EPA-R2-73-174
February 1973
Environmental Protection Technology
Identification and Classification
of Combustion Source
Equipment
I
55
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$32
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Office of Research and Monitoring
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D.C. 20460
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EPA-R2-73-174
Identification and Classification
of Combustion
Source Equipment
by
C. 0. Bieser
Processes Research, Inc.
2912 Vernon Place
Cincinnati, Ohio 45219
Contract No. 68-02-0242
Task Order No. 6
Program Element No. 1A2014
Task Officer: Robert E. Hall
Control Systems Laboratory
National Environmental Research Center
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711
Prepared for
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND* MONITORING
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
WASHINGTON, B.C. 20460
February 1973
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This report has been reviewed by the Environmental Protection Agency
and approved for publication. Approval does not signify that the
contents necessarily reflect the views and policies of the Agency,
nor does mention of trade names or commercial products constitute
endorsement or recommendation for use.
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PROCESSES RESEARCH, INC.
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IDENTIFICATION AND CLASSIFICATION
OF
COMBUSTION SOURCE EQUIPMENT
INDEX
Section
I
II
III
IV
Appendix
A
B
C
Title Page
Introduction and Scope 1
Summary of Results 2
List of Stationary Combustion Equipment 6
Gas Turbines
A. Types, Sizes, Manufacturers and Trade Associations 11
B. Uses by Function and Industry 13
C. Industry Information on Markets and Growth 14
D. Fuels and Combustion 15
E. Air Pollution Factors and Corrective Possibilities 19
Kilns
A. Types, Sizes, and Manufacturers 28
B. Uses by Function and Industry 33
C. Industry Information on Markets and Fuel Use 34
D. Air Pollutant Factors 36
Data on Gas Turbines
Data on Kilns
Bibliography
J.I
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SECTION I - INTRODUCTION AND SCOPE
This report summarizes results of work performed under Environmental Pro-
tection Agency (EPA) Task Order No. 6, Contract 68-02-0242, with Processes
Research, Inc. (PR). The general purposes of the work were to identify and
classify types of stationary fuel-burning equipment which can produce air pollutant
emissions and to obtain more detailed information on two types of such equipment;
namely, gas turbines and kilns.
The scope was specifically defined as follows;
Phase I: Develop a comprehensive list of stationary combustion equipment.
Phase II: Analyze gas turbines and kilns in detail and classify the various
types and subtypes according to such factors as fuels burned, unit size, processes
and industries in which used, products for which applied, manufacturers of the
equipment, and other appropriate elements. Include in the analysis a discussion
of the relative importance of the processes as sources of NOX emissions and
other pollutants produced.
The project approach for Phase II included an extensive search of technical
and commercial literature, contacts with manufacturers and trade associations,
and subsequent analysis and classification of the data and information obtained.
The approach for Phase I was similar except that it did not include contacts
with manufacturers and trade associations.
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SECTION II - SUMMARY OF RESULTS
A. LIST OF STATIONARY COMBUSTION EQUIPMENT - PHASE I
Tabulated in Section III is a comprehensive list of stationary combustion
equipment developed by this study. This list contains approximately 130 different
items of equipment classified by technical and functional features.
This list can be used by EPA as a guide in selecting the types of equip-
ment requiring more detailed investigation. The detailed investigations of gas
turbines and kilns, developed under Phase II of this study and summarized in
Sections IV and V, represent the level of investigation which may be desirable
for many of the other items shown on this list.
B. GAS TURBINES - PHASE II
The field of gas turbines was subjected to detailed investigation and
analysis as specified by the scope of the task order. Extensive and useful in-
formation was found in this investigation which has facilitated identification
and classification according to type, size, functional use, industry in which
used, fuels, and manufacturers. This information is discussed and summarized in
Section IV and Appendix A.
Installed capacity of gas turbines has shown a rapid growth over the
past ten years. Projected future growth indicates a doubling of present installed
capacity within the next five to nine years. An order.-of-magnitude estimate of
present fuel usage indicates that gas turbines may now account for about one to
one and one-half percent of the total national consumption of natural gas and oil.
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Because of their basic design and construction, gas turbines must burn clean fuel
or fuel relatively free of sulfur, ash, vanadium and other such impurities.
A large research effort has already been expended on the air pollution
aspects related to the use of gas turbines in transportation. This effort in-
dicates that the major pollutant is NOX with smoke as a secondary, but presently
more controllable, contaminant. It also indicates that other pollutants show
very low emission factors in comparison with those from internal combustion
engines. The approach to control of the NOX emission is presently centered on
design and control of the combustor elements of the turbine system. This is
discussed in further detail in Section IV E.
Future work in this field should involve (1) the obtaining of emission
measurements on various sizes and types of stationary installations, and (2)
continuing research on improving combustor design and controls to adequately
control NOX and other emissions both at present operating temperatures and at
the higher future contemplated operating temperatures.
C. KILNS
The field of kilns was subjected to the same investigation and analysis
as gas turbines. Information for this category was found to be widely scattered
and somewhat limited. This information, although less comprehensive than that
for gas turbines, was classified according to the same general factors and is
discussed and summarized in Section V and Appendix B.
Generally, kilns are used for vitrification of preformed shapes, and
for high temperature chemical processing of bulk materials. Kilns are used in
virtually all processing in the vitrification, cement and lime industries. The
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indicated growth rates of these industries are generally low, except that for the
lime industry which is moderate. An order-of-magnitude estimate of their total
present fuel consumption is between one-half and one percent of the national con-
suttption of natural gas arid oil, and between two and two and one-half percent of
the national consumption of bituminous coal. The cement and lime industries
account for more than three fourths of this oil and gas consumption and virtually
all of this coal consumption.
Rotary kilns are used in various steps of processes in many other areas
of the chemical industry. No estimates are presently available of the product
capacity of such kilns or of their fuel usage, although it is believed to be
substantial.
Apparently very little work has been done to determine emission factors
and measures for control of air pollutants from kilns. Some work has been
reported for clay, unglazed brick, and cement industries.
In examining pollutant emission from kilns, most of which are direct
fired, consideration must be given to pollutants from the raw materials in the
process, as well as those from the combustion necessary in firing the kiln. It
is believed that the flue gases will contain the same pollutants normally emitted
by combustion of fossil fuels within a furnace, varied somewhat by the design and
operating temperatures of the kiln, and will include, in some cases, particulate
and other pollutants from the raw materials and products related to the process.
Information on possible pollutants from these processes is contained in
Section V D 6 and Appendix B.
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The almost complete lack of data concerning emissions from kilns makes
it imperative that reliable field data be obtained before intelligent considera-
tion can be given to programs for corrective action.
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SECTION III - LIST OF STATIONARY COMBUSTION EQUIPMENT
Included in this section of the report is a comprehensive list of station-
ary combustion equipment developed as Phase I of this study.
This list is based on extensive literature source search comprising publi-
cations in the fields of chemical and metallurgical engineering, of commercial
listings and of various reports prepared by and/or for EPA. Classification of
items within the list was based on similarity of technical and functional fea-
tures of the equipment.
It is believed that this list represents virtually all of the major items
of combustion equipment in use at the present time.
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NEW YORK CINCINNATI CHICAGO
W.O. 03395
Issue No. 2 - April 12, 1972
LIST OF STATIONARY COMBUSTION EQUIPMENT
Task No. 6 — Contract No. 68-02-0242
The following equipment items are listed alphabetically for each major type with
subtypes listed secondary to the major type. Supplementary explanatory notes
are included where appropriate.
Equipment Type
Afterburners
Afterburners
Air Conditioners
Baths
Baths
Boilers
Boilers
Steam
Steam
Boilers
Boilers
Boilers
Boilers
Steam
Steam
Calciners
Catalyst Regenerators
Dryers
Dryers
Dryers
Dryers
Dryers
Dryers
Dryers
Dryers
Dryers
Dryers
Dryers
Dryers
Dryers
Dryers
Dryers
Dryers
Dryers
Sub type
Catalyst
Direct Fired
Industrial - Gas
Heat Treating and Tempering (Oil, salt, lead,
etc.)
Metal Coating (Galvanizing and other)
Fire Tube
Water Tube:
Less than 100,000 pounds steam per hour
100,000-250,000 pounds steam per hour
250,000-500,000 pounds steam per hour
Over 500,000 pounds steam per hour
Cast Iron
Tubeless - Steel Shell
Carbon Monoxide (Petroleum refining)
Thermal Liquid Heat Transfer Systems
(Petroleum refining)
Continuous Web - Impingement Type
Continuous Web - Through Type
Drum
Flash Solids
Fluidized Bed
Laundry - Commercial
Laundry - Domestic
Multi-louvre (Cascade)
Paint and Varnish (After application)
Pneumatic Conveyor
Rotary
Rotary - Roto - Louvre
Spray
Tray Rack as Compartment - Batch
Tunnel - Moving Truck or Tray Rack
Turbo - Tray (Multi-rotary Tray)
Vibrating Conveyor
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issue No. 2 - April 12, 1972
Equipment Type
Flame-cutting machines
Flame-welding and brazing
machines
Flare Stacks
Furnaces-Static Bed-Nonmelting
Furnaces-Static Bed-Nonmelting
Furnaces-Static Bed-Nonmelting
Furnaces-Static Bed-Nonmelting
Furnaces-Static Bed-Nonmelting
Furnaces-Static Bed-Melting -
Furnaces-Static Bed-Melting -
Furnaces-Static Bed-Melting -
Furnaces-Static Bed-Melting -
Furnaces-Static Bed-Melting -
Furnaces-Static Bed-Melting -
Furnaces-Static Bed-Continuous
Furnaces-Static Bed-Continuous
Furnaces-Static Bed-Continuous
Furnaces-Static Bed-Continuous
Furnaces-Static Bed-Continuous
Furnaces-Static Bed-Continuous
Furnaces-Static Bed-Continuous
Furnaces-Moving Bed-Continuous
Furnaces-Moving Bed-Continuous
Furnaces-Moving Bed-Continuous
Furnaces-Moving Bed-Continuous
Furnaces-Moving Bed-Shaft
Furnaces-Moving Bed-Shaft
Furnaces-Moving Bed-Shaft
Furnaces-Moving Bed-Shaft
Furnaces-Fluid Bed -
Furnaces-Fluid Bed -
Furnaces-Fluid Bed -
Furnaces-Fluid Bed -
Furnaces-Pneumatic -
Furnaces-Pneumatic -
Furnaces -Pneumatic -
Furnaces -Carbon -
Furnaces -Carbon -
Furnaces -Carbon -
Furnaces-Hot Air -
Furnaces-Hot Air -
Furnaces -Hot Air -
Subtype
(Petroleum refining)
Car Bottom - Batch
Cover - Batch
Muffle - Batch
Open Chamber or Compartment - Batch
Pit (Soaking pit and smaller)
Converters (Bessemer type)
Crucible
Pot
Reverberatory - Open Hearth
Reverberatory - Smelting
Reverberatory - Glass
Car - Continuous
Conveyor
Conveyor Blast Sintering
Lehr (Glass annealing)
Pusher - Continuous (Billet)
Rotary Hearth
Tunnel
Mannheim Rotary Hearth
Multiple Hearth
Multiple Hearth - Suspension Roaster
Rotary - Direct Fired
Blast
Cupola
Pebble
Spouted Bed
Non-catalytic Reactor
Catalytic Reactor
Multiple Stage Reactor
Fluid Column Roasting
Screw Conveyor
Vibrating Conveyor - Flow Through Direct
Flash Solids Roasting
Channel Black
Thermal Black
Graphite - Ring
Commercial
Domestic
Industrial
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Issue No. 2 - April 12, 1972
Eqipment Type
Subtype
Generators
Generators
Generators
Heaters
Heaters
Heaters
Heaters
Heaters
Heaters
Heaters
Heaters
Heaters
Incinerators
Incinerators
Incinerators
Incinerators
Incinerators
Incinerators
Incinerators
Incinerators
Incinerators
Kettles
Kilns
Kilns
Kilns
Kilns
Kilns
Kilns
Kilns
Kilns
Kilns
Kilns
Ovens
Ovens
Ovens
Ovens
Ovens
Ovens
Ovens
Ovens
Ovens
Refuse
Refuse
Refuse
Refuse
Refuse
Refuse
Gas - Fuel Producer
Gas - Chemical Processing (SO2 Paper)
Gas - Inert (Petroleum refining)
Hot Water - Commercial
Hot Water - Industrial
Hot Water - Swimming Pool
Process - Hot Water and Steam
Process - Liquid Chemical
Process - Pebble
Railroad Car
Space or Unit
Mold and Die
Conical - (Includes wood disposal)
Domestic - Simple Type
Flue Fed - (Apartment house type with chute)
Industrial-Commercial - Single or Multi-Chamber
(With manual or automatic charge)
Municipal - Multiple Chamber - Automatic Charge
Municipal - Rotary - Automatic Charge
Auto Body - Batch
Auto Body - Continuous
Pathological and Cremation
Direct Fired
Circular - (Continuous)
Box - Muffle
Rotary
Round - Downdraft
Round - Updraft
Shuttle - Car
Shuttle - Conveyor
Tunnel - Car
Tunnel - Conveyor
Vertical Shaft
Coke - Beehive
Coke - By-product
Cooking (Oven and/or Stove)
Cooking (Oven and/or Stove)
Rack
Shelf
Tunnel - Car
Tunnel - Conveyor
Circular - (Continuous)
Commercial
Domestic
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Issue No. 2 - April 12, 1972
Equipment Type
Reciprocating Engines
Reciprocating Engines
Reciprocating Engines
Reciprocating Engines
Reciprocating Engines
Reciprocating Engines
Refinery Clay Filters
Refinery Delayed or Fluid
Coking Unit
Retorts
Retorts
Retorts
Stills
Stills
Turbines
Turbines
Turbines
Subtype
Diesel - Precompression Chamber - Not Super-
charged
Diesel - Precompression Chamber - Supercharged
Diesel - Direct Ignition - Not Supercharged
Diesel - Direct Ignition - Supercharged
Gas or Gasoline - Spark Ignition -Not Super-
charged
Gas or Gasoline - Spark Ignition - Supercharged
(For color control)
Metal Refining
Coke
Charcoal
Tube or Pipe - (Primarily petroleum furnaces
used in catalytic cracking)
Kettle
Gas - Open Cycle - Simple
Gas - Open Cycle - Regenerative
Gas - Combined Cycle - (Simple or Regenerative
Cycle combined with exhaust heat recovery)
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SECTION IV - GAS TURBINES
The term gas turbine can be defined as a rotary engine actuated by the
reaction or impulse of a pressurized and expanding current of gas, generated
from combustion of fuel, and acting on a series of curved blades mounted on a
rotating spindle.
Most of the analysis and classification developed in this section is based
on an extensive literature search which yielded moderately complete and satis-
factory information. This information has, in turn, enabled a clear cut
treatment outlined in the following pages.
A. TYPES. SIZES, MANUFACTURERS AND TRADE ASSOCIATIONS
1. Types. The major subtypes of gas turbines are listed on page 1
of Appendix A. These may generally be described as follows:
a_. Open Cycle - Simple. No exhaust heat recovery equipment is
employed. This system includes a rotating compressor for pressurizing atmos-
pheric air, a combustor or furnace where the compressed air is mixed with fuel
and burned, and a turbine where the hot gases are expanded against the turbine
blades to generate rotational motion. The expanded hot gases are then exhausted
directly to the atmosphere.
b_. Open Cycle - Regenerative. This system employs a regenerator
or heat exchanger between the compressor and combustor through which the exhaust
gases are circulated to heat the incoming air to the combustor. This, of course,
uses some of the heat which would normally be exhausted, thereby reducing fuel
consumption. Thermal efficiency, consequently, is increased approximately five
to ten percent above that of the simple system.
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c_. Combined Cycle. In this system, the exhaust gases are routed
directly from the turbine to a boiler where steam is generated for further pro-
duction of power or for process uses. This results in increasing thermal
efficiency approximately ten to fifteen percent above that of the open cycle -
simple system.
There are further variations within each of the subtypes which
are not significant for this report.
The open cycle - simple type is by far the most widely used.
It requires the least investment and is the most flexible in application. The
other types are less generally used, especially where the usage requirements are
very intermittent, such as for standby power. The combined cycle appears to be
gaining acceptance among power utilities for base power and extended peaking
requirements, and predictions are that it will become much more widely used in
the future.
2. Size Ranges. The size ranges are shown on page 1 of Appendix A.
Capacities of the largest units manufactured have been increasing with some units
in the range of 134,000 to 268,000 horsepower output (100 to 200 MW). In the
largest size category, however, the average size of units sold in the 1968 to
1970 period was between 35,000 to 40,000 horsepower.
3. Manufacturers. Manufacturers of gas turbines are listed on page 2
of Appendix A. This tabulation is not necessarily all-inclusive but does
represent the currently active manufacturers of most of the stationary gas
turbines sold in the United States in the last few years. It should be noted
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that most of these manufacturers appear to have only certain size ranges in which
they are primarily active.
4. Trade Associations. Page 50, Appendix A, gives a listing anH descrip-
tion of trade associations and technical organizations related to, or involved in,
the gas turbine industry.
B. USES BY FUNCTION AND INDUSTRY
The various uses of gas turbines by function and industry classification
are shown on Pages 51 and 52, Appendix A. In general, their functional uses are
as motive power for electric power generation, direct compression of gases and
direct pumping of liquids. In many cases, the power generated has a captive and
specific use; e.g., operating pumps and supplying general power requirements on
an offshore oil well drilling platform.
The industries in which gas turbines are used, as shown on the list, are
those containing most of the installed capacity. Because of the relatively low
capital cost of gas turbines, general industrial and commercial use is continuing
to expand, primarily for captive power generation. The number of industries in
which they are used will therefore also continue to expand.
It is to be noted from the list that the major uses of gas turbines, and
industries in which they are used, are as follows:
Combination 1969
and 1971 Estimate
Use Industry of Capacity
Electric power Electric companies and systems 42.2 million hp
Gas compression Natural gas transmission 2.2 million hp
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Usage in the remainder of the listed industries is believed to be rela-
tively small although no statistics have been located giving installed capacity
in such other industries.
Geographic location of gas turbines used in the electric companies and
systems industry would follow the location of power plants in general; namely,
close to large metropolitan centers. Location of those used in the natural gas
transmission industry would, correspondingly, be along the transmission lines of
that industry and would be in primarily rural areas.
C. INDUSTRY INFORMATION ON MARKETS AND GROWTH
Although statistics on installed gas turbine capacity and expected
growth rates are incomplete, a reasonable indication of this can be found from
the summary on Page 53, Appendix A. The number (population) of units sold during
the years 1965 through 1969 is believed to represent about one half the total
installed capacity at the end of 1969. Growth rates based on existing installed
capacity were then projected from some available industry projections of unit
sales which resulted in compounded growth rates of twelve to fourteen percent for
all turbines above 10,000 horsepower. Another projection indicates that the
compounded growth rate will be about 8.2 percent per year from 1970 to 1978.
Using both estimates, it can be projected that the total estimated installed
capacity of over forty-five million horsepower in 1971 would double in five to
nine years.
Strong conflicting factors affect this growth picture insofar as the
electric power industry is concerned. Factors tending to increase growth are:
1. Growing popularity of combined cycle gas turbine plants.
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2. Pollution restrictions which affect conventional type power plants
(boilers) more severely than combined cycle plants, because of the higher rates
of pollutant emissions from boilers.
Factors tending to decrease growth are:
1. Increasing use of atomic energy.
2. Other factors, such as development of coal gasification, which could
overcome many of the pollution problems of conventional type power plants.
D. FUELS AND COMBUSTION
1. Fuels and Fuel Usage. The primary fuels used in gas turbines are
natural gas and light and heavy distillate oil. There is a small usage of
residual oil, but this use is severely restricted because of contaminants present
in such oil. When heavy oil and residual oil is used, it generally must be
treated to remove most of the sulfur and vanadium content, both of which have a
severe corrosive effect on turbine blades. There is also some usage of chemical
processing waste gases as fuel. There has been some experimentation in the use
of pulverized coal, with little apparent success because of blade erosion and
deposition problems resulting from ash and other contaminants.
The prospects for expanding usage of fuels, other than natural gas
and distillate oil, appear to be satisfactory only for residual oil treated to
remove sulfur and other impurities. There does not appear to be much prospect
for the other fuels mentioned above to become major usage factors.
A summary of the types of fuel used by various industries is shown
on Page 54, Appendix A. It should be noted that usage in certain industries
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±s generally limited to certain types of fuel; e.g., the natural gas transmission
industry will use primarily natural gas because of its low cost and availability.
In many applications, gas turbines are equipped to use either natural gas or oil
and this is so indicated in the summary.
The order-of-magnitude estimate of total national fuel consumption
for gas turbines is shown on Page 55, Appendix A. At the 1971 level of capacity,
it is estimated that 100 million pounds of fuel would be burned per day. Based
on fuel consumption data on gas turbines from the Federal Power Commission show-
ing the relationship between oil and gas usage, this would amount to a consumption
of:
Oil = 182,000 barrels per day
Natural gas = 880 MM cubic feet per day
It is estimated that in five to nine years this rate will triple.
The above 1971 figures represent about one percent of the national
consumption of oil and about one and one-quarter percent of the national consump-
tion of natural gas, as shown on Page 56, Appendix A.
2. Combustion. As mentioned previously, combustion in a gas turbine
system occurs in the combustor or furnace. Figure 1, Page 17, shows a general
arrangement of a combustor and zones of combustion. Combustion in the primary
zone occurs at a temperature of around 3500F. The gases are then quenched by
air or gas to a temperature which the turbine blades can tolerate. For most
currently used turbines, this is in the range of 1500F to 1800F. In order to
increase thermal efficiencies, continuing efforts are being made by turbine
manufacturers to increase this temperature. The near term objective is 2000F
to 2200F and that for the long term, 3000F.
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/fee/ tarns in
mir mith peak
temperature
——Primary tone--1
Secondary air mixes with
products from primary zone
Combustion products go
from 3500'F to 1600°F
in this zone
Mifing zone —
Fuel.
in
Cooling
air iii
Air from
compressor
o o
o o
>To
turbine
Primary
air in
Secondary
air in
Figure 1. Diagram - Gas Turbine Combustor
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There are basically two types of turbine combustors, annular and
canannular. The annular combustor consists of an outer liner and an inner liner
shrouding the engine centerline. The canannular type of combustor consists of
burner liners or "cans" being placed in an annulus which is arranged around the
engine centerline. The annular combustor has the advantage of having a greater
surface area to volume ratio than the canannular combustor resulting in higher
combustion efficiency. It has the disadvantage of being more difficult to main-
tain and repair. It has been concluded by experts in the field that combustor
design has no effect upon emissions levels. A great deal of the information on
combustor design and related emission levels is already existent in the
"Federal R&D Plan for Air Pollution Control by Combustor Process Modifications,"
Final Report CPA-22-69-147, January 11, 1971.
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E. AIR POLLUTION FACTORS AND CORRECTIVE POSSIBILITIES
1. General. A search of current literature indicates that a sub-
stantial amount of research has been focused on the air pollution aspects of gas
turbines. Much of this has been related to the use of gas turbines in ground
and aircraft transportation. It appears, however, that much of the data developed
are basic to the turbine itself and are applicable .to stationary equipment as well.
According to several sources, the major pollutant emitted from gas
turbines is NOX with a secondary pollutant being smoke (primarily unburned carbon),
Other pollutants are said to have lesser significance.
A compilation of data published in Engineering for Power. October
1969, by Sawyer, Tiexeira and Starkman titled "Air Pollution Characteristic of
Gas Turbine Engines" shows the following:
Table 1. Exhaust Emissions from Selected Engines (Reported
as an "Emission Index," mg species/g fuel)
HC
Engine CO (as Hexane) N0_
Spark ignition, 30 mph 241 6.1 16.3
Spark ignition, cold
start 513 35 14.5
Spark ignition 407 35 13
Regenerative gas tur-
bine, 30 mph 5.3 0.3 13.5
Gas turbine, cold start 50 1.1 9.8
Aircraft turbojet 3.3 0.4 5.5
Aircraft turbojet 19 2 5
When comparing engines running at 30 mph in the above chart, the
CO and HC pollutants of a gas turbine are two to five percent of what they
are in a spark ignition engine.
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A very rough order-of-magnitude estimate of total emissions can be
computed from the estimated emission factors in Table 1 and the 1971 fuel con-
sumption, Page 55, Appendix A, resulting in the following:
Pollutant Tons Per Day
CO 265
HC (as Hexane) 15
NO 675
2. Formation of Emissions. Based on information obtained from several
sources,the following generally describes the formation of emissions by gas tur-
bines :
Carbon monoxide is formed by incomplete combustion and/or dissocia-
tion of carbon dioxide. When a turbine is idling, high emission levels are
found. This is due to poor mixing, low temperatures and fuel quenching on the
walls. At higher temperatures, carbon monoxide is sometimes formed at levels
higher than the equilibrium indicates due to quenching from secondary combustion
air and/or turbine gas expansion. Equilibrium conditions for all turbine inlet
conditions are generally less than 10 parts per million.
Unburned hydrocarbon emissions result from incomplete combustion
and are caused by poor mixing, fuel quenching, and inadequate fuel distribution.
Combustor geometry and fuel nozzle design are the controlling factors in unburned
hydrocarbon emissions. Normally, significant quantities of hydrocarbons are
present only at the low power settings found at idling.
As mentioned above, carbon monoxide and unburned hydrocarbons are
found in large quantities only at the lower power settings which are associated
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with incomplete combustion. If the combustion efficiency can be predicted then
the combined carbon monoxide-hydrocarbon concentration can also be predicted„
An initial study has been made (Cornell Aero Lab Report No. NA-5007-K-1), and
correlations between carbon monoxide and hydrocarbon emissions, and burner
inefficiency and emission index (pounds emission per 1000 pounds fuel) have been
prepared (Figures 2 and 3, respectively).
Sulfur oxide emissions from turbine combustors depend almost
entirely on the sulfur content of the fuel. Since the sulfur oxides produced
can cause severe corrosion to the turbine metal, fuels containing little or no
sulfur are used.
Particulates (smoke) from turbines are composed of small carbon
particles and some organic constituents. They are formed in the rich regions at
high pressures. The most noticeable emissions of particulates generally occur
during start-up and these emissions are reported to be controllable by means of
several currently available techniques, including using leaner fuel mixtures in
the combustion zone, and the use of burners employing premixed fuel air input.
Nitrogen oxide emissions are almost entirely associated with the
fuel combustion process. Theoretical analysis and experimental results both
indicate that the production of nitrogen oxides is dependent on high temperature,
air-fuel ratio, residence time, burner pressure level and inlet air humidity
level.
In a study performed by the Westlnghouse Research Corporation, it
was found the NOX emission level also depended upon the type of fuel and the
combustor exit temperature. When oil was used as a fuel,emission levels of
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10
6 8 ICT
CO PPM.
RER 52
Figure 2. Carbon Monoxide Versus Unbumed Hydrocarbon
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10
2 468
BURNER INEFFICIENCYO-EB)
10
REF 52
Figure 3. Carbon Monoxide and Unburned
Hydrocarbon Versus Burner Efficiency
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NOX, carbon monoxide, and hydrocarbons were higher than those produced by using
natural gas in the same combustor at the same temperature. As the combustor
exit temperature increased,the NOX emission levels increased,the unburned hydro-
carbon level decreased,and the carbon monoxide level increased until a temperature
of 1400F was reached at which point it rapidly dropped off.
An experimental correlation has been made by F. W. Lipfert, General
Applied Science Laboratories, relating nitrogen oxide emissions index to combustor
inlet temperature (Figure 4), and the results show the same trend as other com-
bustors, that is, an increase in nitrogen oxide level with an increase in
temperature.
In the same study nitrogen oxide emissions are related to engine
pressure ratio, as shown in Figure 5. The significance of this is that the
minimum emission levels occur at pressure ratios between 3 and 4 with only
slight increase at a pressure ratio of 6. This implies that a low level of
nitrogen oxide emissions can be achieved but with a sacrifice in efficiency,,
3. Control of NOX Emissions. The control of NOX has been a subject
of considerable study. The conclusion in the paper by Cornelius and Wade,
titled Formation and Control of Nitric Oxide in a Regenerative Gas Turbine Burner.
ASME paper 700708, is that the formation of NOX can be reduced by faster quench-
ing of gases in the primary combustion zone of the combustor (where burning
temperatures are around 3500F), and by close control of the fuel/air ratio. It
has been found, however, that such thermal quenching will increase the formation
of CO. It has also been found that generation of NOX is greatly increased by
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40
u_
CD
O
O
O
x
LJ
Q
g
co
CO
5
UJ
X
O
z
0
200
400
600
800
1000
COMBUSTOR INLET TEMPERATURE F
REF. 52
Figure 4. N0x Emission Data Correlation
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8
a:
CL
I
§4
OQ
0
016
14
12 CYCLE PRESSURE RATIO
3
-o
A .5 .6 .7 .8 .9
SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION-LB/HPHR.
REF 52
Figure 5. NOX Cycle Optimization
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increases in combustion temperature, by length of time of combustion at that
temperature, and by the amount of excess oxygen. The referenced study suggests
that further effort be expended on combustor design and combustion controls to
further reduce the NOX.
Because of the temperature effect on equilibrium concentrations and
formation rate of nitrogen oxides, the use of water/steam injection has been
found to be a possible control technique.
As mentioned previously, there is a definite trend toward use of
higher and higher inlet gas temperatures to the turbine in order to achieve higher
thermal efficiencies. This would probably have the undesirable effect of increas-
ing NOX emissions.
A review of current literature indicates that work on air pollution
problems has not yet resulted in solutions, although progress appears to have
been made. In view of the potential growth in the use of gas turbines, there
should be continuing effort and funding for research to obtain solutions to
air pollution problems from this source.
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SECTION V - KILNS
In addition to its common meaning as a form of furnace, the use of the term
"kiln" has been associated with dryers and ovens. In order to more closely
define the area of investigation, it was decided that this part of the study
would not include drying or melting tank equipment or any heating equipment with
a normal operating temperature below 800F. A kiln will almost always include a
system for generating its own heat and will be refractory lined. This context,
then, will form the boundaries for examining the various furnaces, known as high
temperature kilns according to common industry terminology.
Most of the analysis and classification developed in this section is based
on an extensive literature search, as well as on information developed through
contacts with manufacturers and trade associations. Information presently
available on kilns is. limited and incomplete. This is particularly true in the
areas of such kiln characteristics as: size, production rates, fuel usage,
uses of rotary kilns; production by industry utilizing various types of kilns,
particularly rotary; and characteristics of air pollutant emissions. Because of
this lack of information and data, the deductions reached in this phase of the
study are less conclusive than those of Sections III and IV and, in particular,
the determinations made concerning rotary kilns are less conclusive than those
for other types of kilns.
A. TYPES. SIZES. AND MANUFACTURERS
1. TypeB. The major subtypes of kilns are listed on Page 58,
Appendix B. These may generally be described as follows:
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_a. Box. This is a periodic batch type and consists of a single
rectangular oven-like enclosure of limited (small) size. Generally, material
is loaded into the kiln in small quantities. Such kilns can be of either
the muffle type (See Figure 6), where the product is isolated from the com-
bustion gases by an inner shell, or of the direct-fired type, where no such
product protection is involved. Among other things, these kilns are used for
manufacture of ceramic articles.
Figure 6. Small Muffle Furnace.
b_. Round. This is a periodic batch type, generally quite large
in diameter (up to 40 feet), and with a rounded dome. Product is stacked on
the kiln floor in an open or interlaced pattern to allow the hot gases to
pass through. Such kilns can be of an "updraft" or "downdraft" type (See Figure 7)
Figure 7. The round down-draft kiln, suitable
for firing heavy clay products.
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denoting the direction of gas circulation through the product stack. The
product must remain in the kiln throughout the entire heat-up, firing, and
cooling cycle. Typical applications are for brick and clay pipe manufacture.
£. Shuttle. This is a periodic batch type, generally rectangular
in interior dimension, and designed to permit the product in unit load
quantities to be "shuttled" in and out of the firing zone. The unit loads
of product are normally handled on kiln cars. With such a kiln, it is not
necessary for the product to remain in the kiln throughout the entire heat-up,
firing, and cooling cycle. These kilns can be of either the muffle type or the
direct-fired type. Typically, these kilns are used for brick and clay pipe
manufacture.
d.« Tunnel. This is a continuous type similar in construction
to a shuttle kiln although usually much longer and with openings at each end
(See Figure 8). This allows product in either unit loads or continuous stream
to be moved through the kiln. The product can be conveyed on kiln cars, sliding
DUCT « PORT
ron HOT OR COLO
AIR INLET
SCOOP PIPES
DUCT t PORT FOR
REMOVING HEATED
OR COOLED AIR
SECTION THROUGH PREHEATING ZONE SECTION THROUGH riRINS ZOME. Of
OF TUNNEL KILAJ. COOLING ZONE IS THE SAMt. TUNNEL KILN WITH STAGGERED flREBOXEia.
TUNNEL. CAR NOT SHOWN. SHOWING CAR WITH SAND SEAL. SCOOP i TROUGH
Figure 8. The tunnel kiln, as used in ceramics.
slabs, roller hearths, high temperature conveyors, walking beams, or by air
flotation (for small products). Such kilns can also be of either the muffle
or direct-fired type. Typical applications are for brick and clay pipe
manufacture.
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je. Circular. This is a continuous type, circular in shape, having
a revolving hearth which conveys the product through the kiln in a circular path.
It is essentially, a rotary hearth furnace (Mannheim type - See Figure 9). One
application is for manufacture of lime*
.Sultvric ac.'a
, on
HSlgtaesto
Figure 9. Mannheim-type mechanical hydochloric acid.
jf. Vertical. This kiln is essentially a blast furnace known in the
cement and lime industries as a "vertical" kiln (See Figure 10). This type
Charging dooi y-^
Bucket elevator ^--_.
Coal storage ICO tons ^
Secondary corr-bush'on air ^
Rock storage - -
Pan conveyor*
N
Cinder pit x v Fire zone
Figure 10. Gas-fired vertical lime kiln, producing 80 tons of high
calcium lime per kiln per day.
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of kiln allows granular product to be processed continuously or periodically
through one or more vertical shafts. The materials are loaded at the top and
recovered at the bottom.
£. Rotary. This is a continuous type, and is the most important
and widely used type of kiln for processing granular, powdered, and liquid
products. One of its major applications is in the cement industry. It is
essentially a refractory lined, rotating inclined cylinder through which combus-
tion gases and product are moved in a continuous stream (See Figure 11).
These kilns can have two or three diameters within the overall cylinder length
and can be fired at either end. They can also be of the batch low volume type
with an opening on one end only, for infeed and outfeed on a periodic basis.
Such a variety, however, represents but a minor subcategory of the rotary
kiln category.
--C
~^
Figure 11. The rotary portland cement furnace; F, pulverized
coal burner; H, feed bin with conveyor; D, discharge
of clinkers; G, passage for fire gases to boilers
and stack.
2. Size Ranges. According to some kiln manufacturers, "Every kiln is
a specifically designed piece of equipment." There is no such thing as a "stock
kiln." Kilns are designed to conform to a users specific process and production
requirements, although some manufacturers do use modular sections where possible.
There are no discrete and "clean" size grouplings of kilns. In this study, some
size data were accumulated on specific installations from manufacturers and
literature sources. A summary of these data is shown on Pages 59 and 60, Appendix B.
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This summary should not be regarded as being in any way all-inclusive, as it is
quite limited for most subtypes.
3. Manufacturers. A list of manufacturers of kilns is shown on Pages
61 through 63, Appendix B. This list was developed from various commercial and tech-
nical sources, and should not be regarded as all-inclusive. It is believed to
represent most of the larger manufacturers currently active in the industry.
Many of the kilns are installed as part of a new and complete manu-
facturing system or plant. Some of the manufacturers listed are in the business
of providing complete systems or plants, tailor-made to customer requirements.
As may be noted from the list, most of the manufacturers specialize
in providing only one or two of the subtypes of equipment.
B. USES BY FUNCTION AND INDUSTRY
The various uses of kilns, classified by function and industry, are shown
on Pages 65 through 67, Appendix B. In general, their functional uses are as follows:
1. Vitrification or "firing" of preshaped and formed materials as in
the making of all types of brick, clay, pipe, tile, and other ceramic shapes.
This normally involves use of either box, round, shuttle, and/or tunnel kilns.
2. Chemical processing involving operations such as calcining, roasting,
Chloridizing, reduction, and nodulizing. Such operations involve the use of
rotary, vertical and/or circular kilns.
The list of industries in which kilns are used for vitrification is
well defined. In the list of industries in which kilns are used for chemical
processing, the area of uses of rotary kilns is not well defined. Because of the
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flexibility of the rotary kiln, it is used in many industries on both a large and
small volume basis. This is further discussed in Item C of this section.
Geographic location of kilns used for vitrification of brick and clay
pipe is generally determined by location of sources of raw material and, hence,
tends to be away from major metropolitan centers. Locations for vitrification of
tile and ceramic shapes would tend to be closer to sources of skilled labor and
markets.
Geographic location of kilns used in chemical processing would tend to
be close to sources of raw materials, as well as to large industrial users,
especially where the output is captive.
C. INDUSTRY INFORMATION ON MARKETS AND FUEL USE
No information has been found which can be used to determine the national
population of kilns by industry or by overall total. However, the estimated pro-
duction tonnage of some of the industries in which kilns are used has been
determined from U. S. Department of Commerce sources and is shown on Pages 65 and
66, Appendix B. This shows the major kiln subtypes used in each industry, along
with such past growth rates as can be estimated.
The tonnages shown have certain limitations of accuracy but can be used
to represent approximate figures. The figures for Clay Construction Products
and Refractories were derived from the 1969 Census of Manufacturers which shows
total units or tonnage. Some brick industry trade sources state that such
figures may represent only 75 percent of the total production because of incomplete
reporting. The figures for pottery and related products were derived from dollar
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values of production shown in the Census of Manufacturers by using an assumed
average cost per ton.
As may be seen from these figures, the major tonnages and consequent
major heat and fuel requirements are in the following industries:
SIC Code No. Industry IQOOT/Year
3251111 Unglazed clay brick 15,180
3259111 Vitrified clay sewer pipe 1,800
32550XX Clay refractory brick and
shapes 2,455
3241 Cement, hydraulic 73,500
3274 Lime 21,200
In these industries, virtually all of the product is processed through
kilns of various types as indicated on the summary.
It is to be noted that none of the major industries listed, other than
lime (4 percent), has had a good growth rate over the years examined. Of the
industries having a more moderate volume, only porcelain steatite and similar
ceramic electrical products have a substantial growth rate (12 percent), although
it should be noted that these two are small in terms of estimated tonnage.
No production figures are shown for those industries, other than lime
and cement, which use rotary kilns because such kilns are used only for a presently
indeterminate portion of the total production in such industry. However, since
the rotary kiln is used in so many industries, it is believed to represent a
major fuel requirement. A listing of approximately twenty products for which
rotary kilns are used is shown on Pages 66 and 67, Appendix'B, and further dis-
cussed in Item D.6 of this section.
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An order-of-magnitude estimate of fuel consumption for kilns by type of
industry, where data are available, is shown on Page 68> Appendix B. It is to be
noted that for only one of these industries (cement) does fuel consumption
approach 1/2 percent of the total estimated national fuel consumption of oil
and natural gas, and that the total of all industries listed is less than 1 per-
cent. However, cement and lime account for about 2 percent of the national
consumption of bituminous coal. Although this ratio seems much higher, total
coal consumption represents only about one fourth the total oil and natural gas
consumption in terms of Btu availability.
D. AIR POLLUTANT FACTORS
The gases leaving a kiln may or may not "pollute" the air depending upon
the construction and operating details of the kiln, the use to which it is put,
and the nature of the process. Some pollutants can come from the burning of the
fuel used to fire the kiln and other pollutants can come from the process in
which the kiln is used. Indirectly-fired kilns normally keep the combustion flue
gases and the process off-gases separated. Direct-fired kilns cause the flue
gases and off-gases to become thoroughly mixed.
The problem in discussing air pollutants becomes one of distinguishing
between fuel-emanating pollutants (particulates, SOX, NOX, hydrocarbons, and CO),
and process-emanating pollutants (particulates, SOX, NOX, as well as many others).
The combustion of fossil fuels will create the following pollutants:
SOX (if the fuel contains sulfur); particulates (if the fuel contains noncom-
bustible ash or if it undergoes incomplete combustion); hydrocarbons and CO (if it
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undergoes incomplete combustion); and NOX (if the fuel contains combined nitrogen
or if certain conditions hold wherein nitrogen in the air can be fixed directly).
Apparently very little data have been obtained or published on kiln gas
pollutants, as little was found during the course of this study. Because most
high-temperature kilns employ direct firing, process and fuel pollutants are
mixed and, therefore, good determination of pollutants is not possible from exam-
ination of flow sheets or process descriptions. This present indeterminate status
of the pollutant sources and an almost total absence of data make it imperative
that reliable field data be obtained before any analysis is undertaken.
Of the various subtypes of kilns, it is believed that the tunnel, verti-
cal and rotary subtypes would represent the more significant sources of pollution
from the standpoint of the greatest fuel usages and possible process pollutants.
In embarking on a program of obtaining field data, therefore, it would be more
productive to start with these.
A survey of the literature on various industries was undertaken to show
how kilns are used and what air pollution results from their use. A discussion
of these findings follows. Some of the more significant survey data are shown in
Pages 69 through 73, Appendix B.
1. Clay Construction Products
a_. General. This industry involves the manufacture of brick, build-
ing tile, clay pipe, and clay tile. Four types of kilns are used: box kilns for
small volume production runs, round and shuttle kilns for larger volume runs and
tunnel kilns for continuous production runs, such as for common brick.
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Production efforts in this industry are directed toward lower
manufacturing costs which tends toward high-volume, continuous production with
heat recovery where feasible. Tunnel kilns appear to be the principal type used
today.
Future sales are unpredictable since they depend upon the con-
struction industry, the labor costs to install these materials, and the competition
of substitutes; e.g., sand-lime brick. Sand-lime brick does not employ kilns in
its manufacture.
b_. Combustion and Fuels. Generally, clay kilns are fired on oil
and gas (although there may still be some which use coal). Gas is preferred
primarily because of its very low cost per Btu. It is a clean fuel and associated
controls and handling systems are far less expensive; therefore, it would probably
be the preferred fuel even if the price were higher than oil.
Clay products are fired in the temperature range of 1900F to
2500F with most firing at 2050F.
Consumption of fuels per unit weight for manufacture of these
products depends upon:
(1) Design and age of a particular kiln.
(2) Product item itself; e.g., a given kiln can have a varia-
tion in heat requirements on a ratio of as much as three to one resulting from
clay pipe ranging in size from 30 inches to 12 inches.
(3) Whether or not a recuperator is used.
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c_. Air Pollutants. Most brick and other clay structural products
are made in direct-fired kilns, except that in some cases, where color or texture
is important, a muffle design is used. Therefore, flue gases and kiln gases may
or may not be mixed.
Various types of clays used, in this industry contain a signifi-
cant amount of sulfur, usually in the form of pyrites. In addition, fluorine and
chlorine compounds are sometimes encountered in the clays and are sometimes applied
for surface glazing in the manufacture of tile. Depending on the raw materials
and process, therefore, all of these compounds could be found in the flue gases.
Each case, however, must be examined separately as no further generalizations can
be made at this point on an industry basis.
Recognizing that kiln and/or flue gases can contain air pollutants,
several manufacturers do offer scrubbing systems to remove such pollutants from
the effluent gases.
2. Pottery and Related Products. Very little information was found on
kilns used in this industry and on resulting air pollutants. That which was
found, however, is summarized herein.
This industry includes the manufacture of plumbing fixtures, china,
porcelain, earthenware, and industrial ceramic materials. The types of kilns
used are the box, shuttle, and tunnel. Generally, the sizes of kilns used are
much smaller than those employed in the clay construction products industry.
As mentioned previously, the estimated tonnage of production and
consequent fuel usage is low in comparison with that of the other industries in
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this study; e.g., it represents less than 10 percent of the tonnage of unglazed
brick.
There are special glazing and coloring compounds used which could
contribute air pollutants. Some of these glazing compounds are similar to those
used in the manufacture of tile. However, until actual emissions are measured
and analyzed, this can only be considered a possibility.
3. Nonclay Refractories. Very little information was found on this
industry. The information found, however, forms the basis for the discussion
below.
This industry includes the manufacture of clay and nonclay refrac-
tories. The types of kilns used are the round, shuttle, and tunnel<> Production
tonnage is about 20 percent of that of unglazed brick, with about four fifths of
this being clay firebrick. The remainder consists of special varieties of non-
clay firebrick having higher 'temperature resistance and special chemical
properties.
Although no specific information was found, it is believed that the
air pollution emissions from clay firebrick would be similar to those from manu-
facture of ordinary unglazed brick.
It is also believed that the air pollution emissions from manufacture
of nonclay refractory might be more severe than those for unglazed brick for two
major reasons. Firstly, the firing temperature is generally much higher (2800F
to 3200F versus 2000F), which possibly could lead to a higher NOX concentration in
the flue gases. Secondly, the various chemical compositions used in the bricks
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could result in flue gas pollutants, such as compounds of sulfur, chlorine, and
fluorine.
However, until actual emission measurements are made, these state-
ments can be considered as only possibilities„
4. Cement
a_. General. In the United States, portland cement is made in
rotary kilns. Although there are probably many small kilns still in use, the
trend for many years has been to very large kilns for reasons of economy. One
recent installation is a kiln 570 feet in length having a daily capacity of
9700 barrels.
Since cement is an essential ingredient in all aspects of con-
struction, its production tends to vary with that of the construction industry
as a whole. Long range growth appears to be small.
There are two basic process variations in the production of
cement; namely, the dry process and the wet process. Generally, the dry process
uses shorter kilns. Technical changes such as using fly ash recovered from
boiler houses to extend the clinker will unquestionably continue to occur, but
the pace of these changes will be restricted by the existence of a very large
existing installed capacity.
b_. Combustion Fuels. Cement is calcined by direct flame. Calcina-
tion generally takes place at 2800F and the high temperature gases are cooled in
the long kiln against the incoming cold feed.
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All commercial fuels are used: coal (anthracite and bituminous),
oil and gas. A national average consumption of fuel would be in the range of
3000 to 3300 Btu per pound of cement. The choice of fuel is a matter of economics
and availability. Many plants operate on two different fuels and some on three.
£. Air Pollution. The cement industry has previously been examined
and reported in "Air Pollution Aspects of Emission Sources: Cement Manufacturing"
AP-65. In general, the major air pollutants are fines from the process. There
are no other pollutants reported except for special notes on odor from some feed
materials. NOX has never been reported. SOX is reported to condense on dust in
a combined form.
5. Lime
a_. General. This item is, produced both as an end product and as a
subproduct in the manufacture of other end products. Generally, some form of
calcium carbonate is thermally decomposed to calcium oxide in the presence of
burning fuel.
Over the past ten years the lime industry has shown a growth
rate of 4 percent per year. While it seems probable that this rate will continue,
future markets will probably change somewhat. Raw material supply will probably
also change due to increasing usage of by-product calcium salts, particularly
gypsum which, in turn, will influence design of kilns.
Lime kilns are currently of the rotary, vertical and circular
types. Rotary kilns have been made in .sizes up to 12 feet in diameter and 500
feet long and as small as 5 feet in diameter and 80 feet long depending upon
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desired capacity. Vertical kiln installations usually consist of multiple shafts
approximately 80 feet high by 13 feet in diameter.
The different kiln designs have evolved over the past thirty
years to satisfy efficiency in lime burning, the form in which the feed material
is obtained, and the economics dictated by differing fuels. For example, the old
vertical kilns were suited for coke and large size limestone but do not appear to
be suitable for oyster shells which are now burned in horizontal rotary kilns.
Further factors which influence changes in kiln design are price
and availability of the different fuels. In the past, coal was used for burning
lime but low cost natural gas and oil have made impressive inroads into this fuel
market. With the price of gas before pipeline distribution, at 17 cents per thousand.
cubic feet last year, and at 25 cents this year, and with the strong possibility
of future price increases, there will probably be a shift in kiln design back to
those designed for usage'of coal and heavy fuel oil.
Another factor which may have a possible impact is a recent
high-efficiency, vertical design from Germany, reported to give high quality
using liquid fuel only. It has been built in size ranges of 100 to 700 tons per
day, all of which are 120 feet high.
b_. Combustion. Thermal decomposition of calcium carbonate is done
in direct contact with the flame from fuel combustion. Heat economy is achieved
by sending the flue gas countercurrent to the incoming stone. The availability
of the entirely different fuels (gas, oil and coal) has permitted the three types
of kilns to be developed competitively and contemporarily.
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Decomposition of the stone takes place at 2000F for active lime
and 3000F for dead-burned lime. In either case, the gas is usually cooled to
about 200F, except where for process reasons, such as generating steam, it is
desired at a higher temperature.
£. Air Pollution. There are very, little data available on air
pollutants from kilns in the manufacture of lime. The only firm statement found
on air pollution from lime burning is that particulate emissions are a nuisance.
The nature of the feed and the nature of the fuel, as well as
the use of the kiln gas, all can influence whether or not any air pollutants are
emitted from the burning of limestone. Each situation must be examined on its
own merits and no generalizations can be made, especially when the question of
lime quality is involved.
It is believed that the air pollutants from lime burning, other
than particulates, may not be a severe problem. This statement is based on the
fact that lime is burned at a fairly low temperature and that it is being found
effective for removing SOX from stack gases of boiler plants. For reference
see the article by A. V. Slack and .H. L. Falkenberry titled "Sulfur-Dioxide Re-
moval from Power Plant Stack Gas by Limestone Injection" published by Combustion.
December 1969, and also EPA contracts relating to TVA Shawnee Power Station.
However, as with other industries, emission measurements should be made to obtain
reliable data on which to base conclusions.
6. Additional Products and Industries Using Rotary Kilns. As mentioned
previously, rotary kilns are used in many and varied industries, products and
processes because of their versatility in application and relatively low cost.
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Also as mentioned previously, little or no information is available
on the population of rotary kilns or of the production quantities of product
categories involving their use.
In this study, efforts were made to ferret our those industries,
products and processes in which rotary kilns are used. Approximately twenty
different products were found in seven different industry categories and are
shown on Pages 66 and 67, Appendix B. It is recognized that this list is by no
means all-inclusive.
Efforts were also made to obtain information on the air pollutants
from the use of kilns in these processes. Virtually no information was found;
therefore, measurement of emissions is imperative in order to obtain reliable
data from which to determine possible needs for corrective action.
The process information available for each of the processes listed
has been examined to develop some suggestions as to what possible pollutant emis-
sions may be expected from the kilns used in the processes. This information is
listed on Pages 66 and 67, Appendix B and, where appropriate, is discussed below.
In general, particulates will probably be produced in most of these processes
along with the pollutants normally produced by combustion of fuel.
£. Sulfuric Acid and Cement. Gypsum is calcined at 2600F to 2700F
to obtain an SC^-rich gas for the purpose of producing sulfuric acid. Economic
logic demands that minimal gas losses occur and that a very efficient particulate
removal system be employed to remove all the dust originating in the kiln.
Accordingly, this process and kiln assembly can be accurately considered to be
unimportant from a pollution standpoint.
45
-------
PROCESSES RESEARCH, INC.
INDUSTRIAL PLANNING AND RESEARCH
b.* Iron Ore. Producing iron oxide pellets in a rotary kiln from
benificiated ore presents an interesting problem. Although high temperatures
are used in the kiln (24OOF), the exhaust gases are cooled in a preheat furnace
(1800F) and a drying furance (700F). This reuse of gas and multiple chamber
separation of any dust is such a complicated and involved process that no state-
ment can be made on possible air pollutants without measurements.
£. Alumina. The production of alumina involves calcining aluminum
hydroxide at 2000F. The kiln gases can only contain the combustion gas along with
water vapor and dust from the process. No data have been published which identify
this dust as a pollutant. However, since the dust is a salable product, it would
be expected that stack losses would be kept to insignificant levels, even though
data are not available.
d_. Titanium Dioxide. Titanium dioxide is produced in a manner
similar to alumina at 1600F to 1700F and the air pollution problem.could therefore
be reasonably expected to be the same.
£. Mercury. Mercury ore (connabar) is roasted at HOOF. While it
is conceivable that mercury can be in the exhaust gas leaving the collectors, no
published data have been found to quantify this. Total mercury losses of 0.5
pounds per ton of ore have been reported but these losses are in the s.lag and
spillage, as well as on the dust collectors and stack.
f_. Uranium. Burning lignite to produce a uranium ore (lignite ash)
will yield air pollutants to the extent that such pollutants are present in the
lignite. Not much data have been published on lignite analyses.
46
-------
PROCESSES RESEARCH, INC.
INDUSTRIAL PLANNING AND RESEARCH
APPENDIX A - DATA ON GAS TURBINES
47
-------
EQUIPMENT TYPE
Turbines - Gas
SIZE AND SUBTYPE CLASSIFICATION
CODE
SUBTYPE AND SIZE
Subtypes
10
20
a. Open cycle - simple
b. Regenerative
Combined cycle (exhaust to boiler)
Size Ran
es
01
02
03
04
Below 1,000 horsepower
1,000 to 10,000 horsepower
10,000 to 20,000 horsepower
Above 20,000 horsepower
48
-------
EQUIPMENT TYPE
Turbines -Gas
MANUFACTURERS
NAME
Code
Westinghouse Electric Corporation
General Electric Company
Worthing ton Turbine International,
Inc.
(Turbo dyne)
Turbo Power & Marine Systems, Inc.
(Pratt & Whitney)
Cooper-Bessemer Company
Curtis-Wright Corporation
English Electric - AEI Turbo-
generators Ltd.
Dresser Industries, Inc.
Ingersoll-Rand Company
Clark Brothers Company
Allison Division of General
Motors Corporation
Solar Division of International
Harvester Company
AiResearch Mfg. Division of
Garret Corporation
Lycoming Division Avco Corporation
Ford Motor Company
Motor Company
SUBTYPE
Open
Cycle
10
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
x-
X
Combined
Cycle
20
X
X
X
X
X
SIZE RANGE
( 1000 's Hp)
Below
1
01
X
X
X
X
X
1^10
02
S
S
s
M
L
M
S
10-21
03
S
3
L
S
S
S
S
Above
20
04
L
L
L
M
S
S
S
Apparent sales factor in size category:
L - Large M - Medium
X- Relative sales not known
S - Small
49
-------
TRADE ASSOCIATIONS
AMERICAN SOCIETY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS (ASME)
345 East 47th St. Phone: (212)752-6800
New York, N.Y. 10017
O. B. Schier, II, Executive Director
Founded 1880 -Members 64,125 - Staff 128 - Regions II - Local
sections 118. Professional society of mechanical engineers (55,638).
Membership also includes student members (8487) in 178 student sec-
tions. Conducts research; develops boiler and pressure vessel, and
power test codes; serves as sponsor for the United'States of America
Standards Institute in developing safety codes and standards for equip-
ment; maintains, with other engineering societies, o 180,000-volume
library. Committees: U.S. Committee on Theoretical and Applied
""Mechanics; U.S. National Committee of the International Electrotech-
nical Commission. Maintains 15 research committees. Divisions: Air
Pollution Control Group; Applied Mechanics; Automatic Control; Avia-
tion and Space; Biomechanical and Human Factors; Design Engineering;
Diesel and Gas Engine Power; Energetics; Fluids Engineering; Fuels;
.Gas Turbine; Heat Transfer; Incinerator; Lubrication; Management;
Materials Handling Engineering; Metals Engineering; Nuclear Engineer-
ing; Petroleum; Plant Engineering and Maintenance; Power; Pressure
Vessels and Piping Process Industries; Production Engineering; Railroad;
Rubber und Plastics; Safety; Solar Energy Applications; Textile Engineer-
ing; Underwater Technology. Publications: (I) Mechanical Engineering,
monthly; (2) Applied Mechanics Reviews, monthly; (3) Transactions
(Journals of Power, Industry, Heat Transfer, Basic Engineering, Applied
Mechanics, Lubrication), quarterly. Convention/Meeting: Semiannual
- 1970 June 7-10, Boston, Mass., Nov. 29-Dec. 4, New York City;
1971 June 13-16, New York City, Nov. 28-Dec.3, Washington, D.C.;
1972 June 11-14, Washington, D.C., Nov. 12-16, New York City,
1973 June, New York City, Nov. 11-16, Detroit, Mich.
ENGINE MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION
333 N. Michigan Ave. Phone: (312) 236-0633
Chicago, III. 60601
Thomas C. Young, Executive Director
Founded 1968 - Members 1) - Staff 2. Producers of Infernal combus-
tion engines for all Applications except those used exclusively for
automobiles and aircraft. Committees: Emissions Standards; Nol*»
Standards. Publication: Lubricating Oils for Industrial Engines,
biennial. Supersedes: Internal Combustion Engine Institute (Founded
1933).
ENGINE GENERATOR SET MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION (EGSMA)
2211 Tribune Tower
Chicago, III. 606)1
Glenn W. Bos from, Exec. Dlr.
Founded 1963. Manufacturer] of device* to generate electrical power
through the use of a reciprocating or rotary engine coupled to a
generator. Committee*: Government Liaison; Legislative; Statistics;
Technical and Standards; Trade Practice*; Trade Promotion. Publications:
(I) Marketer and News, monthly; (2) Membership Product Directory,
annual. Convention/Meeting: Semiannual - 1970 Feb., Chicago, III.
NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF POWER ENGINEERS (NAPE>
176 West Adams St., Suite 1411 Phone: (312) FR 2-0835
Chicago, III. 60603
Founded 1882 - Members 12,500 - Staff 4 - State associations 18 -
Local chapters 190. Professional society of power and stationary
engineers. Associate members: sales engineers and teachers of any
phase of engineering. Areas of interest include air-conditioning,
compressed air, electric power, refrigeration, steam, water, etc.
Promotes education in the power engineering areas. Secures and
enforces engineers' license laws to prevent the destruction of life
and property in the generation and transmission of power and for the
Conservation of fuel resources of the notion. Maintains correspondeno
courses. Committees: Air Pollution; American Power Conference;
Industrial Coal Conference; License Law; Scholarship; Water Pollution.
Publications: (H Notional Engineer, monthly; (2) Directory, annual.
Also publishes pamphlets and produces films. Convention/Meeting:
Annual - 1970 July 5-10, Miami Beach, Flo.
SOCIETY OF AUTOMOTIVE^ ENGINEERS (SAE)
2 Pennsylvania Plaza Phone: (212)594-5700
New York, N.Y. 10001
Joseph Gilbert, Sec.
Founded 1905 - Members 27,000 - Staff 155 - Local groups 52.
Professional society of engineers-in field of self-propelled ground,
flight, and space vehicles; engineering students are enrolled in
special affiliation. To promote the arts, sciences, standards, and
engineering practices related to the design, construction, and uti-
lization of self-propelled mechanisms, prime movers, components
thereof, and related equipment. Local groups hold monthly meetings
for presentation of papers and discussion of technical problems. Through
Coordinating Research Council cooperates with American Petroleum
Institute in research on utilization of fuels and lubricants in automotive
apparatus. Presents awards and sponsors memorial lectures. Special
Boards: Technical; Engineering Activity. Special Subcommittees:
Aerospocecraft; Aerospace Powerplanl; Air Transport; Body; Computer;
Engineering Education; Materials Engineering; Farm, Construction, and
Industrial Machinery; Fuels and Lubricants; Manufacturing Engineering;
Passenger Car; Powerplant; Science-Engineering; Transportation and
Maintenance; Truck and Bus. Publications: (I) SAE Journal, monthly;
(2) SAE Transactions, annual; (3) SAE Handbook (book of standards),
annual; (4) SAE Consultants, annual; (5) Advances in Engineering
Series, about 4 volumes/year; (6) Technical Progress Series, about 3
volumes/year; also publishes over 100 publications dealing with auto-
motive industry practices, about 750 technical papers annually.
Formed by merger of: (1917) Society of Automobile Engineers,
American Society of Aeronautic Engineers, and Society of Tractor
Engineers. Convention/Meeting: Annual - always Jan., Detroit,
Mich.
NATIONAL ENGINE USE COUNCIL (NEUC)
333 North Michigan Ave. Phone: (312) 236-0633
Chicago, III. 60601
Managed by Smith, Bucklin & Associates, Inc.
Founded 1961 - Members 70. Reciprocating and turbine engine manu-
facturers; engine and equipment dealers and distributors; engine acces-
sory producers; automatic control manufacturer*; lubricant supplier*;
natural gcs, LP-gas, and diesel fuel supplier*, and the trace press.
To promote use 'of reciprocating and turbine engines and engine systems
as prime movers.
50
-------
EQUIPMENT TYPE
Turbines - Gas
PRODUCT VOLUME IN INDUSTRIES WHERE EQUIPMENT IS USED
1
SIC
Code
No.
4911
2811
50XX
thru
99XX
4922
28XX
29XX
1381
4612
4613
1311
Industry, Product
and Process
Electric Power Generation
Electric Companies and
Systems
Telephone and Communica-
tions (Wire or Radio)
| General Commercial and
f Government Buildings
j and Hospitals
Compressors and Electric P<
Natural Gas Transmission
Chemicals and Allied
Products
Petroleum Refining and
Related Products
Pumps and Electric Power G<
Drilling Oil and Gas
Wells
Crude Petroleum Pipe-
lines
Refined Petroleum Pipe-
lines
Pumps and Compressors
Crude Petroleum and
Natural Gas (Opera-
tion of Oil and Gas
Fields)
Equipment (a)
Subtypes
Used
10, 20
10
10, 20
wer Generation
10, 20
10, 20
10, 20
neration
10
" }
10 J
10
51
Annual
Tonnage or
Rate of
Production
(b)
42.2 MM Hp
(1971)
Small
Small
(d)
2.2 MM Hp
(1969)
Small
Small
Small
(d)
.2 MM Hp
(1969)
N.A.
(Continv
Indicated
Growth Rate
Time
% Period
(c)
8.2
(Overall
Industry)
ed on Page 52)
-------
EQUIPMENT TYPE
Turbines - Gas
PRODUCT VOLUME IN INDUSTRIES WHERE EQUIPMENT IS USED (Continued from Page 51)
SIC
Code
No.
Industry, Product
and Process
Equipment
Subtypes
Used
Annual
Tonnage or
Rate of
Production
Indicated
Growth Rate
Time
% Period
General Industry and Commei
ce
Can be used in any other
industry where electric
power and mechanical
power is required.
Uses in other fields,
at present, is small
Small
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
For code reference see table
on Page 48, Appendix A.
Souijce No. 25
Source No. 32
Source No. 27
52
-------
EQUIPMENT TYPE
Turbines - Gas
EQUIPMENT MARKET OR POPULATION
Subtype or Size
Population*
Indicated
Growth Rates
Survey in Power
October 1970
Report as of 1969
Power Generation
01 Below 1,000 Hp
02 1,000 to 10,000 Hp
03 10,000 to 20,000 Hp
04 Above 20,000 Hp
Compressors
02 1,000 to 10,000 Hp
03 10,000 to 20,000 Hp
Total sales 1965 through 1969
6,100 units
900 units
410 units
560 units
1,020 units
170 units
Above represents about 1/2
total Installed horsepower
as of end 1969
* Source No. 25
Based on"1965 through
1969 total sales,
approximate population
(5 year projected)
N.A.
7 to 8 percent per year
12 to 14 percent per year
12 to 14 percent per year
12 to 14 percent per year
12 to 14 percent per year
Assuming total number of
installed units is 200
percent of sales in 1965
through 1969 period
53
-------
EQUIPMENT TYPE AND SUBTYPE_
Turbine - Gas - Open Cycle (Simple and Regenerative)
SIC Code No.
4911
2811
50XX through
99XX
4922
28XX
29XX
1381
4612
4613
1311
Industry, Product and Process or Use
Electric Power Generation
Electric Companies and Systems
Telephone and Communications
General, Commercial and Government Buildings
and Hospitals
Compressors and Electric Power Generation
Natural Gas Transmission
Chemicals and Allied Products
Petroleum Refining and Related Products
Pumps and Electric Power Generation
Drilling Oil and Gas Wells
Crude Petroleum Pipelines
Refined Petroleum Pipelines
Pumps and Compressors
Crude Petroleum and Natural Gas
General Industry and Commerce
*
Size Range Cod<
Approximately
80 Percent or
More
04
01, 02
01, 02
02, 03
02, 04
02, 04
02
01, 02
01, 02
02, 03
N.A.
Fuel Types
•
w m
-------
PROCESSES RESEARCH, INC.
INDUSTRIAL PLANNING AND RESEARCH
ORDER-OF-MAGNITUDE ESTIMATES
_.— .. ^. - .. ..- - _
FUEL* FOR GAS TURBINES
Assume: Total national capacity 1971 =• 45,000,000 horsepower
Total national capacity - 5 to 9 years = 90,000,000 horsepower
25 percent overall thermal efficiency
Fuel heat value - 20,000 Btu per pound
Btu per horsepower = 2,545
Ratio of gas usage to oil usage in pounds - 44:56.*
Combined usage factor 1971 = 18 percent based on approximate power
plant usage of 13 percent* and assumed industrial and pipeline
usage of 60 percent
Combined usage factor 5 to 9 years = 24 percent based on assumed
power plant usage of 20% due to increased use for base power
generation
Calculation:
1971 Level
Total fuel consumption per day = 45,000,000 x 2545 x 24 x .18
. 20,000 x .25
• 100,000,000 pounds
Gas consumption per day - 100,000,000 x .44 x 20
= 880,000,000 cubic feet per day
Oil consumption per day - 100.000.000 x «56
307
= 182,000 barrels per day
5 to 9 years
Total fuel consumption per day = 267,000,000 pounds
* Source No. 48
55
-------
PROCESSES RESEARCH, INC.
INDUSTRIAL PLANNING AND RESEARCH
TOTAL FUEL CONSUMPTION
Based on SRI reports:
Primary Liquid Hydrocarbons
Annual consumption (estimated 1971) - 5,600 million barrels
Daily consumption (assuming 312 days per year consumption) -
18 million barrels or 5,520 x 10° pounds
Natural Gas
Annual consumption (estimated 1971) • 23,000 billion cubic feet
Daily consumption (assuming 312 days per year consumption) -
74 billion cubic feet or 3,700 x 10° pounds
Bituminous Coal
Annual consumption (estimated 1971) • 540 million tons
Daily consumption (assuming 312 days per year consumption) -
1.73 million tons - 3,460 million pounds
56
-------
PROCESSES RESEARCH, INC.
INDUSTRIAL PLANNING AND RESEARCH
APPENDIX B- - DATA ON KILNS
57
-------
EQUIPMENT TYPE
Kilns
SIZE AND SUBTYPE CLASSIFICATION
CODE
SUBTYPE AND SIZE
Subt
rpes
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
Box
Round
Shuttle
Tunnel
Circular
Vertical
Rotary
58
-------
EQUIPMENT TYPE_
Kilns
SIZE RANGES FOUND
Subtypes
Size Range
Tonnage or
Units per Day
Comments
01 Box
02 Round
03 Shuttle
04 Tunnel
Brick and
clay tile
Floor and
wall tile
05 Circular
Lime
06 Vertical
Lime
Not available
Up to 40 ft.
ID
1 to 6 or more
Kiln cars up
to 8' width by
10' length
225 to 550 ft.
long
Smaller. One
found at 100 ft.
long
One at 52 ft.
OD
75 to 120 ft.
high, 6 to 13
ft. diameter
Not available
Some at 10
tons of clay
pipe
Up to 35,000
brick
50,000 to
400,000 brick
11,700 sq. ft.
125 tons
30 to 700 tons
Small for batches
No data on floor and
wall tile and other
ceramics
Only data found
Only data found
59
-------
EQUIPMENT TYPE_
Kilns
SIZE RANGES FOUND
Subtypes
Size
tonnage or
Units per Day
Comments
Sizes
07 Rotary
5 ft. diameter 10 tons to
by 50 ft. long 5000 tons
to 25 ft. diam-
eter by 750 ft.
long
Table 20-10. Typical Rotary-kiln Installations*
Smaller sizes
available
(1)
Kit,
diam. X lepgth
S X 80 ft.
ft X 70 ft.
J X 70 ft.
$ ft. 6 in. X 180 ft.
7X120 ft.
1 1t. 6 in. X 125 ft.
6 X 220 ft.
8 X 140 ft.
9 X 160 ft.
8 Ik 6 in. X 185 ft.
10 X 130 ft.
10 X 175 ft.
8 X 300 ft.
7 It. 6 in. X 8 ft. 6 in. X 320 ft.
7 ft. 6 in. X 10 ft. X 8 ft. 6 in. X 300 ft.
10X11 X 175 ft.
18 ft. 6 in. X 185 ft.
II X 175 ft.
8ft. 6 in. X 10 ft. X 8 ft. 6 in. X 300 ft.
8X 10X300 ft.
9 ft. 6 in. X 265 ft.
9 X 10 ft. 6 in. X 9 ft. X 325 ft.
10 ft. 6 in: X 250 ft.
9 ft. 6 in. X 1 1 ft. X 9 ft. 6 in. X 300 ft.
10X300 ft.
9ft. 6in. Xllft. X9ft.6ia. X 375 ft.
1! X 300 ft.
II ft. 6 io. X 300 ft.
10 ft. 6 in. X 375 ft.
llft.-3ia.X360ft.
1 1 ft. 6 in. X 475 ft.
12X500 ft.
Usual
No.
of
Bupporia
2
1
2
4
2
2
4
2
2
4
2
2
i
S
i
2
2
2
5
5
4
5
4
5
5
6
5
4
5
5
7
8
flange of
motor hp.
to
opcratet
5-7.5
7.5-15
15-20
15-20
15-25
20-30
20-30
25-30
30-50
30-50
40-75
50-75
50-75
50-75
50-75
5C 75
50-75
60-100
50-75
50-75
60-100
60-100
60-100
60-100
75-125
7M25
75-125
100-150
100-150
125-175
150-250
200-300
\ominal 24-hr, capacities;
Portland cement,
376-lh. blil.
Dry process
140
190
275
28i
475
575
420
750
MOD
1125
1300
1500
1150
1175
1175
1650
1800
1850
1400
1425
1500
1700
1750
1800
1900
2025
2400
2600
2700
2903
4000
4600
Wet process
100
135
200
250
340
415
375
J40
600
810
950
1100
1000
1020
1020
1200
1300
1375
1200
1225
1300
1500
1525 '
1550
1650
1800
2100
2250
2400
2500
3500
4000
Lime, net tons
Lime sludso
10
15
20
30
35
40
45
55
80
80
iio
115
120
130
140
ISO
175
190
225
210
250
275
375
425
Limesfoce
16
24
35
45
55
70
65
90
130
135
1«
I5S
160
165
180
190
205
200
2IS
240
250
300
320
325
350
450
500
..
t FOTW reciuir events vary according to size of kiln, character of "material handled, and method of operation. t _
t Car-a^'tiea incited are coascrva!ivet acd apply to normal opcratioa at sea level. Corrections would apply at increased altitudes, and for
operation.
s mt;thwl»
(1) Source No. 15
60
-------
EQUIPMENT TYPE
Kilns
MANUFACTURERS
Allis Chalmers
Milwaukee, Wise.
Bartlett-Snow, A
Bangor Punta Co.
Cleveland, 0.
Bickley Furnaces,
Inc.
Philadelphia, Pa.
Buffalo Tank Div.
Bethlehem Steel
Corp.
Dunnelson, N.J.
Calcimatic, Ltd.
Toronto, Ont.
Dispatch Oven Co.
Minneapolis, Minn.
Dravo Corp.
Pittsburgh, Pa.
Ferro-Allied Engrg.
Div.
Cleveland, 0.
Harrop Ceramic
Service Co.
Columbus, 0.
Hendryx & Assoc.
Pittsburgh, Pa.
Interkiln
Engineering, Inc.
Houston, Tex.
Code ; C - Coal fired
G - Gas fired
0 - Oil fired
X - Fuel type nc
SUBTYPE MANUFACTURED
Box
01
G
G
0,G
t knov
Round
02
i
Shuttle
03
O.G
X
0,G
0,G
•
Tunnel
04
C.O.G
0,G
0,G
G
0,G
0,G
G
Circular
05
X
Vertical
06
X
G
Rotary
07
X
0,0
X
-------
EQUIPMENT TYPE
Kilns
MANUFACTURERS
Ipsen Industries,
An Alco Standard Co.
Pecatonica, 111.
Keller Corp.
Philadelphia, Pa.
Kennedy Van Saun
Corp.
Danville, Pa.
Lindberg Hevi-Duty,
Div. of Sola Basic
Industries
Chicago, 111.
Llngl, Inc.
Dresden, Tenn.
Mine & Smelter
Supply Co. , Inc.
Denver, Colo.
Ohio Kilns
Granville, 0.
Pomona Pipe
Products Co.
Pomona, Calif.
Fla., Mo.
Selas Corp. of
America
Dresher, Pa.
F. L. Smidth & Co.
Southwestern Zone
Kiln Co.
Snyder, Tex.
Stansteel Corp.,
Subsid. of Allis-
Chalmers
Los Angeles, Calif.
SUBTYPE MANUFACTURED
Box
01
X
Round
02
G
62
Shuttle
03
G
X,G
X
'-.
Tunnel
04
G
0,G
X
0,G
G
0,G
X
G
Circular
05
Vertical
06
0,G
X
Rotary
07
O.G
G
X
-------
EQUIPMENT TYPE
Kilns
MANUFACTURERS
Swindell-Dressier
Pittsburgh, Pa.
Traylor Engineering
and Manufacturing
Co., Div. of Fuller
Co.
Allentown, Pa.
Vulcan Iron Works,
Inc.
Wilkes-Barre , Pa.
SUBTYPE MANUFACTURED
ox ]
1
tound
02
63
Shuttle
03
0,G
Tunnel
04
0,G
Circular
05
Vertical
06
0
Rotary
07
O.G
0
-------
EQUIPMENT TYPE Kilns
PRODUCT VOLUME IN INDUSTRIES WHERE EQUIPMENT IS USED
Code Nos.
SIC
Ind.
325
325
325
325
325
325
325
325
325
325
325
329
326
SIC
Prod.
Vitr
1111
1211
9111
1231
1251
3000
3015
071
053
50XX
50XX
7XXX
10
Industry, Product
and Process
.fication
Clay Construction Products
Unglazed Brick
Structural Clay Tile
Vitrified Clay Sewer Pipe
Facing Tile and Brick
Facing Tile (Unglazed)
Clay Floor and Wall Tile
Glazed Floor and Wall Tile
Quarry Tile
Unglazed Ceramic Mosaic
Tile
Refractories - Clay and Non-
Clay:
Brick and Shapes ( fire-
clay)
Insulating Fire Brick and
Shapes
Non-clay:
Brick and Shapes
Pottery and Related Products
Vitreous and Semi-vitreous
Plumbing Fixtures, Access
and Fittings
(a)
Equipment
Subtypes
Used
02,03,04
02,03,04
02,03,04
01,03,04
01,03,04
:lay
02,03,04
02,03,04
02,03,04
03,04
64
Annual
Tonnage or
Rate of
Production
1970(b)
1.000 T/Yr.
15,180
148
1,800
602
1
372
285
42
46
2,455
133
542
1969
(MM $)
191 -2 (d)
(382)
(Conti
Indicated
Growth Rate
%/Yr.
-3
-9
0
-9
—
-2
-4
0
-2
-4
-7
-9
4
nued on
' Time
Period
1965-70
1965-70
1965-70
1965-70
1965-70
1965-70
1965-70
1965-70
1965-70
1966-70
1964-69
Page 65)
-------
EQUIPMENT TYPE
Kilns
PRODUCT VOLUME IN INDUSTRIES WHERE EQUIPMENT IS USED (Continued from Page 64)
Code Nos.
SIC
Ind.
326
326
326
324
327
(a) F
(b) S
(c) S
(d) A
SIC
Prod.
20 &
30
40
90
Chei
1
4
r code
urce N
urce N
suming
order-
1,000
Industry, Product
and Process
Vitreous China and Porce-
lain Table and Kitchen
Articles
and
Earthenware Table and
Kitchen Articles
Porcelain Steatite and
Other Ceramic Electri-
cal Products
Pottery and Ceramic
Products, N.C.C.
ical Processing
Cement, Hydraulic
Lime
reference see table on Page 5i
». 4
>. 5
a product value of $500 per t(
if-magnitude estimate of
T/Yr.
(a)
Equipment
Subtypes
Used
01,03,04
01,03,04
07
06,07
3, Appendix B.
) i, this repres
65
Annual
Tonnage or
Rate of
Production
138.5
(277) «td)
219.6
(440) (d)
102.7
(204) Cd)
(c)
l.OOOT/Yr. *
73,500
21,200
nts an
Indicated
Growth Rate
%/Yr.
3
12
2
.5
4
Time
Period
1964-69
1964-69
1964-69
1968-72
1960-70
-------
DATA
Rotary Kiln
Product
titanium Dioxide
LiOH
Sulfuric Acid
and Cement
Sulfuric Acid
and Coke
Sodium Dichro-
mate
Cement
Cement
Lime
Perlite
Magnesia
Magnesia
Sodium Tripoly-
phosphate
Barium Carbonate
Process
Calcining
Gypsum Calcining
Chemico sludge
Conversion
Roasting
Dry
Wet
Burning
(Calcining)
Popping
(Calcining)
Calcining MgCl2
Calcining MgSCty
Calcining
Magnesium
Hydroxide
Calcining
Calcining
SIC
No.
2819
2819
2819 &
3240
2819
2819
3240
3240
3270
3295
3295
3295
3295
3295
66
Temperature
Degrees F.
1652
1600
2600 to
2700
2200
1000 to
1300
2900 to
3000
<3300
Possible
Process
Pollutants
Particulate
Particulate
Particulate
Particulate
Particulate
Particulate
Particulate
Hcl
NaCl, SO 2
Particulate
Unknown
Particulate
(Continued
Heat
Requirements
Btu/Lb.
3,000
2,000,000 Btu
Per Barrel
(376 Lb.)
5,300
687,000 Btu Per
Barrel with
Preheater
1,800
2,200 (I.M.C.)
n Page 67)
-------
DATA
Rotary Kiln
(Continued from Pa.",e 66 )
Product
Magnets
Iron Ore
Alumina
Uranium
Mercury
Molybdenum
Oxide
Process
Calcining Dolo-
mite
Pelletizing
Calcining
Calcining Lignite
Containing 11303
Roasting
Cinnabar
Roasting
SIC
No.
3295
3312
3334
3339
3339
3339
67
Temperature
Degrees F.
3300
(dead burn)
2000
(soft)
2400
2000
1100
1475
Possible
Process
Pollutants
Participate
Particulate
and Unknown
Particulate
Particulate
Hg
Particulate
Heat
Requirements
Btu/Lb.
4,000
3,875
300 (pellets)
-------
ORDER-OF-MAGNITUDE
FUEL REQUIREMENTS
Kilns
Industry
Unglazed Brick
Vitrified Clay
Sewer Pipe
Clay Refractory
Brick and Shapes
Cement , Hydraulic
Lime
Annual
Production
1000T
15,180
1,800
2,455
73,500
21,200
(a) 100 p
(b) 50 pe
Btu Per
Lb.
900 to 2,000
Use 1,500
1,500 to
5,500
Use 3,500
N.A.
1,800 to
5,300
Use 3,300
1,750 to
3,500
Use 2,000
srcent of thi
rcent of this
Lb. Fuel Per
Day (312 Days
Per Year)
7.5 x 106 (a)
2.0 x 106(a)
77.8 x 106(b)
13.6 x 106(b)
t assumed oil and
assumed oil and )
58
Percent
of Total
Oil and Fuel
Consumption
.08
.02
.45
.08
gas
as
Percent of
Total Bitu-
minous Coal
Consumption
1.80
.32
-------
EQUIPMENT TYPES AND SUBTYPES_
See Below
vo
Box Kilns
No information found
Round Kilns
General
nd Process or Use
und
Products
Sewer Pipe
roducts Co.
ois Clay Products Co.
SIC Code
325 9111
Size Range
Approximately 80
Percent or More
of Total
40 feet diameter
Largest in U.S.
10 ton per day
Fuel T>
4-1 CO
id to
•z e>
X
-i
T-t
o
pes
«
o
VJ
0)
LI
O
Thermal
Requirements
1,500 to 2,100
Btu per pound
Same around
5,500 to 6,000
Btu per pound
Temperature Range
Degrees F
2,000
2,000
-------
EQUIPMENT TYPES AND SUBTYPES
Shuttle Kiln
Industry, Product and Process or Use
Clay Construction Products
Unglazed Brick
Abilene Brick Co.
Comfort Brick & Tile Co.
Clay Floor and Wall Tile - General
Vitrified Clay Sewer Pipe - General
Refractories - Clay and Non-clay
Clay: Brick and Shapes
Non-clay: Alumina - General
J. H. France Refractory Co.
Non-clay : Basic
Pottery and Related Products
Vitreous Plumbing Fixtures - General
Porcelain, Steatite and Other Ceramic
Electric Products
SIC Code
325
325 1111
325 3000
325 9111
325 30XX
329 7XXX
329 7XXX
326
326 10
Size Range
Approximately 80
Percent or More
of Total
62 feet long
35,000 barrels
per day
48 feet long
45 feet long
Fuel Types
J «
« (0
a O
X
X
i-H
•rl
O
rH
fl>
s
I
U
0)
A
4J
O
X*
X*
Thermal
Requirements
1
•*- i
Temperature Range
Degrees F
1,830
2,050
2,100
2,450
2,850
3,250
2,475
3,000
i •- . ... .
- °2
-------
EQUIPMENT TYPE AND SUBTYPES_
Tunnel Kilns
or Manufacturer
Clay Construction Products
Unglazed Brick
Chattahoochee Brick Co.
Cherokee Brick & Tile Co.
Denver Brick & Pipe Co.
Interstate Brick Div. Entrada
Industries
Ottumwa Brick & Tile Co.
Red River Brick & Tile Co.
Pine Hall Co.
General
Vitrified Clay Sewer Pipe
Pacific Clay Products Co.
United Clay Pipe Co.
Clay Floor and Wall Tile
ss or Use,
0.
& Tile Co.
ntrada
•
Co.
SIC Code
325
325 1111
325 9111
325 3000
Size Range
Approximately 80
Percent or More
of Total
523 feet long
380,000 brick/day
274 feet long
104,000 brick/day
535 feet long
102,000 brick/day
280 feet long
140,000 brick/day
445 feet long
100,000 brick/day
258 feet long
80,000 brick/day
248 feet long
55,000 brick/day
400 feet long
100,000 brick/day
328 feet long by
10 feet wide
413 feet long
100 feet long
11,000 sq.ft. /day
Fuel Types
4J CO
nt to
z o
X
X
X
X
X
iH
•H
O
H
CO
O
0
other
Thermal
Requirements
950 Btu
per pound
800 to 1,000
Btu per pound
1,930 Btu per
pound
Temperature Range
Degrees F
2,100
1,940 Buff
2; 03 5 Ivory
2,100 Grey
2,450
-------
EQUIPMENT TYPE AND SUBTYPE_
See Below
Industry, Product and Process or Use
Vertical Kilns
Lime
U.S.Steel
Mfgr: Vulcan Iron Works Co.
Mfgr: Kennedy Van Saun Co.
(Schmid-Hofer kiln)
Circular Kilns
Lime
Ash Grove Lime & Portland Cement Co.
or Use
,
o.
•
ement Co .
SIC Code
3274
3274
Size Range
Approximately 80
Percent or More
of Total
13 feet diameter
by 75 feet high
30T per day
3 shafts
6 feet diameter
by 120 feet high
100T per day to
12 feet diameter
by 120 feet high
700T per day
52 feet OD
125T per day
Fuel
4J 0)
a a
J30
X
X
j
]
1
. T
rH
•H
O
X
ype
iH
rt
O
0
X
-S
14
-------
EQUIPMENT TYPE AND SUBTYPE_
Rotary Kilns
Industry, Product and Process or Use
Cement
Dry Process - General
Dewey Rocky Mtn. Cement Co.
Wet Process - General
Alpha Portland Cement
Lime
Minerals and Earths
Molybdenum Oxide
Climax Molybdenum Co.
Magnesia from Dolomite
Kaiser Refractories
Blast Furnaces, Steel Works
Iron Ore
Empire Iron Mining
Primary Smelting of Non-Ferrous Metals
Mercury
New Indra Mining & Chemical Co.
SIC Code
3241
3274
3295
3312
3339
Size Range
Approximately 80
Percent or More
of Total
17.5 diameter by
590 length
17.3 diameter by
490 length
25 diameter by
750 length
440 length
6 diameter by
60 length
17 diameter by
115 length
5 diameter by
56 length
Ft
•u w
««
;zo
X
el Tyc
i-i
•H
O
X
X
i-H
CB
O
O
es
t-i
01
f
VJ
0
Thermal
Requirements
2,000 Btu
per pound
4,000 Btu
per pound
300 Btu per
pound (pellets!
Temperature Range
Degrees F
2,800
1,475
2,000 to 3,000
2,400
1,100
-------
PROCESSES RESEARCH, INC.
INDUSTRIAL PLANNING AND RBSEARCH
APPENDIX C - BIBLIOGRAPHY
74
-------
PROCESSES RESEARCH,
INDUSTRIAL PLANNING AMD RESEARCH
BIBLIOGRAPHY
General and Combustion Sources
I. Annual Survey of Manufacturers, U.S. Dept. of Commerce, 1968.
2. W. Bartok, et al, "Systems Study of Nitrogen Oxide Control Methods for
Stationary Combustion Sources", Volumes I and II, Esso Research and
Engineering Co., NAFCA, 1969.
3. W. Bartok, A. Crawford, A. Skopp, "Control of NOX Emissions from Stationary
Sources ", Chemical Engineering Progress, Feb. 1971.
4. Census of Manufacturers, U.S. Dept. of Commerce, 1967, 1969.
5. "Chemical Economics Handbook", Stanford Research Institute, 1971.
6. Chemical Engineering Catalogue, Reinhold Publishing Co., 1971.
7. "Control Techniques for Nitrogen Oxide Emissions from Stationary Sources",
NAPCA, 1970.
8. "Guide for Installation and Operation of Oil Burning Units", American Boiler
Manufacturers Assn., 1971.
9. D. Kern, "Process Heat Transfer", McGraw Hill Co., 1950.
10. D. Levaggi, W. Sin, M. Felstein, E. Kothny, "Quantitative Separation of
Nitric Oxide from Nitrogen Dioxide at Atmospheric Concentration Ranges",
Environmental Science & Technology, Mar. 1972.
11. M. McGraw, "Air Pollutant Emission Factors", NAPCA, 1970.
12. Arthur G. McKee & Co., "Systems Study for Control of Emissions Primary
NonFerrous Smelting Industry", Vol. I, NAPCA, 1969.
13. McRaes Blue Book, McRaes Blue Book Co., 1971.
14. J. Newton, "Introduction to Metallurgy", J. Wiley & Sons, 1947.
15. R. Perry, C. Chilton, S. Kirkpatrick, "Chemical Engineers' Handbook",
McGraw Hill Co., 1963.
16. E. Riegel, "Industrial Chemistry", Reinhold Publishing Co., 1962.
17. R. Shreve, "The Chemical Process Industries", McGraw Hill Co., 1945.
75
-------
PROCESSES RESEARCH, INC.
INDUSTRIAL PLANNING AND RESEARCH
18. "Standard Industrial Classification Manual", U. S. Office of Statistical
Standards, 1967.
19. Thomas Register, Thomas Publishing Co., 1971.
20. TRW Inc. "Air Pollutant Emissions Factors", NAPCA, 1970.
21. Waldon Research Corp., "Systematic Study of Air Pollution from Intermediate-
Size Fossil Fuel Combustion Equipment", EPA, 1971.
Gas Turbines
22. "Consider Heavy Oil as a Gas Turbine Fuel", Power, Sept. 1970.
23. W. Cornelius & W. Wade, "Formation and Control of Nitric Oxide in a
Regenerative Gas Turbine Burner", SAE Transactions, Paper 700708, 1970.
24. S. DeCorso, "Firing Gas Turbines to Reduce Pollution", Power, May 1970.
25. "Energy Systems Design Trend Survey - Gas Turbines", Power, Nove. 1971,
Oct. 1970, Oct. 1969.
26. C. Fenimore, N. Hilt & R. Johnson, "Formation and Measurement of Nitrogen
Oxides in Gas Turbines", Gas Turbine International, July-Aug. 1971.
27. J. Porter, "Gas Turbines - Application and Experience", Journal of Petroleum
Technology, Aug. 1968.
28. F. Robson, et al, United Aircraft Research Laboratories, "Technological &
Economic Feasibility of Advanced Power Cycles and Methods of Producing
Nonpolluting Fuels for Utility Power Stations", NAPCA, 1970.
29. R. F. Sawyer, D. P. Tiexeira & E. S. Starkman, "Air Pollution Characteristics
of Gas Turbine Engines", Journal of Engineering for Power, Oct. 1969.
30. R. Schuster, "The Growing Presence of Gas Turbine Combined Cycles", Power
Engineering, Jan. 1972.
31. U. S. Dept. of Commerce, 1971.
32. U. S. Industrial Outlook (Engines and Turbines) 1971.
Kilns
33. "Clay Construction Products Summary for 1970", Current Industrial Reports,
U. S. Dept. of Commerce, Nov. 1971.
76
-------
PROCESSES RESEARCH, INC.
INDUSTRIAL PLANNING AND RESEARCH
34. P. Dressier, "Recuperation - The Key to 40-80% Fuel Savings", Brick & Clay
Record, Apr. 1969.
35. P. Jeffers, "Denver Brick Focuses on Flexibility in New Plant Design",
Brick & Clay Record, Mar. 1971.
36. P. Jeffers, "Description of Various Types of Kilns", Brick & Clay Record,
pp. 31-41, Jan. 1971.
37. "Lime Industry Gets Boost from New Kiln Design", Chemical Engineering,
June 8, 1964.
38. L. Midkiff, Jr., "Unique Kiln Design Can Save Up To 75% Fuel Costs", Brick
& Clay Record, Mar. 1969.
39. L. Oberschmidt, "Widespread Interest Signals the Resurgence of Sand-Lime
Brick", Brick & Clay Record, April 1969.
40. "Refractories Summary for 1970", Current Industrial Reports, U. S. Dept. of
Commerce, Nov. 1971.
41. G. Rummy, Sr., "Jet Firing Creates New Tunnel Design", Brick & Clay Record,
Mar. 1968.
42. S. Sakol & I. Shah, "Removal of Sulfur Dioxide from Clay Kiln Exhaust
Gases", American Ceramics Society Transactions, 1970.
43. J. Seitz, "How to Fire Large Diameter Clay Pipe in a Tunnel Kiln", Brick &
Clay Record, Feb. 1971.
44. L. Stearns, "What is the Best Way to Fire Wall Tile", Ceramic Industry
Magazine, June 1969.
45. J. Svec, "Better Refractories Solve Firing Problems", Ceramic Industry
Magazine, June 1970.
46. "Today's Kilns Ready for Tomorrow's Demands", Ceramic Industry Magazine,
Aug. 1971.
47. "Sulfur-Dioxide Removal from Power Plant Stack Gas by Limestone Injection,"
Combustion, Dec. 1969.
Recent Sources Gas Turbines
48. Gas Turbine Fuel Consumption 1971-1972, Federal Power Commission.
77
-------
PROCESSES RESEARCH, INC.
INDUSTRIAL PLANNING AND RESEARCH
49. Bogdon, L. and McAdams, H. T., "Analysis of Aircraft Exhaust Emission Measure-
ments", Cornell Aero Lab. Report NA-5007-K-1, October 1971.
50. Lipfert, F. W., "Correlation of Gas Turbine Emissions Data", ASME Paper
72-GT-60, March 1972.
51. Klapatch, R. D. and Koblish, T. R., "Nitrogen Oxide Control with Water
Injection in Gas Turbines", ASME Paper 71-WA/GT-9, November 1971.
52. Singh, P. P., Young, W. E. and Ambrose, M. J., "Formation and Control of
Oxides of Nitrogen Emissions From Gas Turbine Combustion Systems", ASME
Paper 72-GT-22, March 1972.
53. Hazard, H. R., "NOX Emission from Experimental Compact Combustors", ASME
Paper 72-GT-108, March 1972.
54. Shaw, H., Taylor, W. F., McCoy, C. J., and Skopp, A., "Continuous Measurement
of Exhaust Emissions from a High Pressure Cannannular Combustor", ASME
Paper 72-GT-88, March 1972.
55. Eatock, H. C. and Stoten, M. D., "Design Study of an Advanced Concept Simple
Gas Turbine for Possible Use in Low Emission Automobiles", ASME Paper
72-GT-101, March 1972.
56. Nelson, A. W., "Exhaust Emission Characteristics of Aircraft Gas Turbine
Engines", ASME Paper 72-GT-75, March 1972.
57. Hefner, W. J., "A New Generation Heavy Duty Gas Turbine for Pipeline Applica-
tions," ASME Paper 72-GT-83, March 1972.
58. Biancardi, F. R., Peters, G. T., "Advanced Nonpolluting Gas Turbine for
Utility Applications in Urban Environments", ASME Paper 72-GT-64,
March 1972.
78
-------
BIBLIOGRAPHIC DATA
SHEET
1. Report No.
EPA-R2-73-174
3. Recipient's Accession No.
4. Yule and Subtitle
Identification and Classification of Combustion Source
Equipment
5. Report Date
February 1973
6.
7. Author(s)
C.O. Bieser
8. Performing Organization Kept.
No.
9. Performing Organization Name and Address
Processes Research, Inc.
2912 Vernon Place
Cincinnati, Ohio 45219
10. Project/Task/Work Unit No.
Task 6
11. Contract/Gram No.
68-02-0242
12. Sponsoring Organization Name and Address
EPA/Office of Research and Monitoring
NERC-RTP/Control Systems Laboratory
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711
13. Type of Report & Period
Covered
Final
14.
IS. Supplementary Notes
16. Abstracts The report classifies approximately 130 types of stationary fuel-burning
equipment that can emit air pollutants. It presents more detailed information
(including fuels, sizes, processes, industries, products, and manufacturers) on gas
turbines and kilns. Gas ^turbine-related facts reported include: present installed
capacity should double in the next 5-9 years; present national fuel use is about 1 to
1-1/2% of the total consumption of natural gas and oil; and the major pollutant is NOx,
with smoke a secondary, more controllable contaminant. Kiln-related facts, some-
what limited, include: growth rates of related industries are low, except for being
moderate in the lime industry; present total national fuel use is about 1/2 to 1% of
the natural gas and oil, and about 2 to 2-1/2% of the bituminous coal (cement and
lime industries account for more than 75% of the gas and oil, and nearly all of the
coal consumed); and there is almost no emissions data available.
17. Key Words and Document Analysis. 17o. Descriptors
Air Pollution
Combustion
Equipment
Fuels
Coal
Natural Gas
Oils
Kilns
Gas Turbines
17b. Identifiers/Open-Ended Terms
Air Pollution Control
Stationary Sources
Nitrogen Oxides
Fuel Consumption
Industries
Capacity
Manufacturers
Marketing
17e. COSATI Field/Group
21E
18. Availability Statement
Unlimited
19.. Security Class (This
Report)
UNCLASSIFIED
\SSIFII
Ilass (1
20. Security Class (This
Page
UNCLASSIFIED
21. No. of Pages
81
22. Price
FORM NTIS-35 (REV. 3-72)
USCOMM-DC 14AS2-P72
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