Draft
2/18/86
AMBIENT AQUATIC LIFE WATER QUALITY CRITERIA FOR
NICKEL
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LABORATORIES
DULUTH, MINNESOTA
NARRAGANSETT, RHODE ISLAND
-------
NOTICES
This document has been reviewed by Che Criteria and Standards Division,
Office of Water Regulations and Standards, U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, and approved for publication.
Mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute
endorsement or recommendation for use.
This document is available to the public through the National Technical
Information Service (NTIS), 5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield, VA 22161.
11
-------
FOREWORD
Section 304(a)(l) of the Clean Water Act of 1977 (P.L. 95-217)
requires the Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency to
publish water quality criteria that accurately reflect the latest
scientific knowledge on the kind and extent of all identifiable effects
on health and welfare that might be expected from the presence of pollutants
in any body of water, including ground water. This document is a revision
of proposed criteria based upon a consideration of comments received from
other Federal agencies, State agencies, special interest groups, and
individual scientists. Criteria contained in this document replace
any previously published EPA aquatic life criteria for the same pollutant(s).
The term "water quality criteria" is used in two sections of the
Clean Water Act, section 304(a)(l) and section 303(c)(2). The term has a
different program impact in each section. In section 304, the term
represents a non-regulatory, scientific assessment of ecological effects.
Criteria presented in this document are such scientific assessments.
If water quality criteria associated with specific stream uses are adopted
by a State as water quality standards under section 303, they become
enforceable maximum acceptable pollutant concentrations in ambient waters
within that State. Water quality criteria adopted in State water quality
standards could have the same numerical values as criteria developed
under section 304. However, in many situations States might want to
adjust water quality criteria developed under section 304 to reflect
local environmental conditions and human exposure patterns before incorporation
into water quality standards. It is not until their adoption as part of
State water quality standards that criteria become regulatory.
Guidelines to assist States in the modification of criteria presented
in this document, in the development of water quality standards, and in
other water-related programs of this Agency, have been developed by EPA.
James M. Conlon
Acting Director
Office of Water Regulations and Standards
-------
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Loren J. Larson
Judy L. Crane
(freshwater authors)
University of Wisconsin-Superior
Superior, Wisconsin
Jeffrey L. Hyland
Robert E. HilLman
(saltwater authors)
Battelle New England Laboratory
Duxbury, Massachusetts
Charles E. Stephan
(document coordinator)
Environmental Research Laboratory
Duluth, Minnesota
David J. Hansen
(saltwater coordinator)
Environmental Research Laboratory
Narragansett, Rhode Island
Clerical Support:
Terry L. Highland
Shelley A. Heintz
IV
-------
CONTENTS
Page
Foreword ill
Acknowledgments iv
Tables vi
Introduction 1
Acute Toxicity to Aquatic Animals 5
Chronic Toxicity to Aquatic Animals 8
Toxicity to Aquatic Plants 10
Bioaccumulation 11
Other Data 12
Unused Data 14
Summary 15
National Criteria 16
References 50
-------
TABLES
Page
1. Acute Toxicity of Nickel to Aquatic Animals 19
2. Chronic Toxicity of Nickel To Aquatic Animals 29
3. Ranked Genus Mean Acute Values with Species Mean Acute-Chronic
Ratios 31
4. Toxicity of Nickel to Aquatic Plants 35
5. Bioaccumulation of Nickel by Aquatic Organisms 37
6. Other Data on Effects of Nickel on Aquatic Organisms 39
-------
Introduction*
Nickel is one of the most common of the heavy metals occurring in
surface waters (Forstner 1984; Hutchinson et al. 1975; Kopp and Kroner 1967;
Martin and Knauer 1972; Mathis and Cummings 1973; McCabe et al. 1970; Portman
1972; Solbe 1973; Trollope and Evans 1976; Young 1982). Although nickel
can exist in oxidation states of -1, 0, +1, +2, +3, and +4, under usual
conditions in surface waters the divalent cation greatly predominates
and is generally considered the most toxic. Alkalinity, hardness, salinity,
pH, temperature, and complexing and adsorbing agents such as humic acids
influence the oxidation state, toxicity, and availability of the total
nickel pool.
Natural sources of the nickel in surface waters include weathering
of rocks, inflow of particulate matter, and precipitation. Anthropogenic
sources of nickel include industries, such as electroplating and smelting,
and the burning of coal and other fossil fuels. Although fly ash can
contain as much as 960 Mg/g (Swaine 1980), lake restoration projects have
experimented with the use of fly ash to remove nutrients.
Mechanisms of nickel toxicity are varied and complex (Mushak 1980) ,
and as with other heavy metals, significant effects occur at cell membranes
and membranous tissues, such as gills. In fish, hematological effects
such as hyperglycemia, hepatic glycogenolysis, lymphopenia, and erythrocytosis
have been reported in association with nickel intoxication (Agrawal et
al. 1979; Chaudhry 1984; Gill and Pant 1981).
* An understanding of the "Guidelines for Deriving Numerical National Water
Quality Criteria for the Protection of Aquatic Organisms and Their Uses"
(Stephan et al. 1985), hereafter referred to as the Guidelines, is necessary
in order to understand the following text, tables, and calculations.
-------
Because of the variety of forms of nickel (Callahan et al. 1979;
Nriagu 1980) and lack of definitive information about their relative
toxicities, no available analytical measurement is known to be ideal for
expressing aquatic life criteria for nickel. Previous aquatic life
criteria for nickel (U.S. EPA 1980) were expressed in terms of total
recoverable nickel (U.S. EPA 1983a), but this measurement is probably too
rigorous in some situations. Acid-soluble nickel (operationally defined
as the nickel that passes through a 0.45 ^m membrane filter after the
sample is acidified to pH = 1.5 to 2.0 with nitric acid) is probably the
best measurement at the present for the following reasons:
1. This measurement is compatible with nearly all available data
concerning toxicity of nickel to, and bioaccumulation of nickel by,
aquatic organisms. No test results were rejected just because it was
likely that they would have been substantially different if they had
been reported in terms of acid-soluble nickel. For example, results
reported in terms of dissolved nickel would not have been used if the
concentration of precipitated nickel had been substantial.
2. On samples of ambient water, measurement of acid-soluble nickel will
probably measure all forms of nickel that are toxic to aquatic life or
can be readily converted to toxic forms under natural conditions. In
addition, this measurement probably will not measure several forms, such
as nickel that is occluded in minerals, clays, and sand or is strongly
sorbed to particulate matter, that are not toxic and are not likely
to become toxic under natural conditions. Although this measurement
(and many others) will measure soluble complexed forms of nickel,
such as the EDTA complex of nickel, that probably have low toxicities
-------
to aquatic life, concentrations of these forms probably are negligible
in most ambient water.
3. Although water quality criteria apply to ambient water, the measurement
used to express criteria is likely to be used to measure nickel in aqueous
effluents. Measurement of acid-soluble nickel probably will be applicable
to effluents because it will measure precipitates, such as carbonate
and hydroxide precipitates of nickel, that might exist in an effluent
and dissolve when the effluent is diluted with receiving water. If
desired, dilution of effluent with receiving water before measurement
of acid-soluble nickel might be used to determine whether the receiving
water can decrease the concentration of acid-soluble nickel because
of sorption.
4. The acid-soluble measurement is probably useful for most metals, thus
minimizing the number of samples and procedures that are necessary.
5. The acid-soluble measurement does not require filtration at the time
of collection, as does the dissolved measurement.
6., The only treatment required at the time of collection is preservation
by acidification to pH = 1.5 to 2.0, similar to that required for the
total recoverable measurement.
7. Durations of 10 minutes to 24 hours between acidification and filtration
of most samples of ambient water probably will not affect the result
substantially..
8. The carbonate system has a much higher buffer capacity from pH = 1.5 to
2.0 than it does from pH = 4 to 9 (Weber and Stumm 1963).
9. Differences in pH within the range of 1.5 to 2.0 probably will not
affect the result substantially.
-------
10. The acid-soluble measurement does not require a digestion step, as does
the total recoverable measurement.
11. After acidification and filtration of the sample to isolate the acid-
soluble nickel, the analysis can be performed using either atomic
absorption spectrophotometric or ICP-atomic emission spectrometric
analysis (U.S. EPA 1983a), as with the total recoverable measurement.
Thus, expressing aquatic life criteria for nickel in terms of the acid-
soluble measurement has both toxicological and practical advantages. On
the other hand, because no measurement is known to be ideal for expressing
aquatic life criteria for nickel or for measuring nickel in ambient water
or aqueous effluents, measurement of both acid-soluble nickel and total
recoverable nickel in ambient water or effluent or both might be useful.
For example, there might be cause for concern if total recoverable nickel
is much above an applicable limit, even though acid-soluble nickel is
below the limit.
Unless otherwise noted, all concentrations reported herein are expected
to be essentially equivalent to acid-soluble nickel concentrations. All
concentrations are expressed as nickel, not as the chemical tested. The
criteria presented herein supersede previous national aquatic life water
quality criteria for nickel (U.S. EPA 1976, 1980) because these new
criteria were derived using improved procedures and additional information.
Whenever adequately justified, a national criterion may be replaced by a
site-specific criterion (U.S. EPA 1983b), which may include not only
site-specific criterion concentrations (U.S. EPA 1983c), but also site-specific
durations of averaging periods and site-specific frequencies of allowed
excursions (U.S. EPA 1985). The latest literature search for information
for this document was conducted in February, 1985; some newer information
was also used.
4
-------
Acute Toxicity to Aquatic Animals
Lind et al. (manuscript) conducted studies on the effects of both
hardness and TOC on the acute toxicity of nickel to both Daphnia pulicaria
and the fathead minnow (Table 6). With both species, hardness was the
only significantly correlated parameter. Nebeker et al. (1985) reported
that rainbow trout were more sensitive when 12-months old than when 3-months
old. Rehwoldt et al. (1973) observed that embryos were more sensitive
than adult snails. One of the most sensitive vertebrate species is the
narrow-mouthed toad. In 7-day tests, the EC50 with embryos and larvae
was 30 ug/L (Table 6). The 8-day EC50 with embryos and larvae of the
marbled salamander was 410 to 420 ng/L (Birge and Black 1980; Birge et al.
1978). With channel catfish, Birge and Black (1980) and Birge et al.
(1981) obtained a 7-day EC50 of 710 (Jg/L with embryos and larvae, whereas
Wilford (1966) obtained a 48-hr LC50 of 36,840 pg/L with 1 to 2-gram fish.
Many factors might affect the results of tests of the toxicity of
nickel to aquatic organisms (Sprague, 1985), but water quality criteria
can quantitatively take into account such a factor, only if enough data
are available to show that the factor similarly affects the results of
tests with a variety of species. Hardness is often thought of as having
a major effect on the toxicity of nickel in fresh water although the
observed effect is probably due to one or more of a number of usually
interrelated ions, such as hydroxide, carbonate, calcium, and magnesium.
Hardness (expressed as mg CaC03/L) is used here as a surrogate for the
ions that affect the results of toxicity tests on nickel. An analysis
of covariance (Dixon and Brown 1979; Neter and Wasserman 1974) was performed
using the natural logarithm of the acute value as the dependent variable,
species as the treatment or grouping variable, and the natural logarithm
-------
of hardness as Che covariate or independent variable. This analysis of
covariance model was fit to the data in Table 1 for the four species for
which acute values are available over a range of hardness such that the
highest hardness is at least three times the lowest and the highest is
also at least 100 mg/L higher than the lowest. The slopes for all four
species are between 0.69 and 1.19 (see end of Table 1) and are close to the
slope of 1.0 that is expected on the basis that nickel, calcium, magnesium,
and carbonate all have a charge of two. An F-test showed that, under the
assumption of equality of slopes, the probability of obtaining four slopes
as dissimilar as these is P = 0.26. This was interpreted as indicating
that it is not unreasonable to assume that the slopes for these four species
are the same..
Where possible, the pooled slope of 0.8460 was used to adjust the
acute values in Table 1 to hardness = 50 mg/L. Species Mean Acute Values
were calculated as geometric means of the adjusted acute values. Genus Mean
Acute Values at hardness = 50 mg/L were then calculated as geometric
means of the available freshwater Species Mean Acute Values (Table 3).
Of the eighteen genera for which freshwater acute values are available,
the most sensitive genus, Daphnia, was 29 times more sensitive than the
most resistant, Fundulus. The freshwater Final Acute Value for nickel at
hardness = 50 mg/L was calculated to be 1,578 pg/L using the procedure
described in the Guidelines and the Genus Mean Acute Values in Table 3.
Thus, the freshwater Criterion Maximum Concentration (in pg/L) =
(0.8460(ln(hardness)]+3.3612)
e
The acute toxicity of nickel to saltwater organisms has been determined
with 18 species of invertebrates and 4 species of fish (Table 1). The
LCSOs and ECSOs for invertebrates range from 151.7 pg/L for juveniles of
-------
the mysid Heteromysis formosa (Gentile et al. 1982) to 1,100,000 pg/L for
late juvenile to adult stages of the clam Macoma balthica (Bryant et al.
1985). Fish are not as sensitive or as resistant to nickel. The 96-hr
LC50s range from 7,958 Mg/L f°r larval stages of the Atlantic silverside,
Menidia menidia (Cardin 1985) to 350,000 (jg/L for adult stages of the
mummichog, Fundulus heteroclitus (Eisler and Hennekey 1977).
Although data are limited, relationships might exist between both
salinity and temperature and the toxicity of nickel to some saltwater species.
For example, the LC50 for the mummichog is 55,000 ug/L at a salinity of
6.9 g/kg, and 175,000 (jg/L at a salinity of 21.6 g/kg (Dorfman 1977). In
a series of tests with the amphipod, Corophium volutator (Bryant et al.
1985), the LC50 increased with salinity at 5s C, 10* C, and 15" C. At
salinities of 5, 10, and 15 g/kg, temperature did not seem to affect the
LC50, but at salinities of 25 and 35 g/kg, the LC50 decreased as temperature
increased. Bryant et al. (1985) found similar effects of salinity and
temperature on nickel toxicity with the clam Macoma balthica (Table 6).
Regressions of toxicity on salinity for the above data show strong correlations,
However, analysis of covariance reveals that the slopes for the individual
species are too dissimilar (P < 0.05) to justify expressing nickel toxicity
as a function of salinity.
-------
Of the nineteen saltwater genera for which acute values are available,
the most sensitive genus, Heteromysis, was over 2,000 times more sensitive
than the most resistant, Mya (Table 3). Acute values are available for
more than one species in each of three genera, and the range of Species
Mean Acute Values within each genus is less than a factor of 4.8. Genus
Mean Acute Values for the four most sensitive genera, Heteromysis,
Mercenaria, Mysidopsis, and Crassest rea, were within a factor of 7.8 even
though the acute tests were conducted with juveniles of the crustaceans
and with embryos of the bivalves. The saltwater Final Acute Value was
calculated to be 141.9
Chronic Toxicity to Aquatic Animals
Data are available on the freshwater chronic toxicity of nickel to
a cladoceran, a caddisfly, and two species of fish (Table 2). Nebeker
et al. (1985) conducted two early life-stage tests beginning with rainbow
trout embryos 4 hours after fertilization and one with trout embryos 25
days after fertilization. In the first test weight was significantly
reduced by all tested concentrations including the lowest of 35 ^ig/L. In
the second test weight was significantly reduced by 62 and 431 |Jg/L, but
not by 35, 134, and 238 \ig/l» In this second test survival was reduced
at nickel concentrations of 134 Mg/L and higher. In the third test weight
was significantly reduced at 431 Mg/L and higher, but the reduction in
survival was significant only at 1,680 |Jg/L and higher.
The influence of hardness on chronic toxicity of nickel was investigated
by Chapman et al . (manuscript). In life-cycle tests with Daphnia magna,
they observed an increase in chronic values with increased hardness.
Least squares regression of ln[chronic value] on ln[hardness] produced a
slope of 2.3007 with wide confidence limits (Table 2). A similar
8
-------
regression with data for the fathead minnow produced a slope of 0.5706,
but confidence limits could not be calculated because only two points were
available for use in the regression. An F-test showed that, under the
assumption of equality of slopes, the probability of obtaining two
slopes as dissimilar as these is P a 0.19. This was interpreted as
indicating that it is not unreasonable to assume that the two slopes are
the aame. The pooled slope is 1.3418 with 95% confidence limits of
-1.3922 and 4.0760. The confidence limits on the pooled acute slope are
well within the confidence limits on the pooled chronic slope.
The mysid Mysidopsis bahia is the only saltwater species with which
an acceptable chronic test has been conducted on nickel (Table 2).
Chronic exposure to nickel resulted in a reduced survival and number of
young at 141 pg/L and above but not at 61 pg/L and lower (Lussier et al.
1985). Thus the chronic value for nickel with this species is 92.74
>ig/L and the acute-chronic ratio is 5.478.
The three available species mean acute-chronic ratios range from 5.478 to
35.58 and were all determined with species that are acutely sensitive to
nickel (Table 3). The Final Acute-Chronic Ratio of 17.99 was calculated
as the geometric mean of the three ratios. Division of the freshwater
Final Acute Value by the Final Acute-Chronic Ratio results in a freshwater
Final Chronic Value of 87.72 ug/L at hardness = 50 mg/L. Some data
(Tables 2 and 6) concerning the chronic toxicity of nickel to rainbow
trout indicate that embryos and larvae of this species will probably be
affected at this concentration, whereas other data (Table 2) indicate
that embryos and larvae of the species might not be adversely affected.
Use of an acute-chronic ratio that is independent of hardness
-------
is equivalent to assuming that the chronic slope is equal to the acute
slope. Thus the freshwater Final Chronic Value (in yg/L) =
(0.8460[ln(hardness) 1+1.645)
e
Division of the saltwater Final Acute Value by 17.99 results in a
saltwater Final Chronic Value of 7.888 Mg/L. Three of the four acutely
most sensitive saltwater species are in the same family as the species
with which the saltwater acute-chronic ratio was determined. In addition,
the two other most sensitive species are bivalve molluscs for which the
acute values were obtained from tests on embryos and larvae.
Toxicity to Aquatic Plants
Data on the toxicity of nickel to aquatic plants are found in Table 4.
Nickel concentrations resulting in a 40-601 reduction in growth of fresh-
water algae range from 50 ug/L for the green algae, Scenedesmus acuminatz,
to 5,000 Mg/L for the green algae, Ankistrodesmus falcatus and Chlorbcoccum
sp. Wang and Wood (1984) indicate that toxicity of nickel to plants is
pH dependent. Although lack of hardness values makes comparisons difficult,
general comparison of data in Table 4 with chronic toxicity data in Table 2
suggests that nickel concentrations high enough to produce chronic effects
in freshwater animals will also have deteriorative effects on freshwater
algal populations.
Patrick et al . (1975) found a decrease in diatom diversity and a
shift to green and blue-green algae as a community effect of nickel
exposure. Their findings are in agreement of a field study by Spencer and
Greene (1981) in which an increase in blue-green algae was observed. Using
EDTA to manipulate Ni+^ concentrations, Spencer and Nichols (1983) reported
algal growth to be inversely related to free divalent nickel and independent
of total nickel concentrations.
10
-------
Brown and Rattigan (1979) studied nickel toxicity Co two freshwater
vascular plants, duck weed and Elodea (Anacharis). Despite the presence
of a thick cuticle, which protects it from many pollutants (e.g., herbicides),
duck weed was much more susceptible to nickel than was Elodea.
Data on the toxicity of nickel to saltwater plants and algae are
found in Tables 4 and 6. The test with the giant kelp, Macrocystis
pyrifera, lasted four days and resulted in a 50% reduction in photosynthesis
at 2,000 Mg/L (Clendenning and North 1959). The lowest concentrations
affecting growth of phytoplankton ranged from 17 to 1,800 Mg/L and were
salinity and temperature dependent (Wilson and Freeberg 1980). Concentrations
that affect most saltwater plants apparently are higher than those that are
chronically toxic to saltwater animals.
Bioaccumulation
Data are available on bioaccumulation of nickel by a
freshwater alga, a cladoceran, and two species of fish (Table 5). The lowest
factor, 0.8, was obtained for muscle of rainbow trout. All other studies
where conducted on whole body samples and the factors ranged from 9.3 for
the alga to 193 for the cladoceran. In studies with the fathead minnow,
Lind et al. (Manuscript) found that the BCF decreased as the concentration
of nickel in water increased. This same trend was observed by Hall
(1982), who studied the accumulation of nickel in various tissues of
Daphnia magna and used a model to describe uptake at different exposure
concentrations. Jennett et al. (1982) examined physical and biological
variables affecting uptake by algae. Although their study does not
demonstrate that steady-state was attained, Taylor and Crowder (1983)
11
-------
studied differential uptake of nickel of various portions of an emergent
aquatic plant, the cattail.
Data on bioaccumulation of nickel by saltwater organisms are available
for two species of algae and two species of bivalves (Table 5). BCFs for
algae collected from the field are 675 for the rockweed, Fucus vesiculosis.
and 458.3 for Ascophyllum nodosum (Foster 1976). BCFs for bivalves
exposed for 9 days in the laboratory were 472.7 and 328.6 for the blue mussel
and 458.1 and 261.8 for the Eastern oyster (Zaroogian and Johnson 1984).
No U.S. FDA action level or other maximum acceptable concentration in
tissue is available for nickel, and, therefore, no Final Residue Value
can be calculated.
Other Data
Data in Table 6 suggest a high toxicity to nickel in the single-celled
organisms. Bringmann and Kuhn (1959a,b; 1977a; 1979; 1980a,b; 1981)
reported that concentrations of 2.5 to 1,500 |Jg/L resulted in incipient
inhibition of algae, bacteria, and protozoans. Babich and Stotzky (1983)
observed delayed effects after a 24-hr exposure.
Willford (1966) reported 48-hr LCSOs for six fishes tested in the
same water. Although the fish differed in size, neither this nor taxonomic
differences produced a clear trend in relative toxicity. Blaylock and
Frank (1979) observed LCSOs for carp larva at 3 and 10.5 days to be 8,460
and 750 pg/L, respectively.
Shaw and Brown (1971) studied the effect of nickel on laboratory
fertilization of rainbow trout eggs. They did not find a statistically
significant effect at 1000 Mg/L (hardness = 260 to 280 rag/L), and noted a
stimulation in development after fertilization compared to controls.
Several studies have investigated associated effects of nickel intox-
ication. Whitley and Sikora (1970) and Brkovic-Popovic and Popovic
12
-------
(1977b) studied effects on respiration in tubificid worms. Influence of
nickel on thermal resistance of salmonids was examined by Becker and
Wolford (1980). The effect of complexing agents on toxicity of nickel to
carp was studied by Muramoto (1983). Smith-Sonneborn et al. (1983)
studied the toxicity of ingested nickel dust particles in Paramecium.
Anderson and Weber (1975) derived an expression relating body size to
sensitivity of the guppy.
In a field study, Havas and Hutchinson (1982) worked with acidified
and control ponds and suggested that the lowered pH increased the
concentrations of heavy metals such as nickel and stressed resident
aquatic invertebrates.
Available data that were not used directly in the derivation of
saltwater criterion for nickel (Table 6) do not indicate a need to lower
the criterion. In addition to affecting survival of saltwater animals,
nickel affects growth, development, reproduction, and biochemical responses.
A 19% reduction in growth of juvenile Pacific oysters, Crassostrea gigas,
exposed to 10 |Jg/L for 14 days at a salinity of 34 g/kg was reported by
Watling (1983). The ecological significance of this reduction is unknown,
but after 14 days in clean water size was similar to that of the controls.
Petrich and Reish (1979) found that 100 to 500 ug/L suppressed reproduction
of the polychaete Ctenodrilus serratus. Zaroogian et al. (1982) showed a
significant reduction in ATP activity in the adductor muscle of the blue
mussel, but not the Eastern oyster, after a 10-week exposure to 10 Mg/L.
Abnormal development in embryos of the sea urchins, Arbacia punctulata and
Lytechinus pictus, occurred at several concentrations of nickel (Timourian
and Watchmaker 1972; Waterman 1937), and concentrations as low as 58.69
13
-------
depressed sperm motility in gametes of the purple urchin, Strongylocentrotus
purpuratus (Timourian and Watchmaker 1977).
Unused Data
Some data on the effects of nickel on aquatic organisms were not used
because the studies were conducted with species that are not resident in North
America (e.g. , Ahsanullah 1982; Ballester and Castellvi 1979; Baudouin
and Scoppa 1974; Khangarot et al. 1982; Saxena and Parashari 1983; Van
Hoof and Nauwelaers 1984; Verma et al. 1981; Wilson 1983). Data were
also not used if nickel was a component of a mixture (e.g., Anderson 1983;
Besser 1985; Eisler 1977b; Hutchinaon and Sprague 1983; Markarian et al.
1980; Muska 1978; Phelps et al. 1981; Stratton and Corke 1979b; Wong et
al. 1978,1982) or an effluent (e.g., Abbe 1982).
Babich and Stotzky (1985), Birge and Black (1980), Chapman et al.
(1968), Kaiser (1980), Phillips and Russo (1978), Rai et al. (1981),
Thompson et al. (1972), and U.S. EPA (1978) only present data that
have been published elsewhere. Studies reporting no data or data in an
unusable form for deriving criterion include Braginskiy and Shcherban
(1978), Jones (1939), Muska and Weber (1977a,b), Scheherban (1977), and
Whitton and Shehata (1982). Data were not used if the organisms were
exposed to nickel in food (e.g., Windom et al. 1982). Results were not
used if the test procedures were not adequately described (e.g., Bean and
Harris 1977; Brown 1968; Petukov and Ninonenko 1982; See et al. 1974,1975;
Sirover and Loeb 1976; Wang et al. 1984). The 96-hr values reported
by Buikema et al. (1974a,b) were subject to error because of possible
reproductive interactions (Buikema et al. 1977).
Results of some laboratory tests were not used because the tests were
conducted in distilled or deionized water without addition of appropriate
14
-------
salts (e.g., Jones 1935; Shaw and Grushkin 1957) or were conducted in
chlorinated or "tap" water (e.g., Grande and Andersen 1983). Dilution
waters in studies by Mann and Fyfe (1984) and Stratton and Corke (1979a)
contained excessive amounts of EDTA. Stokes (1975) used algae from a
lake containing high concentrations of nickel. The data by Girhards and
Weller (1977) on accumulation of nickel by algae were not used because
the test concentrations of nickel adversely affected the growth of the algae.
Bringraann and Kuhn (1982) cultured Daphnia magna in one water and
conducted tests in another. Tests conducted with too few test organisms
(e.g., Applegate et al. 1957; Tarzwell and Henderson 1960) were not used.
Reports of the concentrations of nickel in wild aquatic organisms
(e.g., Abo-Rady 1979; Brezina and Arnold 1977; Bryan et al. 1983; Dunstan
et al. 1980; Gordon et al. 1980; Hall et al. 1978; Jenkins 1980; Kawamata
et al. 1983; LaTouche and Mix 1982; Martin 1979; Mathis and Cummings
1973; Mears and Eisler 1977; O'Conner 1976; Pennington et al. 1982; Pulich
1980; Reynolds 1979; Tong et al. 1974; Trollope and Evans 1976; Uthe and
Bligh 1971; Wachs 1982; Wehr and Whitton 1983; Wren et al. 1983) were not
used to calculate bioaccumulation factors due to the absence or insufficient
number of measurements of nickel in water.
Summary
Acute values with twenty-one freshwater species in 18 genera range
from 1,101 yg/L for a cladoceran to 43,240 Mg/L for a fish. Fishes and
invertebrates are both spread throughout the range of sensitivity. Acute
values with four species are significantly correlated with hardness.
Data are available concerning the chronic toxicity of nickel to two
invertebrates and two fishes in fresh water. Data available for two
species indicates that chronic toxicity decreases as hardness increases.
15
-------
The measured chronic values ranged from 14.77 \ig/L with Daphnia magna
in soft water to 526.7 pg/L with the fathead minnow in hard water. Five
acute-chronic ratios are available for two species in soft and hard water
and range from 14 to 122.
Nickel appears to be quite toxic to freshwater algae, with concentrations
as low as 50 Mg/L producing significant inhibition. Bioconcentration
factors for nickel range from 0.8 for fish muscle to 193 for a cladoceran.
Acute values for 22 saltwater species in 19 genera range from 151.7
gg/L with juveniles of a raysid to 1,100,000 ug/L with juveniles and adults
of a clam. The acute values for the four species of fish range from
7,598 to 350,000 Mg/L. The acute toxicity of nickel appears to be related
to salinity, but the form of the relationship appears to be species-
dependent .
Mysidop8Js bahia is the only saltwater species with which an acceptable
chronic test has been conducted on nickel. Chronic exposure to 61 yg/L
and greater resulted in reduced survival and reproduction. The measured
acute-chronic ratio was 5.478.
Bioconcentration factors in salt water range from 261.8 with a oyster
to 675 with a brown alga.
National Criteria
The procedures described in the "Guidelines for Deriving Numerical
National Water Quality Criteria for the Protection of Aquatic Organisms
and Their Uses" indicate that, except possibly where a locally important
species is very sensitive, freshwater aquatic organisms and their uses
should not be affected unacceptably if the four-day average concentration
(in |Jg/L) of nickel does not exceed the numerical value given by
e(0.8460[ln(hardnessmi.l645) mQre
16
-------
average and if the one-hour average concentration (in pg/L) does not
exceed the numerical value given by e(0.8460[ln(hardness)1+3.3612)
than once every three years on the average. For example, at hardnesses
of 50, 100, and 200 mg/L as CaC03 the four-day average concentrations of
nickel are 88, 160, and 280 Mg/L» respectively, and the one-hour average
concentrations are 790, 1400, and 2500 Mg/L.
The procedures described in the "Guidelines for Deriving Numerical
National Water Quality Criteria for the Protection of Aquatic Organisms
and Their Uses" indicate that, except possibly where a locally important
species is very sensitive, saltwater aquatic organisms and their uses
should not be affected unacceptably if the four-day average concentration
of nickel does not exceed 7.9 (Jg/L more than once every three years on the
average and if the one-hour average concentration does not exceed 71 pg/L
more than once every three years on the average.
EPA believes that "acid-soluble" is probably the best measurement at
present for expressing criteria for metals and the criteria for nickel
were developed on this basis. However, at this time, no EPA approved
method for such a measurement is available to implement criteria for metals
through the regulatory programs of the Agency and the States. The Agency
is considering development and approval of a method for a measurement such
as "acid-soluble." Until one is approved, however, EPA recommends applying
criteria for metals using the total recoverable method. This has two impacts:
(1) certain species of some metals cannot be measured because the total
recoverable method cannot distinguish between individual oxidation
states, and (2) in some cases these criteria might be overly protective
when based on the total recoverable method.
17
-------
The allowed average excursion frequency of three years is the Agency's
best scientific judgment of the average amount of time it will take an un-
stressed aquatic ecosystem to recover from a pollution event in which
exposure to nickel exceeds Che criterion. Stressed systems, for example one
in which several outfalls occur in a limited area, would be expected to require
i
more time for recovery. The resiliencies of ecosystems and their abilities
to recover differ greatly, however, and site-specific criteria may be
established if adequate justification is provided.
Use of criteria for developing water quality-based permit limits and
for designing waste treatment facilities requires selection of an appropriate
wasteload allocation model. Dynamic models are preferred for the application
of these criteria. Limited data or other considerations might make their
use impractical, in which case one must rely on a steady-state model.
The Agency recommends the interim use of 1Q5 or 1Q10 for the Criterion
Maximum Concentration (CMC) design flow and 7Q5 or 7Q10 for the Criterion
Continuous Concentration (CCC) design flow in steady-state models for
unstressed and stressed systems respectively. These matters are discussed
in more detail in the Technical Support Document for Water Quality-Based
Toxics Control (U.S. EPA 1985).
18
-------
Table I. Acute Toxlclty of Nickel to Aquatic Animals
Species
Worm,
Nats sp.
Snai 1 (embryo) ,
Amnlcola sp.
Snail (adult),
Amnlcola sp.
Cladoceran,
Daphn la maqna
C ladoceran,
Daphnla magna
Cladoceran,
Daphnla maqna
Cladoceran,
Daphnla magna
Cladoceran,
Oaphnla magna
Cladoceran,
Daphnla magna
Cladoceran,
Daphnla magna
Cladoceran,
Daphnla pul Icar la
Cladoceran,
Daphnla pul Icaria
C 1 adoceran ,
Daphnla pul Icaria
Method8 Checnica!
S, M
S, M
S, M
. S, U Nickel
chloride
S, U Nickel
chloride
S. M Nickel
nitrate
S, M Nickel
chloride
S. M Nlcke,!
chloride
S, M Nickel
chloride
S, M Nickel
chloride
S, M Nickel
sul fate
S, M Nickel
sul fate
S, M Nickel
suit ate
Hardness LC50
(mg/L as or EC50
CaC05)_ (ug/L)»»
FRESHWATER SPECIES
50 14,100
50 11,400
50 14,300
<317
45.3 510
51.1 915
51 1,800
100 2,360
104 1 ,920
206 4,970
48 2.182
48 1.813
44 1 ,836
Adjusted
LC50 or EC50
(Hg/L)»«
14,100
11,400
14,300
554.4
898.3
1,770
1,313
1,033
1,500
2,259
1,877
2.046
Species Mean
Acute Value
(M9/L)*"** Reference
14,100 Rehwoldt et al .
Rehwo 1 dt et al .
12,770 Rehwoldt et al .
Anderson 1948
Bleslnger and
Chrlstensen 1972
Cal 1 et al . 1983
Chapman et al .
Manuscript
Chapman et al .
Manuscript
Chapman et al .
Manuscript
1 , 102 Chapman et al .
Manuscript
Llnd et al .
Manuscr ipt
L 1 nd et al .
Manuscr Ipt
L 1 nd et al .
Manuscript
1973
1973
1973
-------
Table 1. (Continued)
Species
Cladoceran,
Daphnla pullcarla
Amph I pod,
Gammarus sp.
Mayfly,
Ephemeral la subvarla
Damsel fly,
Unidentified sp.
Stonefly,
Acroneurla lycorlas
Caddlsfly.
Unidentified sp.
AmerI can eaI,
Angullla rostrata
American eel,
Angullla rostrata
Rainbow trout (2 tnos),
Salmo galrdnerl
Rainbow trout (juvenile),
Salmo galrdnerl
Rainbow trout (juvenile),
Salmo galrdnerl
Rainbow trout (juvenile),
Salmo 'galrdnerl
Rainbow trout (juvenile),
Salmo galrdnerI
Rainbow trout (juvenile),
Salmo galrdnerl
Method* Chemical
s.
s,
s.
s,
s,
s.
s,
s,
F.
F,
F.
F,
F,.
F,
M
M
U
M
U
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
Nickel
sul fate
-
Nickel
sul fate
-
Nickel
•sul fate
-
Nickel
nitrate
-
Nickel
nitrate
Nickel
sul fate
Nickel
sul fate
Nickel
sulf ate
Nickel
sul fate
Nickel
sul fate
Hardness
(mg/L as
CaCO})
47
50
42
50
40
50
53
55
-
-
-
-
-
_
LC50
or EC50
(iig/l)**
1.901
13,000
4.000
21,200
33.500
30,200
13.000*
13.000
35.500
20,100*
12,700*
28.000*
30,900*
16,900*
Adjusted Species Mean
LC50 or EC50 Acute Value
(iig/L>«** (i.g/L)««M
2,003 2,042
13,000 13,000
4,636 4,636
21,200 21,200
40,460 40,460
30.200 30,200
12,370
11,990 12,180
-
-
-
-
-
— -.
Reference
Llnd et al .
Manuscript
Rehwoldt et al .
Warnlck and Bel 1
1969
Rehwoldt et al .
Warnlck and Bel 1
1969
Rehwoldt et al .
1973
Rehwoldt et al .
1971
Rehwoldt et al .
1972
Haje 1977
Anderson 1981
Anderson 1981
Anderson 1981
Anderson 1981
Anderson 1981
-------
Table 1. (continued!
Species
Rainbow trout (juvenile),
Salmo qairdnerl
Rainbow trout (juvenile),
Salmo galrdneri
Rainbow trout (juvenile),
Salmo galrdneri
Rainbow trout (3 mos),
Salmo galrdner 1
Rainbow trout (3 mos),
Salmo galrdneri
Rainbow trout (12 mos),
Salmo qairdnerl
Rainbow trout (12 mos),
Salmo qalrdneri
Goldfish (1-2 q),
Carasslus auratus
Common carp (<20 cm),
Cyprlnus carplo
Common carp,
Cyprlnus carplo
Fathead minnow (1-2 g) ,
Plmephales promelas
Fathead minnow (1-2 q) ,
Plmephales promelas
Fathead minnow (1-2 q) ,
Plmephales promelas
Fathead minnow (1-2 g),
Plmephales promelas
Method*
F.
F.
F,
F,
F,
F.
F,
s,
S,
s,
s.
S,
s.
S.
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
U
M
M
U
I
U
U
U
Chemical
Nickel
sulfate
Nickel
sulfate
Nickel
su If ate
Nickel
chlor ide
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chlor Ide
Nickel
chlor Ide
Nickel
nitrate
-
Nickel
chlor Ide
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chl or Ide
Hardness
(mg/L as
27-
39
27-
39
27-
39
27-
39
20
53
55
20
20
360
360
LC50
or EC50
(u9/L)*«
15,900*
11.300*
11; 100*
10,000
10,900
8,900
8,100
9,820
10,600*
10
5
4
42
44
.400
,180
,580
,400
,500
Adjusted
LC50 or EC5O
14,210
15,490
12,650
11,510
21,320
10,090
9,594
11,250
9,943
7,981
8,376
Species Mean
Acute Value
(ng/L>«««» Reference
Anderson 1981
Anderson 1981
Anderson 1981
Nebeker et al .
Nebeker et al .
Nebeker et al .
13,380 Nebeker et al .
21,320 Pickering and
Henderson 1966
Rehwoldt et al ,
1971
9,839 Rehwoldt et al ,
1972
Pickering and
Henderson 1966
P 1 cker 1 ng and
Henderson 1966
Pickering and
Henderson 1966
Pickering and
Henderson 1966
1985
1985
1985
19b5
>
•
-------
Table 1. (continued)
Xi
V-
Species
Fathead minnow (Immature),
Pltnephales promelas
Fathead minnow (Immature),
Plmephales promelas
Fathead minnow (Immature),
Plmephales promelas
Fathead minnow ( Immature) ,
Plmephales promelas
Fathead minnow,
Plmephales promelas
Fathead minnow,
Plmephales promelas
Banded kllllflsh (<20 cm),
Fundulus dlaphanus
Banded kll 1 If Ish,
Fundulus dlaphanus
Guppy (6 mo) ,
Poecl 1 la retlculata
White perch «20 cm) ,
Morone amerlcana
White perch,
Morone amerlcana
Striped bass ( finger 1 Inq) ,
Morone saxat Ills
Striped bass,
Morone saxat 1 1 Is
Striped bass (63 day),
Morone saxat 1 1 Is
Method*
S, U
s.
F,
F,
F,
F,
s,
s,
s,
s,
s,
s,
s.
s.
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
U
i
M
M
M
M
U
Chemical
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
sulfate
Nickel
sulfate
Nickel
nitrate
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
nitrate
Nickel
nitrate
Nickel
chlor Ide
Hardness
(mg/L as
CaCO^L
210
210
210
210
45
44
53
55
20
53
55
53
55
40
LC50
or EC50
(ng/L)**
27,000
32,200
28,000
25,000
5.209
5.163
46.200t
46.100
4,450
13.600*
13,700
6,200f
6,300
3,900
Adjusted
LC50 or EC50
(Mg/L)«««
8,019
9,563
8,316
7,425
5,695
5,753
43,980
42 , 530
9,661
12,950
12,640
5,902
5,812
4,710
Species Mean
Acute Value
(iig/L)**** Reference
Pickering 1974
Pickering 1974
Pickering 1974
Pickering 1974
Llnd et al .
Manuscript
8,027 Llnd et al.
Manuscript
Rahwoldt et al .
1971
43,250 Rehwoldt et al .
1972
9,661 Pickering and
Henderson 1966
Rehwoldt et al .
1971
12,790 Rehwoldt et al .
1972
Rehwoldt et al .
1971
Rehwoldt et al .
1972
Pa lawskl et al .
-------
Table 1. (continued)
Species
Striped bass (63 day),
Morone saxat Ills
Rock bass,
Ambloplltes rupestrls
Pumpkin seed (<20 cm),
Lepomls qlbbosus
Pumpklnseed ,
Lepomls glbbosus
Bluegl'll (1-2 g) ,
Lepomls macrochlrus
Blueglll (1-2 g) ,
Lepomls macrochlrus
Blueglll (1-2 g) .
Lepomls macrochlrus
Blueglll ,
Lepomls macrochlrus
Method"
S, U
F, M
S, M
S, M
S, U
S, U
S, U
Fu
> n
Chemical
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
sulfate
Nickel
n Itrate
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chloride
Hardness
(mg/L as
CaCOj)
285
26
53
55
20
20
360
49
LC50
or EC50
33,000
2,480
8,100*
8,000
5,180
5,360
39,600
21.200
Adjusted
LC50 or EC50
7,569
4,312
7,710
7,380
11,250
11,640
7,454
21,570
Species Mean
Acute Value
-------
Table 1. (continued)
Species
Method*
Chemical
Salinity
LC50 Species Mean
or EC50 Acute Value
(tig/L)** (MQ/L)
SALTWATER SPECIES
Polychaete worm (adult).
Nereis arenaceodentata
Polychaete worm (adult).
Nereis vlrens
Polychaete worm (adult),
Ctenodrllus serratus
Polychaete worm (adult),
Capltel la capltata
Mud snail (adult),
Nassarlus obsoletus
Eastern oyster (embryo) ,
Crassostrea vlrqlnlca
Clam,
Macoma balthlca
Clam,
Macoma balthlca
Clam,
Macoma balthlca
Clam,
Macoma balthlca
Clam,
Macoma balthlca
Clam,
Macoma balthlca
Clam,
Macoma balthlca
S, U
S, U
S, U
s, u
s, u
s, u
s, u
s, u
s, u
s. u
s. u
s. u
s, u
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
. chloride
Nickel
chlor Ide
Nickel
chlor Ide
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chloride
20
20
25
15
25
35
15
25
35
15
49,000
25,000
17,000
>50,000
72,000
1,180
100,000 (5°C)
380,000 (5°C)
700,000 (5'C)
95,000 (10"C)
560,000 (10"C)
1,100,000 (10"C)
110,000 (I5°C)
49,000
25 ,000
17,000
>50,000
72 ,000
1,180
Reference
Petrlch and Relsh 1979
Elsler and Hennekey 1977
Petrlch and Relsh 1979
Petrlch and Relsh 1979
Elsler and Hennekey 1977
Calabrese et al . 1973
Bryant et al. 1985
Bryant et aI. 1985
Bryant et al. 1985
Bryant et al. 1985
Bryant et al. 1985
Bryant et al. 1985
Bryant et al. 1985
-------
Table 1. (continued)
Species
Clam,
Macoma balthlca
Clam,
Macoma balthlca
Quahog clam (embryo),
Mercenarla mercenarla
Soft-shel 1 clam (adult),
Mya arenaria
Soft-shell clam (adult),
Mya arenaria
Copepod (adult) ,
Eury femora at fin Is
Copepod (adult) ,
Eurytemora aft In Is
Copepod (adult) ,
Acartla clausl
Copepod (adult),
Nltocra splnlpes
Mysld (juvenile) ,
Heteromysls formosa
Mysld (juvenile),
Mysldopsls bah la
Mysld (juvenile),
Mysldopsls bl gel owl
Amph 1 pod ,
Corophlum volutator
Amph 1 pod,
Corophlum volutator
Method*
s.
1 s,
s,
s,
S,
s.
s,
s,
s,
s,
F,
s.
s,
s.
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
M
M
M
U
U
Chemical
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chlor Ide
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
ch 1 or 1 de
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chlor Ide
Nickel
chloride
SsHnity
50 ,000
13,180
9,593
3,466
6,000
151.7
508
634
5,000 (5°C)
21,000 (5°C)
Acute Value
(iig/L)
-
294 , 500
310
-
320,000
-
11,240
3,466
6,000
151.7
508
634
-
-
Reference
Bryant et at. 1985
Calabrese and Nelson
1974
Elsler and Hennekey 1977
Elsler 1977a
Lussler and Card In 1985
Lussler and Card In 1985
Lussler and Card In 1985
Bengtsson 1978
151.7 Gentile et al . 1982
Gentile et al . 1982;
Lussler et al. 1985
Gentile et al . 1982
Bryant et al . 1985
Bryant et al . 1985
-------
Table 1. (continued)
Species
Amph i pod,
Corophlum volutator
AmphI pod,
Corophlum volutator
AmphI pod,
Corophlum volutator
AmphI pod,
CorophI urn volutator
AmphI pod,
Corophlum volutator
Amph I pod,
CorophIum volutator
AmphI pod,
Corophlum volutator
AmphI pod,
Corophlum volutator
Amphi pod,
CorophIum volutator
Amphi pod,
Corophlum volutator
AmphI pod,
Corophlum volutator
Amphi pod,
Corophlum volutator
AmphI pod,
Corophlum volutator
Hermit crab (adult),
Paqurus lonqlcarpus
Method*
S, U
s.
s.
s.
s.
s,
s.
s.
s.
s,
s.
s,
s.
s,
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
1)
U
Chemical
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chlor Ide
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chlor Ide
Nickel
chlor Ide
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chlor Ide
Nickel
chloride
Salinity
-------
Table 1. (continued)
\J
Species
Starfish (adult),
Aster las forbesll
Mummlchoq (adult),
Fundulus heteroclltus
Mumm 1 chog ( adu 1 t) ,
Fundulus heteroclltus
Mummlchoq (adult),
Fundulus heteroclltus
Atlantic sllverslde
( larva) ,
Menldla men Id la
Tidewater sllverslde
(juvenile) ,
Menldla peninsulas
Spot ( juvenl le) ,
Lelostomus xanthurus
LC50 Species Mean
Salinity or EC50 Acute Value
Method* Chemical (g/kg) dig/D" (pg/L) Reference
S, U Nickel 20 150,000 150,000 Elsler and Hennekey 1977
chlor Ide
S, U Nickel 6.9 55,000 - Dorftnan 1977
chloride
S, U Nickel 21.6 175,000 - Dor f man 1977
chloride
S, U Nickel 20 350,000 149,900 Eisler and Hennekey 1977
chlor Ide
S, U Nickel 30 7,958 7,958 Cardln 1982
chloride
S, U Nickel 20 38,000 38,000 Hansen 1983
chloride
S, U Nickel 21 70,000 70,000 Hansen 1983
chloride
* S = static, R = renewal, F = flow-through, M = measured, U = unmeasured.
** Results are expressed as nickel, not as the chemical.
*** Freshwater LCSOs and EC50s were adjusted to hardness = 50 mg/L using the pooled slope of 0.8460 (see text).
»«»* Freshwater Species Mean Acute Values are calculated at hardness = 50 mg/L.
* In river water.
-------
Table 1. (continued)
Ki
Results of Covarlance Analysis of Freshwater Acute Toxic Ity versus Hardness
Species
Daphnla
Fathead
Striped
Blueglll
roagna
minnow
bass
All of above
n
6
10
4
4
24
Slope
1
0
1
0
0
.1810
.8294
.0459
.6909
.8460»
95* Confidence Limits
0
0
0
-0
0
.3187.
.6755,
.7874.
.1654,
.7004,
2
0
1
1
0
.0433
.9833
.3045
.5472
.9915
Degrees of Freedom
4
8
2
2
19
* P = 0.26 for equality of slopes with 16 degrees of freedom.
-------
Table 2. Chronic Toxlclty of Nickel to Aquatic Animals
V)
Species
Cladoceran,
Daphnla magna
Cladoceran,
Daphnla magna
Cladoceran,
Daphnla magna
Caddlsfly,
Cllstoronla magnlflca
Rainbow trout,
Salmo galrdnerl
Rainbow trout,
Salmo galrdnerl
Rainbow trout,
Salmo galrdnerl
Fathead minnow,
Plmephales promelas
Fathead minnow,
Plmephales promelas
Mysld,
Mysldopsls bah I a
Test*
LC
LC
LC
LC
ELS
ELS
ELS
LC
ELS
LC
. Chemical
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
sul fate
Nickel
chloride
Hardness
(mg/L as
CaCOiL
FRESHWATER SPECIES
51
105
205
54
53
52
49 .
210
44
451
SALTWATER SPECIES
30"
Llatts
10.2-
21.4
101-
150
220-
578
66-
250
<35*«»
62-
134
134-
431
380-
730
108.9-
433.5
61-
141
Chronic Value
14.77
123.1
356.6
128.4
<35
91.15
240.3
526.7
217.3
92.74
Reference
Chapman et al.
Manuscript
Chapman et al .
Manuscript
Chapman et al .
Manuscript
Nebeker et al. 1984
Nebeker et al. 1985
Nebeker et al . 1985
Nebeker et al . 1985
Pickering 1974
Llnd et al .
Manuscript
Gentile et al . 1982;
Lussler et al. 1985
* LC = life-cycle or partial life-cycle; ELS = early life-stage.
** Results are based on measured concentrations of nickel.
*** Unacceptable effects occurred at all concentrations tested.
Values from acute tests In Table 1.
tf Sal Inlty (g/kg).
-------
Table 2. (Continued)
Results of Regression Analysis of Freshwater Chronic Toxlcltv versus Hardness
Species n
Daphnla maqna 3
Fathead minnow 2
Al 1 of above 5
Slope
2.3007
0.5706
1.3418**
* Cannot be calculated because degrees
*« P = 0.19 for equality of
slopes with
95< Confidence Limits Degrees
-2.6551. 7.2568
•
-1.3922, 4.0760
of freedom = 0.
1 degree of freedom.
of Freedom
1
0
2
Acute-Chronic Ratio
Species
Cladoceran,
Daphnla maqna
Cladoceran,
Daphnla maqna
Cladoceran,
Daphnla magna
Fathead minnow.
Plmephales promelas
Fathead minnow.
Plmephales promelas
Mysld,
Mysldopsls bah la
Hardness
(mg/L as
CaCOj)
51
104-
105
205-
206
210
44-
45
30***
Acute- Value Chronic Value
(uq/L) (Mg/L)
1,800 14.77
1,920 123.1
4,970 356.6
27,930» 526.7
5.186" 217.3
508 92 .74
Ratio
122.4
15.60
13.94
53.03
23.87
5.478
* Geometric mean of four values In Table 1.
** Geometric mean of two values In Table I.
*** Salinity (g/kg).
-------
Table 3. Ranked Genus Mean Acute Values ulth Species Mean Acute-Chronic Ratios
iank»
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
a
7
6
Genus Mean
Acute Value
(uq/L)"
43,250
40,460
30,200
21,320
21,200
14,100
13,380
13,000
12,770
12,180
9,839
9,661
8,697
Species Mean
Acute Value
Species (|i9/D*»«
FRESHWATER SPECIES
Banded kllllflsh,
Fundulus dlaphanls
Stonefly,
Acroneurla lycorlas
Caddlsfly,
Unidentified sp.
Goldfish,
Carasslus auratus
Damsel f ly,
Unidentified sp.
Worm,
Nals sp.
Rainbow trout,
Salmo galrdnerl
Amphlpod,
Gammarus sp.
Snal 1,
Ann 1 co la sp.
American eel ,
Anqullla rostrata
Common carp,
Cyprlnus carplo
• Guppy.
Poecl 1 la reticulata
White perch,
Morone amerlcana
Striped bass,
43,250
40,460
30 ,200
21,320
21,200
14,100
13,380
13,000
12,770
12,180
9,839
9,661
12,790
5,914
Species Mean
Acute-Chronic
Rat 1 <>•»••
-
Morone saxatiI Is
-------
Table 3. (Continued)
VXJ
ank*
5
4
3
2
1
19
18
17
16
15
14
Genus Mean
Acute Value
"»
9,530
8,027
4,636
4,312
1,500
320,000
294,500
150,000
149,900
72,000
70,000
Species Mean Species Mean
Acute Value Acute-Chronic
Species (ugA.)"*« Ratlo««««
Pumpklnseed,
Leporols glbbosus
Blueglll,
Lepomls macrochlrus
Fathead minnow,
Plmephales promelas
Mayfly,
Ephemeral la subvarla
Rock bass,
Ambloplltes rupestrls
Cl adoceran,
Daphnla pul Icarla
Cl adoceran,
Daphnla maqna
SALTWATER SPECIES
Soft-shell clam,
Mya arenarla
Clam,
Macoma balthlca
Starfish,
Aster las forbesl 1
Mummlchog,
Fundulus heteroclltus
Mud snal 1 ,
Nassarlus obsoletus
Spot.
7,544
12,040
8,027 35.58f
4.636
4.312
2.042
1.102 29.86tf
320,000
294,500
150,000
149,900
72 ,000
70,000
Lelostomus xanthurus
-------
Table 3. (Continued)
~ V
VlSl
Rank"
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
Genus Mean
Acute Value
>50,000
47,000
35,000
17,390
17,000
18,950
11,240
6,000
3,466
1,180
567.5
310
Species
Polychaete worm,
Capltel la capltata
Hermit crab,
Pagurus long! carpus
Polychaete worm,
Nereis arenaceodentata
Polychaete worm.
Nereis vlrens
Atlantic sllverslde.
Men Id I a men Id la
Tidewater sllverslde,
Menldla peninsulas
Polychaete worm,
Ctenodrilus serratus
Amph 1 pod ,
Corophlum volutator
Copepod ,
Eurytemora aftinls
Copepod ,
Nltocra splnlpes
Copepod ,
Acartla clausl
Eastern oyster,
Crassostrea vlrglnlca
Mysld,
Mysldopsls bah la
Mysld,
Mysldopsls blgelowl
Qua hog clam,
Species Mean
Acute Value
>50,000
47,000
49.000
25,000
7.958
38.000
17,000
18,950
11,240
6,000
3,466
.1.180
508
634
310
Species Mean
Acute-Chron 1 c
Ratio""
5.478
Mercenarla mercenarla
-------
Table 3. (Continued)
VJJ
Rank*
1
Genus Mean
Acute Value
diq/D"
151.7
Species
Mysld.
Heteromysls formosa
Species Mean
Acute Value
-------
Table 4. Toxic Ity of Nickel to Aquatic Plants
Species
Blue-green alga,
Anabaena flos-aquae .
Blue-green alga,
Mlcrocystls aeruglnosa
Green alga,
Ank 1 strodesmus falcatus
Green alga,
Ank 1 strodesmus falcatus
Green alga,
Ank 1 strodesmus falcatus
var. aclcularls
Green alga,
Ch lamydomonas euqametos
Green alga,
Chloral la vulgar Is
Green alga,
Chlorococcum sp.
Green alga,
Haematococcus capensls
Green alga,
Pediastrum tetras
Green alga,
Scenedesmus acumlnata
Chemical
Nickel
nitrate
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
nitrate
Nickel
nitrate
Nickel nitrate or
Nickel sulfate
Nickel nitrate or
Nickel sulfate
Nickel
ch lor Ide
Nickel nitrate or
Nickel sulfate
Nickel
nitrate
Nickel nitrate or
Nickel sulfate
Hardness
(mg/L as Duration
CaCOjL (days)
FRESHWATER SPECIES
14
8
10
14
14
47.5 12
47.5 12
10
47.5 12
14
47.5 12
Effect
84$ reduction
In growth
Incipient
Inhibition
45$ reduction
In growth
98$ reduction
In growth
42$ reduction
In growth
91$ reduction
In growth
53$ reduction
In growth
52$ reduction
In growth
85$ reduction
In growth
Increased
growth
54$ reduction
. In growth
Resu I t
600
5
5,000
100
100
700 »«
300 »»
5,000
300*«
100
50 »*
Reference
Spencer and Greene
1981
Brlngmann and Kuhn
1978a,b
Devi Prasad and
Devi Prasad 1982
Spencer and Greene
1981
Spencer and Greene
1981
Hutchlnson 1973;
Hutchlnson and
Stokes 1975
Hutchlnson 1973;
Hutchlnson and
Stokes 1975
Devi Prasad and
Devi Prasad 1982
Hutchlnson 1973;
Hutchlnson and
Stokes 1975
Spencer and Greene
1981
Hutchinson 1973;
Hutchlnson and
-------
Table 4. (Continued)
vw
Species
Green alga,
Scenedesmus acumlnata
Green alga,
Scenedesmus dlmorphus
Green alga,
Scenedesmus obi Iquus
Green alga,
Scenedesmus quadrlcauda
Green alga,
Scenedesmus quadrlcauda
Diatom,
Navlcula pell leu losa
Duckweed,
Lemna minor
Macrophyte,
E lodea (Anacharls) canadensls
Giant kelp (young fronds),
Hacrocystls pyrlfera
Chemical
Nickel nitrate or
Nickel sulfate
Nickel
nitrate
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
nitrate
Nickel
nitrate
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chloride
Hardness
(mg/L as Duration
CaC03) (days)
47.5 13
14
10
8
14
14.96 14
28
28
SALTWATER SPECIES
4
Effect
Reduced
growth
30$ reduction
In growth
47$ reduction
In growth
Incipient
Inhibition
60$ reduction
In growth
82$ reduction
In growth
EC50
EC50
EC 50 (reduc-
tion In
. photosynthesis)
Result
(wfl/L)"
500
100
3,000
1,300
100
100
340
2,800
2,000
Reference
Stokes et al. 1973;
Hutchlnson and
Stokes 1975
Spencer and Greene
1981
Dev 1 Prasad and
Devi Prasad 1982
Brlngmann and Kuhn
1977a; 1978a,b;
1979; 1980b
Spencer and Greene
1981
Fezy et al. 1979
Brown and Rattlgan
1979
Brown and Rattlgan
1979
Clendennlng and North
1959
* Results are expressed as nickel, not as the chemical.
-------
Table 5. Bloaccumulaton of Nickel by Aquatic Organisms
M
Species
Green alga,
Scenedesmus acumlnata
C 1 adocer an ,
Daphnla magna
Cl adocer an,
Dapjuilja magna
Cladoceran,
Daphnla magna
Rainbow trout,
Salmo galrdnerl
Fathead minnow,
P 1 mep_haies_ prome l__as_
Fathead minnow,
Plmephales prome las
Fathead minnow,
Plmephales prome las
Rockweed ,
Fucus veslculosls
Brown macroalga,
Ascophyllum nodosum
Blue mussel ,
Mytl lus edulls
Blue mussel ,
Mytl lus edul Is
Chemical
Nickel nitrate or
Nickel sulfate
63NI In
0.1M HCI
-
-
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
sulfate
Nickel
sul fate
Nickel
sulfate
Nickel
sulfate
Nickel
sulfate
Concentration
In Mater (nq/D*
1,000
50
750
1,000
21
44.4
108.9
1.2
1.2
4.4
10.0
Hardness
(mg/L as Duration
CaCO3) (days)
FRESHWATER SPECIES
6
20.1 3.75
20.1 3.75
320 180
30
30
30
SALTWATER SPECIES
Field
col lections
Field
col lections
84
84
Tissue BCF or BAF«
Whole 9.3
body
Whole 100
body
Whole 192 **»
body
Whole 123***
body
Muscle 0.8
Whole 106
body
Whole 79
body
Whole 47
body
Whole 675f
plant
Whole 458. 3t
plant
Soft parts 472.7
Soft parts 328.6
Reference
Hutch Inson and Stokes
1975
Hal 1 1978
Hall 1982
Hall 1982
Calamarl et al . 1982
Llnd et al . Manuscript
Llnd et al . Manuscript
Llnd et al . Manuscript
Foster 1976
Foster 1976
Zarooglan and Johnson
1984
Zarooglan and Johnson
1984
-------
Table 5. (Continued)
Species
Eastern oyster,
Crassostrea vlrqlnlca
Eastern oyster,
Crassostrea vlrqlnlca
Hardness
Concentration (mg/L as Duration
Che*1cal In Water (ii9/L>* CaCO.) (days) Tissue BCF or BAF** Reference
Nickel
sul fate
Nickel
sulfate
4.2 - 84 Soft parts 458.1 Zarooglan
1984
9.9 - 84 Soft parts 261.8 Zarooglan
1984
and Johnson
and Johnson
* Measured concentration of nickel.
** Bloconcentratlon factors (BCFs) and bloaccuraulatlon factors (BAFs) are based on measured concentrations of nickel In water and In tissue.
*** Estimated from graph.
Factor was converted from dry weight to wet weight basis.
-------
Table 6. Other Data on Effects of Nickel on Aquatic Organisms
Species
Alga,
Chiorella pyrenoldosa
Green alga,
Scenedesmus quadricauda
Green alga,
Scenedesmus quadricauda
Alga,
(mixed population)
Bacterium,
Aeromonas sobrla
Bacterium,
Bacl 1 lus brevls
Bacter i um,
Bacl 1 lus cereus
Bacterium,
Escherlchla col 1
Bacterium,
Escherlchla col 1
Bacterium,
Pseudomonas put Ida
Bacterium,
Serratla marcescens
Protozoan,
Entoslphon sulcatum
Chemical
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
ammon 1 um
sulfate
Nickel
nitrate
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
ammon 1 um
sulfate
Nickel
chlor Ide
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chlor Ide
Hardness
-------
Table 6. (Continued)
Species
Protozoan,
Mlcroreqma heterostoma
Protozoan,
Mlcroreqma heterostoma
Protozoan ,
Ch 1 lomonas paramecluro
Protozoan,
Uronema parduezl
Tub! field worm,
Tublfex tublfex
Cladoceran,
Daphnla maqna
Cladoceran,
Daphnla maqna
Cladoceran ,
Daphnla maqna
Cladoceran,
Daphnla maqna
Cladoceran,
Daphnla maqna
Cladoceran,
Daphnla maqna
Cladoceran,
Daphnla pul Icarla
Cladoceran,
Daphnla pul Icarla
Cladoceran,
Daphnla pul Icarla
Hardness
(mg/L as
Chemical CaCO5)
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
ammon 1 urn
sul fate
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chloride
Nickel 34.2
sul fate
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
ammon 1 urn
sul fate
Nickel 288
chloride
Nickel 45.3
chloride
Nickel 45.3
chloride
Nickel 45.3
chloride
Nickel 25
sul fate
Nickel 28
sul fate
Nickel 28
sul fate
Duration
28 hrs
28 hrs
48 hrs
20 hrs
48 hr
48 hrs
48 hrs
24 hrs
48 hrs
21 days
21 days
48 hrs
48 hrs
48 hrs
Effect
Incipient
Inhibition
Incipient
Inhibition
Incipient
Inhibition
Incipient
Inhibition
LC50
EC50 (river
water)
EC50 (river
water)
EC50
(swimming)
EC50 (Immobll-
zatlon) (fed)
EC50 (Immobll-
zat Ion)
\6t reproduc-
tive Impairment
LC50 (TOC =
39 mg/L)
LC50 (TOC =
15 mg/L)
LC50 (TOC =
13 mg/L)
Result
*
50
70
820
42
8.70
7.00
6,000
6,000
1 1 ,000
1,120
130
30
2,171
1,140
1,034
Reference
Brlngmann and Kuhn
1959b
Brlngmann and Kuhn
1959b
Brlngmann et al . 1980;
Br 1 ngmann and Kuhn
1981
Brlngmann and Kuhn
I980a, 1981
Br kov 1 c-Popov 1 c and
Popov Ic 1977a
Brlngmann and Kuhn
1959a,b
Brlngmann and Kuhn
1959a,b
Brlngmann and Kuhn
1977b
Bleslnger and
Chrlstensen 1972
Bleslnger and
Chrlstensen 1972
Bleslnger and
Chrlstensen 1972 .
Llnd et al . Manuscript
Llnd et al . Manuscript
Llnd et al . Manuscript
-------
Table 6. (Continued).
Species
Cladoceran,
Daphnla pulicarla
Cladoceran,
Daphnla pu 1 Icarla
Cladoceran,
Daphnla pul Icarla
Cladoceran,
Daphnla pul Icarla
Cladoceran,
Daphnla pul Icarl a
Cladoceran,
Daphnla pul Icarla
Cladoceran,
Daphnla pulicarla
Cladoceran,
Daphnla pul Icarla
Cladoceran,
Daphnla pul Icarla
Cladoceran,
Daphnla pul Icarla
Midge,
Chlronomus sp.
Coho salmon (yearling),
Oncorhynchus klsutch
Rainbow trout (0.5-0.9 g) ,
Salmo qalrdner 1
Rainbow trout (1 yr) ,
Salmo qalrdner 1
Chemical
Nickel
sul fate
Nickel
sul fate
Nickel
sul fate
Nickel
sul fate
Nickel
sul fate
Nickel
sul fate
Nickel
sul fate
Nickel
sul fate
Nickel
sul fate
Nickel
sulfate
_
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
sul fate
Nickel
sulfate
Hardness
(mg/L as
CnCO?)
29
73
74
84
86
89
89
100
114
120
50
90
42
240
Duration
48 hrs
48 hrs
48 hrs
48 hrs
48 hrs
48 hrs
48 hrs
48 hrs
48 hrs
48 hrs
96 hrs
144 hrs
48 hrs
48 hrs
Effect
LC50
-------
Table 6. (Continued)
Species
Rainbow trout
(embryo, larva),
Salmo galrdnerl
Rainbow trout (embryo),
Salmo gairdneri
Rainbow trout
(embryo, larva),
Salmo qalrdnerl
Rainbow trout
(embryo, larva),
Salmo gairdneri
Rainbow trout,
Salmo qairdnerl
Rainbow trout (adult),
Salmo gairdneri
Rainbow trout (10 g),
Salmo qairdnerl
Rainbow trout,
Salmo qalrdnerl
Brown trout (0.8-1.2 g) ,
Salmo trutta
Brook trout (0.4-0.6 g),
Salvellnus fontinalls
Lake trout (2.5-3.2 g) ,
Salvelinus namaycush
Goldfish,
Carasslus auratus
Goldfish (embryo, larva),
Carasslus auratus
Chemical
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
sul fate
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
sul fate
Nickel
sul fate
Nickel
sul fate
Nickel
sul fate
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chloride
Hardness
(mg/L as
CaCO;>
104
(92-110)
104
125
174
240
320
28.4
22.5
42
42
42
195
Duration
28 days
28 days
28 days
28 days
3.5 days
6 mos
20 mlns
48 hr
48 hrs
48 hrs
48 hrs
19-50 hrs
200-210 hrs
7 days
Effect
EC5O (death
and deformity)
LC50
EC 50 (death
and deformity)
EC 50 (death
and deformity)
Decreased gill
diffusion
Increase in
liver proteoly-
tlc activity of
males
Avoidance
threshold
LC50
LC50
LC50
LC50
LT
LT
EC50 (death
and deformity)
Result
(M9/L)»
50
50
60
90
2.000
1,000
23.9
54.963
60,290
54,040
16,750
100,000
10,000
2,140
Reference
Blrqe 1978; Blrge and
Black 1980; Blrge et al
1978, 1980. 1981
Blrqe et al . 1979
Birge et al . 1981
Blrge et al . 1981
Hughes et al . 1979
Aril lo et al . 1982
Glattlna et al. 1982
Bornatowlcz 1983
Ml II ford 1966
Mil Iford 1966
Mil Iford 1966
Ellis 1937
Blrge 1978
-------
Table 6. (Continued)
Species
Goldfish (embryo, larva),
Carasslus auratus
Common carp (embryo),
Cyprlnus carplo
Common carp (larva),
Cyprlnus carplo
Common carp (embryo),
Cyprlnus carplo
Fathead minnow,
Plmephales promelas
Fathead minnow,
Plmephales promelas
Fathead minnow,
Plmephales promelas
Fathead minnow,
Plmephales promelas
Fathead minnow,
Pimephales promelas
Fathead minnow,
Plmephales promelas
Channel catfish (1.2-1.5 g) ,
Ictalurus punctatus
Channel catfish,
Ictalurus punctatus
Guppy,
Poec Ilia ret i cu 1 at a
Guppy ( 184 mg) ,
Poecilia retlculata
Chemical
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
sulfate
Nickel
sulfate
Nickel
sulfate
Nickel
sulfate
Nickel
sulfate
Nickel
sul fate
Nickel
sulfate
Nickel
sulfate
Nickel
sulfate
Nickel
sulfate
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
sulfate
Nickel
chloride
Hardness
(mg/L as
CaC05)
93-
105
128
128
360
28
29
77
86
89
91
42
93-
105
260
260
Duration Effect
7 days EC50 (death
and deformity)
72 hrs LC50
72 hrs LC50
257 hrs
EC50 (hatch)
96 hrs LC50 (TOC =
14 mg/L)
96 hrs LC50 (TOC =
12 mg/L)
96 hrs LC50 (TOC =
32 mg/L)
96 hrs LC50 (TOC =
15 mg/L)
96 hrs LC50 (TOC =
33 mg/L)
96 hrs LC50 (TOC =
30 mg/L)
48 hrs LC50
7 days EC 56 (death
and deformity)
96 hrs LC50 (high
sol Ids)
48 hrs LC50
Result
(MS/L)«
2,780
6,100
8,460
750
22,000
2,923
2,916
12,356
5,383
17,678
8,617
36,840
710
34,900
37,000
Reference
Blrge and Black 1980;
Blrge et al . 1981
B lay lock and Frank
1979
B lay lock and Frank
1979
Kapur and Yadov 1982
Llnd et al . Manuscript
Llnd et al . Manuscript
Llnd et al. Manuscript
Lind et al . Manuscript
Llnd et al . Manuscript
Llnd et al . Manuscript
Mil Iford 1966
Blrge and Black 1980;
Blrge et al. 1981
Khangarot 1981
Khangarot et al. 1981
-------
Table 6. (Continued)
Species
Blueglll (0.7-1.1 g),
Lepomls macrochlrus
Largemouth bass
(embryo, larva),
Mlcropterus sal mo Ides
Narrow-mouthed toad
(embryo, larva),
Gastrophryne carol Inens Is
Narrow- mouthed toad
(embryo, larva),
Gastrophryne carol Inens Is
Fowler's toad,
Bufo fowlerl
Marbled salamander
(embryo, larva),
Chemical
Nickel
sul fate
Nickel
chlor Ide
Nickel
chlor Ide
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chloride
Hardness
(mg/L as
42
93-
105
195
95-
103
93-
105
93-
105
Duration
48 hrs
8 days
7 days
7 days
7 days
8 days
Effect
UC50
EC50 (death
and deformity)
EC50 (death
and deformity)
EC50 (death
and deformity)
EC50 (death
and deformity)
EC50 (death
and deformity)
Result
110,500
2,020
(2,060)
50
50
11,030
420
(410)
Reference
Will ford 1966
Blrge and Black 1980;
Blrge et al. 1978, 1981
Birqe 1978; Blrge et al
1979
Blrge and Black 1980
Birge and Black 1980
Blrge and Black 1980;
Blrge et al . 1978
Ambystoma opacum
-------
Table 6. (Continued)
Species Chemical
Salinity
(q/hg) Duration
Effect
Result
(ug/D*
SALTWATER SPECIES
Golden brown alga,
Isochrysls galbana
Golden brown alga,
Isochrysls galbana
Diatom, Nickel
Phaeodacty lum trlcornutum chloride
Diatom,
Thalassloslra pseudonana
Diatom,
Thalassloslra pseudonana
Diatom,
Tha lass los Ira pseudonana
Diatom,
Thalassloslra pseudonana
Diatom,
Thalassloslra pseudonana
Diatom,
Thalassiosira pseudonana
Diatom,
Thalassiosira pseudonana
28 2 days
28 9 days
26 7 days
14 2 days
14 2 days
14 2 days
14 2 days
14 2 days
28 2 days
28 2 days
Lowest concen-
tration reducing
chlorophyll a_
Lowest concen-
tration reducing
eel 1 numbers
Reduced growth
Ch 1 orophy 1 1 a_
reduced about
65* at 12"C
Chi orophy 1 1 _a_
reduced about
65* at 16"C
Chlorophyll a
reduced about
65* at 20°C
Ch 1 orophy 1 1 a
reduced about
65* at 24 "C
Chi orophy 1 1 a_
red uced about
65* at 28*C
Chi orophy 1 1 j*_
reduced about
65* at 12°C
Chi orophy 1 1 _a_
reduced about
65* at 16°C
500
80
1,000
100
31
28
17
80
72
140
Reference
Wilson and Freeberg 1980
Wilson and Freeberg I960
Skaar et al. 1974
Wilson and Freeberg 1980
Wilson and Freeberg 1980
Wilson and Freeberg 1980
Wilson and Freeberg 1980
Wilson and Freeberg 1980
Wilson and Freeberg 1980
Wilson and Freeberg 1980
-------
Table 6. (Continued)
Species Chemical
Diatom,
Thalassloslra pseudonana
Diatom,
Thalassloslra pseudonana
Diatom,
Thalassloslra pseudonana
Diatom,
Thalassloslra pseudonana
D Inof lagel late,
6 lenodlnlum hal 1 1
Dlnof lagel late,
Glenod Inlum hal 1 1.
D Inof lagel late,
Gymnod In lum sp lendens
Dlnof lagel late,
Gymnod Inlum splendens
Dlnof lagel late,
Gymnod In lum splendens ,
Salinity
(g/kg)
28
28
28
28
28
28
28
28
28
Duration
2 days
2 days
2 days
2 days
5 days
2 days
2 days
2 days
2 days
Effect
Result
«
Ch 1 orophy 1 1 JJ^ 30
reduced about
65* at 20 °C
Chi orophy 1 1 _a 21
reduced about
65* at 24 "C
Chi orophy 1 1 _a_ 18
reduced about
65* at 30 °C
Lowest concen- 100
tratlon reducing
chlorophyll a
Reduced chloro- 50
phy 1 1 a^ and
population
numbers 1 n chemo-
stat cultures
Lowest concen- 200
tratlon reducing
chl orophy 1 1 _a
Chi orophy 1 1 _a 1,000
reduced about
65* at 16 "C
Chlorophyll J^ 950
reduced about
65* at 20 °C
Chl orophy 1 1 a^ 560
reduced about
65* at 24 °C
Reference
Wilson and Freeberg 1980
Wilson and Freeberg 1980
Wilson and Freeberg 1980
Wilson and Freeberg 1980
Wilson and Freeberg 1980
Wilson and Freeberg 1980
Wilson and Freeberg 1980
Wilson and Freeberg 1980
Wilson and Freeberg 1980
-------
Table 6. (Continued)
Species
Dlnof lagel late,
Gymnod Inlum spendens
Dlnof lagel late,
Gymnod In lum splendens
Dl not lagel late,
Gymnod In lum splendens
Dlnof lagel late,
Gymnod In lum splendens
Dlnof lagel late,
Gymnod Inlum splendens
Polychaete worm (adult),
Ctenodrllus serratus
Blue mussel ,
Mytl lus edulls
Pacific oyster (juvenile),
Crassostrea glgas
Eastern oyster (larva),
Crassostrea virgin lea
Eastern oyster (larva),
Crassostrea virgin lea
Eastern oyster,
Crassostrea virgin lea
Clam ( larva) ,
Mu 1 Ina lateral Is
Chemical
-
—
—
-
—
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chlor Ide
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chloride
Nickel
chloride
Salinity
(g/kg)
28
28
14
14
28
29-
32
34
24+2
24+2
29-
32
35
Duration
2 days
2 days
2 days
2 days
2 days
28 days
10 weeks
14 days
12 days
12 days
10 weeks
48 hrs
Effect
Chlorophy 1 1 a
reduced about
65V at 28°C
Ch 1 orophy 1 1 ^
reduced about
65* at 30 °C
Chi orophy 1 1 ^
reduced about
65* at 16*C
Chlorophyll a±
reduced about
65% at 30*C
Lowest concen-
tration reducing
Chlorophy 1 1 _a
Inhibited
reproduction
ATP reduced
19* reduction
In growth
LC50
54.8* reduction
In growth
No effect on
AEC and
components
Reduced calcium
uptake
Result
Cufl/D"
130
1,800
1,800
400
200
100-
500
10
20
1,200
1,200
10
2,000
Reference
Wl (son and
W 1 1 son and
W 1 1 son and
W 1 1 son and
Wilson and
Freeberg 1980
Freeberg 1980
Freeberg 1980
Freeberg 1980
Freeberg 1980
Petrlch and Relsh 1979
Zarooglan et al . 1982
Wat ling 1983
Calabrese et al . 1977
Calabrese et al . 1977
Zarooglan et al . 1982
Ho and Zubkoff 1983
-------
Table 6. (Continued)
Salinity
Species Chemical (g/kg) Duration
Quahoq olam (larva), Nickel 24j*2 8-10 days
Mercenarla mercenarla chloride
Common Pacific llttleneck Nickel 31 48 hrs
(adult), nitrate
Protothaca stamlnea
Common Pacific llttleneck Nickel 31 48 hrs
(adult), nitrate
Protothaca stamlnea
Copepod (adult), Nickel 30 72 hrs
Pseudodlaptomus coronatus chloride
Copepod (adult). Nickel 30 72 hrs
Acartla clausl chloride
Copepod (adult). Nickel 30 72 hrs
Acartla tonsa chloride
Pink shrimp (adult). Nickel - 48 hrs
Panda I us montaguI sulfate
Green crab (adult). Nickel - 48 hrs
Carclnus maenas sulfate
Sea urchin (embryo), Nickel - 21 hrs
Arbacla punctulata chloride
Sea urchin (embryo), Nickel - 42 hrs
Arbacla punctulata chloride
Sea urchin (embryo). Nickel - 18-26 hrs
Lytechlnus pIctus chloride
Sea urchin (embryo). Nickel - 48 hrs
Lytechlnus plctus chloride
Result
Effect
•
LC50
No growth
BCF = 4.3
(gill)
BCF = 4.0
(whole clam)
LC50
LC50
LC50
LC50
LC50
Stunted
development
5,700
5,700
14,570
6,010
747
56,880
170,600
7,562
>50* mortalIty 7,562
Totally
arrested
development
AbnormaI
development
586,900
586.9
Reference
Calabrese et al. 1977
Hardy and Roes I jad I 1982
Hardy and Roes I j ad I 1982
Lussler and Card In 1985
Lussler and Cardln 1985
Lussler and Cardln 1985
Portmann 1968
Portmann 1968
Waterman 1937
Waterman 1937
Tlmourlan and Watchmaker
1972
Tlmourlan and Watchmaker
1972
-------
Table 6. (Continued)
Species Chemical
Sea urchin (gamete),
Stronqy locentrotus purpuratus
Salinity
(g/kg)
-
Duration
300 mlns
Effect
Depressed sperm
motlllty
Result
(iig/L)«
58.69
Reference
Tl mount an and
1977
Matchmaker
* Results are expressed as nickel, not as the chemical.
** Incubated for 2 to 4 days after exposure.
-------
REFERENCES
Abbe, G.R. 1982. Growth, mortality and copper-nickel accumulation by oysters
(Crassostrea virginica) at the Morgantown steam electric station on the
—^————— (
Potomac River, Maryland. J. Shellfish Res. 2:3-13.
Abo-Rady, M. 1979. The levels of heavy metals (Cd, Cu, ft?, Ni, Pb, Zn) in
brook trouts from the River Leine in the area of Gottingen (West Germany). Z.
Lebensm. Unters. Forsch. 168:259-263.
Agrawal, S.J., A.K. Srivastava and H.S. Chaudhry. 1979. Haematological
effects of nickel toxicity on a fresh water teleost, Colisa fasciatus. Acta
Pharmacol. Toxicol. 45:215-217.
Ahsanullah, M. 1982. Acute toxicity o£ chromium, mercury, molybdenum, and
nickel to the amphipod Ailorchestes compressa. Aust. J. Mar. Freshwater Res.
33:465-474.
Anderson, E.G. 1948. The apparent thresholds of toxicity to Daphnia magna for
chlorides of various metals when added to Lake Erie water. Trans. Am. Fish.
Soc. 78:96-113.
Anderson, D,R. 1981. The combined effects of" nickel, chlorine, and
temperature on the mortality of rainbow trout, Salmo gairdneri. Ph.D. thesis.
University of Washington, Seattle, WA. Available from: University Microfilms,
Ann Arbor, MI. Order No. 8121178.
-------
Anderson, D.R. 1983. Chlorine-heavy metals interaction on toxicity and metal
accumulation. In: Water chlorination: Environmental impact and health
effects. Vol. 4, Book 2. Jolley, R.L., W.A. Brungs, J.A. Cotruvo, R.B.
Gumming, J.S. Mattice and V.A. Jacobs (Eds.). Ann Arbor Science Publishers,
Ann Arbor, MI. pp. 811-826.
Anderson, P.D. and L.J. Weber. 1975. Toxic response as a quantitative
function of body size. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 33: 471-483.
Applegate, V.C., J.H. Howell, A.E. Hall, Jr. and M.A. Smith. 1957. Toxicity
of 4,346 chemicals to larval lampreys and fishes. Special Scientific Report--
Fisheries No. 207. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, DC.
AriLlo, A., C. Margiocco, F. MeLodia and P. Mensi. 1982. Biochemical effects
of Long term exposure to Cr, Cd, Ni on rainbow trout (Salmo gairdnen Rich.):
Influence of sex and season. Chemosphere 11:47-57.
Babich, H. and G. Stotzky. 1983. Temperature, pH, salinity, hardness, and
particulates mediate nickel toxicity to eubacteria, an actinomycete, and
yeasts in lake, simulated estuarine, and sea waters. Aquat. Toxicol.
3:195-208.
Babich, H. and G. Stotzky. 1985. Heavy metal toxicity to microbe-mediated
ecologic processes: A review and potential application to regulatory
policies. Environ. Res. 36: 111-137.
-------
Ballester, A. and J. Castellvi. 1979. Contribution to the biokinetic study of
vanadium and nickel uptake by marine organisms. Invest. Pesq. 43:449-478.
Baudouin, M.F. and P. Scoppa. 1974. Acute toxicity of various metals to
freshwater zooplankton. Bull. Environ. Contain. Toxicol. 12:745-751.
Bean, B. and A. Harris. 1977. A calcium-reversible selective inhibition of
flagellar coordination by nickel ion in ChLamydomonas. Abstracts o£ the
annual meeting of the American Society of Microbiology.
Becker, C.D. and M.G. Wolford. 1980. Thermal resistance of juvenile salmonids
sub lethally exposed to nickel, determined by the critical thermal maximum
method. Environ. Pollut. (Series A) 21:181-189.
Bengtsson, B. 1978. Use of a harpacticoid copepod in toxicity tests. Mar.
Pollut. Bull. 9:238-241.
Besser, J.M. 1985. Bioavailability and toxicity of heavy metals in mine
tailings ieachate to aquatic invertebrates. M.S. thesis. University of
Missouri, Columbia, MS.
Biesinger, K.E. and G.M. Christensen. 1972. Effect of various metals on
survival, growth, reproduction, and metaabolism of Daphnia magna. J. Fish.
Res. Board Can. 29:1691-1700.
-------
Birge, W.J. 1978. Aquatic toxicology of trace elements and coal and fly ash.
In: Energy and environmental stress in aquatic systems. Thorp, J.H. and J.W.
Gibbons (Eds.). CONF-771114. National Technical Information Service,
Springfield, VA. pp. 219-240.
Birge, W.J. and J.A. Black. 1980. Aquatic toxicology of nickel. In: Nickel in
the environment. Nriagu, J.O. (Ed.). Wiley, New York, NY. pp. 349-366.
Birge, W.J., J.E. Hudson, J.A. Black and A.G. Westerman. 1978. Embryo-larval
bioassays on inorganic coal elements and in situ biomonitoring of coal-waste
effluents. In: Surface mining and fish/wildlife needs in the eastern United
States. Samuel, D.E., J.R. Stauffer, C.H. Hocutt and W.T. Mason (Eds.).
PB298353. National Technical Information Service, Springfield, VA. pp.
97-104.
Birge, W.J., J.A. Black and A.G. Westerman. 1979. Evaluation of aquatic
pollutants using fish and amphibian eggs as bioassay organisms. In: Animals
as monitors of environmental pollutants. Neilson, S.W., G. Migaki and D.G.
Scarrelli (Eds.). National Academy of Sciences, Washington, DC. pp. 108-118.
Birge, W.J., J.A. Black, A.G. Westerman and J.E. Hudson. 1980. Aquatic
toxicity tests on inorganic elements occurring in oil shale. In: Oil shale
symposium: Sampling, analysis and quality assurance. Gale, C. (Ed.).
PB80221435 or EPA-600/9-80-022. National Technical Information Service,
Springfield, VA. pp. 519-534.
-------
Birge, W.J., J.A. Black, and B.A. Ramey. 1981. The reproductive toxicology of
aquatic contaminants. In: Hazard assessment of chemicals: Current
developments. Vol. 1. Saxena, J. and F. Fisher (Eds.). Academic Press, New
York, NY. pp. 59-115.
Blaylock, B.C. and M.L. Frank. 1979. A comparison of the toxicity of nickel
to the developing eggs and larvae of carp (Cyprinus carpio). Bull. Environ.
Contam. Toxicol. 21:604-611.
Bornatowicz, N. 1983. Assessment of the acute toxicity of nickel sulfate to
rainbow trout. PB84232073. National Technical Information Service,
Springfield, VA.
Braginskiy, L.P. and E.P. Shcherban. 1978. Acute toxicity of heavy metals to
aquatic invertebrates at different temperatures. Hydrobiol. J. 14(6):78-82.
Brezina, E.R. and M.Z. Arnold. 1977. Levels of heavy metals in fishes from
selected Pennsylvania waters. Publication No. 50. Pennsylvania Department of
Environmental Resources, Bureau of Water Quality Management, Harrisburg, PA.
Bringmann, G. 1978. Determination of the biological toxicity of waterbound
substances towards protozoa. I. Bacteriovorous flagellates (model organism:
Entosiphon sulcatum Stein). Z. Wasser Abwasser Forsch. 11:210-215*
Bringmann, G. and R. Kuhn. 1959a. The toxic effects of waste water on aquatic
bacteria, algae, and small crustaceans. Gesund.-Ing. 80:115-120.
-------
Bringmann, G. and R. Kuhn. 1959b. Water toxicology studies with protozoans as
test: organisms. Gesund.-Ing. 80:239-242.
Bringmann, G. and R. Kuhn. 1977a. Limiting values for the damaging action of
water pollutants to bacteria (Pseudomonas putida) and green algae
(Scenedesmus quadricauda) in the cell multiplication inhibition test. Z.
Wasser Abwasser Forsch. 10:87-98.
Bringmann, G. and R. Kuhn. 1977b. Results of the damaging effect of water
pollutants on Daphnia magna. Z. Wasser Abwasser Forsch. 10:161-166.
Bringmann, G. and R. Kuhn. 1978a. Limiting values for the noxious effects of
water pollutant material to blue algae (Microcystis aeruginosa) and green
algae (Scenedesmus quadricauda) in cell propagation inhibition tests. Vom
Wasser 50:45-60.
Bringmann, G. and R. Kuhn. 1978b. Testing of substances for their toxicity
threshold: Model organisms Microcystis (Diplocystis) aeruginosa and
Scenedesmus quadricauda. Mitt. Int. Ver. Theor. Angew. Limnol. 21:275-284.
Bringmann, G. and R. Kuhn. 1979. Comparison of toxic limiting concentrations
of water contamination toward bacteria, algae and protozoa in the cell-growth
inhibition test. Haustech. Bauphys. Umwelttech. 100:249-252.
Bringmann, G. and R. Kuhn. 1980a. Determination of the harmful biological
effect of water pollutants on protozoa. II. Bacteriovorous ciliates. Z.
Wasser Abwasser Forsch. 13:26-31.
-------
Bnngtnann, G. and R. Kuhn. 1980b. Comparison of Che toxicity thresholds of
water pollutants to bacteria, algae, and protozoa in the cell multiplication
inhibition test. Water Res. 14:231-241.
Bringmann, G. and R. Kuhn. 1981. Comparison of the effects of harmful
substances on flagellates as well as ciliates and on halozoic bacteriophagous
and saprozoic protozoa. Gas-Wasserfach, Wasser-Abwasser 122:308-313.
Bringmann, G., R. Kuhn and A. Winter. 1980. Determination of biological
damage from water pollutants to protozoa. III. Saprozoic flagellates. Z.
Wasser Abwasser Forsch. 13:170-173.
Bringmann, G. and R. Kuhn. 1982. Results of toxic action of water pollutants
on Daphnia magna Straus tested by an improved standardized procedure. Z.
Wasser Abwasser Forsch 15:1-6.
Brkovic-Popovic, I. and M. Popovic. 1977a. Effects of heavy metals on
survival and respiration rate of tubificid worms: Part I - Effects on
survival. Environ. Pol.lut. 13:65-72.
Brkovic-Popovic, I. and M. Popovic. 1977b. Effects of heavy metals ou
survival and respiration rate of tubificid worms: Part II - Effects on
respiration rate. Environ. Pollut. 13:93-98.
Brown, B.T. and B.M. Rattigan. 1979. Toxicity of soluble copper and other
metal ions to Elodea canadensis. Environ. Pollut. 20:303-314.
-------
Brown, V.M. 1968. The calculation of che acute toxicity of mixtures of
poisons to rainbow trout. Water Res. 2:723-733.
Brown, V.M. and R.A. Dalton. 1970. The acute lethal toxicity to rainbow trout
of mixtures of copper, phenol, zinc and nickel. J. Fish Biol. 2:211-216.
Bryan, G.W., W.J. Langston, L.G. Hummerstone, G.R. Burt and Y.B. Ho. 1983. An
assessment of the gastropod, Littorina littorea, as an indicator of heavy
metal contamination in United Kingdom estuaries. J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. U.K.
63:327-345.
Bryant, V., O.M. Newberry, A.S. McLusky and R. Campbell. 1985. Effect of
temperature and salinity on the toxicity of nickel and zinc to two estuarine
invertebrates (Corophium volutator, Macotna balthica) . Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser.
24:139-153.
Buikeraa, A.L., Jr., J. Cairns, Jr. and G.W. Sullivan. 1973. Development and
assessment of acute bioassay techniques for the littoral rotifer, Philodina
acuticornis. PB290937. National Technical Information Service, Springfield,
VA.
Buiketna, A.L. , Jr., J. Cairns, Jr. and G.W. Sullivan. 1974a. Rotifers as
monitors of heavy metal pollution in water. Bulletin 71. Virginia Water
Resources Research Center, Blacksburg, VA.
Buikema, A.L., Jr., J. Cairns, Jr. and G.W. Sullivan. 1974b. Evaluation of
Philodina acuticornis (Rotifera) as a bioassay organism for heavy metals.
Water Res. Bull. 10:648-661.
r?
-------
Buikeraa, A.L., Jr., C.L. See and J. Cairns, Jr. 1977. Rotifer sensitivity to
combinations of inorganic water pollutants. Bulletin 92. Virginia Water
Resources Research Center, Blacksburg, VA.
Cairns, J., Jr., K.W. Thompson and A.C. Hendricks. 1981. Effects of
fluctuating, sublethal applications of heavy metal solutions upon the giil
ventilation response of bluegills (Lepomis macrochirus). EPA-600/3-81-003.
National Technical Information Service, Springfield, VA.
Calabrese, A. and D.A. Nelson. 1974. Inhibition of embryonic development of
the hard clam, Mercenaria mercenaria by heavy metals. Bull. Environ. Contam.
Toxicol. 11:92-97.
Calabrese, A., R.S. Collier, D.A. Nelson and J.R. Maclnnes. 1973. The
toxicity of heavy metals to embryos of the American oyster Crassostrea
virginica. 'Mar. Biol. 18:162-166.
Calabrese, A., J.R. Maclnnes, D.A. Nelson and J.E. Miller. 1977. Survival and
growth of bivalve larvae under heavy-metal stress. Mar. Biol. 41:179-184.
Calamari, D.,-G.F. Gaggino and G. Pacchetti. 1982. Toxicokinetics of low
levels of Cd, Cr, Ni and their mixture in long-term treatment on Salmo
gairdneri Rich. Chemosphere 11:59-70.
Call, D.J., L.T. Brooke, N. Ahmad and J.E. Richter. 1983. Toxicity and
metabolism studies with EPA priority pollutants and related chemicals in
freshwater organisms. PB83263665 or EPA-600/3-83-095. National Technical
Information Service, Springfield, VA.
-------
CalUhan, M.A., M.W. Sliraak, N.W. GabeL , I.P. May, C.F. Fowler, J.R. Freed,
P. Jennings, R.L. Durfee, F.C. Whitmore, B. Maestri, W.R. Mabey, B.R. Hole
and C. Gould. 1979. Water-related environmental fate of 129 priority
pollutants. Vol I. EPA-440/4-79-029a. National Technical Information Service,
Springfield, VA. pp. 15-1 to 15-9.
Cardin, J.A. 1985. U.S. EPA, Narragansett, RI. (Memorandum to D.J. Hansen.
U.S. EPA, Narragansett, RI.)
Chapman, G.A., S. Ota and F. Recht. Manuscript. Effects of water hardness on
the toxicity of metals to Daphnia magna. U.S. EPA, Corvallis, OR.
Chapman, W.H., H.L. Fisher and M.W. Pratt. 1968. Concentration factors of
chemical elements in edible aquatic organisms. UCRL-50564. National Technical
Information Service, Springfield, VA.
Chaudhry, H.S. 1984. Nickel toxicity on carbohydrate metabolism of a
freshwater fish, Colisa fasciatus. Toxicol. Lett. 20:115-121.
Clendenning, K.A. and W.J. North. 1959. Effects of wastes on the gianc kelp,
Macrocystis pyrifera. In: Effects of wastes on the giant kelp, Macrocystis
pyrifera. Pearson, E.A. (Ed.). Proceedings of the first international
conference on waste disposal in the marine environment, Berkeley, CA.
Devi Prasad, P.V. and P.S. Devi Prasad. 1982. Effect of cadmium, lead and
nickel on three freshwater green algae. Water Air Soil Pollut. 17:263-268.
S-9
-------
Dixon, W.J. and M.B. Brown (Eds.). 1979. BMDP BiomedicaL Computer Programs,
P-series. University of California, Berkeley, CA. p. 521.
Dorfman, 0. 1977. Tolerance of Fundalus heteroclitus to different metals in
salt water. Bull. N.J. Acad. Sci. 22:21-23.
Dunstan, J.C., A. deforest and R.W. Pettis. 1980. Mytilus edulis as an
indicator of trace metal pollution in naval dockyard waters with preliminary
results from Williamstown Naval Dockyards, Victoria. MRL-R-781. Department of
Defense, Materials Research Laboratories, Melbourne, Victoria.
Eisler, R. 1977a. Acute toxicities of selected heavy metals to the soft-shell
clam, Mya arenaria. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 17:137-145.
Eisler, R. 1977b. Toxicity evaluation of a complex metal mixture to che
softshell clam Mya arenaria. Mar. BioL. 43:265-276.
Eisler, R. and R.J. Hennekey. 1977. Acute toxicities of Cd*2, Cr*6,
Kg"1"2, Mi*2 and Zn*2 to estuarine macrofaiina. Arch. Environ.
Contam. Toxicol. 6:315-323.
Eisler, R., M.M. Barry, R.I. Lapan, Jr., G. Telek, E.W. Davey and A.E. Soper.
1978. Metal survey of the marine clam Pitar morrhauna collected near a Rhode
Island (USA) electroplating plant. Mar. Biol. 45:311-317.
Ellis, M.M. 1937. Detection and measurement of stream-pollution. Bulletin No.
22. Bureau of Fisheries, U.S. Department of Commerce, Washington, DC.
-------
Fezy, J.S., D.F. Spencer and R.W. Greene. 1979. The effect of nickel on the
growth of the freshwater diatom Navicula pelliculosa. Environ. Pollut.
20:131-137.
Forstner, U. 1984. Metal pollution of terrestrial waters. In: Changing, metal
cycles and human health. Nriagu, J.O. (Ed.). Spnnger-Verlag, New York, NY.
pp. 71-94.
Foster, P. 1976. Concentration and concentration factors of heavy metals in
brown algae. Environ. Pollut. 10:9-17.
Gentile, J.H., S.M. Gentile, N.G. Hairston, Jr. and B.K. Sullivan, 1982. The
use of life-tables for evaluating the chronic toxicity of pollutants to
Mysidopsis bahia. Hydrobiologia 93:179-187.
Gerhards, U. and H. Weller. 1977. The uptake of mercury, cadmium and nickel
by Chlorella pyrenoidosa. Z. Pflanzenphysiol. 82:292-300.
Giattina, J.D., R.R. Carton and D.G. Stevens. 1982. Avoidance of copper and
nickel by rainbow trout as monitored by a computer-based data acquisition
system. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 111:491-504.
Gill, T.S. and J.C. Pant. 1981. Toxicity of nickel to the fish Puntius
conchonius (Ham.) and its effects on blood glucose and liver glycogen. Comp.
Phvsiol. Ecol. 6:99-102.
-------
Gordon, M., G.A. Knauer and J.H. Martin. 1980. Mytilus caiifornianus as a
bioindicator of trace metal pollution: Variability and statistical
considerations. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 11:195-198.
Grande, M. and S. Andersen. 1983. Lethal effects of hexavalent chromium, lead
and nickel on young stages of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) in soft water.
Vatten 39:405-416.
Hale, J.G. 1977. Toxicicy of metal mining wastes. Bull. Environ. Contam.
Toxicol. 17:66-73.
Hall, R.A., E.G. Zook and G.M. Meaburn. 1978. National Marine Fisheries
Service 'survey of trace elements in the fishery resource. NOAA Technical
Report NMFS SSRF-721. National Technical Information Service, Springfield,
VA.
Hall, T. 1978. Nickel uptake, retention and loss in Daphnia magna. M.S.
thesis. University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
Hall, T.M. 1982. Free ionic nickel accumulation and Localization in the
freshwater zooplankter, Daphnia magna. Limnol. Oceanogr. 27:718-727.
Hansen, D.J. 1983. U.S. EPA, Gulf Breeze, FL. (Memorandum to W.A. Brungs.
U.S. EPA, Narragansett, RI.)
-------
Hardy, J.T. and G. Roesijadi. 1982. BioaccumuLation kinetics and oxygen
distribution of nickel in the marine clam Protochaca staminea. Bull. Environ.
Contain. Toxicol. 28:566-572.
Havas, M. and T.C. Hutchinson. 1982. Aquatic invertebrates from the Smoking
Hills, N.W.T.: Effect of pH and metals on mortality. Can. J. Fish. Aquat.
Sci. 39:890-903.
Ho, M.S. and P.L. Zubkoff. 1983. The opposing effects of cadmium and nickel
on calcium uptake by larvae of the clam Mulinia lateralis. Comp. Biochem.
Physiol. 74C:337-339.
Hughes, G.M., S.F. Perry and V.M. Brown. 1979. A morphometric study of
effects of nickel, chromium and cadmium on the secondary lamellae of rainbow
trout gills. Water Res. 13:665-679.
Hutchinson, N.J. and J.B. Sprague. 1983. Chronic coxicity of a mixture of 7
metals to flagfish in soft, acid water. In: Proceedings of the eighth annual
aquatic toxicity workshop. Kaushik, N.K. and K.R. Solomon (Eds.), p. 191.
Hutchinson, T.C. 1973. Comparative studies of the toxicity of heavy metals to
phytoplankton and their synergistic interactions. Water Pollut. Res. Can.
8:68-90.
Hutchinson, T.C. and P.M. Stokes. 1975. Heavy metal toxicity and algaL
bioassays. In: Water quality parameters. Barabas, S. (Ed.). ASTM STP 573.
American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, PA. pp. 320-343.
-------
Hutchinson, T.C., A. Fedorenko, J. Ficchko, A. Kuja, J. Van Loon and J.
Lichwa. 1975. Movement and compartraentation of nickel and copper in an
aquatic ecosystem. In: Trace substances in environmental health - IX.
Hemphill, D.D. (Ed.). University of Missouri, Columbia, MO. pp. 89-105.
Jenkins, D.W. 1980. Biological monitoring of toxic trace metals, Vol. 2:
Toxic trace metals in plants and animals of the world. Part III. EPA-600/3-
80-092. National Technical Information Service, Springfield, VA.
Jennett, J.C., J.E. Smith and J.M. Hassett. 1982. Factors influencing metal
accumulation by algae. EPA-600/2-82-100. National Technical Information
Service, Springfield, VA.
Jones, J.R.E. 1935. The toxic action of heavy metal salts on the three-spined
stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus). J. Exp. Biol. 12:165-173.
Jones, J.R.E. 1939. The relation between the electrolytic solution pressures
of the metals and their toxicity to the stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeacus
L.). J. Exp. Biol. 16:425-437.
Kaiser, K.L.E. 1980. Correlation and prediction of metal toxicity to aquatic
biota. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 37:211-218.
Kapur, K. and N.A. Yadov. 1982. The effects of certain heavy metal salts on
the development of eggs in common carp, Cyprinus carpio var. communis. Acta
Hydrochim. Hydrobiol. 10:517-522.
-------
Kawamata, S., Y. Yamauro, H. Hayashi and S. Komiyama. 1983. Contents of heavy
metals in fishes in Nagano prefecture. CA Selects-Environ. Pollut. 7:4.
Khangarot, B.S. 1981. Lethal effects of zinc and nickel on freshwater
teleosts. Acta Hydrochim. Hydrobiol. 9:297-302.
Khangarot, B.S., V.S. Durve and V.K. Rajbanshi. 1981. Toxicity of
interactions of zinc-nickel, copper-nickel and zinc-nickel-copper to a
freshwater teleost, Lebistes reticulatus (Peters). Acta Hydrochim. Hydrobiol.
9:495-503.
Khangarot, B.S., S. Mathur, and V.S. Durve. 1982. Comparative toxicity of
heavy metals and interaction of metals on.a freshwater pulonate snail Lymnaea
acuminata (Lamarck). Acta Hydrochim. Hydrobiol. 10:367-375.
Kopp, J.F. and R.C. Kroner. 1967. Trace metals in waters of the United
States, Oct. 1, 1962, to Sept. 30, 1967. Federal Water Pollution Administra-
tion, Cincinnati, OH.
La louche, Y.D. and M.C. Mix. 1982. Seasonal variations of arsenic and other
trace elements in bay mussels (Mytilus edulis). Bull. Environ. Contain.
Toxicol. 29:665-670.
Lirid, D. , K. Alto and S. Chaltterton. Manuscript. Minnesota Environmental
Quality Board, Minneapolis, MN.
-------
Lorz, H.W., R.H. Williams and C.A. Fustish. 1978. Effects of several metals
on smelting of coho salmon. EPA-600/3-78-090. National Technical Information
Service, Springfield, VA.
Lussier, S.M. and J.A. Cardin. 1985. U.S. EPA, Narragansett, RI. (Memorandum
to D.J. Hansen. U.S. EPA, Narragansett, RI.)
Lussier, S.M. and J. Walker. 1985. U.S. EPA, Narragansett, RI. (Memorandum to
D.J. Hansen. U.S. EPA, Narragansett, RI.)
Lussier, S.M., J.H. Gentile and J. Walker. 1985. Acute and chronic effects of
heavy metals and cyanide on Mysidopsis bahia (Crustacea:Mysidacea). Aquat.
Toxicol. 7:25-35.
Mann, H. and W.S. Fyfe. 1984. An experimental study of algal 'uptake of U, Ba,
V, Co and Ni from dilute solutions. Chem. GeoL. 44:385-398.
Markarian, R.K., M.C. Matthews and L.T. Connor. 1980. Toxicity of nickel,
copper, zinc and aluminum mixtures to the white sucker (Catostomus
coimnersoni) . Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 25:790-796.
Martin, J.H. 1979. Bioaccumulation of heavy metals by littoral and pelagic
marine organisms. EPA-600/3-79-038. National Technical Information Service,
Springfield, VA.
-------
Martin, J.H. and G.A. Knauer. 1972. A comparison of inshore versus offshore
Levels of twenty-one trace and major elements in marine plankton. In:
Baseline studies of pollutants in the marine environment (heavy metals,
halogenated hydrocarbons and petroleum). Goldberg, E.D. (Ed.). Brookhaven
National Laboratory, pp. 35-66.
Mathis, B.J. and T.F. Cummings. 1973. Selected metals in sediments, water,
and biota in the Illinois River. J. Water Pollut. Control. Fed. 45:1573-1583.
McCabe, L.J., J.M. Symons, R.D. Lee and G.G. Robeck. 1970. Survey of
community water supply systems. J. Am. Water Works Assoc. 62:670-687.
McDermbtt, D.J., G.V. Alexander, D.R. Young and A.T. Mearns. 1976. Metal
contamination of flatfish around a large submarine outfall. J. Water Pollut.
Control Fed. 48:1913-1918.
Mears, H.C. and R. Eisler. 1977. Trace metals in liver from bluefish, tautog
and filefish in relation to body length. Chesapeake Sci. 18:315-318.
Muramota, S. 1983. Influence of complexans (NTA, EDTA) on the toxicity of
nickel chloride and sulfate to fish at high concentrations. J. Environ. Sci.
Health 18A:787-795.
Mushak, P. 1980. Metabolism and systemic toxicity of nickel. In: Nickel in
the environment. Nriagu, J.O. (Ed.). Wiley, New York, NY. pp. 499-523.
-------
Muska, C.F. 1978. Evaluation of an approach for studying the quantitative
response of whole organisms to mixtures of environmental toxicants. Ph.D.
thesis. Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR,
Muska, C.F. and L.J. Weber. 1977a. An approach for studying the effects of
mixtures of environmental toxicants on whole organism performances. In:
Recent advances in fish toxicology. Tubb, R.A. (Ed.). PB273500 or
EPA-600/3-77-085. National Technical Information Service, Springfield, VA.
Muska, C.F. and L.J. Weber. 1977b. An approach for studying the effects of
mixtures of toxicants. Proc. West. Pharmacol. Soc. 20:427-430.
Nebeker, A.V., C. Savonen, R.J. Baker and J.K. McCrady. 1984. Effects of
copper, nickel, and zinc on the life cycle of the caddisfly Clistoronia
magnifica (Limnephiliclae). Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 3:645-649.
Nebeker, A.V., C. Savonen and D.G. Stevens. 1985. Sensitivity of rainbow
trout early life stages to nickel chloride. Environ. Toxicol. Chem.
4:233-239.
Neter, J. and W. Wasserman. 1974. Applied linear statistical models. Irwin,
Inc., Homewood, IL.
Nriagu, J.O. 1980. Cilohal cycle and properties of nickel. In: Nickel in the
environment. Nriagu, J.O. (Ed.). Wiley, New York, NY. pp. 1-26.
-------
O'Connor, T.P. 1976. Investigation of heavy metaL concentrations of sediment
and biota in the vicinity of the Morgantown steam electric generating
station. Morgantown Monitoring Program Report Series.
Palawski, D., J.B. Hunn and F.J. Dwyer. 1985. Sensitivity of young striped
bass to organic and inorganic contaminants in fresh and saline waters. Trans,
Am. Fish. Soc. 114:748-753.
Parsons, T.R., C.A. Bowden and W.A. Heath. 1972. Preliminary survey of
mercury and other metals contained in animals from the Fraser River mudflats,
J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 30:1014-1016.
.Patrick, R., T. Bott and R. Larson. 1975. The role of trace elements in
management of nuisance growths. PB241985 or EPA-660/2-75-008. National
Technical Information Service, Springfield, VA.
Pennington, C.H., J.A. Baker and M.E. Potter. 1982. Contaminant levels in
fishes from Brown's Lake, Mississippi. J. Miss. Acad. Sci. 27:139-147.
Pecrich, S.M. and D.J. Reish. 1979. Effects of aluminum and nickel on
survival and reproduction in polychaetous annelids. Bull. Environ. Contam.
Toxicol. 23:698-702.
Petukhov, S.A. and E.M. Ninonenko. 1982. On the priority of toxicological
"hazard" of nickel in the sea. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 12:426.
-------
Phelps, D.K. , W. Galloway, F.P. Thurberg, E. Gould and M.A. Dawson. 1981.
Comparison of several physiological monitoring techniques as applied to the
blue mussel, Mytilus edulis, along a gradient of pollutant stress in
Narragansett Bay, Rhode Island. In: Biological monitoring of marine
pollutants. Vernberg, F.J., A. Calabrese, F.P. Thurberg and W.B. Vernberg
(Eds.). Academic Press, New York, NY. pp. 335-355.
Phillips, G.R. and R.C. Russo. 1978. Metal bioaccumulation in fishes and
aquatic invertebrates: A literature review. EPA-600/3-78-103. National
Technical Information Service, Springfield, VA.
•
Pickering, Q.H. 1974. Chronic toxicity of nickel to the fathead minnow. J.
Water Pollut. Control Fed. 46:760-765.
Pickering, Q.H. and C'. Henderson. 1966. The acute toxicity of some heavy
metals to different species of warrawater fishes. Air Water PoLlut. Int. J.
10:453-463.
Portmann, J.E. 1968. Progress report on a programme of insecticide analysis
and toxicity-testing in relation to the marine environment. Helgol, Wiss.
Meeresunters. 17:247-256.
Portmann, J.E. 1972. Possible dangers of marine pollution as a result of
mining operations for metal ores. In: Marine pollution and sea life. Ruivo,
M. (Ed.). Fishing News (Books) Ltd., Surrey, England, pp. 343-346.
-------
Pringle, B.H., D.E. Hissong, E.L. Katz and S.T. Mulawka. 1968. Trace metal
accumulation by estuarine molluscs. J. Sanit. Eng. Div. Proc. Am. Soc. Civ.
Eng. X:455-475.
Pulich, W.M. 1980. Heavy metal accumulation by selected Halodule wnghtu
Asch. populations in the Corpus Chnsti Bay area. Contrib. Mar. Sci.
23:89-100.
Rai, L.C., J.P. Gaur and H.D. Kumar. 1981. Phycology and heavy-metal
pollution. Biol. Rev. 56:99-151.
Rehwoldt, R., G. Bida and B. Nerrie. 1971. Acute toxicity of copper, nickel
and zinc ions to some Hudson River fish species. Bull. Environ. Contain.
Toxicol. '6:445-448.
Rehwoldt, R., L.W. Menapace, B. Nerrie and D. Alessandrello. 1972. The effect
of increased temperature upon the acute toxicity of some heavy metal ions.
Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 8:91-96.
Rehwoldt, R., L. Lawrence, C. Shaw and E. Wirhowski. 1973. The acute toxicity
of some heavy metal ions toward benthic organisms. Bull. Environ. Contam.
Toxicol. 10:291-294.
Reynolds, B.H. 1979. Trace metals monitoring at two ocean disposal sites.
EPA-600/3-79-037. National Technical Information Service, Springfield, VA.
-------
Saxena, O.P. and A. Parashari. 1983. Comparative study of the toxicity of six
heavy metals to Channa punctatus. J. Environ. Biol. 4:91-94.
See, C.L., A.L. Buikema and J. Cairns. 1974. The effects of selected
toxicants on survival of Dugesia tigrina (Turbellaria). Assoc. Southeastern
Biologists Bull. 21:82.
See, C.L., A.L. Buikema and J. Cairns. 1975. The effects of sublethal
concentrations of zinc and nickel on the photonegative response of Dugesia
tigrina. Va, J. Sci. 26:60.
Shaw, T.L. and V.M. Brown. 1971. Heavy metals and the fertilization of
rainbow trout eggs. Nature 230:251.
Shaw, W.H. and B. Grushkin. 1957. The toxicity of metal ions to aquatic
organisms. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 67:447-452.
Shcherban, E.P. 1977. Toxicity of some heavy metals for Daphnia magna
Strauss, as a function of temperature. Hydrobiol. J. 13(4):75-80.
Sirover, M.A. and L.A. Loeb. 1976. Metal activation of DNA synthesis.
Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 7:812-817.
Skaar, H. , B. Rystad and A. Jensen. 1974. The uptake of ^Ni by the
diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum. Physiol. Plant. 32:353-358.
-------
Smith-Sonneborn, J., R.A. Palizzi, E.A. McCann and G.L. Fisher. 1983.
Bioassay of genotoxic effects of environmental particles in a feeding
ciliate. Environ. Health Perspect. 51:205-210.
Solbe, J.F. 1973. The relation between water quality and the status of fish
populations in Willow Brook. Water Treat. Exam. 22:41-58.
Spencer, D.F. and R.W. Greene. 1981. Effects of nickel on seven species of
freshwater algae. Environ. Pollut. (Series A) 25:241-247.
Spencer, D.F. and L.H. Nichols. 1983. Free nickel ion inhibits growth of two
o
species of green algae. Environ. Pollut. (Series A) 31:97-104.
Sprague, J.B. 1985. Factors that modify toxicity. In: Fundamentals of aquatic
toxicology - methods and applications. Rand, G.M. and S.R. Petrocelli (Eds.).
Hemisphere Publishing Corporation, New York, NY. pp. 124-163.
Stephan, C.E., D.L. Mount, D.J. Hansen, J.H. Gentile, G.A. Chapman and W.A.
Brungs. 1985. Guidelines for deriving numerical national water quality
criteria for the protection of aquatic organisms and their uses. PB85227049.
National Technical Information Service, Springfield, VA.
Stokes, P. 1975. Uptake and accumulation of copper and nickel by metal-
tolerant strains of Scenedesmus. Int. Ver. Theor. Angew. Limnol. Verh.
19:2128-2137.
-------
Stokes, P.M., T.C. Hutchinson and K. Krauter. 1973. Heavy-metal tolerance in
algae isolated from contaminated lakes near Sudbury, Ontario. Can. J. Bot.
51:2155-2168.
Stratton, G.W. and C.T. Corke. 1979a. The effect of nickel on the growth,
photosynthesis, and nitrogenase activity of Anabaena inaequalis. Can. J.
Microbiol. 25:1094-1099.
Stratton, G.W. and C.T. Corke. 1979b. The effect of mercuric, cadmium, and
nickel ion combinations on a blue-green alga. Chemosphere 10:731-740.
e
Swaine, D.J. 1980. Nickel in coal and fly ash. In: Nickel in the environment.
Nriagu, J.O. (Ed.). Wiley, New York, NY. pp. 67-92.
Tarzwell, C.M. and C. Henderson. 1960. Toxicity of less common metals to
fishes. Ind. Wastes 5:12.
Taylor, G.J. and A.A. Crowder. 1983. Uptake and accumulation of copper,
nickel and iron by Typha latifolia grown in solution culture. Can. J. Bot.
61:1825-1830.
Thompson, S.E., C.A. Burton, D.J. Quinn and Y.C. Ng. 1972. Concentration
factors of chemical elements in edible aquatic organisms. UCRL-50564. Rev. 1,
National Technical Information Service, Springfield, VA.
Timourian, H. and G. Watchmaker. 1972. Nickel uptake by sea urchin embryos
and their subsequent development. J. Exp. Zool. 182:379-388.
-------
Timourian, N. and G. Watchmaker. 1977. Assay of sperm motility to study the
effects of metal ions. In: Biological implications of metals in the
environment. ERDA Symposium Series 42.
long, S..S., W.D. Youngs, W.H. Gotenmann and D.J. Lisk. 1974. Trace metals in
Lake Cayuga lake trout (Salvelinus namaycush) in relation to age. J. Fish.
Res. Board Can. 31:233-239.
Trollope, D. R. and B. Evans. 1976. Concentrations of copper, iron, lead,
nickel and zinc in freshwater algal blooms. Environ, Pollut. 11:109-116.
U.S. EPA. 1976. Quality criteria for water. EPA-440/9-76-023. National
Technical Information Service, Springfield, VA.
U.S. EPA. 1978. Metal bioaccumulation in fishes and aquatic invertebrates: A
literature review. EPA-600/3-78-103. National Technical Information Service,
Springfield, VA.
U.S. EPA. 1980. Ambient, water quality criteria for nickel. EPA-440/4-80-060.
National Technical Information Service, Springfield, VA.
U.S. EPA. 1983a. Methods for chemical analysis of water and wastes.
EPA-600/4-79-020 (Revised March 1983). National Technical Information
Service, Springfield, VA.
U.S. EPA. 1983b. Water quality standards regulation. Fed. Regist.
48:51400-51413. November 8.
-------
U.S. EPA. 1983c. Water quality standards handbook. Office of Water
Regulations and Standards, Washington, DC.
U.S. EPA. 1985. Technical support document for water-quality based toxics
control. Office of Water, Washington, DC.
Uthe, J.F. and E.G. Biigh. 1971. Preliminary survey of heavy metal
contamination of Canadian freshwater fish. J. Fish. Res. Board Can.
28:786-788.
Van Hoof, F. and J.P. Nauwelaers. 1984. Distribution of nickel in the roach
(Rutilus rutilus L.) after exposure to lethal and sublethal concentrations.
Chemosphere 13:1053-1058.
Verma, S.R., M. Jain and R.C. Oalela. 1981. In vivo removal of a few heavy
metals in certain tissues of the fish Notopterus notopterus. Environ. Res.
26:328-334.
Wachs, V.B. 1982. Concentration of heavy metals in fishes from the river
Danube. Z. Wasser Abwasser Forsch 15:43-49.
Wang, H.K. and J.M. Wood. 1984. Bioaccumulation of nickel by algae. Environ.
Sci. Techno I.' 18:106-109.
-------
Wang, Z., C.P. Bianchi and S.R. Narayan. 1984. Nickel inhibition of calcium
release from subsarcolemnal calcium stores of molluscan smooth muscle. J.
Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 229:696-701.
Warnick, S.L. and H.L. Bell. 1969. The acute toxicity of some heavy metals to
different species of aquatic insects. J, Water Pollut. Control Fed.
41:280-284.
Waterman, A.J. 1937. Effect of salts of heavy metals on the development of
the sea urchin, Arbacia punctulata. Biol. Bull. (Woods Hole). 73:401-420.
Watling, H.R. 1983. Comparative study of the effects of metals on the
settlement of Crassostrea gigas. Bull. Environ.Contain. Toxicol. 31:344-351.
Weber, W.J., Jr. and W. Stutnm. 1963. Mechanism of hydrogen ion buffering in
natural waters. J. Am. Water Works Assoc. 55:1553-1578.
Wehr, J.D. and B.A. Whitton. 1983. Accumulation of heavy metals by aquatic
mosses. 2: Rhynchostegium riparioides. Hydrobiologia 100:261-284.
Whitley, L.S. and R.A. Sikora. 1970. The effect of three common pollutants on
the respiration rate of tubificid worms. J. Water Pollut. Control Fed.
42:R57-R66.
Whitton, B.A. and F.H.A. Shehata. 1982. Influence of cobalt, nickel, copper
and cadmium on the blue-green alga Anacystis nidulans. Environ. Pollut.
(Series A) 27:275-281.
-------
Willford, W.A. 1966. Toxicity of 22 therapeutic compounds to six fishes.
Investigations in Fish Control 18. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,
Washington, DC.
Wilson, J.G. 1983. The uptake and accumulation of Ni by Cerastoderma edule
and its effect on mortality, body condition and respiration rate. Mar. .
Environ. Res. 8:129-148.
Wilson, W.B. and L.R. Freeberg. 1980. Toxicity of metals to marine
phytoplankton cultures. EPA-600/3-80-025. National Technical Information
Service, Springfield, VA.
Windom, H.L., K. Tenore and D.L. Rice. 1982. Metal accumulation of the
polychaete Capital la capitata; Influences of metal content and nutritional
quality of detritus. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 39:191-196.
Wong, P.T., Y.K. Chau and P.L. Luxon. 1978. Toxicity of a mixture of metals
on freshwater algae. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 35: 479-481.
Wong, P.T.S., Y.K. Chau and D. Patel. 1982. Physiological and biochemical
responses of several freshwater algae to a mixture of metals. Chemosphere
11:367-376.
Wren, C.D., H.R. Maccrimmon and B.R. Loescher. 1983. Examination of
bioaccumulation and biomagnification of metals in a precambrian shield Lake.
Water Air Soil Pollut. 19:277-291.
-------
Young, D.R. 1982. A comparative study of trace metal contamination in the
Southern California and New York Bights. In: Ecological stress and the New
York Bight: Science and management. Mayer, G.F. (Ed.). Estuarine Research
Federation, Columbia, SC. pp. 249-262.
Zaroogian, G.E. and M. Johnson. 1984. Nickel uptake and loss in the bivalves
Crassostrea virginica and Mytilus edulis. Arch. Environ. Contain. Toxicol.
13:411-418.
Zaroogian, G.E., J.H. Gentile, J.F. Heltshe, U. Johnson and A.M. Ivanovici.
1982. Application of adenine nucleotide measurements for the evaluation of
stress in Mytilus edulis and Crassostrea virginica. Comp. Biochem. Physiol.
7 IB:643-649.
------- |