NTID300.6
AN ASSESSMENT OF NOISE CONCERN  IN
           OTHER NATIONS
              VOLUME II
           DECEMBER 31, 1971
     U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
          Washington, D.C. 20460

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                                                                  NTID300.6
   AN ASSESSMENT OF NOISE  CONCERN  IN
                OTHER NATIONS

                   VOLUME II
                DECEMBER 31, 1971
                    Prepared by

               INFORMATICS, INC.
                       under
              CONTRACT 68-01-0157
                      for the
        U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
       Office of Noise Abatement and Control
               Washington, D.C. 20460
This report has been approved for general availability. The contents of this
report reflect the views of the contractor, who is responsible for the facts
and  the accuracy of the data presented herein, and do not necessarily
reflect the official views or policy of EPA. This report does not constitute
a standard, specification, or regulation.

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                            CONTENTS
    PHYSIOLOGICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF NOISE
                                                                      Page

The Max Planck Institute.  Work done by Jansen, Lehmann,
et al.  (Physiological effects, including vegetative reactions. )           1

      Reactions to Jansen's viewpoint:

      L. Moliter, European Public Health Committee of the
      Council of Europe                                                 10

      S. Mangeri,  Pavia Institute (Italy)                                 11

      J. Kubik, Medical Facility, Brno                                  11

      W.  Lorenz, Halle-Wittemberg University                          12

      German Metals Industry Associations                              12

      A Similar East German-Soviet Study
      (Nitschkoff and Kriwizka)                                          12

The Leningrad Medical Institute of Sanitation and Hygiene.               14
Work done by E. Ts. Andreyeva-Galinina,  et al.
      Research Facilities and Methods                                  15

      Effects on Humans                                                15

      Effects on Animals                                                16

      Influence  on Soviet Health Policy                                  18

Institute for  Sanitation and  Industrial Medicine, Klinikum Essen
of the Ruhr University, West  Germany.  (Industrial health aspects,
hearing loss  problems. ) Work done by W.  Klosterkoetter,  et al.        19
                                  ill

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                                                                      Page

Extra Aural Effects of Noise:  Other  Studies,                           21

      Experiments with Animals                                        22

      Possible Danger of Extra-Aural Effects  to Man                   23

      Disturbance of Sleep by  Noise                                    24

      Adverse Psychic-Emotional Effects:

          Pro:  (Dr.  Klosterkoetter)                                    25

          Con:  (D. P.  Davies)                                         26

      Soviet Industrial Studies:  Noise as One Form of
      Industrial Stress.                                                28

Institute of Physiological Chemistry, Silesian  Academy
of Sciences.   (Biochemical effects  of noise)                             29

The Influence of Noise on Efficiency.                                   31

      "Internal Blinks"  Theory (D. E. Broadbent)                      32

      The Role of Personality Traits                                   32

      Attentional Selectivity;  Increases in Arousal Level
      (R. Hockey)                                                      33

      Other Studies                                                    34

The Cardiff Symposium on Psychological Effects of Noise               35

"Colloquium ueber psychologische  Fragen der Laermforschung. "
(Colloquium  on psychological problems in noise  research. )             36

The Psychology Institute of the Free  University  of Berlin.
Work by Hoermann,  Mainka,  Gummlich, et  aL (Subjective
evaluation of  noise)                                                    38

Notes on the Influence of Noise on Communication.                      39

References                                                            41
                                    IV

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                               LIST OF FIGURES



Figure                                                               Page

 1         Circulatory System Reaction to Noise                       2

 2         Finger Pulse During Noise                                 3

 3         Noise-Induced Changes in Skin Circulation of
           Children                                                   4

 4         Effect of Broadband Noise of 95 DIN-Phon on the
           Peripheral Circulation                                     5

 5         Vegetative Function Disturbances of 1005 Noise-
           Subjected Metallurgical Workers                            6
                                      v

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                   PHYSIOLOGICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL
                              EFFECTS OF NOISE
             This subject has been a focus of attention by a large

    number  of research organizations throughout the world.  This

    report can give but a review of a few foreign research efforts including,

     for  example, the study of extra-aural effects of noise on the

    organism undertaken by Dr. Gerd Jansen, the theories of psychology

    of noise formulated by D.  Broadbent and  others, the research of

    E. Ts. Andreyeva-Galinina to credit unequivocally the existence

    of the "noise syndrome" and the pathogenis of noise by Dr. W.

    Klosterkoetter.



             The Max Planck Institute. Working with Lehmann and

    others of the Max Planck Institute for Industrial Physiology  in Dortmund,

    Jansen conducted studies on the effect of noise on primary autonomic

   /''reactions.  He reported that under the influence of audible noise,

   j primary vegetative reactions occur which affect the internal organs,

V  'i
   • blood vessels, and heart.  However,  Jansen's investigations, together

    with those of other workers at the Max Planck Institute, extended

    to effects on secondary vegetative reactions as well.
                                      -1-

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The secondary vegetative reaction is the conscious one that occurs

in such familiar reactions as anger.  The subject in Figure 1 was

habituated to noise and consequently did not show a secondary reaction

(adrenalin release. )  The top line shows the increase in vascular

impedance caused by the constriction of the blood vessels.   Blood

pressure and pulse frequency remain unaltered,  but the quantity of

blood released by the heart stroke is smaller.  These effects remain

during the entire noise period,  and the  return to normalcy  takes place

slowly.
              2800

              2400

              2000

              1600
              1200  70
                  60
               90  SO
               80

               II "*
               50
               40
                140
                130
                120
                110
                100
                90
                80
                 rnmHg
                              Test-noise: 90 Phon
Peripheral resistance

Pulse-rate


Stroke-volume
 Systolic pressure
 Medium pressure
 Diastolic pressure
                           10 14 18          62 66

                               * Time in minutes
     Figure 1.  Circulatory System Reaction to Noise


          Jansen constructed a finger pulse monitoring apparatus to

determine the effects of noise.  Under the influence of noise the pulse

beat continues 4-5 seconds, then its amplitude decreases and vascular

constriction takes place.  Meyer-Delius of this institute also
                                -2-

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demonstrated a progressive decrease in pulse amplitudes for noise




periods of 11,  20, and 40 seconds (Figure 2.)  The implications of




Ms experiment are that recovery time is a function of noise exposure





time.
                       90 phon
                                                    90 phon; 3200-6400 Hi'
                      90 phon
                      90 phon
                Figure 2.  Finger Pulse During Noise
                                                      69
                                   -3-

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In an effort to distinguish the primary vegetative and the fear reactions,

                                                       2
Matthias conducted  experiments among school children.    (Figure 3. )
            o
                MO
            a1*
            fc >
            U ,2
            c
            o
            • H
            -<->
            oJ
            1—t
                 %
                 no
          Silence
                     Silence
                   ^\T
                                    yr old s
                                 '////////A
                                 • Noise
                                            Silence
                                           18 subjects

                                           96 experiments
                    6-8 yr olds

                     V////////A
                     Noise  ;
                   \w/////A
 Silence


...A  /^X
                                        KWVV-J
                                           11 subjects

                                           56 experiments
                 i,
                 110
o
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            •H 
-------
demonstrated the significance for the primary vegetative reaction of



wide-band noise, noise in which the individual frequencies  are


scattered over the whole audible spectrum (Figure 4).  Wide-band


noise typically, is that of industrial steam machines  and ventilators.
                 0  6  12  18 24  30 36  42 48  54 60 66  72 78  84 90S


                               Third Octave
                 0  6  12  18 24  30 36  42 48  54  60 66  72 78  64 90 S
              •3 90
                                  Oklave  "///A
                                .  3200 Hz
                                omean value
                 0  6  12  IB 24  30 36  42  48  54  60 66  72 78  84 90 S
              n 110 -
                              Broadband nbise
                 0  6  12
                         18 24  30 36  42 48  54  60 66  72 78  84 90 S
      Figure 4.  Effect of Broad-band Noise of 95 DIN-Phon on the

                 Peripheral Circulation. ^
                                    -5-

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               Jansen also conducted a quasi-sociological investigation of

   the incidence of the effects of noise on two groups of metallurgical

   workers characterized as much, or little, exposed to noise.  Figure 5

   shows the vegetative disturbances of these 1005 subjects.  The greater

   appearance of pallid skin and of the vascular constriction with which it

/  is related in the strong noise group is statistically significant.  Heart

   disturbances are more frequent  in noise-subjected groups as are the

   unsatisfactory mouth and throat conditions determinable by examination.

   The effect of vascular constriction on the mucous membranes is such

   that the workers  complained of incessant thirst but the other differences

   revealed do not seem statistically  significant.   This  is an important

   early contribution to the opinion that long-term exposure to noise

 y I creates clinically detectable extra-aural changes.
                                                ibsolul:   lul Ku.17  E
                                                      78 229  307


                                                      54 184  238


                                                      53 161  2H


                                                      53 138  191


                                                      53 131  184


                                                      51 128  179


                                                      39  97  136


                                                      37  94  131
Skin
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/////// .' /
f

//////// ////s/ss ///////// 1



Vascular constriction I
|J 1 ! 1 1 . , ! : : 1 : i 1 i II 1 I 1 i i i 1 i 1 1 ! 1 1 ! ! ! 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I iTTTlTi



ZJ
Heart
;i|!1l 1 ! Ii
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Y/////S///

\ \ \ \ I 1 ' I 1 ' 1 [ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
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. 1 1 1 i M I 1 1 . i i 1 1 i 1 1 1 1
XXXXXXXX/XX/!


throat (S^ID
i i: j !| iNTiii • iiiii in
, '/////////.- A


Equilibrium
HIM i Ti ' F '
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,

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tal
II
&r IV
Group I & II -
336 workers (little
noise)

Group III & IV -
669 workers (much
noise)
                           IS     20
                                                  35 
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          The  study on the influence of industrial noise on the organism


by scientists of the in^titu^e_ofJH}rgiejie_in_&ucharest presented to the


1967 symposium on Ergonomics in Machine Design is an interesting


complement to Jansen's work and reinforces his  physiological results.


Jansen and Klensch found that random  noise and music of an equal

                                                         4
intensity caused very similar blood circulatory responses.     The


majority of subjects showed de^^ea,sed cardiac output.and


volume flow.  The  similarity of the effects of noise and music corroborates


Jansen's hypothesis that it is the intensity of the  noise and not its


emotional connections that control the  somatic responses.


          The  first studies at the Max Planck Institute were limited


to finger pulse amplitudes because experiments with this index are


most easily conducted.   Studies of primary vegetative reactions  else-


where in the  system were  conducted after establishment of the principle.


Their data show pulse rate changes at the end of  the working day as


compared with its beginning, in both bent and erect positions,  as well


as changes in the systolic and diastolic pressures in the same positions.


Rheobasic and  chronaxy changes were noted at the end of the working


day. Plethysmographic investigation showed changes in time of  return


after application of a cortical excitant; motor analyzer changes were


found; and cases of hypoacusia noted.   The greater  incidence of disorders


among workers in heavy noise (light-noise workers = 100 percent) is


given as respiratory, 190 percent; neurosensorial,  134 percent;


locomotive, 133 percent; circulatory,  111 percent.   While this study


reads like an extension of Jansen,  his work is not mentioned.  The


references cited show that the literature of Eastern Europe tends to
                                -7-

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  base itself on the Russian authorities in this area of investigation.



  For example,  the changes in diastolic and systolic pressures found



  are described as corroborating the data of Chepalin  and


  Arkadyevskiy.



            Lehmann established that dilation of the pupils occurs



  under the action of noise at 95-Phon.  Because the vegetative reactions



  are most pronounced in sleep, the institute staff also used experimental



  animals and electroencephalographic methods to investigate the effects



  of noise on sleep.  Jansen himself has announced his intensions to



  publish further in this field.

                                                                Q
            Jansen's experiments on noise-induced nervous stress



  establish that the .effect of noise is to create a higher activation of



  the organism, that is, a transition of the general state from trophotropy



  to ergotropy.   In the transition measurable reactions  occur in the



  heart and circulation, along with a heightening^pf the metabolism^ and



  the electrical musculation potential.  The pulse amplitude decreases



  so sharply at 90 dB(A) that Jansen thinks this the limit of tolerance.



I^Klosterkoetter questions whether or not the phenomena observed by



  Jansen might be caused by other  stimuli.  Jansen's study warns those



  responsible  for industrial hygiene that of the 74 processes  investigated



  "very many  must be regarded in  view of the critical  curve  as  too much



  to impose on workers. "



i—          The research techniques used were ballistrography,



  plethysmography, and EEC.   Observations  of healthy subjects were
l^-


  conducted in a special soundproof chamber  over  several years.  The



  noise intensities were 60 dB and  higher and the frequencies 200 to



^6000 Hz. (no reactions were detected at noise below 60 dB. )
                                  -8-

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Sharpest reactions occurred at intensities of up to 80 dB at a frequency |


of 2000 Hz. , and at 90 to 110 dB at about 3000 Hz.  Physiological      -


reactions began to occur at intensities of 65 dB, while intensities of


75-90 dB caused distinct reactions and those occurring at  90-95 dB


are described as "threatening. "


           Jansen's earlier investigations of the noise signature of


office and factory machinery to construct a noise archive, the


Versuch einer Klassifizierung von Industriegeraeuschen (Preliminary


Classification of Industrial Noises) were a preliminary to  this work.


His collaboration with H. C.  Micko on the study of noise on the


performance of intellectual tasks of varied difficulty did not obtain

                                   9
fixed cause and effect relationships.


           Jansen provides  several alternate  schemes for classifying


industrial noise, for example, a classification based on the maximum


frequency between 100 and  8000 Hz of the main noise intensity. In


classifying noises according to their origin,  he describes  as uncondi-


tionally damaging the noises generated by pneumatic hammers, turbofans,


crushers, compressors, concrete mixers,  centrifuges,  etc.   He asserts


that distinct physiological changes can be created by the noise of


automatic and semi-automatic lathes, wire-drawing machines, oil-


spray  burners, etc.


           The main thrust  of Jansen's work is the demonstration that i


noise induces a reduction in stroke volume to compensate  for an


increase in peripherial resistance in the precapillary region.   The


circulation does not, however, adapt to continuous exposure to noise
                                 -9-

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 by a return of the blood flow to its initial level.  Peripheral blood flow




 continues to be  reduced as a result of continuing vasoconstriction and




 increased resistance.  These noise-induced vasoconstrictive, in pulse




 decreased amplitudes are related to the intensity of the noise and its band



 -width frequency itself is relatively unimportant.  His investigations




 conclude that the level of the tolerance curve is 94 dB at 1000 Hz,




 falling by 1 dB  per octave and that beyond these levels the possibility




 of harmful effects must be anticipated.  The implications for noise




 control, as Jansen sees them,  are that "...the results of research




 clearly justify medical demands for  effective noise reduction so that



 health shall  not be endangered.  It is not uncommonly maintained by




i acoustic engineers that people can get used to noise.  The research of



 the last few  years has  shown that the autonomic nervous  system at




 1 least does not become  accommodated in this way, even though




 \ phychological adjustment may be excellent. "
 \


            Some representative reactions to the physiological concept




 of the extra-aural workings of noise will be presented here in quotation



 form, to give the feeling of immediacy not  communicable in paraphrase.



 Speaking for the European Public Health Committee of the Council of



 Europe, L.  Molitor expresses a questioning uncertainty:  "Numerous




 medical and psychological studies have been carried out without it




 having been  possible to reach an unequivocal  conclusion on the harmful




 effects of noise. Our fellowship holders did not succeed in obtaining




 precise  data of lasting organic functional and mental disturbances




 attributable  to the effects of noise during their investigations covering




 most of  the member countries. "
                                 -10-

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          However, in a report of the same year, S. Maugeri (Institute


of Labour Hygiene,Pavia Institute, Italy) is described as doing sponsored


research on the determination of the levels at which the action of noise


takes place, how and when it causes psychic and intellectual fatigue,


and the suitable ways of reducing  or eliminating its neurovegetative


and psychic effects.  The report goes on: "Experiments completed in


previous years have shown that noise effects a modification of cardio-


vascular dynamics,  a modification of the respiratory function, and a


change in gastric secretions.   Relating this problem to that of


intellectual fatigue,  the subject of another series of researches, it was


observed that noise also modifies the reaction time and diminishes the


productivity of labor.   These  noise-induced disorders are certainly


the expression of the autonomic reactions.   To study the noise-effects


mechanism, the peripheral vasoconstriction and the galvanic skin

                                        12
resistance have been specially studied. "


          J.  Kubik (Chair of Hygiene and Epidemiology, Medical


Faculty, Brno ) is not  certain that the theory can ever be made to


yield rigorous results:  ". . . Even if the further development of the


neurophysiology and psychophysiology further clarifies the mechanism


of non-specific noise, it is obvious that the resulting effect of noise


in this sense will always depend on the inner factors  (type and


functional state of the central nervous system, psychological relation


to the noise) as well as on the external factors (the physical parameters


and overall characteristics of the noise, the length of exposure and


 4.-U     \ 13
others.)
                                 -11-

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          On the other hand,  W. Lorenz, (Throat, Nose, Ear Clinic,



Halle-Wittenberg University)  accepts the extra-aural theory without



reservation: "...Noise effects cause pathological changes of the inner



ear and other pathological changes.  Numerous noise-exposed workers



complain about nervous irritability,  headache, and sleep disturbances.



Vegetative reactions may be manifested by nausea, vomiting, and



certain disturbances of equilibrium,  which cannot be defined precisely.



The occurrence of chronic gastrides and gastro-duodenities in noise-



exposed workers has been established.  Noise also exerts a negative



effect on the circulatory system and  on the rhythm and depth of



respiration. It may lead to humoral and hormonal changes, and in some


                                                        14
cases, a fatal effect has been ascribed to jet-plane noise.



          While the extra-aural theory continues to meet this not always



unqualified  reception from the theorists of physiology, it is most



striking that it should be  so very seriously considered by the hard-



headed engineers and operational managers of the two Germanys. In



December 1970, the Economics Association of the Iron and Steel



Industry (Wirtschaftsvereinigung TDisen-und Stahlindustrie* and the


Association of  German Metallurgists (Verein deutscher Eisenhuttenleute)



released under their joint imprint a report "Man in Industrial Noise



from the Point of View of Industrial Medicine" that is •written by Jansen



himself and, of course,  predicates the extra-aural theory.  Jansen's



co-author,  G. Schultz, has been identified with the preparation of the



various Stahleisenbetriebsblaetter pertinent to noise control.  While



publication  sponsorship does not mean blanket endorsement, obviously it



indicates the interest of people who are continually and practically concerned.
                                -12-

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Consideration of the possible effects of noise not related to



deafness will show the diffusion of Jansen's ideas, although again,  he




is not mentioned by name:  ". . . Whether or not psychic effects are




involved, the human organism reacts to noise  with changes  in heartbeat,




blood pressure, skin circulation, respiratory  functions, gastric




secretions, and other body functions.  Although  a noise syndrome




cannot be assumed, a significant influence on the vegetative system that




regulates these reactions is clear.   The evidence accumulates that




such noise effects can injure the state of health.   At present,  no  clear




differentiation of the disturbances of the autonomic functions by their




origin is possible, so that the attempt to limit noise from the point of




view of its effects on the autonomic  nervous system is not practicable. "




           This depiction of the research area  of the extra-aural  effects




of noise should not be finished without calling  attention to the apparently




little-known study prepared jointly by the Institute for Corticovisceral




Pathology and Theraphy of the Deutsche Akademie der Wissenschaften




(Berlin-Buch) and the Institute for Brain Research of the Academy of




Medical Sciences of the USSR entitled Laermbelaestigungen, akustische




Reiz, und neuro-vegetative Stoerungen (Leipzig, 1968).     The  study




team led by Nitschkoff and Kriwizka investigates in careful  detail the




hyper-  and hypo-functions of vegetative reactions, the disturbance of




the various regulating systems, and the histomorphological changes




occurring in  specific areas.  The similarity of this work with Jansen's




area of investigation does not need to be pointed out.
                                -13-

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          This extraction from the Preface shows the animating



principle:  ". . .In the course of the Technical Revolution, the problem



of noise damage, noise stress, and noise control has gained immediacy.



In the factory,  on the street,  on the rails, and in the air, in various



industrial environments,  in urban construction, yes, even in the modern



home, noise is a constant accompaniment, so that noise trauma and



noise stress have become a more widely prevalent  cause of illness



than we had realized.  Physiological investigations show again and



again that noise is one of the causes of the constantly augmented flood



of stimuli to which the men of our times are  exposed without protection. "



           The Leningrad Medical Institute of Sanitation and Hygiene.



The studies of Andreyeva-Galinina are described in the monographs


Methodological Problems of Studying the Effect of Noise on the Organism


      18                               19
(1962)  and The Control of Noise (1966).      Early in her studies, (1957),



E. T. Andreyeva-Galinina expressed her conviction that the complex of



symptoms  developed under  the influence of exposure to noise could be



defined as  a "noise  syndrome" experienced first by the central nervous



system and then by  the auditory  analyzer.



          The institute's studies of industrial noise conclude that changes



in the central nervous and cardiovascular systems, the auditory analyzer,



and other organs are directly  related to the intensity, duration, and



spectrum of the effective noise,  the initial functional state of the organism



and the accompanying deleterious industrial factors.  These changes in



the nervous sytem consist of vegetative dysfunctions,  astheno-neurotic



or asthenic syndromes.
                                -14-

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          In order to standardize test conditions, the Institute abandoned


industrial testing in the field to develop soundproof chambers in which


to study the changes developing in the human organism under the effect


of a broad band stable noise of 70, 80, 90 dB, octave bands (300-600,


600-1200, 1200-2400 Hz  ), noise with maximum sonic energy at frequencies


of 300,  500,  700 Hz, as well as impulse noise of moderate intensity


(60-80 dB).

          Human and animal subjects were subjected to  reflexometry,


attention concentration studies, electroencephalography,  electrocardio-


graphy, autoradiography, pulsotaxometry, tacho-oscillography,  and


determination of summation-threshold index,  (oxygen consumption,


change in weight of internal  organs or in total weight. )  Reflexometry


indicated the change in the latent period of the pupillomotor reaction,


the force of the effective response,  and the occurrence of distorted


reactions to  strong and weak irritants.


          Functional loads  (rhythmic photic stimulation,  pharmacological


tests, EEG  reactivity) were tested for objective evaluation and the


subjects'  subjective state also was studied.  These tests  established     7


that the intensity of the reaction to a strong stimulus (90  dB) diminished  I


by 26. 7% as  compared to the prestimulation level, whereas it diminished]

                                                                       /
by only  2% in the case of a 70 dB noise.   At 90 dB there was a 12%        j


increase in  duration of the latency period of the oculomotor  reaction,    |^^


at 80 dB--an 8% increase, and at  70  dB a 1.7% increase.  A  weak stimulus \


induced even more distinct  changes in the latency period  of optical motor


reaction,  particularly at 90  dB (21%); at 80 dB there was a 1. 36% difference,


and at 70 dB, only a 0. 4% difference.


          Attention span decreased the most at the higher noise  levels   i


(90 dB. ) To determine the  relationship between the changes discovered,


the spectral  composition of the noise as well as its level  were studied.

                                -15-

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          Similar experiments using pulsing noise demonstrated that




greater disturbances occur especially in the central nervous  system




under the effect of pulsating noise with slow (0-60 pulses per minute)




and rapid (100-1500 pulses per minute) succession of pulses.  Slow




sonic stimuli with a 1000 millisecond interval between pulses lead to a




decrease in force of the effector response by 39. 1-40. 4%.  The latency




period of the oculomotor reaction showed an almost 25% increase while




attention span was 13% lower. Andreyeva-Galanina considers it firmly




established that noise induces significant changes in the pulse rate,




EKG, arterial pressure and other hemodynamic indices. A.  L.  Myasnikov,




I.  S.  Ivatsevich, N. N.  Pokrovskiy and other students characterize noise




as one of the etiopathogenetic factors in essential hypertension, while




E. A.  Drogichina, L. L.  Zaritskaia and others believe that it induces




a drop in arterial pressure.




          Tacho-oscillographic and pulso-tachometric investigations




indicate that under the effect of white noise  with an intensity of up to




90 dB there is a statistically reliable acceleration of the pulse, as well




as an increase in maximum and minimum arterial pressure.  Noise in




octaves  of 300 to 2400 Hz of the same level did not elicit significant




changes in the cardiovascular system.   However, exposure to pulsating




noise with these parameters brought about  even more distinct changes.




          That  aspect of the  program of the Leningrad Medical Institute




of Sanitation and Hygiene concerned with animals  can be exemplified by




B. D.  Zeygel'shefer's 1966 experiments on rats and mice.   He reported




a decrease in summation capacity of the  central nervous system,
                                -16-

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especially in the mice, but no change in the muscular strength and body




weight of the animals.  In view of the drop in hemoglobin and erythrocyte



content,  a subsequent study was undertaken of the permeability of the




hemato-encephalic barrier for labelled phosphate and of phosphorous




compound metabolism in cerebral structures under the effect of single




and multiple exposure of albino rats. Andreyeva-Galinina and her




associates assume a general  decrease in intensity of metabolism or




macromolecular phosphorus compounds in the brain structures.  Electro-




physiological experiments on rabbits established that the noises used




induced marked changes in bioelectric activity of the brain structures




studied distinguishable as two phases. The changes were related to the




parameters of the stimulus.  It was  demonstrated that in the first (active)




phase there was prevalence of low amplitude fast activity in the  cortex




(auditory, occipital,  sensomotor) and subcortical (reticular formation




of the midbrain, pons,  nonspecific thalamic nuclei) zones.  With




continuation of the noise  stimulus the cerebral action potentials  became




similar.   The   excitation characterizing the first phase gave way to,




drowsiness  and listlessness,  indicative of development of the second




(passive) phase.




          On the basis of the data obtained from the use of rhythmic




photic stimulation it is assumed that the decrease in physiological




liability  of the nerve structures  studied,  is indicative of development of




generalized inhibition.




          To determine the involvement of these chemoreactive systems




in the response to noise, agents that selectively stimulate the adrenore-




active systems (adrenomimetic  phenamine, and the adrenolytic agent
                                -17-

-------
that blocks the former,  aminasine), as well as the respective excitatory




and blocking agents for the cholinoreactive systems of the brain




(invaline and amysyl) were administered intravenously to rabbits




with electrodes imbedded in specific and nonspecific brain structures.




After this the animals were exposed to broad band stable noise with an




intensity of 120 dB.  The results obtained indicate that during the first




part of the experiment there was an increase in functional activity  of




the adreno-and cholino-reactive systems of the brain.  With increasing




exposure these systems developed gradually increasing inhibitions  of




impulse conduction.  This is apparently at the basis of decrease in




activating influences of the reticular formation of the brain  stem and




of the onset of inhibition.




          Article 24 of the Fundamental Legislation of the USSR and the




Union Republics on Public Health states that "It is the duty  of the




executive committees of the local Soviets of workers' deputies,  the




other government agencies, the enterprises,  the institutions, and




organizations to carry out measures to prevent, reduce the intensity of,




and eliminate noise in the industrial buildings,  dwellings, and public




buildings, in the courtyards, on the streets and squares  of cities and




other population centers.  All citizens are obliged to observe the rules




for preventing and eliminating noise under living conditions. "




A writer in the Vestnik of the Academy of Medical Sciences  of the USSR




comments that this article points to the first occasion in history in




which a state formally took upon itself the task of banning noise.

-------
          Persons working under conditions of noise levels of 95 dB and



over are required by the Ministry of Health of the USSR,  Regulation



No. 136 dated September 7,  1957,  to undergo annual medical examinations.



          The instruction is quoted in part illustrating the early influence



exercised by Andreyeva-Galinina's concept of noise:  "The neurologist    "~



should pay special attention to the state of the central  nervous system.



As a result of prolonged exposure to high noise level,  disturbances in



central nervous system functions may develop, affecting mainly the



autonomic nervous system.  Thus rapid fatigue, diminished work capacity,



emotional instability,  impaired memory and concentration, disturbed



sleep, headache,  giddiness may occur.   Impairment of superficial          j

                                                                          /

sensation and of vibration sense, as in polyneuritis, is also  seen.          _J-



The syndrome may resemble as asthenic or astheno-neurotic reaction.



Persons suffering from any significant disturbance in  nervous system



function should be transferred to less noisy jobs to avoid any further



influence  of high noise levels.  The cardiovascular system including



the blood pressure should be  examined as hypotension is often observed


                                                                21
in workers subjected to high noise  levels for prolonged periods. "



            Institute for Sanitation and Industrial Medicine, Klinikum



Essen of the Ruhr University.  Dr.  W. Klosterkoetter presents a biological


and medical  examination of whether and under what  conditions, noise is



potentially pathogenic. He points out that the causal connection between



the Temporary Threshold Shift and the Permanent Threshold Shift



(irreversible damage  to the hair cells of the organ of  Corti) is  generally



assumed but that the pathogenesis is not fully explained.  While it is
                                -19-

-------
statistically true that noise in increasing doses will bring about



increasing Temporary Threshold Shift which in course of time is



followed by Permanent Threshold Shift, prognostication in individual



cases is not possible.   The dip at 4000 Hz that marks  noise-induced



deafness can be precisely established by audiograms.   Dieroff   sees



the course of noise-induced deafness in these phases:  many minor



complaints including noise in the ears, pressure in the head, general



depression, a long period of compensation,  without major complaints,



collapse, and then saturation, when further hearing loss  proceeds very



rapidly.


                        23
          Klosterkoetter  exemplifies the dimensions of  the problem



for the  industrial  hygiene  legislation of the modern state  by reference



to Schwetz and Stahl's study of Austria.  He quotes Dieroff as saying



that pulse noises are the most dangerous, particularly when the  noise



intervals are more than 2. 4 seconds, so that the reflex contraction of



the middle ear muscle has relaxed, and the sound energy freely  enters



the ear. Dieroff found peaks of  140-150 dB in metallurgical plants and



says that hand hammers frequently reach  150 dB.  Serial production of



the necessary instrumentation now beginning will permit more accurate



measurements. Klosterkoetter  seems to approve of the use of the CHABA



classification of noise.



          Next to  impulse noise, Klosterkoetter finds the problem of



noise breaks most immediately interesting.  The maximum level in



noise breaks should be 70-75 dB.  If this is difficult in practice,  a



15-hour interval between work shifts is necessary.  To calculate the



necessary  break,  it is necessary to know the individual times of



exposure and the noise intensity. Buerck Quotes approvingly the ISO





                                -20-

-------
proposal to limit exposure to 90 dB to 8 hours, 95 dB(A) to 2 hours -



15 minutes, 110 dB(A) to 2 seconds, and 130 dB(A) to 0.5 seconds.



          Noise breaks also rest on the hypothesis that there is a



definite relationship between the  Temporary and Permanent Threshold



Shifts.  Klosterkoetter's investigations reveal that a one-hour white



noise of 105 dB(A) in the test frequency of 4000 Hz  yielded a TTS of



48 dB; by dividing this noise into phases of 5 minutes of noise followed



by 5 minutes of break, the TTS was 41 dB; in 20 minutes noise and



25 minute break the TTS was 44 dB; in 30 minutes noise and 30 minute



break, 41 dB.  The greatest decrease in Temporary Threshold Shift



occurs in a regime of short periods of noise with short 70 dB(A) breaks.



In Klosterkoetter's current experiments on the problem of the noise level,



subjects are  given 10 minutes of 105 dB(A) alternating with 10 minute



pauses by 35, 70, 80, and 90 dB(A).  Results show that diminishing



the break level by 10  dB in this order of testing decreases the TTS by


                                                      22               25
2-3 decibels.  For other practical  problems see Dieroff  and Lehnhardt.



          Extra-aural effects of noise.  These are less certain.  Lehmann


                                            17           27
and his associates, Nitschkoff and  Kriwizkaja,  and Burns  (less strongly)



agree that under  the influence of noise, measurable changes in various



neuro-vegetative hormonal-regulation cycles can be demonstrated.  These



include inhibition of the stomach peristaltic and salivary secretion,



increased metabolic rate,  expansion of the pupil, temporary increase  of



blood pressure, change in the resistance,  and decrease of skin tempera-



ture and of the finger pulse amplitudes measured plethysomographically



as the result of constriction of the  blood flow and increased release of
                                -21-

-------
catecholaminen and ketosteroids.  Strengthening of the skeletal



muscle action potential was observed electromyographically, which



indicates the general tension  state of a muscle group.  Electroencephalo-



grams indicate the existence  of a cortical "arousal effect, " an elevation



of the diffuse cortical excitation level, and with a latency period of



150-180 ms the noise  specific evoked potential ("Averaging Analysis")


                                                                     29
in objective audiometry.  (Keidel and Spreng, Baumann and Baumann. )



EEC's taken during sleep (Richter   and Jansen  ) show a lack of depth.



          In experiments with animals it was observed that the appear-



ance of hypertension increased the release of the adrenal hormone,



decreased the ascorbic acid content  of the adrenal, and enlarged the



adrenal gland,  as well as changed the composition of the blood.


                              32
Treptow, Hecht, and Baumann  found blood  sugar irregularities in



dogs after exposure to noise.  These phenomena are  consequences of



the tilting of the regulatory cycle Middle Brain Pituitary Adrenal Cortex



and are considered stress reactions. Klosterkoetter's own unpublished



experiments on rats did not give unequivocal results.  With Hauss and



Junge-Hulsing,  Klosterkoetter is now investigating the question of the



influence of noise on the metabolism of the vessel phonoplast.   The



method here is  to measure the S,,- in this material.   Experiments with



one group demonstrated that  existance of tolerance and adaptation, and



with the other,  that sensitizing occurs,  so that firm conclusions are


                33
difficult.  Hauss   sees this  influence a pathogenic basis mechanism  for



the origin of arterioscelerosis and of coronary heart attacks.
                                -22-

-------
          The physically and biochemically measurable activation



symptoms found in man under emotionally neutral conditions at 65 to



70 dB(A) can be interpretated as an expression of the cortical,



autonomous, and motor arousal reactions,  that is, as an elevation


                                                 34
of the excitation levels toward ergotrophy.   Jansen  reports the



vegetatively controlled skin circulation to be an exceptionally sensitive



indicator, Klosterkoetter  thinks that it responds too easily to other



stimuli,  e. g. , mental tasks and has personally observed subjects who



react by expanding rather than constricting the blood vessels.    The



central question is whether these  vegetative effects occurring in the



laboratory in  reaction to  noise of  65 dB(A) are potentially pathogenic.



          It is accepted that workers are emotionally neutral to  the



noise of their working places: some are positively motivated because



they receive additional compensation for working under noise.


                                        35
Epidemiological investigations by Jansen,  Graff, Bockmuehl, and

       'yL                07

Tietze,   and R.  E. Mark  have discovered hypertense regulation dis-



orders, other cardiovascular disturbances,  and definite vegetative



complaints, although none of the investigations is  beyond criticism.


      27
Burns   thinks that it is not yet possible to impute any illness except



deafness itself to noise.  The vegetative  responses to noise must be



considered as arousal or  activation indexes,  without ascribing to them



a definite pathogenic meaning.  On the other hand, the innocent character



of the noise-induced changes has also not been proved.   The fact remains



that in every society there are men with  different  sensitivities, with



temporary or  permanent  health disturbances,  who are overburdened


                                                         38
and exhausted. According to  Richter-Heinrich and Sprung,   men under
                                -23-

-------
 hypertension in the early stage of regulation react with greater



 sensitivity to acoustic stimuli.  Apparently they have a generally



 higher readiness for arousal.



           Frequent disturbances of sleep by noise, however, can


 certainly be seen as potentially pathogenic.  After sleep disturbances,



 increased vegetative disturbances and increased catecholamine release



 can be observed on the next day.   Noise is particularly important in the



 beginning of sleep, when the Formatio reticularis demands a decreased



 flow of stimuli.  Individual responses differ and the threshold is not


                                                  39
 always the same for the  same individual.  Steinicke    discovered that



7at 35 dB(A),  45  dB(A), and 60 dB(A),  23%,  42%, and 80% of the subjects



 were awakened.



           Little is known on the  ultimate pathogenic meaning of the



 qualitative changes in sleep, that is, shallowness and inhibition of



 the III and IV phases of sleep depth.  Experiments in the sleep laboratory



 and epidemiological investigations  in unfavorable noise milieus are required,



 but the first necessity is a determination of the parameters that will



 answer the question.   The cortical reactions lying under the wakening



 threshold in addition are released at far lower  sound levels than the



 known vegetative reactions.  This fact leads to another important



 conclusion: noise can obviously  disturb the trophotropic phases of the



 circadian rhythm of the  24-hour  day and stimulate it toward ergotrophy.



 Too  little is known about the eventual pathogenic meaning of rhythm and



 relation disturbances, but we must  seriously consider the  hypothesis



 that  these are possibly risk factors, which in premorbid and morbid



 phases can exert an unfavorable  influence.
                                 -24-

-------
          Klosterkoetter sees the great hygienic problem in the psychic-



emotional reaction to noise: this presumes a cognitive process, an



evaluation and subjective processing, as a consequence of which, noise



undoubtedly causes emotional stress.  This can be done by real noise,



or by noise  expected, or by noise threatened in the future.



          Psychological  stress investigation has shown that emotional



stress in addition to subjective health complaints and behavioral reactions



also releases stereotype autonomic and biochemical reaction models like



increased blood pressure, increase of pulse and breathing, vascular



constriction,  change in galvanic skin resistance, shortening of the



blood coagulation time,  and increased noradrenalin, adrenalin, and



ketosteroid  secretion.  Individual reactions are largely determined by



the psychic  and vegetative model and by social factors.  The connection



of every emotional excitation with autonomic and biochemical reaction



models is explained by the narrow anatomical and functional correla-



tion of the limbic system with the hypothalamus.   The causal  connection



between emotion and lesion has been proved by experiments on animals



as well as man.  Hypertension and the Ulcus vetriculi are well-known


                              33                                     A
examples.  According to Hauss,  chronic emotional stress is an



important factor in arterioscelerosis.



          A portion of Klosterkoetter's concluding remarks are quoted



in full:  ". . . Does noise which leads to psychic-emotional stress threaten



health?  My exposition should have proved that this question must



unequivocally be answered in the affirmative, if the definition of health



given by the World Health Organization is accepted.  Disturbances of
                                -25-

-------
psychic and social good health by noise are evident; they are obvious



in one's personal experience and in the observations of others.   Noise



can be an emotional stress factor.  We are compelled to accept at



complete value the complaints of individuals inflicted in this way,



even if the psychologists and sociologists cannot  statistically work



the complaints over with the computer.  It can be accepted that



disturbances of sleep, of the circadian rhythms,  of the biologically



necessary trophotropic relaxation phases can  lead to psychovegeta-



tive syndromes and  illnesses  needing treatment or  that they are  risk



factors. "



           D.  P.  Davies,  Department of Psychology, University  of



Leicester, argues that there is "little evidence to support the view that



noise has adverse physiological  effects,  except on the  auditory system,



and these are difficult to differentiate from the effects of  age. "  In



speaking of the effects of long-term exposure  to high intensity  noise,


             40
Davies states  that  hearing losses with age occur primarily in the



higher frequencies.   Proposals for damage risk criteria have emphasized



that the levels for higher frequencies should be set at considerably



lower  intervals.  Assessments of damage risk levels should be made



for each frequency.   Under continued exposure, recovery from the



Temporary Threshold Shift becomes progressively weaker; permanent



hearing loss results as a consequence of the damage to the



Cortex.  Davies quotes other experimenters that hearing loss is


greatest in the early part of the  exposure period.  However, the  relation-



ship between duration of exposure and the hearing loss  is different for



different frequencies. He emphasizes that Sataloff, and Vassallo, have



shown that the TTS is not an adequate forecast of the degree of impairment
                                -26-

-------
of the PTS and questions the usefulness of existing tests of




susceptibility to noise effects.                              ,




          Since noise is a stress factor, physiological and psycholo- ]




gical changes resulting from long-term exposure to noise  include    /




abnormalities of endocrine and cardiovascular system functions




There is little evidence  that noise produces permanent changes in  \




the adrenalin system although adrenal activity during actual exposure  ,




may be high.  Da vies  cites Ashbel ("Effect of Ultrasound and High




Frequency Noise upon the Blood Sugar Level, " Bull. Hygiene, London, V. 40,




pp 587,  1965^,  pointing out that there occurs a reduction of the blood
sugar level which adversely affects the performance capacity of human \




subjects.   He also calls  attention to one of Jansen's studies on blood-pressure




after long-term noise exposure which coincides with other findings.  These



changes follow exposure to all sorts of stresses, as shown in Graham's early




study of the North African soldiers (Lancet, l,pp 239-240,  1945. )  Broad-




band noise significantly  inhibits peripheral circulation.  Aubiee and




Britton (Anxiety as a Factor Affecting Routine  Performance under




Auditory StimuliJ' J_.  Gen.  Psych.  58, 1958 )  report that anxious




subjects perform better in noise than those that are not anxious.




Broadbent (!Non-Auditory Effects  of Noise',1 Advancement of Science 17; pp.




406-409, 196!),, shows persistence of peripheral vasoconstriction in




response to noise may also result in impairment of performance in tasks




requiring movement of the fingers.




          Evidence about the psychological effects  of long-term expo-




sure and possible damage to mental health is inconclusive, since




comparisons between individuals  working in noise and quiet environments
                                -27-

-------
are likely to be contaminated in essential respects.  Individuals



susceptible to high intensity noise are also likely to select themselves



out of such an environment.



          In discussing  short-term exposure, Davies  cites E. A.


                         41         42
Drogichina and co-author   Orlovska  (1963) that even at compara-



tively low intensities (80, 70, and 65 dB  in the frequency ranges



1250-2500  cps) and exposure durations of 15  minutes in one study and



110 minutes  in the other^ EEG abnormalities appear in some  subjects.



           Soviet industrial studies, according to Krvter, may show the



possible harmful effects to man's nonauditory systems of long-term



exposures; he mentions  "...the data, collected for the most part in



Russia,     that indicates that workers in heavy,  noisy industries



suffer unusually high percentage of  circulatory,  digestive, metabolic,



neurological, and psychiatric disorders. "  A summary of a recent



article by Andreyeva-Galinina will represent some of  the materials



Kryter has in mind.



          Studying workers in nail-making shops (97-106 dB noise



intensities,) Khalimovich found that changes  in the  central nervous



system actually occurred before changes in the auditory analyzer and



were expressed as autonomic dysfunctions, as the noneural or



asthenic syndroms.   Svistunov's examination of workers engaged in the



testing of electrical machines (94-120 dB at frequencies of  1250 and



2500 Hz ) indicated that  noise reduced the ability to concentrate and



increased the latent period of the motor-conditioned reflex.  Study of



humans exposed to generating pulsing noise (stampings,  presses,





                                -28-

-------
weaving looms, nail-making machines) by Suvarov establish a direct




relationship between the subjects' functional state and the physical




characteristics of the noise.  Andreyeva-Galinina, working with




Artakonova and Kadyskin, reported investigations recording the




bioelectrical activity of the brain which reveal phasic phenomena, the




degree  of which depended on noise parameters and duration of exposure.




          Her  brief study concludes in this  way: "Studies of the effects




of various noise parameters on man have confirmed our opinion that




noise must be  studied as the etiological agent of noise disease.  We are




justified in stating that noise disease is a malady of the entire organism,




the syndrome including lesions of the nervous system, the auditory




analyzer, and  intense metabolic and functional disturbances in all




systems. "  (Andreyeva-Galinina, E. T. S. ,  et_al_.  Studies  of the  Effects




of Noise on Man.  Gigiena i Sanitariya, No. 5,  1969, 70-75.)









         Institute of Physiological Chemistry, Silesian Academy of




Sciences.  The first in this institute's  series  of Investigations of



biochemical changes caused by acoustic and ultracoustic fields reports




a decrease of the glucose level and an increase of the pyruvic acid




level in blood,  which is interpreted as the sign of a depressed glycolysis.




The decrease in the values of serum surface tension determined in the




majority of animals investigated is considered evidence of the mobiliza-




tion of lipids reserves.    The second part  of this  study deals with the




influence  of the sound field on total lipid level,  lipoproteids,  serum .
                                 -29-

-------
proteins, and electrophoretic fractions in serum of guinea pigs.  The
increase of total serum lipid was ascribed to lipid reserve mobilization.
An increase of serum proteins,  a decrease of albumin,  and a general
                                                44
increase of all globulin fractions were observed.    Serum glutamic-
oxalacetic transaminase and aldolase increased in guinea pigs exposed
to the continued action of strong acoustic and ultrasonic fields.  However,
the results do not prove temporary dysfunction of the  liver of the subject
         45
animals.     The fourth article in this  series  reports that no influence
of sound fields on the activity of erythrocyte- and serum-cholinesterase
of guinea pigs could be found,  confirming the error of the liver impair -
                 46
ment hypothesis.     In further corroboration is the following study on
the increased level of alanine and glutamic acids without  statistically
                                               47
significant changes in the level of aspartic acid.
           The report on the influence  of noise on the level of pyruvate,
oxalacetate, citrate and alpha-ketoglutarate in guinea pigs found no
changes in the level of oxalacetate and citrate but statistically significant
changes in all the others.   The pyruvate acid and alpha-ketoglutarate
                                             48
changes are interpreted as a metabolic block.    Studying the influence
of mitotic  activity in the corneal epithelium in guinea pigs, the authors
report that a single exposure to  an acoustic field causes a decrease in
the number of dividing cells, that a marked increase in mitotic activity
occurs after 12 to  24 exposures, and that immediately after 1, 12,  or
24 exposures to noise, an inverse ratio between the blood sugar level
                                             49
and the number of  dividing cells is  observed.     Field  study of working-
                                 30-

-------
men showed that noise and vibration affect the serum alkaline


                                                          50
phosphataxe,  aldolase, and lactic dehydrogenase activities.   Marked



changes in the activity of malonate dehydrogenase also were observed



in these persons. It is assumed that the stress factors noise and



vibration  produce changes in the sugar metabolism of the body.



          The most recent report by members of this institute studies



the effect of industrial noise on the behavior of DNA, RNA, and soluble



proteins in the liver,  as well as the  relative weight of this  organ in the


        .   51
guinea pig.



          The influence of noise on  efficiency.  This subject



has relevance for the conduct of those modern military or



industrial tasks which call, it has been said, for "an intense watch to



make sure nothing happens. " The psychological characteristic



involved here  is vigilance, the readiness to detect and respond to



certain specific changes occurring at random intervals.  The experiments



typically involve the monitoring of dials and lights.  The important



variable is the kind of task performed, not the kind of noise present.


                                                                   --T
In general,  the adverse effects of noise occur in the performance of   \

                                                                    \

complex tasks,  its beneficial effects in work on simple tasks.   The    \



study of the effect of noise on the working efficiency of the Moscow



Post Office  by Kovrigin and  Mikheyev can be considered an illustration



of the practical utility of the study of efficiency under noise.
                                -31-

-------
           Discussion of the work of Broadbent and others of the Applied




Psychology Research Unit on the investigation of the effects of noise on




efficiency can be concentrated  on these topics:  noise in tasks where the




signal remains constant until detected, unpaced  tasks,  the monitoring




of single and complex displays for  infrequent signals,  individual differ -




e  nces,  and noise in combination with other factors.




           Broadbent's theory as originally formulated explained that




the subject under noise suffers brief interruptions in the intake of




information from the vigilance task.   These "internal blinks" occur




after the stimulus input entered the nervous system, but before it was




analyzed.  This "distractibility " hypothesis has  subsequently been




modified in order to account for the beneficial effects of noise  to include




the effects of arousal.  His current position, apparently confirmed by




Woodhead's experiment on searching visual displays in intermittent




noise,  is that a too high arousal level impairs performance because




of a reinforced tendency to make responses to frequently occurring but




inappropriate stimuli.




           Traits of personality which determine  individual noise




annoyance  susceptibility are largely unstudied, but Davies and Hockey




think it possible that  the visual vigilance of extroverts may improve




when working in noise,  while introverted subjects show less change




with noise and sleep stress.  In tasks requiring  monitoring of various




aspects of visual display with different levels of priority, loud noise




biases  attention even more strongly to parts of the task already
                                 -32-

-------
receiving priority.  This narrowing of attention is due to the relative



importance which subjects attach to the components of the situation.



In attentional selectivity, the major effect of noise is  not a simple



improvement or impairment in overall efficiency,  but a shift in the



distribution of efficiency over the various  components of the task



situation.  The results must be interpreted in terms of increased



selectivity of attention with arousal.



          In an experiment typical of this  research area, Hockey has



recently investigated the effect of loud noise on attentional selectivity.



His subjects were navy personnel aged about 17 to 25. They were



asked to keep a pointer aligned with a moving target,  and, while doing



this, to report when they detected a light-flash from any of six lamps



equi-distant,  at 80 cm, from the subject.  Tests were conducted twice;



in noise (100 dB,  and in quiet (70 dB).  The tracking  (the primary task )



improves in noise, as  does the detection of the centrally located signals



in the monitoring task, but peripheral signals are detected less often in



noise.   Results support the suggestion that loud noise affects behavioral



selectivity.



          Noise increases the level of arousal in a way comparable to


                                                 57
that of anxiety or the prospect of gain.  R.  Hockey  suggests that the



effects  of material incentive can be reproduced with loud noise, "... a point



which itself may be of  considerable practical value. "   Experiments with



sleep-deprived subjects under conditions  of noise show that the two

                                                      r o

effects  do not add up  and make the performance worse.    In fact, they



tend to  cancel each other out,  and bring the level back to normal.
                                -33-

-------
          An important French contribution to vigilance study,  Tarrier




and Wisner,  1962, reports that rhythmical classical music at 90 dB




impaired the detection rate significantly in a 90-minute visual vigilance



     59
task.     Faucheux and Moscovici of the University of Paris studied




the effects of two different cognitive sets on group creativity with and




without exposure to noise.     Edith Gulian of the Institute of Psychology




in Bucharest studies effects of noise on auditory vigilance  tasks.




S. Domic of the Slovak Academy experiments on the effects of specific




noise on visual  and auditory memory span, which support the important




hypothesis on the acoustic nature of information storage in immediate


         62
memory.




          The work being done in Sweden on changing attitudes toward




noise by S. Sorenson (Institute of Hygiene,  Karolinska Institutet, and



the Department of Environmental Health, National Institute of Health)



and by E. Johansson (Psychology Institute, Lund) should be mentioned.



Carl-Eric Moreau has reported on the effects of auditory stimuli on




the intellectual 'functions from the point of view of the military



psychologists.
                                -34-

-------
            The Symposium on the Psychological Effects of Noise,


Cardiff, September 1967.  D. E.  Broadbent gave the leading address


on the effects of noise on work performance.  He depicted a general ,
                                                                   1

state of arousal or reaction   which is increased by noise and by     \


incentives, but decreased by a low activity rate and by loss of sleep, j


He presented for consideration by his auditors, the new  approach to


an understanding of noise and its effects by a comparison of these


effects with other stresses.   For example, noise reduces the effect


of sleeplessness,  so if noise is harmful,to work only in an aroused


state,  some  individuals may be chronically more aroused than others.


Dr.  G.  C.  Atherley went on from the usual definition of  noise as


unwanted sound to include the following parameters:  unwantedness,


information content, structure and signification (innate and acquired),


Hopkinson and Rowlands applied techniques developed from their


studies on lighting,  discomfort and distraction from glare to the


subjective assessment of noise.  It was found that while the degree of.


correlation between the physical measurements of sound level in ,


dB(A) and subjective assessments of loudness was good,  the  correla-  j

                                                                     I
tion  between  sound level and annoyance, intrusiveness or distraction

                                                                     i
was  poor.  Dr. H.  Eysenck emphasized the need for careful  studies    I


of noise employing personality variables,  particularly the extrovert-


introvert distinctions.   Eysenck1 s own Maudsley Personality Inventory


is a  technique of the kind recommended.
                              -35-

-------
          The  Cardiff conference is the second of the two English



conferences to which W. Hawel (Max Planck Institute, Dortmund.)



contributed papers on the parameters of the  subjective evaluation



of noise annoyance.  Like Sader, he argues that if experimental



findings are to be applied to real life, the main components of real



human life which he defines as personality,  situation, and activity,



must be accounted for and controlled by the experiment.  With



Starlinger, Hawel has also done work on catecholamine secretion


   ,     .             64
under noise exposure.



          Dr.  D.  R. Davies repeated his  blanket indictment of most



studies of the physiological effects of noise as being methodologically



contaminated.  However, he does credit peripheral vasoconstriction



with a longer persistence than the other responses, in line with Jansen's



theories.   Dr.  D. J. Ingraham reported research in  progress on a



group of steel workers in South Wales to determine the incidence of



psychological disorders in noisy environments.




          "Colloquium ueber psychologische Fragen  der  Laermforschung"



Berlin, February 1964.  (At the Psychology Institute  of the Free University



of Berlin under the  sponsorship of the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft.)



While Dr.  Hoermann of the Psychology Institute of the Berlin University



presided, Dr.  M. Sader of the Mainz University Psychology Institute,



who was then in process of preparing for publication  his thesis



Lautheit und Laerm (Loudness and Noise)  Goettingen, 1966, gave the main



talk on ". . . The Phenomenology of Noise Stresses. "  Other speakers were



W. Schonplug,  Psychology Institute, Frankfurt am Main University,  on



"Stimulus-Activation-Performance;" H. Zahn, Psychology Institute,
                                 36-

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Free University, Berlin, on "Noise and Vigilance;" G. Jansen,  Max


Planck Institut fifr Arbeitspsychologie,  on "Evaluation of Sound as a


Physiological Problem;" and A.  von Eiff, Bonn University Clinic for


Internal and Nervous Illnesses,  on "Function-Specific Effects of


Noises of Different Time Structures. "


          Sader contradicts that prevailing assumption that noise


stress is not analyzable into its  components and urges the investiga-


tion of real life situation rather  than laboratory tests.  In general,


his emphasis is on the interrelationships  of the physiological and


psychological workings of noise, as against Lehmann and Jansen, •who


separate these two categories.   Sader's talk at this  colloquium


commented on noise as masking desired acoustic information, noise


inducing physiological effects by psychological suggestion,  noise as


an index of the overall situation, unspecific over sensitivity toward


noise, and noise as an overall concept for primarily non-acoustic


phenomena.  In an interesting digression, Schopenhauer is discussed


as an example  of noise over sensitivity.


          Schonpflug describes his study  as an attempt to unite various


aspects of the activation and motivation theories.     Zahm's talk is,


in effect, a survey of the literature on vigilance and attention, reviewing


the expectancy, activation and filter theories,  and then discussing the


place of noise within these theories. In the animated discussion after


this report, the weight of opinion seems to fall on Broadbent's filter

                       A7
theory.  A.  W. von Eiff   has been associated with  the electromyography
                                -37-

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of the muscular potential in noise research (as opposed to Jansen and
Lehmann's emphasis on the finger-pulse amplitude. )  He restated his
opinion to the colloquium that not all body functions respond to noise,
that the order or sequence  in which noise is administered in experiments
is of importance in the total situation.

          Work of the Psychology Institute of the Free University of
Berlin.   In a recent article, Hoermann, Mainka, and Gummlich return
to the controversy over the possible relationships between the physiolo-
gical and psychological reactions to noise of different subjective values.
They begin by repeating Sader's thesis that such a  relationship does
exist and its determination should be an immediate task of noise research.
          For subjects in Group A, noise was the signal that they had
made an error in a pseudotracking task,  for those in Group B, the same
noise was a signal that they were on target in their task.  A third group
heard the same noise without a task.  The dependent variables were:
(a) temporary threshold shift (TTS); (b) muscle tension as measured by
electromyography; (c) subjective scaling of the amount of annoyance and
disturbance induced by the  noise and of the general sensitivity for noise
of the subjects.  Subjects who invest the noise with a positive emotional
valence feel themselves less disturbed, less annoyed and, in general,
less susceptible to noise than subjects  who receive the same noise with
negative valence.  Muscle tension is highest for  Group A, less for Group B,
least for Group C.   The amount of TTS is dependent upon the  valence of
the noise:  noise with negative valence  results in a  TTS of 18.1 dB, whereas
noise of neutral or positive valence leads to a TTS  of only 11. 0 or psycho-
logical and physiological reactions to noise of different subjective valence
(TTS and EMG). 7

                               -38-

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With U. Osterkamp,  Hoermann has also written "On the Influence of





Continued Noise on the Organization of the Memory, and  on "On the




Influence of Interrupted Noise on the Organization of the Memory, "




(Zeitschrift fuer exp. und angewandte  Psychologic, vol.  13,  1966).




They conclude that the memory-organizing tendencies represented by




clustering are influenced by noise*  Under noise,  persons with high




susceptibility recall  less and their recalls are less  organized and require




more time.   With E.  Todt, Hoermann has written "Noise and Learning, "





Zeitschrift fuer exp.  angewandte Psychologie.  With E.  Luebcke, Gummlich




has •written  "Evaluating the Annoyance of Changing Noise Levels, "




Sc halite chnik. and with Luebcke and Mittag,  "Attempts at a Subjective




Evaluation of Noise"  for the Fifth International Congress for  Acoustics,  5th,




Liege, 1965.





          Notes on the influence of noise on  communication.  Studies on




systems in which  ease of effective communication is important have




been executed.  In general they can be said to confirm the subjective




opinion that non-masking noise makes the task of speech  perception more




difficult.  Broadbent  has  demonstrated that speech distortion or noise by




requiring the use  of extra-capacity in deciphering speech signals, reduces




capacity for  the performance of other on-going tasks.   Experiments




proved  that  while the two types of speech distortion tested  set a similar




top limit to  articulation test performance, one type  achieved  that level more
                                    -39 -

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easily than the other,  this has implications for the design and communications




links with drivers and pilots.  Tests devised by P. M.  Rabbitt of the




Applied Psychology Research Unit to investigate the ability to process





the words received under non-masking noise on a  cognitive level should




also be mentioned.  W.I. Acton has recently described an experiment




in assessing the possibility of failure of speech communication due to




u            68
hearing loss.
                                   -40-

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  2.   Matthias, S. ,  G. Jansen.,  "Peripheral Vascular Disorders in
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                                 -41-

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15.    Jansen,  G. ,  Schulz, G. , "Der Mensch im Industrielaerm aus
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                                  -42-

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31.   Jansen, G. , Schulze, J.,  "Examples of Sleep Disturbances from
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32.   Treptow, K. ,  Hecht, K. ,  jet jil_.  "Cerebro-Visceral disturbances
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34.   Jansen, G., Zur nervoesen Belastung durch Laerm.  Darmstadt, 1967.

35.   Jansen, G., "Noise-Induced Disturbances of the Vegetative Function, "
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36.   Graff,  C. ,  Bockmuehl, _et _al_.   "Noise Infliction and Human Arterial
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37.   Mark, R.  E.,  "The Significance of Noise for  Vegetative Regulatory
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43.   Grzesik,  J. ,  Jozkiewicz,  S. ,  _et al.  "Investigations of the Influence
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                                 -43-

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44.   Jozkiewicz, S. , Stanosek, J. , _et _al_.  "Investigations of the
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45.   Grzesik, J. ,  Jozkiewicz,  S. , _et jil_.   "Studies on the Effect of the
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46.   Jozkiewicz, S. , Kraus,  M., "Investigations  on  the Influence of
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47.   Stanosek, J., "Investigations on the Influence of Acoustic  and
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48.   Grzesik, J., "Investigations on the Influence of Acoustic and Ultra-
      acoustic Fields  on Biochemical Changes.  VI.   The Influence of the
      Level of Pyruvate, Oxalacetate,  and Alpha Ketoglutarate  in the
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49.   Nowak,  A. t "Investigation of the Influence of Acoustic and Ultra-
      acoustic Fields  on Biochemical Process.  VII.  Influence  of
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54.   Woodhead, M. M., "Searching a Visual Display in Intermittent
      Noise."   Journal of Sound and Vibration, No.  1, pp.  157-161   1964.
                                  -44-

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55.  Hockey, R. ,  "Effects of Noise and Doubling the Signal Frequency
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56.  Hockey, R. ,  Journal of Experimental Psychology, Pt.  1, No.  22,
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60.  Faucheux, C. , and Moscovici,  S. , (University of Paris).  Studies
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61.  Gulian, E.,  "Effects of Noise in EEC Latency Changes in an
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64.  Hawel, W.,  "Personality, Situation, Activity and Sound as
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65.  Colloquium ueber die psychologische Fragen der Laerm-Forschung.
     Berlin, 1966.
                                 -45-

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66.  Schonpflug, W. ,  Schafer,  M., "Retention und Aktivation bei
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67.  von Eiff,  A. W., "Zentralbeeinflussung des Elekromyogramms,"
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71.  Psychologische Forschung, n. 4, pp.  289-309, 1970.
                                -46-

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