ANNUAL  REPORT  1974

 U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
  Office of Research and Development
     Research Triangle Park, N.C.

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The  cover presents an artist's concept of a building
designed to  conserve limited energy resources and re-
duce air pollution and also to meet the housing require-
ments of EPA's diverse research activities in  North
Carolina.  The need to "build for the environment" is
discussed in  the Special Features section of this report.

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            ANNUAL REPORT
                  1974
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
       RESEARCH TRIANGLE PARK
           NORTH CAROLINA
          U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
             Office of Research and Development
            Research Triangle Park, North Carolina

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Note:    Mention  of  trade  names  or commercial
products in this publication  does  not  constitute
endorsement  or recommendation for  use  by  the
Environmental Protection Agency.

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"I  want ... to underscore my conviction that our major environmental
laws —  in particular, the Clean Air and Water  Acts  — are good  laws.
Their primary purpose  is to protect the public  health and welfare, and
we have made real progress toward achieving that purpose. We have, in
the process, learned enough — and, as in most educational experiences,
suffered on all sides a sufficient measure of pain — to make some very
real improvements in both the laws themselves and the way EPA carries
out those laws." Russell Train, Administrator of the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, speaking  to the National Association of Regional
Councils, May 1975.

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                             PREFACE

   In  July 1975,  the  National  Environmental Research Center  - Research
Triangle Park, and the other  three NERC's within the Office of Research and
Development (ORD), were  abolished  as  organizational entities.  The several
laboratories comprising the NERC's were reorganized into independent labora-
tories reporting directly to the U.S. Environmental  Protection Agency, Office of
Research and  Development, Washington, D.C.

   At NERC-RTP, the seven  Laboratories formerly comprising the  Center were
reorganized into  the four new Laboratories that now comprise the Office of
Research  and  Development  at  Research  Triangle Park (ORD-RTP).  These
Laboratories are:

   •  HEALTH EFFECTS RESEARCH LABORATORY - Consisting of the
      former  Human  Studies  Laboratory,  Experimental Biology  Laboratory,
      Pesticides and Toxic Substances Effects  Laboratory, and  Special Studies
      Staff

   •  ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES  RESEARCH LABORATORY -  Con-
      sisting of the former Chemistry and Physics Laboratory and Meteorology
      Laboratory

   •  INDUSTRIAL ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LABORATORY -Con-
      sisting of the former Control Systems Laboratory

   •  ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND SUPPORT LABORATORY -
      Consisting of the former Quality Assurance and Environmental Monitoring
      Laboratory

   Although the Laboratories have undergone an organizational change, most of
their  activities  and  research  emphases  remain unchanged.  Thus  this Annual
Report for 1974,  in describing the Laboratories and presenting a  summary of
their  research accomplishments  during 1974, accurately reflects these  same
Laboratories in their new organizational  structure.

   As in our Annual  Report for 1973, we have included a discussion of the
responsiveness of  our research activities to Congressional desires. Expressed in
the form of legislative mandates, these desires give direction to the operation of
the Environmental Protection Agency and  of other Federal agencies as well. We
hope  that in  reading  this report you  will better,  understand the role of the
Congress and  the  Executive Branch in establishing an environmental policy and
the action taken   by  a  Federal  agency  to fulfill the intent  of  this  policy.
Comments on this report and our activities are welcome.

                                                John H. Knelson
                                           Senior ORD Official, RTP
                                      Research Triangle Park, North Carolina

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                TABLE OF CONTENTS



EXECUTIVE SUMMARY  	    1

INTRODUCTION  	    7

SPECIAL FEATURES  	  17

     Scrubbers and Electric Power Plants  	  19
     Automotive Oxidation Catalysts  	  26
     Pesticides and the Environment  	  31
     Buildings and the Environment	  36

LEGISLATIVE MANDATES  	  39

RESEARCH ACTIVITIES	  47

  Health Effects Research Laboratory	  49

     Special Studies Staff  	  51
     Human Studies Laboratory 	  57
     Experimental Biology Laboratory   	  67
     Pesticides and Toxic Substances Effects Laboratory  	  75

  Environmental Sciences Research Laboratory	  85

     Chemistry and Physics Laboratory  	  87
     Meteorology Laboratory  	103

  Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory  	113

     Control Systems Laboratory  	115

  Environmental Monitoring and Support Laboratory  	133

     Quality Assurance and Environmental Monitoring Laboratory  . .  135

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EXECUTIVE
SUMMARY

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EXECUTIVE
 SUMMARY
   THE ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGEN-
CY'S Office  of  Research  and Development at  Re-
search Triangle  Park, N.C.  (ORD-RTP) is a large,
multidisciplinary research  organization  where scien-
tists concentrate their efforts on developing bases for
improving the environment. Basic research and devel-
opment programs at ORD-RTP encompass  air pollu-
tion,  pesticides  pollution, and radiation pollution.
This summary provides a brief  discussion of some of
the major accomplishments of the  research  program
during the period of this report  and  indicates  its
future direction.
   Air pollution research  and monitoring  projects
range from the  determination  of the human health
effects of exposure to pollutants to the evaluation of
devices  for  the measurement and control of air
pollutants. The  health effects effort is focused in two
principal areas:  observation  of pollutant effects on
humans  and observation  of  pollutant effects  on
smaller life forms, both in  vivo and  in vitro. Monitor-
ing efforts concentrate  principally  on methods  de-
velopment,  on  quality  control,  and  on  special
studies,  such as the Los Angeles Catalyst Study,
which is designed to determine the impact  of emis-
sions from the  new automotive  oxidation catalyst.
Activities in the  field of  environmental sciences range
from  instrumentation  development  programs   to
modeling  studies of  meteorological  transport and
transformation.  Projects  in  the  field  of control
technology concentrate  principally  on  the develop-
ment and demonstration of cost-effective controls for
reducing emissions from stationary sources.
                                                                             Health Effects
                                                                                     Research
Using roadside  monitoring  equipment,  EPA is con-
ducting a special study in Los Angeles, CA, to  deter-
mine  the  impact of emissions from the oxidation
catalyst device used on new automobiles.
   In human health effects research, several new pilot
studies  were  initiated  during  1974.  For example,
admissions to the emergency room of a large hospital
were investigated  as  a  potential health  indicator of
sensitivity to  varying concentrations of ozone in the
ambient air. Another study investigated the impact of
ozone  on daily mortality.  Preliminary  information
concerning  the effects of  ozone and oxides of
nitrogen  on  pulmonary function  has also been  pro-
vided   by the  Ranches  Los  Amigos  Hospital in
California.
   A  monograph  presenting data on  the  health
consequences of exposure to suspended particulates
was completed and publication is expected in 1975.
In other research, carbon monoxide  effects studies
demonstrated that the physical  work performance of
                                        Executive Summary

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healthy young men decreased when their carboxy-
hemoglobin levels reached 5  percent. Investigations
with dogs showed that the incidence of myocardial
infarction increased as carboxyhemoglobin levels rose
above  5  percent. These studies  will be expanded in
1975.
   The new Community Health Air Monitoring Pro-
gram   (CHAMP),  a field  monitoring  system,  was
installed  and made  operational. This system employs
state-of-the-art continuous air quality measuring in-
struments connected  with computers to give rapid
access  to air quality information from  selected  sites
in California,  Utah, Alabama, New York, and North
Carolina.  In addition, a major expansion of  human
health  effects laboratory facilities was completed; the
neurobehavioral laboratory, the  microbiology  labora-
tory,   the   metabolic  laboratory,  and  the   cardio-
pulmonary  laboratory  became  fully operational  in
September 1974.
   Studies  of pollutant effects on  smaller life forms
produced information  on the effects  of oxides of
both sulfur and nitrogen, krypton-85, tritiated water,
and nonionizing radiation.  Using isolated  cells, per-
fused  lung, and whole animals, investigators  carried
out studies of the influence  of sulfuric acid, sulfur
dioxide,  and various sulfates.  A recently constructed
dynamic reaction chamber provided a medium  for
studying exposures in  simulated natural atmospheres.
Using  the  chamber, investigators found that  guinea
pigs inhaling  sulfuric  acid aerosol  experienced a 50
percent increase in  the number of particles deposited
in the lungs  and  airway  passages. A  shift  in the
deposition  pattern  to upper  airways was  observed,
suggesting  a physiologic basis  for the high sensitivity
of asthmatics to sulfur oxides.
   An  in vitro  screening system, using rabbit alveolar
macrophages  was  fully developed as a means of
estimating  the  relative toxicity of soluble and in-
soluble  particulate air  pollutants.  This system  is
currently being employed to estimate the  relative
toxicity  of air samples  from stationary sources.
   Another system that  employs   rapidly  dividing
human lung fibroblasts to test  for  compounds  that
inhibit cellular biosynthetic   activities  has been  de-
veloped. The system has already  been used to detect a
preferential inhibition  of DNA synthesis by relatively
low concentrations of tetravalent platinum. Pentava-
lent  vanadium  and  divalent cadmium  were  also
determined  to  be highly cytotoxic.  Facilities at  RTP
were essentially completed for implementation of in
vitro test systems to detect potential carcinogens.
   Programs in  ionizing radiation  health effects re-
search  are presently confined to tritium and krypton-
85, two  major effluents  from the nuclear  power
cycle.  During the  reporting  period,  two studies on
tritium were completed: one on the  effects of chronic
exposure to tritiated water (HTO)  throughout gesta-
                tion, and the other on the sensitivity of different aged
                populations to chronic HTO exposure. Research into
                the physiological and behavioral  effects of krypton-
                85 is aimed at providing data for a realistic assessment
                of exposure hazards. Guinea pigs exposed to doses of
                krypton-85  up to 20,000 rads all survived the acute
                post-exposure period and are  being observed for life
                span shortening, lung effects, and appearance of skin
                tumors.
                   Investigation  of nonionizing radiation (from such
                sources as radar  installations and high voltage  trans-
                mission lines)  are conducted as part of a multi-agency
                "Program for Control of Electromagnetic Pollution of
                the Environment: The Assessment of Biological Haz-
                ards  of  Nonionizing  Electromagnetic  Radiation,"
                which  is coordinated by the Office of Telecommuni-
                cations Policy. Animal models are used to investigate
                potential genetic, biochemical, immunological, terato-
                logical, and neurobiological  effects of exposure  to
                radio  and microwave  frequencies.  Studies are  de-
                signed  to  identify  potential  harmful  effects,  to
                establish the exposure levels at which these effects are
                elicited, and to delineate the mechanisms of physical
                alterations.
                   A significant portion of ORD-RTP pesticide health
                effects research  was  directed toward evaluating the
                effects of pesticides and their residues on laboratory
                animals and to extrapolating these results to similar
                human exposures. For example, high concentrations
                of an experimental  organophosphate insecticide were
                found  to  cause irreversible paralysis in animals. The
                significance  of   this finding  to  humans will   be
                evaluated using  a  newly developed, more sensitive
                procedure for  determining low-level organophosphate
                exposure.
                   Similarly, exposure of primates to  the pesticide
                carbanyl caused changes in both brain wave patterns
                and  behavior  at  a  concentration that approximates
                the  background   exposure  levels  experienced  by
                humans.  The significance  of these  findings with
                respect to humans is under active investigation.
                                              Monitoring
                                            and  Support
                   The  ORD-RTP  monitoring  efforts  encompass
                several major areas: a methods standardization and
                performance evaluation program, a quality assurance
                program,  a  National  Air Surveillance  Network, a
                Fuels Surveillance Network,  a  Membrane Filter and
                Precipitation Network, a continuous air  monitoring
                program, and a technical assistance program.
4
ANNUAL  REPORT 1974

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   The methods  standardization  and  performance
evaluation program showed considerable progress  in
1974.  Published  reports described  results of collab-
orative tests of source emission measurement meth-
ods  for nitrogen  oxides, sulfur dioxide, particulates,
and  beryllium; of methods for Orsat gas analysis; and
of velocity and  moisture  measurement techniques.
Another collaborative test demonstrated the general
reliability  of  the regulatory method for measuring
carbon monoxide emissions from  refinery  catalytic
cracking  regenerators. Of  particular  current impor-
tance  because  of  its association with energy produc-
tion problems was a  field  study  of the  regulatory
method for measuring sulfur dioxide and sulfuric acid
mist emissions using a ganged probe sampling assem-
bly.  The  test  indicated that, under  rigidly controlled
conditions, the sampling train  is capable  of giving
reproducible  results.  Results  of another  evaluation
and  collaborative test program caused the  revision of
four of the regulatory methods promulgated with the
New Source Performance Standards of December 23,
1971.
   In  tests of measurement  techniques  under the
quality  assurance  program,  the   sodium  arsenite,
TGS-ANSA,  and chemiluminescence methods for
measuring nitrogen  dioxide in ambient air proved
reliable in the hands of the average user; however, the
continuous colorimetric  method was judged unreli-
able under the same conditions.
   Several guidelines were developed and published  in
1974 to accompany appropriate reference methods —
four for ambient air techniques, three for stationary
sources,  one  for lead, and one for phosphorus  in
gasoline.
   An  automated system of data acquisition program-
med to  yield  precision  data, with built-in quality
assurance  checks  and numerical regression analysis
routines,  has  afforded rapid generation of validated
data for the National Air  Surveillance Network during
1974.
   During  1974,  ORD-RTP scientists also performed
analyses   of  the  samples   collected  by the  Fuels
Surveillance Network  in 1973. A National  Bureau of
Standards  Standard  Reference Material for lead in
reference  fuel was  developed.  The  Environmental
Protection Agency, the National Oceanic and Atmos-
pheric  Administration, and the World Meteorological
Organization continued to  operate jointly a 20-sta-
tion  precipitation  network for trace metals  analysis.
   Investigators also  initiated a long-term  study in
Los  Angles, California, to determine the  impact of
emissions  from the new  automotive oxidation  cata-
lyst  on  ambient  air.  Background  data from  four
stations  adjacent  to  the San  Diego Freeway will
identify existing air quality parameters  prior to the
appearance of catalyst-equipped automobiles in  large
numbers.
        Environmental  Sciences
                                 Research
   The principal efforts in the field of environmental
sciences  research involved  development  and evalua-
tion of air quality models; studies of the physical and
chemical  transformations  of pollutants from source
to receptor in the atmosphere; determination of the
effects of pollutant and thermal emissions on visibil-
ity, weather, and climate; development of techniques
and  instruments  for  measuring pollutants at point
sources and in ambient air; and support of abatement
and compliance efforts.
   An  analysis  of  past model verification  studies
revealed  that none of the  photochemical  models
adequately  represent the observed  data for nitric
oxide,  nitrogen dioxide, and ozone. The  analysis did
show, however,  that  two of  the carbon monoxide
models were acceptable. Definite inadequacies in the
chemical  kinetic mechanisms used  in simulating
photochemical smog formation were indicated.
   Investigators identified  and described  transforma-
tions of  sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, and organic
pollutants, and made progress  in establishing reactivi-
ties and reaction paths. Intermediate chemical species
as well  as final  oxidation  products continue to be
identified and measured.
   Previous  studies  in the Los Angeles  Basin  have
suggested that high ozone levels observed in nonurban
areas result from the transport of oxidants and  their
precursors from  large urban  areas.  More  recently,
data from nonurban  areas of  West Virginia, Ohio,
Florida, and New York have produced similar results.
In an extension  of these  urban/nonurban pollution
studies,  results demonstrated that precipitation  scav-
enging  of inorganic pollutants by convective storms
can be extremely effective in removing urban pollut-
ants from  the atmosphere. Measurements  made at
various  distances downwind  of an urban area  (St.
Louis, Missouri) indicate that precipitation scavenging
removal rates  can be  comparable to urban emission
rates.
   Although  research  programs on  halogenated  pol-
lutants have been underway for several years, recent
findings on ozone-freon  interactions  in  the stratso-
sphere have given new urgency to studies in this  area.
Studies include field measurement of ambient levels
of  halogenated  compounds,  laboratory studies of
photochemical reactions, determination of diffusion
rates, and delineation of removal processes.
   Investigations also  continued on the physical and
chemical  properties  of aerosols at their source in the
air. The major sinks for aerosol pollutants and  their
removal  rates are being defined.  In  addition, the
effects of the  aerosols on  gas-phase  atmospheric
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 chemical reactions are under investigation, along with
 the  gas/particle conversions and the particle removal
 processes. Various detailed  studies aimed at produc-
 ing  scientific  data  basic  to the  promulgation  of
 fine-particle criteria and standards and to the develop-
 ment  of effective  control  procedures  were  also
 continued during the year.
   A  team   of experienced  aerosol scientists was
 assembled in St. Louis in  the summer  of  1973 and
 1974 to conduct an intensive aerosol characterization
 program using special mobile facilities. Two gaseous
 pollutant transformation projects are still underway:
 the  first is the  study of the  transformations  of
 nitrogen oxides  and  sulfur oxides in  power plant
 plumes; the second involves laboratory verification of
 the  kinetic  models that are to  be applied  to  the
 network data.
   A  major accomplishment  during 1974 was  the
 development of  a  simple, sensitive,  and reasonably
 specific  device for  the  automated collection and
 quantification of sulfuric acid  mist.
   The Regional Air Pollution  Study  (RAPS)  pro-
 duced two separate, laserpowered, long-path spectro-
 photometers for use in determining gaseous pollutant
 burdens, averaged over line-of-site  paths of up to 1
 kilometer. Data obtained from these instruments will
 contribute to the improvement of pollution-transport
 modeling capability. These instruments are capable of
 analyzing for  carbon  monoxide,  ozone,  and  sulfur
 dioxide. Investigators  also developed a  simple moni-
 tor for vinyl chloride concentrations. The level of its
 sensitivity suggests that it may be useful in monitor-
 ing  exposure  levels   of  industry  workers.  Under
 contract,  investigators also  developed a small, light-
 weight monitor for carbon  monoxide in ambient air
 based  on  the nondispersive optical absorption tech-
 nique for gas filter correlation.
   Particulate sampling studies  produced  two  new
 instruments  — an automated dichotomous sampler
 that separates respirable from  nonrespirable fractions
 and  a Beta-gauge for assessing the mass of particles in
 each fraction collected. In studies of airborne asbes-
 tos,  the scanning electron  microscope was found to
 be useful in  identification and  measurement of fibers,
 and the feasibility of an X-ray diffraction method for
 rapid  quantitative  analysis  of  airborne abestos
samples was  demonstrated.
   During the  year,   the  mobile  source  emissions
 measurement program  developed  methods for  the
 routine measurement of sulfate emissions from both
catalyst-equipped  and  non-catalyst vehicles.  These
 methods produced data showing significant increases
 in sulfate emissions from catalyst-equipped cars and
formed the basis for initial projections of their future
impact on air quality. Engine dynamometer tests of
various commercial  catalyst packages showed  con-
siderable  differences in  the  tendency  to  produce
sulfate  and suggested possible technological  changes
for minimizing sulfate emissions.
      Industrial  Environmental
                                  Research
   Measurable progress has been achieved in develop-
ing technology  for  stationary source air  pollution
control. On the pressing problem of fine paniculate
matter (particles less than 3 micrometers  in diame-
ter),  approaches to  improvement of conventional
control  devices  have been  defined, and laboratory
testing of  new detection and removal concepts has
been  accomplished.  Among the "conventional" de-
vices, field  tests  demonstrated  that properly designed
and operated electrostatic precipitators can be more
than 90 percent efficient on a mass basis in  collecting
all particle  size fractions down to about 0.01  micro-
meter in diameter. Experimental work by ORD-RTP
to aid in  selecting  optimum  fabric  filter cleaning
methods was described  in a  1974 report. Test
programs were initiated  to evaluate  two new particu-
late control devices, the sonic  agglomerator and the
steam-hydro  scrubber; feasibility studies were com-
pleted on the use of charged droplets and  condensa-
tion effects to improve fine particle collection.
   The emission of  sulfur oxides  has been a major
concern  in  stationary source  air pollution control.
The flue- gas cleaning demonstration projects that are
presently underway  are expected to attain 60 to 97
percent efficiency in removing these pollutants. Lab-
oratory  and bench-scale tests  proved the  technical
feasibility  of removing  inorganic  sulfur from coal;
design of a pilot-plant operation was begun. Studies
of coal  gasification and  conversion processes and of
versions  of fluidized-bed coal  combustion  and resi-
dual oil combustion to reduce sulfur oxides emissions
(particularly  for steam  and power  generation) were
continued during 1974.
   In  studies of  nitrogen oxides, investigators deline-
ated techniques  capable  of  reducing nitrogen  oxides
emissions from  coal-fired boilers by  as much  as 50
percent.  Other  studies  demonstrated commercially
feasible  means of reducing carbon  monoxide,  hydro-
carbons,  and particulate emissions  from  coke  ovens
by 90 percent.
                                      ANNUAL REPORT 1974

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INTRODUCTION

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 INTRODUCTION
Highly specialized, multidisciplinary research programs
directed toward improving the environment are con-
ducted at EPA's Office of Research and Development
facility at Research Triangle Park, NC.
   THE   UNITED   STATES  ENVIRONMENTAL
PROTECTION  AGENCY is charged with mounting
an  integrated, coordinated attack on pollution,  and
with filling the need for a strong independent agency
to serve as an objective, impartial arbiter of environ-
mental matters, particularly  in establishing  and en-
forcing pollution  control standards. The creation of
EPA  in  1970  marked  the  end of  the piecemeal
approach  to our  nation's environmental problems
that had so often in the past inhibited progress, or
had  merely substituted  one  form  of  pollution  for
another. Most important of all, perhaps, the creation
of EPA gives to the American people a single agency
to serve as their advocate for a livable environment,
making  possible more sensible choices -about what
constitutes a healthful, satisfying milieu for  human
life.
   The Environmental Protection Agency is, first  and
foremost,  a regulatory agency, having responsibilities
for establishing and enforcing environmental stand-
ards within the limits of various statutory authorities.
The  process  of setting  standards,  however,  begins
with a scientific  research and  monitoring program.
For  just as a physician must know the  nature of  the
illness before he can treat the patient, we must know
the  nature of  pollutants before we can treat  our
environment. If pollution cannot be detected, identi-
fied, and measured, it cannot be controlled.
   Where do pollutants come from?  How can they be
identified  and measured? What are their effects? How
can they be controlled?
   Scientific  investigation provides the  answers to
these questions. Sources of pollution are identified
through research.  Research tells us what a  specific
level of a  specific pollutant does to  human beings; to
crops and other vegetation; to domestic animals  and
wildlife; to plant and animal life in  a body of water;
to concrete,  steel,  and  other building materials; to
painted  surfaces; and to fabrics. Research establishes
threshold  levels at which adverse  effects from  en-
vironmental   pollutants,  alone  or  in  combination,
might  be  expected.  Research  provides  the basic
scientific  knowledge  needed  to  safeguard  public
health  and  to balance  the  benefits of  a  specific
product against the hazards  it might  pose  for  the
environment.
   Research, therefore, constitutes the essential scien-
tific  foundation for action to  improve environmental
quality.  The  Environmental Protection Agency gath-
ers  evidence  from  its own  research studies, from
scientific  and technical advisory committees, from
the  scientific  community, and from industry. The
diversified research  programs  of EPA are carried  out
at the 15  Laboratories of the  Office of Research  and
Development, 4 of which are  located in the Environ-
mental Research Center facilities at Research Triangle
Park, North Carolina (ORD-RTP).
                                             Introduction

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                                                 ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
                                                OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
                                              RESEARCH TRIANGLE PARK, NORTH CAROLINA
                                                       ASSISTANT ADMINISTRATOR
                                                                 FOR
                                                      RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
          OFFICE OF MONITORING
         ANDTECHNICAL SUPPORT
                                     OFFICE OF ENERGY,
                                   MINERALS, AND INDUSTRY
                              OFFICE OF AIR, LAND,
                                AND WATER USE
                                 OFFICE OF HEALTH
                              AND ECOLOGICAL EFFECTS
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       ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING
        AND SUPPORT LABORATORY
                 -RTP
                                 INDUSTRIAL ENVIRONMENTAL
                                   RESEARCH LABORATORY
                                           - RTP
                            ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES
                             RESEARCH LABORATORY
                                    • RTP
                                  HEALTH EFFECTS
                              RESEARCH LABORATORY
                                      - RTP
     QUALITY ASSURANCE
AND ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING
        LABORATORY
CONTROL SYSTEMS
  LABORATORY
CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS
    LABORATORY
                                                                                                          HUMAN STUDIES
                                                                                                           LABORATORY
                                                                            METEOROLOGY
                                                                            LABORATORY
                                                                                                 EXPERIMENTAL BIOLOGY
                                                                                                      LABORATORY
      THIS CHART ILLUSTRATES THE RECENT REORGANIZATION
      OF EPA'S OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT INTO
      FOUR LABORATORIES. THE SEVEN PREDECESSOR LABORA-
      TORIES, WHOSE ACTIVITIES ARE DESCRIBED IN THIS REPORT,
      ARE SHOWN IN RELATION TO THE NEW ORGANIZATIONAL
      STRUCTURE.
                                                                                                  PESTICIDES AND TOXIC
                                                                                                  SUBSTANCES EFFECTS
                                                                                                    LABORATORY
                                                                                                       SPECIAL STUDIES STAFF

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   The research at ORD-RTP is conducted under the
authority of four legislative acts:
   • The Clean Air Act
   • The Federal  Insecticide, Fungicide, and Roden-
     ticide Act
   • The Federal  Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act
   • The Public Health Service Act
   In this Annual  Report, an attempt is made to show
how  ORD-RTP  research  activities  from  January
through December 1974  have been supportive of the
Congressional mandates expressed in these Acts. The
highlights  of these  research  activities  are  discussed
briefly  in  the "Executive Summary."  Some of the
national issues in which ORD-RTP has  been involved
in 1974 are described in the Special Features section.
A summary  of the  pertinent portions  of these Acts
and the ORD-RTP programs that are directly suppor-
tive of the  legislation can be found  in  the section
entitled,  "Legislative  Mandates."  The   "Research
Activities"  section  of the report describes in  detail
the  scientific program of ORD-RTP as it relates  to
specific sections  of  the  Acts —  a relationship that is
the  theme of this report. The following discussion of
ORD-RTP —  its mission,  its research program, and its
national  and international  activities,   as well   as  a
summary of  resources — is  presented to make the
legislative mandate theme more meaningful.
                 ORD-RTP  Research
                                   Program
 MISSION
    The  primary responsibility  within the  Environ-
 mental  Protection  Agency  for the  conduct  and
 management  of research program and related activ-
 ities  pertaining  to  air pollution has been  given to
 the Office of Research and Development at Research
 Triangle Park. The  general objective of  activities at
 ORD-RTP  is,  therefore,  a reflection of the  stated
 purpose of the Clean  Air Act;  its research  is tied to
 the statutory  mandates of that Act.  In  addition to
 activities pertaining to air pollution, ORD-RTP has
 also been charged with the conduct of pesticides and
 radiation research, as specified in several other legisla-
 tive acts.
    The underlying purpose  of the Clean Air Act is to
 protect  and enhance the quality of the  nation's air
 resources in order to promote the public health  and
 welfare and the productive capacity of its  population.
 Consequently,  the  protection and  enhancement of
 both  the quality of life and the productive capacity
 of  the  nation's population  is  the major  goal of
research  conducted by  ORD-RTP.  Recognizing the
overwhelming technical  problems and economic costs
to this  country  posed  by a  purpose  of this  lofty
dimension and  ensuring that solutions advanced for
dealing  with  those  problems are  intelligible are
equally  important  purposes  of  this  Congressional
mandate. Congress also stipulated two other purposes
for the  Act —  to accelerate a national  research and
development program and to provide technical assist-
ance to  State and local governments. The mechanisms
mandated  by   Congress for  achieving  the  nation's
environmentally related  goals rely heavily on the use
of standards to be promulgated by the Agency. Such
standards are applicable specifically to  the offending
sources  of pollutants and are  designed to limit their
emissions in accordance  with appropriate  environ-
mental  goals.  The pollutant control standards must
reflect  both the  cause-and-effect  relationships be-
tween pollutant level and environmental impact and
the technological feasibility of their implementation.
The scientific  knowledge necessary  to define the
environmental goals, the establishment of the role of
emissions as they  relate  to  these goals, and the
engineering capability to ensure availability of control
technology at reasonable costs with respect to socie-
tal,  cultural,  and  economic  consequences  are  all
essential components of the mission of ORD-RTP. In
addition,  the   conduct  of research supporting the
development of a reliable monitoring and surveillance
capability  — for  use in  following  the progress in
attaining  environmental  goals and ensuring  com-
pliance  with the source standards  — is ancillary to
ORD-RTP's mission.
   To obtain  basic environmental  goals, certain re-
search objectives must be attained.  Scientific knowl-
edge necessary  to define the goals includes an ability
to  assess  the impact of environmental  pollution on
health and welfare. To make a valid  assessment of the
impact, the following objectives must be met through
research:
   •  Identification of  health  and welfare indicators
      of environmental pollution.
   •  Identification  of  the  chemical   and  physical
      nature of the environmental pollutants respon-
      sible for adverse effects.
   •  Development and application  of  measurement
      technology  to  establish pollution  levels and
      define exposure patterns.
   •  Establishment  of dose-response  relationships
      and the mechanism of the  pollutant action on
      the receptor.
   To  define  the relationships  between polluting
sources and the environmental exposure pattern, the
ORD-RTP mission  includes the following objectives:
   •  Development and application  of  identification
      and  measurement technology to characterize
                                              Introduction
                                               11

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      the  chemical and  physical  nature  of source
      emissions to the environment.
   •  Establishment of the patterns of movement of
      pollutants in the environment and the role of
      environmental factors in their transport.
   •  Definition of the nature and  expense of the
      chemical  and physical alterations that attend
      the  movement  of  pollution  through the en-
      vironment.
   •  Development and validation of methods for
      simulating environmental exposure patterns and
      predicting optimum control strategy.
   The engineering capability to control the emissions
of environmental pollutants involves these ORD-RTP
objectives:
   •  Characterization of pollutants.
   •  Development of laboratory and pilot-scale tech-
      niques  and hardware for eliminating or  mini-
      mizing emmisions.
   •  Construction   of  plant-scale   demonstration
      projects to assess the effectiveness  of control
      techniques.
   Surveillance and monitoring  objectives relate to
the development and application of:
   •  Field-worthy   techniques    for   large-scale
      population  surveys  to  ascertain  the benefits
      resulting  from  the  control  of environmental
      pollution and to determine  the soundness of
      the  standards   upon which  the  controls are
      based.
   •  Measurement methodology for monitoring the
      impact of pollution  controls on environmental
      exposure patterns.
   •  Measurement  methodology   for  monitoring
      compliance  with  emissions  standards   and
      characterizing  new  pollutants  resulting  from
      control operations.
   In  the conduct   and  management of  research
related to the above objectives, the major  "product"
of ORD-RTP  is the documentation  of the scientific
and  engineering knowledge to  provide a substantial
information base upon which Agency-level decisions
can be made.
NATIONAL  RESEARCH PROGRAM
   Research, and  its ancillary undertaking of environ-
mental  surveillance,  at both  the national  and the
international level are essential to the appreciation of
the complex and  variable factors to be considered in
the  quest  for national  and  international  environ-
mental improvement.
   Specifically, ORD-RTP  has the overall responsi-
bility for the direction and conduct of EPA's research
                 and development  programs related primarily  to  the
                 effects  of  air  pollutants on health,  and  to  the
                 understanding of the physical  and chemical processes
                 that affect  the  emission, transport, transformation,
                 and reception stages of the air pollution cycle. These
                 programs are  an  integral  part  of  EPA's  closely
                 coordinated  total  research  program  that  strives to
                 achieve a synthesis of knowledge from the biological,
                 physical,  engineering,  medical,  and  social sciences
                 that can  be interpreted in terms  of total human and
                 environmental needs.
                   The  development of the ORD-RTP research pro-
                 gram is in direct response to the  language and intent
                 of  several Congressional  mandates, specifically  the
                 Clear Air Act (and amendments); the Public  Health
                 Service  Act; the Food,  Drug,  and Cosmetic Act; and
                 the  Federal Insecticide,  Fungicide, and Rodenticide
                 Act. Results obtained through  the ORD-RTP research
                 program concerning  the impact and the cause-effect
                 relationships of pollution problems provide  a range of
                 knowledge necessary in the establishment of environ-
                 mental  pollution  standards.  The  development  of
                 pollution  control technology provides pollutant emit-
                 ters with  scientific capabilities for pollution control,
                 thereby making compliance with air quality standards
                 possible. ORD-RTP's monitoring program provides a
                 verification  of actual compliance with the standards.
                   ORD-RTP conducts  research  on a broad environ-
                 mental  basis to  provide  EPA  with a sound scientific
                 basis for  control  of environmental pollutants that
                 adversely  affect human health and welfare.
                   These  programs emphasize the following  major
                 research activities:
                   •  Exposure and  Source of Exposure—These  ac-
                      tivities include  development and standardiza-
                      tion of techniques for measurement  of  pollut-
                      ants, both at their source and in  the ambient
                      environment.
                   •  Effects of Exposure—This  work includes quan-
                      tification of  the effects of exposure to environ-
                      mental pollutants on both health and welfare
                      (including the  development of techniques  for
                      assessing effects).
                   •  Strategy—This  research  includes development
                      of predictive models for  environmental levels of
                      pollutant  emissions, reflecting transportation
                      and removal  processes.
                   •  Prevention of Exposure—Activities in this area
                      include development of cost-effective control
                      technologies.
                   •  Pollutant   Characterization—Efforts   include
                      preparation  of briefing  reports, scientific sum-
                      mary documents, and criteria documents.
                   The  development and standardization of tech\
                 niques  for  the  measurement  of pollutants both at
                 their source and  in the ambient  environment  are
                 necessary  to accurately define the exposures and their
12
ANNUAL REPORT 1974

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source. Standards  and regulations cannot be estab-
lished until the extent and source of an exposure are
identified. At ORD-RTP, techniques are being devel-
oped and  standardized for defining both  air quality
and emissions.  Emphasis will continue to be  placed
on gathering valid air  quality and related data and on
developing (refining)   methodology  for  measuring
pollutants. The chemical and  physical  transforma-
tions that pollutants undergo from source to receptor
in the atmosphere are also being studied. Specialized
monitoring and technical assistance services are pro-
vided to EPA Regional Off ices and local air pollution
control agencies in their endeavors to identify pollu-
tants and  their sources. The nationwide fuel surveil-
lance  network  is  operated  to assess the potential
impact of emission products from  various  emission
control  devices on atmospheric  reaction processes.
Exposure of various materials to pollutants is also an
important aspect of this research area. Environmental
samples are analyzed for a variety of trace metals and
other pollutants, requiring development and standard-
ization  of monitoring  equipment  for  specific ele-
ments.
    It  is important  that  standard methodology and
adequate  quality  control  be  used  to  ensure the
production of unimpeachable data  and to maximize
the validity and comparability of those data. Once
the exposure to harmful substances and the sources
of exposure are established,  one major building block
has been completed in the foundation of knowledge
needed for making far-reaching national decisions on
environmental control.
    Another body of knowledge important to EPA in
establishing and enforcing  standards  is the  research
concerned with the manner  in which environmental
pollutants (singly or  in combination) cause specific
undesirable  health  effects.   This  research  includes
animal  studies,  human clinical  studies, and  epidemi-
ological  studies on human  populations.  Major em-
phasis  is  placed  on  the   collection  of sufficient
information  for formulating environmental control
strategies  and  thus  providing bases for establishing
national emission standards  for pollutants or source
categories that endanger human health  or welfare.
   The Community Health  and Environmental  Sur-
veillance System (CHESS)  is a national program of
standardized epidemiologic studies organized within
the past 4 years. The program is designed to measure
environmental  quality  as  it  relates to  chronic and
acute health indicators in sets of communities repre-
senting exposure gradients to common air pollutants
including particulates,  sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides,
and photochemical  oxidants. The CHESS program is
essential in evaluating existing environmental  stand-
ards, in obtaining health intelligence for new controls,
and in  documenting  the   health  benefits  of  air
pollution control.
   Clinical research is being conducted  in the area of
exposure  effects  to obtain  data  on  gaseous  and
particulate air pollutants relevant to the development
of standards for the protection of human health and
welfare. These studies are supportive of the standard-
setting processes in the following ways:

   •  Validating data from  human studies.
   •  Providing clues to new human studies.
   •  Indicating the  potential  harmful effects of new
      pollutants.
   •  Ascertaining  the  adequacy  of safety margins
      through interaction studies.

   A  specific research area in the study of pollutant
effects on human health and welfare is the research
pertinent  to providing data necessary for the intelli-
gent  assessment of the hazards to human  health of
exposure  to pesticides, toxic substances,  substitute
chemicals, and  combinations of these with each other
and  with  other environmental  factors.  To obtain
these data, toxicity studies are conducted  in which
various animal  species are used as models. Methods
for measurement  of human exposure  to  pesticides
and  toxic substances are  developed and  improved,
and  a quality  assurance  program  is  conducted  to
ensure the accuracy  of analytical results. The studies
are concerned with  identifying  pesticides, their me-
tabolities, and any adverse  effects on normal biologi-
cal functions. In these subject areas, research provides
data  needed by  the Agency in  meeting  its legally
mandated responsibilities in registering, labeling, set-
ting  of tolerance  levels  and limiting the  misuse  of
pesticides.
   Results of ORD-RTP's  research on the  effects
from  pollutant  exposure are used in formulating and
revising environmental quality criteria.  The epidemi-
ologic studies  have  been  oriented  toward defining
environmental hazards and providing data on which
to base standards. Biological research is designed to
detect, define,  and  quantify the effects of environ-
mental pollution. Collectively, the data  generated by
ORD-RTP's  research on   exposure effects form  a
major part of the information system that the Agency
uses to set and enforce standards.
   Relevant to  the  Agency's  need to make control
decisions  is the information derived from the meteor-
ological aspects of air pollution, including theoretical
and experimental  studies of the physical  properties
that  affect  the transport,  diffusion, transformation,
and  disposition  of  air  pollutants  in and  from  the
atmosphere.  Through this  research, techniques and
methods  of  forecasting potential air pollution epi-
sodes are  improved. Analytical diffusion models are
developed to predict the temporal and  spatial distri-
bution of air pollutants;  they  are also useful  for
preevaluating proposed air pollution  control strat-
egies.  Studies are also conducted  on the effects of air
                                              Introduction
                                               13

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 pollutants on  the  geophysical processes of weather
 and climate  as well as on the energy balance of the
 earth-atmosphere  system.  ORD-RTP's  research pro-
 gram  also includes development of  remote-sensing
 techniques for measuring  meteorological parameters
 in urban areas.
    Chamber  and field studies are used to investigate
 physical  and  chemical characteristics, transforma-
 tions, and effects on materials of emissions of sulfur
 oxides, carbon  monoxide, nitrogen oxides,  hydro-
 carbons, and other organics; and in assessing  their role
 in  producing  sulfates, nitrogen dioxide,   nitrates,
 ozone, organic  aerosols,  and other  finely divided
 particulate materials in the atmosphere. Because the
 consequences as well as  the fate  of environmental
 pollution can  be  anticipated  from  this and other
 information, the Agency  can develop strategy to be
 used in its program of establishment of enforcement
 standards.
    ORD-RTP's fourth major area of emphasis, preven-
 tion  of exposure, can only be accomplished through
 the  development  of  the technology  required  to
 control air pollution  sources  in a  timely  and  cost-
 effective  manner. The Agency does  not stipulate the
 control technology to be used to meet the  standards
 it has established; however, the Agency is required by
 law to publish a control  technique document that
 provides  information on  how affected sources can
 meet  a particular standard before that air  quality
 standard  is  "official." Much research  is needed to
 develop  control  techniques  that  reflect  the  best
 available  technology;  therefore,  a large part of the
 ORD-RTP research effort is  concerned  with the
 conduct,  direction, and management of engineering
 research,  development, and demonstration  programs
 leading to the abatement  of air pollution from major
 stationary sources.  Laboratory activities encompass
 development and  improvement of control  devices
 such  as scrubbers, filters,  and electrostatic  precipita-
 tors; complete effluent-gas-treatment processes;  com-
 bustion methods and  equipment;  fuel preparation
 technology;  and  associated sampling  and  analysis
 instrumentation  systems.  Improved  control   tech-
 nology must be developed before  new source per-
 formance standards can be established and hazardous
 pollutants controlled.
    Another important element of control in the area
 of  exposure  prevention is the  Fuels and Fuel Addi-
 tives  Registration program. The  Program consists of
 registering the chemical composition, the purpose of
 use, and the  recommended concentration of additives
 used   in  motor  gasoline  that  is  introduced  into
 interstate commerce.  Fuel and  fuel additive manu-
 facturers  are  required  to  provide quarterly data  on
 the use of registered additives as well as information
 concerning the mechanism of action and the effects
 on  exhaust products, if known. In addition,  protocols
                 have  been developed  to  assess  the effect of  fuel
                 components  on control device performance, which
                 will  result in information that may be used in the
                 control or prohibition of fuel components or  addi-
                 tives  pursuant to the  1970 Clean  Air Act Amend-
                 ments — in a time frame to ensure public safety and
                 satisfactory  performance  of  advanced automotive
                 control systems.
                    The results of the  previously  described research
                 programs are used  to  prepare briefing reports, scien-
                 tific summary documents, and criteria documents as
                 required by the Clean  Air Act Amendments. Accord-
                 ing to the law, the  Administrator  of EPA is required
                 (from  time  to  time  but as soon  as  practical) to
                 develop  and   issue  to  the states such criteria  of air
                 quality as, in his judgment,  may be required for the
                 protection of the  public  health  and  welfare.  Such
                 criteria shall   reflect the  latest scientific knowledge
                 useful  in  indicating  the  kind  and  extent of  all
                 identifiable effects on  health and welfare that may be
                 expected from the presence of an air pollutant.
                    Defining the  biologic effects of specific air pollut-
                 ants on humans, animals,  and vegetation, as well as
                 non-biological effects  such  as modification of  visi-
                 bility and deterioration of materials, is a major effort
                 of ORD-RTP This  activity, termed  pollutant charac-
                 terization, also  includes  gathering qualitative  and
                 quantitative  information   on the  sources,  form(s),
                 reactivity,  methods of collecting  and  quantitating,
                 and strategies for controlling pollutants.  In promul-
                 gating standards, the  legally defensible  basis  must
                 include scientifically  sound  assessment of  compre-
                 hensive scientific data as  reported  in criteria  docu-
                 ments. The need for additional research for producing
                 adequate criteria to permit the issuance or revision of
                 standards must  also be identified. These papers (or
                 scientific summary documents) are also developed for
                 non-criteria  pollutants to  indicate the   need  for
                 control and to recommend control strategy.
                    Collecting, reviewing, evaluating, comparing, sum-
                 marizing, and interpreting pertinent information and
                 literature to prepare  criteria documents,  briefing
                 reports, and  scientific summary documents on  non-
                 criteria pollutants are  functions performed at  ORD-
                 RTP.   In  the preparation of the  reports,  the  data
                 generated by the  entire  research  program at  ORD-
                 RTP converge with  all other available literature and
                 research to form the basis needed to produce scientif-
                 ically  sound   documents.  ORD-RTP, in some  cases,
                 contracts with the authoritative sources — one being
                 the National  Academy of Sciences  — to review the
                 information that is available on some pollution issues.
                 ORD-RTP personnel  then use these reviews in the
                 assessment of the problems  and in  the development
                 of pollutant characterization  documents. These docu-
                 ments are then added  to the  Agency's  data  base that
                 provides pertinent information for making  decisions
14
ANNUAL REPORT 1974

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on the  need to control emissions of a pollutant and
deciding upon actions to be initiated.
 INTERNATIONAL RESEARCH

 PROGRAM

   Among the regular functions of ORD-RTP are  a
 wide  variety  of  international  activities that,  al-
 though not  organized  under  a  separate functional
 entity, are  carried out  as  a logical extension of
 ORD-RTP's  research program as  described  in  the
 preceeding section. Because these international activi-
 ties  constitute a rather sizeable contribution  to  the
 resolution of  world environmental  problems,  it  is
 appropriate to consider them briefly in the context of
 their relationship to ORD-RTP's major objectives.
   As a part of its efforts toward  development and
 standardization of  measurement techniques, ORD-
 RTP makes what is probably its  most significant
 contribution to international pursuits. Designated by
 the  World  Health Organization  as  an International
 Reference Center  for Air Pollution Control, ORD-
 RTP provides manuals for air pollution  monitoring
 systems,  recommends reference methods for  pollut-
 ants, and operates an International  Aerometric Data
 Bank that receives, processes, analyzes, and publishes
 data from 50 monitoring stations  in 14 countries.
   The World Meteorological Organization also draws
 upon ORD-RTP support for  operation of a turbidity
 monitoring network and for  its services as an interna-
 tional referee laboratory for precipitation chemistry.
   Contributions  in the  area  of measurement and
 standardization are also made to the Organization for
 Economic Cooperation and  Development's (OECD)
 Air  Management Sector Group.
   Under  the auspices of several formalized coopera-
tive  agreements, ORD-RTP participates in the devel-
opment and standardization of measurement method-
ology  with  the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
through the U.S. — U.S.S.R.  Agreement on Coopera-
tion  in the Field of Environmental  Health, and with
the  Government  of Spain through  the Frontiers of
Science Program of the National Science Foundation.
   Measurement techniques are also studied through
the  mechanism of  EPA    funded and  ORD-RTP
supervised contracts in Austria and France,  and
through various exchange programs in which scien-
tists  from such countries as Czechoslovakia and Spain
work in ORD-RTP laboratories under the supervision
of Staff scientists.
   Research on the effects of pollutant  exposure is
carried out by ORD-RTP in cooperation with several
international   groups.  Research  emphasis  in  the
U.S.  —  Federal Republic of Germany Agreement on
Protection of the Environment, for  example, centers
on  the  role  of  combustion  products  in  human
carcinogenesis. Staff scientists are also participating in
the U.S. — U.S.S.R. Agreement on Cooperation in the
Field  of Medical Science and Public Health through a
time-dose study of nitrogen dioxide.
   In   addition,  under  the direction of  ORD-RTP
project officers, contracts under the Special Foreign
Currency program have  been granted in Egypt, India,
Poland, and Yugoslavia  to address various aspects of
exposure effects research, principally in the area of
effects of atmospheric metals on health.
   ORD-RTP assists or  participates in epidemiologic
studies of pollutant exposure with such groups as the
Commission of the European Economic Community
(Common  Market) through  a  comparative study of
respiratory  disease in school children and with  the
Pan-American Health Organization  by assisting in the
design and  initiation  of a  study  in Mexico on  the
effects of heavy  metals. A portion of the U.S. —
U.S.S.R.  Agreement  on  Protection of the Environ-
ment  also  involves ORD-RTP  epidemiologists  in  a
study  of the biological and genetic effects of pollut-
ants;  two  Special  Foreign  Currency  contracts  in
Yugoslavia   also  address  epidemiologic  aspects of
pollutant exposure.
   Control strategy research through the development
of predictive models is the prime consideration of the
North Atlantic Treaty  Organization Committee on
Challenges of Modern Society  (NATO/CCMS)  in its
Panel  on Air Pollution  Modeling, the only Panel of
the original four which is still in existence (the others
having completed their  assignments). Through 1974
the United  States was  the Pilot  Country for this
Panel, and  to fulfill this responsibility staff meteor-
ologists provided  the extensive input necessary to
coordinate  the  Panel's annual meetings.  The Federal
Republic of Germany is expected to assume the Pilot
Country role in 1975.
   A  second large  modeling study  involving meteor-
ologists, chemists, and engineers of ORD-RTP is being
carried out through the U.S. — U.S.S.R. Agreement
on Cooperation in the Field of Environmental Health.
   Air pollution modeling has also been the subject of
exchange visits by scientists from  Norway and  the
United Kingdom, whose fellowships were funded by
the NATO/CCMS.
   Prevention of exposure through  the development
of control technology is being studied cooperatively
with several international groups. Perhaps the largest
effort in this area is under the auspices of the U.S. —
U.S.S.R.  Agreement  on  Protection of the Environ-
ment.  Under  Subtopic  2,  "Stationary Source  Air
Pollution  Control Technology,"  engineers of  the
ORD-RTP are  participating  in studies of particulate
abatement,  gaseous emissions abatement, and process
modification. Staff engineers have also participated in
several seminars sponsored by the Economic Commis-
                                             Introduction
                                               15

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sion  for Europe in the area of improved combustion
technology.
   Special Foreign Currency  projects in Poland and
Yugoslavia consider various  aspects of control  tech-
nology  or improved combustion  processes; inter-
national  contracts with investigators in France and
the United Kingdom also study these problems.
   As  one of  the more important first steps in
attacking  pollution  problems  in  developing areas,
pollutant  characterization  is  of  substantial  signifi-
cance  in  ORD-RTP's international activities.  The
writing of assessment and state-of-the-art documents
continues on a  fairly large  scale with several inter-
national  organizations.  Recent ORD-RTP  contribu-
tions, for  instance, to the WHO Environmental Health
Criteria  Programme   include Environmental  Health
Criteria  for  Manganese  and its  Compounds,  and
Environmental  Health Criteria for  Polychlorinated
Bi— and Terphenyls.
   The  OECD's Air  Management  Sector  Group,
through   its  ORD-RTP  Chairman and  permanent
delegate, also calls upon ORD-RTP from time-to-time
for case history and assessment documents.  Recently,
two  case history  reports,  The  Problem  of Photo-
chemical Oxidants in  the Ambient Air of the USA: A
Case History Report, and Case History on the Use of
Criteria and Effects Data as the Basis for Decisions on
the Control of Sulfur  Dioxide  in  the  United States
were written by Staff scientists.
   The  need  for  assessment documents was  high-
lighted  during the year in  a meeting between ORD-
RTP  representatives and  officials of the  Federal
Republic  of Germany. As a result of this  meeting,
ORD-RTP has  already  provided  draft reports  on
particulate polycyclic organic matter, polychlorinated
biphenyls, suspended sulfates and  sulfuric acid  aero-
sols, cadmium,  manganese, and vanadium  and will
provide other  reports  and annotated  bibliographies
upon request.
   As a widely recognized source  of expertise  in air
pollution  research, ORD-RTP often provides briefings
for international scientists concerning areas of mutual
interest and responds to requests for information and
assistance.  Responding to these requests is  seen not
only as a  means of assisting other  countries to  reach
their pollution abatement  goals and as a  means of
promoting international good  will,  but also  as a
means of gaining valuable new insights that will speed
our  own   country's  progress  towards its  goal  of
improved environmental quality.
                                     ANNUAL REPORT 1974

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 SPECIAL
FEATURES

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SPECIAL
FEATURES
   EACH YEAR MANY ORD-RTP programs reflect,
in  varying degrees, significant areas of effort relating
to  EPA's overall goal of reclaiming the purity of the
nation's environment.  This portion  of  the Report
focuses  on  four  programs  that are  of  significance
because of their nationwide impact:  the application
of  control technology (primarily scrubbers) to major
stationary sources  such as electric  power plants, the
reduction of automotive emissions through the use of
oxidation catalysts, the use of  pesticides  and  their
relation to the environment, and the incorporation in
building design  of new concepts to enhance the
conservation of both energy and the environment.
                                                                         Scrubbers  and
                                                                         Electric Power
                                                               Plants  (SOX  Control)
                                                   INTRODUCTION
                                                     Sulfur dioxide (S02 ) and the products it forms in
                                                   the  atmosphere  are among the most dangerous air
                                                   pollutants to human health. In addition, SO2 concen-
                                                   trations presently occurring in ambient air are clearly
                                                   harmful  to vegetation, buildings, and  materials. The
                                                   cost  to  society resulting  from  S02  pollution, al-
                                                   though difficult to quantitate precisely, amounts to
                                                   billions of dollars per year.
                                                     Most  manmade SO2  in the  atmosphere  results
                                                   from the combustion of sulfur-containing fossil fuels
                                                   such  as coal  and petroleum. In 1973, more than 33
                                                   million metric  tons (36 million tons) of S02 were
                                                   emitted  to  the atmosphere in the  United  States;
                                                   approximately half of this  total was directly attribu-
                                                   table to electric  power plants. It  is  projected that
                                                   power plants alone will emit 73 million metric tons
                                                   (80  million  tons) of S02  in  the  year  2000 unless
                                                   pollution  control technology  is used  to reduce the
                                                   emissions. These current and projected S02 emissions
                                                   clearly indicate the immediate need for the develop-
                                                   ment and application  of S02  emission control tech-
                                                   nologies with emphasis on the control of the major
                                                   source: electric power plants.
ORD-RTPconducts demonstration projects ofmethods
(such as lime/limestone flue gas scrubbing) for reducing
concentrations of dangerous atmospheric pollutants re-
sulting from the combustion of fossil fuels containing
sulfur.
                                                   Environmental Legislation
                                         Special Features
   The magnitude and potential  national impact of
the air  pollution  problem  prompted Congressional
action in the form of the Air Quality Act of 1967 and
the Clean Air  Amendments of 1970. The Air Quality
                                            19

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Act required the establishment of a national research
and  development  program for the  prevention and
control  of air  pollution, and the 1970 Amendments
instituted  a  schedule for the  reduction  of  S02
emissions  from  stationary sources  including both
existing and  new power plants. The responsibility for
establishing a control program, setting emission stand-
ards,  and  developing  and  demonstrating technology
that could achieve the emission standards was charged
to the  Environmental  Protection  Agency (EPA).  In
April  1971,  EPA established  primary National  Am-
bient  Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for SO2  at 80
/^g/m3 as the annual arithmetic mean and 365 ^g/nv
as the maximum 24-hour concentration  not to  be
exceeded more than once per year. Attainment of the
NAAQS was required by mid-1975; any extension  of
that  deadline  would  require  Congressional  amend-
ment to the previously passed environmental  legisla-
tion.
   New Source  Performance Standards (NSPS)  for
S02  emissions from power plants were promulgated
by EPA in December 1971. These standards apply to
power plants for which construction  or modification
began after August 17, 1971. The standards limit the
emission of S02 to 0.34 gram per million joules (0.8
Ib per million  Btu)  when oil is burned and 0.52 gram
per million joules (1.2 Ib per  million  Btu) when coal
is burned. These  standards  are  equivalent to fuel
sulfur contents of  0.7-0.8 percent  and are  roughly
equivalent to 75 percent S02 removal from combus-
tion off-gases of a typical coal- or oil-fired unit.

Sulfur Dioxide Control Technology

   As a  part of  EPA's Office of  Research and
Development, the  Control Systems Laboratory (CSL)
at RTP has responsibility for the research, develop-
ment, and demonstration functions required to assess
and develop control technology for stationary sources
to support the national air pollution prevention and
control  program  mandated   by  the  Congress.  In
response,  CSL has  established a  comprehensive pro-
gram to determine air pollution sources, assess the
environmental  impact of identified  pollutants, and
accelerate the development and  commercial applica-
tion  of air  pollution control  technology.  Approxi-
mately  80 percent  of the CSL program to date has
been  devoted  to the development of technology for
the control of S02 emissions from stationary sources.
(Under  the recent  reorganization within the Office of
Research  and Development,  the  Control  Systems
Laboratory has been  reorganized into  the Industrial
Environmental Research Laboratory at RTP.)
   The  various options  for  sulfur  dioxide control
under investigation by the Laboratory include the use
of  clean  (low-sulfur)  fuels,  coal  gasification, coal
liquefaction,  advanced  combustion  processes, and
                flue gas desulfurization (FGD). These alternatives and
                their  potential  impact in meeting  the  1975 sulfur
                dioxide control standards are compared in Table  1.
                   Based  on  a  comparison  of  these  S02  control
                technologies  and   a   consideration  of  near-term
                (through  1980)   needs,  FGD  is  the  only viable
                alternative -  other than the burning of scarce, clean
                fuels  - that  is compatible  with  current regulatory
                requirements.  Coal gasification,  coal  liquefaction,
                and advanced combustion processes  are not expected
                to make  a significant  contribution until  after 1985.
                Therefore,  the  continuing  development  and imple-
                mentation of  FGD technology remains  an immediate
                concern of EPA and the Control Systems Laboratory.

                FLUE GAS DESULFURIZATION

                   Flue gas  desulfurization  systems (scrubbers) are
                classified  in  two general  categories (1) non-regen-
                erable processes  in which the sulfur-containing prod-
                uct is disposed  of as waste  and (2)  regenerable
                processes in  which the  sulfur or  sulfur-containing
                product is marketable.
                   The Control  Systems  Laboratory  has  provided
                engineering, economic, and  evaluative support to the
                development, demonstration, and/or testing of the
                nine specific  FGD installations summarized in Table
                2.
                   CSL's  efforts to develop  and  demonstrate  FGD
                technology  have contributed  significantly  to  the
                availability  of reliable technology for use in  meeting
                air quality standards. The significance of these efforts
                is underlined  by  the widespread use of  FGD systems
                throughout the United States. Twenty  FGD systems
                with  a total  capacity of over 3300 MW are  now
                operational.   Twenty-two  other systems, currently
                under construction, will control 7350 MW of electric
                generating capacity when  completed,  and  another
                40,000 MW  of  FGD  capacity are  in  the planning
                stages. Thus,  approximately 50,000  MW  of   FGD
                capacity  are  currently scheduled for  operation by
                1980.
                   Currently,  most  of the  FGD installations in the
                operational, construction, and planning stages in the
                United  States  employ  nonregenerable  processes.
                Thirteen  of  the 20 FGD systems  currently opera-
                tional   in the United  States are  lime  or limestone
                based; 17 other such systems are under construction;
                and 41 systems are currently in the planning stages.
                The dominance  of  lime  and limestone systems ap-
                pears  to be related to:
                   •  The  early  start  in   development of  these
                      processes.
                   •  The relative simplicity of the processes  in terms
                      of the number of process steps.
                   •  The availability  and widespread distribution of
                      relatively cheap limestone.
20
ANNUAL REPORT 1974

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            Table 1.  COMPARISON OF SULFUR DIOXIDE CONTROL ALTERNATIVES FOR
                                       STATIONARY SOURCES
Technology type
Naturally clean fuels
Flue gas desulfurization
High-Btu coal gasification
Coal liquefaction
Fluid bed combustion of coal
Chemical coal cleaning
Low-Btu coal combustion
Potential
applicability,
% of total power
plant fuel
50
85
0
0
15
35
10
Energy
loss in
process, %
0
6
30
30
2
10
20
Effective total
cost of fuel8
(Raw fuel and
clean-up costs),
mills/kWh
Eastern coal
4. 5-9. Ob
Western coal
4.0-6.0b
6.0-10.5
12+
6.6-9.6
3.3-8.4
4.7-8.3
8.3-12.8
Year technology
commercially
available
Current
Current
1980-1985
1980-1985
1977-1978
1977-1978
1977-1983
aThese costs were developed in late 1974 and do not reflect changes in costs of fuel and materials since that time;
however, the data do allow valid relative comparisons.
       are for delivery to plants in region where coal was mined.
   • The  presence  of  many  lime  and limestone
     system vendors.
   • The lower cost of lime and limestone systems
     utilizing simple  disposal  in comparison  with
     regenerable processes, which face an uncertain
     by-product market.
   For regenerable processes, three systems are opera-
tional,  three are under construction, and seven are in
the planning stage. With the exception of one system
under construction,  all  the systems in the latter two
categories reflect decisions made within the last year.
This accelerated rate of development and application
of  regenerable  processes  is expected to continue
based on:
   • The conservation of natural resources-land is
     not  needed  for  sludge  disposal  and  sulfur
     products with  societal and  market benefits are
     produced.
   • The conservation  of energy-centralized regen-
     eration  will not only reduce process costs due
     to  economy  of scale but  will  also save energy
     due to more efficient, large,  base load design.
   • The greater emphasis on land use planning.
   • The preponderance of second generation regen-
     erable processes compared with nonregenerable
     processes in this category.
     The availability of process  packages consisting
     of a process developer, process  operator, and
     by-product using and marketing organizations
     for commercial application.
     The effect of inflation on  regenerable process
     costs  compared with  nonregenerable  process
     costs.
ISSUES
   The proliferation in plants using  FGD as a means
of  sulfur dioxide  control  is  occurring  despite  a
number of past and current differences of  opinion
and  heated  debate between   EPA,  other  Federal
agencies, and  the  utility industry.  How reliable are
scrubbers?  How much do they cost? Who pays for
them?  Do they create additional pollution? Are they
really  necessary? What  effect do they  have on the
energy situation?  These  are some  of the questions
that are being asked about FGD. Some of the answers
are now available,  others are in sight, and still others
are being sought. Answers to some of these questions
are presented in the following paragraphs.
   Availability and Reliability  - A CSL survey to
determine  the  status  of  FGD  technology in the
                                            Special Features
                                               21

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                 Table 2.  ERA-SUPPORTED FLUE GAS DESULFRUIZATION PROCESSES
Process
Wet lime/limestone
scrubbing
Wet lime scrubbing
Wet lime scrubbing
Magnesium oxide
Magnesium oxide
Catalytic oxidation
Wellman-Lord/Allied
Double alkali
Double alkali
Waste/by-product
Throwaway sludge
Throwaway sludge
Throwaway sludge
98%Sulfuric acid
98%Sulfuric acid
78% Sulfuric acid
99% Elemental sulfur
Throwaway sludge
Throwaway sludge
Application
30-MW (prototype)
coal-fired utility
40-MW (full-scale)
oil-fired utility
24-MW (full-scale)
coal-fired industrial
155-MW (full-scale)
oil-fired utility
100-MW (full-scale)
coal-fired utility
100-MW (full-scale)
coal-fired utility
115-MW (full-scale)
coal-fired utility
30-MW (full-scale)
coal-fired industrial
20-MW (prototype)
coal-fired utility
SO2
removal
efficiency, %
75-90
60-80
80-90
85-90
85-90
85-90
90-95
85-95
85-95
United  States was  initiated  in April 1974.  Survey
results  indicated that  most  plants have  achieved
control  of process  chemistry  and scaling;  however,
many units are  still involved  in  solving mechanical
problems  such  as frozen  venturi  throat drives, fan
vibration,  and erosion.
   The  survey further indicated that the availability
and reliability of FGD systems is a major concern but
that significant  improvement  has been  achieved as
indicated by  the recent, almost flawless operation of
the  limestone  scrubber system  at  Commonwealth
Edison's Will County (Illinois) Station. This system,
plagued with operational  problems  and  a  power
production availability record in the 30 percent range
over the first 23 months of its existence, achieved an
average  availability  greater  than  90  percent for a
12-month  period beginning in July 1974. For  the last
6 months  of this period, the average availability was
in excess of 98 percent. Proponents of FGD for S02
emission control can now point to this system  as a
showcase  example  of  the  capability  of  FGD  to
achieve the intended goals.
  Cost  —  The ultimate cost of commercial-scale FGD
systems for  coal-fired  utility power  plants  is  a
                complex and  controversial  subject. Published cost
                estimates  range  from the unrealistically low to the
                ridiculously high.  The most comprehensive and de-
                tailed cost study  available  is the Tennessee Valley
                Authority  five-process study reported in November
                1974. This study  pegged FGD capital costs between
                approximately $40 and $80/kW for typical coal-fired
                applications. Corresponding annualized costs were 2.5
                to 5.0 mills/kWh.  Because these cost determinations
                were  made prior  to the remarkable  escalation  of
                equipment and construction costs that took place in
                1974 and  in 1975, adjustment of 25 to 30 percent is
                required to bring  these costs up to current dollars.
                Realistically,   FGD costs for large-scale  (500-1000
                MW) plants should range from $60  to $100/kWwith
                annualized costs  of 3.0   to  6.0   mills/kWh. The
                annualized costs of FGD use on a commercial basis is
                approximately 0.28  to 0.56 mills per  million joules
                (30  to 60 cents per  million   Btu)  of  fuel cost
                differential.
                   Funding Approach — The answer to this problem,
                unfortunately,  is one of the major  deterrents to the
                installation of FGD systems. Many  utilities that have
                been able  to negotiate contracts  for low-sulfur fuels
22
ANNUAL REPORT 1974

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                                        ABSORBER
                                       «  INLET
                                        DUCTWORK
                                                                          MgO STORAGE
                                                                              SILO
        ABSORBER
         OUTLET
        BREECHING
              DUCTWORK
             FROM BOILER
                                       RECYCLE
                                        PUMPS
                                     (NOT VISIBLE)
EPA/Boston Edison demonstration of magnesium oxide process for cleaning flue gas.

                                      Special Features
23

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are allowed to pass most of the increased costs for the
low-sulfur  fuels  directly  and  immediately  to the
consumer without regulatory commission action. On
the other hand, utilities must apply for rate increases
to cover  the capital and operating expenses for FGD
systems.  It would appear reasonable and  desirable to
pass FGD system costs directly to  the  consumer  in
the same manner as increased costs for low-sulfur
fuels  are  handled, and EPA has requested that all
state  utility commissions consider  this approach to
funding  the  construction  and  operation of  FGD
systems.  There is evidence of increasing public sup-
port for  such an  approach in a recent Harris Poll
showing  that the  percentage  of  people  in favor of
paying some pollution control  costs had increased
from 34 to 46 percent in the 2-year period from 1973
to 1975.
   Additional Pollution — The major issue here has
been  the large  quantities of waste  material (sludge)
produced by nonregenerable FGD processes.  A com-
prehensive research and development program, under
CSL  sponsorship, is currently underway to charac-
terize FGD sludges and to develop and assess disposal
and utilization methods. Based on  available informa-
tion,  the best methods currently available for sludge
disposal  are landfilling of chemically fixed sludge  or
disposal  of untreated  sludge in  ponds lined with an
impervious material  such as clay, plastic, or rubber.
Alternate methods,  including coal  mine and  ocean
disposal,  are currently under study.  Another  major
alternative is  FGD  sludge utilization; for example,
limited  markets  are expected  in the wallboard and
Portland  cement  industries for gypsum  produced
from FGD sludge.  Technology  also exists  for the
utilization of scrubber  sludge in  products such  as
mineral  wood, bricks, road base materials, artificial
aggregate, and aerated concrete. Other uses for FGD
sludge,   such  as  filler  material in  fertilizers,  are
currently being  studied.  Because of uncertainties  in
marketing FGD  by-products,  however, most  of the
FGD sludge produced, at least in the short term, will
be  discarded. For this reason, and because disposal
presents  a potential for adverse environmental effects,
the major thrust of the CSL sludge  program has been
concerned with disposal.
   In recent  months, evidence indicating the  poten-
tially harmful effects of sulfate species in the atmos-
phere  has focused  attention  on  FGD systems  as
potential  emitters of  sulfates. Although the  possi-
bility of the  emission  of  sulfates from  FGD system
exists, the essential  question of comparative quanti-
ties  and  characteristics  of  sulfates  emitted  from
controlled and  uncontrolled  sources  must  be ad-
dressed. An uncontrolled source emits 100 percent of
the sulfuric acid mist formed in the boiler; such  a
source also emits 100  percent of the S02 formed  in
the boiler, and the  potential  for subsequent atmos-
                pheric conversion of the emitted S02 to sulfates must
                be considered.  An FGD system  will remove approxi-
                mately  50 percent of  the  sulfuric  acid mist and  90
                percent of the  SO2 that  would be emitted to the
                atmosphere from an uncontrolled source; thus,  actual
                and  potential  sulfate  emissions from  a controlled
                source are significantly reduced.
                   The  potential  emission of  small  quantities  of
                relatively   innocuous  sulfate  compounds,  such  as
                calcium, magnesium,  and  sodium  sulfates that are
                produced  in  the S02  scrubbing reactions is of little
                consequence  in  comparison to the  benefits attained.
                   Need forFGD — Flue gas desulfurization systems
                are consumers of resources, energy, and capital. They
                do  not generate  electricity,  but  they  do generate
                materials that must either be sold or disposed of in an
                environmentally acceptable manner. FGD must, how-
                ever,  be viewed in light of the  alternatives. There is
                currently sufficient evidence to  conclude that direct-
                firing of   relatively high  sulfur coal  will  play  an
                increasing role in the generation of electricity through
                the 1980's and  possibly well  into  the  1990's. Many
                indicators -  including  the continued delays, technical
                problems, and escalating costs associated with nuclear
                power;  the  extremely high  costs   and low  energy
                efficiency of coal gasification as  highlighted by  recent
                TVA  and  Commonwealth  Edison  studies; the pro-
                jected high costs and  early state of development of
                solvent  refining  and liquefaction;  and the scarcity,
                transportation expense, and applicability of western
                low-sulfur  coals — all point to continued reliance  on
                conventional  coal-firing  as a mainstay  in electrical
                utility expansion plans. With dramatic increases in the
                use of high-sulfur coal  a near certainty, particularly in
                the eastern half of the  country, the  widespread  use of
                FGD  will  be   necessary  to  maintain  atmospheric
                loadings and groundlevel  air quality at their present
                levels, let  alone  achieve the ultimate goal of the Clean
                Air Act, the enhancement of air quality.
                   Energy Usage - FGD systems will allow the  use of
                our most abundant energy  resource  — high-sulfur coal
                —  while providing protection  from the sulfur oxides
                produced when the coal is burned. The comparatively
                small  energy  penalty (4 to 7 percent) associated with
                the use  of  FGD is a reasonable price to pay when the
                alternatives and the benefits are considered.
                   CSL  Research - The Control Systems Laboratory
                is  involved in   a  comprehensive program that  has
                provided some of the answers to the issues surround-
                ing  the FGD  process  and is actively  seeking  the
                answers to the remaining questions.  The CSL program
                includes:

                   •  The assessment of environmental/health effects
                      of pollutants such as sulfate species.
                   •  The  support of two  additional demonstrations
                      of FGD technology at the 100-MW scale.
24
ANNUAL REPORT 1974

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   •  A  study  of sludge  disposal  techniques and
      sludge marketability.
   •  Studies  of the market for the by-products  of
      regenerable FGD systems.
   •  A survey of non-utility source contributions to
      ambient sulfur dioxide concentrations.
   •  Studies  directed  toward  the  production  of
      elemental  sulfur by  second generation  FGD
      systems to reduce the quantity of by-products
      produced  and  to  facilitate storage and  ship-
      ment.
   In addition to these and other activities, CSL may
 initiate a regenerable process  demonstration on  an
 industrial boiler that fires a mixture of fossil fuels and
 municipal wastes.  High priority has been assigned to a
 comprehensive information transfer program that will
 be  designed  to  maximize  the dissemination and
 implementation of FGD technology information. One
 facet of the information transfer program will be the
 development of a FGD system  for installation at a
 specific  location  having  specific requirements. The
 model will  provide one-source  availability of perti-
 nent   FGD  data  and information and  will  permit
 informed decision making that should result in earlier
 operation of the FGD systems.

 FCD's  FUTURE

   As a  result  of critical  national energy and eco-
 nomic needs,  the  Clean  Air Act is being reevaluated
 and  may be  amended.  Proponents  of intermittent
 control procedures  and  the  use of tall stacks for
 sulfur dioxide dispersion, as well as those who favor
 permanent control by FGD, are making  their opin-
 ions known to the Congressional committees respon-
 sible  for evaluating  the  Act  and  making  recom-
 mendations to the Congress.
   The use of intermittent controls and tall stacks  by
 electric utilities has  been  a  source of debate and
 controversy over the  last several years. To qualify for
 the use of intermittent controls, a plant would have
 to be  the sole  or  major source of sulfur  oxides and
 thus be responsible for the sulfur dioxide pollution
 within  the  particular  area.  The effectiveness  of
 intermittent controls  depends on the utilities' willing-
 ness  to regulate their own  operation as  required by
 meteorological   conditions; for  example,  when   a
weather condition such as a thermal inversion occurs,
a utility would  either shut down  the  plant  in the
affected  region  or switch to  reserves of low-sulfur
coal. The  question, however, of  what would be done
with the high-sulfur coal  already in a bunker when an
adverse meteorological condition develops has yet  to
be adequately addressed.
   Tall stacks, in most cases, allow compliance with
present ambient air standards because they disperse
the  pollutants  into the  atmosphere  and  reduce
groundlevel concentrations. Many utility representa-
tives, as well  as some representatives of the  Federal
Power Commission and the Tennessee Valley Author-
ity, have maintained that these methods are compati-
ble with the Clean Air Act requirements for meeting
ambient air quality  standards. Concern  about the
adverse health effects of sulfates formed primarily by
conversion  of sulfur dioxide  in  the  atmosphere,
however, argues against the use of these methods and
could, in fact, lead to even tighter ambient air quality
limits for sulfur dioxide. Recent court decisions have
supported   EPA's  contention  that dispersion  and
dilution are inadequate means for  dealing with the
increasing sulfur dioxide emission problem and that
the  only  adequate  control  methods are emission
limitation techniques.
   A  key proposal  in the Administration's proposed
amendment to the  Clean Air Act  is permission for
EPA  to extend the  1975 compliance  deadline for
selected  power plants to 1985. To qualify for  this
10-year delay, a plant would  have to be located in an
isolated area and use an intermittent control system.
   The result of Congressional deliberation  is likely to
be a reasonable  compromise  between the  two diver-
gent positions. The  EPA Administrator has pledged
the Agency's  willingness to  support an Energy  Re-
source Council proposal to extend the deadline for
implementation  of  permanent controls,   with  the
qualification that  ambient air  quality standards  be
met  in the  interim.  The proposal would require (1)
that violating power plants sign compliance schedules
for installing permanent controls and (2)  that com-
pliance with state emission standards be delayed until
the FGD systems are operational.
   Senator  Edmund  S.  Muskie, Chairman  of  the
Subcommittee on  Environmental Pollution, has indi-
cated that intermittent  controls and tall stacks only
disperse  pollution  and  are not enforceable.  He has
further  stated, "We  must reweave the fabric of the
Clean Air  Act to  keep deadlines  and yet  permit
flexibility when good faith has been demonstrated.
Perhaps we'll have to supplement these deadlines with
statutory  penalties  triggered  when deadlines  are
breached and good faith has not been demonstrated."
   So, although  debate may  continue and although
Congress may modify the Clean Air Act, it seems
apparent that  there will be significant application of
FGD  systems  to power plants for control of sulfur
dioxide  emissions between now and 1985.  In fact, a
careful examination  of  the alternatives —  keeping in
mind  the  costs,  problems, and  limitations to  each —
indicates that  FGD systems will probably  be  operat-
ing to lessen the environmental impact of  the use of
our plentiful coal resources for the  remainder of this
century and beyond.
                                           Special Features
                                              25

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         Automotive  Oxidation
                                  Catalyst
   On  March  5,  1975,  the  Administrator  of the
Environmental  Protection  Agency  announced his
decision to grant suspension of 1977 motor vehicle
exhaust emission standards for one year. At the same
time,  he recommended  to  Congress  that the  1975
national  interim  standards  for  hydrocarbons  and
carbon monoxide be retained  for the  1978 and 1979
model  year and that emission standards at the interim
California levels for the two pollutants be established
for model years 1980  and  1981.  He further an-
nounced his intention to establish an  emission stand-
ard for sulfuric acid, applicable to  1979 and  sub-
sequent model years.
   In   making  this  decision,  EPA   Administrator
Russell Train stated that were  it not for his belief that
the weight of scientific opinion indicates a legitimate
cause  for concern  that sulfuric acid  emissions from
the catalytic converter   represent  a  risk to  public
health, he would  not have  granted the suspension.
(Automobile emission standards  before, during, and
after the suspension are shown in  Table 3.)
   The level of the suggested  sulfuric  acid  standard is
as yet to be determined. In  balancing the emission
levels  permissible  for sulfuric acid and  for hydro-
carbon and  carbon monoxide,  the   Administrator
emphasized that two objectives must  be reconciled:
preventing an  increase  in  automotive sulfuric  acid
emissions in  excess of currently  projected levels and
preserving, as much as possible, the momentum  EPA
has built  up toward achieving further  reductions of
hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide  emissions from
the automobile.
   Administrator Train pointed out that the decision
as to the level for the sulfuric acid standard will be a
very difficult one.  "Unfortunately,"  he said,  "data
are not now available   and  probably will  still be
unavailable at the time that an emission limit must be
established  for  sulfuric  acid  for 1979 model  year
vehicles,  to  determine   the  level  of  sulfuric  acid
emissions that  could confidently be considered ac-
ceptable from a public health standpoint."
   The suspension  decision and the related long-term
recommendation as announced by the Administrator
were a direct consequence of the results  of the first
full year of EPA's catalyst research program, directed
as  part of  ORD-RTP's  Fuels  and   Fuel  Additive
Registration  Program. (Under the recent  reorganiza-
tion within the Office of Research and  Development,
the catalyst  research program has been incorporated
into the Health Effects Research  Laboratory at RTP.)


26                                  ANNUAL REPORT 1974

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     Table 3. AUTOMOBILE EMISSION STANDARDS BEFORE, DURING, AND AFTER ONE-YEAR
            SUSPENSION OF 1977 STANDARDS ANNOUNCED BY EPA ADMINISTRATOR
                                          (grams per mile)
Status of standards
and model year
Standards in effect
before March 5, 1975
1975-1976
United States
except California
California
1977
1978
Standards during
1-year suspension
1977
United States
except California
1978
United States
except California
Standards recommended
after 1-year suspension
1977
United States
except California
1978-1979
1980-1981
1982
Pollutant3
HC



1.5

0.9
0.41
0.41



1.5


0.41




1.5

1.5
0.9
0.41
CO



15

9
3.4
3.4



15


3.4




15

15
9
3.4
NOX



3.1

2.0
2.0
0.4



2.0


0.4




2.0

2.0
2.0
2.0
H2S04





















0.001 -0.010
0.001 -0.010
0.001-0.010
aHC = hydrocarbons, CO = carbon monoxide, NOX = nitrogen oxides,
Standards to be determined by State action.
                                                                       = sulfuric acid.
   ORD-RTP has conducted its Fuel Additive Regis-
tration  program since FY 1971.  The impetus for
expansion of that program to include a study of the
health  impact of the automotive oxidation catalyst
can be traced to the passage of the Clean  Air Act of
1970.
   Section 202 of the Clean Air of 1970, as amended,
mandated substantial  reductions  in certain specified
emission products from automobiles. The automobile
industry, to achieve this reduction, chose the oxida-
tion  catalytic converter as a  primary method  of
emission control  for model  year  1975.  After this
decision  was made known to  EPA,  the   Agency
intensified its research program to determine what, if
any,  new  pollutants might  be  emitted into  the
                                                   atmosphere as a  result  of the application of this
                                                   technology. Also  studied  were the effects of fuel
                                                   composition and fuel additives on these new pollut-
                                                   ants as  well as the regulated  pollutants.  The  EPA
                                                   research  program  results  indicated that,  although
                                                   emissions  of  hydrocarbons,  carbon monoxide, and
                                                   certain  organics  would  be  dramatically  lowered,
                                                   sulfuric  acid aerosol emissions would  increase, and
                                                   that slight emissions  of platinum, palladium, and
                                                   alumina might also be expected.
                                                      Because existing ambient  concentrations  of sul-
                                                   fates in  many areas of the country have been shown
                                                   to be at levels sufficient to cause concern to those in
                                                   EPA and elsewhere responsible for the protection of
                                                   public health and  because little information  existed
                                           Special Features
                                                                                                 27

-------
regarding health  effects  of  platinum or palladium as
air pollutants, EPA initiated a broad  research program
to examine the questions of public  health impact of
these three pollutants: catalyst-emitted  sulfates, plati-
num, and palladium.
   In testimony  to the  Public Works Committee of
the U.S. Senate in November 1973, the  EPA Adminis-
trator specified EPA's planned program of  catalyst-
related  research:
   •  Accelerate  work on development of a reliable
      test  procedure for automotive sulfate  emission
      measurement.
   •  Consider all feasible alternatives for automotive
      sulfate emission control.
   •  Improve the Agency's ability to estimate the
      public   health  impact  of  sulfate and  other
      automotive emissions.
   •  Improve  understanding  of the  atmospheric
      chemistry involved in these  emissions and initi-
      ate an appropriate  air monitoring program.
   From  these  broad  objectives  outlined  in  the
Administrator's  testimony  of November  1973,  an
extensive  interdisciplinary research  program was de-
veloped.  The  program  utilizes the resources  of  a
broad range  of EPA's technical staff from both the
Office  of  Research and  Development and  the Office
of Air  and Waste  Management and  the resources of
the  scientific  community  outside  the government
through extramural programs.
   The strategy underlying the establishment of the
program can  briefly be  summarized in the following
 six objectives:  (1) identify emissions,  (2) determine
emission levels,  (3)  estimate  human  exposure, (4)
assess public health impact of  exposure, (5)  evaluate
the available control options, and (6) provide timely
reports to provide a basis for management decisions.
   Within  this framework,  the  resources  available
both within EPA and in the research community were
marshalled to address the issue  in the following areas:
   •  Emissions characterization.
   •  Emission measurement methodology develop-
      ment.
   •  Meteorological modeling.
   •  Toxicology (classical and  inhalation).
   •  Human  health  studies (epidemiology,  occupa-
      tional, exposure).
   •  Control technology.
   Because each of these areas of  expertise impinges
upon  one or  more of the others,  clear definition of
objectives  and methods, centralized program direc-
tion,  and close coordination were needed from  the
beginning of  the  program. Because the program cut
across  traditional  organization structures, a matrix
approach emerged  as the appropriate management
tool  for effective  use  of  disparate and diverse re-
sources, both  human and financial.
                    Technical  conclusions  based  upon  results of the
                 program to date can be summarized as follows:
                    • The current (1974 model year and older) in-use
                      light-duty motor vehicle population emits trace
                      quantities of sulfuric acid.
                    • The current ambient  sulfate particulate levels
                      reported  by epidemiological studies  (CHESS)
                      already  exceed  the estimated  health  effects
                      threshold on  many days of the year in many
                      urban centers, particularly  in the northeastern
                      United States.
                    • Oxidation  catalyst-equipped, light-duty motor
                      vehicles emit  sulfuric  acid aerosol. Although
                      non-catalyst-equipped  vehicles appear  to con-
                      vert about 1 percent of fuel sulfur to sulfuric
                      acid, catalyst  cars convert 20 to 40 percent of
                      such  sulfur to sulfuric  acid, with  air-injected
                      catalyst-equipped  vehicles   being  the  higher
                      emitters.
                    • Catalyst-generated  sulfuric  acid aerosol  will
                      result  in localized  incremental exposures to
                      persons on and near major  highways and other
                      areas of high motor vehicle densities.
                    • The  catalyst-generated  localized,  incremental
                      sulfuric acid exposure is projected to  exceed
                      the  estimated  health effects threshold  after 2
                      model  years  of  vehicles   are  equipped  with
                      catalysts in  California and after 3 to 4 years in
                      the  rest of  the nation. Such exposures would
                      occur on and near our busiest highways.
                    • Development  of  a reliable  analytical  measure-
                      ment method specific to ambient sulfuric acid
                      is crucial, because no such  method now exists.
                      The wet chemical techniques for ambient  par-
                      ticulate sulfate are not necessarily specific for
                      sulfates because sulfides and sulfites, if present,
                      will interfere. Thus, the present techniques only
                      measure total  particulate  water-soluble sulfur
                      compounds.
                    • Existing (pre-catalyst)  baseline data establishing
                      current rural,  urban,  and  occupationally  ex-
                      posed human  burdens of  platinum and palla-
                      dium need to be clearly defined and are under
                      investigation.
                    • Research   on  long-term   health  effects   of
                      platinum, palladium, and sulfuric acid must be
                      continued.
                    • Methods to control sulfuric acid emissions from
                      catalyst-equipped vehicles must be pursued.
                    • Preliminary pre-catalyst baseline studies on the
                      Los Angeles freeway  monitoring site  tend to
                      confirm — via  carbon monoxide,  lead,  and
                      sulfur dioxide  surrogates — the projected incre-
                      mental sulfuric acid exposures.
                    A full discussion of the results of the  catalyst
                 research  program  through  January 1975  was  pre-
                 sented  in  two   EPA   publications: Issue Paper —
28
ANNUAL REPORT  1974

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 Because of their high traffic volume, freeways in the Los Angeles area provide good study sites for assessing
 emissions from the automotive oxidation catalyst.
Estimated Public  Health  Impact  as  a  Result  of
Equipping Light-duty Motor Vehicles with Oxidation
Catalysts, and Estimates of the Public Health Benefits
and Risks  Attributable  to  Equipping  Light-duty
Motor Vehicles with Oxidation Catalysts. The Admin-
istrator, in discussing these  papers as part of the basis
for  his  March  5  decision,  characterized them  as
providing "as good an estimate of the problem as can
be made at this time given the tremendous uncertain-
ties  of this matter. Future studies  of this issue are
necessary and are being undertaken."
   Priority  areas  to  be studied  as  part  of the
continuing catalyst research program include: devel-
opment of a stronger  data base in health effects of
sulfuric acid, development of  a  reliable  ambient
sulfuric acid measurement technique,  establishment
of definitive emission  factors and sulfur conversion
rates for current model year automobiles, and further
validation  of models  used  to determine  exposure
estimates.
                                           Special Features
                                              29

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 HET
 TOWER ;
               POLLUTANT CONCENTRATIONS,
                   monthly averages for June
30

1 	 »
:T

>

1 SAMPLER INLETS
1 3-4 FT. ABOVE
1 /FREEWAY SURFACE
d/ 	 \.
(1 K .
                                                  PREVAILING WIND
                                                     FREEWAY SURFACE

                                                    i    n    1
                                        x^
     •^/^-;\:'.._ 6_FT ABOVE GRADE:•.',
                          -100FT-
:5X
SEPULVEDA BLVD.
                                                                         ^ 25 FT ^)::. V V- •' -.••.':•.' •' -.'-. •• '• '•:•':: :• :••.• '•• :• '•:•'.'.
                                                                                       -110 FT-
  Po/lutant concentrations adjacent to the freeway vary with distance and meteorological factors.
30
ANNUAL REPORT 1974

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                        Pesticides  and
                    the  Environment
   Pesticides have brought  tremendous  benefits  to
mankind by controlling the vectors of serious human
and animal diseases and by greatly increasing yields of
many crops. The need for food will likely increase as
the  world's  population  increases; consequently, it
seems likely that the use of pesticides will expand for
some years to come. Unfortunately, adverse  environ-
mental  effects and possible  toxic effects to humans
can arise from pesticide usage. Residues of persistent
pesticides have been found  in air, soil, plants, rivers
and  oceans, fish, birds, mammals, and even  humans.
The accumulation of pesticide residues in the  environ-
ment has concerned the scientific community and has
been the subject  of intensive research and monitoring
activities. Research efforts are currently  focused on
assessing the effects  of long-term, low-level  pesticide
exposure  on the human population; identifying po-
tentially toxic  impurities in  pesticide formulations;
and  developing rapid toxicological screening tests to
detect early exposure to harmful pesticide  residues
before adverse clinical effects become manifest.
   The  Environmental Protection  Agency has a legis-
lative mandate to control pesticide usage under the
Federal  Insecticides,  Fungicide,  and  Rodenticide
Act, which was  amended in 1972 as the  Federal
Environmental  Pesticide Control  Act  (FEPCA). Un-
der  FEPCA, the  Agency has  regulatory authority
ranging from requirements for pesticide use informa-
tion on product labels to protection of human health
through monitoring and research activities. Under this
legislation, EPA  placed a near total ban on the use of
DDT in  1972, suspended the manufacture  of aldrin
and  dieldrin,  and began  legal  hearings to   institute
limitations on the use of heptachlor, chlordane, and
their metabolite, heptachlor epoxide.
PESTICIDE CYCLE

   Before 1974, organic materials  of natural  origin,
such as pyrethrum and rotenone, were often used as
pesticides.  Inorganic compounds such as arsenicals,
hydrogen cyanide, and heavy  metal salts also came
into early use. Shortly before World War II, however,
synthetic organic pesticides, the most well-known of
which was DDT, came into limited use. After DDT
came  into  wide use, the appearance of  insects that
had developed resistance to this compound led to the
active search for new pesticides. Today in the United
States, there are over 900  active pesticidal chemicals
formulated into more than 60,000  preparations used
                                           Special Features                                        31

-------
Airplanes are often used to apply pesticides in orchards.
as  insecticides,  fungicides,  herbicides,  and  plant
growth regulators.
   Most  insecticides  in  current  or recent use are
chemically classified  as  chlorinated  hydrocarbons,
organophosphates,  or carbamates.  The  chlorinated
hydrocarbons represent the most persistent types of
compounds the residues of which  can have a long
residence   time in the  environment; they poison
insects through surface contact or stomach action.
The most familiar compounds  in the  chlorinated
hydrocarbon  series  include  DDT, aldrin,  dieldrin,
endrin,  toxaphene, heptachlor, chlordane, and lin-
dane. Organophosphate compounds are characterized
as less persistent than the  chlorinated hydrocarbons
and act as inhibitors of the enzyme cholinesterase.
Examples  of  organophosphate  pesticides  include
malathion, parathion, DDVP, Guthion, and diazinon.
The carbamate  insecticides  are  of  comparatively
recent development and apparently act  in  a similar
fashion  to the organophosphate compounds, that is,
by   inhibition  of  cholinesterase.  The  carbamates,
which  are rapidly detoxified  and eliminated  from
animal  tissue,  exhibit  minimal  bio-accumulation.
Examples  include carbaryl, carbofuran, methomyl,
and Baygon.
   Herbicides are chemically derived  from inorganic
acids, metal organic compounds, carboxylic aromatic
compounds,  aliphatic acids, substituted phenols, and
                heterocyclic  and  aliphatic  organic nitrogen com-
                pounds. Examples  of herbicides include 2, 4-D, 2, 4,
                5-T,  Silvex, Carbyne, and  atrazine. Fungicides  and
                bactericides are  usually  formulated from  inorganic
                compounds such  as  copper  sulfate  and  mercuric
                chloride  and from dithiocarbamates such as ziran,
                maneb, and ferbam.
                   Pesticides  are usually  applied to crops or specific
                vectors by  air or ground  application as aerosol sprays
                or volatilized gases. In one sense, this is the only  case
                in which man  deliberately  "pollutes" the environ-
                ment with  potentially toxic compounds that can have
                wide ranging effects. Environmental transport proces-
                ses can distribute  pesticides widely in air, soil, and
                water and can lead to the accumulation of residues in
                the  biosphere.  Airborne pesticide particles can be
                transported  by  wind  currents; adsorbed  on other
                airborne particles;  photodecomposed into potentially
                more toxic residues; and removed from the  atmos-
                phere  by  sedimentation, impaction,  and  scavening
                processes such as rainfall. The predominant factor in
                the  transport  of  airborne pesticide  sprays  is  the
                particle size  of the aerosol: finer particles exhibit a
                longer residence time in the atmosphere than coarse
                particles. Pesticides applied to the soil can evaporate
                back into  the  atmosphere  as a  gas;  degrade by
                microbiological, chemical or  photochemical  action;
                accumulate in  soil,  crops, and animals, and subse-
32
ANNUAL REPORT 1974

-------
quently  in man; and  be transported  to  the hydro-
sphere by runoff and leaching processes.  Pesticide
residues introduced into the hydrosphere can undergo
chemical decomposition and biodegradation; evapora-
tion  into the  atmosphere;  and  accumulation  in
plankton, fish, and eventually man.
   The inevitable end  point in the pesticide cycle is
man. However,  much  is  still unknown in  all areas of
the pesticide cycle including the process  of environ-
mental  transport,  the mechanisms  of  partitioning
among environmental  components  — that is, atmos-
phere, lithosphere (soil), hydrosphere, and biosphere
— and the effect of photochemical reactions, micro-
biological attack, chemical decomposition, and  other
reactions on the fate of pesticides.
 TOXIC  EFFECTS

   Most  of the available information concerning the
 toxicity  of pesticides has been derived from studies
 with experimental animals and from human poisoning
 cases,  primarily  through occupational exposure.  A
 correlation  has been  demonstrated  between  acute
 toxocity levels of  many pesticides  in  experimental
 animals and  human poisoning experiences.  The pre-
 dominant routes of exposure for man  are through
 inhalation and from oral and dermal  contact; how-
 ever,  toxic effects, regardless of the exposure route,
 are associated  with the physiological action  of the
 classes of compounds as well as the  dosage received.
 Pesticide poisoning is further complicated by the fact
 that metabolic action in the  body can often result in
 the production of  residues that are  even more toxic
 than the original compound.
   The major effect of the chlorinated hydrocarbons
 is  on the central  nervous system with minor changes
 produced in the liver (especially in rodents) and to a
 lesser degree in other  organs. In fatal poisonings, a
 fine  tremor appears followed by  progressive involve-
 ment of  the neuromuscular system; death may result
 from  ventricular fibrillation. Most  of  these  chlori-
 nated hydrocarbons accumulate  in body fat  to the
 extent that  illness in experimental animals has been
 demonstrated by repeated exposure.
   The  organophosphate  pesticides  appear  to act
primarily through inhibition of the enzyme cholines-
terase. Poisoning symptoms are associated with over-
stimulation of  the  parasympathetic nervous system.
The  carbamate  pesticides  also  act  by inhibiting
cholinesterase;  however, unlike  the  organophos-
phates, they  are competitive rather than  irreversible
inhibitors of this  enzyme. The organophosphates and
carbamate insecticides are much less  persistent in the
environment  and in the animal body than are the
chlorinated hydrocarbons. Their effects on cholines-
terase inhibition may be cumulative despite their low
storage potential.
   Other  factors play  a  role in  determining  the
toxicity of pesticides to a particular organism. Among
these are age;  sex; nutrition; disease; temperature;
route of exposure; interaction of the pesticide with
chemicals, drugs, and  other pesticides; type  of pesti-
cide formulation; and photochemical  effects. Assess-
ing pesticide toxicity through  the use of experimental
animals  is further  complicated  by  the  fact  that
different  animal  species  can exhibit different  re-
sponses to the  same compound. Extrapolation of
effects  derived  from animal  studies to  effects in
humans is difficult and can be misleading if metabolic
pathways are significantly different.
   Perhaps most disturbing are the mutagenic, terato-
genic, and carcinogenic  effects that may arise from
long-term, low-level  exposures to these chemicals.
Test methods  presently available are not  entirely
satisfactory for  assessing these special toxicity  fac-
tors. Based on  present information, no firm conclu-
sions can be made as to whether pesticides represent a
mutagenic hazard to humans.  On the other hand, a
number of pesticides have been implicated as possible
teratogens and  include  2, 4, 5-T; captan; carbaryl;
certain  esters of  2, 4-D; PCNB; and  some mercury
compounds.  Possible carcinogenic effects have been
associated with  DDT, aldrin, dieldrin,  mirex,  hep-
tachlor, and other compounds,  many of  which are
banned from use by EPA.
CANCELLATION  PROCEEDINGS

   Under   the   legislative  authority  provided   by
FEPCA,  the  Environmental Protection Agency  can
ban the use of a pesticide if its use would pose an
unacceptable risk to man and the environment.  The
Pesticides and Toxic Substances Effects Laboratory
(PTSEL)  at  ORD-RTP  has  made  many  scientific
contributions  toward  assessing the environmental
threat  from pesticides. (Under the recent reorganiza-
tion by  the  Office of  Research  and  Development,
Pesticides and Toxic Substances Effects Laboratory
has been  incorporated into the Health  Effects Re-
search  Laboratory at RTP.)
   Pesticides  research has led to a near total ban on
the use of DDT and the suspension  of the manufac-
ture of aldrin and dieldrin. More recently, PTSEL has
provided  hedlth  effects   research  data  for use in
pending cancellation hearings on Mirex and 2, 4,  5-T.
The Administrator  of  EPA has also announced his
intention to ban the use  of heptachlor and chlordane
on certain  food  crops  and on lawns and gardens. In
considering the cancellation of a registered  pesticide,
the availability  of  alternate  registered pesticides is
vitally  important.
                                           Special Features
                                               33

-------
 Gas-liquid chromatography is used to analyze pesticide residue.
CURRENT  RESEARCH

   Research is carried out at ORD-RTP to assess the
effect of pesticides on the environment.  Most efforts
are focused on toxicity studies using animal model
systems, field  studies to address "real world" ex-
posure   problems,   and   analytical   methods
development to improve sensitivity and specificity of
residue  analysis  in  various environmental media.
Development of new chemical and biological  pesti-
cides by industry and the recognition of previously
unknown  hazards associated with pesticides in cur-
rent use will continue to require new knowledge of
pesticide toxicology and chemistry.
 Toxic  Impurities

   With the discovery of the toxic contaminant 2, 3,
 7, 8-tetrachloro-dibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) in formula-
 tions of the herbicide, 2, 4, 5-T, active research began
 to detect and identify other  potentially toxic con-
 taminants in  commercial formulations.  During the
 chemical synthesis of pesticide compounds, the possi-
 bility that unwanted  toxic products may  also  be
 cosynthesized  or carried through manufacture from
 the initial starting materials is a distinct possibility.
 Both theoretical studies of synthesis processes and
               laboratory  analysis of typical  pesticide compounds
               are underway to prevent future release of potentially
               toxic materials into the environment.
               Insect Pathogens
                  Technology  has  developed new  generations of
               pesticides that use more effective chemical formula-
               tions, techniques  for controlled release through mi-
               croencapsulation,  and biological insect control agents
               such  as   insect  pathogens  and  synthetic  juvenile
               hormones. Toxicological  research is underway with
               the newly developed viral insect pathogens to ascer-
               tain  whether adverse acute or chronic effects can be
               associated with their use. Of immediate interest is to
               determine whether mutations potentially harmful to
               man or the environment could arise from long-term
               use of these agents.


               RAPID SCREENING  TESTS

                  The  search  for  methods  of  detecting early ex-
               posure  to  pesticides  before  actual symptoms of
               poisoning are evident has been underway for many
               years. Two  EPA-developed  techniques that  show
               promise  are a chemical method for detecting organi-
               cally bound phosphate residues  in  urine after ex-
 34
ANNUAL REPORT 1974

-------
posure to organophosphate pesticides and a neuro-
physiological  method to detect subtle  changes  in
brain-wave patterns after pesticide exposure.  Other
tests based on  bioassay methods to rapidly screen
pesticidal compounds and to  identify specific toxic
effects associated with exposure to them are  under
development.  For example,  the chick embryo  is
under study as a bioindicator  for dioxins and various
pesticide compounds.


CHEMICAL  METHODOLOGY

   Gas-liquid chromatography (GLC) has been widely
used for detecting pesticide residues since the 1960's.
More recent  developments have been made to im-
prove  GLC  separation  columns and  detectors  to
increase  sensitivity and improve specificity. Present
development efforts involve the use of high resolution
mass spectrometry and nuclear magnetic resonance
methods  for quantitation and  confirmation. Active
research is underway to develop comprehensive mul-
ti-residue methodology for detecting simultaneously
numerous classes of pesticidal compounds.


ROUTES  OF EXPOSURE

   Research  on the routes  of  pesticide exposure is
on-going  at  EPA  to  determine  the absorption and,
therefore, the toxicity of residues. Usually pesticides
are more toxic by the oral route than by the dermal
route;  however, the  available  data  on  inhalation
exposure is too meager to make definitive compari-
sons. Studies are underway at ORD-RTP to assess the
hazard associated with the  inhalation mode of expo-
sure utilizing  animal model systems.  Emphasis is
placed on expanding the inhalation toxicology  pro-
gram, especially in determining tissue  residue levels
from acute exposures.
                                            Special Features
                                                                                                   35

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                          Buildings  and
                     the  Environment
    The control of air pollution and the reduction of
 fossil fuel consumption are areas  of growing concern
 in  the  United States. In 1972,  the combustion of
 fossil fuel  to meet energy needs  was responsible for
 the emission to the atmosphere of 77 percent of all
 sulfur oxides, 51 percent of all nitrogen oxides, and
 40 percent of all particulate matter. The demand for
 energy  will  triple by  the  year 2000; a comparable
 growth in  pollution levels is expected to accompany
 this increase. Simultaneously, increasing shortages of
 fossil  fuels  are emphasizing  the need to conserve
 limited energy resources. Examination of the interre-
 lating problems of air pollution  control and energy
 conservation  has  led to a  viable,  single  solution:
 reduce fossil  fuel consumption through the applica-
 tion of energy-conserving and non-polluting methods
 of energy use.
    The most  readily available opportunity for applica-
 tion of this  solution is  in  the design of buildings.
 Energy consumption for space heating, water heating,
 and air conditioning  in buildings represents 33  per-
 cent of the  nation's energy  budget exclusive of
 transportation. A decrease  in consumption  by  this
 sector would contribute much needed relief to the
 energy  shortage  and  would  significantly  decrease
 pollutant levels.
    OR D-RTF is charged  by  EPA  with  developing
 methods to  control  air  pollution. Accepting  the
 correlation between energy supply and environmental
 degradation  and  the relief of some environmental
 problems achieved  through  energy  conservation, re-
 searchers  at  ORD-RTP applied  the  conservation-
 protection concept to a large-scale study.
    The  study, which included an exploration of the
 energy conservation  techniques and alternate energy
 supply technologies currently or soon-to-be available,
 resulted  in the design of an energy-efficient facility,
 in  which  ORD-RTP  research activities  could be
 conducted. The self-contained prototype structure,
 which  is essentially non-polluting, answers the needs
 of  the ORD-RTP operation, achieves a  40 percent
 energy savings, and costs no more  than a comparable,
 more conventional structure to build.
   Because  of the research activities conducted there-
 in,  ORD-RTP provides  a "worst case" example in
 building  design. Provision must  be made  for  the
 movement of heavy equipment and for the control of
 potential infectious  agents related  to animal  research,
 of toxic gases, and of hazardous particles. The varied
 research  projects conducted at RTP require  special

36                                   ANNUAL REPORT 1974

-------
 Artist's concept of energy efficient building for research facility.
facilities  such as high  bay areas,  explosion  hazard
laboratories, and  animal care facilities in addition to
general  laboratories and office  and  administrative
areas.
   For this  facility, many alternate technologies to
reduce pollution  and  conserve energy — including
solar collectors to provide space heating and cooling,
fuel cells to produce electricity,  and various  energy
recovery  and storage systems  — were found  to be
available. Efficient building design,  in which effective
insulation and other structural techniques are used
also were found  to  provide means of saving  energy
and, thereby, reducing pollution.
      The prototype building  was designed  with a
minimum of exposed surface area to prevent unneces-
sary heat loss and gain. Forty percent of the structure
is located underground where  the  natural  insulating
qualities  of the  earth  reduce heating and  cooling
requirements.  Solar-shared windows  in the building
allow the early morning sun to warm the interior and
prevent overheating in the afternoon.
   Solar collectors form the truncated south wall and
absorb the  sun's energy to  provide most  of the
building's  heat. Efficient, refrigerant-type  heat  sys-
tems   allow economic  energy  utilization. Storage
media,  such  as  water, rocks,  metallic  sodium,  or
eutectic  salts, prevent waste  by  retaining  surplus
energy  until  needed.  Fuel  cells, used to produce
electricity,  provide  a  non-polluting  alternative  to
electric power generating plants.
   The compact  building,  which  contains  office,
general  laboratory,  and  special  laboratory   areas,
consists  of  nine  upper  levels,  a  plaza,  and two
underground levels. Office areas are  located  under the
solar collector wall, and modular laboratories form
the north and west walls. The two lower levels project
beyond the main  building and  house  special services
 laboratories, high bay areas, explosion hazard labora-
 tories,  shops,  and  mechanical equipment  storage
 areas.  The lobby and administrative offices make up
 the plaza level.
   Effective design provides for the efficient distribu-
 tion of  services  within  the structure. A mechanical
 service corridor  parallels the  north  and west  walls
 providing  access to  equipment  as  well  as  extra
 insulation for the laboratory area. Horizontal ducting
 carries  the air  to  the  offices and  recirculates  it
 through  the laboratories for maximum heating and
 cooling  efficiency.  Fresh  air  supplied  directly to
 laboratory exhaust hoods further reduces the demand
 on the ventilation system. Systems,  located in the
 ducting,  recover heat from the air before it is expelled
 through   the  exhaust  shaft.  These  heat  recovery
 systems, such as  heat wheels and heat pipes, transfer
 heat from the warm exhaust air to the cooler intake
 air. Other systems recover  as much as 80 percent of
 the heat  dissipated by  lighting fixtures. This  heat,
 redistributed throughout the  building, reduces de-
 mand  on  primary  heating systems. During warm
 periods,  lighting  is a prime source of heat  gain, and
 these recovery systems  reduce the building cooling
 load by as much as 40 percent.
   The adoption of energy-effective building design,
the incorporation of efficient,  non-polluting energy
supply  alternatives,  and the  utilization of  energy
 recovery and storage systems are available methods of
 reducing  energy  demand  and  consumption.  This
prototype facility is an example of the energy savings
and environmental benefits that can be achieved by
proper design.  The energy  supply  systems  proposed
for the  structure operate  at  high efficiencies and
reduce the need for  fossil  fuel combustion with its
attendant high pollutant emission  rates. Energy con-
servation  through the use of high efficiency energy
                                            Special Features
                                                37

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 supply systems, alternate energy supplies such as solar
 energy,  waste energy recovery systems, and  energy
 storage  will  result in energy  savings of at least 40
 percent. Air pollution from energy supply is reduced
 to essentially zero.
   Economic savings are also a part of this design.
 The  initial  cost is equal to  or  less than  that of  a
 conventional structure, and the 40 percent savings in
 energy expenditures allows the initial  construction
 costs to be recovered within the life of the structure.
                    A structure encompassing the technologies utilized
                 in the prototype  facility  described by the study is
                 proposed  for EPA in Research  Triangle Park. Con-
                 struction  of  this facility would result  in the achieve-
                 ment of significant savings in energy and reduction in
                 pollution  because  of the building design  and  the
                 integration  of  fossil-fuel-free energy technologies.
                 With  widespread use, such structures will  provide a
                 solution to many of our current pollution and energy
                 problems.
Air is carried to the office areas and recirculated through the laboratories for maximum heating and cooling efficiency
38
ANNUAL REPORT 1974

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LEGISLATIVE
 MANDATES

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l-l v\"
    * \

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LEGISLATIVE
  MANDATES
   ACTIVITIES OF  ORD-RTP ARE  EITHER  in
 response to explicit mandates given in legislative acts
 or derived from language that requires the initiation
 of certain  programs to carry out the intent of those
 mandates.
   Brief narratives summarizing the activities of the ap-
propriate ORD-RTP Laboratories in response to perti-
 nent Sections of the Clean Air Act, the Public Health
 Service Act, the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic
 Act,  and  the  Federal  Insecticide,  Fungicide, and
 Rodenticide Act are presented below. Fiscal resources
 allocated  to these  seven  Laboratories to carry out
 specific portions of the relevant Congressional  Acts
 are summarized in Tables 4, 5, and 6.
                                                                            Clean Air  Act
                                                       Activities of ORD-RTP units are responsive to at
                                                    least 13 Sections of the Clean Air Act: 103, 104, 108
                                                    through  113,  202,  211,  303, 312, and 313.  The
                                                    following  portion  of this  section of this  Report
                                                    outlines each of the Sections and relates them to the
                                                    activities of ORD-RTP laboratories.
 Research activities conducted at ORD-RTP are based
 on explicit en vironmental mandates of the Congress of
 the United States.
SECTION  103: "RESEARCH,
INVESTIGATION,  TRAINING,
AND OTHER ACTIVITIES"

   The essential feature of Section 103 is the require-
ment for  EPA to  establish a national research and
development program for  the prevention and control
of  air pollution.  In  addition to  the  conduct of
in-house  research studies, surveys, etc.,  the  require-
ments include  provision of assistance to other public
and  private agencies  and  institutions  to conduct
experiments,  studies,  demonstrations, and  training
activities,  as well as technical services relating to the
causes, effects, extent,  and  control  of air pollution.
To help meet these requirements, the Act authorizes
EPA to establish technical  advisory committees; to
cooperate with  and  utilize the  resources  of  other
Federal,  public,  and private facilities; to make re-
search  grants and contracts; and to develop practical
processes and methods for air pollution control. EPA
is  to emphasize  short- and long-term effects of air
pollutants on health and welfare by epidemiological,
clinical, and laboratory studies.
   Table  4  indicates  that  the  largest category of
activities  at ORD-RTP is that which  involves carrying
out  the mandates  imposed by this Section of the
Clean Air Act. All but one of the  Laboratories are
involved  to some  degree; over 90  percent of the
resources  of the Human  Studies Laboratory (HSL)
and the Meteorology Laboratory (ML) are so commit-
ted.
                                        Legislative Mandates
                                             41

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       Table 4. SUMMARY OF RESOURCES EXPENDED BY ORD-RTP TO MEET LEGISLATIVE
                    MANDATES OF CLEAN AIR ACT FOR FISCAL YEAR 1975
                                           ($103)

Section
of Act
103
104
108
109
110
111
112
113
202
211
303
312
313
Support
Total
Laboratory3

OD













3,462
3,462

SSS
510

367






1,064


10

1,951

HSL
11,231













11,231

EBL
2,160













2,160

CPL
956

1,808
901
1,922
1,959
516

758
1,520


333

10,673

QAEML
1,115

107

1,485
525
415
173

310


180

4,310

ML
3,268



330





33

50

3,681

CSL
3,329
2,929
1,598

1,598
3,035
799




27


13,315

Total
22,569
2,929
3,880
901
5,335
5,519
1,730
173
758
2,894
33
27
573
3,462
50,783
 Office of the Director (OD), Special Studies Staff (SSS), Human Studies Laboratory (HSL), Experimental
 Biology Laboratory (EBL), Chemistry and Physics Laboratory (CPL), Quality Assurance and Environmental
 Monitoring Laboratory (QAEML), Meteorology Laboratory (ML), Control Systems Laboratory (CSL).
                  Table 5. SUMMARY OF RESOURCES EXPENDED BY ORD-RTP
                TO MEET LEGISLATIVE MANDATES OF PHSA, FIFRA, AND FWPCAa
                                           ($103)


Act
PHSA
(Section 241)
FIFRA
(as amended)
FWPCA
(Section 104)
Total

Office of
the Director

121

402

40
563

Human Studies
Laboratory

389



547
936

Experimental Biology
Laboratory

1,450

85


1,535
Pesticides and Toxic
Substances Effects
Laboratory





5,298
5,298


Total

1,960

487

5,885
8,332
aPublic Health Service Act (PHSA); Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA); Federal
 Water Pollution Control Act (FWPCA).
42
ANNUAL REPORT 1974

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                         Table 6.  SUMMARY OF ORD-RTP SPECIAL ENERGY
                             APPROPRIATIONS FOR FISCAL YEAR 1975
                                               ($103)

Energy Appropriation
Human Studies
Laboratory
3,300
Experimental Biology
Laboratory
1,940
Chemistry and
Physics
Laboratory
2,065
Control Systems
Laboratory
46,500
Total
53,805
   The Special Studies Staff (SSS) is concerned with
the preparation,  assessment,  and  dissemination of
scientific and technical documents and publications
related to air pollution  research and control activities
impinging upon the total research  and development
program, as well  as on specific aspects commensurate
with several provisions of this Section of the Act.
   The effort of the Chemistry and Physics  Labora-
tory (CPL) in this area deals primarily with studies
relating to  analytical methodology and atmospheric
chemistry research.
   The Control Systems Laboratory (CSL) conducts
research  to  characterize  emissions  of  pollutants,
evaluate  control  technology, predict  future needs,
and develop and  demonstrate the most promising and
cost-effective control methods for stationary sources.
   The  Experimental Biology Laboratory (EBL) in-
vestigates the  effects  of  gaseous and  particulate
pollutants on biological species, i.e.,  whole animal,
organ, cellular, and sub-cellular components.  Particu-
lar emphasis is given to effects on pulmonary defense
mechanisms and pulmonary carcinogenesis and on the
influence of  interactions between  coexisting pollut-
ants  and various physical  factors upon these re-
sponses.
   The development and conduct of studies designed
to define relationships between environmental pollut-
ants (singly  or in combination) and specific  undesir-
able  health  effects is  the  prime objective  of  HSL
activities. Emphasis is  given  to the development of
bases  for ambient air and emission standards compati-
ble with desirable aspirations for human  health and
welfare, and an evaluation of the health benefits that
could be achieved. The assessment of  adverse health
effects and the economic costs that might  result from
any future revision of  air quality standards  is also  a
part of the HSL program.
   The activities of ML focus upon research relating
to the transport and dispersion of air pollutants, their
effects on  weather, visibility, and climate;  and the
relationship  between weather factors  and pollution.
Dispersion model development and climatic  analysis
investigations improve  understanding of the  physical
processes involved in  (1)  the relationships between
source strength and receptor dosage, (2) the ultimate
disposition (fate) of pollutants in the atmosphere,
and (3) the delineation  of a national climatology of
the potential for adverse accumulations of air pollut-
ants.
   QAEML engages  in the evaluation, testing,  and
standardization of methodologies for surveying the
extent of air pollution as well as in the development
of quality control procedures to ensure comparability
of data wherever collected  in the United States and
for whatever purpose.


SECTION  104:  "RESEARCH
RELATING  TO FUELS
AND VEHICLES"

   Section  104 charges  EPA with the responsibility
for conducting  and supporting  research  into the
development,  laboratory and pilot  testing, and de-
monstration of improved methods for the prevention
and  control of air  pollution  from  combustion of
fuels.
   Activities by  CSL under this mandate include the
development   of  techniques for  the reduction  of
nitrogen oxide emissions from  combustion processes
and  the  demonstration of  commercially feasible
means for the reduction of significant pollutants from
coke  oven emissions. Possibilities  for effective, low-
cost  processes  for  cleaning  coal  are  of current
concern.

SECTION  108:  "AIR QUALITY
CRITERIA  AND CONTROL
TECHNIQUES"

   EPA is required by Section  108 to ascertain those
pollutants judged to have an adverse effect on  public
health and welfare and maintain an  up-to-date list
that  it publishes  from time  to  time.  Air quality
criteria for these pollutants must  then  be  issued
presenting the latest scientific knowledge on the kind
                                        Legislative Mandates
                                              43

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and  extent of  identifiable  effects  that  may  be
expected from varying concentrations of the pollut-
ants  in  ambient  air.  Along  with  these criteria,
information on air pollution control  techniques or
methods must be issued, including data  on alternate
fuels  and processes that will  result in  elimination or
significant reduction of the pollutant emissions.
   Preparation of the  criteria  and scientific summary
documents that serve as the  legally defensible basis
for the  development of control  strategies and the
promulgation of ambient air  quality standards  is the
responsibility of the Special Studies Staff.
   A  major program  in CPL is the development of
analytical  methods and instruments to  be used  in
health and welfare studies to  aid in the evaluation or
revision  of air  quality criteria.  Also,  considerable
effort is going into the development of measurement
technology for  pollutants that may  be considered
candidates for air quality criteria, e.g., fine particles.
   In support  of this  Section, CSL is evaluating new
and existing  stationary source control  technology
procedures on  a continuing basis.
   QAEML maintains  the capability to evaluate meth-
odologies and undertake surveys to obtain scientific
information needed by  the developers of the criteria
documents.
 SECTION  109:  "NATIONAL
 AMBIENT AIR  QUALITY
 STANDARDS"

    For each pollutant for which an air quality criteria
 document has been issued, Section  109  of  the Act
 requires  that national primary and secondary  ambient
 air quality standards be set. Primary standards con-
 cern  the minimum level of air quality necessary  to
 prevent  adverse health  effects; secondary standards
 are  aimed at the prevention  of  adverse effects on
 "welfare"; e.g., plants, animals,  materials,  and cli-
 mate.
   Considerable effort in support of the standards is
 being made in CPL, particularly to further define the
 atmospheric relationships involving hydrocarbons and
 oxidants. Development of continuous measurement
 instrumentation for nitrogen  dioxide (one of the
 pollutants for which standards have been set) and the
 evaluation of the reference method for measurement
 have  been accomplished.


 SECTION  110:
 "IMPLEMENTATION PLANS"

   In accordance with  a  prescribed time schedule.
 Section 110 requires each state to prepare and submit
                to EPA a plan that provides for the implementation,
                maintenance,  and enforcement of  the  primary and
                secondary  ambient  air  standards promulgated  in
                accordance with Section  109. In  turn,  EPA  must
                make a thorough examination and  evaluation of the
                plan's adequacy  in  technical  concept and allocated
                resources. If a state fails to submit such  a plan within
                the prescribed time, or if the plan is judged to be not
                in accordance with the requirements of this Section,
                then EPA must prescribe (or revise) a plan that meets
                the requirements. Section  110 also  includes the steps
                and procedures for notices, hearings, or court actions
                that must or may  be utilized in arriving at the
                objectives sought.
                   CPL  is involved  here to support development of
                chemical  and physical  air pollution models for reac-
                tive  pollutants  for  use  in  implementation  plans,
                including site criteria for large area sources.
                   CSL's  role is primarily in providing expert testi-
                mony relating to  the availability  of  air pollution
                control technology that could  be incorporated in the
                implementation plans as they relate to the abatement
                of pollutants from specific sources.
                   ML provides direct assistance in the  evaluation of
                the  meteorological  (i.e.,  transport and  dispersion)
                portions of implementation plans.
                   QAEML  activities support this Section  by the
                evaluation and standardization of methods of meas-
                urement  for the pollutants for which standards  have
                been set, and by the development and dissemination
                of quality control  procedures for  the  standardized
                methods.
                SECTION  111:  "STANDARDS OF
                PERFORMANCE  FOR
                NEW  STATIONARY SOURCES"

                   The emission of pollutants from  new stationary
                sources must be regulated under Section 111  of the
                Act. Categories of such sources are to  be  estab-
                lished,  and uniform  national standards  that  would
                require  application of  the best available control
                technology,  considering the cost, for air pollution
                prevention must be set.  EPA must also determine the
                procedure that  the states  are to follow  in  setting
                emission standards  for existing stationary  sources.
                   Extensive support is provided  by CPL in verifying
                and  improving the reference  methods  of emission
                measurements and  in developing performance criteria
                for the  determination of compliance with the new
                source performance standards.
                   CSL  evaluates  the state-of-the-art air pollution
                control technology for various stationary  sources and,
                based on  projected future control  needs, develops
                new control technology.
44
ANNUAL REPORT 1974

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   QAEML provides support here in a manner analog-
ous to that for Section 110,  again by the evaluation
and standardization  of measurement methods and by
the development and dissemination of quality control
procedures for the standardized methods.
SECTION  1 12:  "NATIONAL
EMISSION STANDARDS  FOR
HAZARDOUS AIR POLLUTANTS"
pollutant from new motor vehicles that is likely to
endanger public health  or welfare. Section 202 also
delineates a  time schedule for achieving a large (90
percent)  reduction in carbon monoxide and hydro-
carbons; additionally, the Section outlines a certifica-
tion plan for ensuring compliance with the standards
by the manufacturers.
   CPL provides support in development of emission
protocols for fuel additive effects and in characteriza-
tion of emissions from vehicles either equipped with
control devices or utilizing alternate power systems.
   Section 112 gives EPA the authority to set national
emission standards for  hazardous air  pollutants,  de-
fined as materials discharged into the atmosphere that
have a proven relationship with increased mortality
rates, or with incapacitating or serious illness.
   CPL is responsible for  developing the analytical
methodology for the national emission standards  for
hazardous materials. Improved sampling and analysis
methods are under development  for  a  number of
substances  including asbestos, mercury, and polycy-
clic organic matter.
   The  identification of all air  pollutants from sta-
tionary sources is included in the  programs of CSL.
As the  need  for  control is   indicated,  the best
technological possibilities and the most cost-effective
approaches are sought through related research pro-
grams.
   Again,  QAEML support is in terms of measure-
ment methods standardization  and  quality control
procedures. Technical assistance to other EPA units is
also  rendered to obtain  data to assist in the determi-
nation  of what constitutes a hazardous pollutant.
SECTION  113: "FEDERAL

ENFORCEMENT"

   The legal  actions that EPA must take in the event
that violations of an  implementation  plan are en-
countered are contained in Section 113. This Section
also cites penalties to be assessed for non-compliance
with the Administrator's orders.
   QAEML  maintains a limited  rapid-response capa-
bility  to assist in the collection  of data for purposes
of Federal enforcement.
SECTION 202:  "ESTABLISHMENT
OF STANDARDS"

   In accordance with  the provisions of Section 202,
EPA must establish standards  of  emission for  any
SECTION 211-."REGULATION

OF FUELS"

   Section 211 stipulates that no fuel or fuel additive
may be offered for  sale until  the manufacturer has
notified EPA of the product's chemical composition
and EPA registers the product. If the fuel or additive
endangers public health or  interferes  with  the per-
formance  of  anti-pollution devices,  its use  may  be
restricted  or banned. EPA may  require tests by the
manufacturer to determine such effects.
   The fuel and fuel additive registration program is
one of  the  areas of responsibility  of the Special
Studies  Staff. This  program  involves  information
retrieval  activities in addition to the conduct  of
research  programs  to   develop  protocols that will
allow  the valid  assessment of  the effect  of fuel
components on emission products.
   CPL develops emission protocols for fuel  additive
effects  and characterizes the emissions  from  vehicles
equipped with control devices and advanced alternate
power systems.
   The support of this  Section by QAEML is in the
development and evaluation of methods of  analysis
and in the collection and analysis of fuel samples.
SECTION 303: "EMERGENCY

POWERS"

   Section 303 provides EPA with the authority to
act immediately to restrain the emission of pollutants
presenting an imminent and substantial danger to the
health of persons when appropriate state or local
authorities have not acted to abate such sources.
   ML provides direct meteorological  support for the
assessment of  weather  factors and consequences in
actual  or potential  emergency  or   accidental  air
pollution episodes.
                                       Legislative Mandates
                                             45

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SECTION 312:
COMPREHENSIVE ECONOMIC

COST STUDIES"

   Included  in  Section 312  is the requirement for
 EPA to make a comprehensive study of the economic
 impact  of  air  quality  standards as  well  as an
analysis of the national requirements for, and the cost
of, controlling emissions to attain those standards.
   In this connection, CSL undertakes research and
demonstration projects leading to the development of
comprehensive data relating to the cost of various air
pollution control techniques.


SECTION 313:  'ADDITIONAL
REPORTS  TO  CONGRESS"

   The  Administrator is  required  to  submit annual
 reports  to  Congress  giving  the  progress  made in
 implementing the purpose and intent of the Clean Air
Act  (and amendments). Included must be statements
 of the (1) status of enforcement actions, (2) progress
on control techniques, and (3) standards set or under
consideration.
   The  Special Studies Staff has  a major  responsi-
bility in the preparation of such reports to Congress
and  in the identification  of problems and additional
 research  efforts  that  should  be  brought to  the
attention of that body.
   CPL  provides  input to  the  progress reports to
Congress on air quality and emission instrumentation
and on emission standards for moving vehicles.
   ML contributes to these  reports by interpreting
the effects of weather and climatic factors on existing
or proposed  air pollution  control strategies to ensure
that the effects of abatement actions can be isolated
from natural variations.
   Air quality  and emissions data, as well as  measure-
ment methods  developments, by QAEML are often
included in the reports to Congress.
                         Public  Health
                            Service Act

SECTION 241: "RESEARCH AND
INVESTIGATIONS"
   Section  241  of  the  Public Health Service Act
authorizes research,  investigations, experiments, de-
                monstrations, and  studies  relating  to  the causes,
                diagnosis,  treatment,  control, and  prevention of
                physical and mental diseases and impairments of man.
                Under this  broad charge,  EPA has the responsibility
                to provide  Federal guidance on  both  ionizing and
                non-ionizing radiation problems affecting health. This
                responsibility includes  the  authority  to  establish
                environmental standards for safe  levels of radioactive
                materials.
                  The Experimental Biology Laboratory conducts an
                extensive program on the known and potential health
                effects of electromagnetic non-ionizing radiation and
                ionizing  radiation;  studies involving the latter are
                centered about the potential health effects of tritium
                and krypton-85,  both  of  which are major potential
                effluents from nuclear fuel reprocessing plants.
                  Epidemiologic studies on the effects of exposures
                from radioactive materials in Japan are  under the
                jurisdiction of HSL.
                                              FDCA  and
                                                     FIFRA
                  Provisions of the Federal  Food, Drug, and Cos-
               metic Act and the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and
               Rodenticide Act, taken together, seek to protect the
               safety  of the nation's food  supply by  preventing
               contamination that might arise through  the use of
               chemical controls to protect crops and livestock from
               pests and  diseases. These  provisions  require  the
               registration (with EPA) of all  such "poisons" as well
               as the filing of all test results and claims made for
               them. Also  required by these Acts is the establish-
               ment of tolerances for pesticides in or on both human
               and  animal  food; this  responsibility has  been dele-
               gated to EPA. This provision means that "registration
               for use" of a pesticide that would leave a  residue on
               a food or feed crop is granted only when  a tolerance
               established   by EPA  has been satisfied.  Interstate
               shipment of non-registered products is prohibited.
                  The  entire  resources of the Pesticides  and Toxic
               Substances Effects Laboratory (PTSEL) are devoted
               to support  of the responsibilities delegated to EPA to
               carry out provisions of these Acts. The  resources are
               devoted  primarily  to research activities  to support
               registration  decisions and to  determine and  analyze
               levels of pesticide residues  in  or on agricultural
               products. In particular, data from  acute, subacute,
               and  chronic studies of laboratory  animals and ex-
               posed  human subjects are used  to augment basic
               knowledge  for continued registration  of  toxic sub-
               stances for use in the United States.
46
ANNUAL REPORT 1974

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                           RESEARCH
                          ACTIVITIES
In this Section, the seven Laboratories that comprised
the National Environmental Research  Center at Re-
search Triangle Park are presented under the  new
four-laboratory organizational structure of the Office
of Research and Development-Research Triangle Park
described in the Preface.

-------
I      I   :.

-------
    Health
    Effects
  Research
Laboratory

-------

"****   «P

-------
Special
Studies
    Staff
OVERVIEW

OF SSS MISSION

   The Special Studies Staff is engaged in activities in
three major  technical areas: (1) preparation  of air
quality criteria documents  and scientific and techni-
cal assessment reports involving pollutant characteri-
zation,  (2) fuel  and  fuel  additive  registration  and
vehicular  emission research, and (3) participation in
or coordination of ORD-RTP international activities.
In  addition,  the  Staff  carries  out  various ad hoc,
short-term projects.
                                                     ORGANIZATION

                                                        The  Special  Studies Staff, functioning under the
                                                     general  guidance of a Director, concentrates on two
                                                     subject  areas—Pollutant Characterization and  Fuels
                                                     and Fuel Additives Registration.
                                                        To  meet its  responsibilities in  pollutant charac-
                                                     terization,  fuels and fuel  additives registration, and
                                                     international  activities, the  Special  Studies  Staff
                                                     emphasizes both extramural  tasks with supporting
                                                     in-house activities to obtain  basic and  background
                                                     information, and direction and coordination  of  in-
                                                     house  ORD-RTP  task force activities concerning
                                                     preparation of  multidisciplinary  and  multimedia
                                                     environmental   pollutant  scientific  and  technical
                                                     assessment reports.


                                                     Pollutant Characterization

                                                        Personnel involved  in the pollutant characteriza-
                                                     tion program produce technical documentation to be
                                                     used in decision-making regarding pollution control.
                                                     This group assists  international organizations in pre-
                                                     paring similar technical documentation. Involvement
                                                     begins  with  a  search  for  basic  information and
                                                     extends through  publication  of the document. The
                                                     Staff Director coordinates ORD-RTP's international
                                                     activities.


                                                     Fuels and  Fuel  Additives
                                                     Registration
 Giemsa-stained, human  skin  fibroblasts are shown
 (magnified) after 1-day exposure in control culture.
   The Fuels and Fuel Additives Registration group is
 involved in receiving and storing information from
 manufacturers as required by law and registering their
 products. Personnel also assist  in the development of
 related regulations and  guide  research carried out
 external to the immediate group.
                                         Research Activities
                                              51

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                             NERC-RTP
                              DIRECTOR
                                                                SPECIAL STUDIES
                                                                      STAFF
 MAJOR  PROGRAM AREAS

 Pollutant  Characterization

    The  pollutant characterization activities of  the
 Special Studies Staff provide documentation critically
 reviewing, evaluating, comparing,  interpreting, and
 summarizing  pertinent literature  and  reports.  This
 documentation  leads to the  (1) revision of existing
 criteria documents or the preparation  of additional
 scientific and technical assessment reports concerning
 air quality effects of currently non-regulated environ-
 mental pollutants,  (2) identification of the need for
 additional research required to  produce  adequate
 criteria for issuing  or revising standards, and (3) prep-
 aration of briefing reports that  address new areas of
 environmental concern that are not already part of an
 integrated program.
    Air  quality criteria, as  defined by the Clean  Air
 Act, are compilations of the latest available scientific
 information on the sources, prevalence, and manifes-
 tations of  recognized  air  pollutants.  Most impor-
 tantly,  these  criteria  describe the  effects that have
 been associated with, or may be expected from, an air
 pollutant level in  excess of a specific concentration
 for a  specific time period.  Such  effects generally
 involve  visibility  reduction,  damage to  materials,
 economic costs, vegetation damage, nuisance aspects,
 and adverse effects on the  health and well-being of
 humans and animals. Air Quality Criteria serve as the
 basis for national ambient air quality standards.
   The  scientific  and technical  assessment reports
 serve  two very important purposes. They summarize
 the scientific knowledge base for administrative deci-
 sions  regarding the  need and strategy for control, and
 they provide  important input  for research and devel-
 opment program plans. In  view  of their widespread
 distribution, these documents  also serve as an impor-
 tant communications link  with  other EPA  offices,
 other  agencies, and special-interest groups. In order to
serve these purposes,  they  must be functional docu-
ments, clearly  and concisely written.
   Assessment reports are prepared under the super-
vision  of  the Special  Studies Staff  by  task forces
                 made up of staff members from the Laboratories at
                 RTP and from the other ORD locations. The reports
                 are  based on a standard outline to ensure inclusion of
                 available information on the following items:

                   • Chemical and physical properties.
                   • Measurement  techniques applied  to various
                      environmental compartments  (e.g., air, water,
                      and soil), sources, and (when pertinent) biologi-
                      cal samples.
                   • Origin and  abundance.
                   • Concentrations  in   air,  water,  soil,  plants,
                      animals and humans, and microorganisms.
                   • Transformations and transport.
                   • Environmental exposure.
                   • Mechanisms of exposure.
                   • Physiological  response.
                   • Undersirable   effects  on  humans,  animals,
                      vegetation,  materials,  weather, visibility,  cli-
                      mate, and land and water resources.
                   • Control technology and remedial actions.
                   • Current research and development activities.

                   These reports  are generally based on review materi-
                 al provided  by  panels of experts assembled  by the
                 National Academy  of Sciences (NAS) under contract
                 with the Special  Studies Staff, although other organi-
                 zations  have  provided  similar  resources.  Supple-
                 mentary information is used as available and required.
                 When no basic review document is available, the basic
                 literature is searched.
                   Basic review  documents  are  being prepared by
                 NAS on vapor-phase  organic  matter, chlorine, sele-
                 nium, copper,  zinc, arsenic,  and the platinum-group
                 heavy  metals.  In  keeping with  timely  review  of
                 criteria  documents,  NAS is  preparing  reviews on
                 carbon monoxide,  photochemical oxidants, nitrogen
                 oxides,  and fine particulate  matter. NAS recently
                 submitted  to  the  Special Studies Staff reports on
                 nickel, chromium,  and  vanadium.  Task forces are
                 currently preparing reports on vanadium, chromium,
                 nickel, nitrates, vinyl chloride, and lead from station-
                 ary  sources.
                   Reports  on  particulate, polycyclic organic matter,
                 sulfates and sulfuric  acid aerosols,  polychlorinated
52
ANNUAL  REPORT 1974

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 biphenyls, cadmium,  and manganese are.now being
 finalized prior to publication.
   The Special Studies Staff completed a review and
 revision of  the  vegetation effects chapter  of Air
 Quality Criteria for Sulfur Oxides in 1973,  requiring
 EPA review  of  the secondary  standards for sulfur
 oxides  that led to the standards' revision. The Special
 Studies Staff has also  prepared  and presented brief-
 ings for EPA's Office  of  Research  and  Development
 (ORD) on fine particulate  matter and nitrates.
   Scientific and  technical assessment reports are  to
 be prepared  for selenium,  chlorine/hydrochloric acid,
 arsenic, vapor-phase organic matter, copper,  zinc, and
 platinum-group heavy  metals. A briefing document
 on particulates from mobile  emissions  is also to  be
 prepared.  The  air  quality  criteria documents  for
 nitrogen   oxides,  photochemical   oxidants,  hydro-
 carbons,   sulfur   oxides,  particulates,  and carbon
 monoxide are to  be updated and/or  revised.

 Fuels and Fuel  Additives

 Registration
   The Fuels and Fuel Additives  Registration  pro-
 gram,   reorganized  in   Fiscal  Year 1974,  involves
 registration,  emissions  characterization, toxicological
 testing, human studies, fuel surveillance and analysis,
 health  and welfare  effects, and  the development  of
 related effects protocols. These subject  areas provide
 a complex,  interrelated,  multidisciplinary  technical
 program,   the  objective of which  is to  ensure the
 continued protection of the public health and welfare
 as  it relates  to the  mobile source emissions control
 program,   and  the effects that fuels, fuel additives,
 advanced  control devices, and alternate  power sys-
 tems have thereon.  The development and review  of
 this integrated program, which is the responsibility  of
 the Special Studies Staff, includes the review, evalua-
 tion, and  reporting of data collected and proposals
 for necessary action.
   Registration—Add\t\ves used   in gasoline  intro-
 duced  into interstate commerce must  be registered
 with  EPA.  At  the  present  time,  some 373 such
 additives   are  registered  in  a number  of  chemical
 classifications.
   Emission Characterization—Characterization    of
 both regulated and  non-regulated exhaust pollutants
 and the effect of fuel components and  fuel additives
 thereon  are  essential  to  provide  the  preliminary
 information required to assess potential adverse ef-
 fects  of  such  fuel  components  or  additives on
 emissions  and emission control device  performance.
 In  addition,  detailed  characterization   of  exhaust
 products resulting from combustion  of fuels with and
without additives  and  of  products  emanating from
catalytic control devices and  alternate power systems
is essential  in order to provide the data necessary to
conduct meaningful health effects studies.
   A result of this program has been a reassessment of
the  public  health  benefit  related to  the  use  of
oxidation catalysts on  mobile sources and the atten-
dant increase in  levels  of potentially  hazardous
non-regulated emissions.
   Emissions Effects Protocols—EPA   may   require
that tests be  conducted by any fuel or fuel additive
manufacturer to  ascertain  the effects of such fuel or
fuel  additive  on  both  emissions and  control device
performance.  Such tests are to be based on protocols
specified by the Administrator and are largely exten-
sions of the  research programs  outlined  previously
under Emission Characterization.
   Surveillance—Collection and  analysis of commer-
cial fuels, crankcase oils, and diesel fuels are essential
to  ensure  both   the  valadity  of  the registration
information  upon  which  the research program is
based and the dependable  performance of  consumer-
operated advanced  control systems  that already have
been shown to be sensitive to particular fuel  and oil
components and  additives. This activity is just getting
under way.
   Health Effects Assessment—The  Agency is devel-
oping the health  intelligence  necessary to ensure that
public   health  is  protected  by  the  mobile  source
emissions control program. Available serviceable toxi-
cologic  models and human  exposure study techniques
can  provide  a  reasonable data  base for decision-
making. Although a hierarchical screening system has
not  been developed, there is no doubt that such a
system  would be most valuable in obtaining answers
to key  health questions more rapidly. The program
gives immediate  priority  to  toxicologic  assessment
(using simple and relatively rapid techniques)  of new
compounds  believed likely to occur  in auto  emissions.

International Activities
   The  Special  Studies Staff fills a  dual  role  in
international activities,  not only serving as  the ORD-
RTP focal point  for international activities, but also
providing direct   assistance   in   developing criteria
reports  and  other documents. The Staff also provides
a number of .miscellaneous services including arrang-
ing briefings for international scientists, responding to
inquiries and  receiving  and channeling research pro-
posals to appropriate Laboratories.
   World  Health   Organization-Since  1971,   the
ORD-RTP   has  served  as the  WHO  International
Reference  Center  for  Air  Pollution  Control.  The
Special  Studies Staff makes a sizeable contribution to
WHO under  the  terms  of  the  Reference  Center
Agreement,  including  coordination  of the  yearly
contractual  agreement,  providing temporary advisers
on a fairly  frequent basis, assisting Laboratories in
fulfilling the tasks they have  agreed to perform under
                                           Research Activities
                                               53

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 The Special Studies Staff documents the latest available scientific information on the sources, prevalence, and
 manifestations of recognized air pollutants.
the contract,  and  finally, contributing  directly  to
criteria and assessment  documents  — or, in some
cases,  contributing entire documents.  During 1974
the staff  contributed  documents  entitled Environ-
mental Health  Criteria for Manganese and its Com-
pounds and Environmental Health Criteria for Poly-
clorinated Bi- and Terphenyls for the WHO Environ-
mental Health Criteria Programme.
   Organization   for  Economic  Cooperation  and
Dei/e/opme/7f-Contributions to various efforts of the
OECD are made  as  requested. Most  recently,  the
Special Studies Staff contributed  information to a
three-nation comparative study  on the use of criteria
and  effects data as a basis for decision-making in
pollutant control. The Staff prepared a paper entitled
"Case  History on the Use of Criteria and Effects Data
as the Basis for Decisions on the Control of Sulfur
Dioxide in the United States" and participated in the
writing of a collaborative study report.
   Pan-American Medical Association—The Director
of the Special Studies Staff has accepted appointment
as Secretary of the new  PAMA section on Environ-
mental Health  Sciences.  Duties will include  recom-
mending appropriate  members and  vice presidents,
and participating in planning of  PAMA Congresses.
                   U. S.-Federal Republic of Germany—Members   of
                the Special  Studies Staff have been involved  in the
                progress of  the U. S.-Federal  Republic  of Germany
                (FRG) Agreement  for  a number  of years. During
                1974, the Staff met with a representative of the FRG
                Ministry  of the  Interior and, in  response to  this
                meeting,  provided the FRG with reports on particu-
                late   polycyclic  organic  matter,   polychlorinated
                biphenyls, cadmium, manganese, and vanadium.

                   Special Foreign Currency Program—Direction   of
                Public Law 480 projects is distributed throughout
                ORD-RTP according to subject matter  of the agree-
                ment.  (Public  Law 480  provides  for  research en-
                deavors in foreign countries using currencies from the
                sale of surplus U.S. agricultural commodities). One of
                the  projects  being  carried  out  in Yugoslavia  is
                appropriate  to the assessment goals  of the Special
                Studies Staff, which provides  the project's direction.
                This study  considers the  effects  of manganese on  a
                selected population, including  factory workers.

                   Internation Contracts—The  Karolinska  Institute is
                under contract to provide reviews on the  toxicity of
                several  metals,  including cadmium,  mercury, anti-
                mony, cobalt, and molybdenum.
54
ANNUAL REPORT 1974

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Scientific and Technical Assessment Reports describe
environmental pollutants.
LEGISLATIVE MANDATES

   The legislative mandates upon which  the Special
Studies Staff's  programs are based and  the various
sections of the Clean Air Act requiring Staff support
are shown below with a brief description of the types
of activities  engaged  in to  support the mandate and
the Act.

   "RESEARCH,  INVESTIGATION,  TRAINING,  AND
   OTHER ACTIVITIES
   "Sec. 103. (a) The Administrator shall establish a national
      research and development program for the prevention
      and control of air pollution ...
        "(b) In  carrying  out the  provisions of the pre-
      ceding subsection the Administrator is authorized to-
        "(1) collect  and make available ... the results of
      and  other information, including appropriate recom-
      mendations  by  him in connection  therewith, per-
      taining to such research and other activities. ..
        "(7) collect  and disseminate .. . basic  data on
      chemical, physical, and biological effects of varying air
      quality  and  other information pertaining to air pollu-
      tion and the prevention thereof ...
        "(c) In carrying out  the provisions of subsection
      (a) of this section the  Administrator shall conduct
      research on, and survey the results of  other scientific
      studies on, the  harmful  effects  on the health  or
      welfare of persons by  the  various known air pol-
      lutants ...

   "AIR QUALITY CRITERIA AND CONTROL TECH-
   NIQUES
   "Sec. 108. (a) ... (2) The Administrator shall  issue  air
      quality criteria  for an  air pollutant. .. Air quality
      criteria for an air pollutant shall accurately reflect the
      latest  scientific  knowledge useful  in  indicating the
      kind and  extent of all identifiable effects on public
      health or welfare which may be expected from the
      presence of  such pollutant  in  the ambient air,  in
      varying quantities .. .
         "(b) (1) Simultaneously  with  the issuance  of
      criteria under subsection (a), the Administrator shall
       ,.. issue ... information on air  pollution control
      techniques ... Such information shall include  such
      data as  are  available  on available technology and
      alternative methods of prevention and control of  air
      pollution ...
         "(c) The  Administrator shall from time to time
      review, and, as appropriate, modify, and reissue any
      criteria or information on control  techniques issued
      pursuant to this section ...

   "ADDITIONAL  REPORTS TO CONGRESS
   "Sec. 313 ... the Administrator shall report to the Con-
      gress on measures taken toward  implementing the
      purpose and  intent of  this Act including,  but not
      limited to... (2) the  development of air quality
      criteria and recommended emission control require-
      ments ... (4) the status of State ambient air standards
      setting, including such plans for implementation and
      enforcement as have been developed . .."
   As  indicated above. Sections 103, 108, and 313  of
the 1970 Clean Air Act Amendments permit EPA's
Administrator  to require  the preparation of scienti-
fically  sound  assessment  or criteria  documents  to
serve   as  the  legally defensible basis for  both the
development  of control  strategies and  the promul-
gation  of  standards. The  preparation  of  criteria
documents  and scientific  and technical assessment
reports by  this Staff contributes to the requirement
of these sections of the Act.
   Characterization of pollutants consists of critically
reviewing,  evaluating, comparing,  and interpreting
pertinent  literature   to  revise  present,  or  prepare
additional,  air  quality criteria documents and  prepare
scientific and technical assessment reports that serve
as the scientific basis of control strategies and related
standards.  These  documents  are  also required  to
identify the need  of  additional research for producing
adequate criteria for issuing or revising standards.

   "REGULATION OF FUELS
   "Sec. 211. (a) The  Administrator  may by  regulation
      designate any fuel or fuel additive  and ... no manu-
      facturer or processor of any such fuel or additive may
      sell, offer for sale, or  introduce into commerce such
      fuel or additive unless the Administrator has registered
      such fuel or additive in accordance with subsection (b)
      of this section.
                                             Research Activities
                                                 55

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       "(b)  (1) For the purpose of registration of fuels
    and fuel additives, the Administrator shall require—
       "(A) the manufacturer of any fuel to notify him as
    to the commercial identifying name and manufacturer
    of any additive contained in such fuels . . .
       "(B) to furnish . . . such  other  information as is
    reasonable and necessary  to determine the emissions
    resulting from the use of the fuel or additive contained
    in such  fuel, the effect  of such  fuel or additive on the
    emission control performance of any vehicle or vehicle
    engine,  or the extent to which such emissions affect
    the public health or welfare . . .
        "(c) (DThe  Administrator  may,  from  time  to
    time  on the  basis of information  obtained  under
    subsection (b) of this section . . . control  or prohibit
     the manufacture, introduction  into commerce, offer-
     ing for  sale,  or sale of any fuel  or fuel additive for use
     in a motor vehicle or motor vehicle engine . . ."
   Sections 211  (a) and (b) of the 1970 Clean Air Act
Amendments permit the Administrator to require the
registration  of  fuels and  fuel  additives  as a pre-
requisite to sale.  These  sections  also permit  the
Administrator to require,  as a prerequisite  to registra-
tion, that tests be conducted by  the manufacturer to
determine the effect of such fuels or fuel additives on
emissions  (regulated and non-regulated), the perform-
ance of emissions control devices, public health, and
public welfare. Such tests are to  be conducted on the
basis  of protocols established by the  Administrator.
   Section 211  (c) provides that any registered fuel or
fuel  additive may be restricted  or  prohibited based
upon  adverse effects observed from such tests or from
other  such  information  available to  the  Admin-
istrator.
                   The Special Studies Staff's fuels and fuel additives
                program  consists  of  registration  and  information
                retrieval  activities  in addition to conducting research
                programs to develop  protocols that will allow  the
                valid assessment of the effect of fuel components and
                fuel  additives on  emission products  (both regulated
                and non-regulated), performance of emission control
                devices,  atmospheric  loadings and transformations,.
                and public health and welfare.
                   By contractural agreement with the World Health
                Organization (WHO),  EPA was established as WHO's
                International  Reference  Center  for Air Pollution
                Control  (IRCAPC). The responsibility for responding
                to WHO requests was assigned to ORD-RTP by EPA's
                Assistant Administrator for Research  and  Develop-
                ment who is also the Director of WHO-IRCAPC.
                   The  Special Studies Staff's international  activities
                consist  of providing direct  technical assistance  and
                liaison  to  international  organizations  in preparing
                international  environmental  pollutant  criteria  and
                guidelines  as well as coordinating other ORD-RTP
                involvement with the WHO, the  Organization  for
                Economic  Cooperation and Development  (OECD),
                NATO's Committee   on  the  Challenges  of  Modern
                Society, the Special  Foreign Currency  Program,  the
                World    Meteorological  Organization   (WMO),  the
                Economic Commission for Europe, and the Com-
                mission of the European Communities.
                   Special  Studies Staff resources are summarized in
                Table 7.
                  Table 7. SUMMARY OF RESOURCES FOR SPECIAL STUDIES STAFF
                                        FOR FISCAL YEAR 1975
Section of Clean Air
Act supported
103
108
211
313
Total
Funds, $103
510
367
1,064
10
1,951
56
ANNUAL REPORT 1974

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      Human
      Studies
Laboratory
OVERVIEW

OF HSL MISSION

   The mission  of the Human Studies Laboratory  is
to define  the  influence  of environmental  stress on
human health so that appropriate steps can be taken
to meet the requirements of the Clean Air Act. The
Laboratory  must also  recognize  and  define  new
problem areas  in environmental  health as new tech-
nologies emerge. In addition, it must provide tech-
nical  assistance  to the  Agency  during  pollution
emergencies  and during  public  hearings  on control
activities.
                                                    ORGANIZATION

                                                       The HSL is divided into the Office of the Director
                                                    and  five  Branches.  The Office  of the  Director
                                                    coordinates  all  Laboratory activities, develops  long-
                                                    and  short-term research  goals, and periodically  re-
                                                    views the progress of Laboratory programs.
                                                       The  Epidemiology  Branch  studies the effects of
                                                    pollution  on human  health  and searches  for pre-
                                                    disposing  factors  that worsen or contribute to the
                                                    development of  various  diseases.  In addition, the
                                                    Branch  assesses the impact upon health and welfare
                                                    of improvements  in environmental quality  resulting
                                                    from efforts to control pollution.
                                                       The Biometry  Branch is responsible for the design
                                                    and  analysis of research studies and provides statisti-
                                                    cal  design and analysis, computer programming, and
                                                    data  processing services.  The Branch conducts  re-
                                                    search  in  statistical  and  computer-oriented   areas
                                                    related to the mission of the Laboratory.
                                                       The Bio-Environmental Measurement Branch con-
                                                    ducts a  comprehensive program of environmental
                                                    measurements of  pollutants in controlled  laboratory
                                                    environments and in ambient  polluted environments.
                                                    These measurements are related to the physiological
                                                    and  pathological  responses of human  subjects ex-
                                                    posed  to environmental   pollutants  in bio-medical
                                                    laboratory studies and of selected segments of the
                                                    populations in epidemiologic studies.
                                                       The Clinical Studies Branch conducts  laboratory
                                                    studies to detect and define effects of environmental
                                                    pollutants  on human health, to verify  correlative
                                                    epidemiological findings,  and  to develop or improve
                                                    methodology for  application to human health effects
                                                    studies in  laboratory and in community settings.
                                                       The    Bio-Environmental   Laboratory  Branch
                                                    (BELB)  works in cooperation with the other Branches
                                                    of HSL  to  describe human  metabolic response  to
                                                    pollutant  exposure.  The  BELB  program  includes
                                                    performing chemical  analyses  of environmental and
                                                    biological  samples, as  well as  conducting research to
                                        Research Activities
                                             57

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    EPIDEMIOLOGY
       BRANCH
          BIOMETRY
           BRANCH
                                         HUMAN STUDIES
                                          LABORATORY
                                          BIOENVIRONMENTAL
                                             LABORATORY
                                                BRANCH
                                       CLINICAL STUDIES
                                            BRANCH
                                        BIOENVIRONMENTAL
                                          MEASUREMENT
                                              BRANCH
determine appropriate methodology for the analyses
of trace environmental  or  biological  specimens. The
Branch is also developing  methods for determining
the level  of human exposure to various pollutants.
The  objective is to demonstrate  a dose/response
relationship for exposure to a given pollutant species
and a specific metabolic parameter prior to perma-
nent or serious injury.


PHYSICAL FACILITIES

   The Human Studies Laboratory has  facilities at
RTP and in Chapel Hill, North Carolina. Laboratories
in both locations are equipped with the most modern
analytical instruments, including gas/liquid chromato-
graphs,  an  atomic  absorption  spectrometer  with
heated graphite  atomizer,  ultra-centrifuges,  disc gel
and  slab  electrophoresis  devices,  radioactive  strip
scanning  devices,  and  liquid  scintillation  spectro-
meters.
   Twenty-three  Community Health  and Ambient
Monitoring Program (CHAMP)  stations  are  being
updated  and  equipped with  the  best technology
available   in  sensors complemented  by  automatic
electronic data acquisition with remote magnetic tape
storage  and "on-call"  telemetric output  and  visual
field data inspection.
   The  Clinical  Studies  Branch  is located  in  the
Clinical  Environmental  Research Laboratories  build-
ing on  the  periphery  of  the  University of  North
Carolina  Medical Center complex in Chapel Hill. This
special-purpose building was constructed specifically
to assist in fulfilling EPA medical research objectives
and to provide special-purpose  laboratories and sup-
port areas. These special-purpose laboratories include:
                  •  Controlled human exposure facilities in which
                     varied exposures to air pollutant concentrations
                     or noise levels can be produced.
                  •  Cardiovascular research facilities for validating
                     measurement techniques and for obtaining car-
                     diovascular data from  studies  on  animals and
                     humans.
                  •  Psychophysiology facilities in which human
                     behavioral and  psychophysiologic  studies  are
                     conducted.
                  •  Microbiology facilities  in which effects of en-
                     vironmental  stress  and human immune mech-
                     anisms are studied.
                  •  Pulmonary physiology  facilities in which new
                     techniques  for  human  pulmonary  function
                     measurement are developed and validated.
                  •  Clinical metabolism facilities in which routine
                     and   specialized  human  clinical  chemistry
                     analyses are  performed.
                  •  Pulmonary  research   facilities at  the  Frank
                     Porter Graham Child  Development Center in
                     Chapel Hill,  the exercise physiology laboratory,
                     and  the  pathology  laboratories in which spe-
                     cialized research is conducted.
                   In  addition  to  the above facilities,  HSL has  an
                optical reader for  directly processing health question-
                naire data onto magnetic tape and  computer  termi-
                nals that  provide  direct access to EPA's Computer
                Center at RTP.


                MAJOR  PROGRAM AREAS

                  HSL  research activities are in two major program
                areas:  field epidemiological studies in ambient pollu-
                tion  exposure situations  and  clinical  (laboratory)
58
ANNUAL REPORT 1974

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studies  on  human  subjects  under  experimentally
produced  exposure  conditions. The  various studies
are integrated  or complementary  in  a  manner  de-
signed to provide the broadest possible  response  to
the needs of the Agency.


Epidemiologic Studies


   The  Community  Health and  Environmental Sur-
veillance System  (CHESS)  is a nationwide research
project designed to  investigate relationships between
air quality  and human  health. To  accomplish this,
standardized epidemiologic studies are currently con-
ducted  in 22 communities located in 5 metropolitan
areas across the country. In each, community health
information is collected  from  individuals and families
residing within 2 miles  (3.2 km) of an air monitoring
station.
   Among the  major objectives of CHESS are  the
development of estimates  of  exposure-response rela-
tionships and  injury thresholds for pollutants and the
documentation of changes in health status coincident
with  temporal changes in environmental  quality. The
ability to accomplish these objectives depends upon
valid  quantification  of health  parameters as well as
precise measurement of exposure.
   In early  1974, the results of specific epidemiologic
studies  were   published  in  a  monograph entitled
Health  Consequences of Sulfur Oxides: A Report
from  CHESS,  1970-1971.  In  these  studies,  a con-
sistent pattern of excess chronic bronchitis prevalence
rates  was  observed  among  residents of the  more
polluted  CHESS  communities.  In  the  Salt  Lake
(Utah) survey,  both  smokers and nonsmokers showed
an excess in chronic respiratory disease among males,
and  chronic bronchitis  rates  and symptom  scores
(numerical indices of respiratory symptom  severity)
were  higher  among  male  and female smokers than
among  other groups.  Moreover,  male  and female
nonsmokers, exsmokers, and  current smokers from
more polluted  areas had higher bronchitis rates and
symptom  scores than those from less polluted  areas.
   Among  young,  white  military  recruits in the
Chicago, Illinois, area, the contribution of air pollu-
tion to  chronic  bronchitis  rates was relatively  much
less than that of cigarette smoking. Even among these
young  inductees,  however,   respiratory  symptoms
were  more  prevalent  among  persons  from   more
polluted communities.
   In  studies conducted  in the Salt  Lake Basin and
Rocky Mountain CHESS areas, no statistically signifi-
cant  association was  found  between total   lower
                                          Research
   respiratory disease  and  air  pollution for children
   whose  parents  had  been  residents  of  their com-
   munities for less than 3 years. For single and repeated
   episodes of croup and repeated episodes of any lower
   respiratory disease, families of children who had lived
   3 or more years  in  the  high-exposure communities
   reported more illness across all ages of children from
   0 to 13 years than did their counterparts in the  less
   polluted communities.
     Studies  of total  acute  respiratory disease rates
   were also  conducted among families in Chicago  and
   New York. These CHESS findings showed  that  a
   consistent  excess  in acute  respiratory  disease  was
   reported   among  family   members living  in  more
   polluted   neighborhoods,  with  the  exception   of
   fathers,  who often  have greater  occupational  ex-
   posures and greater daily changes in exposure because
   of their work locations.  In each of three New York
   neighborhoods,  cold  temperatures  were directly re-
   lated  to  increased symptom  rates  in subjects with
   combined  heart and  lung disease. Among the  pollu-
   tants considered,  only elevated  levels of suspended
   sulfates  were consistently associated with symptom
   aggravation. Daily sulfur dioxide and total suspended
   particulate concentrations, for example, could not be
   associated  with symptom aggravation in individuals
   with  heart and  lung  disease,  whose  reaction  to
   variations  in  daily pollutant  concentrations is most
   sensitive.
     Compilation  of data for  a second  monograph in
   which the  health  consequences  of  exposure to  sus-
   pended particulate are examined was completed in
   1974; publication of the information  is expected in
   late  1975.  Based  on these  data,  best  judgment
   estimates  of  the  lowest  annual mean levels of air
   pollution that might cause adverse  health effects are
   given in Table 8. In relating observed health effects to
   pollutant concentrations,  three estimates are given:  a
   worst case  estimate, which  attributes  an adverse
   health  effect to the lowest pollution exposure sug-
   gested  by  epidemiological studies;  a  least case esti-
   mate, which  attributes an observed health  effect to
   the  highest  pollution  exposure suggested  by  the
   studies; and a best judgment estimate based on several
   studies.
     Similar   estimates  relating short-term  pollutant
   exposures  to adverse effects on human health  are
   given  in Table  9. Worst  case estimates of levels of
   pollution exposure associated with  increased attacks
   in asthmatics reflect the lack  of association observed
   between attack rates and measured exposure  levels
   for  total  suspended  particulate and  respirable  size
   particulate. The data given in Table 9 suggest only
Activities                                       59

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Blood sample for chromosome analysis is drawn from volunteer exposed to ozone in laboratory test.
that concentrations of less magnitude appear to have
no effect.
   Studies  designed  to document  the benefit  of
pollution control  were continued  in areas  of higher
pollution exposure across the country. These studies
will attempt to measure the health  impact of the shift
from low- to high-sulfur fuels, and from gas or oil to
coal, by power plants and industry.
   Several new pilot studies were  initiated during
1974.  For example,  admissions to the emergency
room of a large hospital were investigated as a health
indicator sensitive to  varying levels of ozone. Another
study   investigated total or specific daily  mortality
rates as  an indicator sensitive to different ozone
concentrations.
   Methods of determining the environmental sources
of lead in children who exhibit unduly  high levels of
                absorption  of  the  metal  were  studied  with  the
                objective of determining the contribution of airborne
                lead  fallout to  total lead ingested by children. Still
                another study  was  designed  to  determine whether
                children who have a past history of apparent exces-
                sive  lead exposure  exhibit a  greater frequency of
                altered  neurophysiological  behavior  than a com-
                parable group of children without this history.

                B/o-env/ronmenfo/  Measurements

                   Community  Health  Air   Monitoring   Program
                (CHAMP)— The  relationship between  human  health
                and  community air quality is being determined by
                comparing the state of health  of  population groups
                residing  in communities exposed to definable  air
                pollutants that are characteristic of certain sources or
60
ANNUAL REPORT 1974

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        Table 8. SUMMARY OF STUDIES RELATING LONG-TERM POLLUTANT EXPOSURES
                         TO ADVERSE EFFECTS ON HUMAN HEALTH
Adverse
effect
1 ncreased
chronic
respiratory
disease
1 ncreased
lower
respiratory
disease
Increased
acute
respiratory
disease
Decreased
ventilatory
function
in children
Type of
estimate
Worst case
Least case
Best judgment

Worst case
Least case
Best judgment

Worst case
Least case
Best judgment

Worst case
Least case
Best judgment

Duration
of exposure,
years
1
10
6

1
3
2

1
5
3

1
5
5

Annual average levels3 associated with
adverse effects, jug/m3
TSP
63-84
170
100

60
>110
90

85
102
90

85
>140
120

RSP
34-45
85
52

34
>60
50

45
55
50

40
55
50

SS
13-17
14-19
14

13
15
14

10
12
12

12
14
13

SN
2
4
3

2-3
2-4
3

2
3
3

2
2
3

so2
51
40
95

50
>177
95

50
210
106

57
435
200

    = total suspended particulate, RSP = respirable size particulate, SS = suspended sulfate, SN = suspended
nitrate, SC  = sulfur dioxide.
         Table 9.  SUMMARY OF STUDIES RELATING SHORT-TERM POLLUTANT EXPOSURES
                          TO ADVERSE EFFECTS ON HUMAN HEALTH

Adverse
effect
Increased
symptom
rates
panels
I ncreased
irritation
symptoms
Increased
aggravation
of asthma
symptoms

Type of
estimate
Worst case
Least case
Best judgment

Worst case
Least case
Best judgment
Worst case
Least case
Best judgment

24-hour mean levels3 associated
\
TSP
70
>120
>120

146
>234
175
70
>365
>260

RSP
30
>45
>40

85
103
90
28
>100
> 75

with effect, q/rrr
SS
7
10
8

11
24
13-20
7
10
8

SN
3
6
4

63
12
10.7
3
4
3

so2
50
>100
100

>107
>149
>149
100
>100
>100

aTSP = total suspended particulate, RSP = respirable size particulate,
 SS = suspended sulfate, SN = suspended nitrate, S02 = sulfur dioxide
                                    Research Activities
61

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activities. Air quality measurements from the CHAMP
provide the health  researcher with a description of
the air pollution  exposure of the human population
under  study. Thus,  observed health effects  can be
related  to  the kind  and concentration of  a  well-
defined pollutant or pollutant mixture.
   During  1974, a  new  CHAMP  field  monitoring
system was installed and made operational at selected
sites in Alabama, California, New York, North  Caro-
lina, and  Utah. The system  uses "state  of the art"
continuous air quality measurement systems coupled
with  computers to  make  air  quality  information
promptly available  to  users. These data  are  trans-
mitted at 2-hour intervals from each field station over
telephone  lines  to  RTP.  Data,  as  received,  are
displayed on a screen for visual checks, and pollutant
concentrations are  checked by the central  computer
to determine  whether  alert conditions  (excessive
pollutant levels in the atmosphere) exist at any field
site. Appropriate action can taken be taken to reduce
the health hazard  to the affected population. The
data are then stored for future research use.
    In addition, a standards laboratory was established
as a repository for  National Bureau of Standards and
EPA reference materials, devices, and instruments for
use in  quality control activities.
    CHAMP   personnel  also  evaluated  an   airborne
protein  particle counter for potential  use in dis-
tinguishing  between anthropogenic  pollutants and
naturally occurring pollutants potentially detrimental
to human health. The  instrument, developed by the
U.S.  Army,  was found to be compatible with the
CHAMP  system,  and  the  background  data  thus
produced  may  be  useful  for  accurately  ascribing
certain health  indices to specific pollutants or combi-
nations of pollutants.
    The CHAMP system is also being used to evaluate
performance  characteristics  of  system  components
 and instruments provided by several manufacturers
under  actual  field-use conditions. To improve the
definition  of sampling  characteristics of the particu-
 late samplers  used  in CHAMP,  a new particulate
sampling probe  was designed and installed in each
CHAMP  field  station.  This  new probe is  being
evaluated in  wind tunnel  tests, and its performance is
 being   compared with  the commonly used   high-
volume sampler.
   Clinical Studies-Tbe Clinical Studies  Branch con-
ducts  pollutant  effects research  in  several labora-
tories:
   •  A neurobehavioral laboratory in which psycho-
      physiological   effects  of   air  pollutants  are
      studied.
   •  A microbiology laboratory  in which  the effects
      of pollutants on the human immune  system are
      investigated.
                Volunteer  is asked  to  exercise during exposure  to
               ozone in environmental chamber  to  test pollutant
               effects.

                   •  A metabolic  laboratory  in  which  assays  on
                      blood  and other  biologic fluids  are performed.
                   •  A cardiopulmonary laboratory  in which  the
                      effects  of gaseous  pollutants including  ozone
                      and nitrogen dioxide are examined.
                   These laboratories, located on the campus  of the
                University of North Carolina at Chapel  Hill, became
                fully  operational in September 1974.  In addition,
                HSL maintains  a pulmonary function  laboratory at a
                nearby  elementary  school for  the investigation of
                lung  growth in children. An exercise-electrocardio-
                graphy  laboratory  is maintained at North  Carolina
                Memorial  Hospital for  investigations on  the effects of
                pollutants, principally  carbon monoxide, on cardio-
                vascular performance.
                   During 1974, progress was made on two projects
                identified by the acronyms CLEANS (Clinical Labo-
                ratory Evaluation and Assessment of Noxious Sub-
                stances) and CLEVER (Clinical Laboratory Evalua-
                tion  and  Validation  of Epidemiological Research).
 62
ANNUAL REPORT 1974

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When  completed,  these  projects  will  provide  the
Laboratory with the best research facility for clinical
studies existing anywhere  in the country.

   C/eans-The  CLEANS  project  consist  of  the
construction, complete with an  on-line computerized
physiologic  data  acquisition system, of  two  large
exposure chambers in  which volunteers can be ex-
posed for extended periods of  time to  the  same air
pollutant levels found in  urban  areas.  These  facilities
will  allow the Clinical Studies Branch to  perform
studies  relating  air pollutants  to  a  wide  range of
physiological responses for much longer periods than
could be performed  in the past. Up to  now, clinical
studies  have  been  performed  after  only  brief ex-
posures  to pollutants (usually 2 to 6 hours at most).
Such short-term  exposures can provide only limited
 information  on interactions between pollutants and
 human physiological systems. Longer-term exposures
 precisely simulating  atmospheric conditions and in-
 volving  numerous pollutants will greatly expand basic
 knowledge of the health effects of airborne pollution.
    Each  laboratory contains the most sophisticated
instrumentation  available  for  assessing the health
status  of the subjects.  Especially  important are
 instruments  for  measuring heart and lung  function
before,  during, and after exercise. Because of the
complexity  of this  instrumentation  as well as the
 large amount of data acquired,  most of  the testing is
 under computer  control.  Medical technicians  and
 research physicians monitor and direct the studies by
 interacting with the computer.
    The  Controlled  Environmental  Laboratories can
 operate   over  a  wide  range  of   temperature  and
 humidity conditions and  in either a very clean status
 or one programmed to simulate the desired pollution
 profile.  Both laboratories can provide carefully con-
trolled  levels  of  carbon  monoxide,  sulfur  dioxide,
 nitrogen dioxide, and  ozone—either singly or in any
combination. One  of the  laboratories can also provide
 exposure to fine particulate aerosols or nitrate and
sulfate compounds. These environmental  conditions
 are also under  computer control,  providing  great
flexibility and  reliability.

    Clever—Studies  of  the  health  status  of popula-
 tions have provided much of the  available  informa-
 tion  relating environmental factors  to human health.
 Changes in  community  disease patterns associated
 with industrialization  serve as  convincing indicators
 of the health  risk accompanying technological  prog-
 ress.  Documenting these changes in causes  of death
 and  illness  is,  therefore,  an  essential  aspect of
 managing technical innovation and economic growth.
    These studies,  however,  are  fraught with  dif-
ficulties in quantitating exposure and in determining
subtle  alterations  in  health  status. The  traditional
tools  of epidemiology  have successfully  delineated
many environmental hazards, but frequently are not
sensitive enough to detect more subtle effects. It has
been  either logistically  impossible or  prohibitively
expensive   to  use  the  more  sophisticated  modern
medical diagnostic techniques  in  studying  the  epi-
demiology  of illness caused by environmental factors.
With  the evolution of better non-invasive diagnostic
techniques linked to computer control of the large
amount of data acquired, it is now possible to greatly
improve the specificity  and sensitivity of population
studies.
   The  Human  Studies Laboratory  has  responded
with  the   development  of the CLEVER  program,
which will permit the verification of epidemiological
research using  sensitive  measurements  of cardiovas-
cular and pulmonary function  in the populations at
risk.  Two mobile  laboratories, which contain  the
same physiologic and computerized systems used in
the CLEANS program,  can travel  to  areas in which
pollutant levels are of concern and perform extensive
evaluation  of the  health  status of selected populations
over  an extended period of time.  In addition to the
standard cardio-pulmonary function  measurements,
the  mobile laboratories will  be equipped  for  the
collection  of biological  samples for later  analysis of
pollutant burden. Delivery  of the first van is expected
in late 1975.
Carbon Monoxide  Studies

   The  Laboratory  has  performed research  on the
cardiovascular  effects  of  carbon  monoxide  since
1971.  Those  investigations have  demonstrated im-
paired myocardial work capacity  in humans at car-
boxyhemoglobin  levels  of  approximately  5  to  6
percent.  More importantly, it has been demonstrated
that  patients  with   coronary  artery disease  have
diminished exercise performance at very low levels of
carboxyhemoglobin  (approximately 3 to 4 percent).
In  the  past  year,  studies  of these effects  were
continued  to  gather more information  on  dose-
response  characteristics of  low  levels  of  carbon
monoxide. In  addition, research projects have been
inaugurated to investigate  short-term effects of car-
bon monoxide on various clotting factors and  blood
lipids in  human volunteers.
   Studies completed  in   1974  demonstrated de-
creased  physical  work performance  at  levels of
carboxyhemoglobin  of 5 percent in healthy young
men. Other investigations  in dogs showed worsening
myocardial  infarction  as carboxyhemoglobin  levels
rose above 5 percent. These studies will be expanded
in 1975.
   At present  considerable controversy exists as  to
the  effects of low levels of carbon monoxide on the
                                           Research Activities
                                               63

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 human central  nervous  system.  During  1974, the
 neurobehavioral laboratory conducted  pilot studies
 on psychophysiological tasks using noise as a stress
 agent. When the carbon monoxide exposure chamber
 becomes  operational,  the  laboratory will  conduct
 further experiments to elucidate effects of carbon
 monoxide on human behavior. Plans are underway to
 study interactive effects of carbon monoxide  with
 other stress agents, including noise and alcohol.


 Ozone and Nitrogen

 Oxides Studies

   With completion of the plexiglass exposure cham-
 ber in the clinical laboratories in the spring of 1974,
 the Laboratory began studies on the effects of ozone
 and nitrogen dioxide  on cardiovascular performance
 and cellular function. Initial studies concentrated on
 effects of ozone  on  pulmonary performance and
 cytogenetic   damage   to  circulating  lymphocytes.
Studies also included evaluation of phagocytic func-
tion  and  lymphocyte  transformation.  The  latter
studies  are designed to serve as pilot ventures in
assessing the  impact of oxidant  pollution on those
defense mechanisms.


Pulmonary  Studies in Children

   Since 1972,  a  study  has been  underway  to
characterize those parameters of growth that best
define growth in  lung function. This study  is being
performed  in Chapel Hill, N.C.,  where ambient air
pollution is low.  It is  anticipated that information
from  this study will form  a basis for learning about
possible  deleterious effects  of pollution  on  lung
growth. Such  a study will be feasible in more polluted
areas  in the near future  by using the CLEVER mobile
laboratories.
   In  addition to  identifying those factors that best
define lung growth, the study is investigating  the
effects of viral and bacterial infections on pulmonary

Pulmonary function  of volunteer exposed to ozone  in  laboratory is tested to evaluate pollutant effects.

64                                  ANNUAL REPORT 1974

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performance. This study also may be expanded using
the CLEVER facility to analyze interactive effects of
pollution and microbial agents on lung function in
children.  Results from  18 months  of study have
undergone preliminary analysis, and a full  report will
be written in  1975.


Other  Studies

   During 1974, a joint contract  with the  University
of  Maryland Medical  School  and  Johns Hopkins
Medical  School  investigating   effects of  ozone  on
pulmonary  function in  normal  subjects  was com-
pleted. The  exposures took place  in an environmental
chamber  at  the University  of  Maryland  Medical
School.  Results  have undergone early analysis  and
will  be  useful  in  better characterizing  pulmonary
effects  of  ozone   exposure.   Results  from   grant-
supported pulmonary research at Ranches Los Amigos
Hospital in  California have also provided preliminary
information  on  effects of ozone and  nitrogen oxides
on pulmonary function.
   Other contracts initiated  during  1974 are designed
to study effects of nitrogen dioxide on subjects with
preexisting  pulmonary disease, to  study  interactive
effects  of  heat stress  and oxidant pollutants  on
cardiopulmonary performance in  humans,  to support
research on  cytogenetic effects of oxidants,  and to
study effects of sulfur dioxide and various sulfates on
lung function.
        "(A) conduct epidemiological studies of the effects
      of air pollutants on mortality and morbidity;
        "(B) conduct clinical and laboratory studies on the
      immunologic, biochemical, physiological, and the toxi-
      cological effects  including  carcinogenic, teratogenic,
      and mutagenic effects of air pollutants . . ."

   In support  of Section  103,  HSL develops and
conducts  studies  designed  to define  relationships
between specific undesirable  health  effects  and en-
vironmental pollutants, either  individually or in com-
bination.  This  research  includes biochemical  labora-
tory studies, clinical  studies on human  subjects, and
epidemiological   studies  of  human  populations.
Knowledge  of the  effects of short- and  long-term
exposure to environmental pollutants provides a basis
for establishing national environmental  or emission
standards for those pollutants or source  categories
that endanger human  health or welfare.  In addition,
the HSL research program is designed to evaluate the
health benefits of improved air quality resulting from
the  establishment  of  emission standards.  This  pro-
gram is also concerned with the decrement in health
resulting from any  future  relaxation in air  quality
standards in response to the energy crisis. Analysis of
the  economic  costs  resulting from  adverse  health
effects  of  pollution  is  an  integral  part of the  HSL
program.
   Epidemiologic studies on the effect of radiation on
humans come  under the broad mandate of  Section
241  of the Public Health Service Act, which is quoted
in part below.
LEGISLATIVE MANDATE

   HSL's research  program  is designed  to meet the
legislative mandate expressed  in Section  103 of the
Clean Air Act and in Section 241 of the public Health
Service Act. Specific sections of the Acts are shown
below followed by brief descriptions of  the types of
actions taken  by HSL in support of the mandates.

   "RESEARCH,  INVESTIGATION,   TRAINING,  AND
   OTHER ACTIVITIES
   "Sec. 103. (f) In carrying out research  pursuant to this
      Act, the Administrator shall give special emphasis to
      research  on the short- and  long-term  effects of air
      pollutants  on public  health  and   welfare. In the
      furtherance  of such research, he shall conduct an
      accelerated research program—
         "(A) to improve knowledge of the contribution of
      air pollutants to the occurence of adverse effects of
      health, including,  but  not limited  to, behavioral,
      physiological, toxicological, and biochemical effects;
      and
         "(B) to improve knowledge  of  the short-  and
      long-term effects of air pollutants on welfare.
         "(2) In carrying out the provisions of this subsec-
      tion the Administrator may—
   "THE PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE ACT"
   "Sec. 241.  Research  and  investigations  generally...
      "The Surgeon  shall  conduct  in  the  Service,  and
      encourage,  cooperate  with, and render assistance to
      other appropriate public authorities, scientific institu-
      tions, and scientists in the conduct of, and promote
      the  coordination of, research,  investigations, experi-
      ments,  demonstrations, and  studies relating to the
      causes,  diagnosis, treatment,  control, and prevention
      of physical and mental diseases and impairment of
      man . . ."

   Under  the broad  mandate of Section 241,  HSL
studies the effects of ionizing radiation exposure on
humans  in  cooperation  with   the   Atomic  Bomb
Casuality  Commission research program  in  Japan.
HSL places major emphasis on  evaluating the risk of
adverse  irreversible biological effects from exposure
to  various   levels  of  different  pollutants  and  in
delineating the time lapse between  exposure and
disease  (latent effects).  Other studies conducted by
the laboratory  are  concerned  with  the effects  of
non-ionizing  radiations to which  the general popula-
tion is exposed. HSL resources committed in support
of these Acts are shown in Table 10.
                                            Research Activities
                                                65

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             Table 10. SUMMARY OF RESOURCES FOR HUMAN STUDIES LABORATORY
                                   FOR FISCAL YEAR 1975
Category
Clean Air Act, Section 103
Public Health Service Act,
Section 241
Federal Water Pollution Control Act,
Section 104(b) (3)
Total3
Funds, $103
11,231
389
547
12,167
                  Total does not include $3.3 million of special energy appropriations.
66
ANNUAL REPORT 1974

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                                                     OVERVIEW
                                                     OF  EBL MISSION
Experimental
          Biology
    Laboratory
   Experimental Biology Laboratory research  is di-
rected toward studies relevant to the development of
environmental standards for the protection of human
health  and welfare,  particularly  as  such  standards
relate to gaseous and  particulate air pollutants, to
ionizing  and  nonionizing radiation, and to  inter-
actions  among  pollutants. Studies using laboratory
animals   or  biological  preparations  complement
human  epidemiological  and  clinical  programs  by
validating data  from  human studies, providing  clues
to new  human  studies, developing toxicity data  for
extensions  to humans, and indicating the potential
harmful  effects of  new  pollutants. These studies
require  the coordinated contribution  of  chemists,
engineers, and  representatives  of a wide variety of
biological disciplines. The Laboratory possesses  parti-
cular  expertise  in the areas  of animal toxicology,
radiation biology, neurobiology, and microwave  en-
gineering.
                                                      ORGANIZATION

                                                         The  Office  of the  Director ensures integrated
                                                      application of the multi-disciplinary expertise  avail-
                                                      able within the  five  branches in  research projects
                                                      designed to develop information pertinent to formu-
                                                      lation and  revision of environmental quality criteria
                                                      in support of human health studies.
                                                         The  Pathobiology  Research  Branch  is primarily
                                                      concerned  with the investigation of air pollutants as
                                                      they relate to acute and chronic respiratory disease
                                                      and pulmonary carcinogenesis, and as they affect an
                                                      organism's  mechanisms of defense  against infectious
                                                      agents,  using  whole  animal  and  in vitro  model
                                                      systems. Particular emphasis is given to interactions
                                                      between chemical,  biological,  and  physical insults.
                                                      The Branch also has responsibility for development of
                                                      rapid  throughput in  vitro  screening  systems  for
                                                      determining the  relative  toxicity  of gaseous  and
                                                      particulate air pollutants.
                                                         The  Toxicology  Branch  investigates  the  gross
                                                      teratologic, reproductive, developmental,  and genetic
                                                      effects  of  a  variety  of  environmental pollutants,
                                                      together with  late effects such as tumor production
                                                      and life span shortening. Originally concerned largely
                                                      with  the  toxicology  of  radioactive materials,  the
                                                      Branch  has extended its activities to studies of the
                                                      biological effects  of nonionizing radiation and  of the
                                                      interactions between  radiation and other  existing
                                                      environmental pollutants.
                                          Research Activities
                                               67

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     PATHOBIOLOGY
       RESEARCH
        BRANCH
         TOXICOLOGY
           BRANCH
                                           EXPERIMENTAL
                                              BIOLOGY
                                            LABORATORY
                                          NEUROPHYSIOLOGY
                                          AND BEHAVIORAL
                                              RESEARCH
                                               BRANCH
                                               MOLECULAR
                                                BIOLOGY
                                                 BRANCH
                                            TECHNICAL
                                             STUDIES
                                             BRANCH
   The  Molecular Biology Branch's principal interest
 is the interaction of radio frequency and microwave
 radiation  with  biological systems at the subcellular
 and  molecular  level, with particular  attention being
 given to effects on  the  genetic material  and other
 macromolecules and on the organelle and cell mem-
 branes.  The Branch's expertise  in microbiology, bio-
 chemistry, and  physical  chemistry  and  in electron
 spin resonance techniques  is also being applied  to
 studies  on the  toxicity of tritium and heavy metals
 and  on  the  extrapulmonary  toxicity  of  photo-
 chemical oxidants.
   The  Neurophysiology  and  Behavioral  Research
 Branch  investigates possible adverse  effects of envi-
 ronmental  contaminants  on the  nervous  system  in
 animal models and develops research methodology in
 the area of neurobiology applicable to the study  of
 human  populations.  The members  of  the  Branch
 function as an  interdisciplinary  team to study re-
 sponses   of behavioral,  electrophysiological,  neuro-
 humoral,  and  related physiological   parameters  to
 exposure to chemical  and physical stressors including
 air pollutants,   pesticides,  and ionizing  and non-
 ionizing radiation.
   The Technical Studies  Branch provides support  to
 the Laboratory through the development  and main-
 tenance  of equipment and instrumentation.necessary
 for biological effects research, particularly in the area
 of  electromagnetic   non-ionizing  radiation.  The
 Branch  also coordinates the Laboratory's computer
services  and provides  computer  programs to support
 biological  activities. The Branch  conducts research  in
the dosimetry  of non-ionizing radiation  and the
application  of  dosimetric techniques to  biological
studies.
                PHYSICAL  FACILITIES

                   The Laboratory possesses facilities for exposure of
                laboratory animals (via inhalation) to gaseous mate-
                rials  and aerosols under controlled conditions of air
                flow,  temperature, and  humidity and  for exposure
                (via inhalation  and whole-body  exposure) to radio-
                active gases (currently krypton-85) over long periods
                under beta-infinite cloud conditions.
                   Facilities that permit exposure to a range of radio
                and radar frequency radiations are available or under
                construction.  These facilities  include two  large  ane-
                choic chambers  for use at S- and  X-band frequencies,
                both with environmental control  systems; a strip-line
                facility for whole-body exposures of  small mammals
                over  the VHP,  TV, and UHF  ranges; and  numerous
                custom-built airline systems for irradiation of cellular,
                subcellular, and  molecular preparations at frequencies
                upward from 200 MHz.
                   Electrophysiological  recording  instrumentation
                and  behavioral   testing  chambers (housed  in  RF-
                shielded and/or  sound-attenuated rooms), with asso-
                ciated laboratory computers, are  available for neuro-
                biological studies.
                   For measurement of concentrations of paramag-
                netic  species  and  free  radicals, an electron  spin
                resonance spectrometer with a 9-inch electromagnet
                and a  double cavity  is available. The  system  also
                includes frequency measuring equipment for precise
                g-value determinations to characterize  and identify
                unknown species. Additionally,  the  associated  vari-
                able temperature unit permits determination of free
                radical reaction rates and matrix trapping ability from
                80° K to 370° K.
68
ANNUAL REPORT 1974

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 MAJOR  PROGRAM AREAS

 Air Pollutants

   A comprehensive  biomedical  study  is being made
 for the purpose of evaluating the actual and potential
 biological effect of the major air pollutant gases and
 particulates in biological models. Agents emphasized
 during the past year include sulfur dioxide, sulfuric
 acid  and sulfates, ozone, nitrogen dioxide,  metals,
 and  organics.  This work is carried on  through an
 integrated  program by in-house  and contract efforts
 employing whole  animal  and in vitro  models,  and
 emphasizes interacting systems where possible.
   The influence of sulfuric  acid, sulfur dioxide, and
 various  sulfates  is being studied  in isolated cells,
 perfused  lung,  and  whole  animals. A dynamic re-
 action  chamber  has  been  constructed  to  furnish
 exposure facilities simulating natural  atmospheres.
 Inhalation of sulfuric acid (H2SO4) aerosol in guinea
 pigs  caused  a  50  percent increase  in the  total
 deposition  of inhaled  radioactive  particles and a
 proximal shift in the regional deposition pattern to
 the   nasopharnyx,   suggesting   a   pathophysiologic
 rationale for the  high  sensitivity of  asthmatics to
 sulfur oxides. The respiratory clearance of non-viable
 radioactive  streptococcal aerosols  (2.6  [im  MMAD)
 from  the  nose  and  lung  was  reduced by acute,
 short-term exposure  to  H2S04.  Neither aerosol  con-
 centration had any effect on the rate of reduction of
 viable streptococci from the lung or nose of mice.
 Thus, this  and  the   preceding  study  suggest  that
 H2SO4 acts principally on the airways  of the respira-
 tory tract and not on the alveolar  region of the lung.
 Preliminary studies indicate  that chronic respiratory
 infection (Bordetella pertussis) can be enhanced by
 inhalation of H2SO4.
   Ozone has  been  shown  to   increase  the pento-
 barbital  sleeping time in mice. This is further indica-
 tion that ozone  may exert extra-pulmonary effects.
 Work  has  continued  on establishing  dose-response
 relationships for  N02. Indications are that concentra-
 tion is more important than  duration of exposure in
 eliciting  toxic results and  that  effects  from  inter-
 mittent exposure may be as  toxic,  on a time basis, as
 continuous exposure.
   Studies of  the relative toxicity  of mercury, lead,
 cadmium, zinc, chromium,  nickel, manganese,  and
 sulfates of various cations have been carried on in in
 vitro systems employing  pulmonary macrophages  and
 human fibroblasts. The  influence of  these agents on
cellular viability and on alterations  in membrane  and
cellular kinetics is being studied. Exposure to Ni2+,
Mn2+, Cd2+, and Cr3+ reduced phagocytic activity of
 alveolar macrophages. Interestingly, a concentration
 of VOs  that killed  and lysed  macropages  had  no
 effect  on phagocytosis;  whereas, concentrations of
 Ni2+ that had no  effect on macrophage viability or
 lysis  caused severe phagocytic  reductions. Coordi-
 nated  studies  employing  in  vivo  methods  are  also
 being carried out to investigate  the parameters  that
 alter host defense mechanisms and  that affect deposi-
 tion and clearance of trace metals. Inhaled cadmium
 has  been  found  to enhance  the  pathogenicity of
 inhaled microorganisms.
   Pulmonary  cocarcinogenesis  studies  use  intra-
 tracheal instillation  into Syrian hamsters of a stand-
 ard carcinogen (benzo[a] pyrene) alone or in combi-
 nation with metallic oxides. Chemically characterized
 particulate materials collected  from the ambient air
 are also being studied  in  this  animal  model.  The
 interaction of particulate material and noxious gases
 (NO2 and  03) in the induction and/or alteration of
 pulmonary  neoplastic  response in  animals  is  being
 investigated as well.
   An in vitro toxicity screening  system  using rabbit
 alveolar  macrophages  is now fully developed  for
 estimating  the relative   toxicity  of soluble  and in-
 soluble  particulate  air pollutants. Complete  concen-
 tration-response data on cell viability, cell number, or
 total  protein, ATP, and phagocytic activity can be
 obtained for any test material using the number of
 alveolar macrophages recoverable from a single rabbit.
 The  system is currently being  employed to estimate
 the relative toxicity of stationary source air samples.
 An additional  system  has  been  developed which
 employs rapidly  dividing human lung  nbroblasts to
 test for compounds that inhibit cellular biosynthetic
 activities. A preferential  inhibition of DNA synthesis
 by relatively low concentrations  of tetravalent plati-
 num was detected using the human  fibroblast system.
 Pentavalent vanadium  and  divalent cadmium  were
 also determined to  be highly cytotoxic. Facilities are
 essentially  complete to  begin  implementation  of in
 vitro test  systems for detection of  potential carcino-
 gens.  Tests for chemically induced neoplastic trans-
 formation  will  complement   ongoing  systems  for
 toxicity testing in vitro.

 Ionizing Radiation
   Programs  in radiation health  effects  research are
 presently confined  to  tritium  and  krypton-85, two
 major effluents from the reprocessing of nuclear fuel.

   Tritium—During  the  reporting  period, two studies
 have  been  completed;   one  on  the  production  of
tumors  and  the  effects on  life  span  of  chronic
 exposure to tritiated water (HTO)  throughout gesta-
tion,  and  the  other on  the  relative  sensitivity of
different aged populations to chronic HTO exposure.
   In the  first  study,  Sprague-Dawley rats  were
continuously exposed from conception through birth
to tritiated  water (HTO).  Intrauterine exposures to
calculated cumulative doses  up to 66 rads had no
                                          Research Activities
                                               69

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 Patterned behavior in rats exposed to pollutants is analyzed using closed circuit television coupled with computer
 methodology.
significant effects on either sex with respect to life
span, overall neoplasia incidence, the incidence rate,
or the onset of mammary  fibroadenomas. Females
exposed  to  330 or  660 rads were  sterile and  had
lower  incidence rates of mammary  fibroadenomas
than  controls,  and  at  660 rads exhibited a lower
incidence of overall  neoplasia  and reduced mean life
span. Sterile male offspring had reduced  mean life
span after irradiation at 660 rads. Regardless  of dose
group, females  had significantly higher incidences of
neoplasia and longer  life spans than males.
   In  the   second  study,  rats  were  continuously
exposed  to  10juCi HTO/ml of body water (approxi-
mately 3 rads per day)  for 42-day periods beginning
variously at conception, birth,  and  42 or 74 days
postnatally.  Assessment of the relative sensitivity of
the different ages to chronic  HTO exposure of 126
rads  was in  terms  of reproductive performance,
central nervous neurotransmitter, and follicle-stimu-
lating  hormone levels.  At  49 days  of age,  the
beginning of sexual maturity in the rat, testes  weights
and  sperm  counts  were  significantly depressed in
animals exposed  from  conception or  birth. Ovary
weight was not  affected by exposure from conception
but  was significantly reduced  when  the exposure
                began at birth. Mating of exposed males and females
                began at 120 days of age and continued through the
                production  of three  successive  litters by each  pair;
                this was followed by sacrifice of that dam at  200 days
                of age upon delivery of the last litter. The mean litter
                size for the three litters was significantly reduced, and
                the resorptions  increased in  the  last litter for those
                animals exposed from conception. At 49 days of age,
                norepinephrine  concentration was  significantly in-
                creased, and dopamine concentration was unchanged
                in male  animals exposed from  conception  but not
                birth.  At 300 days of age,  a reversal had  occurred
                with both  neurotransmitter levels being significantly
                decreased in  animals exposed  from conception or
                birth. Follicle-stimulating hormone levels in  the pitui-
                taries of adult males were significantly increased only
                in  those animals  exposed   from 42  or  74  days
                postnatally.
                   It  had  previously  been  determined, in studies
                involving the  continuous exposure  of  rats  to  HTO
                from  conception  through production  of  the third
                (F2)  generation,  that  lifetime  parental  exposure
                produced effects in the F2 generation at levels 10 to
                100 times lower than those required  for  the same
                effects  after  in utero exposure alone. Statistically
70
ANNUAL  REPORT 1974

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 significant reductions in the relative brain weights of
 neonates  were noted at doses as low as 20 times the
 MPCW for individuals in  the population.  It has now
 been shown  that these changes are accompanied by
 functional deficits.  The  age  of development of the
 startle reflex, eye opening, and the righting reflex was
 delayed. The righting reflex was the most sensitive of
 the  three  parameters,  being  delayed  2 days at the
 highest exposure. These same animals, when tested in
 a residential  maze  at  120 days of  age, showed a
 dose-related  reduction in  spontaneous  motor activity.
 Correlated with this was a slowing of the spontaneous
 anesthetized   EEC,  i.e.,  an  increased  abundance of
 slow ("Delta") waves  with decreased abundance of
 both "Alpha" and "Beta" frequencies.
   Under  the sponsorship  of the Special Foreign
 Currency Program, EBL serves as the responsible U.S.
 organization  for tritium research being conducted by
 the  Central Laboratory for Radiological Protection in
 Warsaw, Poland. The emphasis in the Polish studies is
 on  the transfer of HTO  from soil  to plants, the
 incorporation of tritium into specific amino acids, the
 effects on rabbits of consumption of totally tritiated
 diets, the uptake,  distribution,  and retention  of
 organically  bound  tritium, and  the  dose-response
 relation  for  the production of chromosome aberra-
 tions in human lymphocytes by HTO.

   Krypton-85— Research into the physiological be-
 havior and radiation effects of krypton-85 is designed
 to  provide  data  for  a  realistic assessment of the
 hazards of exposure to this noble gas.
   Investigations are being conducted using animals
 exposed via inhalation or whole body  in beta-infinite
 cloud conditions. Previously completed studies using
 inhalation exposure  include: (1() determination of in
 vivo  kinetic parameters and partition coefficients for
 the  whole guinea  pig;  (2) determination of equi-
 librium  concentrations  of 85Kr in  blood  and 22
 organs or tissues of guinea  pigs  breathing known
 concentrations of 85Kr; and (3) determination of the
 median  lethal exposure  in  guinea  pigs  for 85Kr
 administered   by inhalation. Inhalation  experiments
 slated for completion  in  1975  include  study  of
 hematopoietic  effects and pathology of serially sacri-
 ficed guinea  pigs  receiving the median lethal expo-
 sure.
   Guinea pigs exposed  to  85Kr in  beta-infinite
 geometry  with fur surface doses of up to 20,000 rad
 all survived the acute post-exposure period and are
 being observed for life-span shortening, lung effects,
 and  appearance of skin tumors.
Nonionizing  Radiation

   EBL's programs in nonionizing radiation research
are conducted as part of a multi-agency "Program for
                                           Research
   Control  of Electromagnetic Pollution of the Environ-
   ment:  The  Assessment of  Biological  Hazards  of
   Nonionizing  Electromagnetic  Radiation" coordinated
   by the Office of Telecommunications Policy.
      Animal models  (whole animals and cellular, sub-
   cellular,  or molecular preparations as appropriate) are
   used to  investigate  potential damage—including gene-
   tic, biochemical,  immunological, teratological, and
   neurobiological  effects—from  exposure to radio and
   microwave frequencies similar to those found in the
   environment. Studies are designed to identify poten-
   tial harmful effects, to establish the exposure levels at
   which these  effects are elicited, and to delineate the
   mechanisms of physical alterations. These studies will
   provide a data base for the promulgation of standards
   governing the  exposure of the  population  to  non-
   ionizing  radiation.
      The  possibility of transient as well as permanent
   effects  of microwave radiation  on macromolecular
   systems  has  been investigated using a crossed-beam
   apparatus (essentially a waveguide irradiation system
   integrated with a UV  spectrophotometer).  The en-
   zyme ribonuclease  and  mononucleotide  substrate
   analogs  have been  used to investigate whether radia-
   tion at  1.70  or 2.45 GHz interferes with the binding
   of the  smaller  molecules to  the protein.  No dif-
   ferences  have  been noted between samples under
   irradiation and those  not irradiated. In  addition,
   enzymes  from soluble,  microsomal, and  mitochon-
   drial cellular fractions  were irradiated at 2.45 GHz in
   the crossed-beam  apparatus,  but no significant dif-
   ferences were observed between  the specific activity
   of control and irradiated samples.
      A microwave irradiation system consisting prin-
   cipally of a  coaxial airline and an oxygen electrode
   cell was  developed  to rapidly  monitor the respiratory
   activity  of  mitochondria  after  exposure  to micro-
   waves. The mitochondria are  irradiated in  the airline
   while biochemically active, i.e., at 30°C, and respira-
   tion  is  measured with the oxygen  electrode as the
   suspension exits the coaxial airline. The system will
   be  used to  study  the  effect   of  2  to  4  GHz
   electromagnetic radiation  on  the energy-conserving
   reactions (electron  transport and  oxidative  phos-
   phorylation) which occur in mitochondria.
      In a study designed to detect differential effects of
   electromagnetic radiation  on the bacterium  E. coli
   grown  in media containing  particular  carbon and
   nitrogen  substrates, no  growth changes were found
   that could   not  be attributed to temperature  dif-
   ferences between controls and samples  irradiated at
   1.7 and  2.45 GHz. In addition,  this cellular system
   was used to  examine the mutagenic effect of micro-
   waves. The  results  show no differences in the muta-
   tion frequency of unirradiated bacteria  and bacteria
   irradiated at these two frequencies.
      Several reports  in  the  literature  suggest  that
   microwave radiation  alters the immune response of
Activities                                       71

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 animals and cellular preparations. Such effects, if real,
 are  of great potential significance to  the  general
 public. Consequently, the effect of microwaves on
 the  membrane phenomenon  called  phagocytosis was
 studied  in  polymorphonuclear  leukocytes  (neutro-
 phils). Neutrophils from guinea pigs were irradiated in
 vitro with 2.45 GHz (continuous wave)  or with 9.0
 GHz (pulsed) radiation either before or during chal-
 lenge  with  polystyrene  balls, which were  used to
 induce phagocytosis.  No  differences  in induction
 which could not be attributed to generalized  heating
 of the cells could be detected between the irradiated
 and the control samples.  Additionally,  studies were
 initiated to examine both the capacity  of leukocytes
 to  phagocytize foreign materials and the capacity of
 other  types of cells to respond to antigenic stimula-
 tion following microwave irradiation.
   Teratologic  investigations  were  also  conducted.
 Bred  mice  were exposed to 2.45 GHz  microwave
 radiation at 14 mW/cm2 for 100  minutes  per day
 from days 1 through  17 of pregnancy,  at which time
 they  were  killed,  and their fetuses examined for
 weight, sex, and gross morphology. The litters of 73
 control and 62 treated mice were examined. Approxi-
 mately 150 fetuses have yet to be fully examined. In
 the  interim, the results show no statistically signifi-
 cant effects in: the number of pregnancies, the size of
 the  litter, the ratio  of live to dead fetuses, and the
 weight of live fetuses. However, when fetuses were
 examined for gross anomalies, three fetuses (one each
 from three  treated  litters) had encephaloceles; none
 were found in control litters. The x2 of the incidence
 of  litters with  any  encephaloceles was  significant
 (p<0.05).
   In a pilot study to a series  of experiments designed
 to examine effects  on the central nervous system of
 prolonged exposure to microwave radiation, neonate
 rats were exposed to 9 GHz microwave irradiation at
 3 or 10 mW/cm2, for 2 hours per day, from days 1
 through 21  of age. The time-course of development
 of  startle and  righting reflexes  was not  altered  by
 treatment,  nor was  the age of  eye  opening. A
 5-minute motor activity  measurement at intervals
 from  days  9 through 21 of age was  suggestive of
 irradiation-induced  hypoactivity.  EEG  and  visual-
 evoked responses were measured at 30 days  of age.
 The mean frequency of the spontaneous EEG was not
 altered by exposure.  However, the  amplitude of the
 primary visual evoked  response was  suppressed. Con-
 tinuing studies on these animals will  include measures
 of  learning, memory, and   residential-maze motor
 activity.


Neurotoxicology  of  Pesticides

   This program, conducted in collaboration with the
 Pesticides and Toxic Substances Effects Laboratory,
                 is directed toward evaluating the effects of pesticidal
                 chemicals  on CMS function including  EEG,  neuro-
                 endocrine  activity, neurochemistry, and behavior. In
                 addition, the program develops methodology for fast
                 through-put, neurotoxicity screening.
                   A representative series of carbamate pesticides is
                 being studied for both direct (after 1  month of daily
                 feeding) and residual (1  month  after removal of
                 pesticide) neurobiologic effects in young and mature
                 rats of both sexes. Preliminary  analyses show pesti-
                 cide-induced changes in  frequency distribution  may
                 be age-dependent and are  not qualitatively the same
                 for each of the carbamates  under study.  For example,
                 young females  treated with Ferbam show no changes
                 in the percentage abundance of  slow waves in their
                 EEG.  However, when treated with carbaryl, a clear-
                 cut  increase  in  slow-wave  abundance  is  evident.
                 Interestingly,  Ferbam also results in  a slower and
                 more  variable   rate  of  contractions   in  intestinal
                 smooth muscle.
                   Considerable effort has been placed on  develop-
                 ment of usable radioimmunoassay (RIA)  procedures
                 for  endocrine  and neuroendocrine  studies. At the
                 present time, RIA techniques exist for the assay of
                 prolactin, FSH, GH, and cortisol.
                   EEG  recordings from  rodents and  primates ex-
                 posed  to pesticides provide material for the develop-
                 ment of computer methodology for rapid and repro-
                 ducible evaluation of pesticide-induced changes in the
                 spontaneous  EEG. In  addition, methodology is being
                 developed  for the extraction of deep-brain-structure
                 electrical activity from the EEG as recorded from the
                 scalp.


                 Multiple, Coexisting

                 Environmental Stressors

                   During  1974 a study  of the  long-term effects of
                 continuous exposure  to  lead  and tritium was com-
                 pleted. These two pollutants possess characteristics
                 which  suggested that  they might act synergistically.
                 Both are  placentally transferred; the  embryo  and
                 fetus are particularly sensitive to both, and exposure
                 to  either can  result  in  reduced litter size, stunted
                 neonates, sterility, and mental retardation.
                   Rats were exposed continuously from conception,
                 through the production  of a new generation,  to the
                 adulthood  of the F2 generation. Lead levels of Sand
                 50 ppm (100  and  1000  times the Public  Health
                 Service standards for drinking water,  respectively)
                 and tritium levels that are 2 to 200 times the standard
                 (MPCw)  for individuals  in the  general  population
                 were used in the study.
                   A synopsis  of the results of the 12-cell  matrix
                 experiment is as follows: No significant differences in
                 body  weight occurred  in  the  Ft generation from
72
ANNUAL REPORT 1974

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weaning  through  180  days  under  any  exposure
condition. Tritium exposure had no effect  on the
reproductive performance of the F!  generation; thus,
all tritium groups were combined into the appropriate
lead exposure groups. There was a suggestion that the
mean number of ovulations  per pregnancy increased
with lead exposure. Further, in animals with one or
more pre-implantation  deaths, the mean number of
deaths  per  litter increased with  increasing  lead ex-
posure. No effects were seen on litter size, resorp-
tions, sex ratio, or the weight of F2 neonates.
   The  percent body  weight of a  number of  F2
neonatal  organs was investigated. The neonatal  brain
alone   demonstrated  dose-related  reductions  with
either   lead or tritium exposures. Exposure to the
combined insults had a lesser effect than either insult
alone, suggesting that for this parameter they appear
to be antagonistic.
   Since tritium did not influence the lead concentra-
tions of  any of the organs assessed at any  age, all
tritium  data were combined  into their respective lead
dose groups. The ratio of maternal to fetal blood lead
was 1.4 and was constant throughout the lead-expo-
sure groups. Lead  levels  were exposure-related in
neonatal  blood,  liver,  and lung, but no  significant
accumulation of lead over control values occurred in
neonatal kidney, brain, heart, or spleen at either dose
level. Adult tissue concentrations had the expected
ranking of critical organs, i.e., bone > kidney > liver.
Testes of exposed  males did not concentrate lead
beyond  control values.  No  significant differences
were seen in the organ lead levels from one generation
to the next.
   At levels of  5 and 50  ppm of  lead in the drinking
water, the  age of  onset of  the righting reflex  of
newborn rats was delayed. The age of appearance of
the startle reflex and eye opening were delayed  at the
higher dose only. Thus, the righting reflex, which
represents  a higher  level of complexity of neuro-
muscular  development, is  affected  by  lower  lead-
exposure  levels. Both lead-exposure levels also re-
duced spontaneous,  exploratory  motor activity  in
residential  maze tests  at 120 days  of  age.  Interes-
tingly,  tritium  (which also  delayed neuromuscular
development and resulted in hypoactivity) and lead in
combination, antagonized each other. Although lead
alone did not alter the frequency distribution of the
spontaneous EEC, it did antagonize the tritium  effect
described above. Study of these  animals' social and
patterned behavior is continuing.
Small animal exposure facilities are used to test the health effect of gaseous and paniculate pollutants.

                                           Research Activities
                                               73

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LEGISLATIVE MANDATE

   EBL's programs support Section 103 of the Clean
Air Act  and Section  241 of the Public Health Service
Act.  The  relevant sections of the  Acts  are shown
below followed by brief descriptions of the  types of
actions taken by EBL to support them.

    "RESEARCH,  INVESTIGATION,  TRAINING,  AND
    OTHER  ACTIVITIES
    "Sec. 103. (f) (1) In carrying out research pursuant to the
       Act, the Administrator shall give  special emphasis to
       research on the short- and long-term effects of air pol-
       lutants on public health and welfare. In the further-
       ance of such research, he shall conduct an accelerated
       program—
       "(A) to improve knowledge of the contribution  of air
       pollutants  to the adverse effects of  health, including,
       but not limited  to, behavioral, physiological, toxico-
       logical, and biochemical effects; and
       "(B) to improve knowledge of the  short-  and  long-
       term effects of air pollutants on welfare.
          "(2) In carrying out the provisions of this subsec-
       tion the Administrator may—
       "(A) conduct epidemiological studies of the effects of
       air pollutants on mortality and morbidity;
       "(B) conduct clinical  and laboratory studies on the
       immunologic, biochemical, physiological, and the toxi-
       cological  effects including carcinogenic, teratogenic,
       and mutagenic effects of air pollutants; . . . ."

   EBL  programs in  support of Section 103 include
studies  on  the  effects of the  regulated  pollutants
(ozone,  nitrogen oxides,  sulfur oxides, and particu-
lates)  and  the  non-regulated pollutants  (paniculate
sulfate and nitrate, fine particulates from industrial
sources, trace  metals,  etc.) using appropriate whole
animal,  organ, cellular, or sub-cellular models. Parti-
cular  emphasis  has  been given  to the  effects of
pollutants  on  pulmonary  defense mechanisms  and
pulmonary  carcinogenesis  and  to the  influence of
interactions  between  coexisting  pollutants   and
various  physical factors upon these  pulmonary re-
                                    sponses.  The  potential  mutagenicity   of   photo-
                                    chemical oxidants  is  also under investigation. Pro-
                                    grams are under development to examine the effects
                                    of prenatal  and neonatal, as well as adult, exposure to
                                    photochemical  oxidants and carbon monoxide upon
                                    subsequent growth and development  (including de-
                                    velopment of behavioral patterns).

                                      "THE PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE ACT
                                      "Sec. 241. Research and investigations generally
                                         "The  Surgeon  General shall conduct in the Service,
                                      and encourage, cooperate with, and  render assistance to
                                      other appropriate public  authorities, scientific institu-
                                      tions, and scientists in the conduct of, and promote the
                                      coordination  of,  research, investigations,  experiments,
                                      demonstrations,  and studies relating  to the causes, diag-
                                      nosis, treatment, control, and prevention of physical and
                                      mental diseases and impairment of man, including water
                                      purification, sewage treatment, and pollution of lakes and
                                      streams . . .  ."

                                      The  "causes... of ... diseases"  cited in  Public
                                    Health  Service  Act Section 241  include ionizing and
                                    non-ionizing  radiation. The responsibility to  provide
                                    Federal  guidance  on  all  radiation  matters affecting
                                    health and  the authority to establish environmental
                                    standards for the  protection of  the general environ-
                                    ment from  radioactive  material rests with EPA. EBL
                                    programs related to ionizing radiation are centered on
                                    tritium and krypton-85, two  of the major effluents
                                    from  nuclear fuel  reprocessing  plants, and  are de-
                                    signed  to  provide  a   more  secure  data base  for
                                    prediction of potential  health effects than  is currently
                                    available. The Laboratory also  conducts an extensive
                                    program  on  the  health effects of electromagnetic
                                    non-ionizing  radiation.  Emphasis  is  placed  on  the
                                    potential mutagenic, teratogenic, and neurobiological
                                    effects—and mechanisms of interaction at the cellular
                                    and   subcellular  level—of  radiations  of  frequencies
                                    ranging  from 500 megahertz  (MHz) to 10 gigahertz
                                    (GHz).  Table  11  presents  a  summary of resources
                                    employed by EBL during Fiscal Year 1974.
           Table 11. SUMMARY OF RESOURCES FOR EXPERIMENTAL BIOLOGY LABORATORY
                                           FOR FISCAL YEAR 1975
Category
Clean Air Act, Section 103
Public Health Service Act, Section 241
Federal Environmental Pesticide
Control Act, Section 20
Total3
Funds, $103
2,160
1,450
85
3,695
74
aDoes not include $1.94 million of special energy appropriations.

                  ANNUAL REPORT 1974

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                    Pesticides
and  Toxic  Substances
                          Effects
                  Laboratory
OVERVIEW

OF PTSEL  MISSION

   EPA's Office of Pesticide Programs is responsible
for registering  pesticides for use in the U.S. and for
establishing tolerance levels of pesticide residues in or
on  raw agricultural products. All research conducted
at  ORD-RTP's  Pesticides  and  Toxic  Substances
Effects Laboratory (PTSEL) is designed to provide a
foundation for decisions made by  EPA's registration
offices.  Data  from  acute, subacute,  and  chronic
studies  in  laboratory animals and examinations of
occupationally exposed individuals are used to  aug-
ment the  basic  scientific knowledge that establishes
the need  for continued registration of pesticides or
toxic substances in use in the U.S.  Analytical chemis-
try  research  is  directed  toward  the detection of
toxicants in biological samples.
   Included  among  the basic  research goals  and
objectives of the  PTSEL is  the development, evalua-
tion, and  application of instrumental techniques in a
program of basic and applied research in two general
areas:

   •  Elucidation  of  the mechanism of  action of
      pesticides and  their  metabolic products  in a
      variety of biological substrates and in appropri-
      ate  model  systems.  This research  is accom-
      plished through the use of magnetic  resonance
      and  spectrophotometric techniques.
   •  Development of a methodology and  capability
      for  the  isolation,  detection, characterization,
      identification, confirmation,  and/or  quantita-
      tion  of  pesticide  residues,  metabolites,  and
      other chemical contaminants in human, animal,
      and   environmental   media.  This  research  is
      accomplished,  in  part, through  the use1 of
      magnetic  and quadrupole  resonance  methods,
      spectrophotometric techniques (including infra-
      red, ultraviolet, and atomic absorption), gas and
      liquid chromatography, and combinations of
      chromatographic separations with sensitive and
      specific detection systems and low- and  high-
      resolution mass spectrometry.
    Newer  and more  comprehensive analytical meth-
ods for the determination  of residues of pesticides
and their  metabolic products are being developed to
permit effective monitoring of the total environment.
The continued development of analytical methods in
pesticidal   research   is a  necessary component of
efforts to minimize human  and animal exposure and
to preserve the quality of the environment.
                                         Research Activities
                                              75

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       CHEMISTRY
         BRANCH
         TOXIC EFFECTS
            BRANCH
                                        PESTICIDES AMD TOXIC
                                        SUBSTANCES EFFECTS
                                             LABORATORY
                                    BIOCHEMISTRY
                                  AND PHYSIOLOGY
                                       BRANCH
                                   ANIMAL
                                 RESOURCES
                                    STAFF
 ORGAN/ZAT/ON

    The Pesticides and Toxic Substances Effects Labo-
 ratory  consists  of  two main  functioning laboratory
 groups: biological and physical.
    Physical research is  conducted by the Chemistry
 Branch, which is responsible both for the study of the
 metabolism  of pesticides, their  metabolites,  and
 residual  products  in  a  variety of  biological  and
 environmental substrates and for the development of
 methodology  for  the  determination  of pesticide
 residues.  In addition, quality  assurance for methods
 used by  EPA and  other  laboratories  is maintained
 through the use of a standard  reference repository
 and an instrumental  workshop  for maintenance of
 equipment.
    Biological  research is conducted  in two branches:
 the Toxic Effects  Branch and the Biochemistry and
 Physiology  Branch. The  Toxic Effects  Branch  is
 responsible  for investigating  short-  and long-term
 effects  (including reproductive hazards) of pesticides.
 Teratogenesis  and mutagenesis  potentials of pesticides
 are  principally addressed  in  this area as are acute,
 subacute,  and chronic studies  on laboratory animals.
 Complete  pathological  facilities are  available  for
 examination of  tissues  and organs  of test subjects.
 The Biochemistry  and  Physiology  Branch predomi-
 nantly investigates the mode of action of pesticides
 on  a cellular  and  subcellular  basis  using  laboratory
 animals.  Epidemiological  investigations on  occupa-
 tionally exposed workers  are carried  out in  the
 Branch's Field Studies Section located at Wenatchee,
Washington. Field  investigations on  the biological
effects  of pesticides and  toxic  substances are  also
carried  out at  Wenatchee. The Animal Resource
 Facility maintains the animal quarters  for the entire
76
                                      ANNUAL
      ORD-RTP facility.  Small  laboratory  animals, pri-
      mates,  and  selected  unusual  experimental  animals
      (e.g., voles)  are maintained for use in pesticide and
      toxic substances research.
        The  basic  purposes  of  these  facilities  are  to
      maintain  both  a level of applied research in EPA's
      areas of responsibility and the means to  respond to
      high priority problems.  The maintenance of several
      fundamental  areas of investigation allows the scien-
      tists to respond quickly to inquiries either through
      personal  experience  or  by  initiating programs  to
      resolve the issues.


     PHYSICAL  FACILITIES

        The physical facilities of the Pesticides and Toxic
     Substances Effects Laboratory, located both  at RTP
     and  in Wenatchee, are superior to most laboratories
     of  comparable  size  and function.  These facilities
     provide  instruments  for  magnetic resonance  studies
     using spectrophotometry,  for   atomic   absorption
     studies,  for  mass  analysis studies,  and  for  combi-
     nations  of chromatographic  and  mass spectroscopy
     techniques with  integrated  computer  analysis  for
     efficient,  reliable analysis of pesticide residues. To
     maintain the sophisticated electronic instruments, a
     maintenance  group provides  repair and modification
     services  to the Laboratory, to EPA pesticide contract
     laboratories,  to other Federal and State facilities, to
     the  World  Health  Organization, and  to research
     laboratories  of  foreign  governments. The  PTSEL
     repository, containing approximately 450 standard
     reference  pesticides,  provides  high-grade analytical
     standards  for U.S. and foreign  laboratories conduct-
     ing a wide variety of studies. To support biological
     studies,  radioactivity tracer equipment for measure-
REPORT 1974

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ment  of low- and high-energy emitters is available.
Complete facilities are available for the preparation
and analysis of radioactive samples.


MAJOR PROGRAM  AREAS

   Health effects research  on pesticides,  toxic sub-
stances, and their residues  includes: establishing the
chemical  identity of  residues, with  emphasis  on
significant  conversion  products;  developing,  im-
proving,  and  validating residue  measurement meth-
odology; and conducting a biological  research pro-
gram  aimed at evaluating  the  hazards of pesticides
and their residues and conversion products by acquir-
ing information  on  the effects of these materials on
animals and (ultimately) on humans.


Pesticide Identification

Methodology

   The  development of adequate methodology for
the analysis  of pesticides and their  residues is a
continuing problem requiring continual upgrading as
new  pesticides  are  introduced  or usage  patterns
change. Multiple-residue techniques  that will detect
many pesticides simultaneously have simplified the
regulatory  analytical problems;  but, they  have also
greatly  complicated  research and development pro-
grams. It is often difficult to fit a  pesticide into a
multiple-residue  detection  scheme  without compli-
cating the scheme with  the pesticides for which it was
originally developed.  A large  group  of pesticides
coming  into  increasing use is the anticholinesterase
agents, that is, the carbamates and organophosphates.
These agents are just  now  being  fitted into  such
multi-residue   techniques.  Furthermore,   multiple-
residue  detection techniques alone  do not establish
unequivocally the  identity of the pesticide residue,
particularly if artifacts or  interferences are encoun-
tered. Identity of the residue must  be confirmed  by
other methods,  and  a  variety of such  confirmatory
methods must be available for  the  many different
pesticides in use.
   In  addition to the adaptation of present methods to
new chemicals and the  development of new methods,
improvements in the sensitivity, efficiency, rapidity,
and simplicity  of existing methods are  needed  to
improve the effectiveness of a monitoring program. A
quality  control  manual for pesticide monitoring is
being  developed to  assure  the proper  analytical
control  of the  use  of pesticides.  This  analytical
manual  incorporates  collaboratively  tested methods
for determining  pesticides  and  other chemical resi-
dues  in  air, water, and food;  in human and animal
tissues;  and in  other environmental media.  At the
Effects of pesticides and toxic substances are studied
using laboratory animals.
present time this manual  has  been prepared for a
limited number  of  substrates  and pesticide com-
pounds; it is continually being upgraded. New and or
improved  analytical  methods and detection systems
for pesticides  are  being  developed and published
continually. Certain  of these methods show promise
regarding  their suitability for analysis of substrates
relating to humans and the environment and are being
evaluated  for  inclusion into the analytical  quality
control manual.
   In  an effort to establish the identity of a residue in
the presence of  interfering materials,  confirmatory
methods such as mass spectrometry are being utilized.
A high resolution mass  spectroscopy laboratory has
begun operation, and new methods for determining
trace   metals  in  human  tissues and  excreta  that
combine  mass  spectroscopy with  other analytical
tools  including gas chromatography and atomic ab-
sorption have  been developed.  Through  the applica-
tion of gas-chromatography/mass-spectroscopy tech-
niques, various  pesticides have been  identified  in
human tissues, including Mirex, Oxychlordane, HCB,
                                          Research Activities
                                              77

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 Nonaclor, and  other chlorinated pesticides  and con-
 taminants such as polychlorinated biphenyls.
    Current methodology for determining pesticides in
 air is inadequate both for sampling and for identifica-
 tion purposes.  Studies  are  currently in progress  to
 correct  this  situation  by  amplifying the sampling
 phase of the methodology. A new trapping system for
 the further determination  of pesticides in  air samples
 has been laboratory tested and  is being examined  in
 the field.
    Improved  methodology for the determination  of
 low-level organo-phosphate  exposure in humans has
 been  developed and is currently  being field tested  in
 occupationally  exposed  and normal populations. The
 urinary  alkylphosphate method has been shown to be
 sensitive and reproducible for the determination  of
 low-level exposure in humans and is expected to be a
 welcome  addition  to  the  analytical methodology
 currently available for defining such exposure.
    Environmental samples (e.g.,  human tissues, wild-
 life,  plants, and  water) of dioxin contamination  of
 range land and other areas  from 2,  4, 5-T exposure
 have been analyzed to assure that this environmental
 contaminant  has not been introduced to the U.S.
 through the normal  use of herbicides.
    In many cases, residue from the use of a pesticide
 comprises not  only the chemical applied but also
Test dose of pesticide is administered to pregnant rat
using intubation technique.
                 toxic degradation or other conversion products that
                 may be formed on exposure to light and weathering.
                 Metabolic products may be  formed  in animals and
                 deposited in edible tissues or milk. This phase of the
                 research  program ensures  that  the  composition  of
                 residues has been established and that the analytical
                 methodology developed  will measure  all  toxicologi-
                 cally significant residual chemicals. Metabolic studies
                 of chlorinated pesticides have established the occur-
                 rence  of  a  series of  metabolites of the pesticide
                 Lindane  for  which  analytical  methodology is cur-
                 rently  being developed.  The  occurrence of  these
                 metabolites  of  Lindane, formed in the liver by the
                 drug metabolizing system, forms the basis of  an  in
                 vitro screening procedure for examining the biological
                 effects of pesticides and other exogenous materials on
                 drug metabolizing enzymes.
                Quality  Assurance


                   A quality control program currently in operation
                includes:  the calibration and upgrading of instrumen-
                tation, the standardization and distribution of materi-
                als  for  the  determinative  and  clean-up  steps in
                pesticide  analyses, the distribution of standard refer-
                ence material  for  use in quality control,  and the
                evaluation of  laboratory  procedures and  perform-
                ances on  standard  reference materials. This  program
                continually upgrades  methodology  and laboratory
                capability in the 15 U.S. laboratories involved in the
                study of health effects of pesticides. Each year, over
                3000 analytical  standards  are  shipped to  approxi-
                mately  420 laboratories around the world.  All EPA
                laboratories routinely draw samples from a repository
                of standard reference materials for pesticide measure-
                ment  that includes  over  400  currently  available
                analytical standards.
                   Quality control  studies for clinical biochemistry
                and  pesticide  analytical determinations  to  assure
                reproductibility in data from various laboratories and
                various  sections  of  the courttry give  assurance that
                analytical methodology will  be available to  measure
                all  toxicologically   significant  pesticides and that
                variations will be minimal.
                   The  EPA  Regional  Office  laboratories have re-
                cently become active participants  in PTSEL's quality
                assurance  program.  Check  samples  consisting  of
                spiked quantities of pesticide residue in blood and fat
                matrices  were  analyzed  by  the  Regional Office
                laboratories in a study to determine the effectiveness
                of analytical methodology. In addition, a program of
                on-site  laboratory evaluations is nearing completion.
                These projects have underlined the need to establish a
                pesticide-residue  training program to upgrade EPA's
                analytical capability in residue analysis.
 78
ANNUAL REPORT 1974

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Health  Effects of Pesticides
and  Toxic Substances
   PTSEL's biological research  program  is directed
toward evaluating the hazard of pesticide residues and
their conversion  products by acquiring information
on  the effects  of these materials  on animals and
(ultimately)  on  humans.  This  applied  research  is
directed  to establishing the safety of pesticides and
developing the scientific foundation for  EPA pesti-
cide policies.  The research  effort includes: develop-
ment of data on new types  of pesticides to facilitate
EPA guidance of commercial  work, more detailed
examination of specific toxicological effects for their
impact on safety evaluations, examination and devel-
opment of  new toxicological methods for evaluating
product   safety,  and resolution  of  conflicting  or
equivocal data for a sounder evaluation of the safety
of  pesticides  and their  residues.  With this informa-
tion,  environmentally safe  pesticides  can be regis-
tered,  and safe tolerance levels and reliable enforce-
ment policies can be established.  In all cases, animal
experimentation  should produce  measurable  param-
eters  that  can  be  used for  logical prediction  of
toxicity in humans. It is highly desirable to determine
how toxic substances affect  humans so that an animal
species that will provide corresponding data useful in
the safety interpretation can be obtained.
   In brief,  EPA's  health  effects research includes
studies  of the  physiological  and metabolic  effects
of  pesticides  in  biological  systems  including:  the
metabolic  fate  of the compounds,  and  their bio-
chemical  reactions,  the nature  of the  metabolic
pathways  and  an  evaluation  of  their   effects  in
terms  of  toxic  action,  and  the  development  of
data on the direct effect of pesticides on  humans. In
this regard, previous primate studies on the effect of
Carbaryl,  a carbamate  insecticide, have shown that
the EEG  is a sensitive tool for measuring biological
effects. The  effect  of  several  pesticides  on  EEG
parameters in squirrel monkeys was investigated and
several points of interest emerged: the magnitude of
alteration of  the EEG  did not  correlate with  the
relative toxicity  of the compound,  similar  EEG
alterations were  induced  by  chemically  unrelated
compounds, and carbaryl was effective in altering the
EEG of squirrel monkeys at a dose that approximates
the  incidental or background  exposure levels  in
humans. This low-level exposure to carbaryl was also
responsible for certain changes in animal behavior. To
correlate these effects and to determine if they can be
duplicated  in  humans,  portable EEG units were
constructed and are being field tested in  studies  of
people who  are  occupationally  or  incidentally ex-
posed to pesticides.
Teratogenic effects of pesticides are studied through
fetal necropsy.
   The delayed neurotoxic demyelinating potential of
several organophosphate pesticides was examined in
animals.   High concentrations of  an  experimental
organophosphate insecticide were  found to  induce
demyelination  in the central and  peripheral nervous
systems causing irreversible paralysis in the animals.
The  significance  of  this  unusual  effect  from  a
potentially commercial organophosphate pesticide is
being further  investigated  to  determine its  signifi-
cance to  humans with  regard to occupational expo-
sure and ingestion of residues in food.
   In a further effort to examine the  physiological
effect of pesticides, the impact of several chlorinated
pesticides and contaminants on  reproduction was
examined in   laboratory animals.  Studies  of  the
teratological  significance of  exposure to  dieldrin,
Mirex, photodieldrin,  dioxin (several different  iso-
mers), and 2,  4, 5-T were evaluated. In addition, in
vivo and  in vitro screening techniques were developed
for the evaluation of both the neurotoxicity and the
biological effects  of  pesticides  on liver  function.
These techniques have been useful in the screening of
new pesticides prior to the initiation  of  long-term
studies to evaluate their toxicological significance.
                                          Research Activities
                                               79

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ALTERNATE PESTICIDES

PROGRAM

   The  1972  Federal  Insecticide,  Fungicide,  and
Rodenticide  Act  (FIFRA), as amended, places an
increased  emphasis  on  EPA  to  regulate  pesticide
chemicals through  full  consideration of the conse-
quences  on human  health and on the environment
from the  use  of pest control products. The determi-
nation to cancel  or suspend a product registration is
made after exhaustive review of the pesticide and of
the  potential  harm of pesticide materials designated
as potential substitutes. Recognizing the enormity of
the  program to evaluate the hazard of a pesticide and
to assess the acceptability of a substitute if removal is
indicated, a $5 million,  50-position program to study
pesticides and feasible  substitute  chemicals was in-
cluded as part of the proposed Agricultural, Environ-
mental, and Consumer Protection Appropriation Bill
for 1974.
   Three integrated strategies were considered neces-
sary to implement this program: (1) scientific review
of known registered pesticides, (2)  establishment of a
cooperative liaison with industrial  research  and de-
velopment to  expedite the development of pesticides
as substitutes for those  removed from use,  and (3)
generation of data relative to the  problem  of  a
pesticides hazard  as  a function of toxicity, persis-
tence, and potential  for eliciting  an  undesirable
response.  The review processes will define data gaps
in  background  information  that  can be filled  by
initiating research, monitoring, and testing programs.
   PTSEL maintains several broad  areas of responsi-
bility,  including  inhalation  toxicology;   toxicity
screening  and testing;  chemical  determination  of
toxicologically significant impurities  in commercial
preparations of pesticides; and multiresidue methods
for  detection of  pesticides. Primary programs are
being designed to satisfy the questions arising in the
review process of  pesticides  and  to allow  a rapid
response to all inquiries  and thus  permit the review
and  administrative  actions to be completed  in  a
minimum of time. It is anticipated that this program
will  allow EPA  to  expeditiously  remove materials
from the market  that are designated as  harmful to
humans or the environment, and  will further allow
EPA to  rationally  assess  materials  designated as
substitute chemicals.


TOXIC SUBSTANCES EFFECTS

PROGRAM

   PTSEL  has an  expanding  role  in assessing  the
toxicity  of synthetic organic compounds, metals, and
metallic   compounds and  in developing  sensitive
                 analytical methods for measuring toxic substances in
                 the  environment.  Currently,  approximately  two
                 million  chemical   compounds  are  known;  several
                 thousand new compounds are synthesized annually.
                 Each year, several  hundred of these new chemicals are
                 introduced  into commercial  use even though their
                 potential impact  on health and the environment in
                 most cases is not known.
                    The  pending  Toxic   Substances  Control  Act
                 (TSCA)  is  an important legislative  approach  to
                 control the  introduction of toxic substances into the
                 environment.  Rather than focusing on pollutants in
                 the media (e.g., air and water), the TSCA relies  on
                 understanding  the  flow  of  potentially  toxic sub-
                 stances throughout the entire  range  of activity —
                 from extraction  (or synthesis), through production
                 and consumer use, to disposal. Of particular concern
                 are  the potentially  deleterious effects  on  health
                 resulting from long-term  exposures to low levels of
                 these chemicals, alone or in combination.
                   PTSEL projects over the past year have supported
                 the research needs  of  EPA's  Office of  Toxic Sub-
                 stances. Animal model studies were completed  on the
                 effects  of  polychlorinated   biphenyl  compounds,
                 hexachlorobenzene,  cadmium, and  TCDD (2, 3, 7,
                 8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin). Preparing  for  public
                 hearings,  PTSEL  carried  out over 300  ultra-trace
                 (ppb)  determinations  of  TCDD  in  a  variety  of
                 environmental  samples  (including   human  adipose
                 tissue and agricultural products) utilizing an improved
                 sample-preparation  procedure  followed  by   high-
                 resolution mass-spectrometry analysis.
                    Future research on toxic  substances will include
                 development   of    rapid  toxicological  screening
                 methods; determination of toxic impurities  in com-
                 mercial chemicals; development of  a tissue  bank to
                 assess the accumulation of toxic substances in human
                 tissue over long time periods; and the development of
                 chemical analytical methods for the determination of
                 trace  levels  of  metals,  metallic  compounds, and
                 synthetic organic compounds. PTSEL is also planning
                 to  develop  a  rapid-response  capability  to address
                 environmental crisis situations that will involve short-
                 term  sample collection, chemical analysis, and toxico-
                 logical assessment.
                Extramural  Program
                   The extramural  research grant and  contract pro-
                gram authorized in  part by FIFRA and in part by the
                Public  Health  Service  Act continues  to  support
                extramural pesticide activity through grant and con-
                tract  research  funds. The following  program titles
                indicate areas of extramural study that provide data
                to augment PTSEL's research supporting the regula-
                tory activity of EPA:
80
ANNUAL REPORT 1974

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Pesticide-caused malformations in rat fetus are often
revealed through tissue magnification.
  Mode  of Action of  Cyclodiene  Insecticides —
  University of Arizona
  Metabolic Interations  of Hormonal Steroids and
  Chlorinate Hydrocarbons — University of Michigan
  Mechanisms of Pesticide Degradation — University
  of Wisconsin

  Actions  of  Pesticides  and Other  Drugs on  Male
  Reproductive Organs — West Virginia  University
  Medical Center
  Chemistry and Mode of Action of Insecticides —
  University of California (Riverside)

  Biological Hazards of Phototransformed Pesticides
  — Stanford Research Institute
  Metabolism  of Carbamate Insecticides  — Univer-
  sity of Kentucky
  Mixed  Function Oxidases in Insecticide Action —
  University of Illinois
  Pesticide  Epidemiological  Field  Studies  -  Uni-
  versity of Miami
 N.M.R. Studies on the Molecular Interactions of
 Pesticides  of Environmental  Concern  —  Oregon
 State University
 Investigation  of  Pesticides  in  Human  Milk —
 Meharry Medical College

 Sensitive   Specific   Fluorescence   Immunoassay
 Methods for Detecting Organic  Contaminants —
 IntelCom-RadTech

 Intermolecular  Interactions  Between  Environ-
 mental  Toxic  Substances  —  Florida  State  Uni-
 versity
 Development of in vitro Screening Methods for
 Evaluating the Neurotoxic Potential of Pesticides
 and  Toxic Substances — Duke University Medical
 Center

 Optimization and Evaluation  of  a  Microelec-
 trolytic Conductivity  Detector for Gas Chromato-
 graphic  Determination of Pesticide  Residues -
 Purdue University

 Identification of  Toxic Impurities  in  Technical
 Grades  of  Pesticides  Designated  as  Substitute
 Chemicals —  Battelle Memorial Institute

 Extension  of Multi-residue  Methodology —  Uni-
 versity of Florida

 Toxicological Evaluation  of Materials  Found as
 Impurities  in Technical Preparations of Pesticides
 Designated  as  Substitute  Chemicals  —  Battelle
 Memorial Institute

 Inhalation Toxicological Studies of Chemical Pesti-
 cides Designated as Alternate or Substitute Chemi-
 cals — Stanford Research Institute

 Organophosphate  Insecticides on Benzo(a)Pyrene
 Carcinogenesis — Thomas Jefferson University

 Development  and  Standardization of Identifica-
 tion  and  Monitoring  Techniques for Baculovirus
 Pesticides — University of Texas

 Toxaphene  Composition and  Toxicology - Uni-
 versity of California
 Metabolism and Toxic Effects of Dithiocarbamate
 Fungicides in the  Rat - Vanderbilt University
 School of Medicine

 Toxicity,  Interactions, and Metabolism of  Import
 Pesticides in Mammals - Purdue University

 Development of Isolated Embryo Screening Tech-
 niques to Assess Early Effects of  Trace Metals and
 Synthetic Organics on Mammalian Embryogeneses
 — North Carolina State University

Screening Method for Toxic Substances — Syra-
cuse University Research Corporation
                                          Research Activities
                                            81

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Electroencephalogram changes have occurred in labo-
ratory monkeys after long-term, low-level exposure to
some pesticides.
LEGISLATIVE MANDATE
   Public law  and policy and the traditions of many
decades have directed governmental efforts to assure
that the nation's food  supply  is  safe,  clean,  and
wholesome. EPA, committed to full enforcement of
these laws, has developed criteria and protocols for
pesticides and  toxic  substances  that are  effective,
workable, and enforceable. The wholesomeness of
any food supply depends in part on the quality of the
total environment:  the soil, water,  and air in which
the food is grown, processed, and consumed. Contam-
ination  of these basic natural  resources by pesticide
residues and other pollutants can affect not only the
safety of food products but also other environmental
values  such as water quality, wildlife preservation,
and  outdoor recreation.  EPA is actively seeking to
                protect and manage these resources in. the interest of
                greater human safety and welfare.
                  The statutory authority for  the  regulation  of
                pesticides and pesticide residues delegates the respon-
                sibility for  the  registration  of  pest control  materials
                to  EPA. In addition, the establishment of tolerances
                for  pesticides  in or on  human food and  feed for
                animals has been delegated in part to EPA and in part
                to the Food and Drug Administration of the Depart-
                ment of Health, Education, and Welfare.
                   If the proposed use of a pesticide will  result in
                residues on a food or feed crop, a registration for its
                use  is granted provided a tolerance has  been estab-
                lished by the regulatory authorities within EPA. The
                regulation  of pesticide  and pesticide residues by the
                Federal government encompasses those  pesticides or
                residues involved in  interstate commerce. Pesticides in
                food supplies produced and used within a  State are
                under the  jurisdiction  of  that State.  The various
                Federal agencies work closely  with their State coun-
                terparts in pesticide regulation and control, however.
                  The Federal  Insecticide, Fungicide, and  Rodenti-
                cide  Act (FIFRA), enacted in  1947, regulates the
                marketing of economic poisons and devices. This act
                was amended in  1959,  1964,  and more recently in
                1972  to  include  the  Federal  Environmental  Pest
                Controls Act (FEPCA).
                  The term "economic  poison" is  defined  as any
                substance  or mixture  of  substances intended for
                preventing,  destroying,  repelling, or mitigating forms
                of  plant  and animal life (such as  insects, rodents,
                fungi, and weeds) or viruses (except viruses on or in
                living humans or other  animals) and any substance or
                mixture of  substances  intended  for use as a plant
                regulator, defoliant, or dessicant. Under this  act no
                pesticide  chemical  may  be  legally shipped in inter-
                state commerce for general use until it is known to be
                safe  when  used  as directed  and effective for the
                purpose claimed on the label.  Also, any residues that
                may remain in  or on feed or food must not exceed
                the safe tolerance levels established under the Food,
                Drug, and  Cosmetic Act (FDCA). FIFRA prohibits
                the shipment in interstate commerce of products that
                are not registered or are adulterated  or misbranded.
                Products that  are  in violation  of the  Act may be
                seized and  criminal  action  instituted  against the
                shipper of such products. In the more recent amend-
                ment (FEPCA), in addition  to directing labeling
                restrictions  for pesticide registration, EPA is respon-
                sible for: prescribing standards for the certification of
                applicators  of  pesticides; administering  the use per-
                mits system; registering pesticide producers including
                the  examination   of  records  and  books and the
                inspection  of plants; conducting research and moni-
                toring activities including monitoring air, water, soil,
                humans, plants, and animals; and regulating pesticides
                imported to or  exported from the country.
82
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   EPA's  authority  for the establishment of toler-
ances  for  pesticides  in  or  on  foodstuffs  or  raw
agricultural  products  is provided by  the Pesticide
Chemical  Amendment  (PCA)  of the  FDCA.  The
paramount purpose of this Act is to assure the safety
of the nation's food supply.  In part,  this assurance is
provided by  ensuring that the residues remaining on
the food are safe for  consumption and by requiring
government clearance before a pesticide is used. This
Act  further  provides for seizure  and destruction of
agricultural commodities that  contain pesticide  resi-
dues  in excess of  established  tolerances. Where no
tolerance has been established  Commodities carrying
residues  in excess  of  established working levels  are
also  subject to seizure and destruction. This Act also
provides both for 'jrirpinal  penalties for violation and
for legal injunctions to halt  use. The FDCA outlines
the  data onci inK.'.'mation to  be furnished and the
procedures to be followed for obtaining  a pesticide
tolerance. Additional  procedures and  more  specific
data requirements in the regulations ensure that food
safety requirements are met prior TO  establishing a
tolerance.  As  provided under 'Section  408 of the
FDCA, tolerances are established  for  raw agricultural
commodities, net for processed food. If the residues
remaining in  a  processed food  have been removed to
the fullest extent possible through good manufactur-
ing processes and do not exceed ihe tolerances on the
raw product, the  processed product complies with the
law. In general, the residues in processed food are a
fraction of the amount permitted on the raw agricul-
tural product. To cover the  residues of  pesticides
applied to or concentrated in processed foods, toler-
ances may be established under Section 409 of the
Food Additive-; Amendment of the FDCA, adminis-
tered by the  Food end Drug Administration. Because
the  major  use of pesticides  in  the  U.S.  is  on  raw
agricultural commodities, the overwhelming majority
of  established  tolerances  sre on these  products.
Ideally  pesticide residue tolerances should apply to
ready to eat  food on the dinner plate  because it is the
quantity of  pesticide  actually  consumed that has
health significance; however, tolerances established at
this  point in the food  chain would not be practical.
Therefore,  a  point in  the distribution system where
meaningful, corrective action can  be taken to prevent
the  consumption of  unsafe  amounts  of pesticide
chemicals has been  selected. The tolerance concept
does  not  anticipate,  as a  practical matter, that all
foods will contain residues of aH chemicals as high as
the established tolerance level, or even  that all of a
single  food  will  always contain  a  residue at the
tolerance level.
   Within the framework of  registration of pesticides
and  of  establishment  o; ?   tolerance for pesticides,
several consideration?  mu
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               Table 12. SUMMARY OF RESOURCES FOR PESTICIDES AND TOXIC
                           SUBSTANCES EFFECTS LABORATORY
                                 FOR FISCAL YEAR 1975

                  (Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act, As Amended)
Category
Pesticides health effects research
Pesticide identification methodology
Toxic substances health effects research
Quality assurance
Alternate pesticides program
Total
Funds, $103
2,252
504
620
327
1,595
5,298
84
ANNUAL REPORT 1974

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Environmental
     Sciences
     Research
   Laboratory

-------

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   Chemistry
and  Physics
  Laboratory
OVERVIEW
OF CPL MISSION

   Chemistry and Physics Laboratory (CPL) manages
and conducts an intramural and extramural research
program that provides (1) techniques and instrumen-
tation  for  the  measurement of atmospheric  pollu-
tants, (2)  information  on  the chemical and physical
transformations that pollutants undergo in the at-
mosphere,  and  (3)  information on  the effects  of
atmospheric pollutants  on  materials. While each  of
these program areas contributes directly to the air
pollution control program,  all are also closely interre-
lated:  air  pollution  measurement  techniques and
instrumentation research support atmospheric  chem-
istry and physics studies; atmospheric chemistry and
physics studies provide information on what measure-
ment techniques  are  needed;  and  studies  of the
effects of atmospheric pollutants on materials provide
information on mechanisms whereby pollutants can
be removed from the atmosphere.
                                                    ORGAN/ZAT/ON

                                                       The Chemistry and  Physics Laboratory  is orga-
                                                    nized  into three branches. One of these deals with the
                                                    problems of the  physical  and chemical transforma-
                                                    tions of pollutants in the atmosphere, and the other
                                                    two are concerned with the development of tech-
                                                    niques and  instrumentation for the measurement of
                                                    air pollution. All  three branches are involved in both
                                                    laboratory and field  research  and implement their
                                                    programs through in-house projects and extramural
                                                    research  grants,  contracts,  and interagency agree-
                                                    ments.
EPA research groups use a mobile laboratory for aero-
sol studies and a water channel-towing tank for fluid
modeling studies.
Atmospheric Chemistry

and Physics Branch

   The program  of the Atmospheric Chemistry and
Physics  Branch  involves  both  laboratory  and field
studies.  Laboratory  studies are conducted  in  clean
glass chambers with synthetic mixtures and  in large
irradiation chambers with real mixtures such as motor
vehicle exhaust. Hypotheses developed in these labo-
ratory studies are tested in the field by analysis of the
atmosphere at critical sites chosen on the basis of the
pollution sources, meteorology, and topography of
the area.
   The results of the measurements are expressed in
mathematical  models  of  the atmospheric chemical
transformations.  The laboratory and field studies are
                                        Research Activities
                                             87

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         AIR QUALITY
        MEASUREMENT
          METHODS
           BRANCH
                                    CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS
                                          LABORATORY
                                          ATMOSPHERIC
                                           CHEMISTRY
                                           AND PHYSICS
                                             BRANCH
                                          EMISSION
                                       MEASUREMENTS
                                          RESEARCH
                                           BRANCH
centered on  the  following principal atmospheric
problems:  (1) transformation and removal of oxides
of nitrogen and  organic compounds,  (2) oxidation
and  removal  of  sulfur dioxide,  (3) relationships
between oxidant  and its chemical precursors, (4) the
characteristics and origins  of  atmospheric aerosols,
(5) visibility reduction by atmospheric pollutants, (6)
interactions between pollutants and surfaces; and (7)
distribution and  reactions of halogenated pollutants.
The scientific data obtained in these studies provide a
basis for decisions on air pollution control actions.


Air Quality Measurement

Methods  Branch

   The Air Quality Measurement  Methods  Branch
conducts research operations providing EPA with the
capability  of assessing  environmental quality. This
research is designed to produce and evaluate new and
improved techniques for the identification and quan-
tification of contaminants in the environment for
field and laboratory use. The  Branch develops instru-
ments for performing continuous or periodic moni-
toring  of the environment  with  minimal  human
attendance,  and  develops sensor systems  for  air
quality measurement of pollutants in ambient air.
Staff personnel  provide methods for the analytical
extraction of contaminants from  the environment
and for the  qualitative and quantitative analysis of
said contaminants after transport to  the laboratory.
               Em/ss/on  Measurement

               Research  Branch

                 The Emission Measurements Research Branch con-
               ducts  research and development activities to provide
               analytical techniques and instruments for the identifi-
               cation  and precise measurement of environmental
               pollutants  in emissions discharged from all types of
               sources, both  mobile and stationary. These activities
               are carried out primarily  to support the implementa-
               tion   of  national emission  standards  for  mobile
               sources, performance standards  for new stationary
               sources,   and   national  emission   standards  for
               hazardous  air pollutants as  required under the pro-
               visions of the Clean Air Act of 1970. This Branch also
               conducts  studies  for  the  chemical  and  physical
               characterization of pollutants emitted  from  various
               sources.

               PHYSICAL FACILITIES

                 A long-path infrared spectroscopy system capable
               of a  1  kilometer path  length is operated by EPA
               personnel.  The  long-path cell is also an irradiation
               chamber with a basic length of 30 feet. The use of a
               Fourier Transform spectrometer and a computer for
               immediate data analysis  permits detection of pollu-
               tants  at concentrations  of  a part per billion  (by
               volume). The  system is now  used to detect pollutants
               that  have  not  been  measured  or  that  have been
88
ANNUAL REPORT 1974

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measured only with difficulty both in the laboratory
and in the field.
   Several  mobile  laboratories are  used  for  field
studies of atmospheric chemistry and physics. These
laboratories are  equipped  with gas chromatographs,
ozone, sulfur dioxide, and  nitrogen oxides analyzers.
Aerosol sampling and sizing equipment is available, as
well as weather monitoring equipment.
   Two smog chambers are operational for simulation
of polluted atmosphere for study of aerosol  forma-
tion   and  growth  and  hydrocarbon/nitrogen-oxide/
oxidant  reactions. A high-altitude  chamber is being
built for the study of ozone-Freon interactions.
   A  research  prototype lidar system, designed speci-
fically for particulate emission measurements from
stationary  sources, is housed  in a  mobile van  to
facilitate  field studies now in  progress.  This  system
provides a capability for measurement of the opacity
of  particulate  emissions  at  ranges  of 0.5  to  1
kilometer from pollution sources.
   For  the remote optical  sensing of gaseous emis-
sions from stationary sources, a  research infrared
spectrophotometer (ROSE System) is available. This
instrument is also capable of long-path measurement
of extended source emissions. The ROSE System has
scanning capability  in  the  3- to 5-  and 7- to  14-
micron  wavelength  range and high resolution  (1.0
cm"1). It is  housed  in  a mobile van and  used to
support field studies that characterize gaseous emis-
sions from various source industries.
   An  experimental stationary  source  simulator is
installed  in a leased facility at the Beaunit Corpora-
tion Technical Center in the  Research Triangle  Park.
This facility is  used to  generate test flue gases with
particulate  matter, moisture, and  other  pollutants
under defined conditions that must be known so that
sampling and analysis  methods can  be evaluated
under  controlled  experimental  situations  before
actual  field testing  is undertaken. This equipment
provides a 0.6 x 0.9 x 10.5 m (2- by 3- by 35- foot)
test section, up  to 233°C (450°F) flue gas tempera-
ture,  and 24  m/sec (80 ft/sec) flow velocities to
simulate  conditions encountered in  typical power
plant operations. Extractive  and cross-stack optical
Pollutant emission patterns from exhaust stacks of stationary sources are simulated using ORD-RTP's wind
tunnel.  Test automobiles are used in developing measurement methods for mobile sources.
                                          Research Activities
                                               89

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instruments,  as well as remote  sensing-systems,  are
tested at this facility before actual installation or field
testing at various industrial sources.
   An X-ray fluorescence multispectrometer system is
now available for rapid elemental analysis of airborne
particulate samples. By  automated operation of an
array of crystal spectrometers,  the system  achieves
high resolution, sensitivity, and  speed  in analyzing
large  numbers  of  samples for up to several  dozen
elements.
   The  electron  optical facilities include  scanning
electron  microscopy  (SEM),  transmission  electron
microscopy  (TEM), and X-ray diffraction equipment.
The SEM, used for  morphological  studies of sta-
tionary and  mobile source particulate  emissions, is
equipped with two X-ray spectrometers that give  it a
capability for quantitative and  qualitative chemical
analysis as well. The wavelength X-ray spectrometer
allows conversion  of the SEM to an electron  micro-
probe for quantitative chemical  analysis of  particles
smaller  than  1 micron  in  diameter.  The energy
dispersive  X-ray  spectrometer  allows   qualitative
chemical analysis,  for  elements  beyond sodium, of
particles only a few hundred angstroms in diameter.
The TEM is used for examination of particles smaller
than 0.1 micron diameter  where crystal  structure is
an important consideration. Electron diffraction tech-
niques afford a means of identifying  the compound
species of the particles being examined. X-ray diffrac-
tion is used  for identification of crystalline  material
or  mixtures. Quantitative  analysis  is possible  from
observation   of  intensities of  X-ray  maxima as a
function of percentage composition of a  crystalline
phase.
   The Laboratory's capability for research on mobile
source emission measurements includes instruments
for analysis  of particulate and gaseous components
such as sulfates, fuel-additive components, and other
nonregulated  emissions. This general capability  is
provided by analytical facilities that include:
   1. Hitachi RMU-6L mass spectrometer coupled to
      a  Perkin-Elmer 990  gas chromatograph. The
      mass  spectrometer accurately  measures  the
      atomic mass  of molecules presented to it, while
      the  gas chromatograph  provides fractionation
      by  the principle  of  absorption.  The  mass
      spectrometer can  also  analyze gaseous  and
      liquid  samples to provide unique information
      on  the molecular  weights of  the  chemical
      species present.
   2.  Gas chromatography capability for separating
     and analyzing automotive exhaust by its indivi-
     dual components. This capability typically  re-
     sults in identifying over  100 hydrocarbons and
     many  substituted organic  components,  and is
     being  expanded  to  higher molecular weight
     components.  The  principles  involve  selective
                      absorption, elution, and detection using flame
                      ionization detectors that respond with extreme
                      sensitivity to individual carbon atoms. Typical
                      sensitivities are about 0.01 ppm. Special tech-
                      niques  allow  these  limits  to  be   extended
                      approximately an order of magnitude.
                   3. Other general   analytical  equipment  include
                      Nuclear Magnetic Resonator atomic absorption,
                      (Varian T60), infrared spectrophotometer (P-E
                      180),  Ultra-violet-visible  spectrophotometers
                      (Gary Model 14 and Beckman Model  B), chemi-
                      luminescence equipment,  microbalances, liquid
                      chromatographs, and  other modern  analytical
                      laboratory instruments.
                   The  mobile source  testing facility   is  located
                 partially  in  the  Environmental  Research  Center
                 facility and partially  in leased  space  in the Beaunit
                 Technical Center in  RTP. The facilities consist of test
                 stand  arrangements  for evaluating  new  emission
                 measurement methods, for studies of fuel and control
                 systems  effects on  automobile and  truck tailpipe
                 emissions, and for work on evaporative emissions.
                   Two chassis dynamometers are available  for testing
                 passenger cars and  light trucks weighing  up to 4.5
                 tennes (10,000 pounds). These  treadmill-like  devices
                 simulate the roadway  loading effects on a  stationary
                 automobile, including  such factors as the influence of
                 car  inertia  on  accelerations and decelerations, tire
                 friction, and aerodynamic drag. With this  apparatus,
                 it is possible to operate a car over controlled  driving
                 cycles to derive a close  approximation of vehicular
                 emission characteristics for city street, urban express-
                 way, or  highway cruising models. Such equipment is
                 also useful for the measurement of fuel consumption
                 over standardized representative driving routes.
                   Chassis  dynamometers such  as these are useful in
                 development of analytical methods and instruments
                 for measurement of  pollutant substances in certifying
                 motor vehicles and  for studies  of pollutant emission
                 patterns for both production and prototype cars.
                   Three engine dynamometer test stands are also
                 available  to  simulate  road  influence on engines
                 removed from  cars and for studies  of control  system
                 performance. Tests on these dynamometer stands are
                 inherently  more controllable than are whole-vehicle
                 tests.  Such equipment  is  particularly  useful  for
                 studies of fuel composition and  additive effects where
                 subtle changes must  be detected;  for automated,
                 rapid  mileage  accumulation;   and  particularly  for
                 studies of  the influence of  engine operating para-
                 meters on pollutant emissions.
                   Two  of  these  engine dynamometer stands are
                 capable  of simulating gasoline engine and control
                 system operation  over a wide  variety of  cyclic and
                 steady-state conditions. The third stand has a similar
                 capability with medium-and heavy-duty diesel  engines
                 up to 375 horsepower.
90
ANNUAL  REPORT 1974

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Atmospheric photochemical reactions of pollutants are studied in ORD-RTP's small "smog chamber."
   All five test stands are equipped with appropriate
particulate  and gaseous emission sampling devices.
The  gasoline  engine stands  mount  EPA-designed
dilution tunnel samplers together with constant vari-
ance-type  gas  samplers.  The  diesel  engine dynamo-
meter uses a special particulate-gas sampler (devel-
oped for CPL under contract) that permits operation
over the 13-mode Federal test cycle.
   The test stands are also equipped with a variety of
state-of-the-art  analytical  instruments  suitable  for
both continuous and grab-sample  measurements of
gaseous emissions.
MAJOR PROGRAM AREAS

   Principal efforts of personnel of the Chemistry and
Physics  Laboratory are  aimed  at:  (1)  studies of
the physical and chemical transformations that pollu-
tants undergo from source to receptor in  the atmos-
phere, (2) development of techniques and  instrumen-
tation for measuring ambient air pollution, and (3)
development  of  techniques  and  instruments  for
measuring pollutants in emissions from sources.


Pollutant Transformation

   Formation  and  Removal  of  Noxious  Gases in
Atmosphere—Transformations of sulfur oxides, nitro-
gen oxides, and organic pollutants are being identified
and  described  quantitatively. Both  gas and  con-
densed-phase   processes  are  under  investigation.
Reactivities and reaction paths are being established.
Intermediate chemical species as well as final oxida-
tion products are  being identified and measured. Real
atmospheres are studied with mobile equipment at
selected  locations.  Simulated polluted  atmospheres
are studied under  controlled conditions in the labora-
tory. Results, applied to the mechanisms of chemical
reactions,  are  yielding  parameters  for  the  mathe-
matical  modeling  of the atmospheric transformation
processes. The results are disseminated in reports on
the chemical and  physical processes involved in the
formation,  transport,   and  removal  of toxic  and
                                         Research Activities
                                              91

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 noxious substances in  the  atmosphere: insights into
 the self-cleansing properties  of the  atmosphere, are
 given, rate and mechanism data are provided for the
 mathematical  modeling of the reactions in the pol-
 luted  air,  relationships between pollutant  emissions
 and adverse effects are described, and advice is given
 as to control strategies for  minimizing  the formation
 of noxious gases in the  atmosphere.

    Halogenated   Compounds   in    Atmosphere-
 Research  programs on  halogenated  pollutants have
 been  underway in CPL for  several  years.  Recent
 findings on  ozone-Freon interactions  in the strato-
 sphere have given a new urgency to these studies. CPL
 research activities on halogenated compounds include
 measuring ambient levels in the field and carrying out
 laboratory studies of  photochemical  reactions  and
 reactivities under smog type conditions, determining
 diffusion  rates,  and identifying  removal  processes.
 Recent research has  shown the ways in which vinyl
 chloride,  I, 1  dichloroethylene, trichloroethylene,
 and tetrachloroethylene react under moderate smog
 conditions.  Further  data  are being sought on the
 sources, sinks, and chemical effects of the many types
 of halogenated air pollutants.

    Oxidant Transport  to Nonurban  Areas—Previous
 studies in  California  have  suggested that high ozone
 levels  observed in nonurban areas are a result of the
 transport  of  oxidants  and  oxidant precursors from
 large urban areas such as  Los Angeles. More recently,
 high ozone levels have been studied in nonurban areas
 of  West Virginia, Ohio, Florida, and  New York. In
 each  case, the data  suggested that high ozone levels
 are due to the long-range transport of ozone and/or
 ozone precursors. Additional  field studies will  be
 carried  out in the  New  England area. A thorough
 analysis of all the data gathered may indicate that
 control strategies must be designed for entire regions.
   Determination of Oxidant/Precursor Relationships
 for Control Strategies—Oxidants are legally controlled
 pollutants, but they  are not emitted directly into the
 atmosphere.  Oxidants are  formed  in the  air  by
 photochemical reactions  involving  nitrogen oxides,
 oxygen, and hydrocarbons. The word oxidant desig-
 nates material  that  causes an  oxidation  reaction in
 certain test procedures. Oxidants generally consist of
 about 90 percent ozone and  10 percent peroxyacetyl
 nitrates.
   Control of oxidants follows from control of their
 precursors, nitrogen  oxides and hydrocarbons. Per-
 missible  limits  of  precursor concentrations  must,
 therefore,  be based  on knowledge of photochemical
 processes in the air.
   Both laboratory and field studies are  being con-
ducted to determine oxidant/precursor  relationships.
Current laboratory studies are  concerned with oxi-
dant/precursor   dependencies   under   conditions
simulating  (1> above-city atmospheres, (2) wind-trans-
Elemental analyses of atmospheric aerosols are conducted using X-ray fluorescence techniques.
92                                   ANNUAL REPORT 1974

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ported urban plumes,  (3) nonurban atmospheres, and
(4)  future  atmospheres  as  modified  by  ongoing
emission control.  Field studies concern the potential
formation of oxidants  from natural organic emissions.
Emission analysis  and  inventory studies are also being
conducted  to   explore  the  utility of  a  selective
emission control concept in oxidant abatement strate-
gies.

   Character and  Origin of  Aerosols-Physical  and
chemical properties of source, ambient, and natural
aerosols  are being determined. The major sinks  for
aerosol  pollutants  are  being identified  and   the
removal  rates are being defined.  The effects  of  the
aerosols on  gas-phase atmospheric chemical reactions
are under  investigation, along with  the gas/particle
conversions and the particle-removal processes.  The
results of the research are being used to establish the
contribution of the various sources to the ambient
atmospheric aerosol  loading;  characterize  urban,
natural, primary source, and  secondary source aero-
sols; develop quantitative descriptions  of generation
and removal rates associated with each major aerosol
source  and sink; and quantify  aerosol effects  on
atmospheric chemical  reactions. The scientific data
are basic to the promulgation of fine-particle criteria
and standards  and to the  development of effective
control procedures.

   Relating  Fine-particle Aerosols  to  Sources—The
pollution aerosol is a dynamic system whose physical
and chemical characteristics depend in a complex way
on the background aerosol and  on  particle and  gas
emissions.  The  goal of this  research is to develop
experimental and  theoretical methods for relating  the
properties  of the  pollution  aerosol to the  charac-
teristics  of  emission sources. This is  being  accom-
plished by  (1)  beginning with the observed charac-
teristics of the pollution aerosol and formulating a set
of hypotheses relating the  aerosol to the sources of
particles  and  gases,  (2)  carrying  out laboratory
experiments and  theoretical  calculations  aimed at
testing these mechanisms, and (3) arriving at a tested
quantitative understanding of the  origins of the smog
aerosol. Experimental  studies include  investigations
of the conversion  of organic gases and sulfur dioxide
to particulate matter in an ozone-rich atmosphere.

   Regional  Air Pollution Study: Air Quality Charac-
terization-The monitoring network of the RAPS will
measure   gaseous   pollutant  concentrations  and
meteorological  variables  for  use  in modeling  the
transport of the pollutants in  the urban air mass. The
network  will  have little impact  on describing  and
modeling the transformations  of the pollutants, how-
ever, especially aerosol formation  and growth. It has
therefore been necessary to establish this subprogram,
which addresses atmospheric chemistry problems.
Atmospheric particulate  matter  is analyzed using
liquid chromatography.
   A  team of  experienced  aerosol  scientists was
assembled  in St. Louis in  the summers of 1973 and
1974 to conduct an intensive aerosol characterization
program.  Previous experience  with  the  California
aerosol  study  was the basis for the development  of
this aerosol study. Special  EPA mobile facilities were
used for aerosol  characterization. The results of the
study are currently being analyzed and developed for
publication. Two gaseous pollutant transformation
projects have been undertaken: the first is the study
of the transformations of nitorgen oxides and  sulfur
oxides in  power  plant plumes; the second is labora-
tory verification of the kinetic models that are to  be
applied  to the network data.
   The  program  output  includes: identification  of
sources  of  visibility loss in St. Louis; specifications of
particle sizes,  spectra, and  chemical  composition;
fine-particle  spatial  distribution;  identification  of
gas/particle interactions for development of visibility
reduction models; data on choice of tracer substances
for study  of  regional atmospheres; and  chemical
inputs to the photochemical modeling effort.
                                           Research Activities
                                               93

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   Effects  of   Air   Pollutants  on  Materials—The
damaging effects of air pollution on a wide variety of
materials have been recognized  for many years. Both
laboratory  and  field studies have shown that polluted
environments can (1) accelerate the corrosion rates of
many metals; (2) produce fading in certain economi-
cally important textile dyes; (3) cause products made
from common  types  of rubber to crack; (4) reduce
the service life of oil-base house paints; (5) deterio-
rate a number of building materials such as limestone,
marble,  and  mortar; (6) discolor  and  physically
damage statuary and other works of art; (7) degrade
certain textile fibers, especially  cotton and nylon; (8)
embrittle and discolor paper; and (9) weaken leather.
Although these cause-effect relationships are well-
known, the important need today is comprehensive
information  on  dose-response  relationships.  Such
information is  needed to set secondary  air quality
standards and to make cost-benefit studies.
   As  a  first  step in fulfilling this need,  CPL re-
searchers  planned, conducted,  and  recently  com-
pleted,  a statistically designed laboratory exposure
study to establish cause-effect  relationships between
pollutants  (SOj,  NOa, and Os) and economically
important materials. Five controlled-environment ex-
posure chambers especially  designed for this study
were used. The results showed  that weathering steel,
galvanized  steel,  stressed high-strength  aluminum
alloy, marble, and oil-base house paint  were mainly
affected  by  airborne sulfur dioxide  and relative
humidity, and the interaction between the two. When
the  magnitude  of damage  and  the economics  of
materials selection and replacement were considered,
vinyl and  acrylic  coil coatings, vinyl plastic siding,
and white  tire-sidewall rubber were  not appreciably
affected  by any of the pollutants. The results of this
study will be published as a special EPA report.


Ambient Pollutant

Measurement


   Ambient Air Particulate  Measurement—This pro-
ject  provides   EPA  with the  ability  to  measure
parameters  known or judged relevant to  pollution of
the atmosphere by suspended  particles. Parameters
presently considered include mass,  particle  size dis-
tribution, and elemental composition.
   Noteworthy  progress has  been made  in designing
devices capable of collecting particles in regimes of
two  sizes (0 to  3.5  and 3.5  to  20 micrometers).
Samples  are examined for  mass determination by
beta-ray attenuation, and  for elemental  composition
by  X-ray fluorescence.  Filters, filter holders, filter
transport mechanisms, and identification coding and
decoding devices have been  designed for total com-
                patibility, resulting in a system geared to the handling
                of large  numbers of samples with minimum oppor-
                tunity for human error.
                   A major accomplishment has been the develop-
                ment of a simple, sensitive, and reasonably specific
                device    for   the   automated   collection   and
                quantification of sulfuric acid mist. Evaluation is now
                in progress.
                   Important progress was made toward development
                of a  rapid, sensitive,  and  precise method for the
                measurement of benzo(a) pyrene, an important car-
                cinogenic pollutant.
                   Future efforts will include further improvements
                in collection,  sizing, and analyzing techniques,  and
                development of objective methods for assessing visi-
                bility reduction.

                   Fine-particulate Methodology—This program will
                provide  a simple, low-cost device that will effect the
                dichotomous  collection  of  respirable  and  non-
                respirable particles  from  ambient air in a manner
                compatible with subsequent assessment of their mass
                and chemical composition.
                On-the-scene research into atmospheric aerosol behav-
                ior is performed using ORD-RTP's mobile laboratory.
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   A  contract  for  prototype two-stage  collection
devices  that will  be fieldworthy  yet  amenable  to
production at moderate cost was completed in 1975.
Design  criteria  included  an  intake  section  whose
performances will  not be seriously affected by wind
direction or speeds of up to 15 km/hr.
   Future activity will  include field evaluation of the
product described above and fabrication of improved
second-generation  prototypes.  Every effort will  be
made to provide the capability  of real-time assess-
ment of atmospheric fine-particle burden in the  final
product. A  corollary activity  is the development  of
reliable methods for generating monodisperse aerosols
of  precisely known particle   size for  use in  the
calibration of sizing instrumentation.

   RAPS  Measurements  and  Instrumentation—This
program provides measurement capabilities necessary
to complete the Regional  Air Pollution  Study. RAPS
has its own X-ray Fluorescence Analyzer capable  of
analyzing  collected particulate samples  for up to 30
elements.  Sensitivity and  analysis time  are sufficient
to handle large numbers  of samples collected  over
periods  of 2 hours or more.
   Twelve  automated   dichotomous  samplers  were
fabricated to collect particulate samples  and segregate
respirable   from  nonrespirable  fractions.  These
samplers have  been installed   in St.  Louis and are
currently  fully  operational. A beta-gauge was de-
veloped to assess the mass of particles in  each fraction
collected. This  gauge will  be fabricated  to handle the
same samples collected for X-ray analysis.
   Two separate  laser-powered,  long-path spectro-
photometers were  developed  for use  in RAPS for
determining gaseous  pollutant  burdens,  averaged  over
line-of-sight paths  of up to 1  kilometer. Results will
be utilized in improving pollution-transport modeling
capability. These instruments are capable of analyzing
carbon  monoxide,  ozone,  and sulfur  dioxide,  and
other pollutants.
   EPA personnel, working  with researchers from the
Lincoln Laboratory  and  the  General Electric Com-
pany,  performed  the  first field  experiments  em-
ploying long-path  monitors. Ambient  carbon mon-
oxide and ozone have been  measured at selected  sites
in the Regional Monitoring  System in St.  Louis. The
unique ability of path  monitors  to measure average
concentrations  over long linear distances  provides
validity checks of on-site measurements.
   A gas-chromatographic  instrument capable  of
measuring acetylene at levels  of 0.1  ppb was fabri-
cated under contract. This capability will be used  in
studies  using accetylene  as an  intrinsic tracer  sub-
stance indicative of automotive traffic.
   Further work in  this program will consist largely
of field trials  and  applications of the  techniques
described above.
   Instruments for Measuring Gaseous Pollutants in
Ambient Air—This program provides EPA with both
instrumental  and  laboratory   methods  for   the
measurement of important gaseous pollutants such as
ozone,  nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides, carbon mon-
oxide,  and hydrocarbons. Its  aims are:  to provide
measurement capability for a specific pollutant where
a  need  is known to exist, to improve that capability
to an EPA-acceptable level of reliability,  to simplify
the hardware resulting from initial efforts to a degree
permitting  routine  operation  of  the  method  or
instrument by personnel available  to enforcement
agencies,  and to  seek design  optima  (or  alternate
methods/instruments) that will facilitate proliferation
at costs commensurate with available resources.
   A simple, sensitive monitor for vinyl chloride was
developed  through in-house research. Specificity and
sensitivity  of response are achieved by gas chromato-
graphic separation  followed  by  detection  of  the
chemiluminescence from  the  gas-phase reaction  be-
tween  vinyl chloride and  excess ozone. A noise-
equivalent concentration of  50  ppb and  a linear
response up to  10  ppm  suggest  use  in  monitoring
employee exposure levels.
   A small, lightweight monitor for ambient carbon
monoxide  has  been developed  under contract. The
detection   of carbon  monoxide  is based  on  the
nondispersive optical  absorption  technique  of  gas
filter correlation. A noise-equivalent concentration of
20 ppb represents an order of magnitude  improve-
ment over current commercial instrumentation. The
instrument operates at atmospheric pressure, is  not
sensitive to  flow rates, and requires no additional
gases.
   Future  programs will be directed to developing an
absolute calibration for ozone  based on ultraviolet
spectroscopy.  In  addition,  a  program  to  exploit
fluorescence methods to measure nitrogen  dioxide
and  sulfur dioxide has recently been initiated. These
fluorescence devices, if perfected, have the potential
of being lower in cost and more reliable than current
procedures being used to monitor sulfur dioxide and
nitrogen dioxide.


Emission Measurements

Research

   Selection  of   Criteria  for  Stationary  Source
Measurement  Strategies—This  activity consists   of
efforts to develop performance criteria for prescribed
methods and monitoring systems and to establish test
procedures by which criteria can be verified.
   Performance  specifications  and  test  procedures
were developed as guidelines for continuous emission
monitors of sulfur dioxide nitrogen oxides and visible
                                          Research Activities
                                               95

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paniculate matter  (opacity). The specifications and
procedures were  based  on results of field studies in
which  commercially available monitors  were evalu-
ated at several industrial sources. A technical publica-
tion on these specifications and  procedures provided
the basis  for their use as guidelines for  monitoring
systems  in  support  of  New  Source  Performance
Standards  (NSPS) and  State  Implementation Plans.
Studies are continuing  to provide similar technical
documentation for  emission monitors  for carbon
monoxide water  soluble fluorides, hydrogen sulfide,
hydrocarbons,  total  reduced sulfur,  and  mass  of
particulate matter.  Additional effort is continuing in
evaluating the applicability of the present monitoring
guidelines to additional  source industries identified in
upcoming  regulations and modifying the guidelines
for these industries if  necessary on an industry-by-
industry basis.
   Reference measurement methods  have been pre-
scribed in  the Federal Register  in support of NSPS.
Equivalent and   alternative methods have been  de-
fined,  but their acceptance is subject to the approval
of the EPA  Administrator. Activity is underway  to
provide technical data on  the criteria and procedures
for  assessing the  acceptability  of  any proposed
equivalent or alternative method. Reference measure-
ment  methods under evaluation include those  for
emissions of particulate mass, sulfur dioxides, nitrogen
dioxide, total fluorides,  hydrogen sulfide, and sulfuric
acid mist. The evaluations involve field studies of the
methods applied  to specific  source-pollutant combi-
nations identified in the NSPS.

   Stationary Source  Particulate  Emissions—This
activity  consists  of  efforts  to develop  new  and
improved technology  for  measurement of the  mass,
composition, and size distribution of airborne  parti-
cles  emitted  from  stationary sources. Considerable
progress was  made in each  of these areas in 1974.
   Several  continuous particle  mass emission moni-
tors  based  on  the   beta  gauge technique  were
evaluated  at  a coal-fired and  an oil-fired power plant,
a  cement  plant, and a  ferro-alloy  plant. In-stack
transmissometers  for monitoring flue opacity and for
indirect measurement of particle mass emissions were
evaluated at coal-  and oil-fired power plants, a cement
plant, a sewage sludge  incinerator, an asphalt concrete
plant, a refinery, and a lead/brass smelter.
   A prototype  instrument was  developed for con-
tinuous measurement  of size  distributions of  particle
emissions in the size range from  0.1 to 10 microns in
diameter.  Based   on the cascade impinger principle,
the device also  collects  size fractions  for  further
chemical and  physical  analysis.
   Two X-ray fluorescence spectrometer  instruments
were developed for laboratory and field  use, respec-
tively.  One is a multispectrometer system capable  of
                rapid elemental analysis  of filter-deposited particle
                samples  on a large  scale. The  other is a  compact,
                portable instrument  applicable for on-site analysis of
                samples collected in the field.
                   Problems associated with the sampling of airborne
                particle  emissions  are  also  being  studied.  Efforts
                include:  design and development of stack probes for
                efficient and representative sampling, development of
                an  automatic isokinetic sampling system,  stack gas
                velocity  measurement, and sampling  under conditions
                of tangential and low-velocity flow.
                   Stationary   Source  Gaseous  Emissions—During
                1974, the  NSPS reference method for measurement
                of nitrogen oxides was evaluated  and efforts for its
                improvement  were  undertaken. Sulfur dioxide in-
                strumentation  activities  included:  evaluation  of  a
                continuous monitor  on  a power  plant with  wet-
                scrubber control equipment, development of a low-
                cost extractive monitor, development of an in situ gas
                filter correlation spectrometer  with  multipollutant
                monitoring capability, design and construction of a
                remote monitor for sulfur dioxide in plumes, evalua-
                tion of  a polymeric  membrane  dilution  sampling
                system,  and  the  development of  a piezoelectric
                sorption  detector.
                   Other activities included: the evaluation of  odor
                measurement  methods  in four selected industries,
                design and development of a system  for sampling and
                analyzing hydrocarbons, establishing effective extrac-
                tive stack sampling procedures, acquiring a data base
                on techniques in order to establish monitoring specifi-
                cations for sulfuric acid mist, and  evaluation of the
                laser-Doppler technique for remote  sensing of stack
                gas velocity.
                   Emissions   of  Hazardous  Substances—The  first
                group of substances designated for National  Emission
                Standards for Hazardous  Air Pollutants  (NESHAP)
                includes  asbestos,  beryllium,  and  mercury. Future
                designations  may  include  such materials  as  toxic
                metals (Pb, Cd, V, Ni,  Co, Cr,  Mn,  As, and  Se) or
                groups of  polycyclic  organic  matter (POM).  The
                purpose  of this work  is  to  develop  measurement
                methods  to  obtain  reliable emission  data and to
                support emission standards for these substances.
                   In  1974,  reference  methods on beryllium and
                mercury  were  evaluated   and  the  applicability of
                mercury  monitors to emissions  from selected indus-
                trial  source categories  was investigated. Studies are
                underway to develop technology  for sampling and
                analyzing  emissions  of  POM  and  polychlorinated
                biphenyl  compounds.  A  procedure  using  scanning
                electron microscopy  was developed for identification
                and measurement of airborne asbestos fibers, and  a
                new  X-ray  diffraction  method  was found  to be
                feasible  for rapid  quantitative  analysis of  airborne
                asbestos samples.
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   Mobile Source  Emission Measurements—Activities
in  this program include  the  definition, description,
and  measurement of  emissions  from  all  mobile
sources. Possible emissions are investigated and tech-
niques for their measurement .are developed. Empha-
sis is on currently  nonregulated emissions that might
have the greatest  impact on our environment. Tech-
niques for the  measurement of regulated emissions
are continually reviewed to ensure their efficacy.
   In the past year, methods have been developed for
the routine measurement of sulfate emissions from
catalyst-equipped  and noncatalyst vehicles.  The tech-
niques were also  applied successfully  to  emissions
from  diesel automobiles. Previously  developed tech-
nology for detailed hydrocarbon analysis was applied
routinely  to light-duty vehicle  emissions and tech-
niques  to  measure  oxygenated components were
delineated. Wet chemical methods for sulfur dioxide
were   adapted  for use with  vehicles,  followed by
efforts to  develop instrumental techniques. Efforts
are also  underway to  develop methods to measure
hydrogen  sulfide  and  other sulfur  compounds in
exhausts.
   Methods for trace analysis of such nitrogen com-
pounds  as  hydrogen  cyanide  and  cyanogen were
developed,  and work  is  in  progress  to  develop  a
satisfactory method  for  ammonia. A prototype gas
filter  correlation  spectrometer was  built  for  the
measurement  of  methane,  carbon  monoxide,  and
carbon dioxide, and  the  design  and construction of
second instrument for  analysis of other gases such as
sulfur dioxide, ammonia,  and  formaldehyde is in
progress. An atomic  oxygen chemiluminescence tech-
nique shows  promise  as  a possible method  for
assessment of exhaust gas reactivity.
   An advanced  prototype  particle emission mass
monitor, based on the  beta-ray attenuation principle,
was developed and is being evaluated. Several dilution
tunnels for  sampling particle emissions from light-
and heavy-duty vehicles were designed and built  and
are in routine  use. Efforts are in progress to develop
sampling  and  measurement capability for  particle
emissions from aircraft  turbines.

   Mobile  Source  Emission  Characterization—This
program provides  basic information needed  in identi-
fying  and  assessing  potential hazards  resulting from
the introduction of  new vehicles, fuels, and emission
control technology.  Efforts in 1974 centered on the
development of such  information for fuel  and  fuel
additive  control  and  for assessing  the  effects of
oxidation  catalysts  on  emissions  from  light-duty
vehicles.
   Extensive experimental  data were  obtained on
emissions from  1975 prototype and  production cata-
lyst-equipped and noncatalyst passenger cars. Results
showing  significant increases  in sulfate emissions  due
to catalyst use formed  the basis for initial projections
of future impact on air quality. Engine dynamometer
tests of various commercial catalyst packages showed
considerable  differences   in  tendency  to produce
sulfate and suggested  possible technology changes for
minimizing sulfate emissions.
   Detailed  studies have  been  carried  out for the
detection of emissions of trace quantities of possible
new gaseous compounds  derived  from the  use of
several  fuel additive  packages in  passenger vehicles.
No new compounds have as yet been identified.
   A study was carried out  to determine  concentra-
tions  of unregulated emissions from light-duty diesel
cars; substances  measured included particulate mat-
ter, aldehydes, and sulfates. Sulfate emissions, present
in  significant  amounts,  correlated  well  with  fuel
sulfur level and depended also on driving mode.
   Heavy-duty  diesel  particulate  and gaseous  emis-
sions are being studied to  determine the influence of
diesel  fuel  properties and  additives on  emissions.
Since the Federal 13-mode test is being used as a basis
for these  measurements,  the  effect of  each of  these
model  operating conditions  is being  studied as well.
Information  developed  thus  far  includes the ele-
mental  composition of diesel  soot and of the organic
fraction of that material, a molecular weight distribu-
tion for the paraffinic fraction as an index of the
volatility of the organic fraction, and detailed analysis
of  benzo(a)  pyrene,  phenols, and results on  trace
analysis of nitrogen-bearing  species. This  program is
continuing with analyses for sulfate emissions.
LEG/SLA JIVE MANDATE


   The program of the Chemistry and Physics Labora-
tory  is totally responsive  to the legislative mandates
of  the Clean  Air Act  of 1970.  The research and
development program relates to many of the sections
of the Act as specifically detailed below.

   "RESEARCH, INVESTIGATION, TRAINING, AND
   OTHER ACTIVITIES
   "Sec. 103.  (a) The Administrator  shall establish a na-
   tional research and development program for the preven-
   tion and control of air pollution  and  as part of such
   program shall—
      "(1) conduct, and promote the coordination and ac-
      celeration  of, research, investigations,  experiments,
      training, demonstrations, surveys, and studies relating
      to the causes, effects, extent, prevention, and control
      of air pollution;. . .
      "(3) conduct investigations and research and make sur-
      veys concerning any specific problem of air pollution
      in cooperation with any air pollution control agency
      with a view to recommending a solution of such pro-
      blem, if he is requested to do so by such agency or if,
      in his judgment, such  problem  may affect any com-
      munity or communities in  a State other than that in
      which the source of the matter causing or contribut-
      ing to the pollution is located;"
                                           Research Activities
                                                97

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    Each year the Chemistry and Physics Laboratory
 conducts one  or more field studies of air pollution.
 During 1974 a field study was conducted in Denver,
 Colorado,  in  cooperation  with  the EPA  Regional
 Office and the State air pollution control agency. The
 study was part of  a continuing effort  to determine
 the nature and source of the Denver "Brown Cloud."
 Researchers also  conducted field  studies  in  West
 Virginia,  Ohio, and New York to assess the  transport
 of oxidants and oxidant precursors; and in  St. Louis
 to determine the character  and  origin of aerosols and
 assess their effects.

    "(4) establish technical advisory committees composed of
    recognized experts in various aspects of air pollution to
    assist  in the  examination  and  evaluation of  research
    progress  and  proposals  and to  avoid  duplication  of
    research . . ."

    The Chemistry  and Physics  Laboratory provides
 administrative   management  of the  Air  Pollution
 Chemistry  and  Physics  Advisory  Committee.  The
 Committee met twice in 1974:  first in San Francisco,
 where the principal  agenda item was oxidant abate-
 ment strategies; and second at the Research Triangle
 Park, North Carolina, where the main subjects were
 oxidant  transport  studies,  atmospheric  sulfuric acid
 and sulfates studies,  and automotive emission studies.

    "(f) (1) in carrying out research pursuant to this Act, the
    Administrator shall give special emphasis to research  on
    the short- and long-term effects of air pollutants on public
    health and welfare. In the furtherance of such research, he
    shall conduct an accelerated research program . . .
    "B) to  improve knowledge of the short-  and  long-term
    effects of air pollutants on welfare."

    Research  on the  effects  of  air  pollutants  on
 materials  and  on atmospheric visibility  is part of the
 CPL program.  In  1974  a  study  was completed  in
 which  several  critical materials  were  exposed  to
 simulated  polluted atmospheres  in  chambers.  The
 study produced  preliminary  dose/response  informa-
 tion.
      "RESEARCH   RELATING   TO   FUELS   AND
      VEHICLES
      "Sec. 104. (a) The Administrator shall give special
      emphasis  to research and development into new and
      improved methods, having industrywide application,
      for  the prevention and control of air pollution result-
      ing from the combustion of fuels . . .
         "(b) In carrying out  the provisions of the section,
      the Administrator may—
         "(1) conduct and accelerate research and develop-
      ment of low-cost instrumentation techniques to facili-
      tate  determination of quantity  and  quality of air
      pollutant  emissions,  including,  but  not limited to,
      automotive emissions; . .  .
         "(3) establish and operate necessary facilities and
      test sites  at which to carry on the research, testing,
      development, and programming necessary to effectuate
      the purposes of this section;..  .."
                     CPL researchers continued to improve existing and
                  develop  new methods and  instruments for assessing
                  air  pollutant  emissions.  Developments  related  to
                  ambient air  measurements  included  several methods
                  for assessing paniculate matter (size  distribution and
                  elemental  analysis); sulfuric acid mist; X-ray fluores-
                  cence  measurement of trace elements; laser powered
                  long-path spectrophotometers to analyze for CO, 03,
                  SO-2, and other pollutants;  a simple sensitive monitor
                  for vinyl chloride; and a lightweight  monitor for CO.
                  Developments concerning the  measurement of emis-
                  sions  from  stationary   sources  included  new  and
                  improved  technology for assessing particulate mass,
                  composition and size  distribution; the introduction
                  and  evaluation  of  new techniques  related  to  S02
                  monitoring;  and  the evaluation of  odor measurement
                  methods.  Automotive   emission   developments  in-
                  cluded the routine measurement of sulfate emissions
                  from catalyst-equipped and non-catalyst vehicles and
                  diesel  automobiles; improved techniques for measur-
                  ing hydrocarbons, oxygenated components, S02, CO,
                  and  C02; methods for measuring trace  amounts of
                  hydrogen  cyanide and  cyanogen; and an advanced
                  prototype particle emission mass  monitor. Complete
                  engine dynamometer test  facilities  are  available  to
                  support automotive emission research.
                       "AIR QUALITY CRITERIA AND CONTROL TECH-
                       NIQUES
                       "Sec. 108. (a) (1) For  the purpose of establishing
                       national primary  and secondary ambient air quality
                       standards. . .
                       "(2) The  Administrator shall  issue  air  quality cri-
                       teria for an  air pollutant within  12 months after he
                       has included such  pollutant  in a list under paragraph
                       (1). Air quality criteria for an air pollutant shall accu-
                       rately reflect the latest scientific knowledge useful in
                       indicating the kind and  extent of all identifiable  ef-
                       fects  on public health or welfare which may be ex-
                       pected from the presence of such  pollutant in the
                       ambient air, in varying quantities. The criteria for an
                       air pollutant, to the extent  practicable, shall include
                       information on—
                       "(A)  those  variable  factors (including  atmospheric
                       conditions) which of themselves or  in combination
                       with  other factors may alter the  effects on public
                       health or welfare of such air pollutant;
                       "(B) the types of air pollutants which, when present
                       in the atmosphere, may  interact with such pollutant
                       to produce an adverse effect on public health or wel-
                       fare; and
                       "(C)  any  known  or anticipated adverse effects  on
                       welfare . . .
                          "(c)  The Administrator shall from time to time
                          review, and as appropriate, modify, and reissue any
                          criteria or information on control techniques issued
                          pursuant to this section . ..."

                     CPL continued a program on analytical  methods
                  and  instruments to  be  used  as  portable analyzers
                  (dosimeters)  in health studies to aid in revision of  air
                  quality criteria. Effects  of air  pollutants  on organic
98
ANNUAL REPORT 1974

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and  inorganic materials were investigated in environ-
mental  chambers to  supply input for developing or
modifying secondary standards for the criteria pollu-
tants.  Research  on new particulate  mass monitoring
instrumentation  will   provide  a  more acceptable
reference or  equivalent method for total  suspended
particulates.  Considerable  effort  is  going   into  the
development  of the measurement technology for fine
particles  and  for  other  pollutants  that  may  be
considered  candidates  for air quality  criteria.  The
formation  and  decay  of  such pollutants  as  vinyl
chloride and  halocarbons  (Freons) are under intense
investigation.

     "NATIONAL AMBIENT AIR QUALITY STANDARDS
     "Sec. 109. (a) (1) The Administrator-
     "(A) within 30 days after the date of enactment of the
     Clean Air Amendments of  1970,  shall publish  pro-
     posed regulations  prescribing a national primary am-
     bient air quality standard  and a national  secondary
     ambient air quality standard for each air pollutant for
     which  air quality criteria have been issued prior to
     such date of enactment; and
     "(B) after a reasonable time for interested  persons to
     submit written comments thereon  (but no later than
     90 days after the initial publication of such proposed
     standards) shall by  regulation promulgate such  pro-
     posed  national  primary and secondary ambient air
     quality standards with  such modifications as he deems
     appropriate . . .
        "(b) (1) ...Such  primary standards may be re-
        vised in the same manner as promulgated."
   CPL researchers conducted a number of field and
chamber  studies  in   support  of  present  national
ambient air quality standards  (particularly those  of
hydrocarbon/oxidants  and   nitrogen  dioxide)   to
further define the atmospheric relationships involving
hydrocarbons  and oxidants.   Researchers also  de-
veloped and improved  instruments for continuously
measuring air pollutants.

      "IMPLEMENTATION PLANS
      "Sec.  110. (a)  (1) Each State shall, after reasonable
      notice  and public hearings, adopt and submit to the
      Administrator, within nine months  after the promul-
      gation  of a national primary ambient air quality stan-
      dard (or any revision thereof) under section  109 for any
      air pollutant, a plan which provides for implementa-
      tion, maintenance, and enforcement of such primary
      standard in each air quality control region (or portion
      thereof)  within such State.  In addition, such State
      shall adopt and submit to the Administrator (uither as
      a part  of a plan submitted under the preceding sen-
      tence or separately)  within nine months after the pro-
      mulgation of a national ambient air quality secondary
     standard  (or revision thereof), a plan which provides
     for implementation, maintenance, and enforcement of
     such  secondary standard in each air quality control re-
     gion  (or portion thereof)  within such State. Unless a
     separate public hearing is provided,  each State shall
     consider its plan implementing such  secondary stand-
     ard at  the  hearing required by the  first sentence  of
     this paragraph."
    CPL is involved in a considerable effort to support
 the development  of chemical and physical  air pollu-
 tion models for reactive pollutants for use in  imple-
 mentation plans,  including site criteria of large area
 sources.  The  transport  of  oxidants and the  rural
 oxidant  problem  are under investigation. Empirical
 relationships  between  hydrocarbons  and  oxidants
 (such as upper limit curves) and relationships between
 hydrocarbons  and  nitrogen  dioxide  are being  re-
 viewed  and  evaluated.  Reactivities of- hydrocarbons
 and  other organics have been evaluated for organic
 solvent regulations and transportation plans.
       "STANDARDS  OF  PERFORMANCE  FOR  NEW
       STATIONARY SOURCES
       "Sec. 111. (b) (1) Within  120 days after the inclusion
       of a category of stationary sources in a list under sub-
       paragraph (A), the Administrator  shall  publish pro-
       posed  regulations, establishing  Federal standards of
       performance for new sources within  such category.
       The Administrator shall afford  interested persons an
       opportunity for written comment  on  such proposed
       regulations. After considering such comments, he shall
       promulgate, within  90  days after such publication,
       such standards with such modifications as he deems
       appropriate. The  Administrator may, from time to
       time, revise such standards following the procedure re-
       quired by this subsection for promulgation  of such
       standards. Standards of  performance or revision there-
       of shall become effective upon promulgation."

    Extensive support  is provided by CPL in verifying
 and  improving  reference measurement  methods for
 new  source  performance  standards.   Performance
 criteria have been developed for extractive and in-situ
 instrumentation   to   determine  compliance   with
 various pollutant  standards for a number of sources.

      "NATIONAL    EMISSION   STANDARDS    FOR
      HAZARDOUS AIR POLLUTANTS
      "Sec. 112. (b) (1) (B) Within 180 days after the inclu-
      sion of  any air pollutant in such list, the Administrator
      shall publish proposed regulations establishing emission
      standards for such pollutant together with a notice of
      a public hearing within thirty days. Not later than 180
      days after such publication, the Administrator shall
      prescribe an emission standard for such pollutant, unless
      he finds,  on  the  basis  of information presented at
      such hearings, that such  pollutant clearly is not a
      hazardous air  pollutant.   The Administrator shall es-
      tablish  any such  standard at the level which in  his
      judgment provides an ample margin of safety to pro-
      tect  the  public   health from  such   hazardous  air
      pollutant."
   CPL is responsible for  developing the analytical
methodology for the national emission  standards for
hazardous pollutants.  Improved methods of sampling
and  analysis are under investigation or evaluation for
asbestos,  mercury,  beryllium,  and  polychlorinated
biphenyl compounds. There has been  extensive devel-
opment of  X-ray fluorescence methods for use  in
analyzing  a  number  of elements  possibly having  a
hazardous nature.  Improved sampling and more rapid
analysis  methods for  polycyclic organic matter are
                                             Research  Activities
                                                  99

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under development.  Researchers developed a  simple
sensitive monitor for vinyl chloride.
      "PART  A - MOTOR  VEHICLE  EMISSION AND
      FUEL STANDARDS
      "Sec.  202.  (a)  Except as  otherwise provided  in sub-
      section (b)—
         "(1)  The Administrator  shall  by regulation pres-
         cribe (and from time to time revise) in accordance
         with the provisions  of this section, standards appli-
         cable to  the emission of any air pollutant from any
         class or classes of new motor vehicles or new motor
         vehicle engines, which in his judgment causes or
         contributes to, or is likely to cause or to contribute
         to, air pollution which  endangers the public health
         or welfare . . .
         "(b)  (2)  Emission standards  under paragraph (1),
         and measurement techniques on which such stan-
         dards  are based (if not promulgated prior to  the
         date of enactment of the Clean Air Amendments of
         1970), shall be prescribed by  regulation within 180
         days after such date.
         "(e) In the event a new power source or propulsion
         system for new motor vehicles or new motor vehi-
         cle engines is submitted for certification pursuant
         to section 206 (a), the Administrator may postpone
         certification until he has prescribed standards for
         any air pollutants emitted by  such vehicle or en-
         gine which cause or contribute to, or are likely to
         cause  or contribute to, air pollution which  en-
         dangers the public health or welfare but for which
         standards have  not been prescribed under  sub-
         section (a)."
   Measurement technology  is being developed and
evaluated  for regulated  and  nonregulated  emissions
from  on-the-road   vehicles   and   advanced   power
sources. New and improved instrumentation has been
developed for measuring regulated pollutants.  Exten-
sive  research  has  been  done to  evaluate emission
characteristics of a number of prototype and produc-
tion  catalyst-equipped and   non-catalyst passenger
cars. Special  emphasis  was  placed  on sulfate emis-
sions.
      "REGULATION OF FUELS
      "Sec. 211.  (b)  (2) For the purpose of registration of
      fuels  and fuel additives, the Administrator may also
      require the  manufacturer of any fuel or fuel additive—
         "(B)  to furnish the description  of any analytical
         technique that can be  used to detect and measure
         any  additive in such fuel, the  recommended range
         of concentration of such additive, and the recom-
         mended purpose-iri-use of such additive, and such
         other information as is reasonable and necessary to
         determine the emissions resulting from the use of
         the fuel or additive contained  in such fuel, the ef-
         fect of such fuel or additive on the emission control
         performance of any vehicle or vehicle engine, or
         the  extent to  which  such  emissions  affect the
         public health or welfare ...
      Tests  under subparagraph  (A) shall be  conducted in
      conformity  with test procedures and protocols estab-
      lished by the Administrator. The result of such tests
      shall not be considered confidential.
         "(c) (1)  The Administrator may, from time to time
         on the basis of information obtained under subsec-
         tion (b)  of this section or other information avail-
                           able to him, by regulation, control or prohibit the
                           manufacture, introduction into commerce, offering
                           for sale, or sale of any fuel  additive for use in a
                           motor vehicle or motor vehicle engine (A) if any
                           emission products of such fuel or fuel additive will
                           endanger the public health or welfare, or (B) if em is-
                           sion products of such fuel or fuel additive will  im-
                           pair to a significant degree the performance of any
                           emission  control device  or  system which is  in
                           general use, or which the Administrator finds  has
                           been developed to a point where in a reasonable
                           time it would be in general use were such regulation
                           to be promulgated.
                           "(2) (C) No fuel or fuel additive may be prohibited
                           by the Administrator under paragraph (1) unless he
                           finds,  and publishes such finding, that in his judg-
                           ment such prohibition will not cause the use of any
                           other fuel or fuel additive which will produce emis-
                           sions which will endanger the public health  or wel-
                           fare to the same or greater degree than the use of
                           the fuel or fuel additive proposed to be prohibited."

                     CPL  provides  support  in  developing  emission
                  protocols for fuel additives effects. CPL also performs
                  the  emission  characterization  of nonregulated emis-
                  sions from  advanced  alternate power systems. Con-
                  siderable work was done on the problem of sulfate
                  formation  by  exhaust oxidation  catalyst  systems.
                  Work continued  on alternate automotive power sys-
                  tems such  as the Wankel engine and the passenger
                  vehicle diesel engine.

                        "ADDITIONAL REPORTS TO CONGRESS
                        "Sec. 313. Not later than six months after the effective
                        date of this  section and  not  later  than January 10 of
                        each calendar year beginning after such date, the Ad-
                        ministrator shall report to Congress on measures taken
                        toward implementing the purpose and  intent  of this
                        Act including, but not limited to,  (1) the progress  and
                        problems associated with control of automotive ex-
                        haust emissions and the research efforts related there-
                        to; (2) the  development of air quality criteria and
                        recommended emission control  requirements;  (3)  the
                        status of State ambient  air standards setting,  includ-
                        ing such plans for implementation and enforcement as
                        have been developed; (5) the extent of development
                        and expansion  of  air  pollution monitoring systems;
                        (6) progress and problems related to development of
                        new and improved control techniques; (7) the develop-
                        ment of quantitative and qualitative instrumentation
                        to monitor emissions and air quality; (8) standards set
                        or under consideration pursuant to title II of this Act;
                        (9) the status of State, interstate, and  local pollution
                        control programs  established pursuant  to and assisted
                        by this Act; and (10) the reports and recommendations
                        made by the President's Air Quality Advisory Board."

                     Technical support is provided by CPL in develop-
                  ing air quality criteria documents and progress reports
                  required by Congress  on  air quality, emission  instru-
                  mentation,   and   emission  standards   for  moving
                  vehicles.
                     Table  13 contains a summary  of resources em-
                  ployed  by  CPL  for Fiscal  Year  1975  in support of
                  applicable sections of the Clean Air Act.
100
ANNUAL REPORT 1974

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        Table 13. SUMMARY OF RESOURCES FOR CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS LABORATORY
                                    FOR FISCAL YEAR 1975
                    Section of Clean Air
                      Act Supported
                            103
                            108
                            109
                            110
                            111
                            112
                            202
                            211
                            313
                    Total
Funds, $103
     956
    1,808
     901
    1,922
    1,959
     516
     758
    1,520
     333
   10,673a
                    aTotal does not include $2.065 million of special energy appropriations.
Ground and airborne sampling of ozone and other oxidants was conducted to determine whether pollutants emitted
in New York City are transported to Boston.
                                       Research Activities
                         101

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Meteorology
   Laboratory
OVERVIEW

OF ML MISSION

   The  Meteorology Laboratory  (ML) provides an
accurate description of the role and interrelationships
of atmospheric processes in  effective air, water, and
land resource management. It provides direct consul-
tation  and  technical  meteorological  services; and,
through  grants,  contracts,   and  personal  contacts,
promotes  meteorological research in concert with
EPA's  efforts  to improve and protect public health
and welfare.
   ML's contribution to efforts to control  air pollu-
tion lies in the delineation of the effects of weather
and climate on air pollution  as well as the effects of
air  pollution  on  weather,  visibility, and  climate.
Theoretical  and  experimental  research   into  the
physical processes that affect the transport, diffusion,
transformation, and disposition of air pollutants in
and  from the atmosphere leads to improved  tech-
niques for determining and forecasting meteorological
aspects of  air pollution  on  a  local, regional,  or
national basis. To this end, the Laboratory  develops,
evaluates,  and  disseminates  analytical   diffusion
models, which are used  to predict the temporal and
spatial distribution of air pollutants. ML also develops
sensing techniques for measuring meteorological para-
meters in urban and rural areas and provides meteoro-
logical support to  EPA offices and activities  in their
abatement and compliance efforts.
                                                     ORGAN/ZAT/ON

                                                       The Meteorology  Laboratory  consists of  five
                                                     Branches: Model Development, Environmental Appli-
                                                     cations,  Climatic  Analysis,  Regional  Air Pollution
                                                     Study (RAPS),  and Special Projects.  The activities
                                                     and  research  programs  of  these  five Branches  in
                                                     furtherance  of the Laboratory's mission are described
                                                     briefly below.


                                                     Model Development  Branch

                                                       The Model   Development  Branch   develops  the
                                                     analytical and numerical formulations  (i.e., meteoro-
                                                     logical dispersion  and statistical techniques models)
                                                     that are used to estimate relationships between source
                                                     emissions having any specified distribution and  the
                                                     resultant air quality throughout any specified  region.
                                                     The  Branch  also  conducts  theoretical  and  experi-
                                                     mental studies  to improve the  understanding  of
                                                     physical  processes affecting  the  transport, diffusion,
                                                     transformation, and ultimate disposition of pollutants
                                                     in and from the atmosphere.
                                        Research Activities
                                            103

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    REGIONAL AIR
  POLLUTION STUDIES
       BRANCH
           MODEL
        DEVELOPMENT
           BRANCH
                                         METEOROLOGY
                                          LABORATORY
                                         ENVIRONMENTAL
                                           APPLICATIONS
                                             BRANCH
                               CLIMATIC
                               ANALYSIS
                                BRANCH
                            SPECIAL
                            PROJECTS
                            BRANCH
Environmental Applications

Branch

   The Environmental Applications Branch evaluates
new and existing meteorological dispersion and statis-
tical  techniques and models  and adapts them  to
recurring user applications. The Branch maintains
liaison with groups applying and developing  models
to provide guidance and  advice  and to ascertain
future model needs at the user level.


Climatic Analysis Branch


   The Climatic Analysis Branch develops and applies
techniques  of  meteorological data analysis and pre-
sentation to provide information on the potential for
atmospheric dispersion of air pollutants  in a specific
geographical area. The Branch  determines empirical
relationships between air quality data, meteorological
parameters, physical processes governing  observed air
quality,  and site characteristics. Through a national
and international  cooperative  network,  Branch per-
sonnel monitor atmospheric  turbidity and establish
seasonal values, geographical variations, and long-term
trends. Field experiments are designed and conducted
to determine  the radiant energy  balance of earth-
atmosphere systems in both urban and rural loca-
tions.  The Branch evaluates and studies the collected
data  by incorporating them  into  radiation transfer
theories  for variously polluted and clean atmospheres,
and thereby establishes effects of pollutants  on the
energy balance, which then affects pollutant distribu-
tion.
Regional Air Pollution Studies

(RAPS)  Branch

   The  Regional Air Pollution Studies Branch devel-
ops, implements, and manages a comprehensive re-
search program to define and describe air pollution
transport and transformation  processes in  the atmos-
phere on a regional scale. It coordinates the activities
of other agencies, both  public and private, that are
conducting  field  experiments pertinent to RAPS to
ensure that the broad program of research, develop-
ment, and field experimentation directed toward the
acquisition, verification, and evaluation of basic data
for models used to describe and predict the transport,
dispersion,  and  concentration  of pollutants in the
regional  area  is  conducted  in an appropriate  and
economical manner.


Special Projects  Branch


   The  Special  Projects  Branch provides continuing
technical guidance and  staff  support  to  EPA com-
ponents, including  the  Regional  offices, to  ensure
that appropriate  meteorological  information  is pro-
vided in abatement, compliance, and  other opera-
tional activities. The Branch  collects  and evaluates
environmental  quality   and   meteorological-climato-
logical  information  appropriate for  application  to
power plant or  industrial engineering requirements,
design  of  monitoring   networks, support of  legal
actions,  and studies  of  possible effects of air pollu-
tion.  In  support  of EPA Regional Offices, consulta-
tion and other meteorological assistance is provided
                                     ANNUAL REPORT 1974

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 Solar tracking instruments are  used to track  the sun, measure the intensity of solar radiation, and indirectly
 provide a measure of atmospheric aerosol concentration.
 to State and local air pollution control agencies. Field
 support  is  provided  in air  pollution  emergencies.
 Liaison is maintained  with  the  National  Weather
 Service through participation  in  the work of inter-
 agency committees.


 PHYSICAL FACILITIES

   In addition to the usual meteorological instrumen-
 tation,  the   Laboratory possesses  a  mobile lidar
 (laser-radar)  unit, a microwave thermosonde system,
 an acoustic radar system, special sensors for studying
 surface energy  fluxes,  and special  equipment  for
 sensing short- and  long-wave  radiation. Sunphoto-
 meters used  in  the  national  and  international tur-
 bidity  networks are tested, repaired, calibrated, and
 occasionally built in the  Laboratory.
  Weather teletype  and facsimile products, which
yield  up-to-date hourly forecasts and  weather  in-
formation  for the entire U.S. are received within the
 Laboratory.
  The Fluid Modeling Facility (FMF) was dedicated
in November 1974. Presently, the FMF consists of a
large sophisticated wind tunnel with a test section
 that  is 3.66 meters (12 feet) wide, 2.13 meters (7
 feet)  high,  and 18.29 meters (60 feet) long with a
 maximum airflow speed of 7.62 meters (25 feet) per
 second.  A  smaller wind  tunnel  is  available  for
 calibration  and response testing  of wind measuring
 instruments. A water channel/towing tank with a test
 section 1.1  meters (3.5 feet) deep, 2.4 meters (8 feet)
 wide,  and  24.4 meters  (80 feet)  long  is  under
 construction. In the towing tank mode of operation,
 stratified layers of salt water  will be used to simulate
 atmospheric stability. The water channel/towing tank
 is expected to  become operational in  late 1975.  The
 FMF, one  of only  a few of  its kind in the world, is
 available to other  EPA components—including  Re-
 gional Offices — State air pollution control agencies,
 and other Federal agencies. The facility is designed to
 provide  fast  response to questions  on  pollutant
 dispersal in  complex flow situations, from stacks, and
 from  automobiles in various  highway  configurations.
MAJOR PROGRAM AREAS

   Meteorology Laboratory activities can be function-
ally divided into five areas: development, evaluation.
                                         Research Activities
                                             105

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and  validation  of  air  quality  models; innovative
development  in air quality simulation models; deter-
mination of patterns and levels of pollutant emissions
from  large power plants; determination of pollutant
and thermal  emission effects on visibility,  weather,
and climate;  and meteorological support for abate-
ment  and compliance efforts.
   Unless  indicated  otherwise, the  research  activities
discussed  in the following paragraphs represent con-
tinuing efforts by ML or its contractors in support of
Section 103 of the Clean Air Act.
Air  Quality Models
   Information on the meteorological effect of pollu-
tant concentrations on  prospective control strategy
decisions and  land-use plans is provided by models
describing  temporal  and spatial  variations  in  air
quality. To facilitate the application of models,  the
air  quality simulation models and  related  data  for
various  pollutants are stored at a central computer
facility, called the User's Network of Applied Models
of Air Pollution (UNAMAP).


   •  APR AC—Provides  the  hourly average carbon
      monoxide  level as a  function  of extraurban
      diffusion from  automotive sources in upwind
      cities,  intraurban  diffusion  from  roadway
      sources, and  local  diffusion within a  street
      canyon.
   •  HIWAY-Estimates high way-related  air  pollu-
      tion for receptor  locations that are downwind
      of at-grade and cut highway sections.
   •  COM—Provides  long-term  average   pollutant
      concentration.
   •  PTM AX—Estimates   the  maximum   hourly
      average ground-level concentration from a sin-
      gle stack as a function of stability and wind
      speed.
   •  PTDIS—Estimates  the hourly average ground-
      level  concentration from  a single stack at a
      specified downwind distance.
   •  PTMTP—Estimates the average hourly concen-
      tration  at up to  30  receptors from  up  to 25
      sources.


   A new UNAMAP tape and appropriate forms have
been submitted to the  National Technical Informa-
tion Center,  Springfield, Virginia,  replacing current
tapes. The new tapes include batch versions of the six
UNAMAP models and interactive versions of HIWAY
and the three point source  models.  Batch versions of
the UNAMAP progress are being placed on the EPA's
UN I VAC  computer;  information  to  operate these
programs should be available in early 1975.
                Atmospheric  turbidity is measured using a portable
                sunphotometer developed at Meteorology Laboratory.
                Reactive Pollutant Models

                   The  continuation  of  photochemical  air quality
                simulation  model  development proceeded via one
                large contract effort with Systems Applications, Inc.,
                based on the evaluation of the results and techniques
                employed in three models. In assessing the validity of
                urban air-shed  models employing trajectory or grid
                point approaches, it has been concluded that: (1) the
                neglect  of  horizontal diffusion  in the  trajectory
                approach  introduces   only  minor   errors; (2)  the
                neglect  of  the vertical  wind  component in  the
                trajectory approach can lead to significant errors; (3)
                the  neglect  of wind  shear  in  the vertical  in  the
                trajectory approach can be a serious source of error;
                (4) the  error in the grid point model, due to finite
                differencing, under worse-case conditions may pro-
                duce absolute errors of about 50 percent for a 9-hour
                simulation.
                   Using various statistical techniques, an analysis of
                past model  verification studies has  been performed.
                The results show that none  of the photochemical
 106
ANNUAL REPORT 1974

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models  adequately  represents the observed  data  for
NO,  NO2, and O3 ;  but in the case of CO, two of  the
models  (Systems Application,  Inc.  (SAI) and Geo-
physical  Research  Corp.  (GRC)) were acceptable.
Definite   inadequacies   in  the  chemical   kinetic
mechanisms used in simulating  photochemical smog
formation were indicated.
   The  first phase of  the  photochemical  model
modification for multi-day  simulation was completed.
Modifications  in  the SAI  program  have been made
enabling multi-day  simulations of carbon monoxide
concentration  distributions.  Sensitivity  studies per-
formed on the grid point  model show major  effects
caused  by variations in wind  speed  and  radiation
intensity, moderate effects caused  by  variations in
mixing  depth  and  emission  rate, and slight  effects
caused by variation  in vertical diffusivity.


Additional Modeling  Work

   The   Meteorology  Laboratory's  effort  in inert
pollutant modeling  includes:

   • Development  of the real-time episode  model
      (REM).

   • Initial  evaluation  of  a  highway  model  for
      describing  dispersion from automobiles using
      photographic techniques and smoke generators
      on two model cars on  a track  constructed  in a
      wind tunnel.
   • The  conduct of  a  series  of  field studies of
      fumigation of pollutants from  tall stacks within
      the lake-breeze circulation area.
   • Twenty-four  periods of intensive  field  investi-
      gation of  the formation  and  breakup  of  the
      nocturnal  urban boundary layer  conducted in
      St. Louis in  August 1974, with measurements
      of temperature and moisture profiles during the
      mid-afternoon measured by aircraft.
   • Revision  of  the HIWAY  Users' Manual study
      showing  how arithmetic mean particulate  sul-
      fate  concentrations  could  be  related  to short-
      term effects.
   • Publication  of  an  air quality data  analysis
      system for interrelating effects, standards,  and
      needed source reductions.
   • Modification   of   the  batch  version  of  the
      PTMTP model to  permit calculation  of sulfate
      concentrations from  sulfur dioxide levels.
   • Modifications to  the  batch model for  point,
      area, and line sources to include the variation in
      wind height as an optional feature.
   In-house  research focused on an  investigation of
S02  ~~*  SOj transformation in  power plant plumes.
The  model uses a Gaussian plume approximation to
model  diffusion  dynamics and a chemical  kinetic
mechanism  for  the  simulation  of  an SO2-NOX-
CO-H20-air system.
   Pennsylvania  State  University,  under  an  EPA
grant,  conducted studies  in:  the  development of
mesoscale air   pollution  related prediction  models;
modeling of planetary boundary layer turbulence and
structure; the analysis of acdar (acoustic-radar) signals
for  wind  and  temperature  measurements  in  the
planetary  boundary  layer;  studies  of  atmospheric
aerosol   properties and  aerosol-atmospheric  inter-
actions;  and  aircraft  measurements  of urban  and
regional  scale  mesoscale aerosol,  turbulence,  and
radiation distribution.  Under an EPA grant, a study
of the spatial variability of airborne pollen concentra-
tions was completed by the State University of New
York at Albany. Technology  Service  Corporation,
under EPA contract, has developed a repro-modeling
technique to  the analysis of  a  photochemical  air
quality  simulation model,  developed  by Systems
Applications,  Inc.,  (SAI); the  repro-model, using a
piecewise linear regression technique, develops regres-
sion  equations  for oxidant, NOX, and NO2 for several
grid  squares.using five  aggregate input variables from
the  SAI model as dependent variables.  Documenta-
tion  of lidar  studies  of stack  plumes  in rural  and
urban  environments  was  completed by  Stanford
Research Institute under EPA contract; documenta-
tion  of  a numerical model of the urban atmosphere
by the  University of  California at Davis, also under
EPA grant, was  completed.  Field  studies by  the
Battelle  Pacific Northwest Laboratories, under EPA
contract, on the precipitation scavenging of inorganic
pollutants from  metropolitan sources,  have demon-
strated  that precipitation scavenging by convective
storms  can be  an extremely effective mechanism  for
the removal  of  urban pollutants from the atmosphere.
Measurements made at various distances  "downwind"
of an urban area  (St.  Louis) indicate that precipita-
tion scavenging removal  rates can be comparable to
urban  emission  rate  estimates. Field  studies  were
conducted by  the Tennessee Valley Authority, under
EPA interagency agreement, to develop  and evaluate
a  kinetic model to  describe the chemical reactions
occurring in a  plume under various meteorological
conditions.  Studies conducted  in the St.  Louis  area
by  the  University of Wyoming, under EPA grant,
suggest  that the increased rainfall observed downwind
of St. Louis was due to dissipation of storms over the
urban area resulting from the absence of a moisture
source  in the  urban  area; the  equivalent was lower
over the metropolitan area than over the countryside,
indicating the differences in atmospheric moisture
content between the city and countryside.
                                           Research Activities
                                              107

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Wind tunnel studies provide information on pollutant dispersal characteristics in the atmosphere.
   JRB  Associates,  Inc., under  EPA contract, has
documented  a methodology for treating localized
emissions   of  reactive   pollutants.  Other  studies
presently  being carried out by EPA  contractors for
the Meteorology  Laboratory include:  the  develop-
ment  and evaluation of a  dry deposition  model
through the measurement of deposition velocities for
gaseous  pollutants  and  using profile measurement
techniques in field studies; the formulation of criteria
for model evaluation  and improvement compatible
with performance requirements or desiderata for air
quality,  based on the  examination and evaluation of
pertinent laws, regulations, and judicial decisions; the
reduction  and collation of the 1964-1967 New York
University Air Pollution  Project  data; the simplifica-
tion of  the  invariant  model  developed  by Aeronau-
tical Research Associates of Princeton, Inc., for use as
a  closure  scheme  in complex   meteorological  air
quality  numerical models;  the  development of a
spectral  numerical model of turbulent diffusion in an
incompressible, density-stratified  fluid; the definition
                of the three-dimensional  flow field  over  complex
                terrain under  stably stratified conditions, through
                experiments in  a towing tank; the development and
                evaluation  of  an  advanced  air quality  simulation
                model, including improved parameterization of turbu-
                lent diffusion and adaptation of the model for use in
                the St. Louis area; the analysis of lidar measurements
                made in the Los Angeles Basin to depict the depth of
                the mixing layer.


                Geophysical  Studies

                and Climatic Effects

                   This work area encompasses the analysis of pollu-
                tant  effects of physical  processes in the atmosphere,
                the comprehensive examination and statistical anal-
                ysis of air pollution meteorology parameters, and the
                assessment of  the effect  of meteorological and cli-
                matological  parameters  on  air  quality.  Statistical,
108
ANNUAL REPORT 1974

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numerical,  and experimental methods were  used  to
investigate  the  effects of air quality on meteorology
and climatology, and  to assess the effects of meteoro-
logy and climatology on air quality.
   As part of a comprehensive photochemical pollu-
tion field experiment  conducted in the fall of 1973 in
the Los Angeles Basin, the Meteorology Laboratory
measured solar  radiation (incident global all-wave and
UV, 300 to 380  nm  wavelengths) at six sites in the
Los Angeles  Basin. Five of the sites were  located  in
the urban  area between Los  Angeles  International
Airport  and San  Bernardino; the  sixth site  was
located on pollution-free Mt. Disappointment at 6000
ft MSL.  Initial analysis of radiation data collected
continuously from  August 30  through  November 7,
1973,  indicates that the effect of atmospheric pollu-
tion in the  Basin  was  to  reduce  the  incident UV
energy  by  some  25 to  35  percent  during   poor
visibility situations, based  on  comparative measure-
ments  at Mt. Disappointment.  Both the atmospheric
turbidity and incident radiation data  showed marked
diurnal  variations  corresponding  to   the  photo-
chemical pollution cycle.
   Other geophysical  studies by contractors  include:
measurements of atmospheric  aerosols using photo-
metric  measurement   of solar and  lunar aureoles,
utilizing  observations made  at 500 and 700 nm  to
estimate aerosol  size distribution;  initial  measure-
ments  of  oxidant concentrations on  a  TV tower
located on  Mt. Sutro  in  San Francisco  to obtain
background  concentrations; aerosol  scavenging  by
precipitation, determined theoretically and  confirmed
experimentally; and examination of the effects on  air
quality changes in  aircraft operation  during  landings
and takeoffs.
   The Meteorology  Laboratory continued  adminis-
tration of a global atmospheric  turbidity network and
the updating of air pollution potential climatologies.
   The Regional  Air Pollution Study  (RAPS) is a
planned  5-year  effort  to  develop,  improve,  and
validate mathematical air quality  simulation models
on a regional scale. It encompasses studies  of  emis-
sion,  transport,  transformation,  and removal  pro-
cesses  affecting  the  form and  distribution of  air
pollutants. A spectrum of  models resulting from the
study  will find applications  in such  air resources
management areas  as development of control strate-
gies and land use planning. The study is being carried
out in  the St. Louis, Missouri-Illinois, region.
   To  provide the  input for model development, two
major  areas of data-acquisition activities  are under
way. To provide the extensive data base of  air quality
and  meteorological  measurements  against which
model  calculations may be  compared, a  25-station
telemetering  network, the  Regional  Air  Monitoring
System (RAMS), was  installed and put into operation
during the year. All stations measure NO, NO2, 03,
CO, CH4, total HC, aerosol light scatter, temperature,
dewpoint, and wind  direction and  speed.  Half  the
stations measure S02, H2S, and total gaseous sulfur,
with the  other half measuring total sulfur  only. At
selected  stations, devices for measuring turbulence,
vertical  temperature difference, solar and sky  radia-
tion, and total suspended  particulate were  installed.
The  stations  are  operated  remotely  by  a central
computer facility to which the stations are linked by
telephone lines; the central computer also  serves as
the principal  data-acquisition facility,  polling  the
stations once  each  minute, and storing the data for
subsequent  processing.  In  addition  to  the tele-
metering  network,  two  sites  were  activated to rou-
tinely make meteorological soundings. Every 6 hours,
radiosondes are  released and  tracked to obtain tem-
perature,  humidity,  and  winds  aloft. At hourly
intervals between the radiosonde releases,  pilot bal-
loons are released  and tracked to  obtain the winds
aloft only.
   The  other  major type  of activity  consists  of
experiments designed to  determine processes and
process  rates,  particularly  in  areas  of  transport and
dispersion, transformation,  and local pollutant vari-
ability.  Field  experiments  are designed  to be carried
out concurrently to the maximum extent possible, in
order to make best use of the material and personnel
resources required to perform these experiments. A
limited  field  exercise was carried  out in  February
1974, and a major exercise was concentrated in July
and August, when  more than  200  investigators and
supporting  personnel  were engaged  in component
studies.  Most of these studies are described more fully
in this section and in the section from the Chemistry
and Physics  Laboratory.
   Two  EPA components outside ORD-RTP also have
important roles in the RAPS.  Under the direction of
the National Air Data Branch  of EPA's Office of  Air
Quality    Planning   and   Standards,   development
of  the   RAPS  emission inventory data  base  has
progressed with no  major problems. Work to date  has
concentrated  on development of methodologies  for
the various types and groupings of sources leading to
the emission parameters that  will be used  to derive
the emission data.  In addition, contacts were  made
with companies  responsible for the major individual
sources  of pollutant emissions in the St. Louis area;
hourly monitoring data  for almost  all  major sources
are now being  obtained.
   ORD's Environmental  Monitoring   and  Support
Laboratory  at ERC-Las Vegas  provides three large
helicopters  and  associated personnel  for support  of
field studies. Two complete instrument packages and
data-acquisition systems  were  assembled and installed
in two of the  helicopters to provide measurements of
the same air quality parameters that are measured at
the RAMS  sites;  the third  helicopter  serves as  a
                                          Research Activities
                                              109

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 backup.  By the  end of the summer exercise, both
 instrumented  helicopters were  in  operation  in  St.
 Louis. A second series  of  helicopter measurements
 was made in November, providing a vertical extension
 of  the  RAMS  at  the  time that system  was first
 brought  up to full operation.
   All data  obtained in  the study will be entered in
 the  RAPS data  bank,  utilizing the UNIVAC  1110
 system at RTP. The major content of this bank will
 be  data  from  the  RAMS; procedures to  ensure the
 validity  of such  data  are  under development. Data
 from experimental  studies will also be included, but
 will often require  further  processing and  analyses
 before being put into final format for the data bank.
 Software for  insertion,  updating, and retrieval of all
 emission  and  aerometric  data is  currently  under
 development.


 METEOROLOGY SUPPORT

   In support  of Sections 110, 303, and 315 of the
 Clean  Air Act, the  Meteorology Laboratory provides
 technical  services to various EPA  offices and pro-
 grams  and to  State  and  local agencies. The Labora-
 tory also supplies meteorological field support during
 emergency episodes involving  critical  air pollution
 incidents. NOAA meteorologists were assigned to: the
 Monitoring  and  Data  Analysis  Division  and  the
 Control  Programs  Development  Division  of EPA's
 Office of Air  Quality Planning and Standards, the
 Environmental Monitoring and  Support Laboratory,
 and  the  Health  Effects  Research  Laboratory  at
 ORD-RTP; the  Environmental  Monitoring and  Sup-
 port Laboratory at  Las Vegas; the ORD Laboratories
 atCorvallis, and six  Regional Offices.
   During 1974  the Laboratory  provided  technical
 support  in the following areas: estimated changes in
 human exposure to suspended sulfate attributable to
 equipping light-duty motor vehicles with oxidation
 catalysts; calculated expected  oxidant  and carbon
 monoxide concentrations from years 1965 to 2000
 for  downtown  areas  of large  metropolitan  areas;
 applied  averaging-time model  and  air management
 steps to  severe air  pollution problems  in southern
 Poland; evaluated increased air pollution levels result-
 ing  from a  potential  switching  of  existing power
 plants  from  low sulfur oil to coal; calculated annual
 maximum nitrogen dioxide concentrations for various
 averaging times and standard geometric deviations for
 sites that would exactly achieve the present national
 ambient  nitrogen dioxide standard; calculated parti-
culate sulfate concentrations at selected sites through-
 out the U.S. and  projected future concentrations as a
 function  of  expected growth  and various potential
control strategies;  estimated ambient  sulfate  levels
downwind of  power plants  resulting from SO2 and
                 sulfate  releases; developed a computer technique to
                 compute the expected return period for violating the
                 national ambient air quality standards, as a function
                 of  the  number of air samples available,  when  the
                 highest  observed  concentration   is  used  as  the
                 "design"  value for achieving  these  standards;  de-
                 veloped  graphical  and computer techniques to  cal-
                 culate the  expected number of hours that  a national
                 ambient air quality  standard would be exceeded if the
                 second  highest sample in a year is given;  computed
                 expected ocean-level air concentrations of HC1 result-
                 ing from the  burning  of hydrocarbon wastes aboard
                 the  incinerator ship  Vulcanus; calculated  carboxy-
                 hemoglobin  concentrations  in  nonsmokers in  Los
                 Angeles  and  Milwaukee  on each day of  the  year;
                 offered advice regarding past and future studies of a
                 smelter in  Missouri, assisted in the site selection  for
                 the New York  State  Department of Environmental
                 Conservation highway study.

                 OFFICE OF AIR  QUALITY
                PLANNING  AND  STANDARDS
                SUPPORT

                   During 1974 the Laboratory continued to provide
                 meteorological support to  the  Office of Air Quality
                 Planning and Standards. Meteorological expertise was
                 applied  in studies concerned with the impact of state
                 implementation plans  on available supplies of low-
                 sulfur  coal.   A dispersion  model  was applied  to
                 selected power plants in 20 states to determine if  the
                 low-sulfur coal deficit could be  alleviated by selective
                 granting  of variances.  Also, considerable effort was
                 devoted to determining the need for flue  gas desul-
                 furization  or  low-sulfur fuel versus the use of  tall
                 slacks or supplementary control systems (SCS).
                   An  acceptable SCS  is expected to control  stack
                 emissions on the basis  of (1) field studies,  (2) timely
                 ambient measurements, (3) mathematical models,  (4)
                 meteorological  forecasts,   and  (5)   technical   ex-
                 perience.
                   Dispersion  analyses  were conducted to estimate
                 the air quality impact  of a wide variety of  industrial
                 source emissions.  All  criteria  pollutants as well as
                 lead,  mercury,  beryllium,  and polyvinyl  chlorides
                 were  included in these analyses. The sources  were
                 considered   in  both   controlled and  uncontrolled
                 modes.
                   Meteorologists were active  in the preparation of
                 guidelines that are used to determine whether antici-
                 pated growth  in an area will cause national ambient
                 air  standard?  to be endangered  and whether a  given
                 maintenance plan  will meet requirements.  Meteoro-
                 logists  are  also involved  in  the  development  of
                 methodologies and guidelines for the evaluation of
                 proposed SCS.
110
ANNUAL REPORT 1974

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   Air quality  and emission trends  published during
the year showed  a downward trend for most major
pollutants in urban areas, but  no discernible trend in
rural  areas.  A  meteorological analysis  of the  data
showed  a statistically significant relationship between
upward  trends  in total  suspended particulate (TSP)
and decreasing rainfall over  large geographic areas.
   With  meteorological  support,  EPA continued  in-
tensified  investigations  to  determine  the  cause  of
nonurban  concentrations  of  ozone  that  have  ex-
ceeded  the  1-hour   standard  of  160  jug/m3  (0.08
ppm).
    Ozone levels are   being  correlated with  National
Weather  Service  upper  air  and  surface  data.  The
objective of this  analysis is to determine  the signifi-
cance  of upwind trajectories,  spatial  variations  of
relevant  meteorological  variables,  and  frontal  pas-
sages.
 LEG/SLA JIVE MANDATE

    The major Laboratory effort  is directly  related to
 the requirements of Section 103  of the Clean Air Act;
 however, efforts  are also in support of Sections 110,
 303, and 313. Pertinent portions of these Sections are
 quoted below,  followed by  brief discriptions of the
 types of supportive actions taken by ML.

    "RESEARCH,   INVESTIGATION,  TRAINING,  AND
    OTHER  ACTIVITIES
    Sec. 103. (a) The Administrator shall establish a national
       research and development program for the prevention
       and  control of air pollution  and  as part  of such
       program shall—(1) conduct, and promote the coordi-
       nation  and  acceleration of,  research, investigations,
       experiments, training, demonstrations,  surveys, and
       studies relating to the causes, effects, extent, preven-
       tion, and control of air pollution; . . ." (3)  conduct in-
       vestigations and research and make surveys concerning
       any specific  problem of air pollution in  cooperation
       with  any  air pollution control agency with a view to
       recommending a solution of such problem, if he is re-
       quested to do so by such agency or if, in his judgment,
       such  problem may affect any community or communi-
       ties in a State other than  that in  which the source of
       the matter causing  or contributing to the pollution is
       located; .... "(b) In carrying out  the provisions of the
       preceding subsection the Administrator is authorized
       to—
       "(1) collect and make available, through  publications
       and other appropriate  means,  the results of and other
       information, including  appropriate  recommendations
       by him in  connection  therewith, pertaining to such
       research and other activities.
       "(2) cooperate with  other Federal  departments and
       agencies, with air pollution control agencies, institu-
       tions, and  organizations,  and  with any  industries
       involved,  in the preparation and  conduct of such
       research and other activities;
       "(3) make  grants to air pollution control agencies, to
       other public or nonprofit private agencies, institutions,
       and  organizations,  and to  individuals, for  purposes
       stated in subsection (a) (1) of this section;
      "(4) contract  with  public or private agencies, institu-
      tions, and organizations, and with individuals . . .;
      "(7) collect  and  disseminate,  in  cooperation with
      other Federal departments and agencies,  and with
      other public  or  private agencies, institutions, and
      organizations  having related responsibilities, basic data
      on chemical, physical, and biological effects of varying
      air quality  and other information pertaining to  air
      pollution and the  prevention and control thereof; .
      "(f) (Din carrying out research pursuant to this Act,
      the Administrator  shall  give  special  emphasis  to
      research on  the short-  and long-term effects of  air
      pollutants  on public  health  and  welfare.  In the
      furtherance of such  research,  he  shall  conduct  an
      accelerated  research  program— . . .  (B) to improve
      knowledge of the  short-  and long-term  effects of air
      pollutants on welfare.
      "(2) In carrying out the  provisions of this subsection
      the Administrator may- . . . (C) utilize, on a reimburs-
      able basis, the facilities of existing  Federal scientific
      laboratories and research centers;  (D) utilize the au-
      thority contained  in paragraphs (1) through  (4)  of
      subsection (b); and (E) consult with other appropriate
      Federal  agencies  to assure  that research or  studies
      conducted pursuant to this  subsection will  be coord-
      inated with research and  studies of such other Federal
      agencies."
   EPA's research responsibilities,  as  outlined in the
portions of the Clean Air Act cited above, constitute
the  Meteorological   Laboratory's  principal  mission.
The Laboratory also provides direct assistance in the
evaluation of environmental impact statements.

   "IMPLEMENTATION PLANS
   "Sec. 110. (a) ... (2) The Administrator shall . . . approve
      or  disapprove such (state-submitted implementation)
      plan or any  portion thereof. The Administrator shall
      approve such  plan,  or  any portion  thereof, if he
      determines that it was adopted after reasonable notice
      and hearing and that— . . . (C) it includes provision for
      establishment and operation of  appropriate devices,
      methods,  systems,   and procedures  necessary  to
      (i)  monitor, compile,  and analyze data on ambient air
      quality . . ."

   Laboratory  assistance provided by  the Meteoro-
logical  Laboratory in support  of  the evaluation and
enforcement of state implementation  plans by EPA is
a component of Section  110 of the Clean Air Act.

   "EMERGENCY  POWERS
   "Sec.  303. Notwithstanding any  other provision  of this
      Act, the  Administrator . . . may bring  suit  ... to
      immediately  restrain  any person  causing or contribut-
      ing to  (the)  alleged pollution  to stop the emission of
      air pollutants causing  or contributing to such pollution
      or to take such other  action as may be necessary."
   "ADDITIONAL REPORTS TO  CONGRESS
   "Sec.  313 . . . the Administrator shall report to Congress
      on measures taken toward implementing the purpose
      and intent of this Act . . ."

   The  Meteorological   Laboratory  provides  direct
support to  EPA's exercise of emergency powers under
Section  303 of the Clean  Air  Act. The Laboratory's
                                                Research Activities
                                                   111

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assistance is also provided in support of Section 313
of the Clean Air Act  to  prepare meteorological
portions of reports to Congress.
   Table  14  contains a summary  of  the  resources
employed by ML for Fiscal Year 1975 in support of
the applicable sections of the Clean Air Act.
             Table 14. SUMMARY OF RESOURCES FOR METEOROLOGY LABORATORY
                                    FOR FISCAL YEAR 1975
Section of Clean Air
Act Supported
103
110
303
313
Totals
Funds, $103
3,268
330
33
50
3,681
                                 ANNUAL REPORT 1974

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     Industrial
Environmental
     Research
   Laboratory

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                                                     OVERVIEW
                                                     OF  CSL MISSION
      Control
     Systems
Laboratory
   The Control  Systems Laboratory (CSL) of ORD-
RTP  is  involved  in  a  variety  of  technical  and
management  functions  directly  related  to the re-
search, development,  and demonstration of equip-
ment and systems designed to abate, in a timely and
cost-effective manner, the emission of  atmospheric
pollutants from  stationary  sources to  a level  that
protects  public health and  welfare,  and to do so
within  the  framework of our nation's  energy and
environmental mandates.  Included in  this mission is
the goal  of  developing  a  complete data  base of
stationary source  emissions and demonstrating  ade-
quate technology  to control pollutant emissions so
that effective New Source Performance Standards and
Hazardous Pollutant Standards can be promulgated.
   CSL has a high degree of expertise in the manage-
ment  of  complex engineering research and develop-
ment projects; additionally, as a result of more than
10 years of experience as an organizational entity, the
Laboratory has developed other major capabilities in
efforts to fulfill its mission:
   • The Laboratory  has  become  a technical  in-
     formation  base  to  support  EPA's  decision-
     making capabilities in the area of stationary
     source air pollution control.
   • The Laboratory has proven its ability to recon-
     cile environmental and industrial requirements
     in  a cost-effective  manner  by  working with
     industry  on joint  programs to  solve  environ-
     mental problems.
   • The Laboratory has become an international
     forum  for communication  concerning available
     technology through  its recognized ability to
     objectively evaluate new concepts and  to share
     research results.
                                                    ORGANIZATION
"Fish eye" view of a demonstration of the magnesia
slurry scrubbing system installed at Boston  Edison
Company's Mystic Station,
   The Control Systems Laboratory consists of four
main Branches. Its Engineering Analysis Branch func-
tions as a program monitoring and evaluation group.
The  other three  Branches  are  engaged  in projects
ranging  from  small-scale experimental studies and
exploratory  research, through pilot-plant-size  experi-
mental work, to prototype evaluations of equipment
large enough to permit confident scale-up to full-size
commercial installations.
                                        Research Activities
                                            115

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     ENGINEERING
      ANALYSIS
       BRANCH
        GAS CLEANING
     AND METALLURGICAL
          PROCESSES
           BRANCH
                                       CONTROL SYSTEMS
                                          LABORATORY
                                             CLEAN FUELS
                                             AND ENERGY
                                                BRANCH
                                          PARTICULATE
                                         AND CHEMICAL
                                           PROCESSES
                                            BRANCH
Gas  Cleaning  and Metallurgical
Processes  Branch
               Clean Fuels
               and  Energy Branch
   The  Gas  Cleaning  and  Metallurgical  Processes
Branch directs and manages  a broad-based research,
development, and demonstration program aimed  at
perfecting processes and equipment for the removal
of gaseous  pollutants  from fossil-fuel combustion
effluents and  of  all pollutants from  primary and
secondary operations in the  ferrous and non-ferrous
metals processing industries.
   Much  of the work of this Branch relates to flue gas
scrubbing processes: lime/limestone wet scrubbing at
TVA's Shawnee  Plant,  in  Key West,  and  at  CSL's
North  Carolina  facilities;  double alkali  scrubbing,
using  a soluble alkali (usually sodium) solution; the
Bahco process, using a  unique 2-stage vertical  scrub-
ber; a 4-year sludge disposal  program; Chemico Mag-
Ox,  a  regenerable  approach  utilizing  magnesium
oxide; Wellman-Lord,  utilizing  a  sodium sulfite/
bisulfite  solution  with  thermal  regeneration;  Stone
and Webster/Ionics,  utilizing sodium  hydroxide solu-
tion with electrolytic regeneration; Monsanto Cat-Ox,
a  catalytic  oxidation  adaptation  of the  contact
sulfuric acid process; a completely cyclic  ammonium
sulfite/bisulfite process with bisulfate regeneration;
and a regenerable Citrate process.The Branch's  metal-
lurgy-related  activities  include such  iron and steel
industry  areas as coke ovens,  sinter plants,  basic
oxygen  process  (BOP) furnaces, and  iron foundry
cupolas, as well as work with pollutants from copper,
lead,  and zinc smelters, and pollutants from second-
ary aluminum furnaces.
                  The Clean Fuels and Energy Branch is responsible
                for  research, development,  and demonstration (in-
                cluding evaluation) studies relating to processes for
                the  production or utilization of clean fuels or clean
                energy as a means of air pollution control. Among its
                activities  are: evaluation  of systems for removing
                potential  pollutants from  coal  and oil; critical  air
                pollutant emission assessment and  review  of new
                energy technologies; development of generalized con-
                trol technology for air pollutant emissions from fossil
                fuel combustion and conversion processes; evaluation
                and development of  combustion  modifications for
                abating the emission  of nitrogen  oxides and  other
                combustible  pollutants from  all stationary combus-
                tion  sources; and  evaluation, environmental assess-
                ment, and/or  development  of new  pollution-free
                methods of generating and utilizing energy.
                   Combustion  modifications  for the  control  of
                nitrogen oxides and other pollutants continue to be
                the target of significant efforts of  Branch personnel.
                Modifications being investigated include: combustion
                with low excess  air,  recirculation  of flue gas, staged
                combustion, combustor redesign,  and  fluidized-bed
                combustion.  Investigations  of  fuel  cleaning have
                included  fossil fuels  (coal,  oil,  and gas) and waste
                products such as municipal refuse.
                   The Branch's work with  advanced, low-emission,
                energy-conserving systems includes a mobile demon-
                stration  unit (the EPA-Van) and a  heat and  emission
                loss prevention system (HELPS).
116
ANNUAL REPORT 1974

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 Particulate  and Chemical

 Processes Branch

   The  Particulate and Chemical  Processes Branch is
 active in three major areas:  it identifies, develops, and
 demonstrates  generalized  particulate  control  tech-
 nology to support the needs of CSL for technology to
 control  particulate emissions  from specific industries;
 it identifies, develops, and demonstrates technology
 for controlling pollutant  emissions from the chemical
 process  industries; and it provides  process measure-
 ment services to all CSL Branches.
   The  Branch's  work  in  the  area of  particulate
 control  technology development has included studies
 not  only to  improve such conventional  particulate
 control   equipment   as  electrostatic  precipitators,
 fabric filters, and wet scrubbers, but also to identify
 and  further develop such completely  new control
 approaches  as the  Aronetics  two-phase  scrubber,
 Sonic Agglomerator, Steam-Hydro scrubbers, CHEAP
 filter, foam scrubbers, and condensation scrubbers.
 Its activities  related to the control  of  air pollution
 from chemical process industries include studies of a
 wide range of organic and inorganic manufacturing
 processes, combustion processes, and  open sources.
 The Branch's  process measurement activities encom-
 pass the selection, verification, and  further develop-
 ment of sampling  methods, analytical procedures, and
 process  instrumentation  required for CSL's internal
 and  external  research, development, and demonstra-
 tion activities.


 Engineering Analysis  Branch

   The  Engineering Analysis Branch  is the Labora-
 tory's program planning and evaluation coordination
 facility. Additionally,  it  is responsible for technical
 and  editorial  services that are more effective when
 they are provided centrally. Branch personnel provide
 cost control  and contract management services  to
 individual project officers and assist in the evaluation
 of unsolicited proposals  as well  as  in the review of
 on-going programs. Staff specialists are  available for
 consultation on specific technical matters.


 PHYSICAL FACILITIES

   CSL's laboratory facilities  include a flue-gas gen-
 erator; bench-scale scrubbing equipment; laboratories
 for odor problem   studies  and for  the  physical
characterization of particulates; an electronics shop;
 and  equipment for wet  and instrumental  analyses.
CSL  also maintains and operates a self-propelled van
and  a  trailer  (both  40  feet in  length)  that are
 equipped to conduct full-scale investigation of proc-
 ess streams..
   Pilot-size  equipment  in the ORD-RTP  High Bay
 Areas include a model wet scrubber; four baghouses
 for  fabric  filtration studies; a  laboratory for the
 evaluation of novel particulate control devices; and a
 variety of experimental  and commercial combustion
 systems  including furnaces, boilers, and a gas turbine
 instrumented for  most  gaseous  pollutant  emission
 measurements. (Fuels being  investigated are  coals,
 oils, gases, and other liquid and gaseous materials.)
   The Laboratory's in-house capability to support
 measurements programs  recently  took a significant
 step forward with the installation, at  ORD-RTP, of
 the  first aerodynamic test facility specifically de-
 signed for studies requiring large gas volumes  (up to
 15,000 cfm) with carefully controlled velocity pro-
 files and known chemical composition.
MAJOR PROGRAM AREAS

   The accompanying diagram, showing air pollution
control  technology  interactions, presents an overview
of the Control System Laboratory program. Because
of the way various laws are written, and because of
EPA's planning system, CSL's program is divided into
GAS



FUEL



COMBUSTION



FLUID-BED

Air pollution con trot technology interactions among
sources to  which new source performance standards
were first applied.
                                         Research Activities
                                             117

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elements  based  on the control of  individual  pollu-
tants.  Obviously,  however, to control ambient con-
centrations of pollutants, the industries producing the
pollutants must be controlled.

   The first five  industries to which  New  Source
Performance Standards were applied are shown at the
top  of  the  diagram.  The  methods  that  CSL  is
improving or developing for air pollution control are
shown at the bottom of the diagram. Inevitably, there
is significant overlap between industry, pollutant, and
control method descriptions of CSL's program.  For
example, work directed  toward  controlling  sulfur
oxides (SOX) may involve clean fuels, gas scrubbing,
or advanced power cycles.  On the other hand, SOX
gas  scrubbing  may be applicable  to power  plants,
sulfuric  acid  plants,  and  non-ferrous smelters;  and
smelters  may emit trace hazardous elements as well as
SOX.

   For purposes of discussion, this portion  of the
Report is organized by control of specific pollutants.
The broad applicability of a control method for more
than one pollutant,  from  more  than  one source,
should be kept in mind when analyzing the program.
This interdependence  of CSL program  components
highlights an important synergistic characteristic: for
example, a change in  the  Laboratory's combustion
control  research  program,  to  reflect changes  in the
nitrogen oxides (NOX)  program philosophy, will  also
affect CSL's program to control combustible particu-
lates -  particulates  that  may include  carcinogenic
hydrocarbons, possibly the most hazardous of pollu-
tants.
    A  strong  cooperative  effort  has  been  fostered
 between  industry  and government: CSL's  major
 control technology development/demonstration proj-
 ects have been cost-shared approximately equally by
 both  sectors.  Industrial  studies  conducted by the
 Laboratory have resulted in initiation of such promis-
 ing  projects as various flue gas desulfurization sys-
 tems,  advanced  power cycles,  low-Btu gasification,
 and coke pushing and charging demonstrations. Be-
 cause  many aspects of air pollution control are  nearly
 equal  in importance,  CSL's  efforts  are not (and
 cannot be) concentrated in any single area.
 Particulate Control
   The  most  pressing  need in particulate  control
 technology is the development of commercially avail-
 able and widely applicable fine particulate (between
                   0.01  and about 3  micrometers in diameter) control
                   technology  to  support  the  establishment of  Fine
                   Particulate  Ambient  Air Quality  Standards.  Such
                   technology is generally inadequate and currently in
                   the early stages of development under EPA sponsor-
                   ship.  This  technology  is  also  acutely  needed  to
                   achieve Hazardous  Pollutant Standards and associated
                   New Source Performance Standards for trace metals,
                   which have  already been established  or are planned
                   for the  near future.  In  an  effort  to  develop this
                   technology as rapidly as possible, CSL is currently
                   working with many (nearly 70) contractors, grantees,
                   and consultants.
                      Scrubbers, electrostatic precipitators,  and fabric
                   filters are  currently the major  particulate collection
                   devices. These devices are being up-graded  by projects
                   concerned with decreasing costs, increasing applicabil-
                   ity of these devices to a wider  range  of sources, and
                   extending their range  of particle collection capability
                   to  smaller  particle sizes.  In  addition,  entirely  new
                   concepts of particle collection are being investigated.
                      System studies,  completed for each of the conven-
                   tional devices, define potential areas of improvement
                   and new  applications. Long  range projects include:
                   development of generalized models for existing col-
                   lectors, identification  and laboratory  scale testing of
                   totally new concepts  in particle control technology,
                   and pioneering work in small particle detection and
                   small particle generation equipment.

                      Electrostatic Precipitation  —  In  an electrostatic
                   precipitator  (ESP), dust suspended in the gas stream
                   is electrically charged and passed through an electric
                   field  where  electrical  forces cause the  particles to
                   migrate  toward  a  collection  electrode.  The dust,
                   separated  from the  gas by  being retained on the
                   collection  electrode, is subsequently removed  from
                   the device.  In  a conventional  ESP,  the dust  is
                   removed  mechanically.  In a  wet ESP, the dust is
                   removed  by continuous washing of the  collection
                   electrode.
                      CSL is conducting  field tests of industrial ESP's to
                   determine the  fine particle collection efficiency and
                   economics of  ESP systems.  Recent  results indicate
                   that   properly  designed  and operated   ESP's  are
                   capable of  controlling flyash from coal-fired utility
                   boilers at an overall  mass efficiency  in excess of 99
                   percent. These same efficiency measurements indicate
                   that  these ESP's are more than 90 percent efficient
                   on a  mass basis in  collecting all particle size fractions
                   down to about 0.02 micrometers in diameter.
                      ESP's  are being redesigned to improve their par-
                   ticulate collection efficiency,  especially for fine parti-
                   cles  and  high resistivity dusts. This work includes
                   development of  special  dust-conditioning methods,
                   particle charging procedures,  and collection section
                   designs. The work  on conditioning has resulted in the
118
ANNUAL REPORT  1974

-------
discovery of the current-carrying mechanism in flyash
at high temperatures and the demonstration of a new
conditioning agent.

   Fabric Filtration — A typical fabric filter consists
of a flexible layer of  porous cloth  through which a
dust-laden gas is passed to separate particles from the
gas stream.  Fabric filters  have been  used successfully
for many years to collect dusts  at temperatures as
high as  about 290°C;  however, comparatively little
scientific effort has been expended  to develop higher
temperature filtration technology. Fabric filtration is
one of the few techniques now capable of collecting
very  small  particulate   matter.  Fabric  filters are
usually  flat or tubular bags suspended in a structure
known as a baghouse (see accompanying figure).
    One  product  of  a  fabric  filter systems  study,
completed for CSL in  1970,  is a technology hand-
book intended as  a guide in the design, development,
application, and  operation of  fabric  filter  systems.
The study also  recommended  research and  develop-
ment for possible funding by EPA.
    Products of that research  over the  period of this
 Report  have  been publications  that relate  woven
fabric structure to filtering performance and evaluate
 new spunbonded nylons as filter media. Experimental
work  to aid  in  selecting  optimum  filter  cleaning
methods has been completed;  a report of that work
will be issued early in 1975.
    Major effort has been directed toward characteriz-
 ing  and improving fabric filter system performance
for  capture of fine particulates.  Tasks in this area
 have been  awarded to  contractors and grantees, as
well as  being pursued  in-house. Specific  programs
 involve  the development of  non-woven media; the
 development  of  high-velocity,  high-efficiency filtra-
tion techniques;  and  the construction of  a  portable
 baghouse system for on-site field testing.

    Novel Particulate Collection Devices - The cost of
 high-efficiency  particle  collection  from  industrial
 sources   by conventional  equipment of  all  types
 (scrubbers,  filters, ESP's) is high, in  large part because
 the efficiency of most collectors decreases in the fine
 particulate  range. This performance loss must, there-
 fore, be offset by large size  or high-energy input.
 Devices or systems based on new collection principles
 or on radical redesign of conventional collectors are
 sometimes  offered by private developers. Presently
 proposed systems include sonic agglomeration, granu-
 lar bed  filtration, foam  scrubbing,  and several types
 of steam  or high-pressure water ejector scrubbers.
 Entirely new concepts utilizing new mechanisms have
 the potential for  providing high-efficiency fine parti-
 cle collection  or  for  permitting  the  growth  of
 particles by agglomeration for subsequent more effi-
 cient collection.  New concepts  that  have  been ad-
vanced include charged droplet scrubbing and collec-
tion of charged particles by fiber beds.
   All  known  novel  devices and new  collection
concepts are being reviewed by EPA. Those showing
potential for fine particle collection will be evaluated
for performance and  related  cost. Systems showing
promise of  high-efficiency fine particle collection at
reasonable  cost and  meriting further development
will,  if necessary, be further  supported by CSL.
Pilot-scale demonstration projects were begun  in FY
1975 on a charged droplet scrubber and a condensa-
tion scrubber.

   Wet Scrubbing  — In a wet scrubber, both gaseous
and particulate pollutants are transferred from the gas
to the scrubbing  liquid.  The availability  of a wide
variety of scrubber types and scrubbing liquids gives
wet scrubbers the potential for satisfactorily remov-
ing many pollutants.
  CLEAN AIR
    OUTLET

   DIRTY AIR
     INLET
CELL
PLATE
  Typical fabric filter baghouse.
                                           Research Activities
                                              119

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Sulfur Oxides Control
   In  the  area  of  sulfur  oxides  (SOX) control,
achievement of Ambient  Air Quality Standards de-
mands the control  of industrial combustion, indus-
trial  processes, and area sources,  as well as  utility
combustion. Natural low-sulfur fuels are only suffi-
cient  to satisfy about 40 percent of the demands of
State  Implementation Plans. The remainder must be
supplied   by   control  technology  in  the  form  of
effluent  desulfurization,  fuel  cleaning,  or process
modification.  Although the currently  defined  SOX
control technology  program contains developmental
projects of sufficient diversity to ensure the achieve-
ment  of Ambient Air Quality Standards, a substantial
EPA  research  and  development investment will  be
required   to bring  this technology  to commercial
fruition.  Only in the case  of effluent desulfurization
technology for electric  utility  applications will the
control technology  achieve widespread commerciali-
zation within the next few years.
   Consistent  with  Congressional  guidelines, CSL's
major concern has  been the control of sulfur oxides
from  fuel combustion. About  80 percent  of the
Laboratory's total expenditures to date have been in
this  area  and have been  concentrated on flue gas
cleaning.  Flue gas  cleaning devices are now being
installed  on commercial power plants in this country.
The  prototype demonstrations  that CSL has  under-
way  are  shown in Table 15. Except for clean fuels,
       flue gas cleaning is  probably  the  only  sulfur oxides
       control technique that will have widespread applica-
       tion  within the  next  10 to  15 years. With  the
       expected shortage of clean fuels (amounting to about
       20 percent of the  coal demand), flue gas  cleaning
       should find wide application.
          The need to develop techniques to permit the use
       of eastern and midwestern coal is shown clearly in the
       accompanying  figure. Only about 7  percent of  this
       coal is usable under New Source Performance Stand-
       ards.  Because of physical and contractual limitations
       it is not possible to mine all the low  sulfur coal first.
       (That is, the mining will proceed from left  to right,
       not from bottom to top.)  Thus  a  native  resource
       approximating the GNP will not be available for use if
       cleaning  techniques  are not utilized.  It had been
       projected that this would cause economic dislocations
       and unemployment, substantial increase  in the flow
       of dollars outside the country, and increased depend-
       ence of the security of our country  on  Mid-eastern
       oil; current events substantiate that projection.
          Flue  gas  cleaning  provides  an  alternative  (to
       low-sulfur coal and  oil) that is both available and, in
       most  instances, more economical  than  "clean" fuels.
       A  detailed  study, recently  completed by TVA under
       EPA sponsorship shows that flue  gas desulfurization
       costs  range from  2  to 5 mills/kWh  for  full-scale
       systems on coal-fired plants.  In general, the low  end
       of the estimate  can  be associated with power plants
       larger than 500  MW. Estimates for oil-fired applica-
       tions  are slightly less than for equivalent coal-fired
                             Table 15.  PRESENT AND PROJECTED FLUE GAS
                                     CLEANING DEMONSTRATIONS
                  Process and
                  application
                  Wet limestone scrubbing
                     Shawnee-TVA
                     (30 MW, coal)
                     Key West
                     (40 MW, oil)
                  MgO scrubbing
                     Chemico
                     (155 MW, oil)
                     Chemico
                     (100 MW, coal)
                  Cat-OX
                     Monsanto
                     (100 MW, coal)
                  Wellman-Lord
                     (115 MW, coal)
                  Double alkali
                     General Motors
                     (30 MW, coal)
Startup
April 1972

January 1974


May 1972

July 1974


April 1975

December 1975


March  1974
  Removal
efficiency, %
   75-90

   60-80


   85-90

   85-90


   85-90

   90-95


   85-95
                                       ANNUAL REPORT 1974

-------
 7500
 6000
 4500
 3000
 1500
         ESSENTIALLY ALL KNOWN RESERVES
         MADE AVAILABLE BY 95% EFFICIENT
         FLUE GAS CLEANING PROCESSES
         (EXAMPLE: SODIUM SULFITE/BISUL-
         FITE SCRUBBING WITH THERMAL RE-
         GENERATION)
ADDITIONAL RESERVES (TO 2.5% S)
MEETING NSPS MADE AVAILABLE BY
75% EFFICIENT FLUE GAS SCRUBBING
PROCESSES NOW BECOMING COMMER-
CIALLY AVAILABLE (EXAMPLE:  WET
LIMESTONE SCRUBBING)
          NATURALLY OCCURRING LOW-
          SULFUR COAL (<0.7% S) THAT MEETS
          NSPS
 Value of eastern and central coals meeting new source
performance standards as a function of efficiency of
flue gas cleaning processes (value of coal resources at
$12 per ton).


units. Current low-sulfur fuel differentials of $7.50 to
$10/ton of  coal  and $2 to  $3/barrel  of oil equal
approximately   3  to  4 and  2.7 to  4  mills/kWh,
respectively. Thus,   for  many applications  (parti-
cularly for larger power plants) flue gas cleaning is the
more economical  solution to the sulfur oxides emis-
sions problem.
   Most of CSL's  early coal  desulfurization work was
in the area of improving  and evaluating  physical
cleaning methods  for coal. With the overall potential
of physical  desulfurization  and  deashing  of coal
reasonably  well  established,  this approach should
have moderate applicability  in  reducing sulfur by 30
to 70 percent in specific coals. Ongoing work in this
area includes washability testing, coal  desulfurization
 and cleaning, and  pollutant control  evaluation and
 optimization. The most recent  work  is  aimed at
 chemical desulfurization of coal and the problems of
 hazardous pollutants in fossil fuel.
   Two factors  —  the  major  contribution of small
 coal- and oil-burning sources  (area sources)  to the
 degradation of ambient air quality  and  the severely
 limited supplies  of low-sulfur fuels — indicate a need
 for clean fuel or coal conversion  processes. CSL has
 provided funds to both  the Bureau of Mines and the
 Office  of  Coal  Research  to assist in  both  the
 development of  conversion and gasification processes
 that can provide clean fuels and the determination of
 environmental controls that will be required for these
 techniques.
   Since 1967,  CSL  has been actively  developing
 several  versions  of the  fluidized-bed  process  for
 combustion  of coal  and residual  oil as  a means of
 economical pollution control in low cost steam and
 power generation. This  combustion process has the
 capability of  reducing pollutant emissions 95 percent
 for S02, 80  percent  for  NOX, and 99  percent for
 particulates. In addition, the capital costs for such a
 plant  would   be  10  to  20  percent  less than  a
 conventional facility, and thermal discharge to water-
 courses can  be  reduced by  10  to  60 percent.
 Fluidized-bed  combustion  represents  an  attractive
 long-range solution to  the control of pollutants from
 utility boilers.
   The  Laboratory  is  also conducting research into
 the control  of emissions  from smelters, iron and steel
 operations,  kraft wood pulping mills, iron foundries,
 secondary  aluminum furnaces, and  other  industrial
sources of SOX.


 Nitrogen  Oxides Control

   On a national basis, approximately 50 percent of
the emissions  of nitrogen  oxides  (NOX)  are  from
combustion sources other than motor vehicles. For
this reason, the CSL program  is oriented heavily in
 the direction  of combustion  control.  Control  of
stationary  sources  of  NOX will  be  necessary for
achieving  and  maintaining  Ambient Air Quality
Standards  as  well  as for establishing future  New
Source Performance Standards.
   The main  approach has been modification of the
 combustion   process  to  reduce   NOX   formation.
 Bench-scale  work  and  field  testing  indicate  that
 necessary control for the immediate future can be
 achieved by  this  method.  In addition,  stack gas
 cleaning processes are being evaluated  and investi-
 gated on a small scale;  results in this area,  however,
 are not encouraging thus far.
   A further  complication in nitrogen oxides forma-
 tion  and control is that NOX  is  formed  from two
                                         Research Activities
                                                                                         121

-------
 discrete sources; that is, thermal fixation of nitrogen
 in  combustion  air to form "thermal NOX"  and a
 significant conversion of nitrogen compounds in fuel
 to  form "fuel NOX." Experimental work and field
 testing are showing promise for controlling both NOX
 sources;  however, it has not yet been determined that
 "fuel  NOX"  control  by  combustion modification
 alone  will  be adequate to attain projected long term
 goals.
    The accompanying figure shows another area in
 which CSL has made a major contribution — nitrogen
 oxides control in coal  combustion,  the most difficult
 area.  The  field  testing program,  which  has  been
 underway  since the beginning of calendar year 1971,
 has been  more  effective  than  anticipated and  is
 substantially ahead of schedule. The second part of
 the NOX  program, engineering  research and  develop-
 ment, began in calendar year 1974 and is  expected to
 furnish  technology permitting the  attainment of
 National New Source  Performance Standards during
 calendar year  1975.  It should ultimately allow the
 attainment of average  emissions of less than 300 ppm
 of  NOX.
   The basic  research, which got  underway  at  the
beginning  of  calendar  year 1974,  is expected to
provide technology to allow average emissions of 150
ppm NOX to be lattained in  1978.
   Primary efforts during 1975 will be the develop-
ment and demonstration of modified operating proce-
                                  dures for NOX control on pilot- and commercial-scale
                                  boilers. The  efforts of the  overall  combustion  re-
                                  search and  development program are classified under
                                  the main areas of fundamental studies, fuel  research
                                  and development, process research  and development,
                                  and field testing.

                                     Fundamental Studies — A number of  projects
                                  classified as fundamental research studies are  directed
                                  at providing a basic understanding of the  important
                                  phenomena involved in  the formation and desctruc-
                                  tion  of pollutants  during  the combustion  process.
                                  This  understanding can then be  used  to  improve
                                  existing combustion control  techniques and to sug-
                                  gest other techniques with  even greater promise for
                                  control of pollutants. The fundamental studies cover
                                  three  categories of work: the chemistry of pollutant
                                  formation  and destruction,  the physical processes of
                                  combustion,  and the  mathematical  simulation  of
                                  combustion.
                                     The actual  conditions existing  within  the  flame
                                  zone  are a  function  of the  physical processes  of
                                  combustion. Most combustors operate with diffusion
                                  flames where fuel and  air  are introduced  separately
                                  and mixing is dependent on the manner of introduc-
                                  tion. Because the flame  zone  is not of homogeneous
                                  composition, it is necessary  to understand the role of
                                  combustion aerodynamics in  pollutant formation. A
                                  contract with United Aircraft Research Laboratories
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                                                                     75
                                                                              76
                                                                     77
1978
                                               CALENDAR YEAR

Control of nitrogen oxide emissions from coal-fired utility boilers.
122
                 ANNUAL REPORT 1974

-------
has as  its objective  the establishment by detailed
velocity  mapping  of  the flow-field  properties in  an
idealized  single-burner  combustor  as  a function  of
fuel  and  air  inlet parameters. The local  chemical
compositions  and the exhaust product composition
will be monitored to  show the effect of aerodynamic
and mixing conditions.  Future work in this area will
include a study of the  role of flame  interactions in
multiple-burner systems on the emission properties of
the systems.
   Because the chemical and physical effects of actual
combustion  are  closely  related, it is essential  to
provide a method of  tying these  effects together and
generalizing  the   results  for  a variety of systems.
Mathematical simulation of combustion by modeling
is the tool used  for  this purpose. In  the past year,
work has been directed toward developing the neces-
sary components of the  model. Major effort has been
expended  in  the development  of  a  rapid  com-
puterized technique to allow evaluation  of combus-
tion  kinetics of  numerous  simultaneous  reactions,
incorporation in  the  model of simplified  flow fields,
 improvement  of  the turbulence model, and  com-
parison of model  predictions with cold- and hot-flow
furnace  data using simple chemical  kinetics. Ulti-
mately, the kinetics and fluid-flow programs must be
 applied together  to give a realistic description  of any
 practical system.

    Fuels Research and Development — Fuels research
 and development studies are conducted  on versatile
 experimental combustion systems. The  studies  are
 designed  to  develop  generalized  combustion  control
technology that  is applicable  to the control of NOX
 and other combustion-related pollutants from con-
 ventional fuels, waste fuels, and future fuels.  Studies
 conducted  to date have been designed  to develop
 combustion  control  technology  for  a specific fuel
through single-burner design  criteria on  combustion
modification  techniques. These  studies  provide the
 future  goals for NOX control and  will generate the
 necessary  technology to be  applied  in  the  process
 research and development area.
   Contracted  studies  with   the  Institute of Gas
Technology  (IGT) have  been directed  toward the
relationship between  combustion, aerodynamics, and
pollutant emission characteristics  of   industrial gas
burners. A  recently  initiated study  with IGT will
further investigate specific  burner  and process para-
meters  and evaluate  and optimize  burner design to
minimize IMOX emissions from natural gas firing.  A
new  experimental furnace  has  been   built for this
program.  The detailed   experimental  program will
evaluate three classes  of industrial natural  gas burners.
Detailed  in-the-flame probing will  be conducted to
better understand the role of aerodynamics in pollu-
tant formation. The  experimental program and final
report are  scheduled  for  completion by  mid-1975.
Upon completion of the natural gas studies, combus-
tion   characteristics  and  emissions  resulting  from
combustion of low-Btu gases will be evaluated.
   Within the  past year,  EPA has contracted for the
design,  construction,  and  operation  of a versatile,
multi-burner  furnace.  This  system  is  designed  to
simulate combustion conditions occurring in a variety
of furnace types. The experimental work, scheduled
to begin around July 1975,will evaluate and optimize
a  variety of combustion modifications  and burner
parameters designed to reduce NOX and combustion-
related  pollutants.  Fossil  waste and  new  candidate
fuels will be evaluated.
   The  International  Flame Research Foundation  is
under contract to develop combustion system design
criteria  for  heavy  oil- and  coal-fired furnaces. Two
series of experimental  trials have been conducted to
relate  burner  design  parameters to  pollutant  emis-
sions,  flame  configuration,  and  combustion  effi-
ciency.  These trials  have consisted of input/output
measurements followed by detailed flame probing for
a  limited  number  of cases.  Results to  date  have
identified the types of flow  conditions  required to
control formation of NOX  from pulverized coal.

   Process Research  and  Development — CSL's pro-
cess  research and development work involves studies
with commercial and prototype combustion systems
for the  application of optimum NOX control  tech-
nology. Results  of these studies will provide the basis
for the demonstration  of combustion control techno-
logy. To date, the  studies have considered all conven-
tional  fuels  and  combustion systems.  The  major
emphasis, however,  is in  controlling NOX  emissions
from coal-fired utility boilers.
   Two  major  programs  that will  have  significant
beneficial  impact  are those  related to  combustion
modifications of  a  125-MW, tangentially  coal-fired
utility  boiler  (Combustion  Engineering, Inc.) and  a
125-MW, wall  coal-fired utility  boiler  (Tennessee
Valley Authority). Both programs will evaluate staged
combustion as  a  control technique for NOX with
special  emphasis on  unit performance and fire-side
corrosion.
   A program  recently  initiated  with  Combustion
Engineering will evaluate  staged combustion (overfire
air)  on coal-fired tangential  boilers designed with this
NOX control  technique.  Two  coal  types  (Western
subbituminous  and bituminous) will be studied. The
test  boilers  are 450-MW units. This study should
provide  scale-up data on combustion modifications
(from the  on-going  125-MW tests)  and  relate  the
efficacy of retrofit technology to new unit design.
Additionally,  the study should give further insight to
the  role of fuel nitrogen  and coal type and  the degree
of NOX control achievable.
                                           Research Activities
                                              123

-------
Advanced, low-emission, energy-conserving systems are demonstrated in EPA's mobile van.
   A  new study with  KVB,  Inc.,  will evaluate the
impact of fuel switching  on industrial size boilers.
Specifically, both  high-sulfur  bituminous and low-
sulfur Western subbituminous will  be burned in a
variety  of  industrial  boiler  types  and  sizes.  The
impact on boiler performance and emissions will be
assessed.

   Field  Testing — CSL has sponsored several field
test programs, with boilers ranging from residential to
utility size, to determine what can presently be done
to control NOX and combustible emissions. This work
is  done on commercial equipment and is  generally
performed  by research and  development  organiza-
tions  familiar  with the  specific combustion systems
being studied using the financial and technical assist-
ance of manufacturers,  users, and trade associations.
In  addition  to developing  trends and  providing
                directional  recommendations for industry to use to
                minimize emissions  using  today's  technology, the
                work  also defines  where the research and develop-
                ment  efforts  should be concentrated by developing
                emission factors as a function of equipment type and
                size, and fuel consumed. The field testing studies are
                the initial  efforts  in  the  development  of control
                technology  and are designed to provide the state-of-
                the-art in control of NOX and combustible emissions
                from existing commercial combustion systems.
                   A study with residential  (up to  300.000 Btu/hr)
                and  commercial  (300,000  to  10,000,000 Btu/hr)
                boilers was jointly  sponsored by the American Petro-
                leum  Institute (API) and  EPA. Battelle (Columbus)
                Laboratories, the  contractor, concluded that emis-
                sions  from  this  size  range of equipment can be
                controlled best by proper burner design and "proper
                maintenance.
124
ANNUAL REPORT 1974

-------
   A  2-year  study of  the effect of  combustion
modification on air pollutant emissions and efficiency
of industrial  (10,000,000 to  500,000,000  Btu/hr)
boilers will be  completed in the latter part of calendar
year 1975.  The contractor,  KVB  Engineering,  Inc.,
field-tested 47 boilers  (75 boiler/fuel  combinations)
during the first phase.  The second phase will include
longer term, more detailed tests on approximately 18
boilers. Extensive modifications  (for  example, flue
gas  recirculation  and  overfire  air ports)  will  be
performed and sampling will be extended to include
toxic elements.
   Field  tests  with utility (500,000,000  Btu/hr  and
greater)  boilers  have been performed  by  Exxon
Research and  Engineering Co. During 1971, the first
year of the tests, 17 boilers (25 boiler/fuel combina-
tions)  that fired coal,  oil,  and/or gas were  tested.
Depending on boiler design, NOX reductions  averag-
ing 60 to  70 percent were achieved  with gas-fired
units,  and 50 to 60  percent with  oil-fired units:
initially,  reductions with coal-fired units were not as
successful.  NOX reductions  on the gas- and oil-fired
units were primarily achieved through  low-excess-air-
firing and  staged combustion. In the past 2 years,
emphasis has been placed on coal-fired boilers. Exxon
was  recently  able to reduce  NOX emissions  by an
average of 40 to 50 percent by using  low excess air
and  staged combustion on 12 coal-fired units without
Catalytic oxidation process for sulfur dioxide removal is in operation at Wood River Power Station in A /ton, IL.
                                          Research Activities
                                                                                                     125

-------
 increasing  other emissions  or  significantly affecting
 boiler performance.  However,  more  information  is
 needed to determine the effect of combustion modifi-
 cation with coal-fired units and tube-wall corrosion.
   A follow-up study, jointly sponsored by EPA and
 the  Electric Power Research Institute,  is currently
 underway.  Its  primary  purpose  is  to  investigate
 potentially harmful side effects  of combustion modi-
 fication  on utility  boiler  performance and tube-wall
 corrosion.
   In the future, new burner designs will be tested in
 industrial  and  utility  boilers,  and testing  will  be
 conducted  on  such  techniques as  increasing  fuel
 richness during  staging  of combustion.  A wider
 variety of equipment  types  (such  as kilns, ovens,
 process furnaces, gas turbines, and stationary internal
 combustion engines)  will  be investigated. The effect
 on emissions  of mixed-fuel  firing, fossil-fuel/waste-
 fuel  firing, and firing  coal-derived   fuels such  as
 low-Btu gas will be determined. These field tests will
 also provide badly needed information  about emis-
 sions  of  toxic  elements  and potentially  hazardous
 pollutants.

   NOX  Program Summary —  To  date, it  has been
 shown: that flue gas recirculation  is the most effec-
 tive combustion control technique for NOX emission
 from nitrogen fixation of atmospheric nitrogen, and
 that staged combustion is the most effective control
 method for NOX emissions from fuel nitrogen conver-
 sion. The development of  this technology by the EPA
 has  allowed the control of NOX emission from gas-
 and oil-fired utility boilers to a level  of 150 to 250
 ppm. In short-term testing, combustion modifications
 have also  resulted  in  NOX reductions of up to 50
 percent  in  commercial coal-fired  utility  boilers.  In
 addition, burner and  furnace  design  variables have
 been shown to cause widely varying  NOX emission
 levels  in  all  boiler categories.  Current  efforts  are
 directed toward  the  continued development and
 demonstration of  modified operating  procedures for
 NOX Control  in pilot- and commercial-scale utility
 and industrial boilers. Future work will support the
 establishment  of New Source Performance Standards
 by applying the control technologies  developed as a
 result  of this  research and development effort  to
 pilot-  and commercial-scale demonstration of com-
 bustion control  of NOX for existing and new combus-
 tion sources in  all size categories.  In addition, the
 research and development effort will be extended  to
 develop control technology applicable to the combus-
 tion of additional fuel  types (including coal-derived
 fuels such as  low-Btu gas, mixed  fuels, waste fuels,
 and  methanol) and covering a wider range  of combus-
 tion equipment  (e.g.,  stationary gas turbines, internal
 combustion engines, and industrial process furnaces).
                 Hazardous and  Other

                 Pollutant Control

                    As  EPA's regulatory  program has developed, the
                 number of pollutants requiring control has expanded
                 to include more than 30 potentially hazardous and/or
                 annoying air pollutants.  The overall goal relating to
                 hazardous  and other  (other  than SOX, NOX  and
                 particulates) pollutants involves demonstration of the
                 "best" technology for controlling pollutant emissions
                 from specific combustion and industrial  processes to
                 such a degree that a net health benefit is realized with
                 the least economic  impact.  Established technology
                 can lead to setting New Source Performance Stand-
                 ards or Hazardous Emissions Standards.
                    Each of  several hundred different industrial source
                 types has a different degree of adverse environmental
                 impact.  The data  base  describing  many  of these
                 source  types is either non-existent or not in a form
                 suitable for deciding on the need to develop  control
                 technology  for  the sources.  A major effort is under-
                 way in CSL to generate the needed data  base so that
                 the environmental  impact  of the sources  can be
                 assessed accurately. Where currently installed  control
                 technology  does not  reduce emissions sufficiently for
                 them  to be of insignificant environmental  impact,
                 control  technology must be developed. All options,
                 including add-on  devices, process  changes, and  raw
                 materials changes, are considered  in  selecting  the
                 most  attractive  approach for  technology develop-
                 ment.  The  programs in  the  "hazardous" element
                 therefore, involve either  source assessment or tech-
                 nology development.
                    The goal of  CSL's highly source-oriented  control
                 program for  hazardous  and  other pollutants  is to
                 control  all  pollutants  from  a given  source.  For
                 convenience in presentation, the  extremely  diverse
                 program can  be divided  into  six  source categories:
                 organic  chemical processes, inorganic chemical proc-
                 esses,  ferrous  metals processes, non-ferrous metals
                 processes,  open  sources,  and   hazardous pollutants
                 from combustion sources.
                    Organic  Chemical  Processes - In  the  area of
                 organic chemical processes, CSL's efforts are aimed at
                 controlling  emissions from asphalt roofing  manufac-
                 ture, ethylene dichloride  manufacture, flare systems,
                 Kraft   pulping  recovery  processes, petroleum  re-
                 fineries, and rendering plants.  Included in  this cate-
                 gory, along with  rendering  plants (because of their
                 odor control relationship), are projects involving the
                 adsorption  properties of  active manganese dioxide
                 and charcoal.
                    Inorganic Chemical Processes — Relating to CSL's
                 work with inorganic chemical processes, a program is
                 underway to determine the  need to develop  control
126
ANNUAL  REPORT 1974

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technology for fluoride emissions from gypsum ponds
at  fertilizer  plants.  Another  ongoing  project  will
provide data  to  quantify  the  capability of  control
equipment for enclosed asbestos sources; hopefully,
these  data will be used to  strengthen the equipment
standards for abestos control.

    Ferrous  Metals  Processes  -  The  ferrous  metals
industry converts iron ore and scrap iron into useful
iron  and  steel  products.  At  large  integrated steel
plants, iron ore,  limestone, and coke are charged to a
blast furnace where the iron ore is  reduced to molten
metal, which is  periodically tapped.  The iron from
the blast  furnace is saturated with carbon that must
be removed to change it into steel. The iron from the
blast furnace, usually  molten, is generally mixed with
cold  scrap in  a steelmaking furnace where it is blown
with  air  or  oxygen,  which burns  the carbon,  to
produce steel.  It  is  in the  steel   furnace  that the
carbon  level is reduced  to the required level, impuri-
ties  are  removed,  and alloying  agents are  added.
 (Other, less  important,  steel-making furnaces are the
 open-hearth  and the electric arc.) The steel from the
furnace is poured into ingots that solidify. The ingots
 are then adjusted to proper and uniform temperature
 and  physically squeezed  into  the desired  shape  in
 rolling mills.
    This  sounds  simple, but in reality  it  is rather
 complex  as  there  are many ancillary processes and
 operations  to  contend with;  e.g., sintering, coke
 production, scarfing, and galvanizing.
    The  iron and  steel  industry is not limited  to large
 integrated plants; small iron and  steel foundries are
spread  throughout  the  country.  In these  foundries
scrap iron  or  steel is melted  in  electric  arc  and
 induction  furnaces or  in  cupolas  with  little or no
 refining, then poured  into molds to solidify into the
desired shape.
    Production of coke in conventional oven batteries
 has traditionally been a major source of particulates,
 SOX, odors,  carcinogens, and hazardous trace metals.
 It has been  shown  that top-side coke oven  workers
 have a  substantially higher risk of lung  cancer  than
 the  average  worker,  probably  from  carcinogenic
 materials  associated with  the particulate fraction  of
 the emissions.  Until  recently, emissions from this
source have been relatively uncontrolled. Because the
 majority  of  existing  cokemaking  facilities  will  be
 operable  for the  next 25 years and  because most
facilities  built  in   the  next  10  years will  feature
conventional oven  batteries, CSL has had to  concern
 itself with developing control technology for conven-
tional batteries  in  order  to meet  pollution control
guidelines until the end of  the century.
    Present indications are that, even though pollution
control technology may  be developed  for  conven-
tional batteries,  equipment will probably be expen-
sive and have high  maintenance cost, yet may not be
                                            Research
  able to control all pollutants. The expected long-term
  solution to the coking problem is a continuous coking
  process  that emits pollutants  in a more controllable
  form.  CSL's  involvement in  coking is  ultimately
  expected to encompass continuous cokemaking.
     Specific coke oven emission control projects with
  CSL involvement  include: smokeless coke charging,
  enclosed coke  pushing and quenching, smokeless coke
  pushing, and  improved  coke  oven  door seals.  As
  shown in the  accompanying  figure, CSL's prototype
  demonstrations are expected to permit reduction of
  coke  oven emissions from coke production. CSL is
  now expanding its outlook  — initiating  projects  in
  other areas of  the  industry,  in  addition to coke-
  making.  Other major CSL ferrous emission  control
  projects  are related  to sinter plant windboxes, basic
  oxygen  process (BOP)  furnaces,  and iron foundry
  cupolas. New  projects are being developed to control
  blast furnace and fugitive emissions.

     Non-Ferrous Metals Processes — CSL's activities
  relating to non-ferrous metals processes — particularly
  relating  to  air  pollution problems  associated with
  primary copper, lead, and zinc production in the U.S.
  — began late  in 1967 with a survey of sulfur oxides
  and  particulate matter  emitted by those industries.
  The  study by  Arthur G.  McKee and  Co., completed
  early  in 1970,  gave a general qualitative and quantita-
  tive status of emissions in the smelting industry.
     The  "McKee"  effort  was  followed  by  another
  general  study  — this  one to appraise the suitability of
  Monsanto's Cat-Ox  process and the  Wellmann-Lord
  process for controlling sulfur  oxide  emissions from
  copper,  lead,  and  zinc  smelters. The   study  was
  performed by  Stanford Research Institute.
     Because U.S. copper smelting exposes  a significant
  segment  of   the  population  to  a  multiplicity of
  pollutants  whose  effects have not yet  been deter-
  mined,  efforts are underway  to  evaluate emissions
  from such  plants. CSL  has  also initiated a set  of
  development  projects.  Two  new  efforts currently
  being mounted have  as their respective objectives:

     •  Providing smelter-by-smelter   information  to
        EPA on the optimum  application  of currently
        demonstrated  technology  to  simultaneously
        control  all smelter streams containing S02 and
        particulates. The output will  be in the form
        currently being  accepted   by  the courts  as
        demonstration   by  means   of   technology
        transfer.
     •  Assessing the  environmental considerations of
        emerging technology  for metal-winning in the
        primary  non-ferrous industry.  In  this project,
        consideration  will  be given to hydrometallurgy
        as a new smelting process.

     CSL and Phelps Dodge Corporation started a cost
  sharing  study  in July 1971  on  a  new SOX control
Activities                                      127

-------
Wet limestone (coral) scrubbing system for sulfur dioxide removal is in operation at oil-fired power plant in Key
West,FL.
method based on reacting the S02  with H20, with
sulfur  values recovered as elemental sulfur. Initial
attempts to  generate  the needed H2S by  roasting
available copper ore with steam at 800°C  showed
that,  although  it was  technically feasible,  the  eco-
nomics were  prohibitive. The  emphasis has  now
shifted to leaching the  concentrate with hydrochloric
acid, which decomposes the pyrite  and/or pychloric
                in the concentrate and releases ample quantities of
                H2S.  Preliminary results are promising; however, tests
                are required to understand the observed variations in
                H2S  generation as a  function  of the concentrate
                source.
                   EPA has entered into two separate Public Law 480
                Agreements (excess foreign  currency  program) with
                Yugoslavia: one with the Institute for Copper, in Bor;
128
ANNUAL REPORT 1974

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 and  the other with  the  Lead and  Zinc  Institute  in
 Trepca.  The  Bor project is a 3-year investigation
 (begun   in  May  1971)  being  carried-  out  at  an
 American-engineered  copper smelter, the largest  in
 Europe.  The Trepca project  is a similar 3-year effort
 (started in October 1971) being carried out at a lead
 and zinc smelter.
    Objectives of both  projects are:

    •  To characterize quantitatively  and qualitatively
       all air  pollutant emissions from this  type of
       smelter.
    •  To relate air pollutant  emissions to  the smelter
       feed and to feed changes so that data will apply
       to other smelters.
    •  To relate air pollutant  emissions to  operational
       changes (changes  in  smelter configuration) so
       that data will apply to other smelters.
    •  To determine the effects of controlling  sulfur
       dioxide  and  particulates on the emission of all
       other pollutants, especially of  the "hazardous"
       heavy metals.

 The  relationships that are being  developed in these
 two  Public  Law 480 projects  are  expected  to  be
 applicable to  the  domestic  non-ferrous smelting  in-
 dustry.
    CLS's interest in  hazardous and  other emissions
 from  the non-ferrous metals  industry prompted  a
 recently completed study at the South Dakota School
 of Mining  under  a  research grant.  The hazardous
 element of interest in this  study was the mercury
 vapor or metallic mercury found in smelter or power
 plant flue gases.
    Another CSL-funded  effort relating to mercury
 and   other   hazardous  pollutants   (e.g.,   arsenic,
 cadmium, selenium,   antimony,  beryllium, copper,
 zinc, and lead) was a  study completed by Monsanto
 Research Company to  ascertain concentrations  of
 these  metals  in  smelter-produced sulfuric acid. The
 survey was  intended  to  help predict the fate  of
 hazardous pollutants  produced  by  smelter sulfuric
 acid distribution to, and consumption by, different
 industries.

    Open Sources — CSL's open sources program is a
 broad-based  source characterization   program, initi-
 ated  to  characterize   all  major sources of  toxic
 emissions from mining and materials  handling  opera-
 tions for the metallic  ores and non-metallic minerals
 industries. Studies  are underway:  to  identify hereto-
 fore unrecognized major sources of asbestos; to assess
 the importance of and  develop control technology for
 asbestos  mining sites; and to assess the importance of
 and develop control techniques for industrial wastes
 containing asbestos.

   Hazardous Pollutants from  Combustion  Sources —
CSL's program relating to  the control of  hazardous
 pollutants from combustion sources is closely coordi-
 nated with the Laboratory's particulate control, NOX
 combustion,  and  SOX flue  gas cleaning programs.
 Because  the initial  emphasis is upon characterization
 of  emissions  from  the  most  significant sources of
 pollution, the  approach  of the program is similar to
 that for industrial process control programs.
    Coal-fired utility and  industrial boilers were selec-
 ted  as being of highest  priority. Midwest Research,
 selected  as  the contractor  to characterize these
 sources  for hazardous emissions,  has developed  a
 comprehensive test  program  covering all significant
 parameters that might affect  toxic pollutant emis-
 sions. The program was prepared during 1973  with
 actual sampling beginning early in 1974.
    In addition  to the  characterization of utility and
 industrial boilers,  studies  are  being  initiated to
 identify  control  alternatives  for open  combustion
 sources.
 Energy Research

 and Development

    A major effort has been underway since July 1973
 to  develop a plan for increased Federal support of
 energy research  and development.  As noted  in the
 special Energy and  the  Environment section of this
 Report, the Control  Systems Laboratory has provided
 substantial support  to  this  planning activity  and  is
 expected  to  assume  a major role in the implementa-
 tion  of the  new energy programs. The accelerated
                DEMONSTRATION COMPLETION DATE

        SMOKELESS COKE OVEN CHARGING          MARCH 1974
        ENCLOSED COKE PUSHING AND QUENCHING   DECEMBER 1975
        SMOKELESS COKE PUSHING                JUNE 1975
               POTENTIAL IMPACT ON EMISSIONS FROM
               CHARGING. PUSHING. AND OUENCHING
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            PARTICUIATES
 CARBON
MONOXIDE
                                  HYDROCARBONS
                                    (INCLUDING
                                   CARCINOGENS)
Control technology demonstration—coke making.
                                           Research Activities
                                              129

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 development  of  new energy  processes requires an
 extensive   technology  assessment  function  within
 EPA.
    The  expanded control  technology  research  and
 development program has resulted  in increased bud-
 gets for EPA starting in  Fiscal Year 1975.  CSL has a
 leading  role  in  the  management  of  these  funds;
 programs are being implemented through interagency
 agreements  and activities conducted  by  other EPA
 laboratories that are coordinated by CSL, as well as
 through direct contracts to the private sector.
    The  significance  to EPA  of  this energy  research
 and development function cannot be overemphasized.
 During  the  next 5 years, decisions will  be made  and
 technology  will be developed that  will firmly estab-
 lish the basis for the generation of energy for decades
 to come.  These new energy technologies must be
 environmentally  sound   if  the  future health  and
 welfare  of the nation is to be protected. Although
 environmental  considerations  may  be  subjugated to
 short-term  energy needs, there must ultimately be a
 reconciliation of energy and environmental  considera-
 tions.
    Active  involvement  by   EPA will  ensure that
 environmental  control  systems keep pace with new
 energy processes.
 LEGISLATIVE MANDATE


    The legislative mandates upon which CSL's several
 programs  are  based and the various Sections of the
 Clean  Air  Act  requiring  Laboratory support are
 shown below with  a brief description of the types of
 actions taken to support that mandate or Section.

   "RESEARCH,   INVESTIGATION,   TRAINING,  AND
   OTHER ACTIVITIES
   "Sec. 103. (a) The  Administrator shall establish a national
      research and development program for the prevention
      and  control of air  pollution and  as part of such
      program shall—
      "(1) conduct and promote the coordination and accel-
      eration of research, investigations . . . demonstrations,
      surveys, and studies relating to the causes, effects . . .
      prevention, and control of air pollution. . . .
            "(b) In  carrying  out  the  provisions of the
      preceding subsection, the Administrator is authorized
      to-
      "(1) collect  and make available, through publications
      and other appropriate means, the results of and other
      information . . . pertaining to such  research.  . . .
      "(8) develop effective and  practical processes,  meth-
      ods,  and  prototype devices  for  the prevention or
      control of air pollution."
   In support of Sections 103 (a) and (b) of the Clean
Air  Act  (cited above),  CSL conducts studies and
investigations to characterize emissions of  pollutants,
to evaluate  control  technology,  and to predict the
impact of and  need for controls in  the future.  The
Laboratory  conducts  research  to  develop  cost-
effective  controls  for  pollutants  from  stationary
sources and demonstrates the most promising control
methods.  Finally,  CSL  disseminates  the  research,
development, and demonstration results to the public
through seminars,  professional  meetings, and  appro-
priate publications.


   "RESEARCH  RELATING TO FUELS AND VEHICLES
   "Sec. 104. (a) The Administrator shall give special empha-
      sis  to  research  and development into new and im-
      proved methods, having industry-wide application, for
      the prevention and control of air pollution resulting
      from the combustion of fuels. In furtherance of such
      research and development he shall —
      "(1) conduct  and  accelerate research  programs di-
      rected  toward  development  of improved  low-cost
      techniques for—
          "(A) control of combustion byproducts of fuels,
          "(B) removal  of  potential air pollutants from
      fuels prior to combustion,
          "(C) control of emissions from the evaporation
      of fuels,
          "(D) improving the  efficiency of fuels combus-
      tion so as to decrease atmospheric emissions, and
          "(E) producing synthetic or  new fuels  which,
      when used, result in decreased atmospheric emissions.
      "(2) provide for Federal  grants . . . and contracts . . .
      for payment of  (A) . . . cost acquiring . . . for research
      and development purposes, new or improved devices
      or methods having  industry-wide application of pre-
      venting or controlling discharges into the air of various
      types of pollutants.  . . .
      "(3) determine,  by  laboratory and pilot plant testing,
      the results  of  air  pollution research and studies in
      order to develop new or improved processes and plant
      designs to the point where they can be demonstrated
      on a large and practical scale;
      "(4) construct,   operate,  and maintain, or assist in
      meeting the cost of ... new or improved demonstra-
      tion plants or  processes  which  have  promise of
      accomplishing the purposes of this Act.  . . ."

   Through efforts provided for under Section 104(a)
of the Clean Air Act (cited  above),  CSL has brought
flue gas cleaning to the stage  of commercial develop-
ment, has developed techniques for the reduction of
nitrogen oxide  (NOX) emissions from  combustion
processes by  as much as 50 percent;  has currently
under demonstration a commercially feasible  means
of  reducing  carbon  monoxide,  hydrocarbon,  and
particulate emissions from coke ovens by 90 percent;
has identified promising new combustion techniques
such  as the advanced  power  cycle and  fluidized-bed
combustion;  and has  developed effective low-cost
processes for cleaning coal.

   "AIR  QUALITY   CRITERIA AND  CONTROL TECH-
   NIQUES
   "Sec. 108 . . .  (b) (1) Simultaneously with the issuance of
      criteria under subsection (a), the  Administrator  shall
      . . .  issue  . . .  information on air pollution  control
      techniques, which  information  shall include  data
                                       ANNUAL  REPORT 1974

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     relating to  the  technology  and costs  of  emission
     control. Such information shall include such data as
     are available or attainable technology and alternative
     methods of  prevention and control of air pollution.
     Such information shall also include data on alternative
     fuels, processes,  and operating  methods which will
     result in elimination or significant reduction of emis-
     sions."
   In support of Section 108(b)  of the Clean Air Act
(cited above), CSL is continually evaluating new and
existing  stationary source control procedures in an
effort to develop and maintain a comprehensive data
base related to air pollution control techniques.

   "(STATE) IMPLEMENTATION PLANS
   "Sec. 110. (a) (1) Each  State shall . . . adopt  ... a plan
      which provides for implementation, maintenance and
      enforcement of such primary  (and secondary) stand-
      ard. . . .
           "(a) (2) (B) it (the plan) includes emission limi-
      tations, schedules, and timetables for compliance. . . .
           "(e) (1) Upon application of a Governor . . . the
      Administrator may . . . extend  (compliance  period)
      ... if ... the Administrator determines that—
                 "(A) One or more emissions sources . . .
      are unable to comply with  . . . standard because the
      necessary  technology  or other  alternatives are  not
      available. . . .
           "(f) (1) ... The Governor . . . may apply to the
      Administrator to postpone  the  applicability of such
      requirement to such source. ... If the Administrator
      determines that—
                  "(B) such  source (or class) is  unable to
      comply with such  requirement because the necessary
      technology or other alternative methods of control are
      not available or have not been available for a sufficient
      period of time . . .
                 "(D) . . .  then  the Administrator  shall
      grant a postponement of such requirement."


   The Laboratory's role  in the procedures required
by Sections  110  (a), (e),  and (f) of the Clean Air Act
(cited above)  is  primarily that of providing expert
testimony relating to the  availability  of  air pollution
control  technology. CSL's research,  demonstration,
and other evaluation tools provide the most compre-
hensive  data base available concerning  the state-of-
the-art of air pollution control  technology.
   "STANDARDS OF PERFORMANCE  FOR NEW STA-
   TIONARY SOURCES
   "Sec. 111. (b) (3) The Administrator shall, from time to
      time, issue information  on pollution control  tech-
      niques for categories of new  sources and air pollutants.

           "(d)(D...  each State shall submit  to  the
      Administrator a plan  which  (A) establishes emission
      standards for any  existing  source for any air pollu-
      tant. . . ."
   CSL,  in  support Sections  lll(b)  and  (d)  of the
Clean Air Act  (cited  above), evaluates the state-of-
the-air  pollution control  technology  for various  sta-
tionary  sources and, based   on  projected  future
control needs, develops new control technology. The
predicted new developments and schedules provide a
basis  upon which EPA  can set future New Source
Performance  Standards.  For  non-criteria pollutants,
the Laboratory's data base related to control capa-
bility and  emission levels provides a basis upon which
States may set emission standards for any pollutant
from  stationary sources.

   "NATIONAL EMISSION STANDARDS FOR HAZARD-
   OUS AIR POLLUTANTS
   "Sec. 112. (b) (2) The Administrator shall, from time to
      time, issue  information  on pollution control  tech-
      niques for air pollutants subject to the provisions of
      this section.
           "(c) (2) The President may exempt any station-
      ary source  ... if  he finds that the technology to
      implement such standards is not available. . . ."

   In support of Sections 112(b) and (c) of the Clean
Air Act (cited above), CSL's programs will identify all
air pollutants from  stationary sources. As the  need
for control of these pollutants is indicated,  through
its related research  and development program, the
Laboratory will  be able to  identify  not only the
specific  sources  requiring control, but also the most
cost-effective approach for achieving that control.

   "COMPREHENSIVE ECONOMIC COST STUDIES
   "Sec. 312. (a) ... The  Administrator  . . .  shall make a
      detailed  estimate of the cost of carrying  out the
      provisions of this Act . . . and a comprehensive study
      of  the economic impact of Air Quality Standards on
      the Nation's industries, communities, and other con-
      tributing sources of pollution, including an analysis of
      the national requirements for and the cost of control-
      ling emissions to attain such standards of air quality.
   Among  the  activities  of  the CSL,  related  to
Section 312(a) of the Clean Air Act (cited above), are
research and demonstration projects leading to the
development of comprehensive  data relating to the
cost of various air pollution control techniques.
   Because  CSL's  programs simultaneously  support
numerous   sections  of  the  Clean  Air  Act,  it  is
impossible  to allocate a given resource to only one
Section  of  the  Act. For example,  a CSL  flue gas
cleaning demonstration project supports Section 103
(Research,    Investigation,   Training,   and   Other
Activities); Section  104 (Research Relating  to  Fuels
and Vehicles); Section  108 (Air Quality Criteria and
Control  Techniques); Section 110 (State Implementa-
tion Plans); Section  III (Standards of Performance for
New Stationary Sources - in this  case  for electric
utilities); and Section 312 (Comprehensive Economic
Cost Studies).
   Thus, although Table 16 does not display a direct
one-to-one relationship between  projects and indivi-
dual sections of the Clean Air Act, it does convey the
general level of support that CSL's program  provides
to various sections of the Act.
                                              Research Activities
                                                 131

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            Table 16. SUMMARY OF RESOURCES FOR CONTROL SYSTEMS LABORATORY
                                   FOR FISCAL YEAR 1975
Section of Clean Air
Act Supported
103
104
108
110
111
112
312
Totals3
Funds, $103
3,329
2,929
1,598
1,598
3,035
799
27
13,315
                    aTotal does not include approximately $42.5 million of special energy
                     appropriations.
132
ANNUAL REPORT 1974

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Environmental
   Monitoring
  and Support
   Laboratory

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                                                    OVERVIEW
                                                    OF QAEML MISSION
 Quality Assurance
and  Environmental
              Monitoring
              Laboratory
   The mission of the Quality Assurance and Environ-
mental Monitoring Laboratory (QAEML) is to obtain
the data  needed  to  reach  and support decisions
concerning environmental quality and to develop and
implement a total quality assurance program for all
EPA-related air monitoring programs.  Such data are
needed in a variety of activities such as  air quality
management, criteria development,  standards setting,
compliance and enforcement, and  development of
source emission-control strategies.
   In  carrying  out  its mission, QAEML provides
monitoring services that range from the first steps of
any monitoring effort, such as selecting field sites for
monitoring and making measurements on such sites,
to the final steps of data evaluation, summarization,
and dissemination.  Quality assurance is practiced to
control  and  document the quality   of  the  data
obtained.  Although the use of standardized methods
is  an  important aspect of  quality assurance,  such
methods are not always available.
   To supplement the use of standardized methods,
QAEML maintains  a staff of scientific and technical
personnel  having expertise  in analytical  chemistry,
instrument electronics,  and  statistics to ensure that
development  and   evaluation  of  methods,  formal
testing of  methods  (including collaborative testing in
the community of users), and development of quality
control  procedures  for methods  are carried  out
effectively. Quality control procedures are formalized
and disseminated for use within  EPA, by the states,
and by other interested groups.
   Through appropriate statistical analyses, QAEML
evaluates  analytical   methods  and  reduces   and
evaluates  air  quality  data.  These summaries  and
evaluations are provided for the community of users.
Data  are entered into the National Aerometric Data
Bank  or are  published through appropriate channels.
Specially designed facilities are used to gather pollutant
concentration data and to test air monitoring methods
and instruments.
ORGANIZATION

   The Quality  Assurance and Environmental Moni-
toring  Laboratory conducts its  activities  through
three technically oriented branches, a statistical staff,
and  a quality assurance  staff, all  of which report to
the  Office of the Director. The Branches  are the
Methods Standardization and Performance Evaluation
Branch, the Analytical  Chemistry Branch, and the
Environmental Monitoring Branch. All activities are
coordinated through  the  Office  of  the Director,
which  also serves as the interface with  other EPA
units for which QAEML provides technical support.
                                         Research Activities
                                            135

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        METHODS
   STANDARDIZATION
   AND PERFORMANCE
  EVALUATION BRANCH
          ANALYTICAL
           CHEMISTRY
            BRANCH
                                      QUALITY ASSURANCE
                                     AND ENVIRONMENTAL
                                         MONITORING
                                         LABORATORY
                                                QUALITY
                                              ASSURANCE
                                                 STAFF
                                          STATISTICAL
                                           SERVICES
                                             STAFF
                                         ENVIRONMENTAL
                                            MONITORING
                                              BRANCH
 Methods Standardization
 and Performance
 Evaluation Branch
    The  Methods Standardization  and Performance
 Evaluation Branch (MSPEB) develops and conducts a
 program for standardization of methods that involves
 laboratory evaluation,  procedure  revision,  and col-
 laborative  testing. The  end products  are  standard
 analytical methods for the measurement of pollutant
 concentrations in ambient air and of source  emis-
 sions. The Branch develops standard reference mate-
 rials  for use  in methods standardization and calibra-
 tion  and in quality control and evaluation programs.
 MSPEB  also  conducts interlaboratory performance
 audits utilizing these standard reference materials.


 Analytical Chemistry  Branch

    The Analytical Chemistry Branch (ACB) provides
 analytical capability  to  ORD-RTP for the  measure-
 ment of trace elements and other  pollutants present
 in  various  environmental,  bioenvironmental, source,
 and  fuel samples.  The  Branch provides  technical
 support  and specialized training to EPA Regions and
 State and local  agencies. As  required,  the  ACB
 develops new methods,  modifies existing ones, and
 provides analytical  services  in  support of ongoing
 studies,  including  research monitoring. ACB is also
 responsible for maintaining liaison with and giving
 technical assistance  to  the  Office of Air  Quality
 Planning and Standards (OAQPS) in source  sampling
                 and  in  analysis for trace elements and other pollu-
                 tants in order to provide valid data for development
                 of source performance standards. Similar assistance is
                 to be  provided to the Office of Enforcement  and
                 General Counsel (OEGC) in support of the fuels  and
                 fuel  additives monitoring programs, such  as pro-
                 viding evidentiary support of the lead and phosphorus
                 standards for gasoline for possible use in enforcement
                 proceedings.
                   ACB  personnel  provide  analytical  laboratory
                 services to  OAQPS, OEGC, and other EPA organiza-
                 tions and  programs for short-term and special  en-
                 vironmental studies in support of monitoring trends
                 in pollutant concentrations for State Implementation
                 Plans and enforcement actions. The ACB is deeply
                 involved in the quality assurance programs of ORD-
                 RTP,  regional  laboratories,  and  other EPA com-
                 ponents  in  performing referee analyses on  diverse
                 kinds of samples.
                Environmental Monitoring Branch


                   The Environmental Monitoring Branch (EMB) is
                responsible for the installation, calibration, operation,
                and  maintenance of special multi-purpose pollutant
                monitoring stations  and networks such as  the tur-
                bidity, precipitation, and membrane-filter particulate
                networks, and for providing guidance to other govern-
                mental  agencies in the  design  and  operation  of
                monitoring stations  and networks. The Branch pro-
                vides specialized field monitoring support (including
                air sampling during emergency episodes) to OAQPS,
                OEGC,  and the Regional Offices. Other  areas  of
                responsibility are the determination of equivalency of
136
ANNUAL REPORT 1974

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Material samples  involved in lawsuits are carefully
handled to maintain chain-of-custody requirements
and are sealed in locked storage cabinets  (inset).
candidate methods and of instruments to be used in
reference  methods, and for the in-house and field
evaluation of commercially  available environmental
monitoring instrumentation.
Quality Assurance  Staff

   The Quality Assurance Staff (QAS) provides guid-
ance for development and implementation of quality
assurance programs to ORD-RTP  Laboratories, EPA
Regional  Offices,  and state and local laboratories to
ensure  that all air pollution data used in the various
decision-making processes are valid and comparable.
The Staff formulates method-specific guidelines for
                                                      the  development  and  implementation  of quality
                                                      assurance systems for the measurement of pollutants
                                                      in ambient air, from stationary and mobile sources,
                                                      and  in fuels  and fuel  additives. QAS also develops
                                                      general guidelines, training materials, and procedures
                                                      for objective  assessment of air pollution  data and for
                                                      the on-site evaluation of quality assurance systems.


                                                      Statistical Services Staff


                                                         The Statistical Services Staff (SSS) participates in
                                                      the  statistical design,  execution,  and  analysis  of
                                                      quality-assurance,    methods-standardization,   and
                                                      monitoring studies. The Staff conducts mathematical
                                                      and statistical evaluations and reports on  internally
                                                      generated data. This group is a  focal point within
                                                      ORD-RTP  for handling,  processing,  and  reporting
                                                      aerometric  data  received  from  the  World Health
                                                      Organization  (WHO) and from the World Meteoro-
                                                      logical Organization (WMO).
 Analysis of phosphorus in gasoline is included in fuel
tests conducted at ORD-R TP.
                                         Research Activities
                                             137

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 PHYSICAL  FACILITIES

    The Laboratory either  owns or  has  access to a
 number of  special  instruments and facilities with
 which to support its mission.
    The Durham  Air  Monitoring and Demonstration
 Facility (DAMDF)  is a specially designed and  equip-
 ped multi-purpose facility  utilized for the  following
 functions:
    •  To demonstrate advanced air monitoring tech-
      niques.
    •  To test and field-evaluate commercially  avail-
      able  ambient-air monitoring instruments, cali-
      bration techniques,  and  data  acquisition sys-
      tems.
    •  To  gather pollutant-concentration  data gen-
      erated  from special intermethod comparability
      studies.
    •  To provide capability for equivalency  testing of
      methods and instruments.
    •  To provide on-the-job training.

    For special field studies, vans are available to carry
 calibration and maintenance equipment or for conver-
 sion on short notice into air monitoring stations. For
 projects  requiring   more  elaborate air-monitoring
 equipment,  personnel  utilize  mobile  laboratories,
 which, when fully equipped, provide a facility for
 monitoring  criteria  pollutants and  for measuring
 common meteorological parameters.
    The analysis  of  samples  by  neutron-activation
 techniques is made possible by use of facilities leased
 from  North  Carolina  State University. The Univer-
 sity's pulstar reactor  is used to irradiate the samples,
 which  are  later counted with QAEML-owned  equip-
 ment located in the leased space.
    QAEML has a 25-channel,  direct-reading optical
 emission spectrometer  that has been optimized for
 the determination  of trace  elements  in particulate
 matter. A spark-source mass spectrometer that can be
 used  to measure small concentrations  of  trace ele-
 ments  of possible  health  significance is utilized to
 permit analysis of environmental samples of interest,
 and to complement the neutron-activation capability.
 Rapid  output  of validated laboratory data is  made
 possible by the use of dedicated minicomputers.


 MAJOR PROGRAM AREAS

 Methods  Standardization
 and  Performance  Evaluation

   Methods standardization and performance evalua-
tion, which directly support Sections, 103, 110, 111,
                 and  112  of  the  Clean  Air  Act, are  important
                 components of the quality  assurance system  neces-
                 sary for generation of valid data. The standardization
                 process is being applied to all reference methods given
                 in regulations for primary  and secondary  national
                 ambient  air  quality  standards.  Also,  QAEML  is
                 standardizing  some  of the methods specified  in
                 regulations for new stationary sources and  for two of
                 the hazardous pollutants designated thus  far:  beryl-
                 lium and  mercury.  Moreover,  evaluations by  the
                 standardization process are being carried out for some
                 methods not specified in regulations.
                    Measurement methods are standardized  in a two-
                 step process. First, the  candidate method — that  is a
                 method  proposed for  publication as  a   reference
                 method — is thoroughly examined  in a single labora-
                 tory  for the  purpose  of identifying and  correcting
                 errors,   omissions,  ambiguities,  and   other  in-
                 adequacies. Second,  the  candidate  method  is  ex-
                 amined in several  laboratories by an interlaboratory
                 collaborative test  in which each participant uses  the
                 method  to measure  pollutants contained in a  refer-
                 ence material.  In this way, the precision and accuracy
                 of the method are measured, and the capabilities of
                 the method  in  the  hands  of  typical  users  are
                 estimated.
                    The  levels  of ambient air quality for each of  the
                 criteria  pollutants must be measured by the appro-
                 priate reference method or by an equivalent method.
                    During  1974,  efforts to  standardize source-test
                 methodology   through   a  systematic  program  of
                 method  evaluation  and collaborative testing  were
                 continued. To further these efforts:

                    •  All  planned  field work on the evaluation and
                      collaborative testing  of the source method  for
                      visual opacity was completed.
                    •  Reports were distributed on collaborative tests
                      of source emission methods for nitrogen oxides,
                      sulfur dioxide, particulates, Orsat gas analysis,
                      velocity, moisture, and beryllium.
                    •  A collaborative test  of the analytical  method
                      for mercury  indicated a need for improvement.
                      An   investigation   was  therefore  initiated  to
                      modify the methodology to improve reliability.
                    •  An  investigation   was  initiated  to  study the
                      design  parameters and factors  that  affect the
                      performance of the Type-S Pitot Tube.
                    •  A collaborative test of the regulatory  method
                      for measuring carbon monoxide emissions from
                      refinery  catalytic-cracking  regenerators  was
                      conducted,  with   the  method  found to  be
                      generally reliable.
                    •  A field study was conducted  on the regulatory
                      method for  measuring sulfur dioxide and sul-
138
                      furic acid mist emissions using a ganged probe
ANNUAL REPORT 1974

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 Fue/ additive samples are carefully catalogued prior to analysis and registration.
     sampling  assembly.  The study  indicates  that,
     under rigidly controlled conditions, the sampl-
     ing  train  is  capable of  giving  reproducible
     results.
   • Evaluation was started on the proposed regula-
     tory  method for measuring fluoride emissions
     from phosphate-fertilizer processes and primary
     aluminum reduction plants.
   • Four of the regulatory methods promulgated
     with  the New Source Performance Standards of
     December 23, 1971, were revised in accordance
     with  results of the evaluation and collaborative
     test program.
   • A study made of the Orsat gas  analyzer versus
     the Fyrite gas analyzer indicated that under the
     conditions  of the   investigation,  the  Fyrite
     apparatus  gives  carbon dioxide  and  oxygen
     values comparable to the Orsat.
   The Quality Control Section of MSPEB developed
numerous quality control  reference samples, both for
routine  and  specialized pollutants. The  number of
Intel-laboratory performance surveys completed ex-
ceeded that of the previous year. One  of the  activities
of  this  section  is  to  develop estimates on  the
reliability of air  pollution measurement techniques
used in regional, state, and local laboratories. Accom-
plishments of the Section during 1974 included:

   •  Development  and distribution of 1600 sulfur
      dioxide and nitrogen dioxide static samples.
   •  Refinement  of  the Hi-Vol  flow calibration
      check device.
   •  Development of standard reference materials of
      lead in gasoline for use in  enforcement in the
      unleaded gasoline rules and regulations.
   •  Development  on charcoal  tubes of quality-
      control samples for ambient-air vinyl chloride.
   •  Development  of  sulfate and  nitrate quality-
      control glass fiber filter  strips.
   •  Execution  of  four interlaboratory  surveys,
      covering  595  participants measuring  Hi-Vol
      flow, S02 (2), and CO.
   •  Direction of  several special audits  in  Europe
      and the United States.
   In efforts to standardize ambient-air methodology
through  a systematic program of method evaluation
                                          Research Activities
                                              139

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 Laboratory  tests are used  to evaluate  various methods for measuring  ambient pollutant concentrations.
 and collaborative testing, the following investigations
 and studies were conducted.

    • Experimental  work  to  develop a  reference
      material for NOj was completed. Plans were
      made by the National  Bureau  of Standards to
      issue an N02  permeation device as  Standard
      Reference Material 1629.
    • After withdrawal  of  the   Federal  reference
      method  for ambient N02  in  1973, QAEML
      started  a   program   for  the  evaluation  and
      standardization of  candidate  methods  with
      which to replace  the withdrawn method.  The
      program  involved single-laboratory evaluation
      of five methods:  two manual  procedures, the
      Triethanolamine,  guaiacol,  sodium   metabi-
      sulfite-8-amilino-1-naphthalene-sulfuric    acid
      (TGS-ANSA)  and triethanolamine  methods;
      two  instrumental  procedures,  the continuous
      chemiluminescence and the continuous colori-
      metric; and  the sodium arsenite  method. This
      work was  followed by collaborative testing of
      all but the triethanolamine method.  The  first
      two evaluations were completed  in 1973, and
      one was completed in 1974. It was found  that
      in the hands of the average user the sodium
                       arsenite,  TGS-ANSA,  and chemiluminescence
                       methods  are reliable, but that the continuous
                       colorimetric method is not.
                    •  A single-laboratory evaluation of two methods
                       for  measurement  of  ambient  sulfates  was
                       started.
                    Priorities and plans for the coming year include a
                 continuation of the ongoing  projects  for hydrogen
                 sulfide, mercury,  fluorides, and  type-S pitot tube.
                 The hydrogen sulfide, mercury, and fluoride investi-
                 gations will  probably culminate in collaborative tests
                 of  these  methods.  Since  work   to  date indicates
                 possible problems with the method for sulfur dioxide
                 and sulfuric acid mist, further evaluation and possible
                 modification of this method are also planned.
                    Because  of  recent  information  on  the health
                 hazards of vinyl chloride, EPA may soon establish an
                 emission standard for this material. Since establish-
                 ment of such  a  standard will  necessitate a reliable
                 standard method for vinyl chloride, an evaluation and
                 testing program  to  provide  the   EPA  with  such a
                 method is planned.
                    Other  plans for  1975  include  a comprehensive
                 reevaluation  of the  EPA reference  procedure  for
                 calibration of the chemiluminescence  ozone instru-
140
ANNUAL REPORT 1974

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 ment to determine its reliability; an evaluation of the
 non-methane hydrocarbon reference method; and an
 evaluation  of  a  gas chromatographic  method  for
 analysis of  vinyl chloride.  Initiation of laboratory
 work on the vinyl chloride project is contingent upon
 satisfying safety requirements.


 Quality Assurance  Program

    The quality  assurance  program  conducted  by
 QAEML,  which directly supports Sections 110, 111,
 112, 113, and  211 of the Clean Air Act, involves the
 development  of guidelines  for  accomplishing  the
 following objectives:
    •  Prevent accumulation of poor-quality data.
    •  Provide routine indication, for operating pur-
       poses, of satisfactory or unsatisfactory perform-
       ance of personnel or equipment.
    •  Provide for prompt detection  and correction of
       conditions that contribute to the collection of
       poor-quality data.
    •  Collect and  supply information  useful in de-
       scribing the quality of the data.

    Four guideline documents, each specifically appli-
 cable  to one of the  reference  methods for  ambient
 air, were published. Three guideline documents, each
 specifically  applicable to one  reference  method for
 stationary  sources,  and  two guideline  documents,
 each specifically applicable  to one of the reference
 methods for lead  and phosphorus  in gasoline, were
 developed  and published.  Similar  documents  are
 being  prepared for  other  reference  methods  for
 stationary  sources,  hazardous pollutant  source, and
 mobile source emissions.
    The Quality  Assurance staff also continued work
 on  guidelines   for   the  development  of   quality
 assurance  programs   for the  new  stationary-source
 performance  reference methods and  initiated  prepara-
 tion of guidlines for use with mobile-source reference
 methods. The group published and distributed guide-
 lines  on  methods  for  measurement  of lead and
 phosphorus in  gasoline,  as well as on  methods for
 measuring velocity, carbon dioxide,  and  moisture in
 stack gases. Future QAEML  research will be  directed
 toward developing  quality assurance guidelines for
 newly  designated  reference  methods  and   toward
 revising previously published  documents.


National  Air Surveillance Network

   The National Air Surveillance Network (NASN),
operation  of  which supports  Clean  Air  Act  Section
103,  is a  network of  250  sampling  sites  located
 throughout  the  nation.  Routinely, once every 12
 days,  the  air at each site is sampled for particulates,
 sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen  dioxide. The amount of
 particulate matter collected  on glass-fiber filters and
 the nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide levels  are
 determined  by  regional laboratories, or by state or
 local  laboratories within a  region. The particulate
 matter samples are furnished to QAEML for analysis
 and incorporation in the sample bank.
    Rapid  generation  of  validated data  is possible
 through  QAEML's automated system of data acquisi-
 tion and analysis, which has built-in quality assurance
 checks and numerical regression analysis routines, and
 which is  programmed to yield precision data.
    Some 60,000 analyses of particulate matter sam-
 ples collected from  1970 through 1974 were con-
 ducted for non-metallic inorganics (sulfate,  nitrate,
 and ammonium ions). Also,  glass-fiber  filters of low
 pollutant background were supplied by QAEML  for
 NASN use  in 1975 for monitoring particulates.
Continuous Air Monitoring
Program
   The Continuous Air Monitoring Program (CAMP),
in support of Clean  Air Act Section 103, provides a
current and ongoing  source of information on a wide
range of  problems associated with air monitoring and
surveillance,  including operation, maintenance, cali-
bration, and evaluation of air monitoring equipment
   Continuous  air   monitoring  instruments   were
evaluated and optimized during the year, and calibra-
tion techniques were developed to  support regional
needs. CAMP stations in  Philadelphia,  Denver,  and
Chicago  were  transferred  to  appropriate regional
offices. Immediately  before the transfer, the equip-
ment was serviced, the  instruments were calibrated,
and  the  operators were trained. The exterior of the
St.  Louis station  was replaced and incorporated into
the  Regional Air Monitoring  System (RAMS). The
Cincinnati  station was disassembled and  removed
because the site lease could not be renewed.
   The Durham Air  Monitoring and Demonstration
Facility  (DAMDF) was  utilized to conduct an  N02
methods   comparison  study   and to  evaluate  the
proposed  equivalency  regulations.   Four methods,
currently  being considered as candidates for a new
reference  method for  measuring  N02,  were  ex-
tensively  evaluated during November and  December
of  1973  to determine the  comparability of  data
collected by each method. The study was conducted
at the DAMDF utilizing a special ambient air  mani-
fold system from which duplicates of each of the four
methods  could simultaneously sample  ambient air
spiked with various  levels of  NO2.  Data were col-
                                         Research Activities
                                             141

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 lected continuously for 36 days under various condi-
 tions  of  N02  and  other  ambient pollutant levels.
 Results of this  study  are  currently  being evaluated
 and will be used to assist  in the  selection  of a new
 reference method for nitrogen dioxide.
   The latest available  continuous monitoring instru-
 ments have been installed  at DAMDF, including  an
 improved   system for  environmental  control  and
 general building maintenance.  This  special  multi-
 purpose  facility  will  then be used  to demonstrate
 advanced  air  monitoring  techniques,  to  test  and
 field-evaluate  commercially  available  ambient  air
 monitors and associated calibration and data acquisi-
 tion techniques  to gather pollutant data,  to conduct
 intermethod  comparability  studies,  to  provide on-
 the-job training, and to conduct equivalency testing.
 Operation  of  the  Washington,  D.C., station  will
 continue,  and updating of the station will  be initiated
 as resources become available.


 Fuels Surveillance Network

   Fuels and fuel additives are collected nationally
 and analyzed for physical characteristics and chemical
 composition in support of Clean Air Act Sections 211
 and 313.  Analyses of the samples collected in 1973
 were  performed in  1974. A  National  Bureau  of
 Standards  (NBS) Standard Reference Material for
 lead  in  reference fuel was  developed.  A training
 program on sampling and analysis of unleaded gaso-
 line was  conducted  for  inspectors from  all  the
 Regional Surveillance and Analysis Divisions and for
 the  Regional  attorneys.  Enforcement of the unleaded
 gasoline  regulations was  initiated,  and necessary
 support  was  provided to OEGC,  Mobile Source
 Enforcement Division.
   QAEML contributed to the development of a field
 test for lead in unleaded  gasoline (ASTM-D-3348).
 Also, the Laboratory contributed to the development
 of a simple but accurate field test for detecting lead,
 an atomic absorption spectrophotometric  method for
 detecting  lead  in gasoline  (ASTM-D-3237),  and  a
 method for detecting phosphorus  in gasoline (ASTM-
 D-3231).
   Fuels and fuel additives samples were analyzed  to
 provide data for possible enforcement actions. Chain-
 of-custody was  maintained so  that samples could
 meet  legal evidentiary  tests. Samples for possible
 enforcement actions were  analyzed as received since,
 in most cases, quick response was necessary. Programs
 were constructed for automated data acquisition and
 analysis, including analyses for determining precision
 for internal quality control.
   Areas of future study  include improvement  of
 techniques for  trace-element definition  by  spark-
 source mass spectrometry, neutron-activation analy-
                sis, and  X-ray fluorescence. A computer program
                adjunct to  neutron-activation  analysis  is being de-
                veloped, and work is continuing on methodology for
                analysis of  sulfur, lead,  and phosphorus in fuels in
                support of the fuel regulations for OEGC.


                Membrane  Filter

                and  Precipitation Networks

                   In support of  Section  103 of the  Clean Air Act,
                the 55-station membrane filter network for particu-
                lates  was operated  and  maintained; samples  were
                collected and analyzed for atmospheric  pollutants of
                interest.  Also,  QAEML supported  a  20-station pre-
                cipitation network to be utilized ultimately for trace
                metals analysis. The network was operated jointly by
                EPA, the  National Oceanic and Atmospheric Admin-
                istration, and the World Meteorological Organization.
                Several programs  were developed for automated data
                acquisition  and  analysis,  some  of  which  include
                built-in quality control checks.
                   During the year, archival samples collected by the
                55-station network were  analyzed for asbestos. Some
                7,000  analyses   were  performed   on  precipitation
                network samples,  with the data provided to interested
                parties. Membrane filter and precipitation monitoring
                for particulates and trace metals, respectively, will be
                maintained.


                Technical Assistance

                and  Rapid-Response

                Sampling Analysis


                   Much of  QAEML's activity is in response to needs
                for technical assistance in other portions of EPA. A
                long-term  study was  initiated  in Los Angeles,  Cali-
                fornia, to  determine the impact  of emissions from the
                new automotive  oxidation catalyst on  the ambient
                air. Samples from the Los  Angeles Catalyst Study
                (LACS) were analyzed  for lead   and  for sulfate,
                nitrate, and  ammonium ions  to establish the validity
                of the reported  results. Background data gathered
                from four stations at a site adjacent to the San Diego
                Freeway was initiated in  May to identify existing air
                quality parameters prior  to  the appearance  of the
                catalyst-equipped automobiles. The study, continuing
                into  1975,  is  designed  to   ascertain any  resultant
                changes in the ambient sulfate/acidity levels  and  to
                determine   related   pollutant  concentrations  and
                meteorological and traffic parameters.
                   A  vinyl  chloride  monitoring study was initiated.
                Actual analyses of vinyl chloride have been under the
142
ANNUAL REPORT 1974

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surveillance  of the  National  Bureau  of Standards,
EPA Region IV, and Canadian laboratories as referee
laboratories. Comparisons  of data  between  labora-
tories  show good correlation. Data  from this study
will be used to establish standards.
   At  Kellogg,  Idaho, QAEML consulted with  EPA
Regional Offices on ambient air monitoring methodo-
logy  for criteria and  non-criteria pollutants. Samples
(from  the  contractors working for  EPA  Region X)
and several  hundred  other  samples  from special and
routine studies  were analyzed for lead.
   QAEML   also  provided   technical assistance by
analyzing fuels used  in high-density population apart-
ment  complexes  in  New   York  State.  Analytical
support, in the  form of analyses of soil and vegetation
samples  taken  in and around an Ohio Brass Works,
was furnished to Ohio State University.  In assistance
to the Community Health Air Monitoring (CHAMP)
project,  several  hundred   referee   samples  were
analyzed for nonmetallic inorganic  ions. Plans are
being developed for a more formal arrangement for
QAEML's involvement in the quality assurance pro-
gram of this project.  Samples obtained from OAQPS
were analyzed  to determine background information
for standard setting for industrial sources.
   QAEML's participation  in other activities  during
1974 included the following:

   •  Operation of 20-site nitrogen dioxide monitor-
      ing   network   with   continuous   chemi-
      luminescence  instruments  gathering data for
      possible reclassification.

   •  Investigations  to support  the  publication  of
      methods  for fluoride in the Federal Register.

   •  Consultation to the World  Health  Organization
      in  the development  of an  International  Air
      Pollution Monitoring System.

   •  Participation in a  project to determine ambient
      hydrocarbon concentrations.

   •  Involvement  in a  cooperative  air monitoring
      comparison  study  involving the USSR  and the
      USA in Leningrad, U.S.S.R.

   •  Continuation of operation of the Washington,
      D.C.   station,  with calibration, supplies, and
     equipment provided by EMB  and daily opera-
     tion provided by the District of Columbia.

   •  Comparative study of  nitrogen dioxide methods
     to  provide a  basis for recommending  a new
     reference method for nitrogen dioxide.

   •  Evaluation of  the High-Volume  Method for
     determining suspended particulates over short
     sampling  times (contract effort).
      Performance of a 3-month urban  ozone study
      in the  Ohio Valley  in  support of an OAQPS
      contractual effort to determine possible ozone
      transport.
      Execution with a contractor's  assistance, of a
      comprehensive quality  assurance  program  for
      the Ohio Valley oxidant study.

      Provision  of assistance  to  a  contractor  at  the
      request of OAQPS  in carrying out a complex
      source study at a shopping  center in Oakbrook,
      Illinois.
LEGISLATIVE MANDATES


   The mission of QAEML responds to eight sections
of the Clean Air Act (103, 108, 110, 111, 112, 113,
211, and 313). The various sections are shown below
with  brief  descriptions of the  types of supportive
activities.

   "RESEARCH,  INVESTIGATION, TRAINING,  AND
   OTHER ACTIVITIES
   "Sec.  103.   (a) The Administrator shall  establish  a
      national research  and development program for the
      prevention and control of air pollution and as part of
      such program shall—"(1) conduct  and promote the
      coordination and acceleration of, research, investiga-
      tions, experiments, training, demonstrations, surveys,
     and studies relating to the causes, effects, extent, pre-
     vention, and control of air pollution;... (3) conduct
      investigations and research and make surveys concern-
      ing any specific  problem of air pollution  in coopera-
      tion with any air  pollution control agency  with a vieW
      to recommending a solution of such problem, if he  is
      requested to do so  by such agency or if,  in his judg-
      ment, such problem may affect any community or
      communities in a State  other than that in which the
      source of  the matter causing or contributing to the
      pollution is located;. . .
        "(b) In carrying out the provisions of  the preced-
      ing subsection the Administrator is authorized to—
      "(1) collect and make available, through publications
      and other appropriate means, the results of and  other
      information, including appropriate recommendations
      by  him in connection  therewith, pertaining to such
      research and other activities; . . . ."
   QAEML  responds  to Section 103 by evaluating,
testing,  and standardizing  methods.  Quality control
procedures for  relevant methods are also developed.
Surveys and  investigations  are  undertaken,  both of
the  general  extent  of air  pollution  and of specific
problems.  The voluminous  data  that result are appro-
priately summarized, analyzed, and disseminated.
   "AIR  QUALITY  CRITERIA AND  CONTROL TECH-
   NIQUES
   "Sec.  108.   (a) (2)  The Administrator shall  issue air
      quality criteria for an air pollutant within 12 months
      after  he has included such pollutant in a list under
      paragraph (1).  Air quality criteria for an air pollutant
                                           Research Activities
                                               143

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      shall accurately reflect the latest scientific knowledge
      useful in indicating the kind and extent of all identi-
      fiable effects on  public health or welfare which may
      be expected from the presence of  such pollutant in
      the ambient air, in varying quantities . . .
         "(c)  The Administrator shall from time to time
      review, and, as appropriate, modify and reissue  any
      criteria or  information  on  control  techniques issued
      pursuant to this section . . . ."

   QAEML  responds to  this  section  of  the law by
 standing  ready  to  evaluate   methodology  used  to
 obtain  scientific information or to undertake surveys
 to  obtain information needed by those who must
 develop criteria documents.

   "IMPLEMENTATION PLANS
   "Sec. 110.   (a) (1)  Each  State  shall, after  reasonable
      notice and  public hearings,  adopt and submit  to the
      Administrator,  within  nine  months  after the promul-
      gation  of  a national  primary  ambient  air  quality
      standard (or any  revision thereof)  under section 109
      for any air pollutant, a plan which provides for imple-
      mentation,  maintenance, and  enforcement  of such
      primary  standard in each air quality control  region.
      (or portion  thereof) within such State.  In addition,
      such  State  shall adopt  and submit to the Adminis-
      trator ... a  plan which provides for the implementa-
      tion, maintenance, and enforcement of such second-
      ary standard . .  .
      "(2) . . . The Administrator shall approve such plan . . .
      if he determines that  it was adopted after reasonable
      notice and hearing and that—. . . (C) it includes pro-
      vision  for .  . . appropriate devices, methods, systems,
      and procedures necessary to (!) monitor, compile, and
      analyze data on ambient air quality . . . ."

   This section of the law is supported by QAEML's
 activities in  the evaluation and  standardization  of
 methods  for  the  criteria  pollutants  and  in the
 development and  dissemination  of  quality control
 procedures  for  standardized  methods.  Use  of the
 standardized  methods with quality  assurance  docu-
 mentation provides the ability to  meaningfully com-
 pare data collected routinely by many unrelated State
 agencies.

   "STANDARDS OF PERFORMANCE  FOR NEW STA-
   TIONARY SOURCES
   "Sec. 111.  (b) (a) (B) .  . . the Administrator shall pro-
      pose regulations, establishing Federal standards of per-
      formance for new sources . . .
        "(c)  (1)  ...  If  the  Administrator finds the State
      procedure is adequate, he shall delegate to such State
      any authority he has under this Act to implement and
      enforce such standards


   This requirement is  analogous to that of Section
 110   of the   Act;  QAEML  supports  this section
similarly.
   "NATIONAL EMISSION STANDARDS FOR HAZARD-
   OUS AIR POLLUTANTS
   "Sec. 112.   (b) (1) (B) ...the Administrator shall pre-
      scribe an emission  standard  for  such  (hazardous)
      pollutant . . .
         (d) (1)...lf the  Administrator finds  the State
      procedure is adequate, he shall delegate to such State
      any authority he has under this Act to implement and
      enforce such standards . . . ."

   This  requirement is  similar  to  those of Sections
 110 and  111  of the Act. QAEML's support is also in
 terms of  methods  standardization,  evaluation,  and
 quality control procedure  development. Some tech-
 nical assistance  is also  rendered  to obtain data with
 which  to assist the Administrator  in  making judg-
 ments as to what constitutes a hazardous pollutant.

   "FEDERAL ENFORCEMENT
   "Sec. 113. (a) (1) Whenever, on the basis of any informa-
      tion available to him, the Administrator finds that any
      person is in violation of any requirement of an applica-
      ble  implementation plan . . . the Administrator may
      issue an order requiring such  person to comply with
      the requirements of such plan or he may  bring a civil
      action . . ."

   QAEML maintains  a limited  rapid-response capa-
 bility in the collection of data for purposes of Federal
 enforcement.


   "REGULATION OF FUELS
   "Sec. 211.   (a) The Administrator may  by regulation
      designate  any fuel or fuel additive and, ... no manu-
      facturer or processor of  any such fuel or additive may
      sell, offer for sale, or introduce into commerce such
      fuel or additive . . ."

   QAEML's support of the  law consists  of the de-
 velopment  and  evaluation of  methods  of  analyses
 and  of the collection and analysis of fuel  samples as
 required.

   "ADDITIONAL REPORTS TO CONGRESS
   "Sec. 313 ... the Administrator shall report to the Con-
      gress on  measures  taken  toward implementing the
      purpose and intent of this Act . . ."

   When the inclusion of data,  methods, or method
modifications  developed by QAEML  is  relevant,  the
information is provided in  support of this provision
of the Act.
   Table  17 contains a  summary  of the  resources
employed  by   QAEML  for  Fiscal  Year  1975  in
support  of the applicable sections of the Clean  Air
Act.
                                        ANNUAL REPORT 1974

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Table 17. SUMMARY OF FUNDS FOR QUALITY ASSURANCE AND
       ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING LABORATORY
                  FOR FISCAL YEAR 1975
Section of Clean Air
Act3 Supported
103
108
110
111
112
113
211
313
Total
Funds, $103
1,115
107
1,485
525
415
173
310
180
4,310
   Related information is provided in section entitled Legislative
   Mandates.
                  Research Activities
145

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