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KANAWHA VALLEY
AIR POLLUTION STUDY
Prepared by
Technical Staffs
of
National Air Pollution Control Administration
and
West Virginia Air Pollution Control Commission
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION, AND WELFARE
Public Health Service
Environmental Health Service
National Air Pollution Control Administration
Raleigh, North Carolina
March 1970
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The APTD series of reports is issued by the National Air Pollution Control Adminis-
tration to report technical data of interest to a limited readership. Copies of
APTD reports may be obtained upon request, as supplies permit, from the Office of
Technical Information and Publications, National Air Pollution Control Administra-
tion, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, 1033 Wade Avenue., Raleigh,
North Carolina 27605.
National Air Pollution Control Administration Publication No. APTD 70-1
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FOREWORD
In response to requests from State Officials for assistance, the U.S. Public
Health Service entered into an agreement with the West Virginia Air Pollution
Control Commission to conduct a cooperative study of air pollution in the upper
Kanawha Valley of West Virginia. The request was motivated by public expressions,
continuing technical studies, subjective observations and previous air pollution
studies, which indicated a need for air quality improvement. Effects noted as
extremely adverse were reduced visibility, odors, fallout of particulate matter, and
suspected health impairment. Several large chemical complexes and other industrial
activities plus large amounts of coal consumed for process heat and power generation
were indicated as major sources.
The purpose of the joint study was to determine the nature and extent of air
pollution in the upper Kanawha Valley area, and to collect and assemble data and
information as a basis for technical and official action needed to attain and con-
serve a desirable air quality. The joint study was conducted from August 1964
through December 1966 and included the following major activities:
1. Measurement of air quality.
2. Measurement and description of meteorological parameters.
3. Odor studies.
4. Collection and evaluation of existing information.
5. Pollutant emission inventory.
6. Study of materials deterioration.
7. Study of means and economics of pollution control.
8. Special studies on vegetation, health, public attitudes, and pollutants
not routinely measured.
The results of studies of the first seven activities are incorporated through-
out the body of the report. The studies in vegetation, health and attitudes list-
ed as activity eight were conducted by members of the faculty at West Virginia
University. Preliminary results of these studies were considered in developing
Chapter V, the Air Resource Management Program.
The proposed recommendations in Chapter V do not affect the responsibility of
the West Virginia Air Pollution Control Commission, however, in the development of
acceptable air quality standards and implementation plans for any designated air
quality control region, as required by the Federal Clean Air Act as amended.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The West Virginia Air Pollution Control Commission, the National Air Pollution
Control Administration, and the Study Staff wish to acknowledge the cooperation and
assistance of the following organizations and individuals who, in addition to those
innumerable individuals, commercial, institutional, and industrial establishments
and organizations not specifically listed, were involved in the conduct of the study.
It should be noted that this is only a partial listing of those actively involved in
the study and that it would be impossible to specifically thank everyone who parti-
cipated in this effort.
The Joint Study Technical Committee for their invaluable advice and assistance
in the conduct of the study, the review of data, the development of the air re-
source management program and resulting regulations, and the review of the
study report.
The Citizens Air Pollution Control Council, it's Chairman and members.
The School Boards and Administrators of Kanawha, Fayette, and Putnam counties.
The Principals, Teachers and Service Staff of the following schools: Montgomery,
Cedar Grove, East Bank, du Pont, Charleston, Stonewall Jackson, Sissonville,
George Washington, South Charleston, Dunbar, St. Albans, Nitro, and Poca High
Schools; Horace Mann and Nitro Junior High Schools; and Kimberly, Chesapeake,
Ford, Glenwood, Marmet, Oakwood, Taft, Albans, Anne Baily, and Zogg O'Dell
Elementary Schools.
The 1964-65 Students and Teachers of Montgomery, Cedar Grove, East Bank, Dupont,
Charleston, Stonewall Jackson, Sissonville, George Washington, South Charleston,
Dunbar, St. Albans, Nitro, and Poca High Schools who participated in the student
odor survey.
The City of Charleston,especially the Fire Department, the Park and Recreation
Commission, the Planning Commission Urban Renewal Authority, and the Sanitary
Board and their respective staffs.
The Nitro and Glasgow Sanitary Commissions
Kanawha County,especially the Health Department, Planning and Zoning Commission,
the Kanawha Air Port Manager and their respective staffs, and the County Library
Board and library staff.
West Virginia University, West Virginia Institute of Technology, West Virginia
State, and Morris Harvey College.
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The West Virginia State Government,especially the Departments of Archives and
History, Commerce (Industrial Development and Planning and Research Divisions),
Health (Director, Industrial Hygiene Bureau, Sanitary Engineering Division, and
State Hygiene Laboratory), Mines, Natural Resources (Water Resources Division),
Public Safety (Company B Barracks, South Charleston), and Tax (Gasoline and
Motor Carrier Road Tax): the State Road (Planning District I Office and Kana-
wha County Offices) and Library Commissioners; and the West Virginia Air (Kana-
wha County Airport) and Army National Guard (Falls View Armory).
The United States Government, especially the General Services Administration
(Federal Building), the Environmental Science Services Administration (Kanawha
Airport), the Post Office Department (Nitro and Belle Post Offices), the U. S.
Army Reserve Training Center (South Charleston), and the Federal Aviation
Agency and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (London and Marmet Locks).
The E.I. du Pont de Nemours and Company, Inc., Belle; Union Carbide Corporation,
South Charleston and Institute; FMC Corporation, South Charleston; and the
Allied Chemical Corporation,Nitro;for meteorological data.
The Kroger Company, South Charleston; the Kanawha Valley Bank, the Teamsters'
Union, and the True Temper Company, Charleston; Zim Supply Company, South
Maiden; Surface Chevrolet, Inc., Chelyon; and Mr. Crofts farm, Route 17, West
of Nitro for providing sampling sites.
VI
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CONTENTS
SECTION I. INTRODUCTION 1-1
AIR POLLUTION IN KANAWHA VALLEY 1-2
PREVIOUS AIR POLLUTION STUDIES 1-2
PRESENT AIR POLLUTION STUDY 1-5
Study Area 1-5
Initiation of Study . 1-6
Purpose and Scope of Study 1-8
Study Organization and Program 1-11
SPECIAL STUDIES 1-13
REFERENCES 1-15
SECTION II. METEOROLOGY 2-1
INTRODUCTION 2-1
Meteorological Stations 2-1
Special Meteorological Studies 2-3
GENERAL METEOROLOGICAL PARAMETERS 2-3
Wind 2-4
Sunshine 2-5
Temperature 2-7
Stability 2-7
Precipitation 2-10
Relative Humidity and Fog 2-11
Air Pollution Potential 2-11
DISCUSSION OF DATA 2-12
Wind Data 2-13
Sunshine 2-26
Temperature and Stability 2-29
Climatology 2-35
SUMMARY 2-38
REFERENCES 2-45
SECTION III. EMISSION INVENTORY 3-1
INTRODUCTION 3-1
EMISSION FROM FUEL COMBUSTION 3-3
Utility and Industrial Power and Steam Generation Methodology 3-3
Residential, Institutional, and Commercial Heating Fuel Methodology . . . 3-4
Transportation 3-9
EMISSIONS FROM INDUSTRIAL PROCESS 3-10
General Methodology 3-10
Chemical Processes 3-11
Metallurgical Processes 3-15
Glass and Ceramic Processes 3-16
Hot Asphalt Mix Plants 3-16
Concrete Batch Plants 3-17
Lumber and Wood Products 3-17
Coal Mining and Preparation Plants 3-17
Fabrication Plants 3-18
EMISSIONS FROM REFUSE DISPOSAL 3-19
Methodology 3-19
Results 3-19
EMISSIONS FROM MISCELLANEOUS SOURCES 3-20
Gasoline Evaporation Losses 3-21
Solvent Evaporation Losses 3-22
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Municipal Waste Treatment Facilities 3-^
SUMMARY 3_23
Participates 3.25
Sulfur Oxides 3_25
Nitrogen Oxides 3_27
Carbon Monoxide ^-27
Hydrocarbons o ,-,
REFERENCES
SECTION IV. AIR QUALITY MEASUREMENTS J'1
INTRODUCTION 1~\
FIXED SAMPLING STATIONS l~l
Suspended Particul ate Matter *"*
High-volume Air Sampler 4"£
AISI Tape Sampler • ;~'°
Settleable Particulate (Dustfall) 4-^b
Sulfation Rate (Lead Peroxide Candle) 4-38
Mobile Laboratory 4-4£
Discussion of Results 4-48
Sulfur Dioxide Measurements • 4-48
Carbon Monoxide Measurements 4-68
Nitrogen Dioxide Measurements 4-82
Oxidant Measurements 4-87
Hydrogen Sulfide Measurements 4-96
Sulfuric Acid Mist Measurements 4-100
Total Aliphatic Aldehyde Measurements 4-102
STUDENT ODOR SURVEYS 4-104
General 4-104
Fall 1964 Student Odor Survey 4-108
Spring 1965 Student Odor Survey > . .4-111
Odor Patrols 4-121
Conclusions 4-123
REFERENCES 4-137
SECTION V. AIR RESOURCE MANAGEMENT PLAN 5-1
INTRODUCTION 5-1
PARTICULATES 5-3
Air Quality Goals 5-4
Existing Air Quality 5-4
Existing Emissions 5-6
Relationship Between Air Quality and Emissions 5-7
Particulate Reduction Plan 5-12
Impact of Proposed and Adopted Regulations on Emissions 5-17
SULFUR DIOXIDE 5_18
Air Quality Goals 5.18
Existing Air Quality 5-19
Existing Emissions 5-20
Relationship Between Emissions and Air Qualtiy . . 5-21
Emission Reduction Plans 5-21
Impact of Proposed Reduction Plans on Existing and New Emissions! '. '. '. '. 5-23
ODORS R-24
Air Quality Goals '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.[ 5-24
Odor Reduction Plan c on
HYDROCARBONS c~ 05
Air Quality Goals '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. i-26
Existing Air Qualtiy \ \ 5_25
Existing and Projected Emissions. ...... 5^6
Relationship Between Air Quality and Emissions ' 5-27
Projected Emission Reduction Plan . 5 28
Impact of Proposed Reduction Plan on Emissions 5-29
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CARBON MONOXIDE 5-30
Air Qualtiy Goals 5-30
Existing Concentrations 5-30
Existing and Projected Emissions 5-31
Emission Reduction Plan 5-31
NITROGEN OXIDES 5-32
Existing Concentrations 5-32
Existing Emissions 5-32
Impact of Emissions 5-35
RECOMMENDATIONS 5-37
REFERENCES 5-39
APPENDIX A. COOPERATIVE PROJECT AGREEMENT KANAWHA VALLEY AIR POLLUTION STUDY A-l
MEMBERSHIP OF ORIGINAL CITIZEN'S AIR POLLUTION COUNCIL A-13
APPENDIX B. SUPPLEMENTARY METEOROLOGICAL INFORMATION B-l
INSTRUMENTS B-l
Wind Speed and Direction B-l
Sunshine B-2
Temperature B-3
SITES AND DATA B-4
Gauley Bridge B-4
Smithers B-4
London Lock B-4
Glasgow B-10
Dupont Plant, Belle Works B-10
Marmet B-10
Morris Harvey College, Kanawha City B-10
State Office Building B-10
Kanawha Valley Bank Building B-10
Federal Building B-l8
Charleston Water Treatment Plant B-18
Kanawha County Airport B-18
400 Mountain View Drive B-18
Taft School B-26
North Charleston Fire Station B-26
Union Carbide (South Charleston) B-26
Food Machinery Corporation B-26
Union Carbide (Institute) B-26
St. Albans B-26
West Sattes School B-31
General Chemical (Nitro) B-31
Nitro B-31
INTENSIVE STUDY B-35
TETROON TRACKING B-45
APPENDIX C. EMISSION FACTORS C-l
APPENDIX D. INSTRUMENTS D-l
ANALYZER: SULFUR DIOXIDE D-l
ANALYZER: NITROGEN DIOXIDE D-l
OZONE METER D-l
FLAME IONIZATION DETECTOR: HYDROCARBON D-2
INFRARED ANALYZERS: CARBON MONOXIDE AND CARBON DIOXIDE D-2
APPENDIX E. DESCRIPTION OF FIXED SAMPLING STATIONS E-l
IX
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KANAWHA VALLEY
AIR POLLUTION STUDY
SECTION I.
INTRODUCTION
The first community in the Kanawha Valley, Fort Lee, was established in 1778
by Virginia Rangers under Colonel George Clendenin in what is now downtown Charles-
ton, West Virginia. In 1789, Kanawha County was created by an act of the Virginia
Assembly, and in 1794, another act officially created the Town of Charleston.
Daniel Boone represented the new county in the Virginia Assembly in 1791 while
residing near present-day Charleston.
Valley industry began in 1795 with the manufacturing of salt from local
brines. Salt brine is still a major raw material used by one of the present
valley industries. In 1846, the salt production reached an all-time high of 80,600
tons.
Coal oil and lamp oil were manufactured near Charleston in 1855. Iron manu-
facturing was a prominent industry during the period of 1798 through 1855.
Early transportation of these manufactured products was by pack animals,
wagons, and rafts. With the addition of steamboats in 1816, steamboat packets
shipped Kanawha Valley commodities as far west as the Mississippi and Missouri
Rivers. In 1873, the Chesapeake and Ohio Railway reached Charleston and soon became
the dominant means of transportation. The area is now serviced by four major
railroads. Bulk shipment by barge, however, is still an important means of
transportation.
The City of Charleston experienced slow growth until several manufacturing
plants were established during the last quarter of the 19th century. ' Since 1900,
many of America's leading industrial firms have located plants in the Kanawha Valley,
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which by now is one of the most heavily industrialized areas in the United States.
The valley is endowed with features that make this area particularly attractive to
chemical companies- water for processing and as a means of inexpensive transporta-
tion of bulk products; ease of access to major markets; abundance of raw materials
such as coal, natural gas, salt brine, and lumber; and low-cost power.
Future growth of the area will be enhanced by Charleston becoming the hub of
three interstate highways, 64, 77, and 79.
AIR POLLUTION IN KANAWHA VALLEY
The first attempt to control air pollution was an ordinance enacted in 1928
by the City of Charleston; the ordinance encompassed fuel restrictions, inspection
requirements, and penalties.4 Another ordinance enacted in 1942 allows a smoke
density of Ringelmann No. 3.4 Local ordinances in numerous cities and towns in the
valley prohibit open burning within corporate limits and require residents to use
municipal or licensed collectors for waste disposal. These, plus local nuisance
ordinances, are the only laws, regulations, and ordinances affecting air pollution
in the Kanawha Valley other than the West Virginia Air Pollution Control Law
enacted in 1961, and West Virginia Air Pollution Control Commission Regulations.
The State Law is in effect throughout the entire State, with the exception of the
City of Wheeling, which has the only local ordinance and control agency.
Control of air pollution in the Kanawha Valley is difficult because of the
complexity of the industrial pollutants emitted and the varied processes employed
by the chemical industries. The air pollution problem is also aggravated by topog-
raphy and meteorology, which tend to limit dispersion and allow accumulation and
persistence of pollutants.
PREVIOUS AIR POLLUTION STUDIES
Air pollution investigations of record conducted prior to this study were:
(1) "Atmospheric Pollution Investigation — Metropolitan Area, Charleston, West
Virginia," conducted by the West Virginia Department of Health, Bureau of
Industrial Hygiene; (2)"A Study of Smoke and Air Pollution in the Kanawha Valley,"6
was conducted in 1949 by the Coal Producers Committee for Smoke Abatement; and (3)
"Atmospheric Pollution in the Great Kanawha Valley Area"7 by West Virginia Depart-
ment of Health, Bureau of Industrial Hygiene. In addition to these reports, both
the West Virginia Air Pollution Control Commission and local industry have studied
specific problems.
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The first public air pollution study encompassed the area from Belle to
St. Albans, and was initiated May 28, 1945, and terminated December 31, 1947.
This survey was initiated by the Bureau "as a public service on behalf of the
citizens of this area " Measurements were made for settled dustfall — then
called sootfall — and corrosion of steel plates. The number of dustfall stations
ranged from 4 in 1945, which were operated on a weekly basis, to 12 in 1946, which
were operated on a monthly basis. Wind data were obtained from the airport at
Institute. Eleven corrosion stations in the valley extended from Montgomery to
Poca with seven other stations established in downtown business districts of other
West Virginia cities. Direct correlation between corrosion and dustfall was
observed except for one station, Belle Locks. The study staff stated that the air
pollution problems in the Kanawha Valley were serious enough to warrant consider-
ation of plans for an overall atmospheric control program; that control programs
and plans should be areawide and not for individual cities or communities; that
the problem was an overall air pollution problem rather than a smoke problem; that
future studies were needed and should include sampling of gases, vapors, and mists
plus particulates; and that records should be continuous in order to evaluate
effects of improvement and to obtain data for formulating regulations. The staff
members also recommended that definite study goals be established so that
additional studies would be more valuable.
The second study, initiated in October 1949 by a local mayor's group and
conducted by the Coal Producers Committee for Smoke Abatement, extended from Cabin
Creek to (and including) the City of Nitro. At the outset of the study, the
valley's air pollution problems were recognized as being unique - that is, different
from the then recognized problems found in Pittsburgh, Philadelphia, Cleveland, or
Los Angeles. This study also recognized that the problems were valley-wide and
were not confined to, nor could they be controlled by, one community. The scope of
this study was limited to the inspection of those plants which were considered to
have the greatest air pollution potential. Twenty-nine plants in the area were
inspected and included all the major facilities with the exception of two plants,
the electrometallurgical installation at Alloy and the Viscose plant at Nitro. The
chemical plants surveyed were considered to be the major source of air pollutant
emissions, followed by such sources as laundries, coal-burning locomotives, etc.
Included in the report were limited air quality data - principally dustfall
and meteorological.
The Committee's recommendations were: (1) The development of a voluntary
abatement program by industry with review of program effectiveness by a mayor's
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group; (2) the development of a regional air pollution program with the necessary
control ordinances and regulations if the voluntary program was not effective;
(3) continued sampling, principally of dustfall; (4) the establishment of a met-
eorological network; (5) the compilation of an emission inventory with sugges-
tions on the control of reported emissions; (6) increased emphasis on the
controlling of public and residential sources of pollution; (7) publicity for the
efforts made to control air pollution; and (8) the employment by local industry of
an outstanding research organization to study the more difficult control problems
and to develop methods for abatement.
The third study, initiated in February 1950, and completed in August 1951,
was funded by the Kanawha Valley Industries and the Department of Health, The
industrial funds were collected by the Citizen's Anti-Air Pollution Committee.
The study was undertaken because of intense public concern and recognition of this
concern by public officials. Assisting the study staff were the Kettering
Laboratory; University of Cincinnati.School of Medicine; and the U.S. Public Health
Service, Division of Occupational Health. The objectives of the study as stated
in the report were:
1. "Establish factual information as to the air pollution problem of the
valley.
2. "Determine the present or future needs of establishing an aggressive air
pollution control program for the area.
3. "Compare the present particle-fall load of the valley to that of the
period of a previous survey from June 1945 to December 1947."
The study included an emission inventory, ambient air quality measurements,
and a comparison of dustfall data with the dustfall results obtained during the
June 1945 through December 1947 study.
The air quality network consisted of 28 dustfall stations and 9 high-volume
filter sampling stations. The dustfall stations extended from Glen Ferris through
Nitro. The gas sampling was conducted with mobile sampling units operating at 9
fixed sites and 10 variable sites either upwind or downwind of specified areas. The
gaseous pollutants measured were sulfur dioxide, chlorine, aldehydes, ammonia,
nitrogen oxides, fluorides, and hydrogen sulfide.
The emission inventory consisted of voluntarily reported particulate and
gaseous emissions from: (1) Industrial combustion, (2) non-industrial combustion,
and (3) industrial processes. Information for the emission inventory was not
obtained from two of the major industrial plants, and mention was made of difficulty
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in obtaining emission information requested by the study staff. The inventory
reported that total particulate emissions were approximately 500 tons per day and
that the gaseous emissions were estimated to be 370 tons per day. The gaseous
emissions consisted mainly of sulfur oxides and other sulfur compounds.
Unreported process emissions were thought to be significant.
Dustfall results from stations included in both the 1945-47 and 1950-51
studies were similar. Dustfall results in seven study stations averaged above 100
tons per square mile per month. Overall results also indicated that the atmos-
pheric pollutants were mainly from the industrial plants and that the higher air
pollution levels usually occurred downwind from these industrial plants. The
sulfur dioxide, ammonia, and particulate levels were normally greater during the
late night and early morning hours, and these levels generallyMncreased with the
occurrence of fog or smog in the valley. The study also indicated that pollutants
emitted from the Glen Ferris-Alloy area were transported nearly 30 miles downriver
into the Charleston and South Charleston areas. Meteorological observations at
one station indicated air movements downriver in the early morning and upriver
later in the day.
Unpleasant odors were recorded when observed, but no formal odor studies
were conducted. Although the report indicated that annoying odors were a problem,
these odors were not thoroughly studied because analytical means of identification
were not available except in a few cases. Some of the industries reported data on
emission of certain potentially malodorous materials.
Results of the study indicated that air pollution in the Kanawha Valley was
severe enough that the studies should be continued and that they should make
recommendations for aggressive, control measures where the need is indicated. The
study— the first in a major chemical-industrial area — was beset with difficulties;
it did, however, contribute useful information for later studies and development.
Some control equipment, primarily for control of flyash, was installed by certain
industries in the valley after completion of the study.
PRESENT AIR POLLUTION STUDY
Study Area
The Kanawha River, formed by the juncture of the New River and the Gauley
River at Gauley Bridge, flows generally northwestward through a winding valley to
join the Ohio River at Point Pleasant. That portion of the valley designated as
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the "study area" extends from Gauley Bridge to just below Nitro, a distance of
approximately 52 miles. The valley begins with a width of about 0.5 mile, widens
gradually to 1.0 mile at Charleston and 1.3 miles at Institute, and narrows again
to 1.0 mile at Nitro. The Kanawha River begins at an elevation of about 600 feet
at Gauley Bridge and descends through a series of navigation dams and locks to
556 feet at Nitro. Hills rise 800-1000 feet above the valley floor near Gauley
Bridge, 400-600 feet at Belle, 300-400 feet at Charleston, and 200-400 feet at
Nitro. Two major tributaries enter the Kanawha River in this area, the Elk River
from the north at Charleston, and the Coal River from the south at St. Albans. Most
of the study area is in Kanawha County, but small parts of Fayette County to the
east and Putnam County to the west are included. The population of the study area
is about 220,000. Included in the area are the State capital, Charleston (86,000),
South Charleston (19,180), St. Alban (15,103), Dunbar (11,006), Nitro (6,894), and
Montgomery (3,000) plus several small communities and unincorporated areas. The
major industries are concentrated in the valley from South Charleston to Nitro, with
large isolated industrial plants located upriver at Kanawha City, Belle, and Alloy.
A map of the study area is shown in Figure 1-1.
Initiation of Study
The three previously discussed air pollution studies, continuing industrial
and governmental technical studies, and public expressions of concern for more than
a decade, plus the existing activities of the West Virginia Air Pollution Control
Commission (APCC) and local industry, indicate an awareness on the part of resi-
dents of the study area of an undesirable air environment.
The West Virginia Legislature passed a Statewide air pollution control
g
statute forming the West Virginia Air Pollution Control Commission in July 1961.
During Fiscal Year 1963, the Commission first received an appropriation of $20,000,
which was increased to $33,000 in Fiscal Year 1964. The Commission staff included
the Director, one chemical engineer, a technician, and a secretary. The staff
conducted some studies of air quality and made initial surveys of some air pollu-
tants. The Commission soon sought additional resources primarily to help implement
more rapid progress in resolving the complex problems of the Kanawha Valley. As a
result, assistance from the Division of Air Pollution of the Public Health Service
was requested, and the West Virginia Air Pollution Control Commission entered into
an agreement (see Appendix A) with the Public Health Service to conduct a coopera-
tive study to delineate the nature and extent of the air pollution problem in the
study area.
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PUTNAM CO.
ROANE CO.
KANAWHA CO.
CLAY CO.
Nitre
Institute
Charleston.
St. Albans
'Maiden
Rand
Belle
NICHOLAS CO.
Chesapeake!
Winifrede^
Cedar Grove
Diamond ,^-> Glasgow
: Cabin
Creek
FAYETTE CO.
I
Figure 1-1. Kanawha Valley air pollution study area.
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Purpose and Scope of Study
The purpose of the joint study was to evaluate the air pollution situation in
the industrialized portion of the Kanawha River Valley and to assist in the develop-
ment of an air resource management program for the study area. The study was also
expected to help in the development of personnel and facilities for air pollution
control work, both within the study area and the rest of the State of West Virginia.
The Kanawha Valley Air Pollution Study began in Charleston, West Virginia,
on August 5, 1964. The study was divided into the various activities discussed
below.
Air Quality Studies — Continuous routine ambient air sampling stations were set up
at 14 locations. These stations were to measure the following contaminants:
(1) Dustfall, (2) suspended particulate, (3) soiling index, (4) sulfation rate,
and (5) deterioration of materials. There were 13 lead-peroxide candles and
dustfall-monitoring stations in addition to those located at the 14 routine air mon-
itoring stations. After data had been obtained for a minimum of 1 year, the number
of stations was reduced to 14. These stations were run on a continuing basis to
provide data for a study of metal deterioration.
The Public Health Service mobile air-sampling laboratory was operated for 1-
month periods at seven locations, on a rotating schedule. This mobile laboratory
was equipped with continuous automatic sampling and recording instruments for meas-
urement of sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, oxidants, nitrogen dioxide, and total
hydrocarbons.
After data on other pollutants emitted to the atmosphere (besides the common
pollutants measured by the foregoing routine methods) were attained from the emis-
sion inventory, some special studies were initiated to evaluate concentrations of
selected pollutants in the neighborhood of known or suspected sources. These
studies involved a variety of sampling and analytical techniques.
Air Pollutant Emission Inventory—An inventory of air pollutant emissions from all
sources was made. Major industrial plants were asked to examine their operations
and to report, by questionnaire, on major pollutant emissions as accurately and
completely as possible. An engineering appraisal was made of each major coal-
burning plant to provide information on potential pollutant emissions, existing
emission control practices, and ramifications of possible emission control require-
ments. Discussions between plant personnel and the study staff were held to make
the inventory as complete and useful as possible.
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Data on pollutant emissions from small industrial plants, commerical estab-
lishments, transportation, homes, =>nd other sources were gathered by using question-
naires, tracing fuels from suppliers and transporters to users, and studying data
gathered previously by others.
Meteorological Studies — Meteorological studies were made to describe the dispersion
and transport of pollutants, to aid in interpretation of air quality and other data,
and to provide information on the total capacity of the air of the valley to absorb
and disperse pollutants so that emission regulations could be designed to provide
the necessary pollutant-emission reduction needed to achieve desired air quality
now and in the future.
Wind speed and direction instruments were operated at 14 locations, includ-
ing 5 stations operated by industrial firms and 1 operated by the U.S. Weather
Bureau at the Kanawha Airport. Temperature measurements were made at 20 stations
(including 8 river temperature stations), and relative humidity was measured at 12
locations. Special intensive observations were made during 1 week of each season of
a year with the exception of a 2-week study during the Fall of 1965. These obser-
vations were to provide a more detailed portrayal of meteorological conditions than
could be obtained from the routinely collected data. These special measurements
included vertical temperature soundings with a tethersonde unit at 2-hour intervals
up to 1,000 feet above the valley floor. Pilot balloons were released at 2-hour
intervals to determine wind speed and direction at elevations up to 5,000 feet above
the surface. Tetroons were released at dawn and near sunset to plot trajectories
of air parcel movement at a level of about 200 feet above the surface.
Odor Studies — Prevalence of odors in the area was determined by high school stu-
dents at their homes who noted in the morning, afternoon, and evening, the presence
or absence of odors and, if present, the odor characteristics. These observations
indicated the frequency of occurrence and geographic distribution of odors.
Students were given tests to determine their odor-sensing acuity. Observations were
made during 3-week periods in the fall and spring seasons. Staff personnel also
made odor and meteorological observations in the neighborhood of probable odor
sources. Correlations of these observations with wind direction and information on
source operating conditions were made to determine the source and cause of odorous
pollutants.
Vegetation Damage Studies—A study, financed by the Public Health Service, was con-
ducted by West Virginia University to try to determine whether certain species of
natural vegetation have ceased to exist because of their sensitivity to air pollu-
tants. Comparisons of the species present in a polluted area with those in similar,
1-9
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unpolluted areas nearby were made. Field inspections of plant plots placed through-
out the study area and natural vegetation in the vicinity of major pollution sources
were also conducted to see whether any identifiable acute injury occurred and to
estimate for each occurrence as to the concentration, duration, and identity of the
causative pollutant(s).
Materials Deterioration — Studies were conducted by the Field Studies Branch,
Division of Air Pollution, U.S. Public Health Service, to determine the effects of
air pollutants on certain materials. The rate of corrosion of steel and zinc, and
deterioration of Nylon was measured at 12 stations, and fading of dyed fabrics at
11 locations. Deterioration of cotton was measured at 2 of those stations. The
study staff hoped that these tests would provide some data on economic damage due
to air pollution and an insight into the identity of pollutants causing damage.
Collection and Evaluation of Existing Information — Existing information and data
relating directly or indirectly to the air pollution situation in the valley, such
as the three previously discussed air pollution studies, plus census, planning,
traffic, area economic studies and surveys, and other sources of information were
collected and analyzed.
Means and Economics of Pollution Control —Information pertaining to the cost of
control equipment and operating costs as well as the costs of process equipment or
fuel changes involved in achieving a given degree of control of pollutant emissions
was available on a limited basis with respect to fuel-burning operations and was
used in the design of Regulation II, which controlled particulate air pollution
from boiler furnaces,
difficult to obtain.
from boiler furnaces. In a complex chemical plant, however, such data are
Design of an Air Resource Management Program— On the basis of all data collected
in this study and other pertinent information, an air resource management program
was designed.
Recommendations resulting from this project were developed in collaboration
with all available groups. The West Virginia Air Pollution Control Commission will
then consider the recommendations and, as empowered by State Law, promulgate such
rules and regulations as the Commission may find appropriate.9
Health Study — Knowledge of the possible effects of air pollution on health, and
investigations to define these possible effects in the Kanawha Valley were desir-
able, but the cooperating agencies did not have the funds and personnel available
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to conduct such studies at that time. Funds were provided, however, by the Field
Studies Branch, Division of Air Pollution, U.S. Public Health Service, to research
a potential method of conducting a study of the effects of air pollution on health.
This research was conducted under a Public Health Service Contract by the West
Virginia University Medical School.
Public Attitudes —Public attitudes and opinions about air pollution were of con-
cern since air resource management is not only a technical and economic consider-
ation related to possible health effects, property damage, and nuisance, but also a
matter of sociology, aesthetics, and community purpose. There are also some indi-
cations that air pollution has psychological implications. Here again, however,
the cooperating agencies did not have resources available to apply to studies of
these matters. Again funds were provided by the Field Studies Branch, Division of
Air Pollution, U. S. Public Health Service, in a research grant to West Virginia
University to conduct a study of the effects of air pollution on public attitudes.
Study Organization and Program
The two cooperating agencies, the West Virginia Air Pollution Control
Commission and the U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health
Service, Division of Air Pollution were responsible for doing the work of the study.
These agencies were responsible for policy decisions, approval of finished reports,
and support of project operations.
To administer, control, and coordinate the study staff, the Joint Study
Executive Council was established. The Joint Study Technical Committee was formed
to provide advice to the cooperating agencies in conducting the study. The
Citizen's Air Pollution Council was organized to provide a means of informing the
community of study progress and an opportunity to receive suggestions from citizens
in the study area.
The Joint Study Executive Council consisted of two representatives from each
of the cooperating agencies and was responsible for the administration of the proj-
ect. The Public Health Service representatives were the Regional Program Director
for Air Pollution Activities, Region III; and the Chief, Technical Studies Section,
Technical Assistance Branch, Division of Air Pollution. The West Virginia APCC
representatives were the Chairman and the Executive Director. The Executive
Director of the Commission was designated as the Project Director.
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The Joint Study Technical Committee was responsible for advising the Joint
Study Executive Council and the cooperating agencies on the objectives of the pro-
ject, conduct of the work, and on periodic and final reports. The Joint Study
Executive Council prepared the agenda and information documents for use by the
Joint Study Technical Committee. The Committee was composed of representatives
from the West Virginia APCC; the Kanawha Valley Air Pollution Technical Advisory
Council; West Virginia University; West Virginia Institute of Technology; the
Kanawha Valley Industries; and the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Wel-
fare, Public Health Service, Division of Air Pollution.
The third study organization was the Citizen's Air Pollution Council (Appendix
A). The Council was composed of representatives of various organizations and
citizens having an interest in conservation of the air resources of the Kanawha
Valley. The Council was originally organized by the Joint Study Executive Council
and was formed by invitation. The purposes of the Council were to provide a means
whereby broad segments of the community were informed on the progress of the study,
and to provide the citizens with opportunities to make suggestions to the coopera-
ting agencies concerning the conduct of the study, findings, and other pertinent
subjects.
The work program followed the general chronological order listed below:
August 1964 - Formal signing of work agreement.
Initiation of mobile laboratory sampling.
Expansion of high-volume sampler network and initiation of
strip tape sampler network.
September 1964 - High-volume sampler network in full operation (14 stations).
Emission inventory started.
October 1964 - Strip tape sampler network in full operation (14 stations).
Initiation of deterioration study.
Initiation of meteorological network (wind and hygrothermograph
stations).
November 1964 - Initiation of dustfall and lead-peroxide network (14 stations).
First student odor survey.
December 1964 - Dustfall and lead peroxide network in full operation (27 stations).
January 1965 - Hygrothermograph network in full operation (11 stations).
First week of intensive meteorological study.
February 1965 - Meteorological network in full operation (excluding the station
at London Locks) (17 stations).
April 1965 - Second student odor survey.
May 1965 - Second week of intensive meteorological study.
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June 1965
July 1965
August 1965
October 1965
October and
November 1965 -
December 1965 -
January 1966
February 1966
March 1966
April 1966
May 1966
June 1966
October 1966
December 1966
June 1967
July 1967
August 1967
October 1967
Initiation of vegetation study.
Third week of intensive meteorological study.
Particulate emission inventory completed.
Started drafting Regulation II, Control of Particulate Emissions
from Fuel Combustion.
Draft of Regulation II completed and forwarded to West Virginia
Air Pollution Control Commission.
Fourth period of intensive meteorological studies.
Public Hearing on Regulation II.
Air quality network data cutoff.
Mobile laboratory sampling data cutoff.
Regulation II adopted by West Virginia Air Pollution Control Com-
mission.
Meteorological network data cutoff with exception of London Locks
wind station.
Regulation II became effective.
Started odor patrols.
London Locks wind station data cutoff.
Drafted odor regulation.
Completed gaseous emission inventory.
Odor regulation completed and forwarded to West Virginia Air
Pollution Control Commission.
Public hearing on Regulation IV, Control of Objectionable Odors
Draft of Chapters I, II, III, and IV of study report completed.
Regulation IV approved by West Virginia Air Pollution
Control Commission.
Regulation IV became effective.
SPECIAL STUDIES
Studies were conducted in each of the eight major activities and the results
of the first seven studies are incorporated throughout the body of this report.
Separate published and unpublished reports record the results of portions of studies
related to part eight but are not included in their entirety. " These "studies
in vegetation, health, and attitudes" were conducted by members of the faculty at
West Virginia University, supported by either a Federal grant or contract. Pre-
liminary results were considered in developing Section 5, the Air Resource Manage-
ment Program. The last item in eight, "Pollution not routinely measured," was in-
vestigated by members of the staff of the West Virginia Air Pollution Control Com-
mission and the Division of Air Pollution of the Public Health Service. These re-
sults are reported in Section IV.
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REFERENCES
1. Laidley, W. S., History of Charleston and Kanawha County, West Virginia, and
Representative Citizens. Richmond-Arnold Publishing Co., Chicago, Illinois.
1911.
2. The Salt Industry in the Valley. FMC Industrial Review. July 1963.
3. West Virginia 100. Sunday Gazette Mail. Charleston, West Virginia. June 16,
1963.
4. Magill, P. L., F. R. Holden, and C. Ackley, Air Pollution Handbook, McGraw-Hill
Book Company, Inc., New York, New York. 1956.
5. Atmosphere Pollution Investigation, Metropolitan Area, Charleston, West
Virginia. West Virginia Department of Health, Bureau of Industrial Hygiene.
1948. 24 pp.
6. A Study of Smoke and Air Pollution in the Kanawha Valley, Coal Producers
Committee for Smoke Abatement, Transportation Building, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1949.
7. Atmospheric Pollution in the Great Kanawha River Valley Industrial Area,
February 1950 - August 1951. West Virginia Department of Health, Bureau of
Industrial Hygiene. 1952. 168 pp.
8. West Virginia State and Small Areas, United States Census of Housing, 1960.
U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. Washington, D. C.
9. Air Pollution Control Law of West Virginia, Ch. 16, Article Twenty of the Code
of West Virginia. 1931, as amended.
10. West Virginia Administrative Regulation, Air Pollution Control Commission.
Ch. 16. Article Twenty, Series II. To Prevent and Control Air Pollution from
Combustion of Fuel in Indirect Heat Exchangers. 1966.
11. Baer, Charles H., The Response of Sensitive Plant Species to Atmospheric Pol-
lutants in the Kanawha Valley of West Virginia, Final Report, Technical Services
Contract PH 86-65-96, West Virginia University, Morgantown, West Virginia, 20
p, March 1967. (Unpublished)
12. Baer, Charles H., Report on a Short-Term Survey of the Effects of Air Pollution
in Selected Areas of the Kanawha and Ohio Valleys of West Virginia. Unpublish-
ed report for Public Health Service Contract PH-27-65-12, 46 p, December 1964.
13. Stout, Jr., M.D., Benjamin M. and Roger E. Flora, Kanawha Valley Air Pollution
Study Health Effects, 1966. Part I, Design of the Study, 14 p; Part II, Con-
duct of the Study, 19 p, 1966; Part III, Symptom Response to Daily Measures of
Air Pollution, 21 p. Copies of reprint available from West Virginia University,
Morgantown Division of Allergy and Preventive Medicine, 1966.
14. Rankin, Robert E., Air Pollution and the Community Image. Unpublished Terminal
Progress Report for Grant AP-00460-01, West Virginia University, Morgantown,
West Virginia 91 p, 1967.
15. Rankin, Robert E., Air Pollution Control and Public Apathy, 19(8):565-9, August
1969.
1-15
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SECTION II.
METEOROLOGY
INTRODUCTION
The Kanawha Valley Air Pollution Study Agreement of August 1964 included
provision for a major meteorological study, a distinct departure from the previous
studies of 1945-47 and 1950-51. The meteorological phase of the overall study was
included in order to determine the representativeness of the aerometric data
obtained, to relate aerometric data to meteorological parameters, and to provide
a basis for establishing permissible emission rates.
In addition to permanent meteorological equipment in the area, supplementary
installations were made and maintained over a period essentially between September
1964 and March 1966. An effort was made to secure at least a full year of
record by extending the operation in specific instances. A full-time meteorologist
was in residence from October 1964 through July 1966. The first part of this chap-
ter describes those meteorological parameters of special interest in the current
study while the latter part discusses the data and presents selected examples. For
ready reference, site locations and instrumentation are indicated on Figure 2-1.
Details of instruments used, instrument exposures, and complete meteorological data
gathered are included in Appendix B.
Meteorological Stations
Meteorological stations supplying data for this study fall into three major
categories: (1) Permanent stations established by the U. S. Weather Bureau, includ-
ing the first-order station at the airport and three cooperative climatological
stations in the valley; (2) industrially owned and operated wind-speed and direc-
tion recorders from which data were available; (3) and specially installed meteoro-
logical stations of two types, one with wind-speed and direction recording equip-
ment, the other with temperature and humidity recorders. Wind-speed and direction
instruments were operated at 14 locations, including five stations operated by
industrial firms and the one operated by the U. S. Weather Bureau at Kanawha Air-
port. Temperature, and frequently humidity, was recorded at 20 stations including
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ro
ro
CO.
No.
50
11
68
51
70
52
60
64
63
02
53
67
65
61
17
71
72
73
54
62
74
55
STATION
Nome
Gauley Bridge
Smi thers
London Lock
Glasgow
Belle
Marmet
Morri s Harvey
State Office Building
Kanawha Valley Bank
Federal Bui Iding
Charleston Water
Kanawha Airport
400 Mountain View
Taft School
N. Charleston Fire S.
Union Carbide - Chstn.
Food Machinery C.
U. C. - Institute
St. Albans
West Sattes
General Chem. - Nitro
Nitro Water Treatment
METEOROLOGICAL PARAMETERS RECORDED
Wind Temperature Humidity
Solar
Radiation
CO.
AY E T T E CO-
Figure 2-1. Meteorological instrumentation in the Kanawha Valley.
-------
eight river temperature stations. Special intensive observations were made from
three different locations. Most of the above sites were assigned numbers within
a larger air-monitoring-network system.
Special Meteorological Studies
In order to determine the details of the atmospheric circulations in the
valley, more information was needed than could be obtained from the fixed network
of meteorological stations. This information includes vertical temperature distri-
bution, the variations of wind speed and direction with height, and wind-flow pat-
terns. To obtain data of this type a meteorological tower would have been useful
for vertical data, and a very dense network of wind instruments would have been
needed for flow patterns. A sufficiently tall meteorological tower would have
involved great expense, and the amount of data programmed had already presented a
serious problem in data reduction and analysis. For these reasons, the staff
members decided to make special seasonal studies.
For these special seasonal studies, three types of equipment were used. A
tethersonde^ was used to obtain vertical temperature gradients up to 1,000 feet,
and pilot ballon (pibal) observations were made to measure wind speed and direction
in successive layers of air up to several thousand feet. Wind data was augmented by
tracking a "tetroon" visually as this device floated with the wind at essentially a
constant level. Details of equipment and a description of the intensive study pro-
gram are included in Appendix B.
The staff members believed that this series of wind and temperature measure-
ments through the first few thousand feet above the valley floor could be related
2 3
to studies carried out by others ' in other valleys and that the air movement
within the Kanawha Valley could be thereby determined.
GENERAL METEOROLOGICAL PARAMETERS
The rate at which atmospheric pollutants are carried away from a source, the
rate at which pollutants are diluted to acceptable or allowable concentrations, the
effect of pollutants upon receptors, and the eventual removal of the pollutants
from the atmosphere are dependent upon several meteorological parameters. Some of
these parameters act directly and some in concert with the others. A number of
these parameters can be measured directly; others must be derived. Though the
effects of these parameters cannot be considered separately in practice, the
parameters can be discussed separately. Those of major interest in air pollution
2-3
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considerations and their general applications are described below. The specific
use of these parameters in relation to the data gathered will be discussed later
in the report.
Wind
The meteorological element wind has both direction and speed. The principal
effect of wind direction is readily apparent. If the wind is blowing from a source
to a receptor, the receptor can expect to be effected by whatever effluent the
source is emitting. When the wind direction changes sufficiently, the receptor will
no longer be effected. Short-period variations in wind direction have the effect of
reducing the average concentration of pollutants effecting a receptor located gener-
ally downwind from a source during the observation, since the plume reaches the
receptor only intermittently. These short-period variations may last only a few
seconds or much longer. The wind may shift only a few degrees of azimuth or may
swing completely around the compass. The changes in direction of the winds are the
result of eddies of many sizes superimposed on the general wind flow. These eddies
are especially marked near the ground and are produced by wind flow over and around
obstacles. Longer variations in wind direction are produced by eddies of larger
scale, up to circulation systems thousands of miles across. Variations in wind
direction are readily seen when watching a wind vane oscillate.
An analogue-type wind record showing characteristic directional variability
is included as Figure 2-2. In the figilre, a protracted wind shift into the west is
apparent at 2015. After the shift, the wind settled into a more westerly direction
with an increased gustiness.
The effect of wind speed is not quite so readily apparent, but can be under-
stood easily. Effluents are transported from their source and diluted to lower
concentrations in direct proportion to the wind speed. Thus, a stack discharging
smoke at a constant rate will cause only half the concentration of effluents in the
downwind area if the speed of the wind passing the stack doubles.
The short-period eddies described above are also apparent in wind speed. An
eddy that results in a sudden brief rush of wind is referred to as a "gust." Gusts
are normally apparent on analog wind records as temporary changes in direction
accompanied by abrupt short-period changes in speed. Figure 2-3 is the companion
speed trace to Figure 2-2. Note the minimum in speed which accompanied the wind
shift at 2015. Gusty winds generally occur when the air is being rapidly heated, as,
for example, on a bright sunny day. Strong winds above the surface also add to the
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probability of gusty surface winds on such days. During daytime the wind in a valley
is expected to be of the order of one-half the speed that would be present under the
same meteorological conditions over a wide flat plain, while at night under inversion
conditions the speed (and direction) may be entirely unrelated to the general wind
outside the valley.
2000
1900J
E
90C
Figure 2-2. Wind direction trace showing normal direction variability with one
protracted change into west at 2015.
Sunshine
The earth receives heat from the sun as shunshine, while cloud layers act as
an insulating blanket. By day, much of the sun's radiation that strikes clouds is
reflected back into outer space and is lost to the earth so that slower surface
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2000
1900
30
25
20
Figure 2-3. Characteristic analogue wind speed trace.
heating is experienced beneath clouds than in areas of bright sunshine. By night,
much of the earth's radiation striking clouds is reflected back to the earth so
that less cooling takes place than would occur without clouds. Even on cloudy
nights an inversion is normal, but it tends to be less pronounced. When clouds
persist the following day, the dissipation of an inversion is delayed because of
slow surface heating.
In addition to heating the earth and thereby causing atmospheric circulation,
sunlight promotes a group of photochemical reactions among air pollutants, mostly
those emitted by automobiles. Sunlight can also be used to measure, indirectly,
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the quantity of particulate material in the atmosphere.4 Duration of sunshine
(time during which the sun produces a shadow) is not always recorded by weather
observing stations, but may be approximated by using statistics on average daily
cloudiness. Intensity of sunshine is recorded by selected weather bureau stations
and research facilities by means of a variety of instruments. In the present study,
two recording pyrheliometers were used.
Temperature
Temperature and atmospheric stability are closely related to sunshine. Tem-
perature is a measure of the degree of heat and varies directly with the amount of
radiation absorbed by a parcel of air.
The use of heating fuels by, and consequent stack emissions from home and
industrial space-heating units, increase rapidly as the outside temperature falls.
A "degree-day" has been defined as the 24-hour mean temperature subtracted from
65° F with negative values being recorded as zero. Large fuel users and fuel
delivery services can accurately measure and program their activities by these
heating degree-day values. Air polluting stack emissions from fuel combustion for
space heating can also be estimated from the degree-day values.
Stability
Stability is resistance to change. In the atmosphere, stability is usually
measured by the change of temperature with height or lapse rate. Because of the
interaction of pressure and temperature, a parcel of air ascending through the
atmosphere will undergo an increase in volume and a decrease in temperature. If
the parcel of air is insulated from its surroundings, or is moved quickly enough to
prevent exchange of heat with the surrounding air, the temperature will change at
the rate of 5.4° F for each 1,000 foot change in elevation. This rate of tempera-
ture change with altitude is termed the "adiabatic lapse rate." If, when released
at a new position, the air parcel is warmer than the surrounding air (and less
dense), the parcel will rise due to the density differential; similarly, a cooler
air parcel will sink. If this tendency to rise or sink returns the parcel to the
level of origin the atmosphere is stable; but if the tendency is to move the parcel
farther from the level of origin, the atmosphere is unstable.
The several stability categories used in air pollution work are defined
below in the order of decreasing stability.
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1. Inversion - Temperature increases with height.
2. Isothermal - Temperature invariant with height.
3. Weak lapse rate - Temperature decreases with height at a rate less than
the dry adiabatic rate.
4. Neutral or dry adiabatic - Temperature decreases at a rate of 5.4° F per
1,000 feet of elevation.
5. Superadiabatic, or strong lapse - Temperature decreases with height at a
rate greater than the dry adiabatic rate. This is possible since mixing
does not occur instantaneously and air exhibits some properties attribu-
table to momentum and viscosity.
The broad term "stable" covers categories 1, 2, and 3 above, while "unstable"
usually refers to a strong lapse condition. The effect of these stability classes
on a smoke plume is shown in Figure 2-4, an idealized sketch.
Variations in stability are produced by several mechanisms, but only two are
of significance here. Near the earth's surface temperature changes in the air are
principally effected by exchange of heat between the air and the surface. During
the day, the earth's surface receives thermal energy by radiation from the sun and
during the night, gives off thermal energy by radiation and conduction. The usual
result is daytime warming and nighttime cooling of the surface and of the lower
atmosphere. This, process usually produces a diurnal variation in stability, ideally
from very stable before sunrise to unstable in the afternoon. Seasonal variations
usually occur with changes in solar elevation and length of day and night. Figure
2-5 shows this daily variation averaged by calendar month for a layer of air above
a city.
Radiation effects are greatly influenced by variations in cloudiness, and are
nullified, so far as stability is concerned, by strong winds.
Turbulent mixing is produced by wind blowing over uneven terrain. The sur-
face-induced mechanical turbulence under a strong wind condition results in a well-
mixed adiabatic layer of air. Under very light wind conditions, radiation effects
determine the temperature profile so that superadiabatic conditions may be found
during periods of strong heating with an inversion beginning to form at the lowest
level soon after shadows cover the area near sunset. The inversion usually becomes
deeper and more intense thereafter until morning.
Stable air inhibits the creation of eddies and thus the diffusion of air
pollutants, whereas an unstable condition supports the creation of eddies and accel-
erates the diffusion of air pollutants.
2-8
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LOOPING - SMOKE DISCHARGED INTO
SUPERADIABATIC AIR.
CONING - SMOKE DISCHARGED INTO AIR WITH
A WEAK LAPSE TEMPERATURE PROFILE.
FANNING - SMOKE DISCHARGED INTO INVERSION
WHICH EXTENDS FROM SURFACE TO
WELL ABOVE PLUME.
LOFTING - SMOKE IN NON STABLE LAYER
ABOVE SURFACE INVERSION.
\\
\ /
y
_____^^-^-^;>x '-s' \ ^ >
FUMIGATION - (TRANSITORY CONDITION) OCCURS JUST
JUST AS SUPER ADIABATIC LAPSE
RATE EXTENDS UP TO LEVEL OF
PLUME.
HEIGHT
HEIGHT
TRAPPING - SMOKE IN WEAK LAPSE OR ADIABATIC
LAYER WHICH IS CAPPED BY AN
INVERSION ABOVE
DRY ADIABITIC LAPSE RATE
—^SS-T—
TEMPERATURE DISTANCE DOWN WIND
Figure 2r4. Effects of stability variations on a plume.
2-9
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MID-
NIGHT
10
MID-
NIGHT
JAN FEE MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
Figure 2-5. Average difference in air temperature (°C) between 2 and 34
meters height measured in Potsdam between 1893 and 1904.
The dotted lines show sunrise and sunset times.
Precipitation
Raindrops form on minute particles at elevations well above the levels of
primary concern to researchers studying air pollution problems. During the "rain-
out" of the condensation nuclei, the raindrop may impact a particle in the lower
atmosphere and carry the particle to the ground. This latter "washout" is one,
though probably minor, process by which the lower atmosphere is cleaned. Relation-
ships between precipitation amounts and changes in pollution levels are obscured to
a large extent by associated larger factors such as stability and wind; precipita-
tion, however, must be considered in an evaluation of any pollution episode.
Steady, light rain or snow is indicative of stable air and limited vertical
diffusion, and can, therefore, be accompanied by high air pollution levels. Showery
precipitation, on the other hand, indicates rapid vertical diffusion with low air
pollution levels. Precipitation has a secondary effect on pollution levels since
rain influences industrial and home activities. This effect is not thought to be
significant in the Kanawha Valley.
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Relative Humidity and Fog
The term "relative humidity" is used to indicate the amount of water vapor
actually present in the air in terms of the percent of maximum possible water vapor
under existing temperature and pressure conditions. Ideally, if a mass of moist
(partially saturated) air is held at constant pressure and cooled, the relative
humidity value will increase as the temperature decreases without the addition of
new moisture. When 100 percent relative humidity is reached and cooling continues,
the moisture condenses as dew, frost, fog, or a cloud, depending on the location
and availability of condensation surfaces. Many condensation nuclei are hydrophilic
(have a strong affinity for water) and become wetted before the surrounding air is
saturated; thus, fog may be present when the air is well below 100 percent relative
humidity.
Fog is usually associated with air cooling from below and thus is an indica-
tor of stable conditions and consequent slow diffusion effluents. Limited data
indicate an increase in frequency and persistence of fog due to industrialization
when a significant increase in hydrophilic condensation nuclei in the air results
from industrial activity. Fog also serves to hasten corrosion by depositing dis-
solved pollutants on exposed surfaces. Reduced visibility at a relative humidity
below 70 percent is usually considered to be caused by air pollutants.
Air Pollution Potential
When a relatively large area of the Continental United States is expected to
be under conditions conducive to the continuous increase in concentration of pol-
lutants for an extended period of time, an "Air Pollution Potential Forecast" for
the area is issued by the Weather Bureau. Local agencies and industries that have
arranged with the local Weather Bureau office for the service are then notified
and can take appropriate precautions. This forecast of air pollution potential is
designed for large-scale considerations extending over several consecutive days at
one location. Concentrations of industries and other sources of pollutants as
well as geographic considerations such as deep valleys or mountain tops are not
treated separately.
Extended periods during which meteorological conditions result in large
areas of low wind speed have been termed "stagnation periods," and their occurrence
in the eastern United States has been studied by Korshover.^ This work indicates
that the study area averages two stagnation periods of four or more consecutive
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days a year. During these stagnation periods, the air above, as well as within,
the valley can be expected to become progressively more polluted.
Inversions at or near the surface are also conducive to the accumulation of
pollutants. This occurrence and persistence of inversions have been analyzed by
Hosier7 who finds low-level inversions exist over the Appalachian Mountain area 30
to 45 percent of the total hours compared to 10 to 35 percent on the Atlantic Coast,
Limited vertical mixing occurs when a neutral or unstable layer is based at
the surface and capped by a stable layer. This phenomena is also conducive to the
accumulation of pollutants, and has been studied by Holzworth.8 These factors have
been summarized in another paper by Hosier.9 All of these studies indicate that
the Kanawha Valley is an area of frequent poor atmospheric ventilation because of
the geographic location. In addition to these relatively large-scale influences,
the topography must be considered. Topography is discussed separately, but mention
should be made of the fact that valleys are notorious for having inversions and
poor diffusion conditions.
DISCUSSION OF DATA
This section shows that the wind data obtained from the Kanawha Airport can
be used as a standard for comparison with winds measured within the valley in
studying the effects of channeling and valley drainage. A textbook explanation of
valley wind flow is followed by a discussion, with data, of the flow found within
the Kanawha Valley. In general, a downvalley wind occurs at night while the day-
time wind is related to the larger wind pattern of the eastern United States.
Pyrheliometer data show a loss of solar radiation on the valley floor as compared
to the valley rim in the Charleston area. Sun photometer readings confirm that
less radiation reaches the valley floor in the industrial area than in relatively
clean areas. An analysis of temperature data, from both hygrothermographs and
tethered balloon observations, indicates that inversions with accompanying slow
dispersal of pollutants are very frequent in the valley. Tabulated inversion fre-
quency data by season and depth of inversion are presented. Temperature profiles
tracing the formation and breakup of a typical inversion are included as well as a
short subsection on the relation of cloudiness to inversion persistence. This dis-
cussion section closes with the subsection on Climatology and Topography which com-
pares the climatology of the study period to normals and shows that the year 1965
was, in all important respects, a normal year. Thus, the study results can be
applied to future years with confidence.
2-12
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Wind Data
In order to distinguish between the general wind-flow over the area and the
local windflow due to valley effects, the Kanawha Airport winds are used as a
reference in this study. The use of the Kanawha Airport data as a standard is just-
ified by comparing this data (measured on a hill outside of the valley at essen-
tially hilltop level) to the Huntington, West Virginia, radiosonde measurement of
wind at 2,000 feet above surface. In this comparison, the 50 mile lateral displace-
ment between observation points is insignificant; the 2,000 feet vertical difference,
however, should result in a wind shift of nearly 45 degrees due to frictional
effects.10
Annual wind roses for the year 1965 are presented in Figure 2-6, comparing
Kanawha Airport surface wind and Huntington wind 2,000 feet above surface. The
Kanawha Airport's predominant southwest wind is 45 degrees counter-clockwise from
the predominant west wind at 2,000 feet, as called for by frictional considerations.
Wind speeds are also reduced at the airport, as is expected. The 6 percent increase
in airport northeast winds over the east winds aloft appears to be nighttime drain-
age into the Elk Valley. The increase is in the 3- to 4-miles-per-hour group, the
speed range of drainage winds rather than in stronger wind classes. Thus, the air-
port winds can be taken as related to the general flow over the area, and marked
deviations from airport winds can be attributed to local effects such as valley
drainage and channeling.
General Wind Flow in Valleys - The topography of the Kanawha River region leads
one to expect a mountain and valley wind regime. These winds, of considerable im-
portance in hilly country, have been investigated by Defant^ and others. Mountain-
valley wind patterns are characterized by a marked diurnal variation in direction
and speed while the wind above is fairly steady. An idealized description of
valley winds, given by F. Defant^ on the basis of earlier work, is as follows:
Before sunrise there is a steady movement of air down the valley into the plain,
the so-called mountain wind. As the sun rises, the sloping sides of the valley are
warmed and buoyant air begins to move up the slopes to descend again in the center
of the valley. The upslope wind prevails until about noon, when this wind is joined
by a wind blowing up the valley from the plain. In the late afternoon, the valley
wind dominates and the upslope wind weakens and disappears. In the evening, the
cooling of the air in contact with the upper parts of the sloping sides starts a
downslope, or katabatic, wind, which ultimately produces a typical circulation in
which air rolls down the slopes and is pushed up in the center of the valley. Later
at night the katabatic circulation is replaced by the mountain wind, and a steady
2-13
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/T
KANAWHA AIRPORT SURFACE WIND ROSE
HUNTINGTON 2,000 FEET WIND ROSE
Figure £76. Comparison of 1965 annual wind roses for surface and 2,000 feet above
surface.
-------
drift of air from the head of the valley into the plain continues until dawn. In
those meteorological situations with a locally strong pressure gradient, the upper
wind frequently sweeps to the surface and predominates, even during the nighttime.
Wind Flow in the Kanawha Valley Winds in the Kanawha Valley are strongly
influenced by the meandering character of the valley as well as by local heat sources
such as the industry on and near Blaine Island, and by the river itself. Each
separate heat source warms the adjacent air, which then rises to a new density level
while the lowest layer of air is drawn into the area of warming to replace the
rising air. Figure 2-7 is an idealized cross section of such a valley flow, showing
the nighttime air flow down the valley's sloping sides and up over the relatively
warm water.
Figure 2-7. Idealized cross-section of a valley and river showing
nocturnal air flow.
Wind data from the State Office Building is compared with that from the
Kanawha Airport as typical of the contrast between valley locations and the more
general wind flow at hilltop level. The State Office Building wind system was
exposed at 110 feet above the |evel of the Kanawha River in the Charleston section
of the valley where the downvalley axis is to the northwest (300 degrees) and the
valley walls are effectively 300- feet above the river. The airport wind system is
exposed 310 feet above the river, being on a flattened hilltop northeast of the
valley. Figure 2-8 presents curves of the summertime mean frequency of occurrence
of wind directions for even hours at the airport and at the State Office Building.
During the daytime, both curves peak on the southwest wind and the hilltop curve's
peak remains southwest throughout the night. The valley curve shifts to a maximum
in the southeast (down the valley) for the night hours.
2-15
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>-
o
cr
LU
en
5
0
0
5
0
5
0
15
10
• g
0
15
10
5
0
15
10
5
0
15
10
5
0
15
10
5
0
15
10
5
0
5
0
•STATE OFFICE
•AIRPORT
NOON
2 PM
4 PM
6 PM
8 PM
10 PM
MIDNIGHT
2 AM
4 AM
SE S SW W
WIND DIRECTION
NW N
6 AM
8 AM
10 AM
Figure 2-8. Hourly wind directions at State Office
Building and at airport for summer season.
2-16
-------
Nighttime drainage winds and channeling by the valley are further illustrated
by the sets of wind roses presented in Figures 2-9 through 2-12. Figure 2-9 pre-
sents the daytime winds for summer and winter. Some reduction of the predominant
southwest airport wind is apparent at the valley station where this wind had been
channeled into an up-valley wind from the northwest. Valley winds are noticeably
lighter and up as well as downvalley winds have increased over those reported at
the airport.
Nighttime valley and airport winds (Figure 2-10) show little relation to each
other. In summer the 7 percent winds in the downvalley direction at the airport
become 63 percent within the valley, reflecting the valley drainage flow. On winter
nights the frequent storms with strong, turbulent, unstable winds from the southwest
as recorded at the airport are channeled and appear in the valley as winds from the
northwest much of the time. Northeast winds are also frequent at the airport in
winter and are nearly nonexistent in the valley due to channeling into a downvalley
direction where these winds are combined with the lighter drainage winds. Spring
and fall seasons show similar channeling and drainage flow patterns.
Most locations show some daytime channeling and a pronounced downvalley
nighttime flow. Beginning time of the latter is strongly influenced by early
shadows in sections of the valley running in a north-south direction. Eddy currents
where secondary valleys or sharp bends disrupt the flow must also be expected, and
at times upper winds are parallel to long reaches of the valley and dominate those
reaches while valley flow occurs in other sections of the river valley.
Records from ten wind recorders located between London and Nitro were con-
sidered and the weighted average seasonal winds presented as Kanawha Valley wind
speeds in Table 2-1. Heights above the valley floor varied from 30 to 200 feet,
averaging 86 feet. The airport data and that from 400 Mountain View have been
averaged to represent hilltop wind speeds while the data from the Kanawha Valley
Bank Building is presented alone, as these data represent flow within the valley at
280 feet above the surface. Here the wind is less obstructed by surface friction
than at the hilltop stations, which are roughly 30 feet above the land. This table
indicates that the ventilation rate within the valley is least in summer and fall.
Other data indicate generally lower speeds at night than during the day; thus,
nighttime in late summer and early fall is considered to be the time of poorest
ventilation. An average speed of 3 miles per hour (mph) is considered representa-
tive for this time.
Seasonal wind directions for the above stations have been divided into day-
time (2 p.m.) and nighttime (2 a.m.) tabulations, and each station is depicted by a
2-17
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KANAWHA VALLEY AIRPORT - SLIMMER
KANAWHA VALLEY AIRPORT - WINTER
STATE OFFICE BUILDING - SUMMER
STATE OFFICE BUILDING - WINTER
5-1 >8
mph
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
OCCURRENCE,
Figure 2-9. Daytime winds comparing hilltop and valley locations.
2-18
-------
KANAWHA VALLEY AIRPORT SUMMER
KANAWHA VALLEY AIRPORT - WINTER
STATE OFFICE BUILDING - SUMMER
STATE OFFICE BUILDING - WINTER
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
OCCURRENCE, %
Figure 2-10. Nighttime winds comparing hilltop and valley locations.
2-19
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2-20
72 CHARLESTON
71
67
—*MOST FREQUENT WIND DIRECTION
— -•-STRONG SECONDARY WIND DIRECTION
N
SUIWER NIGHT
mi 1 es
10
BELLE
LONDON LOCK
Figure 2-11. Kanawha Valley summer wind pattern.
-------
«*MOST FREQUENT WIND DIRECTION
»* STRONG SECONDARY WIND DIRECTION
Figure 2-12. Kanawha Valley winter wind pattern.
2-21
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Table 2.1. AVERAGE WIND SPEEDS BY SEASON IN THE
KANAWHA VALLEY AND AT HILLTOP LEVEL
(mph)
Effective
height above
valley floor,
feet
Hilltop 370
Bank 280
Valley 86
Spring
7.2
8.3
4.7
Summer
5.3
6.8
3.7
Fall
6.2
6.3
4.2
Winter
7.0
6.4
5.6
solid arrow pointing downwind at the appropriate point on a sketch map of the Kana-
wha Valley. Significant secondary directions are indicated by broken arrows.
Stations 65 and 67 are outside of the valley and are plotted to show the more
general flow at hilltop level. Since spring and fall data are similar, these data
have not been included. Figure 2-11 demonstrates that summer daytime winds within
the valley generally follow the upper winds except in the deeper sections such as
the London station, where channeling is apparent. On summer nights the general
flow is downriver while flow at the hilltop stations remains southerly. Winter
winds in Figure 2-12 exhibit a similar valley pattern. The secondary winds at
stations 71 and 72 are attributed to the heating effect of Elaine Island; in fact,
the primary night wind in winter at station 72.is toward this industrial complex.
The four aerial photographs of Figure 2-13 further demonstrate the channeling
of pollutants down the valley under stable atmospheric conditions. These pictures
were taken at about 6:30 a.m. on April 28, 1966. At that time, station 67 at Kanawha
Airport recorded the wind as being from 170 degrees at 7 mph. This appears to be
the direction of the upper part of the plume in Figure 2-13 C and D. At the same
time, station 70, at Belle, recorded wind from 130 degrees at 7 mph (valley axis
direction) and station 72, in South Charleston, recorded wind from 70 degrees at
4 mph (again a flow down the axis of the valley in this region).
Figure 2-13 A is a view to the south across the valley, with the plume from
Glasgow following the valley curves to the vicinity of Cabin Creek, where another
plume rises and also follows the valley curves.
Figure 2-13 B is a view to the west. The Cabin Creek plume plainly makes
the bend along with the valley and merges into the plumes beyond.
Figure 2-13 C was taken to the northwest. Plumes from Belle are prominent
in the lower left. The heavy plume is seen to cross the valley and percolate among
2-22
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A - LOOKING SOUTH WITH GLASGOW TO LEFT AND CABIN CREEK TO RIGHT.
B - LOOKING WEST WITH CABIN CREEK IN FOREGROUND.
C - LOOKING NORTHWEST WITH BELLE IN FOREGROUND.
D - LOOKING NORTHWEST OVER INSTITUTE ON RIGHT BANK OF RIVER.
ro
i
CO
Figure 2-13. Aerial photographs of Kanawha Valley under stable air condition.
-------
the hills; much additional pollution at a lower level can be seen to be following
down the valley.
Figure 2-13 D, an aerial view of Institute, shows two high plumes blowing
out of the valley while other lower sources cross the river to St. Albans and thence
follow downriver and around the bend toward Nitro.
During each season the winds aloft were measured in an intensive study by
the "Pibal" method (visually tracking a free balloon as described in the instruments
section of Appendix B). The downriver axis of the valley at Charleston is 300
degrees so that a 120-degree wind (blowing from) is a downvalley wind. The pibal
data have been grouped by day, night, and transitional periods and included in
Appendix B with the Huntington winds in the two righthand columns.
Intensive Study Winds - The intensive study of July 26 to 31, 1965, was fortunate
in that the general circulation was from the north during the entire week. The
Huntington Weather Bureau reported winds at 2,000 feet above sea level during this
period to be from between northwest and north-northeast and from 4 to 18 mph. In-
tensive-study pibal measurements at Charleston agree very well with the Huntington
data by day; a southeasterly wind in the lower levels, however, persisted each night
except on the 29th, when the upper winds were exceptionally strong and the normal
nighttime inversion did not form above 150 feet, as shown by the tetersonde data.
On the other 4 of the 5 nights studied, the downvalley flow filled the valley as
indicated by the 490-foot-level wind. The "surface" (valley floor) wind was easterly,
but less well organized at night than the next two levels above. This condition is
a reflection of the many shallow currents flowing momentarily across the area from
eddy currents generated by local disturbances.
During both the May and the October-November observation periods, strong
inversions formed and there were numerous examples of drainage winds at the lower
levels of the valley. The depth of the drainage winds seemed to quickly build up
to near the height of the valley rim during the May and July series of observations.
In the fall, stronger winds aloft affected the air deeper into the valley so that
usually only the valley floor and the 260-foot levels showed the full change of
direction that indicated drainage winds.
The 710-foot level is well above the rim of the valley, but still is affected
by the terrain. The wind direction at the 710-foot level is frequently an inter-
mediate direction between the free air direction and the direction of the river
channel.
2-24
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Since the valley is about 400 feet in depth, the variation in wind speed
through this depth was of particular interest. In only one case (7 a.m., in October-
November) did the ridge top wind speed average as much as twice the valley floor
wind; and during the daytime, the ridge top wind averaged within 25 percent of the
valley floor wind speed. The wind speed at 1,000 feet averaged as much as five
times the valley floor wind speed at 7 a.m., in May and in October.
During May, pibal observations were also made in Nitro where the valley axis
points 028 degrees down valley. The balloons verified a strong downvalley flow,
which was both more persistent and extended farther above the valley's floor than
that at the North Charleston site. Wind directions are practically identical above
1,000 feet at the two sites. At Nitro the downvalley direction is north-northeast
in contrast to the Charleston section of the valley where the axis runs west-
northwest. The righthand valley wall is shaded from direct sunlight at Nitro while
this wall is not shaded at North Charleston during much of the forenoon and the
lefthand wall at Nitro becomes shaded much earlier in the afternoon. This results
in less heating of the valley air in the Nitro section and a longer period of stable
nighttime drainage wind flow.
During each season tetroon observations were made. Lack of radar tracking
equipment and the limited depth of air (400 feet) being studied make these observa-
tions difficult.
Afternoon releases were noteworthy for the apparent lack of channeling. Even
though in some cases the tetroon touched trees when going over ridges and sank
below ridge tops in crossing valleys, there was no directional effect that could
be attributed to the terrain. (See May 7 track in Appendix B.)
All morning releases were tracked from the ground by means of two radio-
equipped vehicles. In no case did weather conditions (usually very low visibility
in the valley) permit aerial tracking for morning runs. With the tetroon's apparent
lack of regard for terrain features and the lack of roads running perpendicular to
the valley axis, afternoon automobile tracking was not attempted. The afternoon
runs indicate that there is little daytime channeling of the wind direction 200
feet above the valley floor, and that when the upper winds are cross-valley, the
air within the valley is constantly being replaced. Early morning runs pointed to
a complex flow within the valley after sunrise, with vertical currents reaching up
into the inversion.
2-25
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Sunshine
Seasonal cloud cover data from the Airport Weather Station are presented by
hour of the day and are discussed as these data relate to solar radiation and air
quality. Solar radiation was measured and used to compare pollutant levels outside
the valley with those on the valley floor by means of a pair of pyrheliometers.
Pollutant levels at various locations along the valley floor were also compared by
use of sun photometers.
Cloud Cover - Frequency, by hour, of over 7/10 cloud cover for each season is
plotted in Figure 2-14. During winter, and to a lesser extent in the spring, most
clouds are associated with large-scale storm systems which are little influenced
by diurnal patterns. Summer and fall cloudiness exhibits a strong diurnal nature
with the maximum cloudiness of near 65 percent in both seasons being reached soon
after sunrise and the minimum of near 40 percent occuring at midnight. These
summer clouds are primarily the result of moist layers of air cooling during the
night to below the condensation temperature of the moisture present. Relatively
thin layers of clouds result. As the saturated layer is warmed by the rising sun,
the cloudiness rapidly decreases until cloudy sky is recorded on only 51 percent
of the noon observations.
In winter and spring the high frequency of over 7/10 cloudiness during day-
light hours tends to prolong the period during which pollutants are retained
within the valley by the inversion lid. During summer and fall, cloudiness is
much less and local inversions formed during the night within the valley tend to
dissipate rapidly after sunlight reaches the valley floor; thereafter, pollutants
are carried up and out of the valley by the wind. Late summer and fall are also
the seasons when stagnation periods with accompanying large areas of high pollution
are experienced.
Pyrheliometer - Periods during each season of the year were chosen for comparison
of solar radiation as recorded by pyrheliometers at the Kanawha Airport, which is
beyond the north rim of the valley, to radiation received in North Charleston, which
is taken as representative of the valley floor. Where records were available, the
period chosen was the week of intensive observation. Data in the form of ratios
for each season are presented in Table 2-2.
The greatest difference indicated in Table 2-2 was in the winter season;
the least, in the spring and fall seasons. During the winter season the stable
air in the valley remains for a greater percent of the daytime hours so that the
2-26
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8 10 12 14 16
HOUR - LOCAL STANDARD TIME
18 20
22
SEASON
SPRING
SUMMER
FALL
WINTER
SUNRISE
•6:29 AM
5:03 AM
6:13 AM
7:40 AM
DATE
21 MARCH
21 JUNE
21 SEPTEMBER
21 DECEMBER
SUNSET
6:39 PM
7:53 PM
6:26 PM
5:09 PM
Figure 2-14. Percent of each hour's observations at Kanawha Airport with over 7/10
cloud cover and related almanac data.
Table 2-2. COMPARISON OF SOLAR RADIATION AT NORTH CHARLESTON
AND KANAWHA VALLEY AIRPORTa
Season
Spring
Summer
Fall
Winter
Period
April 21-28
July 26-31
Oct. 25-Nov. 5
Dec. 28, '65-
Jan. 10, '66
North Charleston
TOO
100
TOO
100
Kanawha Airport
116
121
114
129
Tabulated values are dimensionless ratios based on
North Charleston brought to 100 for each season. See
Appendix B for further details.
2-27
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large winter difference is understandable. The small difference in the spring and
fall may be due to more changeable weather in those seasons and, therefore, propor-
tionately fewer hours of heavy pollution in the daytime hours. Over the year air
pollutants and the greater depth of atmosphere cause North Charleston to receive
about 17 percent less radiation than points above the concentrated polluted layer
as exemplified by the Kanawha Airport.
Sun Photometer - Sun photometer readings were taken in a study of the variability
of suspended particulate matter in the area. The instrument responds to high par-
ticulate concentrations with a reduced reading due to the absorption and scattering
of solar radiation as described in the instrument section of Appendix B, These
readings are converted to turbidity measurements which are inversely proportional
to the measured solar radiation. In this work readings through plumes and clouds
are avoided.
On March 9, 1966, two observers departed from the Federal Building in oppo-
site directions at 11:07 EST, and took a series of readings ending at 12:12 EST.
The upriver observations showed 0.300 or higher turbidity coefficients across the
business section of Charleston. Turbidity decreased fairly regularly to the
east to below 0.200 at the east end of Kanawha City in the vicinity of Libby-Owens-
Ford glass plant. A side trip into the mouth of the Elk River near the airport
gave a low reading of 0.110. Meanwhile, the downriver observations had at first
decreased from over 0.300 in the business district to 0.230 and then increased
between the railroad bridge and the Patrick Street Bridge. The reading reached
0.430 on MacCorkle Avenue at a point opposite the midpoint of Blaine Island and
0.355 opposite the Indian Mound in South Charleston. The value dropped to below
0.200 before the observers reached the Dunbar Bridge.
Another traverse made in the afternoon again revealed high turbidity in the
vicinity of the Federal Building. Going northeastward up the Elk River, the
observer found that the turbidity dropped to below 0.200 in the vicinity of
Magazine Branch. The observer who went in the opposite direction found the tur-
bidity also decreasing with no real increase even in the route through South
Charleston. The surface winds and the winds aloft were both such as to carry
polluted air away from the route, which was along the Kanawha River and thence up
Davis Creek.
A dual traverse made on July 8, 1966, from the Kanawha City Bridge to North
Charleston covered the northeast side of the valley. One observer followed the
bank of the Kanawha River as closely as roads permitted, and the other followed a
2-28
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course as close to the valley wall as possible. The observer following the valley
wall found much higher turbidity readings, probably because, as other evidence has
indicated, on sunny days the air along the sides of the valley rises, and air in
the center of the valley sinks and decreases the thickness of the polluted layer
in the center of the valley.
This set of observations was made in an hour when relative humidity was
less than 40 percent. Reductions in turbidity due to increased ventilation prob-
ably were occurring, but not by enough to be readily noticeable.
In all cases turbidity increased in the vicinity of downtown Charleston, and
usually remained high or increased downstream to a point beyond the South Charleston
industrial area.
Temperature and Stability
In the following sub-paragraphs the hygrothermograph data are discussed and
related to stability by season and by time of day. The section of tethersonde
data presents specific temperature profiles measured in the free air during periods
of intensive study and relates the free air measurements to the hygrothermograph
data.
Hygrothermograph - Hygrothermograph data were used in determining the depth and
frequency as well as the persistence of inversion within the valley. In order to
obtain more representative values, valley stations 17 and 53 were averaged, as were
hill stations 65 and 67. Corresponding temperatures within these pairs were usually
within 2 degrees of each other, both plus and minus differences being present in a
random manner. Recorded differences within the pairs are regarded as lateral tem-
perature fluctuations rather than instrument exposure differences, and the average
is considered more representative of the whole area than either taken a]one. Tem-
peratures measured on a hilltop as a substitute for free air temperatures must be
qualified, since the daytime free air some distance laterally from a hilltop may be
5 degrees or more cooler than that immediately over the hill as was shown by Hum-
phrey's comparative readings made at the National Reactor Testing Station.^ Tn-js
lateral temperature difference normally reverses at night. Duration and frequency
of inversions estimated here are thought to be correct; intensities are open to
some interpretation. Figure 2-15 presents this hygrothermograph data for December
1964 to March 1966 by season so that two winters are averaged with seasons running
from the first of the month. For brevity, spring and fall are averaged as one
season.
2-29
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90
OS
:=>
12 2 4 6 8 10 12 2 4 6 8 10 12
a.m. p.m.
LOCAL STANDARD TIME
Figure 2-15. Valley floor and rim temperatures by season at Charleston, West
Virginia.
In the summer from 10:50 a.m. to 6:30 p.m. the air is well mixed by convec-
tive currents as well as by mechanical turbulence due to surface roughness, and the
rim temperature holds near 2 degrees below the valley floor temperature. ,Adiabatic
considerations call for the 350-foot higher rim to be 1.8 degrees colder. By sunset
the afternoon shadows in the valley have resulted in more rapid valley cooling and
the temperature becomes 2 degrees less than that on the hilltop. This condition
remains so until sunrise as the cooler air drains into the valley. During the
winter the valley becomes warmer than the hill soon after sunrise whereas the summer
hill and valley temperatures do not become equal until the-late forenoon. The fact
2-30
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should be noted that the winter temperature change from day to night is about half
of that in the summer. These differences are due to the shorter daylight hours of
winter as well as to the stronger cold winds and more presistent cloudiness of
winter. The valley inversion is present 66 percent of the year, being most frequent
in winter at 70 percent and falling to 64 percent in the spring and fall combined
season.
Valley station 02 is 60 feet and station 63 is 210 feet above the valley
floor. Both are in downtown Charleston on rooftops. These, in conjunction with
the valley floor and hilltop stations already described, are used to further define
the valley inversion. The 60-foot layer exhibited an inversion at sunrise on over
92 percent of the mornings during the year. The exceptions are associated with
strong cold winds above the hills blowing nearly along the valley axis and sweeping
to the valley floor.
Inversion frequency at sunrise to at least the level indicated is tabulated
in Table 2-3 by season. The 210 and 350-foot levels are from the above hygrother-
mograph data, and the 500-foot data are from Hosier.^
Table 2-3. INVERSION FREQUENCY AT SUNRISE AT
VARIOUS ELEVATIONS IN KANAWHA VALLEY
Season
Spring
Summer
Fall
Winter
Percent of sunrises with
an inversion
Through
210 feet i 350 feet
92
78
92
74
68
46
64
14
Shallow inversions are to be expected at night during all seasons, but most
frequently in spring and fall. Hosier" has found that an inversion below 500 feet
exists 29 percent of the year over the airport at Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. A
reasonable inference is that about 30 percent of Charleston's inversions extend
several hundred feet above the valley rim because of a more general inversion over
the area.
Intensive Study Temperature Aloft - Free air temperature data gathered during
each intensive study period indicate a temperature regime in the valley in which the
temperature - height profile is essentially adiabatic during the afternoon and
2-31
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develops a strong inversion after sunset, followed by a change to nearly isothermal
in the early morning hours. The change from inversion to isothermal accompanies
the onset of downvalley flow with the attendant mechanical mixing due to surface
roughness. This same temperature regime was indicated in the hygrothermograph data
already discussed. The tethersonde data indicate that the nighttime cooling extends
well above the valley rim and that the diurnal change in temperature becomes pro-
gressively smaller at higher levels in the free air.
The July 29-30 series of temperature profiles is typical of summertime under
a cold northerly flow aloft. At the right side of Figure 2-16, comparing the 4 p.m.
profiles of the 29th and the 30th, approximately 2 degrees warming throughout the
700-foot layer during the 24-hour period is shown. The layer was essentially
adiabatic both days at this time. Sunset was at 7:40, and the 8 p.m. curve of the
29th shows overall cooling of nearly 4 degrees and additional cooling at the 50-
foot level of another 7 degrees. The inversion was pronounced from 150 feet down
and weak below 400 feet. At this time smoke from surface fires appeared layered as
it drifted across the valley, while plumes above the valley rim continued to spread
vertically (the "lofting" of Figure 2-4). The 10 p.m. ascent shows a sharp inver-
sion to have existed from 300 feet down and an isothermal layer from 300 to 700
feet. Diffusion at this time was poor at all levels below 700 feet, and layers of
thick smoke were likely at many levels. The 4 a.m. run of the 30th indicated near
isothermal air at all levels. The downvalley flow was probably well developed, and
the air had become isothermal through mechanical mixing in the valley. The State
Office Building wind system (at 110 feet) registered northerly wind of about 6 mph
at 4 p.m. on the 29th. From 8 to 10 p.m. it was calm to light and variable. By
midnight the wind was at 3 mph and out of the southeast and remained so until 10
a.m., on the 30th, when it returned to the daytime light northerly flow. The wind
shifted again from north to southeast after 8 p.m.
The 6 a.m. run was almost identical to the one at 4:10 a.m., July 30, but
additional cooling was evident above 300 feet. Sunrise was at 5:26; direct sun-
shine into the valley floor had not yet changed the nighttime regime, however. By
8 a.m. pronounced warming was apparent and a super-adiabatic layer existed below
200 feet. ("Fumigation" as shown in Figure 2-4 would be expected.) At the valley
rim and above, smoke drifted in layers. Rapid heating of the lower 700 feet was
apparent in the following runs, and the whole layer mixed into the upper flow.
The warm airflow of January 25-26 is shown in Figure 2-17 as measured by
tethersonde. During the period Charleston was in the warm sector of an approaching
storm system that produced a prolonged strong inversion condition. The January 25,
2-32
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7-29-65/10:10 p.ra
y
7-29-65/8:00 p.m.
54 56 58 60 62 64 66 68 70 72
TEMPERATURE, °F
Figure 2-16. Temperature profile from tethersonde in North Charleston, Tru-Temper
Kelly Works observing site. Weather was clear with ground-fog form-
ing near sunrise and increasing cirrus clouds on July 30, 1965.
Sunset 7/29 - 7:40 PM Sunrise 7/30 - 5:26 AM EST
2-33
-------
800-
700
600
500
-------
6 p.m. ascent showed an essentially isothermal condition, and the 8 p.m. ascent
indicates surface cooling of 6 degrees with the 400-foot layer remaining unchanged.
At 10 p.m., the temperature inversion had intensified both from surface cooling and
from arrival of much warmer air at levels above 200 feet. By midnight, mechanical
mixing had taken place and thereafter warming continued at all levels until the
front passed later in the morning. A 16 degree temperature difference was maintain-
ed between the surface and the 350 foot levels, as recorded on the midnight and 2
a.m. ascents. This agrees well with the 15 degree to 20 degree difference recorded
between the hygrothermographs at Charleston water treatment plant and at Mountain
View 350 feet above. Spring and fall observations further substantiate the diurnal
pattern of unstable lapse rate condition by day becoming an inversion at night
except when strong winds hold the whole layer near adiabatic.
River Temperatures An examination of river water temperatures revealed the
water to be warmer than the minimum air temperature during the night at all seasons
and warmer than the 24-hour mean air temperature except during March and April.
Heat stored in the river water serves to cause nighttime warming of the air result-
ing in upward air currents over the river as illustrated in Figure 2-7. These up-
ward air currents reinforce the upward thrust of air due to the inflow of cool air
from the valley walls toward the valley center.
Climatology
A comparison of the Kanawha Airport climatic averages with the airport data
for the period of the study shows that the weather was normal during the study
period. Meteorological conclusions can therefore be applied to future normal years.
The data on which this statement is based are presented below.
Figure 2-18 indicates that winds for 1965 were near normal in both speed and
direction. Since the available climatic data for the present exposure are only for
5 years, the wind speed data from this and the former location have been averaged
by months for 17 years and are presented in Figure 2-19. During each month of the
study period, except October 1965, the speed was within 1 mph of the long-term
average; thus, the wind speed during this study was remarkably "average."
The bar-graph of degree-days presented as Figure 2-20 indicates the study
was conducted during an average period, although January 1965 was somewhat colder
than normal, and January 1966 was exceptionally cold. The graph of average maxi-
mum and minimum temperatures (Figure 2-21) follows the same pattern with the
exceptionally cold January of 1966 being again apparent.
2-35
-------
1956 - 1960
1965
.7 8-12 >13
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
OCCURRENCE, %
Figure 2-18. Wind roses for Kanawha Airport, Charleston, West Virginia,
comparing the year 1965 to the average year.
I I
E
#1
Q
D-
CO
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR
Figure 2-19. Kanawha Airport wind speed during study averaged by
months compared to prior 17 years averaged by months.
WIND SPEED DATA BY MONTH FOR PRIOR 17 YEARS
STUDY PERIOD DATA, NOV. 1964 - APR. 1966
AVERAGE WIND SPEED DURING PERIOD
OF STUDY = 6.9 MPH
AVERAGE WIND SPEED (17 YEARS) = 7.1 MPH
2-36
-------
NOVEMBER
DECEMBER
1966
JANUARY
FEBRUARY
MARCH
1964 i i i i ir
DECEMBER
1965
JANUARY I™K^^
FEBRUARY ,
MARCH IJSSB^^
APRIL |i™™™^^
MAY
JUNE
JULY
AUGUST D
SEPTEMBER
OCTOBER
I
I
J
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200
DEGREE DAYS/MONTH
Figure 2-20. Comparison of study period degree days (open bars) to normal degree days
(solid bars) for Kanawha Airport, Charleston, West Virginia.
2-37
-------
90
80
70
_
. 60
J
;
50
w
J
30
201—
— WIND SPEED
FOR PRIOR 17 YEARS
•— STUDY PERIOD DATA,
DEC. 1964 APR. 1966
101—
DEC
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR
Figure 2-21. Average and study period monthly temperature variations
at Kanawha Airport.
Bar-graphs of monthly precipitation amounts (Figure 2-22) and frequency
(Figure 2-23) indicate less than normal rainfall for the summer of 1965 and fewer
days with rain. July should have been the wettest month of the year. Showers,
though frequent, were lighter than normal for July that year. Although the year
1965 had the normal number of days with rain, rainfall was less than normal. Rain-
fall in fall and winter of 1966 was also less than normal in both frequency and
amount.
Occurrence of fog was nearly normal during the study, although fog was
recorded more frequently than normal a few days during the summer of 1965, as shown
in Figure 2-24.
Except for the possible effect of the two very dry periods, the weather dur-
ing the study period was reasonably representative of the usual weather of the
Kanawha Valley. This study covered periods of wet and dry conditions, warm and cold,
windy and calm, with stable and unstable air.
SUMMARY
The nocturnal wind pattern within the Kanawha Valley is of primary concern in
air pollution considerations. This flow of air is visualized as beginning at the
shaded valley walls where the adjacent shallow layer of air cools with the ground
and begins to slide downhill and to push beneath the warmer air over the valley
floor. The air currents from opposite valley walls converge near the river and push
2-38
-------
O
c
D.
*—t
O
o:
Q.
Hill CHARLESTON. W. VA.
KANAWHA AIRPORT
NORMAL MONTHLY PRECIPITATION
II MONTHLY PRECIPITATION DURING
STUDY PERIOD, DECEMBER 1964
THROUGH MARCH 1966
Q.
DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR
1964 1965 1966
ro
i
CO
vo
Figure 2-22. Normal and study period monthly precipitation at Kanawha Airport.
-------
ro
o
30
25
20
8 «
10
5
0
131
DAYS WITH 0.01 INCH OR MORE OF PRECIPITATION
NORMAL OCCURRENCE
OCCURRENCES DURING STUDY
NORMAL ANNUAL TOTAL 149 DAYS
1965 TOTAL 137 DAYS
El
DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG
1964 1965
SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR
1966
Figure 2-23. Normal and study period days with 0.01 inch or more of precipitation
at Kanawha Airport.
-------
15
I
10
r
llil NORMAL OCCURRENCE
f [OCCURRENCES DURING STUDY
NORMAL ANNUAL TOTAL 110 DAYS
1965 TOTAL 117 DAYS
DEC JAN FEB
1964
MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR
1965 1966
Figure 2-24. Normal and study period days with heavy fog (visibility of 1/4 mile
or less) at Kanawha Airport.
ro
i
-------
the air up in this region. Heating from industrial processes and from the river
water accents the natural upward air movement. The cool flow in the evening is at
first only a few feet thick, and the air is replaced by slight lateral movement of
air over the center of the valley. This lateral movement causes the emissions from
all but the highest stacks to slowly mushroom to the valley walls as the pollutants
drift within the stable air of the valley. As the flow becomes established and
cooling continues, a downvalley component develops in the lower levels and a less
pronounced upvalley tendency may be found in the return flow aloft. The net result
is a thick blanket of polluted air that extends from one wall to the other at
slightly above emission height on approximately half of the mornings of the year.
On a typical night the blanket aloft drifts downvalley at 3 to 5 mph. The lowest
layer of air is relatively clean, being a mixture from the valley proper and from
feeder valleys with less industrial air pollution wastes. The valley experiences
this type of temperature inversion during 66 percent of the hours of the year.
At sunrise the valley's floor and east facing slopes begin to warm and verti-
cal currents are initiated as the warmed air seeks an equal density level. Adjac-
ent cool air descends to form numerous "convective cells" at random over the valley
floor. When these cells reach into the polluted layer that have collected above
during the night, abrupt increases in visible pollutants and odors are noted on the
valley floor and may appear to arrive from any compass direction. Because of the
meandering character of the valley and the lack of a well-defined sunny plain at
its mouth, the afternoon upvalley wind^ is not well developed and is not a signifi-
cant factor in air transport of the Kanawha Valley.
Typically, the daytime flow is determined by the general circulation above
the highest hills in the area. In sections of the valley with steep high side-walls
the flow is channeled to a marked degree along the valley's axis and may in fact be
always one of two opposite directions. Wind speed within the valley is frequently
only half of that above the valley and is subject to abrupt changes during the day-
time as the flow aloft momentarily entrains air from the valley floor. Table 2-1
indicates average valley wind speed of 5.6 mph in winter and 3.7 in summer compared
with hilltop values of 7.0 and 5.3, respectively.
The valley usually experiences the best ventilation of the day during the
afternoon when relatively strong winds are apt to blow across the valley and bring
fresh air into the area. Additionally, the daily maximum temperature and maximum
temperature difference between valley rim and floor are experienced between 2 and
4 p.m., so that instability is greatest in the afternoon on normal days. Suspended
2-42
-------
participate data (soiling) as measured by the AISI (American Iron and Steel Insti-
tute) tape sampler from the 14 stations monitored during the study reveal that
minimum concentrations were recorded at either 2 or 4 p.m. in practically all cases.
Both pyrheliometer and sun photometer data indicate a sharp loss of solar
radiation within the valley. This reduction is attributed to the particulate matter
suspended in the air of the valley. High turbidity values found in Charleston
decreases both upriver in eastern Kanawha City and downriver below Elaine Island.
Rapid clearing is apparent in feeder valleys such as Elk and Davis Creek as well as
outside the valley at the airport. If personnel had been available to take sim-
ultaneous sun photometer readings in all parts of the 50 miles of valley under
study, local increases in turbidity would probably have been found in the vicinity
of each major industrial complex.
Stable air was found to dominate the valley two-thirds of the hours of the
year with at least a 60-foot-deep inversion being recorded at the Federal Building
on over 90 percent of the sunrises. On most nights an inversion quickly builds to
the valley rim or above and persists until well after sunrise. Breakup begins with
a shallow heated layer on the valley floor mixing into a few feet of air above this
layer. As heating and mixing continue, the air within the valley becomes essen-
tially adiabatic 2 or 3 hours after sunrise, depending on such factors as cloud
cover, wind speed and direction, and season. Particulate data indicate that ver-
tical mixing reaches into the heavy concentrations of the suspended particulate
aloft by 6 or 8 a.m., and results in the highest particulate values of the day being
recorded at the ground in that period. Values for 6 and 8 a.m. are about double
the 2 and 4 p.m. AISI tape sampler readings.
2-43
-------
REFERENCES
1. Cleeves, G. A., T. J. Lemmons, and C. A. demons, A Low-Level Air Sampling and
Meteorological Sounding System. JAPCA 16:207-211, April 1966.
2. Davidson, B., Valley Wind Phenomena and Air Pollution Problems. JAPCA 11:364-
368, August 1961.
3. Dickson, C. R., Ground Layer Temperature Inversions in an Interior Valley and
Canyon. University of Utah, Department of Meteorology, 1958. DA 19-129 -QM399.
4. McCormick, R. A., and K. R. Kurfis, Vertical Diffusion of Aerosols Over a City.
Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society. 92:392-296, July 1966.
5. Neiburger, M. and M. G. Wurtele, Chemical Review 44, 321, 1949.
6. Korshover, J., Synoptic Climatology of Stagnating Anticyclones. R. A. Taft.
SEC TR A60-7. 1960.
7. Hosier, C. R., Low-Level Inversion Frequency in the Continguous United States.
Monthly Weather Review. 89:319-399, September 1961.
8. Holzworth, G. C., Estimates of Mean Maximum Mixing Depths in the Contiguous
United States. Monthly Weather Review. 92:235-242, May 1964.
9. Hosier, C. R., Climatological Estimates of Diffusion Conditions in the United
States. Nuclear Safety, 5:184-192, Winter 1963-1964.
10. Sutton, 0. G., Micrometeorology, McGraw-Hill, 1963, pp. 70-72.
11. Defant, F., Archives Meteorology, Al 421 1949.
12. DeMarrais, G. A. and N. F. Islitzer, Diffusion Climatology of the National
Reactor Testing Station, IDO - 12015, April 1960, pp. 44-50.
2-45
-------
SECTION III.
EMISSION INVENTORY
INTRODUCTION
A knowledge of the sources of air pollution in a community and an inventory
of the quantities of air contaminants emitted by these sources are useful for
successful air pollution control activities. An emission inventory provides data
on the relative contributions of pollutants from various industrial processes, waste
disposal practices, transportation, electric power generation, and the many other
of man's day-to-day activities. This inventory also reveals the geographical dis-
tribution of the various types of pollutants emitted in the study area. From the
data gathered in the emission inventory, better judgments can be made in air pollu-
tion control with respect to urban planning, air sampling programs, emission control
activities, and the impact of further population and industrial expansion.
In the recent Kanawha Valley Study, data on fuel consumption, materials pro-
cessed, and waste material disposal were ascertained through the various methods
discussed below. Quantities of pollutants emitted were then determined primarily
through two mechanisms: (1) Application of published emission factors (see Appendix
C) derived from stack tests on similar processes, or (2) in some cases, review and
evaluation of emission data provided by the management of the inventoried sources.
For the purposes of this report all emissions are summarized under the
following general source categories:
1. Fuel combustion.
2. Industrial processes.
3. Refuse disposal.
4. Miscellaneous
These major classifications are further subdivided for tabular presentation.
Fuel combustion includes utility power generation; industrial power and steam
generation; residential, commercial, and institutional heating; and transportation.
Industrial processes include chemical production, metallurgical operations, mining
and coal preparation, asphaltic and concrete mix plants, and other manufacturing
3-1
-------
operations. Refuse disposal includes open burning dumps, backyard burning, and
incineration. Miscellaneous includes solvent and gasoline evaporation, and sewage
treatment plants.
Each of the above source classifications in presented in terms of its contri-
bution to particulate, inorganic gaseous, and organic gaseous pollutants. Some
major pollutants are also presented on an individual area basis. Locations of
major industrial sources are shown in Figure 3-1.
MAJOR INDUSTRIAL SOURCES
MONSANTO CHEMICAL COMPANY
FMC CORP., ORGANIC CHEMICALS
ALLIED CHEMICAL CORP., GENERAL CHEMICAL
FMC CORP., AMERICAN VISCOSE
UNION CARBIDE CORP., CHEMICALS
GOODRICH-GULF CHEMICALS, INC.
UNION CARBIDE CORP., TECHNICAL CENTER
FMC CORP., INORGANIC CHEMICALS
UNION CARBIDE CORP., CHEMICALS
LIBBEY-OWENS-FORD COMPANY
E. I. du PONT de NEMOURS AND COMPANY, INC.
DIAMOND SHAMROCK COMPANY
APPALACHIAN POWER COMPANY
APPALACHIAN POWER COMPANY
UNION CARBIDE CORP., METALS
Figure 3-1. Location of major industrial sources in Kanawha Valley.
3-2
-------
EMISSION FROM FUEL COMBUSTION
Utility and Industrial Power and Steam Generation Methodology
A list of major utility and industrial heat- and power-generation facilities
was compiled, and questionnaires (see Appendix C) requesting information on firing
methods, fuel used, ash, emission controls, etc. were sent to the management of each
facility. All 13 plants queried returned the questionnaire. The completed question-
naires were then subjected to an engineering evaluation to determine thoroughness
and apparent accuracy. The engineering evaluation was followed by a plant visit for
further review and familiarization with individual installations.
A listing of other relatively smaller industrial plants was obtained either
from the West Virginia Manufacturing Directory,! or from telephone directories.
Plants considered to be probable sources of process emissions were sent question-
naires, and those not considered to be sources of process emissions were contacted
by telephone. Information was requested on the type and amount of fuel burned and
the method of combustion. If the telephone survey showed that an installation also
burned coal, a questionnaire was sent to the plant. Natural gas consumption for
the remaining units was ascertained from the gas suppliers.2
Results - Two utility plants of the Appalachian Power Company are located in the
study area - the Kanawha River Station at Glasgow and the Cabin Creek Plant at
Cabin Creek. At the time of the inventory, both plants used pulverized coal firing
in their six boiler furnaces and in 1964 consumed 1,441,020 tons of bituminous coal.
The Kanawha Station operates at a constant loading, whereas the Cabin Creek
Plant, during the time the inventory was in preparation, provided power during peak
periods and normally operated 5 days per week for approximately 10 hours per day.
Since completion of the inventory, however, increased power demands have necessi-
tated the Cabin Creek Plant to reactivate boilers that were not being used during
the inventory. The pollutants emitted from these additional boilers are not in-
cluded in the inventory.
There are 11 large industrial steam-generation plants located in the study
area. The plants and respective locations are: Union Carbide Corporation, Metals
Division, Alloy; E.I. du Pont, Belle; Union Carbide Corporation, Chemicals Division,
with two boiler plants each at South Charleston and Institute; Union Carbide Corpo-
ration, Technical Center, South Charleston; FMC Corporation, Inorganic Chemicals
Division, South Charleston; Goodrich-Gulf Chemicals, Incorporated, Institute, FMC
Corporation, American Viscose Division, Nitro; and Monsanto Chemical Company, Nitro.
3-3
-------
These major industrial steam-generating plants operate a total of 78 boiler
furnaces, which burned 3,148,855 tons of coal, 9,955 million cubic feet of natural
gas, and 41,003,000 gallons of oil and chemical process residues in 1964. The
overall particulate control efficiency was reported to be 71 percent; individual
industrial plant efficiencies varied from 0 percent (or no control) to 96 plus
percent efficiency. Where oil and chemical waste residues were used as boiler fuel,
emissions were determined using emission factors for Number 2 fuel oil. This
assumption probably results in some error in reported emissions; but the emission
factors for Number 2 oil appear to be applicable because the residues were reported
by plant personnel to be light hydrocarbon fractions and relatively free of sulfur
and other contaminants.
Total coal consumption reported for the 84 major utility and industrial
boiler furnaces on stream during the inventory was 4,589,875 tons per year. A
weighted average of the ash reported was 11.74 percent, with a range from 6.5 to
16.0 percent. The weighted average sulfur content of the coal burned in 1964 with
0.95 percent, with a range from 0.7 to 1.7 percent.
The smaller industrial installations consumed 3,608 tons of coal and 4,026
million cubic feet of natural gas in 1964.
Table 3-1 presents a summary of fuel consumption and particulate emission: for
utility plants as well as large and small industrial installations. Tables 3-2 and
3-3 present inorganic and organic gaseous emissions, respectively. Emission factors
used for coal, natural gas, and oil are listed in Appendix C.
Examination of the effects of seasonal variation of these major installations
revealed that the average variation in steam load was about 10 percent. Seasonal
variations in emissions are shown in Table 3-3A.
Residential, Institutional, and Commercial Heating Fuel Methodology
Fuel data for all commercial establishments and institutions were obtained by
telephone, by questionnaires, or from knowledgeable public officials, such as fire
chiefs, health officers, and county school officials. Commercial and institutional
sources contacted by telephone were apartment buildings, automobile agencies, banks,
wholesale bakeries, department and drug stores, hotels, retail lumber companies,
greenhouses, motels, motor freight lines, equipment companies, supermarkets, office
buildings, railroads, schools; and local, state, and federal agencies. Question-
naires were sent to those who indicated by telephone that fuels other than natural
gas were used. Natural gas consumption data were obtained from the gas companies.2
3-4
-------
Table 3-1. ESTIMATED PARTICULATE EMISSIONS FROM FUEL COMBUSTION SOURCES
Source classification
Steam and heat generation
Utility
Large and small
industrial
Commercial, Institu-
tional, and residential
Subtotal
Transportation
Road vehicles
Road vehicles
Railway
Vessels
Ai rcraf t
Subtotal
Overall totals
Fuel type
Coal
Coal
Natural gas
Oil and
residue
Oil
Coal
Natural gas
Gasoline
Diesel fuel
Diesel fuel
Diesel fuel
Gasoline
Fuel used
l,441,020.0a
3, 152, 463. Oa
13,980.7b
41,002.6d
250. 4d
ll,094.2a
ll,439.2b
60,119.3d
9,356.8d
3,433.0d
l,218.0d
42,967. Oe
Estimated parti cul ate emissions
Potential emissions
tons/day
372.2
878.4
0.3
0.2
Neg
0.3
0.4
1,251.8
0.9
1.4
0.5
0.2
Neg
3.0
1,254.8
Percent
29.7
70.0
Negc
Neg
Neg
Neg
Neg
99.7
Neg
0.1
Neg
Neg
Neg
0.2
99.9
Actual emissions
tons/yr
15,512.5
93,440.0
109.5
73.0
Neg
109.5
146.0
109,390.5
328.5
511.0
182.5
73,0
Neg
1,095.0
110,485.5
tons/day
42.5
256.0
0.3
0.2
Neg
0.3
0.4
299.7
0.9
1.4
0.5
0.2
Neg
3.0
302.7
Percent
14.0
84.6
0.1
Neg
Neg
0.1
0.1
^^ 9
98.9
0.3
0.5
0.2
Neg
Neg
1.0
99.9
Percent
control
88.5
70.8
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
76. Of
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
75. 9f
OJ
Tons per year.
Million cubic feet per year.
Neg. - Negligible.
Thousand gallons per year.
"Flights per year.
Weighted average.
-------
V
Table 3-2. ESTIMATED INORGANIC GASEOUS EMISSIONS FROM FUEL COMBUSTION
Source classification
Steam and heat generation
Utility
Large and small
industrial
Commercial ,
institutional, and
residential
Subtotal
Transportation
Road vehicles
Road vehicles
Railways
Vessels
Ai rcraf t
Subtotal
Overall totals
Fuel type
Coal
Coal
Natural gas
Oil and
residue
Oil
Coal
Natural gas
Gasoline
Diesel fuel
Diesel fuel
Diesel fuel
Gasoline
Fuel used
1 ,441 ,020a
3, 152,463. Oa
13,980.70
41,002.6d
250. 4d
ll,094.2a
11,439.20
60,119.3d
9,356.8d
3,433.0d
l,218.0d
42,967.0e
Sulfur oxides
tons/yr
27,320
55,714
2.8
1,609
20
202
2
84,869.8
270
187
69
24
530
85,399.8
percent
32.0
65.2
Neg
1.9
Neg
0.2
Neg
99.3
0.3
0.2
0.1
Neg
n.a.f
0.6
99.9
Nitroqen oxide
tons/yr
14,410
31 ,525
1,496
1,476
9
44
663
49,623.0
3,397
1,039
381
135
171
5,123
54,746.0
percent
26.3
57.6
2.7
2.7
Neg
0.1
1.2
90.6
6.2
1.9
0.7
0.2
0.3
9.3
99.9
Carbon monoxide
tons/yr
360
4,728
2.8
41
0.2
277
2
5,411.0
87,474
281
103
36
2,826
90,720.0
96,131.0
percent
0.4
Negb
Neg
Neg
Neg
0.3
Neg
5.6
91.0
0.3
0.1
Neg
2.9
94.3
99.9
Tons per year.
Neg. - Negligible.
cMillion cubic feet per year.
Thousand gallons per year.
"Flights per year.
n.a. - Not available.
-------
Table 3-3. ESTIMATED ORGANIC GASEOUS EMISSIONS FROM FUEL COMBUSTION
Source classification
Steam and heat generation
Uti 1 i ty
Large and small
industrial
Commercial, institu-
tional, and residential
Subtotal
Transportation
Road vehicles
Road vehicles
Railways
Vessels
Aircraft
Subtotal
Overall Totals
Fuel type
Coal
Coal
Natural gas
Oil and
residue
Oil
Coal
Natural gas
Gasoline
Diesel fuel
Diesel fuel
Diesel fuel
Gasoline
Fuel used
l,441,020.0a
3, 152, 463. Oa
13,980.7C
41,002.6e
250.46
ll,094.2a
ll,439.2c
60,119.3e
9,356.86
3,433.0e
1, 218.0s
42, 967. Of
Hydrocarbons
tons/yr
144
1,576
Negd
41
0.2
56
Neg
1,817.2
15,751
842
309
110
568
17,580
19,397.2
percent
0.7
8.1
0.2
Neg
0.3
Neg
9.3
81.2
4.3
1.6
0.6
2.9
90.6
99.9
Aldeh
tons/yr
4
8
14
41
0.2
0.3
Neg
67.5
120
47
17
6
6
196.0
263.5
/des
percent
1.5
3.0
5.3
15.6
0.1
0.1
Neg
25.6
45.5
17.8
6.5
2.3
2.3
74.4
100.0
Organic acids
tons/yr
n.a.b
n.a.
434
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
355
789.0
120
145
53
19
n.a
337.0
1,126.0
percent
38.5
31.5
70.0
10.7
12.9
4.7
1.7
30.0
100.0
CO
I
aTons per year.
n.a. - Not available.
GMillion cubic feet per year.
Neg. - Negligible.
eThousand gallons per year.
f
Flights per year.
-------
Table 3-3A. SEASONAL VARIATION IN FUEL CONSUMPTION
(106 Btu)
Fuel
Coal3
Natural gasb
Oil organic liquid
wastes0
Totals
Winter
31,045,300
9,797,200
1,526,100
42,368,600
Spring
29,866,200
5,369,800
1 ,438,600
36,674,600
Summer
28,831,200
3,921,300
1,363,800
34,116,300
Fall
29,955,800
6,500,800
1,447,000
37,903,600
Total
119,698,500
25,589,100
5,775,500
151,063,100
aCoal - 26 x 106 Btu/ton.
Natural gas - 1,000 Btu/ft3.
C0il or organic liquid wastes - 140,000 Btu/gal.
Most of the other consumers not contacted by the telephone survey were assumed to
burn natural gas.
Residential gas consumption information was obtained from data furnished by
the gas companies, and coal combustion information was taken from the 1960 census
report for the State of West Virginia.3 The census data were used to estimate the
number of residences burning fuels other than natural gas in areas of Kanawha County
situated in the study area. Information furnished by the natural gas companies,
plus census data, were used to estimate the number of Fayette and Putnam County
residences within the study area that burned coal and oil for heat. These estimates
indicated that 95 percent of the homes in the study area used natural gas as a fuel,
and 2.5 percent of the homes burned coal. These estimates were used as a basis for
determining fuel consumption for both Fayette and Putnam counties. The total num-
ber of degree-days for 1964 for the Charleston area was obtained from Weather
Bureau reports4 and was used for the entire study area. Fuel consumption in resi-
dences was calculated using a method developed by the U.S. Public Health Service
(see Appendix C). All coal burned in residences was assumed to be hand-fired.
Emissions from liquefied petroleum gases, calculated from emission factors for
natural gas, were found to be negligible. Refer to Tables 3-1, 3-2, and 3-3 for
fuel consumption, particulate, and gaseous emissions, respectively.
Results - Space heating for commercial, institutional, and residential installations
accounted for only about 0.2 percent of the to.tal particulates emitted from all
fuel combustion. The total emissions of inorganic and organic gaseous pollutants
were also insignificant.
3-8
-------
Because of the large percentage of home heating by relatively clean burning
natural gas, the seasonal pollutant variation was negligible, see Table 3-3A.
Transportation
Methodology - All data on fuel consumption for highway vehicles were obtained from
the West Virginia State Gasoline Tax Division. For tax purposes, these data were
divided into two main categories: (1) Total fuel usage in gallons per month
for statewide motor carriers (trucks, buses, etc., located in the study area), and
(2) county retail service station gasoline and diesel fuel deliveries in gallons
per month.
Tax Division estimates indicated that 60 percent of the fuel used by motor
carriers was diesel and the remainder, gasoline. Although the data for motor
carriers represented fuel purchased and used in the State, it was assumed for the
calculation of exhaust emissions, that all fuel reported was consumed within the
study area. Fuels consumed by local motor carriers outside the study area were
assumed to be offset by the fuel consumption within the valley by those motor
carriers located outside the study area.
All fuel delivered to retail stations in Kanawha, Fayette, and Putnam Coun-
ties was assumed to be ultimately consumed within these counties. State Road
Commission traffic data were used to estimate, from county retail gasoline and
diesel sales, the amount of fuel consumed by motor vehicles in the study area.
Diesel fuel consumption data for railways were supplied by the railroad
companies.5 The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Huntington District, and barge
operating companies^ supplied data on fuel consumption of diesel-powered vessels.
Data on flights from the Kanawha County Airport were supplied by the Federal Avia-
tion Agency.
Results - Fuel consumption in 1964 for all ground and water sources was estimated
to be 60,119,300 gallons of gasoline and 9,356,800 gallons of diesel fuel. The
number of aircraft flights for 1964 was reported to be 42,967.
Emissions from these sources were estimated from the appropriate emission
factors found in Appendix C. The results are reported in Tables 3-1, 3-2, and 3-3.
As would be expected, transportation sources accounted for the highest percentage of
carbon monoxide emissions (89 percent.) Hydrocarbon losses by evaporation are not
reported in Table 3-3; they are discussed in the section on evaporation losses.
3-9
-------
Seasonal variation of emissions from gasoline consumed by motor vehicles is reported
in Table 3-3B.
Table 3-3B. SEASONAL VARIATION OF EMISSIONS
FROM GASOLINE COMBUSTION
(tons)
Pollutant
Carbon monoxide
Hydrocarbons
Nitrogen oxides
Sulfur oxides
Aldehydes
Organic acids
Ammonia
Parti culates
Summer
23,385
4,203
908
72
32
32
16
88
Fall
21 ,240
3,817
825
66
29
29
15
80
Winter
20,111
3,614
781
62
28
28
14
76
Spring
22,738
4,087
883
70
31
31
16
86
EMISSIONS FROM INDUSTRIAL PROCESS
The study area is one of the Nation's largest basic chemical production com-
plexes. Located within the valley are eight major chemical plants, plus viscose
rayon, synthetic rubber, electro-metallurgical, flat glass, military vehicle, and
railroad car manufacturing plants. Also included in this source category are coal
mining and preparation plants, asphalt hot-mix plants, and numerous small chemical,
manufacturing, and fabrication installations. The emissions from these sources are
varied and complex and, in some cases, unknown.
General Methodology
The information required for the inventory of process emissions was obtained by
both questionnaires (see Appendix C) and personal contact with all the industrial
plants and commercial establishments that were considered to be probable sources of
process air pollution emissions. Information was requested on products, types of
process equipment and operations, and air pollution emissions and control equipment.
Where questions arose or additional information was required, the plants or establish-
ments were contacted and the information was obtained either by telephone or by site
visits.
The questionnaire response from the major plants was excellent, with a 100
percent return. The response from the other plants and commercial establishments
was good, with a 67 percent return from the smaller industrial plants and a 48
3-10
-------
percent return from the commercial establishments, with one follow-up.
Chemical Processes
Methodology - The questionnaire used to obtain information from the chemical process
industries was developed jointly by the study staff and representatives of these
plants. The process emissions reported were reviewed with company personnel respon-
sible for the completion of the questionnaire, and the completed questionnaires
were revised when more accurate or current information became available.
The process section of the questionnaire was divided into six parts: (1) Prin-
cipal products; (2) specific material emitted to the atmosphere; (3) organic and
inorganic materials emitted and not reported in the second part; (4) types of
furnaces used; (5) other equipment or operation including air blowing, dryers, kilns,
solids handling and processing; and (6) air pollution control equipment used in
process operations. The completed questionnaires, coupled with plant visits, pro-
vided sufficient information to make useful estimates as to the contribution to air
pollution by the chemical industries. The responses varied from a detailed report-
ing of emissions, products, and control equipment to returns with more general
information.
Emission factors and published information on emissions or losses from chemical
processes are limited, principally because of the large number of products, great
variety of processes used to manufacture these chemical products, and lack of stack
emission measurements. Also, the data and information necessary to develop emis-
sion factors are usually considered by the chemical industries to be proprietary
information. Because of the lack of emission factors and information on losses
from chemical processes located in the valley, the process emission data presented
are principally those provided by the completed questionnaire.
Results - The major sources of process emissions in the Kanawha Valley are the
chemical industries (Table 3-4). Also included in this classification are the
viscose rayon and the synthetic rubber plants. These plants range in size from
large complexes having several thousand employees and making hundreds of products
- in some instances producing hundreds of tons daily - down to a fine-chemicals
plant, employing less than 100 men and making products in the 5- to 10-pound range.
Emissions from these plants are varied and include organic compounds ranging from
simple hydrocarbons to compounds with complex molecular structures. Particulates,
consisting principally of acid mists, are emitted, as well as gases such as sulfur
oxides, nitrogen oxides, carbon disulfide, hydrogen sulfide, carbon monoxide, and,
possibly, numerous others which were not identified.
3-11
-------
co
ro
Table 3-4. ESTIMATED EMISSIONS FROM INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES
Source class
Chemicals
Metallurgical
Glass and ceramics
Hot asphalt mix
plants
Concrete batch
plants
Lumber and wood
Fabrication
Total
Total
parti cul ate
tons/day
26. 8b
21.7
1.2
0.7
0.2
0.2
0.2
51.0
tons/yr
9,782b
7,920
438
256
73
73
73
18,618
Sulfur
oxides,
tons/yr
24,150
c
c
0.5
24,150
Nitrogen
oxides,
tons/yr
1,240
c
c
0.4
1,240
Carbon
monoxi de >
tons/yr
6,120
c
c
c
6,120
Ammonia,
tons/yr
600
c
c
c
600
Hydro-
carbons,
tons/yr
17,764
d
d
c
50.5
d
17,814
Organi c
compounds, a
tons/yr
32,205
32,205
Organic
acids,
tons/yr
293
c
c
c
1.2
294
Alde-
hydes ,
tons/yr
907
c
c
c
5.4
912
Includes all organic compounds except hydrocarbons, organic acids, and aldehydes.
Includes acid mist.
cNot reported or unavailable.
Included in solvent evaporation losses.
-------
Chemical processes in the study area were estimated to be responsible for
emitting approximately 56 percent of the hydrocarbons,* 7 percent of the particu-
lates, 22 percent of the sulfur oxides, 6 percent of the carbon monoxide, 2 percent
of the nitrogen oxides, 30 percent of the organic acids, 65 percent of the alde-
hydes, and 78 percent of the ammonia (Table 3-4). These emissions are divided into
four classifications organic gaseous, organic particulate (Table 3-5), inorganic
gaseous, and inorganic particulate (Table 3-6). The organic gaseous emissions
listed are reported to be principally in the two- to six-carbon atom range.
Table 3-5 lists the large amounts of acids, alcohols, aldehydes, amines,
ketones, and esters, which are emitted to the atmosphere. These compounds, plus
large amounts of hydrogen sulfide, and other organic sulfur compounds including
carbon disulfide, probably cause a major part of odor problems in the study area.
These organic compounds could possibly cause some of the complaints of irritation
of the eyes, nose, and throat. The 22.6 tons per day of acid mist emissions
probably causes materials deterioration8'^ and also contributes to the reported
q
incidents of nose and throat irritations.
Table 3-5. ESTIMATED ORGANIC EMISSIONS FROM CHEMICAL
AND RELATED PROCESSES
Chemical
Classification
Hydrocarbons
Alcohols
Aldehydes
Amines
Acids
Ethers
Epoxides
Hal ides
Ketones
Acid derivatives
Sulfur compounds
Esters
Nitrogen compounds
Unclassified
Totals
Gaseous emissions
Tons/yr
17,764
3,723
907
411
293
2,767
1,066
5,928
2,382
183
14,408
89
62
1,186
51,169
Percent
34.7
7.3
1.8
0.8
0.6
5.4
2.1
11.6
4.7
0.4
28.2
0.2
0.1
2.3
100.0
Particulate emissions
Tons/yr
542
-
-
480
153
-
-
108
-
5
-
-
-
-
1,288
Percent
42.1
37.2
11.9
8.4
0.4
100.0
*Includes all organic compounds, except aldehydes and organic acids.
3-13
-------
Table 3-6. ESTIMATED INORGANIC EMISSIONS FROM CHEMICAL AND RELATED PROCESSES
Chemical
compounds or
classifications
Sulfur dioxide
Ammonia
Chlorine
Carbon monoxide
Nitrogen oxides
Hydrogen
Cyanide compounds
Hydrogen fluoride
Hydrogen sulfide
Totals
Gaseous emissions
tons/yr
24,146
600
73
6,120
1,241
1,150
13
Traceb
3,322
36,665
percent
65.9
1.6
0.2
16.7
3.4
3.1
Nega
Neg
9.1
100.0
Chemical
compounds or
classifications
Sulfuric acid
Hydrochloric acid
Nitric acid
Sulfur
Calcium fluoride
Sodium sulfate
Sulfur monochloride
Sulfur di chloride
Aluminum chloride
Hydroxides
Miscellaneous
Parti culate emissions
tons/yr
5,348
2,646
292
73
55
4
37
2
16
2
9
8,484
percent
63.0
31.2
3.4
0.9
0.7
0.1
0.4
Neg
0.2
Neg
0.1
100.0
^Negligible.
DTrace.
Methods or equipment reported to be used to control these emissions range from
fabric filters, with efficiencies up to 99.5 percent, to absorbers, with one having
a reported efficiency as low as 10 percent. The process control equipment reported
by the chemical plants, including ranges of efficiencies, number of installations,
and miscellaneous equipment that does not fit in the usual equipment categories, is
presented in Table 3-7. This control equipment is lis-ted in the table under the
categories selected by the industrial representatives responsible for completion of
their questionnaires.
Air pollution control devices, especially in the chemical process industries,
are difficult to separate from equipment used for product recovery. Equipment such
as condensers and absorption columns, when used primarily for product recovery or
for the collection and reuse of intermediates, are often overdesigned, and thus
reduce emissions to the atmosphere. This type of equipment is not reported in
Table 3-7. The study staff did not attempt to determine what percent of the collec-
tion efficiency or which portion of the product recovery equipment is used for air
pollution control since this would be most difficult and time consuming.
3-14
-------
Table 3-7. EQUIPMENT UTILIZED BY MAJOR INDUSTRIAL PLANTS IN KANAWHA VALLEY
TO CONTROL AIR POLLUTION FROM PROCESS OPERATIONS
Equipment classification
Fabric filters
Absorption units
Direct- fired afterburners
Catalytic afterburners
Demister
Adsorption units
Scrubbers
Cyclones
Multi eye Tones
Other inertia! separators
Vapor recovery systems
Boilers
Condensers
Other - such as tall stacks, a
settling chambers, hydrogen
sulfide recovery (sulfur),
neutralization pits, float-
ing roof tanks, inert gas
vent, vacuum systems.
Number of units
reported
95
19
15
2
10
14
67
39
15
4
27
7
14
38
Range of reported
efficiencies, percent
98 to 99.5+
10 to 99
80 to 100
99 to 100
(Unknown)
90 to 99
50 to 100
59 to 99
80 to 90
(Unknown)
(Unknown)
(Unknown)
0 to 99.5
0 to 100
Reported as a method of control of air pollution.
Metallurgical Processes
Methodology - The reported emissions from a large electrometallurgical plant located
at Alloy, a lead oxide plant in Charleston, and several small metallurgical plants
located in the study area were essentially all particulate. These emissions were
either reported on the questionnaire or were determined by means of published emis-
sion factors (see Appendix C).
Results - The estimated particulate emissions from metallurgical processes (Table
3-4) were 21.7 tons per day, or approximately 6.0 percent of the overall particulate
emissions. The predominate emissions were silicates and metal oxides. No gaseous
emissions were reported or estimated, though carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides,
sulfur oxides, and other gaseous compounds are probably released into the atmosphere
from some of these operations. Gaseous emissions from combustion were determined
and are presented in the section on fuel combustion.
3-15
-------
The control equipment listed by the companies includes fabric filters, scrub-
bers, and settling chambers. Some of the installations or furnaces do not have
control devices. The reported efficiencies of the installed control equipment
range from 98 to 99.5 percent for the fabric filters to approximately 90 percent for
the scrubbers. The size and complexity of the process and control equipment and
operations vary greatly.
Glass and Ceramic Processes
Methodology - A large flat-glass plant in Kanawha City, a small glass plant, a
cement storage facility, and several brick and building block manufacturing plants
are located in the study area. The particulate emissions were determined by the
use of either emission factors or engineering estimates. Gaseous emission data
from these process sources were not available, either from a materials balance or
by use of emission factors.
Results - The estimated particulate emissions from these processes, as reported in
Table 3-4, were 1.2 tons per day, or approximately 0.3 percent of the overall par-
ticulate emissions and 2.4 percent of the process particulate emissions. Gaseous
emissions were determined for products of combustion from the heating of the glass
and the firing of the bricks and blocks. These emissions are included in the dis-
cussion of industrial natural gas consumption in the fuel combustion section of
this report.
The control equipment reported by these plants ranges from fabric filters at
99 plus percent efficiency to cyclones with unknown efficiencies. Many installa-
tions reported no controls. Also, the size, complexity, and type of operations
varied considerably, as would be expected from such diverse sources.
Hot Asphalt Mix Plants
Methodology - The asphalt mix plants located in the study area reported either
emissions or production information, which were used with published emission factors
to estimate the emissions.
Results - Four asphalt mix plants reported emissions of 0.7 ton per day.
Multicyclones were reported to be installed on all units, and a wet scrubber
in series with a multicyclone was reported in one plant. The efficiencies reported
by these plants ranged from 80 to 85 percent for the multicyclones to 98 percent
3-16
-------
for the multicyclone in series with the wet scrubber. The plants varied in size
and periods of operation, and also in the kinds of raw materials and types of equip-
ment used.
Asphalt mix plants, when not properly controlled, cause serious local air
pollution problems. These emissions normally do not effect large areas because of
their low plant exhaust stacks - usually less than 50 feet in height - and the
relatively large particle size of most of the materials emitted into the atmosphere.
Concrete Batch Plants
Methodology The concrete batch plants located in the Kanawha Valley reported
production figures that were then used with published emission factors to estimate
the emissions.
Results - The estimated emissions reported in Table 3-4 were 0.14 ton per day, less
than 0.1 percent of the total particulate emissions. These emissions were calcu-
lated for plants having no control equipment, since no controls were reported.
Lumber and Wood Products
Methodology - Emissions from lumber and woodworking plants were either obtained
from reported losses or calculated from production estimates (see Appendix C).
Production data were estimated for a small number of wood processing plants that
did not provide the information requested.
Results - The estimated emissions of 0.23 ton per day of particulates reported in
Table 3-4 were mainly from the combustion of sawdust and wood waste. The emissions
reported were sawdust from wood cutting and shaping operations, and combustion
emissions from the burning of wood wastes.10
The only control devices listed were cyclone collectors with unreported collec-
tion efficiencies. The sawdust and wood waste were burned in single-chamber incin-
erators called "teepees," in open fires, or in boilers. These sources of pollution
cause serious local nuisance problems because of the resulting smoke, odors, and
dustfall (flyash and soot).
Coal Mining and Preparation Plants
Methodology - Since none of the coal companies located in the Kanawha Valley
reported emissions from their operations, production information presented in the
3-17
-------
1964 Annual Report of the West Virginia State Department of Mines was used to esti-
mate the emissions from the coal preparation plant. Literature^»12 indicates that
losses from mineral processing can range from 0.1 to 1.0 percent of the material
produced.
An emission factor of 0.1 percent of the coal produced was used to estimate
the particulate emissions because the losses from coal preparation plants were con-
sidered to contribute little to the study area's air pollution levels. The losses
from these plants are considered to be localized nuisances, due to the large par-
ticle size of the coal during processing, storage, and transportation. This assump-
tion is supported by the lack of complaints of the effects of air pollution from
this source by people in the study area. The absence of coal thermal driers at
valley coal preparation plants also greatly reduces the air pollution potential of
these sources.
Results - Particulate emissions from coal mining and preparation were estimated to
be 33.6 tons per day. Since these emissions were considered to be causing a dust
problem restricted to the immediate area surrounding the plant and haulage routes,
these losses were not included in the particulate emissions used to develop the
suspended particulate emission reduction plan for the study area. Control methods
reported consisted of fabric filters, scrubbers, and the use of oil and water sprays
to reduce dust losses during handling and storage of materials.
Fabrication Plants
Methodology - Included with the fabrication plants are several machine shops. Emis-
sions reported were mainly from cleaning with solvents or painting. The particulate
emissions reported were considered to be insignificant. Where process operations
listed on the completed questionnaires indicated potential sources of particulate
emission with no method of control reported, the probable emissions were estimated.
Results - The emissions reported in Table 3-4 were estimated to be 0.17 ton per day
of particulate and 17,752 gallons of solvent per year. The solvent emissions are
included in the section of the report on solvent losses. Because not all of the
plants reported their solvent losses, the reported figure is considered to be low.
Collection equipment reported ranged from fabric filters with an estimated 99
percent efficiency, down through settling chambers with a reported efficiency of
75 percent, to equipment with no control. The control equipment listed for these
fabrication plants was solely for particulate emissions. No control equipment was
reported for gaseous or solvent emissions.
3-18
-------
EMISSIONS FROM REFUSE DISPOSAL
Methodology
All 13 incorporated municipalities and major industrial and utility sources
in the study area were sent questionnaires (see Appendix C) requesting information
on quantities and types of refuse and method of disposal. A telephone survey of
small industrial and commercial facilities was made to help determine their method
of refuse disposal. If this survey indicated that refuse disposal was accomplish-
ed by burning on the premises, a questionnaire was sent to that establishment to
further investigate the quantities and types of refuse and method of burning. If
questionnaires were not returned by municipalities or the information was question-
able, a general figure of 1,000 pounds of combustible refuse per capita per year
was applied to the number of residents to estimate total annual refuse production
in the area. This amount was then broken down as to method of disposal according
to current trends and previous knowledge of the area.
Examination of per capita quantities of combustible refuse in the litera-
ture ' ' ' revealed a wide variation in reported data. These quantities are
influenced by collection and disposal practices as well as geographical and seasonal
variations. Since no rigorous study of these quantities had been conducted in the
study area, the 1,000-pound-per-year factor was felt to be reasonably representative.
Emissions from open dumps, backyard burning, and on-site incineration must, there-
fore, be viewed within these limitations.
Results
An estimated 146,410 tons of refuse was disposed of in 1964 in the study area
by all types of burning. Two multiple-chamber incinerators - a municipal incinerator
serving the City of Charleston, and an industrial incinerator serving one of the
chemical complexes - reportedly consumed 45,000 tons of refuse in 1964. Refuse
disposed of in single-chamber incinerators, including "teepees," was estimated at
10,190 tons. The remaining 90,720 tons was disposed of at open dumps or by back-
yard burning. One sanitary landfill was reported, and the populace served by this
landfill was not included in the estimate of per capita refuse generation for back-
yard burning or open dumps.
Refuse disposal as a whole contributed an estimated 9.8 tons of particulates
per day in 1964 to the ambient air. Backyard burning constituted about 51 percent
of the particulates emitted from combustion of refuse, with the remaining 49 percent
attributed to burning dumps and incineration. Gaseous pollutants contributed from
3-19
-------
the incomplete combustion of refuse are significant when compared with other, gen-
erally more notorious sources. Tables 3-8 and 3-9 summarize by method of refuse
disposal the amount of refuse disposed of and the corresponding particulate and
gaseous emissions.
Table 3-8. ESTIMATED PARTICULATE EMISSIONS FROM SOLID REFUSE DISPOSAL
Source classes
Refuse disposal
Burning dump
Backyard burning
Incinerators
Single chamber
Multiple chamber
Totals
Material
consumed,
tons/yr
65,560
24,160
10,190
45,500
145,410
Particulates
tons/day
4.2
5.0
0.3
0.3
9.9
tons/yr
1541
1812
127
128
3608
Percent of
total
42.7
50.2
3.5
3.6
100
Table 3-9. ESTIMATED INORGANIC AND ORGANIC EMISSIONS FROM SOLID REFUSE DISPOSAL
(tons/yr)
Source
classification
Refuse disposal
Burning dump
Backyard burning
Incinerators
Single chamber
Multiple chamber
Total
Sulfur
oxides
39
10
n.a.
43
92
Nitrogen
oxides
20
6
8
47
81
Carbon
monoxide
n.a.a
n.a.
102
15
117
Ammonia
75
19
n.a.
6
100
Hydro-
carbons
9,178
3,382
102
27
12,689
Aldehydes
131
43
26
22
222
Organic
acids
49
18
n.a.
11
78
n.a. - Indicates data not available.
EMISSIONS FROM MISCELLANEOUS SOURCES
Emission sources other than combustion of fuel, industrial processes, and
refuse disposal are included in this section. Included are gasoline evaporation
from all sources, solvent evaporation, and municipal waste-treatment facilities.
Solvent emissions are reported in this section, not in "Emissions from Industrial
3-20
-------
Processes," even though a significant percentage of the solvent losses is from
industrial sources.
Gasoline Evaporation Losses
Methodology - Information was obtained by personal contact regarding the type of
storage tanks used, their average filled capacities, the plant throughput, method
of filling the tanks and transportation vehicles, and types of air pollution control
equipment for all the gasoline bulk-storage plants located in the study area. This
information was used to estimate losses from bulk plants and transportation. Eva-
poration losses from the filling of both station storage and vehicle tanks and from
road vehicles were calculated from the estimated amount of gasoline consumed in the
study area. Gasoline evaporation losses from bulk plants, transportation, filling
stations, and vehicles were estimated by means of published emission factors (see
Appendix C).
Results - The estimated losses from breathing and filling operations at area bulk
plants were 1,386 tons of hydrocarbons per year. A reported 65.5 percent of the
gasoline is stored in floating-roof tanks; the remaining amount, in cone-roof tanks.
One large bulk plant with cone-roof tanks has interconnecting vapor lines, which
should reduce tank breathing losses. Submerged filling, or the equivalent, was
reported being used by all the area's bulk plants to reduce gasoline emissions
during filling operations. None of the plants reported that vapor recovery systems
were being utilized.
Splash-filling is normally used at service stations and in filling vehicle
tanks. Estimated emissions from these sources were 346 tons of gasoline per year
for filling stations storage tanks and 349 tons per year for the filling of vehicle
tanks.
The vehicles consuming the gasoline are the largest source of evaporation
losses. Fuel losses through gasoline tank breathing, the hot "soak" losses of fuel
in the carburetor, and the crankcase breathing devices were estimated to be 2,766
tons of hydrocarbons or gasoline per year. The losses from the crankcase "blowby"
are now being controlled on the new model cars, but, at present, no attempts have
been made to control these losses from the older vehicles or the evaporation losses
from the carburetor or gasoline tank.
The total hydrocarbons or gasoline evaporation losses from all sources as
reported in Table 3-10 were estimated to be 4,847 tons per year, or approximately
3-21
-------
Table 3-10. ESTIMATED EMISSIONS FROM EVAPORATION
OF GASOLINE AND SOLVENTS
Gasoline evaporation
Bulk plants
Breathing and filling losses
Filling stations
Station tanks
Automobile tanks
Motor vehicles
Carburetors, crankcase, and
gas tanks
Total gasoline evaporation
Solvent evaporation
Dry cleaning
Industrial
Total solvent evaporation
Total evaporation
Emissions
tons/yr
1,386
346
349
2,766
4,847
2,024
120
2,144
6,991
Percent
of total
19.8
4.9
5.0
39.6
69.3
29.0
1.7
30.7
100.0
5.4 percent of the overall hydrocarbon emissions from all sources.
Solvent Evaporation Losses
Methodology - Information on solvent losses was obtained from the questionnaires
completed by industrial and commercial establishments. All losses reported were
estimated to be solvent evaporation to the ambient air.
Results - Solvent evaporation losses were primarily from dry cleaning, industrial
paints and coatings, metal cleaning and degreasing, and printing. Listed in Table
3-10 are the total reported solvent evaporation losses for the study area. The
principal source of the reported solvent losses - the dry cleaning plants - were
responsible for emitting 2,024 tons of solvent per year. The per capita losses are
18 pounds per capita per year, or approximately 4 times the per capita losses
reported in the Los Angeles or San Francisco area.17 This figure seems high, where-
as the reported solvent losses from other sources would appear to be low. The over-
all per capita emission of 19 pounds of solvent per capita per year is comparable
to the 21.5 pounds per capita-per year emission in St. Louis.13
3-22
-------
Municipal Waste Treatment Facilities
Methodology - The major municipal waste treatment facilities in the study area were
contacted and inspected by staff members.
Results - The facilities checked had primary treatment of municipal waste and, at
one installation, primary treatment of industrial wastes. Treatment plants are
potential sources of odor emissions and must be properly operated to prevent con-
ditions that may cause objectionable odors. All the plants visited practiced some
type of odor control or odor reduction. These methods of operation varied from the
introduction of chlorine into the inlet feed and into liquids flowing to other units
in the treatment plant, to the scheduled cleaning of lines and equipment, and to the
use of masking agents either introduced into liquids or to the atmosphere. Officials
at two of the sewage plants visited recognized that odor problems existed and were
using masking agents to try to reduce the effects of these odors.
The waste treatment plants reviewed consisted of pretreatment facilities or
screening, comminuting and degritting operations; then primary treatment or sedi-
mentation; followed by sludge or solids handling, which includes pumping, sludge
digestion, and sludge thickening; and, last, the disposal of the solid waste and
liquid effluent. Though no secondary treatment facilities are presently in opera-
tion, several are either under construction or in the planning stage.
SUMMARY
Industrial and utility power plants are the principal sources of particulate,
sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen oxide emissions. Transportation is the principal
source of carbon monoxide, and industrial processes are the major sources of acid
mist, hydrocarbon, aldehyde, and ammonia emissions. Table 3-11 and Figure 3-2
present the commonly reported emissions by source classification, and Figure 3-3,
3-4, 3-5, 3-6, and 3-7 show a breakdown of these individual pollutants by area.
Particul ates
The principal source of particulate emissions is the combustion of fuels (82.2
percent), mainly coal, in the utility and industrial boiler plants. Industrial pro-
cesses account for another 14 percent of the overall particulate emissions. South
Charleston (35.9 percent), Alloy (20.8 percent), Cabin Creek-Glasgow (12.4 percent),
and Institute-Dunbar (17.2 percent) contribute approximately 86.3 percent of the
particulates emitted. Ambient air measurements of particulates can be correlated
with particulate emissions in the area near the sampling site, with the exception
3-23
-------
co
I
ro
Table 3-11. TOTAL ESTIMATED EMISSIONS
(tons/yr)
Source classification
Utility power plants
Industrial heat and power
Space heating
(excluding industrial)
Transportation
Refuse
Process
Evaporation
(all sources)
Total
Parti culates
15,513
93,623
256
1,108
3,608
18,615
132,723
Sulfur
oxides
27,320
57,326
224
550
93
24,150
109,663
Nitrogen
oxi des
14,410
34,497
716
5,123
81
1,240
56,067
Carbon
monoxide
360
4,772
279
90,704
117
6,120
102,352
Hydro-
carbons9
144
1,617
56
17,580
12,689
49,969
6,991
89 ,046
Alde-
hydes
4
63
1
196
223
912
1.397
Organic
acids
n.a.
434
355
339
79
294
1,501
Ammonia
n.a.
3
2
60
101
600
766
aincludes all organic compounds except aldehydes and organic acids.
-------
OTHER'
INDUSTRIAL
BOILER PLANTS
70.6%
UTILITY
POWER
PLANTS
24.9%
UTILITY
POUER PLANTS
11.7%
INDUSTRIAL
BOILER
PLANTS
52.3%
SULFUR OXIDES
109,662 tons/yr
UTILITY
POWER
PLANTS
25.7%
PARTICULATES 132,723 tons/yr
INDUSTRIAL
BOILER
PLANTS
61.5%
TRANSPORTATION
9.1%
NITROGEN OXIDES 56,067
REFUSE
14.3%
TRANSPORTATION
88.6%
TRANS-
PORTATION
19.7%
INDUSTRIAL
BOILER
PLANTS
4.
EVAPORATION
7.
OTHER
0.7%
CARBON MONOXIDE 102,352 tons/yr
HYDROCARBONS 89,046 tons/yr
Figure 3-2. Principal source categories of major pollutants in Kanawha Valley.
of the suspended particulate measurements in the Kanawha City area of Charleston.
Emissions from one source area are frequently transported into adjacent source
areas, which may explain the high particul ate levels in Kanawha City.
Sulfur Oxides
The principal source of sulfur oxide emissions (77.2 percent) is the combustion
of fuel, primarily coal, for both utility and industrial heat and power. The other
3-25
-------
NITRO
TO
POCA
ST. ALBANS
INSTITUTE
TO
DUNBAR
SOUTH
CHARLESTON
CHARLESTON
BELLE
TO
MARMET
CABIN CREEK
TO
GLASGOW
MONTGOMERY
TO
ALLOY
D
INDUSTRIAL COMBUSTION
INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES
TRANSPORTATION
OTHER SOURCES
0
10
20
30
40
Figure 3-3.
PARTICULATE EMISSIONS, percent
Contribution to overall participate emissions from designated
geographic areas.
major source (22 percent) is industrial processes. These two sources contribute
approximately 99 percent of the sulfur oxides released to atmosphere. A breakdown
of these emissions by source area indicated that five areas, South Charleston (33.6
percent), Cabin Creek-Glasgow (25.4 percent), Belle (14.1 percent), Institute-Dunbar
(14.0 percent), and Nitro (9.3 percent), contribute approximately 94.4 percent of
the total emissions, with the first four areas contributing 87.1 percent.
Nitrogen Oxides
The combustion of fuel for both utility and industrial heat and power con-
tributes 87.2 percent of nitrogen oxide emissions. Another significant source is
transportation (9.1 percent), and other sources contribute the remaining 3.7 per-
cent of these emissions. As expected, the highly industrialized areas of Institute,
South Charleston, Cabin Creek-Glasgow, and Belle, with their large power and boiler
plants, are the principal source areas of nitrogen oxides.
3-26
-------
NITRO
TO
POCA
ST. ALBANS
INSTITUTE
TO
DUNBAR
SOUTH
CHARLESTON
CHARLESTON
BELLE
TO
MARMET
CABIN CREEK
TO
GLASGOW
MONTGOMERY
TO
ALLOY
Figure 3-4.
INDUSTRIAL COMBUSTION
INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES
TRANSPORTATION
OTHER SOURCES
10 20
SULFUR OXIDES, percent
30
40
Contribution to sulfur oxide emissions from designated geographic
areas.
Carbon Monoxide
Transportation is the principal source of this emission (88.6 percent), with
gasoline-powered road vehicles contributing the major portion. Industrial process
(6.0 percent) and combustion of fuel for industrial heat and power (4.7 percent)
also contribute significant amounts. The major source areas in order of magnitude
are Charleston, Belle, South Charleston, and St. Albans, which are not necessarily
the major industrial areas. The high levels in these areas reaffirm the nonindus-
trial character of the source of this pollutant. Some of these areas are more
indicative of high traffic densities than areas of industrialization.
Hydrocarbons
The principal sources of hydrocarbon emissions are industrial processes (56.1
percent). Other significant sources are transportation (19.7 percent), refuse
disposal (14.3 percent), and evaporation losses (7.8 percent). These sources con-
tribute approximately 97.9 percent of the total hydrocarbon emissions. South
3-27
-------
NITRO
TO
POCA
ST. ALBANS
INSTITUTE
TO
DUNBAR
SOUTH
CHARLESTON
CHARLESTON
BELLE
TO
MARMET
CABIN CREEK
TO
GLASGOW
MONTGOMERY
TO
ALLOY
Figure 3-5.
INDUSTRIAL COMBUSTION
INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES
—TRANSPORTATION
r-OTHER SOURCES
10 20
NITROGEN OXIDES, percent
30
Contribution to overall nitrogen oxide emission from designated
geographic areas.
Charleston, Nitro, and the Institute industrial areas, where organic chemicals or
organic products such as rubber and viscose rayon are produced, are the major
source areas of organic compounds. Charleston, though without a large chemical
plant, has high traffic densities, many dry cleaning establishments, fabrication
plants, several gasoline bulk storage plants, and many gasoline service stations.
The emissions of objectionable odors were not inventoried as such. An examination
of the sections on chemical processes and waste treatment facilities, however, in-
dicates the presence of potentially odorous materials.
The seasonal variation of emissions was not thought to be significant. The
estimated emissions of carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons were highest in the summer
season because of the greater consumption of gasoline for transportation and the
increase in evaporation losses due to higher ambient temperatures. The emissions
of particulates and sulfur oxides were slightly higher during the winter season
because of the increased use of fuel for space heating and for industrial heat and
power. The increase in nitrogen oxide emissions from transportation during the
3-28
-------
INDUSTRIAL COMBUSTION
INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES
TRANSPORTATION
OTHER SOURCES
NITRO
TO
POCA
ST. ALBANS
INSTITUTE
TO
DUNBAR
SOUTH
CHARLESTON
CHARLESTON
BELLE
TO
MARMET
CABIN CREEK
TO
GLASGOW
MONTGOMERY
TO
ALLOY
0 10 20 30
CARBON MONOXIDE, percent
Figure 3-6. Contribution to overall carbon monoxide emissions from designated
geographic areas.
40
summer is offset in the winter by an increase in these emissions from the combustion
of fuels for heat and power. Particulate emissions from industrial processes were
considered to be relatively constant except for some smaller source industries such
as asphalt mix and concrete batch plants. Seasonal variation in emissions from the
disposal of refuse was also considered to be negligible. Seasonal variation of
fuel consumption is shown in Table 3-3A. The effect of seasonal variations on
emissions from the combustion of gasoline in road vehicles is presented in Table
3-3B.
3-29
-------
NITRO
TO
POCA
ST. ALBANS
INSTITUTE
TO
DUNBAR
SOUTH
CHARLESTON
CHARLESTON
BELLE
TO
MARMET
CABIN CREEK
TO
GLASGOW
MONTGOMERY
TO
ALLOY
INDUSTRIAL COMBUSTION
INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES
TRANSPORTATION
OTHER SOURCES
10 20
HYDROCARBONS, percent
30
40
Figure 3-7. Contribution to overall hydrocarbon emissions from designated
geographic areas.
3-30
-------
REFERENCES
1. West Virginia Manufacturing Directory, 1964. West Virginia Department of
Commerce.
2. Personal Communication. United Fuel Gas Company and Cabot Corporation,
Charleston, West Virginia, and Southern Public Service Company, Montgomery,
West Virginia, 1965.
3. West Virginia State and Small Areas. United States Census of Housing 1960,
U. S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census.
4. Annual Summary of Local Climatological Data - Charleston, West Virginia -
Kanawha Airport. U.S. Weather Bureau. Department of Commerce.
5. Personal Communication - Baltimore & Ohio Railroad Company, Chesapeake & Ohio
Railway Company, and New York Central System.
6. Personal Communication Amherst Barge Company and 0. F. Shearer Barge Company.
7. Stern, A. C., Air Pollution, Vol. I, Chapter 10, Academic Press, New York, 1962.
8. Stern, A. C., Air Pollution, Vol. I, Chapter 7A, Academic Press, New York, 1962.
9. Williams, J. D., et al, Effects of Air Pollution, Vol. VI, Interstate Air
Pollution Study, Phase II, Project Report, National Center for Air Pollution
Control, Cincinnati, Ohio. December 1966.
10. A Study of Air Pollution in the Interstate Region of Lewiston, Idaho, and
Clarks ton, Washington, Public Health Service Publication No. 999-AP-8,
Cincinnati, Ohio. December 1964.
11. Stern, A. C., Air Pollution, Vol. II. Chapter 19, Academic Press, New York,
1962.
12. Personal Communication - Staff, Engineering Control Section, Technical Assist-
ance Branch, Division of Air Pollution, USPHS, Robert A. Taft Sanitary
Engineering Center, Cincinnati, Ohio.
13. Venezia, R. and Ozolins, G., Air Pollution Emission Inventory, Vol. II, Inter-
state Air Pollution Study, Phase II, Project Report, Technical Assistance
Branch, Division of Air Pollution, Robert A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Center,
Cincinnati, Ohio, May 1966.
14. Refuse Collection Practice, Second Edition, prepared by the Committee on Refuse
Collection, American Public Works Association, APWA, Research Foundation Project,
Number 101.
15. Ozolins, G., and Smith, R.: A Rapid Survey Technique for Estimating Community
Air Pollution Emissions. Public Health Service Publication No. 999-AP-29.
3-31
-------
16. Mayer, M.: A Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors for Combustion
Processes, Gasoline Evaporation and Selected Industrial Processes. Division
of Air Pollution, U.S. Public Health Service, DHEW, Cincinnati, Ohio, May 1965.
17. Crouse, W. R. and Flynn, N. F.: Report on Organic Emissions from the Dry
Cleaning Industry. Unpublished Bay Area Air Pollution Control District report.
San Francisco, California.
3-32
-------
SECTION IV.
AIR QUALITY MEASUREMENTS
INTRODUCTION
An air monitoring network was established in the Kanawha Valley study area to
evaluate the air pollution problem and to provide information necessary for the
development of an air resource management program. This network was designed to
measure both the extent and intensity of the air pollution problem in the Kanawha
River Valley extending from Gauley Bridge to the City of Nitro.
The network included fixed sampling stations, a mobile laboratory, and var-
ious other sites used intermittently for special sampling. There were 27 fixed
stations, 7 mobile laboratory sites used on a seasonal basis, 9 materials deteriora-
tion panels located at hygrothermograph stations, and 11 additional sites for
special studies. Several of the sampling stations were established prior to the
initiation of the study by the staff of the West Virginia Air Pollution Control
Commission. The additional stations were established to supplement those operated
by the Commission in order to obtain a more comprehensive picture of air pollution
problems within the valley.
Air contaminants measured at these sampling sites included settleable, sus-
pended, and soiling particulates, as well as specific pollutant gases, such as
sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, and carbon monoxide. Also measured was a group of
pollutant gases known as ''oxidants." Attempts were made to measure the concentra-
tion of hydrocarbons, but due to instrument difficulties, the data were not con-
sidered valid.
FIXED SAMPLING STATIONS
The concentration of suspended and settleable particulate matter was meas-
ured at these stations using a high-volume air sampler and a dustfall jar, respect-
ively. The soiling particulate matter was measured by means of an AISI (American
Iron and Steel Institute) tape sampler^ and the sulfation rate was evaluated using a
lead peroxide candle. The deterioration of materials was determined by exposing
4-1
-------
metals and both synthetic and natural textile fibers to the ambient air. Figure
4-1 is a photograph of a typical sampling station.
The locations of the various sampling stations were carefully chosen to
insure that a representative air sample at the particular area would be obtained.
Consideration was given to such factors as: (1) adequate coverage of entire study
area, (2) proximity to commercial, industrial, or residential areas, (3) sample not
Figure 4-1. Photograph of sampling equipment located at North Charleston Fire
Station. (North Charleston West).
unduly affected by sources in immediate vicinity of sampling site, (4) representa-
tive of area of interest, (5) availability of power (where needed) and (6) ease of
access of equipment. Figure 4-2 is a map indicating the location of the sampling
sites in the study area. Also, a list of the stations with the address, descrip-
tion of site and area, and equipment is presented in Appendix E.
4-2
-------
WWEST OF N>TRO
NflRTH CHARLESTON WEST
NORTlt CHARLESTON EA
WEST C/IARLESTON
ARLEST
^
T CHARLESTON
/SOUTH CHARLESTON WEST
SOUTH CHARLESTON EAST
KANAWHA CIT
SOUTH MALDEN
MARMET flKSSBlBELLE
CHESAPEAKE
CEDAR GROVE
WITHERS
BOOMER
M0NTG0MER
/HEIGHTS
Figure 4-2. Location of fixed sampling stations in Kanawha Valley.
-------
Suspended Particulate Matter
Suspended particulate matter was measured at 14 fixed sampling sites with
high-volume air samplers and AISI tape samplers. The sources of this particular
air contaminant are from the combustion of fossil fuels and waste materials as well
n
as industrial, chemical, and physical processing of materials.^
High-volume Air Sampler
High-volume Air Sampler - Method - High-volume air samplers use a vacuum cleaner
type of blower to draw air through a glass fiber filter.3 The suspended particu-
late matter is collected on the preweighed filter for approximately 24 hours at an
average air flow of about 50 cubic feet per minute. After exposure, the filter is
again weighed and the amount of particulate matter is determined by the weight
difference. The results are reported as micrograms per cubic meter (ug/m3).
Composite samples were analyzed for various metals, sulfates, ammonia, and
benzene soluble organic material by the U. S. Public Health Service, Laboratory of
Engineering Science. Selected samples were also analyzed microscopically. The
samplers were operated during the work week on a random schedule (approximating the
National Air Sampling Network's schedule), with two 24-hour samples on consecutive
days. Selected stations were operated on Saturday and Sunday to try to determine
whether ambient air concentrations were affected by changes in industrial operations
and other weekend activities.
Results - A summary of suspended particulate measurements for the Kanawha Valley
Study Area for the period of January 1964 through December 1965 is presented in
Table 4-1. Data collected prior to this study by the West Virginia Air Pollution
Control Commission are also included in the reported results. Listed in the table
are the arithmetic and geometric means, maximum and minimum values, and the maxi-
mum quarterly geometric mean for each sampling station. During this sampling
period the geometric means of suspended particulate measurements ranged from 110
at the west of Nitro station to 332 yg/m3 at Montgomery. The results reported for
all the sampling stations exceeded the goal of 100 ug/m3 (annual geometric mean)
suggested by the Joint Study Technical Committee and approved by the West Virginia
Air Pollution Control Commission.4 Geometric means of 290 and 253 pg/m3 were meas-
ured at the Smithers and South Charleston stations. These stations were considered
to be representative of their areas and had, with the exclusion of the Montgomery
station, the highest measurements in the study area. The Montgomery station was
found to be unduly affected by a nearby emission source and was not considered
4-4
-------
representative of that particular area of the valley. Both the Smithers and South
Charleston stations are surrounded by residential, commercial, and heavy industrial
areas.
Table 4-1. KANAWHA VALLEY SUSPENDED PARTICIPATE DATA
JANUARY 1964 TO DECEMBER 1965
(yg/m3)
Station location
Falls View
Smithers
Montgomery
Cedar Grove
Marmet
Kanawha City
Charleston
West Charleston
North Charleston, W.
South Charleston, E.
Dunbar
St. Albans
Nitro
West of Nitro
Station
number
1
5
6
7
11
13
15
17
19
20
22
24
25
27
Arithmetic
mean
179
347
413
235
242
287
189
209
241
298
199
223
179
132
Geometric
mean
141
290
332
186
187
227
160
181
204
253
159
166
141
no
Maximum
val ue
703
724
1,178
1,044
958
1,081
722
603
750
899
850
1,062
964
466
Minimum
value
23
58
57
25
31
58
51
47
41
73
12
34
38
27
Maximum quarterly
geometric mean
175
323
402
240
225
245
183
232
333
394
216
235
207
158
Figure 4-3 is a comparison of results from the Kanawha Valley with National
Air Sampling Network results from 1957 to 1961 by population of urban sampling
sites.^ The concentrations measured at 8 of the 14 sampling stations in the study
area are above the average for urban areas with 3 million or more people, such as
New York City and Los Angeles.^ Measured concentrations from all the stations
are above the average (1957-60) reported for urban areas above 100,000 to 400,000
population, and all are greater than the national urban average (1957-63).3
Seasonal variations of suspended particulate concentrations are reported in
Table 4-2. The highest quarterly concentrations occurred during the fall of 1964,
with the exception of the three stations in the Alloy area. The maximum concentra-
tions for Montgomery and Smithers occurred during the winter and for Falls View in
the spring. Seasonal variation of suspended particulate results at the Smithers
station probably represents the effects of seasonal meteorological changes because
the emissions around that station were reported to be relatively constant. This
3
conclusion is shown by the small difference of 39 yg/m between the maximum and
minimum quarterly geometric means. The seasonal variation at the South Charleston
East station (fall of 1964 vs summer of 1965) was 196 yg/m . The variation of the
1965 means was 35 yg/m3. This large variation in seasonal means between the years
4-5
-------
MONTGOMERY
SMITHERS
SOUTH CHARLESTON EAST
KANAWHA CITY
NORTH CHARLESTON WEST
MARMET
CEDAR GROVE
WEST CHARLESTON
URBAN POPULATION 3,000,000
ST. ALBANS
CHARLESTON
DUNBAR
URBAN POPULATION 1,000,000
TO 3,000,000
FALLS VIEW
NITRO
URBAN POPULATION 200,000
TO 1,000,000
URBAN POPULATION 400,000
TO 700,000
WEST OF NITRO
NATIONAL URBAN AVERAGE
URBAN POPULATION 100,000
TO 400,000
URBAN POPULATION 50,000
TO 100,000
URBAN POPULATION 2,500
TO 50,000
1 I I
i
N.A.S.N. DATA
I
100 200 300
SUSPENDED PARTICULATES,
400
Figure 4-3. Comparison of Kanawha Valley study with National Air Sampling
Network suspended particulate results.
4-6
-------
Table 4-2. KANAWHA VALLEY SUSPENDED PARTICIPATE DATA1
(yg/m3)
Station location
Falls View
Smithers
Montgomery
Cedar Grove
Marmet
Kanawha City
Charleston
West Charleston
North Charleston, W.
South Charleston, E.
Dunbar
St. Albans
Nitro
West of Nitro
Station
number
1
5
6
7
11
13
15
17
19
20
22
24
25
27
Quarterly geometric mean
1964
Fall
162
304
369
240
225
245
183
232
333
394
216
235
207
158
Winter
141
323
402
176
193
234
213
226
277
220
135
139
121
107
1965
Spring
175a
284
391
181
199
240
161
186
216
227
128
148
132
113
Summer
151
285
256
169
125
153
143
124
170
198
121
97
92
98
Fall
97
301
271
179
165
_ b
178
188
133
233
145
191
112
112
All data
141
290
332
186
187
227
160
181
204
253
159
166
141
no
Underlined values are maximum quarterly concentrations.
Insufficient data.
1964 and 1965 might be explained on the basis of the occurrence of nearby forest
fires and a stagnant air mass which covered the entire area.
A comparison of 1964 suspended particulate data obtained from the study
sampling network and an independent industrial sampling network is presented in
Table 4-3. An examination of these data indicates relatively close agreement for
the same three sampling stations.
The suspended particulate sample results were compared with the goal of
3
100 yg/m adopted by the West Virginia Air Pollution Control Commission for the
Kanawha Valley and with adopted or proposed ambient air quality standards or
criteria of other areas in the United States. A compilation of these goals or
standards is presented in Table 4-4. Figure 4-4 is a comparison of study data with
the proposed goal for the Kanawha Valley and with the standards and goals of other
areas. This comparison indicates that all the study area stations exceeded the
goal proposed by the Commission and also exceeded the standards or goals of the
other areas listed in Table 4-4.
4-7
-------
Table 4-3. 1964 KANAWHA VALLEY SUSPENDED PARTICULATE DATA
COMBINED INDUSTRIAL AND STUDY SAMPLING NETWORKS
(ug/m3)
Station location
Gauley Bridge
Falls View
Smithers
Montgomery
London Locks
Cedar Grove
Marmet
Kanawha City
Kanawha .City
Charleston
Charleston
West Charleston
North Charleston
South Charleston
Dunbar
St. Albans
St. Albans
Nitro
West of Nitro
Winfield Locks
Blue Creek
Cliffside
Station
number
1
5
6
7
11
13
15
17
22
24
25
27
Arithmetic mean
Industrial network9
149
494
377
223
257
152
46
107
Study network
177
374
485
276
292
362
166
229
355
374
255
296
236
158
Based on 26 samples per year, NASN schedule.
Based on 2 samples per week, approximately the NASN schedule.
The chemical analyses of quarterly composite samples of high-volume filters
are presented in Tables 4-5, -6, -7, -8, and -9. Individual station composites of
samples from Smithers, Cedar Grove, Kanawha City, South Charleston, St. Albans, and
Nitro were analyzed for the fall of 1964, spring and summer of 1965, and are indi-
cated in Tables 4-5, -6, and -7, respectively. Composite samples for all stations
were analyzed for the winter (1964-1965) season and are shown in Table 4-8. The
seasonal averages, including the maximum and minimum, of the results of chemical
analysis are reported in Table 4-9. Also included are the arithmetic mean and maxi-
mum values as analyzed and reported in the National Air Sampling Network (NASN)
4-8
-------
Table 4-4. SUSPENDED PARTICULATE AMBIENT AIR QUALITY STANDARDS,
OBJECTIVES AND GOALS IN THE UNITED STATES, 1966
fi "5
Colorado - 120 yg/m , average for any 3-month period
New York State - Objective varies according to regions and subregions
Regional Objective C
Subregion 3-80 yg/m , <50 percent of values
o
120 yg/m , <84 percent of values
Subregion 4-100 yg/m , <50 percent of values
150 yg/m , <84 percent of values
Regional Objective D
Subregion 3 - 100 yg/m , <50 percent of values
o
150 yg/m , <84 percent of values
Subregion 4-135 yg/m , <50 percent of values
200 yg/m3, <84 percent of values
o
Oregon - Concentration shall not exceed the stated value plus normal background
Residential and Commercial Areas - 150 yg/m , plus normal background value
Heavy Industrial Area - 250 yg/m3, plus normal background value
Q
Pennsylvania
150 yg/m3, maximum allowable outside property, calculated using diffusion
equations
St. Louis (Metropolitan Area) - Maximum Permissible
75 yg/m , annual geometric mean
200 yg/m3, not to be exceeded 1 percent of days per year
West Virginia (Goal for Kanawha Valley)
100 yg/m3, annual geometric mean
250 yg/m , not to be exceeded 1 percent of days per year
results for the period 1964-1965. The values reported for the study area are for
composite, not individual, samples. All the quarterly averages for sulfates,
arsenic, and manganese exceeded the 1964-1965 NASN's arithmetic means for the
nation's urban system. The NASN, however, usually avoids industrial neighborhoods
in larger cities. The maximum quarterly composite sample for manganese obtained
during the 1964 fall and 1965 winter quarters actually exceeded the maximum value
for a single sample reported by the NASN. For at least half the quarters, the
arithmetic means for ammonia, beryllium, zinc, cadmium, titanium, chromium, and
4-9
-------
500
I
o
400 - n
en
3.
300 -
Q.
Q
UJ
O
O.
00
200 -
100 -
1
i
E
E
•V
hn
*
7777^
:; j1:.- •"•'." ;fl
AVERAGE
MAX I MUMS
^
K^
*
A
• • 1
• •
•m,
»•
i • i
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**••
1 I
a
•• •
• ••
-
t!*'
f
mm,
U
1
~ V
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*^
PC
^ i
s
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^ 1
I
«tl
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STANDARDS
UNLESS
OR
COl
NE
SU
1
\
^
Jy
1
-1
1
OR CRITERIA - ANNUAL
OTHERWISE STATED
EGON - INDUSTRIAL
EGON - RESIDENTIAL AND COMN
.ORADO, 3 MONTHS
A! YORK STATE OBJECTIVE E,
3REGION 3
. LOUIS
't'i
**.
%
•4
•4/
EKi •*
to •
*! "»
>- OO Z >- Z h- LU 2 OO Z
o: o; o i— o LU > o z: o
LULUh-'-'h-S Oh-eth-
Oh-LU LU rf C3 LU _J UJ
h- S a: :c a; a: 5: "*• ^
z oo <: 3 «t .^
»
a
• • ••• i (7
1!
ce 2
eC LU
CO HH
Q OO
£
• ••••
i
>M
*
frt
rnn At
tKUiML
i "^U i^ •
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... &w .
o o
rv rv
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oo
LU
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o
00
QC
O
STATION LOCATIONS
Figure 4-4. Comparison of Kanawha Valley suspended participate results and
air quality standards or criteria.
-------
Table 4-5. CHEMICAL ANALYSES OF QUARTERLY COMPOSITE SAMPLES
OF HIGH-VOLUME FILTERS, FALL 1964
(ug/m3)
Chemical
Organ icsa
Sulfatesb
Ammonia0
Arsenic
Beryllium
Manganese
Lead
Tin
Iron
Copper
Titanium
Vanadium
Zinc
Chromium
Nickel
Molybdenum
Cobalt
Bismuth
Cadmi urn
Antimony
Station
(Number)
Smithers
(5)
5.4
17.5
0.3
0.13
0.000
n.o
0.4
0.01
1.2
0.04
0.04
0.0
0.64
0.19
0.018
0.0
0.0
0.003
0.0
0.056
Cedar Grove
(7)
8.9
17.3
0.7
0.08
0.001
4.2
0.5
0.0
2.0
0.05
0.10
0.004
1.70
0.11
0.015
0.0
0.0
0.002
0.0
0.0
Kanawha City
(13)
12.3
31.0
5.4
0.10
0.0028
3.3
2.1
0.01
4.3
0.15
0.18
0.017
1.20
0.078
0.041
0.01
0.017
0.002
0.097
0.0
South
Charleston
17.8
30.5
4.5
0.18
0.0017
2.0
2.7
0.01
3.6
0.09
0.12
0.011
0.90
0.048
0.046
0.0
0.010
0.002
0.0
0.0
St. Albans
(24)
12.2
22.5
3.0
0.11
0.001
0.43
1.3
0.0
1.7
0.03
0.07
0.004
0.52
0.016
0.029
0.0
0.006
0.0
0.0
0.0
Nitro
(25)
9.9
23.6
2.9
0.07
0.002
0.59
1.0
0.0
3.1
0.05
0.11
0.01
0.93
0.027
0.042
0.0
0.10
0.0
0.063
0.0
Benzene soluble organic matter.
bWater soluble sulfates.
cWater soluble ammonium salts, reported as ammonia.
antimony exceeded the arithmetic means reported by the NASN for the urban areas
1964-1965. Compounds containing beryllium,12 lead, sulfates, ' and polycyc-
lic compounds16 are considered toxic at certain concentrations or levels. The
toxicity and/or destructive effects on either humans, animals, vegetation, or
materials are not definitely known at relatively low concentrations under condi-
tions of long-term exposure.
The suspended particulate measurements made during the 1950-1951 Kanawha
Valley Study were compared with the present study results. Table 4-10 presents a
4-11
-------
Table 4-6. CHEMICAL ANALYSES OF QUARTERLY
OF HIGH-VOLUME FILTERS, SPRING
(pg/m3)
COMPOSITE SAMPLES
1965
Chemical
Organics3
Sulfatesb
Ammonia
Arsenic
Beryllium
Manganese
Lead
Tin
Iron
Copper
Titanium
Vanadium
Zinc
Chromium
Nickel
Molybdenum
Cobalt
Bismuth
Cadmi urn
Antimony
Station
(Number)
Smithers
(5)
2.7
26.7
0.4
0.18
0
4.5
0.3
0
1.2
0.03
0.02
0
0.68
0.160
0.014
0
0
0
0
0
Cedar Grove
(7)
3.4
19.4
0.3
0.11
0
1.8
0.2
0
1.1
0.02
0.04
0
0.5
0.033
0.011
0
0
0.003
0
0
Kanawha City
(13)
3.9
20.1
2.0
0.06
0.0008
0.53
0.6
0
1.7
0.07
0.05
0.005
0.42
0.020
0.022
0
0
0.002
0
0
South
Charleston
5.0
17.8
1.4
0.07
0.0007
0.23
0.6
0
1.7
0.05
0.07
0.004
0.25
0.015
0.021
0
0
0.002
0
0
St. Albans
(24)
3.1
12.3
0.8
0.02
0
0.06
0.3
0
0.8
0.02
0.01
0
0.24
0.005
1.007
0
0
0.002
0
0
Nitro
(25)
3.0
12.8
0.5
0.01
0
0.10
0.2
0
1.2
0.04
0.03
0.003
0.35
0.008
0.013
0
0
0
0
0
aBenzene soluble organic matter.
bWater soluble sulfates.
cWater soluble ammonium salts, reported as ammonia.
comparision of the arithmetic averages, maximums, minimums, and the manganese and
lead concentrations. A review of the data indicates that there is a decrease in
the concentration of manganese at the stations downriver from Marmet and Belle,
with a slight increase in concentrations at the Nitro and St. Albans stations.
High-volume air samples were not collected upriver or east of the Belle-Marmet area
during the 1950-57 study. The analyses of the composite samples of all stations
during the winter quarters of 1964-65 indicate that the measured manganese concen-
trations decrease going downriver from Smithers to the St. Albans-Nitro area. The
reported concentrations for all stations east of St. Albans exceeded the NASN nat-
ional averages. The emission inventory (Section III) indicates that the major
4-12
-------
Table 4-7. CHEMICAL ANALYSES OF QUARTERLY COMPOSITE
OF HIGH-VOLUME FILTERS, SUMMER 1965
(ug/m3)
SAMPLES
Chemical
Organicsa
Sulfatesb
Ammonia0
Arsenic
Beryllium
Manganese
Lead
Tin
Iron
Copper
Titanium
Vanadium
Zinc
Chromium
Nickel
Molybdenum
Cobalt
Bismuth
Cadmium
Antimony
Station
(Number)
Smithers
(5)
3.0
22.2
0.5
0.12
0.0
3.00
0.0
0.0
0.5
0.02
0.01
0.0
0.86
0.086
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.002
0.0
0.0
Cedar Grove
(7)
3.7
21.9
0.6
0.06
0.001
0.320
0.4
0.0
1.9
0.05
0.14
0.007
0.98
0.068
0.028
0.0
0.0
0.002
0.0
0.0
Kanawha City
(13)
5.4
29.4
5.3
0.07
0.0006
0.27
0.5
0.0
1.6
0.08
0.08
0.009
0.42
0.012
0.016
0.0
0.0
0.001
0.0
0.0
South
Charleston
5.8
30.1
4.9
0.08
0.0009
0.17
1.0
0.0
1.4
0.04
0.07
0.005
0.45
0.020
0.026
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
St. Albans
(24)
1.8
19.7
2.6
0.02
0.0
0.06
0.4
0.0
1.0
0.02
0.01
0.0
0.38
0.008
0.015
0.0
0.0
0.001
0.027
0.0
Nitro
(25)
2.7
18.8
2.5
0.02
0.001
0.09
0.3
0.0
1.4
0.03
0.05
0.005
0.41
0.011
0.022
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.009
0.0
Benzene soluble organic matter.
Water soluble sulfates.
cWater soluble ammonium salts reported as ammonia.
18
source of manganese emissions is in the Alloy area. A review of coal ash analyses
precludes the emissions of fly ash from boiler plant stacks as a major source of
manganese. The only Uest Virginia coal reported to have significant manganese con-
centrations in its ash was located in the northern section of the State and is not
1 Q
burned in the Kanawha Valley. These results reinforce the hypothesis presented
by the meteorologist (Section II) that the valley usually acts as one air basin from
early evening to late morning due to temperature inversions and down-valley air
flows of as high as 5 miles per hour for periods of 10 hours or longer. Emissions
from the Alloy area can often be entrapped within the valley walls and carried by
down-valley air drift (4 to 5 miles per hour) from the evening through early morning
4-13
-------
I
4*
Table 4-8. CHEMICAL ANALYSES OF QUARTERLY COMPOSITE SAMPLES
OF HIGH-VOLUME FILTERS, WINTER 1964-1965
(ug/m3)
Chemical
Organics9
Sulfatesb
Ammonia0
Arsenic
Beryllium
Manganese
Lead
Tin
Iron
Copper
Titanium
Vanadium
Zinc
Chromium
Nickel
Molybdenum
Cobalt
Bismuth
Cadmi urn
Antimony
Falls
View
(1)
4.3
13.1
0.2
0.04
0.0
3.40
0.2
0.0
1.8
0.08
0.05
0.009
0.80
0.250
0.027
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
Smithers
(5)
4.2
22.9
0.6
0.08
0.0
6.50
0.3
0.0
0.3
0.04
0.05
0.0
1.20
0.240
0.020
0.0
0.0
0.003
0.0
0.057
Mont-
gomery
(6)
7.7
23.6
0.5
0.10
0.0
13.0
0.6
0.0
1.8
0.05
0.06
0.0
1.30
0.21
0.025
0.0
0.0
0.001
0.014
0.053
Cedar
Grove
(7)
4.7
19.8
0.7
0.05
0.0
3.50
0.4
0.0
1.6
0.03
0.05
0.0
1.10
0.063
0.020
0.0
0.0
0.002
0.0
0.0
Marmet
(11)
9.1
17.8
1.0
0.05
0.001
3.60
0.5
0.0
0.6
0.09
0.07
0.007
0.91
0.085
0.049
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.014
0.0
Kanawha
City
(13)
10.5
39.8
5.5
0.22
0.0
1.1
0.8
0.0
1.5
0.07
0.04
0.006
0.53
0.032
0.025
0.0
0.0
0.002
0.025
0.0
Charles-
ton
(15)
6.6
22.8
3.0
0.14
0.001
0.91
0.9
0.01
0.3
0.08
0.10
0.008
0.61
0.034
0.023
0.0
0.007
0.002
0.038
0.0
West
Charles-
ton
(17)
6.8
32.8
4.6
0.19
0.0
0.96
0.7
0.0
1.6
0.06
0.06
0.008
0.56
0.023
0.015
0.0
0.0
0.002
0.0
0.0
North
Charles-
ton, W.
(19)
5.1
22.7
2.9
0.11
0.0
0.52
0.7
0.0
1.7
0.05
0.06
0.005
0.48
0.012
0.021
0.0
0.0
0.003
0.0
0.0
South
Charles-
ton, E.
(20)
7.8
22.1
2.8
0.08
0.0
0.26
0.6
0.0
0.7
0.02
0.03
0.0
0.28
0.006
0.010
0.0
0.0
0.001
0.0
0.0
Dunbar
(22)
4.6
19.4
2.5
0.06
0.0
0.24
0.4
0.0
0.8
0.04
0.03
0.004
0.31
0.007
0.011
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.010
0.0
St.
Albans
(24)
6.0
18.9
2.1
0.06
0.0
0.44
0.9
0.0
1.6
0.04
0.05
0.005
0.49
0.019
0.031
0.0
0.0
0.002
0.049
0.0
Nitro
(25)
5.2
6.4
1.1
0.03
0.001
0.28
1.4
0.0
2.7
0.04
0.06
0.007
0.43
0.019
0.044
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.012
0.0
West
of
Nitro
(27)
5.9
15.7
1.1
0.02
0.0
0.08
0.1
0.0
0.8
0.02
0.03
0.008
0.25
0.008
0.026
0.0
0.0
0.002
0.0
0.0
Benzene soluble organic matter.
Water soluble sulfates.
"Water soluble ammonium salts, reported as ammonia.
-------
Table 4-9. KANAWHA VALLEY QUARTERLY AND 1964-1965 NASN RESULTS OF CHEMICAL ANALYSES
OF HIGH-VOLUME FILTER
Arithmetic mean
Maximum
Minimum
Arithmetic mean
Maximum
Minimum
Arithmetic mean
Maximum
Minimum
Arithmetic mean
Maximum
Minimum
Arithmetic mean
Maximum
Minimum'5
Sampling
period
Fall 1964
Fall 1964
Fall 1964
Winter 1964
Winter 1964
Winter 1964
Spring 1965
Spring 1965
Spring 1965
Summer 1965
Summer 1965
Summer 1965
1964-1965 NASN
(Nation-wide)
1964-1965 NASN
(Nation-wide)
1964-1965 NASN
(Nation-wide)
Number of
station
composites
analyzed
6
6
6
14
14
14
6
6
6
6
6
6
Benzene
soluble
fraction
11.1
17.8
5.4
6.3
10.5
4.2
3.5
5.0
2.7
3.7
5.8
1.8
6.8
128. 3a
0.5
Sul fates
23.7
31.0
17.3
22.0
39.8
13.1
18.2
26.7
12.3
23.7
30.1
18.8
10.6
101.2
0.5
Ammonia
2.8
5.4
0.3
2.0
5.5
0.2
0.9
2.0
0.3
2.7
5.3
0.5
1.3
75.5
0.1
Arsenic
0.11
0.18
0.07
0.09
0.22
0.02
0.075
0.18
0.01
0.06
0.12
0.02
0.02
1.00a
0.1
Beryllium
0.0014
0.0028
0.00
0.0002
0.0010
0.00
0.00025
0.0008
0.00
0.0004
0.0010
0.00
0.0005
0.010
0.0002
Manganese
3.5.9
11.00
0.43
2.48
13.00
0.08
1.20
4.50
0.06
1.13
3.20
0.06
0.10
9.98
0.01
Lead
1.3
2.7
0.43
0.6
1.4
0.1
0.4
0.6
0.2
0.4
1.0
0.0
0.79
8.60
0.01
Tin
0.003
0.01
0.00
0.001
0.01
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.02
0.50
0.001
Iron
2.65
4.3
1.2
1.3
2.7
0.3
1.3
1.7
0.8
1.3
1.9
0.5
1.58
22.0
0.16
Copper
0.07
0.15
0.03
0.05
0.09
0.02
0.04
0.07
0.02
0.04
0.08
0.02
0.09
10.0
0.002
-------
-fc.
I
Table 4-9 (continued).
KANAWHA VALLEY QUARTERLY AND 1964-1965 NASN RESULTS OF CHEMICAL ANALYSES
OF HIGH-VOLUME FILTER
(Ug/m3)
Arithmetic mean
Maximum
Minimum
Arithmetic mean
Maximum
Minimum
Arithmetic mean
Maximum
Minimum
Arithmetic mean
Maxi mum
Minimum
Arithmetic mean
Maxi mum
Minimum''
Sampling
period
Fall 1964
Fall 1964
Fall 1964
Winter 1964
Winter 1964
Winter 1964
Spring 1965
Spring 1965
Spring 1965
Summer 1965
Summer 1965 -
Summer 1965
1964-1965 NASN
(Nation-wide)
1964-1965 NASN
(Nation-wide)
1964-1965 NASN
(Nation-wide)
Number of
station
composites
analyzed
6
6
6
14
14
14
6
6
6
6
6
6
Benzene-
soluble
fraction
11.1
17.8
5.4
6.3
10.5
4.2
3.5
5.0
2.7
3.7
5.8
1.8
6.8
128.33
0.5
Titanium
0.10
0.18
0.04
0.05
0.10
0.03
0.04
0.07
0.01
0.06
0.14
0.01
0.04
1.10
0.0096
Vanadium
0.008
0.017
0.00
0.005
0.009
0.00
0.002
0.005
0.00
0.004
0.009
0.00
0.050
2.200
0.0032
Zinc
0.98
1.70
0.52
0.66
1.30
0.25
0.41
0.68
0.24
0.58
0.98
0.38
0.67
58.00
0.12
Chromium
0.028
0.190
0.016
0.072
0.250
0.006
0.035
0.160
0.005
0.034
0.086
0.008
0.015
0.330
0.0064
Nickel
0.032
0.046
0.015
0.025
0.049
0.010
0.181
1.007
0.01
0.018
0.028
0.00
0.034
0.460
0.0064
Molybdenum
0.003
0.010
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.005
0.78
0.0024
Cobalt
0.007
0.017
0.00
0.0005
0.007
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.0005
0.06
0.0064
Bismuth
0.0015
0.003
0.00
0.0014
0.003
0.00
0.0015
0.003
0.00
0.001
0.002
0.00
0.0005
0.064
0.0011
Cadmium
0.027
0.097
0.00
0.012
0.049
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.0075
0.027
0.00
0.002
0.42
o.on
Antimony
0.009
0.056
0.00
0.008
0.057
0.00
0..00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.001
0.16
0.04
aValue reported in 1963 Analyses of Suspended Particulates.
^Lowest detectable concentrations.
-------
Table 4-10. COMPARISON OF 1965-1965 SUSPENDED PARTICULATE RESULTS WITH
WITH 1950-1951 AIR POLLUTION STUDY RESULTS
(ug/m3)
Station
Station location number
Marmet 1 1
Kanawha City 13
Charleston 15
North Charleston
South Charleston
St. Albans 24
Nitro 25
Arithmetic average
1964-65
242
287
189
241
298
223
179
1950-51
475
370
339
246
177
200
353
Maximum
1964-65
958
1,081
722
750
899
1,062
964
1950-51
827
641
404
392
345
310
712
Minimum
1964-65
31
58
51
41
73
34
38
1950-51
255
69
246
85
79
82
131
Manganese
1964-65
(Winter)
3.6
1.1
0.91
0.52
0.26
0.44
0.28
1950-51
0.18
0.16
0.13
0.10
0.07
0.12
0.21
Lead
1964-65
(Winter)
0.5
0.8
0.9
0.7
0.6
0.9
1.4
1950-51
0.01
0.12
0.65
0.12
0.02
0.16
0.18
-------
(from 10 to 16 hours in duration) to the St. Albans and Nitro areas. This fact is
also shown by the measured manganese oxide concentrations in various high-volume air
sampling stations down-valley from Alloy (Table 4-11).
Table 4-11. MEASURED MANGANESE OXIDE CONCENTRATIONS
DOWN-VALLEY FROM ALLOY
(yg/m3)
Station location
Smithers
Cedar Grove
Kanawha City
South Charleston, E.
St. Albans
Nitro
Station
number
5
7
13
20
24
25
Ambient air
measurements
8.2
4.1
1.7
0.9
0.3
0.3
19 20
Regulations ' for the control of particulate emissions were proposed and
presented to the West Virginia Air Pollution Control Commission. These regula-
tions were designed to provide outdoor air containing not more than 100 yg/m of
suspended particulate matter (calculated as the yearly geometric mean average) at
any single station and consideration was given to a 25-percent increase in
industrial growth. These regulations and a description of their development are
on
presented in Section V, Air Resource Management Program. A regulation was devel-
oped by the West Virginia Air Pollution Control Commission for the study area to
control the emissions from hot-mix asphalt plants and became effective on a state-
wide basis.
AISI Tape Sampler
Soiling particulate, or smoke shade, is collected by an AISI (American Iron
and Steel Institute) sampler.22 The particulate is collected on a filter paper tape
with the air flow set at approximately 0.25 cfm. After 2 hours of operation, the
sampler automatically shifts the filter paper to a new position and continues opera-
tion. The quantity of particulate collected is determined by the difference in the
amount of light that can pass through the soiled spot and the unexposed filter. The
results, expressed as Cohs (Coefficient or haze) per 1,000 lineal feet, give an
indication of the soiling properties of the ambient air.
-------
Results - Table 4-12 presents the quarterly geometric means, the average of these
quarterly means, and the maximum quarterly average for each of the 14 sampling
stations. The Smithers station had the highest value for the fall study period
(1.0 Cohs) and the highest quarterly average (1.9 Cohs). The South Charleston
station had the lowest overall value and the West of Nitro station the lowest max-
imum quarterly average. A summary of soiling data by season is presented in Tables
4-13, -14, -15, -16, and -17. Included in these seasonal summaries are the arithme-
tic and geometric means, the maximum values, and the frequency distribution of data.
The high values of the Smithers station during the 1964 fall season were probably
caused by the effect of the high particulate emissions in that area plus several
local and area forest fires. No explanation is readily available for the relatively
low results obtained at the South Charleston station, since a visual observation of
this area indicates heavy particulate and black smoke emission. The low values
reported at the West of Nitro station were expected as the area has relatively low
particulate emissions.
Table 4-12. KANAWHA VALLEY SUSPENDED PARTICULATE QUARTERLY AVERAGES
(Cohs/1000 lineal ft)
(SOILING INDEX - AISI TAPE SAMPLER)
Station location
Falls View
Smithers
Montgomery
Cedar Grove
Marmet
Kanawha City
Charleston
West Charleston
Station
number
1
5
6
7
11
13
15
17
North Charleston, 19
West
South Charleston,
East
Dunbar
St. Albans
Nitro
West of Nitro
20
22
24
25
27
Fall
1964
1.3
1.9
1.8
0.9
1.3
N.m.a
0.7
0.8
0.9
0.6
0.6
0.8
0.7
N.m.a
Geometric mean
Winter
1965
0.7
1.2
0.9
0.8
0.8
0.7
0.8
0.7
1.1
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.6
N.m.a
Spring
1965
0.7
0.6
0.7
0.4
0.6
0.6
0.8
0.5
0.6
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.6
Summer
1965
0.4
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.4
0.6
0.6
0.4
0.4
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.4
0.5
Fall
1965
0.4
0.5
0.7
0.6
0.3
N.m.a
0.9
0.6
0.7
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.5
0.5
Average
of
quarterly
means
0.7
1.0
0.7
0.6
0.7
0.6
0.8
ff.6
0.7
0.4
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
Maximum
quarterly
average
1.3
1.9
0.9
0.9
1.3
0.7
0.9
0.8
1.1
0.6
0.6
0.8
0.7
0.6
Not measured.
4-19
-------
i
IN3
O
Table 4-13. KANAWHA VALLEY SUSPENDED PARTICULATE RESULTS - FALL 1964
(Cohs/100 lineal ft)
(SOILING INDEX - AISI TAPE SAMPLER)
Station location
Falls View
Smithers
Montgomery
Cedar Grove
Marmet
Charleston
West Charleston
North Charleston, W.
South Charleston, E.
Dunbar
St. Albans
Nitro
Station
number
1
5
6
7
11
15
17
19
20
22
24
25
Arithmetic
mean
1.7
0.7
1.1
0.2
0.9
1.0
1.2
1.3
0.8
0.7
1.1
0.9
Geometric
mean
1.3
1.9
0.8
0.9
1.3
0.7
0.8
0.9
0.6
0.6
0.8
0.7
Maximum
6.6
11.6
4.3
4.7
6.8
3.6
4.7
6.1
3.5
5.4
5.0
5.0
Minimum
o.ia
0.2
O.la
O.la
O.la
O.la
O.la
O.la
O.la
O.la
O.la
O.la
Frequency distribution
10%
0.4
0.6
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.2
0.3
0.3
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.2
50%
1.3
2.0
0.8
1.0
1.5
0.6
0.9
0.8
0.6
0.6
0.8
0.7
90%
3.3
5.4
2.7
2.7
4.0
2.4
2.5
3.2
1.9
1.4
2.4
2".l
99%
5.6
10.6
3.7
4.3
6.3
3.3
4.0
5.0
3.5
3.2
4.1
3.5
Hess than 0.1 Cohs/1000 lineal ft
-------
Table 4-14. KANAWHA VALLEY SUSPENDED PARTICULATE RESULTS - WINTER 1964-1965
(Cohs/1000 lineal ft)
(SOILING INDEX - AISI TAPE SAMPLER)
Station location
Falls View
Smithers
Montgomery
Cedar Grove
Marmet
Kanawha City
Charleston
West Charleston
North Charleston, West
South Charleston, East
Dunbar
St. Albans
Nitro
Station
number
1
5
6
7
11
13
15
17
19
20
22
24
25
Arithmetic
mean
0.8
1.5
1.2
1.0
1.1
1.0
1.1
0.9
1.3
0.7
0.8
0.9
0.7
Geometric
mean
0.8
1.2
0.9
0.8
0.8
0.7
0.8
0.7
1.1
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.6
Maximum
2.8
8.7
4.2
5.9
4.4
3.7
5.4
4.0
5.3
3.7
5.3
4.7
3.5
Minimum9
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
Frequency distribution
10%
0.3
0.3
0.2
0.3
0.2
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.4
0.1
0.2
0.2
0.2
50%
0.8
1.3
1.1
0.8
0.8
0.7
0.8
0.6
1.0
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.5
90%
1.4
3.0
2.4
2.2
2.4
2.2
2.5
2.0
2.6
1.5
1.7
2.1
1.6
99%
2.0
4.7
3.5
3.8
3.6
3.6
4.2
3.3
4.7
2.7
3.4
3.3
2.6
\ess than 0.1 Cohs/1000 lineal ft.
-------
I
ro
ro
Table 4-15. KANAWHA VALLEY SUSPENDED PARTICULATE RESULTS - SPRING 1965
(Cohs/1000 lineal ft)
(SOILING INDEX - AISI TAPE SAMPLER)
Station location
Falls View
Smithers
Montgomery
Cedar Grove
Marmet
Kanawha City
Charleston
West Charleston
North Charleston, W.
South Charleston, E.
Dunbar
St. Albans
Nitro
West of Nitro
Station
number
1
5
6
7
11
13
15
17
19
20
22
24
25
27
Arithmetic
mean
0.8
0.9
1.0
0.6
0.7
0.8
1.1
0.6
0.7
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.7
Geometric
mean
0.7
0.6
0.7
0.4
0.6
0.6
0.8
0.5
0.6
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.6
Maximum
6.3
6.1
6.6
3.6
4.7
3.4
4.3
2.8
3.7
2.6
2.7
3.9
2.9
4.0
Minimum
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
Frequency distribution
10%
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.2
0.2
0.3
0.1
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
50%
0.7
0.6
0.7
0.4
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.5
0.6
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.7
90%
1.6
2.0
2.2
1.1
1.4
1.6
2.1
1.2
1.4
1.1
1.1
1.2
0.9
1.5
99%
3.0
3.4
4.1
2.4
2.4
2.5
3.6
2.3
2.6
2.5
2.2
2.6
2.2
2.2
aLess than 0.1 Cohs/1000 lineal ft.
-------
Table 4-16. KANAWHA VALLEY SUSPENDED PARTICULATE RESULTS - SUMMER 1965
(Cohs/1000 lineal ft)
(SOILING INDEX - AISI TAPE SAMPLER)
Station location
Falls View
Smithers
Montgomery
Cedar Grove
Marmet
Kanawha City
Charleston
West Charleston
North Charleston, W.
South Charleston, E.
Dunbar
St. Albans
Nitro
West of Nitro
Station
number
1
5
6
7
11
13
15
17
19
20
22
24
25
27
Arithmetic
mean
0.5
0.8
0.7
0.5
0.5
0.7
0.8
0.4
0.5
0.3
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.6
Geometric
mean
0.4
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.4
0.6
0.6
0.4
0.4
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.4
0.5
Maximum
3.6
4.3
5.0
2.4
3.4
2.9
2.8
1.6
2.4
1.4
1.7
2.2
4.2
2.6
Minimum3
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
Frequency distribution
10%
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.1
O.la
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.1
O.la
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
50%
0.6
0.7
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.6
0.6
0.4
0.4
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.4
0.5
90%
1.6
1.7
1.6
1.1
0.9
1.3
1.6
0.8
1.0
0.7
0.7
0.8
0.8
1.3
99%
2.3
2.4
3.9
1.9
1.9
2.0
2.3
1.3
1.6
1.2
1.4
1.2
1.2
1.8
'Less than 0.1 Cohs/1000 lineal ft.
ro
OJ
-------
-£>
I
ro
Table 4-17. KANAWHA VALLEY SUSPENDED PARTICULATE RESULTS - FALL 1965
(Cohs/1000 lineal ft)
(SOILING INDEX - AISI TAPE SAMPLER)
Station location9
Falls View
Smithers
Montgomery
Cedar Grove
Marmet
Charleston
West Charleston
North Charleston, W.
South Charleston, E.
Dunbar
St. Albans
Nitro
West of Nitro
Station
number
1
5
6
7
11
15
17
19
20
22
24
25
27
Arithmetic
mean
0.5
0.7
0.9
0.8
0.4
1.3
0.9
0.9
0.5
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
Geometric
mean
0.4
0.5
0.7
0.6
0.3
0.9
0.6
0.7
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.5
0.5
Maximum
2.4
2.8
4.3
3.5
3.4
4.8
4.3
8.2
4.7
3.0
2.9
2.6
3.9
Minimum
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0,1
0.1
0.1
Frequency distribution
10%
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.2
O.lh
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.1
50%
0.4
0.6
0.7
0.7
0.2
0.9
0.7
0.7
0.3
0.4
0.4
0.5
0.5
90%
1.0
1.4
1.9
1.6
1.2
2.8
2.0
1.7
1.0
1.1
1.3
1.3
1.4
99%
1.8
2.2
3.7
2.5
2.6
3.9
3.1
2.9
3.2
2.4
2.3
2.2
2.4
aKanawha City station was not operating.
bLess than 0.1 Cohs/1000 lineal ft.
-------
A review of the diurnal variation of the AISI sampler results, Table 4-18,
indicates that the period from 6:00 to 8:00 a.m. has the highest values while the
2:00 to 4:00 p.m. period has the lowest reported values. This indicates that the
higher values occur while morning inversions are limiting the upward dispersion of
the pollutants. The lower concentrations obtained during the afternoon, from 2:00
to 4:00 p.m., indicate the lower pollution levels brought about by the flushing of
the Kanawha Valley by the daytime winds.
The study data were compared with adopted and proposed air quality criteria
or standards. A compilation of these standards or criteria is presented in Table
4-19. A comparison of the study results with these standards or criteria is pre-
sented in Figure 4-5. All the stations exceeded the proposed St. Louis maximum
permissible concentration (0.4 Cohs per 1000 lineal feet, annual geometric mean)
and the Colorado standard (0.5 Cohs per 1000 lineal feet, average for any three-
month period). The average of five Kanawha Valley quarterly means was used in place
of the annual geometric mean for comparison with the St. Louis standard. All the
23
reported averages were rated as "light soiling" by the New Jersey rating system
or "moderate soiling" if the maximum quarterly averages were used. The study
staff understands that the New Jersey system is being revised.
A comparison of the soiling index data obtained with existing standards or
criteria indicates that this particular contaminant is a problem in the Kanawha
Valley. A formally expressed degree of the problem depends upon the air pollution
standards or criteria selected for the study area. Significant reductions in both
"I Q
soiling and haze should result from the implementation of Regulation II - for the
control of smoke and particulate emissions from indirect heat exchangers or boilers.
20
The adoption of regulations for the control of process particulate emissions will
also be required for the reduction of soiling values in the Alloy area, as a major
portion of the particulates measured in that area by an AISI tape sampler are
probably due to process emissions.
Settleable Particulate (Dustfall)
24
Settleable particulate matter, commonly called ''dustfall," was measured at
27 fixed sampling stations in the study area. Primarily the combustion of solid
fuels is the source of these emissions in the Kanawha Valley. Additional sources
are metallurgical operations, asphalt hot-mix plants, and other similar processes.
In most cases, these sources have inadequate air pollution control equipment.
Settleable particulate matter is not generally considered to be a signifi-
cant health hazard, as the particle size is usually too large for inhalation into
4-25
-------
-p»
ro
Table 4-18. DIURNAL VARIATION KANAWHA VALLEY SUSPENDED PARTICULATE RESULTS, AISI TAPE SAMPLERS
(Cohs/1000 lineal ft)
Station location
Charleston
Falls View
Smithers
Montgomery
Station
number
15
1
5
6
Season
Tall 1964
Winter 1965
Spring 1965
Summer 1965
Fall 1965
Average
Fall 1964
Winter 1965
Spring 1965
Summer 1965
Fall 1965
Average
Fall 1964
Winter 1965
Spring 1965
Summer 1965
Fall 1965
Average
Fall 1964
Winter 1965
Spring 1965
Summer 1965
Fall 1965
Average
Time
0000
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.1
1.4
1.2
1.7
0.8
1.0
0.6
0.6
0.9
2.5
1.5
1.0
1.1
0.9
1.4
1.0
1.1
1.1
0.6
1.0
1.0
0200
1.1
1.3
1.4
1.0
1.5
1.2
2.0
0.8
1.0
0.6
0.6
1.0
2.8
1.5
1.1
1.1
0.8
1.5
1.2
1.1
1.3
0.7
1.0
1.1
0400
1.1
1.4
1.6
1.1
1.5
1.3
2.0
0.9
1.0
0.6
0.6
1.0
3.0
1.8
1.2
1.1
0.8
1.6
1.3
1.3
1.6
1.0
0.9
1.2
0600
1.1
1.4
1.7
1.1
1.5
1.4
2.0
0.9
1.0
0.5
0.6
1.0
3.1
1.9
1.5
1.1
0.8
1.7
1.5
1.6
1.9
1.1
1.0
1.4
0800
1.1
1.4
1.3
0.7
1.3
1.2
2.0
0.9
1.0
0.6
0.7
1.0
3.3
1.8
1.5
0.9
0.7
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.6
1.1
1.1
1.5
1000
1.0
1.2
0.8
0.-5
1.1
0.9
1.8
0.9
0.9
0.5
0.6
0.9
3.8
1.8
0.9
0.6
0.6
1.5
1.3
1.5
0.8
0.7
0.9
1.1
1200
0.7
0.7
0.6
0.4
1.1
0.7
1.6
0.8
0.7
0.5
0.5
0.8
3.1
1.4
0.5
0.4
0.5
1.2
0.9
1.0
0.5
0.4
•0.7
0.7
1400
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
1.0
0.6
1.4
0.8
0.7
0.4
0.4
0.7
1.9
1.1
0.4
0.4
0.5
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.4
0.4
0.6
0.6
1600
0.7
0.6
0.6
0.5
1.1
0.7
1.4
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.4
0.7
1.9
1.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
1.0
0.6
0.8
0.5
0.4
0.8
0.6
1800
0.9
0.9
0.8
0.6
1.3
0.9
1.3
0.8
0.6
0.5
0.5
0.7
2.2
1.3
0.5
0.7
0.6
1.1
0.9
1.1
0.7
0.5
0.9
0.8
2000
1.1
1.0
1.1
0.6
1.2
1.1
1.7
0.8
0.8
0.6
0.5
0.9
2.3
1.5
0.7
0.9
0.7
1.2
1.0
1.1
0.9
0.5
0.8
0.9
2200
1.0
1.1
1.3
1.0
1.4
1.1
1.7
0.8
0.9
0.6
0.6
0.9
2.4
1.6
0.8
1.0
0.7
1.3
1.0
1.2
0.9
0.5
0.9
0.9
-------
Table 4-18 (continued),
DIURNAL VARIATION KANAWHA VALLEY SUSPENDED PARTICULATE RESULTS, AISI TAPE SAMPLERS
(Cohs/1000 lineal ft)
Station location
Cedar Grove
Marmet Elementary
School
Horace Mann
School
Glenwood
Elementary
School
Station
number
7
11
Season
Fall 1964
Winter 1965
Spring 1965
Summer 1965
Fall 1965
Average
Fall 1964
Winter 1965
Spring 1965
Summer 1965
Fall 1965
Average
Winter 1965
Spring 1965
Summer 1965
Average
Fall 1964
Winter 1965
Spring 1965
Summer 1965
Fall 1965
Average
Time
0000
1.2
0.9
0.5
0.5
0.7
0.8
2.1
1.2
0.8
0.5
0.6
1.0
1.0
1.0
0.9
1.0
1.1
0.9
0.7
0.5
1.1
0.9
0200
1.2
1.0
0.6
0.6
0.8
0.8
2.0
1.2
0.8
0.6
0.5
1.0
1.1
1.1
0.9
1.1
1.2
1.0
0.7
0.5
1.1
0.9
0400
1.3
0.9
0.7
0.7
0.9
0.9
2.0
1.2
0.8
0.6
0.5
1.0
1.2
1.1
0.9
1.1
1.3
0.9
0.7
0.5
0.8
0.9
0600
1.4
1.1
1.0
0.8
1.0
1.0
2.0
1.3
1.0
0.6
0.5
1.1
1.0
1.2
0.9
1.0
1.4
1.0
0.8
0.5
0.9
0.9
0800
1.5
1.4
1.0
0.8
1.0
1.1
2.0
1.4
0.9
0.5
0.4
1.1
1.2
1.0
0.6
0.9
1.3
1.1
0.8
0.5
1.1
0.9
1000
1.4
1.4
0.5
0.5
1.0
0.9
1.9
1.2
0.5
0.3
0.3
0.9
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.6
1.2
0.9
0.5
0.4
0.9
0.8
1200
1.1
1.0
0.3
0.4
0.7
0.7
1.5
0.7
0.4
0.3
0.4
0.7
0.8
0.4
0.4
0.6
1.0
0.7
0.4
0.4
0.7
0.6
1400
1.0
0.7
0.4
0.4
0.6
0.6
1.3
0.7
0.5
0.3
0.5
0.6
0.9
0.4
0.4
0.6
0.9
0.7
0.5
0.3
0.6
0.6
1600
1.1
0.9
0.4
0.4
0.6
0.7
1.7
0.8
0.5
0.4
0.4
0.8
0.8
0.4
0.4
0.6
1.0
0.7
0.5
0.3
0.7
0.7
1800
1.2
1.0
0.5
0.4
0.6
0.7
1.9
1.0
'0.7
0.4
0.5
0.9
0.9
0.6
0.6
0.6
1.1
0.9
0.5
0.3
0.9
0.8
2000
1.1
1.0
0.5
0.5
0.7
0.7
2.0
1.0
0.8
0.5
0.5
1.0
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.9
1.1
0.9
0.8
0.5
1.0
0.9
2200
1.0
0.9
0.4
0.4
0.7
0.7
2.3
1.1
0.8
0.5
0.5
1.0
1.1
1.0
0.9
1.0
1.1
0.9
0.7
0.5
1.1
0.9
-c.
t\5
-------
ro
CO
Table 4-18 (continued).
DIURNAL VARIATION KANAWHA VALLEY SUSPENDED PARTICULATE RESULTS, AISI TAPE SAMPLERS
(Cohs/1000 lineal ft)
Station location
North Charleston
Fire Station
South Charleston
Alban Elementary
School
Ford Elementary
School
Stati on
number
Season
Fall 1964
Winter 1965
Spring 1965
Summer 1965
Fall 1965
Average
Fall 1964
Winter 1965
Spring 1965
Summer 1965
Fall 1965
Average
Fall 1964
Winter 1965
Spring 1965
Summer 1965
Fall 1965
Average
Fall 1964
Winter 1965
Spring 1965
Summer 1965
Fall 1965
Average
Time
0000
1.3
1.2
0.7
0.5
0.7
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.4
0.4
0.6
1.0
1.0
0.7
0.4
0.6
0.8
0.8
0.9
0.6
0.4
0.6
0.6
0200
1.3
0.9
0.7
0.5
0.7
0.8
0.7
0.7
0.6
0.4
0.4
0.6
1.0
1.1
0.7
0.4
0.6
0.8
0.7
0.9
0.6
0.5
0.7
0.7
0400
1.3
1.5
0.8
0.6
0.9
1.0
0.9
0.7
0.6
0.4
0.4
0.6
1.1
1.0
0.7
0.4
0.7
0.8
0.7
0.9
0.6
0.5
0.6
0.7
0600
1.7
1.7
1.0
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.8
0.5
0.4
0.7
1.3
1.0
0.8
0.5
0.8
0.9
0.8
0.9
0.9
0.5
0.6
0.7
0800
1.6
1.8
1.0
0.7
1.0
1.2
0.8
0.9
0.8
0.5
0.5
0.7
1.4
1.0
0.6
0.4
0.9
0.8
1.0
0.9
0.7
0.4
0.7
0.7
1000
1.4
1.6
0.7
0.5
0.9
1.0
0.8
0.9
0.7
0.3
0.6
0.6
1.4
0.9
0.4
0.3
0.6
0.7
0.9
0.9
0.4
0.3
0.7
0.7
1200
1.3
1.0
0.7
0.4
0.8
0.9
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.6
0.5
1.2
0.7
0.3
0.3
0.4
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.3
0.3
0.4
0.4
1400
1.2
0.9
0.7
0.4
0.8
0.8
0.7
0.5
0.3
0.2
0.4
0.4
0.8
0.7
0.3
0.2
0.3
0.5
0.6
0.6
0.3
0.3
0.4
0.4
1600
1.1
1.0
0.7
0.4
0.8
0.8
0.7
0.5
0.3
0.2
0.4
0.4
0.7
0.8
0.4
0.2
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.3
0.3
0.4
0.5
1800
1.2
1.2
0.7
0.4
0.9
0.9
0.8
0.5
0.3
0.2
0.5
0.5
0.9
1.0
0.5
0.3
0.5
0.7
0.7
0.8
0.4
0.3
0.5
0.6
2000
1.1
1.2
0.7
0.4
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.6
0.3
0.3
0.4
0.5
1.0
1.0
0.7
0.5
0.5
0.7
0.7
0.9
0.6
0.4
0.6
0.6
2200
1.2
1.2
0.6
0.5
0.8
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.4
0.3
0.4
0.5
1.1
1.1
0.7
0.4
0.6
0.8
0.8
0.9
0.6
0.4
0.6
0.6
-------
Table 4-18 (continued).
DIURNAL VARIATION KANAWHA VALLEY SUSPENDED PARTICULATE RESULTS, AISI TAPE SAMPLERS
(Cohs/1000 lineal ft)
Station location
Nitro Junior
High School
Craft's Farm
Station
number
Season
Fall 1964
Winter 1965
Spring 1965
Summer 1965
Fall 1965
Average
Spring 1965
Summer 1965
Fall 1965
Average
Time
0000
0.9
0.9
0.5
0.4
0.6
0.7
1.1
0.9
0.7
0.9
0200
0.9
0.8
0.5
0.5
0.7
0.7
1.1
0.8
0.7
0.9
0400
1.0
0.9
0.6
0.5
0.7
0.7
1.0
0.8
0.7
0.8
0600
1.2
0.9
0.7
0.5
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.6
0.8
0.7
0800
1.3
0.7
0.6
0.4
0.7
0.8
0.8
0.6
0.8
0.7
1000
1.1
0.6
0.4
0.4
0.6
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.6
0.5
1200
0.8
0.5
0.3
0.3
0.5
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.5
0.4
1400
0.6
0.5
0.3
0.3
0.4
0.4
0.3
0.3
0.4
0.4
1600
0.6
0.6
0.4
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.4
0.4
0.5
0.5
1800
0.8
0.7
0.4
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.5
0.6
2000
0.8
0.8
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.6
0.9
0.8
0.6
0.8
2200
1.0
0.9
0.5
0.5
0.6
0.7
1.0
0.9
0.6
0.8
-------
Table 4-19. SUSPENDED PARTICULATE (SOILING INDEX) AMBIENT AIR QUALITY
STANDARDS OR CRITERIA FOR UNITED STATES. 1966
Colorado6 - 0.5 Cohs/1000 lineal feet, average for any 3-month period.
2"?
New Jersey Rating System
0 - 0.9 Cohs/1000 lineal feet Light soiling
Moderate soiling
1.0 - 1.9 Cohs/1000 lineal feet
2.0 - 2.9 Cohs/1000 lineal feet
3.0 - 3.9 Cohs/1000 lineal feet
4.0 - plus Cohs/1000 lineal feet
Heavy soiling
Very heavy soiling
Extremely heavy soiling
St. Louis (Metropolitan Area) , maximum permissible concentration.
0.4 Cohs/1000 lineal feet, annual geometric mean.
2.0
NEW JERSEY - HEAVY
NEW JERSEY - MODERATE
COLORADO - QUARTERLY AVERAGE
ST. LOUIS YEARLY AVERAGE
1.5
o
o
o
o
CJ
. 1.0
X
LJJ
O
z
C3
0.4
AVERAGE OF QUARTERLY MEANS
MAXIMUM QUARTERLY AVERAGE
GO I—<
cC
C2
UJ
u
ce.
o
STATION LOCATION
Figure 4-5. Comparison of Kanawha Valley suspended participate results with various standards.
4-30
-------
the respiratory system. The large amount of dustfall in the South Charleston,
Montgomery Heights, Boomer, and Smithers areas is a noticeable soiling and nuisance
problem, however.
Method - Dustfall is measured by exposing wide-mouth containers in suitable stands
on a roof or other support for a period of 1 month. The jars are covered after
the exposure period and returned to the laboratory, where the total dustfall is
determined gravimetrically. The samples obtained in the study area were also ana-
lyzed for both the water soluble and insoluble portions. The results were reported
as tons per square mile per month (tons/mi2-mo) of water soluble, water insoluble
and total dustfall. Composite samples of the insoluble portion obtained from nine
stations were analyzed for metals content.
Results - A summary of the dustfall results for the period of October 1964 through
December 1965 are reported in Table 4-20. The arithmetic and geometric means,
maximum and minimum values, and quarterly averages are reported in this summary.
The average geometric mean value for the entire study area was reported as 42 tons/
mi -mo, the maximum and minimum geometric means were 175 (Montgomery Heights) and
11 (Crede) tons/mi^-mo, respectively. The maximum single monthly value of 468
tons/mi2-mo was reported at the Boomer station and the next greatest value of 318
tons/mi'2-mo was reported at the Montgomery Heights station. The maximum quarterly
average of 222 tons/mi2-mo was reported at the Boomer station. The Montgomery
Heights and Boomer stations are located in the Alloy area - Montgomery Heights to
the east, Boomer to the west, and downriver from the ferro-alloy plant. In addi-
tion to the electric furnaces, a large coal-fired power plant is located at the
ferro-alloy plant. A large coal preparation plant is located downriver from the
Boomer station. Another source that may be contributing significantly to the dust-
fall at these stations is refuse burning in this area. Other localities which
reported very large dustfall measurements were the South and North Charleston areas,
with South Charleston East at 90, North Charleston West at 68, and North Charleston
East at 63 tons/mi2-mo. These stations are located within 1/2-mile of the South
Charleston chemical complex.
Monthly and seasonal dustfall averages are presented in Figure 4-6. Those
averages show that the winter quarter of 1965 had the highest dustfall followed by
the spring quarter of 1965. The quarterly averages for the fall of 1965 and the
winter of 1966 are essentially the same, indicating that meteorological factors
permitted the dispersion or ventilation of the larger amounts of pollutants emitted
in the winter time.
4-31
-------
Table 4-20. KANAWHA VALLEY SETTLED PARTICULATES VALUES
(tons/mi2-mo)
Station location
Falls View
Montgomery Heights
Kimberly
Boomer
Smithers
Montgomery
Cedar Grove
Chelyan
Chesapeake
Belle
Marmet
South Maiden
Kanawha City
East Charleston
Charleston
Crede
West Charleston
North Charleston, E.
North Charleston", W.
South Charleston, E.
South Charleston, W.
Dunbar
Institute
St. Albans
Nitro
West of St. Albans
West of Nitro
Station
number
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
Arithmetic
mean
34
191
68
123
89
55
38
26
26
25
30
27
22
17
21
17
31
67
68
92
24
25
54
24
27
24
24
Geometric
mean
31
175
61
100
82
54
32
25
24
19
29
25
21
12
19
11
28
63
68
90
21
21
41
22
17
23
20
Maximum
value
51
319
102
468
121
76
117
39
58
83
48
44
37
34
170
54
53
122
120
147
61
44
193
45
138
49
57
Minimum
value
13
77
17
47
28
27
14
12
10
4
12
11
11
1
7
2
14
41
42
62
9
5
18
6
6
6
6
Maximum
quarterly
average
51
222
87
215
121
67
61
38
33
43
29
41
31
30
96
26
47
•91
84
119
36
41
73
38
59
27
32
The measured amounts of dustfall in the study area were compared with sev-
eral adopted and proposed air quality standards and objectives around the country.
A summary of these standards and objectives is presented in Table 4-21. Figure 4-7
is a comparision of the study area data with these standards or objectives. The
study area stations exceeded the proposed St. Louis standard (15 tons/mi2-mo, 3
months average) for residential areas. All but five stations - Crede, East Charles-
ton, Charleston, Nitro, and Belle - exceeded the Oregon standards for residential
or commercial areas (15 tons/mi2-mo above background) and all but three stations -
Crede, East Charleston, and West of St. Albans - exceeded the proposed St. Louis
standard (30 tons/mi2-mo, 3 months average) for heavy industrial areas. Nine
stations, five in the Alloy area, three in the South-North Charleston area and the
O
single station at Institute exceeded the Oregon standard (30 tons/mi -mo, above
4-32
-------
DECEMBER, 1964
JANUARY, 1965
FEBRUARY, 1965
MARCH, 1965
APRIL, 1965
„, MAY, 1965
£ JUNE, 1965
o
^ JULY, 1965
AUGUST, 1965
SEPTEMBER,1965
OCTOBER, 1965
NOVEMBER, 1965
DECEMBER, 1965
JANUARY, 1966
FEBRUARY, 1966
WINTER, 1965
„, SPRING, 1965
•z.
co SUMMER, 1965
" FALL, 1965
WINTER, 1966
XX>^A^^
oo
oo
100 200 300
SETTLED PARTICULATE MATTER, tons/mi2-mo
Figure 4-6. Kanawha Valley settled particulate matter, maximums, monthly and seasonal averages.
400
-------
Table 4-21. SETTLED PARTICIPATE AMBIENT AIR QUALITY STANDARDS AND OBJECTIVES
IN THE UNITED STATES, 1966
New York State7 - Objectives vary according to regions and subregions
Regional Objective C
Subregion 3 - 25.7 tons/mi2-mo, <50% of values
Subregion 4 - 34.3 tons/mi2-mo, <50% of values
Regional Objective D
Subregion 3 - 34.3 tons/mi2-mo, <50% of values
Subregion 4 - 42.8 tons/mi2-mo, <50% of values
Oregon8 - Concentration shall not exceed the stated value plus normal background
Residential or commercial - 15 tons/mi2-mo above normal background
Heavy industrial areas - 30 tons/mi2-mo above normal background
g
Pennsylvania -
Maximum outside own property, calculated using diffusion equations-
17.1 tons/mi2-mo
St. Louis (Metropolitan Area) - Maximum permissible concentrations
3-month average in residential areas - 15 tons/mi2-mo
3-month average in heavy industrial areas - 30 tons/mi2-mo
normal background) for heavy industrial areas and the New York Region C, Subregion
4 and Region D, Subregion 3 (34.3 tons/mi2-mo, <50 percent of values). The eight
stations in the Alloy and South-North Charleston areas exceeded the New York
objective for Region D, Subregion 4 or the dirtiest area projected for that state.
New York Region D, Subregion 4 objective is for a heavy industrial area in either
the New York City or Buffalo areas, while all of the Kanawha Valley stations were
located in either residential or commercial-residential areas. Mention should be
made of the fact that the residential, commercial, and industrial areas in the
Kanawha Valley are generally not isolated, but are quite often adjacent to, or
intermixed with, one another.
The results of analyses of composite samples of the insoluble portion of
study area dustfall results are presented in Table 4-22. Significant concentra-
tions of metals were obtained mainly from the stations in, the Alloy, Smithers, and
Montgomery areas. As expected, the Smithers area had the largest reported manganese
and chromium measurements, while the Montgomery stations had the largest reported
measurements of lead, tin, iron, copper, and titanium. The Nitro station had the
largest reported percentage of nickel.
4-34
-------
FALLS VIEW
MONTGOMERY HTS.
KIMBERLY
BOOMER
SMITHERS
MONTGOMERY
CEDAR GROVE
CHELYON
BELLE
CHESAPEAKE
MARMET
SOUTH MALDEN
KANAWHA CITY
EAST CHARLESTON
CHARLESTON
CREDE
WEST CHARLESTON
N. CHARLESTON E
N. CHARLESTON W
S. CHARLESTON E
S. CHARLESTON W
DUNBAR
INSTITUTE
ST. ALBANS
NITRO
WEST OF ST. ALBANS
WEST OF NITRO
STUDY GEOMETRIC MEAN
QUARTERLY AVERAGE
N.Y. STATE
OREGON
N.Y. STATE
ST. LOUIS
N.Y. AND OREGON
ST. LOUIS
LLJ
_L
50 100 150
SETTLED PARTICULATE, tons/mi2-mo
200
250
Figure 4-7. Comparison of Kanawha Valley settled particulate results with air quality standards
or criteria.
4-35
-------
co
en
Table 4-22. METALS ANALYSIS OF SELECTED INSOLUBLE DUSTFALL SAMPLES
Station location
Smithers
Montgomery
Cedar Grove
Marmet
Kanawha City
North Charleston
South Charleston
St. Albans
Nitro
Station
number
5
6
7
11
13
24
25
Metals, percent by weight
Barium
0.0007
0.0007
0.0007
0.0007
0.0007
0.0007
0.0007
0.0007
0.0007
Manganese
0.62
0.14
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
Lead
0.036
0.036
0.036
0.036
0.036
0.036
0.036
0.036
0.036
Tin
0.005
0.11
0.02
0.005
0.005
0.005
0.005
0.005
0.005
Iron
0.40
7.8
0.23
0.68
0.52
0.43
0.32
0.24
0.14
Copper
2.20
3.6
0.09
0.14
0.17
0.11
0.10
0.39
0.038
Titanium
0.022
0.028
0.002
0.009
0.008
0.029
0.032
0.007
0.0037
Vanadium
0.0029
0.0029
0.0029
0.0029
0.0029
0.0029
0.0029
0.0029
0.0029
-------
Table 4-22 (continued). METALS ANALYSIS OF SELECTED INSOLUBLE DUSTFALL SAMPLES
Station location
Smithers
Montgomery
Cedar Grove
Mantiet
Kanawha City
North Charleston
South Charleston
St. Albans
Nitro
Station
number
5
6
7
11
13
24
25
Metals, percent by weight
Zinc-
0.19
0.19
0.19
0.19
0.19
0.19
0.19
0.19
0.19
Chromium
0.012
0.00
0.005
0.005
0.005
0.005
0.005
0.005
0.005
Nickel
0.0057
0.018
0.0057
0.0057
0.0057
0.0057
0.0057
0.0057
0.019
Molybdenum
0.0022
0.0022
0.0022
0.0022
0.0022
0.0022
0.0022
0.0022
0.0022
Cobalt
0.0057
0.0057
0.0057
0.0057
0.0057
0.0057
0.0057
0.0057
0.0057
Bismuth
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
Cadmi urn
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
Antimony
0.036
0.036
0.036
0.036
0.036
0.036
0.036
0.036
0.036
I
GO
-------
A comparison of this study's dustfall measurements with the 1950-57 Kanawha
Valley study measurements is presented in Table 4-23. All but two of the compar-
able stations reported a reduction in average distfall. The Smithers station
indicated a slight average increase and the Nitro station indicated practically no
average change. Reductions in the study periods' averages of approximately 50 per-
cent or more were reported for Kanawha City (68 percent), Marmet (65 percent),
Montgomery (49 percent), with other significant reductions for South Charleston
(37 percent), Cedar Grove (34 percent), and North Charleston (33 percent). The
metals analyses of the 1950-57 dustfall samples also indicated that dustfall in the
Alloy area, as expected, had the greatest metals concentrations.
The adoption and resulting corrective action of regulations covering particu-
lates can be expected to bring about a greater improvement in settleable particu-
lates than in suspended particulates at most sampling areas. This should occur
because collectors and other control methods are generally more effective in remov-
ing larger size particles (dustfall) than the smaller size particles (suspended
particulates).
Sulfation Rate (Lead Peroxide Candle)
Sulfur oxides and other sulfur compounds were measured at 27 fixed sampling
sites with lead peroxide candles. The sources of sulfur oxides are the combustion
of fuels, mainly coal; industrial processes, such as sulfuric acid manufacturing
plants; the disposal of wastes, such as the flaring (burning) of organic or
inorganic sulfur compounds, and other small emission sources. The measurement of
these compounds is of interest due to their harmful effects on the health of humans
and animals; damage to vegetation; deterioration of materials such as metals, stone-
work, fabrics, paper, etc.; and reduction in visibility.
Method - The sampler consisted of a cylinder wrapped with a gauze coated with lead
peroxide. Sulfur oxides and other sulfur compounds in the air, such as mercap-
tans, hydrogen sulfide, etc., react with the lead peroxide to form lead sulfate.
The candles are exposed in an appropriate shelter for a period of 1 month and then
analyzed for sulfate content. The results are usually expressed in milligrams of
sulfur trioxide per 100 square centimeters per day (mg $03/100 cm2-day). Because
the reactivity of lead peroxide varies from one batch to another, sufficient lead
peroxide was obtained for the entire study. Further, in order that the study
results could be compared and correlated with results in other areas, the batch of
lead peroxide was standardized against a standard lead peroxide candle purchased
4-38
-------
Table 4-23. COMPARISON OF 1964-65 DUSTFALL RESULTS WITH 1950-51 AIR POLLUTION STUDY RESULTS
Station location
Smithers
Montgomery
Cedar Grove
Marmet
Kanawha City
North Charleston
South Charleston
St. Albans
Nitro
Station
number
5
6
7
11
13
24
25
Arithmetic average,
tons/mi2/mo
1964-65
88.9
55.2
38.1
29.9
22.3
68.1
92.1
23.9
26.7
1950-51
82.2
107.5
57.4
86.5
70.8
102.3
146.6
34.5
27.7
Maximum,
tons/mi 2-mo
1964-65
121.1
76.1
117.1
47.8
36.5
119.7
146.7
45.2
138.2
1950-51
114.6
152.9
76.5
105.8
92.5
153.6
325.0
47.1
43.8
Manganese, %
1964-65
0.62
0.14
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
1950-51
0.13
0.11
-
0.04
0.04
-
-
0.04
0.09
Metals
Lead, %
1964-65
0.036
0.030
0.036
0.036
0.036
0.036
0.036
0.036
0.036
1950-51
2.0
2.0
-
2.0
2.0
-
-
2.0
2.0
Iron, %
1964-65
0.40
7.8
0.23
0.68
0.52
0.43
0.32
0.24
0.14
1950-51
0.63
0.75
-
0.63
0.50
-
-
0.38
0.38
Copper, %
1964-65
2.2
3.6
0.09
0.14
0.17
0.11
0.10
0.39
0.04
1950-51
0.02
0.02
-
0.01
0.02
-
-
0.02
0.001
I
GO
to
-------
from Research Appliance Company, which in turn was standardized to the British
Standard Batch Type A.
Results - A summary of the sulfation results for the Kanawha Valley for the period
of October 1964 through December 1965 is reported in Table 4-24. The highest
geometric mean was reported at North Charleston,West (1.1 mg S03/100 cm2-day) and
the station with the lowest reported geometric mean was Crede (0.23 mg S03/100
cm2-day). Three of the four stations with the highest reported results, North
Table 4-24. KANAWHA VALLEY SULFATION DATA. OCTOBER 1964 THROUGH DECEMBER 1965
(mg S03/100 cm2-day)
Station location
Falls View
Montgomery Heights
Kimberly
Boomer
Smithers
Montgomery
Cedar Grove
Chelyan
Chesapeake
Belle
Marmet
South Maiden
Kanawha City
East Charleston
Charleston
Crede
West Charleston
North Charleston, E.
North Charleston, W.
South Charleston, E.
South Charleston, W.
Dunbar
Institute
St. Albans
Nitro
West of St. Albans
West of Nitro
Station
number
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
16
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
Arithmetic
mean
0.36
0.34
0.30
0.44
0.31
0.42
0.44
0.66
0.49
0.57
0.50
0.67
0.67
0.55
0.71
0.25
0.62
0.96
1.65
1.02
0.31
0.39
0.56
0.46
0.67
0.38
0.86
Geometric
mean
0.27
0.29
0.18
0.38
0.29
0.31
0.38
0.47
0.40
0.53
0.45
0.62
0.59
0.52
0.60
0.23
0.56
0.75
1.13
0.96
0.29
0.39
0.54
0.43
0.45
0.32
0.82
Maximum
value
0.96
0.87
1.37
1.13
0.47
1.62
0.96
2.20
0.75
0.82
0.98
1.09
1.51
0.88
1.29
0.90
1.30
2.43
7.54
1.74
0.57
0.71
0.92
0.82
1.35
0.94
1.35
Minimum
value
0.10
0.12
0.03
0.20
0.17
0.04
0.09
0.05
0.05
0.19
0.18
0.27
0.11
0.27
0.31
0.04
0.28
0.12
0.56
0.57
0.15
0.08
0.38
0.24
0.30
0.01
0.43
4-40
-------
Charleston West, South Charleston East, and North Charleston East, are located near
the South Charleston industrial complex. The third highest results were reported
from the West of Nitro station, which is located near the Nitro industrial complex.
Approximately 33.6 percent of the sulfur oxides are emitted in the South Charleston
area, while the emissions reported in the Nitro area are less than those reported
for the Cabin Creek, Glasgow, Belle, and Institute areas (see Section III- Emission
Inventory).
The South Charleston and Nitro areas both reported significant emissions of
sulfuric acid mists, while these types of emissions are reported to be very small
in the other areas. Apparently, the rate of sulfation of sulfuric acid mist is
greater than that of sulfur oxides. Table 4-25 supports this concept and also
indicates that there seems to be little correlation between the sulfation rate
results and the amount of sulfates reported in the suspended particulate matter.
The sulfation rates reported for the Kanawha City, South Maiden, and Charleston
stations are comparatively high with no nearby sources, indicating the transport
Table 4-25. COMPARISON OF SULFATION RATES WITH SULFATES
AND TOTAL SUSPENDED PARTICULATE MATTER
Station
location
Falls View
Smithers
Montgomery
Cedar Grove
Marmet
Kanawha City
Charleston
West Charleston
North Charleston
South Charleston
Dunbar
St. Albans
Nitro
West of Nitro
Station
number
1
5
6
7
11
13
15
17
7
7
22
24
25
27
o
Suspended particulates (yg/m )
Sulfates
13. lb
22. 3C
23. 6b
19. 6C
17. 8b
30. lc
22. 8b
32. 8b
22. 7b
25. lc
19. 4b
18. 4C
17. 9C
15. 7b
Geometric meana
141
290
332
186
187
227
160
181
204
253
159
165
141
110 ,
Sulfation
(nig S03/100 cm2-day)
0.27
0.29
0.31
0.38
0.45
0.59
0.60
0.56
1.13
0.96
0.39
0.43
0.45
0.82
Study results through December 1965.
Results from 1965 winter quarter.
"Average of four quarters of sulfate results.
4-41
-------
of sulfur oxides from one source area to another. The largest monthly sulfation
rate measurements were 7.54 mg $03/100 cm2-day at the North Charleston West
station, with the smallest monthly reported values of 0.01 mg SOg/100 cm2-day
recorded at the West of St. Albans station. Values below 0.1 mg S03/100 cm2-day
are of the order of magnitude of the reagent blank and consequently indicate very
low sulfation rates.
A comparison of the study sulfation rate results with the proposed St. Louis
Metropolitan Area maximum air quality goals (limits), Table 4-26, indicates that
25 of the 27 stations exceeded the goal of a yearly geometric mean of 0.25 mg S03/
100 cm2-day and 26 of the 27 sampling sites exceeded the monthly goal of 0.50 mg
S03/100 cm2-day. Only the Crede and Kimberly stations were under the St. Louis
yearly goal and only the Smithers station was under the monthly goal. This compar-
ison indicates that a valley-wide reduction of sulfur oxide emissions would be
required to reduce concentrations to meet the proposed St. Louis air quality limits.
Table 4-26. SULFATION RATE AMBIENT AIR QUALITY GOALS
IN THE UNITED STATES, 1966
St. Louis10 (Metropolitan Area)
Maximum permissible concentration 0.25 mg 503/100 cm2-day,
annual average.
0.50 mg S03/100 cm2-day, for any 1-month period.
A compilation of the maximum, monthly and seasonal averages of the Kanawha
Valley area sulfation rates, Figure 4-8, indicates significant seasonal variations
in these values. Data obtained for a period of less than two years are not suffic-
ient to determine monthly and seasonal patterns with any degree of certainty.
Mobile Laboratory
Outdoor air concentrations of sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, carbon monox-
ide, oxidants (as ozone), hydrocarbons, and either suspended particulate (as soiling
index) or hydrogen sulfide were continuously measured at seven sites by instruments
in the U.S. Public Health Service mobile laboratory. Wind speed and direction were
also obtained in order to correlate outdoor air concentrations with meteorological
measurements and calculations.
4-42
-------
DECEMBER 1964
JANUARY 1965
FEBRUARY 1965
MARCH 1965
APRIL 1965
MAY 1965
JUNE 1965
JULY 1965
AUGUST 1965
SEPTEMBER 1965
OCTOBER 1965
NOVEMBER 1965
DECEMBER 1965
JANUARY 1966
FEBRUARY 1966
WINTER 1965
SPRING 1965
SUMMER 1965
FALL 1965
WINTER 1966
MAXIMUMS
MONTHLY AND SEASONAL
SULFATION RATES, mg S03/100 cm^-day
Figure 4-8. Kanawha Valley sulfation rates, maximums, monthly and seasonal averages.
4-43
-------
Sampling Sites - The project agreement contracted for the mobile laboratory to be
located in heavily populated areas. Since the lack of sufficient time and equip-
ment prevented sampling in every heavily populated area in the valley, the decision
was made to sample those areas with known or potential problems. The downtown
Charleston site was selected as the area with the maximum vehicle emissions. The
South Charleston, Nitro, North Charleston, and Marmet sites were selected prin-
cipally to determine the effect of industrial emissions on the air of areas norm-
ally considered to be commercial and residential, but having the possibility of
being affected by industrial sources. This effect was expected to be pronounced,
since natural gas is the major (95+ percent) fuel used in commercial and residen-
tial space heating and only a small fraction of combustible refuse is burned on
site by commercial and residential sources in these populated areas. The Kanawha
City site was selected because this area is commercial and residential with no
nearby industrial sources and has one of the highest suspended particulate levels
measured in the valley. Also a comparison was to be made of the pollutant levels
in this area with other areas in the Kanawha Valley.
Method - The sampling was conducted for 1-month periods during the several seas-
ons of the year at different locations so that "seasonal" variation in air pollution
concentrations might be determined. This mobile unit remained at some of the samp-
ling sites for 2-month periods for special studies. Figure 4-9 indicates the
location of each sampling site, while Table 4-27 indicates the pollutants measured
at each site. Figure 4-9A shows photographs of the mobile laboratory at the North
Charleston sampling site. Instrument difficulties prevented continuous measuring
of all pollutants at all sites. Especially troublesome was the measurement of
hydrocarbons; two instruments were used with little success.
Table 4-28 briefly describes the instruments used to measure the common pol-
lutants. More detailed descriptions of the instruments and methods used are found
in Appendix D. Use of the mobile laboratory in previous air pollution studies
elsewhere in the United States had been described in technical and community air
pollution survey reports.
Pollutant concentrations (indicated as a continuous trace on strip-chart
recorders) were averaged manually for 1/2-hour intervals and tabulated on data forms.
Wind speed and direction data were averaged manually for 1-hour intervals and tab-
ulated on'data forms. These data were then card-punched and fed into a computer for
data processing and storage. Computer output consisted of finished summary tables
on hourly variation in pollutant concentration, daily average and average for a
given sampling interval, frequency distribution of hourly average concentrations;
4-44
-------
|J\RO JUNIOR HIGH SCJOOL
)ST OFFICE
KANAWHA CIT1
Figure 4-9A.
Figure 4-9. Location of mobile laboratory sampling sites,
-------
Table 4-27. GASEOUS POLLUTANTS MEASURED USING CONTINUOUS MONITORING INSTRUMENTS
Station
Charleston
Charleston
South Charleston
South Charleston
South Charleston
Nitro (Post Office)
Nitro
(Junior high school)
Kanawha City
Kanawha City
Kanawha City
North Charleston
North Charleston
Marmet
Season
Fall 1964
Winter 1965
Fall 1964
Winter 1965
Summer 1965
Fa 1,1 1964
Spring 1965
Winter 1965
Spring 1965
Fall 1965
Spring 1965
Fall 1965
Winter 1965
Sulfur
dioxide
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Nitrogen
dioxide
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Carbon
monoxide
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Carbon
dioxide
X
X
X
X
X
Oxidants
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Hydrogen
sulfide
X
X
X
-------
Table 4-28. CONTINUOUS AIR MONITORING INSTRUMENTS USED IN THE MOBILE AIR SAMPLING LABORATORY
FOR THE DETERMINATION OF GASEOUS POLLUTANTS3
Pollutant
Sulfur dioxide
Oxidants
Nitrogen
dioxide
Carbon
monoxide
Carbon dioxide
Hydrogen
sulfide
Principle of detection
and make of instrument
Conductivity (Davis)
Coulometric (Mast)
Photometric
(Beckman)
Nondispersive
IR absorption
(Beckman)
Nondispersive
IR absorption
(Beckman)
Photometric
(Research Appliance)
Absorbent
Deionized water
KI - KBr reagent
Saltzman reagent
None
None
Lead-acetate
impregnated
filter paper
Range, b
ppm
0.01-1.5
0.01-1.0
0.01-1.0
1-60
10-600
0.001-0.1
Sensitivity,
ppm
0.01
0.01
0.01
1
5
0.001
Interference,
known
Substances forming ions
in aqueous solution
such as acids, bases,
salts
Oxidizing agents such
as N02 and C12
S02 at concentrations
above 1 ppm, alkyl
nitrites
None at concentrations
usually found in out-
side ambient air
None at concentrations
usually found in out-
side ambient air
Mercaptans, oxidants,
sunlight
aCommercially available. Mention of commercial instrumentation does not constitute endorsement by the
Public Health Service.
For the air/reagent flow rates or electronic amplification used.
-------
relationship between wind direction and pollutant concentration; relationship
between wind speed and pollution concentrations; and between wind speed and wind
direction.
Discussion of Results
The significance of the atmospheric pollutant concentrations measured is
interpreted in light of existing or proposed ambient air quality goals. Relation-
ships among pollutant concentrations, meteorology, and emission rates are discussed.
Sulfur Dioxide Measurements
Method - The sulfur dioxide electroconductivity analyzer used was calibrated dynam-
ically at regular intervals using SO- air mixtures standardized by means of the
oo f-
modified West-Gaeke procedure. To minimize the interference of soluble solids,
an in-line particulate filter was used upstream of the air-liquid scrubbing system
in the analyzers. Sulfur dioxide concentrations, determined manually by a spectro-
photometric method (West-Gaeke), were occasionally compared to values obtained with
the continuous electroconductivity analyzer. Generally, good agreement was obtained.
Results - The S02 measurements obtained were presented in a form conducive to
interpretation of the magnitude of the problem in terms of existing or proposed
air quality criteria, Tables 4-29 and 30. These air quality goals are presented
in Table 4-31.
The taste threshold of S02 (0.3 ppm) was exceeded on one occasion in the
Charleston area. Sulfur dioxide concentrations in South Charleston, North Charles-
ton, and Nitro (Junior High School) exceeded the St. Louis, Colorado, and New York
State (for certain regions) criteria of 0.1 ppm based on a 24-hour averaging time.
New York State criteria of 0.15 ppm for 24 hours was exceeded in South Charleston
during the winter sampling period. The St. Louis criteria of 0.20 ppm was exceeded
in South Charleston and North Charleston; Nitro (Junior High School), and Marmet.
From these comparisons against existing or proposed air quality criteria, air pollu-
tion due to S02 is definitely a problem in some areas of the Kanawha Valley.
The frequency of occurrence of certain S02 concentrations can be obtained by
reference to the graphs on cumulative frequency distribution, Figures 4-10, -11,
-12, -13, and -14. For example, for North Charleston (Figure 4-14) 1 percent of the
time S02 concentrations were greater than 0.20 ppm in the fall and greater than
0.31 ppm in the spring. Concentrations which are exceeded 1, 10, 50, and 90 percent
4-48
-------
Table 4-29. SULFUR DIOXIDE MEASUREMENTS FOR 1-HOUR AVERAGING TIME
Station
Charleston
Charleston
South Charleston
South Charleston
South Charleston
Nitro (Post Office)
Nitro
(Junior high school )
Kanawha City
Kanawha City
Kanawha City
North Charleston
North Charleston
Marmet
Season
Fall 1964
Winter 1965
Fall 1964
Winter 1965
Summer 1 965
Fall 1964
Spring 1965
Winter 1965
Summer 1965
Fall 1965
Spring 1965
Fall 1965
Winter 1966
Number of
measurements
921
728
627
763
370
601
352
300
467
396
226
246
877
Number of
occurrences
>0.2 ppm
0
0
0
6
2
0
3
0
0
0
7
10
2
Number of
occurrences
>0.25 ppm
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
6
1
0
Maximum,
ppm
0.11
0.20
0.18
0.46
0.29
0.26
0.41
0.11
0.07
0.12
0.34
0.37
0.32
Minimum,
ppm
0.02
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.01
0.01
-p.
VO
-------
t
s
Table 4-30. SULFUR DIOXIDE MEASUREMENTS FOR 24-HOUR AVERAGING TIME
Station
Charleston
Charleston
South Charleston
South Charleston
South Charleston
Nitro (Post Office)
Nitro
(Junior high school)
Kanawha City
Kanawha City
Kanawha City
North Charleston
North Charleston
Marrnet
Season
Fall 1964
Winter 1965
Fall 1964
Winter 1965
Summer 1965
Fall 1964
Spring 1965
Winter 1965
Summer 1965
Fall 1965
Spring 1965
Fall 1965
Winter 1965
Number of
measurements
43
33
27
34
19
27
19
14
21
18
10
54
37
Number of
occurrences
(>0.1 ppm)
0
0
0
3
0
0
3
0
0
0
2
1
0
Number of
occurrences
(>0.15 ppm)
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Maximum,
ppm
0.05
0.08
0.05
0.16
0.10
0.06
0.15
0.05
0.04
0.06
0.12
0.14
0.08
Minimum,
ppm
0.02
0.03
0.02
0.02
0.04
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.03
0.04
0.01
0.01
-------
Table 4-31. AMBIENT AIR STANDARDS OR CRITERIA FOR SULFUR DIOXIDE
FOR AREAS IN THE UNITED STATES, 1966
Area
34
California
Colorado
Dade County, Fla.
New York State7
(Vary according
to regions)
35
Standard criteria
(Not to exceed stated concentration, ppm)
0.30, average for 8 hours
1.0, average for 1 hour
0.10, 1 percent of time any 3 months,
24-hour average
0.50, 1 percent of time any 3 months,
1-hour average
0.10
0.10, 1 percent of time
To 0.15, 2 percent of time,
24-hour average
St. Louis
10
Pennsylvania"
0.02, annual average
0.10, 1 percent of days in any 3 consecutive months,
24-hour average
0.20, once in any 4 consecutive days,
1-hour average
0.5, 1-hour average
0.25, 24-hour average
0.05, 30-day average
of the time at each sampling station are presented in Table 4-32. Reference to
Figures 4-10 through 4-14 shows that the New York ambient air quality criteria for
a certain region not to be exceeded more than 0.25 ppm 1 percent of the time was
exceeded in North Charleston and South Charleston. Concentrations greater than
0.11 ppm occurred 10 percent of the time in South Charleston, Nitro (Junior High
School), and North Charleston. For the other areas in the Kanawha Valley where
measurements were made, the frequency of occurrence of concentrations greater than
0.11 ppm was about an order of magnitude lower. The analysis further suggests that
air pollution, due to S02, is a problem of greater magnitude in areas of North and
South Charleston and Nitro.
The high S02 concentrations (greater than 0.2 ppm for 1 hour) obtained in
North and South Charleston and Nitro were studied in relation to meteorological
conditions in an attempt to relate the occurrence of elevated SOp concentration to
possible sources of pollution, Tables 4-33, -34, and -35.
4-51
-------
Table 4-32. FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF HOURLY
SULFUR DIOXIDE CONCENTRATIONS
Station
Charleston
Charleston
South Charleston
South Charleston
South Charleston
Nitro (Post Office)
Nitro (Junior High
School )
Kanawha City
Kanawha City
Kanawha City
North Charleston
North Charleston
Marmet
Season
Fall 1964
Winter 1965
Fall 1964
Winter 1965
Summer 1965
Fall 1964
Spring 1965
Winter 1965
Summer 1965
Fall 1965
Spring 1965
Fall 1965
Winter 1966
Percent of time
concentration stated (ppm)
is exceeded
90
0.02
0.04
0.02
0.02
0.03
0.01
0.01
-
0.01
0.03
0.03
0.01
0.01
50
0.03
0.06
0.02
0.06
0.07
0.02
0.02
0.04
0.02
0.03
0.07
0.03
0.02
10
0.03
0.08
0.04
0.12
0.11
0.04
0.13
0.06
0.04
0.06
0.11
0.06
0.03
1
0.06
0.13
0.08
0.20
0.25
0.10
0.22
0.10
0.05
0.09
0.31
0.20
0.09
100
80
60
40
^20
j
3
4
>
> 10
; s
i e
4
_ i I i i i i i i i i i i i i i—i—i—i i i i i—q
.-•—FALL 1964
—o— WINTER 1964-1965
M I I I I I I I I I I I I |
0.01 0.1 0.51 2 5 10 20 40 60 80 90 95 9899
PERCENT OF TIME < SPECIFIED VALUE
99.9 99.99
Figure 4-10. Frequency distribution of sulfur dioxide concentrations
measured at downtown Charleston.
4-52
-------
Q
X
o
100
80
60
'40
i: 20-
10
8
6
4
i I i I i i i—i i i i—i q
•o-FALL 1964
-o-WINTER 1965
••A... SUMMER 1965
I I LJ/ I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
1
0.01 0.10.51 2 5 10 20 40 60 80 90 95 9899 99.8 99.99
PERCENT OF TIME <_ SPECIFIED VALUE
Figure 4-11. Frequency distribution of sulfur dioxide concentrations
measured at South Charleston.
100.
80
60
40
L 20
III II—I T
_-»_FALL 1964
...n— SPRING 1965
2 10
3 0
TT
J_L
l i i I I L
I I I
1i ill i i *r | 1 i_^j 1 1 i 1 1 1 1 1 L.—i 1—i 1
0.01 0.1 0.51 2 5 10 20 40 60 80 90 95 9899 99.9 99.99
PERCENT OF TIME <. SPECIFIED VALUE
Figure 4-12. Frequency distribution of sulfur dioxide concentrations
measured at Nitro.
4-53
-------
100
80
60
40
a
a.
i10
u.
SI 6
• FALL 1964 KANAWHA CITY
-WINTER 1965 KANAWHA CITY
-WINTER 1965-1966 MARMET
..SUMMER 1965 KANAWHA CITY
2-
1
0.01 0.1 0.51 2 5 10 20 40 60 80 90 95 9899
PERCENT OF TIME < SPECIFIED VALUE
99,9 99.99
Figure 4-13. Frequency distribution of sulfur dioxide concentrations
measured at Kanawha City and Marmet.
1 . U
0.8
0.6
0.4
E
& 0.2
§
g
3 0.10
| 0.08
=] 0.06
oo
0.04
0.02
0.01
0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 II 1 1 1 I 1
- -*.-FALL 1965
-o.. SPRING 1965
-
r°
/ /
/ /
I .jy*' / -
- X°"" / =
^ ^ xX
- / * _
.--^ x-^X"
/•
/
1 1 1 1 1 1 I/I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 [ 1 1
01 0.1 0.51 2 5 10 20 40 60 80 90 95 9899 99.9 99
99
PERCENT OF TIME < SPECIFIED VALUE
Figure 4-14. Frequency distribution of sulfur dioxide concentrations
measured at North Charleston.
4-54
-------
The relationship of high S02 concentrations in the South Charleston area to
wind speed and direction is shown in Table 4-33. In South Charleston, during
March of 1965, the occurrence of high S02 concentrations was associated with day-
time winds from the west and north. Since the South Charleston industrial complex
is a major source of S02 emissions and is located north to northeast of the samp-
ling site, the high S02 concentrations measured may be attributed to direct trans-
port of this contaminant. There is also the possibility of the direct transport of
S02 from the Institute complex several miles to the west of the sampling site.
Because the high S02 concentrations measured in South Charleston during the summer
sampling period occurred during the evening hours under light wind conditions, the
direct transport of pollutants from possible sources to the sampling station is
thus demonstrated. Emitted pollutants are trapped within the valley below the
inversion level and flow down the valley walls and inward toward the river, under
stable meteorological conditions which produce drainage winds. There is also the
possibility of pollutants originating in the South Charleston industrial complex
to flow out toward the valley walls and be recycled back to the point of origin
under inversion conditions because of the "heat island" effect (see Section II,
Meteorology).
Table 4-33. RELATIONSHIP OF SULFUR DIOXIDE CONCENTRATIONS
GREATER THAN 0.2 PPM TO WIND SPEED AND DIRECTION
IN SOUTH CHARLESTON
Sulfur dioxide,
ppm
0.21
0.21
0.31
0.46
0.23
0.24
0.24
0.25
0.29
0.24
0.29
Date, 1965
2/1
3/1
3/8
3/8
3/8
3/8
3/8
7/10
7/10
7/10
8/2
Time
0000
1000
1200
1300
1400
1500
1600
1900
2000
2100
2100
Wind speed,
mph
2.0
2.5
3.5
3.0
4.0
5.5
5.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
1.5
Wind direction,
angular degrees
360
290
290
250
270
340
350
135
a
N.A.
N.A.
270
N.A. - Not Assignable.
The relationship of average S02 concentrations to wind direction in South
Charleston is shown in Figures 4-15 and 16. During February and March, the higher
pollutant concentrations were measured with wind flows from the northeast and south-
4-55
-------
/f\
NUMBERS INDICATE MEASUREMENTS
0.030.060.090.120.150.18 0.210.24
CONCENTRATIONS, ppm
Figure 4-15. Sulfur dioxide pollution rose for South Charleston, February
and March of 1965.
NUMBERS INDICATE MEASUREMENTS
0.030.06 0.090.12 0.150.18 0.21 0.24
CONCENTRATION, ppm
Figure 4-16. Sulfur dioxide pollution rose for South Charleston, July and August 1965,
4-56
-------
west. The higher values were recorded with a south-southeast or downriver air flow
during July and August of 1968. The number of measurements from these directions
was small. (The number of SC^ concentration measurements obtained for each wind
direction is indicated by numbers on the circumference of the outer circle of
Figures 4-15 and -16). The relationship between wind speed and average S02 concen-
tration during the winter sampling period in South Charleston, Figure 4-17, indi-
cates a decreasing pollution level with increasing wind speeds with one exception;
namely, when wind speeds are relatively strong (greater than 12 mph). This
relationship indicates the effect of aerodynamic downwash which occurs at high
winds. The increase of pollutant concentration during calms indicates the pos-
sible recirculation of pollutants to the valley walls and their subsequent return to
the industrial complex at ground (low) level.
CALM
0-1
2-3
4-7
8-12
13-18
Q.
OO
CALM
0-1
2-3
4-7
8-12
i I
\ I T
J(162)
J075)
](84)
FEBRUARY AND MARCH OF 1965
NUMBERS IN PAREN-
|(5) THESES INDICATE
NUMBER OF SAMPLE
JULY AND AUGUST OF 1965 MEASUREMENTS
I
I
I
L
0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.10
SULFUR DIOXIDE, ppm
Figure 4-17. Relationship of sulfur dioxide concentrations to wind speed
for South Charleston (Station 003).
4-57
-------
The wind rose for South Charleston during the winter sampling period,
Figure 4-18, shows a more frequent northwesterly wind direction and also the occur-
rence of higher wind speed from this direction. Average SC>2 concentration was
smallest at the wind direction which was associated with the strongest winds.
MPH
Figure 4-18. Wind rose for South Charleston, winter 1965.
Source relationships between SC^ concentrations (greater than 0.2 ppm) and
meteorology in North Charleston are shown in Table 4-34. These high S02 concentra-
tions generally occurred during the daytime with relatively high winds from a
southwesterly direction. Under these meteorological conditions, direct transport of
pollutants from sources to the station is shown. Smoke, fly ash, and acid mist
plumes from stacks in the South Charleston complex have been observed on numerous
occasions to reach ground level in North Charleston. Figures 4-19 and -20 also
show the same strong wind direction correlation with atmospheric S02 concentrations
at the sampling site.
Usually, pollution concentrations decrease with higher wind speeds due to
the turbulence or mixing effect. At the North Charleston location, as shown by the
wind roses(Figures 4-21 and -22), most of the higher wind speeds occurred from the
southwest and west, which are the directions that pollutants from major sources would
be transported to the station. Thus, in this location, stronger winds usually result
in greater S02 concentrations, as shown in Figure 4-23.
The relationship between high S02 concentrations (>0.2 ppm) and winds that
transport pollutants in the Nitro area is shown in Table 4-35. These high concen-
trations were found due to local conditions during nighttime air drainage when
direct transport of pollutant from source to station is unlikely, unless the emission
4-58
-------
Table 4-34. RELATIONSHIP OF SULFUR DIOXIDE CONCENTRATIONS
GREATER THAN 0.2 PPM TO WIND SPEED AND DIRECTION IN
NORTH CHARLESTON
Sulfur dioxide,
ppm
0.26
0.31
0.34
0.28
0.29
0.30
0.27
0.33
0.20
0.29
0.21
0.21
0.24
0.23
0.22
0.37
0.24
0.23
0.20
0.20
0.29
Date, 1965
3/22
3/23
10/23
10/30
10/31
11/16
11/20
12/10
3/22
Time
0900
1000
1100
1200
1100
1400
1500
0100
1100
1000
0700
1200
1500
1700
1800
2100
2200
1700
1200
1300
1700
Wind speed,
mph
11.0
12.5
14.5
14.0
12.5
12.5
12.0
6.0
8.5
10.0
5.5
5.0
6.0
7.5
6.5
11.5
13.5
2.0
2.0
3.0
8.5
Wind direction,
angular degrees
220
220
230
240
220
240
230
230
250
230
225
240
235
220
220
225
280
000
130
135
200
source is near ground level. The wind direction associated with high daytime S02
concentrations was west and generally occurred from 9 to 10:00 a.m., possibly from
fumigation at the breakup of the morning inversion. This would seem to indicate
that the S02 emissions are probably from an industrial complex, located either north
or upriver of the sampling site.
Generally, the higher average S02 concentrations were found when winds were
from the south through west to the northwest directions, with relatively low con-
centrations from the north through southwest as indicated in Figure 4-24. Also, S02
concentrations were found to increase slightly as the wind speed increases from calm
4-59
-------
N
19
29
23
44
NUMBERS INDICATE MEASUREMENTS
0.030.060.09 0.120.150.180.210.24
CONCENTRATION, ppm
Figure 4-19. Sulfur dioxide pollution rose for North Charleston, March and May 1965.
V 302 7
/TV
* 33
NUMBERS INDICATE MEASUREMENTS
0.030.06 0.090.120.150.180.21 0.24
CONCENTRATION, ppm
Figure 4-20. Sulfur dioxide pollution rose for North Charleston, November
and December 1965.
4-60
-------
H.xo:
8-1213-18
mph
Figure 4-21. Wind rose for North Charleston, spring 1965.
2-3 4-7 8-1213-18
mph
Figure 4-22. Wind rose for North Charleston, fall 1965.
-------
CALM
0-1
2-3
4-7
8-12
o.
.13-18
a
LU
a.
00 rAi M
Q CALM
<= 0-1
2-3
4-7
8-12
13-18
1 III 1
i (6) SPRING 1965
; 1(26)
(86)
.vXvXvXl / n M \
....WttSSiir ' n/n
iiij . ' """"• u.1 .1 . .,..—_ V'U
iljjjjjljjl[(30*) FALL 1965
11111111(242)
(469)
||||||||||1|||(119)
K:S:S:i:i:i:i:i:i:i::::::W:::W^^^ ::::::::v:::x:j / 9, x NUMbtKS IN PAKhN 1 HtbhS 1NU1 LA 1 1
••fffmwtmmss&Xf-.+ttfff-W") N"MRFR OF CAMPLE MEASUREMENTS
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.20
SULFUR DIOXIDE, ppm
Figure 4-23. Relationship of sulfur dioxide concentrations to wind
speed for North Charleston.
12
32
NUMBERS INDICATE MEASUREMENTS
0.030.060.090.120.150.18 0.21 0.24
CONCENTRATION, ppm
Figure 4-24. Sulfur dioxide pollution rose for Nitro, May and June 1965.
4-62
-------
Table 4-35. RELATIONSHIP OF SULFUR DIOXIDE CONCENTRATIONS
GREATER THAN 0.2 PPM TO WIND SPEED AND DIRECTION AT
NITRO JUNIOR HIGH
Sulfur dioxide,
ppm
0.23
0.22
0.20
0.22
0.25
0.41
0.20
0.20
Date, 1965
5/24
5/26
5/28
5/24
Time
2000
0200
1900
0200
0900
1000
1600
1900
Wind speed,
mph
N.A. a
N.A.
2.0
2.5
3.0
4.5
3.0
0.0
Wind direction,
angular degrees
N.A.
230
225
180
270
270
270
aN.A. - Not Assignable.
to 7 mph, but decreased considerably as the wind speed increased above 7 mph, as
shown in Figure 4-25. This relationship indicated that sources of S02 affecting
the nearby sampling site often pass over the sampling site at a higher level when
wind speeds are light (<4 mph); that transport of S02 to the sampling site is
greater at medium wind speeds; and that with high wind speeds, S02 emissions are
diluted considerably before reaching the sampling site. The wind rose (Figure 4-26)
indicates that the highest frequency of wind direction is from the south. This
frequency of winds from the south is probably due to nighttime drainage conditions.
Southwesterly and westerly winds occur frequently and are also stronger, which is
consistent with the most frequent direction of free air aloft as shown in Figure
4-26. The occurrence of relatively high average concentrations of S02 with these
winds is possibly due to the complex meteorological situation in the Nitro area
as described in Section II.
The daily maximum and seasonal sulfur dioxide averages, Table 4-30, and the
frequency distribution, Table 4-32, of sulfur dioxide concentrations in the Kanawha
Valley were compared with 1964 and 1965 data from CAMP (Continuous Air Monitoring
Stations) stations located in seven major metropolitan areas reported in Tables
4-36 and -37. The maximum 24-hour concentration measured in the valley (0.16 ppm
at South Charleston, winter of 1965) is lower than the maximum daily SOe concentra-
tions measured by CAMP stations with the exception of San Francisco, California
(0.08 ppm in 1964); Cincinnati, Ohio (0.15 ppm in 1965); and Denver, Colorado (0.06
ppm in 1965). The maximum daily average concentration for 1964 and 1965 reported
by the CAMP stations was 0.68 ppm S02 at Chicago, Illinois, and the second highest
4-63
-------
CALM
0-1
•5. 2-3
Q-
oo
4-7
8-12
(39)
(95)
(78)
(14)
NUMBERS IN PARENTHESES INDICATE
NUMBER OF SAMPLE MEASUREMENTS
0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.10
SULFUR DIOXIDE, ppm
Figure 4-25. Relationship of sulfur dioxide concentrations to wind
speed for Nitro, May - June 1965.
Figure 4-26. Wind rose for Nitro, spring 1965.
4-64
-------
value (0.55 ppm) was also reported at Chicago. The study averages (arithmetic) of
0.07 ppm, for South Charleston for the winter and summer of 1965, for North Charles-
ton in the spring of 1965, and for Charleston in the winter of 1964-1965, are
comparable to or greater than the maximum monthly averages reported for Washington,
D. C. (0.08 ppm in 1965); Cincinnati (0.06 ppm in 1964 and 0.05 ppm in 1965); San
Francisco (0.06 ppm in 1964); St. Louis (0.06 ppm in 1965); and Denver (0.03 ppm
in 1965). Frequency distribution data on S02 (maximum 10 and 1 percent values) for
Kanawha Valley cannot readily be compared with the CAMP network because of insuf-
ficient data in the study area, although high concentrations in the valley are
comparable to those found in St. Louis and Washington, D. C.
Table 4-36. 1964 SULFUR DIOXIDE DATA FROM THE CAMP STATIONS
(ppm)
City
Chicago
Cincinnati
Philadelphia
St. Louis
San Francisco
Washington
Maximum
Daily
0.68
0.18
0.43
0.08
0.26
0.22
Monthly
0.34
0.06
0.15
0.03
0.09
0.09
Yearly
average
0.17
0.04
0.08
0.02
0.06
0.05
Percent of time
concentration stated
is exceeded
90
0.03
0.01
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.01
50
0.13
0.03
0.04
0.04
0.01
0.03
10
0.40
0.07
0.21
0.14
0.04
0.10
1
0.76
0.26
0.47
0.37
0.08
0.26
Table 4-37. 1965 SULFUR DIOXIDE DATA FROM THE CAMP STATIONS
(ppm)
City
Chicago
Cincinnati
Denver
Philadelphia
St. Louis
Washington
Maximum
Daily
0.55
0.15
0.06
0.36
0.19
0.20
Monthly
0.27
0.05
0.03
0.13
0.06
0.08
Yearly
average
0.13
0.03
0.02
0.08
0.04
0.04
Percent of time
concentration stated
is exceeded
90
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
50
0.07
0.02
0.02
0.06
0.03
0.04
10
0.34
0.07
0.03
0.18
0.11
0.10
1
0.65
0.23
0.09
0.46
0.29
0.20
4-65
-------
A compilation of S02 data obtained during the 1950-1951 Air Pollution Study17
is presented in Table 4-38. A comparison of these data obtained by the Bureau of
Industrial Hygiene, West Virginia Department of Health and the Kettering Laboratory
of Cincinnati, and the present study results was made and is shown in Table 4-39.
Sulfur dioxide averages for 1951, as measured by the West Virginia Department of
Health, are above those found during the 1964-1965 study with the exception of the
North Charleston area, where the results are similar. The results reported by the
Kettering Laboratory, with the exception of the Marmet-Belle and Nitro areas, are
either similar or lower than those reported in the 1964-1965 study. The meteorolog-
ical conditions were reported as "generally were favorable for the dispersion of the
pollutants,"17 during the sampling by the Kettering Laboratory, whereas a wide
range of the various types of meteorological conditions was encountered during the
sampling by the West Virginia Department of Health. The maximum values reported by
both of these studies are, within experimental error, essentially the same.
Table 4-38. SULFUR DIOXIDE DATA FROM 1950-1951 KANAWHA VALLEY
AIR POLLUTION STUDIES FOR %-HOUR SAMPLING PERIOD
(ppm)
Station
Kanawha City
Charleston
South Charleston
North Charleston
St. Albans
Nitro
Institute
Belle
Chelyan
Glass plants
(Kanawha City)
8 a.m.
Average
0.10
0.08
0.12
0.06
0.10
0.16
0.14
0.15
West Virginia Bureau
Industrial Hygiene9
to 4 p.m.
Maximum
0.30
0.37
0.59
0.16
0.69
0.43
0.28
0.38
4 p.m.
Average
0.09
0.08
0.08
0.08
0.07
0.08
of
to 10 p.m.
Maximum
0.28
0.22
0.22
0.23
0.17
0.19
Kettering b
Laboratory
Average Maximum
0.03
0.02
0.01
0.04
0.03
0.03C
0.01
0.12
0.00C
0.04
0.06
0.01
0.04d
0.02C
0.11
0.08
0.05
0.20
0.14
0.03C
0.05
0.42
0.00C
0.07
0.18
0.03
O.lld
0.03C
For the sampling period of January 15, 1951 to June 11, 1951
For the sampling period of December 1950, through June 1951.
cUpwind from industrial plants.
Downwind from industrial plants.
4-66
-------
Table 4-39. COMPARISON OF SULFUR DIOXIDE DATA OBTAINED DURING THE 1950-1951
AND 1964-1965 KANAWHA VALLEY AIR POLLUTION STUDIES
(ppm)
Stations
Charleston
South Charleston
Nitro (Post Office)
Nitro
(Junior high school )
Kanawha City
North Charleston
Marmet
Chelyan
Institute
St. Albans
1964-65
Study
Average
0.03
0.06
0.03
0.07
0.07
0.03
0.04
0.04
0.03
0.04
0.07
0.04
0.02
Maximum
0.11
0.34
0.22
0.46
0.31
0.28
0.41
0.13
0.08
0.13
0.36
0.41
0.32
1950-51 Studies
West Virginia Department
of Health
8 a.m. to 4 p.m.
Average
0.08
0.12
0.16
0.10
0.06
0.15
0.14
0.10
Maximum
0.37
0.58
0.42
0.30
0.30
0.16
0.38
0.28
0.69
4 p.m. to 10 p.m.
Average
0.08
0.08
0.08
0.08
0.08
0.07
Maximum
0.22
0.22
0.28
0.28
0.22
0.19
0.17
Kettering
Laboratory
Average
0.02
0.01a
0.04b
0.12C
0.00d
0.03
0.04e
0.02f
0.03
0.03
0.01
0.04
0.01
Maximum
0.08
0.05
0.05a
0.20b
0.42C
0.00d
0.11
O.lle
0.03f
0.14^
h
0.03
0.02
0.07
0.05
South Charleston, Shephard, and Macon Streets.
Downwind of South Charleston plants.
cNitro, downwind 1 mile from plants.
Nitro, upwind 1 mile from plants.
eKanawha City, downwind of glass plants.
Kanawha City, upwind of glass plants.
9North Charleston, Broadway and Third Streets, downwind of plants.
hNorth Charleston, Broadway and Third Streets, upwind of plants.
4-67
-------
Carbon Monoxide Measurements
Method - Carbon monoxide was determined by absorption spectroscopy using a contin-
uous, non-dispersive, infrared analyzer. The method is made selective for carbon
monoxide by choice of optical filters and by use of carbon monoxide in the detector
cell. A filter cell, charged with wet carbon dioxide, is used to minimize the
interference of carbon dioxide and water vapor. To prevent the interference of water
vapor, the air sample was dried by passage through "Drierite" prior to admittance
into the infrared analyzer. The instrument was calibrated daily using pre-purified
nitrogen to set the zero response and a standard carbon monoxide-nitrogen gas
mixture (about 30 ppm carbon monoxide) to calibrate the upscale response.
Results - Carbon monoxide measurements were examined in reference to the air quality
criteria listed in Table 4-40. Data obtained for carbon monoxide are summarized in
Table 4-41. Graphs of cumulative frequency distribution of carbon monoxide concen-
trations are presented in Figures 4-27, -28, -29, -30, and -31. Present standards
of California, St. Louis, New York, and Pennsylvania were not exceeded. Hourly con-
centrations greater than 30 ppm occurred on two occasions, both of them in South
Charleston. The greatest 24-hour concentration (16.1 ppm) also occurred in South
Charleston. This comparison of measured carbon monoxide concentrations to existing
air quality criteria indicates that carbon monoxide is not presently a problem in
the Kanawha Valley.
Table 4-40. AMBIENT AIR STANDARDS OR CRITERIA FOR CARBON MONOXIDE
FOR AREAS IN THE UNITED STATES, 1966
Area
Standards or criteria,
average concentration,
ppm
14
California
New York
St. Louis10
(Metropolitan)
g
Pennsylvania
30 for 8 hours (serious level)
120 for 1 hour (serious level)
30 ppm for 8 hours
15 for 8 hours, for more than 15 percent
of the time
60 for 1 hour, for more than 1 percent
of the time
30 for 8 hours
120 for 1 hour
25 for 24 hours
4-68
-------
Table 4-41. SUMMARY AND FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF HOURLY CARBON MONOXIDE CONCENTRATIONS
Station
Charleston
Charleston
South Charleston
South Charleston
South Charleston
Nitro
(Post Office)
Nitro
(Junior high school )
Kanawha City
North Charleston
North Charleston
Marmet
Season
Fall 1964
Winter 1965
Fall 1964
Winter 1965
Summer 1965
Fall 1964
Spring 1965
Summer 1965
Spring 1965
Fall 1965
Winter 1966
Number of
measurements
688
185
491
234
475
233
390
196
216
1,048
446
Arithmetic
mean,
ppm
5.5
6.0
6.1
5.2
6.1
2.1
3.4
4.1
4.6
6.3
3.7
Geometric
mean,
ppm
4.7
4.0
3.6
3.7
5.0
1.8
2.7
4.1
3.0
4.9
3.3
Maximum,
(1-hour)
ppm
16.5
29.3
30.6
13.0
9.9
5.2
7.8
6.4
27.9
18.8
7.7
Maximum,
(24-hour)
ppm
7.7
10.6
16.1
10.3
8.3
2.8
4.6
4.4
8.1
11.7
5.4
Percent of time
concentration (ppm)
is exceeded
50
5.2
5.0
4.4
5.1
6.9
2.1
3.1
4.1
3.4
6.0
3.7
10
9.5
12.0
14.7
10.4
9.4
3.7
6.1
5.5
11.5
11.1
5.9
1
14.0
22.5
26.5
12.7
9.9
4.8
7.2
6.4
27.8
15.0
7.2
en
10
-------
100
80
60
40
O-
. 20
o
I 10
§ 8
CO
TTT
.-•-FALL 1964
_o-WINTER 1964-1965
1
0.01 0.1 0.51 2 5 10 20 40 60 80 90 95 9899 99.9 99.99
PERCENT OF TIME < SPECIFIED VALUE
Figure 4-27. Frequency distribution of carbon monoxide measured
at downtown Charleston.
_*..FALL 1964
_o_ WINTER 1965
\— ....... SUMMER 1965
-• • • ' • l— >-=—^ If 1 1 '— ' • • I I I I L I I
0.1 0.51 2 5 10 20 40 60 80 90 95 9899 99.9 99.99
PERCENT OF TIME <_ SPECIFIED VALUE
Figure 4-28. Frequency distribution of carbon monoxide measured
at South Charleston.
4-70
-------
100
80
60
40
E
o.
Q.
. 20
L±J
Q
X
O
1 10
§ 8
§ R
s 6
U I I
..FALL 1964
• •SPRING 1965
Ill i to" i i i | | i i I I I I l l i
1
0.01 0.1 0.51 2 5 10 20 40 60 80 9095 9899 99.999.99
PERCENT OF TIME < SPECIFIED VALUE
Figure 4-29. Frequency distribution of carbon monoxide measured
at Nitro.
100,
80
60
—o—WINTER 1965-1966 MARMET
-•o- SPRING 1965 KANAWHA CITY
a h
°- 201-
0.01 0.1 0.51 2 5 10 20 40 60 80 9095 9899 99.999.99
PERCENT OF TIME < SPECIFIED VALUE
Figure 4-30. Frequency distribution of carbon monoxide measured
at Kanawha City and Marmet.
4-71
-------
100
80
60
40
o
| 10
o
co
2? 61—
3
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I U
• FALL 1965
.SPRING 1965
/
4-
2-
/>
/ /
//
1
0.01
• /
i /i . i
i i i i i i i > i i i i i
0.1 0.51 2 5 10 20 40 60 80 90 95 9899
PERCENT OF TIME < SPECIFIED VALUE
99.9 99.99
Figure 4-31. Frequency distribution of carbon monoxide measured
at North Charleston.
The data in Table 4-41 can also be used to determine relative carbon monox-
ide pollution conditions in the areas where measurements were made. Carbon monox-
ide concentrations greater than 22 ppm occurred 1 percent of the time that
measurements were obtained in Charleston during the winter, in South Charleston
during the fall, and North Charleston during the spring. Concentrations greater than
9 ppm occurred 10 percent of the time in Charleston, South Charleston, and North
Charleston in all seasons that measurements were made. Concentrations greater than
9 ppm occurred less than 1 percent of the time in Nitro, Kanawha City, and Marmet.
The Charleston areas, including North Charleston and South Charleston, with high car-
bon monoxide emissions, have the highest reported carbon monoxide concentrations.
The measured carbon monoxide concentrations are in general agreement with the
estimated emissions.
From the pollution rose shown in Figure 4-32, there appears to be no direc-
tionality associated with average carbon monoxide concentrations in Charleston
during the summer and fall sampling period, nor would any be expected due to the
sampling site being located downtown and surrounded by buildings and due, also, to
the random distribution of Kanawha Valley sources of carbon monoxide (mainly auto-
mobiles). Average carbon monoxide concentration decreases slightly with increasing
wind speed from calm to 12 mph except at 4 to 7 mph where a slight increase in con-
4-72
-------
25
27
35
133
NUMBERS INDICATE MEASUREMENT
1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0
Wit-^t-i^^
CONCENTRATION, ppm
Figure 4-32. Carbon monoxide pollution rose for downtown Charleston, August
and September 1964.
centration occurs (see Figure 4-33). This relationship between wind speed and
average carbon monoxide concentration suggests that higher wind speeds do not effec-
tively reduce carbon monoxide concentration at this sampling location, possibly
because the wind speeds at street level do not increase to the same extent that
they do above the Federal Building.
4-73
-------
n.
a
LU
LU
o_
CALM
0-1
2-3
4-7
8-12
1 1 1 1 II
NUMBERS IN PARENTHESES INDICATE
NUMBER OF SAMPLE MEASUREMENTS
:(1
(51)
FALL - 1964
1 1 1 1
(102)
47)
(193)
1
0 12345678
CARBON MONOXIDE, ppm
Figure 4-33. Relationship of carbon monoxide concentrations to wind
speed for downtown Charleston.
In South Charleston during winter sampling period, the relationship of aver-
age carbon monoxide concentrations to wind directions shows that greatest concentra-
tions occur at wind directions of east through south, Figure 4-34. The average wind
speed for these wind directions is low. There is little or no variation of average
carbon monoxide concentrations with wind direction for all other wind directions.
Strongest winds occurred at a northwesterly wind direction which would tend to dilute
carbon monoxide concentration reaching the measuring site from downtown South
Charleston. In the summer sampling period (Figure 4-35), greatest average carbon
monoxide concentrations occurred at wind directions of southwest through east,
similar to winter season measurements. These wind directions were associated with
low wind speeds. The most frequent wind direction was westerly; the strongest winds
also appeared from the west, tending to dilute carbon monoxide concentrations origi-
nating in the western quadrant, downtown South Charleston. The effect of wind speed
on carbon monoxide concentrations is shown in Figure 4-36. An increase in wind
speed causes a decrease in pollutant concentration.
4-74
-------
30
NUMBERS INDICATE MEASUREMENTS
1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0
CONCENTRATION, ppm
Figure 4-34. Carbon monoxide pollution rose for South Charleston, February
and March, 1965.
4-75
-------
49
25
NUMBERS INDICATE MEASUREMENTS
• 1-0.2-0. 3.04.05.0.6.0.7.0. 8.0.
CONCENTRATION, ppm
Figure 4-35. Carbon monoxide pollution rose for South Charleston, summer 1965,
4-76
-------
CALM
0-1
2-3
2-3
4-7
(52)
NUMBERS IN PARENTHESES INDICATE
NUMBER OF SAMPLE MEASUREMENTS
0 1 23456 78
CARBON MONOXIDE, ppm
Figure 4-36. Relationship of carbon monoxide concentrations to wind
speed for South Charleston.
In North Charleston during the spring sampling period, the prevailing valley
drainage winds (light winds) are northeasterly, Figure 4-37. These light winds
produce the greatest average carbon monoxide concentration when the wind direction
is northeast and east. Principal highways are located northwest through east and
the principal industrial sources are located southwest of the sampling site. Since
relatively low carbon monoxide concentrations occurred when the wind direction was
southwest, and the higher concentrations were recorded when the winds were from the
northeast, the principal sources affecting the mobile laboratory there appear to be
non-industrial. Data for North Charleston during the fall of 1965, Figure 4-3S.
indicate that the same relationships between carbon monoxide concentration, local
meteorology, and possible sources would also apply. Wind speed and average pollu-
tant concentrations show an inverse relationship as would be expected for pollution
emissions at or near ground level. Figure 4-39.
4-77
-------
NUMBERS INDICATE MEASUREMENTS
1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0
CONCENTRATION, ppm
Figure 4-37. Carbon monoxide pollution rose for North Charleston, March and May 1965.
4-78
-------
52
70
31
NUMBERS INDICATE MEASUREMENTS
158
1.0.2.0 3.0, 4.0,5.0,6.0, 7.0 8.0
U—rf-^H^i^—t
CONCENTRATION, ppm
Figure 4-38. Carbon monoxide pollution rose for North Charleston, November
and December 1965.
4-79
-------
CALM
0-1
2-3
E
#i
Q
a.
co
4-7
8-12
13-18
(276)
(183)
(373)
(109)
(19)
NUMBERS IN PARENTHESES INDICATE
NUMBER OF SAMPLE MEASUREMENTS
_L
J_
_L
01 23456789 10
CARBON MONOXIDE, ppm
Figure 4-39. Relationship of carbon monoxide concentrations to wind
speed for North Charleston, November - December 1965.
Summaries of carbon monoxide data from CAMP stations for 1964 and 1965 are
presented in Tables 4-42 and -43, respectively. A comparison of the CAMP data with
study data indicates that monthly concentrations found in the Kanawha Valley are
greater than the maximum monthly concentrations reported in Washington, D. C. (1965,
5 ppm) and Cincinnati, Ohio (1965, 5 ppm). The study's monthly arithmetic mean
averages are equal to or less than the yearly carbon monoxide averages reported for
San Francisco (1964), Washington (1965), and Cincinnati (1965). The maximum daily
average reported - South Charleston, fall of 1964 (16.1 ppm) - is 1/2 of the report-
ed maximum daily value for the CAMP stations for 1964 and 1965 (32 ppm). The maxi-
mum daily value reported in the Kanawha Valley is equal to or less than the maximum
daily values reported for 1964 in Chicago, Cincinnati, Denver, Philadelphia, and
St. Louis.
4-80
-------
Table 4-42. SUMMARY OF CARBON MONOXIDE DATA FROM CAMP STATIONS, 1964
(ppm)
City
Chicago
Cincinnati
Philadelphia
St. Louis
San Francisco
Washington
Maximum
Daily
27
17
21
17
10
13
Monthly
17
11
13
9
6
6
Yearly
average
12
6
17
6
5
6
Percent of time
concentration stated
is exceeded
90
4
2
2
2
2
3
50
11
5
6
5
5
5
10
21
12
14
11
8
8
1
32
18
24
19
14
15
Table 4-43. CARBON MONOXIDE DATA FROM CAMP STATIONS, 1965
(ppm)
City
Chicago
Cincinnati
Denver
Philadelphia
St. Louis
Washington
Maximum
Daily
32
16
20
19
15
10
Monthly
21
5
10
11
10
5
Year! v
average
17
4
7
8
7
4
Percent of time
concentration stated
is exceeded
90
9
2
2
4
2
2
50
16
4
6
8
6
3
10
26
7
14
13
12
6
1
38
13
26
19
21
13
The highest 1-percent values for downtown Charleston, winter 1964-1965,
South Charleston, fall 1964, and North Charleston, winter 1965, are equal to or
exceed the highest 1-percent concentrations reported for all CAMP stations with the
exception of Chicago, Philadelphia, and St. Louis (1965) stations. This would
indicate that while the average monthly carbon monoxide concentrations are equal
to or less than the average concentrations reported for the CAMP network, rela-
tively high concentrations of carbon monoxide occur in the valley at greater
frequency than at most of the CAMP stations.
The daily maximum and highest 10 percent values in the study should be
relatively low (other things being equal), because the study station were not
operated a full year at each location as were the CAMP stations. The concentrations
measured in the valley, however, do not exceed present air quality standard or
criteria and the maximum hourly concentration of 30.6 ppm is relatively low.
4-81
-------
Nitrogen Dioxide Measurements
Method - Nitrogen dioxide was determined spectrophotometrically using a continuous
analyzer. Nitrogen dioxide diazotizes and couples with the Saltzman reagent to
produce a characteristic red dye. The instrument was calibrated at regular inter-
vals using nitrogen dioxide-air mixtures standardized by means of the manual
Saltzman procedure.3 Instrument response was occasionally compared to nitrogen
dioxide measurements obtained by use of the manual Saltzman procedure.
Results - Air quality criteria for nitrogen dioxide are presented in Table 4-44.
Data obtained for nitrogen dioxide in the study area are summarized in Table 4-45.
The California standard was exceeded at the South Charleston, Nitro, and Kanawha
City stations. The Colorado standard was exceeded at all the sampling locations.
The potential for photochemical smog in terms of nitrogen dioxide concentration
exists.
Table 4-44. NITROGEN DIOXIDE AMBIENT AIR STANDARDS OR CRITERIA
FOR AREAS IN THE UNITED STATES, 1966
Area
California
,.34
Colorado
6
Standard or criteria, average
concentration, ppm
0.25 for 1 hour
For total oxides of nitrogen
0.1 for 1 hour for greater than 1 percent
of the time in any 3 months
In South Charleston, during the fall, nitrogen dioxide concentrations did
not vary significantly with wind speed or direction (Figures 4-40 and 41),
indicating that sources of nitrogen dioxide pollution affecting the measuring site
are a mixture of low and high (elevated) sources lying in all directions from the
sampling site. The same relationship is inferred for Charleston-, as is indicated in
Figures 4-42 and -43, except at strong wind conditions (12 mph), which resulted in
dilution of nitrogen dioxide concentration.
In North Charleston, during the spring, greatest average nitrogen dioxide
concentration occurred when the wind direction was south to southwest, Figure 4-44.
The frequency of occurrence of high wind speeds was greater from the southwest
through west directions, Figure 4-21. The greatest average nitrogen dioxide con-
centrations occurred at these high wind speeds, as shown in Figure 4-45. Industrial
sources lying in the southwesterly quadrant probably emit the nitrogen dioxide meas-
ured under these conditions. Comparison of the nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide
4-82
-------
Table 4-45. FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF HOURLY
NITROGEN DIOXIDE CONCENTRATIONS
Station location
Charleston
Charleston
South Charleston
South Charleston
South Charleston
Nitro
(Post Office)
Nitro
(Junior high school )
Kanawha City
Kanawha City
Kanawha City
North Charleston
North Charleston
Season
Fall 1964
Winter 1965
Fall 1964
Winter 1965
Summer 1965
Fall 1964
Spring 1965
Winter 1965
Summer 1 965
Fall 1965
Spring 1965
Fall 1965
Number of
measurements
553
333
514
312
427
391
297
276
130
391
710
423
Arithmetic
mean,
ppm
0.05
0.05
0.06
0.08
0.03
0.10
0.03
0.16
0.09
0.09
0.09
0.03
Geometric
mean,
ppm
0.05
0.03
0.05
0.06
0.02
0.09
0.03
0.12
0.07
0.04
0.03
0.02
Number of
occurrences,
0.25 ppm
0
0
5
5
0
14
0
6
10
11
0
0
Maximum,
(1-hour)
ppm
0.15
0.18
0.39
0.35
0.15
0.44
0.19
0.44
0.31
0.39
0.23
0.17
Percent of time
concentration (ppm)
is exceeded
50
0.05
0.05
0.06
0.07
0.03
0.09
0.02
0.12
0.07
0.07
0.05
0.02
10
0.08
0.08
0.10
0.17
0.07
0.17
0.08
0.31
0.23
0.19
0.14
0.08
1
0.11
0.14
0.26
0.33
0.09
0.32
0.16
0.41
0.30
0.28
0.19
0.12
I
CO
CO
-------
30
22
17
NUMBERS INDICATE MEASUREMENTS
0.02^.04 0.060.08 0.100.12 0.140.16|
CONCENTRATION, ppm
Figure 4-40. Nitrogen dioxide pollution rose for South Charleston, October
and November 1964.
measurements (Figures 4-19, -20, -44, and -45), indicate that high concentrations
are probably from the same or adjacent sources.
In Kanawha City, during the winter, nitrogen dioxide concentrations varied
directly with wind speed, as indicated in Figure 4-46. The greatest concentrations
occurred at wind speeds of 8-12 mph. These wind speeds were associated with wind
directions of south and northwest, Figure 4-47. These data indicate that the meas-
ured concentrations are due to different sources both upriver and downriver.
Relating nitrogen dioxide concentration to wind direction also shows that sources
lying in the northwest and southeast quadrant (upriver and downriver) contributed
mainly to the high nitrogen dioxide concentrations measured, Figure 4-48.
In Nitro, during the spring sampling period, measurements of N02 did not vary
significantly with wind direction except that nitrogen dioxide concentration was
smaller with a westerly wind direction, Figure 4-49. The relationship between wind
speed and average nitrogen dioxide concentration indicates that: at low speeds
4-84
-------
CALM
0-1
1-2-3
Q_
00
4-7
8-12
"1 1 T
(166)
(56)
(32)
(2)
NUMBERS IN PARENTHESES INDICATE
NUMBER OF SAMPLE MEASUREMENTS
_L
_L
_L
_L
_L
_L
J_
0.02 0.04 0.06
0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16
NITROGEN DIOXIDE, ppm
0.18 0.20 0.22
Figure 4-41. Relationship of nitrogen dioxide concentrations to wind
speed, South Charleston, October - November 1964.
(1-4 mph), stratification of the air occurs, carrying the nitrogen dioxide above the
sampling site; at moderate speeds (4-7 mph) more of the nitrogen dioxide is brought
down to the surface at the measuring site; and at high wind speeds (8-12 mph) the
pollutants are significantly diluted, Figure 4-50.
A comparison of data from each mobile laboratory study, Table 4-45, with the
1964 and 1965 maximum monthly averages and cumulative frequency distribution data
for the CAMP network stations (Tables 4-46 and -47), indicates that, with the excep-
tion of 1964 averages measured for Chicago and San Francisco, 7 out of the 12 month-
ly mobile laboratory studies exceeded the maximum monthly averages reported.
Also, the mobile laboratory measurements in Kanawha City exceeded all the maximum
monthly averages reported for the entire CAMP network. The maximum 1 percent of the
nitrogen dioxide values found in the valley, when compared with those reported for
the CAMP station, reveals that the values found at South Charleston (with the
exception of the summer of 1965), Nitro Post Office, and Kanawha City exceeded the
1 percent concentrations reported for all CAMP stations. The comparison with CAMP
data indicates that a potential nitrogen dioxide-oxidant problem exists in the
Charleston area.
4-85
-------
35
27
121
NUMBERS INDICATE MEASUREMENTS
0.01 0.020.030.040.050.060.07 0.08
tS5fe5E^ii^^
CONCENTRATION, ppm
Figure 4-42. Nitrogen dioxide pollution rose for Charleston, August and
September 1964.
4-86
-------
CALM
0-1
2-3
u, 4-7
oo
8-12
13-18
"1I\IIT
(104)
(127)
(184)
(48)
(12)
NUMBERS IN PARENTHESES INDICATE
NUMBER OF SAMPLE MEASUREMENTS
J_
_L
0.02 0.04, 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.20 0.22
NITROGEN DIOXIDE, ppm
Figure 4-43. Relationship of nitrogen dioxide concentrations to
wind speed,Charleston, Summer Fall 1964.
The nitrogen oxide values measured during the 1950-1951 Air Pollution Study,
Table 4-48, are generally higher than the nitrogen dioxide values measured during
the 1964-1965 study. The difference in concentrations measured by these two studies
probably represents the difference caused by sampling and analytical procedures.
Oxidant Measurements
Method - Oxidants were determined by using a continuous coulometric analyzer con-
taining potassium iodide-potassium bromide reagent in the electro-analytical cell.
Sulfur dioxide interferes quantitatively in this reaction because the iodine liber-
ated in the oxidation reaction is immediately reduced by any sulfur dioxide in the
sample. To eliminate the interference of sulfur dioxide, the air sample is passed
through a bed of chromium trioxide-treated filters before passage into the analy-
zer. This treatment, however, also oxidizes nitrogen oxide to nitrogen dioxide,
4-87
-------
77
132
19
94
NUMBERS INDICATE MEASUREMENTS
0.01 0.020.030.040.050.060.07 0.08
CONCENTRATION, ppm
Figure 4-44. Nitrogen dioxide pollution rose for North Charleston, March and
April 1965.
4-88
-------
CALM
0-1
2-3
4-7
O-
oo
8-12
13-18
(40)
(125)
(236)
(60)
NUMBERS IN PARENTHESES INDICATE
NUMBER OF SAMPLE MEASUREMENTS
(6)
J_
_L
_L
J_
_L
_L
0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.20 0.22
NITROGEN DIOXIDE, ppm
Figure 4-45. Relationship of nitrogen dioxide concentrations to
wind speed, North Charleston, March April 1965.
and the additive response of the analyzer to nitrogen dioxide is about 10 percent
that of ozone. The instrument was calibrated at regular intervals using an ozone-
air mixture prepared by irradiation of air with ultraviolet lamps and standardized
33
by the neutral buffered potassium iodide method.
Results - Data on oxidant concentration in the Kanawha Valley are summarized in
Table 4-49. These data were examined in light of existing air quality criteria,
Table 4-50. Air quality criteria for oxidants were not exceeded at any measurement
site except North Charleston. Since these oxidant measurements in North Charleston
were obtained in the spring and the late fall, there is the possibility that some
or all of the high oxidant levels measured were not caused by photochemical reac-
tions. The sources of the high oxidant concentrations measured are probably the
emissions of oxidizing pollutants from industrial processes.
4-89
-------
CALM
0-1
2-3
Q_
I/)
4-7
8-12
NUMBERS IN PARENTHESES
(90) INDICATE NUMBER OF
SAMPLE MEASUREMENTS
(56)
(105)
(24)
_L
0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.20 0.22
NITROGEN DIOXIDE, ppm
Figure 4-46. Relationship of nitrogen dioxide concentrations to wind
speed, Kanawha City, January - February 1965.
Figure 4-47. Wind rose for Kanawha City, winter 1965.
4-90
-------
44
N
2
.04 .08 .12 .16 .20 .24 .28 .32
CONCENTRATION, ppm
Figure 4-48. Relationship of nitrogen dioxide concentration to wind direction in
Kanawha City, winter 1965.
4-91
-------
23
40 NUMBERS INDICATE MEASUREMENTS
0.01 0.020.03 0.040.050.060.07 0.08
tSfe5!!^^e535
CONCENTRATION, ppm
Figure 4-49. Nitrogen dioxide pollution rose for Nitro, May and J'une 1965.
CALM
0-1
2-3
4-7
8-12
1 1
T 1 T
(60)
(61)
(61)
NUMBERS IN PARENTHESES INDICATE
NUMBER OF SAMPLE MEASUREMENTS
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.20
NITROGEN DIOXIDE, ppm
Figure 4-50. Relationship of nitrogen dioxide concentrations to
wind speed, Nitro, May - June 1965.
4-92
-------
Table 4-46. 1964 NITROGEN DIOXIDE DATA FROM THE CAMP NETWORK
(ppm)
City
Chicago
Cincinnati
Philadelphia
San Francisco
St. Louis
Washington
Maximum
Daily
0.15
0.10
0.10
0.18
0.12
0.10
Monthly
0.07
0.05
0.05
0.08
0.04
0.04
Yearly
average
0.05
0.03
0.04
0.06
0.03
0.04
Percent of time
concentration stated
is exceeded
90
0.02
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.02
0.02
50
0.04
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.04
0.03
10
0.08
0.06
0.06
0.05
0.09
0.06
1
0.13
0.10
0.11
0.09
0.21
0.10
Table 4-47. 1965 NITROGEN DIOXIDE DATA FROM THE CAMP STATIONS
(ppm)
City
Chicago
Cincinnati
Philadelphia
Denver
St Louis
Washington
Maximum
Daily
0.09
0.08
0.07
0.09
0.05
0.07
Monthly
0.05
0.04
0.04
0.04
0.03
0.04
Yearly
average
0.04
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.02
0.03
Percent of time
concentration stated
is exceeded
90
0.03
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.01
0.02
50
0.04
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.02
0.03
10
0.06
0.05
0.06
0.06
0.04
0.05
1
0.10
0.08
0.10
0.10
0.07
0.09
Excessive oxidant concentrations in North Charleston were related to metero-
logical factors, Table 4-51. Greatest concentrations were measured after dark on
November 2; thus these oxidant measurements cannot be directly related to photo-
chemical smog production, but are probably caused by chemical oxidant emissions.
On several other occasions, high oxidant concentrations occurred under cloudy sky
conditions so that photochemical smog formation of oxidants was also unlikely.
There was no single wind directionality at the time of high oxidant concentration;
wind directions were northeast, southeast, and southwest, indicating perhaps that
the high oxidant concentrations measured are due to pollutant emissions from several
sources or even possibly to area-wide photochemically produced oxidants. Wind
speeds associated with these measurements were generally 3 to 7 mph, which are
average or above average for the Kanawha Valley, indicating possible direct trans-
port of oxidant from source to receptor.
4-93
-------
Table 4-48. NITROGEN OXIDE DATA FROM 1950-1951
KANAWHA VALLEY AIR POLLUTION STUDIES
(ppm)
Station
Kanawha City
Charleston
South Charleston
North Charleston
St. Albans
Institute
Belle
Glass Plants
(Kanawha City)
West Virginia Bureau of
Industrial Hygiene3
8 a.m. to 4 p.m.
Average
0.08
0.12
0.12
0.09
0.07
Maximum
0.27
0.26
0.30
0.26
0.14
4 p.m. to 10 p.m.
Average
0.11
0.20
0.09
0.10
0.13
0.15
Maximum
0.26
0.92
0.12
0.19
0.29
0.78
Ketteringk
Laboratory
Average
0.10
0.12
0.17
0.09
0.09
0.25C
0.09
0.21
0.13
Maximum
0.28
0.37
0.40
0.24
0.24
0.56C
0.58
0.50
0.00
0.23
For sampling period of January 16 to June 11, 1-951.
For sampling period of December 1950 through June 1951.
cSampling upwind of industrial complex.
A comparison of oxidant concentrations obtained during the 1964-1965 Kanawha
Valley Air Pollution Study, Table 4-49, with the 1964 and 1965 CAMP network stations,
Tables 4-52 and -53, indicates that levels measured in the valley are less than the
yearly averages and approximately 1/2 to 1/4 of the monthly maximum averages reported
at the CAMP network stations. As mentioned with respect to measurements of other
gases, the CAMP stations operated for longer periods than did the study's mobile
sampling station at each site. A review of the maximum 1 and 10 percent values from
the cumulative frequency distribution data for both the valley and the CAMP stations,
reveals that all the valley stations, with the exception of North Charleston, are
below those reported by the CAMP network. The 1 percent value reported by the
North Charleston station in the spring of 1965 was equivalent to the reported CAMP
concentrations, while the 10 percent value reported for both the North Charleston
sampling sites was comparable to those found at the CAMP stations. A review of
these comparisons of oxidant measurements indicates that photochemical smog was not
found to be a problem in the study area.
4-94
-------
Table 4-49. SUMMARY OF HOURLY OXIDANT DATA
Station location
Charleston
North Charleston
North Charleston
North Charleston
Nitro
Nitro
Kansas City
Kansas City
Kansas City
North Charleston
North Charleston
Marmet
Season
Fall '64
Fall '64
Winter '65
Summer '65
Fall '64
Spring '65
Winter '65
Summer '65
Fall '65
Spring '65
Fall '65
Winter '66
Number of
measurements
974
359
594
666
554
618
162
401
139
852
915
568
Arithmetic
mean,
ppm
0.00
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.01
Geometric
mean,
ppm
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.01
Number of
occurrences,
0.15 ppm
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
2
0
Number of
occurrences,
0.10 ppm
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
7
3
0
Maximum,
ppm
0.05
0.02
0.03
0.08
0.07
0.07
0.01
0.01
0.05
0.20
0.41
0.01
Percent of time
concentration (ppm)
is exceeded
50
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.03
0.01
10
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.04
0.04
0.01
1
0.03
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.06
0.03
0.01
0.01
0.05
0.10
0.07
0.01
-p>
en
-------
Table 4-50. AMBIENT AIR STANDARDS OR CRITERIA FOR OXIDANTS
FOR AREAS IN THE UNITED STATES, 1966
Areas
Standard or criteria,
average concentration, ppm
34
California
Colorado
New York
St. Louis10
(Metropolitan)
0.15 for 1 hour (adverse level).
0.10 for 1 hour for greater than 1 percent of
time in any 3-month period.
0.15 for 1 hour.
0.10 for 4 hours for certain regions.
0.15 for 1 hour.
Table 4-51. RELATIONSHIP OF OXIDANT CONCENTRATIONS GREATER THAN
0.1 PPM TO WIND SPEED AND DIRECTION IN NORTH CHARLESTON
Oxidant
concentration,
ppm
0.15
0.10
0.17
0.13
0.11
0.20
0.11
0.41
0.22
0.10
Date
4/5/65
4/8/65
4/14/65
4/14/65
4/14/65
4/22/65
4/25/65
11/2/65
11/2/65
12/10/65
Time
1200
1200
1000
1100
1800
0800
1500
1900
2000
1300
Wind speed,
mph
3.0
7.0
3.5
4.0
2.0
2.0
4.5
5.5
5.0
3.0
Wind direction,
angular degrees
30
220
220
140
40
240
270'
45
55
135
Cloud cover,
tenths
9
10
2
3
10.
9
9
0
0
10
Hydrogen Sulfide Measurements
Method - Hydrogen sulfide was measured quantitatively by means of an impregnated
filter-tape automatic analyzer which included a light source, photo cell, and
recorder. ' Light transmittance measurements of the lead sulfide formed on the
filter tape were recorded continuously. The calibration curve supplied by the
manufacturer for given air flow rates was used since the curve had been checked
previously using hydrogen sulfide gas mixtures and good agreement had been obtained.
Instrument response was occasionally checked against hydrogen sulfide measurements
determined by means of the methylene blue method.
37
4-96
-------
Table 4-52. 1964 OXIDANT DATA FROM THE CAMP STATIONS
(ppm)
City
Chicago
Cincinnati
Philadelphia
San Francisco
St. Louis
Washington
Maximum
24-hour
average
0.07
0.08
0.09
0.05
0.07
0.08
Monthly
average
0.04
0.06
0.05
0.03
0.04
0.04
Yearly
average
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.03
0.03
Percent of time
concentration stated
is exceeded
90
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.01
0.00
50
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02
10
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.08
0.06
1
0.08
0.12
0.12
0.10
0.07
0.10
Table 4-53. 1965 OXIDANT DATA FROM THE CAMP STATIONS
(ppm)
City
Chicago
Cincinnati
Denver
Philadelphia
St. Louis
Washington
Maximum
24-hour
average
0.08
0.10
0.08
0.23
0.07
0.08
Monthly
average
0.05
0.04
0.05
0.07
0.04
0.05
Yearly
average
0.02
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
Percent of time
concentration stated
is exceeded
90
0.00
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
50
0.02
0.03
0.03
0.02
0.03
0.02
10
0.05
0.06
0.06
0.06
0.06
0.06
1
0.09
0.09
0.12
0.17
0.10
0.11
Results - Ambient air quality criteria for hydrogen sulfide are presented in Table
4-54. The greatest hydrogen sulfide concentration measured during the study was
0.002 ppm, based on a 2-hour averaging time, and the highest frequency of occurrence
of measurable quantities of hydrogen sulfide occurred in Nitro, Table 4-55. Assum-
ing that the ratio of peak to mean for 1-hour concentrations did not exceed 50,
existing ambient air quality criteria were not exceeded during the time that meas-
urements were made. Paint-blackening incidents have occurred in the past in the
study area, which may be attributed to atmospheric hydrogen sulfide, but none occur-
red during the time that measurements were made.
4-97
-------
Table 4-54. HYDROGEN SULFIDE AMBIENT AIR STANDARDS
OR CRITERIA FOR AREAS IN THE UNITED STATES, 1966
Area
California
New York
St. Louis10
Q
Pennsylvania
Standard or criteria,
average concentration,
ppm
0.1 for 1 hour
0.1 for 1 hour
0.03 for 1/2 hour for more than
twice in 5 consecutive days
0.05 for 1/2 hour for more than
twice in a year
0.005 for 24 hours
0.1 for 1 hour
Instrumentally detectable and non-detectable hydrogen sulfide concentrations
in Nitro were related to prevailing wind direction and speed as shown in Table 4-56.
These detectable concentrations occurred most frequently during nighttime hours at
light-wind conditions (less than 2 mph). When wind speeds were high enough to
assign meaningful directions, the wind direction during the time of occurrence of
detectable hydrogen sulfide concentration was south to southwest and north. Non-
detectable hydrogen sulfide measurements were also related to wind speed and direc-
tion on the same days that hydrogen sulfide concentrations were detectable for
several 2-hour periods. These non-detectable hydrogen sulfide concentrations occur-
red most frequently when wind speeds were greater than 2 mph. These relationships
suggest that the hydrogen sulfide measured is due to low-level (concentration)
sources of emission. Possible sources of this type may be from biological decomposi-
tion of industrial waste in ponds or from sewage treatment facilities. Emissions
from elevated industrial sources located north of the sampling site may have contri-
buted to the hydrogen sulfide measured, however.
A comparison of hydrogen sulfide concentrations measured during the 1950-51
studies with concentrations measured during the 1964-1965 study indicates that con-
centrations measured in the Kanawha Valley have decreased. The maximum average
concentration (0.077 ppm), measured by the Kettering Laboratory, and the maximum
concentration (0.267 ppm), measured by State Bureau of Industrial Hygiene, were found
downwind from the Nitro industrial complex. Both used the same sampling procedure.
Other average concentrations of hydrogen sulfide were found at the following
stations: Belle, 0.017 ppm, and St. Albans, 0.011 ppm. These results would seem
to confirm industrial reports that several of the former hydrogen sulfide sources
4-98
-------
Table 4-55. FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF 2-HOUR HYDROGEN SULFIDE CONCENTRATIONS
Station location
Nitro
(Junior high school )
North Charleston
Marmet
Season
Spring '65
Fall '65
Winter '66
Number of
measurements
285
247
169
Arithmetic
mean,
ppm
0.001
0.000
0.000
Geometric
mean,
ppm
0.001
0.000
0.000
Maximum,
ppm
0.002
0.002
0.002
Percent of time
stated concentration (ppm)
is exceeded
50
0.001
0.001
0.001
10
0.001
0.001
0.001
1
0.002
0.002
0.002
i
<£>
1C
-------
were now controlled. Hydrogen sulfide is still a problem, as evidenced by a paint-
blackening episode in the St. Albans area and numerous hydrogen sulfide odor com-
plaints and odor observations in the Nitro and the North and South Charleston areas.
Table 4-56. RELATIONSHIP OF MEASURABLE HYDROGEN SULFIDE CONCENTRATION
AND METEOROLOGY IN NITRO
Date
5/6/65
5/7/65
5/8/65
5/18/65
5/26/65
Time
0600
0800
2200
0000
0200
0400
0600
2000
2200
0000
0200
0400
0600
0800
1400
Detectable
Wind speed,
mph
2
3.5
2.5
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
4
2.5
5.5
Wind direction,
angular degrees
180a
200
220
N.A.b
180a
180a
360a
180a
180a
3603
360a
360a
180a
135
180
Time
0000
0200
0400
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
0800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
0800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
2200
Nondetectable
Wind speed,
mph
2
2
2
3
3
3.5
2
2
3
4
2.5
5.5
4.5
2
3
6.5
4
3.5
5
2
4
2.5
Wind direction,
angular degrees
180a
90a
180a
200
170
220
360a
50a
180
320
270
350
330
N.A.
180
300
320
230
280
N.A.
170
190
General Chemical Company wind instrument.
bN.A. Not Assignable.
Sulfuric Acid Mist Measurements
Method - Sulfuric acid mist concentration was determined on a 24-hour average basis
in North Charleston during the fall sampling period using the method of Commons.38
Atmospheric particulates were collected by filtration for 24 hours through Whatman
#42 filter paper, and the amount of particulate acid present was determined by
4-100
-------
immersing the sample in a known excess of sodium tetraborate and back-titrating with
standard acid.
Results - Data obtained are summarized in Table 4-57. Sulfuric acid concentration
•3
ranged from 0.6 to 3.6 yg/m . Several hourly samples were also obtained in North
Charleston at two other sampling sites, Table 4-58. Sulfuric acid mist concentra-
tions obtained were 3.8, 9.3, and 4.1 yg/m3 respectively. These hourly and daily
sulfuric acid concentrations did not exceed ambient air quality objectives of New
York State or of the St. Louis Metropolitan area as shown in Table 4-59. Further
measurements would be required to determine whether pollution due to sulfuric acid
mist is a problem.
Acid mist plumes from the acid plant and acid concentrators are frequently
observed to fumigate the North and West Charleston areas, causing numerous com-
plaints of throat and eye irritation. Operating equipment malfunctions and winds
of 4 mph or greater are the usual causes of these acid mist fumigations.
Table 4-57. 24-HOUR SULFURIC ACID MIST
CONCENTRATIONS IN NORTH CHARLESTON
November 1965 (day)
1
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
Arithmetic mean
Concentration, yg/m
2.2
1.5
0.8
2.7
1.7
1.8
1.6
0.8
1.1
0.6
1.0
1.3
3.6
2.0
1.2
1.6
4-101
-------
Table 4-58. 1-HOUR SULFURIC ACID MIST CONCENTRATIONS IN NORTH CHARLESTON
Date
11/12/65
11/15/65
11/17/65
Starting
time
1055
1016
1126
Sampling location
7th Ave. and James St.
7th Ave, and James St.
4th Ave'. and Patrick St.
Concentration,
yg/m3
3.8
9.3
4.1
Wind
speed,
mph
4.5
2.0
11.5
Wind
direction,
angular
degrees
125
90
270
Table 4-59. AMBIENT AIR QUALITY STANDARDS OR CRITERIA FOR SULFURIC ACID MIST
FOR AREAS IN THE UNITED STATES, 1966
Area
Standard or criteria -
average concentration, yg/m"
New York State
St. Louis (Metropolitan)
100 for 24 hours
4 annual averages
10 for 24 hours, once in any 90 days
30 for 30 minutes or more, once in any 90 days
Total Aliphatic Aldehyde Measurements
Method - Several short-term samples (30-minutes) were collected for determination
of total water-soluble, aliphatic aldehydes by means of the MBTH procedure,39 dur-
ing the fall using the mobile laboratory in North Charleston. Aldehydes were
measured because of the types of emissions in the atmosphere from combustion and
industrial sources and because certain aldehydes such as formaldehyde and acrolein
appear to be important eye irritants. '
Results - Measured aldehyde concentrations ranged from 0.01 to 0.10 ppm, Table 4-60.
The occurrence of relatively high concentrations, 0.06 ppm was related to wind speed
and direction, Table 4-61. These data show that high concentrations occurred mainly
when the wind speed was relatively high (for the Kanawha Valley) and the wind was
from the southwesterly quadrant. From the wind direction data, the conclusion
may be reached that the major sources of aldehyde emission affecting North Charles-
4-102
-------
Table 4-60. TOTAL ALIPHATIC ALDEHYDE MEASUREMENTS
IN NORTH CHARLESTON
(ppm)
Date, 1965
Oct. 28
Oct. 29
Oct. 30
Nov. 1
Nov. 2
Nov. 3
Nov. 4
Time3
1030
1330
1530
0830
1030
1330
1530
0830
1030
1330
1530
0830
1030
1530
0830
1030
1330
1530
0830
1030
1330
1530
0830
1330
1530
Aliphatic
aldehydes,
as HCHO
0.04
0.01
0.01
0.04
0.02
0.03
0.01
0.05
0.09
0.04
0.03
0.06
0.08
0.02
0.04
0.04
0.04
-
0.05
0.04
0.02
0.07
0.05
0.02
0.01
Date, 1965
Nov. 5
Nov. 6
Nov. 8
Nov. 9
Nov. 12
Nov. 13
Nov. 15
Nov. 16
Nov. 17
Arithmetic
Time a
0830
1030
1330
1530
0830
1030
1330
1530
0830
1030
1330
1530
0830
1030
1330
1530
0830
1030
1330
1530
1230
0900
1030
1330
1530
1130
mean
Aliphatic
aldehydes,
as HCHO
0.04
0.03
0.04
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.03
0.02
0.04
0.01
0.03
0.04
0.03
0.03
0.01
0.07
0.05
0.04
0.04
0.03
0.08
0.07
0.07
0.10
0.07
0.05
0.04
^O-minute samples beginning at time indicated.
4-103
-------
Table 4-61. RELATIONSHIP OF ALIPHATIC ALDEHYDE CONCENTRATIONS
GREATER THAN 0.06 ppm, WIND SPEED AND DIRECTION
IN NORTH CHARLESTON
Date, 1965
Oct. 30
Nov. 1
Nov. 3
Nov. 12
Nov. 15
Nov. 16
Nov. 16
Nov. 16
Nov. 16
Time
1030
1030
1530
1530
1230
0900
1030
1330
1530
Aldehydes,
ppm
0.09
0.08
0.07
0.07
0.08
0.07
0.07
0.10
0.07
Wind speed,
mph
8.5
7.5
6.5
7.0
8.0
10.0
9.0
4.5
7.0
Wind direction,
angular degrees
250
270
235
150
240
225
230
220
235
ton lie to the southwest. From the high wind speed associated with these measure-
ments, the conclusion may also be reached that the high aldehyde concentrations
result from direct transport from sources to receptor.
Table 4-62 is a summary of aldehyde measurements made during the 1950-1951
Air Pollution Study. A comparison of the 1950-1951 data with data obtained during
the present study indicates that the average aldehyde concentration in the ambient
air has remained relatively constant. The maximum concentration reported for the
North Charleston area during the 1950-1951 study (0.172 ppm) is approximately twice
that recorded in the same area during the 1964-1965 study (0.10 ppm). The maximum
value reported in the 1950-1951 study was measured at St. Albans (0.378 ppm) and is
approximately 4 times that found in the North Charleston area in the 1964-1965 study,
STUDENT ODOR SURVEYS
General
Two odor surveys were made using students from 13 high schools to define the
geographic distribution, intensity, duration, and type of odor occurrences. The
first survey was conducted during the fall of 1964, November 2 through 22, and the
second during the spring of 1965, April 25 through May 13. The locations of the
various high schools in the study area are shown in Figure 4-51.
The students were principally sophomores, with students from other classes
used in order to fully cover geographical areas of interest. The student observ-
4-104
-------
Table 4-62. SUMMARY OF ALDEHYDE CONCENTRATIONS REPORTED IN 1950-1951
KANAWHA VALLEY AIR POLLUTION STUDY
(ppm, HCHO)
Station
Charleston
South Charleston
North Charleston
Kanawha City
St. Albans
Institute
Belle
State Health Department
8 a.m. to 4 p.m.
Average
0.047
0.044
0.041
0.048
0.058
0.053
Maximum
0.228
0.172
0.172
0.227
0.378
0.104
Minimum
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
4 p.m. to 10 a.m.
Average
0.048
0.034
0.025
0.029
0.039
0.024
Maximum
0.169
0.122
0.097
0.101
0.191
0.102
Minimum
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
Kettering Institute
Average
0.046
0.033
0.040
0.031
0.036
0.041
Maximum
0.130
0.076
0.130
0.057
0.120
0.067
Minimum
0.025
0.000
0.013
0.009
0.009
0.025
-Pi
I
o
in
-------
Figure 4-51. Location of high schools pai-ti cipating in Student Odor- Studies.
-------
ers were selected by participating teachers or principals with some assistance by
the study staff. The criteria for the selection of students were conscientiousness,
odor acuity, and the geographical location of the student's residence.
The study staff met with the participating students at each school prior
to the odor survey and conducted an orientation session. All phases of the
Kanawha Valley Air Pollution Study were briefly discussed. This was followed by
an explanation of the odor survey, including objectives, the forms and methods
to be used, description of the odor test, and a question and answer period. The
students were then tested for odor sensitivity to insure that they were capable
41-43
of detecting odors. A brief description of the odor sensitivity test can be
found in Appendix D.
The student observation sheets were collected both during and at the end
of the surveys, and were either mailed to the Air Pollution Control Commission
or were collected from the participating teachers by members of the study staff.
Due to the closing of schools for summer vacation in May 1965, some difficulty
was experienced in obtaining the completed observation sheets from a few students.
A follow-up made during the fall of 1965 school term to obtain the missing
questionnaires was not successful.
The positive odor responses from student observations were divided, accord-
ing to the students descriptions of the odor, into eight classifications (Table 4-
63). Due to the complexity of the sources of the odorous pollutant emissions, the
variety and number of the emissions, and the limited training of the student
observers, the observed odors as recorded by the students were very difficult to
classify. For example, the description "dead fish" could indicate the presence of
amines, an organic chemical manufactured and used by several of the valley's
chemical plants. Also, descriptions such as rotten cheese, oranges, etc. could
easily describe emissions from chemical or industrial waste-treatment facilities
located in several valley areas. Most of the odors listed in the miscellaneous
classification are probably industrial chemicals, as many of these odors are combin-
ations of several chemical compounds, with the combination having an odor unlike any
of the contributing compounds and extremely difficult to describe, even by trained
personnel. Several of the industrial complexes have odors which are specific for
that area or for a particular process or plant. These odors, however, could not be
described by the odor of a certain compound.
4-107
-------
Table 4-63 CLASSIFICATION OF DESCRIPTIONS OF ODORS FOUND IN STUDENT ODOR SURVEYS
KANAWHA VALLEY AIR POLLUTION STUDY
Odor classifications
Title
Descriptions of odors determined by
the study staff to be present:
Examples
Chemical
Probable
chemical
Decomposition
(Possible
chemical)
Food
(Possible
chemical)
Combustion
Industrial
Natural
Miscellaneous
Industrial chemical emissions
Industrial chemicals, but could possibly fit
into another classification
Decomposition of waste materials, but could
possibly indicate industrial chemical odors
Food or the cooking of food, could include
industrial chemical odors
Combustion from any source such as auto-
mobiles, wastes, leaves, etc.
All industrial process odors with the
exception of industrial chemical odors
Odors other than those caused by man and
his activities
None of the above classifications; most
odors listed in this class are probably
industrial chemical
Chemical, bleach,
rotten eggs, acid
Rotten, sour, bitter
organic, salt
Sewage, dead fish,
garbage
Popcorn, cooking meat,
cooking bread
Burning leaves, wood,
trees, waste, auto-
mobile exhaust
Asphalt, creosote,
wood, sawdust, dust,
gasoline
Flowers, trees, grass,
fruit trees, earth
Colors, indescribable,
no description
Fall 1964 Student Odor Survey
During the first student odor survey, November 2 through November 22, 1964,
approximately 373 high school students participated as observers. Odor obser-
vations were made by these students at their homes at 0700, 1700, and 2000. The
maximum number of possible observations was 23,499. The observers made 13,705
actual observations or 58.3 percent of the possible observations and made 8,398
positive observations or 35.7 percent of the possible (maximum) observations and
61.3 percent of the actual observations. The student participation was good during
this first, or fall, study.
The results of the fall survey are presented by both school-area and time
of observation. Tables 4-64 and -65 summarize the odor observations by school-area
4-108
-------
Table 4-64. SUMMARY OF STUDENT ODOR OBSERVATIONS BY SCHOOL-AREA (NUMBER)
FALL 1964
Total
obser-
School vations
Poca 484
Nitro 1,155
St. Albans 1,520
Dunbar 1,612
Sissonville 1,200
South Charleston 961
Stonewall Jackson 839
George Washington 1,068
Charleston 866
DuPont 1,268
Cedar Grove 1 ,134
East Bank 774
Montgomery 824
Totals 13,705
Positive
obser-
vations
289
628
925
943
706
549
580
641
558
806
781
504
488
8,398
- Chemical
9
31
103
164
87
48
65
31
16
17
12
32
4
619
Probably
chemical
3
33
44
43
26
27
18
16
8
11
30
7
10
276
Decompo-
sition
12
10
25
24
7
12
9
1
22
18
25
13
30
208
Food
9
12
15
12
46
13
14
3
0
6
18
1
5
154
Combus-
tion
217
459
618
590
462
366
379
524
467
614
561
409
368
6,034
Indus-
trial
4
13
30
19
11
10
3
5
4
5
50
4
9
167
Natural
32
36
69
47
45
40
56
30
36
87
72
26
54
630
Miscel-
laneous
2
13
7
9
2
18
5
2
2
15
1
1
0
77
No
descrip-
tion
1
21
14
35
20
15
31
29
3
33
12
11
8
233
-e>
o
-------
-£»
I
Table 4-65. SUMMARY OF STUDENT ODOR OBSERVATIONS BY SCHOOL-AREA (PERCENT)
FALL 1964
School
Poca
Nitro
St. Albans
Dunbar
Sissonville
South Charleston
Stonewall Jackson
George Washington
Charleston
DuPont
Cedar Grove
East Bank
Montgomery
Chemical
3
5
11
17
12
9
11
5
3
2
2
6
1
Probably
chemical
1
5
5
5
4
5
3
2
1
1
4
1
2
Decompo-
sition
4
2
3
3
1
2
2
1
4
2
3
3
6
Food
3
2
2
1
7
2
2
1
0
1
2
1
1
Combus-
tion
75
73
67
63
65
67
65
82
84
76
72
81
75
Indus-
trial
1
2
3
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
6
1
2
Natural
11
6
7
5
6
7
10
5
6
11
9
5
11
Miscel-
laneous
1
2
1
1
1
3
1
1
1
2
1
1
0
No
descrip-
tion
1
3
2
4
3
3
5
5
1
4
2
2
2
-------
and indicate by number of observations and, by percentages, the breakdown of odors
by classifications. The largest and most significant classification was combustion,
with 6,034 observations or 72 percent of the positive observations. These results
are indicative of the serious forest fire and meteorological conditions which were
present in Southern West Virginia during the fall of 1964. Students from Charles-
ton High School reported the highest percentage of odor classed as combustion while
students from Dunbar reported the lowest percentage. Natural odors were the second
highest classification reported with 8 percent of the positive observations followed
closely by those odors classed as chemical (7 percent). The other classifications
were small (3 percent or less) when compared with the combustion classification, and
are less than half the observations classed as natural or chemical. The natural
odors were more prevalent in the Montgomery and Poca areas (11 percent), with Dunbar,
George Washington, and East Bank reporting the smallest percentage (5 percent).
Schools reporting 10 percent or higher chemical odors were Dunbar (11 percent),
Sissonville (12 percent), St. Albans (11 percent), and Stonewall Jackson (11 per-
cent), with students from Montgomery High School reporting the lowest percentage of
odors classed as chemical. Dunbar had the highest number of observations classified
as chemical (164), followed by St. Albans (103), Sissonville (87), Stonewall Jackson
(65), and South Charleston (48). School-areas reporting a significant percentage
of probable chemical odors ( 5 percent or greater) were Nitro, St. Albans, Dunbar,
and South Charleston. Both the chemical and probable chemical odors were concen-
trated at schools located near chemical complexes. The observations reported as
chemical were lower than expected for the Poca, Nitro, South Charleston, and the
schools near the Belle complex, DuPont, Cedar Grove, East Bank, and Charleston.
This could be due to odors from the forest fires, which were high for these
school-areas, masking the chemical odors.
The variation of odors as a function of time during the day is presented
in Table 4-66. This table indicates little variation in observed odors for all
classes except for combustion and natural odors. The natural odors were more prev-
alent in the morning (10 percent), and decreased in the evening (6 percent at 1700,
7 percent at 2000). Odors classified as combustion increased during the day from
68 percent in the morning to 74 percent at night. This may indicate increased
burning during the evening hours due to regulations restricting open burning to
the hours of 1700 through 0500 for the fall (October to December) and spring (March
through May) seasons.
Spring 1965 Student Odor Survey
The second student odor survey was conducted during the spring of 1965,
from April 23 through May 13. The students again made odor observations at home,
4-111
-------
Table 4-66. SUMMARY OF STUDENT OBSERVATIONS AS A FUNCTION OF TIME
FALL 1964
Total
observations
Observation
time
0700
1700
2000
Average
Total
Number
4,592
4,671
4,442
13,705
Positive
observations
Number
2,873
2,841
2,684
8,390
Chemical
No.
232
194
193
619
Per-
cent
8
7
7
7
Probably
chemical
No.
123
77
76
276
Per-
cent
4
3
3
3
Decompo-
sition
No.
56
85
67
208
Per-
cent
2
3
2
2
Food
Per-
No. cent
49 2
66 2
39 1
2
154
Combustion
No.
Per-
cent
1 ,960 68
2,082 73
1 ,992 74
72
6,034
Industrial
No.
44
67
56
167
Per-
cent
2
2
2
2
Natural
No.
287
168
175
630
Per-
cent
10
6
7
7
Miscel-
laneous
Per-
No. cent
33 1
27 1
17 1
1
77
No
Descrip-
tion
Percent
3
3
3
3
-------
at 0700, 1700, and 2000. The number of students participating changed from 373
to 383 for a possible total of 24,129 odor observations. The students made 10,845
actual observations or 44.9 percent of the total possible observations and made
3,300 positive observations or 13.7 percent of the possible observations and 30.4
percent of the actual observations. Students at Sissonville had the highest per-
centage of actual observations (81.2), with Cedar Grove second (74.5 percent), and
Nitro third (68.7 percent). Montgomery High School had the lowest percentage of
observations (14.9 percent). Unfortunately, this was due to a misunderstanding
causing the students to begin several days after the April 23rd starting date.
Mention should be made of the fact that another orientation session with a
review of the procedures was not conducted. The observation results would seem to
indicate that this should be done in future studies. Also, the maintenance of
close contact with the student observers, plus a rapid review of the completed
observation sheets and feed back of necessary information to the students par-
ticipating in the survey should be incorporated in similar studies.
The results of the spring survey are presented on a school-area basis in
Tables 4-67 and -68. Natural odors were the largest classification found during
the spring survey with 1,143 observations (34.6 percent), followed by chemical
(587 observations - 17.8 percent), and combustion (547 observations - 16.6 percent).
The school-areas reporting significant numbers of natural odors were either sub-
urban or rural, such as George Washington (164 observations - 72 percent), Cedar
Grove (251 observations - 53 percent), and East Bank (105 observations - 45 percent)
Schools such as Sissonville (81 observations - 27 percent) and Poca (14 obser-
vations - 36 percent) are both suburban or rural and would be expected to have a
higher percentage of natural odors. This relatively small percentage of natural
odors is probably due to the close proximity of large chemical complexes and also
meteorological factors which tend to transport odorous compounds emitted in the
valley to the school-areas. The second highest odor classification (chemical)
was reported principally by the lower valley school-areas. Schools reporting
20 percent or higher were Poca (10 observations - 26 percent), Dunbar (115 obser-
vations - 36 percent), Sissonville (61 observations 21 percent), South Charleston
(41 observations - 26 percent), Stonewall Jackson (130 observations 30 percent),
and Charleston (55 observations - 27 percent). George Washington High School,
whose students are located either on the hills above or in rural or suburban areas
away from the valley, reported that only 4 percent of the observations were either
chemical or probable chemical. Of the schools located near the Belle complex, only
Charleston reported significant chemical odors (27 percent), while student obser-
vations from DuPont (24 observations - 8 percent), East Bank (18 observations - 8
4-113
-------
I
-e»
Table 4-67. SUMMARY OF ODOR OBSERVATIONS BY SCHOOL-AREAS (NUMBER)
SPRING 1965
Schools
Poca
Nitro
St. Albans
Dunbar
Sissonville
South Charleston
Stonewall Jackson
George Washington
Charleston
DuPont
Cedar Grove
East Bank
Montgomery
Totals
Total
observations
231
1,428
907
855
1,126
688
1,019
930
824
1,024
986
486
291
10,845
Positive
observations
39
302
157
316
295
160
434
228
205
314
473
232
145
3,300
Chemical
10
66
53
115
61
41
130
8
55
24
5
18
1
587
Probable
chemical
3
39
17
35
26
13
48
9
10
15
16
15
3
249
Decompo-
sition
1
26
22
11
20
4
16
2
26
56
42
10
20
256
Food
5
6
5
8
15
0
14
1
0
7
34
17
3
115
Combus-
tion
5
41
15
44
67
15
35
26
34
82
83
50
50
547
Indus-
trial
1
17
6
5
15
4
11
18
5
15
35
11
20
163
Natural
14
91
28
82
81
45
99
164
54
87
251
105
42
1,143
Miscel-
laneous
0
1
3
10
2
6
8
0
1
1
3
1
1
37
-------
Table 4-68. SUMMARY OF STUDENT ODOR OBSERVATION BY SCHOOL-AREAS (PERCENT)
SPRING 1965
Schools
Poca
Nitro
St. Albans
Dunbar
Sissonville
South Charleston
Stonewall Jackson
George Washington
Charleston
Cedar Grove
East Bank
Montgomery
DuPont
Chemical
26
22
34
36
21
26
30
4
27
1
8
1
8
Probable
chemical
8
13
11
11
9
8
11
4
5
3
6
2
5
Decompo-
sition
2
9
14
3
7
3
4
1
13
10
4
14
18
Food
13
2
3
3
5
0
3
1
0
7
7
2
2
Combus-
tion
13
14
10
14
23
9
8
11
17
18
22
34
26
Indus-
trial
21
6
4
2
5
3
3
8
2
7
5
14
5
Natural
36
30
18
26
27
28
23
72
26
53
45
29
28
Miscel-
laneous
0
0
2
3
1
4
2
0
1
0
1
1
1
No
Descrip-
tion
0
4
4
2
2
19
16
0
9
1
2
3
7
-------
percent), and Cedar Grove (5 observations - 1 percent), were less than 10 percent.
Mention should be made of the fact that, with the exception of East Bank
(10 observations - 4 percent), the schools near the Belle complex all have a high
percentage of decomposition odors, DuPont (56 observations - 18 percent), Cedar
Grove (42 observations - 10 percent), and Charleston (26 observations - 13 percent).
Included in the decomposition classification are fishy-type odors which are a
common description of the odor of amines, thus a number of these observations could
and probably do represent odors caused by the industrial chemical complex. Amines
are made and used in other areas of the valley and these characteristic odors are
probably included in this classification at other schools. Combustion odors are
reported to be high for areas where the open burning of refuse is common, i.e.,
rural and suburban areas. Odors from the incomplete combustion of gasoline and
diesel fuel in automobiles, trucks, and railroad engines are also significant.
The food, industrial, and miscellaneous classifications were low for all
school-areas with the exception of Poca (food - 13 percent) and Montgomery
(industrial - 14 percent). Odors with no description were unusually high for
South Charleston and Stonewall Jackson with 19 and 16 percent, respectively. This
percentage was much higher than the other participating schools, whose reported
percentages for this classification ranged from 9 percent at Charleston to 0 per-
cent at both Poca and George Washington. This wide variation in observations may
have been due to the students inability to describe some of the odors.
The comparison of odors with observation time is presented in Table 4-69.
As was the case in the first survey, there seems to be little variation of observed
odors with time, at least for the three periods studied. Also, the same pattern was
observed for the natural and combustion odors, i.e., the natural odors were more
prevalent in the morning hours than late afternoon or evening (0700-39 percent,
1700-33 percent, 2000-31 percent) while the opposite was observed for the combustion
odors (0700-11 percent, 1700-17 percent, 2000-22 percent). This may be caused by
increased burning and other activity late in the day due to forestry regulations.
The students were asked to indicate whether a particular odor was pleasant,
unpleasant or no reaction. The results are presented in Table 4-70, and in
Figures 4-52, -53, and -54.
Table 4-71 is a breakdown by school-area of the students' reactions to all
observed odors. The percentage of unpleasant reactions ranged from a high of
63 percent at Montgomery to a low of 20 percent at George Washington. The schools
4-116
-------
Table 4-69. SUMMARY OF STUDENT OBSERVATIONS AS A FUNCTION OF TIME
SPRING 1965
Total
observations
Observation
time Number
0700 3,670
1700 3,642
2000 3,483
Average
Totals 10,795
Positive
observations
Number
1,125
1,143
1,032
3,300
Chemical
No.
212
192
183
587
Per-
cent
19
17
18
18
Probably
chemical
No.
102
79
68
249
Per-
cent
9
7
7
8
Decompo-
sition
No.
80
99
77
256
Per-
cent
7
9
7
8
Food
No.
45
43
27
115
Per-
cent
4
4
3
3
Combustion
No.
120
198
229
547
Per-
cent
11
17
22
17
Industrial
No.
37
76
50
163
Per-
cent
3
7
5
5
Natural
No.
443
382
318
1,143
Per-
cent
39
33
31
35
Miscel-
laneous
No.
20
6
11
37
Per-
cent
2
1
1
1
No
Descrip-
tion
Percent
-
5
6
5
-------
00
Table 4-70. STUDENT REACTIONS TO OBSERVED ODORS BY CLASSIFICATION
SPRING 1965
None
Odor Obser-
classification vations
Chemical 66
Probable chemical 28
Decomposition
(Possibly chemical ) 16
Food
(Possibly chemical) 11
Combustion 71
Industrial 23
Natural 189
Miscellaneous 9
Total 413
Percent
11
12
6
9
14
15
14
25
13
Pleasant
Obser-
vations
54
39
11
68
35
32
982
11
1,232
Percent
9
16
4
55
7
21
77
31
38
Unpleasant
Obser-
vations
468
176
230
44
403
98
121
16
1,556
Percent
80
72
90
36
79
64
9
44
49'
Total
observations
588
243
257
123
509
153
1,292
36
3,201
-------
in the lower valley reported unpleasant reaction at least 50 percent of the time.
George Washington had the highest percentage of pleasant reactions and Nitro the
lowest, 18 percent. Students from DuPont reported the greatest percentage of no
reaction, followed closely by Poca with 21 percent, and Nitro with 20 percent. The
reason for this lack of reaction to odors in these areas is not known.
CHEMICAL
PROBABLE CHEMICAL
DECOMPOSITION
(POSSIBLY CHEMICAL)
FOOD
(POSSIBLY CHEMICAL)
COMBUSTION
INDUSTRIAL
NATURAL
MISCELLANEOUS
T
T
T
I
I
I
o
20
80
40 60
PERCENT
Figure 4-52. Student survey, no reaction to observed odors, spring 1965.
100
CHEMICAL
PROBABLE CHEMICAL
DECOMPOSITION
(POSSIBLY CHEMICAL)
FOOD
(POSSIBLY CHEMICAL)
COMBUSTION
INDUSTRIAL
NATURAL
MISCELLANEOUS
20
40 60
PERCENT
80
100
Figure 4-53. Student survey, pleasant reactions to observed odors, spring 1965.
4-119
-------
CHEMICAL
PROBABLE CHEMICAL
DECOMPOSITION
(POSSIBLY CHEMICAL)
FOOD
(POSSIBLY CHEMICAL)
COMBUSTION
INDUSTRIAL
NATURAL
MISCELLANEOUS
JL
20
40 60
PERCENT
80
TOO
Figure 4-54. Student survey, unpleasant reactions to observed odors, spring 1965.
Table 4-71. STUDENT REACTIONS TO ALL OBSERVED ODORS - BY SCHOOL-AREA
SPRING 1965
No reaction
Obser-
School vations
Poca 8
Nitro 41
St. Albans 18
Dunbar 53
Sissonville 40
South Charleston 16
Stonewall Jackson 30
George Washington 13
Charleston 26
DuPont 73
Cedar Grove 60
East Bank 16
Montgomery 19
Total 413
Percent
21
20
12
17
13
13
8
6
14
22
11
7
12
13
Pleasant
Obser-
vations
10
37
45
71
84
49
118
167
55
103
338
113
42
1,232
Percent
26
18
29
22
27
39
33
74
29
32
62
48
25
38
Unpleasant
Obser-
vations
20
128
90
192
190
60
216
44
109
150
148
105
104
1,556
Percent
53
62
59
61
60
48
59
20
57
46
27
45
63
49
Total
observations
38
206
153
316
314
125
364
224
190
326
546
234
165
3,201
4-120
-------
To determine the effect of man-made odors on the students' senses, the odors
classed as natural were deleted and the student reactions to all other observed
odors are presented in Table 4-72. The percentage of the unpleasant reactions is
increased at all school-areas, from 29 to 75 percent with the results ranging from
a high of 86 percent at Montgomery to 61 percent at George Washington and Cedar
Grove. The percentage of pleasant reactions sharply decreased, from 38 to 13
percent, with the results ranging from 24 percent at Cedar Grove to 3 percent at
Nitro. The percentage of no reaction to odors remained relatively constant,
decreasing from only 13 to 12 percent with the percentages for the individual
schools changing. The reaction of the student observers to what would be considered
man-made odors is that 75 percent of the observed odors are unpleasant. This def-
initely showed a need to control these type of odors in the Kanawha Valley.
Table 4-72. STUDENT REACTIONS TO OBSERVED ODORS EXCLUDING THE
NATURAL ODOR CLASSIFICATION
SPRING 1965
No reaction
Obser-
School vations
Poca 4
Nitro 22
St. Albans 17
Dunbar 40
Sissonville 19
South Charleston 12
Stonewall Jackson 18
George Washington 10
Charleston 17
DuPont 13
Cedar Grove 32
East Bank 11
Montgomery 9
Totals 224
Percent
17
15
14
17
9
15
7
17
12
7
15
9
9
12
Pleasant
Obser-
vations
1
4
18
21
24
13
41
13
15
22
54
18
6
250
Percent
4
3
15
9
11
17
15
22
11
13
24
15
6
13
Unpleasant
Obser-
vations
19
119
88
172
176
54
207
36
105
142
136
94
87
1,435
Percent
79
82
71
74
80
68
78
61
77
80
61
76
85
75
Total
observations
24
145
123
233
219
79
266
59
137
177
222
123
102
1,909
Odor Patrols
Odor patrols were conducted by the study staff to supplement the student odor
surveys. These patrols were made on a routine and episode basis to determine the
distribution, intensity, duration, and type of odor occurrences and also to attempt
to pinpoint odor sources. These patrols were initiated in the spring of 1966 and
4-121
-------
were continued on an intermittent basis.
The methods used by the study staff in conducting these odor patrols were
similar to those described by Gruber,44 et al, Huey, et al, and were used by the
Abatement Branch, Division of Air Pollution, U. S. Public Health Service. The
observer drove through the area to be patrolled with the car window open until a
faint odor was detected. The observer would then use a scentometer (described in
previously mentioned reports) to determine the odor strengths. Helium filled
balloons and a compass were used to indicate the direction of the odor source. The
point was located on a map and the odor strength, direction of wind, description of
odor, time, and date were recorded. These observations were continued until the
intensity and distribution of the odor observed was determined. If additional
(different) odors were observed, the same procedure was used.
Odor strength has been expressed objectively in terms of odor units, an
odor unit being defined as 1 cu ft of air at the odor threshold. Table 4-73
indicates the strength of an odor in terms of the number of dilutions to threshold
with the corresponding diameter of the intake orifice used as the scentometer.
The study staff modified these methods of odor observation because of the
unique conditions in the Kanawha Valley. A two-man team was used to obtain con-
current measurement of odor strength and both wind speed and direction. One team
member used a hand-held wind instrument while the other made the odor observation.
Considerable difficulty was experienced during the earlier patrols in obtaining wind
data and odor strength. Also, the two-man teams made regular and more frequent odor
patrols.
Table 4-73. ODOR STRENGTH CHART FOR SCENTOMETER
Odor strength,
odor units
1 (Maximum)
2
3
4
5 (Minimum or
faint)
Number of dilutions
to threshold
170
31
7
2
None
Diameter of intake
orifice, inches
1/16
1/8
1/4
1/2
-
The odors most frequently observed and recorded in the Nitro area were
those described as mercaptans and hydrogen sulfide. Figures 4-55 and -56 indicate
4-122
-------
the extent and variability of the distribution of these odors. The situation, as
shown in Figure 4-56, can be the cause of considerable complaints. Limited odor
patrols in the downriver area were not successful in obtaining useful data.
Information on a variety of odors was obtained in the area surrounding the
South Charleston complex. The following Figures 4-57 through 4-67 indicate the
distribution and strength of odors observed in the South and North Charleston areas.
Figures 4-57 and -58 indicate the extent of odors described as sulfuric acid mist
while Figures 4-59 and -60 show the extent of acetic acid emissions. An odor
described as sweet is shown to occur in both North and South Charleston (Figures
4-61 and -62). Chemists, trained in odor observations, have difficulty in identi-
fying some of the odors found in and around these chemical complexes. Hydrogen
sulfide odors were observed and the extent of their effect is shown in Figures 4-63,
-64, and -65. The results of these patrol observations would seem to pinpoint a
potential hydrogen sulfide source near the mound in South Charleston. The extent
of the effect of odors described as rotten are shown in Figures 4-66 and -67. The
results in some circumstances, such as the possible source of the hydrogen sulfide
emission, do indicate the location of an odor source. As can be seen from the
other figures and from the results of this work, the pinpointing of many of the odor
sources will require the frequent use of odor patrols.
Conclusions
The results from both the student odor survey and the odor patrols indicate
that there is a significant problem with objectionable odors throughout the Kanawha
Valley study area. The high percentage of odors described as objectionable by the
student observers indicates many of the man-made odors are considered to be
undesirable as well as a nuisance. The data also indicate that the odor problem is
not confined to those areas surrounding the industrial chemical complexes, but
affects the entire study area.
The results from the odor patrols provide an indication of the extent of
the effect of a source of odorous emissions. This survey also indicated the
difficulty experienced in pinpointing sources of odorous emissions in an industrial
chemical complex with the problem compounded by the effects of valley meteorology
and topography. These patrols also provide useful data on odors and help develop
trained observers and patrol methods applicable to the Kanawha Valley.
4-123
-------
-e»
PO
C&W^
'•r _x-v\ >t, x v .•>
^ - , * ij*'*'
^M^,L'-7
^\\°^:;.irv^
•r ur^^
f }• '?^^ -- x ^^^-« /' • - --
\L^-\
TIME: 1900 EST
WIND: 170° MODERATE TO STRONG
CONCENTRATION, ODOR UNITS
—— MAXIMUM
...... MINIMUM
Figure 4-55. Mercaptan and hydrogen sulfide odors found in the Nitro area, April 27, 1966.
-------
ro
in
Figure 4-56. Mercaptan and hydrogen sulfide odors found in the Nitro area, August 4, 1966.
-------
I
«J
PO
__ - ..
' NA\ A'l. UlU.'\-\NlK PI..»
••• *
TIME: 1000 EST
WIND: APPROXIMATELY 260° MODERATE
CONCENTRATION, ODOR UNITS
MAXIMUM
— — — MINIMUM
Figure 4-57. Acid mist (sulfuric) odors found in the North Charleston area, April 21, 1966.
-------
jrf-ft^-^c:.
CHAllLE
SOUTH CHARLESTON
CONCENTRATION, ODOR UNITS
MAXIMUM
TIME: 1030 EST
WIND: 240°
MINIMUM
Figure 4-58. Acid mist (sulfuric) odors found in the North Charleston area, August 2, 1966.
-------
4k
PO
^—^TT^~^^M.. ChaHcVton'.'P' Ss"^% '^^"/^^
ughi ----- ^^-—__ ' ',? O'spbsai^-. •••'• /-^- - . .....
=^r:r-,^'<: • •.•• 4 \j
—-- MINIMUM ~ " ^^~ "' ' •• ^
Figure 4-59. Acid mist (acetic) odors found in the South Charleston area, May 25, 1966.
-------
. ~ - .. • .
<• ,-«- /f v.' N,^V-\tl. U1U»\-\N(.'E PL.-i'N'tV'f, 'Jr H;
X ' ' ',".-* Sch '
.SQUTH CARLESTON
CONCENTRATION, ODOR UNITS
\ / V^i^ \:jJ^^V-^K^^"^:^'-7\:'l^^
TIME: 1000 EST
WIND: 255°
" --- MINIMUM
ro
vo
Figure 4-60. Acid mist (acetic) odors found in the North Charleston area, August 1, 1966.
-------
I
5
I I V F^v?'.'
I I ~r9 J-S&^-t ' '*"•
I -I Vjn^fff^i ., ^»
:^.V^^Wej^^d^0p^b^ yir^^^^^MM^^
TIME: 1000 EST
WIND: 320°
CONCENTRATION, ODOR UNITS
MAXIMUM
—— MINIMUM
Figure 4-61. Odor described as sweet found in the South Charleston area, July 20, 1966.
-------
.Loudon ^.
' High Seh ••/"•"
•CHARLI
..SOUTH CHARLESTON
TIME: 0930 EST
WIND: 240°
CONCENTRATION, ODOR UNITS
MAXIMUM
I
CO
----- MINIMUM
Figure 4-62. Odor described as sweet found in the North Charleston area, August 2, 1966.
-------
"'* ' • ••' ' '"~- ' X
TIME: 1030 EST
WIND: 320°
CONCENTRATION, ODOR UNITS
• MAXIMUM
——-— MINIMUM
Figure 4-63. Hydrogen sulfide odor found in the South Charleston area, July 20, 1966.
-------
I
u>
co
2 | 3 .c-..,m,7>>'"':::
/^ St AnthonvSS*
' '""
-
. O'Dell 610
SOUTH CHARLESTON
TIME: 0830 EST
WIND: 085°
CONCENTRATION, ODOR UNITS
MAXIMUM
^ST^ •-
l^^T! V.n\^:^'
..... MINIMUM
Figure 4-64. Hydrogen sulfide odor found in the South Charleston area, July 21, 1966.
-------
'59... '-3s ,? ^X^ '•-.•^'W
^\> CHAilLI
.SOUTH CHARLESTON
->w,
TIME: 1030 EST
WIND:
f L•
rONCENTRATION, ODOR UNITS
*•* MAXIMUM /
Figure 4-65. Hydrogen sulfide odor found in the South Charleston area, August 3, 1966.
-------
T ••- -&H.ifk-» '+.
'• '. -. .
SOUTH CHARLESTON
H^@rVj||U|M^l^f-:-:(\.c^
-
TIME: 1400 EST
WIND: 285°, 340° AT POINT X
CONCENTRATION, ODOR UNITS
• MAXIMUM
—— MINIMUM
CO
en
Figure 4-66. Odor described as rotten found in the South Charleston area, May 25, 1966.
-------
Sal, <<
W
#!-/ ..-'-\s-V-'^--<^
• - Tva^^fS-
.' . }tf-? ^ '
-• -f f ^
'\ /- -•'-<•
.. .-*-/ IXX x' ^ = " -" ,
c X / - Well f
X
S^i-?a"<^a
I f. J~^~^~ " - ^ <
\- . --^7 / S- v ^dX^T^w/V,
59- -y .' / -- .-^ s.^^- ^. f *!&-?£—'
^^/:,-l,<^^-!Id:^l^
^t:
. Robii
sgs'1^, &4- '"-> ' ' "t> .-...' .- J»SeLh
-•c^^^.^.^®^-'^:-
\\ \ \ i3 • • ^^^ ^ •*•-
^\ . ^ V. K \ ' 51 • ^ A\s.-<>>.". Vandal- /
i. L.-X^-^^S^vAV ":>. .--^X
xu-^. .^-••"•'••^••\A :iW-v-vv-^
-^
>TV
> /x>' ^
TIME: 1145 EST
WIND: 95°
CONCENTRATION, ODOR UNITS
MAXIMUM
— — — MINIMUM
Figure 4-67. Odor described as rotten found in the South Charleston area, August 3, 1966.
-------
REFERENCES
1. Recommended Standard Methods for Continuing Air Monitoring for Fine Particulate
Matter, TR-2 Air Pollution Measurements Committee, C. W/Gruber, Chairman,
APCA Journal, Vol. 13, No. 9, September 1963.
2. Stern, A. C., Air Pollution, Volume II, Chapters 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, and 25,
Academic Press, New York, 1962.
3. Air Pollution Measurements of the National Air Sampling Network, Analyses of
Suspended Particulates, 1957-1961, Public Health Service Publication No. 978,
Washington, D. C., 1962.
4. Transcript of Hearing on Regulation II, titled to Prevent and Control Air
Pollution from Combustion of Fuel in Indirect Heat Exchangers held December 11,
1965, Charleston, West Virginia.
5. U. S. Bureau of the Census, U. S. Census of Population 1960, Volume I, Character-
istics of the Population, U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.,
1963.
6. Colorado Air Pollution Control Act, Colorado Session Laws of 1964, House Bill
1050, Approved March 18, 1964.
7. State of New York, Air Pollution Control Board, Part 500 Ambient Air Quality
Objectives, Public Health Law, No. 1271, 1276.
8. Oregon State Sanitary Authority, Administrative Order SA 16, February 13, 1962,
ORS 449,800.
9. Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, Department of Health, Division of Air Pollution
Control, Regulation IV (Proposed), April 21, 1965.
10. Williams, J. P., et al, A Proposal for an Air Resource Management Program, Vol.
VIII, Interstate Air Pollution Study, Phase II, Project Report, National Center
for Air Pollution Control, Cincinnati, Ohio.
11. Air Quality Data, 1964-1965, Public Health Service, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1966.
12. Stern, A. C., Air Pollution, Volume I. Second Edition, Chapter 13, Academic
Press, New York, 1968.
13. Magell, P. L., F. R. Holden, Charles Ashley, Air Pollution Handbook, Section 8,
McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1956.
14. Air Quality Criteria for Sulfur Oxides, U.S. Department of Health, Education,
and Welfare, Public Health Service, National Center for Air Pollution Control,
Washington, D. C., March 1967.
15. Williams, J. D., et al. Effects of Air Pollution, Vol. VI, Interstate Air
Pollution Study, Phase II Project Report, U. S. DHEW, Public Health Service,
National Center for Air Pollution Control, Cincinnati, Ohio, December 1966.
4-137
-------
16 Kotin P. and H. L. Falk "Air Pollution and Lung Cancer," Proceedings of the
National Conference on Air Pollution, USDHEW, Public Health Service, Washing-
ton, D. C., December 1962.
17. Atmospheric Pollution in the Great Kanawha River Valley industrial Area,
February 1950 - August 1957, West Virginia Department of Health, Bureau
of Industrial Hygiene, 1952, 168 pp.
18. West Virginia Geological Survey, Volume XIII (A), Characteristics of
Mineable Coals of West Virginia, Morganton, W. Va., 1955.
19. West Virginia Administration Regulation, Air Pollution Control Commission,
Chapter Sixteen, Article Twenty, Series II, 1966, To Prevent and Control
Air Pollution from Combustion of Fuel in Indirect Heat Exchangers.
20. Proposed regulations for the control of particulate emissions from industrial
processes, and mists, and incineration.
21. West Virginia Administration Regulation, Air Pollution Control Commission,
Chapter Sixteen, Article Twenty, Series III, 1966, To Prevent and Control
Air Pollution from the Operation of Hot Mix Asphalt Plants.
22. Pack, J. C., D. M. Keagy, and W. M. Stalkes, Developments in the Use of the
AISI Automatic Smoke Sampler, JAPCA, 10:303-306, August 1960.
23. Munroe, W. A. State-wide Air Pollution Survey, Smoke Index, Public Health
Service News, 29:227, Trenton, N. J., 1958.
24. Collection and Analysis of Dustfall, ASTM Standard on Methods of Atmospheric
Sampling and Analysis, pp. 97-100, 1962.
25. Evaluation of Total Sulfation in the Atmosphere by Lead Peroxide Candle
Method, ASTM Standards in Methods of Atmospheric Sampling and Analysis,
pp. 125-128, 1962.
26. Farmer, J. R., Memorandum of Information and Instructions No. 13 Standardi-
zation of the Lead Peroxide Candles, Interstate Air Pollution Study,
Technical Assistance Branch, Division of Air Pollution, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1964.
27. Hochheiser, S., M. Storlazzi and W. J. Basbagill, Use of the Mobile Laboratory
in Air Pollution Studies, Presented at the American Industrial Hygiene
Association Conference, Philadelphia, Pa., April 28, 1964.
28. Hochheiser, S., M. Burchart and M. J. Dunsmore, Air Pollution Measurements in
Pittsburgh, Robert A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Center, Cincinnati, Ohio,
November 1963.
29. Hochheiser, S., M. Nolan, and H. J. Dunsmore, Air Pollution Measurements in
Duquesne, Pennsylvania, Robert A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Center, Cincinnati,
Ohio, October 1964.
30. Basbagill, W. J. and J. L. Dallas, Air Quality in Boston, Massachusetts,
Robert A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Center, Cincinnati, Ohio, November 1964.
31. KreubeTt, T. E. and W. W. Dahle, Jr., Air Pollution Measurements in Baltimore,
Maryland, Robert A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Center, Cincinnati, Ohio,
November 1964.
32. Basbagill, W. J. "Air Contaminant Measurements at Roosevelt Field, Nassau
County, New York," Robert A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Center, Cincinnati,
Ohio, December 1965.
4-138
-------
33. Selected Methods for the Measurements of Air Pollutants, Interbranch Chemical
Advisory Committee, Public Health Service, Publication No. 999-AP-ll.
34. California Department of Public Health, Technical Report of California,
Standards for Ambient Air and Motor Vehicle Exhaust, Berkeley, California,
35. Metropolitan Dade County Pollution Control Ordinance, Ordinance Number 63-14,
April 23, 1963, Section 3.03.
36. Wartburg, A. F., and B. E. Saltzman. Removal of Interfering Sulfur Dioxide in
Atmospheric Oxidant Analysis, American Chemical Society, Division of Water
and Waste Chemistry, New York, September 13, 1963.
37. Hochheiser, S. Methylene Blue Method, unpublished method developed by the
Laboratory Section, Technical Assistance Branch, Division of Air Pollution,
Cincinnati, Ohio, 1965.
38. Commins, B. T. Determination of Particulate Acid in Town Air. Analyst.
Vol. 88, May 1963, pp. 364-366.
39. Hauser, T. R. Field Studies Branch, Division of Air Pollution, Cincinnati,
Ohio, 1964. (Method approved by the Interbranch Chemical Advisory Committee,
Division of Air Pollution, May 1964.)
40. Stern, A. C., Air Pollution, Volume I, Chapter 10. Academic Press. New York,
1962.
41. A Study of Air Pollution in the Interstate Region of Lewiston, Idaho and
Clarkston, Washington. PHS Publication Number 999-AP8, U.S. Government
Printing Office, Washington 25, D. C., December 1964.
42. Horstman, S. W. R. F. Wromble and A. N. Heller, Identification of Community
Odor Problems by Use of an Observer Corps, Journal of the Air Pollution Control
Association, Vol. 15, No. 6, June 1965.
43. Jenkins, H. N., and T. 0. Harris, Odors-Results of Surveys, Interstate Air
Pollution Study, Phase II, Project Report. U.S. Public Health Service.
Division of Air Pollution. Robert A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Center,
Cincinnati, Ohio, June 1966.
44. Gruber, C. W., G. A. Jutze, and Norman A. Huey, Odor Determination Techniques
for Air Pollution Control, Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association,
Vol. 10, No. 4, August 1960.
45. Huey, N. A., L. C. Broering, G. A. Jutze, and G. W. Gruber, Objective Odor
Pollution Control Investigations, Journal of the Air Pollution Control
Association, Vol. 10, No. 6, December 1960.
4-139
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SECTION V.
AIR RESOURCE MANAGEMENT PLAN
INTRODUCTION
An air resource management program - or an air use plan - has the objective of
defining the specific concentrations of air pollutants which, if not exceeded, will
maintain the quality of ambient air in a community at a level presenting no threat
to the health and welfare of that community's citizens. These specific concentra-
tions, referred to as air quality goals, have been selected by the sponsors of this
study. The basis for their selection are reported in detail in Section IV.
Implementation of an air use plan is a means of relating the potential pollu-
tant emissions of a community to acceptable air quality goals. Through an air use
plan, consideration is given to the locations of pollutant sources in the area and
the dilution capacity of the air. The air use plan thus becomes the basic frame-
work for achieving desired air quality by limiting emissions from existing sources
and by preplanning control of emissions from new sources. An air use plan, there-
fore, is a basic tool in community planning activities and in enacting regulations
for the control and reduction of air pollution.
Emission sources, meteorology, and topography differ in each area where an
air pollution survey is conducted. A common air use plan is impractical under
these circumstances. Similarly, control regulations, when enacted, should be
designed specifically to reduce the pollutants emitted by sources in the area of
concern.
An air use plan is designed in two parts. The first part involves calcula-
ting the percentage reduction in pollutant emissions required to assure acceptable
air quality, expressed as allowable emission rates. The second part involves the
development of an implementation plan to achieve these reductions, expressed as
reductions in emissions from the area's sources.
Design of an air use plan is complicated by the multiplicity and diversity
of pollutant sources present in today's urban areas; the lack of complete data on
5-1
-------
emission rates and release heights; and the unreliability of current knowledge on
the diffusion characteristics of the atmosphere, especially in and above the
valley. In the study area, for example, an effort was made to determine the dilu-
tion capacity of the atmosphere by employing several simplifying assumptions, some
of which have not been fully tested. Until more detailed emission and meteorologi-
cal data become available, and better use of computerized diffusion models capable
of considering all the important variables are perfected, however, the techniques
used in developing an air use plan for the Kanawha Valley must provide an adequate
framework for decision-making by including adequate safety factors.
The pollutants considered in the report include particulates, sulfur dioxide,
hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, oxides of nitrogen, and odors. Emission reduction
plans have, however, been developed for particulates only, and sulfur dioxide.
Carbon monoxide is emitted primarily by motor vehicles and is expected to be con-
trolled on a nationwide scale at levels which should result in an adequate reduc-
tion in the Kanawha Valley. Photochemical air pollution, or "smog," is not a
problem in the Kanawha Valley; therefore, emission of gaseous hydrocarbons and
other organics will at present need only be considered from the standpoint of
toxicity and odors. Oxides of nitrogen are becoming an increasing problem nation-
ally; however, a more complete treatment of this pollutant during the study period
was hampered by limited air quality data and lack of established air quality
criteria. Because odors are generally associated with individual sources, a com-
prehensive reduction plan is not workable, and therefore, the discussion of odors
is .in more general terms.
The Kanawha Valley emission reduction plan is based upon the entire area,
rather than by land use categories, since there is no clear distinction between
industrial, commercial, and residential zones as there is in some other urban
areas. A pollution source at one end of the valley may have its greatest effect
some considerable distance away due primarily to the channeling effect of the
valley topography as well as the emission release height and windspeed. Conse-
quently, the emission reduction plan is based upon those areas with the maximum
recorded concentrations.
Air use plans are not limited in usefulness to the setting of emission con-
trol regulations; they are also applicable to other aspects of urban planning.
Encouragement should be given to planning agencies to utilize the information
presented here, and to recognize that some of the best and least expensive ways of
combatting air pollution may come within these responsibilities. For instance,
future emission sources should be located in areas which are not now over-polluted.
5-2
-------
Similarly, surveillance of air quality should be maintained as the emission reduc-
tion plan is implemented, so that a continuous refinement can be affected.
The air use plan must consider future growth. Control measures should limit
current and future projections of emissions to a degree which will allow for expan-
sion in the economy. Such expansion will include an increasing population density,
greater numbers of motor vehicles, and increasing industrial output and power
generation. To predict the economic expansion in the Kanawha Valley is difficult,
even more difficult than the usual economic forecast, since the overall growth and
the direction of growth of both the State of West Virginia and the Kanawha Valley
is highly uncertain. A review of economic and planning reports for both the State
of West Virginia and the Study area provide a number of forecasts, ranging from
those reporting an increase in population and substantial growth in industry to
those predicting a stabilization of both population and industry, with possible
changes in the output of some industries.
Growth in both population and industry is forecast, yet allowing some expan-
sion in emission sources and protecting the valley's air quality. The following
estimates are the basis for the projection modes in the study. It is anticipated
that population in the study area will increase to 255,000 persons by 1980. An
increase in industrial output is expected by 1980, even though employment will not
rise significantly because of increases in productivity levels. Increases in gaso-
line consumption and refuse generation are closely linked to the needs of inhabi-
tants, and increase in direct ratio to growth in population. Vehicle gasoline con-
sumption is expected to increase substantially. Refuse material generation is
expected also to increase with rising population and its attendant per capita pro-
duction of refuse.
PARTICULATES
Particulate matter is produced and discharged to the air of the community
from many activities. Particulate matter, whether settleable or suspended, is the
most common group of pollutants in urban areas. In the Kanawha Valley, the princi-
pal sources of this pollutant are the burning of high ash-containing fuels, certain
industrial processes, and refuse disposal by burning. In terms of the quantity of
particulfcte matter emitted to the air, a few large pollutant sources in the Kanawha
Valley contribute about 95 percent of the total. A few smaller sources, including
incineration of refuse and some industrial processes, are distributed throughout
the area and their emissions cause some localized problems. In the design of the
air use plan, both types of sources were considered.
5-3
-------
Air Quality Goals
Particulate air quality goals are based upon the three common measures of ,
particulates suspended particles, dustfall, and soiling index. Suspended partic-
ulate was measured by high-volume air samplers which give a quantitative weight
determination of those particles which remain suspended within the study area.
Dustfall was measured by the "dustfall bucket" which likewise gives a weight deter-
mination of those particles which "settle-out" within the study area. Soiling
index was measured by the tape sampler which indicates the soiling effect and
reduction in visibility caused by suspended particles. These three measures of
particulate pollution, while measuring different aspects of the problem, are inter-
related. Because there is considerable overlap in the particulate characteristics
from various sources, there is the likelihood that a reduction in one will influence
the others. Actually the smaller the particle, the more difficult its emission is
to control. Thus, if the reduction plan is able to meet the air quality goals for
suspended particulate and soiling index, normally the dustfall goal will also be
attained. Trial calculations indicated that the reductions in particulate emissions
necessary to meet the suspended particulate goals will result in the achievement of
the goals set for the other measures.
The desired goals for particulate matter are summarized in Table 5-1. These
goals are applicable to all areas where people live or work. These goals were
recommended and approved by the Joint Study Technical Committee at a meeting held
August 7, 1967. These goals may need revision in accordance with air quality
criteria for particulate matter issued by the National Air Pollution Control Admin-
istration as required by the 1967 amendments to the Clean Air Act.
The Kanawha Valley goals for suspended particulate are based upon an annual
geometric mean desirable for preventing long-term effects and a 99 percentile value
to prevent occurrence of detrimental short-term effects. However, the reduction
plan is based only upon the average annual geometric mean value, since trial calcu-
lations indicate that if this goal is achieved, then the 99 percentile goal of 250
micrograms per cubic meter will also be attained.
Existing Air Quality
Summaries of particulate measurements made in Kanawha Valley have been pre-
sented in Section IV. As mentioned earlier, the high-volume sampler measurements
of suspended particulates were the controlling factor in developing the particulate
emission reduction plan.
5-4
-------
Type of particulate
Suspended particulate, micrograms
per cubic meter
Table 5-1. PARTICULATE AIR QUALITY GOALS
Goal, August 1967a
100 Annual geometric mean
Settleable particulate, (dustfall),
tons per square mile per month
Suspended particulate (soiling
index), Cons per 1,000 linear
feet
250 Maximum not to be exceeded
more than 1 percent of days
per year
20 Annual geometric mean,
residential and commercial
35 Annual geometric mean,
industrial
0.5 Annual geometric mean
Criteria conclusions^
80 - 100 Annual geometric mean,
adverse health effects
60 - 180 Annual geometric mean,
adverse effects on materials
150 At any time, reduction of
visibility to about 5 miles
Based on information available to the Committee in August 1967.
Air Quality Criteria for Particulate Matter, National Air Pollution Control Administration Publication
No. AP-49, Washington, D. C., January 1969.
-------
The 14 high-volume sampling stations recorded yearly geometric mean concen-
trations of suspended particulates ranging from 110 to 332 micrograms per cubic
meter. The decision of the Joint Study Committee was to average measurements at
the two highest stations in the network. If the air quality goal is achieved at
these stations, the goal will also be attained throughout the .valley area. While
the Montgomery station recorded the highest geometric mean, this data was not used
because of the proximity of the sampling site to a significant local point source;
the study staff did not consider the data representative of the area. The two
stations chosen were Smithers and South Charleston East, which have an average geo-
metric mean concentration of 272 micrograms per cubic meter. It should be noted
that the geometric mean annual concentration of suspended particulate for these
two stations exceeded the goal of 100 micrograms per cubic meter for the entire
r
study area.
The 27-station dustfall sampling network recorded settled particulate values
ranging from 10 to 175 tons per square mile per month, on an annual geometric mean
basis. The two highest stations recorded values of 100 and 175 tons per square
mile per month at Boomer and Montgomery Heights, respectively. The average of
these two high dustfall areas is 138 tons per square mile per month. Relating to
the air quality goal, the geometric mean annual concentration of settleable partic-
ulate exceeds the goal of 20 tons per square mile per month for residential and
commercial zones in most parts of the Kanawha Valley and is particularly high in
certain areas.
The 14-station A.I.S.I. sampling stations recorded annual average geometric
mean values of soiling index ranging from 0.4 to 1.0 Cohs per 1,000 linear feet.
The average of the two highest stations in the network is 0.9 Cohs per 1,000 linear
feet. Again, the geometric mean annual values of soiling index exceeds the air
quality goal of 0.5 Cohs per 1,000 linear feet in most of the Kanawha Valley.
Existing Emissions
Approximately 364 tons of particulate are presently emitted daily to the
atmosphere in Kanawha Valley from all sources. The primary sources of particulate
are from coal combustion in utility and industrial furnaces, from industrial process
emissions, particularly acid mist and metallurgical fumes and dust, and from open
burning of refuse. Table 5-2 presents a summary of daily particulate emissions by
source category. See Section III - Emission Inventory for additional information.
Also presented in Table 5-2 is a breakdown into suspended and settleable particulate,
which is an essential factor in the relationship between air quality and measured
particulate emissions.
5-6
-------
Table 5-2. PARTICULATE EMISSIONS IN KANAWHA VALLEY, 1965
(tons/day)
! Total Suspended
1 parti cul ate parti cul ate
Source emission <44 micron
Combustion, heat and power
generation
Transportation, mobile sources
Processes
Chemical
Metallurgical
Glass and ceramics
Asphalt batching
Concrete batching
Lumber
Fabrication
Total
Waste disposal
Burning dump ;
Backyard burning i
Single-chamber incinerator
Multiple-chamber incinerator
Total
Total
299.7
3.0
26.8
21.7
1.2
0.7
0.2
0.2
0.2
51.0
4.2
5.0
0.3
0.3
9.9
363.6
256.6
3.0
26.5
21.5
1.2
0.6
0.2
0.1
0.1
50.2
2.1
2.5
0.2
0.2
Settleable
particulate
>44 micron
43.2
-
0.3
0.2
-
0.1
-
0.1
0.1
0.8
2.1
2.5
0.1
0.1
5.0 4.8
314.8 48.8
Respirable
particulate
<5 micron
\ 18.3
j
3.0
25.0
16.4
1.0
0.4
0.2
-
-
0.5
0.5
0.1
0.1
65.5
Using this approach, approximately 315 tons per day of the particulates
emitted are less than 44 microns and thus considered suspended and 49 tons per day
are greater than 44 microns and thus considered settleable particulate. These cal-
culations are based on control measures and 1965 particle-size emission estimates,
when the emission inventory was conducted. While these are only estimates, the
calculations should provide a reasonable basis for developing a reduction plan to
meet the air quality goals for particulates. Following is an explanation of the
methodology used.
Relationship Between Air Quality and Emissions
The ambient air concentrations of suspended particulates, dustfall, and
soiling index are dependent upon the total quantity of particulates emitted to the
air basin, the particle-size distribution of the emissions, the types and elevations
5-7
-------
of the sources, the meteorology and diffusion capacity of the air basin, the geo-
graphical distribution of the emissions, and, also, the daily variations which
occur in emissions. In order to attain air quality goals, even in the most unpollu-
ted area, consideration must be given to all of these factors. The ideal situation
would be to develop a mathematical model which would simulate all these factors and
predict the reduction in emissions needed to meet ambient air quality goals.
Source Reduction Technique - An indirect approach is used to determine the needed
reduction in emissions to achieve the air quality goals, to avoid the complications
of considering directly the influence of source elevation, diurnal variation in
emissions, and diffusion capacity of the air basin. The technique was developed
1234
by Larson and has been used in various community studies. ' ' ' Basically, the
approach involves a comparison of measured air quality with established air quality
goals. The same percent of reduction in existing levels of suspended particulate
needed to achieve the air quality goals is applied to the needed reduction in
source emissions of suspended particulate. Background levels which are irreducible
are considered when calculating the percent reduction in emissions required to
meet the air quality goal.
A cumulative frequency of occurrence of suspended particulate concentrations
for Smithers and South Charleston stations is plotted in Figure 5-1. Also plotted
are the air quality goals for suspended -particulates. The geometric mean and 99th
percentile goals are connected to indicate a desirable frequency distribution.
Background suspended particulate, as measured at Holly River State Park (National
Air Sampling Network, 1957-1961), is also included on this plot.
The overall-average air quality control required to meet a given standard
is calculated as follows:
Percent Source Reduction = 100 (C-S)
C-B
Where C is the measured air quality concentration
S is the air quality standard
B is the background concentration
This equation relates source emissions and air quality concentrations, and
corrects for background levels which are irreducible so that a given reduction in
particulate emissions which remain suspended will reduce suspended particulate
concentrations by the same amount. An important assumption in using this equation
is that measurements of suspended particulate concentrations were made over a suf-
ficient length of time to minimize variations occurring in meteorological conditions
5-8
-------
tn
I
to
0.1 125 10 20 40 60 80 90 95 98 99
Percent of time less than stated value
Figure 5-1. Suspended particulates cumulative frequency distribution for
Kanawha Valley, West Virginia.
99.9
-------
and participate emission rates. The 2 years of data available for this study are
believed to be sufficient.
Calculations using Figure 5-1 show that a greater percent reduction is needed
to meet the 50th percentile goal of 100 micrograms per cubic meter than the 99th
percenti le goal of 250 microqrams per cubic meter at the source. By substituting
in the equation, the percent source reduction needed can be calculated:
Percent Reduction = m£72_ - 71
This means that a 71 percent overall reduction is required only in those
particulate emissions which remain suspended. In the same manner, similar
calculations indicate that a 93 percent reduction in settleable particulate, or
dustfall, is needed to meet a goal of 20 tons per square mile per month.
Particulate Samplers and Particle Size Measurement - Particulate emissions
are measured with both high-volume samplers and dustfall bucket samplers. Some
correlation must be established concerning the amount of parti culates emitted and
that portion actually being measured by the various instruments.
The high-volume sampler is capable of collecting particulates from the air
of about 100 microns and less in diameter (settling velocity = 64 fpm). Prelimi-
nary results obtained in five large cities indicate that about 50 percent of the
particles collected, by weight, are less than 3.5 microns. 5 Another study indica-
ted that nearly two-thirds of the particles by weight are less than 10 microns. 6
This study also found that about 50 percent of the particles by weight are in the
size range of about 3.5 microns which can penetrate the lower respiratory tract. 6
Assuming a log-normal distribution of the particles, it can be predicted that about
95 percent of the particles collected by the high-volume sampler are less than 44
microns in size. Particles of this size are a sub-seive size which will pass a
325-mesh tyler screen. Certain studies, and some air pollution regulations, have
used this size particle as the break between suspended and settleable particulate.
Dustfall buckets collect particles as low as 30 microns in size and higher.7
They can be a true measure of settleable particulate emissions in a community, if
the sampling sites are properly located.
In the range of 30 to 100 microns, both the high-volume sampler and the
dustfall bucket are capable tools of measurement. No one single particle size
represents a sharp boundary between suspended and settleable particulate matter,
5-10
-------
although particles 10 microns and less are usually considered to be suspended indef-
initely. Whether the particle is measured as dustfall or suspended particulate
depends primarily on meteorological factors. The distances to which spherical
particles of various sizes and density will be transported before settling is
determined by "effective" stack height and wind speed under ideal conditions of
steady nonturbulent flow, as predicted by Stokes law. Since these conditions are
constantly changing, the airborne characteristics of suspended and settleable par-
ticulate matter are likewise changing. This fact was illustrated at some of the
sampling stations when a decrease in suspended particulate, as recorded by the
high-volume sampler, resulted in a simultaneous increase in dustfall.
In order to more realistically develop a particulate reduction plan, an
assumption was made regarding settleable and suspended particulate. The choice of
a 44 micron split seems to be reasonable, particularly since it is probable that 95
percent by weight of the material collected on the high-volume filter will be less
than this size.
Allowable Particulate Emission - Some 315 tons per day of particulate emis-
sion is considered suspended particulate and 49 tons per day settleable particulate,
based on a 44 micron diameter "split." To meet the goals for the Kanawha Valley
Study Area, 71 percent reduction in suspended particulate and 93 percent reduction
in settleable particulate emissions has been established as the requirement. Based
on these estimates an allowable emission rate of particulate emissions can be cal-
culated. Table 5-3 presents the results. An allowable emission rate of 91 tons
per day of suspended particulate and 3 tons per day of settleable particulate was
estimated.
Table 5-3. PRESENT ALLOWABLE PARTICULATE EMISSION
Type of particulate
Suspended particulate,
micrograms, per cubic
meter
Settleable partic-
ulate, ton/sq
mi /month
Air
quality
goal,
annual
geo. mean
100
20
Present
air
quality,
annual
geo. mean
272
138
Reduction
needed,
percent
71
93
Present
particulate,
ton/day
315
49
Allowable
particulate
emissions,
ton/day
91
3
5-11
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The revised estimations of allowable participate emissions are based only on
current 1965 emission rates, plus a 25 percent allowance for the increased emission
rates connected with projected industrial growth and power consumption by 1980.
Under these circumstances, expected growth will not exceed the air quality goals.
If growth exceeds the estimates, the emission reduction plan for particulate matter
will need revision.
Particulate Reduction Plan
The existing and allowable emissipns have been established. The purpose of
the emission reduction plan is to determine the control regulations required to
reduce existing emissions to levels that will meet air quality goals and will allow
for future growth within these limits. Consideration must also be given to the
technical and economic feasibility of the plan. Control regulations which are
enforceable and use the most sophisticated technology must be the only ones con-
sidered in order to make the plan effective.
The discussion of the emission reduction plan is divided into three categor-
ies, namely combustion, industrial process, and refuse disposal. Present day
technology is not sufficiently advanced to effectively control particulate emissions
from transportation sources, including automobiles, diesel vehicles, and aircraft,
and therefore, transportation particulate has not been included in the emission
reduction plan. Programs to limit emissions from fuel combustion, industrial pro-
cesses, and refuse disposal are designed and presented. The enacted and proposed
control regualtions are expected to reduce particulate emissions to within allow-
able limits and also allow for future growth of the area.
Combustion - Heat and power generation contributed a total of about 300 tons
per year of particulate matter in the Kanawha Valley in 1965. Due to the immediate
need for relief from the effects of particulate air pollution and since sufficient
data was available on suspended particulate measurements and emissions, a regulation
for the control of particulate emissions from boiler plants was developed and
drafted by the study staff and the Joint Study Technical Committee. The draft
was sent to the West Virginia Air Pollution Control Commission for consideration.
The Commission, on December 11, 1965, held the legally required public hearing.
After consideration of the comments of numerous interested parties, a slightly
modified regulation was promulgated by the Commission and became effective April 4,
1966.
This regulation was developed by the study staff using information available
on each combustion source. Factors considered were method of firing, firing rates,
fuel characteristics, installed control equipment, present estimated emissions, and
5-12
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the allowable emissions from the various sources. The study staff using this infor-
mation developed an emission control program based on boiler size (Btu per hour)
versus maximum allowable emissions (pounds per million Btu). Figure 5-2 presents a
plot of the final adopted combustion equipment regulation. A more restrictive
curve is used for newly designed equipment than for existing fuel-burning equipment.
A sliding scale is used in both cases - a lesser degree of control is required on
smaller sources, with the degree of control increasing proportionately with the
size of the combustion unit. This approach is considered both practical and equi-
table since larger sources have a higher emission potential generally and the
installation of more efficient control devices is more feasible.
The scheduled reduction plans were presented to the Commission as required
by the regulation. It is expected that they will be completed by 1973 on all
existing equipment. Essentially this regulation will reduce existing particulate
emission by about 80 percent when fully implemented.
Industrial Process - Industrial processes emit a total of 51 tons of particu-
late matter per day to the atmosphere in the Kanawha Valley Study Area. Substantial
reductions must be made in industrial process emissions, in addition to the regula-
tion of emissions from fuel combustion sources. In terms of applicability, various
control schemes were investigated. In these investigations, economic and technical
capability were taken into consideration. The suggested emission limitation scale
based on the process weight concept which is a direct method of limiting the weight
discharge from a source based on the weight input to the process. This approach
has been found to be a practical and adequate means of reaching desired reductions
in process particulate emissions when combined with limitations on plume opacity.
This approach is superior to concentration based standards which cannot be related
directly to weight discharge in a non-combustion operation. Basing allowable weight
discharge on process weight input also allows constructing a "sliding scale" stan-
dard which requires a greater degree of control as a specific process increases in
size. Table 5-4 is such a standard. This approach is justified since potential
emissions are greater from larger process units and the expense of high-efficiency
control equipment is less burdensome for a larger installation.
Essentially the proposed standard requires a reduction in total particulate
emissions of about 80 percent for small operations and 95 percent or more for larger
operations.
In the case of sulfuric acid mist emissions, the following regulation shall
apply in keeping with current control technology for sulfuric acid plants.
5-13
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CO
l£>
CD
1.0
£ 0.5
LU
UJ
_1
CO
o
_1
<
0.1
EXISTING EQUIPMENT
NEW EQUIPMENT _
10
10 10V
BOILER CAPACITY, 106 Btu/hr
10H
Figune 5-2. Kanawha Valley particulate matter emission standard for Fuel
burning equipment.
-------
Table 5-4. ALLOWABLE RATE OF EMISSION BASED
ON PROCESS WEIGHT RATEa
(Ib/hr)
Process weight
rate
100
200
400
600
800
1,000
1,500
2,000
2,500
3,000
3,500
4,000
5,000
6,000
7,000
8,000
9,000
10,000
12,000
Rate of
emission
0.551
0.877
1.40
1.83
2.22
2.58
3.38
4.10
4.76
5.38
5.96
6.52
7.58
8.56
9.49
10.4
11.2
12.0
13.6
Process weight
rate
16,000
18,000
20,000
30,000
40,000
50,000
60,000
70,000
80,000
90,000
100,000
120,000
140,000
160,000
200,000
1,000,000
2,000,000
6,000,000
Rate of
emission
16.5
17.9
19.2
25.2
30.5
35.4
40.0
41.3
42.5
43.6
44.6
46.3
47.8
49.0
51.2
69.0
77.6
92.7
Interpolation of the data in this table for process
weight rates up to 60,000 Ib/hr shall be accomplished
by use of the equation E = 4.10 P° 67 and interpolation
and extrapolation of the data for process weight rates
in excess of 60,000 Ib/hr shall be accomplished by use
of the equation:
E = 55.OP0'11 - 40, where E = rate of emission (Ib/hr)
and P process weight rate (tons/hr).
Sulfuric Acid Mist and/or Sulfur Trioxide
(Expressed as sulfuric acid)
Existing Equipment 70 mg/m3
New Equipment 35 mg/m3
The proposed process weight regulation and the sulfuric acid mist regulation
should reduce existing processing plant emissions from about 51 to 9 tons per day,
which is an 82 percent overall reduction. This is comparable to the 80 percent
5-15
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overall reduction of existing emissions of fuel combustion particulate required by
Regulation II. In addition, asphalt batch plants are required to reduce existing
emissions by approximately 85 percent overall under Regulation III.
An important part of the proposed process regulations are the particulate
opacity requirements. In essence these regulations require that the emission of
particulate matter shall not be darker in shade or appearance nor of such opacity
as to obscure an observer's view to a degree equal to or greater than No. 1 on the
Ringelmann Smoke Chart. Exceptions are made for start-up operations in which
emission of particulate less than No. 3 Ringelmann is allowed for a period not to
exceed 4 minutes during start-up. This regulation as applied to process emissions
is designed to limit the emission of these small-size particles which, when measured
on a weight basis, may meet other legal requirements such as the process weight
curve. It is desirable to control the emission of sub-micron particulate since
they are largely responsible for visibility reduction and, because they are in the
respirable range, can adversely effect human health. In addition, regulation of
particulate opacity is one of the more effective tools available to a control
agency in reducing particulate emissions. At least 75 air pollution control
agencies in this country have adopted Ringelmann and equivalent opacity regulations,
The use of this concept has been upheld by the courts.
Refuse Disposal - Approximately 10 tons of particulate material is emitted
daily from the burning of refuse material in the Kanawha Valley. Included are
estimated emissions from open burning and incinerators. In addition to contributing
to the total particulate load, open burning and poorly designed and operated incin-
erators are a constant source of complaints by the community. Open burning alone
emits some 9.2 tons of particulate matter per day to the atmosphere of the Kanawha
Valley and is a primary source of smoke, hydrocarbons, and odors. The severity of
smoke, odors, and particulate matter emitted from incinerators varies considerably
and depends upon the design and operation of the incinerator. The emissions of
particulate matter from incinerators of the multiple-chamber design are less than
the single-chamber design by factors ranging from four to ten.
In order to reduce particulate and odor emissions in the Kanawha Valley and
minimize the adverse effects associated with excessive smoke and odors, open burning
of refuse should be prohibited, and the only incinerators permitted should be of
the multiple-chamber or a design equally effective for air pollution control. Pro-
hibition of open burning carries the responsibility for providing methods for
refuse collection and alternate methods of disposal. A maximum period of 3 years
appears reasonable to allow for the development of full collection and disposal
5-16
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capability. To insure that incinerators are properly operated, an additional
requirement limiting the emissions of particulate matter to 0.3 grains per standard
cubic foot for installations burning less than 200 pounds of refuse per hour and
0.2 grains per standard cubic foot for larger sizes should be included. A small
properly designed and operated multiple-chamber incinerator can meet these limita-
tions in many cases without additional air pollution control devices. Larger
incinerators will require low- to medium-efficiency scrubbers.
The complete elimination of open burning should reduce particulate emissions
by some 9 tons per day. Refuse material should be disposed of either in controlled
municipal incinerators or preferably by sanitary landfill practices. If such incin-
erators are controlled so as to limit emissions to recommended levels, the overall
reduction in refuse incineration emissions should be about 90 percent.
Impact of Proposed and Adopted Regulations on Emissions
The expected reduction in particulate emissions from each of the source
categories as a result of the present and proposed regulations has been discussed
previously. Table 5-5 presents a summary of the total expected particulate emis-
sions by source based on the full implementation of the adopted and proposed regula-
tions of the West Virginia Air Pollution Control Commission. Such an emission
Table 5-5. PARTICULATE EMISSIONS AFTER CONTROL
Source
Total particulate,
tons/day
Combustion (heat and power generation) 60.0
Transportation (mobile sources) 3.0
Industrial processes
Chemical 6.5
Metallurgical 1.0
Glass and ceramics 1 .2
Asphalt batching 0.1
Concrete batching 0.1
Lumber i 0.1
Fabrication 0.1
Total
Waste disposal
Burning dump
Backyard burning
Incinerators
Total
Total expected particulate
Allowable particulate, tons/day
Percent for future growth
9.1
0
0
1.0
1.0
73.1
91
25
5-17
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reduction plan should reduce sett!cable particulate to a negligible level. Compari-
son of the allowable and the planned or expected particulate emissions shows that
the emission reduction plan provides for sufficient reduction for the Kanawha Valley
as a whole. The difference between the allowable and expected emissions in Table
5-5 is considered as the quantity of particulate matter than can be added to the
air without exceeding the air quality goals established by the Commission for
particulates. In effect, this allows for future expansion of existing sources and
the addition of new pollution sources in the area. Time is also allowed for the
emission reduction plan to be implemented. An increase of approximately 25 percent
in total particulate emission is made for this purpose, as indicated earlier.
As required by the Clean Air Act, as amended, this emission reduction plan
should be reevaluated in accordance with criteria for particulate matter issued by
the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.
SULFUR DIOXIDE
Sulfur dioxide is emitted during the burning of sulfur bearing fuels, the
burning of waste sulfide compounds, and in the manufacture of sulfuric acid. The
basic approach to reducing sulfur emissions from the burning of fuels is to use a
fuel with a lower content of sulfur. The emissions of sulfur dioxide from sulfuric
acid manufacture can be reduced either by improving the conversion efficiency of
sulfur dioxide to sulfur trioxide and absorbing the sulfur trioxide to form addi-
tional sulfuric acid or by scrubbing the sulfur dioxide from the exit gases. Waste
sulfide gases can be controlled by alkaline scrubbing or by reacting the sulfide
gases in bauxite catalyst converters to form sulfur.
Air Quality Goals
The recommended air quality goals for sulfur oxides (measured as sulfur
dioxide) in the study area are based on effects. These goals specify that the
average 24 hour sulfur dioxide concentration should not exceed 0.1 ppm, more than
1 percent of the time, and that the average hourly concentration should not exceed
0.25 ppm more than 1 percent of the time. These goals should apply to any place
where people live, or where undesirable effects could occur if the specified con-
centrations are exceeded. In the Kanawha Valley, residential, commercial, and
industrial areas are essentially integrated; thus, the limits recommended should
apply to the complete area. These air quality goals for sulfur oxides were recom-
mended and approved by the Joint Study Technical Committee.
The sulfur dioxide reduction plan is based only upon the 24-hour goal of 0.1
ppm not to be exceeded more than 1 percent of the time. Trial calculations indicate
5-18
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that if this goal is achieved, then the goal of 0.25 ppm over a 1 hour sampling
time not to be exceeded more than 1 percent of the time will also be attained by
the proposed alternate reduction plans.
Existing Air Quality
Sulfur dioxide was measured at six sites by instruments on the U.S. Public
Health Service mobile laboratory. The measurements were made for 1/2-hour, 1-hour,
and 24-hour averaging times. The data are summarized in Section IV. Based on 24-
hour averaging times, North Charleston, South Charleston, and Nitro each had three
occurrences where the sulfur dioxide concentration exceeded 0.1 ppm, the proposed
limit. There was a range of concentrations for all the stations of 0.01 ppm (the
minimum detectable concentration) to a maximum of 0.16 ppm at the South Charleston
station. Nitro (Junior High School) had the second highest occurrence with 0.15
ppm maximum and North Charleston the third highest occurrence with 0.14 ppm maximum.
Based on a 1-hour averaging time, North Charleston had seven occurrences and South
Charleston had two occurrences where a concentration of 0.25 ppm of sulfur dioxide
was exceeded. South Charleston had the highest maximum concentration of sulfur
dioxide, 0.46 ppm (winter, 1965). The second and third highest maximum concentra-
tions of sulfur dioxide were found in Nitro, 0.41 ppm (spring, 1965) and North
Charleston, 0.37 ppm (fall, 1965). The air quality goals for sulfur dioxide were
exceeded in South Charleston, North Charleston, and Nitro (Junior High School) on
the basis of data obtained during 1964 and 1965.
Because the sulfur dioxide concentrations (as measured by the Davis conduc-
tivity instrument-mobile laboratory) exceeded the sulfur dioxide air quality goal,
sampling was initiated on a permanent basis in South Charleston, North Charleston,
and Nitro in the fall of 1966 and is being continued. The sampling procedure being
used is the 24-hour West-Gaeke with the Scaringelli modification.
The results of this continuing sampling validate the previous measurements
of the mobile station for North and South Charleston. However, the results in the
Nitro area indicate that the air quality goal was not exceeded for 480 24-hour
measurements. This discrepancy between the mobile station and the permanent station
may be explained by the change of sampling method and by the fact that the mobile
station was at Nitro for a period of only 19 days. However, a review of sulfation
results for the Nitro area indicates the occurrence of sulfur-related compounds at
levels comparable to those found in North and South Charleston. The high levels
could be the result of pollutants other than sulfur dioxide, viz. sulfur trioxide,
sulfuric acid mist, mercaptans, and/or the physical location of the sampling site
(a platform in an open field and not on the roof of a building). Further study of
these pollutants in the Nitro area is necessary.
5-19
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In view of these continuing sampling measurements of sulfur dioxide, emission
reduction plans appear essential for only the North and South Charleston areas of
the Kanawha Valley at this time. However, all practical steps should be taken to
minimize the emission of sulfur oxides in all areas of the Kanawha Valley and
especially the Nitro area to prevent adverse effects and to enhance the quality of
the air.
Existing Emissions
Approximately 297 tons of sulfur dioxide are emitted daily from various
industrial sources in the study area. A breakdown of these emissions by location
and source is given in Table 5-6. Additional data on sulfur oxides emission are
given in Section III; Emission Inventory.
Table 5-6. SULFUR DIOXIDE EMISSIONS
(tons/day)
Location
Nitro
Institute
South Charleston
Belle
Cabin Creek
Glasgow
Alloy
Totals
Coal
burning
15.3
42.2
53.2
35.5
20.9
53.9
9.5
230.5
Chemical
processes
12.7
0.1
47.5
6.0
-
-
-
66.3
Total
28.0
42.3
100.7
41.5
20.9
53.9
9.5
296.8
As determined in this emission inventory, the primary source of sulfur
dioxide is coal combustion, which accounts for about 78 percent of the total sulfur
dioxide emissions. Approximately 8,800 tons of coal are burned each day by indus-
trial plants to provide steam and heat for chemical processing. Two electric util-
ity plants (Cabin Creek and Glasgow) consume an additional 3,950 tons of coal per
day. Natural gas is used for domestic and commercial heating, but it does not
produce significant amounts of sulfur dioxide. The coal burned in the study area
contains between 0.7 and 1.7 percent sulfur by weight.
Industrial process emissions account for about 22 percent of the total sulfur
dioxide emissions. The sulfur dioxide emissions in South Charleston are about
evenly divided between those due to coal combustion and those due to chemical pro-
cessing. A large sulfuric acid plant and emergency combustion of gases containing
5-20
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sulfide, account for the majority of the industrial sulfur dioxide process emissions
in this area. A similar situation occurs in Nitro where a single sulfuric acid
manufacturing process accounts for over two-thirds of all chemical process emissions.
Since most of the sulfur dioxide emissions are due to industrial coal com-
bustion and chemical processes, there is very little seasonal change in these
emissions.
Relationship Between Emissions and Air Quality
Since only two areas in the Kanawha Valley exceeded air quality goals for
sulfur oxides, reduction plans were developed only for those areas. The ambient
air concentrations of sulfur dioxide are dependent upon the mass rates of sulfur
dioxide emission, the concentration of sulfur dioxide in flue gases, the effective
elevation of sulfur dioxide emissions, the location of sources of sulfur dioxide,
and the diffusion capacity of the air basin. In order to attain air quality goals,
all of these factors must be considered. Calculations made by NAPCA meteorologists
take into account these factors and indicate the percent contribution to the air
quality measurements of each major source in each area of concern.
In developing a reduction plan, the first step is to determine the percentage
improvement in air quality needed to achieve the goals. This required improvement
can then be translated into specific source reduction plans. The same percent of
reduction in existing ambient air levels of sulfur dioxide needed to achieve the
air quality goals is applied to determine the needed reduction in sulfur dioxide
emissions. Sulfur dioxide in the atmosphere is essentially contributed by man-made
activities and there is, therefore, no need to consider background levels.
Table 5-7 presents the results of these procedures. The air quality goal of
0.1 ppm over a 24-hour period was compared with the 99th percentile value of exist-
ing air quality. The goal allows for measurements to exceed 0.1 ppm 1 percent of
the time during the year. The percentage improvement in air quality needed to meet
the air quality goals was calculated as 38 percent in South Charleston and 41 per-
cent in North Charleston, based on sampling conducted in 1964 and 1965.
Emission Reduction Plans
The annual emissions of approximately 109,600 tons of sulfur oxides are not
evenly distributed throughout the study area, but are generally located in several
small, highly populated areas. Sulfur dioxide emissions in the South Charleston
area alone account for more than one-third of the total sulfur dioxide emissions in
5-21
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Table 5-7. DETERMINATION OF PERCENTAGE IMPROVEMENT IN AIR QUALITY
REQUIRED TO MEET SULFUR DIOXIDE GOALS
Area
exceeding
goal
South Charleston
North Charleston
Air quality goal
24-hour average, 99
percent of time, ppm
0.1
0.1
Existing air quality,
24-hour average, 99th
percenti le values, ppm
0.16
0.17
Improvement
needed,
percent
38
41
the study area. The emissions from the South Charleston industrial area also affect
the air quality of the highly populated North Charleston area.
Alternate emission reduction plans will be presented for the two areas of
concern. The plans are based on diffusion calculations made by NAPCA meteorologists.
The calculations indicate the relative contribution of each major source of sulfur
dioxide to the ground-level concentrations measured in the source area.
The required reductions in sulfur dioxide emissions in the two specified
areas, based on present-day technology, can be achieved by either reducing emis-
sions from chemical process stacks or burning a lower sulfur fuel.
The emissions of sulfur dioxide from contact sulfuric acid plant absorbers
can be reduced by improving the conversion efficiency of sulfur dioxide to sulfur
trioxide and absorbing the sulfur trioxide to produce additional acid, or by
removing the sulfur dioxide with alkaline scrubbers.
The following reduction plans for the two areas having concentrations of
sulfur dioxide that exceed the air quality goals are based on emission estimates.
Detailed information on production rates and conversion efficiencies of sulfuric
acid plants and on the operation of process flares was not available. Estimates on
conversion efficiencies for contact sulfuric acid plants were, therefore, based
upon information contained in PHS Publication No. 999-AP-13, entitled "Atmospheric
Emissions from Sulfuric Acid Manufacturing Processes." Alternate reduction plans
should provide a reasonable basis for making decisions on sulfuric dioxide reduc-
tions from specific sources.
North Charleston - Air quality measurements of sulfur dioxide in North
Charleston indicated that a 41 percent improvement in air quality is needed to meet
the stated goals. Alternate reduction plans for emissions of sulfur dioxide were
developed based on meteorological calculations of the relative contributions from
various major sources located in South Charleston. The results for North. Charles-
ton are shown in Table 5-8.
5-22
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Table 5-8. NORTH CHARLESTON REDUCTION PLANS FOR EMISSIONS OF SULFUR DIOXIDE,
FOR FOUR SOURCES
Source
South Charleston
Source No. 1
Coal -burning plant
Source No. 2
Coal -burning plant
Source No. 3
Coal-burning plant
H2S04 Absorbers and
concentrators
Source No. 4
Coal-burning plant
H2S flare
Relative contribution
of S02 emissions to
measured ground-level
concentration,
percent3
1
12
6
59
6
16
Needed reductions of source
emission of S02> percent
Plan 1
0
0
0
70
0
0
Plan 2
0
0
0
55
0
100
Plan 3
0
100
100
25
100
100
Based on meteorological diffusion estimates.
Emission reduction plan No. 1 involves increasing the conversion efficiency
of the sulfuric acid plant to 98 percent and controlling sulfur dioxide from acid
concentrators. Alternate plan No. 2 increases the conversion efficiency of the
sulfuric acid plant to 97 percent and requires a complete reduction in sulfur oxide
emissions from the hydrogen sulfide flare. Alternate plan No. 3 would eliminate
sulfur dioxide emissions from coal burning and from the hydrogen sulfide flare.
Other plans could be developed which would achieve an overall sulfur dioxide reduc-
tion of about 41 percent.
South Charleston - Air quality measurements at South Charleston show that a
38 percent improvement in air quality is necessary to meet the stated goals. Mete-
orological diffusion calculations indicated that the sulfuric acid plant and acid
concentrators were the principal contributors to high ground-level concentrations
of sulfur dioxide in South Charleston. Consequently, the use of plan No. 1 for
North Charleston should also result in achieving the air quality goals in South
Charleston, since the same site location is involved.
Impact of Proposed Reduction Plans on Existing and New Emissions
If source emissions of sulfur dioxide from South Charleston are reduced to
recommended levels, the air quality goals should be met in the Kanawha Valley area.
5-23
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Concentrations of sulfur dioxide in other sections of the valley are presently
close to the air quality goals, however. Continuing ambient air measurements for
sulfur dioxide should be made to determine if further reductions are needed after
the recommended source reductions have been effected in South Charleston. Addition-
al ambient air measurements for sulfur dioxide and other sulfur compounds should be
made in the Nitro area to further investigate the high sulfation and metals deteri-
oration results, especially at the site west of Nitro.
The proposed emission reduction plans are based only on current emissions.
Expansion of source emissions from existing installations in South Charleston or
added emissions from new installations in the valley would require very restrictive
emission limits for sulfur dioxide. New potential emitters of sulfur dioxide should
be located in areas where existing ambient air levels of sulfur dioxide are well
below the air quality goals. Where feasible, sulfur oxide emissions from existing
sources should be reduced through either installation of control equipment, process
modification, or fuels modification.
Since completion of the field stydy, one sulfuric acid plant in South Charles-
ton has discontinued operations (Table 5-8, source No. 3). The impact of this
marked reduction in sulfur oxide emissions should have a significant effect on air
quality in North and South Charleston.
ODORS
Two odor surveys by high school students and odor patrols by the study staff,
as reported in Section IV, indicate that objectionable odors are a serious air
pollution problem in the Kanawha Valley, affecting most of the study area. A regu-
lation on odors was developed and adopted by the West Virginia Air Pollution Control
Commission as a result of these surveys. The survey procedures explained in Section
IV were also the basis for the odor reduction plan.
Air Quality Goals
The air quality goals are limited to those considered to be "objectionable"
odor or odors. An odor is considered to be "objectionable" when "in addition to
those odors generally recognized as being objectionable, it is in the opinion of a
duly authorized representative of the Air Pollution Control Commission, based upon
his investigations or his investigations and complaints, that such odor is objec-
tionable."
Thus the air quality goals are:
No "objectionable" odor at any location occupied by the public.
5-24
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Odor Reduction Plan
The odor regulation promulgated by the West Virginia Air Pollution Control
Commission designates the Barnaby-Cheney Scentometer or another similar instrument
designated by the Commission as a tool or guide in the enforcement of the regulation
and also in determining the objectionableness of an odor. By the inclusion of
Section 2.02 in the State regulation, it is implied that continuing odor patrols
should be used in the Kanawha Valley to enforce this regulation.
Comparison of emissions reported in the emission inventory with odorous
compounds "generally recognized" as being "objectionable" could be used in the
initation of control of sources of these odorous pollutant emissions. Priorities
for the control of sources could be developed, using the above data as well as the
results obtained by the odor patrols.
The recording and cataloging of complaints of objectionable odors could be
used as an indicator of the effectiveness of the control program. While complaints
may not point out the most serious odor problems, they are a measure of the effect
of odorous pollutants on the public and point to sources of odorous emissions
possibly not reported in the emission inventory.
Maintenance of a current emission inventory plus continuing analysis of com-
plaints and the results of surveys by odor patrols should provide the means of
measuring the success of the reduction program for odorous emissions. This will
also lead to a continuing review of program priorities, and, if needed, a periodic
reassessment of the control program.
Industrial, institutional, educational, and governmental organizations should
be encouraged to conduct investigations of the relationship between their own pro-
duction or the emission of objectionable odorous pollutants and their effects on
the sense of smell of the public. Significant findings in this area would enable
the development of regulations for the control of odorous pollutants on a fully
instrumented or scientific basis.
HYDROCARDONS
Hydrocarbons are discharged to the air from a variety of sources in the
Kanawha Valley. Principal sources are chemical processes and gasoline-powered
vehicles which contribute 31.3 and 30.9 percent, respectively, of the total hydro-
carbon emissions. Other sources include open burning of refuse, evaporation losses
of organic chemicals and gasoline, and minor amounts from combustion of fuels for
heat and power generation.
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The primary importance of hydrocarbon and other organic chemical emissions
is their participation in atmospheric photochemical reactions that produce ozone
and other oxidants. Some hydrocarbons and organic chemicals are also important
because of their obnoxious odors. Measurement of oxidant concentrations, taken
during 1964 and 1965 and detailed in Section IV of this report, indicated that there
was no photochemical air pollution problem in the Kanawha Valley Study Area at that
time. However, predictions of hydrocarbon emissions and control status to the year
1980 are included in the emission reduction plan so as to evaluate future photo-
chemical air pollution potential.
Air Quality Goals
Air quality goals, as such, are not prescribed for hydrocarbons. As noted
previously, it is primarily total oxidants in the atmosphere that cause harmful
effects and are of primary concern. The air quality goal for total oxidant of 0.1
ppm, by the potassium iodide colorimetric method of measurement has been suggested
as a maximum permissible 1-hour average concentration. A study was made beginning
in the fall of 1964 and continued during 1965 to determine oxidant concentrations
at various locations. The results of this study indicated the possibility that
some oxidants were emitted from certain chemical processes as well as being photo-
chemically produced.
Existing Air Quality
Total oxidants were measured at six sites during 1964 and 1965 by a contin-
uous colormetric analyzer on the U.S. Public Health Service mobile laboratory.
Maximum hourly concentrations varied from 0.01 ppm to 0.41 ppm at North Charleston.
North Charleston was the only location where the goal of 0.1 ppm oxidant concentra-
tion was exceeded. The data are summarized in Section IV. It should be noted that
the high oxidant measurements were recorded after dark, during the spring and late
fall. Therefore, it is reasonable to conclude that these oxidant measurements are
not related to formation of photochemical air pollution but rather to chemical
process oxidant emissions as indicated in more detail in Section IV.
Existing and Projected Emissions
Existing Emissions - The study area contains nine major chemical complexes and also
numerous viscose rayon, synthetic rubber, and other small chemical plants. Over 60
million gallons of gasoline were consumed in 1964. About 145,410 tons of refuse was
burned in 1964. Approximately two-thirds of this amount was open-burned, releasing
excessive amounts of hydrocarbons. Other sources of hydrocarbon and organic gaseous
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emissions include gasoline evaporation, solvent evaporation, and industrial process
losses. Estimated quantitative emissions of hydrocarbons are reported in Table
5-9. As indicated, 31.3 percent is emitted from industrial processes; 30.9 per-
cent from mobile sources; 22.3 percent from refuse disposal, especially open burning;
12.3 percent from gasoline and solvent evaporation; and 3.2 percent from fuel com-
bustion for space heating and power production.
Table 5-9. EMISSION OF UNCONTROLLED HYDROCARBONS PROJECTED TO 1980
IN THE KANAWHA VALLEY
Source class
Fuel combustion
Steam and heat generation
Transportation (mobile sources)
Industrial (inorganic and organic processes)
Refuse disposal
Gasoline and Solvent Evaporation
Total
Present emission,
ton/year
2,135
17,580
17,815
12,689
8,640
58,892
Projected emission,
ton/year
4,270
35,900
35,600
18,000
19,000
112,770
Projected Emissions - Emissions of hydrocarbons from the above mentioned sources in
the Kanawha Valley are projected to 1980 in Table 5-9. Emission of total hydrocar-
bons, based on current control measures, is estimated to increase proportionately
with gasoline consumption, industrial expansion, and population growth to an esti-
mated annual emission of 112,770 tons in 1980. This is an increase in emissions of
hydrocarbons of approximately 100 percent over the 1964 estimate. This could have
a significant effect on deteriorating the air quality in Kanawha Valley. It is
expected that the emission control measures planned for automobiles and elimination
of open burning will preclude a significant increase in the present ambient air
levels of hydrocarbons.
Relationship Between Air Quality and Emissions
As indicated earlier, the primary importance of hydrocarbon emissions is in
relation to the formation of photochemical air pollution as measured by the oxidant
indicator. Combustion products from automobiles and other sources participate in
atmospheric photochemical reactions that produce ozone and other oxidants. A study
has indicated that the concentration of photochemical secondary pollutants is
directly proportional to the concentration of the primary pollutants.2 Thus, if
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oxidant precursors, including both hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides, are reduced by
the same amount, then oxidant concentrations will likewise be reduced proportion-
ately. If the primary reactants are reduced in varying amounts, however, there is
insufficient data to indicate the degree of reduction in oxidants. Because photo-
chemical air pollution is not a problem currently in the valley, there is no appar-
ent need to make such calculations. Section V, therefore, presents projected emis-
sion reduction plans for hydrocarbons emitted by mobile sources and refuse disposal.
Projected Emission Reduction Plan
Existing and projected hydrocarbon emissions have been established. Existing
air quality data does not indicate a photochemical air pollution problem. An anti-
cipated doubling of hydrocarbon emissions by 1980, however, is expected to have a
detrimental effect on air quality in the Kanawha Valley. The purpose of this
section is to consider the reduction in emissions which will occur as a result of
control measures planned for motor vehicles and by elimination of open burning.
Some decrease in 1980 projected emissions from industrial sources is also expected
due to improved technology and installation of control equipment to control odors.
However, it is not possible to estimate quantitatively the reduction in hydrocarbon
emissions from the information presently available. The same can be said for gaso-
line and solvent evaporation losses. No reduction is anticipated in minor hydro-
carbon emissions from fuel combustion for steam and heat generation.
Transportation - Transportation sources, if uncontrolled, are projected to
emit 35,900 tons of hydrocarbons per year in the study area in 1980. Fortunately
a program to control motor vehicle emissions is in progress at the national level.
Public Law 89-272 authorized the Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare to set
limitations on air pollutant emissions from motor vehicles. Current regulations
issued by the Secretary require complete elimination of crankcase blowby emissions
beginning with 1968 model automobiles. Hydrocarbon emissions from the exhaust of
1968 model cars are limited to 275 ppm by volume, measured as hexane. Proposed
1970 standards were published in the Federal Register, Volume 33, January 4, 1968.
They would limit exhaust hydrocarbon emissions to 2.2 grams per mile, whi.ch is
roughly equivalent to 180 ppm by volume for the standard-size car. This is a reduc-
tion of approximately 80 percent in hydrocarbon emissions from an uncontrolled
vehicle. The proposed 1970 standards would also limit evaporative hydrocarbon
losses to 6 grams per test, which is estimated to be a 90 percent reduction in
current evaporation losses. In this 12-year period, from 1968 to 1980, there will
be almost a complete turnover in automobiles on the road. By 1980, most automobiles
will be equipped with air pollution control devices. If the proposed 1970 standards
are promulgated and the present automobile population remains constant, the overall
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reduction in automotive hydrocarbon emissions will be about 85 percent. The hydro-
carbon emission rate from transportation sources would be reduced to approximately
6,400 tons per year in the Kanawha Valley.
Refuse Disposal - In 1980, refuse disposal sources are projected to emit
18,000 tons of hydrocarbons per year, based on current disposal practices. Pro-
posed elimination of open burning, to reduce particulate and odor emissions, will
also substantially reduce hydrocarbon emissions. The proposed elimination of
single-chamber incinerators will also reduce hydrocarbon emissions. If all refuse
is disposed of by either sanitary landfill or in properly designed and operated
multiple-chamber incinerators, the overall reduction in hydrocarbon emissions would
be about 99 percent, and estimated hydrocarbon emissions from refuse disposal in
1980 would be about 150 tons per year.
Impact of Proposed Reduction Plan on Emissions
Table 5-10 presents projected hydrocarbon emissions to 1980 based on the
above planned control measures. As noted earlier, industrial sources and gasoline
and solvent losses are expected to be reduced somewhat but no quantitative estimate
of this reduction can be made with presently available data. In any case, antici-
pated hydrocarbon emissions from automobiles and incineration will be reduced to
about 65,470 tons per year in 1980. This is comparable to current emission rates
and thus should preclude a photochemical air pollution problem in the Kanawha
Valley.
Table 5-10. HYDROCARBON EMISSIONS PROJECTED TO 1980
BASED ON PLANNED CONTROL MEASURES
(tons/year)
Source class
Fuel combustion
Steam and heat generation
Transportation
Industrial
Refuse disposal
Gasoline and solvent evaporation
Total
Present
emissions
2,135
17,580
17,815
12,689
8,640
58,892
Projected
emissions,
no control
4,270
35,900
35,600
18,000
19,000
112,770
Projected
emissions,
with controls
4,270
6,400
35,600
200
19,000
65,470
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CARBON MONOXIDE
Carbon monoxide is emitted primarily from motor vehicles. Consequently,
emissions and ambient air concentrations are generally related to traffic pattern,
both by time and location. Automotive emissions must be reduced if major reductions
in ambient air contentrations of carbon monoxide are to be achieved.
Air Quality Goals
A maximum 8-hour average concentration of 30 ppm carbon monoxide and a 1-hour
average concentration of 120 ppm have been proposed as the air quality goals for
the study area by the Joint Study Technical Committee. These goals may require
revision when more comprehensive air quality criteria are published by the U.S.
Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.
Existing Concentrations
Ambient air concentrations of carbon monoxide were measured at six sites in
the Kanawha Valley. The downtown Charleston site was selected to determine what
was considered to be the maximum effect on air quality of carbon monoxide emissions
from vehicles. The Nitro, North Charleston, Marmet, and South Charleston sites
were selected principally to determine the effect of industrial emissions of carbon
monoxide on the air quality of areas normally considered to be commercial and resi-
dential, yet affected by emissions from industrial sources. The Kanawha City site
was selected because it is a commercial and residential area with no immediate
sources of industrial emissions. The sampling was conducted for 1-month periods
during the several seasons of the year so that seasonal variations in concentra-
tions of carbon monoxide could be determined.
The proposed air quality goal of 120 ppm for a 1-hour average concentration
was not exceeded at any sampling site. Hourly concentrations of carbon monoxide
greater than 30 ppm occurred on only two occasions and were measu^d at the South
Charleston site. The greatest 24-hour concentration, i.e. 16.1 ppm, also occurred
in South Charleston. Concentrations of carbon monoxide greater than 22 ppm occurr-
ed 1 percent of the time that measurements were conducted in Charleston during the
winter, in South Charleston during the fall, and North Charleston during the spring.
At the Charleston, North Charleston, and South Charleston sites, concentrations
greater than 9 ppm appeared 10 percent of the time that measurements were made.
Concentrations greater than 9 ppm occurred less than 1 percent of the time at
Kanawha City, Marmet, and Nitro.
From a comparison of existing concentrations of carbon monoxide in the ambient
air with the proposed air quality goals, it may be concluded that emissions of
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carbon monoxide do not presently constitute a significant air pollution problem in
the Kanawha Valley. It should be worthwhile, however, to estimate the projected
emissions of carbon monoxide to 1980 to evaluate the future air pollution potential.
Existing and Projected Emissions
Based on an emission inventory conducted in Kanawha Valley in 1964, there
are 102,352 tons per year of carbon monoxide emitted into the atmosphere. Trans-
portation, the principal source of carbon monoxide emissions, is responsible for
90,704 tons per year, or 88.6 percent. Gasoline-powered road vehicles account for
96 percent of the carbon monoxide emissions in the transportation category. Indus-
trial processes and combustion of fuel for industrial heat and power contributed
6.0 percent and 4.7 percent respectively of the total emissions.
«
Areas of major source emissions in order of magnitude are Charleston, Belle,
South Charleston, and St. Albans. Because several of these areas are not signifi-
cant industrial sites, the measured concentrations of carbon monoxide are more
indicative of emissions from high density vehicle traffic than from industrial
sources.
Projections indicate that by 1980, the rate of gasoline consumption in the
Kanawha Valley will approximately double the present rate. If emissions from
automobile exhausts continue to be uncontrolled, the emitted carbon monoxide would
increase proportionately to about 180,000 tons per year in 1980.
Emission Reduction Plan
The uncontrolled emissions of carbon monoxide in automobile exhaust gases
are approximately 3.1 percent by volume under average urban operating conditions.
Starting with the 1968 model automobiles, the limitations on carbon monoxide emis-
sions have been specified by Federal law at 1.5 percent by volume for all vehicles
with an engine displacement in excess of 140 cubic inches. The overall reduction
in emissions achieved by these controls would be about 50 percent. This should
result in ambient air concentrations of carbon monoxide in 1980 essentially the
same as the present levels.
The Federal government will require that emissions of carbon monoxide be
controlled to 1.0 percent by volume starting with 1970 model automobiles. If the
emission limitation is applied to all automobiles by 1980, the overall carbon mon-
oxide emissions in 1980 should be about 35 percent, lower than present levels.
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NITROGEN OXIDES
An emission reduction plan for nitrogen oxides, as such, is not included 1n
this report. The primary reason for this omission has been the lack of air quality
criteria, which in turn makes the setting of air quality goals for this class of
pollutants impractical. Also, control technology for nitrogen oxides is limited
for most combustion sources. Whenever air quality standards are prescribed, emis-
sions of nitrogen oxides and the resulting ambient concentrations of these pollu-
tants will need to be evaluated, reductions in these emissions will have to be pre-
scribed, and measures will have to be taken to achieve the reductions. As a first
step in the design of such an emission reduction, nitrogen oxide emissions are
related to the various types of sources and estimates of future emissions are given.
By far the most important source of nitrogen oxides is the combustion of
fuels. The increasing population and the continuous urbanization of the study
area will undoubtedly result in higher energy requirements. These requirements,
at least in part, will be fulfilled by increased consumption of fossil fuels, which
will, unless controlled, increase the emissions of nitrogen oxides.
Existing Concentrations
Nitrogen dioxide concentrations were measured in the study area beginning
in the fall of 1964 and ending in the winter of 1965, with several mobile labora-
tory units. The seasonal arithmetic mean concentration of nitrogen dioxide during
this period, using a continuous analyzer, varied from 0.03 to 0.16 ppm. The maxi-
mum 1-hour average concentration during this same period was 0.44 at the Post
Office in Nitro during the fall of 1964 and the sampling site at Kanawha City
during the winter of 1965.
Comparison of observed concentrations with the State of Colorado air quality
standard, which is 0.1 ppm for 1-hour for greater than 1 percent of the time in any
3 months, was exceeded at all of the sampling locations. The California standard
of 0.25 ppm for 1-hour was exceeded in South Charleston, Nitro, and Kanawha City.
Potential photochemical smog, related to nitrogen dioxide concentrations does exist.
Existing Emissions
During 1964, an estimated total of 56,067 tons of nitrogen oxides was
released to the air of the study area. Various source categories accounted for
the following percentages of the total area emissions: Industrial heat and power,
61.5 percent; electric power generation, 25.7 percent; transportation sources, 9.1
percent; industrial processes, 2.2 percent; and other sources, 1.5 percent.
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Stationary Combustion Sources - During 1964, an estimated 49,623 tons of
nitrogen oxides was emitted from the combustion of fuels in stationary sources.
The combustion of coal accounted for 92.5 percent, natural gas for 4.4 percent, and
chemical process residues for the remainder of 3.1 percent. During the same period
coal supplied 60 percent; chemical process residues, 28 percent; and gas, 12 percent
of the energy requirements. These figures are based on a total heat input of
22 x 1013 Btu.
The projected fuel consumption from stationary sources for the study area
is listed, by user category, in Table 5-11. Projections for 1980 indicate an
increase, above the 1964 consumption levels, of almost 65 percent in the use of
coal and 40 percent in the use of gas, and a 37 percent decline in the use of fuel
oil. The overall increase in the energy to be supplied by these fuels was estimated
to be approximately 37 percent.
Table 5-11. PROJECTIONS OF FUEL CONSUMPTION
IN KANAWHA VALLEY STUDY AREA
Fuel
Coal , tons/yr
Fuel or chemical process residues,
gal/yr
Natural gas, 106 ft3/yr
User category
Utility
Industry
Commercial ,
institutional ,
and residential
Total
Utility
Industry
Commercial ,
institutional ,
and residential
Total
Utility
Industry
Commercial ,
institutional ,
and residential
| Total
1964
1,411,020
3,152,463
11,094
4,604,550
Negligible
41,003,000
250,000
41,253,000
Negligible
13,981
11,439
25,420
1980
4,300,000
3,310,000
3,950
7,613,950
Negligible
29,900,000
183,000
30,083,000
Negligible
19,400
16,020
35,420
A change in fuel-use patterns is expected to accompany the increase in total
energy requirements. In the case of the residential use of fuels for space heating,
an increase is projected in the use of gas and electricity whereas coal and fuel
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oil consumption is expected to decline. In the industrial category, fuel oil con-
sumption is projected to decrease, with the consumption of coal increasing about 5
percent. Consumption of coal by the steam-electric utilities is projected to
increase by 200 percent by 1980.
According to these projections, approximately 80,317 tons of nitrogen oxides
will be emitted in 1980 from the combustion of fuels in stationary sources. This
is 30,694 tons or 62 percent more than the 1964 emissions. The emissions from
steam-electric utilities and industrial fuel use are expected to increase by 200
and 5 percent, respectively. The emissions of nitrogen oxides from commercial,
institutional, and residential fuel uses are expected to increase by approximately
23 percent. Projected annual emission rates are summarized in Table 5-12 by type
of fuel and user category.
Table 5-12. PROJECTIONS OF NITROGEN OXIDE EMISSIONS
x IN KANAWHA VALLEY STUDY AREA
Source category
Combustion of fuels (stationary sources)
Utility
Coal
Fuel Oil
Gas
Industry
Coal
Chemical process residues
Gas
Commercial, institutional, and
residential
Coal
Fuel oil
Gas
Total
Combustion of fuels (mobile sources)
Automobiles
Diesel trucks
Other
Total
Industrial process emissions
Refuse disposal
Totals
Emissions of nitrogen oxides,
tons/year
1964
14,410
31,525
1,476
1,496
44
9
663
49,623
3,397
1,039
687
5,123
1,240
1980
43,100
33,100
1,078
2,090
16
7
926
80,317
4,310
1,210
815
6,335
1,440
81 | 174
56,057 88,266
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Mobile Combustion Sources - During 1964, the estimated 103 million gallons
of gasoline burned in the study area resulted in an emission of 3,397 tons of
nitrogen oxides. An additional 1,726 tons was emitted by diesel trucks, and 687
tons by railroads, vessels, and aircraft. Unless controlled, the emissions of
nitrogen oxides from motor vehicles would be approximately 4,310 tons per year by
1980.
Impact of Emissions
Nitrogen oxides constitute one of the five or six groups of major pollutants
that originate community-wide and are of general importance. Population growth and
its related activities in urban areas have caused the emissions of these pollutants
to increase, and, unless controlled, the emissions will continue to increase.
The emission of nitrogen oxides from all sources is expected to increase
slightly more than 57 percent by 1980, when approximately 88,267 tons per year will
be released in the study area.
A reversal of the continually increasing nitrogen oxides emissions will be
necessary, if not at the present then surely in the future. Ambient air sampling
should therefore be continued to assess existing and future concentrations of
nitrogen oxides. Similarly, investigation of control measures for reducing emis-
sions from mobile as well as stationary sources should be encouraged.
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RECOMMENDATIONS
The following recommendations for continuing an effective emission reduction
plan for air contaminants in the Kanawha Valley, West Virginia, are based on infor-
mation and data contained in this report. Considerable progress has already been
made in the prevention and control of air pollution as a result of this study. An
example is the enactment of Regulations I through IV of the West Virginia Air Pollu-
tion Control Commission.
But the primary purpose of these recommendations is to stimulate the develop-
ment of effective emission reduction plans for all major sources of air pollution
in the Kanawha Valley. Recommendations are also given for monitoring and surveil-
lance of sources and pollutants not currently shown to be air pollution problems.
Specific recommendations are:
1. Enacting the regulations outlined in this report to accomplish the par-
ticulate emission reduction plan and gain the following objectives.
a. Limitation of total particulate matter from industrial process opera-
tion by the process weight concept as applicable to those industries
located in the valley, incorporating the best process and control tech-
nology available.
b. Limitation of sulfuric acid mist emissions to 35 mg/rn^ for new equip-
ment and 70 mg/m^ for existing equipment.
c. Limitation of visible emissions from industrial process operations
to No. 1 on the Ringelmann Chart or the equivalent opacity.
d. Periodic review of the existing combustion particulate regulation to
maintain its effectiveness in achieving present and projected goals.
e. Elimination of all open burning including municipal, industrial and
commercial, and domestic.
f. Limitation of particulate emissions from incinerators to effect an
overall reduction of about 90 percent of current levels.
g. Limitation of visible emissions from incinerators to No. 1 on the
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Ringelmann Chart or the equivalent opacity.
2. Select and promulgate the appropriate sulfur dioxide emission reduction
plan from the various alternatives presented in this report. Limit sulfur
oxide emissions from both combustion and industrial process operations by
requiring the use of low-sulfur coal produced locally, to prevent deteriora-
tion of existing air quality.
3. Implement a vigorous odor-control program.
4. Continue surveillance and monitoring activities initiated during the
Study at selected sites of major concern:
a. To monitor and update the particulate emission reduction plan.
b. To assess the effectiveness of the sulfur dioxide emission reduction
plan and to expand its application as emission rates increase.
c. To evaluate the need for emission reduction plans for carbon mon-
oxide and nitrogen oxides in the future and the effect of motor vehicle
control systems required by Federal regulation.
5. Prohibit construction of certain types and sizes of industrial opera-
tions when air pollution control technology is inadequate when related to
the limited ventilation in the valley.
6. Separate sensitive land use, such as housing, from areas of high air
pollution potential in all community planning activities.
7. Enact regulations to require issuance of construction and operating
permits from appropriate agencies to assure the installation and maintenance
of effective air pollution control technology at each industrial and com-
mercial source.
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REFERENCES
1. Williams, J. D., et. al. "Interstate Air Pollution Study Phase II Project
Report VIII. A Proposal for an Air Resource Management Program." USDHEW,
National Center for Air Pollution Control, Cincinnati, Ohio. May 1967.
2. Larson, R. I. "A Method for Determining Source Reduction Required to Meet Air
Quality Standards." JAPCA, 11:71-76. February 1961.
3. Williams, J. D. and N. G. Edmisten. "An Air Resource Management Plan for the
Nashville Metropolitan Area." USDHEW, PHS Publication No. 999-AP-18, Cincin-
nati, Ohio. September 1965.
4. Zimmer, C. E. and R. I. Larson. "Calculating Air Quality and Its Control."
JAPCA, 15:565-572. December 1965.
5. Roesler, J. F. "The Composition of Atmospheric Respirable Dust." Presented at
60th Annual Meeting of the Air Pollution Control Association. Cleveland, Ohio.
June 1967.
6. Shanty, F. and W. Hemeon. "The Inhalability of Outdoor Dust in Relation to
Air Sampling Network." JAPCA, 13:211-214. May 1963.
7. Fairweather, J. H., et. al. "Particle Size Distribution of Settled Dust."
JAPCA, 15:345-347. August 1965.
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APPENDICES
A. COOPERATIVE PROJECT AGREEMENT
KANAWHA VALLEY AIR POLLUTION STUDY
B. SUPPLEMENTARY METEOROLOGICAL INFORMATION
C. EMISSION FACTORS
D. INSTRUMENTS
E. DESCRIPTION OF FIXED SAMPLING STATIONS
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APPENDIX A.
COOPERATIVE PROJECT AGREEMENT
KANAWHA VALLEY AIR POLLUTION STUDY
I. Title of project: Kanawha Valley Air Pollution Study
II. Cooperating agencies:
A. West Virginia Air Pollution Control Commission
B. U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Public Health Service,
Division of Air Pollution
III. Project organization:
A. Joint Study Executive Council
The cooperating agencies, signatory to this project agreement, will
jointly undertake a study of air pollution. They will be responsible for policy
decisions, approval of finished reports and support of project operations.
A Joint Study Executive Council consisting of two representatives of
each of the cooperating agencies will be responsible for administration and
execution of the project. They are as follows:
1. Carl A. Lindstrom, United States Department of Health, Education
and Welfare, Public Health Service, Regional Program Director for
Air Pollution Activities, Region III.
2. Mario Storlazzi, United States Department of Health, Education
and Welfare, Public Health Service, Division of Air Pollution.
3. N. H. Dyer, M.D., M.P.H., Chairman of the West Virginia Air
Pollution Control Commission.
4. Carl G. Beard, II, Executive Director of the West Virginia Air
Pollution Control Commission.
The Project Director will be the Executive Director of the West
Virginia Air Pollution Control Commission.
B. Joint Study Technical Committee
A Joint Study Technical Committee is to advise the Joint Study
Executive Council and the cooperating agencies on objectives of the project, conduct
of the work and on periodic and final reports. The Committee will meet from time
to time, on call of the cooperating agencies. The Executive Council will prepare
A-l
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an agenda and information documents for use of the Joint Study Technical Committee.
This committee will be composed of one representative designated by each of the
following:
1. West Virginia Air Pollution Control Commission (N.H. Dyer,
M.D., M.P.H.).
2. Kanawha Valley Air Pollution Technical Advisory Council ,
(Page Seekford, M.D.).
3. West Virginia University (Professor Benjamin Linsky, P.E.,
M.S.E.).
4. West Virginia Institute of Technology (Dr. L.C. Nelson).
5. Industries of the Kanawha Valley (Mr. A.C. Hyde).
6. USDHEW, Public Health Service, Division of Air Pollution
(J. J. Schueneman).
C. Citizens Air Pollution Council
A Citizens Air Pollution Council, composed of representatives of
various organizations and citizens having an interest in conservation of the air
resources of the Kanawha Valley, will be organized by the Executive Council. The
Citizens Air Pollution Council will be formed by invitation, nomination and
recommendation. Its purpose is to provide a means whereby broad segments of the
community will be informed on progress of the study and will have opportunities to
make suggestions to the cooperating agencies concerning conduct of the study,
findings and other pertinent subjects.
IV. Need for the project:
Technical studies and public expressions over more than a decade
and existing air pollution activities indicate there is a desire on the part of
residents of the Kanawha Valley for improvement of ambient air quality. An air
resource management program should be developed which will provide for protection
of the public health, safety and welfare, and for achievement of air quality
desired by the residents of the Valley. The industrial character of the Valley is
complex; this complexity is reflected in the varied types and numbers of pollutants
emitted to the atmosphere. The air pollution problems are aggravated by the valley
topography and meteorology which limit dispersion of pollutants, and tend to allow
accumulation and persistence of pollutants in the Valley. A study of information
and data accumulated in past investigations, together with data to be obtained in
the present studies, will help provide a basis for air resource management
activities.
A-2
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Capabilities of various agencies and educational institutions for
investigation of air pollution problems need to be further developed as a part of
the State effort for air resource management.
V. Purpose of the project:
The purposes of the project are to evaluate the air pollution sit-
uation in the Kanawha Valley area and to assist in development of an air resource
management program for the study area. It is expected that the study will help
develop personnel and facilities for air pollution control work both within the
project area and elsewhere in the State.
VI. Location of the project:
The joint study will be done in the Kanawha Valley area, generally
extending from Gauley Bridge through the City of Nitro and its industrial environs.
Although the basic study will be confined to the Valley itself, some studies may
involve other areas for such purposes as meteorological measurements and ecological
observations of vegetation.
Project headquarters will be located in the offices of the
Executive Director of the West Virginia Air Pollution Control Commission in
Charleston, West Virginia.
VII. Duration of the project:
Activities will be initiated on or about July 1, 1964. The proj-
ect will continue for approximately two years.
VIII. Study activities;
The study will involve the following activities. The order of
listing does not imply priority nor time of initiation. A preliminary work program,
in greater detail, is in Appendix A.
A. Measurement of Air Quality
Measurements of air quality will be made at several sites which
will provide the basic detailed air quality information required concerning common
pollutants. A network of stations will be used for certain other measurements and
special investigations. The distribution and number of stations will be based on
availability of resources to operate them and the need for data.
B. Meteorology
Meteorological studies will include an analysis of climatological
data and measurements of meteorological parameters of interest in describing the
A-3
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diffusion and transport of pollutants in the Valley. Existing local meteorological
data will be obtained from weather stations at the airport and those maintained by
several industries. Additional stations will be established as required.
C. Odor Studies
Studies will be conducted to define the geographic distribution,
intensity and duration of odor occurrences. The studies will include reporting by
groups of observers and patrols by trained observers.
D. Collection and Evaluation of Existing Information
Existing information relating directly and indirectly to the air
pollution situation in the Valley will be collected and analyzed.
E. Pollutant Emission Inventory
An inventory of air pollutant emissions from residential, commer-
cial, institutional, industrial and mobile sources will be made. Major single and
group sources will be identified and located to provide general information on the
various types of problems. The industrial emission inventory will be made with the
cooperation and assistance of the industries of the Valley.
F. Effects of Pollution on Vegetation
Vegetation ecology studies to determine the effects of air pollu-
tion on vegetation in the Valley will be conducted. It is contemplated that this
will be done on a contract basis.
G. Special Air Analyses
Within available resources, special studies and analyses will be
made of particulate and gaseous pollutants resulting from specific operations of
special significance and interest in the area. Such studies may be made by staff
personnel and on a contract or grant basis.
H. Effects of Pollution on Health
Studies of possible effects of air pollution on health are highly
desirable and are contemplated. Considerable effort will be made to arrange for
such work. Implementation of actual work will depend on ability to design approp-
riate studies and to secure adequate funding and specialized personnel. Grants
will likely provide the major portion of funds for these studies. Funds to make
such studies are not provided for in this project agreement.
I. Means and Economics of Pollution Control
Studies may be made of available methods for control of certain
pollutant emissions and the costs thereof. Such studies will be done for those
A-4
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sources for which necessary information is reasonably available and on the basis
of priorities determined as the study proceeds.
IX. Reporting and release of information^:
On a quarterly basis, brief summary progress reports will be pre-
pared by the Executive Council for review, evaluation and comment by the cooperat-
ing agencies and the Joint Study Technical Committee.
On a periodic basis, progress reports will be prepared and pre-
sented to the Citizens Air Pollution Council and for use as public information.
These reports will be approved by the cooperating agencies prior to release.
Preparation of the final report on the study will be the joint
responsibility of the cooperating agencies. Cost of printing will be shared in
proportion to the number of copies desired by each agency.
A program of public information and education will be undertaken
as a continuing part of the activities of this study. Generally, public information
material will be prepared and will be cleared by the Executive Council, in consul-
tation with the public information offices of the cooperating agencies. Normally,
release of public information relative to the study will be made through the
Executive Director and the Chairman of the West Virginia Air Pollution Control
Commission after consultation with the Public Health Service when reasonably
possible. However, the Public Health Service and the Joint Study Technical Commit-
tee may release such information, as may be deemed necessary, after consultation
with the Chairman of the West Virginia Air Pollution Control Commission.
Clearance of reports will be subject to pertinent requirements of
the cooperating agencies.
X. Estimated budget (July 1, 1964 - June 30, 1965):
The following budget provides estimates of the approximate con-
tribution of the cooperating agencies. Contributions will not be in cash but will
be made in terms of personnel assignments, equipment, services, supplies, vehicles,
etc.
A. Public Health Service, USDHEW
Personnel (1 meteorologist; 1 engineer full time) $20,000
.Travel (Transfer of personnel and travel of
supervisory and consulting personnel) 2,000
Transportation (Local in study area) (1 auto) 3,500
Consultants and supervisory personnel (Part-time) 5,000
A-5
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Utilities (for mobile lab) 1,000
Supplies 2,000
Equipment $ 5,000
Mobile laboratory no charge
Miscellaneous (Including data processing) 13,000
$51,500
Contract - Vegetation Ecology Study 2.500
$54,000
B. West Virginia Air Pollution Control Commission
Project Director (1/3 time) 3,500
Personnel (1 chemist; 1 engineer - full time) 14,200
Transportation (Local - in study area) 4,000
Laboratory and office space and utilities
and furniture no charge
Supplies 1,000
Equipment 6,800
Miscellaneous (Including electric power to
operate air samplers) 500
$30,000
*
Contract - Study of Major Combustion Plants 2,500
*
Contract - Special air sample analyses 10,000
^32,500
A similar budget is contemplated for this project for the year
July 1, 1965 to June 30, 1966. An appropriate budget for that year will be
developed by the participating agencies in April 1965 or as soon thereafter as
feasible.
XI. Special provisions:
This study is expected to proceed for two years and perhaps some-
what longer. However, continuation beyond the end of the current fiscal year
(June 30, 1965) is contingent upon availability of funds.
The Public Health Service will provide machine data processing
services, including reduction of strip chart records from pollution recorders to
Contingent upon the Commission receiving a Public Health Service program grant.
A-6
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punched cards; preparation of other punched cards; and sorting and tabulating and
electronic computer computations.
The Public Health Service employees assigned to this project will
remain under the annual and sick leave provisions of the Federal law. They will
obtain approval of the Project Director on applications for leave. Applications
will be forwarded to Chief, Technical Assistance Branch, DAP, PHS, as the officer
authorized to approve leave. Public Health Service employees assigned to this
project will work under the direct technical supervision of the Project Director.
Changes in this agreement may be made by mutual consent of the
agencies signatory to this document.
Emil E. Palmquist,
Regional Health Director
Public Health Service
Region III, Charlottesville, Va.
Dyer", M.D., MOP.H.
Chairman, West Virginia Air
Pollution Control Commission
.on 0. MacKenzie, Chief
Vision of Air Pollution
Public Health Service
-&o*-^
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COOPERATIVE PROJECT AGREEMENT
KANAWHA VALLEY AIR POLLUTION STUDY
WORK PROGRAM
A. Air Quality Measurements
1. PHS Mobile Air Sampling Laboratory
This laboratory will be operated for one month periods during each
of the three seasons at four sites. Operations will begin in July 1964
and continue for one year. It will be located in heavily populated
areas. This will provide detailed data on common air pollutants.
Continuous, automatic recorders will measure:
Total hydrocarbons Oxidants
Carbon monoxide Nitrogen dioxide
Carbon dioxide Sulfur dioxide
A continuous wind speed and direction recorder will be operated nearby
or at the mobile lab, as will be a hygrothermograph.
Strip filter paper samplers will be used to measure soiling index
and hydrogen sulfide. A high volume sampler will be operated on a 24-
hour per sample basis.
Manual methods will be used to measure certain other pollutants
as found appropriate for specific locations, insofar as possible within
capabilities of available manpower. These measurements might include
the following, or others:
a. Hydrogen sulfide. Methylene blue method.
b. S02, sulfate, total acid as ^SO/j. For differential analysis,
a combination of simultaneous and individual determinations by
several methods are made on filtered and unfiltered samples,
as follows:
1. Sulfur dioxide by the West and Gaeke method.
2. Total acidity by the hydrogen peroxide method.
3. Sulfate by the turbidimetric method.
c. Aliphatic aldehydes. MBTH method (3-methyl-2-benzothiazolone
hydrazone hydrochloride) (colorimetric).
d. Formaldehyde. Chromotropic acid method, (colorimetric).
e. Ammonia. Nessler reagent (colorimetric).
A-8
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f. Carbon disulfide. Xanthate or diethylamine copper acetate
method (colorimetric).
g. Amines.
h. Total sulfides.
i. Others, to be determined from pollutant emission estimates.
2. Routine Air Quality Monitoring Network
About twelve locations will be selected to represent air pollu-
tion levels to which people of the valley are exposed. Data will be
collected for one year, beginning in August or September 1964.
Measurements will include the following:
a. Dustfall. Dustfall collectors (gravimetric).
b. Sulfation rate. Lead peroxide candles (gravimetric or
turbidimetric).
c. Suspended particulates. Hi-vol Air Sampler (gravimetric,
spectrographic and trace analysis to be selected).
d. Soiling index. AISI Filter Tape Sampler (transmission
photometry).
e. Materials deterioration. Fabrics, plaques of silver, iron,
aluminum, zinc (visual, weight-loss, reflectance photometry).
Maximum possible use will be made of data already available from
activities of the West Virginia Air Pollution Control Commission,
industries and others.
(See also item G later herein.)
B. Meteorological Studies
Existing data from USWB and industrial weather stations will be used, along
with data to be developed in this study, to describe the transport of pollutants
in the study area. There is a weather station at the Charleston airport (USWB).
Four or five wind speed and direction observing stations are being operated in the
Valley by industrial firms. Supplementary measurements may include the following:
1. Airport station
a. Atmospheric turbidity (sun photometer)
2. Additional stations (pending study of existing stations)
a. Wind speed and direction (up to four locations)
b. Temperature and humidity (up to twelve locations)
c. Visibility (landmark technique - four locations)
d. Atmospheric turbidity (about four locations)
A-9
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e. Photographic documentation (various locations)
f. Time-lapse photography (various locations)
g. Pilot balloon tracking (theodolite - various locations)
h. "Natural tracer" studies (air analyses for specific, unique
pollutants along with analysis of air flow information)
3. Surveillance of synoptic meteorological conditions related to
community ventilation rates
C. Odor Studies
The following are the methods that will be used for the odor surveys:
1. Observer corps of groups such as high school students, firemen and/or
teachers who record odors observed at about four specified times each
day for two or three-week periods. If, at a later date, a public
opinion survey is conducted, an attempt will be made to relate data
from the public opinion survey to the odor survey data for the purpose
of better defining "acceptable" or "reasonable" air quality with
respect to odors.
2. Odor patrols of trained observers using such techniques as the scento-
meter and the "odor unit" method. Cooperation of industrial repre-
sentatives will be encouraged for the purpose of making observations
and investigations both inside industrial plants and in the surrounding
community.
D. Collection and evaluation of existing information
Existing information relating to air pollution will be analyzed. This work
will include the following activities:
1. Analysis of existing data on:
a. Air quality
b. Meteorology
2. General descriptive matter on the area including:
a. Community characteristics
b. Population trends - number and geographic distribution
c. Fuel use patterns
d. Industrial activity
e. Refuse disposal practices
f. Transportation
g. Planning and zoning activities
h. Economic, agricultural and industrial characteristics and trends
A-10
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3. Description of local ordinances, state laws and enabling acts and
governmental programs related to air resource management.
E. Pollutant Emission Inventory
An inventory of air pollutant emissions will be made in several parts in
keeping with characteristics of the sources of pollution which exist in the study
area.
1. Major industrial plants
There are about 12 major plants. A questionnaire will be designed to
collect information. Industry will be requested to bear major responsibility
for reporting with the study group reviewing and discussing reports with
individual plants. Data on quantity of product and raw material used is said
to be unavailable because of disclosure of information vital to the competi-
tive position of the companies involved. The same is said to be true of a
large part of the information on the processes used to produce various
products. Principal information requested will be pollutant emissions and
major products produced at each plant. Data for plants covering large
areas will be requested on the basis of plant segments covering areas of
about 2,000 feet on a side. A check-list of pollutants of major interest
will be part of the questionnaire. Quantity of products produced will be
reported in general terms such as "high tonnage," "low tonnage," "spec-
ialty item," and "experimental processes" if more definite information is
considered confidential by the reporting industry.
An engineering appraisal will be made of each major coal-burning
plant (twelve or so) to provide information on existing combustion and
emission control equipment, fuels and operating practices. The objective
will be to secure detailed information needed to design emission control
regulations and to negotiate abatement programs. This may be done by a
contractor.
2. Smaller industrial plants
A questionnaire of nominal complexity will be used to secure infor-
mation on processes, practices and emissions from combustion and process
and refuse disposal operations. A limited number of plant visits will be
made to review information reported.
3. Commercial, domestic and institutional fuel use and refuse disposal
An attempt will be made to secure information needed to estimate
emissions from trade representatives and generalized available data. If
this is not adequate, a questionnaire survey may be needed.
A-ll
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4. Transportation and other sources
Generalized, available data will be used to estimate pollutant
emissions from these kinds of sources.
F. Effects of Pollution on Vegetation
The work will involve a study of species of vegetation present in various
parts of the area. This information, along with information on various aspects of
the environment, may provide clues to the impact of air pollution on vegetation, on
the geographic spread of pollution and, perhaps, on some characteristics of the
pollutants present. Work will be done in the summer of 1964. Tentative plans
include additional, similar work in the summer of 1965. The contract for this work
is expected to provide for survey work both in the study area and in another area
of interest in the state.
G. Special Air Analyses
A wide variety of uncommon pollutants are emitted from the multitude of
chemical processes carried on in the Valley. Reactions may occur between pollutants
in the ambient atmosphere. Definition and solution of some air pollution problems
may well depend on precise knowledge of the composition of these unusual pollutants.
Specialized methods of sample collection and analysis may be necessary. Some of
these methods require use of expensive instruments and application of great tech-
nical skill. The cooperating agencies may not be in a position to bring necessary
resources to bear on the problem and may find it advantageous to secure analytical
services on a contract basis. Specific methods will be selected as information
about pollutants is acquired in the joint study.
H. Effects of Pollution on Health
Description of work to be done awaits preliminary work in the study area.
Also, specialized personnel must be interested in the problem and encouraged to
design studies and secure financial support for their implementation.
I. Means and Economics of Pollution Control
The cost of equipment and its operation and other costs involved in achiev-
ing a given degree of control of pollutant emission is a factor in design of air
pollution abatement programs. The more information there is available on this
subject, the more advantageous will be the specific abatement plan. Necessary
information is available with respect to such pollution sources as fuel and refuse
burners and some others. It may be difficult to obtain with respect to unusual and
unique industrial processes. Reasonable efforts will be made to secure the needed
information. That which can be obtained will be considered in design of the air
resource management program for the area.
A-12
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MEMBERSHIP OF ORIGINAL CITIZEN'S AIR POLLUTION COUNCIL*
The Honorable Paul J. Kaufman
Senator from Kanawha County
201 Union Building
Charleston, W. Va.
Mr. Glen Armstrong
Labor Representative
3710 Virginia Avenue, S.E.
Charleston, W. Va.
Rev. William A. Benfield, Jr.
The First Presbyterian Church
Corner Virginia and Broad St.
Charleston, W. Va.
Mr. Gordon E. Billheimer
Attorney At Law
311 Washington Street
Montgomery, W. Va.
Mrs. T. J. Blair, III
Junior Women's Club
4100 Rockholly Road
Charleston, W. Va.
Mrs. M. S. Bowles
102 Fifth Avenue
Montgomery, W. Va.
Dr. Marshall Buckalew, President
Morris Harvey College
2300 MacCorkle Ave., S.E.
Charleston, W. Va.
I. E. Buff, M. D.
310 Atlas Building
Charleston 1, W. Va.
Mrs. Dominick Costa, President
Women's Club
Montgomery, W. Va.
Mr. Henry T. El den
Architect
807 Churchill Dr.
Charleston, W. Va.
Dr. Nelson R. Eldred
Industrial Representative
2310 Claridge Circle
Charleston, W. Va.
Dr. Nathan Gerrard, Head
Department of Sociology
Morris Harvey College
Charleston, W. Va.
John B. Haley, M. D.
1218 Virginia Street, E.
Charleston, W. Va.
P. A. Haley, M. D.
102 Ruffner Avenue
Charleston, W. Va.
Mr. L. A. Hall
Industrial Representative
816 Lee Street
Charleston, W. Va.
Mrs. John W. Hash
Women's Club
23 Norwood Road
Charleston, W. Va.
Mrs. C. Paul Heavener
Children's Home Society
1118 Washington Street, E.
Charleston, W. Va.
Dr. Edwin D. Hoffman
Assistant Dean
West Virginia State College
Institute, W. Va.
Mr. Charles Hopkins, Exec. Vice-President
West Virginia Retailers Association
906 Nelson Building
Charleston, W. Va.
Mr. Eugene F. Imbrogno, Jr.
Viking Building
410 Fourth Ave.
Montgomery, W. Va.
Mrs. Howard J. Jackson
League of Women Voters
2310 Windham Rd.
Charleston, W. Va.
Mr. E. H. Josephi, Jr.
Member, Planning Commission
521 Central Ave.
Charleston, W. Va.
A-13
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Carl L. Kennedy, D.D.S.
410 Fourth Avenue
Montgomery, W. Va.
Mrs. Glade Little
Civic Representative
2707 Bard Ave.
St. Albans, W. Va.
Father Roy A. Lombard
Christ the King Rectory
1508 Grosscup Avenue
Dunbar, W. Va.
Mrs. James B. Mclntyre
Civic Representative
Louden Heights
Charleston, W. Va.
Mr. J. W. Moody
Industrial Representative
2508 Twenty-Fifth St.
Nitro, W. Va.
Prof. Paul J. Moore
Department of Chemistry
West Virginia State College
Institute, W. Va.
Mr. Paul Morton
Industrial Representative
Cannelton, W. Va.
Mrs. Fay Osborn, Secretary
Citizen's Air Pollution Council
944 Montrose Dr.
Charleston, W. Va.
DeWitt Peck, M.D.
Montgomery, W. Va.
Mr. Edward L. Rabel, Jr.
News Director
W.C.H.S. Television
1111 Virginia Street, E.
Charleston, W. Va.
Miss Juliann Ritter, Exec. Director
West Virginia Nurses Association
47 Capital City Building
Charleston, W. Va.
Mr. George M. Rosengarten
Industrial Representative
1016 Highland Rd.
Charleston 2, W. Va.
Mr. Charles Ryan
W.S. A. Z. Television
210 Dickinson Street
Charleston, W. Va.
Mrs. James Scarbro
Community Improvement Chairman
502 Fifth Avenue
Montgomery, W. Va.
Merle Scherr, M. D.
1204 Colonial Way
Charleston, W. Va.
Dr. A. L. Simon
West Virginia Institute of Technology
715 First Avenue
Montgomery, W. Va.
Victor S. Skaff, M. D.
902 Woodland Avenue
St. Albans, W. Va.
Mr. I. Noyes Smith, Jr.
Commercial Representative
12 Fern Road
Charleston, W. Va.
Mr. Walter Snyder, Superintendent
Kanawha County Schools
Elizabeth and Quarrier Streets
Charleston, W. Va.
Mr. Edward W. Sutton
Industrial Representative
844 Beaumont Road
Charleston, W. Va.
Mrs. Richard Teale
Garden Club
398 Mount View Dr.
Charleston, W. Va.
Mr. R. L. Theibert
413 Sheridan Circle
Charleston, W. Va.
Mr. L. N. Thomas, Jr.
Industrial Representative
Carbon, W. Va.
Mr. Thomas Torgersen
Aviation Representative
1236 Grosscup Avenue
Dunbar, W. Va.
The Honorable Earl M. Vickers
Delegate from Fayette County
Viking Building
Montgomery, W. Va.
A-14
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James H. Walker, M. D. Dr. Charles W. Wilson, III
1323 Quarrier St. Industrial Representative
Charleston, W. Va. 835 Carroll Road
Charleston, W. Va.
Mr. Clarence A. Wright
Mr. Henry B. Wehrle Labor Representative
836 Lower Chester Road Morrison Building
Charleston, W. Va. Charleston, W. Va.
*Members who joined after July 1, 1964, are not included.
A-15
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APPENDIX B.
SUPPLEMENTARY METEOROLOGICAL INFORMATION
INSTRUMENTS
Wind Speed and Direction
In addition to several brands of wind recording instruments, which are
listed by manufacturer or by trade name and described below, this section also
covers the "Pibal" and "Tetroon" operation.
Aerovane - Bendix-Friez model 120 transmitter with six-blade rotor and model 141
recorders, and industrial instruments with three-blade rotors. The six-blade
rotors were balanced on their transmitters by filing the heavy side of the rotor.
The unit was then rotated about its normally vertical axis by gravity and balanced
by adding weight to the tail through a 1/4-inch hole. As installed, these instru-
ments had a starting speed of less than 2 mph and a distance constant of 34 feet.
These instruments proved relatively insensitive to corrosion and dirt.
B and W - Beckman and Whitley model K 100 A utilizing Esterline Angus model AW
recorders. When installed, the systems started at under 1 mph and had a distance
constant of less than 3 feet. As corrosion and dirt accumulated in bearings, the
starting speed approached 3 mph and the dirty bearing were replaced.
Electric Speed Indicator - The standard Weather Bureau Electric Speed Indicator
instrument was read at hourly intervals by the duty observer at the Weather Bureau
Station at the Kanawha Airport. Speeds below 3 mph were generally called calm.
ECO Wind II - This unit from the Wong Laboratories had a threshold speed of less
than 3/4 mph and a distance constant on the order of 5 feet.
Other Instruments - A commercially operated Belfort instrument at station 70 had
a starting speed of less than 2 mph. Another instrument at station 74 started at
3 mph. In data reduction, values below 2 mph were generally recorded as zero and
directions were recorded to the nearest 10 degrees in most cases.
/
Pibal Wind speed and direction were also measured by the pilot balloon or "pibal"
method, which -has been used extensively by all meteorological services for many
B-l
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years. The equipment used was standard in most respects. The pibal is a small
balloon, about 30 inches in diameter when released. When inflated to lift a cer-
tain weight, the rate of ascent is known. A theodolite, similar to a surveyor's
transit, is used to watch the balloon and determine at frequent intervals both the
angular elevation above the horizon and the azimuth (bearing from true north).
From the known height and the elevation angle, the distance from the observer can be
determined. Using this distance and the azimuth angle, a horizontal projection of
the balloon's path is plotted and the direction and speed of movement at any point
•are determined by measurements on the plotting board. In usual practice, position
readings are taken at 1-minute intervals. For the purposes of this study, however,
readings were taken at 20-second intervals in order to obtain more detail in the
first few hundred feet of the atmosphere.
Tetroon - The "tetroon" is a four-sided plastic balloon. The plastic does not
stretch as does the rubber in an ordinary balloon. Consequently, once the tetroon
is fully inflated, the volume remains essentially constant, thus the overall density
(tetroon and gas) does not change; and when released the tetroon seeks a level in
the atmosphere where the density of the air is the same as that of the tetroon.
The density can be controlled by using a mixture of air and helium for inflation
and by attaching weights to the tetroon. Thus the tetroon can be made to float at
a constant level near the surface or well above. The term "constant" is relative,
since the tetroon responds to rising or sinking air currents as well as to
horizontal currents.
Once released, the tetroon must be tracked in some manner. Although radar
tracking of an inert target or of a transponder attached to the tetroon would have
been preferred, no radar equipment was available for this study, and the tetroon
had to be tracked visually. Terrain and lack of roads made tracking by use of an
automobile difficult in the Kanawha Valley. The cooperation of the Air National
Guard was obtained, and several tetroons were followed from the air.
Sunshine
Pyrheliometer - (Belfort Instrument Company A5-3850) This instrument consists of a
clockwork-driven drum with a chart rotated against a pen mechanically linked to the
radiation sensing element. The element is composed of two bimetallic strips, one
blackened to absorb radiant energy and the other chrome-plated. The bimetal strips
are covered by a Pyrex dome, which transmits 90 percent of all light waves from
0.36 to 2.0 microns, with ultraviolet cutoff at about 0.28 micron. Each line on
the chart indicated 0.1 calorie per square centimeter per minute. During the period
of observation, the chrome covers of the elements showed some corrosive pitting,
B-2
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especially on the instrument exposed in North Charleston, and so the chrome covers
of the elements in both pyrheliometers were replaced and the blackened elements were
reblackened. The instruments were exposed side by side for a period before the
repairs were made. One instrument was then reconditioned and the two were again
operated side by side for a period. The second instrument was then reconditioned,
and the two were operated for another period side by side.
Before either instrument had been reconditioned, the Pyrheliometer numbered
22520 indicated 108 calories per square centimeter per minute when number 22519
indicated 100. After both instruments were reconditioned, the ratio was 101:100.
In data reduction, these ratios were applied and the readings were made dimension-
less by further reducing to comparison ratios with the airport being 100.
Instrument 22519 was always used at the airport.
Volz Sun Photometer - (Climet Instruments, Inc.) The Volz sun photometer is a read-
ily portable instrument, measuring about 2 by 2 by 6 inches and weighing under 1
pound, which measures solar radiation in the 5,000-Angstrom region. On cloudless
days measurements of incident sunlight are adjusted for time of day, latitude, long-
itude, and elevation above mean sea level. The difference from standard is then
attributable to pollutants in the atmosphere between the sun and the instrument.
The effects of the above variables was minimized in this work by reading only near
midday, by simultaneous readings of two instruments, and by keeping each instrument
essentially at one elevation.
Temperature
Temperature data from existing U. S. Weather Bureau airport stations and river
stations were augmented with available industrial readings. In addition, a tempor-
ary net of hygrothermograph stations was set up and free-air temperatures were meas-
ured in the tethersonde operation.
Hygrothermograph This instrument records temperature and relative humidity. Prac-
tically identical instruments manufactured by the Instruments Corp., Belfort
Instrument Co., or Friez Instrument Div. of Bendix Corp, were on hand and used.
The temperature-sensitive element is a gold or chrome-plated bourdon tube; the
humidity element is a multiple strand of specially treated, hygroscopic human hair.
The sensors are mechanically linked to separate pens, which record on a single
chart. Instruments were exposed in standard instrument shelters of the cotton-
region type. Temperature records are considered representative of the ambient
a-jr> + -jop^ ancj humidity values are accepted as +_ 5 percent over most of the range
of the instrument.
B-3
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Tethersonde - The tethersonde is an adaptation of the radiosonde, an instrument that
has been in wide-spread use for over 30 years. This instrument consists of a temp-
erature-sensitive radio transmitter, which is carried aloft by a blimp-shaped plas-
tic balloon (Aerokite of Litton Industries). The height to which this device
ascends is controlled by a tether, hence the name "tethersonde". The transmitter
sends a radio signal to ground equipment. The temperature sensor consists of a
"thermistor," or small resistance element, which responds to changes in temperature
and is aspirated by a small battery-powered fan. The unit also contains a humidity
element and a switching device for cycling the transmitter between temperature,
humidity, and reference elements. The electronic ground equipment consisted of a
radio receiver, a converter for transforming the audio frequencies received into a
voltage, a strip-chart recorder, and power supply for the radio and converter. The
tether cord was 100-pound-test braided Nylon, which was marked at 50-foot intervals.
SITES AND DATA
Meteorological stations and instrument exposures are described in this sec-
tion in the order encountered when descending the river. A brief station descrip-
tion precedes the tabulated data in each case. Locations are designated in Figure
2-1 and some of the stations are shown on photographs of the Charleston area in
Figures B-l and B-2.
Gauley Bridge
Station 50. River 650 feet MSL, hygrothermograph 658 feet MSL over grass and
25 feet from the New River, 1/2 mile up river from the junction of the New and
Gauley rivers on the right bank. Prior to March 1965, instrument was located
similarly but at the junction of the two rivers. The station operated from November
14, 1964 through March 31, 1966, Table B-l.
Smithers
Station 11. River 614 feet MSL, hygrothermograph 658 feet MSL over grass and
60 feet from the north bank of the Kanawha river at the Oakwood Elementary School in
Smithers. This station operated from November 14, 1964, to March 31, 1966, Table B-2,
London Lock
Station 68. River 614 feet MSL becoming 590 feet MSL below the lock. Beckman
and Whitley wind systems sensors at 655 feet MSL - 15 feet above 3rd gate support
from north shore. Valley floor is narrow in the area and generally 20 feet above
the pool behind the dam. The downstream valley direction changes abruptly from 300
degrees above the dam to 350 degrees below, and the walls are steep so that channel-
ing is expected. Seasonal wind roses are included as Figure B-3. System in opera-
tion June 4, 1965 through May 31, 1966.
B-4
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co
i
en
Figure B-l. City Hall in Charleston, W. Va. looking to north-east.
-------
i
-
Airjojt
*k7
I
r
•'»
L
^i^U-M
"•
Figure B-2. Blaine Island in Vp-valley view of Charleston, W. Va. Spring and Fall
Intensive Study Sites - Recreation Area. Summer - Tru-Temper.
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Table B-l. TEMPERATURE AND RELATIVE HUMIDITY AT GAULEY BRIDGE
Hour
1ST
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
Spring 1965
1 Mar - 31 May
Temp.
op
50.3
48.9
48.1
48.6
52.7
59.9
65.1
66.6
66.0
61.2
55.5
52.3
R.H.
%
90.7
93.2
93.9
91.3
76.7
56.8
45.6
43.1
46.4
60.8
76.7
86.0
Obs.
#
82
81
81
81
82
81
80
81
83
83
83
83
Summer 1965
1 Jun - 31 Aug
Temp.
°F
65.8
64.7
64.1
64.1
68.2
74.2
78.6
80.1
80.3
77.5
71.5
67.8
R.H.
%
99.3
99.1
99.1
97.8
85.1
67.1
56.6
53.0
56.3
72.1
91.1
98.0
Obs.
#
89
89
89
89
88
88
88
89
89
89
89
89
Fall 1965
1 Sep - 30 Nov
Temp.
°F
50.9
49.9
48.6
48.5
50.5
56.8
63.4
64.6
63.2
58.1
54.0
51.8
R.H.
%
91.5
92.3
93.9
94.5
86.7
65.9
50.9
49.6
59.1
76.3
85.6
89.4
Obs.
#
90
90
90
90
82
80
82
88
90
90
90
90
Winter 1964 - 1965 Winter 1965 - 1966
1 Dec - 28 Feb
Temp.
°F
35.8
34.5
33.9
33.9
34.2
38.8
43.3
46.3
45.4
40.7
38.2
36.9
R.H.
%
84.7
88.6
90.4
88.3
87.5
74.7
64.7
60.7
61.8
75.4
82.5
84.6
Obs.
#
74
74
74
74
74
74
73
70
74
74
74
74
1 Dec - 28 Feb
Temp.
°F
33.0
32.4
31.7
31.2
31.9
36.1
40.1
42.1
40.6
37.3
35.0
34.0
R.H.
%
85.7
85.5
86.4
85.8
82.7
70.2
60.4
58.3
63.1
74.2
81.4
84.7
Obs
#
88
88
88
88
87
87
86
86
90
90
90
89
CO
I
1-J
-------
DO
I
CO
Table B-2. TEMPERATURE AND RELATIVE HUMIDITY AT SMITHERS
Hour
LST
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
Spring 1965
1 Mar - 31 May
Temp.
°F
49.1
47.4
46.5
45.9
48.4
56.3
62.2
65.2
65.4
61.7
55.2
51.5
R.H.
%
86.9
90.1
91.7
92.3
87.2
69.0
55.8
50.1
50.0
55.4
72.1
81.4
Obs.
#
92
92
92
92
92
92
92
90
92
92
92
92
Summer 1965
1 Jun - 31 Aug
Temp.
°F
65.3
63.9
63.3
62.8
65.0
72.2
78.6
81.2
82.1
78.9
72.2
67.7
R.H.
%
95.4
96.6
97.0
97.2
91.8
74.2
61.5
57.5
57.1
65.8
83.7
90.9
Obs.
#
87
87
87
87
87
87
87
87
87
87
87
87
Fall 1965
1 Sep - 30 Nov
Temp.
°F
52.0
50.9
50.7
49.6
50.3
57.6
64.4
67.4
65.4
59.9
55.2
53.0
R.H.
%
89.6
90.8
91.6
93.2
91.5
73.7
57.7
52.6
56.3
70.8
82.5
86.8
Obs.
#
90
90
90
90
85
80
88
90
91
91
91
91
Winter 1964 - 65
1 Dec - 28 Feb
Temp.
°F
34.9
33.8
33.3
33.1
33.2
36.7
41.9
45.. 2
45.0
40.6
37.7
36.5
R.H.
%
82.4
84.0
86.2
86.3
86.6
79.2
67.7
62.8
62.3
71.7
79.6
81.1
Obs.
#
90
90
90
90
90
89
90
86
90
90
90
90
Winter 1965 - 66
1 Dec - 28 Feb
Temp.
°F
34.2
33.5
32.8
32.3
31.9
35.2
40.4
43.1
42.3
39.0
36.6
35.5
R.H.
%
83.5
84.2
84.9
83.9
84.8
77.9
65.4
60.5
61.5
70.8
77.3
81.8
Obs.
#
89
88
88
88
88
88
88
87
89
89
89
89
-------
SPRING 1109 OBSERVATIONS
SUMMER 935 OBSERVATIONS
FALL 1007 OBSERVATIONS
WINTER 974 OBSERVATIONS
Figure B-3. London Locks.
B-9
-------
Glasgow
Station 51. River 590 feet MSL, hygrothermograph 620 feet MSL over grass and
300 feet from the north bank. Instrument was in operation November 14, 1964
through March 31, 1966, Table B-3.
Dupont Plant, Belle Works
Station 70. River 590 feet MSL. Belfort wind system sensors approximately
810 feet MSL (200 feet above valley floor and near the height of the stacks) on
the north side of the river. Seasonal wind roses are included as Figure B-4. This
wind system is operated by the Dupont Corporation who supplied data for the period
requested - March 1, 1965 through March 31, 1966.
Marmet
Station 52. At the Marmet Lock the pool level drops from 590 feet MSL to
566 feet MSL. A hygrothermograph was located approximately 610 feet MSL at the
top of a steep grassy slope extending to the lower pool. The instrument was 100
feet from the southwest bank of the river. Data was recorded from November 14,
1964 through March 31, 1966, Table B-4.
Morris Harvey College, Kanawha City
Station 60. The sensors of a Beckman and Whitley wind system were mounted
approximately 15 feet above the elevator penthouse on the administration building
of the College. Sensors were estimated to be 660 feet MSL. System recorded winds
between March 1, 1965 and March 31, 1966. Seasonal wind roses are presented as
Figure B-5.
State Office Building
Station 64. The wind sensor of a three-blade aerovane system was mounted at
approximately 675 feet MSL on the roof of the State Office Building which is across
the river from Morris Harvey College. The sensor was estimated to be 110 feet above
the river. Data period was from March 1, 1965 through March 31, 1966, and is
graphically represented by wind roses in Figure B-6.
Kanawha Valley Bank Building
Station 63. A hygrothermograph on the main roof of the Kanawha Valley Bank
Building was estimated to be at 800 feet MSL and 210 feet above the street, being
held 8 feet out from the north side of an open ironwork tower on the building.
Temperature and humidity data tabulated by season in Table B-5 cover the period
December 15, 1964 through March 31, 1966 while the seasonal wind roses of Figure
B-7 are based on wind data from March 1, 1965 through March 4, 1966.
B-10
-------
Table B-3. TEMPERATURE AND RELATIVE HUMIDITY AT GLASGOW
Hour
LST
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
Spring 1965
1 Mar - 31 May
Temp.
°F
47.1
46.0
45.2
45.6
49.9
58.1
63.3
65.6
65.3
60.7
53.5
49.7
R.H.
%
92.3
92.6
93.8
92.6
81.1
64.4
56.1
53.5
53.9
63.3
79.6
88.0
Obs.
#
92
91
91
91
92
92
92
91
92
92
92
92
Summer 1965
1 Jun - 31 Aug
Temp.
°F
63.4
62.5
61.9
61.9
66.3
74.2
79.2
80.9
81.1
78.1
70.0
65.6
R.H.
%
95.1
95.5
95.8
95.4
84.3
66.4
58.3
55.8
56.4
65.5
85.8
93.0
Obs.
#
92
92
92
92
92
91
92
92
92
92
92
92
Fall 1965
1 Sep - 30 Nov
Temp.
°F
51.6
50.8
49.7
49.2
51.1
59.5
65.6
68.6
66.9
59.9
54.8
52.2
R.H.
%
92.5
93.7
94.8
94.4
88.9
68.2
56.3
52.5
56.6
75.1
86.0
90.8
Obs.
#
89
89
90
90
86
86
89
91
91
91
91
90
w'nter 1964 - 65
1 Dec - 28 Feb
Temp.
°F
33.5
32.6
32.1
31.5
32.2
36.3
41.5
45.0
44.7
39.7
36.5
34.8
R.H.
%
84.2
85.7
87.1
87.8
86.2
75.2
65.9
62.3
64.4
75.7
81.8
84.4
Obs.
#
78
78
78
78
78
77
77
75
77
78
78
78
Winter 1965 - 66
] Dec - 28 Feb
Temp.
°F
32.5
32.1
31.7
31.1
31.4
35.7
40.6
43.2
41.8
38.1
35.1
33.7
R.H.
%
90.0
89.0
89.2
89.3
88.4
80.5
68.8
65.1
67.9
78.1
86.7
89.5
Obs.
#
83
83
83
83
83
83
83
85
86
86
86
85
CD
I
-------
SUMMER 978 OBSERVATIONS
SPRING 1272 OBSERVATIONS
FALL 1755 OBSERVATIONS
WINTER 1715 OBSERVATIONS
Figure B-4. Dupont Plant, Belle Works.
B-12
-------
Table B-4, TEMPERATURE AND RELATIVE HUMIDITY AT MARMET LOCKS
Hour
LST
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
Spring 1965
1 Mar - 31 May
Temp.
°F
48.7
47.5
46.6
46.0
48.5
56.0
61.7
63.9
63.8
60.7
54.9
51.3
R.H.
%
89.9
93.1
94.4
94.7
87.2
66.5
53.8
50.2
51.6
59.3
75.2
84.7
Obs.
#
92
91
91
91
91
91
91
91
91
92
92
92
Summer 1965
1 Jun - 31 Aug
Temp.
°F
64.2
63.0
62.1
61.8
66.0
74.4
79.0
80.5
80.6
76.5
69.4
66.2
R.H.
%
99.0
99.3
99.4
99.6
91.0
66.2
56.4
53.1
53.8
65.6
89.5
97.2
Obs.
#
92
92
92
92
92
92
92
92
92
92
92
92
Fall 1965
1 Sep - 30 Nov
Temp.
°F
52.8
51.1
50.0
49.4
50.5
58.5
65.0
67.3
66.2
59.7
55.5
54.1
R.H.
%
91.5
93.7
94.9
95.4
92.9
69.4
52.7
48.9
52.0
71.5
83.8
88.7
Obs.
#
89
90
90
90
88
88
90
90
91
91
90
88
Winter 1964 - 65
1 Dec - 28 Feb
Temp.
°F
34.5
33.6
32.8
32.4
32.6
36.6
42.1
44.5
44.6
40.4
37.3
35.9
R.H.
%
84.2
87.5
87.7
89.2
87.8
78.8
65.0
61.3
62.8
74.7
81.0
84.1
Obs.
#
88
88
89
89
89
86
85
82
84
86
87
88
Winter 1965 - 66
1 Dec - 28 Feb
Temp.
°F
32.5
31.9
31.1
30.1
30.7
34.7
39.5
41.8
41.0
37.5
35.0
33.7
R.H.
%
89.0
88.5
90.2
90.9
89.3
78.7
64.5
60.2
61.9
72.8
83.4
88.4
Obs.
#
86
86
86
86
84
84
86
86
87
88
88
87
-------
SPRING 1291 OBSERVATIONS
SUMMER 779 OBSERVATIONS
FALL 975 OBSERVATIONS
WINTER 1623 OBSERVATIONS
Figure B-5. Morris Harvey College.
B-14
-------
SUMMER 960 OBSERVATIONS
SPRING 1395 OBSERVATIONS
0 5 10 15 20
OCCURRENCE
FALL 978 OBSERVATIONS
WINTER 1138 OBSERVATIONS
Figure B-6. State Office Building.
B-15
-------
00
I
Table B-5. TEMPERATURE AND RELATIVE HUMIDITY AT KANAWHA VALLEY BANK BUILDING
Hour
LST
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
Spring 1965
1 Mar - 31 May
Temp.
°F
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
R.H.
%
90.2
93.7
94.5
94.6
93.2
74.7
61.7
55.8
54.2
57.7
65.9
80.0
Obs.
#
88
88
88
88
88
87
88
88
88
89
89
88
Summer 1965
1 Jun - 31 Aug
Temp.
°F
66.4
64.6
63.5
63.2
68.0
75.0
79.4
81.8
82.0
79.8
75.1
69.6
R.H.
%
91.6
94.4
95.6
95.4
81.4
63.6
53.9
50.2
48.8
52.5
66.1
84.5
Obs.
#
92
92
92
92
92
86
86
91
91
9T
91
92
Fall 1965
1 Sep - 30 Nov
Temp.
°F
55.0
53.4
52.4
51.6
52.7
53.4
65.0
68.2
68.3
64.7
59.5
56.7
R.H.
%
92.4
94.3
95.1
95.7
93.4
77.1
61.6
56.4
57.6
64.4
80.1
88.5
Obs.
#
88
88
88
88
85
81
82
83
86
88
88
88
Winter 1964 - 65
1 Dec - 28 Feb
Temp.
°F
36.2
35.0
34.5
34.1
33.9
36.0
40.3
43.2
45.1
42.9
40.0
37.9
R.H.
%
81.1
84.2
86.0
87.0
86.4
79.8
69.9
62.3
59.3
63.9
71.3
77.2
Obs.
#
76
76
76
76
76
76
76
76
76
77
77
77
Winter 1965 - 66
1 Dec - 28 Feb
Temp.
°F
34.6
33.5
32.6
31.8
32.0
35.0
39.2
41.4
42.1
40.0
37.7
36.2
R.H.
%
87.2
89.4
91.6
92.6
90.6
83.1
70.8
66.7
65.2
69.3
77.6
83.9
Obs.
#
90
90
90
90
90
89
89
89
90
90
90
90
Data missing.
-------
SPRING 962 OBSERVATIONS
SUMMER 915 OBSERVATIONS
19 0 S 10 15 20
FALL 925 OBSERVATIONS
WINTER 1489 OBSERVATIONS
28.5
Figure B-7. Kanawha Valley Bank Building.
B-17
-------
Federal Building
Station 02. The roof of the "New Federal Building" at 500 Quarrier Street
East is 55 feet above the street so that the hygrothermograph in its shelter was
60 feet above street level. An ECO wind sensor was placed on a tower supported by
the elevator penthouse being 20 feet above the roof or 660 feet MSL. Late in the
study the ECO wind sensor was replaced with one manufactured by Raim. Hygrothermo-
graph data in Table B-6 cover the period from November 21, 1964 through March 31,
1966 while the seasonal wind roses of Figure B-8 represent data between March 3,
1965 and March 31, 1966.
Charleston Water Treatment Plant
Station 53. The West Virginia Water Company has operated a cooperative
climatological station for the U. S. Weather Bureau since 1944 and for this study
a hygrothermograph was placed there. The instrument was exposed at about 580 feet
MSL over grass just within the valley of the Elk River on the east bank. Shade
from a cliff cover the instrument shelter for the first hour or so after sunrise
and trees shaded the shelter in the early afternoon. Shelter was relocated about
20 feet during the summer of 1965 for better exposure. Table B-7 gives data between
November 20, 1964 and March 31, 1966.
Kanawha County Airport
Station 67. Data from the U. S. Weather Bureau airport station represent a
wind sensor within the runway complex at 985 feet MSL while temperature data are
about 30 feet lower. A pyrhiometer was added to the station instrumentation for
the study. Temperature and humidity data in Table B-8 are for the period December
1, 1964 through February 28, 1964; wind data presented as Figure B-9 are a 5-year
climatic average, 1956-60, from official observation record.
400 Mountain View Drive
Station 65. This station on the south rim of the valley was 3.5 miles southwest
from the airport and opposite the mouth of the Elk River. The sensors of a Beck-
man and Whitley wind system were mounted 50 feet above the hill, being estimated
at 1,000 feet MSL while the instrument shelter was over grass in a generally shad-
ed area at 945 feet MSL or 380 feet above pool level. Temperature and humidity
data in Table B-9 begin on December 30, 1964 and wind data for Figure B-10 on
March 9, 1965; both ending on March 31, 1966.
B-18
-------
Table B-6. TEMPERATURE AND RELATIVE HUMIDITY AT FEDERAL BUILDING
Hour
LST
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
Spring 1965
1 Mar - 31 May
Temp.
°F
51.6
49.9
48.5
47.6
50.2
56.8
62.5
65.6
65.9
63.6
58.8
54.6
R.H.
%
90.6
94.6
95.3
95.9
89.9
72.5
61.4
53.7
54.9
59.0
69.1
82.2
Obs.
#
84
83
83
83
84
84
82
80
83
84
83
84
Summer 1965
1 Jun - 31 Aug
Temp.
°F
67.7
65.8
64.4
63.7
68.5
76.1
81.0
83.1
83.6
81.4
76.7
71.1
R.H.
%
98.2
99.0
99.4
99.8
90.5
70.5
60.7
56.3
55.1
60.5
74.1
91.5
Obs.
#
90
90
90
90
88
83
85
87
88
89
88
90
Fall 1965
1 Sep - 30 Nov
Temp.
°F
54.1
52.2
50.8-
49.9
51.6
59.9
65.8
69.0
68.8
64.3
58.9
55.7
R.H.
%
92.1
94.4
96.4
96.9
95.6
81.0
63.8
57.1
56.9
62.8
77.3
87.1
Obs.
#
91
90
90
90
80
81
80
81
84
87
88
90
Winter 1964 - 65
1 Dec - 28 Feb
Temp.
°F
35.2
34.0
33.5
33.1
33.3
37.0
42.3
44.7
45.4
42.5
39.4
37.2
R.H.
%
84.6
87.5
87.8
88.8
88.4
79.6
66.5
63.4
60.9
67.4
76.4
81.5
Obs.
#
89
88
88
88
89
89
90
85
87
90
90
90
Winter 1965 - 66
1 Dec - 28 Feb
Temp.
°F
34.5
33.4
32.2
31.5
31.7
35.8
40.4
42.5
43.2
40.8
38.0
36.2
R.H.
%
88.0
90.0
91.7
92.5
90.7
83.2
69.6
64.1
62.4
67.0
76.4
84.0
Obs.
#
90
90
90
90
88
85
87
88
90
90
90
90
00
10
-------
SUMMER 497 OBSERVATIONS
SPRING 1278 OBSERVATIONS
0 5 10 15 20
FALL 7^7 OBSERVATIONS
WINTER 1934 OBSERVATIONS
Figure B-8. Federal Building.
B-20
-------
Table B-7. TEMPERATURE AND RELATIVE HUMIDITY AT CHARLESTON WATER TREATMENT PLANT
Hour
LST
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
Spring 1965
1 Mar - 31 May
Temp.
°F
47.3
45.7
44.4
43.8
47.4
54.6
60.4
63.3
62.8
59.7
53.6
49.4
R.H.
%
91.0
94.0
94.3
94.6
86.6
66.2
54.5
49.3
50.2
54.8
72.4
84.9
Obs.
#
87
87
86
86
87
87
87
86
88
88
88
88
Summer 1965
1 June - 31 Aug.
Temp.
°F
64.0
62.4
61.3
60.6
64.1
71.7
77.3
80.3
80.3
77.5
72.0
66.8
R.H.
%
98.1
99.3
99.7
99.7
92.7
71.4
57.8
51.8
52.0
57.3
77.8
93.4
Obs.
#
88
88
88
88
85
83
82
84
89
89
89
89
Fall 1965
1 Sep - 30 Nov
Temp.
°F
51.8
50.4
49.2
48.5
49.4
57.6
65.7
68.6
67.3
61.3
55.9
53.2
R.H.
%
92.7
94.6
95.2
96.0
94.5
71.5
53.3
49.1
50.7
65.8
84.0
90.0
Obs.
#
91
91
91
91
88
82
85
88
91
91
91
91
Winter 1964 - 65
1 Dec - 28 Feb
Temp.
°F
33.4
32.4
32.0
31.8
32.0
36.7
42.9
45.2
45.2
40.4
37.0
34.9
R.H.
%
86.8
90.2
89.7
91.2
89.6
79.5
64.8
61.5
61.1
72.3
82.9
86.1
Obs.
#
83
83
83
84
84
84
84
79
81
84
84
83
Winter 1965 - 66
- 1 Dec - 28 Feb
Temp.
°F
30.3
29.7
28.7
28.0
28.3
33.5
38.9
41.0
41.2
37.1
33.9
31.9
R.H.
%
91.0
90.6
92.0
92.2
90.6
80.0
66.9
61.8
60.1
71.1
83.2
88.5
Obs
#
86
86
86
86
85
83
85
84
86
87
87
86
I
ro
-------
00
I
Table B-8. TEMPERATURE AND RELATIVE HUMIDITY AT KANAWHA AIRPORT
Hour
1ST
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
Spring 1964
1 Mar - 31 May
Temp.
°F
53.6
51.3
49.5
48.8
53.0
59.1
63.0
66.0
66.6
64.7
60.3
56.8
R.H.
%
67.4
71.7
76.1
78.1
69.9
58.2
51.6
45.7
44.0
47.1
55.1
61.3
Obs.
#
91
91
91
91
91
91
91
91
91
90
91
91
Summer 1964
1 June - 31 Aug.
Temp.
°F
67.3
65.4
64.2
63.5
68.4
76.5
81.0
82.8
83.2
80.6
75.2
70.6
R.H.
%
85
88
90
91
83
65
54
51
48
53
67
77
Obs.
#
92
92
92
92
92
92
92
92
92
92
92
92
Fall 1964
1 Sep - 30 Nov
Temp.
°F
51.0
48.9
47.9
46.1
47.6
56.5
64.1
67.4
68.0
63.5
57.5
53.6
R.H.
%
73
78
80
83
81
63
47
42
40
48
59
67
Obs.
#
91
91
91
91
91
91
91
91
91
91
91
91
Winter 1963-1964
1 Dec - 28 Feb
Temp.
°F
30.2
28.7
27.8
27.0
26.5
29.2
33.7
36.0
37.1
35.7
33.2
31.4
R.H.
%
73.1
74.7
76.1
77.7
78.2
74.8
64.3
59.4
56.2
59.1
64.7
69.5
Obs.
#
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
59
60
59
Winter 1964
1 Dec - 31 Dec
Temp.
°F
33.8
32.9
32.6
32.2
31.5
34.8
39.3
41.8
42.7
40.3
37.3
35.7
R.H.
%
76.3
11 A
78.3
79.7
81.2
77.5
68.7
63.4
61.6
66.7
73.5
74.7
Obs.
#
31
31
31
31
31
31
31
31
31
31
31
30
-------
SPRING WIND ROSE 1956-60 DATA
SUMMER WIND ROSE 1956-60 DATA
8-12
0 10 20 30 40
OCCURRENCE
FALL WIND ROSE 195&-60 DATA
WINTER WIND ROSE 1956-60 DATA
Figure B-9. Kanawha County Airport.
B-23
-------
ro
-to
Table B-9. TEMPERATURE AND RELATIVE HUMIDITY AT 400 MOUNTAIN VIEW DRIVE
Hour
1ST
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
Spring 1965
1 Mar - 31 May
Temp.
°F
52.0
49.9
48.3
47.3
49.6
54.8
59.6
62.3
63.7
61.3
58.2
54.9
R.H.
%
75.8
83.5
87.0
89.1
86.5
72.4
60.2
53.8
52.2
56.5
61.2
68.1
Obs.
#
90
91
91
91
91
90
89
84
85
87
88
88
Summer 1965
1 Jun - 31 Aug.
Temp.
°F
66.9
65.0
63.8
63.9
67.3
73.2
77.1
78.6
79.4
77.4
73.8
69.9
R.H.
%
91.7
95.5
97.2
97.1
89.7
73.0
62.4
58.6
56.1
58.7
66.8
80.2
Obs.
#
84
84
84
84
80
82
81
82
82
82
84
84
Fall 1965
1 Sep - 30 Nov
Temp.
°F
54.0
52.6
51.5
50.7
51.9
57.6
62.9
65.1
65.1
62.3
58.7
55.9
R.H.
%
86.7
89.1
91.8
92.9
92.2
78.4
63.6
57.6
56.4
61.1
70.7
79.7
Obs.
#
91
91
91
91
83
86
85
87
90
91
91
91
Winter 1964 - 65
1 Pec - 28 Feb
Temp.
°F
34.1
33.4
32.6
32.2
31.9
34.9
39.2
41.7
42.6
40.1
37.9
35.8
R.H.
%
73.5
76.8
80.2
81.7
82.7
76.6
66.2
61.9
59.0
62.2
66.4
70.4
Obs.
#
60
60
60
60
60
60
61
59
59
60
60
61
Winter 1965 - 66
1 Dec - 28 Feb
Temp.
°F
33.4
32.4
31.4
30.8
30.6
33.4
37.5
39.5
39.9
38.3
36.4
34.9
R.H.
%
81.6
83.4
86.4
87.1
86.9
84.2
70.5
65.9
64.7
66.3
71.5
77.2
Obs
#
89
89
90
90
89
88
86
87
90
89
89
89
-------
SPRING 1225 OBSERVATIONS
SUMMER 805 OBSERVATIONS
8-12 > 1 9
0 5 10 15 20
iiii
^^Sm^S^
OCCURRENCE
FALL 368 OBSERVATIONS
WINTER 763 OBSERVATIONS
Figure B-10. 400 MTN View Drive.
B-25
-------
Taft School
Station 61. Beckman and Whitley wind sensors estimated at 630 feet MSL (45
feet above the pavement) were mounted on the Bigley Avenue school which is near
the west wall of the Elk River Valley just inside its mouth. Wind roses for the
full year ending March 31, 1966 are presented as Figure B-ll.
North Charleston Fire Station
Station 17. A hygrothermograph and an actinometer were operated on the roof
of the fire station %t 500 26th Street and were 20 feet above street level. The
area is in a slight depression so that the instruments are estimated at only 30
feet above river pool. Data were recorded from November 14, 1964 through March 31,
1966 and are presented in Table B-10. Pyrheliometer data is summarized in Table
2-1 in the body of the accompanying report.
Union Carbide (South Charleston)
Station 71. Data from an aerovane on the Union Carbide office building in
South Charleston were made available by the company. The three-blade rotor estimated
to be at 735 feet MSL was 170 feet above the valley floor and near the level of
powerhouse stacks about one-quarter mile to the north. Data from April 21, 1965
through March 31, 1966 are used in Figure1B-12 wind roses. Calm winds have been
distributed among the 1-3 mile per hour groups of the 8 point wind record.
Food Machinery Corporation
Station 72. About 1/2 mile northwest of station 71, and at an elevation of
only 40 feet above the valley floor, another three-blade aerovane was already
mounted above the Food Machinery office at llth and D, South Charleston. A full
year's data to March 31, 1966 are portrayed in Figure B-13.
Union Carbide (Institute)
Station 73. Union Carbide also supplied data for the month of January 1966
from a three-blade aerovane in Institute. The sensor was 110 feet above the valley
floor near their large stacks but thought to be out of local eddy flow from them.
Wind rose is presented as Figure B-14.
St. Albans
Station 54. The instrument shelter was over bare ground 25 feet above river
pool on the grounds of the State Highway garage west of the parking lot. Data
between November 19, 1964 and March 31, 1966 are presented in Table B-ll.
B-26
-------
SPRING 918 OBSERVATIONS
SUMMER 584 OBSERVATIONS
DOWN VALLEY 270°
8-12 >19
5 15 20-
-*-*—**-
OCCURRENCE
FALL 1162 OBSERVATIONS
WINTER 1768 OBSERVATIONS
Figure B-ll. Taft Elementary School.
B-27
-------
CO
I
ro
oo
Table B-10. TEMPERATURE AND RELATIVE HUMIDITY AT NORTH CHARLESTON FIRE STATION
Hour
LST
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
Spring 1965
1 Mar - 31 May
Temp.
°F
49.3
47.4
46.1
45.6
49.9
57.6
62.8
66.3
66.7
63.8
55.9
52.0
R.H.
%
92.4
94.6
94.7
94.6
81.5
64.2
53.7
48.0
48.9
56.2
76.9
87.1
Obs.
#
83
83
83
83
84
84
84
82
83
84
84
83
Summer 1965
1 June - 31 Aug.
Temp.
°F
63.6
62.4
61.5
61.4
66.8
74.4
79.0
81.4
82.0
79.8
72.0
66.4
R.H.
%
99.0
99.5
99.8
99.5
84.7
65.6
56.7
52.7
51.9
58.4
85.4
96.5
Obs.
#
91
90
91
91
89
85
90
91
92
92
91
91
Fall 1965
1 Sep - 30 Nov
Temp.
°F
49.9
48.7
47.6
47.0
50.4
58.5
64.8
67.1
66.2
59.5
54.0
51.4
R.H.
%
94.8
95.8
96.2
96.3
86.4
64.7
54.0
51.4
52.6
73.2
88.3
92.3
Obs.
#
91
91
91
91
82
80
82
89
91
91
91
91
Winter 1964 - 65
1 Dec - 28 Feb
Temp.
°F
32.8
31.9
31.7
31.4
31.4
35.4
41.0
43.7
44.6
40.4
36.8
34.7
R.H.
%
87.0
88.9
88.4
89.6
87.9
78.8
66.6
62.3
61.3
72.4
81.6
84.4
Obs.
#
90
90
90
90
90
90
89
84
85
89
90
90
Winter 1965 - 66
- 1 Dec - 28 Feb
Temp.
°F
31.3
30.5
29.7
29.2
29.8
34.1
38.7
41.0
41.6
37.5
34.7
32.9
R.H.
%
91.2
91.4
92.6
92.5
89.7
76.6
65.5
62.7
61.5
75.0
85.0
89.6
Obs.
#
90
90
90
90
89
86
88
88
90
90
90
90
-------
SPRING 84A OBSERVATIONS
SUMMER 1080 OBSERVATIONS
FALL 1520 OBSERVATIONS
WINTER 1059 OBSERVATIONS
Figure B-12. Union Carbide, South Charleston.
B-29
-------
SPRING 1475 OBSERVATIONS
SUMMER 1102 OBSERVATIONS
OOVIN
8-12 > 1 9
5 10 15 20
td=t5fe=ti
% OCCURRENCE
FALL 2158 OBSERVATIONS
WINTER 2090 OBSERVATIONS
Figure B-13. Ford Machinery Corporation.
B-30
-------
WINTER 283 OBSERVATIONS
0 10 20 30
^ggUJgU
OCCURRENCE
13-18
SPEED,mph
Figure B-14. Union Carbide, Institute.
West Sattes School
Station 62. Over the school building which is in Nitro opposite the mouth of
the Cole River, a Beckman and Whitley wind sensor was installed 35 feet above
ground level and 100 feet north of the Kanawha River bank. Wind roses in Figure
B-15 are from a complete year's data ending March 31, 1966.
General Chemical (Nitro)
The General Chemical Division of Allied Chemical Corporation operates a wind
system at their Viscose Road installation in Nitro. This system consists of a
Robinson anemometer mounted on a shaft 30 feet above the valley floor and a triple
register recorder. Wind data for the year ending March 31, 1966 were used for
Figure B-16 wind roses.
Nitro
Station 55. An instrument shelter was placed on the grounds of the Nitro
Sewage Treatment Plant at a point about 500 feet east of the river. The plant is
north of the main part of the town on low land so that high humidity with frequent
B-31
-------
CO
I
00
Table B-ll. TEMPERATURE AND RELATIVE HUMIDITY AT ST. ALBANS
Hour
1ST
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
Spring 1965
1 Mar - 31 May
Temp.
°F
47.9
46.3
45.5
45.1
49.0
55.7
60.3
62.8
62.4
59.9
54.3
50.4
R.H.
%
90.1
93.5
93.9
94.7
85.6
70.9
58.3
53.6
54.7
59.8
72.5
84.3
Obs.
#
80
80
79
80
79
78
78
77
78
78
78
78
Summer 1965
1 June - 31 Aug.
Temp.
°F
64.6
63.1
61.9
62.3
69.0
75.7
80.1
81.9
81.6
78.5
72.0
67.3
R.H.
%
97.6
98.6
99.5
98.9
83.2
67.6
59.6
56.0
55.7
62.1
81.5
93.1
Obs.
i
90
90
89
89
86
89
90
90
90
90
90
90
Fall 1965
1 Sep - 30 Nov
Temp.
°F
49.4
48.1
47.2
46.8
50.8
59.7
64.8
66.6
65.6
59.1
53.9
51.0
R.H.
%
94.6
96.1
96.7
97.0
91.4
70.8
57.9
54.2
56.1
71.4
84.3
91.0
Obs.
#
87
87
87
84
78
80
85
87
88
87
87
87
Winter 1964 - 65
1 Dec - 28 Feb
Temp.
°F
33.9
33.0
32.7
32.2
32.5
36.5
41.6
44.1
44.5
40.6
37.3
35.5
R.H.
%
85.9
88.6
88.0
88.6
88.3
80.2
67.7
65.3
62.8
72.3
79.0
82.7
Obs.
#
90
90
90
90
87
85
82
78
82
82
87
90
Winter 1965 - 66
1 Dec - 28 Feb
Temp.
°F
30.9
30.0
29.1
28.4
29.0
33.7
38.8
41.2
41.1
37.4
34.1
32.6
R.H.
%
89.8
90.9
92.4
92.6
90.7
81.7
70.3
65.1
63.3
71.4
82.2
87.6
Obs.
#
90
90
90
90
87
85
88
90
90
90
90
90
-------
SUMMER 985 OBSERVATIONS
SPRING 1009 OBSERVATIONS
0 5 10 15 20
E-q-ti
OCCURENCE
FALL 893 OBSERVATIONS
WINTER 1951 OBSERVATIONS
Figure B-15. West Sattes Elementary School
B-33
-------
SUMMER 849 OBSERVATIONS
SPRING 922 OBSERVATIONS
0 5 10 15 20
i=t5fe?&
OCCURRENCE
FALL 1147 OBSERVATIONS
WINTER 1365 OBSERVATIONS
Figure B-16. General Chemical, Nitro.
B-34
-------
morning fog is normal. The shelter was over grass and near large treatment ponds,
but free from shade. Hygrothermograph recorded from November 1964 through March
31, 1966; data being presented as Table B-12.
INTENSIVE STUDY
The work carried out during an intensive study of winds and temperatures
required additional facilities and personnel. Tethersonde ascent, pibal tracking,
and tetroon launching each require an open area. These activities are impossible
during appreciable precipitation since moisture reduces visibility, makes the rate
of rise uncertain, and tends to short out the radio transmitter. Winds of 25 miles
per hour damage or carry away the Aerokite, so this instrument was kept deflated or
in a shelter when such winds threatened. Personnel and equipment shelters were
provided in the form of a 10-foot camping trailer and a truck with a 14-foot-long
box, both rented when needed.
Commercial 60-cycle power was necessary for satisfactory operation of
tethersonde components. Aircraft tracking of the tetroon limited the operation to
periods of daylight when ceiling and visibility allowed reasonably safe operation
at low levels, both at the airport and within the valley. Morning aircraft tracking
was not feasible, because of low visibility within the valley, and tracking by
automobile was resorted to in order to study early morning air flow. The West
Virginia Air National Guard plane, shown in Figure B-17, was most useful in track-
ing tetroons later in the day. Aerial photographs in this report were obtained
during these flights, which were made under a Federal Aviation Agency waiver of
minimum flight altitude over the city.
The plan called for around-the-clock data and consisted of tracking a pibal
to 5,000 feet each odd hour and a tethersonde to 1,000 feet each even hour..
Tetroons were to be released shortly after sunrise and 1 hour before sunset.
The initial operation of January 25-30, 1965, was from the area behind
Charleston City Hall, shown in Figure B-l. This location had been cleared and was
made available by the Urban Renewal Authority. Power from the small building
behind the study trailer was kindly provided by the operator of the parking lot,
and the tethersonde was flown from that location.
Eight men from Cincinnati were used in this program, with one part-time man
from the project office. This provided two men for each 8-hour shift, a super-
visor who also acted as aerial observer, a man who was experienced in inflating
tetroons, and a trainee. In addition, other men from the project office gained
B-35
-------
CD
I
to
Table B-12. TEMPERATURE AND RELATIVE HUMIDITY AT NITRO
Hour
LST
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
Spring 1965
1 Mar - 31 May
Temp.
°F
47.9
46.4
45.3
45.1
49.5
56.5
61.1
63.4
63.0
60.5
53.9
49.8
R.H.
%
94.1
95.5
94.7
95.2
91.7
75.1
62.6
56.7
55.9
60.2
77.0
91.9
Obs.
#
91
91
91
91
92
92
92
92
92
92
92
92
Summer 1965
1 June - 31 Aug.
Temp.
°F
63.1
61.8
61.0
61.1
67.7
74.5
78.4
80.5
80.2
77.7
70.6
65.4
R.H.
%
98.5
99.1
99.3
99.3
94.6
79.3
67.8
61.9
60.9
65.3
85.6
97.4
Obs.
#
92
92
92
92
89
88
91
92
92
92
92
92
Fall 1965
1 Sep - 30 Nov
Temp.
°F
51.0
50.1
49.3
48.9
51.7
60.6
65.8
67.4
66.6
60.8
54.5
52.1
R.H.
%
95.8
97.6
98.2
98.1
97.0
80.8
65.1
59.3
59.3
71.8
90.3
93.5
Obs.
#
88
87
87
87
81
79
82
86
88
88
88
88
Winter 1964 - 65
1 Dec - 28 Feb
Temp.
°F
32.0
31.4
30.9
31.0
31.1
35.2
40.0
42.7
43.3
39.0
35.0
33.3
R.H.
%
88.7
91.8
91.7
92.0
91.0
84.1
72.7
67.4
66.0
74.5
83.7
87.0
Obs.
#
88
87
87
87
85
85
84
82
83
85
87
88
Winter 1965 - 66,
1 Dec - 28 Feb
Temp.
°F
31.2
30.6
29.6
29.2
30.1
34.9
39.4
41.7
41.7
37.5
34.1
32.7
R.H.
%
91.9
92.5
93.5
93.8
92.8
86.9
72.9
65.8
64.2
72.4
84.7
89.5
Obs.
#
90
90
90
90
88
86
87
87
89
89
90
90
-------
W.VA.AiR NATIONAL GUARD
CO
I
co
Figure B-17. U-10 He!icourier W. Va. ANG 130th Air Commando Group.
-------
some experience, though not formally scheduled to be on duty. During the oper-
ation, tethersonde ascents were beneath the glide path of planes on'final approach
to Kanawha Valley Airport and were a source of concern to some pilots. With
southeast winds, the Aerokite was carried over City Hall and the police radio trans-
mitter antenna there caused serious interference with the tethersonde transmitter.
For these reasons, the spring study was moved to the North Charleston Recreation
Area shown in Figure B-2.
In May, eight men again were assigned from Cincinnati and one from Sterling,
Virginia. This was another round-the-clock program with the addition of pibal
observations from the Mobile Laboratory site at Nitro Junior High School. The
North Charleston Recreation Area was found to be suitable, and permission was
obtained to use this location in May and again in October-November. A multi-purpose
recreation building and a swimming pool bounded the site on the west, a creek with
small trees on the east, a playfield on the south, and a highway with a high-tension
power line on the north. Since the Recreation Area is about 4 miles distant from
(and about 400 feet below) the airport and not in line with any runway, the opera-
tions at this site did not interfere with the aviation interests.
For the July series of observation, the presence of large numbers of child-
ren in the Recreation Area site posed a problem. This problem was solved when per-
mission was obtained to use undeveloped land adjacent to and belonging to the Kelly
Works of Tru-Temper Corporation, shown in Figures B-2 and B-18. Less than 1/2 mile
from the Recreation Area site, separated by a creek and a railroad track, this site
had all the advantages of the other site, save for the convenience of a power supply
and sanitary facilities.
The staff members felt that the data obtained during late night and early
afternoon did not justify around-the-clock operation; consequently, the summer and
fall operations were cut to two shifts, 4 to 12 a.m. and 3 to 11 p.m. These shifts
covered the periods of maximum change. In July with the reduction to two 8-hour
shifts and additional personnel being trained for the project office, only five men
were required from Cincinnati.
Wind direction and speed were measured at various elevations by means of
pibals in the Kanawha Valley. These data are compared with radiosonde measurements
at a 2,000-foot elevation over Huntington in Tables B-13 through B-17. For ease of
comparison, data are grouped into daytime, nighttime, and transitional hours.
Direction from which the wind was blowing is given in degrees and wind speed is
given in miles per hour.
B-38
-------
u>
vo
Figure B-18. Tru-Temper Intensive Study Site used in summer 1965.
-------
Table B-13. WINDS MEASURED AT CHARLESTON COMPARED WITH WINDS AT HUNTINGTON
WINTER 1965
Elevation, ft
Date Time
1-25
1-26
1-27
1-28
1-29
1-25
1-26
1-27
1-28
1-29
1-30
1705
1300
1500
1700
1300
1500
1700
1300
1500
1300
1500
1655
2100
2325
0300
0500
2055
2250
0102
0300
0500
2058
2248
0100
0300
0500
0315
0450
2115
2302
0100
Surface
Direc-
tion, Speed,
degrees mph
200
273
258
286
291
299
289
290
292
312
302
325
215
190
128
M
302
269
275
290
292
210
248
168
190
193
267
271
016
027
015
M
M
M
M
15.4
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
'M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
260
Direc-
tion, Speed,
degrees mph
191
268
249
285
294
293
291
282
292
304
300
329
180
165
155
135
305
261
275
292
278
231
241
190
205
226
264
274
027
040
046
6.4
22.4
19.4
31.0
12.0
21.8
14.2
8.0
12.2
12.0
7.3
10.8
8.3
8.4
7.4
4.6
14.0
30.0
15.2
11.2
7.0
6.0
9.5
6.0
5.0
14.0
2.0
5.5
7.5
3.8
3.4
Charleston
490 710
Direc- Direc-
, tion, Speed, tion, Speed,
degrees mph degrees mph
177
247
241
287
293
289
292
239
295
295
302
328
173
193
163
160
295
262
270
277
292
244
239
210
224
237
275
275
044
089
050
4.4
19.6
21.6
26.0
20.4
19.8
15.0
9.5
17.0
8.7
6.9
10.9
13.0
8.8
9.0
8.6
16.0
23.0
13.0
15.2
9.2
15.5
17.5
2.0
10.0
21.7
3.3
16.0
7.0
1.9
5.3
201
238
238
290
293
289
292
263
274
287
287
321
184
201
169
192
289
268
273
272
273
255
242
223
225
231
284
275
053
078
058
7.0
22.4
19.0
37.0
28.4
20.4
18.0
14.2
25.3
10.0
5.6
9.0
17.2
15.8
15.0
11.2
16.0
19.3
25.4
16.5
11.4
19.0
19.0
14.4
17.5
22.8
4.2
20.0
6.4
2.9
4.4
1370
Direc-
tion,
degrees
212
253
261
290
290
283
290
272
264
272
255
291
206
226
201
M
304
292
272
273
285
262
247
232
232
242
322
299
074
091
119
Speed,
mph
11.0
43.4
20.4
34.0
30.2
17.4
23.0
10.0
26.2
18.1
5.8
9.2
21.4
33.2
8.8
M
19.6
22.2
31.8
14.9
19.0
21.0
34.5
35.0
38.0
21.9
4.0
11.0
3.6
10.0
3.6
2430
Direc-
tion,
degrees
207
256
254
271
276
262
286
253
261
250
250
324
196
236
195
M
M
M
274
278
258
274
265
M
249
258
298
272
214
267
290
Huntington
2000
Direc-
Speed, tion,
mph Time degrees
21.6 1900 190
42.0
33.2 1900 270
60.0
16,4
14.8 1900 280
24.5
17.6
26.4 1900 310
11.2
16.0 1900 M
9.0
23.0
51.2
10.6 0700 200
M
M
M
18.4
27.0 0700 270
9.0
21.0
28.5
M 0700 M
36.0
39.0
5.0 0700 280
20.0
16.0
13.0
9.8 0700 040
Speed,
mph
25
19
17
15
M
27
23
M
15
10
M Missing data.
B-40
-------
Table B-14. WINDS MEASURED AT NORTH CHARLESTON COMPARED WITH WINDS AT HUNTINGTON
SPRING 1965
Elevation ,ft
Date Time
5-3
5-3
5-3
5-4
5-4
5-4
5-5
5-5
5-5
5-6
5-6
5-6
5-7
5-7
5-7
5-3
5-4
5-5
5-6
5-7
5-8
1500
1700
1900
1300
1500
1700
1300
1500
1700
1300
1500
1700
1301
1500
1700
2100
2300
0100
0257
0510
2100
2320
0,105
0300
0458
2100
2300
0100
0300
0500
2100
2315
0112
0300
0500
2100
2321
0103
0301
0505
Surface
Direc-
tion, Speed,
degrees mph
M
M
M
288
240
278
268
278
150
256
285
252
274
068
010
046
M
M
M
069
118
084
099
105
095
100
Fog
Fog
Fog
Fog
089
106
089
094
094
084
113
090
104
095
M
M
M
9.6
10.6
17.2
9.2
11.7
2.7
2.4
2.4
6.0
7.1
7.2
6.9
2.0
M
M
M
3.4
M
4.2
M
M
4.1
2.8
Fog
Fog
Fog
Fog
4.8
3.4
2.2
1.9
2.0
5.8
2.6
3.2
5.1
5.1
260
Direc-
tion, Speed,
degrees mph
M
M
246
291
250
275
271
270
173
254
298
264
265
050
008
091
M
M
111
098
M
103
123
117
113
138
M
M
M
M
100
115
109
106
119
116
126
100
109
105
M
M
17.1
8.0
8.8
15.3
8.0
13.8
5.0
3.7
4.0
5.7
6.2
6.2
7.5
2.1
M
M
5.2
3.6
M
5.5
5.2
4.2
4.2
2.3
M
M
M
M
4.6
8.2
2.6
2.1
2.7
6.0
5.0
5.0
6.6
5.7
North Charleston
490 710
Direc- Direc-
tion, Speed, tion, Speed,
degrees mph degrees mph
249
M
252
290
259
270
276
261
182
255
305
276
260
027
008
228
M
152
158
137
M
133
164
188
179
172
M
M
M
M
101
136
137
138
135
127
168
117
114
111
2.4
M
15.1
8.1
9.6
10.5
8.2
13.6
10.0
3.4
4.7
6.2
5.3
8.6
8.0
3.5
M
M
5.5
4.6
M
4.9
5.1
5.0
4.8
4.0
M
M
M
M
0.7
5.2
5.4
3.6
3.4
9.2
6.8
4.8
8.1
6.9
277
286
252
288
251
253
273
259
192
255
293
279
270
024
006
265
M
180
210
226
M
241
209
221
222
213
M
M
M
M
281
268
162
194
131
122
182
140
134
141
5.2
10.0
11.4
10.3
9.5
7.5
10.1
11.4
9.2
5.0
6.0
6.0
6.0
9.7
8.2
5.2
M
3.2
7.8
10.0
M
1.8
6.9
8.8
6.2
8.2
M
M
M
M
2.1
3.8
5.0
4.8
3.4
12.2
12.6
5.4
7.9
7.3
1370
Direc-
tion, Speed,
degrees mph
243
278
259
281
247
238
277
283
223
266
316
294
293
024
018
269
M
M
273
268
305
316
272
263
260
250
M
M
M
M
295
317
152
251
269
135
178
197
204
225
6.2
15.1
14.9
20.8
9.1
10.6
7.8
2.2
13.8
7.0
7.2
5.0
5.2
12.8
7.2
16.2
M
M
11.7
12.2
15.2
19.1
14.0
14.2
19.8
13.0
M
M
M
M
8.2
14.4
1.2
6.8
3.6
13.9
19.8
12.2
9.6
4.2
Huntington
2430 2000
Direc- Direc-
tion, Speed, tion,
degrees mph Time degrees
241
254
254
269
246
268
275
281
280
242
M
300
330
060
360
252
304
291
292
296
305
281
281
279
278
247
M
M
M
M
288
315
296
317
328
123
183
227
267
297
9.3 1900 240
20.6
19.9
13.5
13.9 1900 270
3.8
6.4
8.4 1900 230
13.0
9.3
M 1900 250
3.0
5.7
3.0 1900 040
3.6
17.4
18.7
23.2 0700 270
26.2
20.0
13.0
19.2
14.1 0700 250
23.5
26.2
9.4
M
M 0700 280
M
M
10.4
14.2
8.0 0700 270
7.8
9.2
9.9
13.6
17.6 0700 190
9.2
16.1
Speed,
mph
13
11
2
6
3
17
18
11
6
3
M = Missing data.
B-41
-------
Table B-15. WINDS MEASURED AT NITRO COMPARED WITH WINDS AT HUNTINGTON -
SPRING 1965
NITRO
Elevation, ft
Date
5-4
5-5
5-6
5-7
5-4
5-5
5-6
5-7
Time
1533
1600
1600
1639
0701
0700
0722
0700
Surface
Direc-
tion,
degrees
285
105
200
360
198
199
M
M
Speed,
mph
7.8
M
3.0
M
5.3
2.2
M
M
260
Direc-
tion,
degrees
276
174
213
357
190
193
198
M
Speed,
mph
9.2
4.8
3.0
6.4
5.2
6.7
3.4
M
490
Direc-
tion,
degrees
252
189
209
347
202
204
179
M
Speed,
mph
8.5
6.8
3.3
7.2
8.9
10.8
4.5
M
710
Direc-
tion,
degrees
249
199
221
346
217
220
213
M
Speed,
mph
10.0
7.9
3.2
5.9
12.0
17.8
7.2
M
1370
Direc-
tion,
degrees
250
162
278
007
285
245
310
M
Speed,
mph
8.2
3.8
2.8
3.9
13.5
22.2
17.9
M
2430
Direc-
tion,
degrees
248
335
227
007
297
268
31 6a
M
Speed,
mph
10.3
12.6
14.1
17.8
19.0
19.3
15. Oa
M
Huntington
2000
Direc-
tion,
Time degrees
1900 270
1900 230
1900 250
1900 040
0700 270
0700 250
0700 280
0700 270
Speed,
mph
11
2
6
3
17
18
11
6
aAt 1,795 ft.
M = Missing data
-------
Table B-16. WINDS MEASURED AT NORTH CHARLESTON COMPARED WITH WINDS AT HUNTINGTON
SUMMER 1965
North Charleston
Elevation, ft Surface
Date Time
7-26 1705
7-26 1912
7-27 1700
7-27 1902
7-28 1700
7-28 1900
7-29 1700
7-29 1900
7-30 1700
7-30 1907
7-27 0312
7-27 0510
7-28 0300
7-28 0500
7-29 0305
7-29 0500
7-30 0300
7-30 0500
7-31 0300
7-31 0500
7-26 2120
7-26 2314
7-27 0706
7-27 0901
7-27 2105
7-27 2300
7-28 0700
7-28 0900
7-28 2103
7-28 2300
7-29 0708
7-29 0900
7-29 2100
7-29 2300
7-30 0700
7-30 0900
7-30 2100
7-30 2300
7-31 0600
7-31 0900
aAt 450 ft.
H = Missing
Direc-
tion,
degrees
315
318
019
004
on
023
319
321
328
346
108
092
068
098
024
343
184
047
091
088
350
Calm
057
046
088
M
050
008
M
071
006
009
344
M
325
105
046
342
070
084
data.
Speed,
mph
8.0
5.7
11.3
3.0
6.4
5.0
11.8
6.5
2.5
5.8
3.4
3.2
5.6
5.4
1.2
4.8
0.8
0.8
3.9
2.3
2.9
Calm
4.8
2.1
2.6
M
4.7
3.0
M
2.1
2.9
6.0
4.8
M
2.3
4.7
2.8
2.1
3.0
2.6
260
Direc-
tion,
degrees
314
299
020
010
018
016
325
332
340
342
121
113
095
111
267
331
Calm
117
115
111
350
Calm
088
038
093
113
069
336
M
110
017
021
346
322
292
108
065
265
097
091
Speed,
mph
7.0
7.5
11.3
3.2
6.7
7.7
11.1
8.3
2.2
7.2
3.8
3.5
5.0
4.6
0.9
5.0
Calm
1.7
4.6
3.3
1.3
Calm
4.6
1.8
2.5
2.8
3.4
2.9
M
1.9
3.7
5.2
6.0
4.0
1.9
4.3
2.3
1.2
2.8
2.6
490
Direc-
tion,
degrees
319
309
019
034
012
on
343
342
356
340
156
193
123
128
301
313
Calm
158
132
136
170
Calm
135
152
088
108
105
316
M
129
345
060
348
M
269
117
025
235
131
098
Speed,
mph
5.7
8.5
10.8
2.2
8.1
10.8
10.2
11.5
1.9
9.5
8.2
3.8
5.5
3.8
3.1
4.1
Calm
1.6
4.7
2.8
0.6
Calm
4.8
0.5
2.2
3.0
2.8
4.4
M
1.7
6.8
6.1
10.6
M
2.7
2.2
2.5
1.6
4.8
2.0
710
Direc-
tion,
degrees
330
295
013
031
006
013
356
343
357
343
243
Fog
182
Fog
335
317
278
298
092
141
297
240
161
219
068
105
Fog
325
M
061
355
077
355
348
284
116
340
016
133
158
Speed,
mph
5.3
6.7
8.3
3.3
10.9
12.6
9.3
13.8
1.4
10.3
0.5
M
2.8
M
6.7
3.3
2.1
0.9
3.8
3.1
2.3
M
4.8
1.8
1.8
3.6
Fog
6.5
M
2.5
10.4
7.2
15.2
13.0
2.8
2.2
3.8
3.1
6.4
3.5
1370
Direc-
tion,
degrees
324
296
338
025
on
014
319
340
353
350
064
M
261
M
325
005
047
074
079
10?a
334
340
Fog
322
355
295
M
352
035
035
071
037
355
359
037
018
013
009
Speed,
mph
5.0
3.0
6.3
6.4
10.7
12.8
6.0
12.2
2.6
10.2
1.8
M
4.8
M
10.0
5.7
9.5
8.6
13.7
11.2
10.6
8.0
Fog
3.4
3.5
5.6
M
7.2
19.4
13.0
6.2
9.8
18.4
28.3
2.8
5.8
13.2
16.8
Low clouds
175
14.4
Huntington
2430 2000
Direc-
tion,
degrees
266
343
299
M
351
025
331
340
004
358
004
M
304
M
258
Fog
062
077
103
Direc-
Speed, tion, Speed,
mph Time degrees mph
4.8 1900 020 8
4.6
4.0 1900 M M
M
7.2 1900 030 8
12.0
8.1 1900 340 12
13.5
3.0 1900 030 4
8.6
4.2 0700 300 9
M
12.4 0700 010 10
M
4.2 0700 030 16
Fog
11.1 0700 M M
6.9
10.7 0700 M M
Low clouds
341
347
M
318
M
294
M
055
048
034
083
029
001
019
050
020
024
046
M
204
5.7
7.2
M
8.2
M
11.2
M
7.4
10.1
15.0
8.4
13.2
16.9
19.2
4.6
6.8
11.7
14.8
M
10.7
B-43
-------
Table B-17 WINDS MEASURED AT NORTH CHARLESTON COMPARED WITH WINDS AT HUNTINGTON
FALL 1965
Elevation, ft
Date Time
10-25
10-26
10-27
10-28
10-29
10-30
10-31
11-01
11-02
11-03
11-04
10-25
10-26
10-27
10-28
10-29
10-30
10-31
11-01
11-02
11-03
11-04
11-05
1700
1900
1500
1700
1500
1700
1455
1700
1500
1700
1455
1700
1500
1700
1500
1700
1500
1700
1500
1700
1505
1700
2100
0510
2100
0500
2100
0500
2100
0511
2100
0516
2100
0455
2100
0515
0523
2100
0516
2100
0512
2100
0527
2100
0533
Surface
Direc-
tion, Speed,
degrees mph
245
074
265
299
290
315
318
323
065
045
272
263
268
297
296
313
207
193
217
202
232
356
104
107
099
096
073
M
358
106
089
073
090
093
M
273
310
042
103
105
105
088
069
053
080
9.4
2.4
19.6
4.0
8.8
6.0
18.8
7.6
2.8
4.1
5.6
5.3
33.6
16.2
8.4
8.9
1.2
4.0
11.4
6.0
7.6
6.5
6.0
5.4
4.1
1.9
2.3
M
3.0
5.2
5.2
3.5
6.2
4.3
M
2.8
1.4
2.8
4.5
6.7
5.7
3.9
2.0
3.9
2.9
260
Direc-
tion, Speed,
degrees mph
243
Calm
268
298
286
305
318
327
105
034
255
250
272
298
311
314
262
220
223
217
268
345
128
134
122
190
102
M
010
111
105
112
122
215
M
273
278
110
123
121
116
115
245
060
126
10.3
Calm
22.4
8.6
10.2
7.4
16.4
11.6
2.3
3.5
8.0
6.6
35.2
16.4
9.0
10.2
1.7
6.0
10.2
7.6
8.2
6.3
5.3
5.6
4.4
2.1
2.2
M
7.0
4.5
5.3
5.3
6.2
3.4
M
3.4
3.5
2.5
4.9
6.0
5.0
5.4
5.1
5.0
2.5
North Charleston
490 710
Di rec- Di rec-
tion, Speed, tion, Speed,
degrees mph degrees mph
230
226
269
283
279
293
319
328
160
012
235
242
266
300
311
307
274
198
234
217
271
332
182
197
211
247
247
M
on
094
104
155
184
215
M
275
282
211
173
161
200
182
243
058
151
10.4
4.6
24.2
12.2
12.0
11.0
18.2
16.2
3.3
2.9
12.8
9.4
25.0
13.6
11.8
14.0
4.2
6.6
10.0
7.8
9.8
8.2
6.1
7.0
5.6
6.4
4.6
M
12.0
3.9
4.4
6.2
8.0
11.6
M
9.2
11.8
1.9
5.0
11.8
6.8
6.2
12.9
6.0
1.7
222
225
267
276
277
290
319
328
164
007
241
245
265
296
307
301
274
192
229
224
274
342
213
221
261
267
260
M
015
076
070
206
221
221
M
275
288
280
254
213
221
231
243
049
095
10.1
9.5
22.6
17.6
14.0
15.6
23.6
21.2
3.4
3.1
13.7
10.0
21.0
13.6
14.2
15.6
4.1
7.6
9.8
6.6
12.0
9.8
13.6
15.2
11.6
9.7
11.8
M
15.4
8.6
5.5
10.0
14.0
19.8
M
14.4
16.0
6.2
3.8
16.0
15.7
14.4
14.9
8.0
5.1
1370
Direc-
tion, Speed,
degrees mph
236
246
265
275
284
280
319
328
125
023
240
230
263
292
317
289
220
205
234
234
279
322
232
Fog
275
309
274
M
019
093
097
M
245
M
M
M
M
323
013
232
252
247
254
054
173
11.7
17.2
22.0
23.4
10.0
13.4
22.0
24.4
4.2
2.9
7.0
9.8
34.0
23.6
14.6
14.8
3.5
6.4
10.6
10.2
12.4
10.3
23.0
Fog
14.4
13.4
21.0
M
21.6
13.8
5.6
M
23.8
M
M
M
M
24.0
4.6
20.2
26.1
26.4
24.0
17.8
15.6
2430
Direc-
tion, Speed
degrees mph
228
229
267
273
264
271
317
M
140
146
231
225
267
285
288
289
208
210
242
232
279
286
238
M
292
M
274
M
012
M
189
M
239
M
M
M
M
305
341
247
M
243
M
063,
M
12.4
21.2
28.0
21.0
8.0
16.2
19.2
M
5.6
3.6
12.8
14.0
42.0
16.0
16.0
23.4
5.7
15.0
15.8
12.0
9.8
8.4
30.2
M
16.0
M
18.4
M
19.6
M
17.7
M
25.0
M
M
M
M
18.4
10.2
31.6
M
27.8
M
9.2
M
Huntington
2000
Direc-
tion,
Time degrees
1900
1900
1900
1900
1900
1900
1900
1900
1900
1900
1900
0700
0700
0700
0700
0700
0700
0700
0700
0700
0700
0700
223
229
229
229
222
229
236
229
221
223
201
226
230
225
225
210
236
233
236
235
226
215
Missing data.
B-44
-------
Temperature profile data obtained during each season are presented in Tables
B-18 through B-21.
TETROON TRACKING
The few morning tetroon releases produced some very interesting illustrat-
ions of the complexity of circulation patterns in the Kanawha Valley. Notes taken
during two of these runs have been rewritten and are included here along with
information on an early evening run for comparison.
July 29, 1965: Release at 6:15 a.m., EST, from Kelly Works grounds and
about 1/4 mile north of the Patrick Street Bridge. The tetroon rose and drifted
over the Kelly Works Buildings, then descended to below river bank level while
crossing the river. Drifting under the Patrick Street Bridge, the tetroon rose
again, cleared the Arlan's store building, but descended again into the parking lot.
Since the tetroon had a rather long cord attached and appeared to float at too low
an elevation, a portion of the cord was cut off and the tetroon was released again.
This time the tetroon continued southward across MacCorkle Avenue and up the hill-
side. The tetroon caught in a tree on the hillside; and since only 20 minutes had
elapsed, staff members decided that a rescue would be attempted and another release
made from this new point. Some time was required to approach the site, and the
tetroon freed itself before staff members arrived. This time the tetroon contin-
ued on over the hill, and was grounded again on the lee slope of the hill a few
minutes later. The tetroon had moved almost directly southward throughout the
course of travel.
The Kanawha Valley at this point was free of fog although the Two-Mile Creek
Valley, extending northward, was fog-filled.
The course followed and the related pibal and temperature data are plotted
in Figure B-19.
July 30, 1965: Release at 6:43 a.m., EST, from Kelly Works grounds. The
tetroon rose over the Kelly Works building, descended, and drifted under the
Patrick Street Bridge. The tetroon was moving more slowly this time, however, and
rose to an estimated 150 feet after crossing the river. The tetroon moved up-
stream above the river bank, changed elevation from perhaps 200 feet to near the
river surface several times, and became trapped in an eddy of the air perhaps 1 1/2
miles upriver. The tetroon made two complete circuits in this eddy, moved at low
level toward the hillside, rose to about 200 feet, drifted away from the hillside
B-45
-------
Table B-18. TETHERSONDE DATA MEASURED AT CHARLESTON CITY HALL
JANUARY 25-30, 1965
Time Date
2
4
6
8
10
12
a.m. 26
28
a.m. 28
a.m. 25
a.m. 25
a.m. 25
27
a.m. 26
27
Table B-19
Surface
40.8
27.0
27.0
46.2
42.0
37.2
24.2
38.0
28.2
Temperature at elevation
50 100 150 200
44.
30.
31.
49.
42.
39.
28.
43.
27.
. TETHERSONDE
6
0
4
0
7
4
7
0
7
46.0
29.5
30.6
49.0
43.2
41.4
27.5
44.2
27.7
48.3
29.6
30.6
47.9
43.2
44.8
26.8
44.8
27.7
DATA MEASURED
MAY 3-8,
Temperature at
Time Date
4
8
10
2
4
6
8
10
a.m. 4
5
a.m. 6
7
8
a.m. 4
5
p.m. 6
p.m. 3
6
7
p.m. 6
7
p.m. 6
7
p.m. 5
Surface
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
50
M
M
72
80
M
80
75
87
89
87
88
83
83
70
M
63
.4
.8
.6
.8
.8
.1
.8
.1
.8
.8
.5
.4
100
55.6
58.5
73.1
79.6
72.5
88.0
75.7
86.8
88.6
86.9
87.3
83.7
83.2
72.0
70.6
63.0
51.0
29.0
30.6
47.9
43.4
48.0
46.4
26.9
(in feet) indicated, °F.
300 400 500 600 700 800
56.0
27.6
30.9
49.3
45.8
50.8
54.6
26.7
56.7
26.7
31.4
49.4
49.8
52.0
54.6
27.7
56.
49.
51.
54.
2 55.6
4 49.2
6
5 54.4
AT NORTH CHARLESTON RECREATION AREA
1965
elevation
150
55.6
58.8
72.6
77.7
71.0
81.4
77.2
85.5
88.2
86.5
86.5
83.6
82.6
72.5
70.5
63.0
200
56.7
58.1
72.2
76.6
70.2
78.3
85.3
87.7
86.6
85.0
83.5
81.6
73.4
69.1
62.9
(in feet) indicated, °F.
300
60.0
59.0
69.7
76.3
68.3
84.5
86.4
84.6
84.2
82.8
80.7
73.4
71.3
63.2
400
60.5
58.0
68.6
74.2
68.3
83.4
88.8
84.9
81.9
82.3
80.2
75.2
73.5
63.8
500 600 700 800
61
57
73
67
82
83
80
81
79
75
76
.0 61.7
.5 68.4 65.3
.5 72.1 71.9
.8 66.3 65.6
.2 81. T 79.8
.6
.7 79.7 78.4
.8
.5 78.6
.2 74.3 74.0
.0 73.5
M = Missing data.
B-46
-------
Table B-20. TETHERSONDE DATA MEASURED AT THE KELLY WORKS OF
TRU-TEMPER CORPORATION IN NORTH CHARLESTON - JULY 27-31, 1965
Temperature
Time Date Surface 50
4 a.m. 29
30
31
6 a.m. 28
29
30
31
8 a.m. 28
29
30
31
10 a.m. 28
29
30
31
4 p.m. 27
28
29
30
6 p.m. 27
28
29
30
8 p.m. 27
28
29
30
10 p.m. 27
28
29
30
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
63.
54.
57.
M
60.
55.
57.
70.
66.
62.
63.
78.
74.
65.
73.
79.
83.
79.
80.
74.
78.
78.
78.
73.
71.
66.
68,
at elevation (in feet) indicated, °F.
100 150 200 300 400 500
2
8
8
5
0
5
3
5
3
0
9
8
1
0
0
4
1
5
9
6
1
3
0
5
6
,0
70.6
71.1
64
63
63.
56.
58.
62.
62.
56.
57.
70.
65.
62.
62.
78.
74.
64.
72.
79.
82.
79.
80.
75.
78.
77.
77.
76.
74.
69.
71.
9
1
1
8
3
1
5
2
8
1
6
4
2
9
1
5
5
3
2
5
2
7
8
8
0
5
,8
72.1
71.4
.8 64.9
.3
66
.2
63.9
56.1
58.0
60.6
62.2
55.9
57.6
69.5
65.8
61.3
62.4
78.6
73.5
64.7
72.2
79.2
82.4
78.5
80.0
74.9
77.6
77.5
78.5
76.8
74.2
71.1
72.6
72.8
71.3
66.3
66.2
63.9
56.0
58.1
60.6
61.5
55.9
57.5
M
65.7
60.1
62.0
77.7
73.5
64.9
72.4
78.9
81.8
78.0
79.2
74.2
77.2
77.2
78.1
76.6
74.0
71.1
72.7
73.0
70.4
66.6
67.4
64.7
55.5
57.7
60.4
61.6
55.5
57.5
M
64.3
59.5
61.7
77.7
73.5
64.7
71.4
78.6
81.1
76.4
78.0
74.0
77.2
76.5
77.1
76.0
74.5
71.5
72.6
73.2
72.1
65.7
66.2
65.4
55.5
57.9
58.9
61.9
54.9
57.5
M
63.3
58.2
60.9
76.9
73.4
63.1
70.9
78.4
80.2
76.0
77.9
73.6
76.8
76.8
76.3
76.1
74.7
71.9
72.6
72.6
71.6
65.3
66.2
65.4
55.5
58.2
58.1
61.7
54.7
57.9
M
63.5
58.0
60.7
76.3
73.0
62.2
70.4
78.1
79.9
78.0
73.0
76.7
76.2
75.6
74.6
71.3
73.1
73.0
71.0
65.2
66.2
600 700 800
64.7
56.0
61.6
54.9
M 66.3
62.4
58.0 58.0 58.0
75.7 74.5 74.5
72.4
60.6 61.3 60.8
78.0
78.9
77.4 77.3 76.3
71.6
76.5
74.2
70.5
73.9 74.3
71.4 73.0
65.1 65.0
M = Missing data.
B-47
-------
Table B-21 TETHERSONDE DATA MEASURED AT NORTH CHARLESTON RECREATION AREA
OCTOBER 26-NOVEMBER 5, 1965
Temperature
Time Date Surface
4
6
8
10
M
a.m. 28
30
01
02
03
04
a.m. 27
28
29
30
31
01
02
03
04
05
a.m. 27
28
29
30
31
01
02
03
04
05
a.m. 26
27
28
29
30
01
02
03
04
05
= Missing
51.0
56.2
55.0
50.8
57.8
47.4
43.0
42.0
60.0
60.0
58.6
32.0
48.7
62.0
62.5
57.0
43.0
69.5
M
36.5
59.9
63.1
59.9
62.0
59.0
57.2
46.0
55.0
61.0
43.0
44.0
57.0
62.1
57.2
68.0
59.9
data.
50
52.0
57.1
55.7
52.5
59.5
51.0
45.5
43.0
60.4
61.5
60.5
33.5
49.0
63.5
64.5
58.2
43.5
69.0
M
37.1
64.5
65.5
60.0
63.5
61.0
58.5
48.0
54.0
61.0
43.0
45.0
57.0
61.0
58.0
68.3
60.5
at elevation
100
53.5
58.1
60.0
55.0
59.6
54.0
47.0
43.0
58.8
62.5
61.1
39.5
51.0
65.0
68.5
60.0
43.5
69.0
M
38.5
67.6
66.0
61.0
64.5
64.5
59.0
48.0
53.4
60.0
43.0
45.5
57.0
61.0
60.5
67.7
60.0
150
58.8
60.6
55.0
59.8
58.5
47.3
56.6
62.8
61.9
39.5
51.3
65.8
69.5
60.0
68.8
M
38.5
69.1
66.0
61.0
64.5
67.0
59.0
48.5
53.2
59.7
43.3
47.0
57.0
61.3
61.1
61.8
60.0
(in feet) indicated, °F.
200
59.5
61.1
55.0
59.9
60.1
47.4
54.6
63.0
62.9
39.6
51.4
66.6
71.0
60.5
68.5
M
38.5
70.5
66.0
61.0
64.6
61.5
59.0
49.0
53.0
59.5
43.5
48.0
57.0
61.5
61.6
67.0
60.0
300
59.5
61.5
55.4
60.1
61.2
46.2
56.0
63.0
67.0
41.0
49.8
67.0
71.7
61.0
68.6
51.4
38.0
71.5
68.0
61.6
66.5
69.2
58.5
48.8
53.0
59.2
43.5
48.0
57.0
62.0
62.2
60.5
400
59.5
61.5
55.3
65.2
61.9
48.8
58.8
63.3
70.8
41.0
49.0
67.8
72.5
70.8
51.8
39.3
72.3
68.0
62.2
75.1
69.5
59.2
48.8
52.5
58.8
43.4
50.0
57.0
62. T
62.5
61.6
500
62.4
55.9
71.3
61.8
50.4
57.1
67.0
72.0
39.8
75.6
72.5
49.9
44.8
72.0
66.6
63.8
78.5
69.5
61.2
49.1
52.1
58.2
42.5
50.5
56.9
63.6
62.5
600
68.0
73.0
61.0
51.2
54.7
71.8
39.5
80.5
72.5
48.9
50.3
72.0
63.0
61.0
79.1
69.5
63.9
49.5
52.4
59.6
42.6
51.9
56.5
65.1
62.8
700 800
75.9
61.0
51.5
75.1
71.5
48.2
53.5
65.7
70.4
79.5
69.5
65.7
48.7
53.2
60.9
43.0
51.6
57.0
65.7
64.2
B-48
-------
Table B-21 (continued). TETHERSONDE DATA MEASURED AT NORTH CHARLESTON
RECREATION AREA - OCTOBER 26-NOVEMBER 5, 1965
Time Date
4 p.m. 29
30
02
03
04
6 p.m. 26
27
29
30
01
02
03
04
8 p.m. 25
26
27
29
30
01
02
03
04
10 p.m. 25
26
27
29
01
02
03
04
Temperature
Surface 50
51.0
66.0
61.8
73.0
69.5
51.0
52.7
44.2
49.6
45.0
49.0
58.0
63.5
36.5
48.0
44.0
35.0
40.5
40.0
41.0
49.0
51.0
34.0
M
40.0
29.0
39.0
36.6
43.9
48.0
51.0
66.0
61.4
73.4
69.5
52.5
53.5
44.0
54.5
48.0
49.1
61.5
63.0
41.0
52.0
45.5
36.5
44.5
43.5
47.5
54.5
55.0
37.5
39.5
43.5
32.5
41.0
41.0
50.6
52.5
at elevation
100 150
51.0
66.0
61.0
72.5
69.0
58.1
56.6
47.0
57.0
51.1
51.9
65.5
63.0
41.5
53.5
48.5
39.5
45.8
45.5
48.5
56.0
56.2
38.0
44.5
45.0
32.5
45.0
42.1
51.5
55.1
50.5
65.4
61.0
72.3
68.9
59.2
57.4
49.5
57.6
51.9
56.3
65.6
63.4
42.0
54.5
49.0
40.5
48.5
46,5
49.0
57.5
58.1
38.0
44.5
45.0
32.5
45.5
42.5
51.5
56.1
(in feet) indicated, °F
200 300 400 500
50.0
64.9
61.0
72.0
68.4
60.0
58.5
51.0
58.5
51.5
57.5
67.1
63.0
42.2
55.0
49.3
41.0
48.5
46.5
49.1
57.6
58.5
38.1
44.5
45.0
33.0
45.5
42.5
52.3
56.5
49.5
64.4
60.5
72.0
68.0
60.5
58.5
51.0
M
51.3
58.8
68.5
63.0
44.6
55.6
50.0
41.5
49.7
47.0
50.9
58.9
58.5
39.4
45.0
33.0
46.0
42.7
54.9
56.0
49.5
64.0
60.0
71.7
67.4
59.9
58.4
50.5
M
51.0
60.5
68.5
46.1
57.5
51.5
42.5
53.5
49.0
53.9
63.6
58.5
43.2
44.6
33.5
46.2
45.2
59.6
56.0
49.4
63.0
59.9
71.2
59.5
57.8
50.5
60.5
51.0
60.5
68.6
46.7
58.0
53.0
43.5
55.9
49.9
55.3
66.0
57.9
45.4
50.4
40.8
49.5
52.3
61.6
56.0
600
63.0
58.9
70.5
59.1
57.5
50.5
60.5
50.4
60.5
68.9
47.0
58.1
53.7
45.1
57.3
49.0
57.5
66.2
57.0
46.3
51.7
41.4
52.1
56.4
63.2
55.7
700
62.
58.
70.
58.
57.
50.
60.
50.
60.
68.
47.
58.
54.
46.
57.
49.
67.
57.
52.
42.
800
3
0
3
5
5
0
5
0
5
9
5
6
0
0
5
0
2
4
4
5
52.5
58.
,3
63.4
56,
.3
B-49
-------
7:08 A.M.
WIND DIRECTION/SPEED
1000
900-
800-
700-
600-
500-
400-
300
200
100
i i i i i i i r
039/10.8
355/10.4
o
1C
345/6.8
002/3.7
i i i i 006/2.9 i
60° 62° 64°F
Figure B-19. Tetroon run on July 29, 1965 from 6:15 to 7:10 a.m.
B-50
-------
again, and sank above the river. On the third circuit the tetroon drifted under a
tree on the hillside and was trapped. The tetroon was retrieved, and about 2 feet
of cord was cut off. The tetroon was released again with a toss, and escaped the
eddy, rose now to several hundred feet, drifted back downstream above the hillside
and descended again out of sight almost 2 hours after release and only about a mile
distant from the release point.
The valley was filled with patchy haze during this run, and several times
the tetroon disappeared briefly in the haze. At the time of release, smoke plumes
were seen to be rising vertically.
The course of the tetroon and related pibal and temperature data are plotted
in Figure B-20.
May 7, 1965: Released at 6:21 p.m. from the North Charleston Recreation
Area. The tow balloon separated at an estimated 200 feet above the New York Central
Tracks while on a south-southwest course. The tetroon had reached a stable ele-
vation of perhaps 300 feet at the river and continued south over the south approach
to the Patrick Street Bridge. Approaching the Chesapeake and Ohio Railway, the
tetroon began to climb and move more easterly toward the rim of the valley. Moving
slowly southward, the tetroon passed over the ridge in Vandalia at 100 feet,
brushed a tree in Oakwood still moving south.
The tetroon appeared to sink slightly over valleys and brushed trees on
several ridges until the device sank onto the lee side of a ridge and was trapped
beneath tree limbs on the south side of a tree in the Middle Ridge School Area.
The course of the tetroon and the related pibal and temperature data are
plotted in Figure B-21.
B-51
-------
900
s 800
7:00 A.M.
WIND DIRECTION/SPEED
lOOOr i i -ri i i T- i i r r~l—r
200-
355/3.4
284/2.8
o
o
269/2.7
- 292/1.9
CO
— I..,?25/2.-3,
56° 58° 60° 62°
°F
Figure B-20. Tetroon run on July 30, 1965, from 6:43 to 8:40 a.m.
B-52
-------
6:00 P.M.
WIND DIRECTION/SPEED
008/9.1
006/8.2
008/8.0
008/7.5
Plp/6.9, , , , , , !_,
76°' 78° 80° 82° 84°
Figure B-21. Tetroon run on May 7, 1965, from 6:21 to 7:25 p.m.
B-53
-------
APPENDIX C. EMISSION FACTORS
The emission factors utilized in this report are listed in Tables C-l
through C-13 and were obtained in "A Compilation of Air Pollution Emission Factors
for Combustion Processes, Gasoline Evaporation and Selected Industrial Processes,"
by Martin Mayer, Division of Air Pollution, U. S. Public Health Service. These
emission factors were considered to be the best available for use during the pre-
paration of the air pollution emission inventory. Expanded studies of air pollu-
tant emissions will provide additional information for the development of new,
more accurate emission factors in the near future. The factors reported here should
be used with this in mind.
Table C-l - Combustion of Coal Gaseous Pollutants
Table C-2 - Combustion of Coal Particulate Pollutants
Table C-3 - Combustion of Fuel Oil
Table C-4 - Combustion of Natural Gas
Table C-5 - Automotive and Diesel Exhaust Emissions
Table C-6 - Emissions Factors for Aircraft Below 3500 Feet
Table C-7 - Emissions Factors from Metallurgical and Mineral Processing
Table C-8 - Emissions Factors for Hot Asphalt Batching Plants
Table C-9 - Emissions Factors for Concrete Batching Plants
Table C-10 - Emissions Factors for Burning of Wood Waste
Table C-ll - Incineration of Refuse
Table C-12 - Open Burning of Refuse
Table C-13 - Gasoline Evaporation Emissions
Method for calculating domestic fuel use from U.S. Bureau of Census Data
C-l
-------
Table C-l. COMBUSTION OF COAL - GASEOUS POLLUTANTS3
(Ib/ton of coal burned)
Pollutant
Aldehydes (HCHO)
Carbon monoxide
Hydrocarbons (CH/j)
Oxides of nitrogen (N02)
Oxides of sulfur (S02)
Power plants
0.005
0.5
0.2
20
38 Sb
Industrial
0.005
3
1
20
38 Sb
Domestic and
commercial
0.005
50
10
8
38 Sb
aReference 14.
bS equals percent sulfur in coal.
Example: If the sulfur content is 2 percent, the oxides of sulfur emission
would be 2 x 38, or 76 Ib. of sulfur oxides/ton of coal burned.
Table C-2. COMBUSTION OF COAL PARTICULATE POLLUTANTS
Type of unit
Pulverized general
Dry bottom
Wet bottom
Without reinjection
With reinjection
Cycl one
Spreader stoker
Without reinjection
With reinjection
All other stokers
Hand-fired equipment
Particulate
emission,a
Ib/ton of
coal burned
16AC
17AC
13AC
24AC
2AC
13AC
20AC
5AC
20
Benzo(a)pyrene
emission,'5
ug/ton of
coal burned
600
6,OOQd
700
100,000
12 x 106
aReference 1.
^Reference 2.
CA equals percent ash in coal.
Example: If the percent ash in the coal is 10 percent,
the ash emission for a cyclone unit would be 2 x 10 or
20 Ib/ton of coal burned.
C-2
-------
Table C-3. COMBUSTION OF FUEL OILa
(lb/1000 gal. of oil burnedb)
Pollutants
Aldehydes
Benzo(a)pyrenec
Carbon monoxide
Hydrocarbons
Oxides of nitrogen
(N02)
Sulfur dioxide
Sulfur trioxide
Parti cul ate
Large sources
(1000 h.p. or more)
0.6
5000 yg/1000 gal
0.04
3.2
104
157 Sd
2.4 Sd
8
Small sources
(1000 h.p. or less)
2
40,000 yg/1000 gal
2
2
72
157 Sd
2 Sd
12
Reference 4.
bDensity of fuel oil equals 8 Ib/gallon and there are 42 gallons per barrel.
CReference 2.
d$ equals percent sulfur in oil.
Example: If the sulfur content is 2 percent, the sulfur dioxide emission
would be 2 x 157, or 314 Ib. S02/1000 gal oil burned.
Table C-4. COMBUSTION OF NATURAL GAS*
(lb/106 ft3 of natural gas burned)
Pollutants
Aldehydes
Benzo(a)pyreneb
Carbon monoxide
Hydrocarbons
Oxides of nitrogen
Oxides of sulfur
Ammonia
Organic acids
Parti cul ate
Power
plants
1
n.a.c
negligible
negligible
390
0.4
n.a.c
n.a.c
15
Industrial
boilers
2
20,000 yg/lfl6 ft3
0.4
negligible
214
0.4
0.3d
62d
18
Domestic and
commerci al
heating units
negligible
130,000 yg/106 ft3
0.4
negligible
116
0.4
0.3d
62d
19
Reference 5.
^Reference 2.
cNot available.
dReference 6.
C-3
-------
Table C-5. AUTOMOTIVE AND DIESEL EXHAUST EMISSIONS
(lb/1000 gal)
Pollutant
Al dehydes
Benzo(a)pyrene
Carbon monoxide
Hydrocarbons
Oxides of nitrogen
Oxides of sulfur
Ammonia
Organic acids
Parti culates
Gasoline engines3
4
0.3 gram/ 1000
gale
2910
524e
113
9
2f
4^
11
Diesel engines*3
10
0.4 gram/ 1000
gald
GO3
180
222f
40
n.a.9
31 f
no
alncludes blowby emissions, but not evaporation losses 7.
^Reference 8.
GReference 9.
^Reference 10.
^Includes 128 lb/1000 gal blowby emissions 11.
fReference 6.
9Not available.
Table C-6. EMISSION FACTORS FOR AIRCRAFT BELOW 3500 FEET
(lb/flight)a
Type of emission
Aldehydes
Carbon monoxide
Hydrocarbons
Oxides of nitrogen
Parti culates
Jetb>c
4 engines
4
35
10
23
34
Turboprop0*
2 engines
0.3
2.0
0.3
1.1
0.6
4 engines
1.1
9.0
1.2
5.0
2.5
Piston0
2 engines
0.2
74.0
15.0
4.4
0.4
4 engines
0.5
245.0
49.0
15.0
1.2
aA flight is the combination of a landing and a takeoff.
bNo water injection on takeoff.
CReference 12.
^Reference 13.
C-4
-------
Table C-7. EMISSION FACTORS FROM METALLURGICAL AND
MINERAL PROCESSING3
Process
Aerosol emission factor,
Ib/ton of
raw material processed
Controlled
Uncontrolled
Gray iron melting cupolas (avg.)
Less than 48" I.D.
48-60" I.D.
Greater than 60" I.D.
Electric steel melting furnaces
17.1
12.9
19.5
18.9
8.6
0.26b
_
0.17b
Less than 5-ton capacity
5- to 20-ton capacity
50- to 75-ton capacity
Melting of red brass (7% zinc)
Crucible or pot furnaces
Rotary furnaces
Reverberatory furnaces
Electric furnaces
Melting of yellow brass (20% zinc)
Crucible furnaces
Rotary furnaces
Reverberatory furnaces
Electric induction type furnaces
Melting of bronze
Crucible furnaces
Rotary furnaces
Melting of aluminum
Crucible furnaces
Reverberatory furnaces
Glass furnaces (recuperative)
10.6
5.7
9.6
3.3
21.3
16.8
3
14
0.7
3.8
30.6
1.9
5.2
3.4
10.1C
5.ic
22.8C
5.7b
4.7C
2.
Reference 5.
bWith baghouse control.
cSlag cover used as the only control method.
dWith packed column scrubber and either baghouse or electrostatic
precipitator as secondary collector.
C-5
-------
Table C-8. EMISSION FACTORS FOR
HOT ASPHALT BATCHING PLANTS3
Particulate emission factor,
Ib/ton of product
Uncontrolled
5.0
Control!edb
0.2
Reference 14.
bScrubbers of the multiple cen-
trifugal or baffled spray tower
type.
Table C-9. EMISSION FACTORS FOR
CONCRETE BATCHING PLANTS*
Particulate emission factor,
Ib/yd of concrete
Uncontrolled
0.2
Controlled
0.025
Reference 15.
Table C-10. EMISSION FACTORS FOR BURNING OF WOOD WASTE3
Pollutants
Sulfur dioxide
Oxides of nitrogen
Hydrocarbons
Organic acids
Aldehydes
Parti culates
lb/1000 Ib wood waste
0.08
0.06
10.0
0.2
0.9
10. Ob
aReference 16.
bReference 17.
C-6
-------
Table C-ll. INCINERATION OF REFUSE
(Ib/ton of refuse burned)
Pollutant
Aldehydes
Benzo(a)pyrenec
Carbon monoxide
Hydrocarbons
Oxides of nitrogen
Oxides of sulfur
Ammonia
Organic acids
Parti cul ate
Pollutant
Aldehydes
Benzo(a)pyrenec
Carbon monoxide
Hydrocarbons
Oxides of nitrogen
Oxides of sulfur
Ammonia
Organic acids
Parti cul ate
Municipal
multiple chamber^
1.1
6,000 yg/ton
0.7d
1.4
2.1
1.9
0.3
0.6
6e;12f
Flue- fed
apartment,
incinerator^
5
n.a.
n.a.
40J
0.1
0.5
0.4
22
26
Industrial and commercial'3
Single chamber
5-64
100,000 yg/ton
20-200C
20-50C
1.6C
n.a.9
n.a.
n.a.
20-25
Domestic sing
Without auxiliary
gas burning
6
n.a.
300
100
1.5
2.0
0.4
13
39
Multiple chamber
0.3
500,000 ug/ton
0.5
0.3
2.0n
1.8h
n.a.
n.a.
4
le chamber
With auxiliary
gas burning!
2
n.a.
n.a.
1.5
2
2
negligible
4
6
Reference 18.
^Reference 19.
cReference 2.
dReferenee 20.
eFor incinerator with spray chamber, references 20-27.
fFor incinerator without spray chamber, references 20-22, 25-29.
9Not available.
hReference 30.
iReferences 28.
JReferences 22, 25, 27.
kReferences 19, 22, 25, 28.
C-7
-------
Table C-12. OPEN BURNING OF REFUSE
(Ib/ton of refuse burned)
Pollutants
Aldehydes
,
Benzo(a)pyrened
Carbon monoxide
Hydrocarbons
Oxides of nitrogen
Oxides of sulfur
Ammonia
Organic acids
Parti cul ate
Burning dumpa>b
4
250,000 yg/ton
n.a.e
280.0
0.6
1.2
2.3
Backyard burningc
3.6
350,000 yg/ton
n.a.
280.0
0.5
0.8
1.6
1.5 1.5f
47.0 1509
aThree pounds per capita per day of refuse burned is assumed.
bReference 25.
cReference 29.
•^Reference 2.
eNot available.
^References 25,28,29,31.
gReference 28.
C-8
-------
Table C-13. GASOLINE EVAPORATION EMISSIONS
Source
Storage tanks'3 >c
Cone roof
Floating roof
Filling tank vehicles^
Splash fill
Submerged fill
50% splash and
50% submerged fill
Filling service station tanksc>e
Splash fill
Submerged fill
50% splash and
50% submerged fill
Filling automobile tanks^
Automobile evaporation losses 9
(gas tank and carburetor)
Hydrocarbon Emissions
lb/1000 gal of
throughput
47.0
4.8
8.2
4.9
6.4
Percent loss,
by volume9
0.14
0.08
0.11
11.5 i 0.19
7.3 0.12
9.4 ' 0.15
11.6 0.19
920.0 1.50
aAn average gasoline specific gravity of 0.73 is assumed.
bReference 32.
cReference 33.
^Reference 34.
Reference 35.
fReference 36.
QReference 11.
C-9
-------
Appendix C-l. Questionnaires
1. Industrial Questionnaire
(Large plants)
Names and Address
Telephone
Name and Title of Person to Contact Regarding this Report Number
Return completed copies of questionnaire to:
Mr. Carl G. Beard, II
Project Director
Kanawha Valley Air Pollution Study
1724 Washington Street, E.
Charleston 1, West Virginia
I. General Information - Use 1963 Data
A. Manufacturing Activities
1. Days per week normally in operation
2. Days per year normally in operation
3. Number of shifts per day in normal operation
4. Total number of employees at this establishment
B. Meteorological Information
1. Do you record any of the following meteorological
information on a routine basis:
Wind Speed & Direction Humidity
Temperature Other
Specify
2. Can the meteorological information listed in B-l be
made available to Governmental Agencies?
Yes No
C-10
-------
II. Process operations
A. Principal Products
Use 1963 Data
Parcel
Products
Amount Produced*
(tons/year) or
equivalent
(or see code below)
Specify
months/year
usually in
production
Established program of
maintenance checks on air
pollution control equipment
Not
Yes No applicable
Product amount code (tons/year)
If you do not wish to disclose the amount produced, please insert appropriate
range in above table.
(A) less than 1,000 (B) 1,000 to 10,000 (C) 10,001 to 100,000
(D) 100,001 to 200,000 (E) more than 200,000
*Where production cannot be reasonably expressed in tons/year, designate units of
production and amount or applicable range (i.e., A,B,C, etc.).
Parcel
B. List specific material emitted to atmosphere from process operations.
Material
Air pollution*
Amount control equipment
(Ib/day) (see Code A below)
Efficiency
actual or
estimated
percent
Stack
height
(ft)
*Where two sources emit the same material to the atmosphere, separate the different
types of control equipment, efficiencies and stack heights by slash marks.
C-ll
-------
Example: Material from two sources: the first through a scrubber with 60 percent
efficiency, then up a 100-foot stack; the second through an adsorption
unit with 95 percent efficiency, then up a 30-foot stack Column,
Air Pollution Control Equipment, 09/13; Column, Efficiency, 60/95;
Column, Stack Heights, 100/30.
Code A Air Pollution Control Equipment Presently in Use:
01 None 09 Scrubber
02 Settling chamber 10 Cyclone
03 Electrostatic precipitator 11 Multicyclone
04 Cloth filter 12 Other powered inertia! separators
05 Absorption unit 13 Adsorption unit
06 Direct-fired afterburner 14 Condenser
07 Catalytic afterburner 15 Other (Describe)
08 Demister
Parcel
C. For material not specifically identified and reported in Item B above, please
indicate the amount of process emissions in appropriate category:
1. Emission of Organic Material (List amount in Ib/day).
Aromatic Olefinic Aliphatic
Gas or Gas or Gas or
Classification vapor Solids vapor Solids vapor Solids
Hydrocarbons
Alcohols
Aldehydes
Amines
Acids
Ethers
Epoxides
Hal ides
Ketones
Acid derivatives
Sulfur compounds
Organometallic
Other (specify)
C-12
-------
Aromatic - organic compounds containing a benzene structure
Olefinic - organic compounds consisting of unsaturated aliphatic
hydrocarbons, including compounds with double and triple
bonds.
Aliphatic - organic compounds with carbon atoms arranged in a chain-
like structure, excluding unsaturated compounds.
2. Emission of Inorganic Materials
Gases
Classi fication
Amount
(lb/day)
Ammonia
Sulfur dioxide
Sulfur trioxide
Hydrogen sulfide
Carbon disulfide
Carbon monoxide
Nitrogen oxides
Chlorine
Fluorine
Bromine
Chlorides
Fluorides
Bromides
Phosphorus compounds
Cyanide compounds
Other (specify)
Solids and mists
Classification
Sulfuric acid
Hydrochloric acid
Nitric acid
Phosphoric acid
Calcium oxide
Sodium carbonate
Acids (n.o.s.)
Oxides (n.o.s.)
Hydroxides
Nitrates
Chlorides
Fluorides
Bromides
Sulfides
Sulfates
Carbonates (n.o.s.)
Phosphates
Silicates
Silicon compounds
(n.o.s.)
Sulfur
Metallic fume
Other (specify)
Amount
(lb/day)
n.o.s. - not otherwise specified.
C-13
-------
III. Combustible Waste Disposal Parcel
Waste material Method of Incinerator Auxiliary
Type of waste Amount per year disposal used capacity fuel used
(A) (B) (See code below) (Ib/hr) (C)
Method of Disposal Code:
01 - Open burning in pit, dump, etc. on plant premise.
02 - Hauled to dump on plant premise, not burned.
03 - Picked up by private salvage or waste disposal company.
04 - Picked up by municipality.
05 - Burned in boiler or furnace.
06 - Incinerator, single chamber (one totally enclosed refractory-lined
chamber in which both primary and secondary combustion take place).
07 - Incinerator, multiple chamber (two or more refractory-lined chambers
interconnected by gas passage parts or ducts and designed in such a
manner as to provide for complete combustion of materials).
08 - Incinerator, rotary.
09 - Wigwam waste burner.
10 - Other (specify)
(A) Example of type of waste - organic residues, tars, solvents, paper, garbage,
etc.
(B) Example of units - tons, pounds, gallons, cubic feet, cubic yards, etc.
(C) Indicate whether auxiliary fuel is used in incinerators and pit burning.
IV. Combustion Processes for Heat and Power Parcel
Total Fuel Used
Type Grade
Supplier: Captive External Both
If coal: Ash % (dry basis) Sulfur % (dry basis)
If liquid: Sulfur % If gas: Sulfur %
Estimate of fuel consumed monthly: Cubic feet
Gallons tons
C-14
-------
Fly Ash Parcel
Tons collected per month
Disposal after collection, slurry or dry
If dry: Is percentage of ash removed by other persons?
List location of major dry disposal areas.
A. Boilers
No.
On stack
number
Operating
or standby
Amount of
fuel used
tons/day
type (stoker,
pulverized fuel,
other)
B. Boiler Stacks and Stack Gases
Stack
Top
i ns i de
Exi t
Parcel
Exit
temper-
Gas
volume
number Location Height diameter velocity ature (ft^/min)
Particulate
loading
(grains/ft-^)
C-15
-------
o
I
C. Air Pollution Abatement Devices
Primary Secondary
Date of Date Date of Date
On stack efficiency devices efficiency equipment
number Type Efficiency listed installed* Type Efficiency listed installed*
*Efficiency data quoted is to be last survey or, if not available, give data when installed.
Efficiency data should be given in terms of weight and particle size, if available.
Do you have an established program of operational maintenance checks on your air pollution control devices?
(Check one) Not applicable Yes No
Approximately what dollar amounts have you spent on air pollution control devices and operation during the
past 15 years.
1. Equipment (Total for 15 years)
2. Operations (Total for 15 years)
T3
O>
-------
D. Type of melting furnace(s) used:
1. None
2. Pot or crucible
3. Cupola
4. Electric arc
5. Electric induction
Parcel
(Check all applicable).
6. Reverberatory
7. Rotary
8. Glass furnace
9. Others
(Specify)
E. Other equipment or operations: (Check all applicable)
1. Air blowing (agitation, chemical reactions, etc.)
2. Dryers
3. Kilns
4. Solids handling and processing (pneumatic conveying, sizing, grinding, etc.)
F. Air pollution control equipment presently in use in process operations:
(insert number of operating units in parcel including those indicated in
Item B).
1. Settling chamber
2. Electrostatic
precipitator
3. Cloth filters
4. Absorption unit
5. Direct-fired
afterburner
6. Catalytic afterburner
7. Demister
8. Adsorption unit
9. Scrubber
10. Cyclone
11. Multi-cyclone
12. Other powered inertia!
separators
13. Vapor recovery systems
14. Boilers (used as waste gas burners)
15. Others:
(Specify)
C-17
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APPENDIX C
Appendix C-l. Questionnaires
2. Industrial Questionnaire
(Small Plants)
Name and Address Do Not Write in this Space
Keep one copy for your files
Name and title of person to contact Telephone Number
regarding this report.
Date questionnaire completed:
Return completed copies of questionnaire to:
Mr. Carl G. Beard, II
Project Director
Kanawha Valley Air Pollution Study
4108 MacCorkle Avenue, S.E.
Charleston, West Virginia 25304
INSTRUCTIONS
A. Prepare a separate form for each premise where fuel is used or products made.
B. Answer all questions. If certain questions are not applicable to your activity,
please indicate NONE or NOT APPLICABLE.
C. Please return this report not later than 30 days after receipt to the Kanawha
Valley Air Pollution Study.
I. Number of Production Employees at This Plant Premises (circle one only)
A. 10 or less C. 51-100 E. 501-1000
B. 11 - 50 D. 101-500 F- 1001-2000
II. Manufacturing Schedule
A. Days per week normally in operation
B. Days per year normally in operation
C. Number of shifts per day in normal operation
III. Process Operations
C-18
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A. Principal Products (use 1964 data)
Products
Amount Produced - a
(Designate units of
production) - b
Specify
months/year
usually in
production
a. If you do not want to disclose the amount produced, use the code
indicated below to indicate range:
(A) Less than 1,000 (C) 10,001 to 100,000
(B) 1,001 to 10,000 (D) 100,001 to 200,000
(E) More than 200,000
b. Examples of units of production: tons/year, gallons/year, and/or
trucks/year, pumps/year, etc.
IV. Combustible Waste Disposal
Type of was tea
(See below)
Waste material
Amount per year*3
(See below)
Method of
disposal
(See below)
Incinerator
used capacity,
Ib/hr
Auxiliary
fuel
usedc
Method of Disposal Code:
1 - Open burning in pit, dump, etc. on plant premise.
2 - Hauled to dump on plant premise, not burned.
3 Picked up by private salvage or waste disposal company.
4 - Picked up by municipality.
5 - Burned in boiler or furnace.
6 - Incinerator, single chamber (one totally enclosed refractory-lined
chamber in which both primary and secondary combustion take place.)
7 - Incinerator, multiple chamber (two or more refractory-lined chambers
interconnected by gas passage parts or ducts and designed in such
a manner as to provide for complete combustion of material;)
8 - Incinerator, rotary.
9 Wigwam waste burner.
10 - Other (Specify)
a - Example of type of waste - organic residues, tars, solvents, paper, garbage,
etc.
b - Example of units - tons, pounds, gallons, cubic feet, cubic yards, etc.
c - Indicate whether auxiliary fuel is used in incinerators and pit burning.
C-19
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V. Combustion Processes
A. Total fuel used for heat and power
Type Grade
Supplier: Captive External Both
If Coal: Ash %(dry basis) Sulfur
If liquid: Sulfur % If gas: Sulfur
Estimate of fuel consumed monthly:
gallons
B. Total fuel used for process consumption
Type Grade
Supplier: Captive External
If Coal: Ash %(dry basis) Sulfur
If liquid: Sulfur % If gas: Sulfur
Estimate of fuel consumed monthly:
gallons
C. Fly ash
Tons collected per month
Method of disposal
D. Boilers (for heat and power)
Amount of fuel
used, tons/day
%(dry basis)
%
cubic feet
tons
Both
%(dry basis)
%
cubic feet
tons
Boiler type
(hand fired, stoker,
pulverized, fuel, other)
or equivalent
Stack
height,
ft.
Type of
abatement
equipment
Estimated
efficiency3
percent
Efficiency data should be given in terms of weight and particle size, if available
VI. Air Pollution Program
Do you have an established program of operational maintenance checks on your air
pollution control devices? (check one)
Not applicable
Yes
No
Approximately what dollar amounts have you spent on air pollution control devices
and operation during the past 15 years.
1. Equipment (total for 15 years).
2. Operations (total for 15 years).
C-20
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APPENDIX C
Appendix C-l. Questionnaires
3. Solvents Used in Dry Cleaning Plants
!• Average monthly purchase of solvent, gallons per month*
(Total gallons of solvent purchases in 1964 divided by number of months
dry cleaning plant operated).
New Reclaimed
Stoddard
Safety Solvent 140
Perch!orethy!ene
Trichloroethylene
Carbon Tetrachloride
Other (trade or chemical name)
2. Do you have and use solvent reclaiming equipment? Yes No
3. If you do not have solvent reclaiming equipment, what is the method of
disposal for the used solvent? (Please check appropriate box)
A. Shipment to solvent recovery plant
B. Dumping
C. Other, please describe method
If Item B is checked, indicate site of solvent dumping
4. Average operating time for the dry cleaning equipment during 1964.
Hours per week A.M. P.M.
Days per week Mon. Tues. Wed. Thurs. Fri. Sat. Sun.
(Cross out days plant does not operate)
5. Estimated quantity of material dry cleaned, pounds per month:
6. Type of Plant Equipment. Describe:
7. Type of control equipment: Adsorption scrubbing
Direct flame incineration Condensation scrubbing
Catalytic incineration
None
*The following factors may be used to calculate gallons: (1) one drum contains
52.5 gallons. (2) one pound of perchlorethylene equals 0.074 gallon. (3) one
pound of trichloroethylene equals 0.082 gallon.
C-21
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APPENDIX C
Appendix C-l. Questionnaires
4. Commercial Fuel Use Questionnaire
Please return questionnaire to:
Mr. Carl 6. Beard, II
Kanawha Valley Air Pollution Study
4108 MacCorkle Ave., S.E.
Charleston 1, West Virginia
Name and Address
Kanawha Valley Air Pollution Study
COMMERCIAL FUEL USE
QUESTIONNAIRE
Do Not Write in this Space
Keep one copy for your files
Name and Title of Person to Contact
Regarding this Report.
Telephone Number
INSTRUCTIONS
A. Prepare a separate form for each premise where fuel is used.
B. Answer all questions. If certain questions are not applicable to your
activity, please indicate NONE or NOT APPLICABLE.
C. Please return this report not later than 30 days after receipt to the
Kanawha Valley Air Pollution Study.
1. Service or Building Classification (Circle one only)
1. Bank
2. Building - Public and Office
3. Department Store
4. Hospital
5. Institution
6. School
7. Greenhouse & Flower Shop
8. Hotel
9. Laundry and/or Dry Cleaning Plant
10. Other (Describe)
2. Fuel Consumption for Space Heating in 1964.
Indicate more than one if appropriate.
A. Principal types of fuel used:
1. None 2. Coal 3. Oil 4. Gas 5. Other
B. If COAL is principal fuel:
1. How many short tons of COAL are consumed per year?
2. Who is COAL supplier?
Name
C-22
-------
3. Percent Ash: 4. Percent Sulfur
C. If GAS is a principal fuel, how many 100 cubic feet of GAS are consumed per
year?
D. If OIL is a principal fuel, how many gallons of OIL are consumed per year?
1. Percent Sulfur:
E. If Oil is a principal fuel, check the grade of OIL.
1. No. 1 Oil 2. No. 2 Oil 3. No. 3 Oil
4. No. 4 Oil 5. No. 5 Oil 6. No. 6 Oil
3. Coal burning equipment and fly ash collecting equipment.
A. Principal coal burning equipment (circle one only.)
1. None 6. Spreader Stoker with Ash Reinjection
2. Hand Fired 7. Spreader Stoker without Ash Reinjection,
3. Under Feed Stoker 8. Pulverized Coal
4. Chain Grate 9. Other (Describe)
5. Traveling Grate
3. B. Fly ash collecting equipment associated with Item 3A above
(Circle one only).
1- None 6. Water Sprays in Stack
2. Settling Chamber/Baffles 7. Scrubber
3. Simple Cyclone 8. Electrostatic Precipitator
4. Multiple Cyclone 9. Other (Describe)
5. Other Inertia! Separator
(Tubular, Cone, etc.)
4. Combustible Waste Disposal (includes paper, rags, cartons, garbage, tar,
paint, waste oil, etc.)
A. How much combustible waste is disposed per year?
1. None 2. tons or other applicable units
B. Principal methods of combustible waste disposal (Circle appropriate items)
1. Not Applicable 6. Incinerate - single chamber
2. City Pickup 7. Incinerate - multiple chamber
3. Private Pickup 8. Incinerate - Other (Describe)
4. Burn in Open Fire on Premise 9. Other (Describe)
5. Burn in Boiler or Furnace
C. If incinerator is circled in Section B above, what is its capacity in
pounds per hour?
D. Incineration Schedule:
Weekly: Day(s).
Daily: Hour(s).
5. Additional Remarks:
C-23
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APPENDIX C
Appendix C-1. Questionnaires
5. Combustible Waste Disposal Questionnaire
Please return questionnaire to:
Mr. Carl G. Beard, II
Kanawha Valley Air Pollution Study DO NOT WRITE IN THIS SPACE
4108 MacCorkle Avenue, S.E.
Charleston, West Virginia
Name and address (City Hall, etc.) Name and Title of Person to
Contact regarding this report.
Keep one copy for your files Telephone Number
INSTRUCTIONS
A. Prepare a separate form for each disposal site.
B. Answer all questions. If certain questions are not applicable to your
activity, please indicate NONE or NOT APPLICABLE.
C. Please return this report not later than 30 days after receipt to the
Kanawha Valley Air Pollution Study.
Combustible Waste Disposal (includes paper, rags, cartons, garbage, tar, paint,
waste oil, etc.)
1. How much combustible waste is disposed per year?
A. None B. Tons or other applicable units.
2. Principal methods of combustible waste disposal (Circle appropriate items).
A. Not applicable E. Sanitary Landfill
B. Incinerate - single chamber F. Open dump (no burning)
C. Incinerate - multiple chamber G. Burn in open dump
D. Incinerate - Other(Describe) H. Other (Describe)
3. If incinerate is circled in Section 2 above,
A. What is incinerator capacity in tons per hour?
B. Incineration Schedule:
Weekly: Day(s).
Daily: Hour(s)
C. Air pollution control equipment on incinerator, efficiency of
control equipment and date that efficiencies were checked:
4. If sanitary landfill or open dump is circled in Section 2 above:
A. What is the usable area for waste disposal (acres, etc.):
B. What is estimated life of disposal site:
5. Brief description and location of site:
6. Brief description of combustible waste disposed of at this site
(Commercial and Industrial wastes):
C-24
-------
7- Are your disposal facilities utilized by other organizations, private and/or
public? If yes, please list those using facilities.
8. Do you provide pickup service to areas outside your political jurisdiction?
If yes, please list areas served:
9. Additional Remarks:
C-25
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APPENDIX D. INSTRUMENTS
ANALYZER: SULFUR DIOXIDE (Davis Instruments)
The Davis Parts Per Million Analyzer operates on the principle of electrical
conductance and ionization. The basic method of analysis differs little from the
measurement made by Kohlrausch, Arrhenius and other early workers, in that deter-
mination of electrolytic conductivity is accomplished by measuring the ohmic
resistance of a sample-water mixture passing over a pair of suitable electrodes.
Errors due to polarization, i.e., the changes in the composition of the solution
adjacent to the electrodes, are eliminated by employing alternating current.
The Davis analyzer is designed for continuous analysis. This is accomplished
by the provision of a recirculating water supply system. All effluent from the
special analyzing cell, after analysis, is continuously purged to the ion exchange
reservoir, wherein mono-bed deionization takes place.
ANALYZER: NITROGEN DIOXIDE (Beckman Instruments)
The instrument is based upon the reaction of nitrogen dioxide with a reagent
containing sulfanilic acid, N-(l naphthyl)-ethylenediamine dihydrochloride, and
acetic acid as reported by Saltzman. The colored reaction product absorbs light of
560 millimicrons wave length. Light absorbancy is measured in a ratio photometer
and read on a special polentiometric recorder. Calibration is logarithmic. The
mechanism of the reaction has been subject to some discussion. The nitrogen dioxide
reacts with the sulfanic acid in the diazotization step, and the resulting diazo
compound undergoes a coupling reaction with the N-(l naphthyl)-ethylenediamine
dihydrochloride.
OZONE METER (Mast Development Co.)
The sensing of ozone in the air sample is accomplished by the well known
oxidation-reduction of potassium iodide which is contain -) in the sensing solution.
This reaction takes place on the cathode portion of the electrode support. In this
region, any ozone in the air sample reacts with the sensing solution as follows:
03 + 2K1 + H20 —»• 02 + I2+2KOH
D-l
-------
At the cathode, a thin layer of hydrogen gas is produced by a polarization current:
2e+2H+—* H2
When the voltage is applied to the electrodes (about 0.25 volts), the
hydrogen layer builds to its maximum and the polarization current ceases to flow.
When free iodine is produced by the reaction with ozone, it immediately
reacts with the hydrogen as follows:
H2I2—* 2KI
The removal of the hydrogen from the cathode causes a re-polarization cur-
rent of two electrons to flow in the external circuit, re-establishing equilibrium.
Thus, for each ozone molecule reacting in the sensor, two electrons flow through
the external circuit. Hence, the rate of electron flow, or current, is directly
proportional to mass per unit time of ozone entering the sensor.
FLAME IONIZATION DETECTOR: HYDROCARBON
(Perkin-Elmer Corporation and Beckman Instruments)
The organic concentration of the sample is detected by an internal hydrogen
flame ionization detector. Since different classes or organic compounds have dif-
ferent detector responses, the meter indication for a given sample must be
interpreted upon the basis of instrument calibration with an appropriate test gas.
The detector assembly used in the Model 223, operates with pressure-regulated
sources of sample, hydrogen, and air. Hydrogen and sample are combined and the
resulting stream is banned at a jet in a surrounding atmosphere of air.
The Model 223 can be considered essentially a carbon atom counter, since
its output is proportional to the total carbon content of the sample. For example,
equal molar concentrations of propane and hexane (C^8 and CgH-|4) give relative
responses of 1 and 2, since the total number of carbon atoms in the hexane sample
is twice that in the propane. The detector is sensitive only to compounds in which
carbon is bonded to hydrogen, halogens or other carbon atoms. Carbon monoxide,
carbon dioxide, water, ammonia, and the oxides of nitrogen are not detectable.
INFRARED ANALYZERS: CARBON MONOXIDE AND CARBON DIOXIDE
(Beckman Instruments)
The infrared analysis for both carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide is based
D-2
-------
on the same principles. Flow through the sample cell brings gas or liquid which is
to be monitored. The instrument is sensitized to detect this sample, and when no
sample is present in the sample cell, the instrument reads zero. In operation,
infrared radiation is emitted by the two sources and chopped by a light chopper.
The chopped beams pass through the sample cell (filled with sample) and the refer-
ence cell (filled with reference material). Any monitored sample absorbs energy
from the source radiation so that material in the sample cell absorbs greater
energy than material in the reference cell. Thus, the beams which emerge from the
cells to the two compartments of the detector are no longer equal in energy. This
causes movement of a diaphragm-condenser between the two compartments of the de-
tector. An electrical signal is produced across the condenser, which is proportional
to the amount of monitored sample in the sample cell. This electrical signal goes
to the amplifier where the quanitity of sample is expressed as an electrical voltage.
This voltage goes to a meter which gives readings corresponding to sample concen-
trations. The signal also may be relayed to a recorder for permanent record.
0-3
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APPENDIX E. DESCRIPTION OF FIXED SAMPLING STATIONS
Table E-l. DESCRIPTION OF FIXED SAMPLING STATIONS
Station location
Site description
Area classification
\ mile-1 mile-2 miles
Sampling
equipment2
Falls View
National Guard Armory, U.S. Rt. 60
Montgomery Heights
Residence (Trailer), State Rt. 61
Kimberly
Kimberly Grade School
Boomer
St. Anthony's Parish Hall
U.S. Rt. 60
Smithers
Oakwood Grade School
218 Kanawha Avenue
Montgomery
Engineering Building
West Virginia Institute of
Technology, Jackson Street
Cedar Grove
Cedar Grove High School, Railway St.
Chelyan
Slater Motor Company, State Rt. 61
Belle
U. S. Post Office
814 E. du Pont Avenue
Chesapeake
Chesapeake Elementary School
12404 MacCorkle Ave., S.E.
Marmet
Marmet Elementary School
408 94th Street
Flat roof, height 25 ft.
Utility pole, height 10 ft.
Flat roof, height 15 ft.
Flat roof, height 30 ft.
1-1-1,3
1,3 - 1,3 - 1,3
1-1-1,3
1 - 1 - 1,2,3
Parapet roof, height 35 ft. 1,2 - 1,2,3 - 1,2,3
Parapet roof, height 25 ft.
Flat roof, height 12 ft.
Curved roof, height 20 ft.
1,2,3 - 1,2,3 - 1,2,3
1,2 - 1,2,3 - 1,2,3
1,2 - 1,2,3 - 1,2,3
Flat roof, height 15 ft. 1,2 - 1,2,3 - 1,2,3
Parapet roof, height 20 ft.
Parapet roof, height 25 ft.
1,2 - 1,2,3 - 1,2,3
1,2,3 - 1,2,3 - 1,2,3
a,b,c,d
c,d
c,d
c,d
a,b,c,d
a,b,c,d,e
a,b,c,d,e
c,d
c,d
c,d
a,b,c,d,e
-------
m
i
ro
Table E-l (continued). DESCRIPTION OF FIXED SAMPLING STATIONS
Station location
Site description
Area classification
% mile-1 mile-2 miles
Sampling
equipment^
South Maiden
Zims Supply Company
7300 MacCorkle Ave., S.E.
Kanawha City
Horace Mann Jr. High School
43rd & MacCorkle Avenue, S.E.
East Charleston
State Office Building #3
1800 Washington St., E.
Charleston
Federal Building, 500 Quarrier St.,E.
Crede
Elk River - Garage owned by
Mr. Paisley
West Charleston
Glenwood Elementary School
Glenwood Avenue
North Charleston, E.
North Charleston Fire Station
504 25th Street
North Charleston, W.
Pump Station (Sewage),
North Charleston Recreation Center
2009 7th Avenue, W.
South Charleston, E.
South Charleston High School
C Street & 3rd Avenue
South Charleston, W.
State Police Barracks, Company B
Flat roof, height 22 ft. 1,2 - 1,2,3 - 1,2,3
I
Parapet roof, height 25 ft. j 1 ,2 - 1 ,2 - 1,2,3
I
Parapet roof, height 70 ft. , 1,2 - 1,2,3 - 1,2,3
I
i
Flat roof, height 60 ft. i 1,2 - 1,2,3 - 1,2,3
Sloping roof, height 10 ft. 1 - 1,2 - 1,2,3
I
t
I
Parapet roof, height 35 ft. ! 1,2 - 1,2,3 - 1,2,3
Parapet roof, height 35 ft.
1,2,3 - 1,2,3 - 1,2,3
Flat roof, height 20 ft. i 1,2,3 - 1,2,3 - 1,2,3
Flat roof, height 35 ft. i 1,2,3 - 1,2,3 - 1,2,3
Flat roof, height 15 ft. : 1,2 - 1,2,3 - 1,2,3
c,d
a,b,c,d,e
c,d
a,b,c,d,e
c,d
a,b,c,d,e
c,d
a,b,c,d,e
a,b,c,d,e
c,d
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Table E-l (continued). DESCRIPTION OF FIXED SAMPLING STATIONS
Station location
Site description
Area classification,
% mile-1 mile-2 miles
Sampling.
equipment^
Dunbar
Ford Elementary School, 137 6th St.
Institute
Student Union Building
West Virginia State College
St. Albans
Albans Elementary School
2030 Harrison Avenue
Nitro
Nitro Jr. High School
Park Avenue & 15th Avenue
West of St. Albans
Anne Bailey Elementary School
State Rt. 17
West of Nitro
Craft's Farm, State Rt. 17
1/4 mile West of Interstate Bridge
Flat roof, height 25 ft.
Flat roof, height 25 ft.
Flat roof, height 12 ft.
Flat roof, height 20 ft.
Flat roof, height 12 ft.
Platform, ground level
1,2 - 1,2 - 1,2,3
1,2,3 - 1,2,3 - 1,2,3
: a,b,c,d,e
c,d
1,2 - 1,2,3 - 1,2,3 j a,b,c,d,e
I
1,2,3 - 1,2,3 - 1,2,3 i a,b,c,d,e
i
c,d
I
I
: a,b,c,d,e
1 - 1,2 - 1,2,3
4 - 1,3 - 1,2,3
Area classification
1. Residential
2. Commercial
3. Industrial
4. Rural
Sampling equipment
a. High volume sampler
b. AISI tape sampler
c. Dustfall
d. Sulfation
e. Materials deterioration - metals and nylon
m
i
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