ANNUAL REPORT 1974
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Office of Research and Development
Research Triangle Park, N.C.
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The cover presents an artist's concept of a building
designed to conserve limited energy resources and re-
duce air pollution and also to meet the housing require-
ments of EPA's diverse research activities in North
Carolina. The need to "build for the environment" is
discussed in the Special Features section of this report.
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ANNUAL REPORT
1974
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
RESEARCH TRIANGLE PARK
NORTH CAROLINA
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Office of Research and Development
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
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Note: Mention of trade names or commercial
products in this publication does not constitute
endorsement or recommendation for use by the
Environmental Protection Agency.
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"I want ... to underscore my conviction that our major environmental
laws — in particular, the Clean Air and Water Acts — are good laws.
Their primary purpose is to protect the public health and welfare, and
we have made real progress toward achieving that purpose. We have, in
the process, learned enough — and, as in most educational experiences,
suffered on all sides a sufficient measure of pain — to make some very
real improvements in both the laws themselves and the way EPA carries
out those laws." Russell Train, Administrator of the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, speaking to the National Association of Regional
Councils, May 1975.
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PREFACE
In July 1975, the National Environmental Research Center - Research
Triangle Park, and the other three NERC's within the Office of Research and
Development (ORD), were abolished as organizational entities. The several
laboratories comprising the NERC's were reorganized into independent labora-
tories reporting directly to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of
Research and Development, Washington, D.C.
At NERC-RTP, the seven Laboratories formerly comprising the Center were
reorganized into the four new Laboratories that now comprise the Office of
Research and Development at Research Triangle Park (ORD-RTP). These
Laboratories are:
• HEALTH EFFECTS RESEARCH LABORATORY - Consisting of the
former Human Studies Laboratory, Experimental Biology Laboratory,
Pesticides and Toxic Substances Effects Laboratory, and Special Studies
Staff
• ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES RESEARCH LABORATORY - Con-
sisting of the former Chemistry and Physics Laboratory and Meteorology
Laboratory
• INDUSTRIAL ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LABORATORY -Con-
sisting of the former Control Systems Laboratory
• ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND SUPPORT LABORATORY -
Consisting of the former Quality Assurance and Environmental Monitoring
Laboratory
Although the Laboratories have undergone an organizational change, most of
their activities and research emphases remain unchanged. Thus this Annual
Report for 1974, in describing the Laboratories and presenting a summary of
their research accomplishments during 1974, accurately reflects these same
Laboratories in their new organizational structure.
As in our Annual Report for 1973, we have included a discussion of the
responsiveness of our research activities to Congressional desires. Expressed in
the form of legislative mandates, these desires give direction to the operation of
the Environmental Protection Agency and of other Federal agencies as well. We
hope that in reading this report you will better, understand the role of the
Congress and the Executive Branch in establishing an environmental policy and
the action taken by a Federal agency to fulfill the intent of this policy.
Comments on this report and our activities are welcome.
John H. Knelson
Senior ORD Official, RTP
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 1
INTRODUCTION 7
SPECIAL FEATURES 17
Scrubbers and Electric Power Plants 19
Automotive Oxidation Catalysts 26
Pesticides and the Environment 31
Buildings and the Environment 36
LEGISLATIVE MANDATES 39
RESEARCH ACTIVITIES 47
Health Effects Research Laboratory 49
Special Studies Staff 51
Human Studies Laboratory 57
Experimental Biology Laboratory 67
Pesticides and Toxic Substances Effects Laboratory 75
Environmental Sciences Research Laboratory 85
Chemistry and Physics Laboratory 87
Meteorology Laboratory 103
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory 113
Control Systems Laboratory 115
Environmental Monitoring and Support Laboratory 133
Quality Assurance and Environmental Monitoring Laboratory . . 135
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EXECUTIVE
SUMMARY
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~ ^^ ' ""•"
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EXECUTIVE
SUMMARY
THE ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGEN-
CY'S Office of Research and Development at Re-
search Triangle Park, N.C. (ORD-RTP) is a large,
multidisciplinary research organization where scien-
tists concentrate their efforts on developing bases for
improving the environment. Basic research and devel-
opment programs at ORD-RTP encompass air pollu-
tion, pesticides pollution, and radiation pollution.
This summary provides a brief discussion of some of
the major accomplishments of the research program
during the period of this report and indicates its
future direction.
Air pollution research and monitoring projects
range from the determination of the human health
effects of exposure to pollutants to the evaluation of
devices for the measurement and control of air
pollutants. The health effects effort is focused in two
principal areas: observation of pollutant effects on
humans and observation of pollutant effects on
smaller life forms, both in vivo and in vitro. Monitor-
ing efforts concentrate principally on methods de-
velopment, on quality control, and on special
studies, such as the Los Angeles Catalyst Study,
which is designed to determine the impact of emis-
sions from the new automotive oxidation catalyst.
Activities in the field of environmental sciences range
from instrumentation development programs to
modeling studies of meteorological transport and
transformation. Projects in the field of control
technology concentrate principally on the develop-
ment and demonstration of cost-effective controls for
reducing emissions from stationary sources.
Health Effects
Research
Using roadside monitoring equipment, EPA is con-
ducting a special study in Los Angeles, CA, to deter-
mine the impact of emissions from the oxidation
catalyst device used on new automobiles.
In human health effects research, several new pilot
studies were initiated during 1974. For example,
admissions to the emergency room of a large hospital
were investigated as a potential health indicator of
sensitivity to varying concentrations of ozone in the
ambient air. Another study investigated the impact of
ozone on daily mortality. Preliminary information
concerning the effects of ozone and oxides of
nitrogen on pulmonary function has also been pro-
vided by the Ranches Los Amigos Hospital in
California.
A monograph presenting data on the health
consequences of exposure to suspended particulates
was completed and publication is expected in 1975.
In other research, carbon monoxide effects studies
demonstrated that the physical work performance of
Executive Summary
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healthy young men decreased when their carboxy-
hemoglobin levels reached 5 percent. Investigations
with dogs showed that the incidence of myocardial
infarction increased as carboxyhemoglobin levels rose
above 5 percent. These studies will be expanded in
1975.
The new Community Health Air Monitoring Pro-
gram (CHAMP), a field monitoring system, was
installed and made operational. This system employs
state-of-the-art continuous air quality measuring in-
struments connected with computers to give rapid
access to air quality information from selected sites
in California, Utah, Alabama, New York, and North
Carolina. In addition, a major expansion of human
health effects laboratory facilities was completed; the
neurobehavioral laboratory, the microbiology labora-
tory, the metabolic laboratory, and the cardio-
pulmonary laboratory became fully operational in
September 1974.
Studies of pollutant effects on smaller life forms
produced information on the effects of oxides of
both sulfur and nitrogen, krypton-85, tritiated water,
and nonionizing radiation. Using isolated cells, per-
fused lung, and whole animals, investigators carried
out studies of the influence of sulfuric acid, sulfur
dioxide, and various sulfates. A recently constructed
dynamic reaction chamber provided a medium for
studying exposures in simulated natural atmospheres.
Using the chamber, investigators found that guinea
pigs inhaling sulfuric acid aerosol experienced a 50
percent increase in the number of particles deposited
in the lungs and airway passages. A shift in the
deposition pattern to upper airways was observed,
suggesting a physiologic basis for the high sensitivity
of asthmatics to sulfur oxides.
An in vitro screening system, using rabbit alveolar
macrophages was fully developed as a means of
estimating the relative toxicity of soluble and in-
soluble particulate air pollutants. This system is
currently being employed to estimate the relative
toxicity of air samples from stationary sources.
Another system that employs rapidly dividing
human lung fibroblasts to test for compounds that
inhibit cellular biosynthetic activities has been de-
veloped. The system has already been used to detect a
preferential inhibition of DNA synthesis by relatively
low concentrations of tetravalent platinum. Pentava-
lent vanadium and divalent cadmium were also
determined to be highly cytotoxic. Facilities at RTP
were essentially completed for implementation of in
vitro test systems to detect potential carcinogens.
Programs in ionizing radiation health effects re-
search are presently confined to tritium and krypton-
85, two major effluents from the nuclear power
cycle. During the reporting period, two studies on
tritium were completed: one on the effects of chronic
exposure to tritiated water (HTO) throughout gesta-
tion, and the other on the sensitivity of different aged
populations to chronic HTO exposure. Research into
the physiological and behavioral effects of krypton-
85 is aimed at providing data for a realistic assessment
of exposure hazards. Guinea pigs exposed to doses of
krypton-85 up to 20,000 rads all survived the acute
post-exposure period and are being observed for life
span shortening, lung effects, and appearance of skin
tumors.
Investigation of nonionizing radiation (from such
sources as radar installations and high voltage trans-
mission lines) are conducted as part of a multi-agency
"Program for Control of Electromagnetic Pollution of
the Environment: The Assessment of Biological Haz-
ards of Nonionizing Electromagnetic Radiation,"
which is coordinated by the Office of Telecommuni-
cations Policy. Animal models are used to investigate
potential genetic, biochemical, immunological, terato-
logical, and neurobiological effects of exposure to
radio and microwave frequencies. Studies are de-
signed to identify potential harmful effects, to
establish the exposure levels at which these effects are
elicited, and to delineate the mechanisms of physical
alterations.
A significant portion of ORD-RTP pesticide health
effects research was directed toward evaluating the
effects of pesticides and their residues on laboratory
animals and to extrapolating these results to similar
human exposures. For example, high concentrations
of an experimental organophosphate insecticide were
found to cause irreversible paralysis in animals. The
significance of this finding to humans will be
evaluated using a newly developed, more sensitive
procedure for determining low-level organophosphate
exposure.
Similarly, exposure of primates to the pesticide
carbanyl caused changes in both brain wave patterns
and behavior at a concentration that approximates
the background exposure levels experienced by
humans. The significance of these findings with
respect to humans is under active investigation.
Monitoring
and Support
The ORD-RTP monitoring efforts encompass
several major areas: a methods standardization and
performance evaluation program, a quality assurance
program, a National Air Surveillance Network, a
Fuels Surveillance Network, a Membrane Filter and
Precipitation Network, a continuous air monitoring
program, and a technical assistance program.
4
ANNUAL REPORT 1974
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The methods standardization and performance
evaluation program showed considerable progress in
1974. Published reports described results of collab-
orative tests of source emission measurement meth-
ods for nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, particulates,
and beryllium; of methods for Orsat gas analysis; and
of velocity and moisture measurement techniques.
Another collaborative test demonstrated the general
reliability of the regulatory method for measuring
carbon monoxide emissions from refinery catalytic
cracking regenerators. Of particular current impor-
tance because of its association with energy produc-
tion problems was a field study of the regulatory
method for measuring sulfur dioxide and sulfuric acid
mist emissions using a ganged probe sampling assem-
bly. The test indicated that, under rigidly controlled
conditions, the sampling train is capable of giving
reproducible results. Results of another evaluation
and collaborative test program caused the revision of
four of the regulatory methods promulgated with the
New Source Performance Standards of December 23,
1971.
In tests of measurement techniques under the
quality assurance program, the sodium arsenite,
TGS-ANSA, and chemiluminescence methods for
measuring nitrogen dioxide in ambient air proved
reliable in the hands of the average user; however, the
continuous colorimetric method was judged unreli-
able under the same conditions.
Several guidelines were developed and published in
1974 to accompany appropriate reference methods —
four for ambient air techniques, three for stationary
sources, one for lead, and one for phosphorus in
gasoline.
An automated system of data acquisition program-
med to yield precision data, with built-in quality
assurance checks and numerical regression analysis
routines, has afforded rapid generation of validated
data for the National Air Surveillance Network during
1974.
During 1974, ORD-RTP scientists also performed
analyses of the samples collected by the Fuels
Surveillance Network in 1973. A National Bureau of
Standards Standard Reference Material for lead in
reference fuel was developed. The Environmental
Protection Agency, the National Oceanic and Atmos-
pheric Administration, and the World Meteorological
Organization continued to operate jointly a 20-sta-
tion precipitation network for trace metals analysis.
Investigators also initiated a long-term study in
Los Angles, California, to determine the impact of
emissions from the new automotive oxidation cata-
lyst on ambient air. Background data from four
stations adjacent to the San Diego Freeway will
identify existing air quality parameters prior to the
appearance of catalyst-equipped automobiles in large
numbers.
Environmental Sciences
Research
The principal efforts in the field of environmental
sciences research involved development and evalua-
tion of air quality models; studies of the physical and
chemical transformations of pollutants from source
to receptor in the atmosphere; determination of the
effects of pollutant and thermal emissions on visibil-
ity, weather, and climate; development of techniques
and instruments for measuring pollutants at point
sources and in ambient air; and support of abatement
and compliance efforts.
An analysis of past model verification studies
revealed that none of the photochemical models
adequately represent the observed data for nitric
oxide, nitrogen dioxide, and ozone. The analysis did
show, however, that two of the carbon monoxide
models were acceptable. Definite inadequacies in the
chemical kinetic mechanisms used in simulating
photochemical smog formation were indicated.
Investigators identified and described transforma-
tions of sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, and organic
pollutants, and made progress in establishing reactivi-
ties and reaction paths. Intermediate chemical species
as well as final oxidation products continue to be
identified and measured.
Previous studies in the Los Angeles Basin have
suggested that high ozone levels observed in nonurban
areas result from the transport of oxidants and their
precursors from large urban areas. More recently,
data from nonurban areas of West Virginia, Ohio,
Florida, and New York have produced similar results.
In an extension of these urban/nonurban pollution
studies, results demonstrated that precipitation scav-
enging of inorganic pollutants by convective storms
can be extremely effective in removing urban pollut-
ants from the atmosphere. Measurements made at
various distances downwind of an urban area (St.
Louis, Missouri) indicate that precipitation scavenging
removal rates can be comparable to urban emission
rates.
Although research programs on halogenated pol-
lutants have been underway for several years, recent
findings on ozone-freon interactions in the stratso-
sphere have given new urgency to studies in this area.
Studies include field measurement of ambient levels
of halogenated compounds, laboratory studies of
photochemical reactions, determination of diffusion
rates, and delineation of removal processes.
Investigations also continued on the physical and
chemical properties of aerosols at their source in the
air. The major sinks for aerosol pollutants and their
removal rates are being defined. In addition, the
effects of the aerosols on gas-phase atmospheric
Executive Summary
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chemical reactions are under investigation, along with
the gas/particle conversions and the particle removal
processes. Various detailed studies aimed at produc-
ing scientific data basic to the promulgation of
fine-particle criteria and standards and to the develop-
ment of effective control procedures were also
continued during the year.
A team of experienced aerosol scientists was
assembled in St. Louis in the summer of 1973 and
1974 to conduct an intensive aerosol characterization
program using special mobile facilities. Two gaseous
pollutant transformation projects are still underway:
the first is the study of the transformations of
nitrogen oxides and sulfur oxides in power plant
plumes; the second involves laboratory verification of
the kinetic models that are to be applied to the
network data.
A major accomplishment during 1974 was the
development of a simple, sensitive, and reasonably
specific device for the automated collection and
quantification of sulfuric acid mist.
The Regional Air Pollution Study (RAPS) pro-
duced two separate, laserpowered, long-path spectro-
photometers for use in determining gaseous pollutant
burdens, averaged over line-of-site paths of up to 1
kilometer. Data obtained from these instruments will
contribute to the improvement of pollution-transport
modeling capability. These instruments are capable of
analyzing for carbon monoxide, ozone, and sulfur
dioxide. Investigators also developed a simple moni-
tor for vinyl chloride concentrations. The level of its
sensitivity suggests that it may be useful in monitor-
ing exposure levels of industry workers. Under
contract, investigators also developed a small, light-
weight monitor for carbon monoxide in ambient air
based on the nondispersive optical absorption tech-
nique for gas filter correlation.
Particulate sampling studies produced two new
instruments — an automated dichotomous sampler
that separates respirable from nonrespirable fractions
and a Beta-gauge for assessing the mass of particles in
each fraction collected. In studies of airborne asbes-
tos, the scanning electron microscope was found to
be useful in identification and measurement of fibers,
and the feasibility of an X-ray diffraction method for
rapid quantitative analysis of airborne abestos
samples was demonstrated.
During the year, the mobile source emissions
measurement program developed methods for the
routine measurement of sulfate emissions from both
catalyst-equipped and non-catalyst vehicles. These
methods produced data showing significant increases
in sulfate emissions from catalyst-equipped cars and
formed the basis for initial projections of their future
impact on air quality. Engine dynamometer tests of
various commercial catalyst packages showed con-
siderable differences in the tendency to produce
sulfate and suggested possible technological changes
for minimizing sulfate emissions.
Industrial Environmental
Research
Measurable progress has been achieved in develop-
ing technology for stationary source air pollution
control. On the pressing problem of fine paniculate
matter (particles less than 3 micrometers in diame-
ter), approaches to improvement of conventional
control devices have been defined, and laboratory
testing of new detection and removal concepts has
been accomplished. Among the "conventional" de-
vices, field tests demonstrated that properly designed
and operated electrostatic precipitators can be more
than 90 percent efficient on a mass basis in collecting
all particle size fractions down to about 0.01 micro-
meter in diameter. Experimental work by ORD-RTP
to aid in selecting optimum fabric filter cleaning
methods was described in a 1974 report. Test
programs were initiated to evaluate two new particu-
late control devices, the sonic agglomerator and the
steam-hydro scrubber; feasibility studies were com-
pleted on the use of charged droplets and condensa-
tion effects to improve fine particle collection.
The emission of sulfur oxides has been a major
concern in stationary source air pollution control.
The flue- gas cleaning demonstration projects that are
presently underway are expected to attain 60 to 97
percent efficiency in removing these pollutants. Lab-
oratory and bench-scale tests proved the technical
feasibility of removing inorganic sulfur from coal;
design of a pilot-plant operation was begun. Studies
of coal gasification and conversion processes and of
versions of fluidized-bed coal combustion and resi-
dual oil combustion to reduce sulfur oxides emissions
(particularly for steam and power generation) were
continued during 1974.
In studies of nitrogen oxides, investigators deline-
ated techniques capable of reducing nitrogen oxides
emissions from coal-fired boilers by as much as 50
percent. Other studies demonstrated commercially
feasible means of reducing carbon monoxide, hydro-
carbons, and particulate emissions from coke ovens
by 90 percent.
ANNUAL REPORT 1974
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INTRODUCTION
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INTRODUCTION
Highly specialized, multidisciplinary research programs
directed toward improving the environment are con-
ducted at EPA's Office of Research and Development
facility at Research Triangle Park, NC.
THE UNITED STATES ENVIRONMENTAL
PROTECTION AGENCY is charged with mounting
an integrated, coordinated attack on pollution, and
with filling the need for a strong independent agency
to serve as an objective, impartial arbiter of environ-
mental matters, particularly in establishing and en-
forcing pollution control standards. The creation of
EPA in 1970 marked the end of the piecemeal
approach to our nation's environmental problems
that had so often in the past inhibited progress, or
had merely substituted one form of pollution for
another. Most important of all, perhaps, the creation
of EPA gives to the American people a single agency
to serve as their advocate for a livable environment,
making possible more sensible choices -about what
constitutes a healthful, satisfying milieu for human
life.
The Environmental Protection Agency is, first and
foremost, a regulatory agency, having responsibilities
for establishing and enforcing environmental stand-
ards within the limits of various statutory authorities.
The process of setting standards, however, begins
with a scientific research and monitoring program.
For just as a physician must know the nature of the
illness before he can treat the patient, we must know
the nature of pollutants before we can treat our
environment. If pollution cannot be detected, identi-
fied, and measured, it cannot be controlled.
Where do pollutants come from? How can they be
identified and measured? What are their effects? How
can they be controlled?
Scientific investigation provides the answers to
these questions. Sources of pollution are identified
through research. Research tells us what a specific
level of a specific pollutant does to human beings; to
crops and other vegetation; to domestic animals and
wildlife; to plant and animal life in a body of water;
to concrete, steel, and other building materials; to
painted surfaces; and to fabrics. Research establishes
threshold levels at which adverse effects from en-
vironmental pollutants, alone or in combination,
might be expected. Research provides the basic
scientific knowledge needed to safeguard public
health and to balance the benefits of a specific
product against the hazards it might pose for the
environment.
Research, therefore, constitutes the essential scien-
tific foundation for action to improve environmental
quality. The Environmental Protection Agency gath-
ers evidence from its own research studies, from
scientific and technical advisory committees, from
the scientific community, and from industry. The
diversified research programs of EPA are carried out
at the 15 Laboratories of the Office of Research and
Development, 4 of which are located in the Environ-
mental Research Center facilities at Research Triangle
Park, North Carolina (ORD-RTP).
Introduction
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ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
RESEARCH TRIANGLE PARK, NORTH CAROLINA
ASSISTANT ADMINISTRATOR
FOR
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
OFFICE OF MONITORING
ANDTECHNICAL SUPPORT
OFFICE OF ENERGY,
MINERALS, AND INDUSTRY
OFFICE OF AIR, LAND,
AND WATER USE
OFFICE OF HEALTH
AND ECOLOGICAL EFFECTS
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ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING
AND SUPPORT LABORATORY
-RTP
INDUSTRIAL ENVIRONMENTAL
RESEARCH LABORATORY
- RTP
ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES
RESEARCH LABORATORY
• RTP
HEALTH EFFECTS
RESEARCH LABORATORY
- RTP
QUALITY ASSURANCE
AND ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING
LABORATORY
CONTROL SYSTEMS
LABORATORY
CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS
LABORATORY
HUMAN STUDIES
LABORATORY
METEOROLOGY
LABORATORY
EXPERIMENTAL BIOLOGY
LABORATORY
THIS CHART ILLUSTRATES THE RECENT REORGANIZATION
OF EPA'S OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT INTO
FOUR LABORATORIES. THE SEVEN PREDECESSOR LABORA-
TORIES, WHOSE ACTIVITIES ARE DESCRIBED IN THIS REPORT,
ARE SHOWN IN RELATION TO THE NEW ORGANIZATIONAL
STRUCTURE.
PESTICIDES AND TOXIC
SUBSTANCES EFFECTS
LABORATORY
SPECIAL STUDIES STAFF
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The research at ORD-RTP is conducted under the
authority of four legislative acts:
• The Clean Air Act
• The Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Roden-
ticide Act
• The Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act
• The Public Health Service Act
In this Annual Report, an attempt is made to show
how ORD-RTP research activities from January
through December 1974 have been supportive of the
Congressional mandates expressed in these Acts. The
highlights of these research activities are discussed
briefly in the "Executive Summary." Some of the
national issues in which ORD-RTP has been involved
in 1974 are described in the Special Features section.
A summary of the pertinent portions of these Acts
and the ORD-RTP programs that are directly suppor-
tive of the legislation can be found in the section
entitled, "Legislative Mandates." The "Research
Activities" section of the report describes in detail
the scientific program of ORD-RTP as it relates to
specific sections of the Acts — a relationship that is
the theme of this report. The following discussion of
ORD-RTP — its mission, its research program, and its
national and international activities, as well as a
summary of resources — is presented to make the
legislative mandate theme more meaningful.
ORD-RTP Research
Program
MISSION
The primary responsibility within the Environ-
mental Protection Agency for the conduct and
management of research program and related activ-
ities pertaining to air pollution has been given to
the Office of Research and Development at Research
Triangle Park. The general objective of activities at
ORD-RTP is, therefore, a reflection of the stated
purpose of the Clean Air Act; its research is tied to
the statutory mandates of that Act. In addition to
activities pertaining to air pollution, ORD-RTP has
also been charged with the conduct of pesticides and
radiation research, as specified in several other legisla-
tive acts.
The underlying purpose of the Clean Air Act is to
protect and enhance the quality of the nation's air
resources in order to promote the public health and
welfare and the productive capacity of its population.
Consequently, the protection and enhancement of
both the quality of life and the productive capacity
of the nation's population is the major goal of
research conducted by ORD-RTP. Recognizing the
overwhelming technical problems and economic costs
to this country posed by a purpose of this lofty
dimension and ensuring that solutions advanced for
dealing with those problems are intelligible are
equally important purposes of this Congressional
mandate. Congress also stipulated two other purposes
for the Act — to accelerate a national research and
development program and to provide technical assist-
ance to State and local governments. The mechanisms
mandated by Congress for achieving the nation's
environmentally related goals rely heavily on the use
of standards to be promulgated by the Agency. Such
standards are applicable specifically to the offending
sources of pollutants and are designed to limit their
emissions in accordance with appropriate environ-
mental goals. The pollutant control standards must
reflect both the cause-and-effect relationships be-
tween pollutant level and environmental impact and
the technological feasibility of their implementation.
The scientific knowledge necessary to define the
environmental goals, the establishment of the role of
emissions as they relate to these goals, and the
engineering capability to ensure availability of control
technology at reasonable costs with respect to socie-
tal, cultural, and economic consequences are all
essential components of the mission of ORD-RTP. In
addition, the conduct of research supporting the
development of a reliable monitoring and surveillance
capability — for use in following the progress in
attaining environmental goals and ensuring com-
pliance with the source standards — is ancillary to
ORD-RTP's mission.
To obtain basic environmental goals, certain re-
search objectives must be attained. Scientific knowl-
edge necessary to define the goals includes an ability
to assess the impact of environmental pollution on
health and welfare. To make a valid assessment of the
impact, the following objectives must be met through
research:
• Identification of health and welfare indicators
of environmental pollution.
• Identification of the chemical and physical
nature of the environmental pollutants respon-
sible for adverse effects.
• Development and application of measurement
technology to establish pollution levels and
define exposure patterns.
• Establishment of dose-response relationships
and the mechanism of the pollutant action on
the receptor.
To define the relationships between polluting
sources and the environmental exposure pattern, the
ORD-RTP mission includes the following objectives:
• Development and application of identification
and measurement technology to characterize
Introduction
11
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the chemical and physical nature of source
emissions to the environment.
• Establishment of the patterns of movement of
pollutants in the environment and the role of
environmental factors in their transport.
• Definition of the nature and expense of the
chemical and physical alterations that attend
the movement of pollution through the en-
vironment.
• Development and validation of methods for
simulating environmental exposure patterns and
predicting optimum control strategy.
The engineering capability to control the emissions
of environmental pollutants involves these ORD-RTP
objectives:
• Characterization of pollutants.
• Development of laboratory and pilot-scale tech-
niques and hardware for eliminating or mini-
mizing emmisions.
• Construction of plant-scale demonstration
projects to assess the effectiveness of control
techniques.
Surveillance and monitoring objectives relate to
the development and application of:
• Field-worthy techniques for large-scale
population surveys to ascertain the benefits
resulting from the control of environmental
pollution and to determine the soundness of
the standards upon which the controls are
based.
• Measurement methodology for monitoring the
impact of pollution controls on environmental
exposure patterns.
• Measurement methodology for monitoring
compliance with emissions standards and
characterizing new pollutants resulting from
control operations.
In the conduct and management of research
related to the above objectives, the major "product"
of ORD-RTP is the documentation of the scientific
and engineering knowledge to provide a substantial
information base upon which Agency-level decisions
can be made.
NATIONAL RESEARCH PROGRAM
Research, and its ancillary undertaking of environ-
mental surveillance, at both the national and the
international level are essential to the appreciation of
the complex and variable factors to be considered in
the quest for national and international environ-
mental improvement.
Specifically, ORD-RTP has the overall responsi-
bility for the direction and conduct of EPA's research
and development programs related primarily to the
effects of air pollutants on health, and to the
understanding of the physical and chemical processes
that affect the emission, transport, transformation,
and reception stages of the air pollution cycle. These
programs are an integral part of EPA's closely
coordinated total research program that strives to
achieve a synthesis of knowledge from the biological,
physical, engineering, medical, and social sciences
that can be interpreted in terms of total human and
environmental needs.
The development of the ORD-RTP research pro-
gram is in direct response to the language and intent
of several Congressional mandates, specifically the
Clear Air Act (and amendments); the Public Health
Service Act; the Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act; and
the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide
Act. Results obtained through the ORD-RTP research
program concerning the impact and the cause-effect
relationships of pollution problems provide a range of
knowledge necessary in the establishment of environ-
mental pollution standards. The development of
pollution control technology provides pollutant emit-
ters with scientific capabilities for pollution control,
thereby making compliance with air quality standards
possible. ORD-RTP's monitoring program provides a
verification of actual compliance with the standards.
ORD-RTP conducts research on a broad environ-
mental basis to provide EPA with a sound scientific
basis for control of environmental pollutants that
adversely affect human health and welfare.
These programs emphasize the following major
research activities:
• Exposure and Source of Exposure—These ac-
tivities include development and standardiza-
tion of techniques for measurement of pollut-
ants, both at their source and in the ambient
environment.
• Effects of Exposure—This work includes quan-
tification of the effects of exposure to environ-
mental pollutants on both health and welfare
(including the development of techniques for
assessing effects).
• Strategy—This research includes development
of predictive models for environmental levels of
pollutant emissions, reflecting transportation
and removal processes.
• Prevention of Exposure—Activities in this area
include development of cost-effective control
technologies.
• Pollutant Characterization—Efforts include
preparation of briefing reports, scientific sum-
mary documents, and criteria documents.
The development and standardization of tech\
niques for the measurement of pollutants both at
their source and in the ambient environment are
necessary to accurately define the exposures and their
12
ANNUAL REPORT 1974
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source. Standards and regulations cannot be estab-
lished until the extent and source of an exposure are
identified. At ORD-RTP, techniques are being devel-
oped and standardized for defining both air quality
and emissions. Emphasis will continue to be placed
on gathering valid air quality and related data and on
developing (refining) methodology for measuring
pollutants. The chemical and physical transforma-
tions that pollutants undergo from source to receptor
in the atmosphere are also being studied. Specialized
monitoring and technical assistance services are pro-
vided to EPA Regional Off ices and local air pollution
control agencies in their endeavors to identify pollu-
tants and their sources. The nationwide fuel surveil-
lance network is operated to assess the potential
impact of emission products from various emission
control devices on atmospheric reaction processes.
Exposure of various materials to pollutants is also an
important aspect of this research area. Environmental
samples are analyzed for a variety of trace metals and
other pollutants, requiring development and standard-
ization of monitoring equipment for specific ele-
ments.
It is important that standard methodology and
adequate quality control be used to ensure the
production of unimpeachable data and to maximize
the validity and comparability of those data. Once
the exposure to harmful substances and the sources
of exposure are established, one major building block
has been completed in the foundation of knowledge
needed for making far-reaching national decisions on
environmental control.
Another body of knowledge important to EPA in
establishing and enforcing standards is the research
concerned with the manner in which environmental
pollutants (singly or in combination) cause specific
undesirable health effects. This research includes
animal studies, human clinical studies, and epidemi-
ological studies on human populations. Major em-
phasis is placed on the collection of sufficient
information for formulating environmental control
strategies and thus providing bases for establishing
national emission standards for pollutants or source
categories that endanger human health or welfare.
The Community Health and Environmental Sur-
veillance System (CHESS) is a national program of
standardized epidemiologic studies organized within
the past 4 years. The program is designed to measure
environmental quality as it relates to chronic and
acute health indicators in sets of communities repre-
senting exposure gradients to common air pollutants
including particulates, sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides,
and photochemical oxidants. The CHESS program is
essential in evaluating existing environmental stand-
ards, in obtaining health intelligence for new controls,
and in documenting the health benefits of air
pollution control.
Clinical research is being conducted in the area of
exposure effects to obtain data on gaseous and
particulate air pollutants relevant to the development
of standards for the protection of human health and
welfare. These studies are supportive of the standard-
setting processes in the following ways:
• Validating data from human studies.
• Providing clues to new human studies.
• Indicating the potential harmful effects of new
pollutants.
• Ascertaining the adequacy of safety margins
through interaction studies.
A specific research area in the study of pollutant
effects on human health and welfare is the research
pertinent to providing data necessary for the intelli-
gent assessment of the hazards to human health of
exposure to pesticides, toxic substances, substitute
chemicals, and combinations of these with each other
and with other environmental factors. To obtain
these data, toxicity studies are conducted in which
various animal species are used as models. Methods
for measurement of human exposure to pesticides
and toxic substances are developed and improved,
and a quality assurance program is conducted to
ensure the accuracy of analytical results. The studies
are concerned with identifying pesticides, their me-
tabolities, and any adverse effects on normal biologi-
cal functions. In these subject areas, research provides
data needed by the Agency in meeting its legally
mandated responsibilities in registering, labeling, set-
ting of tolerance levels and limiting the misuse of
pesticides.
Results of ORD-RTP's research on the effects
from pollutant exposure are used in formulating and
revising environmental quality criteria. The epidemi-
ologic studies have been oriented toward defining
environmental hazards and providing data on which
to base standards. Biological research is designed to
detect, define, and quantify the effects of environ-
mental pollution. Collectively, the data generated by
ORD-RTP's research on exposure effects form a
major part of the information system that the Agency
uses to set and enforce standards.
Relevant to the Agency's need to make control
decisions is the information derived from the meteor-
ological aspects of air pollution, including theoretical
and experimental studies of the physical properties
that affect the transport, diffusion, transformation,
and disposition of air pollutants in and from the
atmosphere. Through this research, techniques and
methods of forecasting potential air pollution epi-
sodes are improved. Analytical diffusion models are
developed to predict the temporal and spatial distri-
bution of air pollutants; they are also useful for
preevaluating proposed air pollution control strat-
egies. Studies are also conducted on the effects of air
Introduction
13
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pollutants on the geophysical processes of weather
and climate as well as on the energy balance of the
earth-atmosphere system. ORD-RTP's research pro-
gram also includes development of remote-sensing
techniques for measuring meteorological parameters
in urban areas.
Chamber and field studies are used to investigate
physical and chemical characteristics, transforma-
tions, and effects on materials of emissions of sulfur
oxides, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, hydro-
carbons, and other organics; and in assessing their role
in producing sulfates, nitrogen dioxide, nitrates,
ozone, organic aerosols, and other finely divided
particulate materials in the atmosphere. Because the
consequences as well as the fate of environmental
pollution can be anticipated from this and other
information, the Agency can develop strategy to be
used in its program of establishment of enforcement
standards.
ORD-RTP's fourth major area of emphasis, preven-
tion of exposure, can only be accomplished through
the development of the technology required to
control air pollution sources in a timely and cost-
effective manner. The Agency does not stipulate the
control technology to be used to meet the standards
it has established; however, the Agency is required by
law to publish a control technique document that
provides information on how affected sources can
meet a particular standard before that air quality
standard is "official." Much research is needed to
develop control techniques that reflect the best
available technology; therefore, a large part of the
ORD-RTP research effort is concerned with the
conduct, direction, and management of engineering
research, development, and demonstration programs
leading to the abatement of air pollution from major
stationary sources. Laboratory activities encompass
development and improvement of control devices
such as scrubbers, filters, and electrostatic precipita-
tors; complete effluent-gas-treatment processes; com-
bustion methods and equipment; fuel preparation
technology; and associated sampling and analysis
instrumentation systems. Improved control tech-
nology must be developed before new source per-
formance standards can be established and hazardous
pollutants controlled.
Another important element of control in the area
of exposure prevention is the Fuels and Fuel Addi-
tives Registration program. The Program consists of
registering the chemical composition, the purpose of
use, and the recommended concentration of additives
used in motor gasoline that is introduced into
interstate commerce. Fuel and fuel additive manu-
facturers are required to provide quarterly data on
the use of registered additives as well as information
concerning the mechanism of action and the effects
on exhaust products, if known. In addition, protocols
have been developed to assess the effect of fuel
components on control device performance, which
will result in information that may be used in the
control or prohibition of fuel components or addi-
tives pursuant to the 1970 Clean Air Act Amend-
ments — in a time frame to ensure public safety and
satisfactory performance of advanced automotive
control systems.
The results of the previously described research
programs are used to prepare briefing reports, scien-
tific summary documents, and criteria documents as
required by the Clean Air Act Amendments. Accord-
ing to the law, the Administrator of EPA is required
(from time to time but as soon as practical) to
develop and issue to the states such criteria of air
quality as, in his judgment, may be required for the
protection of the public health and welfare. Such
criteria shall reflect the latest scientific knowledge
useful in indicating the kind and extent of all
identifiable effects on health and welfare that may be
expected from the presence of an air pollutant.
Defining the biologic effects of specific air pollut-
ants on humans, animals, and vegetation, as well as
non-biological effects such as modification of visi-
bility and deterioration of materials, is a major effort
of ORD-RTP This activity, termed pollutant charac-
terization, also includes gathering qualitative and
quantitative information on the sources, form(s),
reactivity, methods of collecting and quantitating,
and strategies for controlling pollutants. In promul-
gating standards, the legally defensible basis must
include scientifically sound assessment of compre-
hensive scientific data as reported in criteria docu-
ments. The need for additional research for producing
adequate criteria to permit the issuance or revision of
standards must also be identified. These papers (or
scientific summary documents) are also developed for
non-criteria pollutants to indicate the need for
control and to recommend control strategy.
Collecting, reviewing, evaluating, comparing, sum-
marizing, and interpreting pertinent information and
literature to prepare criteria documents, briefing
reports, and scientific summary documents on non-
criteria pollutants are functions performed at ORD-
RTP. In the preparation of the reports, the data
generated by the entire research program at ORD-
RTP converge with all other available literature and
research to form the basis needed to produce scientif-
ically sound documents. ORD-RTP, in some cases,
contracts with the authoritative sources — one being
the National Academy of Sciences — to review the
information that is available on some pollution issues.
ORD-RTP personnel then use these reviews in the
assessment of the problems and in the development
of pollutant characterization documents. These docu-
ments are then added to the Agency's data base that
provides pertinent information for making decisions
14
ANNUAL REPORT 1974
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on the need to control emissions of a pollutant and
deciding upon actions to be initiated.
INTERNATIONAL RESEARCH
PROGRAM
Among the regular functions of ORD-RTP are a
wide variety of international activities that, al-
though not organized under a separate functional
entity, are carried out as a logical extension of
ORD-RTP's research program as described in the
preceeding section. Because these international activi-
ties constitute a rather sizeable contribution to the
resolution of world environmental problems, it is
appropriate to consider them briefly in the context of
their relationship to ORD-RTP's major objectives.
As a part of its efforts toward development and
standardization of measurement techniques, ORD-
RTP makes what is probably its most significant
contribution to international pursuits. Designated by
the World Health Organization as an International
Reference Center for Air Pollution Control, ORD-
RTP provides manuals for air pollution monitoring
systems, recommends reference methods for pollut-
ants, and operates an International Aerometric Data
Bank that receives, processes, analyzes, and publishes
data from 50 monitoring stations in 14 countries.
The World Meteorological Organization also draws
upon ORD-RTP support for operation of a turbidity
monitoring network and for its services as an interna-
tional referee laboratory for precipitation chemistry.
Contributions in the area of measurement and
standardization are also made to the Organization for
Economic Cooperation and Development's (OECD)
Air Management Sector Group.
Under the auspices of several formalized coopera-
tive agreements, ORD-RTP participates in the devel-
opment and standardization of measurement method-
ology with the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
through the U.S. — U.S.S.R. Agreement on Coopera-
tion in the Field of Environmental Health, and with
the Government of Spain through the Frontiers of
Science Program of the National Science Foundation.
Measurement techniques are also studied through
the mechanism of EPA funded and ORD-RTP
supervised contracts in Austria and France, and
through various exchange programs in which scien-
tists from such countries as Czechoslovakia and Spain
work in ORD-RTP laboratories under the supervision
of Staff scientists.
Research on the effects of pollutant exposure is
carried out by ORD-RTP in cooperation with several
international groups. Research emphasis in the
U.S. — Federal Republic of Germany Agreement on
Protection of the Environment, for example, centers
on the role of combustion products in human
carcinogenesis. Staff scientists are also participating in
the U.S. — U.S.S.R. Agreement on Cooperation in the
Field of Medical Science and Public Health through a
time-dose study of nitrogen dioxide.
In addition, under the direction of ORD-RTP
project officers, contracts under the Special Foreign
Currency program have been granted in Egypt, India,
Poland, and Yugoslavia to address various aspects of
exposure effects research, principally in the area of
effects of atmospheric metals on health.
ORD-RTP assists or participates in epidemiologic
studies of pollutant exposure with such groups as the
Commission of the European Economic Community
(Common Market) through a comparative study of
respiratory disease in school children and with the
Pan-American Health Organization by assisting in the
design and initiation of a study in Mexico on the
effects of heavy metals. A portion of the U.S. —
U.S.S.R. Agreement on Protection of the Environ-
ment also involves ORD-RTP epidemiologists in a
study of the biological and genetic effects of pollut-
ants; two Special Foreign Currency contracts in
Yugoslavia also address epidemiologic aspects of
pollutant exposure.
Control strategy research through the development
of predictive models is the prime consideration of the
North Atlantic Treaty Organization Committee on
Challenges of Modern Society (NATO/CCMS) in its
Panel on Air Pollution Modeling, the only Panel of
the original four which is still in existence (the others
having completed their assignments). Through 1974
the United States was the Pilot Country for this
Panel, and to fulfill this responsibility staff meteor-
ologists provided the extensive input necessary to
coordinate the Panel's annual meetings. The Federal
Republic of Germany is expected to assume the Pilot
Country role in 1975.
A second large modeling study involving meteor-
ologists, chemists, and engineers of ORD-RTP is being
carried out through the U.S. — U.S.S.R. Agreement
on Cooperation in the Field of Environmental Health.
Air pollution modeling has also been the subject of
exchange visits by scientists from Norway and the
United Kingdom, whose fellowships were funded by
the NATO/CCMS.
Prevention of exposure through the development
of control technology is being studied cooperatively
with several international groups. Perhaps the largest
effort in this area is under the auspices of the U.S. —
U.S.S.R. Agreement on Protection of the Environ-
ment. Under Subtopic 2, "Stationary Source Air
Pollution Control Technology," engineers of the
ORD-RTP are participating in studies of particulate
abatement, gaseous emissions abatement, and process
modification. Staff engineers have also participated in
several seminars sponsored by the Economic Commis-
Introduction
15
-------
sion for Europe in the area of improved combustion
technology.
Special Foreign Currency projects in Poland and
Yugoslavia consider various aspects of control tech-
nology or improved combustion processes; inter-
national contracts with investigators in France and
the United Kingdom also study these problems.
As one of the more important first steps in
attacking pollution problems in developing areas,
pollutant characterization is of substantial signifi-
cance in ORD-RTP's international activities. The
writing of assessment and state-of-the-art documents
continues on a fairly large scale with several inter-
national organizations. Recent ORD-RTP contribu-
tions, for instance, to the WHO Environmental Health
Criteria Programme include Environmental Health
Criteria for Manganese and its Compounds, and
Environmental Health Criteria for Polychlorinated
Bi— and Terphenyls.
The OECD's Air Management Sector Group,
through its ORD-RTP Chairman and permanent
delegate, also calls upon ORD-RTP from time-to-time
for case history and assessment documents. Recently,
two case history reports, The Problem of Photo-
chemical Oxidants in the Ambient Air of the USA: A
Case History Report, and Case History on the Use of
Criteria and Effects Data as the Basis for Decisions on
the Control of Sulfur Dioxide in the United States
were written by Staff scientists.
The need for assessment documents was high-
lighted during the year in a meeting between ORD-
RTP representatives and officials of the Federal
Republic of Germany. As a result of this meeting,
ORD-RTP has already provided draft reports on
particulate polycyclic organic matter, polychlorinated
biphenyls, suspended sulfates and sulfuric acid aero-
sols, cadmium, manganese, and vanadium and will
provide other reports and annotated bibliographies
upon request.
As a widely recognized source of expertise in air
pollution research, ORD-RTP often provides briefings
for international scientists concerning areas of mutual
interest and responds to requests for information and
assistance. Responding to these requests is seen not
only as a means of assisting other countries to reach
their pollution abatement goals and as a means of
promoting international good will, but also as a
means of gaining valuable new insights that will speed
our own country's progress towards its goal of
improved environmental quality.
ANNUAL REPORT 1974
-------
SPECIAL
FEATURES
-------
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SPECIAL
FEATURES
EACH YEAR MANY ORD-RTP programs reflect,
in varying degrees, significant areas of effort relating
to EPA's overall goal of reclaiming the purity of the
nation's environment. This portion of the Report
focuses on four programs that are of significance
because of their nationwide impact: the application
of control technology (primarily scrubbers) to major
stationary sources such as electric power plants, the
reduction of automotive emissions through the use of
oxidation catalysts, the use of pesticides and their
relation to the environment, and the incorporation in
building design of new concepts to enhance the
conservation of both energy and the environment.
Scrubbers and
Electric Power
Plants (SOX Control)
INTRODUCTION
Sulfur dioxide (S02 ) and the products it forms in
the atmosphere are among the most dangerous air
pollutants to human health. In addition, SO2 concen-
trations presently occurring in ambient air are clearly
harmful to vegetation, buildings, and materials. The
cost to society resulting from S02 pollution, al-
though difficult to quantitate precisely, amounts to
billions of dollars per year.
Most manmade SO2 in the atmosphere results
from the combustion of sulfur-containing fossil fuels
such as coal and petroleum. In 1973, more than 33
million metric tons (36 million tons) of S02 were
emitted to the atmosphere in the United States;
approximately half of this total was directly attribu-
table to electric power plants. It is projected that
power plants alone will emit 73 million metric tons
(80 million tons) of S02 in the year 2000 unless
pollution control technology is used to reduce the
emissions. These current and projected S02 emissions
clearly indicate the immediate need for the develop-
ment and application of S02 emission control tech-
nologies with emphasis on the control of the major
source: electric power plants.
ORD-RTPconducts demonstration projects ofmethods
(such as lime/limestone flue gas scrubbing) for reducing
concentrations of dangerous atmospheric pollutants re-
sulting from the combustion of fossil fuels containing
sulfur.
Environmental Legislation
Special Features
The magnitude and potential national impact of
the air pollution problem prompted Congressional
action in the form of the Air Quality Act of 1967 and
the Clean Air Amendments of 1970. The Air Quality
19
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Act required the establishment of a national research
and development program for the prevention and
control of air pollution, and the 1970 Amendments
instituted a schedule for the reduction of S02
emissions from stationary sources including both
existing and new power plants. The responsibility for
establishing a control program, setting emission stand-
ards, and developing and demonstrating technology
that could achieve the emission standards was charged
to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). In
April 1971, EPA established primary National Am-
bient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for SO2 at 80
/^g/m3 as the annual arithmetic mean and 365 ^g/nv
as the maximum 24-hour concentration not to be
exceeded more than once per year. Attainment of the
NAAQS was required by mid-1975; any extension of
that deadline would require Congressional amend-
ment to the previously passed environmental legisla-
tion.
New Source Performance Standards (NSPS) for
S02 emissions from power plants were promulgated
by EPA in December 1971. These standards apply to
power plants for which construction or modification
began after August 17, 1971. The standards limit the
emission of S02 to 0.34 gram per million joules (0.8
Ib per million Btu) when oil is burned and 0.52 gram
per million joules (1.2 Ib per million Btu) when coal
is burned. These standards are equivalent to fuel
sulfur contents of 0.7-0.8 percent and are roughly
equivalent to 75 percent S02 removal from combus-
tion off-gases of a typical coal- or oil-fired unit.
Sulfur Dioxide Control Technology
As a part of EPA's Office of Research and
Development, the Control Systems Laboratory (CSL)
at RTP has responsibility for the research, develop-
ment, and demonstration functions required to assess
and develop control technology for stationary sources
to support the national air pollution prevention and
control program mandated by the Congress. In
response, CSL has established a comprehensive pro-
gram to determine air pollution sources, assess the
environmental impact of identified pollutants, and
accelerate the development and commercial applica-
tion of air pollution control technology. Approxi-
mately 80 percent of the CSL program to date has
been devoted to the development of technology for
the control of S02 emissions from stationary sources.
(Under the recent reorganization within the Office of
Research and Development, the Control Systems
Laboratory has been reorganized into the Industrial
Environmental Research Laboratory at RTP.)
The various options for sulfur dioxide control
under investigation by the Laboratory include the use
of clean (low-sulfur) fuels, coal gasification, coal
liquefaction, advanced combustion processes, and
flue gas desulfurization (FGD). These alternatives and
their potential impact in meeting the 1975 sulfur
dioxide control standards are compared in Table 1.
Based on a comparison of these S02 control
technologies and a consideration of near-term
(through 1980) needs, FGD is the only viable
alternative - other than the burning of scarce, clean
fuels - that is compatible with current regulatory
requirements. Coal gasification, coal liquefaction,
and advanced combustion processes are not expected
to make a significant contribution until after 1985.
Therefore, the continuing development and imple-
mentation of FGD technology remains an immediate
concern of EPA and the Control Systems Laboratory.
FLUE GAS DESULFURIZATION
Flue gas desulfurization systems (scrubbers) are
classified in two general categories (1) non-regen-
erable processes in which the sulfur-containing prod-
uct is disposed of as waste and (2) regenerable
processes in which the sulfur or sulfur-containing
product is marketable.
The Control Systems Laboratory has provided
engineering, economic, and evaluative support to the
development, demonstration, and/or testing of the
nine specific FGD installations summarized in Table
2.
CSL's efforts to develop and demonstrate FGD
technology have contributed significantly to the
availability of reliable technology for use in meeting
air quality standards. The significance of these efforts
is underlined by the widespread use of FGD systems
throughout the United States. Twenty FGD systems
with a total capacity of over 3300 MW are now
operational. Twenty-two other systems, currently
under construction, will control 7350 MW of electric
generating capacity when completed, and another
40,000 MW of FGD capacity are in the planning
stages. Thus, approximately 50,000 MW of FGD
capacity are currently scheduled for operation by
1980.
Currently, most of the FGD installations in the
operational, construction, and planning stages in the
United States employ nonregenerable processes.
Thirteen of the 20 FGD systems currently opera-
tional in the United States are lime or limestone
based; 17 other such systems are under construction;
and 41 systems are currently in the planning stages.
The dominance of lime and limestone systems ap-
pears to be related to:
• The early start in development of these
processes.
• The relative simplicity of the processes in terms
of the number of process steps.
• The availability and widespread distribution of
relatively cheap limestone.
20
ANNUAL REPORT 1974
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Table 1. COMPARISON OF SULFUR DIOXIDE CONTROL ALTERNATIVES FOR
STATIONARY SOURCES
Technology type
Naturally clean fuels
Flue gas desulfurization
High-Btu coal gasification
Coal liquefaction
Fluid bed combustion of coal
Chemical coal cleaning
Low-Btu coal combustion
Potential
applicability,
% of total power
plant fuel
50
85
0
0
15
35
10
Energy
loss in
process, %
0
6
30
30
2
10
20
Effective total
cost of fuel8
(Raw fuel and
clean-up costs),
mills/kWh
Eastern coal
4. 5-9. Ob
Western coal
4.0-6.0b
6.0-10.5
12+
6.6-9.6
3.3-8.4
4.7-8.3
8.3-12.8
Year technology
commercially
available
Current
Current
1980-1985
1980-1985
1977-1978
1977-1978
1977-1983
aThese costs were developed in late 1974 and do not reflect changes in costs of fuel and materials since that time;
however, the data do allow valid relative comparisons.
are for delivery to plants in region where coal was mined.
• The presence of many lime and limestone
system vendors.
• The lower cost of lime and limestone systems
utilizing simple disposal in comparison with
regenerable processes, which face an uncertain
by-product market.
For regenerable processes, three systems are opera-
tional, three are under construction, and seven are in
the planning stage. With the exception of one system
under construction, all the systems in the latter two
categories reflect decisions made within the last year.
This accelerated rate of development and application
of regenerable processes is expected to continue
based on:
• The conservation of natural resources-land is
not needed for sludge disposal and sulfur
products with societal and market benefits are
produced.
• The conservation of energy-centralized regen-
eration will not only reduce process costs due
to economy of scale but will also save energy
due to more efficient, large, base load design.
• The greater emphasis on land use planning.
• The preponderance of second generation regen-
erable processes compared with nonregenerable
processes in this category.
The availability of process packages consisting
of a process developer, process operator, and
by-product using and marketing organizations
for commercial application.
The effect of inflation on regenerable process
costs compared with nonregenerable process
costs.
ISSUES
The proliferation in plants using FGD as a means
of sulfur dioxide control is occurring despite a
number of past and current differences of opinion
and heated debate between EPA, other Federal
agencies, and the utility industry. How reliable are
scrubbers? How much do they cost? Who pays for
them? Do they create additional pollution? Are they
really necessary? What effect do they have on the
energy situation? These are some of the questions
that are being asked about FGD. Some of the answers
are now available, others are in sight, and still others
are being sought. Answers to some of these questions
are presented in the following paragraphs.
Availability and Reliability - A CSL survey to
determine the status of FGD technology in the
Special Features
21
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Table 2. ERA-SUPPORTED FLUE GAS DESULFRUIZATION PROCESSES
Process
Wet lime/limestone
scrubbing
Wet lime scrubbing
Wet lime scrubbing
Magnesium oxide
Magnesium oxide
Catalytic oxidation
Wellman-Lord/Allied
Double alkali
Double alkali
Waste/by-product
Throwaway sludge
Throwaway sludge
Throwaway sludge
98%Sulfuric acid
98%Sulfuric acid
78% Sulfuric acid
99% Elemental sulfur
Throwaway sludge
Throwaway sludge
Application
30-MW (prototype)
coal-fired utility
40-MW (full-scale)
oil-fired utility
24-MW (full-scale)
coal-fired industrial
155-MW (full-scale)
oil-fired utility
100-MW (full-scale)
coal-fired utility
100-MW (full-scale)
coal-fired utility
115-MW (full-scale)
coal-fired utility
30-MW (full-scale)
coal-fired industrial
20-MW (prototype)
coal-fired utility
SO2
removal
efficiency, %
75-90
60-80
80-90
85-90
85-90
85-90
90-95
85-95
85-95
United States was initiated in April 1974. Survey
results indicated that most plants have achieved
control of process chemistry and scaling; however,
many units are still involved in solving mechanical
problems such as frozen venturi throat drives, fan
vibration, and erosion.
The survey further indicated that the availability
and reliability of FGD systems is a major concern but
that significant improvement has been achieved as
indicated by the recent, almost flawless operation of
the limestone scrubber system at Commonwealth
Edison's Will County (Illinois) Station. This system,
plagued with operational problems and a power
production availability record in the 30 percent range
over the first 23 months of its existence, achieved an
average availability greater than 90 percent for a
12-month period beginning in July 1974. For the last
6 months of this period, the average availability was
in excess of 98 percent. Proponents of FGD for S02
emission control can now point to this system as a
showcase example of the capability of FGD to
achieve the intended goals.
Cost — The ultimate cost of commercial-scale FGD
systems for coal-fired utility power plants is a
complex and controversial subject. Published cost
estimates range from the unrealistically low to the
ridiculously high. The most comprehensive and de-
tailed cost study available is the Tennessee Valley
Authority five-process study reported in November
1974. This study pegged FGD capital costs between
approximately $40 and $80/kW for typical coal-fired
applications. Corresponding annualized costs were 2.5
to 5.0 mills/kWh. Because these cost determinations
were made prior to the remarkable escalation of
equipment and construction costs that took place in
1974 and in 1975, adjustment of 25 to 30 percent is
required to bring these costs up to current dollars.
Realistically, FGD costs for large-scale (500-1000
MW) plants should range from $60 to $100/kWwith
annualized costs of 3.0 to 6.0 mills/kWh. The
annualized costs of FGD use on a commercial basis is
approximately 0.28 to 0.56 mills per million joules
(30 to 60 cents per million Btu) of fuel cost
differential.
Funding Approach — The answer to this problem,
unfortunately, is one of the major deterrents to the
installation of FGD systems. Many utilities that have
been able to negotiate contracts for low-sulfur fuels
22
ANNUAL REPORT 1974
-------
ABSORBER
« INLET
DUCTWORK
MgO STORAGE
SILO
ABSORBER
OUTLET
BREECHING
DUCTWORK
FROM BOILER
RECYCLE
PUMPS
(NOT VISIBLE)
EPA/Boston Edison demonstration of magnesium oxide process for cleaning flue gas.
Special Features
23
-------
are allowed to pass most of the increased costs for the
low-sulfur fuels directly and immediately to the
consumer without regulatory commission action. On
the other hand, utilities must apply for rate increases
to cover the capital and operating expenses for FGD
systems. It would appear reasonable and desirable to
pass FGD system costs directly to the consumer in
the same manner as increased costs for low-sulfur
fuels are handled, and EPA has requested that all
state utility commissions consider this approach to
funding the construction and operation of FGD
systems. There is evidence of increasing public sup-
port for such an approach in a recent Harris Poll
showing that the percentage of people in favor of
paying some pollution control costs had increased
from 34 to 46 percent in the 2-year period from 1973
to 1975.
Additional Pollution — The major issue here has
been the large quantities of waste material (sludge)
produced by nonregenerable FGD processes. A com-
prehensive research and development program, under
CSL sponsorship, is currently underway to charac-
terize FGD sludges and to develop and assess disposal
and utilization methods. Based on available informa-
tion, the best methods currently available for sludge
disposal are landfilling of chemically fixed sludge or
disposal of untreated sludge in ponds lined with an
impervious material such as clay, plastic, or rubber.
Alternate methods, including coal mine and ocean
disposal, are currently under study. Another major
alternative is FGD sludge utilization; for example,
limited markets are expected in the wallboard and
Portland cement industries for gypsum produced
from FGD sludge. Technology also exists for the
utilization of scrubber sludge in products such as
mineral wood, bricks, road base materials, artificial
aggregate, and aerated concrete. Other uses for FGD
sludge, such as filler material in fertilizers, are
currently being studied. Because of uncertainties in
marketing FGD by-products, however, most of the
FGD sludge produced, at least in the short term, will
be discarded. For this reason, and because disposal
presents a potential for adverse environmental effects,
the major thrust of the CSL sludge program has been
concerned with disposal.
In recent months, evidence indicating the poten-
tially harmful effects of sulfate species in the atmos-
phere has focused attention on FGD systems as
potential emitters of sulfates. Although the possi-
bility of the emission of sulfates from FGD system
exists, the essential question of comparative quanti-
ties and characteristics of sulfates emitted from
controlled and uncontrolled sources must be ad-
dressed. An uncontrolled source emits 100 percent of
the sulfuric acid mist formed in the boiler; such a
source also emits 100 percent of the S02 formed in
the boiler, and the potential for subsequent atmos-
pheric conversion of the emitted S02 to sulfates must
be considered. An FGD system will remove approxi-
mately 50 percent of the sulfuric acid mist and 90
percent of the SO2 that would be emitted to the
atmosphere from an uncontrolled source; thus, actual
and potential sulfate emissions from a controlled
source are significantly reduced.
The potential emission of small quantities of
relatively innocuous sulfate compounds, such as
calcium, magnesium, and sodium sulfates that are
produced in the S02 scrubbing reactions is of little
consequence in comparison to the benefits attained.
Need forFGD — Flue gas desulfurization systems
are consumers of resources, energy, and capital. They
do not generate electricity, but they do generate
materials that must either be sold or disposed of in an
environmentally acceptable manner. FGD must, how-
ever, be viewed in light of the alternatives. There is
currently sufficient evidence to conclude that direct-
firing of relatively high sulfur coal will play an
increasing role in the generation of electricity through
the 1980's and possibly well into the 1990's. Many
indicators - including the continued delays, technical
problems, and escalating costs associated with nuclear
power; the extremely high costs and low energy
efficiency of coal gasification as highlighted by recent
TVA and Commonwealth Edison studies; the pro-
jected high costs and early state of development of
solvent refining and liquefaction; and the scarcity,
transportation expense, and applicability of western
low-sulfur coals — all point to continued reliance on
conventional coal-firing as a mainstay in electrical
utility expansion plans. With dramatic increases in the
use of high-sulfur coal a near certainty, particularly in
the eastern half of the country, the widespread use of
FGD will be necessary to maintain atmospheric
loadings and groundlevel air quality at their present
levels, let alone achieve the ultimate goal of the Clean
Air Act, the enhancement of air quality.
Energy Usage - FGD systems will allow the use of
our most abundant energy resource — high-sulfur coal
— while providing protection from the sulfur oxides
produced when the coal is burned. The comparatively
small energy penalty (4 to 7 percent) associated with
the use of FGD is a reasonable price to pay when the
alternatives and the benefits are considered.
CSL Research - The Control Systems Laboratory
is involved in a comprehensive program that has
provided some of the answers to the issues surround-
ing the FGD process and is actively seeking the
answers to the remaining questions. The CSL program
includes:
• The assessment of environmental/health effects
of pollutants such as sulfate species.
• The support of two additional demonstrations
of FGD technology at the 100-MW scale.
24
ANNUAL REPORT 1974
-------
• A study of sludge disposal techniques and
sludge marketability.
• Studies of the market for the by-products of
regenerable FGD systems.
• A survey of non-utility source contributions to
ambient sulfur dioxide concentrations.
• Studies directed toward the production of
elemental sulfur by second generation FGD
systems to reduce the quantity of by-products
produced and to facilitate storage and ship-
ment.
In addition to these and other activities, CSL may
initiate a regenerable process demonstration on an
industrial boiler that fires a mixture of fossil fuels and
municipal wastes. High priority has been assigned to a
comprehensive information transfer program that will
be designed to maximize the dissemination and
implementation of FGD technology information. One
facet of the information transfer program will be the
development of a FGD system for installation at a
specific location having specific requirements. The
model will provide one-source availability of perti-
nent FGD data and information and will permit
informed decision making that should result in earlier
operation of the FGD systems.
FCD's FUTURE
As a result of critical national energy and eco-
nomic needs, the Clean Air Act is being reevaluated
and may be amended. Proponents of intermittent
control procedures and the use of tall stacks for
sulfur dioxide dispersion, as well as those who favor
permanent control by FGD, are making their opin-
ions known to the Congressional committees respon-
sible for evaluating the Act and making recom-
mendations to the Congress.
The use of intermittent controls and tall stacks by
electric utilities has been a source of debate and
controversy over the last several years. To qualify for
the use of intermittent controls, a plant would have
to be the sole or major source of sulfur oxides and
thus be responsible for the sulfur dioxide pollution
within the particular area. The effectiveness of
intermittent controls depends on the utilities' willing-
ness to regulate their own operation as required by
meteorological conditions; for example, when a
weather condition such as a thermal inversion occurs,
a utility would either shut down the plant in the
affected region or switch to reserves of low-sulfur
coal. The question, however, of what would be done
with the high-sulfur coal already in a bunker when an
adverse meteorological condition develops has yet to
be adequately addressed.
Tall stacks, in most cases, allow compliance with
present ambient air standards because they disperse
the pollutants into the atmosphere and reduce
groundlevel concentrations. Many utility representa-
tives, as well as some representatives of the Federal
Power Commission and the Tennessee Valley Author-
ity, have maintained that these methods are compati-
ble with the Clean Air Act requirements for meeting
ambient air quality standards. Concern about the
adverse health effects of sulfates formed primarily by
conversion of sulfur dioxide in the atmosphere,
however, argues against the use of these methods and
could, in fact, lead to even tighter ambient air quality
limits for sulfur dioxide. Recent court decisions have
supported EPA's contention that dispersion and
dilution are inadequate means for dealing with the
increasing sulfur dioxide emission problem and that
the only adequate control methods are emission
limitation techniques.
A key proposal in the Administration's proposed
amendment to the Clean Air Act is permission for
EPA to extend the 1975 compliance deadline for
selected power plants to 1985. To qualify for this
10-year delay, a plant would have to be located in an
isolated area and use an intermittent control system.
The result of Congressional deliberation is likely to
be a reasonable compromise between the two diver-
gent positions. The EPA Administrator has pledged
the Agency's willingness to support an Energy Re-
source Council proposal to extend the deadline for
implementation of permanent controls, with the
qualification that ambient air quality standards be
met in the interim. The proposal would require (1)
that violating power plants sign compliance schedules
for installing permanent controls and (2) that com-
pliance with state emission standards be delayed until
the FGD systems are operational.
Senator Edmund S. Muskie, Chairman of the
Subcommittee on Environmental Pollution, has indi-
cated that intermittent controls and tall stacks only
disperse pollution and are not enforceable. He has
further stated, "We must reweave the fabric of the
Clean Air Act to keep deadlines and yet permit
flexibility when good faith has been demonstrated.
Perhaps we'll have to supplement these deadlines with
statutory penalties triggered when deadlines are
breached and good faith has not been demonstrated."
So, although debate may continue and although
Congress may modify the Clean Air Act, it seems
apparent that there will be significant application of
FGD systems to power plants for control of sulfur
dioxide emissions between now and 1985. In fact, a
careful examination of the alternatives — keeping in
mind the costs, problems, and limitations to each —
indicates that FGD systems will probably be operat-
ing to lessen the environmental impact of the use of
our plentiful coal resources for the remainder of this
century and beyond.
Special Features
25
-------
Automotive Oxidation
Catalyst
On March 5, 1975, the Administrator of the
Environmental Protection Agency announced his
decision to grant suspension of 1977 motor vehicle
exhaust emission standards for one year. At the same
time, he recommended to Congress that the 1975
national interim standards for hydrocarbons and
carbon monoxide be retained for the 1978 and 1979
model year and that emission standards at the interim
California levels for the two pollutants be established
for model years 1980 and 1981. He further an-
nounced his intention to establish an emission stand-
ard for sulfuric acid, applicable to 1979 and sub-
sequent model years.
In making this decision, EPA Administrator
Russell Train stated that were it not for his belief that
the weight of scientific opinion indicates a legitimate
cause for concern that sulfuric acid emissions from
the catalytic converter represent a risk to public
health, he would not have granted the suspension.
(Automobile emission standards before, during, and
after the suspension are shown in Table 3.)
The level of the suggested sulfuric acid standard is
as yet to be determined. In balancing the emission
levels permissible for sulfuric acid and for hydro-
carbon and carbon monoxide, the Administrator
emphasized that two objectives must be reconciled:
preventing an increase in automotive sulfuric acid
emissions in excess of currently projected levels and
preserving, as much as possible, the momentum EPA
has built up toward achieving further reductions of
hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide emissions from
the automobile.
Administrator Train pointed out that the decision
as to the level for the sulfuric acid standard will be a
very difficult one. "Unfortunately," he said, "data
are not now available and probably will still be
unavailable at the time that an emission limit must be
established for sulfuric acid for 1979 model year
vehicles, to determine the level of sulfuric acid
emissions that could confidently be considered ac-
ceptable from a public health standpoint."
The suspension decision and the related long-term
recommendation as announced by the Administrator
were a direct consequence of the results of the first
full year of EPA's catalyst research program, directed
as part of ORD-RTP's Fuels and Fuel Additive
Registration Program. (Under the recent reorganiza-
tion within the Office of Research and Development,
the catalyst research program has been incorporated
into the Health Effects Research Laboratory at RTP.)
26 ANNUAL REPORT 1974
-------
Table 3. AUTOMOBILE EMISSION STANDARDS BEFORE, DURING, AND AFTER ONE-YEAR
SUSPENSION OF 1977 STANDARDS ANNOUNCED BY EPA ADMINISTRATOR
(grams per mile)
Status of standards
and model year
Standards in effect
before March 5, 1975
1975-1976
United States
except California
California
1977
1978
Standards during
1-year suspension
1977
United States
except California
1978
United States
except California
Standards recommended
after 1-year suspension
1977
United States
except California
1978-1979
1980-1981
1982
Pollutant3
HC
1.5
0.9
0.41
0.41
1.5
0.41
1.5
1.5
0.9
0.41
CO
15
9
3.4
3.4
15
3.4
15
15
9
3.4
NOX
3.1
2.0
2.0
0.4
2.0
0.4
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
H2S04
0.001 -0.010
0.001 -0.010
0.001-0.010
aHC = hydrocarbons, CO = carbon monoxide, NOX = nitrogen oxides,
Standards to be determined by State action.
= sulfuric acid.
ORD-RTP has conducted its Fuel Additive Regis-
tration program since FY 1971. The impetus for
expansion of that program to include a study of the
health impact of the automotive oxidation catalyst
can be traced to the passage of the Clean Air Act of
1970.
Section 202 of the Clean Air of 1970, as amended,
mandated substantial reductions in certain specified
emission products from automobiles. The automobile
industry, to achieve this reduction, chose the oxida-
tion catalytic converter as a primary method of
emission control for model year 1975. After this
decision was made known to EPA, the Agency
intensified its research program to determine what, if
any, new pollutants might be emitted into the
atmosphere as a result of the application of this
technology. Also studied were the effects of fuel
composition and fuel additives on these new pollut-
ants as well as the regulated pollutants. The EPA
research program results indicated that, although
emissions of hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, and
certain organics would be dramatically lowered,
sulfuric acid aerosol emissions would increase, and
that slight emissions of platinum, palladium, and
alumina might also be expected.
Because existing ambient concentrations of sul-
fates in many areas of the country have been shown
to be at levels sufficient to cause concern to those in
EPA and elsewhere responsible for the protection of
public health and because little information existed
Special Features
27
-------
regarding health effects of platinum or palladium as
air pollutants, EPA initiated a broad research program
to examine the questions of public health impact of
these three pollutants: catalyst-emitted sulfates, plati-
num, and palladium.
In testimony to the Public Works Committee of
the U.S. Senate in November 1973, the EPA Adminis-
trator specified EPA's planned program of catalyst-
related research:
• Accelerate work on development of a reliable
test procedure for automotive sulfate emission
measurement.
• Consider all feasible alternatives for automotive
sulfate emission control.
• Improve the Agency's ability to estimate the
public health impact of sulfate and other
automotive emissions.
• Improve understanding of the atmospheric
chemistry involved in these emissions and initi-
ate an appropriate air monitoring program.
From these broad objectives outlined in the
Administrator's testimony of November 1973, an
extensive interdisciplinary research program was de-
veloped. The program utilizes the resources of a
broad range of EPA's technical staff from both the
Office of Research and Development and the Office
of Air and Waste Management and the resources of
the scientific community outside the government
through extramural programs.
The strategy underlying the establishment of the
program can briefly be summarized in the following
six objectives: (1) identify emissions, (2) determine
emission levels, (3) estimate human exposure, (4)
assess public health impact of exposure, (5) evaluate
the available control options, and (6) provide timely
reports to provide a basis for management decisions.
Within this framework, the resources available
both within EPA and in the research community were
marshalled to address the issue in the following areas:
• Emissions characterization.
• Emission measurement methodology develop-
ment.
• Meteorological modeling.
• Toxicology (classical and inhalation).
• Human health studies (epidemiology, occupa-
tional, exposure).
• Control technology.
Because each of these areas of expertise impinges
upon one or more of the others, clear definition of
objectives and methods, centralized program direc-
tion, and close coordination were needed from the
beginning of the program. Because the program cut
across traditional organization structures, a matrix
approach emerged as the appropriate management
tool for effective use of disparate and diverse re-
sources, both human and financial.
Technical conclusions based upon results of the
program to date can be summarized as follows:
• The current (1974 model year and older) in-use
light-duty motor vehicle population emits trace
quantities of sulfuric acid.
• The current ambient sulfate particulate levels
reported by epidemiological studies (CHESS)
already exceed the estimated health effects
threshold on many days of the year in many
urban centers, particularly in the northeastern
United States.
• Oxidation catalyst-equipped, light-duty motor
vehicles emit sulfuric acid aerosol. Although
non-catalyst-equipped vehicles appear to con-
vert about 1 percent of fuel sulfur to sulfuric
acid, catalyst cars convert 20 to 40 percent of
such sulfur to sulfuric acid, with air-injected
catalyst-equipped vehicles being the higher
emitters.
• Catalyst-generated sulfuric acid aerosol will
result in localized incremental exposures to
persons on and near major highways and other
areas of high motor vehicle densities.
• The catalyst-generated localized, incremental
sulfuric acid exposure is projected to exceed
the estimated health effects threshold after 2
model years of vehicles are equipped with
catalysts in California and after 3 to 4 years in
the rest of the nation. Such exposures would
occur on and near our busiest highways.
• Development of a reliable analytical measure-
ment method specific to ambient sulfuric acid
is crucial, because no such method now exists.
The wet chemical techniques for ambient par-
ticulate sulfate are not necessarily specific for
sulfates because sulfides and sulfites, if present,
will interfere. Thus, the present techniques only
measure total particulate water-soluble sulfur
compounds.
• Existing (pre-catalyst) baseline data establishing
current rural, urban, and occupationally ex-
posed human burdens of platinum and palla-
dium need to be clearly defined and are under
investigation.
• Research on long-term health effects of
platinum, palladium, and sulfuric acid must be
continued.
• Methods to control sulfuric acid emissions from
catalyst-equipped vehicles must be pursued.
• Preliminary pre-catalyst baseline studies on the
Los Angeles freeway monitoring site tend to
confirm — via carbon monoxide, lead, and
sulfur dioxide surrogates — the projected incre-
mental sulfuric acid exposures.
A full discussion of the results of the catalyst
research program through January 1975 was pre-
sented in two EPA publications: Issue Paper —
28
ANNUAL REPORT 1974
-------
Because of their high traffic volume, freeways in the Los Angeles area provide good study sites for assessing
emissions from the automotive oxidation catalyst.
Estimated Public Health Impact as a Result of
Equipping Light-duty Motor Vehicles with Oxidation
Catalysts, and Estimates of the Public Health Benefits
and Risks Attributable to Equipping Light-duty
Motor Vehicles with Oxidation Catalysts. The Admin-
istrator, in discussing these papers as part of the basis
for his March 5 decision, characterized them as
providing "as good an estimate of the problem as can
be made at this time given the tremendous uncertain-
ties of this matter. Future studies of this issue are
necessary and are being undertaken."
Priority areas to be studied as part of the
continuing catalyst research program include: devel-
opment of a stronger data base in health effects of
sulfuric acid, development of a reliable ambient
sulfuric acid measurement technique, establishment
of definitive emission factors and sulfur conversion
rates for current model year automobiles, and further
validation of models used to determine exposure
estimates.
Special Features
29
-------
HET
TOWER ;
POLLUTANT CONCENTRATIONS,
monthly averages for June
30
1 »
:T
>
1 SAMPLER INLETS
1 3-4 FT. ABOVE
1 /FREEWAY SURFACE
d/ \.
(1 K .
PREVAILING WIND
FREEWAY SURFACE
i n 1
x^
•^/^-;\:'.._ 6_FT ABOVE GRADE:•.',
-100FT-
:5X
SEPULVEDA BLVD.
^ 25 FT ^)::. V V- •' -.••.':•.' •' -.'-. •• '• '•:•':: :• :••.• '•• :• '•:•'.'.
-110 FT-
Po/lutant concentrations adjacent to the freeway vary with distance and meteorological factors.
30
ANNUAL REPORT 1974
-------
Pesticides and
the Environment
Pesticides have brought tremendous benefits to
mankind by controlling the vectors of serious human
and animal diseases and by greatly increasing yields of
many crops. The need for food will likely increase as
the world's population increases; consequently, it
seems likely that the use of pesticides will expand for
some years to come. Unfortunately, adverse environ-
mental effects and possible toxic effects to humans
can arise from pesticide usage. Residues of persistent
pesticides have been found in air, soil, plants, rivers
and oceans, fish, birds, mammals, and even humans.
The accumulation of pesticide residues in the environ-
ment has concerned the scientific community and has
been the subject of intensive research and monitoring
activities. Research efforts are currently focused on
assessing the effects of long-term, low-level pesticide
exposure on the human population; identifying po-
tentially toxic impurities in pesticide formulations;
and developing rapid toxicological screening tests to
detect early exposure to harmful pesticide residues
before adverse clinical effects become manifest.
The Environmental Protection Agency has a legis-
lative mandate to control pesticide usage under the
Federal Insecticides, Fungicide, and Rodenticide
Act, which was amended in 1972 as the Federal
Environmental Pesticide Control Act (FEPCA). Un-
der FEPCA, the Agency has regulatory authority
ranging from requirements for pesticide use informa-
tion on product labels to protection of human health
through monitoring and research activities. Under this
legislation, EPA placed a near total ban on the use of
DDT in 1972, suspended the manufacture of aldrin
and dieldrin, and began legal hearings to institute
limitations on the use of heptachlor, chlordane, and
their metabolite, heptachlor epoxide.
PESTICIDE CYCLE
Before 1974, organic materials of natural origin,
such as pyrethrum and rotenone, were often used as
pesticides. Inorganic compounds such as arsenicals,
hydrogen cyanide, and heavy metal salts also came
into early use. Shortly before World War II, however,
synthetic organic pesticides, the most well-known of
which was DDT, came into limited use. After DDT
came into wide use, the appearance of insects that
had developed resistance to this compound led to the
active search for new pesticides. Today in the United
States, there are over 900 active pesticidal chemicals
formulated into more than 60,000 preparations used
Special Features 31
-------
Airplanes are often used to apply pesticides in orchards.
as insecticides, fungicides, herbicides, and plant
growth regulators.
Most insecticides in current or recent use are
chemically classified as chlorinated hydrocarbons,
organophosphates, or carbamates. The chlorinated
hydrocarbons represent the most persistent types of
compounds the residues of which can have a long
residence time in the environment; they poison
insects through surface contact or stomach action.
The most familiar compounds in the chlorinated
hydrocarbon series include DDT, aldrin, dieldrin,
endrin, toxaphene, heptachlor, chlordane, and lin-
dane. Organophosphate compounds are characterized
as less persistent than the chlorinated hydrocarbons
and act as inhibitors of the enzyme cholinesterase.
Examples of organophosphate pesticides include
malathion, parathion, DDVP, Guthion, and diazinon.
The carbamate insecticides are of comparatively
recent development and apparently act in a similar
fashion to the organophosphate compounds, that is,
by inhibition of cholinesterase. The carbamates,
which are rapidly detoxified and eliminated from
animal tissue, exhibit minimal bio-accumulation.
Examples include carbaryl, carbofuran, methomyl,
and Baygon.
Herbicides are chemically derived from inorganic
acids, metal organic compounds, carboxylic aromatic
compounds, aliphatic acids, substituted phenols, and
heterocyclic and aliphatic organic nitrogen com-
pounds. Examples of herbicides include 2, 4-D, 2, 4,
5-T, Silvex, Carbyne, and atrazine. Fungicides and
bactericides are usually formulated from inorganic
compounds such as copper sulfate and mercuric
chloride and from dithiocarbamates such as ziran,
maneb, and ferbam.
Pesticides are usually applied to crops or specific
vectors by air or ground application as aerosol sprays
or volatilized gases. In one sense, this is the only case
in which man deliberately "pollutes" the environ-
ment with potentially toxic compounds that can have
wide ranging effects. Environmental transport proces-
ses can distribute pesticides widely in air, soil, and
water and can lead to the accumulation of residues in
the biosphere. Airborne pesticide particles can be
transported by wind currents; adsorbed on other
airborne particles; photodecomposed into potentially
more toxic residues; and removed from the atmos-
phere by sedimentation, impaction, and scavening
processes such as rainfall. The predominant factor in
the transport of airborne pesticide sprays is the
particle size of the aerosol: finer particles exhibit a
longer residence time in the atmosphere than coarse
particles. Pesticides applied to the soil can evaporate
back into the atmosphere as a gas; degrade by
microbiological, chemical or photochemical action;
accumulate in soil, crops, and animals, and subse-
32
ANNUAL REPORT 1974
-------
quently in man; and be transported to the hydro-
sphere by runoff and leaching processes. Pesticide
residues introduced into the hydrosphere can undergo
chemical decomposition and biodegradation; evapora-
tion into the atmosphere; and accumulation in
plankton, fish, and eventually man.
The inevitable end point in the pesticide cycle is
man. However, much is still unknown in all areas of
the pesticide cycle including the process of environ-
mental transport, the mechanisms of partitioning
among environmental components — that is, atmos-
phere, lithosphere (soil), hydrosphere, and biosphere
— and the effect of photochemical reactions, micro-
biological attack, chemical decomposition, and other
reactions on the fate of pesticides.
TOXIC EFFECTS
Most of the available information concerning the
toxicity of pesticides has been derived from studies
with experimental animals and from human poisoning
cases, primarily through occupational exposure. A
correlation has been demonstrated between acute
toxocity levels of many pesticides in experimental
animals and human poisoning experiences. The pre-
dominant routes of exposure for man are through
inhalation and from oral and dermal contact; how-
ever, toxic effects, regardless of the exposure route,
are associated with the physiological action of the
classes of compounds as well as the dosage received.
Pesticide poisoning is further complicated by the fact
that metabolic action in the body can often result in
the production of residues that are even more toxic
than the original compound.
The major effect of the chlorinated hydrocarbons
is on the central nervous system with minor changes
produced in the liver (especially in rodents) and to a
lesser degree in other organs. In fatal poisonings, a
fine tremor appears followed by progressive involve-
ment of the neuromuscular system; death may result
from ventricular fibrillation. Most of these chlori-
nated hydrocarbons accumulate in body fat to the
extent that illness in experimental animals has been
demonstrated by repeated exposure.
The organophosphate pesticides appear to act
primarily through inhibition of the enzyme cholines-
terase. Poisoning symptoms are associated with over-
stimulation of the parasympathetic nervous system.
The carbamate pesticides also act by inhibiting
cholinesterase; however, unlike the organophos-
phates, they are competitive rather than irreversible
inhibitors of this enzyme. The organophosphates and
carbamate insecticides are much less persistent in the
environment and in the animal body than are the
chlorinated hydrocarbons. Their effects on cholines-
terase inhibition may be cumulative despite their low
storage potential.
Other factors play a role in determining the
toxicity of pesticides to a particular organism. Among
these are age; sex; nutrition; disease; temperature;
route of exposure; interaction of the pesticide with
chemicals, drugs, and other pesticides; type of pesti-
cide formulation; and photochemical effects. Assess-
ing pesticide toxicity through the use of experimental
animals is further complicated by the fact that
different animal species can exhibit different re-
sponses to the same compound. Extrapolation of
effects derived from animal studies to effects in
humans is difficult and can be misleading if metabolic
pathways are significantly different.
Perhaps most disturbing are the mutagenic, terato-
genic, and carcinogenic effects that may arise from
long-term, low-level exposures to these chemicals.
Test methods presently available are not entirely
satisfactory for assessing these special toxicity fac-
tors. Based on present information, no firm conclu-
sions can be made as to whether pesticides represent a
mutagenic hazard to humans. On the other hand, a
number of pesticides have been implicated as possible
teratogens and include 2, 4, 5-T; captan; carbaryl;
certain esters of 2, 4-D; PCNB; and some mercury
compounds. Possible carcinogenic effects have been
associated with DDT, aldrin, dieldrin, mirex, hep-
tachlor, and other compounds, many of which are
banned from use by EPA.
CANCELLATION PROCEEDINGS
Under the legislative authority provided by
FEPCA, the Environmental Protection Agency can
ban the use of a pesticide if its use would pose an
unacceptable risk to man and the environment. The
Pesticides and Toxic Substances Effects Laboratory
(PTSEL) at ORD-RTP has made many scientific
contributions toward assessing the environmental
threat from pesticides. (Under the recent reorganiza-
tion by the Office of Research and Development,
Pesticides and Toxic Substances Effects Laboratory
has been incorporated into the Health Effects Re-
search Laboratory at RTP.)
Pesticides research has led to a near total ban on
the use of DDT and the suspension of the manufac-
ture of aldrin and dieldrin. More recently, PTSEL has
provided hedlth effects research data for use in
pending cancellation hearings on Mirex and 2, 4, 5-T.
The Administrator of EPA has also announced his
intention to ban the use of heptachlor and chlordane
on certain food crops and on lawns and gardens. In
considering the cancellation of a registered pesticide,
the availability of alternate registered pesticides is
vitally important.
Special Features
33
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Gas-liquid chromatography is used to analyze pesticide residue.
CURRENT RESEARCH
Research is carried out at ORD-RTP to assess the
effect of pesticides on the environment. Most efforts
are focused on toxicity studies using animal model
systems, field studies to address "real world" ex-
posure problems, and analytical methods
development to improve sensitivity and specificity of
residue analysis in various environmental media.
Development of new chemical and biological pesti-
cides by industry and the recognition of previously
unknown hazards associated with pesticides in cur-
rent use will continue to require new knowledge of
pesticide toxicology and chemistry.
Toxic Impurities
With the discovery of the toxic contaminant 2, 3,
7, 8-tetrachloro-dibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) in formula-
tions of the herbicide, 2, 4, 5-T, active research began
to detect and identify other potentially toxic con-
taminants in commercial formulations. During the
chemical synthesis of pesticide compounds, the possi-
bility that unwanted toxic products may also be
cosynthesized or carried through manufacture from
the initial starting materials is a distinct possibility.
Both theoretical studies of synthesis processes and
laboratory analysis of typical pesticide compounds
are underway to prevent future release of potentially
toxic materials into the environment.
Insect Pathogens
Technology has developed new generations of
pesticides that use more effective chemical formula-
tions, techniques for controlled release through mi-
croencapsulation, and biological insect control agents
such as insect pathogens and synthetic juvenile
hormones. Toxicological research is underway with
the newly developed viral insect pathogens to ascer-
tain whether adverse acute or chronic effects can be
associated with their use. Of immediate interest is to
determine whether mutations potentially harmful to
man or the environment could arise from long-term
use of these agents.
RAPID SCREENING TESTS
The search for methods of detecting early ex-
posure to pesticides before actual symptoms of
poisoning are evident has been underway for many
years. Two EPA-developed techniques that show
promise are a chemical method for detecting organi-
cally bound phosphate residues in urine after ex-
34
ANNUAL REPORT 1974
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posure to organophosphate pesticides and a neuro-
physiological method to detect subtle changes in
brain-wave patterns after pesticide exposure. Other
tests based on bioassay methods to rapidly screen
pesticidal compounds and to identify specific toxic
effects associated with exposure to them are under
development. For example, the chick embryo is
under study as a bioindicator for dioxins and various
pesticide compounds.
CHEMICAL METHODOLOGY
Gas-liquid chromatography (GLC) has been widely
used for detecting pesticide residues since the 1960's.
More recent developments have been made to im-
prove GLC separation columns and detectors to
increase sensitivity and improve specificity. Present
development efforts involve the use of high resolution
mass spectrometry and nuclear magnetic resonance
methods for quantitation and confirmation. Active
research is underway to develop comprehensive mul-
ti-residue methodology for detecting simultaneously
numerous classes of pesticidal compounds.
ROUTES OF EXPOSURE
Research on the routes of pesticide exposure is
on-going at EPA to determine the absorption and,
therefore, the toxicity of residues. Usually pesticides
are more toxic by the oral route than by the dermal
route; however, the available data on inhalation
exposure is too meager to make definitive compari-
sons. Studies are underway at ORD-RTP to assess the
hazard associated with the inhalation mode of expo-
sure utilizing animal model systems. Emphasis is
placed on expanding the inhalation toxicology pro-
gram, especially in determining tissue residue levels
from acute exposures.
Special Features
35
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Buildings and
the Environment
The control of air pollution and the reduction of
fossil fuel consumption are areas of growing concern
in the United States. In 1972, the combustion of
fossil fuel to meet energy needs was responsible for
the emission to the atmosphere of 77 percent of all
sulfur oxides, 51 percent of all nitrogen oxides, and
40 percent of all particulate matter. The demand for
energy will triple by the year 2000; a comparable
growth in pollution levels is expected to accompany
this increase. Simultaneously, increasing shortages of
fossil fuels are emphasizing the need to conserve
limited energy resources. Examination of the interre-
lating problems of air pollution control and energy
conservation has led to a viable, single solution:
reduce fossil fuel consumption through the applica-
tion of energy-conserving and non-polluting methods
of energy use.
The most readily available opportunity for applica-
tion of this solution is in the design of buildings.
Energy consumption for space heating, water heating,
and air conditioning in buildings represents 33 per-
cent of the nation's energy budget exclusive of
transportation. A decrease in consumption by this
sector would contribute much needed relief to the
energy shortage and would significantly decrease
pollutant levels.
OR D-RTF is charged by EPA with developing
methods to control air pollution. Accepting the
correlation between energy supply and environmental
degradation and the relief of some environmental
problems achieved through energy conservation, re-
searchers at ORD-RTP applied the conservation-
protection concept to a large-scale study.
The study, which included an exploration of the
energy conservation techniques and alternate energy
supply technologies currently or soon-to-be available,
resulted in the design of an energy-efficient facility,
in which ORD-RTP research activities could be
conducted. The self-contained prototype structure,
which is essentially non-polluting, answers the needs
of the ORD-RTP operation, achieves a 40 percent
energy savings, and costs no more than a comparable,
more conventional structure to build.
Because of the research activities conducted there-
in, ORD-RTP provides a "worst case" example in
building design. Provision must be made for the
movement of heavy equipment and for the control of
potential infectious agents related to animal research,
of toxic gases, and of hazardous particles. The varied
research projects conducted at RTP require special
36 ANNUAL REPORT 1974
-------
Artist's concept of energy efficient building for research facility.
facilities such as high bay areas, explosion hazard
laboratories, and animal care facilities in addition to
general laboratories and office and administrative
areas.
For this facility, many alternate technologies to
reduce pollution and conserve energy — including
solar collectors to provide space heating and cooling,
fuel cells to produce electricity, and various energy
recovery and storage systems — were found to be
available. Efficient building design, in which effective
insulation and other structural techniques are used
also were found to provide means of saving energy
and, thereby, reducing pollution.
The prototype building was designed with a
minimum of exposed surface area to prevent unneces-
sary heat loss and gain. Forty percent of the structure
is located underground where the natural insulating
qualities of the earth reduce heating and cooling
requirements. Solar-shared windows in the building
allow the early morning sun to warm the interior and
prevent overheating in the afternoon.
Solar collectors form the truncated south wall and
absorb the sun's energy to provide most of the
building's heat. Efficient, refrigerant-type heat sys-
tems allow economic energy utilization. Storage
media, such as water, rocks, metallic sodium, or
eutectic salts, prevent waste by retaining surplus
energy until needed. Fuel cells, used to produce
electricity, provide a non-polluting alternative to
electric power generating plants.
The compact building, which contains office,
general laboratory, and special laboratory areas,
consists of nine upper levels, a plaza, and two
underground levels. Office areas are located under the
solar collector wall, and modular laboratories form
the north and west walls. The two lower levels project
beyond the main building and house special services
laboratories, high bay areas, explosion hazard labora-
tories, shops, and mechanical equipment storage
areas. The lobby and administrative offices make up
the plaza level.
Effective design provides for the efficient distribu-
tion of services within the structure. A mechanical
service corridor parallels the north and west walls
providing access to equipment as well as extra
insulation for the laboratory area. Horizontal ducting
carries the air to the offices and recirculates it
through the laboratories for maximum heating and
cooling efficiency. Fresh air supplied directly to
laboratory exhaust hoods further reduces the demand
on the ventilation system. Systems, located in the
ducting, recover heat from the air before it is expelled
through the exhaust shaft. These heat recovery
systems, such as heat wheels and heat pipes, transfer
heat from the warm exhaust air to the cooler intake
air. Other systems recover as much as 80 percent of
the heat dissipated by lighting fixtures. This heat,
redistributed throughout the building, reduces de-
mand on primary heating systems. During warm
periods, lighting is a prime source of heat gain, and
these recovery systems reduce the building cooling
load by as much as 40 percent.
The adoption of energy-effective building design,
the incorporation of efficient, non-polluting energy
supply alternatives, and the utilization of energy
recovery and storage systems are available methods of
reducing energy demand and consumption. This
prototype facility is an example of the energy savings
and environmental benefits that can be achieved by
proper design. The energy supply systems proposed
for the structure operate at high efficiencies and
reduce the need for fossil fuel combustion with its
attendant high pollutant emission rates. Energy con-
servation through the use of high efficiency energy
Special Features
37
-------
supply systems, alternate energy supplies such as solar
energy, waste energy recovery systems, and energy
storage will result in energy savings of at least 40
percent. Air pollution from energy supply is reduced
to essentially zero.
Economic savings are also a part of this design.
The initial cost is equal to or less than that of a
conventional structure, and the 40 percent savings in
energy expenditures allows the initial construction
costs to be recovered within the life of the structure.
A structure encompassing the technologies utilized
in the prototype facility described by the study is
proposed for EPA in Research Triangle Park. Con-
struction of this facility would result in the achieve-
ment of significant savings in energy and reduction in
pollution because of the building design and the
integration of fossil-fuel-free energy technologies.
With widespread use, such structures will provide a
solution to many of our current pollution and energy
problems.
Air is carried to the office areas and recirculated through the laboratories for maximum heating and cooling efficiency
38
ANNUAL REPORT 1974
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LEGISLATIVE
MANDATES
-------
l-l v\"
* \
-------
LEGISLATIVE
MANDATES
ACTIVITIES OF ORD-RTP ARE EITHER in
response to explicit mandates given in legislative acts
or derived from language that requires the initiation
of certain programs to carry out the intent of those
mandates.
Brief narratives summarizing the activities of the ap-
propriate ORD-RTP Laboratories in response to perti-
nent Sections of the Clean Air Act, the Public Health
Service Act, the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic
Act, and the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and
Rodenticide Act are presented below. Fiscal resources
allocated to these seven Laboratories to carry out
specific portions of the relevant Congressional Acts
are summarized in Tables 4, 5, and 6.
Clean Air Act
Activities of ORD-RTP units are responsive to at
least 13 Sections of the Clean Air Act: 103, 104, 108
through 113, 202, 211, 303, 312, and 313. The
following portion of this section of this Report
outlines each of the Sections and relates them to the
activities of ORD-RTP laboratories.
Research activities conducted at ORD-RTP are based
on explicit en vironmental mandates of the Congress of
the United States.
SECTION 103: "RESEARCH,
INVESTIGATION, TRAINING,
AND OTHER ACTIVITIES"
The essential feature of Section 103 is the require-
ment for EPA to establish a national research and
development program for the prevention and control
of air pollution. In addition to the conduct of
in-house research studies, surveys, etc., the require-
ments include provision of assistance to other public
and private agencies and institutions to conduct
experiments, studies, demonstrations, and training
activities, as well as technical services relating to the
causes, effects, extent, and control of air pollution.
To help meet these requirements, the Act authorizes
EPA to establish technical advisory committees; to
cooperate with and utilize the resources of other
Federal, public, and private facilities; to make re-
search grants and contracts; and to develop practical
processes and methods for air pollution control. EPA
is to emphasize short- and long-term effects of air
pollutants on health and welfare by epidemiological,
clinical, and laboratory studies.
Table 4 indicates that the largest category of
activities at ORD-RTP is that which involves carrying
out the mandates imposed by this Section of the
Clean Air Act. All but one of the Laboratories are
involved to some degree; over 90 percent of the
resources of the Human Studies Laboratory (HSL)
and the Meteorology Laboratory (ML) are so commit-
ted.
Legislative Mandates
41
-------
Table 4. SUMMARY OF RESOURCES EXPENDED BY ORD-RTP TO MEET LEGISLATIVE
MANDATES OF CLEAN AIR ACT FOR FISCAL YEAR 1975
($103)
Section
of Act
103
104
108
109
110
111
112
113
202
211
303
312
313
Support
Total
Laboratory3
OD
3,462
3,462
SSS
510
367
1,064
10
1,951
HSL
11,231
11,231
EBL
2,160
2,160
CPL
956
1,808
901
1,922
1,959
516
758
1,520
333
10,673
QAEML
1,115
107
1,485
525
415
173
310
180
4,310
ML
3,268
330
33
50
3,681
CSL
3,329
2,929
1,598
1,598
3,035
799
27
13,315
Total
22,569
2,929
3,880
901
5,335
5,519
1,730
173
758
2,894
33
27
573
3,462
50,783
Office of the Director (OD), Special Studies Staff (SSS), Human Studies Laboratory (HSL), Experimental
Biology Laboratory (EBL), Chemistry and Physics Laboratory (CPL), Quality Assurance and Environmental
Monitoring Laboratory (QAEML), Meteorology Laboratory (ML), Control Systems Laboratory (CSL).
Table 5. SUMMARY OF RESOURCES EXPENDED BY ORD-RTP
TO MEET LEGISLATIVE MANDATES OF PHSA, FIFRA, AND FWPCAa
($103)
Act
PHSA
(Section 241)
FIFRA
(as amended)
FWPCA
(Section 104)
Total
Office of
the Director
121
402
40
563
Human Studies
Laboratory
389
547
936
Experimental Biology
Laboratory
1,450
85
1,535
Pesticides and Toxic
Substances Effects
Laboratory
5,298
5,298
Total
1,960
487
5,885
8,332
aPublic Health Service Act (PHSA); Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA); Federal
Water Pollution Control Act (FWPCA).
42
ANNUAL REPORT 1974
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Table 6. SUMMARY OF ORD-RTP SPECIAL ENERGY
APPROPRIATIONS FOR FISCAL YEAR 1975
($103)
Energy Appropriation
Human Studies
Laboratory
3,300
Experimental Biology
Laboratory
1,940
Chemistry and
Physics
Laboratory
2,065
Control Systems
Laboratory
46,500
Total
53,805
The Special Studies Staff (SSS) is concerned with
the preparation, assessment, and dissemination of
scientific and technical documents and publications
related to air pollution research and control activities
impinging upon the total research and development
program, as well as on specific aspects commensurate
with several provisions of this Section of the Act.
The effort of the Chemistry and Physics Labora-
tory (CPL) in this area deals primarily with studies
relating to analytical methodology and atmospheric
chemistry research.
The Control Systems Laboratory (CSL) conducts
research to characterize emissions of pollutants,
evaluate control technology, predict future needs,
and develop and demonstrate the most promising and
cost-effective control methods for stationary sources.
The Experimental Biology Laboratory (EBL) in-
vestigates the effects of gaseous and particulate
pollutants on biological species, i.e., whole animal,
organ, cellular, and sub-cellular components. Particu-
lar emphasis is given to effects on pulmonary defense
mechanisms and pulmonary carcinogenesis and on the
influence of interactions between coexisting pollut-
ants and various physical factors upon these re-
sponses.
The development and conduct of studies designed
to define relationships between environmental pollut-
ants (singly or in combination) and specific undesir-
able health effects is the prime objective of HSL
activities. Emphasis is given to the development of
bases for ambient air and emission standards compati-
ble with desirable aspirations for human health and
welfare, and an evaluation of the health benefits that
could be achieved. The assessment of adverse health
effects and the economic costs that might result from
any future revision of air quality standards is also a
part of the HSL program.
The activities of ML focus upon research relating
to the transport and dispersion of air pollutants, their
effects on weather, visibility, and climate; and the
relationship between weather factors and pollution.
Dispersion model development and climatic analysis
investigations improve understanding of the physical
processes involved in (1) the relationships between
source strength and receptor dosage, (2) the ultimate
disposition (fate) of pollutants in the atmosphere,
and (3) the delineation of a national climatology of
the potential for adverse accumulations of air pollut-
ants.
QAEML engages in the evaluation, testing, and
standardization of methodologies for surveying the
extent of air pollution as well as in the development
of quality control procedures to ensure comparability
of data wherever collected in the United States and
for whatever purpose.
SECTION 104: "RESEARCH
RELATING TO FUELS
AND VEHICLES"
Section 104 charges EPA with the responsibility
for conducting and supporting research into the
development, laboratory and pilot testing, and de-
monstration of improved methods for the prevention
and control of air pollution from combustion of
fuels.
Activities by CSL under this mandate include the
development of techniques for the reduction of
nitrogen oxide emissions from combustion processes
and the demonstration of commercially feasible
means for the reduction of significant pollutants from
coke oven emissions. Possibilities for effective, low-
cost processes for cleaning coal are of current
concern.
SECTION 108: "AIR QUALITY
CRITERIA AND CONTROL
TECHNIQUES"
EPA is required by Section 108 to ascertain those
pollutants judged to have an adverse effect on public
health and welfare and maintain an up-to-date list
that it publishes from time to time. Air quality
criteria for these pollutants must then be issued
presenting the latest scientific knowledge on the kind
Legislative Mandates
43
-------
and extent of identifiable effects that may be
expected from varying concentrations of the pollut-
ants in ambient air. Along with these criteria,
information on air pollution control techniques or
methods must be issued, including data on alternate
fuels and processes that will result in elimination or
significant reduction of the pollutant emissions.
Preparation of the criteria and scientific summary
documents that serve as the legally defensible basis
for the development of control strategies and the
promulgation of ambient air quality standards is the
responsibility of the Special Studies Staff.
A major program in CPL is the development of
analytical methods and instruments to be used in
health and welfare studies to aid in the evaluation or
revision of air quality criteria. Also, considerable
effort is going into the development of measurement
technology for pollutants that may be considered
candidates for air quality criteria, e.g., fine particles.
In support of this Section, CSL is evaluating new
and existing stationary source control technology
procedures on a continuing basis.
QAEML maintains the capability to evaluate meth-
odologies and undertake surveys to obtain scientific
information needed by the developers of the criteria
documents.
SECTION 109: "NATIONAL
AMBIENT AIR QUALITY
STANDARDS"
For each pollutant for which an air quality criteria
document has been issued, Section 109 of the Act
requires that national primary and secondary ambient
air quality standards be set. Primary standards con-
cern the minimum level of air quality necessary to
prevent adverse health effects; secondary standards
are aimed at the prevention of adverse effects on
"welfare"; e.g., plants, animals, materials, and cli-
mate.
Considerable effort in support of the standards is
being made in CPL, particularly to further define the
atmospheric relationships involving hydrocarbons and
oxidants. Development of continuous measurement
instrumentation for nitrogen dioxide (one of the
pollutants for which standards have been set) and the
evaluation of the reference method for measurement
have been accomplished.
SECTION 110:
"IMPLEMENTATION PLANS"
In accordance with a prescribed time schedule.
Section 110 requires each state to prepare and submit
to EPA a plan that provides for the implementation,
maintenance, and enforcement of the primary and
secondary ambient air standards promulgated in
accordance with Section 109. In turn, EPA must
make a thorough examination and evaluation of the
plan's adequacy in technical concept and allocated
resources. If a state fails to submit such a plan within
the prescribed time, or if the plan is judged to be not
in accordance with the requirements of this Section,
then EPA must prescribe (or revise) a plan that meets
the requirements. Section 110 also includes the steps
and procedures for notices, hearings, or court actions
that must or may be utilized in arriving at the
objectives sought.
CPL is involved here to support development of
chemical and physical air pollution models for reac-
tive pollutants for use in implementation plans,
including site criteria for large area sources.
CSL's role is primarily in providing expert testi-
mony relating to the availability of air pollution
control technology that could be incorporated in the
implementation plans as they relate to the abatement
of pollutants from specific sources.
ML provides direct assistance in the evaluation of
the meteorological (i.e., transport and dispersion)
portions of implementation plans.
QAEML activities support this Section by the
evaluation and standardization of methods of meas-
urement for the pollutants for which standards have
been set, and by the development and dissemination
of quality control procedures for the standardized
methods.
SECTION 111: "STANDARDS OF
PERFORMANCE FOR
NEW STATIONARY SOURCES"
The emission of pollutants from new stationary
sources must be regulated under Section 111 of the
Act. Categories of such sources are to be estab-
lished, and uniform national standards that would
require application of the best available control
technology, considering the cost, for air pollution
prevention must be set. EPA must also determine the
procedure that the states are to follow in setting
emission standards for existing stationary sources.
Extensive support is provided by CPL in verifying
and improving the reference methods of emission
measurements and in developing performance criteria
for the determination of compliance with the new
source performance standards.
CSL evaluates the state-of-the-art air pollution
control technology for various stationary sources and,
based on projected future control needs, develops
new control technology.
44
ANNUAL REPORT 1974
-------
QAEML provides support here in a manner analog-
ous to that for Section 110, again by the evaluation
and standardization of measurement methods and by
the development and dissemination of quality control
procedures for the standardized methods.
SECTION 1 12: "NATIONAL
EMISSION STANDARDS FOR
HAZARDOUS AIR POLLUTANTS"
pollutant from new motor vehicles that is likely to
endanger public health or welfare. Section 202 also
delineates a time schedule for achieving a large (90
percent) reduction in carbon monoxide and hydro-
carbons; additionally, the Section outlines a certifica-
tion plan for ensuring compliance with the standards
by the manufacturers.
CPL provides support in development of emission
protocols for fuel additive effects and in characteriza-
tion of emissions from vehicles either equipped with
control devices or utilizing alternate power systems.
Section 112 gives EPA the authority to set national
emission standards for hazardous air pollutants, de-
fined as materials discharged into the atmosphere that
have a proven relationship with increased mortality
rates, or with incapacitating or serious illness.
CPL is responsible for developing the analytical
methodology for the national emission standards for
hazardous materials. Improved sampling and analysis
methods are under development for a number of
substances including asbestos, mercury, and polycy-
clic organic matter.
The identification of all air pollutants from sta-
tionary sources is included in the programs of CSL.
As the need for control is indicated, the best
technological possibilities and the most cost-effective
approaches are sought through related research pro-
grams.
Again, QAEML support is in terms of measure-
ment methods standardization and quality control
procedures. Technical assistance to other EPA units is
also rendered to obtain data to assist in the determi-
nation of what constitutes a hazardous pollutant.
SECTION 113: "FEDERAL
ENFORCEMENT"
The legal actions that EPA must take in the event
that violations of an implementation plan are en-
countered are contained in Section 113. This Section
also cites penalties to be assessed for non-compliance
with the Administrator's orders.
QAEML maintains a limited rapid-response capa-
bility to assist in the collection of data for purposes
of Federal enforcement.
SECTION 202: "ESTABLISHMENT
OF STANDARDS"
In accordance with the provisions of Section 202,
EPA must establish standards of emission for any
SECTION 211-."REGULATION
OF FUELS"
Section 211 stipulates that no fuel or fuel additive
may be offered for sale until the manufacturer has
notified EPA of the product's chemical composition
and EPA registers the product. If the fuel or additive
endangers public health or interferes with the per-
formance of anti-pollution devices, its use may be
restricted or banned. EPA may require tests by the
manufacturer to determine such effects.
The fuel and fuel additive registration program is
one of the areas of responsibility of the Special
Studies Staff. This program involves information
retrieval activities in addition to the conduct of
research programs to develop protocols that will
allow the valid assessment of the effect of fuel
components on emission products.
CPL develops emission protocols for fuel additive
effects and characterizes the emissions from vehicles
equipped with control devices and advanced alternate
power systems.
The support of this Section by QAEML is in the
development and evaluation of methods of analysis
and in the collection and analysis of fuel samples.
SECTION 303: "EMERGENCY
POWERS"
Section 303 provides EPA with the authority to
act immediately to restrain the emission of pollutants
presenting an imminent and substantial danger to the
health of persons when appropriate state or local
authorities have not acted to abate such sources.
ML provides direct meteorological support for the
assessment of weather factors and consequences in
actual or potential emergency or accidental air
pollution episodes.
Legislative Mandates
45
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SECTION 312:
COMPREHENSIVE ECONOMIC
COST STUDIES"
Included in Section 312 is the requirement for
EPA to make a comprehensive study of the economic
impact of air quality standards as well as an
analysis of the national requirements for, and the cost
of, controlling emissions to attain those standards.
In this connection, CSL undertakes research and
demonstration projects leading to the development of
comprehensive data relating to the cost of various air
pollution control techniques.
SECTION 313: 'ADDITIONAL
REPORTS TO CONGRESS"
The Administrator is required to submit annual
reports to Congress giving the progress made in
implementing the purpose and intent of the Clean Air
Act (and amendments). Included must be statements
of the (1) status of enforcement actions, (2) progress
on control techniques, and (3) standards set or under
consideration.
The Special Studies Staff has a major responsi-
bility in the preparation of such reports to Congress
and in the identification of problems and additional
research efforts that should be brought to the
attention of that body.
CPL provides input to the progress reports to
Congress on air quality and emission instrumentation
and on emission standards for moving vehicles.
ML contributes to these reports by interpreting
the effects of weather and climatic factors on existing
or proposed air pollution control strategies to ensure
that the effects of abatement actions can be isolated
from natural variations.
Air quality and emissions data, as well as measure-
ment methods developments, by QAEML are often
included in the reports to Congress.
Public Health
Service Act
SECTION 241: "RESEARCH AND
INVESTIGATIONS"
Section 241 of the Public Health Service Act
authorizes research, investigations, experiments, de-
monstrations, and studies relating to the causes,
diagnosis, treatment, control, and prevention of
physical and mental diseases and impairments of man.
Under this broad charge, EPA has the responsibility
to provide Federal guidance on both ionizing and
non-ionizing radiation problems affecting health. This
responsibility includes the authority to establish
environmental standards for safe levels of radioactive
materials.
The Experimental Biology Laboratory conducts an
extensive program on the known and potential health
effects of electromagnetic non-ionizing radiation and
ionizing radiation; studies involving the latter are
centered about the potential health effects of tritium
and krypton-85, both of which are major potential
effluents from nuclear fuel reprocessing plants.
Epidemiologic studies on the effects of exposures
from radioactive materials in Japan are under the
jurisdiction of HSL.
FDCA and
FIFRA
Provisions of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cos-
metic Act and the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and
Rodenticide Act, taken together, seek to protect the
safety of the nation's food supply by preventing
contamination that might arise through the use of
chemical controls to protect crops and livestock from
pests and diseases. These provisions require the
registration (with EPA) of all such "poisons" as well
as the filing of all test results and claims made for
them. Also required by these Acts is the establish-
ment of tolerances for pesticides in or on both human
and animal food; this responsibility has been dele-
gated to EPA. This provision means that "registration
for use" of a pesticide that would leave a residue on
a food or feed crop is granted only when a tolerance
established by EPA has been satisfied. Interstate
shipment of non-registered products is prohibited.
The entire resources of the Pesticides and Toxic
Substances Effects Laboratory (PTSEL) are devoted
to support of the responsibilities delegated to EPA to
carry out provisions of these Acts. The resources are
devoted primarily to research activities to support
registration decisions and to determine and analyze
levels of pesticide residues in or on agricultural
products. In particular, data from acute, subacute,
and chronic studies of laboratory animals and ex-
posed human subjects are used to augment basic
knowledge for continued registration of toxic sub-
stances for use in the United States.
46
ANNUAL REPORT 1974
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RESEARCH
ACTIVITIES
In this Section, the seven Laboratories that comprised
the National Environmental Research Center at Re-
search Triangle Park are presented under the new
four-laboratory organizational structure of the Office
of Research and Development-Research Triangle Park
described in the Preface.
-------
I I :.
-------
Health
Effects
Research
Laboratory
-------
"**** «P
-------
Special
Studies
Staff
OVERVIEW
OF SSS MISSION
The Special Studies Staff is engaged in activities in
three major technical areas: (1) preparation of air
quality criteria documents and scientific and techni-
cal assessment reports involving pollutant characteri-
zation, (2) fuel and fuel additive registration and
vehicular emission research, and (3) participation in
or coordination of ORD-RTP international activities.
In addition, the Staff carries out various ad hoc,
short-term projects.
ORGANIZATION
The Special Studies Staff, functioning under the
general guidance of a Director, concentrates on two
subject areas—Pollutant Characterization and Fuels
and Fuel Additives Registration.
To meet its responsibilities in pollutant charac-
terization, fuels and fuel additives registration, and
international activities, the Special Studies Staff
emphasizes both extramural tasks with supporting
in-house activities to obtain basic and background
information, and direction and coordination of in-
house ORD-RTP task force activities concerning
preparation of multidisciplinary and multimedia
environmental pollutant scientific and technical
assessment reports.
Pollutant Characterization
Personnel involved in the pollutant characteriza-
tion program produce technical documentation to be
used in decision-making regarding pollution control.
This group assists international organizations in pre-
paring similar technical documentation. Involvement
begins with a search for basic information and
extends through publication of the document. The
Staff Director coordinates ORD-RTP's international
activities.
Fuels and Fuel Additives
Registration
Giemsa-stained, human skin fibroblasts are shown
(magnified) after 1-day exposure in control culture.
The Fuels and Fuel Additives Registration group is
involved in receiving and storing information from
manufacturers as required by law and registering their
products. Personnel also assist in the development of
related regulations and guide research carried out
external to the immediate group.
Research Activities
51
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NERC-RTP
DIRECTOR
SPECIAL STUDIES
STAFF
MAJOR PROGRAM AREAS
Pollutant Characterization
The pollutant characterization activities of the
Special Studies Staff provide documentation critically
reviewing, evaluating, comparing, interpreting, and
summarizing pertinent literature and reports. This
documentation leads to the (1) revision of existing
criteria documents or the preparation of additional
scientific and technical assessment reports concerning
air quality effects of currently non-regulated environ-
mental pollutants, (2) identification of the need for
additional research required to produce adequate
criteria for issuing or revising standards, and (3) prep-
aration of briefing reports that address new areas of
environmental concern that are not already part of an
integrated program.
Air quality criteria, as defined by the Clean Air
Act, are compilations of the latest available scientific
information on the sources, prevalence, and manifes-
tations of recognized air pollutants. Most impor-
tantly, these criteria describe the effects that have
been associated with, or may be expected from, an air
pollutant level in excess of a specific concentration
for a specific time period. Such effects generally
involve visibility reduction, damage to materials,
economic costs, vegetation damage, nuisance aspects,
and adverse effects on the health and well-being of
humans and animals. Air Quality Criteria serve as the
basis for national ambient air quality standards.
The scientific and technical assessment reports
serve two very important purposes. They summarize
the scientific knowledge base for administrative deci-
sions regarding the need and strategy for control, and
they provide important input for research and devel-
opment program plans. In view of their widespread
distribution, these documents also serve as an impor-
tant communications link with other EPA offices,
other agencies, and special-interest groups. In order to
serve these purposes, they must be functional docu-
ments, clearly and concisely written.
Assessment reports are prepared under the super-
vision of the Special Studies Staff by task forces
made up of staff members from the Laboratories at
RTP and from the other ORD locations. The reports
are based on a standard outline to ensure inclusion of
available information on the following items:
• Chemical and physical properties.
• Measurement techniques applied to various
environmental compartments (e.g., air, water,
and soil), sources, and (when pertinent) biologi-
cal samples.
• Origin and abundance.
• Concentrations in air, water, soil, plants,
animals and humans, and microorganisms.
• Transformations and transport.
• Environmental exposure.
• Mechanisms of exposure.
• Physiological response.
• Undersirable effects on humans, animals,
vegetation, materials, weather, visibility, cli-
mate, and land and water resources.
• Control technology and remedial actions.
• Current research and development activities.
These reports are generally based on review materi-
al provided by panels of experts assembled by the
National Academy of Sciences (NAS) under contract
with the Special Studies Staff, although other organi-
zations have provided similar resources. Supple-
mentary information is used as available and required.
When no basic review document is available, the basic
literature is searched.
Basic review documents are being prepared by
NAS on vapor-phase organic matter, chlorine, sele-
nium, copper, zinc, arsenic, and the platinum-group
heavy metals. In keeping with timely review of
criteria documents, NAS is preparing reviews on
carbon monoxide, photochemical oxidants, nitrogen
oxides, and fine particulate matter. NAS recently
submitted to the Special Studies Staff reports on
nickel, chromium, and vanadium. Task forces are
currently preparing reports on vanadium, chromium,
nickel, nitrates, vinyl chloride, and lead from station-
ary sources.
Reports on particulate, polycyclic organic matter,
sulfates and sulfuric acid aerosols, polychlorinated
52
ANNUAL REPORT 1974
-------
biphenyls, cadmium, and manganese are.now being
finalized prior to publication.
The Special Studies Staff completed a review and
revision of the vegetation effects chapter of Air
Quality Criteria for Sulfur Oxides in 1973, requiring
EPA review of the secondary standards for sulfur
oxides that led to the standards' revision. The Special
Studies Staff has also prepared and presented brief-
ings for EPA's Office of Research and Development
(ORD) on fine particulate matter and nitrates.
Scientific and technical assessment reports are to
be prepared for selenium, chlorine/hydrochloric acid,
arsenic, vapor-phase organic matter, copper, zinc, and
platinum-group heavy metals. A briefing document
on particulates from mobile emissions is also to be
prepared. The air quality criteria documents for
nitrogen oxides, photochemical oxidants, hydro-
carbons, sulfur oxides, particulates, and carbon
monoxide are to be updated and/or revised.
Fuels and Fuel Additives
Registration
The Fuels and Fuel Additives Registration pro-
gram, reorganized in Fiscal Year 1974, involves
registration, emissions characterization, toxicological
testing, human studies, fuel surveillance and analysis,
health and welfare effects, and the development of
related effects protocols. These subject areas provide
a complex, interrelated, multidisciplinary technical
program, the objective of which is to ensure the
continued protection of the public health and welfare
as it relates to the mobile source emissions control
program, and the effects that fuels, fuel additives,
advanced control devices, and alternate power sys-
tems have thereon. The development and review of
this integrated program, which is the responsibility of
the Special Studies Staff, includes the review, evalua-
tion, and reporting of data collected and proposals
for necessary action.
Registration—Add\t\ves used in gasoline intro-
duced into interstate commerce must be registered
with EPA. At the present time, some 373 such
additives are registered in a number of chemical
classifications.
Emission Characterization—Characterization of
both regulated and non-regulated exhaust pollutants
and the effect of fuel components and fuel additives
thereon are essential to provide the preliminary
information required to assess potential adverse ef-
fects of such fuel components or additives on
emissions and emission control device performance.
In addition, detailed characterization of exhaust
products resulting from combustion of fuels with and
without additives and of products emanating from
catalytic control devices and alternate power systems
is essential in order to provide the data necessary to
conduct meaningful health effects studies.
A result of this program has been a reassessment of
the public health benefit related to the use of
oxidation catalysts on mobile sources and the atten-
dant increase in levels of potentially hazardous
non-regulated emissions.
Emissions Effects Protocols—EPA may require
that tests be conducted by any fuel or fuel additive
manufacturer to ascertain the effects of such fuel or
fuel additive on both emissions and control device
performance. Such tests are to be based on protocols
specified by the Administrator and are largely exten-
sions of the research programs outlined previously
under Emission Characterization.
Surveillance—Collection and analysis of commer-
cial fuels, crankcase oils, and diesel fuels are essential
to ensure both the valadity of the registration
information upon which the research program is
based and the dependable performance of consumer-
operated advanced control systems that already have
been shown to be sensitive to particular fuel and oil
components and additives. This activity is just getting
under way.
Health Effects Assessment—The Agency is devel-
oping the health intelligence necessary to ensure that
public health is protected by the mobile source
emissions control program. Available serviceable toxi-
cologic models and human exposure study techniques
can provide a reasonable data base for decision-
making. Although a hierarchical screening system has
not been developed, there is no doubt that such a
system would be most valuable in obtaining answers
to key health questions more rapidly. The program
gives immediate priority to toxicologic assessment
(using simple and relatively rapid techniques) of new
compounds believed likely to occur in auto emissions.
International Activities
The Special Studies Staff fills a dual role in
international activities, not only serving as the ORD-
RTP focal point for international activities, but also
providing direct assistance in developing criteria
reports and other documents. The Staff also provides
a number of .miscellaneous services including arrang-
ing briefings for international scientists, responding to
inquiries and receiving and channeling research pro-
posals to appropriate Laboratories.
World Health Organization-Since 1971, the
ORD-RTP has served as the WHO International
Reference Center for Air Pollution Control. The
Special Studies Staff makes a sizeable contribution to
WHO under the terms of the Reference Center
Agreement, including coordination of the yearly
contractual agreement, providing temporary advisers
on a fairly frequent basis, assisting Laboratories in
fulfilling the tasks they have agreed to perform under
Research Activities
53
-------
The Special Studies Staff documents the latest available scientific information on the sources, prevalence, and
manifestations of recognized air pollutants.
the contract, and finally, contributing directly to
criteria and assessment documents — or, in some
cases, contributing entire documents. During 1974
the staff contributed documents entitled Environ-
mental Health Criteria for Manganese and its Com-
pounds and Environmental Health Criteria for Poly-
clorinated Bi- and Terphenyls for the WHO Environ-
mental Health Criteria Programme.
Organization for Economic Cooperation and
Dei/e/opme/7f-Contributions to various efforts of the
OECD are made as requested. Most recently, the
Special Studies Staff contributed information to a
three-nation comparative study on the use of criteria
and effects data as a basis for decision-making in
pollutant control. The Staff prepared a paper entitled
"Case History on the Use of Criteria and Effects Data
as the Basis for Decisions on the Control of Sulfur
Dioxide in the United States" and participated in the
writing of a collaborative study report.
Pan-American Medical Association—The Director
of the Special Studies Staff has accepted appointment
as Secretary of the new PAMA section on Environ-
mental Health Sciences. Duties will include recom-
mending appropriate members and vice presidents,
and participating in planning of PAMA Congresses.
U. S.-Federal Republic of Germany—Members of
the Special Studies Staff have been involved in the
progress of the U. S.-Federal Republic of Germany
(FRG) Agreement for a number of years. During
1974, the Staff met with a representative of the FRG
Ministry of the Interior and, in response to this
meeting, provided the FRG with reports on particu-
late polycyclic organic matter, polychlorinated
biphenyls, cadmium, manganese, and vanadium.
Special Foreign Currency Program—Direction of
Public Law 480 projects is distributed throughout
ORD-RTP according to subject matter of the agree-
ment. (Public Law 480 provides for research en-
deavors in foreign countries using currencies from the
sale of surplus U.S. agricultural commodities). One of
the projects being carried out in Yugoslavia is
appropriate to the assessment goals of the Special
Studies Staff, which provides the project's direction.
This study considers the effects of manganese on a
selected population, including factory workers.
Internation Contracts—The Karolinska Institute is
under contract to provide reviews on the toxicity of
several metals, including cadmium, mercury, anti-
mony, cobalt, and molybdenum.
54
ANNUAL REPORT 1974
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Scientific and Technical Assessment Reports describe
environmental pollutants.
LEGISLATIVE MANDATES
The legislative mandates upon which the Special
Studies Staff's programs are based and the various
sections of the Clean Air Act requiring Staff support
are shown below with a brief description of the types
of activities engaged in to support the mandate and
the Act.
"RESEARCH, INVESTIGATION, TRAINING, AND
OTHER ACTIVITIES
"Sec. 103. (a) The Administrator shall establish a national
research and development program for the prevention
and control of air pollution ...
"(b) In carrying out the provisions of the pre-
ceding subsection the Administrator is authorized to-
"(1) collect and make available ... the results of
and other information, including appropriate recom-
mendations by him in connection therewith, per-
taining to such research and other activities. ..
"(7) collect and disseminate .. . basic data on
chemical, physical, and biological effects of varying air
quality and other information pertaining to air pollu-
tion and the prevention thereof ...
"(c) In carrying out the provisions of subsection
(a) of this section the Administrator shall conduct
research on, and survey the results of other scientific
studies on, the harmful effects on the health or
welfare of persons by the various known air pol-
lutants ...
"AIR QUALITY CRITERIA AND CONTROL TECH-
NIQUES
"Sec. 108. (a) ... (2) The Administrator shall issue air
quality criteria for an air pollutant. .. Air quality
criteria for an air pollutant shall accurately reflect the
latest scientific knowledge useful in indicating the
kind and extent of all identifiable effects on public
health or welfare which may be expected from the
presence of such pollutant in the ambient air, in
varying quantities .. .
"(b) (1) Simultaneously with the issuance of
criteria under subsection (a), the Administrator shall
,.. issue ... information on air pollution control
techniques ... Such information shall include such
data as are available on available technology and
alternative methods of prevention and control of air
pollution ...
"(c) The Administrator shall from time to time
review, and, as appropriate, modify, and reissue any
criteria or information on control techniques issued
pursuant to this section ...
"ADDITIONAL REPORTS TO CONGRESS
"Sec. 313 ... the Administrator shall report to the Con-
gress on measures taken toward implementing the
purpose and intent of this Act including, but not
limited to... (2) the development of air quality
criteria and recommended emission control require-
ments ... (4) the status of State ambient air standards
setting, including such plans for implementation and
enforcement as have been developed . .."
As indicated above. Sections 103, 108, and 313 of
the 1970 Clean Air Act Amendments permit EPA's
Administrator to require the preparation of scienti-
fically sound assessment or criteria documents to
serve as the legally defensible basis for both the
development of control strategies and the promul-
gation of standards. The preparation of criteria
documents and scientific and technical assessment
reports by this Staff contributes to the requirement
of these sections of the Act.
Characterization of pollutants consists of critically
reviewing, evaluating, comparing, and interpreting
pertinent literature to revise present, or prepare
additional, air quality criteria documents and prepare
scientific and technical assessment reports that serve
as the scientific basis of control strategies and related
standards. These documents are also required to
identify the need of additional research for producing
adequate criteria for issuing or revising standards.
"REGULATION OF FUELS
"Sec. 211. (a) The Administrator may by regulation
designate any fuel or fuel additive and ... no manu-
facturer or processor of any such fuel or additive may
sell, offer for sale, or introduce into commerce such
fuel or additive unless the Administrator has registered
such fuel or additive in accordance with subsection (b)
of this section.
Research Activities
55
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"(b) (1) For the purpose of registration of fuels
and fuel additives, the Administrator shall require—
"(A) the manufacturer of any fuel to notify him as
to the commercial identifying name and manufacturer
of any additive contained in such fuels . . .
"(B) to furnish . . . such other information as is
reasonable and necessary to determine the emissions
resulting from the use of the fuel or additive contained
in such fuel, the effect of such fuel or additive on the
emission control performance of any vehicle or vehicle
engine, or the extent to which such emissions affect
the public health or welfare . . .
"(c) (DThe Administrator may, from time to
time on the basis of information obtained under
subsection (b) of this section . . . control or prohibit
the manufacture, introduction into commerce, offer-
ing for sale, or sale of any fuel or fuel additive for use
in a motor vehicle or motor vehicle engine . . ."
Sections 211 (a) and (b) of the 1970 Clean Air Act
Amendments permit the Administrator to require the
registration of fuels and fuel additives as a pre-
requisite to sale. These sections also permit the
Administrator to require, as a prerequisite to registra-
tion, that tests be conducted by the manufacturer to
determine the effect of such fuels or fuel additives on
emissions (regulated and non-regulated), the perform-
ance of emissions control devices, public health, and
public welfare. Such tests are to be conducted on the
basis of protocols established by the Administrator.
Section 211 (c) provides that any registered fuel or
fuel additive may be restricted or prohibited based
upon adverse effects observed from such tests or from
other such information available to the Admin-
istrator.
The Special Studies Staff's fuels and fuel additives
program consists of registration and information
retrieval activities in addition to conducting research
programs to develop protocols that will allow the
valid assessment of the effect of fuel components and
fuel additives on emission products (both regulated
and non-regulated), performance of emission control
devices, atmospheric loadings and transformations,.
and public health and welfare.
By contractural agreement with the World Health
Organization (WHO), EPA was established as WHO's
International Reference Center for Air Pollution
Control (IRCAPC). The responsibility for responding
to WHO requests was assigned to ORD-RTP by EPA's
Assistant Administrator for Research and Develop-
ment who is also the Director of WHO-IRCAPC.
The Special Studies Staff's international activities
consist of providing direct technical assistance and
liaison to international organizations in preparing
international environmental pollutant criteria and
guidelines as well as coordinating other ORD-RTP
involvement with the WHO, the Organization for
Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD),
NATO's Committee on the Challenges of Modern
Society, the Special Foreign Currency Program, the
World Meteorological Organization (WMO), the
Economic Commission for Europe, and the Com-
mission of the European Communities.
Special Studies Staff resources are summarized in
Table 7.
Table 7. SUMMARY OF RESOURCES FOR SPECIAL STUDIES STAFF
FOR FISCAL YEAR 1975
Section of Clean Air
Act supported
103
108
211
313
Total
Funds, $103
510
367
1,064
10
1,951
56
ANNUAL REPORT 1974
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Human
Studies
Laboratory
OVERVIEW
OF HSL MISSION
The mission of the Human Studies Laboratory is
to define the influence of environmental stress on
human health so that appropriate steps can be taken
to meet the requirements of the Clean Air Act. The
Laboratory must also recognize and define new
problem areas in environmental health as new tech-
nologies emerge. In addition, it must provide tech-
nical assistance to the Agency during pollution
emergencies and during public hearings on control
activities.
ORGANIZATION
The HSL is divided into the Office of the Director
and five Branches. The Office of the Director
coordinates all Laboratory activities, develops long-
and short-term research goals, and periodically re-
views the progress of Laboratory programs.
The Epidemiology Branch studies the effects of
pollution on human health and searches for pre-
disposing factors that worsen or contribute to the
development of various diseases. In addition, the
Branch assesses the impact upon health and welfare
of improvements in environmental quality resulting
from efforts to control pollution.
The Biometry Branch is responsible for the design
and analysis of research studies and provides statisti-
cal design and analysis, computer programming, and
data processing services. The Branch conducts re-
search in statistical and computer-oriented areas
related to the mission of the Laboratory.
The Bio-Environmental Measurement Branch con-
ducts a comprehensive program of environmental
measurements of pollutants in controlled laboratory
environments and in ambient polluted environments.
These measurements are related to the physiological
and pathological responses of human subjects ex-
posed to environmental pollutants in bio-medical
laboratory studies and of selected segments of the
populations in epidemiologic studies.
The Clinical Studies Branch conducts laboratory
studies to detect and define effects of environmental
pollutants on human health, to verify correlative
epidemiological findings, and to develop or improve
methodology for application to human health effects
studies in laboratory and in community settings.
The Bio-Environmental Laboratory Branch
(BELB) works in cooperation with the other Branches
of HSL to describe human metabolic response to
pollutant exposure. The BELB program includes
performing chemical analyses of environmental and
biological samples, as well as conducting research to
Research Activities
57
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EPIDEMIOLOGY
BRANCH
BIOMETRY
BRANCH
HUMAN STUDIES
LABORATORY
BIOENVIRONMENTAL
LABORATORY
BRANCH
CLINICAL STUDIES
BRANCH
BIOENVIRONMENTAL
MEASUREMENT
BRANCH
determine appropriate methodology for the analyses
of trace environmental or biological specimens. The
Branch is also developing methods for determining
the level of human exposure to various pollutants.
The objective is to demonstrate a dose/response
relationship for exposure to a given pollutant species
and a specific metabolic parameter prior to perma-
nent or serious injury.
PHYSICAL FACILITIES
The Human Studies Laboratory has facilities at
RTP and in Chapel Hill, North Carolina. Laboratories
in both locations are equipped with the most modern
analytical instruments, including gas/liquid chromato-
graphs, an atomic absorption spectrometer with
heated graphite atomizer, ultra-centrifuges, disc gel
and slab electrophoresis devices, radioactive strip
scanning devices, and liquid scintillation spectro-
meters.
Twenty-three Community Health and Ambient
Monitoring Program (CHAMP) stations are being
updated and equipped with the best technology
available in sensors complemented by automatic
electronic data acquisition with remote magnetic tape
storage and "on-call" telemetric output and visual
field data inspection.
The Clinical Studies Branch is located in the
Clinical Environmental Research Laboratories build-
ing on the periphery of the University of North
Carolina Medical Center complex in Chapel Hill. This
special-purpose building was constructed specifically
to assist in fulfilling EPA medical research objectives
and to provide special-purpose laboratories and sup-
port areas. These special-purpose laboratories include:
• Controlled human exposure facilities in which
varied exposures to air pollutant concentrations
or noise levels can be produced.
• Cardiovascular research facilities for validating
measurement techniques and for obtaining car-
diovascular data from studies on animals and
humans.
• Psychophysiology facilities in which human
behavioral and psychophysiologic studies are
conducted.
• Microbiology facilities in which effects of en-
vironmental stress and human immune mech-
anisms are studied.
• Pulmonary physiology facilities in which new
techniques for human pulmonary function
measurement are developed and validated.
• Clinical metabolism facilities in which routine
and specialized human clinical chemistry
analyses are performed.
• Pulmonary research facilities at the Frank
Porter Graham Child Development Center in
Chapel Hill, the exercise physiology laboratory,
and the pathology laboratories in which spe-
cialized research is conducted.
In addition to the above facilities, HSL has an
optical reader for directly processing health question-
naire data onto magnetic tape and computer termi-
nals that provide direct access to EPA's Computer
Center at RTP.
MAJOR PROGRAM AREAS
HSL research activities are in two major program
areas: field epidemiological studies in ambient pollu-
tion exposure situations and clinical (laboratory)
58
ANNUAL REPORT 1974
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studies on human subjects under experimentally
produced exposure conditions. The various studies
are integrated or complementary in a manner de-
signed to provide the broadest possible response to
the needs of the Agency.
Epidemiologic Studies
The Community Health and Environmental Sur-
veillance System (CHESS) is a nationwide research
project designed to investigate relationships between
air quality and human health. To accomplish this,
standardized epidemiologic studies are currently con-
ducted in 22 communities located in 5 metropolitan
areas across the country. In each, community health
information is collected from individuals and families
residing within 2 miles (3.2 km) of an air monitoring
station.
Among the major objectives of CHESS are the
development of estimates of exposure-response rela-
tionships and injury thresholds for pollutants and the
documentation of changes in health status coincident
with temporal changes in environmental quality. The
ability to accomplish these objectives depends upon
valid quantification of health parameters as well as
precise measurement of exposure.
In early 1974, the results of specific epidemiologic
studies were published in a monograph entitled
Health Consequences of Sulfur Oxides: A Report
from CHESS, 1970-1971. In these studies, a con-
sistent pattern of excess chronic bronchitis prevalence
rates was observed among residents of the more
polluted CHESS communities. In the Salt Lake
(Utah) survey, both smokers and nonsmokers showed
an excess in chronic respiratory disease among males,
and chronic bronchitis rates and symptom scores
(numerical indices of respiratory symptom severity)
were higher among male and female smokers than
among other groups. Moreover, male and female
nonsmokers, exsmokers, and current smokers from
more polluted areas had higher bronchitis rates and
symptom scores than those from less polluted areas.
Among young, white military recruits in the
Chicago, Illinois, area, the contribution of air pollu-
tion to chronic bronchitis rates was relatively much
less than that of cigarette smoking. Even among these
young inductees, however, respiratory symptoms
were more prevalent among persons from more
polluted communities.
In studies conducted in the Salt Lake Basin and
Rocky Mountain CHESS areas, no statistically signifi-
cant association was found between total lower
Research
respiratory disease and air pollution for children
whose parents had been residents of their com-
munities for less than 3 years. For single and repeated
episodes of croup and repeated episodes of any lower
respiratory disease, families of children who had lived
3 or more years in the high-exposure communities
reported more illness across all ages of children from
0 to 13 years than did their counterparts in the less
polluted communities.
Studies of total acute respiratory disease rates
were also conducted among families in Chicago and
New York. These CHESS findings showed that a
consistent excess in acute respiratory disease was
reported among family members living in more
polluted neighborhoods, with the exception of
fathers, who often have greater occupational ex-
posures and greater daily changes in exposure because
of their work locations. In each of three New York
neighborhoods, cold temperatures were directly re-
lated to increased symptom rates in subjects with
combined heart and lung disease. Among the pollu-
tants considered, only elevated levels of suspended
sulfates were consistently associated with symptom
aggravation. Daily sulfur dioxide and total suspended
particulate concentrations, for example, could not be
associated with symptom aggravation in individuals
with heart and lung disease, whose reaction to
variations in daily pollutant concentrations is most
sensitive.
Compilation of data for a second monograph in
which the health consequences of exposure to sus-
pended particulate are examined was completed in
1974; publication of the information is expected in
late 1975. Based on these data, best judgment
estimates of the lowest annual mean levels of air
pollution that might cause adverse health effects are
given in Table 8. In relating observed health effects to
pollutant concentrations, three estimates are given: a
worst case estimate, which attributes an adverse
health effect to the lowest pollution exposure sug-
gested by epidemiological studies; a least case esti-
mate, which attributes an observed health effect to
the highest pollution exposure suggested by the
studies; and a best judgment estimate based on several
studies.
Similar estimates relating short-term pollutant
exposures to adverse effects on human health are
given in Table 9. Worst case estimates of levels of
pollution exposure associated with increased attacks
in asthmatics reflect the lack of association observed
between attack rates and measured exposure levels
for total suspended particulate and respirable size
particulate. The data given in Table 9 suggest only
Activities 59
-------
Blood sample for chromosome analysis is drawn from volunteer exposed to ozone in laboratory test.
that concentrations of less magnitude appear to have
no effect.
Studies designed to document the benefit of
pollution control were continued in areas of higher
pollution exposure across the country. These studies
will attempt to measure the health impact of the shift
from low- to high-sulfur fuels, and from gas or oil to
coal, by power plants and industry.
Several new pilot studies were initiated during
1974. For example, admissions to the emergency
room of a large hospital were investigated as a health
indicator sensitive to varying levels of ozone. Another
study investigated total or specific daily mortality
rates as an indicator sensitive to different ozone
concentrations.
Methods of determining the environmental sources
of lead in children who exhibit unduly high levels of
absorption of the metal were studied with the
objective of determining the contribution of airborne
lead fallout to total lead ingested by children. Still
another study was designed to determine whether
children who have a past history of apparent exces-
sive lead exposure exhibit a greater frequency of
altered neurophysiological behavior than a com-
parable group of children without this history.
B/o-env/ronmenfo/ Measurements
Community Health Air Monitoring Program
(CHAMP)— The relationship between human health
and community air quality is being determined by
comparing the state of health of population groups
residing in communities exposed to definable air
pollutants that are characteristic of certain sources or
60
ANNUAL REPORT 1974
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Table 8. SUMMARY OF STUDIES RELATING LONG-TERM POLLUTANT EXPOSURES
TO ADVERSE EFFECTS ON HUMAN HEALTH
Adverse
effect
1 ncreased
chronic
respiratory
disease
1 ncreased
lower
respiratory
disease
Increased
acute
respiratory
disease
Decreased
ventilatory
function
in children
Type of
estimate
Worst case
Least case
Best judgment
Worst case
Least case
Best judgment
Worst case
Least case
Best judgment
Worst case
Least case
Best judgment
Duration
of exposure,
years
1
10
6
1
3
2
1
5
3
1
5
5
Annual average levels3 associated with
adverse effects, jug/m3
TSP
63-84
170
100
60
>110
90
85
102
90
85
>140
120
RSP
34-45
85
52
34
>60
50
45
55
50
40
55
50
SS
13-17
14-19
14
13
15
14
10
12
12
12
14
13
SN
2
4
3
2-3
2-4
3
2
3
3
2
2
3
so2
51
40
95
50
>177
95
50
210
106
57
435
200
= total suspended particulate, RSP = respirable size particulate, SS = suspended sulfate, SN = suspended
nitrate, SC = sulfur dioxide.
Table 9. SUMMARY OF STUDIES RELATING SHORT-TERM POLLUTANT EXPOSURES
TO ADVERSE EFFECTS ON HUMAN HEALTH
Adverse
effect
Increased
symptom
rates
panels
I ncreased
irritation
symptoms
Increased
aggravation
of asthma
symptoms
Type of
estimate
Worst case
Least case
Best judgment
Worst case
Least case
Best judgment
Worst case
Least case
Best judgment
24-hour mean levels3 associated
\
TSP
70
>120
>120
146
>234
175
70
>365
>260
RSP
30
>45
>40
85
103
90
28
>100
> 75
with effect, q/rrr
SS
7
10
8
11
24
13-20
7
10
8
SN
3
6
4
63
12
10.7
3
4
3
so2
50
>100
100
>107
>149
>149
100
>100
>100
aTSP = total suspended particulate, RSP = respirable size particulate,
SS = suspended sulfate, SN = suspended nitrate, S02 = sulfur dioxide
Research Activities
61
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activities. Air quality measurements from the CHAMP
provide the health researcher with a description of
the air pollution exposure of the human population
under study. Thus, observed health effects can be
related to the kind and concentration of a well-
defined pollutant or pollutant mixture.
During 1974, a new CHAMP field monitoring
system was installed and made operational at selected
sites in Alabama, California, New York, North Caro-
lina, and Utah. The system uses "state of the art"
continuous air quality measurement systems coupled
with computers to make air quality information
promptly available to users. These data are trans-
mitted at 2-hour intervals from each field station over
telephone lines to RTP. Data, as received, are
displayed on a screen for visual checks, and pollutant
concentrations are checked by the central computer
to determine whether alert conditions (excessive
pollutant levels in the atmosphere) exist at any field
site. Appropriate action can taken be taken to reduce
the health hazard to the affected population. The
data are then stored for future research use.
In addition, a standards laboratory was established
as a repository for National Bureau of Standards and
EPA reference materials, devices, and instruments for
use in quality control activities.
CHAMP personnel also evaluated an airborne
protein particle counter for potential use in dis-
tinguishing between anthropogenic pollutants and
naturally occurring pollutants potentially detrimental
to human health. The instrument, developed by the
U.S. Army, was found to be compatible with the
CHAMP system, and the background data thus
produced may be useful for accurately ascribing
certain health indices to specific pollutants or combi-
nations of pollutants.
The CHAMP system is also being used to evaluate
performance characteristics of system components
and instruments provided by several manufacturers
under actual field-use conditions. To improve the
definition of sampling characteristics of the particu-
late samplers used in CHAMP, a new particulate
sampling probe was designed and installed in each
CHAMP field station. This new probe is being
evaluated in wind tunnel tests, and its performance is
being compared with the commonly used high-
volume sampler.
Clinical Studies-Tbe Clinical Studies Branch con-
ducts pollutant effects research in several labora-
tories:
• A neurobehavioral laboratory in which psycho-
physiological effects of air pollutants are
studied.
• A microbiology laboratory in which the effects
of pollutants on the human immune system are
investigated.
Volunteer is asked to exercise during exposure to
ozone in environmental chamber to test pollutant
effects.
• A metabolic laboratory in which assays on
blood and other biologic fluids are performed.
• A cardiopulmonary laboratory in which the
effects of gaseous pollutants including ozone
and nitrogen dioxide are examined.
These laboratories, located on the campus of the
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, became
fully operational in September 1974. In addition,
HSL maintains a pulmonary function laboratory at a
nearby elementary school for the investigation of
lung growth in children. An exercise-electrocardio-
graphy laboratory is maintained at North Carolina
Memorial Hospital for investigations on the effects of
pollutants, principally carbon monoxide, on cardio-
vascular performance.
During 1974, progress was made on two projects
identified by the acronyms CLEANS (Clinical Labo-
ratory Evaluation and Assessment of Noxious Sub-
stances) and CLEVER (Clinical Laboratory Evalua-
tion and Validation of Epidemiological Research).
62
ANNUAL REPORT 1974
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When completed, these projects will provide the
Laboratory with the best research facility for clinical
studies existing anywhere in the country.
C/eans-The CLEANS project consist of the
construction, complete with an on-line computerized
physiologic data acquisition system, of two large
exposure chambers in which volunteers can be ex-
posed for extended periods of time to the same air
pollutant levels found in urban areas. These facilities
will allow the Clinical Studies Branch to perform
studies relating air pollutants to a wide range of
physiological responses for much longer periods than
could be performed in the past. Up to now, clinical
studies have been performed after only brief ex-
posures to pollutants (usually 2 to 6 hours at most).
Such short-term exposures can provide only limited
information on interactions between pollutants and
human physiological systems. Longer-term exposures
precisely simulating atmospheric conditions and in-
volving numerous pollutants will greatly expand basic
knowledge of the health effects of airborne pollution.
Each laboratory contains the most sophisticated
instrumentation available for assessing the health
status of the subjects. Especially important are
instruments for measuring heart and lung function
before, during, and after exercise. Because of the
complexity of this instrumentation as well as the
large amount of data acquired, most of the testing is
under computer control. Medical technicians and
research physicians monitor and direct the studies by
interacting with the computer.
The Controlled Environmental Laboratories can
operate over a wide range of temperature and
humidity conditions and in either a very clean status
or one programmed to simulate the desired pollution
profile. Both laboratories can provide carefully con-
trolled levels of carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide,
nitrogen dioxide, and ozone—either singly or in any
combination. One of the laboratories can also provide
exposure to fine particulate aerosols or nitrate and
sulfate compounds. These environmental conditions
are also under computer control, providing great
flexibility and reliability.
Clever—Studies of the health status of popula-
tions have provided much of the available informa-
tion relating environmental factors to human health.
Changes in community disease patterns associated
with industrialization serve as convincing indicators
of the health risk accompanying technological prog-
ress. Documenting these changes in causes of death
and illness is, therefore, an essential aspect of
managing technical innovation and economic growth.
These studies, however, are fraught with dif-
ficulties in quantitating exposure and in determining
subtle alterations in health status. The traditional
tools of epidemiology have successfully delineated
many environmental hazards, but frequently are not
sensitive enough to detect more subtle effects. It has
been either logistically impossible or prohibitively
expensive to use the more sophisticated modern
medical diagnostic techniques in studying the epi-
demiology of illness caused by environmental factors.
With the evolution of better non-invasive diagnostic
techniques linked to computer control of the large
amount of data acquired, it is now possible to greatly
improve the specificity and sensitivity of population
studies.
The Human Studies Laboratory has responded
with the development of the CLEVER program,
which will permit the verification of epidemiological
research using sensitive measurements of cardiovas-
cular and pulmonary function in the populations at
risk. Two mobile laboratories, which contain the
same physiologic and computerized systems used in
the CLEANS program, can travel to areas in which
pollutant levels are of concern and perform extensive
evaluation of the health status of selected populations
over an extended period of time. In addition to the
standard cardio-pulmonary function measurements,
the mobile laboratories will be equipped for the
collection of biological samples for later analysis of
pollutant burden. Delivery of the first van is expected
in late 1975.
Carbon Monoxide Studies
The Laboratory has performed research on the
cardiovascular effects of carbon monoxide since
1971. Those investigations have demonstrated im-
paired myocardial work capacity in humans at car-
boxyhemoglobin levels of approximately 5 to 6
percent. More importantly, it has been demonstrated
that patients with coronary artery disease have
diminished exercise performance at very low levels of
carboxyhemoglobin (approximately 3 to 4 percent).
In the past year, studies of these effects were
continued to gather more information on dose-
response characteristics of low levels of carbon
monoxide. In addition, research projects have been
inaugurated to investigate short-term effects of car-
bon monoxide on various clotting factors and blood
lipids in human volunteers.
Studies completed in 1974 demonstrated de-
creased physical work performance at levels of
carboxyhemoglobin of 5 percent in healthy young
men. Other investigations in dogs showed worsening
myocardial infarction as carboxyhemoglobin levels
rose above 5 percent. These studies will be expanded
in 1975.
At present considerable controversy exists as to
the effects of low levels of carbon monoxide on the
Research Activities
63
-------
human central nervous system. During 1974, the
neurobehavioral laboratory conducted pilot studies
on psychophysiological tasks using noise as a stress
agent. When the carbon monoxide exposure chamber
becomes operational, the laboratory will conduct
further experiments to elucidate effects of carbon
monoxide on human behavior. Plans are underway to
study interactive effects of carbon monoxide with
other stress agents, including noise and alcohol.
Ozone and Nitrogen
Oxides Studies
With completion of the plexiglass exposure cham-
ber in the clinical laboratories in the spring of 1974,
the Laboratory began studies on the effects of ozone
and nitrogen dioxide on cardiovascular performance
and cellular function. Initial studies concentrated on
effects of ozone on pulmonary performance and
cytogenetic damage to circulating lymphocytes.
Studies also included evaluation of phagocytic func-
tion and lymphocyte transformation. The latter
studies are designed to serve as pilot ventures in
assessing the impact of oxidant pollution on those
defense mechanisms.
Pulmonary Studies in Children
Since 1972, a study has been underway to
characterize those parameters of growth that best
define growth in lung function. This study is being
performed in Chapel Hill, N.C., where ambient air
pollution is low. It is anticipated that information
from this study will form a basis for learning about
possible deleterious effects of pollution on lung
growth. Such a study will be feasible in more polluted
areas in the near future by using the CLEVER mobile
laboratories.
In addition to identifying those factors that best
define lung growth, the study is investigating the
effects of viral and bacterial infections on pulmonary
Pulmonary function of volunteer exposed to ozone in laboratory is tested to evaluate pollutant effects.
64 ANNUAL REPORT 1974
-------
performance. This study also may be expanded using
the CLEVER facility to analyze interactive effects of
pollution and microbial agents on lung function in
children. Results from 18 months of study have
undergone preliminary analysis, and a full report will
be written in 1975.
Other Studies
During 1974, a joint contract with the University
of Maryland Medical School and Johns Hopkins
Medical School investigating effects of ozone on
pulmonary function in normal subjects was com-
pleted. The exposures took place in an environmental
chamber at the University of Maryland Medical
School. Results have undergone early analysis and
will be useful in better characterizing pulmonary
effects of ozone exposure. Results from grant-
supported pulmonary research at Ranches Los Amigos
Hospital in California have also provided preliminary
information on effects of ozone and nitrogen oxides
on pulmonary function.
Other contracts initiated during 1974 are designed
to study effects of nitrogen dioxide on subjects with
preexisting pulmonary disease, to study interactive
effects of heat stress and oxidant pollutants on
cardiopulmonary performance in humans, to support
research on cytogenetic effects of oxidants, and to
study effects of sulfur dioxide and various sulfates on
lung function.
"(A) conduct epidemiological studies of the effects
of air pollutants on mortality and morbidity;
"(B) conduct clinical and laboratory studies on the
immunologic, biochemical, physiological, and the toxi-
cological effects including carcinogenic, teratogenic,
and mutagenic effects of air pollutants . . ."
In support of Section 103, HSL develops and
conducts studies designed to define relationships
between specific undesirable health effects and en-
vironmental pollutants, either individually or in com-
bination. This research includes biochemical labora-
tory studies, clinical studies on human subjects, and
epidemiological studies of human populations.
Knowledge of the effects of short- and long-term
exposure to environmental pollutants provides a basis
for establishing national environmental or emission
standards for those pollutants or source categories
that endanger human health or welfare. In addition,
the HSL research program is designed to evaluate the
health benefits of improved air quality resulting from
the establishment of emission standards. This pro-
gram is also concerned with the decrement in health
resulting from any future relaxation in air quality
standards in response to the energy crisis. Analysis of
the economic costs resulting from adverse health
effects of pollution is an integral part of the HSL
program.
Epidemiologic studies on the effect of radiation on
humans come under the broad mandate of Section
241 of the Public Health Service Act, which is quoted
in part below.
LEGISLATIVE MANDATE
HSL's research program is designed to meet the
legislative mandate expressed in Section 103 of the
Clean Air Act and in Section 241 of the public Health
Service Act. Specific sections of the Acts are shown
below followed by brief descriptions of the types of
actions taken by HSL in support of the mandates.
"RESEARCH, INVESTIGATION, TRAINING, AND
OTHER ACTIVITIES
"Sec. 103. (f) In carrying out research pursuant to this
Act, the Administrator shall give special emphasis to
research on the short- and long-term effects of air
pollutants on public health and welfare. In the
furtherance of such research, he shall conduct an
accelerated research program—
"(A) to improve knowledge of the contribution of
air pollutants to the occurence of adverse effects of
health, including, but not limited to, behavioral,
physiological, toxicological, and biochemical effects;
and
"(B) to improve knowledge of the short- and
long-term effects of air pollutants on welfare.
"(2) In carrying out the provisions of this subsec-
tion the Administrator may—
"THE PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE ACT"
"Sec. 241. Research and investigations generally...
"The Surgeon shall conduct in the Service, and
encourage, cooperate with, and render assistance to
other appropriate public authorities, scientific institu-
tions, and scientists in the conduct of, and promote
the coordination of, research, investigations, experi-
ments, demonstrations, and studies relating to the
causes, diagnosis, treatment, control, and prevention
of physical and mental diseases and impairment of
man . . ."
Under the broad mandate of Section 241, HSL
studies the effects of ionizing radiation exposure on
humans in cooperation with the Atomic Bomb
Casuality Commission research program in Japan.
HSL places major emphasis on evaluating the risk of
adverse irreversible biological effects from exposure
to various levels of different pollutants and in
delineating the time lapse between exposure and
disease (latent effects). Other studies conducted by
the laboratory are concerned with the effects of
non-ionizing radiations to which the general popula-
tion is exposed. HSL resources committed in support
of these Acts are shown in Table 10.
Research Activities
65
-------
Table 10. SUMMARY OF RESOURCES FOR HUMAN STUDIES LABORATORY
FOR FISCAL YEAR 1975
Category
Clean Air Act, Section 103
Public Health Service Act,
Section 241
Federal Water Pollution Control Act,
Section 104(b) (3)
Total3
Funds, $103
11,231
389
547
12,167
Total does not include $3.3 million of special energy appropriations.
66
ANNUAL REPORT 1974
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OVERVIEW
OF EBL MISSION
Experimental
Biology
Laboratory
Experimental Biology Laboratory research is di-
rected toward studies relevant to the development of
environmental standards for the protection of human
health and welfare, particularly as such standards
relate to gaseous and particulate air pollutants, to
ionizing and nonionizing radiation, and to inter-
actions among pollutants. Studies using laboratory
animals or biological preparations complement
human epidemiological and clinical programs by
validating data from human studies, providing clues
to new human studies, developing toxicity data for
extensions to humans, and indicating the potential
harmful effects of new pollutants. These studies
require the coordinated contribution of chemists,
engineers, and representatives of a wide variety of
biological disciplines. The Laboratory possesses parti-
cular expertise in the areas of animal toxicology,
radiation biology, neurobiology, and microwave en-
gineering.
ORGANIZATION
The Office of the Director ensures integrated
application of the multi-disciplinary expertise avail-
able within the five branches in research projects
designed to develop information pertinent to formu-
lation and revision of environmental quality criteria
in support of human health studies.
The Pathobiology Research Branch is primarily
concerned with the investigation of air pollutants as
they relate to acute and chronic respiratory disease
and pulmonary carcinogenesis, and as they affect an
organism's mechanisms of defense against infectious
agents, using whole animal and in vitro model
systems. Particular emphasis is given to interactions
between chemical, biological, and physical insults.
The Branch also has responsibility for development of
rapid throughput in vitro screening systems for
determining the relative toxicity of gaseous and
particulate air pollutants.
The Toxicology Branch investigates the gross
teratologic, reproductive, developmental, and genetic
effects of a variety of environmental pollutants,
together with late effects such as tumor production
and life span shortening. Originally concerned largely
with the toxicology of radioactive materials, the
Branch has extended its activities to studies of the
biological effects of nonionizing radiation and of the
interactions between radiation and other existing
environmental pollutants.
Research Activities
67
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PATHOBIOLOGY
RESEARCH
BRANCH
TOXICOLOGY
BRANCH
EXPERIMENTAL
BIOLOGY
LABORATORY
NEUROPHYSIOLOGY
AND BEHAVIORAL
RESEARCH
BRANCH
MOLECULAR
BIOLOGY
BRANCH
TECHNICAL
STUDIES
BRANCH
The Molecular Biology Branch's principal interest
is the interaction of radio frequency and microwave
radiation with biological systems at the subcellular
and molecular level, with particular attention being
given to effects on the genetic material and other
macromolecules and on the organelle and cell mem-
branes. The Branch's expertise in microbiology, bio-
chemistry, and physical chemistry and in electron
spin resonance techniques is also being applied to
studies on the toxicity of tritium and heavy metals
and on the extrapulmonary toxicity of photo-
chemical oxidants.
The Neurophysiology and Behavioral Research
Branch investigates possible adverse effects of envi-
ronmental contaminants on the nervous system in
animal models and develops research methodology in
the area of neurobiology applicable to the study of
human populations. The members of the Branch
function as an interdisciplinary team to study re-
sponses of behavioral, electrophysiological, neuro-
humoral, and related physiological parameters to
exposure to chemical and physical stressors including
air pollutants, pesticides, and ionizing and non-
ionizing radiation.
The Technical Studies Branch provides support to
the Laboratory through the development and main-
tenance of equipment and instrumentation.necessary
for biological effects research, particularly in the area
of electromagnetic non-ionizing radiation. The
Branch also coordinates the Laboratory's computer
services and provides computer programs to support
biological activities. The Branch conducts research in
the dosimetry of non-ionizing radiation and the
application of dosimetric techniques to biological
studies.
PHYSICAL FACILITIES
The Laboratory possesses facilities for exposure of
laboratory animals (via inhalation) to gaseous mate-
rials and aerosols under controlled conditions of air
flow, temperature, and humidity and for exposure
(via inhalation and whole-body exposure) to radio-
active gases (currently krypton-85) over long periods
under beta-infinite cloud conditions.
Facilities that permit exposure to a range of radio
and radar frequency radiations are available or under
construction. These facilities include two large ane-
choic chambers for use at S- and X-band frequencies,
both with environmental control systems; a strip-line
facility for whole-body exposures of small mammals
over the VHP, TV, and UHF ranges; and numerous
custom-built airline systems for irradiation of cellular,
subcellular, and molecular preparations at frequencies
upward from 200 MHz.
Electrophysiological recording instrumentation
and behavioral testing chambers (housed in RF-
shielded and/or sound-attenuated rooms), with asso-
ciated laboratory computers, are available for neuro-
biological studies.
For measurement of concentrations of paramag-
netic species and free radicals, an electron spin
resonance spectrometer with a 9-inch electromagnet
and a double cavity is available. The system also
includes frequency measuring equipment for precise
g-value determinations to characterize and identify
unknown species. Additionally, the associated vari-
able temperature unit permits determination of free
radical reaction rates and matrix trapping ability from
80° K to 370° K.
68
ANNUAL REPORT 1974
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MAJOR PROGRAM AREAS
Air Pollutants
A comprehensive biomedical study is being made
for the purpose of evaluating the actual and potential
biological effect of the major air pollutant gases and
particulates in biological models. Agents emphasized
during the past year include sulfur dioxide, sulfuric
acid and sulfates, ozone, nitrogen dioxide, metals,
and organics. This work is carried on through an
integrated program by in-house and contract efforts
employing whole animal and in vitro models, and
emphasizes interacting systems where possible.
The influence of sulfuric acid, sulfur dioxide, and
various sulfates is being studied in isolated cells,
perfused lung, and whole animals. A dynamic re-
action chamber has been constructed to furnish
exposure facilities simulating natural atmospheres.
Inhalation of sulfuric acid (H2SO4) aerosol in guinea
pigs caused a 50 percent increase in the total
deposition of inhaled radioactive particles and a
proximal shift in the regional deposition pattern to
the nasopharnyx, suggesting a pathophysiologic
rationale for the high sensitivity of asthmatics to
sulfur oxides. The respiratory clearance of non-viable
radioactive streptococcal aerosols (2.6 [im MMAD)
from the nose and lung was reduced by acute,
short-term exposure to H2S04. Neither aerosol con-
centration had any effect on the rate of reduction of
viable streptococci from the lung or nose of mice.
Thus, this and the preceding study suggest that
H2SO4 acts principally on the airways of the respira-
tory tract and not on the alveolar region of the lung.
Preliminary studies indicate that chronic respiratory
infection (Bordetella pertussis) can be enhanced by
inhalation of H2SO4.
Ozone has been shown to increase the pento-
barbital sleeping time in mice. This is further indica-
tion that ozone may exert extra-pulmonary effects.
Work has continued on establishing dose-response
relationships for N02. Indications are that concentra-
tion is more important than duration of exposure in
eliciting toxic results and that effects from inter-
mittent exposure may be as toxic, on a time basis, as
continuous exposure.
Studies of the relative toxicity of mercury, lead,
cadmium, zinc, chromium, nickel, manganese, and
sulfates of various cations have been carried on in in
vitro systems employing pulmonary macrophages and
human fibroblasts. The influence of these agents on
cellular viability and on alterations in membrane and
cellular kinetics is being studied. Exposure to Ni2+,
Mn2+, Cd2+, and Cr3+ reduced phagocytic activity of
alveolar macrophages. Interestingly, a concentration
of VOs that killed and lysed macropages had no
effect on phagocytosis; whereas, concentrations of
Ni2+ that had no effect on macrophage viability or
lysis caused severe phagocytic reductions. Coordi-
nated studies employing in vivo methods are also
being carried out to investigate the parameters that
alter host defense mechanisms and that affect deposi-
tion and clearance of trace metals. Inhaled cadmium
has been found to enhance the pathogenicity of
inhaled microorganisms.
Pulmonary cocarcinogenesis studies use intra-
tracheal instillation into Syrian hamsters of a stand-
ard carcinogen (benzo[a] pyrene) alone or in combi-
nation with metallic oxides. Chemically characterized
particulate materials collected from the ambient air
are also being studied in this animal model. The
interaction of particulate material and noxious gases
(NO2 and 03) in the induction and/or alteration of
pulmonary neoplastic response in animals is being
investigated as well.
An in vitro toxicity screening system using rabbit
alveolar macrophages is now fully developed for
estimating the relative toxicity of soluble and in-
soluble particulate air pollutants. Complete concen-
tration-response data on cell viability, cell number, or
total protein, ATP, and phagocytic activity can be
obtained for any test material using the number of
alveolar macrophages recoverable from a single rabbit.
The system is currently being employed to estimate
the relative toxicity of stationary source air samples.
An additional system has been developed which
employs rapidly dividing human lung nbroblasts to
test for compounds that inhibit cellular biosynthetic
activities. A preferential inhibition of DNA synthesis
by relatively low concentrations of tetravalent plati-
num was detected using the human fibroblast system.
Pentavalent vanadium and divalent cadmium were
also determined to be highly cytotoxic. Facilities are
essentially complete to begin implementation of in
vitro test systems for detection of potential carcino-
gens. Tests for chemically induced neoplastic trans-
formation will complement ongoing systems for
toxicity testing in vitro.
Ionizing Radiation
Programs in radiation health effects research are
presently confined to tritium and krypton-85, two
major effluents from the reprocessing of nuclear fuel.
Tritium—During the reporting period, two studies
have been completed; one on the production of
tumors and the effects on life span of chronic
exposure to tritiated water (HTO) throughout gesta-
tion, and the other on the relative sensitivity of
different aged populations to chronic HTO exposure.
In the first study, Sprague-Dawley rats were
continuously exposed from conception through birth
to tritiated water (HTO). Intrauterine exposures to
calculated cumulative doses up to 66 rads had no
Research Activities
69
-------
Patterned behavior in rats exposed to pollutants is analyzed using closed circuit television coupled with computer
methodology.
significant effects on either sex with respect to life
span, overall neoplasia incidence, the incidence rate,
or the onset of mammary fibroadenomas. Females
exposed to 330 or 660 rads were sterile and had
lower incidence rates of mammary fibroadenomas
than controls, and at 660 rads exhibited a lower
incidence of overall neoplasia and reduced mean life
span. Sterile male offspring had reduced mean life
span after irradiation at 660 rads. Regardless of dose
group, females had significantly higher incidences of
neoplasia and longer life spans than males.
In the second study, rats were continuously
exposed to 10juCi HTO/ml of body water (approxi-
mately 3 rads per day) for 42-day periods beginning
variously at conception, birth, and 42 or 74 days
postnatally. Assessment of the relative sensitivity of
the different ages to chronic HTO exposure of 126
rads was in terms of reproductive performance,
central nervous neurotransmitter, and follicle-stimu-
lating hormone levels. At 49 days of age, the
beginning of sexual maturity in the rat, testes weights
and sperm counts were significantly depressed in
animals exposed from conception or birth. Ovary
weight was not affected by exposure from conception
but was significantly reduced when the exposure
began at birth. Mating of exposed males and females
began at 120 days of age and continued through the
production of three successive litters by each pair;
this was followed by sacrifice of that dam at 200 days
of age upon delivery of the last litter. The mean litter
size for the three litters was significantly reduced, and
the resorptions increased in the last litter for those
animals exposed from conception. At 49 days of age,
norepinephrine concentration was significantly in-
creased, and dopamine concentration was unchanged
in male animals exposed from conception but not
birth. At 300 days of age, a reversal had occurred
with both neurotransmitter levels being significantly
decreased in animals exposed from conception or
birth. Follicle-stimulating hormone levels in the pitui-
taries of adult males were significantly increased only
in those animals exposed from 42 or 74 days
postnatally.
It had previously been determined, in studies
involving the continuous exposure of rats to HTO
from conception through production of the third
(F2) generation, that lifetime parental exposure
produced effects in the F2 generation at levels 10 to
100 times lower than those required for the same
effects after in utero exposure alone. Statistically
70
ANNUAL REPORT 1974
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significant reductions in the relative brain weights of
neonates were noted at doses as low as 20 times the
MPCW for individuals in the population. It has now
been shown that these changes are accompanied by
functional deficits. The age of development of the
startle reflex, eye opening, and the righting reflex was
delayed. The righting reflex was the most sensitive of
the three parameters, being delayed 2 days at the
highest exposure. These same animals, when tested in
a residential maze at 120 days of age, showed a
dose-related reduction in spontaneous motor activity.
Correlated with this was a slowing of the spontaneous
anesthetized EEC, i.e., an increased abundance of
slow ("Delta") waves with decreased abundance of
both "Alpha" and "Beta" frequencies.
Under the sponsorship of the Special Foreign
Currency Program, EBL serves as the responsible U.S.
organization for tritium research being conducted by
the Central Laboratory for Radiological Protection in
Warsaw, Poland. The emphasis in the Polish studies is
on the transfer of HTO from soil to plants, the
incorporation of tritium into specific amino acids, the
effects on rabbits of consumption of totally tritiated
diets, the uptake, distribution, and retention of
organically bound tritium, and the dose-response
relation for the production of chromosome aberra-
tions in human lymphocytes by HTO.
Krypton-85— Research into the physiological be-
havior and radiation effects of krypton-85 is designed
to provide data for a realistic assessment of the
hazards of exposure to this noble gas.
Investigations are being conducted using animals
exposed via inhalation or whole body in beta-infinite
cloud conditions. Previously completed studies using
inhalation exposure include: (1() determination of in
vivo kinetic parameters and partition coefficients for
the whole guinea pig; (2) determination of equi-
librium concentrations of 85Kr in blood and 22
organs or tissues of guinea pigs breathing known
concentrations of 85Kr; and (3) determination of the
median lethal exposure in guinea pigs for 85Kr
administered by inhalation. Inhalation experiments
slated for completion in 1975 include study of
hematopoietic effects and pathology of serially sacri-
ficed guinea pigs receiving the median lethal expo-
sure.
Guinea pigs exposed to 85Kr in beta-infinite
geometry with fur surface doses of up to 20,000 rad
all survived the acute post-exposure period and are
being observed for life-span shortening, lung effects,
and appearance of skin tumors.
Nonionizing Radiation
EBL's programs in nonionizing radiation research
are conducted as part of a multi-agency "Program for
Research
Control of Electromagnetic Pollution of the Environ-
ment: The Assessment of Biological Hazards of
Nonionizing Electromagnetic Radiation" coordinated
by the Office of Telecommunications Policy.
Animal models (whole animals and cellular, sub-
cellular, or molecular preparations as appropriate) are
used to investigate potential damage—including gene-
tic, biochemical, immunological, teratological, and
neurobiological effects—from exposure to radio and
microwave frequencies similar to those found in the
environment. Studies are designed to identify poten-
tial harmful effects, to establish the exposure levels at
which these effects are elicited, and to delineate the
mechanisms of physical alterations. These studies will
provide a data base for the promulgation of standards
governing the exposure of the population to non-
ionizing radiation.
The possibility of transient as well as permanent
effects of microwave radiation on macromolecular
systems has been investigated using a crossed-beam
apparatus (essentially a waveguide irradiation system
integrated with a UV spectrophotometer). The en-
zyme ribonuclease and mononucleotide substrate
analogs have been used to investigate whether radia-
tion at 1.70 or 2.45 GHz interferes with the binding
of the smaller molecules to the protein. No dif-
ferences have been noted between samples under
irradiation and those not irradiated. In addition,
enzymes from soluble, microsomal, and mitochon-
drial cellular fractions were irradiated at 2.45 GHz in
the crossed-beam apparatus, but no significant dif-
ferences were observed between the specific activity
of control and irradiated samples.
A microwave irradiation system consisting prin-
cipally of a coaxial airline and an oxygen electrode
cell was developed to rapidly monitor the respiratory
activity of mitochondria after exposure to micro-
waves. The mitochondria are irradiated in the airline
while biochemically active, i.e., at 30°C, and respira-
tion is measured with the oxygen electrode as the
suspension exits the coaxial airline. The system will
be used to study the effect of 2 to 4 GHz
electromagnetic radiation on the energy-conserving
reactions (electron transport and oxidative phos-
phorylation) which occur in mitochondria.
In a study designed to detect differential effects of
electromagnetic radiation on the bacterium E. coli
grown in media containing particular carbon and
nitrogen substrates, no growth changes were found
that could not be attributed to temperature dif-
ferences between controls and samples irradiated at
1.7 and 2.45 GHz. In addition, this cellular system
was used to examine the mutagenic effect of micro-
waves. The results show no differences in the muta-
tion frequency of unirradiated bacteria and bacteria
irradiated at these two frequencies.
Several reports in the literature suggest that
microwave radiation alters the immune response of
Activities 71
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animals and cellular preparations. Such effects, if real,
are of great potential significance to the general
public. Consequently, the effect of microwaves on
the membrane phenomenon called phagocytosis was
studied in polymorphonuclear leukocytes (neutro-
phils). Neutrophils from guinea pigs were irradiated in
vitro with 2.45 GHz (continuous wave) or with 9.0
GHz (pulsed) radiation either before or during chal-
lenge with polystyrene balls, which were used to
induce phagocytosis. No differences in induction
which could not be attributed to generalized heating
of the cells could be detected between the irradiated
and the control samples. Additionally, studies were
initiated to examine both the capacity of leukocytes
to phagocytize foreign materials and the capacity of
other types of cells to respond to antigenic stimula-
tion following microwave irradiation.
Teratologic investigations were also conducted.
Bred mice were exposed to 2.45 GHz microwave
radiation at 14 mW/cm2 for 100 minutes per day
from days 1 through 17 of pregnancy, at which time
they were killed, and their fetuses examined for
weight, sex, and gross morphology. The litters of 73
control and 62 treated mice were examined. Approxi-
mately 150 fetuses have yet to be fully examined. In
the interim, the results show no statistically signifi-
cant effects in: the number of pregnancies, the size of
the litter, the ratio of live to dead fetuses, and the
weight of live fetuses. However, when fetuses were
examined for gross anomalies, three fetuses (one each
from three treated litters) had encephaloceles; none
were found in control litters. The x2 of the incidence
of litters with any encephaloceles was significant
(p<0.05).
In a pilot study to a series of experiments designed
to examine effects on the central nervous system of
prolonged exposure to microwave radiation, neonate
rats were exposed to 9 GHz microwave irradiation at
3 or 10 mW/cm2, for 2 hours per day, from days 1
through 21 of age. The time-course of development
of startle and righting reflexes was not altered by
treatment, nor was the age of eye opening. A
5-minute motor activity measurement at intervals
from days 9 through 21 of age was suggestive of
irradiation-induced hypoactivity. EEG and visual-
evoked responses were measured at 30 days of age.
The mean frequency of the spontaneous EEG was not
altered by exposure. However, the amplitude of the
primary visual evoked response was suppressed. Con-
tinuing studies on these animals will include measures
of learning, memory, and residential-maze motor
activity.
Neurotoxicology of Pesticides
This program, conducted in collaboration with the
Pesticides and Toxic Substances Effects Laboratory,
is directed toward evaluating the effects of pesticidal
chemicals on CMS function including EEG, neuro-
endocrine activity, neurochemistry, and behavior. In
addition, the program develops methodology for fast
through-put, neurotoxicity screening.
A representative series of carbamate pesticides is
being studied for both direct (after 1 month of daily
feeding) and residual (1 month after removal of
pesticide) neurobiologic effects in young and mature
rats of both sexes. Preliminary analyses show pesti-
cide-induced changes in frequency distribution may
be age-dependent and are not qualitatively the same
for each of the carbamates under study. For example,
young females treated with Ferbam show no changes
in the percentage abundance of slow waves in their
EEG. However, when treated with carbaryl, a clear-
cut increase in slow-wave abundance is evident.
Interestingly, Ferbam also results in a slower and
more variable rate of contractions in intestinal
smooth muscle.
Considerable effort has been placed on develop-
ment of usable radioimmunoassay (RIA) procedures
for endocrine and neuroendocrine studies. At the
present time, RIA techniques exist for the assay of
prolactin, FSH, GH, and cortisol.
EEG recordings from rodents and primates ex-
posed to pesticides provide material for the develop-
ment of computer methodology for rapid and repro-
ducible evaluation of pesticide-induced changes in the
spontaneous EEG. In addition, methodology is being
developed for the extraction of deep-brain-structure
electrical activity from the EEG as recorded from the
scalp.
Multiple, Coexisting
Environmental Stressors
During 1974 a study of the long-term effects of
continuous exposure to lead and tritium was com-
pleted. These two pollutants possess characteristics
which suggested that they might act synergistically.
Both are placentally transferred; the embryo and
fetus are particularly sensitive to both, and exposure
to either can result in reduced litter size, stunted
neonates, sterility, and mental retardation.
Rats were exposed continuously from conception,
through the production of a new generation, to the
adulthood of the F2 generation. Lead levels of Sand
50 ppm (100 and 1000 times the Public Health
Service standards for drinking water, respectively)
and tritium levels that are 2 to 200 times the standard
(MPCw) for individuals in the general population
were used in the study.
A synopsis of the results of the 12-cell matrix
experiment is as follows: No significant differences in
body weight occurred in the Ft generation from
72
ANNUAL REPORT 1974
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weaning through 180 days under any exposure
condition. Tritium exposure had no effect on the
reproductive performance of the F! generation; thus,
all tritium groups were combined into the appropriate
lead exposure groups. There was a suggestion that the
mean number of ovulations per pregnancy increased
with lead exposure. Further, in animals with one or
more pre-implantation deaths, the mean number of
deaths per litter increased with increasing lead ex-
posure. No effects were seen on litter size, resorp-
tions, sex ratio, or the weight of F2 neonates.
The percent body weight of a number of F2
neonatal organs was investigated. The neonatal brain
alone demonstrated dose-related reductions with
either lead or tritium exposures. Exposure to the
combined insults had a lesser effect than either insult
alone, suggesting that for this parameter they appear
to be antagonistic.
Since tritium did not influence the lead concentra-
tions of any of the organs assessed at any age, all
tritium data were combined into their respective lead
dose groups. The ratio of maternal to fetal blood lead
was 1.4 and was constant throughout the lead-expo-
sure groups. Lead levels were exposure-related in
neonatal blood, liver, and lung, but no significant
accumulation of lead over control values occurred in
neonatal kidney, brain, heart, or spleen at either dose
level. Adult tissue concentrations had the expected
ranking of critical organs, i.e., bone > kidney > liver.
Testes of exposed males did not concentrate lead
beyond control values. No significant differences
were seen in the organ lead levels from one generation
to the next.
At levels of 5 and 50 ppm of lead in the drinking
water, the age of onset of the righting reflex of
newborn rats was delayed. The age of appearance of
the startle reflex and eye opening were delayed at the
higher dose only. Thus, the righting reflex, which
represents a higher level of complexity of neuro-
muscular development, is affected by lower lead-
exposure levels. Both lead-exposure levels also re-
duced spontaneous, exploratory motor activity in
residential maze tests at 120 days of age. Interes-
tingly, tritium (which also delayed neuromuscular
development and resulted in hypoactivity) and lead in
combination, antagonized each other. Although lead
alone did not alter the frequency distribution of the
spontaneous EEC, it did antagonize the tritium effect
described above. Study of these animals' social and
patterned behavior is continuing.
Small animal exposure facilities are used to test the health effect of gaseous and paniculate pollutants.
Research Activities
73
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LEGISLATIVE MANDATE
EBL's programs support Section 103 of the Clean
Air Act and Section 241 of the Public Health Service
Act. The relevant sections of the Acts are shown
below followed by brief descriptions of the types of
actions taken by EBL to support them.
"RESEARCH, INVESTIGATION, TRAINING, AND
OTHER ACTIVITIES
"Sec. 103. (f) (1) In carrying out research pursuant to the
Act, the Administrator shall give special emphasis to
research on the short- and long-term effects of air pol-
lutants on public health and welfare. In the further-
ance of such research, he shall conduct an accelerated
program—
"(A) to improve knowledge of the contribution of air
pollutants to the adverse effects of health, including,
but not limited to, behavioral, physiological, toxico-
logical, and biochemical effects; and
"(B) to improve knowledge of the short- and long-
term effects of air pollutants on welfare.
"(2) In carrying out the provisions of this subsec-
tion the Administrator may—
"(A) conduct epidemiological studies of the effects of
air pollutants on mortality and morbidity;
"(B) conduct clinical and laboratory studies on the
immunologic, biochemical, physiological, and the toxi-
cological effects including carcinogenic, teratogenic,
and mutagenic effects of air pollutants; . . . ."
EBL programs in support of Section 103 include
studies on the effects of the regulated pollutants
(ozone, nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides, and particu-
lates) and the non-regulated pollutants (paniculate
sulfate and nitrate, fine particulates from industrial
sources, trace metals, etc.) using appropriate whole
animal, organ, cellular, or sub-cellular models. Parti-
cular emphasis has been given to the effects of
pollutants on pulmonary defense mechanisms and
pulmonary carcinogenesis and to the influence of
interactions between coexisting pollutants and
various physical factors upon these pulmonary re-
sponses. The potential mutagenicity of photo-
chemical oxidants is also under investigation. Pro-
grams are under development to examine the effects
of prenatal and neonatal, as well as adult, exposure to
photochemical oxidants and carbon monoxide upon
subsequent growth and development (including de-
velopment of behavioral patterns).
"THE PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE ACT
"Sec. 241. Research and investigations generally
"The Surgeon General shall conduct in the Service,
and encourage, cooperate with, and render assistance to
other appropriate public authorities, scientific institu-
tions, and scientists in the conduct of, and promote the
coordination of, research, investigations, experiments,
demonstrations, and studies relating to the causes, diag-
nosis, treatment, control, and prevention of physical and
mental diseases and impairment of man, including water
purification, sewage treatment, and pollution of lakes and
streams . . . ."
The "causes... of ... diseases" cited in Public
Health Service Act Section 241 include ionizing and
non-ionizing radiation. The responsibility to provide
Federal guidance on all radiation matters affecting
health and the authority to establish environmental
standards for the protection of the general environ-
ment from radioactive material rests with EPA. EBL
programs related to ionizing radiation are centered on
tritium and krypton-85, two of the major effluents
from nuclear fuel reprocessing plants, and are de-
signed to provide a more secure data base for
prediction of potential health effects than is currently
available. The Laboratory also conducts an extensive
program on the health effects of electromagnetic
non-ionizing radiation. Emphasis is placed on the
potential mutagenic, teratogenic, and neurobiological
effects—and mechanisms of interaction at the cellular
and subcellular level—of radiations of frequencies
ranging from 500 megahertz (MHz) to 10 gigahertz
(GHz). Table 11 presents a summary of resources
employed by EBL during Fiscal Year 1974.
Table 11. SUMMARY OF RESOURCES FOR EXPERIMENTAL BIOLOGY LABORATORY
FOR FISCAL YEAR 1975
Category
Clean Air Act, Section 103
Public Health Service Act, Section 241
Federal Environmental Pesticide
Control Act, Section 20
Total3
Funds, $103
2,160
1,450
85
3,695
74
aDoes not include $1.94 million of special energy appropriations.
ANNUAL REPORT 1974
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Pesticides
and Toxic Substances
Effects
Laboratory
OVERVIEW
OF PTSEL MISSION
EPA's Office of Pesticide Programs is responsible
for registering pesticides for use in the U.S. and for
establishing tolerance levels of pesticide residues in or
on raw agricultural products. All research conducted
at ORD-RTP's Pesticides and Toxic Substances
Effects Laboratory (PTSEL) is designed to provide a
foundation for decisions made by EPA's registration
offices. Data from acute, subacute, and chronic
studies in laboratory animals and examinations of
occupationally exposed individuals are used to aug-
ment the basic scientific knowledge that establishes
the need for continued registration of pesticides or
toxic substances in use in the U.S. Analytical chemis-
try research is directed toward the detection of
toxicants in biological samples.
Included among the basic research goals and
objectives of the PTSEL is the development, evalua-
tion, and application of instrumental techniques in a
program of basic and applied research in two general
areas:
• Elucidation of the mechanism of action of
pesticides and their metabolic products in a
variety of biological substrates and in appropri-
ate model systems. This research is accom-
plished through the use of magnetic resonance
and spectrophotometric techniques.
• Development of a methodology and capability
for the isolation, detection, characterization,
identification, confirmation, and/or quantita-
tion of pesticide residues, metabolites, and
other chemical contaminants in human, animal,
and environmental media. This research is
accomplished, in part, through the use1 of
magnetic and quadrupole resonance methods,
spectrophotometric techniques (including infra-
red, ultraviolet, and atomic absorption), gas and
liquid chromatography, and combinations of
chromatographic separations with sensitive and
specific detection systems and low- and high-
resolution mass spectrometry.
Newer and more comprehensive analytical meth-
ods for the determination of residues of pesticides
and their metabolic products are being developed to
permit effective monitoring of the total environment.
The continued development of analytical methods in
pesticidal research is a necessary component of
efforts to minimize human and animal exposure and
to preserve the quality of the environment.
Research Activities
75
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CHEMISTRY
BRANCH
TOXIC EFFECTS
BRANCH
PESTICIDES AMD TOXIC
SUBSTANCES EFFECTS
LABORATORY
BIOCHEMISTRY
AND PHYSIOLOGY
BRANCH
ANIMAL
RESOURCES
STAFF
ORGAN/ZAT/ON
The Pesticides and Toxic Substances Effects Labo-
ratory consists of two main functioning laboratory
groups: biological and physical.
Physical research is conducted by the Chemistry
Branch, which is responsible both for the study of the
metabolism of pesticides, their metabolites, and
residual products in a variety of biological and
environmental substrates and for the development of
methodology for the determination of pesticide
residues. In addition, quality assurance for methods
used by EPA and other laboratories is maintained
through the use of a standard reference repository
and an instrumental workshop for maintenance of
equipment.
Biological research is conducted in two branches:
the Toxic Effects Branch and the Biochemistry and
Physiology Branch. The Toxic Effects Branch is
responsible for investigating short- and long-term
effects (including reproductive hazards) of pesticides.
Teratogenesis and mutagenesis potentials of pesticides
are principally addressed in this area as are acute,
subacute, and chronic studies on laboratory animals.
Complete pathological facilities are available for
examination of tissues and organs of test subjects.
The Biochemistry and Physiology Branch predomi-
nantly investigates the mode of action of pesticides
on a cellular and subcellular basis using laboratory
animals. Epidemiological investigations on occupa-
tionally exposed workers are carried out in the
Branch's Field Studies Section located at Wenatchee,
Washington. Field investigations on the biological
effects of pesticides and toxic substances are also
carried out at Wenatchee. The Animal Resource
Facility maintains the animal quarters for the entire
76
ANNUAL
ORD-RTP facility. Small laboratory animals, pri-
mates, and selected unusual experimental animals
(e.g., voles) are maintained for use in pesticide and
toxic substances research.
The basic purposes of these facilities are to
maintain both a level of applied research in EPA's
areas of responsibility and the means to respond to
high priority problems. The maintenance of several
fundamental areas of investigation allows the scien-
tists to respond quickly to inquiries either through
personal experience or by initiating programs to
resolve the issues.
PHYSICAL FACILITIES
The physical facilities of the Pesticides and Toxic
Substances Effects Laboratory, located both at RTP
and in Wenatchee, are superior to most laboratories
of comparable size and function. These facilities
provide instruments for magnetic resonance studies
using spectrophotometry, for atomic absorption
studies, for mass analysis studies, and for combi-
nations of chromatographic and mass spectroscopy
techniques with integrated computer analysis for
efficient, reliable analysis of pesticide residues. To
maintain the sophisticated electronic instruments, a
maintenance group provides repair and modification
services to the Laboratory, to EPA pesticide contract
laboratories, to other Federal and State facilities, to
the World Health Organization, and to research
laboratories of foreign governments. The PTSEL
repository, containing approximately 450 standard
reference pesticides, provides high-grade analytical
standards for U.S. and foreign laboratories conduct-
ing a wide variety of studies. To support biological
studies, radioactivity tracer equipment for measure-
REPORT 1974
-------
ment of low- and high-energy emitters is available.
Complete facilities are available for the preparation
and analysis of radioactive samples.
MAJOR PROGRAM AREAS
Health effects research on pesticides, toxic sub-
stances, and their residues includes: establishing the
chemical identity of residues, with emphasis on
significant conversion products; developing, im-
proving, and validating residue measurement meth-
odology; and conducting a biological research pro-
gram aimed at evaluating the hazards of pesticides
and their residues and conversion products by acquir-
ing information on the effects of these materials on
animals and (ultimately) on humans.
Pesticide Identification
Methodology
The development of adequate methodology for
the analysis of pesticides and their residues is a
continuing problem requiring continual upgrading as
new pesticides are introduced or usage patterns
change. Multiple-residue techniques that will detect
many pesticides simultaneously have simplified the
regulatory analytical problems; but, they have also
greatly complicated research and development pro-
grams. It is often difficult to fit a pesticide into a
multiple-residue detection scheme without compli-
cating the scheme with the pesticides for which it was
originally developed. A large group of pesticides
coming into increasing use is the anticholinesterase
agents, that is, the carbamates and organophosphates.
These agents are just now being fitted into such
multi-residue techniques. Furthermore, multiple-
residue detection techniques alone do not establish
unequivocally the identity of the pesticide residue,
particularly if artifacts or interferences are encoun-
tered. Identity of the residue must be confirmed by
other methods, and a variety of such confirmatory
methods must be available for the many different
pesticides in use.
In addition to the adaptation of present methods to
new chemicals and the development of new methods,
improvements in the sensitivity, efficiency, rapidity,
and simplicity of existing methods are needed to
improve the effectiveness of a monitoring program. A
quality control manual for pesticide monitoring is
being developed to assure the proper analytical
control of the use of pesticides. This analytical
manual incorporates collaboratively tested methods
for determining pesticides and other chemical resi-
dues in air, water, and food; in human and animal
tissues; and in other environmental media. At the
Effects of pesticides and toxic substances are studied
using laboratory animals.
present time this manual has been prepared for a
limited number of substrates and pesticide com-
pounds; it is continually being upgraded. New and or
improved analytical methods and detection systems
for pesticides are being developed and published
continually. Certain of these methods show promise
regarding their suitability for analysis of substrates
relating to humans and the environment and are being
evaluated for inclusion into the analytical quality
control manual.
In an effort to establish the identity of a residue in
the presence of interfering materials, confirmatory
methods such as mass spectrometry are being utilized.
A high resolution mass spectroscopy laboratory has
begun operation, and new methods for determining
trace metals in human tissues and excreta that
combine mass spectroscopy with other analytical
tools including gas chromatography and atomic ab-
sorption have been developed. Through the applica-
tion of gas-chromatography/mass-spectroscopy tech-
niques, various pesticides have been identified in
human tissues, including Mirex, Oxychlordane, HCB,
Research Activities
77
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Nonaclor, and other chlorinated pesticides and con-
taminants such as polychlorinated biphenyls.
Current methodology for determining pesticides in
air is inadequate both for sampling and for identifica-
tion purposes. Studies are currently in progress to
correct this situation by amplifying the sampling
phase of the methodology. A new trapping system for
the further determination of pesticides in air samples
has been laboratory tested and is being examined in
the field.
Improved methodology for the determination of
low-level organo-phosphate exposure in humans has
been developed and is currently being field tested in
occupationally exposed and normal populations. The
urinary alkylphosphate method has been shown to be
sensitive and reproducible for the determination of
low-level exposure in humans and is expected to be a
welcome addition to the analytical methodology
currently available for defining such exposure.
Environmental samples (e.g., human tissues, wild-
life, plants, and water) of dioxin contamination of
range land and other areas from 2, 4, 5-T exposure
have been analyzed to assure that this environmental
contaminant has not been introduced to the U.S.
through the normal use of herbicides.
In many cases, residue from the use of a pesticide
comprises not only the chemical applied but also
Test dose of pesticide is administered to pregnant rat
using intubation technique.
toxic degradation or other conversion products that
may be formed on exposure to light and weathering.
Metabolic products may be formed in animals and
deposited in edible tissues or milk. This phase of the
research program ensures that the composition of
residues has been established and that the analytical
methodology developed will measure all toxicologi-
cally significant residual chemicals. Metabolic studies
of chlorinated pesticides have established the occur-
rence of a series of metabolites of the pesticide
Lindane for which analytical methodology is cur-
rently being developed. The occurrence of these
metabolites of Lindane, formed in the liver by the
drug metabolizing system, forms the basis of an in
vitro screening procedure for examining the biological
effects of pesticides and other exogenous materials on
drug metabolizing enzymes.
Quality Assurance
A quality control program currently in operation
includes: the calibration and upgrading of instrumen-
tation, the standardization and distribution of materi-
als for the determinative and clean-up steps in
pesticide analyses, the distribution of standard refer-
ence material for use in quality control, and the
evaluation of laboratory procedures and perform-
ances on standard reference materials. This program
continually upgrades methodology and laboratory
capability in the 15 U.S. laboratories involved in the
study of health effects of pesticides. Each year, over
3000 analytical standards are shipped to approxi-
mately 420 laboratories around the world. All EPA
laboratories routinely draw samples from a repository
of standard reference materials for pesticide measure-
ment that includes over 400 currently available
analytical standards.
Quality control studies for clinical biochemistry
and pesticide analytical determinations to assure
reproductibility in data from various laboratories and
various sections of the courttry give assurance that
analytical methodology will be available to measure
all toxicologically significant pesticides and that
variations will be minimal.
The EPA Regional Office laboratories have re-
cently become active participants in PTSEL's quality
assurance program. Check samples consisting of
spiked quantities of pesticide residue in blood and fat
matrices were analyzed by the Regional Office
laboratories in a study to determine the effectiveness
of analytical methodology. In addition, a program of
on-site laboratory evaluations is nearing completion.
These projects have underlined the need to establish a
pesticide-residue training program to upgrade EPA's
analytical capability in residue analysis.
78
ANNUAL REPORT 1974
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Health Effects of Pesticides
and Toxic Substances
PTSEL's biological research program is directed
toward evaluating the hazard of pesticide residues and
their conversion products by acquiring information
on the effects of these materials on animals and
(ultimately) on humans. This applied research is
directed to establishing the safety of pesticides and
developing the scientific foundation for EPA pesti-
cide policies. The research effort includes: develop-
ment of data on new types of pesticides to facilitate
EPA guidance of commercial work, more detailed
examination of specific toxicological effects for their
impact on safety evaluations, examination and devel-
opment of new toxicological methods for evaluating
product safety, and resolution of conflicting or
equivocal data for a sounder evaluation of the safety
of pesticides and their residues. With this informa-
tion, environmentally safe pesticides can be regis-
tered, and safe tolerance levels and reliable enforce-
ment policies can be established. In all cases, animal
experimentation should produce measurable param-
eters that can be used for logical prediction of
toxicity in humans. It is highly desirable to determine
how toxic substances affect humans so that an animal
species that will provide corresponding data useful in
the safety interpretation can be obtained.
In brief, EPA's health effects research includes
studies of the physiological and metabolic effects
of pesticides in biological systems including: the
metabolic fate of the compounds, and their bio-
chemical reactions, the nature of the metabolic
pathways and an evaluation of their effects in
terms of toxic action, and the development of
data on the direct effect of pesticides on humans. In
this regard, previous primate studies on the effect of
Carbaryl, a carbamate insecticide, have shown that
the EEG is a sensitive tool for measuring biological
effects. The effect of several pesticides on EEG
parameters in squirrel monkeys was investigated and
several points of interest emerged: the magnitude of
alteration of the EEG did not correlate with the
relative toxicity of the compound, similar EEG
alterations were induced by chemically unrelated
compounds, and carbaryl was effective in altering the
EEG of squirrel monkeys at a dose that approximates
the incidental or background exposure levels in
humans. This low-level exposure to carbaryl was also
responsible for certain changes in animal behavior. To
correlate these effects and to determine if they can be
duplicated in humans, portable EEG units were
constructed and are being field tested in studies of
people who are occupationally or incidentally ex-
posed to pesticides.
Teratogenic effects of pesticides are studied through
fetal necropsy.
The delayed neurotoxic demyelinating potential of
several organophosphate pesticides was examined in
animals. High concentrations of an experimental
organophosphate insecticide were found to induce
demyelination in the central and peripheral nervous
systems causing irreversible paralysis in the animals.
The significance of this unusual effect from a
potentially commercial organophosphate pesticide is
being further investigated to determine its signifi-
cance to humans with regard to occupational expo-
sure and ingestion of residues in food.
In a further effort to examine the physiological
effect of pesticides, the impact of several chlorinated
pesticides and contaminants on reproduction was
examined in laboratory animals. Studies of the
teratological significance of exposure to dieldrin,
Mirex, photodieldrin, dioxin (several different iso-
mers), and 2, 4, 5-T were evaluated. In addition, in
vivo and in vitro screening techniques were developed
for the evaluation of both the neurotoxicity and the
biological effects of pesticides on liver function.
These techniques have been useful in the screening of
new pesticides prior to the initiation of long-term
studies to evaluate their toxicological significance.
Research Activities
79
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ALTERNATE PESTICIDES
PROGRAM
The 1972 Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and
Rodenticide Act (FIFRA), as amended, places an
increased emphasis on EPA to regulate pesticide
chemicals through full consideration of the conse-
quences on human health and on the environment
from the use of pest control products. The determi-
nation to cancel or suspend a product registration is
made after exhaustive review of the pesticide and of
the potential harm of pesticide materials designated
as potential substitutes. Recognizing the enormity of
the program to evaluate the hazard of a pesticide and
to assess the acceptability of a substitute if removal is
indicated, a $5 million, 50-position program to study
pesticides and feasible substitute chemicals was in-
cluded as part of the proposed Agricultural, Environ-
mental, and Consumer Protection Appropriation Bill
for 1974.
Three integrated strategies were considered neces-
sary to implement this program: (1) scientific review
of known registered pesticides, (2) establishment of a
cooperative liaison with industrial research and de-
velopment to expedite the development of pesticides
as substitutes for those removed from use, and (3)
generation of data relative to the problem of a
pesticides hazard as a function of toxicity, persis-
tence, and potential for eliciting an undesirable
response. The review processes will define data gaps
in background information that can be filled by
initiating research, monitoring, and testing programs.
PTSEL maintains several broad areas of responsi-
bility, including inhalation toxicology; toxicity
screening and testing; chemical determination of
toxicologically significant impurities in commercial
preparations of pesticides; and multiresidue methods
for detection of pesticides. Primary programs are
being designed to satisfy the questions arising in the
review process of pesticides and to allow a rapid
response to all inquiries and thus permit the review
and administrative actions to be completed in a
minimum of time. It is anticipated that this program
will allow EPA to expeditiously remove materials
from the market that are designated as harmful to
humans or the environment, and will further allow
EPA to rationally assess materials designated as
substitute chemicals.
TOXIC SUBSTANCES EFFECTS
PROGRAM
PTSEL has an expanding role in assessing the
toxicity of synthetic organic compounds, metals, and
metallic compounds and in developing sensitive
analytical methods for measuring toxic substances in
the environment. Currently, approximately two
million chemical compounds are known; several
thousand new compounds are synthesized annually.
Each year, several hundred of these new chemicals are
introduced into commercial use even though their
potential impact on health and the environment in
most cases is not known.
The pending Toxic Substances Control Act
(TSCA) is an important legislative approach to
control the introduction of toxic substances into the
environment. Rather than focusing on pollutants in
the media (e.g., air and water), the TSCA relies on
understanding the flow of potentially toxic sub-
stances throughout the entire range of activity —
from extraction (or synthesis), through production
and consumer use, to disposal. Of particular concern
are the potentially deleterious effects on health
resulting from long-term exposures to low levels of
these chemicals, alone or in combination.
PTSEL projects over the past year have supported
the research needs of EPA's Office of Toxic Sub-
stances. Animal model studies were completed on the
effects of polychlorinated biphenyl compounds,
hexachlorobenzene, cadmium, and TCDD (2, 3, 7,
8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin). Preparing for public
hearings, PTSEL carried out over 300 ultra-trace
(ppb) determinations of TCDD in a variety of
environmental samples (including human adipose
tissue and agricultural products) utilizing an improved
sample-preparation procedure followed by high-
resolution mass-spectrometry analysis.
Future research on toxic substances will include
development of rapid toxicological screening
methods; determination of toxic impurities in com-
mercial chemicals; development of a tissue bank to
assess the accumulation of toxic substances in human
tissue over long time periods; and the development of
chemical analytical methods for the determination of
trace levels of metals, metallic compounds, and
synthetic organic compounds. PTSEL is also planning
to develop a rapid-response capability to address
environmental crisis situations that will involve short-
term sample collection, chemical analysis, and toxico-
logical assessment.
Extramural Program
The extramural research grant and contract pro-
gram authorized in part by FIFRA and in part by the
Public Health Service Act continues to support
extramural pesticide activity through grant and con-
tract research funds. The following program titles
indicate areas of extramural study that provide data
to augment PTSEL's research supporting the regula-
tory activity of EPA:
80
ANNUAL REPORT 1974
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Pesticide-caused malformations in rat fetus are often
revealed through tissue magnification.
Mode of Action of Cyclodiene Insecticides —
University of Arizona
Metabolic Interations of Hormonal Steroids and
Chlorinate Hydrocarbons — University of Michigan
Mechanisms of Pesticide Degradation — University
of Wisconsin
Actions of Pesticides and Other Drugs on Male
Reproductive Organs — West Virginia University
Medical Center
Chemistry and Mode of Action of Insecticides —
University of California (Riverside)
Biological Hazards of Phototransformed Pesticides
— Stanford Research Institute
Metabolism of Carbamate Insecticides — Univer-
sity of Kentucky
Mixed Function Oxidases in Insecticide Action —
University of Illinois
Pesticide Epidemiological Field Studies - Uni-
versity of Miami
N.M.R. Studies on the Molecular Interactions of
Pesticides of Environmental Concern — Oregon
State University
Investigation of Pesticides in Human Milk —
Meharry Medical College
Sensitive Specific Fluorescence Immunoassay
Methods for Detecting Organic Contaminants —
IntelCom-RadTech
Intermolecular Interactions Between Environ-
mental Toxic Substances — Florida State Uni-
versity
Development of in vitro Screening Methods for
Evaluating the Neurotoxic Potential of Pesticides
and Toxic Substances — Duke University Medical
Center
Optimization and Evaluation of a Microelec-
trolytic Conductivity Detector for Gas Chromato-
graphic Determination of Pesticide Residues -
Purdue University
Identification of Toxic Impurities in Technical
Grades of Pesticides Designated as Substitute
Chemicals — Battelle Memorial Institute
Extension of Multi-residue Methodology — Uni-
versity of Florida
Toxicological Evaluation of Materials Found as
Impurities in Technical Preparations of Pesticides
Designated as Substitute Chemicals — Battelle
Memorial Institute
Inhalation Toxicological Studies of Chemical Pesti-
cides Designated as Alternate or Substitute Chemi-
cals — Stanford Research Institute
Organophosphate Insecticides on Benzo(a)Pyrene
Carcinogenesis — Thomas Jefferson University
Development and Standardization of Identifica-
tion and Monitoring Techniques for Baculovirus
Pesticides — University of Texas
Toxaphene Composition and Toxicology - Uni-
versity of California
Metabolism and Toxic Effects of Dithiocarbamate
Fungicides in the Rat - Vanderbilt University
School of Medicine
Toxicity, Interactions, and Metabolism of Import
Pesticides in Mammals - Purdue University
Development of Isolated Embryo Screening Tech-
niques to Assess Early Effects of Trace Metals and
Synthetic Organics on Mammalian Embryogeneses
— North Carolina State University
Screening Method for Toxic Substances — Syra-
cuse University Research Corporation
Research Activities
81
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Electroencephalogram changes have occurred in labo-
ratory monkeys after long-term, low-level exposure to
some pesticides.
LEGISLATIVE MANDATE
Public law and policy and the traditions of many
decades have directed governmental efforts to assure
that the nation's food supply is safe, clean, and
wholesome. EPA, committed to full enforcement of
these laws, has developed criteria and protocols for
pesticides and toxic substances that are effective,
workable, and enforceable. The wholesomeness of
any food supply depends in part on the quality of the
total environment: the soil, water, and air in which
the food is grown, processed, and consumed. Contam-
ination of these basic natural resources by pesticide
residues and other pollutants can affect not only the
safety of food products but also other environmental
values such as water quality, wildlife preservation,
and outdoor recreation. EPA is actively seeking to
protect and manage these resources in. the interest of
greater human safety and welfare.
The statutory authority for the regulation of
pesticides and pesticide residues delegates the respon-
sibility for the registration of pest control materials
to EPA. In addition, the establishment of tolerances
for pesticides in or on human food and feed for
animals has been delegated in part to EPA and in part
to the Food and Drug Administration of the Depart-
ment of Health, Education, and Welfare.
If the proposed use of a pesticide will result in
residues on a food or feed crop, a registration for its
use is granted provided a tolerance has been estab-
lished by the regulatory authorities within EPA. The
regulation of pesticide and pesticide residues by the
Federal government encompasses those pesticides or
residues involved in interstate commerce. Pesticides in
food supplies produced and used within a State are
under the jurisdiction of that State. The various
Federal agencies work closely with their State coun-
terparts in pesticide regulation and control, however.
The Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenti-
cide Act (FIFRA), enacted in 1947, regulates the
marketing of economic poisons and devices. This act
was amended in 1959, 1964, and more recently in
1972 to include the Federal Environmental Pest
Controls Act (FEPCA).
The term "economic poison" is defined as any
substance or mixture of substances intended for
preventing, destroying, repelling, or mitigating forms
of plant and animal life (such as insects, rodents,
fungi, and weeds) or viruses (except viruses on or in
living humans or other animals) and any substance or
mixture of substances intended for use as a plant
regulator, defoliant, or dessicant. Under this act no
pesticide chemical may be legally shipped in inter-
state commerce for general use until it is known to be
safe when used as directed and effective for the
purpose claimed on the label. Also, any residues that
may remain in or on feed or food must not exceed
the safe tolerance levels established under the Food,
Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FDCA). FIFRA prohibits
the shipment in interstate commerce of products that
are not registered or are adulterated or misbranded.
Products that are in violation of the Act may be
seized and criminal action instituted against the
shipper of such products. In the more recent amend-
ment (FEPCA), in addition to directing labeling
restrictions for pesticide registration, EPA is respon-
sible for: prescribing standards for the certification of
applicators of pesticides; administering the use per-
mits system; registering pesticide producers including
the examination of records and books and the
inspection of plants; conducting research and moni-
toring activities including monitoring air, water, soil,
humans, plants, and animals; and regulating pesticides
imported to or exported from the country.
82
ANNUAL REPORT 1974
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EPA's authority for the establishment of toler-
ances for pesticides in or on foodstuffs or raw
agricultural products is provided by the Pesticide
Chemical Amendment (PCA) of the FDCA. The
paramount purpose of this Act is to assure the safety
of the nation's food supply. In part, this assurance is
provided by ensuring that the residues remaining on
the food are safe for consumption and by requiring
government clearance before a pesticide is used. This
Act further provides for seizure and destruction of
agricultural commodities that contain pesticide resi-
dues in excess of established tolerances. Where no
tolerance has been established Commodities carrying
residues in excess of established working levels are
also subject to seizure and destruction. This Act also
provides both for 'jrirpinal penalties for violation and
for legal injunctions to halt use. The FDCA outlines
the data onci inK.'.'mation to be furnished and the
procedures to be followed for obtaining a pesticide
tolerance. Additional procedures and more specific
data requirements in the regulations ensure that food
safety requirements are met prior TO establishing a
tolerance. As provided under 'Section 408 of the
FDCA, tolerances are established for raw agricultural
commodities, net for processed food. If the residues
remaining in a processed food have been removed to
the fullest extent possible through good manufactur-
ing processes and do not exceed ihe tolerances on the
raw product, the processed product complies with the
law. In general, the residues in processed food are a
fraction of the amount permitted on the raw agricul-
tural product. To cover the residues of pesticides
applied to or concentrated in processed foods, toler-
ances may be established under Section 409 of the
Food Additive-; Amendment of the FDCA, adminis-
tered by the Food end Drug Administration. Because
the major use of pesticides in the U.S. is on raw
agricultural commodities, the overwhelming majority
of established tolerances sre on these products.
Ideally pesticide residue tolerances should apply to
ready to eat food on the dinner plate because it is the
quantity of pesticide actually consumed that has
health significance; however, tolerances established at
this point in the food chain would not be practical.
Therefore, a point in the distribution system where
meaningful, corrective action can be taken to prevent
the consumption of unsafe amounts of pesticide
chemicals has been selected. The tolerance concept
does not anticipate, as a practical matter, that all
foods will contain residues of aH chemicals as high as
the established tolerance level, or even that all of a
single food will always contain a residue at the
tolerance level.
Within the framework of registration of pesticides
and of establishment o; ? tolerance for pesticides,
several consideration? mu
-------
Table 12. SUMMARY OF RESOURCES FOR PESTICIDES AND TOXIC
SUBSTANCES EFFECTS LABORATORY
FOR FISCAL YEAR 1975
(Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act, As Amended)
Category
Pesticides health effects research
Pesticide identification methodology
Toxic substances health effects research
Quality assurance
Alternate pesticides program
Total
Funds, $103
2,252
504
620
327
1,595
5,298
84
ANNUAL REPORT 1974
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Environmental
Sciences
Research
Laboratory
-------
-------
Chemistry
and Physics
Laboratory
OVERVIEW
OF CPL MISSION
Chemistry and Physics Laboratory (CPL) manages
and conducts an intramural and extramural research
program that provides (1) techniques and instrumen-
tation for the measurement of atmospheric pollu-
tants, (2) information on the chemical and physical
transformations that pollutants undergo in the at-
mosphere, and (3) information on the effects of
atmospheric pollutants on materials. While each of
these program areas contributes directly to the air
pollution control program, all are also closely interre-
lated: air pollution measurement techniques and
instrumentation research support atmospheric chem-
istry and physics studies; atmospheric chemistry and
physics studies provide information on what measure-
ment techniques are needed; and studies of the
effects of atmospheric pollutants on materials provide
information on mechanisms whereby pollutants can
be removed from the atmosphere.
ORGAN/ZAT/ON
The Chemistry and Physics Laboratory is orga-
nized into three branches. One of these deals with the
problems of the physical and chemical transforma-
tions of pollutants in the atmosphere, and the other
two are concerned with the development of tech-
niques and instrumentation for the measurement of
air pollution. All three branches are involved in both
laboratory and field research and implement their
programs through in-house projects and extramural
research grants, contracts, and interagency agree-
ments.
EPA research groups use a mobile laboratory for aero-
sol studies and a water channel-towing tank for fluid
modeling studies.
Atmospheric Chemistry
and Physics Branch
The program of the Atmospheric Chemistry and
Physics Branch involves both laboratory and field
studies. Laboratory studies are conducted in clean
glass chambers with synthetic mixtures and in large
irradiation chambers with real mixtures such as motor
vehicle exhaust. Hypotheses developed in these labo-
ratory studies are tested in the field by analysis of the
atmosphere at critical sites chosen on the basis of the
pollution sources, meteorology, and topography of
the area.
The results of the measurements are expressed in
mathematical models of the atmospheric chemical
transformations. The laboratory and field studies are
Research Activities
87
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AIR QUALITY
MEASUREMENT
METHODS
BRANCH
CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS
LABORATORY
ATMOSPHERIC
CHEMISTRY
AND PHYSICS
BRANCH
EMISSION
MEASUREMENTS
RESEARCH
BRANCH
centered on the following principal atmospheric
problems: (1) transformation and removal of oxides
of nitrogen and organic compounds, (2) oxidation
and removal of sulfur dioxide, (3) relationships
between oxidant and its chemical precursors, (4) the
characteristics and origins of atmospheric aerosols,
(5) visibility reduction by atmospheric pollutants, (6)
interactions between pollutants and surfaces; and (7)
distribution and reactions of halogenated pollutants.
The scientific data obtained in these studies provide a
basis for decisions on air pollution control actions.
Air Quality Measurement
Methods Branch
The Air Quality Measurement Methods Branch
conducts research operations providing EPA with the
capability of assessing environmental quality. This
research is designed to produce and evaluate new and
improved techniques for the identification and quan-
tification of contaminants in the environment for
field and laboratory use. The Branch develops instru-
ments for performing continuous or periodic moni-
toring of the environment with minimal human
attendance, and develops sensor systems for air
quality measurement of pollutants in ambient air.
Staff personnel provide methods for the analytical
extraction of contaminants from the environment
and for the qualitative and quantitative analysis of
said contaminants after transport to the laboratory.
Em/ss/on Measurement
Research Branch
The Emission Measurements Research Branch con-
ducts research and development activities to provide
analytical techniques and instruments for the identifi-
cation and precise measurement of environmental
pollutants in emissions discharged from all types of
sources, both mobile and stationary. These activities
are carried out primarily to support the implementa-
tion of national emission standards for mobile
sources, performance standards for new stationary
sources, and national emission standards for
hazardous air pollutants as required under the pro-
visions of the Clean Air Act of 1970. This Branch also
conducts studies for the chemical and physical
characterization of pollutants emitted from various
sources.
PHYSICAL FACILITIES
A long-path infrared spectroscopy system capable
of a 1 kilometer path length is operated by EPA
personnel. The long-path cell is also an irradiation
chamber with a basic length of 30 feet. The use of a
Fourier Transform spectrometer and a computer for
immediate data analysis permits detection of pollu-
tants at concentrations of a part per billion (by
volume). The system is now used to detect pollutants
that have not been measured or that have been
88
ANNUAL REPORT 1974
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measured only with difficulty both in the laboratory
and in the field.
Several mobile laboratories are used for field
studies of atmospheric chemistry and physics. These
laboratories are equipped with gas chromatographs,
ozone, sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen oxides analyzers.
Aerosol sampling and sizing equipment is available, as
well as weather monitoring equipment.
Two smog chambers are operational for simulation
of polluted atmosphere for study of aerosol forma-
tion and growth and hydrocarbon/nitrogen-oxide/
oxidant reactions. A high-altitude chamber is being
built for the study of ozone-Freon interactions.
A research prototype lidar system, designed speci-
fically for particulate emission measurements from
stationary sources, is housed in a mobile van to
facilitate field studies now in progress. This system
provides a capability for measurement of the opacity
of particulate emissions at ranges of 0.5 to 1
kilometer from pollution sources.
For the remote optical sensing of gaseous emis-
sions from stationary sources, a research infrared
spectrophotometer (ROSE System) is available. This
instrument is also capable of long-path measurement
of extended source emissions. The ROSE System has
scanning capability in the 3- to 5- and 7- to 14-
micron wavelength range and high resolution (1.0
cm"1). It is housed in a mobile van and used to
support field studies that characterize gaseous emis-
sions from various source industries.
An experimental stationary source simulator is
installed in a leased facility at the Beaunit Corpora-
tion Technical Center in the Research Triangle Park.
This facility is used to generate test flue gases with
particulate matter, moisture, and other pollutants
under defined conditions that must be known so that
sampling and analysis methods can be evaluated
under controlled experimental situations before
actual field testing is undertaken. This equipment
provides a 0.6 x 0.9 x 10.5 m (2- by 3- by 35- foot)
test section, up to 233°C (450°F) flue gas tempera-
ture, and 24 m/sec (80 ft/sec) flow velocities to
simulate conditions encountered in typical power
plant operations. Extractive and cross-stack optical
Pollutant emission patterns from exhaust stacks of stationary sources are simulated using ORD-RTP's wind
tunnel. Test automobiles are used in developing measurement methods for mobile sources.
Research Activities
89
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instruments, as well as remote sensing-systems, are
tested at this facility before actual installation or field
testing at various industrial sources.
An X-ray fluorescence multispectrometer system is
now available for rapid elemental analysis of airborne
particulate samples. By automated operation of an
array of crystal spectrometers, the system achieves
high resolution, sensitivity, and speed in analyzing
large numbers of samples for up to several dozen
elements.
The electron optical facilities include scanning
electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron
microscopy (TEM), and X-ray diffraction equipment.
The SEM, used for morphological studies of sta-
tionary and mobile source particulate emissions, is
equipped with two X-ray spectrometers that give it a
capability for quantitative and qualitative chemical
analysis as well. The wavelength X-ray spectrometer
allows conversion of the SEM to an electron micro-
probe for quantitative chemical analysis of particles
smaller than 1 micron in diameter. The energy
dispersive X-ray spectrometer allows qualitative
chemical analysis, for elements beyond sodium, of
particles only a few hundred angstroms in diameter.
The TEM is used for examination of particles smaller
than 0.1 micron diameter where crystal structure is
an important consideration. Electron diffraction tech-
niques afford a means of identifying the compound
species of the particles being examined. X-ray diffrac-
tion is used for identification of crystalline material
or mixtures. Quantitative analysis is possible from
observation of intensities of X-ray maxima as a
function of percentage composition of a crystalline
phase.
The Laboratory's capability for research on mobile
source emission measurements includes instruments
for analysis of particulate and gaseous components
such as sulfates, fuel-additive components, and other
nonregulated emissions. This general capability is
provided by analytical facilities that include:
1. Hitachi RMU-6L mass spectrometer coupled to
a Perkin-Elmer 990 gas chromatograph. The
mass spectrometer accurately measures the
atomic mass of molecules presented to it, while
the gas chromatograph provides fractionation
by the principle of absorption. The mass
spectrometer can also analyze gaseous and
liquid samples to provide unique information
on the molecular weights of the chemical
species present.
2. Gas chromatography capability for separating
and analyzing automotive exhaust by its indivi-
dual components. This capability typically re-
sults in identifying over 100 hydrocarbons and
many substituted organic components, and is
being expanded to higher molecular weight
components. The principles involve selective
absorption, elution, and detection using flame
ionization detectors that respond with extreme
sensitivity to individual carbon atoms. Typical
sensitivities are about 0.01 ppm. Special tech-
niques allow these limits to be extended
approximately an order of magnitude.
3. Other general analytical equipment include
Nuclear Magnetic Resonator atomic absorption,
(Varian T60), infrared spectrophotometer (P-E
180), Ultra-violet-visible spectrophotometers
(Gary Model 14 and Beckman Model B), chemi-
luminescence equipment, microbalances, liquid
chromatographs, and other modern analytical
laboratory instruments.
The mobile source testing facility is located
partially in the Environmental Research Center
facility and partially in leased space in the Beaunit
Technical Center in RTP. The facilities consist of test
stand arrangements for evaluating new emission
measurement methods, for studies of fuel and control
systems effects on automobile and truck tailpipe
emissions, and for work on evaporative emissions.
Two chassis dynamometers are available for testing
passenger cars and light trucks weighing up to 4.5
tennes (10,000 pounds). These treadmill-like devices
simulate the roadway loading effects on a stationary
automobile, including such factors as the influence of
car inertia on accelerations and decelerations, tire
friction, and aerodynamic drag. With this apparatus,
it is possible to operate a car over controlled driving
cycles to derive a close approximation of vehicular
emission characteristics for city street, urban express-
way, or highway cruising models. Such equipment is
also useful for the measurement of fuel consumption
over standardized representative driving routes.
Chassis dynamometers such as these are useful in
development of analytical methods and instruments
for measurement of pollutant substances in certifying
motor vehicles and for studies of pollutant emission
patterns for both production and prototype cars.
Three engine dynamometer test stands are also
available to simulate road influence on engines
removed from cars and for studies of control system
performance. Tests on these dynamometer stands are
inherently more controllable than are whole-vehicle
tests. Such equipment is particularly useful for
studies of fuel composition and additive effects where
subtle changes must be detected; for automated,
rapid mileage accumulation; and particularly for
studies of the influence of engine operating para-
meters on pollutant emissions.
Two of these engine dynamometer stands are
capable of simulating gasoline engine and control
system operation over a wide variety of cyclic and
steady-state conditions. The third stand has a similar
capability with medium-and heavy-duty diesel engines
up to 375 horsepower.
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ANNUAL REPORT 1974
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Atmospheric photochemical reactions of pollutants are studied in ORD-RTP's small "smog chamber."
All five test stands are equipped with appropriate
particulate and gaseous emission sampling devices.
The gasoline engine stands mount EPA-designed
dilution tunnel samplers together with constant vari-
ance-type gas samplers. The diesel engine dynamo-
meter uses a special particulate-gas sampler (devel-
oped for CPL under contract) that permits operation
over the 13-mode Federal test cycle.
The test stands are also equipped with a variety of
state-of-the-art analytical instruments suitable for
both continuous and grab-sample measurements of
gaseous emissions.
MAJOR PROGRAM AREAS
Principal efforts of personnel of the Chemistry and
Physics Laboratory are aimed at: (1) studies of
the physical and chemical transformations that pollu-
tants undergo from source to receptor in the atmos-
phere, (2) development of techniques and instrumen-
tation for measuring ambient air pollution, and (3)
development of techniques and instruments for
measuring pollutants in emissions from sources.
Pollutant Transformation
Formation and Removal of Noxious Gases in
Atmosphere—Transformations of sulfur oxides, nitro-
gen oxides, and organic pollutants are being identified
and described quantitatively. Both gas and con-
densed-phase processes are under investigation.
Reactivities and reaction paths are being established.
Intermediate chemical species as well as final oxida-
tion products are being identified and measured. Real
atmospheres are studied with mobile equipment at
selected locations. Simulated polluted atmospheres
are studied under controlled conditions in the labora-
tory. Results, applied to the mechanisms of chemical
reactions, are yielding parameters for the mathe-
matical modeling of the atmospheric transformation
processes. The results are disseminated in reports on
the chemical and physical processes involved in the
formation, transport, and removal of toxic and
Research Activities
91
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noxious substances in the atmosphere: insights into
the self-cleansing properties of the atmosphere, are
given, rate and mechanism data are provided for the
mathematical modeling of the reactions in the pol-
luted air, relationships between pollutant emissions
and adverse effects are described, and advice is given
as to control strategies for minimizing the formation
of noxious gases in the atmosphere.
Halogenated Compounds in Atmosphere-
Research programs on halogenated pollutants have
been underway in CPL for several years. Recent
findings on ozone-Freon interactions in the strato-
sphere have given a new urgency to these studies. CPL
research activities on halogenated compounds include
measuring ambient levels in the field and carrying out
laboratory studies of photochemical reactions and
reactivities under smog type conditions, determining
diffusion rates, and identifying removal processes.
Recent research has shown the ways in which vinyl
chloride, I, 1 dichloroethylene, trichloroethylene,
and tetrachloroethylene react under moderate smog
conditions. Further data are being sought on the
sources, sinks, and chemical effects of the many types
of halogenated air pollutants.
Oxidant Transport to Nonurban Areas—Previous
studies in California have suggested that high ozone
levels observed in nonurban areas are a result of the
transport of oxidants and oxidant precursors from
large urban areas such as Los Angeles. More recently,
high ozone levels have been studied in nonurban areas
of West Virginia, Ohio, Florida, and New York. In
each case, the data suggested that high ozone levels
are due to the long-range transport of ozone and/or
ozone precursors. Additional field studies will be
carried out in the New England area. A thorough
analysis of all the data gathered may indicate that
control strategies must be designed for entire regions.
Determination of Oxidant/Precursor Relationships
for Control Strategies—Oxidants are legally controlled
pollutants, but they are not emitted directly into the
atmosphere. Oxidants are formed in the air by
photochemical reactions involving nitrogen oxides,
oxygen, and hydrocarbons. The word oxidant desig-
nates material that causes an oxidation reaction in
certain test procedures. Oxidants generally consist of
about 90 percent ozone and 10 percent peroxyacetyl
nitrates.
Control of oxidants follows from control of their
precursors, nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons. Per-
missible limits of precursor concentrations must,
therefore, be based on knowledge of photochemical
processes in the air.
Both laboratory and field studies are being con-
ducted to determine oxidant/precursor relationships.
Current laboratory studies are concerned with oxi-
dant/precursor dependencies under conditions
simulating (1> above-city atmospheres, (2) wind-trans-
Elemental analyses of atmospheric aerosols are conducted using X-ray fluorescence techniques.
92 ANNUAL REPORT 1974
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ported urban plumes, (3) nonurban atmospheres, and
(4) future atmospheres as modified by ongoing
emission control. Field studies concern the potential
formation of oxidants from natural organic emissions.
Emission analysis and inventory studies are also being
conducted to explore the utility of a selective
emission control concept in oxidant abatement strate-
gies.
Character and Origin of Aerosols-Physical and
chemical properties of source, ambient, and natural
aerosols are being determined. The major sinks for
aerosol pollutants are being identified and the
removal rates are being defined. The effects of the
aerosols on gas-phase atmospheric chemical reactions
are under investigation, along with the gas/particle
conversions and the particle-removal processes. The
results of the research are being used to establish the
contribution of the various sources to the ambient
atmospheric aerosol loading; characterize urban,
natural, primary source, and secondary source aero-
sols; develop quantitative descriptions of generation
and removal rates associated with each major aerosol
source and sink; and quantify aerosol effects on
atmospheric chemical reactions. The scientific data
are basic to the promulgation of fine-particle criteria
and standards and to the development of effective
control procedures.
Relating Fine-particle Aerosols to Sources—The
pollution aerosol is a dynamic system whose physical
and chemical characteristics depend in a complex way
on the background aerosol and on particle and gas
emissions. The goal of this research is to develop
experimental and theoretical methods for relating the
properties of the pollution aerosol to the charac-
teristics of emission sources. This is being accom-
plished by (1) beginning with the observed charac-
teristics of the pollution aerosol and formulating a set
of hypotheses relating the aerosol to the sources of
particles and gases, (2) carrying out laboratory
experiments and theoretical calculations aimed at
testing these mechanisms, and (3) arriving at a tested
quantitative understanding of the origins of the smog
aerosol. Experimental studies include investigations
of the conversion of organic gases and sulfur dioxide
to particulate matter in an ozone-rich atmosphere.
Regional Air Pollution Study: Air Quality Charac-
terization-The monitoring network of the RAPS will
measure gaseous pollutant concentrations and
meteorological variables for use in modeling the
transport of the pollutants in the urban air mass. The
network will have little impact on describing and
modeling the transformations of the pollutants, how-
ever, especially aerosol formation and growth. It has
therefore been necessary to establish this subprogram,
which addresses atmospheric chemistry problems.
Atmospheric particulate matter is analyzed using
liquid chromatography.
A team of experienced aerosol scientists was
assembled in St. Louis in the summers of 1973 and
1974 to conduct an intensive aerosol characterization
program. Previous experience with the California
aerosol study was the basis for the development of
this aerosol study. Special EPA mobile facilities were
used for aerosol characterization. The results of the
study are currently being analyzed and developed for
publication. Two gaseous pollutant transformation
projects have been undertaken: the first is the study
of the transformations of nitorgen oxides and sulfur
oxides in power plant plumes; the second is labora-
tory verification of the kinetic models that are to be
applied to the network data.
The program output includes: identification of
sources of visibility loss in St. Louis; specifications of
particle sizes, spectra, and chemical composition;
fine-particle spatial distribution; identification of
gas/particle interactions for development of visibility
reduction models; data on choice of tracer substances
for study of regional atmospheres; and chemical
inputs to the photochemical modeling effort.
Research Activities
93
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Effects of Air Pollutants on Materials—The
damaging effects of air pollution on a wide variety of
materials have been recognized for many years. Both
laboratory and field studies have shown that polluted
environments can (1) accelerate the corrosion rates of
many metals; (2) produce fading in certain economi-
cally important textile dyes; (3) cause products made
from common types of rubber to crack; (4) reduce
the service life of oil-base house paints; (5) deterio-
rate a number of building materials such as limestone,
marble, and mortar; (6) discolor and physically
damage statuary and other works of art; (7) degrade
certain textile fibers, especially cotton and nylon; (8)
embrittle and discolor paper; and (9) weaken leather.
Although these cause-effect relationships are well-
known, the important need today is comprehensive
information on dose-response relationships. Such
information is needed to set secondary air quality
standards and to make cost-benefit studies.
As a first step in fulfilling this need, CPL re-
searchers planned, conducted, and recently com-
pleted, a statistically designed laboratory exposure
study to establish cause-effect relationships between
pollutants (SOj, NOa, and Os) and economically
important materials. Five controlled-environment ex-
posure chambers especially designed for this study
were used. The results showed that weathering steel,
galvanized steel, stressed high-strength aluminum
alloy, marble, and oil-base house paint were mainly
affected by airborne sulfur dioxide and relative
humidity, and the interaction between the two. When
the magnitude of damage and the economics of
materials selection and replacement were considered,
vinyl and acrylic coil coatings, vinyl plastic siding,
and white tire-sidewall rubber were not appreciably
affected by any of the pollutants. The results of this
study will be published as a special EPA report.
Ambient Pollutant
Measurement
Ambient Air Particulate Measurement—This pro-
ject provides EPA with the ability to measure
parameters known or judged relevant to pollution of
the atmosphere by suspended particles. Parameters
presently considered include mass, particle size dis-
tribution, and elemental composition.
Noteworthy progress has been made in designing
devices capable of collecting particles in regimes of
two sizes (0 to 3.5 and 3.5 to 20 micrometers).
Samples are examined for mass determination by
beta-ray attenuation, and for elemental composition
by X-ray fluorescence. Filters, filter holders, filter
transport mechanisms, and identification coding and
decoding devices have been designed for total com-
patibility, resulting in a system geared to the handling
of large numbers of samples with minimum oppor-
tunity for human error.
A major accomplishment has been the develop-
ment of a simple, sensitive, and reasonably specific
device for the automated collection and
quantification of sulfuric acid mist. Evaluation is now
in progress.
Important progress was made toward development
of a rapid, sensitive, and precise method for the
measurement of benzo(a) pyrene, an important car-
cinogenic pollutant.
Future efforts will include further improvements
in collection, sizing, and analyzing techniques, and
development of objective methods for assessing visi-
bility reduction.
Fine-particulate Methodology—This program will
provide a simple, low-cost device that will effect the
dichotomous collection of respirable and non-
respirable particles from ambient air in a manner
compatible with subsequent assessment of their mass
and chemical composition.
On-the-scene research into atmospheric aerosol behav-
ior is performed using ORD-RTP's mobile laboratory.
94
ANNUAL REPORT 1974
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A contract for prototype two-stage collection
devices that will be fieldworthy yet amenable to
production at moderate cost was completed in 1975.
Design criteria included an intake section whose
performances will not be seriously affected by wind
direction or speeds of up to 15 km/hr.
Future activity will include field evaluation of the
product described above and fabrication of improved
second-generation prototypes. Every effort will be
made to provide the capability of real-time assess-
ment of atmospheric fine-particle burden in the final
product. A corollary activity is the development of
reliable methods for generating monodisperse aerosols
of precisely known particle size for use in the
calibration of sizing instrumentation.
RAPS Measurements and Instrumentation—This
program provides measurement capabilities necessary
to complete the Regional Air Pollution Study. RAPS
has its own X-ray Fluorescence Analyzer capable of
analyzing collected particulate samples for up to 30
elements. Sensitivity and analysis time are sufficient
to handle large numbers of samples collected over
periods of 2 hours or more.
Twelve automated dichotomous samplers were
fabricated to collect particulate samples and segregate
respirable from nonrespirable fractions. These
samplers have been installed in St. Louis and are
currently fully operational. A beta-gauge was de-
veloped to assess the mass of particles in each fraction
collected. This gauge will be fabricated to handle the
same samples collected for X-ray analysis.
Two separate laser-powered, long-path spectro-
photometers were developed for use in RAPS for
determining gaseous pollutant burdens, averaged over
line-of-sight paths of up to 1 kilometer. Results will
be utilized in improving pollution-transport modeling
capability. These instruments are capable of analyzing
carbon monoxide, ozone, and sulfur dioxide, and
other pollutants.
EPA personnel, working with researchers from the
Lincoln Laboratory and the General Electric Com-
pany, performed the first field experiments em-
ploying long-path monitors. Ambient carbon mon-
oxide and ozone have been measured at selected sites
in the Regional Monitoring System in St. Louis. The
unique ability of path monitors to measure average
concentrations over long linear distances provides
validity checks of on-site measurements.
A gas-chromatographic instrument capable of
measuring acetylene at levels of 0.1 ppb was fabri-
cated under contract. This capability will be used in
studies using accetylene as an intrinsic tracer sub-
stance indicative of automotive traffic.
Further work in this program will consist largely
of field trials and applications of the techniques
described above.
Instruments for Measuring Gaseous Pollutants in
Ambient Air—This program provides EPA with both
instrumental and laboratory methods for the
measurement of important gaseous pollutants such as
ozone, nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides, carbon mon-
oxide, and hydrocarbons. Its aims are: to provide
measurement capability for a specific pollutant where
a need is known to exist, to improve that capability
to an EPA-acceptable level of reliability, to simplify
the hardware resulting from initial efforts to a degree
permitting routine operation of the method or
instrument by personnel available to enforcement
agencies, and to seek design optima (or alternate
methods/instruments) that will facilitate proliferation
at costs commensurate with available resources.
A simple, sensitive monitor for vinyl chloride was
developed through in-house research. Specificity and
sensitivity of response are achieved by gas chromato-
graphic separation followed by detection of the
chemiluminescence from the gas-phase reaction be-
tween vinyl chloride and excess ozone. A noise-
equivalent concentration of 50 ppb and a linear
response up to 10 ppm suggest use in monitoring
employee exposure levels.
A small, lightweight monitor for ambient carbon
monoxide has been developed under contract. The
detection of carbon monoxide is based on the
nondispersive optical absorption technique of gas
filter correlation. A noise-equivalent concentration of
20 ppb represents an order of magnitude improve-
ment over current commercial instrumentation. The
instrument operates at atmospheric pressure, is not
sensitive to flow rates, and requires no additional
gases.
Future programs will be directed to developing an
absolute calibration for ozone based on ultraviolet
spectroscopy. In addition, a program to exploit
fluorescence methods to measure nitrogen dioxide
and sulfur dioxide has recently been initiated. These
fluorescence devices, if perfected, have the potential
of being lower in cost and more reliable than current
procedures being used to monitor sulfur dioxide and
nitrogen dioxide.
Emission Measurements
Research
Selection of Criteria for Stationary Source
Measurement Strategies—This activity consists of
efforts to develop performance criteria for prescribed
methods and monitoring systems and to establish test
procedures by which criteria can be verified.
Performance specifications and test procedures
were developed as guidelines for continuous emission
monitors of sulfur dioxide nitrogen oxides and visible
Research Activities
95
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paniculate matter (opacity). The specifications and
procedures were based on results of field studies in
which commercially available monitors were evalu-
ated at several industrial sources. A technical publica-
tion on these specifications and procedures provided
the basis for their use as guidelines for monitoring
systems in support of New Source Performance
Standards (NSPS) and State Implementation Plans.
Studies are continuing to provide similar technical
documentation for emission monitors for carbon
monoxide water soluble fluorides, hydrogen sulfide,
hydrocarbons, total reduced sulfur, and mass of
particulate matter. Additional effort is continuing in
evaluating the applicability of the present monitoring
guidelines to additional source industries identified in
upcoming regulations and modifying the guidelines
for these industries if necessary on an industry-by-
industry basis.
Reference measurement methods have been pre-
scribed in the Federal Register in support of NSPS.
Equivalent and alternative methods have been de-
fined, but their acceptance is subject to the approval
of the EPA Administrator. Activity is underway to
provide technical data on the criteria and procedures
for assessing the acceptability of any proposed
equivalent or alternative method. Reference measure-
ment methods under evaluation include those for
emissions of particulate mass, sulfur dioxides, nitrogen
dioxide, total fluorides, hydrogen sulfide, and sulfuric
acid mist. The evaluations involve field studies of the
methods applied to specific source-pollutant combi-
nations identified in the NSPS.
Stationary Source Particulate Emissions—This
activity consists of efforts to develop new and
improved technology for measurement of the mass,
composition, and size distribution of airborne parti-
cles emitted from stationary sources. Considerable
progress was made in each of these areas in 1974.
Several continuous particle mass emission moni-
tors based on the beta gauge technique were
evaluated at a coal-fired and an oil-fired power plant,
a cement plant, and a ferro-alloy plant. In-stack
transmissometers for monitoring flue opacity and for
indirect measurement of particle mass emissions were
evaluated at coal- and oil-fired power plants, a cement
plant, a sewage sludge incinerator, an asphalt concrete
plant, a refinery, and a lead/brass smelter.
A prototype instrument was developed for con-
tinuous measurement of size distributions of particle
emissions in the size range from 0.1 to 10 microns in
diameter. Based on the cascade impinger principle,
the device also collects size fractions for further
chemical and physical analysis.
Two X-ray fluorescence spectrometer instruments
were developed for laboratory and field use, respec-
tively. One is a multispectrometer system capable of
rapid elemental analysis of filter-deposited particle
samples on a large scale. The other is a compact,
portable instrument applicable for on-site analysis of
samples collected in the field.
Problems associated with the sampling of airborne
particle emissions are also being studied. Efforts
include: design and development of stack probes for
efficient and representative sampling, development of
an automatic isokinetic sampling system, stack gas
velocity measurement, and sampling under conditions
of tangential and low-velocity flow.
Stationary Source Gaseous Emissions—During
1974, the NSPS reference method for measurement
of nitrogen oxides was evaluated and efforts for its
improvement were undertaken. Sulfur dioxide in-
strumentation activities included: evaluation of a
continuous monitor on a power plant with wet-
scrubber control equipment, development of a low-
cost extractive monitor, development of an in situ gas
filter correlation spectrometer with multipollutant
monitoring capability, design and construction of a
remote monitor for sulfur dioxide in plumes, evalua-
tion of a polymeric membrane dilution sampling
system, and the development of a piezoelectric
sorption detector.
Other activities included: the evaluation of odor
measurement methods in four selected industries,
design and development of a system for sampling and
analyzing hydrocarbons, establishing effective extrac-
tive stack sampling procedures, acquiring a data base
on techniques in order to establish monitoring specifi-
cations for sulfuric acid mist, and evaluation of the
laser-Doppler technique for remote sensing of stack
gas velocity.
Emissions of Hazardous Substances—The first
group of substances designated for National Emission
Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants (NESHAP)
includes asbestos, beryllium, and mercury. Future
designations may include such materials as toxic
metals (Pb, Cd, V, Ni, Co, Cr, Mn, As, and Se) or
groups of polycyclic organic matter (POM). The
purpose of this work is to develop measurement
methods to obtain reliable emission data and to
support emission standards for these substances.
In 1974, reference methods on beryllium and
mercury were evaluated and the applicability of
mercury monitors to emissions from selected indus-
trial source categories was investigated. Studies are
underway to develop technology for sampling and
analyzing emissions of POM and polychlorinated
biphenyl compounds. A procedure using scanning
electron microscopy was developed for identification
and measurement of airborne asbestos fibers, and a
new X-ray diffraction method was found to be
feasible for rapid quantitative analysis of airborne
asbestos samples.
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ANNUAL REPORT 1974
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Mobile Source Emission Measurements—Activities
in this program include the definition, description,
and measurement of emissions from all mobile
sources. Possible emissions are investigated and tech-
niques for their measurement .are developed. Empha-
sis is on currently nonregulated emissions that might
have the greatest impact on our environment. Tech-
niques for the measurement of regulated emissions
are continually reviewed to ensure their efficacy.
In the past year, methods have been developed for
the routine measurement of sulfate emissions from
catalyst-equipped and noncatalyst vehicles. The tech-
niques were also applied successfully to emissions
from diesel automobiles. Previously developed tech-
nology for detailed hydrocarbon analysis was applied
routinely to light-duty vehicle emissions and tech-
niques to measure oxygenated components were
delineated. Wet chemical methods for sulfur dioxide
were adapted for use with vehicles, followed by
efforts to develop instrumental techniques. Efforts
are also underway to develop methods to measure
hydrogen sulfide and other sulfur compounds in
exhausts.
Methods for trace analysis of such nitrogen com-
pounds as hydrogen cyanide and cyanogen were
developed, and work is in progress to develop a
satisfactory method for ammonia. A prototype gas
filter correlation spectrometer was built for the
measurement of methane, carbon monoxide, and
carbon dioxide, and the design and construction of
second instrument for analysis of other gases such as
sulfur dioxide, ammonia, and formaldehyde is in
progress. An atomic oxygen chemiluminescence tech-
nique shows promise as a possible method for
assessment of exhaust gas reactivity.
An advanced prototype particle emission mass
monitor, based on the beta-ray attenuation principle,
was developed and is being evaluated. Several dilution
tunnels for sampling particle emissions from light-
and heavy-duty vehicles were designed and built and
are in routine use. Efforts are in progress to develop
sampling and measurement capability for particle
emissions from aircraft turbines.
Mobile Source Emission Characterization—This
program provides basic information needed in identi-
fying and assessing potential hazards resulting from
the introduction of new vehicles, fuels, and emission
control technology. Efforts in 1974 centered on the
development of such information for fuel and fuel
additive control and for assessing the effects of
oxidation catalysts on emissions from light-duty
vehicles.
Extensive experimental data were obtained on
emissions from 1975 prototype and production cata-
lyst-equipped and noncatalyst passenger cars. Results
showing significant increases in sulfate emissions due
to catalyst use formed the basis for initial projections
of future impact on air quality. Engine dynamometer
tests of various commercial catalyst packages showed
considerable differences in tendency to produce
sulfate and suggested possible technology changes for
minimizing sulfate emissions.
Detailed studies have been carried out for the
detection of emissions of trace quantities of possible
new gaseous compounds derived from the use of
several fuel additive packages in passenger vehicles.
No new compounds have as yet been identified.
A study was carried out to determine concentra-
tions of unregulated emissions from light-duty diesel
cars; substances measured included particulate mat-
ter, aldehydes, and sulfates. Sulfate emissions, present
in significant amounts, correlated well with fuel
sulfur level and depended also on driving mode.
Heavy-duty diesel particulate and gaseous emis-
sions are being studied to determine the influence of
diesel fuel properties and additives on emissions.
Since the Federal 13-mode test is being used as a basis
for these measurements, the effect of each of these
model operating conditions is being studied as well.
Information developed thus far includes the ele-
mental composition of diesel soot and of the organic
fraction of that material, a molecular weight distribu-
tion for the paraffinic fraction as an index of the
volatility of the organic fraction, and detailed analysis
of benzo(a) pyrene, phenols, and results on trace
analysis of nitrogen-bearing species. This program is
continuing with analyses for sulfate emissions.
LEG/SLA JIVE MANDATE
The program of the Chemistry and Physics Labora-
tory is totally responsive to the legislative mandates
of the Clean Air Act of 1970. The research and
development program relates to many of the sections
of the Act as specifically detailed below.
"RESEARCH, INVESTIGATION, TRAINING, AND
OTHER ACTIVITIES
"Sec. 103. (a) The Administrator shall establish a na-
tional research and development program for the preven-
tion and control of air pollution and as part of such
program shall—
"(1) conduct, and promote the coordination and ac-
celeration of, research, investigations, experiments,
training, demonstrations, surveys, and studies relating
to the causes, effects, extent, prevention, and control
of air pollution;. . .
"(3) conduct investigations and research and make sur-
veys concerning any specific problem of air pollution
in cooperation with any air pollution control agency
with a view to recommending a solution of such pro-
blem, if he is requested to do so by such agency or if,
in his judgment, such problem may affect any com-
munity or communities in a State other than that in
which the source of the matter causing or contribut-
ing to the pollution is located;"
Research Activities
97
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Each year the Chemistry and Physics Laboratory
conducts one or more field studies of air pollution.
During 1974 a field study was conducted in Denver,
Colorado, in cooperation with the EPA Regional
Office and the State air pollution control agency. The
study was part of a continuing effort to determine
the nature and source of the Denver "Brown Cloud."
Researchers also conducted field studies in West
Virginia, Ohio, and New York to assess the transport
of oxidants and oxidant precursors; and in St. Louis
to determine the character and origin of aerosols and
assess their effects.
"(4) establish technical advisory committees composed of
recognized experts in various aspects of air pollution to
assist in the examination and evaluation of research
progress and proposals and to avoid duplication of
research . . ."
The Chemistry and Physics Laboratory provides
administrative management of the Air Pollution
Chemistry and Physics Advisory Committee. The
Committee met twice in 1974: first in San Francisco,
where the principal agenda item was oxidant abate-
ment strategies; and second at the Research Triangle
Park, North Carolina, where the main subjects were
oxidant transport studies, atmospheric sulfuric acid
and sulfates studies, and automotive emission studies.
"(f) (1) in carrying out research pursuant to this Act, the
Administrator shall give special emphasis to research on
the short- and long-term effects of air pollutants on public
health and welfare. In the furtherance of such research, he
shall conduct an accelerated research program . . .
"B) to improve knowledge of the short- and long-term
effects of air pollutants on welfare."
Research on the effects of air pollutants on
materials and on atmospheric visibility is part of the
CPL program. In 1974 a study was completed in
which several critical materials were exposed to
simulated polluted atmospheres in chambers. The
study produced preliminary dose/response informa-
tion.
"RESEARCH RELATING TO FUELS AND
VEHICLES
"Sec. 104. (a) The Administrator shall give special
emphasis to research and development into new and
improved methods, having industrywide application,
for the prevention and control of air pollution result-
ing from the combustion of fuels . . .
"(b) In carrying out the provisions of the section,
the Administrator may—
"(1) conduct and accelerate research and develop-
ment of low-cost instrumentation techniques to facili-
tate determination of quantity and quality of air
pollutant emissions, including, but not limited to,
automotive emissions; . . .
"(3) establish and operate necessary facilities and
test sites at which to carry on the research, testing,
development, and programming necessary to effectuate
the purposes of this section;.. .."
CPL researchers continued to improve existing and
develop new methods and instruments for assessing
air pollutant emissions. Developments related to
ambient air measurements included several methods
for assessing paniculate matter (size distribution and
elemental analysis); sulfuric acid mist; X-ray fluores-
cence measurement of trace elements; laser powered
long-path spectrophotometers to analyze for CO, 03,
SO-2, and other pollutants; a simple sensitive monitor
for vinyl chloride; and a lightweight monitor for CO.
Developments concerning the measurement of emis-
sions from stationary sources included new and
improved technology for assessing particulate mass,
composition and size distribution; the introduction
and evaluation of new techniques related to S02
monitoring; and the evaluation of odor measurement
methods. Automotive emission developments in-
cluded the routine measurement of sulfate emissions
from catalyst-equipped and non-catalyst vehicles and
diesel automobiles; improved techniques for measur-
ing hydrocarbons, oxygenated components, S02, CO,
and C02; methods for measuring trace amounts of
hydrogen cyanide and cyanogen; and an advanced
prototype particle emission mass monitor. Complete
engine dynamometer test facilities are available to
support automotive emission research.
"AIR QUALITY CRITERIA AND CONTROL TECH-
NIQUES
"Sec. 108. (a) (1) For the purpose of establishing
national primary and secondary ambient air quality
standards. . .
"(2) The Administrator shall issue air quality cri-
teria for an air pollutant within 12 months after he
has included such pollutant in a list under paragraph
(1). Air quality criteria for an air pollutant shall accu-
rately reflect the latest scientific knowledge useful in
indicating the kind and extent of all identifiable ef-
fects on public health or welfare which may be ex-
pected from the presence of such pollutant in the
ambient air, in varying quantities. The criteria for an
air pollutant, to the extent practicable, shall include
information on—
"(A) those variable factors (including atmospheric
conditions) which of themselves or in combination
with other factors may alter the effects on public
health or welfare of such air pollutant;
"(B) the types of air pollutants which, when present
in the atmosphere, may interact with such pollutant
to produce an adverse effect on public health or wel-
fare; and
"(C) any known or anticipated adverse effects on
welfare . . .
"(c) The Administrator shall from time to time
review, and as appropriate, modify, and reissue any
criteria or information on control techniques issued
pursuant to this section . ..."
CPL continued a program on analytical methods
and instruments to be used as portable analyzers
(dosimeters) in health studies to aid in revision of air
quality criteria. Effects of air pollutants on organic
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ANNUAL REPORT 1974
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and inorganic materials were investigated in environ-
mental chambers to supply input for developing or
modifying secondary standards for the criteria pollu-
tants. Research on new particulate mass monitoring
instrumentation will provide a more acceptable
reference or equivalent method for total suspended
particulates. Considerable effort is going into the
development of the measurement technology for fine
particles and for other pollutants that may be
considered candidates for air quality criteria. The
formation and decay of such pollutants as vinyl
chloride and halocarbons (Freons) are under intense
investigation.
"NATIONAL AMBIENT AIR QUALITY STANDARDS
"Sec. 109. (a) (1) The Administrator-
"(A) within 30 days after the date of enactment of the
Clean Air Amendments of 1970, shall publish pro-
posed regulations prescribing a national primary am-
bient air quality standard and a national secondary
ambient air quality standard for each air pollutant for
which air quality criteria have been issued prior to
such date of enactment; and
"(B) after a reasonable time for interested persons to
submit written comments thereon (but no later than
90 days after the initial publication of such proposed
standards) shall by regulation promulgate such pro-
posed national primary and secondary ambient air
quality standards with such modifications as he deems
appropriate . . .
"(b) (1) ...Such primary standards may be re-
vised in the same manner as promulgated."
CPL researchers conducted a number of field and
chamber studies in support of present national
ambient air quality standards (particularly those of
hydrocarbon/oxidants and nitrogen dioxide) to
further define the atmospheric relationships involving
hydrocarbons and oxidants. Researchers also de-
veloped and improved instruments for continuously
measuring air pollutants.
"IMPLEMENTATION PLANS
"Sec. 110. (a) (1) Each State shall, after reasonable
notice and public hearings, adopt and submit to the
Administrator, within nine months after the promul-
gation of a national primary ambient air quality stan-
dard (or any revision thereof) under section 109 for any
air pollutant, a plan which provides for implementa-
tion, maintenance, and enforcement of such primary
standard in each air quality control region (or portion
thereof) within such State. In addition, such State
shall adopt and submit to the Administrator (uither as
a part of a plan submitted under the preceding sen-
tence or separately) within nine months after the pro-
mulgation of a national ambient air quality secondary
standard (or revision thereof), a plan which provides
for implementation, maintenance, and enforcement of
such secondary standard in each air quality control re-
gion (or portion thereof) within such State. Unless a
separate public hearing is provided, each State shall
consider its plan implementing such secondary stand-
ard at the hearing required by the first sentence of
this paragraph."
CPL is involved in a considerable effort to support
the development of chemical and physical air pollu-
tion models for reactive pollutants for use in imple-
mentation plans, including site criteria of large area
sources. The transport of oxidants and the rural
oxidant problem are under investigation. Empirical
relationships between hydrocarbons and oxidants
(such as upper limit curves) and relationships between
hydrocarbons and nitrogen dioxide are being re-
viewed and evaluated. Reactivities of- hydrocarbons
and other organics have been evaluated for organic
solvent regulations and transportation plans.
"STANDARDS OF PERFORMANCE FOR NEW
STATIONARY SOURCES
"Sec. 111. (b) (1) Within 120 days after the inclusion
of a category of stationary sources in a list under sub-
paragraph (A), the Administrator shall publish pro-
posed regulations, establishing Federal standards of
performance for new sources within such category.
The Administrator shall afford interested persons an
opportunity for written comment on such proposed
regulations. After considering such comments, he shall
promulgate, within 90 days after such publication,
such standards with such modifications as he deems
appropriate. The Administrator may, from time to
time, revise such standards following the procedure re-
quired by this subsection for promulgation of such
standards. Standards of performance or revision there-
of shall become effective upon promulgation."
Extensive support is provided by CPL in verifying
and improving reference measurement methods for
new source performance standards. Performance
criteria have been developed for extractive and in-situ
instrumentation to determine compliance with
various pollutant standards for a number of sources.
"NATIONAL EMISSION STANDARDS FOR
HAZARDOUS AIR POLLUTANTS
"Sec. 112. (b) (1) (B) Within 180 days after the inclu-
sion of any air pollutant in such list, the Administrator
shall publish proposed regulations establishing emission
standards for such pollutant together with a notice of
a public hearing within thirty days. Not later than 180
days after such publication, the Administrator shall
prescribe an emission standard for such pollutant, unless
he finds, on the basis of information presented at
such hearings, that such pollutant clearly is not a
hazardous air pollutant. The Administrator shall es-
tablish any such standard at the level which in his
judgment provides an ample margin of safety to pro-
tect the public health from such hazardous air
pollutant."
CPL is responsible for developing the analytical
methodology for the national emission standards for
hazardous pollutants. Improved methods of sampling
and analysis are under investigation or evaluation for
asbestos, mercury, beryllium, and polychlorinated
biphenyl compounds. There has been extensive devel-
opment of X-ray fluorescence methods for use in
analyzing a number of elements possibly having a
hazardous nature. Improved sampling and more rapid
analysis methods for polycyclic organic matter are
Research Activities
99
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under development. Researchers developed a simple
sensitive monitor for vinyl chloride.
"PART A - MOTOR VEHICLE EMISSION AND
FUEL STANDARDS
"Sec. 202. (a) Except as otherwise provided in sub-
section (b)—
"(1) The Administrator shall by regulation pres-
cribe (and from time to time revise) in accordance
with the provisions of this section, standards appli-
cable to the emission of any air pollutant from any
class or classes of new motor vehicles or new motor
vehicle engines, which in his judgment causes or
contributes to, or is likely to cause or to contribute
to, air pollution which endangers the public health
or welfare . . .
"(b) (2) Emission standards under paragraph (1),
and measurement techniques on which such stan-
dards are based (if not promulgated prior to the
date of enactment of the Clean Air Amendments of
1970), shall be prescribed by regulation within 180
days after such date.
"(e) In the event a new power source or propulsion
system for new motor vehicles or new motor vehi-
cle engines is submitted for certification pursuant
to section 206 (a), the Administrator may postpone
certification until he has prescribed standards for
any air pollutants emitted by such vehicle or en-
gine which cause or contribute to, or are likely to
cause or contribute to, air pollution which en-
dangers the public health or welfare but for which
standards have not been prescribed under sub-
section (a)."
Measurement technology is being developed and
evaluated for regulated and nonregulated emissions
from on-the-road vehicles and advanced power
sources. New and improved instrumentation has been
developed for measuring regulated pollutants. Exten-
sive research has been done to evaluate emission
characteristics of a number of prototype and produc-
tion catalyst-equipped and non-catalyst passenger
cars. Special emphasis was placed on sulfate emis-
sions.
"REGULATION OF FUELS
"Sec. 211. (b) (2) For the purpose of registration of
fuels and fuel additives, the Administrator may also
require the manufacturer of any fuel or fuel additive—
"(B) to furnish the description of any analytical
technique that can be used to detect and measure
any additive in such fuel, the recommended range
of concentration of such additive, and the recom-
mended purpose-iri-use of such additive, and such
other information as is reasonable and necessary to
determine the emissions resulting from the use of
the fuel or additive contained in such fuel, the ef-
fect of such fuel or additive on the emission control
performance of any vehicle or vehicle engine, or
the extent to which such emissions affect the
public health or welfare ...
Tests under subparagraph (A) shall be conducted in
conformity with test procedures and protocols estab-
lished by the Administrator. The result of such tests
shall not be considered confidential.
"(c) (1) The Administrator may, from time to time
on the basis of information obtained under subsec-
tion (b) of this section or other information avail-
able to him, by regulation, control or prohibit the
manufacture, introduction into commerce, offering
for sale, or sale of any fuel additive for use in a
motor vehicle or motor vehicle engine (A) if any
emission products of such fuel or fuel additive will
endanger the public health or welfare, or (B) if em is-
sion products of such fuel or fuel additive will im-
pair to a significant degree the performance of any
emission control device or system which is in
general use, or which the Administrator finds has
been developed to a point where in a reasonable
time it would be in general use were such regulation
to be promulgated.
"(2) (C) No fuel or fuel additive may be prohibited
by the Administrator under paragraph (1) unless he
finds, and publishes such finding, that in his judg-
ment such prohibition will not cause the use of any
other fuel or fuel additive which will produce emis-
sions which will endanger the public health or wel-
fare to the same or greater degree than the use of
the fuel or fuel additive proposed to be prohibited."
CPL provides support in developing emission
protocols for fuel additives effects. CPL also performs
the emission characterization of nonregulated emis-
sions from advanced alternate power systems. Con-
siderable work was done on the problem of sulfate
formation by exhaust oxidation catalyst systems.
Work continued on alternate automotive power sys-
tems such as the Wankel engine and the passenger
vehicle diesel engine.
"ADDITIONAL REPORTS TO CONGRESS
"Sec. 313. Not later than six months after the effective
date of this section and not later than January 10 of
each calendar year beginning after such date, the Ad-
ministrator shall report to Congress on measures taken
toward implementing the purpose and intent of this
Act including, but not limited to, (1) the progress and
problems associated with control of automotive ex-
haust emissions and the research efforts related there-
to; (2) the development of air quality criteria and
recommended emission control requirements; (3) the
status of State ambient air standards setting, includ-
ing such plans for implementation and enforcement as
have been developed; (5) the extent of development
and expansion of air pollution monitoring systems;
(6) progress and problems related to development of
new and improved control techniques; (7) the develop-
ment of quantitative and qualitative instrumentation
to monitor emissions and air quality; (8) standards set
or under consideration pursuant to title II of this Act;
(9) the status of State, interstate, and local pollution
control programs established pursuant to and assisted
by this Act; and (10) the reports and recommendations
made by the President's Air Quality Advisory Board."
Technical support is provided by CPL in develop-
ing air quality criteria documents and progress reports
required by Congress on air quality, emission instru-
mentation, and emission standards for moving
vehicles.
Table 13 contains a summary of resources em-
ployed by CPL for Fiscal Year 1975 in support of
applicable sections of the Clean Air Act.
100
ANNUAL REPORT 1974
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Table 13. SUMMARY OF RESOURCES FOR CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS LABORATORY
FOR FISCAL YEAR 1975
Section of Clean Air
Act Supported
103
108
109
110
111
112
202
211
313
Total
Funds, $103
956
1,808
901
1,922
1,959
516
758
1,520
333
10,673a
aTotal does not include $2.065 million of special energy appropriations.
Ground and airborne sampling of ozone and other oxidants was conducted to determine whether pollutants emitted
in New York City are transported to Boston.
Research Activities
101
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Meteorology
Laboratory
OVERVIEW
OF ML MISSION
The Meteorology Laboratory (ML) provides an
accurate description of the role and interrelationships
of atmospheric processes in effective air, water, and
land resource management. It provides direct consul-
tation and technical meteorological services; and,
through grants, contracts, and personal contacts,
promotes meteorological research in concert with
EPA's efforts to improve and protect public health
and welfare.
ML's contribution to efforts to control air pollu-
tion lies in the delineation of the effects of weather
and climate on air pollution as well as the effects of
air pollution on weather, visibility, and climate.
Theoretical and experimental research into the
physical processes that affect the transport, diffusion,
transformation, and disposition of air pollutants in
and from the atmosphere leads to improved tech-
niques for determining and forecasting meteorological
aspects of air pollution on a local, regional, or
national basis. To this end, the Laboratory develops,
evaluates, and disseminates analytical diffusion
models, which are used to predict the temporal and
spatial distribution of air pollutants. ML also develops
sensing techniques for measuring meteorological para-
meters in urban and rural areas and provides meteoro-
logical support to EPA offices and activities in their
abatement and compliance efforts.
ORGAN/ZAT/ON
The Meteorology Laboratory consists of five
Branches: Model Development, Environmental Appli-
cations, Climatic Analysis, Regional Air Pollution
Study (RAPS), and Special Projects. The activities
and research programs of these five Branches in
furtherance of the Laboratory's mission are described
briefly below.
Model Development Branch
The Model Development Branch develops the
analytical and numerical formulations (i.e., meteoro-
logical dispersion and statistical techniques models)
that are used to estimate relationships between source
emissions having any specified distribution and the
resultant air quality throughout any specified region.
The Branch also conducts theoretical and experi-
mental studies to improve the understanding of
physical processes affecting the transport, diffusion,
transformation, and ultimate disposition of pollutants
in and from the atmosphere.
Research Activities
103
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REGIONAL AIR
POLLUTION STUDIES
BRANCH
MODEL
DEVELOPMENT
BRANCH
METEOROLOGY
LABORATORY
ENVIRONMENTAL
APPLICATIONS
BRANCH
CLIMATIC
ANALYSIS
BRANCH
SPECIAL
PROJECTS
BRANCH
Environmental Applications
Branch
The Environmental Applications Branch evaluates
new and existing meteorological dispersion and statis-
tical techniques and models and adapts them to
recurring user applications. The Branch maintains
liaison with groups applying and developing models
to provide guidance and advice and to ascertain
future model needs at the user level.
Climatic Analysis Branch
The Climatic Analysis Branch develops and applies
techniques of meteorological data analysis and pre-
sentation to provide information on the potential for
atmospheric dispersion of air pollutants in a specific
geographical area. The Branch determines empirical
relationships between air quality data, meteorological
parameters, physical processes governing observed air
quality, and site characteristics. Through a national
and international cooperative network, Branch per-
sonnel monitor atmospheric turbidity and establish
seasonal values, geographical variations, and long-term
trends. Field experiments are designed and conducted
to determine the radiant energy balance of earth-
atmosphere systems in both urban and rural loca-
tions. The Branch evaluates and studies the collected
data by incorporating them into radiation transfer
theories for variously polluted and clean atmospheres,
and thereby establishes effects of pollutants on the
energy balance, which then affects pollutant distribu-
tion.
Regional Air Pollution Studies
(RAPS) Branch
The Regional Air Pollution Studies Branch devel-
ops, implements, and manages a comprehensive re-
search program to define and describe air pollution
transport and transformation processes in the atmos-
phere on a regional scale. It coordinates the activities
of other agencies, both public and private, that are
conducting field experiments pertinent to RAPS to
ensure that the broad program of research, develop-
ment, and field experimentation directed toward the
acquisition, verification, and evaluation of basic data
for models used to describe and predict the transport,
dispersion, and concentration of pollutants in the
regional area is conducted in an appropriate and
economical manner.
Special Projects Branch
The Special Projects Branch provides continuing
technical guidance and staff support to EPA com-
ponents, including the Regional offices, to ensure
that appropriate meteorological information is pro-
vided in abatement, compliance, and other opera-
tional activities. The Branch collects and evaluates
environmental quality and meteorological-climato-
logical information appropriate for application to
power plant or industrial engineering requirements,
design of monitoring networks, support of legal
actions, and studies of possible effects of air pollu-
tion. In support of EPA Regional Offices, consulta-
tion and other meteorological assistance is provided
ANNUAL REPORT 1974
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Solar tracking instruments are used to track the sun, measure the intensity of solar radiation, and indirectly
provide a measure of atmospheric aerosol concentration.
to State and local air pollution control agencies. Field
support is provided in air pollution emergencies.
Liaison is maintained with the National Weather
Service through participation in the work of inter-
agency committees.
PHYSICAL FACILITIES
In addition to the usual meteorological instrumen-
tation, the Laboratory possesses a mobile lidar
(laser-radar) unit, a microwave thermosonde system,
an acoustic radar system, special sensors for studying
surface energy fluxes, and special equipment for
sensing short- and long-wave radiation. Sunphoto-
meters used in the national and international tur-
bidity networks are tested, repaired, calibrated, and
occasionally built in the Laboratory.
Weather teletype and facsimile products, which
yield up-to-date hourly forecasts and weather in-
formation for the entire U.S. are received within the
Laboratory.
The Fluid Modeling Facility (FMF) was dedicated
in November 1974. Presently, the FMF consists of a
large sophisticated wind tunnel with a test section
that is 3.66 meters (12 feet) wide, 2.13 meters (7
feet) high, and 18.29 meters (60 feet) long with a
maximum airflow speed of 7.62 meters (25 feet) per
second. A smaller wind tunnel is available for
calibration and response testing of wind measuring
instruments. A water channel/towing tank with a test
section 1.1 meters (3.5 feet) deep, 2.4 meters (8 feet)
wide, and 24.4 meters (80 feet) long is under
construction. In the towing tank mode of operation,
stratified layers of salt water will be used to simulate
atmospheric stability. The water channel/towing tank
is expected to become operational in late 1975. The
FMF, one of only a few of its kind in the world, is
available to other EPA components—including Re-
gional Offices — State air pollution control agencies,
and other Federal agencies. The facility is designed to
provide fast response to questions on pollutant
dispersal in complex flow situations, from stacks, and
from automobiles in various highway configurations.
MAJOR PROGRAM AREAS
Meteorology Laboratory activities can be function-
ally divided into five areas: development, evaluation.
Research Activities
105
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and validation of air quality models; innovative
development in air quality simulation models; deter-
mination of patterns and levels of pollutant emissions
from large power plants; determination of pollutant
and thermal emission effects on visibility, weather,
and climate; and meteorological support for abate-
ment and compliance efforts.
Unless indicated otherwise, the research activities
discussed in the following paragraphs represent con-
tinuing efforts by ML or its contractors in support of
Section 103 of the Clean Air Act.
Air Quality Models
Information on the meteorological effect of pollu-
tant concentrations on prospective control strategy
decisions and land-use plans is provided by models
describing temporal and spatial variations in air
quality. To facilitate the application of models, the
air quality simulation models and related data for
various pollutants are stored at a central computer
facility, called the User's Network of Applied Models
of Air Pollution (UNAMAP).
• APR AC—Provides the hourly average carbon
monoxide level as a function of extraurban
diffusion from automotive sources in upwind
cities, intraurban diffusion from roadway
sources, and local diffusion within a street
canyon.
• HIWAY-Estimates high way-related air pollu-
tion for receptor locations that are downwind
of at-grade and cut highway sections.
• COM—Provides long-term average pollutant
concentration.
• PTM AX—Estimates the maximum hourly
average ground-level concentration from a sin-
gle stack as a function of stability and wind
speed.
• PTDIS—Estimates the hourly average ground-
level concentration from a single stack at a
specified downwind distance.
• PTMTP—Estimates the average hourly concen-
tration at up to 30 receptors from up to 25
sources.
A new UNAMAP tape and appropriate forms have
been submitted to the National Technical Informa-
tion Center, Springfield, Virginia, replacing current
tapes. The new tapes include batch versions of the six
UNAMAP models and interactive versions of HIWAY
and the three point source models. Batch versions of
the UNAMAP progress are being placed on the EPA's
UN I VAC computer; information to operate these
programs should be available in early 1975.
Atmospheric turbidity is measured using a portable
sunphotometer developed at Meteorology Laboratory.
Reactive Pollutant Models
The continuation of photochemical air quality
simulation model development proceeded via one
large contract effort with Systems Applications, Inc.,
based on the evaluation of the results and techniques
employed in three models. In assessing the validity of
urban air-shed models employing trajectory or grid
point approaches, it has been concluded that: (1) the
neglect of horizontal diffusion in the trajectory
approach introduces only minor errors; (2) the
neglect of the vertical wind component in the
trajectory approach can lead to significant errors; (3)
the neglect of wind shear in the vertical in the
trajectory approach can be a serious source of error;
(4) the error in the grid point model, due to finite
differencing, under worse-case conditions may pro-
duce absolute errors of about 50 percent for a 9-hour
simulation.
Using various statistical techniques, an analysis of
past model verification studies has been performed.
The results show that none of the photochemical
106
ANNUAL REPORT 1974
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models adequately represents the observed data for
NO, NO2, and O3 ; but in the case of CO, two of the
models (Systems Application, Inc. (SAI) and Geo-
physical Research Corp. (GRC)) were acceptable.
Definite inadequacies in the chemical kinetic
mechanisms used in simulating photochemical smog
formation were indicated.
The first phase of the photochemical model
modification for multi-day simulation was completed.
Modifications in the SAI program have been made
enabling multi-day simulations of carbon monoxide
concentration distributions. Sensitivity studies per-
formed on the grid point model show major effects
caused by variations in wind speed and radiation
intensity, moderate effects caused by variations in
mixing depth and emission rate, and slight effects
caused by variation in vertical diffusivity.
Additional Modeling Work
The Meteorology Laboratory's effort in inert
pollutant modeling includes:
• Development of the real-time episode model
(REM).
• Initial evaluation of a highway model for
describing dispersion from automobiles using
photographic techniques and smoke generators
on two model cars on a track constructed in a
wind tunnel.
• The conduct of a series of field studies of
fumigation of pollutants from tall stacks within
the lake-breeze circulation area.
• Twenty-four periods of intensive field investi-
gation of the formation and breakup of the
nocturnal urban boundary layer conducted in
St. Louis in August 1974, with measurements
of temperature and moisture profiles during the
mid-afternoon measured by aircraft.
• Revision of the HIWAY Users' Manual study
showing how arithmetic mean particulate sul-
fate concentrations could be related to short-
term effects.
• Publication of an air quality data analysis
system for interrelating effects, standards, and
needed source reductions.
• Modification of the batch version of the
PTMTP model to permit calculation of sulfate
concentrations from sulfur dioxide levels.
• Modifications to the batch model for point,
area, and line sources to include the variation in
wind height as an optional feature.
In-house research focused on an investigation of
S02 ~~* SOj transformation in power plant plumes.
The model uses a Gaussian plume approximation to
model diffusion dynamics and a chemical kinetic
mechanism for the simulation of an SO2-NOX-
CO-H20-air system.
Pennsylvania State University, under an EPA
grant, conducted studies in: the development of
mesoscale air pollution related prediction models;
modeling of planetary boundary layer turbulence and
structure; the analysis of acdar (acoustic-radar) signals
for wind and temperature measurements in the
planetary boundary layer; studies of atmospheric
aerosol properties and aerosol-atmospheric inter-
actions; and aircraft measurements of urban and
regional scale mesoscale aerosol, turbulence, and
radiation distribution. Under an EPA grant, a study
of the spatial variability of airborne pollen concentra-
tions was completed by the State University of New
York at Albany. Technology Service Corporation,
under EPA contract, has developed a repro-modeling
technique to the analysis of a photochemical air
quality simulation model, developed by Systems
Applications, Inc., (SAI); the repro-model, using a
piecewise linear regression technique, develops regres-
sion equations for oxidant, NOX, and NO2 for several
grid squares.using five aggregate input variables from
the SAI model as dependent variables. Documenta-
tion of lidar studies of stack plumes in rural and
urban environments was completed by Stanford
Research Institute under EPA contract; documenta-
tion of a numerical model of the urban atmosphere
by the University of California at Davis, also under
EPA grant, was completed. Field studies by the
Battelle Pacific Northwest Laboratories, under EPA
contract, on the precipitation scavenging of inorganic
pollutants from metropolitan sources, have demon-
strated that precipitation scavenging by convective
storms can be an extremely effective mechanism for
the removal of urban pollutants from the atmosphere.
Measurements made at various distances "downwind"
of an urban area (St. Louis) indicate that precipita-
tion scavenging removal rates can be comparable to
urban emission rate estimates. Field studies were
conducted by the Tennessee Valley Authority, under
EPA interagency agreement, to develop and evaluate
a kinetic model to describe the chemical reactions
occurring in a plume under various meteorological
conditions. Studies conducted in the St. Louis area
by the University of Wyoming, under EPA grant,
suggest that the increased rainfall observed downwind
of St. Louis was due to dissipation of storms over the
urban area resulting from the absence of a moisture
source in the urban area; the equivalent was lower
over the metropolitan area than over the countryside,
indicating the differences in atmospheric moisture
content between the city and countryside.
Research Activities
107
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Wind tunnel studies provide information on pollutant dispersal characteristics in the atmosphere.
JRB Associates, Inc., under EPA contract, has
documented a methodology for treating localized
emissions of reactive pollutants. Other studies
presently being carried out by EPA contractors for
the Meteorology Laboratory include: the develop-
ment and evaluation of a dry deposition model
through the measurement of deposition velocities for
gaseous pollutants and using profile measurement
techniques in field studies; the formulation of criteria
for model evaluation and improvement compatible
with performance requirements or desiderata for air
quality, based on the examination and evaluation of
pertinent laws, regulations, and judicial decisions; the
reduction and collation of the 1964-1967 New York
University Air Pollution Project data; the simplifica-
tion of the invariant model developed by Aeronau-
tical Research Associates of Princeton, Inc., for use as
a closure scheme in complex meteorological air
quality numerical models; the development of a
spectral numerical model of turbulent diffusion in an
incompressible, density-stratified fluid; the definition
of the three-dimensional flow field over complex
terrain under stably stratified conditions, through
experiments in a towing tank; the development and
evaluation of an advanced air quality simulation
model, including improved parameterization of turbu-
lent diffusion and adaptation of the model for use in
the St. Louis area; the analysis of lidar measurements
made in the Los Angeles Basin to depict the depth of
the mixing layer.
Geophysical Studies
and Climatic Effects
This work area encompasses the analysis of pollu-
tant effects of physical processes in the atmosphere,
the comprehensive examination and statistical anal-
ysis of air pollution meteorology parameters, and the
assessment of the effect of meteorological and cli-
matological parameters on air quality. Statistical,
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ANNUAL REPORT 1974
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numerical, and experimental methods were used to
investigate the effects of air quality on meteorology
and climatology, and to assess the effects of meteoro-
logy and climatology on air quality.
As part of a comprehensive photochemical pollu-
tion field experiment conducted in the fall of 1973 in
the Los Angeles Basin, the Meteorology Laboratory
measured solar radiation (incident global all-wave and
UV, 300 to 380 nm wavelengths) at six sites in the
Los Angeles Basin. Five of the sites were located in
the urban area between Los Angeles International
Airport and San Bernardino; the sixth site was
located on pollution-free Mt. Disappointment at 6000
ft MSL. Initial analysis of radiation data collected
continuously from August 30 through November 7,
1973, indicates that the effect of atmospheric pollu-
tion in the Basin was to reduce the incident UV
energy by some 25 to 35 percent during poor
visibility situations, based on comparative measure-
ments at Mt. Disappointment. Both the atmospheric
turbidity and incident radiation data showed marked
diurnal variations corresponding to the photo-
chemical pollution cycle.
Other geophysical studies by contractors include:
measurements of atmospheric aerosols using photo-
metric measurement of solar and lunar aureoles,
utilizing observations made at 500 and 700 nm to
estimate aerosol size distribution; initial measure-
ments of oxidant concentrations on a TV tower
located on Mt. Sutro in San Francisco to obtain
background concentrations; aerosol scavenging by
precipitation, determined theoretically and confirmed
experimentally; and examination of the effects on air
quality changes in aircraft operation during landings
and takeoffs.
The Meteorology Laboratory continued adminis-
tration of a global atmospheric turbidity network and
the updating of air pollution potential climatologies.
The Regional Air Pollution Study (RAPS) is a
planned 5-year effort to develop, improve, and
validate mathematical air quality simulation models
on a regional scale. It encompasses studies of emis-
sion, transport, transformation, and removal pro-
cesses affecting the form and distribution of air
pollutants. A spectrum of models resulting from the
study will find applications in such air resources
management areas as development of control strate-
gies and land use planning. The study is being carried
out in the St. Louis, Missouri-Illinois, region.
To provide the input for model development, two
major areas of data-acquisition activities are under
way. To provide the extensive data base of air quality
and meteorological measurements against which
model calculations may be compared, a 25-station
telemetering network, the Regional Air Monitoring
System (RAMS), was installed and put into operation
during the year. All stations measure NO, NO2, 03,
CO, CH4, total HC, aerosol light scatter, temperature,
dewpoint, and wind direction and speed. Half the
stations measure S02, H2S, and total gaseous sulfur,
with the other half measuring total sulfur only. At
selected stations, devices for measuring turbulence,
vertical temperature difference, solar and sky radia-
tion, and total suspended particulate were installed.
The stations are operated remotely by a central
computer facility to which the stations are linked by
telephone lines; the central computer also serves as
the principal data-acquisition facility, polling the
stations once each minute, and storing the data for
subsequent processing. In addition to the tele-
metering network, two sites were activated to rou-
tinely make meteorological soundings. Every 6 hours,
radiosondes are released and tracked to obtain tem-
perature, humidity, and winds aloft. At hourly
intervals between the radiosonde releases, pilot bal-
loons are released and tracked to obtain the winds
aloft only.
The other major type of activity consists of
experiments designed to determine processes and
process rates, particularly in areas of transport and
dispersion, transformation, and local pollutant vari-
ability. Field experiments are designed to be carried
out concurrently to the maximum extent possible, in
order to make best use of the material and personnel
resources required to perform these experiments. A
limited field exercise was carried out in February
1974, and a major exercise was concentrated in July
and August, when more than 200 investigators and
supporting personnel were engaged in component
studies. Most of these studies are described more fully
in this section and in the section from the Chemistry
and Physics Laboratory.
Two EPA components outside ORD-RTP also have
important roles in the RAPS. Under the direction of
the National Air Data Branch of EPA's Office of Air
Quality Planning and Standards, development
of the RAPS emission inventory data base has
progressed with no major problems. Work to date has
concentrated on development of methodologies for
the various types and groupings of sources leading to
the emission parameters that will be used to derive
the emission data. In addition, contacts were made
with companies responsible for the major individual
sources of pollutant emissions in the St. Louis area;
hourly monitoring data for almost all major sources
are now being obtained.
ORD's Environmental Monitoring and Support
Laboratory at ERC-Las Vegas provides three large
helicopters and associated personnel for support of
field studies. Two complete instrument packages and
data-acquisition systems were assembled and installed
in two of the helicopters to provide measurements of
the same air quality parameters that are measured at
the RAMS sites; the third helicopter serves as a
Research Activities
109
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backup. By the end of the summer exercise, both
instrumented helicopters were in operation in St.
Louis. A second series of helicopter measurements
was made in November, providing a vertical extension
of the RAMS at the time that system was first
brought up to full operation.
All data obtained in the study will be entered in
the RAPS data bank, utilizing the UNIVAC 1110
system at RTP. The major content of this bank will
be data from the RAMS; procedures to ensure the
validity of such data are under development. Data
from experimental studies will also be included, but
will often require further processing and analyses
before being put into final format for the data bank.
Software for insertion, updating, and retrieval of all
emission and aerometric data is currently under
development.
METEOROLOGY SUPPORT
In support of Sections 110, 303, and 315 of the
Clean Air Act, the Meteorology Laboratory provides
technical services to various EPA offices and pro-
grams and to State and local agencies. The Labora-
tory also supplies meteorological field support during
emergency episodes involving critical air pollution
incidents. NOAA meteorologists were assigned to: the
Monitoring and Data Analysis Division and the
Control Programs Development Division of EPA's
Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, the
Environmental Monitoring and Support Laboratory,
and the Health Effects Research Laboratory at
ORD-RTP; the Environmental Monitoring and Sup-
port Laboratory at Las Vegas; the ORD Laboratories
atCorvallis, and six Regional Offices.
During 1974 the Laboratory provided technical
support in the following areas: estimated changes in
human exposure to suspended sulfate attributable to
equipping light-duty motor vehicles with oxidation
catalysts; calculated expected oxidant and carbon
monoxide concentrations from years 1965 to 2000
for downtown areas of large metropolitan areas;
applied averaging-time model and air management
steps to severe air pollution problems in southern
Poland; evaluated increased air pollution levels result-
ing from a potential switching of existing power
plants from low sulfur oil to coal; calculated annual
maximum nitrogen dioxide concentrations for various
averaging times and standard geometric deviations for
sites that would exactly achieve the present national
ambient nitrogen dioxide standard; calculated parti-
culate sulfate concentrations at selected sites through-
out the U.S. and projected future concentrations as a
function of expected growth and various potential
control strategies; estimated ambient sulfate levels
downwind of power plants resulting from SO2 and
sulfate releases; developed a computer technique to
compute the expected return period for violating the
national ambient air quality standards, as a function
of the number of air samples available, when the
highest observed concentration is used as the
"design" value for achieving these standards; de-
veloped graphical and computer techniques to cal-
culate the expected number of hours that a national
ambient air quality standard would be exceeded if the
second highest sample in a year is given; computed
expected ocean-level air concentrations of HC1 result-
ing from the burning of hydrocarbon wastes aboard
the incinerator ship Vulcanus; calculated carboxy-
hemoglobin concentrations in nonsmokers in Los
Angeles and Milwaukee on each day of the year;
offered advice regarding past and future studies of a
smelter in Missouri, assisted in the site selection for
the New York State Department of Environmental
Conservation highway study.
OFFICE OF AIR QUALITY
PLANNING AND STANDARDS
SUPPORT
During 1974 the Laboratory continued to provide
meteorological support to the Office of Air Quality
Planning and Standards. Meteorological expertise was
applied in studies concerned with the impact of state
implementation plans on available supplies of low-
sulfur coal. A dispersion model was applied to
selected power plants in 20 states to determine if the
low-sulfur coal deficit could be alleviated by selective
granting of variances. Also, considerable effort was
devoted to determining the need for flue gas desul-
furization or low-sulfur fuel versus the use of tall
slacks or supplementary control systems (SCS).
An acceptable SCS is expected to control stack
emissions on the basis of (1) field studies, (2) timely
ambient measurements, (3) mathematical models, (4)
meteorological forecasts, and (5) technical ex-
perience.
Dispersion analyses were conducted to estimate
the air quality impact of a wide variety of industrial
source emissions. All criteria pollutants as well as
lead, mercury, beryllium, and polyvinyl chlorides
were included in these analyses. The sources were
considered in both controlled and uncontrolled
modes.
Meteorologists were active in the preparation of
guidelines that are used to determine whether antici-
pated growth in an area will cause national ambient
air standard? to be endangered and whether a given
maintenance plan will meet requirements. Meteoro-
logists are also involved in the development of
methodologies and guidelines for the evaluation of
proposed SCS.
110
ANNUAL REPORT 1974
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Air quality and emission trends published during
the year showed a downward trend for most major
pollutants in urban areas, but no discernible trend in
rural areas. A meteorological analysis of the data
showed a statistically significant relationship between
upward trends in total suspended particulate (TSP)
and decreasing rainfall over large geographic areas.
With meteorological support, EPA continued in-
tensified investigations to determine the cause of
nonurban concentrations of ozone that have ex-
ceeded the 1-hour standard of 160 jug/m3 (0.08
ppm).
Ozone levels are being correlated with National
Weather Service upper air and surface data. The
objective of this analysis is to determine the signifi-
cance of upwind trajectories, spatial variations of
relevant meteorological variables, and frontal pas-
sages.
LEG/SLA JIVE MANDATE
The major Laboratory effort is directly related to
the requirements of Section 103 of the Clean Air Act;
however, efforts are also in support of Sections 110,
303, and 313. Pertinent portions of these Sections are
quoted below, followed by brief discriptions of the
types of supportive actions taken by ML.
"RESEARCH, INVESTIGATION, TRAINING, AND
OTHER ACTIVITIES
Sec. 103. (a) The Administrator shall establish a national
research and development program for the prevention
and control of air pollution and as part of such
program shall—(1) conduct, and promote the coordi-
nation and acceleration of, research, investigations,
experiments, training, demonstrations, surveys, and
studies relating to the causes, effects, extent, preven-
tion, and control of air pollution; . . ." (3) conduct in-
vestigations and research and make surveys concerning
any specific problem of air pollution in cooperation
with any air pollution control agency with a view to
recommending a solution of such problem, if he is re-
quested to do so by such agency or if, in his judgment,
such problem may affect any community or communi-
ties in a State other than that in which the source of
the matter causing or contributing to the pollution is
located; .... "(b) In carrying out the provisions of the
preceding subsection the Administrator is authorized
to—
"(1) collect and make available, through publications
and other appropriate means, the results of and other
information, including appropriate recommendations
by him in connection therewith, pertaining to such
research and other activities.
"(2) cooperate with other Federal departments and
agencies, with air pollution control agencies, institu-
tions, and organizations, and with any industries
involved, in the preparation and conduct of such
research and other activities;
"(3) make grants to air pollution control agencies, to
other public or nonprofit private agencies, institutions,
and organizations, and to individuals, for purposes
stated in subsection (a) (1) of this section;
"(4) contract with public or private agencies, institu-
tions, and organizations, and with individuals . . .;
"(7) collect and disseminate, in cooperation with
other Federal departments and agencies, and with
other public or private agencies, institutions, and
organizations having related responsibilities, basic data
on chemical, physical, and biological effects of varying
air quality and other information pertaining to air
pollution and the prevention and control thereof; .
"(f) (Din carrying out research pursuant to this Act,
the Administrator shall give special emphasis to
research on the short- and long-term effects of air
pollutants on public health and welfare. In the
furtherance of such research, he shall conduct an
accelerated research program— . . . (B) to improve
knowledge of the short- and long-term effects of air
pollutants on welfare.
"(2) In carrying out the provisions of this subsection
the Administrator may- . . . (C) utilize, on a reimburs-
able basis, the facilities of existing Federal scientific
laboratories and research centers; (D) utilize the au-
thority contained in paragraphs (1) through (4) of
subsection (b); and (E) consult with other appropriate
Federal agencies to assure that research or studies
conducted pursuant to this subsection will be coord-
inated with research and studies of such other Federal
agencies."
EPA's research responsibilities, as outlined in the
portions of the Clean Air Act cited above, constitute
the Meteorological Laboratory's principal mission.
The Laboratory also provides direct assistance in the
evaluation of environmental impact statements.
"IMPLEMENTATION PLANS
"Sec. 110. (a) ... (2) The Administrator shall . . . approve
or disapprove such (state-submitted implementation)
plan or any portion thereof. The Administrator shall
approve such plan, or any portion thereof, if he
determines that it was adopted after reasonable notice
and hearing and that— . . . (C) it includes provision for
establishment and operation of appropriate devices,
methods, systems, and procedures necessary to
(i) monitor, compile, and analyze data on ambient air
quality . . ."
Laboratory assistance provided by the Meteoro-
logical Laboratory in support of the evaluation and
enforcement of state implementation plans by EPA is
a component of Section 110 of the Clean Air Act.
"EMERGENCY POWERS
"Sec. 303. Notwithstanding any other provision of this
Act, the Administrator . . . may bring suit ... to
immediately restrain any person causing or contribut-
ing to (the) alleged pollution to stop the emission of
air pollutants causing or contributing to such pollution
or to take such other action as may be necessary."
"ADDITIONAL REPORTS TO CONGRESS
"Sec. 313 . . . the Administrator shall report to Congress
on measures taken toward implementing the purpose
and intent of this Act . . ."
The Meteorological Laboratory provides direct
support to EPA's exercise of emergency powers under
Section 303 of the Clean Air Act. The Laboratory's
Research Activities
111
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assistance is also provided in support of Section 313
of the Clean Air Act to prepare meteorological
portions of reports to Congress.
Table 14 contains a summary of the resources
employed by ML for Fiscal Year 1975 in support of
the applicable sections of the Clean Air Act.
Table 14. SUMMARY OF RESOURCES FOR METEOROLOGY LABORATORY
FOR FISCAL YEAR 1975
Section of Clean Air
Act Supported
103
110
303
313
Totals
Funds, $103
3,268
330
33
50
3,681
ANNUAL REPORT 1974
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Industrial
Environmental
Research
Laboratory
-------
-------
OVERVIEW
OF CSL MISSION
Control
Systems
Laboratory
The Control Systems Laboratory (CSL) of ORD-
RTP is involved in a variety of technical and
management functions directly related to the re-
search, development, and demonstration of equip-
ment and systems designed to abate, in a timely and
cost-effective manner, the emission of atmospheric
pollutants from stationary sources to a level that
protects public health and welfare, and to do so
within the framework of our nation's energy and
environmental mandates. Included in this mission is
the goal of developing a complete data base of
stationary source emissions and demonstrating ade-
quate technology to control pollutant emissions so
that effective New Source Performance Standards and
Hazardous Pollutant Standards can be promulgated.
CSL has a high degree of expertise in the manage-
ment of complex engineering research and develop-
ment projects; additionally, as a result of more than
10 years of experience as an organizational entity, the
Laboratory has developed other major capabilities in
efforts to fulfill its mission:
• The Laboratory has become a technical in-
formation base to support EPA's decision-
making capabilities in the area of stationary
source air pollution control.
• The Laboratory has proven its ability to recon-
cile environmental and industrial requirements
in a cost-effective manner by working with
industry on joint programs to solve environ-
mental problems.
• The Laboratory has become an international
forum for communication concerning available
technology through its recognized ability to
objectively evaluate new concepts and to share
research results.
ORGANIZATION
"Fish eye" view of a demonstration of the magnesia
slurry scrubbing system installed at Boston Edison
Company's Mystic Station,
The Control Systems Laboratory consists of four
main Branches. Its Engineering Analysis Branch func-
tions as a program monitoring and evaluation group.
The other three Branches are engaged in projects
ranging from small-scale experimental studies and
exploratory research, through pilot-plant-size experi-
mental work, to prototype evaluations of equipment
large enough to permit confident scale-up to full-size
commercial installations.
Research Activities
115
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ENGINEERING
ANALYSIS
BRANCH
GAS CLEANING
AND METALLURGICAL
PROCESSES
BRANCH
CONTROL SYSTEMS
LABORATORY
CLEAN FUELS
AND ENERGY
BRANCH
PARTICULATE
AND CHEMICAL
PROCESSES
BRANCH
Gas Cleaning and Metallurgical
Processes Branch
Clean Fuels
and Energy Branch
The Gas Cleaning and Metallurgical Processes
Branch directs and manages a broad-based research,
development, and demonstration program aimed at
perfecting processes and equipment for the removal
of gaseous pollutants from fossil-fuel combustion
effluents and of all pollutants from primary and
secondary operations in the ferrous and non-ferrous
metals processing industries.
Much of the work of this Branch relates to flue gas
scrubbing processes: lime/limestone wet scrubbing at
TVA's Shawnee Plant, in Key West, and at CSL's
North Carolina facilities; double alkali scrubbing,
using a soluble alkali (usually sodium) solution; the
Bahco process, using a unique 2-stage vertical scrub-
ber; a 4-year sludge disposal program; Chemico Mag-
Ox, a regenerable approach utilizing magnesium
oxide; Wellman-Lord, utilizing a sodium sulfite/
bisulfite solution with thermal regeneration; Stone
and Webster/Ionics, utilizing sodium hydroxide solu-
tion with electrolytic regeneration; Monsanto Cat-Ox,
a catalytic oxidation adaptation of the contact
sulfuric acid process; a completely cyclic ammonium
sulfite/bisulfite process with bisulfate regeneration;
and a regenerable Citrate process.The Branch's metal-
lurgy-related activities include such iron and steel
industry areas as coke ovens, sinter plants, basic
oxygen process (BOP) furnaces, and iron foundry
cupolas, as well as work with pollutants from copper,
lead, and zinc smelters, and pollutants from second-
ary aluminum furnaces.
The Clean Fuels and Energy Branch is responsible
for research, development, and demonstration (in-
cluding evaluation) studies relating to processes for
the production or utilization of clean fuels or clean
energy as a means of air pollution control. Among its
activities are: evaluation of systems for removing
potential pollutants from coal and oil; critical air
pollutant emission assessment and review of new
energy technologies; development of generalized con-
trol technology for air pollutant emissions from fossil
fuel combustion and conversion processes; evaluation
and development of combustion modifications for
abating the emission of nitrogen oxides and other
combustible pollutants from all stationary combus-
tion sources; and evaluation, environmental assess-
ment, and/or development of new pollution-free
methods of generating and utilizing energy.
Combustion modifications for the control of
nitrogen oxides and other pollutants continue to be
the target of significant efforts of Branch personnel.
Modifications being investigated include: combustion
with low excess air, recirculation of flue gas, staged
combustion, combustor redesign, and fluidized-bed
combustion. Investigations of fuel cleaning have
included fossil fuels (coal, oil, and gas) and waste
products such as municipal refuse.
The Branch's work with advanced, low-emission,
energy-conserving systems includes a mobile demon-
stration unit (the EPA-Van) and a heat and emission
loss prevention system (HELPS).
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ANNUAL REPORT 1974
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Particulate and Chemical
Processes Branch
The Particulate and Chemical Processes Branch is
active in three major areas: it identifies, develops, and
demonstrates generalized particulate control tech-
nology to support the needs of CSL for technology to
control particulate emissions from specific industries;
it identifies, develops, and demonstrates technology
for controlling pollutant emissions from the chemical
process industries; and it provides process measure-
ment services to all CSL Branches.
The Branch's work in the area of particulate
control technology development has included studies
not only to improve such conventional particulate
control equipment as electrostatic precipitators,
fabric filters, and wet scrubbers, but also to identify
and further develop such completely new control
approaches as the Aronetics two-phase scrubber,
Sonic Agglomerator, Steam-Hydro scrubbers, CHEAP
filter, foam scrubbers, and condensation scrubbers.
Its activities related to the control of air pollution
from chemical process industries include studies of a
wide range of organic and inorganic manufacturing
processes, combustion processes, and open sources.
The Branch's process measurement activities encom-
pass the selection, verification, and further develop-
ment of sampling methods, analytical procedures, and
process instrumentation required for CSL's internal
and external research, development, and demonstra-
tion activities.
Engineering Analysis Branch
The Engineering Analysis Branch is the Labora-
tory's program planning and evaluation coordination
facility. Additionally, it is responsible for technical
and editorial services that are more effective when
they are provided centrally. Branch personnel provide
cost control and contract management services to
individual project officers and assist in the evaluation
of unsolicited proposals as well as in the review of
on-going programs. Staff specialists are available for
consultation on specific technical matters.
PHYSICAL FACILITIES
CSL's laboratory facilities include a flue-gas gen-
erator; bench-scale scrubbing equipment; laboratories
for odor problem studies and for the physical
characterization of particulates; an electronics shop;
and equipment for wet and instrumental analyses.
CSL also maintains and operates a self-propelled van
and a trailer (both 40 feet in length) that are
equipped to conduct full-scale investigation of proc-
ess streams..
Pilot-size equipment in the ORD-RTP High Bay
Areas include a model wet scrubber; four baghouses
for fabric filtration studies; a laboratory for the
evaluation of novel particulate control devices; and a
variety of experimental and commercial combustion
systems including furnaces, boilers, and a gas turbine
instrumented for most gaseous pollutant emission
measurements. (Fuels being investigated are coals,
oils, gases, and other liquid and gaseous materials.)
The Laboratory's in-house capability to support
measurements programs recently took a significant
step forward with the installation, at ORD-RTP, of
the first aerodynamic test facility specifically de-
signed for studies requiring large gas volumes (up to
15,000 cfm) with carefully controlled velocity pro-
files and known chemical composition.
MAJOR PROGRAM AREAS
The accompanying diagram, showing air pollution
control technology interactions, presents an overview
of the Control System Laboratory program. Because
of the way various laws are written, and because of
EPA's planning system, CSL's program is divided into
GAS
FUEL
COMBUSTION
FLUID-BED
Air pollution con trot technology interactions among
sources to which new source performance standards
were first applied.
Research Activities
117
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elements based on the control of individual pollu-
tants. Obviously, however, to control ambient con-
centrations of pollutants, the industries producing the
pollutants must be controlled.
The first five industries to which New Source
Performance Standards were applied are shown at the
top of the diagram. The methods that CSL is
improving or developing for air pollution control are
shown at the bottom of the diagram. Inevitably, there
is significant overlap between industry, pollutant, and
control method descriptions of CSL's program. For
example, work directed toward controlling sulfur
oxides (SOX) may involve clean fuels, gas scrubbing,
or advanced power cycles. On the other hand, SOX
gas scrubbing may be applicable to power plants,
sulfuric acid plants, and non-ferrous smelters; and
smelters may emit trace hazardous elements as well as
SOX.
For purposes of discussion, this portion of the
Report is organized by control of specific pollutants.
The broad applicability of a control method for more
than one pollutant, from more than one source,
should be kept in mind when analyzing the program.
This interdependence of CSL program components
highlights an important synergistic characteristic: for
example, a change in the Laboratory's combustion
control research program, to reflect changes in the
nitrogen oxides (NOX) program philosophy, will also
affect CSL's program to control combustible particu-
lates - particulates that may include carcinogenic
hydrocarbons, possibly the most hazardous of pollu-
tants.
A strong cooperative effort has been fostered
between industry and government: CSL's major
control technology development/demonstration proj-
ects have been cost-shared approximately equally by
both sectors. Industrial studies conducted by the
Laboratory have resulted in initiation of such promis-
ing projects as various flue gas desulfurization sys-
tems, advanced power cycles, low-Btu gasification,
and coke pushing and charging demonstrations. Be-
cause many aspects of air pollution control are nearly
equal in importance, CSL's efforts are not (and
cannot be) concentrated in any single area.
Particulate Control
The most pressing need in particulate control
technology is the development of commercially avail-
able and widely applicable fine particulate (between
0.01 and about 3 micrometers in diameter) control
technology to support the establishment of Fine
Particulate Ambient Air Quality Standards. Such
technology is generally inadequate and currently in
the early stages of development under EPA sponsor-
ship. This technology is also acutely needed to
achieve Hazardous Pollutant Standards and associated
New Source Performance Standards for trace metals,
which have already been established or are planned
for the near future. In an effort to develop this
technology as rapidly as possible, CSL is currently
working with many (nearly 70) contractors, grantees,
and consultants.
Scrubbers, electrostatic precipitators, and fabric
filters are currently the major particulate collection
devices. These devices are being up-graded by projects
concerned with decreasing costs, increasing applicabil-
ity of these devices to a wider range of sources, and
extending their range of particle collection capability
to smaller particle sizes. In addition, entirely new
concepts of particle collection are being investigated.
System studies, completed for each of the conven-
tional devices, define potential areas of improvement
and new applications. Long range projects include:
development of generalized models for existing col-
lectors, identification and laboratory scale testing of
totally new concepts in particle control technology,
and pioneering work in small particle detection and
small particle generation equipment.
Electrostatic Precipitation — In an electrostatic
precipitator (ESP), dust suspended in the gas stream
is electrically charged and passed through an electric
field where electrical forces cause the particles to
migrate toward a collection electrode. The dust,
separated from the gas by being retained on the
collection electrode, is subsequently removed from
the device. In a conventional ESP, the dust is
removed mechanically. In a wet ESP, the dust is
removed by continuous washing of the collection
electrode.
CSL is conducting field tests of industrial ESP's to
determine the fine particle collection efficiency and
economics of ESP systems. Recent results indicate
that properly designed and operated ESP's are
capable of controlling flyash from coal-fired utility
boilers at an overall mass efficiency in excess of 99
percent. These same efficiency measurements indicate
that these ESP's are more than 90 percent efficient
on a mass basis in collecting all particle size fractions
down to about 0.02 micrometers in diameter.
ESP's are being redesigned to improve their par-
ticulate collection efficiency, especially for fine parti-
cles and high resistivity dusts. This work includes
development of special dust-conditioning methods,
particle charging procedures, and collection section
designs. The work on conditioning has resulted in the
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ANNUAL REPORT 1974
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discovery of the current-carrying mechanism in flyash
at high temperatures and the demonstration of a new
conditioning agent.
Fabric Filtration — A typical fabric filter consists
of a flexible layer of porous cloth through which a
dust-laden gas is passed to separate particles from the
gas stream. Fabric filters have been used successfully
for many years to collect dusts at temperatures as
high as about 290°C; however, comparatively little
scientific effort has been expended to develop higher
temperature filtration technology. Fabric filtration is
one of the few techniques now capable of collecting
very small particulate matter. Fabric filters are
usually flat or tubular bags suspended in a structure
known as a baghouse (see accompanying figure).
One product of a fabric filter systems study,
completed for CSL in 1970, is a technology hand-
book intended as a guide in the design, development,
application, and operation of fabric filter systems.
The study also recommended research and develop-
ment for possible funding by EPA.
Products of that research over the period of this
Report have been publications that relate woven
fabric structure to filtering performance and evaluate
new spunbonded nylons as filter media. Experimental
work to aid in selecting optimum filter cleaning
methods has been completed; a report of that work
will be issued early in 1975.
Major effort has been directed toward characteriz-
ing and improving fabric filter system performance
for capture of fine particulates. Tasks in this area
have been awarded to contractors and grantees, as
well as being pursued in-house. Specific programs
involve the development of non-woven media; the
development of high-velocity, high-efficiency filtra-
tion techniques; and the construction of a portable
baghouse system for on-site field testing.
Novel Particulate Collection Devices - The cost of
high-efficiency particle collection from industrial
sources by conventional equipment of all types
(scrubbers, filters, ESP's) is high, in large part because
the efficiency of most collectors decreases in the fine
particulate range. This performance loss must, there-
fore, be offset by large size or high-energy input.
Devices or systems based on new collection principles
or on radical redesign of conventional collectors are
sometimes offered by private developers. Presently
proposed systems include sonic agglomeration, granu-
lar bed filtration, foam scrubbing, and several types
of steam or high-pressure water ejector scrubbers.
Entirely new concepts utilizing new mechanisms have
the potential for providing high-efficiency fine parti-
cle collection or for permitting the growth of
particles by agglomeration for subsequent more effi-
cient collection. New concepts that have been ad-
vanced include charged droplet scrubbing and collec-
tion of charged particles by fiber beds.
All known novel devices and new collection
concepts are being reviewed by EPA. Those showing
potential for fine particle collection will be evaluated
for performance and related cost. Systems showing
promise of high-efficiency fine particle collection at
reasonable cost and meriting further development
will, if necessary, be further supported by CSL.
Pilot-scale demonstration projects were begun in FY
1975 on a charged droplet scrubber and a condensa-
tion scrubber.
Wet Scrubbing — In a wet scrubber, both gaseous
and particulate pollutants are transferred from the gas
to the scrubbing liquid. The availability of a wide
variety of scrubber types and scrubbing liquids gives
wet scrubbers the potential for satisfactorily remov-
ing many pollutants.
CLEAN AIR
OUTLET
DIRTY AIR
INLET
CELL
PLATE
Typical fabric filter baghouse.
Research Activities
119
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Sulfur Oxides Control
In the area of sulfur oxides (SOX) control,
achievement of Ambient Air Quality Standards de-
mands the control of industrial combustion, indus-
trial processes, and area sources, as well as utility
combustion. Natural low-sulfur fuels are only suffi-
cient to satisfy about 40 percent of the demands of
State Implementation Plans. The remainder must be
supplied by control technology in the form of
effluent desulfurization, fuel cleaning, or process
modification. Although the currently defined SOX
control technology program contains developmental
projects of sufficient diversity to ensure the achieve-
ment of Ambient Air Quality Standards, a substantial
EPA research and development investment will be
required to bring this technology to commercial
fruition. Only in the case of effluent desulfurization
technology for electric utility applications will the
control technology achieve widespread commerciali-
zation within the next few years.
Consistent with Congressional guidelines, CSL's
major concern has been the control of sulfur oxides
from fuel combustion. About 80 percent of the
Laboratory's total expenditures to date have been in
this area and have been concentrated on flue gas
cleaning. Flue gas cleaning devices are now being
installed on commercial power plants in this country.
The prototype demonstrations that CSL has under-
way are shown in Table 15. Except for clean fuels,
flue gas cleaning is probably the only sulfur oxides
control technique that will have widespread applica-
tion within the next 10 to 15 years. With the
expected shortage of clean fuels (amounting to about
20 percent of the coal demand), flue gas cleaning
should find wide application.
The need to develop techniques to permit the use
of eastern and midwestern coal is shown clearly in the
accompanying figure. Only about 7 percent of this
coal is usable under New Source Performance Stand-
ards. Because of physical and contractual limitations
it is not possible to mine all the low sulfur coal first.
(That is, the mining will proceed from left to right,
not from bottom to top.) Thus a native resource
approximating the GNP will not be available for use if
cleaning techniques are not utilized. It had been
projected that this would cause economic dislocations
and unemployment, substantial increase in the flow
of dollars outside the country, and increased depend-
ence of the security of our country on Mid-eastern
oil; current events substantiate that projection.
Flue gas cleaning provides an alternative (to
low-sulfur coal and oil) that is both available and, in
most instances, more economical than "clean" fuels.
A detailed study, recently completed by TVA under
EPA sponsorship shows that flue gas desulfurization
costs range from 2 to 5 mills/kWh for full-scale
systems on coal-fired plants. In general, the low end
of the estimate can be associated with power plants
larger than 500 MW. Estimates for oil-fired applica-
tions are slightly less than for equivalent coal-fired
Table 15. PRESENT AND PROJECTED FLUE GAS
CLEANING DEMONSTRATIONS
Process and
application
Wet limestone scrubbing
Shawnee-TVA
(30 MW, coal)
Key West
(40 MW, oil)
MgO scrubbing
Chemico
(155 MW, oil)
Chemico
(100 MW, coal)
Cat-OX
Monsanto
(100 MW, coal)
Wellman-Lord
(115 MW, coal)
Double alkali
General Motors
(30 MW, coal)
Startup
April 1972
January 1974
May 1972
July 1974
April 1975
December 1975
March 1974
Removal
efficiency, %
75-90
60-80
85-90
85-90
85-90
90-95
85-95
ANNUAL REPORT 1974
-------
7500
6000
4500
3000
1500
ESSENTIALLY ALL KNOWN RESERVES
MADE AVAILABLE BY 95% EFFICIENT
FLUE GAS CLEANING PROCESSES
(EXAMPLE: SODIUM SULFITE/BISUL-
FITE SCRUBBING WITH THERMAL RE-
GENERATION)
ADDITIONAL RESERVES (TO 2.5% S)
MEETING NSPS MADE AVAILABLE BY
75% EFFICIENT FLUE GAS SCRUBBING
PROCESSES NOW BECOMING COMMER-
CIALLY AVAILABLE (EXAMPLE: WET
LIMESTONE SCRUBBING)
NATURALLY OCCURRING LOW-
SULFUR COAL (<0.7% S) THAT MEETS
NSPS
Value of eastern and central coals meeting new source
performance standards as a function of efficiency of
flue gas cleaning processes (value of coal resources at
$12 per ton).
units. Current low-sulfur fuel differentials of $7.50 to
$10/ton of coal and $2 to $3/barrel of oil equal
approximately 3 to 4 and 2.7 to 4 mills/kWh,
respectively. Thus, for many applications (parti-
cularly for larger power plants) flue gas cleaning is the
more economical solution to the sulfur oxides emis-
sions problem.
Most of CSL's early coal desulfurization work was
in the area of improving and evaluating physical
cleaning methods for coal. With the overall potential
of physical desulfurization and deashing of coal
reasonably well established, this approach should
have moderate applicability in reducing sulfur by 30
to 70 percent in specific coals. Ongoing work in this
area includes washability testing, coal desulfurization
and cleaning, and pollutant control evaluation and
optimization. The most recent work is aimed at
chemical desulfurization of coal and the problems of
hazardous pollutants in fossil fuel.
Two factors — the major contribution of small
coal- and oil-burning sources (area sources) to the
degradation of ambient air quality and the severely
limited supplies of low-sulfur fuels — indicate a need
for clean fuel or coal conversion processes. CSL has
provided funds to both the Bureau of Mines and the
Office of Coal Research to assist in both the
development of conversion and gasification processes
that can provide clean fuels and the determination of
environmental controls that will be required for these
techniques.
Since 1967, CSL has been actively developing
several versions of the fluidized-bed process for
combustion of coal and residual oil as a means of
economical pollution control in low cost steam and
power generation. This combustion process has the
capability of reducing pollutant emissions 95 percent
for S02, 80 percent for NOX, and 99 percent for
particulates. In addition, the capital costs for such a
plant would be 10 to 20 percent less than a
conventional facility, and thermal discharge to water-
courses can be reduced by 10 to 60 percent.
Fluidized-bed combustion represents an attractive
long-range solution to the control of pollutants from
utility boilers.
The Laboratory is also conducting research into
the control of emissions from smelters, iron and steel
operations, kraft wood pulping mills, iron foundries,
secondary aluminum furnaces, and other industrial
sources of SOX.
Nitrogen Oxides Control
On a national basis, approximately 50 percent of
the emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOX) are from
combustion sources other than motor vehicles. For
this reason, the CSL program is oriented heavily in
the direction of combustion control. Control of
stationary sources of NOX will be necessary for
achieving and maintaining Ambient Air Quality
Standards as well as for establishing future New
Source Performance Standards.
The main approach has been modification of the
combustion process to reduce NOX formation.
Bench-scale work and field testing indicate that
necessary control for the immediate future can be
achieved by this method. In addition, stack gas
cleaning processes are being evaluated and investi-
gated on a small scale; results in this area, however,
are not encouraging thus far.
A further complication in nitrogen oxides forma-
tion and control is that NOX is formed from two
Research Activities
121
-------
discrete sources; that is, thermal fixation of nitrogen
in combustion air to form "thermal NOX" and a
significant conversion of nitrogen compounds in fuel
to form "fuel NOX." Experimental work and field
testing are showing promise for controlling both NOX
sources; however, it has not yet been determined that
"fuel NOX" control by combustion modification
alone will be adequate to attain projected long term
goals.
The accompanying figure shows another area in
which CSL has made a major contribution — nitrogen
oxides control in coal combustion, the most difficult
area. The field testing program, which has been
underway since the beginning of calendar year 1971,
has been more effective than anticipated and is
substantially ahead of schedule. The second part of
the NOX program, engineering research and develop-
ment, began in calendar year 1974 and is expected to
furnish technology permitting the attainment of
National New Source Performance Standards during
calendar year 1975. It should ultimately allow the
attainment of average emissions of less than 300 ppm
of NOX.
The basic research, which got underway at the
beginning of calendar year 1974, is expected to
provide technology to allow average emissions of 150
ppm NOX to be lattained in 1978.
Primary efforts during 1975 will be the develop-
ment and demonstration of modified operating proce-
dures for NOX control on pilot- and commercial-scale
boilers. The efforts of the overall combustion re-
search and development program are classified under
the main areas of fundamental studies, fuel research
and development, process research and development,
and field testing.
Fundamental Studies — A number of projects
classified as fundamental research studies are directed
at providing a basic understanding of the important
phenomena involved in the formation and desctruc-
tion of pollutants during the combustion process.
This understanding can then be used to improve
existing combustion control techniques and to sug-
gest other techniques with even greater promise for
control of pollutants. The fundamental studies cover
three categories of work: the chemistry of pollutant
formation and destruction, the physical processes of
combustion, and the mathematical simulation of
combustion.
The actual conditions existing within the flame
zone are a function of the physical processes of
combustion. Most combustors operate with diffusion
flames where fuel and air are introduced separately
and mixing is dependent on the manner of introduc-
tion. Because the flame zone is not of homogeneous
composition, it is necessary to understand the role of
combustion aerodynamics in pollutant formation. A
contract with United Aircraft Research Laboratories
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122
ANNUAL REPORT 1974
-------
has as its objective the establishment by detailed
velocity mapping of the flow-field properties in an
idealized single-burner combustor as a function of
fuel and air inlet parameters. The local chemical
compositions and the exhaust product composition
will be monitored to show the effect of aerodynamic
and mixing conditions. Future work in this area will
include a study of the role of flame interactions in
multiple-burner systems on the emission properties of
the systems.
Because the chemical and physical effects of actual
combustion are closely related, it is essential to
provide a method of tying these effects together and
generalizing the results for a variety of systems.
Mathematical simulation of combustion by modeling
is the tool used for this purpose. In the past year,
work has been directed toward developing the neces-
sary components of the model. Major effort has been
expended in the development of a rapid com-
puterized technique to allow evaluation of combus-
tion kinetics of numerous simultaneous reactions,
incorporation in the model of simplified flow fields,
improvement of the turbulence model, and com-
parison of model predictions with cold- and hot-flow
furnace data using simple chemical kinetics. Ulti-
mately, the kinetics and fluid-flow programs must be
applied together to give a realistic description of any
practical system.
Fuels Research and Development — Fuels research
and development studies are conducted on versatile
experimental combustion systems. The studies are
designed to develop generalized combustion control
technology that is applicable to the control of NOX
and other combustion-related pollutants from con-
ventional fuels, waste fuels, and future fuels. Studies
conducted to date have been designed to develop
combustion control technology for a specific fuel
through single-burner design criteria on combustion
modification techniques. These studies provide the
future goals for NOX control and will generate the
necessary technology to be applied in the process
research and development area.
Contracted studies with the Institute of Gas
Technology (IGT) have been directed toward the
relationship between combustion, aerodynamics, and
pollutant emission characteristics of industrial gas
burners. A recently initiated study with IGT will
further investigate specific burner and process para-
meters and evaluate and optimize burner design to
minimize IMOX emissions from natural gas firing. A
new experimental furnace has been built for this
program. The detailed experimental program will
evaluate three classes of industrial natural gas burners.
Detailed in-the-flame probing will be conducted to
better understand the role of aerodynamics in pollu-
tant formation. The experimental program and final
report are scheduled for completion by mid-1975.
Upon completion of the natural gas studies, combus-
tion characteristics and emissions resulting from
combustion of low-Btu gases will be evaluated.
Within the past year, EPA has contracted for the
design, construction, and operation of a versatile,
multi-burner furnace. This system is designed to
simulate combustion conditions occurring in a variety
of furnace types. The experimental work, scheduled
to begin around July 1975,will evaluate and optimize
a variety of combustion modifications and burner
parameters designed to reduce NOX and combustion-
related pollutants. Fossil waste and new candidate
fuels will be evaluated.
The International Flame Research Foundation is
under contract to develop combustion system design
criteria for heavy oil- and coal-fired furnaces. Two
series of experimental trials have been conducted to
relate burner design parameters to pollutant emis-
sions, flame configuration, and combustion effi-
ciency. These trials have consisted of input/output
measurements followed by detailed flame probing for
a limited number of cases. Results to date have
identified the types of flow conditions required to
control formation of NOX from pulverized coal.
Process Research and Development — CSL's pro-
cess research and development work involves studies
with commercial and prototype combustion systems
for the application of optimum NOX control tech-
nology. Results of these studies will provide the basis
for the demonstration of combustion control techno-
logy. To date, the studies have considered all conven-
tional fuels and combustion systems. The major
emphasis, however, is in controlling NOX emissions
from coal-fired utility boilers.
Two major programs that will have significant
beneficial impact are those related to combustion
modifications of a 125-MW, tangentially coal-fired
utility boiler (Combustion Engineering, Inc.) and a
125-MW, wall coal-fired utility boiler (Tennessee
Valley Authority). Both programs will evaluate staged
combustion as a control technique for NOX with
special emphasis on unit performance and fire-side
corrosion.
A program recently initiated with Combustion
Engineering will evaluate staged combustion (overfire
air) on coal-fired tangential boilers designed with this
NOX control technique. Two coal types (Western
subbituminous and bituminous) will be studied. The
test boilers are 450-MW units. This study should
provide scale-up data on combustion modifications
(from the on-going 125-MW tests) and relate the
efficacy of retrofit technology to new unit design.
Additionally, the study should give further insight to
the role of fuel nitrogen and coal type and the degree
of NOX control achievable.
Research Activities
123
-------
Advanced, low-emission, energy-conserving systems are demonstrated in EPA's mobile van.
A new study with KVB, Inc., will evaluate the
impact of fuel switching on industrial size boilers.
Specifically, both high-sulfur bituminous and low-
sulfur Western subbituminous will be burned in a
variety of industrial boiler types and sizes. The
impact on boiler performance and emissions will be
assessed.
Field Testing — CSL has sponsored several field
test programs, with boilers ranging from residential to
utility size, to determine what can presently be done
to control NOX and combustible emissions. This work
is done on commercial equipment and is generally
performed by research and development organiza-
tions familiar with the specific combustion systems
being studied using the financial and technical assist-
ance of manufacturers, users, and trade associations.
In addition to developing trends and providing
directional recommendations for industry to use to
minimize emissions using today's technology, the
work also defines where the research and develop-
ment efforts should be concentrated by developing
emission factors as a function of equipment type and
size, and fuel consumed. The field testing studies are
the initial efforts in the development of control
technology and are designed to provide the state-of-
the-art in control of NOX and combustible emissions
from existing commercial combustion systems.
A study with residential (up to 300.000 Btu/hr)
and commercial (300,000 to 10,000,000 Btu/hr)
boilers was jointly sponsored by the American Petro-
leum Institute (API) and EPA. Battelle (Columbus)
Laboratories, the contractor, concluded that emis-
sions from this size range of equipment can be
controlled best by proper burner design and "proper
maintenance.
124
ANNUAL REPORT 1974
-------
A 2-year study of the effect of combustion
modification on air pollutant emissions and efficiency
of industrial (10,000,000 to 500,000,000 Btu/hr)
boilers will be completed in the latter part of calendar
year 1975. The contractor, KVB Engineering, Inc.,
field-tested 47 boilers (75 boiler/fuel combinations)
during the first phase. The second phase will include
longer term, more detailed tests on approximately 18
boilers. Extensive modifications (for example, flue
gas recirculation and overfire air ports) will be
performed and sampling will be extended to include
toxic elements.
Field tests with utility (500,000,000 Btu/hr and
greater) boilers have been performed by Exxon
Research and Engineering Co. During 1971, the first
year of the tests, 17 boilers (25 boiler/fuel combina-
tions) that fired coal, oil, and/or gas were tested.
Depending on boiler design, NOX reductions averag-
ing 60 to 70 percent were achieved with gas-fired
units, and 50 to 60 percent with oil-fired units:
initially, reductions with coal-fired units were not as
successful. NOX reductions on the gas- and oil-fired
units were primarily achieved through low-excess-air-
firing and staged combustion. In the past 2 years,
emphasis has been placed on coal-fired boilers. Exxon
was recently able to reduce NOX emissions by an
average of 40 to 50 percent by using low excess air
and staged combustion on 12 coal-fired units without
Catalytic oxidation process for sulfur dioxide removal is in operation at Wood River Power Station in A /ton, IL.
Research Activities
125
-------
increasing other emissions or significantly affecting
boiler performance. However, more information is
needed to determine the effect of combustion modifi-
cation with coal-fired units and tube-wall corrosion.
A follow-up study, jointly sponsored by EPA and
the Electric Power Research Institute, is currently
underway. Its primary purpose is to investigate
potentially harmful side effects of combustion modi-
fication on utility boiler performance and tube-wall
corrosion.
In the future, new burner designs will be tested in
industrial and utility boilers, and testing will be
conducted on such techniques as increasing fuel
richness during staging of combustion. A wider
variety of equipment types (such as kilns, ovens,
process furnaces, gas turbines, and stationary internal
combustion engines) will be investigated. The effect
on emissions of mixed-fuel firing, fossil-fuel/waste-
fuel firing, and firing coal-derived fuels such as
low-Btu gas will be determined. These field tests will
also provide badly needed information about emis-
sions of toxic elements and potentially hazardous
pollutants.
NOX Program Summary — To date, it has been
shown: that flue gas recirculation is the most effec-
tive combustion control technique for NOX emission
from nitrogen fixation of atmospheric nitrogen, and
that staged combustion is the most effective control
method for NOX emissions from fuel nitrogen conver-
sion. The development of this technology by the EPA
has allowed the control of NOX emission from gas-
and oil-fired utility boilers to a level of 150 to 250
ppm. In short-term testing, combustion modifications
have also resulted in NOX reductions of up to 50
percent in commercial coal-fired utility boilers. In
addition, burner and furnace design variables have
been shown to cause widely varying NOX emission
levels in all boiler categories. Current efforts are
directed toward the continued development and
demonstration of modified operating procedures for
NOX Control in pilot- and commercial-scale utility
and industrial boilers. Future work will support the
establishment of New Source Performance Standards
by applying the control technologies developed as a
result of this research and development effort to
pilot- and commercial-scale demonstration of com-
bustion control of NOX for existing and new combus-
tion sources in all size categories. In addition, the
research and development effort will be extended to
develop control technology applicable to the combus-
tion of additional fuel types (including coal-derived
fuels such as low-Btu gas, mixed fuels, waste fuels,
and methanol) and covering a wider range of combus-
tion equipment (e.g., stationary gas turbines, internal
combustion engines, and industrial process furnaces).
Hazardous and Other
Pollutant Control
As EPA's regulatory program has developed, the
number of pollutants requiring control has expanded
to include more than 30 potentially hazardous and/or
annoying air pollutants. The overall goal relating to
hazardous and other (other than SOX, NOX and
particulates) pollutants involves demonstration of the
"best" technology for controlling pollutant emissions
from specific combustion and industrial processes to
such a degree that a net health benefit is realized with
the least economic impact. Established technology
can lead to setting New Source Performance Stand-
ards or Hazardous Emissions Standards.
Each of several hundred different industrial source
types has a different degree of adverse environmental
impact. The data base describing many of these
source types is either non-existent or not in a form
suitable for deciding on the need to develop control
technology for the sources. A major effort is under-
way in CSL to generate the needed data base so that
the environmental impact of the sources can be
assessed accurately. Where currently installed control
technology does not reduce emissions sufficiently for
them to be of insignificant environmental impact,
control technology must be developed. All options,
including add-on devices, process changes, and raw
materials changes, are considered in selecting the
most attractive approach for technology develop-
ment. The programs in the "hazardous" element
therefore, involve either source assessment or tech-
nology development.
The goal of CSL's highly source-oriented control
program for hazardous and other pollutants is to
control all pollutants from a given source. For
convenience in presentation, the extremely diverse
program can be divided into six source categories:
organic chemical processes, inorganic chemical proc-
esses, ferrous metals processes, non-ferrous metals
processes, open sources, and hazardous pollutants
from combustion sources.
Organic Chemical Processes - In the area of
organic chemical processes, CSL's efforts are aimed at
controlling emissions from asphalt roofing manufac-
ture, ethylene dichloride manufacture, flare systems,
Kraft pulping recovery processes, petroleum re-
fineries, and rendering plants. Included in this cate-
gory, along with rendering plants (because of their
odor control relationship), are projects involving the
adsorption properties of active manganese dioxide
and charcoal.
Inorganic Chemical Processes — Relating to CSL's
work with inorganic chemical processes, a program is
underway to determine the need to develop control
126
ANNUAL REPORT 1974
-------
technology for fluoride emissions from gypsum ponds
at fertilizer plants. Another ongoing project will
provide data to quantify the capability of control
equipment for enclosed asbestos sources; hopefully,
these data will be used to strengthen the equipment
standards for abestos control.
Ferrous Metals Processes - The ferrous metals
industry converts iron ore and scrap iron into useful
iron and steel products. At large integrated steel
plants, iron ore, limestone, and coke are charged to a
blast furnace where the iron ore is reduced to molten
metal, which is periodically tapped. The iron from
the blast furnace is saturated with carbon that must
be removed to change it into steel. The iron from the
blast furnace, usually molten, is generally mixed with
cold scrap in a steelmaking furnace where it is blown
with air or oxygen, which burns the carbon, to
produce steel. It is in the steel furnace that the
carbon level is reduced to the required level, impuri-
ties are removed, and alloying agents are added.
(Other, less important, steel-making furnaces are the
open-hearth and the electric arc.) The steel from the
furnace is poured into ingots that solidify. The ingots
are then adjusted to proper and uniform temperature
and physically squeezed into the desired shape in
rolling mills.
This sounds simple, but in reality it is rather
complex as there are many ancillary processes and
operations to contend with; e.g., sintering, coke
production, scarfing, and galvanizing.
The iron and steel industry is not limited to large
integrated plants; small iron and steel foundries are
spread throughout the country. In these foundries
scrap iron or steel is melted in electric arc and
induction furnaces or in cupolas with little or no
refining, then poured into molds to solidify into the
desired shape.
Production of coke in conventional oven batteries
has traditionally been a major source of particulates,
SOX, odors, carcinogens, and hazardous trace metals.
It has been shown that top-side coke oven workers
have a substantially higher risk of lung cancer than
the average worker, probably from carcinogenic
materials associated with the particulate fraction of
the emissions. Until recently, emissions from this
source have been relatively uncontrolled. Because the
majority of existing cokemaking facilities will be
operable for the next 25 years and because most
facilities built in the next 10 years will feature
conventional oven batteries, CSL has had to concern
itself with developing control technology for conven-
tional batteries in order to meet pollution control
guidelines until the end of the century.
Present indications are that, even though pollution
control technology may be developed for conven-
tional batteries, equipment will probably be expen-
sive and have high maintenance cost, yet may not be
Research
able to control all pollutants. The expected long-term
solution to the coking problem is a continuous coking
process that emits pollutants in a more controllable
form. CSL's involvement in coking is ultimately
expected to encompass continuous cokemaking.
Specific coke oven emission control projects with
CSL involvement include: smokeless coke charging,
enclosed coke pushing and quenching, smokeless coke
pushing, and improved coke oven door seals. As
shown in the accompanying figure, CSL's prototype
demonstrations are expected to permit reduction of
coke oven emissions from coke production. CSL is
now expanding its outlook — initiating projects in
other areas of the industry, in addition to coke-
making. Other major CSL ferrous emission control
projects are related to sinter plant windboxes, basic
oxygen process (BOP) furnaces, and iron foundry
cupolas. New projects are being developed to control
blast furnace and fugitive emissions.
Non-Ferrous Metals Processes — CSL's activities
relating to non-ferrous metals processes — particularly
relating to air pollution problems associated with
primary copper, lead, and zinc production in the U.S.
— began late in 1967 with a survey of sulfur oxides
and particulate matter emitted by those industries.
The study by Arthur G. McKee and Co., completed
early in 1970, gave a general qualitative and quantita-
tive status of emissions in the smelting industry.
The "McKee" effort was followed by another
general study — this one to appraise the suitability of
Monsanto's Cat-Ox process and the Wellmann-Lord
process for controlling sulfur oxide emissions from
copper, lead, and zinc smelters. The study was
performed by Stanford Research Institute.
Because U.S. copper smelting exposes a significant
segment of the population to a multiplicity of
pollutants whose effects have not yet been deter-
mined, efforts are underway to evaluate emissions
from such plants. CSL has also initiated a set of
development projects. Two new efforts currently
being mounted have as their respective objectives:
• Providing smelter-by-smelter information to
EPA on the optimum application of currently
demonstrated technology to simultaneously
control all smelter streams containing S02 and
particulates. The output will be in the form
currently being accepted by the courts as
demonstration by means of technology
transfer.
• Assessing the environmental considerations of
emerging technology for metal-winning in the
primary non-ferrous industry. In this project,
consideration will be given to hydrometallurgy
as a new smelting process.
CSL and Phelps Dodge Corporation started a cost
sharing study in July 1971 on a new SOX control
Activities 127
-------
Wet limestone (coral) scrubbing system for sulfur dioxide removal is in operation at oil-fired power plant in Key
West,FL.
method based on reacting the S02 with H20, with
sulfur values recovered as elemental sulfur. Initial
attempts to generate the needed H2S by roasting
available copper ore with steam at 800°C showed
that, although it was technically feasible, the eco-
nomics were prohibitive. The emphasis has now
shifted to leaching the concentrate with hydrochloric
acid, which decomposes the pyrite and/or pychloric
in the concentrate and releases ample quantities of
H2S. Preliminary results are promising; however, tests
are required to understand the observed variations in
H2S generation as a function of the concentrate
source.
EPA has entered into two separate Public Law 480
Agreements (excess foreign currency program) with
Yugoslavia: one with the Institute for Copper, in Bor;
128
ANNUAL REPORT 1974
-------
and the other with the Lead and Zinc Institute in
Trepca. The Bor project is a 3-year investigation
(begun in May 1971) being carried- out at an
American-engineered copper smelter, the largest in
Europe. The Trepca project is a similar 3-year effort
(started in October 1971) being carried out at a lead
and zinc smelter.
Objectives of both projects are:
• To characterize quantitatively and qualitatively
all air pollutant emissions from this type of
smelter.
• To relate air pollutant emissions to the smelter
feed and to feed changes so that data will apply
to other smelters.
• To relate air pollutant emissions to operational
changes (changes in smelter configuration) so
that data will apply to other smelters.
• To determine the effects of controlling sulfur
dioxide and particulates on the emission of all
other pollutants, especially of the "hazardous"
heavy metals.
The relationships that are being developed in these
two Public Law 480 projects are expected to be
applicable to the domestic non-ferrous smelting in-
dustry.
CLS's interest in hazardous and other emissions
from the non-ferrous metals industry prompted a
recently completed study at the South Dakota School
of Mining under a research grant. The hazardous
element of interest in this study was the mercury
vapor or metallic mercury found in smelter or power
plant flue gases.
Another CSL-funded effort relating to mercury
and other hazardous pollutants (e.g., arsenic,
cadmium, selenium, antimony, beryllium, copper,
zinc, and lead) was a study completed by Monsanto
Research Company to ascertain concentrations of
these metals in smelter-produced sulfuric acid. The
survey was intended to help predict the fate of
hazardous pollutants produced by smelter sulfuric
acid distribution to, and consumption by, different
industries.
Open Sources — CSL's open sources program is a
broad-based source characterization program, initi-
ated to characterize all major sources of toxic
emissions from mining and materials handling opera-
tions for the metallic ores and non-metallic minerals
industries. Studies are underway: to identify hereto-
fore unrecognized major sources of asbestos; to assess
the importance of and develop control technology for
asbestos mining sites; and to assess the importance of
and develop control techniques for industrial wastes
containing asbestos.
Hazardous Pollutants from Combustion Sources —
CSL's program relating to the control of hazardous
pollutants from combustion sources is closely coordi-
nated with the Laboratory's particulate control, NOX
combustion, and SOX flue gas cleaning programs.
Because the initial emphasis is upon characterization
of emissions from the most significant sources of
pollution, the approach of the program is similar to
that for industrial process control programs.
Coal-fired utility and industrial boilers were selec-
ted as being of highest priority. Midwest Research,
selected as the contractor to characterize these
sources for hazardous emissions, has developed a
comprehensive test program covering all significant
parameters that might affect toxic pollutant emis-
sions. The program was prepared during 1973 with
actual sampling beginning early in 1974.
In addition to the characterization of utility and
industrial boilers, studies are being initiated to
identify control alternatives for open combustion
sources.
Energy Research
and Development
A major effort has been underway since July 1973
to develop a plan for increased Federal support of
energy research and development. As noted in the
special Energy and the Environment section of this
Report, the Control Systems Laboratory has provided
substantial support to this planning activity and is
expected to assume a major role in the implementa-
tion of the new energy programs. The accelerated
DEMONSTRATION COMPLETION DATE
SMOKELESS COKE OVEN CHARGING MARCH 1974
ENCLOSED COKE PUSHING AND QUENCHING DECEMBER 1975
SMOKELESS COKE PUSHING JUNE 1975
POTENTIAL IMPACT ON EMISSIONS FROM
CHARGING. PUSHING. AND OUENCHING
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PARTICUIATES
CARBON
MONOXIDE
HYDROCARBONS
(INCLUDING
CARCINOGENS)
Control technology demonstration—coke making.
Research Activities
129
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development of new energy processes requires an
extensive technology assessment function within
EPA.
The expanded control technology research and
development program has resulted in increased bud-
gets for EPA starting in Fiscal Year 1975. CSL has a
leading role in the management of these funds;
programs are being implemented through interagency
agreements and activities conducted by other EPA
laboratories that are coordinated by CSL, as well as
through direct contracts to the private sector.
The significance to EPA of this energy research
and development function cannot be overemphasized.
During the next 5 years, decisions will be made and
technology will be developed that will firmly estab-
lish the basis for the generation of energy for decades
to come. These new energy technologies must be
environmentally sound if the future health and
welfare of the nation is to be protected. Although
environmental considerations may be subjugated to
short-term energy needs, there must ultimately be a
reconciliation of energy and environmental considera-
tions.
Active involvement by EPA will ensure that
environmental control systems keep pace with new
energy processes.
LEGISLATIVE MANDATE
The legislative mandates upon which CSL's several
programs are based and the various Sections of the
Clean Air Act requiring Laboratory support are
shown below with a brief description of the types of
actions taken to support that mandate or Section.
"RESEARCH, INVESTIGATION, TRAINING, AND
OTHER ACTIVITIES
"Sec. 103. (a) The Administrator shall establish a national
research and development program for the prevention
and control of air pollution and as part of such
program shall—
"(1) conduct and promote the coordination and accel-
eration of research, investigations . . . demonstrations,
surveys, and studies relating to the causes, effects . . .
prevention, and control of air pollution. . . .
"(b) In carrying out the provisions of the
preceding subsection, the Administrator is authorized
to-
"(1) collect and make available, through publications
and other appropriate means, the results of and other
information . . . pertaining to such research. . . .
"(8) develop effective and practical processes, meth-
ods, and prototype devices for the prevention or
control of air pollution."
In support of Sections 103 (a) and (b) of the Clean
Air Act (cited above), CSL conducts studies and
investigations to characterize emissions of pollutants,
to evaluate control technology, and to predict the
impact of and need for controls in the future. The
Laboratory conducts research to develop cost-
effective controls for pollutants from stationary
sources and demonstrates the most promising control
methods. Finally, CSL disseminates the research,
development, and demonstration results to the public
through seminars, professional meetings, and appro-
priate publications.
"RESEARCH RELATING TO FUELS AND VEHICLES
"Sec. 104. (a) The Administrator shall give special empha-
sis to research and development into new and im-
proved methods, having industry-wide application, for
the prevention and control of air pollution resulting
from the combustion of fuels. In furtherance of such
research and development he shall —
"(1) conduct and accelerate research programs di-
rected toward development of improved low-cost
techniques for—
"(A) control of combustion byproducts of fuels,
"(B) removal of potential air pollutants from
fuels prior to combustion,
"(C) control of emissions from the evaporation
of fuels,
"(D) improving the efficiency of fuels combus-
tion so as to decrease atmospheric emissions, and
"(E) producing synthetic or new fuels which,
when used, result in decreased atmospheric emissions.
"(2) provide for Federal grants . . . and contracts . . .
for payment of (A) . . . cost acquiring . . . for research
and development purposes, new or improved devices
or methods having industry-wide application of pre-
venting or controlling discharges into the air of various
types of pollutants. . . .
"(3) determine, by laboratory and pilot plant testing,
the results of air pollution research and studies in
order to develop new or improved processes and plant
designs to the point where they can be demonstrated
on a large and practical scale;
"(4) construct, operate, and maintain, or assist in
meeting the cost of ... new or improved demonstra-
tion plants or processes which have promise of
accomplishing the purposes of this Act. . . ."
Through efforts provided for under Section 104(a)
of the Clean Air Act (cited above), CSL has brought
flue gas cleaning to the stage of commercial develop-
ment, has developed techniques for the reduction of
nitrogen oxide (NOX) emissions from combustion
processes by as much as 50 percent; has currently
under demonstration a commercially feasible means
of reducing carbon monoxide, hydrocarbon, and
particulate emissions from coke ovens by 90 percent;
has identified promising new combustion techniques
such as the advanced power cycle and fluidized-bed
combustion; and has developed effective low-cost
processes for cleaning coal.
"AIR QUALITY CRITERIA AND CONTROL TECH-
NIQUES
"Sec. 108 . . . (b) (1) Simultaneously with the issuance of
criteria under subsection (a), the Administrator shall
. . . issue . . . information on air pollution control
techniques, which information shall include data
ANNUAL REPORT 1974
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relating to the technology and costs of emission
control. Such information shall include such data as
are available or attainable technology and alternative
methods of prevention and control of air pollution.
Such information shall also include data on alternative
fuels, processes, and operating methods which will
result in elimination or significant reduction of emis-
sions."
In support of Section 108(b) of the Clean Air Act
(cited above), CSL is continually evaluating new and
existing stationary source control procedures in an
effort to develop and maintain a comprehensive data
base related to air pollution control techniques.
"(STATE) IMPLEMENTATION PLANS
"Sec. 110. (a) (1) Each State shall . . . adopt ... a plan
which provides for implementation, maintenance and
enforcement of such primary (and secondary) stand-
ard. . . .
"(a) (2) (B) it (the plan) includes emission limi-
tations, schedules, and timetables for compliance. . . .
"(e) (1) Upon application of a Governor . . . the
Administrator may . . . extend (compliance period)
... if ... the Administrator determines that—
"(A) One or more emissions sources . . .
are unable to comply with . . . standard because the
necessary technology or other alternatives are not
available. . . .
"(f) (1) ... The Governor . . . may apply to the
Administrator to postpone the applicability of such
requirement to such source. ... If the Administrator
determines that—
"(B) such source (or class) is unable to
comply with such requirement because the necessary
technology or other alternative methods of control are
not available or have not been available for a sufficient
period of time . . .
"(D) . . . then the Administrator shall
grant a postponement of such requirement."
The Laboratory's role in the procedures required
by Sections 110 (a), (e), and (f) of the Clean Air Act
(cited above) is primarily that of providing expert
testimony relating to the availability of air pollution
control technology. CSL's research, demonstration,
and other evaluation tools provide the most compre-
hensive data base available concerning the state-of-
the-art of air pollution control technology.
"STANDARDS OF PERFORMANCE FOR NEW STA-
TIONARY SOURCES
"Sec. 111. (b) (3) The Administrator shall, from time to
time, issue information on pollution control tech-
niques for categories of new sources and air pollutants.
"(d)(D... each State shall submit to the
Administrator a plan which (A) establishes emission
standards for any existing source for any air pollu-
tant. . . ."
CSL, in support Sections lll(b) and (d) of the
Clean Air Act (cited above), evaluates the state-of-
the-air pollution control technology for various sta-
tionary sources and, based on projected future
control needs, develops new control technology. The
predicted new developments and schedules provide a
basis upon which EPA can set future New Source
Performance Standards. For non-criteria pollutants,
the Laboratory's data base related to control capa-
bility and emission levels provides a basis upon which
States may set emission standards for any pollutant
from stationary sources.
"NATIONAL EMISSION STANDARDS FOR HAZARD-
OUS AIR POLLUTANTS
"Sec. 112. (b) (2) The Administrator shall, from time to
time, issue information on pollution control tech-
niques for air pollutants subject to the provisions of
this section.
"(c) (2) The President may exempt any station-
ary source ... if he finds that the technology to
implement such standards is not available. . . ."
In support of Sections 112(b) and (c) of the Clean
Air Act (cited above), CSL's programs will identify all
air pollutants from stationary sources. As the need
for control of these pollutants is indicated, through
its related research and development program, the
Laboratory will be able to identify not only the
specific sources requiring control, but also the most
cost-effective approach for achieving that control.
"COMPREHENSIVE ECONOMIC COST STUDIES
"Sec. 312. (a) ... The Administrator . . . shall make a
detailed estimate of the cost of carrying out the
provisions of this Act . . . and a comprehensive study
of the economic impact of Air Quality Standards on
the Nation's industries, communities, and other con-
tributing sources of pollution, including an analysis of
the national requirements for and the cost of control-
ling emissions to attain such standards of air quality.
Among the activities of the CSL, related to
Section 312(a) of the Clean Air Act (cited above), are
research and demonstration projects leading to the
development of comprehensive data relating to the
cost of various air pollution control techniques.
Because CSL's programs simultaneously support
numerous sections of the Clean Air Act, it is
impossible to allocate a given resource to only one
Section of the Act. For example, a CSL flue gas
cleaning demonstration project supports Section 103
(Research, Investigation, Training, and Other
Activities); Section 104 (Research Relating to Fuels
and Vehicles); Section 108 (Air Quality Criteria and
Control Techniques); Section 110 (State Implementa-
tion Plans); Section III (Standards of Performance for
New Stationary Sources - in this case for electric
utilities); and Section 312 (Comprehensive Economic
Cost Studies).
Thus, although Table 16 does not display a direct
one-to-one relationship between projects and indivi-
dual sections of the Clean Air Act, it does convey the
general level of support that CSL's program provides
to various sections of the Act.
Research Activities
131
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Table 16. SUMMARY OF RESOURCES FOR CONTROL SYSTEMS LABORATORY
FOR FISCAL YEAR 1975
Section of Clean Air
Act Supported
103
104
108
110
111
112
312
Totals3
Funds, $103
3,329
2,929
1,598
1,598
3,035
799
27
13,315
aTotal does not include approximately $42.5 million of special energy
appropriations.
132
ANNUAL REPORT 1974
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Environmental
Monitoring
and Support
Laboratory
-------
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OVERVIEW
OF QAEML MISSION
Quality Assurance
and Environmental
Monitoring
Laboratory
The mission of the Quality Assurance and Environ-
mental Monitoring Laboratory (QAEML) is to obtain
the data needed to reach and support decisions
concerning environmental quality and to develop and
implement a total quality assurance program for all
EPA-related air monitoring programs. Such data are
needed in a variety of activities such as air quality
management, criteria development, standards setting,
compliance and enforcement, and development of
source emission-control strategies.
In carrying out its mission, QAEML provides
monitoring services that range from the first steps of
any monitoring effort, such as selecting field sites for
monitoring and making measurements on such sites,
to the final steps of data evaluation, summarization,
and dissemination. Quality assurance is practiced to
control and document the quality of the data
obtained. Although the use of standardized methods
is an important aspect of quality assurance, such
methods are not always available.
To supplement the use of standardized methods,
QAEML maintains a staff of scientific and technical
personnel having expertise in analytical chemistry,
instrument electronics, and statistics to ensure that
development and evaluation of methods, formal
testing of methods (including collaborative testing in
the community of users), and development of quality
control procedures for methods are carried out
effectively. Quality control procedures are formalized
and disseminated for use within EPA, by the states,
and by other interested groups.
Through appropriate statistical analyses, QAEML
evaluates analytical methods and reduces and
evaluates air quality data. These summaries and
evaluations are provided for the community of users.
Data are entered into the National Aerometric Data
Bank or are published through appropriate channels.
Specially designed facilities are used to gather pollutant
concentration data and to test air monitoring methods
and instruments.
ORGANIZATION
The Quality Assurance and Environmental Moni-
toring Laboratory conducts its activities through
three technically oriented branches, a statistical staff,
and a quality assurance staff, all of which report to
the Office of the Director. The Branches are the
Methods Standardization and Performance Evaluation
Branch, the Analytical Chemistry Branch, and the
Environmental Monitoring Branch. All activities are
coordinated through the Office of the Director,
which also serves as the interface with other EPA
units for which QAEML provides technical support.
Research Activities
135
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METHODS
STANDARDIZATION
AND PERFORMANCE
EVALUATION BRANCH
ANALYTICAL
CHEMISTRY
BRANCH
QUALITY ASSURANCE
AND ENVIRONMENTAL
MONITORING
LABORATORY
QUALITY
ASSURANCE
STAFF
STATISTICAL
SERVICES
STAFF
ENVIRONMENTAL
MONITORING
BRANCH
Methods Standardization
and Performance
Evaluation Branch
The Methods Standardization and Performance
Evaluation Branch (MSPEB) develops and conducts a
program for standardization of methods that involves
laboratory evaluation, procedure revision, and col-
laborative testing. The end products are standard
analytical methods for the measurement of pollutant
concentrations in ambient air and of source emis-
sions. The Branch develops standard reference mate-
rials for use in methods standardization and calibra-
tion and in quality control and evaluation programs.
MSPEB also conducts interlaboratory performance
audits utilizing these standard reference materials.
Analytical Chemistry Branch
The Analytical Chemistry Branch (ACB) provides
analytical capability to ORD-RTP for the measure-
ment of trace elements and other pollutants present
in various environmental, bioenvironmental, source,
and fuel samples. The Branch provides technical
support and specialized training to EPA Regions and
State and local agencies. As required, the ACB
develops new methods, modifies existing ones, and
provides analytical services in support of ongoing
studies, including research monitoring. ACB is also
responsible for maintaining liaison with and giving
technical assistance to the Office of Air Quality
Planning and Standards (OAQPS) in source sampling
and in analysis for trace elements and other pollu-
tants in order to provide valid data for development
of source performance standards. Similar assistance is
to be provided to the Office of Enforcement and
General Counsel (OEGC) in support of the fuels and
fuel additives monitoring programs, such as pro-
viding evidentiary support of the lead and phosphorus
standards for gasoline for possible use in enforcement
proceedings.
ACB personnel provide analytical laboratory
services to OAQPS, OEGC, and other EPA organiza-
tions and programs for short-term and special en-
vironmental studies in support of monitoring trends
in pollutant concentrations for State Implementation
Plans and enforcement actions. The ACB is deeply
involved in the quality assurance programs of ORD-
RTP, regional laboratories, and other EPA com-
ponents in performing referee analyses on diverse
kinds of samples.
Environmental Monitoring Branch
The Environmental Monitoring Branch (EMB) is
responsible for the installation, calibration, operation,
and maintenance of special multi-purpose pollutant
monitoring stations and networks such as the tur-
bidity, precipitation, and membrane-filter particulate
networks, and for providing guidance to other govern-
mental agencies in the design and operation of
monitoring stations and networks. The Branch pro-
vides specialized field monitoring support (including
air sampling during emergency episodes) to OAQPS,
OEGC, and the Regional Offices. Other areas of
responsibility are the determination of equivalency of
136
ANNUAL REPORT 1974
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Material samples involved in lawsuits are carefully
handled to maintain chain-of-custody requirements
and are sealed in locked storage cabinets (inset).
candidate methods and of instruments to be used in
reference methods, and for the in-house and field
evaluation of commercially available environmental
monitoring instrumentation.
Quality Assurance Staff
The Quality Assurance Staff (QAS) provides guid-
ance for development and implementation of quality
assurance programs to ORD-RTP Laboratories, EPA
Regional Offices, and state and local laboratories to
ensure that all air pollution data used in the various
decision-making processes are valid and comparable.
The Staff formulates method-specific guidelines for
the development and implementation of quality
assurance systems for the measurement of pollutants
in ambient air, from stationary and mobile sources,
and in fuels and fuel additives. QAS also develops
general guidelines, training materials, and procedures
for objective assessment of air pollution data and for
the on-site evaluation of quality assurance systems.
Statistical Services Staff
The Statistical Services Staff (SSS) participates in
the statistical design, execution, and analysis of
quality-assurance, methods-standardization, and
monitoring studies. The Staff conducts mathematical
and statistical evaluations and reports on internally
generated data. This group is a focal point within
ORD-RTP for handling, processing, and reporting
aerometric data received from the World Health
Organization (WHO) and from the World Meteoro-
logical Organization (WMO).
Analysis of phosphorus in gasoline is included in fuel
tests conducted at ORD-R TP.
Research Activities
137
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PHYSICAL FACILITIES
The Laboratory either owns or has access to a
number of special instruments and facilities with
which to support its mission.
The Durham Air Monitoring and Demonstration
Facility (DAMDF) is a specially designed and equip-
ped multi-purpose facility utilized for the following
functions:
• To demonstrate advanced air monitoring tech-
niques.
• To test and field-evaluate commercially avail-
able ambient-air monitoring instruments, cali-
bration techniques, and data acquisition sys-
tems.
• To gather pollutant-concentration data gen-
erated from special intermethod comparability
studies.
• To provide capability for equivalency testing of
methods and instruments.
• To provide on-the-job training.
For special field studies, vans are available to carry
calibration and maintenance equipment or for conver-
sion on short notice into air monitoring stations. For
projects requiring more elaborate air-monitoring
equipment, personnel utilize mobile laboratories,
which, when fully equipped, provide a facility for
monitoring criteria pollutants and for measuring
common meteorological parameters.
The analysis of samples by neutron-activation
techniques is made possible by use of facilities leased
from North Carolina State University. The Univer-
sity's pulstar reactor is used to irradiate the samples,
which are later counted with QAEML-owned equip-
ment located in the leased space.
QAEML has a 25-channel, direct-reading optical
emission spectrometer that has been optimized for
the determination of trace elements in particulate
matter. A spark-source mass spectrometer that can be
used to measure small concentrations of trace ele-
ments of possible health significance is utilized to
permit analysis of environmental samples of interest,
and to complement the neutron-activation capability.
Rapid output of validated laboratory data is made
possible by the use of dedicated minicomputers.
MAJOR PROGRAM AREAS
Methods Standardization
and Performance Evaluation
Methods standardization and performance evalua-
tion, which directly support Sections, 103, 110, 111,
and 112 of the Clean Air Act, are important
components of the quality assurance system neces-
sary for generation of valid data. The standardization
process is being applied to all reference methods given
in regulations for primary and secondary national
ambient air quality standards. Also, QAEML is
standardizing some of the methods specified in
regulations for new stationary sources and for two of
the hazardous pollutants designated thus far: beryl-
lium and mercury. Moreover, evaluations by the
standardization process are being carried out for some
methods not specified in regulations.
Measurement methods are standardized in a two-
step process. First, the candidate method — that is a
method proposed for publication as a reference
method — is thoroughly examined in a single labora-
tory for the purpose of identifying and correcting
errors, omissions, ambiguities, and other in-
adequacies. Second, the candidate method is ex-
amined in several laboratories by an interlaboratory
collaborative test in which each participant uses the
method to measure pollutants contained in a refer-
ence material. In this way, the precision and accuracy
of the method are measured, and the capabilities of
the method in the hands of typical users are
estimated.
The levels of ambient air quality for each of the
criteria pollutants must be measured by the appro-
priate reference method or by an equivalent method.
During 1974, efforts to standardize source-test
methodology through a systematic program of
method evaluation and collaborative testing were
continued. To further these efforts:
• All planned field work on the evaluation and
collaborative testing of the source method for
visual opacity was completed.
• Reports were distributed on collaborative tests
of source emission methods for nitrogen oxides,
sulfur dioxide, particulates, Orsat gas analysis,
velocity, moisture, and beryllium.
• A collaborative test of the analytical method
for mercury indicated a need for improvement.
An investigation was therefore initiated to
modify the methodology to improve reliability.
• An investigation was initiated to study the
design parameters and factors that affect the
performance of the Type-S Pitot Tube.
• A collaborative test of the regulatory method
for measuring carbon monoxide emissions from
refinery catalytic-cracking regenerators was
conducted, with the method found to be
generally reliable.
• A field study was conducted on the regulatory
method for measuring sulfur dioxide and sul-
138
furic acid mist emissions using a ganged probe
ANNUAL REPORT 1974
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Fue/ additive samples are carefully catalogued prior to analysis and registration.
sampling assembly. The study indicates that,
under rigidly controlled conditions, the sampl-
ing train is capable of giving reproducible
results.
• Evaluation was started on the proposed regula-
tory method for measuring fluoride emissions
from phosphate-fertilizer processes and primary
aluminum reduction plants.
• Four of the regulatory methods promulgated
with the New Source Performance Standards of
December 23, 1971, were revised in accordance
with results of the evaluation and collaborative
test program.
• A study made of the Orsat gas analyzer versus
the Fyrite gas analyzer indicated that under the
conditions of the investigation, the Fyrite
apparatus gives carbon dioxide and oxygen
values comparable to the Orsat.
The Quality Control Section of MSPEB developed
numerous quality control reference samples, both for
routine and specialized pollutants. The number of
Intel-laboratory performance surveys completed ex-
ceeded that of the previous year. One of the activities
of this section is to develop estimates on the
reliability of air pollution measurement techniques
used in regional, state, and local laboratories. Accom-
plishments of the Section during 1974 included:
• Development and distribution of 1600 sulfur
dioxide and nitrogen dioxide static samples.
• Refinement of the Hi-Vol flow calibration
check device.
• Development of standard reference materials of
lead in gasoline for use in enforcement in the
unleaded gasoline rules and regulations.
• Development on charcoal tubes of quality-
control samples for ambient-air vinyl chloride.
• Development of sulfate and nitrate quality-
control glass fiber filter strips.
• Execution of four interlaboratory surveys,
covering 595 participants measuring Hi-Vol
flow, S02 (2), and CO.
• Direction of several special audits in Europe
and the United States.
In efforts to standardize ambient-air methodology
through a systematic program of method evaluation
Research Activities
139
-------
Laboratory tests are used to evaluate various methods for measuring ambient pollutant concentrations.
and collaborative testing, the following investigations
and studies were conducted.
• Experimental work to develop a reference
material for NOj was completed. Plans were
made by the National Bureau of Standards to
issue an N02 permeation device as Standard
Reference Material 1629.
• After withdrawal of the Federal reference
method for ambient N02 in 1973, QAEML
started a program for the evaluation and
standardization of candidate methods with
which to replace the withdrawn method. The
program involved single-laboratory evaluation
of five methods: two manual procedures, the
Triethanolamine, guaiacol, sodium metabi-
sulfite-8-amilino-1-naphthalene-sulfuric acid
(TGS-ANSA) and triethanolamine methods;
two instrumental procedures, the continuous
chemiluminescence and the continuous colori-
metric; and the sodium arsenite method. This
work was followed by collaborative testing of
all but the triethanolamine method. The first
two evaluations were completed in 1973, and
one was completed in 1974. It was found that
in the hands of the average user the sodium
arsenite, TGS-ANSA, and chemiluminescence
methods are reliable, but that the continuous
colorimetric method is not.
• A single-laboratory evaluation of two methods
for measurement of ambient sulfates was
started.
Priorities and plans for the coming year include a
continuation of the ongoing projects for hydrogen
sulfide, mercury, fluorides, and type-S pitot tube.
The hydrogen sulfide, mercury, and fluoride investi-
gations will probably culminate in collaborative tests
of these methods. Since work to date indicates
possible problems with the method for sulfur dioxide
and sulfuric acid mist, further evaluation and possible
modification of this method are also planned.
Because of recent information on the health
hazards of vinyl chloride, EPA may soon establish an
emission standard for this material. Since establish-
ment of such a standard will necessitate a reliable
standard method for vinyl chloride, an evaluation and
testing program to provide the EPA with such a
method is planned.
Other plans for 1975 include a comprehensive
reevaluation of the EPA reference procedure for
calibration of the chemiluminescence ozone instru-
140
ANNUAL REPORT 1974
-------
ment to determine its reliability; an evaluation of the
non-methane hydrocarbon reference method; and an
evaluation of a gas chromatographic method for
analysis of vinyl chloride. Initiation of laboratory
work on the vinyl chloride project is contingent upon
satisfying safety requirements.
Quality Assurance Program
The quality assurance program conducted by
QAEML, which directly supports Sections 110, 111,
112, 113, and 211 of the Clean Air Act, involves the
development of guidelines for accomplishing the
following objectives:
• Prevent accumulation of poor-quality data.
• Provide routine indication, for operating pur-
poses, of satisfactory or unsatisfactory perform-
ance of personnel or equipment.
• Provide for prompt detection and correction of
conditions that contribute to the collection of
poor-quality data.
• Collect and supply information useful in de-
scribing the quality of the data.
Four guideline documents, each specifically appli-
cable to one of the reference methods for ambient
air, were published. Three guideline documents, each
specifically applicable to one reference method for
stationary sources, and two guideline documents,
each specifically applicable to one of the reference
methods for lead and phosphorus in gasoline, were
developed and published. Similar documents are
being prepared for other reference methods for
stationary sources, hazardous pollutant source, and
mobile source emissions.
The Quality Assurance staff also continued work
on guidelines for the development of quality
assurance programs for the new stationary-source
performance reference methods and initiated prepara-
tion of guidlines for use with mobile-source reference
methods. The group published and distributed guide-
lines on methods for measurement of lead and
phosphorus in gasoline, as well as on methods for
measuring velocity, carbon dioxide, and moisture in
stack gases. Future QAEML research will be directed
toward developing quality assurance guidelines for
newly designated reference methods and toward
revising previously published documents.
National Air Surveillance Network
The National Air Surveillance Network (NASN),
operation of which supports Clean Air Act Section
103, is a network of 250 sampling sites located
throughout the nation. Routinely, once every 12
days, the air at each site is sampled for particulates,
sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen dioxide. The amount of
particulate matter collected on glass-fiber filters and
the nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide levels are
determined by regional laboratories, or by state or
local laboratories within a region. The particulate
matter samples are furnished to QAEML for analysis
and incorporation in the sample bank.
Rapid generation of validated data is possible
through QAEML's automated system of data acquisi-
tion and analysis, which has built-in quality assurance
checks and numerical regression analysis routines, and
which is programmed to yield precision data.
Some 60,000 analyses of particulate matter sam-
ples collected from 1970 through 1974 were con-
ducted for non-metallic inorganics (sulfate, nitrate,
and ammonium ions). Also, glass-fiber filters of low
pollutant background were supplied by QAEML for
NASN use in 1975 for monitoring particulates.
Continuous Air Monitoring
Program
The Continuous Air Monitoring Program (CAMP),
in support of Clean Air Act Section 103, provides a
current and ongoing source of information on a wide
range of problems associated with air monitoring and
surveillance, including operation, maintenance, cali-
bration, and evaluation of air monitoring equipment
Continuous air monitoring instruments were
evaluated and optimized during the year, and calibra-
tion techniques were developed to support regional
needs. CAMP stations in Philadelphia, Denver, and
Chicago were transferred to appropriate regional
offices. Immediately before the transfer, the equip-
ment was serviced, the instruments were calibrated,
and the operators were trained. The exterior of the
St. Louis station was replaced and incorporated into
the Regional Air Monitoring System (RAMS). The
Cincinnati station was disassembled and removed
because the site lease could not be renewed.
The Durham Air Monitoring and Demonstration
Facility (DAMDF) was utilized to conduct an N02
methods comparison study and to evaluate the
proposed equivalency regulations. Four methods,
currently being considered as candidates for a new
reference method for measuring N02, were ex-
tensively evaluated during November and December
of 1973 to determine the comparability of data
collected by each method. The study was conducted
at the DAMDF utilizing a special ambient air mani-
fold system from which duplicates of each of the four
methods could simultaneously sample ambient air
spiked with various levels of NO2. Data were col-
Research Activities
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lected continuously for 36 days under various condi-
tions of N02 and other ambient pollutant levels.
Results of this study are currently being evaluated
and will be used to assist in the selection of a new
reference method for nitrogen dioxide.
The latest available continuous monitoring instru-
ments have been installed at DAMDF, including an
improved system for environmental control and
general building maintenance. This special multi-
purpose facility will then be used to demonstrate
advanced air monitoring techniques, to test and
field-evaluate commercially available ambient air
monitors and associated calibration and data acquisi-
tion techniques to gather pollutant data, to conduct
intermethod comparability studies, to provide on-
the-job training, and to conduct equivalency testing.
Operation of the Washington, D.C., station will
continue, and updating of the station will be initiated
as resources become available.
Fuels Surveillance Network
Fuels and fuel additives are collected nationally
and analyzed for physical characteristics and chemical
composition in support of Clean Air Act Sections 211
and 313. Analyses of the samples collected in 1973
were performed in 1974. A National Bureau of
Standards (NBS) Standard Reference Material for
lead in reference fuel was developed. A training
program on sampling and analysis of unleaded gaso-
line was conducted for inspectors from all the
Regional Surveillance and Analysis Divisions and for
the Regional attorneys. Enforcement of the unleaded
gasoline regulations was initiated, and necessary
support was provided to OEGC, Mobile Source
Enforcement Division.
QAEML contributed to the development of a field
test for lead in unleaded gasoline (ASTM-D-3348).
Also, the Laboratory contributed to the development
of a simple but accurate field test for detecting lead,
an atomic absorption spectrophotometric method for
detecting lead in gasoline (ASTM-D-3237), and a
method for detecting phosphorus in gasoline (ASTM-
D-3231).
Fuels and fuel additives samples were analyzed to
provide data for possible enforcement actions. Chain-
of-custody was maintained so that samples could
meet legal evidentiary tests. Samples for possible
enforcement actions were analyzed as received since,
in most cases, quick response was necessary. Programs
were constructed for automated data acquisition and
analysis, including analyses for determining precision
for internal quality control.
Areas of future study include improvement of
techniques for trace-element definition by spark-
source mass spectrometry, neutron-activation analy-
sis, and X-ray fluorescence. A computer program
adjunct to neutron-activation analysis is being de-
veloped, and work is continuing on methodology for
analysis of sulfur, lead, and phosphorus in fuels in
support of the fuel regulations for OEGC.
Membrane Filter
and Precipitation Networks
In support of Section 103 of the Clean Air Act,
the 55-station membrane filter network for particu-
lates was operated and maintained; samples were
collected and analyzed for atmospheric pollutants of
interest. Also, QAEML supported a 20-station pre-
cipitation network to be utilized ultimately for trace
metals analysis. The network was operated jointly by
EPA, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Admin-
istration, and the World Meteorological Organization.
Several programs were developed for automated data
acquisition and analysis, some of which include
built-in quality control checks.
During the year, archival samples collected by the
55-station network were analyzed for asbestos. Some
7,000 analyses were performed on precipitation
network samples, with the data provided to interested
parties. Membrane filter and precipitation monitoring
for particulates and trace metals, respectively, will be
maintained.
Technical Assistance
and Rapid-Response
Sampling Analysis
Much of QAEML's activity is in response to needs
for technical assistance in other portions of EPA. A
long-term study was initiated in Los Angeles, Cali-
fornia, to determine the impact of emissions from the
new automotive oxidation catalyst on the ambient
air. Samples from the Los Angeles Catalyst Study
(LACS) were analyzed for lead and for sulfate,
nitrate, and ammonium ions to establish the validity
of the reported results. Background data gathered
from four stations at a site adjacent to the San Diego
Freeway was initiated in May to identify existing air
quality parameters prior to the appearance of the
catalyst-equipped automobiles. The study, continuing
into 1975, is designed to ascertain any resultant
changes in the ambient sulfate/acidity levels and to
determine related pollutant concentrations and
meteorological and traffic parameters.
A vinyl chloride monitoring study was initiated.
Actual analyses of vinyl chloride have been under the
142
ANNUAL REPORT 1974
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surveillance of the National Bureau of Standards,
EPA Region IV, and Canadian laboratories as referee
laboratories. Comparisons of data between labora-
tories show good correlation. Data from this study
will be used to establish standards.
At Kellogg, Idaho, QAEML consulted with EPA
Regional Offices on ambient air monitoring methodo-
logy for criteria and non-criteria pollutants. Samples
(from the contractors working for EPA Region X)
and several hundred other samples from special and
routine studies were analyzed for lead.
QAEML also provided technical assistance by
analyzing fuels used in high-density population apart-
ment complexes in New York State. Analytical
support, in the form of analyses of soil and vegetation
samples taken in and around an Ohio Brass Works,
was furnished to Ohio State University. In assistance
to the Community Health Air Monitoring (CHAMP)
project, several hundred referee samples were
analyzed for nonmetallic inorganic ions. Plans are
being developed for a more formal arrangement for
QAEML's involvement in the quality assurance pro-
gram of this project. Samples obtained from OAQPS
were analyzed to determine background information
for standard setting for industrial sources.
QAEML's participation in other activities during
1974 included the following:
• Operation of 20-site nitrogen dioxide monitor-
ing network with continuous chemi-
luminescence instruments gathering data for
possible reclassification.
• Investigations to support the publication of
methods for fluoride in the Federal Register.
• Consultation to the World Health Organization
in the development of an International Air
Pollution Monitoring System.
• Participation in a project to determine ambient
hydrocarbon concentrations.
• Involvement in a cooperative air monitoring
comparison study involving the USSR and the
USA in Leningrad, U.S.S.R.
• Continuation of operation of the Washington,
D.C. station, with calibration, supplies, and
equipment provided by EMB and daily opera-
tion provided by the District of Columbia.
• Comparative study of nitrogen dioxide methods
to provide a basis for recommending a new
reference method for nitrogen dioxide.
• Evaluation of the High-Volume Method for
determining suspended particulates over short
sampling times (contract effort).
Performance of a 3-month urban ozone study
in the Ohio Valley in support of an OAQPS
contractual effort to determine possible ozone
transport.
Execution with a contractor's assistance, of a
comprehensive quality assurance program for
the Ohio Valley oxidant study.
Provision of assistance to a contractor at the
request of OAQPS in carrying out a complex
source study at a shopping center in Oakbrook,
Illinois.
LEGISLATIVE MANDATES
The mission of QAEML responds to eight sections
of the Clean Air Act (103, 108, 110, 111, 112, 113,
211, and 313). The various sections are shown below
with brief descriptions of the types of supportive
activities.
"RESEARCH, INVESTIGATION, TRAINING, AND
OTHER ACTIVITIES
"Sec. 103. (a) The Administrator shall establish a
national research and development program for the
prevention and control of air pollution and as part of
such program shall—"(1) conduct and promote the
coordination and acceleration of, research, investiga-
tions, experiments, training, demonstrations, surveys,
and studies relating to the causes, effects, extent, pre-
vention, and control of air pollution;... (3) conduct
investigations and research and make surveys concern-
ing any specific problem of air pollution in coopera-
tion with any air pollution control agency with a vieW
to recommending a solution of such problem, if he is
requested to do so by such agency or if, in his judg-
ment, such problem may affect any community or
communities in a State other than that in which the
source of the matter causing or contributing to the
pollution is located;. . .
"(b) In carrying out the provisions of the preced-
ing subsection the Administrator is authorized to—
"(1) collect and make available, through publications
and other appropriate means, the results of and other
information, including appropriate recommendations
by him in connection therewith, pertaining to such
research and other activities; . . . ."
QAEML responds to Section 103 by evaluating,
testing, and standardizing methods. Quality control
procedures for relevant methods are also developed.
Surveys and investigations are undertaken, both of
the general extent of air pollution and of specific
problems. The voluminous data that result are appro-
priately summarized, analyzed, and disseminated.
"AIR QUALITY CRITERIA AND CONTROL TECH-
NIQUES
"Sec. 108. (a) (2) The Administrator shall issue air
quality criteria for an air pollutant within 12 months
after he has included such pollutant in a list under
paragraph (1). Air quality criteria for an air pollutant
Research Activities
143
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shall accurately reflect the latest scientific knowledge
useful in indicating the kind and extent of all identi-
fiable effects on public health or welfare which may
be expected from the presence of such pollutant in
the ambient air, in varying quantities . . .
"(c) The Administrator shall from time to time
review, and, as appropriate, modify and reissue any
criteria or information on control techniques issued
pursuant to this section . . . ."
QAEML responds to this section of the law by
standing ready to evaluate methodology used to
obtain scientific information or to undertake surveys
to obtain information needed by those who must
develop criteria documents.
"IMPLEMENTATION PLANS
"Sec. 110. (a) (1) Each State shall, after reasonable
notice and public hearings, adopt and submit to the
Administrator, within nine months after the promul-
gation of a national primary ambient air quality
standard (or any revision thereof) under section 109
for any air pollutant, a plan which provides for imple-
mentation, maintenance, and enforcement of such
primary standard in each air quality control region.
(or portion thereof) within such State. In addition,
such State shall adopt and submit to the Adminis-
trator ... a plan which provides for the implementa-
tion, maintenance, and enforcement of such second-
ary standard . . .
"(2) . . . The Administrator shall approve such plan . . .
if he determines that it was adopted after reasonable
notice and hearing and that—. . . (C) it includes pro-
vision for . . . appropriate devices, methods, systems,
and procedures necessary to (!) monitor, compile, and
analyze data on ambient air quality . . . ."
This section of the law is supported by QAEML's
activities in the evaluation and standardization of
methods for the criteria pollutants and in the
development and dissemination of quality control
procedures for standardized methods. Use of the
standardized methods with quality assurance docu-
mentation provides the ability to meaningfully com-
pare data collected routinely by many unrelated State
agencies.
"STANDARDS OF PERFORMANCE FOR NEW STA-
TIONARY SOURCES
"Sec. 111. (b) (a) (B) . . . the Administrator shall pro-
pose regulations, establishing Federal standards of per-
formance for new sources . . .
"(c) (1) ... If the Administrator finds the State
procedure is adequate, he shall delegate to such State
any authority he has under this Act to implement and
enforce such standards
This requirement is analogous to that of Section
110 of the Act; QAEML supports this section
similarly.
"NATIONAL EMISSION STANDARDS FOR HAZARD-
OUS AIR POLLUTANTS
"Sec. 112. (b) (1) (B) ...the Administrator shall pre-
scribe an emission standard for such (hazardous)
pollutant . . .
(d) (1)...lf the Administrator finds the State
procedure is adequate, he shall delegate to such State
any authority he has under this Act to implement and
enforce such standards . . . ."
This requirement is similar to those of Sections
110 and 111 of the Act. QAEML's support is also in
terms of methods standardization, evaluation, and
quality control procedure development. Some tech-
nical assistance is also rendered to obtain data with
which to assist the Administrator in making judg-
ments as to what constitutes a hazardous pollutant.
"FEDERAL ENFORCEMENT
"Sec. 113. (a) (1) Whenever, on the basis of any informa-
tion available to him, the Administrator finds that any
person is in violation of any requirement of an applica-
ble implementation plan . . . the Administrator may
issue an order requiring such person to comply with
the requirements of such plan or he may bring a civil
action . . ."
QAEML maintains a limited rapid-response capa-
bility in the collection of data for purposes of Federal
enforcement.
"REGULATION OF FUELS
"Sec. 211. (a) The Administrator may by regulation
designate any fuel or fuel additive and, ... no manu-
facturer or processor of any such fuel or additive may
sell, offer for sale, or introduce into commerce such
fuel or additive . . ."
QAEML's support of the law consists of the de-
velopment and evaluation of methods of analyses
and of the collection and analysis of fuel samples as
required.
"ADDITIONAL REPORTS TO CONGRESS
"Sec. 313 ... the Administrator shall report to the Con-
gress on measures taken toward implementing the
purpose and intent of this Act . . ."
When the inclusion of data, methods, or method
modifications developed by QAEML is relevant, the
information is provided in support of this provision
of the Act.
Table 17 contains a summary of the resources
employed by QAEML for Fiscal Year 1975 in
support of the applicable sections of the Clean Air
Act.
ANNUAL REPORT 1974
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Table 17. SUMMARY OF FUNDS FOR QUALITY ASSURANCE AND
ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING LABORATORY
FOR FISCAL YEAR 1975
Section of Clean Air
Act3 Supported
103
108
110
111
112
113
211
313
Total
Funds, $103
1,115
107
1,485
525
415
173
310
180
4,310
Related information is provided in section entitled Legislative
Mandates.
Research Activities
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