oxides.
Major emphasis on control of emissions from motor vehicles
is now focused on reduction of carbon monoxide and
hydrocarbons. Future efforts will focus on control of nitrogen
oxides and particulates and on unconventional vehicles with
low pollution potential, such as electric-powered and steam-
powered cars. Instruments and techniques are now available
for measuring many pollutants, especially inorganic gases, but
there is a need for automated, smaller-sized instruments both
for stationary sampling stations and for airborne sampling of
the atmosphere. There is also a need for remote-type monitors
capable of measuring stack emissions from a distance. In the
area of meteorology, a number of urban diffusion models and
an air pollution potential forecast program are now opera-
tional; improved models and quantitative forecasting methods
are under development.
18111
Ergun, Sabri and Ernest H. Bean
MAGNETIC SEPARATION OF PYRITE FROM COALS. Bu-
reau of Mines, Pittsburgh, Pa., Kept. Invest. 7181. 25p, Sept.
1969. 30 refs.
Previous studies of magnetic separation of pyrite from coals
have been reviewed critically. Magnetic susceptibilities of
United States coals of differing rank have been measured. The
effects of crushing, magnetic mixing, drying, weathering, and
heat treatment on the enhancement of the magnetism of pyrite
have been analyzed. The importance of size distribution of
pyrite in the coal and the necessity of crushing to liberate the
pyrite has been discussed. (Author's Abstract)
18142
LABORATORY TESTS AID AIR POLLUTION CONTROL.
RECENT WORK IN AUSTRALIA. Heating and Ventilating
Eng., 42(502):588, May 1969.
Future equipment to be installed at the new Liddell power
plant, New South Wales, Australia, to prevent air pollution is
described. Pulverized coal will be burned at a rate of 700 to
800 tons/hr, giving rise to 175 to 200 tons/hr of very fine fly
ash. The coals from 14 seams were tested for their fly ash
behavior, and the two major seams which behaved the least
satisfactorily will be burned at Liddell. An electrostatic
precipitator will remove 98.5% of the ash from the flue gases.
Tests run on this station after its completion should aid in im-
proving the efficiency of established power stations.
18143
Dennis, Carl
HOW MUCH WILL POLLUTION CONTROL COST YOU.
Elec. Light Power, p. 84-85, June 1969.
Some of the alternatives and equipment available to industry
to comply with air pollution control legislation were discussed
in reference to overall control cost. To determine the
economics of several 'front-running' SO2 removal or dispersal
systems, EBASCO evaluated four different types for plants of
about 800 mw capacity. Included were systems by Combustion
Engineering, Foster Wheeler (Universal Oil Products),
Chemico, and the tall-stack system. The fourth had the lowest
capital cost and the lowest operating cost; this system, how-
ever, limited station capacity and sulfur content of fuel. Calcu-
lation of fuel costs was complicated by some utilities having a
choice of either high or low sulfur coal. The single fuel plant
could reduce sulfur content by more sophisticated preparations
at the mine or remove sulfur during the pulverizing process.
18154
Diehl, Erie K.
SO2 REMOVAL -- STATE OF THE ART. Nat. Eng., 73(6):6-
10, June 1969.
A general review of SO2 removal from combustion gases is
presented. Sulfur in coal occurs in two main forms. The or-
ganic sulfur is bound as an integral part of the coal, and the
pyritic or mineral sulfur, occurs in discrete particles in the
coal mass. An appreciative amount of pyrite sulfur could be
freed from the coal by utilizing a pulverizer. The coal is cycled
inside the pulverizer, and the pyrite is separated by gravity.
SO2 emission may also be controlled by its removal from the
flue gases. One method is to combine limestone or dolomite
with the flue gases. This method has a 20%-40% possible
removal efficiency. Additives plus wet scrubbing is another
method; the combined process was reported to be 95% effec-
tive. In the alkalized alumina process, flue gas contacts a
highly-reactive solid absorbent which binds the SO2 as a
sulfate. Rengeneration of the absorbent for recycle releases
hydrogen sulfide which is converted to elemental sulfur. Cata-
lytic oxidation is another method of SO2 removal, involving
the oxidation of SO2 to SOS in a higher temperature reactor.
With this method, sulfuric acid is the recovery product.
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122
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
18161
Ford, Eric
COTTAM POWER STATION PROVIDES NEW APPROACH
TO ASH AND DUST HANDLING. Steam Heating Eng. (Lon-
don), 38(451):6nlO, June 1969.
The dust and ash handling arrangements at Cottam Power Sta-
tion are discussed. The systems are designed to remove 3960
tons/day of dust and 960 tons/day of ash in a 400 minute
period. Dust sources are the precipitators, the economizers,
and the air heaters. Dusts are drawn by vacuum into the
water-operated ejector-wetting unit, and then discharged to a
sluiceway. An outdoor sump receives the discharge from the
sluiceways, and two agitator nozzles keep the dust in solution.
The wet dust is pumped to a lagoon 4000 ft away. The scheme
for the removal of ash from furnace bottoms calls for the
pumping of slurry from the ash sump up to a receiving tank
hopper where it passes over screens to remove material 0.25
in. in diameter. This material is discharged direct to the ash
compound for removal. Underflow from the screens gravitates
to a recirculating sump where it is pumped by Vacseal pumps
to hydrocyclones and then to dewatering tanks. The hydro-
cyclones or hydraulic cyclones discharge the solids in the form
of a concentrated slurry into a dewatering tank. This consists
of a chaintype dewatering conveyor which carries the 0.25 in.
material up an incline to allow drainage and discharges it via a
chute to the ash compound.
18167
Werner, R. P., and J. G. Singer
400-MW CYCLIN UNIT SLATED FOR JUNE, 1971. Elec.
World, 170(8): 30-31, August 19, 1968.
A 400-Mw, heavy oil fired, cycling unit will be installed by
Connecticut Light & Power Co. at its Montville station. The
turbine unit features quick response, greater reliability, and
low capital cost. Main steam conditions at the throttle will be
1800 psig and 950 F with a single reheat to 90 F. The unit will
be designed to meet proposed state and federal criteria for air
quality. The oil-fired boiler will emit negligible particulate and
require no fly-ash handling. As in other NU generating sta-
tions, injection of a magnesium-oxide fuel-oil additive will
eliminate acid smuts and reduce sulfur trioxide. Intention is to
operate the boiler at 3% excess air to further reduce sulfur
trioxide. The boiler's tangential firing affords the opportunity
to achieve low-excess air operation at least cost and with
fewest operating problems. The gas leaving the boiler will be
600 F. This combined with a stack discharging at 409 ft eleva-
tion would produce the same plume rise as that from a 1000 ft
stack with the usual exit-gas temperature. This plume rise will
promote dispersion of stack gases, even during temperature in-
versions and smog-producing conditions. The design does not
preclude the later installation of SO2 scrubbing equipment.
18290
Thomas, S.
'CLEAN AIR, COAL AND THE ENGINEER'. Certificated
Engr., 42(4): 91-116, April 1969.
A comprehensive picture of coal combustion as it affects at-
mospheric pollution and its relationship to the Atmospheric
Pollution Prevention Act is presented. Coal burning boilers
often violate the Act, which states that smoke emissions shall
be no darker than No. 2 of the Ringelmann Chart. The various
methods of firing solid fuels and the several types of com-
bustion fuel beds used are described. Also presented is a
detailed discussion of the industrial fluidized bed boiler. This
method eliminates CO from the exit gases and eliminates fly
ash-fouling. The addition of small amounts of dolomite retains
all sulfur compounds. Control equipment used in the retention
of SO2 from stack gases is reviewed.
18296
Larsson, Olov
DIMENSIONING OF FLUES AND RUNNING CONDITIONS
IN MEDIUM-SIZED HEATING PLANTS. (Rokkanalers dimen-
sionering och driftforhallande i medelstora panncentraler.)
Text in Swedish. National Swedish Building Research (Statens
Byggforskningsinstitut, Stockholm, Sweden), 1969. 5 refs.
The National Swedish Institute for Building Research has con-
ducted a field study of both old and new heating plants in the
southern and central parts of Sweden with maximum effects
varying from 200 to 8200 Mcal/h. All plants were fired with oil
fuel, classes 3 or 4 (some with class 4 which contains little
sulphur). The overwhelming majority of the plants were
equipped with welded boilers, while 75% of the oil burners are
of the pressure jet or emulsion burner types, 18% low air pres-
sure, and the rest had rotary burners. Approximately 50% of
the heating plants studied have natural ventilation units and
about 30% of those heating plants studied have natural ventila-
tion units and about 30% of those plants with mechanical ven-
tilation (flue gas fan) have separate flues leading from each
boiler to the mouth of the chimney. The concentration of solid
matter in the flues was measured for different boiler loads and
the amount of matter per kg of fuel oil was calculated. Tem-
peratures of flue gases, amounts of soot, velocity of flue
gases, static pressure, excess air, and temperature of internal
walls were also measured. The mean for the concentration of
solid matter at all tests averaged about 74 mg/cu m. Flue
gases, while the corresponding mean for the amount of solid
matter present was 1.7 g/kg fuel oil. The usual estimate for the
CO2 content in the flue gases is 12-14%, at which level 74
mg/cu m would correspond to 1.0 g/kg of fuel oil. The survey
showed, however, that such high CO2 contents rarely occur at
the point where the content of solid matter is measured. The
mean for the CO2 content in the plants studied was 7.5%.
Only a small number of the plants tested had chimneys whose
heights with regard to the amount of flue gases emitted and to
the sulphur content in the oil were in accordance with the ad-
vice and instructions published by the authorities. Measure-
ments of soot quantities according to Bacharach show that
only about 35% of the boilers have Bacharach number 3 or
less. Measurements showed that about 80% of the plants had,
under normal running conditions, flue gas temperatures lower
than 145 C at the mouth of the chimney. About 30% of the
plants had flue gas temperatures lower than 100 C. The report
also describes the velocity of flue gases, total amount of air
leakage and damages caused by corrosion.
19029
Catchpole, S.
THE CONTROL OF POWER STATION CHIMNEY EMIS-
SIONS. Preprint, Inst. Mech. Engrs. London, 13p., 1968. 11
refs. (Presented at the Symposium of the Institution of
Mechanical Engineers, Atmospheric Pollution by Industrial
Processes and a Review of Treatment Methods, Oct. 17-18,
1968), Paper No. 5.
The methods which were developed for controlling emissions
from electrical power stations are discussed; pollutants as-
sociated with flue gas from the combustion of fossil fuels are
sulfur dioxide, grit, dust and smoke. Sulfur dioxide may be
controlled by an adequately high dispersion level; grit and dust
by arrestment at their source; and smoke may virtually be
eliminated by proper combustion techniques. A plume emitted
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B. CONTROL METHODS
123
high in the atmosphere in a low-level temperature inversion
remains aloft and contributes nothing to ambient concentra-
tions at ground levels. The design of a tall chimney for pollu-
tion control is included. Principles of electrostatic precipitation
have been developed to the extent that dust removal efficien-
cies in excess of 99% are now attainable. Results of several air
pollution surveys with respect to SO2 and dust concentrations
are also discussed.
19034
Austin, H. C. and P. Sedor
COMBUSTION SCHEME CUTS POWER PLANT SMOG
COMPONENT. Elec. World, no. 8:51-53, Feb. 19, 1962.
In a search for ways to reduce power plant contributions to
smog in the Los Angeles area, two-stage combustion helped
considerably with the nitrogen oxide emissions from some
types of boilers. By limiting combustion air through the bur-
ners to 90% of the theoretical and introducing the remainder
of the air through auxiliary air ports in the front wall above
the top row of burners, nitrogen oxide concentration in the
stack discharge was cut 40% at full load, burning either gas or
residual fuel oils. Concentrations formed in power plant
boilers depend primarily on the peak temperatures reached
during combustion and, to some extent, on the rate of cooling
of the combustion gases. From thermodynamic considerations,
a reduction in peak temperature from 3700 to 3600 F can
reduce the nitric oxide concentration by a third.
19048
Zentgraf, K. M.
THE PRESENT STATE OF FLUE GAS DESULPHURIZA-
TION. (Stand der Abgasentschwefelung). Text in German.
Mitt. Ver. Grosskesselbesitzern, 49(1):9-15, Feb. 1969. 11 refs.
(Presented to the VGB, Emissions Meet., Salzburg, Bielefeld,
and Saarbruecken, 1968).
The activated coal process developed by the firm Hitachi, the
Kiyoura-TIT process, using vanadium pentoxide for oxidizing
sulfur dioxide to sulfur trioxide and the Mitsubishi process,
which converts the sulfur oxides to manganese sulfate, have
only been tested with flue gases of oil-fired boilers. Additional
equipment is required to use these processes for desulfuriza-
tion of the dust-laden flue gases of coal-fired steam plants. In
the U. S. a pilot plant using the alkalized-alumina-process is
presently in operation. It treats 1300 cu m flue gas/hr, with an
easily attainable 90% desulfurization. The main problem here
is the development of a non-abrasive catalyst. The com-
bustion- Engineering process injecting pulverized calcium
products into the boiler is presently being tested in two coal-
fired pilot plants with 1600 and 5000 cu m flue gas circulation
per hr. Pilot operations using additive suspensions for injection
into the boiler which are under way in Germany include the
Reinluft process (low-temperature soft coal coke is used as ad-
sorbent), and the Still process. Almost all desulfurization
processes are still in the experimental stage. Investment costs
run between $11 and $21/kW. In order to keep the operating
costs reasonable the sulfur content of the fuel and utilization
must be high. The Combustion Engineering and Bischoff
processes, which are largely the same, have investment costs
running at about $4/kW, but their useful lifetime is short, how-
ever.
19189
Kotb, A. K.
ADSORPTION OF SULPHUR DIOXIDE ON COAL. J. Appl.
Chem. (London), vol. 20:147-152, May 1970. 6 refs.
A study was made of the feasibility of using coal as an adsor-
bent material for the removal of sulfur dioxide from stack
gases emitted to the atmosphere by different industries. From
preliminary results, it would appear that coal is to be favored
by a raw materials/cost-effectiveness ratio of 2:1. The work
shows semi-quantitatively that the adsorptive capacity of sul-
fur dioxide on coal varies slightly from one coal to another,
and that when coal is re-used through numerous (approximate-
ly 40) cycles, its effectiveness as an adsorbent for sulfur diox-
ide is not greatly reduced. Moreover, this research supports
the view that the heating value, ash, sulfur content, etc. of
most types of coal changes only slightly after repeated usage
as an adsorbent. If, as these findings indicate, coal can initially
be used as a sulfur dioixde adsorbent prior to its use as a fuel,
economic potential for commercial applications should be
enhanced. Empirical equations, developed to correlate the ad-
sorption-desorption characteristics of different coals, can be
used as a basis for prediction and comparison by future in-
vestigators to further explore this research. (Author abstract)
19261
Moliskey, Anthony
TREATMENT OF PUMICE FOR USE IN FILTERING OUT
OBNOXIOUS CONTENTS OF COMBUSTION GASES.
(Donald V. Meis and Earl A. Waring, Newport, Wash.) U.S.
Pat. 3,513,640. 4p., May 26, 1970. 2 refs. (Appl. Aug. 4, 1969, 3
claims).
The treatment of pumice stone for use in filtering combustion
gases is described. The pumice particles are washed free of
loose dust and water soluble materials by plain water and then
dried. The cleaned particles are carried through a tank of a
dilute water solution of paraldehyde or formaldehyde and
citric acid. The preferred concentration is one part by volume
paraldehyde or formaldehyde in 40,000-50,000 parts of water.
To this solution is added one to five parts citric acid for each
10 parts paraldehyde or formaldehyde. In filtering the engine
exhaust from a diesel engine, it is best to use pumice particles
that have been treated with a solution using 4-5 parts citric
acid for each 10 parts by volume paraldehyde or formal-
dehyde. For filtering the exhaust from a gasoline burning en-
gine, the solution may contain only one part citric acid to 10
parts paraldehyde or formaldehyde by volume. Treated pumice
particles can also be used for filtering furnace smoke stacks,
mining shafts, and incinerators. The particles retain their abili-
ty to filter out obnoxious vapors and gases for several months
with no apparent deterioration.
19339
Goldschmidt, K.
FLUE GAS DESULFURIZATION EXPERIMENTS. (Versuche
zur Entschwefelung von Rauchgasen.) Text in German. Chem.
Ing.-Techn., 40(21-22):1082-1086, 1968. 4 refs. (Presented to
the Inst. Chem. Engrs. and the Assoc. Process Engrs., Joint
Meet., Brighton, England, 1968).
In a power plant in Ludwigshafen, three desulfurization ex-
periments were conducted: calcium oxide was added to pul-
verized coal, Ca(OH)2 and Ca(OH)2.Mg(OH)2 were separately
injected into a pulverized coal-fired boiler, and lime and
dolomite were separately injected into an oil-fired boiler. Addi-
tion of calcium oxide to coal caused sintering and excessive
soiling of the boiler. The best desulfurization was achieved by
injecting Ca(OH)2 into the oil-fired boiler. Sulfur dioxide con-
tent in the flue gases sank gradually during the test period, as
a CaO layer was deposited which continued to bind SO2
although no new CaO was injected. In the pulverized coal-
fired boiler, the SO2 content was rapidly reduced by the desul-
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124
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
furizer but remained constant for the rest of the experiment.
When no more additive was injected, the SO2 content rapidly
returned to the original level. Dolomite was less effective than
Ca(OH)2. The latter additive has more free CaO for reaction
with SO2.
19340
Hangebrauck, Robert P. and Paul W. Spaite
POLLUTION FROM POWER PRODUCTION. Preprint, Na-
tional Limestone Inst. Inc., 21p., Jan. 1970. 9 refs. (Presented
at the National Limestone Institute, Inc., 25th Annual Conven-
tion, Washington, D. C., Jan. 21-23, 1970.)
Emissions resulting from combustion, especially combustion
of coal, are a large and growing factor in increasing air pollu-
tion levels. Sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, and fine paniculate
matter will increase several fold over the next three or four
decades, even if development of nuclear power generation is
extremely rapid, but the most immediate and serious problem
is posed by sulfur oxides. Coal cleaning for the immediate fu-
ture, coal or lignite gasification or conversion for possible ap-
plication further in the future, and liquefied natural gas impor-
tation need attention in fuel resource management. Both
'throwaway' and product-producing processes need rapid
development and application. New combustion processes, such
as those using fluid beds may make better use of limestone in
the dry state. Although combustion design and modification
techniques are available for partial control of nitrogen oxides
emissions from gas and oil-fired power plants, no control
technique for coal-fired plants is under development. Methods
of controlling particulates include the use of electrostatic
precipitators, with and without mechanical collectors. Scrub-
bers and fabric filters for use in power plants are being evalu-
ated while dry limestone injection and wet limestone scrubbing
processes for control of sulfur oxides will be available shortly.
The dry limestone injection process consists of equipment to
pulverize limestone, and inject and distribute it into the high
temperature furnace gases. It is calcined and reacts with SO2
and oxygen to form calcium sulfate which is collected with the
fly ash in the dust collector equipment. The wet scrubbing
process is a more likely choice where higher sulfur oxides
removal is required. Costs of controlling sulfur oxides are also
discussed.
19346
Marquardt, W. and W. Schreiter
PROBLEMS AND PRECAUTIONS FOR MAINTAINING A
CLEAN BIOSPHERE IN THE OPERATION OF MODERN
POWER PLANTS. (Probleme und Massnahmen zur Reinhal-
tung der Biosphaere beim Betrieb moderner Kraftwerke). Text
in German. Energietechnik, 19(2):53-58, Feb. 1969. 3 refs.
In the German Democratic Republic, the average power plant
emits 5 to 25 g dust/cu m flue gas, while to reduce these emis-
sions moder power plants are equipped with electrostatic
precipitators with collection efficiencies of 98% or more.
Thus, the problem of reducing dust emissions by these plants
is considered to be solved, and of far greater importance are
the sulfur dioxide emissions. Depending on the type of coal
used for firing the boilers, between 10 and 40 tons/h of SO2
are thrown into the air by an average power plant. No
economical flue gas desulfurization process has yet been
developed. The only other way to avoid dangerous concentra-
tions is to create favorable dispersion conditions. High stacks,
high discharge speeds of the stack gas, and utilization of the
thermal buoyancy are the measures presently employed to
reduce SO2 concentrations in the biosphere. In addition, the
site of future power plants must be selected with a view to the
most favorable meteorological conditions. Radioactive emis-
sions by nuclear power plants are considered under control.
Measurements in the vicinity of the nuclear power plant at
Rheinsberg showed that over a period of 14 months only 5%
of the maximum allowable values were emitted.
19373
Snow, Robert D.
CONVERSION OF COAL SULFUR TO VOLATILE SULFUR
COMPOUNDS DURING CARBONIZATION IN STREAMS OF
GASES. Ind. Eng. Chem., vol. 24: 903-909, Aug. 1932. 32 refs.
(Presented at the American Chemical Society Meeting, 83rd,
New Orleans, La., March 28- April 1, 1932.)
Sulfur distribution during carbonization was studied to develop
methods of increasing the proportion of sulfur passing into the
gas; such conversion of the coal sulfur to simple volatile com-
pounds would greatly facilitate its ultimate elimination. After a
review of previous investigations, experiments are reported in
which 15-gr samples of 20-40 mesh coal were heated 4 hours at
various temperatures in streams of various gases. The gases
and solid residues were analyzed for sulfur. Percentage sulfur
eliminations obtained at 1000 C were: nitrogen, carbon diox-
ide, carbon monoxide, methane, and ethylene, 50 to 60; water
gas, 76; anhydrous ammonia, 82; and hydrogen, 87. Steam
gave 84%, and water gas with hydrochloric acid gave 72.5%
sulfur elimination at 800 C. Partial removal of pyrite by oxida-
tion and leaching, followed by carbonization in hydrogen, gave
a sulfur elimination of 93%. Instantaneous carbonization in
hydrogen removed 59% of the coal sulfur. (Author abstract
modified)
19378
Benner, Raymond C.
METHOD OF PRODUCING ELEMENTAL SULPHUR.
(General Chemical Co., New York) U. S. Pat. 1,773,294. 6p.,
Aug. 19, 1930. (Appl. Jan. 21, 1927, 16 claims).
A process for reducing sulfur dioxide to elemental sulfur by
solid or liquid carbonaceous fuel is described. Processes for
reducing SO2 by coal or coke have had difficulties in obtaining
a product which is not contaminated with soot or solid carbon
particles. The presence of soot also makes the condensing and
collecting of elemental sulfur difficult. In the process
described, SO2 gas is passed through solid incandescent reduc-
ing material or liquid fuels. The composition of the resulting
gas is adjusted by adding an oxidizing gas, such as S02, to
provide reacting proportions of reducing gas and S02. This
mixture is burned in a combustion chamber maintained at a
temperature of 750-1000 C which contains a porous refractory
material. In this way, oxidation of the soot or carbon particles
with SO2 and carbon dioxide occurs without oxidation of the
elemental sulfur. The gas mixture is cooled and the residual
gases are contacted with a catalyst to produce additional ele-
mental sulfur.
19380
Haenisch, Emil and Max Schroeder
PROCESS OF OBTAINING SULPHUR FROM FURNACE-
GASES. (Assignee not given.) U. S. Pat. 361,761. 2p., April 26,
1887. (Appl. June 10, 1885, 1 claim).
A method of obtaining elemental sulfur from furnace gases
containing sulfur dioxide is described. The SO2 is separated
from the other gases by contacting it with water in a spray
tower; the water absorbs the SO2, but no the other gases. The
absorbed gas is separated from the water by heating. The gas
is conducted over or through an incandescent bed of coke or
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B. CONTROL METHODS
125
coal to be reduced. It is then passed through a chamber con-
taining glowing fire bricks, but no reducing agent. By using
this process, only elemental sulfur and carbonic acid are
formed.
19394
Francis W. and G. H. Lepper
RECOVERY OF SULPHUR FROM FLUE GASES. Engineering
(London), vol. 172:36-37, July 13, 1951.
Four processes for recovering saleable sulfur products from
flue gases are described. The production of ammonium sulfate
by double decomposition is commercially feasible when boiler
house and gas washer are reasonably close together. An alkali-
additive process recovers solid sulfur, liquid sulfur dioxide, or
sulfuric acid and cement. The recovery of ammonium sulfate
and sulfur is a direct process in which solutions of ammonium
carbonate are used as the scrubbing agent. Another process
uses sodium carbonate as the scrubbing medium, producing
sodium sulfite and sulfate. Preliminary cost estimates of
recovering sulfuric acid from a large power station burning
2000 tons of coal per day with an average sulfur content of
1.5% would be approximately $20.
19395
Hewson, G. W. and R. LI. Rees
SOME CONTRIBUTIONS OF CHEMISTRY AND CHEMICAL
ENGINEERING TO STEAM GENERATION. Trans. Inst.
Chem. Engrs. (London), vol. 17:43-79, 1939. 61 refs.
(Presented at the Institution of Chemical Engineers Annual
Corporate Meeting, 17th, London, England, Feb. 17, 1939.)
Four problems in the operation of steam power plants are
discussed: the evaluation of fuel, the efficient combustion of
fuel, the treatment of boiler water, and the removal of sulfur
oxides from flue gases. Two different philosophies of SO2
removal are considered in the discussion of the operation of
two large steam electric plants. While both handled the SO2 as
disposable waste, one was mainly concerned with the absorp-
tion of SO2 in water, the absorption in acid condition being
aided by the catalytic action of iron. The solution was neutral-
ized as far as possible by the calcium carbonate content of
Thames river water, with a final touching-up by scrubbing
with calcium carbonate. The other adopted a non-acid treat-
ment, washing with water that was maintained neutral or
slightly alkaline. The subject of recovery and sale of sulfur or
sulfur products was brought up during the discussion period
and mention was made of the extensive and varied approaches
to this problem which were in the research or pilot-plant stage.
The economics and technical feasibility of coal desulfurization
was brought up during the discussion period. Comment was
also made to the effect that the United States would have an
even more difficult problem in this area than England, since
the American coal contained 5 times the sulfur content of
Welsh or Scottish coal and the sulfur content was increasing.
Comment was also made concerning the lack of public con-
cern on the subject of SO3 fumes in America.
19471
Perry H. and J. H. Field
AIR POLLUTION AND THE COAL INDUSTRY. Trans. AIME
(Am. Inst. Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engr.), vol.
238:337-345, Dec. 1967. 14 refs.
Legislation intended to limit emissions of pollutants or the
type of fuel that can be utilized, particularly as it applies to
the coal industry, is reviewed. Emission limits of various
codes and regulations are tabulated. Effluents from coal opera-
tions include sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons,
carbon dioxide, smoke, and fly ash. The nature and magnitude
of air pollution problems affecting the mining, preparation,
coking, and combustion of coal are described. Application of
various particulate control devices, including electrostatic
precipitators, and cyclones, is discussed. Nitrogen oxides can
be controlled by excess or secondary air and by catalytic
decomposition. Sulfur oxide emissions can be controlled by
using low-sulfur fuel, improved combustion efficiency, al-
kaline additives, scrubbers, and desulfurized fuel. Methods of
partial and complete desulfurization of fuels are reviewed.
Processes for the specific removal of sulfur dioxide include
absorption, alkaline additives, Reinluft process, catalytic ox-
idation, and alkalized alumina.
19475
Tyrer, Daniel
PRODUCTION OF SULPHUR. (Imperial Chemical Industries
Ltd., London (England)) U. S. Pat. 1,936,809. lp., Nov. 28,
1933. (Appl. June 19, 1931, 2 claims).
The production of sulfur by reducing sulfur dioxide with car-
bon at a high temperature is described. An SO2 gas containing
no oxygen or an amount insufficient to maintain the necessary
reaction temperature is passed through a bed of coal. Coal
may be supplied to the top of a fuel bed whose lower portions
are maintained at a temperature of 100-1200 C by the introduc-
tion of air. Hot SO2 is admitted at the top and passes
downward through the bed, carbonizing the coal. The gaseous
products are then passed through a heated zone near the air
supply where the reduction of SO2 is completed. The tempera-
ture of the inlet gas should be at least 400-500 C. If the gases
leaving the fuel bed contain an excess of carbon monoxide, it
may be utilized by adding more SO2 which causes a secondary
reaction. In general, the gaseous reaction products will also
contain small amounts of hydrogen sulfide, which may be
eliminated by mixing the gaseous products with the requisite
amount of sulfur dioxide.
19480
Rauscher, J. A., H. Acton, and R. F. Barut
NEW PROCESS STABILIZES IN THE FORM OF SULFURIC
ACID THE SULFUR OXIDES CONTAINED IN SMOKE.
(Nouveau precede valorisant sous forme d'acide sulfurique les
oxydes de soufre contenus dans les fumees). Text in French.
Ann. Genie Chim., 1967:159-161. (Presented to the Congr. In-
tern, du Soufre, Toulouse, 1967.)
A new process for recovering sulfuric acid from sulfur oxides
present in smoke from steam-generating stations consists es-
sentially in removing the fly ash content of the flue gas from
the boiler. About 90% of the SO2 is next oxidized to SOS by
passage through beds of vanadium catalyst. The flue gases are
then cooled by heat exchange with combustion air, causing a
weak sulfuric acid mist to form. The mist is collected by a
high-efficiency Brink-Mist eliminator. The acid can be solid as
produced or concentrated, depending on the acid strength col-
lected and the requirements of the market. After treatment,
the gases exhausted to the atmosphere contain 0.01 to 0.03%
SO2. Estimates are that a 500,000 kw power plant will produce
500 tons per day of 100% sulfuric acid at a concentration of
78%. Investments for such a plant will be 15-30% the cost of
the power plant.
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126
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
19482
Klimecck, R.
A CZECHOSLOVAKIAN PROPOSAL OF AMMONIACAL
FLUE GAS DESULPHURIZING FOR A 100 MW POWER
PLANT. Ann. Genie Chim., 1967:175-179. (Presented to the
Congr. Intern, du Soufre, Toulouse, 1967.)
The amounts of flue gases from high-capacity thermal power
plants in Czechoslovakia are of the order of millions cu m/hr.
The bicyclical ammonia scrubbing method proposed to treat
these high quantities is described. After prior cooling to 25 C
and dust extraction, the smoke is washed in two stages by an
aqueous ammonium sulfite-bisulfite solution and is then
returned to the atmosphere with a residual SO2 and ammoni-
um content of less than 0.01% by volume. The SO2 enriched
washing liquid undergoes thermal regeneration by steam. After
elimination of part of the SO2 by desorption, and elimination
of the (NH4)2SO4 by crystallization at 35 deg, the liquid is
recycled. The SO2 freed during the thermal regeneration is
cooled, dried, and liquefied for compression. The method is
designed for an industrial unit with a power of 100 MW. Since
investment and operating costs are expected to be high, suc-
cessful utilization of the method will depend on finding mar-
kets for the ammonium sulfate and liquid SO2. (Author ab-
stract modified)
19541
Lindblad, Axel Rudolf
PROCESS FOR PRODUCING SULPHUR BY REDUCING
SULPHUR DIOXIDE. (Assignee not given.) British Pat.
426,456. 4p., April 3, 1935. (Appl. June 12, 1934, 9 claims).
A process for producing elemental sulfur by reducing the sul-
fur dioxide contained in furnace gases is described. A gaseous
mixture containing SO2 and oxygen is fed into a gas producer
containing coal or coke. The speed of the gas and the tempera-
ture in the producer are regulated so that the gases formed
consist mainly of carbon monoxide. This gaseous mixture is
then contacted with SO2. The coal or coke in the producer is
maintained in continuous movement by a rotary grate. This
causes friction of the charge pieces against one another so that
the ash formed is continuously removed and fresh surfaces are
always available for reaction with the SO2. The gas mixture
from the producer and the SO2 are passed through a catalyst-
filled chamber. A suitable catalyst is brick coated with an iron
compound or an alkali metal compound. If any impurities are
contained in the gas, it is recommended that they first be pu-
rified by cooling so that the impurities are condensed and then
passing them through an electrostatic precipitator.
19560
Bacon, Raymond F. and Isaac Bencowitz
RECOVERY OF SULPHUR. (Assignee not given.) U. S. Pat.
1,917,685. 5p., July 11, 1933. (Appl. July 29, 1930, 8 claims).
A method for producing elemental sulfur from the sulfur diox-
ide contained in roaster or smelter gases is described. It has
been proposed to recover elemental sulfur from SO2 by
passing the gas through beds of incandescent coke. This
process, however, had little commercial success due to techni-
cal and economic problems. With proper control of the tem-
perature of the reacting materials, the rate of gas flow, and
other factors, a high yield of elemental sulfur can be obtained
by treating smelter gases with reducing gases or powdered
coal. The gas is led to a reaction chamber where preheated
reducing gases are maintained at a temperature of approxi-
mately 1000 C or above. Exothermally reacting gases are
rapidly passed throuh the reaction chamber to help maintain
the temperature while the exit gases are rapidly cooled to
below 500 C to inhibit the formation of sulfur compounds. Ele-
mental sulfur is condensed and separated from the cooled
gases. The residual gases are contacted with a material that
will promote the oxidation of hydrogen sulfide and carbon ox-
ysulfide to elemental sulfur.
19581
Kamino, Yasumi, Shigenori Onizawa, Kenji Yasuda, Masaaki
Miyaji, Yoshihide Kawamura, and Akira Inoue
REMOVAL OF SO2 IN EXHAUST GAS BY THE STEAM-
GENERATED ACTIVATED CHARCOAL PROCESS (I). RE-
PEATED ABSORPTION-DESORPTION EXPERIMENT AND
ECONOMIC EVALUATION OF THE PLANT. Hitachi Ship-
building Co. (Japan), p. 1420, 1969 (?). Translated from
Japanese. Franklin Inst. Research Labs., Philadelphia, Pa.,
Science Info. Services, 2p., Oct. 30, 1969.
In bench-scale tests of the steam-generated activated charcoal
process, the removal rate of sulfur dioxide was observed with
and without air treatment. The air treatment, which comes
between the desorption and absorption states, consists of
passing air containing water at 100-200 C through the absorp-
tion-desorption tower for one hr, followed by dry air for 30
min. The treatment enabled the charcoal to absorb 90% of the
sulfur dioxide even after repeated use. The apparatus and
operating conditions required for application of the activated
charcoal process to a 250,000 kWH power plant are noted.
19602
Charmbury, H. B.
TECHNICAL REPORT ON THE PROGRESS MADE ON THE
ELIMINATION OF AIR POLLUTION FROM BURNING
REFUSE PILES PROJECT. Preprint, American Inst. of Min-
ing, Metallurgical and Petroleum Engineers (AIME), New
York, N. Y., Anthracite Div., 14p., 1963. (Presented at the
American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical and Petroleum En-
gineers Meeting, April 1963.)
One of the most serious air pollution problems today is the
burning of combustible material in mine refuse piles. To
eliminate the pollution, it is sought to remove the source, the
combustible material. The resulting separation would yield a
clean, non-burning refuse and a low-grade fuel. Progress of
research being conducted that will establish the amount and
nature of the combustible material contained in the refuse
piles and will establish, by special tests, the nature and charac-
teristics necessary to have a non-burning refuse is reported.
Samples from anthracite and bituminous coal areas were sub-
jected to sink-float tests in heavy liquids. After the sink-float
samples were dried and weighed, they were crushed, ground,
and moisture, ash, sulfur, and BTU determinations were per-
formed on all fractions. Three washability examinations were
completed on bituminous coal refuse and one on an anthracite
coal refuse. The large number of washability results obtained
led to the development of a time saving computer program to
make the necessary calculations. Cumulative float and cumula-
tive sink calculations and composite calculations were ob-
tained from direct weight percent, ash, sulfur, and BTU
values. A special test was developed to establish the burning
characteristics of refuse material. Numerous preliminary tests
were performed with an ignition temperature furnace. This in-
cluded several tests with an inert(limestone). In these tests, in-
formation was sought concerning the influence of air flow and
size and the degree of reproducibility. Future plans call for an
automatic multipoint recorder and a second furnace to permit
24 hour per day operation. The results obtained by the washa-
bility studies and by the ignition temperature studies will be
-------
B. CONTROL METHODS
127
used as the basis for the design and lay-out of an experimental
mobile preparation plant which will have a capacity of 100
tons per hour.
19608
THE ELIMINATION OF SULPHUR FROM FLUE GASES.
Engineering (London), vol. 146:499-501, Oct. 28, 1938.
The treatment of stack gases from two powerplants in England
is discussed. At the Battersea station, the gas is washed by
water from the Thames, the sulfurous acid being oxidized to
sulfuric acid, and this acid is neutralized by the natural al-
kalinity of the Thames water. The Fulham power station em-
ploys a packed tower type gas washer, with calcium-sulfate
crystals added to the lime water to inhibit deposition. If the
recovered products can be sold, they will more than pay for
the cost of the process. The problems and difficulties encoun-
tered in setting up the Fulham station are discussed.
19619
Ketov, A. N., V. V. Larikov, V. V. Pechkovskiy, and A. S.
Shligerskiy
DRY LIME METHOD OF REMOVING SULFUR DIOXIDE
FROM POWER STATION FLUE GASES. (Sukhoy izvest-
kovyy sposob ochistki topochnykh gazov lets ot sernistogo an-
gidrida). Text in Russian. Zh. Prikl. Khim., 41(4):724-729, 1968.
3 refs.
It was demonstrated experimentally that a 50-60 % removal of
sulfur dioxide from flue gases can be achieved by stoichiomet-
ric addition of dry lime to the furnace charge when burning
coal at 1100-1200 C. An excess air factor of 1.15 and a lime
consumption at 10-20% above the stoichiometric value are
recommended for this method (lime analysis (%): CaCO3,
83.8; MgCO3, 1.7; CaSO4, 0.8; R2O3, 0.5; SiO2 plus insoluble
ash, 13.2).
19629
Chertkov, B. A.
COEFFICIENTS OF MASS TRANSFER DURING ABSORP-
TION OF SO2 FROM GASES BY SOLUTIONS OF AMMONI-
UM SULFITE AND BISULFITE. (Koeffitsienty mas-
soperedachi pri pogloshchenii SO2 iz gazov rastvorami sul'fit-
bisul'fita ammoniya). Text in Russian. Zh. Prikl. Khim.,
37(ll):2437-2455, 1964. 11 refs.
Data are analyzed for the sulfur collecting installation at a
thermoelectric station to confirm the validity of calculating the
coefficient of mass transfer using a Nusselt number (for gas)
of 0.0035Re(gas)Re(liquid) to the 0.4th power (Re is Reynolds
number). This value is established as general for all cases of
absorption of SO2 by alkaline absorbers. The widely accepted
belief that the overall coefficient of mass transfer decreases
with increased diameter of the absorption column is not sub-
stantiated; it does, however, decrease as the saturation of the
absorbing solution increases and approaches equilibrium with
the gas being absorbed.
19642
Land, George W., Eino W. Linna, and William T. Barley
CONTROLLING SULFUR DIOXIDE EMISSIONS FROM
COAL BURNING BY THE USE OF ADDITIVES. Preprint, Air
Pollution Control Association, New York City, 33p., 1969. 4
refs. (Presented at the Air Pollution Control Association An-
nual Meeting, 62nd, New York, June 1969, Paper 69-143).
A project is reported in which 20 tests with five coal additives
dolomite chips and pulverized dolomite, hydrated lime,
aragonite (a high-calcium limestone), red mud (an aluminum
by-product high in iron oxide), and a proprietary liquid com-
bustion catalyst were run in an operating industrial boiler plant
to study their effects on sulfur dioxide emissions. The test unit
was a 750-HP Wickes boiler fired by a multiple-retort un-
derfeed stoker. Two methods were used: the additive was
either mixed with the coal before it was fired, or was injected
with compressed air jets over the fire. Sampling techniques for
suspended particulates, using a gravimetric sampling train, and
for SO2 in the stack gases, are described. Results are
presented and discussed; in general they were anomalous, and
because the tests were limited in scope and subject to nu-
merous uncontrolled variables, no conclusions are drawn. The
results do however, indicate that SO2 emissions from coal
burning can be significantly reduced by the use of certain ad-
ditives, and that further studies are warranted.
19670
Anderson, William Carrick
A CYCLIC PROCESS FOR THE REMOVAL OF OXIDES OF
SULPHUR FROM WASTE GASES. (Assignee not given.) Brit.
Pat. 438,582. 2p., Nov. 19, 1935. (Appl. June 26, 1935, 6
claims).
A method of removing sulfur dioxide from the waste gases of
furnaces in which coal, coke, oil, and gas are burned is
described. The cooled gases are contacted with a suspension
or solution of magnesium in water. The SO2 is converted to
magnesium sulfate and a small proportion of magnesium
sulfite. Thus, the SO2 becomes fixed in the solution and the
purified gases escape. It is preferred that the gases be con-
tacted with the magnesium solution by passing them through
or over screens of absorbent material. The screens are kept
moistened by dipping them into the solution or by spraying.
The magnesium sulfate and sulfite remain dissolved and may
be separated by crystallization. The magnesium sulfate is
dehydrated and heated with 25% of its weight of carbon to a
red heat in a hydrogen-containing atmosphere. This treatment
causes a reaction which liberates sulfuretted hydrogen and
regenerates the magnesium. The gases containing sulfuretted
hydrogen are passed into a magnesium bisulfite solution. Ele-
mental sulfur is precipitated out and can be separated by filtra-
tion or settling. Small amounts of polythionate and polythionic
acids remain in solution.
19672
Benner, Raymond C. and Alfred Paul Thompson
PROCESS FOR THE RECOVERY OF SULPHUR FROM
SULPHUR DIOXIDE. (General Chemical Co., New York, N.
Y.) U. S. Pat. 1,836,357. 7p., Dec. 15, 1931. (Appl. Nov. 2,
1927, 5 claims).
A process for reducing sulfur dioxide to elemental sulfur is
described. A mixture of SO2, in an amount not greater than
12%, and oxygen is contacted with a fuel, such as coal or
coke, at an elevated temperature. The proportion of the SO2
and oxygen are regulated by the addition of air so that sub-
stantially all of the carbon is used to produce carbon monox-
ide. Sulfur dioxide gas is added to the gaseous products of the
reduction reaction to provide interacting proportions of reduc-
ing and reducible gases. This SO2 gas is richer in SO2 and
poorer in free oxygen than the gas entering the reduction
chamber. The interaction of the reducing gases and the SO2
forms elemental sulfur, water, carbon dioxide, and CO. The
products are cooled to as low a temperature as possible
without causing condensation of the sulfur, and passed to a
catalytic chamber. The elemental sulfur is then condensed and
collected. If the residual gases contain any sulfur compounds,
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128
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
they may be contacted with activated carbon to remove the
last traces of these compounds and any elemental sulfur
present.
19678
Tyrer, Daniel
PRODUCTION OF SULPHUR FROM SULPHUR DIOXIDE.
(Imperial Chemical Industries, Ltd., London (England)) U. S.
Pat. 1,908,873. 3p., May 16, 1933. (Appl. June 10, 1931, 1
claim).
The production of sulfur from sulfur dioxide by reduction with
carbon at a high temperature is described. High temperature
coke had been used as a reducing agent, but it has been found
that low temperature coke, or semi-coke, offers advantages
due to its greater activity. Thus, reaction temperatures lower
than with high temperature coke, or from 600-800 C, may be
used. Heat of the reduction gases also may be used to car-
bonize coal, and thus produce semi-coke for the reduction
process. The reduction of SO2 by semi-coke may be con-
ducted in any suitable manner. The gas may be passed through
a bed of lump semi-coke which has been externally heated or
heated by the passage of sulfurous gas and air. Oranualr or
pulverized semi-coke may also be used. The gas may be
forced through a bed of the material so as to cause a turbulent
motion, or the pulverized semi-coke may be dispersed in the
SO2 and the mixture exposed to a high temperature.
19692
Supp, A., J. Hartwig, and W. Schnuerpel
DESULFURIZATION OF SOFT COAL, ESPECIALLY COAL
WASHINGS. (Entschwefelung von Steinkohle, insbesondere
von Kohlenschlaemmen). Text in German. VDI (Ver. Deut.
Ingr.) Her., no. 149:412-417, 1970. 2 refs.
Research originated by the bituminous coal industry has in-
dicated the practicality of reducing the sulfur content of coal
mined in the Ruhr by an average of 40-60%. Extensive experi-
mentation was also conducted with the use of a coal-water
suspension as a fuel for use in power plants. This has in-
creased interest in the desulfurization of such suspensions. A
device for mechanically desulfurizing a suspension of particles
containing pyrite consists of a combination of a stirring
mechanism and 'cage' made up of hollowed-out rings. This
element is rotated at a predetermined speed, which causes par-
ticles with the specific gravity of pyrite to be selectively
precipitated from the suspension. A pilot plant making use of
this principle has a throughput rate of 8 tons per hour for a
turbidity of 500 grams per liter and of 12 tons per hour for a
turbidity of 750 grams per liter. It uses an electrical input of 60
kW. Results of testing show the possibility of a 40-60% sulfur
removal, combined with a 20-40% separation of sulfur-bearing
ash. A certain amount of good coal is lost in the process, 5-7%
wt. By using a two-stage desulfurization process, it is possible
to diminish this loss to less than 1%. It is even possible, by
further purification, to obtain a commercial pyrite concentrate,
the yield varying between 77 and 90% wt. Best results are ob-
tained with a grain size 40-100 microns. The operating cost of
this process has been estimated at approximately $.40 per ton.
19724
Brivio, Luigi
USE OF HIGH-YIELD MULTISTAGE CYCLONE DUST FIL-
TERS TO PURIFY FLUE GASES FROM HEATERS USING
SOLID OR LIQUID FUELS. (Impiego dei depolverizzatori
multiciclonici ad alto rendimento per la depurazione dei fumi
di caldaia funzionanti a combustibili solid! o liquidi). Text in
Italian. Termotechnica (Milan), vol. 22:27-28, 44, 1968.
A new cyclone dust filter is capable of differentiating the
velocity of particles to be separated according to their granu-
lometric size. Thus the speed of particles with a lower mass
can be more closely adjusted to the speed of the transporting
fluid, permitting a higher degree of assimilation, while larger
particles are slowed down in proportion to their mass,
minimizing the problem of wall erosion which is more intense
in the case of larger particles. Such a filter is ideal for use in
heating systems that employ an unpulverized solid fuel, but is
less efficient when the fuel used is in a powdered form. This
type of dust separator is also the most advantageous for use
with liquid fuels or in cases where the coarser dust particles
must be removed but the escape of very fine particles is not
considered dangerous to the environment. The new filter
system is economically advantageous for smaller plants,
whereas for giant power plants or heating plants, the use of
electrostatic precipitators become practical. The multistage
cyclone is less efficient when there are wide variations in the
load carried, a difficulty overcome by the use of a modulated
control system, which maintains a constant dust load by
recycling, as needed, a portion of the exhaust gases that have
already been purified. The cyclone should be used in conjunc-
tion with an auxiliary fan, so as to compensate for the reduc-
tion in natural draft, which if uncompensated would increase
the degree of incomplete combustion. With these factors taken
into consideration, the new device is suitable for use in any
sort of plant that consumes 1-50 kg per hour of liquid fuel.
19733
Shibler, B. K. and M. W. Hovey
PROCESSES FOR RECOVERING SULFUR FROM SECON-
DARY SOURCE MATERIALS. Bureau of Mines Information
Circ., no. 8076, 1962, 62p. 561 refs.
A literature survey on processes for recovery of elemental sul-
fur and sulfur compounds from secondary source materials is
presented, and the more important processes from all non-
Frasch sources are described. The text consists of concise
descriptions of the general nature of the recovery processes
and definitions of major differences between processes
proposed for treating the same or similar materials. The
bibliography represents the available English language litera-
ture on the subject through 1958, with emphasis on the period
1950-1958. In addition to several articles and publications con-
taining general information on sulfur, the text and bibliography
on processing methods are arranged under the six principal
sources of secondary sulfur, as follows: volcanic sulfur, in-
cluding all elemental sulfur deposits not adaptable to the
Frasch mining process; hydrogen sulfide as found in sour
natural gases, petroleum refinery products, and coke-oven
gases; sulfur dioxide from the roasting and smelting of metal
sulfide ores and from power plant waste gases; pyrite and
pyrrhotite obtained by mining mineral deposits or produced as
by-products from the concentration of sulfide ore; gypsum and
anhydrite occurring as deposits of calcium sulfate; and indus-
trial wastes containing sulfates, sulfites, and sulfuric acid,
such as those produced in the steel, paper, and petroleum in-
dustries. (Author summary modified)
19803
Hausberg, G.
THE BISCHOFF PROCESS. (Das Bischoff-Verfahren). Text in
German. VDI (Ver. Deut. Ingr.) Ber., no. 149:121-127, 1970.
Problems of waste-gas purification occasioned by ever-increas-
ing production quotas for electric power plants call for new
research on the removal of dust and sulfur dioxide. Plant
economics demands a process which simultaneously removes
SO2 and particulate pollutants, requiring a new investigation
-------
B. CONTROL METHODS
129
of the use of wet processes, previously neglected because of
the threat of draft loss and increased maintenance costs result-
ing from the clogging of equipment that accompanies such
processes. Tests were conducted early in 1968 on a two-stage
scrubber, 5,000 cu Mn/hr throughput capacity, used in con-
junction with a power plant boiler. The effect of the scrubbing
process was observed for various combinations of fumes and
dust. A maximum pressure loss of 300 mm H2O was observed,
and the consumption of scrubbing liquid was held constant.
Results indicated that a realistic goal was 80% removal of
SO2, with a dust content of less than 50 mg/cu Nm in the pu-
rified gas. A pressure loss in the scrubber of about 250 mm
H2O was considered acceptable. For final test concentrations
of 100-150 mg, the pressure loss need be only 150-200 mm. It
has been estimated that for dust and SO2 removal in a 350
MW block, the additional cost is $.01 per kWh, depending on
the type of desulfurizing material used. Depending on the ad-
justments made, this process is capable of dust removal to a
level less than 100 mg/cu Nm, including the removal of fine
dust particles that normally escape as emissions. The SO2
removal amounts to 80-90% when its concentration in the
original flue gas is about 2.5-3.0 g/cu Nm. The flexibility of the
apparatus is seen from its rapid adjustment to variable operat-
ing conditions, such that a boiler out of operation overnight
can be brought up to its full capacity within half an hour, and
the equipment is insensitive to load fluctuations.
19804
Lemke, K.
DESULFURIZATION OF SOFT COAL. (Beitrag zur Frage der
Entschwefelung von Steinkohle). Text in German. VDI (Ver.
Deut. Ingr.) Ber., no. 149:405-411, 1970.
An important mineral component of soft coal is iron pyrite,
whose sulfur content (about 53%) is a principal source of the
sulfur dioxide content of flue gas, although about 0.8% of the
sulfur belongs to organic compounds and cannot be removed
by mechanical or electrical processes. Attempts have been
made to be more selective in the coal mining process itself, by
using coal that has a lower sulfur content, but except in ex-
treme cases such selectivity is not economical. Attention is
given to the following factors, in terms of concrete examples:
grain size and separability of pyrite; separation of pyrite from
middlings; wet and dry processes for separating pyrites from
middlings as this relates to the milling of coal for power plant
use; the possibilities of separating pyrite by a magnetic
process. Pyrite separation from middlings is feasible, provided
the content of grains less than 0.06 mm is not too high. The
pyrite content of most coal mined in West Germany has a
grain size of 0.02-0.6 mm, most of it unbound or loosely bound
to the coal itself. The basic problem is one of screening the
original particles in such a way as to eliminate a large percent-
age of pyrite. Experiments with a Frantz magnetic separator
show that a fuel strength of 14,000 Gauss will remove about
65% of the pyrite from untreated samples, and that increased
fuel strength does not improve efficiency. When the pyrite is
heat-treated at 300 C, 17,000 Gauss are required for complete
removal of pyrite from the cooled samples. With a treatment
temperature of 500 C, a fuel strength of only 4900 Gauss is
required to obtain the same results.
19834
Paretsky, Leon, Louis Theodore, Robert Pfeffer, and Arthur
M. Squires
PANEL BED FILTERS FOR SIMULTANEOUS REMOVAL
OF FLY ASH AND SULFUR DIOXIDE: D. FILTRATION OF
DILUTE AEROSOLS BY SAND BEDS. Preprint, Air Pollution
Control Association, New York City, 26p., 1970. 6 refs.
(Presented at the Air Pollution Association, Annual Meeting,
63rd, St. Louis, Mo., June 14-18, 1970, Paper 70-29.)
Experimental studies of the filtration of dilute aerosols of Dow
microspheres by beds of sand are reported. The experiments
were conducted with flows passing vertically upward, verti-
cally downward, and horizontally. The results were correlated
reasonably well by semi-empirical, semi-theoretical considera-
tions taking into account collection by diffusion, gravity
settling, direct interception, and inertial impaction. The results
are preliminary to experiments to be made on filtration of
aerosols by a filter cake of fly ash resting upon a sand bed. An
effective filter of this type could be used to reduce fly ash and
sulfur dioxide emissions from power generators. The experi-
mental results show that a velocity of maximum penetration
exists. Reduction of the aerosol filtration data to single particle
collection efficiencies indicates that there is no effect of bed
height on the single particle collection efficiency. Experimental
single particle collection efficiencies are larger for the finer
sand. At low velocities, the primary means of capture is by
diffusion, the influence of which decreases as the velocity in-
creases. The 'free surface model' predicts that collection by
Brownian diffusion depends only on the dimensionless Peclet
number and a complex function of the bed porosity. The ef-
fect of gravity settling is superimposed on the other
mechanisms. Gravity settling is an appreciable effect at veloci-
ties less than 1 cm/sec for the 1.1 micron polystyrene aerosol,
but. its influence decreases with increasing velocity. Gravity
settling is responsible for the difference in the upshot and
downshot efficiencies at low velocities. For a given size
aerosol it is independent of sand size. Filtration efficiencies of
aerosols by direct interception can also be predicted using the
free surface model. The influence of direct interception is in-
dependent of velocity and depends only on aerosol and collec-
tor size, and be porosity. Prediction of single particle efficien-
cies by inertial impaction using the free surface model con-
firms the existence of a critical value of the inertial parameter,
and is in agreement with the value reported in the literature
for a voidage. The critical inertial parameter decreases with
decreasing porosity.
19845
Domahidy, George
FUEL BURNING PROCESS AND APPARATUS. (Combustion
Engineering, Inc., Windsor, Conn.) U. S. Pat. 3,320,906. 4p.,
May 23, 1967. 5 refs. (Appl. April 20, 1966, 7 claims).
A method is described for removing sulfur compounds and
particulates such as dust particles and fly ash from flue gases
of steam generating and similar equipment. The furnace por-
tion contains a plurality of burners which feed a mixture of
pulverized coal and primary combustion air into the furnace
chamber. Limestone or dolomite is injected into the flue gases
to react with the sulfur compounds. A wet scrubber promotes
the reaction and removes the reaction products and other par-
ticulate matter from the flue gas stream. The gases are re-
heated after wet scrubbing to prevent any visible plume or lo-
calized pollution due to the low temperature nonbuoyant gases
issuing from the scrubber.
19874
Tyrer, Daniel
IMPROVEMENTS IN THE PRODUCTION OF SULPHUR.
(Imperial Chemical Industries Ltd., London (England)) Brit
Pat. 358,580. 3p., Oct. 12, 1931. (Appl. July 11, 1930, 5 claims).
-------
130
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
An improved method of reducing sulfur dioxide by coal for
the production of sulfur is presented. Sulfurous gas containing
no oxygen or an amount insufficient to maintain the reaction
temperature is preheated to at least 400-500 C and passed
downwardly through a layer of coal at the top of a relatively
deep fuel bed. The gaseous products, including those arising
from distillation of the fuel, then pass through an intermediate
layer of coke, produced by the carbonization of the coal,
where the temperature is maintained at 1000-1200 C by the in-
troduction of air from tuyeres. Here the tars are cracked and
any residual SO2 is reduced. The resulting gas is withdrawn at
a point below that at which the air is introduced.
19876
Griffith, Roland Hall
IMPROVEMENTS IN OR RELATING TO THE CONVER-
SION OF CARBON DISULPHIDE TO SULPHUR. (Gas Light
and Coke Co., London (England) Brit. Pat. 449,710. 3p., July
2, 1936. (Appl. April 5, 1935, 9 claims).
In the purification of gases such as coal gas by an oil washing
process, considerable quantities of carbon disulfide are ob-
tained as a by-product. The carbon disulfide, which is difficult
to handle and transport, can be converted to liquid sulfur by
mixing it with SO2 and reacting the mixture at 180-250 C with
a titanium, thorium, uranium, cerium, silicon, tungsten, or
vanadium catalyst. The catalyst is introduced into the reaction
in its oxide form but (with the exception of silicon oxide) is
converted to its sulfide form at the commencement of the
reaction. A portion of the recovered sulfur can be burned to
form further SO2 for use in the process.
19972
Central Electric Experimental Station (Japan), SO2
Specializing (Limited) Dept
EXPERIMENTAL REPORT ON THE ELIMINATION OF
SULFUROUS ACID GAS BY INJECTION OF LIMESTONE
AT MIE POWER STATION. (TEST RESULTS OF
LIMESTONE INJECTION AT MIE POWER STATION). Oct.
25, 1967. Translated from Japanese. Belov and Associates,
Denver, Colo., 57p., May 15, 1970.
The results of a series of tests to determine the ability of
limestone powder to remove sulfur dioxide from power plant
effluent are discussed. Various conditions, such as making the
injection particles as small as possible, using limestone with
1% or more iron content, scattering the powder evenly in the
boiler, and placing injection points on the chimney where the
temperature is between 1000-1200 C, greatly enhanced the rate
of removal. With a ratio of limestone to crude oil of 15% by
weight, the removal efficiency is 50-60%. Dust accumulation
on the interior walls of the boiler, and especially on the reheat
tube, is great. Further work is required to eliminate this
problem. (Author abstract modified)
20035
Johnstonc, H. F.
THE ELIMINATION OF SULPHUR COMPOUNDS FROM
BOILER FURNACE GASES. PART I. Steam Eng., 1932:153-
154, Jan. 1932. 5 refs. PART II. Ibid, 1932:208-211, Feb. 1932.
1 rcf. (Presented at the Third International Conference on
Bituminous Coal at the Carnegie Institute of Technology, Pitt-
sburgh, Pa., Nov. 1931.)
Methods for removing sulfur dioxide from flue gases are
reviewed with particular attention to scrubbing in the presence
of a cayalyst; promising results with iron and manganese com-
pounds arc reported. Experiments were conducted with
0.325% SO2 in air bubbled through 2 liters of water and a
cayalyst at a rate of 0.7 cu ft/min; contact time was no more
than 4 sec. Inhibitory effects of phenols, salts of copper and
tin, and hydrogen sulfide in concentrations of more then 0.2%
in the gas were noted. Additional studies were made to deter-
mine the effects of catalyst concentration, temperature, and
presence of inhibitors on scrubber efficiency; in this case,
contact time was reduced to 3 sec. The iron catalyst was
found to be less affected by inhibitors than manganese. A 100
cu ft pilot scrubber was operated with an initial SO2 concen-
tration of 0.1% and a contact time of 0.05 sec; 270 gal of water
per ton of coal were required.
20063
Ehrlich, Shelton
AIR POLLUTION CONTROL THROUGH NEW COM-
BUSTION PROCESSES. Environ. Sci. Technol., 4(5):396-400,
May 1970.
More than 6000 megavolts of new coal and oil-fired power
generating capacity will be brought on line in 1970, and com-
bustion at an elevated pressure is proposed to reduce oil
process sulfur oxide emissions from these yet unbuilt boilers.
Fuel would be burned at a pressure of 8 atmospheres in one
design concept for a 480 megavolt power station. Fewer boiler
tubes are need to absorb heat from high pressure gas than
from a hot gas at atmospheric pressure which would improve
capital cost, while efficiency improvement arises from the
power generated by the gas turbine in excess of that required
to compress the combustion air. A sulfur oxide removal
process for such a high pressure boiler would handle only one-
eighth the volume of gas of an equivalent atmospheric pres-
sure boiler and consequently treat it more intensively. Su-
percharging does not appear to be an immediate prospect for
coal, but fluidized-bed combustion of coal at atmospheric
pressure and the removal of sulfur oxides before or as they
are formed does have immediate potential. Combustion rate
may be five times the value of that in a conventional boiler,
and effective average heat flux into the boiler tubes may also
be five times as high. Combustion takes place at temperatures
low enough (1600 F) to preclude the formation of corrosive
ash compounds that tube metals may be less costly, and peak
heat flux may be two thirds that found in a conventional boiler
with thinner tubes of lesser alloys required. The Ignifluid
boiler was developed in France as a very effective fluidized-
bed combustor with a moving grate for ash removal.
20073
Bouilliot, Robert
EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF THE EFFECTS OF
RECYCLING FUMES ACROSS A LAYER OF ANTHRACITE
BURNED OVER A FIXED GRATE. (Etude experimentale des
effets du recyclage des fumees a travers une couche de grains
d'anthracite en combustion sur grille fixe). Text in French.
Rev. Gen. Thermique (Paris), no. 98:139-155, Feb. 1970. 3 refs.
(Presented at the journees de la combustion 'Verbrennung und
Feuersengen', Karlsruhe, Germany Sept. 18-19, 1969.)
The effects of recycling were measured in an experimental
hearth consisting of a crucible with an inner diameter of 200
mm fitted with a grate of 6 mm cylindircal steel bars spaced 6
mm apart, on which the anthracite was placed. The effects of
the recycling consist of an important change in the tempera-
ture profile in the layer, an important decrease in the carbon
monoxide content of the fumes and a slight increase in the
carbon dioxide content, a slower extinction of the layer, a
noticeable decrease in the rate of combustion-gasification,
especially during the extinction period, and a greater amount
-------
B. CONTROL METHODS
131
of unburned residue. The industrial significance of the findings
might be summarized as follows: the process produces a tem-
perature profile in the layer more favorable to a longer period
of service and construction with less costly materials;
decreased temperatures in the bed and the almost complete
absence of CO, which raises the melting point of silicates, in-
hibits the fusion of the minerals, and reduces the total effects
in the amount of clinker, which is detrimental to the material
of which the hearth is made; and reduces the problem of the
release of CO into the atmosphere.
20082
Exley, L. M.
A PRACTICAL REVIEW OF RESIDUAL OIL FIRING
PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS. Combustion, 41(9):16-23,
March 1970. 9 refs.
Power-plant boilers firing residual fuel oil are discussed with
respect to fireside corrosion and boiler slagging, cold-end cor-
rosion, and air pollution. Most residual fuels contain vanadi-
um, sodium, and sulfur compounds. Upon combustion, these
elements form low-melting ash deposits on superheater and re-
heater tubes, supports, hangers, and spacers. Corrosion
usually occurs with steam temperatures above 1000 F, but
wastage has been reported at 950 F. In the low-temperature
superheater section, SOS is catalytically generated. Sulfuric
acid is formed by condensation at the cold end of a boiler as
the gases encounter cooler metal temperatures. When flue-gas
temperatures approach the acid dewpoint and condensation oc-
curs, ash particles agglomerate and eventually pass out of the
stack. Under these conditions, the surrounding area is sub-
jected to fallout of greenish acid deposits, small black parti-
cles, or even large masses of highly corrosive material.
Fireside corrosion can be eliminated and formation of SOS in-
hibited by adding magnesium oxide to the fuel oil. The MgO
reacts with vanadium to form a dry and noncorrosive ash,
while poisoning the catalytic effect of vanadium in converting
SO2 to SOS. A coating of MgO on water wall tubes makes it
possible to operate boilers on much lower excess air. In com-
bination with MgO additives, low-excess air firing eliminates
acid smut fallout by lowering acid dewpoint. For a unit burn-
ing 10,000 bbls/day, a decrease of excess air from 20 to 5%
can result in a saving of $73,000 per year.
20097
Hashimoto, Kiyotaka
THE POINT OF PLANNING AND ITS EFFECT ON OPERA-
TION RESULT OF AN ELECTRIC PRECIPITATOR IN
VARIOUS INDUSTRY SMOKE ABATEMENT (III) TREAT-
MENT FOR WASTE GAS OF A COMBUSTION FURNACE
AT A THERMAL POWER PLANT (II). (Gyoshubetsu ni miru
denkishujinsochi no setsubikeikaku to untenkoka (III)
karyokuhatsudensho no nenshoki haigasu no shori (sono II) ).
Text in Japanese. Kogai to Taisaku (J. Pollution Control),
2(10):701-707, Nov. 15, 1966. 11 refs.
Several factors can cause the electrical resistance of dust in
the waste gas of a powdered-coal burning boiler to vary con-
siderably. When the resistance is too high, the discharging
condition in an electric precipitator becomes unstable. Several
methods of reducing the electrical resistance of dust are men-
tioned. The amount of dust in the hopper should be periodi-
cally checked and removed as a precaution against accidents.
The problems encountered with rapping on the electrodes of
an electric precipitator are also discussed. The matters of pri-
mary concern in heavy oil burning for thermal power genera-
tion are injury from sulfur dioxide, sulfur trioxide, smut, or
plume. To prevent injury from SOS, the sulfur in heavy oil
should be removed before burning; but at present, no
economical methods are available. Since SOS is contained in
fine dust, a combination of an electric precipitator and a
cyclone should be used as a dust collector for a heavy-oil-
burning boiler. Due to the special properties of the dust, some
problems arise when operating the precipitator.
20141
FLUE GAS WASHING AT BATTERSEA. PART I. Eng. Boiler
House Rev., 47(2):90-96, Aug. 1933. PART II. Ibid.,
47(3):162,164, Sept. 1933. (Presented at the 52nd Annual Meet-
ing of the Society of Chemical Industry, Newcastle-on-Tyne,
England, July 11, 1933.)
Details of the flue gas washing installation for sulfur oxide
removal at the Battersea Power Station in England are
described. The gas from coal contains about 1% sulphur; it is
washed with water during its passage through scrubbers in
which both the gas and water are brought into contact with
iron oxide. The gas is then scrubbed, preferably in contra-
flow, with water in another chamber; the scrubbers consist of
an inert material such as wood. After passing upwards through
the water sprays, the gas enters a final scrubber which wetted
with an alkaline solution, for example, 0.25% chalk slurry. The
gas is then discharged to the atmosphere after passing through
a dry scrubber to remove entrained mositure. The alkaline
solution flows downwards and mingles with the water from the
water sprays. The gas washing plant is designed to treat the
gases from a battery of nine boilers which constitute the first
half of the station. Each of the first six of these boilers has
maximum continuous rating of 312,000 and a peak rating of
330,000 Ibs/hr. Part I reports on the general arrangment of the
plant, the entry of gases into the main flue, specifications and
layout, and the arrangement and construction of the two chim-
ney towers. Part II continues with a description of the water
services and pumps, and of the liming, apportioning, and aera-
tion plants; it also includes a brief discussion of the calculation
of the resistance to flow of gases. The plant converts the
sulfites in the effluent to sulfates before the effluent is
returned to the river. A brief statement of capital costs is ap-
pended.
20188
Squires, B. J.
FABRIC FILTER DUST COLLECTORS. THEIR USE IN THE
VENTILATING, STEEL, NON-FERROUS METAL, CEMENT,
POWER STATION AND CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES. Filtration
Separation (Purley), 1967:228-239, May/June 1967. (Presented
at the Meeting of the Filtration Society, Manchester, Jan. 17.)
Design aspects, industrial applications, and development of
new fabrics for fabric filter dust collectors are reviewed.
Fabric collectors are of three kinds: screen type filters,
reverse jet or blow back filters at high filtering ratios, and tu-
bular filters at normal filtering ratios; the latter are in most
general usage, have undergone considerable recent develop-
ment, and are described in detail. Theoretical criteria for
fabric selections are noted. Some typical fabric filter installa-
tions are discussed. The use of a pre-coat filter aid in fabric
filters to achieve very high cleaning efficiencies when filtering
air and gas streams with low dust concentrations, such as the
cleaning of atmospheric air for special ventilating systems, is
one new application which has opened new fields for this
equipment in the sewage, pharmaceutical, and steel industries.
Particular attention is paid to the use of fabric filter dust col-
lectors to clean high temperature gases and to applications in
the cement, non-ferrous, smelting, and carbon black indus-
tries.
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132
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
20223
Lemke, Kurt
PROCEDURE AND MECHANISM TO REDUCE THE PYRITE
CONTENT OF COALS FOR THE PURPOSE OF REDUCING
THE SULFUR OXIDE CONTENT OF EXHAUST GASES.
(Verfahren und Vorrichtung zur Herabsetzung des Pyritgehaltes
von Kohle zwecks Verringerung des Schwefeloxydgehaltes von
Rauchgasen). (Bergwerksverband G. m. b. H., Essen, W. Ger-
many) W. German Pat. 1,247,891. 3p., Aug. 24, 1967. 5 refs.
(Appl. Dec. 12, 1964, 6 claims). Translated from German.
Franklin Inst. Research Labs. Philadelphia, Pa., Science Info.
Services, 7p., Aug. 10, 1969.
A process is described for the economic removal of pyrite
from the finest fractions of coal or pyrite-enriched coal dust.
It is based on the disintegration of coal into a light and essen-
tially pyrite-free component and a heavy pyrite-enriched com-
ponent, followed by the dry separation of the latter component
according to its density. In the separation process, thin layers
of coal dust are uniformly distributed across the entire width
of a vibrator-sluice and guided over it. The sluice comprises a
series of vibrating troughs which become successively more
narrow and deep. In the course of its path over the troughs,
the coal-pyrite mixture spreads out into particles having the
same size but varying in weight according to their densities.
The pyrite components are collected in end plates attached to
the troughs; coal dust is passing over the plates. The collected
pyrite is removed by an optically controlled throughput device
which operates discontinuously, while the desulfurized coal
components are again combined with the light components.
The collected dust is used for coal-dust firing. The process has
applications both for the treatment of coking dust and the
desulfurization of fuel dust for coal firing.
20243
Oberhaeuser, Alfred and Wolfgang Benarndt
FIRING BOILERS WITH BLAST FURNACE GAS HAVING
BEEN ROUGH-CLEANED IN THE DUST CATCHER AND
CYCLONE. (Verbrennen von im Staubsack un Wirbler cor-
gereinigtem Gichtgas im Kesselhause). Text in German. Stahl
Eisen, 87(10):611-617, May 1967. (Presented at a meeting of
the Arbeitsausschusses des Hochofenausschusses, Gross II-
sede, May 20, 1966.)
Since 1955, two boilers have been in operation in a power
plant attached to a blast furnace in Ilsede which are operated
with coal and cleaned waste gas from the blast furnace. A
melting pot is ahead of the combustion chamber where one
third of the coal and the ash stemming from the coal incinera-
tion are molten. Since the boilers were a great success, it was
decided to use rough-cleaned waste gas from the blast furnace
for the two new boilers which were being constructed. This
had the advantage that the gas cleaning system of the plant did
not have to be expanded; there was no heat loss; and the
water consumption was reduced. The uncleaned waste gas
contains 10 g dust/standard cu m. In addition to the gas, coal
was fired. The dust separator installed in the path of the un-
cleaned gas to the boiler rough-cleaned the gas to a residual
dust concentration of 1 to 2 g/standard cu m. Dry dust from
the uncleaned gas settled in the feed pipe to the boiler. Thus
this pipe had to be regularly serviced. Due to the large quanti-
ties of flue gas at the combustion of blast furnace gas (45%
more than at coal), the boilers have a large combustion
chamber. Erosion of the boiler pipes did occur, but could not
be traced to the use of the blast furnace gas.
20262
Yoshimochi, Shuntaro and Kazumi Kamei
DAP-MN PROCESS FOR DESULFURIZATION OF FLUE
GAS. Chem. Economy Eng. Rev., 1970:22-25, March 1970.
Research and develop;nent of an activated manganese oxide
process (DAP-Mn) for removing sulfur dioxide from flue gases
of large oil-fired power plants are described. Powdery ac-
tivated manganese oxide is uniformly dispersed in the gas at
the inlet of an absorber and carried along with the gas stream.
The SO2 and SOS in the flue gas react with the absorbent to
form manganese sulfate. The reacted manganese sulfate and
unreacted manganese oxide are collected after being separated
from the gas stream by a multicyclone and electric precipita-
tor. The activated manganese oxide is regenerated, and an am-
monium sulfate solution is obtained, by treating the separated
manganese sulfate solution with ammonia and air. Next, the
regenerated manganese oxide is liberated i.'rom the ammonium
sulfate solution and recycled to the circulation system. Other
by-products that can be recovered are gypsum and phospho-
ammonium sulfate. Since flue gas is introduced to the absorber
without pre-treatment, the method does not require boilers to
be remodelled. Neither do absorbers or regenerators require
special heat-or corrosion-resistant materials. The treated gas is
kept above 110 C. In pilot-plant studies, the method removed
90% of the SO2 from flue gas with a SO2 concentration of 0.1
vol%.
20392
Higashi, M., S. Fukui, and K. Kamei
STUDY AND EXPERIENCE OF MHI ON THE LIME
PROCESS FOR SO2 REMOVAL. Preprint, 12p., 1967. 4 refs.
(Presented at the Third Limestone Symposium, Clearwater,
Fla., Dec. 4-8, 1967.)
A pilot plant and an industrial plant using lime and slaked lime
for the removal of sulfur dioxide are described. The pilot plant
comprises a spray tower, a grid packed tower, a venturi
scrubber, and an MHI (Mitsubishi Heavy Industries) cross
flow absorber. The flue gas from the oil-fired boiler is con-
ducted to the spray tower and cooled to about 55 C (130 F). It
then passes the three kinds of absorbers arranged in a line.
The gas contains 0.15% by volume SO2 and 0.0015/ S03.
Limestone slurry, chalk lime, and slaked lime were tested as
absorbents. The reaction formula of the Lime Process is as
follows: CaCO3 +SO2 +2H2O yields CaSO3.2H2O + C02;
Ca(OH)2 +SO2 +H2O yields CaSO3.2H20; and CaSO3.2H20
+ 1/2 O2 yields CaSO4.2H2O. The SO2 absorption ratio de-
pends on the absorbent. All impurities in the by-product are
from the raw material; hardly any are from the flue gas dust
because the latter is almost completely retained in the spray
tower. Venturi scrubbers have a large power consumption.
Grid packed towers and MHI Cross flow absorbers are well
suited for the process. The Grid Packed Tower is better for
handling the slurry. The industrial plant using the lime process
has a capacity of 63,000 cu m/h. The SO2 content of the gas is
0.3% by volume in the uncleaned gas; in the cleaned gas, it is
0.03%. Gypsum is recovered; carbide sludge is used as absor-
bent.
20425
Carls, E. L.
REVIEW OF BRITISH PROGRAM ON FLUIDIZED-BED
COMBUSTION: REPORT OF U. S. TEAM VISIT TO EN-
GLAND FEBRUARY 17-28, 1969. Argonne Nation Lab., 111.,
Chemical Engineering Div., 48p., Aug. 1969. 28 refs. CFSTI:
ANL/ES-CEN -1000
-------
B. CONTROL METHODS
133
A U. S. team visited British organizations that are concerned
with the development of fluidized-bed combustion systems for
fossil fuels, and obtained information on research facilities,
experimental results, development programs in progress, and
expected future work. Experimental efforts and conceptual
design studies are aimed at the development of four types of
fluidized-bed coal-combustion systems: an atmospheric-pres-
sure utility-sized unit an industrial shell boiler, a pressurized
fluidized-bed combustor, and a packaged water-tube boiler. In
addition, application of the technique of fluidized-bed com-
bustion to various fuel-oil burning systems is being studied. A
variety of coals can be burned in a fluidized bed of coal ash at
about 800 C with superficial gas velocities of 2-14 ft/sec
without sintering or agglomeration, and carbon monoixde can
be reduced to less than 0.1 vol %, which is equivalent to 0.3%
carbon loss. Lower carbon losses were achieved in experi-
ments at low gas velocities (2 ft/sec) and using coal crushed to
minus 1/16 in.; the higher losses occurred in experiments at
high gas velocities (14 ft/sec) and with coal crushed to minus
1/4 in. Recycling the elutriated material to the bed produced
data to indicate that 95% overall efficiency can be achieved
for an industrial shell-boiler design and greater than 99% for a
conceptual utility-sized fluidized-bed combustor. Sulfur diox-
ide emission into the flue gas has been reduced by as much as
99% by the additon of 1 and 1/3 to 2 times the stoichiometric
quantity of limestone along with the coal feed at a superficial
gas velocity of 2 ft/sec. A preliminary cost comparrison
between utility-sized units and projected to 1975 indicates
capital charges of $132/kW for conventional pulverized-coal-
feed units, compared with $120/kW for fluidized-bed com-
bustion, or $137/kW to $125/kW if limestone injection were in-
cluded. Decreased corrosion, erosion, and fouling of tubes
would also be expected due to the lower temperature of com-
bustion, which should result in less vaporization of alkali com-
pounds. Problem area requiring resolution are coal distribtion,
air distribution, and recycle of elutriated fines. (Author ab-
stract modified)
20437
Burchsted, C. A. and A. B. Fuller
DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, AND TESTING OF HIGH-EFFI-
CIENCY AIR FILTRATION SYSTEMS FOR NUCLEAR AP-
PLICATION. Oak Ridge National Lab., Tenn., Nuclear Safety
Information Center, Contract W-7405-eng-26, 193p., Jan. 1970.
164 refs. CFSTI: ORNL NSIC-65
In order to review current practices and to define the
problems in operating, maintaining, and controlling contamina-
tion release from very high-efficiency air-cleaning systems,
visits were made to AEC production reactors, commercial
power reactors, laboratories, radiochemical plants, reactor fuel
manufacturers, clean rooms, equipment manufacturers, and
one chemical-biological warfare installation. Operational con-
siderations include filter change frequency, building supply fil-
ters, prefilters, operation to high pressure drop, and underrat-
ing, while environmental factors depend on the nature of the
contaminants to be removed (radioactivity, toxicity, corrosivi-
ty) and on heat, moisture, and other conditions that can affect
the performance or life of system components. Consideration
must be given to damage of the filter system from shock,
vibration, or fire; to design and arrangement of ducts and
housings to alleviate these conditions; to the possibility of a
power outage and means of switching to an alternate power
system; and to methods of controlling the exhaust system dur-
ing failure conditions. Factors that largely influence the cost of
maintenance are the frequency and ease of replacing filters. In
addition to the filters, important parts of the ventilating system
are the fans, ducts, dampers, and instruments, which must be
given design considerations. When space permits, round duct
is preferred to rectangular duct because it is stronger and less
likely to collapse under external pressure, is more economical
of materials, provides more uniform air flow velocities, is easi-
er to fabricate and erect, is easier to join and seal, and is
usually cheaper. Other problem areas are ventilating system
control and instrumentation, air sampling, and air intakes and
stacks. Characteristics, construction, and limitations of the
components are reviewed; types of filter systems, and gloved
box filtration is described. Filters and adsorbers are tested,
and the basic design and construction requirements are given
for remotely maintained and reactor post-accident cleanup fil-
tration systems.
20485
Shale, C. C., W. S. Bowie, J. H. Holden, and G. R. Strimbeck
FEASDJILITY OF ELECTRICAL PRECD7ITATION AT HIGH
TEMPERATURES AND PRESSURES. Bureau of Mines,
Washington, D. C., Rept. of Investigations 6325, 20p., 1963. 15
refs.
The electrical characteristics of air in a 2-in. pipe-type electro-
static precipitator under dynamic conditions at 600-1500 F and
0-80 psig using a negative discharge electrode were studied for
potential application to new processes for utilizing coal. These
applications include removal of entrained fly ash from the
products of combustion from coal-fired boilers to allow direct
use of the hot pressurized gases to power a gas turbine, and
removal of carbonaceous residue from synthesis gas made
from coal in order to permit use of the senible heat in the gas.
Results of this one-geometry study show that current-voltage
relationships are a function of air pressure and temperature
through about 1350 F over the full range of pressure. Corona
starting voltage and sparkover voltage vary directly with pres-
sure and inversely with temperature. At temperatures above
1350 F, use of precipitators may be limited to operations at
pressures somewhat above atmospheric pressure. Theoretical
derivations are presented that relate the effect of gas density
on corona starting voltage and the effect of ion mobility on
corona current. Deviation from the theory is noted at high cur-
rent levels. Theoretical discussion is presented to explain the
apparent electrical limitations for use of precipitators at high
temperature, low gas density, and high corona currents, condi-
tions at which calculated ionic velocities are extremely high.
Experimental results are interpreted in terms of the theory
presented. At 1500 F, thermal ionization does not appear to be
a certain factor. (Author abstract modified)
20526
Fukuma, Shin-ichi and Kazumi Kamei
DRY-SYSTEM FLUE GAS DESULPHURIZATION PROCESS
(DAP-MN PROCESS) FOR SO2 REMOVAL. Jap. Chem.
Quart., 4(3):12-14, July 1968.
The dry-system flue gas desulfurization process employes ac-
tivated manganese oxide as absorbent. Ammonium sulfate is
obtained as by-product. A semicommercial plant capable of
treating gases from a 55MW power plant equivalent to 150,000
cu m was constructed and first results on its operation were
obtained. The gas which is being cleaned contains 0.1% by
volume sulfur dioxide, 3.3% oxygen, 9.2% water, 11.9% car-
bon dioxide, 75.5% nitrogen, and 100 to 200 mg dust/cu m. It
enters the desulfurization plant with a temperature between
135 and 150 C. Diffusion of activated manganese oxide powder
in the gas and its transportation by the gas stream was
satisfactory. A SO2 removal rate of 90% was obtained at a
consumption of 150 to 250 g/cu m of absorbent. A constant ab-
sorption efficiency could be maintained over an extended
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134
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
period. The absorbent has good electric properties so that it is
easily collected by an electrostatic precipitator. The total dust
removal efficiency was 99.98%. The total pressure loss was
below 100 mm water. The plant has three stations: the SO2
removal station; the absorbent regeneration station; and the
by-product treatment station. In the first station, the absorbent
reacts with SO2 and SO3 in the gas stream by forming man-
ganese sulfate. This and unreacted active manganese oxide are
collected in a multicyclone and electrostatic precipitator. At
station 2, air (5 kg/sq cm) is blown into the manganese sulfate
solution and ammonia water is added. At station 3, the am-
monium sulfate solution is crystallized. Operating costs
amount to 1.00 dollar per ton of fuel oil.
20539
Coutant, R. W., R. E. Barrett, and E. H. Lougher
SO2 PICKUP BY LIMESTONE AND DOLOMITE PARTI-
CLES IN FLUE GAS. Preprint, American Society of Mechani-
cal Engineers, New York, 9p., 1969. 7 refs. (Presented at the
Winter Annual Meeting of the American Society for Mechani-
cal Engineers, Los Angeles, Calif., Nov. 16-20, 1969, Paper
69-WA/APC-l.)
An investigation was made of the reaction between sulfur
dioxide and limestone and dolomite particles in flue gas. Reac-
tion data were generated by exposing the particles to localized
boiler furnace conditions. Variables included in the study were
residence time, temperature, particle size, SO2 concentration,
and chemical state of the stone. A model is hypothesized for
the SO2-particle reaction that is consistent with the experimen-
tal data. The hypothesis states that the initial reaction products
are sulfites, and that as the particle temperature rises above
1400 F, SO2 is lost by the thermal decomposition of the
sulfite. Concurrent with these steps, the sulfite can be ox-
idized and/or disproportionate to form sulfate. The net result
is a maximum in sulfur pickup during the first second of expo-
sure in the reactor. (Author abstract modified)
20550
Seidl, W.
DESULFURIZATION OF WASTE GASES, A CENTRAL
PROBLEM OF AIR HYGIENE. (Entschwefelung von Ab-
gasen, ein zentrales Problem der Lufthygiene). Text in Ger-
man. Brennstoff-Waerme-Kraft, 20(3): 129-131, March 1968.
(Report on two symposia of the VDI Commission on the
Maintainance of Clean Air, June 2, 1967, Duesseldorf, and
Oct. 24-26, 1967, Munich.)
Munich has temperature inversions on 285 days of the year;
the city is almost always in a haze. To avoid large-scale air
pollution episodes, city authorities determined the wind
direction and speed, and measured the dust fall and sulfur
dioxide concentration of the atmosphere. In order to reduce
emissions, the city plans to extend the central heating system
over the entire city (now 20% of the households are remotely
heated). According to all available knowledge, SO2 removal
from waste gases involves a good deal of money. None of the
presently available methods are economical. Both Reinluft and
Sulfacid processes adsorb SO2, O2, and H2O on coke. They
differ, however, as far as desorption and regeneration is con-
cerned. In the Reinluft process, SO2 is liberated thermally; in
the Sulfacid process, it is scrubbed out. Sulfur can be also
removed by binding it to alkaline dusts or aqueous dust
suspensions which are added to the coal or injected into the
combustion chamber. The Grillo desulfurization method can be
used for the removal of sulfur dioxide, sulfur trioxide,
hydrogen sulfide, and mercaptans. The Mitsubishi, Monsanto-
Pcnclec processes and the method developed by the Bureau of
Mines are briefly outlined. The latter process uses alkalized
alumina to bind the SO2.
20552
Craig, T. L.
RECOVERY OF SULFUR DIOXIDE FROM STACK GASES:
THE WELLMAN-LORD SO2 RECOVERY PROCESS.
Preprint, Kentucky Univ., Lexington, lip., 1970. (Presented at
the Industrial Coal Conference Lexington, Ky., April 8, 1970.)
The Wellman-Lord sulfur dioxide recovery process, a wet
regenerative system which recovers at least 90% of the S02
from stack gas in excess of 97% of any SOS and acid mists
from the gas, and about 90% of the fly ash is described. This
process, which uses either potassium or sodium, can be
adapted to small industrial units, smelters, and fossil fuel-fired
generating plants. The end products from the process can be
gaseous or liquid sulfur dioxide which can be converted to sul-
furic acid or elemental sulfur through the addition of commer-
cially available equipment. The process has been demonstrated
at the Maryland Clean Air Demonstration Plant, Baltimore,
Md., and the first commercial unit is being installed. Capital
and operating costs are reviewed and power cost increments
of 0.40 mil per KWH for 2.5% sulfur coal and 0.44% for 5.0%
sulfur coal are reported.
20563
Zubik, B.
INTRODUCTORY PROJECT UNDER CONTRACT WITH
THE U. S. A. CONCERNING COOPERATION IN RESEARCH
ON DESULFURIZATION OF COMBUSTION GASES. (Projekt
wstepny umowny z USA o wspolpracy w zakresie badan nad
odsiarzaniem spalin). Preprint, 9p., 1968 (?). Translated from
Polish. Franklin Inst. Research Labs., Philadelphia, Pa.
Science Info. Services, 12p.
The Fuels Department of the Power Metrology Research Or-
ganization 'Energopomiar' has the following divisions: Fuels
Analysis, Fuels Technology, Research on Air Pollution, and
Desulfurization of Combustion Gases. The research theme,
'research into the effect of introducing dolomite into boiler on
the disposition of coals to form deposits on the heating sur-
faces', the objectives of the research, significance of the
search, work schedule, time schedule, description of work,
deadline, research in experimental and service conditions, the
points the research will cover, the number of people and sala-
ries involved, and costs of equipment to be acquired for the
three year project are outlined. Specifically, the research will
permit wider application of the method of desulfurization of
the boiler combustion gases, based on introducing dolomite
into the combustion chamber and determining the effect of in-
termittent or continuous introduction of dolomite into boilers
which fire specified kinds of coal.
20663
Bienstock, D., J. H. Field, and H. E. Benson
SULFUR DIOXIDE IN ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION, AND
METHODS OF CONTROL. Nat'l Research Council Pub. 652,
p. 54-62, 1959. 27 refs.
The undesirability of sulfur dioxide in the atmosphere has
been recognized because of its highly irritating effect on the
respiratory system, its adverse effect on plant life in concen-
trations as low as 0.3 ppm, and its attack on many metals,
fabrics, and building materials. Based on a coal usage of
350,000,000 tons in 1955 and an average sulfur concentration
of 1.9%, about 6,600,000 tons of sulfur or twice this amount of
sulfur dioxide was emitted from this fuel source. Extensive in-
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B.CONTROL METHODS
135
dustrial application of any process for removal of SO2 would
result in the formation of tremendous quantities of sulfur
products that would ultimately affect the market prices of sul-
fur in any of its forms; and the problem of storage and
handling, marketability, and the selling price of the sulfur
product will have considerable influence on the acceptability
of a purification process. Several methods are available in the
direct reduction of the sulfur content of coal prior to com-
bustion, including mechanical cleaning of coal, partial gasifica-
tion and carbonization to form a low-sulfur char, and complete
gasification with a subsequent removal of the sulfur in the
form of hydrogen sulfide. For removal of sulfur dioxide after
combustion, consideration is directed toward the development
of hot absorption processes.
20696
Miller, Leo A. and Jack D. Terrana
PROCESS FOR RECOVERING SULFUR DIOXIDE FROM
GASES CONTAINING SAME. (Wellman-Lord, Inc., Lakeland,
Fla.) U. S. Pat. 3,485,581. 5p., Dec. 23, 1969. 4 refs. (Appl.
Nov. 15, 1966, 20 claims).
The concentration of sulfur dioxide in stack or furnace gases
from coal-burning furnaces in electric power plants is often
less than 1%. Conventional water-scrubbing processes are
generally unsuitable for such small concentrations. In ac-
cordance with the present invention, SO2 concentrations as
low as 0.3% can be recovered by scrubbing the gases with an
alkali or alkaline earth metal sulfite, e.g., sodium or potassuim
sulfite, to convert the latter to bisulfite; evaporating at least
some of the water from the bisulfite solution at temperatures
below the decomposition point of the bisulfite; and then heat-
ing the bisulfite to above the decomposition point to obtain
SO2 and the mono-sulfite, which can be recycled. The process
can be carried out in a packed tower or a plate tower contain-
ing bubble trays or sieve plates. The reaction zone temperature
is between 100 and 230 F and the decomposition zone tem-
perature, between 230 and 600 F. During the evaporation step,
it is advantageous to replace the water being removed with an
inert heat exhange material which is liquid under the evapora-
tion zone conditions; the material is used in amounts sufficient
to yield a slurry of the bisulfite in the material. (Author ab-
stract modified)
20729
Squires, Arthur M.
PROCESS AND APPARATUS FOR DESULFURIZING FUELS.
(Assignee not given.) U. S. Pat. 3,481,834. 21p., Dec. 2, 1969.
12 refs. (Appl. Aug. 21, 1968, 21 claims).
An improved method and apparatus are described for convert-
ing a sulfurous hydrocarbonaceous fuel, such as bituminous
coal and residual oil, into fuel products low in sulfur; one of
the products comprises of coke pellets. Fuel is charged to a
lower zone of a fluidized bed, which comprises of the coke
pellets, where the fuel is carbonized or cracked to form gase-
ous products and a fresh coke accrets upon the pellets. Gase-
ous products along with hydrogen fluidize a superposed, con-
tiguous, upper zone of the fluidized bed; the upper zone com-
prises of a commingling of the coke pellets and a solid of
smaller size containing a substance avid for sulfur from
hydrogen sulfide, such as calcium oxide. The upper zone is
fluidized at lower velocity than the lower zone, and the
velocity of the lower zone is sufficient to prevent the smaller
solid from penetrating deeply into the zone. Means are pro-
vided to ensure that, soon after a layer of fresh coke is
formed on a given pellet, it goes to the upper zone, where the
fresh coke is desulfurized through the cooperative action of
the hydrogen and the smaller solid. Gaseous products are also
desulfurized while passing through the upper zone. Fuel gas
and coke, each low in sulfur, are withdrawn from the fluidized
bed. (Author abstract)
20738
Rinaldi, L. and G. Sotgia
FURTHER STUDIES AND OBSERVATIONS OF THE
BEHAVIOR OF SMOKE FROM LARGE POWER PLANTS,
MAKING USE OF HYDRODYNAMIC MODELS. (Ulterior
sviluppi di studi ed esperienze relativi al circuito dei fumi per
centrali di grande potenza, mediante 1'impiego di modelli
fluidodinamici). Text in Italian. Termotecnica (Milan), 23(11):
544-552, Nov. 1969. 12 refs. (Presented at the Congress
Nazionale ATI, 24th, Bari, Oct. 1969.)
A smoke behavior model of a particularly compact configura-
tion was the subject of experiments aimed at obtaining a more
rigid control over the flow of smoke in an electrostatic filter.
After examining such problems as the structure of the circuit,
its lateral position with respect to the stack, and the high
degree of regularity required, criteria are formulated for the
proper solution of the problem. Also examined critically is the
degree of approximation of the parameters normally used to
correlate the quality of flow distribution, observed from the
model, with the purifying efficiency of the actual electrofilter.
The problem of insufficient diffusion created by the strong
divergence of the air ducts can be corrected, despite the dif-
ficulties, with a system that combines deflectors and screens,
which should also permit a reduction of the total weight of the
system.
20779
Herman, Paul A.
MOISTURE CONTENT AND COMBUSTION PRODUCT
REMOVAL APPARATUS FOR EXHAUST GASES.
(Westinghouse Electric Corp., Pittsburgh, Pa.) U. S. Pat.
3,473,298. 6p., Oct. 21, 1969. 7 refs. (Appl. Dec. 26, 1967, 4
claims).
An apparatus is described for recovering and utilizing water
introducf J into a steam injection power plant, and for remov-
ing moisture content and combustion products from exhaust
gases before they are admitted to the atmosphere. This is ac-
complished by a recirculating water system in which the water
initially is employed to directly contact and chill the exhaust
gases in a spray chamber to effect removal of solid particle
and water soluble contaminants. The water is then directed
through a condenser for subsequently condensing the remain-
ing vapor entrained in the gases, and to heat exchangers in an
air mixing region in which ambient air is heated and added to
the gases before they are admitted to the atmosphere, thereby
providing a stack effluent of very low relative humidity. The
temperature of the water is raised by its contact with the ex-
haust gases so that, when circulated through the heat exchan-
gers, it functions to heat the ambient air with the consequent
cooling of the water for return to the condenser and spray
chamber.
20794
Squires, Arthur M.
KEEPING SULFUR OUT OF THE STACK. Chem. Eng. Desk-
book, 77(9):181- 189, April 27, 1970. 44 refs.
New coal- or oil-fired power stations in the United States will
commonly be on the order of 1000 to 2000 Mw by 1980 and
the fuel consumption will range from 8000 to 16,000 tons/day
of coal or 35,000 to 70,000 bbl/day of oil. Sophisticated equip-
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136
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
ment for removing sulfur from such large quantities of fuel in
a unit adjacent to the power plant prior to final combustion
may well be cheaper to build than devices for removing the
sulfur oxides from enormous quantities of stack gases. Equip-
ment is envisioned that would gasify solid fuel and treat the
gas at elevated pressure, thereby handling only a small frac-
tion of the molar flow and volume to be subsequently
discharged from the stack following combustion. Such equip-
ment might add no more than $10/kw capital cost because the
power-generating machinery will cost less for a plant operating
on sulfur-free fuel. Revenue from the sale of by-product sulfur
would provide an offset against capital cost amounting to
about $10/kw of capacity. The technical and economic feasi-
bility of developing an intergrated fuel-chemicals-power com-
plexes from existing coal gasification and fuel-oil desulfuriza-
tion processes is examined.
20854
Dept. of Health, Education, and Welfare, Washington, D. C.
THE COST OF CLEAN AIR. Combustion, 41(10):25-32, April
1970. 10 refs.
The future costs of controlling sulfur oxides and particulate
emissions from fuel combustion and selected industrial
processes are reported. All estimates are based on the assump-
tion that control will be achieved by applying the techniques
already in use. There are three general approaches to con-
trolling emissions from fuel combustion: fuel changes, stack
gas cleaning, and improvements in combustion efficiency.
Combustion source estimates are based on the assumption that
all reduction in sulfur oxide emissions will be achieved
through fuel substitution, and reduction in participates through
stack gas cleaning. Particulate emission control from industrial
process sources is assumed to be achieved with electrostatic
precipitators, cyclones, wet scrubbers, and fabric filters. Cost
analysis for commercial fuel combustion is based on area fuel
prices. Both investment and annual costs have been estimated:
investment cost includes the price of control equipment and
installation costs; annual cost is the sum of depreciation of the
investment cost, capital-related costs, and operating and main-
tenance costs.
20914
Katz, B. and R. D. Oldenkamp
INTEGRATION OF MOLTEN CARBONATE PROCESS FOR
CONTROL OF SULFUR OXIDE EMISSIONS INTO A
POWER PLANT. Preprint, American Society of Mechanical
Engineers, New York, 7p., 1969. 5 refs. (Presented at the
American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Winter Annual
Meeting, Los Angeles, Calif., Nov. 16-20, 1969, Paper 69-
WA/APC-6.)
The molten carbonate process (MCP) is being developed to
remove sulfur oxides from power plant stack gases. The
process is a closed cycle system in which a molten eutectic
mixture of sodium, lithium, and potassium carbonate is circu-
lated to convert the sulfur oxides to sulfites and sulfates,
which remain dissolved in excess carbonate. Conversions of
40% can be achieved without raising the melting point of the
mixtures above 800 F. The salt mixture containing the sulfites
and sulfates is subsequently reduced chemically to the sulfide
form, then regenerated to the original carbonate form. The
regeneration step releases hydrogen sulfide which can be con-
verted to elemental sulfur or sulfuric acid. The process equip-
ment is divided into two parts: equipment located outside the
power plant stream, and equipment located in the flue gas
stream. Optimum process component configuration for an 800
Mwe plant is discussed. Preliminary analyses indicate that a
plant using carbon for the reduction step would cost $9.0 mil-
lion. Annual operating costs would be 0.44 mils/kw-hr before
the sale of the sulfur produced.
20995
McLaren, J. and D. F. Williams
COMBUSTION EFFICIENCY, SULPHUR RETENTION AND
HEAT TRANSFER IN PILOT PLANT FLUIDIZED-BED
COMBUSTORS. Combustion, 41(ll):21-26, May 1970. 10 refs.
(Also: Engineering (London), 27(5379), May 1969.)
As part of a research program into the combustion of coal in a
fluidized bed for large-scale power generation, measurements
of combustion efficiency and retention of sulfur by limestone
were made in an 0.15-m diameter bed. Both reactions were
taken virtually to completion during combustion of -10 BSS
mesh coals at 800 C in a 0.6-m deep bed of ash fluidized at 0.6
m/s, when elutriated fines were recycled to the bed. In addi-
tion, experiments in an 0.3-m square combustor bed showed
that bed-tube heat transfer co-efficients of 460 W/ sq m C (80
Btu/sq ft h F) can be achieved under these conditions, indicat-
ing that a large reduction in tubing costs should be possible.
Further experiments in a 0.9-m sq cold bed on the effect of
tube orientation on heat transfer indicate that it should be
possible to pact the tubing required under these conditions into
an 0.6-m deep bed. (Author abstract modified)
21005
Feldman, H. F., W. H. Simons, J. J. Gallagher, and D.
Bienstock
KINETICS OF RECOVERY SULFUR FROM THE SPENT
SEED IN A MAGNETOHYDRODYNAMIC POWER PLANT.
Environ. Sci. Technol., 4(6):496-502, June 1970. 7 refs.
(Presented at the American Chemical Society Division of Fuel
Chemistry, 157th Meeting, Minneapolis, Minn., April 1969.)
The open-cycle magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) power plant of-
fers a unique means of profitably recovering sulfur from coal
combustion products. In such a plant, the combustion products
are seeded with a potassium or cesium seed to make them
electrically conductive. The seeding material, which has a
great affinity for sulfur, must be recovered and recycled for
the power plant to be economically feasible. Before recycling
the slag-feed mixture to the generator, the sulfur in the mix-
ture can be removed and converted to hydrogen sulfide with a
hydrogen feed gas. The hydrogen sulfide can then be
separated from the hydrogen by stripping with an
ethanolamine solution and converted to elemental sulfur via
the Claus oxidation process. Experimental and kinetic analyses
of the conversion process are described, with the data ob-
tained used to specify the design and operation conditions for
a sulfur recovery reactor for a 1000-MWe MHD power station.
The kinetic model also describes the regeneration of the absor-
bent in the alkalized alumina process for removing SO2 from
power-plant stack gases.
21028
Goldschmidt, K.
PRACTICAL EXPERIENCES WITH WASTE GAS DESUL-
FURIZATION PROCESSES IN INDUSTRY- CONCLUSIONS.
(Praktische Erfahrungen im Bereich der Industrie- Schlussfol-
gerungen). Text in German. VDI (Ver. Deut. Ingr.) Ber., no.
149:133-139, 1970. 4 refs.
Practical experiences with desulfurization processes are
discussed for combustion gases in plants. Experiments with
additive suspensions (7:3 water to solid ratio) revealed that the
best results were achieved with hydrated quicklime. However,
-------
B. CONTROL METHODS
137
only 20 to 30% of SO2 was removed by addition of 1.5 2.5
times the stoichiometrically required additive in the favorable
temperature range of about 1500 C. The same amount of
desulfurization was achieved by injection of dry calcium
hydrate at 1150 C. Analysis of the sludge accumulating in the
Bishoff-process revealed that it can be safely dumped without
posing any danger to the groundwater. Tests with the Reinluft
process using low-temperature soft coal coke, a dust concen-
tration of lOOg/cu m and of 2.9g/cu m, and an SO2 content of
2.6 and 2.9g/cu brought a 73% and 66% desulfurization. The
Still process requires further modification to achieve any sig-
nificant desulfurization. By wetting the catalyst a 70 to 80%
desulfurization was achieved, but the catalyst consumption
went up to 3 times the stoichiometrically required quantity.
21117
Klein, Heinrich
DUST COLLECTION BY THE TORNADO FLOW METHOD.
OPERATION AND APPLICATION. (Drehstroemungs-Entstau-
bungsverfahren Wirkungsweise und Einsatz). Text in Ger-
man. Keram. Z., 20(8):479-484, 1968.
The development of the tornado-flow collector began in 1954.
The first model consisted of a plexi-glass pipe with a diameter
of 75 mm and a length of 1.50 m. A smaller inlet pipe
protruded into the larger pipe at the bottom. Secondary air en-
tered in the upper third of the pipe through a nozzle. The tor-
nado flow consists of a potential flow and a rotational flow in
the center. The two flows proceed in opposite directions.
Development of the first model was followed by experiments
in a power plant. The collector was installed in the bypass to
the electrostatic precipitator. A collection efficiency of more
than 90% was achieved with relatively fine dust particles. In
1963, two types of collectors of this kind were available: one
with a capacity of 500 cu m/h and one with 2750 cu m/h. How-
ever, the energy requirement of these units was too high.
Through alterations at the inlet and outlet, the collection effi-
ciency was further increased to 98% while, at the same time,
energy consumption was reduced. High capacity units for 7500
and 12,000 cu m/h became available. Presently, units with a
capacity of 700,000 cu m/h are in operation. Such collectors
are particularly suited for the separation of fine dusts and can
thus be used in foundries, in the stone industry, food industry,
wood-working industry, as well as collecting pulverized
synthetics. The various possibilities of regulating the seconda-
ry air current which controls the collection efficiency makes
this versatility possible.
21136
Hanby, V. I.
THE EFFECT OF GASEOUS OSCILLATIONS ON THE
COMBUSTION RATE OF SOLID FUEL PARTICLES. Fuel
Soc. J., Univ. of Sheffield, vol. 18:44-49, 1967. 11 refs.
Data from the literature and the results of an experimental in-
vestigation are presented to show that combustion rates of
solid fuel particles can be increased by the effects of sound
fields in two ways: by the creation of acoustic vortices with
low amplitude pulsations, and by the aerodynamic scrubbing
effect of high amplitude pulsations. Increases in combustion
rates due to aerodynamic scrubbing are higher than those due
to vortex formation. Under aerodynamic scrubbing conditions,
the total combustion rate of the coal is increased more than
the volatile combustion rate. Very high combustion intensities
(10 to the sixth power Btu/cu ft/Hr) can be obtained for pul-
verized fuel by the utilization of the high amplitude sound
field produced by pulsating combustion. The findings are espe-
cially relevant to the large furnaces used in the power-generat-
ing industry. (Author conclusions modified)
21200
Mueller-Wartenberg, Heinz
APPARATUS FOR CARRYING OUT A METHOD OF PU-
RIFICATION FOR FLUE GASES. (Metallgesellschaft A. G.,
Frankfurt (W. Germany)) U. S. Pat. 3,475,133. 14p., Oct. 28,
1969. 6 refs. (Appl. Dec. 30, 1965, 9 claims).
An apparatus is proposed for a multi-stage method of purify-
ing flue gases which contain sulfur compounds, particularly
the flue gases of oil or coal-fired boilers. After the gases have
been previously treated in coolers and scrubbers and had the
dust removed from them in mechanical or electrical dust
precipitators, they are subjected to a wet catalysis with coal or
carbon as the catalyst in order to remove the sulfur-containing
compounds, particularly sulfur dioxide. The cooler and/or
scrubber, and, if employed, the dust precipitator are arranged
vertically one above the other with catalyst reaction beds in a
tower-like common housing of prefabricated plates forming a
closed gas shaft. The gas shaft is divided up vertically into a
series of flues by a series of superimposed catalytic reaction
beds and run-off trays which form barrier walls. The reaction
beds are staggered vertically in a staircase-like manner so that
they are shifted with increasing length into the oncoming flow
of gas. The lateral offset provides an upwardly decreasing
flow area on the inlet side of the beds and an upward increas-
ing cross-sectional flow area on the outlet side of the beds.
The lower part of the gas shaft forms an acid or fluid collect-
ing container.
21232
Hunter, J. B.
PLATINUM CATALYSTS FOR THE CONTROL OF AIR
POLLUTION. A TAIL GAS REDUCTION SYSTEM FOR
NITRIC ACID PLANTS. Platinum Metals Rev., vol. 9-12:2-6,
1965-1968. 1 ref.
Effective reduction of nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons, and or-
ganic vapor is obtained by the use of platinum catalysts sup-
ported by a ceramic honeycomb. Use of the ceramic
honeycomb support overcomes the two principle objections to
platinum as a catalyst in pelletized form, pressure drops across
pelleted beds, and loss of fines. Other important advantages
for honeycomb catalysts are the elimination of hot spots, more
uniform gas distribution, greater structural strength, and no
channelling. From the standpoint of system design, the rigid
structure also provides greater process flexibility. Horizontal
as well as vertical reactors may be used. In nuclear power in-
stallations, intense radiation causes the decomposition of
water into a hydrogen/oxygen mixture. Platinum honeycomb
catalysts are effective as hydrogen/oxygen recombiners.
21234
Diehl, Erie K.
REDUCTION OF EMISSION OF OXIDES OF NITROGEN-
PRESENT AND FUTURE PROSPECTS. Preprint, Public
Health Service, Washington, D. C., Div. of Air Pollution, 4p.,
1966. (Presented at the Conference on Air Pollution, National,
Washington, D. C., Dec. 12-14, 1966, Paper B-ll.)
Oxides of nitrogen are among the gaseous components emitted
from heat and power generation equipment and should not be
ignored in the overall evaluation of air pollution. Any process
which produces high temperatures in the presence of at-
mospheric nitrogen and oxygen will yield oxides of nitrogen as
a combustion product. Nitrogen oxide (NO) and nitrogen diox-
ide are of significance in photochemical smog. Emissions of
NO from combustion stacks can range from less than 100 ppm
to over 1500 ppm. A method of operation known as staged
combustion results in a reduction of NO of up to 40%. Current
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138
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
methods under investigation for the removal of other contami-
nants may also have a marked effect on oxides of nitrogen.
Acceptable ground level concentrations of nitrogen oxides
must be established before application of known chemistry to
the problem will proceed.
21238
Pearson, J. L., G. Nonhebel, and P. H. N. Uhlander
FLUE GAS CLEANING AT FULHAM POWER STATION.
Fuel Econ., vol. 12:108-109, Dec. 1936.
A washing cycle for flue gases which completely eliminates
scaling problems is described as applied to a power station.
The process depends upon a property of calcium sulfite and
sulfate, their ability to very readily form stable supersaturated
solutions, with the corollary that precipitation takes place very
slowly from these solutions. A grid system was employed to
provide maximum absorbing surface for the liquid. A flue-gas
scrubber may be subjected to rapidly varying loads, so the
acid and alkali constituents of the liquid must be monitered
constantly. This can easily be accomplished with a pH
recorder.
21268
Spaite, Paul W. and Robert P. Hangebrauck
HEW SPELLS OUT AIR-QUALITY GOALS. Elec. World,
173(20):25-27, May 18, 1970.
About half of the air pollution from industrial and commercial
activities is produced by the burning of coal, oil, and natural
gas. The emissions originate in power plants, industrial boilers,
and small installations used for commercial and residential
heating. Power production, which accounts for 70% of the
total sulfur oxides emissions from combustion, is the most im-
portant source. Power plants also account from 30% to 40% of
all nitrogen oxides emissions. Particulate emissions appear to
be less critical than SOx or NOx, but this may be misleading
because particles less than 1 micron in size are not accounted
for. Conventional electrostatic precipitators can reduce the
emissions slightly, but the number of fine particles will in-
crease by a factor of four between 1970 and 2000. Control of
SOx emissions by flue-gas cleaning should soon be practicable.
The 'throwaway' processes, which involve reacting SOx with
limestone, to be collected as calcium-sulfur in precipitators or
wet scrubbers, are most likely to find application. Reliable
methods must be developed for controlling NOx emissions
from boilers. Electrostatic precipitators could control much of
the fly ash, but many of those operating today function ineffi-
ciently because they were designed for less stringent require-
ments or have lost efficiency. There is a critical need for im-
proved systems and techniques for controlling submicron par-
ticles.
21275
Oda, Kcnichi and Yoshimi Ishihara
METHOD FOR REMOVING SULFUR DIOIXDE FROM FLUE
GASES OF A COMBUSTION FURNACE. (Electric Power In-
dustry, Tokyo (Japan), Central Research Inst.) U. S. Pat.
3,481,289. 4p., Dec. 2, 1969. 2 refs. (Appl. May 13, 1968, 5
claims).
A method for removing sulfur dioxide from the flue gases of a
fuel oil or coal fired furnace is described. An hydroxide, con-
verted from an oxide in discharge calcined limestone or
dolomite, is injected into the furnace. A newly prepared
powder of limestone or dolomite is also injected. Although the
calcined product discharged from the furnace contains
sulfates, the main component is calcium oxide. When water is
added to convert the oxide to hydroxide, the hydroxide
formed has a high reactivity and removes SO2 very effective-
ly. The reactivity of the hydroxide can be improved by using
an iron salt solution as the hydration water. Previous proposals
to remove SO2 from flue gases by injecting pulverized
limestone or dolomite powder into a furnace have the ad-
vantage of being inexpensive and simple, but the disadvantage
that the rate of SO2 removal is low.
21313
Bieber, K. H.
SUCCESSFUL OPERATION OF WET SOOT BLOWERS.
(Betriebliche Bewaehrung von Wasserrussblaesern). Text in
German. Mitt. Ver. Grosskesselbesitzer, 50(2):83-88, April
1970. 1 ref.
Wet soot blowers were installed in the boilers of a power plant
to prevent heavy soiling on the flue gas side. Condensate from
the turbines was used as cleaning agent. The blowers were in-
stalled in two rows in the lower section of the first flue. The
effective diameter of the front and rear blowers was adjusted
to 8 m; that of the side blowers, to 5 m. The water consump-
tion per blower was 0.25 cu m. At first the blowers were used
three times a day and later, only once a day. The heating sur-
faces within the reach of the blowers in the first flue could be
kept 90% clean. Steam blowers were installed between the
first and second flue. A single application of them per day suf-
ficed to prevent fly ash incrustations. Test of the duct material
revealed no adverse effects caused by the blowers. One blow-
ing operation from turning on to turning off the blower lasted
20 min. The pure blowing time was 12 min. The blowers failed
several times because of deformation by falling incrustations.
After operation of the blowers in the first flue, heavy soiling
occurred in the second flue so that ten steam blowers had to
be installed.
21324
Kato, Yujiro
PLANS AND OPERATIONAL EXAMPLES ON FILTER TYPE
DUST COLLECTOR SYSTEM AT VARIOUS INDUSTRIES
(VI). THE ROLE OF BAG FILTERS IN THE METALWORK-
ING INDUSTRY. (Gyoshubetsu ni miru rokashiki shujin sochi
no keikaku to unten jisshi rei (VI). Kinzoku kogyo ni okeru
baggu firuta). Text in Japanese. Kogai to Taisaku (J. Pollution
Control), 4(10):663-668, Oct. 15, 1968.
The operational conditions of bag filters used for emission
control in the metalworking industry are illustrated by exam-
ples. In the zinc refining industry, bag filters are used at vari-
ous points. The baghouse for the independent electric power
plant which is provided to allow the exhausted material to cool
down is one example. Another is the baghouse for controlling
emissions from a smelting furnace exhaust. The applications of
bag filters to the aluminum industry is illustrated by the
baghouse used to control emissions from an alumina coveying
process. In a powdered lead manufacturing plant, a complete
dust collector has to be provided since the lead dust is ex-
tremely toxic and cannot be allowed to escape into the at-
mosphere. Complete hooding is also necessary. In the nonfer-
rous metal working industry, emissions are commonly worth
recovering. High efficient dust collectors are adequate for this
purpose. In the iron and steel industry, the collected material
from the exhaust is generally of little value, but dust collectors
are necessary for air pollution control. Their use is typified by
baghouses equipped for controlling emissions from electric-arc
steelmaking furnaces and from electric furnaces for ferro-alloy
manufacture. In the metal processing industry, bag filters are
also used for controlling emissions from various processes. An
-------
B. CONTROL METHODS
139
example is the baghouse equipped for controlling emissions
from the finishing process of iron casting.
21381
Squires, Arthur M.
CLEAN POWER FROM COAL, AT A PROFIT'O. Preprint,
American Association for the Advancement of Science,
Washington, D. C., 36p., 1969. 48 refs. (Presented at the Sym-
posium of the American Association for the Advancement of
Science, Power Generation and Environmental Change,
Boston, Mass., Dec. 28, 1969.)
Coal technology is discussed to support the conclusion that
methods capable of suppressing sulfur dioxide emissions from
coal and at the same time reducing power costs are feasible, if
sufficient funds are made available for their development. The
history of coal-firing techniques is reviewed, with emphasis on
pulverized fuel firing now in general use at large power sta-
tions. Rising standards of air quality are putting this method
under severe economic pressures; its simple, one-step com-
bustion places the coal's sulfur promptly into a form difficult
to collect and recover. New techniques of coal combustion, in
which pollution control is a first consideration, hold greater
hope for the future than makeshift schemes for control at the
final point of pulverized fuel firing. These techniques, particu-
larly the basic fluidized-bed process and subsequent modifica-
tions of it, are discussed in detail. For the future, attention is
being directed to the concept of the 'Coalplex,' a producing
complex in which chemical extraction and power generation
would be integrated; one such scheme provides for the conver-
sion of the volatile matter in coal to synthetic pipeline gas or
liquid fuel. The fixed carbon would be desulfurized to produce
a low-sulfur coke suitable to fluidized-bed techniques.
21504
Zentgraf, K. M.
INDUSTRIAL-SCALE TESTS OF THE DESULFURIZATION
OF SMOKE. (Prove su scala industrial per la desolforazione
dei fumi). Text in Italian. Riv. Combust., 22(7-8):402-408, 1968.
(Presented at the Conference on Le grandi centrali termoelet-
triche e nucleari ed i problemi dell'inquinamento atmosferico,
Rome, Italy, April 4, 1968.)
Results are presented of comparative, semi-industrial scale
tests of four methods of desulfurizing heating plant smoke.
The methods are additives and the Reinluft, Still, and Bischoff
processes. For the Reinluft process, which uses adsorbents,
efforts are under way to find the most suitable of easily
available materials, e.g., lignite coke instead of the original
peat coke. The other three processes use powdered limestone,
lime, and calcium hydrate for which substitues are also being
investigated. There is also difficulty in handling the process
tail products; for instance, disposal of the residue to obtain
saleable by-products is a question that cannot always be easily
decided. The special advantages attending each process are
described, and costs are given for the Reinluft and Still
processes. (Author abstract modified)
21506
Johnstone, H. F.
METALLIC IONS AS CATALYSTS FOR THE REMOVAL OF
SULFUR DIOIXDE FROM BOILER FURNACE GASES. Ind.
Eng. Chem., vol. 23:559-561, May 1931 7 refs. (Presented at
the American Chemical Society Meeting, Division of Industrial
and Engineering Chemistry 81st., Indianapolis, Ind., March 30-
ApriI3, 1931.)
A method to remove sulfur dioxide from stack gases is
described. The method involves increasing the solubility of
SO2 in water, or aqueous solution, to such an extent that the
amount of water required for the removal of SO2 from gases
containing very small concentrations of this constituent would
be reduced to a point where the process would be economi-
cally and mechanically feasible. The capacity of water for ab-
sorbing SO2 may be increased by introducing a catalyst to
hasten the reaction between the dissolved gas and oxygen. An
experimental procedure using metals and metal sulfates as
catalysts is described, and test results are given.
21594
Chass, Robert L. and Ralph E. George
CONTAMINANT EMISSIONS FROM THE COMBUSTION OF
FUELS. J. Air Pollution Control Assoc., 10(l):34-43, Feb. 1969.
5 refs. (Presented at the Air Pollution Control Assoc., Annu.
Meet. 52nd, Los Angeles, Calif., June 21-26, 1959.)
The emissions of air contaminants from the burning of fuel oil
present a serious air pollution problem in Los Angeles County.
Most industrial plants and steam-electric generating power
plants are equipped to burn both fuel oil and natural gas. If all
these plants were to burn fuel oil with an average sulfur con-
tent of 1.5%, the resultant emissions would be 320 tons of sul-
fur dioxide, 185 tons of nitrogen oxides, and 30 tons of com-
bustion contaminants per day. If natural gas was used exclu-
sively, such emissions would be reduced to 0.1 ton/day of
SO2, 120 tons of nitrogen oxides, and 3 tons of combustion
contaminants. Although oil refineries burn only a third as
much fuel oil as power plants, their combined fuel usage is
greater than that of power plants. An investigation and stack
testing program was initiated for other industrial sources. All
the stacks were tested for combustion contaminants, al-
dehydes, nitrogen oxides, SO2, sulfur trioxide, hydrocarbons,
carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and oxygen. Results are
presented in tabular form. The direct control of power plant
emission has been approached from three aspects: treatment
of the fuel, boiler modification, and treatment of the effluent.
The substitution of natural gas for fuel oil would eliminate par-
ticulate matter and sulfur compounds, and greatly reduce the
nitrogen oxides from the stack effluent.
21643
Ohtsuka, Tadao, Osamu Shimoda, Teruo Yatabe, Kuinio
Sugino, and Kenji Tanaka
INJECTION TEST OF AMMONIA GAS AND DOLOMITE
POWDER INTO OIL-FIRED BOILER. Nippon Kokan Giho
(Tokyo), vol. 5:17-24, 1962. 7 refs. Translated from Japanese.
Belov and Associates, Denver, Colo., 26p., April 16, 1970.
Tests were conducted to develop a means of counteracting the
accumulation of NH4HSO4, a combustion by-product with a
low melting point, in the air-heater of oil-fired boilers. The
compoun is formed when ammonia gas is injected into the
combustion gas to neutralize sulfuric acid produced by the
combustion of sulfur bearing fuels. The ammonia injection
temperature zone is an important factor in this method. Ac-
cordingly, ammonia injection was applied to a boiler in a ther-
mal power plant for one month, using an injection rate of
0.6/0.07 wt % of fuel oil fired, and an injection temperature
zone of -180 C in the flue gas. A satisfactory reduction of
NH4HSO4 accumulation was obtained under these operating
conditions. Experiments were also conducted on the effective-
ness of dolomite powder injection in reducing corrosion
caused by sulfuric acid in the combustion gas; using an air-
cooled corrosion probe, reduction of corrosion was observed
to begin at an injection level of 0.3 wt % of fuel ooil fired. In-
-------
140
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
jection of fly ash also showed some potential as a low-cost
method of reducing corrosion. (Author summary modified)
21720
Stone and Webster Engineering Corp., Boston, Mass.
SULFUR DIOXIDE SCRUBBERS. STONE AND WEBSTER
IONICS PROCESS. (FINAL REPORT). NAPCA Contract CPA
22-69-80, 22p., Jan. 1970. 34 refs. CFSTI: PB 189377
A study was conducted to determine the most economical
scrubber for the removal of sulfur dioxide from flue gas
produced by a coal burning power plant. The scrubber would
be specifically designed to operate as part of a system using
the Stone and Webster/Ionics SO2 removal process. This
process includes an SO2 scrubber where SO2 is absorbed in a
sodium hydroxide solution to form a sodium sulfite/bisulfite
solution which is sent to a neutralization stage. An attempt
was made to select equipment which would achieve 90% SO2
removal. Since no supporting data were supplied, at least two
actual contact stages are provided in all cases. The efficiency
of SO2 absorption and the amount of oxidation that occurs in
the six scrubbers tested are discussed. An economic com-
parison of various scrubbers is also included. The Johnson
packed tower appears to be the most economical scrubber; all
other units are considerably more expensive than the Johnson
Unit. Until manufacturers of venturi, cyclonic, and floating
ball scrubbers can produce very large single units, their evalu-
ated cost makes the use of such units in the Stone and
Webster/Ionics process impractical.
21819
Ludwig, John H.
AIR POLLUTION CONTROL TECHNOLOGY: RESEARCH
AND DEVELOPMENT ON NEW AND IMPROVED
SYSTEMS. Law Contemp. Probl., Spring 1968:217-226. 15 refs.
In the area of pollution control from stationary sources, major
research and development is now concentrated on the control
of sulfur oxides. In the future there will be expanded programs
for other pollutants, especially nitrogen oxides. Major empha-
sis on control of emissions from motor vehicles is now
focused on reduction of carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons.
Future efforts will focus on control of nitrogen oxides and
particulates and on unconventional vehicles with low pollution
potential, such as electric-powered and steam-powered cars.
Instruments and techniques are now available for measuring
many pollutants, especially inorganic gases, but there is a need
for automated, smaller-sized instruments both for stationary
sampling stations and for airborne sampling of the atmosphere.
There is also a need for remote-type monitors capable of mea-
suring stack emissions at a distance. In the area of meteorolo-
gy, a number of urban diffusion models and an air pollution
potential forecast program are now operational; improved
models and quantitative forecasting methods are under
development. (Author conclusion)
21886
Brocke, W.
SOOT SEPARATION AT OIL FIRED FURNACES. (Rus-
sabscheidung bei Oelfeuerungen). Text in German. VDI (Ver.
Deut. Ingr.) Ber., no. 149:279-285, 1970. 19 refs.
Fuel oil consumption in the Federal Republic of Germany in-
creased from 17.9 million tons in 1965 to 21.4 million tons in
1968, with the power plants alone accounting for about 25% of
this amount. A heavy fuel oil-fired boiler emits between 0.23
to 8 kg dust/ton of oil. During normal operation the dust con-
tains 90 to 95% of combustible matter, during soot blowing 75
to 93%. Dust concentrations between 15 and 400 mg/cu Nm
could be measured in the waste gas during normal operation,
and between 1000 and 10,000 mg/cu Nm during soot blowing.
The gas contained 12% by weight sulfuric acid. Of the dust
particles, 80% had diameters of less than 20 microns, with 20
to 30% having diameters less than 5 microns. Dust emission
measurements taken at four oil-fired boilers (16 to 20 tons/h)
revealed that centrifugal separators reduced the emissions
from between 46 to 55 mg/cu Nm to between 24 and 40 mg/cu
Nm during normal operation, and from 1050 to 1870 mg/cu
Nm to between 104 and 174 mg/cu Nm during soot blowing.
Better results can be achieved with electrostatic precipitators,
but they are considerably more expensive.
21893
Lowicki, Norbert, Gernot Hanig, and Klaus Husmann
THE - WASTE GAS - SULFUR - PROCESS. REPORT ON
THE DEVELOPMENT OF A PROCESS FOR THE REMOVAL
OF SULFUR FROM FLUE GASES. Grillo-Werke A. G.,
Duisburg-Hamborn (West Germany), Oct. 1969. Translated
from German. Belov and Associates, Denver, Colo., 68p.,
March 30, 1970.
The difficulty of the removal of sulfur from waste gases varies
according to the origin of the waste gas. Waste gases of steam
boiler plants precipitate rather uniformly with respect to quan-
tity temperature, and composition. On the other hand, sinter
waste gases contain additional metal oxide smoke which can
complicate the process of sulfur removal. Thus, the process
selected should have no sensitivity to disturbing gas com-
ponents and should have versatility with respect to the absorp-
tion of any of the sulfur compounds coming under considera-
tion. A desulfurization process was developed which is an ab-
sorption process with thermal regeneration of the charge ab-
sorbent. The process principle selected is based on the reac-
tion of oxide compounds between a basic and an amphoteric
heavy metal component. The presence of a compound Mg6M-
nO8 has been proven using X-ray structure investigation; the
presence of a compound Mg3MnO5 is also probable. In this
combustion, the basic component is used as the actual absor-
bent and the heavy metal component as the oxygen donor.
This has the effect of increasing the total activity of the mix-
ture. For the same reason, the absorption of hydrogen sulfide
from waste gas is also made possible. In the thermal regenera-
tion of the charge mass, both components protect each other
reciprocally against deactivation. Economic aspects were a pri-
mary consideration in the selection of the desired components
for the absorption mass. This eliminated elements like Cr, V,
Mo, and Zn. Though Ca and Mg were practical, Fe and Mn
were selected because of the rapid formation and stability of
the oxide compounds between them as well as the inactivity
during absorption. All chemical and process-technological pre-
dictions made on the basis of laboratory experiments were
confirm. For oil-fired steam boiler plants, flue gas desulfuriza-
tion plants ready for practical use can be set up and operated.
Capital outlays and operational costs are given for an oil-fired
300 MW power plant, in addition to total annual operational
costs. A particular advantage of this process is that the charge
mass can be regenerated by various desulfurization systems at
a central location.
22001
Bacon, Raymond Foss
RECOVERY OF SULPHUR FROM ROASTER GASES. (As-
signee Not Given.) Brit. Pan. 7, 1932. (Appl. Jan. 12, 1931, 3
claims).
-------
B. CONTROL METHODS
141
This invention provides a means of enriching with sulfur diox-
ide the gases evolved from the roasting of pyrite ores or other
sulfide minerals, thereby making the recovery of elemental
sulfur from roaster gases economically feasible. The method
comprises preheating air entering the roasting retort to 300-600
C, as well as equipping the retort with longitudinal baffle
plates which carry finely divided sulfur material up the side of
the retort and shower it down through the heated air. Preheat-
ing permits the oxidation reaction to begin immediately upon
the entrance of the air into the retort. The sulfur-enriched
gases leaving the retort are then passed to a reduction furnace
supplied with suitable reducing material, e.g., coke or coal.
Hot gases produced in the reduction step are withdrawn
through any suitable heat-exchange apparatus and utilized for
preheating the air.
22012
Benner, Raymond C. and Alfred Paul Thompson
METHOD OF RECOVERING SULPHUR. (General Chemical
Co., New York) U. S. Pat. 1,771,480. 7p., July 29, 1930. (Appl.
March 2, 1926, 24 claims).
A method for reducing sulfur dioxide to elemental sulfur is
described. The SO2-containing gas is admitted at the top of a
reduction chamber, and bituminous coal is continuously fed in
through a feed mechanism. Sufficient air is introduced to ox-
idize some of the combustible matter to maintain the required
700-800 C temperature. As the coal enters, a sudden partial
coking occurs, liberating large amounts of hydrocarbons and
free hydrogen. As the SO2 enters, it encounters a strongly
reducing atmosphere consisting of solid carbon particles,
hydrocarbons, and free hydrogen, and its reduction begins.
The gaseous products pass downward through the hot coke
bed where tar and soot are driven off and the reduction reac-
tion continues. After the gaseous products are removed from
the coke bed, SO2 gas is added to the mixture to provide suf-
ficient reducible gas to react with the reducing gases,
hydrogen sulfide and carbon monoxide, which are present.
The resulting mixture is passed over a bauxite catalyst. The
temperature of the catalyst should be above that at which the
elemental sulfur formed will condense and be retained, and
below that where interaction of sulfur and water vapor occurs
to form SO2 and H2S.
22014
Tyrer, Daniel
IMPROVEMENTS IN THE PRODUCTION OF SULPHUR
FROM SULPHUR DIOXIDE. (Imperial Chemicals Industries,
Ltd., London (England)) Brit. Pat. 357,178. 5p., Sept. 16, 1931.
(Appl. June 16, 1930, 7 claims).
This invention relates to the production of sulfur from sulfur
dioxide by the reduction of the latter at 600-800 C with semi-
coke that is carbonized from raw coal as the result of direct
contact between the coal and the sulfurous gases. Contamina-
tion of the gases by tar vapors arising during distillation of
coal is avoided by passing the gases and vapors through the
lower layer of semi-coke, heated to about 1000 C, where the
vapors decompose to leave the gases in a suitable condition
for the recovery of sulfur. In one form of the invention, the
process is carried out in a pair of vertical retorts. Initially,
both are partly charged with semi-coke and the charge
completed by feeding raw coal over the semi-coke. Both re-
torts are then raised to red heat by an air blast, after which a
mixture of sulfur dioxide and air is fed to the base of the one
retort. The air is supplied in an amount sufficient to cause the
heat evolved in the combustion of the semi-coke to compen-
sate for the heat absorbed in reduction. The resulting gases are
passed upwardly through the layer of coal in one retort and
downwardly through the layer of coal in the second retort,
then through the lower layer of semi-coke in the second retort.
22051
Davidson, W. C.
ENGLAND IS CUTTING ITS AIR POLLUTION. Elec. World,
174(4):42-44, Aug. 15, 1970.
Sulfur dioxide monitoring and other experiments in power-
plant diffusion techniques are reported, nearly 20 years follow-
ing the great London smog of 1952. As a result of a public
inquiry by the National Society for Clean Air, the British
government passed the 1956 Clean Air Act, and a further act
in 1968 has lead to a modernization of industrial heating equip-
ment and great improvements in the domestic fire. While emis-
sion of SO2 from power stations has increased by 35% over
the past ten years, ground-level concentrations have fallen by
as much as 30%. In Britain, the answer to the sulfur problem
is seen exclusively in high-level dispersion through very tall
chimneys. These stacks are of multiflue design, one flue per
unit. This maintains the full efflux velocity with just one unit
in operation, allows maintenance without shutting down the
whole station, and permits access to the aircraft warning lights
at any time via internal elevators. Monitoring has shown that
the modern power station makes no contribution to ground-
level SO2 pollution at times when there is high pollution from
other sources (i.e., during fogs and temperature inversions)
because the hot plume penetrates into the moving air above.
Maximum pollution from the power station occurs at times of
strong surface winds. At a station in Eggborough, use is made
of a nearby 1250-ft TV mast to study plume dispersion at
really close quarters; telemetered instrumentation is sending 6-
million readings a year for computer processing. Sulfur triox-
ide is also produced, but trace amounts are beneficial from an
engineering point of view, for the SO3 provides a conductive
layer on the fly ash which significantly improves precipitator
efficiency. The use of coal or oil to provide fuel for the power
station is also discussed.
22057
PROMISE SEEN IN STACK-GAS SO2 REMOVAL. Oil Gas J.,
64(18):53, May 2, 1966.
The progress of three companies in removing sulfur dioxide
from stack gases is reported. The Babcock and Wilcox process
involves injecting dolomite, or other alkaline additives, into
the hot stack gases and then filtering them through fiber-glass
filter bags. Efficiency of sulfur recovery has not been dis-
closed, but it is believed that this process will prove satisfacto-
ry when used on large power plants. The Monsanto process
will remove SO2 from flue gas by oxidizing it to trioxide, and
then condensing the latter to sulfuric acid. Based on a 3%
weight fuel, the cleaned gases from the precipitator would
contain 2000 ppm SO2 and 20 ppm SO3. In passing through
the catalyst bed, the SO2 concentration is reduced to 200 ppm
and that of SO3 increased to 2300 ppm. In a rotary air pre-
heater, the 600 F temperature drop causes the formation of
sulfuric acid mist which is collected and removed as sulfuric
acid. About 90% of the stack gas sulfur was recovered at a
concentration of 70% sulfuric acid in pilot plant tests. Com-
bustion Engineering's process has not been tested outside the
laboratory. However, these tests were encouraging in that the
sulfur content of the gases was greatly reduced. It is believed
that this process will be confined to large industrial sources
due to the expense of the treating equipment. The hydrodesul-
furization of residual fuel oils is briefly discussed.
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142
22070
Wallsom, H. E.
THE ELIMINATION OF DUST AND SULPHUR FROM
BOILER FLUE GASES. J. Inst. Fuel (London), vol. 6:226-233,
April 1933. 3 refs.
British power stations are now required to reduce as far as
reasonably practicable chimney emission of flue dust and sul-
fur fumes. General methods available for minimizing the flue
dust problem are pretreatment of coal; suitable chimney
design; and dust collection by electrical precipitators, centrifu-
gal collectors, or washing. Methods available for the removal
of sulfur compounds from flue gas are as follows: washing by
water; washing with a solution or suspension of alkaline
material; the reduction of sulfur compounds to elemental sul-
fur; the oxidation of sulfur compounds, for example, to sul-
furic acid; the interaction of the sulfur compouds with an al-
kaline gas, and the recovery of the compound formed by
water washing. A comparison of the efficiencies of these
methods shows that wet systems are highly efficient in abating
dust and fume emissions. For fine dusts, either electric
precipitaton or washing is recommended; for larger dust parti-
cles, centrifugal collectors would probably be satisfactory. The
deciding factor in the choice of electric or wet processes is the
facility with which large quantities of water can be obtained
and disposed of. When wet washing it used, corrosion-re-
sistant lead linings are recommended for washing chambers
and stacks.
22071
Douglas, Jack
INSTRUMENTS AND CONTROLS FOR INDUSTRIAL
POWER PLANTS. Nat. Eng., 73(7):10-12, July 1969.
(Presented at the Industrial Fuel Oil Conference, 7th, of the Il-
linois State Association, National Association of Power En-
gineers, Chicago, 111., May 21, 1969.)
Large power plants have long known the importance of care-
fully designed combustion control systems. The need to reduce
air pollution and operational costs now requires similar control
planning on the part of small boiler installations. Automatic
draft controls should be provided for pressurized boilers, in
which pressure at the boiler exit tends to vary with burner fir-
ing rates. Such controls make it possible to maintain relatively
constant boiler output pressure or temperature, thus insuring
proper air/fuel ratios for efficient combustion. Equally impor-
tant is the boiler's utilization of the heat generated. All steps
of steam generation should be checked by a flue temperature
gauge which shows the degree to which the boiler has ab-
sorbed the heat generated. Another measure of boiler efficien-
cy is the amount of oxygen in the flue gas. Reliable paramag-
netic instruments are available for these measurements.
Finally, master lead-lag sequence controllers, which treat all
boilers as one in supplying the load demand, should be pro-
vided in multiple boiler installations. These devices increase
the life of packaged boilers and eliminate the need for con-
stant human monitoring.
22103
Chedd, Graham
FERTILIZER FROM FLUE GASES? New Scientist,
36(569):281-283, Nov. 2, 1967.
A modification of the American alkalized alumina process for
recovering elemental sulfur from flue gases may make it possi-
ble for British power plants to reduce atmospheric contamina-
tion by sulfur dioxide and at the same time reduce the depen-
dency of British fertilizer and sulfuric acid manufacturers on
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
sulfur imports. In the original process, flue gases are passed
upward through a rain of alkylized alumina spheres. The ab-
sorbent containing the sulfur dioxide is then passed to a
regenerator where it is heated and treated with producer gas to
recover sulfur as hydrogen sulfide. After oxidation of one-
third of the hydrogen sulfide to sulfur dioxide, the two gas
streams are mixed and passed over a bauxite catalyst. Elemen-
tal sulfur is produced. In the British modification, the rain of
alkylized alumina particles is replaced by a fluidized bed of
high-porosity sodium aluminate. Sulfur dioxide from the flue
gases diffuses into the pores of the alumina and reacts to form
a mixture of sodium sulfate, sodium sulfite, and aluminum ox-
ide. The mixture is passed to a solids regenerator where it
reacts with hydrogen to form hydrogen sulfide. The rest of the
process is similar to the original. The process could reduce the
sulfur import bill by 1.2 million pounds per year and stabilize
sulfur processes.
22110
Reed, L. E.
REMOVAL OF SULPHUR OXIDES FROM FLUE GAS: THE
REINLUFT PILOT PLANT. Warren Spring Lab., Stevenage,
U. K., Atmospheric Pollution Div., LR 15(AP), 27p., Sept.
1965. 4 refs.
Pilot plant tests on the adsorption and desorption of sulfur ox-
ides in the Reinluft process are discussed. This process can be
operated continuously at an efficiency of over 90% and the
sulfur oxides can be recovered as sulfur dioxide at a concen-
tration of about 3%. The process is not, however, sufficiently
well developed to be applied to a large scale process. It was
necessary to replace carbon due to attrition losses in the eleva-
tor and plant and chemical losses in the desorption process.
An initial loss of 16% of the charge in the first 40 hours and
subsequent losses of 4%/day were recorded in one test; since
carbon replacement is likely to be a major item, this indicates
that these costs could be prohibitive. The uptake of S02 by
the carbon was only 6-7% whereas bench scale tests indicated
that 12% uptake would be easily obtained. At the design
throughput of 450 cu m/h, the pressure drop through the ab-
sorber bed was approximately 7.6 cm H2O. Most of the
mechanical breakdowns were caused by corrosion; these were
most severe when it was necessary to operate for short
periods, each of which produced a corrosive acid condensate.
If the process is used on a coal-fired plant it will be essential
to clean the gases before and after treatment.
22127
Ergun, Sabri and Ernest H. Bean
MAGNETIC SEPARATION OF PYRITE FROM COALS. Bu-
reau of Mines, Washington, D. C, Kept, of Investigation 7181,
25p., Sept. 1968. 30 refs.
Previous studies of magnetic separation of pyrite from coals
are reviewed critically. Magnetic susceptibilities of United
States coals of differing rank are measured. The effects of
crushing, magnetic mixing, drying, weathering, and heat treat-
ment on the enhancement of the magnetism of pyrite are
analyzed. The importance of size distribution of pyrite in the
coal and the necessity of crushing to liberate the pyrite is
discussed. The inherent susceptibilities of the carbonaceous,
mineral-free portions of coals and of relatively pure pyrite iso-
lated from coals do not permit efficient separation of pyrite
from coal. Friction forces encountered in crushing sedimentary
pyrite embedded in coal do not increase its susceptibility. Sub-
sequent weathering or heat treatment below 400 C leads to the
formation of iron sulfate and hence increases the effective
paramagnetism of pyrite. Ferromagnetic compounds of iron
-------
B.CONTROL METHODS
T43
are not formed in significant quantities at temperatures below
400 C. The degree of liberation and apparent susceptibility of
pyrite are the most important parameters in its separation. Ef-
fective beneficiation of coals can be achieved by magnetic
separation. A sufficient increase in the susceptibility can be
achieved by converting less than 0.1% of pyrite into ferromag-
netic compounds of iron. Such conversions occur only at tem-
peratures greater than 500 C. An investigation of the dielectric
properties of coals and pyrite in the frequency range 0.1 to 60
Mhz indicates that the imaginary dielectric constant of the
pyrite is about 100 times larger than that of coal. Exploratory
experiments indicate that pyrite can be selectively heated to
temperatures above 500 C without appreciable rise in the tem-
perature of coal. It appears that dielectric heating of coals in
the Ghz frequency range is the most feasible method of
enhancing the paramagnetism of pyrite. (Author abstract
modified)
22160
Kitani, Tsuruo
IMPROVEMENTS OF HEAT EQUIPMENT AND METHODS
OF SMOKE AND SOOTS IN THERMAL POWER PLANTS.
(Karyokuhatsudensho netsusetsubi no kaisen to baien taisaku).
Text in Japanese. Netsu Kanri (Heat Management: Energy and
Pollution Control), 22(7):8-15, July 30, 1970.
A report is given of how heat equipment and air pollution con-
trol equipment has been improved and how it is being
managed at a thermal power plant located in Chiba Prefecture,
Japan (Ichihara Works). In Chiba Prefecture, abatement regu-
lations are applied when air quality falls below specific stan-
dards. The plant installed low-sulfur residual oil tanks in April
1966. The low-sulfur containing oil us used when the regula-
tions are applied. In June 1966, the plant added ammonia in-
jectors to the exhaust ducts to control air pollution and also to
prevent problems associated with sulfurous acid emissions. In
December 1966, the plant equipped a pilot plant for removal
and recovery of sulfur dioxide. The tests and research con-
ducted there were successful. Special attention was given to
the production of ammonium sulfate by scrubbing sulfur diox-
ide with ammonia and the collection of the sulfate by a col-
lecting system called 'jet-collector'. The ammonium sulfate
dissolves in a solvent held by the jet collector. The ammoni-
um-sulfate solution in then concentrated and crystallized. Over
95% recovery of sulfur dioxide is achieved; 98% recovery is
possible by bringing the plant to 40-35 C. This plant is
described in detail. Other equipment for air pollution control at
the plant are a high central smokestack and an oil-blender,
which is used to reduce the percentage of sulfur contained in
the fuel oil. The plant is also directing its effort toward heat
recovery, and improvements have been made at several points.
The thermal efficiency of a plant power is generally 32-40%
with a large percentage of heat lost in the coolant. Recovery
and utilization of heat from the coolant increases heat efficien-
cy and eliminates the public nuisance caused by discharging
hot water.
22175
Boux, Joseph F.
CANADIANS PIONEER NEW FLY ASH PROCESSING
SYSTEM. Minerals Process., 10(3): 16-19, March 1969.
Reclamation of huge quantities of fly as produced by power
generating stations can be of great importance in the
economics of these coal-fired plants. By total utilization of the
fly ash, the plant described produces a number of commercial
products: a fine pozzolanic fraction useful as a cementitious
material in concrete; an iron concentrate which could be pel-
letized for blast furnace feed; carbon which could be used as
fines or pelletized for fuel; and a large volume of beneficiated
fines which would be processed into lightweight aggregates.
Plant design is based on upgrading the fly ash by separating its
various components which are uniform in specification. All fly
ash, both from mechanical and electrostic precipitators, is
separated into two main fractions: a fine fraction with 90%
passing mesh and a coarse fraction of plus 325 mesh. Since the
coarse material retains most of the iron values, it is passed
through a magnetic separator that produces the iron fine con-
centrate and a coarse sinter fuel. The fine fraction can also be
sintered if necessary to meet product requirements. Provision
has also been made to screen the coarse fraction when there is
an excess of carbon particles. Products of these processes are
much more uniform than raw fly ash and each can be more
readily converted into commercial products.
22279
Levy, Stanley Isaac
TREATMENT OF IRON PYRITES FOR RECOVERY OF
SULPHUR AND FORMATION OF IRON OXIDE. (Assignee
Not Given.) Brit. Pat. 403,961. 9p., Jan. 1, 1934. (Appl. June
30, 1932, 7 claims).
The recovery of sulfur and iron oxides from pyrites by an ox-
idizing and a reducing step is described. Oxidation is accom-
plished by causing finely divided pyrites to fall continuously at
a uniform rate through a combustion chamber. Air is in-
troduced continuously in a quantity insufficient for the
complete combustion of the mineral. A reaction between the
pyrite and the oxygen of the air occurs to form iron oxide, sul-
fur dioxide, and free sulfur. The chamber is insulated and the
rate of entry of mineral and air are so adjusted that the exit
gases are at a temperature of approximately 1000 C. Gases
then pass through a reducing zone, and are contacted with
finely divided coal, coke, or charcoal. Most of the sulfur diox-
ide is reduced to elemental sulfur with the information of car-
bon dioxide. The gases passing from the reducing zone con-
tain, as sulfur vapor, most of the sulfur originally introduced
in the form of pyrites. They are passed through suitable dust
chambers, condensers, and scrubbers so that the elemental
sulfur may be removed. It is recommended that the com-
bustion and reduction chambers be contained in one structural
unit.
22291
Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Ltd., Hiroshima (Japan),
Hiroshima Experiment Station
GAS ABSORPTION CAPACITY OF VENTURI SCRUBBER.
(Ventsuri skurraba ni yoro gusu kyushu). Mitsubishi Heavy In-
dustry, Ltd., Tech. Rev., 3(3):l-7, 1966. 11 refs. Translated
from Japanese. Belov and Associates, Denver, Colo., 26p.,
May 23, 1970.
The effect of a venturi scrubber on the gaseous effluent of a
power plant is described. Special characteristics of the
scrubber, and the nature of flow of the scrubbing liquid are
discussed. The scrubbing liquid consists in part of limestone,
manganese oxide, and water. Previous experiments on the
capacity of the venturi scrubber as a gas absorbent are limited
by small scale installations. The experiment described is con-
ducted on a scaled-up version of a fuel-oil boiler. The effect of
operating variables on each factor of gas absorbing capacity is
analyzed. Graphic illustrations of changes in one parameter in
terms of another one are included.
-------
144
22327
North American Rockwell Corp., Canoga Park, Calif.,
Atomics International Div.
DEVELOPMENT OF A MOLTEN CARBONATE PROCESS
FOR REMOVAL OF SULFUR DIOXIDE FROM POWER
PLANT STACK GASES. SUMMARY REPORT. Contract PH
86-67-128, Kept. AI-68-104, 165p., Feb. 1968. 8 refs. CFSTI:
PB 179908
A molten carbonate process to remove sulfur dioxide from
power plant stack gases is described wherein the sulfur oxides
are absorbed in a molten mixture of lithium, sodium, and
potassium carbonates. The resulting carbonate-sulfite mixture
is then regenerated chemically. Developmental effort is in four
major areas: process chemistry, including absorption, reduc-
tion, and regeneration; corrosion studies, to determine suitable
construction materials; contactor development, specifically
scrubbers; and component development. Work has been in-
itiated on pilot plant and component test loop design. (Author
summary modified)
22401
Edouard, L.
THE MEASUREMENT OF DUST CONCENTRATIONS IN
THE CHIMNEY INPUT GASES AT THE THERMAL POWER
STATION OF CREIL(OISE). (La Measure des concentrations
en poussieres des gaz a 1'entree des cheminees de la centrale
thermique de Creil(Oise)). Genie Civil, p. 270-276, 1961 (?).
Translated from French. Franklin Inst. Research Labs.,
Philadelphia, Pa., Science Info. Services, 29p., Oct. 31, 1969.
Coal-burning electric power stations are equipped with dust
removing devices to clean their effluent gases. The devices are
usually of the electrostatic, scrubbing, or cyclone variety. A
pollution control system at a particular power plant in France
is described. A stack sampling procedure is presented to mea-
sure the quantity of dust remaining in the system after the
control devices. Test equipment includes a probe, a filtering
device, a gas-flow meter, and a vacuum pump. Various types
of filters are described, noting the advantages and drawbacks
of each. Determination of flow rate from inside and outside
the flue is discussed.
22441
STACK-GAS SULFUR MAY BE BOON TO FERTILIZERS.
Chem. Eng. News, 45(40):72, 74, Sept. 18, 1967.
The possibilities for sulfur recovered from power plant stack
gases to become a major raw material source for the fertilizer
industry, now facing short supplies and high prices of sulfur,
are briefly discussed. The type and quality of the recovery
product whether as ammonium sulfate, sulfuric acid, sulfur
dioxide, or elemental sulfur will indicate its importance for the
industry. High costs of shipping very dilute gases may require
location of the fertilizer plant next to the power plant.
22500
Conrad, Guenter
PROBLEMS IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF HIGH
SMOKESTACKS IN THE GERMAN DEMOCRATIC
REPUBLIC. (Probleme beim Bau hoher Schornsteine in der
DDR). Text in German. Energietechnik, 17(12):550-551, Dec.
1967.
Problems connected with the designing and construction of
high industrial smokestacks as they emerged during the
planning of the construction of a 300 m high steel-concrete
smokestack for the Boehlen II power plant in East Berlin are
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
discussed. This height was necessary if the ground sulfur diox-
ide concentration was not to increase above its present levels
with the projected draught capacity of 7.5 million cu m flue
gas per hour. Decisive for the steadiness of so high a structure
was the correct determination of the wind stress factor which
was calculated from data about wind currents, velocity, and
frequency supplied by the Meteorological Service and from
wind tunnel experiments. A concrete lining reinforced by lo-
cally available materials is foreseen for the flue gas duct
proper to be built inside the static smokestack column. The
empty space between the flue and the column is designed to
reduce the heat stress on the structure and will permit easy in-
spection of the lining. While present technology permits a
daily erection of 2.5 m of the structure with the protective lin-
ing being constructed with the help of a separate scaffolding,
specially constructed sliding shells foreseen for this construc-
tion are expected to increase the daily construction of both the
column and the lining to 4 to 6 m.
22501
Quitter, Volker and Bruno Degner
CYCLONE SEPARATOR FOR POWER PLANTS.
(Zyklonabscheider fuer Energieanlagen). Text in German.
Energietechnik, 17(12):536-538, Dec. 1967. 7 refs.
Cyclone dust arresters in power plants can process at most
100,000 cu m/h air; their dust separation efficiency decreases
with decreasing particle size. If particle size, composition, and
dust concentration of the air to be purified are known, then
the effectiveness of dust separation and the residual dust pol-
lution in the purified air can be calculated for all types of
cyclone dust arresters manufactured on the basis of their past
performance. Theoretical calculations are still not quite accu-
rate In small industries, mechanical dust arresters are cheaper
than electrostatic precipitators. The servicing of dust arresters
involves the control of dust removal which should be continu-
ous. Discontinuous emtying can lead to clogging in which case
the stream of air passes through the equipment without being
purified. Pressure must be watched: loss of pressure indicates
clogging. Cyclone cylinders must be inspected for tightness:
air infiltration through cracks in the wall reduces dust separa-
tion efficiency. Defective heat insulation can lead to corrosion
or to caking of dust. The dust residue in purified air must be
checked regularly the manufacturer's lubrication schedule
must be followed, and finally in the case of multiple cyclones
equal distribution of the air flow to individual cyclones must
be checked regularly.
22505
Quack, Rudolf
DUST AND GAS EMISSIONS FROM THERMAL POWER
STATIONS. (Die staub-und gasfoermigen Emissionen von
Waermekraftwerken). Text in German. Brennstoff-Waerme-
Kraft, 10(18):479-486, Oct. 1966. 19 refs.
The pollution generating components of the various fuels used
by thermal power stations are analyzed and the pollution con-
trol methods available are reviewed. The dust content in flue
gases from solid fuel furnaces is from 0.5 to 15 g/cu m. In
small and medium large grate firings which generate dust with
50% of the particles larger than 10 micron mechanical centrifu-
gal separators are the rule. Siliconized glass fiber filters ate
too costly for large steam generators but can be used in
smaller installations. Large installations, to comply with the
pollution control requirements set by the West German laws,
are compelled to use electrostatic precipitators. Liquid fuel
furnaces use mostly heavy heating oil which with an ash con-
tent of only 0.01 to 0.05% emit dust only through soot forma-
-------
B. CONTROL METHODS
145
tion by the flame or from additives. Crushing and transport in-
stallations for solid fuels and for combustion residues can also
emit dust. Of the gases emitted from solid fuels, sulfur dioxide
from the oxidation of sulfides can be removed by dry adsorp-
tion on semicoke or the coal can be converted to gas and the
gas desulfurized. Desulfurization of heavy fuel oils is accom-
plished through hydration which converts the sulfur to
hydrogen sulfide. Desulfurization should be done centrally in
large plants rather than by each power station separately.
While the production of electricity in West Germany increased
fourfold from 1950 to 1963, the dust pollution from power sta-
tions has been reduced by one third. Further reduction of the
pollution level with present means would be financially
prohibitive.
22552
Fair, J. W. and G. R. Monroe
PROPOSED INDUSTRY STANDARD FOR ELECTRIC
POWER SUPPLIES USED WITH INDUSTRIAL GAS
PROCESSING PRECD?ITATORS. Preprint, Inst. of Electrical
and Electronics Engineers, New York, 7p., 1956. 8 refs.
(Presented at the American Institute of Electrical Engineers,
Winter General Meeting, New York, Jan. 31, 1956, Paper 56-
337.)
Standards are provided for electric power supply equipment
used with industrial gas processing precipitators; the equip-
ment generally will consist of a rectifier transformer, one or
more filament transformers when needed, rectifying com-
ponents, and control or current-limiting components. Defini-
tions and terminology are given. Temperature and altitude ser-
vice conditions are listed, as well as the terms in which rating
shall be expressed The standard frequency and limits of tem-
perature rise are included. Control equipment, transformer
losses and exciting current, dielectric tests, test procedures,
terminal markings, and nameplates are also mentioned.
22559
National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D. C., Federal
Construction Council
IMPACT OF AIR POLLUTION REGULATIONS ON FUEL
SELECTION FOR FEDERAL FACILITIES. Contract CST490,
TR-57, 52p., 1970.
Results of a report to determine the extent to which current
and anticipated air pollution regulations will restrict the types
of fuel which Federal agencies will be allowed to burn in
steam power and central heating plants are described.
Procedures to be used in taking account of such restrictions in
economic analyses to determine the type of fuel to burn are
included. Three fossil fuels coal, oil, and gas- are evaluated re-
gionally from the standpoint of availability, quality, and price.
Types of emissions which are considered include smoke, par-
ticulates, nitrogen oxides, and sulfur oxides. Control equip-
ment to remove sulfur oxides is not to be considered by
Federal facilities unless there is no other alternative. Existing
and anticipated air pollution control regulations for the nation
are presented.
22560
Aurielle, R.
THE ELECTRICAL DE-DUSTING EXPERIMENTAL IN-
STALLATION OF THE CHATOU TEST AND RESEARCH
CENTER. (L'installation experimentale de depoussierage elec-
trique du centre de recherches et d'essais de Chatou). Bull.
Centre Rech. Essais, Chatou (France), no. 18:63-72, 1966. 10
refs. Translated from French. Franklin Inst. Research Labs.,
Philadelphia, Pa., Science Info. Services, 15p., Oct. 29, 1969.
A prototype electrostatic precipitator for thermal power-sta-
tion smoke has two electric fields in a series, each constituting
an electro-filter with collecting and emitting electrodes. The
collecting electrodes are plates connected to the positive pole;
the emitting electrodes are wires connected to the negative
pole. The d-c potential difference between the plates and wires
ionizes the air around the wires by corona effect. During their
passage between the electrodes, dust particles are electrically
charged by the ions or by molecular diffusion according to
their size. The charged particles are attracted by the oppositely
charged collecting surfaces on which they come to rest. The
electrodes are hammered or vibrated to free them of deposited
dust, which falls by gravity into receiving hoppers. The effi-
ciency of the filter, defined as the ratio of the weight of cap-
tured dust to the weight of dust entering the device, depends
on the electrode hammering and on the erosion of the
deposited dust layer. To determine efficiency, soot deposits
are weighed and, to find the mass of unretained soot, the con-
centration is measured at a point upstream of the electro-filter.
Preliminary tests of the filters are in progress at a special ex-
perimental center.
22615
Ward, W. J., HI and C. K. Neulander
IMMOBILIZED LIQUID MEMBRANES FOR SULFUR DIOX-
IDE SEPARATION. (FINAL REPORT). General Electric Co.,
Schenectady, N. Y., Research and Development Center,
NAPCA Contract PH-86-68-76, G. E. Rept. S-70-1053, 12p.,
March 1970. 37 refs. CFSTI: PB 191769
An immobilized liquid membrane was developed which at 100
C has a sulfur dioxide flux of 0.0032 cc/(sec),(Sq cm),(cm Hg
pressure differential) at standard temperature and pressure)
and a sulfur dioxide/carbon dioxide separation factor of 14.
The membrane operated for one month at 100 C with no
change in permeation properties. The membrane could not
withstand a pressure difference of 1 atm across it. However, a
technique was recently developed which may make it possible
to overcome this limitation. The low SO2/CO2 separation fac-
tor makes the use of this membrane for removing SO2 from
power plant stack gases economically unattractive. An
economically attractive system has been conceived for treat-
ment of higher SO2 concentration, and lower total flow stack
gases, such as those emitted from many ore-smelting
processes.
22661
Chekanov, G. S., I. A. Kizim, I. K. Reshidov, and I. N.
Il'inskaya
CHARACTERISTICS OF ELECTRICAL REMOVAL OF ASH
FROM FLUE GASES WHEN BURNING EKD3ASTUZ COAL.
(Osobennosti elektricheskoy ochistki dymovykh gazov ot zoly
ekibastuzskogo uglya). Text in Russian. Elek. Sta., vol. 6:6-9,
1970. 2 refs.
Results from pilot operation of a PGD-3-38-PBTs electrofilter
are reported. It was found that efficiency and reliability of the
filter depends significantly on the specific electrical resistance
and adhesive quality of the ash, composition and temperature
of the flue gas, and the concentration and dispersion of the
ash in the gas. The need for methods to determine the elec-
tophysical and physicochemical properties of ash from power-
plant fuels is stressed. The need for full-scale testing to
establish proper height and spacing of the corona electrodes
required to prevent reverse corona in such filters was also
demonstrated.
-------
146
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
22671
Pradel, Y.
IMPROVEMENTS IN THE DUST-REMOVING DEVICES OF
THE PORCHEVILLE POWER STATION RESULTS OB-
TAINED. (Perfectionnements apportes aux depoussiereurs de
la centrale de Porcheville resultats obtenus). Rev. Gen. Ther-
mique (Paris), March 1963, 16p. Translated from French.
Franklin Inst. Research Labs., Philadelphia, Pa., Science Info.
Services, 34p., Nov. 3, 1969.
The Porcheville Power Station consists of four 125 MW units,
each equipped with a combined mechanical and electrostatic
dust-removing device. These units were placed in operation
between March 1956 and April 1957. The original dust-remov-
ing devices proved to be insufficient, the efficiencies falling to
less than 70% under maximum load conditions. A series of
modifications were undertaken to improve the efficiency of
the devices. These included increasing the time during which
the gases remain in the electrostatic precipitator, changing the
location of the mechanical collector, cleaning and adjusting the
electrodes, improving the soot flow and air-tightness of the
chambers, and modifying the electric supply. These changes
resulted in a 20 point increase in efficiency; this corresponds
to an approximate 5 to 1 reduction in the amount of dust
discharged into the atmosphere. The present objective is to
maintain the dust-removing devices in good operating condi-
tion by keeping the electrodes clean, accomplishing an op-
timum adjustment of the rectifier voltage, limiting the number
of emitting electrode breakages, and obtaining a perfect ad-
justment of all mechanical parts of the devices. After the
completion of the work in progress, efficiencies of 96% for
maximum boiler load and 98% for normal production condi-
tions will be possible. Of particular interest was the benefit ob-
tained by relocating the multicyclones downstream from the
electrostatic precipitators. Prior to the relocation the precipita-
tors received only small particles which formed a tightly cling-
ing coating on the electrodes which resisted cleaning agitation.
When the relocation of the multicyclones permitted the
precipitator to receive larger particles, these interrupted the
surface of the coating on the electrodes sufficiently to greatly
improve cleaning efficiencies.
22702
Sincay, Alexandre Galley St. Paul de
MANUFACTURE OF SULFUR. Societe Anonyme des Mines
et Fonderies de Zinc de la Vieille Montange, Paris (France)
Brit. Pat. 2993. 9p., May 19, 1866. (Appl. Nov. 21, 1865, claims
not given).
The production of sulfur by the reduction of sulfurous acid
and the means of rendering the sulfurous acid completely in-
nocuous is described. Gases produced by the reduction of sul-
furetted ores, and which should contain as much sulfurous
acid as possible, are collected on their exit from the furnace,
or in case the roasting takes place in open air, at the moment
of their formation, and conveyed through a pipe of metal,
stoneware, refractory bricks, or other material by means of a
natural or artificial draft to a brick reducing furnace whose
size is in proportion to the quantity of gas to be reduced. The
interior of the brickwork is hollow and contains muffles or
crucibles of metal, stoneware, refractory, or other materials.
Coke, coal, peat, other charcoals, or material rich in carbon is
introduced into the muffs or crucibles, which extend outside
the furnace, and are heated by an ordinary or gas furnace.
Under the action of -a brisk red heat, the reducing agent
decomposes the sulfurous acid and disengages sulfur, which is
passed off with the other gases by means of a natural or artifi-
cial draft into condensing receptacles consisting of sheet-iron
reservoirs having wire gauze compartments or other equipment
suitable for separating the sulfur from the gases. The more or
less pure sulfur collected is refined by conventional methods.
22740
Spengler, Guenter and Georg Michalczyk
SULFUR OXIDES IN WASTE GASES AND IN THE AT-
MOSPHERE. AN AIR POLLUTION PROBLEM. (Die
Schwefeloxyde in Rauchgasen und in der Atmosphaere. Bin
Problem der Luftreinhaltung). Text in German. Duesseldorf,
Vereins Deutscher Ingenieure Verlag, 1964, 152p. 53 refs.
A general review is presented of the presence of sulfur dioxide
and sulfur trioxide in the atmosphere, and the problems relat-
ing to this fact. About 80 of the 152 pages are devoted to a
description of processes for SO2 removal from waste gases.
Among the topics discussed are the sulfur content of fuels,
dilution methods, physiological and corrosive effects, and
methods and equipment for measuring and evaluating S02
content. Among the removal processes discussed are the vari-
ous types of organic and inorganic absorption media, adsorp-
tion processes, metals and metallic oxides, reactions with vari-
ous gases, and the desulfurization of solid, liquid, and gaseous
fuels.
22756
North American Rockwell Corp., Canoga Park, Calif.,
Atomics International Div.
DEVELOPMENT OF A MOLTEN CARBONATE PROCESS
FOR REMOVAL OF SULFUR DIOXIDE FROM POWER
PLANT STACK GASES. PART IV. CONTRACTOR
DEVELOPMENT. Contract PH 86-67-128, AI-70-8, PR-2, 56p.,
1968. 10 refs. CFSTI: PB 191960
Gas-liquid chemical absorption reactors were studied for appli-
cation to a molten carbonate sulfur-removal process. Explora-
tory experiments showed that absorption of sulfur dioxide in a
eutectic mixture of lithium, potassium, and sodium carbonates
is very rapid. A continuous wetted-wall absorber demonstrated
that the rate of sulfur dioxide absorption in carbonate is
limited by mass transfer in the gas phase. To demonstrate that
high efficiency of sulfur dioxide absorption is possible in a
continuous reactor, a 2 in. column fitted with baffles was as-
sembled. The baffles created the necessary turbulence to allow
virtually complete sulfur dioxide removal. The transfer unit
height (HTU) of the baffled column was 7 in. compared with
approximately 70 in. required for a sulfur dioxide HTU in an
unbaffled column. The absorption of nitric oxide was also
tested with the baffle column. Experimental results indicated
that nitric oxide reacts slowly in the carbonate melt. The
transfer unit height for nitric oxide ranged from 38 to 111 in.
Nitric oxide did not significantly alter the absorption of sulfur
dioxide. Sulfur dioxide was absorbed in a spray of molten car-
bonate under three conditions: low-velocity gas flow (less than
2 ft/sec), low-velocity gas flow with fly ash added to the
sprayed carbonate, and high-velocity gas flow (approximately
25 ft/sec). In the low-velocity tests, the percent of sulfur diox-
ide removed from simulated flue gas varied with the fineness
of the spray and with the amount of carbonate in excess of the
stoichiometric requirement. Mist-like sprays allowed 99.9+%
sulfur dioxide removal. (Author abstract modified)
22792
Tomb, Thomas F. and Lewis D. Raymond
EVALUATION OF THE PENETRATION CHARAC-
TERISTICS OF A HORIZONTAL PLATE ELUTRIATOR
AND OF A 10MM NYLON CYCLONE ELUTRIATOR. Bureau
-------
B. CONTROL METHODS
147
of Mines, Washington, D. C., Rept. of Investigations 7367,
9p., March 1970. 13 refs. CFSTI: PB 190651
The penetration characteristics of a horizontal plate elutriator
and of a 10-mm nylon cyclone were evaluated. The test
aerosols were polydisperse coal-dust particles with diameters
from less than 0.3 to 15 micrometers. Particle densities were
1.3 to 1.4 gr per cu cm. Equivalent Stokes diameter were mea-
sured by Coulter counter analytical techniques. The penetra-
tion characteristics of the horizontal plate elutriator closely ap-
proximate the sampling efficiency curve defining the respirable
fraction of the dust cloud recommended and adopted by the
Johannesburg Pneumoconiosis Conference in 1959. Penetration
characteristics of the 10-mm cyclone were evaluated at flow
rates of 1.4, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, and 2.8 liters of air per min. The data
indicate that the penetration curve obtained at 2.0 liters per
min most closely approximates the sample efficiency curve for
respirable dust recommended at a meeting sponsored by the
U. S. Atomic Energy Commission in 1961. (Author abstract
modified)
22806
Hughes, Dorsey F.
POTOMAC ELECTRIC POWER COMPANY STATEMENT.
Preprint, 32p., 1967. (Presented at the Interstate Air Pollution
Abatement Conference National Capital Metropolitan Area,
Washington, D. C., 1967.)
The Potomac Electric Power Company operates three in-city
steam-electric generation stations in the Washington
metropolitan area and two stations 30 miles distant from the
District of Columbia. In addition, another station is under con-
struction on the extreme fringe of the Washington area. For its
in-city plants, the company is making every effort to procure
low-sulfur coal. This approach, however, is not considered
feasible for the larger suburban stations. To obtain adequate,
assured quantities of one percent sulfur coal for the latter
would necessitate contracting with mine operators for the
opening of new mines. Rather than commit itself to the
purchase of high-cost, low-sulfur coals for periods as long as
20 or 30 years, the company prefers to postpone such commit-
ments in the belief that commercially feasible stack-control
devices will be available within a period of five years. These
are expected to reduce stack emissions of sulfur dioxide sub-
stantially below what is achievable simply by the burning of
one percent sulfur coal. Data is presented to counter a current
report indicating that emissions from the suburban stations
contribute to the buildup of atmospheric sulfur dioxide con-
centrations in the city of Washington.
22809
Shibler, B. K. and M. W. Hovey
PROCESSES FOR RECOVERING SULFUR FROM SECON-
DARY SOURCE MATERIALS. Bureau of Mines Information
Circ., no. 8076, 62p., 1962. 561 refs.
A bibliography of articles relating to sulfur recovery methods
is presented. In addition to general information on sulfur, the
material on processing methods is arranged under the six prin-
cipal sources of secondary sulfur, as follows: volcanic sulfur,
including all elemental sulfur deposits not adaptable to the
Frasch mining process; hydrogen sulfide as found in sour
natural gases, petroleum refinery products, and coke-oven
gases; sulfur dioxide from the roasting and smelting of metal
sulfide ores and from power plant waste gases; pyrite and
pyrrhotite obtained by mining mineral deposits or produced as
by-products from the concentration of sulfide ore; gypsum and
anhydrite occurring as deposits of calcium sulfate; and indus-
trial wastes containing sulfates, sulfites, and sulfuric acid,
such as those produced in the steel, paper, and petroleum in-
dustries. Hydrogen sulfide can be utilized for acid making and
for conversion to elemental sulfur. Recovery processes for sul-
fur dioxide include the manganese dioxide and the ammonium
sulfate methods. Sulfur from petroleum refining acid wastes
can be obtained by regeneration, compounding, or coking
processes. (Author summary modified)
22861
Bartok, W., A. R. Crawford, A. R. Cunningham, H. J. Hall, E.
H. Manny, and A. Skopp
SYSTEMS STUDY OF NITROGEN OXIDE CONTROL
METHODS FOR STATIONARY SOURCES. FINAL REPORT.
VOLUME II. Esso Research and Engineerin Co., Linden, N.
J., Government Research Lab., NAPCA Contract PH-22-68-55,
E.R.E.C. Rept. GR-2-NOS-69, 601p., Nov. 20, 1969. 747 refs.
CFSTI: PB 192789
The findings and conclusions of a systems study of nitrogen
oxide control methods for stationary sources are reported. The
study characterized the nature and magnitude of the stationary
NOx emission problem for the U. S., assessed existing and
potential control technology on the basis of nation-wide cost-
effectiveness, and recommended a comprehensive 5-year R&D
program on stationary NOx control. Stationary sources ac-
count for 55-60% of the total NOx emissions in the U. S.
between now and the year 2000, estimated on an uncontrolled
basis. Fossil fuel sources will be responsible for over 90% of
stationary NOx emissions. Non-combustion sources, e.g.,
nitric acid plants are important only from the standpoint of
local health hazards and aesthetic problems. Available
technology is not well developed for controlling stationary
NOx emissions. Of the potential control techniques assessed,
combustion modifications show the most promise because of
their relative simplicity and projected low cost. Requirements
for the development of a mathematical model predicting the
fate of NOx in combustion processes were defined and a first-
generating model was formulated in this study. Combustion
flue gas treatment techniques may have to be developed to
control NOx emissions from large, coal fired electric power
plants, since suitable combustion modification techniques may
not be feasible for this category of emission sources. Such
treatment may also control sulfur oxide and paniculate emis-
sions. Technology is available for controlling emissions from
plants manufacturing or using nitric acid, but case-by-case
economic and engineering evaluations are required to select
the most appropriate techniques. The 5-year R&D plan recom-
mendations are based on the cost-effectiveness of developing
stationary NOx emission control technology and on the
knowledge gaps identified in this systems study. These recom-
mendations consist of basic and applied program items, which
involve combustion processes, flue gas treatment processes,
non-combustion processes, and the required support studies.
The program items are grouped in priority blocks, based on
their potential impact on stationary NOx emission levels in the
U. S. Complete details of the NOx systems study are
presented in Volume II of this report.
22868
North American Rockwell Corp., Canoga Park, Calif.,
Atomics International Div.
DEVELOPMENT OF A MOLTEN CARBONATE PROCESS
FOR REMOVAL OF SULFUR DIOXIDE FROM POWER
PLANT STACK GASES. PART VI. SMALL PILOT PLANT
AND COMPONENT TEST LOOP DESIGN. Contract PH 86-
67-128, PR-2, AI-70-10, 36p., 1970. CFSTI: PB 191962
-------
148
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
Conceptual designs and cost estimates are given for two test
systems, a Small Pilot Plant (SPP) and a Component Test
Loop (CTL), which are part of the development program for
the Molten Carbonate Process of sulfur oxides control. The
SPP will be operated to test and evaluate the performance of
the chemical reactors and to demonstrate process feasibility on
an integrated basis under realistic plant operating conditions
and on a continuous basis. Secondary objectives will be to
study the effects of operational variation on plant performance
and of trace impurities on process chemistry. Results will be
used to develop specifications and operating criteria for a
demonstration plant. The CTL will be operated to test equip-
ment designed and supplied commercially (wherever possible)
of a size comparable to those anticipated for the large pilot
plant (a molten carbonate plant integrated into a 60-100 Mwe
coal-fired unit). For both units, systems design, components,
and layout are described and diagrammed in detail. Cost esti-
mates cover only engineering and construction costs.
22869
North American Rockwell Corp., Canoga Park, Calif.,
Atomics International Div.
DEVELOPMENT OF A MOLTEN CARBONATE PROCESS
FOR REMOVAL OF SULFUR DIOXIDE FROM POWER
PLANT STACK GASES. PART VD. PLANT ANALYSIS. Con-
tract PH 86-67-128, PR-2, AI-70-11, 58p., 1970. 3 refs. CFSTI:
PB 191963
Design, process description, integration with existing facilities,
and capital and operating cost estimates are given for two in-
stallations to test the Molten Carbonate Process of power
plant sulfur oxides control. The first is a large pilot plant to be
integrated with one of the existing 60 Mwe generating units at
the Watts Bar Station of TVA, at a total estimated cost of $3.2
million. The second is a prototype full size plant (800 Mwe),
with a capital requirement of $11.6 million and an annual
operating cost of about $3.9 million. Using hydrogen as the
reducing agent, the overall system costs are estimated at 0.62
mils/kwh, not including any credit for sulfur. If fluidized coke
were used as the reducing agent, the cost could be reduced to
0.42 mils/kwh. Detailed plant analysis studies are reported on
integration considerations, comparative studies on the reduc-
tion step and fly ash removal, and on molten carbonate
recovery. Unless nearly all of the fly ash is removed from the
gas stream before it enters the scrubber, the carbonate melt
must be recovered from the melt-ash filter cake for economic
operation. (Author summary modified)
22871
North American Rockwell Corp., Canoga Park, Calif.,
Atomics International Div.
DEVELOPMENT OF A MOLTEN CARBONATE PROCESS
FOR REMOVAL OF SULFUR DIOXIDE FROM POWER
PLANT STACK GASES. PART V. FLY ASH STUDIES. Con-
tract PH 86-67-128, AI-70-9, PR-2, 30p., 1970. 4 refs. CFSTI:
PB 191961
Investigations are reported on the physical properties of fly
ash (particle size distribution, chemical composition, density,
porosity, and solubility), and on methods for filtering the ash
fro suspension in molten salts to permit recycling of the salts
as part of a process in which they are used to remove sulfur
dioxide and fly ash from flue gases. Fly ash particle density
was close to that of the molten eutectic of lithium, sodium,
and potassium carbonates. Mean particle densities were mea-
sured at 2.06, 2.11, and 1.96 cm/cu cm for three different coal
fly ashes; bulk densities are also given. Fly ash porosity is
about 50% for dry coal ash, 90% for fry oil soot, and 67% for
melt-saturated coal ash. Sulfuric acid was a stronger leaching
agent of coal fly ash than water. Coal fly ash is very sparingly
soluble in the carbonate eutectic melt. Filtration studies in-
dicated that almost all of the resistance to flow through the
filter was due to the fly ash cake. A 10-micron filter removed
virtually all the fly ash in suspension, with no more than 30 m
suspended ash found in the filtrate. The sintered-metal medi-
um is adequate for filtering fly ash particles from suspension
in M2C03. Efficiency of filteration increased by accumulation
on the filter, while at constant pressure, the flow rate
decreased with ash accumulation. (Author summary modified)
22883
Singer, T. E. R.
FOREIGN LITERATURE DIGEST. Chem. Ind. (New York),
48(4):433, 514, April 1941.
An article in an Indian chemistry journal is summarized in
which work done by several U.S.S.R. organizations on the
elimination and use of sulfur dioxide from smoke gases is re-
ported. The article gives a detailed discussion of two methods.
The first entails absorption of SO2 in magnesium oxide, result-
ing in a reusable magnesium sulfite. It is practical for large
power stations located near some contact sulfuric acid plant,
The second entails acidification of SO3 in solution under the
catalytic influence of metallic ions, in which the conventional
MnSO4 is replaced by pyrolusite, containing Mn02, which is
relatively inexpensive and does not poison the catalyst. Gas
purification is completed with the lime method to produce a
stronger acid (18-20%) than the 10-13% acid produced with the
use of MnO2. With this acid-catalytic method, SO2 concentra-
tions do not reach levels injurious to workers or the surround-
ing country, there are no dust processes; the quantity of waste
products and waste water is small; and the process is extreme-
ly simple and easily regulated. Several commercial uses for the
weak-acid end product are noted.
22884
Pagliari, M.
EXPERIMENTS WITH PILOT BALLOON SOUNDINGS AT
SOME POWER STATION SITES. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. Lon-
don, Ser. A, 265(1161):183-190, Nov. 13, 1969. 10 refs.
Data on the motion and layering of the lower atmosphere
between 75 and 1500 m were obtained for three power station
sites in Italy by use of a standard pilot balloon technique. On
the shore of the Ligurian Sea with surrounding foothills, with
north or northwest winds, the plume from a tall stack will be
embedded in a thick body of moderately stable air, so that dif-
fusion formulae can be reliably employed to derive the
requisite height of a tall stack. On the bank of the Po River, in
flat country, a plume emitted at about 200 m will develop
above a very stable layer, effectively preventing any transport
to the ground. Above 300 m, the likelihood of pollutant disper-
sion by wind is enhanced. Thus for new plants, stacks should
be over 200 m high. In a 300-m hollow surrounded by 600-700-
m ridges, analysis showed a discontinuity in the wind field.
Meteorological conditions there cannot assist dispersion; thus,
pollution control must be achieved at the source, in this case
by additional electrostatic precipitators. It is concluded that
despite the limitations of the method, pilot balloon sound is
still a simple and economic method that in difficult situations
can provide useful qualitative information no worse than that
from inappropriate use of formulae.
-------
B. CONTROL METHODS
149
22905
Juentgen, H.
PROCESSING ENGINEERING PRINCIPLES OF SO2
SEPARATION FROM FLUE GASES. (Verfahrenstechnische
Grundlagen der Abscheidung von SO2 aus Abgasen). Text in
German. Inst. Gewerbliche Wasserwirtschaft Luftrein-Haltung
Forum, 1965:359-374, 1965. 21 refs.
Wet separation of sulfur dioxide from flue gases was unworka-
ble because the cooling of flue gases by the washing liquid led
to their loss of buoyancy and to subsequent accumulation of
high levels of SO2 in the vicinity of the stack, in spite of its
thorough separation. The main problem of SO2 separation lies
in the large volume of flue gases from thermal power plants
and the low SO2 concentration of from 0.5 to 1.5 ppm which is
only 1% of the SO2 content in roasting gas. Processes recently
proposed to solve these problems based on the reaction of
SO2 with metal compounds to form sulfates, on the adsorption
on carbonaceous adsorbents (semicoke and activated carbon)
with a simultaneous conversion to sulfuric acid (the so-called
clean air method, the Pauling, and sulfacid method), and on
the catalytic oxidation of SO2 to SO3 on conventional vanadi-
um catalysts with the subsequent washing out of the SO3
(methods developed by the Bituminous Coal Research Inc.,
and the Pennsylvania Electric Co.) are described. Some of
these processes have been tried out on a pilot plant, semi-in-
dustrial and even industrial scale; their cost can at this point
be only estimated. Experts are unamimous in the prediction
that none of the processes proposed will be economically
feasible; thus, the removal of SO2 from flue gases is still an
expensive procedure.
22961
Novotny, Pavel
FLUID-BED COMBUSTION OF SOLID AND LIQUID FUELS
AND WASTES. (Fluidni spalovani tuhych a kapaplnych paliv a
odpadu). Inst. Fuel Research, no. 14, 59p., 1969. 42 refs.
Translated from Czech. Belov and Associates, Denver, Colo.,
57p., Jan. 30, 1970.
Fluid-bed combustion generally describes the oxidation reac-
tion that takes place in the fluid layer. The fuels used can be
solid, liquid, gaseous, or any combination of these. Some basic
observations concerning fluid-bed technology are made. The
basic types of fluid-beds are described. The theory of opera-
tion of the fluid-bed involves turbulent fluid flow and mass
exchange. Mathematical relationships of fluid-bed phenomenon
are determined. Fluid-bed combustion has the potential ability
to effectively bind oxides of sulfur to alkaline additives by a
drying method. It can also utilize a greater size range of coal
fuel, and it reduces the ash content in the effluent. Designs of
various fluid-bed reactors are given. Research into the com-
bustion properties of various fuels is discussed.
22981
Basak, G. C.
STUDIES ON ASSAM COALS, PART I; CHEMICAL CON-
STITUTION RELATING TO SULPHUR COMPOUNDS. J.
Technol., 12(l):43-48, June 1967. 3 refs.
Because of their unusually high sulfur content, Assam coals
are unsuitable for use as industrial fuel. As part of an in-
vestigation of the possibilities of recovering sulfur from the
coals, studies were conducted of the chemical composition of
the coals and of the effects of carbonization on their sulfur
content. The results of both low and high-temperature car-
bonization showed that sulfur reduction was at a minimum
where the percentage of ash increased during carbonization.
This fact, coupled with their low pyritic sulfur content, sug-
gests that Assam coals contain little or no inorganic sulfur.
23027
Bevans, Rowland S., Peter N. Renzi, and Yashwant R.
Loonkar
METHOD OF REMOVING SULFUR COMPOUNDS AND
RECOVERING HEAT FROM COMBUSTION GASES. (Amer-
ican Standard Inc.) U. S. Pat. 3,386,798. 4p., June 4, 1968. 2
refs. (Appl. Nov. 30, 1964, 5 claims).
In the method described for recovering heat and removing sul-
fur compounds from power plant stack gases, the gases are
washed with a solution of 35-45% calcium chloride, the
resultant hydrochloric is neutralized, and the calcium sulfur
salts removed from the solution, which is then passed into in-
direct heat exhange with air for use in the combustion
chamber. The calcium chloride solution has the advantages of
having a higher evaporation temperature than ordinary water,
is inexpensive, non toxic to personnel, and non-corrosive to
plant machinery. Sulfuric acid vapor and sulfur dioxide are
removed from the stack gases by reacting with the calcium
chloride solution to form calcium sulfate, calcium sulfite, and
hydrochloric acid, thus reducing pollutants emitted to the at-
mosphere and lessening the corrosive effects of the sulfuric
acid vapor to the system.
23054
SULFURIC AS A UTILITY'S PROFITABLE BY-PRODUCT.
Chem. Week, 103(6):51-52, Aug. 10, 1968.
A new electrolytic process has been developed to recover sul-
fur dioxide from power plant stack gases. The heart of the
SO2 removal and recovery operation is a membrane-type elec-
trochemical cell that generates caustic soda, sodium acid
sulfate, dilute sulfuric acid, oxygen and hydrogen from a solu-
tion of sodium sulfate. The dilute sulfuric acid and oxygen
become supplemental feed streams for a nearby sulfuric acid
plant; the hydrogen can be bottled in cylinders for local mar-
kets. The recovery system has built-in tankage on either side
of the cell room that permits about 760 hr/yr of absorption
without cell-room power. For instance, if the peak load occurs
late in the day on Wednesday or Thursday, absorption of SO2
can continue uninterrupted with the cells shut down. Then
over the weekend, the cells could come on again and catch up,
ready for normal operation on Monday morning. For a 1200-
mw electric station burning 3.5%-sulfur coal, the investment
cost of the process would be $18.5. To remove 90% of the
SO2 from stacks, operating costs are set at $2,972,000. During
the first year of operation, income from the sale of 99% sul-
furic acid (340,000 tons) should total $5,810,000.
23140
Martin, J. R., W. C. Taylor, and A. L. Plumley
THE C-E AIR POLLUTION CONTROL SYSTEM. Nat. Eng.,
74(6):8-12, June 1970. C-E'S AIR POLLUTION CONTROL
SYSTEM. Ibid., 74(7):8-10, July 1970. 7 refs. (Presented at the
Industrial Coal Conference, Lexington, Ky., April 8-9, 1970.)
Air pollution control systems were installed in two coal-burn-
ing, steam-electric plants. They are alkaline-additive, wet-
scrubber type systems designed to remove both sulfur dioxide
and fly-ash from the stack gases. Problems occurring during
their operation, and modifications incorporated to overcome
these problems are detailed. Throughout both systems,
deposits of ash and scale were observed, and measures ap-
propriate to the particular sector of the system in which they
occurred were implemented. A problem common to all coal-
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150
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
burning installations, disposal of residue, is being studied with
the objective of using the residue as a saleable by-product.
Several potential applications are described, including use in
light-weight aggregate, as an asphalt filler, a raw material for
the production of mineral wool, and as a soil conditioner.
Because of adverse experience with field modification with
respect to time and expense, a one-quarter scale development
model of the field installation was constructed and is being
used to evaluate potential fixes for problems identified in the
field. One of the field units has now been in essentially con-
tinuous use for 8 months; the other for 5 months. Sulfur diox-
ide removal has remained at about 60% without recycle and
75% with recycle.
23146
Yamada, Tsuyoshi
THE RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT OF AIR POLLU-
TION CONTROL TECHNOLOGY IN THE UNITED STATES.
PART I. (America ni okeru taiki osen boshi n gijutsu no ken-
kyu kaihatsu. 1). Text in Japanese. Sangyo Kogai (Ind. Public
Nuisance), 6(5):282-287, May 25, 1970.
The process for removing sulfur dioxide developed by Com-
bustion Eng. Inc., consists of the addition of dolomites and the
four mechanical stages: heat exchanger, scrubber, another
heat exchanger, and stack gas tower, respectively. The heat
exchanger is for cooling the stack gas as well as for reheating
treated gas. A glass marble bed about 76 mm deep is installed
in the scrubber where sulfur dioxide is absorbed and stack gas
is removed. The difficulty with this process is that absorbents
such as CaO which fly in from the furnace are easily accumu-
lated around the entrance to and exit from the scrubber. Re-
peated experiments revealed that the nonconstant velocity of
the gas streaming into the scrubber is responsible. The marble
bed also becomes clogged after several days of operations,
resulting in the active formation of deposits in the demister
and the reheater. The unbalanced distribution of gas in the
marble bed is the cause of such deposits. TVA has been con-
ducting various experiments for a long time to remove sulfur
dioxides, and some of them can be listed as follows: the ab-
sorptio process by active carbon, the conversion of sulfur
dioxide into sulfuric acid by using manganese dioxide as a
catalyst, the production of high-concentration sulfur dioxide,
and absorption by an ammonium salt solution. The process
utilizing potassium phosphate possesses a great power to ab-
sorb sulfur dioxide.
23176
Jimeson, Robert M.
CENSUS OF FEDERAL COAL RESEARCH GIVEN AT SALT
LAKE CITY MEETING. Mining Engineering, 15(ll):51-55,
Nov. 1963.
About 50% of coal consumption in the United States is in the
production of electric power, 20% in the production of metal-
lurgical coke, and over 20% in the production of process
steam and power. The U. S. Bureau of Mines' Division of
Coal Research places much emphasis on research that will
maintain coal's leadership in these established areas. This
emphasis is reflected in the following projects now underway:
the possible utilization of a coal-fired turbine in conjunction
with conventional boilers; the removal of dust from coal-
generated gas by an electrostatic precipitator operating at tur-
bine conditions; conversion of coal and coal gases in plasma;
conversion of coal to high-Btu gas by direct hydrogenation and
catalytic methanation; the application of nuclear process heat
to the gasification of coal; purification of synthesis gas for
high-Btu pipline gas; four types of reactor systems for cata-
lytic hydrogenation of carbon monoxide; magnetohydrodynam-
ic generation of power from coal; entrained carbonization
processes for the production of char from coal; and the use of
coal as a supplemental fuel for blast furnaces. The current
status of these projects is outlined.
23220
Cadwallader, L. W.
COST, APPLICATION AND PERFORMANCE OF SERIES
DUST COLLECTOR INSTALLATIONS ON LARGE PUL-
VERIZED COAL BOILERS. Preprint, Smoke Prevention As-
soc. of America, New York, 8p., 1952. (Presented at the Air
Pollution and Smoke Prevention Association of America An-
nual Convention, 45th, Cleveland, Ohio, June 9-12, 1952.)
The efficiency of a mechanical collector increases with load,
while the efficiency of an electrostatic precipitator decreases
with load. For two pulverized coal-fired generating stations,
the combination of electrostatic precipitators and mechanical
collector into a series unit has resulted in a sustained high col-
lection efficiency throughout a wide range of load. The series
dust collector appears to be particularly well adapted for op-
timum fly ash collection. Of the two installations, the stacks at
the station where the mechanical collector is placed before
rather than after the precipitator present the most pleasing ap-
pearance. A capital expenditure of approximately $5.00 per
nameplate KW is required to provide efficient series dust col-
lector installations with necessary auxiliary equipment on large
pulverized coal-fired boilers. This cost would be increased
substantially where changes to buildings and foundations or
the use of structural steel are required to accommodate the fly
ash collectors and the additional loads imposed by them.
Operating and maintenance costs for the two stations
described are summarized.
23221
Hein, L. B., A. B. Phillips, and R. D. Young
RECOVERY OF SULFUR DIOXIDE FROM COAL COM-
BUSTION STACK GASES. In: Problems and Control of Air
Pollution. O. S. Mallette (ed.), New York, Reinhold, 1955,
Chapt. 15, p. 155-169. 12 refs. (Also: Chapman and Hall, Ltd.,
London.)
Feasibility studies of removing sulfur dioxide from steam plant
emissions were undertaken at the laboratories at Wilson Dam,
Alabama, and pilot-plant work was carried out on the absorp-
tion of SO2 by ammonia solutions. The major variables stu-
died were the recirculation rate, pH, and concentration of the
scrubbing liquor and the depth of packing and gas velocity in
the scrubber. Equipment for burning pulverized coal, for cool-
ing and humidifying the gas, and equipment for scrubbing the
gas with an ammonium sulfite-bisulfite solution comprised the
pilot plant. Recovery increased with increased recirculation
rate up to about 5 gallons per minute and leveled off above
this value, and as the pH was raised from 5.6 to 6.8, recovery
increased from 0 to 90%. SO2 recovery was practically nil
below pH 5.6, and the volatilization of ammonia was so great
above 6.8 that constant pH could not be maintained. Increas-
ing the pH would result in an increase in the proportion of am-
monium sulfate and a decrease in the proportion of sulfuric
acid produced as end products. The liquor rate require to ob-
tain a given recovery increased as the depth of packing was
decreased. At a pH of 6.4, recovery of SO2 decreased and the
loss of ammonia increased as the concentration of the
scrubbing liquor was increased. Data were obtained for calcu-
lating ash, sulfur, ammonia, and water balances for the period
of operation. Tests of 5 to 12 hours duration indicated that vir-
tually all of the ammonia could be recovered from the
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B.CONTROL METHODS
151
scrubber exit gas by scrubbing with dilute ammonium sulfite-
bisulfite solution in a second stage tower. About 90% of the
SO2 was evolved during acidification, while tests showed that
the scrubber effluent could be acidified satisfactorily in a con-
tinuous flow manner. Crystallization tests were made in
beakers to determine the purity of the ammonium sulfate
produced and to indicate whether impurities would interfere
with crystallization.
23231
Kleinschmidt, R. V.
FLUE GASES LAUNDERED TO PREVENT ADI POLLU-
TION. Power Plant Eng., 42(6):393-396, June 1938. 9 refs.
The large tonnage of sulfur dioxide now discharged into the air
from power plant stacks, especially in the Midwest where
high-sulfur coals are burned, creates a serious corrosion
problem in industrial communities and is inimical to plant life
over a wide area. The successful development of the Pease-
Anthony scrubber, which has a high efficiency for both dust
and SO2 removal, makes it advisable to consider wet treat-
ment of flue gases in preference to electrical precipitators and
cyclones. The Pease-Anthony scrubber consists of a vertical
cylindrical chamber with a tangential gas inlet at the bottom
and a central discharge collar at the top. Spray nozzles located
along the lower portion of the axis of the cylinder discharge a
fine spray of water or other washing fluid into the center of
the rotating gas mass. The thoroughness of contact between
liquid and dust particles is indicated by the fact that the gases
are brought to equilibrium saturation temperature. The
economics of SO2 removal depend largely on local conditions;
under favorable conditions, recovery should be possible at
practically no net cost to the power plant. Forms in which sul-
fur can be recovered for sale include sulfuric acid, sulfites and
sulfates, and liquid SO2.
23237
Clarke, A. J.
THE APPLICATION OF AIR POLLUTION RESEARCH TO
POWER STATION DESIGN. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London,
Ser. A, 265(1161):269-272, Nov. 13, 1969.
The objectives of research on power station emissions is
defined as finding more effective, more reliable, or less costly
ways of either reducing the rate or increasing the height at
which potential pollutants are emitted to the atmosphere.
Research problems in smoke and dust emission have been
mainly practical ones dealing with improved design in available
hardware, although the development of basic theory has
progressed in parallel. Main interest now centers on gaseous
pollutants, characterized by sulfur dioxide, where control is at
present almost wholly achieved by high level dispersion. An
important research result has been the dependence of plume
rise on the heat content of the emission; for a given generating
capacity, plume rise can therefore be maximized by concen-
trating all the flue gases into a single chimney. Thus, despite
some engineering problems, nearly all new power stations
planned since 1960 are provided with a single chimney. The
large body of data collected from air pollution monitoring pro-
grams has been of great utility in developing effective control
measures. Practical design of new power stations must take
into account numerous factors besides the results of research,
but research has contributed greatly to the relative 'cleanli-
ness' of the modern power plant.
23262
Ito, Akio, Tadao Shirasawa, Tomio Ohyanagi, and Yukio
Tamori
PACKED COAL BED AS A DUST COLLECTOR (II). Taiki
Osen Kenkyu (J. Japan Soc. Air Pollution), 2(1):98-100, 1967.
Translated from Japanese. 8p.
Dust collection using packed coal was studied for treatment of
the exhaust of coal-fired furnaces and incinerators. The coal
from which smoke was collected was fed into a combustion
chamber, so that no dust trapping device was needed and
operation could be achieved with only a single collector.
Generally, in the case of filtration, collection efficiency is im-
proved due to the deposition of smoke on the filter. However,
the flow rate of gases is reduced due to thickening of the
smoke layer, provided that the power of the suction or blower
is maintained constant. Consequently, it is uncertain whether
the rise of collection efficiency was due to formation of the
dust layer or to the reduction of flow rate. In this experiment,
the equipment was improved so that both effects could be
separately evaluated. An experimental equation of pressure
loss and collection efficiency was derived for a nearly uniform
size of coal layer which was produced by sieving. An experi-
ment was also conducted on packed beds of spherical active
carbon and glass spheres in order to elucidate the feature of
the coal bed in comparison with the above two standard beds.
In this type of collector, the amount of coal employed for dust
collection and that consumed for the combustion was
balanced; this requirement imposed restrictions on the
thickness of packed bed, flow rate of exhaust gas, area of
beds, and interval for replacement of coal. For a given coal
consumption, the gas flow rate was roughly determined, and
the area of the bed was derived from the optimum face
velocity. Beds of 7 and 14 cm thickness were tested. On deter-
mining the optimum thickness of the beds, the interval of time
for the replacement of coal was derived. This procedure pro-
vided the standard for practical design of a coal bed. The
smoke-laden gas of fixed volume was drawn through circular
filters up and downstream of the smoke collector, and the
amount of smoke was determined by measurement of light
reflectivity of the filter surface on which the smoke was
deposited.
23305
Lowe, H. J.
REDUCTION OF EMISSION OF POLLUTANTS. RECENT
ADVANCES IN ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATORS FOR
DUST REMOVAL. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London, Ser. A,
265(1161):301-307, Nov. 13, 1969. 16 refs.
The basic theory of electrostatic precipitation is reviewed and
discrepancies between theory and practice are commented
upon. A working expression for particle migration velocity
based on test data is presented. Three plant developments are
discussed: The elimination of cyclone collectors ahead of the
precipitator, the trend to almost flat electrodes, and a modest
increase in the maximum gas velocity which eases the problem
of precipitator volume associated with boiler size increases. A
rather unusual complaint is that British precipitator per-
formance is suffering from too low a sulfur content in the ef-
fluent gas. Below 1.3% sulfur, the conductivity of the particu-
lates is adversely affected, and about 28% of the currently
used coal is below that level. Research is in process to deter-
mine the optimum means of adding ammonium sulfate to the
exhaust gas to control paniculate conductivity. Rapping as a
means of cleaning electrodes is analyzed as to force and
frequency in the various zones of the precipitator.
-------
152
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
23315
Billinge, B. H. M., A. C. Collins, J. Graham, and H. G.
Masterson
REDUCTION OF EMISSION OF SULPHUR DIOXIDE. Phil.
Trans. Roy. Soc. London, Ser. A, 265(1161):309-318, Nov. 13,
1969. 21 refs.
There is no immediate prospect of economic removal of sulfur
from fuel before combustion in power plants. Residual fuel oil
used in Britain has a sulfur content of about 2.5% and esti-
mates of the cost of catalytic hydrogenation processes for sul-
fur removal range upwards from $3.40 per ton; in other terms,
sulfur could be recovered from this source at about nine times
the market price. Coal received by the Generating Board has a
weighted mean sulfur content of 1.7%, comprising about 0.1%
sulfate, between 0.6 and 1.0% organic, with the remainder
mainly pyrites. It is possible to reduce the pyritic content by
physical separation from pulverized coal, but none has yet
been shown to be economically practicable. Many simple
chemical reactions are being developed at this time as flue gas
cleaning processes. There are unresolved difficulties in the ap-
plication of the Claus reaction under power plant conditions,
and processes based on catalytic oxidation of sulfur dioxide to
the trioxide have so far been developed with more success.
The Penelec /Monsanto process, currently operating on pilot
scale recovers a marketable quality of sulfuric acid (78%) by
condensation and precipitation of the acid mist from the flue
gas stream. In a second scheme, ammonia is injected to the
gas stream after the catalytic oxidation step, and ammonium
sulfate recovered by electrostatic precipitation, or bag filtra-
tion. In Eastern countries, ammonium sulfate has a ready mar-
ket as a fertilizer. The sorption-desorption of sulfur dioxide on
carbon has also been developed on the engineering scale. In
the Reinluft process, sulfur dioxide, which is retained on coke
as sulfuric acid, is recovered by heating to about 400 C. Salt
formation is the basis of several processes. The simplest
systems discard the salt formed and schemes of this type are
operating on full plant scale at two London power stations.
The formation of calcium sulfate can also be achieved by in-
jecting dry limestone into the furnace gas, as in the Com-
bustion Engineering-Detroit Edison process; the sulfate in this
case is recovered, together with fly-ash, in wet scrubbers
which are packed with moving spheres to avoid plugging. The
Fulham-Simon Carves process involves reaction of sulfur ox-
ides with ammonia liquor, ammonium sulfate being recovered
after autoclave treatment of the spent solution from the ab-
sorber towers. Interest is currently centered on the alkalized
alumina process, proposed by the U. S. Bureau of Mines. It
may be noted, however, that unlike the non-regenerative
process, a regenerative process can produce a product which
estimates suggest may actually approach in value, the operat-
ing cost of the plant.
23331
Paulson, C. A. J. and A. R. Ramsden
SOME MICROSCOPIC FEATURES OF FLY-ASH PARTI-
CLES AND THEIR SIGNIFICANCE IN RELATION TO
ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATION. Atmos. Environ.,
4(2):175-185, 1970. 28 refs.
Examination of fly ash samples from five technical-scale tests
and one full-scale test of electrostatic precipitation efficiency
showed that collection efficiency decreased as the proportion
of particles smaller than five micron increased in the fly ash
entering the precipitator. When this proportion exceeded 45%
by weight, the collection efficiency was unacceptably low (less
than 98.5%). Superfine fly ash consisting predominantly of
submicron particles was encountered in one test, apparently as
a result of the high fusite content of the bituminous coal being
burned. Such fly ash was especially difficult to precipitate.
Particle shape was another factor influencing efficiency;
spherical particles were collected more easily than nonspheri-
cal particles. It is suggested that increasing gas humidity might
help promote agglomeration of superfine particles and that the
addition of fluxing agents to the fuel during combustion could
promote the formation of spherical particles. Lengthening par-
ticle residence times by increasing turbulence in the furnace
might favor formation of larger ash particles. (Author abstract
modified)
23373
Leithe, W.
REPORT ON METHODS FOR THE REMOVAL OF
SULPHUR DIOXIDE FROM FLUE GASES. Chem. Engr.
(London), 46(7):262-263, Sept. 1968. 4 refs.
A wet absorption process for purifying exhaust gases from sul-
furic acid production by washing with ammonium sulfite-
bisulfite solution at pH of 6 is briefly noted, and the most im-
portant and promising dry absorption processes for flue gas
desulfurization are summarized (Reinluft, Sulfacid, Aluminate,
catalytic H2SO4, and Mitsubishi) in table form. The economics
of full-scale applications from pilot plant results are difficult to
evaluate, but a rise of power generation costs of 10-25% has to
be expected. At present, no process being studied for the
removal of sulfur dioxide from flue gases is developed to the
point where it can be recommended as technically satisfactory
and economically feasible, and high stacks are still the only
means for ground level control. The demand for byproduct
sulfur is expected to rise and give impetus to further process
development.
23374
North American Rockwell Corp., Canoga Park, Calif.,
Atomics International Div.
DEVELOPMENT OF A MOLTEN CARBONATE PROCESS
FOR REMOVAL OF SULFUR DIOXIDE FROM POWER
PLANT STACK GASES. PART I. PROCESS CHEMISTRY-
REDUCTION. Contract PH 86-67-128, N.A.R.C. Kept. AI-70-5,
PR-2, 103p., 1968. 48 refs. CFSTI: PB 191957
In the Molten Carbonate Process, the flue gases are scrubbed
with a melt of alkali metal carbonates. This produces a melt
mixture of alkali metal carbonates, sulfites, and sulfates,
which must be treated to regenerate the carbonate and recover
the sulfur. The first step of the treatment is the chemical
reduction of the sulfite and sulfate to sulfide, using hydrogen,
carbon monoxide, or carbon as the reducing agent. The
chemistry of the hydrogen reduction step is studied in detail.
The reduction is zero-order with respect to sulfate concentra-
tion, and the rate is catalyzed by iron, and autocatalyzed by
the sulfide product. Increasing the temperature 100 C quadru-
ples the reaction rate if no iron catalyst is present, and dou-
bles the iron-catalyzed rate. Concerning the reduction reaction
mechanism, the reaction does not take place in the gas phase;
sulfate and sulfide combine to form the intermediate that un-
dergoes reduction in the rate determining step; and the role of
iron is one of either stabilizing the reactive intermediate (thus
increasing its concentration) and/or acting directly in the
reduction of the intermediate. Studies with carbon monoxide
indicate it is not as reactive as hydrogen. However, its reac-
tivity increases with pressure more rapidly than hydrogen, so
it may be useful at high pressures. At temperatures above 700
C, carbon is an excellent reducing agent. At 800 C, complete
reduction is obtained in 14 minutes using fluidized petroleum
coke and an iron catalyst. (Author abstract modified)
-------
B. CONTROL METHODS
153
23376
North American Rockwell Corp., Canoga Park, Calif.,
Atomics International Div.
DEVELOPMENT OF A MOLTEN CARBONATE PROCESS
FOR REMOVAL OF SULFUR DIOXIDE FROM POWER
PLANT STACK GASES. PART m. MATERIALS STUDY.
Contract PH 86-67-128, N.A.R.C. Rept. AI-70-7, PR-2, 26p.,
1968.16 refs. CFSTI: PB 191959
The molten alkali carbonate eutectic consists of essentially
equal parts by weight of lithium, sodium, and potassium car-
bonate. It may be used to control sulfur dioxide air pollution
by scrubbing stack gases with the molten salt. The resultant
fused salt contains sulfite which disproportionates to sulfate
and sulfide. Suitable containment of these molten salts in
water, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen sulfide gaseous environ-
ments is required for commercial development of this
technique to control air pollution. The results of screening,
medium-term and long-term static, dynamic, and thermal cycle
tests are given. At 500 C, stainless steel (SS) 347 appears to
contain all of the above melts satisfactorily. At 600 C, satisfac-
tory containment of the melts with sulfur compounds present
required low-iron, nickel or cobalt-based alloys with about a
20% chromium content, while SS 347 satisfactorily contains
the pure carbonate melt. At higher temperatures, containment
of these melts requires high-chromium alloys, ceramics, cer-
mets, or a frozen skull of the salt. Materials for a small pilot
plant are recommended, and the future corrosion program is
outlined. (Author abstract)
23447
Kiyoura, Raisaku, Haruo Kuronuma, Yoshisuke Uenishi,
Terunori Hayashi, and Nobuyuki Yamaguchi
RECOVERY OF AMMONIUM SULPHATE FROM SULFUR
DIOXIDE IN HOT FLUE GASES (XI). WIDE RANGE AP-
PLICABILITY OF DIFFERENT CONCENTRATIONS OF SO2
AND H20. (Ryuan nado o fukusei sum Endohaigasu no
jyogaiho (XI). SO2, H2O nodokohani ryoiki ni okeru tekiyo ni
tsuite). Tokyo Inst. of Tech. (Japan), p. 1424, 1968 (?). Trans-
lated from Japanese. Franklin Inst. Research Labs., Philadel-
phia, Pa., Science Info. Services, 2p., Oct. 27, 1969.
The Kiyoura-T.I.T. process for removing sulfur dioxide from
flue gas was studied for the effects of variations of SO2 and
water concentration on the final by-product, ammonium
sulfate. Increasin H2O from 10 to 20 vol% had no effect,
while increasing SO2 from 0.1 to 2.0 vol% resulted in an ex-
othermic increase during formation of ammonium sulfate. The
results, which are graphically illustrated, demonstrate the ap-
plicability of the process for flue gases from oil combustion,
coal combustion, petrochemical factories, chemical industries,
and natural gas industries.
23504
Germerdonk, R.
WET-PROCESS REMOVAL OF SULFUR DIOXIDE FROM
WASTE GASES. (Auswaschen von Schwefeldioxyd aus
Rauchgasen). Text in German. Chem. Ing. Tech., 37(11):1136-
1139, 1965. 5 refs.
A study is made of the amount of outlay required for the wet
desulfurization of gases and the economic feasibility of such a
process. The study utilized waste gases from a power plant
fired with fuel oil, the sulfur dioxide content of which required
reduction from 5 g/cu m to about 50 mg/cu m. The scrubbing
process offers a considerable saving over that of earlier
processes, but is very complicated. On the other hand, while
providing about 99% reduction of the sulfur content, it
generates a minimum of additional waste products. It has been
estimated that the heat requirement for driving off SO2 from
wash water at atmospheric pressure amounts to about half the
heat requirements of the power plant involved. Recent at-
tempts at improvement have aimed at reducing this heat
requirement. The SO2-absorbing powers of water is very good
for concentrations of less than 0.5 g/cu m of air, but the
recovery of SO2 from the water can be expensive. One
method of reducing this problem is by the addition of acid to
increase the hydrogen ion concentration, which in turn
decreases the SO2 solubility, facilitating its recovery. A flow
chart is given, illustrating the recommended method of
recovery, and equations are derived for calculating the vapor
pressure of SO2 on the basis of dissociation factors. The
recommended equipment is capable of accomplishing its task
with about 10-12 liters of water per cubic meter of waste gas,
with a waste gas throughput of 500,000 cubic meters per hour,
at a cost of about 10% of the total plant operating cost; the
waste water containing about 25 mg per liter of sulfite, and the
sodium sulfite content amounts to less than 0.7%. The only
chemical additive is sodium hydroxide in quantities of about
2.3% of the quantity required for a complete chemical reaction
with all of the SO2 absorbed.
23526
North American Rockwell Corp., Canoga Park, Calif.,
Atomics International Div.
DEVELOPMENT OF A MOLTEN CARBONATE PROCESS
FOR REMOVAL OF SULFUR DIOXIDE FROM POWER
PLANT STACK GASES. PART H. PROCESS CHEMISTRY -
REGENERATION. Contract PH 86-67-128, N.A.R.C. Rept. AI-
70-6, PR-2, 152p., 1968. 7 refs. CFSTI: PB 191958
The regeneration of sulfide-bearing melts with carbon dioxide
and water vapor is studied. The regeneration reaction can be
carried to completion at 500 C in a batch process within practi-
cal time limits (20 to 30 min). The time required to complete
the reaction is limited by the input gas flow rate to melt
volume ratio and the effective equilibrium constant for the
regeneration reaction. Foreign metal impurities in the melt
reduce the sulfide activity in varying amounts, causing a
reduction in the hydrogen sulfide content in the off-gas
stream. Calcium impurity does not affect the regeneration
process. The effect of iron, a potential reduction catalyst, is
studied in detail. Iron causes melts to foam during regenera-
tion under certain conditions, and also precipitates along with
some sulfide during the regeneration process. The iron-sulfide
precipitate can be completely recovered from the regenerated
melt by filtration and reused as a reduction catalyst. The op-
timum rates and utilization of regeneration gases require low
temperatures (less than 500 C) and carbon dioxide equilibrium
pressure less than 0.5 atmospheres. The decrease in the effec-
tive equilibrium constant for the regeneration process with in-
crease in carbon dioxide pressure is postulated to be due to
the interaction of carbon dioxide with sulfide to form a series
of thiocarbonates. Cycle tests show that the sulfur can be
removed completely and reveal no problems due to cycling on
the quality of the carbonate melt. (Author abstract modified)
23544
Tuentgen, Harald and Werner Peters
RECENT RESULTS OF THE RESEARCH ON EXHAUST
GASES DESULPHURIZATION. (Neuere Forschungsergebnisse
auf dem Gebiet der Abgasentschwefelung). Text in German.
Staub, Reinhalt Luft, 28(3):89-93, March 1968. 13 refs.
(Presented at the Verein Deutscher Ingenieure-Tagung,
Schwerpunkte der Emissionsbekaempfung, Munich, Oct. 24-
25, 1967.)
-------
154
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
The two methods of sulfur dioxide removal from exhaust
gases of hard coal power plants were studied: the adsorption
on activated coke, and its binding to powdered metal oxides or
carbonates blown into the exhaust gas. In the first case, SO2
is adsorbed on the coke surface and is oxidized to H2SO4. As
the quality of coke used is the determining factor for the effi-
ciency of the process, the preparation of suitable adsorbent
and its properties were investigated. Hard coal coke produced
by extrusion from pre-oxidized hard coal and with low
flammability was most suitable. The laboratory conditions for
optimum SO2 adsorption and binding were found. The possi-
bility of large-scale production of this coke and its use in con-
tinual SO2 removal was considered. The advantages and draw-
backs of three methods of coke regeneration were discussed.
In the improved adsorption process coke was tested in 2 semi-
industrial set-up. The method of SO2 removal by powdered
metal compounds was less expensive; the material used in the
process was not regenerated. The dosage of powdered CaCO3
or MgCO3 into the reactor results in SO2 or SOS binding to
them. The chemicophysical conditions of the process were stu-
died in the semi-industrial set-up described. At stoichiometric
dosage of CaCO3 and CaO powders into reactor at 800 C and
at SO2 concentration of 1200 ppm, 50% conversion was
achieved. The reaction kinetics in a non-isothermic conditions
was studied on a laboratory scale to improve the utilization of
powders used as desulfirizers.
23674
Kluge, Wolfgang and Boeho Koeppe
EFFECT OF USING ELECTROSTATIC FILTERS ON DUST
EMISSIONS FROM LIGNITE-FIRED POWER PLANTS. (Ein-
fluss des Elektrofilterbetriebs auf die Staubemission aur.
Braunkohlenkraftwerken). Text in German. Energietecbiv ,
17(12):530-535, Dec. 1967. 4 refs.
A series of experiments were conducted with two two-stage
horizonta electrostatic filters made by a firm in Leipzig. These
were connected to the exhaust line of boiler furnaces using lig-
nite for fuel. The coal had a 51.5% water and 12% ash content.
Determinations were made of changes in the degree of
separating effectiveness over a long period of operation, and
differences between filter equipment that had been cleaned
and filter equipment that was dirty. Comparisons were made
between the two filters, the second of which was equipped
with a longer plate (8.5 m instead of 3.3 m), with a more
recent type of electrodes and discharge points, and with a
selenium rectifier, so that this filter operated at 400 mA and 75
kV, as compared with 200 mA and 40 kV for the first filter.
Measurements obtained with the older-type filter were com-
pared (with good agreement) with test results of 10 years
previous, on the same type of equipment. Comparative tests
with the second filter were made immediately after installation
and about 6 months later. Dust content of the purified gases
were determined as a function of filter current intensity at
several states of filter current, from maximum down to zero
mA. Further testing consisted in varying the operation of the
discharge mechanism. Very little difference was noted
between the two filters from the standpoint of 'clean' and 'dir-
ty' operation, but from the standpoint of heavy-duty opera-
tion, the new filter gave as high as 26% better performance,
with an average improvement of 6%. In the current range of
300-400 mA, it was found by extrapolation that the use of the
new type rectifier permits a significant decrease in the dust
content of the purified exhaust, amounting to as much as one
third of the total content. Elimination of a filtering stage had a
significant effect on the filtering efficienc of the electrostatic
stage. When an earlier stage was omitted, the dust content of
the filtered air was 3 times as high; when a filtering stage fol-
lowing the electrostatic stage was omitted, the dust content
was 4 times as high. The article also discusses the effects
created by varying the discharge time, the influence on filter-
ing efficiency of the manner in which the plant is operated,
and procedures for monitoring the operation of an electrostatic
filter, such as by the measurement and recording of electric
curren intensity.
23682
Bituminous Coal Research, Inc., Monroeville, Pa.
AN EVALUATION OF COAL CLEANING PROCESSES AND
TECHNIQUES FOR REMOVING PYRITIC SULFUR FROM
FINE COAL. (FINAL REPORT). NAPCA Contract PH-86-67-
139, BCR Kept. L-362, 135p., Feb. 1970. CFSTI: PB 193484,
193532
An investigation into pyrite liberation and removal charac-
teristics of U. S. coals, when pulverized to the two fine grinds
of interest, is presented. Studies are also conducted on fine
coal cleaning devices, notably the concentrating table and the
compound water cyclone, to ascertain their potential for
removing pyrite from fine sized coal. The use of the inter-
mediate fractions lying between the clean coal and the high
grade pyrite is studied. Additional information should be ob-
tained on coal seams and/or areas that show potential for low-
sulfur production. Results of the cleaning tests indicate that
the pyrite in the finely ground coal is in the size range where
poor separating efficiency is obtained, regardless of the
method. A good grade pyrite concentrat can be made by a
two-stage processing of the pyrite-rich refuse from the coal
cleaning operation.
23708
SO2 REMOVAL FROM STACK GAS FEATURED AT APCA
MEETING. Civil Eng. (N. Y.), 37(8):94, Aug. 1967.
A method of desulfurizing power plant stack gases was
described at the June 1967 meeting of the Air Pollution Con-
trol Association in which a portion of pulverized, calcined al-
kaline earth is injected into the furnace with the pulverized
coal, and the resulting compound is removed by wet
scrubbing. The limestone doubled the amount of material
recovered but did not reduce dust collecting efficiency. The
method was claimed to remove 90-98% SO2 at an operating
cost of 36 cents/ton coal, plus a capital cost of $2.20/kw plant
capacity. A report on removing SO2 before combustion of
Caribbean residual fuel oil gave an added cost of 72 cents/6.3
million-Btu barrel for reducing 2.6% sulfur content oil to 1%.
An Illinois-Indiana Interstate Air Pollution Control Commis-
sion is being created by legislation in both states; a teleme-
tered air-monitored network and closed circuit TV system with
cameras have recently begun operation in the area.
23718
Wahnschaffe, E.
THE CONTROL OF POLLUTION, ESPECIALLY OF GASE-
OUS EMISSIONS. (Zur Reinhaltung der Luft, insbesondere
von gasfoermigen Emissionen). Text in German. Inst. Gewer-
bliche Wasserwirtschaft Luftrein-Haltun Forum, vol. 65:352-
358, 1965. 9 refs.
Atmospheric emission of sulfur dioxide in West Germany in
1963 was due to coal (79%) and to heating oil (21%). Power
stations emitted 29% of all SO2. To keep SO2 within permissi-
ble limits, industry builds high stacks because emission con-
centration at ground level decreases with the reciprocal square
of the stack height. The desulfurization of heating oil is expen-
sive; oils with less than 2% sulfur content are advantageous.
-------
B. CONTROL METHODS
155
Desulfurization of coal is not feasible; the use of coal with low
sulfur content is desirable. The various processes in operation
for the removal of SO2 from the industrial gases are reviewed.
German experimental processes not yet accepted or introduced
by industry include the Johwich process currently in pilot
plant operation in which SO2 is absorbed by semicoke at 120
C and regnerated at 400 C; the iron oxide process in which
SO2 is catalytically converted to SO3 at 200-450 C and the
SOS is converted to sulfate on an iron oxide saturated carrier
(lab stage); the sulfacid process (formerly Pauling process)
which absorbs SO2-containing waste gas at 60 C by active car-
bon, oxidizes it to SOS, and recovers sulfuric acid; and an ad-
ditive process whic blows natural basic oxides or hydrates of
oxides of alkaline earth into the furnace at 1400 C and con-
verts thus all sulfur compounds to sulfates.
23757
Schwarz, Karl
SULFUR DIOXIDE EMISSIONS. (Schwefeldioxydemissionen).
Text in German. Staub (Duesseldorf), 21(2):71-77, Feb. 1961.
29 refs.
The number and location of air sampling sites needed to
establish the sulfur dioxide emission pattern and level of an in-
dividual enterprise, the pattern of SO2 emission from a high
stack, the pattern of SO2 emission from a low emission
source, the SO2 emission pattern in an industrial area with
several emission sources, the frequency distribution of emis-
sion levels in industria areas, the superposition of SO2 emis-
sion from two stacks of different height, and the SO2 emission
pattern in weather inversion are described. To reduce SO2
emission from furnaces, a balance between fuel sulfur content
reduction, desulfurization of flue gases, and smoke dilution
through the building of high stacks must be reached which,
considering local circumstances, would keep SO2 emission
within permissible limits at lowest cost. This will in most cases
be achieved by a combination of measures as exemplified on a
German electric power plant burning oil convertible to coal.
Whenever weather inversion was of such long duration that
the stack height was insufficient to handle SO2 emission, the
plant was switched from oil to coal or its output was reduced.
Another power plant was equipped with storage tanks for low
sulfur content oil to replace its normally high sulfur oil in case
inversions should generate too high SO2 pollution.
23773
Egger, Alfons
PROCESS FOR THE REMOVAL OF OXIDES OF SULFUR
FROM GASES. (Verfahren zur Entfernung von Schwefelox-
yden aus Gasen). Text in German. (Lonza Elektrizitaetswerke
und Chemische Fabriken A. G., Basel (Switzerland)). Swiss
Pat. 357,825. 5p., Dec. 15, 1961. (Appl. June 17, 1957, 4
claims).
Sulfur dioxide is removed from combustion gases of coal and
mineral oil and of consumer gas by washing with an aqueous
solution of ammonium sulfate, ammonium sulfite, ammonium
bisulfite, and ammonium carbonate which is kept at a pH from
5.5 to 7.5 by additions of ammonia. Ammonium sulfite and
bisulfite are formed, and sulfur is recovered in usable form.
The washing solution which contains 400 to 600 g ammonium
sulfate, 18 to 180 g ammonium sulfite, 15 to 150 g ammonium
bisulfite and 1 to 3 g ammonium bicarbonate per 1 is kept in
circulation while ammonium sulfate formed by oxidation is
continuously precipitated. The 3-5% SO2 contained in the gas
can by this method be practically completely converted to
pure ammonium sulfate. The residual SO2 content in the gas is
less than 0.0002% by volume. The gases enter washing towers
at 150 -200 C and leave them at 45-70 C. The oxidation of the
sulfite to sulfate is accomplished with air at the bottom section
of the washing towers or in separate oxidation vats at relative-
ly low temperatures without catalysts. A hundred kg solution
yields 2-3.5 kg ammonium sulfate in one run.
23822
Tomany, James P. and Wilfred A. Pollock
SYSTEM FOR REMOVAL OF SO2 AND FLY ASH FROM
POWER PLANT FLUE GASES. (Universal Oil Products Co.,
Des Plaines, 111. and Wisconsin Electric Power Co., Milwau-
kee, Wise.) U. S. Pat. 3,520,649. 7p., July 14, 1970. 4 refs.
(Appl. Sept. 28, 1967, 10 claims).
A sulfur dioxide and fly ash removal system for coal burning
power plant stack gases is described. The system provides for
limestone- dolomite addition to the coal carrying through the
power plant to form stable sulfate-sulfite compounds and un-
stable calcium and magnesium oxides which will carry along
with the fly ash particles to a scrubbing zone. The fly ash and
the sulfate-sulfite compounds are countercurrently contacted
with a descending alkaline scrubbing stream in the presence of
self-cleaning mobile contact elements in the scrubbing zone to
effect the absorption of SO2 and physical removal of fly ash
and the stable sulfate and sulfite materials. The continuously
circulating alkaline stream used in the scrubbing zone is ob-
tained in part from the reaction of portions of the calcium and
magnesium carbonates and oxides from the limestone dolomite
addition, with recirculating water. The advantages of this
system over previous ones are that it removes fly ash as well
as SO2, which wet scrubbers often do not do; it utilizes low-
cost naturally occurring materials; and it has a high degree of
efficiency. (Author abstract modified)
23867
Spicer, T. S.
SULFUR AND ITS EFFECT UPON COAL UTILIZATION. In:
Report of Bituminous Research Activities. Pennsylvania State
Univ., University Park, Dept. of Fuel Technology, Serial No.
57 Appendix p. 1-13, 1956. 5 refs.
Sulfur in coal is discussed with respect to its occurrence and
its affects on the production of coke, steel, steam, and fuel
gas all of which are deleterious. The removal of sulfur from
coal during coal preparation is covered by the two statements:
The only practical way to reduce the sulfur content of coal is
by washing' and 'The sulfur content of this coal was actually
increased by cleaning.' By-product recovery of sulfur from
flue gas is considered the only way to meet air pollution con-
trol requirements. By-product recovery of sulfur is also con-
sidered as a means of reducing the cost of desulfurization of
producer's gas. High pyrite residue from coal cleaning plants
is mentioned as a potential raw material for sulfuric acid
production, but short hauling distances, favorable freight
rates, and a sulfur content in excess of 45% would be required
to make the scheme economically attractive.
23879
Francis, W.
FLUE-GAS WASHING PROCESSES. PART ONE. Power
Works Eng., vol. 41:17-21, 25, Jan. 1946. 2 refs. PART II.
Ibid., vol. 41:37-40, Feb. 1946. PART III. Ibid., vol. 41:75-77,
March 1946. PART IV. Ibid., vol. 41:103-105, April 1946.
Battersea was the first large power station in Great Britain
required to install a flue-gas washing plant to remove the sul-
fur oxides and other strong acid constituents at a high efficien-
cy. Th commercial process consists of washing the gases, first
-------
156
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
with natura river water in contact with rusty steel packing,
then with river water containing in suspension additional alkali
in contact with wooden packing. The rusty steel packing in the
first scrubbers acts as a catalyst to promote the solution and
oxidation of the sulfur dioxide, and it slowly dissolves and the
iron in solution acts as a catalyst to promote oxidation in the
subsequent aeration process. Additional alkali is added in a
separate scrubber to remove the last traces of sulfur oxides. In
the non-effluent system used at Fulham, no liquid is passed
back to the river or drain. The washing medium passes down
scrubbers containing suitable packing materials, and the hot
flue gases pass upwards through the scrubbers. The sulfur ox-
ides removed are neutralized by an alkali which forms a
precipitate. This may be removed, together with the dust and
grit washed from the gases, by settlement or filtration.
Problems of designing the non-effluent plant are discussed.
23880
Stankus, L.
NAPCA'S SEARCH FOR FLUE GAS DESULFURIZING
PROCESSES. Preprint, 22p., 1969 (?). (Presented at the Gor-
don Research Conference, Aug. 18-22, 1969.)
The National Air Pollution Control Administration's work on
sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides control is summarized by
briefly stating the scope of major investigations, showing prin-
cipal concepts generated, and indicating present achievements
and possible future developments. There are several methods
for desulfurizing flue gases under investigation, such as am-
monia scrubbing and aqueous scrubbing. Organic liquids, such
as olefins, carbohydrates, and amines, appear promising for
extracting sulfur dioxide from flue gas. Solid organic materials
including newsprint, sawdust, and cotton are capable of ab-
sorbing SO2. The most suitable catalyst for oxidizing SO2 to
SO3 is vanadium pentoxide. Several methods for reducing SO2
to elemental sulfur were also investigated. Coal gasification
was studied as a method for eliminating the varous forms of
sulfur contained in coal. Methods for reducing nitrogen oxides
emissions include catalytic reduction, staged combustion, and
fuel combustion with oxygen. Combustion with low excess air,
steam or water injection into the fuel burning zone, and flue
gas recirculation into the fuel-air mixture were also in-
vestigated. A study on the availability and use of natural gas
as a sulfur-free fuel for power generation was conducted. The
principal chemical reactions that occur with these control
methods are included.
23955
Underwood, G.
REMOVAL OF SUB-MICRON PARTICLES FROM INDUS-
TRIAL GASES, PARTICULARLY IN THE STEEL AND
ELECTRICITY INDUSTRIES. Intern. J. Air Water Pollution
(London), vol. 6:229-263, 1962. 57 refs.
The basic theory of electro-precipitators, fiber and bag filters,
and venturi scrubbers is described, together with modern
equipment capable of dealing with submicron dust particles.
Difficulties involved in continuous operation at efficiencies
over 99% are discussed with particular reference to the steel
industry and power stations. However, the information
presented should be applicable to small particles in general,
and to any industry producing this fine dust. General conclu-
sions drawn are that electro-precipitators are very suitable for
collecting dust or fume with a resistivity between 10,000 ohm
cm and 2 times 10 to the 10th power ohm cm. To ensure good
operation, perforated distribution plates and turning vanes
must be used to keep an even flow of dust and gas. Voltage
should be maintained at its highest level by means of flat col-
lecting electrodes with stiffeners at the edges of each sheet.
Bag filters, especially those cleaned by a blow-ring and
reverse jet can handle much higher dust loadings than electro-
precipitators. Wool felt bags can handle gas up to 90 C; while
silicone-treated glass bags, up to 300 C. The pressure drop of a
bag filter can vary from 2 in. wg when clean to 6-8 in. wg
when dirty; the pressure drop through an electro-precipitator
rarely rises above 0.5 in. wg. The venturi scrubber is able to
remove dust or fume of any size with efficiencies of over
99%, but pressure drops can increase to 30 in. wg. In general,
venturi scrubbers have lower capital costs but higher running
costs than electro-precipitators and bag filters.
23974
Kolbig, Joachim
PROBLEMS INVOLVED IN DETERMINING MINIMUM
STACK HEIGHT ON THE BASIS OF METEOROLOGICAL
AND AIR QUALITY CONSIDERATIONS. (Zur Problemat der
Ermittlung meteorologisch-lufthygienisch begruendeter Schorn-
steinmindesthoehen). Text in German. Energietechnik,
17(12):547-549, Dec. 1967.
Large plants with a power output of more than 2000 MW,
whose chimney height exceeds 150 meters experience difficul-
ties. The basis for calculation is a formula of Bosanquet and
Pearson, which gives pollutant concentration to windward of
the source in terms of the quantity of pollutants emitted per
unit time, wind velocity, distance from source, turbulence
parameters, and effective stack height. This is applied to a
discussion of power plants to be constructed in the future,
such as plants burning lignite and producing electric power at
the rate of 3000 MW and higher. Recommended stack heights
are given in tables.
24001
Overcamp, Thomas J. and David P. Hoult
PRECIPITATION FROM COOLING TOWERS IN COLD CLI-
MATES. Massachusetts Inst. of Tech., Cambridge, Fluid
Mechanics Lab., Grant NIH-1-ROI AP 00 67-02, Pub. 70-7,
30p., May 1970. 18 refs. NTIS: PB 192626
The conditions causing precipitation from a natural draft cool-
ing tower, used to control thermal pollution caused by waste
heat from coal-fired and nuclear power plants, are analyzed.
Precipitation from the condensation of water vapor is strongly
dependent on the plume's trajectory, the flux of water vapor
from the tower, and the ambient temperature and relative hu-
midity. If the plume does not mix with the wake, there is no
precipitation because the flow time is significantly shorter than
the time to form rain drops. If the plume interacts with the
wake and strikes the ground, there will be diffusion of small
droplets to the ground. Calculations based on equilibrium ther-
modynamics and a simple diffusion model show that this can
give a tenth of a centimeter an hour in cold weather. This
could freeze and be hazardous to travel. These results can be
used to predict precipitation for a natural draft cooling tower
in a particular location. The probability of the plume striking
the ground is first estimated using meteorological records for
wind intensities, the performance of the tower, and an interac-
tion chart which is given. This is combined with the local tem-
perature records to predict the rate and frequency of precipita-
tion. (Author conclusions modified)
24019
Riedel, Friedrich
PROCESS FOR MANUFACTURING SULFUR FROM GASES
CONTAINING SULFUR. (Verfahren zur Erzeugung von
-------
B. CONTROL METHODS
157
Schwefel aus schwefelhaltigen Gasen). Text in German. (As-
signee not given.) Ger. Pat. 425664. lp., Feb. 23, 1926. (Appl.
Aug. 24, 1924, 2 claims).
In the process described for the recovery of sulfur from sulfur
fumes, the sulfur-bearing gases are used as the atmosphere for
combustion, with or without the addition of atmospheric air, in
a burner unit utilizing oil or powdered coal as fuel. Catalysts
may or may not be used. Illuminating gas, or an inert gas such
as nitrogen, can be used as a carrier for the powdered coal.
Sulfur is recovered in the elemental form.
24048
Dean, R. S.
PRESENT STATUS OF SULPHUR FIXATION AND PLAN OF
INVESTIGATIONS. Bureau of Mines, Washington, D. C.,
Metallurgical Div., Rept. of Investigations 3339, p. 3-19, May
1937.14 refs.
A review of the present technical status of sulfur dioxide con-
trol is presented. The problem is broadly met in one of two
ways: dilution in the atmosphere, and by converting the SO2
to a liquid or solid and disposing of it in that form. No
satisfactory proocess for recovering sulfur without preliminary
concentration is known. Three processes for such concentra-
tion are known. They use as absorbents ammonium sulfite-
bisulfite, basic aluminum sulfate, and xylidine and sodium car-
bonate solution. The formation of sulfate is a major problem
in all three processes. It is removed as calcium sulfate in the
first two and sodium sulfate in the third. The reduction step
presents fewer problems than the concentration step. All three
processes require cooling the stack gases. Investigations are
recommended to improve these processes, and the develop-
ment of an amine process that would show less reagent loss
and satisfactory removal of sulfate is suggested. (Author sum-
mary modified)
24073
SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA EDISON LIMITS NO(X) WITH
FIRING MODIFICATIONS, DISPATCHING TECHNIQUE.
Elec. World, 174(9):32-35, Nov. 1, 1970.
Southern California Edison Company has taken the step of
switching from economic load dispatching to dispatching all oil
and gas- fired generating units for reduction of emissions of
nitrogen oxides into the state's south coastal air basin. The
cost penalty associated with this change in operations is esti-
mated in excess of $1 million per year, but emissions of
nitrogen oxides by Edison's nine plants in the basin will be
reduced 20-25 tons per day. Although the Combustion En-
gineering boilers normally produce only 330 ppm of NOx while
burning natural gas, tests conducted at Alamitos have shown
that recirculating flue gas to the burner zone can reduce that
level to below 150 ppm. Beginning about 1957, SCE and Bab-
cock and Wilcox pioneered the development of two-stage com-
bustion in wall-fired boilers, in which a portion of the air is
diverted to auxiliary ports above the burners. The burners
operate fuel-rich, and combustion is completed at lower tem-
perature above the burner zone. Substitution of low-sulfur oil
also reduced NOx from 500 to 200 ppm. Off- stoichiometric
combustion and gas recirculation techniques have bee applied
to achieve emission levels in the 150-200 ppm range. Com-
bustion modification tests and test data are indicated.
24142
TVA RESEARCH ATTACKS WASTE RECOVERY, POLLU-
TION CONTROL. Chem. Eng. News, 48(44):89-90, Oct. 19,
1970.
Participants in the eighth biennial demonstration of fertilizer
technology, held at the Tennessee Valley Authority's National
Fertilizer Development Center, Muscle Shoals, Ala., were told
of current environment related projects at the center. These
projects include use of composted municipal waste as a soil
conditioner, using by-products of phosphate rock processing in
production of aluminum, and exploiting sulfur dioxide from
power plant stack gases in production of sulfuric acid,
phosphoric acid, and phosphatic fertilizers. TVA also has
research under way in six closed watersheds in Alabama, Ten-
nessee, and North Carolina in an effort to determine to what
extent nutrients from fertilizers are involved in eutrophication.
24168
Martin, J. R., W. C. Taylor, and A. L. Plumley
C-E'S ATR POLLUTION CONTROL SYSTEM. Nat. Eng.,
74(7):8-10, July 1970. 7 refs. (Presented at the Industrial Coal
Conference, Lexington, Ky., April 8-9, 1970.)
Construction was recently completed of a laboratory facility
for testing Combustion Engineering's air pollution control
system. Principal components of the system are a wet
scrubber, heat extractor, reheater, demister, clarifier or reten-
tion tank, slurry or mixing tank, additive and fly ash injector
system, wet grinder, and vacuum filter. Piping and pumps are
arranged to allow the system to operate in several different
modes. Test work currently underway is directed toward
resolving remaining problems on demonstration units installed
in power plants. Future work will focus on industrial applica-
tions, design criteria for future systems, and by-product
utilization of sludge.
24181
SO3 INJECTION TO AID STACK CLEANUP. Elec. World,
173(26):22-24, June 29, 1970.
While many utilities face increasing problems with sulfur ox-
ides in plant stacks, Public Service Company of Oklahoma
finds itself forced to add sulfur trioxide to aid paniculate
removal. The problem is that the high resistivity of the fly ash
from western coal prevents it from being properly neutralized
on the collector plates of precipitators. Coal burned by PSC
produces only 5 ppm of SOS, while experimental work in-
dicates that 20 ppm of SO3 are sufficient to coat the fly-ash
particles so that they are readily ionized and collected at the
plates. Universal Air Products will supply a $140,000 SO3 in-
jection system for Arapahoe No. 4, a 110-Mw unit, while the
Western Precipitator Division of the Joy Manufacturing Com-
pany will supply an SOS vapor injection system for the 150-
Mw Cherokee unit NO. 3. Lodge-Cottrell will manufacture and
install a complete SOS conditioning plant for Cherokee Units
1, 2, and 4 at a total estimated cost of $500,000. Flow dia-
grams are provided for the latter two systems. An additional
gas conditioning installation will include a scrubber, while the
'hot-gas' precipitator is also mentioned.
24190
Bender, Rene J.
HOW TO KEEP AN OIL-FIRED PLANT FROM POLLUTING.
Power, 114(11): 112, Nov. 1970.
Control of emissions from oil-fired power plants is reviewed.
Most plants of a Pennsylvania electric company, in order to
meet sulfur limitations of fuels, had to be converted to oil.
Problems arose concerning the lower superheated steam tem-
perature, vibration of suspended heating elements, and the of-
fensive color of stack plumes. A thorough study of oil fuel
combustion must be made and steps taken, if necessary, to
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158
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
modify air arrival, burner location, and oil viscosity. Mechani-
cal collectors or electrostatic precipitators must be watched to
prevent fires and blockages. The use of a magnesium-based
additive has been successful in certain units to inhibit vanadi-
um corrosion and fly-ash acidity.
24207
Shidara, Masao
LECTURE ON PUBLIC NUISANCE: SO2 GAS POLLUTION
CONTROL. PART II. (Kogai boshi koza: dainiko aryusan gasu
taisaku ge). Text in Japanese. Netsu Kanri (Heat Manage-
ment: Energy and Pollution Control), 22(9):35-48, Sept. 30,
1970.
Purification of exhaust fume, the problems of low sulfur
heavy oil, and the desulfurization of heavy oil are discussed.
Sulfur in fuel turns to sulfur dioxide gas through combustion
and 1-5% of the gas is oxidized to sulfuric anhydride; its
elimination is the subject of the present lecture. Industrial
methods for desulfurization under development are divided
into the following items: wet absorption (ammonia water
method); dry absorption (manganese oxide method); adsorp-
tion (active carbon method); and contact oxidization (vanadi-
um catalyst method). Addition of lime into the furnace is the
cheapest method of removin sulfuric anhydride, and the joint
use of lime water to clean smoke increases the efficiency of
purification. Improved ammonia water method was developed
for a steam power plant. Ammonia gas is reacted with sulfur
oxides and jet flow of fine particles of ammonia water to col-
lect the aerosol products. A method is being developed for sin-
tering furnace using ammonia water curtain to pass sulfur
dioxide gas through it. Dry desulfurization was mainly
developed for a power plant, since the wet method causes the
contamination of the area around the plant at certain weather
conditions. High collection efficiency of the dry method using
lime is reduced by the sticking of lime to the boiler wall for a
long-period operation. The collection efficiency of alkalized
alumina method reaches 90%. High absorptive power of
MnOx.nH2O(x equals 1.5-1.8 n equals 0.3-1.0) was discovered
and is being applied to a power plant. Sulfur dioxide gas ad-
sorbed on active carbon turns to sulfuric acid and is washed
by water. Contact method or the process for production of sul-
furic acid is also used for purification of gas. The difficulty of
obtaining low sulfur crude oil supply requires the desulfuriza-
tion of heavy oil. The direct, indirect and intermediate method
are mainly used for hydrogenating C-heavy oil. The direct
method is simple and effective.
24253
Young, Stewart Woodford
PROCESS OF REDUCING SULPHUR DIOXIDE AND
RECOVERING THE SULPHUR. (Assignee not given.) Can.
Pat. 147,882. 8p., May 13, 1913. (Appl. Oct. 11, 1912, 4
claims).
A process is described which consists in subjecting sulfurous
fumes to the action of a heated carbonaceous fuel in the
presence of a solid reagent capable of neutralizing the sulfur
dioxide. The decomposition or reduction of the sulfur dioxide,
and consequently the formation of sulfur, is accelerated by the
presence of lime, lime rock, or any other sufficiently basic
material. Small quantities of oxides or salts of iron, copper,
manganese, and many other metals may also be added to in-
crease the activity of the basic materials, thus acting as cata-
lytic accelerators. A temperature of 700 C is suitable for the
reaction.
24269
Seki, Michiharu, Yyoko Yamamoto, and Katsuhiro Kaneko
ADSORPTION OF SO2 BY CARBON ADSORBENT (I) MEA-
SUREMENT OF SO2 ON ACTIVATED CHARCOAL IN EX-
ISTENCE OF H2O AND O2. (Tansokei kyuchakuzai no S02
kyuchaku (dai 1 ho) H2O, O2 kyozon ka ni okeru kasseitan no
SO2 kyuchakuryo no sokutei). Hitachi Manufacturing Co.
(Japan), Central Inst., p. 1418, 1969 (?). Translated from
Japanese. Franklin Inst. Research Labs., Philadelphia, Pa.,
Science Info. Services, 3p., Oct. 27, 1969.
An investigation was undertaken to abate sulfur dioxide from
stack gases of thermal power plants by adsorption with ac-
tivated charcoal. Four balloons were filled with SO2, oxygen,
carbon dioxide, and nitrogen. Changing SO2 density and ad-
sorption time, the amount of quantity adsorbed was measured
at 100 C, and total adsorbed gas was obtained by expansion of
a quartz spring. Sulfur dioxide that is extracted at 400 C and
mixed with 3% hydrogen peroxide solution is measured by al-
coholic titration. Total adsorption increases linearly until it ar-
rives at 20% by weight. Its velocity is much slower than nor-
mal physical adsorption but increases in proportion to S02
density. While the total adsorption quantity increases in pro-
portion to time, the ratio of SO2 to total adsorption is constant
at any time. The value of this ratio is decided by adsorption
temperature and water vapor density and is 0.5 at 100 C with
10% H20.
24270
Girsewald, Conway Freiherr von, Gerhard Roesner, and Josef
Barwasser
METHOD FOR THE RECOVERY OF ELEMENTARY SUL-
FUR FROM SULFUR DIOXIDE OR FROM SULFUR DIOX-
IDE CONTAINING GASES. (Verfahren zur Gewinnung von
elementarem Schwefel aus Schwefeldioxyd und solches enthal-
tenden Gasen). Text in German. (Metallgesellschaft A. G.,
Frankfurt (W. Germany)) Ger. Pat. 715,845. 5p., Dec. 4, 1941.
(Appl. Aug. 11, 1936, 3 claims).
Elementary sulfur is obtained by passing the gas to be con-
verted through a layer of carbonaceous fuel (coke or coal) in a
shaft furnace without external supply of heat. Sulfur dioxide is
reduced quantitatively to sulfur when the ratio of gas velocity
and of the fuel layer thickness is regulated in a way which
does not permit the temperature of the gas leaving the fuel
layer to reach 800 C. The resulting gas mixture which, follow-
ing the removal of elementary sulfur, contains a mixture of
carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and carbon oxy-sulfide is in
a second step mixed with the necessary quantity of S02
and/or air and heated in the presence of a catalyst (bauxite) up
to about 700 C, whereby COS is oxidized to elementary sulfur
and CO to CO2. The gases entering the reduction chamber are
preheated by heat exchange with the gas leaving the reduction
chamber.
24290
Pichel, Walter
TESTING OF FABRIC FILTER AND HYDRAULIC DUST
REMOVERS. ASHRAE (Am. Soc. Heating, Refrig., Aircond.
Engrs.) J., 6(6):87-93, June 1964. (Translated Condensation of
an article by J. Patary, Rev. Gen. Thermique (Paris), May
1963.)
Tests were made on two models of hydraulic dust collectors
for removing impurities from steam generators. One model (A)
uses a fabric filter in the form of a sleeve and the other model
(B) uses the fabric in the form of a pocket. In A, gas arrives at
the bottom of the unit and is divided between four cells, each
-------
B.CONTROL METHODS
159
equipped with 17 sleeves that are open at the bottom. The gas
passes through the fabric and is evacuated at the upper part.
The lower ends of the sleeves are attached to sheet metal col-
lars, while the upper ends are suspended from a movable
mechanism that permits vertical shaking of the filters. Model
B consists of two cells in which sleeves are replaced by
pockets 60 mm wide and 1500 mm long. The pockets are
suspended from metal frames mounted on springs, their lower
parts hanging freely. Gas enters by the lower part of the unit
and penetrates the pockets from the outside. The unit is
cleaned with only a counter-current, pulsating air flow that
causes a horizontal vibration of the pockets. Test results are
summarized in the form of curves of friction losses for both
models. Polyacrilic filter sleeves gave highly satisfactory
results (above 99% efficiency, but both polyacrilic and
polyester pockets became clogged, leading to high friction
losses for B. Tests with both models are continuing.
24397
(Inventor not given.)
PROCESS FOR RECOVERING ELEMENTAL SULFUR
FROM SULFUR DIOXIDE AND FROM GASES CONTAIN-
ING IT. (Precede pour retirer du souire elementaire de 1'an-
hydride sulfureux et de gaz en contenant). Text in French.
(Metallgesellschaft A. G., Frankfurt (West Germany)) French
Pat. 825,289. 8p. Feb. 8, 1938. (Appl. Aug. 7, 1937, 4 claims).
The process involved is that of reduction of sulfur dioxide at a
high temperature, using coal, coke, or some other carbonated
solid. The SO2 is passed through a furnace with no external
heating, passing through a column of the fuel, the speed of the
gas and the dimensions of the column being such that the gas
leaving the column contains practically no free sulfur dioxide
and does not exceed a temperature of 800 C. The emerging
product contains a higher concentration of SO2 than the raw
material (at least in the case of a mixture) and also contains
carbon monoxide, which is then oxidized to carbon dioxide, at
the same time reducing the sulfur dioxide to elemental sulfur.
This is submitted to supplementary treatment in the presence
of a catalyst and at a temperature above the melting point of
sulfur (about 700 C). Additional oxygen is mixed with the SO2
mixture before or at the time it enters the reaction chamber,
so as to promote heating to an adequate temperature without
the use of exterior heating. It may also be advantageous to
preheat the gas containing SO2 before it enters the reaction
chamber.
24441
Emicke, Kraus
METHOD TO REMOVE SULFUR DIOXIDE FROM WASTE
GAS. (Haigasu kara nisanka iou o jokyo sum hoho). Text in
Japanese. (Nor Deutsche Affinerie, Hamburg (Germany))
Japan. Pat. Sho 43-7682. 4p., March 23, 1968. (Appl. June 18,
1965, claims not given).
Use of a selenious acid solution makes it possible to almost
completely remove sulfur dioxide from power plant waste
gases. This process is carried out in a disposal chamber
through which the waste gas is conducted, and in which the
SO2 laden gases are exposed to the selenious acid solution by
scrubbing. Removal of the SO2 is based on a reaction in which
selenious oxide and sulfur dioxide react to form selenium and
sulfur trioxide. Economical and practical, this method is based
on the fact that selenium separates out in a solid form without
dissolving in the sulfuric acid which is produced simultane-
ously. To make the process still more economical, waste gases
can be deprived of toxic solid components and then treated
with the selenious acid solution. The first stage of the process
then would consist of a continuous recycling of the washing
liquid until it contains no more selenious acid. In the second
stage, a stoichiometrically excessive quantity of selenious acid
is utilized, while selenium is simultaneously and continuously
being separated out. Solid seleniu produced in both stages is
oxidized and is returned to the second stage.
24458
Sperr, F. W., Jr.
GAS PURIFICATION IN RELATION TO COAL SULPHUR.
Proc. Intern. Conf. Bituminous Coal, Pittsburgh, Pa., Nov.
1928, 37-64. 27 refs.
Gas purification in relation to coal burning operations nearly
always means removal of hydrogen sulfide, in which form
most of the sulfur occurs. The dry purification method con-
sists of passing the gas through a series of boxes filled with
hydrated iron oxide and a filler material. The wet process in-
volves contacting the gas with a scrubbing agent to wash out
the H2S. Neither of these methods removes any appreciable
amounts of organic sulfur compounds such as carbon disul-
fide. A catalytic process is necessary to convert the carbon
disulfide to H2S, which is then removed by standard methods.
The cost of sulfur removal from coal gas by each of the previ-
ously mentioned methods is related. The distribution of sulfur
in coal gas manufacture depends upon several operational fac-
tors, which are described in detail. The effect of sulfur on
coke quality is generally a more important consideration than
its effect on cost. The problems associated with sulfur in
water gas are discussed. A discussion of several technical and
industry-related problems is included.
24480
Pennsylvania State Univ., University Park, Dept. of Fuel
Technology
ADAPTATION OF THE EFM FIRE-JET STOKER FOR BITU-
MINOUS COAL. In: Report of Bituminous Research Activi-
ties. Serial No. 57. Proj. 392-B-7, p. 30-49, 1956. 2 refs.
Modifications to a stoker and boiler are described along with
the tests to determine the effects of the modifications. The
modifications include the installation of a water-cooled coal
feed throat to reduce coking, installation of over-fire air jets
for improved air diffusion and reduction of particulate emis-
sions, addition of coal pushers to break up coke formed in the
feed throat shortening of the grate to speed coal ignition, in-
stallation of a refractory arch, insulation of the boiler, and
modification of the draft controls to reduce back-burning. The
combination of changes made it possible to obtain 95% or
better boiler ratings during eleven tests with ten coals. The
highest boiler rating was 150%. Efficiencies of the eleven tests
ranged from 65.2 to 73.4%. Refuse ash ranged from 63.5 to
82.1%. Fly-ash deposited in the dust collector ranged from
zero to 0.23 pounds per 100 pounds of coal. Carbon dioxide
content of the flue gas varied from 6.1 to 12.9%. A series of
cyclic tests was run to obtain efficiencies under various typical
operating modes. These data are presented tabularly. An at-
tempt to correlate two common coal performance tests, free
swelling index and specific volatile index, provided scattered
data points and no definite relationship. The burning rate of
most coals tested was doubled by the stoker modifications.
The percent boiler rating was increased by more than 100% in
most cases. The efficiencies obtained were better than those
of small, single-retort stoker fired boilers of the same size-
class. The refractory arch appeared to be the most important
modification. It improved ignition, combustion, and efficiency
and substantially increased the burning rate. Also, it costs less,
lasts longer, and gives better results than a stainless steel arch.
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160
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
Overfire air jets were effective in reducing smoke. The useful
function of the coal pushers is limited to the first few minutes
of each 'on' period. The length of the grate is important in-
sofar as time for complete combustion is involved, but specific
dimensions are not ye established. The value of the water-
cooled coal feed throat is questionable.
24516
Benner, Raymond C. and Alfred Paul Thompson
METHOD OF RECOVERING SULPHUR. (General Chemical
Co., New York, N. Y.) U. S. Pat. 1,771,480. 6p., April 16,
1935. (Appl. My 13, 1932, 25 claims).
A more efficient and economical process is provided for the
reduction of sulfur dioxide gas to hydrogen sulfide by the
utilization of flow-temperature coke. Previous processes in-
volved incandescent coke and a considerable amount of water
vapor to be present, requiring additional heat which increased
the cost of operation. By causing the SO2 containing gases to
first pass through a heated zone in which are present substan-
tial amounts of hydrocarbons, then subsequently passing the
products of this zone through a bed of heated carbon, it is
possible to carry out the reduction of SO2 to elemental sulfur
at substantially low temperatures and to obtain a considerably
higher rate of reduction. As the bituminous coal enters the
heated zone a coking operation takes place which liberates
substantial amounts of hydrocarbons to initiate the reducing
action. The coking operation, because of the relatively low
temperatures involved, results in the production of a low tem-
perature and very active coke. Furthermore, this volatile
matter serves to prevent the formation, or provides for the
decomposition, of any carbonyl sulfide.
24554
Girsewald, Conway B. von, Gerhard Roesner, and Josef
Barwasser
A PROCESS FOR THE RECOVERY OF ELEMENTARY
SULPHUR FROM SULPHUR DIOXIDE AND GASES CON-
TAINING SAME. (Assignee not given.) Can. Pa 384,396. 17p.,
Oct. 3, 1939. (Appl. June 6, 1937, 17 claims).
A process for extracting elemental sulfur from a gas contain-
ing sulfur dioxide is described, which comprises contacting the
gas with a solid carbonaceous substance at an elevated tem-
perature. Th gas is passed through a shaft furnace charged
with coal, coke, or other solid carbonaceous reducing agent
and operated after the manner of a producer without external
heating. A layer of fuel is used of such a depth and the rate of
flow of the gas in the layer of fuel is so regulating that the gas
issuing from the latter contains practically no more SO2, and
the temperature of the gas at its point of issue from the fuel
does not attain 800 C.
24565
Lindblad, Axel Rudolf
A METHOD OF PRODUCING SULPHUR THROUGH
REDUCTION OF GASES CONTAINING SULPHUR DIOXIDE.
(Assignee not given.) Can. Pat. 363,638. 10p., Jan. 26, 1937.
(Appl. date not given, 6 claims).
An improved method is described of producing sulfur from
roaster gases containing hydrogen sulfide by reduction of sul-
fur dioxide with producer gas. The gases containing hydrogen
sulfide and a suitable quantity of oxygen are fed into a gas
generator, the charge of which consists of a carbonous materi-
al admixed or impregnated with a suitable quantity of alkali or
alkali compound. Alkali and the alkaline compounds may con-
sist of sodium carbonate, sodium sulfate, or sodium sulfide.
The carbonaceous material forming the charge of the gas
generator may consist of coke, pit coal, or charcoal. A tem-
perature between 700 and 1100 C is recommended. Since the
heat liberated in the process originates exclusively from the
reaction of the oxygen contained in the gas mixture with the
carbonaceous material, it is thus possible to set the tempera-
ture at a desired number of degrees by regulating the percent-
age of oxygen in the gas.
24589
Uno, Tsukumo, Hiroshi Yamada, Masao Higashi, Saburo
Fukui, and Masumi Atsukawa
A NEW DRY PROCESS OF SO2 REMOVAL FROM FLUE
GAS. Proc. World Petrol. Congr., 7th, 1967, p. 289-295. 3 refs.
(May 1967.)
A new dry process for removing sulfur dioxide from power-
plant flue gases entails contacting the gases with powdered,
activated manganese oxides in a fluidized or moving bed ab-
sorber. The resulting manganese sulfate and excess of un-
reacted absorbent are collected in a mechanical separator and
electrostatic precipitator installed in series. The greater part of
the collected absorbent is returned to the absorber as recycle
solids; the remainder is regenerated, and ammonium sulfate is
recovered as a by-product. In the regeneration process, the
slurry containing manganese sulfate solution and unspent ab-
sorbent is first contacted with ammonia-containing air and
then delivered to an oxidation tower equipped with an air
atomizer, where manganese sulfate is oxidized to activated
manganese oxide. Excess ammonia is fed to the tower. When
tested in a pilot plant treating 3000 cu Nm/hr of flue gas, the
efficiency of the process for SO2 removal was greater than
90%. Capital costs of the process for a 1000 MW oil-burning
plant are estimated at $15,500,000, and net operating costs at
0.23 to approximately 0.20 mills/KWhr.
24609
Fried-Krupp, Essen (West Germany), Zentralinstitut fuer
Forschung und Entwicklung
METHOD FOR THE SEPARATION OF PYRITE FROM
COAL. (Verfahren zur abscheidung von Pyrit aus Kohle).
Rept. 41/69, 19p., 1969. 7 refs Translated from German. Belov
and Associates, Denver, Colo., 23p., Feb. 23, 1970.
Investigations of untreated coal which were conducted in dif-
ferent countries indicate that the pyrite percentage of the total
sulfur content of coal is so high that mechanical separation
could result in a significant reduction of the sulfur content.
Separation is technically possible and economically feasible as
pyrite occurs at an average of 80-90% in a particle size larger
than 20 micron. Wet methods (gravity and centrifugal separa-
tion, gravity turbidity methods, and flotation) should have
preference because of their operational and throughput effi-
ciency. In connection with the trend towards the hydro-
mechanical production of coal, direct burning of mud in power
stations is discussed. The use of atomic heat is being contem-
plated to reduce the cost of drying. The selection of installa-
tions for sulfur removal is discussed according to the particle
size region of interest. If the sulfur content of the initial coal
can be reduced by at least 30-40%, and if the operational costs
of the sulfur removal amounts to approximately 5 to 35 cents
per ton product, then it is profitable to provide mechanical
pyrite separation methods. (Author conslusions modified)
-------
B. CONTROL METHODS
161
24613
Bernhoff, R.
EXPERIENCES WITH THE USE OF LIME IN FLUE GAS
DESULFURIZATION. AB Cementa, Malmoe, Sweden, 39p.,
1970. 43 refs.
Several limestone addition methods of controlling sulfur diox-
ide ar discussed. There are two types of such processes wet
and dry. In the wet process a slurry of lime is introduced
directly into a scrubber. The SO2 reacts to form calcium
sulfite or sulfate. In the dry process, pulverized limestone is
blown directly into the boiler, where it reacts to form calcium
or magnesium sulfite or sulfate. The dry process is only about
50% efficient, so it is used primarily with low sulfur fuels. The
general term limestone covers a range of compounds contain-
ing calcium and magnesium. Most tests show that dolomitic
limestone is not as effective as hig calcium limestone. The
sorption rates of various limestones vary, depending on parti-
cle size, precalculation, temperature, point of injection, and
stoichiometry. Several operating power plants which have
limestone control processes are described, including two plants
in the U. S. and one in Sweden. Cost studies of the operations
are given, including the cost of solid waste disposal and poten-
tial recovery methods.
24630
Durie, R. A. and E. C. Potter
FACTORS INFLUENCING THE EFFICIENT OPERATION
OF ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATORS FOR PULVERISED-
FUEL ASH. Australian Chem. Process. Eng. (Sydney),
23(9):18-19, 21-23, 25, 27, Sept. 1970. 15 refs. (Presented at the
Clean Air Conference, 1968.)
Fly-ash from bituminous Australian coals are difficult for
power plants to precipitate at the desired efficiency of 99.9%
or more. Practical precipitation technology has to recognize an
interplay of fly-ash precipitation and dislodgement in plant
design and operatic It is now almost always necessary to in-
duce the dislodgement of collected fly-ash by rapping or
vibrating collector plates mechanically, and this deliberate
dislodgement of the fly-ash layer is inevitably accompanied by
a re-entrainment of loose outside particles. The release of a
large quantity of such particles following simultaneously
rapping of many collector plates can place a sudden and un-
manageable burden on subsequent collector plates. I the dif-
ferentials of cohesive strength through the thickness of the
growing fly-ash deposits can be controlled, there arises some
opportunity to perfect the technique of dust-dislodgement. In
this connection, it is possible that electrolytic conductors ad-
vocated as additives for improving precipitator efficiency raise
the cohesive strength of the fly-ash to levels that inhibit en-
trainment On the other hand, cohesive strength also depends
on particle size, size distribution, and packing density. A
beneficial combination of these variables may cancel any elec-
trical difficulties that smaller particles experience in being
precipitated.
24642
Knapp, Otto and Hans Luettger
DESIGN CHARACTERISTICS AND TEST RESULTS OF A
NEW MULTICELL FILTER. (Konstruktionsmerkmale und
Versuchsergebnisse eines neuentwickelten Vielzellenfilters).
Text in German. Wasser Luft Betrieb, 14(9):358-360, Sept.
1970.
In order to stay within limits of the maximum permissible dust
emission in the case of a Vekos-Powermaster boiler, a dust ex-
tractor was developed characterized by a filter housing with a
comparatively large number of cells in the filter housing and
by a strictly tangetial direction of the raw gas flow with rela-
tively small velocity (9.5 m/sec). The cells are small diameter
cyclones with the flue dust being returned to the furnace. The
combustion air purified by this filtering arrangement contained
dust levels of between 140 and 236 mg/ N cu m when bitu-
minous coal was used as fuel. The construction has unusually
low resistance because of the unhindered inflow of the gas
into the cyclones and because of the low gas velocity. The ar-
rangement was tested on a boiler with a mechanical firing
mechanism of 80% efficiency, fired with bituminous coal nut
size 3 and 4, an ash content of 3.7%, and a 3.1% H2O content.
The raw gas dust content was 0.882 g/ cu m; the purified dust
gas content, 0.074 g/ cu m; and the efficiency of the cyclone
dust arrester battery, 91.65%.
24643
Furuto, K.
DISPOSAL METHOD FOR SULFUROUS ACID CONTAINED
IN WASTE GAS. (Haigasuchu no aryusangasu shoriho). Text
in Japanese. (Toa Gosei Chemical Industry Co. (Japan)) Japan.
Pat. Sho 22-528. 2p., June 8, 1948. (Appl. Dec. 12, 1943, claims
not given).
Waste gases emitted by sulfur manufacturing plants contain
relatively large amounts of sulfurous acid. To remove the acid,
such waste gases are conventionally treated with ammonia
solution or flowers of zinc. Disposal costs are high for both
methods. Since sulfurous acid gas is water soluble, another
suggested method is to remove it by washing the waste gas
with water in combination with certain chemicals. But again,
this method is not economical because it needs a tremendous
amount of water. The invention described provides new
disposal method in which waste gas containing sulfurous acid
is washed with water mixed with coal dust obtained from a
plant manufacturing producer gas from coalite or coal. The
carbonic content of coal dust possesses adsorptive as well as
contact oxidation powers with respect to sulfurous acid; the
ash content can neutralize sulfurous acid. Utilization of the
dust is an inexpensive solution to the problem of removing sul-
furous acid from waste gas.
24673
Asano, Toyoshi
DISPOSAL OF WASTE GAS CONTAINING DELUTE SUL-
FUR OXIDE. (Kihaku sanka iou ganyu gasu no kaishu). Text
in Japanese. Kogyo Kagaku Zasshi (J. Chem. Soc. Japan),
73(7):1731-1732, July 5, 1970. 3 refs.
Disposal of sulfur dioxide in pyrites roasting, petrochemical
industry, or power plant waste gas is discussed. In a conven-
tional wet disposal method, SO2 is merely neutralized by an
agent like lime or ammonia, but a very large quantity of the
neutralization agent is needed. Another disadvantage of the
conventional method is that its sulfur oxide absorption effi-
ciency drops with substances formed as a result of the
neutralization process. When SO2 gas was made to flow coun-
tercurrent to manganese ore suspension in a tower, SO2 was
reduced to sulfuric acid of a densit about the same as that ob-
tained in a lead chamber method, and practically no SO2 was
contained in the gas discharged from the tower. A 10% man-
ganese-ore suspension was used in an experimental device in
which the suspension was heated to the desired temperatures
and, when vaporized by the heating, automatically reduced
from gas to liquid. Ore composed of Mn(27.96%),
SiO2(37.32%), Fe(8.16%) and P(0.03%) was pulverized to 80-
mesh grains and mixed with water at a 10:90 ratio to make the
suspension used as the absorbing agent. From the results of
-------
162
this test, it was determined that the higher temperature of the
suspension, the higher its SO2 absorption efficiency; the
amount of SO2 absorbed decreased with increasing sulfuric
acid density in the suspension; at 50 C, the quantity of sulfuric
acid contained in the suspension reached 74.3 g/100 ml. The
contact time of SO2 gas with the suspension was 5.7 sec and
the gas injection speed 8 cm/min. The device maintained about
100% SO2 absorption efficiency for 20 hrs, indicating that the
manganese oxide suspension can be effectively used as an
SO2 absorbing agent.
24675
Henke, William G.
THE NEW 'HOT' ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATOR. Com-
bustion, 42(4): 50-53, Oct. 1970.
The problems associated with low-sulfur fuel are causing in-
creased interest in the 'hot' electrostatic precipitator which,
among its features, includes insensitivity to the sulfur content
of the gases it cleans. By being located ahead of rather than
downstream of the air heaters, the fly ash hot precipitator
operates in the range of 500 to 700 F. However, the volume of
gas at 600 F is nearly 40% greater than that of the same weight
of gas at 300 F, and the higher cost of the hot precipitator is
principally a matter of size. Low sulfur problems are caused
by the fact that good electrostatic precipitator performance
can only be obtained within a relatively narrow range of fly
ash resistivity, roughly from 10 to the 8th power to 10 to the
10th power ohm-cm. Further details are considered of low sul-
fur problems, as well as problem solutions. One approach is
enhancement of surface conductivity, but the more attractive
alternat:ve is to end dependence on surface conductivity with
a high operating temperature. Oil ash is much more of a mo-
bility problem whan fly ash, but at the temperature at which it
leaves this hot precipitator, no problems have been encoun-
tered in hoppers or the conveying system. Six hot precipitator
installations already operating on a pulverized coal boiler fly
ash cover a variety of differing applications.
24678
Bartok, W., A. R. Crawford, and A. Skopp
CONTROL OF NITROGEN OXIDE EMISSIONS FROM STA-
TIONARY COMBUSTION SOURCES. Combustion, 42(4):37-
40, Oct. 1970. (Presented at the AICHE-IMIQ Joint Meeting,
3rd, Denver, Colo., Aug. 30-Sept. 2, 1970.)
Cost-effectiveness analyses of potential oxides of nitrogen
control methods are presented for stationary combustion
sources, and research and development needs in this area are
critically evaluated. National Air Pollution Control Administra-
tion sponsored research related to stationary NOx control is
discussed, including modeling of NO kinetics in combustion
processes and the scrubbing of NOx from flue gases. The
major factors known to influence the NOx emissions from
combustion processes arc the amount of excess air used for
combustion, the heat release and removal rates, which define
the temperature-time history of the combustion gases, trans-
port effects, and fuel type and composition. Combustion flue
gas treatment processes have been evaluated in the following
general categories: catalytic decomposition of NOx, catalytic
reduction of NOx, physical separation of NOx from the other
components of the flue gas, adsorption of Nox by solids, and
absorption of NOx by liquids. Aqueous absorption systems
using alkaline solutions or sulfuric acid appear to offer the
most promise for combined control of nitrogen and sulfur
oxide emissions. In simple terms, cost effectiveness is defined
as the ratio of the annual control cost to the tons of NOx
removed. The estimated degree of NOx reduction and as-
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
sociated costs resulting from the application of potential con-
trol techniques are presented for a 1000 MW gas-fired, and a
1000 MW coal-fired power plant boiler. (Author abstract
modified)
24681
Shepard, Donald S.
A LOAD SHIFTING MODEL FOR AIR POLLUTION CON-
TROL IN THE ELECTRIC POWER INDUSTRY. J. Air Pollu-
tion Control Assoc., 20(11):756-761, Nov. 1970. 9 refs.
Load-shifting, a relatively inexpensive approach to air pollu-
tion control, involves transferring the generating load from one
power plant to another according to meteorological conditions.
An atmospheric dispersion model is adapted to estimate the
exposure of the urban population to sulfur dioxide from
operating the power system in different ways. Then a mathe-
matical model of the power system of a metropolitan area is
constructed to determine the reduction in pollution exposure
which could be achieved, and the costs involved. As a case
study, the application of the model to St. Louis, Missouri, is
simulated. Under favorable conditions, load shifting could
reduce pollution exposure up to 95%, while increasing the
costs of electric power generation by only 4%. The load-shift-
ing model has use not only as an operational control strategy,
but also as an analytical tool to evaluate alternative pollution
control measures in the electric power industry. (Author ab-
stract)
24697
Francis, W.
FLUE-GAS WASHING PROCESS. PART TWO. Power Works
Eng., vol. 41:37-40, Feb. 1946. 4 refs. Part I. Ibid., vol. 41:17-
21, 25, Jan. 1946. Part III. Ibid., vol. 41:75-77, March 1946.
Part IV. Ibid., vol. 41:103-105, April 1946.
Comparison is made between two types of gas-washing
systems and electrostatic precipitators, and technical features
of the available non-by-product recovery processes are sum-
marized. Both the effluent system, as developed at Battersea,
and the non-effluen system, as developed from the Howden-
I.C.I. pant at Fulham, have proven to be practical processes
for any type of boiler plant fitted with induced or balanced
draught fans. The additional cost of the gas-washing processes
over the necessary cost of dust and grit removal by dry
systems of equal efficiency is small. For this additional charge
nearly all the harmful products of coal combustion are
removed instead of less than 50%, as in the case of the most
efficient electrostatic precipitators. It is suggested that the
restrictions on the amount of sulfur oxides permitted in the
exit gases from gas-washing plants should be relaxed to ensure
greater freedom from operational difficulties. (Author conclu-
sions modified)
24707
Bahno, Gosta
DESULFURIZATION OF FLUE GASES- THE PRESENT
SITUATION. PART I. (Avsvavling av rokgaser- nuvarande
lage 1). Text in Swedish. VVS (J. Assoc. Heating, Ventilation,
Sanit. Engrs.)(Stockholm), vol. 8:442-447, 1969. PART II.
Ibid., vol. 9:489-497, 1969. 21 refs.
Available data on different American, German, and Japanese
desulfurization methods show that for Sweden, with only two
oil-fired power plants greater than 300 MW, flue gas cleaning
would be too expensive and complicated. Some of the
recovered products would become a serious waste problem. If
regulations are adopted with a sulfur limit of about 0.5% or
-------
B. CONTROL METHODS
163
lower for fuels, then desulfurization methods seem to be
realistic. The following processes are discussed: Mitsubishi-
DAP-Mn, Hitachi activated coal (absorption), Kiyoura T.I.T.
(ammonia), Showa Denko ammonia, alkalized alumina
process, Dolomite injection wet process, Penelec process,
Wellman-Lord process (Bechwell scrubbing), sulfacid process,
Grillo process, Bischoff process, Dolomite injection dry
process, Reinluft process, and Still process.
24756
Scheidel, C.
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING METHODS FOR REMOVING
INORGANIC EMISSIONS. ACHEMA, Proceedings of a Sym-
posium on the Disposal of Process Wastes, Liquids, Solids,
Gases, Frankfurt au Main, West Germany, 1964, p. 177-186.
Also: DECHEMA Monograph Ser., 52(895-911), 1964
Starting with known gas-purification processes (cyclones,
scrubbers, filters, and electrostatic precipitators), a report is
given on the current status of processes suitable for the
precipitation of flue dust and inorganic solids in exit gases.
Electrode design characteristics are compared, and the use of
CS electrodes is shown to increase the collection efficiencies
of electrostatic precipitators. Where electrostatic precipitators
are impractical, excellent gas filtration is provided by a new
gravel-bed filter. The gravel bed, which consists of quartz
grains, is used in combination with a prefilter of metal or
plastic wool. These filters are useful for temperatures up to
300 C and find application in mechanical processes such as the
crushing, milling, and grinding of coals, ores, and minerals.
Also described is the Reinluft activated coke process for
removing sulfur oxides from waste gases. In this process, a
moving bed of activated coke is conveyed downward in a
tower housing an adsorber and a desorber section. Advantages
of the process are that neither pretreatment nor dust removal
is necessary and no liquids are involved. However, the
residual gases rich in sulfur dioxide must still be converted to
a solid or liquid sulfur compound. Activated coke is also used
in the Sulfacid process for converting sulfur dioxide to sulfuric
acid. In this process, the sulfuric acid formed by the adsorp-
tion of precooled and saturated gases in units packed with ac-
tivated coke is washed out by spray nozzles mounted above
the packing. To obtain a commercial grade of acid, any dust
carried in the raw gases must be removed.
24777
(Inventor not given.)
PROCEDURE FOR RECOVERING ELEMENTAL SULFUR
FROM SULFUROUS GASES. (Precede pour recuperer des gaz
sulfureux le soufre elementaire). Text in French. (William
Francis Lamoreaux) French Pat. 480,345. 6p., April 25, 1916.
(Appl Nov. 29, 1915, 3 claims).
Sulfur oxides are reduced to elemental sulfur by maintaining
contac between the sulfur oxide and incandescent coal for a
predetermined period of time, supplying enough additional
heat to insure practically complete reduction of the sulfur
oxide during the perio of its contact with the coal. The equip-
ment used for this procedure is designed in such a way as to
utilize heat extracted from the gases emerging from the reduc-
tion chamber to supply at least part of the additional heat
required for the process. Provision is also made to preheat the
gases containing sulfur oxides before they enter the reduction
chamber, using the heat derived from the gases from which
sulfur has been extracted.
24785
(Inventor not given.)
IMPROVEMENT IN THE PROCESS OF PURIFYING FUMES
AND GASES. (Perfectionnement a 1'epuration des fumees et
gaz). Text in French (Societe Anonyme, Weiritam (France))
French Pat. 1,482,873. 3p. April 24, 1967. (Appl. Feb. 12, 1966,
6 claims).
An aqueous solution of sulfur dioxide is obtained by conden-
sation, on a cold wall, of water vapor contained in or added to
the fumes or gases to be purified. The wall can be cooled by a
heat exchange resulting from the circulation on the inner side
of refrigerating fluids. In the case of fumes emitted by a heat-
ing plant, the heat recovered from this fluid can be transferred
to a other point in the plant, where it can be used to supple-
ment the heat production or to produce distilled water. When
additional water vapor needs to be added to the fumes, this
can be supplied in the form of a finely atomized water spray
or in the form of steam. In the case of heating plants, after the
removal of the aqueous condensation, the fumes can be re-
heated, possibly with the heat gained from the cooling
process, so as to aid the dispersal of the exhaust gases when
they reach the open air.
24826
Electric Energy Industry, Tokyo (Japan), Central Council of
Electric Energy and Electric Energy Industry, Tokyo (Japan),
Central Inst. of Research
PROBLEMS SET BY ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION IN
JAPAN. (Problemes poses par la pollution atmospherique au
Japon). Text in French. Pollut. Atmos. (Paris), no. 47:163-168,
July-Sept. 1970.
A discussion of problems concerning atmospheric pollution
due to th electric industry is presented. The meteorological
and geographical conditions which condition the action of at-
mospheric pollution in Japan are mentioned; the legal limits
for sulfur dioxide are indicated, and the formulae for deter-
mining these limits are described. Action taken by power
plants to prevent pollution includes research of appropriate
sites for setting up plants; reduction of the sulfur content in
fuels; adoption of high smoke stacks; dust collectors; and
emergency measures to be applied in the event of unfavorable
meteorological conditions. An outline of the present state of
research and techniques concerning the fight against SO2
emissions is included.
24837
Wiedersum, G. C., Jr.
CONTROL OF POWER PLANT EMISSIONS. Chem. Eng.
Progr., 66(ll):49-54, Nov. 1970. 35 refs.
Changing boiler fuel from coal to oil (1% and 2% sulfur) does
not automatically guarantee compliance with regulations and
reduced operating problems. With oil, there is much less
slagging on furnace walls and consequently greater difficulty
in maintaining design steam temperature. Another difficulty
due to reduced slagging is vibration of plates and pendent ele-
ments: clean tubes apparently permit the formation of Von
Karman vortices in the gas stream while slagged tubes create
enough turbulence to prevent it. In some cases, stack plumes
are darker than before. This is the result of the light scattering
properties of the finer oil ash particles and of lowered com-
bustion efficiency that produces more unburned carbon in the
flue gas. In addition, the ash is of a sticky nature and much
more difficult to collect and transport. These problems may be
alleviated following complete conversion to 1% sulfur oil. Sup-
plies of such oil are limited, however, and chemical engineers
-------
164
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
and power engineers should consider alternate solutions to the
air pollution problem. First and second-generatio sulfur-oxide
removal processes are summarized and discussed. Also
reviewed is the instrumentation available for monitoring stack
emissions. Few, if any, of the instruments are suitable for long
term tests under field conditions.
24881
Kazarinoff, Andrew
INDUSTRIAL AIR POLLUTION-ITS CONTROL AND COST.
Design News, 23(14):18-24, July 5, 1968.
Power generating plants, steel mills, and cement kilns are in-
cluded in the groups that will be forced by government restric-
tions to control pollutants. The industrial air pollution control
equipment available now, the cost of pollution control to in-
dustry, and some air pollution problems for which there are
yet no practical solutions are discussed. No real innovations
have been made in control equipment for a long time; the
major devices are still electrostatic precipitators, bag filters,
cyclones, and scrubbers. Research and development is needed
on equipment that can control both particulate and gaseous
pollutants; equipment that can perform at higher efficiencies
without size and cost penalties; equipment whose efficiency
curve is relatively flat over broader ranges of particle size; and
lower-cost equipment.
24922
LaMantia, Charles R. and Edwin L. Field
TACKLING THE PROBLEM OF NITROGEN OXIDES.
Power, 113(4):63-66, April 1969. 9 refs.
The problem of atmospheric nitrogen oxides is analogous to
that of sulfur dioxide in that fossil fuel-burning power plants
are the main emission sources. However, the amount of SO2
generated per ton of fuel consumed is precisely fixed by the
sulfur content of the fuel. The concentration of nitrogen ox-
ides in stack gases depends primarily on temperature profile,
gas residence time, and oxygen and nitrogen concentrations
profiles in the furnace. All these factors are functions of fur-
nace design and burner design and operation. The chemistry of
nitrogen oxides affords the possibility of limiting their forma-
tion by modifying the combustion process or destroying them
by catalytic decomposition. At stack-gas temperatures and
nitrogen oxide concentrations, spontaneous decomposition
should occur with the proper catalyst. These two approaches
would solve the nitrogen oxides problem without significant
complications, e.g., the need to build a nitric acid plant. A
further approach, potentially attractive to operator who
require SO2 control, is a single process effective for both SO2
and nitrogen oxides control. The least desirable solution woul
be a separate process for removal of nitrogen oxides from
stack gases.
24954
Combustion Power Co., Inc., Palo Alto, Calif.
COMBUSTION POWER UNIT ~ 400: CPU-400. Bureau of
Solid Waste Management Contract Ph 86-67-259, 15p., 1969.
NTIS: PB 187299
Development has begun on a turbogenerator electric plant that
will utilize 400 tons of municipal solid waste per day to
produce up to 15,000 kw of electric power. The baseline con-
figuration is a modular unit that is expected to be clean, com-
pact, and quiet. Such units could be conveniently dispersed
throughout a city to supplement power supplied by local utili-
ties. The major components of the system are a refuse
carousel, a mechanical shredder, a refus combustor using a
fluidized bed reactor, a two-stage particle collector packed
with the fluid bed reactor, a 15 megawatt gas turbine, and a
3600 rpm generator. Using either available energy or by-
products from the combustion steam, add-on systems to the
basic unit provide (1) automated vacuum collection of refuse,
(2) fresh water produced from saline or brackish water, (3)
centralized steam for commercial heating and air conditioning,
and (4) incineration of sewage sludge. Estimated capital and
operating costs of the plant are summarized, as is the expected
income from electric power, steam, and by products. Costs for
refuse disposal may be as little as 95 cents per ton.
24985
Dennis, Carl S.
POTENTIAL SOLUTIONS TO UTILITIES SO2 PROBLEMS
IN THE '70'S. Combustion, 42(4): 12-21, Oct. 1970. 2 refs.
(Presented at Edison Electric Institute, System Planning Com-
mittee, Detroit, Mich., May 18, 1970.)
Standards emerging from Air Quality Control Regions indicate
acceptance of the following values for ground-level sulfur
dioxide concentrations: 0.50 ppm as a five-min average; 0.20
ppm as a one-hr average; 0.10 ppm as a 24-hr average; and
0.02 ppm as an annual average. At this point in time, the
potential solutions to the utility industry's sulfur problems are
low-sulfur fuel, tall-stack dispersion of slue gases, nuclear
power, and SO2 removal systems. These solutions are evalu-
ated with special attention to wet and dry SO2 removal
systems considered to be commercially feasible. Wet systems
discussed are Combustion Engineering's limestone scrubber
system, Chemico-Basic's venturi scrubbing process, Babcock
and Wilcox's scrubbing systems, and Universal Oil Products'
limestone scrubbing process. Dry systems reviewed are Well-
man-Lord's chemical absorption process, Atomic Interna-
tional's molten carbonate process, Monsanto's catalytic oxida-
tion process, Babcock and Wilxox's fixed-bed s'orbent reactor
system, and the Stone and Webster-Ionics process. Costs for
the four alternative solutions considered range from 7
cents/Mb for stack gas dispersion to 12.5 cents/mB for low-
sulfur fuel substitution.
25019
Miura, Mitsugi
APPARATUS FOR TREATING A GAS TO REMOVE IMPU-
RITIES THEREFROM. (Assignee not given.) U. S. Pat.
3,527,026. 5p., Sept. 8, 1970. 18 refs. (Appl. June 3, 1968, 4
claims).
A dry-method and a wet-method separator are employed to ef-
ficiently separate or recover fine particles and poisonous gases
generated at a chemical plant, food plant, machinery plant, a
iron works, or an electric power station. The present apparatus
makes such treatment possible without lowering the tempera-
ture of the exhaust gas very much. In the past, when fine par-
ticles and poisonous gases contained in gaseous body were to
be separated, a cyclone was used to separate a large part of
the fine particles, while that portion of the particles which
were not separated by the cyclone was sometimes separated
by a bag filter, and electrostatic precipitator, or by a washing
absorbing tower or venturi scrubber. The cost of installation
was high, a large floor space was needed, and a waste water
treating device was necessary. In the present process, a dry-
method cyclone and a wet-method separator are combined into
one unit. The cyclone is provided with spray means in the gas
discharge pipe, and includes a hopper spaced from the wall of
the cyclone filled with liquid. Solid substances contained in the
gas are separated in the inner wall of an outer cylinder by cen-
trifugal force, while the very fine particles come into contact
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B. CONTROL METHODS
165
with the water or solution contained in the liquid tank. A
liquid surface controlling meter is used for feeding spray to
keep the surface constantly at the same level.
25038
Gartrell, Francis E. and James C. Barber
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION-TVA EXPERIENCE. J.
Sanit. Eng., Am. Soc. Civil Engrs. Div., %(6):1321-1334, Dec.
1970. 7 refs. (Presented at the American Society Civil En-
gineers, Water Resources Engineering Meeting, Memphis, Jan.
26-30, 1970.)
Establishment of the Tennessee Valley Authority created a
unified program that saw in the Tennessee Valley's water,
land, minerals, and forests one interrelated set of opportunities
for improving the living standards of the people in the region.
Research on soil-fertilizer relationships, fertilizers, and fertil-
izer processes is conducted at the National Fertilizer Develop-
ment Center. One water resource study which was undertaken
at the Center involved determination of the conditions that
give rise to excessive growth of nuisance weeds in a TVA
reservoir, while another project involved determination of the
amount of plant nutrients lost from land into both surface and
ground waters. Two approaches may be followed in the
development of fertilizers for the control of nutrient losses in
streams; slow-release chemica compounds may be used as fer-
tilizers, or the highly soluble fertilizer granules may be coated
to retard their solubility in the soil. Various fertilizers are
produced at the Center, and environmental control during their
production is discussed. Electric furnace phosphoric acid
production presents some particularly difficult pollution abate-
ment problems. Production of fluoride by-products may be
economical in some large electric furnace phosphoric acid
plants or in plants where large amounts of fluorine are driven
off during the phosphate ore heat hardening step. A modern
ammonia plant is being constructed. Two of the 11 coal-fired
power plants in the TVA system have cyclone furnaces, eight
have dry bottom pulverized fuel furnaces, and one has a wet
bottom pulverized fuel furnace. They all have essentially the
same system for ash disposal. Research is being conducted on
the remova of sulfur dioxide from power plant stack gases, in-
cluding an ammoni scrubbing process, sorption by dry
limestone, and limestone wet scrubbing. Waste heat for
disposal has required a study of the effects of cooling tower
discharge. Also, composting research is being conducted ad-
jacent to the city's sewage treatment plant.
25047
Walker, A. B. and R. F. Brown
STATISTICS ON UTILIZATION, PERFORMANCE AND
ECONOMICS OF ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATORS FOR
CONTROL OF PARTICULATE AIR POLLUTION. Preprint,
International Union of Air Pollution Prevention Associations,
28p., 1970. 8 refs. (Presented at the International Clean Air
Congress 2nd, Washington, D. C., Dec. 6-11, 1970, Paper EN-
22C.)
Selection of an optimum control strategy requires accurate
cost-benefit information specific to individual sources. As part
of an overall system study on particulate emission control with
electrostatic precipitators, and exhaustive compilation of per-
formance and economic data on precipitators for specific ap-
plications is presented. Eight application areas are covered, in-
cluding: electric utility industry; pulp and paper industry; iron
and steel industry; rock products industry; chemical process
industry; mining and metallurgical industry; petroleum indus-
try; and miscellaneous. Performance, capital cost, operating
cost, annualized cost according to age of installation, and cost
factors as related to process output are presented. Information
presented should prove useful to those examining alternative
strategies for control of particulate emissions using either
simulation model or maximum use of state-of-the-art ap-
proaches. (Author abstract modified)
25071
Tamarua, Zensuke
DESULFURIZATION METHOD FROM STACK GAS BY AC-
TIVATED CARBON. Preprint, International Union of Air Pol-
lution Prevention Associations, 25p., 1970. (Presented at the
International Clean Air Congress, 2nd, Washington, D. C.,
Dec. 6-11, 1970, Paper EN-35D.)
The activated carbon process for desulfurization stack gas
derives from the principle that the adsorption of sulfur dioxide
by carbon is both physical and chemical. The process com-
prises adsorption of SO2, oxidation of SO2, hydration of SOS,
and dilution of the sulfuric acid formed on the carbon. Five
activated carbon towers are used, four for adsorption and one
for desorption. The towers can be operated continuously while
the activated carbon is being regenerated by washing with
water. Several washing tanks are provided according to acid
concentrations A complete cycle of drying, adsorption, wash-
ing, and regeneration is 60 hours. Tests of the process in a 55
mW pilot power plant showed that SO2 removal declined with
time in the first 1500 hours of operation, after which it became
80% of initial capacity. The constant removal rate after 1500
hours suggests that the life of carbon is long. It is necessary,
however, to cool the carbon bed by forced air flow. The 20%
sulfuric acid obtained by the process is condensed to 65% sul-
furic acid for use in phosphatic fertilizer. Based on the pilot
plant experience, a 1500 nW semicommercial plant is to be
built.
25079
Humbert, Clyde O.
METHOD FOR ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATION OF
DUST PARTICLES. (Koppers Co., Inc., Monroeville, Pa.) U.
S. Pat. 3,523,407. 4p., Aug. 11, 1970. 8 refs. (Appl. March 29,
1968, 6 claims).
Electrostatic removal of particles that are entrained in a gas
stream can be improved by the addition of preselected
amounts of ammonia and water into the particle-laden gas
stream where the gas is at an elevated temperature. Optimum
precipitation occurs when ammonia is added in an amount of
from 10 to 20 ppm of gas, if water is added in an amount of
from 4-8 gallons per 100,000 cu ft of gas, and the gas temepra-
ture is above 400 F. The ammonia and water added to the gas
stream are believed to react with the sulfur trioxide to form an
ammonium bisulfate film which envelops the particles. Or-
dinarily, fly-ash particles from a power plant, for example, in-
clude a minor amount of SO3. It appears that a synergistic
relationship exists to explain the improved collection efficien-
cy.
25088
Nagai, Hirokazu
DESULFURIZING APPARATUS FOR COMBUSTION GASES.
(Nensho haigasu datsuryu sochi). Text in Japanese. (Tokyo
Shibaura Electric Co., Ltd., Kanagawa Prefecture (Japan)
Japan. Pat. Sho 45-12481. 3p., May 7, 1970. (Appl. March 31,
1966, claims not given).
Sulfur dioxide in the flue gas can be eliminated by passing it
through a layer of catalysts such as vanadium pentoxide and
oxidizing the sulfur dioxide. The invention deals with the
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166
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
removal of sulfur dioxide by the above method, especially the
facilities that are used to cool the gas after it has gone through
the catalyst layer to form the sulfuric acid mist by condensa-
tion. The condenser has to be acid proof, and a material that is
acid proof as well as economical is polytetrafluoroethylene. Its
heat conductivity range is almost adiabatic, and its other
physical characteristics make it necessary for the cooling pipes
to be small in diameter and thin walled. When this condenser
is attached to the heat cycle of the steam generating plant in
order to utilize the heat effectively, the employment of turbine
recycling water would impose pressure on the
polytetrafluoroethylene pipe of the cooler. The thinness of the
pipe would ordinarily not permit the pipe to sustain the pres-
sure, but the difficulty can be overcome by the combination of
a low-pressure recycling pump and a high- pressure recycling
pump in front of and at the end of the condensation system.
The pipes can thus be protected from high pressure. A detailed
diagrammatic explanation is given.
25127
Busby, H. G. T., C. Whitehead, and K. Darby
HIGH EFFICIENCY PRECIPITATOR PERFORMANCE ON
MODERN POWER STATIONS FIRING FUEL OIL AND LOW
SULPHUR COALS. Preprint, International Union of Air Pollu-
tion Prevention Associations, 56p., 1970. 4 refs. (Presented at
the International Clean Air Congress, 2nd, Washington, D. C.,
1970, Paper EN-34H.)
The problems associated with electrostatic precipitators
operating on a low sulfur bituminous coals and on oil fired
burners are discussed, and various methods of insuring that
particulate emission is reduced to the required level are
described. In the case of bituminous coals the performance of
an electrostatic precipitator is dependent on the resistivity of
the dust which, at temperatures following the air heater outlet,
is primarily determined by the surface layer conditions. This
surface layer which is probably sulfuric acid vapor is formed
from the combustibl sulfur in the coal and there is normally a
relationship between combustible sulfur in coal and precipita-
tor performance. Where low sulfur coal is fired and precipita-
tor difficulties are encountered, high efficiencies can still be
achieved at the cost of high capital expense as the precipita-
tors may need to be several times the size of those required
for high sulfur coal, or alternatively, the resistivity of the dust
can be reduced by varying temperature o by changing the na-
ture of the surface layer of the dust. Of the methods
discussed, changing the surface layer offers the best solution.
This method can be applied readily to existing precipitators
without down time. Of the various conditioning agents which
can be used to alter the surface layer of the dust, in the case
of a single installation, sulfur trioxide in liquid stabilized form
provides the most convenient means of producing sulfur triox-
ide gas, whereas, if a large base load station is to be equipped
then the sulfur burner with catalytic converter is the more
economical in operating costs. Precipitators can be used
satisfactorily on oil fired boilers provided care is taken in
purging the insulators, rapping rates are kept low and suitable
dcdusting employed. The chief advantage of precipitation is
during start-up periods when the formation of acid smut condi-
tions are most severe. While they are considered an essential
in the vicinity of a built up area, there is still some doubt as to
whether, in other districts, the capital cost of a precipitator on
an oil fired installation can be fully justified. The use of high
or low sulfur fuels has little effect on precipitator performance
and the emission of sulfur dioxide and possible acid smut for-
mation is only a matter of degree. (Author conclusions
modified)
25139
Eisner, Joachim H.
THE APPLICATIONS OF MODERN ELECTRIC GAS PU.
RIFICATION INSTALLATIONS. (Einsatzmoeglichkeiten
moderner elektrischer Gasreinigungsanlagen). Text in German,
Wasser Luft Betrieb, 14(10):394-402, Oct. 1970.
Electrofilters will separate up to 99.9% fine and finest
suspended particles, handle large quantities of gases at tem-
peratures up to 600 C. Electrofilters usually work with a volt-
age of 78,000 V, electricity consumption is minimal. In dry
electrofilters the dust is removed from electrodes by rapping.
Under adverse conditions the gas to be purified can be condi-
tioned by evaporative cooling by reducing gas temperature and
by raising the dew point. In some cases this pretreatment is es-
sential. In wet electrofilters the premoistened dust together
with water droplets i the gas and the injected water fog are
separated on the collecting electrodes in the form of a water
sludge. The possibilities of technically and commercially ad-
vantageous application of electrofilters in steel and iron works
ore sintering plants, blast furnaces, steel production), in non-
ferrous metal smelting plants, in iron foundries, shaft fur-
naces, sintering grate band, disintegrators, dryers), in ceramic
works, in coal processing (generator gas, coke-oven gas, other
gases), in steam power plants and in chemical and related in-
dustries (plastics, cellulose, sulfuric acid, regeneration of
hydrochloric acid in tanneries) are reviewed.
25164
Barrett, A. A. and G. W. Brier
GAS CLEANING IN CEGB POWER STATIONS. Preprint, In-
ternational Union of Air Pollution Prevention Associations,
39p., 1970. 4 refs (Presented at the International Clean Air
Congress, 2nd, Washington, D. C., Dec. 6-11, 1970, Paper EN-
34E.)
A brief outline of the legislation regulating the permissible
discharges from power station chimneys in the United King-
dom is given as well as information on the design of chimneys.
Mention is made of the problems associated with gas cleaning
on a stoker-fired, pulverized coal-fired and oil-fired plant.
Emphasis is placed upon the need for good maintenance.
Methods of testing and monitoring chimney emissions are
given with mention of instruments specially developed by the
Central Electricity Generating Board. A section is devoted to
the arrangement of a large electrostatic precipitator and goes
into some detail of the design of the collecting electrodes,
discharge electrodes, methods of rapping, dust hoppers, and
control of high-tension sets. Results are included of research
work on the effectiveness of rapping and the means of mea-
suring it, the reasons for the failure of discharge electrodes,
the advantages of sectionalization, methods of obtaining good
gas distribution, and work done on gas conditioning with vari-
ous additives. The basis of precipitator design is the effective
migration velocity of the dust; once a suitable figure is
established there is no difficulty in designing a satisfactory
plant. Although the variables which affect the migration
velocity are well known, the actual extent of their influence is
difficult to determine. An analysis of the results from 109 sets
of test data from 23 different power stations has been carried
out. This has facilitated the creation of a number of curves,
one for each significant variable, which can be used to predict
the effective migration velocity for any combination of condi-
tions. Reasonable agreement has been shown between the test
results and the calculated figures. The method can be used to
study the performance potential of an installed plant or to
facilitate the design of a new plant. It is also possible to cor-
rect results for research work in order that conclusions can be
evaluated on the same basis. (Author abstract)
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B. CONTROL METHODS
167
25165
Harrison, D. and A. Saleem
WHERE WE STAND IN SULPHUR DIOXIDE CONTROL.
Mod. Power Eng., 64(6):62-63, June 1970.
A large amount of research and development work is being
done in laboratories throughout the work to develop sulfur
dioxide control systems for thermal power stations. Formida-
ble technical difficulties to be overcome are related to the
large volume of gases to be treated, interference with process
chemistry from constituents such as oxygen and fly ash, scale
up of the equipment to required size, and disposal or market-
ing of the sulfur dioxide recovered. Processes under study by
an Ontario plant are the dry limestone injection process, a
limestone slurry scrubbing process, an alkaline sulfite/bisulfite
process, an ammonia process, and the catalytic oxidation of
sulfur to hydrogen sulfide.
25170
Jarman, R. T.
THE POWER STATION AND THE ENVIRONMENT. J. Soc.
Eng. London, 61(3):219-232, July-Sept. 1970. 21 refs.
Following a brief outline of power plant operation, the effects
of fossil-fueled power stations on their environment are con-
sidered. The main effects related to flue emission and cooling
water supplies. The close control of flue gas emission is neces-
sary to maintain clean air in the neighborhood. It is achieved
by proper design of burners and proper attention to com-
bustion conditions, by collection of fine ash particles in elec-
trostatic precipitators, and by dispersion of the gases from tall
chimneys. Pulverized fly ash (PFA) removed from the flue gas
can be used for reclaiming land and in the manufacture of cer-
tain varieties of concrete blocks and related materials. Cooling
water systems are designed to avoid harming the local aquati •
life, and are subsequently investigated to test the effectiveness
of these precautions in practice. A recent development is the
experimental study of fish fanning, which may well lead to the
profitable utilization of the warm water produced by power
stations. The practices discussed are illustrated by the example
of several British power plants. (Author abstract modified)
25184
Knapp, Edward M. and Weldon T. Ellis
METHOD OF SEPARATING GASEOUS HYDROCARBONS.
(Assignee not given.) U. S. Pat. 3,523,405. 14p., Aug. 11, 1970.
3 refs. (Appl. June 2 1969, 1 claim).
A method is described for refining a stream of gaseous fluid
containing commercially valuable chemicals (low boiling com-
plex hydrocarbons) along with other chemicals in two stages.
In the first stage, the portions of coal that vaporize below 800
F are separated into those that vaporize below 525 F and a
residue consisting of the higher boiling constituents. Fractional
distillation in 5.4 F increments condenses out the saleable
hydrocarbons from the below 525 F cut. The process is unique
in that the temperature of the coal from which the gaseous
input to the system is obtained is never allowed to exceed 800
F, thus preventing the destruction of many of the hydrocar-
bons that, in normal destructive distillation, are lost. The
method of the first stage consists of passing the entire stream
of gas through a moving oil bath to accomplish the total ab-
sorption of the gas, and subsequently obtaining the partial
desorption from the bath of those chemicals having boiling
points lower than 525 F; the chemicals having boiling points
higher than 525 F are retained in the oil and collected. The
method of the second stage consists of differential fractional
condensation from the resultant gas of a number of differential
fractions. This is accomplished by passing the gas stream over
first one and then another of a series of rotating condensing
surfaces; each surface is maintained at a specific temperature
sufficient to cause the chemicals which condense at that tem-
perature to condense.
25186
Krug, Herbert and Werner Feiler
PELLETIZING OF FINE COKE WITH TARRY ADHESIVES
FOR THE PRODUCTION OF SMOKELESS FUEL. (Das Pel-
letieren von Feinkoks mit teerartigen Bindemitteln-ein Beitrag
zur Herstellung raucharmer Brennstoffe). Text in German.
Bergbautechnik, 20(9):474-477, Sept. 1970. 4 refs.
In contrast to anthracite coal dust which can be satisfactorily
pelletized with water, bentonite and sulfite liquor adhesion of
coke dust particles can be produced only with an adhesive as
is the case in briquetting with the adhesive turned into coke by
thermal treatment of the green pellets forming bridges among
the coke particles. The requirements on pellets are that they
be at least 20 mm in diameter, that the green pellets be strong
enough to stand the transport to the thermal treatment
chamber, that the yiel of pellets be as nearly theoretical as
possible and that they exhibit rigidity during coking. Pelletizing
experiments were performed with Lurgi's low-temperature
coke, with anthracite coke and with BHT coke of a grain size
not exceeding 0.5 mm and of 12% humidity. Brown coal low
temperature tar, crude anthracite tar and BHT tar were used
as adhesives. Best suited as adhesive turned out to be a mix-
ture of BHT tar with raw anthracite tar in a 3:2 ratio which
yielded pellets up to 40 mm in size of good adhesive properties
already at 150 C. The process was further improved by a
second pelletizing without the addition of adhesive but only of
coke which reduced the share of the adhesive to 21% and in-
creased the size and strength of the pellets. Some of the adhe-
sive used is recovered from the process in the form of water
free heating oil.
25187
Simon, Conrad and Edward F. Ferrand
THE IMPACT OF LOW SULFUR FUEL ON AIR QUALITY
IN NEW YORK CITY. Preprint, International Union of Air
Pollution Prevention Associations, 55p., 1970. 5 refs.
(Presented at the International Clean Air Congress, 2nd,
Washington, D. C., Dec. 6-11, 1970, Paper SU-12F.)
The conditions that led to the adoption of regulations restrict-
ing the sulfur content of fuels burned in the New York
Metropolitan area are discussed, and the initial impact of these
actions is presented. An attempt is made to highlight the im-
portance of source-receptor relationships and the varying in-
fluence of meteorological parameters over different sections of
the area. Sulfur dioxide data from three stations of the nine
station network existing prior to 1969 were used to evaluate
the impact of early reductions which occurred primarily in
power plant emissions. Subsequently, data from the city's ex-
panded 38-station aerometric network were examined to deter-
mine the various changes in sulfur dioxide concentrations
across the city. Analysis clearly showed that the stations ob-
served degrees of change in concentrations of SO2 which dif-
fered depending on their location relative to space heating and
power plant sources. It was particularly noteworthy to fine
that reductions in SO2 concentrations were greater for peak
hourly values than for daily or seasonal means. It was deter-
mined that within the central city, where the overwhelming
majority of space heating requirements are met by residual
fuel oil, a greater than 20% decrease in concentrations had oc-
curred during the 1969-70 heating season. However, a greater
than 20% increase in sulfur dioxide concentrations occurred in
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168
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
the fringe areas of the City. This increase in the fringe areas is
attributed to differences in climatological conditions between
the two heating seasons. On the basis of this, it can be
deduced that a potential 40% improvement occurred in the
central city as a result of the use of low sulfur fuel oil for
space heating. (Author abstract)
25207
Pottinger, J. F.
THE COLLECTION OF HIGH RESISTIVITY MATERIALS
BY ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATION. Preprint, Interna-
tional Union of Air Pollution Prevention Associations, 30p.,
1970. 8 refs. (Presented at the International Clean Air Con-
gress, 2nd, Washington, D. C., Dec. 6-11, 1970, Paper EN-
34G.)
The chemical composition and refractory nature of the ash
derived from the firing of Australian coals usually result in fly
ash particles of extremely fine size with high electrical re-
sistivities Significant reduction in electrostatic precipitator effi-
ciency can occur when handling these materials at 100-200 C.
Actual performance levels, however, can differ widely from
one installation to the next even when dusts possess generally
similar properties. An efficient rapping system is an essential
requirement in the treatment of high-resistivity materials. Op-
timum distribution of corona current is also important: elec-
trode design voltage waveform, and high-tension sec-
tionalizatio are important factors determining the current dis-
tribution pattern. Where resistivity problems are severe, some
form of gas conditional is required to change the dust or gas
characteristics sufficiently to eliminate the effects of back-
ionization. Typical effects of conditioning agents such as
moisture, sulfur trioxide, and ammonia are outlined. Where re-
sistivity is likely to influence precipitator efficiency, pilot-scale
investigations should be carried out to determine optimum
design parameters, since measured values of electrical re-
sistivity are not an infallible guide to precipitator performance.
25217
Strembitskiy, An. N. and V. A. Pavlunin
TEST OF AN ASH TRAPPING INSTALLATION WITH
ELECTROSTATIC FILTERS DVPN-3x2OBTs. (Istpytaniye
zoloulavlivayushey ustanovki s elektrofil'trami DVPN-3x20
BTs). Text in Russian. Elektr. St. (Moscow), 41(8):63-64, Aug.
1970.
A gas trapping installation utilizing two vertical DVPN-
3x20BTs electrofilters was tested at an electropower station
which bums a variety of coals. This installation was designed
to provide 98% dust removal (initial dust content, 39 g/cu m;
final dust content, 0.78 g/cu m) with a gas flow of 118 cu
m/sec at 140 C, and a hydraulic resistance of 80 mm H2O.
Under actual operation, this installation provided 92.1-93.9%
dust removal and consumed 0.94-1.24 kWhr of power per 1000
cu m of gas processed, with a specific current of 0.072-0.101
mA per meter of discharge conductor.
25269
Krug, Herbert, Werner Feiler and Dieter Schoenherr
PELLETIZING OF BROWN COAL ELECTROFTLTER DUST.
(Untersuchungen zum pelletieren von Braunkohlen-Elektrofil-
terstaub). Text in German. Bergbautechnik, 20(9):478-481,
Sept. 1970. 7 refs.
Since brown coal dust from electrical dust separators caused
processing difficulties when used for briquetting, pelletizing
was attempted with the view of producing an as far as possible
smokeless fuel. When water, bentonite and sulfite liquor were
used, the strength of the pellets was too low; the relatively
loose agglomerates disintegrated in heat. Tarry adhesives had
to be used. It was found that the alternating addition of adhe-
sives had to be used. It was found that the alternating addition
of adhesives and of dust to the pelletizing process resulted in a
100% yield while with simultaneous addition of both com-
ponents the yield was always lower. A 40% addition of the
tarry adhesive is required to bind all dust particle sizes into
pellets. A 38 degree incline of the pelleting table yielded the
greatest share of pellets exceeding 25 mm in diameter at 38 C.
A comparison of the properties of pellets made with low tem-
perature tar, with pitch residue, with BHT tar and with
anthracite coal tar disclosed that pellets made with low tem-
perature anthracite coal tar manifested better coking charac-
teristics. The other characteristics like ash content, content of
water and of volatile substances were comparable. The com-
mercial feasibility of this process will depend on economic
considerations.
25284
Kiyoura, Raisaku and Milton Munidasa
AVAILABLE DESULFURIZATION TECHNOLOGY AND ITS
APPLICATION TO THE RATIONAL UTILIZATION OF FOS-
SIL FUEL. Preprint, International Union of Air Pollution
Prevention Associations, 29p., 1970. 27 refs. (Presented at the
International Clean Air Congress, 2nd, Washington, D. C.,
Dec. 6-11, 1970, Paper EN-29D.)
Japan's energy commission has just released its projections of
energy patterns for the next 15 years and the forecast for 1985
is almost 4.9 times the actual consumption in 1968. Almost
72% of these requirements are to be met by fossil fuels. Japan,
by virtue of her commitments and investments is obliged to
utilize fuel oil from the Middle East, known to contain almost
3% of sulfur; this sulfur would be subsequently spewn into the
atmosphere as sulfur oxides. The stringent standards set by
Cabinet decision of 1969 viz: 'the hourly value of 0.1 ppm or
less shall be maintained for more than 88 per cent of the total
hours within a year; and the 24 hour average value of 0.05
ppm or less shall be maintained for more than 70 per cent of
the total days within a year,' presents a pressing need for
highly efficient processes that are technically and economi-
cally feasible for the industrialist to bring about the control of
air pollution. Three possible methods for sulfur dioxide control
are envisaged: desulfurization of fossil fuels, removal of sulfur
dioxides from flue gases, and changing technology of power
generation, switching from high sulfur fuels to low sulfur
fuels, sulfur free natural gas, or to a complete new change of
power generation technology. The last would take some time
before any concrete answer can be given; the demand for low
sulfur fuel outstrips the supply; fuel oil desulfurization in spite
of available technology results in a rather expensive product.
A general evaluation of flue gas removal processes which have
reached advanced pilot plant studies for technical feasibility
and process applicability is presented, with a review of the
present status of development. (Author abstract)
25298
Peranio, Anthony
THE TALL STACK - TECHNICAL AND SOCIAL ASPECTS.
Preprint, International Union of Air Pollution Prevention As-
sociations, 73p., 1970. 58 refs. (Presented at the International
Clean Air Congress, 2nd, Washington, D. C., 1970, Paper ME-
8F.)
The use of a tall stack for the discharge of pollutants at suffi-
ciently high levels so as to lessen concentrations at the ground
is considered. The tall stack in itself does not reduce the total
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B. CONTROL METHODS
169
amount of pollutants discharged into the atmosphere, and,
under certain relatively frequent critical weather conditions,
fumigations are obtained notwithstanding the tall stack. When
total pollutant burdens in a given geographical region reach un-
desirable levels, the addition of new sources of pollution-even
if they discharge through tall stacks- is unwarranted. Disper-
sion means are not effective in an already over-burdened en-
vironment. Most regions have overdone the technique of
discharging into the environment. The pressure on pollution
control technologists today is to produce efficient and inex-
pensive collection and (ideally) conversion devices for wastes.
A typical mis-application of the tall stack is treated, that of a
150 meter (492 ft) chimney servicing a 528 MW electric power
station in Tel Aviv, Israel. To justify construction of this
strong source of pollution in the heart of the Tel Aviv
megalopolis, several experts were required. Each of the five
expert opinions varied considerably since each used different
parameters for computations. The work on which the 150
meter computation was based was shown to contain several
serious errors. An attempt to stop the electric company by ob-
taining a court injunction was unsuccessful. A group of four
citizens (assisted by the Public Council for the Prevention of
Noise and Air Pollution) attempted to 'prove' future damage
to health and property. It was hindered by the lack of a
definite emission standard for sulfur dioxide. The present
Israel sulfur dioxide regulation is a proposed air quality stan-
dard and lacks legal force. An attempt is made to explain the
economic and political forces which act to thwart the promul-
gation of emission standards. To this end, use is made of
'Gresham's Economic Law Applied to Pollution.' (Author ab-
stract modified)
25320
Diakonoff, Serge
PROCESS FOR RECOVERING SULFUR FROM GASES CON-
TAINING SULFUR DIOXIDE. (Precede de recuperation du
soufre, des gaz contenant d I'anhydride sulfureux). Text in
French. (International Mining Trust Registered (Liechtenstein))
French Pat. 775,910. 2p., Oct. 22, 1934. (Appl. Oct. 5, 1933, 5
claims).
Sulfur dioxide is converted into hydrogen sulfide by reducing
it with carbon in the presence of water vapor, then causing the
IKS to react with sulfur dioxide to form sulfur and water. The
sulfur dioxide is separated from the gases containing it by the
use of a solvent such as cold water. The solution is then
heated to drive off the SO2 gas, which is mixed with a quanti-
ty of water vapor and brought into a coal furnace heated to
500-850 C. The gases leaving the furnace are brought into a
tower, where they come in contact with a solution of SO2, and
the gas mixture containing SO2 is absorbed in the scrubbers;
the solution thus obtained is recycled.
25323
(Inventor not given.)
PROCESS FOR CONTINUOUSLY RECOVERING SULFUR
FROM HOT GASES CONTAINING DUST. (Precede de recu-
peration du soufre contenu dans des gaz chauds renfermant
des poussieres). Text in French. (Imperial Chemical Industries,
Ltd., London (England)) French Pat. 717,934. 3p., Oct. 26,
1931. (Appl. May 29, 1931, 2 claims).
The dust content of the gas is regulated in such a way that a
relatively small number of centers of condensation are made
available, after which the gas is submitted to a slow cooling
process. The resulting large particles of sulfur are easily
separated by filtration or by precipitation. The dust content of
the gas is regulated by adding a certain portion of the original
gas containing the dust to a relatively large volume of the
same gas, from which most of the dust particles have been
removed. The gas is extracted by reducing diluted sulfur diox-
ide gas with coal at a high temperature.
25416
Lowell, Philip S., Delbert M. Ottmers, Jr., Klaus
Schwitzgebel, Thomas I. Strange, and David W. DeBerry
A THEORETICAL DESCRIPTION OF THE LIMESTONE IN-
JECTION-WET SCRUBBING PROCESS. (FINAL REPORT).
VOLUME I. Radian Corp., Austin, Tex., Contract CPA-22-69-
138, 160p., June 9, 1970. 100 refs. NTIS: PB 193029
A basis for a theoretical description of the limestone injection-
wet scrubbing process for removal of sulfur dioxide from
power plant flue gases is given. A literature survey yielded the
pertinent chemical data for the aqueous system. A computer
program to calculate the partial pressures of SO2 and carbon
dioxide above aqueous solutions containing calcium, magnesi-
um, sodium, nitrate, sulfate, and chloride ions, and CO2 and
SO2 was written and checked against experimental data. Tur-
bulent contact absorbers and marble bed absorbers were
described mathematically. Thermodynamic data for the dis-
sociation constants of calcium sulfite and magnesium sulfite
and the solubility product constant for hydrated calcium sulfite
were determined experimentally. Sulfur dioxide sorption
systems were simulated that approximate the process used at
Kansas Power and Light and the process to be used in the
NAPCA prototype system at TVA's Shawnee Power Plant.
Flow rates, stream compositions, and important process varia-
bles are given. (Author abstract modified)
25427
Scaiola, Gianni
ESTIMATION OF THE INVESTMENTS AND EXPENDI-
TURES NECESSARY FOR THE ELIMINATION OF POLLU-
TION. (Stima degli investimenti e dei costi necessari per
I'eliminazione dell'inquinamento). Text in Italian. In: L'lnter-
vento Pubblico Contro 1'Inquinamento: Rapporto di Sintesi, p.
107-136, June 1970. 9 refs.
The investment, maintenance, and operating costs involved in
the elimination of the more important forms of air and water
pollution are estimated with reference to automotive emissions
(hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, and nitrogen oxides), indus-
trial emissions (particulate pollution, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen
oxides, hydrocarbons, and fluorine compounds), electric
power plants, domestic heating (with a table of central heating
plants and corresponding population figures for eleven Italian
cities), liquid effluents from industrial and private sources, and
the marine transport of petroleum and petroleum products. For
each category, the procedure is described by which the esti-
mates are made.
25430
(Inventor not given.)
PROCESS FOR OBTAINING SULFUR FROM SULFUR
DIOXIDE, COAL, AND CALCIUM SULFATE. (Verfahren zur
Gewinnung von Schwefel aus Schwefeldioxyde, Kohle and
Gips). Text in German. (Actien- Gesellschaft fuer Anilin-
Fabrikation, Berlin, (West Germany)) Ger. Pat. 300715. 2p.,
Jan. 2, 1920. (Appl. Nov. 4, 1916, 1 claim).
A process is described for the reduction of sulfur dioxide to
elemental sulfur. A temperature favorable to an optimum reac-
tion is created inside a reaction chamber by burning coal with
oxygen. This enables the generation of heat for the process
from within the reaction chamber, by the combustion of the
-------
170
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
coal, and eliminates a two-stage process required by earlier in-
ventions. This makes possible a simpler construction for the
furnace.
25494
Jara, Vladimir, Jan Bettelheim, and Jaroslav Skrivanek
THE REGENERATION OF THE ABSORPTION SOLUTION
FROM THE ABSORPTION OF SO2 FROM INDUSTRIAL
WASTE GASES. (Zpusob regenerace absorpcniho roztoky pri
zachycovani kyslicniku siticiteho z prumyslovych odpadnich
plynu). Text in Czech. (Czechoslovak Republic) Czech. Pat.
106,240. 2p., Jan. 15, 1963. (Appl. Sept. 12, 1961, 3 claims).
Sulfur dioxide contained in flue gases from industrial furnaces
is washed in absorbers by a solution of sodium hydrogen
sulfite wit the necessary sodium ions being supplied in the
form of 8-20% by weight sodium carbonate whose concentra-
tion must, depending on temperature and humidity of the gas,
be so chosen that the concentration of the resulting sodium
hydrogen sulfite fluctuate between 40 and 47% by weight. The
liberated carbon dioxide escapes with the desulfurized gas
while the resulting sodium hydrogen sulfite solution is led to a
reactor where it is decomposed by sulfuric acid. The decom-
position yields concentrated SO2 which is dried and liquefied
or converted to sulfuric acid and sodium sulfate. The sulfuric
acid is used for the decomposition of NaHSO3. Following
neutralization with sodium carbonate and evaporation, the
sodium sulfate solution (20-33% by weight) is reduced to sodi-
um sulfide by coal or coke in a furnace at 600-1100 C with the
simultaneous liberation of CO2. The Na2S is converted by
CO2 to soda and H2S. The filtered soda solution is used for
the absorption of SO2. Sulfur is oxidized to SO2 which is
further processed with the gaseous SO2 from the decomposi-
tion of Na HS03.
25503
McCrea, D. H., J. G. Myers, and A. J. Forney
EVALUATION OF SOLID ABSORBENTS FOR SULFUR OX-
IDES REMOVAL FROM STACK GASES. Preprint, Interna-
tional Union of Air Pollution Prevention Associations, 35p.,
1970. 9 refs. (Presented at the International Clean Air Con-
gress, 2nd, Washington, D. C., Dec. 6-11, 1970, Paper EN-
35A.)
Absorbents for the removal of sulfur dioxide from stack gases
have been widely studied. A description is given of two dry,
rcgcncrable absorbents, copper oxide impregnated into an alu-
mina support and sodium carbonate obtained by thermal
decomposition of Trona ore. Preliminary process designs and
economic evaluations for power-plant utilization are included.
Copper oxide readily reacts with the SO2 in flue gas at tem-
peratures between 300 and 450 C. It can be regenerated using
methane at a temperature as low as 400 C, and it remains
physically and chemically stable after long use. In the concep-
tual process, SO2 removal occurs at 430 C in a fluidized reac-
tor where the pellets are contained for about 40 minutes. The
absorbent is then regenerated at about the same temperature,
in a gravitating bed, and the SO2 evolved is converted to con-
centrated sulfuric acid. Cost of the process, before by product
credit, is estimated at 1.26 mills per kilowatt hour of power
produced. Sodium carbonate reacts very rapidly with SO2 at
temperatures between 200 and 400 C. It can be regenerated by
reduction at 700 to 750 C followed by carbonation at 400 to
500 C. While it is physically inferior to impregnated copper ox-
ide, this is offset by its lower cost. In a power plant, SO2 can
be removed at 300 C in a conveyed solids contactor and the
absorbent regenerated with reformed methane in a two-stage
pressurized reactor. The hydrogen sulfide evolved during
regeneration is converted to elemental sulfur. Cost, before by-
product credit, is estimated as 1.35 mills per kilowatt hour.
The estimates show that absorbent properties are but one of
the factors that influence operating cost. Further absorbent
development is unlikely to reduce the cost of SO2 removal
below about one mill per kilowatt hour. However, the high
equipment costs suggest that significant reductions might be
achieved by modification of gas-solid contactors and better in-
tegration of SO2 removal with power-plant operations. (Author
abstract modified)
25517
Reid, William T.
WHAT ABOUT AIR POLLUTION BY POWER PLANTS. Bat-
telle Res. Outlook, 2(3):21-24, 1970.
While annual pollutant emissions from power plants are one-
fourth those of automobiles and trucks, the amount of pollu-
tants released during peak periods is a real cause of concern.
The major pollutants are sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, and
particulate matter. Major schemes under study for controlling
sulfur oxides are scrubbing with water; scrubbing with car-
bonates such as lithium, sodium, and potassium; limestone in-
jection; conversion of SO2 to SO3 in a fixed catalyst bed; and
the alkalized alumina process. Engineering problems remain to
be solved in every case. The low cost and almost universal
availability of limestone make it a preferred reactant for S02,
but the quantities required create handling and disposal dif-
ficulties. Systems based on recovering sulfur are not appealing
now because of the low cost of sulfur. For reducing nitrogen
oxides emissions, only burning at a maximum temperature that
is as low as possible is feasible for large boiler furnaces.
Flame temperature can be held down in two practical ways:
(1) admitting part of the air into the burner region prior to
combustion, then supplying the rest of the air afte combustion
or (2) recirculating appreciable amounts of flue gas into the
flame region. Both schemes are adaptable to gas-fired and oil-
fired boiler furnaces but pose engineering problems when pul-
verized coal is burned. Fly ash can be satisfactorily removed
from flue gas by inertial collectors and electrostatic precipita-
tors. The major aim now is to do it more completely at ac-
ceptable cost.
25529
Cambel, Ali B.
IMPACT OF ENERGY DEMANDS. Phys. Today, 23(12):38-43,
45, Dec. 1970. 9 refs.
Power production is undoubtedly the main source of the
degradation of the environment. Yet the solution is not in for-
bidding the growth of the energy industries, because it is the
availability of cheap and abundant energy that makes an im-
proved standard of living possible. New counter-technologies
that better exploit the potentialities of the laws of ther-
modynamics and electrodynamics are needed. The government
can provide subsidies or tax write-offs for energy-development
research as it did for the aerospace and electronics industries,
and encourage competitions among different fuels and energy
converters. One competition would be created by the develop-
ment of household hydrocarbon fuel cells that obtain their gas
supply the gasification of coal, with nuclear power plants
providing their thermal energy. Such a hydrocarbon fuel-cell
electric supply would compete with the local electric utility in-
dustry. Since research should be oriented toward less dissipa-
tion of energy, every fiscal encouragement should be given to
manufacturers who develop appliances such as microwave
ovens and stoves, ultrasonic dishwashers and washing
machines, thermoelectric refrigeration and air-conditioning
units, and electrochemiluminescent lighting panels.
-------
B. CONTROL METHODS
171
25560
Cantrell, Robert R. and Forrest P. Wiley
RECOVERY OF SO2. (Grace (W. R.) and Co., New York) U.
S. Pat. 3,538,681. 3p., Nov. 10, 1970. 2 refs. (Appl. Dec. 5,
1968, 6 claims).
A method is described which will remove sulfur dioxide from
a gas stream even when it constitutes only a very small per-
centage of total gas flow. It involves the absorption, at 24 to
34 C, of SO2 by dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) in a typical coun-
tercurrent gas-liquid contact column. Subsequently, the SO2 is
desorbed from the DMSO-SO2 mixture, at 40 to 90 C, by con-
tacting the mixture with alumina or other suitable absorbent.
Since the method has the potentiality for removing at least
99% of the SO2 from flue gases, it will enable power stations
to continually burn cheap sulfur-containing fuels.
25584
Fredriksen, Helge
CAN EMISSIONS BE REDUCED? (Kan utslippene reduseres?).
Text in Norwegian. Tek. Ukleblad (Oslo), 115(12):259-262,
March 21, 1968. 5 refs.
The output of Norwegian hydroelectric plants, which was 49
billion in 1965, supplies about one half of the nation's electric
power requirements, so that it is necessary to resort to organic
fuels to meet the quota. The sulfur content of fuel oil present
problems due to the emission of sulfur dioxide. The heavier
the oil, the higher its sulfur content. In the Oslo area, a
number 6 oil is sold that has only 2.5% S, but this is more ex-
pensive than the high-sulfur oil. Domestic heating must use
about 15% of the heavier oils (number 3, number 5, number 6)
while industry must mak use of about 25% of the lighter oils
(number 1 and number 2). It has been calculated that the total
SO2 emission resulting from the burning of fuel oils amounts
to 120-130 million kg annually (1966). The heavier oils account
for about 90% of this figure. Domestic heating is responsible
for about 25 million kg, or 20% of the total SO2 emission
figure. From 2 to 4% of the fuel-oil sulfur is emitted in the
form of SO3, which tends to combine with atmospheric
moisture to form sulfuric acid. A Swedish study has shown
that paniculate matter can contain 10-30% by weight of this
sulfuric acid. A summary is given, from the literature, of the
various procedures used for reducing sulfur oxide emissions,
including chimney height, desulfurizing fuels, use of binders
such as limestone and dolomite as additives to fuel, scrubbers,
gravity precipitators, the Reinluft process, alkalized alumina,
activated manganese oxide, and catalytic oxidation. The
economics of desulfurization are also discussed.
25602
(Inventor not given.)
METHOD AND APPARATUS FOR MINIMIZING AIR POL-
LUTION. (Combustion Engineering, Inc., Windsor, Conn.)
Brit. Pat. 1,180,568. 7p., Feb. 4, 1970. (Appl. Feb. 24, 1967, 8
claims).
One of the many sources of air pollution is the flue gases
emitted from fuel burning equipment such as steam generating
units. The sulfur dioxide and sulfur trioxide in such gases are
a major concern as air pollutants. The particulate matter such
as fly ash and other dust particles also contribute to pollution
if not completely recovered. The schemes that have been
developed to date to remove these obnoxious flue gas con-
stituents have involved eithe high capital costs and/or high
operating costs. The present invention provides a method and
apparatus for economically removing the pollutants. According
to the invention, inexpensive pulverized limestone or dolomite
are added to the flue gas stream to produce harmless materials
that are readily removed by subsequent wet scrubbing. After
being scrubbed, the flue gases are reheated to raise their tem-
perature so that no visible vapor plume is emitted, or localized
air pollution caused by low-temperature, nonbuoyant gases is-
suing from the scrubber. Reheating is accomplished by in-
troducing into the scrubbed gases one portion of a subdivided
air stream, the temperature of the portion being higher than
the temperature of the scrubbed combustion products. The
other portion of the preheated air is used to form the hot air-
fuel mixture for combustion. By eliminating the need to place
a heat transfer surface area in the path of flue gas coming
from the scrubber, the direct reheating considerably reduces
capital expenses.
25637
Sieth, Joachim and Hans-Gunter Heitmann
APPARATUS FOR CONTINUOUSLY MEASURING THE
CONCENTRATION OF A GAS- MIXTURE COMPONENT.
(Siemens-Schuckertwerke AG, Berlin (West Germany) U. S.
Pat. 3,367,747. 5p., Feb. 6, 1968. 4 refs. (Appl. March 11, 1964,
10 claims).
In combustion plants, particularly steam-boiler plants, the flue
gases contain more or less considerable quantities of sulfur
dioxide as well as traces of sulfur trioxide, stemming from the
combustion of sulfurous fuels such as coal and oil. When the
temperature of the flue gases drops below the dew point, the
gases condense and may cause serious damage by corrosion in
the boiler. Since the dew point is influenced substantially by
the proportion of sulfur trioxide in the waste gases, it is
desirable to provide means for measuring the SO3 concentra-
tion in a gas mixture. Accordingly, the concentration of SO3
and SO2 in a flow of smoke gas can be measured by perform-
ing the following steps: treating the flowing gas mixture con-
tinuously with condensing water vapor to selectively absorb
SO3 from the mixture; continuously measuring the concentra-
tion of the sulfuric acid solution resulting from the reaction of
the condensing water and the SO3, this concentratio being in-
dicative of the SO3 concentration in the gas mixture; continu-
ously treating the residual flow of gas, now free of SO3, with
water to absorb SO2; and measuring the concentration of the
sulfurous acid solution resulting from the reaction of water
and sulfur dioxide, as indicative of the SO2 concentration in
the gas mixture. The concentration of the sulfuric acid solution
and/or the sulfurous acid solution is advantageously deter-
mined by electric conductivity measurements.
25663
Beeching, W. E. J.
FLUE-GAS WASHING TRIALS AND CONCLUSIONS. Mech.
World Eng. Rec., vol. 68:88, 91, Jan. 25, 1935.
Flue gas washing efficiency in removing dust and sulfur during
power station working conditions is considered. An experimen-
tal plant is described with four sprinklers in each of two
towers, and a baffle at the base of a transverse chamber which
separates the effluent water from the two towers. Results and
observations concerning efficiency are presented tabularly.
Tests were also conducted on samples of cement and dust in
various proportions and the results compared with mixtures of
cement and sand. It is proposed to deepen all thermometer
pockets, and if necessary fill them with water. Rather than
keep the flow restricted and reduce the size of the nozzle in
the second venturi meter, it is also proposed to divert one of
the pipes. Pilot readings are to be checked by the introduction
of an anemometer. Further modifications are indicated.
-------
172
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
25677
Quesnel, Guy and Pierre Theilmann
OIL-FIRED AND COAL-FIRED 600-MW BOILER OF THE
POWER PLANT AT LE HAVRE. (La Chauffe au mazut et au
charbon de la chaudiere de 600 MW de la centrale du Havre).
Text in French. Sciences Techniques, no. 12:3-12, Nov. 1968.
4 refs.
Described is a boiler producing 1810 tons per hour of super-
heated steam at a temperature of 567 C and a pressure of 167
bars. This boiler feeds 600 megawatt a turbo-alternator unit
which forms the second stage of construction of the new Elec-
tricite de France thermal power plant at Le Havre. Heavy fuel
oil and pulverized coal can be burned separately or jointly; the
consumption at full power is 129 tons per hour of fuel oil, 217
tons per hour of pulverized coal, or any intermediate depend-
ing on the oil-coal ratio. To keep up this rate of consumption a
fleet of 16 ore ships of 50,000 register tons each or a fleet of 5
oil tankers of 100,000 register tons each is required. Cor-
respondingly, between 2000 and 3000 tons per day of com-
bustion wastes which can not be recovered in the waste-
recovery plants, must be buried in deep trenches off Le
Havre. Description of the boiler structure and the combustion
chamber with tangential fuel injection from four recessed bur-
ners is followed by a discussion of the problem of burning fuel
oil which may contain up to 4% sulfur. The tangential fuel in-
jection combined with a small excess of combustion air in-
jected from several points provides an excellent solution of
this problem as it results in a small rate of conversion of SO2
into SO3 mixture, with a consequent decrease in the rate of
corrosion of the metal panels surrounding the combustion
chamber. The excess combustion air and the highest chimney
in Europe (240 m) combine to lower the pollutant content of
the exhausts and to disperse those that remain away from ad-
jacent residential areas. Equipment for preliminary treatment
of fuel oil and coal is described. The operations of the boiler is
almost fully automatic and is protected by a system of con-
tinually monitored protective devices.
25702
Takahashi, Akira
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT OF STACK GAS DESUL-
FURIZATION PROCESS. Chem. Economy Eng. Rev., 2(3):17-
20. March 1970.
Due to increasing consumption of sulfur-containing fuel oil,
pollution by sulfur dioxide has become a pressing problem in
Japan. Various promising flue-gas desulfurization methods
have been studied during the past few years: the limestone (or
dolomite) process, activated carbon process, activated man-
ganese oxide process, Kiyoura-TIT catalytic oxidation
process, and water-washing processes. The activated carbon
and activated manganese oxide are described in detail,
together with progress in their research and development. The
former yields sulfuric acid as a by-product and the latter am-
monium sulfate of commercial quality. Both processes have
been tested in pilot plants, and major technical problems
solved. Each will be used on a commercial scale by one or
more electric power companies.
25743
Malachowski, Jan
PURIFICATION OF INDUSTRIAL EXHAUST GASES.
(Oszyszczanie odlotowych gazow przemyslowych). Text in
Polish. Rudy Metale Niezelazne, 12(10):532-537, 1967. 8 refs.
Several methods for sulfur dioxide removal from exhaust
gases of power plants and chemicals and their utilization are
discussed. In Czechoslovak power plants, the method used is
basically circulation of absorbent (ammonium sulfite), which is
saturated by SO2 at 20-35 C and releases SO2 into gas phase
at 80-120 C. A new type of absorber with a packed bed con-
sisting of aluminum spirals has been tested, which is cheaper
and enables longer contact time. The optimum conditions of
the process are discussed. The method used in the USSR is
suitable for neutralization of gases with low SO2 content in
the metallurgy of nonferrous metals. Sulfur dioxide is neutral-
ized by ammonia and the ammonium sulfite obtained is treated
by phosphoric acid. As a by-product, phosphoric fertilizer is
obtained. The method has been tested and the parameters of
the process analyzed. The method used in Rumania is basically
the same, only the SO2 recovered is further used in sulfuric
acid production. The parameters of the absorption process
differ significantly from the Russian method. In Japan, S02
from effluent gases is oxidized on vanadium contact. Gaseous
ammonia is then introduced at 220-260 C to give ammonium
sulfite. Alternatively, the gas after contact is cooled to about
95 C, which results in formation of 70% H2SO4.
25744
Kranz, Maksymilian, Marian Grala, and Marek Rrzymien
THE DERIVATION OF GALLIUM AND ALUMINUM FROM
COAL AND GAS DUSTS AND ASHES. (Proby wydzielania
glinu i galu z pylow i popiolow weglowych i gazowniczych).
Text in Polish. Poznan. Towarz. Przyjaciol Nauk, Wydzial
Mat. Przyrod. Prace Komisji Mat. Przyrod., 12(3):3-11, 1968. 6
refs.
Methods of obtaining aluminum and gallium concentrates and
eventually their complete isolation from coal and gas dusts of
two Polish electric and gas works are reported. The amounts
of Al and Iron in the dusts formed in the process of coal com-
bustion in generators, boilers, and in dusts remaining in chim-
neys were determined to be 2-12% Fe203 and 1-9% A1203.
Four different methods used to obtain Ga enriched material
are described. Spectral analysis showed that only the methods
of precipitation of gallium ferrocyanide and extraction by ethyl
ether were successful. Spectral analysis also identified Fe, Al,
and Mg as the main admixtures accompanying Ga. For Al
separation, the methods of acidic and alkalic extraction were
considered. The amount of Al in the dusts is up to 8% A1203.
The generator dust is richer in Ga; the boiler dust, in useful
metals like Cr, V, Ni, and Mo. These appear mostly in trace
quantities. The method of their isolation has to be further
developed.
25786
Busby, H. G. Trevor and K. Darby
EFFICIENCY OF ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATORS AS
AFFECTED BY THE PROPERTIES AND COMBUSTION OF
COAL. J. Inst. Fuel (London), vol. 184-197, May 1963. 4 refs.
The results of an investigation into the adverse performance of
electrostatic precipitators on pulverized-fuel boilers firing cer-
tain coals from England and Australia are discussed. The ef-
fect of the electrical resistivity of the fly-ash is examined;
when the resistivity of the dust exceeds about 10 to the 13th
power ohm/cm, the efficiency of precipitation is reduced. The
resistivity of the dust is determined by the surface condition
of the dust particles. The adverse effect when resistivity is
high ca be overcome by the injection of sulfur trioxide into the
flue before the precipitator: this is completely absorbed by the
dust. The formation of sulfur trioxide from combustion .of the
sulfur in the coal is an over-riding factor in determining
precipitator efficiency and this, while broadly related to sulfur
content of coal, is also affected by unknown factors in the
combustion process. (Author abstract modified)
-------
B. CONTROL METHODS
173
25787
Lindblad, A. R.
METHOD FOR MANUFACTURING SULFUR. (Salt att fram-
stalla svavel). Text in Swedish. (Assignee not given.) Swed.
Pat. 80,439. 2p., May 23, 1934. (Appl. Nov. 1, 1932, 2 claims).
A method is presented for use with gases containing sulfur
dioxide derived from roasting or other processing of pyrites or
other sulfur-containing ores, using coal or some other solid
containing carbon as the reducing agent. This agent is mixed
or impregnated with an alkali metal or alkali compound, such
as sodium carbonate, sodium sulfate, or sodium sulfide. The
alkali material acts as a catalyst, extremely effective against
the formation of undesirable secondary products such as
hydrogen sulfide, and its action extends beyond the time and
place of contact between the gases and the solid reducing
agent.
25795
Lindblad, A. R.
METHOD FOR MANUFACTURING SULFUR BY THE
REDUCTION OF SULFUR DIOXIDE. (Satt att framstalla
svavel medelst reduktion av svavelsyrfighet). Text in Swedish.
(Assignee not given.) Swed. Pat. 85,183. 2p., Jan. 9, 1956. (Appl.
Sept 6, 1955, 10 claims).
The gas mixture containing sulfur dioxide is introduced into a
specially constructed chamber, where it is heated by the hot
reaction products produced by the reduction process. The SO2
mixture is passed through one or more channels arranged in-
side the reaction chamber or along its periphery, and moves in
the opposite direction to the gases formed by the reaction.
Thus, the mixture containing SO2 may be introduced near the
lower end of the reaction chamber, after which it moves up-
ward through the chamber, absorbing the heat of reaction as it
goes. It comes in contact with the reducing agent (which can
be a gas) at the top of the chamber and moves downward as
they react. The sulfur produced by the reduction process is
removed from the bottom of the apparatus. Producer gas or
blast furnace gas can be used as the reducing agent, or
possibly powdered coal.
25833
Watkins, E. R. and K. Darby
ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATION FOR LARGE BOILERS.
Proc. Inst. Mech. Engrs. (London), vol. 181, part 3N:78-89,
1966-1967. 3 refs.
Because it contributes nothing to the overall efficiency of the
station in terms of cost per unit generated, the electrostatic
precipitator has been the least understood item of equipment
at the average power station. The lack of interest has resulted
in poor maintenance and operation and thus poor efficiency of
gas cleaning. With the increasing awareness of the health
hazards from atmospheric pollution, this attitude is changing.
Design, operation, and maintenance factors of vital concern if
high efficiency is to be maintained are highlighted. Mechanical
and electrical design considerations noted include casings, col-
lector systems, discharge systems, insulators, mechanical and
static rectifiers, 'sectionalization' of precipitators, hoppers,
and automatic control. Recommendations made for operation
and maintenance cover initial commissioning, checks during
normal operation, analysis and location of faults, and periodic
major overhauls.
25913
Heredy, Laszlo A.
ELECTROCHEMICAL PROCESS FOR RECOVERING SUL-
FUR VALUES. (North American Rockwell Corp., Canoga
Park, Calif.) U. S. Pat. 3,531,386. 5p., Sept. 29, 1970. 4 refs.
(Appl. Nov. 26, 1968, 5 claims).
A method is described for recovering sulfur values from mol-
ten salt compositions using inexpensive readily available
materials and avoiding the use of expensive equipment. Sulfur
oxides, principally as sulfur dioxide, are present in the waste
gases discharged from many metal refining and chemical
plants and in the flue gases from electric power plants. The
electrochemical recovery of sulfur values from the molten salt
as sulfur oxides in the anode compartment, and the simultane-
ous formation of alkali metal carbonate in the melt in the
cathode compartment, is accomplished by feeding the molten
salt composition to the anode compartment while simultane-
ously using carbon dioxide and oxygen as cathodic feed
material.
25973
(Inventor not given.)
METHOD OF MANUFACTURING SULFUR FROM GASES
CONTAINING SULFUR DIOXIDE. (Sistema per la produzione
di zolfo da gas contenenti anidride solforosa). Text in Italian.
(Pyrites Co., Ltd., London (England)) Ital. Pat. 380,818. 6p.,
June 5, 1950. (Appl. Feb. 22, 1940, 9 claims).
A process is described which is intended for use with gas mix-
tures containing at least 12% sulfur dioxide and little or no ox-
ygen. The gas is passed over a mass or column containing a
carboniferous material. The gas is introduced at the top of the
column or mass, and the product is removed from the lower
end. Dust is removed from the gas before processing, by
passing the gas through a cyclone made of refractory material.
The process should be carried out at a temperature of no less
then 850 C.
26063
Rathgeber, Ferdinand
ELECTRIC FILTERS FOR DRY AND WET SEPARATION.
(Elektrofilter fuer Trocken- und Nassabscheidung). Text in
German. Wasser Luft Betrieb, 14(1):456-460, Nov. 1970.
Recent improvements of electric filters deal with increasing
operating reliability, with increasing capacity, with prolonging
the life of the equipment, and with adapting the equipment to
properties of different dusts. As a result, various modifications
of sparking and of precipitation electrodes were produced. In
some areas, a combination of electric filtration with other dust
removal methods was found advantageous. The trend is
towards the building of compact units. Another improvement
consists of the introduction of unbreakable electrodes. Wet
electric filters have not found as wide application as dry fil-
ters. A newly developed wet filter consists of a battery of
identical wet elements intended for the separation of aerosols,
of dust, of soot, and for the recovery of valuable waste gas
components. Examples of the application of improved dry and
wet electric filters include dust separation of power plant flue
gases and of larger incinerator flue gases which sometimes
must be cooled prior to dust removal, dust separation in ce-
ment manufacture, gas purification in non ferrous metal smelt-
ing plants, the recovery of valuable materials from waste gases
from metallurgical processes, and dust removal in the iron and
steel industry.
-------
174
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
26084
Juntgen, H. and K. H. van Heek
COURSES OF REACTION UNDER NON-ISOTHERMIC CON-
DITIONS. (Reaktionsablaufe unter nicht-isothermen Bedingun-
gen). Preprint, Bergbau-Forschung G.m.b.H., Essen-Kray
(West Germany), Steinkohlenbergbauverein, p. 601-699, 1970.
195 refs. Translated from German. Belov and Associates,
Denver, Colo., 127p., March 16, 1970.
A review of the literature and preliminary experimental results
are presented for the kinetics of chemical reactions and physi-
cal process under conditions of chronological and spatial
changes in temperature. Based on fundamental equations
which describe the course of such reactions, the methods used
to determine the order of reaction, the activation energy, and
the frequency factor are discussed, and experimental methods
in current use for determination of kinetic parameters are eval-
uated. Various investigations and results on the release of
water from salts and hydroxides, the calcination of carbonates
and oxalates, reactions of metallic oxides and carbonates with
sulfur dioxide, and reactions on carbon surfaces are surveyed,
and the application of the non-isothermal method to the ther-
mal decomposition of carboxylic acids and polymeric plastics
as well as to the pyrolysis of natural substances (particularly
bituminous coal) is explained. Chemical reactions in a liquid
phase, the desorption of gases from solids, annealing
processes disturbed crystal lattices, and the emission of exo-
electrons from metallic surfaces are also discussed. (Author
abstract modified)
26143
Forrest, J. S. and H. J. Lowe
PRESENT PERFORMANCE AND SCOPE FOR IMPROVE-
MENT IN POWER-STATION ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITA-
TORS. (Inst. of Mechanical Engineers, London (England),
Proc. Conf. Mech. Engrs. Contrib. Clean Air, London, 1957, p.
42-59. 8 refs.
The results of tests to determine the performance of electro-
static precipitators, and combined electrostatic and mechanical
dust arresters at power stations are presented. The collecting
efficiency of 30 stations in England ranges from 95% to over
99.5%, with a mean value of 98.5%. The present capital expen-
diture of England's Central Electricity Authority is over $5.8
million per year. Important features of precipitator design are
discussed, and information is given on operating experience.
The performance of precipitators is affected by dust charac-
teristics. Since the dust is a complex mixture difficult to
describe in terms of a singl parameter, it is often described in
terms of the terminal velocity of the particles in cm/sec, or
'vels'. Future developments in precipitator design are con-
sidered, particularly improved methods of electrical control.
An indication is given of the scope for overall improvement in
plant performance. A discussion of the paper is included with
the text. (Author abstract modified)
26155
Rassow, B. and K. Hoffmann
THE FORMATION OF CARBON DISULFIDE RESULTING
FROM THE REACTION BETWEEN SULFUR DIOXIDE AND
COAL. (Ueber die Bildung von Schwefelkohlenstoff bei der
Einwirkung von Schwefeldioxyd auf Kohle). Text in German.
J. Prakt. Chem., vol. 104:207-240, 1922. 49 refs.
The formation of carbon disulfide from the reaction between
sulfur dioxide and charcoal under conditions of white heat was
followed analytically over the entire temperature range. At 700
C only traces formed, from 750 C on a steadily increasing
amount of CS2 formed aside from carbon oxysulfide, C02,
sulfur vapors and at first a small quantity of CO. The forma-
tion of CS2 reached its maximum at 850-900 C. The sulfur
from SO2 was at this temperature divided between CS2 (35%),
COS (55%) and free sulfur (10%) with small quantities of CO
and CO2 completing the composition of the gas mixture.
Above 900 C the quantity of free sulfur increased at the cost
of CS2 and COS. The oxygen from SO2 appeared almost en-
tirely in the form of CO aside from the share in COS. Above
1100 C no CS2 formed; COS formed only in small quantity;
free S and CO were the only reaction products. The process
has no technical application because even under the most
favorable conditions great quantities of COS form which is ex-
plosive when mixed with air and is difficult to handle.
26211
Gollmar, Herbert A.
REMOVAL OF SULFUR COMPOUNDS FROM COAL GAS.
In: Chemistry of Coal Utilization. Vol. 2, New York, Wiley,
1945, Chapt. 26, p. 947- 1007. 213 refs.
A comprehensive review of past and present technology for
the removal of sulfur compounds from coal gas is presented.
Hydrogen sulfide is identified as the principal compound, con-
stituting 90-95 of the total sulfur. The balance is conven-
tionally but erroneously referred to as organic sulfur. It con-
sists of about 2/3 carbon disulfide and an assortment of
thiophenes, mercaptans, thio ethers, organic disulfides, and
carbonyl sulfide. The sulfur in coal gas comes from the sulfur
in the coal that is carbonized. Removal techniques were
originally devised to eliminate the odors associate with the
combustion of H2S, followed by recognition of the corrosiv
properties of sulfur compounds dissolved in water. The cur-
rent demand for low sulfur coal gas to support an ever in-
creasing number of chemical processes and special metallurgi-
cal alloying requirements is forcing the allowable sulfur con-
tent in coal gas to continually lower levels. The technology of
sulfur removal over th last 150 years is reviewed. The original
attempts to use milk of lime resulted in solid deposits and
plugging. Scrubbers using solid lime were used a few years
later, followed by the use of sulfided lime and then oxide pu-
rifiers. Liquid purifiers came on the scene about 1880, using
ammonia liquor washes, and opening the door to sorbent
regeneration. The effects of tar, naphthalene, and hydrocyanic
acid, normal constituents of coal gas, on the desulfurization
process are discussed. By-product recovery started with con-
verting the sulfur to sulfuric acid, and that process remains
today the principal recovery technique. Variations include the
recovery of H2S, ammonia, and elemental sulfur. The nature
of the recovered product is usually dictated by economic con-
siderations.
26220
Kovach, J. L.
THE EVALUATION OF THE IGNITION TEMPERATURE OF
ACTIVATED CHARCOALS IN AIR, STEAM, OXYGEN AND
OXIDES OF NITROGEN. International Atomic Energy Agen-
cy, Vienna (Austria), Symp. on Treatment and Control of Air-
borne Radioactive Wastes, New York City, 1968, p. 439-447.
20 refs. (Aug. 26-30.)
The ignition temperature of impregnated and unimpregnated
activated charcoals currently used for the adsorption of vari-
ous forms of radioactive iodine was evaluted. Standardized
quartz ignition temperature apparatus was utilized, and the
inlet air and charcoal temperatures were increased at a 10
C/min rate until 150 C was reached. After reaching 150 C, the
temperature was increased by 5 C/min. Standard rotameters
-------
B.CONTROL METHODS
175
were used to measure gas flow, while the use of multiple
rotameters permitted the control of gas concentration to ob-
tain: air at 70% RH at 30 C, air at 100% RH at 75 C, and air-
steam mixture where 50% of the available oxygen is in the
form of air and the other 50% is introduced as steam, and air
bubbled through concentrated nitric acid at 30 C. Atmospheric
conditions and gas-charcoal residence times existing in nuclear
power reactor containment recirculating filter systems, emer-
gency off-gas filter systems, and fuel reprocessing plant filters
were simulated. The ignition of activated charcoals not treated
to increase ignition temperature is more likely in low humidity
systems or when nitrogen dioxide is present in the air stream.
Precautions must be taken if an intermittent air flow is used
and if possible, this should be avoided. The presence of large
amounts of steam significantly lowers charcoal ignition
hazards, while the presence of impregnated iodine increases
the ignition temperature. (Author abstract modified)
26230
Perrine, Richard L. and Limin Hsueh
POWER AND INDUSTRY: CONTROL OF SULFUR DIOXIDE
EMISSIONS. In: Project Clean Air. California Univ.,
Berkeley, Task Force 5, Vol. 1, Section 10, 8p., Sept. 1, 1970.
20 refs.
Sulfur dioxide emissions result primarily from the burning of
sulfur-containing fossil fuels, and total SO2 emissions to the
atmosphere in the U. S. are estimated at more than 28 million
tons/year. Large quantities of relatively low-sulfur fuel oils
now are available from Indonesia and Alaska, substantially
reducing the problem from what it otherwise could be. To
date, none of the many direct removal processes appear to be
able to break even in terms of recovery of salable by-
products: elemental sulfur, sulfuric acid, or ammonium sulfate.
Methods to desulfurize oil are available and the only factor is
process economics, but coal desulfurization is very difficult.
Two basic limestone-dolomite injection processes are being in-
vestigated, but the processes give no valuable by-products.
Several leaching processes are mentioned, but these have the
disadvantage that washing chills stack gases, losing normal
buoyancy. Thus reheating is required. High capital and opera-
tional costs are involved with absorption and adsorption
processes, while the principal need with catalytic oxidation is
development to permit effective processing of dilute gases at
temperatures lower than presently required. Reduction
processes are also cited.
26237
Seifert, Werner and Gerhard Wolkenberg
SPECIAL FEATURES OF THE 140 MW TURBINE OF THE
DUISBURG POWER PLANT. (Besonderheiten des 140 -MW-
Blockes der Stadtwerke Duisburg). Text in German. Siemens Z.,
43(3):1S5-159, March 1969. 6 refs.
The turbine built in 1964 by Siemens for the Duisburg power
plant as an additional source of electricity had to meet specific
local needs with regard to construction, circuit and control.
The meet the rising heat consumption of Duisburg, the new
block supplies heater current of 2 times 75 G cal/h, the
amount projected for 1972. Two preheaters are provided which
will be connected to the existing heating system. For peak heat
requirement hot water is stored in vertical reservoirs of 900 cu
m capacity at 11 atm and at 187 C. The block is so constructed
as to meet a peak requirement of 200 MW between 7 am and
noon and 50 MW between midnight and 6 am. To render slag
discharge dust-free, the slag leaves the boiler furnace in liquid
form. A cyclone is provided. Fully automatic equipment is
provided for the operation of the turbine, for feed water
pumps, for low load boiler control, for the peak load reser-
voir, and for armature control.
-------
176
C. MEASUREMENT METHODS
00403
V. Jirasek
(ON THE SULFUR BALANCE IN STEAM GENERATORS.)
Prispevek k Bilanci Siry, Parnich Kotlu. Energetika (Prague)
16(4): 169-176, Apr. 1966. Czeck Text
The methodology for experimental determination of the sulfur
balance in steam generators (i.e. the distribution of sulfur
between the slag, fly ashes, and gaseous combustion products)
is described. The sources of various errors and their mag-
nitude, and the accuracy of the overall sulfur balance compu-
tation is discussed in detail. Measurements carried out on
basic types of Czechoslovak steam generators employing
diverse means of combustion are reviewed. It is deduced that
with existing methods of combustion the predominant part of
the sulfur leaves together with the gaseous combustion
products, and constitutes the basic amount of sulfur emitted
into the surrounding. In common cases, it appears that better
accuracy of sulfur-emission determination can be achieved by
computation from the sulfur content of the fuel and the solid
combustion products than by direct measurement of sulfur
dioxide contained in the gaseous combustion porducts.
(Author's summary)
00886
J. McK. Ellison
THE NATURE OF AIR POLLUTION AND THE METHODS
AVAILABLE FOR MEASURING IT. Bull. World Health Or-
gan. (Geneva), 32(3):399-409, 1965.
At present the principal sources of energy in Europe are coal
and oil and fuels derived from them, and in European towns
air pollution consists mainly of their combustion products.
These combustion products naturally divide into two catego-
ries, gaseous and particulate, which are very different chemi-
cally and which behave very differently when they are near
collecting surfaces; they therefore require very different
techniques both for collecting and for estimating samples.
Some methods of measurement, suitable for everyday routine
use in Europe, are described; these offer a compromise
between completeness and economy, and can help to give a
general outline of the air pollution situation without undue
complexity or prohibitive cost. (Author's summary)
00945
E. K. Diehl, F. du Breuil, and R. A. Glenn
POLYNUCLEAR HYDROCARBON EMISSION FROM COAL-
FIRED INSTALLATIONS. J. Eng. Power, 89(2):276-282, April
1967. (Presented at the IEEE-ASME Power Generation Con-
ference, Denver, Colo., Sept. 18-21, 1966, Paper No. 66-Pwr-
2.)
Trace quantities of the polynuclear hydrocarbons have been
identified in flue gases resulting from combustion of car-
bonaceous fuels. Some of these hydrocarbons, particularly
benzo(a)pyrene, possess known carcinogenic properties and
are of some concern in the overall assessment of the effects of
atmospheric pollution. An investigation was carried out under
a two-year grant received from the U.S. Public Health Service
to determine the occurrence of polynuclear hydrocarbons in
the flue gases from various coal-fired steam-generating instal-
lations. The paper describes the preliminary work leading to
the development of satisfactory sampling and analytical
procedures and gives the results obtained from sampling vari-
ous field installations. (Author abstract)
01354
M. Lippmann, H. J. DiGiovanni, S. Cravitt, P. Lilienfeld
LIGHTWEIGHT, HIGH-VOLUME ELECTROSTATIC
PRECD?ITATOR SURVEY SAMPLER. Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc.
J., Vol. 26:485-489, Oct. 1965.
A high-volume (27-cfm) electrostatic precipitator survey sam-
pler is described. It collects air-borne particles of all sizes with
high efficiency on a tube 1 3/4 inches in diameter and 12
inches long. The unit consists of a five-pound sampling head
containing the electrodes and air mover and a high-voltage
power supply weighing six pounds. The sampling head can be
hand-held for breathing zone sampling, or the two parts can be
clamped together and tripod-mounted for fixed-position
sampling. The sampler can be used with a cyclone precollec-
tor, without a significant flow reduction, for respirable dust
sampling. (Author abstract)
01363
H.J. Ettinger
IODINE SAMPLING WITH SILVER NITRATE-IM-
PREGNATED FILTER PAPER. Health Phys., Vol. 12:305-311,
March 1966.
The use of silver nitrate-impregnated 'radioiodine filters' was
evaluated under laboratory and field conditions. Preliminary
laboratory tests indicated 'radioiodine filter' efficiencies of 91-
96 per cent. When sampling a stack effluent containing a
variety of reactor waste products 'radioiodine filter' efficien-
cies of less than 8 per cent were obtained. Sampling effluent
gases from hot cells where reactor fuel elements are handled
resulted in a median 'radioiodine filter' efficiency of 20 per
cent, with efficiencies as high as 96-100 per cent under certain
operating conditions. Test results show that silver nitrate-im-
pregnated 'radioiodine filters' do not provide a reliable method
for monitoring the release of iodine to the atmosphere.
(Author abstract)
01856
F.E. Gartrell
MONITORING OF SO2 IN THE VICINITY OF COAL-FIRED
POWER PLANTS - TVA EXPERIENCE. Proc. Am. Power
Conf. (Presented at 27th Annual Meeting of the American
Power Conference, Chicago, 111., Apr. 27-29, 1965.)
During the relatively short period of approximately fifteen
years, TVA has conducted extensive air pollution studies at
eight large, modern, coal-fired, steam-electric generating sta-
tions as these plants were added to the TVA power system.
The plants vary in unit size, stack heights, fuel supply, site
topography, and micrometeorology. This paper presents sum-
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C. MEASUREMENT METHODS
177
maries of some of the significant findings of these studies
which should be of value in planning air pollution control for
large coal-fired power plants. (Author summary)
01857
D.H. Grindell
MONITORING SMOKE AND FLUE-DUST EMISSION. AEI
ENGINEERING 2, (5) 4179-71, 1962.
Several methods are available for measuring the offensiveness
of industrial smoke, the actual physical quantity measured
tending to be different in each case. The AEI electrostatic dust
monitor described in this article measures the surface area of
dust passing a selected point in a flue duct in unit time, a
quantity shown to be highly relevant in assessing air pollution.
Monitors of this type have been found to operate satisfactorily
and reliably in service. They provide a continuous record of
dust emission from the flue ducts in which they are fitted and
respond rapidly to sudden changes in the dust burden of the
chimney gases. (Author abstract)
02655
L. Narjes
THE USE OF NEW ZERO-PRESSURE FOR PROBES FOR
QUASI-ISOKTNETIC SAMPLING IN STEAM-POWER
PLANTS. Staub (English Translation) 25, (4) 11-8, APR. 1965
CFSTI TT66-51040/4
Reports on the application of a new zero-probe for taking dust
samples at high concentrations in coal-dust streams and the
behaviour of the probes under diverse in-flow conditions in a
test channel is investigated. Further, results of measurements
on conveying lines for coal dust at a stream power plant are
reported. Apart from this the suitability for plant use and
results of measurements with the probes in dust measurements
are discussed. (Author summary)
02668
H. Bresser and W. Hansch
A METHOD FOR CALCULATING SO2 IMMISSIONS IN THE
SURROUNDINGS OF LARGE POWER STATIONS. Staub
(English Translation) 25, (6) 20-4, JUNE 1965. CFSTI TT 66-
51040/6
Describes a method which makes possible a statistical calcula-
tion of the SO2 immissions to be expected in the surroundings
of a large power station. The calculation method is based on
the determination of propagation parameter according to But-
ton, combined with a correction of the propagation formula
with regard to the change in the average wind direction. The
required exponents can be evaluated if the daily weather re-
ports are interpreted as a function of wind velocity profiles.
The results are compared with calculations based on the
Pasquill method. (Author summary)
02921
F. E. Gartrell, F. W. Thomas, and S. B. Carpenter
ATMOSPHERIC OXIDATION OF SO2 IN COAL-BURNING
POWER PLANT PLUMES . Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J. 24, 113-
20, Apr. 1963. (Presented at the 23rd Annual Meeting, Amer-
ican Industrial Hygiene Association, Washington, D.C., May
1962.)
Sampling equipment and procedures applicable for use in a
helicopter were devised for collecting the separate SO2 and
SOS components in progressive plume cross sections at a large
coal burning power plant. Samples were collected during a
variety of meteorological conditions with particular attention
to a wide range of relative humidity. During periods of low hu-
midity, data reveal that oxidation of SO2 is relatively slow, in-
creasing from 2% at one mile (12 min) to 3% at 6 miles (60
min). With moderately high humidity, oxidation was initially
rapid, 22% at one mile (12 min), increasing to 32% at 8 miles
(96 min). The highest total oxidation, 55%, was observed in a
sh'ght mist at 9 miles (108 min). (Author abstract)
03460
H. A. Belyea, R. W. Johns, F. W. Taylor, and W. Surh
STACK EMISSION COLLECTOR. Preprint. 1962.
Stack Emission Collectors are relatively small test devices
which may be placed in a stack for a period of time and which
collect (by the settling process) a sample of the relatively large
sizes of paniculate matter in stack emissions, the fine or light
particles continuing on through the S.E.C. The particles
retained in the collector are of a size and density which would
fall within several stack heights of the source of the emission
and the weight of the collected sample is a measure of the
nuisance created by the source. As well, an estimate or ap-
proximation of the total emission (all sizes of particles) from
the source can be made whenever the kind or class of the ef-
fluent or a size and density determination of the participate
matter is known.
03546
W. D. Conner J. R. Hodkinson
OBSERVATIONS OF THE OPTICAL PROPERTIES AND
VISUAL EFFECTS OF SMOKE PLUMES. Preprint. (Presented
at the 57th Annual Meeting, Air Pollution Control Association,
Houston, Tex., June 21-25, 1964, Paper No. 64-117.)
Detailed observations are reported on the reduction in contrast
between targets seen through white experimental plumes of
various transmittances, on the contrast between white experi-
mental plumes and their background, and on the great effect
of varying conditions of lighting and observation. The varia-
tions in plume transmittance for light of different wavelengths
and the angular distribution of light scattered by the experi-
mental white plume and oil-burning electric plant plume have
also been measured, and estimates of mean particle-size
derived therefrom. Trials have been made to ascertain how
well observers can be trained to estimate visually, under dif-
ferent conditions, the transmittance of light and dark plumes.
(Author abstract modified)
03592
S. T. Cuffe
AIR POLLUTANTS FROM POWER PLANTS (TECHNIQUES
FOR EVALUATING AIR POLLUTANTS). Arch. Environ.
Health 6, 422-7, Mar. 1963. (Presented at the 27th Annual
Meeting, Industrial Hygiene Foundation, Pittsburgh, Pa., Oct.
24-25, 1962.)
The objective of the study is to evaluate the emissions of ox-
ides of nitrogen, oxides of sulfur, polynuclear hydrocarbons,
total hydrocarbons, total solids, formaldehyde, organic acids,
and common metals in the gases emitted from various types of
coal-burning power plants which may be useful in establishing
the range of atmospheric emissions under various conditions
of operation. Determination of the efficiencies of control
equipment is also essential for the long-range objective of
reducing total air pollution. This paper describes the sampling
and analytical techniques used in evaluating the several types
of emissions under study.
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178
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
04040
E. J. Schulz, R. A. Duffee, R. I. Mitchell, and E. W. Ungar
A TRACER TECHNIQUE TO MEASURE DEPOSITION OF
STACK EMISSIONS. Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J. 21, (5) 343-9,
Oct. 1960.
The uranine tracer technique is a useful tool in the quantitative
measurement of the particulate deposition rate of industrial
emission. The variable decompositions of uranine solutions ex-
posed to the atmosphere in dust-fall containers prevents the
use of dust-fall jars as sampling devices. Based on the labora-
tory study, uranine can be dispersed as a tracer into stack at
stack-gas temperatures up to 600 F without decomposition.
With direct stack injection, losses of tracer in the stack must
be determined for each application. In using uranine it is man-
datory that background fluorescence be determined in the area
to be investigated. However, the technique is not limited to
uranine. Any soluble material that satisfies the requirements of
a tracer can be employed with this method.
04759
J. R. Hodkinson
THE INTERPRETATION OF MIE-THEORY COMPUTA-
TIONS FOR ABSORBING SPHERES IN RELATION TO
LIGHT-SCATTERING METHODS OF AIRBORNE DUST
MEASUREMENT. STAUB (Duesseldorf) 23, 374-8, 1963. Ger.
(Tr.)
Mie-theory computations of the angular scattering diagrams of
moderately absorbing spherical particles larger than the
wavelength have been published by OLAF and ROBOCK
(1961), and the application of these results to the interpretation
of light-scattering measurements on such particles has been
discussed by ROBOCK (1962). This note compares these Mie-
theory results with simpler computations of the angular scat-
tering by moderately-absorbing spheres from the formulae of
large-particle classical optics; points out that the Mie- theory
does not apply to irregular particles such as constitute the air-
borne-dust clouds in mines; and discusses briefly the princi-
ples governing the measurement of dust concentration by light
-scattering methods.
04889
J. M. Lepper
PORTABLE INFRARED REMOTE S02 SENSOR (THIRD
QUARTERLY S02 REPT.) Dalmo Victor Co., Washington, D.
C. Apr. 10, 1967 9 pp.
This is a report of work concerning the present state of SO2
Sensor system, demonstrated capability, and problems. The
SO2 Sensor has been operational for the past month and a
half. During the month of January the internal computer was
checked out and found to meet the requirements described in
the Second Quarterly Report. The IR filters are all within
specification and behave as predicted. The test tank was
completed and the sensor system coefficient determination
was started. Coefficient calculations were made for 2, 3, or 4-
vector problems; i.e., spectral situations where 2, 3, or 4 com-
ponents are in the field of view. The 2-vector situation is real-
ized in practice when looking at plumes from natural gas burn-
ing power plants where the spectrum is dominated by CO2 and
H2O with only 150 PPM of SO2 present. An example of the 3-
vector problem in the field would be a fuel oil burning system
with moderate amounts of SO2 being present. The 4-vector
problem occurs when viewing coal burning sources with the
fourth spectral component due to flyash. Field tests were
begun in early March with a 2-vector calculation being done
on the Pacific Gas and Electric Company's natural gas burning
power plant. Further two-vector work was done at several oil
refineries, primarily for signal-to-noise measurements. At this
writing the equipment is disassembled for primarily optical
alignment. This optical alignment consists of precision machin-
ing of the optical chassis. Although the IR optics involves only
2 mirrors and the detector, accurate alignment is necessary to
insure on-axis operation. Also, alignment of the sighting
telescope to the IR telescope is necessary.
05216
TENTATIVE METHOD FOR CALCULATIONS OF THE
DISPERSION OF DISCHARGES IN THE ATMOSPHERE .
Byul. Stroit. Tekhn. (11), 29-31 (Nov. 1963). Russ. (Tr.) (Trans-
lated as JPRS 22,598.)
On 25 July 1963, the State Committee on the Coordination of
Scientific Research Work USSR confirmed Tentative
Procedure for Calculating the Dispersion in the Atmosphere of
Discharges from the Smokestacks of Electric Power Plants'.
Development of theory of turbulent diffusion, as well as new
experimental data made it possible to compile a procedure for
calculating the dispersion of smokestack discharges from elec-
tric power plants in the atmosphere, to determine stack height
requirements, and establish standardization of discharges. The
degree of danger of contamination of the ground layer of air
by discharges from the stacks of electric power plants should
be determined according to the greatest value of the ground
concentration of harmful impurities in the air (cM), which can
be established at some distance from the stacks (xM) under
unfavorable meteorological conditions. In this case the value
of the maximum concentration cM (in mg/cu m) on level or
slightly broken terrain, with a uniform discharge of toxic sub-
stances from stacks (N) of the same height should be calcu-
lated according to the formula: cM=AMFm/H2(N/V d T)l/3;
where A is a coefficient depending on the temperature stratifi-
cation of the atmosphere, which determines the conditions of
vertical and horizontal dispersion of the impurity in the air (in
sec 2/3 deg 1/3); M is the summary discharge of the toxic im-
purity from all the stacks (in g/sec); H is the height of the
stack (in meters); V is the summary volume of smoke gases
discharged from the stacks per second (in cu m/sec); dT is the
difference between the temperature of the gases emerging
from the stack and the temperature of the surrounding air (in
deg); m and F are dimensionless coefficients; the coefficient m
is related to a consideration of the influence of the rate of
emergence of the smoke gases from the mouth of the stack,
while the coefficient F is related to a consideration of the in-
fluence of the rate of settling of the impurity in the at-
mosphere. This formula is suitable for calculating the concen-
tration of impurities emerging from smokestacks at H greater
than 50 m; V/N greater than 20 cu m/sec, and dT greater than
30 degrees. When the contour of the terrain does not cor-
respond to the conditions indicated above, special instructions
must be sought from the Main Administration of the
Hydrometeorological Service under the Council of Ministers
USSR and the (state Sanitary Inspection USSR.
06095
C. V. Ranter, R. G. Lunche, A. P. Fudurich
TECHNIQUES OF TESTING FOR AIR CONTAMINANTS
FROM COMBUSTION SOURCES. J. Air Pollution Control As-
soc. 6 (4), 191-9 (Feb. 1957). (Presented at the 49th Annual
Meeting, Air Pollution Control Association, Buffalo, N.Y.,
May 20-24, 1956.)
The Air Pollution Control District (APCD) in the past 8 years
has made more than 800 test, including many on incinerators
and power plant boilers. The tecniques used in testing these
-------
C. MEASUREMENT METHODS
179
combustion sources are described. These techniques are based
on principles and procedures which have been in use for many
years and have been described in the literature. In most air
pollution control studies of combustion sources, attention has
been largely focused on the amount of participate matter
discharged. In the testing program of the APCD, methods for
measuring other contaminants in the gaseous state have been
established. These methods are recommended to other agen-
cies investigating air contamination from combustion sources.
07482
Kanno, S.
DETERMINATION OF GASEOUS AIR POLLUTANTS. Text
in Japanese. J. Jap. Petrol. Inst. (Tokyo), 7(2):92-96, Feb. 1964.
6 refs.
The determination of sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in
smoke and in air are covered. SO2 in smoke is measured
colorimetrically or by detection tube. Two methods are
described: one for measuring pollutants after the combustion
of coal or heavy oil or for gases mixed with NO2 and the
other for mixtures of SO2 and SOS. Procedures are given for
making the test liquid (absorption liquid) and for exact mea-
surement for each method. The detection tube is illustrated
briefly. The absorption tube method is not sufficient for NO2
detection. A method of almost perfect collecting efficiency
which is used in the Kanagawa Prefecture Public Health
Laboratories is described. The absorber is composed of a mix-
ture of NaOH and butanol. For SO2 and SOS measurement,
the electric conductivity method and barium molybdate
method are illustrated. The rosanaline method is used as well
as an alkali filter paper method. The latter is superior to the
widely used PbO2 method in that reagent quality does not af-
fect the measured value and the collecting efficiency does not
depend on temperature and humidity.
07516
Walker, F. E. and F. E. Hartner
FORMS OF SULFUR IN U. S. COALS. Bureau of Mines,
Washington, D.C., Inform. Circ. 8301, 51p., 1966.
The Bureau of Mines determined total sulfur forms for coal in
283 counties in 29 States and 2 fields of the State of Alaska.
Specifically, organic, pyritic, and sulfate sulfur were measured
of approximately 2,900 samples, and they include most of the
coalbeds in the United States. A step-by-step procedure for
these determinations is included. (Authors' abstract, modified)
07721
Uzima, M.
SIMPLIFIED METHOD OF MEASUREMENT OF QUANTITY
OF SOOT & DUST, AND ITS RELATIONS OF ((SIC))
SMOKE CHART. Text in Japan- ese. Netsu Kanri (Heat En-
gineering) (Tokyo), 19(1):11-16, Jan 1967.
The East-North Power Station together with the Central Elec-
tric Power Institution studies a simpler method to standardize
dust and soot-measuring methods. They tried to find the point
which gives the average amount of soot and dust without mea-
suring the distribution of concentration. They also investigated
the possibility of measuring the amount of soot and dust in
grams/cubic meter using a soot and smoke meter of the
photoelectric type. In this experiment, the temperature dis-
tribution, velocity distribution, and soot and dust concentra-
tion at the cross-section of the smoke duct were measured.
Measurements were also made at the inlet and outlet of the
dust collection device. For measuring concentration, at the in-
let, the constant-velocity suction tube method was used, a dust
tube alone was used when heavy oil was the fuel, and at the
outlet, both tubes were used. When coal was used as fuel, the
size of the dust particles was 30 to 40 microns at the inlet and
5 to 7 microns at the outlet. It was found that the curves of
the velocity of the gas and of the soot and dust concentration
were almost the same indicating that the average amount of
soot and dust could be measured at the point where the
velocity of the gas was average. Measurement of the distribu-
tion of soot and dust is only required for determining dust col-
lecting efficiency.
07787
Delange, J. E.
A CRITICAL LOOK AT METHODS, PROCEDURES AND
APPARATUS FOR EVALUATING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF
DUST ARRESTING EQUIPMENT ON LARGE COAL-FIRED
STEAM GENERATORS-Preprint, Detroit Edison Co., Mich.,
Engineerin Research Dept., ((22p.)), 1967. 6 refs. (Presented at
the 60th Annual Meeting, Air Pollution Control Assoc., Cleve-
land, Ohio, June 11-15, 1967, Paper No. 67-121.)
The test methods, procedures, and apparatus based on the ex-
perience of The Detroit Edison Company in conducting per-
formance tests on mechanical dust collectors and electrostatic
precipitators on large coal-fired steam generators are reviewed.
A special test apparatus, which employs the null sampling
method for determining the dust concentration in a gas stream,
is described and the advantages of the use of this type of ap-
paratus for certain applications are noted. (AuthorOs abstract)
07848
Short, W.
MEASUREMENT OF GRIT AND DUST EMISSION. Fuel
Econ, Vol. 44, p. 89-91, 1966. 5 refs.
A cyclone and filter method developed by the British Coal
Utilization Research Association combining reasonable accura-
cy and easy portability has been used since 1958 for determin-
ing grit and dust emission. Emissions from a chimney can be
calculated as the weight of grit and dust passing the sampling
plane minus the weight collected by the arrestor. Results show
that, in many cases, quite low emissions are obtained without
grit arresters. When high emissions are reported where no grit
arrestor is fitted at the time of test, a simple arrestor of stack
or scroll type with induced draught fan would reduce emission
to a low and acceptable figure if a 60% collection efficiency
were achieved. For oil-fired boiler plants using oil, the ash
content is very low, and emissions will largely consist of car-
bon particles; appreciable quantities of solid particles can also
be emitted if badly operated or poorly maintained. Factors that
seem to influence production of fine particles are oil preheat
temperature and excess air percentage.
07941
S. C. Goadby, J. F. Stephens
DETERMINATION OF SULPHUR IN FLY-ASH BY X-RAY
EMISSION SPECTROSCOPY. Fuel, 46(l):19-24, Jan. 1967. 11
refs.
A simple procedure based on the method of additions and the
technique of X-ray emission spectroscopy is described for the
determination of total sulphur present at low levels in fly-ash
and similar materials. The precision and accuracy of the
method for the range of 0.1 to 0.5 per cent sulphur are
discussed. (Authors' abstract)
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180
08123
A. I. Vronskiy, A. S. Slutsker, Y. V. Khukhrina
COMPARATIVE EVALUATION OF NEW METHODS OF
DETERMINATION OF THE DUST CONTENT OF AIR. In. A.
A. Letavet and Ye. V. Khukhrina (eds.), Methods of Studying
Industrial Dust and the Incidence of Pneumoconioses. (Melody
izucheniya proizvodstvennoy pyli i zabolevayemosti pnev-
mokoniozami.) Leningrad, Meditsina Publishing House, 1965,
123p. Translated from Russian. Clearinghouse for Federal
Scientific and Technical Information, Washington, D. C., Joint
Publications Research Service TT 66-30952, p. 22-32, March
11, 1966. 2refs.
Comparative tests of gravimetric and counting apparatuses for
the determination of the dust content of air are discussed. The
procedure with the use of AAF-W-10 filters is recommended
instead of GOST-50, as the most progressive and reliable one;
the equipment for the gravimetric determination of the dust
content of air is recommended for adoption in research work.
The gravimetric method must be retained in the future as the
basic one, and at the same time work must be continued on its
further improvement, in particular, its automation. 3) Along
with the gravimetric method, in the practice of the work of in-
stitutes it is expedient to use in a parallel a counting method.
Among the counting apparatuses, the most reliable data are
given by VDK-4 apparatus, which however, must be further
improved. The field aerosol counter for the determination of
the concentration by count in the flow is recommended for use
in the practice of hygiene research. The use of instruments for
the determination of the concentration by count in arrested
flow is not recommended. It is necessary to continue the work
on the improvement of the counting methods for determining
the dust content in air, along the line of automation of the par-
ticle count of dust and determination of its size distribution.
09107
Delange, J. E.
EVALUATING DUST ARRESTING EQUIPMENT ON LARGE
COAL-FIRED STEAM GENERATORS. J. Air Pollution Con-
trol Assoc., 18(2):95-97, Feb. 1968. 6 refs.
The experience of The Detroit Edison Co. in conducting per-
formance tests on dust arresting equipment on large stoker-
fired and pulverized coal-fired steam generators is reviewed.
The review includes the application of various test procedures
and apparatuses. It also describes a special test apparatus in
its present state of development and the test procedures in-
volved. This equipment employs 'Null' sampling nozzles of the
Van Tongeren design, ranging from 0.75 to 1.50 in. diam. The
equipment has two distinct advantages over the presently
available commercial devices: (1) it provides a means of ap-
proaching isokinetic sampling under adverse test conditions,
and (2) the size of the collected dust sample is generally
adequate for analysis under the new ASME Power Test Code
28, 'Determining the Properties of Fine Paniculate Matter.' A
critical review of experiences and practices is presented, stan-
dardization is proposed, and areas of further research and
development are indicated.
09624
Johnson, Warren B., Jr.
LIDAR APPLICATIONS IN AIR POLLUTION STUDIES.
Preprint, Stanford Research Inst., Menlo Park, Calif.,
Aerophysics Lab., ((21)) p., 1968. 14 refs. (Presented at the 9th
Conference on Methods in Air Pollution and Industrial Hy-
giene Studies, Pasadena, Calif., Feb. 7-9, 1968.)
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
The utility of the lidar in air pollution investigations stems
from its ability to remotely detect particulate matter in the at
mosphere at ranges up to 10 km or more. The purpose of this
paper is to review the main areas in which this instrument can
be of use in air pollution research and control: (1) to observe
the struc ture of surface-based mixing layers, (2) to measure
the transport and diffusion of plumes and clouds of particu-
lates, and (3) to determine smoke-plume opacity.
11193
C. W. Gruber
SOILING POTENTIAL - A QUANTITATIVE METHOD FOR
MEASURING SMOKE FROM COAL COMBUSTION.
Preprint, Cincinnati Air Pollution Control and Heating Inspec-
tion, Cincinnati, Ohio, (8)p., 1967. (Pre- sented at the Industri-
al Coal Conference, Lexington, Kentucky, April 12-13, 1967.)
The opacity of a visible smoke plume is due to the presence of
huge quantities of sub-micron carbon particles which have lit-
tle mass, and therefore, quantating the smoke plume by mass
rate of emission is not practical. By drawing a sample of the
combustion gases through white filter tape the resultant stain
which depends upon the total surface area of the particles, can
be evaluated by the absorption and scattering of transmitted or
reflected light. The optical density of the sample so deter-
mined can be used to de fine a unit of measure, known as the
Coh (for transmitted) or the Rud (for reflected) light. This
paper cites the use of optical measurement for quantating the
visible smoke plume in terms of 'soiling potential' per cubic
foot of combustion gas or per pound of coal fired and makes
reference to the measurement of the 'soil ing index' of the
general atmosphere from dark colored sub-micron particles
using a similar optical measurement. (Author's abstract)
11340
I.A. Singer, M.E. Smith
A SUMMARY OF THE RECOMMENDED GUIDE FOR THE
PREDICTION OF THE DISPERSION OF AIRBORNE EF-
FLUENTS - (A.S.M.E.). Preprint, Brookhaven National Lab.,
Upton, N.Y. ((25))p., 1968. (Presented at the Symposium on
Urban Climates and Building Climatology, Brussels, Oct. 15-
25, 1968.)
Guide that reviews the important aspects of atmospheric
dispersion and to assist in the practical assessment of typical
industrial problems is presented. It is intended as a first ap-
proximation of simple situations in uncomplicated terrain, and
it would be difficult to over-emphasize the danger of being
misled by improper application of the equations presented.
Many of the contributors are not fully convinced that current
understanding of dispersion problems justifies the preparation
of a simplified approach, and the user is cautioned to seek
qualified advice whereever these first approximations indicate
a problem, or whereever the environment appears to be com-
plex. The emphasis is on ordinary, continuous stack emissions,
and while other problems may be mentioned, none are treated
fully. There has been no attempt to reference every significant
work in the field of atmospheric dispersion, rather the bibliog-
raphy contains material that should promote general un-
derstanding and lead to additional sources of information. The
techniques suggested for the quantitative approximation of air
pollution problems represent the most suitable now available.
11755
A. S. Denovan, R. W. Ashley
THE DETERMINATION OF OXIDES OF NITROGEN IN
REACTOR LOOP COVER GAS. Atomic Energy of Canada
-------
C. MEASUREMENT METHODS
181
Ltd., Chalk River, Ont., Chalk River Nuclear Labs., ((ll))p.,
Sept. 1967. 3 refs. CFSTI: AECL-2770
Procedures have been developed using selective absorbers fol-
lowed by gas chromatography which are suitable for the
separation and determination of NO and NO2 either from a
bulk gas sample or directly from a flowing gas stream of CO2
containing up to 2% air. Nitrous oxides can also be determined
if required. With synthetic gas samples, recoveries were
shown to be quantitative using the procedures outlined. Calcu-
lations from data obtained for the procedures outlined. Calcu-
lations from data obtained for the preparation of calibration
curves showed the standard deviations to be plus or minus 3.2
microgram for NO, plus or minus 2.6 microgram for NO2 and
plus or minus 5.5 microgram for N2O over the range of 15 150
microgram. Limits of detection were 200 ppb for NO, 60 ppb
for NO2 and 200 ppb for N2O.
11842
V. Vcelak
DETERMINATION OF THE DEGREE OF OXIDATION OF
BROWN COAL BY MEASUREMENT OF LD3ERATED
HYDROCARBONS. ((Die Bestimmung der Oxydationsstufe
von Braunkohle durch Nachweis freigesetzter Kohlenwas-
serstoffe.)) Text in German. Erdoel Kohl (Hamburg),
21(6):344-350, June 1968. (Presented at the 19th annual meeting
of the German Society for Petroleum Science and Coal
Chemistry, Hamburg, 5 Oct. 1968). 35 refs.
The presence of low-temperature oxidation in brown-coal
mines is normally detected by the determination of CO and
CO2 in the air. Experiments are now reported which show that
even earlier stages of oxidation can be detected by determin-
ing the concentration of hydrocarbons (especially unstturated
hydrocar bons) both in the mine atmosphere and adsorbed
onto the coal. Samples of coal from several Czech coal mines
were sealed in polyethylene under N2 and analyzed chemically
and by gas chromato graphy. The degree of autooxidation of
the sample was estimated in 3 ways: 1) from its chemical com-
position and the tar content following low-temperature coking;
2) from the course of degasification in the Brabender ap-
paratus; and 3) from the hydrocarbons liberated from the coal
during low-temperature coking or thermal decomposition. On
this basis, the samples were classified into 5 groups: fresh coal
(not oxidized), oxidized coal (but not yet glowing), ignited coal
(glowing but not aflame), burned coal, and unoxidizable
material. Whereas the amount of hydrocarbons (ethane,
ethylene, propane, propylene and butane) liberated from fresh
coal during degasification is negligible below 200 degrees C,
but then increases rapidly with temperature, the amount
liberated from oxidized coal shows two maxima, the first
being a broad shallow maximum at about 150 degrees C fol-
lowed by a minimum at 280 degrees C and then a rapid rise.
12126
Kitagawa, Tetsuzo, Yoshitaka Kobayashi, and Saburo Kanno
RAPID ANALYSIS OF SULFUR DIOXIDE IN FLUE GASES
BY MEANS OF DETECTOR TUBES. Preprint, 20p., 1964 (?).
3 refs.
The use of detector tubes is described for rapidly determining
the concentration of sulfur dioxide in flue gases from the com-
bustion of coal or oil. The glass detector tube has an inside
diameter of about 2 mm and a total length of about 130 mm. A
constant amount of white detecting reagent particles is packed
into each tube and stopped by cotton plugs. The detecting re-
agent is made by adding 100 ml of 0.2% potassium iodate solu-
tion to 100 g of silica gel particles. The color of the detecting
reagent turns from white to orange by liberation of iodine by
the reduction of iodate in contact with sulfur dioxide. Both
ends of the tube are hermetically sealed. The total length of
the packed gel plug is between 60 and 80 mm, depending on
the inside diameter of the tube; the packed weight of detecting
reagent in each tube is 0.25 g. The analytical apparatus for the
method consists of a precision vacuum pump, the S02 detector
tubes, antecedent tubes, a concentration chart, thermometer,
suction pump, and a sampling tube attached to the wall of the
flue. Each measurement from sampling to reading takes no
more than 5 min. The measurable range of the method is from
0.02-03% S02.
12510
Dealy, James O.
SOURCE SAMPLING REQUIREMENTS FOR FOSSIL-FUEL-
FIRED STEAM-ELECTRIC PLANTS. Preprint, National Air
Pollution Control Administration, Durham, N. C., Div. of
Abatement, 26p., May 1969. 10 refs. (Presented at the Rural
Electric Generating Conference, 20th Annual, Denver,
Colorado, June 2-5, 1969.)
Source sampling requirements for steam electric plants fired
with fossil fuels are described in detail. Source sampling is di-
vided into 4 main tasks: preliminary studies, actual testing,
laboratory analysis, and preparation of a final report. Prelimi-
nary studies consist of emission factors, emission standards,
test methods, location of a good sampling point, operating
conditions of the plant, and the type and amount of fuel
burned. The second task of source sampling begins with the
transportation of sampling equipment to the test points. Before
the actual test begins, one or more preliminary test runs are
conducted. The information from the preliminary tests is used
to adjust the sampling train in order to achieve accuracy when
the actual test is performed. Power-plant source sampling
processes are classified in two ways: sampling for gaseous
contaminants, and sampling for participate impurities. The
testing for particulates and sulfur dioxide was discussed. In
depth consideration was given to sampling procedures, sample
train cleanup, and analytical techniques for determining the ac-
tual amount of sample collected.
13477
American Society for Testing and Materials
STANDARD METHODS OF LABORATORY SAMPLING AND
ANALYSIS OF COAL AND COKE. In: 1966 Book of ASTM
Standards, Part 19, Gaseous Fuels; Coal and Coke, No. D271-
64, American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia,
Pa., 1964, p. 16-47. (18) refs.
Procedures for laboratory sampling and analysis of coal and
coke ar presented. For determining the moisture of coal, an
oven which has a uniform temperature in all parts and a
minimum of air space shoul be used. For determining the
moisture of coke, a drying oven with openings for natural air
circulation may be used. Sulfur is determined in the washings
from the oxygen-bomb calorimeter follow! calorimetric deter-
mination. The determination of carbon and hydrog is made by
burning a weighed quantity of sample in a closed system and
placing the products of combustion in an absorption train after
complete oxidation and purification from interfering sub-
stances. This method gives the total % of carbon and hydrogen
in the coal as analyzed, and includes the carbon in carbonates
and the hydrogen in the moisture and the water of hydration
of silicates. In the determination of nitrogen, it is converted
into ammonium salts. These salts are decomposed in a hot al-
kaline solution from which th ammonia is recovered by distil-
lation and determined by alkalimetric or acidimetric titration.
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182
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
There is no direct method of determining oxygen. It is calcu-
lated by subtracting from 100 to % of hydrogen, carbon, sul-
fur, nitrogen, moisture, and ash. Methods of preparing the
laboratory samples for analysis are also presented.
14733
Elshout, A. J. and H. van Duuren
S02 CONCENTRATIONS IN THE VICINITY OF POWER
PLANTS. (SO2- Konzentrationen in der Umgebung von Kraft-
werken). Text in German. Mitt. Ver. Grosskesselbesitzer, no.
107:119-126, April 1967. 19 refs.
The atmospheric SO2 concentration was measured at certain
points in the vicinity of two Dutch tower plants (Harculo and
Nijmegen). The T.C.M. method as described in the Ver. Deut.
Ingr. guideline 2451 was used for the measurements. About
2000 individual measurements were taken. At the same time,
cumulative sulfate measurements were taken according to the
Liesegang method. The two power plants differed in their
capacities as well as by their location in residential areas of
different population concentrations. The maximum atmospher-
ic SO2 concentrations were found in no instance to exceed the
maximum allowable concentration of 0.75 mg SO2/cu m. The
emission concentrations measured over longer periods of time
were lower than the background concentrations. The maximum
atmospheric SO2 concentrations computed according to the
improved dispersion formula by Bresser and Hansch agreed
with the actual measurements within a factor of 2. The SO2
concentrations computed with the Pasquill formula also agreed
well with the measured values. Computation with the nomo-
grams from the Technical Directives for Clean Air Main-
tenance taken from the Ver. Deut. Ingr. guideline 2289 yielded
six times higher atmospheric SO2 concentrations than those
actually measured. The measured distance of the maximum at-
mospheric SO2 concentrations from the emission source were
on the average much smaller than the computed ones. The
measurements showed that in the mathematical formulas, the
horizontal and vertical diffusion coefficients are too low to
render a true picture of dispersion conditions.
15348
Kolar, Joergen
STUDIES OF THE DISPERSION OF SULFUR DIOXIDE IN
DENSELY OCCUPIED CITY AREAS WITH SPECIAL RE-
GARD TO EMISSION FROM LOW SOURCES. (Untersuchun-
gen ueber die Ausbreitung von Schwefeldioxid in dicht bebau-
ten Stadtgebieten unter besonderer Beruecksichtigung der
Emission aus niedrigen Quellhoehen). Text in German. Energie
(Munich), 21(9):269-78, Sept. 1969. 28 refs.
To collect information on dispersion in densely populated
areas, sulfur dioxide concentrations were measured in the
stack and in the ambient atmosphere of a steam plant in cen-
tral Munich. During the measurement period, Bavarian coal
with 5% sulfur, as well as Saar coal or fuel oil, was burned.
The flue gas volume and the SO2 concentration were mea-
sured 11 m beyond the exhaust blower. A quartz glass probe
was used for sampling the flue gas. The analysis was per-
formed with an electroconductivity analyzer. The sulfur diox-
ide immission was measured with a mobile electroconductivity
analyzer. Measurements were taken between 10 a.m. and 5
p.m. The measurement points were selected in accordance
with the prevailing conditions, i.e., with the wind coming from
a constant direction at velocities of more than 2m/sec. The
measurement program began in February 1962, but the most
intensive investigations were carried out in the winter of
1965/66, with half hour measuring periods on the lee of the
stack. A nearly log normal distribution of the SO2 immissions
in the city area was found. The influence of interfering emis-
sions and of the variation of the sulfur dioxide immission
(mean standard deviation of 0.1 mg/cu m) are briefly evalu-
ated. Preliminary measurement results are tabulated and
shown in a diagram. The highest immission measured did not
exceed the maximum allowable concentration of 5 mg/cu m.
15479
Gartrell, F. E. and S. B. Carpenter
AERIAL SAMPLING BY HELICOPTER. A METHOD FOR
STUDY OF DIFFUSION PATTERNS. J. Meterol., 12(3):215-
219, June 1955. 7 refs.
A method for studying atmospheric diffusion of stack gases is
described which utilizes a continuous SO2 analyzer operated
in a helicopter. The method was developed to overcome
problems encountered in conventional diffusion studies at a
large coal fired steam-electric power plant. It was tested by
numerous sampling flights which demonstrated the practicality
of the helicopter-analyzer combination for sampling for S02
atmospheric pollution. Although the representativeness of
samplings from a helicopter is not fully established, the effect
of the helicopter on the quantities measured by the procedure
outlined is believed to be negligible. As experience in use of
this method is gained, this will be checked by comparisons
with results obtained by conventional sampling procedures.
With appropriate instrumentation, the method would be ap-
plicable to sampling for other atmospheric pollutants as well as
SO2. The method has a number of advantages over conven-
tional ground-sampling techniques, which make it particularly
suitable for diffusion studies. These advantages include the
rapidity with which down-wind sampling can be done, both
aloft and near ground level, for considerable distances from
the source; the greater accuracy with which the height and
direction of the plume during the sampling period can be
determined; and the ease with which otherwise practically in-
accessible areas can be reached. The method provides infor-
mation of a type heretofore unavailable and shows promise of
being especially useful in diffusion studies. The analyzer has a
threshold sensitivity as low as 0.1 ppm SO2. Response to
changes in concentration is within 30 sec. The analyzer is
calibrated approximately once a month, and the accuracy of
SO2 determinations is within about 10%.
15515
FINAL REPORT ON FEASIBILITY STUDY FOR SENSING
SULPHIDES IN COAL - 1968. Barringer Research Ltd.,
Rexdale, Ont., Canada, Contract PH86-67-270, Project 385,
TR-68-55, 36p., Feb. 1968. 2 refs.
This report summarizes the work done in a feasibility study of
a prototype monitor for sensing sulfide ores in coal, details
laboratory experimentation, circuits and techniques, and gives
the results of measurements. The principle employed in the
monitor is the absorption of power by the conductive sulfide
at radio frequencies. Sulfur content of interest was over 0.5-
5% band at the normal operating frequency of 500 KHz. When
circuit changes were made, signal-to-noise ratios improved,
but the signals obtained were still very weak. Frequencies
were increased to induce an increased loss into the very small
particles of sulfide. It was found that even at 50 MHz with
shielded coils, there was still no indication of power absorp-
tion into 5% sulfur coal. When frequencies were increased to
the microwave region, coils became smaller and the coal sam-
ples were pulverized. Finally, with an abbreviated coil and-grid
dip circuit between 800 and 940 MHz, sharply increasing
signals were obtained, which correlated with the sulfur
sequence of the samples. For work at higher frequencies, the
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C. MEASUREMENT METHODS
183
coil configuration was replaced with waveguide and cavity
constructions. The frequency range of 500-1100 MHz was
covered to check agreement with the grid dip circuit method.
Qualitative agreement was evident and the coaxial cavity
method showed acceptable differential signals over near zero
to 5% sulfur samples even below 800 MHz. Another method
was suggested which led to the construction of a flash heater
or volatilizer, in which pulverized samples could be burned by
a spectrometer to give a proportional indication of the sulfur
content of the sample. Results with this method show very ac-
ceptable linearity over the range of interest. It is concluded
that worthwhile follow-up work is indicated.
15925
SMOKE PLUMES FROM TALL STACKS. Stanford Res. Inst.
J., no. 27:13-14, Dec. 1969.
The use of lidar to define plumes from tall stacks was
discussed. An intense, narrow-beam, extremely brief pulse of
light from a laser is fired into the atmosphere and is reflected
to the lidar by particles of material in the path. The density
and distance of particulate matter can then be determined
from the character of the reflected signal. The tests were con-
ducted on the plumes from an 800-foot stack of a coal-burning
power station during two periods totaling 17 days in 1968.
Measurements were made by scanning vertically at three
azimuth angles. With the neodynium type of lidar used, the 20-
30 measurements needed to probe each cross section of the
plume were taken in 3 to 5 minutes. The data collected was
reduced to the equal-density contours. These experiments
demonstrated the practicality of the lidar as an instrument for
use in air pollution measurement and monitoring. Plume tilting
and fanning or spreading of the plume are common. There are
significant vertical variations in stability and wind structure
that have profound effects on plume behavior which are not
taken into account by existing theories of plume rise. In addi-
tion to the application of lidar to pollution studies, lidar is well
suited for defining cloud structure and dimensions of the pol-
lutant clouds hanging over major cities.
16149
Arai, Kenya
THE OUTLINE OF ATMOSPHERIC TRACER FIELD TESTS
IN THE WHOLE INVESTIGATION TO CONTROL INDUS-
TRIAL AIR POLLUTION. (Sangyo kogai sogo jizenchosa ni
okeru ea-toresa jikken no gaiyo). Text in Japanese. Kogai to
Taisaku (J. Pollution Control), 3(3):150-156, March 15, 1967.
In Japan, atmospheric trace studies with fluorescent particles
were first undertaken in the 1960's. In field tracer tests, spe-
cial attention was given to determinations of wind direction
and velocity, selection of test sites, and the location of test
personnel, observation cars, and the communication system.
Blowers were installed at heights of 105 to 192 m on power
plant stacks in the survey area. The stacks were then sprayed
and used as centers of fan-shaped sampling areas having an-
gles of 40 to 90 deg and diameters of 10 to 15 km. Wind
direction and velocity, air turbulence, temperature gradient,
and the amount of sunshine were simultaneously observed.
From these measurements graphs of diffusion distribution and
stream line and charts of combined pollutant concentrations
were obtained. Atmospheric tracer tests provide concentration
distribution graphs for typical conditions of SO2 stack emis-
sions. These distribution graphs are completed by comparison
with measured sulfur dioxide at observation centers. Based on
this data, instructions related to SO2 emission standards are is-
sued to owners of plants or to local authorities by the Ministry
of Industry and International Trade. Tracer studies also pro-
vide information for construction-site selection and city
planning.
16364
Sachdev, R. N. and P. B. Rawlani
TURBULENCE STATISTIC STUDIES AT TROMBAY WITH
A NEW WIND SYSTEM. J. Appl. Meteorol., vol. 7:981-985,
Dec. 1968. 5 refs.
An electronic wind analysis system for turbulence studies near
a nuclear reactor site was designed to compute the standard
deviation of wind direction fluctuations from measurements of
the accumulated value of the displacements of a wind vane
during a predetermined interval and the number of reversals of
wind direction during the same interval. Measurements are
made with an optical encoder. The instrument can be adapted
to study the variation of standard deviation from a few
minutes to several hours. It can also be used for meteorologi-
cal support when the standard deviation of wind direction fluc-
tuations are required during a tracer release in diffusion ex-
periments. Field studies indicate that the effects of nonsta-
tionary and local obstructions to wind flow make it impossible
to estimate values of the standard deviation of wind direction
fluctuations over uneven terrain on any one occasion. How-
ever, median values of observed standard deviations of wind
direction fluctuations can be related to wind speed, wind
direction, and time of day. The effect of local obstructions on
the standard deviations is almost double in magnitude when
the wind vane is downwind from an obstacle. A diurnal cycle
in turbulence intensity is observed: the largest median values
occur during late afternoon hours.
16512
Narjes, Ludwig
DUST SAMPLER EQUIPMENT FOR QUASI-ISOKINETIC
SAMPLING BY MEANS OF NOVEL ZERO-PRESSURE
PROBES. Chem. Age India, 19(8):595-603, Aug. 1968. 9 refs.
In large power plants with steam generators fired by pul-
verized fuel, complicated dust problems often necessitate
precise supervision of individual dust streams and local dust
distributions The zero-pressure probe by which the static pres-
sure of the main and sampling streams can be equalized is a
suitable instrument for this purpose. The application of the
probe for sampling high concentrations of dust in coal-dust
streams and the behavior of the probe under diverse in-flow
conditions in an inclined dust- conveying channel are
presented. By evaluating the amount of dust at fixed points of
the cross section, it is possible to investigate the distribution
of dust density. The particle size analyses are converted ac-
cording to the diagram of quantitative dust distribution and are
entered on 'relative segregation' graphs.
16734
Ramsden, A. R.
A MICROSCOPIC INVESTIGATION INTO THE FORMA-
TION OF FLY-ASH DURING THE COMBUSTION OF A
PULVERIZED BITUMINOUS COAL. Fuel, 48(2): 121-137,
April 1969. 26 refs.
Fly ash and partly burnt coal particles were collected from the
gas stream of the combustion chamber and flue of a technical-
scale pulverized-coal-fired rig during the combustion of a bitu-
minous coal. The particles were examined as collected by
means of an electron microscope. The observations were sup-
plemented by the use of a light microscope to study particles
of the raw pulverized coal collected before they entered the
rig, devolatilized particles collected from the combustion
-------
184
chamber, and fly ash particles collected from the precipitator.
Various stages in the combustion of the coal and the formation
of the fly ash were observed. Carbon black formed at an early
stage in the combustion process, presumably through cracking
of volatiles. Many devolatilized coal particles formed car-
bonaceous skeletal structures, some formed vescular car-
bonaceous spheres. Many of the fly ash particles collected by
the precipitator were glassy spheres, indicating formation from
a liquid phase. Observation suggested that small droplets of
liquid ash coalesced to produce larger droplets. An analysis of
the particle-size distribution in the fly ash collected by the
precipitator indicated the presence of large numbers of the
smallest particles and successively fewer of the larger parti-
cles. Such a distribution might be expected where the larger
particles were derived through coalescence of the smaller-the
process having stopped as soon as the liquid particles
solidified on reaching cooler parts of the furnace. (Author's
Abstract)
16860
Brandon, John H.
CAN A FUEL TREATMENT PROGRAM CONTROL STACK
EMISSIONS. Combustion, 41(4):20-24, Oct. 1969.
Stack emissions are not the major source of air pollution
today, however, they do provide a measurable quantity of
contamination that can be controlled. Four case histories of
plants with representative problems are presented. The use of
a blended slurry of the metallic oxides of aluminum and mag-
nesium in a fuel treatment program resulted in a significant
reduction in both SOS and particulate matter. Reductions of
72.5% for SO3 and 76.2% for particulates were achieved with
a marked improvement in the Ringelmann observations.
16875
McCaldin, R. O., L. W. Johnson, and N. T. Stephens
ATMOSPHERIC AEROSOLS. Science, 166(3703):381-382, Oct.
17, 1969. 3 refs.
Measurements of particle counts and size distributions of at-
mospheric aerosols have been made of various locations by
use of an instrumented aircraft. The number of atmospheric
particulates is related to the visibility. (Author's Abstract)
17419
Smith, J. F., J. A. Hultz, and A. A. Orning
SAMPLING AND ANALYSIS OF FLUE GAS FOR OXIDES
OF SULFUR AND NITROGEN. Bureau of Mines, Washington,
D. C., Report of Investigations 7108, 21p., 1968. 17 refs.
A series of studies of emissions from large coal-fired steam
generators included measurements of the concentrations of
sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in the combustion products.
The mobile sampling equipment, method of sampling, and
analytical techniques used for processing the samples are
detailed. An adaption of the phenoldisulfonic acid procedure
was used for the determination of nitrogen oxides. The Berk
and Burdick procedure was first used for the determination of
SO2 and SO3. This procedure is based on an acidimetric deter-
mination of bisulfite plus sulfate with independent determina-
tion of sulfate through benzidine sulfate precipitation. An in-
terference, conceivably due to organic acids in flue gases from
coal combustion, was found to give high sulfur balances. A
modified process was therefore developed on the basis of the
benzidine sulfate precipitation for both the SOS and the total
sulfur oxides content.
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
17468
SOURCES OF ATMOSPHERIC SULFUR DIOXIDES AND
MEASUREMENT METHODS. (Taikichu no iousankabutsu no
hasseigen to sokuteihoho). Text in Japanese. Sangyo Kogai
(Ind. Public Nuisance), 5(10):612-620, Oct. 25, 1969. 62 refs.
Atmospheric sulfur dioxide exists in various chemical and
physical forms; under normal conditions, it is in a gaseous
state containing some volatile sulfuric mist and sulfate. If
gaseous sulfur dioxide were the only atmospheric pollutant, its
measurement would not be so difficult. The existence of sul-
furic mist and sulfate and other interfering substances in the
atmosphere make analytical procedures intricate. Some dif-
ficulties in analytical assessment of atmospheric SO2 are also
correlated with the limits involved in technical methods, some
of which, like the West-Gaeke or electroconductivity methods,
are subject to error due to the existence of atmaospheric inter-
fering elements at variance with the substantial characteristics
of SO2. Therefore, in evaluating measurements obtained from
applied methods and laboratory techniques, allowance must be
made for sequential and accidental errors. Atmospheric values
obtained with the different methods are apt to vary. The wide-
ly used analytical procedure for SO2 determination involves
separating mist from sulfuric mist and measuring the sulfur in
the sulfate contained in the air sample. The quantity of S02 is
determined simultaneously with the measurement of
suspended sulfate is an aerosol state or contained in dust fall.
In 1965, the amount of sulfurous acid gas emitted to the at-
mosphere was 23,400,000 t. In 1966, the amount was
28,600,000 t of which 58.2% came from coal combustion in
thermal power plants; 19.6%, from oil combustion; 5.5%, from
petroleum refinery processes; 12.2%, from mine refinery
processes; 1.9%, from sulfuric acid production; and the rest,
0.4%, from waste incineration. Various types of S02
analyzers, including currently improved U. S. models, are
presented.
17474
Kolar, Joergen
THE ELECTROSTATIC DUST MEASURING DEVICE
'KONTTEST' AND ITS FUNCTIONING IN A REMOTE
HEATING PLANT. (Das elektrostatische Staubmessgeraet
'Konitest' bei betriebsmaessigem Einsatz in einem Heizkraft-
werk). Text in German. Tech. Ueberwach (Duesseldorf),
10(6):188-190, June 1969. 6 refs.
Control measurements were taken on an electrostatic dust
measuring unit operation in a remote heating plant. The mea-
surement probe had been installed in the stack llm above the
exhaust blower. The speed in the probe was 1.5 times as high
as the flue gas speed. The konitest and the dust filter were
connected to the electrically heated sampling tube. A rubber
hose lead to the blower. For weighing the dust quantity, a
scale with an accuracy of at least 0.1 mp was used. The results
of the measurements varied widely. In order to find an ex-
planation for this, a steel pipe with a 12 mm diameter was in-
serted into the flue gas duct. The charges caused by the dust
on the steel pipe were measured. The varying electric charges
of the fly dust leaving the electrostatic precipitator caused the
great divergence in the measured values.
18012
McCaldin, Roy O. and Louis W. Johnson
THE USE OF AIRCRAFT IN AIR POLLUTION RESEARCH.
J. Air Pollution Control Assoc., 19(6):405-409, June 1969. 9
refs.
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C. MEASUREMENT METHODS
185
An instrumented single engine aircraft is being used to charac-
terize plumes from large emission sources. The character and
concentration of pollution as it ages and travels downwind
under known meteorological conditions is being studied
through the use of cross sections of the plumes at a number of
points. This paper reports experimental work thus far
completed on aerosol measurement. Flights have been made
through plumes from a large coal-fired power station, forest
fires, and a gravel plant. Particle counts in various size clas-
sifications were made with a Bausch and Lomb 40-1 Dust
Counter which was carried in the aircraft. Selected
meteorological parameters were recorded. Results show the
aerosol concentrations in various size classifications that are
found at successive distances downwind from these sources
for distances up to 32 miles. Background aerosol concentra-
tions are also reported, and variations in these can be noted
with respect to time, location and altitude. (Author's Abstract)
19047
Vetter, H.
COMPARATIVE LONG-DURATION TRIALS OF DUST CON-
CENTRATION RECORDING INSTRUMENTS IN THE FLUE
GASES OF BROWN COAL-FTRED POWER PLANTS. (Ver-
gleichende Dauerbetriebserprobung von Staubdichtemess-
geraeten hinter Braunkohlenfeuerungen). Text in German.
Mitt. Ver. Grosskesselbesitzern, 49(l):23-27, Feb. 1969. 7 refs.
(Presented to the VGB, Emissions Meet., Munich, 1967).
In three different soft coal-fired power plants, eight dust con-
centration units measuring the light extinction of three dif-
ferent manufacturers were tested for a period of three months.
Gravimetric calibration measurements were taken at the
beginning and end of tests. None of the units survived the test
period without trouble or failure, and two instruments were
entirely replaced after half the test period had elapsed. High
deviations between the extinction and gravimetric measure-
ments are explained by the varying grain size distribution of
dust, its changing location, temporal changes of its surface
properties, shape and density distribution, which consequently
change the optical properties, varying water vapor content,
and finally a low water vapor dew point. Causes for trouble
such as the non-uniform soiling of the transmitter and reflector
parts, as well as the formation of flue gas condensate in the
transmitter and reflector casings, could be eliminated. The
question whether extinction measurements are as reliable for
soft coal-fired boilers as gravimetric measurements was not
solved by the tests.
19519
Duewel, L.
RECENT ADVANCES IN RECORDING DUST MEASURE-
MENTS AT THE POINT OF EMISSION. (Neuentwicklung in
der registrierenden Staubmessung au der Emissionsseite). Text
in German. VDI (Ver. Deut. Ingr.) Ber., no. 149:193-198, 1970.
14 refs.
Recent types of measuring equipment tested and developed in
large scale research for long-term, mass-production use are
discussed, with special emphasis on light-transmission
techniques, lightscattering techniques, and beta rays. The use
of a light beam passing through dust-laden air lacks the disa-
vantages that occur with the use of particle emissions. It has a
special application in slag tap furnaces using soft coal. Im-
provements in this technique include an increase in the amount
of scavenging air and structural improvements in its supply
routes. The beta ray technique has been improved by an unin-
terrupted steam trace that extends to the extractor fan, also by
an increase in the rate of flow through the extraction unit,
which eliminates dust accumulation and condensations that
used to occur. The use of additional control mechanisms now
permits regular checking of the zero point and the sensivity
constant.
20224
Boyer, A. E. and F. B. Kaylor
COMPUTER SIMULATES URBAN ATMOSPHERES. Power,
113(9):60-61, July 1969.
A new computer program named DOSAGE which analyzes the
influence of power-plant emissions on the overall pollution
picture was described. The program simulates the behavior of
the city's atmosphere. Two groups of variables form the com-
puter input; one for simulating the atmosphere, the other for
defining the pollutant. Simulated variables consist of latitude,
longitude, meridian, wind speed and direction, air tempera-
tures, cloud cover, and ceiling. Pollutant input variables con-
sist of stack gas flow rate, temperature at stack exhaust, pollu-
tant concentration in the fuel, fuel fire rate, and collector effi-
ciency. Although the program is tailored to work with sulfur
dioxide emissions in the urban atmosphere, any kind of pollu-
tant in any location can be treated. Results generated by the
computer are generally within 10% of the measured values.
The questions the computer program answers are where and
how many hours peak concentrations occur each year, how
the total annual duration of peak concentrations change if a
pollution source is eliminated or controlled, how often a pollu-
tant reaches significant concentrations at a specific point, and
how the atmosphere is affected when load on a power plant is
changed.
21663
Sandia Lab., Albuquerque, N. Mex.
CONTROL OF AHtBORNE CONTAMINATION. In: Con-
tamination Control Handbook. NASA Order H-13245A, Sec-
tion 5, 98p., 1969. 52 refs. CFSTI: NASA SP-5076
A detailed review of the facilities, equipment, and techniques
for control of airborne contamination within a controlled en-
vironmental area is presented, with accompanying tabular
summaries and diagrammatic illustrations. Contaminants are
classified into major groups of organic and inorganic gases and
aerosols, and major sources are noted. Control techniques are
discussed in terms of devices for aerosols and gases, detection
and measurement, and sampling. Types and selection criteria
are given for air filters to be used in contamination control
facilities, with a section on high-efficiency particulate filters.
Nonlaminar airflow facilities (conventional clean rooms) are
described, and the advantages and disadvantages of laminar
airflow facilities outlined, with detailed descriptions of
horizontal and vertical laminar airflow work stations. Tem-
perature and humidity control, construction, furniture and
equipment, and personnel garments for clean rooms are con-
sidered. A review of monitoring includes air sampling and col-
lection methods, analytical methods and instrumentation, and
filter bank leak testing. Specifications for laminar airflow clean
rooms are considered at length.
22342
Schnitzler, Hermann, Otto Maier, and Klaus lander
OBSERVATION POST FOR THE TESTING AND CALIBRA-
TION OF INSTRUMENTS FOR THE MEASURING AND
RECORDING OF DUST AND GAS EMISSIONS IN A POWER
PLANT USING BITUMINOUS COAL. (Meszstand fuer die
Pruefung and Kalibrierung von registrierenden Staub- und
Gasmessgeraeten in einem steinkohlengefeuerten Kraftwerk).
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186
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
Text in German. Schriftenreihe Ver. Wasser Boden Lufthyg.
(Berlin), no. 33:77-94, 1970. 11 refs.
Construction and use of an observation post behind the coal-
fired generator boiler of a large power plant are reported. Ac-
commodations are such that 4 dust-measuring devices and 4-
gas measuring devices can be tested simultaneously. The plant
is equipped with an especially good electrofilter, and the
average dust content of the purified exhaust gas during normal
operation is about 100-150 mg/cu Nm. Among the instruments
tested are the Durag D-R 110, the Sick RM 3g (dust density
measurements); the Konitest, which measures dust content; a
Beta dust meter, which measures by way of beta-ray absorp-
tion. Two types of apparatus for measuring sulfur dioxide con-
tent by means of infrared radiation were the URAS, made by
Hartmann and Braun, and the UNOR, manufactured by
Maihak. Devices using ultraviolet light are the OKOMETER
(by Withof) and UVAMETER (by Bran and Luebbe). Devices
using chemical reactions for SO2 measurement are the
Microgas MSK (Woesthoff) and the Color ADOS gas analyzer
(Ados), a continuously operating colorimeter.
22391
Sakai, Kaoru, Fumio Mizuniwa, and Yasuji Hayashi
MEASUREMENT AND BEHAVIOUR OF EXHAUST GAS IN
POWER PLANT. (Karyoku puranto haigasu no sokutei to
kyodo). Hitachi Hyoron, 49(11): 1138-1142, Nov. 1967. 19 refs.
Translated from Japanese. Franklin Inst. Research Labs.,
Philadelphia, Pa., Science Info. Services, 23p., Oct. 29, 1969.
In purifying exhaust gas in power plants, the development of
desulfurizers and electric precipitators is being stimulated, but
it requires a reliable method of analysis for gas ingredients.
Mechanisms for the evolution of sulfur dioxide and sulfur
trioxide are discussed. Volumetric methods for analysis of
total sulfur, SO2 and SO3 include the neutralization process,
the thorin process, and the arsenazo III process. Also
discussed is the formation of nitrogen oxide and its measure-
ment. Attempts to increase the reliability of methods for test-
ing sulfur dioxide and trioxide, nitric oxide and nitrogen diox-
ide, and water are presented. The results of measurements in
actual plants carried out according to the methods described or
with a dew point indicator are summarized. Some observations
on operating variables within the power plants are included.
(Author abstract modified)
22511
Petersen, Helge
A TYPE OF WIND TUNNEL FOR SIMULATING
PHENOMENA IN THE NATURAL WIND. Advisory Group for
Aeronautical Research and Development, Paris (France), Rept.
308, 7p., Oct. 1960. CFSTI: PB-188340
A description is given of a type of wind tunnel specially suited
for measurements of wind pressure on buildings, of shelter ef-
fects, and of smoke concentration from a power plant chimney
stack or of the diffusion of radioactivity from an atomic power
plant. The tunnel design is based on a new model-law for such
experiments as realized by Dr. Martin Jensen. His idea was
that close to the earth, the wind develops a turbulent boundary
layer with a characteristic velocity profile. A model test to
determine the height of power plant stack, carried out at the
Hydro og Aerodynamisk Laboratorium, Lyngby, is mentioned.
Finally, a preliminary comparison of the turbulence intensity
in the model scale with that in nature is presented. (Author
summary modified)
22882
Moore, A. S.
SAMPLING DUST IN THE BUREAU OF MINES COAL-
FIRED GAS TURBINE. Combustion, 35(4):28-30, Oct. 1963.
An apparatus is described for sampling dust at the inlet of an
experimental turbine that uses combustion gases from a coal-
fired furnace. Erosion of turbine blades by dust entrained in
the gases was a major difficulty, and accurate dust sampling
was required to test the effectiveness of redesigned blades and
gas path. The probe is a 1/2-in. I.D., type 316 stainless steel
tube carrying a 1/2-in. I.D. sampling nozzle and leading to an
external filter. It is coupled to a pilot-static tube, with both
probe and tube protected by water jackets. Measurements will
be made to determine total dust load, particle size, incidence
and degree of particle segregation, and gas velocity. Gas
velocities through the probe are maintained automatically at
the isokinetic sampling rate by an air operated valve; tempera-
ture of the gas at the filter is maintained at 220-240 F.
Methods and results are given of testing on a half-scale mock-
up of the turbine inlet to insure the requisite continuous-opera-
tion 1500-hr capability of the system. The filter retained more
than 99% of the dust; variation in gas sampling rates at the
probe face was approximately plus or minus 1.5%. The system
removed a sample representative by weight with an average
deviation of plus or minus 6.4%, and was judged adequate in
all respects.
22885
Cummings, W. G. and M. W. Redfearn
INSTRUMENTS FOR MEASURING SMALL QUANTITIES
OF SULPHUR DIOXIDE IN THE ATMOSPHERE. J. Inst.
Fuel (London), vol. 30:628-635, Nov. 1957. 5 refs.
Details of design and operation are given for an automatic
recorder and a portable meter developed for measuring small
quantities of sulfur dioxide in air. Both instruments are sensi-
tive to 1 pphm SO2 in the range 0-50 pphm; the range can be
extended by simple adjustment, although sensitivity will
decrease proportionally. In the recorder, atmospheric S02 is
absorbed by a '/ahydrogen peroxide reagent in a continuous
counter-current absorption column, resulting in the formation
of sulfuric acid in the reagent solution; the increase in conduc-
tivity of the latter is measured. It is intended for long periods
of continuous operation on a fixed site. The portable meter
can be used in a small car for rapid surveys in a particular
area; it is non-recording and battery operated. Sulfur dioxide
in the air reacts with a starch-iodine reagent in a counter-cur-
rent absorption column. The amounts of light absorbed by the
unchanged and the partially decolorized reagent are compared
by photoelectric cells connected to a galvanometer. The cost
of both instruments is low, they are reliable over long periods,
and are easy to operate. They provide a more realistic assess-
ment of SO2 pollution than conventional lead peroxide candles
and daily volumetric estimations. Studies in progress using the
devices are indicating that when the plumes from modem
power stations reach the ground, the SO2 concentration in
them is low.
22909
Ramsden, A. R.
APPLICATION OF ELECTRON MICROSCOPY TO THE
STUDY OF PULVERIZED COAL COMBUSTION AND FLY-
ASH FORMATION. J. Inst. Fuel (London), vol. 41:4ll-454,
Dec. 1968. 7 refs.
A brief description is given of a probe and sampling technique
for collecting particles from the gas stream of a pulverized-
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C. MEASUREMENT METHODS
187
coal-fired test rig for direct examination by transmission elec-
tron microscopy without any intermediate stages of sample
preparation. The samples were collected with a water-cooled
probe located in a region of the combustion chamber where
the gas temperature was about 1000 C. The probe consists es-
sentially of three coaxial stainless steel tubes: the outer tube is
a water-cooled jacket, the inner tube carries a sampling grid
and a Pt/Pt-14% Rh thermocouple, and the intermediate tube
acts as a carriage for the inner tube, which can be withdrawn
to change the sampling grid. A light but adequate deposit may
be obtained with a sampling time of 2 sec; 10 sec is about the
upper limit. With a short sampling time, a quenching effect
permits molten particles to be collected. Initial experimental
observations made during combustion of some New South
Wales bituminous coals are presented, including reproduction
of magnified samples. The techniques described, together with
electron diffraction studies of the inorganic crystalline con-
stituents, are being applied to studies of combustion of pul-
verized-coal particles and fly-ash formation, which in turn are
expected to be of value in relating the physical properties of
residual fly-ash to the efficiency of electrostatic precipitation.
22982
Degtev, O. N. and G. M. Karagodin
THE ADVISABILITY OF USING CHROMATOGRAPHY TO
DETERMINE UNBURNT GASES. Thermal Eng. (English
translation from Russian of: Teploenergetika, 16(12):53-57,
1967.19 refs.
The loss due to unbumt gases is determined by analyzing flue
gases with a GKhP-3 or VTI-2 apparatus, or with chromato-
graphic or titrimetric gas analyzers. The choice of method is
governed by the required accuracy of determination as well as
by the minimum loss reliably recorded. Errors in determination
result from errors in gas analysis, in calculating flue gas
volume, and in calculating the calorific value of the fuel. Ex-
pressions are derived for calculating the errors of determina-
tion for the different gas analyzers and for establishing with
adequate reliability the recorded minimum value of the con-
centration of components under determination. Allowable er-
rors of determination are also calculated for different types of
fuel. Based on a comparison of these values with the errors of
determination by the different methods, the preferred analyzer
for each type of fuel is determined. Use of a chromatograph is
recommended for anthracites and coals.
230%
Vittori, Ottavio
RESEARCH IN CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF SOME
FORMS OF ATMOSPHERIC PARTICLES. Chicago Univ.,
ni., Dept. of Meteorology, NIH Grants RG-4521 and S-12(C),
TN-5, 54p., Dec. 15, 1956. 16 refs.
Procedures are described for identifying the chemical composi-
tion and size of airborne particles. The basic technique in-
volves the capture of the particles in a specially treated gel.
Reagents in the gel produce a physico-chemical reaction
known as the Liesegang reaction. The products of the reaction
precipitate in the form of rings. Identification of the particles
is made by one or more of three factors: the character of the
pattern of the precipitate, the color of the precipitate, or its
change of color. Tests were developed for particles containing
the following substances: chlorides, soluble iodide, soluble sul-
fide, soluble ferrocyanide, soluble sulfates, nitrates, potassium
ion, soluble silver, fluorides, lead and all heavy metals. Details
are given for the preparation of the gels to be used for specific
tests, and techniques for the capture of particles are discussed.
(Electrostatic precipitation, impactor, and millipore filter). Ex-
periments conducted to study the production of sulfate parti-
cles by the burning of wood or coal are discussed briefly, and
a technique for the capture of small water droplets and analy-
sis of the salt which may be dissolved in them is described.
(Author abstract modified)
23121
Jacobson, Murray, Samuel L. Terry, and Dominick A.
Ambrosia
EVALUATION OF SOME PARAMETERS AFFECTING THE
COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS OF MIDGET IMPINGER
SAMPLES. Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J., 31(4):442^ July-Aug.
1970. 8 refs.
Coulter counter techniques were used to determine the collec-
tion efficiency of the midget impinger for coal dust samples
with isopropanol, ethanol, and water as the collecting fluids.
Impinger samples are collected in water, different types of al-
cohol, or mixtures of alcohol and water. Air is drawn through
a nozzle at about 70 meters per sec and strikes a plate 5 mil-
limeters from a nozzle. Dust is trapped in the liquid and sub-
sequently examined under a microscope. The collection effi-
ciency of the impinger with the alcohols and water was ap-
proximately 95% and 68%, respectively, for particles 1 micron
and greater in diameter, and 77% and 64%, respectively, when
the particle size range was expanded to include particles down
to 0.68 micrometer in diameter. When the midget impinger
samples were analyzed by standard microscopic techniques,
equivalent counts were not obtained for the two alcohols, in-
dicating the effect fluid viscosity has on standard microscopic
techniques. Samples counted in a controlled temperature
chamber, using the microscopic technique, showing a change
in count of 2.4% and 1.2% per degree centigrade for
isopropanol and ethanol, respectively. (Author abstract
modified)
23350
Stockton, Edward L.
CLEAN AIR MANAGEMENT IN ALLEGHENY COUNTY,
PA. J. Sanit. Eng. Div. Am. Soc. Civil Engrs., vol. 96(SA
5):1211-1219, Oct. 1970. (Presented at the American Society of
Civil Engineers Annual and Environmental Engineering Meet-
ing, Chicago, 111., Oct. 13-17, 1969.
In 1969, Allegheny County changed its air monitoring program
from one of 30-day sample data from dustfall cans and sulfate
candles to continuous ambient air measurement of air pollu-
tion. Of the projected network of 18 remote stations, two sta-
tions will evaluate the hill-valley relationship to air pollution
concentrations near major industrial sources. Other stations
will evaluate specific emissions from known industrial, trans-
portation, and power plant sources. Data from fairly clean
sites will provide information on background levels and reflect
changes in pollution with corresponding meteorological
changes. Sensors for the stations are being selected on the
basis of known or anticipated emissions in the area, the
number depending on the parameters to be measured and
meteorological data desired. At the first station in the network,
the following parameters are measured: sulfur dioxide,
hydrogen sulfide, fine particulates, wind speed, wind
direction, temperature, humidity, and solar radiation. Teleme-
tered data from the sensors are processed by a computer
which issues hourly printouts of five-min pollutant averages,
five-min highs, the time when the high was reached, hourly
averages, hourly highs, and real time recording of data. Pro-
gramming is being expanded to process inspection data, emis-
sion inventory data, and simulation modeling. It is anticipated
that the completed network of 18 stations will be operational
in late 1960 or early 1971.
-------
188
23377
Brookhaven National Lab., Upton, N. Y., Radiation Div.,
Brookhaven National Lab., Upton, N. Y., Analytical
Chemistry Group, Brookhaven National Lab., Upton, N. Y.,
Engineering Div., and Brookhaven National Lab., Upton, N.
Y., Meteorology Group
THE ATMOSPHERIC DIAGNOSTICS PROGRAM AT
BROOKHAVEN NATIONAL LABORATORY: SECOND
STATUS REPORT. 42p., Nov. 1969. 17 refs. CFSTI: BNL
50206
The Isotope Ratio Tracer Method provides a means of unam-
biguously tracing sulfur in the atmosphere. It is specific, and
the tracer behaves exactly like the pollutant sulfur, since it
makes use of sulfur already in a fuel. The method is non-
radioactive and applicable to a wide range of problems. Each
of the elements necessary for its implementation has been
developed and is in routine operation. This includes means of
efficiently collecting samples that are adequate in size and
representative of both sulfur dioxide and sulfur trioxide from
furnace systems and sulfur dioxide and sulfates from the air at
ground level and aloft; methods and apparatus for quantita-
tively processing small samples in preparation for isotope mass
measurements; and design, procurement, and operation of an
isotope ratio mass spectrometer with high sensitivity.
Techniques for using SF6 as a collateral tracer have also been
developed. The IRT method can be applied both to problems
in the physical tracing of sulfur, such as in stack plumes, and
to studies of the chemistry of sulfur oxides in the atmosphere.
Results are reported on investigations currently underway, in-
cluding combustion studies in power plants, plume dispersion
from tall stacks, and pollution patterns in a small city. (Author
abstract modified)
24245
Morgan, George B., Guntis Ozolins, and filbert C. Tabor
AIR POLLUTION SURVEILLANCE SYSTEMS. Science,
190(3955):289-296, Oct. 16, 1970. 20 refs.
Atmospheric surveillance is necessary to identify ariborne pol-
lutants, to establish ambient concentrations of these pollu-
tants, and to record their trends and patterns. Air pollutants
may occur in the forms of gases, liquids, and solids, both
singly and in combination. Gaseous pollutants make up about
90% of the total mass emitted to the atmosphere; participates
and aerosols account for the remaining 10%. Small particulates
are of particular importance because they may be in the
respirable size range and can contain biologically active ele-
ments and compounds. Furthermore, they tend to remain in
the atmosphere, where they interfere with both solar and ter-
restrial infrared radiation. Gase and particulates may undergo
a variety of reactions to produce secondary pollutants that are
sometimes more toxic than the parent pollutants. This is par-
ticularly true in the case of photochemical smog. Pollutant
concentrations are directly related to the density of industry
and the use of fossil fuels for power and space heating Cities
that have poor ventilation or frequent temperature inversion
are plagued with air pollution episodes. States have the prima-
ry responsibility for atmospheric surveillance. Surveillance
systems are usually established on a city or regional basis. The
federal monitoring system is to provide a base of uniform data
for verification of data from the various agencies and the
quantify pollutants that are difficult or expensive to measure.
Presently, the operation of most of the devices and analyzers
used for measuring air pollutants is based on wet chemical
methods. New techniques are needed in which solid-state or
advanced sensing techniques, based on physical or physico-
chemical properties of pollutants, are used. A number of new
instruments are being developed by the National Air Pollution
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
Control Administration (NAPCA). In addition, NAPCA has
automated and computer-interfaced some of its more so-
phisticated laboratory and field instruments. (Author summary
modified)
24412
Rowe, D. R. and L. W. Canter
AIR POLLUTION: CAUSES, EFFECTS AND RESOLUTION.
Public Works, 101(10):86-87, Oct. 1970.
Various modes of transportation account for 60% of the total
pollutants, industry for 19%, generation of electricity for 12%,
space heating for 6%, and refuse disposal for 3%. These pollu-
tants can be classified as primary or secondary, i.e., those
emitted directly into the atmosphere and those formed by
reactions occurring in the atmosphere, or they can be clas-
sified as paniculate or gaseous. Settling particulate matter can
be easily determined with a dust fall bucket, suspended par-
ticulates with a Hi-Vol sampler, and their soiling index with a
paper tape sampler. Monitoring gases is more complicated,
though simple detector tubes with specific color changes can
be used to determine whether a serious ambient air quality
problem exists. The sun plays a major role in the production
of secondary pollutants and of photochemical smog.
Meteorology is also of prime importance in air pollution and
has many applications in air pollution control such a plant-site
location, city planning, zoning, stack height, and allowable
emission rates. Conversely, air pollution can affect
meteorological conditions, reducing visibility and solar radia-
tion and increasing fog and precipitation. Control of air pollu-
tion requires establishment of air pollution criteria and air
quality standards, followed by ambient air quality standards
for particulates, gases, and odors and emission standards.
Along with these steps must go enforcement, either by polic-
ing, tax incentives or a charge for using air.
25147
Debrun, G.
THE OBSERVATION OF AIR POLLUTION AROUND A
LARGE E. D. F. THERMAL STATION BY MEANS OF CON-
TINUOUS MEASUREMENTS RETRANSMITTED TO THE
STATION'S CONTROL ROOM. (La surveillance de la pollu-
tion atmospherique autour d'une grande centrale thermique E.
D. F. ay moyen de mesureurs en continu avec retransmission
en salle de commande de la centrale). Text in French.
Preprint, International Union of Air Pollution Prevention As-
sociations, 9p., 1970. (Presented at the International Clean Air
Congress, 2nd, Washington D. C., Dec. 6-11, 1970, Paper SU-
24A.)
A summarized description is presented of the instruments used
in France for gathering continuous information concerning at-
mospheric acidity from measuring stations spread over a large
city or an industrial site, and for retransmitting immediately
this informatio to a central observation station. A survey is in-
cluded of the firs results obtained in the vicinity of a thermal
station by utilizing such control networks which have as a
main function the indicating of the times when the emission of
polluting agents into the atmosphere should be reduced. Mea-
surements are obtained through a device regulating the pH of
a solution of hydrogen peroxide through which the air to be
analyzed is sent. (Author abstract)
-------
C. MEASUREMENT METHODS
189
25231
Dams, Richard, Kenneth A. Rahn, Gordon, D. Nifong, John
A. Robbins, and John W. Winchester
MULTI-ELEMENT ANALYSIS OF AIR POLLUTION PAR-
TICULATES BY NONDESTRUCTIVE NEUTRON ACTIVA-
TION. Preprint, International Union of Air Pollution Preven-
tion Associations, 41p., 1970. 12 refs. (Presented at the Inter-
national Clean Air Congress, 2nd, Washington D. C., Dec. 6-
11,1970, Paper CP-31E.)
A nondestructive and computer assisted neutron activation
analytical procedure for the determination of up to 33 ele-
ments in air pollution particulates has been developed and
tested in pilot studies of samples taken in and near the urban-
industrial area of Northwest Indiana and Chicago. Samples are
taken by drawing air through a clean filter or an impaction
sampler so that the particle are held by a substrate which can
be irradiated with neutrons and which does not thereby
become radioactive. The procedure includes 2 or 3 neutron ir-
radiations of a portion of the filter followed by spectrometric
measurement of induced gamma radiation by means of a ger-
manium-lithium detector and multi-channel analyzer. The data
are recorded by magnetic tape and computations are per-
formed largely by digital computer. In one test a 36-hour time
series of 90-minute samples indicated that both meteorological
and time- dependent source processes may influence concen-
trations of the elements determined. In another study, analyses
of 25 samples, which were collected by filters simultaneously
over a network including both urban and rural locations, in-
dicated that some, but not all, elements have principal sources
lying within the urban and industrial region. Generally, metal-
lic elements associated with certain industrial operations were
several times higher in the urba center than in the surrounding
countryside, but elements common in soil materials and ele-
ments which may occur both as gases and as particles were
more evenly distributed over the network. In the same region
size fractions of particles were collected by cascade impactors
fitted with polyethylene impaction surfaces. Systematic dif-
ferences were observed over the radius range 0.1 to 10
microns where refractory metals, such as iron, aluminum, and
the rare earths, were found on distinctly larger particles than
elements such as zinc, arsenic, antimony, and indium where
vapor condensatio in some high-temperature industrial sources
is expected. (Author abstract modified)
25260
Smith, Nelson S., Jr. and George E. Fasching
ELECTROGASDYNAMIC APPLICATION TO DUST MONI-
TORING. Preprint, International Union of Air Pollution
Prevention Associations, 17p., 1970. 18 refs. (Presented at the
International Clean Air Congress, 2nd, Washington, D. C.,
Dec. 6-11, 1970, Paper CP-19E.)
Electrogasdynamic principles were investigated at the basis for
a continuous monitor for size and mass flow of dust in a
stream of gas. A cylindrical monitor was developed consisting
of a high velocity ionizing section that electrically charges the
dust, a velocity-reducing diffusing section, and a metal charge-
collecting section that is segmented to permit the measurement
of four currents. For dusts of uniform size, segment currents
were shown theoretically to be a function of dust size and
concentration. Segment currents produced by different particle
sizes interact, however, making the relationship invalid. To
overcome this, equations for segments currents in terms of
size and flow rate of fly ash were developed from an 18-test
factorial experiment coverin mean dust sizes of 43, 104, and
143 micron and dust rates of 2, 8, and 14g/hr. At the test gas
flow rate of 3.5 scfm, dust concentrations were 0.15, 0.59, and
1.03 gr/cu ft. Dust sizes and flow rates predicted from the
equations were subsequently compared with segment currents
for known sizes and flow rates of dust within the calibration
range. Largest errors in sizes and flow rate for five tests were
20 and 85%, respectively. Further reduction in error and adap-
tation of the method to a practical system useful in air pollu-
tion control appears feasible. The method might be used to
continuously measure fly ash in power plant stack gases and,
if made portable, to monitor respirable dust levels in coal
mines. (Author abstract)
25872
Walkenhorst, Wilhelm
RESULTS OBTAINED WITH A NEW METHOD OF DETER-
MINATION OF THE PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION OF
SUSPENDED DUST. (Ergebnisse nit'einem neuen Verfahren
zur Bestimmung der Teilchengroessenverteilung von
Schwebestaub). Text in German. Staub, Reinhaltung Luft,
30(11): 458-465, Nov. 1970. 8 refs. (Presented at the Interna-
tionalen Staubtagung, Bonn-Bad Godesberg, West Germany,
June 9-11, 1970.)
Fine-pore sieves made of aluminium oxide of an average pore
size of 0.025 micron are used for collecting suspended dust in
coal mines. Rock dust requires a frequency maximum between
0.1 and 0.2 micron because fine particles are more numerous
than in the case of coal. Above 0.5 micron the distribution
function can be approximated by an exponential function with
exponent 2.4. This relationship is not valid for coal dust.
Below 0.2 micron there is a steep slope in the distribution
curve. The frequency maximum is about 0.2 micron. If the sur-
faces and volumes or masses of the respirable fine dust are
calculated (5 micron equal to 50%; 7 micron equal to 0%), par-
ticles of a size up to 1 micron will amount to 2-4% of the total
mass of the respirable portion. In contrast to this the surfaces
amount approximately to 10-20%. The rock dust content of the
respirable dust increases with decreasing particle size. Values
of 80-85% are reached below 1 micron.
26139
Schulz, E. J., R. A. Duffee, R. I. Mitchell, and E. W. Ungar
A TRACER TECHNIQUE TO MEASURE DEPOSITION OF
STACK EMISSIONS. Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J., 21(5):343-349,
Oct. 1960. 7 refs. (Presented at the American Industrial Hy-
giene Association, 21st Annual Meeting, Rochester, April 27,
1960.)
A liquid atomizing technique was selected to generate a tracer
aerosol which has the same settling characteristics as those of
the emitted material. The parameter having the greatest effect
on the particle size of the resulting dried tracer is the concen-
tration of the solution to be atomized; the particle size dis-
tribution of the tracer aerosols for this study was determined
with a cascade impactor. Solutions of uranine absorb blue light
between the wavelengths of 4400-5200 A and have a brilliant
yellow fluorescence between 5100 and 5900 A. Emissions from
250 and 300-foot stacks at a power plant were used for this
study, while observations of plume direction were also
recorded. To accelerate the tracer tests, instead of utilizing im-
paction slides or dust-fall jars, samples of the emitted tracer
were obtained at various locations in the sampling area by col-
lection on 2-inch membrane filtes. Wind direction and velocity
together with observations of plume direction are shown to aid
in relating fly-ash concentrations obtained and the deposition
rates calculated. Based on preliminary laboratory study to in-
vestigate uranine decomposition with temperature, it was
found that uranine could be dispersed as a tracer at stack gas
temperature up to 600 F without decomposition. It is mandato-
-------
190 ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
ry that background fluorescence be determined in the area to tracer in the stack must be determined for each application.
be investigated, while with direct stack injection, losses of
-------
191
D. AIR QUALITY MEASUREMENTS
00657
M. Katz, H.P. Sanderson, R. D. McKay
EVALUATION OF AIR POLLUTION LEVELS IN RELATION
TO STEEL MANUFACTURING AND COAL COMBUSTION
IN SYDNEY, NOVA SCOTIA. Preprint. (Presented at the 58th
Annual Meeting, Air Pollution Control Association, Toronto,
Canada, June 20-24, 1965, Paper No. 65-134.)
Study covers air pollution concentrations in Sydney, Nova
Scotia, (an iron and steel manufacturing area). Dust-fall, soil-
ing index, and sulfur dioxide measurement are covered. Tables
and charts (as an appendix) delineate the results of the survey.
00858
R. Venezia G. Ozolins
INTERSTATE AIR POLLUTION STUDY - PHASE II PRO-
JECT REPORT. II. AIR POLLUTANT EMISSION INVENTO-
RY. Public Health Service, Cincinnati, Ohio, Div. of Air Pollu-
tion. May 1966. 54 pp.
An emission inventory was conducted 1963-1964 as part of the
St. Louis East St. Louis Interstate Air Pollution Study. The
Study covered an area of 3,567 square miles and included the
City of St. Louis and the six surrounding counties St. Louis,
St. Charles, and Jefferson Counties in Missouri and Madison,
St. Clair, and Monroe Counties in Illinois. More than 95% of
the population and almost all of the industrial activity are
located in the 400 square miles of the centrally located ur-
banized part of the Study area. The pollutant emission data
presented can be almost entirely attributed to this urbanized
portion of the area. Population density and land-use maps,
which provide an excellent index to the areal distribution of
most pollutant emissions, are also presented. The pollutants
considered in this survey are those emitted in large quantities
from a variety and multitude of sources dispersed throughout
the area.
01790
A.N. Heller D.F. Walters
IMPACT OF CHANGING PATTERNS OF ENERGY USE ON
COMMUNITY AIR QUALITY. J. Air Pollution Control Assoc.
15, (9) 423-8, Sept. 1965
The air quality of an urban area depends to a great extent
upon the quantity and type of fuel consumed. Thus, a marked
change in energy demand from 1960 to 2000 A.D. will affect
the air quality of all of our urban centers. Interwoven with this
potential effect is the anticipated influence of the change in
type and quality of fuels, e.g., nuclear fuels, high sulfur coals,
and a major modification in energy drived motive power, i.e.,
fuel cells, and the subsequent depletion of natural gas as an
energy raw material. The current trend is to greater urban
population densities, and it is estimated that by the year 2000
A.D., 85 percent of America's population will live on only 10
percent of thre land mass. To assess the potential impact of
the energy demands for the next half century on air quality,
particularly of America's urban centers, a review of current
practices of combustion of coal, petroleum, and natural gas,
and the potential effect on community air quality will be
developed. To meet the impact of the interrelated changing
patterns of population growth, urban developments, energy
requirements and available sources, research needs on both a
short and long term basis will be explored. (Author abstract)
02046
E. W. Gillham A. Martin, and F. R. Barber
SULPHUR DIOXIDE CONCENTRATIONS MEASURED
AROUND A MODERN POWER STATION. Proc. (Part I) In-
tern. Clean Air Cong., London, 1966. (Paper VI/10). pp. 185-7.
Sulphur dioxide concentrations have now been measured con-
tinuously for two years around a modern 1000 MW Power Sta-
tion situated in a rural area. The facts from 200,000 recorder-
hours of data are presented and previous findings are ton-
firmed and extended. On a long-term basis, the ground level
sulphur dioxide from the Power Station was only a small pro-
portion of that from other sources. Measured concentrations
have not risen to published critical dosage levels as a result of
the contributions made by the Station. Modifications to
methods of calculations are proposed to account for the short-
term maxima and their positions. The modifications are also
extended to apply to other Power Stations. (Author abstract)
02057
S. R. Craxford, M. Clifton, and M.-L.P.M. Weatherly.
SMOKE AND SULPHUR DIOXIDE IN GREAT BRITISH:
DISTRIBUTION AND CHANGES. Proc. (Part I) Intern. Clean
Air Cong., London, 1966. (Paper VII/1). pp. 213-6.
Using data obtained in the National Survey of Smoke and
Sulphur Dioxide for urban areas in Great Britain it is shown
that there has been a steady fall in smoke concentration in the
air since 1952 which runs parallel with the fall in smoke emis-
sion from the burning of coal. In London the fall in both con-
centration in the air and emission has been much more marked
than in the rest of the country. A corresponding study of
sulphur dioxide shows a slow decrease in the concentration in
the air for the country as a whole in spite of a slow increase in
emissions. In London the increase in emission has been
greater but even so no increase in concentration in the air can
be detected; if anything, there has been a very slight increase.
For similar types of site, both smoke and sulphur dioxide con-
centrations in the North are very much greater than in the
South (with the exception of sulphur dioxide at certain types
of site in LondoO; an important factor in accounting for these
differences is the much higher coal consumption for domestic
heating per head of population, in the North as compared with
the South. Another important factor in the case of sulphur
dioxide is the different sulphur contents of the coals used in
different parts of the country. (Author abstract)
02818
THE GOTHENBURG AIR POLLUTION STUDY 1959-64.
Gothenburg Air Pollution Committee (LUG), Sweden. 80 pp.,
1964
-------
192
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
Gothenburg, like many other cities all over the world, has ex-
perienced an increasing air pollution problem associated with
population and industrial growth. During the last decade the
Board of Public Health in Gothenburg has followed with spe-
cial interest the question of air pollution in the city. This stu-
dy, the first of its kind in Sweden, was started in October 1959
with a general survey including monthly means of deposited
matter and sulfur dioxide and daily means of sulphur dioxide
and smoke. The purpose of the survey was to get a picture of
the air pollution situation in Gothenburg forming a basis for
comparisons with other places and a platform for more
detailed air pollution measurements. This part of the study was
finished in September 1962. It was considered necessary to
complete the 3-year study with more specialized measure-
ments. During Sept. 1962-March 1964 2-hour mean values of
sulphur dioxide and daily means of total suspended paniculate
matter have been determined together with automatic record-
ing of carbon monoxide. The latter is considered as an index
of air pollution from vehicle exhaust. Measurements of daily
means of sulphur dioxide and smoke have continued at one
centrally located station. The study was directed by the
Gothenburg Air Pollution Committee (LUG). Financial con-
tributions were received from three Government Research
Councils, one private scientific Fund, one Commercial As-
sociation and from the City Council of Gothenburg. (Author
introduction)
02953
PROVISIONAL METHODOLOGY FOR COMPUTING AT-
MOSPHERIC DISPERSION OF WASTE ASHES AND SUL-
FUROUS GASES FROM POWER STATION SMOKESTACKS.
(Vremennaya Metodika Raschetov Rasseivaniya v Atmosfere
Vybrosov (Zoly i Semistykh Gazov) iz Dymovykh Trub Elek-
trostantsiy.) Teploenerg. (Translation pci 207, Documentary In-
formation Rept. No. 20) (7) 89-92, July 1964.
Presented herewith is a translation of a Russian study. The
method proposed is based on theoretical and experimental
work carried out in the vicinity of a large thermal power sta-
tion. It is valid for the calculation of dispersion of pollutants,
determination of the necessary height of smokestacks, and for
attaining normalized values of ground-level concentration of
such pollutants. The report explains how to apply the formula
defining maximum concentration and how to select the various
factors involved. A graph is proposed which gives~in terms of
maximum concentration at a given distance~the value of the
concentration of pollutants at other points, and, finally, a
method is described for calculating the minimum height of
smokestacks compatible with the authorized limits of concen-
tration of waste products in the atmosphere. Taking up a
specific instance-that of a certain power station located in the
Ukraine~an example is given of the practical application of
this method in calculating the maximum concentration of nox-
ious impurities at ground level.
02979
A. J. Elshout
THE MEASUREMENTS OF DUST AND GASEOUS AIR POL-
LUTIONS IN THE VICINITY OF AN ISOLATED POWER
STATION. Staub (English TRANSL.) 25, (11) 37-41, NOV.
1965. CFSTI TT66-51040/11
Reports the results of dust precipitation measurements and
sulphur dioxide measurements carried out for many years in
the vicinity of a power station. Within a radius of 3 km the
precipitated fly ash was only 3% of the total amount emitted
from the power station. The measured values were in good
agreement with calculated values. In contrast to this the mea-
sured SO2 concentrations were 50% higher or lower than the
theoretical values. A higher value was obtained for the Cz
value in Suttom's formula. The different methods for calculat-
ing the minimum stack height must be checked and adapted by
adjusting the coefficients. (Author summary)
03431
G. B. Welsh.
AN APPRAISAL OF AIR POLLUTION IN HUNTSVBLLE,
ALABAMA. Public Health Service, Washington, D.C., Div. of
Air Pollution. May 1963. GPO: 862-747
During the period 1950 to 1963, the population of Huntsville
increased about 480%. This growth trend, which is expected to
continue, favors higher pollution levels in the future unless
adequate control measures are taken. Local meteorological
factors tend to intensify the air pollution problem in Hunt-
sville. During periods of adverse meteorological conditions air
pollutants may be concentrated in the business district of the
city. The southeastern portion of the United States, which inl-
cudes Huntsville, is subjected to a high frequency of low-level
atmospheric temperature inversions and stagnating air masses.
Both of these conditions contribute to accumulation of air pol-
lution in Huntsville, especially during the months of the year
when the space heating requirements are greatest. The at-
mospheric pollutants of primary concern is Huntsville are due
to (1) the improper combustion of coal, (and oil to a lesser
degree) for space heating and power generation in connection
with residential, commercial and industrial usages; (2) burning
of garbage and refuse at the dump and of refuse on the
premises of commercial and industrial installations; and (3)
dust from mineral processing activities. Pollutants of seconda-
ry concern are odors, gases, and solvent vapors from various
industrial and commercial activities. In addition, emissions
from motor vehicles should also be considered. Whule public
complaints have been primarily directed at smoke and dust
problems there are many other gaseous pollutants which add
to the complexity and magnitude of the proboelm. Periodic in-
cidents of reduced visibility are one apparent indication of air
pollution problem in Huntsville. Measurements of air pollution
that have been made to data are inadequate to define the na-
ture and extent of the air pollution problem. Visual observa-
tions indicate that the primary problems probably are: (1)
smoke from the improper combustion of certain fuels and
burning garbage and refuse; and (2) dusts from the processing
and production of building materials. There is no organized air
pollution control effort in Huntsville at the present time. The
zoning ordinance establishes specific uses for certain districts
and provides performance standards for air pollution control in
the Research Park District. If properly enforced the zoning or-
dinance should minimize the future intermingling of residential
and industrial areas, a condition that usually intensifies local
air pollution problems.
03432
D. M. Anderson, J. Lieben, and V. H. Sussman.
PURE AIR FOR PENNSYLVANIA. Public Health Service,
Cincinnati, Ohio, Div of Air Pollution and Pennsylvania Dept.
of Health, Harrisburg. Nov. 1961. 144 pp. HEW
This report is the culmination of a joint study effort of the
Pennsylvania Dept. of Health and the U.S. Public Health Ser-
vice which began in March 1959 and ended Nov. 1959. The ob-
jective was a comprehensive evaluation of the air pollution
problems in Pennsylvania and a compilation of technical infor-
mation which could serve as a basis for future planning and
action. Basically the study consisted of an analysis of all
available air pollution data and opinion, and the development
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D. AIR QUALITY MEASUREMENTS
193
of pertinent new data short of an actual ak sampling program.
The main sources of information were personal visits and in-
terviews with local officials. All manufacturing industries and
public utilities in the State employing 100 or more persons
were contacted by letter; this amounts to about 10% of the
total manufacturing establishments in the State (1959); 862
replies were received. More than 80% of the State's population
was covered in the community (over 2500) surfey. All availa-
ble air quality data were assembled and tabulated as concisely
as possible. Data on control activities received special empha-
sis. The main topics include: Emission Sources, Dynamics; Air
Quality; Biological, Physical and Economic Effects; Control
Activities. There were at least 476 communities (1959) where,
according to local officials, one or more air pollutants were
found in objectionable quantities. About 83% of the population
of the State was considered to be exposed to objectionable air
pollution from time to time. About half of all communities
with less than 10,000 population are included. The fraction in-
creases with community size to the point where all communi-
ties of greater than 100,000 population are affected. Nearly 100
communities were believed to have major problems.
03514
ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION IN THE GREAT KANAWHA
RIVER VALLEY INDUSTRIAL AREA. West Virginia State
Dept. of Health, Charleston, Bureau of Industrial Hygiene and
Cincinnati Univ., Ohio, Kettering Lab. 1952. 184 pp.
The purpose of the survey was to (1) establish factual informa-
tion as to the atmospheric pollution problem of the valley, (2)
compare the present particle-fall load of the valley to that of a
previous survey made by the Bureau of Industrial Hygiene,
West Virginia Department of Health from June 1945 to
December 1947 and (3) to determine the present or future
needs of establishing an agressive air pollution control pro-
gram for the area. The total daily load of paniculate solid
matter discharged to the atmosphere was found to be approxi-
mately 500 tons, derived mostly from burning or processing of
coal; that of gases, fumes, and vapors, most of which are sul-
fur gases from the use of coal, amounted to about 370 tons.
While the paniculate matter (fly ash, etc.) can be controlled to
acceptable levels through selection of coal and installation of
collectors, it does not appear that there is any prospect of
'cleaning up' the valley completely, although there is evidence
that much more can be accomplished by economical means. It
is further indicated that even with a consistent uniform daily
loading of the atmosphere with paniculate matter, the ground
level concentrations may vary greatly, depending upon
meteorological conditions. The elimination of sulfur dioxide
arising from the use of coal is an extremely difficult problem,
since low sulfur coal is not obtainable locally in sufficient
quantity, while chemical methods of control would be
economically prohibitive at the present time. Odors, which are
extremely annoying at times, have not been explained satisfac-
torily in many cases. Analytical methods of identification are
not available except in a few cases, although special equip-
ment might be valuable in identifying such contaminants.
Greater assistance from industry is required to identify such
materials, to determine their toxicity and to establish the quan-
tities discharged into the atmosphere. Two episodes of eye ir-
ritation of fairly severe character occurred in 1951. While
these were of short duration, they served to indicate that pol-
lution in the valley, under adverse conditions, can cause
demonstrable ill effects. (Author summary modified)
04116
W. W. Stalker, P. A. Kenline, and H. J. Paulus
NASHVILLE SULFUR DIOXIDE EMISSION INVENTORY
AND THE RELATIONSHD? OF EMISSION TO MEASURED
SULFUR DIOXIDE. J. Ak Pollution Control Assoc. 14, (11)
469-74, Nov. 1964.
A detailed inventory of sulfur dioxide emissions was prepared
as part of the Nashville Community Air Pollution Study con-
ducted by the Public Health Service during 1958-59. The pri-
mary purpose of the inventory was to provide data for a study
of the relationship between the emission of sulfur dioxide and
measured ambient levels. The development of the inventory,
data collection methods, and calculations are described. Am-
bient levels of sulfur dioxide were related to average emissions
of sulfur dioxide in such a way (correlation coefficient = 0.81)
that mean seasonal concentrations of atmospheric sulfur diox-
ide in square-mile areas could be predicted with fairly good
confidence from a knowledge of sulfur dioxide emissions. For
these long-period (average) predictions meteorological varia-
bles can be disregarded. On a square-mile basis, on the
average, one ton of sulfur dioxide emitted per day produced a
mean atmospheric sulfur dioxide concentration of 0.022 ppm,
and 10 tons of sulfur dioxide per day produced a concentration
of 0.067 ppm. (Author abstract)
05010
New York State Air Pollution Control Board, Albany. (July
1958.) 76 pp.
A REVIEW OF Am POLLUTION IN NEW YORK STATE.
This report contains current knowledge of air pollution
problems affecting New York State. Previous study results are
summarized and more important factors influencing air pollu-
tion in the state are discussed. The nature and types of air
contaminants , their effects, and the elements of air pollution
legislation are considered. Study areas for future activities of
the Air Pollution Control Board and priorities for action are
proposed.
05260
S. Y. Shamirzayev, and D. K. Nurullayev
POLLUTION OF THE ATMOSPHERIC AIR OF THE CITY
OF TASHKENT AND WAYS FOR ITS REDUCTION .
(Aagryaznennosf Atmosfernogo Vozdukha Goroda Tashkenta
i Puti Yeye Snizheniya.) Med. Zh. Uzbekistana (9), 20-5 (Sept.
1960). Usss. (Tr.) (Translated as JPRS 9863.)
The dust and gas suspension exceed the maximum permissible
concentration, in various places, by 2 100 times. During the
winter period approximately 15,000 tons of coal is consumed
daily in the city and more than 80,000,000 cu m of flue gas and
600 tons of ashes are discharged into the air (the burning of 1
kg of coal liberates 5.5 cu m of flue gas at an average coal ash
content of 20 percent). On the average 240 tons of oil is
burned daily. There is discharged every hour 60,000 cu m of
flue gas into the atmospheric air, or 1,500,000 everyday. Of
the twenty samples tested for lead fumes, eight were found to
have exceeded the maximum permissible limits; of the 30 sam-
ples tested for carbon monoxide, 14 exceeded the maximum
permissible limits. Soot was found in 20 samples; in some of
them the maximum permissible limits were exceeded four
times. At other posts, carbon monoxide exceeds the maximum
permissible limits 2 5 times (from 14 to 29 mg/cu m, at a norm
of 6 mg/cu m); concentrations of lead, 12 to 13 times greater
than the maximum permissible limit (at a norm of 0.0007
mg/cu m, samples were found to contain from 0.014 to 0.0096
mg/cu m). The concentration of soot exceeded the maximum
-------
194
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
permissible limits six times (content of 0.9 mg/cu m). In the
area of the asphalt and bituminous plant the dust suspension in
the air proved to be 52 times greater than the maximum per-
missible limit (26 mg/cu m was found at a permissible concen-
tration of 0.5 mg/cu m); the suspension of sulfur dioxide was
80 times greater (40 mg/cu m instead of 0.5).
05428
M. Abe
AIR POLLUTION IN SAPPORO AND ITS SOURCES. Kuki
Seijo (Clean Air-J. Japan Ah" Cleaning Assoc., Tokyo) 4, (2) 1-
10, July 1966. Jap.
Primary sources of air pollution in Sapporo are the burning of
coal and oil. Pollution is severest in winter since 90.2% more
coal and 79.8% more fuel oil is burned during that season.
Coal is used mainly for domestic heating and oil for large in-
dustrial plants. The types of coal used and their sulfur con-
tents are tabulated, along with soot-emission concentrations.
Hourly, daily, and seasonal changes in SO2 concentration and
soot fall out are tabulated for various areas of the city. Data
on air pollution from automotible exhaust is also tabulated.
Visibility during the winter between 7 and 10 A.M. and 4 and 8
P.M. is significantly reduced. Economic losses and citizens
complaints are categorized.
05551
McMullen, Thomas B., Fensterstock, Jack C., Faoro, Robert
B. and Smith, Raymond
AIR QUALITY AND CHARACTERISTIC COMMUNITY
PARAMETERSJ. Air Pollution Control Assoc., 18(8):545-549,
August 1968. (Presented at the 60th Annual Meeting, Air Pollu-
tion Control Association Cleveland, Ohio, June 11-16, 1967,
Paper 67-26.)
Statistical correlations between all pairs of 16 selected air
quality measurements and 13 selected community parameters
for 66 standard metropolitan statistical areas have been calcu-
lated, tested for significance, and reviewed for meaningful
relationships. Of special interest are the correlations between
the sulfate fraction of suspended particulate matter and the
use of sulfur containing fuels (r equal 0.66), between ambient
sulfur dioxide and the use of sulfur containing fuels (r equal
0.85), between the lead fraction of suspended particulates and
annual purchases of gasoline (r equal 0.71), and between
vanadium in suspended particulates and the percent residual
fuel oil used in a community (r equal 0.69). Several of these
relationships are given more definitive description with mathe-
matical equations that describe how the ambient pollutant con-
centration varies as a function of a related community parame-
ter. The geographic distribution of high and low pollutant
levels is also discussed.
06755
E. Effenberger
(DUST LEVEL MEASUREMENTS TO DETERMINE THE
DEGREE OF AIR POLLUTION.) Staubkonzentrationsmessun-
gen fur Ermittlung des Verunreinigungsgrades der Luft durch
Korpuskulare Beimengungen. Beitr. Problem Luftreinhaltung
(Essen) (68) 35-56, Nov. 1965. Ger.
Various aspects of the problem of dust in the air, its origin, ef-
fects and measurement are reviewed. Among the natural
sources, forest fires and volcanic eruptions are mentioned.
More important are manmade dusts deriving mostly from all
kinds of combustion. The effects of dust on all forms of life
are not completely known. Some occupational diseases like sil-
icosis and other harmful effects of dust are described. The re-
tention of particles of various sizes in the lungs is discussed.
Results of large-scale health examinations in Prague are
quoted. A section is devoted to particle size distributions and a
typical example is quoted. Problems and methods of dust con-
centration measurements are discussed in detail. A large list of
measuring equipment is given, both from Europe and the
USA. In each case the principle of operation is noted and re-
marks pertaining to their practical use are added. Another sec-
tion deals with the problem of how dust concentrations are
correlated with dust fall measurements. Functional relation-
ships between the two quantities, obtained experimentally, are
plotted in several graphs and discussed in detail. Both concen-
tration measurements and dust fall measurements bear a cer-
tain amount of statistical uncertainty. This, however, is not
too objectionable since the effects of dust on humans can be
classified only in three to five degrees at best. The article is
concluded by 82 bibliographic references.
06777
(CHIMNEY PLUME RISE AND DISPERSION.) Elevation des
Panaches de Fumees et Dispersion. Centre Interprofessionnel
Technique d'Etudes de la Pollution Atmospherique, Paris,
France. (1967.) 5 pp. Fr. (Rept. No. CI 316.) (C.I.T.E.P.A. Docu-
ment No. 24.)
The symposium held at Letherhead, England on October 7,
1966 on chimney plume rise is reported which includes two
surveys of the SO2 in the neighborhood of electric power
houses and the chimney plume rise under various meteorologi-
cal conditions. The height of the plume was measured in one
case by the signal reflected from the plume of a luminous
beam directed at the plume from the ground. The reflection is
measured by a photoelectric cell on the ground. The use of
lidar, which uses a laser beam instead of light permits the ob-
servation of an invisible plume 1200 meters from the source. It
also detects the level of inversion. The lidar permits the total
scanning of a plume in 3 min. The SO2 values for dispersion
were made for different plume heights, but were not given.
Two formulas were derived; one gives the height of plume of
smoke and the other the maximum concentration at ground
level.
06819
MEASUREMENTS OF STRONG ACIDITY IN THE AIR AND
PARTICLES IN SUSPENSION ('BLACK SMOKE') PER-
FORMED BY E.D.F. SINCE 1960. ((Mesures de 1'Acidite Forte
de 1'Air et des Particules en Suspension ('Fumees Noires') Ef-
fectuees par E.D.F. Depuis I960.)) Text in French. Service de
la Production Thermique, 4p., 1960. (Plus 95 maps, graphs,
and charts, not included.)
Air was passed through filter paper and blown through water.
The filter retained the dust and the water retained soluble
gases, particularly SO2. The number of particles in suspension
was determined by reflectometry. Charts give the amount of
acidity in the air expressed in mg/cu m and the amount of
black smoke (particles in suspension). Maps indicate the loca-
tion of measuring equipment near the power stations. A series
of graphs gives daily and monthly values of smoke and gas
and sulfur emissions from power plants. The maximum allowa-
ble concentration of strong acid is 0.725 mg/cu m and of black
smoke 0.350 mg/cu m. These values have never been exceeded
by plants outside the urban areas.
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D. AIR QUALITY MEASUREMENTS
195
06824
M. B.Jacobs
CONCENTRATION OF SULFUR-CONTAINING POLLU-
TANTS IN A MAJOR URBAN AREA. Proc. Symp. At-
mospheric Chemistry of Chlorine and Sulfur Compounds, Cin-
cinnati, Ohio, 1957 (1959). pp. 81-7. (Geophysical Monograph
No. 3.)
The variation and concentration of the major sulfur-bearing
pollutants; sulfur dioxide, sulfur trioxide and hydrogen sulfide
are discussed. An examination of data concerning a large
urban area indicates that there are five major types of varia-
tion in the sulfur dioxide concentration in the atmosphere.
There is a seasonal variation with a high in December and
January and a low in July and August. There is a diurnal varia-
tion with maximum generally in the period from 06h 00m to
lOh 00m with a secondary maximum in the late afternoon or
early evening. There is a variation specifically influenced by
weather inversions with the highest concentration of pollution
occurring with the more intense inversions which result with
inversions starting at surface in combination with low wind
velocity. There is a geographical variation as evidenced by
decreasing concentration of sulfur dioxide as one moves from
the center of the city. This is influenced by proximity to indus-
trial areas. And there is a variation which is dependent upon
movement of specific air masses. The sulfur trioxide concen-
tration is generally low except for samples taken directly in
plume of industrial plants. The concentration of hydrogen sul-
fide is generally low except in localized areas adjacent to
sewage disposal plants and analogous situations. (Author sum-
mary modified)
07141
Dubrovskaya, F. I.
THE EFFECT OF SMOKE EMISSION PURIFICATION ON
AIR DUST CONCENTRATION OF A LARGE CITY. U.S.S.R.
Literature on Air Pollution and Related Occupational Diseases,
Vol. 1:118-121, Jan. 1960. (Also published in Gigiena i Sank.,
23(1):69-71 1958.) Translated from Russian. CFSTI: TT 60-
21049
Over a period of several years the pollution of Moscow air
was studied. The accumulated data presented the opportunity
to determine the changes in air pollution intensity which
resulted from the introduction of control measures. One of the
basic measures was an official mandatory requirement that fly
ash be removed from smoke gases emitted by electric power
and heating plants and by boiler operated manufacturing and
production industries. A comparison of the data under study
with the value representing the limit of allowable concentra-
tion of dust in the atmospheric air of inhabited localities,
shows that in most of the samples studied the dust concentra-
tion exceeded the maximal single limit of allowable dust con-
centration of 0.5 mg/cu m. Thus, despite considerable attain-
ment in the fight against air pollution in Moscow, the condi-
tion of the air with regard to dust concentration failed to come
up to the official sanitary requirement. Data regarding dust
concentrations in different sections of the city during cold and
warm weather, from 1946 1956, are presented in graphs.
07393
K. Nakayama
PRESENT STATUS OF AIR POLLUTION IN CITIES AND
TOWNS. Text in Japanese. Kuki Seijo (Clean Air J. Japan
Air Cleaning Assoc.) (Toky/). 3(3):4-10, 1965. 12 refs.
A review of well-known air pollution episodes is given citing
environmental conditions, damages, and causes for episodes in
Meuse (Belgium) in 1930, Donora, Pa. in 1948, London in
1952, Mexico in 1950, Yokohama (Japan) in 1946, and Los An-
geles at present. The present problems of air pollution in
Tokyo are dealt with including dust fall, SO2 concentration,
floating soot, dust, and hydrocarbons. The average value of
dust fall was 23.46 tons/sq km/30 days for 1959 to 1963; the
soluble elements of soot fall were measured at 6.47 tons/sq
km/30 days. The maximum was recorded in 1961; seasonal
measurements indicate a maximum in February and a
minimum in December. Yearly variations of the quantities of
coal and petroleum used between 1955 and 1964 indicate a
relation between dust fall and the amount of coal used, but no
relation between the latter and petroleum consumption. The
distribution of SO2 gas concentrations in 1964 as measured by
the lead peroxide method is shown on a map of Tokyo.
Hydrocarbon concentration of C2 to C8 compounds ranges
from 15 ppb to 1.5 ppm. In heavily trafficked areas the con-
centration of 3,4-benzopyrene is between 1.3 and 6.6 micro-
gram/ 100 cu m. The effects of automobile exhaust from the
gasoline engine are detected as high as 500 m. Also, water pol-
lution from the Samida river causes ammonia and hydrogen
sulfide to be discharged into the air.
07951
T. Suzuki, T. Okita, K. Iwashima, T. Monma, K. Tanaka , K.
Fujisawa
SAMPLING AND CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF TRACE
METALS IN PARTICULATES AT AMAGASAKI,
NISHINOMIYA AND ASAHIKAWA. Text in Japanese with
English Abstract. Bull. Inst. Public Health (Tokyo). 16(1):1-14,
1967. 13 refs.
Particulates were sampled and trace metals in the particulates
quantitatively analyzed. bSthe metal content of coal smoke
was also determined. Inorganic components of particulates
were extracted from glass fiber filters and Be, Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe,
Ni, Ti, and V were colorimetrically analyzed. The annual
mean paniculate concentrations in Amagasaki and
Nishinomiya were 0.30 and 0.19 mg/cu m respectively and the
concentrations in both cities varied quite similarly. The con-
centrations of Cr, Cu, Fe, Ni, Ti, and V in the air at industrial
and business areas in Amagasaki were considerably higher
than those in the air of American and British cities. Since the
concentrations of metals, especially of Ni, and Ti, in the air of
Asahikawa were low, it may be inferred that the metal content
in coal smoke is usually low. It was found that Cr and Fe were
released from widely distributed sources and that a large part
of Cd, Cu, Ni, Ti, and V were released from speical sources.
08298
Marraccini, L., A. Spinazzola, G. Devoto, and S. Zedda
DISTRIBUTION OF SEVERAL VOLATILE TOXIC
PRODUCTS WHICH ARE INDICATORS OF AIR POLLU-
TION IN THE CITY OF CAGLIARI. NOTE II. THE
SULPHUR COMPOUNDS. ((Studio sul comportamento di alcu-
ni prodotti tossici volatili quale indice di inquinamento at-
mosferico nella citta' di Cagliari. Nota II. I composti solforati
(SO2, H2S).)) Text in Italian. Folia Med. (Naples), 49(8):580-
589, Aug. 1966. 19 refs.
Monitoring stations were set up in 18 locations on streets,
street corners, and piazzas of Cagliari. Measurements of the
levels of sulphur dioxide and hydrogen sulfide were made
from 8 A.M. to 8 P.M., from Dec. 1, 1965 to July 15, 1966.
Selective samplers were placed 1.5 and 2 m above the ground;
they sampled 60 1/hr of air each. The levels of SO2 ranged
from 0.0370 to 0.0002 ppm, which is less than that observed in
other cities. The SO2 level peaks at about 8-10 A.M. at some
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196
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
test locations and falls off during the day In other locations it
peaks, although at relatively lower concentrations, during the
middle of the day, or even in the evening. Domestic and indus-
trial combustion of coal, diesel oil, and gasoline are believed
to be the sources of the SO2. No H2S was detected except at
one location, in front of a cemetery, where the level ranged
from 0.0006 to 0.0016 ppm.
08858
Martin, A. and F. R. Barber
SULPHUR DIOXIDE CONCENTRATIONS MEASURED AT
VARIOUS DISTANCES FROM A MODERN POWER STA-
TION. Atmos. Environ., l(6):655-677, Nov. 1967. 15 refs.
Data are presented on ground-level concentrations of sulphur
dioxide measured at various distances from High Marnham
Power Station during the period October 1965 to September
1966. The measurements include pollution from background
sources around the area, as well as from the Power Station,
and the results are compared with those of previous years. As
before, most of the pollution arrived from the west during fu-
migations, probably from distant urban sources. The pollution
in the area has decreased steadily since 1963, especially in sta-
ble conditions in winter, but this decrease is due, in part, to
the decrease in the frequency of persistent fog situations over
the same period. Short-term pollution from High Marnham
alone was occasionally detected at sites between 1/2 and 17 mi
(0.8 to 28 km) from the source. The details given extend those
published previously. Information is given on concentrations
recorded near the source in the summer, and on possible addi-
tive effects of power station contributions. (Authors' abstract,
modified)
09591
Public Health Service, Cincinnati, Ohio, National Center for
Air Pollution Control
NEW YORK - NEW JERSEY AIR POLLUTION ABATE-
MENT ACTIVITY: PARTICIPATE MATTER. PHASE II.
PRE-CONFERENCE INVESTIGATIONS. 206 p. Dec. 1967.
(05)) refs.
An investigation of particulate matter air pollution conducted
in the New York New Jersey metropolitan area in 2966 and
1967 is reported. The report includes these topics: History of
Abatement Action; Description of Study Area; Climatology;
Project Design; Air Quality Data; Particulate Emission Inven-
tory; Meteorological Representativeness; Impact of Particulate
Pollution on Study Area; Summary of Particulate Air Pollution
Standards, Criteria, and Objectives; Comparison of Current
Levels with Standards or Objectives; Anticipated Reductions
in Particulate Emissions; Conclusions and Recommendations
of Interstate Air Pollution New York New Jersey Metropolitan
Area, January 1967; Aerometry Operations and Techniques;
Emissions Inventory Procedure; and Pollutant Measurement
Data.
09984
Croke, E. J., J. E. Carson, D. F. Gatz, H. Moses, F. L. Clark,
A. S. Kennedy, J. A. Gregory, J. J. Roberts,R P. Carter, and
D. B. Turner
CHICAGO AIR POLLUTION SYSTEM MODEL. (SECOND
QUARTERLY PROGRESS REPORT.) Argonne National Lab.,
Ili, ANL-ES-CC-002, 160p., May 1968. 18 refs. CFSTI:
ANL/ES-CC-002
Primary emphasis was placed upon the acquisition of air quali-
ty, meteorological and emission inventory data; and on the
development of computational tools and analytical methods
required to process, store, retrieve and analyze this data. The
most significant program milestone that was achieved was the
completion of the air pollution master information system a set
of linked computer programs designed to prepare and merge
data files, to search out and retrieve information from these
files, to perform statistical analyses and to display the results
of computational studies and data surveys. This system is the
basic tool required for the construction of the statistical S02
dispersion model. A number of other significant milestones
were achieved in the diffusion analysis, meteorology, emission
inventory and optimal abatement strategy phases of the pro-
gram. These include: a statistical study of the Hyde Park
telemetry station air quality data; the completion of the St.
Louis physical model development; the definition of prelimina-
ry meteorological, air pollution regime criteria; the acquisition,
analysis and processing of a major segment of Chicago's
power plant and industrial emission data and the construction
of an air pollution incident simulation code for the optimal
abatement strategy study. Details of these and other studies
conducted in support of the Chicago air pollution system anal-
ysis effort are discussed.
10723
Berlyand, M. Ye.
THE CLIMATOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF INVESTIGATION
OF ATMOSPHERIC CONTA- MINATION WITH INDUSTRI-
AL WASTES. In: Modern Problems of Climatology (Collection
of Arcicles) (Sovremennyye Problemy Klimatologii). Trans-
lated from Russian. Foreign Technology Div., Wright-Patter-
son AFB, Ohio, Translation Div., Con- tract F33657-67-C1455,
TT8000039-67, FTD-HT-1338-67, p. 300-315 CFSTI, DDC: AD
670893
A discussion of problems in the consideration of climatic fac-
tors in calculating the dissipation of industrial wastes into the
atmosphere is presented. Materials are analyzed from observa-
tions of atmospheric contamination over the territory of the
USSR. A map of the average monthly values of total dust set-
tling per day plua its inorganic component, as well as the
values of concentra tion of inorganic dust for May 1965 is
given. The ratio of the total quantity of dust to inorganic dust
is generally two to three. The results of determination of
meteorological characteristics aiding in the propagation of ad-
mixtures in the atmosphere are analyzed. 10823 Berlyand, M.
Ye. THE CLIMATOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF INVESTIGA-
TION OF ATMOSPHERIC CONTAMINATION WITH IN-
DUSTRIAL WASTES. In: Modern Problems of Climatology
(Collection of Articles) (Sovremennyye Problemy Kli-
matologii). Translated from Russian. Foreign Technology Div.,
Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio, Translation Div., Contract
F33658-68-C1455, TT8000039-68, FTD-HT-1338-68, p. 300-315,
CFSTI, DDC: AD 680893 ATMOSPHERIC INTERACTION,
AIR QUALITY MEASUREMENT: Meteorology, Dustfall,
Diffusion A discussion of problems in the consideration of cli-
matic factors in calculating the dissipation of industrial wastes
into the atmosphere is presented. Materials are analyzed from
observations of atmospheric contamination over the territory
of the USSR. A map of the average monthly values of total
dust settling per day plus its inorganic component, as well as
the values of concentration of inorganic dust for May 1965 is
given. The ratio of the total quanity of dust to inorganic dust
is generally two to three. The results of determination of
meteorological characteristics aiding in the propagation of ad-
mixtures in the atmosphere are analyzed.
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D. AIR QUALITY MEASUREMENTS
197
11525
E. J. Croke, J. E. Carson, D. F. Gatz, H. Moses, A. S.
Kennedy, J. A. Gregory, J. J. Roberts, K. Croke, J. Anderson,
D. Parsons, J. Ash, J. Norco, R. P. Carter
CHICAGO AIR POLLUTION SYSTEM MODEL. (THIRD
QUARTERLY PROGRESS REPORT.) Argonne National Lab.,
H, 254p., Oct. 1968. 23 refs. CFSTI: ANL/ES-CC-003
A system analysis for air pollution in Chicago is reported.
Meteorology, emission sources and air quality data are studied
in relation to atmospheric dispersion studies. Emission inven-
tories for sulfur dioxide are presented. The economics of
abatement and control programs are discussed. Data are
presented in forms of maps, graphs, charts and tables.
12496
National Air Pollution Control Administration, Washington, D.
C., Bureau of Criteria and Standards
REFERENCE BOOK SUMMARY OF NATIONWIDE EMIS-
SIONS. Preprint, 36p., 1969 (?).
Estimates for the year 1966-1967 of nationwide emissions of
the five primary air pollutants, carbon monoxide, oxides of
nitrogen, sulfur oxides, particulates, and hydrocarbons, are
presented. Information is broken down by source category,
urban and non-urban location, selected air quality control re-
gions, and projected motor vehicle emissions. The accuracy of
the estimates is varied due to incomplete information and in-
adequately defined emissions. Sources include motor vehicles,
gasoline and diesel engines, aircraft, railroads, vessels, coal,
fuel oil, natural gas, wood, solid waste disposal, primary and
secondary metal industry, cement manufacture, oil refineries,
chemical processing, paper manufacture, and feed milling. A
summary of the methodology used to arrive at the estimated
figures is presented.
13176
Merik, J.
DISPERSION OF AIR POLLUTANTS IN THE VICINITY OF
VARIOUS EVDUSTRHCS. (Ausbreitung luftfremder Stoffe in
der Umgebung verschiedener Werke). Text in German. Z.
Meteorol., 20(1-6): 116-118, 1968.
The Hungarian State Institute for Hygiene conducts regularly
scheduled air quality measurements in various industrial cen-
ters of Hungary which are located near residential areas. The
program was started in 1953 and has been continued ever
since. The air pollution concentrations measured near electri-
cal power plants, chemical industries, cement factories, and
blast furnaces are listed. The grid measurements are being
taken mainly in the residential and rural areas close to these
industries with respect to wind direction. It was found that the
pollution concentrations reached values which far exceed the
permissible limits. The presently valid regulations are con-
sidered too lenient. Air pollution control methods within the
various industrial plants are urgently needed.
16237
Stone, G. N. and A. J. Clarke
BRITISH EXPERIENCE WITH TALL STACKS FOR AIR
POLLUTION CONTROL ON LARGE FOSSIL-FUELLED
POWER PLANTS. Preprint, Illinois Inst. of Tech., Chicago,
12p., 1969. 20 refs. (Presented at the American power Con-
ference Annual Meeting, Chicago, April 1967.)
British experience in the use of tall stacks to control emissions
from power plants in England and Wales is summarized. Fac-
tual evidence gathered during 15 years of routine monitoring
surveys, sulfur dioxide surveys, and dispersion studies is
presented in support of the effectiveness of tall stacks. In all
plants, peak SO2 concentrations at any ground level point are
transient and infrequent, and their magnitudes are accurately
predicted. No meteorological situation has been encountered in
which short-term peak concentrations are more than double
those in neutral conditions. Hot plumes from tall stacks rise
high in stable atmospheric conditions, making virtually no con-
tribution to ground level pollution. Because plume rise is high,
stable lower atmosphere layers frequently shield the ground
surface. It is concluded that modern power plants with tall
stacks can operate for extended periods without adding to the
general pollution level of the immediate area. Similarly, all
plants in a large geographical area can collectively operate
without any detectable influence on the trend of ground level
SO2 concentrations at remote areas. Chimney stack parame-
ters at various fossil-fuel stations and the results of an 11-
month recording of hourly-mean SO2 concentrations (pphm)
from all sources and from one power plant station alone are
presented in tables. The plant's short term and time-mean con-
centrations during winter and summer are also tabulated. A
diagrammatic representation is included of plume dispersion
under different conditions of atmospheric stability.
22591
Zhilin, P. N.
ATMOSPHERIC AIR POLLUTION IN LITHUANIAN CITIES.
U.S.S.R. Literature on Air Pollution and Related Occupational
Diseases, vol. 8:174-179, 1963. (B. S. Levine, ed.) CFSTI: 63-
11570
Results of an investigation of the air quality of several
Lithuanian cities indicate that two electric heat and power sta-
tions, a cellulose-paper combine, and a sulfate plant are major
contributors to air pollution. At 100 m and 300 m from one of
the two power stations, dust concentrations were, respective-
ly, 22 times and 35 times in excess of the allowable limits. The
highest dust concentrations from the other station were found
at a distance of 300 m; this may be due to the fact that the sta-
tion's 99-m smokestack carries the ash farther before it begins
to settle. Numerous complaints were received from residents
living 300-499 m from the station. Influenza, pulmonary tu-
berculosis, and pneumonia occur frequently among children
living in the area of the 99-m stack. The present investigation
also disclosed an increase in serious respiratory disturbances
in children residing near the cellulose-paper combine's new
acid producing plant. Sulfur dioxide emissions from this plant
exceed by 10 times the allowable concentration. It is recom-
mended that the electric power plants be equipped with dust
collectors and that sulfur dioxide emissions from the cellulose-
paper combine be controlled by proper absorption equipment.
It is further recommended that railroad transportation be elec-
trified and that foundries and other industries emitting dust
and gases be separated from populated areas by a sanitary
clearance zone.
22812
Wohlers, H. C. and G. B. Bell
LITERATURE REVIEW OF METROPOLITAN AIR POLLU-
TANT CONCENTRATIONS- PREPARATION, SAMPLING
AND ASSAY OF SYNTHETIC ATMOSPHERES. (FINAL RE-
PORT). Stanford Research Inst., Menlo Park, Calif., Contract
DA 18-064-404-CML-123, S.R.I. Proj. SU-1816, 193p., Nov. 30,
1956. 82 refs.
A literature review of metropolitan air pollutant concentrations
and of the preparation, sampling, and assay of synthetic at-
mospheres is presented. Measured concentrations of gaseous
-------
198
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
and paniculate pollutants in the atmosphere, including sulfur
dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, nitrogen dioxide, ammonia, formal-
dehyde, hydrocarbons, chloride, carbon monoxide, ozone,
fluoride, hydrogen fluoride, carbon dioxide, gross particulates,
and dust fall are tabulated. Calculated emissions from centers
of population are presented for industrial and public
processes, including combustion of coal, oil, and natural gas,
incinerators, automobile exhausts, power plants, and metallur-
gical operations. Data on measured and calculated air pollution
concentrations throughout the world are given. Methods for in-
jecting pollution simulants into a test chamber, such as ozone
generators and aerosol despensers, are mentioned. Sampling
and analytical procedures are described for the particular
problem of testing static atmospheres for bacteria. Sampling
equipment consists primarily of an impinger preceded by a
millipore filter. Analytical procedures include ultraviolet ab-
sorption, high volume sampling, glass fiber filters, and
colorimetric, gravimetric, iodimetric, spectrophotometric,
Saltzman, and electrochemical methods.
23326
Dotreppe-Grisard, N. and R. Noel
APPLICATION OF THE METHODS OF EXAMINATION
AND ANALYSIS OF COAL AND COKE PETROGRAPHY TO
THE STUDY OF INDUSTRIAL DUSTS. (Application des
methodes d'examen et d'analyse de la petrographie des char-
bons et des cokes a 1'etude des poussieres industrielles). Text
in French. Ann. Mines Belg., no. 5:665-693, May 1970. 9 refs.
A study was conducted to evaluate petrographie techniques of
examination and analysis in the identification and quantifica-
tion of industrial dusts. Samples were obtained in the area of
direct emission of a coking plant with the intention of having a
precise knowledge of the composition of the sample before the
analysis. Methods of sample preparation, microscopic ex-
amination, and quantitative analysis are described. It is con-
cluded that the techniques of petrography provided satisfacto-
ry results in this study and can be readily adapted to other air
pollution situations. Of particular interest with respect to its
application in the area of a steel mill or coking plant is that it
is possible to identify the stage of processing at which the pol-
lutant was emitted. One of the results of the quantitative anal-
ysis was the determination that the plan, to have a precise
foreknowledge of the sample composition, was to no avail. All
samples showed a quantity of material characteristic of the
metalworking factories that surrounded the area in which the
coking plant was located. Results of sampling at the coking
plant and in a nearby residential area are presented tabularly
and discussed.
23356
Koerner, Hanns-Joachim
EFFECT OF SO2 POLLUTION IN THE VICINITY OF A
POWER PLANT. (Immissionsbeaufschlagung durch Schwefel-
dioxid in der Umgebung eines Kraftwerkes). Text in German.
Wasser Luft Betrieb, 12(11):705-708, 1968. 5 refs.
A systematic study of an area lying within a 3-mile radius of a
heavy emission source is described. A network of measuring
points was established, such that each square kilometer of the
area would be represented. Sulfur dioxide concentrations in
the atmosphere were sampled by the silica gel process from
the summer of 1966 to the summer of 1967. Laboratory analy-
sis consisted of reducing the absorbed SO2 to H2S and
photometrically measuring the molybdenum blue reaction. The
emission source was a power plant with a total output of 128
megawatts, where a large percentage of the particulate content
of the waste gases is removed with an electrostatic filter and
the waste gas is released into the atmosphere from a chimney
104 meters high. The plant is at an altitude of about 150 m
above sea level, 4.2 km south of the center of a large city, on
the southern edge of a basin bounded by a forest-covered
plateau. Meteorological data are given and discussed. The data
obtained is evaluated in terms of 2 statistical functions, one
representing the upper limit of the scattering range of average
values (sustained load), the other the upper limit of the scat-
tering range of individual concentrations (peak load). The ef-
fect of wind direction and wind velocity on these two emission
functions is discussed.
23957
Schiermeier, Francis A. and Lawrence E. Niemeyer
LARGE POWER PLANT EFFLUENT STUDY (LAPPES). Vol.
1. INSTRUMENTATION, PROCEDURES, AND DATA TABU-
LATIONS (1968). National Air Pollution Control Administra-
tion, Raleigh, N. C., Div. of Meteorology, Rept. APTD 70-2,
410p. 1970. 12 refs. CFSTI: PB 194152
The Large Power Plant Effluent Study (LAPPES) was initiated
in Western Pennsylvania to evaluate the extent and effects of
air pollution resulting from the largest complex of coal-burning
generating stations in the United States. During 1968 four se-
ries of field experiments were conducted in an area surround-
ing the Keystone Generating Station; these experiments con-
sisted of ground-based and airborne plume measurements sup-
ported by extensive meteorological observations. Part 1 of this
volume describes the topography and climatology of the
generating station complex, the sulfur dioxide and meteorolog-
ical monitoring equipment, and experiment operating
procedures. Part 2 presents tabulations of plant operational
parameters and air quality and meteorological data collected
during 1968. (Author abstract)
25476
Public Health Service, Las Vegas, Nev., Southwestern
Radiological Health Laboratory
PARTICULATE EFFLUENT STUDY. PHOEBUS IB, EP-IV.
53p., April 1970. 6 refs. NTIS: SWRHL-46R
A study concerned with delineating the physical and chemical
characteristics and possible hazards associated with release of
particulate matter (greater than several microns in diamater)
from the Phoebus IB, EP-IV reactor run is presented. The
reactor test was conducted at Jackass Flats, Nevada. The par-
ticle deposition occurred in a general northerly direction from
the test cell. Particles were found out to 82 miles with the
results indicating a decrease in deposition (particles/unit area)
with distance to about the 2.5 power. The particle size dis-
tribution, of all the particles collected, is reasonably described
by a log normal distribution with a geometric mean diameter
of about 12 micron and a geometric standard deviation of 2.7.
A breakdown of the size distribution to those particles 10
micron and above gave a geometric mean of 26 micron and
geometric standard deviation of 2. The density of 8 particles
(12 28 micron was about" 11 g/cc. This density indicates an
equivalent aerodynamic geometric mean diameter of about 40
micron. The majority of the particles found and studied were
larger than an equivalent diameter of 10 micron the usual cut-
off for lower respiratory tract penetration. A regression analy-
sis indicated a decrease in particle size and activity with
distance. Isotopic results showed a large degree of fractiona-
tion of the fission products found in the particles. Electron
microprobe analysis indicated uranium, carbon, and oxygen to
be present in most of the particles analyzed. Particles were
transported into the off-size area. The resulting ground con-
centrations were about 1 particle/100 cu m or less and there
-------
D. AIR QUALITY MEASUREMENTS 199
was no known interaction of particles with people from the to the public from the 'particulate effluent.' (Author abstract
general population. Thus it is concluded there was no hazard modified)
-------
200
E. ATMOSPHERIC INTERACTION
00023
F. E. GartreU, F. W. Thomas, S. B. Carpenter, F. Pooler, B.
Turner, and J. M. Leavitt
FULL-SCALE STUDY OF DISPERSION OF STACK GASES
(A SUMMARY REPORT) Tennessee Valley Authority, Chat-
tanooga, Division of Health and Safety, and Public Health Ser-
vice, Cincinnati, Ohio, Division of Air Pollution. Aug. 1964. 110
pp. CFSTI: PB 166679
During fiscal years 1958-1962, the Tennessee Valley Authority
conducted an air pollution research project under the sponsor-
ship of the Public Health Service. In this project, advantage
was taken of unique opportunities for full-scale appraisal of
dispersion of air pollutants from large coal-burning, steam-
electric generating plants. Advantages offered for diffusion
studies included: (1) large isolated sources where intermixture
with extraneous pollutants is not significant; (2) complete plant
operational data and emission rates; (3) sufficient fly ash emis-
sion to provide a visible plume aloft out to distances of 10-15
miles under meteorological conditions of special interest; (4) a
helicopter equipped with special instruments for sampling and
recording SO2 concentrations, as well as extensive auxiliary
instruments; (5) tower-mounted meteorological instruments for
providing basic information on wind and temperature parame-
ters; and (6) computer facilities for data analysis. In addition
to the primary studies to determine diffusion parameters, a
limited investigation was made of plume rise or effective stack
heights. An extensive investigation was made of the oxidation
of SO2 in the atmosphere after emission from the stack. Ox-
idation was studied with ground-based facilities and also in the
plume at various distances and travel times, and under various
weather conditions. In the course of this investigation inter-
relationships among SO2, H2SO4, and fly ash also were stu-
died.
00846
F. Pooler, Jr.
POTENTIAL DISPERSION OF PLUMES FROM LARGE
POWER PLANTS. Public Health Service, Cincinnati, Ohio,
Div. of Air Pollution. GPO: 822-190-3, HEW: 999-AP-16
Expected ground-level concentrations resulting from emissions
from large power plants are discussed for three meteorological
situations considered to be most likely to result in significant
air pollution concentrations. These situations are (1) high wind;
(2) inversion breakup; and (3) limited mixing layer with a light
wind. Effects of increasing stack height are discussed for each
situation. Numerical examples based on calculations included
as an appendix are shown. (Author abstract)
01259
W. G. Cummings, M. W. Redfearn, and W. R. Jones
AIR POLLUTION BY SULPHUR DIOXIDE. PART 1: THE
EFFECT OF LAND CONFIGURATION ON POLLUTION BY
SULPHUR GASES. J. Inst. Fuel (London) 38, 391-405, Sept.
1965.
A survey of sulphur dioxide pollution was maintained for three
years in the vicinity of Llynfi power station to study the effect
of land configuration on the dispersion of flue gases from a
power station situated in a valley. Observations were made
with lead dioxide candles at sites distributed symmetrically
around the power station and the actual sulphur dioxide con-
centrations were monitored by means of a C.E.R.L. automatic
sulphur-dioxide recorder at one site on high ground. Results
showed that the power station caused a measurable but very
small contribution to the sulphur dioxide pollution already ex-
isting in the surrounding countryside and that the configuration
of the land affected the plumes from the chimneys. This
resulted in sulphur dioxide concentrations lower than expected
on nearby high land. It is concluded that siting a power station
in a valley does not necessarily cause increased sulphur diox-
ide pollution of high ground in the vicinity. (Author abstract)
01260
W. G. Cummings, M. W. Redfearn, and W. R. Jones
AIR POLLUTION BY SULPHUR DIOXIDE. PART 3: THE
EFFECT OF INCREASED CHIMNEY HEIGHT ON GROUND
LEVEL CONCENTRATIONS OF SULPHUR DIOXIDE. J. Inst.
Fuel (London) 38, 437-42, Oct. 1965.
The effect of increasing the chimney height at East Yelland
power station from 127 to 172 ft was assessed by comparing
the patterns and concentrations of sulphur dioxide pollution
for high and low chimneys over a limited range of weather
conditions. With the shorter chimney, the plume was affected
by a turbulent zone near the power station building at wind
speeds greater than about 19 ft/sec, whereas with the taller
chimney difficulties were caused only with wind speed greater
than about 26 ft/sec. The maximum ground-level concentration
of sulphur dioxide close to the power station was also reduced
from about 50 p p h m to about 25 p p h m within the limited
range of weather conditions obtaining during the survey
period. However, at wind speeds at which the plume was
unaffected by the turbulent zone near the station building the
patterns and concentration of sulphur dioxide pollution were
not changed by the increased chimney height. (Author ab-
stract)
01261
W. G. Cummings, M. W. Redfearn, and W. R. Jones
AIR POLLUTION BY SULPHUR DIOXIDE. PART 2:
SULPHUR DIOXIDE CONCENTRATIONS DOWNWIND OF
TALL CHIMNEY - THE DIVERGENCE OF MEASURED AND
CALCULATED VALUES. J. Inst. Fuel (London) 38, 426-36,
Oct. 1965.
During a fortnight's intensive survey, sulphur dioxide concen-
trations were measured downwind of Castle Donington Power
Station. The patterns and levels of sulphur dioxide pollution
were established for a number of weather conditions and com-
pared with values calculated by means of the Sutton,
Bosanquet, Priestley, and Lucas and Spurr formulae for gas
diffusion and plume rise. Most measured and calculated values
agreed to within a factor of three; this is considered to be
reasonable considering the unknown meteorological factors ob-
taining during the survey period. The reasons for the diver-
-------
E. ATMOSPHERIC INTERACTION
201
gence of measured and calculated values are discussed, and it
is concluded that the easiest way of calculating the level and
extent of sulphur dioxide pollution from a power station is to
use Lucas and Spurr's plume rise equation, followed by a sim-
plified Sutton diffusion equation provided the equations are
modified to take account of turbulence caused both by
meteorological conditions, and by the topography of the
ground over which the plume passes. (Author abstract)
01934
R. A. Scriven
PROPERTIES OF THE MAXIMUM GROUND LEVEL CON-
CENTRATION FROM AN ELEVATED SOURCE. Atmos. En-
viron., 1(4) 411-419, July 1967. 5 refs. (Presented at the Sym-
posium on Chimney Plume Rise and Dispersion, Oct. 7, 1966.)
Simple one and two layer models of the atmosphere are used
to derive properties of the downwind position and height of
the maximum in mean ground level concentration which can
effect either the handling or the interpretation of field data. It
is shown that this maximum is quite flat, implying that whilst
the peak value can be found accurately its position will be
subject to large errors. The effect of stable layers above the
source are also discussed and it is indicated how much of the
scatter in field results can be attributed to this cause. (Author
summary)
02410
G.A. DeMarrais, G.C. Holzworth, C.R. Hosier
METEOROLOGICAL SUMMARIES PERTINENT TO AT-
MOSPHERIC TRANSPORT AND DISPERSION OVER
SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA. Weather Bureau, Washington,
D.C. (Technical Paper No. 54). 1965. 90 pp. GPO 0-733-760
The rapid growth of population and industry in southern
California is causing an ever increasing demand for electrical
power and eventually expanded use of nuclear energy. For this
reason, the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission requested that
the U.S. Weather Bureau compile and evaluate the available
meteorological data pertinent to atmospheric transport and
dispersion over southern California. The summaries in this re-
port give an indication of the manner in which effluents move
from one place to another and of the capacity of the at-
mosphere to reduce the concentration of effluents emitted into
it. However, these summaries are not all-inclusive for any area
in southern California. Meteorological phenomena show con-
siderable variation within short distances, particularly over ir-
regular terrain like that of southern California. The generalized
pictures of the movement of air and the dilution capacity of
the atmosphere presented herein are intended to provide data
that may be useful for preliminary considerations in selecting
nuclear reactor sites. Although some of these summaries may
be used in evaluating community pollution problems, the par-
ticular interest of the Atomic Energy Commission is in dis-
crete point sources and the summaries have been compiled
and evaluated with that in mind. (Author introduction
modified)
03251
DISCUSSION ON 'AIR POLLUTION BY SULPHUR DIOX-
IDE' 'PART 1: THE EFFECT OF LAND CONFIGURATION
ON POLLUTION BY SULPHUR GASES' 'PART 2: SULPHUR
DIOXIDE CONCENTRATIONS DOWNWIND OF TALL
CHIMNEYS - THE DIVERGENCE OF MEASURED AND
CALCULATED VALUES' 'PART 3: THE EFFECT OF IN-
CREASED CHIMNEY HEIGHT ON GROUND LEVEL CON-
CENTRATIONS OF SULPHUR DIOXIDE' BEFORE THE IN-
STITUTE, IN LONDON, 24TH NOVEMBER, 1965. J. Inst.
Fuel 39, (305) 256-63, June 1966.
D.H. Lucas emphasized the importance of comparing averages
only on an equal duration basis. Dr. A. Parker said that the
lack of information about the occurence of temperature inver-
sions was a drawback and that the land/sea boundary must
have had an effect at East Yelland. C. Bosanquet stated that
little information was given that would enable prediction of
ground-level concentrations. Dr. G. Nonhebel thanked the
authors for taking his advice to recalculate the ground-level
concentration using the 1957 Bosanquet formula for plume
rise. Dr. S. R. Craxford asked if allowances had been made for
the effect of wind speed on lead dioside gauges. Prof. R.S.
Scorer criticized the lack of an experienced meteorologist on
the team. Dr. D.J. Moore advised that the efflux velocity and
wind speed modify the 2 1/2 times rule. D.M.C. Thomas
presented some relevant calculations. Mrs. M.L. Weatherley
wondered if anyone thought of applying Davidson's work,
relating to valleys. C.F. Barrett contended that dilution factors
were deluding. D.H. Labdon suggested apportioning the g.l.c.
to the separate plumes. The authors replied to all of these
discussions.
03557
D. H. Lucas, D. J. Moore, and G. Spurr.
THE RISE OF HOT PLUMES FROM CHIMNEYS. Intern. J.
Air Water Pollution 7, 473-500, 1963.
Measurements of plume rise at two Central Electricity
Generating Board power stations have led to the formula
alphaQl/4/U where alpha is 4900 for one station and 6200 for
the other. (U = wind speed in ft/sec; Q = heat emission in
MW Zmax = plume rise in ft.) A number of other publications
of measured results have been considered and shown to be in
reasonable agreement with the formula, provided a correction
is applied for the distance at which maximum plume height is
measured. The results do not agree with any previously
published theoretical formula, but the theory of Priestley has
been considered and is shown to be capable of reconciliation
with the measured results. It is shown that measured results of
plume rise can be reconciled with measured results of ground-
level concentration, provided there is a proper discussion of
the relationship between short-term and long-term measure-
ments. Further study is needed to establish the reasons for the
variations in the experimental values of alpha. (Author ab-
stract)
04033
F. E. Gartrell, F. W. Thomas, S. B. Carpenter, F. Pooler, B.
Turner, and J. M. Leavitt
FULL SCALE STUDY OF DISPERSION OF STACK GASES
(PART I. DDJFUSION IN INVERSION CONDITIONS ). Ten-
nessee Valley Authority, Chattanooga, Division of Health and
Safety and Public Health Service, Cincinnati, Ohio, Division
of Air Pollution. June 1965. 148 pp.
Beginning at daybreak, or sometimes before daybreak on days
when inversions were forecast meteorological data were
logged each 30-minute period, and pibal observations were
made each hour. A small light attached to the balloon per-
mitted nighttime observations. To conserve manpower and to
permit more frequent observations, theodolite readings were
dictated into a recorder. At daybreak the Titrilog was trans-
ferred from car to helicopter, and it and other instruments
were checked. Following takeoff, horizontal flights were made
to check temperatures at the bottom and top of the
meteorological tower. The vertical temperature profile was
-------
202
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
determined by a prescribed flight pattern where temperature
readings were taken at 100-ft intervals starting at about 500 ft
above the top of the plume. Plant personnel was alerted by an
intercom system to begin special coal and SO2 sampling at the
approximate time that actual plume sampling was begun. Cross
sections normally were begun at the 1/2-mile section and con-
tinued at progressively greater distance as time permitted be-
fore strong changes in thermal and wind structure occurred.
Actual plume sampling time usually averaged about two hours.
During this time cross sections were taken at about four
selected distances downwind from the plant. In flight the ob-
server recorded temperature and elevation data, marked the
Titrilog chart for later identification of each plume transect,
and entered other pertinent observations on the chart or voice
recorder. After completion of plume transects, temperature
soundings were repeated before the flight was terminated.
04034
F. E. Gartrell, F. W. Thomas, S. B. Carpenter, F. Pooler, B.
Turner, and J. M. Leavitt
FULL SCALE STUDY OF DISPERSION OF STACK GASES
(PART H. DIFFUSION IN HIGH WIND NEUTRAL CONDI-
TIONS ). Tennessee Valley Authority, Chattanooga, Division
of Health and Safety and Public Health Service, Cincinnati,
Ohio, Division of Air Pollution. June 1965. 77 pp.
Field instrumentation and procedures for high wind neutral
conditions were similar to those used in the study of disper-
sion during inversion conditions. However, the aerial sampling
plan was modified to facilitate definition of the more mobile
plume. In most instances replicate flights were made across
the plume at successively lower elevations from top to bottom
of the plume. Near the plant where the plume was relatively
narrow, SO2 distribution was determined in some instances by
sampling along the plume centerline or x axis. Within a rela-
tively short distance or travel time the plume was widely
dispersed in both horizontal and vertical dimensions. This
much larger plume section and attendant longer time required
for sampling each section restricted maximum sampling
distance to three miles from plant. Generally, SO2 concentra-
tion at this distance had diminished to such a low level that
plume definition from recorder charts no longer was possible.
04035
F. E. Gartrell, F. W. Thomas, S. B. Carpenter, F. Pooler, B.
Turner, and J. M. Leavitt
FULL SCALE STUDY OF DISPERSION OF STACK GASES
(PART III. PLUME RISE ). Tennessee Valley Authority, Chat-
tanooga, Division of Health and Safety and Public Health Ser-
vice, Cincinnati, Ohio, Division of Air Pollution. June 1965. 34
pp.
This project was concerned primarily with investigation of dif-
fusion rates in a steam plant smoke plume. While detailed data
were obtained on plume rise at the time of each field sampling
operation, the extensive observations required for a study
designed specifically to improve procedures for estimating
plume rise were not a part of the project. However, it is
recognized that reasonably accurate estimates of plume rise
under various operational and meteorological conditions are
required for useful application of the derived diffusion
parameters. The data which were obtained on plume rise con-
current with diffusion studies are, therefore, presented. Also,
observed values are compared with calculated values and
limited analysis is made of interrelations with plume rise with
meteorological and diffusion parameters. A sufficient number
of observations were not made for useful evaluation of the
relations among plume rise, plume direction, and stack align-
ment. Data on plume rise were obtained only in inversion con-
ditions and in neutral, moderately high wind velocity condi-
tions. All observations relate to the Colbert Steam Plant, for
which design and operational data are presented.
05357
G. T. Csanady
SOME OBSERVATIONS ON SMOKE PLUMES. Intern. J. Air
Water PoUution 4, (1/2) 47-51, 1961.
The plume at Tallawarra power station was photographed
many times to obtain the mean position. The observations
were plotted in terms of appropriate nondimensional variables
and compared with the observations of Bosanquet et at., as
well as the theoretical results of Priestley and Sutton. Within
about 1500 ft. from the source good agreement with theory
was found. The asymptotic plume height was found to be
given crudely by the formula: Za=250 F/U(cubed), where Za
is asymptotic plume height, U is wind speed, F is flux of
fuoyancy, a variable proportional to heat flux. (Author ab-
stract)
05702
F. A. Gifford, Jr.
ATMOSPHERIC DISPERSION CALCULATIONS USING THE
GENERALIZED OGAUS- SIAN PLUME MODE. Nucl. Safety
2(2), 56-9 (Dec. 1960).
Results of recent dispersion experiments have more and more
often been presented in terms of the simple Gaussian inter-
polation form ula. Ther is a practical need for a group of spe-
cial formulas based on the Gaussian interpolation formula.
From a review of previous literature, formulas are presented
which consider a volume-source, fumigation, crosswinds, long
period concentrations, maximum concentrations and their
distances from the source, cloud width, cloud height, deposi-
tion, washout, and radioactive dosage.
06373
S. B. Carpenter, J. A. Frizzola, M. E. Smith, J. M. Leavitt, F.
W. Thomas
REPORT ON FULL-SCALE STUDY OF PLUME RISE AT
LARGE ELECTRIC GENERATING STATIONS. Preprint.
(Presented at the 60th Annual Meeting, Air Pollution Control
Association, Cleveland, Ohio, June 11-16, 1967, Paper No. 67-
82.)
Plume rise data were collected at six coal-fired, steam- electric
generating stations within the TVA system over a 2 year
period. Unit ratings ranged from 172 to 704 megawatts with
stack heights varying from 250 to 600 feet. An instrumented
helicopter and special photographic equipment were used to
obtain 1,580 separate plume observations and significant re-
lated meteorological parameters during stable, neutral, and
slightly unstable conditions. The 1,580 observations were
resolved and consolidated into 133 composite observation
periods covering 30 to 120 minutes. Meteorological parameters
and other compiled input data were entered into four principal
equations for calculation of plume rise, and calculated plume
rise values were compared with observed values. Most" equa-
tions overestimated plume rise in low wind speed. For
moderately high wind speeds, the ASME and Concawe equa-
tions gave best fit. (Authors' summary)
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E. ATMOSPHERIC INTERACTION
203
06775
M. Brun
(DIFFUSION OF POLLUTANTS IN THE ATMOSPHERE.
METHODS OF CALCULATING THE HEIGHT OF INDUS-
TRIAL CHIMNEYS IN EFFECT IN GERMANY, UNITED
STATES, GREAT BRITAIN, HOLLAND AND RUSSIA.) Diffu-
sion des pollutants dans 1'atmosphere. Methodes de calcul de la
hauteur des cheminees industrielles en vigueur en AUemagne,
Etats-Unis, Grande-Bretagne, Hollande, Russie. Centre Inter-
professionnel Technique d'Etudes de la Pollution At-
mospherique, Paris, France. (1967.) 31 pp. Fr. (Rept. No. CI
271.) (C.I.T.E.P.A. Document No. 24.)
A comparison is made of the methods of calculating the height
of industrial chimneys in the various countries involved. In
principle, all of the methods are applications of Sutton's
dispersion formulas, although the choice of meteorological
parameters may be made arbitrarily. Differences appear when
the elevation of the plume is used rather than the actual height
of the chimney. Different values for the permissible concentra-
tion at ground level adopted by different countries also causes
a divergence. A comparison is given of the effect on each of
the methods of the power of the installation, the sulfur content
of the fuel, the velocity of the smoke at emission, the wind
velocity, and the background pollution. Numerous table s are
given comparing the different methods of calculation and the
reasoning in back of them. THE HEIGHT OF INDUSTRIAL
CHIMNEYS IN EFFECT IN GERMANY, UNITED
STATES, GREAT BRITAIN, HOLLAND AND RUSSIA.
Diffusion des pol lutants dans I'atmosphere. Methodes de cal-
culation de la hauteur des cheminees industrielles en vigeur en
AUemagne, Etats-Unis, Grande-Bretagne, Hollande, Russie.
M. Brun. Centre Inter- professionnel Technique d'Etudes de la
Pollution Atmospherique, Paris, France. (1968.) 31 pp. Fr.
(Rept. No. CI 271.) (C.I.T.E.P.A. Document No. 24.) AT-
MOSPHERIC INTERACTION: Stacks, Plume behavior, Dif-
fusion models A comparison is made of the methods of calcu-
lating the height of industrial chimneys in the various countries
involved. In prin ciple, all of the methods are applications of
Sutton's dispersion formulas, although the choice of
meteorological parameters may be made arbitrarily. Dif-
ferences appear when the elevation of the plume is used rather
than the actual height of the chimney. Dif ferent values for the
permissable concentration at ground level adopted by different
countries also causes a divergence. A compa rison is given of
the effect on each of the methods of the power of the installa-
tion, the sulfur content of the fuel, the velocity of the smoke
at emission, the wind velocity, and the background pollu- tion.
Numerous tables are given comparing the different methods of
calculation and the reasoning in back of them.
06823
F. E. Gartrell, F. W. Thomas, and S. B. Carpenter
TRANSPORT OF SO2 IN THE ATMOSPHERE FROM A SIN-
GLE SOURCE. Proc. Symp. Atmospheric Chemistry of
Chlorine and Sulfur Compounds, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1957.
(Geophysical Monograph No. 3.) (1959). pp. 63-8.
Information accumulated by the TVA on atmospheric diffu-
sion was discussed. Difficulty in predicting ground-level con-
centrations of SO2 with the existing diffusion formula (Sutton)
lead to the investigation of another method of smapling. The
helicopter Titrilog sampling operation is being employed for
defining the plume location, geometry and SO2 concentration.
Meteorological parameters would be required in any formula
designed to predict SO2 concentration at ground level some
distance from the SO2 source.
06827
A. R. Meetham
THE BEHAVIOR OF SULPHUR DIOXIDE IN THE AT-
MOSPHERE. Proc. Symp. Atmospheric Chemistry of Chlorine
and Sulfur Compounds, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1957. (Geophysical
Monograph No. 3.) 115-21 pp. (1959).
In Britain, coal is the most important primary fuel, the amount
of coal burnt in most regions is proportional to the population.
The distribution therefore of the emission rate of sulphur diox-
ide is its mass per day per unit area, being approximately pro-
portional to the density of the population. Through the activi-
ties of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research,
many observations have been made of the daily average con-
centration of sulphur dioxide in the air near the ground. In-
cluded among these are measurements of sulphur dioxide
taken in a large town, in a densely populated area, and in a
stable water fog. This paper sets out what may be inferred
about the behavior of this pollutant from such knowledge of
its emission and distribution in surface air. The speculations
may be of value in the planning of controlled laboratory in-
vestigations and by suggesting new observations of the at-
mosphere and air pollution.
07428
H. A. Panofsky, B. Prasad
THE EFFECT OF METEOROLOGICAL FACTORS ON AIR
POLLUTION IN A NARROW VALLEY. J. Appl. Meteorol.,
6(3):493-499, June 1967.
The Air Pollution Division of Pennsylvania has conducted
simultaneous measurements of meteorological variables and air
quality at Johnstown, Pa. An analysis of the observations for
two fall seasons showed that fluctuations in the concentrations
can be expained fairly well by the changes in wind speed and
fluctuations of vertical air velocities. Wind direction is rela-
tively unimportant, except for the rare east winds, when the
air at Johnstown is affected by a major steel plant. This paper
presents a simple mathematical model that predicts variations
in air pollution from a large number of low-level sources in a
narrow valley. This theory is in good agreement with observa-
tions. It is likely that most of the pollution at Johnstown is lo-
cally produced. Since the situation of Johnstown is typical for
that of many industrial cities, it is hoped that a study of the
effects of meteorological factors on air pollution there will be
useful for the understanding of air pollution characteristics of
many similar sites.
07580
Zvinyatskovskii, Ya. I.
ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION BY COAL-DRESSING
PLANTS. (Zagryaznenie atmosfernogo vozdukha vybrosami
ugleobogatitel'nykh fabrik.) Hyg. Sank. (English translation of
Gigiena i Sanit.) 30(9):438-440, Sept. 1965. CFSTI: TT66-
51033/3
The nature and degree of atmospheric pollution were in-
vestigated in the neighborhood of two coal-dressing plants at
Gorlovka, in the Donetsk Region. At both places the work is
carried out on the gravity principle, by foam flotation in an
aqueous medium. The wet coal concentrate is dried in special
installations by the hot gases generatec by the combustion of
the waste produced by coal dressing. Having passed through
the drying installation, the drying gases are discharged into the
atmosphere. The drying departments are equipped with dust-
trapping devices, which free the issuing gases from coal parti-
cles. Plant No. 1 is equipped with three successive stages of
dust-trapping devices: a cyclone, a multicyclone, and wet-dust
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204
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
separator. Plant No. 2, uses a multicyclone, thence through a
V-shaped gas flue half-filled with water, into an apparatus
which saturates the gases with water sprays. The department
in which the concentrate is dried is the main source of at-
mospheric pollution with coal dust and gases. The concentra-
tions of dust, sulfur dioxide, and carbon monoxide, as well as
of the flotation reagents used for foam flotation, and of the
synthetic alcohols and phenols which are the products of their
decomposition. The samples were taken at distances of 300,
500, and 800 m from each plant, mainly on the leeward side,
as well as in the presence of changeable winds. In all cases,
determinations were made of the maximum one-time concen-
tration. At distances of 300, 500, and 800 m from each plant,
the one-time maximum concentrations of dust, sulfur dioxide,
and carbon monoxide were considerably higher than the max-
imum permissible values. Sulfur dioxide and carbon monoxide
concentrations at distances of 500 m from plant No. 1 were
higher than at a distance of 300 m and became somewhat
lower at a distance of 800 m. On the other hand, in the case of
plant No. 1 the highest concentrations were found at a
distance of 300 m, with successive decreases at distances of
500 and 800m. This agreed with the calculated values. The 300
m width of the sanitary protective zone is too narrow. Al-
cohols from flotation reagents were discovered in all samples,
in concentrations ranging from 0.1 to 0.9 mg/cu. m.; phenols
from flotation reagents were detected in 86% of all samples, in
concentrations ranging from 1 to 7.5 mg/cu m. After the flota-
tion reagents had been replaced alcohols and phenols were no
longer detected in the air. The drying departments of the coal
dressing plants were the principal source of pollution of the air
around the plants with coal dust, sulfur dioxide, carbon
monoxide and flotation reagents.
07801
Slawson, P. R. and G. T. Csanady
ON THE MEAN PATH OF BUOYANT, BENT-OVER CHIM-
NEY PLUMES. J. Fluid Mech., 28(2):311-322, 1967. 11 refs.
Plume-rise was observed by photographic means on smoke
plumes from the Lakeview Generating Station (Ontario) and
compared with some existing theoretical formulae. Supporting
data in considerable detail on stack parameters were available.
Source and environmental data for the eight experiments are
summarized. Three experiments were carried out during
neutral conditions. The observed plume paths in these three
experiments are shown. A computer analysis of these three
plume paths showed that the slope of each plume became con-
stant (within the experimental scatter) beyond a certain non-
dimensional distance, which was approximately the same in
each of the three cases, although the slopes were individually
different. There was thus a fairly definite transition point (or
perhaps a short transition zone) at which the character of the
plume changed. Between the chimney and the transition point,
a non-dimensional plot of the three plumes coincided almost
exactly, giving a 'universal' plume shape in the initial phase.
In an unstable atmosphere the plume was sometimes above
and sometimes below a corresponding plume in neutral condi-
tions, under the opposing influences of increased dilution and
the direct effect of instability in promoting plume rise.
07843
McLaughlin, J. F., Jr.
ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION CONSIDERATIONS AFFECT-
ING THE ULTIMATE CAPACITY OF A THERMAL-ELEC-
TRIC POWER PLANT SITE. J. Air Pollution Control Assoc.,
17(7):470-473, July 1967. 3 refs.
The power plant designer today has the tools at hand which
enable him to predict with an adequate degree of accuracy the
effect of different stack heights on ground level concentrations
of the gaseous pollutants emitted from power plant stacks.
Use of tall stacks will make it possible in most cases to build
larger power plants at any particular site than are in service
now and still operate them satisfactorily from the standpoint
of air pollution. On the other hand, atmospheric pollution con-
siderations may make it necessary at some sites to put a finite
limitation on the maximum capacity that can be installed.
(Author's abstract)
08400
K. J. Marsh, M. D. Foster
AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF THE DISPERSION OF THE
EMISSIONS FROM CHIMNEYS IN READING-I: THE
STUDY OF LONG TERM AVERAGE CONCENTRATIONS
OF SULPHUR DIOXIDE. Atmos. Environ. 1(5):527- 550, Sept.
1967. 7 refs.
The dispersion of sulphur dioxide in the town of Reading has
been studied for a period of 15 months. Continuous measure-
ments of the 6-hr average concentrations were made at forty
sites in the area, and meteorological measurements were made
for each 6-hr period. A detailed inventory was prepared of
both domestic and industrial sources of sulphur dioxide. It is
shown that, of various meteorological variables examined, the
ambient air temperature has the predominant effect on the
sulphur dioxide concentration in the air. The basis for the
'degree-day method' is confirmed in that the average concen-
tration over the town increases linearly with the difference of
the air temperature below a datum value of 15 Degree C.
Isopleths of annual sulphur concentration have been drawn for
eight wind directions; these show that the distribution of pollu-
tion is not greatly affected by wind direction although varia-
tions in the average air temperatures for different wind
directions affect the general level. A pollution rise for the
town as a whole shows that there is an excess of sulphur diox-
ide arriving from the east and this is attributed to pollution
from London; some pollution also arrives from external
sources in other directions. The annual average concentration
of sulphur dioxide at individual sites is strongly correlated
with the consumption of local installations emitting their ef-
fluents from chimneys less than 21 m high; an empirical equa-
tion is given for reading relating annual concentrations with
consumption within 1000 m of the measuring point. Pollution
rises have been drawn for each measuring site and these give a
qualitative indication of the pollution from Reading, but a
detailed comparison of individual vectors with the distribution
of sources has failed to show a satisfactory correlation. The
pollution rises do not indicate the larger industrial installations
and it is considered that the chief contribution to the pollution
in Reading is from domestic and low industrial chimneys. (AA)
09417
Price, James T.
CHIMNEY FLOW IMPROVEMENT. Power Eng., 7(9):52-55,
Sept. 1967. 1 ref.
Deflectors can be used to produce satisfactory flow and also
reduce draft losses. Coif flow air model studies of the Colbert
Unit 1 and Bull Run Unit 1 are described to determine the ef-
fect of chimney geometry on plume rise characteristics. Addi-
tion of a vaned deflector to the 500-ft. Colbert Unit chimney
resulted in elimination of eddies and reduction of chimney
draft loss by 0.7 in. of water. In the 800-ft. Bull Run chimney,
tests without hoppers revealed that the jets issuing from the
breechings established an erratic spinning action in the chim-
-------
E. ATMOSPHERIC INTERACTION
205
ney and that the alternating spinning motion was accompanied
by random pressure pulsations which were reflected
throughout the draft system. Use of a vaned deflector led to a
reduction in draft loss of 0.3 in. of water. Without ash hoppers
and without a deflector structure, this chimney was charac-
terized by periodic pressure pulsations and flow was con-
siderably more stable, but draft loss was increased by 0.1 in.
of water. When the deflector was used without the hoppers,
reduction in draft loss was 0.5 in. of water. Flow patterns dif-
fered radically for the two chimneys, although both were
similarly shaped and effluent entered through the bases. For
the Colbert chimney, four vertical eddies were formed, while
for Bull Run the spinning -type flow developed. Studies of the
effect of chimney outlet shape upon velocity and dispersion
indicate that a cylindrical outlet produces a higher average
velocity with less radial spreading than a venturi shaped outlet.
10010
Hino, Mikio
MAXIMUM GROUND-LEVEL CONCENTRATION AND
SAMPLING TIME. Atmos. Environ., 2(2):149-165, March
1968. 27 ref s.
The maximum or axial time-mean concentration of effluent
generally decreases with increasing sampling time, because the
lateral dispersion of effluent increases with increasing sam-
pling time. Th rate of decrease in the maximum concentration
with increase in sampling time is of practical importance for
the abatement of air pollution. However, at the present time,
no definite observational relationship seems to be established
because of the larger scatter observational data and lack of re-
liable data with special emphasis this problem. On the other
hand, theories by Inoue (1952), Ogura (1959) and Hino et al.
(1966a) have indicated that the relationshi between the max-
imum of time-mean ground-level concentration Cmax an the
sampling time Tau should be a -1/2 law i.e. Cmaxocr power
law i.e. Cmaxocr 1/2. Field experiments on atmospheric diffu-
sion of smoke from high stacks of thermal electric power sta-
tions were performed at three different locations. Concentratio
distribution of effluent was determined by sampling cobalt
sulphate particles and Freon-12 gas injected into the stacks as
tracer material. Experimental data give support to the 1/2
power law. Finally, the data on diffusion summarized from
other papers, togeth with the author's data are replotted to
show that the above-mention relation fits most of the data for
sampling time ranging from 10 mi up to 5 hr. (Author's ab-
stract)
10053
Moroz, William J. and E. Koczkur
PLUME RISE AND DISPERSION NEAR THE SHORELINE
OF A LARGE LAKE WHEN FLOW PATTERNS ARE
DOMINATED BY THE LAKEBREEZE. In: Proceedings of the
USAEC Meteorological Information Meeting held at Chalk
River Nuclear Laboratories, September 11-14, 1967. C. A.
Mawson (ed.), Atomic Energy of Canada Ltd., Chalk River,
Ontario, Chalk River Nuclear Labs., AECL-2787, p.215-228,
1967. 10 refs. Available from: Scientific Document Distribution
Office, Atomic Energy of Canada Ltd., Chalk River, Ontario,
Canada $12.00 per copy.
The rise and dispersion rates of the plume from a large ther-
mal generating station located on the Lake Ontario shoreline in
relatively flat terrain on the outskirts of a large city are ex-
amined under conditions where the local flow patterns are
dominated by lakebreeze circulations. The plume was recorded
for subsequent analysis using time lapse photographic
techniques. Application of special films and filtering devices
permitted observations to be extended beyond the point where
the plume is no longer visible to the naked eye. Analysis of in-
dividual photographs is conducted using a photodensitometer
to avoid error through the introduction of subjective in-
terpretations. The position of the plume centerline in space
and the vertical spread of the plume have been determined
under conditions of moderate wind shear in the vertical and a
slightly stable lapse rate through the layer of rise and disper-
sion. Tall stacks are used at the particular station observed
and plume rise is enhanced by relatively large momentum and
buoyancy forces. It is found that well above the surface,
despite a strongly buoyant emission, within the lakebreeze cir-
culation system rise and rate of dispersion of a plume in the
vertical are less than would normally be predicted on the basis
of ground level observation of meteorological parameters.
(Authors abstract, modified) 1
10153
S. Brohult
THE SULPHUR PROBLEM AND AIR POLLUTION. ((Svavel-
problem och luftfororeningar.)) Translated from Swedish. An-
nual Report of the National Academy of Engineers, Sweden p.
29-34, 1967.
Past and present sampling programs in Sweden show that con-
tent of sulfur dioxide in the air has increased considerably
with a simultaneous increase in the proportion of sulfur in
ionic form in precipitation. The result has been a marked in-
vrease in acidity of rain water and in surface water. The levels
of acidity in western Europe are discussed, and a map
presents the average ann ual pH content of precipitation. The
effect of low pH levels on soild and forest growth are
discussed. The contribution of indus try to the pollution
problem, and the efforts made to control pollution are also
discussed. Recommendations are given for means of con-
trolling the pollution, in Sweden, from sulfur com pounds.
10219
Gil'denskiold, R. S., B. B. Goroshk/, G. A. Panfilova and B.
V. Rikhter
RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTAL OBSERVATIONS OF AIR
POLLUTION IN THE RE- GION OF THE MOLDAVA THER-
MAL ELECTRIC POWER PLANT. (Rezul'taty eksperimental'-
nykh issledovanii zagryazneniya atmosfery v raioie moldavskoi
ORES.) Text in Russian. Tr. Gl. Geofiz. Observ. (Leningrad),
No. 207:65-68, 1968. 7 refs.
A previously proposed method for calculating the dispersion
of fly ash and sulfur dioxide from smoke stacks of power
plants was verifi by measurements made in the vicinity of the
Moldava thermal power plant equipped with 180 m high, 6 m
diameter stacks. The SO2 concentrations were measured at
wind velocities from 2 to 6 m/sec a distances up to 9 km from
the emission sources. Also, meteorologic parameters at the
time of the measurements were determined. The maximum
SO2 concentration calculated by a previously proposed formu
amounted to 0.26 mg/cu m and the dangerous wind velocity to
2.5 m sec. The calculated and experimental values were in
good agreement The height of the smoke plume above the
stack was measured and correlated with the wind velocity. A
previously proposed formula f calculating the smoke plume
height was modified to give more accurate results.
10220
Goroshko, B. B.
SOME PECULIARITIES OF THE PROPAGATION OF POL-
LUTANTS FROM HIGH SOUR CES, DEPENDENCE UPON
-------
206
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
SYNOPTIC-METEOROLOGICAL FACTORS.(Nekotory
osobennosti rasprostraneniya vrednykh primesei ot bysokikh
istochnikov v zavisimosti ot sinoptiko-meteorologicheskikh
faktorov Text in Russian. Tr. Gl. Geofiz. Observ. (Leningrad),
No. 207:69-7 6 refs.
Experimental data on SO2 concentrations obrained in the
vicinity of a large thermal electric power plant with 100 m high
stacks in t Shchekinsk region were processed to study relation-
ships between meteorological conditions and air pollution.
Graphs of SO2 ground concentrations up to 14 km from the
sources were plotted under cyclone, anti-cyclone and inter-
mediate conditions. SO2 ground concentrations at different
distances from the sources were plotted as a function of tem-
perature. Vertical SO2 concentration profiles versus tempera-
ture were also plotted at distances of 1, 2, 4 and 10 km from
the source. Horizontal SO2 concentrations profiles as a func-
tion of wind velocity were obtained. The SO2 concentration on
the ground was found to be at most only about 0.4 mg/cu m at
a wind velocity of 0-2 m/sec, while at velocities of 3-6 m/sec it
reached maximum of 1.8 mg/cu m at a distance of 4-8 km from
the source. Th situation is explained by the effect of the wind
on the direction o the smoke plume. Relationships between the
turbulent transfer coefficient on the ground and the ground
concentration were also studied. The ground concentration in-
creased with increasing transf coefficient. Low transfer coeffi-
cients in winter were always accompanied by low SO2 concen-
trations. It appears that variations the transfer coefficient can
be used for predicting air pollution.
10229
Selitskaya, V. I.
ANALYSIS OF AEROLOGICAL CONDITIONS OF AIR POL-
LUTION IN SOME REGIONS OF EUROPEAN RUSSIA.
((Analiz aerologicheskikh uslovii zagryazneniya atmosfery v
nekotorykh raionakh ETS.)) Text in Russian. Tr. Gl. Geofiz.
Observ. (Leningrad), No. 207:188-201, 1968. 5 refs.
Comprehensive measurements of meteorological parameters
were made at altitudes up to 500 m. in the Moldava and
Cherepetskaya power plant regions. Mean temperature, hu-
midity and wind velocity profiles, pulsating velocity com-
ponents, and temperature gradients were determined. The
results indicate that the daily variations of all parameters are
substantial. Further studies should be conducted to obtain data
on nocturnal variations to permit evaluation of the intensity
and size of inversion layers.
10368
Berlyand, M. E.
METEOROLOGICAL PROBLEMS OF CLEAN AIR PROTEC-
TION. ((Meterologicheskie problemy obespecheniia chistoty
atmosfery.)) Text in Russian. Meteorol. i Gidrol. (Moscow),
1967(11):50-62, 1967.11 refs.
Causes and control of air pollution in Russia are discussed, as
well as research in air pollution. Cement dust emitted in 1964
alone amounted to 1.5 million tons. Large heat and electric
power plants are presently installing ash collectors which are
95% effective, but even the small percentage emitted causes
significant pollution because of the sheer volume of burned
fuel. Desulfurization equipment is lacking. The effect of pollu-
tion depends on volume of emission, but more importantly on
distribution of the pollutant and meteorology. Ground level
temperature and wind velocity measurements are no longer
sufficient since so many emission sources are high above
ground (200-300 m.). Meteorological studies at the Main
Geophysical Observatory are dealing with the first several
hundred meters of air and include the development of mathe-
matical equations for atmospheric diffusion from tall emission
sources as well as formulas for initial escape velocity of pollu-
tants and for pollution concentration. When an air layer with a
weakened turbulence is directly superimposed over the emis-
sion source, the concentration of the pollutant more than dou-
bles, while if such a layer is 100-200 m. above the source, the
concentration is much less. Results of practical research con-
ducted near the three heat and electric power plants with the
tallest stacks in Russia during the period 1961 through 1965,
using ground-level and air-borne equipment, agreed with
theoretical data and led to the compilation of 'Provisional
methods of determining the dispersal in the air of emissions
from stacks of electric power plants' which is being applied in
planning new power plants. Regular pollution determinations
were started in 50 larger cities beginning in 1966, mostly using
automatic recording equipment. Results of research in several
large industrial cities of the Ukraine, Urals and Siberia have
shown that air pollution is greater in cities with unfavorable
meteorological conditions; in most cases, pollution is more
severe in summer than in winter.
10421
S. B. Carpenter, J. M. Leavitt, Fred W. Thomas, John A.
Frizzola, and Maynard E. Smith
FULL-SCALE STUDY OF PLUME RISE AT LARGE COAL-
FIRED ELECTRIC GENERATING STATIONS. J. Air Pollu-
tion Control Assoc., 18(7):458-465, July 1968. 9 refs.
The plume rise research project conducted by TVA under
sponsorship of the U. S. Public Health Service is discussed.
Plume rise data were collected at six coal-fired, steam-electric
generating stations within the TVA system over a 2-year
period. Unit ratings ranged from 173 to 704 Mw with stack
heights varying from 250 to 600 ft. An instrumented helicopter
and special photographic equipment were used to obtain 1580
separate plume observations and significant related
meteorological parameters during stable, neutral, and slightly
unstable conditions. The 1580 observations were resolved and
consolidated into 133 composite observation periods covering
30 to 120 min. Meteorological parameters and other compiled
input data were entered into four principal equations for calcu-
lation of plume rise, and calculated plume rise values were
compared with observed values. Most equations overstimated
plume rise in low wind speed. For moderately high wind
speeds, the Carson and Moses and the Concawe equations
gave best fit. (Authors' abstract, modified)
10608
Gary A. Briggs, Isaac Van der Hoven, Rudolf J. Engel- mann,
and James Halitsky
PROCESSES OTHER THAN NATURAL TURBULENCE AF-
FECTING EFFLUENT CONCENTRATIONS. In: Meteorology
and Atomic Energy 1968, David H. Slade (ed.), Environmental
Science Services Administration, Silver Spring, Md., Air
Resources Labs., p. 189-255, July 1968. CFSTI: TID 24190
A number of processes other than natural atmospheric turbu-
lent diffusion can be significant in the fate of radioactive
material emitted into the atmosphere. First is the effect of mo-
mentum and buoyancy due to the mode of emission. Thus, for
example, the forced emission of a hot effluent from a stack
will cause the plume to rise, depending on both the plume and
the ambient-air characteristics. A second process is the surface
deposition of airborne material composed of either particulate
or gaseous matter with resulting depletion of the airborne
cloud and quasi-permanent residence of material upon ground
surfaces. In the case of radioactivity, surface deposition
-------
E. ATMOSPHERIC INTERACTION
207
creates a fixed source of radiation exposure with its cumula-
tive effect as opposed to the rather transitory effect of the air-
borne cloud. The mechanisms causing deposition are numerous
and often not well understood. These include gravitational set-
tling (fallout), precipitation scavenging (washout, snowout, and
rainout), surface impaction, electrostatic attraction, adsorp-
tion, and chemical interaction. A further complication is the
possibility of resuspension and redeposition of material. A
third process is the modification of the natural flow by solid
boundary constraints ranging from a building or complex of
buildings to the topographic constraint of hills and ridges. The
law of conservation of fluid mass states that the fluid must
flow around or over the obstruction and that there will be sub-
sequent changes of speed, pressure, and streamline configura-
tion.
10751
Hoegstroem, Ulf
A STATISTICAL APPROACH TO THE AIR POLLUTION
PROBLEM OF CHIMNEY EMISSION. Atmos. Environ.,
2(3):251-271, May 1968.
A method is described that not only gives one single concen-
tration value but the expected concentration frequency dis-
tribution at an arbitrary point in the vicinity of the emitting
chimney. The concentration frequency distribution obtained
comprises the full range of meteorological conditions at a
given place. In making the principal mathematical formulation
of the method no assumptions whatsoever are needed about
the mechanism of dispersion. In the practical application on
the other hand, full use is made of the detailed knowledge of
the dispersion process. First a 'basic case' is treated, the chief
characteristics of which are: isolated stack, situated on a flat
surface of uniform roughness; sampling time about an hour.
The following information is found necessary for solving a
concrete problem of this kind. (1) plant data, viz. rate of emis-
sion, gas volume and temperature, chimney height and exit
diameter; (2) geographical site data, viz. roughness length; (3)
meteorological data, viz. wind direction frequencies and
statistics of 'dispersion categories' (stability and wind speed).
Applicable formulae are discussed and also how statistics of
'dispersion categories' can be obtained by evaluating data
from radiosonde stations. Certain deviations from the basic
case are also treated in some detail; limited mixing height, the
effect of large heat content on the dispersion parameters, the
effects of buildings and topography, ground level release and
sampling times other than an hour. A thorough test of the
described method is presented. Nine months statistics of 2-hr
SO2 concentration (2602 values) measured at a point situated
750 m from a sulphuric acid plant are compared with theoreti-
cally obtained statistics. The results strongly supports the
method presented.
11065
E. J. Croke, J. E. Carson, F. L. Clark, A. S. Kennedy, J. J.
Roberts
CITY OF CHICAGO AIR POLLUTION SYSTEM MODEL.
(FIRST QUARTERLY PROGRESS REPORT.) Argonne Na-
tional Lab., 111. and Public Health Service, Washington, D.C.,
National Center for Air Pollution Control, Rept. ANL/ES-CC-
001 and TID-4500, 106p., Feb. 1968. 7 rets. CFSTI
The Chicago Department of Air Aollution Control, the Depart-
ment of Health, Education, and Welfare and the Argonne Na-
tional Laboratory are engaged in a joint effort to develop a
computer program which will predict the dispersion of sulfur
dioxide produced by coal and oil-fired plants in the City of
Chicago. A statistical model rather than a physical, deter-
ministic model is attempted due to the availability of a large
data inventory. By statistically 'force-fitting' air quality data
into a matrix which includes standard meteorological parame-
ters and SO2 emission data, a semi-empirical, computerized
pollution forecasting technique might be developed which will
circumvent many of the difficulties inherent in the attempt to
simulate complex atmospheric diffusion processes. Func-
tionally, the Argonne statistical modeling program may be di-
vided into four major areas of effort. These are: (1) diffusion
analysis, (2) meteorological studies, (3) emission inventory, (4)
computer programming. Certain tasks and sources of informa-
tion are associated with each of these functional areas. Ancil-
lary to the development of a dispersion model is the initiation,
during the first phase of the program, of preliminary studies in
the area of the economics of air pollution abatement. These
studies represent in a sense, an introduction to the second
phase of the Argonne air pollution program, in which the
development of abatement strategies and the evaluation of the
economic implication of these strategies constitute the main-
stream effort. A brief discussion of a proposed optimal abate-
ment gaming strategy which could be evaluated during the cur-
rent phase of the program and which would serve as a precur-
sor of the more comprehensive studies to be conducted in the
second phase is included.
11370
Voeikov, A. I.
TEMPORARY METHOD FOR THE COMPUTATION OF
DISPERSION IN THE ATMOSPHERIC AIR OF SUCH
DISCHARGES AS ASH, AND SULFUR CONTAINING GASES
RELEASED THROUGH ELECTRIC STATION SMOKE
STACKS. (APPENDIX 2.) In: Maximum Permissible Concentra-
tions of Atmospheric Pollutants, V. A. Ryazanov and M. S.
Gol'dberg (eds.), Translated from Russian by B. S. Levine, U. S.
S. R. Literature on Air Pollution and Related Occupational Dis-
eases, Vol. 15, pp. 121-129, 1968. CFSTI: PB 179140
Theoretical investigations and practical experimentation under
practical and natural conditions in the proximities of electrical
heat and energy stations were conducted. General formulas
based on these studies could be computed which could apply
to different climate conditions. The previously developed
theory of turbulent diffusion had been re-examined by modern
methods for solving differential equations with the aid of elec-
tronic computers, and the results were checked and re-
checked to a point of satisfactory agreement between results
of computed and actual determinations. The proposed method
for the calculation of smoke stack discharge dispersion is
based on theory and on the experimental investigations con-
ducted. The method, should be regarded as a temporary ex-
pedient until further checking will establish its validity or su-
periority to pre-existing methods.
11514
M. Parry
SOURCES OF READING'S AIR POLLUTION. Preprint, Read-
ing Univ., England, (17)p., (1968). 7 refs. (Presented at World
Meteorological Organization's Symposium on Urban Climates
and Building Climatology, Brussels, Oct. 18, 1968.)
An air pollution investigation was made of the town of Read-
ing, England. Smoke and sulfur dioxide were measured at 37
stations. Most of Reading's measured pollution is of domestic
origin. The influence of local emission sources of air pollution
was discussed. The small central commercial district showed
high sulfur dioxide values. The close correlation between high
pollution values and high building densities emphasized the
significance of local sources in determining pollution patterns
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208
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
and the importance of upward dispersion by turbulence as the
main agent of removal. A numerical assessment of the con-
tribution from distant sources to Reading's smoke during
winter 1961-62, taking into account wind direction frequencies,
gave a figure of over 40%. The mechanisms that bring external
pollution to Reading are dependent on local sources. Favorable
meteorological conditions for this situation were anticyclonic
conditions, light easterly winds and low-level inversions.
Another mechanism was that of large- scale fumigation over
urban areas. Data on meteorological and pollution patterns are
presented in forms of isopleths and maps.
11624
Berger, A. W., C. E. Billings, R. Dennis, D. Lull, and P.
Warneck
STUDY OF REACTIONS OF SULFUR IN STACK PLUMES.
(FIRST ANNUAL REPORT APRIL 12, 1967 TO APRIL 11,
1968.) GCA Corp., Bedford, Mass., Technology Div., Contract
PH-86-67-125, GCA-TR-68-19-G, 129p., March 24, 1969. 30
refs.
The overall objective was to provide an improved rationale for
predicting the concentration levels of sulfur oxides in the at-
mosphere. The study has been divided into two major phases;
(a) a field program in which real plumes from coal and oil-
fired power stations can be tracked by aircraft to determine
plume composition as a function of downwind distance, en-
vironmental factors and source parameters; and (b) a laborato-
ry program in which flue gas effluents generated by a pilot
plant furnace (oil and coal fired) can be studied under simu-
lated field conditions. Bench scale experiments to investigate
several alternative mechanisms (chemical and/or physical) con-
tributing to observed SO2 losses in the atmosphere are also in-
cluded in the first-year program. Two Boston area power
plants, one coal fired and the other oil fired, are allowing mea-
surement of source parameters. The selected coastal stations
are located such that no interference between their respective
plumes takes place during periods of off-shore winds. Plume
sampling was conducted under pre-selected meteorological
conditions which would allow for maximum plume stability.
Plume location beyond the visible range was determined by an
automatic conductivity analyzer. A 42-cu ft reaction chamber
was constructed to investigate atmospheric behavior of SO2
from stack plumes under controlled temperature, humidity,
and simulated solar irradiation. Bench scale experiments were
performed in which quantum yields were determined for pure
SO2 and mixtures of SO2 for various uv excitation levels,
2537 and 3100A, at ambient pressure.
11980
Hasek, Milan
ON THE PROBLEM OF TRANSPORT AND DISPERSION OF
GASEOUS HARMFUL SUBSTANCES FROM BIG THERMAL
POWER PLANTS IN FLAT TERRAIN. In: Preprints of the
Czechoslovak Reports. International Symposium on the Con-
trol and Utilization of Sulphur Dioxide and Fly Ash From the
Flue Gases of Large Thermal Power Plants. Liblice House of
Scientific Workers, 1965, p. 55-60.
Aspects of the mathematical solution of the transport and
dispersion of gaseous pollutants from large-scale stationary
sources are discussed, with emphasis on the special cases of
fumigation, reflection, inversion, or condensation of smoke
emissions from such sources. The Hewson formula, which is
specific for reflection of smoke from bulk sources, is
reviewed. The elaboration of relationships between the various
emission, meteorological, and diffusion parameters is necessa-
ry to determine a methodology for meteorological data collec-
tion prior to construction of industrial plants in 'unknown' ter-
rain. The determination of turbulent parameters for calculating
pollutant concentrations is a difficult problem because of the
lack of suitable equipment, in which case substitute data of
more easily-measured variables are sometimes substituted. Ap-
propriate theoretical treatment is outlined of wind velocity,
variability of wind direction, and stack height factors.
12353
Slawson, P. R.
ON THE MEAN PATH OF BUOYANT BENT-OVER PLUMES
UNDER VARIOUS ATMOSPHERIC STABILITY CONDI-
TIONS. Waterloo Univ., Ontario, Dept. ofO Mechanical En-
gineering, AEC Rept. NYO-3685-14, RR-13, 92p., Aug. 1968.
19 refs. CFSTI: NYO-3685-14
Photographic observations were made on the rise of smoke
plumes from a generating station in Ontario, in the spring of
1965 and 1967. Data relating to the stack variables were col-
lected in detail. The mean path of a buoyant bent-over plume
was described by a theory that considered the plume to rise in
three distinct phases. The first phase was based on the entrain-
ment hypothesis of Morton, Taylor, and Turner, 1956. The
second and third phases modified this entrainment hypothesis
considerably and were based on more established theory. The
diffusion processes within the plume were attributed to sell-
generated turbulence and atmospheric turbulence of the iner-
tial subrange eddies and the energy containing eddies for the
second and third phases, respectively. Observations indicated
that the dynamical problem of plume rise is very complex.
This complexity was illustrated in the wavy appearance of
plumes observed at the generating station in unstable at-
mospheric conditions. Further evidence was collected in 1967
which gave the linear rising plume for the final phase in
neutral atmospheric conditions. The relatively simple theory
presented correctly predicted (at least qualitatively) the com-
plex observed plume paths and emphasized the important
physical factors required to adequately describe this path. The
plume's own physical size and the atmospheric turbulence
level had a more direct effect on plume behavior than the ob-
served atmospheric temperature gradients, at least for
distances from the source of a few thousand feet. In some
cases where the plume bends over sharply very near the
source, the effect of the initial size and momentum of the
plume may be important. (Author abstract modified)
13965
Parczewski, Wladyslaw
INFLUENCE OF THE STABILITY OF ATMOSPHERE ON
THE CONCENTRATION OF AIR POLLUTANTS. (Einfluss
der Stabilitaet der Atmosphaere auf die Konzentration der
Luftverunreinigungen). Text in German. Z. Meteorol., 20(1-
6):99-100, 1968.
Continuous measurements were made of the SO2 content of
air near the ground by means of an EEL SO2 meter mounted
on a vehicle in the vicinity of the 120 meter-high smoke stack
of the Skawina (Poland) power plant at different types of sta-
bility of layering and at different wind speeds. The same type
of measurements were also made at the distance of 1 kilome-
ter from the Turoszow power plant. The results show sharp
quasi periodic fluctuations of the SO2 content between 0.3 and
0.8 mg/cu m under labile layering conditions. At stable layer-
ing, its fluctuations are much smaller and its mean value
decreases with increasing wind speed. The type of S02-con-
tent fluctuations is well correlated with the type of layering of
the atmosphere, so that knowledge of either one will enable in-
ferences to be made regarding the other.
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E. ATMOSPHERIC INTERACTION
209
14271
Shirvaikar, V. V., Ramesh K. Kapoor, and L. N. Sharma
A FINITE PLUME MODEL BASED ON WIND PERSISTENCE
FOR USE IN ENVIRONMENTAL DOSE EVALUATION. At-
mos. Environ., vol. 3:135-144, 1969. 1 ref.
Dose measurements for evaluating the hazards of emissions
from nuclear reactors are usually based on finite period
releases of the effluent. The dose at any distance downwind is
then calculated by multiplying the concentration from a con-
tinuous point source plume by the period of release. This
method is unrealistic because it assumes a very large per-
sistence of wind direction and diffusion conditions. The possi-
bility exists that a change in the mean wind direction occurring
at some point during the period of emission could lead to a
spread of the material over a far wider area than is possible by
turbulent fluctuations. Therefore, the worst meteorological
condition defined for any reactor site should include informa-
tion about wind direction persistence and associated lowest
mean wind speed. In this paper, a plume model for release in
finite wind persistence periods is developed. Equations are
presented for computing dosage during the period of persistent
wind direction and dosage due to the transit of the oblique
plume in the changed wind direction at the end of the per-
sistence period. The equations take into account the change in
diffusion conditions before and after the wind direction
change. Good agreement exists between approximate values
and numerically integrated dosages computed on a CDC 3600
computer. (Author abstract modified)
15178
Peterson, Eugene K.
CARBON DIOXIDE AFFECTS GLOBAL ECOLOGY. Environ.
Sci. Technol., 3(11):1162-1169, Nov. 1969. 10 refs.
Atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide are projected to
the year 2000 and beyond, and the effect of anticipated in-
fluence on weather and global ecology are discussed. By 2000,
if the burning of fossil fuel is not curtailed, atmospheric CO2
will increase 20-60% above 1950 levels to about 415 ppm. The
CO2 will increase still another 30% by 2020 to 540 ppm. These
amounts could increase average global temperatures by 1-5 F.
Accompanying increases in plant growth may occur and result
in a net reduction of atmospheric CO2. The increased growth
rate of land and marine plants will more likely be balanced by
an increased decay rate of plant material. Measurable melting
of ice caps is anticipated by 2000, leading to a rise in ocean
levels and major increases in earthquakes and volcanic activi-
ty. Techniques to reduce the CO2 content of the air or speed
its absorption by oceans are theoretically possible but
economically unfeasible. More practical methods of controlling
C02 emissions would substitute water power, geothermal
steam, direct solar energy, and nuclear power for energy
derived from fossil fuels. Research programs to determine the
long-term effects of atmospheric CO2 are imperative. The U.
S., as a major fuel oil consumer, should be a major participant
in such research.
15347
Meyer, Erich
SULFUR DIOXIDE EMISSION AND SMOG FORMATION.
(Schwefeldioxid-Emission und Smog-Bildung). Text in Ger-
man. Chem. Ing. Tech., 41(19): 1056-9, 1969. 13 refs.
In 1962, 35% of atmospheric SO2 in West Germany was
emitted by thermal power plants, 46% by other industrial
sources, and 19% by domestic heaters. In 1965, power plants
emitted 29%, the remaining industrial and domestic sources
71%. The atmospheric SO2 concentration (mg SO2/cu m) de-
pends on stack height, the amount emitted, distance from the
source of emissions, and on meteorological factors. Among the
latter, temperature-lapse rates have great importance. The for-
mation of smog depends not only on SO2 levels and inver-
sions, but also on the catalytic activity of finely divided solid
particles, intense solar radiation, and high relative humidity.
Measures for limiting SO2 emissions are outlined. These fall
into three categories: decontamination of fuels or removal of
the toxicants from waste gases, the use of low-sulfur fuels,
and curtailment of industrial operations.
15483
Johnson, Warren B., Jr. and Edward E. Uthe
LIDAR STUDY OF STACK PLUMES. (FINAL REPORT).
Stanford Research Inst., Menlo Park, Calif., Contract PH 22-
68-33, Proj. 7289, 116p., June 1969. 11 refs.
The feasibility of lidar (laser radar) for stack plume studies
was established from the results of an experimental investiga-
tion of plume behavior from a 245 m power plant stack in
western Pennsylvania. Sixty-four vertical plume cross sections
representative of various types of plume behavior were
selected for detailed analysis. Each vertical cross section was
built up from 15 to 30 lidar shots at 5 to 8 sec intervals and at
elevation angle increments of one-third to 10 deg. Although
calculated plume-rise values agree reasonably well with the ob-
servations, it is clear from inspection of the cross sections that
the important effects of vertical wind direction shear (plume
tilting and fanning) and vertical changes in stability (plume
trapping) should be taken into account when predicting plume
rise and diffusion. Close correspondence between plume tops
and levels of increased atmospheric stability was found. Op-
timum use of lidar for diffusion studies requires provision for
obtaining 30 min or hourly plume concentration distributions,
as well as allowances for the effect of the lidar noise level
upon plume size. The advantages of the mobile lidar technique
stem from its ability to obtain measurements remotely and at a
high density in space and time. The quantitative application of
the technique for obtaining absolute particulate mass concen-
trations is limited mainly by the accuracy with which the opti-
cal characteristics of the aerosol are known. (Author abstract
modified)
15511
Frizzola, John A.
THE ASCENT OF POWER PLANT FUMES DURING VARI-
OUS METEOROLOGICAL CONDITIONS. Preprint, Brook-
haven National Lab., Upton, N. Y., 19p., 1969. 19 refs.
Presented before the American Power Conference, Annual
Meeting, 31st, Chicago, April 22-23, 1969, Paper BNL 13513.)
The theory of forced plume use from tall stacks, such as those
used in the power industry, is reviewed, and factors affecting
plume behavior are discussed. Two equations are suggested
for obtaining a reasonable first approximation for plume rise
during various weather conditions; they contain both important
source and meteorological parameters. The equations are not
valid during occurrences of light wind speeds since, at 1000 ft
or above, plume rise depends on the presence of small discon-
tinuities in the environmental lapse rate for unstable or neutral
conditions. The meteorological conditions are assumed to
prevail over durations of time equivalent to the averaging time
selected for the passive diffusion parameters used in predict-
ing ground level concentrations. Since the plume fluctuates
from moment to moment, an hour is required to obtain an
average plume height. It is emphasized that the equations are
primarily intended for solving simple problems. As more ob-
servations of plume ascent and passive diffusion become
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ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
available, particularly at heights above several hundred feet,
further refinements will be necessary and desirable.
16285
MacDowall, Joseph, Andrew J. Moffat, and Herschel H.
Slater
THE USE OF AN AIRBORNE SPECTROMETER FOR THE
RAPID SURVEY OF ATMOSPHERIC SO2 AIR POLLUTION.
Preprint, Public Health Service, Cincinnati, Ohio, National Air
Pollution Control Administration, 23p., 1969. 5 refs. (Presented
at the Air Pollution Control Association, Annual Meeting,
62nd, New York, June 22-26, 1969.)
An aerial survey of the area down-wind of a coal-fired
generating plant in Tennessee was conducted using an airborne
spectrometer. Pibal wind observations were obtained during
the course of the survey. The meteorological conditions ob-
served were those which would favor the transport of sulfur
dioxide from the plant to the city. The airborne survey ob-
served the plume on seven traverses at distances up to 20
miles down-wind of the plant. It was concluded that sulfur
dioxide from the generating plant followed the mountain
slopes which formed the eastern side of the Sequatchie-Ten-
nessee River Valleys. Significant portions of the plume were
neither observed to cross the Cumberland Plateau, which lies
between the plant and Chattanooga, nor to enter the Tennes-
see River Gorge, which courses the Plateau. The experiment
demonstrated the capability of the remote airborne detection
device to track a sulfur dioxide plume for nearly 20 miles. It
indicated the potential usefulness of the airborne system for
making rapid, near-synoptic area surveys for air contaminants.
Such surveys, if appropriate weather data are collected simul-
taneously, can provide data for rationally selecting air quality
measuring sites. The device represents a potential for gather-
ing information on the location of the emission sources, their
source strength, and variations in the rates of emission.
(Author abstract modified)
16467
Voloshin, V. G.
THE DISTRIBUTION OF SURFACE CONCENTRATIONS OF
HARMFUL ADMIXTURES IN REGION OF POWER STA-
TION IN ODESSA. (Raspredeleniye prizemnykh kontsentratsiy
vrednykh primesiy v zone Odesskoy TETs). Text in Russian.
Meteorol., Klimatol. i Gidrol., no.3:38-45, 1968. 6 refs.
Measurements of aerosols and SO2 are taken as a basis in this
study of air pollution resulting from the combustion of coal at
the Odessa Heat and Power Plant. Maximum pollution from
the plant (at a distance of 2400 m from the stack) reached 0.27
mg/sq m for SO2 and 0.20 mg/cu m for aerosols, or 40-50% of
the total concentration in the surrounding areas. Pollution con-
centration under the plume reaches as high as 0.6-0.7 mg/cu m,
a north-south orientation predominating due to prevailing
winds. Under anomalous conditions of atmospheric stratifica-
tion the maximum permissible concentration (0.5 mg/cu m for
both SO2 and aerosols) may be exceeded 2-3 fold. The area
within a 3-4 km radius of the Odessa industrial region is
deemed unsuited for the construction of new multiple-dwelling
structures because of high pollution levels.
16629
Szepesi, Dezso
METEOROLOGICAL CONDITIONS OF THE TURBULENT
DIFFUSION OF ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTANTS IN HUNGA-
RY. (Legszennyezo anyagok turbulens diffuziojanak
meteorologiai foltetelei magyarorszagon). Az Orszagos
Meteorologiai Intezet Hivatalos Kiadvanyai (Budapest) (Natl.
Meteorol. Inst. Offic. Publ.), vol. 32, 168p., 1967. 83 refs.
Translated from Hungarian. Franklin Inst. Research Labs.
Philadelphia, Pa., Science Info. Services, 207p., Sept. 1969.
A mathematical model is developed to incorporate the
meteorological factors influencing the dilution of atmospheric
pollutants from a point source, with a view towards optimizing
the location of such installations as electric power plants. The
model takes into account wind direction, wind speed, vertical
wind profile, and thermal stratification by use of the equation
of turbulent diffusion, with results calculated in average
number of hours per year during which a concentration of pol-
lution exceeds a given level. The computations are made by
computer, and solutions based on new industrial and
meteorological data can therefore be obtained rapidly. The
method is applicable to sites at which ground level and upper-
air wind observations have been made for at least a year or
which are located no more than 150 km from an existing
meteorological observatory in a broad lowland-type area. The
turbulent diffusion equations are also programmed for deter-
mining the necessary stack height and emission velocity of the
combustion gases of a power plant to achieve permissable
emission levels in the region surrounding the power plant. The
principal subject headings dealt with are meteorological, topo-
graphic, and industrial factors in air pollution; quantitative
analysis of meteorological data; early investigations of turbu-
lence and diffusion by Turner; and theory and application of
the turbulent diffusion method. Two-hour values of the stabili-
ty parameter for Budapest and 12 other cities for 1959-1963
have been calculated and are presented in a form ready for
computerization; the values were interpolated from four daily
radio sonde ascents on the basis of observed values of cloud
cover, temperature, and the hourly wind values with reference
to the isopletes of the average temperature gradients of the
lower 300 m of the atmosphere.
16687
Onikul, R. I., G. A. Panfilov, B. V. Rikhter, and R. S.
Gil'denskiol'd
RESULTS OF ANALYSIS OF EXPERIMENTAL DATA
CHARACTERIZING THE DISTRIBUTION OF ATMOSPHER-
IC POLLUTIONS NEAR THE THERMAL ELECTRIC
POWER STATIONS. (Rezul'taty analiza eksperimental'nykh
dannykh, kharakterizuyushchikh raspredeleniye atmosfernykh
zagryazneniy vblizi teplovykh elektrostantsiy). Tr. Gl. Geofiz.
Observ. (Moscow), no. 172:23-34, 1965. 13 refs. Translated
from Russian. Foreign Technology Div., Wright-Patterson
AFB, Ohio, Translation Div. FTD-MT-24-186-67
Meteorological and aerological data were collected on the dif-
fusion of sulfurous gas and ashes from stacks of thermal elec-
tric power stations from 1961 to 1963. A method for analyzing
the experimental data on surface concentrations at various
distances from the plants was described in detail and con-
trasted with conventional methods of finding average sulfur
dioxide concentrations. The method permits the determination
of maximum SO2 concentrations and calculations of dangerous
wind speeds. The results obtained by the method were in good
agreement with theoretical calculations. Maximum SO2 con-
centrations at all sampling points were related to the wind
speed, which depended on the initial flue gas exit speed from
stacks and the degree of their overheating. At low speeds, flue
gases rise to a great height. At higher speeds, the-effective
height is small, but the gases are dispersed over a greater
distance. Rapid increases in surface concentrations follow ini-
tial increases in wind speed, but only very small changes in
surface concentrations occur thereafter.
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E. ATMOSPHERIC INTERACTION
211
16803
Jarman, R. T. and C. M. deTurville
THE VISIBILITY AND LENGTH OF CHIMNEY PLUMES.
Atmos. Environ., 3(3):257-280, May 1969. 26 refs.
Nonhebel's (1960) theoretical analysis of chimney smoke visi-
bility is extended to incorporate the scattering of sunlight and
skylight by plume particles. Relations are derived theoretically
which show how both the visible length and the smoke con-
trast depend on the particles in the plume and the weather
conditions. The theory treats inert particles which do not
change by chemical reactions in the atmosphere or coagula-
tion, etc. It is also limited to low particle concentrations where
multiple scattering effects may be ignored. The accuracy of
the calculation of the visibility and length of plumes from
commercial power stations is limited because the optical pro-
perties of the smoke particles are not known accurately. How-
ever, using approximations for the optical properties of the
complex smoke particles, given by the Mie theory for uniform
spheres, it was found that there was reasonable agreement
between the observed and calculated plume lengths and con-
trasts. It is known that in stable atmospheric conditions some
plumes occasionally remain visible for some miles downwind
of the chimney. These persistent plumes are discussed briefly
and simple criteria for their occurrence are derived. (Author's
Abstract)
16985
Scorer, R. S.
WET AND COLOURED PLUMES AND NATURAL POLLU-
TION. In: Air Pollution. London, Pergamon Press, 1968,
Chapt. 5, p. 86-106.
The thermal, mechanical, and optical effects that influence
visible air pollution are explained. The behavior of wet-
scrubbed effluent gas from power station is variable because it
depends on the amount of water evaporated in the washing
chamber and the extent of the subsequent cooling before emis-
sion; these, in turn, depend on the temperature ranges of the
water and gases in the washing, and are determined by their
flow rates and mechanisms of contact. Distinction is made
between droplets from splashing in a cooling tower or
scrubbing chamber and droplets formed by condensation due
to cooling like smoke and pollution gases, the latter travel with
the air. Condensation of water cloud after emission is a good
feature of a plume from the standpoint of pollution on the
ground; condensation before emission by cooling in a stack or
washing chamber is very undesirable. The basis for these prin-
ciples is explained and numerous photographs provide illustra-
tions of varieties of plume appearance and behavior. The
whiteness of a sulfur trioxide-laden plume is determined as
much by the size of the particles as by the amount of SOS
present; SO3 plumes are blue when the particles are very
small, become white at some larger size, and then become in-
visible when the same amount of SO3 is condensed into still
fewer large particles. Colored plumes may take their color
from the particles of smoke that make them visible; micron-
size particles of red iron oxides create the red smoke often
seen at steelworks. Sulfuric acid mist may produce a blue
color when the particles are very small, and the reddish
brownish color of some power station plumes is the natural
color of the small fly ash particles which pass through the
electrostatic precipitators. Some forms of visible natural air
pollution are discussed, including salt haze from the sea, dust
hazes, and blizzards.
17580
Thomas, F. W., S. B. Carpenter, and W. C. Colbaugh
RECENT RESULTS OF MEASUREMENTS. PLUME RISE
ESTIMATES FOR ELECTRIC GENERATING STATIONS. IV.
Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London Ser. A, vol. 265:221-243, 1969.
11 refs.
Starting in 1963, the Tennessee Valley Authority collected and
analyzed data for documentation and definition of plume rise
and related meteorological parameters at generating plants
with unit ratings from 173 to 704 MW and stack heights from
76.2 to 182.9 m. Plume rise data plotted against calculated
values of all formulas used in this report indicated that the
wind speed and heat emission rate are the principal determi-
nants in calculating plume rise. The effect of the stack height
on plume rise is inherent in the stability factor for this analy-
sis. When plume observations were plotted against calculated
values according to the formulas originally presented, the sim-
ple Concawe formula provided the best fit. The equations used
can be summarized as plume rise equals A/u(a), where A is
some function of the kinetic and thermal energy of the plume
and u is the wind speed. The Concawe formula is considered
preferable for general investigation because of simplicity and
ease of calculation. But when a particular event, such as inver-
sion breakup or limited mixing layer fumigation, is being
analyzed, use of the 'two-thirds power law' is considered
preferable, provided information for the meteorological
parameters is available. This relation embodies the principal
physical quantities normally associated with plume rise and
permits some accounting for up to 15% difference in plume
rise attributable to variation in atmospheric stability. The study
served to validate plume rise formulas which can be effective-
ly over a range of meteorological and operational conditions.
(Author conclusions modified)
17595
Ide, Yasuo
SIMILITUDE ON STACK GAS DIFFUSION. Preprint, Mit-
subishi Heavy Industries, Ltd., Tokyo (Japan), lip., 1966 (?).
6 refs.
Stack gas diffusion in the atmosphere is governed by the mean
flow of the natural wind and its turbulence. Atmosphere is di-
vided into: free atmosphere (above 500-1000 m); planetary
boundary layer (below 500 m); and surface boundary layer
(less than 100 m in altitude). Stack gas emitted from power
stations (200-1000 MW) usually rises into free atmosphere and
diffuses with the planetary boundary layer. Stack gas is
damaging when the concentration of diffusing gas (plume) is
greater than the permissible level. The spectrum of horizontal
wind speed is illustrated. Wind may be classified as: (1) macro
scale turbulence (a synoptic-scale motion associated with
macrometeorology); (2) meso scale turbulence (short term
variation of wind speed of direction); and (3) micro scale tur-
bulence (eddy motion or fluctuation of wind speed or
direction). The three scales are illustrated. The direct method
and the indirect method can be used to estimate or predict at-
mospheric diffusion. The indirect method is generally adopted
by air pollution engineers for it takes into account the effects
of down wash, down draught, topographical effect, etc. The
indirect method is adopted in the discussion on similitude and
is confined to stack gas diffusion in the micro scale. A chart
of similarity parameters for diffusion is given.
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ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
17612
Berlyand, M. Ye. and R. I. Onikul
PHYSICAL BASES FOR CALCULATING THE SCATTERING
OF INDUSTRIAL EMISSIONS IN THE ATMOSPHERE.
(Fizicheskiye osnovy rascheta rasseivaniya v atmosfere pro-
myshlennykh vybrosov). Text in Russian. Tr. Gl. Geofiz. Ob-
serv. (Leningrad), no. 234:3-27, 1968. 53 refs.
Theoretical work related to atmospheric dispersion of impuri-
ties from industrial sources is reviewed. Practical recommen-
dations are set forth with regard to the design of industrial en-
terprises so as to comply with standards for maximum allowa-
ble concentrations and establish so-called sanitary protection
zones. Verification of these methods at several regional elec-
tric power stations at Minsk, Tallin, Bobruysk, Alma-Atinsk,
Karagandinsk, and Daugavpilask and the Chelyabinsk Metal-
lurgical Plant is reported.
17725
Honma, Tadao
METEOROLOGICAL CONDITIONS AND SMOKE DD7FU-
SION. 50. ANALYTICAL METHOD FOR THE DEGREE OF
WIDESPREAD AIR POLLUTION AND COUNTERMEA-
SURES AGAINST SUCH POLLUTION. Taiki Osen Kenkyu (J.
Japan Soc. Air Pollution), 2(l):70-77, 1967. Translated from
Japanese. 4p.
Countermeasures against sulfur dioxide pollution using the
standard of (polluted area) times (average concentration) are
discussed. A new analytical method was proposed, and coun-
termeasures were studied, based on the examples of calcula-
tion. Several equations are presented which give the degrees
of linear and areal pollution from a given smoke source. As-
suming that these degrees are the reasonable quantities of the
pollution affecting the district concerned, practical nomo-
graphs were prepared. The degrees of linear and areal pollu-
tion were calculated after the amount of fuel consumption in
industrial cities had been divided into large scale, medium
scale, and small scale groups. The height of the chimneys, the
sulfur content, and the number of smoke sources were also
properly chosen. The degrees of pollution affecting the whole
district, or the midtown area and the residential area, for each
scale were given. Sulfur dioxide can be reduced by using low
sulfur oil in small scale factories, and high sulfur oils in large
scale factories. Increasing the height of the chimneys of medi-
um scale factories is also of importance in lowering pollution.
The extent of the effect of power plants on the ground surface
SO2 concentration 20 km from the midtown area was less than
10%.
17734
Horiuchi Kazuya, Tooru Fujii, and Hachiro Yasukawa
METEOROLOGICAL CONDITIONS AND SMOKE DD7FU-
SION. 59. A STUDY OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL POLLU-
TION CAUSED BY A HUGE GENERATING SOURCE. Taiki
Osen Kenkyu (J. Japan Soc. Air Pollution) 2(l):70-77, 1967.
Translated from Japanese. 2p.
The diffusion state of sulfur dioxide emitted by the chimneys
of a steam power plant was investigated. The SO2 concentra-
tion measuring points were set up to the north and the
southeast of the plant, taken as the origin; each point was
positioned on concentric circles of 2, 6, 8, 10, and 12 km. Con-
tinuous measurement was conducted at one hour intervals.
The wind direction and speed on the ground were observed by
a Koshin-vane. To obtain meteorological data in the upper air,
the temperature and wind speed were observed up to 500 m
above the ground by means of a captive balloon. Photographs
were taken from airplanes to determine the height of the rising
smoke. The results of the 1954, 1965, and 1966 investigations
showed that the SO2 concentration tends to increase each year
with an increase in the consumption of heavy oil.
19503
Homma, M. and M. Suzuki
HEIGHT OF PLUME FROM STACK OF LARGE THERMAL
POWER STATION. (Daiyolyo kalyokoo natsoodenjo entotsoo
kala no haien johshoh takasa). Text in Japanese. Taiki Osen
Kenkyu (J. Japan Soc. Air Pollution), 4(1):95, 1969.
(Proceedings of the Japan Society of Air Pollution Annual
Meeting, 10th, 1969.)
The comparison among formulas for height of plume rise,
which have been published but give considerable differences,
was based on measured values of plumes from thermal power
plants. A modified Bosanquet-II equation was recommended
earlier which uses 0.26 U(l/2) as a plume expansion coefficient
instead of 0.13 suggested by Bosanguet. Within the wind
velocity of 1 10 m/sec, this modified Bosanquet-II equation
agrees with the measured values and Lucas's, Moore and
Spurr's and Thomas's equations show comparatively good
agreements above 4 m/sec. Priestly's and Holland's equations
give fairly lower values. These measurements are taken where
the heat emission rates of plume sources lie between 45 and 17
times 10 to the 6th power cal/sec (150 and 600 MW), in
daytime, and under approximately neutral condition of the at-
mosphere. It is necessary to consider in more detail the height-
of-rise in the case of the very weak wind. The measurement of
the height of rise are done by both photos (which are analyzed
graphically,) and the measurement of the vertical distribution
of sulfur dioxide concentration in a plume by a helicopter.
19737
Roberts, J. J., E. J. Croke, and A. S. Kennedy
CHICAGO AIR POLLUTION SYSTEMS ANALYSIS PRO-
GRAM. AN URBAN ATMOSPHERIC DISPERSION MODEL.
Argonne National Lab., 111., Dept. of Air Pollution Control,
Chicago, III, and Public Health Service, Washington, D. C.,
National Air Pollution Control Administration, 116p., Oct.
1969. 23 refs. (Presented at the Symposium on Multiple Source
Urban Diffusion Models, University of North Carolina,
Chapel Hill, Oct. 27-30, 1969.) CFSTI: ANL/ES-CC-005
A multiple source, computerized atmospheric dispersion model
designed for operational use in air resource management was
formulated and programmed for the IBM 360-75 system. The
model consists of a series of algorithms assembled around a
kernel which represents the transport and diffusion of pollu-
tant species from point and area sources according to a Gaus-
sian distribution in three dimensions. This kernel, which
represents a three dimensional puff of smoke, is integrated ac-
cording to a time series of piecewise constant wind vectors
and piecewise constant atmospheric stability parameters to
simulate the transient behavior of a continuous smoke plume.
The model is incorporated in a master air pollution data
management system which is employed to store, retrieve,
process, analyze, and display emission, meteorology, and air
quality data. The development and preliminary validation test-
ing of this model is described against data from a three-year,
computerized inventory of sulfur dioxide air quality data
recorded by the receptors of the Chicago telemetered air moni-
toring system. A detailed, two-year inventory of Chicago coal
and oil burning SO2 emission sources was acquired, data
storage formats were designed, and computer algorithms were
developed to generate hourly average estimates of emissions
from major utility, industrial, residential, commercial, and in-
-------
E. ATMOSPHERIC INTERACTION
213
stitutional sources. The ratio of standard deviation to mean
values for all hourly SO2 predictions is 0.93 for approximately
2300 data points. (Author summary modified)
20042
Berlyand, M. Ye., Ye. G. Genikhovich, and O. I. Kirenbin.
EFFECT OF RELIEF ON PROPAGATION OF POLLUTANTS
FROM SOURCES. (Vliyaniye rel 'efa na rasprostraneniye
primesi ot istochnikov). Text in Russian. Tr. Glav. Geofiz. Ov-
serv. (Leningrad), no. 234:28-44, 1968. 17 refs.
A further development of earlier work on evaluating the effect
of local surface irregularities in calculations of a pollutant con-
centration field is presented. A more rigorous model is em-
ployed together with analysis of pollutant propagation in a
potential (rather than real) flow. Field work carried out at the
Shchekino Regional Power Station is used as the basis for a
sample analysis.
20068
Nakamura, A. and T. Masuda
OBSERVATIONS ON ASCENT OF SMOG LAYER AND ITS
EFFECTS ON CONCENTRATIONS. (Emmuso josho no kan-
sokurei). Text in Japanese. Taiki Osen Kenkyu (J. Japan Soc.
Air Pollution), 4(1):99, 1969. (Proceedings of the 10th Annual
Meeting of the Japan Society of Air Pollution, 1969.)
In a flat metropolitan area such as Sapporo, Japan, where the
source of air pollution in winter is mainly the smoke stacks for
household and industrial heating, the dissolution of the inver-
sion layer results in the rising of the stable layer; trapped by
the unstable layer underneath, pollution increases in concen-
tration with the emission increase. Furthermore, the pollutants
reach the higher altitudes with the dissolution of the stable
layer (expansion of the unstable layer). Several photographic
observations and sulfur dioxide samplings were conducted dur-
ing the winter of 1968-69.
20163
Yeliseyev, V. S.
DETERMINATION OF ATMOSPHERIC DIFFUSION
PARAMETERS FROM VISD3LE CHARACTERISTICS OF A
SMOKE CLOUD. (Opredeleniye parametrov atmosfernoy dif-
fuzii po vidimym ochertaniyam dymovogo oblaka). Text in
Russian. Tr. Gl. Geofiz. Observ. (Leningrad), no. 185:77-82,
1966. 7 refs.
Helicopter observation of smoke plumes at distances up to IS
km and more from the source has proven to be a sensitive in-
dicator, both qualitatively and quantitatively, of atmospheric
diffusion. Observation flight patterns and theoretical in-
terpretation of observations are reviewed. Though these con-
clusions are based on observations made in 1962-1963 in the
Shchekinsk Region and at the State Regional Power Station in
Cherepetsk, no data are given.
20523
Tsang, Gee
CONCENTRATION OF EFFLUENTS IN A PLUME AS PRE-
DICTED BY A MODEL AND OBSERVED IN FIELD. Mas-
sachusetts Inst. of Tech., Cambridge, Fluid Mechanics Lab.,
Grant AP 00678-01, Pub. 69-7, 9p., Aug. 1969. 6 refs.
A theoretical model based on the entrainment concept and the
assumption of a 'top-hat' distribution profile was used for pre-
dicting the concentration of SO2 and SF6 in a plume. The
theoretical predictions were compared with field data collected
by Berger et al and Dennis et al in a plume from a power sta-
tion situated by the seashore. The sampling was made by an
airplane criss-crossing the plume at various downwind
distances and at various altitudes. To avoid the effect of
ground roughness, sampling was only made when the plume
was blown off-shore to the sea. The stretch of the plume being
sampled was from 1/4 miles to 20 miles. The plume boundary
was determined by an airborne electro-conductivity analyzer
which could respond to an increment in SO2 levels above the
background level within 5 seconds. The comparison shows that
the theoretical model does correctly predict the concentration
of pollutants in a plume. Comparison of the SO2 and SF6 con-
centrations (the latter was an inert gas released as a tracer)
showed that in the experimental range of 20 miles, the deple-
tion of SO2 is not an important factor in estimating the rate of
dilution.
20924
Selickaja, V. I.
AN ANALYSIS OF THE AEROLOGICAL CONDITIONS FOR
ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION IN SOME REGIONS OF THE
EUROPEAN U. S. S. R. Tr. Gl. Geofiz. Observ. (Leningrad),
vol. 207:188-201, 1968. 5 refs. Translated from Russian by C.
Long, Meteorological Office, London, England, lip.
Meteorological observations being carried out in the lowest
500 m of the atmosphere for studies of interaction with air pol-
lution are reported for three power station sites in the Mol-
davin, Cerepet, and Scekino regions of the European U. S. S.
R. The data include mean values of air temperature, lapse
rate, relative and specific humidity, and wind speed. Summary
analyses of the data are presented, as well as notes on cloud
cover. Measurements were made by balloon sounding. Con-
siderable diurnal variation of all meteorological parameters
was noted; it is therefore recommended that the number of
night ascents be increased to allow more detailed study of the
thickness and intensity of inversion layers which create
hazards for surface layer pollution.
21073
Peterson, Kendall R.
CONTINUOUS POINT SOURCE PLUME BEHAVIOR OUT
TO 160 MILES. J. Appl. Meteorol., vol. 7:217-226, April 1968.
8 refs.
In order to study the behavior of the plume emitted from the
air-cooled nuclear at Brookhaven National Laboratory on cen-
tral Long Island, N. Y., radioactive argon-41 was measured by
an airborne gamma-ray spectrometer as far as 160 naut mi
downward on a day with neutral stability. A vertical cross-sec-
tion at 144 naut mi obtained by a vertical 'saw-tooth' sampling
technique, showed the plume to be well organized with a
nearly uniform vertical distribution to at least 2000 ft. The
peak concentration, when corrected for radioactive decay,
decease by about a factor of 7-10 over a distance of 150 naut
mi and a travel time of 10-12 hr. The lateral standard deviation
of the plume appeared to fit an extension of the Pasquill-Gif-
ford 'D' curve with distance, where the plume, in naut mi is
approximately equal to two-thirds of the travel time in hours.
The usefulness of a vertical saw-tooth flight path was verified
and is believed to be superior to a series of horizontal passes
perpendicular to the plume. (Author abstract modified)
21099
Arm, M. L., C. E. Billings, R. Dennis, J. Driscoll, D. Lull, F.
A. Record, P. Warneck, and J. E. Wilder
STUDY OF REACTIONS OF SULFUR IN STACK PLUMES.
(SECOND ANNUAL REPORT). GCA Corp., Bedford, Mass.,
-------
214
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
Technology Div., NAPCA CONTRACT PH-86-67-125, GCA-
TR-69U2-G, 85p., Dec. 1, 1969. 10 refs. CFSTI: PB 185842
The results of the second year of a three-year study of the
reactions of sulfur in stack plumes are presented; the basic
program objective was to provide an improved capability for
predicting sulfur oxide concentrations in urban atmospheres.
The field program of airborne sampling of plumes from coal
and oil-fired power stations in the Boston area was extended,
with concurrent measurements of flue gas composition, plant
parameters, and environmental factors. SO2 and SF6 tracers
were tracked up to 20 miles downwind; beyond visible range,
plume locations were determined by an automatic conductivity
analyzer. Sampling procedures and other program conditions
were developed in part on the basis on model analysis. The
normal SO2 concentration decrease from meteorological dilu-
tion was distinguished from SO2 loss caused by chemical
and/or physical mechanisms. Results of statistical analysis of
field and stack data are given although technical and statistical
difficulties prevented firm conclusions. Coal-burning tests
made in a pilot plant combustion system showed that real field
effluents could be generated in a laboratory over extended
periods for simulated decay studies. Preliminary decay mea-
surements of SO2-air mixtures were performed in a reaction
chamber, and appeared to support the hypothesis that major
atmospheric SO2 loss is associated with condensation
phenomena. Experiments on reaction kinetics were also per-
formed in a hemispherical reaction vessel in which quantum
yields for SO2-02 mixtures over the range 10-100% SO2 could
be determined. Methods, equipment, and interim results are
given for all phases of the overall study, and descriptions of
the combustion gas pilot plant and of the diffusion models
used in the design and evaluation of the field program are in-
cluded in the appendices.
21122
Reidat, Rudolf
FINDINGS ON THE VARIATION OF UNSTABLE WEATHER
CONDITIONS IN THE LOWER PORTION OF THE AT-
MOSPHERE FROM TEMPERATURE RECORDINGS UP TO
A HEIGHT OF 200 METERS AND THEIR APPLICATION IN
SUPERVISING THE HAMBURG INDUSTRY. (Erkenntnisse
ueber den gang der Instabilitaet der unteren Atmosphaere aus
temperatureregisterienmgen bisweihundert Mete Hoehe and
inhre Anwendung bei der Beratung der Hamberg Indstrie. Inst.
Gewerbliche Wasserwirtschaft Luftrein Halting Forum, vol.
6:41-58, 1967. 2 refs. Translated from German. Franklin Inst.
Research Labs., Philadelphia, Pa., Science Info. Services,
20p., Sept. 22, 1969.
The frequency and duration of stable air masses up to 500 m
was determined from data obtained during weather observa-
tion flights between 1933 and 1944 before the construction of a
large power plant near Stade. To determine how stack height
would affect mixing in the immediate vicinity of the plant,
temperature lapse rates were monitored up to 200 m. On a
yearly average, 167 days with surface inversions were
counted, one fourth of which reached a height of 200 m and
one fourth, a height of more than 350 m. Seven eighths of
these temperature inversions disappeared by afternoon. The
days on which no mixing occurred averaged about 44 a year.
Only one fourth of the stable weather conditions lasted longer
than four days. The longest stable conditions prevailed in
December. Analysis of the temperature lapse rates showed
that half of the hours between midnight and sunrise are
marked by temperature inversions which extend to 175 m. No
inversions were recorded between noon and 2 P.M. It is con-
cluded that high stacks reaching higher than surface haze emit
smoke in a coning plume until midnight, after which stabilizing
upper layers change the smoke plume to a fanning one. A spe-
cial weather service is suggested to guard against emissions
during stable conditions.
21736
Jarman, R. T. and C. M. de Turville
THE VISIBILITY AND LENGTH OF CHIMNEY PLUMES.
Atmos. Environ., vol. 3:257-280, 1969. 27 refs.
Nonhebel's (1960) theoretical analysis of chimney smoke visi-
bility is extended to incorporate the scattering of sunlight and
skylight by plume particles. Relationships are derived theoreti-
cally which show how both the visible length and the smoke
contrast depend on the particles in the plume and the weather
conditions. The theory treats inert particles which do not
change by chemical reactions in the atmosphere or coagula-
tion, etc. It is also limited to low particle concentrations where
multiple scattering effects may be ignored. The accuracy of
the calculation of the visibility and length of plumes from
commercial power stations is limited because the optical pro-
perties of the smoke particles are not known accurately. Using
approximations for the optical properties of the complex
smoke particles, given by the Mie theory for uniform spheres,
there was reasonable agreement between the observed and cal-
culated plume lengths and contrasts. It is known that in stable
atmospheric conditions, some plumes occasionally remain visi-
ble for some miles downwind of the chimney. These persistent
plumes are discussed briefly and simple criteria for their oc-
currence are derived. (Author abstract)
21986
Meetham, A. R.
NATURAL REMOVAL OF POLLUTION FROM THE AT
MOSPHERE. Quart. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc. (London),
76(330):359-371, Oct. 1950. 8 refs.
Observations of atmospheric pollution throughout Britain are
considered in relation to the amounts of pollution emitted
through the combustion of coal. The estimated weight of ash
emitted into the air and the estimate, from deposit gauges, of
the ash deposited, are considered likely to agree fairly well at
a figure of over one million tons/year. On the assumption that
about 1.5 million tons of smoke are blown to sea each year,
about 1.1 million tons of sulfur dioxide are blown to sea each
year; the remaining 0.8 million tons of smoke and 3.9 million
tons of sulfur dioxide must be deposited in Britain, irrespec-
tive of the quantities measured in deposit gauges. The average
life of a smoke particle before deposition on land is probably
of the order of 1-2 days; that of a molecule of sulfur dioxide is
estimated with rather more certainty to be less than 12 hours.
Of the chlorides collected in deposit gauges more than half, as
a rule, come from the sea, and less than half from the utiliza-
tion of coal; but the ratio must vary with the position of the
deposit gauge relative to the sea and to industries. (Author ab-
stract)
22313
Fortak, Heinz
COMPARISON OF CALCULATED AND MEASURED MAX-
IMUM GROUND-LEVEL SO2 CONCENTRATIONS AND
THEIR DISTANCE DOWNWIND FROM STRONG EMISSION
SOURCES (POWER PLANTS). Staub (English translation from
German o Staub, Reinhaltung Luft), 29(12):14-20, Dec. 1969. 7
refs. CFSTI: TT 69-55002/12
A simplified version of the theory of atmospheric diffusion is
applied to simulate maximum ground-level sulfur dioxide con-
-------
E. ATMOSPHERIC INTERACTION
215
centrations measured near large power plants. The results de-
pend strongly on the special form of the plume rise formula.
Neither Csanady's original formula nor the new optimized ver-
sion of it give satisfactory results. A slight modification of the
exponent in the optimized Csanady-formula however seems to
simulate the measurements in the best way. (Author abstract)
23163
Shidara, Masao
LECTURE ON PUBLIC NUISANCE. PART in. SO2 GAS
POLLUTION CONTROL. 1. (Kogai boshi koza. 3. Dainiko
Aryusangasu taisaku. jo). Text in Japanese. Netsu Kami (Heat
Management: Energy and Pollution Control), 22(8):37-46, Aug.
1, 1970.
The maximum allowable concentrations and the percentile ex-
pression of environmental emission standards of sulfur diox-
ides are explaine and compared with emission standards in the
United States and other European countries. Mathematical for-
mulae are given for calculatin the effective height of
smokestacks (Bosanquet's formula) and the ground surface
concentration of pollutants at distances x, y from a stack (Sut-
ton's formula). Various emission standards calculated by using
the above formulae are given for the eight classes of
designated pollution areas, the first class having the most
stringent maximum allowable concentration (0.020 ppm). Such
areas consist of parts of Tokyo, Kanagawa, Osaka, Mie, and
Hyogo. One method of mitigating the air pollution from stacks
is the construction of stacks with heights in the order of 200 m
to disperse the pollutants in the upper atmosphere. A table of
power generating stations with the corresponding stack heights
is presented. Stack height must be determined in relation to
down-draughts, down-wash, inversion layers, and the max-
imum allowable concentration. Different types of stacks are
introduced and their merits and demerits are explained.
23409
Stephens, Nolan Thomas
FATE OF SULFUR DIOXIDE IN A PLUME. Florida Univ.,
Gainesville, Coll. of Engineering, Thesis (Ph.D.), Ann Arbor,
Mich., Univ. Microfilms, Inc., 1969, 222p. 72 refs.
Current models for predicting sulfur dioxide concentrations
after emission from industrial sources are limited by a lack of
information on its decay rate or half-life. In this study, an in-
strumented aircraft was utilized in tracking sulfur dioxide and
particulate matter after emission from power plants and smel-
ters. Sulfur dioxide decay rates were ascertained by com-
parison of simultaneous sulfur dioxide and particulate matter
concentrations. The particulate matter, 0.3 to 1.0 micron 'com-
bustion spherules', emitted from the source served as a con-
servative tracer. Both SO2 and particulate concentrations were
measured by a rapid response technique (less than two
seconds delay), which permitted evaluation of the ratio of con-
centrations at any given point. An increase in the particulate to
S02 ratio was indicative of a loss of SO2, since the particulate
matter was essentially a conservative element. The measure-
ment techniques were effective up to 80 km. The results show
that available moisture is a major factor in the decay of sulfur
dioxide in smelter and power plant plumes. The half-life of
S02 was on the order of one hour at 75-80% relative humidity
and on the order of two hours at 40-50% relative humidity.
There was no detectable decay at 30-40% relative humidity. A
first order reaction mechanism, combined with experimentally
determined plume spread coefficients, provides a reasonable
approximation of the decay and diffusive effects in plumes.
(Author abstract modified)
23723
Bell, G. G.
METEOROLOGICAL EFFECTS ON CALIFORNIA AIR POL-
LUTION. Biometeorol. Proc. 3rd Int. Biometeorol. Congr.,
1963, 2(2):628-640. 13 refs. (Sept. 1-7.)
Urban pollution experience in California arises from syner-
gistic interaction of contaminants from a petroleum economy
and certain features of a maritime coastal climate. The
meteorologic effects of persistent inversions and a fugitive sea
breeze coupled with pollution from extensive usage of motor
vehicles produce episodic physiological strain on the urban
population. Temporal changes in the avaiable atmospheric mix-
ing volume in concert with strong topographic influences and
contrasting temperature effects on natural ventilation produce
a variety of influences on primary and secondary pollution.
Diurnal variation in carbon monoxide concentrations is related
to changes in both motor vehicle traffic and atmospheric sta-
bility, while a seasonal variation is a function of the consump-
tion of natural gas and fuel oil for heating and power produc-
tion. Seasonal meteorological variations combine durin the
summer to maximize the photochemical creation of oxidants,
while increased atmospheric stability during cold, rainless win-
ters results in the occurrence of highest maximum concentra-
tions of CO during pollution episodes. Reactions, physical pro-
perties, and emissions of atmospheric contaminants undergo
substantial changes depending on the state of the atmospheric
environment. Humidity, solar energy horizontal ventilation, in-
version height, and cloud cover play important parts in these
respects. Statistical studies of historical data on pollutant con-
centrations and meterological variates show a general upward
trend for carbon monoxide and oxidants for 1955-1963.
(Author abstract modified)
24109
Benson, Carl S.
ICE FOG. LOW TEMPERATURE AIR POLLUTION. Army
Cold Regions Researc and Engineering Lab., Hanover, N. H.,
Grants DA-ENG-11-190-61-G3, DA-ENG-27-021-62-G5, and
DA-AMC-27-021-64-G8, RR 121, 118p., June 1970. 196 refs.
NTIS, DDC: AD 708544
Stable pressure systems over interior Alaska sometimes
produce prolonged, extreme (below -40 C) cold spells at the
surface. The rate of radiative cooling of the air is enhanced by
suspended ice crystals which are themselves a result of the ini-
tial cooling. Radiation fogs formed during the onset of cold
spells are generally of short duration. The polluted air over
Fairbanks allows droplets to begin freezing at the relatively
high temperature of -35 C. Between -35 and -40 C the amount
of water vapor condensed by freezing of super-cooled water
droplets is 3 to 5 times greater than the amount condensed by
1 C of cooling at these temperatures. This results in rapid and
widespread formation of ice fog which persists in the Fair-
banks area as long as the cold spell lasts. The persistence of
Fairbanks ice fog depends on a continual source of moisture
from human activities within the fog. Most of the ice fog
crystals have settling rates which are slower than the upward
velocity of air over the city center. The upward air movement
is caused by convection cells driven by the 6 C 'heat island'
over Fairbanks. This causes a reduced precipitation rate which
permits the density of ice fog in the city center to be three
times greater than that in the outlying areas. The inversions
which occur during cold spells over Fairbanks begin at ground
level and are among the strongest and most persistent in the
world. Thus, the low-lying air over Fairbanks stagnates and
becomes effectively decoupled from the atmosphere above,
permitting high concentrations of all pollutants. The com-
bustion of fuel oil, gasoline, and coal provides daily inputs of
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216
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, lead, bromine, and chlorine
into a lens-like layer of air resting on the surface. The air pol-
lution over Fairbanks during cold spells is further worsened,
because the mechanisms for cleaning the air are virtually
eliminated while all activities which pollute the air are in-
creased. (Author abstract modified)
24243
Macey, H. H.
MULTIPLE CHIMNEYS. Atmos. Environ., 4(3):327-332, May
1970. 8 refs. (Includes discussions by E. C. Halliday, D. H.
Lucas, and Bjom Bringfelt.)
A recent paper compared observed values of plume rise from
a power station with four stacks, each 76.3 m high and 4.1 m
inner diameter, with calculations based on the Bosanquet for-
mula and that of Lucas, Moore, and Spurr. Both formulas
were concluded to give values that are too small. The present
author notes that the conclusion depends entirely on whether
the calculation is made on one stack, ignoring the other three,
or on the four stacks behaving conjointly with a merged total
emission. The argument is advanced that four chimneys con-
stitute a single emission and should be treated as such. It is
further observed that essentially effective chimney heights can
be calculated with the Bosanquet formula. Points made in the
discussions appended to the paper are that the concept of four
plumes combining to form one plum is acceptable only when
stacks are within a few meters of each other, that plume rise
cannot be used precisely to estimate stack height, and that
plume rise formulas must consider the possibility that plume
rise can be affected by high intensity turbulence near the
ground. Also presented are the results of Swedish multiple
source tests.
24341
Spurr, G.
THE PENETRATION OF ATMOSPHERIC INVERSIONS BY
HOT PLUMES. J. Meteorol., vol. 16:30-37, Feb. 1959. 5 refs.
Power station chimneys emit hot gases which may be suffi-
ciently buoyant to penetrate inversions associated with periods
of smog. Two notable instances of smog in Great Britain were
examined, applying formulae derived by Sutton and Priestley.
A method has been suggested whereby an estimation may be
made of the amount of heat required to ensure the penetration
of an inversion by a plume. With calm or very light winds, it
has been shown that a power station plume from a chimney
serving 100 mw of plant or more will penetrate the worst in-
version on record. (Author abstract modified)
24391
Asculai, E.
A METHOD OF RAPID DETERMINATION OF AT-
MOSPHERIC DIFFUSION PARAMETERS. Oak Ridge Na-
tional Lab., Term., Intern. Symp. Fissio Prod. Release Trans-
port Under Accident Conditions, Oak Ridge, Tenn. April 1965,
p. 429-438. 14 refs. (April 5-7.) CFSTI: CONF-650407 (Vol. 1)
The quick primary and subsequent knowledge of the
meteorological diffusion parameters, which can be classified
and inserted either in predetermined graphs or isopleths, or
used to directly calculate the resultant dosages or concentra-
tions, is especially necessary during nuclear reactor accident
conditions. The use of standard classifications (stability
parameters or categories) may sometimes, due to local effects,
be misleading. The following method facilitates the rapid
evaluation of the diffusion parameters The main source
parameters needed for the diffusion estimates are the mean
wind direction, the mean wind speed, and the two standard
deviations representing the lateral and vertical dispersions.
These last two parameters are given as the product of x(or
f(x)) an the standard deviation of the wind direction or inclina-
tion with averaging times S and measured over the whole sam-
pling period (T). S is a function of the downwind distance and
of the mean wind speed T is either the period of release or the
relevant time of exposure. The measuring system incorporated
in this method may measure the mean wind direction and stan-
dard deviations and may be utilized at various S and T values.
The measuring system utilizes relatively a high-frequency sam-
pling of the varying parameter. This is done by the 'chopping'
of a varying dc signal at a high rate and feeding the resultant
pulses (after amplification) into a multichannel analyzer.
Periodic or total results may be taken from the instrument, ac-
cording to the desired T or S, which may vary over a wide
range. The usual output is made through a digital printer, an
the results may then be quickly evaluated without great error.
A mean direction corresponding to the peak value (usually
found at th axis of symmetry) may be obtained quite accurate-
ly because of the good resolution of the system. The agree-
ment between the observed and calculated values of the
inclination (taken as 0.23 times the width of trace) is quite
good and does not depend greatly upon the position of the
peak value (some asymmetry and deviation from a normal
curve will not cause a sensible error). The values of the
inclination for the proper averaging and sampling time are util-
ized either according to predetermined classifications or
directly in the equations of diffusion. The mean wind speed is
determined from a wind run (integrator) recorder. This system
is also utilized to measure at the same time two variables, and
study the shape of the variation. Some other utilizations of the
system include climatological, 'gradient,' and flow-around-ob-
struction studies; some of the results are discussed. (Author
abstract modified)
24407
Fuquay, James J., Charles L. Simpson, and W. Ted Hinds
ESTIMATES OF GROUND-LEVEL AIR EXPOSURES
RESULTING FROM PROTRACTED EMISSIONS FROM 70-
METER STACKS AT HANFORD. General Electric Co.,
Richland, Wash., Hanford Atomic Products Operation, AEC
Contract AT(45-1)-1350, 28p., Jan. 2, 1964. 5 refs. CFSTI:
HW-80204
Diffusion data obtained in field experimentation at the Han-
ford, Washington, AEC site were employed to determine the
parameters of Taylor's equation for lateral growth. The lateral
growth of a plume can be expressed solely in terms of wind
observations taken near the source. This result leads to the
derivation of air exposure values from the bivariate normal
model accounting for the wind variability characteristic to the
Hanford site. The air exposures that are expected from pro-
longed releases of two, four, eight, and twenty-four hours
from a Hanford 70-meter stack during conditions of at-
mospheric stability are calculated using wind data from the
Hanford tower. The results of this analysis are as follows: ex-
posure estimates for the emission periods were generall much
lower than those previously derived for Hanford; the latter
estimates pertained to emission periods of one hour or less; in-
creasing the period of emission acts to reduce the air expo-
sures; and the distance to maximum exposure for a given
release is reduced by the additional dilution which results from
prolonging the release. (Author summary modified)
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E. ATMOSPHERIC INTERACTION
217
24439
Ohtake, Takeshi
UNUSUAL CRYSTAL IN ICE FOG. J. Atmospheric Sci.,
27(3):509-511, May 1970. 7 refs.
The moisture for the formation of ice-fog crystals normally
comes from such man-made sources as open water resulting
from the dumping of cooling water from power plants, and ex-
hausts from heating plants and automobiles; the unusual
shapes of some of these crystals (other than spheres and
plates) are described, with emphasis on 14 or 20-faced
polyhedral crystals found in an ice fog in Fairbanks, Alaska at
a temperature of -47 C. Despite the lack of good evidence, it is
possible that these crystals form because the supercooled
water droplets freez over such a short time that the crystal
does not have enough time to reach an equilibrium state for
the development of normal hexagonal and rectangular faces. It
is also possible that, due to absorption of air pollutants (dust
particles inside or outside the chamber), the growth did not
occur onto the most stable hexagonal rectangular surfaces.
These crystal shapes were seen only in the largest crystals
because of the poor resolving power of the optical
microscope, but they may also exist in smaller sizes in ice fogs
which previously were considered to contain only spherical
crystals.
24486
Bodurtha, F. T., Jr.
CONTROL OF POWER PLANT STACK EMISSIONS FOR
CLEAN AIR. Proc. Am. Power Conf., vol. 27:399-411, 1965. 28
refs. (April 27-29.)
A discussion of dispersion, inversions, topography, and fog as
they relate to the control of sulfur compounds from stacks is
presented. Concentrations of sulfur dioxide from a stack are
low near it, but increase to a peak somewhere downwind from
it. The magnitude of this peak, all else being equal, depends
upon wind speed. The relevant equations relating wind and
plume behavior are discussed. Where slow dispersion occurs
in a temperature inversion, the maximum concentration at the
ground from single stacks of moderate heights will be con-
siderably less than the maximum concentration during normal
dispersion. The phenomenon of fumigation after a stack plume
is carried aloft at great distances in an inversion is explained.
The low wind speed conditions that accompany an inversion
should be the major criterion of needed control for low level
emissions, once a maximum permissible concentration of SO2
is established. The relationship of topography, and particularly
valleys, to dispersion is discussed. Fog droplets tend to con-
centrate SO2 in the form of sulfuric acid, a condition which
often exceeds industrial threshold values. Of the three major
episodes that have taken place in the world, all occurred in
thick fog, during inversions, and two were in valleys. The
medical aspects of air pollution are briefly considered.
Theoretical equations describing plume behavior are given.
24509
Culkowski, Walter M.
EFFLUENT FLOW IN NON-STACK RELEASES. Oak Ridge
National Lab., Tenn., Intern. Symp. Fission Prod. Release
Transport Under Accident Conditions, Oak Ridge, Tenn.,
April 1965, p. 455-459. 5 refs. (April 5-7.) CFSTI: CONF-
650407 (Vol. 1)
Aerial films were made of smoke behavior near two struc-
tures, one a practice fire tower and the other an experimental
gas-cooled reactor. When a smoke source was placed on the
lee side of the former building, a conventional plume was
produced most of the time however, the smoke often exhibited
a sudden rise and the entire leeward side of the building ap-
peared to be emitting smoke. At sue times, i.e., when the en-
tire building became an 'area' source, it was virtually impossi-
ble to detect the location of the true source of smoke emis-
sion. A smoke source at the side of the reactor produced not
only the conventional plume and 'area' effect but also classical
'vortex shedding,' where a localized turbulent wake is
produced, breaks off, and is carried downwind as a decaying
vortex. While these problems can be handled mathematically
through formulas for source correction, evacuation of person-
nel during downwind release may be more difficult.
24569
Gifford, F. A., Jr. and D. H. Pack
SURFACE DEPOSITION OF AIRBORNE MATERIAL. Nucl.
Safety, 3(4):76-89, June 1962. 96 refs.
A review of the literature is presented on surface deposition,
defined as the entire complex of physical phenomena that may
result in removal of gases or particles at the air-ground inter-
face, including gravitational settling, adsorption, particle inter-
ception (impaction), diffusion, and possibly chemical and elec-
trostatic effects. The results of several important series of ex-
periments by various investigators are summarized and the
data tabulated, including deposition experiments with 1(131)
vapor, dry deposition of activity on nuclei on horizontal sur-
face, and deposition velocities from tracer material-balance ex-
periments. Theoretical and experimental aspects of deposition
velocity calculations are discussed. It is concluded that a clear
distinction has been shown between the rate of removal of
chemicall active material and of inert material of similar size;
vegetation, specifically grass and sagebrush, effects removal at
rates an order of magnitude larger than those measured on
bare soil or flat- plate collectors. Subjects for future investiga-
tion are noted.
25075
Royal College of Physicians London (England), Committee on
Smoking and Atmospheric Pollution
AIR POLLUTION AND HEALTH. London, Pitman Medical
and Scientific Publishing Co., Ltd., 1970, 80p. 142 refs.
Air pollution in England as a result of the burning of coal has
been a problem for hundreds of years. The major pollutants in
this case are smoke and sulfur dioxide. These pollutants, when
combined with a temperature inversion, resulted in a pollution
episode that was responsible for the death of approximately
4000 persons hi England. As a result of this disaster, attempts
have been made to discover the relationship between air pollu-
tion and such health effects as bronchitis, pneumonia, and
lung cancer. Experimental work on the effects of inhaled parti-
cles and gases on the lungs is discussed. Cigarette smoking is
linked to an increased mortality rate from bronchitis in men.
Differences between urban and rural health statistics are con-
sidered. Another major source of pollution is the automobile,
which emits large quantities of oxides of nitrogen and carbon
monoxide. These pollutants result in the phenomenon known
as 'Los Angeles smog.' Air pollution can only be prevented by
controlling the main sources, which are domestic heating, in-
dustry, and vehicular. The effects of British legislation, includ-
ing the Clean Air Act of 1956, are described.
25212
Weber, Erich
DETERMINATION OF THE LIFETIME OF SO2 BY SIMUL-
TANEOUS CO2 AND SO2 MONITORING. Preprint, Interna-
-------
218
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
tional Union of Air Pollution Prevention Associations, lip.,
1970. 16 refs. (Presented at the International Clean Air Con-
gress, 2nd, Washington, D. C., Dec. 6-11, 1970, Paper CP-
25F.)
Preliminary results are presented for the continuous monitor-
ing of sulfur dioxide and carbon dioxide concentrations in
Frankfurt on the Main, together with calculations of the re-
sidence time of SO2. The area's principal sources of SO2 and
CO2 are power plants and space heating. The most significant
mechanisms influencing the residence time of SO2 appear to
be absorption on surfaces; oxidation to sulfates, mostly on wet
surfaces of aerosols and water droplets; rainout; and washout.
Almost 70% of the original SO2 in a power-plant plume was
absorbed or oxidized during a travel time of 17 min. The
average residence time of SO2 is probably 10 min to one hour.
(Author abstract modified)
25229
Roberts, J. J., J. E. Norco, A. S. Kennedy, and E. J. Croke
A MODEL FOR SIMULATION OF AIR POLLUTION
TRANSIENTS, Preprint, International Union of Air Pollution
Prevention Associations, 54p., 1970. 36 refs. (Presented at the
International Clean Air Congress 2nd, Washington, D. C., Dec.
6-11, 1970, Paper ME-39A.)
A multi-source, urban atmospheric dispersion model has been
developed which describes transients such as morning transi-
tions in atmospheric stability and mixing layer height. The
dispersion model has been validated by comparison with over
10,000 hourly averages of sulfur dioxide monitored by the De-
partment of Environmental Control of the City of Chicago.
For example, the model accounts for 50% of the variance in 6-
hr averages of observed data and 70% of the variance in 24-hr
averages. Of particular significance is the capability of the
model to describe 'area sources' as volumetric clouds of pollu-
tant and thus to evaluate the effect of these sources on dose
points within as well as external to the area. The atmospheric
transport kernel in the model describes the instantaneous
release (delta function) of pollutant, advection according to
piecewise constant hourly wind vectors, and Gaussian diffu-
sion about the centroid. Simulation of continuous plumes is
achieved by integration in time of this point source Green's
function. This paper presents brief descriptions of the trans-
port theory and other computerized algorithms central to the
dispersion problem. Acquisition of an emission inventory is
reviewed with particular emphasis on a method for simulating
hourly outputs from electric utilities. Statistical results of the
validation studies are presented. (Author abstract)
25815
Thomas, Fred W.
TVA AIR POLLUTION STUDIES PROGRAM. Air Repair,
4(2):59-64, Aug. 1954. 8 refs.
Air pollution studies at Tennessee Valley Authority steam
plants are divided into two parts: pre-operational and post-
operational. The first phase provides base-line information
against which actual plant operation can be checked; it in-
cludes obtaining meteorologica data where little or no weather
data are available and the collection and chemical analysis of
samples from selected trees in the area. Post-operational stu-
dies include continued meteorologica observations, analysis of
plant operating data, routine monitoring, biological surveys,
and special studies on dispersion. These special studies have
led to a method for estimating effective stack height and criti-
cal wind speed, modification of a portable Titrilog for mobile
monitoring, adoption of lead peroxide cylinders as a practical
and economic means of approximating cumulative SOI activity
at any point, and the development of deposit gauges that clas-
sify fly ash according to source direction.
25935
Gifford, F. A., Jr.
USE OF ROUTINE METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS
FOR ESTIMATING ATMOSPHERIC DISPERSION. Nucl.
Safety, 2(4):47-51, June 1961. 9 refs.
Based on the generalized Gaussian dispersion formula,
methods are presented for estimating the vertical dispersion
and the horizontal dispersion coefficients for a cloud or plume
(as a function of distance from the source) under neutral
meteorological conditions and different degrees of stability and
unstability. The use of dispersion estimates should be desirable
in both nuclear reactor safety studies and other air pollution
problems.
26141
Hino, Mikio, Masao Homma, and Toshio Senshu
DIFFUSION OF SMOKE FROM A HIGH STACK. Phys.
Fluids Suppl., 10(9):S267-S269, 1967. 8 refs.
Experiments on smoke diffusion from high stacks of thermal
electric power stations indicate that the maximum time-
average gas concentration at ground level decreases within a
range of sampling times from 1 to 5 hr, inversely proportional
to the 1/2 power of the sampling time as predicted from turbu-
lence theory by Inoue, Ogura, and Hino. The structural height
of the stack was 150 m, but the effective height due to
buoyancy and momentum rise was 300 to 450 m. A method of
radio-activation analysis of tracer particles was developed, and
meteorological data up to 500 m were obtained by means of
two moored balloons, as well as pilot balloons and anemome-
ters. The diffusion formulas generally used give a higher esti-
mation of ground-level concentration than the observed. The
height of the atmospheric surface boundary layer is greatest at
neutral condition, becoming less with a deviation from neutral
to stable or unstable stratif ication of the atmosphere. (Author
abstract modified)
26267
Hasek, Milan
THE DIFFUSION OF SMOKE GASES FROM FACTORY
CHIMNEYS AND ITS METEOROLOGICAL CONDITIONS.
Stud. Geophys. Geod., vol. 8:82-96, 1964. 31 refs.
A knowledge of the turbulent energy balance in different parts
of the spectrum is required for a study of the diffusion of a
smoke plume. The smoke entering the atmosphere is acted on
not only by the dynamically conditioned effects of turbulent
mixing (mechanical mixing) but also by turbulence which
causes mainly the removal of eddies in the vertical direction
(thermic turbulence). Time changes in concentration on the
basis of changes in the turbulent spectrum are discussed and
methods of determining turbulent parameters (the dimension-
less meteorological exponent and the virtual coefficients of
diffusion) are analyzed. A formula is derived for calculating
maximum surface concentration which can be applied for
hourly intervals during constant flow in a selected 10-min in-
terval for the average 10-sec directions of flow. Field measure-
ments of sulfur dioxide in the neighborhood of a power plant
and theoretical computations yielded satisfactory agreement.
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219
F. BASIC SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
00105
W. D. Jackson, G. A. Brown, J. L. Kerrebrock, and R. E.
Stickney
RESEARCH ON NEW CONCEPTS IN ENERGY CONVER-
SION (QUARTERLY TECHNICAL PROGRESS REPT. NO. 5,
SEPT. 1 - NOV. 30, 1964). Massachusetts Inst. of Tech., Cam-
bridge, Research Lab. of Electronics. Dec. 15, 1964. 24 pp
CFSTI: AD 610 673
This report gives a technical review of progress covering the
period September 1 November 30, 1964. Section I states the
research aims of the Group. Section II gives a resume of
progress and future plans in each of the current areas of in-
vestigation. Section III gives details of phases of these in-
vestigations which have been completed. The research pro-
gram is a continuing effort to explore and develop new con-
cepts in energy conversion. At the present time, 2 forms of
closed-cycle magnetohydrodynamic power-generation systems
and thermionic energy converters are being investigated. Cur-
rent research topics and objectives are outlined. Author Ab-
stract)
00530
W. O. Negherbon
SULFUR DIOXIDE, SULFUR TRIOXIDE, SULFURIC ACID
AND FLY ASH: THEIR NATURE AND THEIR ROLE IN AIR
POLLUTION. Hazleton Labs., Inc., Falls Church, Va. June
1966. 1218 pp.
This monograph discusses the following: (1) Historical con-
siderations; (2) Guidelines for the study of air pollution; (3)
Physical and chemical properties of SO2, SO3, and H2SO4; (4)
Meteorological considerations; (5) Anatomical and physiologi-
cal considerations; (6) Deposition and retention of aerosol par-
ticles in the respiratory tract; (7) The effects of SO2 and
H2SO4 on plants; (8) The effects of SO2, SOS, and H2SO4
mist on man and animals; (9) Fly ash origin, nature, and possi-
ble effects; and (10) Removal of pollutants from flue gases.
The bibliography includes 2264 references.
01379
C.P. Joyce L.A. Miller
THE ENGINEERING CHALLENGE OF TOTAL ENERGY.
Columbia Gas System Service Corp., Columbus, Ohio 1965. 6
pp. (Presented at the Oil and Gas Power Conference and Ex-
hibit, Houston, Tex., Apr. 4-8, 1965, of the American Society
of Mechanical Engineers, Paper No. 65-OGP-15.)
Broadly, total-energy means conversion of energy at the point
of use. Specifically, TEC furnishes all energy, i.e., the heating,
cooling, and electrical requirements, for a structure or an in-
dustrial plant. Natural gas is burned in a reciprocating or gas-
turbine prime mover to furnish electric energy, and the waste
heat is used for the heating and cooling requirements. If addi-
tional energy is needed for heating and cooling, a supplemental
boiler is included in the energy package. An economic ad-
vantage should be possible because of the high efficiencies
available through an on-site energy-conversion system. The
feasibility study translates the efficiency advantage of total-
energy systems intoan understandable profit picture for the
customer. The detailed study is complex, costly and time-con-
suming. Reductions in both cost and time of studies are
proposed through the use of computer techniques, which addi-
tionally provide a more penetrating analysis. (Author abstract
modified)
01380
H.F. Burgart
TOTAL-ENERGY SUCCESSES TO DATE IN NORTHERN IL-
LINOIS. Northern Illinois Gas Co., Aurora, 1965, 8p.
(Presented at the Oil and Gas Power Conference and Exhibit,
Houston, Tex., Apr. 4-8, 1965, of the American Society of
Mechanical Engineers, Paper No. 65-OGP-14.)
'Total energy' is a concept whereby (a) all the energy require-
ments of a power-generation installation are satisfied with a
single fuel; and (b) the highest possible percentage of the ener-
gy available in that fuel is converted to electrical energy. The
means employed to fulfill the total energy concept in several
natural-gas fueled power-generation installations are discussed.
(Author abstract)
01852
C. R. McCann, J. J. Pfeiffer, A. A. Orning, W.H. Oppelt
REPORT ON COMBUSTION TRAILS SPENCER LOW-ASH
COAL. Preprint. 1965.
The Spencer low-ash coal was burned with varying degrees of
success as pulverized fuel, as liquid fuel with air atomization,
and as solid fuel in a vortex unit with total overfire air. Com-
bustion as a pulverized fuel was successful, except that pro-
longed burning, needed for estimates of combustion efficien-
cy, failed because of coking of the burner tube. High dielectric
character and resulting electrostatic charges on the fuel were
contributing factors. Combustion as liquid fuel failed because
of the restricted range between fluid and devolatilization tem-
peratures. It appears that such combustion is possible, but
considerable development work would be required. Explorato-
ry trials in the vortex unit indicated good operation if means
for continuous fuel feed was provided. Present equipment is
designed for batch operation only.
02743
R. D. Harris
THE OCCURRENCE OF SULFUR IN BITUMINOUS COALS
AND METHODS OF REMOVAL. Preprint. (Presented at the
Technical Sales Conference, National Coal Association and
Annual Meeting, Bituminous Coal Research, Inc., Pittsburgh,
Pa., Sept. 16, 1965.)
After investigationg various possible techniques for cleaning
pulverized coal, it was concluded that two or more stages of
cleaning would be necessary. For two-stage cleaning, some 50
percent of the coal (that which is completely pulverized in one
pass through the mill) would be partially cleaned by an effi-
cient air classifier and the coarser material rejected by the
classifier would be more thoroughly cleaned, and then the
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220
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
clean fraction would be recycled. A motorized two-stage air
classifier was tested in a small pilot-scale installation to deter-
mine if its operation was flexible enough for power station ap-
plication and if it was suitable as a primary pyrite separator.
Reject fractions with a minimum dust content were produced
with a wide range of feed rates and varying air rates; there-
fore, an efficient classifier is considered suitable for power
plants. Tests showed that significant pyrite removal is possible
by cleaning the fraction rejected by the classifier at 1.6
specific gravity and returning the float fraction to the mill.
However, the beneficiation tests indicated that two-stage
cleaning is more beneficial for coals that were previously
cleaned at the mine. No commercial processes for cheaply
cleaning the recycle from the classifier are available, and past
efforts to develop such processes as electrostatic separation
for coal cleaning have been unsuccessful. It is felt, however,
that the use of the air classifier to reduce by 50 percent the
amount of fine coal to be cleaned and to provide a relatively
monosize feed makes economical fine coal cleaning more
realistic. (Author summary)
04827
H. J. Gluskoter
CLAY MINERALS IN ILLINOIS COALS. J. Sediment. Petrol.
37, (1) 205-14, Mar. 1967.
It is hoped that study of clay minerals contained in coal of
southern Illinois will resolve some of the paleogeographical
and environmental questions pertaining to this area. Clay
minerals were isolated from coal by low temperature ashing,
using oxygen activated by a radio frequency discharge. No
changes were detected in the clay minerals during ashing ex-
cept for some instances of dehydration. Irreversible changes
were not observed in any clay mineral tested. Clay minerals
found in the Illinois coals consisted of ilh'te, kaolinite, a ran-
dom mixed layer illitemontmorillonite, montmorillonite, and
chlorite. Chlorite was observed in only one sample and in
trace amounts. The clay minerals from Herrin (No. 6) Coal
sampled in southwestern Illinois contain less illite relative to
mixed layer material than those from the coals in southeastern
Illinois. Although authigenic kaolinite is commonly observed,
there is also a tendency for the coals that contain relatively
larger amounts of illite than mixed layer minerals to contain
greater amounts of kaolinite. The areal distribution of the clay
minerals in the Pennsylvania!! coals of southern Illinois is
thought to be primarily the result of introduction of sediments
from the east and northeast, and of the reaction of these clay
minerals to the coal swamp environment. Without further data,
it is not possible to determine whether the contribution of
provenance or of transport and diagenesis on the clay mineral
assemblage and distribution of the clay minerals is the more
important.
04939
A. B. Walker
INFORMATION REQUIRED FOR SELECTION OF ELEC-
TROSTATIC AND COMBINATION FLY ASH COLLEC-
TORS; METHODS OF ANALYSIS FOR CHEMICAL PHYSI-
CAL, AND ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF FLY ASH (IN-
FORMATIVE REPORT NO. 2). J. Air Pollution Control Assoc.
15, (6) 256-60, June 1965.
The information required for specification or request for bids
for fly ash collectors are presented. The APCA Standard
Methods for determination of the following properties of fly
ash are presented: (1) bulk resistivity of dry particulated in the
laboratory; (2) bulk electrical resistivity of dry particulates in
situ; (3) water soluble content; (4) water soluble sulfate con-
tent (with an alternate method); and (5) loss on ignition.
07059
E. J. Baier and R. Diakun
COMPARISON OF DUST EXPOSURES IN PENNSYLVANIA
ANTHRACITE AND BITUMINOUS COAL MINES. Am. Ind
Hyg. Assoc. J. 25 (5), 486-80 (Oct. 1964).
Results of a two-year study of dust conditions in Pennsylvania
coal mines, including 24 anthracite and 14 bituminous coal
mines, are presented. Determinations of airborne concentra-
tions, particle size distribution, and free silica content were
made on more than 1400 samples. Dust in anthracite mines
had, in general, more free silica and smaller particle size.
Mechanized mines were not significantly different from non-
mechanized mines in dust production. Exceptions to these
generalizations are discussed. (Authors' abstract)
08941
Stewart, Robert F. and William L. Farrior, Jr.
NUCLEAR MEASUREMENT OF CARBON IN FLY ASH. In:
John H. Faber, John P. Capp, and John D. Spencer (com-
pilers), Fly Ash Utilization. BM-IC-8348, Washington, D.C.,
Bureau of Mines, 1967, p. 262-270. 7 refs. (Presented at the
Edison Electric Institute, National Coal Association, Bureau
of Mines Symposium, Pittsburgh, Pa., March 14-16, 1967.)
GPO: 0-268-468
The carbon content in fly ash was measured utilizing the
neutron activation method. Fly ash samples were placed
around the detec tor in the direct path of the neutrons. Fast
neutrons from the source penetrate the fly ash producing in-
elastic and capture gamma rays, some of which are detected
by the scintillation crystal Electrical pulses produced by the
detector are proportional to the energy of these gamma
photons. The latter are then measured by a multichannel
analyzer and sorted by amplitude to represent the gamma ray
spectrum. Three different fly ashes, ranging from 2.7 to 16.4
percent carbon, were tested. These fly ashes are typical
products from powerplants firing pulverized bituminous coal
from both strip and deddp coal mines. Weighed samples of
each fly ash were placed in the sample container and mea-
sured for 100-minute counting periods. Initially, 12-pound sam-
ples were tested, but improved precision was subsequently ob-
tained with 20-pound samples. Approximately equal volumes
were obtained by shaking the fly ash in the container to a bulk
density of about 20 pounds per cubic foot. The results indicate
that carbon content can be measured with a precision of at
least 0.5 percent carbon by this method. Considerably better
precision would be expected with control of bulk density.
08943
Minnick, L. John
REACTIONS OF HYDRATED LIME WITH PULVERIZED
COAL FLY ASH. In: John H. Faber, John P. Capp, and John
D. Spencer (compil- ers), Fly Ash Utilization. BM-IC-8348,
Washington, D. C., Bureau of Mines, 1967, p. 287-315. 23 refs.
(Presented at the Edison Electric Institute, National Coal As-
sociation, Bureau of Mines Symposium, Pittsburgh, Pa.,
March 14-16, 1967.) GPO: 0-268-468
The investigation of lime-fly ash reactions under several condi-
tions of curing has shown that variations between limes and
between bly ashes play a significant role in the nature of the
chemical reactions. It is further indicated that the major reac-
tants with in the limes comprose calcium hydroxide and mag-
nesium oxide and that the presence of carbonates or magnesi-
um hydroxide makes no significant contribution to the poz-
zolani reaction at ambient temperatures. In the case of fly
ashes, most of the mineral constituents are nonreactive (also
at ambient temperature). The data which are developed by
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F. BASIC SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
221
means of X-ray, DTA, and microscopic examination are in
substantial agreement, and indicate that the amorphous glassy
materials within the fly ashes reac to form com plex silicates
and aluminates. A number of the compounds produced have
been identified and other possibilities are suggested partic
ularly with respect to the formation of compounds containing
mag nesium ions. Evidence of physical reactions manifested
by volume change and the development of cementitious bonds
(resulting in monolithic structures) has shown good correlation
with the chem ical reactions that have been identified in the
study. Effects of finess, chemical purity, and chemical reac-
tivity, have been ob served to function in much the same
manner as has been experienced in field applications utilizing
lime and fly ash in various compositions containing soil and
aggregate. The continuing re search which is in progress
should be useful in developing a more complete understanding
of the role of calcium oxide and magnesium oxide, particularly
when present as an integral part of the fly ash composition.
The evidence of the reactivity of the magnesium oxide con-
stituent in monohydrated dolomitic lime is of considerable sig-
nificance and will also require additional study.
09064
Csaba, J. and M. M. Baum
COMBUSTION OF SINGLE PULVERIZED-COAL PARTI-
CLES, PART 1. J. Inst. Fuel, 40(315): 163-169, April 1967. 8
refs.
An analogue computer study has been carried out into the
combustion behaviour of single pulverized-coal particles. The
study has shown that it is ill-advised to extrapolate burning
times obtained on large particles, which burn at a near con-
stant temperature, to small particles for which the burning
temperature is far from steady. It has also been shown that
although during combustion with infinite excess oxygen the
temperature difference can be very high between the particle
and the surrounding gas, combustion with more practical
values of excess oxygen does not cause an excess temperature
of more than a few hundred degrees Celsius. (Authors' ab-
stract)
09769
Shale, C. C., J. H. Holden, and G. E. Fasching
ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY OF FLY ASH AT TEMPERA-
TURES TO 1,500 DEC. F. Department of the Interior,
Washington, D. C., Bureau of Mines, RI-7041, 17p., March
1968. 15 refs.
Electrical resistivities for various coal ashes in air and in a
nitrogen atmosphere are given over the range 100 deg. to 1,500
deg. F. Resistivity of low-carbon ash in air is very high at low
temperature, rises to a maximum at about 250 deg. F.,
decreases very rapidly with increasing temperature to about
800 deg. F., then decreases gradually to approach an asymp-
tote at 1,500 deg. F. Resistivity of high-carbon ash in air fol-
lows this same general trend at values which are much lower
and are proportional to the carbon content. After the carbon
has been burned off, resistivity of the remaining ash ap-
proaches the high values corresponding to low-carbon ash of
similar chemistry. Experiments show the effects of tempera-
ture, particle size, chemical content, and compressibil ity on
the resistivities of four fly ashes of widely different chemical
composition in the temperature range proposed for coal fired
turbines. Resistivities of all low-carbon ashes tested fall in the
range 10 to the 6th power to 10 to the 7th power ohm cm at
1,500 deg. F. adn should be removable by electrostatic
precipitat ors. Ashes containing carbon in excess of about 8
percent, how ever, have low resistivity (as determined in
nitrogen), especially at high temperatures. Therefore, high-car-
bon materials may not be collectable in precipitator because
the resistivity is below the minimum value necessary for
precipitation. Consequently, high carbon residues from partial
combustion of coal probably could not be removed effectively
at high temperatures. (Authors' abstract, modified)
09967L
Reid, William T.
RECOMMENDATION FOR THE USE OF LIMESTONE AND
DOLOMITE IN BOILER FURNACES. In: Fundamental Study
of Sulfur Fixation by Lime and Magnesia. (Research Report.)
Battelle Memorial Inst., Columbus, Ohio, Columbus Labs.,
Contract PH-86-66-108, p.23-24, June 30, 1966. 23 refs.
This paper is the third of three parts of a study undertaken to
identify the basic factors involved in the captures of SO2 by
limestone or dolomite added with the fuel, or blown separately
into the hot flue gases of central-station boiler furnaces. The
purpose of the study is to define the limiting conditions under
which the reactions can occur. This section of the report re-
lates the thermochemical and kinetics sections to the practical
problems of using limestone and dolomite most effectively in
boiler furnaces. It is intended as a guide to future tests, either
on a relatively small scale in the laboratory, or in experimenta-
tion in operating boilers. Results of many thermochemical cal-
culations are listed in the appendix.
10422
A. K. Chatterjee, and B. K. Mazumdar
METHYL GROUPS IN COAL. Fuel, 47(2):93-102, March 1968.
13 refs.
The contention that methane formed during low temperature
pyrolysis (600 degrees C) owes its origin almost exclusively to
the methyl groups in coal and that such methane formation (in-
cluding small proportions of ethane) represents the maximum
or true measure of the methyl content is re-examined in the
light of the pyrolysis behaviour of nitro-coals. Nitration is be-
lieved by the authors to cause selective oxidation of the
methyl groups to carboxyl groups (apart from the introduction
of a considerable proportion of nitro-groups in coal). It has
now been found that such nitro-coals on pyrolysis at 600
degrees C yield no methane and little of other hydrocarbons,
but much carbon dioxide, the volume of which after due cor-
rections appears to be of a magnitude similar to that of the
methane obtainable by pyrolysis at 600 degrees C of the cor-
responding untreated coals. Further, nitro-coals by reductive
decarboxylation followed by thermal decarboxylation at 350
degrees C for completeness yield a volume of carbon dioxide
virtually equal to that of the methane obtainable by pyrolysis
of the untreated coals. These findings appear to confirm the
authors' previous hypothesis of the origin of methane during
pyrolysis at 600 degrees C, and hence the validity of assess-
ment from this of the methyl content in coals.
10429
Juntgen, H. and K. H. Van Meek
GAS RELEASE FROM COAL AS A FUNCTION OF THE
RATE OF HEATING. Fuel 47(2): 103-117, March 1968. 10 refs.
Fundamental work on the kinetics of coal pyrolysis at continu-
ously rising temperatures is described. The theory of non-
isothermal reaction kinetics is used to calculate the depen-
dence of gas releasing reactions on temperature, taking as
parameters the reacti order, the activation energy, the frequen-
cy factor and the rate of heating. Furthermore, it is possible to
calculate the reaction parameters from curves established by
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222
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
measurements under non isothermal conditions. This theory
was checked against the thermal decomposition of simple or-
ganic molecules and has been found to be good agreement
with experiment. The simplest curves of gas emissio rate from
coal as a function of temperature are obtained for higher gase-
ous hydrocarbons. This type of curve is interpreted in terms o
a single reaction, whereas the release of methane and
hydrogen is more complicated. To show the influence of heat-
ing rate, the relea of ethane from a finely-ground coal (19.15
VM) was measured at different values between 0.01 and
100,000 deg. C/min. These experiments agreed well with the
theory, assuming a first order law with a mean activation ener-
gy of 42.1 kcal/mol and a mean frequency factor of 10 to the
llth power per min. Also, the theoretically calculated shift of
the reaction to higher temperatures with increasing rates of
heating was exactly confirmed by experiment. (Authors' ab-
stract)
11135
Anon.
FURNACES FOR THE STUDY OF PARTICLE REACTION
RATE. B.C.U.R.A. Brit. Coal Util. Res. Assoc.) Gaz., No.
65:13-15, 1968
Furnaces have been developed to measure the rates of
devolatilization and combustion of pulverized-coal particles
suspended in a gas of controllable composition and tempera-
ture. They have been used to measure the reaction rates of
coals and are also suitable to measure particle reaction rates of
other combustible materials. Operated at atmospheric pressure
in a temperature range of 600 K to 2800 K, they can be used
to determine reaction rates on particle sizes from 20 to 100
microns.
11163
E. Raask
CENOSPHERES IN PULVERIZED-FUEL ASH. J. Inst. Fuel 41
(332): 339-349, (Sept. 1968).
The lightweight ash particles (cenospheres) which float on
some power station ash lagoons are hollow microspheres of
silicate glass, 20 to 200 microns in diameter, with non-porous
shells 2 to 10 microns thick. Evolution of CO2 and N2 inside
particles of fused silicate glass during their stay in the boiler
results in their expansion to cenospheres. The gas evolution is
catalyzed by iron oxide. Author's abstract
11257
Welsh, Harvey W.
FUTURE TRENDS IN ENERGY CONVERSION SYSTEMS.
Preprint, S.A.E. (Society of Automotive Engineers) New
York, 32p., 1966. 44 refs. (Presented at the Farm, Construction
and Industrial Machinery Meeting, Milwaukee, Wis., Sept. 12-
15, 1966, Paper 660603.)
Present and future trends in utilization of energy sources as
well as development of various types of powerplant systems
are discussed. Types of energy, their limitations, cost, opera-
tions, and requirements related to conversion systems are
reviewed. Some of the sources mentioned are solar energy,
nuclear and isotopes, thermal storage, and chemical energy.
Present day energy converters analyzed are thermomechanical
conversion systems such as the Otto, Diesel, and Brayton cy-
cles. Also considered as engines of the future are direct con-
version systems such as the storage battery, thermoelectric,
and fuel cell systems. It is concluded that no one type system
will predominate over all others; rather there will be continued
effort to match the power converter to the overall system
requirements in the most effective manner. (Author's abstract,
modified)
11722
Saks, S. Ye.
HYDRAULIC RESISTANCE DURING TURBULENT MOVE-
MENT OF FINELY DISPERSED PARTICULATES.
((Gidravlicheskiye soprotivleniya pri turbulentnom dvizhenii
tonkodispersnykh aerosmesei.)) Text in Russian. J. Inzh. Fiz.
Zh., 14(4):633-638,April 1968. 7 refs
A mathematical expression is derived for the relationship
between mean-square turbulent velocity of a solid particle and
the angular frequency of turbulent pulsations, the energy loss
per unit time per unit mass of medium, and the particle relaxa-
tion time. Application of this equation to the theoretical analy-
sis of turbulent stresses produced by momentum transfer in a
stream of finely divided particulates, where the mean flow
velocity (Vm), freefall velocity, (u*) and tube diameter (D) are
known, permits determination of the coefficient of excess
hydraulic resistance (K). In an experiment on the airborne
movement of coal dust in a vertical tube (D=5.4 cm) the rela-
tionship between the square root of 1/k minus 1 and Vm u*/D
was linear for both anthracite (density=1810 kg/cu m; mean
particle diameter=0.0425 mm; u* =0.077m/sec) and soft coal
(density = 1660 kg/cu m; mean particle diameter=0.044 mm;
u*=0.078 m/sec).
11782
J.F. Jones, M. R. Schmid, M. E. Sacks, Y. Chen, C. A. Gray,
R. T. Eddinger
CHAR OIL ENERGY DEVELOPMENT. (FINAL REPORT.)
FMC Corp., Princeton, N. J., Chemical Research and Develop-
ment Center, Contract 14-01-0001-235, 228p., Jan.-Oct. 1966.
Under Project COED, a process has been developed for more
effectively utilizing coal. The process is the multistage
fluidized-bed pyrolysis of high-volatile bituminous coals to
produce oil, gas, and char. Catalytic hydrotreating of the oil
yields a synthetic crude oil suitable as a petroleum refinery
feedstock. The product gas can be reformed to produce a high
Btu pipeline gas or hydrogen. The char product would be used
as boiler fuel for power generation. Experimental work
showed that the sulfur content of COED char from Illinois
No. 6-seam coal could be reduced from 3 percent to less than
1 percent by hydrogenation at 1600 degrees F. Process
economics require the high-temperature removal of hydrogen
sulfide from the gas phase. The desulfurization reaction is
severely inhibited by concentrations of hydrogen sulfide as
low as 0.5 mole percent. Calcined limestone or dolomite ap-
pear to be the most commercially promising hydrogen-sulfide
acceptors. The commercial potential of the COED process was
evaluated for a plant processing 3.5 million tons of coal per
year using data from the experimental COED unit. With
hydrogen as the product gas, the return on investment for
plants utilizing four of the five coals tested in the unit varied
between 22 and 35 percent before taxes. The return for a plant
utilizing the Wright coal showed only 15 percent before taxes.
This low value reflects the lower volatile-matter content of
this coal. For these estimates, product credits of $3 per barrel
of oil, 25 cents per thousand cubic feet of hydrogen, and char
at 90 percent of equivalent coal value were used.
13027
Wright, Fred D.
ROCK MECHANICS AND COAL MINING. Mining Engineer-
ing, 21(2):112- 113, Feb. 1969. 34 refs.
-------
F. BASIC SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
223
Research by a number of investigators on mine pillars, long-
wall mining, and roof support is discussed. Horino (U.S.B.M.,
R.I. 7155, July 1968) tested approximately 400 model pillars of
limestone, sandstone, and granite in uniaxial compression to
determine the effect of planes of weakness and their inclina-
tion on pillar strength. Results indicated that strength
decreases rapidly as the angle from the horizontal to the plane
of weakness increases from 30 to 57 deg. and that the number
of planes has only a minor effect on strength. A project to
determine the mechanism of brittle fracture of rock and to
determine the effect of specimen size on the compressive
strength of coal concluded that the width to height ratio did af-
fect pillar strength, but only up to a point. Select U.S. and
British mines are discussed as examples for and against long-
wall mining. One case describes severe bouncing which ceased
when the room and pillar system was replaced by a longwall
system. Production capacity is analyzed for both systems.
Beam and pressure arch theories correlated to field experience
by Adler (Mining Congr. J., p.58-67, March 1968) are
reviewed. The roof-control program of the North American
Coal Company lead to improvements in setting timbering and
bolting standards, in bolt recovery, and in faster and simplified
bolting methods. The Bureau of Mines' work in hydraulic min-
ing and detonation complications was also mentioned.
13191
Conklin, Edwin R.
1968 ANNUAL STATISTICAL REPORT: PART I. Elec.
World, 169(4):81- 96, Jan. 22, 1968.
Current and future capital expenditures of investor-owned
power companies, federal agencies, and municipal and rural
electric cooperative systems are reported in text and tables.
Included are plant expenditures for generation, transmission,
distribution, maintenance, and new expenditures for lines
(overhead and underground) and substations. Tabulated data
cover 1968 budgets, long-range (1968-1972) budgets, transmis-
sion and distribution construction, capital spending by owner-
ship and region, transmission and distribution expenditures by
ownership and region, and transmission and distribution con-
struction by ownership and region. Capital spending by
Canadian utilities is also surveyed. Despite continued high in-
terest rates, record expenditures are indicated. For 1968, the
industry budgeted $8.8 billion, one billion more than 1967 and
an increase of 12.8%. Though an increase in nuclear plant
spending is reported, fossil-fueled plants will account for
61.2% of the total expenditures for 1968. Hydroelectric genera-
tion continues to decrease as potential sites become more
scarce.
13400
Evans, R. Keith, Sheldon D. Strauss, and Rene J. Bender
PUTTING FUELS TO WORK. Power, 112(6):S26-S37, June
1968.
There are three principal steps in the combustion process: fuel
must be prepared for injection into the furnace; fuel and air
must be brought together in the correct proportions and at the
right temperature for ignition and combustion; and heat
produced by combustion must be transferred to the boiler sur-
faces. To a greater extent than liquid or gaseous fuels, coals
range over a wide spectrum of properties. Since the charac-
teristics of coal vary both physically and chemically, two
analyses are required to give a true picture of any coal sample.
Ultimate analysis shows the fuel's exact chemical composi-
tion, without considering the physical form in which various
compounds appear. Proximate analysis determines the sam-
ple's percentage of moisture, volatile matter, fixed carbon,
and ash. Several types of equipment are used in the com-
bustion process including oil burners, stockers, and pul-
verizers. When dealing with uranium as a fuel for nuclear
reactors, the radioactivity of the fission products must be con-
sidered. The fuel rods are encased in alloys of zirconium to
prevent these products from passing into the general environ-
ment.
13411
Frey, D. J.
DE-ASHED COAL COMBUSTION STUDY. Dept. of Interior,
Washington, D. C., Office of Coal Research, Contract 14-01-
0001-417, 25p., Oct. 5, 1964.
Evaluation of the burning characteristics of low-ash coal con-
tainin 59.2% volatile matter, 40.6% fixed C, and 0.15% ash was
carried out by firing in existing test equipment in both its solid
and liquid states, using commercially acceptable procedures
for firing heavy oils and pulverized coals. The base coal was
dissolved in a solvent, filtered to recover most of the ash, and
then heated to recover a portion of the solvent. The physical
properties of the de-ashed coal could be altered by adjusting
the amount of solvent left in the coal. The coal was pulverized
to a fineness in the range of 70-75% through 200 mesh and fed
into the test furnace (preheated to 1600-1800 F) at the rate of
133 Ib/hr, along with about 70,000 btu/hr of igniter gas. Test
duration was 50 min, tola heat input was 2,070,000 btu/hr,
with an excess air of 18-20%. It was concluded that the com-
bustion characteristics of the de-ashe coal was essentially the
same as those of high or medium volatile bituminous coals.
Based on the packing characteristics observed, it is suggested
that storage of pulverized coals should be avoided and that
plugging and packing problems should be anticipated in
systems utilizing this fuel. Results of the liquid state studies
indicated that problems would be limited to handling and con-
trol techniques. It is recommended that heating should be car-
ried out under pressure in a closed system, all equipment con-
tacting the coal be heated to over 350 F, and steam-atomizing
oil guns be used to eliminate the need to heat gun components.
Provisions must be made to purge all lines and valves of liquid
coal for extended shutdowns.
13487
Fukuma, Shin-ichi and Kazumi Kamei
DRY-SYSTEM FLUE GAS DESULPHURIZATION PROCESS
(DAP-MN PROCESS) FOR SO2 REMOVAL. Jap. Chem.
Quart., 4(3):12-14, July 1968.
The DAP-Mn process for desulfurization of flue gases has the
following properties; it removes SO2 efficiently and economi-
cally; recovered by products are of marketable quality; the ab-
sorbent has long-term operation and can operate reliably with
sharp load fluctuations; consumption of absorbent is minimal
and SO2 removal is accomplished without a sharp pressure
drop; and no major change in the boiler structure is required.
After successful laboratory tests in 1963, this desulfurization
process which uses manganese oxide and ammonia to make
ammonium sulfate from flue gases was tested at a pilot plant
in Japan. A semicommerical plant capable of treating gases
from a 55 MW power plant has since been constructed and is
being test-run in the compound of Chubu's Yokkaichi station.
The process occurs three steps: SO2 removal, absorbent
regeneration, and by product treatment. Test results indicate a
desulfurization rate of 90% at a 1968 cost of $l/ton of fuel oil.
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224
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
13572
Nicholls, P. and W. T. Reid
VISCOSITY OF COAL-ASH SLAGS. Trans. ASME (Am. Soc.
Mech. Engrs.), Vol. 62, p. 141-153, Feb. 1940. 8 refs.
A viscometer for measuring the viscosity of coal-ash slag up
to 2900 F is described. Investigations using the instrument
show that slags in only a relatively small portion of the field of
compositions of coal ash have the melting characteristics of
glasses and that, for most compositions, there is a distinct
liquidus point. From the limited data available for this progress
report, plots for viscosity are given for 2800,2600,2400, and
2200 F, as well as showing the liquidus lines for each tempera-
ture. The relation between flow temperature, as determined in
earlier investigations for use with slag-tap furnaces, and
viscosity and liquidus temperature is derived. When complete
trilinear diagrams are available, accurate predictions can be
made on the effect of mixing the ash of two coals or of the
addition of the main constituents. Predictions of the relative
fusion and clinkering characteristics of coals from the soften-
ing temperatures of their ashes may give erroneous com-
parisons, but the initial and fluid temperatures are an addi-
tional guide. (Authors' abstract modified)
13573
Whelan, P. F.
FINELY DISSEMINATED SULPHUR COMPOUNDS IN
BRITISH COALS. J. Inst. Fuel, 27(164):455-464, Sept. 1954. 5
refs.
Studies of the occurrence of S compounds in coal below 0.5
in. are described. Iron disulfide deposited simultaneously with
coal matter has the marcasitic structure and exists in the ma-
ture coal as widely distributed grains about one micron in size,
and concretions of up to 100 microns of marcasite heavily im-
pregnated with coal. Iron disulfide is present in cleats and
other cavities. Its crystal structure is that of pyrite and is con-
sidered to be of secondary origin. Froth flotation investiga-
tions showed that none of the specific depressant reagents for
pyrite known to the mineral dressing industry effectively
prevented the appearance of finely divided marcasite in clean
coal froths. The degree of S contamination of the clean coal,
however, can be controlled by careful adjustment of the
frothing reagent quantity and by using lime in carefully con-
trolled amounts.
13601
Parry, V. F.
LOW TEMPERATURE CARBONIZATION OF COAL AND
LIGNITE FOR INDUSTRIAL USES. Combustion, 25(9):38-42,
March 1954. 1 ref. (Presented at the American Institute of
Chemical Engrs. Annual Meeting, New York, Dec. 1953.)
Attempts to develop dried lignite and char for use as direct
fuels for power generation were reviewed. When coals having
ASTM classifications up to and including high volatile C bitu-
minous were carbonized, the heating value of the pure char
was 14,000 Btu/lb, because all the water and much of the ox-
ygen has been eliminated. Pure char thus produced was
characterized by high reactivity and ease of ignition. A proto-
type lignite drier installed in Rockdale, Texas in 1952 is
described and its drawbacks discussed. When dried lignite is
used as fuel, it is believed that two driers will be capable of
supplying fuel requirements for an 80,000 kw unit. A prototype
carbonizing unit, a heat electrostatic precipitator, was also
considered and a diagram presented. Tar produced by this
operation will be chemically investigated as soon as sufficient
quantities are available.
13620
Stouff, M. L.
STOUFF'S SUSPENSION COMBUSTION HEARTHS. (Les
foyers a combustion en suspension Stouff.) Translated from
French. Institut Francais des OCombustibles et de 1'Energie
I.F.C.E. p. 341-351, (1968).
A suspension-combustion hearth is discussed which was
developed by M. O. Stouff and has been in operation for
several years. Emphasis is placed on principles of design,
operational procedures, performance results, and recent spe-
cial applications (thin anthracite coal, and the drying of very
damp combustibles).
13766
Graham, J. Ivon
THE ADSORPTION OR SOLUTION OF METHANE AND
OTHER GASES IN COAL, CHARCOAL, AND OTHER
MATERIALS. Colliery Guardian (London), 132(3168):809-811,
Sept. 16, 1921. 7 refs.
The adsorption curve for coal dust and CO2, up to a 50% con-
centration, was first obtained by making several additions of
known quantities of the gas and reading the equilibrium pres-
sure. A definite amount of methane was then added and al-
lowed to set for two days, to ensure equilibrium between the
CO2 and methane in the gas mixture and that adsorbed by the
coal. The points obtained for the adsorption of CO2 alone, and
mixed with methane lay practically on the same curve when
allowance was made for experimental error. There was, how-
ever, a marked effect on the adsorption of methane. A much
smaller amount was adsorbed by the coal when CO2 was
present than when only methane was present. It was found
that when moisture was added to the coal dust, its adsorptive
capacity decreased by 25%, and when 10.5% pyridine was
added, the adsorptive capacity was reduced to a lower level.
Crushing the coal in the laboratory did not produce an in-
crease in the coal adsorption proportionate to the increase in
surface area. It was concluded that the actual surface area of
the particle forms only a small proportion of the total surface
available for adsorption. Coal dust was examined for use in
Army respirators during 1917-1918. It was found that while it
was very effective for adsorbing chlorine gas, it was useless
for the adsorption of carbon monoxide.
13834
Sprunk, George C. and H. J. O'Donnell
MINERAL MATTER IN COAL. Bur. Mines Tech. Paper 648.
Bureau of Mines, Washington, D. C., 1942, 67p. 54 refs.
The occurrence and distribution of the most important micro-
scopic forms of mineral matter in coal are described. The
minerals were identified in thin sections of coal by means of
the petrographic microscope. The most common minerals ob-
served in the thin sections were kaolinite, oyrite, calcite,
quartz, and siderite. Methods of identifying extraneous matter
in the thin sections included immersion, microchemical, chemi-
cal, and x-ray methods. In addition to the major minerals,
minor quantities of apatite, muscovite, zircon, epidote, biolite,
augite, kyanite, rutile, staurotite, topaz, tourmaline, and
chloritic material were present. Kaolinite was found in cleat
joints, small cracks, fusain, resin rodlets, and attritus or
ground mass of coal and in irregular impure masses imbedded
within the coal. Iron pyrites occur in lenses and bands, balls or
nodules, veins, pyritized fossils, and in finely disseminated
particles. Calcite exists as veins in coal, particularly in the
cleats and fractures. It is also found in fusain and in the
ground mass of calcareous clay and shale partings. Siderite is
present as nodules and as impure lenses and bands. Quartz is
-------
F. BASIC SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
225
found in high-ash and bone coals. It is believed that the petro-
graphic study of mineral matter in coal will have considerable
practical value in planning an intelligent program of improving
fuels by selective mining or coal cleaning.
14390
Delyagin, G. N.
ANALYSIS OF HEAT LOSSES FROM DISCHARGE GASES
DURING THE COMBUSTION OF A WATER-COAL SUSPEN-
SION. (Analiz poter' tepla s ukhodyashchimi gazami pri sz-
higanii vodougol'noy suspenzii). Text in Russian. Szhiganiye
Vysokoobvodn., Topi. Vide Vodougol. Suspenzii, 1967:166-
174. 11 refs.
Heat losses from the combustion products of five different
coal types (three from Donbas and one each from the Kuz-
netsk and Podmoskov basins) in water suspension were
analyzed, taking into account moisture, ash, and sulfur con-
tents of the fuel, as well as the volume of water vapor and
combustion products released. Analysis was made by reducing
the dew point during the combustion of sulfurous mazuts and
bituminous coal. Conducting the combustion of water-coal
suspensions with a 1.05 air excess makes it possible to hold
heat losses from the discharge gases at a level typical for
modem boiler installations operating with dry pulverized fuel.
Data for this analysis were taken from the literature.
14512
Ellis, Richard B.
FUSED SALTS. Chem. Eng. News, vol. 38:96-100, 102, 104,
106, Oct. 10, 1960.
The commercial importance of fused salts and research being
done on them are reviewed. The most important use of fused
salts is in making aluminum, magnesium, sodium, and less
common metals. They are also aiding in the development of
atomic power. Advantages over solid fuels include lower cost
and continuous removal of undesirable fission products. An
excess of reactive material is unnecessary, and nuclear radia-
tion cannot structurally damage molten fluoride fuels. They
also permit reactors to operate at lower pressures and higher
temperatures and dissolve a higher percentage of materials
that are either fertile or are already fissionable. Fused salts are
used in the making of high purity uranium metal. Fused salt
mixtures containing cryolite or other fluorides are being used
as a flux to protect the surface of hot-dip aluminum coating
baths. In baths for nitriding steels, fused salts can act as both
flux and reagent and in descaling metals, they may be effec-
tive where ordinary acids fail. They are also effective as heat
transferring agents and can closely control the temperature of
reactive gases and vapors when these are bubbled through a
fused salt bath. In many of their uses, the fused salts remain
chemically inert, acting solely as a solvent or heat transfer
medium. However, their use as chemical reagents is attracting
more and more attention. What is especially needed is a better
understanding of the fundamental processes involved in fused
salt reactions. Conductivity, ionic mobility, transport numbers,
and phase relationships have been studied. As knowledge of
them grows, fused salts will contribute even more to chemical
progress.
14686
Bockris, J. O'M.
AN INTRODUCTION TO FUEL CELLS AND ELEC-
TROCATALYSIS. Franklin Inst. Research Labs., Philadelphia,
Pa., Materials Science and Engineering Dept. and Public
Health Service, Durham, N. C., National Air Pollution Control
Administration, Proc. First Natl. Symp. on Heterogeneous
Catalysis for Control of Air Pollution, Philadelphia, Pa., Nov.
1968, p. 421-458.
Theoretically, natural gas conversion in an electrochemical en-
gine (a combination of fuel cell and electric motor) should be
twice that of the usual indirect method in which gas is burned
and heat is used to produce steam and drive conventional
generators. For many reactions of interest in the production of
energy from chemical reactions (primarily hydrocarbon oxygen
reactions), free energy is about 10% less than the enthalpy,
and the maximum intrinsic effeciency of electrochemical en-
gines is, therefore, 90%. Unfortunately, actual cell per-
formance is limited by overpotential, whose sources are the
delay in the reduction of oxygen and the oxidation of organic
fuels in the fuel cell. Overpotentials, arising at the anode and
the cathode, combine to give a potential loss in the cell.
Because potential is proportional to exchange current density
(a catalytic rate constant) and thus related to the catalytic
power of the electrode, further development of fuel cells is
contingent on the growth of the science of electrocatalysis. An
unconventional catalyst must be found that permits oxidation
and reduction reactions to take place with the highest
exchange current densities and whose heat of activation is in-
dependent of the catalytic properties of its substrate. Since
current density is dependent on substrate properties, the elec-
trode reaction in a fuel cell cannot be associated with bonding
between one of the reactants and the electrode. Porous gas
diffusion electrodes and tungsten bronze catalysts may obviate
present difficulties encountered with fuel cells.
14814
McCartney, J. T., H. J. O'Donnell, and Sabri Ergun
PYRITE SIZE DISTRIBUTION AND COAL-PYRITE PARTI-
CLE ASSOCIATION IN STEAM COALS. CORRELATION
WITH PYRITE REMOVAL BY FLOAT-SINK METHODS. Bu-
reau of Mines, Washington, D. C., RI-7231, 18p., Feb. 1969. 18
refs. PB-183380
In an effort to correlate the size of pyrite particles in coal and
coal-particle association with the removal of pyrite before
burning, the Bureau of Mines conducted a study of 61 coals
presently being used for electric power production. The results
were obtained by visual microscopic studies of polished
briquets of minus 14-mesh samples. Mean pyrite particle sizes
ranged from 20 to 400 microns and proportions of pyrite con-
tained in coal particles to an extent greater than 50% by
volume (estimated) ranged from 20 to 95%. These parameters
were correlated with reductions in pyrite accomplished by
float-sink tests at 1.60 sp gr on 14-mesh, 3/8-inch, and 1.5-inch
samples. The correlation coefficients between pyrite removal
and mean pyrite particle size were 0.89, 0.84, and 0.79, respec-
tively, for these samples. Correlation coefficients between
pyrite removal and coal-pyrite association parameter were
0.92, 0.90, and 0.85, respectively. It is apparent that extent of
pyrite removal can be fairly well predicted from microscopic
analysis. (Author abstract modified)
14851
Vestal, Marvin L., Allan G. Day, III, J. S. Snyderman,
Gordon J. Fergusson, F. W. Lampe, R. H. Essenhigh, and W.
H. Johnson
KINETIC STUDIES ON THE PYROLYSIS, DESULFURIZA-
TION, & GASIFICATION OF COALS WITH EMPHASIS ON
THE NON-ISOTHERMAL KINETIC METHOD. Scientific
Research Instruments Corp., Baltimore, Md., Contract PH 86-
68-65, Rept. SRIC 68-13, lllp., Sept. 1968. 29 refs. CFSTI: PB
185 882
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226
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
The theory of the non-isothermal technique developed by Junt-
gen and co-workers for the study of the kinetics of complex
heterogeneous reactions was extended to include reactive flush
gases and back reactions of the products, and was applied to
experimental studies of pyrolysis, desulfurization, and gasifi-
cation of coals in a series of 23 non-isothermal experiments. In
addition, facilities were constructed for isothermal experi-
ments and a series of 19 runs was conducted, utilizing both
fast and slow heating rates to reach the isothermal operating
temperature. The variables studied included coal particle size,
flush-gas composition, gas flow rates, and the forms of sulfur
in the coal. It was concluded that the non-isothermal method is
a powerful technique for obtaining kinetic data necessary for
the development of coal desulfurization processes. The back
reaction of H2S with coke is the most important factor limiting
the rate and efficiency of desulfurization. Practical desul-
furization can possibly by accomplished during pyrolysis and
without complete gasification by intimately mixing a suitable
sulfur absorbent with the coal in the pyrolyzing reactor. It was
also shown that the rate of the slowest desulfurization is suffi-
ciently fast at 750 C and 1 atm of hydrogen that at least 99%
desulfurization can be accomplished with a reaction time of
0.5 min. Below about 0.1 mm, the effect of particle size on the
reaction kinetics appeared to be small. Heating rate effects
were probably due to the fast back reaction. These conclu-
sions indicated that desulfurization during coal gasification
prior to combustion may be feasible and economically practi-
cal, provided a suitable sulfur absorbent can be found.
14876
Seguin, Richard L.
OPERATING DATA, DESIGN CRITERIA, RELIABILITY
AND PRESENT CONDITION OF CHIMNEY LINERS AT
VARIOUS CONSUMERS POWER COMPANY STEAM-ELEC-
TRIC GENERATING STATIONS. Preprint 767, Am. Soc. Civil
Engrs., New York, 33p., 1968. 9 refs. (Presented at the
A.S.C.E. Annual and National Meeting on Structural Engineer-
ing, Pittsburgh, Pa., Sept. 30-Oct. 4, 1968.)
The operation and feasibility of various liners and coatings for
chimneys of ten fossil-fueled electric power plants are
reviewed. Performances of independent brick, corbel brick,
and concrete liners are described under actual operating condi-
tions. Included in the operating conditions are coal analyses,
gas velocities, methods of firing, and unit loadings. Though
some plants in the industry have found corbel brick liners un-
satisfactory, no deterioration is reported for the liners when
used in conjunction with fiber glass insulation and in chimneys
having a maximum exit velocity of 60 fps. The linings resist
corrosion when the sulfur and ash content of the coal used do
not exceed 2 1/2% and 11%, respectively. Independent
concrete liners with no protective coating also perform well
under the above conditions. Periodic inspections reveal no
penetration or deterioration of the concrete. Use of these
liners has resulted in substantial cost savings. Independent
brick liners coated with Stockfas are holding up well in chim-
neys with maximum velocities of 90 fps. Corrosion of the
concrete floors of these chimneys is now prevented by clean-
ing devices for washing off fly ash. None of the chimneys
discussed, some dating back to 1937, have required major
repair work. However, stainless steel caps, which deteriorated
rapidly, have been replaced by cast iron caps. The degree to
which the chimney liners can resist the highly corrosive unit
train coal now being used is not known.
15714
Ramsden, A. R.
APPLICATION OF ELECTRON MICROSCOPY TO THE
STUDY OF PULVERIZED-COAL COMBUSTION AND FLY-
ASH FORMATION. J. Inst. Fuel, 41(335):451-454 Dec. 1968. 7
refs.
A brief description is given of a probe and sampling technique
for collecting particles from the gas stream of a pulverized-
coal-fired test rig for direct examination by transmission elec-
tron microscopy. The technique is of value in studying the
combustion of pulverized-coal particles and the formation of
fly-ash. Initial experimental observations, made during com-
bustion of some New South Wales bituminous coals, are
presented. (Author's Abstract)
16210
Institute of Gas Technology, Chicago, 111.
LNG: A SULFUR-FREE FUEL FOR POWER GENERATION.
Contract PH 22-68-58, Final Report, Proj. 8926, 560p., May
1969. 450 refs. CFSTI PB 184353
The availability of natural gas for conversion to liquified natu-
ral gas (LNG) and subsequent transport to the U.S. East or
West Coast was assessed. Transport costs to the point of use
and the cost of electric power with LNG used as power plant
fuel were estimated. Price and availability of gas at a remote
source was based on current information about reserves, in-
digenous requirements, and marketing plans of the agencies
controlling gas at the source. Combustion of natural gas is
easily controlled, and the fuel is easily metered and handled,
an important factor in keeping plant costs low. When com-
pared to the cost of electricity generated by competitive fuels,
LNG could possibly be a lower cost fuel. Natural gas use and
availability are discussed for the U.S. and the world. The long-
term viability of the U.S. natural-gas producing industry de-
pends on the quantity of natural gas reserves ultimately availa-
ble. The remaining recoverable reserves were estimated to be
976-1645 trillion CF of gas. Areas of the world which, because
of their reserves, availability of gas for export, and proximity
to the U.S., are potential sources of imported gas are Algeria,
Libya, Nigeria, Venezuela, Colombia, Trinidad, Alaska, and
Canada. The economic feasibility of LNG for electric power
production is demonstrated: natural gas is the most economical
fuel available for electric power production. The feasibility of
using LNG as a sulfur-free fuel for power generation will de-
pend on delivery costs, which varied considerably with the al-
ternatives evaluated. Noneconomic factors affecting the feasi-
bility of LNG for electric power production are also discussed.
Regulatory and political factors are considered.
16376
Arai, Yasuo, Hiroshi Takenouchi, and Shoichiro Nagai
REACTIONS BETWEEN CAO AND SO2: ABSORPTION
MECHANISM OF SO2 INTO QUICK LIME (I). (CaO to S02
to no hanno shosekkai no SO2 kyushu kiko (dai 1 ho)). Text in
Japanese. Sekko to Sekkai (Gypsum Lime), no. 44:5-11, 1960.
14 refs.
Equilibrium in the system CaO-SO2 was investigated at vari-
ous temperatures to determine the absorption mechanism of
sulfur dioxide gas in quick lime. Pure sulfur dioxide gas was
introduced into a heat tube containing calcium dioxide (sic)
powder; velocity of the gas was maintained at 200 cc/min. The
reaction products between the solid and gas phases were in-
vestigated by chemical analysis and X-ray power diffraction.
Absorption velocities of SO2 in quick lime prepared from
limestone calcined at various temperatures were measured.
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F. BASIC SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
227
Results showed that the amount of combustible sulfur varies
according to the coal used. Sulfur is easily oxidized to sulfur
dioxide and volatilized with other combustion gases by firing
coal at 600 to 800 C under leading of air. Reactions between
CaO and SO2 are minimal below 400 C, but calcium sulfite is
produced by the reaction: CaO + SO2 yields CaSO3, above
400 C. With rising temperatures, the amount of calcium sulfate
formed by decomposition of calcium sulfite increases accord-
ing to the reaction: 4CaSO3 yields 3CaSO4 + CaS. Above 800
C, the equilibrium between calcium oxide and calcium sulfate
is such that both sulfite and sulfide are converted to sulfate by
contact with air. The semi-stable zone of sulfite and sulfide
can extend from 400 to 800 C. Beyond 1000 C, calcium oxide
loses its ability to absorb sulfur dioxide as the process of
decomposition progresses. (Author abstract modified)
16589
Hileman, A. R., J. P. McKinnon, and J. K. Dillard
STATION AND LINE INSULATION DESIGN 1100-KV.
Preprint, 10p., 1968. 14 refs. (Presented at the Conference In-
ternationale des Grands Reseaux Electriques, 22nd Paris, June
10-20, 1968, Paper CR 25- 06.)
Switching surge and impulse tests were performed to permit
design of a 1100-kV station to supply an underground trans-
mission test facility. Using a 1.6 p.u. switching surge design
criteria, the support tower for the high-level bus has a 7.45
minimum strike distance with a O-unit post insulator, 7.5 m in
length, hung from the truss. Nine post insulators will be used
in the station lower bus. Switching surge test results provided
data to assess the design of 1100 kV systems. The comparison
of the lightning, contamination, and switching surge require-
ments showed that it appeared technically unfeasible with
present available knowledge and materials to design a 100 kV
transmission line to withstand greater than 1.8 p.u. switching
surges. Switching surge withstand design levels of 1.6 p.u. are
feasible. Although it is technically possible to meet the esti-
mated contamination requirements, the design may be
uneconomical in regions of high pollution. Estimates of insula-
tion requirements in 1100 kV stations show that it is techni-
cally unfeasible to design switching surge levels greater than
1.6 p.u. using present design philosophy. Contamination may
be a greater problem in stations than for transmission lines.
Research is immediately required on the breakdown
mechanism of large-spaced gaps, methods of reducing the
surge applied to a system, and contamination. (Auther summa-
ry modified)
16883
Halstead, W. D. and E. Raask
THE BEHAVIOUR OF SULPHUR AND CHLORINE COM-
POUNDS IN PULVERIZED-COAL- FIRED BOILERS. J. Inst.
Fuel, 42(344):344-349, Sept. 1969. 14 refs.
Laboratory experiments and probe tests in boilers have been
made to study the decomposition of pyrite, the evaporation of
sodium chloride and the formation of sulfates in the flue gas
of pulverized-coal-fired boilers. The results have been com-
pared with theoretical predictions made on the basis of ther-
modynamic calculations. In large boilers where there is good
mixing of the fuel and combustion air it is shown that the con-
version of chloride to sulfate is complete when the flue gas
leaves with only trace amounts of chloride. Initial deposits on
the furnace tubes will contain significant amounts of chloride
and pyrite residues when there is either a localized deficiency
in oxygen, or a particularly short residence time of sulfur and
chlorine compounds in the flame. (Author's Abstract)
17592
Abernethy, R. F., M. J. Peterson, and F. H. Gibson
SPECTROCHEMICAL ANALYSES OF COAL ASH FOR
TRACE ELEMENTS. Bureau of Mines, Washington, D. C., RI
7281, 30p., July 1969.
Spectrochemical analyses were made of ash from 827 U. S.
commercial coals for barium, beryllium, boron, chromium,
cobalt, copper, gallium, germanium, lanthanum, lead, lithium,
manganese, molybdenum, nickel, scandium, strontium, tin,
vanadium, ytterbium, yttrium, zinc, and zirconium. These 22
elements were detected in almost all of the ash samples ex-
amined. In addition, arsenic, bismuth, cerium, neodymium,
niobium (columbium), rubidium, and thallium were detected in
many samples. Arsenic, with a limit of detection of 0.005% in
ash, was found in 67% of the samples from the Eastern states,
41% of those from the interior states, and 16% of the Western
state ashes. Rubidium, with a limit of detection 0.001%, was
found in all samples from the interior states, but in only 58%
of the samples from the Western states. All state averages for
manganese content in ash are less than the crustal abundance.
The average content of copper, nickel, and rubidium in ash of
the Western state coals usually is less than the crustal
abundance for each element. However, most of the ashes from
the Eastern and interior states are enriched in these elements.
Averages for the other elements generally show some en-
richment in the ash. (Author summary modified)
17594
Okaniwa, OKeiji and Jintaro Suzuki
FLUHttZED COMBUSTION OF SOLID FUELS. (Funkyu
ryudo nensho). Nenryo Kyokaishi (J. Fuel Soc. Japan, Tokyo),
vol. 38:429-437, 1959. 7 refs. Translated from Japanese.
Franklin Inst. Research Labs., Philadelphia, Pa., Science Info.
Services, 17p., May 16, 1969.
Various solid fuel combustion experiments were conducted on
commercial scale experimental combustion equipment for the
purpose of application of low grade fuels. Hokusyo coal and
other fuels were chosen for sample fuels. The development of
new combustion mechanisms by aerodynamical and ther-
modynamical principles of fluidized reactions were explored.
The method is very useful as a combustion process for burn-
ing the high ash contents and the low generation of heat (about
2500 kcal/kg) of low grade coal. Even the hard coal and the
stone abandoned in coal selection can be used as the fuel.
Fairly crude coal can be used; thus, it is possible to adjust the
micro-coal machine to a small size and to decrease the installa-
tion, operation, and maintenance costs. The micro particle
combustion section in the upper part of the combustion
chamber and the fluidized combustion in the lower part
proceeds concomitantly, makes the combustion stable, and
enables the control of change of loss of heat. With this
method, large amounts of micro particles produced at the coal
selection may be used without passing the micro coal machine.
Good results were obtained for several experiments. (Author
conclusions modified)
18170
Davies, D. T.
COAL PYRITES. J. Inst. Fuel (London), 21(331):301-311, 331,
Aug. 1948. (Presented at the North-Eastern Sect. Meeting,
Inst. Fuel, Newcastle-on-Tyne, Feb. 2, 1948.)
A review is presented of wartime development of sulfur
recovery from coal in the United Kingdom. The necessity of
using coal pyrite was due to the limited amount of sulfur im-
ported during World War II. A total of 115,000 tons of sulfur
were recovered by eight operating plants in addition to more
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228
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
than 140,000 tons of coal which would normally have been
discarded. The pyrites recovered contained 40 to 42% sulfur
and provided only 5% of the sulfuric acid trade's requirement.
The pyrite removal methods of all the operating plants are
described. All plants utilized a crushing technique which in-
volved pulverization of the coal and separation of the pyrite
by specific gravity and screening. Pyrite recovery averaged 60
to 75%. The 1939 installation costs were recovered by 1946,
and seven of the original eight plants are still in operation in
1948.
18185
Jordan, C. W., A. L. Ward, and W. H. Fulweiler
GUM DEPOSITS IN GAS DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS. Ind.
Eng. Chem., 27(10):1180-1190, Oct. 1935. 31 refs.
The efficacy of iron sulfide for the absorption of nitric oxide,
together with conditions favoring its use, was determined by a
series of experiments involving the absorption of undiluted
and dilute nitric oxide by iron sulfide, and alkaline and metal-
lic sulfite absorbents. The highest activity for the absorption
was obtained by sulfided Lux iron oxide to which sufficient
sodium bicarbonate had been added to give an alkali ratio of
50%. Iron sulfide is economically feasible as an agent for the
commercial purification of manufactured gases because it can
be made from the hydrogen sulfide already present in commer-
ical gas, and it is not poisoned by sulfur of cyanogen com-
pounds, reduced by hydrogen, or affected by carbon dioxide
or carbon monoxide. Though it does react with the small
amount of oxygen present in manufactured gas, iron sulfide
can be used to advantage in removing hydrogen sulfide from
gas. As a result of the laboratory experiments, an inexpensive,
commercial process was developed for removing all of the
nitric oxide.
22319
Luther, H., G. Bergmann, H. D. Engelmann, and J. Zajontz
EXPERIMENTS FOR THE DETERMINATION OF REAC-
TION KINETIC MAGNITUDE FOR THE ISOTHERMO
PYROLYSIS OF BITUMINOUS COAL. PART H. DEVELOP-
MENT OF AN ANALOG COMPUTER PROGRAM AND
COMPARISON OF RESULTS OBTAINED UNDER VARIOUS
CONDITIONS. (Verscuche zur Bestimmung reaktion-
skinetischer Grossen bei der isothermen Steinkohlen-Pyrolyse).
Chem. Ing. Tech., 41(3):743-790, July 1969. 7 refs. Translated
from German. Belov and Associates, Denver, Colo., 22p., May
24, 1970.
An analog computer program was developed to determine
first-order reaction kinetics involved in the isotherm pyrolysis
of coal. The calculated constants of reaction speed can be as-
signed to reaction phases independent of the degree of car-
bonization. Activation energies of 48-66 kcal/mol and thrust
factors of 10 to the 13th power to 10 to the 17th power
reciprocal min were determined for methane, propane,
ethylene, and carbon monoxide generated by the pyrolysis of
bituminous coal. For ethane, these values lie between 50-90
kcal/mol and 10 to the 14th power to 10 to the 25th power
reciprocal min. In a second analog computer program, kinetic
reaction data obtained in the first program were used to
establish degasing curves to be expected for a given speed of
heating up under nonisothermal conditions. (Author introduc-
tion modified)
22587
Luther, H., G. Bergmann, and T. N. Sreenivasan
EXPERIMENTS FOR THE DETERMINATION OF REAC-
TION KINETIC MAGNITUDE FOR THE ISOTHERMAL
PYROLYSIS OF BITUMINOUS COAL. (Versuche zur Bestim-
mung reaktionskinetischer Grossen bei der isothermen Stein-
kohlen-Pyrolysis). Chem. Fabrik, 40(7):317-364, April 10, 1968.
11 refs. Translated from German. Belov and Associates,
Denver, Colo., 26p., May 22, 1970.
Formation of methane, ethane and hydrogen were observed
volumetrically and by means of gas chromatography during
isothermal pyrolyses of bituminuous coal, vitrinite and exinite
in a vacuum between 400 and 500 C. The constants of speed
of reaction, activation energies (40 to 65 kcal/mol) and pertur-
bation factors of the individual reaction stages were calculated
from the values measured according to the method of the least
square deviations. The gas formation curves which were mea-
sured non-isothermally were analyzed with the kinetic values
found. A comparison with kinetic data found by various ex-
perimental methods showed essentially good agreement. While
the formation curves for the total amount of gas, methane and
hydrogen were quite similar to each other, the curve for the
formation of ethane deviated noticeably. Values for methane
and hydrogen which are approximately equal indicate that the
formation of these gases takes place according to the same
reaction mechanism, but the mechanism for ethane formation
is yet to be investigated. The appendix describes the fitting of
a curve on data points by linear or non-linear regression and
iterative calculation by the method of steepest descent.
24272
Akazaki, M. and M. Kara
EFFECT OF AEROSOLS ON IMPULSE BREAKDOWN
VOLTAGE. Elec. Eng. Japan, 89(10):57-65, 1969. 15 refs.
As a result of the increasing demand for electric power, con-
struction of EHV transmission lines is increasing. In designing
these lines, the flashover characteristics of the system vs. im-
pulse voltage and switching surge have attracted world-wide
attention. In the operation of substations and transmission
lines, cases often occur where not only rain drops but particles
are floating in the air gap. Because of this, the discharge
mechanism of the sphere-to-plate gap was studied in the
presence of water drops and conductive or dielectric particles.
Also investigated were the discharge characteristics of needle-
to-plate, rod-to-plate and sphere-to-plate gaps in the presence
of particles. In addition calculations were made on the field in-
tensity of the air gap of a sphere-to-plate electrode where par-
ticles were floating. The results show that electrical resistance
decreases when particles are present in the air gap; the
decrease is marked whether or not the particles are floating.
The flashover characteristic is explained by the development
of corona streamers and leaders in the presence of an aerosol.
By shortening the gap between the particle and the sphere
electrode, the leaders cause nonuniform fields.
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229
G. EFFECTS-HUMAN HEALTH
00981
A.E. Martin
EFFECTS OF POWER STATION EMISSIONS ON HEALTH.
World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland
(WHO/AP/66.27.) 1966. 43 pp.
Prevailing levels of atmospheric pollution in St. Helens, War-
rington and Widnes are high and the available evidence in-
dicates that the incidence and mortality from bronchitis is also
high. Atmospheric pollution is known to be an important con-
tribuyinh factor influencing both the number of cases and of
deaths from this disease. Any proposal which might contribute
towards an increased level of air pollution in the district must
therefore be examined with great care. From the height at
which the fumes from the proposed power station would be
discharged and from the known behaviour of chimney emis-
sions under varying weather conditions the evidence indicates
that the power station would make but a timy contribution to
the prevailing ground level concentration of SO2. Moreover
the sulfur dioxide pollution from the power station would be
of a transient nature and woudl only affect the surrounding
area at times when the natural ventilation is good and ground
pollution from local sources is low. At times, when owing to
climatic conditions pollution from local sources is high, fumes
from the power station would not descend to ground level
within this area. For the reasons given in this report and sub-
ject to the acceptance in the main report of the findings on the
evidence on chimney emissions, it is the author's opinion that
the pollution from the proposed power station would not add
any appreciable hazard to the health of the surrounding popu-
lation.
01340
M. Conveneovole, J. Carpentier, and U. Vidali
WORK OF THE EUROPEAN COAL AND STEEL COMMU-
NITY IN CONNECTION WITH PREVENTION OF OCCUPA-
TIONAL HAZARDS. Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J., Vol. 26: 619-
623, Dec. 1965.
The aims of the European Coal and Steel Community are out-
lined with regard to the improvement of living and working
conditions for workers in the mining and iron and steel indus-
tries of the six Community countries. The valuable interchange
of information and experience conducted between industry
and researchers in the health and safety field is described.
Research grants provided since 1955 have partly financed
nearly 500 projects, carried out at 120 research centers, the
total amount furnished for this purpose being $8,000,000. The
still more ambitious projects now in progress, launched with
the aid of a 5-year appropriation of $15,000,000 relate to such
matters as occupational diseases, human factors affecting
safety, industrial ergonomics, and dust prevention. (Author ab-
stract)
01865
J.H. Ludwig P.W. Spaite
CONTROL OF SULFUR OXIDES POLLUTION: THE CHAL-
LENGE TO THE CHEMICAL ENGINEER. Chem. Eng. Progr.
63, (6) 82-6, June 1967. (Presented at the American Institute of
Chemical Engineers, Detroit, Mich., Dec. 4-8, 1966.)
This presentation deals with the major unmet need in air pollu-
tion control of today, and with the need to develop economical
and practical methods for the control of gaseous pollutants,
especially vehicle exhaust and sulfur situations will have to be
handled within a framework of severe economic restrictions.
The author points to the period 1975-1980 in which the genera-
tion of thermal power from fossi fuels will be in strong com-
petition with nuclear power and will be hard pressed to retain
their competitive position unless economic menas for eliminat-
ing pollution can be found. The development of new systems
for conversion of fossil fuels to electricity which integrate sul-
fur removal into the power cycle should begin now.
02417
A.E. Martin
REPORT ON CHIMNEY EMISSIONS (RATCLD7FE-ON
SOAR POWER STATION). Central Electricity Generating
Board, England.
Document is the official report on air pollution by the Medical
Assessor, following the Minister of Power's public inquiry into
the proposal by the Central Electricity Generating Board to
build a 2,000 MW coal-fired power station at Ratcliffe-on-
Soar, near Nottingham. After consideration of the existing
knowledge of the medical effects of atmospheric pollutants,
and of the concentrations of pollutants which would reach
ground level from the proposed power station at Ratcliffe-on-
Soar and be superimposed on the existing levels of atmospher-
ic pollution in the area, the opinion that the power station
emissions would not add any appreciable hazard to the health
of the surrounding population is presented.
04136
S. Tanaka, Y. Naruo, and T. Toyofuku
SILICOSIS AND SILICOTUBERCULOSIS IN A COAL MINE.
Japan. J. Ind. Health (Tokyo) 2, (8) 12-8, Aug. 1960.
If silicosis is graded as SO, SI, S2, S3, and S4 with increasing
severity, grade SO-1 can be given to miners employed over 3
yr below ground and SI and above can be assigned to those
employed over 5 yr underground; the most silicotic miners are
found among those employed 7-9 yr underground. These
results were found in a study of the course of illness of 909
miners with silicosis and 143 silicotic miners covered by the
Workmen's Compensation Law from 1952-1959. According to
X-ray examination of workers employed for 5-6 yr the ag-
gravated cases are found to be 7.1% in SO-1, 22.5% in S2, and
88.2% in S3. Among these aggravated cases infiltration images
are found in 97.6%. Unusually large nodulation, which has
great significance in the aggravation of silicosis, is found in
21.1% of SI cases and 73.5% of S2 cases. The development of
this nodulation is found among all coal workers, except for the
low incidence among coal collectors. Aggravated cases are
found in coal-face workers, direct workers, indirect workers,
and coal collectors, in decreasing order. Cases of infiltration
are mostly of a tubercular nature, and some of them are due
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ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
to the conglomeration of silicotic nodules. (Author summary
modified)
06806
H. J. Einbrodt
EXPERIMENTS ON THE ELIMINATION OF DUST FROM
HUMAN LUNGS. Ann. Occupational Hyg. (London) 10 (1), 47-
9 (Jan. 1967).
The dust content of the individual lung lobes of two groups of
miners was determined with formamide. The first group con-
sisted of lungs from victims of a mine disaster; the second in-
cluded lungs of retired miners who were not exposed to heavy
dust loads for at least 10 years prior to their death. In com-
parison, the latter group exhibited less dust content, implying
a self-cleansing over the period of no dust exposure. (Author
summary)
06826
P. J. Lawther
SOME ANALYTICAL AND CLINICAL ASPECTS OF
BRITISH URBAN AIR POLLUTION. Proc. Symp. Atmospher-
ic Chemistry of Chlorine and Sulfur Compounds, Cincinnati,
Ohio, 1957. (Geophysical Monograph No. 3.) (1959). pp. 88-96.
Variation of concentration of smoke, SO2 concentration, tem-
perature and humidity in the air of the city of London during a
period of acute pollution in January 1956 is given. Fog forma-
tion is compared with the occurrence of chronic bronchitis, as
well as some clinical aspects of air pollution in London.
07039
J. M. Rogan, S. Rae, W. H. Walton
THE NATIONAL COAL BOARD'S PNEUMOCONIOSIS
FIELD RESEARCH AN INTERIM REVIEW. Proc. Intern.
Symp. Inhaled Particles Vapours, II, Cambridge, England,
1965. Pp. 493-508, 1968.
The history of the research is traced, and data on dust concen-
trations, pneumoconiosis prevalence and progression between
the first and second medical surveys are presented. The histor-
ical background, the original plan of the pneumoconiosis field
research, the research up to the end of the second medical
surveys (1953-1963), other developments affecting the
research, the third survey period (1964 ) and the research in
retrospect and prospect are discussed.
07138
Yanysheva, N. Ya.
THE EFFECT OF ATMOSPHERIC AIR POLLUTION BY
DISCHARGES FROM ELECTRIC POWER PLANTS AND
CHEMICAL COMBINES ON THE HEALTH OF NEARBY IN-
HABITANTS. U.S.S.R. Literature on Air Pollution and Related
Occupational Diseases, Vol. 1:98-104, Jan. 1960. (Also
published in Gigiena i Sanit., (8):15-20, 1957.) Translated from
Russian. CFSTI: TT 60-21049
A study was made of the effect of industrial discharges on the
health of inhabitants of a large industrial center the atmospher-
ic air of which was being polluted by the discharges of several
production and manufacturing plants. A study was made of the
degree of atmospheric air pollution with dust (fly ash), SO2,
sulfuric acid aerosol, hydrogen sulfide, chlorine, nitrogen ox-
ides, and phenol. Air samples were collected by the aspiration
method under the smoke plume coining from smoke stacks at
distances ranging from 200 to 2,500 meters from a chemical
combine and an electric power plant, and up to 800 meters
from a phenol producing plant. The morbidity rate in two vil-
lages in the industrial area and one village in a control area
was studied. Pollution of the atmospheric air with dust (fly
ash), sulfurous gas, hydrogen sulfide in concentrations many
times above the allowable limits and of aerosols of sulfuric
acid and chlorine in concentrations just above the allowable
limits, as well as the oxides of nitrogen and phenol within the
limits of allowable concentrations deleteriously affected the
population's health. It was concluded that the above men-
tioned pollutants produced the following pathologic results: a)
Increased by several times the frequency of occurrence among
children and adults of diseases of the respiratory organs, of
the nervous system, of the organs of vision and of the skin, b)
Lowered the resistance of the population to such infectious
disease as the grippe and angina, c) Induced in children a state
of susceptibility to the development of rickets and anemia, and
brought about early manifestations of diffuse pneumosclerosis
in isolated cases.
08230
DISCUSSION ON AIR POLLUTION.Practitioner, Vol. 192, p.
563-566, April 1964.
A study of the effects of air pollution on respiratory disease in
London and Sheffield, England, is presented. After a pilot
study the previous winter, it was decided to use a daily record
sheet for each participating doctor, and hope that he would al-
ways have it with him so that each consultation, both formal
and informal, planned and unplanned, could be included in he
study. The analysis was carried out by the College of General
PractitionersO Records and Statistical Unit in Birmingham. In-
cluded in the report are: the pattern of respiratory illness in
the two cities; the detection of air pollution; a brief discussion
of the National Survey methods for particulate and SO2; and
the possible role of the spores of common molds in respiratory
disease.
08232
SULPHUR DIOXIDE IN THE AIR.Brit. Med. J., No. 5432, p.
339-400, Feb. 13, 1965.
One of the main contaminants of the atmosphere in Great
Britain is sulphur dioxide. It is released whenever car-
bonacesous fuels con taining sulphur, such as coal, coke, and
oil, are burnt, and it has irritant and corrosive properties. Con-
centrations of sulphur dioxide in the city of London have
averaged 0.11 p.p.m. in the summer and 0.17 p.p.m. in winter.
The highest recorded concentration of sulphur dioxide in the
London smog of 1962 was 1.98 p.p.m. measured over one
hour. Since the introduction of the Clean Air Act in 1956 the
concentration of smoke in smoke-control areas has fallen appr-
ciably, but the concentration of sulphur dioxide has not fol-
lowed suit because the technical difficulties are such that is
has been considered impractible to impose restrictions on its
emission. At present there is no single way of removing
sulphur dioxide, but much can and should be done to keep the
concentration of this corrosive and possibly harmful gas in the
atmosphere as low as possible.
11300
Davis, Kieffer
SIGNIFICANCE OF SULFUR STUDIES ON ENVIRONMEN-
TAL HEALTH. Proc. Am. Petrol. Inst., Vol. 48, pp. 591-610,
1968. 8 refs. (Presented at the 33rd Midyear Meeting of the
American Petroleum Institute's Division of Refining, Air and
Water Conservation, Philadelphia, Pa., May 16, 1968, Preprint
30-68.)
-------
G. EFFECTS-HUMAN HEALTH
231
Four research program dealing with health impairment due to
sulfur compounds in the air are briefly described. One study is
designed to determine the effects of the inhalation of different
dusts on animals with papain induced (artificial) emphysema.
A second project will study the effects of inhalation of SO2
and particulates on a series of animals under controlled condi-
tions. The third study will concentrate on the synergistic ef-
fects of pollutants. The fourth project is compiling data on the
health of a large group of individuals in Chicago suffering
from bronchopulmonary disease.
11339
W. Winkelstein, Jr.
STOMACH CANCER: POSITIVE ASSOCIATION WITH
SUSPENDED PARTICIPATE Am POLLUTION. State Univ.
of New York, Buffalo, Dept of Preventive Medicine, 13p.,
1968. 11 refs. (Presented at the Air Pollution Medical Research
Conference, Denver, Colo., July 22-24, 1968, Session II:
Epidemiologic Relationships, Paper 10.)
Mortality rates for gastric cancer in white men and women,
50-69 years of age, are almost twice as high in areas of high
suspended paniculate air pollution as in areas of low pollution
in a northeastern United States industrial area. This associa-
tion appears to be independent of the effect of economic
status and is not apparently attributable to the ethnic distribu-
tion of the population in the study area. (Author's summary)
11437T
Tsvetkov, V. P., B. A. Tsybalyskiy, and A. P. Sapozhnikov
INFLUENCE OF DUST ON WORKERS AT THE KASHIR-
SKIY STATE ELECTRIC POWER STATION. Translated from
Russian. Klinich. Med. ll(9-10):458-465, 1933. 8 refs.
The effect of lignite coal dust and ash in the Kashirskiy Elec-
tric Power Plant near Moscow on the health of exposed wor-
kers was studied. A total of 148 workers was examined. While
dust pollution of lungs can occur after only 5 years of work in
a power plant, the development of actual pneumoconiosis is
considered to require exposure of at least 20 years. It was
found thar carbon dust and ash from litnite coal originating in
the vicinity of Moscow penetrate the pulmonary tissue to
cause reactive changes characterizing pneumoconiosis. Clinical
details on various subgroups of the workers, including X-ray
findings, are mentioned. The harmful component in both the
coal and ash dusts is silica which is present in large amounts.
The presence of sulfur anhydride in household dust requires
further study. Based on the dust particle concentration, the
pollution even in the most hazardous areas of the electric plant
is considered moderate. Only 4 cases of pneumoconiosis were
found after 10 years of service. Future studies on the effect of
dust on children are indicated, on the basis of inconclusive
findings on 19 children living in the area.
11828
D. R. Lamb, R. D. Shriner
PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGIONAL
CONFERENCE ON AIR POLLUTION (NOVEMBER 15-17,
1967.) Wyoming Univ., Laramie, Coll. of Commerce and Indus-
try,110p.,1967. ((140)) refs.
The purpose of the Conference was to bring together represen-
tatives of government, industry, and research for a meaningful
discussion of air pollution and its causes, effects, and cures.
The following topics were discussed: Industrial Gases, Particu-
lates, Industrial Solid Waste Management, The Internal Com-
bustion Engine and Smog, Banquet Session, Air Pollution Ef-
fects on Meteorology and Visibility, Air Pollution Effects on
Humans, Air Pollution Effects on Animals, Air Pollution Ef-
fects Plants, Air Pollution Effects on Materials, Economics of
Air Pollution, Air Pollution Control by Feed Lots, Air Pollu-
tion Control by Petroleum Plants, Air Pollution Control by
Power Plants, Air Pollution Control by Wood Products Plants,
and Air Pollution Control by Mineral Processing Plants.
12289
Perelatov, V. D., A. I. Bespalov, A. D. Stepanova, and L. S.
Potapenko
EFFECT OF DISCHARGES FROM THE SHAKHTY DIS-
TRICT POWER PLANT ON THE POPULATION'S HEALTH.
(Vliyanie vybrosov Shakhtinskoi ORES na zdorov'e
naseleniya). Hyg. Sanit., 33(7-9): 100-102, July-Sept. 1968.
An air quality survey in the town of Shakhty showed syste-
matic and heavy air pollution within a radius of up to 2 km
consisting of dust, sulfur dioxide, and carbon monoxide from
a power plant close to the residential areas. Medical examina-
tion of schoolchildren living in the power plant area showed a
prevalence of catarrhal charges in the nasopharynx 1.9 times
higher than in a control group; that of bronchitis, 2.9 times
higher; and that of dust in the eyes, 2.5 times higher. A sanita-
ry-protective zone greater than 500 m is considered necessary
for a plant of this capacity; at present, there is no zone at all;
on one side, the plant stacks are only 150 m from residences.
It is recommended that the plant be rebuilt with adequate
chimney heights and efficient ash-collection facilities.
14530
Fritze, E., E. Gundel, E. Ludwig, G. Mueller, H. O. Mueller,
and B. Petersen
THE HEALTH SITUATION OF MINERS OF A COAL MINE.
(Die gesundheitliche Situation von Bergarbeitern einer Kohlen-
zeche). Text in German. Deut. Med. Wochschr., 94(8):362-367,
Feb. 21, 1969. 37 refs.
The tuberculin sensitivity and the radiologically-determined
condition of the lungs of 1700 'healthy' coal miners were
analyzed for different age groups. Categories of miners with
and without pneumoconiotic lung modifications were com-
pared with a group not exposed to dust and a group of retired
miners with severe pneumoconiosis, and the occurrence of
rheuma factors and serum-complement tilers was determined.
The analysis yielded an above-average incidence of tuberculo-
sis even in the youngest group of miners, a frequency of
identification of rheuma factors in 13.3% of the miners (or
16%, if the group with severe silicosis is included), as well as
lowered complement tilers compared with a non-mining group.
The frequency of occurrence of Ihe rheuma factors and Ihe
lowering of the complement liter does nol correlate wilh Ihe
presence of pneumoconiolic changes of Ihe lungs bul is likely
to be connected with the dust loading.
16192
Gusev, M. I. and K. I. Akulov
COMPLEX HYGIENIC EVALUATION OF AIR POLLUTION
IN CITIES OF THE RSFSR. (Kompleksnaya gigiyenicheskaya
olsenka atmosfernykh zagryazneniy v gorodakh RSFSR). Text
in Russian. In: Sanilalion Measures Againsl Air and Water
Pollution in Ihe Planning of Cities (Ozdorovleniye vozdush-
nogo i vodnogo basseynov gorodov). Government Committee
on Civil Building and Architecture (ed.), Lecture series no. 2
Kiev, Budivel'nik, 1968, p. 7-11, 4 refs.
A total of 106 million rubles was spent from 1958-1966 to set
up 7827 gas collecting inslallations and 138 laboratories to deal
wilh air pollution in the Russian Soviel Federated Socialist
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232
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
Republic. Studies of emissions from State Regional Electric
Power Stations with chimneys 120-180 meters tall showed that
maximum permissible concentrations of pollutants were not
exceeded beyond distances of 15 km. Adverse effects on ele-
mentary school children within these areas have been verified.
Work is being done by the Erisman Hygiene Research In-
stitute in Moscow to establish the nature and degree of pollu-
tion from a number of industrial chemical sources and their ef-
fects on residents living nearby. Work done in 1965 at the
Ufimovskiy Labor Hygiene and Professional Illness Research
Institute is reviewed. Studies of the ferrous metallurgy indus-
try done by the Erisman Institute are also noted. Joint
planning by the Erisman Institute and the Central City-
Planning Institute for multiple dwellings in Moscow and Vol-
gograd examined the problem of motor vehicle exhaust.
16837
Speizer, Frank E.
AN EPIDEMIOLOGICAL APPRAISAL OF THE EFFECTS OF
AMBIENT AIR ON HEALTH: PARTICULATES AND OX-
IDES OF SULFUR. J. Ail Pollution Control Assoc., 19(9):647-
656, Sept. 1969. 45 refs.
This review evaluates the present state of our knowledge of
the effect on human health of environmental exposure to ox-
ides of sulfur, sulfates, and particulate matter. The measure-
ments of these pollutants in ambient air are the net results
from all sources of pollution in combination with factors in-
fluenced by weather and meteorological considerations and
cannot therefore incriminate single source, or a single pollu-
tant. Direct effects from acute, high ambient air pollution dis-
asters have been adequately demonstrated. Specific working
groups exposed to unusually high levels of these pollutants do
not demonstrate dramatic effects. However, the association
between the prevalence of chronic respiratory disease in the
general population and specific levels of these air pollutants
have been demonstrated. The major thrusts of epidemiological
investigations have been to study the effects of chronic expo-
sure to ambient levels of smoke and sulfur dioxide. The stu-
dies to date have collected and analyzed point-prevalence data
and information obtained from retrospective investigations.
Although epidemiological investigations cannot prove a cause-
and-effect relationship, the consistency of the results is such
that one must conclude that a causal association is likely. A
discussion by I. J. Selikoff is presented in the appendix.
(Author's Abstract Modified)
18109
Cassell, Eric J.
THE HEALTH EFFECTS OF Am POLLUTION AND THEIR
IMPLICATIONS FOR CONTROL. Law and Contemporary
Problems, 33(2):197-216, Spring 1968. 49 refs.
A brief review of the health effects of air pollution has been
presented. The nature of the biological problem itself and
evidence of various lines of inquiry indicate that while many
of the pollutants in urban atmospheres have demonstrable ef-
fects on health, the effects of air pollution as a whole are not
explained by the individual constituents acting separately.
Because of the multifactorial nature of air pollution and its ef-
fects, control based primarily on standards for individual pol-
lutants may be inadequate to the problem. The proliferation of
pollutant and manufacturing or other process changes makes
fixed standards seem as inappropriate to the sources of pollu-
tion as they are to the health effects. Evidence is presented
for a return to more broadly based control concepts. The need
for re-examination of control concepts is enhanced by the fact
that air pollution is a protype problem, typical of the complex
interrelationships of public health problems in a modern indus-
trial urban society. (Author's Summary)
20700
Lindall, Arnold W.
EFFECT OF AIR POLLUTION FROM FOSSIL FUEL COM-
BUSTION ON HUMAN HEALTH. Minn. Med., 53(3):321-326,
March 1970. 24 refs.
The effects of air pollution on human health are discussed. A
significant correlation was found between local deaths due to
bronchitis in England and the pH of rain in an area that was in
a direct wind line from the industrial centers. In another study,
pneumonia mortality correlated strongly with atmosphere
sulfate deposition. In an epidemiological study, sulfur dioxide
was consistently correlated with relevant disease. When the
disease rate for various categories was analyzed for days of
the low 1/3 of SO2 concentration and for days of the high 1/3
SO2 concentration, infectious disease, acute respiratory infec-
tion, and bronchitis showed the greatest increase on high S02
days. In another study, lower respiratory infections in children
were related to air pollution, while upper respiratory diseases
were not. Cigarette smoking causes a primary effect on the
bronchioles, leading to impaired defense against infection.
With continued exposure, panhobular emphysema ultimately
results. National studies are recommended to place the mor-
bidity rate from pollution in quantitative terms so that the rela-
tive pollution dangers can be assessed. Some of the elements
of pollution include the following: carbon dioxide, of little im-
mediate health significance; carbon monoxide, reaching high
levels in traffic; nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide, both found
in urban air of which NO2 is highly toxic; peroxyacetyl
nitrate; and ozone, which causes changes in lungs at low con-
centrations.
21276
Ayres, Stephen M. and Meta E. Buehler
THE EFFECTS OF URBAN AIR POLLUTION ON HEALTH.
Clin. Pharmocal. Therap., 11(3):337-371, 1970. 108 refs.
The relationship between pollutant emissions, atmospheric
cleansing processes, and ambient air pollution is described. A
high pollution potential is often produced in late fall and early
winter by an anticyclone, associated with fair weather, low
wind speeds, and temperature inversions. Toxicological studies
involving the administration of sulfur dioxide, nitrogen diox-
ide, carbon monoxide, and particulate emissions to animals
and man are reviewed. They demonstrate that single pollutants
cannot explain the irritant potential of the urban atmosphere.
A number of epidemiological studies are presented which
emphasize the relationship between human illnesses, such as
bronchitis, emphysema, and pulmonary edema, and at-
mospheric pollution. It is concluded from the synthesis of tox-
icological and epidemiological studies that the noxious nature
of the environment is due to a complicated 'mix' of pollutant
and meteorological factors. (Author abstract modified)
23151
Nose, Yoshikatsu
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PROPERTIES OF AIR POLLU-
TION AND CHRONIC BRONCHITIS AND ASTHMA AS
WELL. (Taiki osen no seijo to mansei kikanshien narabini
kikanshizensoku to no kanrensei). Text in Japanese.
Yamaguchi Idai Sangyo Igaku Kankyusho Nenpo (Ann. Report
Res Inst. Ind. Med., Yamaguchi Med. School), no. 16:13-30,
1969. 74 refs.
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G. EFFECTS-HUMAN HEALTH
233
The relationship between air pollution and respiratory diseases
in the industrial cities of Yamaguchi Prefecture was in-
vestigated. Th general nature of air pollution has been chang-
ing from settling dusts to gases from the combustion of fossil
fuels, and correspondingly, the relative predominance of as-
sociated diseases have changed from bronchitis to asthma. In
three cities, Ube, Onoda, and Mine (settling dusts), the
frequency of bronchitis was higher than in Tokuyama and
Nanyo (gaseous pollutants). The frequency of asthma was
more or less the same for both groups of cities, but in the
gaseous pollution cities, in the areas where both dusts and
gases are becoming more concentrated, the frequency of
asthma is increasing. The higher concentration of sulfur diox-
ide seems to be associated with the increase in the asthma af-
fliction rate. Also, there was a significant negative correlation
between the frequency of bronchitis and the soluble com-
ponents such as SO3 and Cl in settling dusts as well as their
pH. Various data on air pollution such as are caused by set-
tling dusts and gases, and bronchitis and asthma are tabulated
and statistical analyses of data are presented.
23670
Mills, Clarence A.
PUBLIC HEALTH ASPECTS OF AIR POLLUTION. In:
California Legislator Assembly Committee on Air and Water
Pollution, Final Summary Report p. 107-111, 1951 (?). 11 refs.
Serious man-made air pollution began with the use of coal as a
fuel and especially as a source of power to turn the wheels of
the Industrial Revolution. A number of correlations have been
made between an atmosphere polluted by coal smoke and
pneumonia mortality. In 1930 fog-bound fumes from a zinc
smelter and sulfuri acid plant in Belgium killed 60 persons and
made hundreds ill. An almost identical tragedy occurred at
Donora, Pa., in 1948. In a statistical survey of respiratory
deaths in Cincinnati and Pittsburgh, death rates for pneu-
monia, tuberculosis, and lung cancer were found to be sharply
and significantly higher in the dirtier industrial areas of these
two cities than in the cleaner residential suburbs. Males are in-
volved much more than females in these effects of pollution.
The observation that death rates from buccal and respiratory
tract cancers rise along with those from pneumonia and tu-
berculosis points strongly to a general irritation of the tract as
the basic factor involved. Smog irritations of the eyes and
throats of the previously well provide a good index of the
damaging quality of the polluted atmosphere which cannot be
tolerated by the sorely ill. The Los Angeles situation is men-
tioned, as well as the need for research with respect to pollu-
tion damage to community health.
24021
Sherwood, Thomas K.
MUST WE BREATHE SULFUR OXIDES? In: Air Polhition-
1970, Part 1. 91st Congress(Senate), Second Session on S.3229,
S.3466, S.3546, p. 183-189, 1970. (Hearings before the Subcom-
mittee on Air and Water Pollution of the Committee on Public
Works, March 16, 17, 18, 1970.)
A review of the sources and effects of sulfur oxides emissions
is presented. Published sulfur dioxide standards conclude that
more than 0.1 ppm for 24 hours in any consecutive 100 day
period may produce adverse health effects in particular seg-
ments of the population. People with bronchitis, emphysema,
or lung cancer are highly susceptible to prolonged exposure to
SO2. Upper limits on the sulfur content of fuel have been
adopted, but the supply is limited. Desulfurization is practical
for oils, but not for most coal. Control methods for power
plant emissions include limestone injection, wet scrubbing, ab-
sorption by inorganic carbonates, adsorption on activated car-
bon, and catalytic oxidation. Cost estimates in terms of mills
per kwh are presented. The future of sulfur control is
discussed.
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234
H. EFFECTS-PLANTS AND LIVESTOCK
00316
A. R. Gregory
EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION ON EDIBLE CROPS. North
Carolina Univ., Chapel Hill, Dept. of Environmental Sciences
and Engineering. May 1964. pp. 21-3.
The effects of air pollution on edible crops should be dif-
ferentiated at the onset from the effects of air pollution on
vegetation in general. For example, sulfur dioxide has a very
pronounced effect on pine needles, but pine needles are a
minor food source. It has been variously estimated by dif-
ferent authorities that the annual loss of vegetable produce
amounts to 40 to 60 million dollars. Although this over-kill
type of damage is very real to the vegetable producer and is of
great economic interest, it is of less concern to those in public
health. Their concern is with the damage that alters the con-
tent s of crops but does not alter the appearance sufficiently
to prohibit their sale. This results in threats to public health
through the insidious route of the gastro-intestinal tract. The
alterations in edible crops that are usually not apparent to the
consumer fall into two categories: (1) loss of nutiirnts such as
vitamins, proteins, essential fatty acids, etc. and (2) the addi-
tion of some substance to the food which is toxic when ab-
sorbed from the gastro-intestinal tract. The loss of nutrients
has been established in many cases. Some of the substances
which have been shown to produce nutrient damage to
produce are: ozone, nitroolefins, perocyacyl nitrates, nitrogen
oxides, and ethylene. Of probably greater importance to health
now and assuredly in the future is the addition of some toxic
substance to the produce. With the advent of possible atomic
power plants, Be was studied for toxicity and found to be ex-
tremely toxic. It was found that Be taken up into bush beans
was not only toxic itself, but decreased the Cu content. In this
way it fell into the category of primary toxicant and also into
the category of nutrient depletor. Many other compounds also
fall into both categories. With the many new insecticides, her-
bicides and larvicides being manufactured, it has become im-
perative to be aware of the problem of both the effect on edi-
bles of a toxicant and also its effect on the plant, that is, loss
of minerals, vitamins, etc.
01014
G. H. Hepting
DAMAGE TO FORESTS FROM AIR POLLUTION. J.
Forestry 62(9):630-634, Sept. 1964. (Presented at North
Carolina State of North Carolina Univ., Raleigh, N.C., Apr. 9,
1964, as one of the University's Inst. of Biological Sciences
Lecture Series.)
Until a few years ago damage to forests from air pollution
consisted mainly of localized but very severe cases of mortali-
ty and growth loss due to oxides of sulfur or to fluoride as-
sociated with ore reduction, with a minor contribution from
other sources. In recent years oxidant damage, attributed lar-
gely to ozone in Los Angeles smog, is considered partly
responsible for destroying ponderosa pine in the mountains
east of that city. Oxidant has also been determined as the
cause of a long-known needle blight of eastern white pine now
called emergence tipburn, and evidence is accumulating that
the eastern white pine disease long known as chlorotic dwarf
may be due to an abiotic air-borne agent. Mortality and growth
loss of this species has also been occurring within a 20-mile
radius of certain power plants consuming large quantities of
soft coal. When potted ramets (vegetative reproductions) of
selected sensitive white pine clones were exposed in an area
embracing an industrial complex in east Tennessee, exposure
for seven months resulted in uniformly severe damage. Ramets
from resistant trees, similarly exposed, suffered no damage.
Sensitive ramets kept out of the affected area remained
healthy. New and important types of crop damage, including
damage to trees, appear to be resulting from air pollution as-
sociated with our enormous urban development, with stack
gases from new industrial processes, and with greatly in-
creased emissions of stack gases from industrial plants using
fossil fuels at rates far beyond consumtpion only 15 years ago.
(Author abstract)
01398
G.H. Hepting
AIR POLLUTION IMPACTS TO SOME IMPORTANT SPE-
CIES OF PINE. J. Air Pollution Control Assoc., 16(2):63-65,
Feb. 1966.
In the past, many species of pine have been severely damaged
by acute forms of air pollution associated with ore smelting.
More recently, damage to ponderosa pine in the State of
Washington has been associated with atmospheric fluoride,
and this species in particular has also suffered smog damage in
southern California. In the East, whie pine has been declining
in the vicinity of certain soft-coal-burning power plants, and in
one case downwind from an oil-burning power plant; also,
throughout the East, an atmospheric oxidant of unknown
source has caused a type of needle blight on white pine. Trash
burners and city dump combustion have led to the killing of
certain pine species, leaving other intermixed pine species un-
harmed. Localized damage to white pine from automobile ex-
haust has been observed. Differences in the susceptibility of
neighboring trees of the same species to a given air pollutant
have been observed repeatedly. (Author abstract)
01589
R. Porter
AIR POLLUTION EFFECTS AND CONTROL OF POWER
PLANT EMISSIONS. Preprint. (Presented to a joint meeting of
the Baltimore and National Capital Chapters, American
Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning En-
gineers, Washington, D.C., Feb. 12, 1964.)
This paper presents a general review of the broad field of air
pollution, encompassing such topics as sources of pollution
and their implications on living organisms and plants. It
discusses the technology of controlling emissions, in particular
from power plants, and the Clean Air Act of 1963. This new
legislation makes it possible that substantially more of the
resources of the Federal Government are placed at the
disposal of the Nation.
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H. EFFECTS-PLANTS AND LIVESTOCK
235
02293
H.V. Jordan
SULFUR AS A PLANT NUTRIENT IN THE SOUTHERN
UNITED STATES. Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.,
Agricultural Research Service. (Technical Bulletin 1297). Feb.
1964. 45 pp. GPO
Plants obtain sulfur from several sources-soils, rain or irriga-
tion water, the atmosphere, insecticides, and fertilizers. If sup-
plies are deficient from some or all these sources, crop yields
may be curtailed. Soils of the Southeastern States and Arkan-
sas and Texas are highly leached and are low in organic
matter, which is the principal repository of sulfur. Sulfur in
rainwater and atmosphere originates principally from gases
discharged in the combustion of coal. Industrial and home use
of coal is relatively minor in large areas of the South.
Moreover, coal is being replaced by fuel oil, natural gas, and
electricity. As a result, the sulfur obtained from the at-
mosphere is reduced and the distribution pattern of sulfur is
frequently changed. Organic compounds that contain little or
no sulfur are replacing sulfur formerly used in cotton insecti-
cides. Sulfur has been an incidental component of many fertil-
izer materials. However, new fertilizers that are low in sulfur,
or even sulfur-free, are coming into use. The Southern Re-
gional Sulfur project was begun in 1952 to study sulfur sup-
plies and requirements for crops and to assess the impact of
technological changes on the sulfur supplies and requirements
for crops and to assess the impact of technological changes on
the sulfur nutrition of crops. The studies were continued
through 1960.
02299
J.T. Middleton
PLANT DAMAGE: AN INDICATOR OF THE PRESENCE
AND DISTRIBUTION OF AIR POLLUTION. Bull. World
Health Organ. (Geneva) 34, (3) 477-80, 1966.
Air pollutants may damage plants and cause death or destruc-
tion of tissue with visible pathological symptoms, reduce
growth, productivity, and commodity quality, and interfere
with biological processes without causing visible injury symp-
toms. The contaminants responsible for damage may be either
paniculate or gaseous in nature. The solid particles released
into the atmosphere are sometimes the cause of soiling of
fruits and vegetables, tissue damage to exposed leaves and
fruits, growth reduction; in addition, they add a toxic burden
to forage crops used as feedstuffs for livestock. Liquid parti-
cles, such as acid aerosols and toxic mists, are sometimes
responsible for leaf spotting. The greatest amount of damage
to animals and vegetation is usually caused by gaseous air con-
taminants, which directly injure plants and indirectly injure
animals by the toxic effects produced after the animal has
consumed contaminated forage and food supplements. This
discussion of plant damage symptoms and responses has been
directed to the qualitative aspects necessary for assessing the
presence and distribution of pollution. As to the evaluation of
the concentration and duration of exposure to specific pollu-
tants, experimental systems are available, or can be designed,
to meet these specific quantitative needs once the presence of
given pollutants has been determined.
05420
Daines, R. H., I. A. Leon, and E. Brennan
Affi POLLUTION AND PLANT RESPONSE IN THE
NORTHEASTERN UNITED STATES. In: Agriculture and the
Quality of Our Environment. Brady, N. C. (ed.), American As-
sociation for the Advancement of Science, Washington, D. C.
AAAS-Pub-85, p. 11-31, 1967. 56 refs. (Presented at the 133rd
Meeting, American Association for the Advancement of
Science, Washington, D. C. Dec. 1966.)
A review of pollutants that have been found to elicit plant
response is confined to the discussion of acid gases, primary
products of combustion, and products of reactions occurring
in the atmosphere. Other topics discussed include: plant
response as an indicator of meteorological conditions and the
fuels used for heat, light, and power.
06967
PREVENTION OF AIR POLLUTION IN THE STATE OF
NORTH RHINE- WESTPHALIA. Ministry of Labour and So-
cial Welfare, North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany)). (Report to
the Congrss on the 'Prevention of Air Pollution', Duesseldorf,
Germany, Apr. 5-7, 1965.) 78p. Translated from German.
A survey of the activities in North Rhine-Westphalia for the
prevention of air pollution is reported and the results are sum-
marized. The report included: (1) history, legal basis, adminis-
trative organization, smogwarning network, and economic
problems; (II) Report of the Factory Inspection Dept. (Enter-
prises subject to approval and other enterprises and working
places); and (III) report of the State Institute for Air Pollution
Control and Land Utilization (monitoring of air pollution,
techniques for measuring immissions, relationship between
emission and immission, technical steps for the restriction of
emissions, and the effect of air pollution on soil, vegetation
and animals.
07786
Hansbrough, J. R.
AIR QUALITY AND FORESTRY. In: Agriculture and the
Quality of Our Environment. Brady, N. C. (ed.), Norwood,
Mass., Plimp- ton Press, AAAS-Pub-85, p.45-55, 1967. 25 refs.
(Presented at Meeting, American Association for the Advance-
ment of Science, Science, Washington, D. C., ODBC. 1966.)
A review which cites examples of injury to forests by specific
air pollutants. The source and the nature of the pollutants are
discussed. Also, the contribution of trees in combating the air
the 133rd. Meeting, American Association for the Advance-
ment of pollution problem is speculated on. As technology
changes, trees wherever they grow and for whatever purpose
are increasingly subjected to toxic substances in the at-
mosphere. There is a considerable body of knowledge already
available but it is dwarfed by the magnitude of what is not yet
known. More information on the nature and source of air pol-
lutants and their present and expected impact on our forest
and shade tree resource is necessary.
11733
Executive Office of the President, Washington, D.C., Energy
Policy Staff
CONSIDERATIONS AFFECTING STEAM POWER PLANT
SITE SELECTION. 133p., 1968. 58 refs. CFSTI: PB 180 741
The present knowledge of the public interest considerations
that should play a role in planning the power plants of the fu-
ture are presented. The physical requirements are discussed
for siting the large power plants of the future. Air pollution
problems at nuclear plants are minimal. Air pollution control is
a most important factor in siting fossil-fueled plants. Existing
power plants contribute to air pollution problem primarily
through the emission of particulate matter and sulfur oxides
but also through emission of oxides of nitrogen. The air pollu-
tion problem is described and the air pollution control program
of HEW in cooperation with State agencies is outlined. Con-
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ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
trol equipment is now available to collect some 99 percent of
paniculate matter. A major research effort is under way to
develop economical means of removing the sulfur after fossil
fuels are burned and before the resulting gases are emitted to
the atmosphere. The techniques for promulgating air pollution
standards pursuant to the Clean Air Act of 1968 are described.
A major power plant siting consideration is the disposal of
waste heat into the Nation's waterways. Power plant siting
must be responsive to the increased public concern for the
quality of our environment. The rural development considera-
tions in generating station siting are discussed. Other possibili-
ties, including combining a huge plant to convert coal to crude
oil with a power station that would be fueled by the by-
product char are described. Large energy centers are also
being considered in which the power plant would be the hub
of an agro-industrial complex. Also presented is a summary of
the activities of other State agencies concerned with the quali-
ty of the environment, recreation and related matters.
19620
Bashirova, F. N.
CERTAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF INDUSTRIAL AND
DOMESTIC CONTAMINATION OF SOIL IN CITIES OF THE
KUSNTESK BASIN. (Nekotoryye pokazateli promyshlennogo i
bytovogo zagryazneniya pochv v Gorodakh Kuzbassa). Text in
Russian. Okhrana Prirody na Urale, vol. 5:79-82, 1966.
Analysis of soil samples taken in and near cities of the
Kusnetsk Basin, a coal and metal working center, has revealed
significant changes caused by various waste products. Soils
were found to contain harmful elements such as lead, and to
be poor in nutriment content. The natural composition of soil
was found in gardens and parks where cultivation was main-
tained to a depth 60-130 cm. It is concluded that with proper
agronomic measures, these soils can be made to support trees,
shrubs, flowers, and grasses.
20982
Spaleny, J.
EFFECT OF FLUE DUST FROM POWER STATIONS ON
GERMINATION AND PHOTOSYNTHESIS OF HIGHER
PLANTS. (Vliv elektrarenskych popilku na kliceni a fotosyn-
tezu vyssich rostlin.) Scientific and Technical Society, Prague
(Czechoslovakia), Agriculture and Forestry Section, Proc.
Conf. Effect Ind. Emissions Forestry, Janske Lazne,
Czechoslovakia, 1966, p. XXI-1 and XXI-12. (Oct. 11- 14.)
Translated from Czech. Franklin Inst. Research Labs.,
Philadelphia, Pa. Science Info. Services. April 24, 1969.
Experiments were conducted to test the inhibitory effects of
certain constituents of power plant dusts on the metabolism of
plants. Dust samples provided a total spectrum of the sizes of
dust particles. Feeding cabbage was used as the model plant
because of its comparatively intensive photosynthetic activity.
Germination was realized in Petri dishes located in a thermo-
stat at the temperature of 20 C and exposed to illumunation of
700 lux. Illumination lasted for 8 hrs and occurred every 24
hrs. The water layer in the individual dishes was high enough
to cover the seeds without blocking sufficient air access. Acid
flue dust (pH 4.3) significantly inhibited both germination and
growth. Less acid flue dust (pH 5.3) had no influence, and
neutral flue dust (pH 6.4) exerted a positive effect. Results
showed that dusting of the upper side of the leaf exerts more
influence on the inhibition of photosynthesis than dusting on
the lower side of the leaf. This is mostly due to the fact that
more flue dust will adhere to the upper side, and both the
choking of vents and the light screening from the flue dust
layer will be evidenced on the surface of the leaf. Results
showed that the soluble component of flue dust also inhibits
photosynthesis. Flue dust made wet by water mist is a less ac-
tive inhibitor of photosynthesis. In a microscopic comparison
of dry and wet flue dust, accumulation of dust particles occurs
which evidently leads to some dechoking of certain vents, and
the dust screen acting against the incident light will be partially
decomposed.
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237
I. EFFECTS-MATERIALS
03222
M. Okada, N. Nagai, and K. Ogino.
POLLUTION PROBLEMS ON LIGHTNING ARRESTERS.
Text in Japanese Mitsubishi Denki Giho (Tokyo) 40, (9) 1453-
67, Sept. 1966.
This paper describes the problems of pollution on lightning ar-
resters due to an increasing number of thermal power stations
near the seashore in Japan. It is concluded that overinsulation
of the arrester housing does not always correct the situation
and sometimes effects the operation of the arrester. Reports
on tests of arresters within a contaminated area since 1950
give numerous data on the effect of atmosphric conditions on
the characteristics of arresters. This report tabulates the
results of the studies and presents a guide to the application of
these arresters. (Author summary)
04622
R. H. Boll and H. C. Patel
THE ROLE OF CHEMICAL THERMODYNAMICS IN
ANALYZING GAS-SIDE PROBLEMS IN BOILERS. J. Eng.
Power 83, 451-67, 1961. (Presented at the Annual Meeting,
American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York City,
Nov. 27-Dec. 2, 1960)
Part 1 deals with equilibrium concentrations of 29 gaseous and
5 condensed constituents which were calculated for the com-
bustion gases from 2 coals. Temperatures ranged from 440 to
3140 F and fuel-air ratios from 90 to 130% of theoretical air.
The 2 coals were selected for their difference with respect to
behavior in a boiler. Both are high in S but the Pana, which is
especially high in alkali and Cl, produces a highly fouling and
corrosive deposit, whereas the Wright contains less of these
elements and is innocuous with respect to superheater fouling.
In determining the elemental composition of the gases, it was
assumed in all cases that: (1) 95% of the nonash S appears in
the combustion gas, the remainder going into ash; (2) 40% of
the Na content of the coal appears in the gas; (3) 20% of the
K content of the coal appears in the gas; (4) all of the K con-
tent may be handled as though it were Na; and (5) except for
Na, K, and S, no ash constituents enter the combustion gas.
Results are presented in graphical and tabular form. Starting
from the equilibrium-gas composition results of Part 1, the re-
gions of thermodynamic stability of various Na and Fe com-
pounds are obtained in Part 2 as functions of temperature and
fuel-air ratio. It is shown that purely thermodynamic con-
siderations impose an upper temperature limit upon corrosion
mechanisms involving complex iron sulfates. The severe foul-
ing tendency of high alkali coals is discussed. By purely ther-
modynamic means, this study has succeeded in approximately
separating the regions wherein accelerated oxidation and sulfa-
tion can operate as corrosion mechanisms. Results are in good
agreement with experimental observations when allowance is
made for probale error in certain basic thermodynamic data,
for solution effects and for differences in behavior among the
different alkali-metal compounds. Sulfidation is predicted ther-
modynamically if O2 is excluded from the metal surface.
Na2SO4 and Na2Si205 are stable above 1600F in contact with
high-alkali combustion gas.
07553
Yocom, John E.
THE DETERIORATION OF MATERIALS IN POLLUTED AT-
MOSPHERES. J. Air Pollution Control Assoc., 8(3):203-208,
Nov. 1958. 34 refs. (Presented at the 14th Annual Conference
and 1958 Exhibition, National Assoc. of Corrosion Engineers,
San Francisco, Calif., March 20, 1958.)
A group of spcific air pollutants known to produce deteriora-
tion of materials, the principal sources of these pollutants, and
the most likely mechanisms by which deterioration of a variety
of materials can occur are discussed. Specifically, the pollu-
tants are carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, sulfur trioxide,
hydrogen sulfide, hydrogen fluoride, ozone and solid particu-
lates.
11286
Frey, Donald J., R. C. Ulmer, O. B. Bucklen, and P. Meikle
BOILER TUBE CORROSION. Preprint, Combustion Engineer-
ing, Inc. and West Virginia Univ., Morgantown, 15p., 1966. 6
refs. (Presented at the Annual Meeting, National Coal Associa-
tion Technical-Sales Conferences and Bituminous Coal
Research, Inc., Pittsburgh, Penna., Sept. 14-15, 1966.)
High temperature corrosion of coal boiler superheater and re-
heater surfaces is an industry wide problem. The ideal solution
would be to render the coal product shipped to the utility non-
corrosive. The remainder of this report discusses a program
aimed largely at eliminating corrosiveness of coal but at the
same time alleviating its air polluting tendencies as much as
possible. An integral part of this project is the establishment
of relative rates of corrosion produced by coals of varying
physical and chemical properties. Methods of testing and
design of test equipment are discussed. Metal wastage occurs
as the result of a chemical reaction between the tube surface
and a complex alkaliron-sulfate compound, expressed as (K3
or Na3) Fe (SO4)3. Three ingredients are absolutely necessary;
sodium and potassium oxides, iron oxide, and SO3; if any one
of these three reactants is missing, corrosion will not occur.
Attention is also being given to the alkaline earths, calcium
and magnesium, since these are known to play an inhibiting
role in the corrosive reaction. It is believed that Ca and Mg, in
forms reactive with SO3, tie up a portion of the alkalies as
double salts (viz. K2SO4.2CaSO4). As such, the alkalies are
unavailable for formation of the corrosive compound. In
general, the higher the soluble alkali content, the greater the
observed rates of corrosion.
13086
Jonakin, James, G. A. Rice, and J. T. Reese
FIRESIDE CORROSION OF SUPERHEATER AND RE-
HEATER TUBING. Preprint, Am. Soc. Mech. Engrs., 8p.,
1959. 4 refs. (Presented at the Fuels-AIME (Am. Inst. Mech.
Engrs.) Conference, Cincinnati, Ohio, Oct. 26-29, 1959).
At a steam electric station, studies were made to determine
the mechanism by which constituents of the coal ash adhere to
tubing and how the deposits cause corrosion. The wastage of a
particular type of stainless steel alloy was directly associated
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ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
with ash constituents having low melting temperatures. The
relation of metal wastage to metal temperature was found to
be a bell-shaped curve with the maximum metal loss occurring
at about 1050 to 1150 F. The wastage occurred only under
deposits. Sulfurous gases from the flue gas combine with tube
deposits to form complex alkali iron sulfates which are molten
in the temperature range of maximum metal wastage. Stain-
less-steel shields were a good temporary measure for the pro-
tection of superheater and reheater tubes from deposit-type
corrosion.
20820
COMMUNITY AIR QUALITY GUIDES: SULFUR COM-
POUNDS. Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J., 31(2):253-260, March-April
1970. 26 refs.
The major sulfur compounds detected in the atmosphere are
sulfur dioxide, sulfur trioxide, sulfuric acid, sulfates, and
hydrogen sulfide. The chief effects of SO2 are eye and
respiratory tract irritation, and increased pulmonary resistance.
At concentrations of 87 mg/cu m for 2.75 hours, SO3 proved
fatal to guinea pigs. Hydrogen sulfide is a respiratory and eye
irritant at low concentrations, and at high concentrations can
cause respiratory paralysis. It is believed that sulfur com-
pounds produce a more severe effect when they are adsorbed
on a particle small enough to penetrate the lung. Sulfur oxides
and hydrogen sulfide can also damage vegetation. Materials
such as metals, paper, leather, textiles, paint, and ceramics are
also damaged by sulfur compounds. It is suggested that the
sulfur oxide concentration in the air kept as low as possible to
prevent damage to vegetation, deterioration of materials, and
to avoid the presumed adverse health effects. Methods for
sampling sulfur compounds and their physical and chemical
properties are also included.
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239
J. EFFECTS-ECONOMIC
00166
E. Z. Finfer
SOME TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF
RESIDUAL OIL DESULFURIZATION. Ind. Hyg. Rev. 7, (2)
11-20, Dec. 1965. (Reprinted from the J. Air Pollution Control
Assoc. 15, 485-8, Oct. 1965.)
Report discusses the sulfur content problem in the area of sul-
fur fuel oil. Paper deals with the following categories: Sulfur
content of residual fuel oil; Sulfur oxide emission; Emission
inventory for sulfur dioxide; Effects of contaminants produced
from combustion of residual oils; control of sulfur oxide emis-
sions; methods of desulfurization; and desulfurization cost
estimates.
00253
J. E. Moody
COAL CAMPAIGNS FOR CLEAN AIR. Coal, 20(2):8-12, 32,
Apr. 1966.
It is claimed that the coal industry could virtually be legislated
out of business if the severest air pollution control measures
being proposed by certain governmental agencies were to be
implemented and become models for the entire country. The
National Coal Policy Conference, the National Coal Associa-
tion and the United Mine Workers of America urged that regu-
lations adopted be reasonable and feasible and not such as to
damage any industry unnecessarily. The coal groups requested
that sulfur control restriction be placed on a stack emission,
rather than a coal-input basis so that research on control
technique could be stimulated. They also requested that ex-
emptions be granted to certain older plants which, because of
limited life projection, could not justify the cost of upgrading
paniculate control efficiency from 95 to 99%.
00978
A.E. Evanson
POWER OR POLLUTION: THE USE OF LUMBER INDUS-
TRY WASTE FOR ELECTRIC POWER GENERATION.
Preprint. (Presented at the Pacific Northwest International
Section, Air Pollution Control Association, Portland, Oreg.,
Nov. 5-6, 1964.)
Author discusses the relative advantages of using lumber
wastes for power generation. In doing so, this method is com-
pared with nuclear power and hydroelecyric sources. A com-
parison of costs is presented for the three methods. The con-
sideration of highest priority is the control of air pollution.
01308
M.N. Magnus
HISTORY OF FLY ASH COLLECTION AT THE SOUTH
CHARLESTON PLANT UNION CARBIDE CORPORATION -
CHEMICALS DIVISION. J. Air Pollution Control Assoc.,
15(4):149-154, April 1965.
This report summarizes the installation and operation of fly
ash collection and disposal equipment at the South Charleston
Plant and includes installation costs, replacement costs based
on present-day cost factors, as well as performance data, and
maintenance and operating costs. (Author abstract)
01546
J.J. Hanks H.D. Kube
INDUSTRY ACTION TO COMBAT POLLUTION. Harvard
Bus. Rev., 44(5):49-62, Oct. 1966.
The responsibilities of individual corporations in air pollution
abatement are emphasized. Sources of pollution discussed in-
clude the paper, steel, electric power, transportation and
petroleum industries. Principal equipment for removal of
aerosols and participates is described. It is concluded that
although air pollution equipment increases costs in certain in-
dustries, recovery of pollutant, such as fly ash, may help to
offset the costs. Government activities in air pollution pro-
grams are summarized.
01659
A FEASIBILITY STUDY OF THE RECOVERY OF SULFUR
AND IRON FROM COAL PYRITES. Weir (Paul) Co., Inc.,
Chicago, 111. May 1966. 42 pp
This report supplements a previous report by the Paul Weir
Company on the feasibility of reducing the sulfur content of
coals by generally known coal preparation methods. It con-
tains the results of additional data obtained by further in-
vestigation with reference to the economic coal. It discusses
beneficiation processes required to obtain the proper grade of
pyrite; the methods of treating pyrite to obtain sulfur (in the
form of sulfuric acid); and the processing of the iron calcines
to obtain suitable grades of iron oxide.
01660
AN ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY STUDY OF COAL DESUL-
FURIZATION. WEIR (Paul) Co., Inc., Chicago, 111. 137, Oct.
1965.
An investigation was conducted of the feasibility of reducing
the sulfur content of coals by generally known coal prepara-
tion methods together with known costs through case studies.
By 'desulfurization' is meant the removal or lowering of the
sulfur content of American coals through the removal or
lowering of the sulfur content of American coals through
known methods of crushing, washing, and various processes
other than changing the solid nature of coal, such as through
chemical decomposition into gaseous and liquid products. This
study is not involved with the removal of sulfur from flue
gases. Since the the main source of sulfur dioxide air pollution
from coal is the result of its use as 'steam' coal, this study lar-
gely concerns itself with United States steam coals as distinct
from coals used for metallurgical or coking purposes. Work in-
volved a study of the production, distribution and end use of
bituminous and lignitic coals; a study of the proximate
analyses of the major coal beds in the United States; a study
of the sulfur forms in these major coal beds; an estimate of
the reserves and location of high sulfur coal beds; and case
studies of current coal preparation practices in preparing
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ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
steam coals including current costs and suggested methods of
coal preparation, using the most modern available equipment
together with an estimate of costs for such treatment based
upon a 1,000 ton per hour capacity plant.
01679
COAL GASIFICATION APPROACHES PILOT PLANT
STAGE. Chem. Eng. News 44, 68-73, Apr. 18, 1966.
Four gasification processes to produce pipeline gas from coal
to reach the consumer by 1970 are described. With laboratory
investigations and pilot plants being in the planning stage,
developers are looking ahead to the ultimate objective of a
commercial mine-mouth plant producing 250 million cu. ft. of
gas per day to be sold at about 50 cents per million B.t.u. The
four processes are: Hydrogasification, carbon dioxide accep-
tor, molten-salt process, and the two-stage entrained gasifica-
tion process. Although they are all being developed by private
organizations, all are supported at least in part by the U.S. De-
partment of Interior, Office of Coal Research.
01707
D. Bienstock, J. H. Field, S. Katell, and K. D. Plants
EVALUATION OF DRY PROCESSES FOR REMOVING SUL-
FUR DIOXIDE FROM POWER PLANT FLUE GASES. J. Air
Pollution Control Assoc. 15, (10) 459-64, Oct. 1965. (Presented
at the 58th Annual Meeting, Air Pollution Control Association,
Toronto, Canada, June 20-24, 1965.)
Capital investment and operating costs of three dry processes
(Reinluft, catalytic oxidation, and alkalized alumina) for
removing SO2 from the flue gas of an 800 megawatt power
plant have been projected. Investment costs ranged from
$8,510,000 to 17,460,000, and operating costs ranged from
$0.75 to $1.44 per ton of coal after charging 14 percent capital
charges and allowing byproduct credit for sulfuric acid and
elemental sulfur. (Author abstract)
02151
R. Quack.
DUST AND GAS EMISSION FROM THERMAL POWER STA-
TIONS. Die Staubund Gasformigen Emissionen von War-
mekraftwerken. BRENNSTOFF-WAERME-KRAFT (DUES-
SELDORF) 18, (10) 479-86, OCT. 1966.
The capital and operating costs which are incurred in thermal
power stations to reduce the emission of dust and gases to a
degree tolerable for the environment increase as the demands
for the maintenance of clean air by the public and by the
authorities become more stringent. After presenting data on
the proportion of various fuels used by industry and home
heating plants, the author discusses the possibilities for the re-
tention and separation of fly ash, the avoidance of soot and
the reduction of sulfur dioxide emissions from power stations
for conditions prevailing in the Federal Republic of Germany.
(Author summary)
02413
R.M. Jimeson
THE POSSIBILITIES OF SOLVENT REFINED COAL
(MASTERS THESIS). (For the degree of Master of Engineer-
ing Administration, George Washington Univ., Washington,
D.C.) Feb. 22, 1965. 141 pp.
In the preface it is stated that the thesis investigates the com-
petitive market possibilities of solvent refined coal, a recon-
stituted coal purified to a low ash and sulfur content. Many as-
sumptions had to be made because technical experience in the
use of the product has yet to be attained. In general, the
author endeavored to make conservative assumptions. Esti-
mates have been made as carefully as possible within the
limits of available data. The author, however, has no illusion
that time will not prove him somewhat off the mark due to fu-
ture technological or economic developments. During the
course of the investigation, sizeable economic markets for sol-
vent refined coal became apparent, but certain technical unk-
nowns obscured the assurance of these important markets.
The prime target for immediate and further research, is to en-
lighten these unknowns, particularly in those areas with
greatest economic potential. Consequently, other than showing
prominent market possibilities, the study provides a clear
order of importance for further research on solvent refined
coal. The final chapter summarizes the market possibilities and
suggests a priority of research which will determine the
rightful place of solvent refined coal.
02918
F.Felix
NUCLEAR TO DOMINATE POWER PLANT CONSTRUC-
TION. Elec. World 165, (18) 63-5, May 2, 1966.
Nuclear plants will comprise better than a third of the world's
total electric generating capability by AD 2,000. The growing
acceptance of nuclear power is apparent, today, in the con-
struction programs of heavy power-consuming nations.
Nuclear plant construction will exceed non-nuclear as early as
1980 in some nations; it will move into a similar position for
the entire world during the final decade of this century. These
projections are derived by techniques developed in 1955, the
year of the first Geneva Conference on Peaceful Uses of
Atomic Energy, and periodically reappraised subsequently.
They are based on such statistical facts as each nation's per
capita consumption of electricity, its population growth rate,
and the historical or expected service date of its first commer-
cial nuclear power plant.
06845
Brackett, C. E.
AVAILABILITY, QUALITY AND PRESENT UTILIZATION
OF FLY ASH. Combustion, 38(ll):39-45, May 1967. (Presented
at a meeting sponsored by Edison Electronic Inst, National
Coal Association and Bureau of Mines, Pittsburgh, Pa., March
14-16, 1967.)
Data on current availability, quality and use of fly ash are
discussed. A few of the problems presently facing the industry
as a whole and practical methods which can be used to solve
some of these problems are discussed. The need for much ad-
ditional basic research data on fly ash so that a quality product
can be produced and sold at all times and under all conditions
is emphasized.
07643
Tybout, Richard A.
ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF UNCONVENTIONAL ENERGY
RESOURCES. American Chemical Society, Pittsburgh, Pa.,
Div. of Fuel Chemistry, Preprint, 9(2):31-60, 1965. 66 refs.
(Presented at the 149th National Meeting, American Chemical
Society, Division of Fuel Chemistry, Symposium on Fuel and
Energy Economics Joint with Division of Chemical Marketing
and Economics, Detroit, Mich., April 4-9, 1965.)
The two most important unconventional energy resources
today are atomic energy and solar energy. Importance here is
judged by the ability of these two resources to supply the
world's energy load before the end of this century, and is in-
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J. EFFECTS-ECONOMIC
241
fluenced by a lack of resource restrictions for both. An
economic analysis of the prospects for nuclear power is given
which includes a discussion of cost variables and tabulates
cost comparisons of a coal-fired power plant and a nuclear
power plant. A similar analysis is presented for solar energy.
In addition, three solar power systems are explained. Esti-
mated solar power costs are tabulated for each of these
systems. Space heating as a market for solar energy is
discussed in detail. Estimated solar heat costs are given for a
house Colorado. Nuclear power will be more widely used in
the U.S. with recognition of its social costs as well as its
economic benefits. It is also conceivable that solar energy will
assume some of the space heating load but this will depend on
further technological progress.
08059
W. H. MegonneU
AIR POLLUTION CONTROL: ITS IMPACT UPON MU-
NICIPALITIES, INDUSTRY, AND THE INDIVIDUAL. Air
Eng., 9(7): 12-14, July 1967. (Presented at the Summer Con-
ference on 'The Demands of Pollution Control Legislation,'
Fairleigh Dickinson Univ., Madison, N. J., Aug. 26, 1966.)
The contribution to air pollution by the individual citizen and
his financial involvement in abatement and control are
discussed. Direct and indirect costs of pollution abatement
regulations to the individual are illustrated. The impact of pol-
lution control regulations on industry is examined. Industry's
concern should be with the failure of the adoption of uniform
regulations and universal enforcement thereof. The problems
of sulfurous emissions, control measures, and costs involved
are discussed. The responsibility of governing officials of mu-
nicipalities to aid in pollution control is also discussed.
Benefits of pollution prevention, control, and abatement are
enumerated.
08867
Katell, Sidney and K. D. Plants
HERE'S WHAT SO2 REMOVAL COSTS. Hydrocarbon
Process., 46(7):161-164, July 1967. 7 refs.
Capital and operating costs are estimated for removing SO2
from power plant stack gases based on pilot plant tests of
three well known systems. The three systems are (1) the Rein-
luft process using activated char; (2) the alkalized alumina
process and (3) the catalytic oxidation process. The study as-
sumed the use of a coal containing 3 percent sulfur in a
powerplant producing 800 Mw of power. The alkalized alumina
process requires the lowest capitol investment and operating
cost. The catalytic oxidation process requires the highest
capital investment and intermediate operating cost, about 15
percent higher than the alkalized alumina. The Reinluft
process requires an intermediate capital investment and the
highest operating cost of the three processes. Three Japanese
approaches, the use of dolomite and limestone, and of
phosphate rock are reviewed. Economics will determine the
choice of one over the other, but it is conceivable that, de-
pending on location, technical advances, the type of fuel used,
and marketing environment for the sale of by-products, all
systems may eventually be used.
11111
Ernst and Ernst
A COST-EFFECTIVENESS STUDY OF AIR POLLUTION
ABATEMENT IN THE GREATER KANSAS CITY AREA.
Preprint, ((18)) p., May, 1968. (Presented at the Kansas City
Air Pollution Abatement Con- ference, Kansas City, Mo.)
The cost of achieving various air quality levels in the Kansas
City study area under different abatement strategies are esti-
mated. The pollutants of interest in this study are suspended
particulates and sulfur oxides. Emissions come from com-
bustion of fossil fuels for space heating and power generation,
from open burning and incineration of solid and liquid waste,
from industrial processes, and from miscellaneous small
sources. Stationary sources account for over 86 percent of the
particulates and over 96 percent of the sulfur oxides emitted in
this area.
11114
Ernst and Ernst, Washington, D. C.
A COST-EFFECTIVENESS STUDY OF PARTICULATE AND
SOX EMISSION CONTROL IN THE NEW YORK
METROPOLITAN AREA. Preprint, ((28))p, 1968. (Presented at
the Air .pollution Abatement Conference, New York, N. Y.
Feb. 1968.)
The annual cost of alternative methods for reducing particulate
and SOx emission from power plants, stationary combustion
sources, and incinerators is estimated. The alternatives include
changing types of fuel and installation of various pieces of
control equipment.
11846
Betchtel Corp., San Francisco, Calif.
PROCESS COSTS AND ECONOMICS OF PYRTTE-COAL
UTILIZATION. Contract PH-86-27-224, ((172))p., Dec. 1968.
((113)) refs.
A method of reducing sulfur oxides emission is to remove
some or most of the pyritic sulfur from high-sulfur coals be-
fore combustion. This coal preparation step produces clean,
low-sulfur coal, but it also yields large quantities of sulfur-con-
taining refuse. The study reviews and compares suitable
processes for recovering byproducts and fuel value from coal
refuse. A number of methods for recovering products were in-
vestigated. The more promising methods were investigated and
greater detail. Results are generally positive and indicate that
the selected process could economically utilize coal refuse
under certain conditions. It also shows that process improve-
ments are possible which could further help the overall feasi-
bility.
11995
Bretschneider, Boris
ECONOMIC CONSEQUENCES OF ATMOSPHERIC POLLU-
TION DUE TO EXHALATION FROM LARGE THERMAL
POWER PLANTS IN CZECHOSLOVAKIA. In: Preprints of
the Czechoslovak Reports. International Symposium on the
Control and Utilization of Sulphur Dioxide and Fly-Ash from
the Flue Gases of Large Thermal Power Plants. Liblice House
of Scientific Workers, 1965, p. 226-236.
The economic consequences of pollution caused by thermal
power plant emissions can be reliably expressed in numbers;
this is especially true for agricultural and forest production.
The contribution of emissions to increased living costs,
represented for example by higher water consumption and the
cost of cleaning or replacing clothing, is more difficult to ex-
press in numbers. Determination of the damage to the health
of a population is extremely difficult in the absence of suffi-
ciently convincing proof or a method of economic evaluation.
However, the growth of the indices of drug expenditures in in-
dustrial regions between 1960-1963 suggests that serious atten-
tion should be given to this problem. Although it is impossible
to calculate or express all the negative consequences of pollu-
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242
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
lion by power plants in precise economic terms, estimations
imply that they are enormous. Technology must be applied to
limiting the emissions to bearable values.
12418
O'Connor, John R. and Joseph F. Citarella
AN AIR POLLUTION CONTROL COST STUDY OF THE
STEAM-ELECTRIC POWER-GENERATING INDUSTRY.
Preprint, Air Pollution Control Association, New York City,
25p., 1969. 8 refs. (Presented at the Air Pollution Control As-
sociation Annual Meeting 62nd, New York, June 22-26, 1969.)
The results of the National Air Pollution Control Administra-
tion's comprehensive survey of the cost of particulate control
in the steam-electric power generating industry are presented.
The survey, limited to gas cleaning equipment placed in ser-
vice since January 1958, represents control cost information
for 107 collector systems in 60 plants. The aggregate capital in-
vestment reported in particulate control equipment, as well as
fly ash handling and storage equipment, was approximately
$112 million. In addition, the plants spend about $4.6 million
annually to operate the equipment and dispose of the collected
fly ash. The data obtained reflects a trend toward the exclu-
sive use of electrostatic precipitators, most of which have
design efficiencies greater than 98%. As compared to the years
1958-1962, significant reductions in the installed cost per
kilowatt of these gas cleaning units are indicated for 1963-
1967. As determined by linear regression analysis, the installed
cost of a precipitator for an individual boiler can vary widely,
due probably to factors such as labor costs, required duct-
work, and structural support. Although maintenance and
operating costs of a precipitator are fairly constant for a given
company, there is considerable variation in the costs between
companies. Similarly, the cost fly ash disposal varies widely.
Theoretical analysis of a 600 megawett coal-burning power
plant shows that the cost of pollution control is 0.35 to 1.0% of
the total cost of power to the consumer, including transmis-
sion and distribution costs as well as the production costs.
This means that, for the average residential electric bill of
$120 for a utility with particulate control of 98% or greater,
approximately $0.42 to $1.20 is related to costs of control
equipment.
13613
Morrison, Warren E.
SUMMARY ENERGY BALANCES FOR THE UNITED
STATES. SELECTED YEARS 1947-62. Bureau of Mines,
Washington, D. C., IC-8242, 1964. 3 refs.
The production, consumption, and the various forms of energy
resources in the U.S. from 1947 to 1963 are discussed. The
major sources of commercial energy are anthracite, bitu-
minous coal and lignite, dry natural gas, petroleum, and hydro
and electric power. During the 15-year span, the greatest con-
tribution to energy growth came from petroleum and natural
gas. Bituminous coal declined throughout the period, and in
1962 ranked third after petroleum and natural gas. The basic
energy markets are house hold, commercial, industrial, trans-
portation, and electric utilities.0 Electricity generation by utili-
ties has the fastest growth rate,0 about 5% during 1947-62.
Bituminous coal is the majo fuel usedO at power plants. De-
mand for solid fuels at electric utilities Oincreased at an annual
rate of 5-1/2% and represents coal's only Omajor growth mar-
ket during the period. Petroleum, including Onatural gas
liquids, accounted for 82% of the total raw material Ouse of
energy resources in 1962, dry natural gas accounte for 013%
and solid fuels 5%. It is believed that these findings will be
useful for analysis of the energy economy and for projecting
or forecasting the country's future energy position.
15510
Lemmon, A. W., Jr., B. L. Fletcher, R. E. Schuler, and H. E.
Carlton
A COST-UTILIZATION MODEL FOR SO2-CONTROL
PROCESSES APPLffiD TO NEW, LARGE, POWER-
GENERATION FACILITIES. (Summary Report.) Battelle
Memorial Inst., Columbus, Ohio, Columbus Labs., Contract
PH 86-68-88, 170p., Jan. 17, 1969. 45 refs. CFSTI: PB 182317
A cost-utilization model is presented for estimating the incre-
mental cost of controlh'ng SO2 emissions from large fossil
fuel-burning electric power stations by sulfur or sulfuric acid
recovery processes. Additional alternatives considered are
remote siting, nuclear generation, and low sulfur-content fuels.
The model is formulated as a group of algebraic expressions
suitable for organizing input data for computer processing. The
forms are accompanied by data permitting the selection and
entry of the appropriate numerical value in the proper location
on a form once a specific SO2 control method is selected. The
sequence yields the cost of electricity for the specific process
and the expected values of the sulfur removed. A form pro-
vided for summarizing the results allows easy comparison of
the results obtained for different approaches to SO2 control
for any given region in the U. S. Calculations indicate that
costs for nuclear generation are competitive with those for
fossil-fuel generation. With currently available cost informa-
tion, costs for SO2 control processes providing for recovery of
sulfur or surf uric acid in new large, power generation facilities
should not exceed 0.5 mills/kwhr. Costs would be slightly
lower with a high-sulfur content fuel. Because of transmission
costs, remote generation does not appear to be a viable alter-
native.
15889
Kohn, Robert E.
A MATHEMATICAL PROGRAMMING MODEL FOR AIR
POLLUTION CONTROL. School Sci. Math., June 1969:487-
494. (Presented at the Central Association of Science and
Mathematics Teachers, Annual Convention, St Louis, Nov.
30, 1968.)
Mathematical models are proposed for computer processing to
determine the least possible cost of pollution controls in an
airshed. Advantages of the models are their simplicity, empha-
sis on economic efficiency, and appropriateness for the type
of data normally available. One model considers a hypothetical
airshed for a single industry, cement manufacturing. Annual
production is 2,500,000 barrels of cement; two pounds of dust
are emitted for every barrel produced. The least cost solution
to the emission problem would be to install a four-field elec-
trostatic precipitator on kilns producing 1,000,000 barrels and a
five-field precipitator on kilns producing 1,500,000 barrels. A
second model concerns the five major pollutants in the Saint
Louis airshed in 1970: sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide,
hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides, and particulates. Among the
possible control methods included in the model are exhaust
and crankcase devices for automobiles, the substitution of
natural gas for coal, catalytic oxidation of sulfur dioxide to
sulfuric acid at power plants, and the use of low sulfur-content
coal. Pollution reduction requirements are itemized. The com-
puter-derived solution of this model indicates the cost and effi-
ciency of each reduction method. A third model evaluates the
effects of air pollution on humans, vegetation, and materials.
It can be used to determine whether the relative damaging ef-
fects of pollutants are proportional to their control cost.
16122
CUT POLLUTION AT WHAT PRICE? Elec. World, 173(3):32-
33, Jan. 19, 1970.
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J. EFFECTS-ECONOMIC
243
Cost penalties for several methods available to reduce pollu-
tants from power plants were discussed. The elimination of
thermal pollution probably will have the greatest effect on the
cost of power generation. A fossil-fueled power plant rejects
about 30% less heat than a comparably sized nuclear-fueled
plant. For fossil-fueled plants, the additional cost of mechani-
cal-draft cooling towers over once-through systems is about
$5-8/kw of capacity, while for hyperbolic cooling towers, it is
about $10-15/kw (1970). The cost of cooling ponds vary ap-
preciably, depending on the site location and soil conditions.
In areas where there is little water seepage, cooling ponds can
be built for $3-5/kw and where the pond must be lined, the
cost is raised to $6-10/kw. For sea-water, wet-type cooling
towers and ponds are not feasible. The use of dry towers
eliminates the thermal pollution of surrounding waters and
gives additional flexibility in site location. Cost studies of dry
towers for a 1000-Mw nuclear-fueled unit show that mechani-
cal draft designs would cost from $15-20/kw of electrical out-
put, while hyperbolic designs would range from $25-50/kw.
Mechanical and electrostatic precipitators are available with
collection efficiencies of 98% for the cleaning of stacks of
dust and sulfur oxide emissions. Scrubbing processes can ef-
fectively remove 90% of the sulfur oxides from stack gases at
a cost of $10/kw. It was concluded that a significant reduction
thermal discharge will increase power generation costs about
15% for cooling ponds and 30% for dry towers. These cost in-
creases could have a significant effect on the prices of elec-
tricity and other products.
16129
REMOVE SULFUR DIOXIDE AT A PROFIT? Elec. World,
173(4):28-29, Jan. 26, 1970.
A new chemical method is described for scrubbing sulfur diox-
ide from power plant stack gases and converting it to
rechargeable additives and saleable by-products. An economic
analysis of such a ay stem added to an existing 1200 Mw coal-
burning station indicated that revenue from the sale of by-
products would cover all operating costs, debt service, taxes,
and depreciation, as well as about a third of the utility's custo-
mary return on equity. The starting point for the process is the
absorber tower to which the flue gas is diverted before enter-
ing the stack. Here the gas is scrubbed with a sodium hydrox-
ide solution capable of reducing SO2 content to under 50 ppm.
The gas is then passed through a booster fan and reheater and
discharged to the stack. The effluent, a solution of mixed sul-
fur salts, is pumped to a stripper tower, where dilute sulfuric
acid is added to oxidize all sulfur compounds to Na2SO4 and
drive off the surplus SO2. The latter is collected to become
feedstock for the manufacture of sulfuric acid, or to be dried
and liquified for sale as SO2. The sulfates then pass into a
three-section electrolytic cell in the central region between a
porous diaphragm and a nonporous membrane. There the ions
are separated by electrolysis, the SO4 radial being drawn to
the anode where it combines with hydrogen ions as dilute sul-
furic acid, while the sodium ions permeate the membrane to
join OH radicals at the cathode and form NaOH. Some gase-
ous hydrogen and oxygen is also produced at the electrodes.
All NaOH from the cathode compartment is recyled to the ab-
sorber tower; part of the H2SO4 is recycled to the desorption
tower. The pure hydrogen given off can be used to reheat
stack gases as they leave the absorber, or sold if the market
provides a cheaper fuel for the stack-gas reheater. Surplus
dilute sulfuric acid and all pure oxygen can be sold as
byproducts. The advantage of the process is that it regenerates
all of its chemical feed requirements and avoids the difficulty
of disposing of useless residues.
1.6174
COSTS AND ECONOMIC IMPACTS OF AIR POLLUTION
CONTROL FISCAL YEARS 1970-1974. Ernst and Ernst,
Washington, D. C. Contract PH 22-68-29, Task Order 2, 321p.,
Oct. 1969. 26 refs.
A study was conducted to estimate prospective additional
costs to the private sector of the economy of controlling air
pollution from both stationary and mobile sources during the
years 1970-1974. The pollutants considered are particulate and
sulfur oxides from stationary sources and hydrocarbons and
carbon monoxide from automobiles. Estimates of control con-
ditions prevailing prior to the passage of the Air Quality Act
(1967) were taken as a base. Two types of stationary sources
are considered: combustion and process. Costs are estimated
for controlling three classes of combustion sources: steam-
electric power generation industrial fuel combustion, commer-
cial fuel combustion. Industries for which process emission
control costs are developed are sulfate pulping, sulfuric acid
manufacture, petroleum refining, asphalt batching, hydraulic
cement production, steel production, ferrous casting, and non-
ferrous metals smelting and refining. Only automobiles are in-
cluded in the mobile source class. Estimates of additional
costs to the private sector are developed for nationwide con-
trol of sulfur oxides and particulates from stationary com-
bustion sources; nationwide control or particulate from
process sources in eight selected industries and of sulfur ox-
ides from sulfuric acid and petroleum refining process; nation-
wide control of automobile exhaust emissions; and combined
control of sulfur oxides and particulates from combustion and
process sources in 85 geographical areas. Estimated costs are
presented as ranges within which actual costs can be expected
to fall. The economic implications of control costs for the na-
tion are discussed. The additional costs range from $0.9 to $1.7
billion dollars for 1970 and rise to $1.0 to $1.9 billion in 1974.
(Author summary modified)
16506
Federal Power Commission, Washington, D. C.
UNIFORM SYSTEM OF ACCOUNTS PRESCRIBED FOR
PUBLIC UTILITIES AND LICENSEES (CLASS A AND
CLASS B). FPC A-5, 166p., March 1965.
A uniform system of accounts for public utilities and licensees
as prescribed under the Federal Power Act is given in its en-
tirety. The system of accounts is applicable in principle to all
Class A and Class B licensees subject to the Commission's ac-
counting requirements. Various terms are defined. Instructions
in regard to electric plants, operating expense, balance sheet,
income, operating revenue, and operation and maintenance ex-
pense, are provided. Every licensee and every public utility
must file an annual report which includes among other things
full information as to assets and liabilities, capitalization, net
investment, and reduction thereof, gross receipts, interest due
and paid, depreciation and other reserves, cost of project and
other facilities, cost of maintenance and operation of the pro-
ject, cost of renewals and replacement of the project works
and other facilities, depreciation, generation, transmission, dis-
tribution, delivery, use, and sale of electric energy.
17203
Oels, Heinriche
AIR POLLUTION PROBLEMS IN WEST GERMANY AND
THE ROLE OF INDUSTRY. (Luftforurensningsproblemer i
Vest-Tyskland industriens innsats). Text in Norwegian. Tek.
Ukeblad (Oslo), 116(45):1245-1247, Dec. 1969.
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244
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
West Germany has been occupied in the last decade with
reducing emissions of dust and smoke. Effectiveness of dust
filters has increased threefold, and filtration is more economi-
cal. The dust content can now be reduced to 150 mg/cu m for
an emission rate of 100,000 cu m/hr. In 1950, the dust output
from the West German cement industry was 3.5% of the
clinker produced; in 1967, it was 0.15%. Dust output from the
manufacture of calcium carbide was reduced to 3 mg/cu m of
exhaust gases. Attention now centers on reducing sulfur diox-
ide emissions. An electric power plant in Essen absorbs it with
a new type of activated carbon, recovering the SO2 for the
manufacture of H2SO4, the cost per 1000 kWh being about 1
DM (25 cents), and this can be further reduced. Government
standards now limit the sulfur content of fuel oils to 1.8%.
About 20% of the total SO2 emission in West Germany comes
from sulfuric acid plants. A new 'double contact' process can
reduce SO2 emissions of such a plant from 17 to 3 kg per ton
of H2SO4 produced. Nitrogen oxides emitted from nitric acid
plants have been reduced by 50% with special absorption
equipment. New legislation sets a maximum average of 2
mg/cu m for fluorine emissions, or 5 mg for short intervals.
Readings as high as 2.7 mg have been recorded above the
Ruhr from January 1, 1966, to December 31, 1968. During that
period, industry in North Rhine-Westphalia invested
4,000,000,000 DM on air pollution problems related to existent
operations and about 275,000,000 DM on those related to new
ones. Exhaust purification for the 2-year period cost
3,000,000,000 DM, plus an additional 30,000,000 for research
this in comparison with a gross national product of
300,000,000,000 DM per year. The total amount spent by in-
dustry is small compared with the damage caused, which
amounts to 50 DM per capita per year, or 3,000,000,000 for
the entire republic, not including losses due to sickness or
sanitation problems.
19685
Scollon, T. Reed
IMPACT OF AIR POLLUTION REGULATIONS ON COAL.
Mining Eng., 22(8):67-69, Aug. 1970.
During the past few years the increase in total demand for U.
S. bituminous coal has resulted essentially from an increase in
demand by electric utilities, which in 1967 amounted to about
58% of all coal shipped to U. S. markets. It is estimated that
only about 60 million tons of the utility total was low-sulfur
coal, most of which is and will be used for making coke.
Between 1967 and 1980 the total demand for U. S. coal should
increase by about 150-250 million tons, most of the increased
demand coming from the electric utilities. The wide range in
the projected increase results from uncertainties in develop-
ments in nuclear power and in air pollution regulations and
control technology. If control regulations are adopted and en-
forced on a widespread basis over a short-term period, and if
substitute fuels become available, markets for coal could be
reduced by more than one-half. Because of the higher mine
prices for low-sulfur coals and the greater distances between
large industrial coal-consuming areas and sources of low-sulfur
coal, the delivered prices of available low-sulfur coals would
be much higher than those for high-sulfur coals. If the rate of
adoption of regulations were such as to permit the develop-
ment and installation of sulfur-oxide removal processes, the
loss of coal markets would be less severe. Under such circum-
stances, coal losses would be limited to small industrial plants
that are unable to afford removal systems.
20054
Fink, Karel
ECONOMY IN THE PRODUCTION OF THE AIR.
(Ekonomika ochrany ovzdusi). Text in Czech. Ekon. Rev., vol.
10:472-476, Oct. 1967.
The economy of air pollution control may be evaluated by
comparing the results with needed expenditures. The permissi-
ble concentrations are given by valid standards, which in
Czechoslovakia are the same as in the Soviet Union. The main
substances that compose air pollution are well known; their ef-
fects and the way they act are known. For the next 15 years,
coal with a high sulfur and ash content will be used; we must
use new types of fuels/gas, crude oil/clean oil. Studies show
that the power plant situated outside of a coal mine has 11%
higher costs, a power plant equipped with devices for
neutralizing sulfur has 30% higher costs, and a power plant
with crude oil as fuel has 42% higher costs than a power plant
that burns brown coal. The amount of exhalation is given as
the product of the unit exhalation multiplied by the total
amount of burnt fuel. The reduction may be achieved by max-
imal usage of given heat. Lower figures may be gained with
briquettes and coke. A very important factor is the human fac-
tor, the training of stokers. Taking into consideration all the
above aspects, the question 'how much we shall pay for the
protection of air' is changed into 'how much we shall gain in
the protection of the air by saving the fuel.'
21241
Fogel, M. E., D. R. Johnston, R. L. Collins, D. A. LeSourd,
R. W. Gerstle, and E. L. Hill
COMPREHENSIVE ECONOMIC COST STUDY OF AIR POL-
LUTION CONTROL COSTS FOR SELECTED INDUSTRIES
AND SELECTED REGIONS. (FINAL REPORT). Research Tri-
angle Inst., Durham, N. C., Operations Research and
Economics Div., NAPCA Contract CPA 22-69-79, RTI Proj.
OU-455, 414p., Feb. 1970. 360 refs. CFSTI: PB 191054
Costs are estimated for controlling emissions of particulates,
sulfur oxides, hydrocarbons, and carbon monoxides from
twenty-two sources within 100 metropolitan areas, through the
Fiscal period 1970-1975; data defining relevant processes and
air pollution control engineering characteristics required to
support the analyses are presented. Sources for which control
cost estimates were made are solid waste disposal, steam-elec-
tric generating plants, industrial boilers, commercial and in-
stitutional heating plants, residential heating plants, and the
following industrial categories: kraft pulp, iron and steel, gray
iron foundry, primary and secondary nonferrous metallurgy,
sulfuric acid, phosphate fertilizer, petroleum refining, cement,
lime, coal cleaning, petroleum products and storage, grain
milling and handling, varnish, and rubber tires. The total in-
vestment cost includes $221 million, $1.29 billion, and $1.13
billion to control emissions from solid waste disposal, stationa-
ry combustion, and industrial process sources, respectively,
while the metropolitan areas for which cost estimates are the
highest include the very large, highly industrialized, more
northern cities of Chicago, New York, Pittsburgh, Philadel-
phia, Cleveland, Detroit, and St. Louis. Assuming the 1967
emissions as a baseline, calculations are performed to deter-
mine the pollutant removal efficiencies required to bring the
emissions into compliance with the standards assumed.
(Author abstract modified)
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J. EFFECTS-ECONOMIC
245
23511
Gerber, Abraham
THE IMPACT OF Am POLLUTION CONTROL ON THE
ECONOMICS OF ENERGY SUPPLY. Proc. Am. Power Conf.,
vol. 27:103nl07, 1965.
For the large consumer of fuel, the cost of controlling the ef-
fluen of the products of combustion relative to the total cost
of fuel is less than it is for the small consumer, so that effec-
tive control measures are more likely to be adopted by the
large consumer. However, a given quantity of fuel burned by a
large number of small consumers is likely to have a much
greater impact on the environment than a similar quantity of
fuel burned by a relatively few large consumers. In some
cases, such as power plants, the products of combustion are
emitted at relatively high effective altitudes and dispersed in
the upper atmosphere, while in other cases, such as the au-
tomobile or small residential, commercial and industrial
establishments, the effluent is emitted at ground level. The
ability to substitute one fuel for another in a wide range of
uses has resulted in competitive pressure on all fuels to
develop the technology that has made possible low cost. Air
pollution regulations, especially as they now most frequently
appear to be conceived, and based primarily on limitations
with respect to the chemical composition of the fuel to be
burned, tend to eliminate that desirable competition. Restric-
tions on the use of coal for electric generation would have the
most serious detrimental impact not only on the coal industry-
the owners of coal resources and the miners of coal-but
would severely impair the economic welfare of important re-
gions of the country. The entire Appalachian region from
Pennsylvania to Alabama, as well as the midwest coal region
of Illinois, Indiana and western Kentucky, would suffer such
adverse economic effects. Even optimistic projections of the
rate of progress of nuclear power from its present position
with only about 1 and 1/2 million kilowatts of capacity, to the
FPC projection of 70 million kilowatts by 1980, still leaves us
with the need for something in the neighborhood of 800 million
tons of coal equivalent to be provided by the fossil fuels.
23800
Shaver, Robert G.
STUDY OF COST OF SULPHUR OXIDE AND PARTICU-
LATE CONTROL USING SOLVEN REFINED COAL. General
Technologies Corp., Reston, Va., NAPCA Contract CPA 22-
69-82, 68p., April 1970. 26 refs. CFSTI: PB 193420
Cost analysis data are presented for the solvent refined coal
(SRC) process in order to facilitate comparison of this method
of sulfur oxide control with competing methods. The SRC
process, by treatmen of coal prior to combustion, produces a
fuel that is water-free, low in sulfur, very low in ash, has a
melting point low enough to allow it to be transported as a
fluid, and, regardless of the grade of coal used has a heat con-
tent of 16,000 Btu/lb, thus lowering shipping costs on an
equivalent thermal basis. The potential marke for SRC is dif-
ficult to predict largely because its use requires a long-term
commitment on the part of producers to process it and on the
part of the users, primarily the electric power utilities, to con-
sume it. A level of production necessary for economy requires
this. However, the potential benefits of the use of the SRC
process rather than a combustion gas treatment process are
great, and the special characteristic that allows a minimized
combustion plant investment ensures that SRC combustion
units, as they age and are changed from base load toward in-
termittent load use, will be on a much sounder financial basis
than those that have combustion gas treatment equipment
added on. A processing cost of no more than 10 cents/MMBtu
to convert bituminous coal to SRC should allow price-competi-
tive access to over 60% of the current bituminous coal-fired
combustion unit market. (Author summary modified)
25961
Frankenberg, T. T.
REMOVAL OF SULFUR FROM FUELS AND PRODUCTS OF
COMBUSTION. Preprint, American Society of Mechanical En-
gineers, New York, 12p., 1965. 9 refs. (Presented at the Amer-
ican Society of Mechanical Engineers Winter Annual Meeting,
New York, N. Y., Nov. 29-Dec. 4 1964, ASME Publ. 64-
WA/APC-2.)
The removal of sulfur from fuels or the elimination of its ox-
ides from flue gases has been under study for a number of
years, but none of the methods tried appears likely to be self-
supporting in terms of salable by-products in today's markets.
Capital costs of all methods are high and some economic
benefit is required to minimize losses incurred in complying
with air pollution regulations. A number of approaches have
been applied to remove pyritic sulfur from coal. They include
electrostatic separation, corona discharge, magnetic separa-
tion, reduction by bacterial action, coal benefaction, and coal
gasification. Little progress has been made in research in any
of these areas. Similarly, none of the methods for removing
sulfur dioxide from flue gases is far enough advanced to have
a clear prospect of economic justification for power plants.
Various wet and dry processes are described and evaluated.
Of the dry processes, three at least provide the possibility of a
salable by-product. These are the alkalized alumina, Reinluft,
and catalytic gas-phase oxidation processes. All need further
trials and development to determine their economics.
26193
Industrial Gas Cleaning Inst., Inc., Rye, N. Y.
MANUFACTURERS' REPORT OF AIR POLLUTION CON-
TROL EQUIPMENT SALES. Contracts CPA 22-69-5 and CPA
70-18, 8p., 1969. NTIS: PB 196028
Air pollution control equipment sales are summarized for the
years 1966, 1967, and 1968. Particulate control apparatus in-
cludes wet scrubbers, fabric filters, mechanical and electro-
static methods. The number of devices sold and the total
amount of money obtained are indicated according to industri-
al classification. Gaseous control equipment includes catalytic
oxidation, direct combustion, thermal oxidation, and an ab-
sorber.
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246
K. STANDARDS AND CRITERIA
00167
C. A. Johnson, S. B. Alpert, and A. R. Johnson
H-OIL PROCESSING FOR LOW SULFUR FUEL OIL.
Preprint. (Presented at the Economics of Air Pollution Sym-
posium, 59th National Meeting, American Inst. of Chemical
Engineers, Columbus, Ohio, May 15-18, 1966.)
The removal of 50-75% of the sulfur in fuel oil can be handled
by means of hydrogenation techniques in large H-Oil plants at
what appear to be reasonable costs. Economics indicate that
processing to effect a moderate degree of sulfur removal
would cost 20-40 cents/Bbl. If political-social considerations
mandate 90% sulfur removal, available technology cannot han-
dle such a relatively severe treatment at reasonable costs. In
U.S. markets, residual fuel oil sold commercially has a sulfur
content ranging from 0.4 to 5.2 wt-% with an average sulfur
content of 1.6 wt-%. Potentially this burning of heavy fuel
adds 1.7-million pounds of SO2 each day to the atmosphere (if
all the sulfur in the fuel oil were converted to SO2 when
burned). The decision that will have to be faced is whether to
produce a product with its sulfur content within acceptable
limits or to abandon the market to alternative energy sources
such as gas, nuclear power, or the substitution of heavy fuel
oil by relatively more expensive distillate fuels. (Author)
02010
E.A.J. Mahler
STANDARDS OF EMISSION UNDER THE ALKALI ACT.
Proc. (Part I) Intern. Clean Air Cong., London, 1966. Paper
III/12). PP. 73-6.
The evolution of standards of emission under the Alkali Act
over the past 100 years is briefly reviewed. The necessity for
considering heights of discharge of pollutants as well as their
concentration in the emissions and mass rates of discharge to
atmosphere is stressed. It is also indicated that standards
should be simply and clearly expressed in such a manner that
their due observance can readily be checked by short and sim-
ple tests. An outline is given of the principles adopted in arriv-
ing at the current standards and these, both in regard to con-
centrations in emissions and heights of discharge, are listed.
The aurhor expresses the personal view that present ten-
dencies in ever increasing size of production units and com-
plexity of operations on one site must inevitably lead to neces-
sity in the future further to reduce emissions. Because of the
cost of such a step he suggests that setting up and adoption of
international standards is a desirable end. (Author abstract)
06696
NEW JERSEY AIR POLLUTION CONTROL CODE
(CHAPTER V, CONTROL AND PROHIBITION OF AIR POL-
LUTION FROM COMBUSTION OF SOLID FUEL -
AMENDED). New Jersey State Dept. of Health, Trenton. 3 pp.
(Mar. 1, 1966).
This report gives definitions and control and prohibition of fly
ash for the state of New Jersey amended standards for the
controlled emission of fly ash from the combustions of solid
fuels as discharged from stacks or chimneys into the open air.
06778
(INDUSTRY AND ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION IN GREAT
BRITAIN.) Industrie et pollution atmospherique en Grande
Bretagne. Centre Interprofessionnel Technique d'Etudes de la
Pollution Atmospherique, Paris, France. (1967.) 6 pp. Fr. (Rept.
No. CI 310.) (C.I.T.E.P.A. Document No. 24.)
A summary of the basis of governmental action in Great
Britain in the struggle against industrial emissions is outlined.
The regulations imposed by the 'Alkali Act' are in most cases
based on 'the most practical means.' Standards are given for
chimney heights. Statutory limits are given for various materi-
als emitted such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, nitric acid,
hydrogen sulfide, chlorine, arsenic, antimony, cadmium, and
lead. The construction of tall buildings tends to reduce the
benefits obtained by tall chimneys. A better knowledge of the
effects of pollutants should be obtained so as not to burden in-
dustry with unnecessary expense in their control. It is urged
that international standards for emission be adopted.
09921
Ministry of Housing and Local Government, Great Britain.
27p. 1967.
REPORT OF THE WORKING PARTY ON GRIT AND DUST
EMISSIONS.
The working party on grit and dust emissions was set up to ad-
vise the Minister of Housing and Local Government on grit
and dust emissions from industrial and other similar furnaces.
Ways and means of measuring grit and dust emissions and the
levels of emission admissible in relation to furnaces burning
fuel equivalent to 100 to 50,000 pounds per hr. of coal are'
presented. Sampling methods and emission levels are given for
the following furnaces; solid fuel fired boilers, oil fired boilers
and indirect and heating furnaces.
21896
American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York, Air
Pollution Standards Committee
ASME STANDARD APS-2. RECOMMENDED GUIDE FOR
THE CONTROL OF EMISSION OF OXIDES OF SULFUR.
COMBUSTION FOR INDHtECT HEAT EXCHANGERS, lip.,
Jan. 1970. 14 refs.
The three basic methods for controlling pollution of the air by
waste materials are reduction in production of pollutants, col-
lection of pollutants, and dispersion of the pollutants in am-
bient air by air motion. Control usually involves a combination
of two or more of these. The philosophy was adopted that the
maximum concentration of sulfur dioxide in the ambient air
resulting from discharges is of primary importance when regu-
lating ambient air quality. A method is presented for estimat-
ing the concentration of SO2 in ambient air based on the stack
height, total heat input, and sulfur content of the effluent. An
alternate method involving the allocation of emissions among
several stacks of equal height is included. The limitations of
these systems caused by the presence of large numbers of low
level SO2 sources and topographical conditions are considered.
Data presented are arbitrarily cut off at 10,000 million Btu/hr
-------
K. STANDARDS AND CRITERIA
247
on the theory that very large sources will have to take addi-
tional factors into account. Abatement is, of necessity, con-
centrated on effluent control, since the desulfurization of solid
fuels has limited potential and desulfurization of liquid fuels
requires extensive and costly additions to existing installations.
Flue gas desulfurization techniques under development are
limited to large installations because of cost and space and
may themselves introduce serious problems of disposal of low
strength sulfuric acid and/or large quantities of dust.
22248
Padovani, C. and P. Capponi
AIR POLLUTION CAUSED BY HEATING PLANTS;
PROPOSAL FOR A NEW INDEX ON WHICH TO BASE
EMISSION LIMITS. (Inquinamento atmosferico da impianti
termici; proposta di un nuovo indice di riferimento per i limiti
alle emissioni). Text in Italian. Riv. Combusti., 21(10):501-505,
Oct. 1967. (Presented at the Associazione Termotecnica
Italiana, 22nd National Congress, Rome, Sept. 27-29, 1967.)
An index is obtained by dividing the weight of solid particles
in waste gases, expressed in grams per cubic meter of dry
smoke, by the % volume of carbon monoxide and multiplying
by 100. This can be used in calculating the tolerance limits, by
assigning a ceiling value of this index based on the carbon
content of the fuel and on the heating plant capacity. Previous
reference standards include that of the Kommission Reinhal-
tung der Luft (West Germany, November 1961), which sets
maximum dust content on the basis of a graph derived from
total ash content of fuel used; that of the Ministere de la Sante
Publique (France, October 1964), which bases dust and sulfur
dioxide limits on total heat output in Meal; that of the Depart-
ment of Health, Education and Welfare (USA, May 1966),
also based on a curve of heat output. The weakness of the
earlier proposals is that they not only require direct measure-
ment of the amount of fuel burned but also an evaluation of
the total output of waste gases. A proposal is also made for
establishing a carbon monoxide limit, based on the ratio of
carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide. For plants with an output
of Gcal/hour, the limit proposed would be a maximum of 20
liters of CO per cubic meter of CO2, assuming standard condi-
tions of temperature and pressure. For plants with an output
of 1 Teal/hour, the ratio would be 10.
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248
L. LEGAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE
00162
E. H. McClelland, 'Compiler'
BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SMOKE AND SMOKE INVESTIGA-
TION (SMOKE INVESTIGATION, BULLETIN NO. 2). Pitt-
sburgh Univ., Pa., Mellon Inst. of Industrial Research and
School of Specific Industries. 1913. 106 pp.
General subject categories include: (1) Effect on vegetation;
(2) Physiological effects; (3) State and local air pollution
legislation in the U.S.A. The first two categories consist
predominantly of references to German periodical literature,
but also include references to American, British and French
literature.
00206
J. W. Gardner
CONTROL OF AIR POLLUTION ORIGINATING FROM
FEDERAL INSTALLATIONS AND STANDARDS BY THE
SECRETARY OF HEALTH, EDUCATION, AND WELFARE
IMPLEMENTING THE OBJECTIVES PRESCRIBED BY THE
ORDER. EXECUTIVE ORDER 11282. Dept. of Health, Educa-
tion, and Welfare, Washington, D.C. May 26, 1966. 6 pp.
The article specifies the overall policy, procedures for new
federal facilities and buildings, and objectives for federal
facilities and buildings insofar as air pollution control is con-
cerned. In addition, standards to be used in this new order are
delineated by Secretary Gardner. The categories to which the
article alludes are: combustion of fuels, Stacks, Storage and
handling of fuels and ash, and disposal of trash. In each in-
stance are specified limits and means to measure the amount
of pollutant covered by the above categories.
00311
AIR POLLUTION (A SURVEY OF EXISTING LEGISLA-
TION). Intern. Digest Health Legislation 14, 187-229, 1963.
This report contains a comparative survey of existing legisla-
tion for the control of atmospheric pollution, and discusses
specific laws and regulations of following countries: Australia,
Belgium, Canada, Chile, Czechoslovakia, France, Federal
Republic of Germany, Ireland, Jamaica, New Zealand, Poland,
England and the Inited States.
00973
A COMPILATION OF SELECTED AIR POLLUTION EMIS-
SION CONTROL REGULATIONS AND ORDINANCES.
(REVISED EDITION.) Public Health Service, Washington,
D.C., National Center for Air Pollution Control 143p., 1967.
The regulations and ordinances have been arranged in sections
which include Smoke Emissions and Equivalent Opacity Regu-
lations, Regulations Pertaining to Particulate Emissions from
Fuel Burning Plants, Regulations Pertaining to Particulate
Emissions from Refuse-Burning Equipment, Regulations Per-
taining to Particulate Emissions from Manufacturing
Processes, Regulations Pertaining to Sulfur Compound Emis-
sion Control, Regulations Pertaining to Hydrocarbon Emission
Control, Regulations Pertaining to Fluoride Emission Control,
Regulations Pertaining to Motor Vehicle Emission Control,
Regulations Pertaining to Odor Emission Control, and Zoning
Ordinances. The regulations and ordinances represent the dif-
ferent methods of controlling emissions by law and varying
degrees of control. Some definitions were picked selectively to
provide very good definitions while others were picked
because of their wide use by many states and communities.
01265
A. J. Benline
AIR POLLUTION CONTROL PROBLEMS IN THE CITY OF
NEW YORK. Trans. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 27, (8) 916-22, (June 1965.
A general discussion is presented of: control methods; pollu-
tants and their sources; and the need for adequate administra-
tive tools in relation to New York City's control program.
01399
W. Wronski, E.W. Anderson, A.E. Berry, A.P. Bernhart, H.A.
Belyea
AIR POLLUTION CONSIDERATIONS IN THE PLANNING
AND ZONING OF A LARGE RAPIDLY GROWING MU-
NICffALITY. J. Air Pollution Assoc., 16(3):157-158, Mar.
1966.
In the Municipality of Metropolitan Toronto which covers 240
square miles there are over 600,000 automobiles, 350,000
domestic and industrial oil and coal-burning installation, 5000
apartment and industrial incinerators, and other numerous
sources of air pollution level. The area includes 13 municipali-
ties comprising Metropolitan Toronto and 13 additional sur-
rounding urban and rural localities in an area of 720 square
miles. The population of the planning area is 1,965,000 and is
expected to increase to 2,800,000 by 1980. The Planning Board
showed its recognition of the problem by a statement of policy
designed to reduce pollution from fuel-burning equipment and
incinerators, to develop a coordinated transportation system,
to encourage central heating plants, and to control apartment
development in mixed commercial areas. The Board advises
and assists the individual planning boards, and building and
property departments. (Author abstract)
01585
W.H. MegonneU
IMPACT OF POLLUTION ABATEMENT REGULATIONS ON
INDUSTRY AND MUNICIPALITIES. Public Health Service,
Washington, D.C., Div. of Air Pollution. (Presented at Summer
Conference on 'The Demands of Pollution Control Legisla-
tion,' Fairleigh Dickinson Univ., Madison, N. J., Aug. 26,
1966. GPO 913-059
This is a general review of the impact of air pollution control
regulations on the economics of the Nation and its indirect ef-
fect on the individual citizen. The costs of air pollution abate-
ment to industry, and air pollution abatement and impact in
the New York New Jersey area are discussed in particular.
Problems arising from SO2 emissions and proposals for
remedial measures are emphasized.
-------
L. LEGAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE
249
01590
R. Porter
AIR POLLUTION ABATEMENT THROUGH COAL
RESEARCH. Preprint. (Presented to the Technical Advisory
Committee, Office of Coal Research, Dept. of Interior,
Washington, D.C., Nov. 30, 1965.)
The impact of the Clean Air Act on control activities within
State and local governments is reviewed and the most impor-
tant new programs discussed in some detail giving also figures
on costs. The activities of the Office of Coal Research, sup-
ported by the Division of Air Pollution, and their investigation
of the economics or producing very low sulfur fuel from coal,
as well as the activities of other cooperative efforts, as the
conversion of pyrite in coal to a magnetic form to permit its
removal by magnetic tape, one of the several cooperative pro-
jects of the Bureau of Mines. The Division has also en-
couraged work leading to development of various dry stack
gas scrubbing processes which are discussed. The need for
development of clean power cycles is emphasized and those
availabe described. Publications of the Division assisting in
design operation or control of specific industries or processes
which constitute potential sources of air pollution are men-
tioned. Long range research on new power systems for vehicu-
lar propulsion is also highlighted.
01654
A.C. Stern
THE REGULATION OF AIR POLLUTION FROM POWER
PLANTS IN THE UNITED STATES. Rev. Soc. Roy. Beige
Ingrs. Ind., Brussels (Presented at the International Symposi-
um on Immission Regulations, sponsored by the Haus der
Technik E.W. Essen and the Arbeits -und Sozialministerium
(Dept. of Labor and Social Welfare) of North-Rhine-Westfalia,
Essen, Germany Mar. 9, 1966; and before the Societe Royale
Beige des Igenieurs et des Industriels, Brussels, Belgium, Mar.
16,1966.)
Author discusses the types, concentrations, and levels of con-
trol (state, federal and local) that the United States has in-
itiated for the abatement of air pollution from power generat-
ing sources. Statistics are presented for various localities as
well as specific pollutants which are emitted. The Clean Air
Acts (88-206 and 89-272) as they apply to the abatement of air
pollution are explained.
01890
Williams, J. D., G. Ozolins, J. W. Sadler, and J. R. Fanner
INTERSTATE AIR POLLUTION STUDY: PHASE H PRO-
JECT REPORT. Vm. A PROPOSAL FOR AN AIR
RESOURCE MANAGEMENT PROGRAM. Public Health Ser-
vice, Cincinnati, Ohio, National Center for Air Pollution Con-
trol, 132p., May 1967. 7 refs
This report is devoted to the development of an air use plan
for the St. Louis metropolitan area. An air use plan may be
thought of as a link between the potential pollutant emissions
of a community and the air quality goals. Its function is to op-
timize the use of the air with respect to the amount of pollu-
tants emitted, by considering the dilution capacity of the air
basin and the configuration of the pollutant sources in the
area. The air use plan may then be used as the basic
framework for achieving the desired air quality by the various
means available such as limiting the emissions from individual
sources, limiting the emissions from sources in certain areas,
or even disallowing new pollution sources in overburdened
areas In short, it provides the basis for enacting control regu-
lations and provides a guide for future planning activities.
02011
A. Laamanen L. Noro
THE AIR POLLUTION SITUATION AND SPECIAL
PROBLEMS IN FINLAND. Proc. (Part I) Intern. Clean Air
Cong., London, 1966. (Paper HI/13), pp. 77-9.
Owing to its favourable climate and a low population density
Finland still has, on the whole, a clean atmosphere, but indus-
trialization and urbanization are beginning to change this situa-
tion. This paper records and discusses the results of investiga-
tions and researches. (Author abstract)
02052
A. J. Clarke, G. Spurr, and S. Catchpole.
TOWARDS A CLEAN AHt POLICY. Proc. (Part D Intern.
Clean Air Cong., London, 1966. (Paper VI/16). pp. 203-5.
The paper considers some fundamental concepts of a rational
clean air policy, and stresses that the control of ground level
concentrations should be the primary concern. The basic rela-
tionship determining ground level concentrations includes both
the rate and effective height of emission, both of which must
be taken into account in an effective control policy. Further-
more, the latter should permit flexibility in selecting the
method of control most suited to the circumstances, including
feasibility and cost. The principles applied by the Central Elec-
tricity Generating Board (C.E.G.B.) to the control of smoke,
dust and sulphur dioxide from power stations are described.
Recent advances in the design of plants include the develop-
ment of the single tall multiflue chimney. Air pollution surveys
and measurements, both in the vicinity of power stations and
nationally, have demonstrated the effectiveness of the clean
air policies practiced by the C.E.G.B. (author abstract)
02831
NEW JERSEY AD* POLLUTION CONTROL CODE
(CHAPTER I THROUGH VI). New Jersey State Dept. of
Health, Trenton. Jan. 1962. 6 pp.
Chapters 1 through 6 of the New Jersey air pollution code are
presented: 1. Definitions. 2. Control and prohibition of air pol-
lution from refuse disposal and salvage operations. 3. Mu-
nicipal ordinances or regulations. 4. Control and prohibition of
air pollution by smoke. 5. Control and prohibition of air pollu-
tion from combustion of solid fuel. 6. Prohibition of air pollu-
tion.
02960
J. M. Leavitt
AK POLLUTION STUDD3S AND CONTROL: TVA COAL
ELECTRIC GENERATING PLANTS. Proc. Ann. Sanitary
Water Resources Eng. Conf., Vanderbilt Univ., Nashville,
Tenn., 1965. pp. 200-7.
The various aspects of the TVA air pollution control program
are discussed in four general categories: (1) air pollution
prevention, (2) air pollution monitoring, (3) air pollution sur-
veillance, and (4) air pollution special studies.
03277
R. F. Bovier, A. J. Tigges, W. A. Verrochi, and W. H.
Lambert.
SOLVING A VALLEY ADI POLLUTION PROBLEM.
Preprint. (Presented at the 54th Annual Meeting, Air Pollution
Control Association, New York City, June 15, 1961.)
Seward Generating Station of the Pennsylvania Electric Com-
pany is a coal-fired, mine-mouth operation. The station is
located in a broad valley subject to frequent stagnations and
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250
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
ground fogs. It has 12 boilers supplying steam to 5 turbine
generator units with a net capability of 280 megawatts. Air
contamination became a significant problem when the newest
unit was added in the spring of 1957. The electrostatic
precipitator operated far below its guaranty of 95% collection
efficiency and the smoke plume was therefore quite dense. A
short stack, 200 feet high, and a low stack exit velocity, 40
feet per second, compounded the problem. Since the new unit
represented almost 50% of the total generating capability of
the station, its emission of fly ash and stack gases was ap-
preciable. This problem served to focus our attention on the
fact that the dust collecting equipment for the old boilers was
in many respects inadequate. Penelec initiated a continuing
program for evaluating and controlling stack emissions, and to
coordinate it. The public relations; research and development;
air sampling survey; and the station modifications and addi-
tions are discussed.
03359
AIR POLLUTION IN NEW YORK CITY (INTERIM TECHNI-
CAL REFT. M-970). New York City Council, Special Commit-
tee to Investigate Air Pollution. June 22, 1965. 74 pp.
Authors cover the following topics of air pollution as they re-
late to New York City: (1) air quality a statistical analysis, (2)
The effects of air pollution on health as well as agricultural
and plant life, (3) The major sources of air pollution in New
York City, covering categories such as fuel combustion in sta-
tionary sources, vehicular exhaust, refuse combustion, indus-
trial processes, and emission calculation, (4) The influence of
weather, (5) and analysis of air pollution control program.
03452
SOMETHING IN THE AIR (A REPORT ON AIR POLLU-
TION IN ILLINOIS). Illinois Dept. of Public Health, Spring-
field. 1956. 74 pp.
This is a review of air pollution problems in general and
problems concerning Illinois in particular. Requests from State
and local agencies, educational institutions and from cities for
legislation to protect the public from long-time health hazards
resulting from the pollution of the environment, are included.
Institution of control programs seems to be a complex matter
involving all parts of the Illinois communities.
05105
HEW CRACKS DOWN ON SO2 IN BIG CITIES. Oil Gas J. 64
(48), 54-5 (Nov. 28, 1966).
Fuel standards may be controlled in federal buildings. Next
will come airsheds in metropolitan areas under HEW's
authority to deal with interstate pollution. Finally, the agency
will issue clean-air guidelines for state and local control agen-
cies. The U.S. is prodding local-government units to fill the
gaps left in federal authority and is providing funds for such
work. Where coal and fuel oil will lose markets, the main
winner should be natural gas, which can meet the low-sulfur
test. No. 2 and 4 fuel oil should benefit to a lesser degree.
Resid producers will probably hold some business by lowering
the sulfur content of their fuel while raising their prices to pay
for processing. The Government also is moving to enforce
ceilings on auto emissions, already set starting with 1968
models. HEW Sec. John W. Gardner said the internal-com-
bustion engine, the major market for U.S. refiners, was on a
collision course with the nation's drive for cleaner air.
05499
M. Katz
AIR POLLUTION IN CANADA. Proc. Clean Air Conf., Univ.
New South Wales 1, 23-40 (1962).
Air pollution trends in Canada, as in other countries, are in-
fluenced by the growth and distribution of population and in-
dustry. Increasing efforts have been made by industry and
government agencies to control the emissions of sulphur com-
pounds from smelting, oil refining and sour natural gas
processing operations through the recovery of useful by
products such as sulphuric acid and fertilizer products or ele-
mental sulphur. A number of elemental sulphur plants have
been erected within recent years to utilize the hydrogen sul-
phide recovered from the purification of sour natural gas for
pipeline distribution systems. These sulphur plants vary in
daily capacity from less than 300 to over 1000 long tons.
Research at the federal level in Canada on the toxic effects of
air contaminants and related problems of sampling, methods of
analysis and identification are centralized largely within the
Occupational Health Division of the Department of National
Health and Welfare. Divisional activities are organized into
two main units of environmental assessment and biological
studies. An increasing number of industrial companies are
becoming aware of the importance of air pollution as a factor
in existing and new manufacturing operations. This enlightened
attitude on the part of management has resulted in the un-
dertaking of air pollution surveys before and after the con-
struction of their plants, in the assessment of sources of emis-
sion to abate or eliminate air pollution problems and in studies
to determine the suitability of various sites from an air pollu-
tion control standpoint.
06188
Larsen, Ralph I.
DETERMINING REDUCED-EMISSION GOALS NEEDED TO
ACHIEVE AIR QUALITY GOALS-A HYPOTHETICAL
CASEJ. Air Pollution Control Assoc., 17(12):823-829, Dec.
1967. 37 refs. Presented at the Annual Meeting, Air Pollution
Control Assoc., Cleveland, Ohio, June 11-16, 1967.)
Air management steps involved in determining reduced-emis-
sion goals include determining the effects of various pollutant
concentrations on man, animals, plants, and property; deciding
which effects to prevent; selecting ambient air quality goals
that will prevent these effects; measuring and evaluating pollu-
tant concentrations from sources and in the ambient at-
mosphere; calculating overall source reductions needed to
achieve selected ambient air quality goals; and finally, deter-
mining reduced-emission goals for the various source types.
Examples are cited of the various decisions and actions in-
volved in determining a set of reduced emission goals for sta-
tionary and mobile combustion sources.
06615
Frankenberg, T. T.
TRENDS IN AIR POLLUTION LEGISLATION AND IN
PRECIPITATOR DEVELOPMENT.Preprint, American Elec-
tric Power Service Corp., New York, N. Y., lip., 1965. 5 refs.
(Presented at a meeting of the Southeastern Electric
Exchange, Miami Beach, Fla., Oct. 22, 1965.)
Public sentiment, local and state laws, and finally the entrance
of the federal government into control and enforcement make
it certain that air pollution will demand more attention from
design engineers and plant operators in the electric utility in-
dustry. The trend is toward much stricter limits on particulate
emission, and these become even more stringent for very large
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L. LEGAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE
251
fuel users. Most of the new limits are set in terms of pounds
of emission per million Btu of fuel input. While restrictions are
five times more stringent than fifteen years ago, developments
in precipitators have moved at a more leisurely pace. Some
significant improvements in electrical equipment have been
made. It is suggested than an equal improvement can be
achieved by closer attention to the purchasing of electrostatic
precipitators, and by testing them to determine that the
required conditions are actually met. Gaseous pollution should
never be forgotten when discussing the role of participate
emission and its control. High stacks can be useful in both
areas, and codes should be written to take proper cognizance
of the fact.
06686
H. F. White
REVIEW AND EVALUATION OF PROJECT FUEL CELL.
Jackson & Moreland, Boston, Mass. (Rept. OCR 17.) Contract
No. 01-0001-500.) 94p., bSdec. 1966. CFSTI: PB 173765
A coal-oxidation, solid-electrolyte, fuel-cell power plant has
the potential for becoming a competitive source of supplying
electrical energy for heavy industry and in the utility power
field. The authors summarize the current status of develop-
ment of thin-film battery components and the manufacturing
rechniques and describe a proposed 100-kw plant presently
under design. The results of the research program are most en-
couraging; suitable materials for battery components have
been determined and much work is directed toward optimiza-
tion, refinement and improvement. Project Fuel Cell is still in
the experimental stage and the solution of many problems still
remain. The authors project a basic cell having a current den-
sity of 950 milliamperes per square centimeter (800A/sq ft).
This is four times the density planned for the 100-kw plant,
but has been obtained in laboratory tests. As many individual
fuel cells as desired can be deposited and series-connected on
a single thin-film battery. Economic practicability of coal
gasification has not been proven. The authors also discuss
some of the problems that may be encountered in the auxiliary
coal, ash, and gas-fuel handling systems as well as modifica-
tions that will be required in commercially available equip-
ments normally used in similar processes. Consideration was
given to a plant rated approximately 200,000 kw to serve as a
prototype for final commercial designs. The authors estimate
the cost of 20,000 kw fuel-cell power plant for use as a proto-
type and as the final step to establish commercial feasibility to
be approximately $7,000,000. The cost of operating and testing
the plant is estimated to be $1,000,000 per year. Fuel-cell
power systems appear ideal for supply of bulk dc power to
processes found in the electrochemical and electrometallurgi-
cal industries. In addition, fuel-cell power systems look ex-
tremely attractive as a base load supply in the utility-power
field. Estimates are included that project bus car costs (in case
of the 1000-MW plants at 345 kVac).
06730
J. H. Ludwig
STATUS OF CURRENT TECHNOLOGY IN THE CONTROL
OF EMISSIONS TO THE ATMOSPHERE. 90th Congress 'Air
Pollution-1968, Part IV (Air Quality Act)' Senate Committee
on Public Works, Washington, D.C., Subcommittee on Air and
Water Pollution, May 15-18, 1967. p. 2274-7.
A tabulation is presented of the ststus of control technology
for a wide range of industries. An indication is given of the
presence or absence of control technology for particulates,
sulfur oxides, carbon monoxide, and other pollutants. Remarks
are provided regarding the difficulty or necessity of control for
the various pollutants in the various industries.
06735
J. R. Garvey
TESTIMONY BY J.R. GARVEY REGARDING THE AVAILA-
BILITY OF LOW-SULFUR COALS. 90th Congress ('Air Pollu-
tion-1967, Part IV (Air Quality Act)' Senate Committee on
Public Works, Washington, D.C., Subcommittee on Air and
Water Pollution, May 15-18, 1967. p. 2409-12.
Bituminous coal accounts for 96% of current production
capacity and 21% of the low-sulfur reserves. Because of loca-
tion near the market it is used by electric utilities and other in-
dustries. Data on the availability and production of bituminous
coal are divided into three groups by states and tabulated to il-
lustrate the relationship of location of low-sulfur bituminous
reserves to current production. Industrial use of this coal is
discussed. Because of the location of the reserves in relation
to the market and the location of currently producing mines,
the possibility of substituting low-sulfur coals for high-sulfur
coals cannot be considered more than a temporary expedient
in air pollution control. An arbitrary decision to restrict the
use of coal to that containing 1.0% sulfur, or less, would have
a tremendous social and economic impact.
06737
J. Jonakin
STATEMENT OF J. JONAKIN FOR THE SENATE SUBCOM-
MITTEE ON AIR AND WATER POLLUTION. 90th Congress
Senate Committee on Public Works, Washington, D.C., Sub-
committee on Air and Water Pollution 'Air and Water Pollu-
tion-1967, Part IV (Air Quality Act)' May 15-18, 1967. p. 2473-
82.
After studying the various sulfur dioxide removal processes, it
was concluded that a system most acceptable to the utility in-
dustry would probably be one that did not involve the opera-
tion of chemical recovery equipment and one that could im-
prove operating performance of the power-plant. A system
utilizing an additive, that could neutralize the corrosive com-
bustion products and that would form a disposable compound
with the sulfur, was thought to be a logical approach. It was
decided to explore the possibility of developing a system using
dolomite or limestone. The system developed by Combustion
Engineering, Inc., is shown in a diagram. This system involves
the feeding of an additive (dolomite) into the furnace and wet
scrubbing the flue gas leaving the air heater. In pilot plant stu-
dies 98-99% SO2 removal and 98-99.6% dust removal were ob-
tained. In a field trial in a commercial size unit completely
satisfactory furnace operation was obtained while injecting
dolomite. SO2 removal was maintained at a level of 95% or
better. Cost calculations are discussed for the installation of a
system for removal of both SO2 and particulate matter from a
500,000-kw coal-burning unit.
06739
S. K. Reed
STATEMENT OF S.K. REED FOR THE SENATE SUBCOM-
MITTEE ON AIR AND WATER POLLUTION. 90th Congress
('Air Pollution-1967, Part IV (Air Quality Act)' Senate Com-
mittee on Public Works, Washington, D.C., Subcommittee on
Air and Water Pollution, May 15-18, 1967. pp. 2504-10.
The FMC Corporation, under a contract with the Office of
Coal Research, developed a process called COED (Char Oil
Energy Development). This involves treatment of coal to
produce an oil, a char, and a gasoline. It was found that
hydrogen was formed as a by-product of the COED process.
The development of a process to utilize this hydrogen to
remove sulfur from the char is described. It is claimed that the
resultant char contains 0.3% sulfur. The economics of the
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252
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
process are discussed and it is proposed as a source of low-
sulfur fuel.
07550
Philadelphia Dept. of Public Health, Pa.
AIR POLLUTION FROM FUEL COMBUSTION PROCESSES
IN PHILADELPHIA. Preprint, 8p., Sept. 1966.
The combustion of fuels is the greatest single source of air
pollutant emissions within a metropolitan area. As much as
80% of the total weight of pollutants discharged to the at-
mosphere result from the burning of fuels for electrical power
generation, for industrial and commercial heat and power, for
domestic heating, and for vehicular power. The purpose of this
report is to summarize the present status of the problem in
Philadelphia and to recommend necessary regulations and
other action required to deal with the problem.
07794
Jones, James R.
COAL AND AIR POLLUTION CONTROL.Proc. Illinois Min-
ing Inst., p. 74- 90, Oct. 1966. (Presented at the 74th Annual
Meeting, Dlinois Mining Inst., Springfield, 111., 1966.)
In the control of air pollution, coal producers are primarily
concerned with two emissions: 1. particulates or fly ash from
fuel combustion, and 2. sulfur oxides from boiler stacks.
These emissions, available control equipment, the efficiencies
of performance, and the economics involved are discussed.
The requirements for meeting the current proposed codes are
discussed.
07950
F. G. Sugden
LOCAL AUTHORITY PROBLEMS IN AN INDUSTRIAL
AREA. Roy. Soc. Health J. (London), 87(4):204-214, July-Aug.
1967. 5 refs.
The history of air pollution control in Britain under The Alkali
bSworks Act of 1863, the Public Health Act of 1875, and the
Clean Air Act of 1956 is presented along with a review of cur-
rent problems in the measurement and control of air pollution
which confront local authorities in industrial areas. Until 1946,
the standard deposit gage was commonly used for measureing
air pollution. Some of the instruments had been in use sincethe
1920's. Since the Second World War, air filters which permit
daily readings of smoke and sulfur dioxide have been used
although deposit gages continued in use. The use of deposit
gages was unfortunate since local authorities did not measure
the trend in grit and dust deposition which are an important
part of total air pollution. Results should be studied on the
basis of 3,4 or 5-year moving averages to level out meteorolog-
ical variations in any one year. Smoke from industrial sources
seems to come primarily from steam raising plants and the
control of dark smoke is delegated to the local authorities.
Suggestions are made for changes in the Clean Air Act to
require more information in regard to new installations. The
burning of material in the open should be brought under the
dark smoke regulations. The most prolific grit producer sub-
ject to local control i s the cold blast cupola. In 1963, more
than 1/2 the arresters fitted to the larger cupolas were the dry
type and 18% had no arresters. The amount of SO2 in the air
will increase unless there is an increase in the use of low sul-
fur fuels. The ground level control of SO2 is based on proper
chimney heights. Since domestic smoke is responsible for
much of the smoke pollution, further diminution depends on
increased implementation of smoke control orders. In spite of
past accomplishments, much remains to be done.
08062
Schildhammer, Allen
A. Schildhammer
AIR POLLUTION CONTROL ACTIVITIES ARE NOTED
FOR 23 INDUSTRY AREAS. Air Eng., 9(6):28-34, 37, June
1967. AREAS. Air Eng., 9(6):28-34, 37, June 1967.
A spot check of air pollution control activities in key industrial
A spot check of air pollution control activities in key industrial
areas throughout the United States and Canada areas
throughout the Inited States and Canada shows that industry,
by and large, is cooperating to a great extent in shows that in-
dustry, by and large, is cooperating to a great extent in invest-
ing in abatement devices. The survey also indicates that in-
vesting in abatement devices. The survey also indicates that
Air &ollution Control Authorities are becoming more Air Pol-
lution Control Authorities are becoming more active and
vigorous in their activities to evaluate their local and regional
actibe and vigorous in their activities to evaluate their local
and regional air pollution problems. On the whole the budgets
for air pollution problems. On the whole the budgets for the
Authorities are on the increase, and this is coupled with the
Authorities are on the increase, and this is coupled with in-
creases in Federal grants. Also, many states, regions, and ci-
ties which did not have adequate air pollution control laws and
cities which did not have adequate air pollution control laws
and regulations are updating those already on the books, and
regulations are updating those already on the books, and
passing new ones to keep abreast of new technology and cur-
rent developments passing new ones to keep abreast of new
technology and current developments in this field. The indus-
trial areas included in this in this field. The industrial areas in-
cluded in this second annual survey are : Little Rock, Arkan-
sas, Seattle-King second annual survey are: Little Rock, Ar-
kansas, Seattle-King County, Washington, 'ouston, Texas,
Miami(Dade County), County, Washington, Houston, Texas,
Miami (Dade County), Florida, Chicago, Illinois, Portland,
Oregon, Vancouver, British Columbia, Cincinnati, 3hio, Gary,
Indiana, St. British Columbia, Cincinnati, Ohio, Gary, Indiana,
St. Louis, Missouri, Minneapolis, Minnesota, Oklahoma City,
Louis, 7issour, Minneapolis, Minnesota, Oklahoma City,
Oklahoma.
08686
Harris, D. N.
REDUCING SULFUR EMISSIONS. Combustion, 39(5):36-38,
Nov. 1967.
The status is presented of the following programs carried out
by APIs Subcommittee on Sulfur: stack removal of SO2; reac-
tions of sulfur oxides in stack plumes, ambient air monitoring
and data analysis; engineering study of New York City air
quality situation; and desulfurization costs residual fuel oil.
The conclusions reached from each program are summarized.
09073
Mayor's Task Force on Air Pollution, New York, N.Y.
SPECIAL REPORT TO MAYOR JOHN V. LINDSAY-Preprint,
15 p., May 9, 1967.
New York City's campaign against air pollution since the sub-
mission of the Task Force Report one year previously is eval-
uated. The main point emphasized in the May 9, 1966 report of
the Task Force was that New York City is moving - far more
swiftly thanmost people realize -0 toward a major air pollution
disaster. This warning needs not merely to be reemphasized. It
must serve as the basis for an emergency action program of
mammoth dimensions. Let it be said at once that only by mul-
tiplying the present effort many times~on the Federal, Re-
-------
L. LEGAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE
253
gional, and City levels-can New York be kept from becoming
unhabitable within a decade. This problem is not confined to
New York. In fact, during the past year, the air-pollution
danger has exploded beyond the large cities and has now
become one of the most urgent problems facing the nation as a
whole. No greater mass fallacy exists than that there is an in-
finite supply of fresh air. Fresh air is a limited resource. It can
be depleted if the natural balances are upset. A vast accelera-
tion of anti-pollution planning and activity — national, regional,
and local - is now critically needed if our cities are to remain
safe and fit for human habitation. The Federal goverment must
play a major part in such a total program. The reason for such
a vast expansion is clear. No municipality or even region has
the resources for a carrying out of all the measures essential
to cope with the increasing sources of pollution.
09443
THE COAL PICTURE...1967-1968. Coal Age, 73(2):50-59, Feb.
1968.
The utilization of coal is expected to increase in 1968 despite
oil, gas, and nuclear competition and is expected to continue
rising in the near future. Several developments which occured
during 1967 regarding air pollution and the coal industry are
discussed. The drive for restrictions on sulfur in coal and oil,
spearheaded by the Dept. of Health, Education and Welfare
and its Public Health Service was marked by, among other
things, attempts to establish a national criterion of 0.1 parts
per million for sulfur oxides in the air, and accelerated promo-
tion of nuclear, gas and low-sulfur oil fuels. At the same time,
however, there was increased emphasis on research into ways
and means of reducing the sulfur content of coal and fuel oil,
and for removing it to acceptable levels in the combustion
process. HEW actively participated in a number of state, re-
gional and local campaigns. State and local actions generally
resulted in 1.0% as the sulfur limit, with some prescribing as
low as 0.2% in 3 to 5 yr. Sulfur oxides control was the major
objective, however fly ash control was also a target of pollu-
tion-control programs.
09445
Comprehensive Planning Bureau, Japan, Osaka Municipal
Office
AIR OVER OSAKA CITY. 93P., 1967
The location, geographical features, population, manufactur-
ing, and administration of Osaka City are discussed. An exten-
sive discussion of the measurement of air pollution is
presented. The sampling networks and measurement of dust-
fall, sulfur dioxide, suspended paniculate matter, automobile
exhaust gases, and meteorological parameters are discussed in
detail. A survey of air pollution sources in Osaka City is sum-
marized.
09474
N. Y., Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East
AIR POLLUTION BY FUEL BURNING THERMAL POWER
STATIONS. E/CN. ll/l&NR/Sub.l/L.39, 44p., Feb. 23, 1968.
28 refs.
The problem of atmospheric pollution, especially fuel burning
thermal power stations, was discussed at the tenth session of
the Sub-Committee on Electric Power. A questionnaire was
circulated to the countries of the region operating large fuel
burnign thermal power stations concerning the prevention or
control measures that had been taken by each. Replies were
received from Malaysia, Singapore, Hong Kong, Thailand,
Korea, Philippines Pakistan and New Zealand. Other sources
of contamination e.g. chemical industries, automobiles, and
domestic heating or fires were discussed. It is estimated that
12S.O million tons of pollutants are emitted annually in the
United States. The electric power industry contribution to this
total is 15.7 million tons or 12.5 percent. However, the latter
figure represents 0.8 percent of the total carbon monoxide, 45
percent of all sulphur oxides, 20 percent of a particulate
matter, 30 percent of all nitrogen oxides and 5 percent of all
other emissions. It is con eluded that measures designed for
the abatement of air pollution involve large expenditures, con-
sequently, a compromise between the expense involved and
the acceptable degree of air quality is es sential.
10166
N. Y. Yanysheva
BASIC DATA FOR THE DETERMINATION OF SANITARY
CLEARANCE ZONE WIDTHS AROUND PEAT BURNING
ELECTRIC HEAT AND POWER STATIONS. Gigiena i Sanit.,
24(9):6-10, 1959. 5 refs. Translated from Russian by B. S.
Levine, U.S.S.R. Literature on Air Pollution and Related Oc-
cupational Diseases, Vol. 6, 299p., April 1961. CFSTI: TT 61-
21982
A study was made to obtain data for the revision of the sanita-
ry clearance zone regulation applicable to electric heat and
power stations which used plat as fuel. The studies were con-
ducted in the environs of four separately located electric
power generating stations. The stations burned 50, 90, 200 and
250 tons of peat per hour; they were equipped with jalousie
ash catchers and cyclone ash abaters which operated at 50-
65% effectiveness, with the smoke stacks ranging between 30-
60 m height. The study was limited to the estimation of pollu-
tion with dust and SO2. Samples were collected by the aspira-
tion method in the path of the smoke plumes. Simultaneously
studies were made of the amounts of ash and SO2 actually
emitted into the atmosphere by the electric stations. From the
results of these studies, the sanitary clearance zone was calcu-
lated for each power station.
10503
Tennessee Valley Authority, Chattanooga, Tennessee, Office
of Power
COMPARISON OF COAL-FIRED AND NUCLEAR POWER
PLANTS FOR THE TVA SYSTEM. 36p., June 1966
A detailed cost comparison of coal-fired and nuclear power
plants (both the boiling water and pressurized water reactor
types) for th TVA system is presented for actual bids sub-
mitted by commercial builders. Consideration is given to initial
investment, interest, maintenance, geographic location, pro-
jected fuel costs, operation assurance by the vendor, capacity
guarantees, and overcapacity capability. Design and operation
of the nuclear plants are also discussed. Nuclear power plants
of either type were superior to th coal-fired plant, and the
boiling water reactor design was slightly superior to the pres-
surized water reactor design.
10998
Putnam, B. and M. Manderson
IRON PURITES FROM HIGH SULFUR COALS. Chem. Eng.
Progr. 64(9):60-65, Sept. 1968.
The major sources of SO2 emission are coal fired power
generation facilities, followed by other industrial faculties and
space heating. It also appears that power plants will become
increasingly important potential contributors of SO2 emissions.
Therefore, reduction of emissions from coal fired power
generation facilities is of principal concern. The National
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254
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
Center for Air Pollution Control authorized two commercial
firms to investigate the economics of utilizing iron pyrite
(FeS2) obtained from coal beneficiation, such as in sulfuric
acid manufacture. The evaluation includes technical, market-
ing, and economic considerations and emphasizes the three
major coal producing regions in the U. S. believed to have sig-
nificant quantities of pyrite associated with the coal: central
Pennsylvania, southern Illinois, and northeast Ohio.
11185
Coordinating Committee on the Economic Impact of Pollution
Abatement, Washington, D. C.
SECONDARY IMPACT OF AIR POLLUTION ABATEMENT.
(SECOND REPORT.) 10 p., Dec. 15, 1967. ((13)) refs.
The Working Committee's evaluation of the secondary impact
of air pollution abatement is summarized. The Working Com-
mittee on the Secondary Impact is part of a larger effort to
look at the econo mic impact of pollution abatement as
directed by the President. It is inevitable that the imposition
and enforcement of any regu lations designed to reduce air
pollution from fuel combustion, es pecially sulfur oxide pollu-
tion, will have some adverse effect on on the areas from
which the fuel now being used is obtained. In the case of oil,
the impact would fall mainly on Venezuela, in the se of coal,
it would fall on certain of our major coal producing centers. In
both cases, the degree of hardship and disruption will depend
greatly on the nature and timing of the regulations imposed.
Regulatory policy which allows the use of higher sulfur fuels
in installations and under conditions which are compatible with
the basic abatement objective can greatly soften the adverse
impact on the economics of the fuel producing areas. It can
also significantly reduce the costs of abatement imposed on
the fuel consuming industries. Of course, uniform restrictions
on fuel content are easier to draw and enforce than more flexi-
ble rules, bu administrative convenience is a poor reason for
seriously aggravating the hardships attendant on the adjust-
ment process.
11242
M. C. Manderson
SULFUR OUTLOOK INTO THE EARLY 1970'S. Preprint,
Arthur D. Little, Inc., Cambridge, Mass., ((28))p., 1968.
(Presented at the 61st Annual Meeting, American Institute of
Chemical Engineers, Symposium on Sulfur, Sulfuric Acid and
the Future, Part I, Los Angeles, Calif., Dec. 1-5, 1968, Paper
5-A.)
In 1967, the United States consumed 9.3 million long tons of
sulfur equivalent. Ninety percent of the total amount of sulfur
consumed was in the form sulfuric acid. The major end uses
of sulfuric acid were used in producing nitrogenous and
phosphatic fertilizers. The Free World increase in sulfur con-
sumption has been higher than that of the United States since
1950, 51% per year compared with 3.6% per year. Over the
next seven years Free World consumption is expected to grow
at 5% per year, from the 1967 level to 36 million long tons to
39 million long tons. About 5.5 million long tons of new sulfur
capacity will emerge outside the United Sates over the next 2
1/2 years. Sulfur production in U. S. will grow from the 1967
level of 9.3 million long tons to 14.1 million long tons by 1970
and to 15.8 million long tons by 1975. The amounts of sulfur
from lower cost sources will be adequate to meet U.S. needs
by 1970, including net exports of one million tons per year. It
is believed that sulfur prices will seek lower levels which are
more in line with mimimum return requirements.
11266
Public Health Service, Washington, D.C., Div. of Air Pollu-
tion
REGULATION OF SULFUR OXIDE EMISSIONS FROM
FEDERAL FACILITIES. Preprint, 39p., Nov. 1966.
The Department of Health, Education, and Welfare has
recommended desirable air quality goals and objectives for
sulfur dioxide that are consistent with those of involved local
and State governments. Present sulfur dioxide pollution levels
in New York, Philadelphia, and Chicago greatly exceed desira-
ble air quality levels and will continue to worsen unless cor-
rective steps are initiated immediately. The emission rate of
sulfur oxides from combustion units of all Federal facilities or
buildings in the New York Standard Consolidated Area should
not exceed 0.35 pounds per million BTU calculated as sulfur
dioxide. The emission rate of sulfur oxides from combustion
units of all Federal facilities or buildings in the Chicago Stan-
dard Consolidated Area and the Philadelphia Standard
Metropolitan Statistical Area should not exceed 0.65 pounds
per million BTU. Desirable air quality levels of sulfur dioxide
will not be achieved in the New York, Philadelphia or Chicago
area only by sulfur restrictions on the fuels used by Federal
facilities. It is essential that Federal facilities initiate fuel burn-
ing practices to reduce their contribution of sulfur oxide emis-
sions for protection of the health and welfare of the people in
these critical areas.
11283
Gray, Charles A.
FLASH ADSORPTION PROCESS FOR REMOVAL OF SUL-
FUR DIOXIDE FROM STACK GASES. PLANNING
PROPOSAL. FMC Corp., Princeton, N. J., Central Research
Dept., 14p., June 10, 1966. 5 refs.
The flash adsorption process for SO2 removal from stack
gases appears attractive both technically and economically.
The operating costs of process are highly dependent on the
values assigned to the by-product sulfuric acid. Assuming ac-
tive calcinate at $20 per ton, the proposed process breaks even
at an acid value of about $11 per ton (100% basis). This is sig-
nificantly better than the existing processes. Both the cost and
consumption of active calcinate are certain. By using different
regeneration process, elemental sulfur may be obtained as a
by-product rather than sulfuric acid. The proposed process will
desulfurize flue gas at a gross operating cost of about $0.93
per ton of coal burned. The best competing process is esti-
mated to operate for $1.55 per ton of coal. The capital
required for the proposed process is about 75 percent of that
required for the next best process. (Author's abstract)
11319
P.R. Lee
STATEMENT BEFORE THE RESEARCH AND TECHNICAL
PROGRAMS SUBCOMITTEE OF THE COMMITTEE ON
GOVERNMENT OPERATIONS HOUSE OF REPRESENTA-
TIVES. Preprint, Dept. of Health, Education, and Welfare,
Washington, D. C., 38p., Sept. 5, 1968.
The National Air Pollution Control Administration has under-
way a large-scale research and development program aimed at
finding and demonstrating practical solutions to the problem of
sulfur oxides pollution. Emphasis is placed principally on the
development of technology applicable to fuel combustion
sources. This program involves the combined efforts of more
than 40 non Federal organization, including industrial firms
and research institutions, and several agencies of the Federal
Government. (Author's summary)
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L. LEGAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE
255
11383
Brantner, Heinz and Gerald Fischer
AIR POLLUTION PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH THE
ERECTION OF A THERMAL POWER PLANT. Staub (En-
glish translation), 28(4):13-15, April 1968. 8 refs. CFSTI: XT
68-50448/4
Air pollution problems associated with the running of an oil-
fired power plant in Germany are discussed. The area under
consideration is prone to inversions and calm winds, and the
' local populace were concerned about excessive SO2 pollution
from the plant. The subject of stack height is discussed, but
due to meteorological and economic reasons, a tall stack was
not employed. Maximum SO2 levels are stated, and
requiremednts for action are outlined for cases where the
power plant might exceed these limits. Required actions in-
cluded shutting the plant down, reducing output, switching to
low-sulfur fuel oil, and installation of an SO2 control system.
11526
Public Health Service, Arlington, Va., National Air Pollution
Control Administration
SULFUR OXIDES POLLUTION CONTROL. Federal Research
and Development Planning and Arogramming 1968-1972. 112
p., April 1968. CFSTI: PB 180769
The sulfur oxide pollution problem is discussed. Sources of
pollution, legislative history and congressional action, and fu-
ture trends in sulfur dioxide pollution are discussed. The
overall current federal research and development program for
sulfur oxide control is summarized. Sections of the program
include: flue gas treatment; stack meteorology; fuel desul-
furization; fuel conversion; new combustion processes; indus-
trial process control; fuel availability surveys; supporting in-
strumentation development; and program development, analy-
sis, and evaluation.
11781
The Coordinating Committee on the Economic Impact of
Pollution Abatement, Washington, D. C.
SECONDARY IMPACT OF AIR POLLUTION ABATEMENT.
10p., Dec. 15, 1967.
The imposition and enforcement of any regulations designed to
reduce air pollution from fuel combustion—especially sulfur
oxide pollution — will have some adverse effect on the areas
from which the fuel now being used is obtained. The degree of
hardship and disruption will depend greatly on the nature and
timing of the regulations imposed. In drawing these regula-
tions, it is essential to keep the basic objective firmly in mind.
This objective can be most simply stated as the reduction of
the ground-level concentration of sulfur oxide emissions to a
ratio compatible with the health and well-being of the commu-
nities affected. In particular, it should be stressed that sulfur
content limitations for fuel are a means to an end and not the
end itself. Regulatory policy which allows the use of higher
sulfur fuels in installations and under conditions which are
compatible with the basic abatement objective can greatly sof-
ten the adverse impact on the economies of the fuel producing
areas. It is imperative that adequate - but not excessive -
time be allowed to permit both suppliers and consumers of
fuel to adjust to the new requirements. The importance of en-
couraging research and development in such areas as desul-
furization methods, stack removal devices, and methods of as-
sessing the ways in which all available techniques can most ef-
fectively and economically be integrated into a balanced abate-
ment program is suggested by the considerations discussed.
(Authors' conclusions, modified)
12031
J. S. M. Botterill
FACTORS BEHIND THE NATION'S FUEL AND POWER
POLICY. Brit. Chem. Eng., 13(11):1567-1571, Nov. 1968. 5 ref.
The vital importance of fuel and power policy to industrial- so-
cial health underlies this examination of national fuel policy.
The interrelationships of the various fuels are discussed.
Coal's declining use presents a major social problem in many
areas in the United Kingdom. The high capital cost of elec-
tricity generating capacity and of natural gas distribution is in
large measure balanced by the increased convenience and
availability of supply. Strategic considerations are involved in
the importation of fuel oil. Nuclear energy must also be con-
sidered in an evaluation of the economy as it relates to fuel
policy. Future demand will reflect the growth in the economy
and the rising standard of living of the domestic consumer.
12461
Croke, E. J., J. E. Carson, D. F. Gatz, H. Moses, A. S.
Kennedy, J. E. Norco, J. J. Roberts, K. G. Croke, J. B.
Anderson, D. M. Nelson, J. E. Ash, R. P. Carter, D. Parsons,
J. W. Lin, and R. J. Votruba
CHICAGO AIR POLLUTION SYSTEM MODEL. Argonne Na-
tional Lab., El., Chicago Dept. of Air Pollution Control, 111.
and Public Health Service, Cincinnati, Ohio, National Air Pol-
lution Control Administration, PR-4, 266p., March 1969. 3 refs.
CFSTI: ANL/ES-CC-004
The Chicago air pollution system model, a project oriented
around the use of systems analysis to develop effective air
pollution incident control strategies and long-range air quality
control plans for urban areas, is described. The objectives of
the project are as follows: the development of a computerized
methodology for 12-24 hour advance prediction of ambient sul-
fur dioxide concentrations; the development of optimal air pol-
lution control strategies; and the integration of air pollution
control into the long range planning for urban area. Since the
results of the project must be generally applicable on a na-
tional scale, emphasis is placed on the study and solution of
air pollution problems which the Chicago area shares with
other urban concentrations rather than on elements which are
local and peculiar to Chicago alone. Meteorological data is
used in a statistical air pollution forecasting system, as well as
a source-oriented atmospheric dispersion model which realisti-
cally simulates plume dispersion. A computerized control
system for a power plant network is presented, along with a
natural gas supply and distribution system. The structure of an
incident control strategy is discussed. Experimental studies
which have been initiated include an aircraft sounding program
designed to obtain vertical temperature, humidity, and sulfur
dioxide profiles over the city; a tracer study program using
sulfur hexafluoride; correlation of space heating emission pat-
terns with meteorological conditions; and a series of emission
control tests to determine the relationship between emissions,
meteorological conditions, and air quality. The economics of
air pollution control are discussed, and abatement strategies
are considered. Projected studies for the near future are
presented.
13049
Bush, R.I., Charles T. Holland, K.K. Humphreys, J.W.
Leonard, Charles H. Sawyers, and E.B. Wilson
COAL UTILIZATION. Mining Engineering, 21(2):114-117,
Feb. 1969.
Research efforts on sulfur removal from coal are primarily
directed at reducing pyrite content. Generally, the coal is
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256
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
crushed to 48 to 200 mesh to liberate the pyrite grains which
are removed electrostatically or magnetically. Research in the
area of coal gasification and liquefaction is being carried out
by the Office of Coal Research. A pilot plant is currently in
operation to produce synthetic crude refinery feedstock and a
high-ash char for power generation. The process consists of
partially dissolving coal in a coal-derived solvent and separat-
ing the liquid extract from the residual fuels. The liquids are
hydrogenated to produce the synthetic crude for gasoline
production. The possibility of commercially attractive fluidized
bed combustion techniques continues to improve through
research. The fluidized bed principle consists of combustion of
fuel particles in a highly-mobile, fluid-state inert bed through
which fluidizing gases pass. The turbulent motion of the
fluidized bed causes release and transfer of heat. This method
of combustion reduces combustion emissions. The effect of air
pollution legislation on the coal industry is reviewed.
13055
Netschert, Bruce C.
AIR POLLUTION AND ELECTRIC POWER. IEEE (Inst.
Elec. Electron. Engrs.) Spectrum, 6(7):71-76, July 1969. 10
refs.
The various developments in air pollution abatement regarding
economic justifications are discussed. One approach to reduc-
ing sulfur oxide pollution has been to set a standard for max-
imum sulfur content in the fuel that is burned. If the fuel user
desires to continue burning the same type of fuel, he can meet
this standard in a number of ways: by using a fuel that has a
low sulfur content; by desulfurizing the fuel; or by blending
high sulfur fuel with low-sulfur fuel. However, there is a
larger supply of coal and oil with high sulfur content than with
low sulfur content, and since the price is lower it finds more
use. Other methods of abating air pollution are the use of
natural gas, which is sulfur-free, the use of nuclear power, the
desulfurization of stack gases, and employing a high stack. All
of these methods have some shortcomings. The price of natu-
ral gas could rise if a great number of industrial plants began
to use it in place of fossil fuels. Avoiding air pollution by the
use of nuclear power could result in increased thermal pollu-
tion of water resources. Although stack gas desulfurization is
still in the e experimental stage, it appears to be the most
promising method, since large quantities of elemental sulfur
and sulfur dioxide can be recovered.
14535
Diehl, E. K.
AIR POLLUTION RESEARCH IN GERMANY AND GREAT
BRITAIN AS OBSERVED DURING OCTOBER 1967 VISITS.
Bituminous Coal Research, Inc., Monroeville, Pa., 19p., Nov.
1967.
The highlights of a trip to West Germany and Great Britain in
October 1967, to survey methods and investigations of sulfur
dioxide control, are reported, including a summary of coal
research activities. The average sulfur content of the coals
abroad 1.5% in Germany and 2% in Britain - makes the control
of SO2 emission less of a problem than in the United States.
Regulations concerning SO2 are based upon ambient air quali-
ty, permitting the emitter several alternatives by which to con-
form. Current research in Germany on SO2 control is concen-
trated mainly on limestone or dolomite addition in a dry
system, and on the development of active carbons and chars
for the dry adsorption of SO2 from flue gases. Some sizable
pilot plants are in operation or are being erected. All plants
whose operation results in pollutant emissions must be
licensed by the Ministry of Health and must demonstrate con-
tinuing compliance with control regulations. Pollution con-
siderations have an affect on plant location, which in turn sig-
nificantly affects plant costs. In Britain, smoke and particulate
control over the past decade has done much to improve the air
pollution situation; ambient concentrations of SO2 are slowly
declining in spite of a steady increase in the total SO2 emitted
from larger power plants. Tall, multiple-flue stacks are given
credit for this changing situation. Consequently, SO2 control
for the sake of clean air is not currently a major subject for
research in Britain; rather, the prime goal of pilot scale studies
on a variation of the alkalized-alumina process is the produc-
tion of sulfur, with lowered SO2 emission considered a by-
product. The target concentration of SO2 in ambient air is 0.35
ppm, considered acceptable by medical researchers. Investiga-
tions of the synergistic effects of SO2 and smoke are being
emphasized. It seems apparent that future coal use will be on
a 'controlled decline' and will be kept alive strictly on a na-
tional economy basis. A future power policy for Great Britain
is being formulated, taking into consideration the discovery of
natural gas in the North Sea. Some specific research activities
of various private and governmental organizations in West
Germany and Great Britain, and one in Holland, are briefly
described.
14598
Theodore, F. W.
LOW SULFUR BOILER FUEL USING THE CONSOL CO2
ACCEPTOR PROCESS: A FEASIBILITY STUDY. Consolida-
tion Coal Co., Library, Pa., Research Div., Contract 14-01-
0001-415, Rept. 2, 78p., Nov. 1967. 17 refs. CFSTI: PB 176910
The use of dolomite (Consol CO2 Acceptor Process) may be
applied to the production of low-sulfur char and gas in two
ways: (1) as a sulfur acceptor in the simple devolatilization
desulfurization of coal, or (2) as both a source of heat and as a
sulfur acceptor in a combined desulfurization-partial gasifica-
tion plant. In each case, either high-BTU pipeline gas (Option
A) or high-purity hydrogen (Option B) can be produced. In
Option B, hydrogen purification is based on cryogenic separa-
tion, which results in the production of a high-value fuel gas
as a third product. This can be added to the boiler char to
lower the sulfur level in the total boiler fuel; as an alternative,
it can be used as clean reformer fuel in the context of a large
coal desulfurization plant. Feasibility studies of the four appli-
cations indicate that (2), Option B is the most economically at-
tractive process. It produces a low-sulfur boiler fuel at no in-
crease in boiler fuel cost and two by-products: marketable
quantities of elemental sulfur and low-cost, 95% pure
hydrogen. Credit for hydrogen should more than cover total
operating costs. If all fuel gas and char are burned together
and credited at 18.50/MM BTU (1967 figures), the resulting
cost of hydrogen is 24-250/MCF. The economics of this opera-
tion are particularly attractive if the process is considered as
part of an integrated coal-to- gasoline/gas complex which can
utilize the low-cost hydrogen. This process would not require
the lengthy power plant shutdowns that are necessary for the
installation of stack gas cleaning equipment.
17006
Commission of European Communities, Luxembourg
(Belgium), General Management of Coal
COOPERATION BETWEEN C.E.C.A. AND THE U.S.A.
(COOPERATION C.E.C.A.- U.S.A.). Document No. 4894/1/67
f, 6p., Sept. 29, 1967. Translated from French. Franklin Inst.
Research Labs., Philadelphia, Pa., Science Info. Services, 8p.
The exchange of information, collaboration, community stu-
dies on subjects about which the United States could be in-
-------
L. LEGAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE
257
formed or the results of which could be communicated to it
against remuneration or payments, and American research
about which the community would desire to have more infor-
mation than in the past are covered. A summary of the various
documents tendered by the American delegation (U. S. Bureau
of Mines, Bituminous Coal Research Association, and the U.
S. Office of Coal Research) and various proposals of the
French, Belgian, and German delegations is compiled.
Exchange of information includes the following topics: utiliza-
tion of low-temperature tars and pitches; improvement of
small furnaces operating on grain fuel; transport of coal in
ducts; and improvement of the new firebricks. Collaboration
includes the following topics: mechanical preparation of coal;
utilization of fly-ash and washing slate and other mine
residues; combustion methods; and fundamental research into
chemistry and physics of coal and coke. Community studies
contain the following topics: oxidation of coal and its ag-
glomerates; coking; production of soluble oxidized coal;
production of active coal; combustion methods; and capturing
methane. American research includes the following topics:
preparation of coal; carbonization at low temperature;
liquefaction and gasification of coals; carbochemistry; and
direct transformation of energy.
17321
Croke, Edward J. and Samuel G. Booras
DESIGN OF AN AIR POLLUTION INCIDENT CONTROL
PLAN. J. Air Pollution Control Assoc., 20(3):129-138, March
1970. 7 refs.
To accomplish the transition from a comprehensive but
somewhat theoretical concept of air pollution incident control
to an array of practical contingency plans, a series of air pollu-
tion control tests were initiated in Chicago. The initial effort to
develop and field test a prototype operational air pollution in-
cident control strategy was focused on the control of sulfur
dioxide emissions from coal and oil burning industrial sources,
large commercial and residential structures, and urban power
plants. In a series of fixed response emission control tests,
participating fuel users alternated between high sulfur fuels
and natural gas. Results showed that, in Chicago, operational
control of dual fuel power plants is feasible and that switching
from coal to oil to natural gas on short notice does not impose
a serious operational penalty on most dual fuel users. Fuel
consumption records maintained by the participants provided a
data base for the refinement of Chicago's emission inventory
and the planning of future tests. In a second test series, emis-
sion control operations were initiated on the basis of me-
terological weather forecasts. Communication requirements
and the response capability of participating users were noted.
The third emission control test was designed as an incident
control war game and included a more realistic simulation of
the command and control structure, organization, communica-
tions, logistical functions, technological aids, and decision
processes involved in implementing an incident control pro-
gram. The control strategies developed were imposed on fuel
users and emergency surveillance and enforcement procedures
were put into effect. The war game helped to identify deficien-
cies in the incident control program.
17472
Ouemmler, Friedrich
THE ANTI-AIR POLLUTION ACTIVITIES OF THE
TECHNISCHE UEBERWACHUNGS-VEREIN. (Die
Technischen Ueberwachungs-Vereine im Dienste des Immis-
sionsschutzes). Text in German. Tech. Ueberwach (Duessel-
dorf), 10(10):339-345, Oct. 1970.
One of the most important tasks of the Technische
Ueberwachungs-Verein (TUV) is to measure dust emissions by
steam plants. By checking the performance of new measuring
units and determining whether they fulfill the manufacturer's
specifications. Measurements by the TUV taken in 1967 on
steam boilers with capacities of up to 25 t/h showed that
plants without dust collectors emitted on the average 560 mg
dust/cu m; those with dust collectors, 170 mg/cu m. For plants
with more than 100 Gcal/h, the authorities require the installa-
tion of automatic measuring devices for dust and sulfur diox-
ide. In this connection, TUV checks the available units for
suitability and calibrates each individual unit. For dust mea-
surements, photometric units were suitable; for SO2 measure-
ments, infrared absorbers and electroconductivity analyzers
were selected. In addition to these activities, TUV is presently
engaged with fluorine, hydrocarbon, hydrogen sulfide, sulfur
trioxide, carbon monoxide, hydrogen chloride, lead, and zinc
oxide measurements. In the years 1965-1966, TUV conducted
extensive studies of CO and CH content of automobile ex-
hausts in the idling stage. Infrared absorbers were used for the
measurements. Ten percent of the vehicles with four-stroke
engines emitted more than 8% CO in the idle; but 45% of the
vehicles emitted less than 4.5%. Beginning with October 1,
1970, newly registered automobiles with Otto engines may not
emit more than 25 g CO and 1,5 g CH per 100 g fuel consump-
tion. TUV will check the new automobiles for compliance with
this law. Finally, odor and noise measurements also belong to
the activities of the TUV.
17473
Katin, Arno
UNIFORM PRACTICE FOR THE ENTIRE FEDERAL
REPUBLIC (OF GERMANY) FOR MONITORING EMIS-
SIONS FROM PLANTS COVERED BY ARTICLE 16 OF THE
INDUSTRIAL REGULATIONS. (Bundeseinheitliche Praxis bei
der Ueberwachung der Emissionen aus Anlagen nach Para-
graph 16 der Gewerbeordnung). Text in German. Tech.
Ueberwach (Duesseldorf), 10(6): 193-196, June 1969. 1 ref.
Article 16 of the industrial regulations primarily covers power
plants, the emissions from which can not yet be limited, due
to a lack of suitable cleaning methods. These plants, however,
have been required to find the proper stack height so that the
gaseous pollutants are sufficiently dispersed. In 1964, all plants
emitting more that 25 kg/h of dust or more than 200 k g SO2/h
had to install suitable continuously recording emission measur-
ing units. 'Suitable' was defined as being capable of three
months of continuous operation without failure. This meant
that all dust measuring units were to be subjected to en-
durance testing which required complex laboratory facilities.
Thus, three well equipped laboratories were used for the test-
ing for the entire Federal Republic. Furthermore, it was de-
cided to require calibration of each measuring unit after it had
been installed into the plant. Such calibrations were thought
necessary to eliminate errors arising under locally different
conditions. These costly calibrations made it necessary to limit
installation of monitoring units for the time being to plants
with a heat capacity of 100 Gcal/h and more.
18121
High, M. Dean and W. H. Megonnell
POLLUTION CONTROL: FEDERAL LEADERSHIP. Mech.
Eng., 91(2):20-23, Feb. 1969.
Executive Order No. 11282, issued in 1966, requires that all
Federal agencies take steps to prevent and control air pollution
from their installations. Sulfur oxide emission rates have been
established for all Federal facilities in three densely populated
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258
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
cities: New York, Philadelphia, and Chicago. The emission
rate of SOx from combustion units of all federal facilities in
these metropolitan areas are 0.35 and 0.65 Ib/mill Btu calcu-
lated as SO2.
18220
Pollack, Lawrence W.
LEGAL BOUNDARIES OF AIR POLLUTION CONTROL--
STATE AND LOCAL LEGISLATIVE PURPOSE AND
TECHNIQUES. Law and Contemporary Problem 33(2):331-
357, Spring 1968. 150 refs.
The legal experiences encountered in the development of the
various state and local techniques, so that future legislative ef-
forts can be judged and guided accordingly are reviewed.
Because recent New York City legislation employs most of the
available legislative techniques, it is used throughout this arti-
cle as an example of source control legislation. The ordinance
provisions recommended by the Public Health Service are
used as a model of 'Air Resource Management' legislation.
Experience has shown that most carefully drafted public
health related control techniques are within the legal bounda-
ries established by the U. S. Constitution.
18223
Rein, Barry D.
OBTAINING BOILER FUEL GAS TO REDUCE AIR POLLU-
TION: THE POLICY OF THE FEDERAL POWER COMMIS-
SION. Law and Contemporary Problems, 33(2):399-420, Spring
1968. 67 refs.
Generation of electrical power by fossil fuels invariably
produces pollutants; the particular pollutants produced and
their effects vary with the type of fuel, the location of the
plant, the type of generating unit, the existence of pollution
control equipment, and the scheduling of particular fuels in
multi-fuel plants. This article deals with an aspect of utilities
regulation of particular importance: The jurisdiction of the
Federal Power Commission (FPC) over the use by steam-elec-
tric generatig utilities of natural gas for boiler fuel, for the pur-
pose of reducing air pollution produced by burning alternative
fuels.
19062
Spaite, Paul W.
FEDERAL AIR POLLUTION PROGRAM: READY TO
FINANCE MORE OUTSIDE HELP. Chem. Eng., vol. 75:170-
172, Jan. 15, 1968. (Presented at the Metropolitan Engineering
Council on Air Resources Meeting, New York, Oct. 23-24,
1967.)
The trend in the federal research and development program
for controlling sulfur pollution is toward spending more on
contracts outside the government. Research and development
funds managed by the National Center for Air Pollution Con-
trol are shown in tabular form. The figures represent the
federal expenditures oriented directly for sulfur oxides control.
A study was conducted to determine the processes worthy of
support. Three approaches were selected for the first-genera-
tion large-scale study: limestone or dolomite injection, includ-
ing dry processes, and injection coupled with water scrubbers;
alkalized-alumina sorption; and processes that would treat
pyrite-coal mixtures derived from deep cleaning of coal to
produce heat, sulfur, and sulfuric acid. The program for
developing new processes is aimed at providing second-genera-
tion processes for removing sulfur dioxide from flue gases
arising from the combustion of fossil fuels. Two types of con-
tracts are being negotiated. One will be devoted to through,
broad surveys of available technology in nine areas: aqueous
solution, dry metal oxide sorption, direct reduction to sulfur,
inorganic liquids and solids, organic liquids and solids, cata-
lytic oxidation, and physical separation. The second contract
calls for unsolicited proposals. To encourage more extensive
control of such sources as primary smelters, pulp and paper
mills, sulfuric acid plants, and coke plants, a series of studies
on cooperative research and development are planned.
20698
Dickinson, R.
MEASUREMENTS OF DOMESTIC SMOKE EMISSION AND
THEIR APPLICATION TO CLEAN AIR LEGISLATION. J.
Inst. Fuel, vol. 43:75-81, March 1970. 15 refs.
To assist in the implementation of a clean air policy, a labora-
tory investigation was conducted to determine the weight of
smoke emitted from domestic solid fuels and appliances. A
small electrostatic precipitator was used to determine the
weight. A representative range of open-fire fuels including
bituminous coals, low volatile steam coals, anthracite, manu-
factured fuels, and wood and peat fuels were compared by a
standard series of tests. Supplementary investigations were
made to find the effects of the method of ignition, size grad-
ing, and refuelling procedure. Measurements were also made
of the emissions from two authorized fuels on a small boiler
and from a limited number of experimental smoke-reducing
appliances. These investigations have enabled the British Stan-
dards Institution to draw up a standard for the authorization of
manufactured smokeless fuels and to recommend the exemp-
tion of smoke-reducing appliances and to recommend these to
the Ministry of Housing and Local Government. It was recom-
mended that the authorization level should ensure a smoke
reduction of 80% compared with bituminous coal; a limiting
level of 0.9% at a burning rate of 2 Ib/hr was considered ap-
propriate.
21431
Gonschorek, Dietmar and Gerhard F. Mueller
FEASIBILITIES AND LIMITS OF FINANCIAL PENALTIES
FOR AIR POLLUTERS. (Moeglichkeiten und Grenzen
oekonomischer Regelungen zur Reinhaltung der Luft). Text in
German. Chem. Tech. (Berlin), 22(3): 158-161, March 1970.
In an industrial center, the effect of financial penalties for air
polluters was studied. Limit concentrations were worked out
according to the individual meteorological and topographical
conditions. High penalties were collected for exceeding these
limits which were used for air pollution studies. After two
years, it was shown that not all excessive emissions could be
limited this way. Power plants frequently were unable to cope
with their emissions within reasonable expenditures. Complete-
ly new plants are required in order to reduce the emissions to
the required limit. For the chemical industry, the penalties
were too low to be incentive. But between these two extreme
cases, there were those which found it less expensive to install
control facilities than pay the penalties.
24033
Damon, W. A.
THE CONTROL OF NOXIOUS GASES AND FUMES
DISCHARGED FROM INDUSTRIAL UNDERTAKINGS.
World Health Organization, Copenhagen (Denmark), Regional
Office for Europe, Proc. Conf. Public Health Aspects Air Pol-
lution Europe, Milan, Italy, 1957, p. 103-130. 26 refs. (Nov. 6-
14.)
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L. LEGAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE
259
The greatest contribution to air pollution arises from the com-
bustion of fuel for domestic and industrial purposes and from
motor traffic. Its damaging effects include injury to plants,
deterioration of property, and possible or proven hazards to
the health of humans and animals. British air pollution legisla-
tion is embodied mainly in three Acts of Parliament: the Alkali
etc. Works Regulation Acts, first enacted in 1863; the Public
Health Acts, 1936; and the Clean Air Act, 1956. Evolution of
the chemical industry has caused a variety of changed and
new pollutants. Fluorine compounds can be washed in alkaline
solutions, followed by electrical precipitation. The escape of
S02 from the exits of sulfuric acid plants depend on the effi-
ciency with which the the process is conducted. In four stage
contact plants burning brimstone, recourse to scrubbing the
exit gas with either soda or ammonia may be necessary. Power
stations remove SO2 from waste fuel gases by scrubbing with
slightly alkaline water. Sulfur dioxide arising from the roasting
of copper as in the production of iron oxides is normally ab-
sorbed by passage through towers packed with limestone.
Hydrogen chloride may be recovered at a useful strength by
arranging a counter current series of absorbers. Hydrogen sul-
fide may be scrubbed with caustic soda to produce sodium sul-
fide; it may be absorbed by passage through hydrated iron
oxide which can be regenerated to produce spent oxide con-
taining up to 50% sulfur; or it can be stripped out by means of
a solvent and regenerated in concentrated form for treatment
in a Claus Kiln. Gases containing chlorine may be scrubbed
with an alkaline solution or by contact with milk of lime;
passage through a tower packed with scrap iron is also effec-
tive. Nitrogen peroxide may be recovered in the form of nitric
acid by water washing; but for every three molecules of
nitrogen peroxide thus absorbed there is evolution of one
molecule of nitric oxide which must be reoxidized to nitrogen
peroxide.
24214
Public Nuisance Control Committee (Japan)
BASIC POLICY REGARDING THE ESTABLISHMENT OF
PUBLIC NUISANCE CONTROL PROGRAM FOR THE
KANAGAWA AREA. (Kanagawa chiiki ni kakawaru koga
boshikeikaku sakutei no kihon hoshin. An). Text in Japanese.
Yosui to Haisui (J. Water Waste), 12(9):768-776, Sept. 1, 1970.
A control program to be effective in the area East of Sagami
River within Kanagawa Prefecture is presented. This • area
serves as the mainstay of the Japanese economy, industries
such as electric power, steel, petroleum, chemicals and heavy
automobile traffic have contributed to the chronic pollution
problems. Air pollution in the Taishi and Tajima areas and
water pollution in Tama, Tsurumi, and Katabira Rivers as well
as Tokyo Bay are extremely severe. The pollutant levels are to
be lowered to within the tabulated limits by 1980. There are
many necessary control measures, but the following are espe-
cially emphasized in view of the national planning priorities.
They are the control measures against stationary air pollution
sources in Kawasaki, especially purification of coastal waters
and rivers and streams, control of nuisances accompanying au-
tomobile traffic, and treatment measures for metropolitan and
industrial wastes. In addition, surveillance and measurement
systems as well as cooperation with the neighboring prefec-
tures are indispensable. Detailed tables are given on the target
maximum allowable concentrations of sulfur oxides,
suspended particulates, and carbon monoxide in air as well as
cyanides, alkyl mercury, organic phosphorus, cadmium, lead,
chromium, arsenic, mercury in general, and pH, BOD, SS, DO
and coliform bacteria values for water pollution. The max-
imum allowable noise levels for daytime, morning and evening
are also listed.
25688
Resources Research, Inc., Washington, D. C.
PROPOSED IMPLEMENTATION PLAN FOR THE CON-
TROL OF PARTICULATES AND SULFUR OXIDES FOR
THE STATE OF OHIO PORTION OF THE METROPOLITAN
CINCINNATI INTERSTATE AIR QUALITY CONTROL RE-
GION. NAPCA Contract CPA 70-29, 238p., Sept. 1970. NTIS:
PB 195758
The Metropolitan Cincinnati Interstate Air Quality Control Re-
gion (MCIAQCR), designated in May 1969, comproses approx-
imately 3000 square miles of land area located in the extreme
southwestern portion of Ohio and the adjacent states of Indi-
ana and Kentucky. The proposed regional control strategy for
particulates consists of emission standards covering three
general categories of emissions: industrial process, fuel com-
bustion, and solid waste disposal. The proposed control strate-
gy for sulfur oxides consists of those emission standards al-
ready in effect in Cincinnati: the emission categories con-
sidered by these standards are industrial process and fuel com-
bustion. When adopted and enforced, these strategies shoul
lead to acceptable levels of both suspended particulate and
sulfur dioxide as defined by regional Air Quality Standards.
Legally enforceable control regulations based on the emission
standards are presented. In Ohio, the regulations will be imple-
mented primarily through a permit and source surveillance
system. Legal and administrative deficiencies hindering en-
forcement of the control plan in Ohio are pointed out, and
remedial measures suggested. Als reviewed are the projected
regional air quality monitoring network and procedures to be
used to control sources during emergency episodes.
26157
Burns, Leland S.
URBAN PLANNING ASPECTS OF AIR POLLUTION ABATE-
MENT. In: Project Clean Air. California Univ., Berkeley Task
Force No. 3, Section 7, 17p., Sept. 1, 1970. 46 refs.
People from all parts of the urban scene who are concerned
with the increased problems of coordination have been in-
creasingly looking to the planners for the abatement of many
problems, including air pollution. Regional applications of site
selection, wind effects, and air flow patterns have been con-
sidered in the architectural and planning processes. Environ-
mental planners are considering various density levels for an
urban area and what these levels impl about pollution. The
most developed are most documented air resource manage-
ment program exists in the Chicago metropolitan area while
the Northeastern Illinois Planning Commission has listed the
sources of pollution as space heating, power generation, waste
disposal, industrial processing, and transportation. Air zoning
is the main toll of the Chicago program. Recommendations for
physical planning research include regional modeling which
would be both a monitoring and evaluative device; indicators;
air basin capacity; effect of city size and population density;
and the habitat. Proposals for policy planning research include
the search for effective institutional frameworks, monitoring
and control functions, jurisdiction, levels of acdeptable air pol-
lution, and points of intervention.
-------
260
M. SOCIAL ASPECTS
00336
G. Ozolins and R. Smith
A RAPID SURVEY TECHNIQUE FOR ESTIMATING COM-
MUNITY AIR POLLUTION EMISSIONS. Public Health Ser-
vice, Cincinnati, Ohio, Division of Air Pollution. Oct. 1966. 83
pp. (Presented at the 59th Annual Meeting of the Air Pollution
Control Assoc., San Francisco, Calif., June 20-24, 1966, Paper
No. 66-11.)
A technique has been developed for surveying pollutant emis-
sions within a community or metropolitan area in 3 to 6 man-
weeks. The methods for conducting such a survey are
described in this paper. An important feature of this technique
is the concept of reporting zones. The quantities of pollutants
released can be assessed not only for the total community but
also for different subdivisions of the area. The results are
emission maps of a community depicting emission of pollu-
tants in quantities per unit area. Seasonal variations in pollu-
tant concentrations are considered, and emission rates of pol-
lutants can be calculated for specified times of the year. The
four major source categories considered are combustion of
fuels in stationary and in mobile sources, combustion of refuse
material, and industrial process losses. Each category is con-
sidered in detail relative to sources of information, seasonal
variation in emissions, methods for estimating pollutant emis-
sions by areas, and use of emission factors. Results obtained
by application of this technique in two metropolitan areas are
summarized. (Author)
01220
THE POTENTIAL MARKET FOR FAR WESTERN COAL
AND LIGNITE (VOLUME I). Nathan (Robert R.) Associates,
Inc., Washington, D. C. (487) Dec. 27, 1965. CFSTI: PB 169
315
The four categories covered in this study are summarized as
follows: 1. Analysis of present supply and demand for coal
and lignite and competitive fuels and sources of energy. 2.
Analysis of all the significant elements affecting the com-
petivive position of Western coals and lignite. 3. Analysis and
projection of the potential market for Western coal and lignite
in 1980 by major producing area, market area and end use. 4.
Estimates of additional market potential for Western coals and
lignite on the assumption of favorable developments or ac-
tions. The far Western states, Washington, Oregon, California,
Nevada, Arizona, New Mexico, Utah, Colorado, Idaho,
Wyoming, and Montana are discussed in relation to the above
four categories.
01221
THE POTENTIAL MARKET FOR FAR WESTERN COAL
AND LIGNITE (VOLUME H - APPENDICES). Nathan (Robert
R.) Associates, Inc., Washington, D. C. Dec. 27, 1965. 360 pp.
CFSTI: PB 169 316
The four categories covered in this study are summarized as
follows: 1. Analysis of present supply and demand for coal
and lignite and competitive fuels and sources of energy. 2.
Analysis of all the significant elements affecting the competi-
tive position of Western coals and lignite. 3. Analysis and pro-
jection of the potential market for midwestern coal and lignite
in 1980 by major producing area, market area and end use. 4.
Estimates of additional market potential for midwestern coals
and lignite on the assumption of favorable developments or ac-
tion. The midwestern states, North Dakota, South Dakota,
Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri, Arkansas, Louisiana, Nebraska,
Kansas, Oklahoma, Texas and Alaska are discussed in relation
to above four categories.
01567
H. Berge
EMISSION CONTROL - A SUPRA-NATIONAL CONCERN IN
OUR TECHNICAL AGE. (Immissionsschutz, Eine
Uberstaatiche Gemeinschaftsaufgabe in Unserem Technischen
Zeitalter.) Z. Sozialoekonomie, No. (614.7)1-8, 1966.
Local SO2 warnings; guide lines; and limit values are critically
discussed with emphasis on the situation in Northern Rhine-
Westphalia. The need for independent evaluations and supra-
national regulations are stressed for the west European com-
munity. The economic and sociological as well as the biologi-
cal aspects of the problem are discussed. The need for con-
tinuous measurements is underscored.
08072
Garvey, James R.
EFFECTS OF PUBLIC INTEREST IN THE ENVIRONMENT
ON THE COAL INDUSTRY-Preprint, Bituminous Coal
Research, Inc., Monroeville, Pa., 14 p., (1966) Presented at the
Annual Meeting, Industrial Hygiene Foundation of America,
Inc., Pittsburgh, Pa., Oct. 18, 1966
A review of the pollution situation so far as the coal industry
is concerned, and a summary of the state of the art of abate-
ment, primarily of air pollution resulting from the combustion
of bituminous coal, but also to a somewhat lesser extent, the
abatement of water pollution and the reclamation of land in-
volved in the mining of coal is presented. The state of the art
of control of pollutants from the combustion of coal is moving
forward on all fronts. The technology for control of smoke
and fly ash is already available in an advanced state, and addi-
tional progress is being made. However, in the control of sul-
fur oxides, much still remained to be done, despite an ex-
panded research effort by industry and others. Those control
processes which are most advanced in technical feasibility are
still at the present state of development far too expensive to
install and operate, especially in light of the lack of knowledge
regarding the degree of control which is necessary to protect
human health. But progress is being and will continue to be
made, and as the work passes through the large pilot state of
development, opportunities will be available for improvements
in the technology which will make them economically as well
as technically feasible. The mining and preparation of coal for
shipment to market also is the cause of pollution, including
air, water, and land disturbance. Air pollution results from the
spontaneous ignition and subsequent combustion of the refuse
discarded in the cleaning of coal for market. The technology
for prevention of spontaneous combustion in new refuse piles
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M. SOCIAL ASPECTS
261
has been developed, and by means of careful selection of site
and compaction, this source of air pollution can be eliminated
in the future.
22636
Nowlan, J. P.
THE POLLUTION ALTERNATIVES - ENVIRONMENTAL
CONTROL OR A LOST CIVILIZATION. Can. Mining Met.
Bull. (Montreal), 63(701):974-978 Sept. 1970.
The rate of growth and hence the concentration of industry
has been accompanied by increasing concentrations of popula-
tion and by a tremendous upsurge in the output of thermal
energy. One of the reasons why this surge in pollution was lar-
gely unforeseen is the dominance of specialists in our complex
economy without regard to consequences on the total environ-
ment. A fundamental problem is ignorance we do not know
the optimum ratio between use and conservation to maintain
or enhance the desirable features of our environment. Most of
our pollution problems are due to concentrations of humans
and of industry in certain areas to a point where the natural
forces of waste control are no longer effective. Overcrowding
of any species leads to degeneration of individuals and
behavior aberrations. Research should be conducted into
plasma conversion of garbage into its atomic elements, and
growth of oxygen-producing algae should be encouraged to
utilize these plants at maturity for their protein content. The
energy balance in lakes needs to be studied much more inten-
sively than has been done in the past. Tidal power is men-
tioned as an energy alternative to combustion and atomic
power. Pollution and the mining environment are discussed,
and the need for more publication as the one recently
published outlining development and rehabilitation methods for
open-pit mines is urged.
25143
Higginson, K.
THE PROBLEM OF AIR POLLUTION IN HONG KONG.
Preprint, International Union of Air Pollution Prevention As-
sociations, 10p., 1970. (Presented at the International Clean
Air Congress, 2nd, Washington, D. C., Dec. 6-11, 1970, Paper
AD-17E.)
The Hong Kong air pollution problems date back only some 25
years to the period when World War 2 ended. At that time
when the Colony had largely to be rebuilt, and when use of
fuels was comparatively low, it would have been possible to
have designed an urban community which was free of the air
pollution which now poses a serious problem. The principal
causes of air pollution in Hong Kong are explained, and an at-
tempt is made to show the possibl escape routes, and the new
problems which are associated with those routes. Air pollution
problems in Hong Kong are aggravated by the position of the
Kai Tai Airport near the city. Poorly maintained diesel engines
are another problem. The conclusions are that unles clean
fuels can be made available in very large quantities to suppl
the Far East, then it is essential to provide dry absorption
processes at the power generating stations. These processes
must occupy a limited ground area, and must be capable of
operating without either a large consumption of fresh water, or
the production of a liquid effluent. (Author abstract)
25188
Land, George W.
THE CHANGING PATTERNS OF FOSSIL FUEL EMISSIONS
IN THE UNITED STATES. Preprint, International Union of
Air Pollution Preventio Associations, 26p., 1970. 22 refs.
(Presented at the Internationa Clean An- Congress, 2nd,
Washington, D. C., Dec. 6-11, 1970, Paper SU-12G.)
During the past fifty years, the use of fossil fuel energy in the
U. S. has increased 3.5 times. This increase and the changing
pattern of the three sources of fossil fuel energy-coal, petrole-
um, and natural gas-has had much to do with the nature of air
pollution in our cities. In spite of the projected rapid growth in
the use of coal between now and the turn of the century and
the publicity coal has received as a cause of worsening air pol-
lution, the fact remains that the amount of coal used in the U.
S. in 1968 was approximately the same as that in 1920,
whereas natural gas use has increased twenty-five-fold, and
petroleum use nine-fold in the same period of time. As a
result, total emissions of three of the principal classes of gase-
ous emissions produced by fossil fuel burning, sulfur oxides,
nitrogen oxides, and hydrocarbon, have increased. SOx emis-
sions have increased approximately 30%, NOx 237%, and
hydrocarbons 810%. All of these increased emissions resulted
from the increased use of petroleum products and natural gas.
The history of ambient levels of the three pollutants is not so
easy to determine. Available data indicate SO2 ambient levels
were falling, at least in those major metropolitan areas that de-
pended primarily on coal as energy for stationary emission
sources, even before the recent enactment of fuel sulfur
restrictions in some major metropolitan areas. This was the
result of the shift from coal for space heating and industrial
plants, which are relatively low level emission sources. Long
time span data on ambient levels of NOx and hydrocarbons
are not available, but since the increase in these emissions
comes primarily from low elevation emitters, the ambient
levels of these contaminants are undoubtedly on the rise. The
increasing incidence of the photochemical smogs in all of our
major metropolitan areas bears witness to this increase.
(Author abstract)
25193
Friedlander, Gordon D.
POWER, POLLUTION, AND THE IMPERILED ENVIRON-
MENT. I. IEEE (Inst. Elec. Electron. Engrs.) Spectrum,
7(11):40-50, Nov. 1970. 7 refs.
This first article in a series discusses aspects of the conflict
between increasing demand for electrical power and the en-
vironmenta effects fossil-fuel and nuclear power plants. It is
pointed out that even many of the air pollution control mea-
sures in use or under study require significant amounts of
electricity and thus intensify the problem. Some of these are
electrostatic precipitators for particulate collection, electric
furnaces as a substitute for open hearth furnaces, and nu-
merous possible mass transport systems and alternatives to the
internal combustion engine. Major new construction usually
assumes the availability of adequate electricity for its occu-
pants, despite the absence of any advance planning. The solid
waste disposal and thermal pollution problems of nuclear
power, as an alternative to fossil fuels, are discussed, and a
series of conflicting expert opinions quoted regarding the
degree of hazard to public safety represented by nuclear plant
operations, radioactive waste, and accident potential. Siting
factors for fossil-fuel plants should include nearness to load
centers, meteorological studies, probable temperature effects
in receiving bodies of water, and ample provisions for public
consideration and acceptance. Two methods of sulfur oxides
control are noted as well as possible uses for waste heat and
the long-term possibility of pollution-free power from geother-
mal steam fields.
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262
N. GENERAL
00164
STATISTICS ON PARTICIPATE CONTAMINANTS - SAN
DIEGO COUNTY AIR POLLUTION CONTROL DISTRICT
(FIRST QUARTER 1966). San Diego Dept. of Public Health,
Calif. Mar. 1966. 7 pp.
First Quarter 1966 Statistics on Paniculate Contaminants San
Diego County Air Pollution Control District are presented.
Data are included on weight concentrations from high volume
filter samples, soiling indexes, and hourly averages of gaseous
contaminants.
01063
L. Silverman
ENGINEERING CAPABILITIES IN ENVHtONMENTAL CON-
TROL. Arch. Environ. Health Vol. 12:120-128, Jan. 1966.
(Presented at the Second American Medical Association Con-
gress on Environmental Health Problems, Chicago, 111., Apr.
26-27, 1965.)
The need for early recognition of engineering capabilities in
environmental control by those concerned with the solution of
environmental health problems is stressed. Engineering alone,
in some instances, can provide satisfactory solutions to certain
problems. In most cases, however, consideration of biological
and socioeconomic factors is essential. The importance of
evaluating problems at the source and early concept or design
phases has been stressed. Effective communication on how
engineering techniques can be best utilized is an essential
need, and imporovement in dissemination of such knowledge
deserves more attention in practice. A plea is made for in-
tegrating engineering capabilities in environmental control with
the AMA environmental health effort to produce high level
coordination and attack on problems of mutual interest. What
is recommedned is for AMA to work with a permanent en-
vironmental health engineering committee established in the
Engineer's Joint Council. Communication at both the national
and international level in environmental health is needed to
create some kind of federated society mechanism for specialty
groups.
02632
Manz, O. E.
UTILIZATION OF LIGNITE FLY ASH. (In: Proceedings on
Technology and Use of Lignite). Bureau of Mines, Pittsburgh,
Pa. (Presented at the Bureau of Mines-North Dakota Univ.
Symposium, Bismarck, Apr. 29-30, 1965). (Information Circu-
lar No. 8304). p.66-78, 1966.
The previous limited work on lignite fly ash is reviewed. Cur-
rent work at the University of North Dakota is reported. The
potential of utilization is discussed. Applications in concrete
are emphasized.
03344
F. E. Gartrell.
STATEMENT BY F.E. GARTRELL FOR HOUSE SUBCOM-
MITTEE ON SCIENCE, RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT.
Tennessee Valley Authority, Norris, Division of Health and
Safety.
A review of TVA experience in air pollution control, more
specifically from large coal-fired power plants is presented.
The principal elements of the TVA study program are (1)
monitoring of SO2 concentrations in the vicinity of each plant,
(2) collection and analysis of on-site meteorological data, (3)
biological studies to determine effects of plant emissions on
vegetation in special experimental gardens and in surrounding
areas, (4) full-scale studies of stack gas dispersion, (5) in-
vestigations of possible means for reducing emissions through
modification of plant operations during periods when
meteorological conditions are unfavorable for dispersion, and
(6) research on processes for removal of SO2 from stack
gases.
04212
S. Abe
THE PRESENT STATUS OF AHt POLLUTION. Clean Air
Heat Management (Tokyo) 15, (7-8) 7-18, Aug. 1966. Jap.
The present status of air pollution in Japan is given naming the
kinds of contaminants and their origin, factors affecting con-
tamination density, and various types of smog. The types of
contaminants are: 1) minute particles (less than 1 micron in
size) such as found in soot, carbon, ashes, dust; 2) coarse par-
ticles (greater than 1 micron in size), as found in dust, ashes,
and minerals; 3) reactive substances found in mist, fog, and
vapor such as SO2, SOS, H2S, CO2, CO, NO2, N2O3, O3, al-
dehydes, HC1, NH3, HF, Pb, Hg, Cd, As, Be and 3, 4-benz-
pyrene. The contaminants originate from factories, chemical
plants, power stations, domestic heating, public baths, hotels,
laundries, dry cleaning establishments, hospitals, schools, and
public buildings. Also discussed are the human factors affect-
ing air pollution such as public awareness and interest,
seasonal, weekly, and daily changes in heating and cooking.
Meteorological aspects are covered such as wind direction and
velocity, turbu lence, temperature, rain and snow. The types
of smog found in New York, London, Los Angeles, Pitt-
sburgh, and Yokkaichi are described. Graphs and tables list
symptoms and diseases affecting plants and humans and give
the density of dust particles and SO2 in the main cities of
Japan. Data on the sulfur content of various oils produced by
Japanese refineries and on the number of Japanese automo-
biles produced is included for information on emission sources
of pollutants.
04432
J. W. Leonard, C. R. McFladden, P. G. Meikle, L. C. Mih,
and H. E. Shafer, Jr.
COAL-ASSOCIATED MINERALS OF THE UNITED STATES.
PART 2: OHIO COAL-ASSOCIATED MINERAL OCCUR-
RENCES AND MARKETS. West Virginia Univ., Morgantown,
School of Mines. (Coal Research and Development Rept. No.
8.) Feb. 1965. 110 pp. CFSTI, PB 168111
The extent, quality, and probable uses of potentially valuable
minerals located above, in, and below significant coal seams
are identified. Details are included on the location of nearby
miner al markets and related coal-mining activity. The aim was
to assist development of multi-product mining and processing.
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N. GENERAL
263
05194
E. E. Drucker
ELECTRICAL POWER: ITS GENERATION, DISTRIBUTION
AND STORAGE IN 1985. (In: Appendix to Science and
Technology in the 1985 Era.) Syracuse Univ. Research Corp.,
N.Y. May 1964. pp. 274-9. CFSTI, DDC: 613526
Presently electrical power in the United States is virtually all
produced by large central stations. By 1985, the installed
capacity will have increased more than threefold to supply a
population of 1/5 billion people. Hydroelectric generation of
electricity will increase in quantity but diminish in its propor-
tion to the total. Nuclear (fission) fueled power plants will ex-
perience considerable improvement in design but only a
gradual growth in the next two decades for economic reasons.
Magnetohydrodynamic power generators will be barely beyond
the prototype stage in 1985 since both the suitable nozzle
materials and schemes for raising the plasma conductivity
which are necessary for this device will have been found only
a few years earlier. Other means of power generation will have
no significance in central power station application with the
exception of auxiliary diesel or as turbine units to provide
peak load capacity. The economy of power plants favors
larger and larger central stations. As much as possible these
plants will be located near demand centers but suitable sites
will become progressively more scarce. These plants will be
connected by a national and possibly an international distribu-
tion network. It is therefore projected that there will be a high
increase in the number and length of transmission lines.
Chemical fuel cells of several types will have been developed
for a limited number of special applications where a noise-and
vibration-free primary source of electricity is required. The
use of thermoelectric and thermionic generators will be limited
to a relatively small number of special applications where the
basic energy form will be solar or radioactive isotope decay.
The use of solar or photovoltaic cells will also be ad-
vantageous only for a few isolated applications.
06133
Stern, A. C.
THE CHANGING PATTERN OF AIR POLLUTION IN THE
UNITED STATES. Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J. 28(2), 161-5 (Apr.
1967). (Presented at the Joint Session of the Annual Meeting,
American Industrial Hygiene Association and the American
Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, Pittsburgh,
Pa., May 16-20, 1966.)
In the past, our principal concern has been with particulate
emission-smoke, fly ash, cinders, and dust. Nationwide, our
regulatory and abatement practices reflect this early preoccu-
pation. The gaseous emissions and the gaseous products result-
ing from atmospheric photochemical reactions are a growing
concern. This is reflected, for example, in our present preoc-
cupation with the automobile. Although interest in gaseous and
particulate emissions will continue i n the future, more atten-
tion will be paid to the particulate products resulting from at-
mospheric photochemical reactions. This will come from a
recognition that not until the visible haze is lifted from our ci-
ties will they be truly livable. (Author's abstract)
07431
J. Pursglove, Jr.
FLY ASH IN 1980. Coal Age, 72(8):84-85,Aug. 1967. (Adapted
from the author's remarks at the Fly Ash Utilization Symposi-
um, Pittsburgh, Pa., Mar. 14, 1968.
By 1980, it is estimated that 45 million tons of fly ash will be
produced by the electric utility industry. A wealth of raw
materials are chemically available in this waste. These include
enough A12O3 to produce 5,000,000 tons of AI, enough Fe2O3
to produce 8,000,000 tons of Fe pellets, enough SiO2 and CaO
to produce 24,000,000 tons of building products, and such
chemicals as TiO2, K2O, Na2O, and P2O5 in sufficient quanti-
ty to make recovery profitable. The technology for recovering
these products must be developed in the near future.
07845
Parker, A.
WHAT'S IN THE AIR J. Inst. Fuel, 40(315):173-175, April
1967.
We each breathe about 35 Ib of air in a day, consume 3 to 4 Ib
of drinking water and 1 1/2 Ib of dry food. This provides ener-
gy by oxidation of carbon and hydrogen of which the thermal
value is about 12,000 Btu. equivalent to that provided when 1
Ib of coal is burnt. Some of this energy is given out as heat,
say about 400 Btu/h. Records of smogs in various countries
since 1873 exist, but that in London in 1952 had great effect
leading to the bSbeaver Report and the bSclean Air bSact,
1956. 2.7 million ton of smoke were discharged into the air
during 1938 in Britain, of which 63% was from domestic
sources, 10% from railways and 27% from industry. This was
reduced to 1.1 million tons in 1965, of which 0.9 million, 80%,
was from domestic sources. This reduction was also helped by
the rationing of coal during the years of World War II and by
the desire for cleaner domestic heating methods. 4.1 million
tons of sulphur dioxide were discharged into the atmosphere in
Britain in 1938 and 6.4 million tons in 1965, but the concentra-
tion of SO2 in the air near the ground has stayed the same.
The problem is not yet solved. About 14 million motor vehi-
cles in the U. K. emitted perhaps 5 million tons of carbon
monoxide and 1/4 million tons of hydrocarbons in 1965. The
interaction of hydrocarbons, oxides of nitrogen and ozone, in
sunlight causes the smogs of Los Angeles in which visibility is
scarcely reduced and so they are of a different character from
London smogs. The International Union of Air Pollution
Prevention Associations was recently founded. Its first inter-
national clean air congress was held in London in October,
1966. (Author's abstract)
13429
National Coal Assoc., Washington, D. C.
BITUMINOUS COAL FACTS 1968. 107p., 1968.
This biennial report, through text and tables, indicates that
known reserves of coal can be recovered to meet present and
furture energy needs and that advances in mining and trans-
portation have been matched by technological advances in the
handling, burning, and processing of coal. It is estimated that
coal now generates 53% of the nations electricity and 65% of
the power produced in steam plants. In addition, it is predicted
that coal will be converted to pipeline-quality gas to supple-
ment dwindling natural gas supplies. Uranium breeder reactors
will not even be competitive with coal by 2000. Bituminous
Coal Research, Inc. (BCR) is already at work on a two-stage
superpressure gasification process. Its coal-to-gas reactor has a
capacity of 100 pounds of coal an hour. The best coals for the
process are being revealed by coal petrography, which breaks
the coal code and translates coal into coal constituents. BCR is
also studying the removal of pyritic sulfur from coal during
pulverization and before combustion and is mine-testing the
continuous removal of float dust generated by coal-cutting
machine. The report contains the following six statistical in-
dexes covering the years 1920-1967: bituminous coal and ener-
gy; markets; production; transportation; manpower and safety;
and reserves.
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264
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
13513
Olmsted, Leonard M.
FAST BREEDERS NEEDED SOON TO CONSERVE URANI-
UM ORE. Elec. World (12th Annual Nuclear Report),
167(24): 109-114, June 1967.
The ultimate goal for nuclear power is to achieve complete
and perpetual self-sufficiency in fuel supply. The objective is
to develop a power reactor which will breed twice as much
fuel in ten years as it consumes. In the fast-neutron spectrum,
PU239 and Pu-241 both have adequate breeding ratios (1.1)
and U233 mixed with thorium offers some hope of success.
Most breeder projects today are focused on mixed-uranium-
and-plutonium fuel in a liquid- sodium-cooled reactor. Sodium-
cooled commercial fast breeders of 1000 to 1200 Mwe are an-
ticipated for service by 1978 if operating and fuel costs can be
controlled. Steam-cooled breeders are being investigated by
Germany and U. S. Interest in the steam-cooled concept
generally reflects the belief that it required less new technolo-
gy and can be applied several years earlier than the sodium-
cooled only at lower capital cost. The possibility of using a
gas-cooling system is being investigated by the U. S. It is
hoped that a gas-cooled breeder could be completed by 1979
or 1980 at a relatively low capital cost. With fuels estimated as
low as 0.5 mill/kwhr, it could achieve a very favorable energy
cost.
13587
Chamberlain, C. T. and W. A. Gray
COMBUSTION OF COAL IN OXYGEN. Nature,
216(5121):1245, Dec. 1967. 3 refs.
During an investigation of high-temperature flames, a burner
system was developed which can burn up to 6 g/sec of coal in
oxygen to form a stable, continuous flame. An integral part of
this development has been a study of the mechansism which
control the rate of combustion. Coal was ground and graded
according to size by sieving and centrifugal classification in air
to produce seven fractions ranging from 12 to 70 microns.
Flame temperature was measured by the line reversal method
which indicated a variation temperature along the length of the
flame from 2900 to 3050 K. Each size fraction was burned at
two ratios of oxygen to carbon: 2:11 and 1:51. Burning times
were compared on the basis of the distances from the burner
head necessary for 80% by weight of the coal to be burned.
The extent of combustion was determined by a water-cooled
sampling probe. It was found that for fractions between 12 and
30 microns there is a linear dependence of burning time on
diameter. For fractions between 30 and 70 microns a better
correlation was obtained when it was assumed that the burning
time was proportional to the square of the diameter. As the
particle size is reduced, a critical size will be reached when
chemical processes begin to exert an influence on the com-
bustion rate.
13591
Vogely, William A. and Warren E. Morrison
PATTERN OF ENERGY CONSUMPTION IN THE UNITED
STATES 1947 TO 1965 AND 1980 PROJECTES. Preprint,
World Power Conf., Tokyo (Japan), p. 428-451, 1966.
(Presented at the Tokyo Sectional Meeting, Tokyo, Oct. 16-20,
1966, Paper 83.)
The energy needs of the U. S. are met for the most part from
domestic sources of petroleum, natural gas, coal, and
hydroelectric power. Based on preliminary data for 1965, the
total national consumption of energy was equivalent to 13,639
trillion kilogram calories, almost 2/3 greater than consumption
in 1947. For the next 15 years it is anticipated that increasing
quantities of energy will be needed for the expanded economy.
Total consumption of energy in 1980 is expected to be 22,196
trillion kilogram calories, or 63% greater than in 1965. Coal
consumption in 1980 is projected at 677 million metric tons,
natural gas at 969 billion cubic meters, and petroleum products
at 809 million metric tons. Net generation of utility electricity
is projected at 2,739 billion kilowatt hours. It is anticipated
that 71% of the utility electricity generated in 1980 will come
from fuel-burning plants, 12% from hydropower plants, and
17% from nuclear power plants. Petroleum will remain the
main energy source for transportation through 1980, with
resource inputs exceeding the 1965 level by 69%. In
household, commercial, and industrial sectors, combined in-
puts of direct fuels and utility electricity are projected to ex-
ceed 1965 levels by 71% and 50% respectively. Natural gas
will remain the ranking energy resource within these sectors
throughout the forecast period. (Authors' summary modified)
14816
Edison Electric Inst., New York, Electric Power Survey
Committee
43RD SEMI-ANNUAL ELECTRIC POWER SURVEY. 52p.,
April 1968.
Results are given of a survey covering practically the entire
electric utility industry of the country, including investor
owned systems, those of governmental agencies, and rural
electric cooperatives. The survey also includes those industrial
power installations whose operations are coordinated with the
utility systems with which they are interconnected, and which
thereby contribute to the public supply. It does not include
any isolated industrial or institutional power installations. Sur-
vey results pertaining to power system capabilities, loads,
gross margins, and energy outputs are presented for each of
the eight power supply regions of the United States, as
defined by the Federal Power Commission. Also presented are
figures which represent the Total Electric Utility Industry of
the contiguous United States, including those industrial instal-
lations contributing to the public supply. These values are
based on the survey totals for the eight regions but incorporate
upward adjustments to compensate for the minor omissions in
survey coverage previously mentioned. No adjustments have
been made to the survey totals for the individual regions. Data
in this report pertaining to the manufacture, in the United
States, of heavy power equipment for all classes of customers
represent substantially all such manufacture in this country.
December peak capabilities, peak loads, and gross margins as
recorded for the years 1966 and 1967, and as now forecast for
the years 1968 through 1973 on the basis of median hydro con-
ditions, are given, as well as forecasts based on assumed ad-
verse hydro conditions for December and summer of 1968
through 1973. (Author introduction modified)
17819
Edison Electric Inst., New York
THE YEAR 2000: AN EEI STAFF STUDY. 44p., Aug. 1967.
Based on consultations with scientists, architects, urban plan-
ners, demographers, sociologists, and others, a composite pic-
ture of life in the United States is projected for the year 2000.
All categories of air travel are expected to increase, although
the use of private planes will be closely regulated by the
government. The demand for jet fuel will nearly double, and
new oil refining technologies will be needed to meet the de-
mand. Alternative fuel possibilities, such as hydrogen or
nuclear, may be feasible eventually but do not seem possible
by 2000. Mass transit systems will link residential and business
areas with regional airports, with conventional steel-wheel,
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N. GENERAL
265
steel-rail systems increasingly replaced by vehicles propelled
by air cushions. Two major types of electrically-powered vehi-
cles will probably be in use: the small, fleet-operated electric
car for use in recreation areas, parks, or downtown shopping
areas; and vehicles that will be able to operate on and off a
powered roadway. Family-size electric cars will capture an in-
creasing share of the car market. New electric batteries
promise to make electric cars and trucks competitive with
their gasoline-powered counterparts. There will be increasing
associations of compatabile, coexistant land uses. An area
which has a wide range of recreational possibilities may also
be managed for forestry, wildlife, flood control, power genera-
tion and transmission, and even urban settlement. Buildings
will alter their use, from residence to office space, with the
needs of the community: multiple-use buildings will be com-
mon. Temporary structures such as geodesic domes and in-
flated balloons will add great flexibility to the design of cities.
Downtown shopping areas will be enclosed and completely cli-
mate controlled. Small domes over patios, golf courses, and
swimming pools also seem probable. Increased control of the
climate in individual homes will be evident. Units will be
available that will cool the air while cleaning and purifying it,
temper the humidity, heat it in winter, control odors, and even
regulate ion charge.
18206
18TH ANNUAL ELECTRICAL INDUSTRY FORECAST. Elec.
World, 168(12): 121-136, Sept. 1967.
A general upward trend in power generation, plant construc-
tion, and electric consumption is predicted for the period 1967-
71 in a series of seven articles. Economic indicators as of mid-
Sept, provide the basis for predicting a kwhr growth for 1967
of 6.2% above the previous year. While residential sales have
carried their share of the growth for the year with a projected
7.5% rise, industrial sales have shown an increase of 8.9%
over 1966. The electric power industry plans to build 102,400
circuit miles of new overhead transmission lines, 2000 cable
miles of underground transmission, to install 21,700 3-phase
T&D substation transformer banks aggregating 732,000 Mva,
to erect 231,733 miles of overhead distribution, to bury over
77,700 cable miles of underground primary distribution lines,
and to install over 195-million kva of new distribution transfor-
mers from 1967 to 1973. Significant increases in kwhr sales
from 1970 to 1985 are predicted for use in producing aluminum
and magnesium, and for use by the AEC. Aluminum and mag-
nesium production should require 76.8 billion kwhr by 1970,
95.5 billion by 1975, 109.3 billion by 1980, and 153.6 billion by
1985. The AEC's usage should grow from an estimated 18.8
billion kwhr in 1970 to 56.4 billion in 1980. Present plans call
for about 8000 Mw of nuclear units to be installed in 1971. It is
reasonable to expect installations to reach 12,000 Mw in 1975,
22,000 in 1980, and 30,000 in 1985. This would mean invest-
ments of about 15 billion dollars during 1985, some of which
will be directed to reducing air and water pollution.
21287
MAINTENANCE OF CLEAN AIR. (Reinhaltung der Luft).
Text in German. Oel Gasfeuerung, 14(10):1020-1024, 1969.
The major sources of air pollutants are industries, vehicles,
and domestic heating. In the industrial sector, power plants,
cement kilns, steel plants, and the chemical industry are the
primary sources for pollution. Air pollutants may affect hu-
mans, animals, and plants. The harmfulness of dusts is deter-
mined by their composition, grain size, and shape. Fine dust
particles which penetrate into the lungs are particularly dan-
gerous Soot requires special attention because it may be a
carrier of toxic and carcinogenic substances. The most dan-
gerous gaseous pollutants are carbon monoxide, sulfur diox-
ide, fluorine, chlorine, and unburned hydrocarbons. The
federal government is sponsoring a program of air monitoring
and research and development; it took legal measures to avoid
or reduce air pollution. Large industrial plants must fulfill
stringent regulations laid down in the 'Technical Directives for
the Maintenance of Clean Air'. The federal law on preventive
measures for the maintenance of clean air requires the installa-
tion of automatic measuring stations in industrial centers. Au-
tomobile exhausts, too, will soon be subject to regulations.
21289
Effenberger, Ernst
AIR POLLUTION, A PROBLEM OF HYGIENE. (Die Verun-
reinigung der Luft, ein Problem der Hygiene). Text in German.
Z. Allgemeinmed., 46(6):283,-293, 1970. 43 refs.
Fuel oil consumption in the Federal Republic of Germany in-
creased from 1.37 million tons in 1954 to 48.16 million tons in
1967; mineral oil consumption rose from less than 5 million
tons in 1950 to more than 90 million tons in 1970; and hard
coal consumption declined somewhat in the years between
1950 and 1967. The increasing use of natural gas was not high
enough to have a profound impact on the air pollution situa-
tion. A great deal of sulfur dioxide and fly ash is produced
through domestic heating. Otto engines emit carbon monoxide,
aldehydes, numerous hydrocarbons, nitrogen gases, and oxida-
tion products of various additives such as lead. Diesel engines
emit primarily nitrogen gases. In connection with adverse
weather conditions such as inversions, air pollutants may
cause such episodes as those in the Meuse Valley in 1930,
Monongahela Valley in 1948, and London in 1952. The Techni-
cal Directives for Maintenance of Clean Air set the maximum
allowable atmospheric concentrations for dust in residential
areas at 420 mg/sq m/day (average annual value) and 650
mg/sq m/day (average monthly value), and in industrial areas
at 850 and 1300 mg/sq m/day. The maximum allowable at-
mospheric concentration for SO2 is 0.4 mg/cu m air (long-term
value). A short-term concentration of 0.75 mg/cu m is admissi-
ble. Sulfur dioxide is known to affect the respiratory tract. It
can be removed from flue gases by absorption, adsorption,
and by catalytic processes. Average carbon monoxide concen-
trations of 0.005% by volume were measured in the air above
Chicago and Hamburg; 0.007% in Moscow; and 0.008% in Ber-
lin. Benzpyrene measurements in Hamburg in December 1961
revealed a maximum value of 336 micrograms/1000 cu m air
(1050 microgram 3,4-benzpyrene per gram dust were mea-
sured). In summer, the concentrations were below 20 micro-
grams/1000 cu m air. A correlation has been found between
lung cancer and the benzpyrene concentration of the ambient
air.
21360
Northwestern Univ., Evanston, 111., Committee on
Environmental Policies
ON ACHIEVING CLEAN AIR. 33p., April 21, 1970. 60 refs.
The concern of the ad hoc committee on Environmental Poli-
cies has been air pollution in Chicago. Sulfur dioxide and par-
ticulate matter are the only pollutants presently monitored in
Chicago. Other pollutants include carbon monoxide, sulfuric
acid, and nitrogen oxides. It is recommended that H2SO4
levels be monitored in view of the probate connection of this
substance with toxic effects of pollution. Commonwealth Edis-
on Co. should be encouraged to continue with reduction in the
burning of high sulfur fuels, and should begin to monitor
radioactivity in the vicinity of its power plants. Improvements
-------
266
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
in existing particle removal facilities should be implemented,
and the electrostatic precipitators should be upgraded with
respect to the weight of particles removed. Commonwealth
Edison should contribute financial support to intra-industrial
cooperative research leading to improved SO2 removal
systems, nitrogen oxide removal systems, and processes for
the removal of particulates less than 1 micron. Abatement poli-
cies should not rely on any single method of control.
Technologies of fuel substitution, demand reduction, installa-
tion of precipitators of high efficiency, and elemental sulfur
removal should all be explored. Management should concen-
trate its attention on both consumers and stockholders, to per-
mit changes in abatement policy. The socio-economic
problems of air pollution abatement are also discussed.
22794
Wein, W.
CONSTRUCTION OF POWER PLANT STACKS IN THE
LIGHT OF PRACTICAL EXPERIENCE. (Betriebserfahrungen
mit Kraftwerkschornsteinen und ihre Konstruktion). Text in
German. Mitt. Ver. Grosskesselbesitzer, 48(6):436-444, Dec.
1968.
The three types of power plant stacks which perform satisfac-
torily are single or collecting stacks with a shaft of brickwork,
steel concrete or a combination with an acid resistant lining
with or without a space that can be ventilated, single concrete
stacks with a suspended insulated steel flue duct, and a frame
structure with several suspended insulated steel flue ducts.
Stacks can be damaged by excessive thermal stress, by too
short a drying time, and by corrosion of and damage to
brickwork, mortar or concrete. To prevent excessive thermal
stress, heat conduction stacks must be lined to a height of
from one third to one half with a thermal protective lining, but
a lining of the entire height of the stack is recommended,
especially for steel concrete shaped brick stacks. The maximal
permissible temperature difference between the outside and
the inside surface of brickwork stacks, depending on
thickness, is 140 C; for steel concrete and concrete brick
stacks, 20 C. These temperatures must be periodically
checked. Newly constructed stacks must be brought into
operation very slowly so that the humidity in the mortar or
concrete are not expelled to quickly. The danger of corrosion
caused by the oxidation of sulfur dioxide to sulfur trioxide,
the formation of sulfuric acid and its condensation can be
minimized by firing with a small surplus of air which reduces
the condensation point of H2S04. Measuring instruments
recommended for smokestack damage prevention should mea-
sure pressure or underpressure in the flue and in the space
between the lining and stack, the temperature gradient of the
flue gas from foot to top of the stack, carbon dioxide content
between stack and lining, and the temperature difference
between the inside and outside walls of the stack.
23125
Berry, R. Stephen
PERSPECTIVES ON POLLUTED AIR-1970. Bull. At. Sci.,
26(4):2, 34-41, April 1970.
An overview of the air pollution situation considering social,
technological, political, and economic aspects is presented.
Sources of pollution are categorized as heat and power genera-
tion, industrial processes, wasted disposal, and tranportation.
All show a great potential for increase in the near future that
will probably override the effects of currently proposed con-
trol methods. Types of metropolitan air pollution are identified
as grey pollution and brown pollution. Newer cities not relying
heavily on coal are characterized by the brown smog of au-
tomotive pollution. Older cities and cities where coal is impor-
tant in the economy are characterized by a grey, particulate
pollution. There is mounting evidence that the former cannot
exist in the presence of the latter because of the inhibiting ef-
fect of sulfur dioxide on the formation of photochemical smog.
It is emphasized that the direction of effort in pollution control
has and will continue to be a direct reflection of the ease of
identification of specific pollutants. As technology permits the
identification of more pollutants in smaller quantities, evalua-
tion of their effects and instigation for their control will
proceed apace. Control strategies are evaluated with respect to
type, cost, and time. Easiest and cheapest to control are dra-
matic 'episodes.' This can be accomplished by reducing peak
pollution concentrations for a few critical hours or days during
adverse weather conditions. Reducing chronic pollution levels
is usually both slow and expensive. Short-term, intermediate,
and long-term strategies are all recommended, with careful
consideration of the effects of the 'cure' preceding its imple-
mentation. Representative is the case of power where the
short-term plan would involve conversion to gas or low-sulfur
coal and oil. Since all of these are in short supply, an inter-
mediate program of fuel desulfurization and mine-head gasifi-
cation should be rushed through. Still further in the future
would be plant re-siting, power transmission via superconduc-
tors, and replacement of existing facilities (40 year life) with
non-polluting systems. Opinion is presented on who should
bear the costs of these programs. A significant recommenda-
tion is for the creation of 'micro-NASAs' to perform crash in-
vestigations of the technological problems. The National
Laboratories are suggeste as the starting point for this effort.
Enough major problems of research, development, and en-
gineering in environmental control exist to justify long-term
support for such programs.
-------
AUTHOR INDEX
267
ABE, M 'D-05428
ABE, S 'N-04212
ABERNETHY R F 'F-17592
ABERNETHY, R F *A-06351
ACTON H *B-19480
ADAMS, P J 'A-05846
ADAMS, R E *B-04755
AKAZAKI M 'F-24272
AKBRUT A I 'B-15665
AKULOV K I «G-16192
ALEKSANDROV V P 'B-13983
ALPERT, S B 'K-00167
AMBROSE, M J B-10770
AMBROSIA D A C-23121
ANDERSON J B L-12461
ANDERSON W C 'B-19670
ANDERSON, D M 'D-03432
ANDERSON, E W 'L-01399
ANDERSON, J D-11525
ANDRITZKY, M 'A-11411, 'A-11637
ANGELOVA G 'A-13978
ANON *F-11I35
ANTHROP D F *A-23619
ANTIPIN V G A-13261
ARAI K "C-16149
ARAI Y *F-16376
ARAKAWA Y 'A-13293
ARAKI Y B-15693
ARIN M L 'E-21099
ARITA S B-15692
ASANO T 'B-24673
ASCULAI E *E-24391
ASHLEY, R W 'C-11755
ATHANASSIADIS Y C *A-21999
ATSUKAWA M B-12442, 'B-15841,
•B-15844, B-16346, 'B-16548, B-24589
ATSUKAWA, M *B-04655, B-11252
ATTIG R C *B-12797
AURIELLE R *B-22560
AUSTIN H C 'B-13394, "B-19034
AUTHIER R B-15358
AYNARD A A-13855
AYRES S M 'G-21276
B
BABCAN J *B-11985
BABCOCK L R JR 'A-25418
BACHL H * A-II968
BACHL, H *A-10678, 'A-11640
BACHOFER J L JR B-14730, B-16862
BACHOFER, J LC JR B-11233
BACON R F 'B-19560, *B-22001
BADZIOCH S *A-25108
BAHNO G 'B-24707
BAIER, E J 'F-07059
BAILEY A L A-17418
BAKER, A F 'B-00276
BALAZS Z 'A-15146
BALDWIN C J 'A-18176
BARANOV, A P *A-04287
BARBER J C 'B-25038
BARBER, F R A-01510, D-02046,
•D-08858
BARBER, J C B-02192
BARNHART D H 'B-17782
BARNHART, D H 'B-05857
BARRETT A A *B-25164
BARRETT R E 'B-20539
BARTMAN J S B-14730, B-16862
BARTMAN, J S B-11233
BARTOK W *A-12619, 'B-22861, 'B-24678
BARUT R F B-19480
BARWASSER J B-24270, B-24554
BASAK G C *B-22981
BASHIROVA F N 'H-19620
BATHKE W L A-26085
BAUM, M M 'F-09064
BAXTER, W A 'B-12574
BAYLISS, R J *A-02860
BEAN E H 'B-18111, 'B-22127
BEARD, C G II A-02765
BEECHING W E J 'B-25663
BEINE H *A-23884
BELL G B *D-22812
BELL G G 'E-23723
BELLE P 'B-15616
BELLER M A-12266, A-23954
BELOT, J R JR *B-08926
BELYEA, A R 'B-07962
BELYEA, H A 'C-03460, L-01399
BENARNDT W 'B-20243
BENCOWITZ I *B-19560
BENDER R J *B-24190, F-13400
BENDER, R J *B-09699
BENLINE, A J *L-01265
BENNER R C 'B-19378, *B-19672,
•B-22012, 'B-24516
BENNETT R R *A-20736
BENSON C S 'E-24109
BENSON H E B-20663
BENSON, H E *A-08390, B-03337, B-06278
BERGE, H 'M-01567
BERGEMANN, G O 'B-08940
BERGER, A W 'E-11624
BERGMANN G 'F-22319, 'F-22587
BERLYAND M Y *E-17612, 'E-20042
BERLYAND, M E 'E-I0368
BERLYAND, M Y 'D-10723
BERMAN P A 'B-20779
BERMAN, P A 'A-04652
BERNHART, A P L-01399
BERNHOFF R 'B-24613
BERRY R S 'N-23125
BERRY, A E L-01399
BESPALOV A I *G-12289
BETTELHEIM J B-17004, *B-25494
BEVANS R S *B-23027
BEVERIDGE G S G 'A-14400
BIEBER K H "B-21313
BIEDERMAN N P *A-19511
BIENSTOCK D 'A-22387, 'A-23359,
•B-14566, 'B-20663, B-21005
BIENSTOCK, D B-02407, 'B-02908,
•B-03337, 'B-03581, *B-06278,
•B-06543, B-11191, *J-01707
BILLINGE B H M *B-23315
BILLINGE, B H M 'B-02778
BILLINGS C E 'E-21099
BILLINGS, C E E-11624
BINS, R V *B-02909
BISHOP, J W *B-11178
BLADE, O C *A-12576
BLECHER, K J 'B-02206
BOCKRIS J O M 'F-14686
BODURTHA F T JR 'E-24486
BOGATENKOV V F A-13261
BOKOV, A N A-02549
BOLL, R H '1-04622
BOORAS S G 'L-17321
BORGWARDT R H 'B-12308
BORGWARDT, R H *B-04842, 'B-05310
BORIO R W B-13639, 'B-14838
BOROZDINA L A 'B-15244
BOTTERILL, J S M 'L-12031
BOUILLIOT R 'B-20073
BOUX J F 'B-22175
BOVIER R F 'B-15031
BOVIER, R F 'B-02727, 'L-03277
BOVING J O "B-13569
BOWEN H J M »A-21383
BOWIE W S 'B-15532, 'B-20485
BOWNE N E A-14997
BOYER A E *C-20224
BRACKETT, C E 'J-06845
BRANDON J H *C-16860
BRANTNER, H *L-11383
BRENNAN P J 'B-13856
BRENNAN, E H-05420
BRENNAN, N E *B-05198
BRESSER, H *C-02668
BRETSCHNEIDER B 'A-14701, 'J-11995
BRIER G W 'B-25164
BRIGGS, G A 'E-10608
BRIVIO L *B-19724
BROCK J R 'A-25213
BROCKE W 'B-21886
BROGAN, T R 'A-03072
BROHULT, S 'E-10153
BROWN R F 'B-25047
BROWN, G A "F-00105
BROWNE, W R 'B-11929
BRUN, M *E-06775
BRUNN, L W 'B-03337
BUCKLEN, O B 1-11286, "N-04432
BUEHLER M E *G-21276
BULL, W C B-01187
BURCHSTED C A *B-20437
BURDOCK, J L 'B-09191
BURGART, H F 'F-01380
BURNS L S "L-26157
BUSBY HOT *B-25127, *B-25786
BUSH, R I 'L-13049
BUZUNOVA, L V 'A-02549
CADWALLADER L W 'B-23220
CAHILL, W J JR 'B-08348
CALHOUN, F P 'A-10740
CAMBEL A B 'B-25529
CANTER L W 'C-24412
CANTRELL R R *B-25560
CAPP, J P 'B-08938
CAPPONI P 'K-22248
CARLS E L 'B-20425
CARLTON H E J-15510
-------
268
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
CARPENTER S B 'C-15479, 'E-17580
CARPENTER, S B A-00691, C-02921,
E-00023, E-04033, E-04034, E-04035,
•E-06373, E-06823, 'E-10421
CARPENTIER, J 'G-01340
CARSON J E 'L-12461
CARSON, J E 'D-09984, "D-11525,
•E-11065
CARTER C 'A-13102
CARTER, R P D-09984
CASSELL E J 'G-18109
CASTLEMAN A W JR 'A-23170
CATCHPOLE S 'B-19029
CATCHPOLE, S L-02052
CAVE G A 'A-24005
CEMBER H *A-21916
CHADWICK W L 'B-13394
CHAMBERLAIN C T *N-13587
CHARMBURY H B 'B-19602
CHASS R L 'B-21594
CHASS, R L 'B-04516
CHATTERJEE, A K "F-10422
CHEDD G 'B-22103
CHEKANOV G S 'B-22661
CHEN, P M B-11178
CHEN, Y F-11782
CHERTKOV B A *B-19629
CHIRONIS N P 'A-18052
CHOVIN P 'A-17357
CHOW T J 'A-23239
CHRISTIE, J *A-10743
CISLER W L *A-25256
CITARELLA J F »J-12418
CLARK, F L D-09984, E-11065
CLARKE A J "B-23237, *D-16237
CLARKE H 'B-16250
CLARKE, A J B-02311, "L-02052
CLEARY, G J 'A-10424
CLENDENIN, J D *A-08392
CLIFTON, M 'D-02057
CMARKO V * A-11988
COCHRAN N P 'B-13813
COCHRAN, N P 'B-05529
COCKRELL, C F *B-08936, *B-09904,
•N-04432
COHEN P 'A-13401
COLBAUGH W C E-17580
COLLINS A C 'B-23315
COLLINS R L J-21241
COLLINS, A C 'B-02778
COMMINS B T *A-16877
CONKLIN E R 'A-13892, 'F-13191
CONNER, W D "C-03546
CONRAD G 'B-22500
CONTROL METHODS *B-24073
CONVENEOVOLE, M 'G-01340
COOPER D R 'B-16502
COPELAND A E 'B-14001
COPELAND, J O *B-10493
COPIAN, L P A-05169
CORBETT P F *B-13767
COREY, R C 'B-09996
CORTELYOU C G *B-16418, *B-16851
COUTALLER J 'B-17672
COUTANT R W 'B-20539
CRAIG T L 'B-20552
CRANE, W M *B-12672
CRAVITT, S C-01354
CRAWFORD A R 'A-12619, 'B-22861,
•B-24678
CRAWFORD H L 'A-21221
CRAWFORD, W D 'B-10655
CRAXFORD, S R 'A-01350, «D-02057
CREAGAN, R J 'A-05530
CRENTZ W L 'A-17418, 'B-13835
CROKE E J 'E-19737, E-25229, "L-12461,
"L-17321
CROKE K G L-12461
CROKE, E J 'D-09984, 'D-11525, *E-11065
CROKE, K D-11525
CSABA, J 'F-09064
CSANADY, G T *E-05357, 'E-07801
CUFFE, S T A-03113, 'A-05067, "C-03592
CULKOWSKI W M 'E-24509
CUMMINGHAM, A T A-10444
CUMMINGS W G 'C-22885
CUMMINGS, W G *E-01259, 'E-01260,
•E-01261
CUNNINGHAM A R B-22861
CURRAN G P *B-16279
D
DAILY, W B "B-09546
DAINES, R H 'H-05420
DAMON W A 'L-24033
DAMS R 'C-25231
DARBY K B-25127, *B-25786, 'B-25833
DAVIDOVSKIY G A B-15665
DAVIDSON W C 'B-22051
DA VIES D T 'F-18170
DAVIS, F F JR 'B-10770
DAVIS, K *G-11300
DAY A G III *F-14851
DAY C E JR »A-16888
DE TURVILLE C M *E-21736
DEALY J O 'C-12510
DEAN R S 'B-24048
DEBERRY D W B-25416
DEBRUN G "C-25147
DEBRUN, G *B-07359, *B-13057
DECARLO J A 'A-16212
DECARLO, J A "A-03340, *B-05454
DECORSO, S M B-10770
DEGNER B 'B-22501
DEGTEV O N 'C-22982
DELANGE, J E *C-07787, "C-09107
DELYAGIN G N 'F-14390
DEMARRAIS, G A *E-02410
DEMETER J J *A-22387
DEMPSEY, J F *B-09971
DEMSKI R J "A-23359
DENES S *B-16496
DENISOV, A M 'B-04634
DENNIS C *B-18143
DENNIS C S "B-24985
DENNIS R E-21099
DENNIS, R E-11624
DENOVAN, A S 'C-11755
DETURVILLE C M 'E-16803
DEURBROUCK, A W *B-00276
DEVOTO, G D-08298
DIAKONOFF S *B-25320
DIAKUN, R F-07059
DICKINSON R 'L-20698
DICKS J B *A-23379
DICKS J B JR 'A-19024
DIEHL E K 'B-17782, 'B-18154, 'B-21234,
*L-14535
DIEHL, E K 'B-01362, 'B-05857, 'C-00945
DIGIOVANNI, H J 'C-01354
DILLARD J K *A-18176, F-16589
DINNEEN, G U A-08391
DOMAHIDY G 'B-19845
DONAHUE, B A N-04432
DOTTREPPE GRISARD N *D-23326
DOUGLAS J "B-22071
DOUMANI T F 'B-15962
DOUSA K *A-11982
DOWD J T 'B-16815
DRAGOUMIS, P A-03072
DRATWA H 'A-14574
DRATWA, H 'B-08371
DRINKER P 'A-24039
DRISCOLL J E-21099
DRUCKER, E E *N-05194
DRYDEN I G C *A-13494
DU BREUIL, F 'C-00945
DUBROVSKAYA, F I *D-07141
DUEMMLER F 'L-17472
DUEWEL L 'C-19519
DUFFEE R A *C-26139
DUFFEE, R A 'C-04040
DUKES, R R *B-11238
DUMARCHEY G A-13855
DUMONT A H 'A-17910
DUNCAN, D C A-08388
DUPREY, R L *A-09686
DURIE R A *B-24630
DUUREN H V 'C-14733
DUZY A F 'A-12120
DUZY, A F *A-02630
DYMSHITS S A *A-17017
EARL J L 'A-23239
BARLEY W T B-19642
EBERT K 'A-21318
EDDINGER R T A-13410, F-11782
EDOUARD L 'B-22401
EFFENBERGER E 'N-21289
EFFENBERGER, E 'D-06755
EGGER A *B-23773
EHRLICH S 'B-20063
EHRLICH, S B-11178
EINBRODT, H J *G-06806
EISENBUD M 'A-21351
EISNER J H *B-25139
ELDER, J L A-02631
ELDIB, I A 'B-04506
ELLIS R B 'F-14512
ELLIS W T 'B-25184
ELLISON, J M "C-00886
ELSHOUT A J *B-16224, 'C-14733
ELSHOUT, A J 'D-02979
EMICKE K 'B-24441
ENGDAHL R B B-15516
ENGELBRECHT, H L *B-01485
ENGELMANN H D F-22319
ENGELMANN, R J E-10608
ENGELS, L H 'B-01712
ENGLE, C F *B-08938
ERDMANN R C 'A-25975
ERGUN S A-18114, 'B-18111, *B-22127,
F-14814
ERNST AND ERNST *J-11111, *J-11114
ERTL D 'B-14294, 'B-14473
ERTL, D W 'B-07931
ESSENHIGH R H F-14851
ETTINGER, H J 'C-01363
EVANS R K 'A-18276, 'F-13400
EVANSON, A E 'J-00978
EXLEY L M *B-20082
EXLEY, L M 'B-03974
FALKENBERRY, H L 'B-11240
FAORO, R B D-05551
FARKAS L 'B-16496
FARKAS, M D B-11238
FARMER, J R L-01890
FARR J W 'B-22552
FARRIOR, W L JR 'F-08941
FASCHING G E B-15543, *C-25260
FASCHING, G E F-09769
FEILER W 'B-25186, *B-25269
FELDMAN H F 'B-21005
FELDMANN, H F 'B-11191
FELIX R 'A-19165
FELIX, F 'J-02918
-------
AUTHOR INDEX
269
PELS M 'A-21221
FENSTERSTOCK, J C *D-05551
FERGUSSON G J F-14851
FERNANDES, J H 'B-00140, 'B-09546
FERRAND E F 'B-25187
FIELD E L 'A-16722, »B-24922
FIELD J H 'B-12253, *B-14566, 'B-19471,
•B-20663
FIELD, J H B-01245, 'B-02407, *B-02908,
B-06278, "B-06345, *B-06543,
•B-07417, 'B-09666, *J-01707
FINFER, E Z *J-00166
FINK C E 'B-16279
FINK K "J-20054
FISCHER, G "L-11383
FISH B R 'A-16855
FLETCHER B L *J-15510
FLODIN, C R 'B-05853
FOGEL M E "J-21241
FORD E *B-18161
FORNEY A J B-25503
FORREST J S *B-26143
FORTAK H *A-15701, *E-22313
FOSTER P M 'A-16788
FOSTER, M D 'E-08400
FRANCIS W *B-19394, "B-23879, 'B-24697
FRANKEL, R J 'B-12040
FRANKENBERG T T 'J-25961
FRANKENBERG, T T *A-10284, 'B-00135,
•B-01796, 'L-06615
FRANTZ, R L "A-13053
FRASER T «A-17418, *B-13835
FRAZIER J H 'B-13857
FREDRIKSEN H *B-25584
FREYDJ 'F-13411
FREY, D J *I-11286
FRIEDLANDER G D *A-25867, 'M-25193
FRIELING G B-14137
FRIELING, G 'B-03879
FRIELING, G G B-07430
FRTTZE E 'G-14530
FRIZZOLA J A 'E-15511
FRIZZOLA, J A »E-06373, E-10421
FRYSINGER, G R *B-02442
FUDURICH, A P C-06095
FUJII T 'E-17734
FUJISAWA, K D-07951
FUKUI S 'B-16346, 'B-20392, B-24589
FUKUI, S 'B-11252
FUKUMA S *B-20526, 'F-13487
FULLER A B 'B-20437
FULWEILER W H F-18185
FUQUAY J J 'E-24407
FURUTO K 'B-24643
G
GALLAGHER J J B-2I005
GAMES G C 'A-20863, *A-25689
GANCHEV, B G 'A-09103
GARDNER, 3 W 'L-00206
GARTRELL F E *B-25038, 'C-15479
GARTRELL, F E B-02192, 'B-04200,
•C-01856, 'C-02921, 'E-00023,
•E-04033, 'E-04034, 'E-04035,
•E-06823, 'N-03344
GARVEY, J R 'A-02501, "L-06735,
*M-08072
GATZ D F L-12461
GATZ, D F D-09984, D-11525
GEER, M R "B-09523
GENIKHOVICH Y G 'E-20042
GEORGE R E *B-21594
GEORGE, R E 'B-04516
GERBER A 'A-18177
GERBER, A 'A-07642
GERMERDONK R 'B-23504
GERMERDONK, R *B-04791
GERSTLE R W J-21241
GERSTLE, R W 'A-03113, A-05067,
* A-11502
GIBSON F H F-17592
GIBSON, F H A-06351
GIFFORD F A JR 'E-24569, 'E-25935
GIFFORD, F A JR *E-05702
GIL DENSKIOL D R S E-16687
GIL DENSKIOLD, R S 'E-10219
GILL, J S 'B-04755
GILLHAM, E W 'D-02046
GIRSEWALD C B V 'B-24554
GIRSEWALD C F V *B-24270
GITSAREV A I B-15665
GLASER P E 'A-18056
GLEASON, T G B-07752
GLENN R A 'B-13171, 'B-14891
GLENN, R A 'B-01866, C-00945
GLENSY, N 'B-00272
GLUSKOTER H J 'A-12202
GLUSKOTER, H J 'F-04827
GOADBY, S C *C-07941
GOFF G B A-19038
GOFMAN M S A-13330
GOLDBERGER, W M 'B-08870
GOLDSCHMIDT K 'B-11854, 'B-19339,
•B-21028
GOLLMAR H A 'B-26211
GONSCHOREK D "L-21431
GORIN E B-16279, B-17338
GORMAN P G A-25196
GOROSHKO, B B *E-10219, *E-10220
GOSSELIN, A E JR 'B-07075
GOURDINE, M C 'A-09194
GRABOWSKI H A B-14838
GRAFF R A B-15284
GRAHAM J B-23315
GRAHAM J I 'F-13766
GRALA M 'B-25744
GRAY W A *N-13587
GRAY, C A F-11782, 'L-11283
GRECO J B-13674
GRECO, J 'B-08863
GREGORY, A R 'H-00316
GREGORY, J A D-09984, D-11525
GRIFFITH R H 'B-19876
GRIGORYAN, G O *B-10591
GRINDELL, D H 'C-01857
GRISWOLD, S S 'B-00107
GRONHOVD, G H 'A-09161
GROUT J M 'A-11790
GRUBER, C W 'A-00532, 'C-11193
GUIETTE J L 'A-17910
GUNDEL E *G-14530
GUREVICH, A M A-02549
GUSEV M I 'G-16192
GUTHRIE, C E B-04755
H
HAAGEN SMIT A J 'B-14632
HAALAND, H H *B-05853
HAENISCH E 'B-19380
HALEY, H E 'B-06136
HALITSKY, J E-10608
HALL H J A-12619, B-22861
HALS F A *A-21204
HALSTEAD W D 'F-16883
HALZEL G C 'B-16746
HAMM, J R "B-02424, *B-09905
HANBY V I 'B-21136
HANGEBRAUCK R P A-15391, 'A-24732,
*B-15544, 'B-19340, 'B-21268
HANGEBRAUCK, R P 'B-08429
HANIG G 'B-21893
HANKS, J J "J-01546
HANSBROUGH, J R 'H-07786
HANSCH, W C-02668
KARA M 'F-24272
HARADA Y B-14394
HARPPORTE D R D 'A-22159
HARRINGTON, R E *B-04842, B-05310,
*B-07466
HARRIS R D 'B-14891
HARRIS, D N *L-08686
HARRIS, R D *B-01866, 'B-04507,
•F-02743
HARRISON D *B-25165
HART S J *B-14270
HARTNER F E 'A-16256
HARTNER, F E "C-07516
HARTWIG J 'B-19692
HASEBE S *B-15692
HASEK M 'E-11980, 'E-26267
HASHIMOTO K 'B-17343, *B-20097
HASZ I 'A-22418
HATTORI H 'B-13721
HAUSBERG G *B-19803
HAWKSIEY P G W 'A-25108
HAYASHI T B-23447
HAYASHI Y C-22391
HAYNES G N 'B-14001
HAYNES, W P 'B-08347
HEARN, B B-02778
HEIN L B 'B-14322, *B-23221
HEITMANN H G *B-25637
HELLER, A N *D-01790
HELLWIG, K C 'B-09195
HENKE W C *B-24675
HENRICH, G 'B-02971
HENSEL R P B-13639, B-14838
HEFTING, G H "H-01014, "H-01398
HEREDY L A 'B-25913
HERTEL, W *B-07229
HERTVIK, Z 'B-04179
HERZOG G *B-14660
HESTER, J A 'B-08925
HEWSON G W 'B-19395
HIDY G M 'A-25213
HIGASHI M B-16346, *B-20392, B-24589
HIGASHI, M B-11252
HIGGINSON K 'M-25143
HIGH M D 'L-18121
HILEMAN A R 'F-16589
HILL E L J-21241
HILST G R *A-14997
HINDS W T E-24407
HINO M 'E-26141
HINO Y *A-13644
HINO, M 'E-10010
HIRAI H B-14394
HIROSE R 'A-25690
HODKINSON, J R 'C-03546, "C-04759
HOEGSTROEM, U 'E-10751
HOEHLE R 'A-21286
HOFFMANN K 'B-26155
HOLBROOK E A 'B-13663
HOLDEN J H B-15532, B-20485
HOLDEN, J H F-09769
HOLL, R E 'A-02014
HOLLAND, C T A-06978, 'B-07425,
L-13049
HOLZWORTH, G C "E-02410
HOMMA M 'E-19503, 'E-26141
HONMA T 'E-17725
HORIUCHI K *E-17734
HORLACHER W R JR B-14730, 'B-16862
HORLACHER, W R JR B-11233
HORN K 'A-15246
HORVATH T *B-15976
HOSHIZAWA K 'A-24817
HOSLER, C R E-02410
HOULT D P 'B-24001
HOVEY M W *B-19733, *B-22809
-------
270
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
HOY, L W *B-08937
HRADECKY F 'A-11981
HSUEH L 'A-26226, 'A-26233, 'B-26230
HUGHES D F *B-22806
HULL A P 'A-23652
HULTZ J A *C-17419
HUMBERT C O 'B-25079
HUMPHREYS, K K B-08936, L-13049
HUNTER J B *B-21232
HUSMANN K B-21893
HUSSEY, C E B-10770
I
IDE Y *E-17595
IDEL CHIK I Y 'B-13983
IL INSKAYA I N B-22661
IMATAKE T B-14394
INARD A B-15616
INOUE A B-19581
IRELAND F E *A-23044
IRELAND, F E *A-12633
ISHIHARA Y 'B-21275
ITO A 'B-23262
ITO F *B-14194
IWASHIMA, K D-07951
JACKSON, W D *F-00105
JACOBS, M B *D-06824
JACOBSON L D A-26085
JACOBSON M 'C-23121
JAEGER W 'B-15902
JAFFE, L S *A-10754
JAIN, A K B-11178
JANDER K C-22342
JARA V 'B-25494
JARMAN R T 'B-25170, 'E-16803,
*E-21736
JELEN B *B-14707
JELGERSMA, J H *B-10399
JIMESON R M *A-11790, *B-23176
JIMESON, R M 'B-00568, 'J-02413
JIRASEK, V *C-00403
JIRELE, V 'B-08492
JOHNS, R W "C-03460
JOHNSON L W 'C-16875, 'C-18012
JOHNSON V G A-16887
JOHNSON W B JR 'E-15483
JOHNSON, A R K-00167
JOHNSON, C A "K-OOI67
JOHNSON, G E *B-01245
JOHNSON, W B JR 'C-09624
JOHNSTON D R 'J-21241
JOHNSTON W H F-14851
JOHNSTONE H F 'A-19017, 'B-16968,
•B-20035, *B-21506
JOHSWICH F 'B-13829
JOHSWICH, F 'B-01726
JOLLY A A-13102
JONAKIN J 'B-16248, *B-17905, *I-13086
JONAKIN, J 'L-06737
JONES J F 'A-13410
JONES, J F 'F-11782
JONES, J R 'A-04333, 'L-07794
JONES, W R E-01259, E-01260, E-01261
JORDAN C W 'F-18185
JORDAN, H V 'H-02293
JOYCE, C P 'F-01379
JUENTGEN H 'B-22905
JUENTGET H 'A-19444
JUHASZ A A-15146
JUNTGEN H 'B-26084
JUNTGEN, H *B-02970, 'B-08371,
•B-11055, *F-10429
K
KACHULLE, C 'A-11655
KALISHEVSKII, L L 'A-09103
KAMEI K B-11252, B-16346, *B-20262,
B-20392, *B-20526, F-13487
KAMINO Y 'B-19581
KAMMERER, H F *A-11413
KANEKO K B-24269
KANNO S C-12126
KANNO, S 'C-07482
RANTER, C V 'C-06095
KAPALIN V 'A-11988
KAPOOR R K »E-14271
KARAGODIN G M 'C-22982
KARZARINOFF A 'B-24881
KASAHARA K 'B-12417
KATELL, S A-08391, *B-01727, 'B-02195,
J-01707, *J-08867
KATIN A *L-17473
KATO K 'B-17250
KATO Y 'B-21324
KATZ B *B-20914
KATZ, J 'B-00653
KATZ, M 'D-00657, *L-05499
KAWAHATA, M 'B-11929
KAWAMURA Y B-19581
KAWASUMI M B-12417
KAYLOR F B *C-20224
KEATING, S J JR *A-02290
KEDRON B B-17318
KENKYUSHO K K 'B-13578
KENLINE, P A 'D-04116
KENNEDY A S E-19737, E-25229,
L-12461
KENNEDY, A S D-11525, E-11065
KENNEDY, AS D-09984
KENNEDY, G F 'A-04778
KENWORTHY, H 'B-06490
KERCHER H *B-15155
KERREBROCK, J L F-00105
KESTER, W M *B-08898
KETOV A N *B-13817, 'B-14057,
*B-15946, 'B-19619
KETTNER H 'A-25549
KHUKHRINA, Y V C-08123
KING, D T 'B-07385
KIRAKOSYAN, R M 'B-10591
KIREEVA, I S *A-07570
KIRENBIN O I E-20042
KIRKWOOD, J B 'A-05506, 'B-05508
KIROV, N Y 'B-05516
KITAGAWA T 'B-12442, *C-12126
KITANI T 'B-22160
KITTLEMAN T A *B-12308
KITTREDGE G D B-15544
KIYOURA R 'B-23447, 'B-25284
KIYOURA, R 'B-10692
KIZIM I A *B-22661
KLEIN H *B-21117
KLEINSCHMIDT R V 'B-23231
KLIMECEK R 'B-17004, 'B-19482
KLOEPPER, D L 'B-01187
KLUGE W 'B-23674
KNAPP E M 'B-25184
KNAPP O 'B-24642
KNAUER A 'A-15246
KNECHT, H 'B-09163
KOBAYASHI O 'A-25062
KOBAYASHI Y 'C-12126
KOCZKUR, E 'E-10053
KOEPPE B 'B-23674
KOERNER H J 'D-23356
KOGAN E I B-13983
KOHN R E 'J-15889
KOLAR J "C-15348, 'C-17474
KOLBIG J 'B-23974
KONISHI M B-15693
KOPITA, R 'B-07752
KOROL, D *B-02931
KOSCHANY, E M "B-06062
KOTB A K "B-19189
KOUTNIK J 'A-17280
KOVACEVA V A-13978
KOVACH J L 'B-26220
KOYATA K 'A-24817
KRALIK, O "B-04179
KRANZ M *B-25744
KREIMANN H H *A-13141
KREJCIRIK L 'B-11985
KRIZ M *B-13243, 'B-17318
KRUG H 'B-25186, 'B-25269
KRUMIN P O 'A-13848
KRUSHINSKAYA G K *B-15913
KRZYMIEN M B-25744
KUBE, H D J-01546
KUBE, W R A-02631
KUKIN, I 'B-08080
KUNKA, L M 'B-01245
KURIYAMA T B-12417
KURONUMA H *B-23447
KURTZROCK R C A-23359
KURTZROCK, R C *B-07417
LAAMANEN, A *L-02011
LAMANTIA C R *A-16722, *B-24922
LAMB, D R *G-11828
LAMBERT, W H L-03277
LAMPE F W F-14851
LANCASTER, B W *B-10003
LAND G W 'A-23726, *B-19642, *M-25188
LANDERS, W S *B-11229
LANGMANN R 'A-25549
LARIKOV V V *B-14057, B-15946,
'B-19619
LARSEN, R I *L-06188
LARSSON O *B-18296
LAUFHUETTE D W *A-19084
LAWTHER, P J *G-06826
LAZAROV L 'A-13978
LEASON, D B 'B-09469
LEAVITT J M E-04034, E-04035
LEAVITT, J M A-00691, E-00023, E-04033,
E-06373, 'E-10421, *L-02960
LEBOWITZ H E *B-17338
LEE, P R 'L-11319
LEITHE W *B-23373
LEMKE K *B-19804, *B-20223
LEMMON A W JR 'J-15510
LEMON, L W *B-04508, *B-07075
LEONARD J W 'B-13639, B-14838
LEONARD, J W B-07425, 'B-08898,
B-08936, B-09904, *B-13051, L-13049,
N-04432
LEONE, I A *H-05420
LEPPER G H *B-19394
LEPPER, J M "C-04889
LESOURD D A J-21241
LEVY S I *B-22279
LIBERATORE A J *A-19038
LIEBEN, J 'D-03432
LIEBSCHER P A-15246
LILIENFELD, P C-01354
LINDALL A W *G-20700
LINDBLAD A R 'B-19541, *B-24565,
'B-25787, 'B-25795
LINNA E W 'B-19642
LIPPMANN, M 'C-01354
LITTLEJOHN R F 'B-13767
LOONKAR Y R B-23027
LOUGHER E H B-20539
LOVE L R 'B-18063
LOWE H J 'B-23305, 'B-26143
-------
AUTHOR INDEX
271
LOWELL P S *B-25416
LOWICKI N *B-21893
LUCAS, D H 'E-03557
LUCE C F *A-24951
LUDWIG E G-14530
LUDWIG J H 'B-18110, *B-21819
LUDWIG, J H A-00943, A-01480, A-01489,
A-01816, A-07759, A-07963, 'G-01865,
'L-06730
LUETTGER H 'B-24642
LULL D E-21099
LULL, D E-11624
LUNCHE, R G 'C-06095
LUNDQUIST, N H *A-07793
LUTHER H 'F-22319, *F-22587
LYONS D E 'A-24978
M
MACARTHUR C A A-14400
MACDOWALL J *E-16285
MACEY H H 'E-24243
MACHE A *B-15358
MACTAGGART E F 'B-16500
MAGNUS, M N 'J-01308
MAHLER, E A J 'K-02010
MAIER O *C-22342
MAIKRANZ F *A-11968
MAIKRANZ, F *A-11640
MAJUMDAR A R B-15902
MAL TSEVA T G B-13817
MALACHOWSKI J 'B-25743
MANDERSON, M *L-10998
MANDERSON, M C 'L-11242
MANNY E H A-12619, B-15148, B-22861
MANOWITZ B A-12266, A-23954, A-24955
MANZ, O E *N-02632
MARKOV B L A-13261
MARQUARDT W *A-21286, *B-19346
MARRACCINI, L 'D-08298
MARSH, K J 'E-08400
MARTIN J R *B-23140, *B-24168
MARTIN, A *A-01510, 'D-02046, *D-08858
MARTIN, A E *G-00981, 'G-02417
MARTIN, D O A-01842
MARTIN, G B 'B-10680
MASEK V *A-13219
MASHEK V 'A-25545
MASTERSON H G B-23315
MASTERSON, H G B-02778
MASUDA T 'E-20068
MATSAK, V G *B-08155
MATSUMOTO, K B-04655
MATTHEWS K J 'A-14794
MAXWELL C T 'A-23753
MAYER, M 'A-00972
MAYORS TASK FORCE ON AIR *L-09073
MAZACEK J *B-11996
MAZUNDAR, B K 'F-10422
MCCALDIN R O "C-16875, »C-18012
MCCANN, C R 'F-01852
MCCARTNEY J T *A-18114, 'F-14814
MCCLELLAND, E H 'L-00162
MCCREA D H 'B-25503
MCCREA, D H B-07417
MCFADDEN, C R N-04432
MCGEE J P A-19038
MCGEE, J A-12541
MCKAY, R D D-00657
MCKELVEY, V E 'A-08388
MCKINNON J P 'F-16589
MCLAREN J 'B-20995
MCLAUGHLIN J F 'B-17905
MCLAUGHLIN, J F B-11262
MCLAUGHLIN, J F JR 'B-11159,
'E-07843
MCMULLEN, T B *D-05551
MEETHAM A R 'E-21986
MEETHAM, A R 'E-06827
MEGONNELL W H 'L-18121
MEGONNELL, W H 'J-08059, "L-01585
MEIKLE, P 1-11286
MERIK J 'D-13176
MERRILL J A *A-26085
MEYER E 'E-15347
MICHALCZYK G *B-22740
MICHALCZYK, G 'B-06999
MIDDLETON, J T 'H-02299
MIELENZ, R C *B-08942
MILLER D M 'B-16248
MILLER F G 'B-13584
MILLER L A 'B-20696
MILLER, L A 'F-01379
MILLS C A 'G-23670
MINER S * A-19994
MINNICK, L J 'F-08943
MITCHELL D R 'B-13592
MITCHELL R I C-26139
MITCHELL, R I C-04040
MIURA M 'B-25019
MIYAJI M B-19581
MIYAJIMA, M *B-10563
MIZUMOTO Y 'B-15841, B-15844
MIZUNIWA F *C-22391
MOFFAT A J 'E-16285
MOLISKEY A 'B-19261
MONMA, T D-07951
MONROE G R "B-22552
MOODY, J E 'J-00253
MOORE A S 'C-22882
MOORE, D J »E-03557
MOORE, W W B-09163
MORGAN G B *C-24245
MORI, H 'B-03045
MOROZ, W J *E-10053
MORRISON W E *A-13954, 'A-13963,
*J-13613, 'N-13591
MORRISON, R E 'B-08921
MOSES H L-12461
MOSES, H D-09984, D-11525
MOSES, R G 'B-04507
MUELLER G G-14530
MUELLER G F *L-21431
MUELLER H O G-14530
MUELLER WARTENBERG H 'B-21200
MUKAI S 'B-15693
MULHERN, J J B-02772
MULLEN, J F 'B-08085
MUNIDASA M 'B-25284
MURPHY Z E A-16212
MURPHY, E M B-03337, 'B-03581
MURPHY, Z E A-03340
MYERS J G B-14566, 'B-25503
MYERS, J G B-02407, B-02908, B-06543
N
NAGAI H 'B-15092, 'B-25088
NAGAI S F-16376
NAGAI, N *I-03222
NAGY K "B-15976
NAKAMURA A 'E-20068
NAKAYAMA, K 'D-07393
NARJES L 'C-16512
NARJES, L 'C-02655
NARUO, Y *G-04136
NEEDHAM, W J *B-07673
NEGHERBON, W O 'F-00530
NELSON H W 'B-15516
NELSON, F 'B-00687
NETSCHERT B C *A-18177
NETSCHERT, B G 'L-13055
NEULANDER C K 'B-22615
NEWELL J E *B-17685
NEWELL, J E "B-11247
NICHOLLS P 'F-13572
NIEMEYER L E 'A-12335, »D-23957
NIFONG G D C-25231
NIKITINSKAYA, Z P A-02549
NIKOLAEV S P *A-17017
NISHIMOTO K *B-15844
NISHIMOTO, Y *B-04655
NISHIMURA H 'B-15251
NIWA T 'B-14394
NOBLE R W 'A-11860
NOEL R *D-23326
NOEST, J G *A-09075
NONHEBEL G *B-21238
NORCO J E *E-25229, L-12461
NORO, L 'L-02011
NORTHCOTT, E *B-08378
NOSE Y *G-23151
NOVOTNY P *B-22961
NOWLAN J P 'M-22636
NURULLAYEV, D K 'D-05260
O
O CONNOR J R "J-12418
O DONNELL H J 'A-18114, *F-13834,
•F-14814
OBERHAEUSER A 'B-20243
OCHS H J *A-16410
ODA K 'B-21275
OEHRLICH, K H *B-10933
OELS H 'J-17203
OELS, F "B-02053
OESTMANN M J A-21916
OGINO, K 1-03222
OHTAKE T 'E-24439
OHTSUKA T 'B-21643
OHYA M *A-15620
OHYANAGI T B-23262
OKADA, M '1-03222
OKANIWA K *F-17594
OKITA, T 'D-07951
OLDENKAMP R D 'B-20914
OLMSTED L M 'N-13513
ONEAL, A J JR B-03974
ONIKUL R I *E-16687, 'E-17612
ONIZAWA S 'B-19581
OPLADEN, H B 'B-10993
OPPELT, W H F-01852
ORNING A A C-17419
ORNING, A A A-03113, 'A-05011,
A-05067, F-01852
OSHIO T 'A-17199
OSOEGAWA I B-15251
OTOMURA K B-15693
OTTMERS D M JR 'B-25416
OVERCAMP T J 'B-24001
OZOLINS G 'C-24245
OZOLINS, G 'A-09737, 'D-00858, L-01890,
'M-00336
PACK D H 'E-24569
PADOVANI C 'B-16510, *K-22248
PAGLIARI M 'B-22884
PALO, G P 'A-07800
PALOWITCH, E R B-00276
PANFILOV G A 'E-16687
PANFILOVA, G A E-10219
PANOFSKY, H A 'E-07428
PARCZEWSKI W 'E-13965
PARETSKY L 'B-19834
PARKER W C »B-16250
PARKER, A 'N-07845
PARRY V F 'F-13601
PARRY, M 'E-11514
-------
272
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
PARSLY, L F B-04755
PARSONS, D D-11525
PATEL, H C 1-04622
PAULSON C A J *B-23331
PAULUS, H J D-04116
PAVLUNIN V A 'B-25217
PEARSON J L 'B-21238
PEARSON, R B *B-09469
PECHKOVSKIY V V 'B-13817, B-14057,
•B-15946, B-19619
PECK, R E 'A-02633
PELL M B-15284
PENNY G W 'B-13674
PERANIO A 'B-25298
PERELATOV V D *G-12289
PERRINE R L 'A-26226, *A-26233,
•B-26230
PERRY H *B-12253, *B-19471
PERRY, H 'A-12541, 'B-00564, *B-05454,
•B-09666
PETERS W 'B-23544
PETERS, W *B-02970, "B-11055
PETERSEN B G-14530
PETERSEN H 'C-22511
PETERSON E K *E-15178
PETERSON H K 'A-16887
PETERSON K R 'E-21073
PETERSON M J 'F-17592
PETERSON, D G B-00140
PETROLL, J 'B-07674
PETROW H G 'A-21351
PFEFFER R 'B-12310, B-19834
PFEIFFER, J J *F-01852
PHILLEO, R E 'B-08923
PHILLIPS A B *B-14322, 'B-23221
PICHEL W 'B-24290
PINAEV V A *B-15913
PLANTS, K D J-01707, "J-08867
PLUMLEY A L B-23140, B-24168
POLLACK L W "L-18220
POLLOCK W A *B-14137, 'B-23822
POLLOCK, W A 'B-03879, *B-07430
POOLER, F E-00023, E-04033, E-04034,
E-04035
POOLER, F JR 'E-00846
PORTEOUS A 'B-17531
PORTER, R 'H-01589, *L-01590
PORTERFIELD C W B-14001
POTAPENKO L S G-12289
POTTER E C 'B-24630
POTTER, A E B-04842, *B-07466
POTTINGER J F "B-25207
POWELL J 'A-12266, 'A-24955
POWELL J R "A-23954
PRADEL Y 'B-22671
PRASAD, B 'E-07428
PREM, L L *A-09165
PRICE, J T 'E-09417
PRIDATCHENKOV V G B-13817
PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE 'D-09591
PUBLIC HELATH SERVICE 'A-09588
PURSGLOVE, J JR 'N-07431
PUTNAM, B *L-10998
QUACK R 'B-22505
QUACK, R 'J-02151
QUESNEL G 'B-25677
QUIG R H "B-16731
QUITTER V 'B-22501
QUITTER, V 'B-07674
R
RAASK E *F-16883
RAASK, E *F-11163
RAE, S 'G-07039
RAHN K A 'C-25231
RAMSDEN A R *B-23331, 'C-16734,
•C-22909, 'F-15714
RASSOW B 'B-26155
RATCLIFFE, D B 'A-10444
RATHGEBER F 'B-26063
RAUSCHER J A 'B-19480
RAWLANI P B *C-16364
RAYMOND L D 'B-22792
RAYNER, H M *A-05169
READLING C L A-13963
REARDON W A 'A-26085
RECORD F A E-21099
REDFEARN M W *C-22885
REDFEARN, M W *E-01259, 'E-01260,
*E-01261
REED L E *B-22110
REED, S K *B-08228, 'L-06739
REES R L *A-24916, *B-13523, 'B-15489,
•B-19395
REESE J T B-13674, 1-13086
REESE, J T 'B-08863
REHMANN, C A-09737, *A-09737
REICHEL M A-25196
REID W T 'A-13401, *B-25517, 'F-13572
REID, W T 'B-09999, 'F-09967
REIDAT R 'E-21122
REIN B D 'L-18223
REMIREZ R 'B-18034
RENZI P N 'B-23027
RESHIDOV I K B-22661
RICE G A '1-13086
RICH, G R A-09075
RICHARD C 'B-17672
RICKARD E K A-13141
RIEDEL F 'B-24019
RIKHTER B V E-16687
RIKHTER, B V E-10219
RINALDI L 'B-20738
RISSER, H E 'A-09989
RITCHINGS, F A *A-11739
RIVERA CORDERO A 'A-17483
ROBBINS J A C-25231
ROBERTS J J 'E-19737, *E-25229, L-12461
ROBERTS, J J D-09984, E-11065
ROBINSON, E B 'B-11178
ROBINSON, M E *A-07645
ROESNER G 'B-24270, 'B-24554
ROGAN, J M *G-07039
ROGERS, T F *B-01187
ROGGENDORF A 'A-14378
ROGOFF, M H B-00222
ROHRMAN, F A A-00943, 'A-01480,
•A-01489, 'A-01816, 'A-07759,
'A-07963
ROLFE, T J K B-12672
ROSE H J *B-13171
ROWE D R "C-24412
ROWSON, H M 'B-08352
RUDORFF D W 'B-17979
RYAN, J M *A-08393
RYLEY, M D 'B-09600
SACHDEV R N "C-16364
SACKS, M E F-11782
SADLER, J W L-01890
SAGE, W L 'B-05258
SAKAGISHI S *A-21191
SAKAI K "C-22391
SAKS, S Y 'F-11722
SAKUMOTO Y B-14394
SALEEM A 'B-25165
SALERNO, A A 'B-11251
SALLEE E E A-25196
SALO E A "A-17051
SALTSMAN R D "B-14162
SALTSMAN, R D 'B-11215
SANDERSON, H P 'D-00657
SAPOZHNIKOV, A P G-11437
SAPPOK, R J 'B-11131
SARKAR G G 'A-13511
SARKAR M K 'A-13511
SAWYERS, C H L-13049 .
SAX, J B-11191
SCAIOLA G *B-25427
SCHADE, G B-07674
SCHAFFER S G "A-11860
SCHAUFLER, E *B-10933
SCHEIDEL C *B-24756
SCHEIDEL, C F 'B-11250
SCHIERMEIER F A "A-12335, 'D-23957
SCHILDHAMMER, A *L-08062
SCHLACHTER D J 'B-16068
SCHLESINGER, M D 'A-08391
SCHMID, M R 'F-11782
SCHMIDT, K R B-10933
SCHMITZ, F W B-09163
SCHNEIDER, G G *B-02036
SCHNITZLER H 'C-22342
SCHNUERPEL W B-19692
SCHOENHERR D B-25269
SCHREITER W "B-19346
SCHROEDER M 'B-19380
SCHUENEMAN, J J 'A-02765
SCHUH U A-21286
SCHULDT, A F 'B-03232
SCHULER R E 'B-15516, J-15510
SCHULZ E J *C-26139
SCHULZ, E J "C-04040
SCHWARTZ, C H A-03113, A-05011,
A-05067
SCHWARZ K 'B-23757
SCHWARZ O *B-14546
SCHWARZ, K 'B-02032
SCHWARZ, O 'B-11005
SCHWITZGEBEL K B-25416
SCOLLON T R *J-19685
SCORER R S *E-16985
SCOTT, D 'A-02634
SCRIVEN, R A 'E-01934
SEABORG G T 'A-18078
SEBASTIANI, E 'B-10336
SEDOR P 'B-19034
SEGLIN L A-13410
SEGUIN R L *F-14876
SEIDL W 'A-14478, 'B-20550
SEIFERT W 'B-26237
SEKI M *B-24269
SEKI S 'B-12417
SELICKAJA V I 'E-20924
SELITSKAYA, I 'E-10229
SEMENENKO N A 'B-22986
SEMENOV V S 'B-22986
SENSENBAUGH, J D B-00140
SENSHU T E-26141
SENYUSHKIN, N I 'B-10264
SHAFER, H E JR 'A-06978, 'B-08936,
*B-09904
SHALE C C 'B-15532, 'B-15543, 'B-20485
SHALE, C C *B-01615, *B-10704, "F-09769
.SHAMIRZAYEV, S Y 'D-05260
SHANNON L J *A-25196
SHARMA L N E-14271
SHAVER R G 'J-23800
SHEALEY, L D *B-13015
SHENFELD, L 'B-00687
SHEPARD D S *B-24681
SHERIDAN E T "A-16212
SHERIDAN, E T A-03340
SHERWOOD T K 'G-24021
SHERWOOD, P T 'B-09600
SHIBLER B K *B-19733, *B-22809
-------
AUTHOR INDEX
273
SHIDARA M *B-24207, "E-23163
SHILHAN M J B-15516
SHIMODA O "B-21643
SHIRASAWA T 'A-17184, 'B-17392,
•B-23262
SHIRVAIKAR V V 'E-14271
SHLIGERSKIY A S B-14057, B-15946,
B-19619
SHORT, W 'C-07848
SHRINER, R D *G-11828
SIEGMUND C W 'B-15148
SIETH J 'B-25637
SILVERMAN, L *N-01063
SILVERMAN, M P 'B-00222
SIMON C "B-25187
SIMON J A *A-12202
SIMON, H *B-09788, *B-09789
SIMONS W H »B-21005
SIMONS, W H 'B-11191
SIMPSON C L *E-24407
SINCAY A C S P DE *B-22702
SINGER J G *B-18167
SINGER T E R 'B-22883
SINGER, I A *C-11340
SKAGGS, H C *B-08921
SKAPERDAS G T *B-12424
SKOPP A A-12619, B-22861, B-24678
SKRIVANEK J 'B-17004, B-25494
SLACK A V *B-16425
SLACK, A V 'B-08346, *B-08836,
•B-11240
SLANSKY C M 'A-16887
SLATER H H E-16285
SLAWSON P R 'E-12353
SLAWSON, P R 'E-07801
SLUTSKER, A S 'C-08123
SMITH C M 'B-13592
SMITH J F 'C-17419
SMITH N S JR «C-25260
SMITH R W *A-21916
SMITH, D K 'B-08939
SMITH, J F A-05011
SMITH, M C 'B-11251
SMITH, M E "C-11340, E-06373, E-10421
SMITH, R D-05551, 'M-00336
SMITH, W S 'A-00532
SNOW R D 'B-19373
SNYDER, M J 'B-08919
SNYDERMAN I S F-14851
SOMERS, E V 'B-02424, 'B-09905
SOMMERLAD, R E *B-07515
SONDREAL, E A 'A-02631
SOTGIA G 'B-20738
SPAITE P W 'A-15391, 'A-24732,
•B-19340, *B-21268, *L-19062
SPAITE, P W B-05310, B-07466, B-08429,
•G-01865
SPALENY J 'H-20982
SPEIZER F E 'G-16837
SPENCER J D 'A-22875
SPENCER, 1 D *B-02408
SPENGLER G 'B-22740
SPENGLER, G *B-06999
SPERR F W JR *B-24458
SPICER T S 'B-23867
SPINAZZOLA, A *D-08298
SPORN, P 'B-01796
SPROULL, W T 'B-04940
SPRUNK G C *F-I3834
SPURR G 'E-24341
SPURR, G E-03557, 'L-02052
SQUIRES A M B-12310, 'B-14207,
"B-15240, 'B-15284, 'B-15738,
B-19834, *B-20729, 'B-20794,
•B-21381
SQUIRES B 1 'B-20188
SQUIRES, A M 'B-01493, "B-05338,
•B-08908, *B-08917
SREENIVASAN T N F-22587
STABENOW, G *B-02398
STAIRMAND C J *B-16720
STALKER, W W *D-04116
STANKUS L 'B-23880
STASTNY, E P 'B-09496
STEIGERWALD, B J A-01480, A-01816,
A-07759, A-07963
STEINBERG M *A-12266, *A-23954,
•A-24955
STELLE W W *B-18045
STELLE, W W 'B-13019
STEPANOVA A D G-12289
STEPHENS N T C-16875, *E-23409
STEPHENS, J F "C-07941
STEPHENS, J O A-04652
STERN, A C "L-01654, 'N-06133
STEWART, R F *F-08941
STICKNEY, R E F-00105
STITES J G JR *B-14730, 'B-16862
STITES, J G JR *B-11233
STOCKTON E J "C-23350
STONE G N «D-16237
STONE, G N 'B-02311
STOUFF M L 'F-13620
STRANGE T I B-25416
STRAT G L 'A-22144
STRAUSS S D 'F-13400
STRAUSS, W "B-10003
STREMBITSKIY A N 'B-25217
STRIMBECK D C *A-19038
STRIMBECK G R B-15532, B-20485
STRIMBECK, D A-12541
STRONG, R E 'A-09169
STRUCK R T B-17338
SUGDEN, F G 'L-07950
SUGINO K B-21643
SULLIVAN R J *A-17688
SULLIVAN, K M 'A-08641
SUPP A *B-19692
SURH, W C-03460
SUSSMAN, V H 'B-02772, D-03432
SUZUKI J *F-17594
SUZUKI M *E-19503
SUZUKI, T «D-07951
SYED, E U B-07425
SZEPESI D *E-16629
TABOR E C C-24245
TAILOR, J P *B-05531
TAKAHASHI A 'B-25702
TAKAHASHI K *A-17542
TAKENOUCHI H 'F-16376
TAKESHITA K B-15692
TALDYKIN I A A-13261
TAMARUA Z 'B-25071
TAMBURRINO, A E 'B-03974
TAMORI Y B-23262
TANAKA K *B-13721, B-21643
TANAKA S *B-14394
TANAKA Y *A-13293
TANAKA, K D-07951
TANAKA, S *G-04136
TAUBMAN, A B *B-10165
TAYLOR W C 'B-23140, *B-24168
TAYLOR, F W C-03460
TAYLOR, W G *B-08713, 'B-10770
TEITELBAUM P D 'A-13785
TELLER A J 'B-15436
TELLER, A J 'B-08342
TELLO Z J 'A-26299
TENNESSEE VALLEY AUTHORIT
•B-10681
TER LINDEN A J 'A-24915
TERRANA J D *B-20696
TERRY S L 'C-23121
THEILMANN P 'B-25677
THEODORE F W *L-14598
THEODORE L 'B-19834
THIEME, W *B-02974
THIESSEN R 'A-18171
THOM, G W 'B-03232
THOMAS F W 'B-14159, 'E-17580,
*E-25815
THOMAS S 'B-12443, 'B-18290
THOMAS, F W A-00691, *C-02921,
•E-00023, 'E-04033, *E-04034,
•E-04035, E-06373, 'E-06823, E-10421
THOMPSON A P «B-19672, 'B-22012,
•B-24516
THORANDT K A-15246
THRING M W 'A-16239
THURLOW G G 'B-13950
TIEMAN J W *B-13570
TIGGES, A J 'L-03277
TITOV N G 'B-15244
TOMANY J P 'B-14137, *B-23822
TOMANY, J P B-03879, *B-07430
TOMB T F *B-22792
TOYOFUKU, T G-04136
TSANG G 'E-20523
TSAROS, C L A-08390
TSUDA M B-15841
TSUNEMOTO T B-15692
TSVETKOV, V P 'G-11437
TSYBALYSKIY, B A 'G-11437
TUENTGEN H *B-23544
TURNER L G B-12308
TURNER, B E-00023, E-04033, E-04034,
E-04035
TYBOUT, R A 'J-07643
TYRER D *B-19475, 'B-19678, 'B-19874,
•B-22014
U
UENISHI Y B-23447
UHLANDER P H N B-21238
ULMER R C B-13639, B-14838
ULMER, R C *I-11286
UNDERWOOD G 'B-23955
UNGAR E W C-26139
UNGAR, E W C-04040
UNGOED, W P C 'B-07673
UNO T 'B-16346, 'B-24589
UNO, T *B-11252
UNTERBERGER O G "A-13330
USKOV, V I *B-06307
UTHE E E 'E-15483
UZHOV, V N *B-08146
UZIMA, M 'C-07721
VADOT L *B-15616
VAN DER HOVEN, I 'E-10608
VAN DOORNUM G A W *B-12446
VAN DOORNUM, G A W 'B-03053
VAN DUUREN H 'B-16224
VAN HEEK K H «A-19444, *B-26084
VAN HEEK, K H F-10429
VANDEGRIFT E A *A-25196
VARJU G B-16496
VARSHAVSKII, T P 'B-04634
VCELAK, V 'C-11842
VEJVODA J *B-17318
VENEZIA, R 'D-00858
VERROCHI, W A L-03277
VESTAL M L 'F-14851
VETTER H *C-19047
VEVERKA 'B-09607
VEVERKA V *B-11976
-------
274
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
VIDALI, U G-01340
VILAND C K 'A-17052
VINNIK I Y B-15665
VIOLET P *A-13855
VITTORI O 'C-23096
VOEIKOV, A I *E-11370
VOGELY W A 'A-14980, 'N-13591
VOGELY, W A 'A-07647
VOLOSHIN V G 'E-16467
VORONOV F D *A-13261
VRATNY J «A-17280
VRONSKIY, A I "C-08123
W
WAGNER, H A *A-07644
WAGNER, R J *A-09161
WAHNSCHAFFE E *B-16240, 'B-23718
WALKENHORST W 'C-25872
WALKER A B *B-25047
WALKER F E 'A-16256
WALKER, A B »F-04939
WALKER, F E *C-07516
WALKER, J B JR A-02630
WALKER, P L JR 'B-11131
WALLIS G B *B-17531
WALLSOM H E 'B-22070
WALPOLE, R H JR B-09546
WALSH, R T *A-09831, 'B-09833
WALTERS, D F 'A-01842, 'D-01790
WALTERSCHEID E C 'A-19318
WALTON, W H G-07039
WANG, T C A-09165
WARD A L *F-18185
WARD W J III *B-22615
WARNECK P E-21099
WARNECK, P E-11624
WASSER, J H JR 'B-10680
WATANABE H *A-25914
WATERS, R F *B-06490
WATKINS E R 'B-25833
WATSON, K S *B-02206
WEATHERLY, M L P M D-02057
WEAVER, D B *A-07800
WEAVER, R D 'A-10183
WEBER E 'E-25212
WEEKS, N E B-02424, B-09905
WEIN W 'B-16863, *N-22794
WEISBURD, M I 'B-00975
WELSH, G B *D-03431
WELSH, H W *F-11257
WENDER, I B-00222
WERNER R P *B-18167
WEYERS, W *B-01712
WHAITE, H M A-02860
WHELAN P F 'F-13573
WHIRL S F *B-18063
WHITE, H F "L-06686
WHITE, H J *B-05868
WHITEHEAD C 'B-25127
WHITEHOUSE A G R *B-13636
WIEDERSUM G C JR 'B-24837
WILDER J E E-21099
WILEY R P 'B-25560
WILLET H P 'B-16681
WILLIAMS D F *B-20995
WILLIAMS D H JR *B-16815
WILLIAMS, J D "L-01890
WILLIAMSON, G V *B-11262
WILSON E B B-14838
WILSON E R 'B-13639
WILSON, E B B-08898, B-13051, L-13049
WINCHESTER J W C-25231
WINKELSTEIN, W JR 'G-11339
WINNACKER, K "B-08584
WITTMAIER, A J A-09161
WOHLERS H C *D-22812
WOLFGANG, H *B-11906
WOLKENBERG G 'B-26237
WRIGHT, C H B-01187
WRIGHT, F D 'F-13027
WRONSKI, W "L-01399
YAMADA H B-16346, 'B-24589
YAMADA T *B-23146
YAMADA, H B-11252
YAMAGUCHI N B-23447
YAMAMOTO Y *B-24269
YANDON, K E 'B-02813
YANYSHEVA, N Y 'G-07138, *L-10166
YASUDA K B-19581
YASUKAWA H E-17734
YATABE T B-21643
YELISEYEV V S *E-20163
YOCOM J E 'A-14997
YOCOM, J E '1-07553
YOSHIMOCHI S 'B-20262
YOUNG R D B-14322, B-23221
YOUNG S W *B-24253
YUILLE, W D B-04755
ZABROSKE, T A *A-09539
ZAHRADNIK L 'B-11996
ZAJONTZ J F-22319
ZAKIEVA, S K *B-10165
ZAWADZKI E A 'B-11847, 'B-15572
ZAWADZKI, E A B-01362
ZEDDA, S D-08298
ZENTGRAF K M 'B-16872, 'B-19048,
*B-21504
ZENTGRAF, K M 'B-08825
ZHAVORONKOV, N M *n-08470
ZHILIN P N *D-22591
ZIELKE C W 'B-17338
ZIMMER, F V 'B-08922
ZIMMERMAN, R E *B-00567
ZIMMERMANN, L B-07674
ZLATIN, L E B-04634
ZOLOTAREV, K V B-04634
ZOLTAN F B-15976
ZUBIK B 'B-20563
-------
SUBJECT INDEX
275
ABATEMENT A-16073, A-19434, A-21221,
A-24500, A-26299, B-06697, B-08378,
B-11906, B-11910, B-25187, C-24412,
D-09591, D-09984, D-11525, E-11065,
J-08059, J-lllll, J-16174, K-21896,
L-07950, L-08062, L-09474, L-11185,
L-11781, L-12461, L-13055, L-18223,
L-21431, L-24214, L-26157, M-08072,
N-23125
ABSORPTION A-12619, A-13494, A-16722,
A-26226, B-00135, B-02053, B-03337,
B-03581, B-04842, B-06543, B-07417,
B-07430, B-08347, B-08836, B-08908,
B-09607, B-09833, B-09904, B-10336,
B-11247, B-11252, B-11253, B-11256,
B-16279, B-16731, B-16851, B-19261,
B-19471, B-21238, B-21506, B-24678,
B-25184, B-25786, C-00945, C-11193,
C-21663, D-02979, E-25212, F-00530,
F-14851, F-16376, F-18185, J-17203,
J-26193, L-06686, L-24033, M-25143
ABSORPTION (GENERAL) A-14574,
A-25062, B-00135, B-00140, B-02053,
B-02407, B-02908, B-02970, B-02971,
B-03045, B-03337, B-03581, B-04655,
B-04791, B-06345, B-06999, B-08342,
B-08346, B-08347, B-08371, B-08470,
B-08574, B-08584, B-08836, B-09607,
B-09833, B-09999, B-10591, B-10681,
B-11055, B-11159, B-11250, B-11252,
B-11253, B-11256, B-11262, B-11906,
B-11976, B-12234, B-12503, B-12581,
B-13394, B-13569, B-13721, B-13767,
B-13817, B-13829, B-14137, B-14269,
B-I4566, B-15357, B-15436, B-15489,
B-15844, B-15902, B-15962, B-15976,
B-16173, B-16425, B-16500, B-16681,
B-16731, B-16872, B-16968, B-17004,
B-17685, B-17979, B-18154, B-19380,
B-19395, B-19471, B-19482, B-19581,
B-19608, B-19629, B-19670, B-20035,
B-20141, B-20552, B-20663, B-20914,
B-21200, B-21720, B-21893, B-22103,
B-22291, B-22327, B-22615, B-22740,
B-22756, B-22883, B-23054, B-23221,
B-23373, B-23504, B-23718, B-23773,
B-23822, B-23880, B-24048, B-24441,
B-24673, B-24707, B-24985, B-25165,
B-25416, B-25494, B-25503, B-25560,
B-25584, B-25743, B-25913, B-26230,
D-22591, F-13487, F-16376, G-24021,
J-16129, J-17203, L-09443, L-11283,
L-19062, L-24033
ACETONE B-08352
ACETYLENES A-10424, A-16877, H-05420
ACID SMUTS A-06040, A-23044, A-24817,
A-25062, A-25549, B-02149, B-10399,
B-17250, B-20082, L-07950
ACIDS A-00972, A-05011, A-05067,
A-09686, A-09737, A-10740, A-12633,
A-15517, A-16788, A-17464, A-19017,
A-21204, A-21221, A-22875, A-23044,
A-24817, A-25062, A-25549, A-26226,
B-00135, B-00975, B-01362, B-01727,
B-02195, B-02407, B-02442, B-02727,
B-02931, B-02971, B-03337, B-03581,
B-05198, B-06999, B-07931, B-08155,
B-08342, B-08346, B-08584, B-08836,
B-08863, B-09191, B-09469, B-09607,
B-09789, B-09833, B-09996, B-10281,
B-10591, B-10680, B-10968, B-11055,
B-11131, B-11159, B-11233, B-11238,
B-11247, B-11250, B-11253, B-11256,
B-11281, B-11906, B-12092, B-13592,
B-14087, B-14546, B-14730, B-15031,
B-15092, B-15436, B-15976, B-16851,
B-16862, B-16863, B-18034, B-19394,
B-19480, B-19608, B-19733, B-20082,
B-21232, B-21643, B-22057, B-22110,
B-22160, B-22441, B-22702, B-22740,
B-22809, B-22905, B-23027, B-23054,
B-23221, B-23231, B-23544, B-23718,
B-23867, B-23880, B-24142, B-24207,
B-24441, B-24643, B-24673, B-24756,
B-25038, B-25071, B-25088, B-25127,
B-25494, B-25503, B-25584, B-25637,
B-25702, B-25743, B-26084, B-26211,
B-26230, C-03592, C-07482, D-01790,
D-04116, D-05260, D-06819, D-09591,
D-22812, E-10153, E-10751, E-16985,
E-24486, F-00530, F-10429, G-01865,
G-07138, G-08232, G-16837, G-18109,
H-02299, H-05420, H-06967, 1-07553,
1-20820, J-00166, J-01659, J-01707,
J-08059, J-08867, J-11846, J-17203,
K-02010, K-06778, L-00311, L-01890,
L-10998, L-11242, L-11283, L-17472,
L-18223, L-24033, N-04212, N-21360,
N-22794
ACROLEIN A-16722
ACUTE G-20700, 1-20820
ADHESIVES B-25186, B-25269
ADMINISTRATION A-01480, A-01842,
A-02501, A-02765, A-03587, A-04333,
A-06040, A-07963, A-08391, A-09539,
A-09737, A-10743, A-11619, A-12619,
A-13292, A-13316, A-16073, A-16949,
A-17398, A-18078, A-19434, A-21191,
A-22800, A-24915, A-25196, A-26299,
B-00975, B-01796, B-02192, B-04506,
B-04507, B-05529, B-06345, B-06636,
B-07075, B-08347, B-08348, B-08863,
B-08917, B-09789, B-09996, B-11178,
B-11910, B-13051, B-13057, B-13813,
B-14159, B-14270, B-14546, B-14707,
B-15544, B-16731, B-18110, B-20563,
B-21381, B-21819, B-22861, B-23176,
B-23237, B-23708, B-23880, B-24142,
B-24826, B-25038, B-25165, B-25187,
C-23350, C-24245, C-25147, D-00657,
D-00858, D-01790, D-02818, D-03431,
D-03432, D-03514, D-05010, D-06755,
D-06777, D-07393, D-07951, D-09591,
D-09984, D-11525, D-12496, E-07428,
E-08400, E-10153, E-10368, E-25815,
G-01340, G-01865, G-02417, G-07039,
G-08230, G-11300, G-18109, H-01589,
H-06967, J-00166, J-00253, J-01546,
J-01679, J-08059, J-lllll, J-16506,
L-00206, L-01265, L-01585, L-01590,
L-01890, L-02052, L-02960, L-03277,
L-03359, L-03452, L-05105, L-05499,
L-06188, L-06615, L-06686, L-07550,
L-07950, L-08062, L-08686, L-09073,
L-09443, L-09445, L-09474, L-11319,
L-11526, L-12461, L-14535, L-17321,
L-19062, L-24214, L-25688, L-26157,
M-00336, M-01567, M-08072, M-22636,
N-00164, N-03344, N-05194, N-07845,
N-14816, N-18206
ADSORPTION A-12619, A-13494, A-15620,
A-16722, B-00135, B-01245, B-02970,
B-03337, B-03581, B-04842, B-08352,
B-08584, B-08836, B-09833, B-10493,
B-11910, B-13636, B-14632, B-16851,
B-24643, B-24678, B-26084, B-26220,
C-21663, E-10608, E-24569, F-13766
ADSORPTION (GENERAL) A-14574,
B-13243, B-13578, B-13829, B-14269,
B-14546, B-14566, B-14632, B-14660,
B-15378, B-15913, B-16425, B-19189,
B-21200, B-22505, B-22740, B-22905,
B-23544, B-24207, B-24269, B-24837,
B-25071, B-25702, B-26230, G-24021,
K-21896, L-14535
ADULTS D-06755, G-04136, G-07138,
G-11437, G-16837
ADVECTION E-20042, E-25229
ADVISORY SERVICES K-09921, L-09073,
L-17006
AERODYNAMICS B-10704, B-21136,
E-09417, F-11722, F-17594
AEROSOL GENERATORS B-03974,
B-04755, B-08713, B-09833, B-10993,
C-04040
AEROSOLS A-23170, A-25213, B-00107,
B-00135, B-00975, B-04516, B-04755,
B-07515, B-08155, B-08371, B-09833,
B-15841, B-19834, B-26063, C-01354,
C-09624, C-16875, C-17468, C-18012,
C-21663, D-02979, D-05010, E-05702,
E-16467, E-16803, F-00530, F-11722,
F-24272, G-01865, G-07138, G-20700,
G-21276, H-02299, J-01546, L-00311,
N-00164
AFRICA A-00532, A-01480, A-02501,
A-07759, A-08388, B-00140, B-00205,
B-00276, B-00544, B-00564, B-00567,
B-00568, B-01362, B-01493, B-02053,
B-02408, B-02424, B-02727, B-02813,
B-02931, B-03337, B-07931, B-12443,
B-12446, B-15560, B-18290, B-24681,
D-01790, E-00023, F-00530, F-01852,
F-02743, G-01865, J-01659, J-01660,
J-02413, L-01590, L-02960, L-11242
AFTERBURNERS A-26233, B-04506,
B-20073, B-20243, B-21232, J-01546,
J-21241, L-08062
AGE G-11339
AIR CONDITIONING EQUIPMENT
F-01379
AIR POLLUTION EPISODES A-06040,
A-09353, A-16855, D-07393, D-11525,
E-24486, E-25075, F-00530, G-06826,
-------
276
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
G-16837, G-18109, G-21276, G-23670,
L-02960, L-03359, L-03452, L-09073,
L-12461, L-17321, N-21289
AIR POLLUTION FORECASTING
A-17483, B-04200, B-21819, C-01856,
D-06777, D-11525, E-07428, E-10220,
E-13965, E-19737, E-21099, E-25229,
H-06967, L-02960, L-12461
AIR QUALITY CRITERIA A-11739,
A-25418, D-09591, L-06188, L-07950,
L-08686, L-18121
AIR QUALITY MEASUREMENT
PROGRAMS A-02765, A-03587,
A-09737, A-11619, A-12619, A-16073,
A-17398, A-25196, B-01796, B-23708,
B-25187, C-23350, C-24245, C-25147,
D-00657, D-00858, D-01790, D-02818,
D-03431, D-03432, D-03514, D-05010,
D-06755, D-06777, D-07393, D-07951,
D-09591, D-09984, D-12496, E-07428,
E-08400, E-10153, G-02417, G-07039,
G-08230, H-01589, L-01890, L-02052,
L-02960, L-03277, L-03359, L-03452,
L-06188, L-07950, L-08686, L-09445,
L-12461, L-24214, L-25688, M-00336,
N-00164, N-14816, N-18206
AIR QUALITY MEASUREMENTS
A-00532, A-00943, A-00972, A-01350,
A-01510, A-02630, A-02631, A-03113,
A-06040, A-06351, A-06978, A-07570,
A-09161, A-09737, A-09831, A-10183,
A-10284, A-10424, A-10678, A-10754,
A-11988, A-12202, A-13855, A-14997,
A-15246, A-16073, A-16212, A-16788,
A-17051, A-17398, A-17688, A-21286,
A-22867, A-24005, A-25213, A-25418,
A-25545, A-25975, B-00975, B-01485,
B-01796, B-04842, B-04940, B-05258,
B-05868, B-06278, B-06697, B-07359,
B-08713, B-08919, B-08937, B-08939,
B-09496, B-09600, B-09833, B-10770,
B-13394, B-18290, B-22871, B-23757,
B-25207, B-25584, C-01857, C-03546,
C-04040, C-04889, C-07721, C-09624,
C-11193, C-14733, C-15348, C-16860,
C-23096, C-24412, C-25231, C-26139,
D-00657, D-02046, D-02057, D-02818,
D-02953, D-03431, D-03432, D-03514,
D-04116, D-05010, D-05260, D-05428,
D-05551, D-06755, D-06819, D-07393,
D-07951, D-08858, D-09591, D-09984,
D-10723, D-11525, D-13176, D-16237,
D-22591, D-22812, D-23326, D-23356,
D-25476, E-00023, E-01259, E-01260,
E-06827, E-07428, E-07580, E-08400,
E-10010, E-11065, E-16687, E-16803,
E-21099, E-21736, E-21986, E-25212,
F-00530, F-01852, F-07059, F-08943,
F-09064, F-09769, F-14851, G-01865,
G-07138, G-08230, G-11828, G-21276,
G-23151, J-01308, J-01660, J-lllll,
L-00206, L-00311, L-00973, L-01265,
L-01654, L-01890, L-02011, L-02052,
L-03277, L-03359, L-05499, L-06188,
L-07950, L-09445, L-11266, L-18220,
L-25688, N-00164, N-02632, N-04432,
N-21289
AIR QUALITY STANDARDS A-03587,
A-10442, A-13219, A-16855, A-16887,
A-19434, A-19994, A-21916, A-24500,
A-25549, A-25975, B-00975, B-02032,
B-02424, B-06999, B-09833, B-10493,
B-20854, B-24985, C-05216, D-01790,
D-02818, D-02953, D-02979, D-06819,
D-07141, D-09591, E-10153, E-11370,
E-23163, G-02417, G-08232, G-24021,
J-02151, J-08059, K-06696, K-06778,
L-00206, L-00311, L-00973, L-01654,
L-01890, L-06188, L-07794, L-09474,
L-10166, L-11266, L-18220, L-24214,
N-21289, N-21360
AIR RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
A-14997, E-10368, E-19737, L-06188,
L-18220, L-26157
AIR-FUEL RATIO A-15620, A-16410,
B-11191, B-22071, B-25677, 1-04622
AIRCRAFT A-00972, A-10754, A-16073,
A-25259, A-25549, B-10680, B-12672,
B-15544, C-09624, C-15479, C-16875,
C-18012, D-09591, D-12496, E-00023,
E-10421, E-11065, J-13613, L-00311,
L-03359, M-25143, N-00164, N-17819
ALABAMA A-01489, B-08925, C-07516,
D-03431, L-11185, L-11781
ALASKA C-07516, E-24109, E-24439
ALCOHOLS B-08352, B-12503, C-23121,
E-07580, G-07138
ALDEHYDES A-00532, A-00972, A-01842,
A-03113, A-05011, A-05067, A-09686,
A-10754, A-16722, B-00975, B-06636,
B-08080, C-03592, C-21663, D-00858,
D-03514, D-05010, D-22812, N-04212
ALERTS A-06040, L-02960, L-12461
ALFALFA B-08938
ALIPHATIC HYDROCARBONS A-00532,
A-08390, A-08391, A-09831, A-10424,
A-16877, A-17017, B-03337, B-04179,
B-05857, B-06543, B-06636, B-08352,
B-09195, B-13636, B-19373, B-25503,
C-11842, F-10422, F-10429, F-13766,
F-22319, F-22587, H-00316, H-02299,
H-05420
ALKALINE ADDITIVES A-14478,
A-14574, A-22800, A-23044, A-24817,
A-24978, A-25867, B-00135, B-00140,
B-00205, B-00544, B-01362, B-02149,
B-03337, B-03581, B-03879, B-04200,
B-04655, B-04842, B-05198, B-05454,
B-06136, B-07430, B-07466, B-08346,
B-08347, B-08429, B-08574, B-08825,
B-08836, B-08863, B-09666, B-09833,
B-09999, B-10681, B-10968, B-11055,
B-11159, B-11178, B-11240, B-11847,
B-11854, B-11910, B-12308, B-12574,
B-12581, B-12645, B-12797, B-13569,
B-13721, B-13767, B-14057, B-14137,
B-14162, B-14207, B-14660, B-15148,
B-15358, B-15436, B-15489, B-15572,
B-15841, B-15946, B-16248, B-16250,
B-16282, B-16418, B-16425, B-16548,
B-16731, B-16851, B-16872, B-17004,
B-17124, B-17318, B-17905, B-18110,
B-18154, B-19339, B-19394, B-19471,
B-19608, B-19619, B-19845, B-19972,
B-20392, B-20425, B-20539, B-20696,
B-20995, B-21028, B-21238, B-21268,
B-21275, B-21504, B-21643, B-22057,
B-22160, B-22809, B-22961, B-23140,
B-23315, B-23708, B-23718, B-23822,
B-23879, B-23880, B-24048, B-24207,
B-24253, B-24565, B-24613, B-24678,
B-24697, B-24707, B-24985, B-25165,
B-25416, B-25517, B-25602, B-25787,
B-26211, B-26230, C-16860, F-00530,
G-24021, J-08867, L-06737, L-09443,
L-11319, L-11526, L-14535, L-19062,
L-24033
ALKALIZED ALUMINA (ADSORPTION)
B-00135, B-00140, B-01362, B-01726,
B-01727, B-02195, B-02407, B-02778,
B-02908, B-04200, B-04655, B-05454,
B-06136, B-06278, B-06345, B-06636,
B-07417, B-08342, B-08346, B-08347,
B-08574, B-08836, B-09666, B-09971,
B-09999, B-10968, B-11159, B-11247,
B-11910, B-12091, B-12253, B-12503,
B-12645, B-13501, B-13829, B-13856,
B-14087, B-14162, B-14269, B-14566,
B-14981, B-15436, B-16418, B-16425,
B-16851, B-16872, B-17124, B-18110,
B-18154, B-19471, B-20550, B-21005,
B-23315, B-23373, B-24207, B-24707,
B-24837, B-25517, B-25584, F-00530,
G-01865, J-01707, J-08867, L-01590,
L-08686, L-09443, L-11283, L-11319,
L-11526, L-14535, L-19062
ALLERGIES F-00530, G-07138, G-08230
ALPHA PARTICLES A-02860
ALTITUDE A-01510, A-12335, A-17280,
A-25213, B-00687, B-01796, B-15616,
B-22051, B-22500, B-22884, B-24001,
B-24985, B-25298, C-01856, C-02668,
C-18012, C-22885, C-23377, D-02953,
D-02979, D-06777, D-08858, D-16237,
D-23356, D-23957, E-00846, E-01260,
E-01261, E-01934, E-03251, E-03557,
E-05702, E-06373, E-06775, E-06823,
E-07843, E-10010, E-10220, E-10229,
E-10368, E-10608, E-10751, E-11980,
E-13965, E-16467, E-16629, E-16687,
E-16985, E-17595, E-17725, E-17734,
E-20042, E-20924, E-21073, E-21099,
E-21122, E-21736, E-21986, E-22313,
E-23163, E-24109, E-24407, E-24486,
E-24569, E-26141, E-26267, L-01890,
L-02052, N-03344, N-07845
ALUMINUM A-09686, B-00107, B-09788,
B-21324, F-14512, L-08062, N-07431
ALUMINUM COMPOUNDS A-09831,
B-03337, B-03581, B-08574, B-09600,
B-09971, B-22103, B-24048, B-24142,
B-24270, B-25743, B-25744, F-04827,
F-09769, N-07431
ALUMINUM OXIDES B-05868, B-08574,
B-08919, B-08937, B-08939, B-08942,
B-09788, B-09833, B-14566, B-25744,
C-25872, F-08943, F-11163, N-04432,
N-07431
ALVEOLI F-00530
AMIDES B-08352
AMINES B-03337, B-03581, B-12503,
B-16500, B-24048
AMMONIA A-00972, A-09686, A-13978,
A-25213, B-02206, B-03337, B-03974,
B-04634, B-05198, B-08346, B-08470,
B-08836, B-08863, B-09607, B-09833,
B-10591, B-10692, B-11910, B-11976,
B-12574, B-15489, B-15902, B-19373,
B-21643, B-22740, B-23773, B-25038,
B-25079, B-25207, B-25743, B-26211,
C-06095, D-03514, D-05010, D-05428,
D-07393, D-22812, F-11257, N-04212
AMMONIUM COMPOUNDS A-00972,
A-09686, A-13978, A-25213, B-02206,
B-03337, B-03581, B-03974, B-04634,
B-05198, B-08346, B-08470, B-08836,
B-08863, B-09607, B-09833, B-10281,
B-10591, B-10692, B-11252, B-11910,
B-11976, B-12503, B-12574, B-14087,
B-14261, B-14322, B-15489, B-15902,
B-16968, B-19373, B-19394, B-19482,
B-19629, B-21643, B-22160, B-22441,
B-22740, B-22809, B-23146, B-23221,
B-23305, B-23447, B-23773, B-24048,
B-24589, B-25038, B-25079, B-25207,
B-25702, B-25743, B-26211, C-06095,
D-03514, D-05010, D-05428, D-07393,
D-22812, F-11257, H-06967, N-04212
-------
SUBJECT INDEX
277
ANALYTICAL METHODS A-02631,
A-02860, A-03113, A-05067, A-07570,
A-10183, A-10424, A-10444, A-13494,
A-13848, A-14997, A-15620, A-16256,
A-18114, A-21383, A-21999, A-22144,
A-22875, A-23884, B-00135, B-00975,
B-02407, B-02408, B-02442, B-04755,
B-06999, B-08825, B-09904, B-13394,
B-15436, B-22740, B-24837, B-25913,
C-00886, C-00945, C-03592, C-07482,
C-07516, C-07941, C-U755, C-11842,
C-12126, C-13477, C-16149, C-17419,
C-17468, C-20224, C-21663, C-22342,
C-22391, C-22885, C-22982, C-23096,
C-24412, C-25231, D-02979, D-07951,
D-22812, D-23326, E-07580, E-10010,
E-11624, E-21099, F-00530, F-08941,
F-10429, F-11135, F-U163, F-16376,
F-17592, G-01865, G-08230, 1-07553,
1-20820, L-01890, L-03277, L-03452,
L-08062, L-08686
ANEMIA G-07138
ANEMOMETERS E-26141
ANIMALS A-21999, B-06999, D-02818,
F-00530, G-01865, G-04136, G-08232,
G-11300, G-11828, G-21276, H-02299,
H-06967, 1-20820, J-00166, L-00311,
L-03359, L-03452, N-04212
ANNUAL A-07645, A-07647, A-09737,
A-10754, D-01790, D-07393, D-07951,
D-08858, E-11065, J-11114, L-01890,
L-09445, L-25688
ANTHRACENES A-10424, C-00945
ANTICYCLONES D-09591, E-10220,
E-11514, G-21276
ANTIMONY COMPOUNDS A-05067,
A-06351, K-02010, K-06778
APPLES H-05420
AREA EMISSION ALLOCATIONS
L-01890
AREA SURVEYS A-02765, A-03587,
A-09737, A-11619, A-12619, A-16073,
A-17398, A-25196, B-01796, C-23350,
D-00657, D-00858, D-01790, D-02818,
D-03431, D-03432, D-03514, D-05010,
D-06755, D-06777, D-07393, D-07951,
D-09591, D-12496, E-07428, E-08400,
G-02417, H-01589, L-01890, L-03277,
L-03359, L-03452, L-09445, L-12461,
M-00336, N-00164, N-14816, N-18206
ARIZONA C-07516, C-16875, M-01220,
M-01221
ARKANSAS A-01489, C-07516, K-00167,
L-08062, M-01221
AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS A-10424,
A-13494, A-16877, B-02813, B-08352,
F-10422, K-00167
ARSENIC COMPOUNDS A-11988,
A-13219, A-17688, A-22875, A-25545,
B-00975, B-08155, B-09833, B-11238,
K-02010, K-06778, L-24214, N-04212
ARSINE B-00975
ASBESTOS B-09788, C-01363
ASHES A-00532, A-02630, A-02631,
A-02633, A-02634, A-02860, A-05169,
A-08641, A-09161, A-09831, A-11411,
A-13401, A-13644, A-16949, A-19017,
A-19038, A-19318, A-22387, A-24005,
A-25545, A-25689, B-00272, B-00568,
B-02032, B-04634, B-05198, B-05258,
B-06835, B-07229, B-08080, B-08085,
B-08146, B-08155, B-08348, B-08836,
B-08863, B-08870, B-08936, B-09833,
B-09923, B-10692, B-10704, B-10770,
B-11005 B-11191, B-13057, B-13983,
B-14001, B-15031, B-18142, B-18161,
B-22981, B-25269, B-25744, C-00403,
C-05216, E-21986, F-01852, F-09769,
F-09967, F-11163, F-13572, F-17592,
G-12289, 1-11286, 1-13086, J-00253,
L-00311, L-06686, L-07550, L-08062,
L-10166, M-08072, N-04212, N-04432
ASIA A-06040, A-07759, A-13293, A-13644,
A-15620, A-17184, A-17199, A-17398,
A-17542, A-21191, A-24500, A-24508,
A-24535, A-24817, A-25062, A-25690,
A-25914, B-02149, B-04655, B-10563,
B-10692, B-11252, B-12417, B-12442,
B-13721, B-14087, B-14194, B-14261,
B-14394, B-15092, B-15251, B-15692,
B-15693, B-15738, B-15841, B-15844,
B-16346, B-16548, B-16872, B-17250,
B-17343, B-17392, B-19581, B-19972,
B-20097, B-20262, B-20392, B-20526,
B-21275, B-21324, B-21643, B-22160,
B-22291, B-22981, B-23146, B-23262,
B-23447, B-24207, B-24269, B-24589,
B-24643, B-24673, B-24707, B-24826,
B-25019, B-25071, B-25088, B-25284,
B-25298, B-25702, C-07482, C-07721,
C-12126, C-16149, C-16364, C-16512,
C-17468, C-22391, D-05428, D-07393,
D-07951, D-10723, E-14271, E-17595,
E-17725, E-17734, E-19503, E-20068,
E-23163, E-24391, E-26141, F-00530,
F-10422, F-16376, F-17594, F-24272,
G-16837, G-23151, 1-03222, L-09445,
L-09474, L-11242, L-24214, M-25143,
N-04212, N-13591
ASPHALT A-00972, A-09686, A-11860,
B-00107, B-08922, D-05260, D-09591,
J-16174, L-08062, N-07431
ASTHMA F-00530, G-23151, L-03359,
N-21360
ATMOSPHERIC MOVEMENTS A-00691,
A-01510, A-01842, A-10678, A-16073,
A-16887, A-22159, A-24500, B-00140,
B-00687, B-00975, B-01796, B-04200,
B-06835, B-20550, B-22051, B-22500,
B-22884, B-23974, B-25298, C-01856,
C-02668, C-04040, C-09624, C-11340,
C-15925, C-16149, C-16364, C-22511,
C-23350, C-26139, D-02046, D-02818,
D-02979, D-03431, D-03514, D-05010,
D-06777, D-08858, D-09591, D-09984,
D-10723, D-11525, D-23356, E-00023,
E-00846, E-01259, E-01260, E-01261,
E-02410, E-03251, E-03557, E-04033,
E-04034, E-04035, E-05357, E-05702,
E-06373, E-06775, E-06823, E-07428,
E-07843, E-08400, E-10010, E-10053,
E-10153, E-10219, E-10220, E-10229,
E-10421, E-10608, E-10751, E-11065,
E-11370, E-11514, E-11980, E-13965,
E-14271, E-15483, E-16629, E-16687,
E-16803, E-17580, E-17595, E-17734,
E-19503, E-19737, E-20042, E-20924,
E-21736, E-21986, E-22313, E-23163,
E-23723, E-24109, E-24341, E-24391,
E-24407, E-24486, E-25212, E-25229,
E-25815, F-01379, F-11257, G-00981,
G-21276, L-01265, L-01654, L-01890,
L-03277, L-08686, L-09445, L-11266,
L-11383, L-25688, L-26157, N-04212
ATTACK RATES G-04136, G-07138,
G-08230
AUSTRALIA A-08388, A-08641, A-10424,
B-01493, B-02408, B-02424, B-05516,
B-18142, B-23331, B-24630, B-25207,
C-07941, C-16734, C-22909, E-24243,
F-15714, J-01659
AUTOCLAVES B-11910
AUTOMATIC METHODS B-00975,
D-06755, F-08941, L-08686
AUTOMOBILES A-09353, A-09686,
A-14997, A-15620, A-18052, A-19434,
A-25418, B-00975, B-04506, B-08352,
B-08584, B-10493, B-18110, B-21819,
C-00886, D-00858, D-05428, D-07393,
D-12496, E-24439, E-25075, J-01546,
J-16174, L-00206, L-01585, L-03359,
L-05499, L-06188, L-07550, L-08062,
L-09073, L-17472, L-24214, M-00336,
N-00164, N-04212, N-21287, N-21289,
N-23125
AUTOMOTIVE EMISSION CONTROL
A-15620, A-16410, A-17910, A-18052,
A-26226, B-04506, B-11191, B-15544,
B-18110, B-21819, B-22071, B-25427,
B-25677, G-11828, 1-04622, J-15889,
L-01265, N-01063
AUTOMOTIVE EMISSIONS A-00972,
A-09353, A-09686, A-10424, A-10442,
A-12619, A-15620, A-16722, A-16877,
A-25418, A-26226, B-00975, B-04506,
B-06636, B-08080, B-08584, B-10493,
B-15544, B-15933, B-18110, B-19261,
B-21819, C-24412, D-03431, D-03432,
D-05260, D-05428, D-06755, D-07393,
D-08298, D-12496, D-22812, E-23723,
E-24439, E-25075, F-00530, G-11828,
G-16192, G-21276, H-01398, H-05420,
H-07786, J-01546, J-16174, L-00311,
L-00973, L-01890, L-09445, L-17472,
L-24214, M-00336, N-00164, N-01063,
N-04212, N-07845, N-21287, N-21289,
N-23125
B
BACTERIA B-00222, B-02149, B-07425,
D-22812
BAFFLES B-05163, B-07385, B-07416,
B-16720, B-20738, B-22001, B-22756,
B-25663, C-21663, E-09417, J-01308
BAG FILTERS A-04778, A-04937, B-00107,
B-00140, B-04508, B-04516, B-05163,
B-05310, B-07075, B-07385, B-07416,
B-07515, B-08155, B-09788, B-09833,
B-16720, B-21324, B-22057, B-23315,
B-23955, B-24837, B-24881, B-24985,
D-05260, J-01308, L-08062
BALLOONS A-00691, B-22884, E-03557,
E-04033, E-10053, E-10421, E-11065,
E-26141
BANDING H-05420
BARIUM COMPOUNDS A-05067, A-06351,
B-10770
BASIC OXYGEN FURNACES A-03587,
A-09686, A-09737, B-03232, J-01546
BELGIUM A-03587, A-16855, A-17910,
D-07393, D-23326, G-16837, L-00311,
L-17006
BENZENE-SOLUBLE ORGANIC MATTER
D-05010, L-05499, L-09445
BENZENES A-10424, B-02813, B-08352,
F-10422
BENZO(3-4)PYRENE A-00972, A-02549,
A-05011, A-05067, A-07570, A-10424,
A-10754, A-16877, A-23884, A-25545,
A-25549, C-00945, D-00858, D-07393,
N-04212, N-21289
BENZOPYRENES A-00972, A-02549,
A-05011, A-05067, A-07570, A-10424,
A-10754, A-16877, A-23884, A-25545,
A-25549, C-00945, D-00858, D-07393,
N-04212, N-21289
-------
278
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
BERYLLIOSIS A-00532, A-00943, A-00972,
A-01510, A-02014, A-02549, A-02860,
A-03113, B-00135, B-00140, B-00564,
B-00975, B-01485, B-01712, B-01796,
B-01866, B-02311, B-02407, B-02408,
B-02778, B-03045, B-03232, C-00403,
C-00886, C-00945, C-01354, C-01363,
C-01856, C-01857, C-02655, C-02668,
C-02921, C-03460, C-03546, C-03592,
C-04040, D-00657, D-02046, D-02057,
D-02818, D-02953, D-02979, D-03432,
D-03514, E-00023, E-01259, E-01260,
E-01261, E-03557, E-04033, E-04034,
E-06775, F-01852, F-02743, G-00981,
G-02417, J-01659, J-01660, K-00167,
L-00206, L-00311, L-00973, L-01890,
L-03277, L-03359, L-03452, N-00164
BERYLLIUM B-08492, D-07951, D-09591,
H-00316
BERYLLIUM COMPOUNDS A-05067,
A-06351, B-08492, B-11996, D-07951,
D-09591, H-00316, N-04212
BESSEMER CONVERTERS A-09686
BETA PARTICLES C-19519, E-05702
BIOCLIMATOLOGY F-00530
BIOMEDICAL TECHNIQUES AND
MEASUREMENT C-l 1842, D-02818,
D-06755, E-10153, F-00530, G-00981,
G-01340, G-04136, G-07039, G-07138,
G-08230, G-08232, G-11339, L-11266
BIRMINGHAM.GREAT BRITAIN B-13636,
B-25127, F-13766
BISMUTH D-09591
BISMUTH COMPOUNDS A-06351,
D-09591
BLAST FURNACES A-03587, A-09686,
A-09737, B-07931, B-12417, B-16681,
B-20243, D-00657, D-13176, K-02010
BLENDING A-07759, A-09161, B-08917,
B-22160, L-11185
BLOWBY N-00164
BODY CONSTITUENTS AND PARTS
C-01857, F-00530, G-01865, G-04136,
G-07138, G-08230, G-08232, G-11339,
G-11437
BODY PROCESSES AND FUNCTIONS
B-10680, B-10704, D-06755, E-10608,
F-00530, G-04136, G-06806, G-08230,
G-08232, G-11300, L-11266
BOILERS A-02630, A-02631, A-02633,
A-02634, A-03113, A-04224, A-04778,
A-05011, A-05067, A-05169, A-05846,
A-08641, A-09161, A-09539, A-09831,
A-10743, A-11640, A-11739, A-11968,
A-12120, A-12541, A-13832, A-13855,
A-16410, A-16949, A-17017, A-18052,
A-19017, A-24005, A-24732, B-00107,
B-00140, B-00272, B-00276, B-00544,
B-00687, B-01485, B-01493, B-02032,
B-02206, B-02398, B-03045, B-03053,
B-03879, B-03974, B-04200, B-04516,
B-05198, B-05508, B-05853, B-05857,
B-05868, B-06697, B-07075, B-07229,
B-07359, B-07430, B-07673, B-07752,
B-07962, B-08I55, B-08346, B-08348,
B-08825, B-08836, B-09191, B-09469,
B-09546, B-09666, B-09833, B-09905,
B-09923, B-10993, B-11178, B-11240,
B-11247, B-11251, B-I1253, B-11256,
B-12040, B-12308, B-12446, B-12574,
B-12581, B-12672, B-13501, B-13639,
B-13857, B-13950, B-14194, B-14838,
B-15378, B-15544, B-15560, B-15572,
B-15665, B-16068, B-16502, B-17343,
B-17782, B-17905, B-18154, B-I8167,
B-18290, B-18296, B-19034, B-19642,
B-19972, B-20035, B-20063, B-20082,
B-20097, B-20243, B-20539, B-20563,
B-20854, B-21200, B-21268, B-21313,
B-21506, B-21720, B-21893, B-22070,
B-22071, B-22291, B-22671, B-23176,
B-23220, B-23674, B-24073, B-24480,
B-24613, B-24642, B-24675, B-24678,
B-24697, B-24837, B-25079, B-25637,
B-25744, B-25786, B-25833, C-00403,
C-03460, C-07787, C-07848, C-09107,
C-22342, D-05260, D-07141, D-11525,
F-04939, F-09967, F-13487, F-16883,
1-04622, 1-11286, J-01308, J-21241,
K-06778, K-09921, L-07550, L-07950,
L-09445, L-09474, L-20698
BORON COMPOUNDS A-06351, B-08938,
B-11996
BRICKS B-08926, B-08936, B-09469,
B-09788, B-09904, F-14876, 1-07553,
N-07431
BROMINE E-24109
BROMINE COMPOUNDS B-00975
BRONCHI G-07138, G-18109, G-20700
BRONCHITIS D-02818, E-25075, F-00530,
G-00981, G-07138, G-08230, G-12289,
G-16837, G-18109, G-20700, G-23151,
G-24021, L-03359, N-21360
BRONCHOCONSTRICTION G-18109,
G-20700
BROWNIAN MOVEMENT B-19834
BUBBLE TOWERS B-00140, B-08155,
B-11252, B-20696, B-24048
BUDGETS J-01546, J-16506, L-00206,
L-08062, L-11319, L-11526, L-19062,
L-25688
BUILD-UP RATES B-23757
BUILDINGS B-08938, B-09699, C-l 1340,
D-11525, E-10608, E-10751, F-01379,
F-01380, J-07643, L-00206, L-01399,
L-11266, N-17819
BUSES B-00975, B-04506, C-00886,
D-00858, D-05428, L-09073, M-00336,
N-00164
^BUTADIENES A-10424
BUTANES A-10424, C-11842
BUTENES A-10424, B-06636
BY-PRODUCT RECOVERY A-02634,
A-03072, A-06978, A-13410, A-16949,
A-19318, A-21204, A-25062, A-25689,
B-03232, B-03337, B-03974, B-04655,
B-06490, B-06999, B-07417, B-07673,
B-08342, B-08346, B-08347, B-08352,
B-08492, B-08836, B-08908, B-08917,
B-09600, B-09607, B-09666, B-09833,
B-09996, B-11005, B-11131, B-11233,
B-11238, B-11247, B-11250, B-11252,
B-11281, B-11906, B-11910, B-11985,
B-11996, B-12092, B-12417, B-12503,
B-13052, B-13523, B-13592, B-13663,
B-13767, B-13813, B-14087, B-14159,
B-14162, B-14207, B-14261, B-14566,
B-15031, B-15240, B-15251, B-15284,
B-15436, B-15489, B-15841, B-15902,
B-15976, B-16173, B-16425, B-16510,
B-16681, B-16731, B-16851, B-17004,
B-17685, B-18154, B-19394, B-19395,
B-19480, B-19482, B-19560, B-19602,
B-19608, B-19733, B-19874, B-19876,
B-20223, B-20262, B-20526, B-20552,
B-20663, B-20696, B-20914, B-21005,
B-21643, B-22001, B-22012, B-22014,
B-22057, B-22103, B-22160, B-22175,
B-22279, B-22441, B-22702, B-22883,
B-22981, B-23054, B-23140, B-23221,
B-23231, B-23315, B-23374, B-23447,
B-23504, B-23526, B-23708, B-23718,
B-23773,
B-24142,
B-24270,
B-24565,
B-24756,
B-25165,
B-25323,
B-25743,
B-25913,
B-26230,
J-11846,
J-25961,
L-11283,
L-24033,
B-23867
B-24168
B-24397
B-24589,
B-24777
B-25170
B-25494
B-25744
B-25973
F-18170
J-15510,
L-06739,
L-13055
N-02632
, B-23880, B-24019,
, B-24207, B-24253,
, B-24516, B-24554,
, B-24613, B-24673,
, B-25038, B-25071,
, B-25269, B-25320,
, B-25517, B-25702,
, B-25787, B-25795,
, B-26063, B-26211,
, J-01546, J-08867,
J-16129, J-17203,
L-10998, L-11242,
L-14598, L-19062,
, N-07431
CABBAGE H-20982
CADMIUM D-07951, D-09591
CADMIUM COMPOUNDS A-05067,
D-07951, D-09591, K-02010, K-06778,
L-24214, N-04212
CALCIUM COMPOUNDS A-09831,
A-13401, A-24978, B-00135, B-00544,
B-03337, B-03581, B-03879, B-04842,
B-08346, B-08574, B-08825, B-08908,
B-08939, B-09191, B-09600, B-09833,
B-10681, B-10770, B-11055, B-11854,
B-12672, B-12797, B-13569, B-13817,
B-15244, B-15692, B-16731, B-19339,
B-19340, B-19619, B-22809, B-23027,
B-23526, B-23544, B-23822, B-24613,
B-24697, B-25416, B-25430, B-25584,
F-04827, F-04939, F-08943, F-09967,
F-11163, F-16376, 1-11286, J-08867,
N-04432
CALCIUM SULFATES B-00135, B-08346,
B-09833, B-10681, B-19340, B-22809,
B-24613, B-24697, B-25430, F-08943
CALIBRATION METHODS A-19084,
B-08825, C-04040, C-11755, C-19047,
C-22342, E-04033, F-10429
CALIFORNIA B-00107, B-00975, B-04516,
B-09833, B-21594, C-07516, D-07393,
E-02410, E-23723, H-05420, L-00311,
L-00973, L-01585, L-06188, L-09443,
L-11266, L-18223, N-00164, N-04212
CAMERAS A-00691
CANADA A-00532, A-00691, A-01510,
A-02631, A-02633, A-02634, A-06351,
A-07759, A-08388, B-00975, B-01245,
B-01796, B-01866, B-03974, B-04179,
B-22175, B-25165, C-01354, C-01857,
C-04040, C-15515, E-00023, E-03557,
E-04033, E-07801, E-10053, E-12353,
F-00530, G-16837, H-07786, L-01265,
L-02960, L-05499, L-11242, L-11266,
M-22636
CANCER A-17688, A-19994, A-21999,
D-03432, E-25075, G-11339, G-23670,
G-24021, L-03359, N-21289
CARBON BLACK A-08392, A-09103,
A-09831, A-10424, A-22875, B-01245,
B-03581, B-05868, B-08085, B-08836,
B-08937, B-09788, B-09789, B-10770,
B-11131, B-20188, B-22110, B-25071,
C-07848, F-08941, F-09769, F-10422,
F-11782
CARBON DIOXIDE A-00532, A-02501,
A-03113, A-05067, A-08641, A-09103,
A-09831, A-10678, A-12266, A-13848,
A-13855, A-14478, A-17357, A-19318,
A-19994, A-21383, A-23619, B-00975,
B-02778, B-02908, B-04200, B-08825,
B-13636, B-16279, B-18111, B-18296,
-------
SUBJECT INDEX
279
B-19373, B-19378, B-19471, B-19672,
B-20073, B-22615, B-23376, B-23526,
B-24270, B-24480, B-25416, B-25494,
B-25913, B-26155, C-04889, C-11755,
C-11842, C-16734, C-16860, D-05428,
D-22812, E-15178, E-24109, E-25212,
F-01852, F-10422, F-10429, F-11163,
F-13766, G-20700, 1-07553, K-22248,
L-00311, N-04212, N-22794
CARBON DISULFIDE B-03337, B-06543,
B-08352, B-11910, B-13829, B-19876,
B-24458, B-26155, B-26211, H-06967,
L-00311
CARBON MONOXIDE A-00532, A-00972,
A-01842, A-02549, A-03113, A-05011,
A-05067, A-08391, A-09103, A-09353,
A-09686, A-09737, A-10442, A-10754,
A-12266, A-14997, A-16073, A-17017,
A-17357, B-00107, B-00975, B-03337,
B-03581, B-04200, B-04506, B-06636,
B-07075, B-08080, B-08825, B-09666,
B-09833, B-10493, B-10993, B-11131,
B-11191, B-12040, B-13394, B-13636,
B-16681, B-18110, B-19261, B-19373,
B-19475, B-19541, B-19672, B-20073,
B-20425, B-21819, B-22012, B-23374,
B-24270, B-24397, B-25416, B-25427,
B-26155, C-00886, C-11193, C-11842,
C-21663, D-00858, D-01790, D-02818,
D-05010, D-05260, D-05428, D-09591,
D-12496, D-22812, E-07580, E-23723,
E-25075, F-10422, F-10429, F-22319,
G-11828, G-12289, G-20700, G-21276,
H-02299, H-05420, H-06967, J-01546,
J-15889, J-16174, J-21241, K-22248,
L-01654, L-01890, L-03359, L-06188,
L-06730, L-08062, L-09445, L-09474,
L-17472, L-24214, M-00336, N-00164,
N-04212, N-07845, N-21287, N-21289,
N-21360
CARBONATES A-23359, A-24978, B-00544,
B-03232, B-03581, B-03879, B-09833,
B-11055, B-11191, B-12797, B-19619,
B-22327, B-22756, B-22868, B-22869,
B-22871, B-23374, B-23376, B-23526,
B-23544, B-23773, B-23822, B-25494,
B-25913, B-26084, C-13477, F-08943,
G-24021, 1-07553, N-04432
CARBONYLS B-07962, B-11131, B-13829
CARBOXYHEMOGLOBIN G-21276
CARBURETOR EVAPORATION LOSSES
L-01890
CARCINOGENS A-00943, A-00972,
A-01350, A-01489, A-01510, A-01842,
A-02014, A-02860, A-03113, A-07570,
A-10424, B-00975, B-01362, B-01485,
B-01712, B-01796, B-04200, C-00945,
C-01856, C-01857, C-02668, C-03546,
C-04040, D-00657, D-02046, D-02057,
D-03432, D-03514, E-00023, E-01259,
E-01260, E-01261, E-03251, E-03557,
E-04033, E-04034, F-00530, G-00981,
G-01865, K-02010, L-00206, L-00311,
L-00973, L-01654, L-01890, L-02011,
L-02052, L-03277, L-03359, N-00164
CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES A-21999,
G-21276, L-11266
CASCADE SAMPLERS B-00975, C-00886,
C-04040, C-26139
CATALYSIS A-00972, A-05011, A-12619,
A-15620, A-16788, A-22875, A-26226,
B-00135, B-00140, B-00205, B-01727,
B-02407 B-02970, B-03581, B-08080,
B-08346 B-08429, B-09833, B-10336,
B-10591 B-10680, B-10692, B-11910,
B-11929 B-12234, B-13569, B-15092,
B-15692, B-19378, B-19541, B-19876,
B-20035, B-21200, B-21232, B-21506,
B-22012, B-22740, B-22905, B-23176,
B-23374, B-23526, B-23880, B-24253,
B-24270, B-24565, B-24678, B-24922J
B-25088, B-25320, B-25323, B-25787
B-25973, G-18109, J-00166, J-01707,
K-00167
CATALYSTS A-15620, A-22875, B-01727,
B-02407, B-02970, B-03581, B-08346,
B-09833, B-10591, B-10680, B-10692,
B-11910, B-11929, B-12234, B-13569,
B-15692, B-19378, B-19541, B-19876,
B-21232, B-21506, B-22012, B-22740,
B-24253, B-24565, B-25088, B-25320,
B-25323, B-25787, B-25973, J-00166,
J-01707, K-00167
CATALYTIC ACTIVITY A-00972, A-12619,
A-26226, B-00135, B-00140, B-00205,
B-02970, B-03581, B-08429, B-09833,
B-10692, B-15092, B-21232, B-21506,
B-23374, B-23526, B-24922, G-18109,
J-00166, J-01707
CATALYTIC AFTERBURNERS B-04506,
B-21232
CATALYTIC OXIDATION A-14574,
A-16788, A-19017, A-22875, B-00140,
B-01727, B-02195, B-02727, B-02970,
B-03337, B-04200, B-04506, B-04655,
B-05454, B-06999, B-08342, B-08346,
B-08347, B-08429, B-08836, B-09666,
B-09999, B-10336, B-10968, B-11131,
B-11159, B-11233, B-11253, B-11256,
B-11262, B-11910, B-12092, B-12253,
B-13243, B-13767, B-13856, B-14087,
B-14162, B-14261, B-14566, B-14730,
B-15031, B-15092, B-15148, B-15436,
B-16240, B-16418, B-16425, B-16851,
B-16862, B-17004, B-17124, B-18034,
B-18154, B-19395, B-19471, B-19480,
B-19560, B-19876, B-20035, B-21200,
B-21232, B-21720, B-22057, B-22740,
B-22905, B-23315, B-23718, B-23879,
B-23880, B-24207, B-24837, B-24922,
B-24985, B-25088, B-25165, B-25517,
B-25584, B-25743, B-26230, G-24021,
J-08867, J-15889, J-26193, K-00167,
L-08686, L-09443, L-19062, M-25193
CELLS F-00530, G-18109
CEMENTS A-00972, A-08392, A-09737,
A-21221, A-25213, B-02036, B-04940,
B-06062, B-07931, B-08919, B-08922,
B-08923, B-08937, B-08939, B-09469,
B-09600, B-09788, B-09789, B-09833,
B-09904, B-12417, B-15251, B-16720,
B-20188, B-24881, E-10368, J-15889,
J-16174, J-17203, L-08062, N-07431,
N-21287
CENTRIFUGAL SEPARATORS A-02634,
A-03113, A-03587, A-05067, A-09686,
A-23359, B-04200, B-04655, B-05163,
B-05853, B-05868, B-07385, B-07416,
B-07674, B-08146, B-08348, B-08378,
B-08870, B-08921, B-09163, B-09191,
B-09546, B-09833, B-12442, B-13569,
B-13983, B-16720, B-18154, B-19724,
B-20243, B-20854, B-21117, B-21886,
B-22070, B-22401, B-22501, B-22505,
B-22671, B-22792, B-22986, B-23305,
B-24609, B-24642, B-24756, B-24881,
B-25019, B-25323, B-25973, C-07787,
C-07848, C-21663, D-05260, J-21241,
L-02960, L-03277, L-06686, L-09474
CERAMICS A-09686, B-00107, B-09788
CERIUM COMPOUNDS B-19876
CHAMBER PROCESSING B-11906
CHARCOAL A-08392, A-14574, A-25062,
B-03337, B-04755, B-08342, B-08346,
B-08352, B-08371, B-08584, B-08836,
B-11131, B-11250, B-11910, B-14566,
B-14632, B-19581, B-22702, B-24269,
B-26155, B-26220, F-00530, F-10422,
F-13766, G-11300, J-08867, L-06739
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION A-02630,
A-02631, A-06351, A-06978, A-09161,
A-09831, A-12202, A-16212, A-24005,
A-25545, B-04842, B-04940, B-05258,
B-05868, B-06278, B-06697, B-08919,
B-08937, B-08939, B-09600, B-22871,
B-25207, C-23096, C-25231, D-05010,
D-25476, E-06827, F-01852, F-08943,
F-09064, F-09769, F-14851, J-01660,
L-05499, L-09445, N-02632, N-04432
CHEMICAL METHODS A-10183, A-13494,
A-21999, B-00135, B-02407, B-02408,
B-02442, B-06999, B-24837, B-25913,
C-07482, C-07516, C-11842, C-12126,
C-17419, C-22885, D-22812, F-16376,
F-17592, G-08230
CHEMICAL PROCESSING A-00972,
A-02765, A-07644, A-07759, A-07963,
A-08392, A-08393, A-09686, A-09737,
A-12088, A-12633, A-14400, A-14701,
A-15517, A-16722, A-17199, A-17398,
A-17464, A-21221, A-23044, A-24500,
A-25196, A-25213, A-26226, B-00107,
B-00975, B-02053, B-02192, B-02931,
B-02971, B-03581, B-04634, B-06490,
B-07931, B-08155, B-08342, B-08584,
B-09195, B-09789, B-09833, B-10591,
B-10968, B-11238, B-11250, B-11906,
B-11910, B-14660, B-15844, B-16681,
B-16720, B-16851, B-17318, B-18111,
B-19733, B-20188, B-21232, B-21594,
B-21819, B-23447, B-24142, B-24643,
B-24673, B-25019, B-25047, B-25139,
B-25913, C-04889, C-16875, C-17468,
C-21663, D-00858, D-04116, D-09591,
D-12496, D-13176, D-22591, E-10751,
F-18185, G-01865, G-07138, G-11828,
G-16192, G-16837, H-02299, H-06967,
H-07786, 1-07553, 1-20820, J-00166,
J-01546, J-08059, J-lllll, J-16174,
J-17203, J-21241, J-26193, K-02010,
K-06778, L-00311, L-01890, L-06730,
L-08062, L-08686, L-10998, L-11242,
L-11266, L-11526, L-19062, L-21431,
L-24033, L-24214, M-00336, N-21287
CHEMICAL REACTIONS A-05011,
A-07793, A-08390, A-08391, A-10754,
A-12619, A-13494, A-13978, A-16788,
A-16877, A-19017, A-19444, A-22875,
A-23170, A-25108, A-25213, A-26226,
B-00135, B-00140, B-00205, B-00222,
B-00564, B-01245, B-01727, B-01799,
B-02442, B-02970, B-03337, B-03581,
B-04791, B-04842, B-06543, B-06636,
B-07425, B-07466, B-08228, B-08429,
B-08470, B-08492, B-08574, B-09195,
B-09666, B-09833, B-10336, B-10591,
B-10680, B-10681, B-10692, B-11252,
B-11906, B-11910, B-12234, B-12581,
B-13817, B-15693, B-16282, B-16500,
B-19189, B-19373, B-19378, B-19380,
B-19471, B-19475, B-19541, B-19560,
B-19672, B-19678, B-19874, B-20539,
B-20696, B-20914, B-21234, B-22001,
B-22012, B-22014, B-22279, B-22327,
B-22702, B-22740, B-22869, B-22905,
B-22961, B-22981, B-23176, B-23374,
B-23526, B-23773, B-23880, B-24048,
B-24253, B-24270, B-24397, B-24516,
-------
280
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
B-24554, B-24565, B-24643, B-24673,
B-24678, B-24777, B-24922, B-25088,
B-25184, B-25320, B-25323, B-25430,
B-25503, B-25787, B-25795, B-25973,
B-26084, B-26155, C-02921, C-04040,
C-11842, C-24412, C-26139, E-00023,
E-10608, E-11624, E-25212, F-08943,
F-09967, F-10422, F-10429, F-11782,
F-14851, F-16376, F-16883, F-18185,
F-22319, F-22587, G-21276, H-02299,
H-05420, H-07786, 1-04622, 1-11286,
J-01707, K-00167, L-00206, M-25188,
N-07845
CHICAGO A-09539, D-09984, D-11525,
E-11065, E-19737, E-25229, K-00167,
L-00973, L-05105, L-06188, L-09443,
L-11266, L-12461, L-17321, L-18121,
L-26157, N-21360
CHILDREN D-06755, D-22591, G-07138,
G-11437, G-12289, G-16837
CHLORIDES A-17464, B-09833, B-11238,
B-23027, B-25416, C-23096, D-03514,
D-05010, E-21986, K-02010, L-24033
CHLORINE A-06351, A-09686, A-19434,
A-22875, B-03045, B-06543, B-06636,
B-15693, D-22812, E-24109, G-07138,
H-05420, K-02010, K-06778, L-00311,
L-24033
CHLORINE COMPOUNDS A-17464,
B-00975, B-09833, B-11238, B-12672,
B-23027, B-25416, C-23096, D-03514,
D-05010, E-21986, F-16883, G-07138,
1-04622, K-02010, L-24033, N-21287
CHLOROSIS H-02299, H-05420
CHROMATOGRAPHY A-05067, A-10424,
A-22144, A-22875, A-23884, B-15436,
B-24837, C-00945, C-11755, C-11842,
C-21663, C-22982, E-21099, F-10429,
F-11163, G-01865, 1-07553, L-08062
CHROMIUM B-03581, B-09788, D-07951,
D-09591
CHROMIUM COMPOUNDS A-05067,
A-06351, A-09831, B-03337, B-03581,
B-25744, D-07951, D-09591, 1-07553,
L-24214
CHRONIC F-00530, G-16837, G-20700,
1-20820
CILIA F-00530
CINCINNATI L-00973, L-08062, L-25688
CINDERS A-00532, B-00272, B-08085,
B-08348, B-08936, B-09904, C-00403,
J-00253, L-08062
CITIZENS GROUPS B-00975
CITRUS H-05420
CITY GOVERNMENTS B-08080, B-08348,
J-00253, J-08059, L-00162, L-03359,
L-07550, L-08062, L-09073, L-09445
CLAY B-09600, B-09788, B-09904, F-04827,
N-04432
CLEAN AIR ACT A-09353, A-10442,
A-16073, B-14270, E-25075, F-00530,
G-08230, G-08232, H-01589, L-01590,
L-01654, L-06615, L-07950, L-08062,
L-09443, L-09474, L-18121, N-07845
CLOUDS C-15925, E-01261, E-08400,
E-10608, E-16803, E-20924, F-01379
CLOVER B-08938
COAL A-00532, A-00691, A-00943,
A-01350, A-01480, A-01489, A-01816,
A-02501, A-02549, A-02630, A-02631,
A-02633, A-02634, A-02765, A-02860,
A-03072, A-03113, A-03340, A-03587,
A-04224, A-04333, A-04778, A-04937,
A-05011, A-05067, A-05169, A-05846,
A-06351, A-06978, A-07570, A-07642,
A-07645, A-07647, A-07963, A-08388,
A-08390, A-08391, A-08392, A-08641,
A-09103, A-09161, A-09194, A-09353,
A-09539, A-09686, A-09737, A-09989,
A-10424, A-10442, A-10444, A-10678,
A-10740, A-10743, A-10754, A-11411,
A-11502, A-11619, A-11739, A-11790,
A-11968, A-11988, A-12120, A-12202,
A-12285, A-12541, A-12576, A-12633,
A-13053, A-13219, A-13261, A-13292,
A-13316, A-13330, A-13401, A-13410,
A-13479, A-13494, A-13511, A-13515,
A-13644, A-13785, A-13832, A-13848,
A-13855, A-13954, A-13963, A-13978,
A-15146, A-15246, A-15391, A-15620,
A-16212, A-16239, A-16256, A-16410,
A-16722, A-16855, A-16877, A-16888,
A-16949, A-17017, A-17280, A-17357,
A-17418, A-17688, A-18056, A-18114,
A-18171, A-18177, A-18276, A-19017,
A-19024, A-19038, A-19084, A-19318,
A-19434, A-19444, A-20736, A-20863,
A-21286, A-21318, A-21351, A-21383,
A-22387, A-22418, A-22800, A-22867,
A-22875, A-23044, A-23239, A-23359,
A-23726, A-23753, A-23884, A-23954,
A-24005, A-24955, A-25108, A-25213,
A-25256, A-25259, A-25545, A-25689,
A-26085, B-00135, B-00140, B-00205,
B-00222, B-00272, B-00276, B-00544,
B-00564, B-00567, B-00568, B-00653,
B-01187, B-01245, B-01362, B-01485,
B-01615, B-01712, B-01796, B-01799,
B-01866, B-02032, B-02053, B-02149,
B-02192, B-02195, B-02206, B-02311,
B -02407, B -02408, B -02424, B -02727,
B-02772, B-02778, B-02813, B-02908,
B-02909, B-02931, B-02970, B-02971,
B-02974, B-03045, B-03053, B-03232,
B-03337, B-03581, B-03879, B-04179,
B-04200, B-04506, B-04507, B-04516,
B-04634, B-04940, B-05162, B-05163,
B-05198, B-05258, B-05310, B-05338,
B-05454, B-05516, B-05529, B-05853,
B-05868, B-06062, B-06278, B-06297,
B-06307, B-06345, B-06490, B-06543,
B-06636, B-06697, B-06835, B-06999,
B-07075, B-07385, B-07416, B-07417,
B-07425, B-07430, B-07515, B-07674,
B-07752, B-07931, B-08080, B-08085,
B-08146, B-08155, B-08228, B-08342,
B-08346, B-08347, B-08348, B-08371,
B-08378, B-08429, B-08470, B-08492,
B-08574, B-08584, B-08825, B-08836,
B-08863, B-08870, B-08898, B-08908,
B-08917, B-08919, B-08921, B-08922,
B-08923, B-08926, B-08936, B-08937,
B-08940, B-08942, B-09195, B-09496,
B-09523, B-09546, B-09600, B-09666,
B-09788, B-09833, B-09904, B-09905,
B-09923, B-09971, B-09996, B-09999,
B-10165, B-10264, B-10281, B-10493,
B-10591, B-10655, B-10680, B-10681,
B-10692, B-10968, B-11005, B-11055,
B-11131, B-11159, B-11178, B-11191,
B-11215, B-11229, B-11240, B-11250,
B-11251, B-11253, B-11256, B-11262,
B-11281, B-11854, B-11910, B-11929,
B-11985, B-12040, B-12091, B-12092,
B-12253, B-12424, B-12443, B-12446,
B-12574, B-12645, B-12672, B-12797,
B-13051, B-13052, B-13243, B-13501,
B-13570, B-13584, B-13592, B-13636,
B-13639, B-13663, B-13721, B-13813,
B-13835, B-13856, B-13857, B-13950,
B-14001, B-14162, B-14194, B-14322,
B-14546, B-14838, B-14891, B-15031,
B-15244,
B-15378,
B-15560,
B-15913,
B-16250,
B-16731,
B-17318,
B-18110,
B-18154,
B-19339,
B-19380,
B-19541,
B-19670,
B-19724,
B-19876,
B-20425,
B-20563,
B-20995,
B-21268,
B-22012,
B-22110,
B-22559,
B-22792,
B-22981,
B-23221,
B-23331,
B-23682,
B-23822,
B-24181,
B-24458,
B-24565,
B-24643,
B-24756,
B-25186,
B-25320,
B-25677,
B-25795,
B-26211,
C-01856,
C-03592,
C-07516,
C-07941,
C-11842,
C-15515,
C-17468,
C-22909,
C-25872,
D-02057,
D-05010,
D-06824,
D-09591,
D-23326,
E-04034,
E-07580,
E-11065,
E-16467,
E-24109,
F-02743,
F-08941,
F-09967,
F-11163,
F-13400,
F-13601,
F-14390,
F-16210,
F-17594,
F-22587,
G-04136,
G-08230,
G-11437,
G-20700,
G-24021,
H-02299,
H-19620,
1-13086, 1
J-01308, ]
B-15284, B-15357, B-15358,
B-15516, B-15532, B-15543,
B-15692, B-15693, B-15738,
B-15962, B-16068, B-16248,
B-16279, B-16282, B-16418,
B-16815, B-16862, B-16968,
B-17338, B-17392, B-17905,
B-18111, B-18142, B-18143,
B-18290, B-19189, B-19261,
B-19340, B-19373, B-19378,
B-19395, B-19471, B-19475,
B-19560, B-19602, B-19642,
B-19672, B-19678, B-19692,
B-19804, B-19845, B-19874,
B-20073, B-20097, B-20223,
B-20485, B-20539, B-20552,
B-20663, B-20729, B-20854,
B-21005, B-21136, B-21200,
B-21275, B-21381, B-22001,
B-22014, B-22051, B-22057,
B-22127, B-22175, B-22279,
B-22661, B-22702, B-22740,
B-22806, B-22871, B-22961,
B-22986, B-23140, B-23176,
B-23262, B-23305, B-23315,
B-23447, B-23544, B-23674,
B-23718, B-23757, B-23773,
B-23867, B-23974, B-24019,
B-24253, B-24270, B-24397,
B-24480, B-24516, B-24554,
B-24609, B-24630, B-24642,
B-24675, B-24678, B-24697,
B-24777, B-25127, B-25184,
B-25207, B-25217, B-25269,
B-25323, B-25430, B-25494,
B-25744, B-25786, B-25787,
B-25973, B-26084, B-26155,
B-26230, C-00886, C-00945,
C-02655, C-02921, C-03460,
C-04759, C-04889, C-07482,
C-07721, C-07787, C-07848,
C-08123, C-09107, C-11193,
C-12126, C-13477, C-15348,
C-16512, C-16734, C-16860,
C-19519, C-22342, C-22882,
C-22982, C-23096, C-23121,
D-00657, D-00858, D-01790,
D-03431, D-03514, D-04116,
D-05260, D-05428, D-06755,
D-07393, D-07951, D-08298,
D-11525, D-12496, D-22812,
D-23957, E-00023, E-04033,
E-06775, E-06827, E-07428,
E-07843, E-08400, E-10421,
E-11514, E-11624, E-15178,
E-19737, E-21099, E-21986,
E-25075, F-00530, F-01852,
F-04827, F-04939, F-07059,
F-08943, F-09064, F-09769,
F-10422, F-10429, F-11135,
F-11722, F-11782, F-13027,
F-13411, F-13572, F-13573,
F-13620, F-13766, F-13834,
F-14814, F-14851, F-15714,
F-16376, F-16883, F-17592,
F-18170, F-18185, F-22319,
G-00981, G-01340, G-01865,
G-06806, G-06826, G-07039,
G-08232, G-11300, G-11339,
G-14530, G-16837, G-18109,
G-21276, G-23151, G-23670,
H-01014, H-01398, H-02293,
H-05420, H-07786, H-11733,
1-04622, 1-07553, 1-11286,
1-20820, J-00166, J-00253,
J-01659, J-01660, J-01679,
-------
J-02151, J-02413, J-06845, J-07643,
J-08059, J-08867, J-lllll, J-11114,
J-11846, J-13613, J-15889, J-19685,
J-20054, J-23511, J-23800, K-00167,
K-06696, K-09921, K-21896, K-22248,
L-00162, L-00206, L-00311, L-00973,
L-01399, L-01590, L-01890, L-02831,
L-02960, L-03277, L-05105, L-05499,
L-06188, L-06686, L-06735, L-06739,
L-07550, L-07794, L-07950, L-08686,
L-09443, L-09445, L-09474, L-10503,
L-10998, L-11185, L-11266, L-11283,
L-11319, L-11526, L-11781, L-12031,
L-13049, L-13055, L-14535, L-14598,
L-17006, L-18121, L-18220, L-18223,
L-19062, L-20698, M-00336, M-01220,
M-01221, M-01567, M-08072, M-25188,
N-02632, N-03344, N-04432, N-06133,
N-07431, N-07845, N-13429, N-13587,
N-13591, N-21289, N-21360, N-23125
COAL CHARACTERISTICS A-01489,
A-06351, A-06978, A-08641, A-09103,
A-09161, A-09737, A-11790, A-11988,
A-12120, A-12202, A-12285, A-12576,
A-13219, A-13330, A-13401, A-13410,
A-13494, A-13511, A-13644, A-13848,
A-13978, A-15146, A-15391, A-16212,
A-16256, A-16888, A-17280, A-17418,
A-18171, A-19444, A-21286, A-22387,
A-23239, A-25108, B-00568, B-02408,
B-03337, B-04506, B-05258, B-05454,
B-06278, B-06297, B-06636, B-08348,
B-08863, B-08870, B-08917, B-09523,
B-09600, B-09999, B-10968, B-11005,
B-11215, B-11229, B-12040, B-12253,
B-12672, B-13639, B-13835, B-14838,
B-14891, B-16731, B-17392, B-18111,
B-18154, B-19189, B-19395, B-19471,
B-22127, B-22981, B-23315, B-23682,
B-23867, B-24458, B-25127, B-25207,
B-25786, B-26084, B-26155, B-26230,
C-07516, C-07941, C-16734, C-22909,
E-07580, F-02743, F-04827, F-07059,
F-10422, F-11782, F-13400, F-13411,
F-13573, F-13834, F-14814, F-14851,
F-22319, F-22587, J-20054, K-22248,
L-02960, L-06735, L-09443, L-17006,
N-04432
COAL PREPARATION A-06978, A-07642,
A-08390, A-08391, A-08392, A-09161,
A-10442, A-11790, A-12266, A-13330,
A-13511, A-15391, A-15517, A-16949,
A-17418, A-18114, A-19038, A-23359,
A-24955, A-25867, B-00276, B-00564,
B-00567, B-00568, B-01187, B-01362,
B-01493, B-02408, B-02424, B-02813,
B-02931, B-03337, B-04507, B-05198,
B-05258, B-05454, B-06297, B-07385,
B-07416, B-07425, B-08429, B-08584,
B-08898, B-08908, B-08917, B-09523,
B-09666, B-09905, B-09996, B-10281,
B-10655, B-10968, B-11215, B-11262,
B-11910, B-12040, B-12091, B-12253,
B-12424, B-13051, B-13171, B-13570,
B-13584, B-13639, B-13663, B-13813,
B-13835, B-13856, B-14001, B-14162,
B-14838, B-14891, B-15240, B-15516,
B-15692 B-15693, B-15738, B-16279,
B-16510, B-17124, B-18111, B-19373,
B-19395, B-19471, B-19804, B-20063,
B-20223, B-20663, B-20794, B-21381,
B-22070, B-22127, B-22981, B-23176,
B-23682, B-23867, B-23880, B-24458,
B-24609 B-26230, F-02743, F-11782,
F-13411 F-13573, F-13601, F-14814,
F-14851 F-18170, G-24021, J-01659,
SUBJECT INDEX
J-01660, J-02413, J-11846, J-23800
J-25961, K-21896, L-01590, L-06686,
L-06739, L-09474, L-10998, L-11526
L-13049, L-14598, L-17006, L-19062
M-08072, N-21360, N-23125
COAL RESOURCES A-02630, A-06978
A-07570, A-09737, A-11739, A-11790,
A-12202, A-13053, A-13954, A-13963,
A-15391, A-16239, A-18276, A-20736,
A-21318, A-24955, A-25256, A-25259,
A-26085, B-02424, B-04506, B-08917
B-11215, B-13835, B-22559, J-19685,
L-06735, L-12031
COAL TARS A-10424, A-13410, A-25549,
B-02813, B-02974, B-03053, B-04634,
B-06835, B-17318, F-13601
COBALT COMPOUNDS A-05067, A-09831,
B-02407, B-08347, B-14566, E-10010
CODES B-16731, B-19471, C-07787,
E-10368, H-06967, J-16506, K-06696,
K-06778, L-02831, L-07550, L-18223
COFFEE-MAKING A-00972, A-09686,
D-00858, L-01890
COKE A-00943, A-03587, A-07642,
A-07645, A-08392, A-09737, A-10444,
A-13219, A-13785, A-13855, A-22418,
A-22875, A-23044, A-25545, A-25549,
B-00222, B-00653, B-02813, B-02970,
B-02971, B-02974, B-03974, B-04634,
B-06999, B-08371, B-08584, B-11055,
B-11131, B-11910, B-15516, B-15692,
B-15913, B-17318, B-19378, B-19380,
B-19475, B-19541, B-19670, B-19672,
B-19678, B-19874, B-20729, B-21200,
B-22001, B-22012, B-22014, B-22279,
B-22809, B-23374, B-23544, B-23718,
B-24253, B-24270, B-24397, B-24458,
B-24516, B-24554, B-24565, B-24756,
B-25186, B-25269, B-25494, B-25973,
C-13477, D-04116, D-23326, F-00530,
F-10422, F-13601, F-14851, F-18185,
G-08232, J-00166, K-06696, L-02831,
L-06730, L-11266, L-11526, L-20698
COLLECTORS A-00532, A-00972, A-01350,
A-02634, A-03113, A-03587, A-05011,
A-05067, A-09686, A-13832, A-23359,
A-24915, A-25062, A-26233, B-00140,
B-00272, B-00653, B-01712, B-01796,
B-02149, B-02398, B-02909, B-03045,
B-04200, B-04655, B-04755, B-05163,
B-05853, B-05868, B-06835, B-07359,
B-07385, B-07416, B-07515, B-07674,
B-08085, B-08146, B-08155, B-08348,
B-08378, B-08836, B-08863, B-08870,
B-08921, B-09163, B-09191, B-09546,
B-09699, B-09833, B-09923, B-10003,
B-10165, B-10681, B-10933, B-11233,
B-11251, B-11262, B-12442, B-13057,
B-13569, B-13857, B-13983, B-14707,
B-15031, B-16068, B-16224, B-16346,
B-16720, B-17318, B-18034, B-18154,
B-18161, B-18290, B-19692, B-19724,
B-20188, B-20243, B-20738, B-20854,
B-21117, B-21324, B-21886, B-22001,
B-22070, B-22401, B-22501, B-22505,
B-22560, B-22671, B-22756, B-22792,
B-22986, B-23220, B-23305, B-24190,
B-24609, B-24642, B-24756, B-24826,
B-24881, B-24954, B-25019, B-25323,
B-25517, B-25584, B-25663, B-25973,
B-26143, C-01856, C-02921, C-04040,
C-07721, C-07787, C-07848, C-09107,
C-21663, D-01790, D-05260, D-22591,
E-09417, J-01308, J-01546, J-21241,
J-26193, K-09921, L-02960, L-03277,
L-06686, L-07794, L-08062, L-09474
L-17472
281
COLORADO A-01489, C-07516, J-07643,
K-00167, L-11185, L-11266, L-11781,
M-01220, M-01221
COLORIMETRY A-05067, A-15620,
A-21999, B-06999, B-09904, B-24837,
C-07482, C-17468, C-21663, C-22342,
C-23096, C-24412, D-07951, D-22812,
E-11624, E-21099, 1-20820, L-01890,
L-03277, L-08686
COLUMN CHROMATOGRAPHY C-00945,
C-11842
COMBUSTION A-00532, A-02549, A-08388,
A-08391, A-09103, A-09353, A-09831,
A-10442, A-10740, A-10754, A-11502,
A-11988, A-14794, A-16239, A-16877,
A-16888, A-17688, A-19444, A-23044,
A-23359, A-24732, A-25545, A-26226,
B-00205, B-02407, B-02974, B-03053,
B-04516, B-05258, B-05516, B-05857,
B-08080, B-08085, B-08346, B-08347,
B-08870, B-08908, B-08917, B-08921,
B-09191, B-09833, B-09904, B-10680,
B-10770, B-10993, B-11178, B-11247,
B-11985, B-12443, B-12446, B-13052,
B-13950, B-17392, B-18290, B-19034,
B-19471, B-19602, B-19642, B-20063,
B-20563, B-20995, B-21136, B-22071,
B-22861, B-22961, B-22986, B-23331,
B-23880, B-24019, B-24073, B-24678,
B-24922, B-24954, B-25430, B-25517,
B-25602, B-25786, B-26220, C-01856,
C-11193, C-13477, C-22909, C-23377,
D-01790, E-11514, F-01852, F-04939,
F-09064, F-13400, F-13411, F-13620,
F-14390, F-17594, G-01865, L-00206,
L-00311, L-01890, L-02831, L-03452,
L-07550, L-08686, L-11185, L-11266,
L-11319, L-11526, L-11781, L-13049,
L-17006, M-08072, N-13587
COMBUSTION AIR A-00532, A-02633,
A-03072, A-04778, A-04937, A-05011,
A-05067, A-09103, A-12619, A-19038,
A-23359, A-24817, A-26226, B-02398,
B-03053, B-03974, B-05162, B-05258,
B-05857, B-07962, B-08085, B-08346,
B-08870, B-08908, B-09163, B-09833,
B-10399, B-10993, B-12443, B-13394,
B-16068, B-16502, B-17250, B-17782,
B-18167, B-18290, B-19034, B-19471,
B-20082, B-21234, B-23880, B-24480,
B-24642, B-24678, B-25517, F-01852,
F-09064
COMBUSTION GASES A-00532, A-01350,
A-02014, A-04333, A-04778, A-06040,
A-06978, A-07963, A-08391, A-08641,
A-09161, A-09194, A-09353, A-09686,
A-09737, A-09831, A-10284, A-10424,
A-10442, A-10678, A-10743, A-11411,
A-11413, A-11739, A-12335, A-12619,
A-13141, A-13644, A-13855, A-14478,
A-14701, A-15391, A-15517, A-15620,
A-16410, A-16722, A-16855, A-16887,
A-17017, A-17051, A-17184, A-18177,
A-19017, A-19318, A-19434, A-21204,
A-22144, A-22800, A-22875, A-23044,
A-23359, A-23379, A-23884, A-24005,
A-24039, A-24535, A-24817, A-24916,
A-24951, A-24978, A-25062, A-25196,
A-25549, A-25690, A-25867, A-26226,
B-00107, B-00135, B-00140, B-00205,
B-00222, B-00276, B-00544, B-00564,
B-00567, B-00568, B-00687, B-01362,
B-01485, B-01726, B-01727, B-01796,
B-02053, B-02149, B-02195, B-02206,
B-02311, B-02398, B-02407, B-02408,
B-02424, B-02778, B-02908, B-02909,
B-02931, B-02970, B-02971, B-03337,
-------
282
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
B-03581,
B-04508,
B-04842,
B-06543,
B-07359,
B-07752,
B-08146,
B-08347,
B-08470,
B-08836,
B-09469,
B-09833,
B-09999,
B-10563,
B-10692,
B-11055,
B-11247,
B-11256,
B-11854,
B-12040,
B-12308,
B-12503,
B-13019,
B-13501,
B-14207,
B-14566,
B-14981,
B-15357,
B-15489,
B-15738,
B-15913,
B-16068,
B-16250,
B-16425,
B-16851,
B-17004,
B-17338,
B-17905,
B-18154,
B-19048,
B-19340,
B-19395,
B-19541,
B-19619,
B-19724,
B-19972,
B-20097,
B-20392,
B-20552,
B-20914,
B-21200,
B-2I268,
B-21594,
B-22012,
B-22103,
B-22291,
B-22500,
B-22740,
B-22861,
B-22905,
B-23I46,
B-23262,
B-23376,
B-23708,
B-23822,
B-24019,
B-24168,
B-24269,
B-24554,
B-24643,
B-24707,
B-24826,
B-25071,
B-25139,
B-25298,
B-25494,
B-03879,
B-04516,
B-05198,
B-06636,
B-07417,
B-07931,
B-08155,
B-08352,
B-08574,
B-08863,
B-09607,
B-09905,
B-10336,
B-10591,
B-10770,
B-11131,
B-11250,
B-11262,
B-11906,
B-12091,
B-12310,
B-12574,
B-13052,
B-13523,
B-14261,
B-14632,
B-15031,
B-15358,
B-15543,
B-15841,
B-15946,
B-16173,
B-16282,
B-16500,
B-16862,
B-17124,
B-17343,
B-17979,
B-18290,
B-19189,
B-19346,
B-19471,
B-19560,
B-19629,
B-19834,
B-20035,
B-20141,
B-20526,
B-20663,
B-20995,
B-21232,
B-21275,
B-21720,
B-22014,
B-22110,
B-22327,
B-22559,
B-22756,
B-22868,
B-23027,
B-23221,
B-23315,
B-23447,
B-23718,
B-23867,
B-24048,
B-24181,
B-24270,
B-24565,
B-24673,
B-24756,
B-24837,
B-25079,
B-25164,
B-25320,
B-25503,
B-04200,
B-04655,
B-05454,
B-06999,
B-07430,
B-07962,
B-08342,
B-08371,
B-08584,
B-08908,
B-09666,
B-09923,
B-10399,
B-10655,
B-10968,
B-11233,
B-11252,
B-11281,
B-11910,
B-12234,
B-12424,
B-12645,
B-13057,
B-13829,
B-14270,
B-14660,
B-15092,
B-15378,
B-15560,
B-15844,
B-15962,
B-16224,
B-16346,
B-16548,
B-16872,
B-17250,
B-17685,
B-18034,
B-19029,
B-19261,
B-19380,
B-19480,
B-19581,
B-19642,
B-19845,
B-20073,
B-20243,
B-20539,
B-20779,
B-21005,
B-21234,
B-21504,
B-21893,
B-22057,
B-22160,
B-2240I,
B-22615,
B-22806,
B-22869,
B-23054,
B-23231,
B-23373,
B-23526,
B-23757,
B-23879,
B-24073,
B-24207,
B-24397,
B-24589,
B-24678,
B-24777,
B-24985,
B-25088,
B-25165,
B-25323,
B-25517,
B-04506,
B-04791,
B-05857,
B-07229,
B-07515,
B-08080,
B-08346,
B-08429,
B-08825,
B-08917,
B-09699,
B-09971,
B-10493,
B-10681,
B-10993,
B-11240,
B-11253,
B-11847,
B-11976,
B-12253,
B-12442,
B-12797,
B-13394,
B-14087,
B-14322,
B-14730,
B-15244,
B-15436,
B-15572,
B-15902,
B-15976,
B-16248,
B-16418,
B-16720,
B-16968,
B-17318,
B-17782,
B-18110,
B-19034,
B-19339,
B-19394,
B-19482,
B-19608,
B-19670,
B-19874,
B-20082,
B-20262,
B-20550,
B-20854,
B-21028,
B-21238,
B-21506,
B-22001,
B-22070,
B-22279,
B-22441,
B-22661,
B-22809,
B-2287I,
B-23140,
B-23237,
B-23374,
B-23544,
B-23773,
B-23880,
B-24142,
B-24253,
B-24441,
B-24613,
B-24697,
B-24785,
B-25019,
B-25127,
B-25170,
B-25416,
B-25560,
B-25584 B-25602, B-25637, B-25663, B-07515, B-07752, B-07931, B-07962,
B-25702 B-25743, B-25786, B-25787, B-08080, B-08085, B-08146, B-08155,
B-25795 B-25833, B-25913, B-25973, B-08342, B-08346, B-08347, B-08348,
B-26063' B-26211, B-26230, C-00403, B-08352, B-08371, B-08429, B-08470,
C-00945 C-01363 C-01856, C-01857, B-08574, B-08584, B-08825, B-08836,
C-02921 C-04889 C-05216, C-06095, B-08863, B-08870, B-08908, B-08917,
C-07482' C-07787, C-11193, C-12126. B-08919, B-08921, B-08922, B-08923,
C-15348 C-15479, C-15925, C-16860, B-08925, B-08926, B-08936, B-08937,
C-17419 C-19047 C-20224 C-22391 B-08938, B-08939, B-08940, B-08942,
C-22882' C-22885! C-22982, C-24245, B-09163, B-09191, B-09469, B-09496,
C-24412 C-25260 C-26139, D-02046, B-09607, B-09666, B-09699, B-09833,
D-03432 D-03514 D-05260, D-06777, B-09904, B-09905, B-09923, B-09971,
D-08858, D-09984, D-12496, D-22591, B-09999, B-10336, B-10399, B-10493,
D-22812 D-23356, E-00023, E-01259, B-10563, B-10591, B-10655, B-10681,
E-01260, E-01261, E-04033, E-04034, B-10692, B-10704, B-10770, B-10968,
E-04035 E-06775, E-07801, E-07843, B-10993, B-11005, B-11055, B-11131,
E-09417, E-10010, E-10153, E-10219, B-11191, B-11233, B-11240, B-11247,
E-10220, E-10368, E-10751, E-11370, B-11250, B-11252, B-11253, B-11256,
E-11980, E-15178, E-15483, E-15511, B-11262, B-11281, B-11847, B-11854,
E-16285, E-16629, E-16687, E-16985, B-11906, B-11910, B-11976, B-12040,
E-17580, E-17595, E-17725, E-17734, B-12091, B-12234, B-12253, B-12308,
E-20523, E-21099, E-21736, E-22313, B-12310, B-12424, B-12442, B-12503,
E-23163, E-24109, E-24341, E-24407, B-12574, B-12645, B-12797, B-13019,
E-24439, E-24486, E-25075, E-26141, B-13052, B-13057, B-13394, B-13501,
E-26267, F-09769, F-09967, F-13487, B-13523, B-13829, B-13983, B-14001,
F-16883, G-08230, G-11300, G-12289, B-14087, B-14207, B-14261, B-14270,
G-23151, G-24021, H-01014, H-06967, B-14322, B-14566, B-14632, B-14660,
H-07786, H-11733, 1-04622, 1-07553, B-14730, B-14981, B-15031, B-15092,
1-20820, J-00253, J-01546, J-01707, B-15244, B-15357, B-15358, B-15378,
J-08867, J-lllll, J-11114, J-11846, B-15436, B-15489, B-15543, B-15544,
J-16122, J-16129, J-16174, K-06778, B-15560, B-15572, B-15738, B-15841,
K-21896, L-00206, L-02052, L-06615, B-15844, B-15902, B-15913, B-15946,
L-06737, L-07550, L-07794, L-08062, B-15962, B-15976, B-16068, B-16173,
L-08686, L-09443, L-09474, L-10166, B-16224, B-16248, B-16250, B-16282,
L-10998, L-11283, L-11319, L-11781, B-16346, B-16418, B-16425, B-16500,
L-12461, L-13055, L-14535, L-19062, B-16548, B-16720, B-16851, B-16862,
L-24033, M-01567, M-08072, M-25193, B-16872, B-16968, B-17004, B-17124,
N-06133, N-21289, N-21360 B-17250, B-17318, B-17338, B-17343,
COMBUSTION PRODUCTS A-00532, B-17685, B-17782, B-17905, B-17979,
A-00943, A-00972, A-01350, A-01816, B-18034, B-18063, B-18110, B-18142,
A-02014, A-02630, A-02631, A-02633, B-18154, B-18161, B-18290, B-19029,
A-02634, A-02860, A-04333, A-04778, B-19034, B-19048, B-19189, B-19261,
A-05011, A-05067, A-05169, A-06040, B-19339, B-19340, B-19346, B-19380,
A-06978, A-07642, A-07963, A-08391, B-19394, B-19395, B-19471, B-19480,
A-08641, A-09161, A-09194, A-09353, B-19482, B-19541, B-19560, B-19581,
A-09539, A-09686, A-09737, A-09831, B-19608, B-19619, B-19629, B-19642,
A-10284, A-10424, A-10442, A-10678, B-19670, B-19724, B-19834, B-19845,
A-10743, A-11411, A-11413, A-11739, B-19874, B-19972, B-20035, B-20063,
A-12335, A-12619, A-13141, A-13401, B-20073, B-20082, B-20097, B-20141,
A-13644, A-13855, A-14478, A-14701, B-20243, B-20262, B-20392, B-20425,
A-15391, A-15517, A-15620, A-16410, B-20526, B-20539, B-20550, B-20552,
A-16722, A-16855, A-16877, A-16887, B-20663, B-20779, B-20854, B-20914,
A-16949, A-17017, A-17051, A-17184, B-20995, B-21005, B-21028, B-21200,
A-18177, A-19017, A-19038, A-19318, B-21232, B-21234, B-21238, 8-21268^
A-19434, A-21204, A-22144, A-22387, B-21275, B-21381, B-21504, B-21506,
A-22800, A-22875, A-23044, A-23359, B-21594, B-21720, B-21893, B-22001,
A-23379, A-23726, A-23884, A-24005, B-22012, B-22014, B-22057, B-22070,
A-24039, A-24535, A-24817, A-24916, B-22103, B-22110, B-22160, B-22279,
A-24951, A-24978, A-25062, A-25108, B-22291, B-22327, B-22401, B-22441,
A-25196, A-25545, A-25549, A-25689, B-22500, B-22559, B-22615, B-22661 \
A-25690, A-25867, A-26226, B-00107, B-22740, B-22756, B-22806, B-22809,
B-00135, B-00140, B-00205, B-00222, B-22861, B-22868, B-22869 B-22871
B-00272, B-00276, B-00544, B-00564, B-22905, B-22981, B-22986 B-23027
B-00567, B-00568, B-00687, B-00975, B-23054, B-23140, B-23146, B-23221,
B-01362, B-01485, B-01726, B-01727, B-23231, B-23237, B-23262 B-23315
B-01796, B-02032, B-02053, B-02149, B-23373, B-23374, B-23376 B-23447
B-02195, B-02206, B-02311, B-02398, B-23526, B-23544, B-23708, B-23718,
B-02407, B-02408, B-02424, B-02778, B-23757, B-23773, B-23822, B-23867,
B-02908, B-02909, B-02931, B-02970, B-23879, B-23880 B-24019 B-24048
B-02971, B-03053, B-03337, B-03581, B-24073, B-24142 B-24168' B-2418l'
B-03879, B-04200, B-04506, B-04508, B-24207, B-24253, B-24269 B-24270
B-04516, B-04634, B-04655, B-04791, B-24397, B-24441, B-24554 B-24565
B-04842, B-05198, B-05258, B-05454, B-24589, B-24613 B-24643 B-24673'
B-05516, B-05857, B-06278, B-06543, B-24678, B-24697 B-24707 B-24756
B-06636, B-06697, B-06835, B-06999, B-24777, B-24785, B-24826? B-2483?'
B-07229, B-07359, B-07417, B-07430, B-24985, B-25019, B-25071' 8-25079^
-------
SUBJECT INDEX
283
B-25088, B-25127, B-25139, B-25164,
B-25165, B-25170, B-25269, B-25298
B-25320, B-25323, B-25416, B-25494,
B-25503, B-25517, B-25560, B-25584,
B-25602, B-25637, B-25663, B-25702,
B-25743, B-25744, B-25786, B-25787,
B-25795, B-25833, B-25913, B-25973,
B-26063, B-26211, B-26230, C-00403,
C-00886, C-00945, C-01363, C-01856,
C-01857, C-02921, C-04889, C-05216,
C-06095, C-07482, C-07787, C-11193,
C-12126, C-13477, C-15348, C-15479,
C-15925, C-16734, C-16860, C-17419,
C-19047, C-20224, C-22391, C-22882,
C-22885, C-22982, C-23096, C-24245,
C-24412, C-25260, C-26139, D-02046,
D-03432, D-03514, D-05260, D-05551,
D-06777, D-06824, D-08298, D-08858,
D-09591, D-09984, D-12496, D-22591,
D-22812, D-23356, E-00023, E-01259,
E-01260, E-01261, E-04033, E-04034,
E-04035, E-06775, E-07801, E-07843,
E-09417, E-10010, E-10153, E-10219,
E-10220, E-10368, E-10751, E-11370,
E-11980, E-15178, E-15483, E-15511,
E-16285, E-16467, E-16629, E-16687,
E-16985, E-17580, E-17595, E-17725,
E-17734, E-20523, E-21099, E-21736,
E-21986, E-22313, E-23163, E-24109,
E-24341, E-24407, E-24439, E-24486,
E-25075, E-26141, E-26267, F-01852,
F-08943, F-09769, F-09967, F-11163,
F-13487, F-13572, F-16883, F-17592,
G-08230, G-11300, G-11828, G-12289,
G-23151, G-24021, H-01014, H-01589,
H-02299, H-05420, H-06967, H-07786,
H-11733, H-20982, 1-04622, 1-07553,
1-11286, 1-13086, 1-20820, J-00253,
J-01546, J-01707, J-06845, J-08867,
J-lllll, J-11114, J-11846, J-16122,
J-16129, J-16174, J-21241, K-06778,
K-21896, L-00206, L-00311, L-02052,
L-06615, L-06686, L-06737, L-07550,
L-07794, L-08062, L-08686, L-09443,
L-09474, L-10166, L-10998, L-11283,
L-11319, L-11781, L-12461, L-13055,
L-14535, L-19062, L-24033, L-24214,
M-01567, M-08072, M-25193, N-04212,
N-04432, N-06133, N-2I289, N-21360,
N-23125
COMMERCIAL AREAS A-07647, A-08393,
D-02057, D-07393, D-07951, D-09591,
D-11525, E-06775, E-17725, L-01399,
L-07550, L-09474, M-00336
COMMERCIAL EQUIPMENT A-07644,
A-09482, B-00107, B-00205, B-00272,
B-00975, B-08863, B-09546, B-09904,
B-12645, B-14001, B-16681, B-1685I,
B-16862, F-17594, J-01546, J-07643,
L-10503
COMMERCIAL FIRMS B-06345, B-07075,
B-16681, D-03432, L-24033
COMMON COLD G-12289
COMPLAINTS B-00975, B-07416, D-03431,
D-05428, L-03452
COMPOSTING B-25038
COMPRESSED GASES A-24817, A-25062,
A-25867, B-01493
COMPRESSION B-08937, B-08939,
B-08940, B-08942, B-14223
COMPUTER PROGRAMS A-00691,
A-14997, A-23170, A-25418, B-01796,
B-07075 B-10993, B-25416, C-01856,
C-20224' D-09984, D-11525, E-04033,
E-06373 E-10421, E-l 1065, E-16629,
F-01379, F-22319, J-15889, L-01890,
L-12461
COMPUTERS B-10993, C-16364, C-23350,
D-09984, J-15510
CONCRETE A-09686, A-11860, A-21916,
A-25689, B-00107, B-08919, B-08922,
B-08923, B-08925, B-08926, B-08937,
B-08940, B-08942, B-09904, B-12417,
B-16863, B-22500, F-14876, N-02632,
N-07431, N-22794
CONDENSATION B-05853, B-09469,
B-09833, B-19378, B-19672, B-22110,
B-22279, B-22702, B-24001, B-24785,
B-25088, B-25184, B-25323, E-16985
CONDENSATION (ATMOSPHERIC)
A-01510, A-10678, A-22159, B-10680,
B-17531, C-15925, D-08858, E-01261,
E-06827, E-08400, E-10608, E-16803,
E-16985, E-20924, E-21099, E-23723,
E-24109, E-24439, E-24486, F-01379,
G-00981, G-08230, G-08232, G-16837,
G-18109, H-02299, N-04212
CONING E-21122
CONNECTICUT A-14997
CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS A-00972,
A-08392, A-09686, A-09737, A-11860,
A-21221, A-21916, A-25213, A-25689,
B-00107, B-00975, B-02036, B-04940,
B-06062, B-07931, B-08919, B-08922,
B-08923, B-08925, B-08926, B-08936,
B-08937, B-08939, B-08940, B-08942,
B-09469, B-09600, B-09788, B-09789,
B-09833, B-09904, B-12417, B-15251,
B-16720, B-16863, B-20188, B-22500,
B-24881, D-03431, D-05260, D-09591,
E-10368, F-14876, 1-07553, J-15889,
J-16174, J-17203, L-00311, L-08062,
N-02632, N-04432, N-07431, N-21287,
N-22794
CONTACT PROCESSING A-12633,
B-07931, B-11906, B-14660, G-07138,
L-24033
CONTINUOUS AIR MONITORING
PROGRAM (CAMP) L-01890
CONTINUOUS MONITORING A-01510,
A-15620, A-19084, B-06999, B-07359,
B-16240, B-25323, B-25637, C-04889,
C-15479, C-17468, C-22885, C-23350,
C-25260, D-02046, D-08858, E-08400,
E-17734, E-21099, E-25212, F-08941,
G-08230, L-08686, L-09445, L-17472,
L-17473
CONTRACTING A-09539, L-01590
CONTROL AGENCIES A-16073, A-19434,
B-11910, B-23708, B-23880, K-06696,
L-07550, L-07794, L-09445, L-17472,
M-00336, N-07845
CONTROL EQUIPMENT A-00532,
A-00972, A-01350, A-02634, A-03113,
A-03587, A-04224, A-04652, A-04778,
A-04937, A-05011, A-05067, A-08392,
A-09686, A-11411, A-11413, A-11640,
A-11988, A-12619, A-13141, A-13410,
A-13832, A-15391, A-15620, A-17688,
A-19994, A-21204, A-23044, A-23359,
A-23379, A-24915, A-24916, A-24951,
A-24978, A-25062, A-25196, A-25867,
A-26226, A-26233, B-00107, B-00135,
B-00140, B-00205, B-00272, B-00564,
B-00653, B-00975, B-01187, B-01362,
B-01485, B-01493, B-01615, B-01712,
B-01796, B-02032, B-02036, B-02053,
B-02149, B-02192, B-02206, B-02311,
B-02398, B-02407, B-02408, B-02727,
B-02778, B-02909, B-02971, B-03045,
B-03232, B-03337, B-03879, B-04179,
B-04200, B-04506, B-04508, B-04516,
B-04634, B-04655, B-04755, B-04791,
B-04940, B-05163, B-05198, B-05310,
B-05508,
B-06062,
B-06835,
B-07359,
B-07430,
B-07752,
B-08155,
B-08378,
B-08584,
B-08921,
B-09523,
B-09699,
B-09904,
B-10165,
B-10681,
B-10993,
B-11233,
B-11253,
B-11996,
B-12310,
B-12581,
B-13569,
B-13856,
B-14159,
B-14223,
B-14322,
B-14730,
B-15436,
B-15572,
B-16224,
B-16346,
B-16720,
B-16968,
B-17343,
B-17979,
B-18143,
B-19029,
B-19394,
B-19692,
B-19845,
B-20141,
B-20437,
B-20738,
B-21117,
B-21238,
B-21381,
B-22001,
B-22160,
B-22501,
B-22615,
B-22756,
B-22871,
B-23146,
B-23231,
B-23331,
B-23674,
B-23822,
B-24048,
B-24290,
B-24613,
B-24675,
B-24756,
B-24954,
B-25079,
B-25165,
B-25217,
B-25416,
B-25602,
B-25795,
B-26143,
C-01363,
C-04040,
C-08123,
C-22391,
D-02818,
D-22591,
B-05531,
B-06307,
B-06999,
B-07385,
B-07466,
B-07931,
B-08342,
B-08429,
B-08836,
B-09163,
B-09546,
B-09788,
B-09923,
B-10264,
B-10692,
B-11005,
B-11238,
B-11256,
B-12040,
B-12442,
B-13015,
B-13570,
B-13857,
B-14162,
B-14269,
B-14473,
B-15031,
B-15489,
B-15665,
B-16248,
B-16496,
B-16731,
B-17004,
B-17531,
B-18034,
B-18154,
B-19261,
B-19471,
B-19724,
B-20035,
B-20188,
B-20485,
B-20779,
B-21136,
B-21268,
B-21720,
B-22057,
B-22291,
B-22505,
B-22661,
B-22792,
B-22986,
B-23176,
B-23262,
B-23374,
B-23682,
B-23879,
B-24168,
B-24441,
B-24630,
B-24678,
B-24826,
B-24985,
B-25127,
B-25170,
B-25269,
B-25427,
B-25663,
B-25833,
B-26211,
C-01856,
C-07721,
C-09107,
C-22882,
D-05260,
D-22812,
B-05853,
B-06543,
B-07075,
B-07416,
B-07515,
B-08085,
B-08346,
B-08470,
B-08863,
B-09191,
B-09607,
B-09789,
B-09999,
B-10493,
B-10704,
B-11159,
B-11251,
B-11262,
B-12091,
B-12503,
B-13057,
B-13674,
B-13983,
B-14194,
B-14270,
B-14632,
B-15155,
B-15532,
B-15902,
B-16250,
B-16500,
B-16862,
B-17124,
B-17672,
B-18110,
B-1816I,
B-19340,
B-19541,
B-19803,
B-20073,
B-20243,
B-20526,
B-20854,
B-21200,
B-21313,
B-21819,
B-22070,
B-22327,
B-22552,
B-22671,
B-22868,
B-23027,
B-23220,
B-23305,
B-23376,
B-23708,
B-23880,
B-24181,
B-24589,
B-24642,
B-24697,
B-24837,
B-25019,
B-25139,
B-25184,
B-25320,
B-25517,
B-25743,
B-25973,
B-26237,
C-01857,
C-07787,
C-21663,
C-23096,
D-06755,
D-23356,
B-05868,
B-06697,
B-07229,
B-07425,
B-07674,
B-08146,
B-08348,
B-08492,
B-08870,
B-09496,
B-09666,
B-09833,
B-10003,
B-10655,
B-10933,
B-11229,
B-11252,
B-11910,
B-12234,
B-12574,
B-13394,
B-13767,
B-14137,
B-14207,
B-14294,
B-14707,
B-15378,
B-15543,
B-16068,
B-16282,
B-16681,
B-16872,
B-17318,
B-17905,
B-18142,
B-18290,
B-19380,
B-19608,
B-19834,
B-20097,
B-20392,
B-20696,
B-20914,
B-21232,
B-21324,
B-21886,
B-22071,
B-22401,
B-22560,
B-22702,
B-22869,
B-23140,
B-23221,
B-23315,
B-23504,
B-23773,
B-23955,
B-24190,
B-24609,
B-24673,
B-24707,
B-24881,
B-25047,
B-25164,
B-25207,
B-25323,
B-25584,
B-25786,
B-26063,
C-01354,
C-02921,
C-07848,
C-22342,
D-01790,
D-07951,
E-09417,
-------
284
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
E-10368, E-11624, E-16985, F-00530,
F-01379, F-02743, F-04939, F-09769,
F-11163, F-13487, G-24021, H-02299,
H-06967, 1-07553, J-01308, J-01546,
J-01707, J-08059, J-lllll, J-11114,
J-12418, J-15889, J-16122, J-16129,
J-17203, J-21241, J-26193, K-02010,
K-06778, K-09921, L-00311, L-01265,
L-01585, L-01890, L-02052, L-02960,
L-03277, L-06615, L-06686, L-07794,
L-08062, L-09474, L-10166, L-11526,
L-17472, L-18223, L-19062, L-20698,
L-24033, M-25193, N-21360
CONTROL METHODS A-00532, A-01480,
A-01489, A-02014, A-02501, A-02633,
A-02634, A-03072, A-03587, A-04778,
A-04937, A-05011, A-05067, A-06040,
A-06978, A-07642, A-07759, A-08390,
A-08391, A-08392, A-09103, A-09161,
A-09686, A-09831, A-10442, A-10743,
A-11739, A-11790, A-11968, A-11982,
A-12266, A-12619, A-13141, A-13330,
A-13410, A-13494, A-13511, A-13855,
A-14400, A-14478, A-14574, A-15391,
A-15517, A-15620, A-16410, A-16722,
A-16788, A-16887, A-16949, A-17418,
A-17483, A-17910, A-18052, A-18114,
A-18177, A-19017, A-19038, A-19318,
A-19511, A-21191, A-21204, A-22649,
A-22800, A-22875, A-23044, A-23359,
A-23379, A-23884, A-24535, A-24817,
A-24916, A-24955, A-24978, A-25062,
A-25689, A-25690, A-25867, A-26226,
B-00107, B-00135, B-00140, B-00205,
B-00222, B-00276, B-00544, B-00564,
B-00567, B-00568, B-00687, B-00975,
B-01187, B-01245, B-01362, B-01493,
B-01712, B-01726, B-01727, B-01796,
B-01799, B-01866, B-02036, B-02053,
B-02149, B-02192, B-02195, B-02311,
B-02398, B-02407, B-02408, B-02424,
B-02727, B-02772, B-02778, B-02813,
B-02908, B-02909, B-02931, B-02970,
B-02971, B-03045, B-03053, B-03232,
B-03337, B-0358I, B-03879, B-03974,
B-04200, B-04506, B-04507, B-04516,
B-04634, B-04655, B-04791, B-04842,
B-04940, B-05162, B-05163, B-05198,
B-05258, B-05338, B-05454, B-05508,
B-05529, B-05853, B-05857, B-06136,
B-06278, B-06297, B-06307, B-06345,
B-06490, B-06543, B-06636, B-06697,
B-06999, B-07385, B-07416, B-07417,
B-07425, B-07430, B-07466, B-07515,
B-07673, B-07752, B-07931, B-07962,
B-08080, B-08085, B-08155, B-08342,
B-08346, B-08347, B-08352, B-08371,
B-08378, B-08429, B-08470, B-08492,
B-08574, B-08584, B-08713, B-08825,
B-08836, B-08863, B-08870, B-08898,
B-08908, B-08917, B-08938, B-09163,
B-09191, B-09195, B-09523, B-09600,
B-09607, B-09666, B-09788, B-09789,
B-09833, B-09904, B-09905, B-09971,
B-09996, B-09999, B-10264, B-10281,
B-10336, B-10399, B-10493, B-10563,
B-10591, B-10655, B-10680, B-10681,
B-10692, B-10770, B-10968, B-10993,
B-1I005, B-11055, B-11131, B-11159,
B-11178, B-1I191, B-11215, B-11233,
B-11238, B-11240, B-11247, B-11250,
B-I1251, B-11252, B-11253, B-11256,
B-11262, B-11281, B-11847, B-11854,
B-11906, B-11910, B-11929, B-11976,
B-11985, B-11996, B-12040, B-12091,
B-12092, B-12234, B-12253, B-12308,
B-12310,
B-12443,
B-12581,
B-13051,
B-13394,
B-13570,
B-13636,
B-13767,
B-13835,
B-14087,
B-14207,
B-14394,
B-14660,
B-14891,
B-15148,
B-15284,
B-15436,
B-15560,
B-15738,
B-15913,
B-15976,
B-16240,
B-16282,
B-16500,
B-16681,
B-16872,
B-17250,
B-17672,
B-17979,
B-18143,
B-18296,
B-19189,
B-19373,
B-19395,
B-19482,
B-19602,
B-19642,
B-19803,
B-19874,
B-20063,
B-20223,
B-20526,
B-20563,
B-20794,
B-21005,
B-21234,
B-21381,
B-21643,
B-22001,
B-22070,
B-22127,
B-22291,
B-22505,
B-22740,
B-22861,
B-22883,
B-23027,
B-23176,
B-23305,
B-23374,
B-23526,
B-23718,
B-23867,
B-24048,
B-24181,
B-24269,
B-24458,
B-24565,
B-24642,
B-24678,
B-24756,
B-24837,
B-25071,
B-25164,
B-25186,
B-25323,
B-12417,
B-12446,
B-12645,
B-13052,
B-13501,
B-13578,
B-13639,
B-13813,
B-13856,
B-14137,
B-14261,
B-14546,
B-14707,
B-14981,
B-15240,
B-15357,
B-15489,
B-15572,
B-15841,
B-15933,
B-16068,
B-16248,
B-16346,
B-16502,
B-16731,
B-16968,
B-17318,
B-17685,
B-18034,
B-18154,
B-19029,
B-19261,
B-19378,
B-19471,
B-19541,
B-19608,
B-19670,
B-19804,
B-19876,
B-20073,
B-20262,
B-20539,
B-20663,
B-20854,
B-21028,
B-21238,
B-21504,
B-21720,
B-22012,
B-22071,
B-22160,
B-22327,
B-22615,
B-22756,
B-22868,
B-22905,
B-23054,
B-23221,
B-23315,
B-23376,
B-23544,
B-23757,
B-23879,
B-24073,
B-24190,
B-24270,
B-24480,
B-24589,
B-24643,
B-24681,
B-24777,
B-24922,
B-25088,
B-25165,
B-25269,
B-25416,
B-12424,
B-12503,
B-12797,
B-13171,
B-13523,
B-13584,
B-13663,
B-13817,
B-14001,
B-14159,
B-14269,
B-14566,
B-14730,
B-15031,
B-15244,
B-15358,
B-15516,
B-15692,
B-15844,
B-15946,
B-16173,
B-16250,
B-16418,
B-16510,
B-16851,
B-17004,
B-17338,
B-17782,
B-18110,
B-18167,
B-19034,
B-19339,
B-19380,
B-19475,
B-19560,
B-19619,
B-19692,
B-19834,
B-19972,
B-20082,
B-20392,
B-20550,
B-20696,
B-20914,
B-21200,
B-21268,
B-21506,
B-21819,
B-22014,
B-22103,
B-22175,
B-22441,
B-22671,
B-22806,
B-22869,
B-22961,
B-23140,
B-23231,
B-23331,
B-23447,
B-23682,
B-23773,
B-23880,
B-24142,
B-24207,
B-24397,
B-24516,
B-24609,
B-24673,
B-24697,
B-24785,
B-24985,
B-25127,
B-25170,
B-25284,
B-25427,
B-12442,
B-12574,
B-13019,
B-13243,
B-13569,
B-13592,
B-13721,
B-13829,
B-14057,
B-14162,
B-14322,
B-14632,
B-14838,
B-15092,
B-15251,
B-15378,
B-15544,
B-15693,
B-15902,
B-15962,
B-16224,
B-16279,
B-16425,
B-16548,
B-16862,
B-17124,
B-17392,
B-17905,
B-18111,
B-18290,
B-19048,
B-19340,
B-19394,
B-19480,
B-19581,
B-19629,
B-19733,
B-19845,
B-20035,
B-20141,
B-20425,
B-20552,
B-20729,
B-20995,
B-21232,
B-21275,
B-21594,
B-21893,
B-22057,
B-22110,
B-22279,
B-22501,
B-22702,
B-22809,
B-22871,
B-22981,
B-23146,
B-23237,
B-23373,
B-23504,
B-23708,
B-23822,
B-24019,
B-24168,
B-24253,
B-24441,
B-24554,
B-24613,
B-24675,
B-24707,
B-24826,
B-25038,
B-25139,
B-25184,
B-25320,
B-25494,
B-25503, B-25517, B-25560, B-25584,
B-25602, B-25677, B-25702, B-25743,
B-25744, B-25786, B-25787, B-25795,
B-25833, B-25913, B-25973, B-26063,
B-26084, B-26155, B-26211, B-26220,
B-26230, B-26237, C-00945, C-02668,
C-11193, C-16860, C-21663, C-22391,
D-01790, D-02979, D-03432, D-09591,
D-11525, D-16237, D-22591, E-00023,
E-10153, E-10608, E-11065, E-24569,
E-25212, F-00530, F-01852, F-02743,
F-04939, F-09064, F-09967, F-11782,
F-13411, F-13487, F-13573, F-13601,
F-13766, F-14814, F-14851, F-16376,
F-18170, F-18185, G-01865, G-11828,
G-24021, H-01589, H-06967, 1-04622,
J-00166, J-01546, J-01659, J-01660,
J-01707, J-02413, J-08059, J-08867,
J-lllll, J-11114, J-11846, J-15510,
J-15889, J-16122, J-16129, J-17203,
J-19685, J-23800, J-25961, J-26193,
K-00167, K-06696, K-21896, L-00206,
L-00973, L-01265, L-01590, L-02960,
L-06686, L-06730, L-06737, L-06739,
L-08686, L-09443, L-09474, L-10503,
L-10998, L-11185, L-11242, L-11283,
L-11319, L-11383, L-11526, L-11781,
L-13049, L-13055, L-14535, L-14598,
L-17006, L-18223, L-19062, L-20698,
L-24033, M-01567, M-08072, M-25143,
M-25193, N-01063, N-02632, N-03344,
N-07431, N-21289, N-21360, N-23125
CONTROL PROGRAMS A-01480, A-02501,
A-02765, A-04333, A-07963, A-10743,
A-19434, A-21191, A-22800, A-26299,
B-00975, B-02192, B-14159, B-14270,
D-03432, D-11525, E-10153, E-10368,
G-18109, H-06967, J-00253, J-01546,
J-01679, J-lllll, L-00206, L-01265,
L-01585, L-01590, L-01890, L-02052,
L-02960, L-03452, L-05105, L-05499,
L-06615, L-07950, L-08062, L-08686,
L-09073, L-09443, L-09474, L-11319,
L-11526, L-12461, L-14535, L-17321,
L-24214, L-25688, M-00336, M-01567,
N-03344, N-18206
CONTROLLED ATMOSPHERES C-21663,
D-22812
CONVECTION B-09469, B-09833
CONVECTION (ATMOSPHERIC) E-13965,
E-24109
COOLING A-07644, B-07673, B-07931,
B-08836, B-09607, B-09833, B-12581,
B-19541, B-19560, B-19670, B-21200,
B-24001, B-24785, B-25088, B-25323,
E-24109, E-24439, F-01379, F-01380,
F-11163, N-13513
COPPER A-09686, B-00107, B-11906,
B-24697, D-07951, D-09591, H-00316,
1-07553
COPPER ALLOYS B-00107, B-24697
COPPER COMPOUNDS A-05067, A-06351,
A-09831, A-21383, B-02407, B-03337,
B-08347, B-14566, B-24253, B-25503,
D-07951, D-09591
CORE OVENS B-00107, B-19733, 1-07553
CORN B-08938
CORONA B-01615, B-04940, B-05868,
B-08348, B-09789, B-10704, B-11929,
B-15532, B-15543, B-22560, B-25207,
C-01354, C-01857, F-09769
CORROSION A-19017, A-21999, A-23359,
A-24005, B-03337, B-03974, B-05853,
B-06999, B-07466, B-08085, B-08836,
B-09191, B-09607, B-09833, B-10680,
B-10681, B-12581, B-13639, B-14394,
-------
SUBJECT INDEX
285
B-14838, B-15572, B-16863, B-18296,
B-20082, B-21643, B-22110, B-22327,
B-22740, B-23376, B-24697, B-25637,
B-25677, F-14876, F-16883, G-08232,
1-04622, 1-07553, 1-11286, 1-13086,
1-20820, J-00166, L-11266, N-22794
COSTS A-02501, A-04778, A-05530,
A-07642, A-07644, A-07645, A-07647,
A-07759, A-08388, A-08390, A-08391,
A-08393, A-09075, A-09194, A-09539,
A-10442, A-11739, A-11789, A-12088,
A-12285, A-13292, A-13316, A-13479,
A-13515, A-13832, A-15517, A-16489,
A-16492, A-16887, A-18078, A-18176,
A-19024, A-19511, A-19994, A-21221,
A-22649, A-22800, A-22875, A-23379,
A-23954, A-24951, A-24955, A-25418,
A-25689, B-00140, B-00205, B-00564,
B-00567, B-00568, B-00687, B-01245,
B-01362, B-01493, B-01726, B-01727,
B-02036, B-02195, B-02407, B-02424,
B-02727, B-02778, B-02909, B-03879,
B-04200, B-04506, B-04508, B-04791,
B-05198, B-05338, B-05454, B-06136,
B-06345, B-07075, B-07229, B-07430,
B-07515, B-07673, B-07752, B-08080,
B-08342, B-08346, B-08378, B-08470,
B-08825, B-08836, B-08863, B-08908,
B-08917, B-08926, B-09607, B-09666,
B-09699, B-09789, B-09833, B-09905,
B-09971, B-09999, B-10281, B-10655,
B-10681, B-10968, B-11233, B-11238,
B-11240, B-11247, B-11250, B-11281,
B-11847, B-11910, B-12040, B-12091,
B-12253, B-12424, B-12581, B-12645,
B-13171, B-13501, B-13592, B-13674,
B-13829, B-14001, B-14137, B-14194,
B-14261, B-14269, B-14730, B-15240,
B-15489, B-15516, B-15572, B-15738,
B-16173, B-16248, B-16282, B-16418,
B-16681, B-16720, B-16746, B-16815,
B-16851, B-16862, B-16872, B-18034,
B-18063, B-18143, B-19048, B-19340,
B-19394, B-19803, B-20082, B-20141,
B-20425, B-20552, B-20794, B-20854,
B-20914, B-21381, B-21504, B-21720,
B-21893, B-22868, B-22869, B-23054,
B-23220, B-23315, B-23373, B-23708,
B-23757, B-23867, B-23880, B-23955,
B-24073, B-24181, B-24589, B-24609,
B-24613, B-24678, B-24681, B-24697,
B-24707, B-24881, B-24954, B-24985,
B-25047, B-25127, B-25427, B-25503,
B-25584, B-26143, C-22885, D-09984,
D-11525, E-11065, F-01379, F-01380,
F-02743, F-11257, F-11782, F-13191,
F-13487, F-16210, F-18170, G-01340,
G-11828, G-24021, H-06967, H-11733,
J-00166, J-00253, J-00978, J-01308,
J-01546, J-01659, J-01660, J-01679,
J-01707, J-02151, 1-02413, J-02918,
J-07643, J-08059, J-08867, J-1I111,
J-11114, J-11846, J-12418, J-15510,
J-15889, J-16122, J-16129, J-16174,
J-16506, J-17203, J-19685, J-20054,
J-21241, J-23800, J-25961, J-26193,
K-00167, L-00206, L-01585, L-01654,
L-01890, L-06686, L-06735, L-06737,
L-06739 L-07794, L-08062, L-08686,
L-09073, L-10503, L-10998, L-11185,
L-11266, L-11283, L-11781, L-12461,
L-13055, L-14598, L-19062, L-21431,
L-25688 M-01220, M-01221, M-01567,
M-08072 N-01063, N-03344, N-05194,
N-13513, N-18206, N-21360, N-23125
COTTON H-05420
COTTONS A-17688, B-07515, B-09788,
1-07553
COUGH G-18109, L-11266
COUNTY GOVERNMENTS B-00107,
L-08062, L-09443
CRACKING 1-07553, 1-20820
CRANKCASE EMISSIONS L-01890,
N-00164
CRANKCASE VENTILATION AIR
L-01890
CRITERIA A-04778, A-05506, A-05530,
A-11739, A-13494, A-14980, A-16410,
A-17051, A-25418, A-26299, B-02398,
B-04791, B-10493, B-12040, B-13394,
B-13501, B-13578, B-13584, B-13592,
B-13829, B-14269, B-14294, B-14322,
B-22792, D-09591, F-01379, F-01380,
F-04939, F-13572, F-13573, F-13601,
G-24021, K-22248, L-00973, L-01265,
L-06188, L-07950, L-08686, L-13055,
L-18121, N-05194, N-13587, N-13591
CROPS B-08938, B-09788, H-00316,
H-02293, H-02299, H-05420, N-00164
CRYSTAL STRUCTURE A-13494,
B-26084, E-24109, E-24439, F-04827,
F-13573
CUMULATIVE METHODS B-02311,
C-00886, D-00657, D-02818, D-06755,
E-03251, E-25815, G-00981, G-02417,
G-21276, L-03277, L-09445
CUPOLAS A-09737, B-00107, B705531,
B-16681, L-07950
CYANIDES B-25744, C-23096, L-24214
CYCLONES (ATMOSPHERIC) E-10220
CZECHOSLOVAKIA A-00691, A-02631,
A-11981, A-11982, A-11988, A-13219,
A-14701, A-17280, A-25545, B-00544,
B-00687, B-00975, B-01796, B-01866,
B-02032, B-03879, B-08492, B-09607,
B-11976, B-11985, B-11996, B-13243,
B-14707, B-17004, B-17318, B-19482,
B-22961, B-25494, C-00945, C-01363,
C-01856, C-02655, C-02668, C-03460,
C-04040, C-11842, D-00858, D-01790,
D-02953, D-02979, D-03514, D-06755,
E-00846, E-01260, E-01261, E-01934,
E-02410, E-03557, E-04033, E-06775,
E-11980, E-26267, F-00530, F-01379,
H-02293, H-20982, J-01679, J-11995,
J-20054, K-02010, L-00206, L-01654,
L-01890, L-02052
D
DATA ANALYSIS A-13511, A-23170,
B-01866, B-07075, B-10993, B-14981,
B-22868, C-01856, D-01790, D-09984,
E-02410, E-07801, E-10219, E-10220,
E-11065, J-11114, N-18206
DATA HANDLING SYSTEMS A-00691,
A-13511, A-14997, A-23170, A-25418,
B-00975, B-01796, B-01866, B-07075,
B-10993, B-14981, B-22868, B-25416,
C-01856, C-20224, D-01790, D-09984,
D-11525, E-01934, E-02410, E-04033,
E-06373, E-07801, E-10219, E-10220,
E-10421, E-11065, E-16629, E-19737,
F-01379, F-22319, J-11114, J-15889,
L-01890, L-02052, L-12461, N-18206
DECISIONS L-18220, L-18223
DECOMPOSITION A-12619, A-13494,
A-25108, A-26226, B-03337, B-09833,
B-19373, B-19471, B-20696, B-22702,
B-24678, B-24922, B-25503, B-26084,
C-04040, C-26139, F-10429
DELAWARE L-01590
DENSITY A-10424, A-13494, A-24005,
B-00567, B-01615, B-03337, B-05868,
B-09163, B-09523, B-09600, B-09904,
B-15616, B-19602, B-22792, B-22871,
B-24269, B-24630, B-24613, C-11193,
C-15925, F-04939, F-11163, L-01890,
L-26157
DEPOSITION A-16855, A-24005, B-07416,
B-12672, B-12797, C-11340, D-25476,
E-05702, E-10608, E-21986, E-24569,
N-21287
DESIGN CRITERIA A-01842, A-02290,
A-04652, A-04778, A-05506, A-05846,
A-07800, A-09169, A-10183, A-12120,
A-13102, A-13832, A-18052, A-19024,
A-23954, A-24508, B-00653, B-00687,
B-01615, B-01712, B-01796, B-02195,
B-02398, B-02407, B-02424, B-02442,
B-02909, B-02974, B-03045, B-03879,
B-05162, B-05310, B-07075, B-07229,
B-07752, B-08342, B-08352, B-08836,
B-09496, B-09546, B-09607, B-09699,
B-09788, B-09789, B-09833, B-09905,
B-09971, B-10003, B-10681, B-11159,
B-11229, B-11238, B-11247, B-11251,
B-11253, B-11256, B-11262, B-11281,
B-11976, B-12310, B-12424, B-12442,
B-12446, B-12581, B-13950, B-13983,
B-14269, B-14294, B-14707, B-14730,
B-15092, B-15284, B-15489, B-15560,
B-15616, B-16250, B-16282, B-16346,
B-16496, B-16720, B-16815, B-16863,
B-17685, B-17782, B-18034, B-18045,
B-19029, B-19541, B-19724, B-19803,
B-20063, B-20097, B-20141, B-20188,
B-20437, B-20738, B-20914, B-21005,
B-21117, B-21200, B-21720, B-22070,
B-22071, B-22110, B-22279, B-22500,
B-22560, B-22671, B-22702, B-22868,
B-22961, B-22986, B-23140, B-23221,
B-23231, B-23237, B-23504, B-23674,
B-23879, B-23955, B-24168, B-24290,
B-24480, B-24516, B-24642, B-24697,
B-24777, B-24785, B-24954, B-25019,
B-25079, B-25164, B-25795, B-25833,
B-25913, B-26143, B-26237, C-00945,
C-01354, C-02655, C-02668, C-12126,
C-16512, C-22882, C-22885, C-25260,
D-16237, E-07843, E-16803, E-19737,
F-01852, F-02743, F-11782, F-13620,
F-16589, J-07643, J-11846, L-10503,
L-11283, L-17321, L-20698, N-17819,
N-22794
DESULFURIZATION OF FUELS A-01480,
A-02501, A-03587, A-06040, A-06978,
A-07642, A-07759, A-08390, A-08391,
A-08392, A-09161, A-0983I, A-10442,
A-11739, A-11790, A-12266, A-13330,
A-13511, A-14400, A-14574, A-15391,
A-15517, A-16949, A-17418, A-18114,
A-18177, A-19038, A-22800, A-23044,
A-23359, A-24955, A-25867, B-00135,
B-00140, B-00205, B-00276, B-00544,
B-00564, B-00567, B-00568, B-01187,
B-01362, B-01493, B-02053, B-02149,
B-02408, B-02424, B-02813, B-02931,
B-02971, B-03337, B-04506, B-04507,
B-05198, B-05258, B-05454, B-05529,
B-06297, B-06345, B-06636, B-06999,
B-07385, B-07416, B-07425, B-07752,
B-08347, B-08429, B-08470, B-08584,
B-08898, B-08908, B-08917, B-09195,
B-09523, B-09666, B-09905, B-09996,
B-09999, B-10281, B-10493, B-10655,
B-10692, B-10968, B-11215, B-11247,
B-11262, B-11910, B-11929, B-12040,
B-12091, B-12253, B-12424, B-13051,
-------
286
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
B-13171, B-13501, B-13570, B-13584,
B-13639, B-13663, B-13813, B-13835,
B-13856, B-14001, B-14162, B-14838,
B-14891, B-15148, B-15240, B-15284,
B-15516, B-15692, B-15693, B-15738,
B-16279, B-16510, B-17124, B-18110,
B-18111, B-18154, B-19339, B-19373,
B-19378, B-19395, B-19471, B-19692,
B-19804, B-20063, B-20223, B-20563,
B-20663, B-20729, B-20794, B-21028,
B-21381, B-21819, B-22057, B-22070,
B-22127, B-22160, B-22505, B-22740,
B-22981, B-23176, B-23315, B-23682,
B-23708, B-23718, B-23757, B-23867,
B-23880, B-24207, B-24458, B-24609,
B-24826, B-24985, B-25284, B-25584,
B-26211, B-26230, D-01790, E-00023,
F-00530, F-01852, F-02743, F-09967,
F-11782, F-13411, F-13573, F-13601,
F-14814, F-14851, F-18170, G-01865,
G-24021, J-00166, J-01546, J-01659,
J-01660, J-02413, J-08059, J-11846,
J-23800, J-25961, K-00167, K-21896,
L-01590, L-06686, L-06739, L-08686,
L-09443, L-09474, L-10998, L-11185,
L-11319, L-11526, L-11781, L-13049,
L-13055, L-14598, L-17006, L-18223,
L-19062, M-08072, N-21360, N-23125
DETERGENT MANUFACTURING
B-09788
DETROIT L-00973
DIESEL ENGINES A-08393, A-09353,
A-09686, A-10424, A-10754, A-16722,
B-04506, B-06636, B-08080, B-10680,
B-10770, B-15544, B-19261, C-00886,
D-00858, D-09591, D-12496, F-11257,
J-00166, L-02011, L-03359, L-05499,
M-25143, N-00164, N-21289
DIFFUSION A-01510, A-06040, A-10284,
A-15701, A-16073, A-22159, B-01796,
B-07466, B-13721, B-15616, B-16815,
B-19834, B-22051, B-22884, B-24001,
B-24681, C-05216, C-09624, C-11340,
C-14733, C-15479, C-16149, C-22511,
D-02953, D-04116, D-06777, D-08858,
D-09984, D-10723, D-11525, E-00023,
E-00846, E-01261, E-01934, E-02410,
E-04033, E-04034, E-04035, E-05702,
E-06775, E-06823, E-06827, E-07428,
E-07843, E-08400, E-10010, E-10219,
E-10220, E-10368, E-10421, E-10751,
E-11065, E-11370, E-1I624, E-11980,
E-12353, E-14271, E-15483, E-15511,
K-16629, E-16687, E-16803, E-17595,
E-17725, E-17734, E-19503, E-19737,
K-20163, E-21073, E-21099, E-22313,
F.-23409, E-24341, E-24391, E-24407,
K-24569, E-25212, E-25229, E-26141,
K-26267, F-10429, L-01890, L-02960,
I.-11266, L-12461, L-25688
DIFFUSION MODELS A-10284, A-15701,
A-16073, B-15616, B-16815, B-24001,
B-24681, C-05216, C-11340, D-04116,
D-09984, D-10723, D-11525, E-00846,
E-01934, E-04033, E-05702, E-06775,
F.-07428, E-08400, E-10010, E-10368,
E-10421, E-10751, E-11065, E-11370,
E-11624, E-11980, E-16629, E-16803,
E-17595, E-19737, E-20163, E-21073,
E-21099, E-22313, E-24341, E-24391,
E-24407, E-25212, E-25229, E-26267,
L-01890, L-11266, L-12461, L-25688
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM G-11339
DIGITAL METHODS E-24391
DIOI.EFINS A-10424
DISCOLORATION 1-07553, 1-20820
DISPERSION A-00532, A-00691, A-01350,
A-01510, A-01842, A-05506, A-06040,
A-10284, A-12335, A-13102, A-14997,
A-15517, A-15701, A-16073, A-16788,
A-16887, A-17051, A-17199, A-21191,
A-22159, A-23170, A-24039, A-24817,
B-00687, B-00975, B-01796, B-02311,
B-04200, B-07466, B-09666, B-09699,
B-10493, B-10770, B-11262, B-11910,
B-12581, B-13057, B-13721, B-14159,
B-15358, B-15572, B-15616, B-16815,
B-18045, B-19029, B-19346, B-19834,
^B-22051, B-22740, B-22884, B-23237,
—^B-23757, B-23974, B-24001, B-24048,
B-24681, B-24985, B-25170, B-25298,
B-25677, C-01856, C-03546, C-04040,
C-05216, C-09624, C-11340, C-14733,
C-15348, C-15479, C-15925, C-16149,
C-18012, C-22511, C-23377, C-26139,
D-02046, D-02953, D-02979, D-03431,
D-04116, D-06777, D-08858, D-09591,
D-09984, D-10723, D-11525, D-16237,
D-23957, D-25476, E-00023, E-00846,
E-01259, E-01260, E-01261, E-01934,
E-02410, E-03251, E-03557, E-04033,
E-04034, E-04035, E-05357, E-05702,
E-06373, E-06775, E-06823, E-06827,
E-07428, E-07801, E-07843, E-08400,
E-09417, E-10010, E-10053, E-10219,
E-10220, E-10368, E-10421, E-10608,
E-10751, E-11065, E-11370, E-11514,
E-11624, E-11980, E-12353, E-14271,
E-15483, E-15511, E-16285, E-16629,
E-16687, E-16803, E-16985, E-17580,
E-17595, E-17612, E-17725, E-17734,
E-19503, E-19737, E-20163, E-20523,
E-21073, E-21099, E-21122, E-21736,
E-21986, E-22313, E-23163, E-23409,
E-24243, E-24341, E-24391, E-24407,
E-24486, E-24509, E-24569, E-25212,
E-25229, E-25815, E-25935, E-26141,
E-26267, F-00530, F-10429, F-11722,
G-00981, H-OI589, H-07786, J-07643,
K-21896, L-01890, L-02960, L-03277,
L-08686, L-11266, L-11319, L-11526,
L-12461, L-18121, L-25688, N-03344
DISPERSIONS B-03879, B-10680, F-11722
DISSIPATION RATES B-23757, C-26139,
E-10010, E-21099
DISSOCIATION B-04791, B-08492, F-16883
DISTILLATE OILS A-07647, A-07759,
A-08393, A-09169, A-09737, A-09831,
A-12576, A-16888, A-23753, B-08080,
B-08713, B-09195, B-10680, B-15148,
D-09591, J-00166, J-13613, K-00167,
L-08686, L-09443, L-11266, M-00336,
M-01220
DIURNAL A-10754, A-15246, D-00657,
D-02818, D-03514, D-04116, D-05428,
D-06819, D-06824, D-08298, D-08858,
D-09591, D-11525, E-07428, E-10229,
E-11514, E-20924, E-21122, E-23723,
E-25229, L-25688, N-00164
DOMESTIC HEATING A-07642, A-07647,
A-07793, A-08392, A-08393, A-09353,
A-09737, A-09831, A-10743, A-11413,
A-11619, A-12285, A-13855, A-14400,
A-14574, A-14701, A-14997, A-16212,
A-16722, A-17357, A-17464, A-18052,
A-19434, A-19511, A-22418, A-23884,
A-24732, A-25259, A-25549, A-26299,
B-02974, B-03053, B-04506, B-04516,
B-06835, B-08080, B-09833, B-10336,
B-18110, B-18296, B-21268, B-25427,
B-25584, C-24245, D-00858, D-02057,
D-03431, D-04116, D-05428, D-07951,
D-08298, D-09591, D-09984, E-08400,
E-10153, E-11065, E-11514, E-15347,
E-25075, F-00530, G-08230, G-08232,
G-11828, G-18109, H-07786, J-01546,
J-07643, J-13613, J-21241, J-26193,
L-00311, L-01890, L-02011, L-03359,
L-07550, L-07950, L-08062, L-09474,
L-11266, L-11781, L-20698, L-26157,
M-00336, N-04212, N-07845, N-21287,
N-21289
DONORA A-16855, F-00530, G-16837,
G-18109
DROPLETS A-16788, B-09833, B-25139,
E-06827, E-24109, E-24486, 1-07553
DRY CLEANING A-00972, D-03431,
L-01265, L-06730, N-04212
DRYING F-08943
DUMPS A-09737, A-11981, A-16073,
B-01799, B-08938, B-09788, D-00858,
L-01890, L-08062, N-00164
DUST FALL A-01350, A-06040, A-10284,
A-15246, B-00975, B-01796, C-04040,
C-07721, C-24412, D-00657, D-06755,
D-07393, D-09591, D-10723, D-22812,
E-21986, F-00530, G-21276, J-01308,
L-01890, L-02052, L-03277, L-05499,
L-07950, L-09445, L-25688
DUSTS A-00532, A-01350, A-02014,
A-04937, A-05506, A-07570, A-10442,
A-10678, A-11982, A-12541, A-13261,
A-13330, A-13410, A-13832, A-15246,
A-16410, A-16788, A-19017, A-19084,
A-19434, A-21916, A-22875, A-24005,
A-24500, A-24817, A-24915, A-25062,
A-25213, B-00140, B-00272, B-01485,
B-01615, B-01712, B-01796, B-02032,
B-02036, B-02149, B-02206, B-02311,
B-02398, B-02909, B-03045, B-03232,
B-04179, B-04508, B-04634, B-04655,
B-04940, B-05163, B-05198, B-05310,
B-06062, B-06307, B-06490, B-07075,
B-07359, B-07385, B-07416, B-07430,
B-07674, B-07931, B-08085, B-08155,
B-08346, B-08348, B-08378, B-08470,
B-08584, B-08825, B-08836, B-09496,
B-09788, B-09789, B-09923, B-10165,
B-10681, B-10933, B-11055, B-11906,
B-11910, B-12442, B-12581, B-13015,
B-13857, B-14194, B-14223, B-14270,
B-14294, B-14473, B-14707, B-15155,
B-16068, B-16720, B-17318, B-17392,
B-17672, B-17905, B-17979, B-18161,
B-19029, B-19346, B-19724, B-19803,
B-19845, B-19972, B-20097, B-20188,
B-20223, B-20243, B-21117, B-21313,
B-21886, B-22070, B-22401, B-22501,
B-22505, B-22560, B-22671, B-22792,
B-23176, B-23220, B-23237, B-23262,
B-23305, B-23674, B-23955, B-24480,
B-24642, B-24643, B-24697, B-24756,
B-25079, B-25127, B-25164, B-25186,
B-25207, B-25217, B-25269, B-25323,
B-25663, B-25744, B-25973, B-26063,
B-26143, C-01857, C-02655, C-04759,
C-07721, C-07787, C-07848, C-08123,
C-09107, C-09624, C-16512, C-17468,
C-17474, C-19519, C-22342, C-22882,
C-23121, C-25260, C-25872, D-02979,
D-03431, D-06755, D-06819, D-07141,
D-07393, D-09591, D-10723, D-22591,
D-23326, E-06775, E-07580, F-04939,
F-07059, F-11722, G-00981, G-01340,
G-02417, G-04136, G-06806, G-07039,
G-07138, G-08230, G-11437, G-12289,
G-14530, G-20700, G-21276, G-23151,
H-02299, H-06967, H-07786, H-20982,
-------
SUBJECT INDEX
287
J-01546, J-15889, J-17203, K-02010,
K-06778, K-09921, L-00206, L-00311,
L-OI890, L-02011, L-02052, L-02960,
L-03359, L-06737, L-07950, L-08062,
L-09474, L-10166, L-17472, L-17473,
M-08072, N-04212, N-21287, N-21289
DYE MANUFACTURING C-04040
ECONOMIC LOSSES A-04778, B-00135,
B-00687, B-00975, D-03432, D-05010,
D-05428, H-06967, J-00166, J-00253,
J-01659, J-01679, J-08059, J-11995,
J-12418, J-16122, J-16174, J-17203,
J-19685, J-20054, K-00167, L-01265,
L-01585, L-03452, L-06735, L-11185,
M-01221
EDUCATION B-08080, L-18220
ELECTRIC CHARGE B-00653, B-04940,
B-07931, B-09789, B-22560, C-17474,
F-02743, F-09769
ELECTRIC FURNACES A-09686, B-00107,
B-25038
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
A-00532, A-00691, A-00943, A-00972,
A-01350, A-01480, A-01510, A-01842,
A-02014, A-02290, A-02501, A-02633,
A-02634, A-02860, A-03072, A-03113,
A-03340, A-03867, A-04224, A-04287,
A-04652, A-04778, A-04937, A-05011,
A-05067, A-05169, A-05506, A-05530,
A-06040, A-07642, A-07644, A-07645,
A-07647, A-07759, A-07793, A-07800,
A-07963, A-08388, A-08391, A-08392,
A-08393, A-09075, A-09161, A-09165,
A-09169, A-09194, A-09353, A-09482,
A-09588, A-09737, A-09831, A-10183,
A-10284, A-10424, A-10442, A-10678,
A-10743, A-10754, A-11411, A-11413,
A-11637, A-11640, A-11655, A-11739,
A-11789, A-11860, A-11968, A-11981,
A-11982, A-11988, A-12088, A-12120,
A-12266, A-12285, A-12335, A-12541,
A-12619, A-13053, A-13102, A-13141,
A-13292, A-13293, A-13316, A-13479,
A-13515, A-13644, A-13785, A-13892,
A-13954, A-13963, A-14378, A-14400,
A-14478, A-14574, A-14701, A-14794,
A-14980, A-14997, A-15246, A-15391,
A-15517, A-15701, A-16073, A-I62I2,
A-16239, A-16410, A-16489, A-16492,
A-16722, A-16788, A-16855, A-16887,
A-16949, A-17051, A-17052, A-17184,
A-17199, A-17280, A-17357, A-17398,
A-17464, A-17483, A-17542, A-17910,
A-18052, A-18056, A-I8078, A-18176,
A-18177, A-18276, A-19024, A-19084,
A-19165, A-I9318, A-19434, A-19511,
A-19994, A-20736, A-20863, A-21191,
A-21204, A-21221, A-2I286, A-21318,
A-21351, A-21916, A-21999, A-22144,
A-22159, A-22418, A-22649, A-22800,
A-22875, A-23044, A-23170, A-23359,
A-23379, A-23619, A-23652, A-23726,
A-23753 A-23954, A-24039, A-24500,
A-24508, A-24535, A-24732, A-24817,
A-24915, A-24916, A-24951, A-24955,
A-24978 A-25062, A-25196, A-25213,
A-25256, A-25259, A-25418, A-25549,
A-25689 A-25690, A-25867, A-25914,
A-25975 A-26085, A-26226, A-26233,
A-26299 B-00107, B-00544, B-00568,
8-0068?' B-00975, B-01493, B-01726,
B-01727 B-01796, B-02036, B-02053,
B-02149, B-02195, B-02206, B-02311,
B-02398, B-02407, B-02424, B-02442,
B-02727, B-02778, B-02908, B-02909,
B-03337, B-03581, B-03879, B-03974,
B-04200, B-04506, B-04508, B-04516,
B-04655, B-04755, B-04791, B-04842,
B-05163, B-05198, B-05310, B-05454^
B-05508, B-05531, B-05857, B-06136,
B-06345, B-06697, B-06999, B-07075,
B-07229, B-07359, B-07417, 6-07466^
B-07515, B-07673, B-07931, B-07962,
B-08146, B-08155, B-08228, B-08342,
B-08346, B-08348, B-08352, B-08429,
B-08470, B-08492, B-08574, B-08713,
B-08836, B-08863, B-08870, B-08908,
B-08917, B-08919, B-08921, B-08923^
B-08925, B-08926, B-08936, B-08937,
B-08938, B-08939, B-08940, B-08942,
B-09163, B-09191, B-09469, B-09496,
B-09600, B-09607, B-09666, B-09699,
B-09789, B-09833, B-09905, B-09923,
B-09971, B-09996, B-09999, B-10003,
B-10264, B-10336, B-10399, B-10493,
B-10563, B-10655, B-10681, B-10704,
B-10770, B-10933, B-10993, B-11005,
B-11159, B-11191, B-11229, B-11233,
B-11238, B-11240, B-11247, B-11250,
B-11251, B-11252, B-11253, B-11256,
B-11262, B-11847, B-11906, B-11910,
B-11976, B-11985, B-11996, B-12040,
B-12234, B-12253, B-12308, B-12310,
B-12417, B-12442, B-12503, B-12574,
B-12581, B-12645, B-13015, B-13019,
B-13057, B-13171, B-13243, B-13394,
B-13523, B-13569, B-13578, B-13674,
B-13767, B-13817, B-13829, B-13983,
B-14057, B-14087, B-14137, B-14159,
B-14207, B-14223, B-14261, B-14269,
B-14270, B-14294, B-14394, B-14473,
B-14566, B-14632, B-14660, B-14707,
B-14730, B-14891, B-14981, B-15031,
B-15092, B-15148, B-15155, B-15240,
B-15251, B-15284, B-15358, B-15436,
B-15489, B-15543, B-15544, B-15572,
B-15616, B-15665, B-15738, B-15841,
B-15844, B-15902, B-15933, B-15946,
B-15976, B-16068, B-16173, B-16224,
B-16240, B-16248, B-16250, B-16282,
B-16346, B-16418, B-16425, B-16496,
B-16500, B-16502, B-16510, B-16548,
B-16681, B-16720, B-16731, B-16746,
B-16815, B-16851, B-16862, B-16863,
B-16872, B-17004, B-17124, B-17250,
B-17318, B-17343, B-17531, B-17672,
B-17685, B-17782, B-17979, B-18034,
B-18045, B-18063, B-18110, B-18142,
B-18143, B-18161, B-18167, B-18296,
B-19029, B-19034, B-19048, B-19346,
B-19394, B-19395, B-I9480, B-19482,
B-19581, B-19608, B-19619, B-19629,
B-19733, B-19803, B-19834, B-19845,
B-19972, B-20035, B-20063, B-20082,
B-20097, B-20141, B-20188, B-20243,
B-20262, B-20392, B-20437, B-20526,
B-20550, B-20552, B-20696, B-20738,
B-20779, B-20794, B-20854, B-20914,
B-21005, B-21028, B-21117, B-21136,
B-21232, B-21234, B-21238, B-21268,
B-21313, B-21324, B-21381, B-21504,
B-21506, B-21594, B-21643, B-21720,
B-21819, B-21886, B-21893, B-22051,
B-22070, B-22071, B-22103, B-22160,
B-22175, B-22291, B-22327, B-22401,
B-22441, B-22500, B-22501, B-22505,
B-22552, B-22559, B-22560, B-22615,
B-22661, B-2267I, B-22756, B-22806,
B-22809, I
B-22871, I
B-23027, I
B-23176, I
B-23237, I
B-23374, I
B-23544, I
B-23757, E
B-23955, I
B-24073, I
B-24190, I
B -24441, I
B-24630, F
B-24697, I
B-24837, I
B -24985, Ł
B-25071, t
B-25139, I
B-25187, I
B-25416, I
B-25529, I
B-25637, I
B-25743, I
B -26063, F
C -00403, C
C-01857, C
C-03546, C
C-05216, C
C-09107, C
C-12510, (
C-15925, C
C-16875, C
C-18012, C
C-22342, C
C-23350, C
C-25147, C
D-00858, I
D-02953, I
D-05260, I
D-07141, I
D-10723, I
D-22591, I
D-25476, I
E-01260, I
E-03251, I
E-05357, I
E-07801, I
E-10053, I
E-10229, I
E-I0751, I
E-11980, I
E-15347, I
E- 16467, I
E- 16985, I
E-17725, I
E-20042, I
E-20924, I
E-21736, I
E-23723, I
E-24407, I
E-24569, I
E-25935, I
F-01379, F
F-09769, I
F- 13487, I
F-14876, I
G -00981, (
G-08232, (
G-16192, (
H-01398, 1
H-20982, 1
J-00978, J.
J-02151, J-
J-08867, J
J-11995, J-
J-15889, J
B-22861, B-22868, B-22869,
B-22883, B-22884, B-22905,
B-23054, B-23140, B-23146,
B-23220, B-23221, B-23231,
B-23305, B-23315, B-23373,
B-23376, B-23504, B-23526,
B-23674, B-23708, B-23718,
B-23822, B-23879, B-23880,
B-23974, B-24001, B-24048,
B-24142, B-24168, B-24181,
B-24207, B-24269, B-24290,
B-24589, B-24609, B-24613,
B-24673, B-24678, B-24681,
B-24707, B-24785, B-24826,
B-24881, B-24922, B-24954,
B-25019, B-25038, B-25047,
B-25079, B-25088, B-25127,
B-25164, B-25165, B-25170,
B-25217, B-25284, B-25298,
B-25427, B-25503, B-25517,
B-25560, B-25584, B-25602,
B-25663, B-25677, B-25702,
B-25744, B-25833, B-25913,
B-26143, B-26220, B-26237,
C-01354, C-01363, C-01856,
C-02655, C-02668, C-02921,
C-03592, C-04040, C-04889,
C-06095, C-07721, C-07787,
C-09624, C-11340, C-11755,
C-14733, C-15348, C-15479,
C-16149, C-16364, C-16512,
C-17419, C-17468, C-17474,
C-19047, C-20224, C-21663,
C-22391, C-22511, C-22885,
C-23377, C-24245, C-24412,
C-25231, C-25260, C-26139,
D-01790, D-02046, D-02818,
D-02979, D-03431, D-03432,
D-05551, D-06777, D-06819,
D-08858, D-09591, D-09984,
D-11525, D-13176, D-16237,
D-22812, D-23356, D-23957,
E-00023, E-00846, E-01259,
E-01261, E-01934, E-02410,
E-03557, E-04033, E-04035,
E-05702, E-06373, E-06823,
E-07843, E-09417, E-10010,
E-10153, E-10219, E-10220,
E-10368, E-10421, E-10608,
E-11065, E-11370, E-11624,
E-12353, E-13965, E-14271,
E-15483, E-15511, E-16285,
E-16629, E-16687, E-16803,
E-17580, E-17595, E-17612,
E-17734, E-19503, E-19737,
E-20068, E-20163, E-20523,
E-21073, E-21099, E-21122,
E-22313, E-23163, E-23409,
E-24243, E-24341, E-24391,
E-24439, E-24486, E-24509,
E-25212, E-25229, E-25815,
E-26141, E-26267, F-00105,
F-01380, F-02743, F-08941,
F-11257, F-13191, F-13400,
F-13601, F-14512, F-14686,
F-16210, F-16589, F-24272,
G-01865, G-02417, G-07138,
G-11437, G-11828, G-12289,
G-20700, G-24021, H-00316,
, H-01589, H-06967, H-11733,
, 1-03222, 1-04622, 1-13086,
J-01308, J-01546, J-01707,
J-02918, J-07643, J-08059,
J-lllll, J-11114, J-11846,
J-12418, J-13613, J-15510,
J-16122, J-16129, J-16174,
-------
288
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
J-16506, J-17203, J-19685, J-20054,
J-21241, J-23511, J-23800, J-25961,
J-26193, K-02010, K-06778, L-00311,
L-01265, L-01585, L-01654, L-01890,
L-02011, L-02052, L-02960, L-03277,
L-03359, L-03452, L-06615, L-06686,
L-06730, L-06737, L-07550, L-07950,
L-08062, L-09073, L-09443, L-09474,
L-10166, L-10503, L-10998, L-11242,
L-11266, L-11319, L-11383, L-11526,
L-12031, L-12461, L-17321, L-17472,
L-17473, L-18223, L-19062, L-21431,
L-24033, L-24214, L-25688, L-26157,
M-01220, M-01221, M-22636, M-25143,
M-25193, N-00164, N-01063, N-04212,
N-05194, N-07431, N-13513, N-13591,
N-14816, N-17819, N-18206, N-21287,
N-21289, N-21360, N-22794, N-23125
ELECTRIC PROPULSION A-01842,
A-02290, A-03867, A-04287, A-07644,
A-07793, A-08393, A-10183, A-14980,
A-16239, B-02442, B-04506, B-09996,
B-21819, B-25529, F-11257, F-14686,
L-06686, N-05194, N-17819
ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES A-07644,
A-07793, A-09165, A-10183, A-24005,
B-00653, B-01485, B-01615, B-02206,
B-03337, B-04940, B-05853, B-05868,
B-06062, B-07931, B-08348, B-08863,
B-09789, B-10704, B-11191, B-11929,
B-14473, B-15532, B-15543, B-18111,
B-20097, B-20485, B-22560, B-22661,
B-22671, B-23305, B-23674, B-23955,
B-25127, B-25207, B-25786, B-26143,
C-01354, C-01857, C-17474, C-25260,
E-10608, E-11370, F-01379, F-02743,
F-04939, F-09769, F-11257, F-16589,
F-24272, L-06686
ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE B-00653,
B-02206, B-06062, B-07931, B-09789,
B-14473, B-20097, B-22661, B-23305,
B-25127, B-25207, B-25786, F-02743,
F-04939, F-09769, F-24272
ELECTROCHEMICAL METHODS
A-10183, A-13494, A-21999, B-02442,
B-24837, B-25913, C-07482, D-22812
ELECTROCONDUCTIVITY ANALYZERS
A-01510, A-15620, A-19084, B-06999,
B-16240, B-25637, C-17468, C-22885,
C-25260, D-02046, D-08858, E-21099,
L-09445, L-17472
ELECTROLYSIS B-02407, B-03337,
B-03581, B-08347, B-23054, B-25913,
J-16129
ELECTRON MICROSCOPY C-22909,
F-15714
ELECTROSTATIC COUNTERS B-00564,
B-02407, F-01852
ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATORS
A-00532, A-00972, A-01350, A-03113,
A-04224, A-04778, A-05011, A-05067,
A-09686, A-11411, A-11413, A-11640,
A-11988, A-17688, A-21204, A-25867,
A-26233, B-00107, B-00135, B-00140,
B-00564, B-00653, B-01485, B-01615,
B-01796, B-02032, B-02036, B-02192,
B-02206, B-02909, B-03232, B-04200,
B-04508, B-04516, B-04655, B-04940,
B-05163, B-05198, B-05508, B-05853,
B-05868, B-06062, B-06307, B-06999,
B-07385, B-07416, B-07425, B-07515,
B-07931, B-08146, B-08155, B-08342,
B-08348, B-08470, B-08492, B-08584,
B-08863, B-08921, B-09163, B-09496,
B-09607, B-09699, B-09789, B-09833,
B-09904, B-10003, B-10655, B-10681,
B-10692, B-10704, B-11005, B-11159,
B-11233, B-11238, B-11251, B-11253,
B-11256, B-11262, B-11996, B-12040,
B-12091, B-12442, B-12574, B-13015,
B-13057, B-13394, B-13569, B-13570,
B-13674, B-13856, B-13857, B-14159,
B-14207, B-14223, B-14270, B-14294,
B-14473, B-14707, B-14730, B-15031,
B-15155, B-15532, B-15543, B-16346,
B-16720, B-16862, B-17343, B-17672,
B-18034, B-18142, B-18290, B-19029,
B-19471, B-19541, B-19724, B-20097,
B-20485, B-20526, B-20738, B-20854,
B-21200, B-21268, B-21381, B-21720,
B-21886, B-22070, B-22401, B-22505,
B-22552, B-22560, B-22661, B-22671,
B-23176, B-23220, B-23305, B-23315,
B-23331, B-23674, B-23955, B-24048,
B-24181, B-24190, B-24589, B-24630,
B-24675, B-24697, B-24756, B-24837,
B-24881, B-24985, B-25047, B-25079,
B-25127, B-25139, B-25164, B-25170,
B-25207, B-25217, B-25269, B-25517,
B-25786, B-25833, B-26063, B-26143,
C-01354, C-01856, C-01857, C-04040,
C-07787, C-08123, C-21663, C-22342,
C-22391, C-23096, D-01790, D-05260,
D-23356, E-11624, F-02743, F-04939,
F-09769, H-02299, H-06967, J-01308,
J-01546, J-01707, J-12418, J-15889,
J-16122, J-21241, J-26193, K-02010,
K-06778, L-01890, L-02052, L-02960,
L-03277, L-06615, L-06686, L-08062,
L-09474, L-18223, L-20698, L-24033,
N-21360
EMISSION INVENTORIES A-00532,
A-00972, A-09737, A-10754, A-17398,
A-22867, A-25213, B-00975, C-11193,
C-14733, D-04116, D-05551, D-07393,
D-09591, D-09984, D-11525, D-13176,
E-08400, E-11065, L-01265, L-01890,
L-03359, L-11266, L-25688
EMISSION STANDARDS A-06040,
A-16410, A-19434, A-19994, B-01362,
B-02036, B-09666, B-10493, B-16720,
B-19471, B-24826, B-25284, B-25298,
C-05216, E-10368, E-23163, J-lllll,
K-02010, K-06696, K-06778, K-09921,
K-22248, L-00206, L-00973, L-01890,
L-06188, L-06615, L-07794, L-09474,
L-14535, L-18121, L-18220, L-20698,
L-25688
EMISSIVITY C-04040, C-07941, F-00530
EMPHYSEMA G-11300, G-20700, G-24021,
L-03359
EMULSIONS B-10680
ENFORCEMENT PROCEDURES A-19434,
A-24500, B-00975, B-14270, J-08059,
K-06778, L-01585, L-01590, L-09073,
L-18220, L-21431
ENGINE DESIGN MODIFICATION
A-17910, A-18052, A-26226, B-04506,
B-18110, J-15889
ENGINE EXHAUSTS A-09353, A-09686,
A-10424, A-10442, A-12619, A-15620,
A-16722, A-16877, B-04506, B-06636,
B-08080, B-08584, B-15544, B-19261,
D-05428, D-06755, D-08298, E-24439,
E-25075, F-00530, G-11828, H-05420,
H-07786, J-01546, L-09445, N-00164,
N-04212, N-07845, N-21287, N-21289
ENGINE OPERATING CYCLES B-08584,
N-00164
ENGINE OPERATION MODIFICATION
A-15620, A-16410, B-04506, B-11191,
B-22071, B-25677, 1-04622
ENGINEERS B-18290, N-01063
ENZYMES F-00530, H-00316
EPIDEMIOLOGY D-02818, F-00530,
G-11339, G-12289, G-16837, G-18109,
G-20700, G-21276
EQUIPMENT CRITERIA A-05506,
A-05530, A-16410, B-02398, B-14269,
B-14294, B-22792, F-04939, L-07950
EQUIPMENT STANDARDS B-18296,
B-22552, E-10368, L-09474, L-18220
ESTERS B-08352, B-12503
ETHERS B-08352, B-12503, B-25744,
B-26211
ETHNIC FACTORS A-24951
ETHYL ALCOHOL B-08352
ETHYLENE B-19373, C-11842, F-22319,
H-02299, H-05420
EUROPE A-00532, A-00691, A-00972,
A-01350, A-01510, A-02014, A-02549,
A-02631, A-02860, A-03113, A-03587,
A-04287, A-06351, A-07570, A-07793,
A-08388, A-09103, A-09353, A-10424,
A-10442, A-10444, A-10678, A-10743,
A-11411, A-11413, A-11637, A-11640,
A-11655, A-11968, A-11981, A-11982,
A-11988, A-12088, A-13102, A-13219,
A-13261, A-13330, A-13644, A-13855,
A-13978, A-14378, A-14400, A-14478,
A-14574, A-14701, A-14794, A-15146,
A-15246, A-16239, A-16410, A-16788,
A-16855, A-16877, A-17017, A-17280,
A-17357, A-17464, A-17910, A-19084,
A-19165, A-19434, A-19444, A-21286,
A-21318, A-21383, A-22144, A-22418,
A-23884, A-24005, A-24915, A-24916,
A-25108, A-25259, A-25545, A-25549,
B-00135, B-00140, B-00205, B-00222,
B-00276, B-00544, B-00564, B-00653,
B-00687, B-00975, B-01245, B-01485,
B-01493, B-01712, B-01727, B-01796,
B-01799, B-01866, B-02032, B-02053,
B-02149, B-02311, B-02398, B-02407,
B-02424, B-02442, B-02778, B-02970,
B-02971, B-02974, B-03045, B-03053,
B-03337, B-03581, B-03879, B-03974,
B-04179, B-04634, B-04791, B-06062,
B-06307, B-06345, B-06835, B-06999,
B-07229, B-07359, B-07673, B-07931,
B-08146, B-08155, B-08371, B-08470,
B-08492, B-08574, B-08584, B-08825,
B-09600, B-09607, B-10165, B-10264,
B-10336, B-10399, B-10591, B-10933,
B-11005, B-11055, B-11247, B-11854,
B-11906, B-11910, B-11976, B-11985,
B-11996, B-13052, B-13057, B-13243,
B-13636, B-13767, B-13817, B-13829,
B-13950, B-13983, B-14057, B-14270,
B-14294, B-14473, B-14546, B-14660,
B-14707, B-15155, B-15244, B-15357,
B-15358, B-15378, B-15489, B-15616,
B-15665, B-15913, B-15946, B-15976,
B-16224, B-16240, B-16250, B-16496,
B-16510, B-16720, B-16863, B-16872,
B-17004, B-17318, B-17672, B-17685,
B-17979, B-18161, B-18296, B-19029,
B-19048, B-19339, B-19346, B-19380,
B-19394, B-19395, B-19475, B-19480,
B-19482, B-19541, B-19608, B-19619,
B-19629, B-19670, B-19678, B-19692,
B-19724, B-19803, B-19804, B-19874,
B-19876, B-20073, B-20141, B-20188,
B-20223, B-20243, B-20425, B-20550,
B-20563, B-20738, B-20995, B-21028,
B-21117, B-21136, B-21200, B-21313,
B-21504, B-21886, B-21893, B-22014,
B-22051, B-22070, B-22103, B-22110,
B-22279, B-22401, B-22500, B-22501,
B-22505, B-22560, B-22671, B-22702,
-------
SUBJECT INDEX
289
B-22740, B-22883, B-22884, B-22905,
B-22961, B-22986, B-23237, B-23305,
B-23315, B-23504, B-23544, B-23674,
B-23718, B-23757, B-23773, B-23879,
B-23955, B-23974, B-24019, B-24270,
B-24397, B-24441, B-24554, B-24565,
B-24609, B-24613, B-24642, B-24697,
B-24707, B-24756, B-24785, B-25127,
B-25139, B-25164, B-25170, B-25186,
B-25217, B-25269, B-25320, B-25323,
B-25427, B-25430, B-25494, B-25584,
B-25637, B-25663, B-25677, B-25743,
B-25744, B-25786, B-25787, B-25795,
B-25833, B-25973, B-26063, B-26084,
B-26143, B-26155, B-26237, C-00403,
C-00886, C-00945, C-01354, C-01363,
C-01856, C-01857, C-02655, C-02668,
C-02921, C-03460, C-03546, C-03592,
C-04040, C-04759, C-05216, C-07848,
C-08123, C-11842, C-14733, C-15348,
C-17474, C-19047, C-19519, C-22342,
C-22511, C-22885, C-22982, C-25147,
C-25872, D-00858, D-01790, D-02046,
D-02057, D-02818, D-02953, D-02979,
D-03514, D-OS260, D-06755, D-06777,
D-06819, D-07141, D-07393, D-08298,
D-08858, D-10723, D-13176, D-16237,
D-22591, D-23326, D-23356, E-00023,
E-00846, E-01259, E-01260, E-01261,
E-01934, E-02410, E-03251, E-03557,
E-04033, E-06775, E-06827, E-07580,
E-08400, E-10153, E-10219, E-10220,
E-10229, E-10368, E-10751, E-11370,
E-11514, E-11980, E-13965, E-15347,
E-16467, E-16629, E-16687, E-16803,
E-16985, E-17612, E-20042, E-20163,
E-20924, E-21122, E-21736, E-21986,
E-22313, E-23163, E-24341, E-25075,
E-25212, E-26267, F-00105, F-00530,
F-01379, F-01380, F-01852, F-02743,
F-09054, F-11135, F-11722, F-13766,
F-14390, F-18170, F-22319, F-22587,
G-00981, G-01340, G-01865, G-02417,
G-06806, G-06826, G-07138, G-08230,
G-08232, G-11437, G-12289, G-14530,
G-16192, G-16837, G-18109, H-02293,
H-02299, H-06967, H-07786, H-19620,
H-20982, J-00166, J-01679, J-01707,
J-02151, J-07643, J-11995, J-17203,
J-20054, K-00167, K-02010, K-06778,
K-09921, K-22248, L-00162, L-00206,
L-00311, L-01654, L-01890, L-02011,
L-02052, L-02831, L-03452, L-07950,
L-09474, L-10166, L-11242, L-11266,
L-11383, L-12031, L-14535, L-17006,
L-17472, L-17473, L-20698, L-21431,
L-24033, M-01567, N-04212, N-07845,
N-21287, N-21289, N-22794
EXCESS AIR A-04778, A-05011, A-05067,
A-09103, A-12619, A-24817, A-26226,
B-02398, B-03974, B-05258, B-07962,
B-08346, B-08870, B-09163, B-09833,
B-10993, B-18167, B-18290, B-19471,
B-20082, B-23880, B-24678, F-09064
EXHAUST SYSTEMS A-13832, B-02032,
B-04179, B-08085, B-08378, B-19724,
B-21313, B-21720, B-22702, B-23262,
B-24697, C-01354, C-21663
EXPERIMENTAL EQUIPMENT A-02290,
A-13494, B-00205, B-01615, B-03879,
B-04634, B-04655, B-04755, B-04842,
B-06307, B-08825, B-09971, B-10165,
B-15532, B-15543, B-15560, B-22560,
C-07787, C-09107, C-22882, E-06373,
E-11624, F-01852, F-09769
EXPERIMENTAL METHODS A-05011,
A-08641, A-13494, A-13511, A-16877,
B-02032, B-03879, B-09469, B-09971,
B-10165, B-H215, B-11233, B-14223,
B-21028, B-23718, B-25186, C-07787,
C-09107, C-18012, C-26139, D-06777,
E-04033, F-04939, F-09769, F-09967,
F-10429, F-13411, F-13572, F-14851,
G-06806, G-06826, G-18109, H-02293
EXPLOSIONS A-17483
EXPOSURE CHAMBERS A-10424
EYE IRRITATION D-03514, G-07138,
G-12289, 1-20820, L-11266
EYES G-07138, G-08232, 1-20820
FALLOUT E-10608
FANNING C-11340, C-15925, E-15483,
E-21122
FANS (BLOWERS) A-13832, B-02032,
B-04179, B-08085, B-19724, B-21313,
B-21720, B-23262, B-24697, C-01354
FARMS F-00530
FEASIBILITY STUDIES A-03072,
A-13644, A-14980, A-21221, B-01187,
B-02813, B-03879, B-06543, B-06697,
B-10681, B-11281, B-13663, B-14730,
B-15665, B-17905, B-20794, B-23221,
B-23504, C-15515, E-15483, F-01379,
F-11782, F-16210, J-01659, J-01660,
J-02413, J-lllll, J-11114, J-11846,
L-06686, L-10998, L-11283, L-14598,
L-19062
FEDERAL GOVERNMENTS A-09353,
A-22800, A-24535, A-26299, B-08917,
B-09996, B-10493, B-22559, B-23176,
B-23880, C-24245, E-06373, G-08232,
H-11733, J-16506, K-00167, L-00206,
L-01654, L-05105, L-05499, L-06615,
L-08062, L-09073, L-09443, L-09474,
L-11266, L-11319, L-18121, L-18220,
L-18223, L-19062, N-21287
FEES L-21431
FEMALES G-11339, G-18109
FERTILIZER MANUFACTURING
A-17357, A-21221, B-14159, B-22441,
B-24142, B-25038, J-21241
FERTILIZING A-08392, B-08836, B-08938,
B-09788, B-09996, B-10281, B-10591,
B-24142, B-25038, H-02293, L-11242
FIELD TESTS B-00975, B-05857, B-07075,
B-09546, B-09833, B-10264, B-12308,
B-23140, C-01363, C-03460, C-04040,
C-16364, C-22882, D-06777, D-09984,
E-04033, E-10010, E-20523, F-13411
FILTER FABRICS A-09686, A-13410,
B-00107, B-00140, B-04508, B-04755,
B-05163, B-07075, B-07385, B-07416,
B-07515, B-08155, B-08870, B-09788,
B-09833, B-10003, B-12310, B-14207,
B-14270, B-20188, B-22057, B-22505,
B-23955, B-24290, D-02818, D-07951,
D-22812, F-09769, F-11163, 1-07553
FILTERS A-00972, A-03587, A-04778,
A-04937, A-08392, A-09686, A-13410,
A-19994, A-26233, B-00107, B-00140,
B-00205, B-01187, B-01712, B-02053,
B-04508, B-04516, B-04655, B-04755,
B-05163, B-05310, B-07075, B-07229,
B-07385, B-07416, B-07515, B-08155,
B-08870, B-09788, B-09833, B-10003,
B-11910, B-12310, B-13394, B-13569,
B-14207, B-14223, B-14269, B-14270,
B-14707, B-16720, B-16872, B-18154,
B-18161, B-19261, B-19724, B-19834,
B-20188, B-20437, B-20738, B-20854,
B-21324, B-22057, B-22401, B-22505,
B-22615, B-22871, B-23262, B-23315,
B-23955, B-24048, B-24290, B-24642,
B-24697, B-24756, B-24837, B-24881,
B-24985, B-25323, B-26063, C-01363,
C-08123, C-21663, C-22882, D-01790,
D-02818, D-05260, D-06755, D-07951,
D-22812, F-09769, F-11163, H-06967,
1-07553, J-01308, J-01546, J-17203,
J-21241, J-26193, K-09921, L-08062
FIRING METHODS A-00532, A-02633,
A-02634, A-03072, A-04778, A-04937,
A-05011, A-05067, A-09103, A-10442,
A-10743, A-11968, A-12619, A-16410,
A-19038, A-23359, A-23884, A-24817,
A-26226, B-02398, B-03053, B-03974,
B-04516, B-04634, B-05162, B-05163,
B-05258, B-05857, B-07962, B-08085,
B-08346, B-08870, B-08908, B-09163,
B-09833, B-10399, B-10993, B-11191,
B-12308, B-12443, B-12446, B-13394,
B-13813, B-15560, B-16068, B-16502,
B-17250, B-17392, B-17782, B-18167,
B-18290, B-18296, B-19034, B-19471,
B-20082, B-21234, B-21381, B-21643,
B-23880, B-24073, B-24480, B-24642,
B-24678, B-25517, D-11525, E-11065,
F-01852, F-04939, F-09064, F-16376,
L-20698
FLAME AFTERBURNERS B-20243
FLAME IONIZATION DETECTOR
A-05067, A-22144
FLORIDA C-16875, C-18012, L-00973,
L-11266, L-18223
FLOW RATES A-09103, A-09165, A-24005,
A-25196, B-05162, B-05310, B-05508,
B-05531, B-05868, B-07075, B-07430,
B-07674, B-08347, B-08348, B-08352,
B-08863, B-08870, B-08939, B-09163,
B-09788, B-09789, B-09833, B-19560,
B-19834, B-22110, B-22401, B-22756,
B-22792, B-23221, B-23262, B-23305,
B-24270, B-24554, B-24642, B-25416,
B-26143, C-01354, C-07787, C-09107,
C-22882, C-23121, C-25260, E-06775,
E-24569, F-09967, F-14851
FLOWERS H-02299, H-05420, H-06967
FLOWMETERS B-07075, B-08352, C-01354
FLUID FLOW A-09103, A-09165, A-24005,
A-25196, B-05162, B-05310, B-05508,
B-05531, B-05853, B-05868, B-07075,
B-07430, B-07674, B-08347, B-08348,
B-08352, B-08863, B-08870, B-08939,
B-09163, B-09788, B-09789, B-09833,
B-10704, B-19560, B-19629, B-19834,
B-22110, B-22401, B-22756, B-22792,
B-22961, B-23221, B-23262, B-23305,
B-24270, B-24554, B-24642, B-25416,
B-26143, C-01354, C-07787, C-09107,
C-11340, C-22882, C-23121, C-25260,
E-06775, E-09417, E-24569, F-09967,
F-11722, F-11782, F-14851
FLUORANTHENES A-05067, A-10424,
A-16877, C-00945
FLUORESCENCE A-07570, C-04040,
C-26139
FLUORIDES A-17464, B-11238, B-25038,
C-23096, D-03514, D-22812, H-00316,
H-01398, H-02299, H-05420, H-07786,
1-07553, K-02010, L-00973, N-04212
FLUORINE A-06351, A-19434, A-22875,
B-25427, D-22812, H-06967, L-24033
FLUORINE COMPOUNDS A-17357,
A-17464, A-24039, B-11238, B-25038,
-------
290
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
B-25427, C-23096, D-03514, D-22812,
H-00316, H-01398, H-02299, H-05420,
H-06967, H-07786, 1-07553, K-02010,
L-00973, L-03452, L-17472, N-04212,
N-21287
FLY ASH A-00532, A-00972, A-02860,
A-03113, A-04937, A-05067, A-05169,
A-09161, A-09194, A-09686, A-09831,
A-10442, A-11411, A-11413, A-11502,
A-11860, A-11981, A-11982, A-11988,
A-12266, A-13832, A-14478, A-16855,
A-16949, A-19318, A-21286, A-21351,
A-22418, A-22875, A-23359, A-24535,
A-24732, A-25689, A-25867, B-00107,
B-00135, B-00140, B-00653, B-01187,
B-01245, B-01362, B-01615, B-02192,
B-02206, B-02908, B-02909, B-02974,
B-03879, B-04200, B-04940, B-05163,
B-05310, B-05508, B-05531, B-05853,
B-05868, B-06490, B-06697, B-06835,
B-07359, B-07430, B-07515, B-07752,
B-08085, B-08146, B-08155, B-08348,
B-08492, B-08825, B-08863, B-08870,
B-08919, B-08921, B-08922, B-08923,
B-08925, B-08926, B-08936, B-08937,
B-08938, B-08939, B-08940, B-08942,
B-09191, B-09496, B-09600, B-09607,
B-09789, B-09833, B-09904, B-10264,
B-10655, B-10681, B-10704, B-11005,
B-11159, B-11253, B-11262, B-11996,
B-12310, B-12417, B-12574, B-12797,
B-14087, B-14137, B-14159, B-14269,
B-14730, B-15031, B-15251, B-15543,
B-15665, B-15902, B-16173, B-16224,
B-16248, B-16502, B-16746, B-16862,
B-18034, B-18063, B-18142, B-19471,
B-19480, B-19541, B-19834, B-19845,
B-20082, B-20485, B-20552, B-20854,
B-21268, B-21313, B-21643, B-21720,
B-22175, B-22661, B-22756, B-22869,
B-22871, B-22961, B-23140, B-23220,
B-23331, B-23822, B-24181, B-24480,
B-24630, B-24675, B-24837, B-25038,
B-25079, B-25170, B-25207, B-25517,
B-25786, C-00403, C-00886, C-03460,
C-04040, C-04889, C-07941, C-13477,
C-16734, C-16860, C-22909, C-25260,
C-26139, D-01790, D-02979, D-05260,
D-07141, K-00023, E-07843, E-10219,
K-11370, K-11624, R-I6687, K-16803,
K-25815, F-00530, F-04939, F-08941,
F-08943, F-09769, F-15714, G-02417,
G-07138, H-07786, J-01308, J-01546,
J-01707, J-02151, J-06845, J-12418,
K-06696, K-22248, L-00206, L-00311,
I.-00973, L-01654, L-02831, L-02960,
I.-03277, I.-07550, L-07794, I.-09443,
I.-09474, I.-19062, L-20698, M-08072,
N-02632, N-04432, N-07431, N-21289,
N-21360
FOO A-OI5IO, A-22159, B-17531, D-08858,
K-06827, F-24109, K-24439, E-24486,
G-00981, Ci-08230, G-08232, G-16837,
G-18109, H-02299, N-04212
FOOD AND FFKD OPERATIONS
A-00972, A-09686, A-25213, B-09788,
D-2II17, B-25019, D-00858, D-12496,
G-11828, H-06967, J-26193, I.-01890,
I.-06730, L-08062
FOODS A-25914
FORESTS C-16875, C-18012, K-10153,
F-00530, H-01014, H-07786
FORMALDEHYDES A-00532, A-03113,
A-05011, A-05067, A-16722, B-06636,
C-03592, D-22812
FRACTIONATION B-25184
FRANCE A-08388, A-13855, A-17357,
A-19165, A-22144, B-00222, B-00276,
B-01866, B-02149, B-02424, B-03337,
B-03974, B-06345, B-06835, B-07359,
B-13057, B-15358, B-15378, B-15616,
B-17672, B-19480, B-20073, B-22401,
B-22560, B-22671, B-22702, B-24785,
B-25677, C-25147, D-06819, F-01852,
F-02743, J-00166, K-00167, L-09474,
L-17006
FREEZING B-09607, B-24001, E-24439,
F-11163
FROTH FLOATATION A-10442, A-18114,
B-00564, B-02931, B-05454, B-06297,
B-09523, B-09666, B-09996, B-10968,
B-12091, B-12253, B-13584, B-13856,
F-13573
FRUITS H-00316, H-02299, H-05420,
H-06967
FUEL ADDITIVES A-10442, B-03974,
B-06999, B-07962, B-08080, B-08713,
B-09163, B-09191, B-10680, B-10770,
B-12253, B-13856, B-14394, B-14838,
B-17672, B-18167, B-19642, B-20082,
B-20563, B-23331, B-24190, B-25164,
C-16860
FUEL CELLS A-02290, A-04287, A-07644,
A-07793, A-08393, A-10183, A-14980,
B-02442, B-04506, B-09996, B-25529,
F-11257, F-14686, L-06686
FUEL CHARGING A-02634, A-10743,
B-04634, B-05162, B-05163, B-08085,
B-10399, B-12308, B-12443, B-24480,
D-11525, F-04939
FUEL CRITERIA A-13494, A-14980,
A-16410, A-17051, B-13394, B-13501,
B-13578, B-13584, B-13592, F-13572,
F-13573, F-13601, G-24021, N-I3587,
N-13591
FUEL EVAPORATION L-00311, L-01890
FUEL GASES A-00972, A-07645, A-07647,
A-08388, A-08390, A-08391, A-08392,
A-09169, A-09539, A-09737, A-09831,
A-10424, A-10442, A-10678, A-11619,
A-11739, A-11789, A-12285, A-13292,
A-13316, A-13515, A-13785, A-13954,
A-13963, A-14794, A-14980, A-15391,
A-16239, A-16722, A-16855, A-16888,
A-I7017, A-17051, A-17910, A-18052,
A-18056, A-18177, A-I8276, A-19511,
A-20736, A-20863, A-21318, A-22144,
A-22418, A-22875, A-23726, A-23753,
A-24817, A-25062, A-25213, A-25256,
A-25259, A-25867, A-26085, B-00107,
B-00140, B-01726, B-03337, B-04200,
B-04516, B-05857, B-06278, B-06543,
B-06697, B-08228, B-08348, B-09195,
B-09666, 13-09833, B-10281, B-10655,
B-10680, B-10770, B-11247, B-11262,
B-11910, B-13394, B-15358, B-19340,
B-19733, B-21268, B-21594, B-22057,
B-22559, B-22702, B-22740, B-22809,
B-23447, B-23718, B-23867, B-23880,
B-24019, B-24458, B-24678, B-25744,
B-25795, B-26063, B-26211, C-04889,
C-17468, C-22982, D-01790, D-03431,
D-04116, D-050IO, D-05260, D-09591,
D-11525, D-12496, D-22812, E-23723,
F-01379, F-01380, F-11782, F-13400,
F-16210, F-18185, H-05420, J-00166,
J-01679, J-13613, L-07550, L-07950,
L-09474, L-11266, L-11526, L-12031,
L-12461, L-14598, L-17321, L-18223,
M-01220, M-01221, M-25188, N-06133,
N-13591, N-21289, N-23125
FUEL OIL PREPARATION A-06040,
A-07759, A-09161, A-09831, A-10442,
A-14400, B-00205, B-01493, B-02149,
B-06345, B-08347, B-08429, B-08584,
B-08917, B-09999, B-10281, B-10692,
B-11929, B-15148, B-20063, B-20794,
B-22057, B-22160, B-22505, B-23708,
B-23718, B-25584, B-26230, G-01865,
G-24021, J-00166, K-00167, K-21896,
L-01590, L-06739, L-08686, L-09474,
L-11185
FUEL OILS A-00943, A-00972, A-01480,
A-04224, A-04778, A-06040, A-07647,
A-07759, A-07963, A-08388, A-08390,
A-08391, A-08393, A-09169, A-09353,
A-09539, A-09737, A-09831, A-09989,
A-10424, A-10442, A-10678, A-10754,
A-11413, A-11619, A-11739, A-12285,
A-12576, A-12633, A-13292, A-13316,
A-13479, A-13515, A-13785, A-13855,
A-13954, A-13963, A-14378, A-15391,
A-15620, A-16239, A-16722, A-16855,
A-16888, A-17051, A-17398, A-18052,
A-18056, A-18177, A-18276, A-19318,
A-20736, A-20863, A-21351, A-21383,
A-22418, A-22867, A-23044, A-23726,
A-23753, A-24500, A-24817, A-25062,
A-25213, A-25256, A-25259, A-25690,
A-26085, B-00107, B-00135, B-00140,
B-00205, B-01493, B-01726, B-02053,
B-02149, B-02813, B-02971, B-03045,
B-03974, B-04200, B-04516, B-04655,
B-04791, B-05454, B-05857, B-06278,
B-06345, B-06697, B-06835, B-06999,
B-07515, B-07962, B-08080, B-08228,
B-08342, B-08346, B-08347, B-08348,
B-08429, B-08470, B-08574, B-08584,
B-08713, B-08836, B-08908, B-08917,
B-09163, B-09191, B-09195, B-09469,
B-09666, B-09833, B-09999, B-10281,
B-10399, B-10655, B-10680, B-10692,
B-10770, B-10968, B-10993, B-11159,
B-11240, B-11247, B-11250, B-11251,
B-11262, B-11281, B-11854, B-11910,
B-11929, B-13394, B-13578, B-14394,
B-15148, B-15240, B-15358, B-15378,
B-15738, B-16418, B-16851, B-16872,
B-18110, B-18296, B-19261, B-19670,
B-19724, B-19972, B-20082, B-20097,
B-20729, B-20854, B-21200, B-21268,
B-21275, B-21594, B-21886, B-21893,
B-22051, B-22291, B-22559, B-22740,
B-23315, B-23447, B-23504, B-23708,
B-23718, B-23757, B-23773, B-24019,
B-24190, B-24207, B-24675, B-24837,
B-24985, B-25127, B-25187, B-25427,
B-25584, B-25677, B-26230, C-00886,
C-03460, C-03546, C-04889, C-07482,
C-07721, C-07848, C-12126, C-15348,
C-16860, C-22982, D-01790, D-03431,
D-04116, D-05010, D-05260, D-05428,
D-06824, D-07393, D-08298, D-09591,
D-11525, D-12496, D-22812, E-06775,
E-07843, E-08400, E-10153, E-11065,
E-11624, E-15178, E-16803, E-17725,
E-17734, E-19737, E-21099, E-23723,
E-24109, F-00530, F-09967, F-11257,
F-11782, F-13400, F-16210, G-01865,
G-06826, G-08232, G-16837, G-23151,
G-24021, H-01398, H-05420, H-11733,
1-07553, J-00166, J-02151, J-08059,
J-11114, J-13613, K-00167, K-09921,
K-21896, L-01399, L-01590, L-01890,
L-03359, L-05105, L-05499, L-07550,
L-07950, L-08686, L-09443, L-09445,
L-09474, L-11185, L-11266, L-11319,
-------
SUBJECT INDEX
291
L-11383, L-11526, L-11781, L-12031, B-06835, B-06999, B-07075, B-07359,
L-13055, L-18121, L-18223, M-00336, B-07385, B-07416, B-07417, B-07425,
M-01220, M-01221, M-25188, N-04212, B-07430, B-07515, B-07674, B-07752,
N-04432, N-06133, N-13429, N-21289, B-07931, B-07962, B-08080, B-08085,
N-21360, N-23125 B-08146, B-08155, B-08228, B-08342,
FUEL STANDARDS A-10442, B-10655, B-08346, B-08347, B-08348, B-08371,
B-19471, B-22559, B-24707, L-05105, B-08378, B-08429, B-08470, B-08492,
L-09474 B-08574, B-08584, B-08713, B-08825,
FUEL TANK EVAPORATION L-00311, B-08836, B-08863, B-08870, B-08898,
L-01890 B-08908, B-08917, B-08919, B-08921,
FUELS A-00532, A-00691, A-00943, B-08922, B-08923, B-08926, B-08936,
A-00972, A-01350, A-01480, A-01489, B-08937, B-08939, B-08940, B-08942,
A-01816, A-02501, A-02549, A-02630, B-09163, B-09191, B-09195, B-09469,
A-02631, A-02633, A-02634, A-02765, B-09496, B-09523, B-09546, B-0960o[
A-02860, A-03072, A-03113, A-03340, B-09666, B-09788, B-09833, B-09904,
A-03587, A-04224, A-04333, A-04778, B-09905, B-09923, B-09971, B-09996,
A-04937, A-05011, A-05067, A-05169, B-09999, B-10165, B-10264' B-1028l!
A-05846, A-06040, A-06351, A-06978, B-10399, B-10493, B-10591, B-10655,
A-07570, A-07642, A-07644, A-07645, B-10680, B-10681, B-10692, B-10770,
A-07647, A-07759, A-07963, A-08388, B-10968, B-10993, B-11005, B-11055,
A-08390, A-08391, A-08392, A-08393, B-11131, B-11159, B-11178, B-11191,
A-08641, A-09103, A-09161, A-09169, B-11215, B-11229, B-11240, B-11247,
A-09194, A-09353, A-09539, A-09686, B-11250, B-11251, B-11253, B-11256,
A-09737, A-09831, A-09989, A-10183, B-11262, B-11281, B-11854, B-11910,
A-10424, A-10442, A-10444, A-10678, B-11929, B-11985, B-12040, B-12091,
A-10740, A-10743, A-10754, A-11411, B-12092, B-12253, B-12424, B-12443,
A-11413, A-11502, A-11619, A-11739, B-12446, B-12574, B-12645, B-12672,
A-11789, A-11790, A-11968, A-11988, B-12797, B-13051, B-13052, B-13243,
A-12120, A-12202, A-12285, A-12541, B-13394, B-13501, B-13570, B-13578,
A-12576, A-12619, A-12633, A-13053, B-13584, B-13592, B-13636, B-13639,
A-13219, A-13261, A-13292, A-13316, B-13663, B-13721, B-13813, B-13835,
A-13330, A-13401, A-13410, A-13479, B-13856, B-13857, B-13950, B-14001,
A-13494, A-13511, A-13515, A-13644, B-14162, B-14194, B-14322, B-14394,
A-13785, A-13832, A-13848, A-13855, B-14546, B-14707, B-14838, B-14891,
A-13954, A-13963, A-13978, A-14378, B-15031, B-15148, B-15240, B-15244,
A-14794, A-14980, A-15146, A-15246, B-15284, B-15357, B-15358, B-15378,
A-15391, A-15517, A-15620, A-16212, B-15516, B-15532, B-15543, B-I5560,
A-16239, A-16256, A-16410, A-16722, B-15692, B-15693, B-15738, B-15913,
A-16788, A-16855, A-16877, A-16887, B-15962, B-16068, B-16248, B-16250,
A-16888, A-16949, A-17017, A-17051, B-16279, B-16282, B-16418, B-16731,
A-17280, A-I7357, A-17398, A-17418, B-16815, B-16851, B-16862, B-16872,
A-17483, A-17688, A-17910, A-18052, B-16968, B-17318, B-17338, B-17392,
A-18056, A-18114, A-18171, A-18177, B-17905, B-18110, B-18111, B-18142,
A-18276, A-19017, A-19024, A-19038, B-18143, B-18154, B-18290, B-18296,
A-19084, A-19318, A-19434, A-19444, B-19189, B-19261, B-19339, B-19340,
A-19511, A-20736, A-20863, A-21286, B-19373, B-19378, B-19380, B-19395,
A-21318, A-21351, A-21383, A-21999, B-19471, B-19475, B-1954I, B-19560,
A-22144, A-22387, A-22418, A-22800, B-I9602, B-19642, B-19670, B-19672,
A-22867, A-22875, A-23044, A-23239, B-I9678, B-19692, B-19724, B-19733,
A-23359, A-23619, A-23652, A-23726, B-19804, B-19845, B-19874, B-19876,
A-23753, A-23884, A-23954, A-24005, B-19972, B-20073, B-20082, B-20097,
A-24039, A-24500, A-24732, A-24817, B-20223, B-20425, B-20485, B-20539,
A-24955, A-25062, A-25108, A-25213, B-20552, B-20563, B-20663, B-20729,
A-25256, A-25259, A-25545, A-25549, B-20854, B-20995, B-21005, B-21136,
A-25689, A-25690, A-25867, A-25975, B-21200, B-21238, B-21268, B-21275,
A-26085, B-00107, B-00135, B-00140, B-21381, B-21594, B-21886, B-21893,
B-00205 B-00222 B-00272, B-00276, B-22001, B-22012, B-22014, B-22051,
B-00544, B-00564, B-00567, B-00568, B-22057, B-22110, B-22127, B-22175,
B-00653 B-00687 B-00975, B-01187, B-22279, B-22291, B-22505, B-22559,
B-01245 B-01362 13-01485, B-01493, B-22661, B-22702, B-22740, B-22792,
B-01615 B-01712, B-01726, B-01796, B-22806, B-22809, B-22861, B-22871,
B-01799 B-01866, B-02032, B-02053, B-22961, B-22981, B-22986, B-23140,
U-02149 B-02192, B-02195, B-02206, B-23176, B-23221, B-23262, B-23305,
H-023II B-02407, B-02408, B-02424, B-233I5, B-23331, B-23374, B-23447,
B-02442' B-02727, B-02772, B-02778, B-23504, B-23544, B-23674, B-23682,
B-02813' B-02908, B-02909, B-02931, B-23708, B-23718, B-23757, B-23773,
B-0297o' B-02971, B-02974, B-03045, B-23822, B-23867, B-23880, B-23974,
B-03053* B-03232, B-03337, B-03581, B-24019, B-24073, B-24181, B-24190,
B-03879 B-03974, B-04179, B-04200, B-24207, B-24253, B-24270, B-24397,
B-04506 B-04507, B-04516, B-04634, B-24458, B-24480, B-24516, B-24554,
B-04655! B-04791, B-04940, B-05162, B-24565, B-24609, B-24630, B-24642,
B 05163' B-05198, B-05258, B-05310, B-24643, B-24675, B-24678, B-24697,
B-05338 B-05454, B-05516, B-05529, B-24756, B-24777, B-24837, B-24985,
B-05853' B-05857, B-05868, B-06062, B-25127, B-25184, B-25186, B-25I87,
B~06278 B-06297, B-06307, B-06345, B-25207, B-25217, B-25269, B-25284,
B 06490 B-06543, B-06636, B-06697, B-25320, B-25323, B-25427, B-25430,
B-25494, B-25584, B-25677, B-25744,
B-25786, B-25787, B-25795, B-25973,
B-26063, B-26084, B-26155, B-26211,
B-26230, C-00886, C-00945, C-01856,
C-01857, C-02655, C-02921, C-03460,
C-03546, C-03592, C-04759, C-04889,
C-07482, C-07516, C-07721, C-07787,
C-07848, C-07941, C-08123, C-09107,
C-11193, C-11842, C-12126, C-12510,
C-13477, C-15348, C-15515, C-16512,
C-16734, C-16860, C-17468, C-19519,
C-22342, C-22882, C-22909, C-22982,
C-23096, C-23121, C-25872, D-00657,
D-00858, D-01790, D-02057, D-02818,
D-03431, D-03432, D-03514, D-04116,
D-05010, D-05260, D-05428, D-05551,
D-06755, D-06824, D-07393, D-07951,
D-08298, D-09591, D-11525, D-12496,
D-22812, D-23326, D-23957, E-00023,
E-04033, E-04034, E-06775, E-06827,
E-07428, E-07580, E-07843, E-08400,
E-10153, E-10421, E-11065, E-11370,
E-11514, E-11624, E-15178, E-16467,
E-16803, E-17725, E-17734, E-19737,
E-21099, E-21986, E-23723, E-24109,
E-25075, F-00530, F-01379, F-01380,
F-01852, F-02743, F-04827, F-04939,
F-07059, F-08941, F-08943, F-09064,
F-09769, F-09967, F-10422, F-10429,
F-11135, F-11163, F-11257, F-11722,
F-11782, F-13027, F-13400, F-13411,
F-13572, F-13573, F-13601, F-13620,
F-13766, F-13834, F-14390, F-14814,
F-14851, F-15714, F-16210, F-16376,
F-16883, F-17592, F-17594, F-18170,
F-18185, F-22319, F-22587, G-00981,
G-01340, G-01865, G-04136, G-06806,
G-06826, G-07039, G-08230, G-08232,
G-11300, G-11339, G-11437, G-14530,
G-16837, G-18109, G-20700, G-21276,
G-23151, G-23670, G-24021, H-01014,
H-01398, H-02293, H-02299, H-05420,
H-07786, H-11733, H-19620, 1-04622,
1-07553, 1-11286, 1-13086, 1-20820,
J-00166, J-00253, J-00978, J-01308,
J-01659, J-01660, J-01679, J-02151,
J-02413, J-06845, J-07643, J-08059,
J-08867, J-lllll, J-11114, J-11846,
J-13613, J-15510, J-15889, J-16174,
J-19685, J-20054, J-23511, J-23800,
K-00167, K-06696, K-09921, K-21896,
K-22248, I.-OOI62, L-00206, L-00311,
L-00973, L-01399, L-01590, L-01890,
L-02831, L-02960, L-03277, L-03359,
L-03452, L-05105, L-05499, L-06188,
L-06686, L-06730, L-06735, L-06739,
L-07550, L-07794, L-07950, L-08686,
L-09443, L-09445, L-09474, L-10166,
L-10503, L-10998, L-11185, L-11266,
L-11283, L-11319, L-11383, L-11526,
L-11781, L-12031, L-12461, L-13049,
L-13055, L-14535, L-14598, L-17006,
L-17321, L-18121, L-18220, L-18223,
L-19062, L-20698, M-00336, M-01220,
M-01221, M-01567, M-08072, M-25143,
M-25188, N-00164, N-01063, N-02632,
N-03344, N-04212, N-04432, N-06133,
N-07431, N-07845, N-13429, N-13587,
N-13591, N-21289, N-21360, N-23125
FUMES A-02014, A-03587, A-09353,
A-17688, A-19165, A-22144, B-00107,
B-02036, B-02727, B-03053, B-04179,
B-07416, B-07515, B-09788, B-09789,
B-14270, B-16720, B-19803, B-22070,
B-23955, D-00657, D-03514, D-07393,
D-09591, E-06823, H-07786, J-01546,
-------
292
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
K-02010, K-06778, L-00311, L-09474,
M-01567
FUMIGATION A-01842, B-25298, D-08858,
E-00846, E-05702, E-11514, E-15483,
F-00530, H-07786
FUNGI G-08230, 1-07553
FURNACES A-00532, A-00972, A-02634,
A-03587, A-04224, A-05067, A-05169,
A-09103, A-09482, A-09686, A-09737,
A-09831, A-10442, A-10743, A-13141,
A-13261, A-13401, A-13832, A-15620,
A-16722, A-18056, A-19017, A-23044,
A-25196, B-00107, B-00544, B-00687,
B-00975, B-02398, B-02407, B-02908,
B-02970, B-03045, B-03053, B-03232,
B-03879, B-05162, B-05531, B-05868,
B-06490, B-06835, B-07416, B-07417,
B-07430, B-07466, B-07673, B-07931,
B-08080, B-08085, B-08155, B-08347,
B-08584, B-08870, B-09191, B-09833,
B-10680, B-10993, B-11251, B-11854,
B-12417, B-12446, B-15544, B-16681,
B-17250, B-18142, B-19261, B-19380,
B-19541, B-19560, B-19670, B-19845,
B-20073, B-20243, B-21275, B-21506,
B-21643, B-22702, B-22986, B-23262,
B-23674, B-25038, B-25139, C-13477,
C-19519, C-22882, D-00657, D-13176,
E-11624, F-01852, F-09967, F-11135,
F-13400, F-13620, G-08232, H-06967,
1-11286, J-01546, K-02010, K-09921,
L-00311, L-02052, L-06730, L-07950,
L-08062, L-09445, L-17006, L-19062,
N-21360
GAMMA RADIATION A-17052, E-05702,
E-21073
GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY A-05067,
A-10424, A-22144, A-22875, A-23884,
C-11755, C-11842, F-10429, F-11163
GAS SAMPLING B-01796, B-18296,
B-19642, B-23757, C-00886, C-01856,
C-06095, C-12510, C-15479, C-17419,
C-21663, C-22342, C-22391, D-08858,
E-11624, L-09474
GAS TURBINES A-04652, A-04778,
A-09169, A-12541, A-16239, A-16722,
A-17910, A-19038, A-21204, B-02424,
B-08713, B-08870, B-09905, B-10770,
B-14394, B-18167, B-20779, B-24954,
C-22882, F-11257, L-09073
GASES A-03113, A-03587, A-07570,
A-10424, A-10442, A-19994, A-24817,
A-25062, A-25867, B-00653, B-00975,
B-01485, B-01493, B-02407, B-02424,
B-02970, B-02974, B-03045, B-03337,
B-04179, B-04634, B-04791, B-05338,
B-07075, B-07673, B-07931, B-08352,
B-08825, B-09833, B-10003, B-10933,
B-11238, B-15902, B-19876, B-25139,
C-09624, E-11370, E-13965, E-24569,
F-10422, F-10429, F-11163, F-13766,
F-14851, F-16376, F-22319, G-02417,
H-02299, 1-04622, 1-07553, K-00167
GASIFICATION (SYNTHESIS) A-08390,
A-08391, A-08392, A-12266, A-15391,
A-24955, A-25867, B-00564, B-02408,
B-02424, B-05454, B-08908, B-09666,
B-09905, B-10281, B-11262, B-11910,
B-12424, B-13813, B-15240, B-16279,
B-16510, B-17124, B-20663, B-20794,
B-23I76, B-23880, F-14851, J-11846,
L-06686, L-11526, L-13049, L-14598,
N-23125
GASOLINES A-00943, A-00972, A-09353,
A-09737, A-10754, A-15620, A-18052,
A-25213, B-04516, B-08713, B-09195,
B-10680, B-19261, B-19670, D-04116,
D-05010, D-05260, D-05551, D-08298,
D-09591, E-24109, F-00530, F-11257,
L-00206, L-01890, L-07550, L-08686,
N-00164, N-13591
GEORGIA A-01489, C-07516, L-11185,
L-11781
GERMANY A-03587, A-10678, A-11411,
A-11413, A-11637, A-11640, A-11655,
A-11968, A-12088, A-13644, A-14378,
A-14478, A-14574, A-15246, A-16410,
A-17464, A-19084, A-19434, A-19444,
A-21286, A-21318, A-23884, A-25259,
A-25549, B-01712, B-01727, B-02032,
B-02053, B-02971, B-02974, B-04791,
B-06062, B-06345, B-06999, B-07229,
B-08371, B-08584, B-08825, B-10933,
B-11005, B-11055, B-11854, B-11906,
B-13829, B-14294, B-14473, B-14546,
B-14660, B-15155, B-15357, B-16240,
B-16720, B-16863, B-16872, B-19048,
B-19339, B-19346, B-19380, B-19692,
B-19803, B-19804, B-20223, B-20243,
B-20550, B-21028, B-21117, B-21200,
B-21313, B-21504, B-21886, B-21893,
B-22500, B-22501, B-22505, B-22740,
B-22905, B-23504, B-23544, B-23674,
B-23718, B-23757, B-23974, B-24019,
B-24270, B-24397, B-24441, B-24554,
B-24609, B-24642, B-24707, B-24756,
B-25139, B-25186, B-25269, B-25430,
B-25637, B-26063, B-26084, B-26155,
B-26237, C-15348, C-17474, C-19047,
C-19519, C-22342, C-25872, D-06755,
D-23356, E-06775, E-15347, E-21122,
E-22313, E-25212, F-00530, F-22319,
F-22587, G-06806, G-14530, H-06967,
J-01707, J-02151, J-17203, K-00167,
L-00162, L-00311, L-11266, L-11383,
L-14535, L-17006, L-17472, L-17473,
L-21431, M-01567, N-21287, N-21289,
N-22794
GLADIOLI H-05420
GLANDS G-07138
GLASS FABRICS A-09686, A-13410,
B-00107, B-00140, B-04508, B-04755,
B-05163, B-07075, B-07515, B-08870,
B-09788, B-12310, B-14207, B-22057,
B-22505, D-02818, D-07951, D-22812,
F-09769, F-11163, 1-07553
GOBPILE BURNING A-10740
GOVERNMENTS A-09353, A-16073,
A-19434, A-22800, A-24535, A-26299,
B-00107, B-00975, B-06345, B-08080,
B-08348, B-08917, B-09996, B-10493,
B-22559, B-23176, B-23708, B-23880,
C-24245, D-03432, E-06373, G-08232,
H-11733, J-00253, J-08059, J-16506,
K-00167, K-06696, K-06778, L-00162,
L-00206, L-01654, L-03359, L-05105,
L-05499, L-06615, L-07550, L-07950,
L-08062, L-09073, L-09443, L-09445,
L-09474, L-11185, L-11266, L-11319,
L-12031, L-17006, L-18121, L-18220,
L-18223, L-19062, L-24033, L-25688,
M-01221, M-01567, N-21287, N-21360
GRAIN PROCESSING D-00858, L-01890
GRANTS L-01590, L-08062
GRAPES H-05420
GRAPHITE B-09788, G-l 1300
GRASSES B-08938, H-02299
GRAVITY SETTLING A-09686, B-05163,
B-07385, B-19834, B-24609, B-25584,
E-24569
GREAT BRITAIN A-01350, A-01510,
A-03587, A-09353, A-10424, A-10444,
A-10743, A-11655, A-13102, A-14400,
A-14794, A-16239, A-16788, A-16855,
A-16877, A-21383, A-24005, A-24916,
A-25108, B-01727, B-02311, B-02778,
B-02971, B-06345, B-06999, B-07673,
B-08574, B-09600, B-11247, B-13052,
B-13636, B-13767, B-13950, B-14270,
B-15489, B-16250, B-16720, B-17685,
B-17979, B-18161, B-19029, B-19394,
B-19395, B-19475, B-19480, B-19608,
B-19670, B-19678, B-19874, B-19876,
B-20141, B-20188, B-20425, B-20995,
B-21136, B-22014, B-22051, B-22070,
B-22103, B-22110, B-22279, B-23237,
B-23305, B-23315, B-23879, B-23955,
B-24697, B-25127, B-25164, B-25170,
B-25323, B-25663, B-25786, B-25833,
B-25973, B-26143, C-01857, C-04759,
C-07848, C-22885, D-02046, D-02057,
D-06777, D-08858, D-16237, E-01259,
E-01260, E-01261, E-03251, E-03557,
E-06775, E-06827, E-08400, E-10751,
E-11514, E-16803, E-16985, E-21736,
E-21986, E-24341, E-25075, F-09064,
F-11135, F-13766, F-18170, G-00981,
G-02417, G-06826, G-08230, G-08232,
G-16837, G-18109, J-01707, K-02010,
K-06778, K-09921, L-00311, L-02052,
L-07950, L-12031, L-14535, L-20698,
L-24033, N-04212, N-07845
GREENHOUSES B-08938
GROUND LEVEL A-01510, A-12335,
B-00687, B-01796, B-22051, B-22500,
B-24001, B-24985, B-25298, C-01856,
C-02668, C-22885, C-23377, D-02953,
D-02979, D-06777, D-08858, D-16237,
E-00846, E-01260, E-01261, E-01934,
E-03251, E-03557, E-05702, E-06373,
E-06823, E-07843, E-10010, E-10220,
E-10229, E-10368, E-10608, E-10751,
E-13965, E-16467, E-16629, E-16687,
E-16985, E-17595, E-17725, E-20924,
E-21736, E-21986, E-22313, E-24109,
E-24407, E-24486, E-24569, E-26141,
E-26267, L-01890, L-02052, N-03344,
N-07845
GUINEA PIGS G-08232, G-I1300, 1-20820
H
HALOGEN GASES A-06351, A-09686,
A-19434, A-19994, A-21383, A-22875,
B-03045, B-06543, B-06636, B-09833,
B-15693, B-25427, B-26220, D-22812,
E-24109, G-07138, H-05420, H-06967,
K-02010, K-06778, L-00311, L-24033
HAMSTERS G-l 1300
HARBORS L-24214
HAZE A-10678, B-10680, F-01379
HEALTH IMPAIRMENT A-02860,
A-22875, B-00140, B-00975, B-06999,
C-01857, D-03514, E-25075, F-00530,
G-00981, G-01340, G-01865, G-02417,
G-06826, G-07138, G-11300, G-23670,
H-01589, J-00166, L-00206, L-02960
HEALTH STATISTICS F-00530, G-04136
HEARINGS A-24732, B-08917, G-24021,
L-06730, L-06735, L-06737, L-06739,
L-11319, N-03344
HEAT CAPACITY B-03337, F-00530
HEAT OF COMBUSTION A-08390,
B-19678, E-11370, F-09064
-------
SUBJECT INDEX
293
HEAT TRANSFER A-07644, A-08391,
A-09103, A-13141, B-01493, B-03879,
B-07425, B-07466, B-07673, B-07931,
B-08836, B-08923, B-09469, B-09607,
B-09833, B-1H78, B-12581, B-13052,
B-13950, B-15378, B-19541, B-19560,
B-19670, B-20779, B-20995, B-21200,
B-22001, B-23027, B-23146, B-24001,
B-24777, B-24785, B-25038, B-25088,
B-25323, B-25602, E-03557, E-16985,
E-24109, E-24439, F-01379, F-01380,
F-09064, F-10429, F-11163, F-14390
L-06686, N-13513
HEIGHT FINDING A-00691, B-00687,
B-09699, B-10493, B-11229, B-15616,
B-22500, B-22884, B-23974, B-25298,
C-01856, C-11340, C-22511, D-09984,
E-01260, E-01261, E-03557, E-06775,
E-07843, E-11370, E-15511, E-24243,
E-25815, K-02010, K-21896, L-00206,
L-01654
HEMATOLOGY A-11988, F-00530,
G-07138, G-21276
HEMEON AUTOMATIC SMOKE
SAMPLERS B-00975, C-11193,
D-06755, L-03277, L-09445
HERBICIDES H-05420
HI-VOL SAMPLERS B-01796, B-04200,
C-01354, C-01856, C-24412, D-02818,
D-06755, D-07951, D-08298, D-09591,
D-22812, G-21276, L-01890, L-03277,
L-09445, N-04212
HIGHWAYS A-10754, B-08925, B-09600
HOURLY A-01510, D-02046, D-05428,
D-08858, D-16237, E-01934, E-11065,
E-25229, E-26267, N-00164
HOUSE HEARINGS B-08917, L-11319
HOUSTON C-16875, L-08062
HUMANS A-10754, A-16855, A-19994,
A-21999, A-22875, A-25914, B-06999,
D-02818, D-06755, D-22591, E-25075,
F-00530, G-01865, G-04136, G-06826,
G-07138, G-08230, G-08232, G-11339,
G-11437, G-11828, G-12289, G-16192,
G-16837, G-18109, G-21276, G-23151,
G-23670, G-24021, 1-20820, J-00166,
L-00311, L-03359, L-03452, L-18223,
N-04212
HUMIDITY A-16788, B-01485, B-05531,
B-16863, B-20779, B-23331, B-24001,
B-25186, B-26220, C-23350, E-08400,
E-10229, E-20924, E-23409, E-23723,
E-25212, F-01379, G-06826, 1-07553,
L-03277, L-12461
HYDROCARBONS A-00532, A-00972,
A-02549, A-03113, A-05011, A-05067,
A-07570, A-08390, A-08391, A-08393,
A-09686, A-09737, A-09831, A-10424,
A-10442, A-10754, A-13494, A-14997,
A-16877, A-17017, A-17464, A-19434,
A-22144, A-22418, A-23726, A-23884,
A-25213, A-25545, A-25549, B-00107,
B-00975, B-01362, B-02442, B-02813,
B-03337, B-04179, B-04200, B-04506,
B-05857, B-06543, B-06636, B-08080,
B-08352, B-09195, B-09666, B-09833,
B-10493, B-11910, B-12040, B-12503,
B-13636, B-18110, B-19261, B-19373,
B-19378, B-19471, B-21232, B-21819,
B-22012 B-24516, B-25184, B-25427,
B-25503, C-00945, C-03592, C-11842,
C-21663 D-00858, D-07393, D-12496,
D-22812, F-10422, F-10429, F-13766,
F-22319, F-22587, G-11828, G-21276,
H-00316, H-02299, H-05420, H-07786,
J-01546, J-15889, J-16174, J-21241,
K-00167, L-00206, L-00973, L-01654,
L-01890, L-06188, L-07550, L-17472,
M-00336, M-25188, N-00164, N-04212
N-07845, N-21287, N-21289
HYDROCHLORIC ACID A-17464,
K-06778, L-00311, L-17472, L-24033
N-04212
HYDROCYANIC ACID A-22875, B-26211
HYDRODESULFURIZATION B-00205,
B-02149, B-06345, B-08347, B-08917,
B-09999, B-11929, B-20794, B-22057,
B-23718, G-01865, J-00166, K-00167,
L-01590, L-06739
HYDROFLUORIC ACID D-22812,
H-05420, K-06778, L-24033, N-04212
HYDROGEN A-08390, A-08391, A-09103,
A-12266, A-13494, A-16887, A-19994,
A-22875, B-02407, B-03581, B-04634,
B-06543, B-09833, B-10281, B-11929,
B-15692, B-15693, B-18111, B-19373,
B-19670, B-23054, B-23374, C-13477,
C-25147, F-01852, F-10422, F-10429,
F-22587, L-14598, N-07845
HYDROGEN SULFIDE A-09831, A-12266,
A-13978, A-17017, A-25213, B-00975,
B-02424, B-02772, B-03045, B-03337,
B-03581, B-08347, B-08908, B-08917,
B-09666, B-09905, B-10281, B-11131,
B-11910, B-13829, B-15284, B-15357,
B-19378, B-19475, B-19560, B-20550,
B-21005, B-21893, B-22012, B-22103,
B-22809, B-23376, B-23526, B-24458,
B-24516, B-24565, B-25320, B-25503,
B-26211, C-23350, D-03514, D-05010,
D-06824, D-07393, D-08298, D-09591,
D-10723, D-22812, D-23356, F-11782,
F-14851, G-07138, H-06967, 1-07553,
1-20820, K-02010, K-06778, L-00311,
L-03277, L-03452, L-06686, L-17472,
L-24033, N-04212
HYDROGENATION A-08390, A-08391,
A-22875, B-00564, B-09195, B-23176,
F-11782, K-00167
HYDROLYSIS A-13494, B-08492
HYDROXIDES B-03337, B-03581, B-08825,
B-09833, B-10591, B-14394, B-14838,
B-15692, B-23880, B-26084, F-08943
HYGROSCOPICITY A-19017, B-08825,
B-09163, B-09833
ICE B-17531, E-24109, E-24439
IDAHO C-07516, K-00167, M-01220,
M-01221
ILLINOIS A-01489, A-09539, A-09989,
A-12202, A-16887, B-01866, B-06297,
B-06636, B-09195, B-13663, C-07516,
D-00858, D-09984, D-11525, E-11065,
E-19737, E-25229, F-01380, F-04827,
K-00167, L-00973, L-01890, L-03452,
L-05105, L-06188, L-09443, L-11266,
L-12461, L-17321, L-18121, L-26157,
N-21360
IMMUNOLOGY G-08230
IMPINGERS A-05067, A-19994, B-00975,
C-16860, C-23121, D-06755, D-22812,
E-11624
INCINERATION A-00943, A-00972,
A-07963, A-09686, A-09737, A-10424,
A-10442, A-10678, A-10754, A-11411,
A-11413, A-11637, A-11640, A-11655,
A-11968, A-25213, A-25549, A-26299,
B-00107, B-00975, B-02398, B-09789,
B-10968, B-15544, B-15933, B-19261,
B-23262:
C-06095
D-00858
F-13620,
K-09921
L-01399,
L-07550.
L-25688.
INDIANA A-i
B-06297,
L-11185.
INDUSTRIAL
A-16073
B-11910,
D-03432,
D-07951,
E-06775,
H-19620,
L-07550,
L-24214,
INDUSTRIAL
A-00532,
A-01350,
A-02014,
A-02633,
A-03072,
A-03867,
A-04778,
A-05169,
A-07570,
A-07647,
A-07963,
A-08393,
A-09169,
A-09588,
A-10183,
A-10678,
A-11411,
A-11640,
A-11860,
A-11988,
A-12285,
A-12633,
A-13261,
A-13410,
A-13785,
A-14378,
A-14701,
A-15246,
A-16073,
A-16489,
A-16855,
A-17052,
A-17357,
A-17542,
A-18056,
A-18276,
A-19318,
A-20736,
A-21221,
A-21916,
A-22418,
A-22875,
A-23379,
A-23753,
A-24508,
A-24915,
A-24978,
A-25256,
A-25689,
A-25975,
A-26299,
B-00544,
B-01485,
B-01727,
B-02036,
B-24954, B-26063, C-03460,
C-17468, C-21663, C-24412,
D-05010, D-09591, D-22812,
. G-01865, H-07786, J-11114,
, L-00206, L-00973, L-01265,
L-01890, L-03359, L-06730,
L-08062, L-09445, L-11526,
. M-00336, N-00164
•01489, A-09737, B-01796,
C-07516, C-18012, L-00973,
L-11781
AREAS A-07570, A-07647,
. A-17199, A-24500, B-02149,
B-23757, C-15348, D-02057,
D-03514, D-07141, D-07393,
D-09591, D-13176, D-23326,
E-07580, G-07138, G-23151,
J-21241, L-00162, L-01399,
L-07950, L-08062, L-09474,
M-00336, N-21289
EMISSION SOURCES
, A-00691, A-00943, A-00972,
, A-01480, A-01510, A-01842,
, A-02290, A-02501, A-02549,
, A-02634, A-02765, A-02860,
, A-03113, A-03340, A-03587,
, A-04224, A-04287, A-04652,
, A-04937, A-05011, A-05067,
, A-05506, A-05530, A-06040,
, A-07642, A-07644, A-07645,
, A-07759, A-07793, A-07800,
, A-08388, A-08391, A-08392,
, A-09075, A-09161, A-09165,
, A-09194, A-09353, A-09482,
, A-09686, A-09737, A-09831,
, A-10284, A-10424, A-10442,
, A-10740, A-10743, A-10754,
, A-11413, A-11619, A-11637,
, A-11655, A-11739, A-11789,
, A-11968, A-11981, A-11982,
, A-12088, A-12120, A-12266,
, A-12335, A-12541, A-12619,
, A-13053, A-13102, A-13141,
, A-13292, A-13293, A-13316,
, A-13479, A-13515, A-13644,
, A-13892, A-13954, A-13963,
, A-14400, A-14478, A-14574,
, A-14794, A-14980, A-14997,
, A-15391, A-15517, A-15701,
, A-16212, A-16239, A-16410,
, A-16492, A-16722, A-16788,
, A-16887, A-16949, A-17051,
, A-17184, A-17199, A-17280,
, A-17398, A-17464, A-17483,
, A-17688, A-17910, A-18052,
, A-18078, A-18176, A-18177,
, A-19024, A-19084, A-19165,
, A-19434, A-19511, A-19994,
, A-20863, A-21191, A-21204,
, A-21286, A-21318, A-21351,
, A-21999, A-22144, A-22159,
, A-22649, A-22800, A-22867,
, A-23044, A-23170, A-23359,
, A-23619, A-23652, A-23726,
, A-23954, A-24039, A-24500,
, A-24535, A-24732, A-24817,
, A-24916, A-24951, A-24955,
, A-25062, A-25196, A-25213,
, A-25259, A-25418, A-25549,
, A-25690, A-25867, A-25914,
, A-26085, A-26226, A-26233,
. B-00107, B-00205, B-00222,
B-00568, B-00687, B-00975,
B-01493, B-01712, B-01726,
B-01796, B-01866, B-02032,
B-02053, B-02149, B-02192,
-------
294
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
B-02195, B-02206, B-02311, B-02398,
B-02407, B-02424, B-02442, B-02727,
B-02778, B-02908, B-02909, B-02931,
B-02970, B-02971, B-03053, B-03232,
B-03337, B-03581, B-03879, B-03974,
B-04179, B-04200, B-04506, B-04508,
B-04516, B-04634, B-04655, B-04755,
B-04791, B-04842, B-05163, B-05198,
B-05310, B-05454, B-05508, B-05531,
B-05857, B-06136, B-06307, B-06345,
B-06490, B-06697, B-06999, B-07075,
B-07229, B-07359, B-07385, B-07416,
B-07417, B-07466, B-07515, B-07673,
B-07931, B-07962, B-08080, B-08085,
B-08146, B-08155, B-08228, B-08342,
B-08346, B-08348, B-08352, B-08378,
B-08429, B-08470, B-08492, B-08574,
B-08584, B-08713, B-08836, B-08863,
B-08870, B-08908, B-08917, B-08919,
B-08921, B-08922, B-08923, B-08925,
B-08926, B-08936, B-08937, B-08938,
B-08939, B-08940, B-08942, B-09163,
B-09191, B-09195, B-09469, B-09496,
B-09546, B-09600, B-09607, B-09666,
B-09699, B-09788, B-09789, B-09833,
B-09904, B-09905, B-09923, B-09971,
B-09996, B-09999, B-10003, B-10264,
B-10281, B-10336, B-10399, B-10493,
B-10563, B-10591, B-10655, B-10680,
B-10681, B-10704, B-10770, B-10933,
B-10968, B-10993, B-11005, B-11055,
B-11159, B-11191, B-11229, B-11233,
B-11238, B-11240, B-11247, B-11250,
B-11251, B-11252, B-11253, B-11256,
B-11262, B-11847, B-11906, B-11910,
B-11976, B-11985, B-11996, B-12040,
B-12234, B-12253, B-12308, B-12310,
B-12417, B-12442, B-12503, B-12574,
B-12581, B-12645, B-13015, B-13019,
B-13057, B-13171, B-13243, B-13394,
B-13501, B-13523, B-13569, B-13578,
B-13674, B-13767, B-13817, B-13829,
B-13983, B-14057, B-14087, B-14137,
B-14159, B-14207, B-14223, B-14261,
B-14269, B-14270, B-14294, B-14394,
B-14473, B-14566, B-14632, B-14660,
B-14707, B-14730, B-14891, B-14981,
B-15031, B-15092, B-15148, B-15155,
B-15240, B-15251, B-15284, B-15358,
B-15436, B-15489, B-15543, B-15544,
B-15572, B-15616, B-15665, B-15692,
B-15693, B-15738, B-15841, B-15844,
B-15902, B-15933, B-15946, B-15962,
B-15976, B-16068, B-16173, B-16224,
B-16240, B-16248, B-16250, B-16282,
B-16346, B-16418, B-16425, B-16496,
B-16500, B-16502, B-16510, B-16548,
B-16681, B-16720, B-16731, B-16746,
B-16815, B-16851, B-16862, B-16863,
B-16872, B-17004, B-17124, B-17250,
B-17318, B-17343, B-17531, B-17672,
B-17685, B-17782, B-17979, B-18034,
B-18045, B-18063, B-18110, B-18111,
B-I8I42, B-18143, B-18154, B-1816I,
B-18167, B-18296, B-19029, B-19034,
B-19048, B-I926I, B-19346, B-19394,
B-19395, B-19480, B-19482, B-19581,
B-19608, B-19619, B-19629, B-19733,
B-19803, B-19834, B-19845, B-19972,
B-20035, B-20063, B-20082, B-20097,
B-20141, B-20I88, B-20243, B-20262,
B-20392, B-20437, B-20526, B-20550,
B-20552, B-20696, B-20738, B-20779,
B-20794, B-20854, B-20914, B-21005,
B-21028, B-21117, B-21136, B-21232,
B-21234, B-21238, B-21268, B-21313,
B-21324, B-21381, B-21504, B-21506,
B-21594, B-21643, B-21720, B-21819,
B-21886, B-21893, B-22001, B-22051,
B-22070, B-22071, B-22103, B-22160,
B-22175, B-22279, B-22291, B-22327,
B-22401, B-22441, B-22500, B-22501,
B-22505, B-22552, B-22559, B-22560,
B-22615, B-22661, B-22671, B-22702,
B-22756, B-22806, B-22809, B-22861,
B-22868, B-22869, B-22871, B-22883,
B-22884, B-22905, B-23027, B-23054,
B-23140, B-23146, B-23176, B-23220,
B-23221, B-23231, B-23237, B-23262,
B-23305, B-23315, B-23373, B-23374,
B-23376, B-23447, B-23504, B-23526,
B-23544, B-23674, B-23708, B-23718,
B-23757, B-23822, B-23879, B-23880,
B-23955, B-23974, B-24001, B-24048,
B-24073, B-24142, B-24168, B-24181,
B-24190, B-24207, B-24269, B-24290,
B-24441, B-24589, B-24609, B-24613,
B-24630, B-24643, B-24673, B-24678,
B-24681, B-24697, B-24707, B-24756,
B-24785, B-24826, B-24837, B-24881,
B-24922, B-24954, B-24985, B-25019,
B-25038, B-25047, B-25071, B-25079,
B-25088, B-25127, B-25139, B-25164,
B-25165, B-25170, B-25187, B-25217,
B-25284, B-25298, B-25416, B-25427,
B-25503, B-25517, B-25529, B-25560,
B-25584, B-25602, B-25637, B-25663,
B-25677, B-25702, B-25743, B-25744,
B-25833, B-25913, B-26063, B-26143,
B-26220, B-26237, C-00403, C-00945,
C-01354, C-01363, C-01856, C-01857,
C-02655, C-02668, C-02921, C-03460,
C-03546, C-03592, C-04040, C-04759,
C-04889, C-05216, C-06095, C-07721,
C-07787, C-07848, C-09107, C-09624,
C-11340, C-11755, C-11842, C-12510,
C-14733, C-15348, C-15479, C-15515,
C-15925, C-16149, C-16364, C-16512,
C-16860, C-16875, C-17419, C-17468,
C-17474, C-18012, C-I9047, C-20224, ]
C-21663, C-22342, C-22391 , C-22511,
C-22885, C-23350, C-23377, C-24245,
C-24412, C-25147, C-25231, C-25260, ]
C-25872, C-26139, D-00657, D-00858,
D-01790, D-02046, D-02818, D-02953, ]
D-02979, D-03431, D-03432, D-03514, ]
D-04116, D-05010, D-05260, D-05428, ]
D-05551, D-06777, D-06819, D-07141,
D-07951, D-08298, D-08858, D-09591,
D-09984, D-10723, D-11525, D-12496, i
D-13176, D-16237, D-22591, D-22812, :
D-23326, D-23356, D-23957, D-25476,
E-00023, E-00846, E-01259, E-01260,
E-01261, E-01934, E-02410, E-03251,
E-03557, E-04033, E-04035, E-05357,
E-05702, E-06373, E-06775, E-06823,
E-07428, E-07580, E-07801, E-07843,
E-08400, E-09417, E-10010, E-10053,
E-10153, E-10219, E-10220, E-10229,
E-10368, E-10421, E-10608, E-10751,
E-11065, E-11370, E-11514, E-11624,
E-11980, E-12353, E-13965, E-14271,
E-15347, E-15483, E-15511, E-16285,
E-16467, E-16629, E-I6687, E-16803,
E-16985, E-17580, E-17595, E-17612,
E-17725, E-17734, E-19503, E-19737,
E-20042, E-20068, E-20163, E-20523,
E-20924, E-21073, E-21099, E-21122,
E-21736, E-22313, E-23163, E-23409,
E-23723, E-24243, E-24341, E-24391,
E-24407, E-24439, E-24486, E-24509,
E-24569, E-25212, E-25229, E-25815,
E
F
F
F
F
F
G
G
G
G
G
H
H
H
I-
J
J
J
J
J.
J
J
J
K
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
N
K
N
N
N
N
INERTI
B
B
INFECT
G
INFLU1
INFRAI
INFRAI
A
C
INHIBI
INORG.
A
A
A
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
B
E-25935, E-26141, E-26267, F-00105,
F-00530, F-01379, F-01380, F-02743,
F-08941, F-09769, F-11257, F-13027,
F-13191, F-13400, F-13487, F-13601,
F-13620, F-14512, F-14686, F-14876,
F-16210, F-16589, F-18185, F-24272,
G-00981, G-01340, G-01865, G-02417,
G-04136, G-06806, G-07039, G-07138,
G-08230, G-08232, G-11437, G-11828,
G-12289, G-14530, G-16192, G-16837,
G-18109, G-20700, G-24021, H-00316,
H-01398, H-01589, H-02293, H-02299,
H-06967, H-07786, H-11733, H-19620,
-20982, 1-03222, 1-04622, 1-07553,
1-13086, 1-20820, J-00166, J-00978,
J-01308, J-01546, J-01659, J-01660,
J-01707, J-02151, J-02918, J-06845,
J-07643, J-08059, J-08867, J-lllll,
J-11114, J-11846, J-11995, J-12418,
J-13613, J-15510, J-15889, J-16122,
J-16129, J-16174, J-16506, J-17203,
J-19685, J-20054, J-21241, J-23511,
J-23800, J-25961, J-26193, K-00167,
K-02010, K-06696, K-06778, K-09921,
L-00162, L-00206, L-00311, L-00973,
L-01265, L-01399, L-01585, L-01590,
L-01654, L-01890, L-02011, L-02052,
L-02960, L-03277, L-03359, L-03452,
L-05499, L-06188, L-06615, L-06686,
L-06730, L-06737, L-07550, L-07950,
L-08062, L-08686, L-09073, L-09443,
L-09445, L-09474, L-10166, L-10503,
L-10998, L-11242, L-11266, L-11319,
L-11383, L-11526, L-11781, L-12031,
L-12461, L-13049, L-17321, L-17472,
L-17473, L-18223, L-19062, L-21431,
L-24033, L-24214, L-25688, L-26157,
-00336, M-01220, M-01221, M-08072,
M-22636, M-25143, M-25193, N-00164,
N-01063, N-03344, N-04212, N-05194,
N-07431, N-07845, N-13513, N-13591,
N-14816, N-17819, N-18206, N-21287,
N-21289, N-21360, N-22794, N-23125
INERTIA!, SEPARATION B-05163,
B-07385, B-08155, B-19602, B-19834,
B-25517
INFECTIOUS DISEASES G-08230,
G-20700
JENZA D-22591
INFRARED RADIATION A-13494
INFRARED SPECTROMETRY A-02631,
A-05067, B-08825, B-24837, C-04889,
C-22342, L-17472
INHIBITION B-10680, H-20982
INORGANIC ACIDS A-09686, A-09737,
A-12633, A-15517, A-16788, A-17464,
A-19017, A-21204, A-21221, A-23044,
A-24817, A-25062, A-25549, A-26226,
B-00135, B-00975, B-01362, B-01727,
B-02195, B-02407, B-02442, B-02727,
B-02931, B-02971, B-03337, B-03581,
B-05198, B-06999, B-07931, B-08155,
B-08342, B-08346, B-08584, B-08836,
B-08863, B-09191, B-09607, B-09789,
B-09833, B-09996, B-10281, B-10591,
B-10968, B-11055, B-11131, B-11159,
B-11233, B-11238, B-11247, B-11250,
B-11253, B-11256, B-11281, B-11906,
B-12092, B-13592, B-14087, B-14546,
B-14730, B-1503I, B-15092, B-15436,
B-15976, B-16851, B-16862, B-16863,
B-18034, B-19394, B-19480, B-19608,
B-19733, B-20082, B-21232, B-21643,
B-22057, B-22160, B-22441, B-22740,
B-22809, B-22905, B-23027, B-23054,
B-23221, B-23231, B-23544, B-23718,
-------
SUBJECT INDEX
295
B-23867, B-23880, B-24142, B-242Q7,
B-24643, B-24673, B-24756, B-25038,
B-25071, B-25088, B-25127, B-25494,
B-25503, B-25584, B-25637, B-25702,
B-25743, B-26211, B-26230, C-07482,
D-01790, D-04116, D-05260, D-06819,
D-09591, D-22812, E-10153, E-10751,
E-16985, E-24486, F-00530, G-01865,
G-07138, G-08232, G-16837, G-18109,
H-02299, H-05420, 1-07553, 1-20820,
J-00166, J-01659, J-01707, J-08059,
J-08867, J-11846, J-17203, K-02010,
K-06778, L-00311, L-01890, L-10998,
L-11242, L-11283, L-17472, L-18223,
L-24033, N-04212, N-21360, N-22794
INSPECTION A-13855, A-21191, A-25690,
H-06967
INSPECTORS B-00975, L-01265
INSTRUCTORS B-00975
INSTRUMENTATION A-00691, A-02633,
A-02634, A-07644, A-10743, A-18056,
A-19084, B-00975, B-01796, B-06999,
B-07075, B-08825, B-09789, B-16862,
B-18110, B-21819, C-04889, C-07941,
C-08123, C-09624, C-15515, C-18012,
C-19047, D-06777, D-11525, E-06373,
E-11624, F-00530, F-08941
INTERMITTENT MONITORING D-08298
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES
A-08392, A-08393, A-09353, A-09686,
A-10183, A-10424, A-10754, A-16722,
A-25549, B-04506, B-06636, B-08080,
B-08584, B-10493, B-10680, B-10770,
B-15544, B-19261, C-00886, D-00858,
D-07393, D-09591, D-12496, F-11257,
G-11828, J-00166, L-02011, L-03359,
L-05499, M-25143, N-00164, N-01063,
N-21289
INTERNATIONAL A-21318, A-21383,
B-02036, F-00530, L-00311, L-17006,
M-01567
INVERSION A-01510, A-01842, A-05506,
A-10284, A-10424, A-10678, A-16073,
A-16855, A-17280, A-22159, B-00687,
B-00975, B-18045, B-19029, B-20550,
B-23757, C-01856, C-09624, C-11340,
D-02046, D-03431, D-05010, D-06777,
D-06824, D-10723, E-00846, E-02410,
E-04033, E-04035, E-05702, E-10229,
E-10368, E-10421, E-15347, E-16803,
E-20068, E-20924, E-21122, E-23723,
E-24109, E-24341, E-24486, E-25075,
F-00530, G-16837, G-18109, G-20700,
G-21276, 1-07553, J-01546, L-08686,
L-11383, L-18223
IODIDES C-01363, C-23096
IODIMETRIC METHODS B-06999,
C-12126, C-22885, D-22812
IODINK A-19994, A-21383, B-26220
IODINE COMPOUNDS B-04755, C-01363,
C-23096, E-10608
IONI/ATION B-06307, B-07931, B-10704,
C-25260
IONS B-07931, B-22560
IOWA A-01489, C-07516, M-01221
IRON A-00972, A-08392, A-09686, A-09737,
A-13261, A-17199, B-02036, B-03232,
B-03581, B-03974, B-04755, B-05531,
B-07931, B-09789, B-09833, B-10770,
B-11240J B-11985, B-16681, B-16863,
B-21324J B-23376, B-23955, B-24697,
B-24881, D-00657, D-07951, D-09591,
D-23326, G-01340, G-08232, 1-07553,
I 13086 J-01659, L-00973, L-08062,
I 24214 N-07431, N-21287, N-22794
IRON COMPOUNDS A-05067, A-09831,
A-16788, A-19017, A-25545, B-00222,
B-00564, B-01866, B-03337, B-03581,
B-04842, B-08898, B-10968, B-11240,
B-11910, B-11929, B-14838, B-18111,
B-19692, B-19804, B-19972, B-20223,
B-22127, B-23374, B-23526, B-24253,
B-24609, B-25744, C-07516, C-23096,
D-07951, D-09591, F-02743, F-13573,
F-14814, F-16883, F-18185, 1-04622,
1-11286, L-10998, N-04432, N-07431
IRON OXIDES A-13261, A-13401, B-03232,
B-03581, B-04842, B-05531, B-05868,
B-08908, B-08919, B-08939, B-08942,
B-09600, B-09833, B-22279, B-25744,
C-16734, E-16985, F-08943, F-11163,
1-07553, J-01546, J-01659, J-11846,
N-04432, N-07431
IRRADIATION CHAMBERS E-11624
ISOTOPES A-08388, A-17052, A-17483,
A-17542, A-21383, A-23239, A-25914,
B-04755, C-23377, D-25476, F-11257,
J-07643
ITALY B-10336, B-16510, B-19724,
B-20738, B-22884, B-25427, D-08298,
K-22248
JAPAN A-06040:
A-15620, A
A-17542, A
A-24535, A
A-25914, B
B-10692, B-
B-13721, B.
B-14394, B-
B-15693, B-
B-16346, B-
B-17343, B-
B-20097, B-
B-21275, B
B-22291, B-
B-24207, B
B-24673, B-
B-25071, B
C-07482, C-
C-17468, C-
D-07951, E
E-19503, E-
F-00530, F-
G-16837, G
L-09474, L
JET AIRCRAFT
L-03359, N
KANSAS A-01489, C-07516, J-l
M-01221
KENTUCKY A-01489, B-01866, B-06297,
C-07516, C-18012, L-01590, L-09443,
L-11185, L-11781
KEROSENE A-00943, A-18052, A-25213,
B-10680, F-00530, H-02299
KETONES B-08352, B-12503, C-21663
KILNS A-00972, A-08392, A-25196,
A-25549, B-03232, B-07931, B-09904,
B-11055, B-14057, B-24881, B-25139,
B-26063, D-12496, D-13176, J-15889,
K-0992I, N-21287
KONIMETERS C-17474, D-06755
KRAFT PULPING A-09686, A-15517,
A-25213, B-09789, B-16681, C-16875,
G-11828, G-16837, J-16174, J-21241,
L-06730, L-08062, L-11526, L-19062
A-13293, A-13644
-17184, A-17199, A
-21191, A-24500, A
-24817, A-25062, A
02149, B-04655, B
11252, B-12417, B
14087, B-14194, B
15092, B-15251, B
15738, B-15841, B
16548, B-16872, B
17392, B-19581, B
20262, B-20392, B-
21324, B-21643, B-
23146, B-23262, B
24269, B-24589, B
24707, B-24826, B
25088, B-25284, B
07721, C-12126, C-
22391, D-05428, D
•17595, E-17725, E
20068, E-2jl63, E
16376, F-17594, F-
-23151, 1-03222, L-
24214, N-04212, N
B-10680, B-12672,
-00164
K
-17398,
-24508,
-25690,
10563,
12442,
14261,
15692,
15844,
17250,
19972,
20526,
22160,
23447,
24643,
25019,
25702,
16149,
-07393,
-17734,
26141,
24272,
09445,
-13591
J-13613,
LABORATORY ANIMALS D-02818,
F-00530, G-01865, G-04136, G-08232,
G-11300, G-21276, H-02299, 1-20820,
J-00166, L-00311, L-03359, L-03452,
N-04212
LABORATORY FACILITIES A-10183,
B-01245, B-10165, B-14566, C-13477,
L-01265
LAKES A-07645, E-10053, E-10153
LANDFILLS A-09737, A-10740, A-11981,
A-22875, B-16746, D-00858, D-09591
LAPSE CONDITION E-04035, E-20924,
E-21122
LARYNX F-00530
LASERS C-09624, C-15925, D-06777,
E-15483
LAUNDERING (COAL) A-10442, B-03337,
B-05198, B-11215, B-13835, B-23682,
B-24609, F-02743
LAUNDRIES B-09833, N-04212
LEAD A-09686, B-00107, B-11238,
B-21324, D-05551, D-09591
LEAD COMPOUNDS A-05067, A-06351,
A-09831, A-21383, A-23239, B-03232,
B-03337, B-09788, B-11238, C-23096,
D-05260, D-05428, D-05551, D-09591,
E-24109, H-19620, K-02010, K-06778,
L-00311, L-17472, L-24214, N-04212
LEAD PEROXIDE CANDLE B-02311,
C-00886, D-00657, D-02818, E-03251,
E-25815, G-00981, G-02417, G-21276,
L-03277, L-09445
LEATHER B-08155, B-09788, 1-07553
LEAVES F-00530, H-00316, H-02299,
H-05420
LEGAL ASPECTS A-05530, A-06040,
A-07642, A-09353, A-10442, A-11739,
A-14574, A-16073, A-19434, A-21221,
A-24535, A-24732, A-25975, B-00107,
B-00975, B-02032, B-02407, B-02772,
B-04516, B-06278, B-06345, B-06999,
B-08348, B-08917, B-10493, B-13394,
B-14270, B-16720, B-16731, B-16815,
B-18143, B-18290, B-19471, B-22051,
B-22559, B-24826, B-25164, C-07787,
D-03431, E-10368, E-25075, F-00530,
G-08230, G-08232, G-24021, H-01589,
H-06967, J-00253, J-02151, J-07643,
J-08059, J-16506, J-19685, K-02010,
K-06696, K-06778, L-00162, L-00206,
L-00311, L-00973, L-01265, L-01399,
L-01585, L-01590, L-01654, L-01890,
L-02011, L-02831, L-03359, L-06615,
L-06730, L-06735, L-06737, L-06739,
L-07550, L-07794, L-07950, L-08062,
L-09443, L-09474, L-10166, L-11185,
L-11266, L-11319, L-11383, L-11781,
L-13049, L-14535, L-17473, L-18121,
L-18220, L-18223, L-20698, L-24033,
L-25688, L-26157, M-01220, M-01221,
M-01567, M-25193, N-03344, N-07845,
N-17819, N-21287, N-21360
LEGISLATION A-09353, A-10442,
A-11739, A-16073, A-24535, B-00975,
B-02407, B-06278, B-06999, B-10493,
B-13394, B-14270, B-18143, B-18290,
B-19471, B-22051, B-25164, E-25075,
F-00530, G-08230, G-08232, H-01589,
H-06967, J-00253, J-02151, J-19685,
K-02010, K-06778, L-00162, L-00206,
L-00311, L-00973, L-01590, L-01654,
L-01890, L-02011, L-03359, L-06615,
L-07950, L-08062, L-09443, L-09474,
L-11319, L-13049, L-14535, L-18121,
L-18220, L-20698, L-24033, L-25688,
M-01221, M-01567, N-07845, N-21360
-------
296
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
LEUKEMIA A-19994
LIFE SPAN A-19994
LIGHT RADIATION A-05067, A-13494,
A-18056, A-25213, A-25418, C-04040,
C-09624, C-23350, D-06777, E-23723,
E-24109, F-01379, F-11257, H-05420,
J-07643, N-07845
LIGHT SCATTERING B-05868, B-24837,
C-03546, C-04759, C-09624, C-11193,
C-19519, E-16803
LIME A-08392, B-07931, B-11055, B-14057
LIMESTONE A-21221, A-24978, B-00544,
B-04842, B-05454, B-06136, B-07430,
B-07466, B-08342, B-08346, B-08347,
B-08429, B-08825, B-08917, B-09600,
B-09666, B-09788, B-09833, B-10681,
B-10968, B-11178, B-11240, B-11847,
B-11854, B-12308, B-12581, B-12797,
B-15284, B-15436, B-15489, B-15572,
B-15946, B-16248, B-19340, B-19619,
B-19642, B-19845, B-19972, B-20392,
B-20539, B-20995, B-21275, B-24253,
F-09967, F-11782, 1-07553, J-08867,
L-06737, L-19062, N-04432
LINE SOURCES E-00023, E-01261,
E-04033, E-04034, E-11514
LIQUIDS A-09165, A-10740, A-16410,
A-22159, A-24916, B-02971, B-03337,
B-03974, B-04755, B-08574, B-08919,
B-08936, B-08939, B-08940, B-09191,
B-09833, B-09904, B-09971, B-10165,
B-11131, B-12503, B-15962, B-16496,
B-19373, B-19876, B-20779, B-22615,
B-22702, B-22871, B-23376, B-23447,
B-23526, B-24001, B-24643, B-24785,
B-25079, B-25186, B-25320, C-22391,
C-23121, E-10153, F-00105, F-01852,
F-04939, F-08943, F-10429, F-14390,
F-14512, 1-04622, 1-07553
LITHIUM COMPOUNDS A-06351,
A-08388, B-22327, B-22756, B-23376
LITIGATION J-08059
LOCAL GOVERNMENTS A-24535,
B-00975, D-03432, K-00167, L-00162,
L-00206, L-06615, L-07950, L-09443,
L-11266, L-18220
LONDON A-09353, A-16855, A-16877,
B-08574, D-02057, E-08400, E-11514,
E-25075, G-06826, G-08230, G-08232,
G-16837, G-18109, N-04212, N-07845
LOOPING C-11340
LOS ANGELES B-00107, B-00975,
B-04516, B-09833, B-21594, D-07393,
L-00973, L-01585, L-11266, L-18223,
N-04212
LOUISIANA K-00167, L-06188, M-01221
LOWER ATMOSPHERE A-17280, A-25213,
B-15616, B-22884, C-23377, D-06777,
E-05702, E-06373, E-06775, E-10229,
E-10368, E-11980, E-16629, E-16985,
E-17734, E-20042, E-20924, E-21073,
E-21099, E-21122, E-21986, E-26141
LUNG CANCER E-25075, G-23670,
G-24021, L-03359, N-21289
LUNG CLEARANCE A-16855, G-06806
LUNGS A-16855, F-00530, G-04136,
G-06806, G-07138, G-11437, G-18109
M
MAGNESIUM B-00107, B-03581, F-14512
MAGNESIUM COMPOUNDS A-09831,
B-00544, B-03337, B-03581, B-03974,
B-04842, B-08470, B-08919, B-08937,
B-08939, B-09163, B-09191, B-09600,
B-09833, B-10591, B-11854, B-12797,
B-14394, B-15244, B-15976, B-19619,
B-19670, B-22883, B-23822, B-24190,
B-25584, B-25744, F-04827, F-04939,
F-08943, F-09967, F-11163, 1-11286,
J-08867, N-04432
MAGNETIC SEPARATION A-06978,
B-00564, B-05454, B-07425, B-08898,
B-09666, B-09996, B-11262, B-12091,
B-13051, B-13856, B-18111, B-19804,
B-22127, F-02743, L-01590, L-13049
MAGNETOHYDRODYNAMICS (MHD)
A-03072, A-04287, A-07644, A-07647,
A-07793, A-09165, A-10442, A-11739,
A-12266, A-14378, A-16949, A-18176,
A-19024, A-20736, A-21204, A-22649,
A-23359, A-23379, A-23954, A-24508,
A-24955, A-26085, B-08228, B-09996,
B-11191, B-11262, B-17124, B-21005,
B-21381, B-23176, F-00105, G-07138,
N-05194
MAINE L-09443
MAINTENANCE A-03587, A-10743,
B-05162, B-05853, B-07466, B-07673,
B-09788, B-09833, B-10264, B-11233,
B-14707, B-22501, B-22671, B-25127,
B-25164, B-25833, L-10503
MALES G-11339, G-18109, G-23670
MANAGEMENT PERSONNEL L-09073
MANGANESE B-08713, B-10770, D-09591
MANGANESE COMPOUNDS A-05067,
A-06351, A-16788, B-02407, B-03337,
B-07962, B-08346, B-08347, B-08713,
B-08908, B-11252, B-14566, B-24253,
B-24589, B-24613, B-24673, B-25416,
D-05551, D-09591, N-04432
MANGANESE DIOXIDE (JAPANESE)
B-00135, B-01362, B-02407, B-04655,
B-06636, B-08346, B-08347, B-08836,
B-09666, B-10563, B-10968, B-11252,
B-11910, B-12253, B-12442, B-13721,
B-14566, B-16346, B-16425, B-16548,
B-16851, B-16872, B-20262, B-20526,
B-22809, B-22883, B-23373, B-24207,
B-24589, B-24707, B-25584, B-25702,
F-13487, J-08867
MANGANESE SULFATES A-16788,
B-24613
MAPPING A-10678, D-10723, D-11525,
E-11514, J-lllll
MARYLAND A-01489, B-06297, C-07516,
L-01590, L-09443
MASS SPECTROMETRY A-22144,
A-23239, B-11131, C-23377, F-10429
MASS TRANSPORTATION L-07550,
N-17819
MASSACHUSETTS E-11624
MATERIALS DETERIORATION A-19017,
A-21999, A-23359, A-24005, B-00975,
B-03337, B-03974, B-05853, B-06999,
B-07466, B-08085, B-08836, B-09191,
B-09607, B-09833, B-10680, B-10681,
B-12581, B-13639, B-14394, B-14838,
B-15572, B-16863, B-18296, B-20082,
B-21643, B-22110, B-22327, B-22740,
B-23376, B-24697, B-25637, B-25677,
D-03432, D-03514, D-06755, F-14876,
F-16883, G-08232,1-04622,1-07553,
1-11286, 1-13086, 1-20820, J-00166,
L-00311, L-01265, L-03452, L-11266,
N-00164, N-22794
MATHEMATICAL ANALYSES A-10183,
A-11502, A-12285, A-13330, A-13401,
A-15701, A-16788, A-21383, A-23170,
A-24915, A-25914, A-26226, B-00544,
B-00687, B-01796, B-06307, B-06543,
B-07674, B-07931, B-08085, B-08870,
B-09469, B-09523, B-09788, B-09923,
B-09971, B-10003, B-14269, B-14981,
B-19834, B-22861, B-23974, C-02655,
C-02668, C-05216, C-11340, C-I4733,
C-22511, C-22982, C-25260, D-02953,
D-02979, D-06777, D-09984, D-10723,
D-11525, E-00846, E-01261, E-01934,
E-03557, E-05357, E-05702, E-06373,
E-06775, E-07428, E-10010, E-10219,
E-10368, E-10421, E-10608, E-10751,
E-11065, E-11370, E-11980, E-12353,
E-14271, E-15511, E-16629, E-16687,
E-17580, E-17612, E-17725, E-19503,
E-19737, E-20042, E-20163, E-20523,
E-21736, E-23163, E-24243, E-24341,
E-24569, E-25935, F-00530, F-09064,
F-10429, F-11722, F-14390, F-16883,
1-04622, J-01679, J-lllll, J-15510,
J-15889, K-21896, K-22248, L-11266,
L-26157
MATHEMATICAL MODELING A-15701,
A-16788, A-23170, A-26226, B-00544,
B-01796, B-06543, B-09469, B-09971,
B-14269, B-14981, B-19834, B-22861,
C-02668, C-11340, C-22511, D-09984,
D-10723, D-11525, E-01934, E-05702,
E-06775, E-07428, E-10010, E-10219,
E-10421, E-10608, E-10751, E-11065,
E-11370, E-14271, E-16629, E-17580,
E-19737, E-20042, E-20163, E-20523,
F-09064, J-01679, J-15510, J-15889,
K-21896, L-11266, L-26157
MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE
CONCENTRATION A-03587,
A-10442, A-13219, A-16855, A-16887,
A-21916, A-25549, A-25975, B-00975,
B-02032, B-02424, B-06999, B-09833,
B-10493, D-02953, D-02979, D-06819,
D-07141, E-11370, E-23163, G-02417,
G-08232, J-02151, K-06696, K-06778,
L-00206, L-00311, L-00973, L-06188,
L-09474, L-10166, L-24214, N-21289
MBTH METHOD E-11624
MEASUREMENT METHODS A-01510,
A-02860, A-05067, A-07570, A-11502,
A-13848, A-15620, A-18114, A-18171,
A-19084, A-21999, A-25914, A-25975,
B-00564, B-00975, B-02311, B-02407,
B-04200, B-06490, B-06999, B-07359,
B-08155, B-08713, B-08825, B-09971,
B-10165, B-13394, B-14159, B-16240,
B-18110, B-18296, B-22051, B-22071,
B-22740, B-24837, B-25164, B-25323,
B-25637, C-00886, C-01363, C-01856,
C-01857, C-03546, C-04040, C-04759,
C-04889, C-06095, C-07516, C-07721,
C-07787, C-08123, C-09624, C-11755,
C-14733, C-15348, C-15479, C-15515,
C-15925, C-16364, C-16734, C-16860,
C-16875, C-17468, C-17474, C-18012,
C-19047, C-19519, C-21663, C-22342,
C-22391, C-22885, C-23121, C-23350,
C-24245, C-24412, C-25260, D-00657,
D-02046, D-02818, D-03514, D-06755,
D-06777, D-08298, D-08858, D-09591,
D-11525, D-23356, E-03251, E-04034,
E-06823, E-07580, E-08400, E-11065,
E-15483, E-16285, E-16803, E-17734,
E-21099, E-25212, E-25815, E-26141,
F-00530, F-01852, F-02743, F-07059,
F-08941, F-11135, F-15714, G-00981,
G-02417, G-08230, G-21276, H-06967,
K-09921, L-02052, L-02960, L-03277,
L-08686, L-09445, L-17472, L-17473
N-21360
-------
SUBJECT INDEX
297
MEMBRANE FILTERS A-19994, B-22615,
C-00886, C-04040, C-23096, C-26139,
D-06755, D-22812, E-11624, G-21276
MERCAPTANS A-13978, B-20550, B-26211,
D-09591
MERCURY B-11238
MERCURY COMPOUNDS A-06351,
B-11238, L-24214
METABOLISM H-20982
METAL COMPOUNDS A-03113, A-05067,
A-06351, A-06978, A-07800, A-08388,
A-09161, A-09165, A-09686, A-09831,
A-10442, A-13401, A-16788, A-16887,
A-17052, A-18276, A-19017, A-20863,
A-21383, A-21999, A-22867, A-23170,
A-23239, A-23359, A-24978, A-25259,
A-25545, A-25914, B-00135, B-00222,
B-00544, B-00564, B-01866, B-02407,
B-03045, B-03232, B-03337, B-03581,
B-03879, B-03974, B-04755, B-04842,
B-05454, B-06543, B-07752, B-07962,
B-08080, B-08346, B-08347, B-08429,
B-08470, B-08492, B-08574, B-08713,
B-08825, B-08836, B-08898, B-08908,
B-08917, B-08919, B-08936, B-08937,
B-08938, B-08939, B-08940, B-08942,
B-09163, B-09191, B-09600, B-09788,
B-09833, B-09904, B-09971, B-10591,
B-10681, B-10692, B-10770, B-10968,
B-11055, B-11191, B-11238, B-11240,
B-11252, B-11854, B-11910, B-11929,
B-11996, B-12672, B-12797, B-13569,
B-13817, B-14087, B-14394, B-14566,
B-14838, B-15244, B-15692, B-15976,
B-16731, B-18111, B-19339, B-19340,
B-19619, B-19670, B-19692, B-19804,
B-19876, B-19972, B-20223, B-22103,
B-22127, B-22327, B-22756, B-22809,
B-22883, B-23027, B-23374, B-23376,
B-23504, B-23526, B-23544, B-23822,
B-23880, B-24048, B-24142, B-24190,
B-24253, B-24270, B-24565, B-24589,
B-24609, B-24613, B-24673, B-24697,
B-25416, B-25430, B-25494, B-25503,
B-25584, B-25743, B-25744, B-25787,
B-26084, C-01363, C-07516, C-23096,
D-05260, D-05428, D-05551, D-07951,
D-09591, E-10010, E-24109, F-02743,
F-04827, F-04939, F-08943, F-09769,
F-09967, F-11163, F-13400, F-13573,
F-14814, F-16376, F-16883, F-18185,
G-08232, H-00316, H-06967, H-19620,
1-04622, 1-07553, 1-11286, J-07643,
J-08867, K-02010, K-06778, L-00311,
L-10503, L-10998, L-17472, L-24214,
N-04212, N-04432, N-07431, N-13513
METAL FABRICATING AND FINISHING
A-08392, A-09737, A-15517, A-17199,
A-17464, A-22867, B-00975, B-02053,
B-02407, B-16681, B-20188, B-20552,
B-21117, B-21324, B-25047, B-25913,
B-26063, C-17468, D-00858, D-03431,
D-12496, E-07428, F-14512, G-01340,
H-02299, J-21241, J-26193, K-02010,
L-00311, L-01890, L-08062
METALS A-00972, A-03113, A-08392,
A-09686, A-09737, A-10442, A-13261,
A-13978, A-17199, A-22867, B-00107,
B-02036,' B-03232, B-03337, B-03581,
B-03974* B-04755, B-05531, B-06999,
B-0793l! B-08492, B-08713, B-09788,
B-09789 B-09833, B-10770, B-11238,
B-1124o' B-11906, B-11985, B-15251,
B-16681 B-16863, B-21232, B-21324,
B-23376, B-23955, B-24697, B-24881,
C-03592! D-00657, D-03514, D-05551,
D-07951, D-09591, D-23326, F-00105,
F-14512, F-17592, G-01340, G-08232,
H-00316, 1-07553, 1-11286, 1-13086,
J-01659, J-16174, L-00973, L-08062,
L-24214, N-07431, N-21287, N-22794
METEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS
A-00691, B-22884, C-16364, D-23957,
E-00023, E-03557, E-04033, E-10053,
E-10368, E-10421, E-11065, E-26141
L-02960
METEOROLOGY A-00691, A-01350,
A-01510, A-01842, A-02765, A-05506,
A-10424, A-10678, A-10754, A-12335,
A-16073, A-16788, A-16887, A-17483,
A-22159, A-24500, B-00140, B-00687,
B-00975, B-01485, B-01796, B-02407,
B-04200, B-05531, B-06835, B-06999,
B-10680, B-11131, B-16863, B-17531,
B-18045, B-18110, B-20550, B-20779,
B-21819, B-22051, B-22500, B-22884,
B-23331, B-23974, B-24001, B-24681,
B-24826, B-25186, B-25187, B-25298,
B-26220, C-01856, C-02668, C-04040,
C-05216, C-09624, C-11340, C-15925,
C-16149, C-16364, C-20224, C-22511,
C-23350, C-24412, C-26139, D-02046,
D-02818, D-02953, D-02979, D-03431,
D-03514, D-05010, D-06777, D-08858,
D-09591, D-09984, D-10723, D-11525,
D-23356, E-00023, E-00846, E-01259,
E-01260, E-01261, E-01934, E-02410,
E-03251, E-03557, E-04033, E-04034,
E-04035, E-05357, E-05702, E-06373,
E-06775, E-06823, E-06827, E-07428,
E-07843, E-08400, E-10010, E-10053,
E-10153, E-10219, E-10220, E-10229,
E-10368, E-10421, E-10608, E-10751,
E-11065, E-11370, E-11514, E-11980,
E-13965, E-14271, E-15178, E-15483,
E-15511, E-16285, E-16467, E-16629,
E-16687, E-16803, E-16985, E-17580,
E-17595, E-17734, E-19503, E-19737,
E-20042, E-20924, E-21099, E-21122,
E-21736, E-21986, E-22313, E-23163,
E-23409, E-23723, E-24109, E-24341,
E-24391, E-24407, E-24439, E-24486,
E-25212, E-25229, E-25815, E-26267,
F-00530, F-01379, F-04939, F-11257,
G-00981, G-02417, G-06826, G-08230,
G-08232, G-11828, G-16837, G-18109,
G-20700, G-21276, H-02293, H-02299,
H-05420, H-06967, H-11733, 1-07553,
L-00206, L-01265, L-01654, L-01890,
L-02011, L-03277, L-03359, L-08686,
L-09445, L-11266, L-11383, L-12461,
L-18223, L-25688, L-26157, N-04212,
N-17819, N-23125
METHANES A-00532, A-08390, A-08391,
A-09831, A-17017, B-03337, B-04179,
B-06543, B-09195, B-13636, B-19373,
B-25503, F-10422, F-10429, F-13766,
F-22319, F-22587
MEUSE VALLEY A-16855, D-07393,
G-16837
MICE 1-20820
MICHIGAN K-00167, L-00973
MICROMETEOROLOGY E-16467
MICROORGANISMS B-00222, B-02149,
B-06062, B-07425, D-22812, G-08230,
1-07553
MICROSCOPY A-00532, A-02631, A-18114,
B-01866, C-08123, C-16734, C-23121,
F-08943, F-14814
MIDDLE ATMOSPHERE E-17595
MINERAL PROCESSING A-00943,
A-00972, A-02549, A-07642, A-08388,
A-08391, A-08392, A-09161, A-09737,
A-10740, A-13053, A-13410, A-14701,
A-19434, A-21221, A-22867, A-22875,
A-25213, B-00107, B-00975, B-01712,
B-02036, B-03337, B-04179, B-05531,
B-06307, B-07385, B-07416, B-07931,
B-10281, B-12417, B-15692, B-15693,
B-16720, B-18063, B-19261, B-19733,
B-20188, B-22001, B-22279, B-22809,
B-24756, B-25047, B-25139, B-26063,
C-04759, C-11842, C-15515, C-18012,
C-21663, C-25260, C-25872, D-03431,
D-05260, D-23326, E-10368, F-00530,
F-13027, G-04136, G-06806, G-07039,
G-11828, G-14530, H-02299, H-19620,
J-01659, J-15889, J-16174, J-17203,
J-21241, J-26193, L-01890, L-06730,
M-01220, M-01221, M-08072, M-22636,
N-00164
MINERAL PRODUCTS A-21221, A-24978,
B-00544, B-00975, B-04842, B-05454,
B-06136, B-07430, B-07466, B-08342,
B-08346, B-08347, B-08429, B-08825,
B-08917, B-09600, B-09666, B-09788,
B-09789, B-09833, B-09904, B-10165,
B-10281, B-10681, B-10968, B-11178,
B-11240, B-11847, B-11854, B-12308,
B-12581, B-12797, B-15284, B-15436,
B-15489, B-15572, B-15946, B-16248,
B-19261, B-19340, B-19619, B-19642,
B-19845, B-19972, B-20392, B-20539,
B-20995, B-21275, B-22001, B-23146,
B-24253, C-01363, C-08123, D-09591,
F-04827, F-09967, F-11782, F-14814,
G-11300, 1-07553, J-08867, L-06737,
L-14598, L-19062, N-04432
MINING A-02549, A-07642, A-08388,
A-08391, A-09161, A-10740, A-13053,
A-14701, A-22875, B-01712, B-04179,
B-06307, B-10281, B-18063, B-19261,
B-22809, B-25047, C-04759, C-11842,
C-15515, C-25260, C-25872, F-13027,
G-04136, G-06806, G-07039, G-14530,
H-19620, J-01659, J-26193, M-01220,
M-01221, M-08072, M-22636, N-00164
MINNESOTA A-01842, A-09161, A-11789,
M-01221
MISSILES AND ROCKETS A-19994
MISSOURI A-01489, A-02630, A-02631,
A-02633, A-03072, A-10754, B-00567,
B-00653, B-01485, B-01615, B-01866,
B-02206, B-02727, B-02970, B-03053,
B-03337, B-03879, B-03974, B-04655,
B-06297, B-24681, C-01354, C-01857,
C-02655, C-04040, C-07516, D-00858,
E-00023, F-00530, F-01379, F-02743,
J-lllll, K-00167, L-00973, L-01890,
L-09443, L-11185, L-11781, M-01221,
N-02632
MISTS B-03045, B-04755, B-09789,
B-09833, B-11233, B-11238, D-09591,
E-16803, F-00530, G-01865, N-04212
MOBILE C-17419, E-25815, F-11257,
L-08686
MOLYBDENUM D-09591
MOLYBDENUM COMPOUNDS A-05067,
A-06351, A-09831, B-25744, D-09591
MONITORING A-01510, A-15620, A-19084,
A-25914, A-25975, B-04200, B-06999,
B-07359, B-14159, B-16240, B-22051,
B-24837, B-25164, B-25323, B-25637,
C-01363, C-01856, C-01857, C-04889,
C-09624, C-15479, C-15515, C-15925,
C-17468, C-22342, C-22885, C-23350,
C-24412, C-25260, D-02046, D-02818,
D-08298, D-08858, D-11525, E-08400,
-------
298
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
E-17734, E-21099, E-25212, E-25815,
F-08941, G-08230, H-06967, L-02052,
L-02960, L-08686, L-09445, L-17472,
L-17473, N-21360
MONTANA A-01489, C-07516, M-01220,
M-01221
MONTHLY A-10424, A-14997, D-02818,
D-06819, D-09591, D-16237, E-01259,
L-09445
MORBIDITY F-00530, G-00981, G-07138,
G-08230, G-16837, G-20700, G-21276,
G-23151, N-21360
MORTALITY B-17124, E-10153, E-25075,
F-00530, G-00981, G-08230, G-11339,
G-16837, G-18109, G-20700, G-21276,
1-20820, L-11266, N-21360
MOTTLING H-05420
MOUNTAINS A-07645, B-18045, B-22884
MULTIPLE CHAMBER INCINERATORS
A-10678, B-26063, L-06730, M-00336
N
NAPHTHALENES A-13494, F-10429
NASHVILLE B-04200, D-04116, F-00530
NATIONAL AIR SAMPLING NETWORK
(NASN) D-06755, D-09591
NATURAL GAS A-00972, A-07647,
A-08388, A-08390, A-08391, A-09169,
A-09737, A-09831, A-10424, A-10442,
A-10678, A-11739, A-11789, A-12285,
A-13785, A-13954, A-13963, A-14794,
A-14980, A-15391, A-16239, A-16888,
A-17051, A-17910, A-18052, A-18056,
A-18276, A-19511, A-20736, A-20863,
A-21318, A-23726, A-23753, A-24817,
A-25062, A-25213, A-25256, A-25259,
A-25867, A-26085, B-00107, B-04200,
B-04516, B-06543, B-08348, B-09666,
B-10655, B-11247, B-11262, B-13394,
B-15358, B-19733, B-21268, B-21594,
B-22559, B-22809, B-23447, B-23718,
B-23880, D-01790, D-03431, D-05010,
D-09591, D-12496, D-22812, E-23723,
F-01379, F-01380, F-13400, F-16210,
J-13613, L-07550, L-11266, L-11526,
L-12461, L-17321, L-18223, M-01220,
M-01221, M-25188, N-06133, N-13591,
N-21289
NEBRASKA M-01221
NECROSIS H-02299, H-05420
NEUTRAL CONDITION E-04034, E-04035,
E-07801, E-10421, E-21073
NEUTRON ACTIVATION ANALYSIS
B-04755, C-25231, F-08941
NEVADA K-00167, M-01220, M-01221
NEW HAMPSHIRE G-16837
NEW JERSEY B-06697, B-15148, D-09591,
E-06775, H-05420, J-07643, K-06696,
I.-00973, L-01585, L-02831, L-09443
NEW MEXICO A-01489, C-07516, C-16875,
L-1I185, L-11781, M-01220
NEW ORLEANS L-06188
NliW YORK CITY B-04506, B-04516,
B-08348, B-11251, B-25187, D-06824,
D-09591, G-18109, J-00253, J-11114,
K-00167, L-00973, L-OI265, L-03359,
L-05105, L-06188, I.-08686, L-09073,
L-11266, L-18121, L-18223, N-04212
NEW YORK STATE A-04937, A-09482,
A-16887, B-03974, B-04506, B-04516,
B-08348, B-11251, B-25187, D-05010,
D-06824, D-09591, G-11339, G-18109,
J-00166, J-00253, J-11114, K-00167,
L-00973, L-01265, L-01585, L-03359,
L-05105, L-06188, L-08686, L-09073,
L-09443, L-11266, L-18121, L-18223,
N-04212
NICKEL A-22867, B-03581, D-07951,
D-09591
NICKEL COMPOUNDS A-05067, A-06351,
A-09831, A-22867, B-09833, B-25744,
D-07951, D-09591
NITRATES A-16722, A-23359, B-06636,
B-25416, C-01363, C-23096, G-20700,
G-21276, H-00316, H-02299, H-05420,
L-09445
NITRATION F-10422
NITRIC ACID A-09686, A-21204, A-26226,
B-21232, B-23880, D-05260, G-07138,
J-17203, K-06778, L-11242
NITRIC OXIDE (NO) A-05011, A-09831,
A-16722, A-17357, A-22875, A-23359,
A-26226, B-00107, B-00140, B-00975,
B-01362, B-04200, B-04634, B-05857,
B-06636, B-09833, B-10336, B-13394,
B-17782, B-21232, B-22756, B-23880,
C-00886, C-11755, C-22391, F-18185,
G-20700, G-21276, H-06967, L-09445,
N-00164, N-07845
NITROGEN B-13636, B-15962, B-18111,
B-19373, B-24019, C-13477, F-01852,
F-09769, F-10422, F-11163, H-05420
NITROGEN DIOXIDE (NO2) A-00532,
A-01842, A-05011, A-09686, A-09831,
A-11619, A-16722, A-16855, A-17357,
B-00107, B-00140, B-00975, B-01362,
B-03045, B-04200, B-08584, B-09833,
B-10336, B-21232, B-23880, B-26220,
C-00886, C-07482, C-11755, C-22391,
D-00858, D-05010, D-05428, D-22812,
G-20700, G-21276, H-05420, H-06967,
K-06778, L-01890, L-03359, L-07550,
L-09445, M-00336, N-00164, N-04212
NITROGEN OXIDES A-00532, A-00972,
A-01842, A-03072, A-03113, A-05011,
A-05067, A-09686, A-09737, A-09831,
A-10442, A-10754, A-11619, A-12619,
A-14997, A-15620, A-16722, A-16855,
A-16887, A-17357, A-19318, A-21204,
A-22649, A-22875, A-23359, A-23379,
A-23726, A-24039, A-24732, A-25213,
A-26226, B-00107, B-00140, B-00687,
B-00975, B-01362, B-02908, B-03045,
B-04200, B-04516, B-04634, B-05857,
B-06636, B-07075, B-07430, B-08080,
B-08584, B-09666, B-09833, B-10336,
B-10493, B-10591, B-11159, B-11229,
B-11262, B-12040, B-13394, B-14159,
B-14632, B-16248, B-16502, B-17782,
B-18110, B-19034, B-19340, B-19471,
B-21232, B-21234, B-21268, B-21594,
B-22559, B-22740, B-22756, B-22861,
B-23880, B-24073, B-24678, B-24837,
B-24922, B-25427, B-25517, B-26220,
C-00886, C-03592, C-07482, C-11755,
C-16860, C-17419, C-21663, C-22391,
D-00858, D-01790, D-03514, D-05010,
D-05428, D-12496, D-22812, E-07843,
E-25075, F-18185, G-07138, G-11828,
G-20700, G-21276, H-00316, H-02299,
H-05420, H-06967, H-07786, J-01546,
J-15889, J-17203, K-02010, K-06778,
L-00311, L-01654, L-01890, L-03359,
L-06188, L-07550, L-09445, L-09474,
L-24033, M-00336, M-25188, N-00164,
N-04212, N-07845, N-21289, N-21360
NITROUS ACID C-07482
NITROUS ANHYDRIDE (N2O3) N-04212
NITROUS OXIDE (N2O) B-10336, C-11755
NON-INDUSTRIAL EMISSION SOURCES
A-00532, A-00943, A-00972, A-05169,
A-07642, A-07647, A-07793, A-08392,
A-08393, A-09353, A-09686, A-09737,
A-09831, A-10183, A-10442, A-10678,
A-10740, A-10743, A-10754, A-11411,
A-11413, A-11619, A-11637, A-11640,
A-11655, A-11968, A-11981, A-11982,
A-11988, A-12285, A-13855, A-14400,
A-14574, A-14701, A-14997, A-15517,
A-16073, A-I6212, A-16722, A-16949,
A-17184, A-17357, A-17464, A-18052,
A-19434, A-19511, A-19994, A-21191,
A-21204, A-21383, A-22418, A-22875,
A-23619, A-23652, A-23884, A-24535,
A-24732, A-25259, A-25549, A-25690,
A-26299, B-00975, B-01187, B-01245,
B-01799, B-02192, B-02398, B-02772,
B-02974, B-03053, B-04506, B-04516,
B-06835, B-06999, B-07466, B-08080,
B-08085, B-08347, B-08584, B-08836,
B-08938, B-09469, B-09788, B-09833,
B-09905, B-09996, B-10281, B-10336,
B-10591, B-11238, B-12581, B-15572,
B-15933, B-16746, B-16815, B-18063,
B-18110, B-18296, B-19602, B-20188,
B-21268, B-24142, B-24168, B-24613,
B-24954, B-25038, B-25170, B-25427,
B-25584, C-00886, C-07848, C-09624,
C-16875, C-18012, C-24245, D-00858,
D-02057, D-03431, D-03432, D-04116,
D-05010, D-05428, D-07393, D-07951,
D-08298, D-08858, D-09591, D-09984,
D-12496, E-08400, E-10153, E-11065,
E-11514, E-15347, E-19737, E-25075,
F-00530, F-13620, G-08230, G-08232,
G-11828, G-18109, H-01398, H-02293,
H-06967, H-07786, H-11733, 1-07553,
J-00978, J-01308, J-01546, J-07643,
J-08059, J-lllll, J-13613, J-21241,
J-26193, L-00206, L-00311, L-00973,
L-01265, L-01585, L-01590, L-01890,
L-02011, L-02831, L-03359, L-03452,
L-05105, L-05499, L-07550, L-07950,
L-08062, L-09073, L-09474, L-10166,
L-11242, L-11266, L-11526, L-11781,
L-18121, L-20698, L-24214, L-25688,
L-26157, M-00336, M-08072, M-22636,
M-25193, N-00164, N-01063, N-04212,
N-07845, N-18206, N-21287, N-21289,
N-23125
NON-URBAN AREAS A-01510, A-10754,
B-11906, D-02046, D-12496, E-06775,
E-11514, E-25075, F-00530
NORTH DAKOTA A-01489, A-02633,
A-09161, C-07516, L-11185, L-11781,
M-01221
NUCLEAR EXPLOSIONS A-17483
NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS A-01480,
A-05530, A-07642, A-07644, A-07647,
A-07800, A-08388, A-10442, A-11739,
A-12088, A-13292, A-13316, A-13479,
A-13892, A-13954, A-14378, A-16239,
A-16489, A-16492, A-16855, A-16887,
A-17052, A-17464, A-17483, A-17542,
A-18056, A-18078, A-18176, A-18177,
A-18276, A-19024, A-19165, A-19318,
A-19434, A-19994, A-20736, A-20863,
A-21191, A-21916, A-23170, A-23379,
A-23619, A-23652, A-23753, A-23954,
A-24951, A-25256, A-25259, A-25867,
A-25914, A-25975, A-26085, B-04506,
B-04755, B-08917, B-11262, B-14159,
B-19346, B-20437, B-21232, B-21381,
B-24001, B-25529, B-26220, C-01363,
C-11755, C-16364, C-22511, C-25231,
-------
SUBJECT INDEX
299
D-25476, E-02410, E-05702, E-10608,
E-14271, E-21073, E-24391, E-24407,
E-24509, E-24569, E-25935, F-11257,
F-13400, F-14512, G-01865, H-00316,
H-11733, J-00978, J-02918, J-07643,
J-16122, J-23511, L-10503, L-12031,
M-25193, N-13513, N-13591, N-18206
NUCLEAR POWER SOURCES A-16239,
A-17052, A-17483, A-20736, A-20863,
A-23954, A-25256, L-12031
NUCLEAR REACTIONS A-17052, B-04506
NUCLEATION A-16788, D-06755
NYLON B-09788, 1-07553
o
OATS B-08938
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH A-17052,
A-22875, C-11842, D-06755, G-01340,
G-04136, G-07039, G-08232, G-14530
OCEANS A-10754, C-16875, E-21986
OCR PROCESSES A-16949, B-08917,
B-10281, B-13813, L-01590, L-13049
ODORS A-02765, A-24500, B-00975,
B-06636, C-16860, D-00858, D-03431,
D-03514, D-05010, D-09591, G-11828,
L-00311, L-00973, L-01890, L-03452,
L-08062
OHIO A-01489, A-13848, B-01796, B-01866,
B-02909, B-06636, C-07516, C-18012,
L-00973, L-08062, L-09443, L-11185,
L-11781, L-25688, N-04432
OIL BURNERS A-09482, A-10743,
A-23044, B-03045, B-09191, B-09833,
B-10993, B-17250, B-21643
OIL RESOURCES A-07759, A-08388,
A-08390, A-08391, A-08393, A-09737,
A-09989, A-11739, A-13954, A-13963,
A-16239, A-18276, B-05454, B-22559,
L-11185, N-04432, N-13429
OKLAHOMA A-01489, C-07516, L-08062,
M-01221
OLEFINS A-10424, A-16877, B-06636,
B-19373, C-11842, F-22319, H-00316,
H-02299, H-05420
OPEN BURNING A-00972, A-09686,
A-09737, A-10740, A-10743, A-10754,
A-25549, B-01799, B-02772, B-19602,
C-16875, C-18012, D-00858, D-03431,
D-05010, D-09591, H-01398, L-00206,
L-01265, L-01890, L-03359, L-25688,
M-00336, M-08072, N-00164
OPEN HEARTH FURNACES A-00972,
A-03587, A-09686, A-09737, B-00107,
B-03232, B-07673, B-10680, B-20073,
D-00657, F-13620, J-01546, L-00311
OPERATING CRITERIA A-04778, A-16410,
B-02398, B-04791, B-13829, B-14269,
B-14322, F-01379, F-01380, N-05194
OPERATING VARIABLES A-09831,
A-14794, A-16489, A-16492, A-17910,
A-24508, A-24732, A-26226, A-26233,
B-05310, U-05857, B-09833, B-12308,
B-12424, B-16250, B-16279, B-16425,
B-17343, B-19471, B-19581, B-19724,
B-20035, B-20097, B-20437, B-20526,
B-20738, B-21005, B-21324, B-21643,
B-21893 B-22I10, B-22291, B-22501,
B-22868, B-22869, B-23140, B-23331,
B-23447, B-23674, B-23955, B-24458,
B-24480! B-24630, B-24675, B-24837,
B-25164 B-25207, B-25416, B-25503,
B-25663, B-25833, B-26143, B-26220,
B 26237 C-22391, C-22885, C-23121,
F-19737, E-21099, 1-03222
OPINION SURVEYS D-03432
OREGON C-07516, L-08062, M-01220
ORGANIC ACIDS A-00972, A-05011,
A-05067, A-09686, A-22875, B-00975,
B-26084, B-26211, C-03592, F-10429
ORGANIC NITROGEN COMPOUNDS
B-03337, B-03581, B-08352, B-12503,
B-16500, B-24048
ORGANIC PHOSPHORUS COMPOUNDS
B-00975, L-24214
ORGANIC SULFUR COMPOUNDS
A-12202, A-13978, B-00975, B-05454,
B-15692, B-15693, B-20550, B-25560,
B-26211, D-09591, H-05420, J-01660
ORGANIC WASTES B-01799
ORGANOMETALLICS A-09831, B-03974,
B-07962, L-24214
ORLON B-09788
ORSAT ANALYSIS A-05067, C-00886,
C-16860
OUTPATIENT VISITS G-08230
OVERFIRE AIR A-00532, B-03053,
B-05162, B-08085, B-16068, B-18290,
B-24480, F-01852
OWENS JET DUST COUNTERS D-06755
OXIDANT PRECURSORS B-00975
OXIDANTS A-00943, A-03113, B-00687,
B-00975, B-02195, B-10680, D-05010,
E-23723, H-00316, H-01014, H-01398,
H-05420, L-03359, L-05499, L-06188,
N-00164
OXIDATION A-10754, A-12619, A-16788,
B-00135, B-00140, B-00222, B-00564,
B-01245, B-01727, B-01799, B-02442,
B-02970, B-03581, B-08429, B-09666,
B-09833, B-10591, B-10680, B-10692,
B-11252, B-11906, B-11910, B-15693,
B-19378, B-20539, B-22001, B-22012,
B-22279, B-22961, B-23773, B-24643,
B-25088, C-02921, C-11842, E-00023,
E-11624, E-25212, F-10422, F-16883,
1-04622, J-01707, K-00167, N-07845
OXIDES A-00532, A-00943, A-00972,
A-01350, A-01480, A-01489, A-01510,
A-01816, A-01842, A-02014, A-02501,
A-02549, A-02631, A-03072, A-03113,
A-05011, A-05067, A-05506, A-06040,
A-06351, A-06978, A-07759, A-07963,
A-08391, A-08641, A-09103, A-09161,
A-09165, A-09353, A-09686, A-09737,
A-09831, A-10284, A-10442, A-10444,
A-10678, A-10754, A-11502, A-11619,
A-11739, A-12266, A-12285, A-12335,
A-12619, A-12633, A-13261, A-13401,
A-13644, A-13848, A-13855, A-14478,
A-14574, A-14701, A-14997, A-15391,
A-15620, A-16073, A-16722, A-16788,
A-16855, A-16887, A-17017, A-17051,
A-17184, A-17199, A-17357, A-17398,
A-17464, A-18177, A-19017, A-19318,
A-19434, A-19994, A-21204, A-21383,
A-22418, A-22649, A-22875, A-23359,
A-23379, A-23619, A-23726, A-24039,
A-24500, A-24732, A-24817, A-24951,
A-25213, A-25545, A-25914, A-26226,
B-00107, B-00135, B-00140, B-00205,
B-00222, B-00276, B-00564, B-00567,
B-00653, B-00687, B-00975, B-01362,
B-01726, B-01727, B-01796, B-02053,
B-02149, B-02311, B-02407, B-02424,
B-02727, B-02772, B-02778, B-02908,
B-02970, B-02971, B-02974, B-03045,
B-03232, B-03337, B-03581, B-03879,
B-03974, B-04200, B-04506, B-04508,
B-04516, B-04634, B-04655, B-04791,
B-04842, B-05198, B-05454, B-05516,
B-05531, B-05853, B-05857, B-05868,
B-06278, B-06297, B-06345, B-06543,
B-06636,
B-07417,
B-07931,
B-08346,
B-08429,
B-08825,
B-08917,
B-08942,
B-09607,
B-09971,
B-10493,
B-10692,
B-11131,
B-11233,
B-11252,
B-11281,
B-12091,
B-12645,
B-13501,
B-14159,
B-14632,
B-15244,
B-15436,
B-16224,
B-16418,
B-16815,
B-17124,
B-18034,
B-18290,
B-19261,
B-19373,
B-19541,
B-19876,
B-20425,
B-21234,
B-22012,
B-22500,
B-22756,
B-23376,
B-23880,
B-24397,
B-24673,
B-24756,
B-24985,
B-25207,
B-25430,
B-25637,
B-25913,
C-00403,
C-02921,
C-06095,
C-11842,
C-15348,
C-16860,
C-21663,
C-23377,
D-00858,
D-02818,
D-04116,
D-05551,
D-07393,
D-09984,
D-22591,
E-00023,
E-01261,
E-04033,
E-06827,
E-10153,
E-11370,
E-15178,
E-16629,
E-17725,
E-21099,
E-23409,
E-25075,
E-26267,
B-06697,
B-07430,
B-07962,
B-08347,
B-08470,
B-08836,
B-08919,
B-09163,
B-09666,
B-09999,
B-10591,
B-10968,
B-11159,
B-11238,
B-11253,
B-11906,
B-12092,
B-13057,
B-13636,
B-14207,
B-14730,
B-15357,
B-15516,
B-16240,
B-16502,
B-16851,
B-17250,
B-18110,
B-18296,
B-19339,
B-19378,
B-19619,
B-20073,
B-20854,
B-21268,
B-22051,
B-22559,
B-22861,
B-23526,
B-24073,
B-2444I,
B-24678,
B-24826,
B-25079,
B-25298,
B-25494,
B-25677,
B-26084,
C-00886,
C-03592,
C-07482,
C-12126,
C-15479,
C-17419,
C-22391,
C-25147,
D-01790,
D-02953,
D-05010,
D-06777,
D-08298,
D-10723,
D-22812,
E-00846,
E-01934,
E-04034,
E-07580,
E-10219,
E-11514,
E-15347,
E-16687,
E-17734,
E-21986,
E-23723,
E-25212,
F-00530,
B-06999,
B-07515,
B-08080,
B-08352,
B-08574,
B-08863,
B-08937,
B-09191,
B-09788,
B-10336,
B-10655,
B-10993,
B-11191,
B-11240,
B-11256,
B-11910,
B-12503,
B-13243,
B-13817,
B-14261,
B-14981,
B-15358,
B-15693,
B-16248,
B-16681,
B-16862,
B-17672,
B-18111,
B-19029,
B-I9340,
B-19471,
B-19672,
B-20082,
B-21028,
B-21594,
B-22057,
B-22615,
B-22883,
B-23544,
B-24181,
B-24480,
B-24681,
B-24837,
B-25127,
B-25416,
B-25517,
B-25744,
B-26155,
C-01856,
C-04889,
C-11193,
C-12510,
C-16149,
C-17468,
C-22885,
C-25872,
D-02046,
D-02979,
D-05260,
D-06819,
D-08858,
D-11525,
D-23356,
E-01259,
E-03251,
E-06775,
E-07843,
E-10220,
E-11624,
E-16285,
E-16803,
E-19503,
E-22313,
E-24109,
E-25229,
F-01852,
B-07075,
B-07752,
B-08342,
B-08371,
B-08584,
B-08908,
B-08939,
B-09600,
B-09833,
B-10399,
B-10681,
B-11055,
B-11229,
B-11250,
B-11262,
B-12040,
B-I2574,
B-13394,
B-14087,
B-14566,
B-15148,
B-15378,
B-16173,
B-16279,
B-16731,
B-16863,
B-17782,
B-18154,
B-19034,
B-19346,
B-I9475,
B-I9678,
B-20097,
B-21232,
B-21819,
B-22279,
B-22740,
B-23374,
B-23757,
B-24270,
B-24516,
B-24697,
B-24922,
B-25187,
B-25427,
B-25584,
B-25786,
B-26220,
C-02668,
C-05216,
C-11755,
C-14733,
C-16734,
C-20224,
C-23350,
D-00657,
D-02057,
D-03514,
D-05428,
D-06824,
D-09591,
D-12496,
D-23957,
E-01260,
E-03557,
E-06823,
E-08400,
E-11065,
E-13965,
E-16467,
E-16985,
E-20523,
E-23163,
E-24486,
E-25815,
F-04827,
-------
300
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
F-07059, F-08943, F-10422, F-10429,
F-11163, F-13487, F-13766, F-16376,
F-16883, F-18185, F-22319, G-00981,
G-01865, G-02417, G-04136, G-06826,
G-07138, G-08230, G-08232, G-11300,
G-11828, G-12289, G-16837, G-18109,
G-20700, G-21276, G-23151, G-24021,
H-00316, H-01398, H-02299, H-05420,
H-06967, H-07786, H-11733, 1-04622,
1-07553, 1-13086, 1-20820, J-00166,
J-01546, J-01659, J-01707, J-02151,
J-08059, J-08867, J-lllll, J-11114,
J-11846, J-15889, J-16174, J-17203,
J-21241, K-00167, K-02010, K-06778,
K-21896, K-22248, L-00162, L-00206,
L-00311, L-00973, L-01265, L-01585,
L-01590, L-01654, L-01890, L-02052,
L-02960, L-03277, L-03359, L-03452,
L-05105, L-05499, L-06188, L-06730,
L-06737, L-07550, L-07794, L-07950,
L-08062, L-08686, L-09443, L-09445,
L-09474, L-10166, L-11185, L-11266,
L-11283, L-11319, L-11383, L-11526,
L-11781, L-12461, L-17321, L-17472,
L-17473, L-18121, L-18223, L-24033,
L-24214, L-25688, M-00336, M-01567,
M-08072, M-25188, N-00164, N-03344,
N-04212, N-04432, N-07431, N-07845,
N-21287, N-21289, N-21360, N-22794
OXYGEN A-00532, A-05067, A-08390,
A-09103, A-12266, A-16788, A-16887,
A-19017, A-22875, B-01245, B-01493,
B-04634, B-09833, B-09971, B-11131,
B-13636, B-19541, B-19672, B-22012,
B-23054, B-24565, B-25913, B-26220,
C-03592, C-13477, F-01852, G-21276,
H-05420, H-07786, 1-07553, N-13587
OXYGEN LANCING A-09686, B-03232,
B-25164
OZONE A-10424, A-24039, B-00135,
B-00975, B-03337, B-14159, B-22740,
D-05010, D-22812, G-20700, H-00316,
H-01398, H-02299, H-05420, H-07786,
1-07553, L-05499, N-04212, N-07845
PACKED TOWERS B-00140, B-07385,
B-07430, B-09607, B-09833, B-14322,
B-15902, B-16250, B-19608, B-20392,
B-20696, B-21720, B-23027, B-23221,
B-23879, B-24048, B-24697, B-25743,
J-21241, L-24033
PAINT MANUFACTURING A-09686
PAINTS B-09833, 1-07553
PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY G-01865,
1-07553, L-08062
PAPER MANUFACTURING A-00972,
A-0%86, A-15517, B-09789, B-19733,
B-22809, B-25047, D-12496, D-22591,
G-11828, G-16837, J-01546, J-26193,
L-19062
PARIS A-19165, B-00222, B-00276,
B-01866, B-02149, B-02424, B-03337,
F-02743, J-00166, K-00167
PARTICLE COUNTERS B-00564, B-02407,
B-08155, B-18296, C-08123, C-16875,
C-17474, C-18012, C-21663, C-22342,
C-23121, D-06755, F-01852
PARTICLE GROWTH B-08870, B-10770,
E-24439
PARTICLE SHAPE B-00564, B-08371,
B-08923, B-23331, C-02655, C-04759,
D-06755, E-24439, F-09064, F-15714
PARTICLE SIZE A-00532, A-18114,
A-19994, A-21916, A-22867, A-22875,
A-23170, A-23884, A-24005, A-24915,
A-25108, A-25196, A-26233, B-00140,
B-00564, B-01362, B-01485, B-01615,
B-01866, B-02036, B-03974, B-04842,
B-04940, B-05163, B-05310, B-05508,
B-05853, B-05868, B-06297, B-06835,
B-07075, B-07515, B-08155, B-08348,
B-08371, B-08378, B-08870, B-08919,
B-08923, B-08936, B-08937, B-08939,
B-08940, B-08942, B-09191, B-09496,
B-09546, B-09600, B-09788, B-09789,
B-09833, B-09923, B-09971, B-10003,
B-10681, B-10692, B-10704, B-10993,
B-12308, B-14001, B-15572, B-17531,
B-18111, B-19724, B-19972, B-20539,
B-21886, B-22501, B-22792, B-22871,
B-23262, B-23331, B-23682, B-23955,
B-24609, B-24613, B-24630, B-25186,
C-00886, C-01354, C-01857, C-02655,
C-03546, C-04040, C-04759, C-07721,
C-07941, C-08123, C-09624, C-16512,
C-16734, C-16875, C-18012, C-22882,
C-23096, C-23121, C-25231, C-25260,
C-25872, C-26139, D-06755, D-09591,
D-25476, E-06775, E-24109, F-02743,
F-04939, F-07059, F-08943, F-09064,
F-09769, F-11163, F-14814, F-14851,
F-15714, F-17594, G-21276, J-06845,
K-09921, N-04212
PARTICULATE CLASSIFIERS A-00532,
A-13848, A-18114, A-19994, A-21916,
A-22867, A-22875, A-23170, A-23884,
A-24005, A-24915, A-25108, A-25196,
A-26233, B-00140, B-00564, B-01362,
B-01485, B-01615, B-01866, B-02036,
B-03974, B-04842, B-04940, B-05163,
B-05310, B-05508, B-05853, B-05868,
B-06297, B-06835, B-07075, B-07515,
B-08155, B-08348, B-08371, B-08378,
B-08870, B-08919, B-08923, B-08936,
B-08937, B-08939, B-08940, B-08942,
B-09191, B-09496, B-09546, B-09600,
B-09788, B-09789, B-09833, B-09923,
B-09971, B-10003, B-10681, B-10692,
B-10704, B-10993, B-12308, B-14001,
B-15572, B-17531, B-18111, B-19724,
B-19972, B-20539, B-21886, B-22501,
B-22792, B-22871, B-23262, B-23331,
B-23682, B-23955, B-24609, B-24613,
B-24630, B-25186, B-25786, B-26143,
C-00886, C-01354, C-01857, C-02655,
C-03546, C-04040, C-04759, C-07721,
C-07941, C-08123, C-09624, C-16512,
C-16734, C-16875, C-18012, C-22882,
C-23096, C-23121, C-25231, C-25260,
C-25872, C-26139, D-06755, D-09591,
D-25476, E-06775, E-24109, E-24439,
F-00530, F-02743, F-04939, F-07059,
F-08943, F-09064, F-09769, F-11163,
F-14814, F-14851, F-15714, F-17594,
G-21276, J-06845, K-09921, L-03452,
N-04212
PARTICULATE SAMPLING A-05067,
A-09161, A-21916, B-01866, B-07075,
B-08378, B-08863, B-08921, B-10003,
B-19642, C-00886, C-03460, C-04040,
C-06095, C-07721, C-07787, C-07848,
C-08123, C-09107, C-12510, C-13477,
C-16875, C-22342, D-06755, D-06819,
D-07951, D-09591, E-00023, F-15714,
G-07039, L-03277, L-09445, L-09474
PARTICULATES A-00532, A-00972,
A-01350, A-01510, A-01842, A-02014,
A-02501, A-02549, A-02633, A-02860,
A-03113,
A-05169,
A-07570,
A-09539,
A-10424,
A-10754,
A-11619,
A-11988,
A-13261,
A-14478,
A-16073,
A-16949,
A-17688,
A-19084,
A-19994,
A-21916,
A-22875,
A-23652,
A-24500,
A-24915,
A-25196,
A-25689,
B-00135,
B-00687,
B-01362,
B-01796,
B-02192,
B-02398,
B-02909,
B-03232,
B-04506,
B-04655,
B-05162,
B-05508,
B-05868,
B-06636,
B-07075,
B-07430,
B-07931,
B-08155,
B-08378,
B-08713,
B-08870,
B-08923,
B-08937,
B-08942,
B-09496,
B-09666,
B-09833,
B-10165,
B-10681,
B-10933,
B-11159,
B-11262,
B-12040,
B-12443,
B-12797,
B-13394,
B-14159,
B-14270,
B-14730,
B-15532,
B-15665,
B-16173,
B-16720,
B-17250,
B-17672,
B-18063,
B-18290,
B-19261,
B-19471,
B-19642,
B-19845,
B-20188,
B-20552,
B-21234,
A-03587,
A-05506,
A-09161,
A-09686,
A-10442,
A-11411,
A-11860,
A-12266,
A-13330,
A-14794,
A-16410,
A-17017,
A-17910,
A-19165,
A-21204,
A-22144,
A-23170,
A-23726,
A-24535,
A-24951,
A-25213,
A-25867,
B-00140,
B-00975,
B-01485,
B-02032,
B-02195,
B-02408,
B-02974,
B-03879,
B-04508,
B-04755,
B-05163,
B-05516,
B-06062,
B-06697,
B-07359,
B-07515,
B-08080,
B-08346,
B-08470,
B-08825,
B-08919,
B-08925,
B-08938,
B-09163,
B-09546,
B-09699,
B-09904,
B-10264,
B-10692,
B-10993,
B-11233,
B-11906,
B-12310,
B-12446,
B-13015,
B-13857,
B-14194,
B-14294,
B-15031,
B-15543,
B-15841,
B-16224,
B-16746,
B-17318,
B-17905,
B-18110,
B-18296,
B-19340,
B-19480,
B-19724,
B-19972,
B-20223,
B-20738,
B-21268,
A-04937
A-05846,
A-09194,
A-09737,
A-10678,
A-11413,
A-11981,
A-12285,
A-13410,
A-14997,
A-16788,
A-17184,
A-19017,
A-19318,
A-21286,
A-22418,
A-23359,
A-24005,
A-24732,
A-25062,
A-25545,
A-26233,
B-00272,
B-01187,
B-01615,
B-02036,
B-02206,
B-02727,
B-03045,
B-04179,
B-04516,
B-04791,
B-05198,
B-05531,
B-06307,
B-06835,
B-07385,
B-07674,
B-08085,
B-08348,
B-08492,
B-08836,
B-08921,
B-08926,
B-08939,
B-09191,
B-09600,
B-09788,
B-09923,
B-10493,
B-10704,
B-11005,
B-11238,
B-11910,
B-12417,
B-12574,
B-13052,
B-14087,
B-14223,
B-14473,
B-15155,
B-15560,
B-15902,
B-16248,
B-16862,
B-17343,
B-17979,
B-18142,
B-19029,
B-19346,
B-19482,
B-19803,
B-20082,
B-20243,
B-20854,
B-21313,
, A-05067,
A-06040,
A-09353,
A-09831,
A-10743,
A-11502,
A-11982,
A-12541,
A-13832,
A-15246,
A-16855,
A-17398,
A-19024,
A-19434,
A-21351,
A-22649,
A-23379,
A-24039,
A-24817,
A-25108,
A-25549,
B-00107,
B-00653,
B-01245,
B-01712,
B-02149,
B-02311,
B-02908,
B-03053,
B-04200,
B-04634,
B-04940,
B-05310,
B-05853,
B-06490,
B-06999,
B-07416,
B-07752,
B-08146,
B-08371,
B-08584,
B-08863,
B-08922,
B-08936,
B-08940,
B-09469,
B-09607,
B-09789,
B-10003,
B-10655,
B-10770,
B-11055,
B-11253,
B-11996,
B-12442,
B-12581,
B-13057,
B-14137,
B-14269,
B-14707,
B-15251,
B-15616,
B-16068,
B-16502,
B-16872,
B-17392,
B-18034,
B-18161,
B-19034,
B-19378,
B-19541,
B-19834,
B-20097,
B-20485,
B-21117,
B-21504,
-------
SUBJECT INDEX
301
' B-21720, B-21886, B-22070,
, B-22175, B-22401, B-22501,
,. B-22559, B-22560, B-22661,
B-22671, B-22756, B-22792, B-22861,
B-22869, B-22871, B-22961, B-23140,
B-23176, B-23220 B-23237, B-23262,
B-23305, B-23331 B-23674, B-23822,
B-23955, B-24181, B-24480, B-24630,
B-24642, B-24643, B-24675, B-24697,
B-24756, B-24837, B-24881, B-24954,
B-25019, B-25038, B-25047, B-25079,
B-25127, B-25139, B-25164, B-25170,
B-25186, B-25207, B-25217, B-25269,
B-25323, B-25427, B-25517, B-25584,
B-25663, B-25744, B-25786, B-25973,
B-26063, B-26143, C-00403, C-00886,
C-01354, C-01856, C-01857, C-02655,
C-03460, C-03546, C-04040, C-04759,
C-04889, C-07482, C-07721, C-07787,
C-07848, C-07941, C-08123, C-09107,
C-09624, C-11193, C-12510, C-13477,
C-16512, C-I6734, C-16860, C-16875,
C-17468, C-17474, C-18012, C-19519,
C-21663, C-22342, C-22882, C-22909,
C-23096, C-23121, C-23350, C-24245,
C-24412, C-25231, C-25260, C-25872,
C-26139, D-00657, D-00858, D-01790,
D-02057, D-02818, D-02979, D-03431,
D-03432, D-03514, D-05010, D-05260,
D-05428, D-05551, D-06755, D-06777,
D-06819, D-07141, D-07393, D-07951,
D-09591, D-10723, D-12496, D-22591,
D-22812, D-23326, D-23356, D-25476,
E-00023, E-05357, E-05702, E-06775,
E-06823, E-06827, E-07428, E-07580,
E-07801, E-07843, E-10010, E-10219,
E-11370, E-11514, E-11624, E-11980,
E-12353, E-15347, E-16467, E-16687,
E-16803, E-16985, E-17725, E-20068,
E-20163, E-21099, E-21736, E-21986,
E-23409, E-23723, E-24109, E-24341,
E-24486, E-24509, E-24569, E-25075,
E-25815, E-26141, E-26267, F-00530,
F-04939, F-07059, F-08941, F-08943,
F-09769, F-11135, F-11163, F-11722,
F-14390, F-15714, F-24272, G-00981,
G-01340, G-01865, G-02417, G-04136,
G-06806, G-06826, G-07039, G-07138,
G-08230, G-08232, G-11300, G-11339,
G-11437, G-11828, G-12289, G-14530,
G-16837, G-18109, G-20700, G-21276,
G-23151, G-23670, H-00316, H-01398,
H-02299, H-06967, H-07786, H-11733,
H-19620, H-20982, 1-07553, 1-20820,
J-00166, J-01308, J-01546, J-01707,
J-02151, J-06845, J-I1111, J-11114,
J-12418, J-15889, J-16174, J-17203,
J-21241, J-26193, K-00167, K-02010,
K-06696, K-06778, K-09921, K-22248,
L-00162, L-00206, L-00311, L-00973,
L-01265, L-01654, L-01890, L-02011,
L-02052, L-02831, L-02960, L-03277,
L-03359, L-03452, L-05499, L-06188,
L-06615, L-06730, L-06737, L-07550,
L-07794, L-07950, L-08062, L-09443,
L-09445 L-09474, L-10166, L-17472,
L-17473 L-18220, L-19062, L-20698,
L-24033 L-24214, L-25688, M-01567,
M-08072, M-25188, M-25193, N-00164,
N-02632, N-04212, N-04432, N-06133,
N-07431, N-07845, N-21287, N-21289,
N-21360, N-23125
PEAT A-13785, A-18171, A-25259, B-00135,
B 02974 B-08371, L-10166, L-20698
PENELEC (CONTACT PROCESS)
B-00135, B-01362, B-01726, B-01727,
B-02195, B-04506, B-04655, B-06136,
B-08346, B-08836, B-09999, B-10692,
B-10968, B-12091, B-12645, B-15031,
B-16862, B-16872, B-20550, B-23315,
B-24707, J-01659, L-01590, L-08686
PENNSYLVANIA A-01489, A-16855,
A-17418, A-23239, B-00276, B-01727,
B-01866, B-02772, B-06636, B-08870,
B-13835, C-07516, C-23350, D-03432,
D-23957, E-07428, F-00530, F-07059,
G-16837, G-18109, J-01707, L-00973,
L-01590, L-03277, L-05105, L-06188,
L-07550, L-09443, L-11185, L-11266,
L-11781, L-18121, N-04212
PERMEABILITY B-22871, C-25872
PERMITS H-11733, L-01265
PEROXIDES B-15693, C-11842, C-25147
PEROXYACETYL NITRATE G-20700,
G-21276, H-02299, H-05420
PEROXYACYL NITRATES A-16722,
B-06636, G-20700, G-21276, H-00316,
H-02299, H-05420
PERSONNEL B-00975, B-08080, B-18290,
L-01265, L-01890, L-09073, N-01063
PERYLENES A-05011, A-05067, A-10424,
A-16877, C-00945, F-10429
PESTICIDES C-09624, F-00530, H-05420,
L-02831
PETER SPENCE PROCESS (CLAUS)
B-01362, B-08836, B-11910, B-21005,
B-23315, L-01590, L-11283, L-24033
PETROLEUM DISTRIBUTION A-08393,
A-10442, A-13785, B-25427, N-00164
PETROLEUM PRODUCTION A-00972,
A-09737, A-10442, A-13785, A-17199,
A-17398, B-00107, B-08429, B-10680,
B-10968, B-15962, B-19733, B-22809,
B-25047, C-17468, C-21663, D-12496,
J-16174, J-26193, K-00167, L-06730,
M-00336
PETROLEUM REFINING A-07759,
A-07963, A-08393, A-09686, A-09737,
A-15517, A-17199, A-25213, B-00107,
B-00975, B-08342, B-09195, B-09789,
B-09833, B-11910, B-16851, B-19733,
B-21594, B-21819, B-23447, B-24673,
C-04889, C-17468, C-21663, D-09591,
G-01865, G-11828, H-06967, 1-07553,
1-20820, J-00166, J-01546, J-21241,
L-08686, L-10998, L-11242, L-11266,
L-11526, M-00336
PETUNIAS H-05420
PH B-07430, B-08080, B-08938, B-18063,
B-21720, B-23221, B-23504, B-23773,
C-25147, E-00023, E-10153, G-06826,
G-20700, G-23151, H-20982
PHENANTHRENES A-13494, A-16877,
C-00945
PHENOLS E-07580, G-07138
PHILADELPHIA L-05105, L-06188,
L-07550, L-09443, L-11266, L-18121
PHOSPHATES B-12672, B-24142, J-08867,
L-11242
PHOSPHORIC ACID A-09686, B-02442,
B-09789, B-24142, B-25038, B-25743
PHOSPHORUS COMPOUNDS A-00972,
A-06351, B-06490, B-08347, B-12672,
B-24142, C-13477, J-08867, L-11242,
N-07431
PHOTOCHEMICAL REACTIONS A-16788,
A-25213, B-03337, B-06636, B-21234,
C-24412, E-11624, G-21276, H-02299,
H-05420, H-07786, L-00206, M-25188
PHOTOELECTRIC PHENOMENA B-07359
PHOTOGRAPHIC METHODS C-01857,
E-06373, E-07801, E-10053, E-10421,
E-19503, E-24509, F-10429
PHOTOLYSIS E-11624
PHOTOMETRIC METHODS A-07570,
B-06999, B-07359, C-03546, C-04759,
C-07721, C-21663, D-06777, D-23356,
E-16803, L-17472
PHOTOOXIDATION B-06636, E-11624
PHOTOSYNTHESIS F-00530, H-20982
PHYSICAL STATES A-03113, A-03587,
A-07570, A-08390, A-09165, A-10424,
A-10442, A-10740, A-16410, A-16887,
A-18052, A-19994, A-22159, A-24817,
A-24916, A-25062, A-25867, B-00653,
B-00975, B-01485, B-01493, B-02407,
B-02424, B-02970, B-02971, B-02974,
B-03045, B-03337, B-03879, B-03974,
B-04179, B-04634, B-04755, B-04791,
B-05162, B-05338, B-07075, B-07673,
B-07931, B-08352, B-08574, B-08584,
B-08825, B-08919, B-08936, B-08939,
B-08940, B-09191, B-09833, B-09904,
B-09971, B-10003, B-10165, B-10680,
B-10933, B-11131, B-11238, B-12503,
B-12672, B-14194, B-15532, B-15560,
B-15902, B-15962, B-16496, B-17531,
B-19373, B-19876, B-20779, B-22615,
B-22702, B-22871, B-23027, B-23376,
B-23447, B-23526, B-24001, B-24643,
B-24756, B-24785, B-25079, B-25139,
B-25186, B-25320, B-26220, C-03592,
C-09624, C-22391, C-23121, E-10153,
E-11370, E-13965, E-24109, E-24439,
E-24569, F-00105, F-01852, F-04939,
F-08943, F-10422, F-10429, F-11163,
F-11722, F-13766, F-14390, F-14512,
F-14851, F-16376, F-22319, G-02417,
H-02299, 1-04622, 1-07553, K-00167
PHYTOTOXICANTS F-00530, H-00316,
H-02299, H-05420, L-00162
PILOT PLANTS A-08390, A-16949,
B-01187, B-02407, B-02727, B-04508,
B-05508, B-06543, B-06636, B-07075,
B-08347, B-08870, B-09163, B-10591,
B-11055, B-12234, B-12424, B-12442,
B-12797, B-13663, B-14261, B-14322,
B-14730, B-15031, B-16173, B-17338,
B-17905, B-20392, B-21381, B-21720,
B-22110, B-22160, B-22868, B-22869,
B-23221, B-23544, B-23718, B-25071,
B-25663, E-21099, F-01852, J-01679,
J-08867, L-06737
PINTO BEANS H-02299, H-05420
PITTSBURGH A-17418, B-01727, B-08870,
B-13835, J-01707, N-04212
PLAINS B-22884
PLANNING AND ZONING A-16073,
A-21221, A-25975, B-24826, D-03431,
L-00973, L-01399, L-01890, L-10166,
L-18220, L-25688, L-26157, M-25193,
N-17819
PLANS AND PROGRAMS A-01480,
A-02501, A-02765, A-03587, A-04333,
A-07963, A-09737, A-10743, A-11619,
A-12619, A-13292, A-13316, A-16073,
A-17398, A-18078, A-19434, A-21191,
A-22800, A-25196, A-26299, B-00975,
B-01796, B-02192, B-06345, B-14159,
B-14270, B-16731, B-23708, B-25187,
C-23350, C-24245, C-25147, D-00657,
D-00858, D-01790, D-02818, D-03431,
D-03432, D-03514, D-05010, D-06755,
D-06777, D-07393, D-07951, D-09591,
D-09984, D-11525, D-12496, E-07428,
E-08400, E-10153, E-10368, E-25815,
G-01865, G-02417, G-07039, G-08230,
G-18109, H-01589, H-06967, J-00253,
J-01546, J-01679, J-lllll, L-00206,
L-01265, L-01585, L-01590, L-01890,
-------
302
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
L-02052, L-02960, L-03277, L-03359,
L-03452, L-05105, L-05499, L-06188,
L-06615, L-07550, L-07950, L-08062,
L-08686, L-09073, L-09443, L-09445,
L-09474, L-11319, L-11526, L-12461,
L-14535, L-17321, L-24214, L-25688,
L-26157, M-00336, M-01567, N-00164,
N-03344, N-05194, N-14816, N-18206
PLANT DAMAGE A-01842, A-02765,
A-21383, B-00140, B-00975, D-03432,
D-06755, F-00530, G-08232, H-00316,
H-01014, H-01398, H-01589, H-02299,
H-05420, H-06967, 1-20820, J-00166,
L-00162, L-02960, L-03452, L-11266,
L-24033, N-04212
PLANT GROWTH A-12335, E-15178,
F-00530, H-01014, H-02299, H-19620,
H-20982
PLANT INDICATORS B-04655
PLANTS (BOTANY) A-10754, A-18171,
B-00140, B-00975, B-06999, B-08938,
B-09788, F-00530, G-08232, H-00316,
H-01014, H-01398, H-01589, H-02293,
H-02299, H-05420, H-06967, H-07786,
H-20982, J-00166, L-00311, L-03359,
N-00164, N-04212
PLASTICS B-07515, B-08825, B-09788,
B-25088, B-26084, D-00657
PLATINUM B-03337, B-03581, B-21232
PLUME BEHAVIOR A-00532, A-00691,
A-01350, A-01842, A-10284, A-12335,
A-I3102, A-15701, A-16788, A-16887,
A-17051, A-22159, B-00687, B-00975,
B-01796, B-02311, B-04200, B-07466,
B-09699, B-10770, B-11262, B-12581,
B-13057, B-14159, B-15358, B-15572,
B-15616, B-16815, B-19029, B-22051,
B-22884, B-23237, B-24001, B-25298,
C-01856, C-03546, C-04040, C-09624,
C-11340, C-15925, C-18012, C-23377,
D-02046, D-02979, D-06777, D-08858,
D-11525, D-16237, D-23957, E-00023,
E-00846, E-01259, E-01260, E-01261,
E-01934, E-03251, E-03557, E-04033,
E-04034, E-04035, E-05357, E-05702,
E-06373, E-06775, E-06823, E-07801,
E-09417, E-10053, E-10219, E-10220,
E-10421, E-10608, E-10751, E-11514,
E-1I624, E-11980, E-12353, E-I4271,
E-15483, E-15511, E-16285, E-16687,
E-16803, E-16985, E-17580, E-17595,
K-17734, E-19503, E-19737, E-20163,
E-20523, E-21073, E-2I099, E-21122,
E-21736, E-22313, E-23409, E-24243,
K-24341, E-24407, E-24486, E-24509,
K-25229, E-25935, E-26267, F-00530,
G-00981, H-07786, L-02960, L-03277,
L-08686, L-11526, L-12461
PLUTONIUM COMPOUNDS A-10442,
A-23170, J-07643
PNKUMOCONIOSIS A-22875, B-10165,
D-06755, G-01340, G-04136, G-07039,
(j-11437, G-14530
PNEUMONIA D-22591, E-25075, G-16837,
G-20700, G-23670
POINT SOURCES D-09591, D-l 1525,
E-02410, E-04033, E-04034, E-10219,
E-10220, E-10368, E-10751, E-11065,
fi-11514, E-16629, E-19737, E-21073,
E-22313, E-24407, E-25229, L-11266,
L-25688
POLAROGRAPHIC METHODS A-I3494,
A-21999
POLLENS D-05010, D-06755
POLLUTION PRECURSORS B-00975,
D-05551
POLYNUCLEAR COMPOUNDS A-00532,
A-00972, A-02549, A-03113, A-05011,
A-05067, A-07570, A-10424, A-10754,
A-13494, A-16877, A-17017, A-23884,
A-25545, A-25549, B-01362, B-04200,
B-12040, C-00945, C-03592, D-00858,
D-07393, F-10429, N-04212, N-21289
PORTABLE C-01354, C-04889, C-16860,
C-22885, E-25815
POTASSIUM COMPOUNDS A-09165,
A-23359, B-08942, B-09600, B-11191,
B-12672, B-14838, B-15692, B-22327,
B-22756, B-23376, C-23096, F-04827,
F-08943, F-11163, 1-04622, N-04432,
N-07431
POTATOES B-08938, H-05420
POTENTIOMETRIC METHODS B-24837
POWER CYCLES A-01842, A-03340,
A-04652, A-07644, A-12541, A-18056,
B-00687, B-01485, B-01493, B-02053,
B-02192, B-02727, B-02971, B-04200,
C-00403, C-01856, C-02655, D-06777,
E-00023, E-06373, G-00981, G-02417,
J-01660, J-02151, K-06778, L-01654,
L-03359, L-09443, M-01220, M-01221,
N-00164, N-03344
POWER SOURCES A-01842, A-02290,
A-03867, A-04287, A-04652, A-04778,
A-07644, A-07793, A-08392, A-08393,
A-09169, A-09353, A-09686, A-10183,
A-10424, A-10754, A-12541, A-14980,
A-16239, A-16722, A-17052, A-17483,
A-17910, A-18052, A-19038, A-20736,
A-20863, A-21204, A-23954, A-25256,
A-25259, A-25418, A-25549, B-02424,
B-02442, B-04506, B-06636, B-08080,
B-08584, B-08713, B-08870, B-09905,
B-09996, B-10493, B-10680, B-10770,
B-14394, B-15544, B-18167, B-19261,
B-20779, B-21819, B-24954, B-25139,
B-25529, B-26237, C-00886, C-22882,
D-00858, D-07393, D-09591, D-12496,
F-11257, F-14686, G-11828, J-00166,
L-02011, L-03359, L-05499, L-06686,
L-09073, L-12031, M-25143, N-00164,
N-01063, N-05194, N-17819, N-21289
PRECIPITATION A-10754, B-02407,
B-24001, D-05010, D-09591, E-02410,
E-05702, E-08400, E-10153, E-10608,
E-23723, E-25212, F-01379, G-20700,
H-02293, L-02011, N-04212
PRESSURE A-09165, B-01615, B-03879,
B-04634, B-04655, B-05162, B-05163,
B-05338, B-05531, B-07075, B-07430,
B-07673, B-07674, B-08346, B-08347,
B-08371, B-08908, B-09833, B-10003,
B-10993, B-15532, B-17338, B-19803,
B-20485, B-21720, B-22110, B-23374,
B-23526, B-25088, B-25677, C-02655,
C-16512, F-04939, F-13766, F-22587
PRESSURE (ATMOSPHERIC) B-00687,
B-11131, E-02410, E-05702, E-23723,
E-24109, F-01379, F-04939
PRIMARY METALLURGICAL
PROCESSING A-03587, A-07963,
A-08392, A-09686, A-09737, A-13261,
A-14400, A-14701, A-15517, A-17199,
A-17357, A-17398, A-17464, A-17688,
A-19434, A-21221, A-21999, A-22867,
A-24039, A-25196, A-25213, A-25549,
B-00107, B-00222, B-00975, B-02036,
B-03232, B-03337, B-07931, B-08342,
B-08429, B-09788, B-09789, B-09833,
B-10591, B-10968, B-12503, B-14270,
B-15844, B-15962, B-16500, B-16681,
B-16851, B-19733, B-20188, B-21324,
B-22615, B-22702, B-22809, B-23955,
B-24048, B-24673, B-24756, B-24881,
B-25019, B-25047, B-25139, B-25743,
B-26063, C-16875, C-21663, D-00657,
D-09591, D-12496, D-22812, D-23326,
E-23409, G-08232, G-16192, G-16837,
H-01398, H-06967, H-19620, 1-07553,
1-20820, J-16174, J-26193, K-02010,
K-06778, L-00973, L-01890, L-06730,
L-07950, L-08062, L-09443, L-10998,
L-11242, L-11526, L-19062, L-24033,
L-24214, N-21287
PRINTING D-03431, J-26193
PROCESS MODIFICATION A-00532,
A-02633, A-02634, A-03072, A-04778,
A-04937, A-05011, A-05067, A-09103,
A-10442, A-10743, A-11968, A-I2619,
A-16410, A-19038, A-23359, A-23884,
A-24817, A-26226, B-02398, B-03053,
B-03974, B-04200, B-04516, B-04634,
B-05162, B-05163, B-05258, B-05857,
B-07962, B-08085, B-08346, B-08378,
B-08429, B-08825, B-08870, B-08908,
B-09163, B-09833, B-10399, B-10770,
B-10993, B-11191, B-11906, B-12040,
B-12308, B-12443, B-12446, B-13394,
B-13813, B-15560, B-16068, B-16502,
B-16681, B-17250, B-17392, B-17782,
B-18167, B-18290, B-18296, B-19034,
B-19471, B-20063, B-20073, B-20082,
B-20425, B-20854, B-21234, B-21381,
B-21643, B-22671, B-22861, B-23880,
B-24073, B-24480, B-24642, B-24678,
B-24681, B-24697, B-24922, B-25139,
B-25186, B-25269, B-25284, B-25494,
B-25517, B-26237, D-11525, E-11065,
F-01852, F-04939, F-09064, F-16376,
J-11114, L-01265, L-20698
PROFANES B-05857, B-08352, F-22319
PROPELLER AIRCRAFT C-15479,
C-18012, E-11065, N-00164
PROPENES C-11842
PROPOSALS A-01842, A-16073, A-24915,
B-04506, B-05529, B-22861, D-05010,
J-lllll, L-03452, L-07950, L-25688
PUBLIC AFFAIRS B-00975, B-07416,
D-03431, D-03432, D-05428, J-08059,
L-00311, L-03277, L-03452, L-09073,
M-00336, M-08072, M-22636, N-04212
PUBLIC INFORMATION L-00311,
L-03277, M-22636, N-04212
PULMONARY FUNCTION F-00530,
G-18109, 1-20820
PULMONARY RESISTANCE G-18109,
1-20820
PULVERIZED FUELS A-02633, A-02634,
A-04937, A-05011, A-05067, A-05169,
A-16410, A-16788, A-18114, B-00653,
B-01866, B-02407, B-03879, B-04940,
B-05258, B-05454, B-05853, B-07752,
B-08863, B-08870, B-09195, B-09923,
B-10681, B-11215, B-12574, B-13856,
B-18111, B-19339, B-19724, B-22961,
B-23682, B-24675, B-25269, B-25786,
C-01857, C-09107, C-16734, C-22909,
E-16803, E-21099, F-01852, F-04939,
F-09064, F-11135, F-15714, F-16883
PYRENES A-00972, A-02549, A-05011,
A-05067, A-07570, A-10424, A-10754,
A-16877, A-23884, A-25545, A-25549,
C-00945, D-00858, D-07393, N-04212,
N-21289
PYROLYSIS A-08391, A-16877, A-19444,
B-03337, B-08228, B-25184, B-26084,
F-10422, F-10429, F-11782, F-14851,
F-22319, F-22587
-------
SUBJECT INDEX
303
QUARTZ B-08825, B-09788, B-10165,
C-08123, G-11300
QUESTIONNAIRES A-02634, A-12619,
G-16837, H-06967, L-09474
R
RABBITS 1-20820
RADIATION COUNTERS A-02860
RADIATION MEASURING SYSTEMS
A-02860, E-26141
RADIOACTIVE RADIATION A-02631,
A-02860, A-06978, A-10442, A-13494,
A-16855, A-16877, A-16887, A-17052,
A-17483, A-17542, A-18078, A-19318,
A-19994, A-21191, A-21286, A-21351,
A-21383, A-21916, A-23170, A-23652,
A-25914, A-25975, B-11262, B-26220,
C-01363, C-07941, C-19519, C-22511,
E-05702, E-10608, E-21073, E-24391,
E-24569, E-25935, E-26141, H-05420,
M-25193
RADIOACTIVE TRACERS A-16877,
A-21383, E-21073, E-26141, H-05420
RADIOGRAPHY G-07039, G-07138,
G-14530
RADIOLOGICAL HEALTH A-21916
RADIOSONDES E-10421, E-11065
RADON A-16855, A-19318
RAGWEED D-05010, L-03452
RAIN D-05010, E-05702, E-08400, E-10153,
E-25212, G-20700, H-02293, N-04212
RAPPING B-04940, B-05508, B-07385,
B-07931, B-09789, B-23305, B-25127
RATS G-11300
REACTION KINETICS A-16788, A-19444,
A-25108, A-26226, B-00544, B-04842,
B-07466, B-09833, B-09971, B-11055,
B-12581, B-15284, B-16346, B-19581,
B-21005, B-22756, B-23374, B-23526,
B-23544, B-24269, B-24678, B-26084,
E-21099, F-09064, F-09967, F-10429,
F-14851, F-16883, F-22319, F-22587
REACTION MECHANISMS A-13494,
A-16788, A-23170, A-26226, B-06636,
B-09833, B-12503, B-12581, B-20539,
B-23374, B-23526, B-26155, C-22391,
E-21099, F,-23409, F-08943, F-16376,
F-16883, F-22587,1-11286
RKACTORS (NUCLEAR) A-07644,
A-08388, A-10442, A-12088, A-16887,
A-17052, A-17483, A-18078, A-18276,
A-21916, A-23170, A-25256, A-25914,
A-25975, B-04755, B-08917, B-21381,
B-26220, C-01363, C-11755, C-16364,
C-25231, D-25476, E-05702, E-10608,
E-14271, E-21073, E-24391, E-24407,
K-24509, E-24569, E-25935, F-11257,
F-13400, J-07643, L-10503, N-13513,
N-18206
RECORDING METHODS A-01510,
C-01857, D-08858, E-00023, E-06373,
E-07801, E-10053, E-10421, E-19503,
E-24391, E-24509, F-10429
REDUCTION A-12619, A-19017, A-26226,
B-00135, B-03337, B-03581, B-06543,
B-09666, B-10336, B-12234, B-16500,
B-19378 B-19380, B-19475, B-19541,
B-I9560, B-19672, B-19678, B-19874,
B-20914, B-22012, B-22014, B-22279,
B-22327, B-22702, B-22740, B-22869,
B-22905, B-23374, B-23526, B-23880,
B-24048, B-24253, B-24270, B-24397,
B-24516, B-24554, B-24565, B-24673,
B-24678, B-24777, B-25320, B-25323,
B-25430, B-25787, B-25795, B-25973,
B-26155, F-10422
REFRACTORIES B-09833, B-24480,
B-25207, F-00105, L-08062
REGIONAL GOVERNMENTS A-16073,
A-24535, L-03359, L-08062, L-09073,
L-09443
REGULATIONS A-05530, A-06040,
A-07642, A-14574, A-19434, A-25975,
B-00107, B-00975, B-02032, B-02772,
B-04516, B-06345, B-08348, B-10493,
B-16815, B-19471, B-22559, J-00253,
J-07643, J-08059, J-16506, J-19685,
K-06778, L-00311, L-00973, L-01585,
L-01654, L-01890, L-03359, L-07550,
L-07794, L-09443, L-09474, L-11185,
L-11266, L-11383, L-11781, L-17473,
L-18220, L-20698, L-25688, N-21287
REINLUFT PROCESS (ADSORPTION)
B-00135, B-00140, B-01362, B-01726,
B-01727, B-02053, B-02195, B-02778,
B-02971, B-04200, B-04506, B-04655,
B-05454, B-06136, B-06345, B-08342,
B-08346, B-08836, B-09666, B-09833,
B-09999, B-10968, B-12091, B-12253,
B-13501, B-13829, B-14660, B-15436,
B-16418, B-16851, B-16872, B-19471,
B-20550, B-21028, B-21504, B-22110,
B-23315, B-23373, B-24707, B-24756,
B-24837, B-25584, J-01707, J-08867,
L-08686, L-11283, L-14535
RENDERING L-06730, L-08062
RESEARCH INSTITUTES A-06040,
A-26299, B-11910, E-10368, G-01340,
L-08686, M-08072
RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES A-08392,
A-26085, B-09971, D-00858, D-09984,
E-06775, E-09417, F-00530, F-04827,
F-09769
RESEARCH PROGRAMS A-06040,
A-08391, A-16949, A-18078, A-22800,
B-04507, B-06345, B-06636, B-07075,
B-08347, B-08863, B-08917, B-09996,
B-11178, B-11910, B-13051, B-13057,
B-13813, B-14546, B-14707, B-I5544,
B-18110, B-20563, B-21381, B-21819,
B-22861, B-23176, B-23237, B-23880,
B-24142, B-24826, B-25038, B-25165,
G-01340, G-01865, G-07039, G-11300,
H-01589, L-01590, L-03277, L-06686,
L-08686, L-09443, L-11319, L-11526,
L-14535, L-19062, M-08072, M-22636,
N-07845
RESIDENTIAL AREAS A-07647, A-08393,
D-02057, D-07141, D-07393, D-09591,
D-11525, D-13176, D-23326, E-06775,
E-17725, G-07138, L-01399, L-07550,
L-09474, M-00336, N-21289
RESIDUAL OILS A-00943, A-01480,
A-07759, A-09737, A-09831, A-14378,
A-15620, A-20736, A-22867, A-23753,
A-25690, B-00205, B-01493, B-03974,
B-07515, B-07962, B-08080, B-08346,
B-08347, B-08429, B-08713, B-08836,
B-08908, B-08917, B-09191, B-09666,
B-09833, B-09999, B-10680, B-10968,
B-14394, B-15240, B-20082, B-20729,
B-23315, B-23708, B-24207, B-25187,
B-25677, C-16860, D-09591, E-06775,
E-21099, G-01865, H-11733, J-00166,
J-08059, J-11114, J-13613, K-00167,
L-01590, L-05105, L-07550, L-08686,
L-11185, L-11266, M-01220, M-01221
RESPIRATORY DISEASES A-l 1988,
A-17357, A-17688, A-22875, B-10165,
D-02818, D-03432, D-05260, D-06755,
D-22591, E-25075, F-00530, G-00981,
G-01340, G-01865, G-04136, G-07039,
G-07138, G-08230, G-08232, G-11300,
G-11339, G-11437, G-12289, G-14530,
G-16837, G-18109, G-20700, G-21276,
G-23151, G-23670, G-24021, J-00166,
L-03359, L-11266, N-21360
RESPIRATORY FUNCTIONS A-16855,
A-24005, B-07416, B-10704, B-12672,
B-12797, C-11340, D-25476, E-05702,
E-10608, E-21986, E-24569, F-00530,
G-06806, G-08232, G-18109, 1-20820,
N-21287
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM A-16855,
A-17357, B-22792, C-01857, F-00530,
G-01865, G-04136, G-06806, G-07138,
G-08230, G-08232, G-11437, G-18109,
G-20700, 1-20820
RETENTION A-22387, D-06755, G-06806
RHODE ISLAND L-08062
RINGELMANN CHART A-00532, B-00975,
B-08713, B-09833, B-10770, B-13394,
B-18290, C-01857, C-03546, C-07721,
C-16860, L-00206, L-00311, L-00973,
L-18220
RIVERS A-07645, D-03514, E-10153,
G-02417, L-24214
RUBBER A-10424, B-24697, 1-07553,
L-08062
RUBBER MANUFACTURING J-21241,
L-06730
SAFETY EQUIPMENT A-05530, A-25690,
B-04179, B-08352
SALARIES A-07647
SALTZMAN METHOD D-22812, E-l 1624
SAMPLERS A-05067, A-19994, B-00135,
B-00975, B-01796, B-04200, B-08921,
B-22615, C-00886, C-00945, C-01354,
C-01856, C-03460, C-04040, C-07787,
C-11193, C-16860, C-18012, C-21663,
C-23096, C-23121, C-24412, C-26139,
D-02818, D-03514, D-06755, D-07951,
D-08298, D-08858, D-09591, D-22812,
E-11624, G-21276, K-09921, L-01890,
L-03277, L-09445, N-04212
SAMPLING METHODS A-02549, A-03113,
A-05011, A-05067, A-09161, A-19994,
A-21916, A-22875, B-00135, B-00975,
B-01712, B-01796, B-01866, B-04200,
B-07075, B-07359, B-08378, B-08863,
B-08921, B-10003, B-13857, B-16240,
B-18296, B-19642, B-21594, B-22401,
B-22615, B-23757, C-00403, C-00886,
C-00945, C-01354, C-01363, C-01856,
C-02655, C-02921, C-03460, C-03592,
C-04040, C-06095, C-07721, C-07787,
C-07848, C-08123, C-09107, C-11193,
C-12510, C-13477, C-15479, C-16512,
C-16734, C-16860, C-16875, C-17419,
C-17474, C-18012, C-21663, C-22342,
C-22391, C-22882, C-22909, C-23096,
C-23121, C-24245, C-24412, C-26139,
D-02818, D-03514, D-05551, D-06755,
D-06819, D-07951, D-08298, 0-08858^
D-09591, D-22812, E-00023, E-04033,'
E-04034, E-06823, E-10010, E-11624,
E-21099, F-15714, F-16883, G-07039,'
G-21276, K-09921, K-21896, L-00311,
L-01890, L-03277, L-03452, L-09445 '
L-09474, N-04212, N-13587
-------
304
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
SAMPLING PROBES A-05011, A-09161,
B-22401, C-02655, C-04040, C-07787,
C-16512, C-16734, C-22882, C-22909,
D-08858, F-15714, F-16883, K-09921,
N-13587
SAN FRANCISCO L-00973, L-06188,
L-11266
SCATTERING (ATMOSPHERIC) E-16687,
E-16803, E-17612, E-21736
SCREEN FILTERS B-08155, B-18161,
B-20188, B-20738
SCRUBBERS A-00972, A-03587, A-04937,
A-09686, A-12619, A-13141, A-13410,
A-15391, A-15620, A-23044, A-23379,
A-24916, A-24978, A-25062, A-26226,
A-26233, B-00107, B-00135, B-00140,
B-00975, B-01362, B-01493, B-02407,
B-02971, B-03045, B-03337, B-03879,
B-04634, B-04791, B-05163, B-05198,
B-05531, B-06999, B-07385, B-07416,
B-07430, B-07466, B-07752, B-07931,
B-08146, B-08155, B-08342, B-08346,
B-08378, B-08429, B-08836, B-09523,
B-09607, B-09666, B-09833, B-09999,
B-10264, B-10493, B-11159, B-11252,
B-12040, B-12234, B-12503, B-12581,
B-13767, B-13856, B-14137, B-14162,
B-14207, B-14270, B-14322, B-14632,
B-14707, B-15436, B-15489, B-15572,
B-15665, B-15902, B-16248, B-16250,
B-16282, B-16500, B-16681, B-16720,
B-16731, B-16872, B-17004, B-17124,
B-17531, B-17905, B-17979, B-18110,
B-18154, B-18161, B-18290, B-19380,
B-19394, B-19471, B-19608, B-19803,
B-19845, B-20035, B-20097, B-20141,
B-20392, B-20696, B-20854, B-20914,
B-21136, B-21200, B-21238, B-21268,
B-21720, B-22070, B-22160, B-22291,
B-22327, B-22401, B-22756, B-22868,
B-22869, B-22871, B-23027, B-23140,
B-23146, B-23221, B-23231, B-23315,
B-23374, B-23376, B-23504, B-23682,
B-23708, B-23773, B-23822, B-23879,
B-23880, B-23955, B-24048, B-24168,
B-24181, B-24441, B-24613, B-24673,
B-24678, B-24697, B-24707, B-24756,
B-24837, B-24881, B-24985, B-25019,
B-25165, B-25320, B-25416, B-25517,
B-25584, B-25602, B-25663, B-25743,
B-26063, B-26211, B-26237, C-21663,
D-05260, E-16985, F-00530, F-13487,
G-24021, H-06967, J-01546, J-01707,
J-16122, J-16129, J-21241, J-26193,
L-08062, L-11526, L-19062, L-24033,
M-25193, N-21360
SEA BREEZE E-23723
SEASONAL A-01510, A-10424, A-11411,
A-11619, A-14997, A-24500, B-11250,
D-00657, D-03431, D-03514, D-04116,
D-05428, D-06824, D-07141, D-07393,
D-08858, D-09591, D-10723, D-11525,
E-01259, E-02410, E-10220, E-10368,
E-11514, E-23723, G-08232, G-21276,
L-01890, L-25688, M-00336
SECONDARY AIR A-09103, B-03053,
B-08908, B-09833, B-19471
SEDIMENTATION A-09686, A-11982,
B-05163, B-07385, B-08155, B-19602,
B-19834, B-24609, B-25517, B-25584,
E-24569, F-00530
SELENIUM COMPOUNDS B-24441
SENATE HEARINGS A-24732, B-08917,
G-24021
SETTLING CHAMBERS A-03587,
A-26233, B-05163, B-07385, B-08155,
B-16720, B-25517, B-25584, C-21663,
D-01790
SETTLING PARTICLES A-00532, A-01350,
A-02014, A-02549, A-02633, A-03587,
A-04937, A-05506, A-07570, A-09161,
A-09353, A-09831, A-10424, A-10442,
A-10678, A-11982, A-12541, A-13261,
A-13330, A-13410, A-13832, A-14794,
A-15246, A-16410, A-16788, A-17017,
A-19017, A-19084, A-19434, A-21916,
A-22875, A-24005, A-24500, A-24535,
A-24817, A-24915, A-25062, A-25213,
A-25545, A-25549, B-00107, B-00140,
B-00272, B-00975, B-01485, B-01615,
B-01712, B-01796, B-02032, B-02036,
B-02149, B-02206, B-02311, B-02398,
B-02909, B-02974, B-03045, B-03232,
B-04179, B-04200, B-04508, B-04634,
B-04655, B-04940, B-05163, B-05198,
B-05310, B-06062, B-06307, B-06490,
B-06835, B-07075, B-07359, B-07385,
B-07416, B-07430, B-07674, B-07931,
B-08080, B-08085, B-08155, B-08346,
B-08348, B-08378, B-08470, B-08584,
B-08825, B-08836, B-09469, B-09496,
B-09546, B-09788, B-09789, B-09833,
B-09923, B-10165, B-10681, B-10933,
B-11055, B-11906, B-11910, B-12442,
B-12581, B-13015, B-13057, B-13857,
B-14194, B-14223, B-14270, B-14294,
B-14473, B-14707, B-15155, B-16068,
B-16720, B-17318, B-17392, B-17672,
B-17905, B-17979, B-18161, B-18296,
B-19029, B-19346, B-19378, B-19724,
B-19803, B-19845, B-19972, B-20097,
B-20188, B-20223, B-20243, B-21117,
B-21313, B-21886, B-22070, B-22160,
B-22401, B-2250', B-22505, B-22560,
B-22671, B-22792, B-23176, B-23220,
B-23237, B-23262, B-23305, B-23674,
B-23955, B-24480, B-24642, B-24643,
B-24697, B-24756, B-25079, B-25127,
B-25164, B-25186, B-25207, B-25217,
B-25269, B-25323, B-25584, B-25663,
B-25744, B-25973, B-26063, B-26143,
C-01857, C-02655, C-04759, C-07721,
C-07787, C-07848, C-08123, C-09107,
C-09624, C-16512, C-17468, C-17474,
C-19519, C-22342, C-22882, C-23121,
C-24412, C-25260, C-25872, D-02979,
D-03431, D-03514, D-05260, D-05428,
D-06755, D-06819, D-07141, D-07393,
D-09591, D-10723, D-22591, D-23326,
E-06775, E-07580, E-16985, E-24569,
F-04939, F-07059, F-11722, G-00981,
G-01340, G-02417, G-04136, G-06806,
G-07039, G-07138, G-08230, G-11339,
G-11437, G-12289, G-14530, G-18109,
G-20700, G-21276, G-23151, H-00316,
H-02299, H-06967, H-07786, H-19620,
H-20982, J-00166, J-01546, J-02151,
J-15889, J-17203, K-02010, K-06778,
K-09921, L-00206, L-00311, L-01265,
L-01890, L-02011, L-02052, L-02960,
L-03359, L-06188, L-06737, L-07550,
L-07950, L-08062, L-09474, L-10166,
L-17472, L-17473, M-08072, N-04212,
N-21287, N-21289
SEWAGE A-16949, A-22875, A-25690,
B-01245, B-11238, B-15933, B-20188,
B-24168, B-25427, 1-07553
SEWAGE TREATMENT A-16949, A-22875,
B-01245, B-15933, B-20188, 1-07553
SHIPS A-04287, A-07645, A-08392,
B-25427, D-09591, D-12496, L-00311,
N-00164
SIEVE ANALYSIS A-13848, C-25872,
F-02743, F-11163
SILICATES B-08936, B-09904, F-04827,
F-08943, F-11163, G-11437
SILICON COMPOUNDS A-09831, B-03337,
B-03581, B-08936, B-09788, B-09904,
B-10165, B-19876, B-23880, F-04827,
F-08943, F-09769, F-11163, G-11437,
1-04622, N-07431
SILICON DIOXIDE A-25545, B-04842,
B-05531, B-05868, B-08919, B-08937,
B-08939, B-08942, B-09600, B-09788,
F-07059, F-08943, F-11163, G-04136,
N-04432, N-07431
SILICOSIS B-10165, D-06755, G-04136
SILVER COMPOUNDS A-06351, A-09831,
C-01363, C-23096
SIMULATION A-14997, A-25418, B-04755,
B-06835, B-11252, B-20539, B-26220,
C-20224, C-22511, E-04033, E-09417,
E-11624, E-25229, G-11300, J-lllll,
L-12461, L-17321
SINGLE CHAMBER INCINERATORS
L-06730, N-00164
SINTERING A-00972, A-03587, A-04937,
A-09737, A-17464, A-19434, B-11005,
B-21893, B-22871, B-24207, K-06778,
L-06730
SKIN F-00530, G-07138
SKIN CANCER A-17688
SLAUGHTERHOUSES H-06967
SLUDGE A-25690, B-11238, B-24168
SMOG A-09353, A-23726, A-24039,
A-25549, B-00107, B-00975, B-19034,
B-21234, C-24412, D-06755, E-15347,
E-20068, E-23723, E-24341, E-25075,
F-00530, G-08230, G-11828, G-18109,
G-21276, G-23670, H-00316, H-01398,
H-07786, 1-07553, 1-20820, L-09445,
M-01567, M-25188, N-04212, N-07845,
N-23125
SMOG INDEX G-21276
SMOKE SHADE A-00532, A-13855,
A-17051, B-00975, B-08713, B-09496,
B-09833, B-10770, B-13394, B-18290,
C-01857, C-03546, C-07721, C-16860,
D-05010, L-00206, L-00311, L-00973,
L-18220
SMOKEMETERS A-19084, B-07359,
B-08713, C-01857, C-03546, C-07721,
C-09624, C-19047
SMOKES A-00532, A-02014, A-06040,
A-09353, A-09539, A-09831, A-10424,
A-10743, A-11619, A-13261, A-17184,
A-17398, A-17910, A-24005, A-25062,
B-00107, B-00975, B-03053, B-04516,
B-04634, B-04791, B-05162, B-06636,
B-06835, B-06999, B-07416, B-08080,
B-08146, B-08155, B-08584, B-08713,
B-09496, B-09789, B-09833, B-10493,
B-10770, B-10993, B-11159, B-12443,
B-12446, B-13052, B-14194, B-15560,
B-15616, B-16068, B-17250, B-17343,
B-17392, B-18290, B-18296, B-19029,
B-19261, B-19471, B-19482, B-20097,
B-20738, B-21504, B-22160, B-22559,
B-22560, B-22671, B-23237, B-23262,
B-24837, C-00886, C-01857, C-03546,
C-07482, C-09624, C-11193, D-00657,
D-02057, D-02818, D-03431, D-03514,
D-05010, D-05260, D-06777, D-06819,
D-07141, D-07951, D-09591, E-05357,
E-06775, E-06827, E-07801, E-07843,
E-10010, E-11370, E-11514, E-11980,
E-12353, E-17725, E-20163, E-21986,
E-24509, E-25075, E-26141, E-26267,
-------
SUBJECT INDEX
305
G-00981, G-06826, G-08232, G-16837,
G-21276, H-06967, H-07786, J-01546,
J-17203, K-00167, K-22248, L-00162,
L-00311, L-00973 L-01654, L-02052,
L-02831, L-03277, L-07550, L-07950,
L-08062, L-09445, L-09474, L-18220,
L-20698, M-08072, N-07845, N-23125
SMOKING E-25075, F-00530, G-08230,
G-16837, G-20700
SNOW D-05010, E-10608, L-02011,
N-04212
SOAP MANUFACTURING B-09788,
L-06730
SOCIAL ATTITUDES B-25298, D-05260,
F-00530, J-00253, J-01S46, M-01567,
M-25193
SOCIO-ECONOMIC FACTORS A-07647,
A-23619, A-23753, A-24951, B-20663,
G-11339, J-23511, L-12031, M-22636,
N-21360, N-23125
SODIUM CARBONATE B-03879, B-07752,
B-22756, B-23376, B-24048, B-24565,
B-25503, B-25787
SODIUM CHLORIDE B-08939, B-08940,
G-08232
SODIUM COMPOUNDS A-09161, A-09165,
A-09831, A-10442, A-23170, B-03045,
B-03337, B-03581, B-03879, B-06543,
B-07752, B-08919, B-08936, B-08937,
B-08939, B-08940, B-08942, B-09191,
B-09600, B-09833, B-09904, B-12672,
B-14838, B-15692, B-22103, B-22327,
B-22756, B-23376, B-23504, B-24048,
B-24565, B-25416, B-25494, B-25503,
B-25787, B-26084, F-08943, F-09769,
F-11163, G-08232, 1-04622, 1-11286,
N-04432, N-07431
SODIUM HYDROXIDE B-03045, B-15692,
B-23504
SODIUM SULFITE B-03337, B-09833,
B-23504
SOILING D-06755, 1-07553, 1-20820,
N-00164
SOILING INDEX A-00532, B-00975,
C-11193, C-24412, D-00657, D-09591,
F-00530, L-01890, L-25688
SOILS A-11988, B-08938, B-09600,
B-24142, E-10153, H-19620
SOLAR RADIATION A-18056, A-25213,
A-25418, C-23350, E-23723, F-01379,
F-11257, H-05420, 1-07643, N-07845
SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL A-00972,
A-05169, A-09737, A-10442, A-10678,
A-10740, A-10754, A-11411, A-11413,
A-11637, A-11640, A-11655, A-11968,
A-11981, A-11982, A-15517, A-16073,
A-19511, A-21191, A-22875, A-25549,
A-26299, B-00975, B-01799, B-02192,
B-02398, B-02772, B-07466, B-08938,
B-09788, B-12581, B-15572, B-15933,
B-16746, B-24142, B-24613, B-24954,
B-25038, D-00858, D-03431, D-03432,
D-09591, D-12496, F-13620, G-11828,
H-01398, H-06967, H-07786, H-11733,
J-00978/J-01308, J-01546, J-08059,
J-lllll, 1-21241, L-00206, L-00973,
L-01590 L-01890, L-02831, L-08062,
L-11526 L-26157, M-00336, M-22636,
M-25193 N-00164, N-01063, N-23125
SOLIDS A-16410, B-03337, B-09833,
B-15532 B-17531, B-24756, C-03592,
E-24109, E-24439, F-01852,1-07553
SOLVENT REFINING (LOW ASH)
A 11790 A-19038, B-00568, B-01187,
B-02813' B-05258, B-05454, B-08917,
B-09666, F-13411, J-02413, J-11846,
J-23800
SOLVENTS B-00107, B-08352, B-21232,
C-21663, D-03431
SOOT A-02549, A-02633, A-09161,
A-09831, A-10424, A-13832, A-14794,
A-17017, A-24500, A-24535, A-25545,
A-25549, B-02974, B-03045, B-04200,
B-06835, B-07416, B-08080, B-09469,
B-09833, B-11910, B-13057, B-17392,
B-18296, B-19378, B-21313, B-22160,
B-22505, B-22671, B-25584, B-26063,
C-07721, D-05260, D-05428, D-07393,
G-11339, G-18109, H-06967, H-07786,
J-00166, J-02151, K-09921, L-00311,
L-07550, N-04212, N-21287
SOOT FALL B-09833, C-07721, D-05010,
D-05428, D-06755, D-07393, L-07950
SOURCE SAMPLING A-02549, A-22875,
B-00135, B-00975, B-13857, B-16240,
B-18296, B-19642, B-21594, B-22401,
B-23757, C-00403, C-00945, C-01363,
C-03460, C-04040, C-06095, C-07721,
C-07787, C-07848, C-09107, C-12510,
C-17474, C-22882, C-22909, E-21099,
K-21896, L-00311
SOUTH CAROLINA K-00167
SOUTH DAKOTA A-01489, C-07516,
M-01221
SOYBEANS B-08938
SO2 REMOVAL (COMBUSTION
PRODUCTS) A-01480, A-06040,
A-06978, A-11739, A-14478, A-14574,
A-15391, A-15517, A-18177, A-21204,
A-22800, A-23044, A-23379, A-24535,
A-24817, A-24916, A-24978, A-25062,
A-25867, B-00135, B-00140, B-00205,
B-00544, B-01362, B-01726, B-01727,
B-02053, B-02149, B-02195, B-02407,
B-02727, B-02778, B-02908, B-02970,
B-02971, B-03045, B-03337, B-03581,
B-03879, B-03974, B-04200, B-04506,
B-04655, B-04791, B-04842, B-05198,
B-05338, B-05454, B-06136, B-06278,
B-06345, B-06543, B-06636, B-06999,
B-07417, B-07430, B-07466, B-07515,
B-07752, B-08342, B-08346, B-08347,
B-08371, B-08429, B-08470, B-08574,
B-08584, B-08825, B-08836, B-08863,
B-09607, B-09666, B-09833, B-09971,
B-09999, B-10493, B-10563, B-10591,
B-10655, B-10681, B-10692, B-10968,
B-11055, B-11131, B-11159, B-11178,
B-11233, B-11240, B-11247, B-11250,
B-11252, B-11253, B-11256, B-11262,
B-11281, B-11847, B-11854, B-11906,
B-11910, B-11976, B-12091, B-12092,
B-12234, B-12253, B-12308, B-12310,
B-12442, B-12503, B-12574, B-12581,
B-12645, B-12797, B-13243, B-13394,
B-13501, B-13523, B-13569, B-13578,
B-13721, B-13767, B-13817, B-13829,
B-13856, B-14057, B-14087, B-14137,
B-14159, B-14162, B-14207, B-14269,
B-14322, B-14546, B-14566, B-14632,
B-14660, B-14730, B-14981, B-15031,
B-15092, B-15148, B-15244, B-15357,
B-15358, B-15378, B-15436, B-15489,
B-15572, B-15841, B-15844, B-15902,
B-15913, B-15946, B-15962, B-15976,
B-16173, B-16248, B-16250, B-16282,
B-16346, B-16418, B-16425, B-16500,
B-16548, B-16681, B-16731, B-16851,
B-16862, B-16872, B-16968, B-17004,
B-17124, B-17318, B-17338, B-17685,
B-17905, B-17979, B-18034, B-18110,
B-18154, B-18290, B-18296, B-19048,
B-19189, B-19339, B-19380, B-19394,
B-19395, B-19471, B-19475, B-19482,
B-19541, B-19560, B-19581, B-19608,
B-19619, B-19629, B-19642, B-19670,
B-19803, B-19834, B-19845, B-19874,
B-19972, B-20035, B-20063, B-20141,
B-20262, B-20392, B-20425, B-20526,
B-20539, B-20550, B-20552, B-20663,
B-20696, B-20914, B-20995, B-21005,
B-21028, B-21200, B-21238, B-21268,
B-21275, B-21381, B-21504, B-21506,
B-21643, B-21720, B-21819, B-21893,
B-22001, B-22012, B-22014, B-22057,
B-22103, B-22110, B-22160, B-22279,
B-22291, B-22327, B-22441, B-22505,
B-22615, B-22702, B-22740, B-22756,
B-22809, B-22868, B-22869, B-22871,
B-22883, B-22905, B-22961, B-23027,
B-23054, B-23140, B-23146, B-23221,
B-23231, B-23237, B-23315, B-23373,
B-23374, B-23376, B-23447, B-23504,
B-23526, B-23544, B-23708, B-23718,
B-23757, B-23773, B-23822, B-23867,
B-23879, B-23880, B-24019, B-24048,
B-24142, B-24168, B-24207, B-24253,
B-24269, B-24270, B-24397, B-24441,
B-24554, B-24565, B-24589, B-24613,
B-24673, B-24678, B-24697, B-24707,
B-24756, B-24777, B-24785, B-24826,
B-24837, B-24985, B-25038, B-25071,
B-25088, B-25165, B-25284, B-25320,
B-25323, B-25416, B-25494, B-25503,
B-25517, B-25560, B-25584, B-25602,
B-25702, B-25743, B-25787, B-25795,
B-25913, B-25973, B-26155, B-26211,
B-26230, C-16860, C-22391, D-22591,
E-00023, F-00530, F-09967, F-13487,
F-16376, G-01865, G-24021, J-01546,
J-01659, J-01707, J-08867, J-11846,
J-15510, J-16129, J-17203, J-25961,
K-21896, L-01590, L-02960, L-06737,
L-08686, L-09443, L-09474, L-11283,
L-11319, L-11526, L-14535, L-18223,
L-19062, L-24033, M-25193, N-03344,
N-21289
SPARK IGNITION ENGINES A-08392,
A-08393, A-09353, A-09686, A-10183,
A-10754, A-16722, B-08584, B-10493,
B-15544, C-00886, D-09591, D-12496,
J-00166, L-03359, L-05499, N-00164,
N-01063
SPECTROMETRY A-02631, A-05067,
A-06351, A-13494, A-21999, A-22144,
A-23239, A-23884, B-08825, B-11131,
B-24837, C-00945, C-04889, C-07941,
C-15515, C-22342, C-23377, D-03514,
D-22812, E-16285, E-21073, F-10429,
F-17592, L-17472
SPECTROPHOTOMETRY A-05067,
A-21999, B-08825, C-00945, C-21663,
D-02979, D-22812
SPINACH H-05420
SPORES B-06062, G-08230
SPOT TESTS C-00886
SPRAY TOWERS B-00140, B-07385,
B-16720, B-17531, B-18161, B-19380,
B-20141, B-20392, B-20914, B-21200,
B-21720, B-25663
SPRAYS H-00316
ST LOUIS A-02630, A-02631, A-02633,
A-03072, A-10754, B-00567, B-00653,
B-01485, B-01615, B-02206, B-02727,
B-02970, B-03053, B-03337, B-03879,
B-03974, B-04655, B-24681, C-01354,
C-01857, C-02655, C-04040, E-00023,
F-00530, F-01379, F-02743, L-01890,
L-09443, N-02632
-------
306
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
STABILITY (ATMOSPHERIC) A-00691,
A-01510, A-01842, A-05506, A-10284,
A-10424, A-10678, A-16073, A-16855,
A-17280, A-22159, B-00687, B-00975,
B-04200, B-18045, B-19029, B-20550,
B-22884, B-23757, C-01856, C-09624,
C-11340, D-02046, D-03431, D-05010,
D-06777, D-06824, D-08858, D-09591,
D-09984, D-10723, E-00023, E-00846,
E-01934, E-02410, E-04033, E-04034,
E-04035, E-05702, E-07428, E-07801,
E-07843, E-10010, E-10229, E-10368,
E-10421, E-10751, E-11980, E-12353,
E-13965, E-15347, E-15483, E-16629,
E-16803, E-17580, E-19737, E-20068,
E-20924, E-21073, E-21122, E-23163,
E-23723, E-24109, E-24341, E-24391,
E-24486, E-25075, E-25229, E-25935,
E-26141, F-00530, G-16837, G-18109,
G-20700, G-21276, 1-07553, J-01546,
L-03452, L-08686, L-11383, L-18223
STACK GASES A-00532, A-01350,
A-04333, A-04778, A-06040, A-06978,
A-08641, A-09161, A-09353, A-09686,
A-10284, A-10442, A-10743, A-11411,
A-11413, A-11739, A-12335, A-12619,
A-13141, A-14478, A-15391, A-15517,
A-16410, A-16722, A-16855, A-16887,
A-17051, A-17184, A-18177, A-19017,
A-19318, A-19434, A-21204, A-22875,
A-23044, A-23359, A-24005, A-24039,
A-24535, A-24817, A-24916, A-24951,
A-24978, A-25062, A-25196, A-25690,
A-25867, A-26226, B-00135, B-00140,
B-00205, B-00276, B-00544, B-00687,
B-01362, B-01485, B-01726, B-01727,
B-01796, B-02053, B-02149, B-02195,
B-02206, B-02311, B-02398, B-02407,
B-02408, B-02424, B-02778, B-02908,
B-02909, B-02970, B-02971, B-03337,
B-03581, B-03879, B-04200, B-04506,
B-04508, B-04791, B-04842, B-05198,
B-05454, B-05857, B-06543, B-06636,
B-07229, B-07359, B-07417, B-07430,
B-07515, B-07752, B-07931, B-07962,
B-08146, B-08155, B-08342, B-08346,
B-08347, B-08352, B-08371, B-08429,
B-08470, B-08574, B-08584, B-08825,
B-08836, B-08863, B-08908, B-08917,
B-09469, B-09607, B-09666, B-09699,
B-09833, B-09905, B-09923, B-09971,
B-09999, B-10336, B-10399, B-10493,
B-10563, B-10591, B-10681, B-10692,
B-10770, B-10968, B-10993, B-11131,
B-II240, B-11247, B-11250, B-11252,
B-11253, B-11256, B-11262, B-11281,
B-11847, B-I1906, B-12091, B-12234,
B-12253, B-12424, B-12503, B-12574,
B-12645, B-12797, B-13019, B-13052,
B-13057, B-13394, B-13501, B-13523,
B-14087, B-14207, B-14261, B-14322,
B-14566, B-14632, B-14660, B-14730,
B-14981, B-15031, B-15092, B-15358,
B-15378, B-15436, B-15489, B-15560,
B-15738, B-15841, B-15844, B-15902,
B-15976, B-I6068, B-16173, B-16224,
B-16248, B-16282, B-16418, B-16425,
B-I6500, B-16548, B-16720, B-16851,
B-16862, B-16872, B-17004, B-17124,
B-17250, B-17905, B-18034, B-18110,
B-18154, B-18290, B-19029, B-19034,
B-19189, B-19261, B-19339, B-19346,
B-I9380, B-19394, B-19395, B-19480,
B-19482, B-19608, B-19619, B-19642,
B-19724, B-19834, B-19845, B-19972,
B-20082, B-20097, B-20141, B-20243,
B-20262, B-20552, B-20854, B-20914,
B-21200, B-21232, B-21238, B-21275,
B-21506, B-21720, B-21893, B-22057,
B-22070, B-22103, B-22110, B-22160,
B-22291, B-22327, B-22401, B-22441,
B-22500, B-22559, B-22615, B-22661,
B-22756, B-22806, B-22809, B-22861,
B-22868, B-22869, B-22871, B-22905,
B-23027, B-23054, B-23140, B-23221,
B-23231, B-23237, B-23373, B-23376,
B-23447, B-23526, B-23544, B-23708,
B-23757, B-23822, B-23867, B-23879,
B-23880, B-24048, B-24142, B-24181,
B-24269, B-24589, B-24613, B-24643,
B-24673, B-24678, B-24697, B-24707,
B-24756, B-24826, B-24837, B-24985,
B-25071, B-25079, B-25127, B-25164,
B-25165, B-25170, B-25298, B-25416,
B-25503, B-25517, B-25560, B-25602,
B-25663, B-25702, B-25743, B-25786,
B-25795, B-25913, B-26063, B-26230,
C-00403, C-00945, C-01363, C-01856,
C-01857, C-02921, C-04889, C-05216,
C-06095, C-07787, C-11193, C-15348,
C-15479, C-15925, C-16860, C-17419,
C-19047, C-20224, C-22391, C-22885,
C-24245, C-24412, C-25260, C-26139,
D-02046, D-05260, D-06777, D-08858,
D-09984, D-12496, D-22591, D-22812,
D-23356, E-00023, E-01259, E-01260,
E-01261, E-04033, E-04034, E-04035,
E-06775, E-07801, E-07843, E-09417,
E-10010, E-10219, E-10220, E-10368,
E-10751, E-11370, E-11980, E-15483,
E-15511, E-16285, E-16629, E-16687,
E-16985, E-17580, E-17595, E-17725,
E-17734, E-20523, E-21099, E-21736,
E-22313, E-23163, E-24109, E-24341,
E-24407, E-24486, E-25075, E-26141,
E-26267, F-09967, F-13487, F-16883,
G-08230, G-12289, G-23151, G-24021,
H-01014, H-07786, H-11733, J-00253,
J-01546, J-01707, J-08867, J-16122,
J-16129, K-06778, K-21896, L-00206,
L-02052, L-06615, L-06737, L-07550,
L-07794, L-08062, L-08686, L-09443,
L-09474, L-10166, L-11283, L-11781,
L-12461, L-13055, L-14535, L-19062,
M-01567, M-08072, M-25193, N-21360
STACK SAMPLING A-02549, A-22875,
B-00135, B-00975, B-13857, B-16240,
B-19642, B-21594, B-22401, B-23757,
C-00403, C-00945, C-01363, C-03460,
C-04040, C-06095, C-07721, C-07787,
C-07848, C-09107, C-17474, E-21099,
K-21896, L-00311
STACKS A-00691, A-01350, A-01842,
A-03587, A-04224, A-04778, A-05506,
A-07642, A-09353, A-10284, A-10678,
A-10743, A-11413, A-12335, A-13102,
A-15701, A-16887, A-17398, A-23044,
A-24039, A-24817, A-25062, B-00135,
B-00687, B-01362, B-01796, B-02311,
B-02398, B-02407, B-02408, B-02970,
B-04200, B-05198, B-07229, B-07359,
B-08085, B-08836, B-08908, B-08917,
B-09163, B-09469, B-09496, B-09666,
B-09699, B-09833, B-09904, B-09996,
B-10264, B-10336, B-10399, B-10493,
B-10563, B-11159, B-11229, B-11262,
B-11910, B-12581, B-13019, B-13394,
B-13721, B-13857, B-14159, B-14270,
B-15358, B-15616, B-16224, B-16731,
B-16815, B-16863, B-17124, B-18045,
B-18110, B-18154, B-18296, B-21234,
B-21238, B-22051, B-22070, B-22160,
B-22401, B-22500, B-22806, B-22884,
B-23237, B-23373, B-23718, B-23757,
B-23974, B-24001, B-24048, B-24826,
B-24985, B-25164, B-25170, B-25298,
B-25584, B-25677, B-25744, C-01363,
C-01856, C-02668, C-03460, C-03546,
C-04040, C-05216, C-07848, C-09624,
C-11340, C-22511, D-02953, D-02979,
D-06777, D-08858, D-09984, D-10723,
D-11525, D-16237, D-22591, D-23356,
E-00023, E-00846, E-01260, E-01261,
E-01934, E-03251, E-03557, E-05357,
E-06775, E-07801, E-07843, E-08400,
E-09417, E-10010, E-10053, E-10219,
E-10220, E-10368, E-10421, E-10608,
E-10751, E-11370, E-11624, E-11980,
E-15511, E-16985, E-17580, E-17725,
E-19503, E-20068, E-21122, E-21736,
E-23163, E-24243, E-24407, E-24486,
E-25815, E-26141, E-26267, F-14876,
G-00981, G-02417, G-12289, H-11733,
J-00166, J-01546, J-01707, K-00167,
K-02010, K-06696, K-06778, K-09921,
K-21896, L-00311, L-01265, L-01890,
L-02052, L-02960, L-03277, L-06615,
L-07950, L-09474, L-10166, L-11266,
L-11383, L-11526, L-17473, L-18121,
L-18223, N-03344, N-22794
STAGNATION B-04200, C-01856, D-03431,
D-09591, E-24109
STANDARDS A-03587, A-06040, A-10442,
A-13219, A-16410, A-16855, A-16887,
A-19434, A-19994, A-21916, A-24500,
A-25549, A-25975, B-00975, B-01362,
B-02032, B-02036, B-02424, B-06999,
B-09666, B-09833, B-10493, B-10655,
B-16720, B-18296, B-19471, B-20854,
B-22552, B-22559, B-24707, B-24826,
B-24985, B-25284, B-25298, C-05216,
D-01790, D-02818, D-02953, D-02979,
D-06819, D-07141, D-09591, E-10153,
E-10368, E-11370, E-23163, G-02417,
G-08232, G-24021, J-02151, J-08059,
J-lllll, K-02010, K-06696, K-06778,
K-09921, K-21896, K-22248, L-00206,
L-00311, L-00973, L-01265, L-01654,
L-01890, L-05105, L-06188, L-06615,
L-07794, L-09474, L-10166, L-11266,
L-14535, L-18121, L-18220, L-20698,
L-24214, L-25688, N-21289, N-21360
STATE GOVERNMENTS A-19434,
B-00975, B-23708, D-03432, H-11733,
J-08059, K-00167, K-06696, L-00162,
L-00206, L-06615, L-08062, L-09443,
L-09474, L-11266, L-18220, L-25688,
M-01221, N-21360
STATISTICAL ANALYSES A-07645,
A-12576, A-13785, A-13892, A-13954,
A-16489, A-16492, A-21318, A-23726,
B-09923, C-16149, C-16512, D-04116,
D-05551, D-09984, D-11525, E-10010,
E-10368, E-10751, E-11065, E-13965,
E-16467, E-23723, E-24391, E-25229,
F-13191, G-23151, J-12418, L-09474,
L-11266, L-12031, N-13429, N-18206
STEAM A-08390, A-16887, A-18052,
B-01493, B-04755, B-05162, B-05338,
B-09833, B-12672, B-14194, B-15560,
B-19373, B-26220
STEAM ENGINES A-16239, B-02424,
B-21819
STEAM PLANTS A-01842, A-03340,
A-04652, A-04778, A-05011, A-05067,
A-05169, A-07642, A-07963, A-08392,
A-08393, A-09161, A-09169, A-09194,
A-09482, A-09588, A-09737, A-09831,
-------
SUBJECT INDEX
307
A-10284, A-10424, A-10743, A-10754,
A-11411, A-11413, A-11640, A-11655,
A-11739, A-11789, A-11968, A-12088,
A-12120, A-12619, A-13141, A-13292,
A-13316, A-13479, A-13954, A-16489,
A-16492, A-16855, A-17184, A-17464,
A-18052, A-19024, A-19084, A-19318,
A-21286, A-22144, A-22800, A-23379,
A-23619, A-23652, A-23726, A-23954,
A-24039, A-24500, A-24508, A-24535,
A-24817, A-24915, A-24916, A-25213,
A-25259, A-25867, A-26085, A-26226,
B-00687, B-01493, B-02053, B-02727,
B-04200, B-05163, B-07075, B-07229,
B-07359, B-07417, B-07466, B-07515,
B-07673, B-07931, B-07962, B-08146,
B-08155, B-08228, B-08342, B-08346,
B-08348, B-08352, B-08429, B-08470,
B-08492, B-08574, B-08836, B-08863,
B-08908, B-08917, B-08919, B-08921,
B-08923, B-08925, B-08926, B-08936,
B-08937, B-08938, B-08939, B-08940,
B-08942, B-09163, B-09191, B-09496,
B-09607, B-09789, B-09833, B-09905,
B-09923, B-09996, B-10264, B-10336,
B-10399, B-10493, B-10563, B-10993,
B-11005, B-11159, B-11229, B-11238,
B-11240, B-11251, B-11262, B-12253,
B-12308, B-12645, B-13171, B-13983,
B-14159, B-14473, B-14660, B-14891,
B-15031, B-15358, B-15665, B-15841,
B-15844, B-15946, B-16068, B-16240,
B-16502, B-16731, B-16746, B-16815,
B-16862, B-17004, B-17782, B-17979,
B-18034, B-18045, B-18161, B-18167,
B-19048, B-19346, B-19395, B-19480,
B-19482, B-19845, B-19972, B-20035,
B-20392, B-20552, B-20779, B-20854,
B-21028, B-21313, B-21381, B-21506,
B-21594, B-21643, B-21886, B-21893,
B-22071, B-22291, B-22327, B-22401,
B-22559, B-22661, B-22671, B-22809,
B-22861, B-22868, B-22869, B-22871,
B-23027, B-23140, B-23146, B-23220,
B-23221, B-23231, B-23315, B-23373,
B-23374, B-23376, B-23526, B-23544,
B-23822, B-24001, B-24290, B-24613,
B-24707, B-24922, B-25038, B-25047,
B-25071, B-25088, B-25127, B-25139,
B-25217, B-25416, B-25503, B-25602,
B-25637, B-25677, B-25743, B-25744,
B-26143, B-26237, C-00403, C-01856,
C-02655, C-06095, C-07721, C-07787,
C-09107, C-I1340, C-12510, C-15348,
C-15479, C-15925, C-16512, C-17419,
C-17474, C-19047, C-22391, C-25147,
D-06777, D-06819, D-08858, D-09591,
D-10723, E-00023, E-06373, E-07801,
E-07843, E-09417, E-10010, E-10053,
E-I0219, E-10220, E-10229, E-10368,
E-10421, E-10751, E-11065, E-11370,
E-17734, E-21099, E-23163, E-25815,
F-08941, F-14876, G-08232, H-06967,
H-11733, 1-13086, J-02151, J-08867,
J-11114, J-16122, J-16174, J-21241,
J-23511, K-06778, L-01654, L-03359,
L-06615, L-06737, L-07550, L-07950,
L-08062, L-09443, L-09474, L-10503,
L-11266, L-11383, L-12031, L-17472,
L-17473, L-18223, M-01220, M-01221,
M-25143, M-25193, N-00164, N-07431,
N-13591, N-21289
STEEL A-00972, A-08392, A-09686,
A-09737, A-13261, A-17199, B-02036,
B-03232, B-03974, B-04755, B-07931,
B-09789] B-16681, B-16863, B-21324,
B-23376, B-23955, B-24697, B-24881,
D-00657, D-23326, G-01340, G-08232,
1-07553, 1-13086, L-00973, L-08062,
L-24214, N-21287, N-22794
STIPPLING H-02299, H-05420
STOMACH G-11339
STONE A-09686, B-04940, B-09788,
1-07553, N-04432
STORAGE BATTERIES A-01842, A-03867,
A-07793, B-02442, F-11257, N-05194
STREETS D-08298
STRONTIUM COMPOUNDS A-06351
STUDENTS B-08080
SULFATES A-12202, A-16788, A-19017,
B-00222, B-00564, B-02407, B-03337,
B-03581, B-05508, B-08346, B-08898,
B-08925, B-09191, B-09607, B-09833,
B-09996, B-10591, B-10692, B-11191,
B-11252, B-11281, B-12672, B-13523,
B-14261, B-15244, B-15902, B-16968,
B-18111, B-19394, B-19670, B-20223,
B-20262, B-21720, B-22160, B-22441,
B-22809, B-23221, B-23231, B-23305,
B-23374, B-23376, B-23447, B-23773,
B-23822, B-24048, B-24565, B-24589,
B-25416, B-25430, B-25494, B-25702,
B-25743, B-25787, C-07516, C-23096,
D-05551, D-09591, E-10010, F-04939,
F-08943, F-16883, G-01865, G-07138,
G-16837, G-20700, G-21276, 1-04622,
1-11286, 1-20820, L-09445
SULFHYDRYL COMPOUNDS H-05420
SULFIDES A-09831, A-12202, A-12266,
A-13978, A-17017, A-18114, A-19017,
A-25213, B-00222, B-00975, B-01485,
B-01866, B-02424, B-02772, B-03045,
B-03337, B-03581, B-05508, B-06297,
B-06543, B-08347, B-08352, B-08908,
B-08917, B-09666, B-09905, B-10281,
B-11131, B-11262, B-11910, B-11929,
B-11996, B-13829, B-14891, B-15284,
B-15357, B-18111, B-19378, B-19475,
B-19560, B-19692, B-19804, B-19876,
B-20550, B-21005, B-21893, B-22012,
B-22103, B-22127, B-22809, B-23374,
B-23376, B-23504, B-23526, B-23773,
B-23880, B-24458, B-24516, B-24565,
B-24609, B-25320, B-25416, B-25494,
B-25503, B-25787, B-26155, B-26211,
C-07516, C-15515, C-23096, C-23350,
D-03514, D-05010, D-06824, D-07393,
D-08298, D-09591, D-10723, D-22812,
D-23356, F-11782, F-13573, F-14814,
F-14851, F-16883, F-18185, G-07138,
H-06967, 1-07553, 1-20820, J-01659,
J-11846, K-02010, K-06778, L-00311,
L-03277, L-03452, L-06686, L-17472,
L-24033, N-04212
SULFITES B-00135, B-03337, B-03581,
B-09833, B-10591, B-14322, B-16968,
B-19394, B-19482, B-19629, B-20539,
B-22327, B-22740, B-23221, B-23231,
B-23374, B-23376, B-23773, B-23822,
B-24048, B-24697, B-25416, B-25494,
B-25743, H-05420
SULFUR COMPOUNDS A-01489, A-01816,
A-02631, A-03113, A-03340, A-07759,
A-09831, A-09989, A-10444, A-12202,
A-12266, A-12285, A-13644, A-13848,
A-13978, A-14400, A-15146, A-162I2,
A-16256, A-16788, A-17017, A-17280,
A-17418, A-18114, A-18171, A-19017,
A-22387, A-22800, A-25213, A-25545,
B-00135, B-00222, B-00564, B-00975,
B-01245, B-01485, B-01866, B-02407,
B-02424, B-02772, B-02778, B-02931,
B-03045, B-03232, B-03337, B-03581,
B-05454, B-05508, B-05516, B-06297,
B-06543, B-06636, B-07417, B-07425,
B-08342, B-08346, B-08347, B-08348,
B-08352, B-08429, B-08574, B-08836,
B-08863, B-08898, B-08908, B-08917,
B-08925, B-09191, B-09195, B-09523,
B-09607, B-09666, B-09833, B-09905,
B-09996, B-09999, B-10281, B-10591,
B-10655, B-10692, B-10968, B-11131,
B-11159, B-11191, B-11215, B-11238,
B-11247, B-11251, B-11252, B-11262,
B-11281, B-11906, B-11910, B-11929,
B-11996, B-12503, B-12672, B-13523,
B-13584, B-13592, B-13829, B-14162,
B-14261, B-14322, B-14838, B-14891,
B-15240, B-15244, B-15284, B-15357,
B-15436, B-15516, B-15692, B-15693,
B-15902, B-16500, B-16681, B-16731,
B-16815, B-16851, B-16968, B-17392,
B-17685, B-18111, B-18143, B-19378,
B-19380, B-19394, B-19475, B-19482,
B-19541, B-19560, B-19629, B-19670,
B-19672, B-19678, B-19692, B-19733,
B-19804, B-19845, B-19874, B-19876,
B-20223, B-20262, B-20539, B-20550,
B-20995, B-21005, B-21720, B-21893,
B-22001, B-22012, B-22014, B-22070,
B-22103, B-22127, B-22160, B-22279,
B-22327, B-22441, B-22702, B-22740,
B-22809, B-22981, B-23027, B-23221,
B-23231, B-23305, B-23374, B-23376,
B-23447, B-23504, B-23526, B-23718,
B-23773, B-23822, B-23880, B-24048,
B-24207, B-24253, B-24270, B-24458,
B-24516, B-24554, B-24565, B-24589,
B-24609, B-24643, B-24675, B-24697,
B-24756, B-24777, B-25187, B-25320,
B-25323, B-25416, B-25430, B-25494,
B-25503, B-25663, B-25702, B-25743,
B-25787, B-25795, B-25913, B-25973,
B-26155, B-26211, C-00403, C-07516,
C-07941, C-13477, C-15515, C-23096,
C-23350, C-23377, C-25147, D-03514,
D-05010, D-05428, D-05551, D-06824,
D-07393, D-08298, D-09591, D-10723,
D-11525, D-22812, D-23356, E-07843,
E-10010, E-10153, E-11370, E-11624,
F-01852, F-02743, F-04939, F-08943,
F-11782, F-13573, F-14814, F-14851,
F-16883, F-18170, F-18185, G-01865,
G-07138, G-16837, G-20700, G-21276,
H-02293, H-05420, H-06967, 1-04622,
1-07553, 1-11286, 1-20820, J-00166,
J-01659, J-01660, J-08059, J-08867,
J-11846, K-02010, K-06778, L-00311,
L-00973, L-03277, L-03452, L-06686,
L-06735, L-08686, L-09443, L-09445,
L-10998, L-11242, L-11383, L-11526,
L-11781, L-14598, L-17472, L-24033,
N-04212
SULFUR DIOXIDE A-00532, A-00943,
A-00972, A-01350, A-01480, A-01510,
A-01816, A-01842, A-02014, A-02501,
A-02549, A-03113, A-05067, A-05506,
A-06040, A-06978, A-07963, A-09161,
A-09353, A-09686, A-09831, A-10284,
A-10678, A-11502, A-11619, A-11739,
A-12335, A-12619, A-13644, A-14478,
A-14574, A-14701, A-14997, A-15391,
A-15620, A-16073, A-16788, A-16855,
A-17017, A-17051, A-17184, A-17199,
A-17357, A-17398, A-17464, A-18177,
A-19017, A-19434, A-19994, A-21383,
A-22418, A-24039, A-24951, A-25213,
B-00107, B-00135, B-00140, B-00205,'
-------
308
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
B-00222, B-00276, B-00564, B-00567, L-18121, L-18223, L-24214, L-25688,
B-00653, B-00687, B-00975, B-01362, M-00336, M-01567, M-08072, N-03344,
B-01726, B-01727, B-01796, B-02053, N-04212, N-07845, N-21287, N-21289,
B-02149, B-02311, B-02407, B-02424, N-21360, N-22794
B-02727, B-02908, B-02970, B-02971, SULFUR OXIDES A-00532, A-00943,
B-02974, B-03045, B-03337, B-03581, A-00972, A-01350, A-01480, A-01489,
B-03879, B-04200, B-04506, B-04508, A-01510, A-01816, A-01842, A-02014,
B-04516, B-04655, B-04791, B-04842, A-02501, A-02549, A-03113, A-05011,
B-05198, B-05454, B-05531, B-06278, A-05067, A-05506, A-06040, A-06978,
B-06297, B-06345, B-06543, B-06636, A-07759, A-07963, A-09161, A-09353,
B-06697, B-06999, B-07075, B-07417, A-09686, A-09737, A-09831, A-10284,
B-07430, B-07515, B-07752, B-08080, A-10442, A-10444, A-10678, A-10754,
B-08342, B-08346, B-08347, B-08352, A-11502, A-11619, A-11739, A-12285,
B-08371, B-08429, B-08470, B-08574, A-12335, A-12619, A-12633, A-13644,
B-08584, B-08825, B-08836, B-08908, A-14478, A-14574, A-14701, A-14997,
B-08917, B-09163, B-09607, B-09666, A-15391, A-15620, A-16073, A-16788,
B-09833, B-09971, B-10399, B-10591, A-16855, A-17017, A-17051, A-17184,
B-10655, B-10681, B-10692, B-10968, A-17199, A-17357, A-17398, A-17464,
B-11055, B-11131, B-11159, B-11233, A-18177, A-19017, A-19318, A-19434,
B-11238, B-11240, B-11250, B-11253, A-19994, A-21204, A-21383, A-22418,
B-11256, B-11262, B-11281, B-11906, A-22649, A-23726, A-24039, A-24500,
B-11910, B-12091, B-12092, B-12503, A-24732, A-24817, A-24951, A-25213,
B-12574, B-12645, B-13243, B-13394, B-00107, B-00135, B-00140, B-00205,
B-13501, B-13636, B-13817, B-14087, B-00222, B-00276, B-00564, B-00567,
B-14159, B-14261, B-14632, B-14730, B-00653, B-00687, B-00975, B-01362,
B-14981, B-15148, B-15357, B-15378, B-01726, B-01727, B-01796, B-02053,
B-15436, B-16224, B-16240, B-16731, B-02149, B-02311, B-02407, B-02424,
B-16815, B-16851, B-16862, B-16863, B-02727, B-02772, B-02908, B-02970,
B-17124, B-17250, B-18034, B-18154, B-02971, B-02974, B-03045, B-03337,
B-18290, B-18296, B-19029, B-19346, B-03581, B-03879, B-03974, B-04200,
B-19378, B-19475, B-19672, B-19678, B-04506, B-04508, B-04516, B-04655,
B-19876, B-20097, B-21028, B-21594, B-04791, B-04842, B-05198, B-05454,
B-22051, B-22500, B-23757, B-24516, B-05516, B-05531, B-05853, B-05868,
B-24681, B-24697, B-24826, B-24985, B-06278, B-06297, B-06345, B-06543,
B-25127, B-25187, B-25298, B-25427, B-06636, B-06697, B-06999, B-07075,
B-25430, B-25584, B-25637, B-25677, B-07417, B-07430, B-07515, B-07752,
B-26084, C-00403, C-00886, C-01856, B-07931, B-07962, B-08080, B-08342,
C-02668, C-02921, C-04889, C-05216, B-08346, B-08347, B-08352, B-08371,
C-06095, C-07482, C-12126, C-12510, B-08429, B-08470, B-08574, B-08584,
C-14733, C-15348, C-15479, C-16149, B-08825, B-08836, B-08863, B-08908,
C-16734, C-16860, C-17419, C-17468, B-08917, B-08919, B-08937, B-08939,
C-20224, C-22391, C-22885, C-23350, B-08942, B-09163, B-09191, B-09600,
D-00657, D-00858, D-01790, D-02046, B-09607, B-09666, B-09833, B-09971,
D-02057, D-02818, D-02953, D-02979, B-09999, B-10399, B-10493, B-10591,
D-03514, D-04116, D-05010, D-05260, B-10655, B-10681, B-10692, B-10968,
D-05428, D-05551, D-06777, D-06819, B-11055, B-11131, B-11159, B-11233,
D-06824, D-07393, D-08298, D-08858, B-11238, B-11240, B-11250, B-11252,
D-09984, D-10723, D-11525, D-22591, B-11253, B-11256, B-11262, B-11281,
D-22812, D-23356, D-23957, E-00023, B-11906, B-11910, B-12040, B-12091,
E-00846, E-01259, E-01260, E-01261, B-12092, B-12503, B-12574, B-12645,
E-01934, E-03251, E-03557, E-04033, B-13057, B-13243, B-13394, B-13501,
E-04034, E-06775, E-06823, E-06827, B-13636, B-13817, B-14087, B-14159,
E-07580, E-08400, E-10153, E-10219, B-14207, B-14261, B-14632, B-14730,
E-10220, E-11065, E-11370, E-11514, B-14981, B-15148, B-15244, B-15357,
E-11624, E-13965, E-15347, E-16285, B-15358, B-15378, B-15436, B-15516,
E-16467, E-16629, E-16687, E-17725, B-16173, B-16224, B-16240, B-16248,
E-17734, E-19503, E-20523, E-21986, B-16418, B-16502, B-16731, B-16815,
E-22313, E-23163, E-23409, E-24109, B-16851, B-16862, B-16863, B-17124,
E-24486, E-25075, E-25212, E-25229, B-17250, B-17672, B-18034, B-18110,
E-25815, E-26267, F-00530, F-13487, B-18154, B-18290, B-18296, B-19029,
F-16376, G-00981, G-01865, G-02417, B-19346, B-19378, B-19475, B-19672,
G-07138, G-08230, G-08232, G-11300, B-19678, B-19876, B-20082, B-20097,
G-12289, G-16837, G-18109, G-20700, B-20854, B-21028, B-21594, B-22051,
G-21276, G-23151, G-24021, H-00316, B-22057, B-22500, B-22559, B-23757,
H-01398, H-02299, H-05420, H-06967, B-24181, B-24516, B-24681, B-24697,
H-07786, 1-07553, 1-13086, 1-20820, B-24756, B-24826, B-24985, B-25079,
J-00166, J-01546, J-01707, J-02151, B-25127, B-25187, B-25207, B-25298,
J-08059, J-08867, J-11846, J-15889, B-25427, B-25430, B-25584, B-25637,
K-00167, K-02010, K-06778, K-21896, B-25677, B-25786, B-26084, C-00403,
L-00162, L-00206, L-00311, L-00973, C-00886, C-01856, C-02668, C-02921,
L-01265, L-01585, L-01590, L-01890, C-03592, C-04889, C-05216, C-06095,
L-02052, L-02960, L-03277, L-03359, C-07482, C-12126, C-12510, C-14733,
L-03452, L-05105, L-06188, L-06737, C-15348, C-15479, C-16149, C-16734,
L-07550, L-07950, L-08062, L-09445, C-16860, C-17419, C-17468, C-20224,
L-09474, L-10166, L-11283, L-11383, C-21663, C-22391, C-22885, C-23350,
L-12461, L-17321, L-17472, L-17473, C-23377, D-00657, D-00858, D-01790,
D-02046, D-02057, D-02818, D-02953,
D-02979, D-03514, D-04116, D-05010,
D-05260, D-05428, D-05551, D-06777,
D-06819, D-06824, D-07393, D-08298,
D-08858, D-09591, D-09984, D-10723,
D-11525, D-12496, D-22591, D-22812,
D-23356, D-23957, E-00023, E-00846,
E-01259, E-01260, E-01261, E-01934,
E-03251, E-03557, E-04033, E-04034,
E-06775, E-06823, E-06827, E-07580,
E-07843, E-08400, E-10153, E-10219,
E-10220, E-11065, E-11370, E-11514,
E-11624, E-13965, E-15347, E-16285,
E-16467, E-16629, E-16687, E-16803,
E-16985, E-17725, E-17734, E-19503,
E-20523, E-21099, E-21986, E-22313,
E-23163, E-23409, E-24109, E-24486,
E-25075, E-25212, E-25229, E-25815,
E-26267, F-00530, F-13487, F-16376,
F-16883, G-00981, G-01865, G-02417,
G-06826, G-07138, G-08230, G-08232,
G-11300, G-11828, G-12289, G-16837,
G-18109, G-20700, G-21276, G-23151,
G-24021, H-00316, H-01398, H-02299,
H-05420, H-06967, H-07786, H-11733,
1-04622, 1-07553, 1-13086, 1-20820,
J-00166, J-01546, J-01659, J-01707,
J-02151, J-08059, J-08867, J-lllll,
J-11114, J-11846, J-15889, J-16174,
J-21241, K-00167, K-02010, K-06778,
K-21896, L-00162, L-00206, L-00311,
L-00973, L-01265, L-01585, L-01590,
L-01654, L-01890, L-02052, L-02960,
L-03277, L-03359, L-03452, L-05105,
L-05499, L-06188, L-06730, L-06737,
L-07550, L-07794, L-07950, L-08062,
L-08686, L-09443, L-09445, L-09474,
L-10166, L-11185, L-11266, L-11283,
L-11319, L-11383, L-11526, L-11781,
L-12461, L-17321, L-17472, L-17473,
L-18121, L-18223, L-24033, L-24214,
L-25688, M-00336, M-01567, M-08072,
M-25188, N-03344, N-04212, N-07845,
N-21287, N-21289, N-21360, N-22794
SULFUR OXIDES CONTROL A-01480,
A-01489, A-02501, A-03587, A-06040,
A-06978, A-07642, A-07759, A-08390,
A-08391, A-08392, A-09161, A-09831,
A-10442, A-11739, A-11790, A-12266,
A-13330, A-13511, A-14400, A-14478,
A-14574, A-15391, A-15517, A-16949,
A-17418, A-18114, A-18177, A-19038,
A-19511, A-21204, A-22800, A-22875,
A-23044, A-23359, A-23379, A-24535,
A-24817, A-24916, A-24955, A-24978,
A-25062, A-25690, A-25867, B-00107,
B-00135, B-00140, B-00205, B-00276,
B-00544, B-00564, B-00567, B-00568,
B-00687, B-01187, B-01362, B-01493,
B-01726, B-01727, B-02053, B-02149,
B-02195, B-02311, B-02407, B-02408,
B-02424, B-02727, B-02778, B-02813,
B-02908, B-02931, B-02970, B-02971,
B-03045, B-03337, B-03581, B-03879,
B-03974, B-04200, B-04506, B-04507,
B-04655, B-04791, B-04842, B-05198,
B-05258, B-05338, B-05454, B-05529,
B-06136, B-06278, B-06297, B-06345,
B-06543, B-06636, B-06999, B-07385,
B-07416, B-07417, B-07425, B-07430,
B-07466, B-07515, B-07752, B-08342,
B-08346, B-08347, B-08371, B-08429,
B-08470, B-08574, B-08584, B-08825,
B-08836, B-08863, B-08898, B-08908,
B-08917, B-09195, B-09523, B-09607,
B-09666, B-09833, B-09905, B-09971,
-------
SUBJECT INDEX
309
B-09996,
B-10493,
B-10681,
B-11131,
B-11233,
B-11252,
B-11281,
B-11910,
B-12091,
B-12308,
B-12503,
B-12797,
B-13171,
B-13523,
B-13584,
B-13767,
B-13835,
B-14087,
B-14207,
B-14566,
B-14838,
B-15092,
B-15284,
B-15436,
B-15692,
B-15844,
B-15962,
B-16250,
B-16418,
B-16548,
B-16862,
B-17124,
B-17905,
B-18111,
B-18296,
B-19340,
B-19394,
B-19480,
B-19581,
B-19642,
B-19803,
B-19874,
B-20141,
B-20425,
B-20552,
B-20729,
B-21005,
B-21268,
B-21506,
B-21893,
B-22057,
B-22127,
B-22327,
B-22702,
B-22809,
B-22871,
B-22981,
B-23146,
B-23237,
B-23376,
B-23544,
B-23757,
B-23879,
B-24142,
B-24207,
B-24397,
B-24565,
B-24673,
B-24707,
B-24826,
B-25071,
B-25320,
B-25503,
B-25602,
B-25795,
B-26211,
B-09999 B-10281 B-10399, D-01790, D-16237, D-22591, E-00023,
B-10563, B-1059l' B-10655, E-10153, F-00530, F-01852, F-02743,
B-10692, B-10968, B-11055, F-09967, F-11782, F-13411, F-13487,
B-11159, B-11178 B-11215, F-13573, F-13601, F-14814, F-14851,
B-11240, B-11247! B-11250, F-16376, F-18170, G-01865, G-24021,
B-11253, B-11256, B-11262, J-00166, J-01546, J-01659, J-01660,
B-11847, B-11854, B-11906, J-01707, J-02413, J-08059, J-08867,
B-11929, B-11976, B-12040, J-11846, J-15510, J-16122, J-16129,
B-12092, B-12234, B-12253, J-17203, J-19685, J-23800, J-25961,
B-12310, B-12424, B-12442, K-00167, K-21896, L-00206, L-01590,
B-12574, B-12581, B-12645, L-02960, L-06686, L-06737, L-06739,
B-13019, B-13051, B-13052, L-08686, L-09443, L-09474, L-10998,
B-13243, B-13394, B-13501, L-11185, L-11283, L-11319, L-11383
B-13569, B-13570, B-13578, L-11526, L-11781, L-13049, L-13055,
B-13639, B-13663, B-13721, L-14535, L-14598, L-17006, L-18223,
B-13813, B-13817, B-13829, L-19062, L-24033, M-08072, M-25193,
B-13856, B-14001, B-14057, N-03344, N-21289, N-21360, N-23125
B-14137, B-14159, B-14162, SULFUR TRIOXIDE A-00532, A-00972,
B-14269, B-14322, B-14546, A-03113, A-05011, A-05067, A-09161,
B-14632, B-14660, B-14730, A-09686, A-09831, A-16788, A-17051,
B-14891, B-14981, B-15031, A-17184, A-17357, A-19017, A-24817,
B-15148, B-15240, B-15244, B-00107, B-00140, B-00205, B-00276,
B-15357, B-15358, B-15378, B-00653, B-01362, B-02407, B-02727,
B-15489, B-15516, B-15572, B-02908, B-02970, B-03337, B-03974,
B-15693, B-15738, B-15841, B-04200, B-04508, B-05454, B-05853,
B-15902, B-15913, B-15946, B-05868, B-06999, B-07075, B-07417,
B-15976, B-16173, B-16248, B-07515, B-07931, B-07962, B-08080,
B-16279, B-16282, B-16346, B-08346, B-08347, B-08584, B-08825,
B-16425, B-16500, B-16510, B-08863, B-08919, B-08937, B-08939,
B-16681, B-16731, B-16851, B-08942, B-09163, B-09191, B-09600,
B-16872, B-16968, B-17004, B-09833, B-10399, B-10591, B-10692,
B-17318, B-17338, B-17685, B-11238, B-11250, B-11253, B-11256,
B-17979, B-18034, B-18110, B-11906, B-12092, B-12574, B-13394,
B-18143, B-18154, B-18290, B-13817, B-14207, B-14632, B-14730,
B-19048, B-19189, B-19339, B-15378, B-16173, B-16240, B-16248,
B-19373, B-19378, B-19380, B-16502, B-16862, B-16863, B-17250,
B-19395, B-19471, B-19475, B-17672, B-18034, B-20082, B-20097,
B-19482, B-19541, B-19560, B-22051, B-22057, B-24181, B-25079,
B-19608, B-19619, B-19629, B-25127, B-25207, B-25584, B-25637,
B-19670, B-19692, B-19733, B-25677, B-25786, C-00403, C-02921,
B-19804, B-19834, B-19845, C-07482, C-16860, C-J7419, C-22391,
B-19972, B-20035, B-20063, D-05428, D-06824, E-01259, E-11624,
B-20223, B-20262, B-20392, E-16803, E-16985, F-00530, F-16883,
B-20526, B-20539, B-20550, G-00981, G-01865, G-02417, G-08232,
B-20563, B-20663, B-20696, G-16837, H-06967, 1-07553, 1-13086,
B-20794, B-20914, B-20995, 1-20820, J-00166, J-01707, K-02010,
B-21028, B-21200, B-21238, K-06778, L-00206, L-03277, L-09474,
B-21275, B-21381, B-21504, L-17472, L-18223, M-08072, N-04212,
B-21643, B-21720, B-21819, N-22794
B-22001, B-22012, B-22014, SULFURIC ACID A-09686, A-09737,
B-22070, B-22103, B-22110, A-12633, A-15517, A-16788, A-19017,
B-22160, B-22279, B-22291, A-21204, A-21221, A-23044, A-24817,
B-22441, B-22505, B-22615, A-25062, A-25549, B-00135, B-01362,
B-22740, B-22756, B-22806, B-01727, B-02195, B-02407, B-02727,
B-22861 B-22868 B-22869, B-02931, B-02971, B-03337, B-03581,
B-22883 B-22905 B-22961, B-05198, B-06999, B-07931, B-08155,
B-23027 B-23054 B-23140, B-08342, B-08346, B-08584, B-08836,
8-23176* B-2322l' B-23231, B-08863, B-09191, B-09607, B-09789,
B-23315! B-23373, B-23374, B-09833, B-09996, B-10281, B-10591,
B-23447 B-23504 B-23526, B-10968, B-11055, B-11131, B-11159,
B-23682! 8-23708^ B-23718, B-11233, B-11238, B-11247, B-11250,
B-23773 B-23822, B-23867, B-11253, B-11256, B-11281, B-11906,
B-23880, B-24019, B-24048, B-12092, B-13592, B-14087, B-14546,
B-24168 B-24181, B-24190, B-14730, B-15031, B-15092, B-15436,
B-24253 B-24269 B-24270, B-15976, B-16851, B-16862, B-16863,
B-24441 B-24458, B-24554, B-18034, B-19394, B-19480, B-19608,
B-24589 B-24609, B-24613, B-19733, B-20082, B-21643, B-22057,
B-24675 B-24678, B-24697, B-22441, B-22740, B-22809, B-22905,
B-24756, B-24777, B-24785, B-23027, B-23054, B-23221, B-23231,
B-24837, B-24985, B-25038, B-23544, B-23718, B-23867, B-23880,
B-25088, B-25165, B-25284, B-24142, B-24207, B-24613, B-24756,
B-25323, B-25416, B-25494, B-25071, B-25088, B-25127, B-25494,
B-25517, B-25560, B-25584, B-25503, B-25584, B-25637, B-25702,
B-25702, B-25743, B-25787, B-25743, B-26211, B-26230, D-01790,
B-25913, B-25973, B-26155, D-04116, D-06819, D-09591, E-10153,
B-26230, C-16860, C-22391, E-10751, E-16985, E-24486, F-00530,
G-01865, G-07138, G-08232, G-16837,
G-18109, H-02299, 1-07553, 1-20820,
J-00166, J-01659, J-01707, J-08059,
J-08867, J-11846, J-17203, K-02010,
K-06778, L-01890, L-10998, L-11242,
L-11283, L-18223, N-21360, N-22794
SUPERCOOLING A-07644, E-24109
SUPERSATURATION B-10704, B-21238
SURFACE COATING OPERATIONS
A-08392, A-09686, B-08352, D-00858,
D-03431, N-22794
SURFACE COATINGS A-09686, B-03974,
B-09833, 1-07553
SURFACE PROPERTIES A-13494,
B-03337, B-05454, B-05868, B-09600,
B-10165, B-10680, B-25127, B-25186,
B-26084, E-24439, F-13766
SURFACTANTS B-07416
SURVEY METHODS C-23350, D-00858,
D-03514, D-06755, G-07039, G-08230,
L-01890, L-07950, M-00336
SUSPENDED PARTICULATES A-00532,
A-00972, A-02014, A-02860, A-03113,
A-03587, A-04937, A-05067, A-05169,
A-06040, A-09161, A-09194, A-09353,
A-09539, A-09686, A-09831, A-10424,
A-10442, A-10743, A-11411, A-11413,
A-11502, A-11619, A-11860, A-11981,
A-11982, A-11988, A-12266, A-13261,
A-13832, A-14478, A-14997, A-16788,
A-16855, A-16949, A-17184, A-17398,
A-17688, A-17910, A-19165, A-19318,
A-21286, A-21351, A-22144, A-22418,
A-22875, A-23359, A-23726, A-24005,
A-24039, A-24535, A-24732, A-25062,
A-25549, A-25689, A-25867, B-00107,
B-00135, B-00140, B-00653, B-00975,
B-01187, B-01245, B-01362, B-01615,
B-02036, B-02192, B-02206, B-02727,
B-02908, B-02909, B-02974, B-03045,
B-03053, B-03879, B-04179, B-04200,
B-04506, B-04508, B-04516, B-04634,
B-04755, B-04791, B-04940, B-05162,
B-05163, B-05310, B-05508, B-05516,
B-05531, B-05853, B-05868, B-06490,
B-06636, B-06697, B-06835, B-06999,
B-07359, B-07385, B-07416, B-07430,
B-07515, B-07752, B-08080, B-08085,
B-08146, B-08155, B-08348, B-08492,
B-08584, B-08713, B-08825, B-08863,
B-08870, B-08919, B-08921, B-08922,
B-08923, B-08925, B-08926, B-08936,
B-08937, B-08938, B-08939, B-08940,
B-08942, B-09191, B-09496, B-09546,
B-09600, B-09607, B-09788, B-09789,
B-09833, B-09904, B-10264, B-10493,
B-10655, B-10681, B-10704, B-10770,
B-10993, B-11005, B-11159, B-11233,
B-11238, B-11253, B-11262, B-11906,
B-11996, B-12310, B-12417, B-12443,
B-12446, B-12574, B-12797, B-13052,
B-14087, B-14137, B-14159, B-14194,
B-14269, B-14270, B-14730, B-15031,
B-15251, B-15543, B-15560, B-15616,
B-15665, B-15902, B-16068, B-16173,
B-16224, B-16248, B-16502, B-16720,
B-16746, B-16862, B-17250, B-17343,
B-17392, B-18034, B-18063, B-18142,
B-18290, B-18296, B-19029, B-19034,
B-19261, B-19471, B-19480, B-19482,
B-19541, B-19642, B-19803, B-19834,
B-19845, B-20082, B-20097, B-20485,
B-20552, B-20738, B-20854, B-21234,
B-21268, B-21313, B-21504, B-21643,
B-21720, B-22070, B-22160, B-22175,
B-22559, B-22560, B-22661, B-22671,
-------
310
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
B-22756, B-22869, B-22871, B-22961,
B-23140, B-23220, B-23237, B-23262,
B-23331, B-23822, B-23955, B-24181,
B-24480, B-24630, B-24675, B-24837,
B-25038, B-25079, B-25139, B-25170,
B-25207, B-25517, B-25786, C-00403,
C-00886, C-01856, C-01857, C-03460,
C-03546, C-04040, C-04889, C-07482,
C-07941, C-09624, C-11193, C-13477,
C-16734, C-16860, C-18012, C-22909,
C-24412, C-25260, C-26139, D-00657,
D-01790, D-02057, D-02818, D-02979,
D-03431, D-03432, D-03514, D-05010,
D-05260, D-05551, D-06755, D-06777,
D-06819, D-07141, D-07393, D-07951,
D-09591, E-00023, E-05357, E-06775,
E-06823, E-06827, E-07801, E-07843,
E-10010, E-10219, E-11370, E-11514,
E-11624, E-11980, E-12353, E-15347,
E-16687, E-16803, E-16985, E-17725,
E-20068, E-20163, E-21986, E-23723,
E-24109, E-24341, E-24486, E-24509,
E-25075, E-25815, E-26141, E-26267,
F-00530, F-04939, F-08941, F-08943,
F-09769, F-14390, F-15714, G-00981,
G-01865, G-02417, G-06826, G-07138,
G-08230, G-08232, G-11339, G-11828,
G-16837, G-18109, G-21276, G-23670,
H-00316, H-01398, H-06967, H-07786,
1-07553, 1-20820, J-01308, J-01546,
J-01707, J-02151, J-06845, J-lllll,
J-12418, J-17203, K-00167, K-02010,
K-06696, K-06778, K-22248, L-00162,
L-00206, L-00311, L-00973, L-01265,
L-01654, L-01890, L-02011, L-02052,
L-02831, L-02960, L-03277, L-03359,
L-07550, L-07794, L-07950, L-08062,
L-09443, L-09445, L-09474, L-18220,
L-19062, L-20698, L-24214, L-25688,
M-01567, M-08072, M-25188, N-02632,
N-04212, N-04432, N-06133, N-07431,
N-07845, N-21289, N-21360, N-23125
SWEDEN A-00532, A-00972, A-02549,
A-02860, A-03113, A-03587, A-07793,
B-00135, B-00140, B-00205, B-00222,
B-00564, B-00653, B-00975, B-01245,
B-01485, B-01493, B-01799, B-02407,
B-02424, B-02442, B-02970, B-02971,
B-02974, B-03045, B-03053, B-03337,
B-03581, B-03879, B-04179, B-16720,
B-18296, B-19541, B-24565, B-24613,
B-24707, B-25787, B-25795, C-01354,
C-01856, C-02921, C-03546, C-03592,
C-04040, D-01790, E-00023, E-03557,
E-10153, E-10751, F-00105, F-00530,
F-01379, F-01380, F-01852, G-01865,
G-02417, H-02299, J-00166, J-01707,
K-00167, L-00206, L-00311, L-01890,
L-02831, L-03452, L-09474
SWEET PEAS H-05420
SYNERGISM B-06636, B-25079, E-23723,
G-08232, G-11300
SYNTHETIC FIBERS B-07515, B-09788,
B-11910, B-24290, 1-07553
SYNTHETIC RUBBER 1-07553
TAR A-07570, A-08393, B-25186, B-25269,
F-10422
TAXATION J-07643, J-08059, L-03359
TECHNICAL SOCIETIES N-01063
TEFLON B-07515, B-08825, B-09788,
D-00657
TELLER (CHROMATOGRAPHIC)
B-00135, B-08342, B-08347, B-10968,
B-16851, B-17124, L-01590
TEMPERATURE A-02631, A-02633,
A-03072, A-05011, A-05067, A-07644,
A-08641, A-09103, A-09165, A-17051,
A-19017, A-22649, A-23359, A-23379,
A-25108, A-26226, B-00653, B-01485,
B-01493, B-01615, B-02206, B-02727,
B-02970, B-03053, B-03974, B-04655,
B-04940, B-05258, B-05338, B-05531,
B-05853, B-07425, B-08085, B-08342,
B-08346, B-08347, B-08371, B-08492,
B-08825, B-08836, B-08863, B-08870,
B-08936, B-09163, B-09469, B-09600,
B-09789, B-09833, B-09971, B-10003,
B-10681, B-11055, B-11131, B-11191,
B-11233, B-11238, B-11251, B-12308,
B-12503, B-12581, B-12797, B-14394,
B-14566, B-15092, B-15532, B-15543,
B-15572, B-15616, B-15692, B-17338,
B-18111, B-18296, B-19034, B-19373,
B-19475, B-19541, B-19560, B-19670,
B-19672, B-19874, B-19972, B-20485,
B-20539, B-21643, B-21720, B-22012,
B-22057, B-22127, B-22279, B-22661,
B-22702, B-23374, B-23376, B-23526,
B-23544, B-24253, B-24269, B-24270,
B-24516, B-24554, B-24565, B-24613,
B-24675, B-24756, B-25079, B-25088,
B-25127, B-25139, B-25184, B-25186,
B-25269, B-25323, B-25503, B-25517,
B-25602, B-25677, B-25743, B-25973,
B-26084, B-26155, B-26220, C-04040,
C-07721, C-26139, F-04939, F-08943,
F-09064, F-09769, F-09967, F-10422,
F-10429, F-11163, F-14851, F-16376,
F-16883, F-22587, G-06826, 1-04622,
1-11286, J-08867, N-13587, N-22794
TEMPERATURE (ATMOSPHERIC)
A-00691, A-10424, A-22159, B-24001,
C-23350, D-05010, D-09591, D-11525,
E-00023, E-02410, E-04033, E-04034,
E-06373, E-08400, E-10053, E-10220,
E-10229, E-10421, E-15178, E-17734,
E-20924, E-21122, E-23723, E-24109,
F-01379, G-16837, L-02011, L-03277,
L-12461, N-04212
TEMPERATURE GRADIENT A-00691,
A-01510, D-08858, E-04033, E-04034,
E-04035, E-10229, E-16629
TEMPERATURE SENSING
INSTRUMENTS A-05067, B-08870,
B-09469, F-10429
TENNESSEE A-01489, A-16887, B-02192,
B-04200, B-06636, B-08863, C-01856,
C-07516, D-04116, E-00023, E-04033,
E-04034, E-04035, E-16285, F-00530,
L-11185, L-11781, N-03344
TENSILE STRENGTH B-08923, B-08937,
B-08939, B-08940, B-08942
TESTING FACILITIES A-10183, A-10424,
B-01245, B-06307, B-07674, B-10165,
B-14566, B-16282, C-07787, C-11842,
C-13477, C-22511, E-11624, F-00530,
F-09769, L-01265, L-05105
TETRAETHYL LEAD D-05260
TEXAS A-01489, A-16073, C-07516,
C-16875, L-08062, M-01221
TEXTILE MANUFACTURING A-09686,
A-17688, B-08155, B-08352, B-11910,
D-05260, L-24033
TEXTILES A-17688, B-07515, B-08155,
B-09788, B-11910, B-24290,1-07553
THERMAL RADIATION A-21916,
A-23619, A-25975, B-09833, F-11257
THERMOCOUPLES A-05067, B-08870,
B-09469, F-10429
THERMODYNAMICS A-05011, A-10183,
A-19444, A-25108, B-00544, B-03337,
B-03581, B-13636, B-13817, B-15284,
B-24001, B-25416, B-25529, B-26084,
C-26139, F-09967, F-1360I, F-17594,
1-04622, J-07643
THIN-LAYER CHROMATOGRAPHY
A-23884
THIOPHENE B-26211
THRESHOLDS A-25914, B-06999, E-24486,
1-20820, L-11266
THUNDERSTORMS A-10754, E-10608
TIN B-09789, D-09591
TIN COMPOUNDS A-05067, A-06351,
D-05551, D-09591
TIP BURN H-01014, H-01398, H-05420
TIRES A-10424
TISSUES F-00530, G-06806, G-07138
TITANIUM D-07951, D-09591, F-14512,
N-07431
TITANIUM COMPOUNDS A-05067,
A-06351, A-09831, B-19876, D-05551,
D-07951, D-09591, N-04432, N-07431
TOBACCO B-09788, H-02299, H-05420
TOKYO A-13293, B-25088, D-07393,
N-13591
TOLUENES B-02813, B-08352
TOMATOES H-02299, H-05420
TOPOGRAPHIC INTERACTIONS A-02765,
A-10284, A-16073, B-01796, B-09699,
B-11910, B-22884, B-24826, C-01856,
C-05216, C-11340, C-23350, D-02818,
D-02953, D-05010, D-10723, D-23356,
E-01259, E-02410, E-03251, E-07428,
E-07843, E-10608, E-10751, E-16629,
E-20042, E-21099, E-23723, E-24486,
1-07553, L-01890
TOXIC TOLERANCES F-00530, G-04136,
H-01398
TOXICITY A-17688, A-21999, A-25418,
G-08230, G-21276, 1-20820
TRACE ANALYSIS A-02631, A-05067,
A-07570, A-21383, C-07941, C-16149,
E-10010, F-17592
TRACERS C-16149, C-18012, C-23377,
C-26139, D-09984, E-10010, E-21073,
E-21099, E-23409, E-26141, L-12461
TRACHEA F-00530, G-18109
TRADE ASSOCIATIONS J-00253
TRAINS A-07642, A-07645, A-08392,
A-10424, A-25549, B-00975, L-00311,
M-01220, N-00164, N-07845
TRANSMISSOMETERS A-19084, B-07359,
C-03546, C-09624, C-19047
TRANSPORT A-23170, C-09624, D-25476,
E-02410, E-10219, E-11980, E-16285,
E-19737, E-25229, J-07643
TRANSPORTATION A-00972, A-01842,
A-02290, A-03867, A-04287, A-04652,
A-04778, A-07642, A-07644, A-07645,
A-07647, A-07793, A-08392, A-08393,
A-09169, A-09353, A-09686, A-09737,
A-10183, A-10424, A-10442, A-10754,
A-11619, A-11981, A-11982, A-12541,
A-13954, A-14980, A-14997, A-15620,
A-16073, A-16239, A-16722, A-16855,
A-17052, A-17464, A-17483, A-17910,
A-18052, A-19038, A-19434, A-19511,
A-20736, A-20863, A-21204, A-21221,
A-23954, A-24039, A-24955, A-25256,
A-25259, A-25418, A-25549, A-26299,
B-00975, B-02424, B-02442, B-04506,
B-04516, B-06636, B-08080, B-08352,
B-08584, B-08713, B-08870, B-09905,
-------
SUBJECT INDEX
311
B-09996, B-10493, B-10680, B-10770,
B-12672, B-14394, B-15544, B-18110,
B-18167, B-19261, B-20779, B-21819
B-24954, B-25139, B-25427, B-25529
B-26237, C-00886, C-09624, C-15479
C-16875, C-18012, C-21663, C-22882,
C-23350, C-24412, D-00858 D-01790
D-02818, D-03431, D-04116, D-0526o',
D-05428, D-07393, D-09591, D-12496,
E-00023, E-10421, E-11065, E-23723,'
E-24439, E-25075, F-00105, F-00530,
F-11257, F-14686, G-11828, G-16192,
H-02299, H-07786, J-00166, J-01546,
J-13613, J-16174, L-00206, L-00311,
L-01265, L-01399, L-01585, L-01890,
L-02011, L-03359, L-03452, L-05499,
L-06188, L-06686, L-07550, L-07950
L-08062, L-09073, L-12031, L-17472,
L-24033, L-24214, L-26157, M-00336,
M-01220, M-25143, N-00164, N-01063,
N-04212, N-05194, N-07845, N-17819,
N-21287, N-21289, N-23125
TRAPPING E-15483, E-17595
TREATED FABRICS B-04508, B-05163,
B-07075, B-07515, B-09788
TREATMENT AND AIDS G-07039,
G-07138, G-14530
TREES F-00530, H-01014, H-01398,
H-01589, H-05420, H-07786
TRIPHENYLENES A-13494
TRUCKS A-08393, B-00975, C-00886,
D-05428, M-00336, M-01220, N-00164
TUBERCULOSIS D-22591, G-14530,
G-23670
TUNNELS B-01712
TURBIDIMETRY B-10165, C-04759,
D-06755
TURBULENCE (ATMOSPHERIC)
A-01510, A-24005, B-10704, B-23974,
C-04040, C-05216, C-16364, C-22511,
D-06777, D-09591, D-10723, E-01261,
E-01934, E-05702, E-06775, E-06827,
E-07843, E-08400, E-10220, E-10368,
E-11065, E-11980, E-12353, E-16629,
E-16803, E-17595, E-24243, E-26141,
E-26267, F-00530, F-11722, L-11266,
N-04212
TVA A-07800, B-08863, B-13674, B-14159,
B-24142, B-25038, E-06823, E-09417,
E-10421, E-25815, L-10503
TYNDALLOMETER C-04759, D-06755
u
ULTRAVIOLET SPECTROMETRY
A-05067, A-23884, B-24837, C-22342,
D-22812
UNDERFIRE AIR A-00532, B-16502
UNITED STATES A-01489, A-01816,
A-03340, A-06351, A-07759, A-08388,
A-10424, A-10754, A-11739, A-13479,
A-14478, A-16489, A-16492, A-26299,
B-00567, B-00568, B-06999, B-14087,
B-16872, B-19480, B-24707, B-25602,
D-05551, D-12496, E-23I63, F-00530,
H-02293, H-02299, H-07786, J-16506,
L-00162, L-00206, L-00311, L-01654,
L-06735, L-09474, L-17006, M-01221,
N-06133, N-13591
URANIUM COMPOUNDS A-06351,
A-06978, A-07800, A-08388, A-10442,
A-16887, A-17052, A-18276, A-20863,
A-23170, A-23239, A-25259, A-25914,
B-04755, B-08917, B-11996, B-19876,
F-13400, L-10503, N-07431, N-13513
URBAN AREAS A-07570, A-07647,
A-08393, A-09737, A-10754, A-12285,
A-16073, A-17199, A-17688, A-21383,
A-24500, A-25418, A-26299, B-02149,
B-09666, B-11910, B-20550, B-23757,
B-24681, B-25187, B-25298, C-00886,
C-01856, C-15348, C-16875, C-20224,
D-01790, D-02057, D-03432, D-03514,
D-05260, D-05428, D-05551, D-06824,
D-07141, D-07393, D-07951, D-09591,
D-11525, D-12496, D-13176, D-22591,
D-22812, D-23326, E-06775, E-06827,
E-07580, E-10368, E-11514, E-17725,
E-19737, E-20068, E-21099, E-23723,
E-25075, E-25229, G-06826, G-07138,
G-08232, G-16192, G-18109, G-21276,
G-23151, H-19620, J-21241, L-00162,
L-01399, L-01585, L-01654, L-01890,
L-05105, L-05499, L-07550, L-07950,
L-08062, L-08686, L-09474, L-11266,
L-12461, L-18121, L-24214, L-25688,
L-26157, M-00336, N-21289, N-23125
URINALYSIS A-01842, A-02765, B-00140,
B-00975, D-03432, F-00530, H-00316,
H-01014, H-01398, H-01589, H-02293,
H-02299, J-00166, L-00162, L-00311,
L-02960, L-03359, L-03452, N-00164
USSR A-02549, A-04287, A-07570, A-08388,
A-09103, A-13261, A-13330, A-17017,
B-04634, B-06307, B-06999, B-08146,
B-08155, B-08470, B-10165, B-10264,
B-10591, B-11910, B-13817, B-13983,
B-14057, B-15244, B-15665, B-15913,
B-15946, B-19619, B-19629, B-22883,
B-22986, B-25217, C-05216, C-08123,
C-22982, D-02953, D-05260, D-07141,
D-10723, D-22591, E-06775, E-07580,
E-10219, E-10220, E-10229, E-10368,
E-11370, E-16467, E-16687, E-17612,
E-20042, E-20163, E-20924, F-11722,
F-14390, G-07138, G-11437, G-12289,
G-16192, H-19620, L-09474, L-10166,
L-11266
UTAH A-01489, C-07516, L-11185,
L-11781, M-01220, M-01221
VALLEYS B-00975, B-18045, C-23350,
D-03514, E-01259, E-07428, E-24486,
F-00530, 1-07553, L-03277
VANADIUM B-03581, B-1525I, D-05551,
D-07951, D-09591, N-07431
VANADIUM COMPOUNDS A-05067,
A-06351, A-09831, A-21999, B-02407,
B-03337, B-03974, B-05454, B-08080,
B-08346, B-08347, B-09191, B-09833,
B-10692, B-11996, B-14087, B-14394,
B-14566, B-19876, B-23880, B-25744,
D-05551, D-07951, D-09591
VAPOR PRESSURE A-16788, B-08085,
B-09833, B-12503, E-24109, F-16883
VAPOR RECOVERY SYSTEMS B-02778,
B-16968, B-20779, B-25184, C-21663,
F-13487, J-01546
VAPORS A-08390, A-09165, A-16887,
A-18052, A-22159, B-01493, B-04755,
B-05162, B-05338, B-08352, B-08584,
B-09833, B-12672, B-14194, B-15560,
B-17531, B-19373, B-23027, B-23526,
B-24001, B-26220
VEGETABLES B-08938, H-00316, H-02299,
H-05420, H-06967, H-20982
VEHICLES A-00972, A-07642, A-07645,
A-08392, A-08393, A-09353, A-09686,
A-09737, A-10183, A-10424, A-10754,
A-14997, A-15620, A-17464, A-18052,
A-19434, A-24039, A-25259, A-25418,
A-25549, A-26299, B-00975, B-04506,
B-04516, B-08352, B-08584, B-10493,
B-18110, B-21819, B-25427, C-00886,
C-21663, D-00858, D-03431, D-05260,
D-05428, D-07393, D-09591, D-12496,
E-23723, E-24439, E-25075, F-00105,
G-16192, H-02299, H-07786, J-01546,
J-16174, L-00206, L-00311, L-01265,
L-01585, L-01890, L-02011, L-03359,
L-05499, L-06188, L-07550, L-08062,
L-09073, L-17472, L-24033, L-24214,
M-00336, M-01220, N-00164, N-01063,
N-04212, N-07845, N-21287, N-21289,
N-23125
VENTILATION A-22875, B-01712,
B-06307, B-08352, B-10399, B-18296
VENTURI SCRUBBERS A-03587, A-13410,
A-15620, B-01493, B-06999, B-07385,
B-07416, B-07931, B-08378, B-15665,
B-16681, B-16720, B-16731, B-16872,
B-18154, B-18161, B-20392, B-21720,
B-22291, B-23955, B-24985, D-05260,
J-01546, J-21241
VIRGINIA A-01489, A-17418, C-07516,
L-11185, L-11781
VISIBILITY A-16788, A-25213, B-00975,
B-09833, C-03546, D-03431, D-05428,
E-16803, E-21736, F-00530, G-01865,
G-11828, L-00206, L-09445
VISIBLE RADIATION C-09624, D-06777
VOLATILITY A-02631, B-23221
VOLCANOES A-10754, A-25213
VOLTAGE A-07644, A-07793, A-09165,
A-10183, B-01615, B-05868, B-06062,
B-08863, B-09789, B-10704, B-14473,
B-15532, B-20485, B-22671, B-23955,
B-25207, F-04939, F-09769, F-16589,
F-24272, L-06686
w
WASHINGTON (STATE) A-01489,
B-02813, C-07516, L-08062, M-01220
WASHINGTON D C B-22806, L-06188
WASHOUT E-05702, E-10608, E-25212
WATER A-10740, A-22159, A-24916,
B-02971, B-03974, B-04755, B-08574,
B-08919, B-08936, B-08939, B-08940,
B-09191, B-09833, B-09904, B-09971,
B-10165, B-11131, B-15962, B-16496,
B-19373, B-20779, B-22702, B-23376,
B-23447, B-23526, B-24001, B-24643,
B-24785, B-25079, B-25186, B-25320,
C-22391, C-23121, E-10153, F-04939,
F-08943, F-10429, F-14390
WATER POLLUTION A-l 1982, A-l 1988,
A-17184, A-19511, A-21191, A-21204,
A-21383, A-23619, A-23652, A-24535,
B-01245, B-09905, B-15572, B-15933,
B-16815, B-18063, B-25038, B-25170,
D707393, J-01546, L-24214, M-08072
WEATHER FORECASTING B-24001,
D-11525
WEATHER MODIFICATION E-15178,
L-03359, N-17819
WEST AND GAEKE METHOD C-17468,
E-11624, E-21099, 1-20820, L-01890,
L-03277, L-08686
WEST VIRGINIA A-01489, A-02765,
B-01866, B-06297, B-06636, B-16815,
B-18045, C-07516, D-03514, J-01308,
L-01590, L-09443, L-11185, L-11781
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312
ELECTRIC POWER PRODUCTION
WET CYCLONES A-03587, A-26233,
B-00135, B-00140, B-04791, B-05163,
B-06999, B-07385, B-07416, B-08146,
B-08155, B-08342, B-08378, B-09523,
B-14137, B-16720, B-19471, B-20097,
B-23682, B-26063, B-26237, J-01546
WETTING A-13494, B-07416
WHEAT B-08938
WIND ROSE A-16073, A-16887, E-05702,
E-08400, L-09445
WINDS A-00691, A-01510, A-01842,
A-10678, A-16073, A-16887, A-22159,
A-24500, B-00687, B-00975, B-01796,
B-04200, B-06835, B-20550, B-22051,
B-22500, B-22884, B-23974, B-25298,
C-01856, C-02668, C-04040, C-11340,
C-15925, C-16364, C-22511, C-23350,
D-02046, D-02818, D-02979, D-03431,
D-03514, D-05010, D-06777, D-08858,
D-09591, D-09984, D-10723, D-11525,
D-23356, E-00023, E-00846, E-01259,
E-01260, E-01261, E-02410, E-03251,
E-03557, E-04033, E-04034, E-04035,
E-05357, E-05702, E-06373, E-06775,
E-07428, E-07843, E-08400, E-10010,
E-10053, E-10219, E-10220, E-10229,
E-10421, E-10608, E-10751, E-11065,
E-11370, E-11514, E-11980, E-13965,
E-14271, E-15483, E-16687, E-16803,
E-17580, E-17595, E-17734, E-19503,
E-19737, E-20924, E-21986, E-22313,
E-23723, E-24341, E-24391, E-24407,
E-24486, E-25212, E-25229, E-25815,
F-01379, F-11257, L-01265, L-01654,
L-01890, L-03277, L-08686, L-09445,
L-11266, L-11383, L-25688, L-26157,
N-04212
WISCONSIN A-01842, B-03879, L-00973,
L-08062
WOOD A-25545, B-08085, B-09788,
B-10680, B-24697, C-23096, J-00978,
K-06696
WOOLS B-09788, 1-07553
WYOMING A-01489, C-07516, L-11185,
L-11781, M-01220, M-01221
X-RAYS A-02631, A-13494, C-07941
Y
YOKOHAMA D-07393, F-00530
ZINC A-09686, B-00107, B-09789, B-11906,
B-21324, D-05551, D-09591
ZINC COMPOUNDS A-05067, A-06351,
B-03581, B-08347, B-09788, B-09833,
D-05551, D-09591, H-06967, L-00311,
L-17472
ZIRCONIUM A-10442, F-14512
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