;  n u»2

vsei;ss    uy

                  of  Conventional
o
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  the  Iron  rind Stee

                           Indusry
                           Office of Rfcsearch «nd Monitorinn
                           US Frivironipent?*! Protection Agency
                           Washington. D.C 20460

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                                           EPA-R2-73-192

Systems  Study  of Conventional

         Combustion Sources

 in the Iron and Steel  Industry
                        by

               J. Goldish, G. Margolis,
             J. Ehrenfeld, and R. Bernstein

              Walden Research Corporation
                  359 Allston Street
             Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139
               Contract No.  EHSD 71-21
               Program Element No. 1A2014
            EPA Project Officer:  G. B. Martin

               Control Systems Laboratory
          National Environmental Research Center
        Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711
                    Prepared for

            OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND MONITORING
           U. S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
                WASHINGTON, D. C. 20460

                    April 1973

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This report has been reviewed by the Environmental Protection Agency
and approved for publication.  Approval does not signify that the
contents necessarily reflect the views and policies of the Agency,
nor does mention of trade names or comnercial products constitute
endorsement or recommendation for us.
                                 11

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                            TABLE OF CONTENTS


Section                           Title                             Page

  I          SUMMARY 	    1

             A.  Background, Definitions and Assumptions 	    1
             B.  Boiler Inventories 	    4
             C.  Fuel Consumption and Boiler Emissions 	    4
             D.  Process Emissions 	    8
             E.  Comparison of Boiler and Process Emissions 	   12
             F.  Control Strategi es 	   12
             G.  Cost Effectiveness 	   15
             H.  Conclusions and Recommendations 	   17

                 1.  Conclusions 	   17
                 2.  Recommendations 	   17

  II         INTRODUCTION 	   20

  III        INVENTORIES OF BOILER CAPACITIES, FUEL USE, AND
             EMISSIONS  	   22

             A.  Definitions 	   22

                 1.  Size 	   22
                 2.  Regions 	   22
                 3.  Fuels  	   24
                 4.  Firing Type 	   24
                 5.  Age 	   25

             B.  Methodology 	   25

                 1.  The Boiler Sample 	   25
                 2.  The 1970 Boi 1 er Inventory 	   25
                 3.  Operating Factors 	   26
                 4.  Projections 	   26
                 5.  Fuel Use 	   28
                 6.  Emissions 	   28

             C.  Results 	   28

                 1.  1970 Boiler Inventory and Fuel Consumption  ..   29
                 2.  Projected Boiler Inventories and Fuel
                     Consumption 	   33
                 3.  Current and Projected Boiler Emissions 	   39

  IV         PROCESS EMISSIONS 	   44

             A.  Introduction 	   44
                                                          WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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                       TABLE OF CONTENTS (Cont.)


Section                           Title                             Page

  IV         B.  Methodology 	    45

                 1.  Conventional  Process Emissions 	    45
                 2.  Fuel Based Emissions 	    53

             C.  Results and Discussion 	    64

  V          COMPARISON OF BOILER EMISSIONS TO PROCESS
             EMISSIONS 	    70

  VI         STRATEGIES FOR EMISSION CONTROL 	    74

             A.  Introduction 	    74
             B.  Fuel  Switching 	    74

                 1.  General Approach 	    74
                 2.  Fuel Pri ces 	    75
                 3.  Capital Costs Involved in Fuel Switching ...    75

             C.  Fl ue  Gas Treatment 	    76

                 1. Particulate Control  	    76
                 2. Sulfur Oxide  Removal  	    80
                 3. NO  Removal and Recovery 	    90
                       X

             D.  Combustion Design 	    90

                 1.  Combustion Additives  	    90
                 2. Combustion Design 	    92

             E.  Control  Strategies of Special  Application to the
                 Iron  and Steel  Industry  	    95

  VII         COST EFFECTIVENESS AND ANALYSIS 	    98

             A.  Introduction 	    98
             B.  Results  	    99

                 1.  Fuel  Switching 	    99
                 2.  Flue Gas Treatment 	    99
                 3.  Maximum Reduction -  Reasonable Cost
                    Strategy 	   101

  VIII        CONCLUSIONS  AND RECOMMENDATIONS 	   105

             A.   Conclusions 	   105
             B.   Recommendations 	   105
                                  •j v                     WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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Section
  VIII

APPENDIX A
APPENDIX B
APPENDIX C
APPENDIX D
1.
2.
                        TABLE OF CONTENTS (Cont.)
             Title
Improvements of the Present Study
Implementation of Fuel  Switching .
DATA ANALYSIS AND BOILER INVENTORY
PROJECTIONS OF BOILERS TO THE YEAR 1980
PROCESS EMISSIONS
EMISSION FACTORS AND BOILER EMISSIONS
Page
 105
 106
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                                                          WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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I.  SUMMARY

    A.  BACKGROUND, DEFINITIONS AND ASSUMPTIONS

        Process emissions from the iron and steel  industry have been
studied in the past, with little attention given to the contribution to
air pollution of the conventional fossil fuel  combustion equipment cur-
rently installed in steel mills.  This study determines this contribution,
compares it to process emissions and considers potential means to control
the boiler emissions.

        The study identified the pollutant sources according to equipment
size, regional distribution, fuel, firing type, age and other factors of
significance to air pollution emissions.  Estimates of installed capacity
were made for the base year, 1970, and projections were made for 1975
and 1980.

        This study includes only watertube boilers (WT).  The data-base
was obtained from a variety of sources.  Sales data were made available
by the American Boiler Manufacturers Association (ABMA) [1-1] and several
individual boiler manufacturers.  Statistics compiled from the yearly
boiler surveys, published by Power magazine [1-2] were used for checking
purposes.  Data on the boilers actually in operation were obtained
from government agencies and telephone interviews with about 70 iron
and steel plants across the country.  The data were summarized by six
regions (Figure 1-1).

        These geographical regions are similar to those used in the
Intermediate Size Boiler Study [1-5].  The rationale behind the choice
of these regions was two-fold.  First, the states in these areas are
considered to have similar air pollution conditions, and secondly, such
a regional grouping allowed comparison with air pollution resulting from
boilers in U.S. industries in general.
                                                         WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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Figure 1-1.  Regional Boundaries

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Assumptions

(1)  In order to obtain a complete 1970 inventory from this sample, the
     assumption was made that employment in the iron and steel  industry
     was proportional  to the boiler capacity in the industry.

(2)  It was assumed that the number of units and the wide scope of the
     study permitted the application of average operating characteristics,
     emission factors, fuel prices, etc.

(3)  No controls for S(L and NO  were assumed in developing the emission
                       £-       s\
     estimates.  The process particulate emissions are shown partially
     controlled, based on estimates and available statistics.   The boiler
     particulate emissions are shown uncontrolled.

(4)  In developing projections one of the main assumptions used was that
     the ratio of the boiler capacity used for non-power purposes to the
     total tons of raw steel produced in 1970 [1-3] would remain constant
     over the years.  Projected production figures were obtained from
     the BatteHe study of the integrated iron and steel industry Il-4].

(5)  The energy required to produce the projected raw steel [1-4] for
     1975 and 1980 was determined by means of linear regression of
     historical data [1-3].  The fraction of the total energy generated
     in-house was used to arrive at the boiler capacity required for
     power generation.

(6)  Fuel distribution for the projected years was based on the fuel
     patterns developed in the Walden study of intermediate-size
     boilers [1-5] and projections of raw steel requirements made by
     Battelle [1-4].

(7)  No changes in boiler operating factors, such as boiler efficiency,
     load factor, fuel sulfur content, were assumed in the boiler
     projections.
                                                          WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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     B.   BOILER INVENTORIES

         The  total  estimated  capacity  of  boilers  installed  in  the  iron
 and  steel  industry in  1970 was  103.5  million  pounds of  steam  an hour
 (pph),  representing approximately  1,600  units.   Table 1-1  shows a sum-
 mary of this  inventory by region and  fuel.

         Projections of boiler capacities were made in the  following
 manner.  The  energy required to produce  the raw  steel projected by the
 BatteHe Systems Study of the Integrated Iron and Steel  Industry  [1-4]
 was  determined.  The total energy  required for the iron  and steel in-
 dustry  was derived from this figure.  The estimated boiler capacity
 required to produce this energy was obtained  by  projecting the percentage
 of the  total  power generated in-house.  This  gave 1975  and 1980 figures
 for  the  boiler  capacity to be used for power  generation.   The assumption
 was  then made that the ratio of boiler capacity  used for non-power
 purposes to the total  tons of raw  steel produced in 1970 would remain
 constant over the  years.  Using the Battelle  projections of raw steel
 production [1-4] the boiler capacity  needed for  process  and space heating
 was  derived for 1975 and 1980.  By summing the capacities  required for
 power generation and for process and  space heating the  total  projected
 boiler  capacities  were  found to be 116.8 and  125.0 million pounds per
 hour for 1975 and  1980, respectively.  Regional  projections of fuel use
 and  the  various boiler  sizes were derived from the Walden  study of in-
 termediate-size boilers [1-5].  The projected boiler inventories are shown
 in Table 1-2.

    C.   FUEL  CONSUMPTION AND BOILER EMISSIONS

        The annual   fuel consumption of boilers was calculated by using
the following formula:

R  ,   _ capacity  (Ib/hr)  x load factor x 8760 (hours/yr)  x 975 (Btu/lb)
Btu/yr                            efficiency
                                                         WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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                                      TABLE 1-1

                1970  BOILER  CAPACITY  IN  THE IRON  AND STEEL INDUSTRY*
(103 pph)
Boilers
WT<_100,000 pph




WT1 00, 001 -250, 000 pph




WT>250,000 pph




TOTAL
Fuels
CL
RO
GS
BFG
COG
CL
RO
GS
BFG
COG
CL
RO
GS
BFG
COG

AT
1,729
2,247
5,013
5,878
2,420
1,317
1,712
3,820
4,478
1,844
1,070
1,391
3,104
3,639
1,498
41,160
GL
3,956
1,148
2,425
3,829
1,404
4,698
1,364
2,879
4,546
1,667
3,709
1,077
2,273
3,589
1,316
39,880
WS
73
182
1,277
1,131
985
42
106
739
655
570
77
192
1,344
1,190
1,037
9,600
SE
1,439
135
1,170
1,260
495
864
81
702
756
297
1,810
170
1,470
1,584
622
12,855
Total
7,197
3,712
9,885
12,098
5,304
6,921
3,263
8,140
10,435
4,378
6,666
2,830
8,191
10,002
4,473
103,495
*
 Regions CU and RN were not included because  of  negligible  participation in the
 primary iron and steel industry.
                                                               WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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                                                        TABLE 1-2


                            PROJECTED BOILER CAPACITY IN THE IRON AND STEEL  INDUSTRY  BY  SIZE

                                                        (106 pph)

WT
WT
WT


£100,000 pph
100,001-250,000 pph
>250,000 pph

AT
1975
21.1
14.4
11.3
46.8
1980
23.5
15.6
11.2
50.3
GL
1975
15.6
16.5
12.7
44.8
1980
17.0
17.9
12.6
47.5
WS
1975
4.5
2.3
4.0
10.8
1980
4.7
3.7
4.0
12.4
SE
1975
5.5
2.9
6.0
14.4
1980
5.8
3.1
5.9
14.8
Total
1975
46.7
36.1
34.0
116.8 1
1980
51.0
40.3
33.7
25.0

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The 1970 fuel consumption pattern is shown in Figure 1-2.  It is noted that

almost half of the fuel used consists of fuels generated elsewhere in the

iron and steel plant.
                                       Coke Oven Gas

                                           119.7
                    Blast Furnace Gas

                          275.4
      Figure 1-2.  1970 Fuel Consumption by Boilers in the Iron and
                   Steel Industry in 10^2 Btu.***


         Uncontrolled boiler emissions were calculated according to the

following equations:


cn  /.   x   fuel consumption (Btu/yr) x emission factor  (Ib/Btu) x % sulfur
bU2 uonsj                            2000 Ob/ton)
wn  t+n  \
MUX itons;
(tons)
             fuel consumption (Btu/yr) x emission factor  (Ib/Btu)
                                2000 ( ID/ ton)


             - fuel consumption (Btu/yr) x emission factor  Qb/Btu) x %  ash**
             - - - * - — •ynnn — M k /-I-««A             - -
                                       2000  (Ib/ton)
         For the conventional fuels the emission factors, sulfur  and  ash

contents used for industrial intermediate-size boilers, were  applied  [1-5].
 **
***
   Only in the case of coal- or oil-fired boilers
  V
   Only in the case of coal-fired boilers
  Ir
   Distillate oil use in the iron and steel industry is negligible.
                                                          WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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The  corresponding  factors for  blast  furnace gas and  coke oven gas were
obtained  by studying the process which  creates these gases  (see Appendix
C).  The  estimated air pollution emissions for 1970  and the  projected
figures for 1975 and 1980 are  summarized  in Tables 1-3, 1-4  and 1-5.

        From these results it  is clearly  evident that the combustion of
the  fossil fuels (as compared  to the non-conventional fuels) produce the
major fraction of the emissions.  Blast furnace gas  and coke oven gas
are  relatively clean fuels when compared  to coal and fuel oil.

     D.  PROCESS EMISSIONS

        Process emissions in the iron and steel industry emanate from
two  distinct types of sources:

        (i)   emission produced during the handling  of raw materials
              and the subsequent processing of these materials to pro-
              duce steel, i.e., the conventional process emissions.

        (ii)  emissions resulting from non-boiler fuel combustion needed
              to meet the energy demands during the manufacturing steps

     (i)  Conventional Process  Emissions

         The conventional process emissions were determined by calculating
the emissions  for each of the  following processes in the iron and steel
industry:

         (1)  Sinter plants
         (2)  Pellet Plants
         (3)  Coke manufacture
         (4)  Blast furnaces
         (5)  Steel furnaces
              - Open  hearth
              - Basic oxygen furnace (EOF)
              - Electric  arc furnace
         (6)   Scarfing
         (7)   Materials handling
                                                         WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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                                                          TABLE 1-3
                                       SUMMARY
OF PROJECTED S02 EMISSIONS  (TO3  tons)
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T3
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X)

AT
GL
WS
SE
TOTAL
Fossil
Fuels
81.2
206.9
6.0
49.0
343.1
1970
Non-
Conventional
Fuels
37.7
28.5
16.8
9.2
92.2
Total
118.9
235.4
22.8
58.2
435.3
Fossil
Fuels
67.8
228.3
7.3
42.9
346.3
1975
Non-
Conventional
Fuels
36.8
35.2
9.1
11.0
92.1
Total
104.6
263.5
16.4
53.9
438.4
Fossil
Fuels
76.1
249.9
8.1
45.0
379.1
1980
Non-
Conventional
Fuels
39.6
37.1
9.7
11.7
98.1
Total
115.7
287.0
17.7
56.7
477.2
TABLE 1-4


AT
GL
WS
SE
TOTAL

Fossil
Fuels
73.2
227.6
4.0
67.9
372.7
SUMMARY
1970
Non-
Conventional
Fuels
2.4
1.9
.7
.6
5.6
OF PROJECTED PARTICULATES EMISSIONS (103
Total
75.5
229.5
4.7
68.5
378.3
Fossil
Fuels
51.2
247.8
5.5
62.4
366.9
1975
Non-
Conventional
Fuels
2.1
2.1
.1
.7
5.4
Total
53.3
249.9
6.0
63.1
372.3
tons)
Fossil
Fuels
55.3
276.4
6.1
65.6
403.4

1980
Non-
Conventional
Fuels
2.1
1.9
.6
.6
5.2

Total
57.4
278.3
6.7
66.2
408.6

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                                                         TABLE 1-5



                                       SUMMARY OF PROJECTED NOV EMISSIONS  (103  tons)
                                                              X

AT
GL
WS
SE
TOTAL
Fossil
Fuels
32.4
49.8
4.4
15.8
102.4
1970
Non-
Conventional
Fuels
12.9
10.4
5.2
3.3
31.8
Total
45.3
60.2
9.6
19.1
134.2
Fossil
Fuels
36.1
56.0
6.8
15.9
114.8
1975
Non-
Conventional
Fuels
12.4
12.2
3.0
4.0
31.6
Total
48.5
68.2
9.8
19.9
146.4
Fossil
Fuels
41.8
62.4
8.5
17.0
129.7
1980
Non-
Conventional
Fuels
12.4
12.1
3.3
4.0
31.8
Total
54.2
74.5
11.8
21.0
161.5
O

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the emission calculations were based on the input/output data for each
source [1-4], and where reliable statistics were available, controlled
particulate emissions were calculated.  Thus the particulate process
emissions, as shown in this report, may be considered partially controlled,
whereas no control was assumed for process emissions of S09 and NO .
                                                          C-       s\
         Process emission projections were based on projections of pro-
duction figures obtained from the Battelle report [1-4] and analysis of
the various manufacturing steps which cause them.  The results are sum-
marized in Table 1-6.
                               TABLE 1-6
      CONVENTIONAL PROCESS EMISSIONS OF THE IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY
                               CIO3 tons)

                        1970              1975              1980
                   S09  Part.  N0v   S09  Part.  NO    SO-  Part.  NO
                     L-           X     L,           X     £           X
Sirter Plants
Pellet Plants
32
*
Coke Manufacture *
Blast Furnaces
Steel Furnaces
Open Hearth
B.O.F.
Electric Arc
Scarfing
Materials
Handling
TOTALS
*
Emissions less
(ii) Fuel
*

35
2
*
*
*

69 1
than 500
Combustion
96
*
152
*

312
28
28
63
446

,125
tons
24
*
*
*

25
*
*
*
*

49
Process Emi
39
*
*
*

31
2
*
*
*

72 1
ssions
117
*
155
*

189
36
15
73
533

,118

29
*
*
*

22
*
*
*
*

51

42
*
*
*

25
3
*
*
*

70

124
*
159
*

8
46
20
86
612

955

31
*
*
*

18
*
*
*
*

49

          Five fuels are extensively used in the  iron and  steel  industry
to supply process energy:  fuel oil, natural gas, tar and  pitch,  coke  oven
gas and blast furnace gas.  The latter three fuels are  produced  within
                                  11                      WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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 the steel  mill  as  by-products  and  their  production  depends  on  the  coke
 rate and ultimately  on  pig  iron  requirements.

         1970  fuel  oil and natural  gas  consumption figures were available
 in  the  annual  reports of the American  Iron  and Steel  Institute (AISI) [1-3].
 Future  consumption of these fuels  was  determined by projecting time series
 available  in  the AISI reports  as well  as  the ratios between fuel and pig
 iron, open  hearth  steel and raw  steel  production.

         A  summary  of the calculated  emissions is shown  in Table 1-7.

     E.   COMPARISON OF BOILER AND PROCESS  EMISSIONS

         Figure  1-3 shows the boiler  and process emissions in the iron
 and  steel  industry from 1970 to  1980.

         It must be emphasized  that S09 and  NO  emissions are shown un-
                                     ^      A
 controlled, representing the actual  situation in 1970.  The particulate
 emissions are shown  uncontrolled for boilers and partially  controlled for
 process  emissions.   This is due to the lack of data on  air  pollution con-
 trol equipment  installed on boilers  in the  iron and steel industry.  The
 comparison between boiler and  process  particulate emissions  is  therefore
 not  as straightforward as the  comparison  for the other  two  pollutants.
The  fact remains,  however,  that the boilers in the  iron and  steel  in-
dustry are major contributors  to the total S09 and  NO   emissions,  and
                                             £       X
represent a significant portion of the total particulate emissions.

     F.  CONTROL STRATEGIES

        The analysis of control of emissions from boilers was  approached
in terms of strategies for both control of the separate three  pollutants
and  also in terms of combined  emissions.   The principal control approaches
examined were:

        1.   Fuel Switching
        2.   Flue Gas Treatment
               Particulate Collectors
               S02 Removal  Systems
               NO  Removal  Systems
                 J\

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                                                         TABLE 1-7


                     PROCESS EMISSIONS  FROM NON-BOILER FUEL COMBUSTION IN THE  IRON  AND  STEEL INDUSTRY
                                                          (tons)

Blast Furnace Area
Coke Oven Underfiring
Heating and Annealing
Furnaces and Heating
Ovens for Wire Rods
TOTALS
1970
S02 Part.
2,220
106,725 2,515
194,000 7,170

300,725 11,905
NOX SO,
160
5,900 95,000
5,600 196,500

11,660 291,500
1975
Part.
2,400
2,300
8,300

13,000
N0x
170
6,000
6,700

12,870
1980
S02 Part.
2,200
97,000 2,500
205,500 9,300

302,500 14,000
NOX
170
6,000
7,700

13,870

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805
370
             850
 435
  xx
364
       X
438
373
                X
477
 1970  1975  1980
        S00
                               195
                                     210
                                           225
                        61

69
                                     146
                                            63
                                   L162
                        1970   1975   1980
                               NO..
                                                          1,515  l5
                                                1970  1975  1980
                                                  Particulates
     = Boilers
        Figure  1-3.   Boiler  and  Process  Emissions  1970-1980 (103 tons).
                                       14
                                                            WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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        3.  Combustion Design
               Fuel Additives
               Combustion Modifications and Control
                  Low Excess Air (LEA)
                  Flue Gas Recirculation (FGR)
        4.  Strategies of Particular Application to the Iron and Steel
            Industry

        Estimates of the applicability, pollution reducing potential and
cost of implementing each control strategy were obtained.

    G.  COST EFFECTIVENESS

        The cost effectiveness of applying the following three control
strategies were examined:

        1.  Fuel Switching
        2.  Flue Gas Treatment - Alkaline Scrubbing
        3.  Maximum Reduction-Reasonable Cost Total Program, i.e.,
            combination of fuel switching, fuel additives and combus-
            tion modifications.

        Fuel switching emerged as the most effective strategy.  However,
flue gas treatment approximates fuel switching in its combined effect on
the simultaneous removal of all of the pollutants, although the initial
capital costs of flue gas treatment are much higher than fuel switching.
These results are shown in Table 1-8.

        The relative effectiveness of fuel switching depends on the price
of fuel, which in turn depends on its availability.  No models for avail-
ability were introduced in the cost effectiveness analysis.

        Should, however, the price of fuel increase rapidly due to demand,
so that fuel switching would not become as attractive, it was concluded
that the iron and steel industry was in a fairly favorable position to
adopt other control strategies because of the high load factors of the
boilers and the general level of maintenance available in the industry.
                                                         WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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                                                        TABLE  1-8


                            ALTERNATIVE  STRATEGIES  FOR BOILERS IN  THE IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY
                                   SO,
                  NO.
                         Particulates
                          Emissions
         Emissions
                     Emissions
                          10   tons/Y   Reduction   10  tons/Y  Reduction   10  tons/Y  Reduction
                                       Cost

                                       $ 106
                                           Annual
                                 Capital  Operating
     1975  Projected  Base
       Level                  438


     Fuel  Switching           134


     Flue  Gas  Treatment       22
69


95
146


129


117
11


20
372


 17


 17
95


95
11.6


238
39.0


137

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    H.  CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

        1.  Conclusions

            Three major conclusions emerge from this study:

            (a)  Steam raising boilers are a significant source of air
                 pollution in the iron and steel industry.  These boilers
                 emit about 1/3 the particulate loadings of the process
                 emissions but produce annually about half of the total
                 S0? and two thirds of the NO .
                   ^                         /\
            (b)  A significant fraction of the particulate and S0?
                 emissions from the boilers result from the combustion
                 of conventional fossil fuels.  This is a result of the
                 relative cleanliness (with respect to particulates and
                 sulfur) of coke oven gas and blast furnace gas as com-
                 pared to the conventional fossil fuels.

            (c)  Mainly as a consequence of (b), it is concluded from
                 the control strategy cost effectiveness analyses that
                 fuel switching would be the most effective means of
                 control.

        2.  Recommendations

            Examination of the results of the development of emission
estimates and projections and analysis of control strategies point to two
principal sets of recommendations:

            (1)  Improvement on the present study
            (2)  Implementation of fuel switching

            a.  Improvements of the Present Study

                The first set reflects uncertainties and limitations
resulting from assumptions, idealizations and imperfect data inputs in-
herent in the analytic procedures employed in the study.
                                   1 7                     WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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                Anticipating  that  strategy evaluation appears more meaning-
 ful  on  the  basis  of  combined  effects on all three pollutants, it would be
 valuable  to develop  a parallel means to combine the emissions into a single
 quantity  using  some  weighting factor to account for permissible levels of
 exposure.

                Other improvements are more direct.  The study should be
 updated and checked  against actual future developments.  More fine
 structure should  be  introduced.  There is need to improve the emission
 factor data and the  information concerning the fraction of units controlled.
 This  information  is  required  particularly for the process emissions where
 very  little information is available and yet these "rough" emission esti-
 mates would suggest  that the  iron and steel industry is a significant in-
 dustrial  polluter.

                The  fuel switching analysis depends on several key as-
 sumptions regarding  fuel price and availability.  Re-examination considering
 supply price forecasts should be made.

            b.  Implementation of Fuel Switching

                Fuel  switching was shown to be the preferred control
 strategy  as long  as  fuel prices do not increase.  However, recent trends
 in prices, particularly for low sulfur fuels, would suggest rapid increases
 in the near future.  Because fuel switching has many attractive features
other than low annual operating cost, it is important to seek means to
maintain  the price of fuel and the adequacy of supply at levels where
this strategy remains effective.
                                   18                    WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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                         REFERENCES TO SECTION I


1-1.  American Boiler Manufacturers Association, Annual  Reports on Water-
      tube Boiler Sales, 1947-1970.

1-2.  Annual Boiler Surveys by Power Magazine, 1940-1970.

1-3.  Statistical Reports, American Iron and Steel  Industry, 1968-1970.

1-4.  A Systems Analysis Study of the Integrated Iron and  Steel Industry,
      BatteHe Memorial Institute, Columbus, Ohio,  1964".

1-5.  Systematic Study of Air Pollution from Intermediate-Size Fossil-
      Fuel Combustion Equipment,'Balden Research Corporation, Cambridge,
      Mass., 1971.
                                  19                     WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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 II.   INTRODUCTION

      This report describes  the  results,  methodology,  and  data  base  for  a
 study of air pollution  from conventional  combustion sources  in  the  pri-
 mary iron and steel  industry.   This work has  been  carried out  under Con-
 tract No.  EHS-D-71-21,  sponsored  by the  Office  of  Research and  Monitor-
 ing  (OR&M)  of the  U.S.  Environmental  Protection Agency.

      The purpose of  this  systems  study was:

      (1)  to obtain  a complete  and current inventory  of conventional
 stationary  fossil  fuel  combustion equipment installed in  the iron and
 steel  industry,

      (2)  to project into the future  the boiler inventory installed in
 this  industry,

      (3)  to calculate  SO ,  NO  ,  and  particulate emissions resulting
                         /\    J\
 from  these  types of  conventional  fossil  fuel  combustion equipment for
 the present and future,

      (4) to compare these  emissions  to  total process  emissions in  the
 iron  and steel industry,

      (5) to study the  cost  effectiveness and program  required  of con-
 trol  strategies, applicable  to  the boilers in the  iron and steel in-
 dustry.

     The work was divided into  the following  phases:

      I.  Identification of the  1970,  1975, and  1980 boiler inventories,
and calculation of the fuel   consumed  by these boilers  and the air pol-
lution resulting therefrom.

     II.  Identification of  the 1970, 1975, and  1980 process emissions.

     III.  Comparison of the emissions from conventional  boilers to pro-
cess emissions.
                                  20                     WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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    IV.  Techno-economic evaluation of air pollution control.

     V.  Program planning outline.

     The boiler data for this study were obtained from a variety of
sources, including the American Boiler Manufacturers Association (ABMA),
Power magazine's yearly boiler surveys, government agencies, and tele-
phone interviews with approximately 70 iron and steel plants.  Fuel con-
sumption and emission figures were derived from these boiler capacity
data, using operating characteristics gathered in the above-mentioned
sample.

     The process emissions were calculated in two steps:

     (1)  Emissions produced during the handling of raw materials and
the subsequent processing of these materials to produce steel were de-
termined.  Where it was possible to estimate the degree of controls the
emissions were reduced accordingly.  The calculations were performed by
considering each of the following separate processing operations:

          (a)  Sinter plants
          (b)  Pellet plants
          (c)  Coke manufacture
          (d)  Blast furnaces
          (e)  Steel furnaces
          (f)  Scarfing
          (g)  Materials handling

     (2)  The emissions resulting from the combustion of fuel needed to
meet energy demands during the above manufacturing steps were estimated.

The comparison between these partially controlled process emissions and
the uncontrolled emissions resulting from the boilers in the industry in-
dicated the need to control both sources.  Alternate control strategies
are suggested at the end of this report to control the significant emis-
sions from the conventional fossil fuel combustion equipment in the iron
and steel industry.  A guideline to the determination of the cost effec-
tiveness of each strategy is given.
                                  21                      WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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 III.   INVENTORIES OF  BOILER  CAPACITIES,  FUEL USE. AND EMISSIONS

       A.   DEFINITIONS

           This  section  defines the  various categories used to identify
 and classify  fossil fuel  burning equipment and to note some of the cod-
 ing used  in this  report.   Fossil fuel  burning equipment is broken down
 according to:

           (1)   Size
           (2)   Region
           (3)   Fuel
           (4)   Firing type (for coal only)
           (5)   Age

           1.  Size

              The watertube  boilers have been reported in three size
 classes:   less  than or  equal to 100,000 Ib per hour (pph), between
 100,000 and 250,000 pph and  greater than 250,000 pph.

           2.  Regions

              Four regions were used in this study (Figure 3-1).  A sum-
 mary description  of these four regions follows:

              The Atlantic region (AT) includes New York, Pennsylvania,
 Delaware,  Maryland, Connecticut, and Massachusetts.  This is a very dense,
 nearly continuous band of large, mature, urban areas.  The urbanization
 is  supported by an exceptionally broad economic base including a wide
 variety of types and  sizes of manufacturing enterprises as well  as the
 nation's educational,  financial, and government centers.   The region ex-
periences moderately cold winters and uses oil  for most of its space
heating.  The pollution problem is aggravated by shallow atmospheric
mixing depths  but relieved by relatively high wind speeds and the in-
frequency of low-level stability.

              The Great Lakes region (GL) includes Michigan, Illinois,
Indiana, Ohio, Minnesota,  and Missouri.  A second group of large, mature,
                                  22                     WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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Figure 3-1.  Regional Boundaries

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 urban areas,  different  only  in degree  from the Atlantic coastal megalop-
 olis, having  slightly less dense surroundings, somewhat wider spacing of
 urban centers,  and  an economy more  characterized by large, mass-production
 industry.   The  two  regions also differ in fuel use, with the Great Lakes
 region dividing  its consumption among  coal, oil, and gas.  Although the
 region is  characterized by relatively  favorable atmospheric dilution,
 the  population  and  industrial load  results in high pollution levels.

              The Southeast  region  (SE)  includes Alabama, Georgia,
 Kentucky and  West Virginia.  This region has medium-size, widely separ-
 ated, mature  metropolitan areas, surrounded by a fairly dense statewide
 population.   The cities are  supported  by manufacturing.  The warmer
 climate reduces  space heating emissions, but frequent atmospheric stag-
 nation concentrates the pollutants which are emitted.

              The Far West and South region (WS) includes Texas, Utah
 and  California.  This region has a group of large, new, fast-growing
 urban areas which are widely scattered over the otherwise sparsely-
 settled  territory.   Relatively little  manufacturing and a warm climate
 tend  to  mitigate pollution from stationary combustion units.  The large,
 disperse urban areas, however, generate high volumes of automobile exhaust,
 which in several areas are concentrated by poor atmospheric conditions.

              Other  states are not included in this survey because of a
 negligible participation in the primary iron and steel  industry.

          3.  Fuels

              The fuels considered were the conventional  fossil fuels,
 coal   (CL), residual  oil  (RO), and natural gas (GS) and the derived fuels:
 blast  furnace gas (BFG)  and coke oven gas (COG).   Distillate oil use by
 industrial  watertube boilers in the iron and steel industry is negligible.

          4.  Firing Type (for coal  only)

              No specific data on firing methods were collected for this
study, and it was decided to distribute the coal  firing methods according
to the nationwide distribution of firing types of coal-burning intermediate-
                                    24                    WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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size watertube boilers £3-1].  This is necessary because the firing types
reflect differences in emissions as well  as control  costs.   The types con-
sidered were:  pulverized coal (PV), cyclone firing (CY), overfed stoker
(OF), spreader stoker (SS), and underfed  stoker (UF).

          5.  Age

              From the Wai den sample, age data were collected in two
categories:  less than or equal to 20 years old, and older than 20 years.
In the emission calculations, age was not taken into account, because
the information required for this adjustment to the emission factors
would really be too detailed for the scope of this study.

      B.  METHODOLOGY

          This section indicates briefly  the methodology used to arrive
at the boiler inventories, the fuel consumed by these boilers and the
resulting emissions.  For a more detailed explanation, the reader is
referred to Appendices A, B and D.

          1.  The Boiler Sample

              The Walden sample of boilers in the iron and steel industry
was obtained from the following major sources:  The American Boiler Manu-
facturers Association, several boiler manufacturers, yearly boiler sur-
veys published by Power magazine (1940-1970), government agencies, tele-
phone interviews with approximately 70 iron and steel  plants across the
country, and detailed boiler data provided by three of the four largest
integrated  steel producers in the country:  U.S. Steel, Bethlehem Steel,
and Jones & Laughlin.

          2.  The 1970 Boiler Inventory

          This sample represented about two thirds of the total employ-
ment in the iron and steel industry.  In  order to arrive at a complete
inventory,  the sample was summarized by state.  Statewide employment in
the iron and steel industry as obtained from County Business Patterns [3-2],
and individual plant employment figures as obtained from the Dun & Bradstreet
                                   25                    WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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 Metal working Directory [3-3]  were used  to  proportion  the  sample  in  order
 to arrive at a complete 1970  inventory.  The  smaller  cast iron and  fire-
 tube boilers, used at some plants, were  excluded  from the totals (see
 Appendix A).  This hardly affected total capacity figures in  each region
 and only reduced the number of boilers  slightly.

           3.  Operating Factors
 77%.
        The load factor of the boilers in the sample averaged about
The weighted efficiencies for the various boiler sizes were:   73%,
 78% and  84%,  respectively for watertube  boilers  less  than  or  equal  to
 100,000  pph,  between  100,000 and  250,000 pph,  and  greater  than  250,000
 pph.   The firing  method  distribution  was that  of intermediate-size  water-
 tube boilers  in general  [3-1].  This  distribution  is  shown in Table 3-1.

                                TABLE 3-1

               PERCENTAGE OF WATERTUBE BOILERS  USING VARIOUS
                    FIRING METHODS  FOR COAL  COMBUSTION

^100
WT1 00-250
lfT>250
Pulverized Coal
20
59
92
Cyclone
0
2
5
Overfired
47
29
0
Stokers
Spreader
Stoker
20
8
2
Under
Fired
13
2
1
          4.  Projections

              It was found that about 500 kwh of energy is needed to pro-
duce a ton of steel in electric furnaces [3-4].  Using the projections of
raw steel production published in the Battelle Systems Study of the Inte-
grated Iron and Steel Industry [3-5], the energy required for these produc-
tion figures was derived for 1975 and 1980.  The ratio between energy
used for production of raw steel  to the total electric power consumed
was linearly projected to 1975 and 1980 and the projected electric power
                                   26
                                                          WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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consumed was calculated.  The total was then split into energy purchased
and generated, and the estimated boiler capacities required for power gen-
eration was derived from the latter figure.

              To determine the boiler capacity needed for non-power pur-
poses  (process and space heating), the assumption was made that the ratio
of non-power boiler capacity to the total tonnage of raw steel production
in 1970 would remain constant at a value of .65 pph/ton of raw steel.
Using  the Battelle projections of raw steel production the boiler capacity
needed for process and space heating was derived for 1975 and 1980.  By
summing the boiler capacities required for power generation and for
process and space heating, the total  projected boiler capacities were
determined for 1975 and 1980.  For further details, the reader is re-
ferred to Appendix B.

              It is interesting to note at this point that our projections
showed that purchased energy as a percentage of the total energy consumed
in the iron and steel industry has been increasing significantly.  In
1970 this percentage was about 76% and in 1975 and 1980 it is expected
to be  85% and 93%, respectively, of the total  required energy.

              Regional fuel distributions were obtained for the fossil
fuels  from the growth projections of regional  coal, oil and gas use of
industrial intermediate boilers [3-1].  For the non-conventional  fuels,
the projected amounts were determined by studying the processes which
creates them, using the Battelle projected figures as input to these
processes (see Appendix C, Section II).  The national proportion between
blast furnace gas and coke oven gas in 1975 and 1980 was maintained for
each region due to lack of regional projections in the Battelle study.

              The relative growth of the various size groups for inter-
mediate boilers as a whole was applied to the projected iron and steel
boilers on a total basis £3-1].
                                   27                    WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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               The firing  types  for  the  projected years were assumed to be
 unchanged  from the 1970 figures,  due  to lack of better data.

           5.   Fuel  Use

               Fuel  use was  calculated for the  1970, 1975 and 1980 boiler
 inventories  by using  the  formula:

 n. ,,„„ _ capacity (Ib/hr) x load  factor x 8760 (hours/yr) x 975 (Btu/lb)
 Btu/yr                           efficiency

           6.   Emissions

               Uncontrolled  boiler emissions were calculated for the 1970,
 1975  and 1980  boiler  inventories  according to  the following equations:

 en   (+™c\ - fuel  consumption (Btu/yr)  x emission factor (Ib/Btu) x % sulfur*
 bU2  It0ns;                              2000 (Ib/ton)

 Mn   /,   \ _ fuel  consumption (Btu/yr)  x emission factor (Ib/Btu)
 NUx  itons;                      2000  (Ib/ton)~

 D  ,.   , .    _ fuel consumption (Btu/yr) x emission factor (Ib/Btu) x % ash**
 (tws)       =                           2000  lib/ton)

 The emission factors and sulfur and ash contents used are listed in Ap-
 pendix  D.  The coal, oil, and natural gas emission factors are the same
 as those used for  industrial intermediate-size boilers in the Intermediate
 Boiler  Systems Study £3-1J.   An explanation of the derivation of the emis-
 sion factors for blast furnace and coke oven gas is found in Appendix D,
 Section II.

      C.  RESULTS

          This section describes the  results of the current and projected
 boiler  inventories, fuel  consumption  patterns, and emissions, accompanied
 by a short discussion.
  Only in the case of coal- or oil-fired boilers
**
  Only in the case of coal-fired boilers
                                  28                    WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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          1.   1970 Boiler Inventory and Fuel  Consumption

              The summary results of the 1970 boiler inventory are shown
in Table 3-2.
                                TABLE 3-2
             1970 REGIONAL ESTIMATES OF WATERTUBE BOILERS IN
                       THE IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY
Region
Atlantic
Great Lakes
West and South
South East
TOTAL
No. of Boilers
783
514
123
172
1,592
Capacity (103 pph)
41,160
39,880
9,600
12,855
103,495
Av. Capacity (pph)
53,000
77,600
78,000
74,700
(65,000)
              The relatively lower average capacity of watertube boilers
in the Atlantic region is due to a relatively higher number of small
watertube boilers used here.  This may be due to several  factors:

              (1)  The age of industry in that region combined with the
longevity of watertube boilers justifies the finding of smaller units
which were used pre World War II.

              (2)  Expanding plants in the Atlantic region merely added
additional small units, and have only recently started substituting one
or two larger watertube boilers for the many small  ones in use so far
(see Appendix A, page A-4).

              A more detailed inventory of the boiler capacity installed
in the iron and steel industry in 1970 is shown in Table 3-3.
                                                         WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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                                TABLE  3-3
            1970  BOILER  CAPACITY IN THE IRON  AND  STEEL  INDUSTRY
(TO3 PPh)
Boiler Size
WT<100




WT1 00-250




^250




TOTAL
Fuel
CL
RO
GS
BFG
COG
CL
RO
GS
BFG
COG
CL
RO
GS
BFG
COG

AT
1,729
2,247
5,013
5,878
2,420
1,317
1,712
3,820
4,478
1,844
1,070
1,391
3,104
3,639
1,498
41,160
GL
3,956
1,148
2,425
3,829
1,404
4,698
1,364
2,879
4,546
1,667
3,709
1,077
2,273
3,589
1,316
39,880
VIS
73
182
1,277
1,131
985
42
106
739
655
570
77
192
1,344
1,190
1.037
9,600
SE
1,439
135
1,170
1,260
495
864
81
702
756
297
1,810
170
1,470
1,584
622
12,855
Total
7,197
3,712
9,885
12,098
5,304
6,921
3,263
8,140
10,435
4,378
6,666
2,830
8,191
10,002
4,473
103,495
              The 1970 fuel use estimates of boilers in the iron and
steel industry are shown in Table 3-4.

              It is interesting to compare these fuel figures to fuel
consumption figures derived from the American Iron and Steel Institute
(AISI) annual statistics [3-6].  It must be noted, however, that:
                                   30                    WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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OJ
I
30
m
in
rn
o
I

o
o
30
TJ
O
30
                                                          TABLE 3-4


                              1970 FUEL CONSUMPTION  BY BOILERS IN THE IRON AND STEEL  INDUSTRY

Fuel*
CL
RO
GS
BFG
COG
Total

*
CL =
RO =
GS =
BFG =
COG =

*
units
1,350
314
102
1,256
98
n.a.

coal in
residual
natural
AT
10


1
1


12
35
45
01
19
49
350
103
oi
gas

Btu
.1
.5
.7
.3
.0
.6
GL
* 12
units 10
4,008 104.
208 30.
64 63.
1,062 100.
74 37.
n.a. 336.

Btu
2
2
9
9
0
2
WS SE Total
units* 1012 Btu units* 1012 Btu units* 1012 Btu
65 1.7 1,327 34.5 6,750 175.5
28 4.0 22 3.2 572 82.9
28 28.2 28 27.9 222 221.7
263 25.0 318 30.2 2,899 275.4
44 21.8 24 11.9 240 119.7
n.a. 80.7 n.a. 107.7 n.a. 875.2
tons
1
i
blast furnace
coke oven gas
in 10
n 109
gas
in 1
barrels
cubic feet




g
in 10 cubic feet
g
0 cubic feet



-------
               (1)  The AISI covered only those plants included in SIC
 3312 whereas this study covers all  of SIC 331.  Our AlSI-derived figures
 are, therefore,  1.16 times higher than the published figures for fossil
 fuels.   This factor is based on employment figures.

               (2)  Only for coal  is the amount of fuel  used for steam
 raising specified by the AISI; for other fuels estimates had to be made
 as to the amount of fuel  used under boilers (Appendix A, page A-10).

               (3)  The AISI fuel  use figures are based  on a less complete
 sample  than their steel  production figures [3-7].

               Table 3-5 shows the Walden and the AISI derived fuel  con-
 sumption figures.

                                TABLE 3-5
         VERIFICATION OF 1970 FUEL USE RESULTS FOR  BOILERS IN THE
                   IRON AND STEEL  INDUSTRY (1012 Btu/yr)

Coal
Residual Oil
Natural Gas
Blast Furnace Gas
Coke Oven Gas
Total
Walden-AISI innw
Walden
176
83
222
275
120
876
AISI-Derived
143
55
203
236
127
764
Percentage
Difference*
23%
53%
9%
17%
6%
15%
         AISI
              Note that the sum of the three gases  is off by a mere B%.
The discrepancy for residual oil seems quite high.  Walden studied the
possibility of the boiler sample having included too many plants located
in areas where residual oil is used a lot.
                                   •3?
                                   0                     WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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              Table 3-6 shows that this was not the case.   Over half of the
actual employment was represented by the sample of boilers for the Atlantic
region, whereas over two thirds of the actual  employment was included in the
sample for each of the three other regions.  If anything, the bias would have
worked the other way, i.e., Walden's figures for residual  oil consumption
would have been lower, not higher, due to the relatively low sample in the
Atlantic region.  In view of the above and of the admitted lack of confi-
dence in the AISI fuel statistics, the Walden figures were accepted.  Walden's
total 1970 boiler fuel consumption figure is within 15% of the AISI total,
and it is felt that these results are satisfactory.

                               TABLE 3-6
        REGIONAL COMPLETENESS OF WALDEN BOILER SAMPLE (103 pph)

AT
GL
WS
SE

Sample
21,407
31,670
6,190
8,513
67,780
Total
41,160
39,880
9,600
12,855
103,495
%
52
79
64
66
65
          2.  Projected Boiler Inventories and Fuel Consumption

              The results of the 1975 and 1980 boiler inventories are shown
respectively in Tables 3-7 and 3-8.

              Figure 3-2 shows the projected regional fuel use patterns for
fuel burned under boilers in the iron and steel industry.

              Tables 3-9 and 3-10 show the projected fuel use for boilers
in the iron and steel industry in more detail.

              Most boilers can be fired by two or three fuels.  This is most
commonly the case when plants have coke ovens or blast furnaces.  One of the
tasks of the fuel combustion engineers at these plants is to minimize the
cost of fuel to the plant by maximum use of the coke oven and blast furnace
gases, which would otherwise be wasted.

                                 33                      WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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                     TABLE 3-7



1975 BOILER CAPACITY IN  THE IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY
(TO6 pph)
Boiler Size
WT<100




WT100-250




^250




TOTAL
Fuel
CL
RO
GS
BFG
COG
CL
RO
GS
BFG
COG
CL
RO
GS
BFG
COG

AT
1.3
2.5
9.1
5.7
2.5
.9
1.7
6.2
3.9
1.7
.6
1.4
4.9
3.0
1.4
46.8
GL
4.7
1.4
3.4
4.2
1.9
5.0
1.5
3.6
4.4
2.0
3.8
1.2
2.8
3.4
1.5
44.8
WS
.1
.2
2.4
1.2
.6
.1
.1
1.2
.6
.3
.1
.2
2.1
1.1
	 Jj.
10.8
SE
1.4
.2
1.7
1.5
.7
.8
.1
.9
.8
.3
1.6
.2
1.9
1.6
.7
14.4
Total
7.5
4.3
16.6
12.6
5.7
6.8
3.4
11.9
9.7
4.3
6.1
3.0
11.7
9.1
4.1
116.8
                        34                      WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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                     TABLE  3-8



1980 BOILER CAPACITY IN THE IRON  AND  STEEL INDUSTRY
no6 Pph)
Boiler Size
WT<100




^100-250




WT
Wl>250




TOTAL
Fuel
CL
RO
GS
BFG
COG
CL
RO
GS
BFG
COG
CL
RO
GS
BFG
COG

AT
1.4
3.0
11.3
4.9
2.8
.9
2.0
7.5
3.3
1.9
.7
1.5
5.4
2.4
1.3
50.3
GL
5.4
1.4
4.6
3.6
2.0
5.7
1.4
4.8
3.8
2.2
4.0
1.0
3.4
2.7
1.5
47.5
WS
.1
.2
2.8
1.0
.6
.1
.2
2.2
.8
.4
.1
.2
2.4
.8
.5
12.4
SE
1.6
.2
2.1
1.2
.7
.8
.1
1.1
.7
.4
1.6
.2
2.1
1.3
.7
14.8
Total
8.5
4.8
20.8
10.7
6.1
7.5
3.7
15.6
8.6
4.9
6.4
2.9
13.3
7.2
4.0
125.0
                       35                       WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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inn

SO-
SO.
40.

20.

n
15
inn

sa
60
40.

2a
n

Coke Oven Gas
Blast Furnace Gas
Natural Gas

-— ___
— ~-____Resjdual Oil
uoal
370 1975 19
Year
ATLANTIC REGION
Coke Oven Gas
Blast Furnace Gas
-"^"^ Natural Gas



100,

80.
60.
40.

20.

0
80 19
TOO,.

80.
60
40.

2CL
Residual
Oil
Pnal 0.

Coke Oven Gas
Blast Furnace Gas
. 	 	 — 	 —
Natural Gas
Residual Oil

Coal

70 197"5 193
Year
GREAT LAKES REGION
Coke Oven Gas
Blast Furnace Gas
Natural Gas
	 • 	
Coal

1970          1975
              Year
      WEST AND SOUTH REGION
1980
1970          1975
              Year
        SOUTH EAST REGION
                                                                            Residual
1980
      Figure 3-2.  Fuel  Burned Under Boilers in the Iron and Steel
                   Industry, 1970-1980.
                                  36
                                                          WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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                  TABLE 3-9



1975 FUEL USE  IN THE  IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY
(1012 Btu)
Boiler Size Fuel
WT<100 CL
RO
GS
BFG
COG
^100-250 CL
RO
GS
BFG
COG
^250 CL
RO
GS
BFG
COG
TOTAL
AT
11.7
22.5
82.0
51.4
22.5
7.6
14.3
52.3
32.9
14.3
4.7
11.0
38.4
23.5
11.0
400.1
GL
42.3
12.6
30.6
37.8
17.1
42.2
12.6
30.4
37.1
16.9
29.8
9.4
21.9
26.6
11.7
379.0
WS
.9
1.8
21.6
10.8
5.4
.8
.8
10.1
5.1
2.5
.8
1.6
16.4
8.6
3.9
91.1
SE
12.6
1.8
15.3
13.5
6.3
6.7
.8
7.6
6.7
2.5
12.5
1.6
14.9
12.5
5.5
120.8
Total
67.5
38.7
149.5
113.5
51.3
57.3
28.5
100.4
81.8
36.2
47.8
23.6
91.6
71.2
32.1
991.0
                      37                      WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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                 TABLE  3-10



1980 FUEL USE IN THE  IRON  AND STEEL INDUSTRY
(1012 Btu)
Boiler Size
WT
Wl<100




WT1 00-250




WT>250




TOTAL
Fuel
CL
RO
GS
BFG
COG
CL
RO
GS
BFG
COG
CL
RO
GS
BFG
COG

AT
12.6
27.0
101.8
44.1
25.2
7.6
16.9
63.2
27.8
16.0
5.5
11.7
42.3
18.8
10.2
430.7
GL
48.6
12.6
41.4
32.4
18.0
48.1
11.8
40.5
32.0
18.5
31.3
7.8
26.6
21.1
11.7
402.4
WS
.9
1.8
25.2
9.0
5.4
.8
1.7
18.5
6.7
3.4
.8
1.6
18.8
6.3
3.9
104.8
SE
14.4
1.8
18.9
10.8
6.3
6.7
.8
9.3
5.9
3.4
12.5
1.6
16.4
10.2
5.5
124.5
Total
76.5
43.2
187.3
96.3
54.9
63.2
31.2
131.5
72.4
41.3
50.1
22.7
104.1
56.4
31.3
1062.4
                      38
                                             WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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          3.  Current and Projected Boiler Emissions

              The national boiler emissions are shown graphically in
Figure 3-3 and summarized by region in Table 3-11.   The figures shown
are for uncontrolled emissions.  This is accurate for S09 and NO .
                                                        L,       A
There is some control of particulate boiler emissions, but data on  con-
trols were not available for this study, causing the particulate emissions
from boilers reported here to be slightly higher than they are in reality.

              The Great Lakes region shows continuously increasing  emis-
sions from all three pollutants, and is by far the region most seriously
affected by air pollution resulting from boilers in the iron and steel
industry.  Looking back at Table 3-2, the reader will note that this is
not the region with the largest number of boilers or boiler capacity.
The high emissions can be attributed to the intensive use of industrial
coal in the Great Lakes region.  The other three regions more or less
follow the national trend (see Figure 3-3) with a slight decrease in
particulate emissions during the period of 1970 to 1975, followed by
a slow increase thereafter.  The decrease is explained by a certain amount
of fuel switching to cleaner fuels (see Figure 3-2) and the increase
between 1975 and 1980 is due to the fact that the growth of the iron and
steel industry will eventually counteract the effect of cleaner boiler
fuels and cause a growth in air pollution emissions in those regions as
well.  NO  emissions increase steadily in all four regions.
         /\
              Table 3-12 shows the emissions by equipment size.

              There is no very significant emphasis on any particular
boiler size group as far as emissions are concerned.  We can say, how-
ever, that boilers burning coal are the main sources for all three air
pollutants.  They represented 64%, 45% and 97%, respectively, of the
total S0?, NO  and particulate emissions from boilers in the iron and
        L    A
steel industry in 1970.
                                   39                     WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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5
m
en
m

3)
o
I

o
o
3)

s

435.3
438.4
477.2
1970  1975  1980


       S00

134.2

146.4
161.5
                                                        1970  1975  1980


                                                               NO..
                                                                                            378.3
      372.3
                                                                                                        408.6
1970  1975  1980


  Particulates
                      Figure 3-3.  Projected Air Pollution from Boilers in the Iron and Steel Industry

                                                             (thousand tons)

-------
o
m
z

30
m
en
30
O

I


O

O
30
t)

O
3D
                                                       TABLE  3-11


                       CURRENT AND PROJECTED EMISSIONS FROM BOILERS IN THE IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY

                                                      (thousand  tons)
Region
AT
GL
WS
SE
Total
1970
118.9
235.4
22.8
58.2
435.3
so2
1975
104.6
263.5
16.4
53.9
438.4
1980
115.7
287.0
17.7
56.7
477.2
1970
45.3
60.2
9.6
19.1
134.2
NOX
1975
48.5
68.2
9.8
19.9
146.4
1980
54.2
74.5
11.8
21.0
161.5
Parti culates
1970 1975 1980
75.6
229.5
4.7
68.5
378.3
53.3
249.9
6.0
63.1
372.3
57.4
278.3
6.7
66.2
408.6

-------
                               TABLE 3-12
                  1970 BOILER EMISSIONS BY BOILER SIZE

Watertube
Watertube
Watertube


<_ 100,000 pph
100,001-250,000 pph
> 250,000 pph

so2
167.0
143.7
124.6
435.3
N0x
41.6
45.9
46.7
134.2
Particulates
118.9
132.1
127.3
378.3
              It is interesting to note that the 1970 boiler emissions in
the iron and steel industry represent about 10%, 15% and 16%, respectively,
of S0?, NO  and particulate emissions from industrial boilers in 1967 [3-1],
     L.    A
              For more detailed breakdowns of the emissions from boilers
in the iron and steel  industry, the reader is referred to Appendix D.
                                                          WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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                       REFERENCES TO SECTION III
3-1.   Systematic Study of Air Pollution from Intermediate-Size Fossil-
      Fuel Combustion Equipment, Walden Research Corporation, Cambridge,
      Mass., 1971.

3-2.   County Business Patterns, U.S. Bureau of Labor, 1969.

3-3.   Dun & Bradstreet Metal working Directory, 1971, Dun & Bradstreet, Inc.,
      New York.

3-4.   The Making, Shaping and Treating of Steel, 8th Edition, U.S. Steel
      Corporation, Pittsburgh, Pa., 1964.

3-5.   A Systems Analysis Study of the Integrated Iron and Steel Industry,
      Battelle Memorial Institute, Columbus, Ohio, 1964.

3-6.   Statistical Report, American Iron and Steel Institute, 1970.

3-7.   Personal communication with Mr. Eckel of the American Iron and
      Steel Institute.
                                  43                     WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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 IV.   PROCESS EMISSIONS

      A.   INTRODUCTION

          The production of iron  and steel  is  a complex process  requiring
 many intermediate steps.   During each of these steps,  process emissions
 are  produced from two distinct types of sources.   First,  handling  of
 raw  materials and subsequent processing of these  materials  produce emis-
 sions which fall  within the conventional  definition  of process  emissions.
 However,  in order to meet its energy demands  during  the manufacturing
 steps, the iron and  steel  industry  combusts significant quantities of
 fuel.   This combustion forms the second source of process emissions.
 These two different  types of process emissions will  be discussed
 separately.

          In general,  the  following  major  processing  operations  can be
 identified in the iron and steel  industry:

          (1)   Sinter  Plant
          (2)   Pellet  Plants
          (3)   Coke Manufacture
          (4)   Blast  Furnaces
          (5)   Steel  Furnaces
                  Open  Hearth
                  Basic  Oxygen Furnace
                  Electric  Arc Furnace
          (6)   Scarfing
          (7)   Materials Handling

         An estimation  of  process emissions from  the above mentioned
operations  requires an  understanding of the separate processes  and
the places of  potential emissions.   Appendix C  briefly  describes the
operations, but for a more detailed  description,  the reader is  directed
to The Making, Shaping  and Treating  of Steel [4-1], and Battelle's
Systems Study of the Integrated  Iron and Steel  Industry [4-2].

         The following sections summarize the basic methodology used
in estimating process emissions and  also present  the results  of the
                                  44
                                                         WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

-------
use of the above mentioned methods.  Detailed descriptions of the com-
putations can be found in Appendix C.

     B.  METHODOLOGY

         1.  Conventional Process Emissions

             Base Year 1970

             Conventional uncontrolled process emissions (which do not
include emissions resulting from fuel combustion associated with the
process) were estimated from production figures taken from the AISI
Statistical Report [4-3] and emission factors obtained from both the
Nationwide Emission Factor Compilation [4-4] and Battelle's Systems
Study of the Integrated Iron and Steel Industry [4-2].  The 1970 pro-
duction figures and the emission factors are shown in Tables 4-1 and
4-2.  Table 4-3 summarizes the control collection efficiencies utilized
for estimation of the controlled conventional process emissions.

             Uncontrolled and controlled emissions v/ere obtained by
multiplication of the relevant production figures, emission factors
and collection efficiencies.

             Projections to 1975 and 1980

             Except in the case of the electric furnace, identical
uncontrolled emission factors (Table 4-2) as those previously used,
were utilized in estimation of projected emission.  The particulate
emission factor for the electric furnace was changed to 18 Ib/ton
product to reflect an expected increase in the average size of the
steel  change.

             Only in the case of particulate emissions were changes in
control (as compared to the base year 1970) considered.  These changes
reflected not changes in collection efficiencies, but rather expected
changes in the fraction of units controlled.  In the case of SO  and
                                                               A
                                   45       i             WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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                               TABLE  4-1

          1970 PRODUCTION OF  RAW  MATERIALS  USED IN PRODUCTION
                                    Production  or Raw Materials Used
                                             in Production
   Operation                                    (tons)
Sinter Plant
Coke Plant
Blast Furnace

45.6 x TO6
Coal 87.2 x
Iron Ore
Agglomerates

106
38.2
109.0
Sinter

x 106
x 106
Steel Making

   Open Hearth                      48.0  x  106            Raw Steel

   Basic Oxygen Furnace             63.3  x  10             Raw Steel

   Electric                         20.2  x  106            Raw Steel

Source:  AISI Statistical Reports [4-3]
                                  46
                                                         WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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                                                        TABLE 4-2
                              UNCONTROLLED EMISSION FACTORS - CONVENTIONAL PROCESS EMISSIONS
              Operation
                                 Particulate
                                                  SO
                             NO.
I
33
m
C/5
m
>
33
O
X
O
O
33
-o
O
33
           Sinter Plants
           Coke Manufacture
           Blast Furnace
           Open Hearth Furnace
Basic Oxygen Furnace
   (BOF)
Electric Arc Furnace
Scarfing
Material Handling
                        Windbox    20 Ib/ton sinter
                        Discharge  22 Ib/ton sinter
                        By-product 3.5 Ib/ton coal
                          coking
                        F = 70X + 40 Ib/ton pig iron
                                           ton arc
                                   where X =
                                             ton arc + ton agglomerates
                        With 0? lancing 22 Ib/ton pig iron
                        Without Op lancing 12 Ib/ton pig iron
46 Ib/ton steel produced

With 02 lancing 11 Ib/ton steel produced
Without 02 lancing 7 Ib/ton steel produced
3 Ib/ton steel produced
10 Ib/ton steel produced
                                            1.42 Ib/ton sinter    1.04 Ib/ton  sinter
                                            1.40 Ib/ton steel
                                              produced
0.06 Ib/ton steel
  produced
0.02 Ib/ton steel
  produced
                      For fuel  oil:
                      250 lb/200 ton
                        steel  batch
                      For nat.  gas &
                      coke oven gas:
                      150 lb/200 ton
                        steel  produced

-------
                                                        TABLE 4-3


                               PARTICULATE CONTROL EFFICIENCIES AND PERCENT OF OPERATIONS

                                      CONTROLLED - CONVENTIONAL PROCESS EMISSIONS
00
o
m
m
t/j
m
o
X

o
O
3)
-o
O
30
Operation
Sinter Plants

Coke Manufacture
Blast Furnace


Open Hearth
Basic Oxygen Furnace
Electric Furnace
Scarfing
Material Handling
Control Efficiency
Windbox: Dry cyclone
Electrostatic precipitator
(in series with dry cyclone)
Discharge Dry cyclone
MEAN

1. Preliminary cleaning
settling chamber or dry cyclone
2. Primary cleaning
gas washers & wet scrubbing
3. Secondary cleaning
electrostatic precipitator or
high energy washers
Electrostatic precipitator
Venturi scrubber
Bag house
MEAN
Electrostatic precipitator
High efficiency scrubber
Electrostatic precipitator
Bag house
MEAN
Precipitators
Precipitators

90%
95%
93%
90%

60%
90%
90%
98%
85-98%
99%
98%
98%
98%
92-97%
98-99%
95%
90%
95%
Percent
Controlled
100%

0%

100%

41%
100%
79%
75%
32%

-------
NO  emissions, however, no attempt was made to estimate how much of the
  y\
emissions would be controlled in future years.  This decision was based
simply on the speculative nature of the answer that would have been ob-
tained.

              Table 4-4 summarizes the fraction of units controlled that
were used for estimation of the projected emissions.

              Projected production figures for 1975 and 1980 were ob-
tained from BatteHe [4-2] and these figures are summarized in Tables
4-5, 4-6 and 4.7.

              Additional computation had to be performed in order to
estimate sinter production and coke production.

              BatteHe [4-2] reports, as shown in Table 4-5, the physi-
cal form of iron ore consumed in the U.S. and estimates to 1980.  In
order to estimate the total sinter production (as opposed to the pro-
duction of sinter emanating only from iron ore) extrapolations were used
of the fraction of additional material to iron ore utilized in the pro-
duction of sinter.  This fraction was calculated from AISI statistical
data.  It was found that over the last several years, this fraction has
been constant at 0.075 and thus it was assumed that this fraction would
hold constant to 1980.

              Utilizing this fraction the following total sinter productions
were calculated:

              1975:  55.5 x 106 tons
              1980:  59.1 x 106 tons

              Coke rates (Ib coke/T pig iron) were obtained from extrapo-
lation of historical data in conjunction with an estimate of expected
changes in blast furnace technology which would affect the coke rate
(direct fuel oil and natural gas injection into the tuyeres which re-
duces the coke rate).
                                   49
                                                         WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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                           TABLE 4-4
   PROJECTED PERCENT OF OPERATIONS CONTROLLED FOR PARTICIPATE
          EMISSIONS - CONVENTIONAL PROCESS EMISSIONS
                                    Percent Controlled
 Operation                      1975                   1980

Sinter Plants                   100%                   100%
Coke Manufacture                  0%                     0%
Blast Furnace                   100%                   100%
Open Hearth                      62%                   100%
Basic Oxygen Furnace            100%                   100%
Electric Furnace                100%                   100%
Scarfing                         75%                    75%
Material Handling                32%                    32%
                                                  WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION
                              50

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                                                         TABLE  4-5


                           PHYSICAL FORM OF IRON ORE CONSUMED IN  THE  U.S.  AND ESTIMATES TO 1980
 en
Year 1
1960
1967
1975
1980
alncludes
Lump
O6 tons
62.0
46.7
31.7
34.9
Ore
54.
35.
20.
19.
only iron ore

1
3
0
5
used
Sinter
106 tons
41.5
42.2
46.0
48.3
for making
a
36.3
31.9
29.0
27.0
sinter
Pell
106 tons
11.0
43.4
80.8
95.8

ets
9.
32.
51.
53.

Total
106 tons %
6
8
0
5

114
132
158
179

.5
.3
.5
.0

100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0

I
O
rn
30
O
I

n
o
30
-o
o
33

-------
                       TABLE 4-6

 PIG IRON REQUIREMENTS FOR THE U.S.  IN  1960 AND  1967
               AND PROJECTIONS TO 1980
Year
1960
1967
1975
1980
Raw Steel
Production
(105 tons)
99.3
127.2
157.0
180.0
Apparent Pig Iron
Consumption
(106 tons)
66.5
87.0
106.8
122.4
                       TABLE 4-7

PRODUCTION OF RAW STEEL IN THE U.S. BY TYPE OF FURNACE
               AND PROJECTIONS TO 1980
Year
1960
1967
1975
1980
Open Hearth
(103 tons)
86,368
70,690
44,000
36,000
Bessimer
(103 tons)
1,189
--
--
--
Basic Oxygen
Furnace
(103 tons)
3,346
41 ,434
80,000
99,000
Electric
Furnace
(103 tons)
8,379
15,089
33,000
45,000
Total
(103 tons)
99,282
127,213
157,000
180,000
                          52
                                                WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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              The following estimated coke rates were used for emission
computations:

              1975:  1145 Ib coke/T pig iron
              1980:  1020 Ib coke/T pig iron

              It was assumed, however, that both in 1975 and 1980, 1.4
tons of coal would still be required to produce one ton of coke.

              Emissions were obtained by multiplication of the relevant
projected production figures, emission factors and control efficiencies.

          2.  Fuel Based Emissions

              Five fuels are extensively used in the iron and steel in-
dustry to supply process energy.  These are fuel oil, natural gas, tar
and pitch, coke oven gas and blast furnace gas.  The latter three fuels
are produced within the steel mill as by-products and their production
is dependent on the coke rate and ultimately on pig iron requirements.
Fuel oil  and natural gas, on the other hand, are purchased fuels whose
usage is  tied into the process in a fairly complex fashion.

              In estimating emissions from fuels used in process areas
it is necessary first to determine fuel consumption and then to apply
emission  factors.  Fuel consumptions are available [4-3] but extrapola-
tion to 1975 and 1980 will  have to be made based on an understanding of
how fuel  usage is related to process requirements.

              The AISI Statistical Reports [4-3] break down fuel con-
sumption  into the following "use" categories:

                (1)  Blast Furnace Area -
               (ii)  Steel  melting furnaces
              (iii)  Heating and annealing furnaces
               (iv)  Heating ovens for wire rods
                (v)  Other
                                   53                     WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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               In  addition,  included  under  other  uses  in  the  blast  furnace
 area,  are  reported  the  quantity  of fuel  used  for coke oven underfiring.

               Discussions with AISI  officials [4-5] indicated  that:

                (i)  Steel melting furnaces  refer to fuel  usage in  open
                    hearth  furnaces
               (ii)  The category of  "other" could be  considered to refer
                    mainly  to the use  of a  particular fuel in  steam
                    raising  boilers.

               Base  Year 1970

               Table 4-8 summarizes fuel  consumption data for 1970  extracted
 from the AISI  Statistical Report [4-3].

               Table 4-9 summarizes the uncontrolled emission factors used
 in estimation  of  the fuel based  emissions.  Detailed  discussion of the
 sources of these  emission factors can  be found in Appendix C.

               No  data could  be found on  controls  relating to the fuel
 based emissions and as  such  ALL  ESTIMATIONS OF FUEL BASED PROCESS  EMIS-
 SIONS REFER TO UNCONTROLLED  EMISSION LOADINGS.

               Uncontrolled emission  loadings  were computed by  multiplica-
 tion of the relevant fuel consumption  rates and  uncontrolled emission
 factors.

              Projections to 1975 and  1980

              As  discussed in the brief  introduction  to  the  fuel based
 process emissions, fuel oil   and  natural  gas are  purchased fuels whose
 usage is tied into the  process in a fairly complex fashion.  On the other
 hand, coke oven gas, tar and pitch and blast  furnace  gas  production rates
 are dependent on  the coke rate and ultimately on  pig  iron requirements.
These tv/o groups of fuels will  therefore be discussed  separately.
                                   54
                                                         WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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                                                        TABLF 4-8



                                                  FUEL CONSUMPTION 1970








en
en






|
5
m
m
in
33
o
T
Fuel



Fuel Oil
103 gals
Tar & Pitch
103 gals

Natural Gas
106 scf
Coke Oven
Gas
106 scf
Blast Fur-
nace Gas
106 scf

Liquid Pet.
Gas
Q
10 gals

Purpose
Blast Furnace Area stfiel Heating & Heating
Other Coke Oven Melting Annealing Ovens for
Furnaces Uses Underfiring Furnaces Furnaces Wire Rods Other
146,031 19,801 5,000 416,822 377,593 1,648 273,558

42,500 -- - 176,902 — -- 41,503


44,474 10,262 4,000 57,797 306,097 4,403 170,483

9,177 319,628 274,603 22,056 363,899 4,217 208,959


1,592,038 1,246,894 286,402 - 164,693 - 1,519,250



6,555 -- 12,220





h
Steam0
Raising Total
288,359 1,235,453

41,503 260,905


176,745 593,516

253,984 927,936


2,479,742 4,522,875



12,220 18,775




8     Includes coke oven underfiring

•"    h
o     Steam raising = Z other - coke oven underfiring
O
•z.

-------
                                                       TABLE 4-9A
                    UNCONTROLLED EMISSION FACTORS - FUEL BASED PARTICULATES AND SO  PROCESS EMISSIONS
                                                                                  X
              Fuel
                               Participates
                   SO.
          Fuel Oil


          Natural Gas


          Blast Furnace Gas


          Coke Oven Gas
                         0.42 x 103 lb/103 barrels


                         15 lb/106 scf


                         2.4 lb/106 scf


                         15 lb/106 scf
0.68 x 104 x % sulfur (Ib SO/103 barrels)
                    0


                    0
0.77 Ib SO/100 scf
          /\
en
cn
                                                       TABLE 4-9B


                                    UNCONTROLLED NO.. EMISSION  FACTORS - PROCESS BASED
                                                                          NO  Emission Factors
 I
 o
 m
 in
 o
 X

 o
 o
 •XI
 -a
 o
 30
Blast Furnace


Coke Manufacture


Heating and Annealing Furnaces
0.4 lb/10  scf blast furnace gas


0.135 Ib/ton coal


0.086 Ib/ton steel

-------
              Fuel Oil and Natural Gas

              Fuel oil and natural gas are used throughout the steel mill
as is evidenced by the 1970 fuel consumption shown in Table 4-8.  Pro-
jections of fuel usage for future years were based on understanding of
how fuel oil and natural gas were utilized in the different process areas.

              The following underlying logic was used in these pro-
jections:

              (i)  Fuel oil and natural gas used in the blast furnaces
are injected through the tuyeres [4-6].  As such these fuels reduce the
blast furnace coke burden and lead to more efficient performance of the
furnace.  Since these fuels ultimately produce blast furnace gas, esti-
mation of their consumption in future years is necessary in order to
determine blast furnace gas production.  The fuels used in the blast
furnace area are dependent on required pig iron production and thus
their consumption was correlated with pig iron production.

              (ii)  As indicated earlier, steel melting furnaces refer
to open hearth furnaces.  Thus fuel oil and natural gas consumption
used in steel melting furnaces was correlated with open hearth pro-
duction.

              (iii)  Heating and annealing furnaces are mainly utilized
in steel production and thus fuel oil and natural gas consumption in these
areas was correlated with raw steel production.

              Using extrapolations of AISI Statistical Report data 14-3]
and the above assumptions, ratios of fuel oil and natural gas consumptions
relative to production were obtained for 1975 and 1980.  These ratios
are listed in Table 4-10.  Actual fuel consumptions were then obtained
by multiplication of the ratios listed in Table 4-10 and projected productions
taken from Tables 4-6 and 4-7.  Table 4-11 summarizes the projected fuel
oil and natural gas consumptions for 1975 and 1980.
                                   57                    WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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                               TABLE 4-10

               EXTRAPOLATED RATIOS* OF FUEL CONSUMPTION
                          RELATIVE TO PRODUCTION
Fuel Oil:
1.  Blast Furnace Area
    Steel Melting Furnaces
       (Open Hearth)
    Heating and Annealing
       Furnaces
1975:  3.7 gals/ton pig iron
1980:  10 gals/ton pig iron
1975:  8.3 gals/ton open hearth steel
1980:  8.3 gals/ton open hearth steel
1975:  2.2 gals/ton raw steel
1980:  2.2 gals/ton raw steel
Natural Gas:
1.

2.



3.

Blast Furnace Area

Steel Melting Furnaces
(Open Hearth)


Heating and Annealing
Furnaces
1
1
1

1

1
1
975:
980:
975:

980:

975:
980:
0.
0.
1.

1.

2.
3.
5
5
1

1

7
05
x 1
x 1
x 1

x 1

x 1
X
0
0
0

0

0
1
o
3
3

3

3
O3
ft0
ft3
ft3

ft3

ft3
ft
/ton
/ton
/ton

/ton

/ton
3/ton
pig iron
pig iron
open hearth
process
open hearth
process
raw steel
raw steel
 Extrapolated  from  historical  data in  Table C-12
                                   58
                                                         WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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                               TABLE 4-11
             PROJECTED FUEL OIL AND NATURAL GAS CONSUMPTION
                            FOR 1975 AND 1980
 Fuel
Year
Purpose
                         Blast        Steel       Heating &      Steam
                        Furnace      Melting     Annealing     Raising
Fuel Oil      1975
103 gals
Fuel Oil      1980
103 gals
Natural Gas   1975
106 scf
Natural Gas   1980
105 scf
          396,000      366,000      396,000      377,000
        1,224,000      300,000      396,000      377,000
           53,400       49,500      424,000      210,000
           61,400       39,400      549,000      278,000
                                   59
                                                         WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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               Identical  emission factors to those previously used  (Table
 4-9) were used in the estimation of UNCONTROLLED emissions  for 1975 and
 1980.   Due to lack of information,  no attempt was made to estimate what
 controls would be implemented by 1980.

               Coke Based Fuels - Coke Oven Gas,  Blast Furnace Gas  and
               Tar and Pitch

               Coke oven  gas,  blast  furnace gas and tar and  pitch are
 dependent on the  coke rate.   However estimation  of process  emissions
 resulting from the combustion of these  fuels are dependent  in certain
 cases  (i.e., NO  emissions) on the  burning rates of these fuels in the
                /\
 different processes using  the fuels.  Thus,  as was done with fuel  oil
 and  natural  gas it is necessary to  estimate  the  fuel  quantities com-
 busted  in the different  processes.

               Estimates  of the projected  coke based fuel  consumptions
 were obtained by  the following sequence  of steps:

               1)   Coke rates  for 1975 and 1980 were estimated to be
 respectively 1145  and 1020 Ib coke/ton pig iron.   (For detailed calcu-
 lations  see  Appendix C)

               2)   Based  on historical data,  which  showed  little varia-
 tion with  time, the  total  volumetric  production  rate  of coke oven  gas/ton
 coke was  estimated  to be 15,000  scf/ton  coke.  Thus  using the coke  rate,
 the  volumetric  production  rate and  Battelle's  [4-2]  estimated pig  iron
 requirements,  projected  coke  oven gas production  rates could  be calculated.
 These are  shown in Table 4-12.

              3)   Blast furnace  gas production rate,  on the  other  hand,
 varies with  the coke  rate.  The  data of Heynert  [4-7],  reproduced  in
 Figure 4-1 were used  to estimate blast furnace production rates/ton
 coke.  However, comparisons between reported data  from the AISI Statistical
 Reports [4-3] and  data from Heynert's correlation  showed that  the cor-
 relation predicted about a 40% higher blast  furnace gas production  than
was reported by AISI.  Part of this disparity could probably  be attributed
                                    60
                                                        WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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                              TABLE 4-12
           PROJECTED TOTAL PRODUCTIONS OF COKE "BASED"  FUELS

          Fuel                  1975                 1980

     Coke Oven Gas          9.2 x 1011 scf       9.35 x 1011 scf
     Blast Furnace Gas      5.07 x 1012 scf      4.56 x 1012 scf
     Tar and Pitch          2.!4 x 108 gals      1.62 x 108 gals

to losses which are unaccounted for in the AISI data, although complete
understanding for the differences was not discovered.  Consequently, a
conservative attitude was taken and estimates of blast production rates/
ton coke were calculated as 60% of the values obtained from Figure 4-1.
For further discussion on this subject, see Appendix C.

              In estimating blast furnace gas production, equivalent
coke rates of 1175 and 1100 Ib coke/ton pig iron were used for 1975 and
1980.  This equivalent coke rate corresponds to the sum of the actual
coke rate (1145 and 1020 Ib coke/ton pig iron) plus the fuel oil and
natural gas injected into the tuyeres/ton pig iron.  This approach was
taken since the fuel oil and natural gas are also partially combusted
to form blast furnace gas.  The results are shown in Table 4-12.

              3)  Tar and pitch production rates were obtained from ex-
trapolations of historical data which indicated that 3.5 and 2.6 gals/ton
coke would respectively be produced in 1975 and 1980.  Total productions
are shov/n in Table 4-12.

              4)  Fractional allocation of the total fuel production among
the different process units was performed by assuming that the frac-
tional fuel consumption as obtained from historical data would re-
main constant through to 1980.  The fractional allocations are shown
in Table 4-13 for coke oven gas, blast furnace gas,and tar  and pitch.
                                  61                     WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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en
a
m


JO
m
in
m
>
73
O
X


8
73

s
30
                                                   Total  Gas  Volume
                                                                            Table For

                                                                        Other Use
1000
1200        1400        1600        1800       2000

     Coke Rate, pounds per net ton of hot metal
2200
Figure 4-1.  Effect of Coke Rate on Volume of Blast Furnace Gas Produced.

-------
5
r—
o
33
m
CO
33
O
I

O
O
33
-a
o
33
                                                       TABLE  4-13

                                       FRACTIONAL ALLOCATION  OF  COKE  "BASED"  FUELS
          Fuel
 Blast
Furnaces
Coke Oven
Underlying
 Steel
Melting
Furnaces
Heating &
Annealing
 Furnaces
                                                                                                Comments
 en
 CO
          Blast Furnace Gas     0.345

          Coke Oven Gas         0.01

          Tar and Pitch
              0.076

              0.269
                0.03


                0.66
              .038

             0.40
              Rest in steam raising

              Rest in steam raising

              Rest injected in blast fur-
              nace and used in steam
              raising

-------
               Fuel  consumptions  in  the  different process  units were  ob-
 tained  by  multiplication  of  the  total production by  the fractions  sum-
 marized in Table  4-13.

               5)   Uncontrolled emissions were  estimated by  multiplica-
 tion  of the appropriate fuel  and emission  factor (summarized  in Table
 4-9).

      C.   RESULTS  AND  DISCUSSION

           Base  Year 1970

           Table 4-14 summarizes  the  process  emissions  - both  conventional
 and fuel based  -  for 1970.

           Three sources of process emission  data were  available for  com-
 parison.   The results  of  the  Midwest Research  Institute [4-8] show
 1,442,000  tons  of  particulate process emissions.  This compares very
 favorably  with  the  estimates  of  this study.

           Battelle's [4-2] estimates on sulfur emissions  from the  iron
 and steel  industry  can be shown  to correlate well with the  results of
 this study on SO   emissions.
                X
           Similarly, Esso's  [4-9] calculations on NO   emissions agree
                                                    X
 fairly well with the results  of  Table 4-14.

           Perusal of the results displayed in  Table 4-14  show that about
 1/2 of all   the particulate emissions emanate from material  handling.  An
 accurate estimate of the particulate. emission  factor for  material  handling
was not possible and the emissions from materials handling  should  there-
fore be considered  in the light  of this difficulty.
          Furthermore, the results show that most of the particulate and
NO  emissions come from conventional process emissions, whilst most of the
  A
SO  emanates as a result of the fuel combusted to the heat  in the process.
                                 54                      WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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                                                         TABLE 4-14

                                             SUMMARY OF 1970 PROCESS  EMISSIONS

                                                          (tons)*
cr>
en
I
o
m
z
33
m
33
O
I

O
o
33
TJ
O
33


Sinter Plants
Coke Manufacture
Blast Furnaces
Steel Furnaces
(Open Hearth)
B.O.F.
Electric Arc
Heating &
Annealing
Furnaces
Scarfing
Material
Handling
TOTAL
*
Tons rounded to
Non-Fuel
S0x
32,000


35,000
2,000
negl.



69,000
the nearest
Process Emissions
Part. NO
J\.
96,000 24,000
152,000

312,000 25,000
28,000
28,000

63,000
446,000
1,125,000 49,000
thousand
Fuel Process Emissions
From Combustion
SOX Part. N0x S0x
32,000
107,000 3,000 6,000 107,000
2,000 negl.
35,000
2,000
negl .
194,000 7,000 6,000 194,000


301 000 12'000 12,000 370,000
Total
Part.
96,000
155,000
2,000
312,000
28,000
28,000
7,000
63,000
446,000
1,137,000

N0x
24,000
6,000
negl .
25,000


6,000


61,000

-------
          Projections to 1975 and 1980

          Tables 4-15 and 4-16 summarize the projected estimates of
process emissions in 1975 and 1980.

          Once again it is emphasized that except partially in the case
of participate emissions, the emission results shown in Tables 4-15 and
4-16 are uncontrolled emission loadings.  In addition, the reader is re-
minded of the problems associated with estimating an emission factor for
materials handling.
                                   KG
                                   OU                      WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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            TABLE 4-15
SUMMARY OF 1975 PROCESS EMISSIONS
             (tons)



cr>





1
o
[N RESEARCH CORPORA"



Sinter Plants
Coke Manufacture
Blast Furnaces
Steel Furnaces
(Open Hearth)
B.O.F.
Electric Arc
Heating &
Annealing
Furnaces
Scarfing
Material
Handling
TOTAL
*
Tons rounded to

Fuel Process Emissions
Non-Fuel Process Emissions From Combustion
SOV Part. NO SO Part. NOU
X XX X
39,000 117,000 29,000
155,000 95,000 2,000 6,000
2,000 negl.
31,000 189,000 22,000
2,000 36,000
negl. 15,000
196,000 8,000 7,000
73,000
533,000
72,000 1,118,000 51,000 291,000 12,000 13,000
the nearest thousand


Total
SOX Part.
39,000 117,000
95,000 157,000
2,000
31,000 189,000
2,000 36,000
negl. 15,000
196,000 8,000
73,000
533,000
363,000 1,130,000



N0x
29,000
6,000
negl.
22,000


7,000


64,000


-------
                                                       TABLE 4-16



                                          SUMMARY OF 1980 PROCESS EMISSIONS


                                                        (tons)
CTt

CO
 I
 o
 m
m
c/j
m
o
x

o
o
;0

3


Sinter Plants
Coke Manufacture
Blast Furnaces
Steel Furnaces
(Open Hearth)
B.O.F.
Electric Arc
Heating &
Annealing
Furnaces
Scarfing
Material
Handling
TOTAL
Fuel Process Emissions
Non-Fuel Process Emissions From Combustion
SO Part. NO SO Part. NO
X XX X
42,000 124,000 31,000
159,000 97,000 2,000 6,000
2,000 negl.
25,000 8,000 18,000
3,000 46,000
negl. 20,000
205,000 9,000 8,000
86,000
612,000
70,000 955,000 49,000 302,000 13,000 14,000

S0x
42,000
97,000

25,000
3,000
negl .
205,000


372,000
Total
Part.
124,000
161,000
2,000
8,000
4,600
20,000
9,000
86,000
612,000
968,000

NOX
31 ,000
6,000
negl .
18,000


8,000


63,000
Tons rounded to the nearest  thousand
o
2

-------
                        REFERENCES TO SECTION IV
4-1.  The Making, Shaping and Treating of Steel, 8th Edition, U.S. Steel
      Corporation, Pittsburgh, Pa., 1964.

4-2.  A Systems Analysis Study of the Integrated Iron and Steel Industry,
      Battelle Memorial Institute, Columbus, Ohio, 1964.

4-3.  Statistical Report American Iron and Steel Institute, 1970.

4-4.  McGraw, M. J. and Duprey, R. L., Compilation of Air Pollution Emis-
      sion Factors, Preliminary Document EPA, Research Triangle Park,
      N.C., April 1971.

4-5.  Private conversation with Mr. Eckel, American Iron and Steel
      Institute, New York, N.Y.

4-6.  A Systems Analysis Study of the Integrated Iron and Steel Industry,
      Battelle Memorial Institute, Columbus, Ohio, 1964.

4-7.  Heynert, Von G., et al., "Charge Preparation and  Its Effect on
      Operating Results of the Blast Furnace," Stahl und Eisle 81, 1,
      1961.

4-8.  Systems Study on Particulate Emissions, Midwest Research Institute;
      Information obtained from R. C. Lorentz, EPA, Durham, N.C.

4-9.  Systems Study of Nitrogen Oxide Control Methods for Stationary
      Sources, Esso Research and Engineering Co., Government Research
      Laboratory.
                                                          WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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 V.   COMPARISON  OF  BOILER  EMISSIONS  TO  PROCESS  EMISSIONS

     Table  5-1 summarizes  the  current and  projected  national  air  pollu-
 tion emissions  from  the iron  and  steel  industry,  resulting  from  the  cal-
 culations  in Sections  III  and IV  of this  report.

                               TABLE 5-1
         SUMMARY OF AIR POLLUTANTS IN THE  IRON  AND STEEL  INDUSTRY
(103 tons)
so2
Boilers
1970 435
1975 438
1980 477
Process
370
363
372
N0x
Boilers
134
146
162
Process
61
64
63
Parti culates
Boilers
378
372
409
Process
1,137
1,130
968
    The emission figures shown for boilers  represent uncontrolled  emis-
sions, since insufficient data were available  to determine  the  fraction
of the emissions which were controlled.  The uncontrolled figures  are
realistic for S0~ and NO  emissions from boilers.  The  particulates
                C.       A
resulting from fuel combustion under boilers,  however,  are  partially
controlled, but the emission figures shown  have not been adjusted
accordingly.

    The figures shown for process emissions represent partially con-
trolled emissions for particulates (see Table  4-3) and  uncontrolled SO,,
and NO  emissions.
      A
    The above table shows that boilers are the source of a significant
fraction of the S09 and NO  emissions in the iron and steel industry,
                  £.       A
and further that they emit a fair portion of total particulates as well
    Figure 5-1 was obtained by summing the 1970 percentages of con-
tribution to air pollution for each source and air pollutant type.
                                                        WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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                                 BOILERS
                                Process

    Figure 5-1.  Relative Contribution of Boiler Emissions in the Iron
                 and Steel Industry in 1970.

The particulate emissions from boilers are slightly overstated due to
the fact that they are shown uncontrolled.  From this figure it is con-
cluded that the air pollution control priorities in the iron and steel
industry should be as follows:
    (1)

    (2)
    (3)
    (4)
    (5)
    (6)
Control further the particulate emissions resulting from
the manufacturing processes
Control S0? emissions resulting from boilers
Control NO  emissions resulting from boilers
          /\
Control S02 emissions resulting from the manufacturing processes
Control NO  emissions resulting from the manufacturing processes
          X
Control further the particulate emissions resulting from boilers
    It has been found that almost 40% of the process particulate emissions
result from material handling (see Appendix C, Table C-24).  It should  be
stressed that this is a rough estimate and that in reality these emissions
                                      71
                                                          WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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may  be  lower.   Even  under  those  circumstances,  however,  the  process  particu-
late emissions  are of first  importance.


     In  the  case of S09  and NO  emissions,  the boilers  contribute  the most
                     £       A
significant  portion  of  the total emissions.  It is  furthermore found that
boiler  emissions of  S09 and  NO   in the  iron  and steel  industry are also
                      c~       X
significant  in  comparison  to total SO-  and NO   emitted by  industrial

boilers  [5-1] (see Table 5-2).


                               TABLE  5-2

                     1975 AND 1980 BOILER EMISSIONS
             IRON AND STEEL AS A  PERCENTAGE OF ALL INDUSTRY
(103 tons)



so2
N0x

Iron and
Steel
438
146 '
1975
All
Industry %
3,800 ' 12
1,127 13

Iron and
Steel
477 '
162
1980
All
Industry
3,988
1,268


%
12
13
    In short, the above comparisons indicate the need to control air
pollution resulting from boilers in the iron and steel industry.
Suggested strategies and their cost effectiveness are discussed in
the following sections.
                                      72                 WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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                       REFERENCES TO SECTION V
5-1.   Systematic Study of Air Pollution from Intermediate-Size Fossil-
      Fuel Combustion Equipment, Walden Research Corporation, Cambridge,
      Mass., 1971.
                                        73                  WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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 VI.   STRATEGIES FOR EMISSION CONTROL

      A.   INTRODUCTION

          The  development of an  inventory of boiler equipment  and  fuel
 by various categories and their derivation  of combustion  emissions  and
 projections has been presented  and  discussed.   Attention  is now directed
 to possible  means  to control these emissions.   In general, some  methods
 are  effective by preventing or  reducing  the formation  of  certain  pollu-
 tants where others  work  to remove from the  flue gases  undesirable pro-
 ducts of combustion that were generated  in  the  boiler.

          Considered in sequence below are the following broad groups:

          (1)   Fuel  switching to reduce formation of particules, S0?
               and NO  during combustion
                     /\
          (2)   Mechanical  methods for removal  of particulates  from
               flue  gas
          (3)   Chemical process  controls  for removal  of S07  (and NO  )
                                                          C.        A
               from  flue  gas
          (4)   Changes in  combustion design  to reduce formation of
               particulates and  NO
                                 /\
          (5)   Other control  strategies of particular application  to
               the iron and steel industry.

         The  evaluation  of control  means, singly or  combined  into broad
 based  strategies  requires  inputs relevant to  the overall  applicability of
 the  approaches,  the  state  of development  of the approach  and  specific
 operating  and  cost  data.   This  section of the report presents  such  data
 pertinent  to  each of  the major  classes of potential  control approaches.

     B.  FUEL  SWITCHING

         1.   General  Approach

             The parameters  of  fuel   switching are well known  and  do not
warrant explanation  in great detail.   Without restriction of  cost,
availability or boiler design,  the  following generalizations  can  be
employed as guidelines in  examining  possibilities of fuel switching:

                                      74
                                                        WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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             a.  Natural gas, now and in the foreseeable future, is the
closest approach to a perfect fuel; very low in particulate and SCL emis-
sions; not nearly so advantageous in NOV emissions, but better than other
                                       A
fuels in most cases.

             b.  Distillate oil is lowest of all liquid fuels considered
             to particulates,
tant somewhat higher than gas.
with respect to particulates, SCL and NO  emissions, but for each pollu-
                                £•       y\
             c.  Low-sulfur residual oil and residual oil are considered
equal in emissions factors for particulates and NO , but differ by a
                                                  X
factor of about 4 to 5 with respect to sulfur content and, therefore, in
S0? emissions.  The emission of all three pollutants is greater than for
the above fuels.

             d.  Coal has generally the highest pollutant potential of
any fossil fuel with respect to particulates, S09 and NO  , when un-
                                                L.       X
controlled.  Even with particulate control equipment, it  still may rank
highest in this category.

         2.  Fuel Prices

             Table 6-1 shows the  1967  prices in dollars per million
Btu of various fuels used  in the  industrial sector according  to region  [6-1].

         3.  Capital Costs  Involved in  Fuel Switching

             The capital  costs of conversion consist of the cost  of
(1) new equipment and alterations at  the  furnace for satisfactory com-
bustion of the fuel and  (2) storage,  handling,  pumping and piping of
the fuel .

             The capital  costs developed  below  were  converted into an
annual basis assuming a  useful life of 20 years.   Inclusion of the cost
of money, taxes, insurance, etc., resulted  in annualization at the rate
of 14.3% of capital cost.
                                       75                WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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                                TABLE 6-1
FUEL RATES
(1967 Basis)
Region ,jf*
Gas
(F)*
Residual Oil Distillate Coal
S<.5 S<1. S>1. Oil S£l. S>1.
USER GROUP IS INDUSTRIAL
AT
GL
WS
CU
SE
RN
0.45
0.38
0.37
0.28
0.36
0.37
1.03
0.58
0.52
0.54
0.50
0.70
0.59
0.62
0.63
0.53
0.63
0.58
0.51
0.54
0.55
0.45
0.55
0.50
0.40
0.53
0.37
0.42
0.37
0.40
0.84
0.81
0.79
0.76
0.77
0.80
0.43
0.38
0.50
0.45
0.36
0.46
0.37
0.34
0.38
0.38
0.35
0.38
  I = Interruptible
  F = Firm
  Data in $/106 Btu
             There appears to be  no  limit  on  types of  coal  burning  in-
stallations which can be replaced  by gas/oil  burners,  assuming  the  age
and condition of the existing unit is  such that  a new  package type
boiler would not be a more practical replacement.

             Table 6-2 lists the  total  cost of converting  coal  fired
boilers and includes both the cost of  conversion and cost  for fuel
handling equipment [6-2].

     C.  FLUE GAS TREATMENT

         1.  Particulate Control
             a.  Equipment Type

                 There are four types of categories of particulate
control equipment in general use today.  These are:
                                  76
                                                         WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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                                                         TABLE 6-2


                                    TOTAL CAPITAL COST OF CONVERTING  COAL-FIRED BOILERS

                                                        Year - 1975
Size
WT1
WT2
WT2
WT3
WT3
FT
CI
Average
Capacity
37,000
163,900
163,900
274,900
274,900
4,600
625
Type of
Burner
Stoker
Stoker
Pulverized
Stoker
Pulverized
Stoker
Stoker
Cost of Conversion to
Gas Oil/Gas
$ 25,000
107,000
50,000
152,000
65,000
8,000
1,000
$ 35,000
170,000
120,000
260,000
165,000
20,000
4,000
Cost of New Boiler
Gas Oil /Gas
$221 ,000
652,000
652,000
830,000
830,000
17,500
3,000
$255,000
725,000
725,000
940,000
940,000
27,500
5,000
5

r~
O
m
z

33
m
in
33
O
I


O
O
33
~0

O
33

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                  (1)  Dry Cyclone

                      1.  Employs centrifugal forces to separate by dif-
 ferential density.

                      2.  May consist of single unit, or multiples in
 parallel or series.

                      3.  Except on the largest particulates, not capable
 of the highest efficiencies.

                  (2)  Wet Scrubber.

                      1.  Depends on intimate mixing of scrubbing liquid
 to impinge on and entrap particulates carried by gas stream.

                      2a.  Low to medium pressure drop characteristic
 of very many designs involving liquid sprays, fixed or movable packing
 in towers.

                      2b.  Medium to high pressure drop characteristic
 of a number of venturi designs which, except for fabrication details,
 are very similar.

                      3.  Can be designed for very high efficiencies.

                      4.  Likely to have the greatest maintenance expense
 due to erosion and corrosion.

                  (3)  Electrostatic Precipitator

                      1.  Generates an electric field to charge the par-
 ticulates which are then attracted to elements of opposite polarity in
 the precipitator.

                      2.  Capable of the highest efficiency.

                      3.  Will  generally have the lowest pressure drop
of any design; may be limited in some cases by certain flue gases which
do not have favorable ionization characteristics.
                                                        WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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                      4.  Usually the highest cost method.

                      5.  Efficiency can be affected by gas characteristics,
e.g., adversely by low S02 concentration.

                 (4)  Fabric Filter

                      1.  Generally consists of multiple parallel cloth
enclosures as bags or tubes through which the gas passes, leaving the
particulates trapped on the cloth medium.

                      2.  As with the electrostatic, capable of high
efficiency:  above 99% for submicron particles.

                      3.  Greatest limitation of application is design
and selection of proper filter medium for adequate life span.

             b. . Cost Analysis

                 The capital cost of a specific type of collector of
given size depends on the manufacturer, location, and types of process
for which it is designed.  Examination of data from manufacturers and
in the literature showed that reasonable general cost curves could be
used to represent typical installations.

                 The annual operating costs of the four types of con-
trol equipment are listed below in general equation form [6-3]:

     Dry Cyclone (or DC)

     G = S[(A x C) + (117.0 x 10"6) ^ + (M x C)]

     Wet Scrubber (or wS)

G = S[(A x C) + (117.0 x 10"6) £jf£ + (188.0 x 10"6) ^- + WHL + (M x C)]

     Electrostatic Precipitator (or ESP)
     G = S[(A x C) + (117.0 x 10"6)     + OHK + (M x C)]
                                  79                     WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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     Fabric Filter  (or FF)

     G - S[(A x C)  +  (117.0 x 10"6) +  (M x C)]

where

     G = dollars/year
     P = flue gas pressure drop    DC          4.3 in. W.C.
                                   WS  (hi AP) 20   in. W.C.
                                   WS  (lo AP)  6   in. W.C.
                                   ESP         1   in. W.C.
                                   FF          5   in. W.C.
     Q = liquor circulation rate          0.50 gal/hr-acfm
     h = total liquor head requirement    70 ft FLO
     W = make-up liquor requirement       0.05 gal/hr-acfm
                                                   _3
     J = power requirements               0.26 x 10   kw/acfm
     S = design capacity of collector, acfm of flue gas
     H = annual  operating time, hours
     L = liquor cost, collars/gal
     E = fan efficiency
     F = pump efficiency
     A = annual  capital cost factor, per year
     M = annual  maintenance factor, per year
     K = power cost, dollars/kwhr
     C = capital  cost, dollars/acfm

                 Values for the variables in the equations can be ob-
tained from Reference [6-2].

         2.  Sulfur Oxide Removal
             a.  Process Description

                 (1)  General

                      A preliminary review of air pollution abatement
processes which would remove S09 and NO  individually or simultaneously
                               £       X
                                   80                   WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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from the boiler flue gases revealed that there are presently no processes
demonstrated for NOV removal but that several exist for SCL abatement.
                   *                                      d.
                      About two dozen SCL removal processes at various
stages of development are now under investigation [6-4].  Most of the
removal systems are of the regenerative type in which a sulfur by-product
is recovered and the reactive chemicals are recycled.  A few of the systems
are the non-regenerative or throw-away type, where the reacted sulfur and
additive are discarded.

                      There is no process that is applicable to all
boilers.  Location and fuel are considerations which make one process
more applicable than others.  Detailed economic evaluations are not
available for most of the processes and the few that have been published
are incomplete and are based on different assumptions.

                 (2)  Throw-away Processes

                      (a)  Nahcolite Dry Process (NaHC03)

                           The nahcolite process is being promoted by
the Precipitation Pollution Control Company.  The process uses the
mineral nahcolite to remove the SCL from the flue gas.  Powdered
nahcolite is injected into the flue gas where upon the reaction to sul-
fate occurs and the product is removed from the flue gas in a dry dust
collector.

                           The process can be easily applied to small
boilers and has the attractive advantage of producing a dry but soluble
inert, inorganic waste product.

                      (b)  Na2C03 Wet Process

                           The wet sodium carbonate process utilizes  a
solution of NapCCL to absorb the SCL.  The solution is sprayed into a
wet scrubber for reaction with the SCL.  A process is being developed
by the Chemico Co.  that is capable of regenerating the waste solution.
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                           The advantage of the soda ash scrubbing system
 is  that  is  is simple, easy to operate and the waste disposal is not ex-
 pected to be a major operating cost.

                      (c)  TVA Dry Limestone Process

                           In this process, finely divided limestone is
 injected into a high temperature region of the furnace for calculation
 and  reaction with the SCL [6-5].  The additive containing reactive sulfur
 is  swept through the furnace and removed in some particulate collector.

                           The applicability of the dry TVA process de-
 pends on limestone costs, disposal costs and air quality regulations.
 The  disadvantage of the TVA dry lime system is that great quantities of
 waste are produced due to the low chemical efficiency.  Nevertheless,
 the  dry TVA process has the lowest net annual operating cost for the
 pulverized coal fired boilers, because the combined spent additive and
 ash  are handled and discarded in a dry state.

                      (d)  Combustion Engineering Dolomite Process

                           The process promoted by Combustion Engineering,
 Inc. is one of the only two systems which have been tested on a proto-
 type installation [6-6,6-7,6-8].

                           In this process, the SCL is absorbed in a lime
 slurry in a wet scrubber precipitating calcium sulfate and sulfite.  The
 lime is obtained by the injection of finely pulverized dolomite lime-
 stone into the boiler where it is calcined.

                           The precipitate and fly ash are separated
 from the scrubbing liquor by a settling tank and the supernatant
 liquor is recycled to the scrubber.  Primarily the C-E process applic-
 ability depends on the cost of the limestone, disposal cost and boiler
design of existing units.
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                      (c)  CaC03 Scrubbing

                           An alternative to the above is to keep the
sorbent out of the furnace and employ it in the scrubber only.   This
appeals especially to the boiler operator who generally is not anxious
to put anything other than fuel and air into the furnace.

                 (3)  Recycle Processes

                      Four recovery processes appear to be most promising
as recycle type processes.  These are:

                      (a)  Chemico Process

                           The Chemico Process is presently being dev-
eloped jointly by Chemical Construction Company and Basic Chemicals Co.
[6-9].  The Chemico process is a wet system which uses a slurry of
magnesium oxide to absorb the SOp* forming a precipitate of MgSO^/MgSCL.
The scrubbing liquor is concentrated and crystallized for shipment to a
central recovery plant.  At the recovery plant the MgSCu/MgSO. is de-
composed in a kiln to produce concentrated gaseous S0? and powdered
MgO.   The MgO is returned to the scrubbing system.

                           The disadvantage of the Chemico system is
that the MgSCu/MgSCL solution is relatively dilute and, to minimize
shipping costs, should be concentrated and crystallized before it can
be shipped to the central recovery plant, necessitating a filter, crystal!izer
and dryer at the boiler.  However, the regenerated MgO is in a dry
phase which is easily shipped back to the users.  Overall, the Chemico
process is one of the more practical systems that can be readily utilized
in the regional centralized concept for small boilers.

                      (b)  Stone & Webster/Ionics Process

                           The Stone & Webster/Ionics Process, which  is
being developed jointly by Stone & Webster Engineering Corporation and
Ionics Company, is one of the most technologically advanced and promising
S02 recovery processes [6-10].  The process was operated at a pilot plant
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 in Tampa, Florida, and a prototype plant is now being designed.  The
 pilot plant tests indicated satisfactory levels (>90?0 of SCL removal
 were feasible and that further demonstration of the process was war-
 ranted.

                           The SW/I Process is based on sodium hydroxide
 absorption of the SCL.  The formed sodium sulfite-bisulfite solution is
 reacted with sulfuric acid (ILSO.), generated internally, to form sulfur
 dioxide and sodium sulfate solution.  The sodium sulfate is processed in
 the electrolytic cell to general sodium hydroxide and sulfuric acid which
 are recycled to process.  The SCL, which is recovered as pure gas, can
 be used to manufacture sulfuric acid or elemental  sulfur.

                           The disadvantage of the SW/I Process is that
 relatively dilute solutions have to be transported between the boiler
 and the recovery plant.  The solutions could be concentrated and crystal-
 lized but it would mean higher capital expenditure at each boiler site
 and at the recovery plant.

                      (c)  Wellman-Lord Process

                           The Wellman-Lord Process is also a wet scrub-
 bing process; the absorbing solution is K7SCL [6-11].  In the scrubber,
                                         £  O
 KHSCL is formed which will crystalize and precipitate upon cooling.

                           The metabisulfate crystals (K^S^CL) when
 heated with steam will give up one mole of SCL per mole of Ko^O,- and
 forms an aqueous solution of K^SCL.  The K^SCL is recycled.

                           The Wellman-Lord Process has the same dis-
advantage as all the other aqueous regenerative processes; that is,
relatively weak solutions have to be handled both to and from the re-
covery plant or concentrated and crystallized at the respective sites.
The Wellman-Lord Process is being developed with minimum public dis-
closure of results and progress.
                                  84                  WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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                               TABLE 6-3

                          S02 REMOVAL SYSTEMS
Designation
    Description
              Chem.
              Feed
Developer     Rate*
   S02
 Removal
Efficiency
    C


    D
Dry Sodium Carbonate   (Nahcolite
(Na2C03) and fabric    Alternative)
filter

Sodium Carbonate
(Na2C03) Scrubbing

Dry Calcium Car-          TVA
bonate (CaCO,)
            O

Dry Calcium Car-          C.E.
bonate (CaC03)
and Scrubber

Calcium Carbonate         —
(CaCCL) Scrubbing
              110


              110

              200


              no


              no
                                                               60
                                                               95
   40
   90
                                                               60
£	
 Percent of stoichiometric requirement of the sulfur in the fuel.
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                                                        WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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                       (d)  The Molten Carbonate Process

                           The molten carbonate process being developed
 by  the Atomics  International Division of North American Rockwell is still
 in  the bench scale development stage and design details are sparse [6-12],
 However, the molten carbonate process appears to be one of the most adapt-
 able  processes  to the  regional recovery plant concept for new installations.

                           In this process the SOp is adsorbed in a molten
 salt  at approximately  800°F.  The molten salt solution is regenerated by
 reducing the sulfate to sulfide and reacting the sulfide with CCL to pro-
 duce  carbonate  salt and HLS gas.  The HpS can be used to manufacture ele-
 mental sulfur.

                           There is a substantial drawback to this process
 in  that the high operating temperature of the unusual adsorbent would al-
 most  completely preclude all boilers except those operating continually
 throughout the year.   Thus, only large boilers in process industries are
 likely candidates for  consideration.

             b.  Cost  Information

                 Detailed cost information were available from the In-
 termediate-Size Boiler Study £6-2] for the five SCL removal  systems de-
 tailed in Table 6-3.

                 Table 6-4 indicates estimates of capital cost for each
 process at a new installation and at an existing boiler plant.  For
 schemes A and C, oversize particulate collection equipment was included
 because of the great increase over normal  combustion-associated loads.
 For the schemes B, D, and E at a new boiler plant, it was assumed that
 the wet scrubber installed for S0? control  would also be adequate for
 particulate control.  Therefore, credit was given for omission of a
 particulate collector that would otherwise have been installed.

                 Table 6-5 shows total  annual  operating cost for each
SCL control scheme.   This includes all  operating costs such as labor,
maintenance, utilities, chemicals, etc.   Also included was an allowance
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                                                         TABLE  6-4

                                   SULFUR DIOXIDE REMOVAL FROM  FOSSIL  FUEL  BOILER  FLUE  GAS

                                                   (CAPITAL COST  IN $1000)*


Size and Fuel
275,000 Ib/hr
Coal , Pulverized
Coal , Stoker
Oil
164,000 Ib/hr
Coal , Pulverized
Coal , Stoker
Oil
37,000 Ib/hr
Coal , Pulverized
Coal , Stoker
Oil
A
Na2C03 (Dry)
New

510
510
610

355
355
425

—
—
190
Conver-
sion

730
730
710

485
485
470

—
—
206
B
Na2C03 (Wet)
New

285
285
268

188
188
182

—
no
88
Conver-
sion

480
480
375

320
320
250

—
152
105
.C
CaC03 (Dry)
New

360
—
356

263
—
328

—
—
169
Conver-
sion

520
—
550

365
—
400

—
—
190
D
CaC03 (Dry) &
Wet Scrubber
New

275
—
377

187
—
258

—
—
—
Conver-
sion

471
—
470

312
—
320

—
—
—
E
CaC03 (Wet)
New

275
275
377

187
187
258

—
—
135
Conver-
sion

471
471
470

312
312
320

—
—
158
F
CaO (Wet)
New

275
275
377

187
187
258

—
110
135
Conver-
sion

471
471
470

312
312
320

—
150
158
 OO
z

33

'(/)
m

33
O
X

O
O
33

O
33
     For  comparison,  new boiler costs alone are
     size,  and  $230,000 for the 37,000 pph size
approximately $900,000 for the 275,000 pph size, $700,000 for the 164,000 pph
O

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                                                    TABLE 6-5
                              SULFUR DIOXIDE REMOVAL FROM FOSSIL FUEL BOILER FLUE GAS
                                      (TOTAL ANNUAL OPERATING COST IN $1000)
                                                Assuming 3% Sulfur


Size and Fuel
275,000 Ib/hr ]
Coal , Pulverized
Coal , Stoker
Oil
164,000 Ib/hr2
Coal , Pulverized
Coal , Stoker
Oil
37,000 Ib/hr3
Coal , Pulverized
Coal , Stoker
Oil
A
Na2C03 (Dry)
New

422
420
385

345
242
230

—
76
77
Conver-
sion

480
475
410

280
280
245

—
85
81
B
Na2C03 (Wet)
New

350
320
260

190
180
150

—
60
46
Conver-
sion

408
390
290

230
232
170

—
55
51
C
CaC03 (Dry)
New

230
—
200

142
—
135

—
—
55
Conver-
sion

270
—
232

170
—
155

—
—
61
D
CaC03 (Dry) &
Wet Scrubber
New

285
—
230

165
—
145

—
—
—
Conver-
sion

335
—
255

195
—
160

—
—
—
E
CaC03 (Wet)
New

275
260
220

160
149
137

—
55
52
Conver-
sion

330
305
248

191
180
157

—
63
58
F
CaO (Wet)
New

305
275
240

170
158
145

—
56
54
Conve
sion

360
365
270

210
193
167

—
64
60
Divide costs by 13 to obtain cents/106 Btu
Divide costs by 5.0 to obtain cents/106 Btu

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for annual capitalization expense, taken at 21% of total  capital  cost.
The basic information used in the computation of these figures can be
found elsewhere [6-2].

                 Application of these operating costs to a control cost
effectiveness study on boilers in the iron and steel  industry may at
first appear unrealistic because of differences in percent of sulfur
in the fuel and load factors.  As is noted at the head of Table 6-5,
the operating costs were calculated for a 3% sulfur fuel.  The percent
sulfur in the fuel affects mainly the raw material and disposal costs
and as such the annual operating costs vary with percent sulfur in
fuel.

                 Perusal of Table D-2  indicates that the coal and
oil used in process boilers in the iron and steel industry contained
on the average about 1.8% sulfur.

                 Furthermore, the data presented in Table 6-5 were
calculated assuming that the boilers had the following load factors:
                 Capacity                   Load Factor
        <100,000 pph boiler                     21%
         100,001-250,000 pph boiler             35%
        >250,000 pph boiler                     55%

Comparison of the above load factors to the average load factor of 77%
for process boilers in the iron and steel industry (see page  26)
indicates that on the average the iron and steel boilers nave load
factors about twice those used in the estimation of the data  in
Table 6-5.

                 Fortunately, these two disparities between the two
sulfurs result in approximately compensating effects so that  as a sim-
plifying conclusion it will be assumed that the annual operating  costs
of the various S0? control schemes as shown in Table 6-5 can  be applied
for cost effectiveness studies to the process boilers in the  iron and
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                                                        WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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 steel  industry.   It  is  recognized  that with  the  smaller  boilers  this
 compensating effect  may not be quite  as good because  of  their  lower load
 factor.

         3.  NO   Removal and Recovery
               J\
             The  normal range of NO   concentration  in the flue gas is
                                   J\
 approximately 300 to 700 ppm.  At  these low  concentrations, other flue
 gas  constituents  such as CO,,, S02  and 02  interfere  with  NOX removal
 processes using sorption, scrubbing and catalytic conversion techniques.
 Several NO  removal  processes are  being investigated.  However,  all of
          J\
 them are still at the laboratory bench stage  of  development and  are
 not available for full  scale installation.

             Perhaps the most sophisticated  process approach to  the
 problem has been  presented by Tyco Laboratories  [6-8],   In their process
 both S0? and NO   are removed from  the flue gases by a process  similar
       L~       /\
 in nature to the  old "chamber process" for the production of sulfuric
 acid.  However, this process, too  is  still in the laboratory stage of
 development.

     D.  COMBUSTION DESIGN

         The following  two major types of control techniques will be
considered in this section:

          (i)  Use of combustion additives
         (ii)  Changes  in combustion  design

         1.   Combustion Additives

             As an approach to improving combustion and  reducing pol-
lutants, total  effort in the field of combustion additives has been
small when  measured against development programs in equipment  and fuels.
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Perhaps it is because the concept has often been viewed as black art,
in this case changing obnoxious chemicals into harmless ones.   However,
in today's view of the pollution situation, the use of chemical additives
to reduce particulate, sulfur oxide and nitrogen oxide emissions from
furnaces is a concept which deserves to be evaluated, particularly for
small and medium size installations where flue gas treatment systems
requiring substantial capital expenditure are not likely to be econ-
omically feasible.

             The purpose here is to survey and evaluate additives pre-
sently used or proposed for use in furnaces.

             The organometallic additives (e.g., methyl cyclopentadienyl
manganese tricarbonyl) are claimed to reduce carbonaceous particulate
emissions from furnaces by functioning as combustion catalysts.

             Reliable data on additive loading and effectiveness in re-
ducing particulate emissions is sparse.  About the only information gen-
erally available are manufacturer's claims of additive effects and
recently work done at NAPCA [6-13,6-14].  Published results [6-14]
indicate that with only about 10% of the over 200 additives tested
were reductions in particulate emissions observed.

             Generally the suggested additive loadings could result
in considerable emissions of toxic metallic particulates [6-14].

             A second class of additives, presently used to reduce soot
emissions, function by changing the pumping and atomizing characteristics
of heavy fuel oils.

             There are no additives which are currently in commercial
use to reduce nitric oxide emissions from stationary combustion equip-
ment.  However, the injection of liquid water into the flame to act
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                                                         WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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as an  inert diluent has been tried [6-15].  The results indicate a de-
crease in NO  with a simultaneous increase in particulate emissions.
            J\
             Perhaps the most effective use of additives, at the present
time has been demonstrated in the reduction of sulfur oxide emissions.

             Successful additive action has been experienced in residual
oil fired large boilers wherein finely divided MgO  additive suspended
in light oil is simultaneously injected at a controlled rate into the
furnace.  The SCL emission is decreased, corrosion is reduced substan-
tially, and the ash found on tubes is soft, dry and easily removed [6-16],

             Many of the manganese containing additives which are ef-
fective in reducing particulate emissions, have also been demonstrated
to reduce SO, production [6-17,6-18].

             Emission Control and Cost Data

             From the foregoing discussion it can be concluded that the
control effects and cost of additive addition are not well established.

             Nevertheless, based on rough estimates of the Intermediate
Boiler Study [6-12], it will be assumed that the following values will
be attainable in 1975:

             (1)  50% reduction in particulate emissions
             (2)  0.3 cents per million Btu cost

         2.   Combustion Design

             a.  Process Description
                 Based on present knowledge and technology, the attack
                 is likely to be different from that on particulat
SO .   For the latter two, present sources and foreseeable progress
on NO  emissions is likely to be different from that on particulates and
     A
                                                          WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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appears to lie in fuel switching and/or flue gas treatment, although a
certain amount of unburned carbon particulate emissions and SCL pro-
                                                              •3
duction probably will be reduced by redesign of the combustion package.
For NO , on the other hand, redesign of the combustion package offers
      /\
the greatest promise of improvement and will probably include changes
in fuel/air mixing and metering, burning mechanisms, the furnace en-
velope and combustion controls.

                 The study done by Esso Research and Development Company
for NAPCA "Control Techniques for Nitrogen Oxide Emissions from Sta-
tionary Sources" is the most recent and comprehensive view of the sub-
ject and the recommendation and analysis generally follows that work [6-19],

                 In general , three combustion modifications are cur-
rently considered as effective in reducing NO  emissions.  These are
                                             /\
Low Excess Air (LEA), Flue Gas Recirculation (FGR) and Two Stage Com-
bustion.

                 Low excess air, as the name implies, requires the use
of 5% or less excess combustion air, rather than the usual 20-30% to
markedly reduce the production of nitrogen oxides.  Experimental data
from large boilers indicates that a reduction of 33% in NO  emissions
                                                          X
is possible and it has been assumed that this reduction can be obtained
for all boiler sizes.

                 The mechanics of implementing low excess air involve
carefully metering combustion air and fuel, measuring either CO^ or 02
in the flue gas and introducing some feedback mechanism from this
last measurement to effect control over the fuel/air ratio.  Excellent
fuel/air mixing at each burner and uniformity across the furnace is
of greatest importance.

                 A second technique for reducing NO  involves bringing
                                                   /\
a portion of the combustion flue gas back to the combustion chamber
as part of the combustion air [6-19].  This approach appears to reduce 0-
concentration and temperature with effects as described above and also to
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 reduce  flame  temperatures which  has  been  shown  to  be  an effective mechanism
 for  NO   reduction.

                   Implementation of  this  strategy  is  not  too  difficult,
 needing only  flue  gas  recirculation  fan,  duct work and controls.

                   Extension of the above  techniques have  led  to develop-
 ment of boiler operation with both low  excess air  and flue gas recircula-
 tion.   This has  been successfully demonstrated  in  commercial  equipment and
 as a result of the compound effect a  reduction  of  NO  emissions by  50% has
                                                    A
 been  assumed  for the combined strategy  [6-19].

                   Finally one of the  advanced concepts summarized by Esso
 is that of two-stage combustion [6-19].   Work on commercial units has gone
 forward and a West Coast utility with an  NO  emissions problem has  made
                                           A
 considerable  progress, aided by their boiler manufacturer.

              b.   Economic and Operating  Characteristics

                   The  Intermediate Boiler Study [6-2] presents the  follow-
 ing  capital cost estimates:  (Table 6-6)

                               TABLE  6-6
                 ADD-ON COST OF COMBUSTION MODIFICATION
                                        Cost Per Boiler
   Boiler Size                LEA            FGR              Both
WT-1 (<100,000 pph)
WT-2 & 3 (100,001-
500,000 pph)
Firetube and cast iron
$3,000
4,000
3,000
$ 6,000
20,000
3,000
$ 8,000
22,000
4,200
                 A low annualization factor of 10% has been applied
against the above capital cost because of the effects of assuming the
life of such accessories will equal that of the boiler and because of
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                                                         WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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low maintenance requirements.  However, it will be assumed that LEA
will realize enough savings through fuel economy that the annualized
capital costs will be offset in the WT2 and WT3 boilers, but not in
the WT1 boilers where the annualized capital costs was set equal to
the total operating cost.

     E.  CONTROL STRATEGIES OF SPECIAL APPLICATION TO THE IRON AND STEEL
         INDUSTRY

         A brief survey was undertaken of the possibilities of using
some of the currently employed process particulate removal systems to
assist in removal of particulates from boiler emissions.  It was con-
cluded that the process removal systems were operating at their design
load and as such had no addition capacity for other particulate laden
gas.  Furthermore, the cost of transportation of the large volumes of
boiler flue gas would generally be prohibitively high.
                                    95                    WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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                        REFERENCES TO SECTION 6
6-1.   Based on The Fuel of Fifty Cities, Ernst & Ernst, November 1968.

6-2.   Systematic Study of Air Pollution from Intermediate-Size Fossil-
       Fuel Combustion Equipment, Walden Research Corporation, Cambridge,
       Mass., 1971.

6-3.   Anon., Control  Techniques for Particulate Air Pollutants, NAPCA
       Pub. No. AP-51, U.S. Dept. of HEW, Public Health Service, Con-
       sumer Protection and Environmental Health Service, 1969.

6-4.   Dennis, R. and Bernstein, R.H., Engineering Study of Removal  of
       Sulfur Oxides from Stack Gases, Report for Committee for Air and
       Water Conservation, American Petroleum Institute, August 1968.

6-5.   Sulfur Dioxide Removal  from Power Plant Stack Gas, Conceputal
       Design and Cost Study,  Sorption by Limestone or Lime Dry Process,
       TVA Report, 1968.

6-6.   Maurin, P.G. and Jonakin, J., "Removing Sulfur Oxides from Stacks",
       Chemical Engineering, April 27, 1970.

6-7.   Plumley, A.L.,  Whiddon, O.D., Shutko, F.W. and Jonakin, J.,
       "Removal of S02 and Dust from Stack Gases", presented at American
       Power Conference, Chicago, Illinois, April 25-27, 1967.

6-8.   McLaughlin, J.F. and Jonakin, J., "Operating Experience with
       Wet-Dolomite Scrubbing", Annual Meeting of APCA, June 1969.

6-9.   Willett, H.P.,  Quig, R.H., and Shah, I.S., "Venturi Scrubbing for
       SO? and Fly Ash Removal at Power Plant Sites with Centralized Re-
       aclant Reprocessing", presented at New England Section, APCA, Hart-
       ford, Connecticut, April 16, 1969.

6-10.  Humphries, J.J., Zdonik, S.B. and Parsi, E.J., "Economic Factors
       in the Capital  and Operating Costs of the Stone & Webster/Ionics
       SO? Removal and Recovery Process", presented at AIChE Symposium,
       Chicago, Illinois, November 29-December 1, 1970.

6-11.  Terrana, J.D.,  and Hi Her, L.A., "New Process for Recovery for
       S02 from Stack  Gases",  Wellman-Lord, Inc., Florida.

6-12.  Qldenkamp, R.D., and McKenzie, D.E., "The Molten Carbonite
       Process for Control  of  Sulfur Oxide Emissions", North American
       Rockwell  Corp.,  Atomic  International  Div.

6-13.  Martin, G.B., "Use of Fuel  Additives and Combustion Improving
       Devices to Reduce Air Pollution Emissions from Domestic Oil
       Furnaces", presented at the Third New and Improved Oil  Burner
       Workshop of NOFI, Hartford, Conn., September 23-24, 1970.
                                  96
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                   REFERENCES TO SECTION 6 (Cont.)


6-14.  Martin, G.B., Wasser, J.H.  and Hanegebrauck,  R.P.,  "Status
       Report on Study of Effects  of Fuel  Oil  Additives  on Emissions
       from an Oil-Fired Test Furnace", presented at Annual  Meeting of
       APCA, St. Louis, Mo., June  14-19, 1970.

6-15.  "The Treatment of Residual  Fuel  Oils",  Dearborne  Chemical  Divi-
       sion, W.R. Grace Co., Merchandise Mart,  Chicago,  111., Technical
       Bulletin 12101.

6-16.  Exley, L.M. Tamburrino, A.E.  and O'Neal, A.J., Jr., "LILCO
       Trims Residual Oil Problems", Power,  April 1966,  pp 69-73.

6-17.  Belyea, A.R., "Manganese Additive Reduces SO.,", Power,
       November 1966.

6-18.  Kukin, I., "Advances in the Use of Chemical  Treatment in Air
       Pollution Reduction Programs", presented at the Rocky Mountain
       Regional Meeting, National  Petroleum  Refiners Association,
       October 2-3, 1968.

6-19.  Bartok, et al., Systems Study of NQX  Control  Methods for Sta-
       tionary Sources, Esso R&D Co. (NAPCA  Contract No. PH 22-68-55),
       November 1969.
                                  97                    WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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 VII.   COST  EFFECTIVENESS AND ANALYSIS

       A.  INTRODUCTION

          Lack  of  funding  precluded  a  thorough cost effectiveness analysis
 of  the application of many of the different control strategies discussed
 earlier.  However, following the general guidelines of the  Intermediate
 Boiler Study  [6-1], cost effectiveness analyses were made for the applica-
 tion  of the following three broad control strategies to the steam raising
 boilers in  the  iron and steel industry.

          (i)    Fuel Switching
          (ii)   Flue Gas  Treatment
          (iii)  Maximum Reduction - Reasonable Cost Total  Program,
                 i.e., combustion of fuel switching, fuel additives
                 and combustion modification

          The economic impact of the strategies has been examined in
 terms  of both capital cost and also annual cost.  The latter quantity in-
 cludes  such operating costs as fuel, labor, maintenance, water, etc.,
 and the annualized capital cost.  The  latter factor represents the de-
 preciation and  depends on  the number of years of useful life assumed
 and on  the cost of money.

          Exercise of judgment in assessing the multitude of strategies
 leads  one quickly to the many positive aspects of fuel switching.  The
major  advantage is the fact that this  approach can very largely eliminate
 simultaneously, emissions  of SOp and particulates and make a good showing
 in total NO  emissions.
           A
          The control of all  emissions, comparable to the results of
fuel switching, can be accomplished by means of a flue gas treatment.
Wet scrubbing employing a sodium carbonate solution was selected as
being optimal.

          Under maximum pressure or incentive to bring emissions to the
lowest  practical level  over the short  term say 1975, it is conceivable
that a  combination of individual strategies could be implemented, resulting
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in a maximum reduction - reasonable cost total program.  Such an all en-
compassing program was comprised of the following strategies:

          (1)  Fuel switching from coal to low sulfur residual oil,
               distillate oil or gas according to size and region for re-
               duction of particulates and SCL and some NO .
                                             u.            /\
          (2)  Fuel additives for all oil firing in all sizes for
               additional particulate reduction

          (3)  Combustion modification by LEA, staged combustion, and
               FGR for significant NO  reduction.
                                     A
      B.  RESULTS

          1.  Fuel Switching

              Fuel switching was based on the gross regional  assumptions
that coal-fired equipment would be converted to low sulfur residual oil
firing in the Atlantic (AT) and Southeast (SE) areas and to gas firing
in the balance of the 48 states.  In addition, all units firing residual
oil were switched to low sulfur residual.  These assumptions were based
on those used in the Intermediate Boiler Study [7-1].

              The results obtained are shown in Table 7-1.

              It should be emphasized, however, that variation in fuel
prices due to supply and demand were not taken into account.

          2,  Flue Gas Treatment

              Even though furnace gas contains no sulfur, flue gas  treat-
ment strategy was applied to all units in the cost effectiveness analysis.
The rational behind this was that boilers in the iron and steel industry
tend to use many different fuels during their operation, so that flue
gas treatment would be required when other fuels were used.

              Estimation of capital investment and annual operating
costs were obtained simply by dividing separately the total boiler
                                                          WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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       TABLE 7-1



FUEL SWITCHING STRATEGY
1975
Parti culates
WT1
WT2
WT3
TOTAL
so2
WT]
WT2
TOTAL
N0x
WT1
WT2
WT3
TOTAL
Includes a 14.3%
**
Cost to reduce al
**
Emissions Cost
(103 tons/yr) % ^^^ $ TO6
Projections Reduction Pollutant Capital Annual
124.6
130.6
117.1
372.3
176.5
143.5
118.4
438.4
49.1
49.5
47.8
146.4
writing
1 three
115.7 ^
126.5
113.1 i
355.3 95 |
119.0
5.8 16.6
103.5 V 3.0 11.1
82.0
304.5 69
5.7
4.9
6.0
16.6 11 ,
off of the capital cost.
pollutants.
/ 2,8 11.0
11.6 38.7




          100
WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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capacity in each of the three size groupings WT1, WT2 and VTT3 by the average
boiler sizes for which data were presented in Tables 6-4 and 6-5.  This was
a rough estimate of the total number of units in each size category.  Costs
were then obtained by multiplying these number of units by the average
(by fuel and type of burner) conversion costs presented in Tables 6-4 and
6-5.

              The results are shown in Table 7-2.

          3.  Maximum Reduction - Reasonable Cost Strategy

              As discussed earlier this strategy consists of the combined
application of three strategies.  The results of the fuel switching strategy
are presented in Table 7-1.  Table 7-3 presents the cost effectiveness  of
applying combustion modifications and additives.
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                  TABLE  7-2



FLUE GAS TREATMENT  BY  CONVERSION OF EQUIPMENT
Emissions
(103 tons/yr) % Auction
1975 Projections Reduction
Particulates
WT1
WT2
WT3
TOTAL
so2
WT1
WT3
TOTAL
NOX
WT1
WT2
WT3
TOTAL
124.6
130.6
117.1
372.3
176.5
143.5
118.4
438.4
49.1
49.5
47.8
146.4
115.7 >
126.5
113.1
355.3 95
167.5
136.0
113.0
416.5 95
9.8
9.9
9.6
29.3 20 /
Cost
$ 106
Annual
Capital Operating
1



125 52
60 42
' 53 43
238 137



                      102
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                                TABLE 7-3

  COST EFFECTIVENESS OF APPLYING COMBUSTION MODIFICATIONS  (LEA  AND  FGR)
               AND ADDITIVES TO ALL RESIDUAL OIL BOILERS
                       Emissions
                                                              Cost
                                           % Reduction
                                             of Each
              1975 Projections  Reduction   Pollutant
   (10° tons/yr)
                          $ 10b
                      Capital  Annual
Parti culates
WT] 124.6
WT2 130.6
WT3 117.1
TOTAL 372.3

2.5
.7
.8
4.0 1

0
0
0
0

2.0
1.4
1.2
4.6
SO,
  TOTAL
438.4
N.A.
NO
WT1
WT2
WT3
TOTAL
49.1
49.5
47.8
146.4
21.7
22.3
20.9
64.9 44
8.3
4.4
2.6
15.3
.8
0
0
.8
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                        REFERENCES TO SECTION VII
7-1.  Systematic Study of Air Pollution from  Intermediate-Size  Fossil-

      Fuel Combustion Equipment, Wai den Research  Corporation,  Cambridge,

      Mass., 1971.
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VIII.  CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

       A.  CONCLUSIONS

           Three major conclusions emerge from this study:

           (1)  Steam raising boilers are a significant source of air
                pollution in the iron and steel  industry.   These boilers
                emit about 1/3 the particulate loadings of the process
                emissions, about 1/2 of the total S02 and 2/3 of the
                total NO  .
                        A
           (2)  A significant fraction of the particulate and S02 emis-
                sions from the boilers result from the combustion of
                conventional fossil fuels.  This is a result of the rela-
                tive cleanliness (with respect to particulates and sul-
                furs) of  coke oven gas and blast furnace gas as compared
                to the conventional fossil fuels.

           (3)  Mainly as a consequence of (2),  it is concluded from
                the control strategy cost effectiveness analyses that
                fuel switching would be the most effective means of
                control.

       B.  RECOMMENDATIONS

           Examination of the results of the development of emission
estimates and projections and analysis of control strategies point to
two principal sets of recommendations.

           (1)  Improvement on the present study
           (2)  Implementation of fuel switching

           1.  Improvements of the Present Study

               The first  set reflects uncertainties and limitations
resulting from assumptions, idealizations and imperfect data inputs  in-
herent in the analytic procedures employed in the study.
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               Anticipating  that  strategy  evaluation  appears more meaning-
 ful  on  the  basis of combined effects  on all three pollutants,  it would  be
 valuable  to develop a  parallel means  to combine  the emissions  into  a
 single  quantity using  some weighting  factor to account  for  permissible
 levels  of exposure.

               Other improvements are more direct.  The study  should be
 updated and checked against  actual future  developments.  More  fine  struc-
 ture should be introduced.   There is  need  to  improve  the emission factor
 data and  the  information concerning the fraction of units controlled.   This
 information is required particularly  for the  process  emissions where very
 little  information is  available and yet these "rough" emission estimates
 would suggest that the iron  and steel industry is a significant industrial
 polluter.

               The fuel switching analysis depends on several  key assump-
 tions regarding fuel price and availability.  Re-examination considering
 supply price forecasts should be made.

            2.   Implementation of Fuel Switching

               Fuel switching was shown to be the preferred control
 strategy as long as fuel  prices do not increase.  However,  recent trends
 in prices,  particularly for  low sulfur fuels, would suggest rapid increases
 in the near future.  Because fuel  switching has many attractive features
other than  low annual  operating costs, it  is  important to seek means to
maintain the price of fuel and the adequacy of supply at levels where
this strategy remains effective.
                                         06             WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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                              APPENDIX A
                  DATA ANALYSIS AND BOILER INVENTORY

    From the various sources, state-by-state totals were compiled of
the available capacity in the boiler data base.   From the Dun & Brad-
street Metalworking Directory [A-l], the number of employees for each
plant for which data were available were recorded.   Where no employ-
ment figures were available, estimates were made.   Table A-l lists
the capacities and number of boilers obtained for each state, and the
approximate percentage this would represent of the total, based on em-
ployment.  The percentage was arrived at for each state by using the
ratio between the employment figures for the plants for which data were
available and the total employment figure for SIC 331, as reported in
the 1969 County Business Pattern publication for each state [A-2].
Exceptions were those cases where it was known that one or two large
plants made up most of the total state capacity and where information
on the boilers in use in these plants were available, i.e., in Maryland
and Michigan.

    Except for New Jersey, the states not listed have a negligible
number of people employed in the iron and steel  industry (less than
0.5% of the total U.S. employment in SIC 331).  Based on a rough
capacity/employment ratio of 250 (obtained by averaging some of the
available data), we estimated New Jersey to have about 15 boilers with
a total capacity of 1 million Ib/hr.  The other state totals were ob-
tained by multiplying the reciprocal of the employment ratio, described
before, by the capacity available in Wai den's sample data.  The results
are listed in Table A-2 and add up to 103,495,000 Ib/hr and 2,269 boilers.
The total sample obtained represents about 64% of the total employment
in the iron and steel industry.

    In order to make a rough check of these estimates, the following
exercise was performed.  An age profile was drawn up from the sample of
boilers where the boiler age was available.  Assuming a two-year  lag
between the boiler sales as reported by the ABMA [A-3] and the date of
                                  A-l                     WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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                   TABLE A-l



SAMPLE OF BOILERS  IN  THE IRON AND STEEL  INDUSTRY
State
Alabama
California
Colorado
Connecticut
Delaware
Georgia
Illinois
Indiana
Kentucky
Maryland
Massachusetts
Michigan
Minnesota
Missouri
New York
Ohio
Pennsylvania
Texas
Utah
West Virginia

No.
87
29
22
3
2
2
60
97
1
422
13
12
23
4
30
187
285
8
23
20

Capacity (103 pph)
6,063
2,151
1,445
49
100
50
4,594
8,874
negl .
4,980
104
4,120
389
240
2,303
13,453
13,871
1,002
1,592
2,400
66,256
% of Total
62
55
100
6
50
100
80
93
negl .
100
21
82
66
80
64
73
46
39
99
80

                      A-2
WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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                       TABLE  A-2



1970 ESTIMATE OF BOILERS  IN THE  IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY
State
Alabama
Cal i form' a
Colorado
Connecticut
Delaware
Georgia
Illinois
Indiana
Kentucky
Maryland
Massachusetts
Michigan
Minnesota
Missouri
New Jersey
New York
Ohio
Pennsylvania
Texas
Utah
West Virginia

No.
140
53
22
53
4
2
75
105
13
425
60
52
51
8
15
48
255
700
21
28
21
2,269
Capacity (103 pph)
9,800
3,900
1,500
860
200
50
5,750
9,580
5
5,000
500
5,000
850
300
1,000
3,600
18,400
30,000
2,600
1,600
3,000
103,495
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 actual  installment,  the boilers  sold  between  1965  and  1968  should  have
 been installed  between  1967  and  1970.   Furthermore, the  assumption was
 made that the age  profile  of the sample is  representative of the national
 age profile  of  the boilers sold  by  the  ABMA members to the  primary
 metals  industry.   Using these assumptions,  the  capacity  installed  be-
 tween 1911 and  1970  was found to be 7.09 times  as  large  as  the capacity
 installed in  the four-year period of  1967 to  1970.  Multiplying the
 1965 to  1969  ABMA  sales by this  factor  should give an  approximation of
 the boilers  sold to  the primary  metals  industry between  1911 and 1970.
 This calculation results in  a total capacity  of 120,885,000 Ib/hr.
 Assuming  that 90%  of this  capacity  was  sold to  the iron  and steel  in-
 dustry reduces  the figure  to  108,796,000 Ib/hr.  Subtracting about 5%
 for retired  boilers  [A-4]  results in  the final  figure  of 103,356,000
 Ib/hr of  installed boiler  capacity  in the iron  and steel industry.
 This compares very favorably  with the total capacity obtained from the
 state-by-state  approach, which was  103,495,000  Ib/hr.  The two approaches
 differ by less  than  1%, giving us confidence  in the methodology and the
 results.

     Ranking the states  according  to installed capacity,  we find Penn-
 sylvania  to be  far ahead of all  other states, with Ohio, Indiana,  and
 Alabama in the  second,  third, and fourth places (see Table A-3).

     The boiler  inventory is summarized  in Table A-4.    It was decided to
 leave out the small  cast iron and firetube boilers used  in some iron and
 steel plants.  This  reduced the  number  of boilers significantly, but did
 not  affect the total  boiler capacities when reported in  thousand pounds
 of  steam  per  hour  (see Table A-5).

    The age distribution of the boilers in the  iron and steel  industry
 available from the Walden sample  shows that the Southeastern region of
 the U.S.  has  the largest proportion of boilers older than 20 years (see
Table A-6).  This region has  had  iron and steel  plants since the end of
the 19th century and, contrary to the Atlantic states, it has not ex-
panded its iron  and steel plants by putting in a larger number of small
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                  TABLE A-3

1970 STATE RANKING BY BOILER CAPACITY IN THE
           IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY
Rank
1
2
3
4
5
6/7
6/7
8
9

Pennsylvania
Ohio
Alabama
Indiana
Illinois
Maryland
Michigan
Cal i form' a
New York
Capacity (10 pph)
30,000
18,400
9,800
9,580
5,750
5,000
5,000
3,900
3,600
                  TABLE A-4

1970 REGIONAL ESTIMATES OF BOILER  CAPACITY  IN
         THE IRON AND STEEL  INDUSTRY
Region
Atlantic
Great Lakes
West and South
South East

No. of
Boilers
1,305
547
124
176
2,152
Capacity
(103 pph)
41,160
39,880
9,600
12,855
103,495
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                           TABLE A-5

        1970 REGIONAL ESTIMATES OF WATERTUBE BOILERS  IN
                  THE IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY
Region
Atlantic
Great Lakes
West and South
South East
No. of
Boilers
783
514
123
172
1,592
Capacity
(103 pph)
41,160
39,880
9,600
12,855
103,495
Average
(pph)
53,000
77,600
78,000
74,700
(65,000)
                           TABLE A-6

         1970 AGE DISTRIBUTION OF WATERTUBE BOILERS IN
                  THE IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY
                          Less Than or Equal       Older Than
  Region                     to 20 Years            20 Years

Atlantic                         49%                   51%
Great Lakes                      49%                   51%
West and South                   31%                   69%
South East                       10%                   90%
                              . g                    WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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boilers.  In some cases, larger boilers were ordered to replace the older
ones, and it is assumed that the 10% new boilers are mostly those greater
than 250,000 pph.  In very many cases, however, the iron and steel  in-
dustry has turned to purchasing steam and electricity,  instead of gen-
erating steam for process heating and power purposes.  The TVA complex
in this region has facilitated this process.   Summarizing, it may be
said that the percentage of new boilers is quite small  in iron and
steel plants in the Southeast, because this is an old industry for the
region, and because many expanding and new plants have  eliminated their
own boiler plants by buying outside steam and electricity.

    From the Walden sample of boilers in the iron and steel industry,
the following fuel distributions were obtained:  (Table A-7)

                               TABLE A-7
               1970 FUEL DISTRIBUTION OF BOILERS IN THE
                        IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY
                             (percentages)
Region
Atlantic
Great Lakes
West and South
South East
Coal
10
31
2
32
Residual
Oil
13
9
5
3
Natural
Gas
29
19
35
26
Blast Furnace
Gas
34
30
31
28
Coke
Oven Gas
14
11
27
11
    From all the above distribution tables, we arrive at the boiler in-
ventory summarized in Table A-8.

    From the sample a weighted average was calculated for the load fac-
tor of the boilers in the iron and steel industry.  This average was
about 77%.  Boiler efficiencies were not requested on the questionnaire
form, but were requested in the telephone interviews.  From this smaller
sample, the range of efficiencies was found to be from 60% to 92% with
an average of about 78%.  The larger boilers usually had a higher
                                  A-7                    WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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                     TABLE A-8



1970 BOILER CAPACITY IN THE IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY
(103 pph)
Boiler Size Fuel
"T^OO CL
RO
GS
BFG
COG
WT1 00-250 CL
RO
GS
BFG
COG
WT>25Q CL
RO
GS
BFG
COG
TOTAL
AT
1,729
2,247
5,013
5,878
2,420
1,317
1,712
3,820
4,478
1,844
1,070
1,391
3,104
3,639
1,498
41,160
GL
3,956
1,148
2,425
3,829
1,404
4,698
1 ,364
2,879
4,546
1,667
3,709
1,077
2,273
3,589
1,316
39,880
WS
73
182
1,277
1,131
985
42
106
739
655
570
77
192
1,344
1,190
1,037
9,600
SE
1,439
135
1,170
1,260
495
864
81
702
756
297
1,810
170
1,470
1,584
622
12,855
Total
7,197
3,712
9,885
12,098
5,304
6,921
3,263
8,140
10,435
4,378
6,666
2,830
8,191
10,002
4,473
103,495
                        A-8                  WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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efficiency than the smaller ones.   It was  decided  to  use  the  following
average boiler efficiencies by size group:

         Watertube         <100,001 Ibs/hr                 -  73%
         Watertube          101,001-250,000 Ibs/hr         -78%
         Watertube         >250,000 Ibs/hr                 -  84%

    Since no specific data on firing methods were  collected for the
study, it was decided to use the coal firing method distribution charac-
teristic of intermediate size watertube boilers  in general  [A-4].   This
distribution is shown in Table A-9.

                               TABLE A-9
             PERCENTAGE OF WATERTUBE BOILERS USING VARIOUS
                   FIRING METHODS FOR COAL COMBUSTION
Boiler
Size
^100
WT1 00-250
WT>250
Pulverized
Coal
20
59
92
Cyclone
0
2
5
Overfired
47
29
0
Stokers
Spreader
Stoker
20
8
2
Under
Fired
13
2
1
Stokers are used mostly for the smaller watertube boilers; the large
boilers tend to utilize pulverized coal.

    In order to check the 1970 fuel use results, Walden used the AISI
statistical reports.  The data only showed coal used for steam raising,
so that this is the only direct comparison that could initially be made.
It also breaks down the consumption of the other fuels into the fol-
lowing use categories:
                                  A-9                     WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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!                              Blast Furnace
                              Other Uses
                              (including coke over underfiring)
         Steel Melting Furnaces
         Heating and Annealing Furnaces
         Heating Ovens for Wire Rods
         Other

    Discussions with AISI (Mr. Eckel) indicates that the category "other"
could be considered to refer to fuel usage for steam raising.  Con-
sequently, fuel oil, natural gas, coke oven gas, and blast furnace gas
consumption in steam raising were each estimated by summing the fuel
quantities listed under "other" (subtracting out in each case the fuel
used for coke oven underfiring).   Tar and pitch consumption which are
also tabulated by AISI were added to the fuel oil figures for this
estimated.
                                                      WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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                       REFERENCES TO APPENDIX A
A-l.  Dun & Bradstreet Metalworking Directory, 1971. Dun & Bradstreet,
      Inc., New York.

A-2.  County Business Patterns. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1969.

A-3.  American Boiler Manufacturers Association, Yearly Reports on Boiler
      Sales.

A-4.  Systematic Study of Air Pollution from Intermediate-Size Fossil-
      Fuel Combustion Equipment, Maiden Research Corporation, March  1971.
                                   A-11
                                                          WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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                              APPENDIX B
                PROJECTIONS OF BOILERS TO THE YEAR 1980

    It was found that about 550 kwh of energy is needed to produce a ton
of steel in electric furnaces [B-l].  Using this figure and the produc-
tion figures published by the AISI, we arrived at the actual energy
needed for steel production in electric furnaces, shown in the left-
hand column of Table B-l.

                               TABLE B-l
               POWER UTILIZATION IN IRON AND STEEL PLANTS
           Energy Used for
           Production of
           Raw Steel in
Total Electric
Power Consumed
by the Iron and


1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
L- i <=u ui iv* luiiiauci.
(106 kwh)
A
6,973
7,592
8,179
8,299
9,248
11,073
11,089
a ULCCI j
(106
Generated
B_
12,816
12,151
12,096
11,954
12,685
11,702
11,749
Liiuua ui y
kwh)*
Purchased
C_
26,049
28,006
29,891
30,557
33,470
36,691
37,833
Column A
Ratio B+C"
D.
.179
.189
.195
.195
.200
.229
.224
"Source:  AISI - 1970 Annual Statistical Report

    The BatteHe Systems Study of the integrated iron and steel  industry
reports projections of raw steel production by type of furnace,  see
Table B-2.
                                  B-l
                                                          WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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                               TABLE B-2
         PROJECTIONS OF RAW STEEL PRODUCTION BY TYPE OF FURNACE
                             (1000 net tons)
Year
1975
1980
*
Source:
Open
Hearth
44,000
36,000
Battell e
Basic-Oxygen
Bessimer Furnace
80,000
99,000
Memorial Institute
Electric
Furnace
33,000
45,000
Total
157,000
180,000
     Corresponding to the production of steel in electric furnaces,
using the factor of 550 kwh/ton of steel, are the figures of respectively
18.150 x 10  kwh and 24.750 x 10  kwh for energy used for this production
in 1975 and 1980 respectively.  A linear projection of the ratio in column
D of Table B-l results in the ratio of .275 for 1975 and .320 for 1980.
Using these ratios we arrive at the projected figures for total energy
required shown in the lefthand column of Table B-3.  Purchased energy
as a percentage of the total has been increasing significantly [B-3].
In 1970 this percentage was about 76%.  Our projections for 1975 and
1980 show that 85% and 93% respectively of the total required energy
will be purchased as opposed to generated in-house.  The boiler capacity
needed for this in-house generation was calculated based on a load fac-
tor of 77% and assuming 1 kilowatt to be approximately equivalent to
10 Ibs of steam per hour.  The results are shown in Table B-3.

    Boilers in the iron and steel  industry are used to raise steam
for power generation, process heating and space heating.  The assump-
tion is made below that the amount of steam generated for non-power
purposes will  remain the same per ton of steel  produced during the
coming decade.   This boiler capacity required for process and space-
heating in 1975 and 1980 was arrived at by using the Battelle pro-
jections of total  steel  production shown in Table B-2.   The 1970 total
                                  R 2
                                                     WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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                               TABLE B-3
               PROJECTIONS OF POWER REQUIREMENTS IN THE
                        IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY
(TO6 kwh)
Total
Year Energy
A_
1975 66,000
1980 77,340
Purchased Generated
B C
56,000 9,900
71,926 5,414
Boiler Capacity in Use
for Power Generation
D
14.7 x 106 pph
8.0 x 106 pph
                                        •3
production of raw steel was 131,514 x 10  tons,  corresponding to a boiler
capacity of 103,495 x 103 pph.  Table B-l shows  that 11,749 x 106 kwh
of energy were generated in iron and steel plants in 1970.   The boiler
capacity required for this would be 17.4 x 10  pph, which is about 17%
of the total boiler capacity installed in the iron and steel industry
in 1970.  The remaining 86.1 x 10  pph are used  for space and process
heating.  The 1970 ratio between the capacity used for non-power pur-
poses and the total tons of raw steel is .65 pph/ton.   The assumption
is made that this ratio will remain fairly constant through the fol-
lowing decade, since no drastic decreases in steam generated for process
and space heating use per ton of steel produced  is expected, as opposed
to the expected decrease in in-house power generation.  Consequently
the 1975 boiler capacity required for process and space heating is ex-
pected to be .65 x 157 x 10  = 102 x 10b pph, and the corresponding
                                       f.
1980 figure is projected to be 117 x 10  pph.  These results are sum-
marized in Table B-4.

    It was decided to use the industrial fuel projections obtained in
the Intermediate-Size Boiler Study as guidelines for the respective de-
creases and increases in relative use of the conventional fossil fuels
in the iron and steel industry in each region [B-4].  These projections
are shown in Table B-5.  The 1970 fuel use distribution in the iron
and steel  industry is shown in Table B-6.
                                                         WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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                               TABLE B-4
                PROJECTIONS OF BOILER CAPACITIES IN THE
                        IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY
(106 pph)
Year
1970
1975
1980
Boiler Capacity
Used for
Power Generation
17.4
14.7
8.0
Boiler Capacity
Used for Process
and Space Heating
86.1
102.1
117.0
Total
Boiler Capacity
103.5
116.8
125.0
    The growth and decline rates derived from Table B-5 are shown in
Table B-7.  These ratios are applied to the 1970 fuel  distribution for
the iron and steel industry, and the distribution in Table B-8 is ob-
tained for the three conventional fossil fuels.  The total projected
percentage made up by these three fossil fuels is calculated as follows;

    (1)  Total projected capacities for 1975 and 1980 are respectively
116.8 x 106 pph and 125.0 x 106 pph (see Table B-4).

    (2)  Total projected consumption in 1975 and 1980 of blast furnace
                      *
and coke-oven gas are:
                                             1 o
         In 1975:  blast furnace gas 2.8 x 10   cu. ft., coke-
         oven gas 2.46 x 10   cu. ft.
         In 1980:  blast furnace gas 2.34 x 1012 cu. ft., coke-
         oven gas 2.51 x 10   cu. ft.

    (3)  The approximate Btu values corresponding to the total capacities
are:

         In 1975:  985 x 1012 Btu/yr
         In 1980:  1.062 x 1012 Btu/yr
 These estimates are discussed in Appendix C,  pages C-
                                  B-4
                                                      WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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                                                          TABLE B-5


                                        PROJECTIONS OF INDUSTRUAL FUEL  DISTRIBUTION

AT
GL
WS
SE
CL
38.9
59.5
1.8
59.5
1967
RO
42.0
10.1
19.3
10.4
(X)
DO
12.8
5.3
1.2
2.3
GS
6.3
25.1
77.7
27.8
CL
28.2
58.8
1.8
46.3
1975
RO
53.8
8.7
10.7
12.0
(X)
DO
2.9
1.6
1.4
1.0
GS
15.1
30.9
86.2
40.7
CL
23.9
56.5
1.6
44.2
1980
RO
56.8
7.6
9.7
12.4
(X)
DO
2.7
1.5
1.4
1.0
GS
16.6
34.3
87.3
42.4

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                      TABLE  B-6

1970 FUEL DISTRIBUTION  IN THE  IRON  AND STEEL INDUSTRY
                   (percentages)








AT
GL
WS
SE



AT
GL
WS
SE
CL RO GS BFG COG
AT 10 13 29 34 14
GL 31 9 19 30 11
WS 2 5 35 31 27
SE 32 3 26 28 11
TABLE B-7
PROJECTED FUEL GROWTH RATES - 1967-1980
(percentages)
%A/yr 2A/5 years
1967 - 1975 1975 - 1980
CL RO DO GS CL RO DO
-3.4 +3.5 -9.7 +17.5 -15.2 +5.6 -6.9
-0.1 -1.7 -8.7 +2.9 -3.9 -12.6 -6.3
0 -5.6 +2.1 +1.4 -11.1 -9.3 0
-2.8 +1.9 -7.1 +5.8 -4.5 +3.3 0
TABLE B-8
PROJECTED FUEL RATIOS IN THE IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY
(percentages)
1975 1980
CL RO GS CL RO
8.3 15.3 54.4 7.9 16.2
29.5 8.2 21.8 28.3 7.2
2.0 3.6 37.5 1.8 3.3
27.5 3.3 33.5 26.3 3.4







GS
+9.9
+11.0
1.3
+4.2


GS
59.8
24.2
38.0
34.9
                         B-6
                                              WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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    (4)  The approximate Btu values corresponding  to  the  projected  use
of blast furnace gas and coke-oven gas are:

         In 1975:  blast furnace gas 266 x 1012  Btu/yr, coke-oven
         gas 123 x 1012 Btu/yr
         In 1980:  blast furnace gas 222 x 1012  Btu/yr, coke  oven
         gas 126 x 1012 Btu/yr

    (5)  The percentages of the total  Btu value  taken up  by blast
furnace gas and coke oven gas are:

         In 1975:  27% blast furnace gas and 12% coke oven gas
         In 1980:  21% blast furnace gas and 12% coke oven gas

    (6)  The remaining 61% in 1975 and 67% in 1980 are taken  up by
the fossil  fuels.

    (7)  By reducing the ratios on the previous  page  to add up to
these percentages, we obtain the final fuel  distribution  for  the pro-
jected years as indicated in Table B-9.

                               TABLE B-9
      PROJECTED FUEL DISTRIBUTION IN THE IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY
                             (percentages)
1975
CL RO
AT
GL
WS
SE
6 1
30
3
26
*
Insufficient
2
9
5
3
data
GS
43
22
53
32
are
BFG*
27
27
27
27
availabl
COG*
12
12
12
12
e to
CL
6
32
3
27
vary these
RO
13
8
5
4
1980
GS
48
27
59
26
percentages
BFG*
21
21
21
21
regi
COG*
12
12
12
12
onally
                                  g_7                    WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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    The growth of the installed capacity of the various watertube
boiler sizes is obtained from the Systems Study of Intermediate-Size
Boilers.  (See Table B-10) [B-4].

    In 1970 the capacity distribution by size and region was as shown
in Table B-ll.  Applying the relative growth of the various size groups
for intermediate boilers as a whole [B-4] to the iron and steel boilers
on a total basis results in Table B-12.   The proportions for each re-
gion within a size group are assumed to remain the same as in 1970.

    From the distribution tables developed above, the boiler inven-
tories for 1975 and 1980 in the iron and steel industry are derived
and summarized below in Tables B-13 and B-14.
                                  B-8                  WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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                          TABLE B-10
   PROJECTED BOILER CAPACITIES BY SIZE - INTERMEDIATE BOILERS
                          (106 pph)

Watertube
Watertube
Watertube

£100
100
>250

,000
,001
,001

pph
-250,000
-500,000


pph
pph
1970
921
658
259
1975
1.045
700
286
1980
1 .123
745
282
                          TABLE B-ll
1970 BOILER CAPACITY IN THE IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY BY SIZE
(106
pph)
AT
Watertube <100,000 pph
Watertube 100,001-250,000 pph
Watertube >250,000 pph

1
1
1
7
3
0
41
,287
,171
,702
,160


GL
12
15
11
39
,762
,154
,964
,880


WS
3
2
3
9
,648
,112
,840
,600


SE
4
2
5
12
,499
,700
,656
,855


Total
38
33
32
103
,196
,137
,162
,495
                              B-9
                                                      WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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                                                        TABLE B-12


                             PROJECTED  BOILER CAPACITY IN THE IRON AND STEEL  INDUSTRY  BY  SIZE

                                                        (106 pph)
1975 1980
WT £100,000 pph
WT 100,001-250,000 pph
WT >250,000 pph

21.1 23.5
14.4 15.6
11.3 11.2
46.8 50.3
1975 1980
15.6 17.0
16.5 17.9
12.7 12.6
44.8 47.5
1975 1980
4.5 4.7
2.3 3.7
4.0 4.0
10.8 12.4
1975 1980
5.5 5.8
2.9 3.1
6.0 5.9
14.4 14.8
1975
46.7
36.1
34.0
116.8
1980
51.0
40.3
33.7
125.0
 D3
 I

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                    TABLE B-13
1975 BOILER CAPACITY IN THE IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY
                    (106 pph)

WT<100 CL
RO
GS
BFG
COG
WT1 00-250 CL
RO
GS
BFG
COG
^250 CL
RO
GS
BFG
COG
TOTAL
AT
1.3
2.5
9.1
5.7
2.5
.9
1.7
6.2
3.9
1.7
.6
1.4
4.9
3.0
1.4
46.8
GL
4.7
1.4
3.4
4.2
1.9
5.0
1.5
3.6
4.4
2.0
3.8
1.2
2.8
3.4
1.5
44.8
WS
.1
.2
2.4
1.2
.6
.1
.1
1.2
.6
.3
.1
.2
2.1
1.1
.5
10.8
SE
1.4
.2
1.7
1.5
.7
.8
.1
.9
.8
.3
1.6
.2
1.9
1.6
.7
14.4
Total
7.5
4.3
16.6
12.6
5.7
6.8
3.4
11.9
9.7
4.3
6.1
3.0
11.7
9.1
4.1
116.8
                         B-n
                                               WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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                   TABLE B-14
1980 BOILER CAPACITY IN THE  IRON AND  STEEL  INDUSTRY
                   (TO6 pph)

WT<100 CL
RO
GS
BFG
COG
WT1 00-250 CL
RO
GS
BFG
COG
WT>25Q CL
RO
GS
BFG
COG
TOTAL
AT
1.4
3.0
11.3
4.9
2.8
.9
2.0
7.5
3.3
1.9
.7
1.5
5.4
2.4
1.3
50.3
GL
5.4
1.4
4.6
3.6
2.0
5.7
1.4
4.8
3.8
2.2
4.0
1.0
3.4
2.7
1.5
47.5
WS
.1
.2
2.8
1.0
.6
.1
.2
2.2
.8
.4
.1
.2
2.4
.8
.5
12.4
SE
1.6
.2
2.1
1.2
.7
.8
.1
1.1
.7
.4
1.6
.2
2.1.
1.3
.7
14.8
Total
8.5
4.8
20.8
10.7
6.1
7.5
3.7
15.6
8.6
4.9
6.4
2.9
13.3
7.2
4.0
125.0
                        B-12
                                             WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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                       REFERENCES TO APPENDIX B
B-l.   The Making, Shaping, and Treating of Steel, 8th Edition, U.S.
      Steel Corporation, Pittsburgh, Pa., 1964.

B-2.   A Systems Analysis Study of the Integrated Iron and Steel In-
      dustry, Battelle Memorial Institute, Columbus, Ohio, 1964.

B-3.   Statistical Report, American Iron and Steel Institute, 1970.

B-4.   Systematic Study of Air Pollution from Intermediate-Size Fossil-
      Fuel Combustion Equipment, Wai den Research Corporation, Cambridge,
      Mass., 1971.
                                    B-l3                 WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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                               APPENDIX C
                            PROCESS EMISSIONS
INTRODUCTION
     Process emissions in the iron and steel  industry emanate from two
distinct types of sources.  First, emissions  are produced during the
handling of raw materials and the subsequent  processing of these materials
to produce steel.  These emissions fall within the conventional  defini-
tion of process emissions.  However, in order to meet its energy demands
during the manufacturing steps, the iron and  steel industry combusts
significant quantities of fuel.  This non-boiler combustion forms the
second source of process emissions.

     Estimation of the emission loadings from the two types of sources
will be considered separately.  Estimates, both for the base year of
1970 and projections to 1980 will be dealt with together since it is
felt that in that manner the underlying logic will be most easily under-
stood.

     Section I of this appendix discusses the conventional process emis-
sions from iron and steel plants in detail by pollutant.  For the vari-
ous potential sources of process emissions, uncontrolled emission fac-
tors were determined, a brief look was taken  at controls, and finally,
emission estimates were made for 1970, 1975,  and 1980.  Section II dis-
cusses the emissions from fuels.
                                                         WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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 I.   CONVENTIONAL PROCESS EMISSIONS

     A.   PARTICULATES

         Each  of the  following  separate processing operations  encountered
 in  the  iron  and steel  industry are potential  sources  of  particulate  emis-
 sions:

         (1)   Sinter  Plants
         (2)   Pellet  Plants
         (3)   Coke Manufacture
         (4)   Blast Furnaces
         (5)   Steel Furnaces
              Open Hearth
              Basic Oxygen Furnace  (EOF)
              Electric  Arc Furnace
         (6)   Scarfing
         (7)   Materials Handling

         In estimating  emissions from the above operations, only a very
 brief description of the actual process will  be given  (sufficient for
 understanding any subsequent comments).  For  a more detailed  description
 of the operations, the reader  is directed to  "The  Making, Shaping and
 Treating of Steel" [C-l], and  Battelle's Systems  Study of the  Integrated
 Iron and Steel  Industry [C-2].

        1.  Sinter Plants

            Sintering plants produce from iron ore fines and  blast fur-
 nace dust larger  sized materials that  can be  easily charged to the blast
 furnace.  The technique used is to slowly burn on  a slow moving grate
 a mixture of fines plus fuel (coal  dust or coke) so that a sticky mass
 is formed.  This material is then cooled producing sinter.

            Emissions from sinter plant operation are produced mainly
during the combustion and firing and the cooling and screening stages,
although minor amounts of dusts result from handling of raw materials.
                                   C-2                 WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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            a.  Uncontrolled Emission Factors

                Nationwide Emission Factor Compilation (NEFC) IC-3] quote
the following emission factors:

            Windbox (i.e., combustion gases     20 Ib part/ton of sinter
            from ignition and firing)
            Discharge end (cooling and          22 Ib part/ton of sinter
            screening)

These figures are in substantial agreement with average values quoted by
Schueneman, et al. [C-4] although there have been reports of large vari-
ations in dust emissions (windbox and discharge each 5-100 Ib/ton of
sinter) [C-5].

            b.  Controls

                Cyclones and electrostatic precipitators are the gen-
erally used techniques for control of particulate emissions from sinter
plants.  NEFC [C-3] report the following collection efficiencies for sinter
plant control techniques.

        Windbox:

                               Dry cyclone collection eff. = 90%
                           Electrostatic precipitator eff, = 95%
                           (in series with dry cyclone collection)

        Discharge:

                               Dry cyclone collection eff. = 93%

                Private conversations with steel industry representatives  [C-6]
indicate that all current sinter plants are controlled.  This is confirmed
by the Midwest Research Institute report on particulate emissions  £C-7].

            c.  Estimation of Emissions

                (1)  Base Year - 1970.  American Iron and Steel  (AISI)
Statistical Report for 1970 £C-8] indicate that sinter production  in 1970


                                   C-3                   WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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 (Table  47  in  Reference  8) was 45.6 x  10   tons/yr.  Thus,  assuming con-
 servatively that  collection efficiencies  in sinter plants were 90%, the
 following  emissions  (after controls)  are  produced:
            45.6 x  106
                 (2)  Projections to 1975 and 1980.  Estimation of emis-
 sions  for 1975 and 1980 requires estimates of sinter production for
 these  years.

                     Battell e [C-2] reports, as shown in Table C-l below,
 the  physical form of iron ore consumed  in the U.S. and estimates to 1980.
 These  data can be used to project sinter production to 1975 and 1980 pro-
 vided  a procedure for estimating the total sinter production  (as opposed
 to the sinter produced only from iron ore as quoted in Table  C-l) can be
 determined.

                     Of course, by far  the largest fraction of agglom-
 erated products  (sinter and pellets) is produced from ore fines and this
 is shown below in Table C-2 taken from  the AISI Statistical Reports [C-8],

                     Using the data of Table C-2, the following fraction
was  determined:

E             other materials (i.e., flue dust and sludge and  scale)
       _ _^^^___^ _
     s                  ore fines and concentrates

                     F  is plotted against time in Figure C-l, from which
 it appears that  F  has been fairly constant over the past few years.  It
will  be assumed  that this value of 0.075 will hold constant to 1975 and
1980.

                     It should be noted that F  is based on AISI figures
for the total amount of material used to produce both sinter  and pellets.
 (However,  it is assumed that since pellet plants are generally away from
the steel  mills,  that all  the additional material  goes to producing
                                   C-4
                                                        WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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                                                         TABLE C-1


                          PHYSICAL FORM OF  IRON  ORE CONSUMED IN THE U.S. AND  ESTIMATES TO 1980
Lump Ore
Year TO6 tons %
1960
1967
1975
1980
alncludes
62.0
46.7
31.7
34.9
only
54.1
35.3
20.0
19.5
iron ore used
Sinter3
106 tons %
41.5
42.2
46.0
48.3
for making
36.3
31.9
29.0
27.0
sinter
Pellets
TO6 tons %
11.0 9.6
43.4 32.8
80.8 51.0
95.8 53.5
Total
106 tons %
114.5
132.3
158.5
179.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0

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                                                        TABLE C-2


                         MATERIALS USED IN PRODUCING AGGLOMERATED PRODUCTS (SINTER AND PELLETS)

                                                        (Net tons)





0
1



5
r~
O
m
70
m
in
rn
>
3J
o
CORPORA"

Materials Used:
Ore fines and
concentrates
Flue dust and sludge
Scale
Coke breeze
Coal
Cinder and slag
Limestone and
dolomite
Other
Total Materials Used





1970


92,734,970
3,228,350
3,695,427
2,266,675
464,359
625,231

8,430,560
1,645,015
113,090,587





1969


94,349,152
3,452,802
3,720,456
2,290,189
622,660
768,477

8,799,262
1,755,295
115,758,293





1968


92,396,601
3,455,426
3,544,342
2,247,994
747,819
466,682

8,512,911
1,979,162
113,350,937





1967


88,560,907
4,131,686
3,431,559
2,309,236
819,052
329,502

7,929,735
1,976,898
109,488,575





1966
•

89,542,769
4,661,915
3,287,503
2,486,341
896,969
332,889

7,903,032
1 ,591 ,862
110,703,280





1965


79,289,827
4,965,958
2,938,674
2,439,288
966,014
406,995

6,661,494
1,274,071
98,942,321





1964


79,928,246
5,136,601
2,510,242
2,709,256
1,014,343
445,453

6,623,558
933,560
99,301,259





o
z

-------
0-1 •
0-09-

Fs
0.08-
0.07-
O.Gb-



•
•


•
»















1
f
i

I
I
1



i
i





S
1




1










'












1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970
YEAR
FIGURE  C-l.  PLOT  OF  F$   VERSUS  YEAR
                              C-7

-------
 sinter.)  Thus,  using  the  figures  of Table  C-l ,  the  total sinter production
 for 1975 and 1980 is:

 1975

         [46.0 +  (46.0  +  80.8) x  0.075]  x  106 T/yr =  55.5 x 106 T/yr

 1980

         [48.3 +  (48.3  +  95.8) x  0.075]  x  106 T/yr =  59.1 x 106 T/yr

 Controlled emissions are,  therefore:

 1975

             55.5  x  106 x 2^0" *  0 -  0.9) T/yr = 1.17 x 105 T/yr
 1980
            59.1 x 106 x      x 0 - 0.9) T/yr = 1 .24 x 105 T/yr
        2.  Pellet Manufacture

            In contrast to sintering plants that are usually located near
the blast furnace plant (because sinter does not withstand shipment with-
out degrading), pellet plants are usually located near the ore mine (or
within several hundred miles of the mine).  The pellets which are strong,
are often shipped hundreds or thousands of miles to blast furnace plants.

            Battelle [C-2] indicates that only very low emissions result
from pellet production and that these emissions are effectively knocked
out by simple cyclones.

        3.  Coke Manufacture

            Metallurgical  coke is the major fuel and reducing agent used
in the production of pig iron.  Coke is produced from coal by distillation
of the volatile matter.  Two types of coke ovens are employed for pro-
ducing coke:  (1) the beehive oven and (2) the by-product oven.   By far
the largest amount of coke is produced via the by-product oven process.
                                                       WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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            In the by-product oven process, coal  is heated in the absence
of air.  The gaseous products that are evolved are removed from the oven
and stripped of any condensible or absorbable product (tar, ammonia liquor,
light oil) in a by-product plant.  The remaining  gas is  then utilized in
the plant as a high heating value fuel.   The process is  batch, and neces-
sitates coal charging to the ovens and subsequent quenching of the hot
coke after a 16 to 20 hr carbonizing period.

            The coke plants emit both particulate materials and offensive
gases in the normal course of operation.   The particulates are mainly coal
and coke dust that become airborne during handling, discharging and quench-
ing of the coke.  The gases are mainly mixtures of ammonia and aromatic
vapors that escape from the ovens and the by-product system.

            a.  Uncontrolled Emission Factors

                Table C-3 below is reproduced from NEFC  [C-5] and sum-
marizes the uncontrolled emission factors for metallurgical coke manufacture.

            b.  Control

                Control of coke plant emissions generated in a coke plant
is difficult because of the nature of the process and the great amount of
material handling that is required.

                At present, no effective controls are utilized in coke
plants [C-7], although new installations are utilizing techniques such as
underground reclaiming to reduce handling emissions.  Furthermore, some
success has been demonstrated with the use of baffles to reduce quench
emissions to one quarter of their original value [C-2].

                Many of the above types of improvements, however, can
only be installed in new plants and, as such, will be slow in being
implemented.

            c.  Estimation of Emissions

                (1)  Base Year - 1970.  AISI [C-8] statistics indicate the
following tons of coal used in production of coke = 87.2 x 10
                                                         WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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                                                         TABLE  C-3



                             UNCONTROLLED EMISSION FACTORS  FOR  METALLURGICAL COKE MANUFACTURE0
 o
 I

By-Product Coking
Unloading
Charging
Coking Cycle
Discharging
Quenching
Particulates

0.4
1.5
0.1
0.6
0.9
Sulfur3 Carbon
Dioxide Monoxide

___ —
0.02 0.6
0.6
0.07
— —
Hydrocarbons

—
2.5
1.5
0.2
—
Nitrogen0
Oxides Ammonia

— —
0.03 0.02
0.01 0.06
0.1
— —
              Underfiring


           Beehive Ovens
               10
200
o
m
z

70
m
in
73
O
•
8
•XI
-o
o
73

5

o
z
            so2

           ^Expressed as methane


           :N09

           J
            Reference 3

-------
            .'. Particulate emissions = 87.2 x 106 x  IfJL T/yr
                                      = 1.52  x 105  T/yr

                (2)  Estimation of Emissions  to 1975 and  1980.   Coke
oven participate emissions are determined by  the coke production rate,
which, in turn, is controlled by pig iron requirements and  changes  in
blast furnace technology.   Consequently, several  factors  must be con-
sidered in estimating future coke oven emissions.

                     The average coke rate, defined as pounds of coke/
ton of pig iron, has been continually decreasing as is shown  in  Figure  C-2
(calculated from AISI [C-8.C-9] data).  Indeed, Ramm [C-10] and  Nakatani,
et al. [C-11] have shown that it should be possible to reduce the coke  rate
to about 840 Ib (ideally) per net ton of hot  metal  by the use of improved
burden materials, injection of auxiliary fuels (such as  oil and  natural
gas) and the use of very high blast temperatures.

                     Based on extrapolations  of the average coke rate
(Figure C-2), the following coke rates were obtained:

1975

            Coke rate:  1175 Ib coke/T pig iron

1980

            Coke rate:  1100 Ib coke/T pig iron

                     However, the actual data in Figure  C-2 only covers
the years 1958 to 1970 during which time little auxiliary fuel  injection
was employed.  It will be shown in Section II of this appendix that by
1975 about 30 Ib of fuel oil and natural gas/T pig  iron  and by 1980 about
80 Ib of fuel and natural/T pig iron will be  used in the blast furnace.
Since, to a first approximation (see Figure A-5 in  Ref.  C-2], a Ib of
oil injected will result in a Ib reduction in the coke rate, this means
that the actual coke rates should be adjusted to:
                                                         WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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     1600
      1500
      1400
      1300
  UJ
  O
  o
  -q  1200
  o
  or
  a.
o
  ui
  H
  <*
  LJ
  *:
  o
  o
  a:
  w
noo
      1000
      900
      800
                   I
1956      I960
                                       1965
                    T rx r 14 n'
                                                    YEAR
                                                        1970
1975
I960
                                                     FIGURE C-2
                                         r  a A T r  i j
                                                                    r\ r- n i i c r ten r >r i j o 7  f-i f" 7" --.

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1975

                         1145 1b coke/T pig iron

1980

                         1020 Ib coke/T pig iron

                     Finally, before estimating emissions,  it is  neces-
sary to determine the tons of coal  used per ton of coke produced.   (Emis
sion factors in Table C-3 are based on tons of coal  charged.)  Table C-4
summarizes data extracted from the AISI statistical  report  [C-8,C-9].

                     No obvious trend is discernable and,  consequently,
an average of 1.45 tons coal /ton coke will  be utilized in  any further
calculations.

                     Table C-5 presents projected pig iron  requirements
for the U.S. to 1980 [C-2].

                     .'. Uncontrolled emissions are:

1975
            106.8 x 106 x -     x 1 .45 x      = 155,000 T/yr
1980
            122.4 x 106 x      x 1.45 x     - = 159,000 T/yr
                     As indicated earlier, it is difficult to estimate the
amount of controls likely to be installed by 1980 and, as such, any esti-
mates of the controlled emissions would at present be speculative.

        4.  Blast Furnaces

            Pig iron is produced by reducing iron ores in a blast fur-
nace.  Iron ore, fluxes and coke are charged into the top of the furnace
through two or three seals that serve to limit leakage of gas at this
                                   C-13                  WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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                      TABLE C-4

CALCULATION OF TONS OF COAL REQUIRED PER TON OF COKE
Pig Iron
106 T
1970
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1


969
968
967
966
965
964
963
962
961


Year
1
1
1
1
960
967
975
980
91
95
88
86
91
88
85
71
65
64

PIG
Raw

.43
.02
.78
.98
.50
.18
.60
.84
.64
.63

IRON
Steel
(TO6

Coke Rate Coal Used For Tons Coal
T/T Pig Iron Coke Production Ton Coke
.63
.626
.624
.631
.641
.656
.655
.669
.690
.708
TABLE C-5
REQUIREMENTS FOR THE U.S.
AND PROJECTIONS TO 1
87.
84.
81.
82.
85.
83.
78.
67.
66.
65.

IN
980
Production Apparent
tons)
99.3

127.2


1
1
57.0
80.0


21
06
24
70
52
93
70
93
00
03

1960
Pig
(106
66
87
106
122
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1

AND 1967
.52
.42
.47
.50
.46
.45
.40
.42
.46
.43


Iron Consumption
tons)
.5
.0
.8
.4




                         C-14
                                              WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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point; preheated air (sometimes with oil, gas, oxygen or steam) is forced
through ports near the bottom of the furnace.   The incoming air reacts
with the hot coke to produce a reducing gas mixture rich in FL and CO
which reacts with the iron ore producing pig iron.

            a.  Uncontrolled Emission Factors

                Emissions from the blast furnace occur during charging of
the reactants and removal of the products and  blast furnace gas.

                Estimates of the emissions resulting from raw material
handling and fume and kish particles evolved during product removal  are
not known.  Similarly, the emissions produced  during the occasional
"slips" have not been reported.  However, it is generally conceded that
these emissions are relatively minor compared  to the dust evolved with
the blast furnace gas.

                The particulate loadings in blast furnace gas is depen-
dent on the type of charge used in the blast furnace.  NEFC tC-3] quote
the following uncontrolled emission factors:

                Ore charge:  110 Ib dust/ton of pig iron

            Agglomerates charge:  40 Ib dust/ton of pig iron

These numbers are in substantial agreement with those quoted by
Battelle [C-2].

            b.  Control

                Blast furnace gas is cleaned so that it can be used as a
fuel in the blast furnace stoves and elsewhere.  Since the blast furnace
stoves are of the regenerative checker type, dust loadings of about 0.01
grains/SCF are presently required [C-12] for efficient thermal utilization,
and future high temperature blast furnace operations will require dust
loadings of not greater than 0.001 grains/SCF.  Consequently, the major-
ity of blast furnaces have preliminary, primary and secondary cleaning
equipment with the following typical collection efficiencies  (from NEFC  [C-3]):
                                    -l5                  WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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              Type                                    Efficiency
     1.   Preliminary cleaning -                          60%
         settling chambers or dry
         cyclones
     2.   Primary cleaning - gas                          90%
         washers and wet scrubbing
     3.   Secondary cleaning -                            90%
         electrostatic precipitator
         or high energy washers

                 Because the blast furnace gas  produced,  even  after  clean-
 ing,  is not emitted directly to  the  atmosphere (but  is burnt),  there  is,
 except  for losses of the gas,  little actual  particulate  emissions from
 the blast furnace "process".   However,  since upon  combustion, blast fur-
 nace  gas emits  the particulates  it obtained  during the blast  furnace
 operation, these particulate loadings will be  estimated  here.

             c.   Estimation of "Emissions"

                 (1)  Base Year -  1970.   Both ore and  agglomerates are
 presently charged to blast furnaces.  In order to  estimate  emissions fac-
 tors  for mixed  charges,  the following linear relationship will  be used:

                               F  = a  X  + b

 where        F =  emission  factor Ib dust/ton  pig iron
             X =  fraction  of charge that is ore       ore
                                               ore + agglomerates

Based on earlier quoted emission factors then

                             b = 40,  a = 70

.'.  F = 70X + 40

It should be pointed out that this assumption of linearity is verified
approximately by data quoted by Battelle (Figure C-25 in Ref. C-2).

                     From the AISI Statistical Report IC-8J, the following
materials were used by blast furnaces in the manufacture of pig iron in 1970:
                                   C-16                WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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                     Iron ore;      38.19 x 106 tons
                     Agglomerates:  109.00 x 106 tons
                Y =     38.19
                    109.00 + 38.19    >

            .  .  F = 70 x 0.26 + 40 = 68.2 Ib dust/ton pig iron

        Uncontrolled dust loadings in blast furnace gas:

                         x 91 .43 x 106 = 3.14 x 105 T/yr
                  pig iron production 1970 [C-8]

    .  . Controlled dust loadings in blast furnace gas:

                 3.14 x 106 x (1 - 0.6)  (1  - 0.9)  (1 - 0.9)

                             Preliminary  Primary   Secondary

                 = 1.26 x 104 T/yr

                (2)  Estimation of "Emissions" for 1975 and 1980.  The
following sinter productions for 1975 and 1980 were estimated earlier
on page C-3).
1975
1980
                             55.5 x 106 T/yr
                             59.1 x 106 T/yr
Then using the data from Table C-l:

1975
                                J I . /_ r, -1
                                            " UlI
                     A   31.7 + 55.5 + 80.8

                   .  .  F = 53.2 Ib dust/ton pig iron



                                   C-17
                                                         VVALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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 1980
                                34,9
                                    	 - fi 1
                         34.9 + 59.1 + 95.8 ~ u>l
                    .  . F = 52.9 Ib dust/ton pig iron

                      Thus, using the pig iron estimates quoted in Table C-5,
 the  following uncontrolled and controlled dust loadings in the blast fur-
 nace g  s  can be calculated:
 1975
                    Uncontrolled:  fggg-x 106.8 x 106 T/yr

                                   = 2.85 x 106 T/yr

               Controlled:  2.85 x 106 x (1-0.6)(1-0.9)(1-0.9)

                            = 1.14 x 104 T/yr
1980
                    Uncontrolled:  f§g§-x 122.4 x 106 T/yr

                                   = 3.24 x 106 T/yr

               Controlled:  3.24 x 106 x (1-0.6)0-0.9)0-0.9)

                            = 1.3 x 104 T/yr

        5.  Steel making

            a.  Open Hearth Furnaces

                Open hearth steel is made usually from a  mixture  of  scrap
and pig iron.  The objective of the operation is to lower the impurities
present in the scrap and pig iron, which consist of carbon,  manganese,
silicon, sulfur,  and phosphorous.  The refining operation is carried out
by means of slag  that forms a continuous layer on the surface of  the
                                   C-18                 WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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liquid metal.  The operation is a batch one and is comprised of several
phases, namely, charging, melt down, hot metal  addition,  ore and lime
boil, refining and tapping.  The entire process takes about 100 hours
from start to finish.

                Particulate and gaseous emissions from the open hearth
process originates from (1) the physical action of the flame on charged
materials and the resulting pickup of fines, (2) the chemical  reactions
in the bath, (3) the agitation of the bath, and (4) the combustion of
fuel.  The emissions include SOp, COp, CO, fly ash from fuels  and iron
oxide and other metallurgical fumes.  The amount of emissions  vary ac-
cording to the stage of the process and according to practice.  Recent
use of oxygen lancing in open hearth furnaces has resulted in  more par-
ticulate emissions than previous practice without lancing.

                (1)  Uncontrolled Emissions Factors.  NEFC [C-3] quote
the following particulate emission factors:

                Open hearth furnace with
                oxygen lancing                   22 Ib dust/ton pig iron
                Open hearth furnace with
                no_ oxygen lancing                12 Ib dust/ton pig iron

                (2)  Controls.  The open hearth furnace is one of the
more significant polluters in the iron and steel industry.  This is the
result of lack of effective controls on many installations and the ad-
vent of oxygen lancing.  The open hearth furnaces operated without the
use of oxygen lances are themselves fairly efficient dust collectors be-
cause of the auxiliary units needed to achieve efficient operation.  But
even so, significant emissions result.

                     Electrostatic precipitators have been the principle
choice for emission control although venturi scrubbers and bag houses
have also been used.  The NEFC [C-3] quote the following collection effi-
ciencies for the above control techniques when applied to open hearth
furnaces:
                                   C-19
                                                         VVALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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                 Type
        Electrostatic precipitator
        Venturi scrubber
        Bag house
Efficiency
    98%
  85-98%
    99%
                     However, the fraction of open hearths under control
is a major unanswered question in estimating emissions.  Schueneman [C-4]
indicated that in March 1961 only 7.8% of the annual open hearth steel
producing capacity of 9.9 x 10  tons/yr which were controlled (98% of this
capacity used electrostatic precipitators; the rest, venturi scrubbing).
However, control equipment for a further 9.1 x 10  tons/yr of open hearth
steel capacity was under construction or to be installed, as of March
1961 (all using electrostatic precipitators).

                     Table C-6 extracted from Battelle £C-2] shows pro-
duction of raw steel  in the U.S. by type of furnace and projections of
production to 1980.

                     Based on the figures presented in Table C-6, it is
possible to estimate limits on the fraction of open hearth furnaces that
have emission controls.

                                TABLE C-6
          PRODUCTION OF RAW STEEL IN THE U.S. BY TYPE OF FURNACE
                         AND PROJECTIONS TO 1980


Year
1960
1967
1975
1980

Open Hearth
(103 tons)
86,368
70,690
44,000
36,000
Basic Oxygen
Bessimer Furnace
(103 tons) (103 tons)
1,189 3,346
41 ,434
80,000
99,000
Electric
Furnace
(103 tons)
8,379
15,089
33,000
45,000

Total
OO3 tons)
99,282
127,213
157,000
180,000
                                   C-20
     WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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                     In making these estimates,  it  will  be  assumed  that by
1980 all open hearth furnaces operating will  have emission  controls.

                     Thus, assuming that at least controls  will  be  operating
on 19 x 10  T/yr of open hearth capacity [9.1  x  106 + 9.9 x 10  T/yr  from
Ref. C-4] by 1967, the following limits can be calculated:

1967
                                              I y _  ri nr
                Minimum fraction controlled = jr    '

                Maximum fraction controlled = yr =  0-51
1975
                                              1 9
                Minimum fraction controlled  =  -^ =  0.43

                Maximum fraction controlled  =  |l- =  0.82

1980

                    Fraction controlled = f| = 1.00
                                          Jo

                     Conversations with iron and steel  industry representa-
tives [C-14] indicates that at present (1971), probably about 50% of the
open hearths have emission control equipment.   Furthermore, the data of
the Midwest Research Institute [C-7] indicate  that  in 1970, 41% of the
open hearth furnaces were controlled.   Both  of these data verify the
limit calculations presented earlier.

                     Thus, in estimation of  emissions,  the following aver-
ages of the previously calculated limits will  be used:

1967

                 Fraction controlled:   0.38

1970

                 Fraction controlled:   0.41  (from Ref.  C-7)

                                   C-21                  WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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 1975

                        Fraction  controlled:   0.62

 1980

                        Fraction  controlled:   1.00

                 (3)  Estimation  of Emissions

                     (a)  Base Year - 1970.   From AISI Statistical
 Report  f.C-8],  the open  hearth raw steel production for 1970 was 48.0 x 106
 tons/yr.

                          Estimation of emissions necessitates knowledge
 of the  fraction of the  open hearth furnaces using oxygen lancing.  Since
 no data on this number  could be  found, two emission limits will be cal-
 culated:  the  first will consider all the furnaces have no oxygen lancing
 and the second will be  calculated for the case where all the furnaces have
 oxygen  lancing.

                          In all cases, it will be assumed that furnaces
 with control use electrostatic precipitators with collection efficiencies
 of 98%.

Minimum Emissions

            48.0 x 106 x       £°-41  x (1-0-98)] + (1-0.41)
            = 1.70 x 10  tons/yr
Maximum Emissions
                        1.70 x 105 x — tons/yr

                        = 3.12 x 105 tons/yr
                                                       WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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                     (b)  Estimation of Emissions  for  1975 and  1980

1975

Minimum Emissions

             44.0 x 106 x 2^10.62 x  (1-0.98)  +  (1-0.62)]

             = 1.03 x 105 tons/yr
Maximum Emissions
                         = 1.03 x 105 x     tons/yr
                         = 1.89 x 10  tons/yr
1980

Minimum Emissions
                         36.0 x 106 x 2Q-QQ- x  (1-0.98)

                         = 4.32 x 103 tons/yr
Maximum Emissions
                           4.32 x 103 x || tons/yr

                           = 7.9 x 103 tons/yr

            b.  Basic Oxygen Furnace (EOF)

                More and more open hearth furnaces are being replaced by
basic oxygen furnaces.  These furnaces have the considerable advantage in
that they require much less time to refine the steel  and no external  heat
has to be supplied as in the open hearth furnace.   The EOF is pear shaped
and a water cooled lance is used to supply high purity oxygen at high
velocity to the surface of the metal bath.   The high velocity oxygen im-
pinging on the metal surface produces violent agitation and results in
                                   C-23                  WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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 rapid  oxidation of  the dissolved carbon silicon and manganese thus pro-
 ducing steel.  The  rapid oxidation reactions supply a considerable quan-
 tity of the  heat required for refining.

                The predominant particulate emission is brown iron oxide
 and the only gas of concern  is CO.  A predominance of submicron sizes in
 the oxide dust makes  it especially difficult to trap and collect.

                (1)   Uncontrolled Emission Factors.  The NEFC [C-3J quote
 uncontrolled emission factors for the BOF as 46 Ib dust/ton steel pro-
 duced.   These figures are in substantial agreement with data of Massobrio
 and Santini  [C-16]  in Europe (19.6 to 46.6 Ib dust/ton steel) and the
 data of Battelle [C-2] for emissions from U.S. furnaces (40 Ib dust/ton
 steel).

                (2)   Controls.  Since the BOF has only been in use in the
 iron and steel industry since 1952, most of the furnaces are controlled
 by either venturi scrubbers or electrostatic precipitators (of collection
 efficiency ^98%).   The data of the Midwest Research Institute [C-7] con-
 firm that all BOF's have controls.

                (3)   Estimation of Emissions

                      (a)  Base Year - 1970.  From the AISI Statistical
 Report  £C-8] 63.3 x 10  tons/year of steel  were produced via basic oxygen
 furnaces.

 Controlled Emissions

                  = 63.3 x 105 x Tj    x (1-0.98) tons/yr
                  = 2.82 x 104 tons/yr

                     (b)  Estimation of Emissions for 1975 and 1980.  From
Table C-6, the steel produced in the BOF for 1975 and 1980 are:
1975
                           80.0 x 106 tons/yr
                                   C-24               WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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1980
                           99.0 x TO6 tons/yr
. .  Emissions are:

1975
                      80.0 x 106 x      X (1-0.98)
1980
                      = 3.56 x 10  tons/yr
                           4.60 x 104 tons/yr
            c.  Electric Arc Furnaces

                Electric furnaces utilize electrical  energy for heating.
Thus, they are extremely versatile and  can produce  steel  from charges
consisting of only cold metal.   Oxygen  lancing  is also  frequently used
in electric furnaces.

                Emissions generated during electric furnace steel  making
originate from the type of scrap used,  the nature of the  melting opera-
tion and oxygen lancing.

                (1)  Uncontrolled Emission Factors.   Figure C-3 below,
reproduced from Battelle (Figure C-62 in Ref. C-2),  shows reported dust
emissions for 22 operations using various combinations  of normal scrap
(scrap with little to  moderate rust), dirty scrap  (scrap  with heavy rust),
and oxygen lancing.  The effect of type of scrap, nature  of the melting
operation and oxygen lancing are clearly evident.

                     The emission factors quoted in NEFC  [C-3] for
electric furnaces are:

                Electric furnaces with
                oxygen lancing              11  Ib dust/ton of steel
                Electric furnaces with
                no oxygen lancing            7  Ib dust/ton of steel
                                   C-25
                                                         WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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                     FURNACE  CAPACITY, net  tons-


                10        40    50      '     75
                                                      CO
  20
UJ
UJ
t-
o

:z
O
h-

(-
LU
K.
LJ
Q.
Q
O  15
a
O
-  10
UJ
Z)
Q
   0
      \\^     i          I          r
     9  NORMAL SCRAP -V/ITH OXYGEN  LANCING

     O 'NORMAL SCRAP -NO OXYGEN  LANCING

     Q  DIRTY  SCRAP"-NO OXYGEN  LANCING
                                               o/
O

 a

                                  I
                                   I
    0
      5         10         15         20        25

          MELTING  RATE^ net tons per  hour
30
     FIGURE C-3   DUST EMISSIONS DURING  ELECTR 1C , FURNACE
                         MELTING  OF'STEEL
                              C-26

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                     Comparison with Figure C-3 indicates  that these emis-
sion factors are for furnaces of about 50 to 75 tons capacity.  Since the
trend in new electric furnaces is towards larger and larger furnaces (the
largest installations to date are a 200 ton direct arc electric at Laclede
Steel Co., Alton, 111.; four 200 ton furnaces at the Republic Steel  Corp.,
Canton, Ohio, and a 250 ton furnace at Northwestern Steel  and Wire Co.
which was placed in operation in early 1969), the quoted  emission factors
in NEFC £C-3] may be in error for estimating emissions from future instal-
lations.

                (2)  Control.  Control of emissions from  electric steel -
making furnaces are affected by whether the furnace is a  movable roof top
charging furnace or a fixed roof door charging furnace.

                     Emissions from the electric furnaces  are controlled
and collected by three main types of systems:  (1) collection of emissions
by the use of hoods over and around the furnace at points  of emission,
(2) direct extraction from the furnace interior, and (3)  shop roof ex-
traction and collection.

                     The particulates are removed by the  use of high ef-
ficiency scrubbers, electrostatic precipitators and bag houses.  NEFC [C-3]
quote the following collection efficiencies when these systems are used
on electric furnaces:

                   Type                         Efficiency
        High efficiency scrubber                up to 98%
        Electrostatic precipitators              92-97%
        Bag houses                               98-99%

                     Midwest Research Institute IC-7] indicates that at
present 79% of all electric arc furnaces have controls.

                     However, no data could be found on the fraction of  elec-
tric arc furnaces that use oxygen lancing.
                                   C-27                  WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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                 (3)  Estimation of Emissions

                     (a)  Base Year - 1970.  20.16 x 106 tons of steel were
 produced via the electric arc process in 1970 [C-8].

                          In calculating emissions it will be assumed that
 all the furnaces were oxygen lanced (i.e., a conservative answer will be
 obtained); and that the average collection efficiency of the control method
 is 95%.

       .'. Emissions = 20.16 x 106 x     - [0.79 (1-0.95) + (1-0.79)]
                    = 2.76 x 104 tons/yr

                     (b)  Estimation of Emissions in 1975 and 1980.  From
Table C-6, the steel produced in the electric arc furnace in 1975 and 1980
is:
1975
1980
                             33.0 x 106 tons
                             45.0 x 106 tons
                          Assuming that all furnaces are controlled by 1975
and that the average furnace capacity has increased to about 100 tons by
1975 (so that the emission factor is 18 Ib dust/ton product), the following
emissions can be determined:
1975
                Emissions:   33.0 x 106 x    - (1-0.95)
1980
                                       n
                            = 1.49 x 10  tons/yr
                Emissions:   45.0 x 106 x -     (1-0.95)
                              2.04 x 104 tons/yr
                                   028
                                                       WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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        6.  Scarfing

            Scarfing is the term applied to the process of removing blem-
ishes from the solid shapes (billets, blooms,  slabs)  into which molten
steel is formed.

            Fairly extensive participate emissions result during the
processing although a significant fraction of  this emission is now con-
trolled.

            a.  Uncontrolled Emission Factors

                Little data are available on scarfing particulate emis-
sion factors.  However, both Schueneman, et al . [C-4J and NEFC £C-3] in-
dicate that about 3 Ib of dust is produced per ton of steel processed.

            b.  Control

                Only the data of the Midwest Research Institute [C-7]
could be found on controls used for the prevention of particulate emis-
sions from scarfing operations.  They indicate that presently 75% of
all scarfing machines are controlled with precipitators of about 90%
average collection efficiency.

            c.  Estimation of Emissions

                It will be assumed for estimating emissions that all
steel produced is scarfed.

                (1)  Base Year 1970 - From AISI Statistical Report [C-8]
the total  steel production for 1970 was 131.0  x 10  tons.

.'. Controlled emissions

        =  131.0 x 106 x      X [0-0.9) x 0.75 - (1-0.75)]
        = 63,000 tons

                (2)  Estimation of Emissions for 1975 and 1980.  Table
C-5 indicates projected raw steel  production for 1975 and 1980.  Using
                                                         WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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 these figures and assuming that the fraction of scarfing machines controlled
 remains  the  same as  in 1970, the following emissions can be calculated:
 1975
                       ||y- x 63,000 = 73,600 tons
 1980

                           x 63,000 = 86,500 tons
    B.  SULFUR OXIDE EMISSIONS

        Fuels required to carry out the various processes in the making
of iron and steel constitute the major source of sulfur.  By far, most
cf this sulfur originates in the coal used to make the coke that is a
vital requirement for operation of the blast furnace.  However, fuel oil
and iron ore also contain sulfur and, as such, contribute to sulfur oxide
emissions.

        Fortunately, however, most of present day steel technology calls
for operations under basic conditions (these result from the addition of
lime and limestone, etc., as fluxes).  Consequently, a significant frac-
tion of the sulfur which enters a steel  mill via the raw materials is
removed with the slag and thus does not form an air pollutant.  Battelle [C-2]
has produced a comprehensive and thorough description of the fate of sulfur
during the iron and steel plant processing, and it from their calculations
that a significant fraction of the following material is taken.

        At this point, only air pollution sulfur emissions that are pro-
duced as a result of the actual process operation (as opposed to sulfur
emissions that result from fuel combustion associated with the particular
process under consideration) will  be considered.  Thus, in many cases
processes which result in no process sulfur air pollution emissions will
be glossed over lightly.
                                   C-30                  WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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        1.   Process Sulfur Air Pollution  Emission  Factors

            a.   Sinter Plants

                Sulfur enters  sinter  plants  via  the  iron bearing materials,
coke, oil,  and limestone and leaves  in  the sinter  fines and  combustion
gases.

                Table C-7 shows a sulfur  balance for sintering  machine
operation [C-2].

                It should be pointed  out,  however, that Schueneman  [C-4]
indicates that 71% of the sulfur in  the raw  materials is carried  up the
stack in sintering operations  (as opposed to the 36% shown  above  from
Ref.  C-2).

                Thus, process  sulfur air  pollution emission factor = 0.71
Ib sulfur/ton sinter.

            b.   Coke Manufacture

                Sulfur enters  coke ovens  via the coal and  leaves  with the
coke breeze, by-products and coke oven  gas.   Thus, effectively, no air
pollution sulfur emissions are produced during the coke manufacture.

            c.   Blast Furnaces

                Sulfur enters  the blast furnace from practically all of
the raw materials used for making iron; the  major  source  being the sulfur
in the coke.  Because of the reducing and basic conditions in the blast
furnace no sulfur leaves the furnace as sulfur dioxide,  instead it is
carried out as reduced compounds in the slag.

            d.   Steelmaking

                (1)  Open Hearth Furnaces.  Sulfur enters the open hearth
furnace with most of the added raw materials and  leaves in the steel and
scrap, slag and combustion gases.  About 47% of the  sulfur entering  the
open hearth system leaves in the metal  and slag;  the remainder leaves  as
                                 C-31                    WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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                   TABLE C-7

SULFUR BALANCE FOR SINTERING MACHINE  OPERATION
(Based on production of one net ton of  sinter)
Item

Iron bearing material
Coke
Oil
Limestone


Sinter
Sinter fines
Sulfur in combustion
gases
Amount
Pounds

2,200
100
50
200


2,000
289

Sulfur
Content
Input
0.041
0.70
0.55
0.049

Output
0.055
0.055

Amount of
% Sulfur Pounds

0.90
0.70
0.27
0.10
TOTAL 1.97

1.10
0.16
0.71
TOTAL 1.97
                      C-32
                                           WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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S02-  A sulfur balance for an open hearth  furnace  using  60%  hot  metal  and
40% steel scrap is given in Table C-8.

.  .  Process sulfur air pollution emission  factor = 0.70  Ib sulfur/ton  of
steel.

                (2)  Basic Oxygen Furnaces.   A sulfur  balance  for  a  EOF
practice using 70% hot metal and 30% steel  scrap is given in Table C-9.
Almost all the sulfur leaves the system in the metal and slag  with only
about 4% of the sulfur leaving as SOp in the off gas.  Battelle  [C-2]
indicates that there is no detailed information available in the litera-
ture on the sulfur content of BOF off gases.

                (3)  Electric Furnace.   Like the BOF process,  the  electric
furnace steelmaking process does not depend  on a sulfur  bearing  fuel as
the  major source of energy.  However, sulfur enters the  system via the
steelmaking raw materials but a considerable fraction  of this  sulfur is
removed in the slag.  A sulfur balance for an electric furnace is  given
in Table C-10.

            e.  Controls

                At present, no controls exist for  sulfur air pollution
emissions.

        2.  Estimation of S0? Emissions

            In all cases (i.e., both for the base  year and  the pro-
jections to 1975 and 1980) only the uncontrolled SOp emissions will  be
estimated.  Whereas this is correct for the present, it  may  be in  error
in the calculations for future years.

            (1)  Base Year - 1970.  From the AISI  Statistical  Report [C-8]
the  following 1970 productions can be obtained:

            Sinter production              45.61 x 10   tons
            Open hearth production         48.02 x 10   tons
            BOF production                 63.33 x 10   tons
            Electric furnace production    20.16 x 10   tons
                                   C-33                  WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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                        TABLE C-8

SULFUR BALANCE FOR OPEN HEARTH FURNACE WITH 60% HOT METAL
         AND 40% STEEL SCRAP WITH OXYGEN LANCING
      (Based on production of one ton of raw steel)
Item

Hot metal
Steel scrap
Iron ore
Flux
Fuel oil
Ferro alloys

Steel and scrap
Slag
Combustion gases
Amount
Pounds

,361
907
70
150
111
14

2,060
200

Sulfur
Content %
Input
0.030
0.020
0.040
0.049
0.55
0.07
Output
0.02
0.10

Amount of
Sulfur Pounds

0.41
0.18
0.03
0.07
0.61
0.01
TOTAL 1.31

0.41
0.20
0.70
TOTAL 1.31
                           C-34
WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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                    TABLE C-9

     SULFUR BALANCE FOR EOF STEELMAKING WITH
           70% HOT METAL AND 30% SCRAP
(Based on the production of one net ton of steel)
Item

Hot metal
Steel scrap
Burnt lime
Ferro alloys

Steel and scrap
Slag
Sulfur in off
gases
Amount
Pounds

1,581
678
142
14

2,077
263

Sulfur
Content %
Input
0.030
0.020
0.060
0.070
Output
0.020
0.100

Amount of
Sulfur Pounds

0.47
0.14
0.08
0.01
TOTAL 0.70

0.41
0.26
0.03
TOTAL 0.70
                       C-35
                                              WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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                               TABLE  C-10
       SULFUR BALANCE  FOR AN ELECTRIC FURNACE  USING A CHARGE OF COLD
                       STEEL SCRAP AND OXYGEN LANCING
                (Based  on the production  of  one ton of steel)
Item

Steel scrap
Coke breeze
Burnt lime
Ferro alloys
Amount
Pounds

2,136
6
99
14
Sulfur
Content %
Input
0.020
0.700
0.060
0.070
Amount of
Sulfur Pounds

0.43
0.04
0.06
TOTAL 0.54
Steel and scrap
Slag
Off gas
2,060
  140
Output
0.020
0.080
                                                  TOTAL
0.42
0.11
0.01
0.54
                                   C-36
                                                         WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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.  .  S0? emissions are:

TO3  [45.61 x 0.71 + 48.02 x 0.70 + 63.33  x  0.03  +  20.16  x  0.01]  tons/yr

    = 68.1 x 103 tons/yr

                (2)  Projected SO., Process  Emissions  for 1975 and 1980.
From previous calculations on sinter  plant  (Section A.I) and  Table C-6,
the  following data are  obtained:
1975
        Sinter production               55.5 x 10  tons
        Open hearth production          44.0 x 10  tons
        BOF production                  80.0 x 106 tons
        Electric furnace production     33.0 x 10  tons
1980
        Sinter production               59.1  x 10  tons
        Open hearth production          36.0  x 10  tons
        BOF production                  99.0  x 10  tons
        Electric furnace production     45.0  x 10  tons

.'.  1975 S02 emissions:

       103 [55.5 x 0.71  + 44.0 x 0.70 + 80.0  x 0.03 + 33.0 x 0.01]

           = 73.0 x 103  tons/yr

1980 S02 emissions:

       103 [59.1 x 0.71  + 36.0 x 0.7 + 99 x 0.03 + 45.0 x 0.01]

           = 80.0 x 10  tons/yr
                                   C-37                  WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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     C.   NITROGEN  OXIDE EMISSIONS

         Once  again,  as was done in  estimating sulfur  oxide emissions, only
 nitrogen oxide  emissions  that  result from  the actual  process under  con-
 sideration  will be considered  in  this  section.  Thus,  for example,  the
 NO   produced  from combustion of blast  furnace gas  in  the blast furnace
  A
 stoves  is a fuel  combustion source  (even though it  is  associated with
 the  blast furnace) and, as such,  will  not  be considered here.

         The literature is sparse  in NO emission data  taken on processes
                                       X
 in the  iron and steel  industry.   Most  of the data quoted in this section
 have been extracted  from  Esso's System Study on NO  emissions IC-16]
                                                  A
 (Section 3.1.3.4  - Metallurgical  Processes).  Perusal  of NO  emission data
                                                           A
 indicate that only the open hearth  furnace and sintering plants produce
 "process" NO  air pollution emissions.
            A
         1.  Uncontrolled  Emission Factors

            a.  Open Hearth Furnace

                1970 fuel figures indicate that 3.x 10  Btu of fuel are
 required/T  of steel produced in an open hearth.  This  agrees with Esso's
 estimate  [C-16J.  Furthermore, the average open hearth furnace steel
 batch is  200 tons in size and the batch is heated over a period averaging
 10 hours  £C- 2].  It will be assumed these averages apply also in the
years 1975  and 1980.
 .'.  Average combustion rate = 3.2 x 10  x 200  Btu/hr

                            = 64 x 106 Btu/hr

Using emissions of oxides of nitrogen from stationary sources in Los
Angeles County [C-17], the following Ibs NO  are emitted in the production
                                           A
of a  200 ton batch of steel:
          Fuel                         Ibs NO/200 Tons Steel
                                             A
    Fuel  oil and tar                             250
    Natural  gas and
    coke oven gas                                150
                                   C 38
                                                       WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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            b.  Sinter Plants





                1.04 Ib N0x/ton sinter [C-16]




        2.  Controls




            No controls are currently employed to reduce NO  emissions.
                                                           X

It will further be assumed that no controls are available even  in  1980.




        3.  Estimation of NO  Emissions
                            A • - - ------- -
            a.  Base Year - 1970



            Open hearth production [C-8]:  48 x 10  tons



            Sinter production [C-8]:       45.6 x 10  tons



Fractional fuel consumption in open hearths:



            Fuel oil and tar and pitch:    0.57


            Natural gas and coke oven gas: 0.43



.'. Open hearth emissions:



        24 x 104 [0.125 x 0.57 + 0.075 x  .43] = 24,800  tons  N0>




No. of 200 ton batches



Sinter emissions:
          45.6 x      x ]°  tons = 23,700 tons  NOY
                  L.                               X
                                   C-39                   WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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             b.   Estimation  of Emissions  for 1975  and  1980

                 From  previous calculations  on  sinter  plants  (Section A.I  of
 this  Appendix)  and  Table  C-6, the  following data  are  obtained:

 1975

                 Open  hearth production:   44.0  x 10  tons
                 Sinter  production:        55.5  x 10  tons

 Fractional  fuel  consumption in open hearths:

                    Fuel oil  and tar and  pitch       0.55
                    Natural  gas and coke  oven gas    0.45

 1980

                 Open  hearth  production:   36.0  x 10  tons
                 Sinter  production:        59.1  x 10  tons

 Fractional  fuel  consumption  in open hearths:

                    Fuel oil  and tar and  pitch       0.55
                    Natural gas and coke  oven gas    0.45

 .'. 1975 NO  emissions are:

                Open hearths:       22,500 tons NO
                Sinter production:  28,600 tons NO
                                                  A

1980 NO  emissions are:
       A
                Open hearths:       18,400 tons NOV
                                                  A
                Sinter production:   31,000 tons NO
                                   C-40
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II.  EMISSIONS FROM FUELS

     Five fuels are extensively used in the Iron and Steel Industry to
supply process energy.  These are fuel oil, natural gas, tar and pitch,
coke oven gas and blast furnace gas.  The latter three fuels are pro-
duced within the steel mill as by-products and their production is de-
pendent on the coke rate and ultimately on pig iron requirements.  Fuel
oil and natural gas, on the other hand, are purchased fuels whose usage
is tied into the process in a fairly complex fashion as will be discussed
later.

     In estimating emissions from fuels used in process areas, it is neces-
sary first to determine fuel consumption and then to apply emission fac-
tors.  Fuel consumptions for 1970 are available F.C-8] but extrapolation
to 1975 and 1980 will have to be made based on understanding of how fuel
usage is connected to process requirements.

     The AISI Statistical Reports [C-8,C-9] break down fuel consumption
into the following use categories:
     (1)  Blast Furnace Area         Furnaces
     (2)  Steel Melting Furnaces
     (3)  Heating and Annealing Furnaces
     (4)  Heating Ovens for Mire Rods
     (5)  Other

     In addition, included under other uses in the blast furnace area,
are reported the quantity of fuel used for coke oven underfiring.

     Discussions with AISI officials [C-15] indicate that:

     (1)  The category of "other" (i.e., 5) could be considered to  refer
mainly to the use of the particular fuel in steam raising boilers,  and

     (2)  Steel melting furnaces refers to fuel usage in open hearth
furnaces.
                                    C-41
                                                          WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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      A.       FUEL CONSUMPTIONS

          1.   Base Year -  1970

              Table C-11 summarizes  the  fuel  consumption data  for 1970 ex-
 tracted  from the  AISI  Statistical Report  [C-8].

          2.   Estimation of  Fuel  Consumptions for  1975  and  1980

              Estimation of  fuel  consumption  for future years  must be
 based  on an  understanding of how the  particular fuels  are  utilized in the
 overall  process.   Fuel oil  and natural  gas will be  considered first:

              a.   Fuel  Oil and Natural Gas

                  The following underlying logic will be used  to  estimate
 future fuel  usage.

                  (1)   Fuel  oil and  natural gas used  in the blast furnace
 are  injected through the tuyeres  [C-2].  As  such  these fuels  reduce the
 blast  furnace coke burden and lead  to more efficient performance of the
 furnace  [C-2].  Since  these fuels ultimately produce blast furnace gas,
 estimation of their consumption  for future years  is necessary in order
 to determine blast furnace  gas production.

                       The fuels  used  in the  blast furnace  area are
 dependent on pig  iron  production  and  thus their consumption will  be cor-
 related with pig  iron  production.

                  (2)   As indicated  earlier,  steel melting  furnaces refer
 to open  hearth furnaces.  Thus fuel oil and  natural gas  consumption used
 in steel  melting  furnaces will be correlated  with open hearth production.

                  (3)  Heating and annealing  furnaces are mainly  utilized
 in steel  production and therefore fuel oil and natural  gas  consumption
 in these areas will be correlated with raw steel  production.

                  (4)  Finally it will be assumed  that  fuel  consumption used
for steam raising will  correlated with raw steel  production.
                                                        WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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                                                       TABLE  C-11



                                   1970  FUEL  CONSUMPTION  IN THE  IRON  AND  STEEL  INDUSTRY
Fuel
Blast Furnace Area
Other3 Coke Oven
Furnaces Uses Underfiring
Fuel Oil 146,031 19,801 5,000
103 gals
Tar & Pitch 42,500
103 gals
o
£ Natural Gas 44,474 10,262 4,000
106 scf
Coke Oven 9,177 319,628 274,603
Gas
106 scf
Blast Fur- 1,592,038 1,246,894 286,402
nace Gas
0 106 scf
z Liquid Pet.
% Gas
en o
5 10J gals
O
-r -.— •,..-. ...I .-.. - .— . . i— -
Purpose
Steel Heating & Heating .
Melting Annealing Ovens for Steam
Furnaces Furnaces Wire Rods Other Raising Total
416,822 377,593 1,648 273,558 288,359 1,235,453
176,902 — -- 41,503 41,503 260,905
57,797 306,097 4,403 170,483 176,745 593,516
22,056 363,899 4,217 208,959 253,984 927,936
164,693 -- 1,519,250 2,479,742 4,522,875
6,555 -- 12,220 12,220 18,775
8    alncludes coke oven underfiring
33    U

o     Steam raising = E other - coke oven underfiring
o
z

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                   Table  C-12  shows  time  series  data  extracted  from  the AISI
 Statistical  Reports  [C-8,C-9]  that  were  used  in  the  above  correlations.
 Based  on  extrapolations  of  the data,  ratios of  fuel  oil  and  natural  gas
 consumptions relative  to production were obtained  for  1975 and  1980.
 These  ratios are  listed  below:

 Fuel Oil:
      1.   Blast furnace  area:
      2.   Steel  melting  furnaces:
            (open  hearth)
      3.   Heating  and  annealing
            furnaces:
     4.  Steam  raising
Natural Gas:
     1.  Blast furnace area:
     2.  Steel melting furnaces:
            (open hearth)
            no obvious trend
            use avg. of 1969-1964

     3.  Heating and annealing
            furnaces:
     4.  Steam raising
1975:  3.7 gal/ton pig iron
1980:  10 gal/ton pig iron

1975:  8.3 gal/ton open hearth steel
1980:  8.3 gal/ton open hearth steel

1975:  2.2 gal/ton raw steel
1980:  2.2 gal/ton raw steel

1975:  2.1 gal/ton raw steel
1980:  2.1 gal/ton raw steel
1975:
1980:

1975:
1980:
1975:
1980:

1975:
1980:
0.5 x 103 ft3/T pig iron
0.5 x 103 ft3/T pig iron

1.1 x 103 ft3/T open hearth
1.1 x 103 ft3/T open hearth
2.7 x 103 ft3/T raw steel
3.05 x 103 ft3/T raw steel

1.34 x 103 ft3/T raw steel
1.55 x 103 ft3/T raw steel
BatteHe [C-2] quote the following projected production rates:
                                   C-44
                 WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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O
m
z
m
CO
33
O
X

O
O
2)
TJ
O
z
                                                       TABLE C-12

                    TIME SERIES OF FUEL OIL AND NATURAL GAS CONSUMPTION  IN THE  IRON  AND STEEL INDUSTRY
Year
1970
1969
1968
1967
1966
1965
1964
aOpen
Pig Iron
Production
103 tons
91,435
95,017
88,780
86,984
91,500
88,185
85,601
Raw
Steel
Production
103 tons
131 ,514
141,262
131,462
127,213
134,101
131,462
127,076
Open
Hearth
Production
103 tons
48,000
61,000
66,000
71 ,000
85,000
94,000
98,000
hearth production obtained from data
Fuel Oil
in Blast
Furnaces
103 gal
146,031
116,770
80,778
67,223
53,247
53,131
46,189 1
of Battel
Fuel Oil
in Steel
Melting
Furnaces
103 gal
416,822
504,673
549,585
567,663
721,661
889,580
,008,296
le [C-2J,
Fuel Oil
In Heating
& Anneal ing
103 gal
377,593
314,064
368,253
403,426
461,939
448,649
392,300
as shown in
Fuel Oil
In Steam
Raising
103 gal
287,558
298,541
282,097
215,663
206,071
219,144
228,344
Figure C-7
Nat. Gas
In Blast
Furnaces
106 scf
44,474
44,355
46,507
44,255
51,510
46,636
38,796
Nat. Gas
In Steel
Melting
106 scf
57,797
92,446
102,159
85,932
96,002
105,571
108,540
Nat. Gas
In Heating
& Annealing
106 scf
310,500
342,112
303,982
283,004
264,228
277,317
256,250

-------
                                                        TABLE C-12  (Cont.)
o
Year
1970
1969
1968
1967
1966
1965
1964
Nat. Gas
in Steam
Raising
106 scf
180,747
155,607
134,212
121,270
105,385
117,552
109,513
Fuel Oil
in Blast
Furnace
Pig Iron
gal/ton
1.597
1.229
0.910
0.773
0.582
0.602
0.540
Fuel Oil
in Heating
& Annealing
Raw Steel
gal/ton
2.87
2.22
2.80
3.17
3.44
3.41
3.09
Fuel Oil
in Steel
Melting
Open Hearth
gal /ton
8.7
8.3
8.3
8.0
8.5
9.4
10.2
Fuel Oil
in Steam
Raising
Raw Steel
gal /ton
2.19
2.11
2.15
1.69
1.54
1.67
1.80
Nat. Gas
in Blast
Furnace
Pig Iron
103 scf/ton
0.486
0.467
0.524
0.510
0.563
0.530
0.453
Nat. Gas
in Heating
& Annealing
Raw Steel
103 scf/ton
2.36
2.42
2.31
2.22
1.97
2.11
2.01
Nat. Gas
in Steel
Melting
Open Hearth
103 scf/ton
1.2
1.5
1.54
1.21
1.13
1.12
1.10
Nat. Gas
in Steam
Raising
Raw Steel
103 scf/tor
1.374
1.101
1.02
0.953
0.786
0.894
0.862
 a
 m

 33
 m
 en
 o


 o
 o
 7)
 -0
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 70
 •

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1975
         Pig i>on:                        106.8 x TO6 tons
         Open hearth production:           44.0 x 106 tons
         Raw steel production:            157.0 x 106 tons
1980
         Pig iron:                        122.4 x 106 tons
         Open hearth production:           36.0 x 10  tons
         Raw steel production:            180.0 x 10  tons

Using the above production figures, together with the extrapolated ratios,
fuel oil and natural gas consumption can be calculated and the results
are shown in Table C-13.

                              TABLE C-13
             PROJECTED FUEL OIL AND NATURAL GAS CONSUMPTIONS
                           FOR 1975 AND 1980
Fuel

Fuel Oil
103 gals
Fuel Oil
103 gals
Nat. Gas
106 scf
Nat. Gas
106 scf
Year
Blast
Furnace
1975 396,000
1980 1,224,000
1975 53,400
1980 61,400
Purpose
Steel
Melting
366,000
300,000
49,500
39,400
Heating
& Annealing
395,000
396,000
424,000
549,000
Steam
Raising
377,000
377,000
210,000
278,000
                                   C-47                  WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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              b.   Coke Based  Fuels,  i.e., Coke Oven Gas,  Blast  Furnace Gas
                  and Tar  and Pitch

                  Production  rates of coke oven gas, tar  and pitch  and
 blast  furnace gas are closely correlated with the coke rate and ultimately
 the projected pig iron  requirements.  The coke rate has  been discussed  in
 Section  I  of  this appendix, where it was shown, based on extrapolations,
 that the coke rate for  1975  and 1980 would be 1175 and 1110 Ib/coke/f pig
 iron.  However, previous  estimates  based on extrapolation of historical
 data indicated that the following quantities of fuel oil and natural gas
 would  be injected into  the tuyeres  of the blast furnace.

              Fuel Oil:           1975:  3.5 gal/T pig iron
                                 1980:  10.0 gal/T pig iron

              Natural Gas:        1975:  500 ft3/T pig iron
                                 1980:  500 ft3/T pig iron

 These  fuel quantities translate to  about 30 and 80 Ib/T  pig iron respectively,
 for 1975 and  1980.  Thus  assuming approximately that one pound of  fuel will
 result in  an  equivalent pound reduction in the coke rate.  The actual coke
 rates of 1975 and 1980 were projected to be 1145 and 1020 Ib coke/T pig
 iron.   However, before total production rates can be calculated, it is
necessary  to  determine how the production rates are related to the coke
 rate.

                  (1)  Total Production Rates - Coke Oven Gas.  Volumetric
production rates of coke  oven gas/T coke are not easily  predicted  and as
such the historical  data  presented  in Table C-14 and taken from AISI [C-8,
C-9] will  be  used.

                      There is no obvious trend in the data and as such
a mean of  15,000 scf/T coke will be used in subsequent computations.

                      Thus total coke oven gas production rates for 1975
and 1980 are  readily computed:
                                 C-48                    WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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          TABLE C-14



COKE OVEN GAS PRODUCTION/T COKE
Year
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
SCF/T Coke
14,200
15,200
17,200
15,000
14,800
12,400
17,300
17,640
15,300
15,700
15,600
15,100
15,900
              C-49
                                      WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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 1975
                      15,000 x      X 106-8 X 1C)6 SCF
                             =  9.2 x 1011  SCF
 1980
                      15,000 x      x  122.4  x  106  SCF
                             =  9.35 x  1011  SCF

                  (2)   Blast  Furnace Gas.   A similar  procedure  based  on
 historical  data,  can  be used to  estimate  blast  furnace  gas  production
 rates.   Table C-15  presents  such data  extracted  from AISI statistics [C-8,
 C-9].

                               TABLE  C-15
         BLAST FURNACE GAS  PRODUCTION/T COKE USED IN  BLAST FURNACE




1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
106 SCF Blast
Furnace Gas
Production

4,076,149
4,131,003
4,453,712
4,757,049
4,522,875

Coke Used in
Blast Furnace
Ctons)
59.6 x 106
56.2 x 106
56.2 x 105
60.2 x 106
59.4 x 106

Pig Iron
Production
(tons)
91.5 x 106
87.0 x 106
88.8 x 106
95.0 x 106
91.4 x 106


SCF/T Coke

68,500
73,400
79,100
79,100
76,000
                      Esso IC-16] reports that four to five tons of
blast furnace gas are generated/ton of pig iron produced, i.e., approxi-
mately 96,000 SCF to 120,000 SCF of blast furnace gas is produced/T of
pig iron.  It would be expected that the blast furnace gas production
                                  C-50                   WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

-------
rate should depend on the coke rate and this  is  bourne out  by  the data
presented in Figure C-12 below [C-18].   However,  it  is readily seen from
Figure C-12 that at a coke rate of 1260-1300  Ib  coke/T pig  iron (i.e.,
the data from Table C-15), total  blast  furnace production rate is about
118,000 SCF/T coke.

                      Both the results  of Esso IC-16]  and Heynert [C-18]
indicate considerably higher production rates than are shown by the data
in Table C-15 (even if a fraction of the blast furnace gas  is  lost as
shown in Figure C-12.  Discussion with  personnel  at  AISI  concerning this
problem, revealed that measurements of  the volumetric  blast furnace gas
production rates as reported in the AISI statistics  may be  in  error due to
the difficulties in determining such large volumetric  rates.

                      If it is assumed  that 20%  of the blast furnace gas
produced is lost through leaks etc., then the data of  Heynert  £C-18] would
only be 20% above the measured data shown in  Table C-15.  It is clear
that without further information this disparity  cannot be resolved, al-
though after considering a reasonable loss rate,  the data are  not that
far apart.  Thus in estimating blast furnace  gas  production rates for
1975 and 1980, it will be assumed that  the production  rate  is  a function
of the coke rate as predicted by Figure C- 4, but that this value of the
rate obtained at a given coke rate will be reduced by  40%.

                      An equivalent coke rate of  the actual coke rate
plus fuel  oil and natural gas injection rate  into the  tuyeres  was used
to calculate the SCF blast furnace gas/T pig  iron from Figure  C-4.

.'.  For 1975
                                              Ib coke
                  Effective coke rate =1175
                                             T pig iron

    Blast furnace gas production rate

                    = 79,000 x 0.6 x 106.8 x 105 SCF
                    = 5.07 x 1012 SCF
                                   C-51                  WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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 en
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a
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en
m
3D
a
o
o
XI
                      140
                      120
                    O)
                      100
                 1/1
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                 CD  O
o  o
(O  -M
c:
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Ll_  CX
                 tO  O>
                 (O  O>
                 I—  
-------
and for 1980
                  Effective coke rate = 1100  1b.coke—
                                             T pig iron
 . . Blast furnace gas production rate

                    = 62,000 x 0.6 x 122.4 x 106 SCF
                    = 4.56 x 1012 SCF

                 (3)  Tar and Pitch.  Production rate of tar and pitch/T
 coke are presented in Figure C-5.   Extrapolations to 1975 and 1980 indi-
 cate productions of 3.5 and 2.6 gals/T coke.

 . . Tar and pitch production rates for 1975 and 1980 are respectively:

 1975

                      3'5 x '     x 106'8 x 1C|6 ga1s
                          = 2.14 x 108 gals
                      2.6 x      x 122.4 x 106 gals
1980
                          = 1.62 x 108 gals

         3.  Fractional Usage of Fuels

             Calculation of emissions necessitates an estimation of
fractional usage of the total fuel production amongst the different
process units.  This fractional  allocation of the coke based fuels is a
complex economic problem which will be circumvented by assuming that
the fractional allocations for 1975 and 1980 can be estimated from extrapo-
lation of historical data.

             Tables C-16 and C-17 present historical data taken from
AISI statistics together with fractional fuel consumption in the dif-
ferent process areas,
                                                          WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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 I
 en
s

I—
o
m
c/i
o
I
8
64   65   66   67  68    69
                                                        70   71   72   73   74

                                                                Year
75   76   77    78   79  80
                                       Figure C-5.   Relative Production Rate of Tar and Pitch.
O
33

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o
en
c_n
                                                          TABLE C-16


                                              BLAST FURNACE GAS HISTORICAL  DATA



Year
1970
1969
1968
1967
1966



Blast
Furnaces
1,592,038
1,733,763
1,542,082
1,400,147
1,329,672

Fraction
B.F.G.
Used in
Blast
Furnaces
.352
.364
.346
.339
.326



Coke Oven
Underfiring
286,402
345,270
340,771
334,068
358,288

Fraction
B.F.G.
Used in
Coke Oven
Underfiring
.063
.072
.076
.081
.088
Fraction
B.F.G.
Used in
Steel Steel
Melting Melting
Furnaces Furnaces




11,571 .002



Heating &
Annealing
Furnaces
164,693
185,223
165,451
162,898
156,010

Fraction
B.F.G.
Used in
Heating
Furnaces
.036
.039
.037
.039
.038
I
33
m
33
O
X

o
o
33
T3
O
33

-------
                                                        TABLE C-16  (Cont.)
o
en
cn




Year
1970
1969
1968
1967
1966



Steam
Raising
2,479,742
2,492,793
2,405,408
2,233,890
2,220,608
Fraction
B.F.G.
Used in
Steam
Raising
.548
.524
.540
.540
.544




Total
4,522,875
4,757,049
4,453,712
4,731,003
4,076,149
 o
 m
 in
 m
 >
 •X)
 o


 o
 o
 30
 -o
 o

-------
m
in
o


o
o

-o
O
33
                                                        TABLE C-17


                                               COKE OVEN GAS HISTORICAL  DATA
Blast
Year Furnaces
1970
1969 1
fp 1968 1
pi
^ 1967 1
1966
1965 1
1964
Average
1966-1970
5
m -
9,177
1,021
2,118
3,433
7,529
1,233
8,458



Fraction
C.O.G.
Used in
Blast Coke Oven
Furnaces Underfiring
.01 274,603
.01 254,991
.013 231,922
.014 237,541
.01 225,119
.01 n.a.
.01 n.a.

.01

Fraction
C.O.G.
Used in Steel
Coke Oven Melting
Underfiring Furnaces
.295 22,056
.277 29,946
.262 32,800
.267 32,762
.245 55,042
71,864
76,335

.269

Fraction
C.O.G.
Used in
Steel
Melting
Furnaces
.02
.03
.04
.04
.06
.09
.10

.03

Heating &
Annealing
Furnaces
363,899
378,028
359,368
352,236
359,949
350,029
334,310



Fraction
C.O.G.
Used in
Heating
Furnaces
.392
.413
.407
.397
.393
.444
.466

.400


-------
                                                        TABLE C-17 (Cont.)






o
1
en
00






Year
1970
1969
1968

1967

1966
1965
1964
Aver.
Heating
Ovens
For Wire
Rods
4,217
12,606
12,705

9,681

5,378
4,471
5,257

1966-1970
1


Fraction
C.O.G.
Used in
Heating
Ovens
For Wire
Rods
.004
.013
.014

.010

.006
.005
.007

.01


Steam
Raising
253,984
229,049
232,161

240,575

261 ,874
350,495
291 ,874






.273
.250
.263

.270

.285
.444
.406

.268



Total
927,436
915,641
881 ,074

886,228

914,891
788,095
716,234



33
m

O
X

o
o
33
T)
O
3D

-------
             Perusal of the fractional  usage of coke oven gas and blast
furnace gas indicate little variation of time since 1966 and as such the
average values presented in the tables  will  be used in subsequent compu-
tations where necessary.

         4.  Estimation of Emissions

             a.  Emission Factors

                 The following emission factors v/ere used in estimation
of emissions:

     Sulfur Oxides

     Fuel Oil (see Appendix D, Table D-l):

                         4                   1b S0x
                0.68 xlO4* (% sulfur) 10QO barre*$ Ql1
     Natural Gas (see Appendix D, Table D-l):  0.0

     Blast Furnace Gas (see Appendix D, Section 2):  0.0

     Coke Oven Gas (see Appendix D, Section 2):

                             0.77 Ib SO,.
                           1000 SCF C.O.G.

     Parti culates

     Fuel Oil (see Appendix D, Table D-l):

                              3 1b particulates
                                     barrels Oll
     Natural Gas (see Appendix D, Table D-l):
                     0.15 xlO2 T> Particulates
                                   10° SCF
                                      ro                  WALOEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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     Blast Furnace Gas  Csee Appendix D, Section 2):
                           2.4 1b particulates
                                 TO6 SCF

     Coke Oven Gas (see Appendix D, Section 2):
                       0.15 x TO2 1b particulates
                                     106 SCF
     Nitrogen Oxides
                 Whereas the emission factors for sulfur oxides and
particulates are essentially independent of the process unit size and
firing rate, emissions of NO  are strongly dependent on the firing rate
                            X
and fuel.  As such emission factors for the different process units have
to be discussed separately.  Some of the following information was ob-
tained from NO  Systems Study {C-16J.
              A
                 (1)  Blast Furnace.  Fuel  is used to heat the three
blast furnace stoves which are usually associated with each blast fur-
nace.  Two are generally on heat while the third is on blast.

                      The Battelle Systems Study £C-2] indicated the
following average pig iron productions per day.

                               TABLE C-18
      AVERAGE PRODUCTION OF PIG IRON PER U.S. BLAST FURNACE PER DAY

           Year                                Net Tons/Day

           1960                                    1181
           1967                                    1570
           1975                                    1920
           1980                                    2200
                                  C-60                   WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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                      Fuel oil and natural  gas used in the blast furnace
area are injected into the blast furnace, so that effectively the only
major fuel used for heating is blast furnace gas.  Thus the following
estimates can be computed of the average Btu/hr firing rate of blast
furnace gas in an averaged size blast furnace.
                               TABLE C-19
        DETERMINATION OF THE AVERAGE FIRING RATE OF BLAST FURNACE
                  GAS IN AN AVERAGE SIZED BLAST FURNACE
Total Usage in
Blast Furnace Area

Year
1970
1975

1980



Btu/Yr
1.51X1014
1.66xl014
14
1.50x10^



How Obtained
Table C-ll
Use of Total
Production &
Fract. B.F.G.
Used in Blast
Furnaces
Pig Iron
Production
91. 4x1 O6
106. 8x1 O6
c
122.4x10°


Fuel Usage
Per Ton
Pig Iron
Btu/T
1.67X106
1.56xl06
F.
1.22x10°


Average Fuel
Usage Per
Blast Furnace
Btu/Hr
1.19xl08
1.24xl08
o
1.12x10


                      NO  emission rates from combustion of blast furnace
                        A
gas is not well established.  However, it is suggested in Appendix D, Sec-
tion 2, that emission rates be estimated as if the blast furnace gas was
natural gas and then more realistically adjusted by multiplying by 0.022.

                      Table C-20 summarizes these NO  emission factors.
                                                    J\
                 (2)  Coking Ovens.  The estimations of Esso [C-16] in-
dicate that 2.7 Ibs NO  is produced in the carbonization of 20 tons of coal
                      J\
            .'. Emission factor = 0.135 Ibs NO/T coal fed
                                              X
                 (3)  Heating and Annealing Furnaces.  Esso [C-16] indi-
cates that NO  emissions from heating and annealing furnaces are best
             X
estimated on the basis of steel production.  It is estimated that
0.086 Ib NO  produced/ton steel.
                                   C-61
WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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                              TABLE C-20

         NO  EMISSION FACTORS FOR BLAST FURNACE GAS  COMBUSTION
           A



Year
1970
1975
1980



Production
Rate T/Hr
70.7
80
91.6
5. Estimation of Fuel
Average Fuel
Usage/Blast
Furnace Stove
Btu/Hr
5.9 x 107
6.2 x 107
5.6 x 107
Based Process

Conservative
NOX Emissions
Ib/hr
11.4
11.5
11.0
Emissions
             Tables C-21, C-22 and C-23 summarize the fuel based  process
emissions calculated from the previously estimated fuel consumption data
and emission factors for 1970, 1975 and 1980, respectively.

             Based on the data of Battelle [C-2], the following average
sulfur contents were used in the above calculations.

             Fuel Oil:       1.8% sulfur
             Tar and Pitch:  0.6% sulfur

         6.   Summary

             Tables C-24, C-25 and C-26 summarize the results of  Sections
I and II  of this Appendix.
                                  C-62                   WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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                                                         TABLE C-21


                                      1970 EMISSIONS  IN  PROCESS FROM FUEL COMBUSTION
                                                           (tons)



o
c
en
CO







|
0
Blast Furnace Area
Fuel SO Particulate NOV
X X

Fuel
Oil
Tar &
Pitch
Natural
Gas
Coke Oven
Gas
Blast - 2,220
Furnace
Gas
TOTAL 2,220 160

Coke Oven Underfiring
SO Particulate NO
X X
tons
725 25

-
30

106,000 2,060

400


106,725 2,515 5,900

Heating
Heating
S0x

54,000

-
-

140,000

-


194,000

& Annealing
Ovens for
Particul

1,890

-
2,330

2,720

230


7,170

Furnaces &
Wire Rods
ate NOV
/\











5,600

33
m
CO
33
O
X

o
o
33
t)
O
33

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                                                      TABLE C-22

                                    1975 EMISSIONS IN PROCESS FROM FUEL COMBUSTION
                                                        (tons)
o
cr>
1
o
m
a
m
in
m
aj
o
8
1
33
Blast Furnace Area
Fuel SOV Particulate NO
X X
Fuel
Oil
Tar &
Pitch
Natural
Gas
Coke Oven
Gas
Blast 2,400
Furnace
Gas
TOTAL 2,400 170

Coke Oven Underfiring Heating & Annealing Furnaces &
Heating Ovens for Wire Rods
SO Particulate NOV SOV Particulate NO
X XX X
57,500 2,000
3,000
95,000 1,800 145,000 3,000
500 - 300
95,000 2,300 6,000 196,500 8,300 6,700

o

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                                                         TABLE C-23


                                          1980 EMISSIONS IN PROCESS  FROM FUEL COMBUSTION
                                                           (tons)
o
I
01
en
z

3J
m
en
m
>
33
O
I

O
O
33

s
3J
Blast Furnace Area
Fuel SOV Particulate NOV
X X
Fuel
Oil
Tar &
Pitch
Natural
Gas
Coke Oven
Gas
Blast - 2,200
Furnace
Gas
TOTAL 2,200 170
Coke Oven Underfiring Heating & Annealing Furances &
Heating Ovens for Wire Rods
SO Particulate NO SO Particulate NOV
/\ J\ J\ /\
57,500 2,000

4,000
97,000 2,000 148,000 3,000
500 300
97,000 2,500 6,000 205,500 9,300 7,700
O
z

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           TABLE C-24


SUMMARY OF 1970 PROCESS EMISSIONS
                   *
             (tons)



o
en
en



WALDEN RESEARCH CORPOR


Sinter Plants
Coke Manufacture
Blast Furnaces
Steel Furnaces
(Open Hearth)
B.O.F.
Electric Arc
Heating &
Annealing
Furnaces
Scarfing
Material
Handling
TOTAL
*
Tons rounded to

Process Fuel Combusted in
SOV Part. NOV SOV Part.
X XX
32,000 96,000 24,000
152,000 107,000 3,000
2,000
35,000 312,000 25,000
2,000 28,000
negl. 28,000
194,000 7,000
63,000
446,000
69,0001,125,000 49,000 301,000 12,000
the nearest thousand

Process Total
NOV SOV Part.
*\ J\
32,000 96,000
6,000 107,000 155,000
negl. 2,000
35,000 312,000
2,000 28,000
negl. 28,000
6,000 194,000 7,000
63,000
446,000
12,000 370,000 1,137,000


NOX
24,000
6,000
negl .
25,000


6,000

61 ,000


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                                                         TABLE  C-25

                                              SUMMARY OF 1975 PROCESS EMISSIONS

                                                           (tons)
o
 I
CTi
O
m
35
m
to
33
O
I

O
o
;0
-o
o
33


Sinter Plants
Coke Manufacture
Blast Furnaces
Steel Furnaces
(Open Hearth)
B.O.F.
Electric Arc
Heating &
Anneal ing
Furnaces
Scarfing
Material
Hand! ing
TOTAL
*
Tons rounded to
Process Process - From Fuel
SQ Part. H0y SOV Part.
X XX
39,000 117,000 29,000
155,000 95,000 2,000
2,000
31,000 189,000 22,000
2,000 36,000
negl. 15,000
196,000 8,000
73,000
533,000
72,000 1,118,000 51,000 291,000 12,000
the nearest thousand
Combustion
N0x S0x
39,000
6,000 95,000
negl .
31,000
2,000
negl.
7,000 196,000


13,000 363,000
Total
Part.
117,000
157,000
2,000
189,000
36,000
15,000
8,000
73,000
533,000
1,130,000

NOX
29,000
6,000
negl .
22,000


7,000


64,000

-------
                                                      TABLE C-26


                                           SUMMARY OF 1980 PROCESS EMISSIONS
                                                              *
                                                        (tons)



o
1
00



f
'ALDEN RESEARCH
CORPOR,


Sinter Plants
Coke Manufacture
Blast Furnaces
Steel Furnaces
(Open Hearth)
B.O.F.
Electric Arc
Heating &
Annealing
Furnaces
Scarfing
Material
Handling
TOTAL
*
Tons rounded to


Process Emissions Process - From Fuel Combustion
SOY Part. NOY SOV Part. NOV SOV
A A A XX
42,000 124,000 31,000 42,000
159,000 97,000 2,000 6,000 97,000
2,000 negl.
25,000 8,000 18,000 25,000
3,000 46,000 3,000
negl. 20,000 negl.
205,000 9,000 8,000 205,000
86,000
612,000
70,000 955,000 49,000 302,000 13,000 14,000 372,000
the nearest thousand


Total
Part.
124,000
161,000
2,000
8,000
4,600
20,000
9,000
86,000
612,000
968,000



X
31,000
6,000
negl .
18,000


8,000


63,000


o
2

-------
                        REFERENCES TO APPENDIX C


C-l•   The Making, Shaping, and Treating of Steel,  8th Edition, U.S.  Steel
       Corporation, Pittsburgh, Pa.  (1964).

C-2.   A Systems Analysis Study of the Integrated Iron and Steel  Industry
       Battelle Memorial Institute,  Columbus, Ohio  (1964).

C-3.   McGraw, M.J. and R.L.  Duprey, Compilation of Air Pollution Emis-
       sion Factors, Preliminary Document E.P.A., Research'TriangTe Park,
       N.C. (April 1971).

C-4.   Schueneman, J.J., et al., Air Pollution Aspects of the Iron and
       Steel Industry, Public Health Service, Cincinnati, Ohio.

C-5.   O'Mara, R.F., Dust and Fume Problems in the  Steel Industry, Air
       Pollution Symposium, Iron Steel Engr., 30, 100 (1953).

C-6.   Private communication with R. Devorek, U.S.  Steel Corp., U.S.
       Steel Bldg., Pittsburgh, Pa.

C-7,   Systems Study on Particulate  Emissions, Midwest Research Institute,
       Information obtained from R.C. Lorentz, E.P.A. , 411 W. Chapel  Hill
       Street Annex, Durham,  N.C. 27701.

C-8.   Statistical Report American Iron and Steel Institute  (1970).

C-9.   Statistical Report American Iron and Steel Institute  (1968).

C-10.  Ramm, A.N., Minimum Theoretical Possible Coke Oven Consumption for
       Pig Iron Production underModern Conditions, Stal No.  10,  860 (1964)

C-ll.  Nakatani, F., et al.,  Theoretical Considerations on Blast Furnace
       Coke Rate, Trans, of the Iron and Steel Dist. Japan 6, 263  (1966).

C-12.  Weise, W.H., Blast Furnace Dust Treatment Facilities,  Sewage and
       Industrial Wastes 28.  1398 (1956).

C-13.  Hipp, N.E. and J.R. Westerholm, Developments in Gas Cleaning -
       Great Lakes Steel Corp., Iron and Steel Engineer 44 (8), 101 (1967).

C-14.  Private communication with Dr. Smith, Jones  & Laughlin Steel Corp.,
       3 Gateway Center, Pittsburgh, Pa.

C-15.  Private communication with Mr. Eckel, American Iron and Steel
       Institute, 150 E. 42nd Street, New York, N.Y. 10017.

C-16.  Bartok, W., et al., Systems Study of Nitrogen Oxide Control Methods
       for Stationary Sources, Esso  Research and Engineering Co.,  Govern-
       ment Research Laboratory.
                                   C-69
                                                         WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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                     REFERENCES TO APPENDIX C  (Cont.)
C-17.  Massobrio, G. and F. Santini, Some Starting and Operating Experi-
       ences with the 300 Ton Oxygen Furnaces at the Toronto Works, AIME
       Open Hearth Proceedings 48., 115 (1965).

C-18.  Heynert, Von 6., et al, Charge Preparation and Its Effect on Op-
       erating Results of the Blast Furnace, Stahl und Eisle 81. 1 (1961),
                                   C_7Q                   WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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                               APPENDIX D
                 EMISSION FACTORS AND BOILER EMISSIONS

1.   DISCUSSION OF EMISSION FACTORS FOR COAL, RESIDUAL OIL, AND
    NATURAL GAS

    The emissions resulting from combustion of coal, residual oil,
and natural gas under boilers were based on the emission factors and
sulfur and ash contents used for industrial intermediate-size boilers
in  the Systems Study of Air Pollution from Intermediate-Size Fossil-
Fuel Combustion Equipment, and are shown below in Tables D-l and D-2 [D-l],
                                    D-l
                                                          WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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    TABLE  D-l



EMISSION FACTORS
Pollutant Size
S02 all
S02 all
S00 all
2
N0v WT,
x 1
WT0
2
NOX WT'
WT0
2
WT,
3
NO all
x



Particulates WT,
1
WT0
2
WT,
3
WT,
I
WT,
3
all
Particulates all



*
Emission factors: GS -
RO -
CL -
Fuel
GS
RO
CL

GS
GS
GS
RO
RO
RO
CL




GS
GS
GS
RO
RO
RO
CL
CL



pounds
pounds
pounds
Firing Type


all







PV
CY
OF
SS
UF






PV
CY
OF
SS
UF
pollutants per million
pollutants per thousand
pollutants per thousand
*
Factor
0
.6804 x 104
.3800 x 105
•3
.1676 x 10J
.2280 x 103
.2489 x 103
.2218 x 104
4
.3072 x 1(T
.3372 x 104
.2000 x 105
.6000 x 105
.1500 x 105
.1000 x 105
.1000 x 105
.1800 x 102
.1500 x 102
.1500 x 102
.9660 x 103
.4200 x 103
.4200 x 103
.1600 x 105
.2000 x 104
.1300 x 105
.5000 x 104
.5000 x 104
cubic feet
barrels
tons
        D-2
WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

-------
       TABLE D-2



SULFUR AND ASH CONTENTS
              % Sulfur              % Ash
AT
AT
GL
GL
WS
WS
SE
SE
RO
CL
RO
CL
RO
CL
RO
CL
1.34
1.83
1.52
2.38
1.44
2.06
1.81
1.67
0
8.07
0
8.57
0
7.89
0
7.72
           D-3                     WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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 2.   EMISSION  FACTORS  FOR BLAST FURNACE GAS AND COKE OVEN GAS

     A.  PARTICIPATE EMISSIONS

        (1)   Blast Furnace Gas

              The particulate emissions resulting from the combustion of
 B.F.G. come primarily from particles entering with the gas, i.e., the
 particulate emissions are determined by the efficiency with which the
 B.F.G. gas is cleaned upon leaving the blast furnace.

              The incentive for cleaning the gas is high, since if B.F.G.
 were not cleaned the  particulate matter would clog the holes in the regen-
 erative brickwork of  the blast furnace stoves, slagging reactions would be
 accelerated and might lead to catastrophic failure of the large amount of
 brickwork  in  the stoves.

              Weise [D-4] reported in 1956 that cleaned gas had dust
 contents of order 0.01 grains/SCF while Hipp and Westerholm [D-5] indi-
 cate that  future use of higher blast temperatures (which result in im-
 provements in  furnace efficiency) will create the need for gas cleanli-
 ness in the 0.001 grains/SCF range.  0.01 grains/SCF translates to
 1.4  lb/10  SCF.  However, based on emission factors from the blast fur-
 nace and quoted cleaning efficiencies estimates show that the blast
 furnace gas contains about 3.4 lb/10  SCF.  Thus as a compromise a mean
 of 2.4 lb/10   SCF were used for the particulate emission factor for
 blast furnace  gas.

        (2)   Coke Oven Gas

              No information on particulate loadings of coke oven gas could
 be found.   However, since almost all  C.O.G. is produced via the "by-
 product" coking process which involves a significant number of scrubbers
 and  condensers, it will be assumed that C.O.G. is as clean as natural gas
when it is finally used.
                                  D-4
                                                         WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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    B.  NITROGEN OXIDE EMISSIONS

        (1)  Blast Furnace Gas

             The only reported data that could  be found  on  NO  production
                                                             X
from B.F.G. combustion are in the Esso Study [D-6].   They state that un-
published data on stack gas samples from the blast furnace  stoves had NO
                                                                        /\
concentrations varying from 1.7 to 6.6 ppm.   No mention  of  the stove size
is indicated but if it is assumed that it is an average  sized blast furnace
stove (67 x 10  Btu/hr) then it can be shown that

              (NO) observed with burning of  B.F.G. _
                 (NO) from natural gas Burning

Although this ratio is dependent on the firing  rate it will  be assumed that
it holds constant for all sizes.

        (2)  Coke Oven Gas

             NO  emissions from coke oven gas combustion will be calculated
               J\
as if the fuel was natural gas.  This conclusion was based  on good com-
parisons obtained between measured NO  concentrations from coke oven gas
                                     /\
combustion (from Esso) and values predicted  from natural gas combustion
at similar burning rates.

    C.  SULFUR OXIDE EMISSIONS

        (1)  Blast Furnace Gas

             BatteHe [D-7] indicates that because of the reducing con-
ditions in the blast furnace, it is not possible for any of the sulfur
present in the charge material to be oxidized and leave the blast fur-
nace as S0?.  This is confirmed by Bureau of Mines tests [D-3].

        (2)  Coke Oven Gas

             The sulfur in C.O.G. is determined by the  sulfur  content of
the coal used to produce the coke.  The sulfur content  of bituminous  coals
shipped to American coke plants varied between 0.5 and  2.1%  [D-2] with
                                  D-5
                                                          WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

-------
an average of 0.8% S.  Battelle indicates a linear relationship between
sulfur in C.O.G. and % S in coal.

             From Battelle [D-7], for 0.8% S coal, ^ 4.25 Ib S in C.O.G.
results from the coking of 1 ton of coal.  Now, 1.4 T coal required/T coke
and 15,500 ft  C.O.G. produced/T coke (see AISI statistics).

             .'. Ib S02/1000 ft3 C.O.G.

                      - 4.25 x 1.4 x 2
                             15.5

                      = 0.77 Ib S02/1000 ft3 C.O.G.

Of course, if the iron and steel industry is forced to use higher S coal
in the future, this will  affect the S02 content of C.O.G.
              Table D-3 shows a summary of the emission factors for
blast furnace gas and coke oven gas.
                                   D-6                   WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

-------
                  TABLE  D-3

SUMMARY OF EMISSION FACTORS  FOR BLAST FURNACE
            GAS AND COKE OVEN  GAS
Pollutant Size
S02 al 1
S02 all
NO WT,
X I
WT3
NO WT,
x 1
WT2
VIT3
Particulates all
WTi
WT2
WT3
Fuel
BFG
COG
BFG
BFG
BFG
COG
COG
COG
BFG
COG
COG
COG
Factor
(Ib/million cu ft)
0
.77 x TO3
3.69 (.022 x .1676 x
5.02 (.022 x .2280 x
5.48 (.022 x .2489 x
T
.1676 x 10J
.2280 x 103
.2489 x 103
2.4
18
15
15



103)
103)
103)







                      D-7
WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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3.   EMISSIONS
    The  calculated  emissions  are  shown  in  detail  in  Tables D-4 through
D-12.
     Uncontrolled  boiler  emissions were  calculated  according to the equa-


tions shown  below:
 S02  (tons)  -
               fuel consumption  x  emission  factor x  %  sulfur
 Mn   i^. ~r.\    fuel  consumption x  emission  factor
 N0x  (tons) =  	*	2000	




 Particulates  (tons) =  fue1  ^sumption  *  lesion  factor x % ash
                                          zooo
**
 Only in the case of coal- or oil-fired boilers
Ir

 Only in the case of coal-fired boilers
                                   D-8
                                                        WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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                            TABLE  D-4
S02 EMISSIONS FROM BOILERS  IN THE  IRON  AND STEEL INDUSTRY - 1970
                             (TO3  tons)
Size Fuel
WT<100 CL




RO
GS
BFG
COG
WT1 00-250 CL




RO
GS
BFG
COG
WT>250 CL




RO
GS
BFG
COG
TOTAL
Firing
PV
CY
OF
SS
UF




PV
CY
OF
SS
UF




PV
CY
OF
SS
UF





AT
4.2
0
9.8
4.2
2.8
15.1
0
0
16.8
8.8
.3
4.3
1.2
.3
10.8
0
0
11.9
10.3
.5
0
.3
.1
8.2
0
0
9.0
118.9
GL
12.4
0
29.2
12.4
8.0
8.7
0
0
9.7
40.5
1.4
20.0
5.6
1.4
9'. 8
0
0
10.9
46.5
2.4
0
1.0
.5
7.1
0
0
7.9
235.4
WS
.3
0
.5
.2
.2
1.3
0
0
6.9
.3
0
.2
.2
0
,7
0
0
3.7
.9
0
0
0
0
1.2
0
0
6.2
22.8
SE
3.2
0
7.4
3.2
5.2
1.8
0
0
3.5
5.2
.1
2.6
.7
.2
.7
0
0
1.9
16.0
.9
0
.4
.1
1.3
0
0
3.8
58.2
Total
20.1
0
46.9
20.0
16.2
26.9
0
0
36.9
54.8
1.8
27.1
7.7
1.9
22.0
0
0
28.4
73.7
3.8
0
1.7
.7
17.8
0
0
26.9
435.3
                               D-9                     WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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                                TABLE D-5
PARTICULATES EMISSIONS  FROM  BOILERS  IN THE  IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY - 1970
                                (TO3 tons)
Size Fuel
w^ioo CL




RO
GS
BFG
COG
WT1 00-250 CL




RO
GS
BFG
COG
WT>250 CL




RO
GS
BFG
COG
TOTAL
Firing
PV
CY
OF
SS
UF




PV
CY
OF
SS
UF




PV
CY
OF
SS
UF





AT
7.7
0
14.7
2.4
1.6
1.6
.4
.7
.4
16.4
.1
6.5
.7
.2
.5
.2
.5
.2
19.2
.1
0
.2
.1
.4
.2
.4
.2
75.6
GL
18.7
0
36.0
5.9
3.8
.8
.2
.4
.2
61.4
.3
24.6
2.6
.7
.4
.2
.5
.2
70.4
.5
0
.5
.2
.3
.1
.4
.2
229.5
WS
.5
0
.6
.1
.1
.1
.1
.1
.2
.5
0
.2
.1
0
0
0
.1
.1
1.5
0
0
0
0
.1
.1
.1
.1
4.7
SE
6.2
0
11.8
1.9
1.3
.1
.1
.1
.1
10.2
0
4.1
.4
.1
0
0
.1
0
31.1
.2
0
.2
.1
0
.1
.2
.1
68.5
Total
33.1
0
63.1
10.3
6.8
2.6
.8
1.3
.9
88.5
.4
35.4
3.8
1.0
.9
.4
1.2
.5
122.2
.8
0
.9
.4
.8
.5
1.1
.6
378.3
                                   D-10
                                                          WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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                           TABLE D-6
NOX EMISSIONS FROM BOILERS IN THE IRON AND  STEEL  INDUSTRY - 1970
                           (TO3 tons)
Size Fuel
WT<100 CL




RO
GS
BFG
COG
WT1 00-250 CL




RO
GS
BFG
COG
WT>25Q CL




RO
GS
BFG
COG
TOTAL
Firing
PV
CY
OF
SS
UF




PV
CY
OF
SS
UF




PV
CY
OF
SS
UF





AT
1.2
0
2.1
.6
.4
3.7
3.8
1.0
3.7
2.5
.2
.9
.2
0
3.6
3.7
1.0
3.5
3.0
.5
0
0
0
3.0
3.0
.8
2.9
45.3
GL
2.7
0
4.8
1.4
.9
1.9
1.8
.7
2.1
9.0
.9
3.3
.6
.2
2.9
2.8
1.0
3.2
10.3
1.6
0
.1
.1
2.3
2.2
.8
2.6
60.2
WS
.1
0
.1
0
0
.3
1.0
.2
1.5
.1
0
0
0
0
.2
.7
.1
1.1
.2
0
0
0
0
.4
1.3
.3
2.0
9.6
SE
1.0
0
1.8
.5
.3
.2
.9
.1
.8
1.7
.1
.6
.1
0
.2
.7
.2
.6
5.0
.8
0
.1
0
.4
1.4
.4
1.2
19.1
Total
5.0
0
8.8
2.5
1.6
6.1
7.5
2.0
8.1
13.3
1.2
4.8
.9
.2
6.9
7.9
2.3
8.4
18.5
2.9
0
.2
.1
6.1
7.9
2.3
8.7
134.2
                                                      WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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                             TABLE D-7
S02 EMISSIONS FROM BOILERS  IN  THE IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY - 1975
                             (103  tons)
Size Fuel
WT250 CL




RO
GS
BFG
COG
TOTAL
Firing
PV
CY
OF
SS
UF




PV
CY
OF
SS
UF




PV
CY
OF
SS
UF





AT
3.1
0
7.4
3.1
2.1
16.8
0
0
17.3
6.0
.3
2.9
.8
.1
10.7
0
0
11.0
5.8
.3
0
.1
.1
8.2
0
0
8.5
104.6
GL
14.8
0
34.5
14.8
9.6
10.7
0
0
13.2
43.3
1.6
21.2
5.9
1.4
10.7
0
0
13.0
47.7
2.6
0
1.0
.5
8.0
0
0
9.0
263.5
US
.3
0
.6
.3
.2
1.4
0
0
4.2
.8
0
.3
.2
0
.6
0
0
1.9
1.1
.2
0
0
0
1.3
0
0
3.0
16.4
SE
3.1
0
7.2
3.1
2.0
1.8
0
0
4.9
4.9
.1
2.3
.6
.2
.8
0
0
1.9
14.0
.7
0
.4
.1
1.6
0
0
4.2
53.9
Total
21.3
0
49.7
21.3
13.9
30.7
0
0
39.6
55.0
2.0
26.7
7.5
1.7
22.8
0
0
27.8
68.6
3.8
0
1.5
.7
19.1
0
0
24.7
438.4
                                D-12                  WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

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                                TABLE  D-8
PARTICULATES EMISSIONS FROM BOILERS  IN THE  IRON  AND STEEL INDUSTRY - 1975
                                   ^ tons)
Size Fuel
WT CL




RO
GS
BFG
COG
UT n
w '100-250 tL




RO
GS
BFG
COG
WT>250 CL




RO
GS
BFG
COG
TOTAL
Firing
PV
CY
OF
SS
UF




PV
CY
OF
SS
UF




PV
CY
OF
SS
UF





AT
5.7
0
11.1
1.8
1.2
1.8
.7
.6
.4
11.2
.1
4.4
.5
.1
.5
.4
.4
.2
10.7
.1
0
.1
.1
.4
.3
.3
.2
53.3
GL
22.4
0
42.4
7.0
4.5
1.0
.3
.5
.3
65.7
.3
26.1
2.8
.7
.4
.2
.5
.3
72.3
.5
0
.5
.2
.3
.2
.3
.2
249.9
WS
.5
0
.8
.2
.1
.1
.1
.1
.1
1.2
0
.4
.1
0
0
.1
.1
0
1.7
0
0
0
0
.1
.1
.1
.1
6.0
SE
5.9
0
11.4
1.9
1.2
.1
.1
.2
.1
9.5
0
3.7
.4
.1
0
.1
.1
0
27.3
.2
0
.2
.1
.1
.1
.2
.1
63.1
Total
34.5
0
65.7
10.9
7.0
3.0
1.2
1.4
.9
87.6
.4
34.6
3.8
.9
.9
.8
1.1
.5
112.0
.8
0
.8
.4
.9
.7
.9
.6
372.3
                                   D-13                   WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

-------
                             TABLE D-9
N0x EMISSIONS FROM BOILERS  IN  THE IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY - 1975
                             (TO3  tons)
Size Fuel
WT<100 CL




RO
GS
BFG
COG
WT1 00-250 CL




RO
GS
BFG
COG
WT>25Q CL




RO
GS
BFG
COG
TOTAL
Firing
PV
CY
OF
SS
UF




PV
CY
OF
SS
UF




PV
CY
OF
SS
UF





AT
.9
0
1.6
.4
.3
4.1
6.9
1.0
3.8
1.7
.2
.6
.1
0
3.6
6.0
.9
3.3
1.7
.2
0
0
0
3.0
4.8
.7
2.7
48.5
GL
3.3
0
5.7
1.6
1.1
2.3
2.6
.7
2.9
9.6
1.0
3.5
.7
.2
3.2
3.5
1.0
3.9
10.5
1.7
0
.1
.1
2.6
2.7
.8
2.9
68.2
WS
.1
0
.1
0
0
.3
1.8
.2
.9
.2
0
.1
0
0
.2
1.2
.1
.6
.3
.1
0
0
0
.4
2.0
.2
1.0
9.8
SE
1.0
0
1.7
.5
.3
.3
1.3
.3
1.1
1.5
.1
.5
.1
0
.2
.9
.2
.6
4.4
.7
0
.1
0
.4
1.9
.4
1.4
19.9
Total
5.3
0
9.1
2.5
1.7
7.0
12.6
2.2
8.7
13.0
1.3
4.7
.9
.2
7.2
11.6
2.2
8.4
16.9
2.7
0
.2
.1
6.4
11.4
2.1
8.0
146.4
                              D-14                    WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

-------
                           TABLE D-10
S02 EMISSIONS FROM BOILERS IN THE  IRON  AND  STEEL INDUSTRY - 1980
                            (TO3 tons)
Size Fuel
WT<100 CL




RO
GS
BFG
COG
WT1 00-250 CL




RO
GS
BFG
COG
WT>250 CL




RO
GS
BFG
COG
TOTAL
Firing
PV
CY
OF
SS
UF




PV
CY
OF
SS
UF




PV
CY
OF
SS
UF





AT
3.4
0
7.9
3.4
2.3
20.2
0
0
19.4
6.0
.3
2.9
.8
.1
12.7
0
0
12.3
6.8
.4
0
.1
0
8.8
0
0
7.9
115.7
GL
16.9
0
39.7
16.9
11.1
10.7
0
0
13.9
49.4
1.7
24.2
6.6
1.7
10.0
0
0
14.2
50.1
2.8
0
1.0
.5
6.6
0
0
9.0
287.0
WS
.3
0
.6
.3
.2
1.4
0
0
4.1
.8
0
.3
.2
0
1.4
0
0
2.6
1.1
.2
0
0
0
1.3
0
0
3.0
17.8
SE
3.5
0
8.3
3.5
2.2
1.8
0
0
4.9
4.9
.1
2.3
.6
.2
.8
0
0
2.6
14.0
.7
0
.4
.1
1.6
0
0
4.2
56.7
Total
24.1
0
56.5
24.1
15.8
34.1
0
0
42.3
61.1
2.1
29.7
8.2
2.0
24.9
0
0
31.7
72.0
4.1
0
1.5
.6
18.3
0
0
24.1
477.2
                                                      WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

-------
                                TABLE D-11
PARTICULATES EMISSIONS  FROM BOILERS IN THE IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY -  1980
                                (TO3 tons)
Size Fuel
WT<100 CL




RO
GS
BFG
COG
^100-250 CL




RO
GS
BFG
COG
WT>250 CL




RO
GS
BFG
COG
TOTAL
Firing
PV
CY
OF
SS
UF




PV
CY
OF
SS
UF




PV
CY
OF
SS
UF





AT
6.2
0
11.9
1.9
1.3
2.1
.9
.6
.5
11.2
.1
4.4
.5
.1
.6
.5
.4
.2
12.7
.1
0
.1
0
.4
.3
.2
.2
57.4
GL
25.6
0
48.9
8.0
5.3
1.0
.4
.4
.3
74.9
.3
29.8
3.1
.8
.4
.3
.4
.3
75.9
.5
0
.5
.2
.3
.2
.3
.2
278.3
HS
.5
0
.8
.2
.1
.1
.2
.1
.1
1.2
.4
.4
.1
0
.1
.1
.1
.1
1.7
0
0
0
0
.1
.1
.1
.1
6.7
SE
6.9
0
13.1
2.2
1.3
.1
.2
.1
.1
9.5
0
3.7
.4
.1
0
.1
.1
.1
27.3
.2
0
.2
.1
.1
.1
.1
.1
66.2
Total
39.2
0
74.7
12.3
8.0
3.3
1.7
1.2
1.0
96.8
.8
38.3
4.1
1.0
1.1
1.0
1.0
.7
117.6
.8
0
.8
.3
.9
.7
.7
.6
408.6
                                    D-16
                                                          WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

-------
                            TABLE D-12
N0x EMISSIONS FROM BOILERS  IN  THE IRON AMD STEEL INDUSTRY -  1980
                            (TO3  tons)
Size Fuel
WT<100 CL




RO
GS
BFG
COG
WT1 00-250 CL




RO
GS
BFG
COG
WT>250 CL




RO
GS
BFG
COG
TOTAL
Firing
PV
CY
OF
SS
UF




PV
CY
OF
SS
UF




PV
CY
OF
SS
UF





AT
1.0
0
1.7
.5
.3
4.9
8.5
.9
4.2
1.7
.2
.6
.1
0
4.3
7.2
.7
3.6
2.0
.3
0
0
0
3.2
5.3
.5
2.5
54.2
GL
3.7
0
6.6
1.9
1.2
2.3
3.5
.6
3.0
10.9
1.2
4.0
.7
.2
3.0
4.6
.8
4.2
11.1
1.8
0
.1
.1
2.2
3.3
.6
2.9
74.5
WS
.1
0
.1
0
0
.3
2.1
.2
.9
.2
0
.1
0
0
.4
2.1
.2
.8
.3
.1
0
0
0
.4
2.3
.2
1.0
11.8
SE
1.1
0
2.0
.6
.3
.3
1.6
.2
1.1
1.5
.1
.5
.1
0
.2
1.1
.2
.8
4.4
.7
0
.1
0
.4
2.0
.3
1.4
21.0
Total
5.9
0
10.4
3.0
1.8
7.8
15.7
1.9
9.2
14.3
1.5
5.2
.9
.2
7.9
15.0
1.9
9.4
17.8
2.9
0
.2
.1
6.2
12.9
1.6
7.8
161.5
                                 £}_17                  WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

-------
                        REFERENCES TO APPENDIX D
D-l.  Systematic Study of Air Pollution from Intermediate-Size Fossil-
      Fuel Combustion Equipment, Wai den Research Corporation, Cambridge,
      Mass., 1971.

D-2.  DeCarlo, et al., Sulfur Content in U.S. Coals, Bureau of Nines
      Information Circular 8312, p. 40. 1966.

D-3.  Woolf, P.L. and Mahan, W.M., Fuel Oil Injection in an Experimental
      Blast Furnace, Bureau of Mines Report of Investigations 6150, p. 13,
      1963.

D-4.  Vleise, W.H., Blast Furnace Flue Dust Treatment Facilities, Sewage
      and Industrial Vlastes. 28, 1398, 1956.

D-5.   Hipp, N.E.  and Westerholm, J.R., Development in Gas Cleaning -
      Great Lakes Steel Corp., Iron and Steel Engineer 44, (8), 101,
      1967.

D-6.   Bartok, W., et al., Systems Study of Nitrogen Oxide Content Methods
      for Stationary Sources, Esso Research and Engineering Co., Govern-
      ment Research Laboratory.

D-7.   A Systems Analysis Study of the Integrated Iron and Steel Industry,
      Battelle Memorial Institute, Columbus, Ohio, 1964.
                                   D-l 8                  WALDEN RESEARCH CORPORATION

-------
 BIBLIOGRAPHIC DATA
 SHEET
1. Report No.
   EPA-R2-73-192
3. Recipient's Accession No.
4. Title and Subtitle
 Systems Study of Conventional Combustion Sources in the
     Iron and Steel Industry
                                              5- Report Date
                                                April 1973
                                              6.
7. Author(s)
J. Goldish, G.Margolis, J. Ehrenfeld,  R. Bernstein
                                              8. Performing Organization Kept.
                                                No.
9. Performing Organization Name and Address
 Walden Research Corporation
 359 Alls ton Street
 Cambridge, Massachusetts  02139
                                              10. Project/Task/Work Unit No.
                                              11. Contract/Grant No.

                                                EHSD 71-21
12. Sponsoring Organization Name and Address
 EPA, Office of Research and Monitoring
 NERC/RTP,  Control Systems Laboratory
 Research Triangle Park, North Carolina  27711
                                              13. Type of Report & Period
                                                 Covered

                                                Final
                                              14.
15. Supplementary Notes
     stracts ,j,he rep0rt provides an estimated inventory of: conventional boiler
 capacity; and the pollutant emissions attributable to these boilers. Boiler capacity
 and emissions are projected to 1980.  The report supplements a separate  iron and
 steel industry process systems study report. Significant findings are that the
 boilers are often fired with process  waste gases supplementing conventional  fuels,
 and that the  boiler pollutant emissions are significant, compared to  process  emission:
 17. Key U'ords and Document Analysis. 17a. Descriptors
 *Iron and Steel Industry
 Air Pollution
 Boilers
 Capacity
 Emission
 Inventories
 Forecasting
17b. Identifiers/Open-Ended Terms

 Stationary Sources
17c. COSAT1 Field/Group
18. Availability Statement
                  Unlimited
                                   19. Security Class (This
                                      Report)
                                        UNCLASSIFIED
                                                       20. Security Class (This
                                                          Page
                                                       	UNCLASSIFIED
          21. No. of Pages
                                                        22. Price
FORM NTIS-35 (REV. 3-72)
                                                                            USCOMM-OC H952-P72

-------
     INSTRUCTIONS  FOR COMPLETING  FORM  NTIS-35 (10-70) (Bibliographic Data Sheet based on COSATI
    Guidelines to Format Standards  for Scientific and Technical Reports Prepared by or for the Federal Government,
    PB-180 600).

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        nently.  Set subtitle, if used,  in smaller type or otherwise subordinate it to main title.  When a report is prepared in more
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        (e.g., date of issue, date of  approval, date of preparation.


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        from the performing organization.

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       an organizational hierarchy.  Displiy the name of the organization exactly  as it should appear  in Government  indexes such
       as  USGRDR-I.

   10. Project/Tosk/Worlt  Unit Number. Use the project, task and work unit numbers under which the  report was prepared.

   11.  Controct/Gront Number.  Insert contract or grant number under which report was  prepared.

   12. Sponsoring Agency Nome and Address.  Include zip code.

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   14.  Sponsoring Agency Code.   Leave blank.

   15.  Supplementary Notes.  Knter  information  not included elsewhere but  useful, such  as: Prepared in cooperation with . . .
       Translation of ...  Presented at conference of ...  To be published in ...  Supersedes . . .       Supplements . . .

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       If the report contains a significant bibliography or literature survey,  mention it here.

   17. Key Words and Document Analysis,   (a).  Descriptors.  Select from the Thesaurus of Kngineering and Scientific Terms the
       proper authorized terms that identify the  major concept of the research and  are sufficiently specific  and precise to be used
       as index entries for cataloging.
       (b).  Identifier*  and Open-Ended Terms.   Use identifiers for project names, code names, equipment  designators, etc.  Use
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       list, if  any.

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FORM NTIS-33 (REV. 3-721                                                                                   USCOMM-DC I4932-P72

-------