NTID300.6
AN ASSESSMENT OF NOISE CONCERN IN
OTHER NATIONS
VOLUME II
DECEMBER 31, 1971
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D.C. 20460
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NTID300.6
AN ASSESSMENT OF NOISE CONCERN IN
OTHER NATIONS
VOLUME II
DECEMBER 31, 1971
Prepared by
INFORMATICS, INC.
under
CONTRACT 68-01-0157
for the
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Noise Abatement and Control
Washington, D.C. 20460
This report has been approved for general availability. The contents of this
report reflect the views of the contractor, who is responsible for the facts
and the accuracy of the data presented herein, and do not necessarily
reflect the official views or policy of EPA. This report does not constitute
a standard, specification, or regulation.
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CONTENTS
PHYSIOLOGICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF NOISE
Page
The Max Planck Institute. Work done by Jansen, Lehmann,
et al. (Physiological effects, including vegetative reactions. ) 1
Reactions to Jansen's viewpoint:
L. Moliter, European Public Health Committee of the
Council of Europe 10
S. Mangeri, Pavia Institute (Italy) 11
J. Kubik, Medical Facility, Brno 11
W. Lorenz, Halle-Wittemberg University 12
German Metals Industry Associations 12
A Similar East German-Soviet Study
(Nitschkoff and Kriwizka) 12
The Leningrad Medical Institute of Sanitation and Hygiene. 14
Work done by E. Ts. Andreyeva-Galinina, et al.
Research Facilities and Methods 15
Effects on Humans 15
Effects on Animals 16
Influence on Soviet Health Policy 18
Institute for Sanitation and Industrial Medicine, Klinikum Essen
of the Ruhr University, West Germany. (Industrial health aspects,
hearing loss problems. ) Work done by W. Klosterkoetter, et al. 19
ill
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Page
Extra Aural Effects of Noise: Other Studies, 21
Experiments with Animals 22
Possible Danger of Extra-Aural Effects to Man 23
Disturbance of Sleep by Noise 24
Adverse Psychic-Emotional Effects:
Pro: (Dr. Klosterkoetter) 25
Con: (D. P. Davies) 26
Soviet Industrial Studies: Noise as One Form of
Industrial Stress. 28
Institute of Physiological Chemistry, Silesian Academy
of Sciences. (Biochemical effects of noise) 29
The Influence of Noise on Efficiency. 31
"Internal Blinks" Theory (D. E. Broadbent) 32
The Role of Personality Traits 32
Attentional Selectivity; Increases in Arousal Level
(R. Hockey) 33
Other Studies 34
The Cardiff Symposium on Psychological Effects of Noise 35
"Colloquium ueber psychologische Fragen der Laermforschung. "
(Colloquium on psychological problems in noise research. ) 36
The Psychology Institute of the Free University of Berlin.
Work by Hoermann, Mainka, Gummlich, et aL (Subjective
evaluation of noise) 38
Notes on the Influence of Noise on Communication. 39
References 41
IV
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
1 Circulatory System Reaction to Noise 2
2 Finger Pulse During Noise 3
3 Noise-Induced Changes in Skin Circulation of
Children 4
4 Effect of Broadband Noise of 95 DIN-Phon on the
Peripheral Circulation 5
5 Vegetative Function Disturbances of 1005 Noise-
Subjected Metallurgical Workers 6
v
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PHYSIOLOGICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL
EFFECTS OF NOISE
This subject has been a focus of attention by a large
number of research organizations throughout the world. This
report can give but a review of a few foreign research efforts including,
for example, the study of extra-aural effects of noise on the
organism undertaken by Dr. Gerd Jansen, the theories of psychology
of noise formulated by D. Broadbent and others, the research of
E. Ts. Andreyeva-Galinina to credit unequivocally the existence
of the "noise syndrome" and the pathogenis of noise by Dr. W.
Klosterkoetter.
The Max Planck Institute. Working with Lehmann and
others of the Max Planck Institute for Industrial Physiology in Dortmund,
Jansen conducted studies on the effect of noise on primary autonomic
/''reactions. He reported that under the influence of audible noise,
j primary vegetative reactions occur which affect the internal organs,
V 'i
• blood vessels, and heart. However, Jansen's investigations, together
with those of other workers at the Max Planck Institute, extended
to effects on secondary vegetative reactions as well.
-1-
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The secondary vegetative reaction is the conscious one that occurs
in such familiar reactions as anger. The subject in Figure 1 was
habituated to noise and consequently did not show a secondary reaction
(adrenalin release. ) The top line shows the increase in vascular
impedance caused by the constriction of the blood vessels. Blood
pressure and pulse frequency remain unaltered, but the quantity of
blood released by the heart stroke is smaller. These effects remain
during the entire noise period, and the return to normalcy takes place
slowly.
2800
2400
2000
1600
1200 70
60
90 SO
80
II "*
50
40
140
130
120
110
100
90
80
rnmHg
Test-noise: 90 Phon
Peripheral resistance
Pulse-rate
Stroke-volume
Systolic pressure
Medium pressure
Diastolic pressure
10 14 18 62 66
* Time in minutes
Figure 1. Circulatory System Reaction to Noise
Jansen constructed a finger pulse monitoring apparatus to
determine the effects of noise. Under the influence of noise the pulse
beat continues 4-5 seconds, then its amplitude decreases and vascular
constriction takes place. Meyer-Delius of this institute also
-2-
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demonstrated a progressive decrease in pulse amplitudes for noise
periods of 11, 20, and 40 seconds (Figure 2.) The implications of
Ms experiment are that recovery time is a function of noise exposure
time.
90 phon
90 phon; 3200-6400 Hi'
90 phon
90 phon
Figure 2. Finger Pulse During Noise
69
-3-
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In an effort to distinguish the primary vegetative and the fear reactions,
2
Matthias conducted experiments among school children. (Figure 3. )
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demonstrated the significance for the primary vegetative reaction of
wide-band noise, noise in which the individual frequencies are
scattered over the whole audible spectrum (Figure 4). Wide-band
noise typically, is that of industrial steam machines and ventilators.
0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 72 78 84 90S
Third Octave
0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 72 78 64 90 S
•3 90
Oklave "///A
. 3200 Hz
omean value
0 6 12 IB 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 72 78 84 90 S
n 110 -
Broadband nbise
0 6 12
18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 72 78 84 90 S
Figure 4. Effect of Broad-band Noise of 95 DIN-Phon on the
Peripheral Circulation. ^
-5-
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Jansen also conducted a quasi-sociological investigation of
the incidence of the effects of noise on two groups of metallurgical
workers characterized as much, or little, exposed to noise. Figure 5
shows the vegetative disturbances of these 1005 subjects. The greater
appearance of pallid skin and of the vascular constriction with which it
/ is related in the strong noise group is statistically significant. Heart
disturbances are more frequent in noise-subjected groups as are the
unsatisfactory mouth and throat conditions determinable by examination.
The effect of vascular constriction on the mucous membranes is such
that the workers complained of incessant thirst but the other differences
revealed do not seem statistically significant. This is an important
early contribution to the opinion that long-term exposure to noise
y I creates clinically detectable extra-aural changes.
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35
-------
The study on the influence of industrial noise on the organism
by scientists of the in^titu^e_ofJH}rgiejie_in_&ucharest presented to the
1967 symposium on Ergonomics in Machine Design is an interesting
complement to Jansen's work and reinforces his physiological results.
Jansen and Klensch found that random noise and music of an equal
4
intensity caused very similar blood circulatory responses. The
majority of subjects showed de^^ea,sed cardiac output.and
volume flow. The similarity of the effects of noise and music corroborates
Jansen's hypothesis that it is the intensity of the noise and not its
emotional connections that control the somatic responses.
The first studies at the Max Planck Institute were limited
to finger pulse amplitudes because experiments with this index are
most easily conducted. Studies of primary vegetative reactions else-
where in the system were conducted after establishment of the principle.
Their data show pulse rate changes at the end of the working day as
compared with its beginning, in both bent and erect positions, as well
as changes in the systolic and diastolic pressures in the same positions.
Rheobasic and chronaxy changes were noted at the end of the working
day. Plethysmographic investigation showed changes in time of return
after application of a cortical excitant; motor analyzer changes were
found; and cases of hypoacusia noted. The greater incidence of disorders
among workers in heavy noise (light-noise workers = 100 percent) is
given as respiratory, 190 percent; neurosensorial, 134 percent;
locomotive, 133 percent; circulatory, 111 percent. While this study
reads like an extension of Jansen, his work is not mentioned. The
references cited show that the literature of Eastern Europe tends to
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base itself on the Russian authorities in this area of investigation.
For example, the changes in diastolic and systolic pressures found
are described as corroborating the data of Chepalin and
Arkadyevskiy.
Lehmann established that dilation of the pupils occurs
under the action of noise at 95-Phon. Because the vegetative reactions
are most pronounced in sleep, the institute staff also used experimental
animals and electroencephalographic methods to investigate the effects
of noise on sleep. Jansen himself has announced his intensions to
publish further in this field.
Q
Jansen's experiments on noise-induced nervous stress
establish that the .effect of noise is to create a higher activation of
the organism, that is, a transition of the general state from trophotropy
to ergotropy. In the transition measurable reactions occur in the
heart and circulation, along with a heightening^pf the metabolism^ and
the electrical musculation potential. The pulse amplitude decreases
so sharply at 90 dB(A) that Jansen thinks this the limit of tolerance.
I^Klosterkoetter questions whether or not the phenomena observed by
Jansen might be caused by other stimuli. Jansen's study warns those
responsible for industrial hygiene that of the 74 processes investigated
"very many must be regarded in view of the critical curve as too much
to impose on workers. "
i— The research techniques used were ballistrography,
plethysmography, and EEC. Observations of healthy subjects were
l^-
conducted in a special soundproof chamber over several years. The
noise intensities were 60 dB and higher and the frequencies 200 to
^6000 Hz. (no reactions were detected at noise below 60 dB. )
-8-
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Sharpest reactions occurred at intensities of up to 80 dB at a frequency |
of 2000 Hz. , and at 90 to 110 dB at about 3000 Hz. Physiological -
reactions began to occur at intensities of 65 dB, while intensities of
75-90 dB caused distinct reactions and those occurring at 90-95 dB
are described as "threatening. "
Jansen's earlier investigations of the noise signature of
office and factory machinery to construct a noise archive, the
Versuch einer Klassifizierung von Industriegeraeuschen (Preliminary
Classification of Industrial Noises) were a preliminary to this work.
His collaboration with H. C. Micko on the study of noise on the
performance of intellectual tasks of varied difficulty did not obtain
9
fixed cause and effect relationships.
Jansen provides several alternate schemes for classifying
industrial noise, for example, a classification based on the maximum
frequency between 100 and 8000 Hz of the main noise intensity. In
classifying noises according to their origin, he describes as uncondi-
tionally damaging the noises generated by pneumatic hammers, turbofans,
crushers, compressors, concrete mixers, centrifuges, etc. He asserts
that distinct physiological changes can be created by the noise of
automatic and semi-automatic lathes, wire-drawing machines, oil-
spray burners, etc.
The main thrust of Jansen's work is the demonstration that i
noise induces a reduction in stroke volume to compensate for an
increase in peripherial resistance in the precapillary region. The
circulation does not, however, adapt to continuous exposure to noise
-9-
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by a return of the blood flow to its initial level. Peripheral blood flow
continues to be reduced as a result of continuing vasoconstriction and
increased resistance. These noise-induced vasoconstrictive, in pulse
decreased amplitudes are related to the intensity of the noise and its band
-width frequency itself is relatively unimportant. His investigations
conclude that the level of the tolerance curve is 94 dB at 1000 Hz,
falling by 1 dB per octave and that beyond these levels the possibility
of harmful effects must be anticipated. The implications for noise
control, as Jansen sees them, are that "...the results of research
clearly justify medical demands for effective noise reduction so that
health shall not be endangered. It is not uncommonly maintained by
i acoustic engineers that people can get used to noise. The research of
the last few years has shown that the autonomic nervous system at
1 least does not become accommodated in this way, even though
\ phychological adjustment may be excellent. "
\
Some representative reactions to the physiological concept
of the extra-aural workings of noise will be presented here in quotation
form, to give the feeling of immediacy not communicable in paraphrase.
Speaking for the European Public Health Committee of the Council of
Europe, L. Molitor expresses a questioning uncertainty: "Numerous
medical and psychological studies have been carried out without it
having been possible to reach an unequivocal conclusion on the harmful
effects of noise. Our fellowship holders did not succeed in obtaining
precise data of lasting organic functional and mental disturbances
attributable to the effects of noise during their investigations covering
most of the member countries. "
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However, in a report of the same year, S. Maugeri (Institute
of Labour Hygiene,Pavia Institute, Italy) is described as doing sponsored
research on the determination of the levels at which the action of noise
takes place, how and when it causes psychic and intellectual fatigue,
and the suitable ways of reducing or eliminating its neurovegetative
and psychic effects. The report goes on: "Experiments completed in
previous years have shown that noise effects a modification of cardio-
vascular dynamics, a modification of the respiratory function, and a
change in gastric secretions. Relating this problem to that of
intellectual fatigue, the subject of another series of researches, it was
observed that noise also modifies the reaction time and diminishes the
productivity of labor. These noise-induced disorders are certainly
the expression of the autonomic reactions. To study the noise-effects
mechanism, the peripheral vasoconstriction and the galvanic skin
12
resistance have been specially studied. "
J. Kubik (Chair of Hygiene and Epidemiology, Medical
Faculty, Brno ) is not certain that the theory can ever be made to
yield rigorous results: ". . . Even if the further development of the
neurophysiology and psychophysiology further clarifies the mechanism
of non-specific noise, it is obvious that the resulting effect of noise
in this sense will always depend on the inner factors (type and
functional state of the central nervous system, psychological relation
to the noise) as well as on the external factors (the physical parameters
and overall characteristics of the noise, the length of exposure and
4.-U \ 13
others.)
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On the other hand, W. Lorenz, (Throat, Nose, Ear Clinic,
Halle-Wittenberg University) accepts the extra-aural theory without
reservation: "...Noise effects cause pathological changes of the inner
ear and other pathological changes. Numerous noise-exposed workers
complain about nervous irritability, headache, and sleep disturbances.
Vegetative reactions may be manifested by nausea, vomiting, and
certain disturbances of equilibrium, which cannot be defined precisely.
The occurrence of chronic gastrides and gastro-duodenities in noise-
exposed workers has been established. Noise also exerts a negative
effect on the circulatory system and on the rhythm and depth of
respiration. It may lead to humoral and hormonal changes, and in some
14
cases, a fatal effect has been ascribed to jet-plane noise.
While the extra-aural theory continues to meet this not always
unqualified reception from the theorists of physiology, it is most
striking that it should be so very seriously considered by the hard-
headed engineers and operational managers of the two Germanys. In
December 1970, the Economics Association of the Iron and Steel
Industry (Wirtschaftsvereinigung TDisen-und Stahlindustrie* and the
Association of German Metallurgists (Verein deutscher Eisenhuttenleute)
released under their joint imprint a report "Man in Industrial Noise
from the Point of View of Industrial Medicine" that is •written by Jansen
himself and, of course, predicates the extra-aural theory. Jansen's
co-author, G. Schultz, has been identified with the preparation of the
various Stahleisenbetriebsblaetter pertinent to noise control. While
publication sponsorship does not mean blanket endorsement, obviously it
indicates the interest of people who are continually and practically concerned.
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Consideration of the possible effects of noise not related to
deafness will show the diffusion of Jansen's ideas, although again, he
is not mentioned by name: ". . . Whether or not psychic effects are
involved, the human organism reacts to noise with changes in heartbeat,
blood pressure, skin circulation, respiratory functions, gastric
secretions, and other body functions. Although a noise syndrome
cannot be assumed, a significant influence on the vegetative system that
regulates these reactions is clear. The evidence accumulates that
such noise effects can injure the state of health. At present, no clear
differentiation of the disturbances of the autonomic functions by their
origin is possible, so that the attempt to limit noise from the point of
view of its effects on the autonomic nervous system is not practicable. "
This depiction of the research area of the extra-aural effects
of noise should not be finished without calling attention to the apparently
little-known study prepared jointly by the Institute for Corticovisceral
Pathology and Theraphy of the Deutsche Akademie der Wissenschaften
(Berlin-Buch) and the Institute for Brain Research of the Academy of
Medical Sciences of the USSR entitled Laermbelaestigungen, akustische
Reiz, und neuro-vegetative Stoerungen (Leipzig, 1968). The study
team led by Nitschkoff and Kriwizka investigates in careful detail the
hyper- and hypo-functions of vegetative reactions, the disturbance of
the various regulating systems, and the histomorphological changes
occurring in specific areas. The similarity of this work with Jansen's
area of investigation does not need to be pointed out.
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This extraction from the Preface shows the animating
principle: ". . .In the course of the Technical Revolution, the problem
of noise damage, noise stress, and noise control has gained immediacy.
In the factory, on the street, on the rails, and in the air, in various
industrial environments, in urban construction, yes, even in the modern
home, noise is a constant accompaniment, so that noise trauma and
noise stress have become a more widely prevalent cause of illness
than we had realized. Physiological investigations show again and
again that noise is one of the causes of the constantly augmented flood
of stimuli to which the men of our times are exposed without protection. "
The Leningrad Medical Institute of Sanitation and Hygiene.
The studies of Andreyeva-Galinina are described in the monographs
Methodological Problems of Studying the Effect of Noise on the Organism
18 19
(1962) and The Control of Noise (1966). Early in her studies, (1957),
E. T. Andreyeva-Galinina expressed her conviction that the complex of
symptoms developed under the influence of exposure to noise could be
defined as a "noise syndrome" experienced first by the central nervous
system and then by the auditory analyzer.
The institute's studies of industrial noise conclude that changes
in the central nervous and cardiovascular systems, the auditory analyzer,
and other organs are directly related to the intensity, duration, and
spectrum of the effective noise, the initial functional state of the organism
and the accompanying deleterious industrial factors. These changes in
the nervous sytem consist of vegetative dysfunctions, astheno-neurotic
or asthenic syndromes.
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In order to standardize test conditions, the Institute abandoned
industrial testing in the field to develop soundproof chambers in which
to study the changes developing in the human organism under the effect
of a broad band stable noise of 70, 80, 90 dB, octave bands (300-600,
600-1200, 1200-2400 Hz ), noise with maximum sonic energy at frequencies
of 300, 500, 700 Hz, as well as impulse noise of moderate intensity
(60-80 dB).
Human and animal subjects were subjected to reflexometry,
attention concentration studies, electroencephalography, electrocardio-
graphy, autoradiography, pulsotaxometry, tacho-oscillography, and
determination of summation-threshold index, (oxygen consumption,
change in weight of internal organs or in total weight. ) Reflexometry
indicated the change in the latent period of the pupillomotor reaction,
the force of the effective response, and the occurrence of distorted
reactions to strong and weak irritants.
Functional loads (rhythmic photic stimulation, pharmacological
tests, EEG reactivity) were tested for objective evaluation and the
subjects' subjective state also was studied. These tests established 7
that the intensity of the reaction to a strong stimulus (90 dB) diminished I
by 26. 7% as compared to the prestimulation level, whereas it diminished]
/
by only 2% in the case of a 70 dB noise. At 90 dB there was a 12% j
increase in duration of the latency period of the oculomotor reaction, |^^
at 80 dB--an 8% increase, and at 70 dB a 1.7% increase. A weak stimulus \
induced even more distinct changes in the latency period of optical motor
reaction, particularly at 90 dB (21%); at 80 dB there was a 1. 36% difference,
and at 70 dB, only a 0. 4% difference.
Attention span decreased the most at the higher noise levels i
(90 dB. ) To determine the relationship between the changes discovered,
the spectral composition of the noise as well as its level were studied.
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Similar experiments using pulsing noise demonstrated that
greater disturbances occur especially in the central nervous system
under the effect of pulsating noise with slow (0-60 pulses per minute)
and rapid (100-1500 pulses per minute) succession of pulses. Slow
sonic stimuli with a 1000 millisecond interval between pulses lead to a
decrease in force of the effector response by 39. 1-40. 4%. The latency
period of the oculomotor reaction showed an almost 25% increase while
attention span was 13% lower. Andreyeva-Galanina considers it firmly
established that noise induces significant changes in the pulse rate,
EKG, arterial pressure and other hemodynamic indices. A. L. Myasnikov,
I. S. Ivatsevich, N. N. Pokrovskiy and other students characterize noise
as one of the etiopathogenetic factors in essential hypertension, while
E. A. Drogichina, L. L. Zaritskaia and others believe that it induces
a drop in arterial pressure.
Tacho-oscillographic and pulso-tachometric investigations
indicate that under the effect of white noise with an intensity of up to
90 dB there is a statistically reliable acceleration of the pulse, as well
as an increase in maximum and minimum arterial pressure. Noise in
octaves of 300 to 2400 Hz of the same level did not elicit significant
changes in the cardiovascular system. However, exposure to pulsating
noise with these parameters brought about even more distinct changes.
That aspect of the program of the Leningrad Medical Institute
of Sanitation and Hygiene concerned with animals can be exemplified by
B. D. Zeygel'shefer's 1966 experiments on rats and mice. He reported
a decrease in summation capacity of the central nervous system,
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especially in the mice, but no change in the muscular strength and body
weight of the animals. In view of the drop in hemoglobin and erythrocyte
content, a subsequent study was undertaken of the permeability of the
hemato-encephalic barrier for labelled phosphate and of phosphorous
compound metabolism in cerebral structures under the effect of single
and multiple exposure of albino rats. Andreyeva-Galinina and her
associates assume a general decrease in intensity of metabolism or
macromolecular phosphorus compounds in the brain structures. Electro-
physiological experiments on rabbits established that the noises used
induced marked changes in bioelectric activity of the brain structures
studied distinguishable as two phases. The changes were related to the
parameters of the stimulus. It was demonstrated that in the first (active)
phase there was prevalence of low amplitude fast activity in the cortex
(auditory, occipital, sensomotor) and subcortical (reticular formation
of the midbrain, pons, nonspecific thalamic nuclei) zones. With
continuation of the noise stimulus the cerebral action potentials became
similar. The excitation characterizing the first phase gave way to,
drowsiness and listlessness, indicative of development of the second
(passive) phase.
On the basis of the data obtained from the use of rhythmic
photic stimulation it is assumed that the decrease in physiological
liability of the nerve structures studied, is indicative of development of
generalized inhibition.
To determine the involvement of these chemoreactive systems
in the response to noise, agents that selectively stimulate the adrenore-
active systems (adrenomimetic phenamine, and the adrenolytic agent
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that blocks the former, aminasine), as well as the respective excitatory
and blocking agents for the cholinoreactive systems of the brain
(invaline and amysyl) were administered intravenously to rabbits
with electrodes imbedded in specific and nonspecific brain structures.
After this the animals were exposed to broad band stable noise with an
intensity of 120 dB. The results obtained indicate that during the first
part of the experiment there was an increase in functional activity of
the adreno-and cholino-reactive systems of the brain. With increasing
exposure these systems developed gradually increasing inhibitions of
impulse conduction. This is apparently at the basis of decrease in
activating influences of the reticular formation of the brain stem and
of the onset of inhibition.
Article 24 of the Fundamental Legislation of the USSR and the
Union Republics on Public Health states that "It is the duty of the
executive committees of the local Soviets of workers' deputies, the
other government agencies, the enterprises, the institutions, and
organizations to carry out measures to prevent, reduce the intensity of,
and eliminate noise in the industrial buildings, dwellings, and public
buildings, in the courtyards, on the streets and squares of cities and
other population centers. All citizens are obliged to observe the rules
for preventing and eliminating noise under living conditions. "
A writer in the Vestnik of the Academy of Medical Sciences of the USSR
comments that this article points to the first occasion in history in
which a state formally took upon itself the task of banning noise.
-------
Persons working under conditions of noise levels of 95 dB and
over are required by the Ministry of Health of the USSR, Regulation
No. 136 dated September 7, 1957, to undergo annual medical examinations.
The instruction is quoted in part illustrating the early influence
exercised by Andreyeva-Galinina's concept of noise: "The neurologist "~
should pay special attention to the state of the central nervous system.
As a result of prolonged exposure to high noise level, disturbances in
central nervous system functions may develop, affecting mainly the
autonomic nervous system. Thus rapid fatigue, diminished work capacity,
emotional instability, impaired memory and concentration, disturbed
sleep, headache, giddiness may occur. Impairment of superficial j
/
sensation and of vibration sense, as in polyneuritis, is also seen. _J-
The syndrome may resemble as asthenic or astheno-neurotic reaction.
Persons suffering from any significant disturbance in nervous system
function should be transferred to less noisy jobs to avoid any further
influence of high noise levels. The cardiovascular system including
the blood pressure should be examined as hypotension is often observed
21
in workers subjected to high noise levels for prolonged periods. "
Institute for Sanitation and Industrial Medicine, Klinikum
Essen of the Ruhr University. Dr. W. Klosterkoetter presents a biological
and medical examination of whether and under what conditions, noise is
potentially pathogenic. He points out that the causal connection between
the Temporary Threshold Shift and the Permanent Threshold Shift
(irreversible damage to the hair cells of the organ of Corti) is generally
assumed but that the pathogenesis is not fully explained. While it is
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statistically true that noise in increasing doses will bring about
increasing Temporary Threshold Shift which in course of time is
followed by Permanent Threshold Shift, prognostication in individual
cases is not possible. The dip at 4000 Hz that marks noise-induced
deafness can be precisely established by audiograms. Dieroff sees
the course of noise-induced deafness in these phases: many minor
complaints including noise in the ears, pressure in the head, general
depression, a long period of compensation, without major complaints,
collapse, and then saturation, when further hearing loss proceeds very
rapidly.
23
Klosterkoetter exemplifies the dimensions of the problem
for the industrial hygiene legislation of the modern state by reference
to Schwetz and Stahl's study of Austria. He quotes Dieroff as saying
that pulse noises are the most dangerous, particularly when the noise
intervals are more than 2. 4 seconds, so that the reflex contraction of
the middle ear muscle has relaxed, and the sound energy freely enters
the ear. Dieroff found peaks of 140-150 dB in metallurgical plants and
says that hand hammers frequently reach 150 dB. Serial production of
the necessary instrumentation now beginning will permit more accurate
measurements. Klosterkoetter seems to approve of the use of the CHABA
classification of noise.
Next to impulse noise, Klosterkoetter finds the problem of
noise breaks most immediately interesting. The maximum level in
noise breaks should be 70-75 dB. If this is difficult in practice, a
15-hour interval between work shifts is necessary. To calculate the
necessary break, it is necessary to know the individual times of
exposure and the noise intensity. Buerck Quotes approvingly the ISO
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proposal to limit exposure to 90 dB to 8 hours, 95 dB(A) to 2 hours -
15 minutes, 110 dB(A) to 2 seconds, and 130 dB(A) to 0.5 seconds.
Noise breaks also rest on the hypothesis that there is a
definite relationship between the Temporary and Permanent Threshold
Shifts. Klosterkoetter's investigations reveal that a one-hour white
noise of 105 dB(A) in the test frequency of 4000 Hz yielded a TTS of
48 dB; by dividing this noise into phases of 5 minutes of noise followed
by 5 minutes of break, the TTS was 41 dB; in 20 minutes noise and
25 minute break the TTS was 44 dB; in 30 minutes noise and 30 minute
break, 41 dB. The greatest decrease in Temporary Threshold Shift
occurs in a regime of short periods of noise with short 70 dB(A) breaks.
In Klosterkoetter's current experiments on the problem of the noise level,
subjects are given 10 minutes of 105 dB(A) alternating with 10 minute
pauses by 35, 70, 80, and 90 dB(A). Results show that diminishing
the break level by 10 dB in this order of testing decreases the TTS by
22 25
2-3 decibels. For other practical problems see Dieroff and Lehnhardt.
Extra-aural effects of noise. These are less certain. Lehmann
17 27
and his associates, Nitschkoff and Kriwizkaja, and Burns (less strongly)
agree that under the influence of noise, measurable changes in various
neuro-vegetative hormonal-regulation cycles can be demonstrated. These
include inhibition of the stomach peristaltic and salivary secretion,
increased metabolic rate, expansion of the pupil, temporary increase of
blood pressure, change in the resistance, and decrease of skin tempera-
ture and of the finger pulse amplitudes measured plethysomographically
as the result of constriction of the blood flow and increased release of
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catecholaminen and ketosteroids. Strengthening of the skeletal
muscle action potential was observed electromyographically, which
indicates the general tension state of a muscle group. Electroencephalo-
grams indicate the existence of a cortical "arousal effect, " an elevation
of the diffuse cortical excitation level, and with a latency period of
150-180 ms the noise specific evoked potential ("Averaging Analysis")
29
in objective audiometry. (Keidel and Spreng, Baumann and Baumann. )
EEC's taken during sleep (Richter and Jansen ) show a lack of depth.
In experiments with animals it was observed that the appear-
ance of hypertension increased the release of the adrenal hormone,
decreased the ascorbic acid content of the adrenal, and enlarged the
adrenal gland, as well as changed the composition of the blood.
32
Treptow, Hecht, and Baumann found blood sugar irregularities in
dogs after exposure to noise. These phenomena are consequences of
the tilting of the regulatory cycle Middle Brain Pituitary Adrenal Cortex
and are considered stress reactions. Klosterkoetter's own unpublished
experiments on rats did not give unequivocal results. With Hauss and
Junge-Hulsing, Klosterkoetter is now investigating the question of the
influence of noise on the metabolism of the vessel phonoplast. The
method here is to measure the S,,- in this material. Experiments with
one group demonstrated that existance of tolerance and adaptation, and
with the other, that sensitizing occurs, so that firm conclusions are
33
difficult. Hauss sees this influence a pathogenic basis mechanism for
the origin of arterioscelerosis and of coronary heart attacks.
-22-
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The physically and biochemically measurable activation
symptoms found in man under emotionally neutral conditions at 65 to
70 dB(A) can be interpretated as an expression of the cortical,
autonomous, and motor arousal reactions, that is, as an elevation
34
of the excitation levels toward ergotrophy. Jansen reports the
vegetatively controlled skin circulation to be an exceptionally sensitive
indicator, Klosterkoetter thinks that it responds too easily to other
stimuli, e. g. , mental tasks and has personally observed subjects who
react by expanding rather than constricting the blood vessels. The
central question is whether these vegetative effects occurring in the
laboratory in reaction to noise of 65 dB(A) are potentially pathogenic.
It is accepted that workers are emotionally neutral to the
noise of their working places: some are positively motivated because
they receive additional compensation for working under noise.
35
Epidemiological investigations by Jansen, Graff, Bockmuehl, and
'yL 07
Tietze, and R. E. Mark have discovered hypertense regulation dis-
orders, other cardiovascular disturbances, and definite vegetative
complaints, although none of the investigations is beyond criticism.
27
Burns thinks that it is not yet possible to impute any illness except
deafness itself to noise. The vegetative responses to noise must be
considered as arousal or activation indexes, without ascribing to them
a definite pathogenic meaning. On the other hand, the innocent character
of the noise-induced changes has also not been proved. The fact remains
that in every society there are men with different sensitivities, with
temporary or permanent health disturbances, who are overburdened
38
and exhausted. According to Richter-Heinrich and Sprung, men under
-23-
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hypertension in the early stage of regulation react with greater
sensitivity to acoustic stimuli. Apparently they have a generally
higher readiness for arousal.
Frequent disturbances of sleep by noise, however, can
certainly be seen as potentially pathogenic. After sleep disturbances,
increased vegetative disturbances and increased catecholamine release
can be observed on the next day. Noise is particularly important in the
beginning of sleep, when the Formatio reticularis demands a decreased
flow of stimuli. Individual responses differ and the threshold is not
39
always the same for the same individual. Steinicke discovered that
7at 35 dB(A), 45 dB(A), and 60 dB(A), 23%, 42%, and 80% of the subjects
were awakened.
Little is known on the ultimate pathogenic meaning of the
qualitative changes in sleep, that is, shallowness and inhibition of
the III and IV phases of sleep depth. Experiments in the sleep laboratory
and epidemiological investigations in unfavorable noise milieus are required,
but the first necessity is a determination of the parameters that will
answer the question. The cortical reactions lying under the wakening
threshold in addition are released at far lower sound levels than the
known vegetative reactions. This fact leads to another important
conclusion: noise can obviously disturb the trophotropic phases of the
circadian rhythm of the 24-hour day and stimulate it toward ergotrophy.
Too little is known about the eventual pathogenic meaning of rhythm and
relation disturbances, but we must seriously consider the hypothesis
that these are possibly risk factors, which in premorbid and morbid
phases can exert an unfavorable influence.
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Klosterkoetter sees the great hygienic problem in the psychic-
emotional reaction to noise: this presumes a cognitive process, an
evaluation and subjective processing, as a consequence of which, noise
undoubtedly causes emotional stress. This can be done by real noise,
or by noise expected, or by noise threatened in the future.
Psychological stress investigation has shown that emotional
stress in addition to subjective health complaints and behavioral reactions
also releases stereotype autonomic and biochemical reaction models like
increased blood pressure, increase of pulse and breathing, vascular
constriction, change in galvanic skin resistance, shortening of the
blood coagulation time, and increased noradrenalin, adrenalin, and
ketosteroid secretion. Individual reactions are largely determined by
the psychic and vegetative model and by social factors. The connection
of every emotional excitation with autonomic and biochemical reaction
models is explained by the narrow anatomical and functional correla-
tion of the limbic system with the hypothalamus. The causal connection
between emotion and lesion has been proved by experiments on animals
as well as man. Hypertension and the Ulcus vetriculi are well-known
33 A
examples. According to Hauss, chronic emotional stress is an
important factor in arterioscelerosis.
A portion of Klosterkoetter's concluding remarks are quoted
in full: ". . . Does noise which leads to psychic-emotional stress threaten
health? My exposition should have proved that this question must
unequivocally be answered in the affirmative, if the definition of health
given by the World Health Organization is accepted. Disturbances of
-25-
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psychic and social good health by noise are evident; they are obvious
in one's personal experience and in the observations of others. Noise
can be an emotional stress factor. We are compelled to accept at
complete value the complaints of individuals inflicted in this way,
even if the psychologists and sociologists cannot statistically work
the complaints over with the computer. It can be accepted that
disturbances of sleep, of the circadian rhythms, of the biologically
necessary trophotropic relaxation phases can lead to psychovegeta-
tive syndromes and illnesses needing treatment or that they are risk
factors. "
D. P. Davies, Department of Psychology, University of
Leicester, argues that there is "little evidence to support the view that
noise has adverse physiological effects, except on the auditory system,
and these are difficult to differentiate from the effects of age. " In
speaking of the effects of long-term exposure to high intensity noise,
40
Davies states that hearing losses with age occur primarily in the
higher frequencies. Proposals for damage risk criteria have emphasized
that the levels for higher frequencies should be set at considerably
lower intervals. Assessments of damage risk levels should be made
for each frequency. Under continued exposure, recovery from the
Temporary Threshold Shift becomes progressively weaker; permanent
hearing loss results as a consequence of the damage to the
Cortex. Davies quotes other experimenters that hearing loss is
greatest in the early part of the exposure period. However, the relation-
ship between duration of exposure and the hearing loss is different for
different frequencies. He emphasizes that Sataloff, and Vassallo, have
shown that the TTS is not an adequate forecast of the degree of impairment
-26-
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of the PTS and questions the usefulness of existing tests of
susceptibility to noise effects. ,
Since noise is a stress factor, physiological and psycholo- ]
gical changes resulting from long-term exposure to noise include /
abnormalities of endocrine and cardiovascular system functions
There is little evidence that noise produces permanent changes in \
the adrenalin system although adrenal activity during actual exposure ,
may be high. Da vies cites Ashbel ("Effect of Ultrasound and High
Frequency Noise upon the Blood Sugar Level, " Bull. Hygiene, London, V. 40,
pp 587, 1965^, pointing out that there occurs a reduction of the blood
sugar level which adversely affects the performance capacity of human \
subjects. He also calls attention to one of Jansen's studies on blood-pressure
after long-term noise exposure which coincides with other findings. These
changes follow exposure to all sorts of stresses, as shown in Graham's early
study of the North African soldiers (Lancet, l,pp 239-240, 1945. ) Broad-
band noise significantly inhibits peripheral circulation. Aubiee and
Britton (Anxiety as a Factor Affecting Routine Performance under
Auditory StimuliJ' J_. Gen. Psych. 58, 1958 ) report that anxious
subjects perform better in noise than those that are not anxious.
Broadbent (!Non-Auditory Effects of Noise',1 Advancement of Science 17; pp.
406-409, 196!),, shows persistence of peripheral vasoconstriction in
response to noise may also result in impairment of performance in tasks
requiring movement of the fingers.
Evidence about the psychological effects of long-term expo-
sure and possible damage to mental health is inconclusive, since
comparisons between individuals working in noise and quiet environments
-27-
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are likely to be contaminated in essential respects. Individuals
susceptible to high intensity noise are also likely to select themselves
out of such an environment.
In discussing short-term exposure, Davies cites E. A.
41 42
Drogichina and co-author Orlovska (1963) that even at compara-
tively low intensities (80, 70, and 65 dB in the frequency ranges
1250-2500 cps) and exposure durations of 15 minutes in one study and
110 minutes in the other^ EEG abnormalities appear in some subjects.
Soviet industrial studies, according to Krvter, may show the
possible harmful effects to man's nonauditory systems of long-term
exposures; he mentions "...the data, collected for the most part in
Russia, that indicates that workers in heavy, noisy industries
suffer unusually high percentage of circulatory, digestive, metabolic,
neurological, and psychiatric disorders. " A summary of a recent
article by Andreyeva-Galinina will represent some of the materials
Kryter has in mind.
Studying workers in nail-making shops (97-106 dB noise
intensities,) Khalimovich found that changes in the central nervous
system actually occurred before changes in the auditory analyzer and
were expressed as autonomic dysfunctions, as the noneural or
asthenic syndroms. Svistunov's examination of workers engaged in the
testing of electrical machines (94-120 dB at frequencies of 1250 and
2500 Hz ) indicated that noise reduced the ability to concentrate and
increased the latent period of the motor-conditioned reflex. Study of
humans exposed to generating pulsing noise (stampings, presses,
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weaving looms, nail-making machines) by Suvarov establish a direct
relationship between the subjects' functional state and the physical
characteristics of the noise. Andreyeva-Galinina, working with
Artakonova and Kadyskin, reported investigations recording the
bioelectrical activity of the brain which reveal phasic phenomena, the
degree of which depended on noise parameters and duration of exposure.
Her brief study concludes in this way: "Studies of the effects
of various noise parameters on man have confirmed our opinion that
noise must be studied as the etiological agent of noise disease. We are
justified in stating that noise disease is a malady of the entire organism,
the syndrome including lesions of the nervous system, the auditory
analyzer, and intense metabolic and functional disturbances in all
systems. " (Andreyeva-Galinina, E. T. S. , et_al_. Studies of the Effects
of Noise on Man. Gigiena i Sanitariya, No. 5, 1969, 70-75.)
Institute of Physiological Chemistry, Silesian Academy of
Sciences. The first in this institute's series of Investigations of
biochemical changes caused by acoustic and ultracoustic fields reports
a decrease of the glucose level and an increase of the pyruvic acid
level in blood, which is interpreted as the sign of a depressed glycolysis.
The decrease in the values of serum surface tension determined in the
majority of animals investigated is considered evidence of the mobiliza-
tion of lipids reserves. The second part of this study deals with the
influence of the sound field on total lipid level, lipoproteids, serum .
-29-
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proteins, and electrophoretic fractions in serum of guinea pigs. The
increase of total serum lipid was ascribed to lipid reserve mobilization.
An increase of serum proteins, a decrease of albumin, and a general
44
increase of all globulin fractions were observed. Serum glutamic-
oxalacetic transaminase and aldolase increased in guinea pigs exposed
to the continued action of strong acoustic and ultrasonic fields. However,
the results do not prove temporary dysfunction of the liver of the subject
45
animals. The fourth article in this series reports that no influence
of sound fields on the activity of erythrocyte- and serum-cholinesterase
of guinea pigs could be found, confirming the error of the liver impair -
46
ment hypothesis. In further corroboration is the following study on
the increased level of alanine and glutamic acids without statistically
47
significant changes in the level of aspartic acid.
The report on the influence of noise on the level of pyruvate,
oxalacetate, citrate and alpha-ketoglutarate in guinea pigs found no
changes in the level of oxalacetate and citrate but statistically significant
changes in all the others. The pyruvate acid and alpha-ketoglutarate
48
changes are interpreted as a metabolic block. Studying the influence
of mitotic activity in the corneal epithelium in guinea pigs, the authors
report that a single exposure to an acoustic field causes a decrease in
the number of dividing cells, that a marked increase in mitotic activity
occurs after 12 to 24 exposures, and that immediately after 1, 12, or
24 exposures to noise, an inverse ratio between the blood sugar level
49
and the number of dividing cells is observed. Field study of working-
30-
-------
men showed that noise and vibration affect the serum alkaline
50
phosphataxe, aldolase, and lactic dehydrogenase activities. Marked
changes in the activity of malonate dehydrogenase also were observed
in these persons. It is assumed that the stress factors noise and
vibration produce changes in the sugar metabolism of the body.
The most recent report by members of this institute studies
the effect of industrial noise on the behavior of DNA, RNA, and soluble
proteins in the liver, as well as the relative weight of this organ in the
. 51
guinea pig.
The influence of noise on efficiency. This subject
has relevance for the conduct of those modern military or
industrial tasks which call, it has been said, for "an intense watch to
make sure nothing happens. " The psychological characteristic
involved here is vigilance, the readiness to detect and respond to
certain specific changes occurring at random intervals. The experiments
typically involve the monitoring of dials and lights. The important
variable is the kind of task performed, not the kind of noise present.
--T
In general, the adverse effects of noise occur in the performance of \
\
complex tasks, its beneficial effects in work on simple tasks. The \
study of the effect of noise on the working efficiency of the Moscow
Post Office by Kovrigin and Mikheyev can be considered an illustration
of the practical utility of the study of efficiency under noise.
-31-
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Discussion of the work of Broadbent and others of the Applied
Psychology Research Unit on the investigation of the effects of noise on
efficiency can be concentrated on these topics: noise in tasks where the
signal remains constant until detected, unpaced tasks, the monitoring
of single and complex displays for infrequent signals, individual differ -
e nces, and noise in combination with other factors.
Broadbent's theory as originally formulated explained that
the subject under noise suffers brief interruptions in the intake of
information from the vigilance task. These "internal blinks" occur
after the stimulus input entered the nervous system, but before it was
analyzed. This "distractibility " hypothesis has subsequently been
modified in order to account for the beneficial effects of noise to include
the effects of arousal. His current position, apparently confirmed by
Woodhead's experiment on searching visual displays in intermittent
noise, is that a too high arousal level impairs performance because
of a reinforced tendency to make responses to frequently occurring but
inappropriate stimuli.
Traits of personality which determine individual noise
annoyance susceptibility are largely unstudied, but Davies and Hockey
think it possible that the visual vigilance of extroverts may improve
when working in noise, while introverted subjects show less change
with noise and sleep stress. In tasks requiring monitoring of various
aspects of visual display with different levels of priority, loud noise
biases attention even more strongly to parts of the task already
-32-
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receiving priority. This narrowing of attention is due to the relative
importance which subjects attach to the components of the situation.
In attentional selectivity, the major effect of noise is not a simple
improvement or impairment in overall efficiency, but a shift in the
distribution of efficiency over the various components of the task
situation. The results must be interpreted in terms of increased
selectivity of attention with arousal.
In an experiment typical of this research area, Hockey has
recently investigated the effect of loud noise on attentional selectivity.
His subjects were navy personnel aged about 17 to 25. They were
asked to keep a pointer aligned with a moving target, and, while doing
this, to report when they detected a light-flash from any of six lamps
equi-distant, at 80 cm, from the subject. Tests were conducted twice;
in noise (100 dB, and in quiet (70 dB). The tracking (the primary task )
improves in noise, as does the detection of the centrally located signals
in the monitoring task, but peripheral signals are detected less often in
noise. Results support the suggestion that loud noise affects behavioral
selectivity.
Noise increases the level of arousal in a way comparable to
57
that of anxiety or the prospect of gain. R. Hockey suggests that the
effects of material incentive can be reproduced with loud noise, "... a point
which itself may be of considerable practical value. " Experiments with
sleep-deprived subjects under conditions of noise show that the two
r o
effects do not add up and make the performance worse. In fact, they
tend to cancel each other out, and bring the level back to normal.
-33-
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An important French contribution to vigilance study, Tarrier
and Wisner, 1962, reports that rhythmical classical music at 90 dB
impaired the detection rate significantly in a 90-minute visual vigilance
59
task. Faucheux and Moscovici of the University of Paris studied
the effects of two different cognitive sets on group creativity with and
without exposure to noise. Edith Gulian of the Institute of Psychology
in Bucharest studies effects of noise on auditory vigilance tasks.
S. Domic of the Slovak Academy experiments on the effects of specific
noise on visual and auditory memory span, which support the important
hypothesis on the acoustic nature of information storage in immediate
62
memory.
The work being done in Sweden on changing attitudes toward
noise by S. Sorenson (Institute of Hygiene, Karolinska Institutet, and
the Department of Environmental Health, National Institute of Health)
and by E. Johansson (Psychology Institute, Lund) should be mentioned.
Carl-Eric Moreau has reported on the effects of auditory stimuli on
the intellectual 'functions from the point of view of the military
psychologists.
-34-
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The Symposium on the Psychological Effects of Noise,
Cardiff, September 1967. D. E. Broadbent gave the leading address
on the effects of noise on work performance. He depicted a general ,
1
state of arousal or reaction which is increased by noise and by \
incentives, but decreased by a low activity rate and by loss of sleep, j
He presented for consideration by his auditors, the new approach to
an understanding of noise and its effects by a comparison of these
effects with other stresses. For example, noise reduces the effect
of sleeplessness, so if noise is harmful,to work only in an aroused
state, some individuals may be chronically more aroused than others.
Dr. G. C. Atherley went on from the usual definition of noise as
unwanted sound to include the following parameters: unwantedness,
information content, structure and signification (innate and acquired),
Hopkinson and Rowlands applied techniques developed from their
studies on lighting, discomfort and distraction from glare to the
subjective assessment of noise. It was found that while the degree of.
correlation between the physical measurements of sound level in ,
dB(A) and subjective assessments of loudness was good, the correla- j
I
tion between sound level and annoyance, intrusiveness or distraction
i
was poor. Dr. H. Eysenck emphasized the need for careful studies I
of noise employing personality variables, particularly the extrovert-
introvert distinctions. Eysenck1 s own Maudsley Personality Inventory
is a technique of the kind recommended.
-35-
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The Cardiff conference is the second of the two English
conferences to which W. Hawel (Max Planck Institute, Dortmund.)
contributed papers on the parameters of the subjective evaluation
of noise annoyance. Like Sader, he argues that if experimental
findings are to be applied to real life, the main components of real
human life which he defines as personality, situation, and activity,
must be accounted for and controlled by the experiment. With
Starlinger, Hawel has also done work on catecholamine secretion
, . 64
under noise exposure.
Dr. D. R. Davies repeated his blanket indictment of most
studies of the physiological effects of noise as being methodologically
contaminated. However, he does credit peripheral vasoconstriction
with a longer persistence than the other responses, in line with Jansen's
theories. Dr. D. J. Ingraham reported research in progress on a
group of steel workers in South Wales to determine the incidence of
psychological disorders in noisy environments.
"Colloquium ueber psychologische Fragen der Laermforschung"
Berlin, February 1964. (At the Psychology Institute of the Free University
of Berlin under the sponsorship of the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft.)
While Dr. Hoermann of the Psychology Institute of the Berlin University
presided, Dr. M. Sader of the Mainz University Psychology Institute,
who was then in process of preparing for publication his thesis
Lautheit und Laerm (Loudness and Noise) Goettingen, 1966, gave the main
talk on ". . . The Phenomenology of Noise Stresses. " Other speakers were
W. Schonplug, Psychology Institute, Frankfurt am Main University, on
"Stimulus-Activation-Performance;" H. Zahn, Psychology Institute,
36-
-------
Free University, Berlin, on "Noise and Vigilance;" G. Jansen, Max
Planck Institut fifr Arbeitspsychologie, on "Evaluation of Sound as a
Physiological Problem;" and A. von Eiff, Bonn University Clinic for
Internal and Nervous Illnesses, on "Function-Specific Effects of
Noises of Different Time Structures. "
Sader contradicts that prevailing assumption that noise
stress is not analyzable into its components and urges the investiga-
tion of real life situation rather than laboratory tests. In general,
his emphasis is on the interrelationships of the physiological and
psychological workings of noise, as against Lehmann and Jansen, •who
separate these two categories. Sader's talk at this colloquium
commented on noise as masking desired acoustic information, noise
inducing physiological effects by psychological suggestion, noise as
an index of the overall situation, unspecific over sensitivity toward
noise, and noise as an overall concept for primarily non-acoustic
phenomena. In an interesting digression, Schopenhauer is discussed
as an example of noise over sensitivity.
Schonpflug describes his study as an attempt to unite various
aspects of the activation and motivation theories. Zahm's talk is,
in effect, a survey of the literature on vigilance and attention, reviewing
the expectancy, activation and filter theories, and then discussing the
place of noise within these theories. In the animated discussion after
this report, the weight of opinion seems to fall on Broadbent's filter
A7
theory. A. W. von Eiff has been associated with the electromyography
-37-
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of the muscular potential in noise research (as opposed to Jansen and
Lehmann's emphasis on the finger-pulse amplitude. ) He restated his
opinion to the colloquium that not all body functions respond to noise,
that the order or sequence in which noise is administered in experiments
is of importance in the total situation.
Work of the Psychology Institute of the Free University of
Berlin. In a recent article, Hoermann, Mainka, and Gummlich return
to the controversy over the possible relationships between the physiolo-
gical and psychological reactions to noise of different subjective values.
They begin by repeating Sader's thesis that such a relationship does
exist and its determination should be an immediate task of noise research.
For subjects in Group A, noise was the signal that they had
made an error in a pseudotracking task, for those in Group B, the same
noise was a signal that they were on target in their task. A third group
heard the same noise without a task. The dependent variables were:
(a) temporary threshold shift (TTS); (b) muscle tension as measured by
electromyography; (c) subjective scaling of the amount of annoyance and
disturbance induced by the noise and of the general sensitivity for noise
of the subjects. Subjects who invest the noise with a positive emotional
valence feel themselves less disturbed, less annoyed and, in general,
less susceptible to noise than subjects who receive the same noise with
negative valence. Muscle tension is highest for Group A, less for Group B,
least for Group C. The amount of TTS is dependent upon the valence of
the noise: noise with negative valence results in a TTS of 18.1 dB, whereas
noise of neutral or positive valence leads to a TTS of only 11. 0 or psycho-
logical and physiological reactions to noise of different subjective valence
(TTS and EMG). 7
-38-
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With U. Osterkamp, Hoermann has also written "On the Influence of
Continued Noise on the Organization of the Memory, and on "On the
Influence of Interrupted Noise on the Organization of the Memory, "
(Zeitschrift fuer exp. und angewandte Psychologic, vol. 13, 1966).
They conclude that the memory-organizing tendencies represented by
clustering are influenced by noise* Under noise, persons with high
susceptibility recall less and their recalls are less organized and require
more time. With E. Todt, Hoermann has written "Noise and Learning, "
Zeitschrift fuer exp. angewandte Psychologie. With E. Luebcke, Gummlich
has •written "Evaluating the Annoyance of Changing Noise Levels, "
Sc halite chnik. and with Luebcke and Mittag, "Attempts at a Subjective
Evaluation of Noise" for the Fifth International Congress for Acoustics, 5th,
Liege, 1965.
Notes on the influence of noise on communication. Studies on
systems in which ease of effective communication is important have
been executed. In general they can be said to confirm the subjective
opinion that non-masking noise makes the task of speech perception more
difficult. Broadbent has demonstrated that speech distortion or noise by
requiring the use of extra-capacity in deciphering speech signals, reduces
capacity for the performance of other on-going tasks. Experiments
proved that while the two types of speech distortion tested set a similar
top limit to articulation test performance, one type achieved that level more
-39 -
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easily than the other, this has implications for the design and communications
links with drivers and pilots. Tests devised by P. M. Rabbitt of the
Applied Psychology Research Unit to investigate the ability to process
the words received under non-masking noise on a cognitive level should
also be mentioned. W.I. Acton has recently described an experiment
in assessing the possibility of failure of speech communication due to
u 68
hearing loss.
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REFERENCES
1. Lehmann, G. , Meyer-Delius, J., Gefaessreaktionen der Koerper-
peripherie bei Schalleinwirkung. Forschungsberichte des
Wirtschafts und Verkehrsministerium Nordrhein Westfalen,
No. 517,Koeln, 1958.
2. Matthias, S. , G. Jansen., "Peripheral Vascular Disorders in
Children by Noise, " Zeitschrift fuer angewandte Physiologic,
V. 16, p. 217, 1962.
3. Jansen, G. , Rey, P., "Einfluss der Bandbreite eines Geraeusches
auf die Staerke vegetativer Reaktionen, " Zeitschrift fuer ajngewandte
Physiologies V. 19, pp. 209-217, 1962.
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11. Molitor, L., Effects of Noise on Health. Luxembourg, 1968.
12. Commission of the European Communities. Richerche di
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13. Kubik, J., "K otazce nespecifickeho vlivu hluku na lidsky organismus, "
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15. Jansen, G. , Schulz, G. , "Der Mensch im Industrielaerm aus
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Verlag Tribune, 1969.
17. Nitschkoff, S. , Kriwizkaja, G., Laermbelastung, akustischer Reiz
und neurovegetative Stoerungen. Leipzig, 1968.
18. Andreyeva-Galanina, E. Ts. , ±i_5li. Metodicheskiye voprosy i
izucheniya deistviya sh-qma na organizm. Moscow, 1966.
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25. Lehnhardt, E., "Industrial Hearing Damages" (German),. Archiv
klinischer experimentellen Ohren-Nasen-und Kehlkopfheilkunde,
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26. Lehmann, G. , J. T. Hamm, Beeinflussung vegetativer Funktionen
des Menschen durch Geraeusche. Forschungbericht NRW 517,
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27. Burns, W., Noise and Man. Philadelphia, 1968.
28. Keidel, W. D. , Spreng, M., "Separation of the Cerebroaudiogram,
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29. Baumann, H. , Baumann, R., "On the Signal Processing of the Brain
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30. Richter, H. R., "Sleep Disturbance from Noise, " (German)
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31. Jansen, G. , Schulze, J., "Examples of Sleep Disturbances from
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37. Mark, R. E., "The Significance of Noise for Vegetative Regulatory
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43. Grzesik, J. , Jozkiewicz, S. , _et al. "Investigations of the Influence
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44. Jozkiewicz, S. , Stanosek, J. , _et _al_. "Investigations of the
Influence of Acoustic and Ultraacoustic Field on Biochemical
Changes. II. The Influence of Total Lipid Level, Lipoproteids,
Serum Proteins and Electrophoretic Fractions in Serum of
Guinea Pigs, " Ibid, pp. 223-229.
45. Grzesik, J. , Jozkiewicz, S. , _et jil_. "Studies on the Effect of the
Acoustic and Ultrasonic Fields on Biochemical Processes. III.
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and Aldolase Activities in Guinea Pigs. " Ibid. , 12, pp. 129-132, 1961.
46. Jozkiewicz, S. , Kraus, M., "Investigations on the Influence of
Acoustic and Ultraacroustic Field on Biochemical Changes. IV.
The Influence on the Activity of Erythrocyte- and Serum-Cholinesterase
of Guinea Pigs," Ibid. , 12, pp. 291-294, 1961.
47. Stanosek, J., "Investigations on the Influence of Acoustic and
Ultraacoustic Field on Biochemical Changes. V. The Influence
on the Activity of SCOT and SGPT, the Level of Alanin, Glutamic
and Aspartic Acid in Serum of Guinea Pigs," Ibid. , 12, pp. 469-477,
J. 7 OJ.,
48. Grzesik, J., "Investigations on the Influence of Acoustic and Ultra-
acoustic Fields on Biochemical Changes. VI. The Influence of the
Level of Pyruvate, Oxalacetate, and Alpha Ketoglutarate in the
Blood of Guinea Pigs, " Ibid. , 12, pp. 757-760, 1961.
49. Nowak, A. t "Investigation of the Influence of Acoustic and Ultra-
acoustic Fields on Biochemical Process. VII. Influence of
Mitotil Activity in the Corneal Epithelium in Guinea Pigs,"
Ibid. , 12, pp. 901-904, 1961.
50. Gregorczyk, J., Lewandowska-Tokarz. r "The Effects of Physical
Work and Work Under Conditions of Noise and Vibration on the
Human Body. Behavior of Serum Alkaline Phosphatase, Aldolase
and Lactic Dehydrogenase Activities," Ibid. , 16, pp. 701-707, 1965.
51. Stanosek, J. , Krzoska, K. et_aJL_ "Effect of Stress Stimuli on
Metabolism of Laboratory Animals. Effect of Industrial Noise on
the Behavior of DNA, RNA, and Soluble Proteins in the Liver, as
well as the Relative Weight of this Organ in the Guinea Pig,"
Archiv fuer Arbeitsmedjzin, vol. 26, pp. 216-223, 1970.
52. Kovrigin, S. , Mikheyev, A. , "The Effect of Noise Level on Working
Efficiency, " Gigiena i Sanitariya, Vol. 30, No. 4, pp. 28-32, 1965.
53. Broadbent, D., "Some Effects of Noise on Visual Performance,"
Journal of Experimental Psychology 6. pp. 1-2, 1954.
54. Woodhead, M. M., "Searching a Visual Display in Intermittent
Noise." Journal of Sound and Vibration, No. 1, pp. 157-161 1964.
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55. Hockey, R. , "Effects of Noise and Doubling the Signal Frequency
on Individual Differences in Visual Vigilance Performance"
British Journal of Psychology, Vol. 57, pp 381-389, 1966.
56. Hockey, R. , Journal of Experimental Psychology, Pt. 1, No. 22,
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57. Hockey, R. , Halloway, C., "Noise and Efficiency" New Scientist,
No. 42, pp. 245-48, 1969.
58. Wilkinson, R. T., Interaction of Noise with Knowledge of Results
and Sleep Deprivation" Journal of Experimental Psychology,
No. 66, pp. 332-337, 1963.
59. Tarrier, C. and Wisner, A., "Effects of the Administration of
Meaningful and Meaningless Noise During a Vigilance Task, "
Travail Humain, No. 25, pp. 1-28, 1962.
60. Faucheux, C. , and Moscovici, S. , (University of Paris). Studies
in Group Creativity. Noise and Complexity in the Inferential
Processes." Human Relations, No. 21, pp. 29-40, 1968.
61. Gulian, E., "Effects of Noise in EEC Latency Changes in an
Auditory Vigilance Task, " Electroenceph. Clin. Neurophysiology,
No. 27, p. 637, December 1969.
62. 'Effects of Noise on Arousal Level in Auditory Vigilance," A eta
Psychologia, No. 33, pp. 381-393, 1970.
63. Sorenson, S., "On the Possibility of Changing the Annoyance Reaction
to Noise by Changing the Attitude to the Source of Annoyance. "
Mordisk Hygiensisk Tidskrift. Supplementum 1, Stockholm, 1970.
Moreau, Carl-Eric, Effekter av auditori stimulation pa vissa
intellektuella functioner. Stockholm, 1967. (Militarpsykologiska
institutet. Rapport No. 60. )
64. Hawel, W., "Personality, Situation, Activity and Sound as
parameters of the Subjective Evaluation of the Annoyance of Noise, "
Zeitschrift fuer angewandte Physiologie, No. 24, 1967.
65. Colloquium ueber die psychologische Fragen der Laerm-Forschung.
Berlin, 1966.
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66. Schonpflug, W. , Schafer, M., "Retention und Aktivation bei
akustischer Zusatzreizung, " Zeitschrift fuer exp. angewandte
Psychologie, No. 9, pp. 452-464, 1962.
67. von Eiff, A. W., "Zentralbeeinflussung des Elekromyogramms,"
Deutsche Gesellschaft isun. Medizin. 71 Kongress, 1965.
68. Acton, W.I., Ergonomics, pp. 546-554, September 1970.
69. Meyer-Delius, J. , "Winkung des Schalls auf den Menschen, "
Automobiltechnische Zeitschrift, n. 59, p. 293, 1957.
70. Jansen, G. , "Adverse Effects of Noise on Iron and Steel Workers,
(German) Stahl und Eisen, n. 81, pp. 217-220, 1961.
71. Psychologische Forschung, n. 4, pp. 289-309, 1970.
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