INDOOR-OUTDOOR
AIR POLLUTION
RELATIONSHIPS:
Volume II,
AN ANNOTATED
BIBLIOGRAPHY
AP-112b
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U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
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INDOOR-OUTDOOR AIR POLLUTION RELATIONSHIPS:
Volume II,
AN ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY
John J. Henderson
Ferris B. Benson
D.E. Caldwell
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Office of Research and Development
National Environmental Research Center
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711
August 1973
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The AP series of reports is published by the Technical Publications Branch of the Information Services Division of
the Office of Administration for the Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, Environmental Protection
Agency, to report the results of scientific and engineering studies, and information of general interest in the field
of air pollution. Information reported in this series includes coverage of intramural activities and of cooperative
studies conducted in conjunction with state and local agencies, research institutes, and industrial organizations.
Copies of AP reports are available free of charge to Federal employees, current contractors and grantees, and
nonprofit organizations - as supplies permit - from the Air Pollution Technical Information Center, Environ-
mental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711, or from the Superintendent of Docu-
ments.
Publication No. AP-112b
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FOREWORD
This bibliography was compiled over a period of years by Mr. Ferris B. Benson of the Human Studies
Laboratory, National Environmental Research Center (NERC), and Mr. John J. Henderson, formerly with the
NERC, but currently with the Enforcement Division, Environmental Protection Agency, Region VI. Mr.
D.E. Caldwell of the Information Services Division, Office of Administration, assisted these authors in
putting the abstracts in a form suitable for publication.
The authors wish to express their appreciation to Dr. R. J. M. Horton for his assistance in all phases of the
preparation of this document, but especially for helping to locate sources of pertinent information.
Mention of company names or commercial products in this document does not constitute endorsement by the
Environmental Protection Agency.
in
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CONTENTS
Section Page
INTRODUCTION 1
BIBLIOGRAPHY 3
INDEX 33
Subject 33
Location 35
Author 35
Title 38
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INDOOR-OUTDOOR AIR POLLUTION RELATIONSHIPS:
AN ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY
INTRODUCTION
The following abstracts constitute an annotated bibliography of all publications containing information related
to indoor-outdoor air pollution relationships that could be located by the authors. The annotations describe the
scope of the studies and briefly summarize major results which are related to indoor-outdoor pollution. In
addition, a brief description of the experimental procedures employed is normally included.
The publications included are arranged alphabetically by author and numbered sequentially. Following the
bibliography, the publications are indexed by subject, geographical location, author, and title.
Most of the publications included in this bibliography have been reviewed in a report that was prepared as a
companion document to this report. An abstract of this literature review is given as Reference 26.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Adams, K.F. and H.A. Hyde. Pollen Grains and Fungus Spores Indoors and Out at Cardiff. J. Palynology.
1:67-69,1965.
Indoor and outdoor pollen and spore samples were collected at four sites in Cathays Park, Cardiff, Wales,
during June 1959, June to September 1962, and June to August 1963. The sites were as follows: (1) roof of
museum in park (elevation 60 feet), (2) roof of Natural Science Building in park, 200 yards from Site 1 (elevation
47 feet), (3) first-floor room of a hospital in a built-up area 1500 yards from Site 1 and 1430 yards from Site 2,
and (4) ground-floor room of building at Site 2. Indoor concentrations of pollen and spores were much lower
than outdoor concentrations (0.2 to 8.4 percent of outdoor levels). These percentages are much lower than those
reported in other studies.
Samples were collected using a Hirst spore trap. Windows and doors at the two inside sites were kept closed
during the tests. Grass and nettle pollens and Cladosporium, Basidispores, and Ascospores were identified and
counted. In none of the years of the study were indoor-outdoor samples taken at the same elevation, and only in
1963 were samples taken at the same location.
2. Air Conditioning Aids Allergy Victims. Air Cond., Heating, and Ventilation. 53:71, September 1956.
Rigid laboratory tests conducted as recommended by the pollen survey committee of the research council
of the American Academy of Allergy showed that air conditioning reduced the amount of pollen in a test room
by 98 percent over that registered outside at the height of the ragweed season. Despite the fact that doors were
opened as much as 20 to 30 times each day, pollen counts in the air-conditioned test room averaged under 1
grain/yd3. At the same time in a non-air-conditioned test room next door, pollen counts were as high as 37.3
grains/yd3.
This was a very brief and highly general article based on results obtained by Dr. O.D. Chapman, professor of
bacteriology at New York State University of Medicine in Syracuse. No detailed results other than those given
above are included.
3. Air Filtering System Designing Committee: Studies Concerning the Effects of Atmospheric Pollution on the
Indoor Environment and Measures to Prevent Pollution; The Method to Evaluate the Indoor Dust Concen-
tration in the Building Ventilated by the Equipment with Air Filters. Air Cleaning (Tokyo). 4(5): 1-31,
January 1967.
Dust concentrations inside and outside an office building were measured to determine the effect of air
filters installed in ventilation equipment. Two filters with high dust-removing efficiency were used. Dust-removal
efficiency of the filters was calculated from upstream and downstream concentrations, and an equation for
calculating the quantity of dust generated in a room was developed. The amount of dust generated was found to
be proportional to the number of people in the room. Indoor suspended particulate concentration was 24 percent
of outdoor concentration with air filters in operation. Particle size distributions were: inside - 99 percent less
than 0.7 micron; outside - 89 percent less than 0.7 micron. This degree of cleaning was due to a relatively
airtight building with a positive indoor pressure and a carefully designed air-conditioning system. With the air
filters removed on one floor being sampled, the indoor concentration was found to be 76 percent of outdoors,
rather than equal to outdoors, due to the back flow of cleaned air from other floors.
Dust samples were obtained with a filter paper dust sampler. Concentrations were determined by weight
and optical density.
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4. Berdyev, Kh. B., N. V. Pavlovich, and A. A. Tuzhilina. Effect of Motor Vehicle Exhaust Gases on Atmos-
pheric Pollution in Dwellings and in a Main Street. Hyg. and Sanitation (Moscow). 32:424-426, April-June
1967.
Air was sampled for suspended particulates, lead, carbon monoxide (CO), and nitrogen oxides (NOX) on
one of the main traffic routes in Dushambe, Russia. The street was 33 feet wide and lined with three-story houses
which were separated from the street by a single row of trees, the crowns of which reached to the third story.
Simultaneous samples were taken in the living rooms of a neighboring house in its first and third stories, at the
centers of the rooms, with open windows facing the street, during hours of highest traffic. Concentrations of
carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, lead, and suspended particulates were high in both street and houses. The
highest concentrations of carbon monoxide were found in the third story, those of suspended particulates and
lead in the first story. Concentrations of nitrogen oxides were the same in the street and in both stories of the
houses.
5. Biersteker, K., H. de Graaf, and Ch. A. G. Nass. Indoor Air Pollution in Rotterdam Homes. Int. J. Air
Water PoUut. 9:343-350, 1965.
Indoor and outdoor smoke and sulfur dioxide (S02) concentrations from 800 paired samples for 60 houses
in winter were analyzed. Concentrations of smoke in living rooms averaged 80 percent of outdoor concentrations,
and those of sulfur dioxide, 20 percent. These percentages showed little or no change with increasing concen-
trations outdoors. The probability of having more smoke indoors than outdoors was approximately 20 percent;
for sulfur dioxide, the probability was less than 2 percent. Smoking significantly increased the amount of smoke
found in living rooms. Fifty percent of the homes were heated with closed coal heaters, but statistical analysis
showed the heating method had no significant effect on indoor smoke or sulfur dioxide concentrations. The data
do suggest, however, that faulty chimneys and heaters may play a bigger role in air pollution mortality than so far
has been suspected. The data also suggest that newer homes tend to have less sulfur dioxide in the living rooms
than older homes.
6. Brief, R.S. Simple Way to Determine Air Contaminants. Air Engineering. 39-41, April 1960.
The number of air changes necessary to make an enclosed contaminated space suitable for entry or the rate
of contaminant build-up can be determined using an alignment chart described in this article. This technique
could probably be applied to indoor-outdoor pollution relationships if concentrations remained constant over a
reasonable length of time.
7. Bush, A.F. and M. Segall. Reduction of Air Pollutants in Building Air Conditioning Systems. University of
California, Los Angeles, Calif.
This is a general discussion based on previous studies which are only briefly summarized. The previous
studies are primarily in terms of human reaction, and indoor-outdoor concentration data are not presented.
According to the authors, air-conditioning systems can be designed, built, and operated to remove air pollutants
so that indoor air in buildings and vehicles will be continuously comfortable and free from stress effects of air
pollution. Activated carbon treatment with adequate detention time can remove virtually 100 percent of smoke
effects. A water spray cooler alone may remove up to 25 percent of oxidants, and cooling coils with low
ventilation rates may remove up to 20 percent. Pollutants which can be easily removed by air conditioning
include oxidants, ozone, aldehydes, heavy hydrocarbons, oxides of nitrogen, and sulfur dioxide. Several sub-
stances are not removed unless extensive pretreatment is performed; these include carbon monoxide, carbon
dioxide, nitric oxide, light hydrocarbons, and hydrogen.
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8. Calder, K.L. A Numerical Analysis of the Protection Afforded by Buildings against BW Aerosol Attack.
Office of the Deputy Commander for Scientific Activities, Fort Detrick. Maryland. BWL Technical Study
No. 2. October 1957.
A previously developed mathematical model provides a numerical analysis of the protection afforded by
buildings against a biological warfare (BW) aerosol attack. The ratio of the aerosol dosage accumulated inside a
building to the total dosage experienced outside is considered. The ratio covers a wide range of values of building
ventilation rate, decay constant for the aerosol inside the building, and period of exposure of the building to the
aerosol cloud. Two different periods of accumulation of inside dosage are also considered. One general conclusion
of the analysis is that the inside dosage depends primarily on the magnitude of the total outside dosage and not
on how the latter quantity is accumulated as a function of time.
References 47 and 71 contain additional evaluations of the interior effects of BW aerosols.
9. Carey, G.C.R., J.J. Phair, R.J. Shephard, and M.L. Thomson. The Effects of Air Pollution on Human
Health. Amer. Ind. Hyg. Ass. J. 19:363-370, 1958.
Air pollution measurements were made in the homes of cardiorespiratory cripples and at three outdoor
locations in Cincinnati from October 2 to December 17, 1956. Indoor smoke averaged 55 percent of outdoor
concentrations; total indoor gaseous acid averaged 51 percent of outdoor concentrations. Indoor smoke was
roughly 15 percent higher inside with windows open than with windows closed. Lowest concentrations of
domestic smoke occurred between noon and 6 p.m., highest concentrations between 6 a.m. and noon, with
high hourly peaks between 6 and 9 a.m. Concentrations between 6 p.m. and 6 a.m. were about 2.5 times
afternoon values.
AISI tape samplers and hygrothermographs were used to take hourly measurements of smoke, temperature,
and humidity both indoors and out. Wilson sequence samplers were used to obtain hourly values of total gaseous
acid outdoors, and indoor sampling of gaseous acid was done on a limited bases with midget sequence
samplers.
Additional results of this study are presented in References 59, 76, 77, and 78.
10. Chamberlain, A.C. In: Symposium on Plume Behavior, Int. J. Air Water Pollut. 10:403-409, 1966.
Indoor-outdoor percentages for sulfur dioxide (S02) and radioiodine from previous studies5'52 are com-
pared in terms of ventilation rate and decay constant for deposition indoors. The author concludes that walls and
ceilings should provide a "perfect sink" for sulfur dioxide. For a perfect sink, the rate of sorption is controlled by
the rate of diffusion across the boundary layer to the surface, and thus the level of sulfur dioxide in a room
should be reduced by vigorous internal circulation of air, which would decrease the boundary-layer resistance.
11. Cleary, G.J. and G.R.B. Blackburn. Air Pollution in Native Huts in the Highlands of New Guinea. Arch.
Environ. Health. 17(5): 785-794, November 1968.
The degree of air pollution in native huts in the New Guinea highlands has been assessed. The average
smoke density and concentrations of aldehydes and carbon monoxide measured in the eastern highlands, at an
altitude of 7200 feet, were 666 jug/m3> 1-08 ppm, 3nd 21.3 ppm, respectively; but these figures do not include
peak values of 4862 Mg/m3, 3.8 ppm, and 150 ppm which were obtained on one occasion soon after startup of
the fire. Comparable average values in the western highlands, at 4000 to 5200 feet, were 359 pig/m3,0.67 ppm,
and 11.3 ppm, respectively. Smoke density was highly correlated with aldehyde concentrations in both areas: R =
+0.93 and +0.88; and with carbon monoxide: R = +0.87 and +0.72. Air pollution may be a contributing factor in
the genesis and maintenance of the prevalent nontuberculous lung disease in New Guinea highlanders.
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12. Creip, L.H. and M.A. Green. Air Cleaning as an Aid in the Treatment of Hay Fever and Bronchial Asthma.
J. Allergy. 7:120-131,1936.
In order to evaluate the performance of an electrostatic air cleaner during ragweed season, slides were
exposed outside a hospital in Pittsburgh and in two adjoining rooms inside the hospital. The rooms were
identical except that one had an electrostatic air cleaner fitted in the window. Windows and doors in both
rooms were kept closed. Pollen counts in the room without the air cleaner were 9.4 percent of outside counts.
In the room with the air cleaner, the count was zero. Thus, the authors concluded that the electrostatic air
cleaner was 100 percent efficient in removing pollen from the air.
The results presented above were a very minor portion of the article, which dealt primarily with the
operation and use of the air cleaner and its application in the treatment of hay fever and asthma patients.
13. De Fraja Frangipane, E., C.F. Saccani, and V. Turolla. Outdoor and Indoor Air Pollution. New Ann. Hyg.
Microbiol. (Rome). 14(6):403-421, November-December 1963.
The article is devoted to a review and summary of work reported by other authors. The authors conclude
that "the too-few investigations conducted up to 1963 describe poorly defined but important differences
between the state of indoor and outdoor air pollution; probably affecting these differences are various factors
such as building construction and utilization, etc." Subsequent articles by the authors will give results of original
air pollution investigations.
14. Dingle, A.N. and E.W. Hewson. An Experimental Study of Ragweed Pollen Penetration. J. Air Pollut.
Cont. Ass. 8:16-22, 1958.
Simultaneous indoor and outdoor ragweed pollen samples were collected from August 20 to September 9,
1955, at a field site adjacent to the North Campus of the University of Michigan at Ann Arbor. The test house
was a field-office type building of frame construction built on heavy skids. The test room portion of the house
was 12 feet square and had one window in the west wall and a door and window in the south wall. Twenty-two
tests were conducted with window openings varying from 0 to 12 inches and average wind speeds during the tests
varying from 3 to greater than 8 mph. With windows closed, average indoor-outdoor percentages varied from 18
percent for wind speeds of less than 8 mph to 71 percent for wind speeds greater than 8 mph. With windows
open, indoor-outdoor percentages averaged from 34 to 68 percent for various wind speeds and window
openings. The average percentage for all tests was 39 percent. The tests indicated that penetration of pollen
into the test room was related to wind speed and gustiness. Penetration of pollen into the room with windows
closed was quite different from that with windows open, but the amount of window opening seemed to make
little difference. With windows closed, the indoor-outdoor percentage tended to remain fairly constant at
around 20 percent when wind speed was less than 8 mph. As wind speed increased, the percentage increased
nearly linearly from 20 percent at 8 mph to 97 percent at 15.1 mph.
The pollen samples were collected on millipore filters using a flow rate of 10 liters/min. Twelve paired
indoor-outdoor samples were collected during each test. Before each test, the test room was closed and cleaned
thoroughly.
15. Dworin, M. A Study of Atmospheric Mold Spores in Tucson, Arizona, Ann. Allergy. 24:31-36,
January 1966.
A 1-year survey was made of the atmospheric content of fungal spores in Tucson, Arizona, using the culture
plate technique. The airborne fungal spores were identified in the atmosphere and in three homes with different
types of cooling systems. The spores were quantitated monthly to determine any correlation between them and
climatological data. The most prevalent fungal spores in order of their frequency were Altemaria, Pullularia,
Hormodendrum, Aspergillus, Helminthosporiwn, and Penicillium. It was not possible to establish any seasonal
trend. The home with evaporative cooling showed a higher fungal spore count than did two air-conditioned
homes. There was no significant difference between the spore count in a home that had an electronic air filtration
unit and one which had only an air conditioner. Relative humidity was the only climatological factorwhich
showed a statistically significant correlation with the monthly spore count.
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16. Eichmeier, J. The Variation of the Natural Small and Large Ion Concentration Indoors. Int. J. Biometeoro-
logy. 13(1):51-60, 1969. Text in German.
Small and large ion concentrations were measured in a normal room with open or closed windows, in a
windowless room, and in a windowless, metal-shielded room. A particle counter and a dot recorder were used. In
the first room, the large ion concentration was higher by an open window, fluctuating between 500 and 8000
liters/m3. It was at a maximum in the morning and afternoon, and subsided over the weekend. The maximum
value coincided with the higher air pollution caused by the morning and afternoon traffic rush hours. The small
ion concentration was higher by a closed window. !n the windowless room, the small ion concentration was, on
the average, somewhat higher than in the room with windows; the large ion concentration was lower. When the
door of the room was open, the large ion concentration increased and the small ion concentration decreased. In
the metal-screened room, the small ion concentration was three times as large as in the open air. Opening the door
for a longer period of time increased the large ion concentration.
17. Field Study of Air Quality in Air Conditioned Spaces. Arthur D. Little, Inc. Cambridge, Mass. RP-86.
March 1969.
Indoor and outdoor concentrations of particles, sulfur dioxide (S02)-and ozone (03) were measured for
three air-conditioned offices in Boston and Cambridge, Mass., during the 1968 air-conditioning season. There was
very little improvement in ozone concentrations at any of the locations, and sulfur dioxide and particulate were
significantly improved at only one location. This location had a more efficient air-cleaning system than the other
two, consisting of a central unit having, in succession, an electrostatic precipitator, roll screen backing filter,
water spray, and cooling coils. At the other locations, only roughing filters were employed. Interior generation of
pollutants is also suspected of contributing to the difference between the offices. The office building in which
improvement was noted over outside conditions is noted to be an exceptionally clean area devoted exclusively to
office work where smoking is not permitted. The other two offices were in a building which housed both offices
and laboratories and in which smoking was permitted.
Continuous records of indoor and outdoor particulate matter were obtained with a Gelman tape sampler.
Sulfur dioxide and ozone were measured with an Atlas two-channel sulfur dioxide-ozone analyzer. Detailed
tabulations are included for sulfur dioxide and ozone, but particulate sampling results are presented only
graphically.
Two additional research phases were recommended as a result of this study. Results of the first are
described in Reference 18.
18. Field Study of Air Quality in Air Conditioned Spaces, Second Season (1969-1970). Arthur D. Little, Inc.
Cambridge, Mass. RP-86. February 1970.
This is a continuation of the study reported in Reference 17. Three additional air-conditioned offices in
Boston, Mass., were sampled for particulate, sulfur dioxide (S02), and ozone (03) using the same equipment and
procedures described in Reference 17. These buildings were sampled during both the air-conditioning and the
heating seasons. Decreases in particulate concentrations indoors relative to outdoors were found to be related to
the cleaning efficiency of the air-conditioning system. The more sophisitcated (and expensive) the system, the
better the job. Indoor sulfur dioxide concentrations were reduced to 60 percent of outdoor levels without air
conditioning. Water sprays in the air-conditioning system were required to effect further reductions, but reduc-
tions to 30 percent of outside levels could be obtained with sprays. Indoor ozone levels without air conditioning
were about 50 percent of outside levels. Air-conditioning systems with electronic precipitators tended to increase
this value, but never enough to be of concern. Outdoor changes in particulate concentrations were found to
follow a well defined diurnal pattern, being lowest at night and rising to midday peaks, normally at about 11:00
a.m., which were 2 to 3 times higher than nighttime levels. Similar peaks were identified for the gases, but they
did not occur on such a regular daily basis. Indoor concentrations of both particulate and the gaseous pollutants
were found to respond promptly to outdoor changes, even when outdoor levels changed by a factor of 4 to 5
within 1 to 2 hours. The author was surprised to find that outdoor particulate concentrations were higher in
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winter than summer at only one of the sites investigated. Outdoor sulfur dioxide concentrations were higher in
the winter at all three sites. Ozone levels were not greatly different, but did show higher peak values during the
winter.
Additional research under a wider range of more carefully controlled conditions is recommended on the
basis of this study.
19. Flensborg, E.W. and T. Samsoe-Jensen. Studies in Mold Allergy; 3. Mold Spore Counts in Copenhagen.
Acta Allergologica (Copenhagen). 3:49-65,1950.
Outdoor spore samples were taken by exposing petri dishes, containing agar with extract of malt, twice
daily for 15 minutes from March 1947 to January 1949 at 60 cm above ground in a garden in Copenhagen.
Indoor samples were taken in various rooms in the homes of asthmatic children during November 1947, February
1948, and May 1948. Comparisons of indoor and outdoor concentrations can be made based on the results
presented. However, it should be noted that only 19 indoor samples were taken during 3 months, whereas 1342
outdoor samples were taken during nearly 2 years. Several of the spores identified were found to have seasons,
and the phasing of these seasons relative to the indoor sampling periods also affects the comparisons. The most
common mold found outdoors was Hermodendron (53 percent of the total colonies found), followed by
Pullularia (18 percent), Penicillium (15 percent), Alternaria (2.6 percent), and Phoma (1.5 percent). Indoors,
the most common mold was Penicillium (59 percent), followed by Aspergittus (14 percent), Hermodendron
(12 percent), Pullularia (10 percent), Verticillium (1.5 percent), Alternaria (1.3 percent), Mucor (0.7 percent),
and Phoma (0.3 percent). Except for Penicillium, indoor mold colonies averaged from 20 to 86 percent of the
number outdoors. Penicillium was much more plentiful (346 percent) indoors. Seasons identified for the
various molds were as follows: Penicillium — none; Hermodendron — late May to mid-October, Pullularia
— mid-September to mid-October, Alternaria — August and September, Phoma — March to October.
20. Georgii, H.-W. Investigation of the Air Exchange between Rooms and the Air Outside. Arch. Meteor.
Geophys. Bioklimat., Ser. B (Germany). 5:191-214, 1954.
This paper is concerned with the natural air exchange between a room and the extraneous air as affected by
wind conditions, temperature, the pores of the walls, and cracks in doors, windows, and floors. Measurements of
ventilation rate were obtained by liberating water vapor, carbon dioxide, or aerosols in the test rooms and
measuring the change in concentration with time. For ground-floor and basement rooms, the temperature
difference between inside and outside air was found to be the primary influence on ventilation, and wind speed
was secondary. For rooms on higher floors, this relative importance was reversed. For intermediate floors, the
relative importance is probably more nearly equal. By comparing ventilation rates for carbon dioxide with those
for aerosols, it was possible to separate ventilation through the walls from that through cracks in doors, windows,
and floors.
21. Gip, L. The Indoor Occurrence of Airborne Dermatophytes. Acta Dermato-Venereol (Stockholm).
49(Suppl. 58):36-54,1966.
The air of the washroom in a communal bathhouse and the dressing room in an automobile factory
was examined monthly for 1 year for the presence of dermatophytes. The investigation of the air in the
washroom revealed the presence of dermatophytes in June, August, and December. T. mentagrophytes var.
granules, was the only type of dermatophyte identified. Airborne dermatophytes were found in the
automobile factory dressing room in September, December, January, February, March, and April. T.
mentagrophytes var. interdigital., T. terrestre, and M. gypseum were identified. This investigation indicates
that dermatophytes, and even geophilic dermatophytes, are widely present in indoor environments. Their
broad epidemiologic roles as exogenous agents of infection with fungous diseases is still open to question and
requires further study. '
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22. Goldwater, L.J., A Manoharan, and M.B. Jacobs. Suspended Particulate Matter, Dust in "Domestic"
Atmospheres. Arch. Environ. Health. 2:511-515, May 1961.
Suspended particulate matter in indoor and outdoor air was determined at 30 locations (10 offices, 11
living rooms, 7 bedrooms, 2 laboratories) in the New York area during February and March 1960. Indoor
concentrations were found to average 75 percent of outdoor concentrations, but the difference was not
significant at the 5 percent level. The difference in ash content of the samples was highly significant at the 1
percent level, however, indicating that indoor air has more organic material and outdoor air more inorganic
material.
High-volume samplers with 11-cm Schleicher and Schuell Fast-Flo No. 2W analytical filter paper were
used. A 1-hour sample was first collected inside the room, then one of the windows was opened and another
1-hour sample was taken from outdoor air. Thus, indoor and outdoor samples were not taken
simultaneously. In sampling indoor air, there was a certain amount of recirculation of air since the volume
sampled was about twice the volume of the room.
23. Grafe, K. Calculated Versus Continuously Measured S02 Concentrations with Regard to Minimum Stack
Heights and Urban Renewal. In: Proc. Int. Clean Air Congress (Part 1). London, The National Society for
Clean Air, 1966. p. 256-258.
Sulfur dioxide (S02) concentrations were measured simultaneously in a room 40 m2 with three windows
and two doors and outdoors, in Hamburg, Germany, from October 1965 to February 1966. Inside sulfur dioxide
concentrations ranged mostly from 4 to 10 percent of outside levels when outdoor concentrations were greater
than 0.4 mg/m3. Only when the wind blew nearly directly on the windows did the values increase to 28 percent,
and in the case of strong winds even to 42 percent. If one or more of the windows was open, the values amounted
to 80 to 100 percent. Comparison of half-hour-average concentrations over a 5-month period indicates an overall
average indoor concentration 22 percent of the outdoor levels. For periods when the room was not entered, the
average was 18 percent. The author concludes that, even when outdoor concentrations are high, indoor concen-
trations in well closed rooms will generally be small enough to be neglected.
Continuous S02 concentrations were measured indoors and outdoors with Woesthoff ultra-gas-analysis
devices, and half-hour averages were extracted from the data.
Indoor-outdoor sampling was only a small portion of this article, which dealt primarily with the relation-
ships between stack height, wind direction, and outdoor concentrations. Indoor-outdoor sampling results are not
presented in detail, but are briefly summarized and illustrated by a single figure.
24. Gruber, C.W. and E.L. Alpaugh. The Automatic Filter Paper Sampler in an Air Pollution Measurement
Program. Air Repair. 4:143-147, 1954.
The indoor-outdoor relationships presented are only a minor portion of the article, which deals with general
use and application of the AISI tape sampler. Indoor-outdoor samples were taken at the Bureau of Smoke
Inspection and at a residence, both in Cincinnati, during October and November 1952 and January 1953. At the
Bureau of Smoke Inspection, indoor particle concentrations were 105 percent of outdoor concentrations; during
13 of 24 sampling periods, indoor levels were greater than outdoor levels. At the residence, indoor concentrations
were 86 percent of outdoor concentrations; during 8 of the 24 sampling periods, indoor levels were greater than
outdoor levels.
AISI tape samplers were used over a 6-hour sampling period and were then spot-shade evaluated by
reflectance. Due to the 6-hour sampling period, many of the spots were excessively dark, and spots with less than
50 percent reflectance were used, although Beer's law cannot accurately be applied in those cases.
25. Hauser, T.R. The Analysis of the Aliphatic Fraction of Air Particulate Matter. Ph.D. dissertation,
University of Cincinnati. 1971. p. 57-62, 105-107.
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Results of indoor sampling constitute only a small part of this dissertation, but the results obtained are of
interest. Due to the unique pattern which was found to result from the analysis of the aliphatic fraction of
particulate matter from tobacco smoke, this method can be used to determine the contribution of cigarette
smoking to indoor pollution. Analysis of particulate matter from the filter of an air conditioner serving a large
office in Pittsburgh indicated that, except for stirred up dust and lint, the most significant contribution of
particulates to the filter was that of cigarette smoke particulates.
26. Benson, F.B., J.J. Henderson, and D.E. Caldwell. Indoor-Outdoor Air Pollution Relationships: A Literature
Review. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, N.C. Publication No. AP
112. August 1972.
This publication is a review of the majority of the literature included in this bibliography. It was found that
extensive measurements had been and were being made of outdoor pollution. In contrast, considering the
importance of the problem, very little data had been gathered on indoor pollution. Based on the review, however,
it was possible to infer relationships between indoor and outdoor pollution and to identify factors which affect
these relationships. The relationships identified are recognized as being only tentative, however, and further
research is recommended to determine their validity. Except for bacteria and perhaps for mold and fungus spores,
indoor pollution levels appear to be controlled primarily by outdoor concentrations. Other factors which
influence indoor pollution levels include internal activities and pollutant generation, atmospheric conditions and
natural ventilation, time, location, type of building, and air-conditioning and filtration systems. The data for
particulates and nonreactive gases indicate a possible reduction of indoor concentrations relative to outdoor
concentrations with increasing outdoor concentrations. However, until further supporting data are obtained, it
appears best to assume indoor concentrations equal to outdoor concentrations. Relative indoor concentrations of
pollen and reactive gases decrease with increasing outdoor concentration. Bacteria concentrations indoors appear
to be more closely related to the presence and activities of people inside than to outdoor concentrations.
27. Hiraoka, M., M. Takauchi, A. Ikeda, and T. Murakami. Air Pollution in Structures. J. Japan Soc. Air Pollut.
5(1):227, 1970. Text in Japanese.
Carbon monoxide pollution at the Kyoto central wholesale market was investigated. The market is
characterized by proximity of roofs of buildings and the use of small automotive vehicles for transporting goods.
At six locations, measurements were taken for 24 hours at 2.4 meters above the ground. Whether 1-hour or
8-hour averages, the concentrations were the highest around 9 a.m. For a day when the average wind speed was
less than 1 m/sec, 8-hour average concentrations were as high as 20 ppm at most locations.
28. Holcombe, JX. and P.W. Kalika. The Effects of Air Conditioning Components on Pollution in Intake Air.
Presented to the semiannual meeting of the Amer. Soc. of Heating, Refrig., and Air-cond. Eng. Philadelphia.
January 24-28, 1971.
To determine information available concerning the ability of commercial air-conditioning equipment to
reduce concentrations of pollutants in the air drawn into a building, a literature search and a survey of air-
conditioning equipment manufacturers and others knowledgeable in the field of air pollution were conducted.
Based on the information obtained, a mathematical expression was developed to describe various types of
air-conditioning systems in terms of indoor and outdoor pollutant concentrations, the pollutant removal
capability of the systems, the system design parameters, and the internal generation of pollutants (see Reference
39). Finally, the mathematical expression was verified by application of actual measurements obtained for two
air-conditioned buildings in Hartford, Conn, (see Reference 103). The authors' conclusions were as follows: "(1)
Substantial air pollutant removal efficiency information is available for filters, electrostatic predipitators, and
activated charcoal components. For other components, only scattered and largely inadequate information is
available at the present time, particularly for gaseous pollutants. [Available information is tabulated in the
report.] (2) Information on indoor-outdoor air pollutant relationships was reported from only a handful of
research programs. (3) Information on the relationship of indoor pollutant concentrations to indoor activities,
numbers of occupants, and types of configurations of furnishings is virtually non-existant. (4) Based on limited
measurements in air conditioned office buildings, internal generation of suspended and soiling particulate matter
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is a significant parameter in estimating indoor concentrations of these pollutants. (5) The use of a generalized
theoretical approach for predicting indoor-outdoor air pollutant relationships appears to be a potentially valuable
technique."
29. Horton, A.D. and A.S. Meyer. Gas Chromatographic Determination of Volatile Air Pollutants (Annual
Progress Report for Period Ending October 31, 1967). Analytical Chemistry Division, Oak Ridge National
Laboratory. Tennessee. Contract W-7405-Eng-26. January 1968. p. 30-32.
Analyses of volatile hydrocarbons in charcoal and air samples from nuclear reactor contaminants and
various indoor and outdoor sites in the vicinity of Oak Ridge National Laboratory were carried out. Total
hydrocarbons were determined by use of the flame-ionization detector; unsaturated hydrocarbons were
determined on the same column by subtracting from the total hydrocarbons those that passed through a
perchlorate olefin absorber. Data on oxygenated hydrocarbons were obtained by subtracting the hydrocarbons
that passed through a 1 percent solution of NaHS03 from total hydrocarbons. Identifiable hydrocarbons were
determined with a column of 3 percent (by weight) squalene. Results of all determinations are given. Depending
on the environment, the extent of contamination of air and of charcoal by volatile organic compounds varies
from day to day or even from hour to hour. For outdoor samples, the concentration of contaminants is directly
proportional to the density of automobiles operating in the immediate vicinity of the sampling point. Newer
buildings, in general, are less contaminated than older ones.
30. Indoor-Outdoor Carbon Monoxide Pollution Study. The General Electric Company, Re-entry and
Environmental Systems Division. Philadelphia. Contract No. CPA 70-77. In preparation.
Carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, particulates, and lead were monitored for approximately 6-month periods
inside and outside of two buildings in New York City. Traffic and meteorological conditions were also recorded.
Data were obtained continuously during the test periods, which included both heating and nonheating seasons.
One of the buildings, a high-rise apartment, was an air-rights structure which straddled the Cross Bronx
Expressway. The other building was a conventional high-rise structure.
Final results of this study were not available when this bibliography was prepared, but the
simultaneous indoor and outdoor measurements of the pollutants, collected continuously over a period of
time, should provide highly valuable information on indoor-outdoor pollution relationships.
31. Ishido, S. Air Pollution in Osaka City and Inside Buildings. Department of Home Economics, Osaka City
University, Osaka, Japan.
Based on data from earlier studies (e.g., References 33 and 35), the author concludes the following: (1)
even in a relatively airtight building, indoor suspended particulate is completely under the influence of outdoor
changes; (2) changes in indoor levels lag behind outdoor changes; (3) the range of indoor suspended particulate is
smaller than that of outdoor particulate; (4) indoor suspended particulate levels are nearly equal to outdoor levels
if mean values over a 24-hour period are considered; (5) electrical dust collectors are highly effective in
eliminating indoor suspended particulate matter.
32. Ishido, S. Study of Air Quality in Buildings; 1. Degree of Weariness Related to the C02 Concentration and
Polluted Environment. Air Cleaning (Tokyo). 3:11-15,1965.
Measurements of carbon dioxide (C02) concentrations inside four office buildings are presented. Very little
indoor-outdoor data are presented, but outside levels of approximately 0.03 percent can be assumed. Inside
concentrations in the four buildings considered ranged from 0.03 to 0.32 percent. Based on measurements in one
building, concentrations generally increased from the first to the fourth floor. Concentrations in a new air-
conditioned building were found to be higher than those in an older building without air conditioning during the
summer, but concentrations in the winter were lower in the new building. Assuming 10m3 space per person and
18 liters/hr exhaled per person, it was calculated that a recirculation rate of 30 m3/hr would maintain the carbon
dioxide concentration within the room at below 0.1 percent when a person was doing office work.
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33. Ishido, S. Variations in Indoor and Outdoor Dust Densities. Bull. Dept. Home Econ., Osaka City Univ.
(Osaka). 6:53-59, March 1959.
Indoor and outdoor measurements of particulate concentrations were made at the following locations in
Osaka in 1958: an apartment, a residential store, a hospital, and a school. The measurements indicated the
following indoor-outdoor percentages: apartment, 114 percent; store, 98 percent; hospital, 101 percent; school,
102 percent. At each location, the indoor and outdoor diurnal patterns were nearly identical. The author
concludes that outdoor suspended particulate levels have a direct and controlling effect on indoor levels and that
this holds true not only in small rooms as found in apartments, but also in hospitals and schools.
Samples were collected hourly during 24-hour periods, and "dust densities" (number of particulates
per cubic centimeter) were determined with a Labor Science Research Institute type dust meter using 400X,
200W diagonal illumination.
34. Ishido, S., K. Kamada, and T. Nakagawa. Free Dust Particles and Airborne Microflora. Bull. Dept. Home
Econ., Osaka City Univ. (Osaka). 4:31-37,1956.
Dust Particles — Indoor and outdoor particle concentrations were determined for a relatively new second
floor apartment (not air conditioned) for 24-hour periods during each of the following months: November 1955,
March 1956, May 1956, and June 1956. Monthly average indoor-outdoor particle concentrations ranged from 84
to 98 percent. For each sampling period, indoor and outdoor diurnal patterns were nearly identical. The author
concludes that dust concentrations are, for the most part, controlled by outdoor air conditions. The
generation of dust through daily activities is of comparatively short duration and is not directly reflected in
daily variations in indoor dust concentration.
Samples were collected during 24-hour periods in each month, and "dust densities" (number of
particles per cubic centimeter) were determined with a Labor Science Research Institute type dust meter
using 400X, 200W diagonal illumination.
Airborne Microflora — Number of bacteria indoors and outdoors was determined by exposing petri dishes
for 5 minutes each hour during October and November 1955 at two locations: the apartment described above and
a new two-story house in the suburbs. Additional exposures were made at the apartment during May and June
1956. During the fall, indoor concentrations of bacteria were higher than outdoor concentrations at the
apartment (average indoor-outdoor percentages of 225 and 169 percent, respectively, for 24- and 48-hour
cultures), and at the house, they were much higher (1425 and 1183 percent, respectively). During the spring,
indoor concentrations were somewhat lower than those outside at the apartment (93 percent in May, 76 percent
in June). The data indicated much higher concentrations of bacteria in the house than in the apartment, both in
number of colonies and in percentage of outdoor concentrations. Indoor-outdoor percentages in the
apartment were much lower in the spring than in the fall. Both of these results are somewhat surprising
because of the magnitudes of the differences found. The authors did not identify any bacterial colonies;
perhaps identification would have helped clarify the results somewhat by establishing the type of bacteria
predominant at each location, inside and outside, during each season. It is the authors' conclusion that the
number of bacteria inside does not reflect fluctuations in outdoor air, but that the influence of living
conditions and daily activities on changes in numbers of bacteria is great.
Portions of this study were reported earlier in Reference 35.
35. Ishido, S., T. Tanaka, and T. Nakagawa. Air Conditions in Dwellings with Special Reference to Numbers of
Dust Particles and Bacteria. Bull. Dept. Home Econ., Osaka City Univ. (Osaka). 3:35,1955.
See Reference 34.
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36. Jacobs, M.B., L.J. Goldwater, and A. Fergany. Comparison of Suspended Particulate Matter of Indoor and
Outdoor Air. Int. J. Air Water Pollut. 6:377-380, October 1962.
Suspended particulate matter in indoor and outdoor air was determined at 21 locations (17 homes, 4 small
manufacturing plants) in West Queens, N.Y., during April and May 1961. Average indoor-outdoor percentages
were 106 percent for homes and 150 percent for factories. There seemed to be a markedly greater amount of
suspended particulate matter in carpeted rooms than in uncarpeted rooms, but this difference was not statistically
significant.
Sampling procedures and equipment were the same as those described for Reference 22.
37. Jacobs, M.B., A. Manoharan, and LJ. Goldwater. Comparison of Dust Counts of Indoor and Outdoor Air.
Int. J. Air Water Pollut. 6:205-213, August 1962.
The dust count and particle size of suspended particulate matter of indoor and outdoor air were determined
at 30 locations (18 houses, 10 offices, 2 laboratories) in the New York area during February and March 1960.
The indoor dust count ranged from 1.4 x 106 to 53.4 x 106 particles/ft3 with a median of 10.7 x 106. The
outdoor count ranged from 2.1 x 106 to 53.1 x 106 particles/ft3 with a median of 14.6 x 106. However, this
indoor-outdoor difference was not significant at the 5 percent level. The median particle size for both indoor
and outdoor air was 0.6 micron. The indoor-outdoor difference in particle size was less than 0.2 micron and
was not significant at the 5 percent level.
Samples were taken over a 2-minute period using a modified high-volume sampler. There was a 1-hour time
lag between indoor and outdoor samples.
A portion of this study was reported earlier in Reference 48.
38. Jimenez-Diaz, C., J.M. Ales, F. Ortiz, F. Lahoz, L.M. Garcia, and G. Canto. The Aetiologic Role of Molds
in Bronchial Asthma. Acta Allergologica (Copenhagen). Suppl. 7:139-149, 1960.
A wells centrifuge was used to obtain spore samples of indoor and outdoor air at different points in Madrid
and in several towns on the Spanish coast. Samples were collected each week at different times of the day all year
round. Overall, indoor-outdoor percentages were 378 percent for Madrid, 230 percent for the coast, and 302
percent for both areas combined. The indoor-outdoor relationship varied from molds which were only found
outdoors (Oospora and Helminthosporium) to one which was more than 20 times as plentiful indoors as out
(Penicillium). Penicillium and Cladosporium were nearly always the predominant genera found; in indoor
air, Penicillium predominated, and in outdoor air, Cladosporium predominated. Indoor-outdoor
percentages for these molds were 1207 percent and 94 percent, respectively. The indoor-outdoor percentages
found in this study were unusually high compared to other reported results.
39. Kalika, P.W., J.K. Holcombe, and W.A. Cote. The Re-use of Interior Air. Amer. Soc. Heating, Refrig.,
Air-cond. Eng. J. 12:44-48, November 1970.
Theoretical and experimental results are presented to show quantitative and qualitative aspects of indoor-
outdoor air pollution rel. ionships for air-conditioned buildings. A simple theoretical model of an air-
conditioning system based on a single conditioned space provides significant insight into this relationship;
complicating factors can be introduced without damage to the validity of the model. Experimental measurements
include respirable and total suspended particulate, soiling particulate, and carbon monoxide (CO) at two air-
conditioned office buildings in Hartford, Conn., in the summer of 1969 (see Reference 103). The interior
environment was found to be cleaner with respect to suspended particles than to soiling particles due to the
inability of the air-conditioning system to filter out the finer particles associated with soiling. Carbon monoxide
was consistently measured at greater concentration indoors than outdoors, probably because of the introduction
of 100 percent make-up air from outside in the morning at the time of peak outdoor concentrations. Calculations
indicate the significance of internal pollutant generation in establishing interior air quality in an air-conditioned
structure. Guidelines are given for the design and operation of air-conditioning systems to improve the indoor
pollution environment rather than simply to control temperature.
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40. Kanitz, S. Observations on Atmospheric Pollution from Suspended Dust by Means of an Automatic
Sampler. J. Hyg. Prevent. Med. (Italy). 1:57-68, 1960.
Indoor and outdoor suspended dust (soiling index) samples were collected in a residential area and in an
industrial area of Genoa in June and November. Percentages of indoor to outdoor concentrations in June were 48
percent for the residential area and 44 percent for the industrial area. In November, percentages were 60 percent
for the residential area and 36 percent for the industrial area. The author gives equal importance to outside
pollution level and the presence and activities (e.g., smoking) of individuals inside in determining indoor pollution
levels.
Indoor-outdoor sampling results were only a small portion of this article, which was devoted mainly to
describing the automatic sampler and to outdoor sampling. The sampler is an automatic unit which yields
dust concentrations in terms of "soiling index" which is expressed in "OD units/cmVm3."
41. Kato, K. Ions in Air: 2. Ions and Air Pollution; 3. Ions and Public Health. Clean Air (Tokyo). 2(l):48-53,
1964. Text in Japanese.
In Part 2 of the study on ions in air, data are given on the relations between ions, dusts, exhaust gas, and
smoking. The author measured dust, carbon dioxide (C02), and small positive and negative ions at five locations.
Generally, in industrial areas there is a greater concentration of positive ions than negative ions, and the reverse is
true for residential areas. It is graphically illustrated that the amounts of carbon dioxide and dust present in the
air are directly proportional to each other, but the quantities of dust and ions present are inversely proportional.
For exhaust gas, an experiment was performed in which gas was released into a room for 10 minutes. The ion
concentration was reduced from 1110/cm3 to 120/cm3. Other experiments indicate that the presence of people
in a room diminishes the number of ions. Also, it was shown that in air-conditioned rooms, twice as many small
ions are present as in outdoor air. The concentration of small ions was reduced to about one-tenth by
polyethylene and vinyl filters and to one-fifth or one-third by polyurethane and glass fiber filters. In Part 3, the
relation between ions and heating devices (infrared ovens, gas stoves, and electric stoves) is covered. Some
mention is made of the effects of ions on the human body. The ion concentrations of some hot springs are given,
indicating that from 7 to 20 times as many ions are present in these areas as in the city environment.
42. Konno, K. Concentration of Air Contamination in Outdoor and Indoor. J. Japan Soc. Air Pollut. (Japan).
4(1): 142, 1969. Text in Japanese.
The concentration of air contamination is discussed with special reference to sulfur dioxide and dust
particles. Diagrammatic and numerical results of the air pollution measurements both indoors and
outdoors, with or without air-cleaning filters, are presented. The data were gathered at a building in central
Tokyo. When air conditioning is in operation, the outdoor pollution penetrates indoors through the
mechanical ventilation system as well as the natural ventilation of opening and closing doors. Mathematical
formulas are developed whereby, under either the existence of air conditioning or static conditions, the
concentration of pollution indoors after time (T) can be calculated from variables such as outdoor pollution
concentration, initial indoor concentration, concentration at T equals infinity, volume of air intake, rate of
natural ventilation, rate of particle filtration, etc. By initially fixing the desired indoor concentration and
giving the observed values to the other variables, the rate of particle filtration, and hence the desired type of
filter, can be computed.
43. Kranz,P. Indoor Air Cleaning for Allergy Purposes. J. Allergy. 34:155-164, 1963.
This article discusses the amount of air cleaning required to reduce outdoor pollen levels to acceptable
values. It is based on tentative pollen levels found by others; no actual indoor-outdoor data are presented. The
presentation is in engineering terms, and charts are used to show the air cleaning required for various house
conditions and outdoor pollen levels. Air leakage into a house, or infiltration, must be very carefully controlled in
order to achieve satisfactory indoor pollen levels.
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44. Kruglikova, Ts.P. and V.K. Efimova. Residential Indoor Air Pollution with Atmospheric Sulfur Dioxide.
Hyg. and Sanitation (Moscow). 23:75-78, March 1958.
Indoor and outdoor air samples were collected, and sulfur dioxide (S02) contents were determined for (1)
residences in an industrial (chemical and crude oil processing plants) area of Moscow, (2) residences on two
streets away from any industrial area, and (3) a botanical garden located a considerable distance from any
industries or residences. Sulfur dioxide was found inside in the industrial area even with windows closed; but with
the windows closed, indoor sulfur dioxide concentrations stayed at a more constant level than outdoor concen-
trations. During the winter, maximum indoor levels in the residential area exceeded those in the industrial area.
These high concentrations were attributed to small boiler-operated heating plants. The authors concluded that
there was a good correlation between indoor and outdoor sulfur dioxide in industrial, residential, and control
areas.
45. Lampert, F.F. Effect of Garages and Filling Stations Located in Residential Sections on Health and Living
Conditions. Hyg. and Sanitation (Moscow). 24(3):74-76, 1959.
Carbon monoxide (CO) samples were collected in control dwellings and in six residential buildings with
garages. In two buildings, the garages were parts of the buildings. In three buildings, the garages were detached by
5 to 17 meters. One garage was located as recommended by the sanitary clearance regulation (distance not
specified). In addition, the effects of a filling station located 18 meters from the windows of an apartment house
were investigated. The study showed that garages and the filling station contributed measurably to polluting the
indoor residential air, and pointed to the need for suitable sanitary clearance zones.
For this study, household gas appliances were shut off during sampling in all cases.
46. Lefcoe, N.M. and I.I. Inculet. Particulates in Domestic Premises; 1. Ambient Levels and Central Air
Filtration. Arch. Environ. Health. 22:230-238, February 1971.
Air particulates were sampled in Ontario, Canada, in a home with central ventilation and an electrostatic
filter, rated at 90 percent efficiency at 1000 ft3/min, in the main air duct. Particle counts were lower during
periods of minimal activity, and during such periods, counts were significantly lower with the filter than without.
Cleaning and dusting overwhelmed the filter. Smoking one cigar raised particle counts from 10 to 100 times.
These counts stayed up at least 3 hours when the filter was off and from 1 to 2 hours when the filter was on.
Actual efficiency of the filter was determined as 80 percent for particles _>0.3 micron, 83 percent for particles
^>0.5 micron, and 86 percent for particles,>l micron.
Air samples were taken hourly from the return air duct upstream of the filter from 10 a.m. to 4 p.m.
Particles were counted with a light-scattering particle counter. A 1-minute counting period was used for each of
the following size ranges:^0.3 micron,.>0.5 micron,^-! micron, and^2 microns. Nature of activity in the house
was recorded hourly. Outside measurements were not made.
47. Lenoe, F.L. BW Evaluation of Pressurized Building No. 7-635 at Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory
(1952). Physical Defense Division, Camp Detrick. Maryland. Special Report No. 171. May 1954.
Two series of tests were conducted involving the pressurized building, a normal, unpressurized building, and
a "filter wall unit" at Port Hueneme, California, September 10 to 19, and October 20 to 24, 1952. A biological
warfare (BW) simulant, Bacillus globigii, a nonpathogenic spore-forming organism, was used for the tests.
Respiratory exposure dosages on the order of 2.0 x 106 organisms were prevalent outside the buildings for the
3-hour period of each test. The normal, unpressurized building gave approximately a 10-fold reduction in
respiratory exposure, and this reduction was increased to 100-fold in 30 minutes by the introduction of 2500
ft3/min of filtered air into the building. In the building pressurized by a Chemical Corps E35 Collective Protector,
even greater reductions were effected, and respiratory exposures were not significantly above background counts.
The E35 Protector was also shown to be superior to the filter wall unit, which functions under negative pressure
and thus allows leakage into the building. No major differences in reductions were found with varying pressures
of the Protector. The Protector is not described.
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Aerosol samples were collected during the tests by drawing air through cotton collectors at 12 liters/min.
At certain stations inside the buildings, duplicate samples were collected by drawing air through millipore filters
at 15 liters/min.
References 8 and 71 contain additional evaluations of the interior effects of BW aerosols.
48. Manoharan, A., M.B. Jacobs, and L.J. Goldwater. Dust Counts in "Domestic" Atmospheres. Proc. 54th
Annual Meeting Air Pollut. Cont. Ass. 1961.
See Reference 37.
49. Maunsell, K. Air-borne Fungal Spores Before and After Raising Dust. Int. Arch. Allergy. 3:93-102, 1952.
Spore counts were made in eight homes in London during November through March before, during, and
after raising dust by shaking bedding and brushing carpets and walls. During the raising of dust, spore counts were
14.5 times higher than before raising dust. At 2 minutes after dust raising had stopped, the ratio had fallen to 4.3
times, and after 15 minutes to 2.6 times. The predominant genus in the undisturbed air in most of the homes was
Penkillium; in other homesPullularia and Cladosporium were predominant. The increase of spores through
raising dust was due mainly to an increase of Penkillium, Cladosporium, Pullularia, and yeasts. Colonies of spores
of larger sizes were practically absent from the air of undisturbed rooms, but occurred in small numbers during
and after the raising of dust.
Series of seven petri dishes were exposed at various heights in each home. Each series was exposed for 15
minutes. All windows were closed about 10 minutes before sampling. One series was exposed before dust raising,
one during, one 2 minutes after dust raising had stopped, and one 15 minutes after. Much of this article is
devoted to a discussion of the limitations of the sedimentation method of sampling and the advantages of
sampling by impaction, such as when using the "slit sampler." No outdoor sampling results are presented.
50. Maunsell, K. Concentration of Airborne Spores in Dwellings Under Normal Conditions and Under Repair.
Int. Arch. Allergy. 5:373-376, 1954.
Spore counts were determined for bedrooms on the ground or first floor of eight houses in London during
January, February, and April 1951. Two rooms were in "disturbed" houses. In one of these, a wall was being torn
down in an adjacent room. There was no common door, but both rooms opened onto a common hall. In the
other, a door led to a landing on the roof, which was being repaired. The six undisturbed rooms were sampled as
part of another study.51 There was a 23-fold increase in Penicillium concentration and an 11-fold increase in
overall spore concentration in the disturbed rooms relative to the undisturbed rooms. The results indicate that
spores are readily spread inside buildings from one room to another and from one floor to another.
A slit-sampler was used to sample the airborne spores by impaction on rotating petri dishes. Windows and
doors were kept closed for half an hour before sampling and during sampling. No outdoor measurements are
reported.
51. Maunsell, K. Quantitative Aspects of Allergy to House Dust. Proc. First Int. Congress Allergy. 1952. p.
306-314.
The concentrations of airborne spores in undisturbed bedrooms with windows closed were compared with
outdoor concentrations. Samples were collected in London during January, February, and April l95l.Pencillium
was the predominant spore both indoors and outdoors during the months of this study. Indoor-outdoor
percentages of total spores and of Penicillium were 79 and 76 percent, respectively. The author was surprised that
the concentrations of Penicillium and total spores were not higher indoors than outdoors. Much of the article
dealt with a survey regarding the location of houses in which patients had lived at the onset of dust allergic
symptoms. It was found that a highly significant number of these houses (78 percent) were built on damp soil, on
a relatively low level, near waterways (both open and underground).
A slit-sampler was used to sample airborne spores by impaction.
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52. Megaw, WJ. The Penetration of Iodine into Buildings. Int. J. Air Water Pollbt. 6:121-128, 1962.
Measurements of deposition of iodine-131 in three buildings (one office, one house, and one recently
constructed, well made hut) near Windscale, England, were made 1 week after the accidental release of
radioiodine from a nuclear reactor there in October 1957. Additional experiments were conducted on the hut
using artificially produced Aitken nuclei. The time integral of volumetric concentration inside a building, which
varied from 20 to 80 percent of outside concentrations in these studies, was found to determine the quantity of
material inhaled by people inside buildings. Therefore, although the deposition of a material in buildings will be
much less than outside, the quantity inhaled may be as much as 80 percent of that outside. A measure of
protection against inhalation inside could be obtained by keeping windows and doors shut while material was
passing, then opening them immediately after it had passed.
Measurements for this study included gamma dose rate outside and inside the buildings, and the amount of
iodine deposited on papers lying on the floor, on dust inside the buildings, and on grass outside.
53. Miura, T., K. Kimura, K. Kimotsuki, H. Okusa, 0. Tada, and T. Sawano. Comparison of the Concentration
of Suspended Particulate Matter and Gaseous Pollutants between Indoor Air and Outdoor Air in Urban
Areas. J. Sci. Labour (Tokyo). 41 (10):493-500, 1965. Text in Japanese.
The concentration of suspended particulate matter and gaseous pollutants of indoor and outdoor air in
Tokyo was determined at several locations, including factories, business machine rooms, and offices.
Suspended particulate concentrations were determined by a Roken type long-term recording impactor, and
gas analysis for sulfur dioxide (SC>2), nitrogen dioxide (NCty, and aldehyde (HCHO) of indoor and outdoor
air was carried out at the same time. The electromicrographs revealed that most of the particulate matter in
the urban area was microfme.seeming to be carbon particles and some mist particles. The concentration of
suspended particulate matter of the outdoor air in the urban area ranged from 0.05 to 0.5 mg/m3 and that
of the indoor air in air-conditioned rooms ranged from 0.01 to 0.3 mg/m3. The attenuation efficiency of an
air filter with electrostatic precipitator for suspended particulate matter was high. The concentration of
sulfur dioxide of the indoor air was lower than that of outdoor air, but the differences were not marked in
cases of nitrogen dioxide and aldehyde.
54. Narasaki, M. Change of Dust Concentration Indoors. Clean Air (Tokyo). 3(4):32-35, 1965. Text in
Japanese.
Factors which affect the change of dust concentration indoors are the concentration of outdoor dust, dust
generation due to combustion or air flow, and sedimentation. The relation between dust concentration indoors
and out is graphed for periods during which the air conditioner was on and off. Tests were performed for dust
sedimentation and also when carbon dioxide (COj) and dusts were generated in the same room. It was observed
that the smaller the particle size, the smaller the sedimentation ratio, the ratio being the greatest at the moment
dust generation stopped. The ratio was also larger in rooms with ventilation than without. A theory for
quantitative investigation is given.
55. Nelson, T., B.Z. Rappaport, and W.H. Welker. The Effect of Air Filtration in Hay Fever and Pollen
Asthma; Further Studies. J. Amer. Med. Ass. 100:1385-1392, 1933.
In order to determine the effects of filtered air on patients suffering from hay fever and asthma, filtration
units were installed in two wards in a hospital in Chicago. Pollen counts were determined from gravity slides
collected daily in each ward, in a control ward, and outdoors. Samples were collected from August 15 to
September 22, during the ragweed season. In the control ward, indoor-outdoor percentages averaged 36 percent.
In the wards with filtration units, the average was 3 percent. There was no tendency for pollen concentrations in
the wards with filtration units to follow those outdoors.
Indoor-outdoor sampling was only a small portion of this article, which dealt primarily with the application
of air filtration in the treatment of patients.
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56. Nilsby, I. Allergy to Molds in Sweden, a Botanical and Clinical Study. Acta Allergologica (Copenhagen).
2:57-90, 1949.
Mold spore counts were determined in Oerebro, Sweden, from August 1946 to December 1947. Petri
dishes were exposed for 30 minutes each day on a balcony in an open area on the outskirts of the city. During
the same period, petri dishes were exposed for 15 minutes in various homes and industries in the area. The
most common mold found in outdoor air was Hormodendrum (68 percent of the total number of colonies),
followed by Penicillium (11 percent), Pullularia (6.6 percent), yeasts (3.6 percent), Botrytis (1.5 percent), and
Aspergillus (1.3 percent). Pronounced seasonal variations were found, with a mold season from June to
October. Hormodendrum showed the most noticeable seasonal variation, and Penicillium showed no
seasonal variation. No difference was found in spore content of the air, either qualitatively or quantitatively,
from the city to a distance of 6.2 miles outside the city. Indoors, the most common mold found was
Penicillium (44 percent), followed by Hormodendrum (28 percent), yeasts (10 percent), Aspergillus (6.2
percent), Pullularia (5.6 percent), Mucor (2.8 percent), and Alternaria (2.1 percent). In dry, hygenic living
quarters, spores averaged 5 colonies per dish (38 percent of outdoor values). In homes with bad hygenic
conditions, the count was 55 (423 percent).
Indoor sampling results were only a small portion of this article, which dealt mainly with more extensive
outdoor sampling. Indoor-outdoor comparisons in the article are qualitative; however, rough indoor-outdoor
comparisons can be inferred from the data presented.
57. Parnell, L. Atmospheric Pollution and Its Significance in Air Conditioning. Heating and Ventilating Eng.
(London). 37:296-302, December 1963.
This paper includes general discussions of measurement methods for atmospheric particles, types and
relative efficiencies of air filters, and methods for evaluating filters. It does not contain data on either indoor or
outdoor concentrations.
58. Parvis, D. Condensation Nuclei in the Air of Artificially Heated Environments. Annali della SanitaPublia
(Italy). 13:1569-1581, November-December 1952.
Number of condensation nuclei and number of "dust grains" in the city of Milan were measured outdoors
and inside of various premises with hot-water heating, central air conditioning, convection heating, electric
heating units with open resistance, and cast iron coal stoves with nonconducting linings. The inside measurements
were approximately 50 percent lower than outside. The heating systems are rated on the basis of mean values of
condensation nuclei and dust grains and on the basis of mean indoor concentrations related to outdoor concen-
trations. Number of dust grains in the outside air was found to vary insignificantly, and all results varied
insignificantly with respect to air velocity measured in the center of rooms. Lowest levels of condensation nuclei
were found in air-conditioned and electrically heated rooms, and highest levels in rooms heated by coal stoves.
Condensation nuclei were measured using Aitken's apparatus, and dust grains were counted with Owen's
apparatus. No detailed description of the air measurements is included except that they were made between
11:00 a.m. and 1:00 p.m. on the days of the study. Chemical characteristics and dimensions of the nuclei and
dust grains were not considered.
59. Phair, J.J., G.C.R. Carey, R.J. Shephard, and M.L. Thomson. Some Factors in the Design, Organization,
and Implementation of an Air Hygiene Survey. Int. J. AirPollut. 1:18-30, 1958.
In 1952, a project was initiated in Cincinnati which had as its primary objective the solution of problems
encountered in the design, organization, and implementation of morbidity surveys attempting to relate human
reactions to the low levels of atmospheric contamination commonly found in ubran areas of the United States.
This article is a review of experience gained from nearly 2000 patient visits, and contains recommendations
regarding planning and operation of future large-scale air hygiene surveys.
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Little new data is presented in this article. It is based on data presented in Reference 9. Results of 2 days of
sampling for gaseous acid in December at an old peoples' home are presented. Gaseous acid concentrations
averaged 131 percent of outside concentrations in a room with windows open, but only 34 percent of outdoor
concentrations inside a room with windows closed.
60. Phair, J.J., R.J. Shephard, G.C.R. Carey, and M.L. Thomson. The Estimation of Gaseous Acid in Domestic
Premises. Brit. J. Ind. Med. (London). 15:283-292, October 1958.
Two-hourly Wilson sequence samplers were operated inside and outside a room in Cincinnati General
Hospital for a 2-month period to determine sulfur dioxide (S02) concentrations. With increasing outdoor
concentrations, the proportion penetrating into the room decreased (partly because many peaks were of
comparatively short duration). The inside values did not show the same sharp peaks as outside values. There was a
maximum correspondence between outside and inside levels with a lag of between 0 and 2 hours, the exact value
being perhaps somewhat closer to 2 hours. Due to the nearly 2-hour lag, it follows that when outside concen-
tration is falling rapidly the inside value may exceed the outside value.
The indoor-outdoor relationships presented were only a minor portion of the article, which dealt mainly
with development and use of a small sequence sampler for use in domestic premises.
61. Portheine, F. To the Problem of Passive Smoking: Remarks to the Article by HP. Harke in Muench Med.
Wschr.; 112(51):2328-2334, 1970. Muench Med. Wschr. (Munich). 113(18):707-709, 1971. Text in
German.
Despite the inadequacies of the methods used by Harke to analyze carbon monoxide (CO) emissions and
concentrations, relatively high concentrations were measured. Other investigations measured maximum
concentrations of 80 ppm carbon monoxide in rooms where an excessive amount of cigarettes had been smoked.
Measurements by the writer yielded 5 to 25 ppm carbon monoxide in rooms where normal quantities of
cigarettes had been smoked. In closed vehicles with the engine shut off, the measured carbon monoxide value
from a normal amount of cigarette smoking was 166 ppm. A nonsmoking driver inhales just as much as the
smoker in such cases. Measurements of carbon monoxide in open air, at a height of 1.6 meters above ground and
20 cm off the road bank of a busy Duseldorf road revealed that, on a day of good dispersion conditions, the
values corresponded closely to those in heavily smoked rooms. The fact is stressed that carbon monoxide
concentrations of less than 50 ppm penetrate into the blood only after hours of exposure depending on lung
ventilation.
62. Prince, H.E. and M.B. Morrow. Molds in the Etiology of Asthma and Hay Fever with Special Reference to
the Coastal Areas of Texas. Southern Med. J. 30:754-762, 1937.
Petri dishes were exposed for 2 minutes each day from September 1934 to June 1935 in Galveston, Texas.
One series of samples was collected by holding the plates outside an open window on the ninth floor of an
isolated office building, with agar surfaces facing directly into the wind. During the same period, another series of
samples was collected indoors in a home. Results are tabulated and plotted by month. The plotted results indicate
nearly parallel curves for number of colonies indoors and outdoors except in spring, when indoor colonies
considerably exceed outdoor colonies. Indoor-outdoor percentages by month varied from 50 to 300 percent and
averaged 126 percent, but the authors felt "no material difference had been found in the number of indoor and
outdoor colonies."
Indoor-outdoor sampling results were only a small portion of the article, which dealt primarily with more
extensive outdoor sampling and the treatment of mold-sensitive patients with mold extracts.
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63. Rappaport, B.Z., T. Nelson, and W.H. Welker. Effect of Air Filtration in Hay Fever and Pollen Asthma. J.
Amer.Med. Ass. 98:1861-1864, 1932.
In order to evaluate the performance of an air filtration unit, two of the units were installed in an eight-bed
hospital ward in Chicago. The units gave a complete air change in the room every 6 minutes. Pollen slides were
collected daily in the room, both directly in front of the outlet of each machine and at points distant from them.
Slides were also collected outdoors on a porch adjoining the ward. Samples were collected from August 19 to
September 22, during the ragweed season. With the air filters in operation, average indoor pollen counts were 4.5
percent of outside counts, indicating an efficiency of 95.5 percent for the filters. During most of the sampling
period, the filters were over 98 percent efficient. However, the units created a feeling of stuffiness, producing
severe discomfort on hot and humid days.
The discussion of indoor-outdoor sampling was only a small portion of the article, which dealt primarily
with the application of air filtration in the treatment of hay fever and asthma.
64. Rennerfelt, E. Some Investigations of the Fungus Diaspore Content of the Air. Svensk Botanisk Tidskrift
(Stockholm). 21:283-294, 1947.
Indoor spore samples were collected twice monthly in 1946 at the Forest Research Institute near
Stockholm. Outdoor samples were collected at the experimental field near the Institute. Indoor spore
concentrations averaged 34 percent of outdoor concentrations. Penicillium was the only genus found more
frequently indoors than outdoors. In outdoor air, Cladosporium was the predominate genus found. Most of
the article is devoted to outdoor sampling results.
Spore samples were collected by exposing petri dishes in a horizontal position; the plates were observed for
8 to 10 days, and then fungus colonies were counted. Dishes were exposed every fourteenth day around the first
and fifteenth of each month.
65. Report on Lead Pollution Survey. Tokyo Metropolitan Environmental Pollutions Research Institute
(Japan). March 1971. Text in Japanese.
The urine and blood of people in the neighborhood of 11 busy intersections in Tokyo were tested for lead
concentration; carbon monoxide (CO) and lead concentrations in the atmosphere were also measured. The
samples were collected for 10 to 14 hours. The average lead concentration at the intersection was 100 ppm, the
area along the road averaged 84.4 ppm, and the hinterland averaged 44.8 ppm. Although the relationship between
carbon monoxide and lead varied depending upon traffic, the recurrent coefficient varid from 1.6 to 3.4, with a
tendency to increase. The correlation between carbon monoxide and lead concentration was significant in every
area, with a minimum of 0.670. The indoor lead concentration is influenced by the atmospheric concentration
unless there is any source of lead generation inside the building.
66. Richards, M. Atmospheric Mold Spores In and Out of Doors. J. Allergy. 25:429-439,1954.
Indoor and outdoor spore samples were collected daily except Sunday for 1 year in Cardiff, Wales. Indoor
samples were collected by exposing a pair of petri dishes each morning at 10 a.m. for 10 minutes in the bedroom
of a house which appeared to be a normal, dry, clean dwelling and not itself a source of molds. A pair of outdoor
samples were collected at the same time on a lawn 60 yards from the house. Indoor-outdoor percentages of mold
concentrations averaged 19 percent. The same molds were found indoors and outdoors, and in approximately
similar proportions. No mold was found more frequently indoors than outdoors. From June to October,
Cladosporium was the most prevalent mold found both indoors and outdoors. During the rest of the year,
Penicillium predominated. Penicillium showed little variation in level throughout the year. Based on this study
and review of several previous studies, the author concludes that, in normal dry houses the most important source
of airborne mold spores is the outside air; relatively few spores are produced indoors and released into the air. In
moldy houses, the mold spore content of the air may be different, quantitatively and qualitatively, from that of
outside air.
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67. Richardson, N.A. and W.C. Middleton. Evaluation of Filters for Removing Irritants from Polluted Air.
Heating, Piping, and Air Cond. 30:147-154, 1958.
Indoor and outdoor air samples were taken and oxidant and nitrogen dioxide contents were determined
as part of an evaluation of two air filter media. Most of the testing was with activated carbon filters varying in
air detention time between 0.032 and 0.0030 second. A particulate filter which effectively removes particles
to less than 0.05 micron was also tested. The effectiveness of activated carbon in removing oxidants was
directly related to detention time. Nitrogen dioxide was reduced by activated carbon only during early use of
the filter. The particulate filter decreased the concentration of oxidants and nitrogen dixoide by a small
amount.
Although air samples were taken, the filters were evaluated by their effectiveness in reducing human
sensory irritation resulting from Los Angeles smog. Sensory response of a group of subjects working in a filtered
atmosphere was compared with that of a similar group working in a nonfiltered atmosphere in adjacent, identical
rooms. With activated carbon filters, a significant decrease in irritation was found over the entire range of
detention times. With the particulate filter, no decrease in sensory irritation was found.
68. Ripe, E. Mold Allergy; I. An Investigation of the Airborne Fungal Spores in Stockholm, Sweden. Acta
Allergologica (Copenhagen). 17:130-159, 1962.
Four indoor and two outdoor spore samples were collected five days a week from February 1, 1959, to
February 1, 1960, in Stockholm, Sweden. Indoor sampling sites included a home, an office, an apartment, and an
industrial plant. Outdoor samples were taken at an airport observatory and on a high point in the center of
Stockholm. Excluding the industrial plant, indoor spore concentrations were less than 50 percent of outdoor
concentrations; however, the relation varied from a mold which was only found indoors (Manilla) to one which
was found in more than 10 times greater abundance outdoors (Epicoccum). The same molds were normally found
indoors and outdoors, but proportions were quite different. Penicillium, Aspergillus, Mucor, Monilia, and
Rhizopus were found more frequently indoors; other genera were found more frequently outdoors. From June to
October, Cladosporium was predominant, especially outdoors. During the remainder of the year, Penicillium and
yeast were predominant. Spore concentrations were found to be highest outdoors and next where there was most
activity. They did not correlate with humidity, but did follow weather variations. Concentrations rose during
warm and sunny weather, after rain during the warm season, and during the fall of leaves. They sank during the
winter, during rain and snow, and during very dry weather.
Samples were collected by exposing petri dishes containing tomato agar each morning between 11:00 and
11:30 a.m. In addition, petri dishes with malt extract agar were exposed once a week. A record was kept of
weather, temperature, humidity, and any cleaning or repair work done during the time of exposure.
69. Romagnoli, G. Studies on the Climatic Conditions in Some Elementary Classrooms of Novara. Italian
Review of Hyg. (Italy). 21:410-419, 1961.
Indoor and outdoor samples of "dust" were collected at six schools in the city of Novara. Two of the
schools were located in the central area of the city, one in a suburban residential area, one in a suburban
industrial area, and two in rural areas. Overall average dust counts indoors and outdoors and the indoor-
outdoor precentage concentrations were as follows: (1) central — indoor 368, outdoor 662, 56 percent; (2)
suburban residential — indoor 258, outdoor 280, 92 percent; (3) suburban industrial — indoor 340, outdoor
752, 45 percent; (4) rural — indoor 444, outdoor 690, 64 percent. The average particle size of dust in empty
classrooms was 0.5 micron; during class, the average particle size was 1.2 microns. The author notes that
"dust content of the air in the classrooms does not seem to reflect the outside situation and the values inside
were always lower than those outside."
Samples were collected before classes (7:30 to 8:30 a.m.), during classes (10:30 to 11:30 a.m.), and after
classes (4:00 to 5:00 p.m.) using an Owen's dust counter. Concerning the Owen's dust counter, the author
mentions being "aware that the pollution values obtained with it are not perfectly reliable."
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Bacteria concentrations were also measured inside the classrooms, but outside concentrations are not
reported. Concentrations were found to be affected primarily by the presence of students, rising to up to 10
times before-class levels during class and falling rapidly after class. No remarkable quantitative or qualitative
differences were found for the various locations considered.
70. Rostrup, 0. Some Investigation of the Fungus-Spore Content in the Air. Botanisk Tidsskrift (Copenhagen).
29:32-41, 1908.
Indoor and outdoor spore samples were collected during 1903 and 1904 in Copenhagen by exposing petri
dishes with beer wort, gelatin, or apple extract, or sweat-spoons with gelatin for 15 minutes. Indoor samples were
collected in an apartment and outdoor samples in a park and on a street corner. Indoor spore concentrations
averaged 57 percent of outdoor concentrations but varid from a mold which was only found indoors (Aspergillus)
to three which were found in approximately 5 times greater abundance outdoors (Hermodendron, Cladosporium,
and Botrytis). Penicillium and Mucor were always found in more abundance indoors. Results for other sampling
locations, including a train compartment and a steamship, are also tabulated in the article. Indoor and outdoor
samples were not collected at the same location, but this was a surprisingly comprehensive sampling program to
be undertaken so long ago.
71. Sanders, W.M. BW Evaluation of Port Hueneme Pressurized Building 7-635, January 1955. Physical
Defense Division, Camp Detrick. Maryland. Interim Report No. 104. September 1955.
This report covers tests to determine the amount of protection against biological warfare (BW) aerosols
afforded by a building pressurized above outside static pressure and constructed with three different roof shapes:
slant with no eaves, slant with eaves, and flat. Bacillus globigii was used for the aerosol in the tests. Respiratory
exposure dosages averaged 2.6 x 106 organisms along the front of the building and 1.0 x 106 organisms along the
rear. With a positive pressure inside the building and air being brought in through a Chemical Corps E35
Protector, the respiratory exposures inside were not significantly above background. With no filtered air entering
the building, the respiratory exposures inside averaged approximately 2 percent of outside exposures. The results
indicate that no particular roof shape gave more protection, but that slight internal pressure above atmospheric
gave adequate protection.
Outdoor aerosol samples were collected by drawing air through cotton collectors at 5 liters/min. Indoor
samples were collected by drawing air through membrane filters at 10 liters/min (test with filtered air) or 5
liters/min (test without filtered air).
Reference 8 and 47 contain additional evaluations of the interior effects of BW aerosols.
72. Segall.M. The Reduction of Smog Effects in California Institute of Technology Campus Buildings. Physical
Plant Department, California Institute of Technology. Progress Report No. 3. 1964.
The report summarizes all tests and investigations made during 1963 concerning the smog problem in
campus buildings. Smog intensity was measured outside and inside seven buildings with various types of air-
conditioning and air-cleaning systems. Air-conditioning/cleaning systems include air conditioning with 0 to 90
percent recirculation of air, a spray type adiabatic air washer, and a saturating air washer. Reductions of total
oxidants inside the seven buildings ranged from 20 to 94 percent. Unfortunately, the air-conditioning system
which produced the greatest reduction in total oxidants is not described. These investigations show quite
conclusively that maximum air recirculation is very effective in reducing oxidant levels indoors.
Oxidant levels were measured using portable total oxidant analyzers inside and outside the buildings during
periods of smog (usually in August).
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73. Seisaburo, S., K. Kiyoko, and N. Tatsuko. Free Dust Particles and Airborne Microflora. Bull. Dept. Home
Econ., Osaka City Univ. (Osaka). 4:31-37, March 1959.
Summer measurements of free dust particles and airborne bacteria in concrete apartments, Japanese style
wooden houses, and outside air in Toyonaka City are reported and compared with previously made winter
measurements. Almost all measurements reported are for the apartments. Similar diurnal patterns for particles are
found inside and outside during both summer and winter. A positive correlation between indoor and outdoor
dust density, which was not affected by interior activities, was established. Indoor bacteria concentrations were
not found to be related to outdoor concentrations. They were low from late night to early morning and high
during waking hours, and concentrations seem to be essentially dependent on the degree of human activity.
Particle concentrations were greater during the winter than during the summer, but bacteria concentrations up to
10 times higher than winter levels were measured during the summer.
74. Sekigawa, T. Ions in Air. II. Clean Air (Tokyo). 3(3):46-50, 1965. Text in Japanese.
A study was made on the physical aspects of air pollution in relation to the present situation in cities and
according to methods of measurement of very small particles. The dusts present in the center of Tokyo were
classified according to particle sizes of 19 ± 2 microns, 7.5 ± 0.3 microns, and 0.9 ± 0.1 micron. The study of
extremely small particles (less than 0.1 micron) has not been extensive. Methods of measurement generally used
are the coagulation method (density of fog generated by the particle is measured), the diffusion coefficient
method (Stokes-Cunningham equation used to calculate the particle size from the diffusion coefficient), and the
charge separation method (particle size obtained from mobility of the charged particle). Measurement of floating
dust and polluted air indoors by the mobility spectrum is illustrated. An automatic recording-type impactor was
used for measuring the weight of floating dusts, and HM-type large-size ion meter was used for measuring ion
concentration. Hourly variations of floating dust concentration indoors and out are graphed, as are variations of
small ions based on temperature, humidity, and wind direction. In connection with the ion spectrum, small and
medium ions can be separated clearly in clean air, but the spectrum becomes continuous as pollution
increases. Roughly speaking, the quantity of small ions present is inversely proportional to the amount of
dust in the air. Medium-size ions increase as humidity increases.
75. Setterstrom, C. and P.W. Zimmerman. Sulphur Dioxide Content of Air at Boyce Thompson Institute.
Contr. Boyce Thompson Inst. 3(3): 171-178, 1938.
The sulfur dioxide (802) content of the prevailing atmosphere at Boyce Thompson Institute was
determined continuously from November 1, 1936, to November 1, 1937, with minor interruptions. For the year
period, the average reading, including zero readings, was 0.033 ppm. Maximum concentration recorded was 0.75
ppm. The gas was present in concentrations of 0.01 ppm and over 62.2 percent of the time. Correlation of sulfur
dioxide concentrations with the wind direction indicates that the sulfur dioxide comes largely from New York
City (15.4 miles SSW to Times Square, which marks the approximate center of the metropolitan area). A study of
the relationships between concentrations of sulfur dioxide in the atmosphere and in the air of a greenhouse shows
that greenhouse concentrations are approximately 90 percent of atmospheric when ventilators are partly open
and 60 percent when ventilators are closed. The fact that the many plants grown throughout the year in the
institute greenhouses are considered comparable to plants grown in areas where there is no sulfur dioxide is an
indication that exposure to sulfur dioxide in prevailing concentrations and durations has no unfavorable effect on
plant life.
76. Shephard, R.J. Topographic and Meteorological Factors Influencing Air Pollution in Cincinnati. AMA
Arch. Ind. Health. 19:44-54, 1959.
Analysis of hourly records of suspended particulate matter obtained for periods of 4 to 8 months from 60
homes in Cincinnati reveal large differences in domestic concentrations over short distances in the city, depending
on whether windows were open, relationship of home to pollution sources, wind direction, and thermal
inversions. No new indoor-outdoor data are presented in this article; it is based on data presented in References 9
and 77.
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77. Shephard, R.J., G.C.R. Carey, and JJ. Phair. Critical Evaluation of a Filter-strip Smoke Sampler Used in
Domestic Premises. AMA Arch. Ind. Health. 17:236-252, 1958.
Indoor and outdoor measurements of suspended particulate matter were made in Cincinnati at an
experimental laboratory, a large old peoples' home, and a city home. Indoor and outdoor concentrations were
nearly equal when the outdoor air was heavily contaminated (levels greater than 4.0 COH/1000 linear foot). At
lower levels, indoor concentrations were approximately 130 percent of those outdoors. Indoor concentrations
lagged behind outdoor concentrations by 1 to 2 hours, and during periods of high pollution there was less
fluctuation about peak values indoors than outdoors due to the "buffering capacity" of the inside air.
Measurements inside the city home indicated that "under normal atmospheric conditions, the main component of
suspended matter in the home was drawn from outside air, while during 'smog' periods the correspondence of the
two measurements was even closer."
Samples were obtained with AISI tape samplers with millipore or Whatman filter paper and a flow rate of
3.5 to 4.0 liters/min. The indoor-outdoor relationships presented were only a minor portion of the article, which
dealt primarily with domestic use of the AISI sampler in an air-hygiene survey.
Other results of this study are presented in Reference 9.
78. Shephard, R.J., M.E. Turner, G.C.R. Carey, and JJ. Phair. Correlation of Pulmonary Function and
Domestic Microenvironment. J. Appl. Physiol. 15:70-76, 1960.
This article is based on analysis of suspended particulate, gaseous acid, and temperature and humidity
measurements presented in References 9, 60, and 77. Indoor and outdoor levels of suspended particulates showed
fair agreement when windows were kept open, but when windows were closed indoor concentrations were
sometimes less than half the outdoor levels, particularly at night. Diurnal variations were found both inside and
outside, but indoor curves showed fewer sharp peaks and often lagged behind outdoor levels by an hour or more.
Levels were higher throughout the night and typically reached a sharp peak at 8:00 a.m. Night levels of total
gaseous acid tended to be higher in early autumn; but during the winter, the day and night levels were similar.
Indoor levels were somewhat lower than outdoors, and there was even less difference between day and night
values.
79. Skvortsova, N.N. Pollution of Atmospheric Air with Carbon Monoxide in the Vicinity of Ferro-
metallurgical Plants. Hyg. and Sanitation (Moscow). 22:3-9, 1957.
Atmospheric air samples were collected in the vicinity of two industrial plants, one with an open hearth
furnace and the other with a blast furnace, and in living quarters close to these industries. Indoor and outdoor
concentrations of carbon monoxide (CO) are reported for various distances (50 to 1000 meters) from the plants.
Both carbon monoxide concentration and percentage of indoor to outdoor concentration generally decreased
with increasing distance from the plants. Concentrations were higher in the vicinity of the blast furnace.
Simultaneous study of atmospheric and indoor air for 24 hours showed a parallel pattern of indoor and outdoor
concentrations. Results of much of the indoor-outdoor sampling which the author mentions doing are not
presented in the article (e.g., 80 samples collected in a control area are never mentioned again).
80. Spagnolini, D. Research and Considerations on Air Pollution by Carbon Monoxide in Some Public Garages
in Rome. Igiene Sanita Pubblica (Rome). 23(11-12):539-551, November-December 1967. Text in Italian.
Measurements of air samples, taken twice in five public and one private garage during the morning and
evening rush hours and during the day, yielded carbon monoxide levels between 10 and 100 ppm. This level is
tolerable for a prolonged period of work, with no danger of chronic intoxication.
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81. Spiegelman, J., G.I. Blumstein, and H. Friedman. The Effects of an Air Purifying Apparatus on Ragweed
Pollen, Mold, and Bacterial Counts. Anal. Allergy. 19:613-618, 1961.
To evaluate the effectiveness of an air conditioner and an electrostatic air purifier, daily pollen counts were
taken for the 2-week period of August 28 to September 10,1960, at a medical center in Philadelphia. Pollen
samples were taken outside and inside four adjacent rooms with different ventilating conditions including: (1) no
air conditioning, windows open, (2) air conditioner operating, (3) air purifier only operating, windows open, and
(4) air purifier and air conditioner operating. During the first 6 days, there was no filter in the air conditioners;
during the next 8 days, the standard filter was used. Inside the room with windows open, indoor concentrations
averaged 68 percent of outdoor concentrations during the first 6 days and 28 percent during the next 8 days.
Outdoor concentrations were lower during the first period, the mean being 47.4 grains/yd3, as compared with
90.7 grains/yd3 during the second. Use of the air conditioner reduced the indoor-outdoor percentage to 2 percent
without the filter and 1 percent with the standard filter. Neither the standard filter not the electrostatic air
purifier caused a significant reduction in pollen counts. A similar bacteria and mold count phase was also carried
out, but no outside samples were collected. The results showed bacteria and mold counts in the air conditioned
rooms to be only 9 percent of the counts with open windows. Again, neither filter nor air purifier gave significant
reductions in concentrations.
All samples were taken at the seventh-floor level with a Marx Volumetric Impinger. The rooms were
unoccupied, and doors were kept closed during sampling.
82. Spiegelman, J. and H. Friedman. The Effect of Central Air Filtration and Air Conditioning on Pollen and
Microbial Contamination. J. Allergy. 42:193-202, 1968.
Pollen and microbial counts were made between June 13 and September 26, 1967, in two identical houses
in Philadelphia, one of which was air conditioned and also equipped with a high-efficiency forced-air filtration
system, and outdoors adjacent to the houses. (These are the same houses evaluated in an earlier study reported in
Reference 83.) With the air conditioner and filtration system turned off, pollen concentrations were equal in the
two houses and were about 5 percent of outdoor concentrations. Use of the air conditioner reduced
concentrations to 1 percent of outside levels. Use of the air filter did not further reduce the pollen count. Some
results of the microbial portion of the study are presented, but outdoor sampling results are not mentioned. Air
conditioning also reduced the microbial concentrations relative to the non-air-conditioned house, but again the air
filtration system did not effect further reductions.
Pollen was collected using a rotoslide sampler. A 2-hour sample was taken in each 24-hour period. Mold and
bacteria samples were obtained by exposing petri dishes for 15 mintues each day.
83. Spiegelman, J., H. Friedman, and G.I. Blumstein. The Effects of Central Air Conditioning on Pollen,
Mold, and Bacterial Concentrations. J. Allergy. 34:426-431, 1963.
Pollen, mold, and bacteria samples were collected between June 15 and October 1, 1962, in two identical
houses in Philadelphia, one of which was centrally air conditioned, and outdoors adjacent to the houses. (The
same houses are evaluated in the later study reported in Reference 82.) Pollen counts inside the non-air-
conditioned house averaged 6 percent of outside levels. Air conditioning further reduced the concentration to 2
percent of outside levels. Concentrations of mold and bacteria showed no definite indoor-outdoor pattern, and
counts were generally below 20 colonies/dish for either mold or bacteria in all of the locations. Failure to find an
indoor-outdoor pattern may be due, in part, to transportation of these contaminants into the houses by the
occupants.
Sampling methods used were as summarized for Reference 82. Bacteria and mold colonies were not
identified.
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84. Sreeramulu, T. Concentrations of Fungus Spores in the Air Inside a Cattle Shed. Acta Allergologica
(Copenhagen). 16:337-346, 1961.
The air inside a cattle shed on a dairy farm in India was sampled from January 5 to 30, 1959, using a Hirst
spore trap. The shed was open, without walls on the sides, so that outside air could freely enter the shed and
dilute concentrations inside. No outside samples were taken for comparison with those in the shed.
Concentrations and identifications are reported, but they are expected to be of little application in this country.
The diurnal patterns reported may be of some interest. Cladosporium was found in higher concentrations during
the daytime, with the maximum usually occurring around noon. Fusariwn and Basidiospores were found more at
night, with their maximums in the early morning hours. Spores of the Aspergilli type were found more commonly
in the afternoon, with peaks around 6:00 p.m.
85. Stocks, P. Air Pollution and Cancer Mortality in Liverpool Hospital Region and North Wales. Int. J. Air
Pollut. 1:1-13, 1958.
See Reference 86.
86. Stocks, P., B.T. Commins, and K.V. Aubrey. A Study of Polycyclic Hydrocarbons and Trace Elements in
Smoke in Merseyside and Other Northern Localities. Int. J. Air Water Pollut. 4:141-153, 1961.
Indoor and outdoor air samples were collected for one or more years from October 1956 to 1958 at a large
bus garage, an automobile repair shop, a large clerical office, and a large steelworks in Wales. Samples were
analyzed for smoke, polynuclear hydrocarbons, metals, and to a very limited extent, sulfur dioxide. Seasonal and
annual variations are reported. The study showed that indoor concentrations of smoke were the same as outdoor
levels in the bus garage, somewhat higher in the automobile repair shop, and somewhat lower in the office. Indoor
hydrocarbon levels were somewhat higher than outdoor levels in the bus garage, often considerably higher in the
automobile repair shop, and considerably lower in the office. Indoor sulfur dioxide levels in the bus garage were
less than one-third of outdoor levels. Indoor metal levels in the bus garage were, in general, somewhat higher than
outdoor levels; exceptions were zinc, copper, nickel, antimony, and cobalt, which were found in lesser amounts.
In the automobile repair shop, metal concentrations were, in general, somewhat lower than outdoor levels;
exceptions were lead and vanadium, which were considerably higher, and nickel, which was considerably lower.
Metal concentrations in the research laboratory of the steelworks were considerably lower than outdoor levels,
but at other buildings at the steelworks were always very much higher than outdoor levels.
A portion of this study was reported earlier in Reference 85.
87. Submarine Atmosphere Habitability Data Book. Washington, D.C., Bureau of Ships, Navy Department,
1962.
This reference does not contain indoor-outdoor air pollution data, but the atmospheric monitoring equip-
ment used in submarines is described. This equipment includes: (1) Mark IV Atmosphere Analyzer with channels
for carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), Freon 12, oxygen (02), hydrogen (H2), and UV (ozone,
mercury vapor, aromatic hydrocarbons); (2) portable atmosphere monitoring units including Beckman visual
indication paramagnetic oxygen analyzer, Dwyer orsat for carbon dioxide, NBS detector tubes for carbon
monoxide, and MSA and Davis catalytic combustion units for hydrogen and hydrocarbons; and (3) semiquanti-
tative instruments for checking unusual occurrences (the nucleus of these instruments is the Draeger Gas Detector
Kit with a complete selection of tubes for various contaminants).
88. Swaebly, M.A. and C.M. Christensen. Molds in House Dust, Furniture Stuffing, and in the Air Within
Homes. J. Allergy. 23:370-374, 1952.
Petri dishes were exposed for 12 minutes at several different times of day in 15 homes in St. Paul during the
spring and early summer of 1950 and 1951; dishes were exposed outdoors at the same times and locations.
(Results are presented for only seven of these locations.) In addition, dust samples were collected from vacuum
cleaners in 76 homes in St. Paul and Minneapolis during the winters of 1950 and 1951, and new and used
furniture stuffing was obtained from furniture repair shops in these cities. Indoor-outdoor sampling indicated
26
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spore counts, in colonies per dish, ranging from 13 to 80 outdoors and, under various reported conditions, from 0
to 46 indoors. Mean indoor concentration was 12 colonies per dish, or 32 percent of the outdoor mean.
Penicillium and Aspergillus were the predominant molds in indoor air, while Altemaria and Cladosporium
predominated outdoors. Mean numbers of mold and bacteria colonies found per gram of house dust were
approximately 180,000 and 10,700,000 respectively. Mold colonies per gram of new furniture stuffing were as
follows: cotton - 11,000, kapok - 4,000, foam rubber - 1,000. Bacteria colonies per gram were: cotton -
1,680,000, kapok - 22,000, foam rubber - 60. No results for molds or bacteria in used furniture stuffing were
presented other than that they were "present in considerably greater numbers in some used materials."
89. Tomson, N.M., Z.V. Dubrovina, and M.I. Grigor'eva. Effect of Viscose Production Discharges on the
Health of Inhabitants. In: U.S.S.R. Literature on Air Pollution and Related Occupational Diseases (Levine).
8:140-144, 1963.
Indoor and outdoor air samples were collected from December 18 to 27, 1957, near a viscose plant which
discharged carbon bisulfide (CS2), hydrogen sulfide (H2S), and sulfur dixoide (S02) to the atmosphere; 264 open
air and 93 living quarters samples were collected. Concentrations of the different pollutants were higher indoors
than outdoors in 42 percent of the samples. Average indoor-to-outdoor percentages ranged from 67 to 90
percent.
90. Vaughan, W.T. and L.E. Cooley. Air Conditioning as a Means of Removing Pollen and Other Particulate
Matter and of Relieving Pollinosis. J. Allergy. 5:37-44, 1933.
In order to evaluate the performance of an air conditioner, comparative ragweed pollen counts were made
during September and October 1932 at three locations — an air-conditioned room, an adjacent non-air-
conditioned room, and a window sill outside the second room — at a hospital in Richmond, Virginia.
Pollen counts in the non-air-conditioned room were 33 percent of outdoor counts. The air conditioner
further reduced the count to 0.2 percent of the outdoor count.
Microscope slides coated with a thin layer of vaseline were used to collect samples. Only eight samples,
ranging from 1 to 9 days duration, were taken during the 29-day sampling period. Only four of these were
collected in the non-air-conditioned room, covering a period of 11 days.
This article dealt primarily with experimental tests of the air conditioner which were not directly applicable
to indoor-outdoor relationships.
91. Volksch, G. The Climate in Operating Rooms and its Effect on the Hygienic Properties of the Air. Angew.
Meteorol. 5(9-11):340-346, 1968. Text in German.
Detailed measurements of humidity, temperature, dust concentration, bacterial count, and air movement
were made over the course of a year in five different operating rooms in German cities; only one of the operating
rooms was air conditioned. Compared to an accepted norm of 20 to 25 °C and a relative humidity of 50 to 60
percent, only 27.2 percent of the measurements revealed acceptable conditions - the temperature being too hot
or too cold 5.9 to 11.3 percent of the time, and the humidity being too low or too high 31.7 to 36.9 percent of
the time. Especially during the summer, the temperature and humidity often rose to levels producing marked
discomfort. The average dust concentration was 59 x 106 particles/m3 The average bacterial count was 1600/m3
in the four operating rooms without air conditioners and 230/m3 in the one which was air conditioned. The
bacterial count depended on the frequency of use of the operating room, and increased in direct proportion to
the relative humidity, but was unrelated to the dust concentration.
92. Wallace, M.E., R.H. Weaver, and M. Scherago. A Weekly Mold Survey of Air and Dust in Lexington,
Kentucky. Anal. Allergy. 8:202-211, 1950.
Airborne spores were collected by exposing two petri dishes (one with Sabouraud's agar and one with
potato-glucose agar) for 15 minutes once each week from July to October and again for 3 weeks in January at
two outdoor locations - the Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station Farm and Main Street, Lexington - and
three indoor locations — a theater and two residences. Dust samples were also collected at the indoor locations.
27
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The overall indoor-outdoor percentage for total mold spores, considering all samples from both seasons,
was 33 percent. For Penicillium, the overall percentage was 34 percent; for Aspergillus, it was 29 percent.
Penicillium and Aspergillus were the predominant genera found both summer and winter from all sources
of samples. Penicillium was equally common from all sources in both seasons. Aspergillus was more
prevalent in dusts than in either indoor or outdoor air. Mold counts in the theater were very low, possibly
due to a large air-conditioning system; but dust samples yielded relatively high counts. The authors
comment that "there was no significant effect of any climatic condition except possibly temperature on the
numbers or types of mold in the air."
93. Walter, R.E. Studies on the Nature of Urban Air Pollution. 1967. London Conference on Museum
Climatology, Sept. 18-23, 1968. Published by the International Institute for Conservation of Historic and
Artistic Works, the National Gallery, Trafalgar Square, London, England, (rev. ed. May 1968). p. 65-69.
Studies were made of suspended matter, i.e., particles and droplets having diameters less than 5 microns
which do not settle rapidly under gravity and which are small enough to be inhaled into the respiratory tract.
Coal smoke is an important component of suspended matter, but inorganic salts, fine particles of ash, and acid
droplets are also present. The studies were made with both the optical microscope and the electron microscope.
Where comparisons could be made of estimations of mass from electron micrographs with those from smoke filter
measurements, the results were in reasonable agreement. Another study was made to determine concentrations of
smoke, sulfur dioxide, and particulate acid outdoors, indoors in a naturally ventilated gallery, and indoors in an
air-conditioned gallery.
94. Weatherly, M.L. Air Pollution Inside the Home. Warren Spring Laboratory Investigation of Atmospheric
Pollution, Standing Conference of Cooperating Bodies, May 16,1966.
See Reference 95.
95. Weatherly, M.L. Air Pollution Inside the Home. In: Symposium on Plume Behavior. Int. J. Air Water
Pollut. 10:404-409, 1966.
Smoke and sulfur dioxide (S02) were measured inside and outside a small room (office-laboratory) in
central London during January, February, and March 1960. Concentrations of smoke indoors averaged 95
percent of outdoor levels. There was no consistent difference between indoor and outdoor levels when outdoor
concentrations were below 300 Mg/m3. Above this level, indoor concentrations relative to outdoor concentrations
decreased. Maximum indoor-outdoor difference was 22 percent when outdoor concentration was 800 jug/m3. The
correlation between indoor-outdoor percentage and outdoor concentration was significant at the 1 percent level.
Sulfur dioxide concentrations were always less indoors, averaging 40 percent less. There was no indication that
the percentage difference increased with outdoor concentration. Results for both smoke and sulfur dioxide
appeared to be unaffected by whether or not the window was open. Based on these results and a review of
previous literature, the author concluded that, when pollution is high outdoors, both smoke and sulfur dioxide
concentrations are less, and often much less, indoors. When pollution outside is moderate to low, smoke indoors
is about the same as outside, but sulfur dioxide is always less.
This study is also reported in Reference 94.
96. Whitby, K.T., A.B. Algren, and R.C. Jordan. Size Distribution and Concentration of Air-borne Dust. Trans.
Amer. Soc. Heating, Air-cond. Eng. 61:463482, 1955.
Indoor air samples were obtained with an AISI tape sampler at the University of Minnesota Particle
Technology Laboratory from February 17 to March 3. Soiling index, concentrations, and size distributions were
calculated. No outdoor sampling was done with the indoor sampling. Mean soiling index was 1.4COH/1000 linear
feet, and mean concentration was 96 ng/m3. Mean volume size distribution was 3.5 microns, mean number size
distribution was 0.65 micron, and mean particle size was 2.29 microns. Indoor sampling results were only a small
portion of the paper, which dealt primarily with apparatus and methods for determination of size distribution
and concentration.
28
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97. Whitby, K.T., A.B. Algren, R.C. Jordan, and J.C. Annis. The ASHAE Air-borne Dust Survey. Heating,
Piping and Air Cond. 29:185-192, 1957.
Indoor and outdoor air samples were taken in Pittsburgh, Pa., Louisville, Ken., Akron, Ohio, and
Minneapolis, Minn., and particle size distributions and concentrations by weight, light transmission (soiling
index), and dustfall were calculated. Inside locations included residences, laboratories, and offices and
represented a range of conditions from old downtown-area buildings with no air cleaning to modern air-
conditioned offices. Outside sampling was in areas ranging from commercial districts to clean residential areas.
The difference between inside and outside dustfall levels and size distributions was found to be significant at the
5 percent level. In Minneapolis, the difference in heating season and nonheating season dustfall and size
distribution was found to be significant at the 5 percent level.
Size and concentration by weight and light transmission were determined from samples collected on 47-mm
millipore filters. Dustfall was determined from samples collected on standard microscope slides, and results were
expressed in O.D.D. units. (The authors note that one O.D.D. unit is approximately equal to 1.66
tons/mi2/month.) The number of samples from various locations varied considerably.
98. Whitby, K.T., R.C. Jordan, and A.B. Algren. Field and Laboratory Performance of Air Cleaners. Amer.
Soc. Heating, Refrig., Air-cond. Eng. J. 4:79-88, 1962.
Dust samples were collected in a home during the heating season (October 1959 to January 1960) to
measure the dustfall in various rooms of the house, determine a dust balance for the house, and determine the
efficiency of a filter and electrostatic air cleaner in the heating system. The dust balance showed that 2000 grams
was collected in the vacuum cleaner, 60 grams was collected in air cleaners, and 480 grams settled on the floor.
Thus, dust caught in air cleaners represents 12.5 percent of the dustfall in the home, and only 3 percent of the
dust with which the housewife must contend. There was a small but significant reduction in dustfall during
electrostatic air cleaner operation, and COH (soiling particulate) levels were also significantly reduced. However,
most of the dust generated in each room settled before it could be transported to the return air ducts. The
authors comment that the furnace fan is almost as good a collector as a filter in the heating system, but the filter
is necessary to prevent dirt buildup on the fan and heat transfer surfaces.
Weights were determined for dust collected in the vacuum cleaner, dust collected in air cleaners, and settled
dust on microscope slides. COH levels were determiend using an AISI tape sampler. No outdoor samples were
collected for comparison.
99. Wilson, M.J.G. Indoor Air Pollution. Proc. Roy. Soc., Ser. A (London). 300:215-221,1968.
The pollutant absorbtion qualities of interior finishes were tested by liberating a pollutant in a test room to
give a concentration of about 1 mg/m3 and then studying the decay of concentration during the return to
equilibrium. The test room was a chemical laboratory with a volume of 47 m3 and an area of about 124 m2. It
had no artificial ventilation and no fabric furnishings. Half-lives, corrected for air leakage, were found to be as
follows: hydrogen chloride (HC1) 7 minutes, sulfur dioxide (S02) 40 to 60 minutes, smoke 145 to 300 minutes.
The results indicated that the rate of removal of sulfur dioxide was limited mainly by the properties of the
surfaces, and only slightly by transport to the surfaces. The ceiling (fiberboard painted with eggshell paint) was
reasonably effective in removing sulfur dioxide, but walls (emulsion paint), floor (lacquered cork), and treated
wood surfaces were not. Measurements of equilibrium concentrations of sulfur dioxide and smoke were also
made. Indoor concentrations of sulfur dioxide were always more than 25 percent of the outdoor value,
approaching 100 percent when outdoor concentrations were low. Indoor smoke concentrations were found to be
almost as large as those outdoors.
29
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100. Winslow, C.E.A. and W.W. Browne. The Microbic Content of Indoor and Outdoor Air. Monthly Weather
Review. 42:452-453, 1914.
During the first 6 months of 1914, air samples were collected and examined for microbes (mold and
bacteria). Outside samples were taken in the country and in the streets of New York City. Indoor samples were
taken in offices, factories, and schools in New York and Washington, D.C. The number of microbes in city air was
somewhat higher than in country air. Indoor counts were higher than outdoor city counts, with the following
indoor-outdoor percentages: offices — 167 percent, factories — 169 percent, schools — 133 percent.
Streptococci were identified in the samples, and the data indicated the following indoor-outdoor
percentages: offices — 200 percent, factories — 391 percent, schools — 273 percent.
Microbe samples were collected by drawing 5 ft3 of air through sand, washing the sand with water, and
plating aliquot portions of the water. Cultures were made at 20°C on gelatin and 37°C on litmus-lactose-agar to
get microbes capable of development at body temperature. The number of mouth streptococci in the air were
estimated by isolating pure cultures from characteristic colonies on litmus-lactose-agar plates. No attempt was
made to identify any bacteria or mold colonies other than streptococci. Indoor and outdoor samples were not
taken at the same locations.
101. Yaglou, CP. and L.C. Benjamin. Diurnal and Seasonal Variations in the Small-ion Content of Outdoor and
Indoor Air. Trans. Amer. Soc. Heating and Ventilation Eng. 40:271-288,1934.
Daily observations of the small ion content of outdoor and indoor air from May 1930 to May 1933 disclose
definite diurnal and seasonal variations depending largely upon local and general meteorological conditions. The
most important climatic factors affecting the small ion content of outdoor air appear to be the interdiurnal
changes of temperature and humidity. A drop in the interdiurnal temperature and humidity is, as a rule, preceded
or accompanied by a sharp rise in the ion content of air, and vice versa, provided that the drop or rise in
temperature and humidity does not continue more than 2 days. Cloudiness, high humidities, and light or
moderate precipitation have a detrimental effect on the small ion content of outdoor air. Heavy precipitation
results in a considerable increase in the number of small negative ions, and when the precipitation is accompanied
with thunder and lightning, both positive and negative ions attain very high values. In winter, the concentration
of small ions in indoor air is considerably lower than that in outdoor air. In summer the reverse seems to hold
true. Adverse weather of short duration does not conspicuously affect the indoor concentration in spite of
powerful effect on the outdoor ions. Persistent bad weather tends to equalize the outdoor and indoor ion
numbers.
102. Yates, M.W. A Preliminary Study of Carbon Monoxide Gas in the Home. Environ. Health. 29(5):413-420,
March-April 1967.
One-hundred-and-fifty investigations were made on incidents involving human exposure to carbon
monoxide (CO) in the home environment from October 1964 through March 1965. One-thousand-and-sixty-one
combustion appliances were tested for the emission of carbon monoxide in 372 residential establishments, and 40
percent of the homes investigated contained one or more appliances that were found to be emitting carbon
monoxide. Twenty-five percent of all appliances tested were discharging carbon monoxide into the room
atmsophere and 24 percent of those that were found positive were emitting carbon monoxide in the range of 200
ppm and over by volume in air. Forty percent of the people who lived in houses that were found to be positive
for carbon monoxide gave clinical histories similar to those of carbon monoxide anoxia. From the limited data
collected, it is quite probable that continued exposure to subacute concentrations of carbon monoxide in homes
could be a predisposing cause of some undiagnosed illnesses. Carbon monoxide from home combustion appliances
is due to a multiplicity of causes and can only be detected by scientific instruments. There are, however, some
warning signs that should be regarded with suspicion, such as the odor of combustion products, the presence of
smoke, and sooty deposits aroung heat registers, exhaust discharges, and vent pipe joints. As a result of this study,
a number of recommendations are made.
30
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103. Yocom, I.E., W.L. Clink, and W.A. Cote. Indoor/Outdoor Air Quality Relationships. J. AirPollut. Contr.
Ass. 21:251-259, May 1971.
Indoor and outdoor air samples were taken in Hartford, Conn., during the winter of 1969 and during the
summer, fall, and winter of 1969-70. Two homes were sampled during the preliminary program in the winter of
1969 to verify procedures and equipment and to assess the effects of heating and cooking systems. During the
primary program, suspended particulate, soiling particulate, carbon monoxide (CO), and sulfur dioxide (S02)
were measured at pairs of homes, office buildings, and public buildings. Results of the preliminary study
indicated that gas heating systems did not affect indoor carbon monoxide concentrations, but that gas stoves and
attached garages were a significant source of indoor carbon monoxide. Sulfur dioxide was found to penetrate
structures and diffuse into their interiors to variable degrees which may depend on atmospheric stability and level
of activity inside. Results of the primary program indicated that suspended particulate matter readily penetrated
private homes in the summer. Penetration was more on the order of 50 percent in other buildings and other
seasons. Carbon monoxide readily penetrated all the structures. Anomalies were readily related to source and
ventilation variables. Internal generation of pollutants was a significant factor in the measured interior
concentrations in some of the structures.
Two self-contained, portable instrument packages were constructed for the primary program. The major
components of each trailer package were a central vacuum pump for drawing air samples through particulate
collection filters, four paper-tape soiling samplers, a conductimetric analyzer for sulfur dioxide, an infrared
analyzer for carbon monoxide, a master control unit, and supporting apparatus to make the trailer self-contained.
Each pair of buildings was sampled simultaneously for a 2-week period. Four sampling points were selected for
each structure: far outside, near outside, near inside, and far inside. Suspended particulate samples were collected
for 12-hour day and night periods, soiling particulate samples for 2-hour periods, and gaseous samples for
5-minute periods.
Results of this study are also reported in References 104 and 105. Reference 105 covers results of the
preliminary study, and Reference 104 includes the preliminary study and the summer portion of the primary
study. This article covers the entire program, but does not include some detailed information included in the
earlier publications. Additional analyses of the data for air-conditioned buildings reported in this article are given
in References 28, 39, and 106.
104. Yocom, J.E., W.L. Clink, and W.A. Cote. Indoor/Outdoor Air Quality Relationships. Presented at the 63rd
annual meeting of the Air Pollution Control Association, St. Louis. June 14-18, 1970.
See Reference 103.
105. Yocom, J.E., W.A. Cote, and W.L. Clink. Summary Report of a Study of Indoor-Outdoor Air Pollutant
Relationships to the National Air Pollution Control Administration. The Travelers Research Corp. Hartford,
Conn. Contract No. CPA-22-69-14. 1969.
See Reference 103.
106. Yocom, I.E. and W.A. Cote. Indoor/Outdoor Air Pollutant Relationships for Air-Conditioned Buildings.
Amer. Soc. Heating, Refrig., and Air-cond. Eng. New York, 1971. Preprint of paper for inclusion in
ASHRAE Transactions.
This paper is based on measurements made in two air-conditioned offices in Hartford, Conn. These results
are also presented in Reference 103, but this paper includes some additional analysis of the results. Roughing
filters used in air-conditioning systems are effective in the removal of relatively large particles. They are not
especially effective in the removal of that portion of particulate matter which contains benzene soluble organic
material or inorganic lead nor of that portion which accounts for soiling properties. As might be expected, carbon
monoxide, being unreactive, is not affected by air conditioning components; however, the method of operating
such a system can have considerable effect on inside levels. (See Reference 39.)
31
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107. Yoshizawa, S., Y. Kobayashi, and E. Hashimito. Indoor Effects of Air Pollution. J. Japanese Soc. Air
Pollut. 2(l):68-69, November 1967. Presented to the semiannual meeting of the Amer. Soc. of Heating,
Refrig., and Air-cond. Eng. Philadelphia. January 24-28, 1971.
Theoretical formulas are developed for determining the amount of gaseous pollutant adsorbed by an indoor
environment. These formulas define the amount of gas adsorbed by a surface and the remainder of gas in and out
of a room. The formulas are too complex to present here. Based on previous experimental work, the adsorption
rate for sulfur dioxide (SO2) on an oil paint finish is given as 0.244 m3/hr with no air movement and 1.48 m3/hr
with an air movement of 18 m3/hr.
32
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INDEX*
SUBJECT
Allergy: 2, 19,43,51,56,68
Air conditioning and filtration: 2, 3, 7, 12, 15, 17, 18, 25, 26, 28, 31, 32, 39, 41-43, 46, 53-55, 57, 58, 63, 67,
72, 81-83, 90-93, 97, 98,103-106
Aldehydes: 7, 11,53
Ash: 22,93,103,106
Asthma: 12,38,55,62,63
Bacteria: 26, 34, 35, 69, 73, 81-83, 88, 91, 100
Biological warfare aerosols: 8,47, 71
Carbon bisulfide: 89
Carbon dioxide: 7,32,41,54
Carbon monoxide: 4, 7,11, 26, 27, 30, 39, 45, 61, 65, 79, 80,102-106
Diurnal variation: 9, 18,26,33-35,73,78,79,84, 101, 103-105
Filter paper samplers: 9,14, 17,18, 24, 40, 77, 93, 96-98,103-106
Gaseous acid: 9, 59, 60, 78
Gas samplers and anlyzers: 9, 17, 18, 23, 60, 87, 103-106
Gassorption: 10, 99, 107
Hay fever: 12,55,62,63
Heating: 5, 18, 30, 41, 44, 58, 97, 98, 103-105
High-volume samplers: 22, 36, 37, 48, 103-105
Hydrocarbons: 7, 29, 30, 86, 87
Hydrogen chloride: 99
*The numbers in this index refer to reference numbers, not to page numbers.
33
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Hydrogen sulfide: 89
Impaction: 1, 38,49-51,74, 84
Internal pollutant generation: 3,17,18, 26, 28, 39,40,46, 49, 54, 68, 69, 73, 83,102-106
Ions: 16,41,74,101
Lag time: 26,31,60,77,78
Lead: 4,30,65,86, 103-106
Mathematical models: 6, 8, 28, 39, 42, 107
Nitrogen oxides: 4, 7, 53, 67
Oxidants: 7,67,72
Ozone: 7,17, 18
Particle counters: 33-35,46, 58, 69,74
Particle size: 26, 37, 46, 48, 54, 69, 74, 96, 97,103-106
Particulates: 3, 4, 9, 11, 17, 18, 22, 25, 26, 30, 31, 33-37, 39-42,46,48, 53, 54, 58, 69,73, 74, 76-78, 85, 86,
91,93-99,103-106
Pollen: 1, 2, 12, 14, 43, 55, 63, 81-83, 90
Seasonal variation: 15, 18,19, 26, 34, 35, 56, 62, 68, 73,78,101,103-105
Sedimentation: 34, 49, 54-56, 62, 64, 66, 68, 70, 82, 88, 90, 92, 97, 98
Smoke: 5, 9, 11, 86, 93-95, 99
Smoking: 5,17,25,41,46,61
Spores (mold and fungus): 1,15,19, 21, 26, 38, 49, 50, 51, 56, 62, 64, 66, 68, 70, 81-84, 88, 92,100
Sulfur dioxide: 5, 7, 10,17, 18, 23, 26,42, 44, 53,60, 75, 85, 86,89, 93-95,99,103-107
Traffic: 4, 29, 30, 65
Ventilation: 3, 6, 8-10,14,16, 20, 23, 26, 31, 42, 43,47, 52, 54, 59, 71, 75, 76, 78, 81, 94, 95,103-106
Weather: 9,14,15, 20, 26, 30, 68, 74, 76, 91,101
34
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LOCATION
United States
Arizona: 15
California: 47, 67, 71, 72
Connecticut: 28,39,103-106
District of Columbia: 100
Illinois: 55,63
Kentucky: 92,97
Massachusetts: 17, 18
Michigan: 14
Minnesota: 88,96,97
New York: 2,22,30,36,37,48,75,100
Ohio: 9, 24, 59, 60, 76-78, 97
Pennsylvania: 12,25,81-83,97
Texas: 62
Tennessee: 29
Virginia: 90
Other
Canada: 46
Denmark: 19,70
England: 1, 49-52, 93-95, 99
Germany: 16,2023,91
Holland: 5
India: 84
Italy: 40,58,69,80
Japan: 3, 27, 31-35, 41, 42, 53, 54, 65, 73, 74, 107
New Guinea: 11
Russia: 4,44,45,79,89
Spain: 38
Sweden: 21,56,64,68
Wales: 66, 85, 86
AUTHOR
Adams, K.F. 1*
Ales,JJVl. 38
Algren, A.B. 96-98
Alpaugh, E.L. 24
Annis, J.C. 97
Aubrey, K.V. 86
*First author.
Benjamin, L.C. 101
Benson, F.B. 26*
Berdyev, Kh.B. 4*
Biersteker, K. 5*
Blackburn, G.R.B. 11
Blumstein, G.I. 81,83
Brief, R.S. 6*
35
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Browne, W.W. 100
Bush,A.F. 7*
Calder.K.L. 8*
Caldwell, D.E. 26
Canto, G. 38
Carey, G.C.R. 9*, 59, 60, 77, 78
Chamberlain, A.C. 10*
Christensen, C.M. 88
Cleary,GJ. 11*
Clink, W.L. 103-105
Commins, B.T. 86
Cooley, L.E. 90
Cote,W.A. 39,103-106
Creip,L.H. 12*
De Fraja Frangipane, E. 13*
deGraaf, H. 5
Dingle, A.N. 14*
Dworin, M. 15*
Dubrovina, Z.V. 89
Efimova, V.K. 44
Eichmeier, J. 16*
Fergany, A. 36
Flensborg, E.W. 19*
Friedman, H. 81-83
Garcia, L.M. 38
Georgii, H.-W. 20*
Gip.L. 21*
Goldwater, L.J. 22*, 36, 37, 48
Grafe.K. 23*
Green, M.A. 12
Grigor'eva, M.I. 89
Gruber,C.W. 24*
Hashimoto, E. 107
Hauser,T.R. 25*
Henderson, J.J. 26
Hewson, E.W. 14
Hiraoka,M. 27*
Holcombe, J.K. 28*', 39
Horton, A.D. 29
Hyde.H.A. 1
Ikeda, A. 27
Inculet, I.I. 46
Ishido,S. 31-35*
Jacobs, M.B. 22, 36*, 37*, 48
Jimenez-Diaz, C. 38*
Jordon, R.C. 96-98
Kalika.P.W. 28,39*
Kamada, K. 34
36
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Kanitz,S. 40*
Kato,K. 41*
Kimotsuki, K. 53
Kimura, K. 53
Kiyoko,K. 73
Kobayashi, Y. 107
Konno,K. 42*
Kranz,P. 43*
Kruglikova, Ts.P. 44*
Lahoz, F. 38
Lampert, F.F. 45*
Lefcoe.N.M. 46*
Lenoe, F.L. 47*
Manoharan, A. 22,37,48*
Maunsell.K. 49-51*
Megaw,W.J. 52*
Meyer, A.S. 29
Middleton, W.C. 67
Miura, T. 53*
Morrow, M.B. 62
Murakami,!. 27
Nakagawa, T. 34,35
Narasaki, M. 54*
Nass,Ch.A.G. 5
Nelson,!. 55*, 63
Nilsby, I. 56*
Okusa,H. 53
Ortiz, F. 38
Parnell.L. 57*
Parvis,D. 58*
Pavlovich, N.V. 4
Phair, J.J. 9, 59*, 60*, 77, 78
Portheine, F. 61*
Prince, H.E. 62*
Rappaport, B.Z. 55,63*
Rennerfelt, E. 64*
Richards, M. 66*
Richardson, N.A. 67*
Ripe, E. 68*
Romagnoli, G. 69*
Rostrup, O. 70*
Saccani, C.F. 13
Samsoe-Jensen, T. 19
Sanders, W.M. 71*
Sawano,!. 53
Scherago, M. 92
Segall, M. 8, 72*
Seisaburo, S. 73*
37
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Sekigawa, T. 74*
Setterstrom, C. 75*
Shephard, R.J. 9,59,60,76-78*
Skvortsova, N.N. 79*
Spagnolini, D. 80*
Spiegelman, J. 81-83*
Sreeramulu, T. 84*
Stocks,?. 85*, 86*
Swaebly, M.A. 88*
Tada, 0. 53
Takauchi.M. 27
Tanaka, T. 35
Tatsuko, N. 73
Thomson, M.L. 9,59,60
Tomson, NJM. 89*
Turner, M.E. 78
Turolla.V. 13
Tuzhilina, A.A. 4
Vaughan, W.T. 90*
Volksch,G. 91*
Wallace, M.E. 92*
Walter, R.E. 93*
Weatherly,M.L. 94*, 95*
Weaver, R.H. 92
Welker,W.H. 55,63
Whitby, K.T. 96-98*
Wilson, M.J.G. 99*
Winslow, C.E.A. 100*
Yaglou,CJ>. 101*
Yates.M.W. 102*
Yocom, J.E. 103-106*
Yoshizawa, S. 107*
Zimmerman, P.W. 75
TITLE
The Aetiologic Role of Molds in Bronchial Asthma (38)
Air-borne Fungal Spores Before and After Raising Dust (49)
Air Cleaning as an Aid in the Treatment of Hay Fever and Bronchial Asthma (12)
Aid Conditioning Aids Allergy Victims (2)
Air Conditioning as a Means of Removing Pollen and Other Particulate Matter and of Relieving Pollinosis (90)
Air Conditions in Dwellings with Special Reference to Numbers of Dust Particles and Bacteria (35)
38
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Air Pollution in Native Huts in the Highlands of New Guinea (11)
Air Pollution in Osaka City and Inside Buildings (31)
Air Pollution in Structures (27)
Air Pollution Inside the Home (94, 95)
Air Pollution and Cancer Mortality in Liverpool Hospital Region and North Wales (85)
Allergy to Molds in Sweden, a Botanical and Clinical Study (56)
The Analysis of the Aliphatic Fraction of Air Particulate Matter (25)
The ASHAE Air-borne Dust Survey (97)
Atmospheric Mold Spores In and Out of Doors (66)
Atmospheric Pollution and Its Significance in Air Conditioning (57)
The Automatic Filter Paper Sampler in an Air Pollution Measurement Program (24)
BW Evaluation of Port Hueneme Pressurized Building 7-635, January 1955 (71)
BW Evaluation of Pressurized Building No. 7-635 at Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory (1952) (47)
Calculated Versus Continuously Measured SO2 Concentrations with Regard to Minimum Stack Heights and
Urban Renewal (23)
Change of Dust Concentration Indoors (54)
The Climate in Operating Rooms and Its Effect on the Hygenic Properties of the Air (91)
Comparison of the Concentration of Suspended Particulate Matter and Gaseous Pollutants between Indoor
Air and Outdoor Air in Urban Areas (53)
Comparison of Dust Counts of Indoor and Outdoor Air (37)
Comparison of Suspended Particulate Matter of Indoor and Outdoor Air (36)
Concentrations of Airborne Spores in Dwellings Under Normal Conditions and Under Repair (50)
Concentration of Air Contamination in Outdoor and Indoor (42)
Concentrations of Fungus Spores in the Air Inside a Cattle Shed (84)
Condensation Nuclei in the Air of Artificially Heated Environments (58)
Correlation of Pulmonary Function and Domestic Microenvironment (78)
Critical Evaluation of a Filter-strip Smoke Sampler Used in Domestic Premises (77)
39
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Diurnal and Seasonal Variation in the Small-ion Content of Outdoor and Indoor Air (101)
Dust Counts in "Domestic" Atmospheres (48)
Effect of Air Filtration in Hay Fever and Pollen Asthma (63)
The Effect of Air Filtration in Hay Fever and Pollen Asthma; Further Studies (55)
The Effect of Central Air Filtration and Air Conditioning on Pollen and Microbial Contamination (82)
Effect of Garages and Filling Stations Located in Residential Sections on Health and Living Conditions (45)
Effect of Motor Vehicle Exhaust Gases on Atmospheric Pollution in Dwellings and in a Main Street (4)
Effect of Viscose Production Discharges on the Health of Inhabitants (89)
The Effects of Air Conditioning Components on Pollution in Intake Air (28)
The Effects of Air Pollution on Human Health (9)
The Effects of an Air Purifying Apparatus on Ragweed Pollen, Mold, and Bacterial Counts (81)
The Effects of Central Air Conditioning on Pollen, Mold, and Bacterial Concentrations (83)
The Estimation of Gaseous Acid in Domestic Premises (60)
Evaluation of Filters for Removing Irritants from Polluted Air (67)
An Experimental Study of Ragweed Pollen Penetration (14)
Field and Laboratory Performance of Air Cleaners (98)
Field Study of Air Quality in Air Conditioned Spaces (17)
Field Study of Air Quality in Air Conditioned Spaces, Second Season (18)
Free Dust Particles and Airborne Microflora (Ishido et al.) (34)
Free Dust Particles and Airborne Microflora (Seisaburo et al.) (73)
Gas Chromatographic Determination of Volatile Air Pollutants (29)
Indoor Air Cleaning for Allergy Purposes (43)
Indoor Air Pollution (99)
Indoor Air Pollution in Rotterdam Homes (5)
Indoor Effects of Air Pollution (107)
The Indoor Occurence of Airborne Dermatophytes (21)
40
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Indoor-Outdoor Air Pollution Relationships: A Literature Review (26)
Indoor/Outdoor Air Pollution Relationships for Air Conditioned Buildings (106)
Indoor/Outdoor Air Quality Relationships (103, 104)
Indoor-Outdoor Carbon Monoxide Study (30)
An Investigation of the Airborne Fungal Spores in Stockholm, Sweden (68)
Investigation of Air Exchange between Rooms and the Air Outside (20)
Ions in Air. II (74)
Ions and Air Pollution; 3. Ions and Public Health (41)
The Microbic Content of Indoor and Outdoor Air (100)
Molds in House Dust, Furniture Stuffing, and in the Air Within Homes (88)
Molds in the Etiology of Asthma and Hay Fever with Special Reference to the Coastal Areas of Texas (62)
A Numerical Analysis of the Protection Afforded by Buildings against BW Aerosol Attack (8)
Observations on Atmospheric Pollution from Suspended Dust by Means of an Automatic Sampler (40)
Outdoor and Indoor Air Pollution (13)
Particulates in Domestic Premises; I. Ambient Levels and Central Air Filtration (46)
The Penetration of Iodine into Buildings (52)
Pollen Grains and Fungus Spores Indoors and Out at Cardiff (1)
Pollution of Atmospheric Air with Carbon Monoxide in the Vicinity of Ferro-metallurgical Plants (79)
A Preliminary Study of Carbon Monoxide Gas in the Home (102)
Quantitative Aspects of Allergy to House Dust (51)
Reduction of Air Pollutants in Building Air Conditioning Systems (7)
The Reduction of Smog Effects in California Institute of Technology Campus Buildings (72)
Report on Lead Pollution Survey (65)
Research and Considerations on Air Pollution by Carbon Monoxide in Some Public Garages in Rome (80)
Residential Indoor Air Pollution with Atmospheric Sulfur Dioxide (44)
The Re-use of Interior Air (39)
41
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Simple Way to Determine Air Contaminants (6)
Size Distribution and Concentration of Air-borne Dust (96)
Some Factors in the Design, Organization, and Implementation of an Air Hygiene Study (59)
Some Investigations of the Fungus Diaspore Content of the Air (64)
Some Investigations of the Fungus-Spore Content in the Air (70)
Studies Concerning the Effects of Atmospheric Pollution on the Indoor Environment and Measures to Prevent
Pollution (3)
Studies in Mold Allergy; 3. Mold Spore Counts in Copenhagen (19)
Studies on the Climatic Conditions in Some Elementary Classrooms of Novara (69)
Studies on the Nature of Urban Air Pollution (93)
Study of Air Quality in Buildings; 1. Degree of Weariness Related to the C02 Concentration and Polluted
Environment (32)
A Study of Atmospheric Mold Spores in Tucson, Arizona (15)
A Study of Polycyclic Hydrocarbons and Trace Elements in Smoke in Merseyside and Other Northern Localities
(86)
Submarine Atmosphere Habitability Data Book (87)
Sulphur Dioxide Content of Air at Boyce Thompson Institute (75)
Summary Report of a Study of Indoor-Outdoor Air Pollutant Relationships to the National Air Pollution Control
Administration (105)
Suspended Particulate Matter, Dust in "Domestic" Atmospheres (22)
Topographic and Meteorological Factors Influencing Air Pollution in Cincinnati (76)
To the Problem of Passive Smoking (61)
The Variation of the Natural Small and Large Ion Concentration Indoors (16)
Variations in Indoor and Outdoor Dust Densities (33)
A Weekly Mold Survey of Air and Dust in Lexington, Kentucky (92)
•fr U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1973-—-747787/319
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