ASSESSMENT AND RESULTS OF
PARTICULATE AND SULFUR DIOXIDE
AREA SOURCE SPACE HEATING EMISSIONS
FOR NEW HAVEN AND
BRIDGEPORT, CONNECTICUT
125 Silas Oeane Highway
Wethersfield
Connecticut 06109
tel: (203) 563-1431
-------
ASSESSMENT AND RESULTS OF
PARTICULATE AND SULFUR DIOXIDE
AREA SOURCE SPACE HEATING EMISSIONS
FOR NEW HAVEN AND
BRIDGEPORT, CONNECTICUT
o no o )r?§ c o
TRC-ER-42240-SR
Prepared for Region I,
Environmental Protection Agency
Under Contract 68-02-0046, Task Order 7
August 1974
125 Silas Deane Highway
Wethersfield
Connecticut 06109
tel: (203) 563-1431
-------
TABLE OF CONTENTS
SECTION
1.0
2.0 .
3.0
4.0
5.0
Appendix A
Appendix B
Appendix C
Appendix D
Appendix E
Appendix F
Appendix G
TITLE
Introduction
Background
Summary and Recommendations
Space Heating Area Source Emissions
Inventory
4.1 Results of Inventory, New Haven
4.2 Results of Inventory, Bridgeport
Study of Results
Strategy on Permit Operations and
Emission Controls
Transportation Strategies
Reduction or Elimination of Particulate
Emissions from Solid Waste Incineration
Control and Supervision of Demolition
Activities
Land Use Controls
Economic Costs and Benefits to a City
Statistical Description of Bridgeport
and New Haven
PAGE
1
2
5
8
8
13
17
Appendix H
Transportation Strategies Simulation Model
-------
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE
IV-1
IV-2
V-l
TITLE
Area Source Emissions Inventory
Results for New Haven
Area Source Emissions Inventory
Results for Bridgeport
Summary of Strategy Effectiveness
PAGE
9
15
18
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE
IV-1
IV-2
V-l
V-2
TITLE
Particulate Area Source Emission Density
for New Haven
Particulate Area Source Emission Density
for Bridgeport
Aerial View of New Haven Analyzed for
Control Strategies
Aerial View of Bridgeport Analyzed for
Control Strategies
PAGE
10
16
21
22
ii
-------
1.0 INTRODUCTION
TRC was retained under Task Order 7, Contract 68-02-00.47 with EPA
to assist the State of Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection.
The nature of the assistance was twofold:
o Evaluate control strategies necessary to attain secondary
standards for particulates
o Determine the magnitude of particulate and sulfur oxide
emissions from space heating of area source structures in
Bridgeport and New Haven
This report assesses the results of the second of these steps. The
first step is presented as appendices, so an' overview of the entire task
is contained in one document.
-1-
-------
2.0 BACKGROUND
The 1969 Connecticut State Implementation Plan (SIP) assessed the air
quality for Connecticut and with available information provided estimates
of air quality for a number of population centers for the year 1975
(Connecticut Implementation Plan, page 111, Table 4-14). The projections
on Table 4-14 of the SIP indicated that metropolitan New Haven and Bridgeport
3
were not going to meet the secondary particulate standard of 60 yg/m .
Bridgeport is in the New YorkNew JerseySouthwestern Connecticut Air
Quality Control Region (AQCR #43) and New 'Haven is in the Hartford-Springfield
Interstate AQCR #42.
In January of 1973, TRC was retained by EPA to assist Conn. DEP to
formulate and evaluate particulate control strategies necessary to attain
the secondary standard for particulate air pollutants. The task specifically
required the determination of:
1. the overall emission reduction required
2. the effect of proposed strategies on the needed reduction of emissions
3. the technical feasibility of each strategy
4. capital and operating costs of implementation of each strategy
5. administrative requirements of each strategy, including additional
resources that will be necessary.
Before particulate control strategies were formulated, TRC and DEP
recompiled the point source input to the Air Quality Display Model (AQDM) to
verify the results of the 1969 SIP. In 1972, DEP initiated a permit and
registration system and data from it was used to upgrade the current point
source information. The grid system that AQDM results are calculated and
displayed from, was reorganized by TRC so that all of the state would fit
-2-
-------
in one AQDM run. Conn. DEP executed the AQDM run and the results are
displayed in Table II-l.
TABLE II-l
Calculated and Projected Particulate Maxima
Location
Bridgeport
New Haven
As repc
Rerun <
1969 Level3
89.4
91.7
>rted in the 1969
jf AQDM by DEP wit!
Projected 1975a
68.3
64.6
SIP
i recompiled input
Recalculation
64.5
60.2
The secondary standard of 60 yg/m for particulates will be exceeded both
as originally calculated in the SIP and in the recalculated DEP figures.
A review of monitored data and progress in emission control in New
Haven and Bridgeport disclosed that particulate concentrations had
improved since 1969 but not to the extent expected as a result of controls.
The discrepancy could be attributed to an over-emphasis of point source
controls. This over-emphasis was caused by an under-estimation of area
source emissions. Traditionally, area source data has been poorly documented.
Region I EPA and .'Conn. DEP decided an area source study would be
necessary before implementing any of the point source strategies. In
December 1973, DEP held a public hearing in Hartford to announce no changes
would be made in the regulations concerning the emissions of particulates.
Subsequently, TRC under Conn. DEP's direction initiated a particulate and
sulfur dioxide area source space heating emissions inventory. Sulfur dioxide
-3-
-------
was included at DEP's request, so that it would simplify further work
in this area by them. The study examined on a structure-by-structure basis
space heating emissions of particulates and sulfur dioxide and collectively
assessed these amounts with figures found in the 1969 SIP. Only heating
^
emissions were considered at this time, because they do comprise the bulk
of particulate and sulfur dioxide area source emissions. Also, before
the scope of this type of approach is expanded, TRC and DEP felt it would
be desirable to compare these data with 1969 SIP results.
-A-
-------
3.0 SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The results presented in this report represent an accurate and sys-
tematic approach to estimate space heating area source emissions of par-
ticulates and sulfur dioxide. Space heating emissions were considered
because they do comprise the bulk of particulate and sulfur dioxide area
source emissions. Other categories of area source emissions were not
considered because of manpower and elapsed time constraints. Analyzing
just space heating emissions allowed early assessment of whether the pro-
cedure outlined in Section 4.0 of this report is valid and applicable to
other areas. The overall findings of the project are summarized as follows:
o Current work reveals differences from the 1969 AQDM input
not only in quantities of emissions but also in the loca-
tion of them.
o 1969 AQDM input was based on area source information col-
lected in 1967. "Old data" is not necessarily erroneous
data, but the amount of difference between it and revised
data is often equal to the amount that a control agency
can improve.
o Accurate definition of area source emissions is just as
important as point source emissions when assessing poten-
. ' tial control strategies within the AQDM.
d New Haven space heating area source emissions for particu-
lates and sulfur dioxide were underestimated by the 1969
AQDM results. Point source strategy projections for New
. .Haven thus were overstated for New Haven in the June 1973
report. See Section 5 and Appendix.
o- Bridgeport space heating area source emissions appear to
be consistent with the 1969 AQDM results.
The present area source heating emission survey revealed increased
emissions over those identified in the 1969 SIP for New Haven. Bridge-
port heating emissions, while more difficult to compare to 1969 SIP fig-
ures because of the absence of category breakouts, appeared to be more
-5-
-------
accurate, at least as far as the location of emissions. A categ,orv break-
out by area source class was not available. The New York-New Jersey por-
tion of AQCR #43 did not produce this breakout because it was not exnlicitlv
required in the 1970 Implementation Plan. Conn DEP could have made one for
F.airfield County for AQCR #43, but it would have been of little value.
However, the breakout was performed by Conn DEP for AQCR #42.
Accurate definition of area sources is just as important as accurate
definition of point sources. The amount of emissions accounted for is
usually a direct function of the detail of the inventory. If the same
type of technique is applied to other area source categories, more emis-
sions are expected to be uncovered. In Connecticut, extensive work has
already been accomplished through the registration system for point sources.
Additional man-hours spent to account for point sources will result in
diminished returns. Thus, the relationship between point and area sources,
at least as inventoried, is going to change. As more area sources are
uncovered, the percentage contribution of point sources is going to lessen.
The impact of control strategies which rely on point source reductions
alone will be less effective than originally thought.
The methodology outlined in Section 4.0 of this report is appropriate
to those situations where DEP requires more precise information on the
overall particulate and sulfur dioxide emission characteristics of an
area.
Examination of area source space heating parameters allows assessment
of particulate and sulfur dioxide emissions almost exclusively. Other
categories of area sources report significant portions overall of other
pollutants. Transportation sources are almost solely responsible for car-
-6-
-------
bon monoxide emissions. Therefore, assessment of carbon monoxide would
require analysis of transportation sources first and other categories
second. To attain a better understanding of area source particulate
and sulfur dioxide emissions, the following tasks are recommended:
.o Research additional cities for the quantity of area source
heating emissions.
o Establish a revised area source category breakdown and apply
it uniformly to all areas of interest.
o Continue work on regrldding of entire state so that point,
area, and monitored data are all on the same grid system.
o Initiate a study to quantify fugitive dust in various
areas of the state.
o Conduct a study to determine the effect the sulfur content
of fuel oil has on particulate emissions.
o Perform a new AQDM run with revised area sources with a
.receptor point in each grid.
o Perform a sensitivity analysis to determine how applicable
present information and modeling techniques will be for
reviewing indirect source applications.
-7-
-------
4.0 Space Heating Area Source Emissions Inventory
The area source space heating emissions for sulfur dioxide and par-
ticulates were calculated from heated area of structures and appropriate
emission factors. The square footage information was obtained by examin-
ing the tax assessment files in New Haven and Bridgeport. In both cities,
the tax assessment files are arranged in alphabetical order by street and
in ascending numerical order by structure. Examination of each file indi-
cated whether the structure was heated and the square feet of enclosed
area. Heated building area was tallied by street. The streets were located
within the appropriate grid square. Separate lists were kept of the
point sources to preclude duplication of fuel usage. Unheated structures,
such as warehouses and parking garages, were simply not added to the
square feet tally.
4.1 Results of Inventory, New Haven
The results of the space heating area source particulate inventory
are presented in Table ilVT-.l and Figure IV-1. Metropolitan New Haven
covers 33 grid squares and has 77,925,330 square feet of floor space.
Grid square C637 had the least square feet (8,530 square feet) and grid
square C435 has the most square feet (19,609,924 square feet). This re-
presents, a difference factor of 2300 from the least occupied to the most
occupied in terms of area source square feet.
The exceptionally large area accounted in grid C435 can be attributed
to the large number of sizeable structures on Church Street which were not
registered as point sources. This fact is presented here to point out
that Church Street as it exists todav was not accounted for completelv in
the 1969 inventory or the present registration svstem. As such, its con-
tribution was not added correctly in previous AODM runs. If the nresent
-8-
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TABLE IV-1
Area Source Emission Inventory Results
for New Haven
Crld »
cost
C017
cue
C137
C2M
C23S
C236
C2J7
C334
C335
C336
C3)7
C433
C4S4
C435
C4S6
C437
C439
C532
C533
CS34
C535
C536
C537
C538
C632.
CS3J
C634
CA3S
C636
C637
C638
C733
TOTAL
Squar* Fe«e
239.363
213,363
513.818
435.429
217.035
35*. 604
459.225
735.867
3.977.729
2,386.639
1.188. 568
1,436. 523
1,298. 90S
6.337.992
19.609,92*
3.049.309
2,708.035
281,124
1,443,900
5,079,597
5,100,635
4.3)0.409
3,790,129
1.086,425
540,294
2, 497.. 132
1.554,373
3.025.530
2.637,11*3
244,092
8,530
778,993
164,095
77,925.330
a,, ft.
1974 Haitian Enlaalona Only
Tona/Day
.9163
.0146
.0331
.0299
.0148
.0242
.0311
.0503
.1719
.1631
.0812
.1119
.0889
.1332
1.3404
.2084
.1851
.0192
.0987
.3472
.3456
.2960
.2591
.074}
.0370
.1707
.10*2
.2069
.1903
.0167 '
.0006.
.0532
.0112
3.3262
rartlculatea-
Tona/Day
.0035
.0032
.0076
.0064
.0032
.0052
.0069
.0109
.0599
.0333
.0176
.0242
.0192 '
.0939
.2901
.0431
.0400
.0042
.0214
.0752
.0755
.0641
.0561
.0161
.0080
.0369
.0230
.04(7
.0390
.0036
.0001
.0113
.0024
1.1527
X
Eataatooi
.307
.274
.659
.559
.279
.455
.589
.944
S.105
3.063
1.325
2.100
1.667
9. 133
25.165
3.913
3.475
.361
1.853
6.519
6.546
5.557
4.864
1.394
.693
3.205
1.995
3.833
3.385
.313
.011
1.000
.211
1002
laplwrntjt U'n flan * Ir.urra
1967
Crld 1
41
29
52
53
66
67
68
69
81
82
83
84
98
99
100
101
102
103
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
127
128
129
131
131
-------
? C 4 36 Jf-,', ,"
?o°=?;&5riSeo^n6
Sampling Station
-10-
-------
point source file is left intact, the newlv developed area sources can be
added directly to result with a more accurate tallv of inarticulate emis-
sions. Grid C435 accounted for 25.17% of the total area source square
footage in New Haven.
The total estimated particulate and sulfur dioxide emissions result-
ing from heating 77,925,330 square feet is 1.1527 tons/dav particulate
and 5.3262 tons/day sulfur dioxide. This was apportioned directlv hv
the area within each grid as shown in Table IV-1. The sulfur dioxide
emissions presented are a minimum. The large structures on Church Street
which presently are counted as area sources are probably heated with #6
oil which contains more sulfur than #2. However, there was no wav in
this task to actually determine the tvpe of fuel used.
The nature of a tax assessor's files necessitates that certain
structure files are always out, being updated and reviewed. Each of
the respective tax assessor estimates that no more than 5% to 10% of
the file could be out at one time. TRC personnel feel about 5% of
the files were not available for the survey.
The emissions were calculated from guidelines set forth in "Guide
for Compiling a Comprehensive Emission Inventory", U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency. The calculation used was based on 0.18 gallons fuel
oil per dwelling unit per degree day. It was assumed that a dwelling
unit was equivalent to 1000 square feet. The greater Bridgeport-New
Haven 'area experiences 6000 degree days per year on the average. AP-
42, April 1973, provided the appropriate emission factor of 10 pounds
of particulates per 1000 gallons of fuel oil. For sulfur dioxide the
standard emission factor of 142 times the sulfur content of the fuel
expressed in percent, results with a factor of 142 x .3 = 42.6 Ibs. of
sulfur dioxide per 1000 gallons of fuel oil with average sulfur content
of .3%. ' .
-11-
-------
The figure of 1000 square feet per dwelling unit is not a fixed
figure. The tax assessment files noted a large number of individual
dwellings with much less than 1000 square feet and also inclusion of
large commercial structures. It was impossible to determine from the
tax assessment files whether residences or commercial structures were
heating the basements, which in reality, affect the quantity of fuel
used. Also, the relationship between .surface area and total volume
heated affects heating emissions. Large commercial structures have
favorable ratios, but the overall size and height result in heavy -
fuel usage. From the above figures it can be calculated that a 1500
square foot dwelling would consume about 1600 gallons of fuel in one
year.
The 1969 area source break out as shown on Table IV-1.as Implementa-
f
tion Plan Figures, has .5519 tons/day particulates and 2.5166 tons/day
sulfur dioxide. These figures are about half of the present calculated
emissions based on square feet. The largest discrepancy between current
figures and implementation plan figures as far as location and quantity
is concerned, is grid square C 435 which presently has 25% of the area
sources for heating while the 1969 figures reveal about 5%. Grid #C 637
currently shows the smallest contribution of .011% versus the 1969 con-
tribution of .62%. . .
Of major concern for both current monitoring and modeling purposes
is the close proximity of grid square C 435 which releases .29 tons/day
particulate and the air monitoring station in grid square C 437. The
previous AQDM runs attributed .0575 tons/day of particulate to grid
C 435. The abundance of point sources in the general area lessens the
severity of this difference. However, differences of this magnitude
-12-
-------
make strategies difficult to assess accurately, especially when relat-
ing to monitored data. j
Figure IV-1 shows the heating emission density for particulates for
New Haven. As might be expected, the largest concentration of heating
emissions is located in the center of town. The southern part of town
not only is less heavily populated than the rest, but the sizes of the
dwelling units are quite small, so the density of emissions is low. The
emissions range in density from .00013 tons/day to .29012 tons/day per
grid square for particulates for all of New Haven.
The 1969 inventory accounted for motor vehicle emissions in New
Haven. These accounted for .7355 tons/day of particulates and .4340
tons/day for SO . The emission factors have changed drastically since
1969 and the traffic-based emissions have increased. Therefore, overall
emissions from the transportation category are higher than reported.
Grid C632 had the highest motor vehicle emissions. Aircraft emissions
for the 1969 SIP were quite small except in the grid where they occurred.
Grid C137 contained the aircraft emissions, which accounted for almost
70% of the particulate emissions for that grid. Open burning, which was
not listed in Table IV-1 for 1969, was reported as zero emissions.
4.2 Results of Inventory, Bridgeport
The results of the space heating area source particulate inventory
are presented in Table IV-2 and Figure IV-2. Metropolitan Bridgeport
covered 32 grid squares on the revised DEP gridding system. The heated
area source square footage totaled 67,119,353 square feet, not counting
point sources. Grid square B717 had 1,645 square feet, or .002% of the
-13-
-------
total, and grid square B420 had 7,157,044 square feet, or 10.67% of the
total. The total emissions for all grid squares was .993 tons/day par-
ticulates and 4.592 tons/day sulfur dioxide. However, a number of com-
parisons can be made between square footage heating-based emissions and
total area sources as expressed in the implementation plan. The sulfur
oxide .emissions for the square footage estimated are 4.592 tons/day while
the total for all the categories for the implementation plan is 3.870
tons/day. Further work on other categories will certainly add to the
4.592 tons/day figure. The particulate total for the heating emissions
totaled .993 tons/day compared to 1.550 tons/day for all categories as
reported in the implementation plan. However, further work on other
categories will increase the .993 tons/day figure.
Figure IV-2 is a map of metropolitan Bridgeport with emission density
lines for particulates coded for each grid square. The hot spot for area
sources is grid B420 with particulate emissions of .106 tons/day. Grid
B429 borders Long Island Sound and does have a monitoring station. As
indicated on the map, Bridgeport has monitoring stations in grids B420,
B421, B520, B521, and B522. Compared to New Haven, Bridgeport's area
source heating emissions are much more evenly spaced.
-14-
-------
Area Source Emission Inventory Results
for Bridgeport
1969
Grid t
141
152
153
154
169
170
171
172
173
187
188
189
190
191
200
201
202
203
204
205
213
214
215
216
217
218
221
222
223
224
225
226 .
TOTAL
\974
Grid t
B218
B318
B319
B320
B418
B419
B420
B421
B422
B518
3519
B520
B521
B522
B617
B618
B619
B620
B621
B622
B717
B718
B719
B720
B721 .
B722
B817
B818
B819
B820
B821
B822
Area Source
.Square Feet
130,649
2,712,696
628,338
59,285
426,687
3,752,045
7,157,044
739,404
374,192
113,031
4,193,909
6,640,099
4,408,026
3,169,111
493,734
660,734
4,443,374
4,610,514
3,663,435
4,254,581
1,645
1,746,591
3,657,381
1,628,288
2,021,471
93,320
175,605
'1,444,570
1,805,923
926,594
730,278
256,799
67,119,353
Area Source Heating
SOo Particulatea
Tons/Day Tons/Day
.008930 .001933
.189572 .040133
.042948 .009296
.004052 .000877
.029166 .006313
.256456 .055510
.4891S9 .105885
.050538 .010939
.025576 .005536
.007725 .001672
.286657 .062047
.453855 .098237
.301293 .065215
.216609 .046885
.033749 .007305
.045161 .009775
.303710 .065738
.315130 .068210
.250399 .054199
.290801 .062944
.000111 .000024
.119381 .025840
.249984 .054109
.111296 .024090
.138166 .029906
.006380 .001381
.012003 ' .002598
.098739 .021372
.123437 .026718
.063336 .013709
.049914 .010804
.017551 .003799
4.591814 .993000
Z
Emissions
.195
4.042
.936
.083
.636
5.590.
10.663
1.102
.558
.168
6.248
9.893
6.567
4.723
.736
.984
6.620
6.859
5.458
' 6.339
.002
2.602
5.449
2.426
3.012
.139
.262
2.152
2.691
1.381
1.088
.383
100. OOZ
1969 Total Area Sources
S02 ("articulates
Tons/Day Tons/Day
.03835 ' .00000
.14246 .04109
.10684 .01369
.01917 .00547
.12054 .13698
.17534 .09041
.36986 .09863
.05753 .01917
.08219 .06575
.05205 .01543
.13972 .05479
.69041 .14794
.27123 .16712
.16438 .06027
.02191 .01095
.04931 .02465
.12876 .04109
.14520 .11780
.19726 .06301
.15342 .05205
.02191 .00821
.04657 .01917
.09863 .03287
.11232 .08767
.05479 .02191
.'05479 .01643
.03013 .02465
.03561 .01369
.04109 ' .019X7
.04931 .01369
.04333 .li-!«.7
.05479 .03287
3.86970 1.55049
*
Fartlculates
.0000
2.6501
.8830
.3.528
8.8346
5.8311
6.3612
1.2364
4.2406
1.0597
3.5337
9.5415
10.7785
3.8872
.7062
1.5898
2.6501
7.5976
4.0639
3.3570
.5295
1.2364
2.1200
5.6543
1.4131
1.0597
1.5898
.8829
1.2364
.8829
2.1200
2.1200
100. OOt
-------
77,
B81
X^X-X-X-X- X:X:
.'."iV.VvVV. .*-,*.".^
mrnm^m
LEGEND
'/// < .01 tons/day
N
.01 to .03 tons/day
.03 to .06 tons/day?*
.06 to .1 tons/day
> .1 tons/day
Sampling Station
D SI u u J\ £
322
-Ifi-
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5.0 STUDY RESULTS
The original part of this study evaluated the effectiveness of ten
proposed strategies and regulatory changes. These results are presented
in the appendices. The ten strategies were derived from a longer list of
possibilities reviewed by DEP and TRC, and were assessed to be reasonable
approaches to the achievement of secondary standards for particulates.
The results of the point source strategy evaluation appear in Table
V-l. In light of the subsequent study on space heating emissions, quali-
tative statements can be made on expectations of reductions of particulate
concentrations as postulated in the table.
Overall, the reduction ascribed to the proposed fuel burning regula-
tion of 2.2 and 3.2 micrograms per cubic meter for Bridgeport and New Ha-
ven is valid. The calculations presented in the appendices are based on
identified point sources. These point sources are now a lesser percentage
of the baseline concentration reported on the top line of the table, be-
cause of the increased emissions now attributable to space heating emis-
sions. This fact is particularly true for New Haven. The increase in
space heating emissions can be attributed to a more detailed approach
rather -than a "real growth" in area source emissions.
The next two items on process regulations and reduction of peak power
at two plants were each projected to contribute less than 1 microgram per
cubic meter to the reduction. The originally projected effectiveness is
reduced by the findings of the space heating study.
The effectiveness of closing down the incinerator is somewhat reduced
3
by the space heating study, but could still contribute as much as 2 pg/m
-17-
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TABLE V-l
SUMMARY OF STRATEGY EFFECTIVENESS
Particulate Concentrations in micrograms per cubic raeter on
Cumulative basis; Reductions on Individual basis
00
I
Strategy
Baseline
Fuel Burning Reg
Process Reg
Reduce Peak Pwr,
2 Plants
Incinerator
Closedown
No on-street
parking
Improved Transit
Travel Ban in
Hot Spot
Street Cleaning
Permit on
Demolition
Closedown 2
Power Plants
TOTAL REDUCTION
Bridgeport
Reduction
Original
_^
2.2
0.7
0.8
3.0
0.2
0.1
0.5
1-4
8.9
(New)
»»
(2.2)
(")
( >
(2.0)
( )
(-)
(-)
(1.0)
(5.2)
Concentration
64.5
62.3
61.6
60.8
57.8
57.6
57.5
57.0
57.0
57.0
55.6
New Haven
Reduction
Original
__
3.2
0.6
0.1
1.2
0.2
0.1
0.5
0.2
6.1
(New)
.._
(3.2)
(--)
(--)
(1.0)
(--)
(-)
(--)
(-)
(4.2)
Concentration
60.2
57.0
56.4
.56.3
55.1
54.9
54.8
54.3
57.0
57.0
56.8
Remarks
Feasible
Feasible
Feasible
Note a.
Feasible
Note b
Note b
Note c
Note d
Note e
ITotes: (a) High dollar cost, especially in first year because out of phase with Conn. Solid Waste Plan.
(b) High cost in convenience. Not feasible.bv 1975 because requires transit .system for alternate,
economic study of commerce and coordination for local traffic enforcement.
(c) Not included in original inventory, but affects localized concentrations.
(d) Not included in original inventory. Probably adds 0.5 to 1.0 yg/m3 to baseline and strategy
would subtract half this amount.
(e) Feasibility depends on source of generation and transmission 'costs.
-------
3
in Bridgeport and 1 yg/m in New Haven to the reduction. Even though the
accounting of the area sources in New Haven increased more than in Bridge-
port, the proximity of the New Haven incinerator to the hi-vol from which
the baseline was established indicates the original projection is valid.
3
The three items on transportation strategies total less than 1 yg/m
reduction in the original projection. Since the size of the reduction is
small and transportation sources are relatively spread out compared to
point sources, it is difficult to assess how the new space heating emis-
sions would effect overall the transportation strategies for particulates.
Street cleaning and demolition permits were not assigned a quantita-
tive reduction. The recent space heating findings thus would have no ef-
fect on the original projection. These two strategies are expected to
have a strong local influence on air quality even though their contribu-
tions to hi-vols used to establish the baseline are not known.
The closedown of two power plants is expected to have a smaller re-
duction than originally projected.
It is recommended that all of the above sources be re-inputted to
the AQDM with the new space heating emissions to quantitatively estimate
how the current emission air quality relationships have changes. Also,
reevaluation of at least mobile sources is in order to take into account
changes in emission factors and traffic patterns. A tentative revaluation
3 3
for Bridgeport is 5.2 yg/m and 4.2 yg/m for New Haven.
-19-
-------
INTRODUCTION TO APPENDICES
The appendices to this report essentially repeat the preliminary
report of June, 1973. The data and original findings are preserved,
but some modification to the findings results from the present study,
as discussed in Section 5.0.
Each strategy assessment is discussed in a separate appendix.
The last two appendices present statistical data on New Haven and
Bridgeport and the calculation technique used to evaluate the trans-
portation strategy.
The appendixes are preceded by photographs of the study area of
Bridgeport and New Haven.
-20-
-------
I
ISJ
Aerial View of the New Haven Area Analyzed for Control Strategies
-------
ro
Figure V-2 Aerial View of the Bridgeport Area Analyzed for Control Strategies
-------
APPENDIX A
Strategy on Permit Operations and Emission Controls
-------
APPENDIX A
STRATEGY ON PERMIT OPERATIONS AND EMISSION CONTROLS
A. Permit and Emission Control Regulations
Present permit operations are defined in Administrative Regulations
Sec 19-508-3. Emission standards for particulates are defined in Sec 19-508-18
for fuel burning equipment and process industries. Of significance to this
analysis are the provisions pertaining to permit operations requiring the
attainment and maintenance of air quality standards, and the specific allowable
emissions for fuel burning and process industries.
By 1975, it is assumed in the air quality projections that all sources
would be in compliance with the emission control regulations. Because the
air quality standard is not projected to be met in Bridgeport and New Haven,
even with compliance, it is proposed to tighten the emission controls for all
fuel burning and process industries, except power generating plants, and to
apply the "maintenance of air quality" portion of the permit regulations to
power plants.
B. Methodology
A strategy to tighten emission controls can take one of two alternate
approaches:
a. Apply emission control regulations sufficiently to allow
attaining the secondary standard, and then preclude any further growth.
b. Apply emission control regulations to allow achieving air
quality which results in particulate concentrations less than allowable
by the secondary standard, to provide for future growth either by the
A-l
-------
existing industries affecting the hot spot area, or by. addition of
other industries.
A strategy to be applied to power plants can also take one of two approaches:
a. Reduce peak load demands
b. Complete shutdown of in-city plants.
Power plants in the Bridgeport and New Haven area presently control
emissions to about .05 to 0.11 pounds per million BTU. As a consequence,
including power plants within an emission control regulation which, would be
stringent for usual fuel burning operations would in effect be a relaxation for
a power plant. Because a power plant is a major source, relaxation of emission
controls is not desirable if air quality standards are to be attained.
C. Fuel Burning and Process Industries
It is proposed to change Sec 19-508-18(d) on fuel burning equipment to
allow no more than 0.15 pounds of particulate emissions per million BTU of
heat input. It is further proposed that Sec 19-508-18(e) on process emissions
for process weight rate of 60,000 pounds per hour be restricted to a curve
represented by the equation
E- 21.1 P0'1 .
where E is Emissions in pounds per hour, and P is Process weight in pounds per
hour.
If this is done, the following two tables (Tables A-l and A-2) show the
effectiveness for Bridgeport and New Haven.
A-2
-------
TABLE A-l
CONTRIBUTION OF SOURCES TO HOT SPOT AREA,
BRIDGEPORT
(in micrograms per cubic meter)
Source Type
Background, flux,
minor sources
Area Sources.
Point Sources
Incinerators
Power Plants
Total
1969 (a) -
46.481
7.066
35.928
3.470
12.305
105.25
1975(a)
37/270
5.067
16.945
2.255
2.957
64.494
1975(b)
37.270
5.067
14.040
2.255
2.957
61.589
(a)
(b)
By DEP AQDM run, for current 1975 regulations.
Proposed fuel burning and process industry regulations,
A-3
-------
TABLE A-2
CONTRIBUTION OF SOURCES TO HOT SPOT AREA,
NEW HAVEN
(in micrograms per cubic meter)
Source Type
Background, flux,
remote sources
Area Sources
Point Sources
(c)
Incinerators
Power Plants
Total
1969 (S)
28.902
18.570
31.205
3.866
6.225
88.768
1975(a)
23.705
13.580
20.753
1.04
1.116
60.194
1975
-------
Bridgeport shows an improvement from 64.5 yg/m to 61.6 yg/m3 through
use of the new fuel burning and process industry regulations. The amount of
improvement, about 2.9 yg/m , is made up of about 0.7 yg/m for process
industry controls, and 2.2 yg/m3 from fuel burning controls-. The more .
effective part of the proposed emission control changes is that which pertains
to fuel burning.
New Haven shows an improvement from 60.2 yg/m3 to 56.4 yg/m3 through
use of the new fuel burning and process industry regulations. The amount of
improvement, 3.8 yg/m , is made up of 0.6 yg/m3 for process industries, and
3.2 yg/m3 for fuel burning. The more effective part of the proposed emission
control changes is that which pertains to fuel burning.
D. Redistribution of Electric Generating Load
For Bridgeport, power plant contributions to the hot spot area total 3.0
yg/m3, as projected for 1975. For New Haven, the power plant contribution is
1.1 yg/m3. Bridgeport Harbor Station and Steel Point Station contribute
together 2.2 yg/m3 to Bridgeport and 0.3 yg/m3 to New Haven.
Devon Station contributes 0.4 yg/m3 to Bridgeport and 0.2 yg/m3 to New
Haven. Devon is being considered in the solid waste disposal plan to be used
to consume some of the solid waste generated in the area. (See Appendix C).
If a 40 percent reduction in the generating demand were imposed on
Bridgeport Harbor and Steel Point'Stations, the reduction in particulate con-
centration would be 0.8 yg/m3 for Bridgeport and 0.1 for New Haven.
If there were a complete shutdown of the Bridgeport Harbor and Steel
Point Stations, the reduction.would be equivalent to the projected contribution
of 2.2 yg/m3 and 0.3 yg/m3 for Bridgeport and New Haven, respectively.
A-5
-------
The results of these two approaches, when added to the fuel burning and
process industry emission controls, are shown in Table A-3.
TABLE A-3
RESULTS OF REDISTRIBUTING POWER GENERATING LOAD
(Concentrations in micrograms per cubic meter)
Source or Reduction
Projected 1975(a)
Proposed Emission Controls
40% Power Reduction
Shutdown of two Plants
Bridgeport
64.5
61.6
60.8
59.4
New Haven
60.2
56.4
56.3
56.1
(a)
By DEP AQDM run, for current 1975 regulations.
E. Technical Feasibility
1. Fuel Burning
The following tabulation of fuel oil characteristics shows the feasibility
of attaining a 0.15 pound-per-10 BTU emission control.
Fuel oil numbers 1, 2, 6 (for power plants) and 6 (new) fall well below
the required emission limitations. Even fuel oil number 6 at 23 pounds par-
ticulate emissions per 1000 gallons almost meets the regulation (Table A-4) .
2. Process Industry
The proposed new table for process emission limitations is compared with
the existing regulation in Table A-5.
A-6
-------
TABLE A-4
FUEL OIL CHARACTERISTICS
Fuel Oil
Type
(Nr)
1
2
4
5
6 (old)
6(pow.pl)
6 (new)
6(old)
Weight
(Ibs/gal)
6.870
7.206
7.727
7.935
8.212
8.212
8.212
8.212
Carbon
Residue
Trace
Trace
2.5
5.0
12.0
12.0
12.0
12.0
Heat
Content
(BTU/gal)
137,000
141,000
146,000
148,000
150,000
150,000
150,000
150,000
Particulate
Emissions
(pounds/
1000 gal)
15
15
26
26
26
8
10
23
Particulate
Emissions
(pounds/
106 BTU)
0.109
0.109
0.178
0.178
0.173
0.053
0.066
0.153
Sources: (a) Combustion Engineering, Glenn R. Fryling, M.E., Editor, 1967,
(b) Compilation of Air Pollution Emission Factors, EPA GAP, Feb.
1972;
TABLE A-5
COMPARISON OF PROPOSED PROCESS INDUSTRY EMISSION CURVE
WITH PRESENT REGULATION SEC 19-508-18(e)
Process Weight Rate
. (Ibs/hr)
60,000
80,000
120,000
160,000
200,000
400,000
1,000,000
Present Table 3-1
(of Admin. Regs)
Emission Rate (Ibs/hr)
29.60
31.19
33.28
34.85
36.11
40.35
46.72
Proposed Table 3-1
(of Admin. Regs)
Emission Rate (Ibs/hr)
29.64
30.50
31.77
32.71
33.44
35.83
39.29
A-7
-------
The primary function of the proposed emission control-table is to offset
to some extent the rate of emission growth with process growth when the process
weight reaches large values. For present sources, in Bridgeport and New
Haven, the proposed regulation amounts to between five and ten percent additional
emission control. For a process which is 90 percent controlled, if a ten
percent further reduction is required in the present emissions, the control
must be 92 percent, .a not too stringent increase. If the process is 99.0
percent controlled, to meet the proposed table would require 99.2 percent
control. For process weight rates greater than now in existence in Bridgeport'
.and New Haven, the control requirements would be more stringent than the above
examples.
F. Costs
An estimate of costs for Bridgeport and New Haven appears in Table A-6.
These are estimates based on general types of activities and average emissions.
The estimates:do not take into account a possibility that some sources currently
might have installed control equipment which' already meets the proposed fuel
burning and process industry emission control regulations. Nor is there any
acknowledgement that some sources may face exceptionally high costs because of
some particular characteristic or circumstance of the operation or plant layout.
Costs in resources to the Connecticut DEP are not considered to change as
a result of the proposed regulations. The concept is that the present permit
and inspection functions would still be performed under the proposed regulatory
changes.
A-8
-------
TABLE A-6
COST ESTIMATES FOR ADDITIONAL CONTROLS
(Thousands of Dollars)
Item
Bridgeport
New Haven
Purchase of Control
Equipment
Installation of Control
Equipment
5-yr Operating Cost
Total 5-yr Costs
90
1950
5400
7440
75
1380
3630
5085
A-9
-------
APPENDIX B
TRANSPORTATION STRATEGIES
This section describes mobile source strategies for control of particulate
emissions in the New Haven and Bridgeport hot spot areas. It is divided into
two subsections which discuss contributions of autos and trucks (Subsection 1)
and a subsection describing strategies which were evaluated to reduce partic-
ulate emissions (Subsection 2).
New Haven and Bridgeport are similar in size in terms of labor market
areas, as described in The Directory of Connecticut Manufacturing and Mechanical
Establishments 1970 published by the Connecticut Labor Department. In
Bridgeport, total non-agricultural employment totalled 150,210. Non-agricul-
tural employment in the New Haven labor market totalled 151,080. These sim-
ilarities in size permitted the running of single model examples for both
areas. There is a difference, however, in percentage of manufacturing employ-
ment which is 41% for Bridgeport, but only 28% for New Haven. This would tend
to intensify rush-hour vehicle travel in the Bridgeport area. Mobile emissions
would also be affected by the number of Interstate highways passing through
the area and the volume of traffic handled. New Haven has both 1-95 and 1-91
whereas Bridgeport only has 1-95.
"*"* Contributions by Mobile Sources
Particulate emissions from cars and trucks are relatively minor compared
to motor vehicle emissions of other pollutants. Nonetheless, the two hot spot
areas of New Haven and Bridgeport contain a concentration of traffic sufficient
to make a significant contribution to the overall particulate pollution level
in those areas. Brief inspection of the aerial photographs shown in Figures
B-l
-------
II-l and II-2 is sufficient to indicate the degree of concentration of both
through (Interstate) and local .traffic which is typical of these two urban areas.
Total vehicular particulate emissions were estimated by DEP using the AQDM
run to be 4.6 micrograms per cubic meter for Bridgeport and 5.3 micrograms
for New Haven. These contributions were developed from theoretical calcula-
tions and are subject to microscale variations. In addition, the problem of
fugitive dust in the streets entrained in automotive wakes can be significant
in specific areas.
2- Potential Strategies for Control of Particulate Matter
Strategies considered under this heading fall into four general categories:
traffic control strategies, federal vehicle emission control strategies,
control of visible emissions, and control of fugitive dust along highways and
city streets.
a. Traffic Control Strategies
A number of traffic control strategies were considered to assess their
effect in reducing vehicle travel within the hot spot areas. Reduction of
travel along Interstate highways was 'not considered to be feasible. The
existing networks in the New Haven and Bridgeport area carry large proportions
of through traffic. .
(1) Elimination of On-Street Parking
A potential strategy to reduce vehicular traffic on local
throughways is to eliminate on-street parking in significant portions
of the center city. Such a strategy would involve regulations
prohibiting on-street parking during peak traffic periods in all
commercial and industrial built up areas. This is presumed to
B-2
-------
reduce vehicle miles traveled into those areas where parking is
prohibited. It might encourage the formation of car pools, and
increased use of available mass transit facilities. A corollary
strategy would be to impose a special use fee on all public and
private off-street facilities existing within designated areas.
This fee would increase the economic cost of vehicular traffic
and again would tend to further shift traffic from private vehicles
to mass transit or to encourage the formation of car pools. A
computer strategies model was employed to simulate driver reaction
to such regulations. A description of the model is provided in
Appendix H.
(2) Improved Mass Transit
Improvement of public mass transportation in these urban areas
can be provided to encourage reduction in individual vehicle usage
and a consequent significant reduction in vehicle miles traveled.
This strategy would require additional routes beyond those now
available in these cities and improved frequency of service on both
the new and existing routes. Mass transportation figures for
existing bus lines in Bridgeport before the bus strike of 1972-73
have indicated that service that existed at. that time was in a
declining state of ridership. However, condition of existing
equipment and poor routing and frequency of service may have had
a cumulative effect on this ridership. A similar system exists in
New Haven. This factor was disregarded for purposes of this study.
Mass Transportation in the Greater Bridgeport Region, Greater
Bridgeport Regional Planning Agency, June 1971.
B-3
-------
The computer transportation strategies model was utilized to
estimate reductions in vehicle miles traveled that might be
achieved from a significantly improved transit system that would
be desirable to car users. In order to have the system opera-
tional by 1975, we considered only use of existing types of city
buses to represent mass transportation. Results of the model
simulation are summarized later in this section.
(3) Special Bus Lanes
The strategy of providing bus-only lanes and extending bus
stop areas beyond those already available would improve the de-
sirability of mass transit through expedited service. Certainly
during rush hour when both cities experience considerable congestion
on local streets, the availability of highly improved route timing
would attract an increased number of commuters with consequent
reduction in vehicle usage. In combination with improved transit
systems, as discussed in the preceding section, a significant
number of drivers might be attracted to the system. It is important
to remember that reduction of commuter congestion might lead to
diversion of other additional traffic to these streets and roadways.
Since the establishment of bus-only lanes is really only an extension
of improved mass transportation, the computer strategy runs for
that strategy were extrapolated to the bus-lane strategy as having
a similar effect.
(4) Outlying Low Cost Parking
The establishment of additional parking lots at low or no
B-4
-------
fee in outlying areas away from congestion is an additional
strategy designed to reduce vehicle miles traveled during rush-
hour periods. These lots would be located to connect with
existing or proposed transit systems to allow remotely-located
commuters to drive to these parking spots, leave their vehicle,
and utilize mass transit facilities for the final portion of
their trip. These parking lots, used in conjunction with other
mass transit enhancement strategies, were reviewed in the model.
(5) Parking Sticker System
A strategy to further reduce vehicle miles by the encouragement
of car pooling and other mass transit usage is to establish a
badge or sticker parking regulation. Such a regulation would
require that cars entering or parking in designated congested
areas during certain hours of the day would require a badge or
sticker designating them as approved to enter the area. Those
employed in the area would be required to form car pools with one
badge being issued per pool. For example, one badge per three
riders might be issued. Special one-day badges might be issued
for those requiring infrequent essential visits to the congested
areas during rush hours. The strategies could be applied to
either parking facilities only or to all traffic entering the
specified areas. In the latter case, through traffic would be
prohibited and trucks would be restricted to specific portions
of the day. Such regulations would require extensive machinery
to operate and enforce. Reduction in miles traveled by commuters
B-5
-------
to the area might attract additional through traffic unless some
prohibition was placed on this mode of travel.
(6) Traffic Barriers
Some European and other cities have experimented with the use
of traffic barriers to restrict traffic flow completely through
certain sections. These may take the form of a sort of concentric
ring effect providing a traffic-free zone in the center, or may
simply block specific arteries to restrict the flow of through
traffic, converting the arteries into local routes, in effect.
Construction of such barriers provides perhaps the only certain
means of effectively and substantially reducing vehicle travel
in specified areas. Construction of such a system, however,
requires careful design and planning and cannot be accomplished
. within the existing time frame. Provision of alternate procedures
for vehicle use, not to mention legal authority to erect such
barriers, is not expected to be feasible by 1975. As a result,
no further investigation of this strategy is proposed at this
time.
The above traffic control strategies might be used in various combinations
to achieve reduction of vehicle miles. Some of the computer simulations
indicated in Appendix H reflect the application of multiple strategies.
Except, however, for the traffic barrier approach which is not feasible
without further analysis of effects and alternate approaches, the combina-
tions of strategies -used do not seem to yield significant reduction in
local vehicle miles, even discounting the highly significant contributions
from Interstate highways in both Bridgeport and New Haven.
B-6
-------
A traffic strategy simulation model was used to utilize high speed com-
putational equipment to estimate the effects of the various strategies. A
schematic of the computer processing is shown in Figure B-l. The model
attempts to evaluate the interrelationships of factors affecting individuals'
decisions to utilize transit facilities or their own vehicles for transporta-
tion, primarily to their jobs. It begins with a set number of factors, in-
cluding such things as road network capacity, parking capacity, availability
of transit, and begins to process these based on the estimated number of
individuals requiring transportation to their jobs. Non-commuting traffic
in the city area such as shopping trips and through traffic is assumed to
follow generally similar patterns. The estimated travel is divided among the
available options and compared with capacities of various resources, such as
highway network, parking availability and transit availability. Some
"preference ratios" are introduced into the program for initial and subsequent
allocations of trips to the various modes. The simulation utilizes feedback
loops to continually reallocate such modal choices. The action of the feed-
back loop reflects calculated relationships. For example, if vehicles in use
exceed available parking spaces, an assumption is made that a certain propor-
tion of the excess travel will revert to other means such as mass transit
systems.
Results of the actual simulation runs are shown in Appendix H. Effects
of the simulations are indicated in Table B-l. It is important to keep in
mind in reviewing these simulations that the results should not be extrapolated
for other purposes. Numbers used as based for factors in the program are
hypothetical and not necessarily verified with real data. An attempt has
B-7
-------
w
I
00
ADDITIONS,
SUBTRACTIONS
TO PARKING
CAPACITY
PARKING.
CONGESTION
AND RATES
RATE OF
CHANGE OF
JOB MARKET
NUMBER OF
CITY CE.TTER
JOBS
CITY
PARKING
CAPACITY
VOLUME OF
TRANSIT
RIDERSHIP
VOLUME OF
VEHICLE
TRAFFIC
CAPACITY
OF
TRANSIT
SYSTEM
CAPACITY
OF
ROADWAY
NETWORK
DESIRABILITY
OF.
TRANSIT
SYSTEM
DEGREE
OF
ROADWAY
CONGESTION
ADDITIONS,
SUBTRACTIONS
TO ROADWAY
CAPACITY
FIGURE B-l
TRANSPORTATION STRATEGIES SCHEMATIC
-------
TABLE 8-1
TRANSPORTATION STRATEGIES MODEL RESULTS AND PARTICULATE AIR QUALITY EFFECTS
VEHICLE CONTROL
STRATEGY
I
No Strategy
- Baseline Run
No On-Street
Parking
Improved Transit System
+ No On-Street
Parking
Bus Lanes + Improved
Transit + No On-
Street Parking
Outlying Parking 4- Bus.
Lanes + Improved
Transit + No On-Street
Parking
Parking Sticker System
+ Outlying Parking +
Bus Lanes + Improved
Transit + No On-Street
Parking
RUSH HOUR
MODEL RESULTS
1975 AUTO VOLUME
50,311
44,384
(43,947-44,821)**
41,088
40,442
40,139
25,060
PERCENTAGE
REDUCTION
FROM BASELINE
_,
12%
18%
20%
20% .
50%
NEW HAVEN
PART.
CONTRIB.
pg/m3
3.4
3.2
3.1
3.1
3.1
2.6
REDUCTION*
Hg/m3
| mr
0.2
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.8
BRIDGEPORT
PART.
CONTRIB.
pg/m3
2.9
2.7
2.6
2.6
2.6
2.2
REDUCTION*
JJg/m3
_ mr
0.2
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.7
O)
I
-o
* Assumes 63% gasoline engine contribution to total. 50% of contribution assumed to originate from Interstate
.highways, and not affected by vehicle control strategies.
** Results of "Preference Ratio" variations, to show effects of variations in assumed choices by commuters.
-------
been made to relate them to the city sizes and level of employment in the
urbanized areas under consideration. However, results of the simulations apply
reasonably well on a relative basis to predict the resultant reduction in
ambient air concentration of particulates. Throughout the running of the
programs, an attempt was made to overestimate the expected reductions, i.e.,
to assume the best for the strategies. Comparison of expected percentage
reductions with the literature indicates that indeed expected reductions may
2
be overstated. Inspection of Table B-l indicates that no more than 0.3
micrograms per cubic meter reduction in p'articulate ambient air concentrations
can be expected even if all strategies except the parking sticker system are
used. If all strategies including the parking sticker system are used, an
expected reduction of 0.8 micrograms in New Haven and 0.7 in Bridgeport would
result. The model was not able to consider the possibility that reduced
traffic flow during rush-hour situations would be likely to attract other
traffic which does not now use the roadway network under consideration due to
3
the congestion. Such "induced traffic" is highly dependent on existing
traffic density. Reduction of traffic density by the application of these
strategies would no doubt attract an unknown amount of such traffic negating
the reductions expected in particulate concentrations.
b. Federal Emission Control Program
Particulates emitted from motor vehicles are primarily through the
exhaust. They consist of lead compounds, carbon particles and motor oil.
In addition, asbestos is released from brake linings in undefined quantities.
The effects of engine design and other factors on particulate emissions are
2
See Prediction of the Effects of Transportation Controls on Air Quality in
Major Metropolitan Areas, U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, APTD 1363.
3
Evaluating Transportation Controls Through Reduced Motor Vehicle Emissions
in Major Metropolitan Areas, U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, APTD 1364.
B-10
-------
not well known. Federal EPA estimates in grams per mile of particulates are
0.3 for the mix of cars expected to be on the road in 1970, and 0.1 for the
mix of cars expected to be on the road in 1975, based on the expected effect
of controls to that time. Further reductions are anticipated as more stringent
controls are applied and as the mix of cars reflects later and later model
years. Estimates for diesel vehicles indicate no change is anticipated in
emissions during the period from 1970 to 1975. Based on the Connecticut
Implementation Plan assumption of 63% particulate emissions from gas-powered
vehicles and 37% from diesel-powered, we conclude that a 58% level of 1969
calculated emissions is predictable. If this number is combined with the 27%
growth factor, as estimated between these years, an estimated level of total
particulate emissions is 74% of those calculated for 1969, or approximately a
25% reduction in total emissions, based on the federal control program.
Ct Visible Emission Regulation
At present, Connecticut bans visible emissions from mobile sources under
Administrative Regulations Sec 19-508-18. Removal from the streets of vehicles
causing visible emissions will significantly reduce particulate levels, al-
though it is difficult to quantify the effect of such enforcement. Vigorous
enforcement of these regulations, utilizing police officers in local towns and
from the state police, is necessary if the effect of these regulations is to
be felt. In particular, increased emphasis on enforcement in the Bridgeport
and New Haven particulate hot spot areas is indicated. Regulations requiring
the reporting of numbers of citations and convictions of vehicle operators
under these regulations must be required by towns within the areas specified.
Periodically, and at least twice a year, the Department of Environmental
B-H
-------
Protection will review these reports and analyze the effectiveness of such
enforcement on a town-by-town basis.
d. Street Cleaning Strategy
The effects of fugitive dust and the entrainment of particulates in
vehicle wakes has not been effectively quantified, although research has been
undertaken along these lines in a number of areas. Exceedingly high levels
of particulates recorded in some Connecticut city centers are indicative of
the significance of the dust entrainment problem. Such readings have exceeded
ambient readings taken at locations remote from concentrations of vehicular
traffic. Concentration of particulates in the hot spot areas may be
significantly affected by the volume of street dust encountered. A strategy
to increase levels of street-cleaning operations is difficult to quantify, but
cannot help but be regarded as highly beneficial. In addition, modeling cal-
culation's which have quantified particulate contributions to ambient levels
in the hot spot area did not include the effects of fugitive dust and subsequent
entrainment of such particulates. Therefore, to ensure meeting expected con-
centrations of particulates, fugitive dust must be controlled.
We recommend that the cities covered in the two hot spot areas be required
to institute a comprehensive street-cleaning program to ensure reductions of
particulates from this source. In order to ensure effective implementation of
this regulation, individual towns must show the availability of adequate equip-
ment and crews to provide a high level of effectiveness in this area. Also
required, to ensure feasibility of such a program, are appropriate parking regula-
tions permitting full access to curbside sites for street-cleaning equipment.
Such parking regulations may take the effect of partial bans on parking by day
of week, by time of day, or by alternate side of street. Measurement of effect-
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iveness of such a program will be by DEP inspection and will be based on a
sampling of a significant number of highway locations, no more than 25% of
which are to show significant roadway or roadside accumulation of fugitive
dust or other debris. The proposed regulation should be effective by March 31,
1974, so that accumulations of such materials may be eliminated over a period
of time and further, so that the Department may ensure that effective programs
have been instituted by the affected local governments.. This should be
verified by the inspection technique described and failures by individual
local governments to institute effective programs be followed up through
normal administrative legal procedures.
Responsibility of meeting the regulation lies with the political juris-
dictions within the defined areas. Estimated costs to operate a street
sweeper are shown below.
ESTIMATED YEARLY COSTS OF STREET CLEANING, PER MACHINE
Labor
2 men @ $7,500 ea. $15,000
Fringe benefits 5,000
Physical Maintenance* 3,500
Operating Expense* (Gas, oil, lubrication) 3,000
Equipment depreciation 7,000
(Based on assumed economic life of
3 years, machine cost of $21,000,*
straight line depreciation)
$33,500/year
*Information provided by a commercial street sweeping company.
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Note that current city tax receipts divided by the mill rate gives
receipts per mill. That figure gives an indication of how expenditure
of municipal tax money on a particular strategy will influence the mill
rate. For the fiscal year ended June 30, 1972, it would have taken
$590,303 of extra expenditure to add one mill to the tax rate in Bridgeport,
and $532,663 in New Haven.
If a city needs five extra machines per year, for example, this would
add $167,500 to the municipal budget. This would represent about 1/4 of 1%
of the recent municipal expenditures of either Bridgeport of New Haven.
This means a substantial amount of extra street sweeping could be accomplished
before the mill rate would be increased by one mill.
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APPENDIX C
REDUCTION OR ELIMINATION OF PARTICULATE EMISSIONS FROM SOLID
WASTE INCINERATION
1. Background
Current projections of 1975 contributions of incinerations activities in
Bridgeport and New Haven are 3.2 and 1.2 micrograms per cubic meter, respect-
ively, on the basis that the four incinerators in Bridgeport and the two in
New Haven will meet 'the particulate emiss.ion regulations for incinerators in
1975.
A statewide solid waste plan is nearing completion, which deals with
proposed modifications and alternatives to these incinerators. The formulation
and evaluation of the proposed strategy has been carried out in coordination
with the expected content of this plan, but in limited detail. It was not
considered practical to duplicate or prejudge the content of the plan, so
nominal contact with Deputy Commissioner Chase and members of the General
Electric project team, after clearance by the Director of Air Compliance, has
yielded enough data to produce a rational evaluation of the strategy.
2. Proposed Strategy
It is proposed that the reduction or elimination of particulate emissions
from solid waste incineration in Bridgeport and New Haven be carried out by
termination of operation of the existing incinerators and their replacement
by appropriate waste collection, separation, recovery, preparation and disposal
operation on a regional or local basis, consistent with the statewide plan for
solid waste disposal.
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r* Methodology
a. Bridgeport
The Connecticut Solid Waste Management Plan will recommend that solid
waste in the Bridgeport area will be handled by separation and recycling,
followed by shredding and incineration in boilers //7 and //8 of the Devon power
station of the Connecticut Light and Power Company in Milford. The refuse
combustion will represent 20% of the heat input to the boilers with low
sulfur oil representing the remaining 80%. Control of particulate matter
emissions will be achieved by electrostatic precipitators operating at 95%
efficiency, with the emission rate projected to be 0.1 lb/10 BTU. The solid
waste processing capability (raw waste basis) of this system is 1000 tons
per day. Approximately 50% of this tonnage will actually be fired in the
boilers, after removal of recyclable materials, non-combustibles and moisture.
The scheduled start-up date for this system is mid-1976. This is one
year after the deadline for achievement of the secondary standard for suspended
particulate matter. Shutdown of the incinerators in Bridgeport by mid-1975
would then require a temporary disposal system for the interim one-year period.
This would be accomplished by means of a temporary regional landfill in one of
the surrounding communities, augmented by transfer stations within Bridgeport.
r. b. New Haven
The Connecticut Solid Waste Management Plan will recommend that solid waste
in the New Haven area will be handled by a pyrolysis system, preceded by
recycling and that the combustible gas produced by pyrolysis be burned in
utility boilers. Details, have not been made available, except that the
particulate emissions from the pyrolysis operation will be virtually zero
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since the fuel gas will be essentially as clean-burning as natural gas. It
is presumed that the residual solid waste will be readily disposable in
available landfill operation. The solid waste processing capability of this
system (raw waste basis) is 2000 tons per day. This is intended to include
the waste load of some surrounding communities.
The scheduled startup date for this system is early 1977, one and one-
half years after the deadline for achievement of the secondary standard for
suspended particulate matter. Thus a temporary disposal system would be
required during the interim period which would consist of a temporary regional
landfill in one of the surrounding communities, and transfer station operations
within New Haven.
4. Emissions and Their Contribution to Suspended Particulate Matter
Concentrations
a. Bridgepojrt^
The elimination of incineration within Bridgeport would reduce the pro-
jected 1975 suspended particulate matter concentration (annual geometric
mean) by 3.2 micrograms per cubic meter. Emissions from a recycling operation
and various transfer activities are assumed to be well controlled and not to
contribute. Emissions from the Devon power station are projected to contribute
0.35 micrograms per cubic meter in 1975 for fuel oil burning only. Although
emissions from the stack serving boilers #7 and //8, where refuse combustion
takes place, are well within present regulatory requirements at 0.10 Ib per
million BTU, this appears to be somewhat higher than the emissions projected
without the solid waste disposal. Precise projections were not available,
but in order to evaluate the effectiveness of the strategy in Bridgeport, it
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was assumed that the additional Devon station emissions due to refuse disposal
would increase the 1975 contribution from 0.35 to 0.55 micrograms per cubic
meter, and that the net improvement in Bridgeport would then be 3.0 micrograms
per cubic meter.
b. New Haven
The elimination of incineration within New Haven would reduce the pro-
jected 1975 suspended particulate matter concentration by 1.2 micrograms per
cubic meter. Emissions from the pyrplysis operation and associated transfer
activities are assumed to be negligible. The improvement of emissions from
the power plant which will utilize the fuel gas is also neglected. Thus the
net improvement in New Haven would be 1.2 micrograms per cubic meter.
5. Cost
a. . Bridgeport
Preliminary information provided on the proposed Devon station refuse
combustion operation indicated that processing costs, including separation,
transfer and preparation of waste (also including credit for refuse fuel
values, but not including waste collection costs) are projected to amount to
$10 per ton. Current costs for incineration are assumed to be $6 per ton.
Thus -fox a 1000 TPD operation, the annual cost increase for the new system
would be $1,460,000. Based on tax revenue information for the fiscal year
ending June 30, 1972, this would amount to an increase of the Bridgeport tax
rate of 2.5 mills.
Costs involved in the temporary one-year operation of a landfill site in
one of.the surrounding communities are difficult to estimate since site
location is unknown. Cessation of. incineration would save approximately $6
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per ton, but would be offset by landfilling costs of about $3 per ton. Transfer
station and hauling costs, plus cost of site leasing are expected to probably
exceed the remaining $3 per ton, so that a net cost would result for the
temporary operation. It would seem reasonable to assume that the temporary
operation could require about a 40% premium over current costs, or on the
basis of 1000 TPD, an additional cost of $880,000 for the year.
b. New Haven
The preliminary information provided on the proposed New Haven pyrolysis
system also indicated that the processing cost, including fuel credits, is
projected to amount to $10 per ton. On the basis of assumed $6 per ton
current costs, a 2000 TPD operation would result in an annual cost increase
of $2,960,000. Based on tax revenue information for the fiscal year ending
June 30, 1972, this would amount to an increase in the New Haven tax rate of
5.5 mills. However, since some of the refuse processed would be from surround-
ing towns, the net figure for New Haven would be lower.
The temporary one'and one-half year operation of a remote landfill site
in one of the surrounding communities suffers from the same difficulty x^ith
respect to cost estimation as does the similar problem in Bridgeport. On the
basis of the same assumptions of $6 per ton current incineration costs, and an
expected 40% premium over such costs for the duration of the temporary
situation, the 2000 TPD disposal load would cost $2,640,000 additional during
the 18-month temporary operation.
6. Evaluation
The evaluation of the proposed strategy of reducing or eliminating solid
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waste incineration in either New Haven or Bridgeport purely in terms of the
cost-effectiveness of achieving" the secondary air quality standard for suspended
particulate matter is perhaps irrelevant in view of the probable adoption of
the Connecticut solid waste plan which will incorporate the strategy and
provide much broader benefits. The 3.0 micrograro per cubic meter reduction
in Bridgeport for an annual cost of $1,460,000 plus a one-time $880,000
additional temporary operation cost is certainly more cost effective than a
1.2 microgram per cubic meter reduction for $2,920,000 per year plus a one-
time $2,640,000 additional in New Haven, even accounting for the incineration .
of waste from surrounding communities. Further analysis is unwarranted until
the Solid Waste Plan is finalized. It does seem, however, that the additional
cost for temporary operations in New Haven is not warranted, because the New
Haven projected 1975 hot spot concentration is only slightly in excess of the
standard of 60 micrograms per cubic meter. Thus operation of incinerators in
New Haven until 1977, if they meet the emission regulation, is-not considered
totally undesirable, particularly if other strategies are more effective for
comparable costs.
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APPENDIX D
CONTROL AND SUPERVISION OF DEMOLITION ACTIVITIES
1. Background
In the formulation of potential strategies for reduction of suspemk-d
particulate matter concentrations in Bridgeport and New Haven, the concept, o!
reduction of contributions from demolition activities was proposed. Such
contributions, if significant, are not presently included in the 1975 projec-
tions, except to the extent that they are reflected in the calibration of tin-
Air Quality Display Model used in the projections.
Information relating to emissions from demolition activities was not
available and had to be synthesized. General Electric estimated that the
total demolition waste generated in both regions in recent years ranged from
50,000 to 150,000 tons per year. Assuming the larger figure, assigning half
to each city, and further assuming that ten major demolition projects in each
city account for the total, a figure of 7500 tons per year of demolition w.i.-id
per project is obtained.
2. Proposed Strategy
It is presumed that the control and supervision of demolition activities
would be accomplished in the following manner:
(1) The permit system would be expanded to include all proposed
demolition projects*
(2) Permit applications would include certain specific informatl":i
as to size of project, quantity of waste produced and duration
of project.
(3) DEP would review the proposed project and issue permits
subject to certain conditions and constraints. These wouli!
include controls to suppress dust generation, meteorological
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controls, measurements of contributions from the project,
and others.
(4) DEP would make the permit's continued validity contingent on
periodic inspections (depending on the size of the project)
which would assure that the required conditions were being
observed.
3- Methodology
The following is a theoretical description of how the permit system for
demolition projects would be carried out:
(1) The permit application would include a description of the
structure to be razed, the wrecking methods, the dust.
suppression controls to be applied, the quantity of waste
to be generated and at what rate, the potential for hazardous
materials generation and precautions to be taken for them,
the means and rate of waste haulage, the overall duration
of the project, the condition and use of the land while
awaiting new construction, and the means to be used to
suppress dust during this period.
(2) DEP's evaluation of the permit application, in addition to
a thorough engineering review, would include appropriate
calculations (by means of emission factors and use of the
AQDM) to ascertain the impact of the project on predicted
hot spot air quality. The conditions set in granting a
permit would reflect this calculated impact. (Conceivably
the calculation could show that the year's achievement of
the secondary standard could be jeopardized if the project
were carried out on the proposed schedule. Postponement
to a more meteorologically suitable time of year may be one
condition DEP could impose.)
(3) DEP could, in issuing the conditional permit, require cur-
tailment of the work under adverse meteorological conditions,
and require that operations be suspended until conditions
improve.
(4) DEP could require that suspended particulate measurements
(Hi Vols) be carried out around the project periphery to
monitor the contribution (and simultaneously to obtain basic
information to refine emission factors).
(5) DEP inspections could take the form of routine site visits
to assure that permit conditions were being observed. This
would probably be required only in major demolition projects.
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However, "spot" visits to even small projects may be
necessary to assure compliance.
4. Emissions and Their Contribution to Suspended Particulate Matter Concentra-
tions
Information on the emissions from demolition activities is not available
from the literature. Emission factors for rock-crushing operations are given
at approximately 0.5 pounds per ton of material processed. For the purposes
of evaluating emissions from demolition, it was assumed that they would
probably range from 0.2 to 1.0 pounds per ton for demolished material, or, for
the typical 7500 ton per year project described in subsection A, about 0.75
to 3.75 tons per year per project, with an average of 2.25 tons per year,
would be emitted.
In order to evaluate the contribution of ten sources.in Bridgeport and New
Haven with this range of source strength, ten existing point and area sources
with current particulate emissions from 5 to 25 tons per year were randomly
located around the hot spots in Bridgeport and New Haven. Their current con-
tributions in micrograms per cubic meter were then ratioed up in accordance
with a scheduled increase as follows:
Two were increased 3.75 tons per year
Two were increased 3.00 tons per year
Two were increased 2.25 tons per year . .
Two were increased 1.50 tons per year
Two were increased 0.75 tons per year
The total increases in hot spot concentration due to these increases in
the strength of the ten selected sources (which says that the hypothetical demo-
lition projects were located immediately adjacent to them) amounted to 0.35
microgram per cubic meter in New Haven and 0.47 microgram per cubic meter in
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Bridgeport. These results would vary, depending on which sources were selected,
and which were assumed to have the particular magnitudes of increase. The
probable upper limit of such manipulations looks to be about 1.0 microgram per
cubic meter. Thus the probable contribution from demolition in either city would
be from 0.5 to 1.0 microgram per cubic meter. This is both the present and
projected uncontrolled contribution which is not now included in the calculation
of the hot spot concentration. Application of the assumed effectiveness of
control of 50% would give a projected 1975 contribution of from 0.25 to 0.50
microgram per. cubic meter.
5. Economics
Evaluation of the economics of the proposed strategy does not account for
additional costs borne by wrecking firms in adhering to conditions stipulated
.by permits. These stipulations are considered to be inherent in good practice,
and as such should not be isolated as debits against the proposed strategy.
Additional costs due to administration of the strategy are valid, however, and
are estimated herein. It is proposed that extension of the permit system to
encompass all demolition activities will require the Department of Environmental
Protection to provide one additional full-time employee in permit processing
and evaluation, and one additional full-time employee to carry out inspection
activities. Any measurement or monitoring work would be handled by current
staff in these areas.
Costs used in state budgetary work are not available to us. Assuming that
the total cost to the state of each full-time employee, including salary,
fringe benefits, office space, etc., is $25,000, the proposed strategy would
place an additional cost of $50,000 per year on the DEP budget.
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6. Evaluation
The proposed strategy is difficult to evaluate because of the tenuous
aspects of the back-up information. We used the high end of the range of
demolition waste quantities. If the low end (50,000 TPY) applies, assuming
other numerical assumptions are valid, then the contributions are reduced
by a factor of 3. In view of the nature of the hot spot calculation, any
contribution reduction below 0.25 microgram per cubic meter cannot be seriously
considered as significant.
On the other hand, demolition projects do in fact add to the atmospheric
burden, especially in the immediate neighborhoods. Closer control of such
activities from the "environmental insult" standpoint is well within the
charter of the DEP regardless of whether the effect is measurable by the rather
limited accuracy yardstick of the Air Quality Display Model.
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APPENDIX E
LAND USE CONTROLS
! Zoning as a Strategy
Current decisions made in the course of any planning program are based
upon the most reasonable overall view of the desired future. To implement
such decisions, it is often necessary to regulate the use of privately-owned
property, or to take other public actions which might affect private rights,
A preliminary problem is therefore whether any constitutional issue is raised
because regulations over private property are based upon hypotheses of this
1 2
type concerning the future. '
Zoning is the most comprehensive and effective device available to carry
out public control of land use, with far more potentialities for intelligent
and flexible regulation than would ever be possible through nuisance or
covenant law. Moreover, zoning regulations can be related, to the land needs
of various uses, and are potentially of considerable value.in regulating
future loads on numerous proposed land areas.
The concept which is envisioned to treat the problem areas of Bridgeport
and New Haven is through the adoption of stringent land use controls that can
be readily adopted to a "special zoning district" (a source area within the
hot spot) within the geographic confines of the cities. The thought is to
locally isolate given areas that through existing land use contribute to the
detrimental air quality. Boundaries should be established and a SZD created.
The creation of such districts will aid in the stabilization of the area and
preclude the possibility of future enlargement.
Fairlawns Cemetery Association v. Bethel, 138 Connecticut 434, 86, Atlantic
2d 73 (1952).
State ex rel. Public Utility District No 1 v. Schwab, 246 Pacific 2d 1081
(Washington 1952).
o
Williams, The Structure of Urban Zoning, Buttenheim, New York, 1966.
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It is essential to note at this point that this activity is not designed
to prohibit economic growth. Rather, it provides guidelines under which growth
can occur in an orderly and controlled manner.
The consequences of this philosophy are varied and at times complex.
Existing city.and regional master plans must be updated to reflect
such action.
It is not an overnight answer to the problem. Minimum time
involved to bring new regulations into being is perhaps 3-5 years.
Local governments must take into account the considerations of
abutting townships. In view of the powerful tradition of local
government, there is no reason to be surprised that control over
local development has remained largely at the local level. Yet
many of the principal planning problems have increasingly become
multicommunity or regional in scope, often involving an entire
metropolitan area. The importance of taking into account
considerations affecting border areas has been recognized in ,
enabling legislations and case law. (New Jersey-New York 1968)
It is accomplished through zoning.
Upon adoption of new zoning regulations nonconforming uses cannot
be forced to vacate.
It is not a control strategy for a vacant tract of land. It is
an amendmentto existing conditions.
'In creating the controls for the SZD's the most desirable starting place
would have been the existing zoning regulations and maps for the Bridgeport and
New Haven areas. However, these data were not available, and as a result,
basic assumptions were made. Where the proposed controls and existing controls
enter into conflict, it is recommended that the more stringent apply.
It is recognized and anticipated that this conflict will come about and
it is further recommended that the proposed controls be scrupulously reviewed
and amended to reflect individual cases for each city.
3
New Jersey, Conlon v. Board of Public Works of City of Paterson, 94 Atlantic
(2d) 660 (Supreme Court Feb. 2, 1953).
4
New Jersey, Borough of Cresskill v. Borough of Dumont, 104 Atlantic (2d) 441
(Supreme Court, April 5, 1954).
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2. Proposed Zoning Regulations
The following are proposed regulations for incorporation into zoning
law. They are intended to facilitate the creation of Special Zoned Districts
that shall aid in future land use surrounding designated sources within hot
spot areas.
a. Residential - Multiple Dwelling
1. Permitted Uses
a. One and two family dwellings
b. Multi-family dwelling
c. Lodging or guest house
d. Gardening
e. Public playground
f. School or college or individual school instruction
g. Religious institution
h. Club or fraternal organization
i. Fire or police station and government building
j. Hospital or clinic
k. Nursing home
1. Public utilities under special permit
m. Professional office
n. Off-street parking facility
o. Mortuary or funeral home
p. Accessory uses customarily appurtenant to the above principal
uses
2. Maximum Density
Twenty-four (24) dwelling units and eighty-four persons per net acre,
3. Minimum Lot Size
Residential Use
Three family dwelling 5,000 square feet
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Four family or more
Other permitted use
5,000 square feet +1,250
square feet for each
additional unit over 3
5,000 square feet subject
to review
4. Minimum Lot Frontage
Residential Use
One and Two family
Multi-family
1-4 Story
Other residential use
Other permitted use
5. Maximum Lot Coverage
Residential Use
One and Two Family
. Multi-Family
1-4 Story
Other residential
Other permitted use
6. Minimum Yard Widths
Front setback
Sideyards
Rear Yard
7. Maximum Height of Structures
Residential Use
One and Two Family
Multi-Family
1-2 Story
3-4 Story
Other permitted use
Main
25 ft.
25 ft.
40 ft.
25 ft.
50 feet
50 feet
50 feet
50 feet
30%
30%
30%
30%
20 feet
8 feet
25 feet
Accessory
15 ft.
15 ft.
15 ft.
15 ft.
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8.. Off-Street Parking
One and Two Family dwelling 1 space/dwelling unit
Multi-family dwelling 1.5 spaces/dwelling unit
9. Landscaping
All open areas not to be used for driveways, sidewalks, or recreational
uses shall be suitably landscaped.
b. General Commercial
1. Permitted Uses
a. Office or office building
b. Public utilities
c. Lunch room or restaurant excluding entertainment or liquor
d. Tavern or night club
e. Club or fraternal organization
f. Barbershop, shoe repair, laundry pick up, beauty parlor
g. Retail stores such as grocery, bakery, drug, hardware, variety,
packaged liquor
h. Commercial school for teaching such subjects as instrumental
music, dancing, barbering or hairdressing
i. Fire or police station, or government building (except garage
or utility) .
j. Other related uses by special permission of the planning and
zoning commission
2. Minimum Lot Area
5,000 feet
3. Maximum Lot Coverage
50%
4. Minimum Setbacks .
Front 5 feet
Side yards 8 feet
Rear yard 15 feet
5. Maximum Height of Buildings
Main Building 50 feet
Accessory .Structure 15 feet
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6. Off-Street Parking
Office or Commercial uses 1 space/400 square feet
of gross floor area
Places of Public Assembly 1 space for every 5 seats
or for every 5 persons
of capacity
7. Off-Street Loading
Off-street loading space shall be adequately provided for each
commercial establishment subject to review.
c. Heavy Industrial
1. Permitted Uses
a. Commercial school
b. Fire or police station
c. Government garage or utility, or public utilities
d. Temporary office or storage of materials
e. Railroad
f. Wholesale business and storage of non-flammable and non-
explosive material
g. Retail outlet for a wholesale or storage use (provided that
the floor area devoted to such retail selling shall not exceed
1,000 square feet)
h. Manufacture or assembling of articles using the following prepared
materials: bone or shell, cellophane, feathers, fur or hair, glass,
leather, plastics, precious or semi-precious metals or stones,
rubber, textile or cloth products, tobacco, wood or wood products
i. Manufacture, processing, assembling or storage of the following
goods and products:
1. Bakery, dairy, and food products
2. Cosmetics and Pharmaceuticals
3. Musical instruments
4. Clocks, watches, and jewelry
5. Toys and novelties
6. Electrical and electronic instruments and devices
7. Household appliances, radio and television
8. Machine tools, machinery, boats, trucks, automobiles
9. Office equipment
10. Photographic laboratory
11. Optical goods and instruments
12. Printing and publishing establishments
13. Non-alcoholic beverages
14. Textile dye or bleach
15. Ceramic products
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j. The cleaning, maintenance, repair and/or service of all
products permitted above
k. Office and administrative uses functionally related to the
uses permitted
1. Retail sale of products incidental to their manufacture
m. Other manufacture uses which conform to the following performance
standards may be permitted by special permission.
2. Minimum Parcel Size and Building Coverage
No minimum requirements
3. Setback Requirements
All new structures shall be setback twenty (20) feet from all street
lines. Minimum sideyards and rear yards shall be twenty (20) feet each.
4. Height
No building shall exceed fifty (50) feet in height and accessory
structures shall not exceed fifteen (15) feet in height, with the
exception of stacks designed for the venting of process emissions.
5. Off-Street Parking
At least one (1) parking space is required for every 1,000 square feet
of gross floor area or 2 employees on maximum working shift, whichever
is greater.
6. Off-Street Loading
Off-street loading space shall be adequately provided for each indust-
rial establishment subject to review by the proper agency (planning
and zoning commission and/or building inspector).
d. Public and Semi-Public
1. Permitted Uses
This category is designed to preserve land for public parks and open
space and maintain and provide land for public and semi-public facilities,
Permitted uses shall range from schools, fire and police stations, and
churches to parks, playgrounds, and car parking facilities. Uses shall
be permitted under special permit.
e. Off-Street Parking Areas
1. In any parking lot providing spaces for 20 or more vehicles and/or
those adjacent to or facing a residential district, the planting and
maintenance of trees within and along the borders of such parking areas
are required.
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2. Screening shall be provided on sides which abut streets and/or proper-
.ties of dissimilar uses, except that no screening is required of a
parking area where the elevation of the Lot Line is six (6) or more
feet higher than the finished elevation of the parking surface. The
parking area screening shall meet the following conditions:
a. The screening shall not be less than four (4) feet and not more
than six (6) feet in height above the grade of the parking lot
surface, and designed to provide 80% or more continuing opacity,
but in no case shall be permitted to constitute a traffic hazard.
Such screening shall be maintained in good condition.
b. Materials to be used in screening must be approved.
3. Other Special Provisions Regarding Parking Areas
a. Lighting used to illuminate the lot shall be so located and
shielded so as to prevent glare on the adjacent properties.
b. Except for emergencies, no automobile repair or service of any
kind shall be conducted in the parking area.
c. No signs of any kind, other than ones designating entrances, exits
or conditions of use shall be maintained in or around the parking
area.
d. A rail, fence, wall or other continuous barricade of a height
sufficient to retain all cars completely within the property shall
be provided, except at exit or entranceways.
e. Parking areas shall be separated from the street and adjacent
property lines by curbed and landscaped buffer strips at least
five (5) feet in width.
f. In addition to employee parking, adequate provision will be made
for trucks and visitor parking.
f. Off-Street Loading
1. Sufficient off-street loading berths will be provided to serve the
operational needs of the proposed development. All loading berths
must be entirely clear of street right-of-way lines.
2. No truck loading docks or doors are permitted on the front of buildings.
Such docks or doors shall be located at sides or rears of buildings.
3. All off-street loading berths shall be screened with either trees,
shrubs, fencing, baffles, walls or an aesthetically attractive combina-
tion of these materials. All such screening shall be installed and
maintained at a height of not less than 4 feet above the level of the
loading dock or platform.
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3. Evaluation
Zoning regulations make it.possible to indicate in advance the expected
proper use of land for designated areas. When formulated with forethought
and used correctly, zoning regulations can be as effective in achieving air
quality goals as the several strategies proposed in the preceding sections
of this report. In the long run, zoning regulations may be more fair in their
application than are strategies imposed on source operators to compensate for
past growth when the rules were different;
Unfortunately, zoning regulations as a strategy would not alldxtf achieving
the secondary air quality standard for particulates by June 1975. Zoning is
primarily a local function and would require much coordination before imple-
mentation. Furthermore, standard "grandfather clauses" would preclude an
immediate reworking of the structure of the area to conform to the proposed
zoning changes.
Zoning does have merit as a strategy in that it requires an interaction
between communities to achieve a common goal. It has often been noted that
pollution has no political boundaries, and that each community affects its
neighbors. Through community zoning coordination, the approach to achieving
air quality goals could also go beyond political boundaries.
E-9
-------
APPENDIX F
ECONOMIC COSTS AND BENEFITS TO A CITY
The economy of a city will be affected, for better or worse, by measures
taken to control air pollution. As any control measure involves both costs
and benefits, ideally we would measure the net benefit or cost to evaluate
the relative economic desirability of any proposed method. Unfortunately,
the net result is not easily determined with present methods of analysis.
Quite often, neither costs nor benefits occur as 'a lump sum, but are spread
over lengthy and indefinite time periods. Costs and benefits are difficult
to compare, as the costs tend to develop immediately and are often highly
visible and quantifiable, whereas the benefits develop slowly, are not always
readily apparent, and are difficult to quantify. For example, a factory can
determine the cost of installing a control device, but to what extent does
this improve the quality of living conditions for city residents, and what
is the value of this to the community? To compound the difficulty, initial
costs and benefits lead to further costs and benefits in a complex interrelation-
ship that cannot be completely untangled. Finally, the persons who pay the
costs and the persons who enjoy the benefits of pollution control may not be
the same. Even if a dollar value can be placed on the costs and benefits, the
true value of the net difference cannot be established because the importance
of a dollar to the payers of the costs is likely to be different from its
importance to the receivers of benefits.
In spite of these difficulties, some attempt must be made to judge the
economic consequences of various possible control strategies in order to make
an intelligent choice among them. While the long-run consequences of a
strategy are virtually impossible to predict (especially if several strategies
F-l
-------
are implemented simulataneously), the likely direction of some of the short-run
economic impacts of air pollution control measures can be estimated.
In general, it is assumed that measures that affect automobile or mass
transit will affect the number of commuting workers and shoppers from outside
the city and the number of residents of the city.
. Measures that restrict fuel burning and process losses will influence
operating costs of firms, and thus the prices of their products and their
profits. Changes in the number of commuters and residents, and in prices of
products will influence sales of products and services. Changes in sales will
be reflected in the number of non-industrial and industrial establishments,
and in overall employment in the city.
Changes in the number of establishments will influence the municipal
grand list, and thus the mill rate and taxes. The mill rate may also be affected
by strategies involving municipal expenditures such as street cleaning and
incineration. The mill rate influences taxes paid by firms, which is one
component of their operating costs. Another component is wage rates, which are
influenced by employment and the number of commuters and residents.
The way in which these various factors are affected by various control
methods can be shown graphically on a flow chart to indicate desirable and
undesirable effects. From a purely economic view (in the short run), the
following are considered desirable: increases in sales, the number of estab-
lishments, employment, the grand list, and profits of firms operating within
the city. Considered undesirable are increases in the mill rate, taxes,
operating costs, and prices. Increases in wage rates have both desirable and
undesirable economic effects. They add to operating costs, but also add to
the purchasing power of workers and residents.
F-2
-------
Two flow charts have been prepared for this study to indicate the probable
short-run economic impact. One chart shows undesirable impacts and the other
shows desirable effects. On each chart, the direction of cause and effect is
shown by arrows connecting the various areas affected. Plus and minus signs
are used to indicate whether an economic magnitude is likely to be increased
or decreased by a strategy or the change in the preceding condition.
Before proceeding with a discussion of desirable and undesirable effects,
several points must be stressed. First, the charts show probable, generalized
tendencies that would result if a number of firms or persons were affected
during the same period of time. If only a few persons or firms were affected,
the overall effect on a given city might be so slight as to be unnoticed.
Second, only the probable, short-run consequences are examined. In the long
run, a cleaner city well served by mass transit might attract new residents
and firms such that undesirable short-run economic effects would be more than
overcome. Whether a city has a renaissance will depend, however, on many
other factors besides the quality of its air, so no attempt is made to predict
long-run outcomes of air pollution control. Third, for the sake of exposition,
the diagrams are a great simplification of economic reality, and include only
some major areas of immediate concern. Finally, the strategies are discussed
in isolation under the assumption that no other factors are at work. For
example, if automotive traffic is restricted, shoppers will find it more
difficult to shop in the downtown area and retail sales will suffer. While
there are various ways to overcome that undesirable consequence, they are not
considered in the discussion. Also not considered are any changes occurring
elsewhere in Connecticut or the U.S.A. that might offset these consequences.
F-3
-------
All that is considered are the isolated consequences of following a strategy
in a particular city.
! Undesirable Effects (Figure F-l>
Chart 1 traces the undesirable effects of five basic types of strategies:
restricting automotive traffic and parking, tightening of standards on fuel
burning and process losses, controlling demolition, cleaning streets more
frequently, and transferring incineration' to regional incinerators. It is
assumed that automobile and parking restrictions will have the greatest immed-
iate impact on commuting workers, shoppers, and residents; that control of
fuel burning, process losses, and demolition will have the greatest immediate
impact on operating costs; and that changes in street sweeping and incineration
will have the greatest immediate impact on municipal operating budgets. The
further implications of the strategies are shown on the chart. The impact of
restrictions on operation of city power plants is not shown. If power companies
are allowed to increase rates to offset any increased costs of providing
electrical power, then the impact of rate changes would be felt immediately on
operating costs (as in the use of control of fuel burning, process losses and
demolition). -
a. Restrict automobile traffic and parking. A number of proposed
strategies involve restricting automobile traffic and parking in the city. If
implemented, these would make commuting to work and retail shopping more
difficult and time-consuming even though the actual transportation cost of
those two activities might be reduced by the use of car pools and public
transportation. If not offset by improvements to the mass transit system,
restricting automobile traffic would tend to decrease the number of commuting
F-4
-------
NUMBER OF
COMMUTING
WORKERS Aim
SHOPPERS FROM
OUTSIDE
THE CITY
NON-INDUSTRIAL
SALES AND
SERVICES
;iON-i JDUSTRIAL
EMPLOYMENT
DON-INDUSTRIAL
til ESTABLISHMENTS
INDUSTRIAL
SALES AND
SERVICES
NUM3ER OF
RESIDENTS
OF THE CITY
INDUSTRIAL
EMPLOYMENT
=H ESTABLISHMENTS
PRICES OF
GOODS AMD
SERVICES
OPERATING
COSTS OF
BUSINESSES
AND
INSTITUTIONS
MILL RATE
AND TAXES
FIGURE F-l
MUNICIPAL
OPERATING
BUDGET
Undesirable Effects
-------
workers and shoppers from outside the city, and residents of the city. This
would decrease non-industrial sales of goods and services; which in turn
would decrease non-industrial employment. It is assumed that a decrease in
sales would lead either to a closing of some non-industrial establishments,
or to the creation of fewer new ones than would have otherwise occurred. This,
too, would adversely affect employment. A reduction in employment opportunities
would further reduce the number of city residents and commuting workers from
outside the city, to intensify the depressing effect on sales.
Wage rates paid to workers in non-industrial activities will be affected
by the preceding tendencies. Decreasing numbers of residents and commuters
would decrease the supply of workers willing to work at present wage rates,
which would put upward pressure on wage rates: decreasing non-industrial
employment would reduce the demand for workers and put downward pressure on
wage rates. The exact net effect cannot be predicted at this point, so that
the arrow connecting wage rates with operating costs is labeled with both plus
and minus signs. However, because of minimum wage laws, the existence of
unions, and the reluctance of workers to accept wage rate cuts, wage rates
tend to remain fixed even when demand for workers is not strong. Therefore,
even if the effect of decreasing demand is greater than the effect of decreasing
supply of workers, wage rates would drop very little, if .at all. In this
case, however, wage rates would not increase as much as they might otherwise
have.
" Restrict fuel burning and process losses, and control demolition.
Another set of strategies calls for tighter standards on fuel burning and
process losses, and for more control of demolition activities. These standards
primarily affect industrial firms; and will cause an increase in operating and
F-6
-------
construction costs. This puts upward pressure on the prices of the goods and
services sold by the affected firms. If their customers are unwilling to
absorb all of any price increases, sales of the affected firms will be less
than they would otherwise have been. This would tend to reduce industrial
employment, and also the number of industrial establishments in the city. A
reduction in industrial employment leads to the same type of effects as a
reduction in non-industrial employment.
If industrial firms are unable to increase the prices of their products
because of conditions within their industry, profits will be reduced. This
adds to the pressure on these firms to shift some or all of their operations
elsewhere. The existence of higher operating costs within the city would also
tend to prevent new industrial firms from locating there.
Any tendency for either existing industrial and non-industrial firms to
leave the city and for new firms to avoid the city would tend to restrict the
growth of the grand list and add to upward pressure on the mill rate and taxes.
Increases in taxes add to operating costs, with further repercussions on
prices and profits.
As non-industrial establishments are buyers of industrial goods and
services for their own operational needs, a reduction in the number of such
establishments will hurt industrial sales.
c. Changes in street sweeping and incineration. Several strategies will
affect municipal operating budgets. Switching incineration to regional incin-
erators, and sweeping the streets more often will increase the related expenses
in the budgets and tend to increase the mill rate and taxes. Operating
expenses of firms are thus increased.
F-7
-------
Increases in-operating costs will also increase the prices of non-industrial
goods and services (including housing) and may decrease the profits of the firms
selling them. These tendencies will cause decreases in non-industrial sales
and establishments. The existence of higher prices will also reduce the number
of shoppers coming into the city, and will make the city less desirable as a
place of residence.
2. Desirable Effects (Figure F-2)
Chart 2 traces the desirable effects of the basic strategy of improving
mass transit (including creation of "buses only" street lanes, peripheral
parking areas and shuttle bussing; and adding more routes). It is assumed
that the immediate benefits would be felt by commuting workers, shoppers and
residents. The further implications of the strategy are shown on the chart.
It must be stressed that the beneficial effects of the basic strategy of
improving mass transit are opposite to the undesirable effects of restricting.
automobile traffic and parking. This means that if the two sets of strategies
are implemented simultaneously, a net effect-will be realized, but whether it
will be a net desirable or undesirable effect cannot be predicted at this
point. (A perfect offsetting of desirable and undesirable effects is also
possible, but highly unlikely to occur.)
a. Improve mass transit. A number of strategies are aimed at improving
public mass transit in the city. Their combined effect is likely to be positive,
and in the opposite direction from the negative impact of other strategies.
For example, improved mass transit would increase the attractiveness of the
city as a place to shop, work and live for some persons. This tendency would
cause increased sales, establishments and employment. The grand list would
F-8
-------
i
VO
NUMBER OF
COMMUTING
WORKERS AND
SHOPPERS
FROM OUTSIDE
THE CITY
NON-INDUSTRIAL \
SALES AND
SERVICES I
_^*r ^r
NON-INDUSTRIAL
NON-INDUSTRIAL
EMPLOYMENT
ESTABLISHMENTS
INDUSTRIAL
SALES AND
SERVICES
NUMBER OF
RESIDENTS
OF THE CITY
INDUSTRIAL
EMPLOYMENT
INDUSTRIAL
ESTABLISHMENTS
PRICES OF
GOODS AND
SERVICES
OPERATING
COSTS
MILL RATE
AND TAXES
FIGURE F-2
Desirable Effects
-------
tend to grow, which would help to keep the mill rate, and hence operating costs,
down. Lower operating costs help to keep prices down, which add further
stimulation to sales, profits and establishments. Lower prices also attract
more residents and shoppers.
Again, the impact of a strategy on wage rates cannot be firmly established.
The attractiveness of the city as a place to live and work will increase the
supply of available workers, which would tend to keep wage rates down, but the
demand for more workers would tend to increase wage rates.
«. Cleaner air. In general, the existence of cleaner air will also make
the city more desirable as a place in which to live, work and shop. While
the effect will be positive, and along the lines developed above, the effect
will probably develop gradually.
F-1Q
-------
APPENDIX G
STATISTICAL DESCRIPTION OF BRIDGEPORT AND NEW HAVEN
-------
BRIDGEPORT
Bridgeport, with an estimated population of 155,500, is the second-largest
city in Connecticut. (Hartford ranks first, with an estimated population of
156,600.) Bridgeport is the most important industrial city in the state,
producing a value added by manufacturing (in 1971) of $475.3 million. By way
of comparison, Stamford, the second most important industrial city, added
value of $385.4 million. In June of 1972, over 31,000 workers (about 40
percent of employment) were employed in manufacturing in Bridgeport.
Bridgeport is also an important trading and business center. In 1967,
wholesale trade developed by 358 firms amounted to $444.2 million, and employed
about 4900 workers. Only Hartford ($673.2'million) and New Haven ($609.1
million) had greater volumes of wholesale trade. Retail activity is also high.
In 1970, Bridgeport, with $287.7 million in retail sales, ranked third in the
state behind Hartford ($392.4 million) and New Haven ($313.6 million). Retail
employment was 10,820 persons in June of 1971.
The service industry (hotels, barbershops, auto repair shops, motion
picture theaters, etc.) employs about 3,700 persons. Bridgeport is also an
important educational center, having about 11,000 students enrolled in institu-
tions of higher education. Important medical facilities are also located in
Bridgeport. Bridgeport had about 4400 municipal employees in 1969.
About 40 percent of Bridgeport's workers come from outside the city,
while about 30 percent of working persons who live in Bridgeport work outside
of the city. There are about 71,000 motor vehicles registered in Bridgeport.
Major highways and rail lines also pass through the city.
0-1
-------
NEW HAVEN
New Haven, with an estimated population of 136,200, is Connecticut's third-
largest city, and one of its most important business and trading centers. In
1967, wholesale trade developed by 359 firms amounted to $609.1 million, and
employed about 4900 workers. Among other cities in the state, only Hartford
($673.2 million) had a greater volume of wholesale trade. In 1970, New Haven's
retail trade amounted to $313.6 million, which was second only to that of
Hartford ($392.4 million). Retail employment was 10,290 persons.
Manufacturing is also a major economic activity in New Haven. The city
ranked fifth in the state in 1967 in terms of value added by manufacturing,
which amounted to $254.6 million. In June" of 1972 over 18,000 workers were
employed in manufacturing in New Haven, or about 20% of the workers employed
in the city. New Haven has about 4000 municipal employees.
The service industry (hotels, barbershops, auto repair shops, motion
picture theaters, etc.) employs about seven thousand persons. In addition,
New Haven is an important medical and educational center. About 20,000
students are enrolled in institutions of higher education in New Haven.
About 50 percent of New Haven's workers come from outside the city, while
28 percent of working persons who live in the city work outside of New Haven.
There are about 56,000 motor vehicles registered in the city. Major highways
/
m
and rail lines also pass through the city.
The various conditions and the varied and extensive activity described
above generate a high volume of automotive traffic in both Bridgeport and New
Haven. This means that anything that restricts automotive traffic will likely
have a serious and immediate impact on the overall economy of each city.
G-2
-------
Other strategies are more likely to fall at first on individual firms, so that
the immediate impact on the city will be less severe, and the generalized
impact will take time to develop. Strategies that may potentially affect the
mill rate and taxes will eventually affect all residents and firms, but if
the increase is small, its effect may be small also.
0-3
-------
STATISTICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF
BRIDGEPORT AND NEW HAVEN
Population
Bridgeport New Haven
Total Population (Estimated) July 1, 1972 $ 155,500 $ 136,200
Number of School Age Children (ages 5-17)
April, 1972 31,762 25,764
Number of Households, 1970 . 52,924 46,741
Number of Families, .1969 39,879 33,275
Median Family Income, 1969 9,849 9,031
Mean Family Income, 1969 10,673 10,444
Work Force (residents and non-residents
who work in the city) June, 1972
Total covered by unemployment
compensation 68,061 76,450
In Manufacturing 31,039 18,069
In Non-Manufacturing . 37,022 58,381
Total Employment 79,370 92,760
Percent of xrork force from other towns,
October, 1964 40% 50%
Percent of resident workers working in other
towns, October, 1964 30% 28%
Taxes and Municipal Government
Net Grand List, 1972 $605,018,869 $635,666,012
Tax Rate (in mills), 1971 76.4 84.3
Assessment %, 1972 70% 60%
Date of last revaluation (Fiscal year
ending June 30) 1963 1964
Municipal expenditures, 1972 $ 63,696,561.71 $ 65,592,533.66
Municipal employment, 1969 4,371 4,061
Motor Vehicles
Total (includes aircraft and
snowmobiles), 1972 71,313 56,070
G-4
-------
Structures
Dwellings
Residential Units
Commercial Buildings
Manufacturing Buildings
Bridgeport
1972
1971
1972
1972
23,808
55,730
2,719
419
New Haven
18,410
50,169
3,619
180
Manufacturing
Number of Firms 1972
Payrolls 1971
Work force (covered by unemployment
compensation) . June 1972
Value added by manufacture
1967
1971
454
$275,051,000
31,039
$546,000,000
475,300,000
263
$162,349,000
18,069
$254,600,000
Not available
Retailing
Total Sales 1970
Sales per capita 1970
Number of establishments (having
a payroll) 1967
Retail Employment June 1971
$287,700,000
$1,838
1,099
10,820
$313,600,000
$2,277
1,090
10,290
Total Sales
Number of Establishments
Total
Merchant
Other
Employment
Wholesaling
1967
March 12, 1967
$410,514,000
358
298
60
4,911
$490,799,000
422
339
83
4,898
Service Activities
Receipts 1967
Number of Establishments 1967
Paid employees March 12, 1967
$41,276,000
889
3,658
$73,203,000
1,081
6,973
(Service activities include: hotels, motels, tourist courts, camps, personal
services, miscellaneous business services, auto repair, auto services, garages,
miscellaneous repair services, motion pictures, other amusement and recreation
services.)
G-5
-------
Higher Education
Bridgeport New Haven
Enrollment 1968 11,450 19,400
Construction ' . .
Permits
Total 1971 507 940
Residential
New 67 43
Addition/Alteration 220 565
Non-Residential
New . . .100 56
Addition/Alteration 120 275
Cost specified on permits
Total 1971 $24,252,494 $22,130,602
Residential
New 6,396,246 10,188,100
Addition/Alteration 1,098,002 1,835,515
Non-Residential
New 9,484,565 3,968,922
Addition/Alteration 7,273,681 5,247,065
Demolition
Housing Units 1971 150 284
G-6
-------
SOURCES OF INFORMATION
Population
Total population - Conn. Health Dept.
School age children - Conn. Education Dept.
Households, families, and income - U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Bureau of the Census
Work Force - Conn. Labor Dept.
Taxes and Motor Vehicles
All information - Conn. Tax Dept.
Municipal Government - .
Employment - The Municipal Yearbook, 1971, International City Management
Association, Washington, D.C.
Structures
Dwelling houses, commercial buildings, manufacturing buildings - Conn.
Tax Dept.
Residential units - Conn. Community Affairs Dept.
Manufacturing
No. of firms, payroll and work force - Conn. Labor Dept.
Value added - U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Bureau of the Census
Retailing
Total and per capita sales - Conn. Development Commission
Retail employment - Conn. Labor Department
No. of establishments - U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Bureau of the Census
Wholesaling
Total sales, No. of establishments, employment - U.S. Dept. of Commerce,
Bureau of the Census
<
Services
All information - U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Bureau of the Census
Higher Education
All information - 1973 Commercial Atlas and Marketing Guide, Rand-McNally & Co.,
New York, NY
Construction
All information - Conn. Dept. of Community Affairs
0-7
-------
APPENDIX H
TRANSPORTATION STRATEGIES SIMULATION MODEL
-------
APPENDIX H
TRANSPORTATION STRATEGIES SIMULATION MODEL
The transportation strategies simulation model is a computerized simulation
designed to predict results of the application of various vehicle control
strategies in a real-world situation. It accepts input data constants, such as
highway network capacity, parking capacity, transit systems capacity, transit
systems desirability, and various rates of changes for both these factors and
other related areas. It is capable of applying growth rates (both positive
and negative) to the various factors and also will accept discrete events,
such as sudden improvements in transit facilities, or changes in preference
for one mode of transit over another by people.
The same model and the same input factors were utilized for both Bridgeport
and New Haven as they are both similar in size and number of jobs. The results
of. the evaluation of the strategy did not include a need to gather elements and
data representative of the two cities. As a consequence, generalized data were
used, modified by estimates that are expected to apply to Bridgeport and New
Haven. This is a valid procedure as.long as the results are not extracted for
other purposes. A model of this type can predict relative changes in travel
ratios; however, extrapolation of specific numbers such as vehicles per rush
hour is not appropriate.
The model proceeds on a cyclical basis calculating the various result
factors year by year as far into the future as is desired. It makes use of
feedback loops in this fashion: when initial numbers are entered, a degree
of roadway congestion (for example) is computed, and based on this calculation,
the volume of vehicle traffic is adjusted and appropriate changes are made to
H-l
-------
the number of people seeking transportation via public means. Similar cal-
culations are performed for parking facilities and mass transit systems. The
model makes use of "preference ratios" to establish percentages of individuals
seeking transportation by either mass transportation or private means. These
preference ratios are modified as transportation strategies are applied, and
to reflect congestion which is created by the cyclical nature of the model.
The first run made was to establish a baseline pattern to be compared
with the application of various vehicle control strategies. This run was
adjusted a number of times to assure reasonable calibration with semi-congested
conditions which now exist on local streets, and adjustments were made in the
various input factors to reflect information received from transit studies
and from the composition of the job market in the cities involved. Results of
the calibrated baseline run are shown in Figure H-l. From left to right,
results are as follows:
No. City Jobs. This is a calculated number of city jobs based on 1969
data with a growth factor of 3.5% for each year. It is not entirely a'ccurate
for the urban area considered, but it is approximately correct.
Road Capacity. Fifty thousand was chosen as a local network road capa-
city to check out With the preference ratio established for the- city jobs for
private vehicle usage. It does not reflect highway counts.
Calculated Vehicles is the resultant number of vehicles estimated to be
on the highway after the various computations performed by the model are com-
plete. These involve comparisons with transit, parking, and the various
preference ratios.
Congestion factor, this is an estimate of the degree of highway congestion
that exists for this year.
H-2
-------
FIGURE H-l
Transportation Strategies Simulation Model
Baseline Run
NO..CITY JT--5. 'J-j*; CAPACITY CALC.VEHICLES OMOEST FTR PK.iJ SPACES TRANSIT CAPCTY TrtA.NSIT kl-.'E-iS YEA^
=.;?:- >:..:,* *55*3 91 5^000 i-Joo i^u 1971
;1. TlTv j; = S "OA3 OPACITY CALC.V'-MICLES COIiuEST FTR PK.'iO SPACES TKA.NSIT CAI'CTY TKAiNSIT KIOc.*S YEAR
E5C/3 5.-^; 2 1573
'.r;. CITv J-.P;; 3->AO CAPACITY CALC, VEHI CLES CO':JEST FTM PKNO SPACEJ TSANilT CAPCTY TKA.SSIT iUtc'; »t«« » . «
T^ltl ' 5J.JJ 51*25 1'03 5CJOO luJCJ HSOi ... 1576
53-OJ 52579 U5 5000J Ijv'jC U7iC 1-J77
c. CITV j-os ?r.-/; r.-.ptciTY CALC.VLMICLES CCMLST FTR PK.-.O SPACES TRANSIT CAPCTY TRANSIT :;:JL:-:S YEA'?
53t7', 1CIU SUOU'J lJ-.'l.'J 1~15V 1975
.:. CITV j-sj -JAD CAPACITY CALC.VEHICLES CO';ULST FTR P CAPACITY CALC.VEHICLES C3NJE3T FTK PK.NO SPACES TRANSIT CAPCTY THA\SIT ;;:^cr.
i 5:;:-:o 5C.2J3 113
H-3
-------
Parking Spaces. This factor represents at the start an estimate of the
parking spaces in use. It was derived from the road capacity and observed
availability of parking in the two cities.
Transit Capacity is an estimate from Bridgeport figures based on a . .
single rush-hour one direction ridership of about 5,000. These numbers, were
prior to the bus strike and represent the estimated capacity that considerably
exceeds existing ridership.
Transit Riders. This factor is computed from the various preference ratios
and was calibrated to be close to the estimate. New Haven figures are believed
to be similar to the Bridgeport numbers.
The model was begun with the year 1970 and first results are printed for
the year 1971. The model was started prior to 1973 and the transportation
strategies plugged in immediately to allow the cyclical nature of the model
to "settle down" permitting the various interreactions to fully take effect.
In actuality, most strategies would not be plugged in until 1974. Since the
cycle time of the model is one year, a .1974 to 1975 run by itself might not
produce..practicable.results.
The next model run indicates the model results for the addition of the
no on-street parking ban as discussed in the body of the report. For this
strategy, 10,000 parking spaces were removed.from the calculations and the
various interreactions allowed to take place. Results of the model run are
shown on Figure H-2. In order to gain an estimate of the effect of the prefer-
ence ratio used by the model on the results, two additional runs were performed
with both a higher and lower preference ratio operating in reaction to the
degree of parking congestion created. Results of these model runs are shown
H-4
-------
FIGURE H-2
Transportation Strategies Simulation Model
t
No On-Street Parking Strategy
NO.
NO.
NO.
NO.
NO.
NO.
NO.
NO.
CITY JOSS
67800
CITY JOBS
85698
CITY JCOS
88697
w<.y
YEAR
....
1974
YEAR
1976
YEAR
1977
YEAR
1978
YEAR
1579
YEAR
IViO
H-5
-------
in Figures H-3 and H-4. Note that results are very similar despite-the varia-
tion in preference ratios indicating that the computations performed by the
program are not highly dependent on the assumed preference ratio by people.
This increases confidence in the model results, as human reaction to the
application of various control strategies is the most difficult factor to assess
in simulation of this type.
The next model run incorporated the improvement of the mass transit system
into the simulation. Transit capacity was increased for this run to 20,000,
and preference ratios adjusted to reflect increased desirability of the transit
system. The reduced parking level reflecting the on-street parking ban was
left in to ensure the maximum benefit from the strategies. Results of this
simulation run are shown in Figure H-5.
The next simulation reflected the addition of special bus lanes and
expanded bus stop facilities to the existing strategies of no on-street parking
and improved mass transit. The rationale for including all three strategies
was the same as explained in the preceding paragraph. This cumulative procedure
incorporating previous strategies was followed as additional strategies were
added. Results of the simulation are shown in Figure H-6. For purposes of
this study, the key figure to evaluate is the calculated vehicles figure for
1975. In each case, this should be compared with the comparable figure on the
baseline run, which reflects no vehicle control strategies.
Figure H-7 indicates the results of the simulation for the addition of
outlying parking lots to the existing strategies of bus-only lanes, improved
mass transit, and no. on-street parking.
H-6
-------
FIGURE H-3
Transportation Strategies Simulation Model
No On-Street Parking Strategy
Variation A
NO.
NO.
NO.
NO.
.NO.
NO.
NO.
NO.
CITY JOfVS
82ROO
CITY JOBS
85698
CITY JOSS
88697
CITY JOBS
9)601
CITY JOBS
95014
CITY JOBS
98339
CITY JOBS
101780
CITY JOBS
105142
ROAD CAPACITY
50000
ROAD CAPACITY
5CCCO
ROA3 CAPACITY
50000
ROAD CAPACITY
5COCO
ROAD CAPACITY
50000
ROAD CAPACITY
50000
ROAD CAPACITY
50000
ROAD CAPACITY
100CO
CALC. VEHICLES
41927
CALC. VEHICLES
42920
CALC. VEHICLES
43947
CALC. VEHICLES
45011
CALC. VEHICLES
46111
CALC. VEHICLES
47249
CALC. VEHICLES
48429
CALC. VEHICLES
49648
CONGEST FTR
84
CONGEST FTR
86
CONGEST FTR
88
CONGEST FTR
90
CONGEST FTR
92
CONGEST FTR
94
CONGEST FTR
97
CONGEST FTR
99
PKNG SPACES
40000
' PKNG SPACES
40000
PKNG SPACES
40000
PKNG SPACES
40000
PKNG SPACES
40000
PKNG SPACES
40000
PKNG SPACES
40000
PKNG SPACES
40000
TRANSIT CAPCTY
10000
TRANSIT CAPCTY
10000
TRANSIT CAPCTY
10000
TRANSIT CAPCTY
100CO
TRANSIT CAPCTY
1COCO
TRANSIT CAPCTY
1COCO
TRANSIT CAPCTY
1COCC
TRANSIT CAPCTY
1COOC
TRANSIT RIDERS
11637
TRANSIT RIDERS
12761
TRANSIT RIDERS
13925
TRANSIT R1DLRS
15130
TRANSIT RIDERS
16377
TRANSIT RIDERS
17tt7
TRANSIT RIDERS
19iC3
TRA.NS1T RISERS
2L'3i5
YEAR
1973
YEAR
1974
YEAR
1975
YEAR
1976
YEAR
1977
.YEAR
1978
YEAR
1979
YEAR
1*32
H-7
-------
FIGURE H-4
Transportation Strategies Simulation Model
No On-Street Parking Strategy
NO.
NO.
NO.
.NO.
NO.
NO.
NO.
NO.
CITY JOBS
S2800
CITY JOBS
85698
CITY JORS
68697
CITY JOBS
91601
CITY JOBS
95014
CITY JOBS
9B339
CITY JOBS
101780
CITY JOBS
10531.2
ROAD CAPACITY
50000
ROAD CAPACITY
50000
ROAD CAPACITY
50000
ROAD CAPACITY
50COO
ROAD CAPACITY
50000
ROAD CAPACITY
50000
ROAD CAPACITY
500CO
ROAD CAPACITY
50300
CALC. VEHICLES
42478
CALC. VEHICLES
43629
CALC. VEHICLES
'4821
CALC. VEHICLES
46C54
CALC. VEHICLES
47331
CALC. VEHICLES
48651
CALC. VEHICLES
50019
CALC. VEHICLES
51433
Variation
CONGEST FTR
65
CONGEST FTR
87
CONGEST FTR
90
CONGEST FTR
92
CONGEST FTR
95
CONGEST FTR
97
CONGEST FTR
ICO
CONGEST FTR
103
B
PKNG SPACES
40000
PKNG SPACES
40000
PKNG SPACES
40000
PKNG SPACES
4COOO
PKNO SPACES
40000
PKNG SPACES
40000
PKNG SPACES
400CO
PKNG SPACES
40000
TRANSIT CAPCTY
10000
TRANSIT CAPCTY
10000
TKANS1T CAPCTY
10000
TRANSIT CAPCTY
IOC CO
TRANSIT CAPCTY
10000
TRANSIT CAPCTY
100CO
TRANSIT CAPCTY
1CCCO
TRANSIT CAPCTY
10000
TRANSIT RIDERS
1U806
TRANSIT RIDERS
11691
TRANSIT RIDERS
12607
TRANSIT RIDERS
13557
TRANSIT RIDERS
14536
TRANSIT RICERS
15554
TRANSIT RIDERS
lttC6
TRANSIT RIDESS
17C.S4
YEAR.
1973
YEAR
YEAR
....
1975
YEAR
1976
t
1977
*
1978
H-8
-------
FIGURE H-5
Transportation Strategies Simulation Model
Improved Mass Transit, Plus No
NO.
NO.
NO.
NO.
NO.
NO.
NO.
NO.
CITY JOBS
828CC
CITY JCRS
65693
CITY JOBS
88697
CITY JOBS
91601
CITY JOSS
9£014
CITY JOBS
98339
CITY JOES
101730
CITY JOSS
K5342
ROAD CAPACITY
500CO
ROAD CAPACITY
500CO
ROAD CAPACITY
50000
ROAO CAPACITY
500CC
ROAD CAPACITY
50000
ROAD CAPACITY
50000
ROAD CAPACITY
50000
ROAD CAPACITY
500CO
CALC. VEHICLES
40350
CALC. VEHICLES
40713
CALC. VEHICLES
41088
CALC. VEHICLES
41612
CALC. VEHICLES
42780
CALC. VEHICLES
439K9
CALC. VEHICLES
45240
CALC, VEHICLES
4653.6
CONGEST FTR
81
CONGEST FTR
81
CONGEST FTR
82
CONGEST FTR
83
CONGEST FTR
86
CONGEST FTR
88
CONGEST FTR
90
CONGEST FTR
93
On-Street
PKNG SPACES
40000
PKNG SPACES
40000
PKNG SPACES
40000
RUNG SPACES
40000
PKNG SPACES
400CO
PKNG SPACES
40000
PKNG SPACES
40000
PKNG SPACES
40COC
Parking
TRANSIT CAPCTY
20000
TRANSIT CAPCTY
20000
TRANSIT CAPCTY
20000
TRANSIT CAPCTY
20UCO
TRANSIT CAPCTY
200C.O
TRANSIT CAPCTY
20000
TRANSIT CAPCTY
20000
TRANSIT CAPCTY
20CCO
TRANSIT RIDERS
139Y5
TRANSIT RIDERS
It058
TRANSIT RIDERS
18195
TRANSIT RIDERS
20204
TRANSIT R1DEKS.
21349
TRANSIT RIDERS
22533
TRANSIT RIDERS
23759
TRANSIT RIDERS
25026
YEAR
1977
YEAR
1976
YEAR
1979
YEAR
1980
H-9
-------
FIGURE H-6
Transportation Strategies Simulation Model
NO.
NO.
NO.
NO,
NO.
NO.
NO.
NO.
CITY JOBS
62833
CITY JOBS
65698
CITY JOBS
3S697
CITY JOBS
91801
CITY JOBS
95014
CITY JOOS
98339
CITY JOBS
101730
CITY JOBS
135342
Addition
ROAD CAPACITY
500D3
ROAD CAPACITY
50033
ROAO CAPACITY
50033
ROAO CAPACITY
50033
ROAO CAPACITY
53000
ROAO CAPACITY
50000
ROAD CAPACITY
50030
ROAO CAPACITY
50330
of Bus Lane
CALC. VEHICLES
36916
CALC. VEHICLES
40070
CALC. VEHICLES
43422
CALC. VEHICLES
41422
CALC. VEHICLES
42585
CALC. VEHICLES
43786
CALC. VEHICLES
45017
CALC. VEHICLES
46275
Strategy to Prior Strategies
CONGEST FTR
78
CONGEST FTR
60
CONGEST FTR
Bl
CONGEST FTR
83
CONGEST FTR
65
CONGEST FTR
88
CONGEST FTR
90
CONGEST FTR
93
PKNG SPACES
40003
PKNG SPACES
400UO
PKNG SPACES
40000
PKNG SPACES
40000
PKNG SPACES
40300
PKNG SPACES
40000
PKNG SPACES
40000
PKNG SPACES
40000
TRANSIT CAPCTY TRANSIT
2U300
TRANSIT CAPCTY TKANS1T
20000
TRANSIT CAPCTY TRANSIT
20300
TRANSIT CAPCTY TRANSIT
20000
TRANSIT CAPCTY TRANSIT
20000
TRANSIT CAPCTY TRANSIT
20000
TRANSIT CAPCTY TRANSIT
20030
TRANSIT CAPCTY TRANSIT
20000
R10ERS
10560
RIOERS
17451
RIOERS
19638
RIOERS
20949
RIDERS
22120
RIOERS
23332
RIDERS
24608
RIDERS
25953
H-m
-------
FIGURE H-7
Transportation Strategies Simulation
Model
Addition of Outlying Parking Facilities to Prior Strategies
NO..
NO.
NO.
NO.
NO.
NO.
NO.
HO.
CITY JOBS
62800
CITY JOBS
85698
CITY JOBS
88697
CITY JOOS
91S01
CITY J03S
95014
CITY JOBS
; 98339
CITY J03S
101783
CITY JCBS
105342
ROAD CAPACITY
50000
ROAD CAPACITY
50000
ROAO CAPACITY
5CCCC
ROAD CAPACITY
500CO
ROAD CAPACITY
50COO
ROAD CAPACITY
50000-
ROAD CAPACITY
50COO
ROAD CAPACITY
500CO
CALC. VEHICLES
37246
CALC. VEHICLES
38667
CALC. VEHICLES
40139
CALC. VEHICLES
41661
CALC. VEHICLES
43237
CALC. VEHICLES
44835
CALC. VEHICLES
46083
CALC. VEHICLES
47383
CONGEST FTR
74
CONGEST FTR
77
CONGEST FTR
60
CONGEST FTR
83
CONGEST .FTR
86
CONGEST FTR
90
CONGEST FTR
92
CONGEST FTR
95
PKNG SPACES
40000
PKNG SPACES
40000
PKNG SPACES
40000
PKNG SPACES
40000
PKNG SPACES
40000
PKNG SPACES
40000
PKNG SPACES
400CO
PKNG SPACES
40000
TRANSIT CAPCTY TRANSIT
200UO
TRANSIT CAPCTY TRANSIT
20000
TRANSIT CAPCTY TRANSIT
2CCCC
TRANSIT CAPCTY TRANSIT
20000
TRANSIT CAPCTY TRANSIT
. 20000
TRANSIT CAPCTY TRANSIT
20000
TRANSIT CAPCTY TRANSIT
2CCOO
TRANSIT CAPCTY TRANSIT
20000
RIDERS
23636
RIDERS
24289
RIDERS
24964
RIDERS
25664
RIDERS
26388
RIDERS
27186
RIDERS
28619
RIDERS
30102
YEAR
1973
YEAR
1974
YEAR
1975
YEAR
1976
YEAR
1977
YEAR
1978
YEAR
1979
YEAR
1980
H-ll
-------
Figure H-8 includes the imposition of a parking sticker situation designed
to reduce vehicle traffic by means of limiting parking and travel by issuing
stickers only to those who operate car pools. For example, one parking sticker
badge per three previous drivers would be issued. The model was adjusted to
accommodate this strategy by increasing the number of riders estimated to
travel per private vehicle. This has a subsequent effect on the split and
ridership between mass transit and private vehicles. All previous strategies
were assumed to also be operative as such a program would require provision
of additional transit and improvements thereof to reflect increased ridership.
The provision of bus lanes and prohibition of on-street parking is likewise
regarded as corollary strategy to the parking sticker strategy.
H-12
-------
FIGURE H-8
Transportation Strategies Simulation Model
e
Addition of Parking Sticker Strategy to Prior Strategies
NO.
NO.
NO.
NO.
NO.
NO.
NO.
NO.
CITY JS<\$
a:aoo
CITY J01S
85658
CITY jons
88697
CITY JOBS
91801
CITY JOBS
95014
CITY JOSS
98339
CITY JOBS
101780
CITY JOSS
105342
ROAD CAPACITY
50UOO
ROAD CAPACITY
5CCCC
ROAD CAPACITY
5JOOO
ROAD CAPACITY
50CCO
ROAD CAPACITY
50000
ROAD CAPACITY
50000
ROAD CAPACITY
50000
ROAD CAPACITY
50COO
CALC. VEHICLES
23170
CALC. VEHICLES
240<58
CALC. VEHICLES
25060
CALC. VEHICLES
26055
CALC. VEHICLES
27035
CALC. VEHICLES
29151
CALC. VEHICLES
29254
CALC. VEHICLES
3C395
CONGEST FTR
46
CONGEST FTR
48
CONGEST FTR
50
CONGEST FTR
52
CONGEST FTR
54
CONGEST FTR
56
CONGEST FTR
59
. CONGEST FTR
61
PKNli SPACES
40000
PKNG SPACES
4CCCC
PKNC SHACUS
40000
PKNO SPACES
400CC
PKNG SPACES
4000J
PKNS SPACES
4COOO
PK.N5 SPACES
40000
PKNli SPACES
40000
TRANSIT CAPCTY TRANSIT KIOEKS
2^000 ij'^36
TRANSIT CAPCTY .TRANSIT HIDEHS
2COCC 242c9
TRANSIT CAPCTY TKA.'iOIT (UJL'hS
20CJO 2'.-;0'.
TRANSIT CAPCTY TRANSIT ^IDLKS
2--wO 2iii4
TRANSIT CAPCTY T.XA.'.SIT RliLSi
20JvO 20368
TRANSIT CAPCTY TKA.-iMT :
------- |