FINAL REPORT
VINYL CHLORIDE MONOMER EMISSIONS
FROM THE POLYVINYL CHLORIDE
PROCESSING INDUSTRIES
prepared by
ARTHUR D. LITTLE, INC.
CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS O214O
CONTRACT NO. 68-O2-1332
TASK ORDER NO. 10
PROJECT OFFICER: LESLIE B. EVANS
prepared for
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
CONTROL SYSTEMS LABORATORY
DURHAM, NORTH CAROLINA 27711
AUGUST 1975
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95OR750O9
FINAL REPORT
VINYL CHLORIDE MONOMER EMISSIONS FROM
THE POLYVINYL CHLORIDE PROCESSING INDUSTRIES
Prepared by
Arthur D. Little, Inc.
Cambridge, Massachusetts 02140
Contract No. 68-02-1332, Task Order No. 10
Project Officer: Leslie B. Evans
Prepared for
Environmental Protection Agency
Control Systems Laboratory
Durham, North Carolina 27711
August 1975
ADL Reference 76086-11
Arthur D Little, Inc
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The success of this program was totally dependent upon our being able to
obtain data from resin manufacturers, compounders, and fabricators. Most
manufacturers were extremely cooperative, both in allowing us to inspect
their operations and in giving us their data. We would like to
acknowledge this help and to thank these manufacturers for their time
and effort.
Arthur D Little, Inc.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
SUMMARY
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
INTRODUCTION
A. BACKGROUND: THE VCM PROBLEM
B. SCOPE OF STUDY
C. METHODS
POLYVINYL CHLORIDE MANUFACTURING: PROCESSES AND
APPLICATIONS
A. GENERAL
B. POLYVINYL CHLORIDE POLYMERIZATION PROCESSES
C. COMPOUNDING OF PVC RESINS
D. FABRICATION PROCESSES
END-USE MARKETS AND STRUCTURE OF THE FABRICATION INDUSTRY
A. AN OVERVIEW
B. STRUCTURE OF THE COMPOUNDING INDUSTRY
C. STRUCTURE OF THE FABRICATING INDUSTRIES
D. FUTURE TRENDS
E. SUBSTITUTION OF OTHER RAW MATERIALS FOR PVC RESIN
DESCRIPTION OF PROCESSES AND EMISSION POINTS
A. COMPOUNDING
B. EXTRUSION
C. CALENDERING
D. BLOW MOLDING
E. INJECTION MOLDING
F. COMPRESSION MOLDING
G. SOLVENT CAST FILM
TOTAL U.S. EMISSIONS OF VINYL CHLORIDE MONOMER FROM
POLYVINYL CHLORIDE COMPOUNDING AND FABRICATING
Page
S-l
1-1
1-1
1-1
1-2
II-l
II-l
II-4
II-5
II-8
III-l
III-l
III-l
III-5
111-22
111-24
IV-1
IV-1
IV-18
IV-29
IV-31
IV-34
IV-35
IV-35
V-l
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)
Page
VI. CURRENT STATUS OF CONTROLS TO LIMIT VCM EMISSIONS
FROM THE PVC FABRICATION INDUSTRIES VI-1
A. CURRENT CONTROL TECHNIQUES VI-1
B. FUTURE CONTROL TECHNIQUES VI-2
APPENDICES
LIST OF FIGURES
Il-la. Polyvinyl Chloride Manufacturing Processes II-2
Il-lb. Polyvinyl Chloride Manufacturing Processes II-3
IV-1. Continuous Hot Compounding Line IV-3
IV-2. Batch Hot Compounding Operation IV~4
IV-3. Banbury Mixer IV~5
IV-4i Dry Blend Compounding IV-14
IV-5. Typical Double Batch Compounding of Pipe Resin IV-16
IV-6. Schematic of Wire and Cable Coating Process IV-21
IV-7. Crosshead Die for Wire Coating IV-22
IV-8. Flexible PVC Film Extrusion with In-Plant Compounding IV-24
IV-9. Typical PVC Pipe Extrusion Operation IV-26
IV-10. Rigid Profile Extrusion IV-30
IV-11. Typical Calendering Operation IV-32
IV-12. Solvent Cast PVC Film Production IV-36
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LIST OF TABLES
Page
S-l. Total U.S. Emission Rate of VCM from Polyvinyl Chloride
Processing S-3
S-2. Annual Vinyl Chloride Emissions - 1974 S-4
S-3. Anticipated Future VCM Loss Rates from Compounding
and Fabrication S-5
II-l. U.S. Production of PVC Resins II-6
II-2. Domestic Consumption of PVC Resins 11-16
II-3. U.S. Consumption of PVC Resins 11-18
III-l. Domestic End Use Breakdown of PVC Resin - 1974 III-2
III-2. U.S. Consumption of PVC Resins by End Use III-4
III-3. Estimated Consumption of Resin for Rigid Compound in 1974 III-6
III-4. Estimated Consumption of Resin for Flexible Compound in III-7
1974
III-5. Estimated Consumption of Paste Resin in 1974 III-8
III-6. Estimated PVC Consumption in Pipe and Conduit 111-10
III-7. End Use Market for Siding and Other Extruded Profiles 111-12
III-8. Market Shares for Major Suppliers of PVC Floor Covering 111-14
III-9. PVC Wire and Cable Usage (1973) 111-16
111-10. PVC Usage in Soft Trim for Average Automobile 111-17
III-ll. Substitution Aspects of Fabricated Vinyl Products 111-32
IV-1. VCM Levels in Resin at Points along Compounding Process IV-7
(ppm by weight)
IV-2. Vinyl Chloride Concentrations in Film Processing - IV-8
IV-3. Flexible VCM Compound Production IV-9
IV-4. Percent Vinyl Chloride Monomer in PVC Homopolymer IV-11
IV-5. Percent Vinyl Chloride Monomer in PVC-PVA Copolymer IV-12
IV-6. VCM Loss During Dry Blend Compounding of Rigid PVC IV-17
Formulations
IV-7. Typical Extruder .Temperatures for PVC IV-19
IV-8. VCM Losses from Flexible PVC Calendering IV-33
V-l. Total U.S. Emission Rate of VCM from Polyvinyl Chloride V-2
Processing
V-2. Annual Vinyl Chloride Emissions - 1974 V-3
VI-1. Anticipated Future VCM Loss Rates from Compounding and VI-3
Fabrication
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LIST OF TABLES (continued)
Page
A-I. Major U.S. Producers of Raw PVC Resin A-l
A-II. Major Merchant PVC Resin Consumers A-2
A-III. List of Suppliers of PVC Compound A-7
A-IV. Producers of PVC Pipe and Fittings A-20
A-V. Suppliers of Resin or Compound to PVC Pipe A-22
Fabricators
A-VI. Film and Sheeting Calenders in Operation in the U.S.A. A-25
A-VII. Manufacturers of Flexible (Plasticized) PVC Sheet A-28
A-VIII. Manufacturers of Rigid PVC Sheet A-32
A-IX. U.S. Producers of PVC Film (Calendered and Extruded) A-35
A-X. U.S. Producers of Cast PVC Film and Sheet A-38
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SUMMARY
The recognition of the potential link between the exposure of workers to
vinyl chloride monomer (VCM) and the development of angiosarcoma of the
liver has resulted in the Occupational Safety and Health Administration
setting standards to limit the exposure of plant workers to VCM. These
standards are expected to result in controls which reduce the concentration
of VCM in plant air to very low levels. However, the ventilation
methods used as one major route to meeting the OSHA regulations in no
way reduce the total amount of VCM emitted from the plants to the
atmosphere. There is therefore still concern about the effects of VCM
emissions on the non-worker population in communities surrounding PVC
production and fabrication plants.
The purpose of this present study was to attempt to quantify the extent
of VCM emissions from polyvinyl chloride processing plants, including
both compounders and fabricators who process the compound—through the
melt or solvent phase—into semi-finished products.
In this report, we discuss the structure of the PVC processing industry,
and document the emissions from each segment of the processing
industry. Emissions are categorized primarily by the type of fabrication
process. Data on emissions were obtained from interviews with resin
producers, compounders, and fabricators. The primary approach to the
estimation of emissions was the classic material balance. The VCM
content of resins entering each process step was estimated, and the
amount of monomer in the product emerging from each process step was
separately estimated. The difference in VCM concentration between the
material entering and exiting from each process step was used to estimate
the VCM losses. Total nationwide emissions, by process, were then
obtained by multiplying the VCM lost per kilogram at each process step
by the total amount of material processed each year by that process.
Since the residual VCM levels in resin are constantly changing as
manufacturers seek to minimize them in order to minimize worker exposure
to the monomer in fabrication plants, we used late 1974 levels of
residual monomer as the basis of these calculations.
Table S-l shows the total U.S. emissions of VCM from polyvinyl chloride
processing, categorized by process. As shown by this table, the predomi-
nant emissions arise from the compounding portions of the processing
operations. VCM emissions from later processing operations are negligible.
Table S-2 compares the annual VCM emission rates from PVC processing with
the emissions from vinyl chloride monomer production and from polyvinyl
chloride polymerization. Emissions from compounding and subsequent
fabrication processes together account for less than one-half of one
percent of the total U.S. emissions.
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At present there is no external control equipment used to limit VCM emissions
from compounding and fabricating facilities. Although such controls as carbon
adsorption and scrubbing have been considered for VCM emissions from polymer-
zation plants, their application to compounding and fabricating facilities
appears economically impractical because of the low levels of VCM in exiting
air from these facilities. Compounding is the only step in the fabrication
process where some external controls may be warranted, specifically in the dry-
blending portion of the operation. However, such controls as may be practical
run counter to the current high-ventilation trend in operation used to limit
in-plant emissions.
The most promising control technique to limit VCM emissions to the atmosphere
from compounding and fabricating facilities appears to be further reduction
of residual monomer levels in resin input to these operation. At present,
resin manufacturers are modifying their processes to reduce these levels in
order to aid their customers (compounders and fabricators) in complying with
OSHA regulations. The effect on external emissions from compounding and
fabricating facilities is expected to be substantial. Table S-3 shows the
estimated average residual VCM levels which manufacturers expect to achieve
by 1975 and by 1980; the total annual U.S. emissions of VCM expected from
compounding and fabricating facilities using those resins is also shown.
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TABLE S-l'
TOTAL U.S. EMISSION RATE OF VCM FROM POLYVINYL CHLORIDE PROCESSING
Estimated VCM
Emission Rate*
Process kg/year (Ibs/yr)
A. Flexible PVC
1. Compounding 220,000 (480,000)
2. Extrusion <3,000 (<6,000)
3. Calendering <4,000 (<1,000)
4. Molding <400 (<800)
B. Rigid PVC
1. Compounding 300,000 (660,000)
2. Extrusion <4,000 (<10,000)
3. Molding <1,000 (<2,000)
C. Plastisols, Organosols, 2,000 (4,500)
Solution and Latex Fabrication
TOTAL <535,000 <1,165,000
* Based on 1974 production rates and late 1974 VCM contents of resins.
S-3
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TABLE S-2
ANNUAL VINYL CHLORIDE EMISSIONS - 1974
Emissions
Process (kg/100 kg produced)
A. Monomer Production 0.25
w B. Polymerization
i
Suspension Process 3.9
Dispersion Process 6.0
Solution Process 1.8
Bulk Process 2.4
C. Fabrication Processes -
Amount
Produced •
(millions of kg)
2200
2400
1900
280
59
120
2300
Subtotal of U.S. Total U.S.
Emissions by Process Emissions Percent of Total
(minions of kg) (m-m-lnns r,f k£) U.S. Emissions
5.7 4-0
130.0 95.4
76 • -
17 - -
10 ~
29 ~
0.5-0.6 °-4
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Table S-3
ANTICIPATED FUTURE VCM LOSS RATES FROM COMPOUNDING AND FABRICATION
Year
1974
1975
1980
PVC Production Rates
(millions of kg)
2000
2100*
2400 (est.)-
Avg. VCM Content
of Raw Resin (ppm)
300
50
20
Total Annual U.S.
VCM Release
from Compounding
and Fabricating (kg)
600,000
105,000
48,000
*Assumes 7% growth rate.
S-5
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I. INTRODUCTION
A. BACKGROUND; THE VCM PROBLEM
In early 1974 the potential link between the exposure of polyvinyl chloride
industry workers to high concentrations of vinyl chloride monomer (VCM)
and their development of angiosarcoma of the liver began to achieve
widespread recognition. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration
(OSHA) of the U.S. Department of Labor acted rapidly to set temporary
and then permanent safety standards to limit the exposure of plant workers
to VCM. There is little doubt that the result of these standards will be
to reduce to very low levels the VCM in the air which workers breathe.
Since the ventilation methods used as one major route to meeting the
OSHA regulations in no way reduce the total amount of VCM emitted from the
plants to the atmosphere, there is still concern about the effects of VCM
emissions on the non-worker population in communities surrounding such
plants. Although there is little data available at this time as to the
actual levels at which VCM emissions to the atmosphere would be of danger
to such populations, the Environmental Protection Agency believes it to
be important to quantify the extent of these emissions.
B. SCOPE OF STUDY
The purpose of this current program is to quantify the extent of VCM
emissions from one segment of the polyvinyl chloride (PVC) industry:
the processors of the resin. For the purposes of this study, these processors
are defined as those manufacturers who work with polymerized polyvinyl
chloride resins and, by suitable manipulations involving either a melt, latex
or solvent phase, produce finished or semi-finished products. These
processors include both compounders (who blend raw re$in with additives prior
to fabrication to produce a feed "compound" with the desired properties)
and fabricators who process compound—through the melt or solvent phase—
into semi-finished products. (Compounding may be done by the fabricators
themselves, prior to "fabrication", or these fabricators may purchase
compound from the resin manufacturers or from independent compounders.)
The PVC fabricating industry is highly diversified, fabricating over
4.5 billion pounds of resin per year into a myriad of product and end-use
applications. Many of the twenty-one raw resin producers also compound
some of their own resin, some even purchase resin from other resin producers,
and many are also fabricators of finished or semi-finished products. In
addition, several dozen independent compounders supply compound to fabri-
cators. The fabricators themselves number several thousand, ranging from
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small businesses to fabricators of several hundred million pounds per
year of product.
In Sections II and III following, we describe the structure of the
PVC processing industry, and the size of each segment. In those sections,
the industry is described according to two major categorization schemes:
the end products produced and the major type of process used to produce
the product. In Sections IV and V, we describe the processes used to
fabricate polyvinyl chloride, and document the major points of VCM
emission from each process . Estimates of the amount of VCM emitted are also
given in Section V. Section VI discusses control measures.
C. METHODS
Our most important tool for estimating VCM emissions was the classic
material balance. By knowledge of the VCM content of resins entering
and exiting from each process step, we were able to estimate the amount
of monomer lost at each step. "Total nationwide emissions" were then
obtained by multiplying the VCM lost per kilogram, at each process step
by the total amount of material processed each year by that method.
We should emphasize that no experimental work was done by us during this
program. All data used to estimate VCM emissions were obtained by inter-
views with resin producers, compounders and fabricators. For some processes,
data on VCM content of resins at each step were extremely sparse or
inconsistent. Concern with monomer emissions in the PVC industry is of
relatively recent origin, and manufacturers have not yet had the time to
obtain complete data. An additional complication in these estimates arises
from recent changes in raw resin manufacturing processes. Because of the
OSHA regulations, resin manufacturers are devoting considerable efforts
to reducing the monomer contents of their resins in order to reduce VCM
emission in compounding and fabricating plants. Thus, "the VCM content"
of a particular grade of resin is a changing quantity. In general, the
residual VCM levels in most grades of resin were considerably lower in
late 1974 than they were in early 1974; they are expected to be even lower
in 1975 if resin producers' predictions are correct. For the purposes of
this study, we have attempted to use the typical late 1974 VCM levels
in resins for each process.
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II. POLYVINYL CHLORIDE MANUFACTURING; PROCESSES AND APPLICATIONS
A. GENERAL
Plastic products based on polyvinyl chloride (PVC) are among the oldest
of the major plastic materials. The first commercial plant to make PVC
resin was constructed in 1939, and consumption has now grown to over
4.5 billion pounds per year—the second largest plastic (after polyethylene)
consumed in the United States. PVC is the most versatile type of synthetic
resin produced and is used in more individual end products than any other
type of plastic material. This versatility arises from the relatively low
cost of PVC, its ease of fabrication, its solvent, weather and abrasion
resistance, and the fact that its mechanical properties can be varied by
proper adjustment of additives to yield products ranging from rigid, brittle
materials to soft, rubbery ones.
There are three major processes in the conversion of vinyl chloride monomer
to a finished polyvinyl chloride product: (1) polymerization of the monomer
to the polymer; (2) compounding, or addition of additives to the polymer
to yield the desired properties for handling the polymer and in the
final product; and (3) fabricating, in which the compound is melted and
then formed into the final shape required. Because of the wide variety
of uses to which PVC is put, there is a considerable variety of polymerization
processes, compounding operations and fabricating processes which must be
used to arrive at the desired end properties. Figures II-l a and b present a
schematic of the types of polymerization processes used to produce each end
product. These processes are discussed in some detail in the following
subsections.
PVC resins vary in molecular weight and in chemical composition. The
molecular weight of most commercial PVC resins lies between 50,000 and
120,000 and most PVC resins are homopolymers made from vinyl chloride
alone. About 15% of the vinyl chloride polymers are copolymers containing
vinyl chloride and other monomers, with vinyl acetate being the most common
comonomer. The processing and performance characteristics of PVC depend
upon the nature of the polymer itself and on the additives used in the
compound.
Although it is the purpose of this present program to assess vinyl chloride
monomer emissions only from the compounding and fabricating steps of this
process, the details of the polymerization processes also impact on the
monomer emitted. The different polymerization processes result in different
amounts of residual monomer remaining in the raw resins, which may later
be emitted during fabrication operations.
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Polymerization
Process
Resin
Compound
Fabrication Process
i
to
Suspension
Bulk
Emulsion
Solution
Suspension
Blendin;
->- Bulk
Extrusion
Dispersion
Latex
Solution
Calendering
©
Injection Molding
Compression Molding
(S)
Low-Pressure
Injection Molding
Blow Molding
Slush Molding
Rotational Casting
Coating & Casting
Processes
t
n
*Latices are usually sold directly to the consumer rather than being used in later
fabrication processes.
Figure Il-la. Polyvinyl Chloride Manufacturing Processes
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End Product Fabrication Process Compound
Pipe & Conduit E R
Panel & Siding E R
Flooring CP, C P, F
Upholstery CP, C P, F
Pipe Fittings IM R
Lighting Fixtures E R
Film (Packaging) E, CP, C F, S, R
Sheet (Packaging) C, E R
Rainwater Systems . E R
Bottles BM R
Weather Stripping E F
Wire & Cable E F
Baby Pants C F
Footwear LP, IM, SM, CP, C P, F
Outerwear CP, C P, F
Windows E R
Hose E F
Phonograph Records CM R
Toys RC, IM, LP P, F. R
Auto Mats CP P
Auto Tops C, CP P, F
Medical Tubing E F
Tool Handles CP P
Credit Cards E R
Wallcoverings C F
Can Coating CP S, 0
Exterior Paint I-
Closure Gaskets LP P
Figure Il-lb. Polyvinyl Chloride Manufacturing Processes
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B. POLYVINYL CHLORIDE POLYMERIZATION PROCESSES
1. Description of Processes
There are four commercial processes currently employed in the U.S. for the
manufacture of PVC resin: suspension, emulsion, bulk, and solution
polymerization. All four processes are based on free-radical polymerization
of vinyl chloride monomer, using initiators such as organic peroxides.
The choice of polymerization method depends on the ultimate application
of the resin and the economics of the processes.
a. Suspension Polymerization
Suspension polymerization is the most commonly used process in the
U.S. today, accounting for about 80% of PVC production. This process can
be used to prepare both homopolymers and copolymers of a variety of
molecular weights. In the suspension process vinyl chloride monomer is
suspended in water with a small amount of a suspending agent. The molecular
weight of the resulting polymer is generally controlled by the reaction
temperature and by the addition of modifiers. After completion of the
polymerization reaction, the solid polymer, which is in the form of fine
beads, is recovered by centrifugation and drying. Depending upon the
ultimate application, the product may be sold as (1) an unstabilized
polymer, usually in the powder form as it is obtained from the reactor;
(2) a dry powder blend with additives and/or colorants; or (3) a pelletized
compound. Suspension resins are used for both rigid and flexible formulations;
some (called blending resins) are also used in plastisol formulations (see below).
b. Emulsion Polymerization
About 11% of the PVC resin produced in the United States in 1974 was
produced by emulsion polymerization, which is basically very similar to
the suspension process, except that relatively large amounts of emulsifying
agents are used. This process produces resins with a very small particle
size and typically of higher molecular weight than the suspension resins.
To maintain the small particle size, emulsion resins are usually dried
using a spray drying technique. (Complete removal of the emulsifiers is
never achieved in resins produced by this process so that products
requiring high clarity, for example, packaging film or very low water
adsorption, such as wire insulation,cannot be produced from emulsion
resins. The resulting powders, which are called paste resins or dispersion
resins are sold either to independent compounders or to fabricators. In
the United States all plastisols are made from dispersion resins, primarily
homopolymers. About 10% of the polymers made by the emulsion process—or
a total of about 50 million pounds of PVC in 1974—were sold as latices
for coating applications; all of these are copolymers. Latices are sold "as
is", with a solids concentration varying from 45-f
c. Bulk Polymerization
Bulk polymerization is a relatively new process in the United States. It was
developed in France (by Pechiney) and is used by Hooker Chemical Corporation,
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the Goodyear Tire & Rubber Company, and the B.F. Goodrich Company. About
6% of the PVC resins produced in the U.S. in 1974 was made this way.
In this process the monomer is polymerized in the absence of solvent.
The reactors are specially designed to handle bulk polyvinyl chloride at
elevated temperatures.
These bulk polymers have several desirable features—high porosity (desirable
in making flexible compound), clarity, and relatively uniform shape and
size of the particles. They also have remarkably good heat stability
and improved fusion properties, and can be processed with the ease of
conventional vinyl chloride—vinyl acetate copolymers. Bulk-polymerized
resins resemble the suspension resins and are used in many of the same
applications.
d. Solution Polymerization
Although solution polymerization is over 40 years old, only about 3%
of the PVC resins produced in the United States in 1974 were produced
by this method. At present vinyl chloride solution polymerization is
used only for the production of copolymers of vinyl chloride and vinyl
acetate (usually containing 10-25% vinyl acetate). Union Carbide is
currently the only U.S. producer of solution-polymerized resins.
In the solution process the monomers are dissolved in organic solvents
such as n-butane or cyclohexane. The polymerization is carried out in an
autoclave, and the polymer precipitates as the reaction proceeds. The
resulting resins are usually dried and sold as powders or beads. Most
solution process resins are sold to formulators who prepare solutions
containing these resins for various coating applications.
2. Trends and Markets
Table II-l shows the U.S. production of PVC resins in the last five years
categorized by polymerization process. (Appendix Table A-I lists the
major U.S. resin manufacturers.) As shown in Table II-l, in the period
1969-73, PVC production increased at an annual growth rate of about 11%.
Production growth slowed to about 7% last year. Most of this growth has been in
the production of suspension homopolymer resins. (Table II-l resins made
by the bulk process are included with the suspension resins.) Because of
the improvement in the processability of suspension and bulk hompolymers,
the need for easier-processing copolymers has diminished over the past
few years. .
C. COMPOUNDING OF PVC RESINS
Pure polyvinyl chloride resin is usually unsatisfactory as a material for
packaging, construction, upholstery, and many of the other applications
for which it is used. Its brittleness, difficulty of processing, degrad-
ability, etc., require that the raw resin be "compounded" with a variety
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TABLE II-l
U.S.
PRODUCTION OF
By Polymerization Process
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974°
Suspension
Homopolymers
2052
2232
2475
3149
3433
3687
Suspension
Copolymers
592
519
504
559
540
581
PVC RESINS
(MM Pounds)
Dispersion
Resins and Latex
388
364
458
550
589
632d
Annual Growth (%)
1969-1973
1974
13.8
7.3
-2.5
7.6
11.0
7.3
Total
3032
3115
3437
4258
4562
4900
10.7
7.5
Includes polymers made by bulk process.
Includes polymers made by solution process.
•»
"Estimated by Modern Plastics, January, 1975.
We estimate the production of dispersion resins in 1974 amounted to
475 MM Ibs.
Source: Society of Plastics Industries, Annual Statistical Reports, and
Modern Plastics, January, 1975, and ADL.
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of additives in order to achieve the required properties. The concentration
of additives in these compounds can vary from 3% to over 100% (based on the
weight of resin). Four major categories of compounding are considered:
(1) rigid PVC compounding; (2) flexible compounding; (3) compounding (or
formulating) of plastisols and organosols; and (4) formulating of PVC
solutions.
(1) Rigid Compounds
Rigid compounds, which are supplied as powders or pellets, contain from
80 to 97% PVC depending upon the end application. Three to five percent
of an elastomeric product is often added as an impact modifier to rigid
compounds used for pipe applications. Rigid compounds often require
pigments such as titanium oxide in addition to lubricants and stabilizers.
Although most rigid compounds are homopolymers, some copolymers are also
sold. These are usually lower in molecular weight than the homopolymers,
and contain vinyl acetate as the comonomer.
Dry blending is typically used to prepare rigid compounds of PVC in
powder form. These powders are usually used to manufacture PVC pipe.
Dry blend powders are economical, particularly if compounding is done
directly in the polymerization vessel prior to discharging the resin.
Robintech today manufactures a suspension resin which is compounded in
the polymerization kettle and used to fabricate pipe, and which does not
require further dry blend compounding.
(2) Flexible Compounds
Flexible PVC products require plasticizer to soften the hard resin; the
types and concentration of plasticizers used are very varied. Flexible
compounds are made by mixing the dry PVC resin with plasticizer and other
additives, frequently followed by fusing and pelletizing of the compound.
In these compounds, the dry resin accounts for 33-60% of the composition,
with the plasticizers, fillers, antloxidants, lubricants, and other additives
comprising the remainder. Resins used are primarily high-molecular-weight
homopolymers; the molecular weight is usually higher than resins used in
making rigid compounds. Resins for flexible compounds, like those for
rigid compounds, are made by the suspension or bulk process.
(3) Plastisols and Organosols
Most flexible PVC coatings and a small fraction of flexible molded products
are made from plastisols. These plastisols are dispersions of PVC resins
in plasticizer with other compounding ingredients such as stabilizers,
fillers, and pigments. Some plastisols are very thin liquids, and others
are heavy,doughy pastes. The manufacture of plastisols requires PVC
dispersion resins, which are made primarily by the emulsion process (although
a very small percentage is produced by the solution process). Plastisols
are made primarily from homopolymers.
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Because the dispersion resins are more expensive than those made by
the suspension process, small amounts of suspension resins are often
added to lower the costs of a plastisol formulation. Suspension resins
used for this application are called blending resins.
Organosols are similar in constitution to plastisols, except that they
are thinned with solvents to control the viscosity for certain coating
processes. Organosols are often used in coating processes, such as metal
coating, where low viscosities are needed and where evaporation of the
volatile thinner does not affect the appearance of the product.
Plastisols and organosols are not sold by the resin producers. They are
sold either by an independent formulator or are prepared by the fabricator.
(4) Solutions
PVC solutions are also used for coating applications. Most PVC can coatings
are formed from such solutions. Resins for this application are prepared
primarily by solution polymerization although some are synthesized by
the suspension polymerization process. Because the dispersing agents in
suspension resins interfere with the properties of the solution, they must
be removed after polymerization; otherwise, the coating resin will not
possess maximum clarity and water resistance properties.
Most PVC solution coating resins are copolymers, typically containing
3 to 16% vinyl acetate as the comonomer; copolymers with vinylidene
chloride or vinyl ethers are also available.
Because of the limited solubility of vinyl copolymers, strong solvents
such as ketones and esters are used by the formulators, as the base of
PVC coating solutions.
D. FABRICATION PROCESSES
1. Types of Processes
PVC compounds, both flexible and rigid, are converted to end products by
a number of processing techniques including extrusion, calendering,
injection molding, blow molding and compression molding. Flexible compounds
are usually processed at lower temperatures than rigid ones, because the
increased plasticizer compound lowers the softening point of the resins.
Plastisol processing techniques include coating, casting, slush molding,
rotational molding, and low-pressure injection molding.
a. Extrusion
The basic machine is the extruder, which consists of a metal barrel, a
close-fitting internal screw(s) connected to a drive mechanism and a means
for applying heat to the barrel in one or more zones. The process
consists basically of mixing and melting a continuous stream of plastic and
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pushing it through a specially designed orifice or die by the turning
action of the screw(s). In general, the extruder is very versatile with
respect to the type of materials it can process.
Extrusion is used for marking continuous lengths of profiles. (A "profile"
varies only in two dimensions, as opposed to molded products which vary
in three.) Major profile products include: film and sheet, wire coating,
pipe, rod, and siding. Both flexible and rigid PVC compounds in either
powder or pellet form are used in this process; either suspension or bulk
process resins may be used.
Wire and cable insulation accounts for a significant portion of the flexible
compound that is extruded. In wire and cable coating, the compound is
extruded around a continuous length of the wire or cable.
Typically, pelletized compound is used in this process. The concentration
of plasticizer in the compound varies with the application. For example,
communication wire contains about 60% PVC. Most fabricators in this segment
of the industry do their own compounding, although a few purchase the
compound.
Rigid pipe and tubing are formed as continuous extrusions through an
annular die approximating the desired profile; cooling is usually effected
by passing the extrudate through a water bath or trough. Pipe as large as
one meter in diameter can be prepared this way.
Pipe extrusion requires the use of rigid compounds, containing 85 to 95%
PVC. Most PVC resins used in pipe manufacture are compounded into powder
blends by the pipe producer. However, Robintech sells pipe compound made
by the in-kettle-compounding process.
Siding. Rain Gutters and Other Special Profiles are made in a similar way
to rigid pipe. However, because these profiles are somewhat more
difficult to extrude than pipe, manufacturers use rigid compound in pellet
form for these processes. This segment of the industry typically uses
single-screw extruders and purchases the compound.
Flexible Profiles are extruded from flexible compounds and include such
items as medical tubing, garden hose, gaskets, weather stripping, water-
stop, sheet, and cove base. Pelletized compound is used, typically
containing about 60% PVC, with the remainder being plasticizers, pigments,
and stabilizers. Major manufacturers of flexible profiles do their own
compounding; smaller manufacturers usually purchase compound.
PVC film can be made either by extrusion or calendering. In the
"blown-film" extrusion process, which is the preferred method for packaging
films, pellets of homopolymer compound are melted and extruded through a
die with a thin, annular opening to produce a thin-walled tube. This tube
is expanded by air as it emerges from the die. The air is introduced inter-
nally under pressure through the center of the tube die. The bubble thus
formed is cooled and the plastic is wound into rolls as tubing or, by
slitting and trimmings, as single thickness film.
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Shrink film is made by stretching the film either as it is made or
in a subsequent stretching operation. Stretching introduces orientation
(the alignment of polymer chains).
A small amount of film is produced by flat die (slit-die) extrusion. This
involves extruding molten resin from an extruder through a wide slit die
with adjustable lips into a cooling system. These films typically have
a lower degree of orientation than the blown film.
Sheet products (films greater than 10 mils in thickness) are manufactured
by the slit-die extrusion technique. Most sheet extrusion processes use
rigid compounds, although some may contain up to 10% plasticizer, depending
upon the exact physical requirements of the end application. Sheet compounds
usually are made from homopolymers; both pellets and powders can be used.
Most fabricators purchase sheet compound, but a few of the larger fabricators
do their own compounding.
A large portion of the sheet products are used in construction applications.
such as transparent corrugated sheets. Sheet is corrugated by passing
it through forming rolls after extrusion. Rigid sheet is also used in
various packaging applications.
b. Calendering
Calendering is used primarily in the production of flexible sheet although
a small fraction of rigid sheet is produced by this method. Calendering is
capable of producing high-quality material at very high rates of output.
In this process, the compound is passed between a series of three or four
large heated revolving rollers which squeeze the material into sheet or
film. The thickness of the finished material is controlled by the space
between the final rolls. The resulting surface of the film or sheeting
may be smooth, matted, or embossed, depending on the surface of the final
rollers.
Calendering also can be used to coat FVC onto textiles or other supporting
materials. In applying a coating, the compound is passed between two top
horizontal rollers on a calender, while the uncoated material is passed
between two bottom rollers. Finally, the substrate and film converge and
are passed between a single set of rollers; the product emerges as a smooth film
or sheet anchored to the substrate. The alternative process to calender
coating is post-calender laminating. In this process, the vinyl coating
is prepared in advance and then laminated onto fabric by passing the two
materials through pressure rolls.
Although the cost of the calender together with the auxiliary equipment is
very high (a typical calender train costs 2 to 3 million dollars),calendering
is the most economical method for producing thick PVC film and sheeting.
Film and sheeting of the middle-gauge range between 3 and 25 mils is almost
entirely produced by calendering. Today's calender lines are designed
with throughput capacities of from 2,000 to 10,000 pounds of compound
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per hour, or 70 - 100 yards per minute. Widths of film and sheet usually
run to 72 inches, with some as wide as 92 inches.
Because calender fabrication is economical only if the production volume
is high, only a few end users can use the calendering process. The
main products made on calender equipment are: vinyl sheeting, coated
vinyls, and floor tile. Coated fabrics are widely used for upholstery.
Unsupported vinyl film and sheet is used to manufacture inflatables,
footwear, purses, handbags, wallets, raincoats, tablecloths, shower
curtains, luggage, and other similar products. Over 90% of the PVC-coated
fabrics used in furniture upholstery are produced by calendering. Only
a relatively small quantity of high-style, "expanded vinyls" is cast from
plastisol (see section below). In these products, the vinyl is foamed
to give it a "hand" that is similar to leather. Expanded vinyl products
can be made either by the casting or calendering process.
Most motor vehicles today use vinyl-coated fabrics as the primary
upholstery material. The backing material is largely cotton. About 85%
of these coated fabrics are made by the calendering process and the
remainder by the casting or knife-coating process. Unsupported vinyl
sheet also is used in a variety of automotive applications such as
Landau tops and panel coverings. Crash pads are covered with a calendered
sheet that is made from a blend of ABS and PVC. These products typically
contain about 35% PVC, although some may contain as much as 70% PVC.
While the major application for vinyls in home furnishings is upholstery,
the second largest application is wall covering. The wall covering
product consists of PVC film laminated to paper, cotton, or other
backing material. Window shades are frequently made from vinyl sheet.
Light-gauge, clear, rigid, and semi-rigid PVC film is used in the manu-
facture of prefinished plywood and particle board. In this method,
clear film is printed with a wood grain pattern and laminated to the
board with the print on the inside. The prefinished product is used to
manufacture such items as office furniture and stereo cabinets.
Rigid PVC films and sheet made by the calendering process are also used
extensively as surface finishes for construction products. For example,
large quantities of gypsum board are finished with printed, embossed,
opaque sheet which is adhered to the surface to yield a decorative and
abrasion-resistant finished panel.
For the most part, calender operators buy raw resin and carry out the
compounding in their own facilities. Homopolymer made either by
suspension or bulk polymerization process is used to make these
compounds.
Vinyl asbestos flooring is another large outlet for calendered PVC. The
resins used in this application are mostly vinyl chloride vinyl acetate
copolymers with 8 to 18% vinyl acetate. These polymers can bind large
amounts of the mineral fillers that are used in these products. Resin
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and plasticizer account for about 17% of the formulation, with the resin
alone accounting for only about 10% of the product.
Flexible tile is also made by the calendering process. In this case, a
relatively low-molecular-weight homopolymer is used with calcium carbonate
as the filler. Typically, the plasticizer content of the calendered
compound is about 40%, and the resin is 30%. A third type of flooring is
made by the coating process (see section below). The fabricator, who
manufactures tile flooring by the calendering process, normally does
his own compounding.
c. Injection Molding
In this process rigid or flexible compound is melted in a heating
chamber, and the melt is forced through a nozzle under high pressure into
a closed mold. The resins most frequently used in rigid PVC injection
molding are medium-molecular-weight homopolymers; some lower molecular
weight vinyl chloride-vinyl acetate copolymers are also used. These
resins are derived from suspension or bulk polymerization processes.
The feedstock may be in the form of pellets or powder, but most injection
molding of PVC is done from pellets compounded by the resin manufacturer.
In the future, large-scale manufacturers of pipe fittings may use powder
compounded in their own plant.
Two major products made by injection molding are pipe fittings (from rigid
compound) and shoe components, such as heels and soles (made from
flexible compound). Other products include industrial parts, such as
fan blades, handles, etc.
d. Blow Molding
Blow molding of rigid PVC is generally limited to the manufacture of
bottles. This process is usually coupled with extrusion, using single-
screw extruders.
Rigid compounds used in this process contain about 90 to 95% PVC. They
are normally fed to the blow molding machine in pellet or cube form.
Polymers used in this process are primarily homopolymers that are made
by the suspension or bulk process. The bottle fabricator usually
purchases his compound from the resin producer. Two compound grades
are used: a food grade and a general-purpose grade, which differ primarily
in the stabilizers used. Food-grade compound contains additives approved
by the FDA, and is used to blow-mold bottles for products that may be
ingested. The general-purpose grade compound is used to manufacture
containers for such products as shampoo and liquid detergents.
a. Compression Molding
Compression molding of PVC is limited and is used primarily for processing
rigid compounds into phonograph records. In conventional compression
molding, the compound is fed directly into the open mold cavity either as
bulk material or as a "biscuit". The mold is then closed, heat and pressure
applied, and the compound caused to melt and flow throughout the mold.
After taking on the shape of the mold, the pressure is released and the
molded product is withdrawn. Record compounds use primarily copolymers
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containing about 15% vinyl acetate; the compounds themselves contain about
3% additives.
Most record molders manufacture their own compound; however, a significant
fraction of record compound is manufactured by one major independent
compounder, who specifically manufactures for this industry. This compounder
alone accounts for almost one-third of the PVC used by record molders.
The manufacturer of phonograph records generally recycles returned records,
and about 25% of the compound used by the industry is derived from this
type of scrap.
f. Plastisol Processing
Most PVC emulsion polymers (dispersion resins) are used to manufacture
plastisol compounds. These compounds typically contain about 50% PVC;
most are made from homopolymer resins. Some plastisol compounds are
formulated with blending resins made by the suspension process which are
added to the compound primarily to lower the cost. Blending resins
are also effective in reducing the viscosity of the plastisol systems.
These resins are mostly homopolymers and are intermediate in particle
size between dispersion and general-purpose suspension resins.
Plastisols are processed as fluids by a variety of processes including
knife coating, roller coating, casting, rotational molding, dipping,
and hot spraying.
Although the majority of PVC emulsion polymerization products are used
to make dispersion resins, about 10%—50 million pounds in 1974—was
used as latex rather than in the coagulated form. Most latex resins
are copolymers of vinyl chloride with minor amounts of vinyl acetate.
Others contain small amounts of acrylate monomers, or vinylidene chloride.
Major applications of latices include: (1) outdoor house paint; (2)
saturation and coating of paper and paperboard; (3) impregnation of non-
wovens used in automotive trim such as door panels; and (4) vinyl wall
coverings.
Coating. Most plastisol compounds are used to coat substrates
such as textiles, paper, and sheet metal. Coating equipment
generally consists of an adjustable doctor knife or spreading
blade supported over a steel plate or roller. Rollers are sometimes
used instead of doctor blades. Major fabricators of such products as
coated fabrics and vinyl flooring usually do their own compounding.
Coated Flooring. The major plastisol product made by a coating process
is flooring. In recent years, plastisol-coated felts have been used as
an inexpensive floor covering, and have made inroads in the flooring
market at the expense of calendered vinyl-asbestos tile.
Coated flooring is made in a number of ways. The base material can be
felt, thick paper, or asbestos. In one method, the base is laminated
with a printed PVC sheet and a coating of a clear (unfilled) plastisol
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is applied as a protective top layer. PVC foam, made from a plastisol
compound can be used in place of the vinyl sheet. The foam can be
embossed or decorated and then top coated with a clear plastisol. In
still another method, the base can be coated with a "filled" acrylic
polymer and then finished with a top coat of the clear plastisol. Coatings
are usually applied using a roll coater and then fused in an oven.
Dip and Slush Molding. Slush molding is a process for making thin-walled,
flexible products. In this process, excess liquid plastisol is
charged to a hollow mold of the desired contour. Heat, which is applied
to the outside of the mold, fuses only the plastisol that is in contact
with the hot mold surface; the unfused excess liquid plastisol is dumped
out and used again. This process is used primarily to produce overshoes,
rubbers, bathing caps, and similar products.
Dip molding is also used to produce skin-like products such as gloves,
and handle-bar grips. In the dipping process, preheated products, partic-
ularly metal, are coated by dipping into a plastisol solution and then
dried.
Rotational Casting or Molding. This is another major method of processing
plastisols. In this case, a measured amount of liquid plastisol is
charged into a rotating split mold. The speed of rotation is comparatively
slow, so that the plastisol flows by the effect of gravity to form a
layer of uniform thickness over the entire mold cavity. The plastisol
layer is fused during rotation. The mold is then removed from the oven
and cooled by water. The mold is opened and the molded article is
removed.
Applications for rotational moldings include flexible toys, automobile
arm rests and dash pads, beach balls, basketballs, etc.
Rotational molding is particularly suitable for the manufacture of hollow
items. The process has the advantage that the equipment is relatively
inexpensive, and the process is not very complex. Molds can be made from
aluminum, and they are easy to produce. The process affords a high degree
of flexibility and is economically attractive for short runs, frequent
color changes, intricate designs and relatively thick walls.
Producers of products using slush molding and rotational casting typically
purchase the plastisol compound from independent formulators.
Low Pressure Injection Molding. This technique, which resembles conventional
injection molding, can be used for molding such items as shoe soles, and
gaskets for glass containers and crown caps used as closures for glass
beverage containers. Some companies also use liquid plastisols to manufacture
the so-called "roll-on gaskets" which are used in aluminum "convenience"
caps for beverage containers. Others form these compounds from PVC tape.
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Typical formulations of liquid plastisols used for glass-container
gaskets consist of 75 parts dispersion resin, 25 parts blending resin,
and 100 parts of plasticizer and other additives. The major manufacturer
who use plastisols for gasketing material used in packaging do their own
compounding.
In general, low-pressure injection molding; just as other plastisol
processing, uses relatively inexpensive equipment. The costs of the
machines and molds are lower than for conventional injection molding.
g. Solution Systems
PVC-solution coatings or enamels are normally used as coatings for metal.
PVC coating solutions are made from copolyners containing about 15% vinyl
acetate, formed primarily by the "solution polymerization" process.
Some suspension resins are also used.
The majority of PVC enamels are used as can and closure coatings, especially
for interior top coatings for beer and soft drink cans. All aluminum ends
for soft drink cans are coated with PVC, some of which is based on
organosols rather than enamels. Beverage cans made from tinplate or tin-
free steel are coated exclusively with PVC enamel. Approximately 25% of
all food cans also are coated with the vinyl enamel.
PVC enamels are also used as coatings for the inside of metal closures
such as jar lids. These coatings are usually modified with epoxy or
phenolic resins. Minor amounts of PVC enamels are also used in combination
with phenolics in exterior decorative coatings for some beverage cans.
In addition to their use as can coatings, PVC solution resins are used
in a variety of other metal-coating applications, such as finishes for
appliances, metal furniture, building panels and some non-electrical
machinery. PVC enamels are also used in maintenance and marine-coating
applications. In many of these latter applications, vinyls are used
in combination with other resins.
Solution-based resin systems made from suspension resins are used to prepare
cast film. Such cast film is of higher quality than film made by the
blown-film extrusion process, with substantially improved clarity arid
brillance and low gel content. Film thickness is also more easily
controlled.
2. Trends and Markets
Table II-2 summarizes the reported domestic PVC resin consumption for
the years 1969 to 1974, according to fabrication process. Note that
extrusion and calendering consumed about 70% of all PVC resins.
In the four-year period, 1969-1973, consumption of all types of PVC resins
grew an average of about 14% per year. During this same period, the use
of PVC resins in the extrusion process increased at an average annual
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TABLE II r 2
DOMESTIC CONSUMPTION OF PVC RESINS
BY FABRICATION PROCESS
(MM Pounds)
PASTE a OTHER
EXTRUSION CALENDERING PROCESSES MOLDING SOLUTIONS USES TOTAL
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974b
Per Cent
of PVC
Production
1000
1095
1295
2052
2298
2200
50
793
705
-835
963
913
867
20
279
281
415
457
496
504
11
248
254
309
410
511
469
11
84
85
90
118
142
163
3
350
376
281
180
224
271
5
2754
2796
3225
4180
4586
4474
100
Annual Growth
1969-1973 23
1974 -4
3.5
-5
15.2
2
20
-9
14
15
-12
21
14
-3
Source; Society of Plastics Industries, Annual Statistical Reports,
US Tariff Commission and Modern Plastics, Jan. 1975.
a. Process uses dispersion resins manufactured by the emulsion process.
Latices used in coating applications are included in this category.
b. Estimate by Modern Plastics.
c. As computed for the year 1973.
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rate of 23%, with most of the growth occurring between 1971 and 1972. In
contrast, the consumption of PVC resins in the calendering process showed
little growth during this time period.
An analysis of the consumption of PVC resins by product within each
fabrication category is shown in Table II-3. This table indicates that
the rapid growth in the consumption of PVC by the extrusion process was
due primarily to the increased use of rigid PVC pipe and conduit. Between
1971 and 1973, the consumption of PVC for this end use increased about
60% per year.
Film and sheet products accounted for the major growth in calendering.
During the 1971-1973 period, the use of PVC resins in this application
increased 8% per year. -During this same period, the consumption of PVC
resin in the blow molding process (the process used to make bottles)
increased, on the average, 63% per year.
The use of PVC plastisol resins grew at a rate of approximately 14%
per year. Textile and paper coating processes were the major factors
responsible for the growth in plastisols.
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TABLE II-3
U.S. CONSUMPTION OF PVC RESINS
(MM POUNDS)
1971
1972
1973
1974
Annual Growth (%)
1971 - 1973
Extrusion
Wire and Cable
Film and Sheet
Pipe and Conduit
Others
Total
Calendering
Flooring
Textile
Film and Sheet
Total
a
Paste Processes
Plastisol Formulating
and Molding
Textile and Paper Coating
Flooring
Total
343
179
497.
276
439
220
1,008
384
414
204
1,254
425
354
216
1,259
375 •
10
7
60
25
1,295 2,052 2.298 2,204
274
87
474
835
156
142
117
415
333
74
556
963
150
173
134
457
292
73
548
913
155
190
150
495
202
86
579
866
163
200
141
504
35
3.5
_Q
8
4.5
0
15.5
13
Molding
Bottles
Records
Pipe Fittings
Others
Total
Solution
Other Processes
36
138
75
135
309
90
281
77
148
86
185
410
118
180
87
144
90
191
511
142
224
75
143
97
154
469
163
271
63
2
• 9.5
19
29
26
--12
Source: Modern Plastics, January Issues, and Society of Plastics Industries,
Annual Statistical Reports.
Includes applications where PVC is used as a latex. About 9-10% of
the total consumed in this category are coatings applied from a latex.
The largest application under this category is rotational molding.
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III. END-USE MARKETS AND STRUCTURE OF THE FABRICATION INDUSTRY
A. AN OVERVIEW
PVC products are manufactured by some 8,000 fabricators. However, about
two-thirds of the PVC resin produced annually is consumed by less than
100 large companies. Of the 22 major producers of PVC resin (listed
in Appendix Table A-II), 19 have significant captive fabricating operations
with Air Products, Keysor, and American Chemical being the only resin
producers without captive fabricating operations. We estimate that
captive consumption of PVC resin on the part of the resin producers is
equal to about one-quarter of the total domestic consumption of PVC.
About a dozen large companies represent an additional 20% of the
total consumption of PVC resin. These companies include Armstrong Cork,
Western Electric (a subsidiary of AT&T), Ford Motor Company, Johns
Manville, Certain-Teed Products, American Biltrite Rubber, W.R. Grace,
and Kentile. These companies each purchase at least 25 million pounds
of PVC resin per year, and most have more than one consuming location
for PVC resins.
A list of the major fabricators appears in the Appendix (Table A-II).
This list accounts for about 75% of the PVC sold to the fabricators in
this country. In addition, there are thousands of small custom molders
and extruders who process PVC (as well as a variety of other resins) into
custom molded and extruded parts for numberous end users.
As noted throughout this report, PVC is one of the most versatile synthetic
resins. Its myriad of applications fall into six major markets: building
and construction, houshold furnishings, consumer goods, wire and cable,
packaging, and transportation. This end-use breakdown for the PVC consumed
in 1974 is shown in Table III-l. Table III-2 shows 1969-1974 trends. Note
that the building and construction end-use market is responsible for almost
half of all PVC consumed in the United States. Next in importance are
household and consumer goods.
As Table III-2 indicates, the market for building and construction products
has grown most rapidly. From 1969 to 1973, the average annual growth
was 28%. In contrast, the consumption of PVC in wire and cable was
essentially static during this same period.
B. STRUCTURE OF THE COMPOUNDING INDUSTRY
As indicated in the discussion above, compounding can be carried out
by the resin producer, the fabricator, or by independent compounders.who
buy raw resin and prepare compounds for the fabricator. The location at
which compounding is done depends upon the nature of the compound, the end
product, and the size of the fabricator's operation.
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TABLE III-l
DOMESTIC
END USE BREAKDOWN OF PVC RESIN - 1974
END USE AND PRODUCT
Building and Construction
Pipe & Conduit
Flooring
Fittings
Siding & Panels
Lighting
Foam Molding
Rainwater Systems
Weather Stripping
Windows, Other Profiles
Swimming Pool Liners
% OF, MARKET
MILLION LBS
1259
343
97
97
13
48
33
35
53
42
SUB TOTAL
45
2020
Household Goods
Furniture Upholstery
Wall Covering & Wood Surface Films
Garden Hose
Appliance Parts (Hoses, Gaskets, etc.)
Others (Shower Curtains, Tablecloths, etc.)
SUB TOTAL
14
Wire and Cable
317
128
37
46
102
630
354
Consumer Goods
Phonograph Records
Footwear
Toys
Outerwear
Sporting Goods
Baby Pants
Packaging
Film
Sheet
Bottles
( Coatings
( Bottle Cap Liners &
SUB TOTAL
11
Gaskets
SUB TOTAL
143
139
81
66
62
24
515
125
81
75
60
341
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TABLE III-l (Continued)
END USE AND PRODUCT % OF MARKET
Transportation
Upholstery & Seat Covers
Auto Tops
Auto Mats
Other Uses
Medical Tubing, Credit Cards,
novelties, tools and hardware, etc. 8
MILLION LBS
185
29
42
256
358
GRAND TOTAL
4474
Source; Modern Plastics, Jan 1974, and A. D. Little estimates.
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c
"1
o
"
TABLE III-2
U.S. CONSUMPTION OF PVC RESINS BY END-USE
(MM Pounds)
Household
Year Goods
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
19743
513
513
564
630
545
630
Building and
Construction
817
1006
1165
1739
2134
2020
Electrical
405
425
385
439
414
354
Consumer
Goods
374
424
437
504
550
515
Packaging
228
272
286
357
375
341
Transportation
224
215
240
255
255
256
Others
151
172
209
256
313
358
Total
2712
3027
3286
4180
4586
4474
M
Annual Growth (%)
1969- 1973 2
28
0.5
10
13
20
14
Source: Modern Plastics, and SPI statistics
Arthur D. Little, Inc. estimates
-------
Tables III-3 through III-5 show breakdowns of compounding operation locations
by type of resin and end product. In total, approximately 75% of PVC
compound is made in the fabricator's facilities, and about 5% is compounded
by independent compounders or femulators. The remainder is compounded
by the resin producer.
Approximately 64% of rigid compound is made on-site by the fabricators
and 35% by the resin producers; little is compounded by the independent
compounder. The only major exceptions are phonograph records and some
profiles and injection molded products.
Flexible compound is also made primarily by the fabricators (83%) and by
the resin producers (11%). Only 6% is compounded by the independent
compounders. These "independents" supply compound to wire and cable extruders
and molders who fabricate a variety of flexible products.
Paste resins are formulated either by the fabricator (80%) or by the inde-
pendent formulator (20%). The resin producer provides only the resin.
Structure of the Independent Compounder Industry. This segment of
the industry is divided into two separate groups: (1) compounders who
prepare flexible and rigid compounds; and (2) formulators who prepare
plastisol and organosol formulations.
Six companies dominate the independent compounders of flexible and rigid
compounds. Teknor-Apex and Blane Chemical (a division of Reichhold
Chemicals) are probably the largest ones. Both are located in New
England. Others include Franklin Plastic (N.J.), Premier (Kentucky),
Maclin (Los Angeles, CA), and Lyncore (MA). Blane also has plants in
Kentucky and California, and Apex has another plant in Tennessee.
There are several dozen independent formulators of plastisols and organosols.
By far the largest one is Chemical Products, followed by M & T Chemicals
(American Can Co.). These formulators prepare drum quantities of the
liquid plastisols for the numerous small fabricators who are involved in
processing plastisols into specialty products.
Appendix Table A-III gives a list of suppliers of compound including
both independent compounders and formulators and resin manufacturers
who also supply compound. Fabricators who consume all their own
compound are not included.
C. STRUCTURE OF THE FABRICATING INDUSTRIES
1. The Pipe, Conduit, and Pipe Fittings Industry
PVC pipe and fittings comprise by far the single largest use of PVC,
accounting for 1.3 billion pounds (or 28% of the total U.S. output of
PVC) in 1974. Although ABS, other styrene copolymers, and polyethylene
compete with PVC in this market, PVC accounts for well over half of
the total plastic pipe and conduit business.
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Arthur D Little, Inc
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TABLE III-3
ESTIMATED CONSUMPTION OF RESIN FOR RIGID COMPOUND IN 1974
(MM POUNDS)
COMPOUNDED BY
PROCESS/END-PRODUCT FABRICATOR RESIN
Extrusion (Total) 1150
Pipe & Conduit . 1102
Panels & Siding
Rainwater Systems
Sheet and Film*
Foam Moldings 48
Credit Cards
Windows, Other Profiles
Molding (Total) 100
Phonograph Records 100
Bottles
Pipe Fittings
Others
GRAND TOTAL 1250
% 64
PRODUCER COMPOUNDER
416 5
120
97
33
81
22
63 5
262 8
40 3
75
92 5
55
678 13
35 1
TOTAL
1571
1222
97
33
81
48
22
68
370
143
75
97
55
1941
100
Source; Arthur D. Little, Inc.
*A small amount of rigid sheet is calendered rather than extruded.
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Arthur D Little, Inc
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TABLE III-4
ESTIMATED CONSUMPTION OF RESIN FOR FLEXIBLE COMPOUND IN 1974
PROCESS/END PRODUCT
Calendering (Total)
Extrusion (Total)
Wire & Cable
Film
Garden Hose
Medical Tubing
Weather Stripping
Others
Molding (Total)
Footwear, etc.
GRAND TOTAL
%
(MM POUNDS)
COMPOUNDED BY
FABRICATOR RESIN PRODUCER COMPOUNDER
867
458 101 70
284 70
50 75
37
25 26
35
27
75 25_
1325 176 95
83 11 6
TOTAL
867
629
354
125
37
51
35
27
100
1596
100
Source: Arthur D. Little, Inc.
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Arthur D Little, Inc
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TABLE III-5
ESTIMATED CONSUMPTION OF PASTE RESIN IN 1974
(MM POUNDS)
COMPOUNDED BY
END PRODUCT
PROCESS
Flooring
Upholstery
Auto
Furniture
Outerwear
Sporting Goods
Footwear
Toys
Closure Gas
Other (Lugg
Wallets, etc.)
CP
FABRICATOR
150
FORMULATOR
TOTAL
150
CP .
i CP
CP
i CP,RC
SM, CP, LP
RC, LP
:s LP
!, CP
:c.)
TOTAL
%
28
32
33
10
20
17
61
360
80
28
32
33
30 40
22 42
33 33
5 22
61
90 450
20 100
Source; Arthur D. Little, Inc.
a
CP = Coating and casting; SM = Slush molding; RC - Rotational casting;
LP - Low-pressure injection molding.
Paste resins are "formulated" rather than compounded, according
to the terminology of the industry
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Arthur D Little, Inc
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Markets and Trends in the Pipe and Conduit Industry. A breakdown of uses
of PVC pipe and conduit is shown in Table III-6. The major end-use
application for PVC pipe is in potable and non-potable water distribution
and supply, which requires pressure pipe. About 68% of PVC pipe goes
into this end use. The use of PVC as sewer pipe is a new market, and one
where PVC is expected to penetrate strongly. In DWV (drain, waste, and
vent) pipe, PVC's market share is about 50%, and PVC is expected to
gradually increase its share of this market at the expense of acrylonitrile-
butadiene-styrene (ABS). According to industry observers, the use of low-
pressure PVC pipe, particularly large diameter water pipe (12 inches and
larger) and sewer pipe is expected to continue to expand. Other end uses
also expected to grow include: telephone conduit, and residential hot-
water pipe made from post-chlorinated PVC.
The use of PVC in pipe made the biggest jump in 1972, when consumption of
PVC for this end use doubled from about 500 to 1,000 million pounds.
In the two-year period, from 1971 to 1973, the average annual growth rate
amounted to 60%; there was little growth in this market in 1974.
Structure of the Pipe and Conduit Industry. Several dozen companies
manufacture PVC pipe and conduit. (A list appears in Appendix Table A-IV.)
The three major producers in this industry, ranked in order of decreasing
production are: Johns Manville, Robintech and Certain-Teed. These
three companies account for 25 to 30 percent of all PVC pipe and conduit
production. Johns Manville alone has 11 plants and one under construction
in McNary, Oregon. Other important PVC pipe manufacturers are: CarIon,
Amoco Chemicals, and Cresline. There is considerable integration within
the plastic pipe industry; for example, Certain-Teed and Robintech have
integrated backward toward resin production. Ethyl Corporation, a major
resin producer, has integrated forward toward pipe production. Olin,
another resin producer, also is a plastic pipe fabricator.
The economics of pipe shipment dictate that pipe extrusion plants be
relatively small and located geographically convenient to the marketplace.
Thus, this industry has a large number of plants.
A typical, 'modern, PVC-pipe plant produces 20 to 25 million pounds of pipe
per year and has 4 to 5 extruders and a central compounding facility for
blending the raw resin powder with additives.
Pipe Fittings. Pipe fittings, which are made by the injection molding
process, are usually fabricated in relatively large single product operations.
A list of the major injection molders of fittings is given in Appendix
Table A-IV. Many fitting molders are also pipe producers, namely:
Certain-Teed, Cantex, Charlotte Pipe, R & G Sloan Manufacturing Company,
and Celanese Piping Systems. Robintech has recently broken ground on
a new plant that will make molded fittings in Wetherford, Texas.
In 1974, about 97 million pounds of PVC were used in the manufacture of
pipe fittings. In contrast to the pipe and conduit market, the pipe-fitting
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Arthur D Little, Inc
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TABLE III-6
ESTIMATED PVC CONSUMPTION IN PIPE AND CONDUIT
1973
END-USE
Source: Modern Plastics, March 1973, p. 59.
Communications Duct 10
Electrical Conduit 6
Pressure Pipe 68
Drain, Waste, and Vent Pipe 8
Sewer Pipe 5
Other . 3
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Arthur D Little, Inc
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market has grown at a considerably slower rate. From 1971 to 1973, this
segment of the PVC market has grown about 9 to 10 percent per year.
2. Other Extruded Construction Products
Siding. Among the construction products, vinyl siding, which is made
by extrusion, is one of the more important products. In 1974, about
100 million pounds of PVC were used in this application (see Table
III-7). Most PVC siding is sold in the replacement market and in mobile
homes, where it competes with aluminum siding. Recently, PVC siding
also has been used in new residential construction.
The PVC siding market continues to show good growth. From 1969 to
1973, the average annual growth rate of this market was about 16%. Even
in 1974, this market continued to expand.
Because siding is compact, it can be shipped more economically than pipe.
Siding manufacturers typically ship from single, strategically located
plants, many of which are located in the Midwest.
This industry is dominated by five large manufacturers; none are integrated
backward. The top three companies in the vinyl siding business—Bird
and Son, Mastic, and Crane Plastics—probably account for 35 to 45 percent
of the business.
Most siding manufacturers also manufacture other extruded profiles—both
rigid and flexible. For example, Bird and Son, which is the number one
company in siding, also sells PVC shutters and gutters. Crane plastics,
which is third in the siding industry, extrudes siding as well as 3,000
profiles. About 97% of these are rigid profiles and the remainder
are flexible.
Other Profiles. The use of PVC in rigid profiles includes rainwater
systems, lighting fixtures, weather stripping, and vinyl-clad window
frames. About 135 million pounds of PVC were used in these applications
in 1974. In 1971, a new rigid profile was marketed—foamed molding.
Whereas in 1971 only about 7 million pounds of PVC were used for this
application, by 1973 the market had grown to 48 million pounds. About
50% of foamed PVC molding goes into mobile homes, where it has captured
about 10% of the pre-finished wood molding market. B.F. Goodrich
and Georgia Pacific are major producers of this product.
The use of PVC in window frames has been a fast-growing market and,
from 1969 through 1973, this usage has grown at an annual rate of about
40%. Also, during this same period, the vinyl rain-gutter market grew
at an annual rate of 60%. The consumption of PVC for weather stripping
and lighting fixtures has shown modest growth during this period—
approximately 5-6% annually.
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Arthur D Little, Inc
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TABLE III-7
END-USE MARKET
END USE
Siding and Panels
Lighting
Foam Moldings
Rainwater Systems
Weather Stripping
Windows, Other Profiles
TOTAL
FOR SIDING AND
(1974)
MM POUNDS
97
13
48
33
35
53
279
OTHER EXTRUDED PROFILES
%
35
5
17
12
12
19
100
Source: Mod. Plastics, Jan, 1975
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Industry Structure. About 8 to 9 manufacturers dominate the profile
extrusion industry, accounting for about 70% of the business. However,
hundreds of small companies are involved in this same activity,
particularly in the manufacture of profiles.
3. Flooring
There are at least three different vinyl flooring products, and both
calendering and coating processes are used. Vinyl-asbestos tile and
homogeneous tile are made by the calendering process and the so-called
"heterogeneous tile" is made by the coating process. Although prior
to 1970 this market was dominated by vinyl-asbestos flooring, in recent
years coated vinyl has made deep inroads into this market.
Market Trends. In 1974, about 140 million pounds of PVC were consumed in
the manufacture of vinyl flooring made by the coating process, and
about 200 million pounds of PVC were calendered into vinyl flooring. In
the last few years, the growth rate for calendered flooring has slowed to
about 3% per year; in contrast, flooring made by the coating process
has been growing at a rate of about 13% per year.
In 1974, the vinyl flooring market remained essentially constant. Because
of the persisting trend toward the use of carpeting, the market for
PVC flooring as a percentage of the total floor covering market has been
declining since 1961. In 1961, PVC flooring accounted for about 50% of
all basic floor coverings, whereas in 1971 it was only 30%. Growth in
this market is also dependent upon the construction market.
Structure of the Industry. Vinyl flooring is produced by about 25 companies,
Of these, Armstrong Cork and Kentile dominate the industry, accounting
for approximately 40% of the market. (Estimates for the market shares
for the major suppliers of PVC floor covering are shown in Table III-8.)
With the exception of a few of the smaller companies, these companies
produce a number of products other than PVC flooring, and most of the
larger companies produce vinyl flooring by all three processes. With
the exception of Goodyear, few of these manufacturers of vinyl floor
covering are integrated backward toward resin production.
4. Wire and Cable
The major market for PVC in the wire and cable industry is construction
or building wire, comprising over 50% of all PVC used in wire and cable
coating. PVC is the dominant coating for this application.
Power cable carries voltages greater than 600V, and PVC is used to a
minimum extent in this end application, because it lacks the required
high-temperature resistance. Only about 15% of the wire and cable
compound is used in this application.
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Arthur D Little, Inc
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TABLE III-8
MARKET SHARES FOR MAJOR SUPPLIERS OF PVC FLOOR COVERING
Share of
Total
Company
Armstrong Cork
Kentlie
Congoleum-Nairn
Ruberoid (GAF)
Flintkote
American Biltrite
Johns-Manville
Goodyear
Mannington Mills
Robbins
Uvalde Rock Asphalt
Others
TOTAL
30
12
8
8
7
6
4
3
3
3
2
12
100
Source: Arthur D. Little, Inc., estimates.
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Arthur D Little, Inc
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Other PVC wire and cable products include flexible cord, appliances,
automotive, communication and miscellaneous wire. A breakdown of
usage of wire and cable products is shown in Table III-9.
Market Trends. During the past few years the consumption of PVC compounds
for wire and cable applications has shown an average annual growth of
about 10%. However, with the drop in the construction market last year,
consumption decreased from 400 million pounds in 1973 to 350 million
pounds in 1974; little growth is expected in 1975.
Industry Structure. Approximately 75 companies manufacture insulated
wire and cable, all of them using PVC to some extent. The major producers
of PVC-insulated wire and cable are: Western Electric, General Cable,
Essex Wire and Cable, Phelps Dodge, and General Electric.
Three companies dominate the construction wire market, Phelps Dodge,
Anaconda, and Essex. Phelps Dodge also dominates the power-cable
market, and Essex is the largest non-captive manufacturer of automotive
wire. The other major manufacturer of automotive wire is Packard Electric,
a division of General Motors.
Western Electric is, by far, the major producer of communication wire,
accounting for about 80% of this market. Beldon Manufacturing is an
important factor in the flexible cord market, and probably accounts
for 20% of this market.
No wire and cable producer is integrated backward toward resin production.
On the other hand, many of these wire and cable manufacturers are
subsidiaries of larger end-user companies such as General Electric,
ITT, AT&T, and General Motors. In these instances, the major portion of
the wire and cable products are used by the parent company, although the
subsidiaries usually sell also to jobbers or to other major users of
wire and cable.
5. Film and Sheet
a. Coated Fabrics and Unsupported Film and Sheet
Market Trends. The major application for coated fabrics is upholstery.
About 500 million pounds of PVC were used in this application in 1974.
Of this volume, about 60% was used in furniture and 40% for automotive
upholstery and seat covers. (About 30% of all furniture upholstery is
vinyl.) The vinyl upholstery market (both automotive and furniture) has
grown slowly—about 4 to 5% per year.
Today, about 80% of the interior trim in the average automobile is
vinyl. The average automobile uses about 7 pounds of PVC (on a dry basis)
in the form of unsupported sheet or film and as coated fabrics. Table
111-10 shows a breakdown of PVC soft trim in automobiles.
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Arthur D Little, Inc
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TABLE III-9
PVC WIRE AND CABLE USAGE
(1973)
WIRE TYPE
Building and Construction
Communications
Flexible Cord and Appliances
Automotive and Miscellaneous
Power
54
16
14
11
Source; A. D. Little, estimates.
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Arthur D Little Inc
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TABLE 111-10
PVC USAGE IN SOFT TRIM FOR AVERAGE AUTOMOBILE
ITEM WT. DRY RESIN LBS.
44
26
18
8
4
TOTAL 7.00 100.0
Seats
Vinyl Roofs
Door Panel
Head Lining
Crash Pad a
3.08
1.82
1.26
0.56
0.28
a ABS/PVC Blend. Contains 35% PVC
Source: Arthur D. Little estimates
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Arthur D Little Inc
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Wall coverings are another major end-use for coated-PVC fabrics. About
86% of all wall covering uses PVC and about 60% of the wall covering
market uses PVC coated fabrics. Strippable vinyl "paper", which is made
from vinyl film or sheet, represents about 3% of all wall coverings.
Wood surfacing films are also made from PVC. These are usually made
by the calendering process, and account for about 65% of the cabinet
surfaces for television, stereo, and high fidelity sets. In 1974,
approximately 130 million pounds of PVC were used for wall coverings
and wood surface films.
Coated fabrics are also sold to industries that construct footwear,
handbags, apparel, and luggage. (PVC accounts for about 60% of all
luggage.) About 50 million pounds of PVC-coated fabrics were used in
1974 for slipover rainwear, especially women's and children's overshoes
and boots, and some 40 million pounds of PVC were used in shoe uppers
last year. This represents about 40% of all shoe upper production.
Outerwear apparel consumed another 66 million pounds of PVC in 1974;
another 24 million pounds were used to make vinyl sheet for baby pants.
During the period of 1969 to 1973, consumption of PVC for outerwear
grew at an average annual rate of 14%.
Structure of the Industry. Coated fabrics and unsupported sheet can be
manufactured either by the calendering or casting process. Because
calendering is a very capital intensive operation, manufacturers using
this process generally are very substantial companies. Only about
150 calenders are currently in operation in the United States. (Appendix
Table A-VI gives a list of calendering operation in the United States.)
The degree of backward integration in this end-use application is very
extensive, with approximately 14 of the 22 PVC resin producers also
operating calendering facilities. Most calender plants also have
plastisol casting lines for short runs of specialty products.
The dominating companies in the coated fabrics industry are General Tire
and Uniroyal. These two top companies are followed by Union Carbide
and Grace-. Following this major group is one that consists of Borden,
B.F. Goodrich, Hooker, Bemis, Tenneco, Stauffer, Pantasote, and Plymouth
Rubber. Borden and General Tire are major factors in the wall covering
market, and Borden is the major supplier of coated fabrics to the luggage
market. Note that most of these major manufacturers are also resin
producers. These companies are among the 40 or so companies that
manufacture coated fabrics by the calendering process.
Ford Motor Company and Chrysler are examples of end-users who have
integrated backward toward fabrication. Ford fabricates about 80%
of its needs, and Chrysler fabricates a smaller portion. Their calender
operations service only the automotive industry.
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Arthur D Little, Inc
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Companies using the casting process alone for coated fabrics are more
numerous. These companies are generally considerably smaller than
those who have calender lines.
b. Packaging Film and Sheet
Market Trends. About 125 to 135 million pounds of PVC were used in 1973
in the fabrication of highly plasticized film for packaging applications;
about 80 million pounds were used in rigid sheet. Rigid sheet is manu-
factured primarily by the calendering process and the remainder by
extrusion. Most rigid packaging film is made by blown-film extrusion,
with a small amount made by the solvent casting process. Rigid sheet is
used in a variety of packaging applications. About 70% of the calendered
rigid sheet is used in "blister packaging", with the remainder used in
such packaging applications as lids, which are thermoformed from rigid
sheet.
Flexible PVC film is used primarily for meat and produce wrapping. About
90 million pounds of PVC were used in 1973 in the manufacture of self-
service meat wrap and about 25 million pounds for fresh produce wrap.
The remainder was used for a variety of food wraps—for the householder
and institutions.
From 1969 to 1973, the market for flexible PVC packaging film grew at
an average annual rate of 5%. Rigid PVC sheet in packaging applications
grew at an average annual rate of 11%.
Structure of the Industry. Goodyear, Filmco (a division of RJR), and
Borden are the major companies manufacturing PVC film by the blown-film
process. These three companies account for 70 to 80% of this market.
Ethyl Corporation and Union Carbide also manufacture film by this
process. Note that most of these fabricators are also resin producers.
Three manufacturers produce PVC film by the solvent cast system. These
manufacturers include: Reynolds Metals, Goodyear, and Cast Vinyl Film,
Inc. A list of manufacturers of flexible and rigid film and sheet
appears in Appendix Tables A-VII, VIII, and IX. Manufacturers of
cast PVC film are listed in Appendix Table A-X.
6. Bottles
Markets. In 1966, only 11 million pounds of PVC were consumed in blow
molding bottles. By 1973, consumption rose to 87 million pounds. From
1971 to 1973, the average annual growth rate was about 60%. This
growth was arrested in 1974, when consumption dropped to about 75 million
pounds because of restrictions placed on the industry by OSHA. The FDA
is currently examining the health risks of vinyl chloride monomer,
because the monomer may contaminate products packaged in PVC bottles.
To date, these tests have not been completed.
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Arthur D Little, Inc
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Because of these uncertainties, some PVC bottle fabricators have
decided to delay expansion plans. We know of at least two companies
that were planning to construct new plants in 1974, and because of these
uncertainties, their plans have been postponed. At this time, most
PVC bottle fabricators are also examining substitute materials, such
as the nitrile polymers.
Structure of the Industry. The number one company in this industry is
Imco (Ethyl Corporation); the other major bottle fabricators are Contin-
ental Can, Anchor Hocking, Aim Packaging, National Can, Johnson and John-
son and perhaps 20 smaller companies. The top five companies account for
60% of the business. Ethyl Corporation is the one example of a fabricator
that is integrated backward. Johnson and Johnson and Breck are examples
of fabricators who are. integrated forward to the end user.
A typical small company in this sector operates one plant with 4 to 6
blow-molding machines. The larger companies operate at least two plants
with a total of 15 to 25 blow-molding machines. Only two resin producers
supply this segment—Ethyl Corporation and Hooker Chemical (Division of
Occidental Petroleum).
7. Phonograph Records
Market. Phonograph record manufacturers produce both 12" and 7" records.
All 12" records are made from vinyl chloride-vinyl acetate copolymers
sometimes combined a small amount of low-molecular-weight homopolymer.
In contrast, only about half of 7" records are based on vinyl chloride
copolymers. Lower quality records are made from polystyrene.
The PVC record fabrication industry has shown little growth over the years.
Estimates for the domestic consumption of PVC for this end-use vary. Al-
though Modern Plastics indicates that about 140 million pounds of PVC were
consumed in record fabrication in 1974, our contacts with the industry have
indicated that the real figure is between 100 and 125 million pounds. From
1971 to 1973, the average annual growth of this market was only about 2%.
Structure of the Industry. The three major record companies in the U. S.
are: Columbia, RCA and Capitol, accounting for about 40% of U. S. pro-
duction. Columbia is the number one company in this segment. The chief
supplier of resins to the record industry is Tenneco. Keyser-Century
Corporation, which sells compounds mostly on the West Coast, also is a
major supplier. Relatively small suppliers to this industry are Borden
and Air Products. In the near future, Firestone may also supply this
market. None of these manufacturers are integrated backward; most are
end-users who also sell to jobbers.
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Arthur D Little, Inc.
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8. Closures
Glass-Container Closures. Essentially all vacuum closures use a plastisol
liner or gasket; only about 6% continue to use rubber latex for this ap-
plication. Plastisol liners are also used in many non-vacuum closures.
About 30% of the non-vacuum metal caps used for glass food containers are
made with plastisol liners and about 60% of the closures used in non-food
applications are based on plastisol. Furthermore, about 40% of the glass
containers used for home canning use plastisol-lined closures. In total,
about 17 million pounds of dry resin were used in this application in 1974.
Continental Can (White Cap Division) is by far the major company in this
segment, accounting for about 70% of this business. Others are Duraglass,
Anchor Hocking, Owens-Illinois, Kerr, and Ball Corporation. There are few
companies in this sector because the capital investment is high and the
demand is relatively modest. Anchor Hocking, Owens-Illinois, and Contin-
ental Can combined account for about 90% of this business activity. With
the exception of Continental Can Company, all of the manufacturers of
plastisol liners are integrated with glass container manufacturing.
Beverage Crown Caps. About 80% to 90% of all metal beverage crown caps use
PVC compound, the remainder using cork. This end-use market consumes about
8 to 10 million pounds of dry resin or 15 to 20 million pounds of plastisol.
No more than six manufacturers supply this market. The number one company
is Crown, Cork and Seal; the other major companies are Zapata, Kerr, and
National Can. These top four probably account for about 95% of the busi-
ness. Zapata uses flexible compound rather than plastisol to manufacture
the gaskets.
Roll-on Gaskets. All roll-on or "convenience" closures for beverage con-
tainers use PVC cut either from sheet or tape. About 5 million pounds of
PVC resin are used in this application. Most manufacturers cut the gaskets
from the tape, insert them into the closure, and form the gasket in place.
Only about 10% of the industry uses a plastisol compound. Alcoa is the
major manufacturer in this segment, second is Owens-Illinois, followed by
Zapata and.National Can. Crown, Cork and Seal also manufacture roll-on
gaskets using plastisol.
9. Vinyl Enamels
Market Trends. About 30 million pounds of PVC, on a dry-resin basis, are
consumed in can and closure coating applications. This corresponds to
about 18 million gallons of PVC solution.
Another 15 million pounds of PVC, or 9 million gallons, are used in the
solution form for a variety of metal coating applications. Typical ap-
plications include finishes for appliances, collapsible tubes, electrical
wire and apparatus, non-electrical machinery, metal furniture, pre-finished
metal sheet, strip or coil which is subsequently formed into appliance
parts, automobile dashboard panels, caps for bottles, metal building panels,
and other metal parts.
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Still another application for PVC enamels is in maintenance and marine-
coating systems. This application includes primers and top coats for pipes,
tanks, structural metal used in chemical plants, oil refineries, etc.
Vinyl maintenance coatings are also used on bridges, dams, and locks.
Marine applications include the coating of both the hull and super-struc-
ture of merchant and military ships. This application consumes about 10
million pounds of PVC on a dry-resin basis, which corresponds to about 6
million gallons of solution.
Another 10 million pounds of PVC (about 7 million gallons of enamels) were
consumed in miscellaneous coatings. Included in this category are coatings
for concrete and masonry, film and foil, leather, magnetic tape, paper,
plastics and wood products. In many of these applications vinyls are used
in combination with other resin systems.
Structure of the Industry. Among the major producers of PVC enamel solu-
tion coatings for cans and closures are American Can Company (M & T Chemicals
Division), Glidden, Mobil, DeSoto, the Dexeter Corporation (Midland Divi-
sion), Inmont, and PPG Industries. The major supplier of the dry resins
used in the formulation of enamels is Union Carbide Corporation. UCC sells
primarily solution-polymerized resins for these coating applications.
These coatings are applied primarily by can manufacturers, who either coat
coil or sheet for endstock, or spray coat the can bodies. Alcoa also coats
a small portion of the can sheet stock with a modified vinyl enamel.
Many paint companies supply vinyl coatings for maintenance and marine ap-
plications. Among the 12 largest industrial coating companies, the fol-
lowing are major suppliers of these vinyl coating enamels: Celanese,
DuPont, Glidden, Mobil, PPG Industries, Reliance Universal, and Sherwin-
Williams.
D. FUTURE TRENDS
Domestic PVC sales dropped last year for the first time, dropping about 3%
between 1973 and 1974, with the biggest declines coming in automotive con-
struction-related markets. Prediction of sales for the next five years is
extremely risky at this time. The PVC industry, like others is presently
suffering from a drop in demand due to the present recession. Little
growth in the market for PVC products is expected for 1975.
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Further complicating any forecast is the impact of the new OSHA
requirements on the PVC resin producers and fabricators. For example,
last year Goodyear closed one of their plants on the grounds that it
would be economically unfeasible to bring the plant into compliance
with OSHA exposure standards. We expect that additional plant closings,
especially old plants, will be announced in the coming year. In Jan-
uary 1975, the nameplate capacity for PVC resins in this country was
slightly less than 6 billion pounds. Closing of these plants will
reduce this capacity and restrict supply. Furthermore, resin producers
will have to meet the OSHA standards and possibly new standards
developed by EPA and the FDA. All of these factors will tend to
increase the cost of manufacturing PVC resins. Consequently, in the
future, PVC may no longer hold its number two position among the
plastic resins in this country.
Published forecasts for the year 1980 vary widely. Some suggest that
the PVC resin production could increase to as much as 8.5 billion pounds
(Peter Sherwood Associates, 1974) or as low as 6.8 billion pounds
(Foster D. Snell Report to OSHA, 1974). We believe that even the low
forecast is somewhat optimistic.
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E. SUBSTITUTION OF OTHER RAW MATERIALS FOR PVC RESIN
Because of the versatility of PVC resin, it would be difficult to duplicate
the exact properties of vinyl plastic products by using substitute raw
materials. Even if it were possible to make an "equivalent or acceptable"
substitute product, the costs of production and the resulting selling
prices of the final products would in most instances be greater than
those products made from PVC. In many cases, such costs and prices
would likely be prohibitive and would essentially price the substitute
product out of the market. Some of the more useful substitute materials
are now made only in small quantities relative to PVC and thus would
be in very short supply.
Assuming, however, that substitute raw materials will be available in
sufficient quantity when needed, and that the physical capacity to
produce the additional non-vinyl chloride based end products would be
operating when required (which is most unlikely), considerable research
and development would still be needed to effect the required changes
in product, process, and equipment design. In addition, time would be
required for delivery and installation of new equipment to make the
vinyl substitute products on a commercial scale. This latter stage
could in itself take up to two years. Based solely on technological
factors, we believe that substitute products which would take the longest
lead time to develop are those products required by the construction and
motor vehicle industries. Such products include: insulated wire and
cable for communication, building and automotive uses, pipe, flooring,
automotive upholstery, and related soft trim materials.
A discussion of substitution for PVC is presented below according to the
major PVC product lines.
1. Pipe, Conduit, and Fittings
PVC pipe has established itself in the marketplace because it has good
chemical and corrosion resistance, is non-flammable, rigid, and is easy
to install. The price is also relatively low. In some pressure pipe
markets (e.g., gas distribution) polyethylene could be used. ABS resin,
which has a higher price and lacks chemical and flame resistance, is
another substitute material, especially for DWV (drain, waste, and
vent) pipe for home construction. ABS could also be used in place of
PVC in electrical and communication conduit and sewer pipe. Technically,
it may be possible that ABS could substitute for 20-25% of the PVC pipe
market; however, this would increase the total ABS resin market by
roughly one-third, and the resin would not be available in this quantity
for this market for at least 2-3 years. Again, from a technical point of
view, some of the PVC pipe markets could conceivably be satisified
by metal pipe. However, the metal pipe industry is itself operating at
capacity and likewise could not supply the replaced PVC pipe market in
less than two years.
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Automotive. In the absence of PVC, the preferred approach for substitution
of vinyl coated fabric for automotive upholstery would probably be to use
another synthetic resin such as polyurethane. (Another possible
substitute, of course, would be conventional uncoated textile upholstery
fabrics such as those based on nylon and polyester blends, which today
represent only a small percentage of the automotive market. However, even
assuming that the nylon and polyester fibers were available in ample
supply, the textile products industry would still need at least two
years to install the necessary equipment to manufacture the quantities of
such upholstery fabrics which would be required by the auto producers.)
Polyurethane-based coated fabrics are not as easily calendered as are the
PVC based products. Coated polyurethane fabrics made by the casting
process are now used in the apparel and furniture upholstery markets, where
they are considered "deluxe" products. Polyurethane coated fabrics are
now being used selectively in the automotive industry in Europe, and
are presently being tested by the U.S. auto makers. Because the price of
urethane compounds is about four times that of PVC compound, the price of
urethane-based coated fabrics are substantially higher than PVC-coated
fabrics. Nonetheless, this approach might be preferred because, as
mentioned above, most present fabricators of PVC-coated fabrics use calen-
dering equipment.
According to our industry contacts, polyurethane-coated fabrics should
have adequate properties to meet the performance required of them in
this application. Polyurethanes, in general, lack good UV stability,
but some materials are now available that can meet this requirement.
Some properties of polyurethanes are superior to those of PVC. For
example, polyurethanes have better abrasion than PVC; consequently,
thinner coatings can be used to produce equivalent properties. Alva-Tech,
Inc., has developed a non-solvent polyurethane coating, which can be run
on a conventional plastisol casting line and which they claim is competitive
with vinyl coatings, if a thinner coating is used. Goodrich also has
developed a new thermoplastic elastomer, called "Telcar", which perhaps
could be used as a fabric coating.
The use of polyurethane-coated fabrics made by the casting process as a
substitute for PVC-coated fabrics would require a research and design period
of about one year to meet the needs of the motor vehicle industry. Since
casting is not the process used by most of the coated fabrics industry,
several new facilities using different equipment would also have to be
constructed. For example, the conventional urethane casting process would
require special drying ovens because the polyurethanes are applied as a
solution from which the solvent must be removed. (This is not the case with
PVC plastisol casting or the new material from Alva-Tech.) Disregarding
polyurethane material shortages which are significant, 18-24 months would
be needed to install the necessary casting facilities to handle this market.
Moreover, because the production rate for the casting process is considerably
slower than the calendering process, larger casting facilities would be
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needed in place of the existing PVC calendering facilities to meet demand.
Thus, from a technology viewpoint alone, the casting process approach could
require at least 2-3 years to meet demand.
On the other hand, if the polyurethanes were processed by the calendering
process, at least two years of research and design period would be required.
While a few polyurethanes are available today that can be calendered, more
research will be needed to develop the specific polyurethanes needed by
the motor vehicle industry. We estimate, therefore, that if the calendering
process were selected as the preferred approach, the polyurethane substitute
coated fabric could be at least four years away from commercialization.
Most industry respondents also agree that polyurethanes designed for calen-
dering would process at a slower production rate than PVC. Nonetheless,
this approach might be preferred because, as mentioned above, most present
fabricators of PVC-coated fabrics use calendering equipment.
Rohm and Haas has recently developed a new product, based on foamed aerylate
which could also compete with high-priced coated vinyls, although at this
time it is only in the developmental stage. Rohm and Haas is currently
seeking potential licensees who would manufacture this product called
"Ayrcryl".
Chlorinated polyethylene (CPE) is another possible substitute material,
although its present output and availability is very limited. This product
has the advantage that it can be calendered in much the same manner as the
present calender-grade PVC. In the opinion of fabricators who have worked
with this resin, the product is close to meeting most existing PVC specifi-
cations for automotive upholstery. However, CPE does not have the necessary
low-temperature flexibility needed by the motor vehicle manufacturers.
Furthermore, it is more difficult to calender PVC and some have estimated
that the production rate would be slowed by as much as 20%. Still another
possible substitute for PVC in this application is ethylene-vinyl acetate
copolymer (EVA). This product also can be calendered but, again, it lacks
the necessary low-temperature flexibility. Because EVA, in contrast to PVC
and CPE, lacks inherent flame resistance, it has to be especially formulated
to meet this requirement. Thus, substituting EVA or CPE for PVC would mean
some sacrificing of performance. Furthermore, these substitute products
would still require about three years to reach commercialization, again
assuming the raw materials were available.
Fabricators and motor vehicle manufacturers are also developing new methods
for manufacturing motor vehicle seats—methods which would not require coated
fabrics. For example, one promising approach is the manufacture of one-
piece molded seats using foam polyurethanes with an external skin; the
boating industry is currently using products of this type. However, this
approach will require considerably more research and development time than
the approaches described above in order to replace PVC-based automotive
upholstery fabrics.
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Furniture. The preferred substitute for PVC in coated fabrics for furniture
again appears to be the polyurethane. Polyurethane-coated fabrics are used
commercially today as furniture upholstery material. However, it is still
only a small part of the market compared to PVC-coated fabrics. At the
present time, most of these urethane-coated fabrics are made by the solution
casting process. As discussed above, a series of relatively new urethane
polymers have become available that can be calendered, and cast in much
the same way as plastisols. The product design period for the changeover
from PVC to polyurethane in this market should be no more than one year.
Following that, modification of the existing equipment and the installation
of some new equipment should be able to take place within one additional
year. Thus, the time lag for PVC substitution in this application would
be about two years, assuming that the polyurethane resins were then available.
Manufacturers of PVC-based furniture upholstery, like the automotive up-
holstery industry, have also considered other substitute materials.
Ethylene-vinyl acetate polymer is one other candidate material. Though
it can be calendered and formulated to meet most property requirements,
it lacks low-temperature flexibility. Chlorinated polyethylene has been
used, but it would have similar deficiencies. "Ayrcry1" is another potential
substitute.
Flooring. Because of the unusual ability of PVC resin to be made into a
variety of colors (including pastels), surface finishes ("shiny" or dull),
degrees of hardness, and the fact that PVC possesses excellent chemical and
flame resistance, it would essentially be impossible to duplicate the same
line of vinyl flooring products now on the market by using other synthetic
or natural polymers. New facilities would have to be built to produce much
larger quantities of linoleum and asphalt tile if the consumer would indeed
go back to using these inferior products. It is more likely that most of
the hard surface plastic flooring market would be replaced by soft carpeting
rather than with these "outmoded" resilient flooring materials.
2. Wire and Cable
Building Wire. PVC was originally selected as the preferred material for
the application because of its low cost (which derives in part from its
"easy" prbcessability), excellent flame resistance, good low-temperature
flexibility and colorability (e.g., for coding), in addition to desirable
electrical insulation properites. If PVC were no longer available, a major
constraint that would inhibit the introduction of a substitute material
would be the existing building codes. Although most of the codes involve
performance specifications, they essentially restrict the material to PVC,
because they specify performance requirements, such as flame resistance
and flammability, that only PVC can meet.
The easiest substitute approach would be to use polyethylene plastics.
Although this material lacks the inherent flame resistance of PVC, the
industry believes that, given sufficient time, polyethylene could be for-
mulated to meet this requirement. However, even "flame resistant" poly-
ethylene does not satisfy the operating temperatures required in many
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building-wire applications. Although "flame-resistant" polyethylene could
be used in most homes, it would probably be unsatisfactory in many industrial,
commercial, and institutional applications where relatively high service
temperatures are required. Polyethylene is also less flexible than PVC,
a major disadvantage in household wiring. One approach might be to use
thinner coatings to get improved flexibility; however, this might result
in unsatisfactory insulation value.
Another possible PVC substitute would be EPR (ethylene-propylene-rubber)
with an outer coating of chlorosulfonated polyethylene or neoprene. By
itself, EPR is too soft for many applications and does not have the required
resistance; therefore the Hypalon or neoprene coating would be required.
These materials would impart the necessary flame resistance. Although
Hypalon or neoprene alone would fulfill many of the property requirements,
these materials are much more expensive and are not available in the
quantities required. Neoprene would be satisfactory in many building-wire
applications, but it lacks the necessary abrasion resistance required in
several non-building construction applications. Another potential substi-
tute material is cross-linked polyethylene (XPE), a thermosetting material
Again, XPE would have to be formulated to meet the flame resistance require-
ments; otherwise, it would have most of the other necessary properties,
including the relatively high-service-temperature property. However,
a rigid material, which would limit its use significantly in this market.
Assuming that the constraints of the building codes were removed and that
sufficient amount of the substitute materials were available (again
essentially impossible today from a physical capacity viewpoint), the
redesigning of the substitute product would take up to two years, depending
upon which substitute materials were selected. Even if the "easiest"
approach were taken, such as using polyethylene, the existing extruding
equipment would have to be modified (e.g., new and different screws would
be needed). If a thermoset material, such as Hypalon, were selected, then
considerably new auxiliary equipment and facilities also would be required.
Therefore, depending upon which material was selected, the total time needed
to commercialize substitute building wire products would be from two to four
years. Achieving the needed raw material capacity would take much longer.
Automotive Wire and Cable. The average passenger car uses about ten pounds
of PVC compound as insulating material for wire and cable; although small
in terms of weight percent, this is a very necessary product. According
to the industry, the best substitute material would be polyethylene.
Ordinary polyethylene has an operating temperature somewhat lower than PVC.
In most instances, therefore, the auto industry would require crosslinked
polyethylene (XPE), which is used in some automotive wire applications
today. The crosslinked variety of polyethylene has an operating temperature
of 150°C (compared with a rated operating temperature of 105°C). Poly-
ethylene itself will not meet the existing flame-resistance requirements,
but can be satisfactorily formulated to meet these requirements. However,
substituting polyethylene would mean giving up other performance require-
ments such as flexibility.
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Because crosslinked polyethylene wire is a commercial product today, the
redesign period would be relatively short—perhaps about six months—if
crosslinked polyethylene were used as a substitute. However, this material
is processed differently from PVC, and the need for additional equipment
and space would introduce an additional time lag of 12-24 months. While
the existing PVC extruders could be used in the fabricating operation,
the processors would have to change the extruder screw and, more signifi-
cantly, would have to add new curing lines. Curing of crosslinking poly-
ethylene requires heat and, therefore more space and, obviously, more
steam would be needed than is the case with PVC products. Furthermore,
substituting crosslinked polyethylene would also reduce productivity—
perhaps by as much as one-third. Consequently, additional extruding
equipment also would be needed. In summary, it is estimated that substi-
tuting XPE for PVC in automotive wire applications would require about
two years.
Communication Wire. Flexible PVC compound is widely used as the wire in-
sulation is primarily used inside buildings—commercial, industrial, and
residential—and consequently must meet local building codes. PVC is the
preferred material in this application because of its overall cost/perfor-
mance characteristics, its relatively high-temperature resistance, and its
good flexibility and colorability. Perhaps most important, because it is
used inside buildings, PVC is preferred because it meets the necessary
flame-resistance requirements. Neoprene and Hypalon could substitute for
PVC in many of the existing applications. Neoprene could probably meet
all of the existing requirements met by PVC insulation today, even though
its electrical properties are slightly inferior to those of PVC. Hypalon
also can be considered a good substitute material. But Hypalon and neoprene
rubbers are thermoset materials that would require new processing equipment.
A thermoplastic material would be preferred.
Polyethylene could be used in many applications if it were formulated to
meet the flame-resistant requirements. (Chlorinated polyethylene might
also be used, if it were available in the quantities needed to satisfy
this large market.) The best approach would be to substitute appropriately
formulated polyethylene for many of the current applications that use PVC
and use neoprene as the substitute material for those applications that
cannot be served by polyethylene alone.
Again, disregarding the constraint introduced by the need to change the
existing building code requirements, extensive research and development
would be needed to develop the substitute insulation material for communi-
cation wire. The specifications for materials used in this application
are very stringent. Thus, research and development required to develop
a neoprene substitute product would probably involve at least a two-year
period. Neoprene would also require different processing equipment.
Therefore, another two years would be needed to install the new facilities
and build the additional space to manufacture the neoprene-insulated wire.
The design and development period for the polyethylene substitute material
would be somewhat shorter. The total time lag for substituting PVC in this
application is estimated to be from three to four years.
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4. Packaging
Meat Wrapping. At the present time, flexible PVC is essentially the only
wrapping film used for fresh meat. In the past, cellophane was used, and
can therefore be considered a potential substitute material. However,
the manufacturing process required to make cellophane film is completely
different from that used to fabricate PVC film. New facilities might be
needed to manufacture the additional cellophane film, because at the present
time most cellophane manufacturing facilities are relatively antiquated.
Two to three years would be needed to construct these facilities.
Cellophane would meet most of the existing performance requirements; however,
it is not as flexible as PVC. Other substitutes for PVC in this application
might be polyethylene and ethylene-vinyl acetate resins. However, these
alternatives are not very acceptable, because they are inferior to PVC with
respect to clarity and oxygen-transmission properties.
Can Coatings. Most metal cans have an internal coating to protect the
contents of the can from metal contamination, and, in some instances, to
protect the metal from corrosion. In food canning applications, a variety
of coatings are used, including vinyl chloride-based copolymers. Other
coating materials used for these purposes include olefin resins, phenolics,
and epoxy resins; some polybutadiene resins are also used in beverage cans.
Polyvinyl chloride-based resins have been used primarily because of their
flexibility—a property that is important in the manufacture of two-piece
metal cans that are "deep drawn". The industry could use epoxy resins
as a substitute product in this application because it would require a
minimum of new equipment. However, the use of epoxy resins, will slow
production somewhat for it is more difficult to spray; most two-piece cans
are sprayed while three-piece cans are coated by a roll coating process.
Although epoxy resins are generally acceptable in beverage and food cans,
these resins may sometimes introduce a flavor problem. From this point of
view, polybutadiene coatings would likely be preferred for beverage containers
because they impart little or no taste. Assuming that epoxy resins were
commercially available, the time required for the changeover would be
minimal—less than one year.
Recently PPG Industries introduced a new can-coating product based on
acrylics that can potentially replace the vinyl enamel system. The new
product called "Environ-1776", is now under test in beer cans.
PVC coatings are also used in the manufacture of some composite (paper-
foil) cans used for foods. Here, it is typically used as a slip coating
on aluminum foil, and provides heat scalability. In this case, the industry
has substitute products under development and, if PVC were not available,
these products could be introduced within 6-12 months.
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Crowns and Closures. Most beverage crowns use a PVC plastisol compound as
a gasket to provide the necessary seal to keep the content of the bottle
fresh for long periods of time. Cork can be used, but it is imported, and
is expensive and difficult to obtain. The new convenience "roll-on"
closures for beverage bottles also use a plastisol compound as a liner
material. Although cork is a possible substitute material for this appli-
cation, realistically, it is not preferred. The use of a cork liner requires
very different equipment than that which is used to apply the plastisol
liners. At the present time, substitute products are under development,
and one manufacturer has developed a new ethylene-based elastomer material
which is currently in use in Europe. However, to utilize this new material
new equipment would be required and installation of this equipment would
introduce a time lag.of about one year.
Plastisol materials are also widely used as liners for the wide-mouth jar
closures. In this case, the best substitute product would be a rubber
latex material, such as a natural or an SBR rubber. Some rubber latices
are presently used in this application, and therefore a changeover to
this substitute material could be carried out with a minimum of research
and development time. (Sealing products in these applications, of course,
must meet FDA requirements.) The equipment required to manufacture closure
liners based on rubber latex is different from that required for the
manufacture of plastisol liners. Consequently, about one to two years
would be required to obtain the necessary equipment in-place. Furthermore,
the process that uses rubber latex is considerably slower than that used
for plastisol. Therefore, the production rate would be cut substantially.
However, for the most part, these products would not meet the existing
performance requirements. Although rubber does have adequate sealing
capabilities in many applications, there are some applications where it
does not. Also, in some of the high-temperature processes required during
the bottling of food, rubber is not as good as plastisol. In addition
rubber often has "cut through" problems and can introduce taste changes.
In the case of non-vacuum closures, substitution will be much easier. Here,
plastisol is not used as widely, and rubber or coated paper inserts can
provide satisfactory performance.
Table III-ll presents a summary of the primary substitution materials for
PVC resin and the time required to substitute them in the different major
end uses.
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TABLE III-ll
SUBSTITUTION ASPECTS OF FABRICATED VINYL PRODUCTS
PVC Based Product
Pipe
Conduit
Flooring
Tile
Yard Goods
Upholstery Material
(Coated fabrics)
Automotive
Furniture
Wire Insulation
Phonograph Records
Siding
Packaging Materials
Flexible Film
Rigid Film
Bottles
Cap liners
Can linings
Medical Tubing
Primary Substitute
Raw Material Candidates
ABS, Polyethylene Metal
ABS, Polyethylene Metal
Coumarone-indene resin, SBR
Linseed oil (for linoleum)
Total Time Required
for Substitution (a)
(years)
1-2
1-2
2-3
3-4
Polyurethane, CPE, "Ayrcryl" 2-3
1-2
Polyethylene, Neoprene, HYPALON, 2-4
EPR
Polystyrene 3-4
Wood, metal (steel, aluminum) 1-2
Cellophane 1-2
Cellulosic resin, polystyrene,
nitrile resin 1-2
Nitrile resin, glass 1-2
Cork, rubber 1-2
Epoxy resin, acrylic coating 1-2
Rubber (e.g., thermoplastic 1-2
elastomer)
(a) Assumes that (1) sufficient quantities of substitute raw
materials would be available when required by market demand;
(2) production facilities are in place and operating at the time
required.
Source; Arthur D. Little, Inc., estimates
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IV. DESCRIPTION OF PROCESSES AND EMISSION POINTS
In this section we describe the details of the various compounding and
fabricating operations used in the manufacture of polyvinyl chloride
products. For each process we have identified the major sources of vinyl
chloride monomer loss where such information was available, or have attempted
to estimate the loss based on known losses from similar processes.
In all cases, VCM content or loss is reported in "ppm"—that is, parts by
weight of vinyl chloride monomer per million parts of polymer. (This is
in contrast to units used to report concentration of VCM in air, where
"ppm" is used to denote parts per million by volume).
At the end of each process description, the amount of VCM emitted per
weight of polymer is multiplied by the known amount of polymer processed
by this method in the United States each year to arrive at the "total
nationwide emissions" from each process. These totals are then summarized
in Section V.
A. COMPOUNDING
The physical and chemical properties of polyvinyl chloride are such that
it can be used in only a very few applications in its pure (unmodified)
form. In most of its applications, PVC requires the addition of a number
of additives to increase its flexibility, ease of processing, resistance
to degradation, etc. These additives (which may total as much as 100% of
the weight of the raw PVC resin) include:
Plasticizers (such as the phthalates) to increase the flexibility
of the finished product.
Heat stabilizers (such as metallic salts, etc.) to prevent
degradation and discoloration of the PVC at the elevated
temperatures required for processing.
Lubricants to improve the flow of the molten PVC and to
prevent its sticking to metal processing surfaces.
Fillers to increase the bulk and lower the cost of the final
material.
Pigments and dyes to produce the desired color.
Successful compounding of these ingredients to achieve satisfactory proper-
ties in the final product depends on the ability to blend all of the
additives sufficiently well that a homogeneous material results. The
compounding process has been divided into the following separate processes,
all or some of which may take place in any given operation:
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1. Simple mixing of all the ingredients.
2. Adsorption of liquid ingredients onto the surface layer of
resin particles.
3. Complete plasticization of the solvated resin particles.
4. Cohesion between plasticized resin particles.
5. Loss of identity of the individual particles by fusion.
6. Chemical interaction of the polymer with some of the
ingredients (e.g., stabilizers).
1. Flexible PVC Compounds
a. Process Description
There are two major methods for the preparation of plasticized PVC: dry
blending and hot compounding. In the dry blending operation, the liquid
additives are simply mixed with the resins and stirred rapidly below the
fusion temperature at 93-107°C (200-225°F). The resin particles "soak up"
(or adsorb) the liquid and the result is a dry powder barely distinguishable
in appearance from the original resin. Although the resulting mixture is
technically not yet "fully compounded", it may be stored and then fed
directly to fabricating equipment where the resulting high temperatures
melt the dry powder and produce a fused compound in the process of fabri-
cation.
Hot compounding is frequently used when larger amounts of plasticizer are
to be added to the polymer. In this operation the ingredients are first
mixed together (in an operation roughly identical to "dry blending").
The resulting blend is then kneaded and fused to produce a homogeneous
melt. The melt is then cooled and diced into pellets or granules.
Figures IV-1 and IV-2 show typical process flow diagrams for the hot com-
pounding processes: a continuous process using a Farrel continuous mixer
and a batch process using a Banbury mixer. Figure IV-3 is a cross sectional
view of a typical Banbury mixer installation showing the ventilation
system.
As shown in these flow diagrams, the process consists of several major
steps:
1. Blending of raw resin and additives in a blender, where heat
is usually generated by the process. (In some operations,
additional heat may be added to promote mixing.) A dry
powder results.
2. Heat mixing (Farrel Mixer or Banbury) to knead and fuse the
powder to produce a homogeneous mass.
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BAC. OUST
CCLl-ECTOa
PflOM PLASTlC/ZtB
H
-------
/»i.ASTIC/Z£« SUPPLY
n
CVC1-OME.
M
MOT a9'. -
TOTAL.. COMPOLlfsia PROOOCTIOM
/a 000 L.BS//7AY LIME I
O
E.MISSIOM. STR.E&M
( ) /MDICATES KJOMQCQ
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Figure IV-2. Batch Hot Compounding Operation.
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To suit method of
feed to mixer.
Platform
Cop existing hood
6"Dio duct
A -»• 800 cfm
Q " 2OO -3OO cfm/sq ft open face area.
50Ocfm/ft of belt width if belt feeder used.
Duct velocity • 3500 fpm minimum.
Entry Joss - 0.25 VP of hood
I.O VP at trunnion
Figure IV-3. Banbury Mixer
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3. Milling to produce a ribbon of compound.
4. Cooling of the compound ribbon.
5. Dicing of the ribbon to make pellets.
6. Packaging or storing.
b. Vinyl Chloride Monomer Emission Points in Flexible Compounding
Operations
The major point of VCM emission in the compounding of flexible resin is
in the addition of plasticizer during the dry blending operation. (This
conclusion holds whether or not the dry b'lended powder is later subjected
to fusion.) Experiments by resin and compound manufacturers appear to show
that little or no VCM is released during the simple process of stirring
and heating in the dry blender (if no aspiration is used), but that upon
addition of the plasticizer, most of the residual monomer is released. Our
limited data appear to indicate that with the initial VCM contents of the
input resin in the range of 20 to over 1,000 ppm, the VCM content of the
dry powder after plasticizer addition is usually reduced to less than 20
ppm. Minor amounts of VCM are emitted at later points of the compounding
operation, notably in the additional blending of the dry powder, and in the
processing of the melt after the melt mixers. (Although it had originally
been hypothesized that the major points of VCM emission would be at the
points at which the resin was melted, this is apparently not so for two
reasons: (1) very little VCM is left by the time the compound reaches
the melt mixer and (2) the surface area of polymer exposed to the atmos-
phere during the melt is very small compared to the large surface area
exposed by the fine particles in the dry blender.)
Table IV-1 shows VCM levels measured by a major manufacturer at various
points along his compounding operation. As shown by these data, the major
point of VCM loss is at the addition of the plasticizer in the dry blending
part of the operation. The dry blending alone, even with the addition of
considerable heat did not result in significant release of VCM. Finally,
after the dry blending operation is complete, a small amount of residual
VCM remains; much of this is then lost in the subsequent "melt" phases
of the operation.
These data are confirmed by the data of Tables IV-2 and IV-3, gathered by
major manufacturers. Although less detailed, they confirm that essentially
all of the residual VCM in the input raw resin to a flexible resin compounding
operation is lost after the dry blending operation.
Finally, it is important to note that the residual VCM level in fully com-
pounded flexible resins is very low; hence, any further processing of these
resins into fabricated products can result in only a very small total amount
of VCM emission from the fabrication process.
IV-6
Arthur D Little. Inc.
-------
TABLE IV-1
VCM Levels in Resin at
Processing Step
(a) Resin as charged
(a-l)dry blend after
heating but before
plasticizer added
(b)dry blend after
additives in.
M (c)dry blend after
•p completion of
"** blending cycle
(d)belt feeder to
continuous mixer
(after holding
hopper)
(e)Out of continuous
mixer (melt)
(f)Mill slab
(g)Pelletized
Flex Flex
(1) (2)
24* 18*
[essentially
4 6.4
N.D.f 4
3.2
2.1
2.7
N.D. 1.8
Points along
Flex
(3)
33*
unchanged]
10
5.1
5.6
5.4
4.7
2.7
Compounding Process (ppm by weight)
Flex Flex Flex Semi-Rigid
(4) (5) (6) (7)
58* 134** 374** 356
7.6 7.3 3.2 65
N.D. 0.3 0.7 34
0.3 0.6 26
11 N.D. 0.6 11
0.4 13
N.D. N.D. 0.3 13
Rigid (co polymer/
polymer mix)
(8)
218***
190
180 -
184
211
218
229
c
-t
D
* Bagged suspension resin stored over two months.
** Suspension resin bought in bulk rather than in bags.
*** Relatively non-porous particles
t Non-Detectable (<0.1 ppm).
-------
TABLE IV-2
Vinyl Chloride Concentrations in Film Processing
VCM Concentration - ppm
Date
3/6/74
8/22
9/23
9/23
9/23
10/14
3/7
3/7
2/21
3/8
3/12
3/12
3/25
3/25
3/25
7/9
7/25
7/26
7/26
7/26
7/26
8/13
8/13
10/1
10/1
10/24
Resin
1400
360
240
300
350
210
2400
2600
590
800
38
1000
470
560
340
12
200
170
90
55
120
91
86
210
135
730
Dry Blend
2
4
ND
5
7
3
48
74
2
10
2
90
20
13
4
1
2
ND
ND
ND
3
1
1
4
1
ND
Pellets
21
7
ND
7
4
8
23
80
6
2
ND
7
ND
1
1
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
4
-
2
5
2
Film
2
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
2
8
2
-
ND
-
ND
ND
ND
_
-
-
-
-
-
_
-
-
-
-
IY-8
Arthur D Little, Inc.
-------
TABLE IV-3
Flexible VCM Compound Production
Input VCM Level Output VCM Level
Process (ppm) (ppm)
Dryblending 72 15
12(?) 12
157 10
411 2
629 <1
72 6
Pelletizing 15
12
10
IV-9
Arthur D Little, Inc.
-------
c. Total Amounts of VCM Emitted from Flexible PVC Compounding
Processes
The amount of vinyl chloride monomer emitted from flexible resin compounding
processes is almost directly proportional to the amount of residual VCM in
the input resin to the operation, since practically all of the residual VCM
in the resin is released upon compounding. The amount of residual VCM in
the incoming resin is highly variable, and dependent upon a number of
factors, notably the details of the polymerization and post-stripping
process, and the storage and shipping history of the resin prior to com-
pounding. Storage time of the resin before use strongly affects the resi-
dual VCM levels: it has been estimated that approximately 25 to 50% of
the original VCM content of raw resin is lost during the first 30 days of
shipping and storage under ordinary conditions. This loss may be accentuated
under conditions of high ventilation. Because of this effect of storage, VCM
losses will, in general, be higher from compounding operations which take
place at the same location at which the raw resin is manufactured, and
lower from these operations which purchase or ship input resins from other
locations.
In studies of suspension resins, residual VCM levels ranged from less than
50 ppm to as high as 2600 ppm vinyl chloride monomer by weight. Tables
IV-4 and IV-5 show a tabulation of V3M contents or resins received in
consecutive shipments from suppliers by one major fabricator in late 1974.
Suspension resin VCM contents are shown to vary from a low of 30 to a high
of 3500 ppm.
Complete statistics on VCM levels in input resins are not available. On
the basis of our plant visits we estimate that the majority of flexible resin
compounding operations had an input resin VCM content of 200 to 1000 ppm.
in 1974. In the latter part of 1974, raw resin manufacturers were beginning
to devote considerable effort to lowering the VCM levels in their resins,
so that the input resin to many of the operations probably fell in the 200-
500 ppm range. It has been estimated by manufacturers that by the end of
1975 most suspension resins will have residual VCM levels below 50 ppm.
The technology to achieve these low levels appears to be a practical and
important "control" measure for reducing VCM release to the atmosphere from
flexible resin compounding operations.
For the purposes of estimating the total VCM release rate to the atmosphere
from a compounding operation, the following formula may be used:
100.000 x 300 on .. ,, n. , , ,,
* T = 30 Ibs/day = 13.6 kg/day
10°
Assuming as a very rough estimate a nationwide average of 300 ppm in the
input resins to flexible resin compounding operations in 1975, the nationwide
release of VCM last year can be estimated as:
IV-10
Arthur D Little, Inc.
-------
TABLE IV-4
Percent*
Identification
105-1
244
283
283
283
283
283
294
309
309
311
311
311
311
311
311
311
311
312
312
312
312
312
312
313
313
313
313
313
321
321
321
321
321
321
321
321
321
321
323
323
903
Vinyl Chloride Monomer
Type Resin
Suspension
Emulsion
Suspension
Suspension
Suspension
Suspension
Suspension
Emulsion
Suspension
Suspension
Suspension
Suspension
Suspension
Suspension
Suspension
Suspension
Suspension
Suspension
Suspension
Suspension
Suspension
Suspension
Suspension
Suspension
Suspension
Suspension
Suspension
Suspension
Suspension
Suspension
Suspension
Suspension
Suspension
Suspension
Suspension
Suspension
Suspension
Suspension
Suspension
Suspension
Suspension
Suspension
in PVC Homopolymer
% Vinyl Chloride Monomer*
.086
.003
.082
.081
.14
.13
.031
.005
.016
.01
.064
.073
.068
.029
.053
.049
.033
.037
.030
.064
.047
.091
.033
.041
.28
.28
.19
.06
.14
.087
.063
.084
.045
.046
.087
.045
.030
.022
.025
.014
.099
.004
* 1% - 10,000 ppm
IV-11
Arthur D Little, Inc
-------
TABLE IV-5
Percent* Vinyl Chloride Monomer in PVC-PVA Copolymer
Identification
163
163
163
163
163
163
297
430
430
440
440
440
450
450
450
450
450
451
451
458
458
458
458
458
459
459
459
459
459
459
459
459
459
479
479
480
532 v
Type Resin
Suspension
Suspension
Suspension
Suspension
Suspension
Suspension
Suspension
Solution
Solution
Suspension
Suspension
Suspension
Suspension
Suspension
Suspension
Suspension
Suspension
Suspension
Suspension
Suspension
Suspension
Suspension
Suspension
Suspension
Suspension
Suspension
Suspension
Suspension
Suspension
Suspension
Suspension
Suspension
Suspension
Solution
Solution
Solution
Suspension
*% Vinyl Chloride Monomer
.071
.050
.077
.2500
.2600
.2100
.041
.009
.007
.054
.041
.100
.058
.079
.097
.039
.034
.078
.074
.062
.14
.080
.080
.054
.10
.082
.083
.136
.16
.15
.12
.118
.17
.055
.01
.003
.35
* 1% = 10,000 ppm.
IV-12
Arthur D Little, Inc
-------
Nationwide Release of VCM in 1974 3QO g
from Flexible Resin Compounding = —r x 1.6 x 10 Ibs/yr of
Operations 10 flexible resins
produced
= 480,000 kg/yr of VCM released
( = 218,000 Ibs/yr of VCM )
By the end of 1975, assuming the goal of 50 ppm is reached, the annual rate
of VCM release from flexible resin compounding operations may be estimated
(assuming the same rate of production):
Annual Rate of 50 ppm , , --.9 0_ nnn ,, /
VCM Release = —^6 x 1'6 x 10 = 80>000 lbs/^r
= 36,000 kg/yr
As discussed in Section III (Table III-4) approximately 83% of flexible
PVC compound is produced by the fabricators of semi-finished products, about
11% is produced by the raw resin producers, and about 6% by independent
compounders. Table III-4 of Section III further subdivides the compounding
operations by type of final product.
2. Compounding of Rigid Formulations
a. Process Description
In rigid dry blend formulations, the resin, filler, lubricant and stabilizers
are mixed in an intensive (high speed) mixer where considerable heat is
generated. It is then cooled in a ribbon blender or in a lower speed
cooling mixer similar in design to the hot, high intensity mixer, and
transferred for packaging or storage. In this operation, the compound does
not go through the melt phase. Figure IV-4 shows a schematic of a dry
blend process.
A minor amount of rigid compounds is also produced by a process involving
fusing of the powder and dicing to produce rigid pellets.
By far the largest application for rigid PVC resins is in the production
of PVC pipe. The great majority of PVC pipe producers do their own com-
pounding on the same site as the pipe production. Mixing the additives
with the raw resin takes place in a high intensity "hot" mixer through the
use of an air sweep or a vacuum, considerably increasing the amount of VCM
given off. Older installations do not have this feature, but the pressures
of the OSHA regulations and the hazards of exceeding the lower explosive
limit for VCM will probably result in more and more facilities providing
for VCM removal in the "hot" mixer.
IV-13
Arthur D Little, Inc.
-------
C OMPOUMO IMC
si i os W
C
—t
D
DCV GLEUf)
SI UPS (4)
SOCK. OUST
WOTCS:
TOTAU OBV ftl-CWO-PBOIJUCTIOM
90,000 UB/OAV.
MOMBEQ IISJ C ) IUOICATES
NUMfJCR OF CQUIPMENT IT6MS
Figure IV-4. Dry Blend Compounding
-------
From the "hot" mixer, the blended powder is sent to a cooler, which may be
a high intensity mixer with a cooling jacket, or a ribbon blender from
which it is transferred to a storage silo.
A variation of this process is the "double batching" method of compounding
in which only a portion (usually 50%) of the batch of raw resin is mixed
with additives in the hot mixer. The remaining portion of raw resin is
sent directly to the cold mixer where it is blended with the material from
the hot mixer. A typical double batching compounding set-up is shown in
Figure IV-5. Double batching is efficient in that energy savings are
possible and the heat exposure of the resin is minimized. Single batching
which is much more widely practiced in the pipe industry, removes a con-
siderably large quantity of VCM since the major point of VCM emission
appears to be the hot mixing stage.
b. Points of VCM Loss and Amounts of Loss from Compounding of
Rigid PVC Formulations
Data on VCM loss in rigid formulation compounding is scarce. Almost all
of the data which do exist come from the compounding of pipe compound, which
is by far the largest application of rigid PVC.
It appears that under some circumstances, very high removal rates for VCM
are possible in the dry blending operation due to the relatively high
temperatures in the hot mixer (as high as 138°C (280°F)) and the large
surface area of the resin powder. The amount of VCM given off in the com-
pounding operation appears to be highly variable, and dependent upon mixing
temperature and time, mixing intensity, resin particle size and porosity,
and aspiration within the hot mixer. Some manufacturers show negligible
amounts of VCM lost in the compounding operation, while one manufacturer
reported 94 to 98% removal of VCM during rigid compounding. Data from a
manufacturer of an internal aspiration system for hot blenders indicate
that the loss is highly dependent upon the amount of aspiration, ranging
from 85% removal of VCM without aspiration to 99% removal with aspiration
and air stripping. These data are all summarized in Table IV-6.
Raw resins to pipe compounding operations in late 1974 (which are presumed
to be typical of PVC resins for other rigid formulations) typically
contained 300 to 500 ppm VCM, with VCM levels in compounded resins about
50 ppm. As a very rough estimate therefore, the total loss of VCM from
PVC compounding manufacturing operations is estimated to be about 250-450
Ibs per million Ibs of pipe produced. At an estimated 1.9 billion
Ibs of rigid PVC produced in 1974, this corresponds to a total VCM loss
of 216,000-388,000 kg (475,000-855,000 Ibs) of VCM lost/year from
rigid PVC compounding.
IV-15
Arthur D Little, Inc.
-------
Detail of Typical
Aspirating Hood-Type Vent
Typical
Airflow =
600 CFH
Hood
Lid of Mixer,
Hopper, etc.
80-90% of
Aspirating Air
is from
Plant
Vent
FIGURE IV-5 TYPICAL DOUBLE BATCH COMPOUNDING OF PIPE RESIN
IV-16
Arthur D Little, Inc
-------
TABLE IV-6
VCM Loss During Dry Blend
Compounding of Rigid PVC Formulations
VCM Content (After Stripping)
Manufacturer A
Manufacturer B
Batch 1
Batch 2
Manufacturer C
Manufacturer D
Batch 1
Batch 2
Batch 3
Werner-Pfluderer "Exorsta" Data
Mixing @ 120°C (237°F)
No Aspiration
Aspiration
Aspiration & Air
Stripping 1000
Input
Resin
(ppm)
218
1014
413
550
300
530
390
:a
1000
1000
Blend
from
Mixer
(ppm)
190
33
-
-
565
205
Blend
from
Cooler
(ppm)
180
30
26
74
80
92
200
160
36
% VCM Removal
After Cooler
17
98
94
87
73
83
49
84
96
68
11
99
IV-17
Arthur D Little, Inc
-------
3. Plastisol and Organosol Compounding
Plastisols and organosols are liquid systems consisting of dispersions
of PVC resins in additives. Plastisols typically contain 30 to 50% plasti-
cizer plus other additives such as stabilizers and fillers. Organosols
differ from plastisols in that the former are thinned with solvents to
control the viscosity. The VCM emissions from plastisol and organosol
compounding appear to be negligible because the VCM content of the input
resin is extremely low. Most organosols and plastisols are made from
emulsion resins. Data from manufacturers indicate that raw emulsion resins
typically have VCM content of less than 10 ppm. Thus, the total amount
of VCM which could be emitted could not exceed 10 pounds of VCM per million
pounds of emulsion resins used to produce plastisols or organosols, or a
total of 2,000 kg (4,400 lb) per year.
B. EXTRUSION
Extruded products account for a large fraction of the consumption of PVC
resins, and include both flexible and rigid formulations. Approximately
80% of rigid PVC is processed by extrusion; major products include pipe
and conduit, panels and siding, windows and other profiles and rigid sheet.
Extrusion also accounts for almost 40% of flexible PVC fabrication with
major products being wire and cable sheathing, weather stripping, medical
tubing, garden hose and film. (A breakdown of the type and quantity of
products made by extrusion of PVC is given in Table II-3.) Extrusion takes
place at temperatures ranging from 120 to 190°C (Table IV-7). In general,
extruders processing powder blends will operate at the upper temperatures,
and those processing granulated compounds at the lower end. Unplasticized
PVC is processed at a somewhat higher temperature than plasticized PVC.
1. Extrusion of Flexible PVC
Extruders of flexible PVC operate in either of two modes: they may purchase
compounded flexible PVC to be fed directly into their extruders, or they
may purchase raw resin and do their own compounding in-house. The VCM
emissions from the plants of extruders of flexible PVC is totally dependent
upon which of these choices is made. As discussed under "Flexible PVC
Compounding" above, almost all the residual vinyl chloride monomer in raw
resin compounded into flexible formulations is lost during the hot blending
portion of the compounding operation, when plasticizer is added. The amount
of VCM remaining after completion of compounding is usually less than 10
ppm. Thus, the extruder of flexible PVC resin will have VCM emissions of
a maximum of only ten parts of VCM per million parts of resin processed if
he starts with compound. His counterpart who purchases and compounds from
raw resin will have emissions as high as 200-500 parts per million.
IV-18
Arthur D Little, Inc.
-------
TABLE IV-7
Typical Extruder Temperatures for PVC
Plasticized Compounds
Temp. °C
feed end of screw
front end of screw
head
die
120-140
140-160
150-170
160-180
Unplastlcized (rigid) Compounds
feed end of screw
front end of screw
head
die
140-150
155-165
165-175
170-190
IV-19
Arthur DLittk Inc.
-------
We estimate that approximately 70 to 75% of manufacturers of extruded
flexible PVC products do their own compounding. (A breakdown of this is
shown in more detail in Table III-4 of Section III.) The only major
purchasers of ready-made flexible compound for extrusion are makers of
film and medical tubing, who buy their compound from the resin producers;
wire and cable coating extruders also buy a minor fraction of their feed
as compound, from independent compounders.
Wire and cable coating and film extrusion are good examples of products
made by extrusion of flexible PVC. Wire and cable coating is the single
largest extrusion process for flexible PVC and accounts for approximately
354 million Ibs per year, or about 22% of the 1.6 billion Ibs of flexible
PVC consumed in the United States each year. The major resin used is a
homopolymer of medium to high molecular weight, with an additive content
of 40 to 60 percent based on the final compound. About 125-135 million
pounds of PVC were used in 1973 for the fabrication of flexible film for
packaging applications.
• Wire and Cable Coating
The producers of PVC-insulated wire and cable generally purchase raw resin
and produce granulated compound themselves. (About 70 million Ibs—or
20%—is bought from independent compounders who prepare special formulations
for the wire and cable industry.) The total process is shown schematically
in Figure IV-6.
In the extrusion process for wire coating, high rates of output are of
primary importance. Figure IV-7 is an illustration of the crosshead type
die used for wire coating. The wire to be coated passes straight through
a crosshead die at right angles to the length of the extruder. The polymer
melt (melted granules) enters the crosshead from the extruder and is directed
around the wire and merges through the die. After emerging, the wire may
be preheated electrically or flamed to remove lubricants and to improve
adhesion.
• VCM Emissions from Wire and Cable Coatings
As discussed above, the primary emissions of VCM from wire and cable
coating operations will occur in the compounding steps. The primary
point of this emission would be in the addition of the plasticizers and
additives to the raw resin during the hot mixing portion of the com-
pounding operation (discussed above). Emission of VCM at later points
in the process is negligible. Taking as a very rough average a net
emission from the entire coating operation of 300 parts of VCM per part of
resin processed in 1974, the emissions from a 1,000 Ib per hour extrusion
line would be 0.3 Ibs per hour of VCM, or 3.3 kg/day (7.2 Ib/day). The
total nationwide emissions from the process (assuming 354 million Ibs
of PVC used per year) would be approximately 48,000 kg VCM per year
(106,000 Ib/year).
IV-20
Arthur D Little, Inc.
-------
Method 1
Silos v Henschel type _ Twin Screw v Granulators Wire
_
Mixers 1000 Ibs. Comp. Extruders ' Extruders
Method 2
"f Resin Blenders ^ Banbury v, Mill ^. Strip ^ Granulator ^ Extruders
P Storage
c
Figure IV-6. Schematic of Wire and Cable Coating Process.
-------
Band Heaters
FIGURE IV- 7 CROSSHEAD DIE FOR WIRE COATING
Forming Die
Die Holder
Centering Adjustments
IV-22
Arthur D Little, Inc
-------
• Film Extrusion
Most flexible PVC packaging film is made by blown film extrusion. These
products are used for a variety of consumer and industrial applications.
Consumer applications include meat and produce wrap; industrial applications
include wrapping for small parts or loose paper type products. A particular
advantage of the PVC films for these applications is their ability to be
oriented and then shrunk during subsequent exposure to heat to produce a
so-called shrink wrap film.
It is possible to extrude film from either compounded powder or pellets.
Most flexible PVC extruded film is formed from pellets (which are made
using conventional powder blending techniques described earlier), followed
by extrusion of a strand which is cooled and pelletized. Film is made
from either purchased pellets or via in-house compounding at the fabrication
plant. Flexible film is also made from powder which is compounded on-site
using standard techniques.
Both of these methods are indicated in the flow chart of a typical flexible
film extrusion plant, shown in Figure IV-8. (Figure IV-8 also indicates
the sources of VCM emission.) The major source of emission will be from
the hot stage of the compounding operation. Other emission points of less
importance are from:
• unloading,
• venting to the atmosphere from raw powder and pellet storage
silos,
• the vacuum port of the palletizing extruder, and
• the fume collector which surrounds the film bubble.
We have obtained data on residual VCM content of extrusion-blown film from
two major manufacturers. In one case the manufacturer reported that during
a six month period VCM concentrations in film leaving the plant never
exceeded 0.02 ppm. The second manufacturer indicated that with rare
exception the concentrations were below the levels detectable by gas chromato-
graphic methods.
Thus, emissions from this portion of the industry can be estimated by assuming
all of the VCM entering as raw resin leaves the film operation. One major
manufacturer's sampling of incoming (uncompounded) resin between June and
November of 1974 measured VCM concentrations ranging from 2 to 325 ppm,
with typical readings of 65 ppm.
Assuming this figure is typical and that 130 MM Ibs of flexible PVC packaging
film are processed annually, the emissions from this sector of the industry
are 65 x 130 = 8450 Ibs/yr (3840 kg/year). It should be noted that approxi-
mately 90% of this arises from the compounding portion of the operation, and
less than 10% arises from the actual extrusion process.
IV-23
Arthur D Little, Inc.
-------
Vent to Atmosphere
Direct Vent
to Atmosphere
I
NJ
Fume Collector
IRl
/
\
High Intensity
Mixer
(Henschel)
Vacuum Port
for Removal
of Volatiles
MZU
Windup -
Palletizing
Extruder
Water Bath
Pelletizer
Truck / Silo
(4 days residence
time)
Continuous
Air Flow
175-200°F
7-8 Min. Residence
Time
'' Discharge @
210-280°F
Plasticizer and
Additives
Often Not
Vented
(pellet)
Compound
(powder)
Compound
Ribbon
Blender
or Cooler
Extruder
Biax.
Orientation
(tenter frame)
No Shrink or
Uniaxially Stretched
Film
Trim Scrap
IT
-t
a
FIGURE IV-8 FLEXIBLE PVC FILM EXTRUSION WITH IN-PLANT COMPOUNDING
-------
2. Extrusion of Rigid PVC Resins
a. General
As in the case of processors of flexible PVC resins by extruders, manufac-
turers of rigid PVC resins by extrusion may purchase ready-made compound
from the resin producers, or may compound their resins themselves. (The
independent compounder of rigid PVC resins for extrusion is virtually non-
existent.) Manufacturers of pipe and conduit—which account for 78% of
the total consumption of rigid PVC for extrusion—compound about 99% of
their resin themselves. Most other manufacturers of extruded rigid PVC
products purchase all of their compound from the resin producers. (An
exception to this rule are the producers of foam molding, many of whom
formulate their own compounds.)
b. Major Examples of Extruded Rigid PVC Products
(1) Pipe
Production of PVC pipe represents about 55% of the total extrusion of PVC
in this country (or about 78% of extrusion of rigid PVC). Most PVC pipe
manufacturers compound raw material at the same site, and the majority of
the VCM loss is from the hot mixing step of the compounding operation.
A typical PVC pipe manufacturing facility produces 20-25 million pounds
of extruded pipe per year using 4805 extruders. A schematic of a typical
plant's operations is shown in Figure IV-9. (Note that in Figure IV-9
compounding via both simple and double batching is indicated.)
The economics of PVC pipe extrusion dictate that individual processors
purchase raw PVC resin powder and add stabilizers, lubricants, and process-
ing aids and pigments in a central compounding operation at the plant.
The powder blend to feed the extruders is typically prepared in 400-1,000
Ib (180-455 kg) batches.
The capacity of the extruders is typically 600-700 Ibs/hr (270-320 kg/hr)
although some plants, particularly those manufacturing larger
diameter pipe, use extruders with capacities as high as 1,300 Ibs/hr
(590 kg/hr). Simple twin-screw machines typically consist of two twin-
screw machines operating in series. In this mode of operation, the first
extruder's function is to melt and mix the powder and extrude it into the
hopper of the second extruder via an intermediate evacuated palletizing
stage (in which the molten strands of resin are cut into pellets using a
hot face cutter.) Evacuation occurs from this intermediate "pelletizing"
stage.
After emerging from the second extruder, the melt passes through the annular
orifice of the die, and then is cooled in a water bath, cut into lengths
and stored. Some types of pipe require a secondary finishing or shaping
operation prior to storage.
IV-25
Arthur D Little, Inc.
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D
cr
Unload/Storage
t
Railcar
\
Resin
Silos
•^ I voiu-
/K metric
—y^^Feeder
Push/Pull
Feeder
Storage Bin
Compounding
1
Weigh
and
Holding
Hopper
t
Cold
Mix
Com-
pound
Storage
Hot
Silo
Portion of Batch
By-Passes Hot
Mixer in Double
Batching Operations
Plant Vent Fans
23" Hg.
Pelletizing.
Chamber
t.
Saw
H2O Cooling Tank Die
2nd Extruder
Extrusion
Note: T indicates potential VCM loss location.
1st Extruder
FIGURE IV-9 TYPICAL PVC PIPE EXTRUSION OPERATION
-------
c. Sources of VCM Loss in Pipe Extrusion
In practice, resin is transferred from the storage silo to the hot mixer
via an intermediate weighing station in which additives are mixed. The
batch is processed using either the single or double-batch method which
have been described previously. From the processor's viewpoint, double-
batching is efficient in that energy savings are possible and the heat
exposure of the resin is minimized. Single batching, however, removes a
considerably larger quantity of VCM. In estimating the quantity of VCM
discharged by a particular plant, it is therefore essential to determine
which practice is used.
Sources of VCM losses from pipe extrusion facilities are from vents in the
following four areas:
1. Resin Handling
• Hopper car, transfer devices, and raw resin storage
silos
• In-plant conveying systems
• Weighing station
• Extruder hopper
• Hot mixer
2. Compounding
• Cold mixer
• Compound storage
3. Extrusion
• Extruder vent pump
• Extruder die
4. Pipe Handling/Storage
• Pipe cutting station
• Pipe storage facility
The major locations of VCM removal and discharge to the atmosphere are (in
decreasing order of importance): hot mixer, cold mixer, extruder vent,
resin unloading and transfer.
IV-27
Arthur D Little. Inc.
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Hot mixers As discussed previously, considerable quantities of VCM can
be removed during the hot blending stage. Modern installations remove VCM
directly from the bowl of the hot mixer through the use of an air sweep
or a vacuum. Although there are still a considerable number of installa-
tions which do not follow this practice, it appears that the pressures of
OSHA regulations and the hazards of exceeding the lower explosive limit
for VCM will result in provision for VCM removal from the bowl of the
intensive mixer.
Cold mixer. After hot mixing the powder compound is transferred to the
cooling stage. Removal of VCM at this stage is comparable to that achieved
in the hot mixer.
Extruder vent. Elimination of volatiles from the molten pipe extrudate
is crucial to the production of quality pipe. This removal occurs from
an evacuated port at a stage in the extruder at which the resin is molten.
Typically, the molten resin is exposed to a vacuum of 12-14" Hg., although
vacuums as high as 23" Hg. have been observed during our field visits. In
the case of pipe production using a single extruder (either single screw
or twin screw), the volatiles are removed from a vacuum port located along
the barrel.
Ventilation. In modern pipe production plants the ventilation systems
from the storage/transfer and compounding stages are collected at a central
location - often this is a rooftop collector containing a bag for filtering
powder particles. This is known as the bag house and is important for
economical operation since considerable quantities of PVC powder can be
recovered. The bag house is also the major concentrated location of VCM
in a typical pipe processing plant.
Robintech, Inc., has the capability of blending additives in the polymeri-
zation kettle. These resins are referred to as in-house compounded (IHC)
resins and they do not require compounding at the pipe extrusion facility.
The VCM discharge from such plants should be considerably less since the
compounding steps are eliminated.
VCM Loss in Pipe Extrusion. Although data on VCM levels in pipe from
extruders are not available, an estimate of the amount of VCM lost may be
made from the measured VCM levels in the air exiting from the extrusion
process. Typical concentrations of VCM between 23.5 and 430 ppm (in air)
were reported at a flow rate of 3.5 SCFM of air, corresponding to a total
loss of 4.2 x 10~4 - 77.4 x 10~4 Ibs/hr (1.9 x 10~4 - 35 x lO"* kg/hr) of
VCM at an extrusion rate of 1,000 Ibs/hr (454 kg/hr) of pipe. This cor-
responds to a VCM loss of 0.4 - 7 Ibs VCM per million Ibs of PVC pipe
extruded—a negligible quantity.
The total nationwide emissions of VCM from PVC pipe extrusion (accounting
for 1.26 billion Ibs/year of PVC resin) are estimated to be:
IV-28
Arthur D Little, Inc
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VCM loss from compounding: 142,000-257,000 kg/yr
(250-450 ppm lost) (315,000-567,000 Ibs/year)
VCM loss from extrusion: 218-3,800 kg/year (negligible)
(480-8,400 Ibs/year)
(2) Profiles and Siding
Profiles and siding account for almost 100 million Ibs of rigid PVC extrusion
per year. Manufacturers typically buy pelletized compounds from the resin
manufacturers who supply custom formulations to the large fabricators.
Compound arrives to the fabricator in trucks and is stored in vented silos.
The residence time of the compound in the silo can vary from three days to
two months. From the silos, the resin is conveyed into vented surge hoppers
where it is warmed slightly [to 380°C (100°F)j, and then into the extruder.
From the extruder, the profile is conveyed through a cooling system—either
water or air-cooled—and thence to a cutter. Scrap from the cutting opera-
tion (averaging about 15% of the product) is sent to the grinding room for
recycling. (Figure IV-10 shows a schematic of the operation.)
Essentially no data are available on the VCM emission from these operations.
One manufacturer quoted an input compound level of 100 ppm VCM as received
from the resin manufacturer. The amount of further loss during the extrusion
step is not known. One source of loss to the atmosphere is from the storage
silo. This loss may be relatively small since the resin is in pellet form
rather than in powder form. Some loss probably occurs over the heated
extrusion section. However, this appears to be quite small, since the
measured levels of VCM in the air exhaust over the extrusion is very small
—less than 0.1 ppm (volume of VCM vapor per volume of air).
C. CALENDERING
Calendering is used for the production of both plasticized and rigid PVC
sheet as well as coated fabrics and unsupported flexible films. It is
capable of producing high quality material at very high rates of output.
The resin formulations typically contain 20-30% plasticizer. Its major
application is in the production of flexible PVC sheet and film, and
accounts for the consumption of approximately 867 million pounds per year
of flexible resin—or about 54% of the total U.S. consumption of flexible
compound.
Essentially all calendering compound is produced by the fabricator rather
than the resin producer. Typically, the raw (suspension or bulk process)
resin and additives are fed to a hot blender, thence to a Banbury mixer
where it is melted; it is then milled and discharged directly into the
calender. Often a screening extruder is used before the calender. After
the calender, the sheet is cooled and finished.
IV-29
Arthur D Little, Inc.
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*?A
M
Q Emission
Sources:
Delivery
Silo
Intermittent
VCM (in air)
(volume VCM
per volume
of air)
l~
_4_
Surge Hopper
Continuous
Recycle of Scrap
Extruder
Continuous
0.03
Stack
Height (ft)
Fan (CFM)
Temp °F
3
None
R.T.
2
244
110
20
1875
350
.. Cooling
Air or Water
Continuous
R.T.
Conveyor Cutter
Continuous
R.T.
R.T.
Packing
N.D.-0.03
R.T.
Code:
•4- Fan Location
©Location of VCM Measurement
C
-i
D
FIGURE IV-1Q RIGID PROFILE EXTRUSION
-------
Calendering can also be used for coating fabric and paper with plasticized
PVC sheet; the substrate is fed into the calender nip of the last roll to
carry out the lamination.
In calendering, the PVC is subjected to fairly high temperature because of
the high shear; molecular weight polymers can therefore be used. In rigid
sheet production, extreme pressures and high roll temperatures—approaching
200°C for homopolymers—must be used.
Figure IV-11 shows a schematic of a typical calendering operation which
could be used for manufacturing flexible unsupported films or coated fabrics
These products are used for shower curtains, baby pants, wall coverings,
swimming pool lining, tape, surgical drapes and book covers.
As in all processing of flexible PVC resins, the majority of the residual
vinyl chloride monomer loss in PVC calendering plants occurs during the
compounding portion of the operation. In the past, raw resin arrived with
a residual VCM level typically between 100 and 500 ppm. Even at these
input levels it is possible to reduce VCM in outgoing film to below 1 ppm.
Table IV-8 shows data obtained from a manufacturer of unsupported film
which shows the reduction in VCM at different stages in the process. This
data was obtained on a process which has two mills following the Banbury.
Unfortunately data were not.obtained directly after the Banbury. The data
does indicate however that the major portion of VCM is removed either by
the Banbury alone or in combination with the first run. The fact that very
little reduction in VCM content is measured between the first and second
mill supports the conclusion that the major portion of the VCM is eliminated
by the Banbury. This loss is not surprising, since the polymer during this
operation is hot, molten, plasticized, and has a high surface-to-volume
ratio—all optimum conditions for the release of monomer.
Based on these data, the nationwide emissions from calendering of flexible
PVC can be estimated to be:
Compounding portion: 39,000-195,000 kg/year
(100-500 ppm) (86,700-430,000 Ibs/year)
Calendering portion: 3,900-7,900 kg/year
(10-20 ppm) (8,670-17,340 Ibs/year)
D. BLOW MOLDING
Rigid PVC bottles are produced by the blow molding process. All blow
molded PVC bottles are made from compounded pellets purchased by the blow
molder from the resin supplier. These pellets are stored after delivery and
then vacuum-conveyed to a hopper which feeds a single-screw extruder. The
compound is melted in the extruder, reaching a temperature of 380°F. From
the extruder, the molten compound passes through a die to a mold where it
is blown and cooled. After cooling the flashings are cut from the bottle
and recycled into a grinder and thence to the extruder hopper. About 30%
of the feed is recycled as ground flashings.
IV-31
Arthur D Little, Inc
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Vent to Dust Collector
Railcar
S3
C
-t
D
Silo
i- { W *
X
Weigh
Hopper
Blender \
—Additives
—Plasticizer
Vent to Dust Collector
'General Area Exhaust
Banbury (melt mixer) ~ 350° F
| Dough
O O 2~RoM Mills
Inclined "Z" Calender
Double Embosser
Screening
Extruder
ling Drums
Slitter^ Beta Ray Gauge
Surface Winder
•^ Fabric Feed Roll
\ _ f for Coated Fabric
Production
FIGURE IV-11 TYPICAL CALENDERING OPERATION
-------
TABLE IV-8
VCM Losses from Flexible PVC Calendering
PVC resin to Banbury
PVC compound from Banbury
PVC compound from first mill
PVC compound from second mill
Film from calender
VCM Concentration
(ppm)
400
- (No value was
measured)
32
26
ND (<1 ppm)
1V-33
Arthur D Little, Inc
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Resin manufacturers typically control the VCM levels in compound for bottles
to extremely low values. Ethyl Corporation, who is a major supplier of
blow molding resins for example, currently produces to a specification of
less than 1 ppm VCM for their food grade bottles and to a specification of
less than 10 ppm in its general purpose bottle compound. They estimate
and we agree, that less than 15% of the VCM in the compounded pellets is
removed during blow molding.
These figures indicate that the total loss of VCM from blow molding is very
small (probably less than 1 Ib VCM loss per million Ibs of PVC processed
by this route). The major source of this loss may be at the point at which
the bottles are blown. Prior to this, the process is essentially totally
enclosed. Little, if any, VCM can escape from the extruder, and the
residence time at the die (where the molten compound is first exposed to
the atmosphere) is too low—typically about 4 seconds—to allow much escape
of VCM.
E. INJECTION MOLDING
Injection molding is an intermittent, cyclic process in which particles of
compound are heated until they become molten. The melt is then forced into
a closed mold where it cools, solidifies and is ejected as a finished or
semi-finished part.
Both flexible and rigid PVC compounds are injection molded. Both homo-
polymers and copolymer resins are used, with homopolymers predominating. Although
it is possible to mold powder blends, most injection molders use compounded
pellets. Shoe components account for the majority of the injection molding
of flexible compound and pipe fittings account for the majority of rigid
compound which is injection molded.
VCM Loss. VCM loss during the injection molding of flexible PVC pellets is
slight or negligible. Little monomer remains in the compound granules which
are put into the injection molding process since most has been removed
during compounding. In addition, the injection molding process is essen-
tially close to the atmosphere allowing little or no monomer to escape.
We have no data on the VCM losses during injection molding of rigid PVC
compound. In contrast to flexible compound, the VCM content of rigid
compound is sometimes substantial (possibly ranging as high as 100 ppm in
late 1974 compound). However, the opportunity for VCM loss is relatively
slight. We would estimate that the major source of loss in the injection
molding process would be at the point at which the pellets are melted.
IV-34
Arthur D Little. Inc.
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F. COMPRESSION MOLDING
Phonograph records are the major PVC product fabricated by compression
molding. In the record molding process either compounded resin or dry
blend is fed to a small extruder where it is melted. A measured amount of
material is then extruded between the labels that go onto the record. The
operator picks this up from the extruder and places the sandwich in a press.
The press closes and the finished record is removed some 15 to 30 seconds
later.
VCM Loss. Records are made from a polyvinyl chloride/polyvinyl acetate
copolymer which in early 1974 had a relatively high monomer content (greater
than 500 ppm). However, manufacturers of records tell us that in late 1974
the monomer content in raw resin was reduced to 50 to 100 ppm. Compounding
of semi-rigid compound for records may take place either at the resin
producers or at the record manufacturing site. It appears that approximately
half of the input resin monomer content is lost in the compounding process.
(This is a very rough estimate, based on a minimal amount of data.) We
cannot estimate the additional VCM loss during the compression molding
process since no data are available.
G. SOLVENT CAST FILM
The solvent casting process is used to produce packaging films of higher
quality than those made by blown film extrusion. The solvent cast product
has better gauge control and improved clarity.
The solvent cast processing consists of dissolving powdered resin and casting
the solution onto a belt. The casting belt is totally enclosed thereby
permitting complete recovery of solvent. The wet film is then passed to a
drying oven. A high percentage of solvent recovery is essential to the
economics of the process. The details of the solvent recovery system are
considered proprietary by the film manufacturers.
A generalized flow chart for solvent cast film production showing potential
emission points for VCM is shown in Figure IV-12. The sources of VCM loss
are primarily from the solvent recovery operation with minor quantities
during resin transfer and storage. We have not been able to obtain
quantitative data on VCM concentrations in streams leaving the processes.
One manufacturer reported the results of several months monitoring of
incoming resin at solvent casting operations, indicating an average VCM
concentration of 20 ppm. Typically they found no detectable concentration
of VCM in film leaving the process, but they have not been able to isolate
the specific source of VCM loss from the process.
We estimate that 50 million Ibs of solvent cast PVC film are manufactured
in the U.S. Assuming that an average concentration of 20 ppm enters the
process in the raw PVC powder, and that it is completely lost in the
IV-35
Arthur D Little, Inc.
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Vent
<
OJ
Exhaust Vapors
Vent During
Vacuum Transfer
Room Ventilation
Direct Vent to Solvent Recovery
Solvent Recovery
—Pressure Pump
—No Vent
| I
Waste Liquid
IT
-5
D
d
o
FIGURE IV-12 SOLVENT CAST PVC FILM PRODUCTION
-------
production process, the loss of VCM from this segment of the industry is
estimated to be:
. .. x 50 million Ibs = 1,000 Ibs/year
million Ibs (45Q kg/year)
IV-37
Arthur D Little, Inc
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V. TOTAL U.S. EMISSIONS OF VINYL CHLORIDE MONOMER
FROM POLYVINYL CHLORIDE COMPOUNDING AND FABRICATING
Table V-l lists estimates of the total U.S. emission rate of VCM from PVC
compounding and fabricating processes. These totals are based on 1974
production rates of PVC products and on representative VCM levels in the
various types of resins in late 1974. Bases for the various estimates are
discussed in some detail in Section IV above.
Table V-2 shows the estimated annual VCM emissions from all stages of PVC
product manufacture, starting with the monomer production and proceeding
to PVC polymerization and thence to fabrication. As shown in this table
PVC fabrication processes, including compounding, account for less than
one-half of one percent of the total VCM emissions in the U.S. Fabrication
excluding compounding amounts to about one one-hundredth of one percent
of total U.S. emissions.
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Arthur D Little, Inc
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TABLE V-l '
TOTAL U.S. EMISSION RATE OF VCM FROM POLYVINYL CHLORIDE PROCESSING
Estimated VCM
Emission Rate*
Process kg/year
A. Flexible PVC
1. Compounding 220,000
2. Extrusion <3,000
3. Calendering <4,000
4. Molding <400
B. Rigid PVC
1. Compounding 300,000
2. Extrusion <4,000
3. Molding <1,000
C. Plastisols, Organosols, 2,000
Solution and Latex Fabrication
(Ibs/yr)
(480,000)
(<6,000)
(<1,000)
(<800)
(660,000)
(<10,000)
(<2,000)
(4,500)
* Based on 1974 production rates and late 1974 VCM contents of resins.
V-2
Arthur D Little, Inc.
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TABLE V-2
Emissions
Process (kg/100 kg produced)
A. Monomer Production 0.25
•< 5 . Polvrne-rization -
Suspension Process 3.9
Dispersion Process 6.0
Solution Process 1.8
Bulk Process 2.4
C. Fabrication Processes -
ANNUAL VINYL CHLORIDE EMISSIONS - 1974
Amours Subtotal o;: U.T. TouaJ U.S.
Produced Emissions bv Process Emissions Percent of Tcta"1
(millions of kg) (millions of kg) (mill-inns "f kg) U-S- Emissions
2200 - 5.7 4.0
2400 - 130.0 95.4
1900 76 - -
280 17 - -
59 10 - -
120 29 -
2300 - 0.5-0.6 0.4
-------
VI. CURRENT STATUS OF CONTROLS TO LIMIT VCM EMISSIONS
FROM THE PVC FABRICATION INDUSTRIES
A. CURRENT CONTROL TECHNIQUES 4
In 1974, the major emphasis on limitation of VCM emissions was, perforce,
concentrated on reduction of VCM content in plant air, in order to mini-
mize risk to the plant workers. These control measures took two forms:
1. Massive ventilation and hooding at the points of the
process where large amounts of VCM could be expected
to be emitted; and
2. Reduction of the residual VCM levels in input resins so
that the total amount of monomer available to be released
would be minimized.
In none of the 25 to 30 facilities we visited or interviewed by telephone
and letter was there any control equipment used to limit the VCM emission
from the fabricating plants into the surrounding atmosphere (aside from
the usual stacks).* Manufacturers believed that the most practical way
to limit emissions both inside and outside the plant was to reduce the
monomer content in the incoming resin. Both resin manufacturers and users
of the resins were confident that, by the end of 1975, the residual mono-
mer in resin coming into compounding and fabricating facilities would be
sufficiently low that additional control measures to limit external emis-
sions would not be required. (Thus, the OSHA regulations to limit internal
plant emissions were expected to result in solving of the "external" emis-
sion problem also.)
Compounders and fabricators did not believe that, at present, there were
any economically practical ways to control emissions from compounding and
fabricating externally without seriously hindering their ability to control
internal plant emissions. Not even the more sophisticated and advanced
facilities (notably those compounding operations operated by the more
research-minded resin-producing firms) had any method for removing VCM
from vented air from the plant.
The reason for the lack of control methods available appears to be in the
very low level of VCM in the vented air (typically less than 1.0 and
*It should be noted that VCM emissions from oven-dried PVC coatings
(such as coatings on sheet metal and fused plastisol resins on cast
sheet and coated fabrics) are inadvertently controlled. The air in the
drying ovens is recirculated through the gas burners; both ±he solvent
and the VCM are thereby consumed. The VCM released in coatings, however,
is negligible—totalling less than a few thousand Ibs/year nationwide.
VI-1
Arthur D Little, Inc
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almost always less than 10 ppm even in the air vented directly from the
dry blenders and Banbury machines in the compounding facilities) and in
the large volumes of air to be processed. These factors made scrubbers,
after-burners and adsorbers (such as carbon columns) largely impractical.
We should note at this point that activated carbon adsorption of VCM has
been suggested as a practical method for removing and recovering VCM from
stack gas. Although this method offers some promise for the reduction of
VCM emissions from PVC polymerization facilities, its utility appears to
be limited to recovery of VCM from low volume, high concentration streams.
In the Tenneco pilot plant in which it is currently under investigation,
the VCM concentration in the stream is between 10 and 30% (100,000 to
300,000) ppm. The maximum concentrations of VCM in fabricating plant vents
is usually 50,000 to 100,000 times lower than this. In addition, much of
the emissions from compounding and fabricating plants will also contain
larger amounts of volatile plasticizers and other additives—frequently
in much larger concentrations than the VCM—which would be expected to
compete with VCM for the carbon adsorption sites, and significantly limit
the utility of the carbon.
At present, therefore, it does not appear practical to suggest carbon
adsorption for limiting emissions from fabricating and compounding facil-
ities, unless significant and unanticipated breakthroughs in VCM concen-
trating and adsorption techniques occur.
Similar difficulties arise in attempting to apply other emission control
techniques such as condensation, compression and scrubbing which have been
suggested for application to PVC polymerization facilities. The levels
of VCM are simply too low to be practical.
B. FUTURE CONTROL TECHNIQUES
1. Reduction of VCM in Input Resins
The major control technique for the future appears to be reduction of
residual VCM content in incoming resins. Since polyvinyl chloride does
not generate VCM (decomposition of PVC generally produces HC1 instead),
the only VCM which can be emitted from compounding and fabricating facil-
ities will be that in the incoming resins. We are told by resin manu-
facturers that they anticipate reducing residual VCM levels in resins to
less than 50 ppm. Should this be achieved, the total nationwide emissions
from all PVC compounding and fabricating facilities will be less than
110,000 kg/year (230,000 Ibs/year) nationwide.
A few resin producers have predicted that a 10 ppm residual monomer content
can be achieved by 1976 to 1977. Should this be achieved, the total nation-
wide emissions should be less than 23,000 kg/year (50,000 Ibs/year) by
1977—a negligible quantity. These estimates are summarized in Table
VI-1.
VI-2
Arthur D Little Inc
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Table VI-1
ANTICIPATED FUTURE VCM LOSS RATES FROM COMPOUNDING AND FABRICATION
PVC Production Rates Avg. VCM Content
Year (millions of kg) of Raw Resin (ppm)
1974
1975
1980
2000
2100*
2400 (est.).
300
50
20
Total Annual U.S.
VCM Release
from Compounding
and Fabricating (kg)
600,000
105,000
48,000
*Assumes 7% growth rate.
VI-3
Arthur D Little Inc
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Finally, it appears that reduction of VCM emissions at later stages of
fabricating (after compounding) is best accomplished by reducing the
VCM levels either in the input raw resin or in the final compound. Tech-
niques exist for both reductions, and it would appear wasteful to attempt
to design and build equipment for removing VCM further downstream if it
could be removed before it even entered the fabricating operations.
The major difficulty in achieving these low VCM levels appears to be the
quality of resin produced. Current techniques for reducing monomer con-
tent—many of them proprietary at this time—appear to result in dimin-
ished adsorbability of the raw resin for plasticizer and in reduced
insulation properties and altered color.
The additional cost of producing resins of lower VCM levels cannot be
estimated at this time since techniques are still in the developmental
stage and information is proprietary. However, it appears that the pres-
sures from OSHA to reduce in-plant emissions (and the high cost of pro-
viding respirators and other controls if emissions cannot be reduced),
will place a very high premium on reducing the VCM content in resins.
The industry is quite competitive, and it appears that fabricators will
favor those manufacturers' resins which have the lowest VCM levels, thus
increasing the incentives for the resin manufacturers to reduce these
levels.
2. Auxiliary "External" Control Techniques
For completeness one should consider other techniques which might be appli-
cable for controlling VCM emitted from compounding and fabricating opera-
tions. It should be stressed, however, that these techniques are purely
speculative at this time, and have not been considered by any manufacturers
we interviewed.
The most promising control techniques which we can envision are those
which might operate at points of high VCM emissions—notably at the dry-
blending points of compounding operations. As we have noted, up to 90%
of the residual VCM in resins used in flexible formulations is emitted
at the dryblending stage. A sizable fraction of the VCM in rigid com-
pounds is also emitted at this stage. At least in theory, it should be
possible to totally enclose the dryblending equipment,. and vent it with
only small volumes of air, which could then be used as feed air to gas
burners or incinerators. The purpose of the small volume of venting
air would be to increase the VCM levels in the air and to reduce the
volume of air to be processed to amounts which could be usefully employed
in the burners. VCM is highly combustible and decomposes readily at
normal burner temperatures.
VI-4
Arthur 1) Little. Inc.
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There are several disadvantages to this technique which must be considered.
At present, it runs totally counter to current "improvements" in process-
ing equipment designed to sweep away any VCM emissions which might go
into the workspace. Thus, equipment would have to be totally redesigned
for low flows. Secondly, the dryblend powder would probably need a longer
residence time in order to ensure that enough VCM is stripped out under
the low-air-flow conditions. Finally, of course, the burners would have
to be built of materials that would withstand the HC1 emitted when vinyl
chloride monomer is burned.
It is not possible at this stage to estimate the cost of equipment rede-
sign for VCM burning since such a system is simply at the speculation
stage.
VI-5
Arthur 1.) Little Inc.
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APPENDIX TABLE A-I
Major U.S. Producers of Raw PVC Resin
Annual
Capacity
(million Ibs)
by December 1975
Goodrich 950
Borden 545
Tenneco 480
Robintech 470
Continental Oil 430
Firestone Tire & Rubber 400
Diamond Shamrock 360
Union Carbide 350
Goodyear 200
Georgia Pacific* 220
Others (Air Products, American Chemical,
Certain-teed, Ethyl, General Tire,
Olin, Pantasote, Shintech,
Occidental Petroleum, Stauffer Chemical,
Uniroyal, Keysor) 1,895
TOTAL 6,400
*Not currently a producer; plant opening in late 1975.
A-l
Arthur D Little, Inc.
-------
APPENDIX TABLE A-II
MAJOR MERCHANT PVC RESIN CONSUMERS
COMPANY
Wire and Cable
MAJOR PLANT LOCATION
Anaconda Wire & Cable
American Enka
Belden Manufacturing
Essex Wire & Cable
General Cable
General Electric
Hatfield (Div. Continental Cooper
& Steel)
Kaiser Aluminum & Chemical
Okonite (LTV)
Packard Electric (General Motors)
Phelps Dodge
Simplex Wire & Cable
Triangle Conduit & Cable
Western Electric
Flooring
American Biltrite Rubber
Armstrong Cork
Congoleum
Flintkote
Johns-Manville
Kentile
Robbins Floor Products
Ruberoid (GAP)
Uvalde Rock Asphalt
Vinyl Plastics (U.I.P.)
Film, Sheet and Coated Fabrics
Athol Mfg.
Bemis
Burlington Industries
Chrysler
Dart Industries (Fabrovin)
Dayco (L.E. Carpenter)
Hastings, New York
Willimantic, Connecticut
Chicago, Illinois
Marion, Indiana
Bayonne, New Jersey
Bridgeport, Connecticut
Hillside, New Jersey
Bristol, Rhode Island
Passaic, New Jersey
Warren, Ohio
Yonkers, New York
Cambridge, Massachusetts
New Brunswick, New Jersey
Baltimore, Maryland
Trenton, New Jersey
Lancaster, Pennsylvania
Kearny, New Jersey
Chicago, Illinois
Manville, New Jersey
New York, New York
Tuscumbia, Alabama
Newburgh, New York
Houston, Texas
Sheboygan, Wisconsin
Butner, North Carolina
Stratford and Plainfield,
Connecticut
Reading, Massachusetts
Sandusky, Ohio
Paterson, New Jersey
Wharton, New Jersey
A-2
Arthur I) Little Inc.
-------
APPENDIX TABLE A-II (continued)
MAJOR MERCHANT PVC RESIN CONSUMERS
COMPANY
MAJOR PLANT LOCATION
Film, Sheet and Coated Fabrics (Continued)
Fields Plastics and Chemicals
Ford Motor
W.R. Grace (Southbridge, Elm
Coated Fabric,
Ellay Rubber)
Haartz-Mason
Interchemical
Lyntex
3M
0'Sullivan Rubber
Plastic Calendering
Plymouth Rubber
Weymouth Art Leather
Whittaker (Am. Finishing)
Phonograph Records
Capital
CBS
Decca
MGM
RCA
Slush Molding (Dolls, Toys)
Doughbough Industries
DubIon
Ideal Toy
Kaysam
Mattel
Miscellaneous Extrusions
Abbott Labs
American Biltrite Rubber
American Vinyl
Backstay Welt (Division of
Essex International)
Lodi, New Jersey
Mt. Clemens, Michigan
Clifton, New Jersey;
Brooklyn, New York;
Corinth, Mississippi
Los Angeles, California
Watertown, Massachusetts
Toledo, Ohio
Conshohocken, Pennsylvania
Hastings, Michigan
Winchester, West Virginia
Farmingdale, New York
Canton, Massachusetts
Braintree, Massachusetts
Memphis, Tennessee
Scranton, Pennsylvania
Pitman, New Jersey
Gloversville, New Jersey
Bloomfield, New Jersey
Indianapolis, Indiana
Richmond, Virginia
Newark, New Jersey
Hollis, New York
Paterson, New Jersey
Hawthorne, California
Ashland, Ohio
Trenton, New Jersey
Hialeah, Florida
Union City, Indiana
A-3
Arthur I) Little, Inc.
-------
APPENDIX TABLE A-II (continued)
MAJOR MERCHANT PVC RESIN CONSUMERS
COMPANY
Miscellaneous Extrusions (Continued)
Dart Industries (Colorite)
Geauga Industries
Globe
Hoover
Johnson Plastics
Kraco
3M
Norton
Premoid
Rubbermaid
Swan Rubber (Div. Amerace)
Whittaker (Suval)
Industrial Tape
Anchor Continental Tape
Arno Adhesives
Behr-Manning (Norton)
3M
Permacel Tape (Johnson & Johnson)
Technical Tape
Packaging Film
Clopay
Filmco (R.J. Reynolds)
FMC (American Viscose)
W.R. Grace (Cryovac)
Reynolds Metal
Rigid Products (Pipe,Sliding,Other)
Alpha Plastics
Amos Molded Plastics (National Lead)
Andersen
Bird & Son
Borg-Warner
Cabot
Certain-teed Products
MAJOR PLANT LOCATION
Paterson, New Jersey
Middlefield, Ohio
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Canton, Ohio
Chagrin Falls, Ohio
Los Angeles, California
St. Paul, Minnesota
Akron, Ohio
Holyoke, Massachusetts
Wooster, Ohio
Bucyrus, Ohio
New York
Columbia, South Carolina
Michigan City, Indiana
Troy, New York
Minneapolis, Minnesota
New Brunswick, New Jersey
New Rochelle, New York
Cincinnati, Ohio
Aurora, Ohio
Marcus Hook, Pennsylvania
Cedar Rapids, Iowa
Grottoes, Virginia
Livingston, New Jersey
Ed inbur g, Ind iana
Bayport, Minnesota
Bardstown, Kentucky
Los Angeles, California
Louisville, Kentucky
McPherson, Kansas
A-4
Arthur I) Little. Inc.
-------
APPENDIX TABLE A-II (continued)
MAJOR MERCHANT PVC RESIN CONSUMERS
COMPANY
MAJOR PLANT LOCATION
Rigid Products(Pipe,Sliding,Other) (Continued)
Colonial Plastics Mfg.(Van Dorn)
Consolidated Pipe
Crane Plastics
Flintkote
Glamorgan Pipe & Foundry
Harsco
Johns-Manville
Kraloy (Div. of Dart Industries)
Mastic Asphalt
Skyline Plastics (Phillips Petroleum)
Sloane Mfg. (Susquehanna)
Standard Oil (Ohio)
Whittaker (Thermoplastics)
Yardley (Div. of Celanese)
Containers
American Can
Creative Packaging (Div. of Eli Lilly)
Owens-Illinois
Footwear
American Biltrite Rubber
Avon Sole
Bata Shoe
Brown Shoe
Genesco
International Shoe
New Jersey Rubber
0'Sullivan Rubber
USM
Coatings
American Cyanamid
Baldwin Montrose
Bradley & Vrooman (Whittaker)
Cleveland, Ohio
Stow, Ohio
Columbus, Ohio
Whippany, New Jersey
Lynchburg, Virginia
Mineral Wells, Texas
Manville, New Jersey
Santa Ana, California
South Bend, Indiana
Titusville, Pennsylvania
Sun Valley, California
Columbus, Ohio
Charlotte, North Carolina
Columbus, Ohio
Chicago, Illinois
Roanoke, Virginia
Toledo, Ohio
Chelsea, Massachusetts
Avon, Massachusetts
Belcamp, Maryland
St. Louis, Missouri
Nashville, Tennessee
St. Louis, Missouri
Taunton, Massachusetts
Winchester, Virginia
Kenton, Tennessee
Buchanan, New York
St. Louis, Missouri
Chicago, Illinois
A-5
Arthur 1) I. ittlclnc.
-------
APPENDIX TABLE A-II (continued)
MAJOR MERCHANT PVC RESIN CONSUMERS
COMPANY
Coatings (Continued)
Chemical Products
Continental Can
Dennis Chemical
DeSoto
Dewey and Almy (Div. W.R. Grace)
General Electric
Glidden (Div. SCM)
Interchemical
Michigan Chrome & Chemical
3M
Permalastic
Stoner-Mudge (Div. Mobil Oil)
Compounding
Bamberger
Reichhold Chemicals
A. Shulman
Vinyl Industrial Products
Machlin
Premier
Chemical Products
MAJOR PLANT LOCATION
East Providence, Rhode Island
New York, New York
St. Louis, Missouri
Chicago, Illinois
Cambridge, Massachusetts
Louisville, Kentucky
Cleveland, Ohio
Newark, New Jersey
Detroit, Michigan
St. Paul, Minnesota
Detroit, Michigan
Cleveland, Ohio
Carlstadt, New Jersey
Mansfield, Massachusetts
Akron, Ohio
Grand Rapids, Michigan
A-6
Arthur Dl.ittie Inc.
-------
APPENDIX TABLE A-III
LIST OF SUPPLIERS OF PVC COMPOUND
TYPE OF COMPOUND
CORPORATION
Abbey Plastics Corp.
Hudson, Mass.
Aero Chemical Prod. Corp.
Longualley, N.J.
Alb is Corp.
Houston, Texas
Alpha Chemical &
Plastics Corp.
Newark, N.J.
American Chemical Corp.
Subs . :
Atlantic Richfield Co.
Stauffer Chemical Co.
Long Beach, California
Amer ichem , Inc .
Cuyahoga Falls , Ohio
CO
C
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co
p5
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CO
-H
3 Q
rH
O l-l
C/l O
X
X
SALES CATEGORY (Of
Parent Corporation)
B
AA
B
AAAA Over $l,000,000/Year in Sales
AAA Over 500,000/Year in Sales
AA Over 300,000/Year in Sales
A Over 100, 000 /Year in Sales
B - D < 50,000/Year in Sales
A-7
Arthur 1.) I.ink: Inc.
-------
APPENDIX TABLE A-III (continued)
LIST OF SUPPLIERS OF PVC COMPOUND
TYPE OF COMPOUND
CORPORATION
Atlas Coatings Corp.
Long Island, N.Y.
Axel Plastics Research
Labs, Inc.
Long Island City, N.Y.
Ball Chemical Co.
Glenshaw, Pa.
Blane Chemical Division
Reichhold Chemo, Inc.
Mansfield, Mass.
Borden Chemical
Div. of Borden, Inc.
Columbus , Ohio
Bostik Chemical Group
USM Corp.
Middleton, Mass.
CO
C
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CO
&
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X
co
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X
X
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X
X
X
X
CO
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3 C
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•H CO
4-1 -H
3 Q
0 M
CO O
X
X
X
X
SALES CATEGORY (Of
Parent Corporation
A
A
AAAA
AA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA Over $l,000,000/Year in Sales
AAA Over 500,000/Year in Sales
AA Over 300,000/Year in Sales
A Over 100,000/Year in Sales
B - D < 50,000/Year in Sales
A-8
Arthur 1) I. ittlc.lnc
-------
APPENDIX TABLE A-III (continued)
LIST OF SUPPLIERS OF PVC COMPOUND
TYPE OF COMPOUND
CORPORATION
Gary Page Chems . , Inc .
Edison, N.J.
*Chemetron Corp.
Pigments Division
Holland , Michigan
Chemical Coating &
Engineering Co., Inc.
Media, Pa.
Chemical & Engineering
Assoc. , Inc.
Elkton, Md.
Chemical Industries
Pasadena, California
Chemical Prod. Co.
E. Providence, R.I.
CO
C
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CO
cu
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CO
CO
(O
co
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Molding or
irusion Compounc
+rf
X
w
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Organosols
Plastisols
X
X
X
CO
r*
Lutions ,Emulsioi
Dispersions
1— 1
O V^
CO O
X
X
X
X
SALES CATEGORY (Of
Parent Corporation)
AAAA
A
AAAA
AAAA Over $l,000,000/Year in Sales
AAA Over 500,000/Year in Sales
AA Over 300,000/Year in Sales
A Over 100,000/Year in Sales
B - D < 50, 000 /Year in Sales
*Chemetron Corp., Ill E. Wacker Drive, Chicago, 111. 60601
A-9
Arthur I) I.idle Inc.
-------
APPENDIX TABLE A-III (Continued)
LIST OF SUPPLIERS OF PVC COMPOUND
TYPE OF COMPOUND
CORPORATION
Color ite Plastics Co.
Div. Dart Industries,
Inc.
Ridgefield, N.J.
Conoco Chemicals
Div. Continental Oil
Co.
Saddlebrook, N.J.
Custom Chemicals Co.
Patterson, N.J.
Diamond Shamrock
Chemical Company
Plastics Div.
Cleveland, Ohio
Dynamit Nobel of
America, Inc.
Northvale, N.J.
CO
c
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CO
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£
X
X
X
X
X
«-3
CO CO
i-t 1-1
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co co
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X
CO
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CO
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2 C
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W -H
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CO iJ
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-------
APPENDIX TABLE A-III (continued)
LIST OF SUPPLIERS OF PVC COMPOUND
TYPE OF COMPOUND
CORPORATION
' Eronel Industries
Hawthorne, California
*Ethyl Corp.
Polymer Division
Baton Rouge, La.
*Ferro Corp.
Composite Div.
Norwalk, Conn.
Firestone Plastics Co.
Div. Firestone Tire &
Rubber Co.
Pottstown, Pa.
Flexcraft Industries
Newark, N.J.
George, P.O. Co.
St. Louis, Mo.
CO
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co
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X
X
X
SALES CATEGORY (Of
Parent Corporation)
B
AAAA
(All plants and
division)
AAAA
(All divisions of
Ferro)
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA Over $l,000,000/Year in Sales
AAA Over 500,000/Year in Sales
AA Over 300,000/Year in Sales
A Over 100,000/Year in Sales
B - D < 50,000/Year in Sales
* Ethyl Corp., 330 S. 4th St., Richmond, Va. 23219
Ferro Corp., 1 Erie View Plaza, Cleveland, Ohio 44144
A-ll
Arthur I) Little Inc.
-------
APPENDIX TABLE A-III (continued)
LIST OF SUPPLIERS OF PVC COMPOUND
TYPE OF COMPOUND
CORPORATION
B.F. Goodrich Chemical
Div. of B.F. Goodrich
Co.
Cleveland, Ohio
W.R. Grace & Co.
Elm Coated Fabrics Div.
New York, N.Y.
Great American Chemical
Corp.
Fitchburg, Mass.
Guardsman Chemical
Coatings, Inc.
Grand Rapids, Mich.
C.L.Hauthaway & Sons,
Corp.
Lynn, Mass.
to
a
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X
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X
X
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co co
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CO H
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4J -H
3 0
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W O
X
X
X
SALES CATEGORY (Of
Parent Corporation)
AAAA
AAAA
(All of Grace & Co)
AAAA
AAAA Over $l,000,000/Year in Sales
AAA Over 500,000/Year in Sales
AA Over 300,000/Year in Sales
A Over 100,000/Year in Sales
B - D < 50, 000 /Year in Sales
A-12
ArtliurDl.ittlc.ini
-------
APPENDIX TABLE A-III (continued)
LIST OF SUPPLIERS OF PVC COMPOUND
TYPE OF COMPOUND
CORPORATION
Howell Industries
Pater son, N.J.
Jedco Chemical Corp.
Mt. Vernon, N.Y.
Key Polymer Corp.
Lawrence, Mass.
Leon Chem.& Plastics,
Inc.
Div. of U.S. Industries,
Inc.
Grand Rapids, Mich.
Loes Enterprises
M.R. Plastics & Coating,
Inc.
Maryland Heights, Mo.
CO
C
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CO
C C
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i-H 03
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A
X
X
X
X
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X
X
X
X
CO
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CO
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3 CO
W O
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« co
CO H
c
-------
APPENDIX TABLE A-III (continued)
LIST OF SUPPLIERS OF PVC COMPOUND
TYPE OF COMPOUND
CORPORATION
M-R-S Chemo, Inc.
Hazelwood, Mo.
*M & T Chems . , Inc .
Subs. American Can Co.
Rahway, N.J.
Machlin Co.
Industry, California
Michigan Chrome &
Chemical Co.
Detroit, Michigan
Monsanto Co.
St. Louis, Mo.
co
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PQ
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X
X
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CO M
0 QJ
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4-1 -H
3 Q
i— 1
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C/5 O
X
SALES CATEGORY (Of
Parent Corporation)
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA Over
AAA Over
AA Over
A Over
B - D <
*M & T Chem.,Inc., Subs. American Can Co., American Lane,
Greenwich, Conn. 06830
$l,000,000/Year in Sales
500,000/Year in Sales
300,000/Year in Sales
100,000/Year in Sales
50,000/Year in Sales
A-14
Arthur I) Little Inc
-------
APPENDIX TABLE A-III (continued)
LIST OF SUPPLIERS OF PVC COMPOUND
TYPE OF COMPOUND
CORPORATION
Moore Chemical Corp.
Div. Moore Plastics
Ind . , Inc .
Bur lingame , Calif .
H. Muchlstein & Co.
Greenwich , Conn .
Nat'l Adhesives
Div. Nat'l Starch &
Chemical Corp.
New York, N.Y.
P.F.D., Penn. Color, Inc.
Subs. Bonn Ind., Inc.
Doylestown, Pa.
Parcloid Chemical Co.
Ridgewood, N.J.
CO
c
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CO
0)
a
-------
APPENDIX TABLE A-III (continued)
LIST OF SUPPLIERS OF PVC COMPOUND
CORPORATION
Perma-Flex Mold Co.
Columbus, Ohio
Piper Plastics Corp.
Copiague, N.Y.
Poly Resins
Sun Valley, Calif.
The Polymer Corp.
Reading, Pa.
Premier Thermo-Plastics
Co.
Subs. Plastic Bldg.
Products Co.
Jeff ersontown, Ky.
R.A. Chemical Corp.
Brooklyn, N.Y.
CO
C
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4J -H
3 O
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X
X
SALES CATEGORY (Of
Parent Corporation)
B
AA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAA
AA
A
B - D
Over
Over
Over
Over
<
$l,000,000/Year in Sales
500,000/Year in Sales
300,000/Year in Sales
100,000/Year in Sales
50,000/Year in Sales
A-16
Arthur I) Little. Inc.
-------
APPENDIX TABLE A-III (continued)
LIST OF SUPPLIERS OF PVC COMPOUND
TYPE OF COMPOUND
CORPORATION
Reichhold Chemical , Inc .
White Plains, N.Y.
Research Sales, Inc.
Reynolds Chemical Prod.
Division
Hoover Ball & Bearing Co
Ann Arbor, Michigan
Ruco Division
Hooker Chemical Corp.
Hicksville, N.Y.
A. Schulman, Inc.
Akron, Ohio
Soc-Co Plastic Coating
Co.
Paramount , Calif .
CO
CO
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CO
PQ
X
CO
1
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*o i*
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a
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X
X
i£
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i-H i-l
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5 *J
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X
X
X
X
CO
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Jf3
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CO M
C (U
0 (X
•H CO
•U -H
9 O
^H
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CO O
X
X
X
X
SALES CATEGORY (Of
Parent Corporation)
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAA
AAAA Over $l,000,000/Year in Sales
AAA Over 500,000/Year in Sales
AA Over 300,000/Year in Sales
A Over 100,000/Year in Sales
B - D < 50,000/Year in Sales
A-17
Arthur I) I.it tic Inc.
-------
APPENDIX TABLE A-III (continued)
LIST OF SUPPLIERS OF PVC COMPOUND
TYPE OF COMPOUND
CORPORATION
Solar Compounds Corp.
Linden, N.J.
Special Products Div.
Sun Steel Co.
Chicago Hghts.,111.
Stanchem, Inc.
E. Berlin, Conn.
Stauffer Chemical Co.
Plastics Div.
Westport, Conn.
Tamite Industries
Div. Watsco, Inc.
Hialeah, Fla.
Tenneco Chemicals, Inc.
Tenneco Intermediate Div
Piscataway, N.J.
CO
a
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CO
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X
X
CO
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11
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X
X
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CD CO
oo «
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C cu
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•H CO
4J -H
3 Q
^1
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co o
X
X
X
SALES CATEGORY (Of
Parent Corporation)
AAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
(Watsco, Inc.)
AAAA
AAAA
AAA
AA
A
B - D
Over
Over
Over
Over
$l,000,000/Year in Sales
500,000/Year in Sales
300,000/Year in Sales
100,000/Year in Sales
50,000/Year in Sales
A-18
Arthur 1) I.ittlg Inc.
-------
APPENDIX TABLE A-III (continued)
LIST OF SUPPLIERS OF PVC COMPOUND
TYPE OF COMPOUND
CORPORATION
Union Carbide Corp.
Chemicals & Plastics
New York, N.Y.
'Uniroyal, Inc.
Adhesives & Coatings
Dept.
Mishawaka , Ind .
The Vorac Co.
Carlstadt, N.J.
Watson Standard Co.
Harwick, Pa.
George Woloch Co., Inc.
Allentown, Pa.
Youngstown Vinyl Comp.,
Inc.
Yrmngstown, Pa.
co
•H
co
o
•H
co
ffl
pa
X
CO
Is
M 3
0 0
60 1"
a o
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'CD
2
4J
M
W
X
X
X
-------
APPENDIX TABLE A-IV
PRODUCERS OF PVC PIPE AND FITTINGS
CORPORATION
Adams Brothers Co., Inc.
Eads, Tennessee
Amoco Chemicals Corp.
Industrial Products Division
Stow, Ohio
ASC Industries, Inc.
Plastics Division
Spokane, Washington
Can-Tex Industries
A Division of Harsco Corp.
PIPE
FITTINGS
Celanese Piping Systems
Billiard, Ohio
Certain-Teed Products Corp.
McPherson, Kansas
Charlotte Pipe & Foundry Co.
Plastic Division
Monroe, North Carolina
Clin Plastics
X
X
Continental Plastics Industries, Inc.
Denver, Colorado
Cresline Plastic Pipe Co., Inc.
Evansville, Indiana
Cupples Coiled Pipe, Inc.
Austin, Texas
Dixie Plastics Mfg. Co.
New Orleans, Louisiana
X
X
X
A-20
Arthur I) I.ittle Inc.
-------
CORPORATION
Graspo, Inc.
Honolulu, Hawaii
Harvel Plastics, Inc.
Easton, Pennsylvania
Jet Stream Plastics
(Ralph Jones Co.)
Div. of Winrock Enterprises
Siloam Springs, Arkansas
Mid-American Industries, Inc.
Memphis, Tennessee
Plastiline, Inc.
Pompano Beach, Florida
Portco Corp.
Vancouver, Washington
Shamrock Industries, Inc.
Minneapolis, Minnesota
Simpson Extruded Plastics Co.
Eugene, Oregon
R & G Sloane Mfg. Co., Inc.
Sun Valley, California
U-Brand Corp.
Plastic Division
Ashland, Ohio
Western Plastics Corp.
Hastings, Nebraska
Western Plastics Corp.
Tacoma, Washington
APPENDIX TABLE A-IV (continued)
PRODUCERS OF PVC PIPE AND FITTINGS
PIPE
X
X
FITTINGS
X
X
A-21
ArthnrDl.ittk'.Inc
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APPENDIX TABLE A-V
SUPPLIERS OF RESIN OR COMPOUND TO PVC PIPE FABRICATORS
Allied Chemical Corp., Plastics Division
Morristown, New Jersey
American Chemical Corp.
Long Beach, California
Argus Chemical Corp.,
Subsidiary of Witco Chemical Corp.
Brooklyn, New York
Borden Chemical, Division of Borden, Inc.
Leominster, Massachusetts
Celanese Piping Systems
Newark, New Jersey
Cincinnati Milacron Chemicals, Inc.
Reading, Ohio
Conoco Chemicals
Saddle Brook, New Jersey
Diamond Shamrock Chemical Co.
Cleveland, Ohio
E.I. duPont de Nemours & Co., Inc.
Pencader Plant, Pipe Division
Wilmington, Delaware
Eastman Chemical Products, Inc.
Kingsport, Tennessee
Ethyl Corp., Polymer Division
Baton Rouge, Louisiana
General Electric Co., Plastics Dept.
Pittsfield, Massachusetts
B.F. Goodrich Chemical Co.
Cleveland, Ohio
A-22
Arthur 1)I.ink- Inc.
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APPENDIX TABLE A-V (continued)
SUPPLIERS OF RESIN OR COMPOUND TO PVC PIPE FABRICATORS
Goodyear Tire & Rubber Co., Chemical Division
Niagara Falls, New York
Gulf Oil Co.,
Houston, Texas
Hooker Chemical Corp., Ruco Division
Burlington, New Jersey
M & T Chemicals, Inc.
Rahway, New Jersey
Mallinckrodt Chemical Works
St. Louis, Missouri
Marbon Division, Borg-Warner Corp.
Washington, West Virginia
Mobil Chemical Co.
New York, New York
Monsanto Polymers & Petrochemicals Co.
St. Louis, Missouri
Permatex Co., Inc.
West Palm Beach, Florida
Rohm & Haas
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
A. Schulman, Inc.
Akron, Ohio
Sinclair-Koppers Co.
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
Synthetic Products Co.
Cleveland, Ohio
Tenneco Chemicals, Inc., Tenneco Intermediates Division
Piscataway, New Jersey
A-23
ArthurDl.ittlelnc:
-------
APPENDIX TABLE A-V (continued)
SUPPLIERS OF RESIN OR COMPOUND TO PVC PIPE FABRICATORS
Union Carbide Corp., Plastics Products Division
New York, New York
Uniroyal Chemical Division, Uniroyal, Inc.
Naugatuck, Connecticut
Witco Chemical Corp..
New York, New York
A-24
Arthur I )l itilelix
-------
APPENDIX TABLE A-VI
FILM AND SHEETING CALENDERS IN OPERATION IN THE U.S.A. *
(Includes coating but not flooring calenders)
COMPANY
Associated Rubber
Bemis Bag
** Borden Co.
** Burlington Industries
** Chrysler Corp.
Continental Plastics
C.S. Fields
Diamond Shamrock
(Harte & Co.)
** Firestone Tire & Rubber
Co.
** Ford Motor Co.
** General Tire & Rubber
Co.
** B.F. Goodrich & Co.
Goodyear Tire & Rubber
Co.
LOCATION
Bronx, New York
Stratford, Connecticut
Columbus, Ohio (4)
San Francisco, Calif.(1)
Reading, Massachusetts
Sandusky, Ohio
Avenel, New Jersey
Lodi, New Jersey
Brooklyn, New York (5)
Mountaintop, Pa.(l)
Pottstown, Pennsylvania
Mt. Clemens, Michigan
Columbus, Mississippi (4)
Jeanette, Pa. (3)
Lawrence, Mass. (6)
Newcomerstown, Ohio (2)
Toledo, Ohio (3)
Marietta, Ohio
Akron, Ohio
*SOURCE: Monsanto Company
**MAJOR PRODUCT: Coated Fabrics
TOTAL NO.
OF CALENDERS
2
4
5
4
4
2
4
6
3
18
2
5
A-25
Arthur I) Little IMC.
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APPENDIX TABLE A-VI (continued)
FILM AND SHEETING CALENDERS IN OPERATION IN THE U.S.A. *
(Includes coating but not flooring calenders)
COMPANY
W.R. Grace
** Hooker Chemical Corp.
Imperial Chemical
(Atlantic Tubing)
** Inmont
Lamcal
Lynn Vinyl Plastics
Co.
Lyntex Corp.
Macklin Co.
Middletown Rubber Co.
MMM
Monsanto Co.
** OfSullivan Rubber
Corp.
Pantasote Co.
Parker, Streams & Co.
Phillips Petroleum
LOCATION
Los Angeles, Calif. (2)
Brooklyn, N.H. (7)
Corinth, Miss. (3)
Carteret, New Jersey
Cranston, R.I.
Toledo, Ohio
Hickory, North Carolina
Lynn, Massachusetts
Conshohocken, Pennsylvania
Los Angeles, Calif.
Middletown, Connecticut
St. Paul, Minnesota
Springfield, Massachusetts
Winchester, Virginia
Passaic, New Jersey
Brooklyn, New York
Auburn, Pennsylvania
TOTAL NO.
OF CALENDERS
12
3
5
1
2
1
2
1
1
2
2
3
5
1
2
A-26
Arthur!.) Little Inc.
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APPENDIX TABLE A-VI (continued)
FILM AND SHEETING CALENDERS IN OPERATION IN THE U.S.A. *
(Includes coating but not flooring calenders)
COMPANY
Plastic Calendering
Plicoflex, Inc.
** Plymouth Rubber
Rand Rubber Co.
Rudd Plastics
** Stauffer Chemical Co.
Swartz-Dondero
** Tenneco Chemicals,
Inc.
Union Carbide Corp.
** Uniroyal, Inc.
Vernon Plastics Corp.
Vinyl Masters
TOTAL
LOCATION
Farmingdale, L.I.,N.Y.
Houston, Texas
Canton, Massachusetts
Brooklyn, New York
Brooklyn, New York
Newburgh, New York (2)
Delaware City, Del.(2)
Yardville, N.J. (3)
Yonkers, New York
Newton Upper Falls, Mass.(l)
Nixon, N.J. (6)
Chicago, 111. (1)
Bound Brook, New Jersey (4)
Ottawa, 111. (4)
Chicago, Illinois
Mishawaka, Ind.
Philadelphia, Pa.
Port Clinton, Ohio
Haverhill, Massachusetts
Brooklyn, New York
(2)
(2)
(3)
(2)
TOTAL NO.
OF CALENDERS
2
1
5
1
2
7
2
8
8
9
1
2
153
A-27
Arthur 1)1.iukv Inc.
-------
APPENDIX TABLE A-VII
MANUFACTURERS OF FLEXIBLE (PLASTICIZED) PVC SHEET
NUMBER OF
EMPLOYEES
1-9
CORPORATION
Ace-Tex Vinyls, Inc.
New York, New York
American Renolit Corp.
Whippany, New Jersey
Ameron Corrosion Control
Division
Brea, California
Bakelite Xylonite Ltd
London, England
Cadillac Plastic & Chemical 800
Co.
Detroit, Michigan
Commercial Plastics &
Supply Corp.
Cornwells Heights, Pennsylvania
Dynamit Nobel of America, Inc.
Northvale, New Jersey
Ellay Rubber Division 100 - 499
W.R. Grace Co.
Los Angeles, California
Ethyl Corp. 13,743
Baton Rouge, Louisiana
Firestone Plastics Co. 675
Div. of Firestone Tire & Rubber Co.
Pottstown, Pennsylvania
CALENDERED EXTRUDED
Ford Motor Co.
Mount Clenens, Michigan
442,607
A-28
Arthur 1) Little Inc.
-------
APPENDIX TABLE A-VII (continued)
MANUFACTURERS OF FLEXIBLE (PLASTICIZED) PVC SHEET
NUMBER OF
EMPLOYEES
50 - 99
CORPORATION
Franklin Fibre-Lamstex
Wilmington, Delaware
Gelman, Herman A. Co..
Brooklyn, New York
General Tire & Rubber Co. 37,000
Akron, Ohio
Goodyear Tire & Rubber Co. 145,000
Akron, Ohio
Goss Plastic Corp.
Los Angeles, California
Harte & Co. 100 - 499
New York, New York
Hydrawlik Co.
Roselle, New York
Industrial Vinyls, Inc. 60
Miami, Florida
Jodee Plastics, Inc. 20 - 49
Brooklyn, New York
Kessler Products Co. 200
Youngstown, Ohio
Lavorazione Materse Plastiche,
S.P.D.
Torino, Italy
Leathertone, Inc. 20 - 49
Chelsea, Massachusetts
Maclin Co. 50 - 99
Industry, California
CALENDERED EXTRUDED
X
X
A-29
Arthur D Little. Inc
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APPENDIX TABLE A-VII (continued)
MANUFACTURERS OF FLEXIBLE (PLASTICIZED) PVC SHEET
CORPORATION
Masland Duraleather Co.
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Monsanto Co.
St. Louis, Missouri
New England Plastic Corp.
Woburn, Massachusetts
Norton Co.
Akron, Ohio
0'Sullivan Corp.
Winchester, Virginia
Pervel Industries, Inc.
Plainfield, Connecticut
Plastic Mfg., Inc.
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Polyval Corp.
New York, New York
Rowland Products, Inc.
Kensington, Connecticut
Ross & Roberts, Inc.
Stratford, Connecticut
Rotuba Extruders, Inc.
Linden, New Jersey
Ruco Division,
Hooker Chemical Corp.
Burlington, New Jersey
NUMBER OF
EMPLOYEES CALENDERED EXTRUDED
450 X
57,833 X X
20-49 X
100 - 499 X
700 X
1,300 X
200
250
100 - 499
700
A-30
Arthur I) Little.Inc.
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APPENDIX TABLE A-VII (continued)
MANUFACTURERS OF FLEXIBLE (PLASTICIZED) PVC SHEET
CORPORATION
S.G.L.
Haddonfield, New Jersey
Scranton Plastic Laminating,
Inc.
Scranton, Pennsylvania
Stauffer Chemical Co.
Westport, Connecticut
Strauss, H.B. Corp.
Bronx, New York
Tenneco Chemical Co.
New York, New York
Union Carbide Corp.
New York, New York
Uniroyal, Inc.
Chicago, Illinois
Vanguard Extruders, Inc.
Farmingdale, New York
Vernon Plastics Corp.
Haverhi11, Massachusetts
NUMBER OF
EMPLOYEES
940
75
10,000
20 - 49
CALENDERED EXTRUDED
67,942
100 - 499
50 - 99
40
X
X
X
A-31
Art hurl) Little Inc
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APPENDIX TABLE A-VIII
MANUFACTURERS OF RIGID PVC SHEET
NO. OF
EMPLOYEES
CORPORATION
Ain Plastics Co.
Mt. Vernon, New York
Ameron Corrosion Control Div. 650
Brea, Calif.
CALENDERED EXTRUDED
Atlas Plastics Corp.
Cape Guardeaw, Mo.
Bakelite Xylonite Ltd.
London, England
Brimai
Fair Lawn, N.J.
Canadian Industries Ltd.
Montreal, Que, Canada
Ellay Rubber Division
W.R. Grace & Co.
Los Angeles, Calif.
Ethyl Corp.
Baton Rouge, Louisiana
Extrudyne, Inc.
Amityville, New York
Hydrawlik Co.
Roselle, New York
Industrial Vinyls, Inc.
Miami, Florida
Keller Products, Inc.
Manchester, N.H.
Kessler Products Co.
Youngstown, Ohio
300
9,000
100-499
13,743
20-49
60
110
200
X
A-32
Arthur I) Little Inc
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APPENDIX TABLE A- VIII (Continued)
MANUFACTURERS OF RIGID PVC SHEET
CORPORATION
Lavorazione Materse Plastiche,
S.P.D.
Torino, Italy
Leathertone, Inc.
Chelsea, Mass.
Lustro Corp. of California
Valencia, California
Masland Duraleather Co.
Philadelphia, Pa.
Monsanto Co.
St. Louis, Missouri
New England Plastic Corp.
Woburn, Mass.
Polyval Corp.
New York, New York
Rohm & Haas Co.
Philadelphia, Pa.
Rotuba Extruders, Inc.
Linden, New Jersey
Scranton Plastic Laminating,
Inc.
Scranton, Pennsylvania
S.G.L. Industries, Inc.
Haddonfield, New Jersey
Sheffield Plastics, Inc.
Sheffield, Mass.
NO. OF
EMPLOYEES
20-49
100
450
57,833
20-49
16,026
100-499
75
940
100-499
Technical Plastic Extruders, Inc. 50-99
Kearny, New Jersey
A-33
CALENDERED EXTRUDED
X
X
X
X
X
Arthur D Little Inc.
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APPENDIX TABLE A-VIII (Continued)
MANUFACTURERS OF RIGID PVC SHEET
NO. OF
CORPORATION EMPLOYEES CALENDERED EXTRUDED
Union Carbide Corp. 67,942 X X
New York, New York
Uniroyal, Inc. 100-499 X X
Chicago, 111.
Vanguard Extruders, Inc. 50-99 X X
Farmingdale, New York
A-34
Arthur I) Little Inc.
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APPENDIX TABLE A-IX
U.S. PRODUCERS OF PVC FILM
(Calendered and Extruded)
CORPORATION NUMBER OF EMPLOYEES
Ace-Tex Vinyls, Inc. 1-9
New York, New York
Allied Chemical Corp. 33,000
Morristown, New Jersey
Alusuisse Metals, Inc.
Fort Lee, New Jersey
American Hoechst Corp. 2,500
Delaware City, Delaware
American Renolit Corp.
Whippany, New Jersey
American Soplaril Co.
Atlanta, Georgia
Columbus Coated Fabrics 500 - 999
Columbus, Ohio
Continental Plastic Co. 50 - 99
Chicago, Illinois
Dynamit Nobel of America, Inc.
Northvale, New Jersey
Fabric Leather Corp.
Glen Cove, New York 250
Firestone Plastics Co., 675
Division of Firestone Fire & Rubber Co.
Pottstown, Pennsylvania
Flex-0-Glass, Inc. 325
Chicago, Illinois
Ford Motor Co. 442,607
Mount Clenens, Michigan
A-35
Arthur I.) Little Inc.
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APPENDIX TABLE A-IX (continued)
U.S. PRODUCERS OF PVC FILM
(Calendered and Extruded)
CORPORATION NUMBER OF EMPLOYEES
Franklin Fibre-Lamstex Corp. 50 - 99
Wilmington, Delaware
General Binding Corp. 1,800
Northbrook, 111.
General Plastics Corp. 50
Marion, Indiana
General Tire & Rubber Co. 37,000
Akron, Ohio
Gelman, Herman A. Co.
Brooklyn, New York
Goodrich, B.F. Chemical Co.
Cleveland, Ohio
Goodyear Tire & Rubber Co. 145,000
Akron, Ohio
Goss Plastic Corp.
Los Angeles, California
Grace, W.R & Co. 66,400
New York, New York
Harte & Co. 100 - 499
New York, New York
Jodee Plastics, Inc. 20 - 49
Brooklyn, New York
Maclin Co. 50 - 99
Industry, California
Norton Co. 100 - 499
Akron, Ohio
A-36
Arthur D Little Inc
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APPENDIX TABLE A-IX (continued)
U.S. PRODUCERS OF PVC FILM
(Calendered and Extruded)
CORPORATION NUMBER OF EMPLOYEES
0'Sullivan Corp. 700
Winchester, Virginia
Pervel Industries, Inc. 1,300
Plainfield, Connecticut
Reynolds Metals Co. 35,200
Richmond, Virginia
Ross & Roberts, Inc. 250
Stratford, Connecticut
Rowland Products, Inc. 200
Kensington, Connecticut
Ruco Division, Hooker Chemical Corp. 700
Burlington, New Jersey
Stauffer Chemical Co. 10,000
Westport, Connecticut
Strauss, H.B. Corp. 20-49
Bronx, New York
Vernon Plastics Corp. 40
Haverhill, Massachusetts
A-37
Arthur D Little, Inc
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APPENDIX TABLE A-X
U.S. PRODUCERS OF CAST PVC FILM AND SHEET
Borden Chemical Division,
Borden, Inc.
Columbus, Ohio
Cadillac Plastic & Chemical Co.
Detroit, Michigan
Clopay Corp., Plastic Film Division
Cincinnati, Ohio
Commercial Plastics & Supply Corp.
Cornwells Heights, Pennsylvania
Crystal-X Corp.
Darby, Pennsylvania
Dura Plastics of New York, Inc.
Westport, Connecticut
Fassler, M.J. & Co.
Bayshore, New York
King Plastic Corp.
Venice, Florida
Newage Industries, Inc.
Jenkintown, Pennsylvania'
Plastic Mfg., Inc.
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Reynolds Metals Co.
Richmond, Virginia
Rhodia, Inc.
New York, New York
Tenneco Chemical, Foam & Plastic Division
New York, New York
A-38
Arthur I) Little Inc.
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